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NATURAL
HISTORY
THE JOURNAL OF
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM
OF NATURAL HISTORY
VOLUME LXXIX
1970
Published by
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM
OF NATURAL HISTORY
NEW YORK, N.Y.
CONTENTS OF
VOLUME LXXIX
January No. 1
The Authors 4
How Men and Women Came to Live Together
Aniceti Kitereza Biographical notes by Gerald
and Charlotte Hartwig 8
A Naturalist at Large Margaret Mead 22
Forms in the Sky Charles A. Whitney 26
Seal Harems in the Prieilofs Richard K. Mathews 32
The State of the Species: 1970
C. Loring Brace, Irene B. Taeuber, Henri Leridon,
Kendall W. King, Gordon Harrison, John P. Wiley,
Jr. Introductions by Alan P. Ternes 43
A Bird in the Hand 76
Evergreen Review Lorus J. and !\Iargery Milne 80
Sky Reporter John P. Wiley, Jr. 92
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 93
Weaning Grizzly Bears A. Starker Leopold 94
Books in Review Robin Fox 104
Suggested Additional Reading 116
February No. 2
The Authors 8
Bananas in Vermont Richard M. Klein 10
Prince Albert's Way of Catching Squid ..Susan Schlee 20
The Sun Will Darken on March 7 Thomas D. Nicholson 26
An Eclipse-Watcher's Guide Lawrence B. Nadeau 28
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 29
From Snowflake to Avalanche . .Edward R. LaChapelle 30
Cannibalistic Revenge in Jale Warfare
Klaus-Friedrich Koch 40
The Egg Machine Pamela Tyler Lindstrom 52
The Evolution of Sleep
Truett Allison and Henry Van Twyver 56
Books in Review Herbert R. Harvey 66
Suggested Additional Reading °2
March No. 3
The Authors '*
Green Mountains. Green Money Richard M. Klein 10
The Day the Sea Ran Out of Flounder
Stephen W. Hitchcock 28
Echolocation in Bats
Photographs by Nina Leen, Text by Alvin Novick 32
Makonde Sculpture Mcgchelina Shore-Bos 42
Wild Ricinc Richard H. Hofstrand 50
The Baton of Montgaudier Alexander Marshack 56
The Gulls of Walnev Island
Barl)ara R. and Michael H. MacRoberts 64
Sky Reporter John P. Wiley. Jr. 70
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 71
Books in Re\if,w Jerome Lettvin 80
Suggested Additional Reading 86
April No. 4
The Authors 4
An Introduction to the Setting and Characters of
THE Tragical Farce or Farcical Tragedy of Victoria
Bluffs, S.C Alan P. Ternes 8
A Student Manifesto on the Environment
Pennfield Jensen 20
East is a Big Bird Thomas Gladwin 24
Heart Poisons and the Monarch
Miriam Rothschild and Bob Ford 36
Barnard's Star: The Search for Other Solar Systems
Peter van de Kamp 38
Prehistory Down Under D. J. Mulvaney 44
The Many Clocks of Man John D. Palmer 52
Sky Reporter John P .Wiley, Jr. 60
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 63
Books in Review Spencer Klaw 68
Suggested Additional Reading 79
May No. 5
The Authors 4
Letters to the Editor 8\
Where Have All the Beach Clurs of Old Havana
Gone? Everett Gendler 10
Biology of the Way-Out John Eastman 24
Ancient Mexico and Central America
Photographs by Lee Boltin 30
Migration of the Spiny Lobster . .William F. Herrnkind 36
Sky Reporter John P. Wiley, Jr. 44
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 45
The Origins of Agriculture C. D. Darlington 46
East is a Big Bird: Part II Thomas Gladwin 58
Books in Review Luther P. Gerlach 70
Suggested Additional Reading 79
June-July No. 6
The Authors 2
Let's Sing "Auld Lang Syne" for the Upper Brandy-
wine Luna B. Leopold 4
The Star Dragon Loren Eiseley 18
You and the Ecology Movement
Prepared by Luther P. Gerlach and Virginia Hine 27
This Gentle & Elegant Cat George B. Schaller 30
Tiny Wolves of the Water David Barr
Photographs by Helen Sutton 40
Barrier Beaches of Eastern America
. Christopher J. Schuberth 46
Northwest Passage Bob Skovbo
Photographs by Paul Von Baich 56
Mushrooms Peggy Young 66
Sky Reporter John P .Wiley, Jr. 72
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 73
Books in Review Richard I. Ford 78
Suggested Additional Reading , . . 92
\
August-September No. 7
Authors 2
Big Sur Storm Sam Abrams 8
An Environmental Lawyer Urges: Plead the Ninth
Amendment! E. F. Roberts 18
Death by the Plow Richard Brewer
Photographs by Steven C. Wilson 28
Three Fleeing Bullheads
John Bardach and Trudy Villars 36
The Gaeltacht of West Kerry
Photographs by Lisa Stevens 42
The Superciviuzed Weather and Sky Show
Henry Lansford 92
The .Migration of the Barren-Ground Caribou
John P. Kelsall 98
Sky Reporter John P. Wiley, Jr. 108
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 109
Books in Review Barbara Blau Chamberlain 114
Letters to the Editor 130
Suggested Additional Reading 133
October No. 8
The Authors 4
Wit. Wisdom. & Woe Luther P. Gerlach and Virginia Hine 8
The Cliche of the Killer Victor B. Scheffer 26
Georgia Granite William A. Bake, Jr. 32
Sky Reporter John P. Wiley, Jr. 38
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 39
' Peoples of Indochina '. Charles F. Keyes 40
Life in the Sky Bruce C. Parker 54
Made in Japan Rodger Mitchell 60
Dissecting the Crab Geoffrey Burbidge 66
Books in Review Robert Cushman Murphy 88
Suggested Additional Reading 96
November No. 9
The Authors 6
A New Theory of Pyramid Building Olaf Tellefsen 10
Powwow John Eastman 24
The Chromatic Wood Sculpture of Mortimer Borne . . 28
Persuasive Scents in Moth Sex Life Martin Birch 34
The American Lion Maurice G. Hornocker 40
Sky Reporter John P. Wiley, Jr. 50
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 51
Benthic Life in the Fjords of Norway . .Michael Berrill 52
Healing in the Sierra Madre David Werner 60
Ardrey in Wonderland Review by Ronald Singer 80
Suggested Additional Reading 88
December No. 10
Authors 4
The Great Pyramid Debate . .Kent Weeks. I.E.S. Edwards 8
Many Concerned, Few Committed
Virginia Hine and Luther P. Gerlach 16
All the Fat and Sullace Puddy Murriners Susan Schlee 18
Conceptions of the Universe Franklyn M. Branley
Paintings by Helmut K. Wimmer 30
Rock Music . . .John F. Gibbons II and Steven Schlossman 36
The Florentine Codex .... Review by Herbert R. Harvey 42
Sky Reporter John P. Wiley. Jr. 52
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 54
Journey to Pulykara Richard A. Gould 56
Goose of the Himalayas Lawrence W. Swan 68
Suggested Additional Reading 90
INDEX TO
VOLUME LXXIX
AUTHORS AND TITLES
i. S., Bic Sun Storm, Aug.. p.8
T., The Evolution of Sleep, Feb.,
, Reviews, Feb., p.75
., W. A., Jr., Geobci.i Gn.ANiTE, Oct.,
12
lacli. J., TmiEE Fleeing Bullheads,
ig.. p.36
1)., TiNV Wolves or the Watek,
'n^^ r.40
f, \l .Reviews, Feb.. p.73
ill, M.. Benthic Life in the Fjords
.No
3.52
I. Reviews. Oct., p.95
■ . I'En.suAsivE Scents in Moth
I . Nc.v.. p.34
,n, L., Ancient Mexico and Central
IIERICA, May. p.30
e. C. L., The Origin of Man, Jan.,
16
licy, F. M., Conceptions of the Uni-
nst. Dec, p.30
wr, R., De.ith by the Plow, Aug.,
!8
)iJee. C, Dissecting the Crab. Oct.,
66
inn. v.. Reviews, Feb., p.72
ir, K. W., Reviews, Nov., p.85
r, W, H., Reviews, Apr., p.72
■nil. G., Reviews, Jan., p.llO; Apr.,
: 11... [1.84
. llniEWs, May, p.76
Inn. 1). B., Reviews, Aug., p.ll4
iiri. E. 11., Reviews, Aug., p.l22
D
lington, C. D., The Origins of Acri-
ULTLiRE, May. p.46
mann, R. F., Reviews, June, p.88
vliiig, H. C., Reviews, Jan., p.l07
itman, J., Biology of the Way-Out,
'lay, p.24: Reviews, June, p.84; Pow-
TOW, Nov., p.24
wards. I.E.S., The Cre.*t Pyramid De-
i.WE, Dec, p.8
rlich, P. R., Reviews, May, p.77
icley, L., The Star Dragon, June, p.l8
itscrvis, W. A., Jr., Re
Ford, B., Heart Poisons and ti
arch, Apr., p.36
Ford, R. I., Reviews, June, p.78
Fox. R., Reviews, Jan., p.l04
Freed, R. S., Reviews, Nov., p.84
Freed, S. A., Reviews, Jan.. p.108
Gendler. E., Where Have All the Beach
Clubs of Old Havana Gone? May, p.lO
Gerlacb, L. P., Reviews, May, p.70; Yoo
AND THE Ecology Movement, June.
p.27; Wit, Wisdom & Woe, Oct.. p.8;
Many Concerned, Few Committed, Dec,
p.l6
Gibbons. J. F.. II. Rock Music. Dec, p.36
Gladwin, T., East is a Big Biiid. Pt. I,
Apr., p.24; Pt. II, -May, p.58
Goldman, B., Reviews. Apr., p.76
Gould, R. A.. Journey to Pulykara. Dec,
p.56
H
Hall. E, C, Reviews, Apr., p.73
Harrison, G., The Mess of Modern Man,
Jan., p.68
Hartwig, C. and G., How Men and Women
Came to Live Together, Jan., p.8
Harvey, H. R., Reviews, Feb., p.66; Dec,
p.42
Hay, J.. Reviews, Feb., p.76
Herrnkind, W. F., Migration of the
Si'iNY Lobster, May, p.36
Hine. v.. You AND the Ecology Move-
ment, June, p.27; Wit, Wisdom & Woe,
Oct.. p.8: Many Concerned, Few Com-
mitted, Dec, p. 16
Hilchcock, S, W., The Day the Sea Ran
Out of Flounder. Mar., p.28
Hofstrand, R. H., Wild Ricinc, Mar., p.50
Hornocker, M. G., The American Lion,
Nov., p.40
J
Jensen, P., A Student Manifesto on the
Environment, Apr., p.20
Kelsall. J. P.. The Migration ui the B.ar-
ren-Ground Caribou. Aug., p.98
Kcyes, C. F., Peoples of Indochina, Oct.,
p.40
King, K. W., Malnutrition in the Carib.
bean, Jan., p.64
Kilereza, A., How Men and Women
Came to Live Together, Jan., p.8
Klaw, S., Reviews, Apr., p.68
Klein, R. M., Bananas in Vermont, Feb.,
p.lO; Green Mountains, Green Money,
Mar., p.lO; Reviews, Oct., p.92
Koch, K. F., Cannibalistic Revenge in
Jale Warfare, Feb., p.40
LaChapelk, E. R., From Snowflai
Avalanche. Feb., p.30
Lansford, H., The Supercivilized Weather
AND Sky Show, .Aug., p.92
Leopold, A. S., Weaning Grizzly Bears,
Jan., p.94
Leopold, L. B., Let's Sing "Auld Lang
Syne" for the Upper Brandywine,
June, p.4
Leridon, H., Fertility in Martinique,
Jan., p.57
Lettvin, J., Reviews, Mar., p.80
Lindstrom, P. T., The Egg Machine,
Feb.. p.52
Lurie, N. 0., Reviews, Aug., p.l23
M
MacRoberis, B. R. and M. H., The Gulls
OF Walney Island, Mar., p.64
-Marshack, A., The Baton of Montgau-
, Ma
J.56
, P. S., Reviews, Mar., p.82
Mathews, R. K., Seal Harems in the
Pribilofs, Jan.. p.32
Mead, M., The Island Earth, Jan., p.22
Milne, L. J. and -M., Evergreen Review,
Jan., p.80; Reviews, Dec, p.86
Milchell, R., Made in Japan, Oct., p.60
Mulvaney, D. J., Prehistory Down Un-
der, Apr., p.44
Murphy, R. C, Reviews, Oct., p.88
N
Nadeau. L. B., An Eclipse. Watcher's
Guide, Feb., p.28
Nash. R., Reviews. Oct., p.90
Nicholson, T. D.. The Son Will Darken
ON March 7, Feb., p.26; Celestial
Events, Jan., p.93; Feb., p.29; Mar.,
p.71; Apr., p.63; May. p.45; June, p.73;
Aug., p.l09; Oct., p.39; Nov., p.51;
Dec, p.54
Novick, A., Echolocation in Bats, Mar.,
p.32
Palmer, J. D., The Many Clocks of
Man, Apr., p.52
Parker, B. C, Life in the Sky, Oct., p.54
R
Roberts, E. F., An Environmental Law-
yer Urges: Plead the Ninth Amend-
ment!, Aug., p.l8
Rothschild, M., Heart Poisons and the
Monarch. Apr., p.36
Schaller. G. B., Tins Gentle & Elegant
Cat, June p.30
Schcffer, V. B., The ClicAe of the
Killer, Oct., p.26
Schlee, S., Prince Albert's Way of
Catching Squid, Feb., p.20; All the
Fat and Sullace Fuddy Murriners,
Dec, p.l8
Schlossman, S., Rock Music, Dec, p.36
Schuberth, C. J., Barrier Beaches of
Eastern America, June, p.46
Shore-Bos, M., Makonde Sculpture, Mar.,
p.42
Singer, R., Reviews, Nov., p.80
Skovbo, B., Northwest Passage, June,
p.56
Stephens, L., The Gaeltacht of West
Kerry, Aug., p.42
Swan, L. W., Goose of the Himalayas,
Dec, p.68
Taeuber, I. B., The Chinese Peoples, Jan.,
p.52
Teilefsen, 0., A New Theory of Pyramid
Building, Nov., p.lO; Dec, p.8
Ternes, A. P., The State of the Species,
Jan., p.44: An Introduction to the
Setting and Characters of the Trag-
ical Farce or Farcical Tragedy of
Victoria Bluffs, S. C, Apr., p.8
Van de Kanip, P., Barnard's Star, Apr.,
p.38; Aug., p.31
Van Twyver, H., The Evolution of Sleep,
Feb., p.56
Villars, T., Three Fleeing Bullheads,
Aug., p.36
w
Walsten, D. M., Reviews. Nov., p.83
Weeks, K., The Great Pyramid Debate,
Dec, p.8
Werner, D., Healing in the Sierra
Madre, Nov., p.60
Whitney, C. A., Forms in the Sky, Jan.,
p.26
Wiley, J. P., Jr., Space: A Barrier to the
Species, Jan., p. 70; Sky Reporter, Jan.,
p.92; Mar., p.70; Apr., p.60; May, p.44;
June, p.72; Aug., p.l08; OcL, p.38;
Nov., p.50; Dec, p.52
Young, P., Mushrooms, June, p.66
SUBJECT M-4TTER
Aborigines, Apr., p.44: Dec, p.56
Africa
Cheetah, June, p.30
Flamingos, Jan., p.76
Kerebe tribe, Jan., p.8
Sculpture, Mar., p.42
Agriculture, origin of. May, p.46
Algae, in clouds, Oct., p.S4
Animal Behavior
Bears, Jan., p.94
Benthic animals, Nov., p.52
Butterflies, Apr., p.36
Caribou, Aug., p.98
Cheetah, June, p.30
Fish and pollutants, Aug., p.36
Flamingos, Jan., p.76
Geese, migration, Dec, p.68
Grizzly bears, Jan., p.94
Gulls, Mar., p.64
Lion, Nov., p.40
Moths, Nov., p.34
Sea urchins, Feb., p.52
Seals, Jan., p.32
Sleep, Feb.. p.56
Spiny lobster. May, p.36
Water mite, June, p.40
Whale, Oct., p.26
Animals, benthic, Nov., p.52
Animals in clouds, Oct., p.54
Australian Aborigines, Apr., p.44; Dec,
p.56
Aztec Indians, Dec, p.42
Central America, May, p.30
Egypt, ancient, Nov.. p.lO; Dec, p.8
Florentine Codex, Dec, p.42
Gaeltacht of West Kerry, Ireland,
Aug., p.42
Indochina, Oct., p.41
Jale, Feb., p.40
Kerebe folktale, Jan.. p.8
Magdalenians, Mar., p.56
Makonde sculpture. Mar., p.42
Mexico, ancient. May, p.30; Dec, p.42
Montgaudier, ancient hunters of. Mar.,
p.56
Potawatomi Indians, Nov., p.24
Pulmvat, Apr., p.24; May, p.58
Sierra Madre, Nov., p.60
-Art
Ancient Mexico, May, p.30: Dec, p.42
Australian Aborigines. Apr., p.44
Borne sculpture, Nov., p.28
Central America, May, p.30
Engravings, Montgaudier, France, Mar.,
p.56
Japanese Toys, Oct., p.60
Makonde sculpture. Mar., p.42
Astronomy
Ancient Conceptions of the Universe,
Dec, p.30
Asteroid Icarus, June, p.72
Barnard's Star. Apr., p.38
Celestial events, Jan.. p.93; Feb., p.29
Mar., p.7I: Apr., p.63: May, p.45
June p.73; Aug., p.l09; Oct., p.39
Nov., p.50; Dec, p.54
Cepheid variables, Dec, p.52
Collapsars, May, p.44
Comets, Jan., p.92; Apr., p.62; June
p.72
Compressional velocity, Oct., p.38
Crab nebula, Aug., p.108 ; Oct., p.66
Fireball tracking, Apr., p.60
Galactic explosions, June, p.72
Galaxies, infrared. Mar., p.70
Galaxy, spiral. May, p.44
Lunar eclipse. Aug., p.108
Mars, moons of, Aug., p.108
Mercury, mapping of, Aug., p.108
Meteor, Apr., p.60
Moon, May, p.44; Nov., p.50; at Phoeni
House Oct., p.38
Planets, formative process, Jan., p.26
Pulsar, Jan., p.92; Nov., p.50
Quasars, Jan., p.92
Solar constant, June, p.72
Solar eclipse, Feb., p.26
Solar systems, Apr., p.38
Space, carbon monoxide, June, p.72
Space agency budget, Apr., p.62
Stars, runaway, Nov., p.50
Sun, Dec, p.53
Uranus, Dec, p.53
Variables, Dec, p.52
Velocity, Oct., p.38
Venus, Dec, p.52
Asteroid Icarus, June, p.72
Atomic power, development of. Feb., p.lO
Australia, Apr., p.44; Dec, p.56
Avalanches, Feb., p.30
Bats, Mar., p.28
Bears, grizzly, Jan., p.94
Bering Sea, seals, Jan., p.32
Big Sur, Aug., p.8
Biological rhythms, Apr., p.52
Birds
Flamingos, Jan., p.76
Geese, bar-headed, Dec, p.68
Gulls, Mar., p.64
Botany
Agriculture, May, p.46
Evergreens, Jan., p.80
Granite plants, Oct., p.32
Mushrooms, June, p.66
Plants in clouds (algae), Oct., p.54;
in Vermont, Feb., p.lO
Wild rice, Mar., p.50
Boulders, musical, Dec. p.36
Brain, evolution of, June, p.l8
Brandywine plan, June, p.4
Bucks County, ringing rocks, Dec, p.36
Bullheads, Aug., p.36
Butterflies, Apr., p.36
Canoes of Puluwatans, Apr., p.24; May,
p.58
Carbon monoxide and space, June, p.72
Caribou. Aug., p.98
Celestial events see Astronomy
Ccpheid variables, Dec, p.52
Cheetah, June, p.30
Clocks, biological, Apr., p.52
Clouds. Oct., p.54
Codex, Florentine. Mexico, Dec, p.42
Collapsars, May, p.44
Comet and asteroid. June, p.72
Comet Bennett. June, p.72
Comet Tago-Sato-Kosaka, Jan.. p,92
Comets, Jan., p.92; Apr., p.62; June, p.72
Compressional waves, Oct., p.38
Conservation
and Earth. Jan., p.22
Fire Island, June, p.46
Questionnaire, June, p.27; Oct., p.8;
Dec, p. 16
see also Ecology, Environment
Crab Nebula, Aug.. p.l08; Oct., p.66
Cuba, May, p.lO
Dingle Peninsula, Aug., p.44
Dream sleep, Feh., p.56
Eclipses
Lunar, Aug., p.l08; solar, Feb., p.26
Ecology
Concern for, Dec, p.l6
of Earth, Jan., p.22
Fire-ecology, May, p.24
Fire Island, June, p.46
Movement, questionnaire, June, p.27;
Oct., p.8; Dec, p.l6
South Carolina tidelands, Apr., p.8
Student manifesto, Apr.. p.20
Vermont, Feb., p. 10; Mar., p. 10
Victoria Bluffs, Apr., p.8
see also Conservation and Environment
Egypt, pyramid building, Nov., p.lO; Dec,
p.8
Environment
Brandywine Creek, June, p.4
Constitutional right. Aug., p.l8
Fire Island, June, p.46
Vermont, Feb., p.ZO; Mar., p.lO
see also Conservation and Ecology
Ethni
see Anthropology
Evergreens, Jan., p.80
Evolution
of Brain, June, p.l8
of Sleep, Feb., p.56
Fertility, Jan., p.52; Jan., p.57
Fireball tracking, .Apr., p.60
Fire Island, June, p.46
Fish and pollutants. Aug., p.j6
Flamingos, Jan., p.76
Folktale, Kerebe, Jan., p.8
Food
malnutrition, Jan., p.64
rice. Mar., p.50
supply, Jan., p.64
Gaeltacht, West Kerr>', Ireland, Aug.,
p.42
Galactic explosions, June, p.72
Galaxies, infrared. Mar., p.70
Galaxy, spiral. May, p.44
Gamma rays. Crab Nebula. Aug., p.108
Geese, bar-headed, Dec, p.68
Geology
Granite. Oct., p.32
Rocks, Dec, p.36
Geophysics, Feb., p.30
Granite. Oct., p.32
Grizzly bears, Jan., p.94
Mushroom, June, p.66
Solar eclipse watchers, Feb., p.28
Gulls, Mar., p.64
Indochina, people of, Oct., p.40
Insects
Butterflies, Apr., p.36
Moths, Nov., p.34
iNVERTEnn.lTES
Benthic animals, Nov., p.52
Sea urchin, Feb., p.52
Spiny lobster. May, p.36
Squid, Feb., p.20
Water mites, June, p.40
Ireland, Gaeltacht of West Kerry, Au
p.44
Island shifting, June, p.46
Jale, New Guinea, Feb., p.40
Japanese toys, Oct., p.60
KiUer whale, Oct., p.26
Letters to the Editor, May, p.8;, Aug.,
p.130
Lion, American, Nov., p.40
Lunar eclipse, Aug., p. 108
Mae Sariang, Burma, people of, Oct., p.40
Magdalenians, France, Mar., p.56
Malnutrition, Jan., p.64
Mammals
Bats, Mar., p.28
Caribou, Aug., p.98
Cheetah, June, p.30
Grizzly bears, Jan., p.94
Lion, Nov., p.40
Seals, Jan., p.32
. Whales, Feb., p.20; Oct., p.26
Mars, Moons of, Aug., p. 108
Mercury, mapping of, Aug., p.l08
Meteor, Apr., p.60
Mexico, May, p.30; Nov., p.60; Dec, p.42
Migration
Caribou, Aug., p.98
Geese, Dec, p.68
Spiny lobster. May, p.36
Montgaudier, France, engravings. Mar.,
p.56
Moon
Safe health on, Nov., p.50
Sea floor of. May, p.44
Shuddering, Nov., p^50
Moth scents, Nov.,' p.341 -
Mushroom Guide, June, p.66
Naturalist at Large
Jan., p.22; Feb., p.20; Mar., p.28; Apr.,
p.20; May, p.24; June, p.l8; Aug.,
p.8; Oct., p.26; Nov., p.24; Dec, p.l8
Nebula, Crab, Oct., p.66
New Guinea, Feb., p.40
Northwest territories, June, p.56
Norway fjords, Nov., p.52
Overkill, whales, Feb., p.20
Overpopulation, gulls. Mar., p.64
Papuans see Jale
Peoples
Gaeltacht of West Kerry, Ireland,
Aug.. p.42
of Indochina, Oct., p.40
of Sierra Madre, Nov., p.60
Planet and pulsar, Jan., p.92
Planets, formative process, Jan., p.26
Pollution
and Fish, Aug., p.36
Sewage disposal, Dec, p. 18
South Carolina tidelands, Apr,, p.8
Student manifesto, Apr., p.20
and Vermont, Feb., p.lO; March, p.lO
of Victoria Bluffs, Apr., p.8
Water mites, June, p.40
and Weather, Aug., p.92
Potawatonii Indians, Nov., p.24
Prairies and change, Aug., p.28
Puluwatans and canoes, Apr., p.24; May,
p.58
Pulsar and planet, Jan., p.92
Pulsars, runaway, Nov., p.50
Pyramid building, theory of, Nov., p.lO;
Dec, p.8
Quasars, decade of, Jan., p.92
Questionnaire, ecological, June, p.27;
Oct., p.8; Dec, p.l6
Radar, mapping Venus, Dec, p.52
Rice, wild, harvest of. Mar., p.50
Rocks
Granite, Oct., p.32
Ringing, Dec, p.36
Salt marsh. Mar., p.28; Apr., p.8
Scents, moths, Nov., p.34
Sculptures
Ancient Mexico, May, p.30
by Borne, Nov., p.28
Central America, May, p.30
Engraved baton, France, Mar., p.56
of the Makonde, Mar., p.42
Sea urchins, Feb., p.52
Seals, Bering Sea, Jan., p.32
Sierra Madre, people of, Nov., p.60
Sky
forms in, Jan., p.26
life in, Oct., p.54
Sky Reporter see Astronomy
Sleep, concept of, Feb., p.56
Snowflakes, Feb., p.30
Solar constant, June, p.72
Solar eclipse, Feb., p.26 and Watcher's
guide, Feb., p.28
Solar systems, search for, Apr., p,38
Space
Carbon monoxide, June, p.72
Conceptions of ancient man, Dec, p.30
and Settlements, Jan., p.70
and Wish list. Mar., p.70
Special Supplement, State of the Spe-
cies, Jan., p.44
Spiny lobster. May, p.36
Squid, Feb., p.20
Star, Barnard's, Apr., p.33
Stars
and Planets, Jan., p.26
Runaway, Nov., p.50
State of the Species, Jan., p.44
Sun
Eclipse of, Feb., p.26
Variable star, Dec, p.53
Time, biological, Apr., p.52
Toys, Japanese, Oct., p.60
Universe, conceptions of, Dec, p.30
Uranus, Dec, p.53
Variable stars, Dec, p.52, 53
Venus, mapping with radar, Dec, p.52
Vermont, Feb., p.IO; Mar., p. 10
Victoria Bluffs, Apr., p.8
Vitamins, Oct., p.54
Water mites, June, p.40
Water pollution, Dec, p.l8
Weather and pollution, Aug., p.92
West Kerry, Ireland, Aug., p.42
Whale, Feb., p.20; Oct., p.26
Wild rice. Mar., p.50
ilf,
Books in Review
America's Last Wild Horses, Dec
American West, The, Apr., p.72
Animals and Maps, Feb., p.73
An ol Ancient Egypt, Feb., p.72
Back to Nature: The Arcadia
Urban Arnerica, June, p.84
Book of Imaginary Beings, The, Dec
BaSalo, The, Nov., p.84
Cape Cod and the Offshore Islands,
p.114
Climate, Man and History, Nov., p.85
Coming of the Golden Age, The,
p.80
Congress and the En
p.90
Conservation : Notv or Never, June. p.8[
Darwin and the Beagle, Jan., p.llO
Death and Rebirth of the Sen,:
Aug., p.123
Defoliation, Oct., p.92
Ecotactics: The Sierra Club Hani
for Environment Activists.
Environmental Handbook, The, May,
Exploring the Ocean World, Oct., p,95
Florentine Codex, Book 6, Dec, p.42
Grand Colorado, The, Feb., p.75
Great Botanical Gardens of the ff
Apr., p.73
Hudson River, The, Mar., p.84
Human Zoo, The, Jan., p.l04
Hunters of the Northern Ice, Jan.,
Hunting for Dinosaurs, Aug., p.l22
Indian in America's Closet, The,
p.78
Intecol Bulletin, Apr., p.77
International Zoo Yearbook 10,
p.77
Life and Death of the Salt Marth,
p.76
Looking for Dilmun, Oct., p.91
Martha's Vineyard, Aug., p. 114
Moon as Viewed by Lunar Orb, v,
Nov., p.85
Night of the Grizzlies, May, p.78
North American Birds, Mar., p.84
Persia, Nov., p.85
Plant Hunters, The (Coats), Nov.,
Plant Hunters. The (Whittle), Nov.
Prehistoric and Primitive Art, Api
Prehistoric Animals
Hm
Ma
p.69
a.82
for Mm
Seeds of Change: The Green Revolj
and Development in the 197"'s, r
p.77 , ,
Shipivrecks and Archaeology: Th<: I/'j
vested Sea, May, p.76
Since Silent Spring, Apr., p.75
Social Contract, The, No
Storm Petrel and the
The, Oct., p.88
S/S/T
p.90
nd Son
■Re.
Owl ol All
Boom Handbook, |
, Jan., p.107
d Wasps, :
Worid of An
Mar., p.84
Worid of the Giant Panda, The,
p.77
Xinacnntan: A Maya Community '
Highlands of Chiapas, Feb., p.66
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JANUARY 1970
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SPECIAL 32-PAGE
REPORT ON MANKIND:
rHE STATE OF THE SPECIES
>LUS MARGARET MEAD ON
PHE POSSIBILITY FOR
lURVIVAL
:A1E T(D) LIYE leCEMElR
rii ii¥ iiiiiuf
tEAdiNq The stars
iVixh xhE sky REPORTER
leal ][iiaiiP@oitDs
MATTER OF LIFE AND DEATH
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David E Reynolds
tells how we can"mine"tons
of aluminum from our
scrap heaps-and fight litter
Aliuninum's scrap value makes
it worth collecting and
"re-cycling". . .
There are two national problems
which we believe no materials producer
should ignore: litter and conservation. For-
tunately, because of the nature of our metal,
aluminum, Reynolds has been able to de-
velop some answers in both areas.
Indestructible aluminum is re-usable
First of all, aluminum has scrap value; and
it is virtually indestructible. It resists corrosion and
will not rust. It can be remelted, re-alloyed, and
re-used — economically. And the need for and uses of
this strong, lightweight metal seem to multiply
yearly. So a used all-aluminum beverage can is worth
something; it is worth picking up and "re-cycling."
If this suggests a way to fight litter to you, it did to
the men at Reynolds, as well. We are now testing
diflferent approaches in two cities, Los Angeles and
Miami, and plan to try others in the future.
Using aluminum's scrap value
Our idea is to encourage community groups
to sponsor aluminum can collecting drives, and earn
money for worthwhile causes and for their own needs.
As they raise funds, they help keep their
streets, parks, and beaches free of litter. Aluminum
scrap does offer a worthwhile incentive to such
organizations: a ton of aluminum, for example,
brings $200 from dealers, compared with $20 for
steel and $16 for waste paper. This scrap value is
something many industrial users keep in mind when
they specify aluminum equipment. They know
there's a bonus waiting at the end of the service
life of this equipment.
Mines— not scrap heaps
Although there is an abundant sup-
ply of aluminum for the foreseeable future,
the fact remains that the supply is noi
unhmited — and aluminum usage has beet
doubling roughly every ten years. But thii
need not be a problem if we capitalize on the
re-usability of aluminum. Already, an esti
mated 30% of the world's aluminum is reclaimed
or secondary metal. This could be even higher.
Countless products provide "mines" of al-
uminum, ready to be tapped. Not only aluminum
cans and packages, but the aluminum in appliances,
automotive parts, building products, even railroad
cars can and should be reclaimed when they've fin-
ished their useful service.
Scouts and many other or-
ganizations fight litter and
raise money by collecting all-
aluminum cans.
Reclamation plants which
produce aluminum from
scrap help to conserve our
natural resources.
New Reynolds reclamation plant
We at Reynolds have launched our effort
toward this goal — not only with our anti-litter can
collecting programs, but with a major investment in
reclamation facilities. (An additional reclamation plant
will be producing aluminum from scrap in 1969.)
Efforts such as these, we believe, will do
much to reduce the solid waste disposal problem,
and help stretch our natural resources. Reynolds Metals
Company, P. 0. Box2346-LII, Rn-/mond, Virginia 25218.
REYNOLDS
wher^ new ideas take shape in
ALUMINUM
i^
VATURAL HISTORY
DL. LXXIX, No. 1 INCORPORATING NATURE MAGAZINE JANUARY 1970
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
20
26
32
43
76
80
94
4
92
93
104
116
HOW MEN AND WOMEN CAME TO LIVE TOGETHER
Aniceti Kitereza Biographical notes by Gerald and Charlotte Hartwig
To the Kerebe people of Tanzania, a woman's best friend was her dog—
until she met man.
A NATURALIST AT LARGE: THE ISLAND EARTH Margaret Meai
How man has survived within the confines of an island may be the key to how
man can survive within the confines of the earth.
FORMS IN THE SKY Charles A. Whitney
Modern astronomers can still use the old method of analogy to interpret
celestial forms and processes.
SEAL HAREMS IN THE PRIBILOFS Richard K. Mathews
For the northern fur seal, summer vacation in Alaska is fraught with terri-
torial wars, births, and breedings.
THE STATE OF THE SPECIES: 1970
C. Loring Brace, Irene B. Taeuber, Henri Leridon, Kendall W. King, Gordon
Harrison, John P. Wiley, Jr. Introductions by Alan P. T ernes
This special supplement appears at a time of year when man traditionally
assesses the state of his soul, and government examines the state of the union.
Here Natural History invites a straightforward look at the state of affairs
within that dominant species, Homo sapiens.
A BIRD IN THE HAND
. . . Is worth four on the flats.
EVERGREEN REVIEW Lorus J. and Margery MUne
The "evergreen habit" persists— from the wintergreen shrub to the giant
sequoia— wherever man and climate permit.
WEANING GRIZZLY BEARS A. Starker Leopold
The natural shyness of this recently maligned animal is his greatest defense
against man— and vice versa.
cover: These coastal redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) grow in a continu-
ous 400-mile belt along the northern California-Oregon coast.
THE AUTHORS
SKY REPORTER John P. Wiley, Jr.
CELESTIAL EVENTS Thomas D. Nicholson
BOOKS IN REVIEW Robin Fox
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING
The American Museum of Natural History
Gardner D. Stout, President Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Natural History
Alfred Meyer, Editor Robert E. Williamson, Managing Editor
William Gilman, Jack Hope, Senior Editors Thomas Page, Art Editor
Avis Kniffin, John P. Wiley, Jr., Associate Editors Florence G. Edelstein, Copy Editor
Toni Gerber, Asst. Copy Editor Carol Breslin, Reviews Editor
Diantha C. Thorpe, Information Services William Suderman, Production
Ernestine Weindorf, Nancy Larson, Karen Manulis, Staff Assistants
Editorial Advisers: Gerard Piel, Dean Amadon, Franklyn M. Branley, Vincent Manson,
Margaret Mead, Thomas D. Nicholson, James A. Oliver, Ethel Tobach
Harvey Oshinsky, Advertising Director Harry F. Decker, Walter E. Mercer,
Gordon Finley, Sales Dinah Lowell, Traffic, Eileen O'Keefe, Asst.
Ann Usher, Promotion Director, Maureen Fitzgerald, Asst.
Joseph Saulina, Circulation Manager
Publicalion Ofice: The Amrrican Museum of Natural HLslorr, Central Park West at 79th Street, Nea York, N.T.
10024. Published monthly, October through May; bimonthly June to September, Subscription: $7.00 c year.
In Canada and alt other countries: $7. SO a year. Single copies $1.00. Second.class postage paid at PJei* York, N.T.,
and at additional ofices. Copyright © 1969 by The American Museum oj Natural History. No pan of this
periodical may be reproduced without the written consent of Nathhal History. Manuscripts
and illustrations submitted to the editorial office will be handled with core, but we cannot assume responsibility
/or their safety. The opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of
" .seum. NiTUnAi. HuTonr is indexed in Rcadcr'i Guide to Periodical Liler.Wrt.
Histor
This is the biggest ship ever to be launched
sideways.
She's the Esso San Francisco, hitting the
Mississippi at Avondale, Louisiana, last July.
And two 76,000-ton sister ships, also ordered by
Jersey's affiliate, Humble Oil & Refining Com-
pany, will follow her act in the next few months.
228,000 deadweight tons of ships. It's a
big order. And it's only part of Humble's cur-
rent shipbuilding program in the U.S.
Elsewhere around the world, Jersey's
affiliates are making shipbuilding news.
At the beginning of this year, there were
33 tankers on order in nine different countries.
Nearly five million deadweight tons. An invest-
ment of over $400 million.
This, the biggest tanker-building pros
in Jersey's history, is necessary to meei
world's ever-growing demand for oil.
And there are some heart- warming sti
to tell. For example, at Wallsend in Englarf
Two years ago, Jersey's British affilj
Esso Petroleum, decided to build two mamri
253,000-ton tankers at Wallsend. Then the :
est ships ever to be ordered in Europe. :
"It's the best news this town has ha
years," said Wallsend's mayor.
The Esso Petroleum order guaranteed
years' employment for 3,000 men. It pu
million a year in wages into the town's e
omy. And now you can see the effect. N
goods in the shops. More cars on the stn
More smiles in the pubs.
»lashdown.
Jehind this news is an encouraging story.
)nly seven weeks before Esso Petroleum
i its order, no British shipyard was in the
ng either for price or delivery date. And
;ry date was particularly tough. Two ships,
Digger than the Queen Mary, to be finished
3 years. And ten unions were involved,
rhe initiative came from the unions them-
s. They negotiated agreements that
ed one trade to pitch in on another's job.
more a worker produced, the more he
id. When they and the shipbuilders were
:he job could be done, the banks responded
low-cost loans.
Now Wallsend has more ships on order
than anyone could have foreseen.
In fact, since Esso Petroleum broke the ice,
there are twenty-one ships to be built there,
including a third giant tanker.
We like to think that the splash we made
at Wallsend was, in its own way, as historic as
the one we made on the Mississippi.
Standard Oil Company
(New Jersey)
^
-a>'
THE AUTHORS
"How Men and Women Came to
Live Together," was written by
Aniceti Kitereza, a seventy-four-
year-old Kerebe of Ukerewe Island,
Lake Victoria, Tanzania (additional
biography, page 18) , and brought to
the attention of Natural History by
Gerald and Charlotte Hartwig.
Mr. Hartwig, a candidate for the
doctoral degree in African studies at
Indiana University, received a For-
eign Area Fellowship for the purpose
of reconstructing Kerebe history
from its oral traditions. During their
eight-month stay on Ukerewe Island,
the Hartwigs assisted Mr. Kitereza
in the translation of his story, first
into Swahili and then into English.
The "Naturalist at Large" this
month is Margaret Mead, whose
article, "The Island Earth," sets the
keynote for the Natural History
Special Supplement, "The State of
the Species: 1970." At present. Dr.
Mead is curator emeritus of ethnol-
ogy at The American Museum, ad-
junct professor of anthropology at
Columbia University, and chairman
of the social science division of the
Liberal Arts College at Fordham
University's Lincoln Center campus.
Charles A. Whitney, who re-
ceived his Ph.D. in astronomy from
Harvard University in 1955, is pro-
fessor of astronomy at Harvard and
a physicist at the Smithsonian Astro-
physical Observatory. A specialist in
stellar atmospheres, Dr. Whitney has
recently completed a textbook on this
subject. His projected studies include
a history of the astronomical discov-
eries leading to the recognition of the
Milky Way as a galaxy.
Richard K. Mathews' article on
northern fur seals is the result of a
recent ten-day expedition to the Prib-
ilof Islands, where he observed the
life styles of both humans and seals.
The author of The Yukon, for Holt,
Rinehart & Winston's "Rivers of
America" series, and of various
articles, mainly political, for Satur-
day Review, Reporter, and New Re-
public, Mr. Mathews has traveled in
the Congo, Angola, and French-
speaking Africa as a fellow of the
Institute of Current World Affairs
and as a free-lance writer. He is cur-
rently at work on a book about
Alaska, part of a series on regions of
America, which will be published by
Harper & Row.
"Evergreen Review," by Lorus J.
and Margery Milne, is the latest of
several articles and reviews they have
written for Natural History. Dr.
Milne is professor of zoology at the
University of New Hampshire where
Mrs. Milne is a lecturer in nature
recreation. Together, they have trav-
eled over 660,000 miles on expedi-
tions in North and Central Americ
the West Indies, Surinam, Europ
Africa, the Near East, Southea!
Asia, eastern Australia, New Ze
land, and the Pacific Islands. D
Milne has been a consultant fi
UNESCO in New Zealand, a Foi
Fellow in conservation, and a Rocki
feller Fellow at Scripps Institute (
Oceanography. His current researc
interests center on the role of visio
in normal behavior and on ecology
particularly among invertebrate an
mals. The Milnes are coauthors c
Living Plants of the World, The Agi
of Life, and Patterns of Survival, a
well as of twenty other major book:
A. Starker Leopold's associf
tion with the University of Californi
at Berkeley spans twenty-four year
of scientific and administrative worl
Presently professor of zoology (sine
1946) and of forestry (since 1967)
Dr. Leopold was assistant to th
chancellor, Berkeley campus, 1960 t(
1963, and associate director of th(
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 195}
to 1965. The recipient of a Guggen
heim Fellowship and the Audubor
Society Medal among other honors
Dr. Leopold has done field work in
Mexico, the Missouri Ozarks. Alaska.
Australia, and East Africa. He is the
author of Wildlife of Mexico, hon^
ored by the Wildlife Society as the
"Best Wildlife Publication" of 1959^
ENJOY THIS SPECTACULAR NEW
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You will view 20 famous
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LEONARDO DA VINCI
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THE FULL GLORY OF THE ORIGINALS
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A special demonstration Offer from the new Color Slide PrOgTatTl Of tllC GfCat MaStCFS
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T^/^A-^^t--
A Kerehe Tale
IMatv 3Men attd HVontewu
Catne ia Lin^e Tagether
hy Aniceti Kitereza
l^Tow listen and I will tell you an
1-^ old story so that you may know
what made us live with women. In
the beginning, all men lived together
in one country with their Chief. They
cultivated grain that they used as
food, but they never ale meat. At
this same time, women lived in an-
other country with their Queen. The
women did not know how to cultivate
grain, so they ate only meat. The
Queen had trained one hundred dogs
that would help her women catch
wild animals for their meat supply.
One day the Queen sent for her
Headwoman and her messengers and
said: "Go to the men's country to
greet their Chief. See if those people
are peaceful and bring me news from
them."
The women immediately set out
on their journey carrying a great
amount of meat for their food sup-
ply. After sixteen days they arrived
in the men's country. When they
found the Chief and greeted him,
they were warmly welcomed. The
Chief gave them a room for sleeping
and then sent food for them to eat.
But when the women saw the obivila,
"stiff porridge," and greens they
were astounded and exclaimed: "But
what is this? We never eat such food
in our country! It is taboo for us."
This was a great surprise to the
Chief and his men, for they were not
aware of other eating customs. And
so with great interest they asked the
women what they ate.
"We only eat meat," they replied.
"And we never eat meat here,"
said the men, "for it is taboo for us.
How do you manage to capture the
wild animals?"
"Our Queen has trained one hun-
dred dogs. These dogs are very
clever, and they catch the wild ani-
mals for us."
Now this was pleasant news to the
Chief for he was constantly harassed
by wildlife that destroyed his crops.
Suddenlv he had an idea.
"Could your Queen lend me her
dogs so that we might be rid of these
pests who rob us of our food and
ruin our grain?"
"Surely, she will gladly do so."
"How many dogs do you think she
could spare?" the Chief inquired.
"Perhaps she will lend you all of
them, but of course, we cannot an-
swer for certain until you have re-
quested the Queen personally."
"Very well. My men will return
with you to your country to see if
this can be arranged."
After a few days' rest, the women
bid farewell to the Chief and. accom-
panied bv the Chiefs messengers, set
out on their return journey. When
they reached iheir own land once
again, they went to the palace to
greet their Queen and to present the
Chiefs envoys. After the Queen had
welcomed the guests, the women be-
gan to tell her all that had tran-
spired during their stay in the men's
country. When they related the in-
cident concerning the food given
them, all the women who had
gathered at the palace shook with
laughter to hear of such an out-
rageous custom. Eager for details,
they asked for more information con-
cerning this strange food.
One of the Queen's messengers be-
gan to explain: "There are some
rootlike plants that are round in
shape. They are called enumbu,
'sweet potatoes.' And there are other
plants like trees called amalibica,
'cassava, or manioc' There are also
some grasslike plants and when they
have been dried and harvested, the
grains are separated from the stalks.
This pure grain is called obiiro.
'millet.' It can be stored in a special
house until the men need it. Then it
is put on a grinding stone and
ground into flour. Water is boiled and
the flour is added until it is very stiff
and the large wooden ladle cannot
stir anymore. This solid thing is
called obu'ita."
When she had finished, everyone
was astounded at her tale and ihey
said : "To live is to see many strange
things. We thought those men were
just like us. Lo and behold, they
even eat the grains of grasses, like
animals!"
The Queen then summoned the
men to her and finding it hard to be-
lieve thai ihey really ate in the man-
ner described by her messenger, she
asked if this could possibly be true.
"It is true indeed," they replied,
"for to eat meat is taboo for us. We
are constantly bothered by wild ani-
mals in our country. They destroy
our crops and are very troublesome.
We have tried to kill them, but so far
we have had no success. And that is
laketh
Harper Encycl
Enthusiastically Acclaimed
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of the most outstanding reference
works in general science are:
Jeremy Bernstein, The A'ew
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Avhy we are here. Your women tolda
us that you have trained some one I
hundred dogs. Our Chief therefore
requests permission from you to bor-
row these dogs for a short time so
that we might rid ourselves once and
for all of these pests."
This proposal came as something
of a surprise to the Queen, but after
consultation with her Headwoman
she agreed.
"Very well, you men. you may use
our dogs. But as we must hunt meat
for the time you w ill be gone, it will
be necessary that you remain with us
for a few da vs."
Full of gratitude the men thanked
her saying. Kasinge Izoba, kasinge
ntale, kasinge namuha, "Thank you
the sun. thank you the lion, thank
)'ou the one who gives."
Early the next morning, the men,
were awakened by the sounds of
sharp, shrill whistles, horn flutes, and
dogs barking. Rushing outside from
their sleeping room, they saw that
all the women were assembled at the
palace u aiting for the signal from lUe
Queen to begin their hunt. At her
command, they dispersed with the
dogs, and the men did not .?ee them
for the ^vhole dav.
In the evening, once again the men
heard the sounds of whistles, flutes,
and barking dogs. When the womeii
reached the palace, the men could
see that their arms were full of meat
and that the dogs' mouths were
covered with blood.
Later, the Queen met with the
men and advised them to depart earh-
in the day as their journev would be
long. Then she warned them:
"There is one very important thing
for you to remember. Mv dogs are
to be orderd to attack only once like
this. 'Chi!' If you should forget and
order them twice or three times, all
the dogs will disappear and no one
^vill ever see them again. My ^vomen
have learned this well: I can trust
them completely. Now I implore vou
to take this warning to heart. Tell
your Chief so that he can give this
information to the men who hunt
with my dogs."
With these words still ringing in
their ears, the men departed the next'
morning at the first sound of the
cock's crow . They left w ith the dogs, <
the whistles, and the flutes for hunt-
ing. When they reached their own
country once again, the Chief and a
larsie crowd of men were awaiting
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them, eager for ne'ivs of the trip.
After kneeling in greeting to the
Chief, one of the head messengers,
Nkubitizi. began his tale:
"Oh. Chief, ^\e return from a safe
journey. Even at our camping sites
we had no difficulties. When we ar-
rived in the women's country, we
found the Queen to be quite mag-
nificent. She welcomed us warml}'
and gave us a room for sleeping. But
when the women brought us our
food, you can imagine our amaze-
ment—they brought us nothing but
meat ! "
Everyone gathered at the palace
was listening intently to Nkubitizi's
words. And as he described the meat
the women brought them, they were
so astonished that some of the men
were on the verge of vomiting.
Nkubitizi continued. ''Your re-
quest for the dogs has been granted
and we have brought all one hundred
of them. During our visit with the
Queen, she showed us how to use
these dogs for hunting. She has given
us her whistles and small flutes as
well. But now you must all listen, for
I have a very important message
from the Queen. These dogs have
been trained to attack with the com-
mand. 'Chi !' But this order to attack
must be given only once, not twice or
three times. If anyone of us should
forget this warning, the dogs will
disappear forever."
Everyone listened gravely to these
words and assured the Chief that
thev would not forget them.
The Chief, anxious to see every-
thing that his men had brought him,
ordered Nkubitizi to bring the flutes
and whistles. He examined them with
great interest.
"And what is this feather for?"
he inquired.
"It is to clean the flute before
blowing it."
"Show me how to play it."
"But if I blow it now." explained
Nkubitizi. "the dogs will hear it and
get set for hunting without their
leashes. The Queen has warned us to
only use these instruments on our
way to a hunt and on our return
home."
Hearing this, the Chief ordered all
his messengers to inform each Head-
man that on the next day there would
be a hunt and all men should meet
at the palace. He was eager to try out
the dogs and whistles and flutes.
Early the next morning when the
Chief had awakened and washec
himself, he left his sleeping house
In the courtyard he was very sur
prised to find only twent)' men Avitl
Nkubitizi.
"And where are the others?"
"Perhaps they have slept long
after a weary journey."
"Ah. then beat the drums so all
may hear that the time is at hand to
begin the hunt."
And. truly, as soon as the drums
could be heard, men suddenly ap-
peared from every direction. It was
a joyous occasion as if it were a
celebration day. The leashes were put
on the dogs, the instruments were in
readiness, and the men were jumping
and shouting with excitement.
After Nkubitizi quieted the crowd,
the Chief exhorted his men.
"To all who have come here, you
know of the damage done to our
crops by wild animals. Today w e
have one hundred dogs owned by the
Queen from that other country. She
has lent them to us so that we might
have success in killing the animals.
Now listen carefully. These dogs
have been well trained. When the
time comes you must order them
only once to attack like this, 'Chi!'
You must never order them twice or
three times or thev will disappear
forever!"
Nkubitizi then led ihe men on the
hunt with whistles and flutes blowing
and dogs barking. When they
reached the jungle, the dogs were
ordered to attack: "Chi!" shouted
the men, and the animals scattered
all over with the dogs in pursuit. By
late afternoon, all the animals in the
area had been killed, even small ones
in holes had been carried ofi. A re-
port of the hunt was given to the
Chief who was pleased indeed with
the news. But as he wanted to see this
with his own eyes, he asked
Nkubitizi to show him the place
where they had hunted. When they
reached the jungle and he vie^ved the
array of dead animals, he was trul)'
astonished.
The Chief was then eager for an-
other hunt, and two days later
Nkubitizi organized the men once
again. The excitement of the hunt
was heightened with the whistles and
the flutes blowing and the dogs bark-
ing. But it is the nature of men that
when many are together, some for-
get themselves, and this is exactly
what happened. Some of the men
14
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NATURE TOURS
SCHEDULE: Listed below are starting
dates for the next 15 months or so. Space
permits only a brief mention of each
lour, and one should by all means have
the "Tour Catalog" with thumbnail
sketches of each trip, as well as subse-
quent detailed itineraries. North America
tours are 2 weeks each, others 3 weeks,
unless otherwise noted.
- 1 9 6 9 —
AUSTRALIA — N. Z. (3 tours)
Added by request, Australia tour leaves
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N.Z. West Coast (2 wks) Dec. 6.
CHRISTMAS PARTY - BERMUDA
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tions requested.
—19 7 0—
FLORIDA
Jan. 10-2 weeks from Wakulla Springs
MIDDLE AMERICA (4 tours)
Following the Florida Tour (.from Tal-
lahassee Jan. 10 I ; Yucatan, from Miami
Jan. 24: Panama. Feb. 7; Colombia. Feb.
2 1. Ornithologist, for Cent. America, Irby
Davis; Colombia. Dr. Lehmann.
TEXAS - MEXICO (5 tours)
Texas from Corpus Christi March 7;
Taxco. Holy Week special; then Mexico
West & East Coast.
PACIFIC COAST (7 tours)
Baja California camping, from Nogales
Mar. 28; Arizona, from Tucson Apr. 25;
Sierras, from San Diego May 9: Cas-
cades, from Klamath Falls, May 20; fol-
lowed by Alaska South. North and Out-
posts. Remarkable tropics-to-Arctic cov-
erage of spring in Western North
America.
EUROPE (12 tours)
Too much of a program to list here; bv
all means send for detailed brochure.
Norway, Iceland. Russia and Siberia espe-
cially recommended. Twelve tours, ex-
tending through May. June. July.
CENTRAL AMERICA
Summer program in rainj- season when
birds are on territory. July and August,
3 tours; Chiapas, Panama. Yucatan.
AFRICA (3 tours)
South and East Africa and Madagas-
tours in July September. Ex-
elle
: leadership.
SOUTH AMERICA (4 tours)
Venezuela, Aug. 15; Colombia, Sep. 5;
Ecuador Peru, Sep. 26; Chile/Tierra del
Fuego, October 24. Also Galapagos and
SOUTH PACIFIC (8 tours)
This is the year of full South Pacific
coverage. Melanesia, Aug. 15 from
Samoa; New Guinea, Sep. 5 from Rabaul;
Western Australia, Oct. 3 from Perth;
Australia East. Oct. 24 from the Barrier
Reef at Cairns; New Zealand, Nov. 14
from Auckland; N.Z. West Coast, Dec. 5.
Also special tours of New Guinea/West
Irian north coast, and Western Australia
wildflowers.
SOUTH WITH AUTUMN (2 tours)
Geologj' and ecologj' of the eastern
U.S.A.. following the wave of fall color
southward. Northeast Coast tour meets
at Bangor Sep. 19; Southeast Coast tour
at Harpers Fern.' Oct. 10. Leader: Geolo-
gist Isabella Coons, with man>- assisting
leaders along the way.
Come along! . , . intimate, private
groups, expert leadership. We seek out
back-country routes, try for an experxence-
in-depth of the natural scene and the
people. (Not recommended if you're
strong for night life.)
CROWDER NATURE TOURS
BOX 222-a
HARPERS FERRY, W. VA. 25425
ordered the dogs to attack more than
once. And just as the Queen had
jjredicted. the dogs disappeared.
Now Nkubitizi and his men were
very frightened for they feared the
Chief's anger. Surely he would kill
them! But when the Chief heard the
news, although he was greatly
disturbed he spared the men since
there were so many at the hunt.
By this time the Queen's meat sup-
ply was dwindling and since she had
not heard any news from the men
she called her women together at the
palace.
"Listen, ladies," she said, "tomor-
row we shall all leave for the men's
country and get our dogs. Our meat
supply is so low, surely we will starve
if we are not able to hunt soon. Our
kindness has only caused trouble. Let
us not delav one more dav.
Earlv the next morning the Queen
ordered her Headwoman to beat the
royal drums, mativigacharo. "ears
of the country." so that her whole
chiefdom woidd hear the summons.
As the women began to gather at the
palace thev knelt first in greeting to
the Queen, clapping their hands and
saying: Hahuka nvena. Habuka
isazn. Habuka bwonga niicoyo,
Habiika muzurambi. "Honored one
who gives, who builds, who joins the
hearts of all people."
The Queen was dressed in a
splendid copper dress that shone
brightly in the sun. As they prepared
to leave, a seat made of buffalo skin,
uith the nerves of the buffalo's back
legs used to fasten the chair to poles,
was brought for the Queen. In this
\\ ay. the women could carry the
Queen, as her dress was heavy and
cumbersome. Other women began to
play their flutes and when at last all
the Queen's subjects were assembled,
ihey formed a long procession.
Two days prior to their arrival in
ihe men s countrv. the Queen sent
luentv women as emissaries to the
Chief, to tell him of their arrival.
The Chief then beat his royal drums.
ciiiilango. so that evervone would
come to the palace. When all the
men were present, he informed them
that the Queen would soon arrive
and there was no doubt that she was
in need of her dogs. Toward evening,
drums could be heard in the distance
and it was not long before the pro-
cession of women could be seen. The
Chief immediately went into his
sleeping room to array himself in his
royal garments. He then ordered his
Headman to beat his drums— the
noise at the palace was deafening.
The Queen was now approaching
the palace, resplendent in her shining
dress. She knelt before the Chief and
greeted him.
Kasinge hwacha sugu, Osingire
Rugaba, "Greetings great one, may
you live long."
The Chief then greeted the Queen:
Bwacha. '"Welcome. "
He then ordered the drummers to i
cease their beating so that he could •
speak with the Queen, and the great
crowd of people at the palace quieted
to hear his ^vords.
"\ our dogs arrived here safely,
madam. On the first dav I sent some
of mv men to hunt with them in the
nearby jungle. Thev were very suc-
cessful and many wild animals were
killed. JMy chief messenger, Nku-
bitizi, had informed me of your
warning and every man was told.
But in the excitement of the second
hunt, some of my men forgot the
warning and ordered the dogs to
attack more than once. Just as you
predicted, the dogs have disap-
peared. For this we are all guilty and
we ask your pardon."
"In that you have been truthful,
sir, I cannot be angry. I came here
in peace, not for war," replied the
Queen. "But now I am greatly
troubled. Our meat supply is ex-
hausted. What shall I do ^vithout our
dogs?"
The Chief then bow ed his head so
he could speak only with the Queen.
"Do you suppose tliere is some
w ay for you to eat food that has been
cultivated? Could you abolish that
taboo?''
"We are in trouble indeed. We
cannot return to our country without
our dogs, and we know nothing of
crop cultivation. The dogs vou have
lost; now you must find a solution
for us.''
The Chief pondered her words for
some time. Then he stood before the
cro\vd and announced:
"Listen all of you men and \\ omen
who are newcomers here. After dis-
cussing matters with the Queen. 1
have come to the follo^ving decision.
The Queen and her women cannot re-
turn to their country since we have
lost their dogs. So now I shall give
to each of the men one of the w omen.
Each man is responsible for his
woman. He must teach her how to
i6
e Cossums arent trying to save the world.
;t a little piece of it.
ester Davis is a friendly, dark-
ittle boy whose smile can light
entire room. But for most of
c years, he hasn't had much to
about.
ester lives in Laurel Creek, an
lachian town of 200 people in
nty with a per capita income
157 a year. Like most of the
people of Laurel Creek, Lester
in a three-room weatherboard
;, along with his mother and
r and nine brothers and sisters.
' have no well, and of course no
e plumbing. So Lester's mother,
ie, carries all the family water
om the nearby creek,
.ester's father, Ray used to work
le coal mines, but since the
s "played out" he's been unem-
jd. As Tressie admits, "It's aw-
ard going. We never could get
good start before." They still
dn't have a "start" if it weren't
he Cossum family.
Sd and Martha Cossum live in
burban community of contem-
iry homes. Looking out back you
isee one of those large, above-
! m ground plastic
swimming pools.
And you can see
the beginnings of
a redwood deck
around the pool,
which Ed and his
two children. Bill
/' and Carol, are
ding themselves.
Ed is a systems analyst. He
ids most of his day thinking
ut third generation computers,
tunately, Ed and Martha also
ik about this generation of chil-
n living in Appalachia.
Through Save The Children
[eration, the Cossums are helping
ter and his family. They contrib-
$15 a month. Though it's not a
of money, the Cossums could
bably have done a lot of other
igs with it.
The Cossums' contribution, will
made available to the Davises
as a gift, or charity, but as a loan,
interest-free loan which Lester's
ler can borrow to begin a self-
p project.
Mr. Davis already has a project
mind. He plans to use the Cos-
sums' money to buy and feed two
cows, then sell the calves as they
come along. As Mr. Davis says, "A
man likes to find ways to take care
of his own family."
Already there is a new feeling
of hope in the Davis family, and con-
fidence and pride in their ability to
help themselves.
That really is what Save The
Children is all about. Although con-
tributions are deductible as a char-
ity, the aim is not merely to buy one
child a new pair of overalls or a
warm coat. Instead, your contribu-
tion is used to give people ,
a little boost to start helping
themselves.
Sponsors are desper-
ately needed for other
Appalachian children and
American Indian children,
as well as children in Korea,
Vietnam, Latin America,
Africa and Greece.
As a sponsor you will
receive a photo and history
of the child, progress re-
ports and a chance to cor-
respond.
The Cossums know they can't
save the world for $15 a month.
Only a little piece of it. But maybe
that is the way to save the world, if
enough people care. How about you ?
Save The Children Federation, j
founded in 1932, is registered with the
U.S. State Department Advisory Com-
mittee on Voluntary Foreign Aid.
Financial statements on request.
National Sponsors (partial list):
Claude Arpels, Faith Baldwin,
Hon. James A. Farley, Andy Griffith,
Gene Kelly, Mrs. Eli Lilly,
Paul Newman, Mrs. J.C. Penney,
Norman Rockwell, Frank Sinatra
Save The Children Federation
NORWALK, CONNECTICUT 06852
I WISH TO CONTRIBUTE $180 ANNUALLY TO HELP A CHILD.
n WHERE THE NEED IS GREATEST D LATIN AMERICA
D AMERICAN INDIAN Q APPALACHIA D KOREA Q GREECE
a VIETNAM □ AFRICA
ENCLOSED IS MY FIRST PAYMENT
n $15.00 MONTHLY O $45.00 QUARTERLY
a $90.00 SEMI-ANNUALLY D $180.00 ANNUALLY
I CAN'T SPONSOR A CHILD. ENCLOSED IS A CONTRIBUTION
0F$-
O PLEASE SEND ME MORE INFORMATION.
_STATE-
-ZIP-
CONTRIBUTIONS ARE INCOME TAX DEDUCTIBLE NH 1/0
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cultivate, for these women must learn
to eat something besides meat. Now
then, I shall have the Queen. My
Headman shall have the Queen's
Headwoman, and the rest of my
men will take the remaining ladies."
And so it was that men and women
came to live together. They began to
change their eating habits. Since the
dogs had been lost, the women re-
fused to eat any meat from a wild
animal. They chose to eat the obwita
and enumbu, and learned to eat cow's
meat and some fish. It was not long
before the Queen's stomach became
swollen, and many other women
found themselves in the same condi-
tion. But ever since the women had
left their own country, they felt like
strangers in this new country. Even
after they had children you could
hear them say, Oniwana ica bandi,
"the child of another," or Owabo
bandi, "I live in the country of an-
other." And when a man and his
woman were quarreling, you might
hear the man yell, "Let me kill you,
you dog." And the woman could be
heard to cry, "But where shall I
run?"
It also happened that illnesses,
Luiceti Kitereza, a man now
seventy-four years old, lives on
Ukerewe Island, which is located in
the southeast portion of Lake
Victoria, Tanzania. The home of
Kitereza and his wife, Anna, is a
lonely one. None of their four chil-
dren lived beyond the age of two.
According to the traditions of their
people, the Kerebe, they are poor
indeed, for there is no one to help
them cultivate, and even more im-
death, and evil doings started to in-
crease after the women came to live
with the men. For the women began
to consult the abafumu, "medicine
man," to obtain love making potions.
Sometimes the abafumu would give
them poisonous medicine that caused
the men's stomachs to swell. And
when the men would go to the aba-
fumu to find out who had done this
thing, they were told it was the
women's doings. And so from those
days until now, many women became
abalogi, "sorcerers."' looking for
j medicines and always talking vvitch-
1 craft wherever the) would meet.
This is how men came to live with
i women and how men came to con-
sider them unusual people. You
might hear a man in anger say to his
, wife. "You were brought here by the
dogs, who is your relative here?" So
to this day, when a woman is mar-
ried, people say, Owabo bandi, "you
go to the country of another": and
' when children are born you hear,
Omicana wa bandi, "the child of an-
other." Thus, no woman will rule
again; she will die without taming
her own animals and all things she
may acquire will not be her own.
portantly, there is no one to care for
them in their old age.
Nonetheless, Anna continues to
work in their rice, potato, and cassava
shamba, and although Kitereza is
badly crippled with rheumatism, he
helps her when he is able. During
his enforced hours at home, however,
he is far from idle. In a part of the
world where tradition has been
slower to lose its foothold than in
those areas of Africa more influenced
by the West, this man has been pre-
serving his peoples' customs in writ-
ing. Twenty-five years ago, he began
collecting folk tales and proverbs,
and writing stories that incorporate
the ways and beliefs of the Kerebe.
His early education began at
Kagunguli, a Catholic primary
school on Ukerewe. After five years
he was sent by the church to Bukoba,
a port on the western shore of Lake
Victoria, where he attended a semi-
nary aflministered by While Fathers.
His teachers were French, German,
and Dutch, and for ten years ( 1909-
19 1 he studied under their tutelage.
Always fascinated by languages, he
showed a proclivity for Latin, Ger-
man, and Swahili. With the appear-
This Foi^otten Islands adventure
is not for everybody. HappUy.
There are Edens in the Indian Ocean. We call them the Forgotten
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their equatorial sea birds, and their leaning palms are blessed by the
absence of civilization. That is why we say that they are not for every-
body. But to explore them in quiet leisure might just be for you.
Our 2.300 ton ship was expressly designed to combine the sophis-
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vessel. All accommodations are air-conditioned, each cabin has its
own private shower and toilet, and the ship has a Lido Deck, swim-
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Nest to give you an unrestricted view, and an auditorium for briefings
by world-famous naturalists on the wildlife of each island.
You'll fly by the world's most advanced jet— the BOAC WC 10 —
from New York to Nairobi by way of London. Here our Safari vehi-
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Forgotten Islands.
The inclusive price of this three-week explorer-cruise from New
York starts at $1,614.00*. There are departures every other Satur-
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My Travel Agent is_
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gers.) Air supplement during certain peat; periods required.
SEYCHELLES
10
ance of British administrators fol-
lowing the First World War, he
started to teach himself English, us-
ing a German dictionary.
He returned to Ukere^ve at the age
of twenty-three to take a teaching po-
sition at the same primary school he
had attended. However, his salary
was so meager that he soon sought
other employment. He clerked for an
Italian merchant in Mwanza, the
port closest to the mainland, until
the outbreak of World War II when
his employer returned to Italy.
Kitereza then obtained a position
with Father Simard, a Canadian
priest, at the Kagunguli mission. It
was during the years 1939 to 1944
that he was first encouraged and
stimulated to write. Kitereza and
Simard collaborated in the collection
of folk tales and proverbs. Simard
also suggested that Kitereza begin to
write down the customs of the
Kerebe. Little encouragement was
needed, as Kitereza was now old
enough to have seen considerable
change on Ukerewe, and he felt
strongly that the earlier traditions
should be preserved.
His first rendition was so dry and
academic that he turned to the novel
form. Simard felt the result was a
'"find." and promising to translate it
into French, he took the novel with
him on leave to Canada. However,
when he returned to Ukerewe, he
told Kitereza that he had not found
time to do it. Before his next leave,
he once again promised that he
would translate the novel. But
Simard never returned to Ukerewe;
he died in 1952.
Fortunately, the novel had been
typed, and there were two more
copies. Kitereza's name was now
familiar to many as a collector of
Kerebe literature. Inevitably, many
strangers came to his door either to
talk with him or to review his mate-
rial. One such person, after seeing
the novel, indicated an interest in
seeing it published. And so the sec-
ond copy vanished. As Kitereza aptly
puts it from his own experience: "We
now have a proverb that says: 'When
the Europeans came they treated us
like monkeys,' which is to say, they
took everything from us that they
wanted."
The last copy of the novel was in
the hands of another White Father in
the area. He finally relinquished it
this year when he felt convinced that
a promise of publication would be
fulfilled. Kitereza is now in the labo-
rious process of translating 300 type-
written, single-spaced pages of
Kikerebe into Swahili, and the East
African Literature Bureau has de-
cided to publish the novel.
"How Women Came to Live with
Men" is an excerpt from the novel.
It is a story told to the main charac-
ters, a young couple, in the same
manner that folk tales and proverbs
were related in Kerebe society. In
the evening, when the family would
gather around the fire, proverbs and
folk tales were told with the specific
intention of teaching the young, for
each story had its moral. Sometimes
the proverbs were used by the parents
as a competitive device between chil-
dren—who knows more? Or for var-
iation, music was interpolated during
the narration of some tales. Always,
the specific intent was to instruct
children in the mores and beliefs of
their society. Unfortunately, this cus-
tom is quickly fading, one of the
casualties of progress.
Thus, this short story is related
to the young couple to tell them "how
women came to live with men." Al-
though Kitereza declares this excerpt
to be mostly from his imagination,
it is couched in what he knows — the
island and his people's past. Every-
day life is the pervading theme of
the excerpt, as it is of the novel, and
the reader is given a brief glimpse
into aspects of earlier Kerebe cul-
ture: the relation of men to women,
the importance of children, eating
customs, the role of the Chief, and
attitudes towards death and disease.
Kitereza's setting for this story has
a historical basis. He describes the
"men's country" as being overrun
with wild animals that destroyed
crops. Until a generation ago, por-
tions of Ukerewe were covered
with dense growth where wildlife
abounded. Hunting w as an important
activity, and the accompaniment of
musical instruments is borne out in
oral tradition. In fact, hunting has
proved to be a key in tracing the
early role of music. Today, there are
70,000 people on Ukerewe and the
island has been cleared of its dense
growth for cultivation. Although
most of the animals have been killed,
the "taboo" of eating wild game re-
mains, except for the varieties of
antelope. Kitereza exercised his pre-
rogative as an author in stating that
cassava was a traditional staple— the
staple was, in fact, millet. Cassava
has become important only in the
twentieth century.
The relationship of men to women
is at the center of this short narrative.
Although Kerebe society is patri-
lineal, oral tradition records a time
when a few" matrilineal clans were on
the island. That a w oman leaves "her
country," which may be only five
miles from home, when she marries
is indeed true, even today. The hus-
band is the head of the household: he
owns everything. The woman's role
is certainly a subservient one. None-
theless, she wields considerable in-
fluence because of her capacity for
work and her ability to bear children.
The references to sorcery and witch-
craft underline the "unusual" quality
attributed to women, who are ac-
cused of sorcery more frequently
than are men. Kitereza hastens to
say, however, that one should never
call a woman a dog (as recorded in
this story ) , for a dog is truly the
lowliest of God's creatures. One must
treat a woman with respect— after all,
she bears the children.
Completely unaffected by post-
World War II influences, Kitereza
does not write in the genre of most
other contemporary African writers.
He is not seeking identification; he
fights no battles, voices no protest.
His writing is simple, unsophisti-
cated, objective. His goal is to pre-
serve tradition before it is erased by
time. His intended audience— the
Kerebe.
Kitereza's writing and collections
also provide another folkloristic
source for writers in future creative
endeavors. Furthermore, because he
writes in the indigenous language,
Kikerebe, his work will undoubtedly
be of interest to African linguistic
scholars. For Kikerebe has changed
even more rapidly than the recorded
customs. The language is no longer
spoken except by the elders. Not
only has Kitereza preserved an oral
tradition for his own people, he has
also provided the rest of the world
with a valuable addition to the ac-
cumulating wealth of African folk-
lore. Perhaps Kitereza's endeavors
in traditional literature are best
understood in his own words:
"Words that are spoken fly with the
wind, but words that are written live
forever.''
Gerald and Charlotte Hartwig
This summer re-live history
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J
21
A l^aturalist at Large
The Islawud Earth
hy Margaret NIead
In 1940 Edna St. Vincent Milky
wrote a poem called "There Are No
Islands, Any More," which moved
those who were involved in World
War II very deeply. The theme, that
nowhere on this planet could man
flee from man and be safe, that war
and its aftermath reached to the most
remote islands, tugged at the imagi-
nation of those of us who were liv-
ing through the most widespread war
in history, a w ar that culminated in
the horrors of Hiroshima. People
stopped talking about finding them-
selves an island where life could be
lived out in peace with nature, and
those who were fond of quoting
added, from Donne, "No man is an
island, entire of itself. . . ." Islands
as a daydream of escape went out,
and casual acquaintances stopped
asking to be taken along on my field
trips. When islands were mentioned,
it was their vulnerabilities that were
spoken of: population growth in
Mauritius and Samoa; Japan's
awareness of the need for popula-
tion control ; the devastating volcanic
eruption in Bali that destroyed a
third of the arable land; the unwill-
ingness of Java's population to leave
their crowded island for a less
crowded one. The emphasis con-
tinued to be on the theme, "no place
to go. no hiding place down here."
Islands pointed out the intercon-
nectedness of men on earth and their
mutual vulnerability to each others'
homicidal and genocidal aims.
The emergence of Indonesia as a
new nation— the fifth largest in the
world— was all the more striking be-
cause this is a nation made up of
80 million people living on 3,000 is-
lands, and people raised their eye-
brows when Indonesia tried to extend
the limits of sovereignty to include
the inland waterways of her watery
empire. Buckminster Fuller designed
a map— a diomaxion map— which
showed the continents of the earth as
an interconnected land mass. Islands
were definitely out. a handicap in
some way or other to full-scale con-
tinental living.
Then came NASA and the moon
program, and finally the first breath-
taking photographs of the earth from
the moon. Mankind joined the astro-
nauts in their willowy, eerie, un-
weighted walks on the moon and saw
the earth in all its isolated diversity.
Earth became an island in space.
The earth seen from the moon was a
whole in a new sense, no longer
simulated by a globe, but seen w hole.
Scientist fathers conversing with
their small sons found themselves
confused because they were still
earthbound looking toward the
moon, while the children were on the
moon looking back toward earth.
Besides these major transforming
events — the sense of political and
military vulnerability that grew up
after World War II, and the specific
change in perspective that has grown
with the space program as the earth
has become planet Earth— something
else has been happening. Men every-
where are becoming conscious that
this planet, like any small island, is
interconnected in ways other than
war and rumors of war. The spread
of radioactive dust; the long journey
of DDT from someone's rose garden
to the shell-less eggs of unborn birds
and the bones of unborn children;
the new, resistant strains of venereal
disease and malaria, which are rob-
bing us of our recent conquest of
these dangers: the knowledge that
man's activities can alter the tem-
perature of the earth, create storms
of inestimable strength, pollute the
oceans as well as the small lakes and
streams that are dying throughout
the civilized world : all have brought
home to us that the earth is an island.
Interconnected the peoples of the
earth are— vulnerable to each other's
w eapons and no longer able to defend
their frontiers and their children;
vulnerable also to the acts of people
half a world away, as they casually
dump tanks of nuclear by-products
into the sea depths, which no one has
yet properlv explored, or send clouds
of pollution through the air. As
those who love and protect the wil-
derness and try to save a part of it
for man, and as those who see their
main crop destroyed by the by-
products of human intervention in
agriculture or animal husbandry, so
now the whole world is coming to
realize the interconnectedness be-
tween the i\ ay men live and whether
or not their children and their chil-
dren's children will have a habitable
world. Not war, but a plethora of
man-made things— disposable, inde-
structible beer cans; too much in-
dustrial waste in the lakes and
streams, from antibiotics designed to
protect egg-laying fowls to pesticides
designed to protect the orange crop
—is threatening to strangle us, suf-
focate us, bury us in the debris and
by-products of our technologically
inventive and irresponsible age.
Continued on page 102
22
In this little house in England are the roots of America.
In Mayflower "fear^BOAC takes you back.
In this house William Brewster,
William Bradford and the Pastor
Richard Clyfton organized the
Pilgrims and planned their depar-
ture. These historic meetings led to
the Mayflower voyage and the
landing in Plymouth, Massachusetts.
That was 1 620. In the year of the
350th anniversary of the crossing,
BO AC turns things around and takes
you back. Back to Plymouth, Eng-
land to see where it all started.
And BOAC has put together a
unique Mayflower '70 tour for $595
that takes you back, shows you
around and includes air fare, first-
class hotels, sightseeing and most
meals. You'll fly from New York to
London on BOAC's exclusive VC 10
or 707 and see Rotherithe, the place
where the original Mayflower was
actually built. After an on-the-town
evening in London, it's on to South-
ampton where the Pilgrims first sailed
out on the Speedwell, the ship that
proved not seaworthy enough for the
long haul to America. Then, after
brief visits to Winchester, the old cap-
ital of England, ancient and puzzling
Stonehenge, Salisbury, Exeter and
Cornwall, you'll arrive in Plymouth.
Plymouth. Where 350 years ago
a small group of courageous people
set out to find a new life in America. And where their history and spirit is still alive today. Other historical
ships will be on exhibit along with a 1620 model town. There'll be an ancestry tracing service which
might uncover some interesting things about your past. Plus hundreds of local exhibits, contests and
celebrations bringing the past and present together, giving you in 1970 a feeling for what Plymouth,
its people and its countryside was like in 1620.
All of BOAC's tours are making Mayflower Year the perfect time to sec Britain. On our complete
Mayflower Tour for $595. Or on your own with our new low air fare of $260 round trip from New York
for a minimum stay of 22 days. Or try our two-week Show Tour which includes hotels, air fare,
theatre tickets and free rental car for three days. If
you'd like to drive around Britain take BOAC's two-
week Bonanza Tour which includes air fare, hotels
and guest houses and a free rental car. And make your
own excursions to Plymouth and its countryside.
BOAC has 86 flights a week from the U.S. to Britain,
more than any other airline. And we come from
England ourselves. All of these reasons are probably
why BOAC has been named official carrier for
Mayflower '70.
For more information on how BOAC can help
you make your own historic crossing, 1 970-style, call
your Travel Agent or BOAC. Or mail the coupon.
Tours based on 14/21 -day Group Inclusive fares.
' British Overseas Airways Corporation
BoxVC 10, Dept. 151-890
New York, N.Y. 10011 MU 7-1600
I'd like to make an historic crossing in Mayflower Year.
Please send mc more information on:
D Mayflower Tours D Show Tours D Bonanza Tours
D BOAC's New Round-trip Fare
Name
Address
City
Zip
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24
FORMS IN THE SKY
When the causes
of form are
understood,
astronomers can
use analogy to
penetrate the
structure of
stars and planets
by Charles A. Whitney
I am frequently asked how astron-
omers discover so much about the
sky from photographs and measure-
ments of radiation. A full answer
would be complex and would neces-
sarily have to take into account the
large number of techniques that can
be combined in an attack on a given
problem of astronomy. But gener-
ally stated, in the standard approach
to such problems, mathematical
analysis and intuitive synthesis are
employed in an alternating pattern
of induction and deduction.
This approach is well known and
is taught in all scientific institutions.
But there is another approach, argu-
ment by analogy. It has a lengthy
history of scientific application-
stretching back to the time of the
Greeks— but it is not quite as respect-
able as analysis and synthesis. It of-
ten works, but it cannot be trusted
blindly. The scientist gambles when
he employs this technique to make
inferences and extrapolation; he
can be misled unless his analogies
are based on fundamental similari-
ties of the objects being compared.
Most analogies used in astronomy
are based on similarity of physical
26
form, either of the internal structure
or of the apparent shape and pattern
of objects in space. Often these
shapes are only dimly seen. The
astronomer cannot manipulate or
tear apart his specimens, so he re-
gards observed form as crucially im-
portant. Analogies permit the astron-
omer, in his mind's eye, to penetrate
the structure of stars and planets, to
sense the forces that bind the wispy
clouds of interstellar gas, and to scan
the history of the solar system.
But inferences based on physical
form and the technique of analogy
can be trusted only when the various
causes of form are distinguished.
(I use the word in the limited sense
of "immediate" or "proximate"
cause.) Astronomers classify the
causes of form in two ways : On the
one hand, they speak of historical
versus nonhistorical form, and on the
other, statistical versus geometricaL
These categories are not mutually
exclusive; the form an object takes,
for instance, can be governed by
processes that are both historical
and statistical. Let me specify the
distinctions among these causes and
then illustrate them.
■A,
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^'
Statistical form is typified by the
globular star cluster in Hercules,
upper left, a celestial swarm of
"gnats" held in symmetric disarray
by gravity. Another example is the
spiral galaxy in Ursa Major, above,
in which a pattern emerges
from individual motions. The lunar
surface, left, is a clear example
of historical form: action in the
past irreversibly changed what
we see in the present.
27
Types of Formative Process
Historical: Some processes clearly
distinguish the past from the future:
the burning of a match or the rusting
of an iron nail or the descent of a
meteor. These are historical, or ir-
reversible, processes and each, in its
own way, implies the ultimate heat
death of the universe. To alter the
metaphor, these are the processes
that put the tip on the "arrow of
time."
Nonhistorical: Some events are not
tagged with a truly forward or back-
ward direction or chronology. These
occurrences are nonhistorical. and
they do not look peculiar when
viewed in reverse. The bouncing of
a lively ball on a hard surface is one
example, because it simply seems to
be repeating itself (if we do not
watch too long, of course: if we do,
the bouncing is seen to decrease in
height) . Suppose, as another ex-
ample, we make a movie of a ball
thrown into the air. The flight of the
ball will be nearly frictionless. and
if we show the movie backward, the
flight will look perfectly natural.
Such processes are also called rever-
sible, to distinguish them from the
irreversible processes in which fric-
tion works a rapid decay of motion.
In our observable world, friction
is unavoidable— there is no perpet-
ual motion machine. Therefore every
process is, to some degree, irrever-
sible. Only in the world of atoms do
we believe truly reversible events can
occur— atomic collisions or emissions
of light are considered to be pre-
cisely reversible. The irreversibility
of large-scale events is merely a re-
flection of the low probability of cer-
tain types of events that involve a
large number of atoms or stars. If,
for example, all the camels in the
desert were to be placed on one hill,
we would later expect to find them
dispersed. We would be quite sur-
prised if, unguided, they all reap-
peared later at the same oasis. The
larger the number of camels, the
greater would be our surprise.
The motion of the earth about the
sun is virtually frictionless. There
is not sufficient gas in space to im-
pede our planet by a perceptible
amount, so the orbital motion is
termed reversible. If we made a
movie of the solar system and re-
corded the circlings of all the planets
and their satellites, a visitor from
another star would not know whether
we were showing him the movie
reversed or forward. He could not
develop a sense of history from such
a film.
But the distinction between his-
torical and nonhistorical processes
can be difficult to specify. In the case
of the bouncing ball, the impression
we obtain depends on the precision
of our measurements and on the
patience with which we await the
decay of the bouncing. More im-
portant than this uncertainty in de-
fining reversibility is the fact that
the nature of the process can change
with the passage of time.
Again, the solar system provides
the best example because the present
flat arrangement of the planets com-
pels us to believe that the solar sys-
tem must have behaved quite differ-
ently in the distant past. Chance
alone cannot explain the present
coplanar alignment of the planets,
nor are there any forces now at work
that could throw the planets into such
a precise arrangement.
In slightly different terms, the
solar system is now in a nonhistorical
state: it appears "constant" to us.
It does not distinguish the past from
the future. Yet if we seek to explain
its entry into its present condition,
we must assume the action of histori-
cal processes in the past. (In much
the same way, our reaction to seeing
a ball roll across the floor is to
imagine that someone introduced a
historical element by pushing the
ball.) For this reason. Laplace de-
veloped his celebrated hypothesis,
according to which the planets con-
densed from the envelope of a swirl-
ing nebula.
Statistical: A swarm of gnats or a
cluster of stars is roughly spherical
because its members pursue a ran-
dom pattern of orbits about a vacant
center of collective attraction. The
distant view of either object reveals
only the smoothed-out sum of the
orbits— a spherical smudge.
If we say that each orbital flight
of a gnat or a star is an event, we
might characterize the smudge as
oOc
"vn.
IV.
D
o
VI.
vnr.
Early drawings of Saturn,
above, show the earlike
appendages detected by the
first users of telescopes.
Argiunent by analogy, later
confirmed by improved
telescopes, held that the
appendages had to be the now
familiar rings, as in
photograph at right.
the result of apparent equilibrium
among a multitude of scattered and
random events.
Geometrical: Some forms result from
a static equilibrium— an equilibrium
of tension between forces rather than
events. For example, the shape of a
salt crystal or of a snowflake reflects
the configuration of molecules nes-
tling quietly, and almost statically,
together. Similarly, the shape of a
planet or of a drop of rain water
results from the symmetrizing forces
of gravity and surface tension.
Astronomical Forms
The illustrations in this article
show the variety of astronomical
forms.
The globular cluster in Hercules
(page 26) is probably the purest ex-
ample of statistical form. In addition,
its internal processes are reversible
because its stars, although crowded
in the photograph, are actually so far
apart they never collide. They inter-
act only by the gentle hands of
gravity.
The spiral galaxy in Ursa Major
(page 27 \ is also an example of
statistical form. It is composed of
stars and gas, and the orbits are
arranged in a flattened pattern, so
the galaxy appears to swirl about its
center of attraction.
The precise origin of the "arms"
of the spiral pattern is still debated.
Although the arms are certainly the
result of gravity, it is not clear
whether they are the result of rever-
sible or irreversible processes. In one
view, they are the residue of clumps
of stars, stretched out by the rota-
tional motion of the galaxy— not un-
like the streaming of cream in a cup
of spinning coffee. In another view,
they represent "standing waves," or
gravitationally produced condensa-
tions of stars, resembling clusters of
automobiles at busy intersections.
The pattern of craters on the lunar
surface ( page 27 1 is obviously a case
of historical form. On the other hand,
the flattened shape of Jupiter ( page
30 ) is a geometrical form resulting
from reversible processes. It is pro-
duced by the centrifugal force of
rotation in competition with the cen-
tripetal force of gravity.
Also deserving comment are the
planetary nebulae, so named for their
appearance in a modest telescope.
A nebula is shown on page 31.
These nebulae are celestial neon signs
-their tenuous gas is excited to glow
by a hot star. Their shape is deter-
mined by a statistical process: the
outward spreading and depletion of
light from the central star. All the
energy emitted by this type of nebula
originates in the atmosphere of a
single, very hot. but quite faint, star.
In many random collisions of light
photons with gas molecules, the
nebula converts the star light to
radiation of a different color.
Saturn's Rings
and the Use of Analogy
One of the finest early examples
of the power of argument by analogy
and inference from form is Christian
Huygens' discovery of the rings of
Saturn. In 1609 Galileo detected
lobes or earlike appendages attached
to the disk of Saturn ( page 29 ) . As
the planet moved around the sun,
these lobes narrowed and briefly dis-
appeared, but they remained unex-
plained for almost 50 years until
Huvgens re-examined Saturn. He im-
mediately announced that these ap-
pendages were rings around the
planet.
Huygens' argument was the fol-
lowing. The moons of Saturn were
known to revolve about that planet
with periods between several days
and many weeks, and their motion
obeyed quite accurately the known
laws of planetary motion. As Saturn,
its moons, and its '"appendages"' are
all part of the same system, and prob-
ably had a common origin. Huygens
argued that they must all obey the
same law of rotation. The append-
ages must therefore rotate in only
a few hours. But, and this is the
critical step in the formal argument,
the appendages do not appear to
vary visually in a pwriod of hours,
so they must possess a form that
would appear unchanged during ro-
tation. Only a ring fits these criteria,
Huvgens reasoned. No doubt. Huy-
gens' acuity is partlv explained by
his greatly improved telescope, but
his insight and his sight had been
sharpened by a theoretical argument
employing an analogous model. His
achievement is a fine example of a
theory calling forth a new definition
of the "facts."
I have emphasized the sources of
form because tliese sources must also
be understood before analogy can
be applied to scientific analysis. Let
me conclude by commenting on the
role of analogy in the development
of science.
\^Tien true genius is lacking, scien-
tists progress by applying old ideas
to new problems. \^ hen a genius ap-
pears on the scene, he produces a
revolution bv breaking out of the
old modes of thought and by apply-
ing new ideas to old problems. Es-
sential to both the plodder and the
revolutionary is the transfer of ideas
from one context to another, and
analogy provides a powerful tool for
effecting this transfer. Mathematical
analysis, itself, should be viewed as
a form of analogous reasoning, be-
cause the behavior of solutions of
equations is compared to the ob-
served behavior of physical objects.
The scientist uses analogies to
stimulate his intuition. He is guided
by form, and he recognizes tliat one
prerequisite of good science is the
ability to distinguish fundamental
and fruitful analogies from those
that are accidental and purely super-
ficial.
Jupiter's slightly flattened
shape, left, is an example
of geometrical form.
The shape represents
equilibrium between the
centrifugal force of rapid
rotation and the pulling
force of gravity; it says
nothing about the past.
The planetary nebula
in Aquarius, right, is
statistical form, the result
of apparent equilibrium
among many random collisions
of photons from a central
star Avath molecules in
an expanding envelope of gas.
The glow from the collisions
shows the outward spreading
and depletion of light.
30
f
i^iJl^',
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In summer, St. Paul Island.
one of the Pribilof Islands
in the Bering Sea, is the
breeding ground for two-thirds
of the world's northern fur
seals. The federally run island
is the home of 400 Aleuts,
who live in federally owned
housing and are employed by
the U. S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries to annually kill
forty to eighty thousand
yoimg male seals whose pelts
are sold to fiurriers. Mature
males and their harem
females are not harvested,
and their breeding continues
without interruption.
Females give birth on the
island and mate again while
suckling their newborn pups.
In October and November,
seals leave the island for
their winter ranges farther
south in the Pacific.
32
)EAL HAREMS
NTHEPRIBILOFS
Richard K. Mathews
doesn't take long for a visitor to
St. Paul village in Alaska's Pribi-
slands to realize that the northern
seal, Callorhinus ursinus, is the
ic fact of life. Pulling up to the
llow-water dock, the sputter of the
outboard is instantly replaced by the
deep, resonant cattle yard sound of
nearby seal rookeries. And as soon
as the gasoline fumes clear, the acrid,
musky scent of massed seals pervades
the air. Walking up to the village, the
islander who welcomed you ashore
points out the most imposing struc-
tures: In the long shed on the left, he
explains, seal skins are processed and
stored, and in the big. gloomy corru-
gated metal building in the distance,
the carcasses are ground into mink
food. The vehicle rumbling out over
the tundra is not a dump truck, but
a carcass truck, the one into which
he himself will be pitching bodies
when the sealing season opens in late
^A'i ^1--
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w^
;^>^^
f *• •
Above, a mature bull
(foreground) will often
attack females that stray
from his harem, inflicting
wounds and driving
them back into his
territory. Copulation.
right, takes place five
days after the cows
have given hirth. The
polygamous bull is able
to mate with several
females in a single day.
O
^
i^-'i^
June. He is a baseball fan, like most
residents of St. Paul, and on coming
to the playing field, he ends your
guided tour with an invitation to
watch his team trounce the "Blub-
berers" later in the afternoon.
From the playing field the neat
white houses of the village proper are
visible; they are so uniform and laid
out in such monotonous rows that
one immediately suspects that the
government is somehow involved.
Later queries reveal this to be the
case: not only did the federal govern-
ment plan them, it also built them and
owns them, as it owns just about
everything else on the island, and all
because of the seals, also government
owned and the sole reason for its
presence here.
The place to get acquainted with
people in St. Paul is the little com-
munity-owned tavern past the post
office. Cans of Country Club malt
liquor, which sometimes seems to
have replaced seal meat as the staple
of the islanders' diet, are passed
around, and introductions made to
Porfiry Stepetin, Maxim Emanoff,
Nectary Galaktionoff. and others who
tell you they work as "clubbers,"
"pod cutters," "stickers," "rippers,"
and at other ominous-sounding jobs;
they are all government employees,
all sealers. The town's economy is the
seal, and what little money doesn't
come from regular wages earned in
its harvest comes from a few small
sideline enterprises, such as that of
Alexander Melovidov who sells dried
seal penises at 50^ each to an aphro-
disiac maker and exporter in Brook-
lyn. New York.
Not only the incomes of the island-
ers, but their Russian names and that
they are living on the Pribilofs at all
is strictly contingent upon the seal.
In 1786 when the Russians discov-
ered the uninhabited islands they co-
erced Russified Aleuts to settle there
and do their sealing for them. One
result is that today, St. Paul village,
although it has only 400-odd inhabi-
tants, is the largest community of the
vanishing race left on earth: a town
of dark, often handsome men and
women who still speak their native
language and pray to God in it when
Father Lestenkof holds services in
his yellow Russian Orthodox church.
St. Paul is the summer home of
BERING SEA
PRIBILOF
ISLANDS St. Paul
^.=£>"-
two-thirds of the world's population
of northern fur seals and the only
land on which most of these animals
ever come ashore. Of these 1.200.000
seals, each year 40,000 to 80.000 are
killed for their pelts, which the U.S.
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries auc-
tions off to furriers for nearly -$100
each. This harvest consists entirely of
immature males, mostly three- and
four-year-olds, and since these ani-
mals do not enter the breeding rook-
eries of adult seals, rounding them
up does not interfere with the activi-
ties of the latter. So on the one hand,
the island is the scene of the seal har-
vest, performed by Aleuts wielding
five-foot ash clubs, and on the other,
it provides a spectacle of massed,
nearly unmolested wildlife on the
nearby breeding ground.
There are eight sharply defined
sections of St. Paul's shoreline where
all the breeding seals congregate. One
of them. Zapadni. is a rocky crescent
of beach facing a little bay. It is about
six miles from St. Paul. The land-
scape along the way is typical of the
island as a whole: gently rolling hills
and broad valleys, all lava-built and
quite young. The early summer
weather is also typical of the area: a
fine, ceaseless drizzle with fogbanks
pressing in from the Bering Sea. The
low summer temperatures (48° F. is
average) and the nearly continuous
overcast (22 clear days a year, mostly
in winter) are doubtless attractive to
the well-insulated fur seals, but these
weather conditions combine to pre-
vent the growth of trees— or any other
woody plants bigger than pencil-thin
willows — on the tundra surface. By
June 25 the bleakness is softened by
lush grasses interspersed with vari-
ous saxifrages and bright dwarf but-
tercups, whole acres of deep-blue
lupines stretch away up the gentle
slopes, and the road to Zapadni is
bordered with neat yellow rows of
colonizing Arctic poppies.
Zapadni rookery is about tw o miles
long and extends from thirty to over
three hundred feet in from the nearly
tideless water of English Bay. The
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries cen-
sus takers have constructed several
wooden counting platforms, which
extend into the midst of the rookery.
These are excellent vantage points.
Far up the shoreline one sees a
swath of indistinct hazy motion, of
shifting, wriggling forms emerging
from the fog. Closer to the platforms
the swath resolves itself into the hulk-
ing, triangular shapes of grav-brown
bulls and smaller mouse-colored fe-
males. More than a dozen of these
females cluster around each bull on
the shoreline, and each cluster bor-
ders directly on a neighboring one.
But twenty or thirty feet back from
shore there are only bulls, spaced
evenlv over the rocky terrain— some
stretched out asleep, others turning
their heads from side to side as they
broadca.st a deep loud roar at the
human intruder, others cooling them-
selves bv rhvthmically \vaving their
hind flippers back and forth. How
manv seals are visible? The census
lakers must be remarkable men, for
there are so many young, old. female,
and male seals doing so much shov-
35
The harem bull guards
his cows zealously
against any intruder.
Here, a male directs his
deep roar toward an
approaching photographer.
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ing, writhing, charging, nursing.
copulating, blatting, snorting, fight-
ing, and hissing in so small an area
that the amateur is forced to put his
estimate at anywhere from three
thousand to three hundred thousand.
The scene becomes less bewilder-
ing if one focuses on a single nearby
individual— such as the bull about
twenty feet away. He is surrounded
by twenty-three females and eight
pups, one of which is dead and lies
rotting in a crevice. The surround-
ing rocks, smoothed by past genera-
tions, are smeared by the blood, am-
niotic fluid, and feces of the present
one. On the highest rock the bull naps
on his belly. He is not large as bulls
go— perhaps four hundred pounds—
but he weighs four or five times more
than any of his cows. His dense coat
is a deep brown, except for the griz-
zled mane that reaches from forehead
to midback. His expressive brown
eyes have been watering, and his
cheeks are streaked parallel to his
long drooping whiskers. His partly
open mouth reveals four long white
canine teeth.
He does not really sleep. Every
minute or two he shifts position
36
slightly and raises his head to look
around. Now and then he rhythmi-
cally waves one hind flipper up and
dow n a few times. He is cooling him-
self, for although it is still drizzling
and not over 55 degrees, he is insu-
lated by one of the densest furs
know n ; the only effective way he can
lose excess body heat is by exposing
his naked and highly vascular flip-
pers to moving air.
A sudden noise, unheard by the
human observer, startles the bull. He
hunches himself up into an erect po-
sition and emits a clicking sound. He
focuses on a neighbor approaching
what is apparently the boundary line
between their contiguous domains.
Immediately, as his pups and females
flee in all directions, he rushes tow ard
the other bull. The latter turns to face
him, and the tw o charge to within two
feet of each other. With heads pressed
downward, backs arched, and manes
bristling they lunge toward each
other's front flippers. Their forward
motion ceases abruptly just short of
contact, and instead of bites they
exchange a breathy sequence of chug,
chug, chug sounds, like a stalling
one-cylinder gas motor. Now they
raise their heads and look aslant at
each other, necks zigzagging to and
fro as though feinting or attempting
to throw each other off balance. Then
both suddenly break off the ritual and
return toward the centers of their
territories.
When the bull near the platform
charged, some of his cows, moved to
what seemed to be another section of
his territorial boundary: now, click-
ing and growling, he begins to circle
them. The cows greet his patrol by
craning their heads upward and try-
ing to grab his muzzle or neck in their
teeth. The bull herds them deeper into
his territory by shoving and nipping
until he comes to one that has appar-
ently strayed beyond his boundary.
He rushes after her. clamps his jaws
on her shoulders and half carries,
half hurls her back. The marks his
canines make are visible on her fur.
Having twice circled his territorial
bounds, the bull again drapes his
bulk over his customary resting rock.
He breathes heavily and fans both
rear flippers vigorously this time— it
was a two-flipper exertion. As he re-
news his restless vigil, his cows snap
and hiss at each other.
Breeding bull fur seals are as ac-
tive at night as in the daytime, and
if this once in Zapadni typifies those
studied on nearby rookeries, he has
reached the third week of the six- to
eight-week period that he will guard
his territory. From the time he first
establishes it until he abandons it in
late July or early August, he will eat
nothing nor will he leave his post for
more than a total of a few hours, if at
all; during all this time he will exert
himself strongly in fighting, patrol-
ling, and copulating. As we shall see,
his ability to stay on shore so long,
which depends in turn on his ability
to store large amounts of fat, is es-
sential to the complex and rigid so-
cial organization of his species. The
bulls are thought to spend most of
the winter in the rich waters off the
Aleutians and in the Gulf of Alaska
where they feed heavily on squid,
herring, capelin, and other small fish.
When they return to haul out on the
Pribilofs, beginning in late April, the
vast masses of their blubbery bodies
ripple like jelly, the skin is stretched
too tight for wrinkles, and exception-
ally heavy fat deposits pad their
shoulders. In short, they are very well
prepared for the long fast to come.
When they migrate north, the bulls
not only locate the small, foggy
Pribilofs, but proceed to the precise
two or three hundred square feet of
rock they occupied the previous year
and where, in most cases, they were
born. As they approach the rookeries
they linger just offshore for a few
days, resting and grooming them-
selves. They are fairly sociable at this
time and are often seen in small
groups. But by the end of May, a
dramatic change has occurred. Every
bull that has arrived has landed and
has either established or is attempt-
ing to establish a territory. Hostility
and violence prevail.
Unless a bull is the first arrival at
a particular section of rookery, he
will find that bulls already there have
each claimed very large areas, most
likely including his territory of the
year before. As the would-be occu-
pant swims in to land, he is warned
off by the loud, prolonged roars of
those present. He is not persistent in
his first attempts, however, and re-
treats. Staying close by, he may haul
up on an offshore rock and scratch
himself with his hind flippers (fur
seals have a flea all their own I , or
rest. But in an hour or two he is back,
and every time he challenges the oc-
cupants, he does so with greater
aggressiveness. After four or five
days and twenty or thirty attempts,
the bull usually succeeds.
He approaches the shore stealth-
ily— lying low in the water, avoiding
noise and splashing— and then hauls
out at a spot where the terrain is
particularly advantageous to his ad-
vance. Despite his stealth, he is
quickly noticed by resident bulls who
immediately set up a chorus of
threatening roars, a reaction that,
incidentally, is the only example of
coordinated social activity among
bulls. But this time the challenger
lowers his head and plunges blindly
toward his former territory. Every
bull through whose domain he passes
attempts to attack him. but he lunges
on until blocked or held. A dramatic
batde then ensues in which the com-
batants bite viciously at each other,
shoving and roaring. Within seconds,
however, fighting assumes a formal
pattern, with two bulls facing each
other. Chest to chest they shove, feint
with head and neck, and bite in
rapid succession. When each has a
jaw grip on the other, both suddenly
freeze for a long interval to catch
their breath. If the invader gets free
of one defender, he soon finds him-
self battling another in the next terri-
tory, and sometimes, when he is at
the corner of three different territor-
ies, he will be confronted by three
opponents at once.
These combats seldom result in
death, but foreflippers, a favorite
target, are often torn. Also, skin
elsewhere may be ripped, canine
teeth broken, eyes gouged. The black
rocks of the rookery are now crimson
in places, and a human observer can
identify many individual bulls by the
shapes of the pink gashes in their
deep brown fur.
If the challenger is successful he
will have to be content with a small
piece of ground at first, in some cases
hardly enough to turn around on. He
must meet repeated threats and at-
tacks by the bull or bulls from whom
he appropriated his territory, and at
whose expense he now tries to extend
his boundaries toward an average
size of about 350 square feet. After a
week or so, however, he is "accepted"
by his neighbors; that is, he can now
defend his territory mostly by threats
rather than actual fighting. His
boundaries have stabilized consider-
ably, and are precisely demarcated,
although whether by scent or be-
havior is not certain.
Territorial aggressiveness varies
considerably from individual to in-
dividual. An extreme case is de-
scribed by Karl Kenyon, an author-
ity on marine mammals of Alaska:
"Bull #8 frequently and energetical!)
patrolled his territory, challenged
neighboring bulls to bluffing bouts,
and often provoked them to biting
skirmishes that filled the air with bits
of fur. He expanded his territory
boundaries to a diameter approxi-
mately 20 by 25 meters and on sev-
eral occasions pursued idle bulls and
harem intruders for nearly 30 meters
beyond these boundaries. When,
during the course of spraying ojiera-
tions I to mark bulls with |)aint for
identification], an attempt was made
to drive a truck into his territory, he
charged it vigorously and succeeded
in blocking it from his area."
37
After a bull establishes his terri-
tory he usually guards it as did the
Zapadni bull described earlier—
mainly with vocal threats, frequent
patrolling, and ritual lunging. The
Zapadni bull had twenty-three fe-
males clustered in his territory on
June 25. Already other members of
his harem had undoubtedly returned
to feed at sea, but the mass arrival
of more females that annually occurs
in the next ten days would probably
assure him of additional recruits.
Although twenty -three is a little
above the Pribilof average some bulls
have maintained harems in which a
hundred females have been counted.
Indeed, there is no other mammal
species in which polygamy is more
extreme. Nor is there any in which
the male's weight is so large in pro-
portion to the female's weight. The
initial arrival of the females at the
rookeries gives a clue as to how these
two extremes are related and the
bearing that they apparently have on
male territoriality.
The female, like the bull, has a
strong homing instinct that causes
her to return and bear her young at
the same rookery year after year. In
choosing a spot to land she is gov-
erned by this instinct, not by prefer-
ence for the bull who happens to rule
there. On seeing her. this bull rushes
down to cut off her escape. Then,
being so much larger, he easily moves
her toward the center of his terri-
tory; usually by pushing, sometimes
by picking her up bodily in his jaws.
He then patrols around her, emitting
a rasping chirp that apparentlv in-
forms her of territorial boundaries
that must not be transgressed. De-
termined females can, and frequently
do, escape from a given bull. Gener-
ally, however, a female's passivity,
coupled with the male's aggressive
possessiveness, results in her settling
down with the first harem she meets—
unless it becomes so crowded that the
bull can no longer effectively domi-
nate the situation. Because females
land on the sea side of the rookeries,
the shore harems fill up before inland
ones form. It is perhaps significant
that aggressive bulls sometimes de-
fend large territories that, for reasons
of location or terrain, are not well
supplied with females. Indeed it ap-
pears that bulls in general do not
select territories on the basis of sex-
ual potential any more than females
select landing sites on the basis of
their male occupants.
Except for the one or two days
when she is in heat, the female's re-
action to the harem bull is marked
by frequent hissing, nipping, and
attempts at avoidance. The bull for
his part is extremely possessive to-
ward his cows and sometimes quite
violent with them. On occasion two
bulls will clamp their jaws onto a dis-
puted female at the same time anc
engage in a tug-of-war that coulo
have lethal results. In addition, the
females show hostility among them-
selves. Indeed, after observing a seal
rookery, where all is contention, sex,
and property, one is prompted to the
unscientific reflection that humans—
although they ravage each other and
their environment — don't live so
nastily after all.
The females in the Zapadni bull's
harem had produced eight pups by
June 25: wide-eyed, jet-black little
creatures resembling Labrador pups,
except for the flippers with which
thev stumbled awkwardly over the
rocks. In all probabilitv none of their
mothers were even at the rookerv ten
days before, and just as probably,
some were already pregnant again.
This remarkable telescoping of re-
productive events results in the
females landing, giving birth, copu-
lating, and nursing— all within an
average of only six days. Further-
more, the timing is such that females
migrate northward from as far afield
as the coasts of Japan and California,
yet give birth on an average of only
twenty-one hours after hauling
ashore. Evidently they do not make
major navigational errors, which
would delay their arrival. Nor do
they arrive too soon. There is no
evidence that thev congregate around
the Pribilofs, awaiting the right mo-
merit to come ashore (as salmon
linger in an estuary before proceed-
ing upriver to their spawning
grounds) .
Neither the internal clock nor the
com|iass that makes the female seal's
feat possible is understood, but we
can speculate on their evolutionary
advantages to the species. Birth, the
lirst reproductive task accomplished
after landing, is concentrated into
that period of late June and early
July when Pribilof temperatures are
approaching their maximum. If birth
occurred earlier, chances of survival
would be severely limited because the
pups are not adequately insulated
against freezing temperatures. If, on
the other hand, birth occurred much
later, the pups would lack enough
time to develop and acquire adult
pelage before weaning and winter
forced them out to sea.
The first females arrive about
June 15— just about the time that ter-
ritories have become fixed and the
chaotic violence of the bulls has
shaded into the ritualized stability
that would seem important to suc-
cessful mating and pup survival.
Every year in which studies have
been made, the peak date of female
arrivals has been July .5 or 6. This is
just about the midpoint between the
beginning of territorial stability and
territorial abandonment by the bulls.
In the timing and duration of this
eut natives harvest
mature male seals,
als are killed and
nned, and carcasses
; then taken to
ocal plant to be
jund into mink food.
period, social factors may be closely
linked with climatic ones. On land,
seals show obvious signs of discom-
fort whenever the temperature goes
above 55 degrees, and the bulls are
not adapted to remaining ashore for
long periods in August when temper-
atures frequently climb above this.
Polygamy combined with terri-
torialism is a marked trait in other
species of Otariidae, such as the
southern fur seal and the sea lion,
and indeed of many aquatic carniv-
orous mammals. Yet the northern fur
seal has carried it to an extreme. The
evolutionary "logic" here is not at
all evident. However, it is a fact that
the harem bull does impregnate a
large percentage of his cows, so in
this respect the system is at least rea-
sonably efficient. The maintenance of
polygamous territories probably has
an important selective effect upon the
seals. Many sexually mature bulls on
the islands do not maintain terri-
tories; those that do have perforce
demonstrated their physical and be-
havioral fitness.
The harem female copulates with
the bull usually on the fifth day after
giving birth. Then, and only then,
the antagonism and fear she nor-
mally shows toward her mate disap-
pears. Bulls inspect their harems
frequently for the bright red vulvar
swelling and the receptivity that
characterize an estrous female. Then
there is a series of mutuallv stimulat-
ing interchanges of nose rubbing and
muzzling. The copulation that follows
is often preceded by much shifting
and struggling to overcome the me-
chanical problems of body shape, un-
equal size, and uneven terrain. Actual
union lasts five to ten minutes. A
harem bull, although famished and
exhausted, is able to mate with nu-
merous females in a single day— an
important ability because estrous
periods of the cows are brief and
occur in many at the same time.
The occurrence of copulation just
five days after parturition relates
closely to two specialized features of
the female's reproductive physiology.
Her uterus is bicornuate; conse-
quently, while one horn develops a
fetus, the other lies dormant. The ac-
tive horn is of course traumatized by
birth, but the other is in a state of
reproductive readiness. The second
adaptation is delayed implantation:
the fertilized egg goes through the
first divisions, then lies dormant four
to five months. All other pinnipeds
(except possibly the walrus) and also
a number of land mammals display
the same phenomenon, but few pinni-
peds, if any, have evolved reproduc-
tive cycles so dependent on it. De-
layed development of the embryo
allows the female fur seal to mate at
the only time the harem bulls are
breeding, in June and July, and yet
bear her young j ust a year later at the
only time climatic circumstances are
optimal.
Females stay ashore an average of
eight days, the longest stay of their
yearly cycle, and return to the sea
on the day after mating. Their pups
are growing rapidly, and to nourish
them the females themselves must eat.
The presence of a million and a half
seals on the islands depletes the
supply of food in the normally rich
adjacent waters, and the females
range widely, at least as far as Ti-
galda Island. 200 miles southeast of
the Pribilofs. Such trips take time-
about a week for the first one, an
average of nine days for subsequent
ones— and the pups go foodless dur-
ing each absence. That they not only
survive but grow rapidly is possible
because seal milk is extraordinarily
rich, containing 46 percent fat (com-
pared to about .3.5 percent for cows
and humansl : also, the pups have
relatively enormous stomachs, which
take up most of the body cavity and
serve as storage tanks of up to one
gallon capacity. After prolonged
nursing, a young pup is so weighted
and bloated that it can hardly walk.
The temporarily deserted pups go
entirely untended. for the harem bull
ignores them so completely that he
will trample right over them if they
are in his path, while unrelated fe-
males are either indifferent or mildly
hostile. Evolution has endowed the
pup with a marked precocity, how-
ever, and it has an 85 percent chance
of living to go to sea. Even before
the pup is completely outside the
womb its eyes are open; it blats.
moves about, shakes the amniotic
fluid off its short black fur, and
nurses— all within the first few min-
utes of life.
During the first day or two— but
39
not later— the mother is solicitous to-
ivard her pup. She will hiss and nip
at females or other pups that ap-
proach too closely, and if a man or
a charging bull heads her way she
will pick up the pup by the scruff of
its neck and hustle it off to safety.
During this period, too. she nurses
and sniffs it frequently, and lies with
it against her: she is literally ''getting
to know it." a crucial process if she
is to recognize it later on.
When she returns from the sea,
her homing instinct guides her to the
section of rookery where her pup
was born. It may have w andered con-
siderably, especially in late summer
and fall, but as experiments have
shown, its own homing instinct is
already sufficiently developed to
bring it back to the natal spot. Sev-
eral hundred other pujjs may be in
the vicinity, however, and the mother
must determine which is hers. On
landing, she emits repeated sheeplike
blats, high-pitched enough to be
audible above the general din of the
rookery. At this signal all hungry
pups in the area converge on her.
One after another she sniffs the
muzzles they point up at her. One
after another they are dismissed with
a low hiss until, recognizing her own,
she stops, shakes her head, and snorts
briefly. Then she settles down, allow-
ing her pup to nurse. Tired by her
long sea journey, she usually goes to
sleep almost immediately, and the
pup may blat or even nij) to w ake her
when she somnolently rolls over, con-
cealing her teats. Several long and
copious feedings occur during the
two days that the female usually
spends ahore after each foraging trip.
Fur seal pups are very gregarious,
and since their parents are either
absent or uninterested, the young
form into loose, structureless pods,
generally congregating in areas of
the rookery where they are least dis-
turbed by the rampages of the bulls.
Pods are small when the pups are
young, but number in the hundreds
by mid-August— massed black pha-
lanxes that wander and frolic, often
on the green slopes quite far inland
from the rookeries. By September
the pods are breaking up. but already
the pups have developed the basic
motor skills and behavior patterns of
later life: patterns "practiced in the
course of numerous nipping bouts,
sex play, wrestling matches, and sim-
ulated charges during which they
often become hopelessly scrambled
in their own flippers before closing
in on other pups or on driftwood.
Swimming will soon be the pups
main means of locomotion, but the
adult fur seals play no part in the
development of this or any other
skill. Actuallv. the young can swim
from birth if an exceptionally heavy
wash of surf or a fall into the drink
demands, but they show no interest in
the water until they are t\vo or three
weeks old. By then, small pods of
pups wandering widely about the
rookeries will inevitably reach the
shoreline. Here a pup will wade cau-
tiously out into a shallow tidal pool
or other protected spot, and then,
after many retreats and much shak-
ing off of water, it will take its first,
jerky, dog-paddling strokes. It may
submerge and revolve slowly around
as it takes a first look at the under-
water world that will soon supply all
its sustenance. By August 1 when the
first-born Pribilof pups are, at most,
six weeks old. their curiously erect,
high-floating forms can be seen
splashing about in the kelp as much
as fifty feet from shore.
At this time the situation at the
rookeries is changing dramatically.
Nearly all of the prime breeding fe-
males have been impregnated again
and the attendant social structure
Each year, from
early spring to late
autumn, 1.200.000
northern fur seals
inhabit St. Paul
Island, gathering
in eight rookeries
along the shore.
Zapadni rookery is
shown at right.
40
is rapidly disintegrating. By late July
it is evident that the bulls" territorial
instincts are weakening— as indeed
are the bulls themselves. Female-
corralling patrols and male bound-
ar\ -confrontations are becoming
less and less frequent, while the
boundaries themselves are increas-
ingly fluid. Intruding bulls from out-
side the rookeries are still attacked,
but with such diminished vigor that
now they often hold their ground;
and the cows that wander from one
territory to the next often go un-
molested. One by one the harem
bulls, in such splendid shape two
months before, are hauling their
emaciated, dehydrated, exhausted,
scarred, filthy bodies off the rook-
eries. For no outwardly apparent
reason, one will suddenlv make for
the shoreline, slide into the water,
and swim a few dozen yards out.
Surfacing, he will roll over repeat-
edly, rubbing every bit of his body
the front flippers can reach, scrub-
bing oflF an accumulation that turns
the surrounding water brown. If an-
other bull approaches, the first may
circle and dive with him. so reduced
is his aggressiveness. Later he will
haul up on shore a little distance
from the rookery for a prolonged
sleep, and after this he will begin to
feed again.
By October the first seals are leav-
ing the Pribilofs, and by mid-Novem-
ber the vast majority have departed.
The pups are weaned now. They are
covered with a new, dense coat of
silvery fur, the result of the October
molt: and they are padded with
stored fat, which will tide some of
them over until they develop suffi-
cient skill to support themselves at
sea. A number will starve during the
crucial months ahead, and others
will fall victim to killer whales,
sharks, oil slicks, and other hazards.
It is hard to conceive of any large
animal more local in its special
orientation than the fur seal on land,
for a bull's territory, a female's par-
ticular rookery area, a pup's place
of birth are very specific loci indeed.
On the high seas, however, fur seals
travel farther and roam more widely
than any other mammals except
whales. Adult females and immature
seals of both sexes follow two basic
migration routes. An important per-
centage travel south along the coast
of Asia, where by December they are
concentrated in the waters off Hok-
kaido and Honshu. Japan. Most,
however, follow the American coast
and during midwinter are found in
largest numbers off Washington,
Oregon, and California. These mi-
gration patterns are not narrow,
strictly defined paths, for the seals
are never massed together when
using ihem: and while most females
and immatures do follow these broad
routes, scattered individuals have
been reported at widely separate
points all over the North Pacific.
Although they travel alone or in very
small groups, pelagic research has
demonstrated that most of the seals
in a given area are of the same age
and sex. During the winter, fur seals
spend most of their time in the open
ocean, especially in the zone from
ten to ninety miles offshore, but con-
centrations of food, such as the
spawning spring herring of south-
eastern Alaskan inlets, occasionally
attract them quite close to land.
In March and April the Pribilof
fur seals begin heading north again,
back toward the rookeries tliat hold
such implacable sway over their in-
dividual lives and racial evolution.
Three months later the black volcanic
rocks will be repolished and the air
filled once more with musk and roar-
ing. A new generation will be born
into the bondage of the islands.
II
1
^ <*■
^Z-^M4l .^
■^r^'
a:
V ^
,^»^
THE STATE
THE SPECIES
NATURAL HISTORY SPECIAL SUPPLEMENT
JANUARY, !Q^^>
IHE STATE OF MAN TODAY IS ONE OF
ENORMOUS EXPANSION, RAPID |
EVOLUTION, AND EARTHWIDE IMPACT. \
SOME 300 GENERATIONS HAVE PASSED ^
^INCE MAN BEGAN A NEW LIFE, TILLING
fHE EARTH AND SETTLING IN VILLAGES.
koW, WITHIN A SINGLE GENERATION,
IvIAN WILL BECOME AN URBAN SPECIES,
mm OVER HALF OF THE SIX BILLION
PERSONS IN AD 2000 LIVING IN HIVELIKE
gXlES. THUS MAY END THE 35,000- YEAR
)PAN 0FJ70M0 SAPIENS AND BEGIN THE
ERA OF HOMO CONVIVENS, A NEW
COMMUNAL SPECIES THAT WOULD
CONTROL ITS REPRODUCTION AND
VI AN AGE ITS ECOSYSTEM -THE
BIOSPHERE.
CONTENTS
Edited and with Introductions
by Alan P. Ternes
The Origin of Man 46
by C. Loring Brace
The ProUferation of The Species 50
The Chinese Peoples 52
by Irene B. Taeuber
Fertility in Martinique 57
by Henri Leridon
World Population Data 60
Constraints on The Species 63
Malnutrition in the Caribbean 64
by Kendall W. King
The Mess of Modern Man 68
by Gordon Harrison
Space: A Barrier to The Species 70
by John P. Wiley, Jr.
ii
45
he
Origin
of
Man
by C. Loring Brace
University of Michigan
More than a century ago when Darwin pub-
lished On the Origin of Species, it was
authoritatively assumed by those who had not
read the book that he was chiefly concerned with
the origin of man. He actually mentioned the
word man only once in the epoch-making work,
and then in a cryptic sentence on the last page.
But such is the strength of popular assumption
that the title has been consistently misquoted. The
popular press still refers to his book as The Origin
of the Species, and the species is assumed to be
man. This example typifies man's timeless fasci-
nation with himself, as well as his propensity for
repeating misinformation about himself — a uni-
versal quality that may have been best summed
up by the acerbic Ambrose Bierce early in the
twentieth century when he defined man as "an
animal so lost in rapturous contemplation of what
he thinks he is as to overlook what he indubitably
ought to be."
But what, then, is man? What was he in the
past, and what has allowed him to survive to the
present? If these questions are answered, we can
then contemplate, perhaps with alarm, the basis
for what is to come.
Central to any definition of man, and the key
to his evolutionary success, is a phenomenon not
immediately visible when specimens of the crea-
ture are scrutinized. This phenomenon is what the
anthropologist calls culture. It includes not only
the high points of art, music, and literature, but
also all those things that result from the cumula-
tive efforts of other people and previous genera-
tions. Tools, the traditions regulating their use,
vital information, and language itself— all are in-
cluded in theconcept culture. Man is not just an
animal that possesses culture, but an animal that
cannot survive without it. Men could not exist if
each had to discover anew the control of fire, the
manufacture of clothing and shelter, the sources
of edible sustenance, and the guidelines for work-
able interpersonal relationships, to say nothing of
the mechanics, electronics, chemistry, and physics
on which human life depends today. These ele-
ments of culture are a cumulative continuation of
simpler counterparts in the past.
In the beginning our ancestors, like other ani-
mals, must have been faced with the problem of
surviving without the aid of culture. So much of
culture is perishable or intangible that there is no
way to determine when culture as a cumulative
phenomenon began. Nonperishable cultural ele-
ments have an antiquity of about two million
years in Africa. The cultural tradition of which
they are a part continues without break, expand-
ing to occupy the tropical and temperate parts of
the pid World around 800,000 years ago, and
ultimately developing into all the cultures in the
world today.
From this we postulate an African origin for
all mankind. The existence of crude stone tools
in Africa a million and a half to two million years
ago allows us to suppose the existence of culture
at that time. Our guess suggests that the possessor
of this culture could not have survived without it;
therefore, he deserves the designation man — how-
ever primitive and crude he might have been.
We further postulate that culture existed a long
time before the initial appearance of recognizable
stone tools. This is speculation, but not idle spec-
ulation, because we could not otherwise account
for the transformation of ape to man. Although
small in quantity, supporting evidence, exists in
the form of skeletal material. Fossilized' remains,
including skulls, jaws, teeth, and a few other
skeletal pieces have been found in association
with the oldest known stone tools both in Olduvai
Gorge in East Africa and in the Transvaal of
South Africa. Since the discovery of these fossils
in 1 924, argument has continued over their status
— ape? man? human ancestor? extinct side line?
Brain size was within the range of that for the
large modern anthropoid apes, but these early
hominids walked erect on two feet as does modern
man. Molar teeth were of gorilloid size, but the
canines did not project beyond the level of the
other teeth.
46
Despite continuing arguments over whether the
balance of traits was on the human or simian side,
it is apparent that the survival of these early hom-
inids depended on a distinctly non-apelike adap-
tation. Bipedal locomotion did not enable hom-
inids to escape predators by rapid flight. Neither
could these hominids seriously threaten to bite a
potential predator. Contrast this with such mod-
ern ground-dwelHng primates as baboons and
gorillas where the enlarged canine teeth of the
males represent formidable defense weapons. We
can guess that these early hominids depended for
survival on something not visible in their anato-
my, and our guess is that they used hand-held
tools.
Possibly they defended themselves with the
crude hunks of worked stone found at the sites
where their skeletal remains have been discov-
ered, but more likely they relied on pointed sticks.
To use a rock as a defensive weapon requires
close contact with the attacking creature, while
the defender probably preferred to face his tor-
mentor from the far end of a pointed stick. Not
only is the pointed stick a simple and effective
weapon — devisable with a minimum of manufac-
turing effort — but it can also double as a digging
tool. Edible roots and bulbs are a substantial part
of the diet of baboons that live today in the sa-
vanna, an environment typical of the areas in-
habited by the earliest hominids. The addition of
a simple digging stick of the kind used by the
surviving hunting and gathering human groups —
and probably by the early hominids — could eas-
ily double the baboons' food supply.
The huge, worn molars of the early hominids
indicate that they relied on gritty, uncooked veg-
etables for subsistence. Unlike any other pri-
mates, their canine teeth are functionally
indistinguishable from their small incisors. As-
suming that the remote hominid ancestor had
enlarged canine teeth like all other primates, then
the creatures associated with the stone tools in
East and South Africa two million years ago be-
longed to a line in which the selective pressures
needed to maintain large canines had been sus-
pended for a long time. Cultural means of defense
must have existed long before the earliest stone
tools.
Within the last three years jaws and teeth have
been found in southwestern Ethiopia that are so
like the Olduvai and Transvaal finds that they
must be related. Their antiquity, however, ex-
tends back nearly four million years, and no stone
tools are associated with them. The canine teeth
in the fragmentary remains are not enlarged,
leaving us to infer that defensive weapons must
have been used some four million years ago —
two million years before the earliest stone tools
existed.
Reliance on hand-held weapons for defense
(and perhaps also for food getting) did not auto-
matically convert apes into men, but it altered the
forces of selection so that evolution in the human
direction was a consequence. For one thing,
occupation with tool wielding reduced the loco-
motor role of hands. Legs and feet, as a result
of natural selection, assumed the entire burden of
locomotion. Tools usurped the defensive role of
canine teeth, and, with an accumulation of mu-
tations, these teeth were reduced. The vast ma-
jority of mutations interfere with the development
of the structures that depend on their control, but
usually these "deleterious mutations" are elimi-
nated by selection. When selection is reduced or
suspended — as when tools reduced the defensive
role of teeth — the reductive mutations simply ac-
cumulate in the ongoing gene pool of the popu-
lation. The structure controlled by the genes — the
canine teeth, for example — eventually fails to
achieve the full development once characteristic
of the remote ancestral population.
Early in hominid development, when defensive
weapons were not well developed, those charged
with the task of defense, the males, must have
been substantially more rugged than those less
concerned with defensive activities, the females.
Among terrestrial primates where a culture with
weapons plays no defensive role, males tend to be
much larger and stronger than females. Baboons,
gorillas, and other ground-dwelling primates are
good examples. Fossil fragments hint that this
must have been the case for the earliest hominids
as well. The difference in robustness of specimens
from the early levels of Olduvai Gorge, the Trans-
vaal, and now from Omo in southwest Ethiopia
has led some scholars to suggest that two different
species of hominid- — one small and slender, the
other large and robust — shared the same habitat.
However, now that we can demonstrate a time
span of nearly three million years for the early
hominids, it makes better ecological and evolu-
tionary sense to explain the differences in size as
sexual dimorphism— male-female difference —
in a single species of early hominid.
I
47
The taxonomy of these earliest hominids con-
tinues to be debated. Genera such as Australo-
pithecus, Paranthropus, Zinjanthropus, Homo,
and others have been suggested, and even more
species tentatively recognized. Whatever the tax-
onomic designation, these early hominids, except
for their reliance on learned behavior and on
hand-held tools for defense and food getting,
lived more like apes than humans.
The evidence from Olduvai Gorge in East
Africa shows that crude stone tools were added
to the limited cultural repertoire toward the end
of this long early hominid phase — a period I pre-
fer to call the australopithecine stage. These tools
belong to the incipient part of a tradition of
butchering large animals in the Middle Pleisto-
cene. At the end of the Lower Pleistocene, how-
ever, they occur mainly with the fossilized remains
of immature animals. We can guess that this re-
cords the beginning of the adaptive shift that was
largely responsible for the development of Homo
sapiens, a shift related to the development of
hunting as a major subsistence activity.
In the Middle Pleistocene, somewhat less than
a million years ago, man emerges as a major
predator. This adaptation is unique among the
primates, and it is not surprising that many of
the physical, behavioral, and physiological char-
acteristics that distinguish man from his closest
animal relatives" are related to this adaptation.
While we cannot make direct behavioral or phys-
iological tests on fossils, we can make inferences
based on their anatomy, on their apparent ecolog-
ical adaptation, and on conditions observable in
their modem descendants.
Anthropologists generally agree that the men
of the Middle Pleistocene are properly classified
as Homo erectus. The first specimen to be dis-
covered was classified in the genus Pithecanthro-
pus at the end of the nineteenth century. While
we no longer accept this generic designation,
pithecanthropine remains a convenient, nontech-
nical term for Middle Pleistocene hominids.
Brain size was twice that of the preceding
australopithecines and two-thirds that of the av-
erage modern man. With the absence of a spe-
cialized predatory physique, natural selection
probably encouraged the evolution of intelli-
gence. While brain size had increased, the size of
the molar teeth had reduced, although they were
still quite large by modern standards. This reduc-
tion may have been related to the shift from a
rough vegetable diet to one with a large propof
tion of meat. Meat, needing only to be reduced \A
swallowable pieces, requires far less masticatioi
than starches, which begin the process of conver
sion to simple sugars by mixing with salivary en-;
zymes through extensive chewing.
Evidence, although fragmentary, also suggestsi
that bipedal locomotion in its modern form wasf
perfected at this time, the Middle Pleistocene. |
While man's mode of locomotion may not be i
speedy, it requires an expenditure of relatively lit- ^
tie energy. To this day, primitive hunters employ
the technique of trotting persistently on the trail
of an herbivore until it is brought to bay, often
many days later.
Several correlates of this hunting life are sug-
gested. Man, reflecting his primate heritage, is
relatively night-blind and must, therefore, confine
his hunting activities to the daytime. A tropical
mammal (and physiologically man is still a trop-
ical mammal) pursuing strenuous activities in
broad daylight is faced with the problem of dis-
sipating metabolically generated heat. The hair-
less human skin, richly endowed with sweat
glands, is unique among terrestrial mammals of
much less than elephantine size, and I suggest
that this developed under the selective pressures of
regular big game hunting early in the pithecan-
thropine stage.
The elimination of the hairy coat by natural
selection left the skin exposed to the potentially
damaging effect of the ultraviolet component of
tropical sunlight. The obvious response was the
development of the protective pigment melanin.
AUSTRALOPITHECINE
(tools)
ASPECTS
UJ
M
C/3
500
I
O
O
Tooth measurement in square
millimeters is the summed cross-
sectional area on one side of
upper dental arch.
1.75 Million Years Ago
Consequently the Middle Pleistocene ancestors of
all modern men were probably what in America
today is called black.
The conversion of this being into what is tech-
nically known as Homo sapiens requires only the
further expansion of the brain from the pithecan-
thropine average of 1 ,000 cubic centimeters ( ac-
tually well within the range of modern variation)
to the average today of 1,400 cc. Fragmentary
fossil evidence suggests that this transition had
taken place by the beginning of the Upper Pleis-
tocene, about 120,000 years ago. Men at that time
—referred to as Neanderthals — still had an ar-
chaic appearance. In general these early represen-
tatives of Homo sapiens were more muscular and
robust than their modern descendants — particu-
larly the males. Jaws and teeth were large, espe-
cially the front teeth, which, from their wear pat-
terns, evidently served as all-purpose tools.
Since the first appearance of Homo sapiens in
his Neanderthal form, human evolution has been
characterized by a series of reductions. Whenever
human ingenuity made life easier, there was a re-
laxation of the forces of selection, and these re-
ductions followed. More effective hunting tech-
niques lessened the burden on the hunter's
physique, and an eventual reduction in muscular-
ity was the result. Manipulating tools lessened the
stress on the anterior teeth, and the consequent
reduction of these and their supporting bony ar-
chitecture converted the Neanderthal face into
modern form. In parts of the world where manip-
ulative technology is a late phenomenon, such as
aboriginal Australia, faces and teeth have re-
mained large. Where clothing was developed for
survival in northern climes, the significance of
protective skin pigment was lessened, and the
consequent reduction produced the phenomenon
that is euphemistically called white.
The only thing that has not been reduced is
the number of human beings. We cannot even
guess at the population density of the australo-
pithecines. Throughout the Middle Pleistocene,
the archeological record suggests a fairly constant
population for the hunting pithecanthropines.
Evidently the population increased dramatically
with the Neanderthal form of Homo sapiens. The
diversification of food resources and the increase
in cultural complexity that accompanied the first
appearance of modern Homo sapiens just under
35,000 years ago also signaled another sharp
jump in population. This set the stage for the
tremendous population growth made possible by
the development of agriculture after the end of
the Pleistocene 10,000 years ago.
Thus did Homo sapiens emerge — a manifiesta-
tion of ecological imbalance, literally shaped by
the consequences of his own impact upon the
world. His fate, too, will be shaped by his future
impact on the world — the result of his numbers
and his actions. Malthus sounded the alarm nearly
two centuries ago, but few listened to his warning.
One who did was Ambrose Bierce, who added to
his definition of man that "his chief occupation
is extermination of other animals and his own
species, which, however, multiphes with such in-
sistent rapidity as to infest the whole habitable
earth. ..."
\l\m EVOLUTION
PITHECANTHROPINE
(huntmg)
NEANDERTHAL MODERN
(farming)
THE
PROLIFERATION
OF
THE SPECIES
The ebb and flow of populations of man — or
any other species — can be calculated using a
brief formula:
Population + Births — Deaths = Future Population.
If the present size of population is known, if
the birthrate is known, and // the rate of death
is known, then simple calculations should give
the future size of a population. Unfortunately,
these ifs are rarely known and never constant.
Whether it is the legions of Herod trying to
account for every child of Bethlehem, or a mod-
em government attempting to count each of its
citizens, no census is complete. The United States
census, some critics argue, may underenumerate
poverty and itinerant groups by as much as 10
percent. In less developed countries the error for
the whole population may be much greater. The
actual size of any large population is never
known, and one of the crucial parts of demog-
raphy is the estimation of existing populations.
An accurate estimate of current birthrates can
be made in countries where virtually all births
are registered. But no one can predict with cer-
tainty the future birthrate. It can fluctuate as
rapidly as women can change their minds. Such
unpredictable events as a power failure, a papal
decree, a war, or a famine all influence the birth-
rate. It responds to new birth control technology
— such as the pill or intrauterine devices — and to
changes in abortion laws.
In much of the world today the primary in-
fluence on the birthrate is the attitude of the
population toward birth control and family size.
Methods for reducing the birthrate are available,
and both private and pubUc organizations are
50
anxious to dispense them. Resistance to the dif-
fusion of birth control methods comes from con-
servative religious and social organizations and
from illiterate rural inhabitants.
In the developed regions of the world, and in
parts of the less developed regions, recent changes
in urbanization, education, and the role of wom-
en portend a drop in birthrates. The reduction of
birthrates in cities (more generally, the reduc-
tion of birthrates for all species under conditions
of high density) has been observed for cen-
turies, but at no time has urbanization proceeded
at such a rapid rate. Family size and birthrate
are negatively correlated with amount of educa-
tion. The increasing educational levels in many
parts of the world should reduce birthrates there.
Finally, modern women have increasingly begun
to control their productivity — ranging from the
growing number of working women in Socialist
countries, to French women who refuse to wed
and bear workers for the bachelor farmers of
Brittany, to militant abortion advocates in the
United States, to Latin American women who
practice birth control without their husbands'
knowledge.
The death rate fluctuates unpredictably, too.
Disease, famine, war, and accidents all raise the
death rate; sanitation and medical care, adequate
crops and food distribution, peace, and safety
measures all reduce it. The cause of the so-called
population problem has been' mainly the drop in
the death rate, and especially the drop in infant
and child mortahty. In the less developed areas
the introduction of minimal sanitation and pub-
lic health measures, such as antimalaria and anti-
yellow fever campaigns, often leads to a major
drop in the death rate. When many more infants
and children survive, population grows rapidly,
and within two decades these young reach repro-
ductive age, compounding the population growth.
In Europe and North America the death rate has
fallen to 9 per 1 ,000 persons, and it probably will
not change greatly; the less developed areas are
slowly approaching the same level.
Yet any sunny statement about the control of
death should acknowledge the persistent shadow
of the great scourges of man, such as plague,
cholera, and malaria. They have not been elimi-
nated and strains resistant to medical techniques
could sweep the globe at jet speed. And the
never-silent drums of war and the awesome ar-
senals of the superpowers must remind us of the
potential impact of a few men poised at a few
buttons.
Some ecologically oriented studies of primi-
tive tribes have shown the delicate balance be-
tween men and their environments, and how
techniques of birth and death control — often
masked in ritual and magic, in feud and warfare
— maintain this balance. A major question for
the human species today is whether a similar
balance can be obtained on a global scale. At
this time the population equation is out of bal-
ance, and the species is growing rapidly. Al-
though many argue the opposite, man does have
the technology and the food-producing ability to
support a larger population. Unless global war-
fare or a major pandemic intervenes, the species
will continue to expand for many decades. Ulti-
mately, the population must return to a balance.
to a point where the death and birth rates are
equal. A major rise in the death rate is an unac-
ceptable alternative for" balancing the equation.
A lowering of the birthrate is the only acceptable
solution. In the broadest view, a most significant
development in the status of the species must be
the many indications that man has begun to con-
trol his birthrate in the developed countries, and
that this trend has begun as well in the urban
areas and among the educated people of the less
developed countries.
* * *
In the following section of this supplement
three aspects of the status of man today are pre-
sented. Dr. Irene Taeuber analyzes one of the
world's greatest demographic puzzles, the peo-
ples of China. Since nearly the beginning of
civilized man, the Chinese have been the largest
population group, and they continue to remain .so
today. Their slow, balanced growth for centuries,
the impact of Communist control, and the indi-
cations of trends in birth control are studiously
outlined. Dr. Henri Leridon examines the mi-
crocosm of the women of the island of Martinique
to detect the imphcations of social behavior on
fertility. The careful records of the civil govern-
ment permit insights into the social problems of
a less developed area — and these insights could
be applied to similar populations in other less
developed areas. The map and statistics on pages
60 through 62 provide some of the best estimates
of the size and distribution of the world popula-
tion today, as well as latest estimates of the future
population by the Population Division of the
United Nations.
51
The
Chinese
Peoples
By Irene B. Taeuber
Office of Population Research, Princeton University
In 1970, there is a deep crisis in the human
species. Science and technology underlie a
changing biological relation between man and
nature. In the developed countries man has
adapted to and modified nature, including his own
reproductive performance; there is a swiftly in-
creasing economic product and a slowly increas-
ing population. In many of the less developed
countries ancient institutions and behavior pat-
terns continue while diffusing technologies cause
rapid population growth, making change essen-
tial to survival. The coincidence of the reduced
death rates of the modern era and the high
birthrates of ancient eras yields rates of increase
that can be sustained only briefly.
The Chinese population has been distinctive in
persistence and in evolution over recent millennia.
Today the vastly increased and increasing Chi-
nese population is moving to modernize in a form
of political and social organization that is both
Chinese and Communist. How relevant are the
policies and the politics of communism to the
persistence, disintegration, or transformation of
the family; the role of women; and the rate of
reproduction? What are the impacts and the re-
sponses to the increasing numbers of people with-
in China? What are the implications for continu-
ity or change in rates of population growth, and
the associated increase or alleviation of demo-
graphic tensions?
There are approaches, but no answers, to these
broad questions of the future numbers of the Chi-
nese. Births, deaths, and migrations describe the
life cycles of men and lemmings, Aztecs and
Egyptians, Hottentots and Eskimos, Europeans
and Chinese. The questions to pursue through the
prehistory and history of China are neither solelj
biological nor solely demographic. The involve-]
ments range through the physical, biological, and
earth sciences to the social sciences — demogra^
phy, psychology, history, and linguistics. Ethic^
and religion are related. What were the factors of
locale, resources, culture, and population dynam-
ics whereby the Chinese became, and remained,
the world's largest cohesive ethnic group? Are the
characteristics and capabilities that yielded sur-
vival, cyclical increases, and recurrent greatness
in past periods adaptable in a present and a future
where persistence may mean biological retrogres-
sion and cultural fragmentation?
The biological differences among the groups
that formed the Chinese population are largely
unspecified and unmeasured. Variations and
changes were related to levels, patterns, and se-
lectivities in marriage, fertility, mortality, and
migration. Demographic continuity, increase, and
expansion were related to integrated factors of
location, climate, resources, culture, and political
form. There was an eflicient and enduring agri-
culture, an integrative social and economic order,
and a sustaining matrix of values and ethics. The
political organization was conducive to local sta-
bility, economic expansion, cultural diffusion, and
national unity. Death rates were low enough to
permit population increases in normal years and
continuity in times of cataclysm, epidemic, fam-
ine, or conflict. There was recuperation in deci-
mated populations and succession in devastated
areas.
The efficient survival techniques of the Chinese
were re-enforced by an adaptive fertility. The so-
ciety was familistic, but the family was oriented to
the continuity of generations rather than to max-
imum reproduction. The selective survival of the
newly bom, the priorities of sons, the absences
of men, and the sex codes tended to hold fertility
below levels that threatened family and group
survival. The idealized vision of many sons may
have been widespread in new agricultural regions
or among peoples recently Sinicized. It was not
the prevalent pattern.
The Ch'ing dynasty achieved hegemony in the
middle of the seventeenth century. Peace, order,
economic development, areal expansion, and the
diffusion of new crops favored increasing num-
bers and expanding frontiers. There are many
figures after 1741 when the pao-chia system of
local registration was restored by the Emperor
52
Chien-lung. The reported numbers are usable in
rough form from 1749 to 1851, when the spread-
ing Tai-p'ing rebellion ended nationwide re-
porting. In 1953-54 there was an investigation
and registration of the population of the Peoples
Republic of China, with publication of totals for
country and provinces. These population reports
show a large initial size and generally increasing
increments of such magnitude that they are diffi-
cult to comprehend. The population was perhaps
225 million in 1749; it was 430 million in 1851.
In 1953 the figure for all China, including Tai-
wan, was 593 million. The rate of increase was
low; two-thirds of one percent a year from 1749
to 1851 and only one-third of one percent a year
during the next 100 years. If these figures are
roughly correct, the Chinese increased almost 400
Chinese painting of
Taoist deity, ca. 1900.
million in the two centuries prior to the recent
thrust fof economic and social modernization and
the beginning of China's demographic transition.
In 1949, as in 1939, 1851, and 1749, the ratio
of births to deaths was premodern. Along with
the high level of mortality, fertility was high
enough to sustain the population and to yield
slow growth over periods of time. The prevailing
mortality was influenced little by modern medi-
cine, public health, or sanitation. Famines, epi-
demics, and floods were frequent if irregular oc-
currences. There were major regional variations
in fertility and mortality even in favorable years.
Expectations of life at birth must have been
about 25 years. If so, and if there was slight
population growth, intrinsic birthrates must have
been somewhat above 40 per thousand persons
per year. Long cycles and lesser fluctuations in
rates of population change were explainable
largely in terms of the factors influencing mor-
tality. The century of disintegration and conflict
that preceded 1949 maintained the ancient bal-
ance of births and deaths.
The consolidation of power and the trans-
formations of the People's Republic of China
quickly reduced death rates and temporarily
stabilized or even increased birthrates from 1949
to 1957. There was relative peace, internal order,
and a more regularized and widely distributed
food supply. Health services were developed in
ways that reached down to local levels. Cleanli-
ness and sanitation campaigns eradicated specific
carriers of disease. Internal reports and external
studies corroborate the assumption that death
rates were reduced swiftly, substantially, and
widely. Reunited families, new marriages, reduc-
tions in infanticide, and higher status for girl ba-
bies aU caused temporary increases in numbers of
live births and in numbers of infants surviving.
The rapid growth of population, caused by the
major decline in death rates and the persistence of
essentially traditional birthrates, became the sub-
ject of dialogue and diatribe within China. The
Communist government could not easily adopt
an antinatalist population policy because the
writings of Marx, Lenin, and Mao denied the
tenets of Malthus. However, government birth
control programs do not need the rationale of
antinatalist and catastrophe-oriented statements
of policy. In China, contraception, induced
abortion, and sterilization were made available
through the health services with health rationales.
S3
Many ethical, social, and ideological develop-
ments were conducive to the adoption of popula-
tion control practices. For instance, control of
reproduction, including abortion, was a basic
right of women; dedication to the party — or to
the thoughts of Chairman Mao — ^involved a con-
centrated service that was incompatible with
early marriage and the responsibiUties of many
children; duties of loyalty and service were as
relevant to women as to men.
In theory, then, the path to a comprehensive
population program was straightforward. In fact,
publicity campaigns were episodic and halting.
In the early years of the People's Republic of
China inadequate means, quiescent motivations,
and an insufficient infrastructure precluded either
massive attacks or substantial achievements in
birth control among the rural population. Neither
the rhythm method nor conventional contracep-
tives diffused quickly among the peasants. The
limited number of doctors barred major programs
of induced abortion even if such programs would
have been acceptable to the government and the
people. However, the timing of rapid population
growth in China has helped resolve the problems
of lag between declining death rates and declining
birthrates. New technologies of birth control avail-
able to the Chinese include the intrauterine con-
traceptive devices, suction techniques for induced
abortion, and the pill.
The balance of the evidence suggests that
birthrates are declining in urban areas and that
there are increasing changes conducive to re-
duced birthrates in rural areas. Declining fer-
tiUty would first be manifest among the younger
people. All those now below age 20 were bom
and reared in the People's Republic; no woman
aged 20 to 29 today was more than ten years old
when the Communist regime was established.
Levels and trends in fertility are now dominated
by the decisions and actions of women long con-
ditioned to communism.
In the absence of quantitative information,
statements about the levels and trends in birth
rates must be conjecture. It seems unlikely that
fertiUty has declined substantially in communes
remote from cities. However, there are multiple
and tenable bases tor assuming that the fertility
of the women in the communes will decline soon-
er and more rapidly than that of rural women in
most other large and less developed countries. It
should be stated explicitly, though, that these ar-
guments are tenable only if there is externalj
peace, internal stability, and economic advance.
Comparative analysis is difficult when it is based 1
on statistics for other countries and conjecture for]
China. However, there is quantitative information]
for the years prior to 1940 on demographic, eco-1
nomic, and social relations in stable and migrant!
populations, in rural areas and in great cities,
and in ancient and new areas for Chinese popula-
tions both within and outside the mainland of
China. There are census and vital records for
Chinese populations in Taiwan, Hong Kong,
Singapore, and Malaysia in the postwar decades
of rapid economic growth, social change, and de-
cHning fertiUty. There are increasingly precise
sources on the dynamics of population change
during a century of Japanese modernization —
and Japan is a part of the Chinese cultural area.
If relations can be assumed with logic and cul-
tural plausibility, the impact of economic and
social changes and urbanization on the fertility of
the Chinese can be assessed.
What are the reasons for assuming develop-
ments favorable to the reduction of fertility in
the People's Republic? Only a partial Usting is
possible here. There are the reahties of low fer-
tihty in Japan and declining fertihty in the Chi-
nese populations around the perimeter of the
People's Republic. In these areas, as in China,
traditional fertility was adaptive. There are pres-
ent memories of pragmatic infanticide; there is
wide acceptance of induced abortion.
Given political coherence and economic de-
velopment, the setting for the reduction of fertil-
ity may be even more favorable among Chinese
inside China. The equality and the responsibilities
of women were central drives in the ideology,
the crusades, and the directives of the People's
Republic, along with correlated assaults on those
loyalties that sustained the traditional family, the
subservience of women, and frequent childbear-
ing. There were massive drives for education,
with extensions of literacy, elementary schooling,
and the participation of children in life outside
the family. There was nationwide communication
through press, radio, television, study, and dis-
cussion. There were blockages in urban ward mi-
gration and occupational mobiUty. There were
the instabilities and insecurities of rural people
without personal or family attachments to land.
Successive expulsions eroded security within the
cities. Migrant youths and former Red Guards
54
I
Woodcut from Chinese Jesuit text ca. eighteenth century.
55
who returned to the countryside or the frontier
regions were unlikely to resume the traditional
ways that supported high fertility. Clandestine
urbanization and compulsory deurbanization dif-
fused urban values, aspirations, and frustrations.
There is a further aspect of the demographic
process itself that underlies anticipations of pres-
ent and future changes in family Ufe and repro-
ductive levels. We noted earlier that those now
reaching the ages of labor force participation,
family formation, and childbearing were born
under communism. Their increasing numbers
may threaten the political stabiUty and the eco-
nomic viabiHty of a nation still insufficiently inte-
grated and largely undeveloped. Youths aged 15
to 24 in 1953 were the survivors of births from
ihe years 1929 to 1938. Their numbers had been
reduced both by the normally high mortality of
the ancient regime and the additional mortaUty
of the years from 1937 to 1949. Youths who will
be 15 to 24 in 1973 were bom in the years from
1949 to 1958. Initial numbers were larger and the
depletions of death were reduced. Assuming con-
tinuity in fertility and declining mortaUty, the
estimated number of youths aged 1 5 to 24 in 1 973
will be 75 percent greater than the same age
group in 1953. Although a decline in fertility
can reduce the numbers of future youth, it cannot
reduce the numbers of those now maturing. The
political, economic, and social difficulties asso-
ciated with the increasing numbers of youth may
well contribute to the adoption of firmer programs
and broader sanctions by government in the
field of population control. Difficulties in employ-
ment, barriers to movement, and forced mobili-
ties should deepen and extend the motivations for
marriage postponement and birth limitation.
The projection of the future growth of China's
population is peculiarly difficult. Estimations and
projections from 1949 to 1970 involve acceptance
or modification of the numbers from the regis-
tration of 1953-54; acceptance or modification of
age distribution given then; and decisions as to
hypothetical levels and changes in fertility and
mortahty. Projection from 1970 to 1985 or be-
yond involves the forward movement of a hypo-
thetical construct. The process of estimation is fa-
cilitated by increasingly sophisticated methodol-
ogies for evaluating the dynamics of population
from limited data and is guided by increasing
knowledge of the demography of modernization
in other Chinese and related populations. There
must be compatibility with developments in such
fields as health and agriculture. There must be
consistency with fragmentary information from
press, radio, personal reports, refugee interviews,,
and other reconnaissance activities.
The United Nations Secretariat has made
many exploratory projections of the population of
China. The median estimate in a recent series
assumes an initial birthrate of 38, a decline in
fertility in 1955 and later years, and a slowly
declining death rate. Under these drastic assump-
tions, the population that was about half a bil-
lion in 1 940 will reach almost three-quarters of a
bilHon in 1 970 and exceed one billion in 2000. A
United States government estimate based on
moderate economic development assumes a high-
er initial fertility with later and slower decline and
a lower initial mortality with speedier decline. In
the United Nations estimate, the population of
China will be 883 million in 1985; in the United
States estimate, the population will be 1 . 1 biUion.
Comparisons with other, less developed coun-
tries suggest the distinctive aspects and the basic
questions of the future of China's population.
Numerical estimates are difficult, particularly if
the task is the determination of the present rate
of increase of the population. The pervasive fig-
ure for average annual growth has tended to be
about 2 percent a year; the current estimate of
the United Nations is even lower. However, there
is major surety in the statement that current rates
of natural increase in China are substantially
lower than those in other massive and less de-
veloped countries. United Nations estimates
and projections suggest that the populations
of less developed countries outside China in-
creased 29 percent between 1960 and 1970.
Estimated decade increase was 27 percent for
Middle, South and Southeast Asia; 37 percent
for tropical, south, and mainland Middle Amer-
ica. Except for China, there are no demonstrable
declines in the large, populous, less developed
countries.
No imminent or future declines can mute the
seriousness of the population growth now oc-
curring in China. Communism and Chinese cul-
ture seem to have altered the timings and mod-
erated the dimensions of the inital population
growth and the early population problems of
modernization. Time and statisitcs will tell
whether the perspectives for the future are also
altered.
56
Fertility
in
Martinique
by Henri Leridon
National Institute of Demographic Studies, Paris
Islands scabs on the waters
Islands evidence of wounds
Islands crumbs
Islands shapeless
Islands poor paper torn upon the waters
Islands fragments side by side thrust upon the
flaming blade of the sun. . . .
Aime Cesaire, Cahier d'un retour au pays natal
The demographic history of the Antilles
begins in 1492. Like a large part of the
American continent, almost no trace of the
original population remains today. White colo-
nists, black slaves, Hindu workers — arriving in
successive waves of varying impact — all con-
tributed to the peopling of these islands scattered
around the Caribbean.
If the whites brought their customs, their laws,
their religion, and often their morality, the same
thing did not happen with the people of color:
only the Hindus, who came as independent work-
ers, were able to preserve at least their religion
and their traditions. As for the blacks, at first
their status as slaves submitted them body and
soul to their masters; then the abolition of slav-
ery abruptly made them citizens of countries that
were not theirs. The present state of Antillean
societies clearly bears the profound marks of
past violence and upheaval.
After three centuries of eventful history, the
Antilles have recently experienced a period of
relative calm, if not prosperity. Attention is
drawn to them once again because demographic
pressure has reached a rare intensity there. The
density of the population of the large islands —
Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, Ja-
maica, and Puerto Rico — varies from 67 to 296
inhabitants per square kilometer (1965 figures).
For the smallest islands it reaches 567 in Bar-
bados and 858 in Bermuda. Somewhere in be-
tween is Martinique with 291 inhabitants per
square kilometer, or 320,000 in all. The average
annual rate of increase is 2.5 percent for the
Caribbean region as a whole, and the average
annual birthrate is 39 per thousand.
Realization of their political responsibilities
has probably been accelerated by the small size
and insular character of the countries. They have
launched family-planning programs in many
places. But it appears that a necessary stage has
often been skipped: understanding of the social
milieu. Few studies have shown the profound
complexities of Antillean societies.
In 1968 the National Institute of Demographic
Studies in Paris undertook such a study in Mar-
tinique, one of the islands of the Lesser Antilles.
It covered 1,600 women 15 to 54 years of age.
Two difficulties are often encountered in this type
of study: the absence of up-to-date information
and the lack of complete civil documents to
supplement the sometimes defective memories of
those questioned. These two difficulties were sur-
mounted in Martinique because of periodic cen-
suses (the last done at the end of 1967), a com-
plete civil registration, and a system of social aid
that encourages women to keep their dossiers up
to date — especially for those items that concern
their family situations (matrimonial status, num-
ber of children, etc.) upon which their financial
rights rest.
What then, are the diverse demographic con-
sequences of the family structure in one island
of the Antilles?
Certain of these consequences are revealed
clearly by the official statistics: the percentage of
illegitimate births, for example, is about 50 per-
cent; the average marriage age is high, 30 years
for men and 26 to 27 years for women; acknowl-
edging a child, which makes the birth legitimate,
may occur well after the child's birth. As signifi-
cant as these figures may be, they do not de-
scribe the successive events in the lives of
Mardnican women. It is that description that I
am going to undertake.
Women may be grouped into three age groups
and four categories of matrimonial status:
I . Legally married women, including widows
or divorcees who have not remarried. 2. Women
in common-law unions. 3. Women in "visiting"
i. ,1,
57
unions, but not living with a man. 4. Single
women.
A typical sampling of 100 Martinican women
in each of the three age groups shows the fol-
lowing proportions in the different categories:
Matrimonial Status Age Groups
20-24 30-34 40-44
Married
23
55
70
Common-Law
9
16
15
Visiting Union
22
11
5
Single
46
18
10
In the 20 to 24 age group more women are in
a common-law or visiting union (31) than are
married (23). In the older age groups, the
proportion of married women increases rapidly.
This evolution may be retraced (in a simplified
fashion) by looking at the matrimonial histories
of the women.
Matrimonial History
Age Groups
20-24
30-34
40-44
No sexual union
38
10
3
Married, no other
union
14
31
38
Married, other
unions
9
28
38
Unmarried, at least
one union
39
31
21
The previous two tables tend to mask a stabil-
ity in the relationship of many women, who may
have a union with only one man and often will
marry him in later years. This is indicated in the
following table:
Number of Unions Age Groups
20-24 30-34 40-44
None
One
Two or More
The proportion of women who have had at
least two unions does not increase significantly
above the 40 to 44 age group; generally the
unions tend to stabilize when the women are
about 35 years old. If married women have had
other unions, they usually had them before their
marriages.
The percentage of women, 26 percent, who
have had unions with other men before marriage
is close to the percentage, 21 percent, who have
38
10
3
43
53
54
19
37
43
Primitive wood carving,
Makonde tribe, southeastern Africa.
had children by other unions before marriages.
The graph on this page shows the influences of
age and matrimonial history on the number of
live births among the women of Martinique.
Married women who have had other unions —
usually before marriage — have slightly more
children. But in general this category and the
other two — married women who have never had
another union and unmarried women — tend to
have nearly the same number^ of children until
about 30 years of age. After 35 a clear differ-
ence develops: women who have never married
practically cease having children, while the mar-
ried groups continue to bear children for about
five years.
A final table, showing the total time lived in
a union, explains part of the differences on the
graph:
Years in Union by
Matrimonial History
Age Groups
, 30-34 50-54
Married, no other union
9.8 23.3
Married, other unions
10.7 25.4
Never married, at least
one union
8.9 20.5
Both this table and the graph show little dif-
ference between the three categories in the
younger years, while the unmarried group is sig-
nificantly different in the older years. This dif-
ference is also revealed when the dates of the
last birth are compared. The average unmarried
woman gives birth to her last child when she
_L»VE BfRTHS
Married, other unions
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
is 34.5 years old, while the average married
woman bears her final child at 36.5 years of
age. In the light of these observations, and of
several others, it seems that the important factor
of differentiation in fertility is only indirectly the
type of union; more directly it is the length of
time spent in a union. Between successive unions a
woman who changes her lover or common-law
husband is likely to have a period during which she
is not exposed to the risk of conception. A married
woman, on the other hand, is continually ex-
posed to this risk, until the dissolution of the
union by the death of her husband, divorce, or
separation. The probability of rupture for mar-
ried women is less than for other types of union.
For this reason, matrimonial status up to the age
of 35 plays an important role: if a woman is not
married at this age, there is little likelihood that
she will still .have children, because the chances
are few that a man will choose, her for a union.
So far I have reasoned as if the regulation of
fertility were still entirely natural. This is no
longer the case, although at present birth control
has minor implications since so few women are
able to use a contraceptive method with success.
In this respect there is little difference between
married and unmarried women. It will not re-
main insignificant in the future, however, be-
cause contraception will certainly spread through-
out the whole population. The desire for con-
traceptive methods is strong, and the obstacles to
their diffusion do not seem insurmountable. In
this eventuality, how will fertility evolve? The
answer will depend partly upon the evolution of
matrimonial customs.
Already in the past half century, the age at
marriage has fallen, while the proportion of
persons who have never married has decreased.
These factors favor a rise in fertility (or, if one
prefers, a slowing of the drop in fertihty).
It will be important to know the trends in the
other types of unions. For the moment, our ob-
servations do not permit any conclusions on this
point. Principally, evolution in the marriage pat-
tern is a response to the wishes of women, who
desire a stable union in which responsibilities
(toward children, for example) will be more
equally divided. That is why I believe that, in
the future, marriage will become the type of
union in which the concerns of the women will
be taken into consideration, and their "family
plan" best facilitated.
59
^v ^
• -' '. .'J. '. ■'■.'. " ■ .v«*"
i<: '■ '■ ,.
^fe«^
-K -s.>-
•a?!.
WORLD
POPULATION
One dot equals 100,000 people.
'r.-^^-^
3/=
■.?'-^;^
1970 1975 1980
3,631,827,000 4,021,863,000 4,456,949,000
1985
4,933,975,000
These population figures are the median
of three estimates made by the United Nations.
Africa
1970
344,415,000
1975
395,105,000
1980
456,453,000
1985
529,805,000
^"
"^^
1. Western
101,200,000
115,575,000
133,136,000
154,445,000
> n
^
2. Eastern
97,882,000
111,852,000
128,758,000
149,212,000
/
■ ny
3. Middle
35,893,000
40,385,000
45,787,000
52,463,000
\:.-
^/
4. Northern
86,608,000
101,459,000
■ 119,385,000
140,093,000 ,
~~'<i
5. Southern
22,832,000
25,834,000
29,387,000
33,592,000
V (
j-rya...
East Asia
929,932,000
1,011,210,000
1,095,357,000
1,181,722,000
%--
6. Mainland
765,386,000
832,387,000
901,354,000
973,026,000
/
,; 7. Japan
j 8. Other
103,499,000
109,948,000
116,347,000
121,346,000
( ^
61,047,000
68,875,000
77,656,000
87,350,000
\,
Jonth Asia
9. Middle
1,125,944,000
1,296,219,000
1,486,243,000
1,693,526,000
"',
761,809,000
875,462,000
1,001,045,000
1,136,874,000
'21
j 10. Eastern
11. Western
286,925,000
330,933,000
380,371,000
434,394,000
i
77,210,000
89,824,000
104,827,000
122,258,000
\
' .12. USSR
,1 f
242,612,000
255,584,000
270,634,000
286,882,000
\
•^- t-
.■■"■'^'. - ■ i
Europe
13. Western
14. Southern
15. Eastern
16. Northern
17. No. America
Latin America
18. Caribbean
19. Mid-America
20. Tropical
21. Temperate
Oceania
Australia,
New Zealand
Melanesia
Polynesia,
Micronesia
1970
462,117,000
148,619,000
128,464,000
104,081,000
80,953,000
227,572,000
283,251,000
25,783,000
67,431,000
150,659,000
39,378,000
19,371,000
15,374,000
2,767,000
1,230,000
1975
479,369,000
153,359,000
134,213,000
108,227,000
83,570,000
242,772,000
326,834,000
28,801,000
79,938,000
175,159,000
42,936,000
21,561,000
16,982,000
3,147,000
1,432,000
1980
497,061,000
158,214,000
140,059,000
112,392,000
86,396,000
260,651,000
377,170,000
32,145,000
94,704,000
203,591,000
46,730,000
24,024,000
18,785,000
3,583,000
1,656,000
1985
515,046,000
163,346,000
145,953,000
116,148,000
89,599,000
280,379,000
434,634,000
35,881,000
112,094,000
235,947,000
50,712,000
26,796,000
20,745,000
4,120,000
1,931,000
BIRTH AND DEATH RATES AND LIFE EXPECTANCY
Region
Birth-
Death
Life
Region
Bulh-
Death
Life
rate
Rate
Expectancy
Rate
Rate
Expectan
WORLD
34-35
14-15
55-56
East Asia
32-36
14-16
49-55
Africa
48
22
40-45
Mainland
34-39
15-18
45-52
Western
54
27
38-42
Japan '
18
7
71
Eastern
47
20
38-42
Other
36
, 12
63^
Middle
44
23
38-42
South Asia
44
18
46
Northern
45
19
47
Latin America
38
12
56
Southern
41
16
51
Caribbean
39
14
51
Europe
18
10
71
Mid-America
44
11
55
Western
18
11
71
Tropical
40
12
54^
Southern
20
9
70
Temperate
25
9
69
Eastern
16
9
70
Oceania
25
11
65
Northern
18
11
72
Australia, New Zealand 20
9
71
USSR
18
7
70
Melanesia
45
20
38-42
Northern America
20
9
71
Polynesia, Micronesia 40
10
50-55
Birth and death rates are per 1,000 persons. Life expectancy is in years. All figures are for 1965, the most recent
year with complete data.
X
15 Billion
A.D, 1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
1970 2000
2100
ONSTRAINTS
ON THE SPECIES
Thomas Robert Malthus posed the problem
when, in 1798, he wrote: "The power of popula-
tion is indefinitely greater than the power in the
earth to produce subsistence for man.
"Population, when unchecked, increases in a
geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in
an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with
numbers will show the immensity of the first
power in comparison of the second.
"By that law of our nature which makes food
necessary to the Ufe of man, the effects of these
two unequal powers must be kept equal.
"This implies a strong and constantly operat-
ing check on population from the difficulty of sub-
sistence."
Man has, for the past two centuries, disproved
Malthus. Since he wrote An Essay on the Prin-
ciple of Population the number of men on earth
has increased from one billion to three billion.
The graph of world population on page 62 shows
clearly that the species has grown more rapidly
than at an arithmetical ratio. The best estimates
of the Population Division of the United Nations
indicate that this growth will continue into the
next century.
Man's ingenuity has disproved Malthus's argu-
ment that a shortage of food would act as a con-
stant check on the population. In this century —
particularly in the past two decades — technologi-
cal advances in agriculture have enabled man to
produce more than enough food — for himself and
for future bilHons. In technologically advanced
regions, such as the United States and Europe,
the steady surplus of food has led to a reduction
in farmland and farm labor. The introduction,
during the last few years, of new seeds and more
productive farming methods to Asia has already
had a major impact on output, and raises the
possibility of a surplus of food production there
in the future.
Since he has been so strongly disproved, why
do the ideas of Malthus persist? The answer is
simple: Because Malthus was right — in principle.
Man has the ability to reproduce at a geometrical
ratio; and if man continues to do so unchecked
for many generations, he will produce more than
the earth can hold. Recent developments, which
Malthus and most men of this century had not
fully foreseen, indicate that food is not a check
on the size of man's population. A crucial ques-
tion for man today is: What are the significant
constraints on the growth of the human species?
The Population Division of the United Nations
has in the most tentative terms advanced a figure
of 1 5 biUion as the upper limit of human popula-
tion on earth. The uncertain projection on the
graph of world population shows a trend toward
this figure in two centuries. This is only the gross-
est of estimates, and as yet no one has clearly
analyzed the constraints or the processes that will
bring about the inevitable reduction in the rate of
man's growth.
* * *
In the following three articles, some of the
constraints on man are discussed. Dr. Kendall W.
King of the Research Corporation, a foundation
for scientific research, shows in a detailed study
of food supply in the Dominican Republic that
the warnings of Malthus have immediate signifi-
cance in parts of the less developed world. Gor-
don Harrison, officer in charge of the Ford Foun-
dation's Resources and Environment Program,
states that the constraints on population may be
linked to the production and consumption pat-
terns of modern man. He also asks if man may
not already have an excess population. Finally,
Natural History editor John P. Wiley, Jr. ana-
lyzes the possibilities for expansion of the species
to other planets, and concludes that the cost and
especially the great distance eliminate the possi-
bility of a solution outside the biosphere for the
problem of man's growth.
(>3
Malnutrition
in the
Caribbean
by Kendall W. King
Research Corporation
The ecologist tells us that the ability' of a
species to adjust to its ecosystem determines
its chances oi survival. We accept this readily
in terms of other species: the highly developed
reptiles once so numerous on the earth, but now
extinct because of their inability to cope with a
climatologically changing environment; or the
jackrabbits. which deplete the resources of their
range through overpopulation, then die back to
manageable numbers by famine, disease, and
predation.
It is harder for us to accept that man, hke his
sister species, exhibits these same phenomena.
Yet, it is fruitful for us to look at many of our
critical contemporary problems in this perspec-
tive. The conditions that have led to the almost
universal shortage of food in the tropical belt
can be useful examples for the study of man's
maladjustment to his environment. Data from a
1969 national nutrition survey in the Dominican
Republic demonstrate that point clearly.
In large areas of the world, man is increasing
his numbers at a rate that forebodes famine
should even relatively local drought or storms oc-
cur. In other large areas he is concentrating huge
masses of his species into such compact urban
centers that he is fouhng his own environment
to the point where it may well become unlivable.
For the past two centuries the species has im-
posed on its environment stresses of a kind, or
at least an intensity, that are completely new.
Sea lanes have been carved through the land
masses at Suez and in Panama. Instantaneous
verbal and visual communication has become
worldwide. Fungi, once useless pests, have been
coaxed into massive fermenters producing the
antibiotics that permit control of many killer
diseases. Chemists have tailor-made new mole-
64
cules, some bringing the scourge of malaria un-
der control, others boosting both the quahty and
the quantity of the food supply to new highs.
Geneticists have given us animals and plants of
unimagined agronomic value. One-by-one, the
mightiest river basins of the world are being con-
trolled.
But negating the benefits of all of these
achievements are other events. By bringing medi- ■
cal care to primitive people, we have prolonged
life so dramatically that the population growth is
ominous. Misuse of potent agricultural chemicals
threatens to overbalance their value. We have
built atomic weapons to kill ourselves and added
nerve gases and biological warfare agents to
clean up the unhappy survivors. We make war as
never before. The human institutions by which
we do these evil or foolish things are essentially
the same as those through which we ameliorate
the harshness of our environment.
Looking at this ineptitude in our use of insti-
tutions makes me wonder if we aren't fumbling
as pre-man must have when, over hundreds of
thousands of years, he gradually brought use of
his opposing thumb under control. The complex-
ity of thought necessarj' to create and manage an
institution being so many orders of magnitude
greater, it is small wonder that the mind is so
slow to bring institutions under control.
Nowhere is this need for searching thought
more apparent than in connection with the gap
between the world's supply of food and the num-
ber of mouths to be fed. Malthus may have been
clairvoyant, or he may have been dead wrong
because of an underappreciation of the capacity
of man as a species to analyze his condition and
then plan for its amelioration.
There is no one world food problem, and there
is no one answer. There are innumerable prob-
lems and as many possible answers to them, but
the answers cannot profitably be appHed until
the problems are understood. Any attack on mal-
nutrition requires careful study, country-by-coun-
try (and in large countries, region-by-region).
The aims of such a study are to learn what kinds
of malnutrition exist, how severe they are,
among what population groups they are found,
w
and what factors are contributing to the condi-
tion. Without this solid basis of fact a reasonable
attack cannot be formulated. After all, an attack
on malnutrition really boils down to an attempt
to adjust the position of man in an ecosystem.
An example of this approach is a national
nutrition survey undertaken in the Dominican
Republic in the summer of 1969. It is, perhaps,
the most comprehensive nutrition survey that has
been completed, taking six months of planning
and seven weeks of intensive field effort. A sur-
vey of this type has purposes far beyond the
simple documentation of malnutrition. To be
sure, the conspicuous effort is to learn what kinds
of malnutrition exist, how severe they are, and
among what groups of people they are most com-
Primitive wood carving.
Ivory Coast, Africa.
mon. Collecting this information requires the in-
put of clinicians, nutritionists, and biochemists.
It is also the purpose of such surveys to develop
practical programs to control malnutrition, and
to do that requires understanding of a maze of
local cultural traditions; economic, legal, and
educational systems; and the whole complex
known as agribusiness.
The team was organized into a number of
parties. The clinicians in the medical party ex-
amined a large number of people, using an ex-
tensive, specialized technique to detect nutri-
tional deficiencies. The anthropometric party
measured height, weight, and a variety of head,
chest, and arm dimensions. Photographs of the
glowing of the skulls when exposed to a strobo-
scopic flash from an 1 1 ,000-watt light measured
the normalcy of brain and cranial development
of young children. From every tenth subject
blood and urine specimens were obtained for
chemical analysis of 17 indices of nutritional
status.
A dietary survey party daily measured every
scrap of food eaten by 150 representative families
and gathered information on their food attitudes.
From these data and reference tables they calcu-
lated the actual nutrient intake. As a further
check on the authenticity of the reference tables,
they prepared a series of composite daily diets
cooked in the traditional way for chemical analy-
sis of all vitamins, minerals, and amino acids.
A food technology party studied the whole
spectrum of the food-processing industry, and the
infrastructure on which it depends, in order to
learn the present quality and production volume
of the industry, its credit and capital problems,
and the influence of existing laws on it. This
party also studied the importation and exporta-
tion of food, and the status of wholesale and
retail food enterprises.
An agricultural economics team investigated
the status of agribusiness on a wide basis, in-
cluding production and marketing practices, land
use and land tenure traditions, laws, rural credit
programs, the scope of the agricuUural extension
service activities, import and export systems, and
tax and other legislation bearing on the food
supply.
Eleven localities were studied, each selected to
give a balanced sampling of the country with
intentional weighting to low-income groups. In
all, 5,500 people were examined clinically and
65
550 biochemically. Thirteen hundred wrist X-
rays, which indicate the role of bone growth,
were obtained on children under five and women
who had had multiple lactations. Stroboscopic
cranial observations were made on 300 children
under two years of age. Complete dietary surveys
covered 150 families.
Final analysis of such a volume of data will
take many months, but already the findings re-
veal a picture of malnutrition that is typical of
the tropical belt and that clearly demonstrates
how badly adjusted the human species can be to
its ecosystem.
Nearly 20 percent of the women have ad-
vanced goiter resulting from inadequate iodine
intake. Among children, as many as 34 percent
in some areas are so poorly developed as to be
regarded in an advanced stage of malnutrition.
In some areas 40 percent of the adolescent boys
had achieved less than 70 percent of their ex-
pected weight. Of the people studied biochemi-
cally only 2 percent had acceptable values for
the various vitamins, proteins, and minerals stud-
ied. Sixty-five percent of the subjects were below
normal in vitamin C, and 54 percent of the
people were anemic, apparently as a result pri-
marily of low iron intake. In eight of ten loca-
W0-'
tions calcium consumption was less than twO'
thirds of the U.S. National Research Council's
recommended allowances. The same was true of
riboflavin, or vitamin B2.
The picture, then, is one of widespread defi-
ciency, of not just one, but of nearly all nu-
trients. At the moment the majority of the peo-
ple appear to be eating enough to prevent the
appearance of clinical famine, but they are func-
tioning under suboptimal conditions and have
little or no nutrient reserves. A prolonged
drought or the loss of a major crop through hur-
ricane damage could precipitate overt starva-
tion. The country could deteriorate into the
present condition of Biafra in weeks.
Paradoxes in this situation convince me of the
fallaciousness of the idea that a free population
of uneducated people wOl optimize its relation to
the local food supply. Here we are confronted
with an island people so sapped by inadequate
iodine intake that advanced goiter is rampant,
and yet the iodine-rich resources of the surround-
ing sea lie essentially untouched. In a tropical
country where fruits rich in vitamin C should be
easily available, 65 percent of the population is
deficient in vitamin C intake. In a land of im-
mense productive potential, agronomic prac-
Dafly nutrient intake of low-
income men, 18-22
years old, in rural areas of the Dominican RepubSc
National
Canca la
Palmar
La
Mella and
Research Council
NUTRIENT
Piedra
Grande
Higuera
Augostura
Recommendation
Vitamin B2
mg.
1.4
l.l
1.2
0.36
1.6
Vitamin Bj
mg.
0.72
0.49
0.59
0.36
1.4
Niacin
mg.
8.4
4.2
7.4
4.1
18
Vitamin Bg
mg.
1.5
0.94
1.1
0.66
2.0
Folic Acid
mg.
0.26
0.058
. 0.069
0.076
0.4
Vitamin B^j
Mg-
3.6
0.87
1.6
0.70
5.0
Vitamin C
mg.
54
27
56
16
60
Vitamin A
I.U.
<1030
<787
<946
<581
5000
Vitamin E
mg.
2.4
3.5
5.9
2.6
22
Iodine
mg.
0.46
0.13
0.12
0.17
0.14
Calcium
mg.
480
280
390
120
800
Magnesium
mg.
240
160
200
130
400
Iron
mg.
11
5.6
10
6.5
10
Copper
mg.
0.75
0.51
0.60
0.37
2.0
Zinc
mg.
8.6
3.6
8.0
3.0
10-15
Total Protein g.
46
26
51
22
60-
mg.=mi]ligrams; fig
=micrograms;
g.=grams; I.U.
= international units
Data compiled from a typical daily intake of food prepared in traditional manner. Only four
cases meet National Research Council recommendations.
66
tices are so poor that gross deficits persist even
in the supply of calories and protein. As in most
parts of the tropical belt where large numbers of
people live on a subsistence agriculture, we are
confronted with reasonably well-fed adults in
homes where about half of the children die of
malnutrition and its sequelae during the first five
years of life. These contradictory situations are
not unique to the Dominican Republic or the
Caribbean. Rather, they are more or less de-
scriptive of life in the whole tropical belt.
Higher education and income levels alone do
not mean better nutrition. For example, in
Haiti, which borders the Dominican Republic
and has a similar physical environment, a large
number of peasants live in a subsistence agricul-
ture system. A detailed study of the nutritional
status of the rural Haitian compared with that of
the typical rural inhabitant of the Dominican Re-
pubhc showed surprising results. Though poor
by most standards, the Dominican peasant is
considerably wealthier and better educated than
the Haitian peasant, yet his diet is worse and his
nutritional status poorer. In both countries many
families usually have a supper of boiled plantain,
the green banana common throughout the . Ca-
ribbean. When you look into the Dominican pot
all you see in the boiling water is plantain; but
in the Haitian pot the plantain is mixed with a
variety of leaves and buds gathered from the
fields and roadsides. These extras add signifi-
cantly to the vitamin and mineral intake of the
Haitian peasants. The contrast demonstrates that
formal education and wealth do not necessarily
improve the adaptation of a people to their sur-
roundings.
The best specific approaches to correcting the
widespread malnutrition found in the Dominican
Republic can only be identified after greater
study of the data and discussion with Dominican
officials. Two conspicuous solutions exist, for ex-
ample, for control of goiters resulting from
iodine deficiency. One is to add iodine to table
salt; the other, to develop the seafood industry,
lodization of salt is only practical if essentially
all salt is processed at one or a few refineries,
and this is not the case in the Dominican Re-
public. Development of marine industry has its
drawbacks, too. It is not simply a matter of
launching boats and training fishermen but also
one of finding capital, developing docking and
processing facilities, expanding refrigeration
equipment and market outlets, and generating a
new food habit on the part of a whole nation.
On the other hand, the development of a fishing
industry could contribute to the solution of many
other nagging problems, among them deficits in
proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
In urban centers where the bulk of the food
moves through commercial channels, iron and
vitamin deficiencies can be attacked through for-
tification of basic foods such as corn, rice, and
wheat. Such an approach, however, would do
nothing for the 70 percent of the population that
live as subsistence farmers completely outside
the channels of commerce. For the latter, educa-
tion in the production and consumption of in-
digenous foods, which could provide an ade-
quate diet within their current limited means,
appears to be the only reasonable approach.
In any of these attempts to bring the condi-
tion of human life in the tropical belt into con-
cert with what the environment could produce, a
pervading problem recurs. Few institutions to
achieve this concert exist, and the people trained
in the necessary disciplines and experienced in
organizational management are usually in very
short supply. Attacking the problems involves,
in an elementary way, the creation of locally
adapted institutions and the education of people
who can function through them. This is inher-
ently a slow and complex process ultimately
leading to major changes in the relation of peo-
ple to their habitat.
The data from such surveys define the degree
to which specific populations of man are mal-
adjusted to their ecosystems. The problem does
not seem to me to lie simply in there being no
satisfactory niche or even in the available niche
being too small for the population. The dis-
crepancy between what is and what could be
appears to lie in the inept, naive, and largely un-
controlled use of man's singular survival-giving
asset, his brain.
Now that these problems can be analyzed,
man can begin to solve them. But even before
that, the organ that gave man his advantage
through invention of controlled fire, the wheel,
higher mathematics, controlled atomic reactions,
and institutions to achieve communally needed
tasks needs more than anything else to be re-
fined and disciplined. Only by exploiting his mind,
his one major evolutionary asset, can man over-
come the urgent crises of our age.
67
The Mess
of Modern
Man
by Gordon Harrison
Ford Foundation
Because of the evident reciprocal connection
between conservation and population
growth, it has recently become popular to ask
those concerned with degradation of the environ-
ment whether it might not be best if they spent
their time beating the drums for contraception.
Since I beUeve the human race has no problem
more important than checking its growth,
I cannot object to any new recruits to the cause
of reducing baby production. Yet there is a dan-
ger in pretending that numbers are the whole
problem. There is at least equal danger in the
corollary that measuring the capacity of the en-
vironment to support people can rationally deter-
mine how many people we should produce.
Air and water pollution; the mounting accu-
mulation of solid wastes; the esthetic desecration
of the countryside by jerry-built subdivisions,
shopping centers, billboards, and other commer-
cial gimcrackery; the extinction of wilderness
and wilderness dwellers by highways, motor-
boats, snowmobiles, and all the manifold instru-
ments of human restlessness; the extinction of si-
lence by airports and air hammers — all these
phenomena are lumped together as environmen-
tal deterioration and considered a plague of over-
population. But it is important that we distinguish
among these problems, for they have different
causes and invite different treatments.
The encroachment of people on unsettled land
is clearly the direct result of an increasingly large
and mobile population. This encroachment
threatens the existence of other species once
man's density reaches numbers sufficient to domi-
nate the environment. It is reasonable to assume
— although difficult to prove — that the human
race depends for its well-being on the preserva-
tion of a considerable portion of the web of life
68
on earth. How much is "essential" or how muc
might be destroyed without markedly impairii
the quality of human life are, so far as I knov
imponderables not now subject to scientific mead
urement. Ecological study that is trying to fini
the causes of stability in natural systems ma|
throw some light on the problem. With precis
knowledge of how energy flows through a natur^
system one might redesign such systems with di|
ferent components or repair them after one
more parts are destroyed. Ecologists are makit
progress in investigations that could lay the fouii
dations for a science of environmental manage
ment.
Almost no research, however, is under way on
the effects of the environment on man. We know
pretty well which poisons can kill us; we know
little about which may make us sick over long
periods of time; and. still less about what kinds
of environment are conducive to human well-
being. Does, for instance, the taste that persists
in city man for seeing & tree now and then in-
dicate a prejudice the urbanite could safely out-
grow or does it reflect a need basic to his nature?
Lacking the facts on man's dependence on his
environment, it is impossible to talk in any scien-
tific way about what residue of unspoiled na-
ture should be defended as the minimum for hu-
man welfare.
In man-space relationships the ratio of num-
bers to acreage is the essence of the problem.
However, many environmental problems, includ-
ing esthetic and chemical pollution, are not
caused by overpopulation and will not be cured
by birth control. The trouble is a flawed socio-
economic system — a system that concentrates on
production and consumption and regards residu-
als of production and consumption as somebody
else's business. Waste production is an integral
part of the economic process and must be thought
of, and dealt with, in that way. The dirt that pol-
lutes water and air is nothing but matter that has
become toxic or annoying because it occurs in
a setting where it is not wanted. Manure on the
farm fertilizes crops; in the lake it fertilizes ex-
cessive growth of algae. Hydrocarbons are in-
dispensable in the gas tank; a menace to health
in the air. Cans are great on the pantry shelf; a
great nuisance by the roadside.
Where there are few people in relation to the
land, the transforming and discarding of materi-
als is seldom a menace. We talk then of throw-
ing things away, and we think of "away" as any-
where we are not. But as people crowd together,
each backyard becomes somebody else's front
yard; there are simultaneously many more things
to throw away and fewer places to throw them.
Crowding, however, is not the essential problem.
The lack of dumping grounds is only a reminder
that we have a problem. The question that
should be forced on our attention if we are ever
to cope successfully with waste is how does waste
occur? is waste necessary? We do not ask this
urgently or sharply enough.
Many municipal officials, for instance, are wor-
ried about trash and garbage. But in everything
I've read and heard they are worried almost ex-
clusively about its disposal. The existence of sol-
id waste is accepted as one of the facts of modern
hfe. So long as the question is how to get rid of
waste, the best answer we can hope for is short
run. Since most of what we use ends up as solid
waste, economic production is converting raw
materials into garbage. It follows that in time we
will be hterally living in garbage. Moreover, the
demands of an affluent society speed up the con-
version process in two ways: first, simply by pro-
ducing more goods and, second, by producing
goods of ever shorter usefulness. For instance,
packaging manufacture — a rapidly growing in-
dustry— specializes in converting materials into a
form that may have only a few minutes of utility,
such as the paper bag brought home from the
grocery.
To solve the solid waste problem we must first
ask how we can check the generation of waste.
That question presents government, industry, and
consumer with a choice of poUcies for making
effective changes in production and consumption
— changes that will reduce the volume of what
finally has to be thrown away. If consumers had
to face the real cost of disposing of disposable
bottles, they might forgo the convenience of using
them. Producers might reconsider the cost of re-
covering and reusing materials if the costs of
burying them in the front yard and of exhausting
the sources of fresh supply were counted properly
among the costs of production. Government tax
policies, including both penalties and incentives,
could decisively influence such decisions by the
private sector without resort to direct controls.
My point, however, is not to offer solutions but
to suggest the importance of asking the right
questions.
Considering only the waste disposal problem,
there seems to be no reason why a society cannot
be operated with a high quality environment at
any population density. Since costs increase sub-
stantially as one approaches complete recycUng,
high production costs and, therefore, a lower
standard of living probably would occur at high
densities. But pollution inherently does not im-
pose a first constraint on population growth in
this country. Long before the economic pinch of
keeping the environment clean constricts human
numbers, we will have populated such a high pro-
portion of land that the green world we take for
granted will be radically changed.
I do not know (and I think no one knows)
what the consequences of these changes may be
for the quality of human hfe. Possibly men can
adapt. But why should they have to? Why
should we run the risk? What is the advantage of
so increasing our population? Why should we
wish to extinguish the green world?
Rather than ask how many people the world
can support, a rational policy might better ask
what minimum number is needed to populate and
operate a humane civilization. Most countries
have no reason to want a larger population and
stand no chance of profiting thereby. The prob-
lems of coping with added numbers in cities,
schools, highways, parks, airports are apparent.
The optimum population for many countries is
almost certainly somewhat less than they now
have. It would be difficult to prove by any stan-
dard that more might be better even though more
is inevitable. The real constraints on population
growth are already in effect; we do not have to
wait for a more crowded tomorrow.
69
space:
A Barrier
to
The Species
by John P. Wiley, Jr.
Natural History
The good earth is not the only place in the
universe where man can live. He probably
can survive on at least one other planet in our
solar system, and it looks more and more as if
there are any number of planets in our galaxy
with earthlike conditions — all man has to do is
find them and get to them.
As the 1970's begin the problems and, more
importantly, the costs make wholesale emigra-
tion to other planets a topic for discussion, rather
than a plan for action. As of today man has the
basic knowledge — if not the technology — he
needs. In our solar system, he knows he can do
it. Moreover, the history of the species is clear
on exploration: If man can go someplace even
with great difficulty, he does. He has crossed the
Bering Strait and walked 10,000 miles, sailed the
Pacific in small boats, died reaching both poles,
descended six miles into the ocean, flown to the
moon. It seems unlikely that he will stop now.
Technology does not worry him. He has gone in
a single lifetime from Kitty Hawk to the Sea of
Tranquillity, and has no reason to think he has
reached his limit.
Man has walked on the moon and found no
unpleasant surprises there. By astronomical
standards the moon is but a step away; the price
of a round trip could drop to $10,000 per pas- '
senger by the end of the century. It is even con-
ceivable that man may learn to "hve off the
land" in some future lunar colony, using solar
energy to extract oxygen from rocks and raising
his food in greenhouses.
Mars is so nearly suitable for life that specula-
tion continues over whether it exists there now
Mars has traces of an atmosphere and clouds anc
is near enough to the sun to enjoy temperatures
as high as 75 degrees Fahrenheit. It, too, is rela-
tively close to earth.
Other possibilities in our solar system include
Ganymede, one of the four bright moons of
Jupiter, and Titan, a moon of Saturn. Both are
as large as Mercury, and both offer some evi-
dence of atmospheres. Beyond the solar system
lie a hundred biHion more stars in our galaxy.
According to currently accepted theory, many of
these are accompanied by planets, of which a
significant portion would be earthlike. The the-
ory has been strengthened by the detection of i
"unseen companions" with planetlike masses cir-
cling half a dozen nearby stars.
Armed with this knowledge, man is moving
into space. As he learns, space travel will become
both easier and cheaper. Engineers are now at
work on two developments that will mark a
transition from clumsy first attempts to more so-
phisticated methods of exploration. One is nu-
clear engines; the other, reusable rockets.
Fuel requirements for trips beyond the moon
are staggering. A round trip to Mars using the
now conventional liquid hydrogen and oxygen
would require millions of tons of fuel. Nuclear
engines, however, develop six million times the
energy for the same weight of fuel and would
reduce fuel requirements to manageable propor-
tions. The United States is testing experimental
nuclear engines, and expects to have operational
models ready by 1977.
Today, manned space flights are incredibly ex-
pensive demonstrations of brute-force rocketry.
Rockets are used only one time; each stage, with
the exception of the last, burns up on re-entry
into the atmosphere. Imagine what a coast-to-
coast flight would cost if the plane were used
only once. Costs will drop sharply once space
stations are in orbit and reusable rockets shuttle
between them and the earth.
An orbiting space station is critical not only
as a basic step toward cheaper space flight, but
also as the laboratory in which we will learn
whether man can survive long periods in space.
Fourteen-day flights allayed our worst fears about
the effects of weightlessness and the dangers of
the space environment, but we still do not know
what would happen on a two-year voyage to
Mars.
70
Weightlessness is no longer viewed as a poten-
tial barrier, but as a problem. On fourteen-day
flights work tolerance was cut up to 25 percent
as cardiovascular systems weakened; body weight
dropped by as much as 6 percent; bones lost cal-
cium and other minerals; and blood volume and
red blood cell mass shrank.
High-energy radiation — cosmic rays, solar par-
ticles, and gamma, X, and ultraviolet rays — is
the most exotic danger to be faced. (Passengers
making transpolar flights on supersonic trans-
ports will face the same dangers to a lesser de-
gree.) Radiation demolishes certain biological
molecules, particularly in blood-forming tissues
and bone marrow cells. It also damages repro-
ductive cells. Worse, the eflfects are cumulative.
A dosage that can be tolerated for a month may
be fatal if endured for a year.
Shielding, the obvious answer to radiation on
earth, is anathema on a rocket because it means
extra weight. The surface of the earth is pro-
tected by its atmosphere, a natural shielding
equivalent to about thirteen pounds for each
square inch of surface. Shielding in the Apollo 1 1
command module was equivalent to only about
one-fiftieth of a pound per square inch.
Other dangers are equally real, if less likely.
That old favorite of science fiction writers, col-
lision with a swarm of meteors, has happened to
at least one United States space probe. The sud-
den cabin decompression resulting from a fair-
sized hit would cause a dramatic, but survivable,
emergency for a crew.
Doctors aboard manned space stations will be
looking for other problems as well. What hap-
pens to the circadian rhythms apparently so
firmly impressed in the bodily functions? Will
psychic aberrations set in when men are cut off
from normal sensory input for long periods of
time?
More prosaic problems must be solved for long
flights. Moon-bound astronauts carry their own
air, water, and a succession of picnic-type
lunches. Their various life-support systems are
open cycle; they use oxygen and water only once
and discard waste products. On long flights, it
will not be practical to carry enough supplies for
the entire trip. Cycles will have to be closed so
that every resource can be used again and again.
For walks of several hours on the moon, an
astronaut carries a backpack weighing (on
earth) about 125 pounds. The life-support system
in the Apollo spacecraft, designed for 10 days,
weighs 1,100 pounds. Oxygen accounts for 640
pounds of this weight. For a trip to Mars, each
man will require an estimated 1 0 pounds of food
and oxygen per day. If six men have to spend
600 days on the round trip, this wiU amount to
18 tons.
Getting there is only part of the problem. Much
of our solar system is off Umits to man and
probably will remain so. Mercury has no atmo-
sphere and daytime temperatures are hot enough
to melt lead. Venus's atmosphere of carbon di-
oxide is so dense that light rays are bent around
the planet; surface temperatures reach 800 de-
grees. The Martian moons, Phobos and Deimos,
are so small that they do not have strong enough
gravity to retain an atmosphere. Some of the
asteroids are larger, but none is more than a few
hundred miles across.
The major planets are cold hells. Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune have atmospheres
rich in hydrogen, heUum, ammonia, and meth-
ane; temperatures range downward from 225
degrees below zero. Pluto is 4 bilUon miles from
the sun; if it has any free oxygen, it must be
frozen.
Man appears to be left with the moon and
Mars. If he learns to live in temperatures far
colder than any ever experienced on earth, he
may extend his range to Ganymede and Titan.
The moon and Mars are so inhospitable, how-
ever, that they may never be more than tem-
porary homes for small bands of hardy scientists,
the kind of men who sign up for stays in Antarc-
tica. Aside from the cost of transporting large
numbers of people to them, the moon and Mars
are nearly impossible to colonize because of the
scarcity, if not absence, of water and oxygen,
and the presence of such hazards as unscreened
radiation.
The moon has no atmosphere and gives no
sign of water or life. Surface temperatures range
from 250 degrees above zero to 250 below. A
person standing on its surface is subject to radia-
tion, solar-wind particles, even the hazard of me-
teoroids streaking along at five miles a second.
Oxygen abounds in the rocks brought back by
the Apollo 1 1 crew; presumably some way could
be found to use solar energy to extract it. But
none of the samples contained any water or evi-
dence that they had ever been exposed to water.
And even if the moon were more easily inhabit-
1
71
able, it never could become another earth in
terms of population: its total surface area is only
about that of Africa's.
Although Mars remains the best prospect in
the solar system for inhabitation, its assets are
minimal. In his enthusiasm for the planet, man
tends to forget that if he stepped out onto its
surface without protection, he would not last
long. Mars is smaller, colder, and harsher than
the earth. Its explorers will face these hardships:
While summer noontime temperatures on the
equator rise to 75 degrees, during ihe night no
place on the planet is warmer than 32 degrees,
and in some parts, the temperature may sink to
150 degrees below zero.
The atmosphere is extremely thin. Its pressure
at the surface is about that found on earth at
100,000 feet.
Because the atmosphere is so thin, the Martian
surface is bombarded with radiation.
Lack of water is another serious problem.
Water vapor is estimated to be 200 times less
abundant in the Martian atmosphere than it is
in the earth's.
Free oxygen appears to be scarce.
The larger moons of Jupiter and Saturn are
often mentioned as possible sites for future hu-
man colonies. Man knows Uttle about them, al-
though he may learn more when Pioneer space-
craft fly by Jupiter in the mid-1 970's. It is certain,
however, that they are colder than anything in
human experience; surface temperatures are be-
lieved to range downward from 200 degrees be-
low zero. The four large moons of Jupiter show
enough surface markings in telescopes for astron-
omers to say they rotate only once in a revolu-
tion around their planet, just as the moon does
around the earth. This means that darkness lasts
for days and weeks, producing still colder tem-
peratures.
Thus the solar system appears to offer only
Umited possibilities for extending the range of
the species. The rest of the galaxy is something
else. Many, even most, stars have planets and
some of these must be habitable. A Rand Cor-
poration study in 1964 estimated that the chances
of finding a habitable planet within 22 Ught-
years of the sun are 4 in 10. The same study esti-
mated the odds of finding a habitable planet
around Alpha Centauri — the closest star — at 1 in
9. But travel to the stars is not Uke travel to the
planets; it is far more difficult.
Distance is an immense barrier to interstella
travel. When astronauts kick out of earth orbi
on the way to the moon, they accelerate to 25,001
miles per hour. Even if they could maintain tha
speed, which Apollo craft cannot, it would taki
125,000 years to reach Alpha Centauri.
This kind of distance presents two basic prob
lems: how to go and where to go. From th(
earth, planets circling other stars cannot be seen :
Large planets can be detected by indirect means
but man has yet to determine their size anc
density, what, kind of atmosphere they have (L
any), and their temperature. The fight from such
a planet is overwhelmed by the fight from its star.
Although they are one or two hundred milfioci
miles apart, they appear almost immeasurably
close when seen from a distance of triUions of
miles. ^^
If an interstellar ship carries a 60-inch tele-
scope, the crew will not be able to detect and
study planets until the ship comes within a fight- ;
year of a star. Changing these numbers does not '
efiminate the gamble inherent in such a trip. The
crew will not know whether there is a habitable
planet orbiting the target star until it completes
the bulk of the trip — a journey almost certain to
be one-way.
How to know where to go is peripheral to the
basic, unsolved question of how to get there.
Technology and economics are not the fimiting
factors; the fundamental laws of physics stop us.
You must have a given amount of energy to ac-
celerate a given mass to a given speed; there are
no shortcuts To achieve a speed that wiU get-
man to the nearest stars in centuries or even
decades instead of millennia, the energy needed is
on an astronomical scale.
How great are the distances? If we put the
earth and sun — actuaUy 93 milfion miles apart —
on a table top with three feet between them, the
nearest star is 140 miles away. Imagine crossing
such a void.
Chemical rockets are out; it takes five pounds
of chemical fuel to lift one pound of payload out
of the earth's gravity. This does not sound too bad,
not until you realize that you then need more fuel
to fift that first five pounds of fuel. The Saturn 5
weighs 3,100 tons at lift-off; of this, 2,885 tons is
fuel.
Nuclear fission engines are six million times
more efficient but the fuel (heavy elements, such
as uranium, that are broken down) is very ex-
72
')ensive. Nuclear fusion is more efl&cient and the
uel (light elements, such as hydrogen, that are
used together) is 1,000 times cheaper. Some day
nan may find a way to control fusion reactions
md build engines using them.
Edward Purcell of Harvard has calculated that
I perfect nuclear fusion engine could accelerate
I starship to 0.98 of the speed of light — if its
akeoff weight were a billion times its final
veight. Chemical reactions release the energy of
)onds between atoms; nuclear reactions release
he energy of bonds between segments of atomic
luclei. The only way to take advantage of Ein-
stein's famous equation E = mc- is to convert
matter directly into energy. We know of just one
way to do this: bringing matter and antimatter
together so they annihilate each other. If we
could devise a way to store antimatter (you can-
not use matter to contain it, of course), we could
achieve 0.98 of the speed of fight with a ship that
originally weighed only fourteen times its final
weight. But to slow the ship down when the
destination was reached, then accelerate and de-
celerate again on the way back to earth would
require a takeoff weight 400,000 times the final
weight.
The best evidence today indicates that man
will never be able to travel at close to the speed
of light. Only ships designed to be the home of
innumerable generations will penetrate very far
into our galaxy. But if man accepts slower
speeds, he can someday make one-way trips to
the nearer stars.
Freeman J. Dyson of the Institute for Ad-
vanced Studies at Princeton has worked out the
arithmetic of using hydrogen bombs as a means
of interstellar propulsion (bombs are the only
way now known to release fusion energy). He
would use 300,000 bombs in ten days to ac-
celerate a ship with a payload of 50,000 tons to
5,000 miles a second. At this speed the travel
time to Alpha Centauri is a feasible 125 years.
In Dyson's scheme the bombs would be ex-
ploded every three seconds about six miles behind
the ship. Explosion debris would strike a hemi-
spherical pusher plate on the ship's stern and the
energy would be transmitted through shock ab-
sorbers to give the ship smooth acceleration. The
payload is large because Dyson assumes the ship
would carry several thousand colonists with all
their equipment and supplies for starting life on a
new planet. He does not foresee any great wave
of emigration thougli space; to send out a single
such ship today would, in his estimate, cost a
tenth of the U.S. Gross National Product. He
does not think the trip will be made at all until
its cost represents 1/10,000 of the GNP, the cost
of a Saturn 5 today.
With the rest of our solar system inhospitable
to life as we know it and with travel to the stars
problematical, man must lie in the bed he is
making on earth for the foreseeable future. No
one is planning to colonize other planets. But,
perhaps like the first organism to crawl up the
beaches from the oceans, man is taking his first
tiny steps into space. The United States is adopt-
ing a space policy that will allow it to decide in
this decade when to send men to Mars. The
Soviet Union, in its rare public pronouncements,
talks of space stations and flights to Mars. Man
may never extend his range beyond the earth,
but it will not be for lack of trying.
Earth rising over lunar landscape.
m
73
'
E FRUITFUL, AND MULTIPLY, AND
REPLENISH THE EARTH, AND
SUBDUE IT; AND HAVE DOMINION
OVER THE FISH OF THE SEA, AND
OVER THE FOWL OF THE AIR, AND OVER EVERY
LIVING THING THAT MOVETH UPON THE EARTH.
AND GOD SAID, BEHOLD, I HAVE GIVEN YOU
EVERY HERB BEARING SEED, WHICH IS UPON
THE FACE OF ALL THE EARTH, AND EVERY TREE,
IN THE WHICH IS THE FRUIT OF A TREE YIELDING
SEED; TO YOU IT SHALL BE FOR MEAT. AND TO
EVERY BEAST OF THE EARTH AND TO EVERY
FOWL OF THE AIR, AND TO EVERYTHING THAT
CREEPETH UPON THE EARTH, WHEREIN THERE
IS LIFE, I HAVE GIVEN EVERY GREEN HERB FOR
MEAT: AND IT WAS SO.
Genesis 1: 28-30
74
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A BIRD IN THE HAND
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'C'laniingos— whether in Africa, America, Europe, or Asia— choose nesl
J- ing sites in shallow alkaline water, where they can find the tiny plan,
and animal organisms that make up their food supply. Normally, thesi -
sites remain water covered, but at times, they dry up, forcing the bird
to seek other food sources.
At Etosha Pan, a stream-fed salt lake in South- West Africa, an uni
usually hot winter caused the water to evaporate from the flamingos
nesting grounds before the young could fly. Without water and food, th
100,000 birds in the colony began to weaken and die. Those along tb|
fringes of the dried lake fell prey to lions, hyenas, and jackals. 1
Launching a rescue operation, local game rangers began transportinj |
the flamingos to Fischer's Pan, an amply filled lake twenty miles distant [
A crew of rangers and forty assistants set up temporary camps on diefi
dried flats of Etosha Pan; then using their hands and nets, they captured
about a fifth of the flock and loaded them into transport vehicles. Th^
operation succeeded in saving the flock of flamingos. '
Catching the birds by net was more efficient, but hand capture was'
more invigorating and spirited— at least for the rescuers.
re
X
--^^-^
^;fc«,i».JLffi«-^^.-- \
everqreer
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/
rev I e w
by Lorus J.
and Margery Milne
In autumn, most of the familiar
trees and shrubs of North Ameri-
ca lose their leaves in preparation for
winter. Herbaceous plants die back
to their roots, and annuals survive
only in their seeds. Evergreens, how-
ever, continue to photosynthesize as
long as the temperature permits them
to conduct water through their stems.
In spring, they have no need to wait
for new buds to unfold before bene-
fiting again from the life-giving light.
To be evergreen, a plant must keep
its living leaves for more than twelve
consecutive months— until new leaves
have opened. In the North Temperate
Zone we are used to the spectacle of
autumn colors, with golden aspens
and flaming maples contrasting with
such evergreens as pine and spruce.
In the Tropics, though, and in the
South Temperate Zone the evergreen
habit is the normal state of affairs,
for most plants are green in all
seasons. There, unless rainfall varies
widely— from deluge to prolonged
drought on a regular schedule— there
is no periodic need for plants to shed
leaves. Each leaf reaches old age on
its individual schedule and drops off.
The year has no fall to signal the
change from summer to winter, and
often no obvious springtime to greet
another period of rapid growth.
Thus, a tree or shrub that is decidu-
ous in Canada may "become" ever-
green if successfully transplanted to
a location nearer the Equator.
Most deciduous and herbaceous
plants have a fossil history of no
more than about 100 million years.
But most land plants with a history of
200 million years or more are ever-
greens. This has led scientists to be-
lieve that the long-lasting evergreen
leaves follow an ancient custom, and
that the deciduous habit is compara-
tively new and probably more
advanced.
In northern lands where snow
covers the ground to a moderate
depth each winter, the lowly plants
include many that are evergreen.
Like the trees, they are perennials
with strong stems. Tolerant of cold,
they get enough light through the
snow to melt any crystals in actual
contact with them, and to use in
photosynthesis. Next to their dark
green leaves is a thin layer of air al-
most saturated with water vapor and
rich in carbon dioxide, which dif-
fuses out of the soil where the agents
of decay are active throughout the
year. Thus, conditions are almost
perfect for photosynthesis, and these
evergreens may accomplish most of
their annual growth while snow is
still on the ground.
One of these diminutive ever-
greens is a common club moss,
known also as trailing evergreen, or
Christmas green, which the colonists
dug out of the snow each winter to
form into lasting wreaths or to deco-
rate their tables. Never sure of the
proper identity of this fern ally, they
also called it ground pine or ground
cedar. It is native to dry woods and
thickets in cool parts of the New
World and the Old.
Under the snow, the leathery Oval
leaves and red fruits of another ever-
green wild flower— wintergreen—
offered the colonists a pleasing aro-
matic flavor. (Today's wintergreen
flavoring is a synthetic substitute and
stronger than the flavor that anyone
exploring the forests can expect from
chewing the young leaves.) Ameri-
can wintergreen is a broad-leaved
member of the heath family, of a
genus (Gaultheria) unknown in Eur-
asia. The evergreen plant known
in Britain as wintergreen iPyrola)
is called shinleaf in. America; it be-
longs to a different but closely re-
lated family.
When broad-leaved, lowly ever-
greens from warm humid climates
are transplanted to regions where
winters are dry and cold, they are
more likely to retain their foliage
under the snow than above it.
English ivy (Hedera helix) , for in-
stance, survives as a ground cover
far north and inland (away from
humid coastal breezes) of its limit
as a vine upon the wall. Periwinkle,
or running myrtle (Vinca), from
southwestern Europe, and Pachy-
sandra, a member of the box family
(Buxaceae) from the southern Ap-
palachians, tolerate the cold as long
as snow protects them from desicca-
tion. By contrast, hedges of boxwood
( Buxus ] , from southwestern Europe,
and of privet (Ligustrurn) , from
Mediterranean countries, drop their
leaves and survive as deciduous
plants where the winter weather is
too dry for them to remain ever-
green. Decorative kinds of holly
{Ilex) are generally evergreen as far
north as they can be grown; other
hollies are regularly deciduous.
Rhododendrons and mountain lau-
rels are among the few broad-leaved
evergreens native to cold climates.
Their tough leaves are well adapted
to retaining moisture, to shedding
snow, and even to supporting a glaze
of ice from a freezing rain. They
have a heavy cuticle to keep their
upper surfaces waterproof, and com-
paratively few "breathing pores,"
stomata, through which water can be
lost. These features are more highly
developed among those evergreen
trees that have needles, scalelike
leaves, or mere prickles.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the
preponderance of needle-leaved trees
(and those with scalelike and prickly
leaves) have cones; botanists have
thus grouped them as conifers in the
order Coniferales. Pines, firs,
spruces, cedars, cypresses, and simi-
lar trees and shrubs belong to this
order. They are easy to recognize by
their leaves and cones, both of which
are loaded with sticky, aromatic
resins that rejjel most herbivorous
animals. Mature cones are usually so
hard and compact that the seeds
within are well protected. These are
borne, often in pairs, on the thick
8i
cone scales— modified leaves arising
in a tight spiral form from a short
stem. Only a squirrel is likely to tear
a cone apart, or a crossbill to use its
peculiar beak to reach in between the
cone scales and eat the seeds.
In the Southern Hemisphere, most
evergreen trees, while belonging to
the order Coniferales. do not have
cones. Instead, these pinelike trees
bear solitary, naked seeds that could
be mistaken for small plums.
Conifer is an appropriate term for
most evergreens and for those few
needle-bearing trees— the larches of
northern swamps, the bald cypresses
of the south, and the Chinese water
fir— that shed their leaves. (A little
care is needed to refer to these ex-
ceptions as "deciduous conifers,"
rather than the contradictory "de-
ciduous evergreens." )
Presently, the land plants of the
world are divided unequally between
about 675 species of gymnosperms,
plants with essentially "naked" seeds,
and more than 250,000 species of
angiosperms, flowering plants with
seeds enclosed in fruits of one kind
or another. These range from daisies
to sugar maples. The 675 gymno-
sperms include more than 520 species
of conifers, as well as about 100
species of ancient cycads, and the
maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba) .
The balance of the gymnosperms are
in three evergreen genera {Ephedra,
W ehvitschia, and Gnetum I . The
maidenhair tree and a handful of de-
ciduous conifers drop their leaves in
autumn; the rest are evergreen.
Cycads are primarily tropical trees
resembling tree ferns or small palms.
Their evergreen leaves, or fronds,
have a long central midrib, along
both sides of which narrow, glossy
leaflets extend and hang down. Cycad
fronds are marketed in many coun-
tries as "palms" to be carried on
Palm Sunday, taking advantage of
their remarkable resistance to wilt-
ing even when exposed to dry air and
hot sun. Not only are the outer sur-
faces glossy with a thick cuticle, but
the stomata are sunken in pits on
the underside of the leaflets. The leaf
stalk itself contains a system of mu-
cilage ducts from which an effective
sealing compound emerges when a
frond is detached from the plant, pre-
venting it from losing water through
its conducting tissues.
82
The commonest evergreen
"palms," grown in tubs in hotel lob-
bies around the world, are the cj'cads
Cycas revoluta, of southeastern
China and southern Japan, and
Dioon edule, of Mexico. Dioon plants
may be 1,000 years old by the time
they are six or seven feet tall. Their
starchy seeds can be ground into an
edible meal. Starch of the granular
sago type is commonly obtained
from the pith in the trunk of other
cycads. The only cycad native to
America north of Mexico is the
Seminole bread plant or coontie
(Zamia floridana) of southern Flor-
ida, which has a completely subter-
ranean starchy stem.
During the first half of the age of
reptiles, from 230 to 135 million
years ago, land plants consisted of
cycads and members of now extinct
gymnosperm orders, in addition to
tree-sized ferns, and fern relatives.
So far as we know, all of them were
evergreen. Herbivorous dinosaurs
found little else to eat. Yet in the sec-
ond half of the reptilian era (the
Cretaceous Period) the gymnosperms
were largely displaced by flowering
trees, shrubs, and herbs, except in
regions where the climate remained
cool for much of the year. There the
conifers remained dominant, and up-
held the evergreen habit to the pres-
ent day.
I n trying to account for the seem-
ingly sudden change toward produc-
tion of cones on the one hand and of
flowers on the other, scientists have
long hunted for some powerful factor
in the Cretaceous environment that
could have forced the appearance of
these novelties. Dr. Verne Grant, a
specialist on pollination who now
directs the Boyce Thompson South-
western Arboretum at the University
of Arizona, suspects that the new
feature was beetles. These insects,
which today comprise the most var-
ied and successful order of living
things, appeared and quickly diver-
sified during the Cretaceous Period.
Dr. Grant believes that they became
increasingly destructive to the repro-
ductive process in ancestral seed
plants. Seed plants needed new adap-
tive features to survive this on-
slauffht.
The conifers adapted by simplj
shutting out the insects. Developing
both hard parts and resin they con
tinued to rely upon wind to sprea(
their pollen and seeds. They retaine(
their habit of slow, woody grow ih
and evergreen foliage, which g
them many years to succeed in repro-
duction. The angiosperms enclosed
their developing seeds in a curl of
modified leaf and took animals into
partnership. With special leaves,
which we know as petals and sepals,
they attracted insects, birds, and cer-
tain mammals such as bats to a ban-
quet of sugary secretions (nectar)
and surplus pollen. The animals
evolved matching habits, visiting
flowers regularly and carrying pollen
from one angiosperm to the next.
Where the climate is always humid
and warm, the evergreen gymno-
sperms could scarcely compete with 1
the flowering plants, whose blossoms
were sought out by pollinating ani-
mals. The waxj'-leaved cycads held
out where the air was dry enough to
give them some advantage over the
broad-leaved angiosperms. The gym-
nosperms found their future chiefly
in areas where the soil was poor, in
the temperate regions, along the
fringes of the Arctic and Alpine
zones, and on remote islands to
which comparatively few kinds of
angiosperms had spread. Tolerating
the low humidity both winter and
summer, trees with needlelike leaves,
green scales, or prickles could >grow
in dense stands with little competi-
tion. Wind then could attend to their
pollination in the old-style way.
Conifers now make up more than
three-quarters of the world's gymno-
sperms. including all the well-known
and commercially important kinds.
They grow in a pattern resembling a
figure eight when plotted on a world
map. One wide loop stretches
across North America and Eurasia,
encircling the tundras around the
North Pole; the other skirts the
Pacific Ocean, including New Zea-
land and parts of Australia and
South America. Outliers in the south-
eastern United States, in the Alps and
other mountains of southern Europe,
in South Africa, and in Asia (partic-
ularly from the Himalayan slopes
to the mountains of Borneo) are iso-
lated relicts from a once broader
distribution.
Generally cooler weather during
the Ice Ages allowed conifers to
grow at lower altitudes and lati-
tudes, but they were largely replaced
by angiosperms as temperatures
warmed. Since the Ice Ages, mem-
bers of the pine family (Pinaceae),
have held their ground better than
most other conifers. Often the pines
form dense forests consisting chiefly
of one or two species of the family.
Some conifers have been almost
exterminated in their native lands.
The earliest record of such intensive
cutting relates to about 900 B.C.,
when King Solomon sent "four score
thousand hewers" into the adjacent
Moss-covered white fir, left,
growing with sugar pine and
incense cedar. Below, bald cypress.
m i^:
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"^ii i '^j
kingdom of Lebanon to cut impres-
sive cedars iCedrus libani) for the
construction of his temple. Only one
small protected grove of this famous
tree now remains in Lebanon, to
justify its display on the official seal
and flag. Stands of the same cedar in
less populated parts of Turkey are
being rapidly felled. Fortunately,
cedars of Lebanon have been intro-
duced into botanic gardens all over
the world and grow^ well far from
home.
Similarly, the largest forests of
Monterey pine iPinus radiata) to-
day are in New Zealand and South
Africa, where they have been set out
for afforestation programs on previ-
ously bare land. On its native
ground, the Monterey Peninsula, it is
an endangered species.
The principal coniferous forests
not yet exploited are in western
North America. Smaller areas grow
in some Asiatic parts of the USSR
and in Scandinavia. Elsewhere, sec-
ond-growth coniferous forests with
smaller trees have sprung up and
are now attaining commercial size.
At present in North America, a
system of "tree farms" for fast-
growing evergreens and the scientific
harvesting of forests have done
much to bring into balance the
rates of cutting and regrowth. In
most cases, though, these managed
areas bear only a remote resem-
Monterey cypress, left.
Giant sequoia with fire-
charred bark, below.
blance to virgin coniferous forests.
Many of the most commercially
valuable mature forests in the United
States are on lands administered by
the Forest Service. Commercial oper-
ators, mindful of the growing lum-
ber markets brought about by a
continually increasing human popu-
lation, keep seeking ways to gain
access to the trees on these public
lands. Today, however, when cutting
is authorized, as was recently done in
a national forest along the Yukon
River in Alaska, forest administra-
tors often come in for severe criti-
cism by a public with a growing
environmental awareness. They are
reminded that, in addition to func-
tioning as a source of timber, na-
tional forests have other uses: water-
shed protection, flood prevention,
-V-^w --T; I.
:>>^S^-^
■^^««fe
Bristlecone pine (oldest
living species), above.
Left, southern evergreens:
live oak and Spanish moss.
soil and wildlife conservation, and
as esthetic refuges for citizens fleeing
the urban environment. All these in-
terests are adversely affected when
lumbering operations begin.
Tall, straight pines are among the
most valuable timber trees. Each of
the world's ninety or so pine species
differs in the details of its needlelike
foliage, cones, resin, bark, and way
of growth. Each species fits the land
to which it is native. A forest of east-
ern white pine (Pinus strobus) is
magnificently adapted to the glaci-
ated rocky countryside of Maine and
other portions of northeastern North
America; one of longleaf pine {P.
palustris } to the sandhills of the Car-
olinas and coastal Georgia; one of
western yellow pine [P. ponderosa)
lo the cool mountain slopes of the
Rockies: and one of bristlecone pine
P. aristata ) to timberline heights of
mountains in California. Nevada,
Utah, and Colorado. Each partakes
of the environment where its ances-
tors have lived so long.
The eastern w hite pines grow close
together from tiny seeds with a
paper-thin wing. Wind propels them
and often drops them on land that
has been cleared by fire or man.
After a year they are an inch tall;
fter ten, perhaps a foot. Then, in
concert, they rise more quickly. In
another decade or two they are com-
peting for light. Their tops, exposed
to the sky, stay green. Their lower
branches die in the shade, and the
dead stubs drop off. Straight upward,
with no knots to mar the wood,
the pine rises as high as 220 feet.
During the seventeenth century, the
best of the eastern white pines were
reserved in the name of the King of
England and became masts for Brit-
ish naval ships. The tops, with the
long slender cones and the silky -soft
green needles, were left to rot on the
forest floor. The felled trunks were
hauled off on huge wheels to the
[nearest port. Today many a New
[England community still has a "mast
road" between the site of the pine
forest and the highway to the sea.
The bristlecone pine has a growth
pattern that contrasts sharply with
the eastern white pine. Situated on
the windswept mountain barrens, the
bristlecone's trunk and branches are
gnarled and twisted. This tree, sel-
dom exceeding a height of 30 feet,
retains its needles and clings to life
for an extraordinarily long time. The
foliage encircles the branch so far
back from the growing tip that set-
tlers spoke of it as a "foxtail pine."
For 4,000 years or more some part
of the tree may retain its youth, pro-
ducing new needles and cones each
year and adding another ring to the
record of its age. Eighteen bristle-
cone pines older than this have been
located and protected; one that was
4,900 years old. the oldest tree ever
found, was inadvertently cut down.
These patriarchs were seedlings
when the Great Pyramid was built in
Egypt. The woody skeletons from
dead bristlecones in the White Moun-
tains of California have made it pos-
sible for scientists to measure their
ring thickness, and hence to deter-
mine weather conditions as far back
as 6000 B.C.
The ponderosa pine forest that
crowns the Kaibab Plateau on the
north rim of Grand Canyon, isolated
from other forests by deep canyons
on three sides and by semiarid lands
to the north, has maintained its vir-
gin character. Here big squirrels
with tufted ears and white bushy
tails have evolved into a distinctive
species, found only among the ever-
greens on this one plateau.
^^cross the canyon, fourteen miles
away and 1,000 feet low er in altitude,
the more arid south rim supports an
entirely different pine forest. Instead
of 150-foot ponderosas, with great
open crowns and five- to ten-inch-
long needles in bundles of three (or
occasionally two I , and three- to six-
inch cones, the pines of the south rim
are barely forty feet high, their con-
torted branches more densely cov-
ered by needles and their cones less
than two inches long. Most are pifion
pines {Pinus edulis ) with two needles
in each cluster. Some are single-leaf
pines (P. monophyUa) with just one
needle at each site. Both produce
large edible seeds called pifion nuts,
which the Indians used to gather as
a winter food. Now these "Indian
nuts" are collected mostly for sale as
tourist novelties.
The number of needles in a cluster,
wrapped around at the base by a
membranous cuff, is a good guide to
the kind of pine. White pines have
needles in clusters of five: yellow
pines in clusters of three. The white
pines include the longest-lived ( the
bristlecones I . and the tallest I both
the western white pine. Pinus monli-
cola, and the sugar pine P. lamber-
liana attain 200 feet ) ; ihey also in-
clude conifers with the longest cones
(again, the sugar pine) . A sugar |)ine
cone eighteen inches long and six
inches in diameter is the ])erfect
trophy from an evergreen forest in
Oregon or northern California.
Yellow pines are now major tim-
ber trees, with western yellow pine
second only to Douglas fir in terms
of supplying raw timber. Eastern yel-
low pines contribute a slightly
larger volume, but consist of four
different kinds of trees in forests of
the American southeast. One of them
is the longleaf pine, whose wonderful
needles may be fourteen inches long,
\\ ith cones, six to ten inches in length
before they open. On seedling long-
leafs, the tufts of upright needles
thrust up through the tall grass, and
are said to be in the "grass stage"
when they survive as evergreens after
the grass itself withers and turns
brown for winter.
Those who enjoy strolling through
a pine forest will feel equally at home
in a western forest of Douglas fir
(Pseiidotsuga taxi folia I . which is not
a true fir despite its name. On the
moist Pacific slopes these trees grow
tall and straight to a height of 250
feet. They furnish more than a fourth
of the saw timber cut annually in
America— twice as much as any other
species. Only a coastal redwood or a
sequoia of the Sierra Nevada con-
tains a bulk of wood greater than
that of a big Douglas fir. On this tree,
each needle is flat and arises sepa-
rately on a short stalk. The reddish
cones, two to three inches long, have
a distinctive thin bract with three
projecting points accompanying
each cone scale— a positive identify-
ing characteristic of the species.
One could make a comfortable bed
of boughs from a \ oung Douglas fir
or from a pine. But for a fragrant,
needle-stuffed pillow, the choice
should always be true fir— never
spruce. True firs (Abies) and
spruces [Picea) are "look-alikes,"
with a similarly conical form while
young. They commonly grow in
mixed stands. But fir needles are soft
and rounded at the end. whereas
those of spruce are stiff and sharp.
Fir needles are too flat to roll easily
between finger and thumb, wliile
those of spruce are four-sided and
roll readily. On a fir. the needles are
attached broadly lo the stem; when
they fall off, they leave slightly de-
pressed oval scars. Their cones re-
main upright, and disintegrate in
place after the seeds ripen. Spruce
needles are borne on small woody
pegs that make the stem rough after
the needles drop. The cones are pen-
dent, and remain whole after the
87
seeds fall out, at which time they
tumble to the ground.
Firs are preferred for Christmas
trees, whether the Siberian fir {Abies
sibirica) of forests across Eurasia or
the balsam fir {A. balsamea) of the
yVmerican north woods. Almost a
third of the 25 million young trees
cut annually for the holiday season
in North America are balsam fir, so
named for the conspicuous blisters
filled with resin ("Canada balsam")
on its bark. Young Douglas fir ranks
second as a Christmas tree, followed
by other kinds of fir and spruce.
Opruces supply most of the pulp-
wood for the paper industry. One not
used in paper production, however,
is the Yeddo spruce (Picea jezoen-
sis) of Manchuria and Japan, often
grown in a pot and dwarfed artifi-
cially to become an artistic bonsai.
In the mixed woodlands of the
American northeast, one of the most
common evergreens is the hemlock
( Tsuga canadensis ) . another mem-
ber of the pine family. Old trees rise
only 60 to 70 feet. Their sturdy
trunks first attract boring insects and
then woodpeckers. The big pileated
woodpeckers thrive, in fact, where
old hemlocks are numerous and
where mature white pines are com-
mon. Working in winter and summer
on the evergreens, the birds cut rec-
tangular pits— as much as ten inches
high and five inches wide and deep-
to reach the insects, or they hollow
out nest cavities in the dead heart-
wood.
Old hemlocks, unlike other mem-
bers of the pine family, often retain
low, green-needled branches within
easy reach. Along the two sides of
each twig, flat needles spread deli-
cately, letting dry snow sift easily be-
tween them. Each needle narrows to
a short, slender stalk, where it is at-
tached to a small rounded woody
cushion of the stem.
Individual needles are inconspic-
uous on evergreens of the cypress
family, for they are small, scalelike,
or prickly, arising in pairs or whorls
and overlapping enough to conceal
the young stems altogether. We see
fuzzy branch silhouettes, rather than
single needles, when we walk among
the windswept Monterey cypresses
{Cupressus macrocarpa) of the Cal-
ifornia coast, or notice the reputedly
^seeping cypress ( C. funebris) of
China, ^vh!ch has been planted as an
ornamental in the Western world. On
an)' true cypress, the needles are only
about a sixteenth of an inch long,
blunt, and dark green; the hard
cones are almost spherical.
The soft and pale evergreen leaves
of arborvitae, '"tree-of-life" (Thuja) ,
overlap and press together tightly so
that this member of the cypress fam-
ily appears to bear flattened branches
without foliage of any kind. Our na-
tive eastern North American arbor-
vitae ( T. occidentalis ) . is known as
white cedar. The giant arborvitae
{T. plicata) of the Pacific Northwest,
is often called western red cedar.
This tree attains a height of 200 feet
and is the principal source of wooden
shingles.
In old pastures and second-growth
Ponderosa pine at left.
American wintergreen, or
teaberry, below.
woodlands of the northeast we find
the eastern red cedar. The half-inch
hard knobs on the branches of this
tree are not cones, but galls caused
by a parasitic fungus. After a sum-
mer rain these galls extend long, soft,
orange fingers from which the wind
picks up spores. Since the spores in-
fect apples and cause apple rust,
eastern red cedars are usually erad-
icated by orchard growers.
Neither white nor red cedar is a
true cedar of the genus Cedrits, a
genus that includes onlv four species.
Nevertheless, due to errors in early
naming of these trees, the common
names of several noncedars include
the term "cedar."
Actually, eastern red cedar is a
juniper ijuniperus virginiana) , be-
longing to a genus of the cypress
family in which the seeds are borne
in fleshy cones instead of hard, dry
ones. Known as juniper berries, these
fruitlike ''cones" are spherical, less
than a quarter of an inch in diam-
eter, blue-black, and coated with a
gray or pale blue waxy bloom. An
extract from the pulp is used to flavor
gin. Fruit-eating birds seek out juni-
per berries, swallow them whole, and
later drop the indigestible seeds.
This explains in part why the com-
mon juniper {J. communis) is found
on all sides of the North Pole, as one
of the few trees native to both the Old
World and the New.
The resinous odors of evergreens
appeal to our sense of smell as a fresh
and clean fragrance. Cedar oils, dis-
tilled from the wood and leaves of
red cedar trees, are added to many
household polishes. Yet the commer-
cial use of the word cedar has come
to signify only that a tree has aro-
matic wood. Cedar wood for chests,
closet linings, and cigar boxes comes
from a flowering tree of the mahog-
any family, native to the West Indies.
J
apanese cedar {Cryptomeria ja-
ponica I is a conifer with hard cones.
In addition to furnishing valuable
timber for use in the Orient, it is
carved into ornaments seen all over
the world. Particularly attractive are
the grotesque frogs and turtles in
various sizes, with the design empha-
sized by the coarse, alternately dark-
and pale-brown grain of the wood.
The tree itself seems to have evolved
in Japan and in adjacent China, and
lives only in that region. The bald
cypresses (Taxodium) and the Se-
quoias, which belong to the same
family, Taxodiaceae. are equally lim-
ited in distribution today, and are
generally regarded as endangered
species.
The wonderful Sequoias, which
include the tallest living trees, the
coastal redwoods, Avere given the
name of a Cherokee Indian who pro-
moted the culture of his tribe by de-
vising an alphabet (and who, to the
best of our knowledge, never laid
eyes on his evergreen namesake) .
The coastal redwoods (Sequoia sem-
pervirens ) , grow in a foggy belt
nearly 500 miles long, which paral-
lels the Pacific coast, but rarely ex-
tends inland more than 35 miles. The
tallest known redwood was discov-
ered in 1964. It measured 368 feet
tall and was nearly 21 feet in diam-
eter at the height of a man's shoul-
der. It seems incongruous that so
tremendous a tree should have
needles less than one inch long, as
well as cones of similar dimensions.
A mature redwood forest may be
parklike, with broad, mossy, fern-
covered avenues between the enor-
mous trunks, dimly lit by slanting
shafts of sunlight entering through
momentary windows in the canopy
high overhead. Or it may become un-
believably dense because these trees
send up sprouts from their roots that
form additional trees. An acre of red-
wood forest offers more cubic feet of
lumber than any other. The wood is
weak, but remarkably resistant to de-
cay in humid air. Its popularity for
construction work has led to exploi-
tation at a rate that may leave no vir-
gin redwood groves by the end of
the present century, except those in
national and state parks. Recently
commercial operators have speeded
up their cutting of trees 500 to 1,000
years old. to prevent their inclusion
in untouchable sanctuaries.
The big tree, or giant sequoia
(Sequoia gigantea, now often placed
in a separate genus, Sequoiaden-
dron ) has a trunk as much as 25 feet
in diameter, but is no more than 325
feet tall. Its egg-shaped cones are two
to three times as large as those of the
redwood, but its needles are shorter
and more pointed, unlike those that
give a redwood branch its feathery
appearance. The bark of a big tree is
as much as two feet thick. The heart-
wood of these trees generally decays,
making estimates of their maximum
age uncertain. A range of 2.500 to
3,000 years seems reasonable for
trees that are still producing an an-
nual crop of seeds. Only a few dozen
groves of the giants remain, how-
ever. Most of these are in protected
parks on the western slopes of the
Sierra Nevada in California, at ele-
vations of 5,000 to 8,400 feet.
Trees of such outstanding longev-
ity change little over the millennia.
Five or ten generations of giant se-
quoias could reach back to the end
of the Ice Ages; 70 to 100 genera-
tions would antedate man's begin-
nings. Like man, they outlived the
impact of the spreading glaciers.
Now they are challenged to survive
with man in a world far different
from the one in which they made
their beginnings.
Longleaf pine.
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\
PULSAR V\/ITH A PLANET Systematic var-
iations in the arrival time of radio bursts from a pulsar
have been detected, leading to speculation that a planet
circling the pulsar may be causing it to wobble in its
path.
A team at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico
found a three-month period in the variations of the
pulsar NP 0532 in the Crab Nebula. Allowing for every-
thing from the earth's motion to the known rate at
which the pulse period is changing, the astronomers
found the arrival times varied by 600 microseconds in
a pattern that repeated itself every three months. Such
a variation could occur if the pulsar were weaving in
its path, alternately moving closer to and farther from
the earth. The proper wobble would be induced in the
pulsar, they calculated, by a planet at least one-tenth as
massive as the earth circling the pulsar at about the
same distance as Mercury from the sun.
NAKED-EYE COMET During January a comet
that is expected to be as bright as third magnitude—
easily visible to the naked eye— will come into the view
of Northern Hemisphere observers only after it has
begun to dim toward the end of the month. But calcula-
tions made last October indicate that it may still be a
naked-eye object when it climbs over the southern hori-
zon, and it certainly will be visible in binoculars and
small telescopes.
Called Tago-Sato-Kosaka for its three Japanese dis-
coverers, the comet was the seventh of 1969. When first
seen on October 10 in eastern Ophiuchus. north of
Antares, the comet was a diffuse object of 10th magni-
tude. By mid-November it was moving rapidly south
toward Scorpius. The comet's orbit was inclined about
78 degrees to the ecliptic, and it was expected to circle
the southern half of the celestial sphere in nearly a
north-south direction before reappearing in northern
skies.
At least one subsequent comet was discovered in
1969. The Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams
received a delayed report from Soviet astronomers of
a 12th magnitude comet found in Leo last September.
Although Russians have codiscovered comets over the
years, this was the first all-Russian discovery since 1927.
A DECADE OF QUASARS Ten years have
passed since the first quasar was discovered by identi-
fying a radio source with a wispy, starHke object of 16th
magnitude on a photographic plate. Lately over-
shadowed in the scientific and public press by newer
discoveries, such as pulsars, the quasars remain a mys-
tery whose existence has revealed entirely new classes
of physical phenomena and whose solution will unravel
some long-standing cosmological knots.
The word quasar originally meant quasi-stellar radio
source, but its meaning has been broadened to include
92
radio-quiet, quasi-stellar objects as well. Recent revi
dehne quasars as starlike objects, often identified v
small -diameter radio sources, whose light is stronj
in the ultraviolet, whose radiation at both optical -i
radio wavelengths is variable, and whose spectra st
large red shifts that ordinarily would indicate gr
distances, great velocities, and great age.
Quasars are also numerous: most writers agree tl
at least a million are visible from earth. If quasars a
active only for a relatively short time, as many belie
then the total number of live and "dead" quasars m
be more like a hundred billion.
Beyond these descriptive facts few astronomers a
wilhng to go very far. Speculation continues, but t
pace of quasar work slowed perceptibly in the k
1960's. partly because of the attraction of newer d
covenes but also because many lines of quasar wo
had exhausted the available information.
After ten years, for example, astronomers are not su
whether quasars are the billions of light-years dista
indicated by their red shifts or whether they are rel
lively nearby objects whose spectral lines are red-shifte
by the Ooppler effect or by gravitation.
Why the interest? Quasars generate enormous quai
titles of energy in very small volumes. Not much largt
than a single star, a quasar may generate energy con
parable to that of a galaxy— a hundred billion star;
Astronomers are sure they are watching something the
have never seen before.
As the anniversary of the first quasar discovery come
up, Geoffrey R. and E. Margaret Burbidge, a husban(
and wife team that has made both theoretical and ob
servational contributions to quasar study, summarizec
the current situation in Nature, the British journal
From a weher of observations and conflicting theories
they were able to draw the few conclusions that have
met general acceptance.
The quasars are not, after all. a totally isolated phe-
nomenon. Rather they appear to be related to thJ
Seyfert and radio galaxies, characterized by ultra-activ^
nuclei. One may be the first step in the evolution of the|
other. The Burbidges say, "There is clearly a period in'
the history of a galaxy or a compact superstar when it
releases nonthermal energy in huge amounts, giving
rise to optical flux, infrared radiation and radio flux,
and excites large amounts of gas."
They also find it becoming clear that these "compact
masses" are somehow releasing gravitational ener<'y.
Agreement ends at the question of how the energy is
released. Stellar collisions, frequent supernova explo-
sions, and gravitational collapse all have been offered
as possibilities, but the Burbidges report that none has
found general favor. None is able to explain, for ex-
ample, how any of these processes could result in the
ejection of coherent clouds of ionized gas, a process
almost certainly going on.
John P. Wiley. Jr.
.^^.^-''"
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djddiaaiun "■-.-'.'
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/'%. \:'-^
The moon is in the morning sky until new moon on the
''th, then enters the evening sky. First-quarter is on the
L4th and full moon on the 22nd. Again in the morning sky
3t month's end, last-quarter moon is on the 30th.
Mercury and Venus are too close to the sun to be
observed in January. Mars and Saturn are evening stars,
both setting by midnight, and Jupiter is a morning star,
rising after midnight.
January 1: Earth is at perihelion — nearest the sun — at
a distance of about 91,450,000 miles.
January 2: Two bright objects near the crescent moon
this morning are Jupiter and Spica. Jupiter, the brighter,
js to the east (left) of the moon, and Spica, in Virgo, is to
the west (right).
January 3: Mercury is stationary and begins its retro-
grade (westward) motion.
January 4: Saturn resumes direct (eastward) motion in
January 8: Expect higher high tides with the new moon
close to perigee.
January 11: Mars is to the left of the waxing crescent
moon tonight.
January 13: Mercury is at inferior conjunction and
enters the evening sky.
January 24: Mercury resumes direct (eastward) motion.
Venus passes beyond the sun at superior conjunction and
enters the evening sky. The star close to the moon tonight
is Regulus, in Leo.
January 30: Jupiter rises near the last-quarter moon in
the morning sky.
Thomas D. Nicholson
• Hold the Star Map so the compass direction you face is at the
bottom; then match the stars in the lower half of the map with
those in the sky near the horizon. The map is for 9:15 p.m. on
January 1; 8;20 p.m. on the 15th: and 7:20 p.m. on the 30th; but
it may be used for about an hour before and after those times.
WEANING
GRIZZLY
BEARS
A report on
Ursus arctos horribilis
by A. Starker Leopold
On the night of August 13, 1967. two
young ivomen were killed by grizzly
bears at widely separated localities in
Glacier National Park, Montana. Al-
though these fatalities were the first
attributed to grizzlies in the U.S. na-
tional parks since 1916 (these ani-
mals generally keep their distance
from human beings ) , the Glacier in-
cident provoked articles in popular
publications asserting that parks
should be "made safe for people" by
eliminating the bears.
This proposed solution, however,
lacks both objectivity and sophistica-
tion, to say nothing of sensitivity.
Still, authorities responsible for the
welfare of both men and bears in the
National Park System have been
stimulated to reconsider the grizzly's
status and habits, and the natur
its encounters with people, so
steps can be taken to minimize
eliminate the tragic type of event 1
occurred in 1967, yet insure the t
tinned survival of this rare anima
The grizzly bear (Ursus arctos
the largest and potentially most do
gerous carnivore native to contirn
tal North America. It occurs in s
sorted sizes, from the giant brci
bear of coastal Alaska ( 1,-500 pou 1
or more) to the modest-sized M(i
can grizzly of the Sierra Mace
which generally weighs from 28Ci
500 pounds. All grizzly populati.i
seem to thrive best in wilderness s:i
ations far from human habitatii
The majorit\- of the grizzlv bears ;
maining in North America on
mostly in the wilder parts of .Via.-
and in the Canadian Rockies. As lc<
as wilderness haunts persist, the bii
will have a home in the northwests
quarter of the continent and v
probably escape extinction.
The most acute problem of griz;
conservation exists in the weste
half of the contiguous United Stal
and in adjoining parts of Mexi
94
'^'-:*5*!t
>« ♦■
, where the animal is now generally
Known as Ursus arctos horribilis) ,
Jlue to the presence of growing hu-
jaan population in these regions. The
rrizzlies once ranged from the Great
I Mains to the Pacific Ocean. They
Javored the foothills, brushlands. and
Tiver valleys, rather than the high
*nountains. Thus it was that Lewis
'nd Clark first encountered the
'great white bear" along the river
'lottoms of the Missouri. Similarly
'n California, the central valley of the
Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers
nd the attendant bottomland
thickets of valley oak and tule
i latches were prime grizzly range
'intil late in the nineteenth century.
' n these situations travelers and later
lettlers had more frequent contact
vith the grizzly by virtue of its occu-
Sation of the bottomland, than they
lad with the black bears { Ursus
'imericanus) . which tended to fre-
pent the mountains. Human settle-
aient in the western United States led
0 the rapid extermination of griz-
'dies over most of the native range.
The last general review of the
grizzly population of the United
States was made in 1950 b) 1>. i' .
Cooney, then with the Montana
Game Department. He estimated the
population in Idaho at 60 animals;
in Wyoming ( exclusive of Yellow-
stone National Park) at less than 50;
and in Montana at 450 ( excluding
Glacier National Park I . Recent esti-
mates of the park populations indi-
cate that there are 200 to 250 in Yel-
lowstone and 170 to 180 in Glacier
—the only two national parks that
still retain populations of grizzly
bears. Cooney thought that there
might be a few of the big bears left
in the states of Washington and Colo-
rado, although there is no recent evi-
dence from either state to support
this. The total grizzly population re-
maining in the western United States
is, therefore, less than 1.000 individ-
uals. In recognition of this marginal
status, the Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife in 1966 officially desig-
nated the grizzly bear a rare and en-
dangered species.
In Mexico, the status of the grizzly
bear is even more precarious. The
species originally was known in five
of the northern states: Coahuila,
Duraugo, Chihuahua, Sonora, and
Baja California. Exploitation of the
mountain areas by logging, mining,
and grazing led to persecution and
extinction of these animals, just as it
did in the western United States. In
the I950's a remnant population of
grizzlies was found to persist in the
Sierra del Nido — a small, isolated
range emerging from the desert of
central Chihuahua, just west of the
Pan-American Highway. Following
this discovery, the Mexican wildlife
authorities promptly placed the
grizzly on the list of protected spe-
cies. At the same time the Sierra del
Nido came under intensive study by
field parties from the Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology at the University
of California. It was hoped that the
whole mountain range might ulti-
mately be dedicated as a National
Wildlife Refuge by the Mexican gov-
ernment, and a biological survey of
the area was undertaken. But even
as the survey progressed in the early
1960's, the grizzlies disappeared.
One old bear— a large male, whose
rear track allegedly measured 16
inches— made the mistake of killing
an Angus bull on a ranch owned by
a "progressive" and determined busi-
nessman from Juarez. This rancher
then declared all-out war on bears,
distributing poison baits liberally
over the range. By 1968 no trace of
a living grizzly remained.
This seemed to mark the end of the
Mexican grizzly, a distinctive and
unique subspecies of the "silvertip"
as the grizzly is sometimes called.
But in 1969, a cattle rancher from
the upper Yaqui Basin of Sonora,
reported the continued presence of
grizzlies in the vicinity of his hold-
ings, situated along the crest of the
Sierra Madre some 100 miles west of
the Sierra del Nido. This rancher
(Mr. Ben Tinker) has made a gen-
eral policy of protecting tlie grizzly
bears in the vicinity of his ranch.
Field surveys of this area are con-
templated in 1970 by personnel of
the University of California. Based
on Mr Tinker's accounting, the
grizzly is holding its own— with a
population of several dozen animals
—in the rough country of the upper
Yaqui Basin, so perhaps there still
remains a chance to protect and re-
store a representative sample of the
Mexican subspecies.
The population of grizzlies inhab-
iting Yellowstone and Glacier Na-
tional Parks constitutes almost half
of the total population of the species
in the United States and Mexico.
These bears are the most secure from
either hunting or habitat destruction,
and it is within the parks that men
and grizzlies come into most fre-
quent contact.
After Yellowstone National Park
was established in 1872 and long be-
fore Glacier Park came into being,
the northern Rocky Mountains were
being hunted by commercial market
shooters. Much of the wildlife in the
vicinity of Yellowstone, for example,
was killed during the era of railroad
construction. Hunting in Yellow-
stone was not specifically prohibited
until 1887. Thereafter, regulation of
poaching was inadequate, but on the
whole the various kinds of native
wildlife began to recover, and during
the 1890's there w as definite evidence
of rehabilitation in game numbers.
In the park, both the grizzly bear and
the black bear increased irregularly
from the 1890's, when protection be-
96
came effective, until perhaps the
1950's, when the population stabil-
ized at levels of about 200 and 500,
respectively. Probably these are the
maximum numbers of bears that can
be supported by the available food
and space within the park.
One factor that may have had
some bearing on the increase in bear
numbers was the dumping of refuse
and garbage by tourist hotels, which
had become well established in Yel-
lowstone in the 1890's and somewhat
later at Glacier. This attracted the
bears, and made bear watching at
the garbage areas a popular form of
tourist entertainment that was looked
upon as an important element of
"wildlife management" by park ad-
ministrators of that era. In 1919 gar-
bage dumping was augmented by
the establishment of definite feeding
stations for bears at popular points
in Yellowstone. Visitors thereby
were given the opportunity to ob-
serve and even photograph the ani-
mals close to the resort hotels. It was
this background that led to some of
today's bear problems.
Whereas Loth -grizzly and black
bears in their native wilderness hah-
itats go to some lengths to avoid con-
-frontati<»n with human feeings, gar-
bage-fed tears in paries lose thai
shyness. Familiarity with peopli
seems to lead to a diminution of feaij
and to an attitude of aggression 01
the part of the bears. Similarly,
through their bear-feeding experi^
ence, people seem to lose their feai
of the ambling and seemingly harm'
less bears.
Superintendents of Glacier and
Yellowstone Parks have long recog-
nized the problems inherent in the
close proximity of bears to people.
The parks' technique for dealing with
troublesome bears has been to trap
the individuals and move them as far
as possible from the campground or
resort area wliere tliey were creating
a nuisance. If an animal returned
and renewed his activities, he was
finally destroyed. In Yellowstone
annual elimination of chronic of-
fenders now averages 34 black bears
and 3 grizzlies per year. In Glacier
the control kill averages 7 blacks and
2 grizzlies. But the killing of incor-
rigible nuisance bears has not of it-
self proved to be a solution to the
problem of bear damage.
In the 1960'^ the National Park
Service reaffirmed the concept that
a national park should display native
plants and animals in natural settings
moreover, one of
n had reportedly
a receiving
douts
he vicinity
L nearby tourist
^e so that
tors could
erve him."
with a minimum of artificiality.
There followed a whole sequence of
changes in the service's "bear pol-
icy." As applied to black bears, one
of the first steps was to discourage
visitors from feeding the begging
bears at roadsides— a program in
which considerable progress has
been made throughout the entire
park system. In the Great Smoky
Mountains, for example, and in some
of the national parks in California,
the number of begging black bears
has been substantially reduced by
road patrols that enforce the regula-
tion against handouts. Also, all park
visitors are provided with a pam-
phlet warning of the dangers of this
practice. To the extent that this pol-
icy is successful young cubs do not
learn the fine points of panhandling,
but rather have to get out in the
woods with their mothers and search
for natural food sources. In both
Yellowstone and Glacier Parks, this
anti-bear-feeding policy has brought
a noticeable change in the behavior
of the black bear population, and
the numbers of these animals that
have had to be removed because of
danger to tourists has been reduced.
A second element of the bear pro-
gram, which has affected both blacks
and grizzlies, is the installation of
bearproof trash cans throughout the
parks, especially in and around
campgrounds. These are mounted on
stout steel posts set in concrete. The
can has a swinging door at the top
designed to prevent pilfering and is
attached to the post by a circular
bracket that prevents the bear from
tipping the container over. Few bears
learn to extract items from these cans.
Bearproof cans are expensive,
however. It took a number of years
before Park Service budgets could
absorb the conversion from the old
trash pails to these new containers.
Today, conversion has been com-
pleted in several national parks, in-
cluding Glacier and Yellowstone.
A third change affecting bears
will be the elimination of garbage
dumps and open trash pits. The two
bears that caused fatalities on that
unhappy night in 1967 had both
been accustomed to feeding at gar-
bage dumps or campsites: moreover
one of them had reportedly been re-
ceiving food handouts in the vicinity
of a nearby tourist lodge so that vis-
itors could observe him. Apparently,
both bears had lost their fear of men
and had become somewhat belliger-
ent. In Glacier National Park, refuse
pits are now covered daily with a
layer of earth and the bears are re-
capturing their wild patterns of be-
havior, abandoning the dumps to
search the forests for natural food.
In the case of Yellowstone Na-
tional Park, first steps have been
taken to eliminate grizzly feeding at
the major dumps. The Trout Creek
dump, in the center of the park, has
been equipped with an incinerator,
and the trash is now sorted so that
burnables— including discarded food
items on which bears feed— go to the
incinerator. But while grizzly attend-
ance dropped off at Trout Creek
dump, visits to other nearby dumps
increased during the summer of
1969. This problem will not be solved
overnight. Bears, conditioned by
years of human handouts, can hardly
be expected to abandon their old
habits on command.
The question of what to do next
was discussed at a meeting called by
the National Park Service at Yellow-
stone in early September, 1969. The
meeting was attended by administra-
tors and biologists of the Park Serv-
ice, by the Natural Sciences Advisory
Committee appointed by the director
of the Park Service, and by several
outside experts who have done exten-
sive research on grizzly bears. Out of
this meeting came recommendations
that, hopefully, will be useful in
coping with grizzlies in Yellowstone
and other applicable locations. In
general, the conferees agreed that
the object of park bear policy should
be one of minimizing dangerous
man/bear encounters, while continu-
ing to maintain a bear population
commensurate with the park's capac-
ity to provide these animals with the
space and natural food supplv they
require in order to retain their
natural life stvles.
Again, the primary management
technique for achieving this goal will
be to deny bears access to unnatural
food sources. The park will expand
its efforts to remove edible rubbish,
eventually hauling it outside park
boundaries and burning it in areas
not frequented by bears. The most
apparent danger in removing trash
heaps is that the hungry bears, fail-
ing to find anything to eat in the old
garbage pits, may wander into the
campgrounds. The program, there-
fore, must stress campground protec-
tion practices that will keep grizzly
bears away from heavily used camp
areas.
One step in this program would
%
educate the public in proper tra
disposal and safe storage of food su
plies for the night so that bears ecu
not find contraband while wanderii
through the camps. Another wou
strengthen the night patrol of cam
grounds by trained and equipjie
men who could keep track of tl
movements of grizzlies near and i
campgrounds and either herd thei
the,
amemcan museum
natural history
presents
TWO SPECIAL SERIES OF LECTURES Tf
BE GIVEN IN THE SPRING OF 1971
in the main auditorium of the Museum
Consecutive Mondays,
starting February 9th from 7:30-9:00 p.m.
MAN AND THE UNIVERSE
An important, dramatically-illustrated series of
nine lectures by noted scientists, dealing with the
relationship of man to the universe. The interre-
lationships among the basic ingredients for life,
the increasing importance of hfe in the oceans, the
origin and evolution of the earth, and the current,
exciting exploration of our solar system will form
the basis of the series, and will lead to a discussion
of our understanding of the universe. Coordinated
by Dr. D. M. Vincent Manson, Chairman, Depart-
ment of Mineralogy, The American Museum.
Consecutive Tuesdays,
starting February 10th from 7:30-9:00 p.m.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF ANCIENT GREECE
In this unusual series of slide-illustrated lectures
well-known archaeologist Dr. Claireve Grand-
jouan will go back in time to the daily life of an-
cient Greece. She will discuss the fascinadng story
of the development of the once-powerful Greek
civilization, with its music, dance, theatre, athletic
festivals, and worid-renowned architecture, and
will analyze many of the famous archaeological
sites, including the Acropolis of Athens, Corinth,
Delos, and the oracle of Delphi.
Fee: $30
Fee: $30
To register now^, or for further information, call 873-1300. Ext. 462,
or write Education Department, The American Museum of Natural History,
Central Park West at 79th Street, New York. N.Y. 10024
". . . grizzly
populations seem
to thrive best...
far from hmnan
habitation."
It or, if necessary, capture them for
moval. Scare devices, bearproof
ncing, and other practices to dis-
urage bear intrusion are also being
jdied.
It may be that during this interim
:riod when bears are relearning the
t of living off the wild landscape,
me of the campgrounds within the
ntral portions of Yellowstone—
where most grizzlies are found— may
have to be closed to insure the safety
of visitors. Ultimately, some of the
campgrounds may even require relo-
cation if they are badly situated in
terms of intercepting normal grizzly
traffic. After Yellowstone bears have
been successfully "weaned" from
human dependence, it is hoped that
their natural shvness will make them
avoid further contact with humans.
In both Glacier and Yellowstone
National Parks all meetings between
bears and people are now recorded
on maps, in order to determine regu-
lar patterns in the time and places
when contact is most likely to occur.
For example, in Glacier National
Park where there is considerable
hiking by visitors, it has been found
that the grizzly bears generally fre-
quent valleys (rather than mountain-
sides) early in the tourist season.
Also, bears emerging from their
winter sleep in May or June are
hungry and grouchy and frequently
express themselves in aggressive
ways when they meet hikers on the
trail. Later in the season the grizzlies
are better fed and their dispositions
improve considerably. Moreover they
tend to move higher up the moun-
tains, following the crops of huckle-
berries and other natural foods. The
park administration now furnishes
hikers and campers with this infor-
mation and may even adopt regula-
tions concerning foot traffic by tour-
ists, which will tend to direct people
away from the areas being used by
grizzlies.
Certainly, none of these steps rep-
EVDONESIAN EXPEDITION
July 1970
IRAN— Nature and Archaeology
Zagros, Elburz and Fars
Summer 1970
Programmed by Dr. and Mrs. Lee Talbot of the Smithsonian Institution, in cooperation
with the Indonesian Conservation Authority. A Group of 10 to 12 adventurous travel-
lers led by Mrs. Talbot and an Indonesian conservation official. Mrs. lalDo: nas
travelled widely in Indonesia together with her husband (Udjong-Kulon etc.;. ine
Talbots are in fact the American authorities on conservation in Indonesia.
Projected are two journeys by research-or fishing vessel, each of a week: From Telek
to Labuan with Karakatau Island and Udjong-Kulon Reserve, and from Bali to Komoto
Island to see the Komoto Draaons. Less hazardous parts of the itinerary are natural and
cultural areas in Northern and Central Sumatra, in Central and Southern Java and Bali.
Duration: 37 days from the West Coast, with a month in Indonesia. Detailed itinerary,
prospectus etc. can be obtained from Treasure Tours.
Led by Enslish speaking Iranian archeologists and Americans residing in Iran. Alamut,
the Vallev of the Assassins, in the magnificent mountains of the Central hlburz.
The Zagros, a vast panorama of hills and a range of mighty peaks, tribal country of the
Lurs and Kurds with a tangible aura of the remote past and a wealth of anliquiues: rocK
engravings of the second millenium. tombs of Median kings, Sassanian fire temples ana
palaces, ancient bridges and ruined towns of uncertain date. Centers are Kermanshan
and Khorramabad.
Fars: Persepolis, Pasargadae and Naqsh e Rustam, Shiraz and Isfahan.
Three weeks tours with 19 days in Iran. Departures: June 4th, July :nd and August 6th,
1970.
Ask for Prospectus with detailed description.
Leader: Brian Paierson of Johannesburg, the Pioneer of Nature Travel in S.W. Africa.
Etosha Park and— Pan, the greatest game reserve in all of Africa, unspoiled by tourism
but with good lodges at Namutomi, Halali etc. Four days in Etosha Park, two days at
Etemba Guest Farm, three days in Swakopmund with drives in the N:imib Desert and
on the Atlantic Desert Coast. Etosha has large flocks of ostrich and herds ot giratle,
elephant and zebra. Much lion, eland, kudu, springbok and the enure fauna ot Atnca.
Bushmen paintings and Herero and Ovambo villages. The bushmen of the Kalahari,
via Mata Mata and Twee Rivieren, and the herds of thousands of gemsbok large horse
like antelopes, in the Kalahari Gemsbok Park. Arrangements for 16 people in 4 cars.
All inclusive from New York S1985.00. Printed booklet from Treasure Tours.
Printed digest of Summer Tours will be mailed on request. Further tours will be announced in subsequent issues of this Journal
and advance information can be obtained by requesting inscription on our mailing list.
TREASURE TOURS INTERNATIONAL INC.- Office of Academic Liaison
1010 St. Catherine W., Montreal 110, Canada
ETOSHA AND KALAHARI
Wildlife of South West Africa
August 2nd to 22nd, 1970
99
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CHEMICALS - SCIENCE BOOKS
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B - Moonstone (India) .55
C - Fluorite (Octahedron - 111.) .65
D - Lace Agate (Mexico) 40
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F - Lapis Lazuli (Chile) .85
G - Apache Tear Ariz.) 25
H - Barite Rose (Oklahoma) 99
I - Agate Mexico, 1 45
J - Fossil Fish (40 Million Years Old) 19 95
K - Trilobite (Cambrian Formation) . . . 2.2S
L - Chalcopyrite (Fool's Gold)
on Dolomite , . .95
M - Rose Quartz (Brazil; 40
N - Tigereye (South Africa) .55
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SEA SHELLS
A - Black Dove Shell .. , , eo. 4e doz IS
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C - Tiger Cowrie (Philippine) '55
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G - Bat Volute 45
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K ■ Ring Top Cowrie . . . , . .eo. 7< 6 for '.35
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On Specimen Orders Add 250 Ppd
New, lllustrotcd Cotolog only 250
DOVER SCIENTIFIC
BOX 6011C, LONG ISUND CITY, N.Y. 11106
resents a "breakthrough" in the
handhng of relationships between
bears and men. The\' have worked in
the past, though, and with more ex-
tensive and intensive appHcation will
probably produce favorable results
when applied over a period of years.
Perhaps as a result of the unfavor-
able, and sometimes spectacular,
media coverage given this issue, the
National Park Service has come
under fire to "do something about
the grizzly problem." In this regard,
it should be recalled that such a
"solution" is dependent upon the
often unpredictable behavior of both
bears and men. and that in most past
cases, bear '"incidents" could have
been prevented with a little human
forethought.
Forethought, and forewarning, un-
doubtedly are responsibilities of the
Park Service. Statistically, most
incidents resulted from the careless-
ness of a park visitor who had al-
ready been cautioned about bear
safet)', about exiting from an auto
in the presence of bears, about hand
feeding the animals, and so on. Then
too, the limited personnel and finan-
cial resources of the Park Service be-
come significant in relation to bear
management. It is extremelv expen-
sive and time-consuming to dispose
of the rubbish created by 25,000
daily visitors at Yellowstone Na-
tional Park, for instance, and to
patrol against both inadvertent and
intentional bear-feeding practices on
the part of that many people.
Outside the borders of Glacier and
Yellowstone National Parks, most
grizzly bears live in national forests,
particularly in designated wilderness
areas. ]\Iost of this population occurs
in the state of Montana, with rela-
tively modest numbers in Wyoming
and Idaho. Lnlike the park popula-
tions, the animals in national forests
are subject to legal hunting accord-
ing to the regulations of state game
departments.
Many grizzly bears outside parks
have had some experience with
hunters and tend to be wary: thev are
not often seen by casual visitors.
Some of the bears that appear in
areas open for hunting spend parts of
the year inside the parks. This has
been ascertained by Frank and John
Craighead, who have done consider-
able research on the movemenls of
marked bears. Regulation of hunting
in the wilderness country surround-
ing a national park will, theref
have some relevance to the statu
the park population of bears.
The numbers of grizzly bears
so modest in Montana, Wyomi
and Idaho that sport hunting, w
it is permitted at all. should be loo
upon as a special privilege. T^^er
bear-hunting regulations in Ala a
and western Canada are quite gerr-
ous in terms of seasons and numbs
of animals killed, regulations in e
northern Rocky Mountain stas
should be always on the conservat e
side.
There is, of course, considerate
interest in grizzly hunting on the p.l
of the guides and packers who ma;
their living by attracting hunters w i
hope to bag a rare trophy. Yet t-
continued survival of the bear :-
mains questionable and the actd
number of animals taken throuM
hunting should be held to a mii
mum, even if there is some mode
increase in the number of grizzlit
In addition to protecting the be.
population outside the parks fro
excessive hunting, it is equally h
portant that the major wilderne
area in which the grizzHes live 1
rigidly protected from penetratic
by roads, jeeps, motorized vehicle
airplanes, and other mechanical aid
Contrary to popular opinion, prese:
vation of the wilderness habitat :
probably an even more importar
aspect of grizzly protection than i
the curtailment of hunting.
One possible technique that ha
not yet been fully studied is that o
capturing and transplanting grizzi
bears from existing stocks, as fo
example in the national parks, ti
areas where the species has disap
peared. One area in which grizzlie
might be restocked is the high moun
tains of southwestern Colorad.i
where grizzlies persisted until the las
decade. Too late the Colorado De-
partment of Fish and Game, along
with the U.S. Forest Service, tried tc
protect the last bears in this region
from eradication, largely by sheep-
herders, but seemingly those efforts
were in vain.
It is possible that some of the bears
brought from elsewhere and liber-
ated in a new environment could
wander onto ranch lands where they
might kill or frighten domestic live-
stock. Perhaps some of these -would
have to be destroyed. Judging from
grizzly behavior in large stretches
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of wilderness, however, most bears
would adapt to the environment by
using natural food sources, and
would cause ranchers little trouble.
Many mountain areas that have
been intensively developed for gen-
eral recreation and hiking might best
be left without grizzlies. The Sierra
Nevada of southern and central Cali-
fornia would be an example of an
area too intensi\ ely used to be able
to support grizzlies in isolation from
people. On the other hand, there are
many forests and wild mountain
regions within the western United
States that could potentially be
stocked. This possibility deserves the
most careful study by research
workers and government agencies.
The security of the grizzly as a
species would certainlv be strength-
ened if new populations could be
established, far from the existing
stocks.
The grizzlies adapted to the most
southwesterly portion of the species'
original range, such as those in
Mexico s \aqui Basin, are a rare
genetic strain and should be strictly
protected and saved if at all possible.
The first step on this path is to study
the distribution of the bears in the
field and to estimate the population.
Then a program to preserve a viable
population of the big bears could be
worked out with local ranchers and
residents. The Mexican government
should be encouraged to establish an
adequate refuge designed to assure
the security of a population of Mexi-
can grizzlies, as was planned in the
past. This refuge could be in the
Yaqui region, or possiblv in some
other area of Mexico that might be
more available or more suitable. The
chief of the Mexican Game Depart-
ment, Senor Rudolfo Hernandez
Corzo, has expressed considerable
interest in the presen-ation of the
grizzly within his country, and the
portents for developing an effective
program there are good.
JNone of these plans are panaceas
for the species' ills: neither are they
guarantees that there will be no de-
structive encounters between that
species and our own. Still, rapid and
determined steps are needed if we
hope to protect the LOOO or so of
these wild and magnificent animals
that persist south of the Canadian
border. At this point, these protective
moves represent the best and most
civilized action that we can take.
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The Island Earth continued from page 22
With this new realization, which
is expressing itself in a hundred dif-
ferent ways, from government com-
missions and antipollution groups,
to the American Association for the
Advancement of Science's Committee
on Science in the Promotion of Hu-
man Welfare, to the Scientists Insti-
tute for Public Information, to small
committees in small New England
towns, the debate goes on. (A large
number of these new movements were
discussed in "The New Conserva-
tion," by Richard L. Means, Natu-
ral History, August-September,
1969.) With this proliferation of
public interest, those who have been
fighting these battles for conserva-
tion, for protection, for soil rehabili-
tation, for reforestation, and those
who have become more recently
aware of the dangers of pollution,
overpopulation, and overload of
every facility are meeting and look-
ing for new ways of stating their
common interests. Words like eco-
system, the whole interacting system
in which a change in any one variable
—temperature, the number of fish or
of fishermen, a factory built on the
banks of a stream, or a florist's seed
field five miles away— may change the
whole system, and biosphere, the
whole natural living system of the
planet and its surrounding atmo-
sphere, are coming into the vocabu-
lary of the concerned all over the
world. These terms come from the
science of ecology, a science that, on
the whole, took as its model a pond,
a lake, or a marsh and, while allow-
ing for interaction among every nat-
ural component, took little cogni-
zance of man himself, except as an
interfering factor. If we wanted to
teach our children about ecosystems,
the model we used was an aquarium,
in which the delicate relationships
between water, plants, and aquatic
creatures had to be watched over and
kept in balance.
Aquariums are indeed a fine teach-
ing aid and will give children an
idea of the balance of the natural
world, especially the great mass of
urban children who meet nature
either in the form of a pet who has
to be walked in the streets or pro-
vided with "kitty litter." But it is be-
coming increasingly clear that this
model, over which the aquarium
owner stands, like a god, presiding
over a small glass tank heated ]
electricity (itself vulnerable to
power failure) is only a very parti
model of what is happening to u
The child's aquarium is a model of
world almost totally dependent
man, but of which he is a spectatt
and protector, not an integral pai
If, from the science of ecolog
we try to develop a new professio
of those who stand guard over tl
environment, we stand in danger
still leaving man outside, to becoir
an "environmental manager," a sig
nificant factor, but not a true part
the natural world. To the core subjeci
of ecology, it is suggested that we ad^
the human sciences to train aspirani
young environmental managers
deal with the problem. As new sub;
ject matters develop in the field oi
urbanization— ekistics, urban planj
ning, urban design— there is an atj
tempt to patch together from s
number of disciplines a new wholej
a science of the total ecosystem, intq
which man, somewhat grudgingly, i^
to be admitted. i
I do not think this is the way to
do it. We have had many decades of
various interdisciplinary projects.;
Either they represent a coalition of]
different disciplinary interests, inj
which each defends his own territory,:
or we get new incorporative fields,
hke economics or public health,
which manufacture their own psy-
chology and educational theory to
suit themselves and, in turn, become
little empires defending their do-
mains against contenders.
I believe that there is another way
to develop the kind of specialists
that we will need as public concern
for our endangered planet and for
our starving millions mounts. And
this is where islands come back
again. What students need to learn
if they are to think about environ-
mental protection and development
is about whole inhabited ecosystems:
ecosystems in which man himself,
the way he plants and reaps and
disposes of waste, multiplies or
stabilizes his population, is a con-
scious factor. Man has molded and
changed his environment since he
learned to make tools and control
fire. But in those days, perhaps a
million years ago, he was not con-
scious of what he did, of how popula-
tion was related to food supply, of
}w killing the young or eating all
I! eggs or gathering plants before
;y seeded would Hmit his future. It
s on islands that man first began to
irn these things. If there were too
finy people, either some would be
jiven out into the uncharted seas
'( there would be civil war. Some
i'thod of population control had to
f adopted. Younger sons were for-
kden lo marry and infants exposed
I die. Islanders knew when the birds
ime to nest, when the fish came to
awn, how periodic hurricanes af-
,;ted iheir harvests. On many small
ands today, the harsh realities of
apidly changing world are forcing
B men away to work, leaving only
)men and children at home. It was
islands that men first learned that
ey themselves were part of an eco-
stem, so it is perhaps not surprising
at the religious system of the an-
;nt Polynesians emphasized taboo,
at things were forbidden in the
ture of the system itself. Under
boo. if men made no missteps they
'ed safely, but they had to be con-
luously alert to the consequences
infringement of the order of na-
re and the order of social life.
We need to find ways to under-
md. to teach children, and to pre-
re young men and women for
reers in our interconnected and
dangered world. The forces of pub-
; opinion are being marshalled na-
)nally and internationally. A great
ternational conference, conspicu-
is for its level of cooperation
nong usually rivalrous United
itions specialized agencies, was
Id in Paris in 1968. A conference
1 biology as the history of the fu-
re, sponsored by the International
nion of Biological Sciences, was
•Id in Chichen Itza. Mexico, in
inuary, 1969. At the initiative of
-veden, a great United Nations con-
rence is being prepared for 1972.
e need to have a model that will
ake man— always active, seldom
inscious, irresponsible throughout
ost of history— a conscious partici-
mt in the development of planet
arth.
The smallest islands of the earth
•e almost all in trouble, whether it
i the islands of the Hebrides, fight-
ig the British Parliament and pay-
ig no income taxes; the burgeoning
bpulation of Mauritius: the bellig-
erent population of Anguilla: or the
small Greek islands whose men must
all go away to sea. Such islands,
grievously resourceless, overpopu-
lated. and dependent upon distant
and outside money, can become our
models and our training grounds for
the new professions that are needed.
As small children were once asked
to build a model of Solomon's Tem-
ple in Sunday School, or of Egyptian
pyramids in day school to understand
ancient civilizations centered on man
alone and reflecting his natural en-
vironment, Ave now need materials
so that each child in a class may have
an island to think about: its size, its
shape, its location, its weather, its
resources, the habits and skills and
despairs and hopes of its inhabitants,
and its dependence upon world mar-
kets and diplomatic decisions in
which its people have no part. And
for those older students who wish to
make a career of the protection and
development of the whole of man's
environment, a year on an island,
learning the language, mastering the
intricacies of the interrelationships
of its living population and all its
plants and creatures, would be per-
fect preparation for thinking about
wholes. We would not need to patch
disciplines together in an uneasy
truce: members of various special-
ized disciplines could first obtain a
firm grounding in their own fields
and then— with a year's field work on
an island— learn to articulate that
speciality into a whole.
Following in Darwin's footsteps,
Harold Coolidge began the trek back
to islands for inspiration when he
took a whole group of scientists to
Galapagos in January, 1964. But the
Galapagos have no human beings on
them. It is the inclusion of people and
their |iurposes that is now our prob-
lem. iNor need ue ask islands— often
in dire straits— to contribute, yet gain
nothing from what they teach us
about our planet Earth. Each student
could be asked to work on some real
problem, urgent to the people them-
selves, and thus prepare himself for
the kind of world role when, in the
1970's and 1980's man's survival will
hang in the balance — and the genera-
tion now growing up will have the
task of saving this planet as a habita-
ble spot for their children and their
children's children.
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103
Boohs in Review
The Mteturtu
at the NaUed Ape
hy Robin Fox
The Human Zoo. by Desmond Morris.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., S6.95: 256 pp.
In his previous work of science fiction,
Desmond Morris introduced us to
The \aked .-ipe (Reviews. Natural
History. February. 1968 I . a species in
many ways not unlike our own. His in-
tention was. one presumes, to force us
to think about mankind as a biological
species by seeing ourselves— the ape in
underpants— as closely analogous to the
naked variety. The device is not new
in fantasy literature. Swift created the
Lilliputians who resembled us in every-
thing but stature, and so forced us to
take a more objective view of our own
idiocies. Similarly, after we had fin-
ished laughing at The ^aked .Ipe. we
had to admit that the animal was suf-
ficiently like us for the joke to be no
laughing matter. True, he had not de-
veloped much in the way of articulate
speech and thought, or what used to be
quaintly called the higher faculties, but
he was recognizable nonetheless. It was
disconcerting to find that his prototype
was a kind of suburban commuter, but
then, since the author was himself a
suburban commuter, he could be ex-
cused for writing from his own limited,
but interesting, experience.
The moral of The Xaked .4pe was. I
think, that we should get to know our
biological natures better so that we
could tell whether we were blocking
them, augmenting them, fulfilling
them, or just ignoring them. There
were hints that, with the splendid ex-
ception of the monogamous, commut-
ing, civilized, north-London suburban-
ite, we were not doing very well at
keeping in touch with biological home
base. All preliterate peoples, for ex-
ample, were dismissed as failures be-
cause they no longer "explored their
environments." and the "mainstream"
or "successful"" cultures were held up
as true examples of the most basic be-
havior of the species.
In this sequel-"Return of the Naked
Ape" —Morris looks hard at the main-
104
stream and finds that despite its con-
nection with its biological roots, as
evidenced by its "success," it is getting
out of hand. Thus, for example, the
"failures" seem able— even with their
bizarre customs, and perhaps because
of them— to control their numljers; the
"successes."" with all their faithfulness
to their heritage, can't seem to do so.
The failures seem able to run more or
less egalitarian social systems, while
the successes get all fouled up in the
collective hysteria of "superstatus"'
seeking— and so on. It would seem that
being in touch with our biological
heritage is a chancy business.
In The Human Zoo, ^Morris neatlv
reverses his former position. The small
groups of hunters and tribesmen are
now the natural groups living the
natural life: the great urban civiliza-
tions are a series of zoos whose in-
carcerated inhabitants display all the
pathologies of captive animals. I tend
to like his new position better than his
old one. but it does lead him into some
curious mental gymnastics.
The basic thesis is not new. Our
problems stem from the size and rapid
growth of the human population con-
sequent on the development of agri-
culture and urbanism. A violent change
of pace and complexity was introduced
fairly recently into the hfe of an animal
evolved to be an efficient, ranging,
smaU-group-living hunter. He has not
had time to make genetic changes of
any consequence to meet this chal-
lenge, so with this primitive evolution-
ary equipment he must try to survive
in complex, urbanized, crowded com-
munities, for which he was not de-
signed either physically, emotionally,
or intellectually.
The Human Zoo explores the conse-
quences of this change of gear in seven
chapters dealing with nations, status,
sex. race, imprinting, stimulation, and
education. One way of doing this would
have been to note carefully the details
of our primate heritage, e.xplore the
modifications occasioned by the change
to a hunting way of hfe. and so mov
on to the establishment of a base lin-
of "natural"" social behavior for thi
human species. One could then look a
the crowded urban community and se<
what was pathological about it. anc
what was not. in terms of the picture
of natural conditions. But Morris does
not do this, and it is clear that what
might have been an interesting theoret-
ical argument is for him only a peg
on which to hang anecdotes, obiter
dicta, and entertaining analogies.
\^ hat are the criteria for distinguish-
ing the natural from the pathological
in human behavior? Roughly speaking.
Morris suggests that behavior found in
zoo animals is pathological, therefore
where we find analogies to this in hu-
man behavior we can assume it too is
pathological. This may well be true—
doubt it— but in any case it has to be
irgued and demonstrated. We have to
inow whether the behavior in question
IS an aberrant reaction to zoo condi-
ions, an "inbuih"' pathology, or simply
part of our "natural" repertoire.
Morris's method allows him to con-
demn as pathological anything he
views as unnatural, by citing cases of
it in zoos. Sometimes he doesn't bother
to do even that. Therefore he can't
blame those of us who share his basic
Weltanschauung from feeling uneasy
at his lack of serious argument here.
The fact that this is an avowedly
"popular" book is no excuse.
The first four chapters present us
with some arresting lists: ten com-
mandments for leaders, based largely
on the behavior of successful dominant
baboons; ten kinds of sex; ten condi-
One mystery. One romance.
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English version by Peter J. Whitehead
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some of the aspects covered by the
brilliant French biologist in this com-
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THE ROMANCE
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by Herbert Wendt
Translated trom the French by
J. B. C. Grundy
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Encyclopedic in range, but delight-
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1 06
tions for intergroup violence. The last
three chapters, while less slick, are,
in many ways, more interesting. The
chapter on imprinting, for example,
attempts to apply this ethological con-
cept to human learning. \^ hile it is
largely a speculative effort, it does
raise some intriguing questions.
The chapter on stimulus struggle
is a delightful exercise in ingenuity.
One of our biological characteristics
is a tendency to seek "optimal" stimu-
lation from the environment. According
to Morris, "natural" man had no
trouble with this since he was wholly
engaged in the business of survival and
this took all his time and energy.
^ at anyone who knows anything about
hunting or tribal societies (these are
never defined I will recognize this as a
gross caricature, ilorris. however, does
not feel it necessary to survey the ac-
tual expenditure of energy in these
societies so that we may see just what
amount is given to subsistence activity
on the one hand, and to ritual, gam-
bling, sport, art. and recreation on the
other. As Morris (a zoologist by pro-
fession) said quite openly in The
Naked Ape, his material on human be-
havior is anecdotal and is based on
casual observation. Apparently Morris
does not feel it necessary to undertake
careful study of the species he so con-
fidently analyzes. Furthermore, he
rarely tries to strengthen his conclu-
sions by using the findings of sociolo-
gists or anthropologists who have spent
their lives in such study. Is this good
zoology? If an anthropologist, on the
basis of what he knew about man.
analyzed the pathology of the ten-
spined stickleback after a few "casual
observations." Morris would be rightly
outraged. Morris shows no awareness
at all of what actually goes on in con-
temporaiy hunting societies, or of what
went on in paleolithic hunting societies,
either of which could have provided
him with data on which to establish
his base line.
According to ^lorris. unfortunate
'"zoo-confined" modern man has a
"stimulus problem'"— he either gets too
much and too confusing stimulation or
too little and too boring. In the chapter
on the childlike adult, he points out
how easily the creativity of childhood
can be thwarted by adult demands for
order and pleads for a reform of edu-
cation and town planning in a more
""playful." and hence innovative and
exploratory, direction.
The aggravations that result from
urbanism and population size are most
noticeable in the areas of nationalism,
sex. and status. Tribes are our natural
social units: supertribes present us
with problems. The tribe is small and
unihierarchical. while the supertribe is
large and multihierarchical. "R'ith
status, the fairly controlled hierar
of the small unit becomes the ni^
mare of superstatus in the nation.
T^ ith the discussion of sex we
back to some Naked Ape themes,
seems that criticism of his posit
equating pair bonding in animals vi
falbng in love and lifelong monoga
in humans has hit home. In the pres'
book. Morris"s views on sex are mie
complicated— and so are his argumer;.
In the earlier work his explanation r
the awkward fact that, sexually, le
human pair bond is not uniformly n
exclusive relationship, was that hu ■
ing conditions evolved the pair bondi
man. but that it has not had a lo;
enough evolution to '"take"" properly, j
we have problems with it. Note th
this makes the tensions between matii
bonds and sexual variety inherent,
the new version however, pair bondi _
has been re-established as basic, a .
failures of the pair bond (the inabil
to achieve lifelong, faithful mono
amy) are attributed to the pressui
of zoo conditions— in particular the tl
mands of status sex. Thus his way
dealing with the criticism that sexi;
relationships in humans are more cn:
plex than he allowed is to say that t
complexities are not inherent, but a
pathologies. Again we must ask: he
do you establish the ""normal"" herd
Simple assertion will not suffice. 0
posing viewpoints are dismissed It
saying that they are the rationaliz.
tions of those people who cann 1
manage their own pair bonds. If ^lorn'
wishes to keep the respect of h
colleagues as well as the gratitude ■
his publishers, he will have to do bett(
than this. Ad hominem insults are r
substitute for argument. One could. f(
instance, trade sneer for sneer.by sa
ing that only people with exaggerate
infantile dependency anxieties wou!
make a fuss about pair bonding— bi
to what end?
As always. ^lorris's writing is ente
taining and provocative, witty, and eas
to read. Those of us who share his basi
orientation are bound to feel ambiv:
lent about the book since the jury w
appeal to— scientific opinion— is certai
to be outraged. It is doubtful, howevei
if the book will do any harm, for whil
it offers no real analysis that migb
sway social scientists in a biologies
direction, it does raise certain issues i
an undemanding way. Those of us wh
admire Morris as a zoologist would no'
like to see him write the serious ar
important book on human behavior th
he owes us and. more importantly, owe
himself.
Dr. Robin Fox is a professor ih
the Department of Anthropology al
Rutgers University, New Jersey. ;
)ENo:wous Reptiles, by Sherman A.
. inton, Jr. and Madge Rutherford
inton. Charles Scribner's Sons,
SI '.95; 274 pp., illiis.
i
re you interested in the length of a
. _ coral snake's fang, the effect of a
lia snake's bite, or the Pima Indian
iigend of the first rattlesnake? Or
«)W about the average length of the
il'ila monster, the lethal venom dose of
i|i tiger snake, or the best venom source
i(i adenosine triphosphatase? This
iok has all of these, and much more
;sides.
Physician-scholars have always been
I short supply, and those who are in-
rested in snakes and venoms can be
nunted on the fingers of one hand. Dr.
; [inton is one of the few. and we are
liirtunate that he has turned to a more
iopular form of writing to offer his
jnowledge to a wider audience. And
ladge. his wife, has followed him in
lis peregrinations from Indianapolis to
iarachi. and from Tel Aviv to Tlax-
jla— lending a hand in collecting,
iolding snakes for venom extraction,
tnd now contributing head and hand
l)ward the preparation of this book.
ller own studies of the ,Iogi (snake
iharmer) tribe of the Sind and her
ihoughts and researches on the roles
idat snakes have played in human af-
(lirs contribute significantly to the
■resentation here.
The arrangement of the book is more
cholarly than popular. After a short
iitroductory chapter on the classifica-
iion, geographic distribution, and evo-
lution of the major venomous reptiles
I two lizards, all the rest snakes ) , the
nook pitches into a series of chapters
in venoms and allied subjects. This
'liscussion— the clearest I know of the
iomplexes of venom gland structure,
:he physiology of venom secretion, the
tructure and effects of venoms, snake-
)ite and the philosophy of its treat-
nent— makes up about half the book.
, Following this, the book deals main-
y with snake-man relationships. These
nclude the myths and legends, both
mcient and modern, that have been
Derpetrated about these creatures in
/arious parts of the world and their
ole in religious thought and present-
day folklore.
The final chapter. "How Snakes Ac-
(uired Charisma." explores the strong
feelings (claimed by some to be "in-
nate" ) that snakes have engendered in
man throughout the ages. No simple
explanation is presented (l)ecause none
Is possible) but avenues of further in-
vestigation are suggested by the dis-
cussion.
All the chapters are heavily authen-
ticated by references to the past litera-
ture. Happily, these are presented
unobtrusively by small superscript
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During 1969 we funded conserva-
tion projects amounting to $74,500 in
Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. We
need your continued support to com-
bat the increasing menace of extinc-
tion for many species of wild animal,
by making a donation or by joining
the Society.
Membership of the Society will cost
you $10 annually. For this you receive
our quarterly magazine "Africana"
and are entitled to buy our ties, car
badges, brooches and cufflinks.
Christmas cards. Calendars, wild life
prints and the Scientific Journal are
available to all.
The wild life of East Africa is now
a world responsibility, shared by ev-
eryone. It is enjoyed by tens of thou-
sands of visitors each year. Help us
to see that millions will continue to
enjoy it.
EAST AFRICAN
WILD LIFE
SOCIETY
P.O. Box 20110. Nairobi. Kenya,
East Africa.
Please enroll me as a member.
I enclose 3
Name
Address _
N.H.
numbers that refer to the chapter-by-
chapter "Reference Notes" in the back
of the book. In addition to a glossary
and a selected bibliography, a number
of unusual aids to the reader are given
as well; these include a list of the
scientific names of the snakes men-
tioned in the text, a table relating the
evolution of snakes to geologic time, a
metric conversion table, a table giving
yields and toxicity of various venoms,
and one on the enzymes of venoms and
their sources. This mine of information
has been dredged from literally hun-
dreds of scattered sources.
Errors of fact are almost nonexistent.
I noted only a few minor ones, and
I would argue for a few niggling
changes in the spelling of some scien-
tific names. The use of Constrictor con-
strictor instead of Boa constrictor, is
unfortunately, still a matter of opinion.
It seems a shame to carp about the
first readable book on this vast and
interesting subject, but it is regrettable
that the photographic illustrations are
not better (the best one was taken at
the New York Zoological Park about
fifty years ago) and that they were not
coordinated with the text. It should be
mentioned, too. that often so many facts
are crammed into a short chapter that
it reads more like a series of introduc-
tory statements than a thoughtful dis-
cussion.
My main complaint, though, is that
there is just not enough of the Mintons
in the book. They are active and inter-
esting people who have been places and
have seen things that most of us only
dream about. They are thoughtful peo-
ple, too, and what we need most are
their reactions to these situations and
their personal conclusions about them,
not just a recitation of the facts them-
selves. Next book, maybe?
H. G. DOWLING
The American Museum
HUXTERS OF THE NORTHERN' IcE. by
Richard K. Nelson. University of Chi-
cago Press, S8.50; 429 pp., illus.
In describing one of his first hunting
trips with an Eskimo. Richard Nel-
son tells of a difficult journey over jum-
bled ocean ice to a lane of open water.
Suddenly his Eskimo companion, rifle
in hand, dropped to one knee and be-
gan to scratch the ice. A baffled Nel-
son watched as the Eskimo, making
use of a profound knowledge of the
behavior of Arctic wildlife, skillfully
lured a curious seal close to the ice
edge where it could be easily shot. As
the Eskimo hauled the dead seal onto
the ice. he grinned at Nelson and said.
''You see. Eskimo is a scientist.""
Indeed he is. Anthropologists who
have worked closely with the few
groups of rapidly disappearing hunt-
ing peoples left in the world are
variably impressed at their detar
knowledge of the environment and h
to function in it. In the Arctic, it is I
Eskimo who are the experts. Th
adaptation to their harsh environma
depends upon a knowledge of nati-
and a set of techniques that have bei
developing for millennia.
Early in 1964. Nelson joined ■
United States Air Force research pr
ect on Eskimo life. His task wa?
record how the Eskimo are able
survive in the Arctic; their knowled
of snow. ice. weather, and animal 1
havior; and their techniques of hui
ing. keeping warm, traveling, a
surviving in any of a number of emi
gencies. such as falling through tli
ice. His method of research was
engage in all Eskimo activities himse
—from making the necessary gear
developing proficiency in huntii
techniques.
This book is a report of his i
search. It is the best account that
know of the hunting methods and a
sociated activities of the north Ala
kan Eskimo. The bulk of the book
a detailed description of technique
equipment, and Eskimo Arctic lor
It avoids becoming tedious becaus
Nelson frequently includes, as illu
trations. short accounts of the exper
ences of various Eskimo he knew pe]
sonally or was told about. Thu
Hunters of the Northern Ice never lose
its feeling for people.
\^ hen Nelson has finished describin
hunting methods, he gives us a ie\
insightful pages on the mental atti
tudes and personality characteristic
that impressed him in his year o
hunting and traveling with the Es
kimo and that he finds particularly
adaptive in the demanding Arctic en
vironment. First, there is the Eskimo's
considerable knowledge of how to re
act in emergencies. Much of this theyj
learn from listening to more experi-
enced hunters, for the Eskimo seldom
doubts what he has been told by his
elders. Second, the Eskimo is uncom-
monly self-assured in his ability to'
cope with any situation. This is com-
bined with remarkable perseverance,
excellent physical condition, mental
and physical toughness, and a lack of
aggressive behavior toward his com-
panions when the going becomes dif-
ficult. In case these sound like com-
mon characteristics. Nelson makes it
clear that in these qualities the Es-
kimo stands far above the average
white man. who combines a disfunc-
tional aggressiveness with a lack of
stamina and toughness in strenuous
situations, such as those encountered
in the Arctic.
Nelson entitles his last chapter
"The Death of Hunting." The older
Lindblad Travel announces
two exciting cruising voyages:
1. TO THE "FORGOTTEN ISLANDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN"
2. TO DARWIN'S GALAPAGOS
0 the east in the Indian Ocean or to the west in the Pacific,
Grids apart, you will find two places with one thing in com-
lon. They both offer excitement such as can be found
owhere else.
M/S Lindblad Explorer
'isit the "FORGOTTEN ISLANDS OF
"HE INDIAN OCEAN" on a voyage
if discovery aboard the brand new
;rulse ship the M/S LINDBLAD EX-
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)eaches, the tall coconut palms and
he delicate feathery branches of the
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jninterrupted by lines of tourist
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sands of birds which Inhabit these
slands— the terns, boobies, frigate
jirds, shearwaters, warblers, and
sunbirds are there to meet you. They
lave never known danger and are
ame beyond belief. And you will
lave time to visit the game preserves
n Kenya.
-or this unforgettable trip to the
"FORGOTTEN ISLANDS" you will
board the M/S Lindblad at Mombasa,
Kenya and BOAC VC 10's will bring
you there and back.
The M/S Lindblad Explorer meets
the international safety standards for
new ships established in 1968, as
well as fire regulation requirements
developed in 1966.
• • •
Ever since Charles Darwin intro-
duced his famous evolutionary theo-
ries, following his visit on the H.M.S.
Beagle to the Galapagos Islands in
1835, these islands on the equator
have fired the imagination of scien-
tist and layman alike.
This is the fourth year in which we
offer you the opportunity to partici-
pate in a special survey of the Gala-
pagos and their fascinating wildlife
and scenery. And as in the past, our
expeditions have been arranged with
the Charles Darwin Foundation. Well
known expedition leaders will in-
clude Dr. Bruce Campbell, Dr. M. P.
Harris of the Charles Darwin Foun-
dation and Mr. Eric Hosking.
Sooty Tern."3 In the Amirantes (Indian Ocean)
To set foot on these islands is to be
transported back into primeval time,
to witness firsthand the fantastic
birds, animals and reptiles bypassed
by civilization, unknown to most men
until Darwin's visit. It is a once-in-a-
lifetime experience.
You will "set sail" aboard the S.S.
Romantica, a 200 passenger de luxe
cruiser which for ease and comfort
we will limit to one fiundred. You
will be flown by chartered DC-6 jet
to Baltra in the Galapagos from
Guayaquil, Ecuador. Costs from
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The S.S. Romantica is of Greek reg-
istry substantially meets the interna-
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established in 1968, as well as fire
regulation requirements developed
in 1966.
Marine Iguana (Galapagos)
Dept. NH-170
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133 East 55th Street
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generation of Eskimo are nearly as
skillful hunters as their parents; the
men thirty to fifty years of age are
still semiproficient hunters: but those
under twenty-five have little more than
a rudimentary knowledge of Eskimo
economic culture. Modern American
life has irrevocably altered the Eskimo
village. A child, spending six hours a
day at the village school, never gets a
chance to learn the traditional skills:
and if he goes to a city to attend high
school, he returns to his village torn be-
tween two sets of values. He is. accord-
ing to Nelson, a cultural hybrid; half-
white. half-Eskimo. He can leave the
village permanently, a decision made
by many of the most able young peo-
ple; he can find a job in the village: or
he can live as an unproductive consum-
er. The last is possible, says Nelson, be-
cause of the various welfare programs
for which the Eskimo, as American
citizens, are eligible.
Nelson regrets the impending death
of traditional Eskimo economic cul-
ture, but he is well aware that nothing
can save it. At the present, and for
the foreseeable future, the economy
of Arctic and sub-Arctic villages will
be a combination of seasonal wage
work, welfare and unemployment
compensation payments, and subsis-
tence hunting. The Eskimo will sur-
vive as a people, but the self-reliant
Eskimo hunter who could live solely
from the meager resources of the Arctic
is the product of another era and will
disappear in this one.
Stanley A. Freed
The American Museum
Darwin and the Beagle, by Alan
Moorehead. Harper & Row, $15.00;
280 pp., illus.
For a man who has said of himself,
"I dislike writing very much and
do as little as I can." Mr. Alan Moore-
head has been extraordinarily pro-
ductive—and on a very high level— as
biographer, military historian, and
author of books on travel and explora-
tion in the Victorian age. His works.
The If hit e Nile and The Blue Nile are
well remembered, as is his more re-
cent The Fatal Impact, a short ac-
count of what happened when Captain
Cook, for better or worse, brought the
civilization of the West to the primitive
societies of the Pacific. Continuing this
specialty, to which Mr. Moorehead
brings a great narrative gift, the author
has now reworked the contemporary
source materials into his own deft syn-
thesis, presenting the story of Charles
Darwin"s famous round-the-world jour-
ney on H.M.S. Beagle, 1831-36.
The ship's mission was to extend the
survey of South America begun in
1826 and to carry a chain of chrono-
metrical measurements around th
world. It was customary on such exped:
tions to include the unpaid post of na
turalist. This time the choice fell, fortu
nately. upon a young man of genius
just out of Cambridge, with privati
means, and not yet settled in the world
The result was. as Moorehead notes
"the origin of The Origin of Species.'
Darwin varied from the standard pat
tern of the well-born young extrovert ir
being passionate about natural history
Already he was professionally com-
petent at observing, collecting, dissect-
ing, classifying, and making careful
notes. Mr. Moorehead. who has the lit-
erary artist's eye for character, drama,
and irony, does not overlook the fact
that the captain of the ship, a devout
fundamentalist in theology, looked up-
on Darwin's assignment as a splendid
opportunity to confirm the Old Testa-
ment account of the earth's creation.
Brazil. Argentina. Unmapped Pata-
gonia, where Darwin made important
paleontological discoveries and began
to ponder the complex interdependence
of all living things, the relationship be-
tween dead and living species, and to
speculate that all life was perhaps a,
continuous process. There were exten- j
sive inland detours, exciting adven-
tures, rare specimens, new genera, an '
'^^7^^^^
^ ^'^^'3^'
JL-..^ i l--^.
:*^<^pm
* 'Mt
Old drawing of Brazilian forest scene is from Darwin and the Beagle.
arthquake on the coast of Chile, and
rewarding month spent in the Gala-
agos Islands. There Darwin formu-
ited, in rough outline, the principle
f evolution by natural selection.
Homeward-bound, the Beagle ran
irosperously before the trade winds to
'ahiti, New Zealand, Australia, crossed
he Indian Ocean, passed around Afri-
a, and touched South America one
ast time, reaching Falmouth on Octo-
ler 2, 1836. A final chapter summarizes
)arwin's subsequent life, his domestic
elicity, and his elaboration of his rev-
dutionary ideas, which provided, as
ulian Huxley wrote, "a foundation for
he entire structure of modern biology."
The text is supplemented with a
;hronology of the voyage, a brief
)ibliography, and an index. A quarto
n size, the volume is handsomely em-
)ellished with contemporary pictures,
n both full color and monochrome. All
ire of great zoological, social, or an-
:hropological interest. The reproduc-
tions and press work, done in Great
Britain, are of the highest quality. The
publishers blundered, however, in fail-
ing to print the ship's name, the
Beagle, in italic type on the title page,
the spine, and the dust jacket. It
would be a pity if the general public,
conditioned by best sellers about a
man and his raccoon, or a lady and
her lioness, should take up Moore-
head's fine account of a great event in
intellectual history, under the misap-
prehension that it is about Darwin and
his dog.
Gerald Carson
Author
The American Museum is open to
the public without charge every day
during the year, except Thanksgiv-
ing and Christmas. Your support,
through membership and contribu-
tions, helps make this possible. The
Museum is equally in need of sup-
port for all of its work in research,
education, and exhibition.
This list details the photographer or
other source of illustration, by page.
Cover — Andreas Feininger 60-62 — AMNH
8 — Sims Taback
18 — Gerald Hartwig
26-27— Mount Wilson
and Paiomar Observa-
tories
28— AMNH
29-31 — California Insti-
tute of Technology and
Carnegie Institution of
Washington
32-33- Richard K.
Mathews
34-41— U.S. Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries
except 36-37— Richard
K. Mathews
48-55— AMNH
59 — Megehelina Shore-
Bos
65 — Museum of Primi-
tive Art
69 — Tom Page
73 NASA
76-79 — Pictorial Parade
80 — Ted D'Arms
83-91 — ^Andreas
Feininger except 89 —
National Audubon Soc.
93 — Helmut Wimmer
94-95 — Leonard Lee
Rue III
95— Victor Klodin
97 — Jack Hope
98-99 — Leonard Lee
Rue III
104-105 — Tom Page
110-113 — Courtesy of
Harper & Row
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"A horror story...
a sad story...
The grizzly may be
headed for extinction."*
ofdie
Clrizzlies
byJACKOLSEN
"In the early hours of August 13,
1967, two young women camping
in Glacier National Pari; were
killed by grizzly bears . . . Olsen has
re-created, in vivid narrative, the
events of this night of terror and
the factors that made it inevitable.
. . . Raises some serious questions
about our national parks. Recom-
mended."—Liftrary Journal
"Absolutely harrowing . . .
Olsen's superb reconstruction of
the eyewitness testimony is
horrifying... If we are half seri-
ous about conserving wild life,
we will create parks for animals
and not people."
—New York Times
"Fascinating . . . Exciting, breath-
taking accounts of bold and brazen
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up to a point where the book can-
not be put down."
- Justice William O. Douglas,
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"Part of the horror is the fact
that tourists for years had been
violating park service rules in-
tended to protect the animals as
well as people."
— ■'Kansas City Star
OKder from your bookseller
or mail this coupon now.
G. P. Putnam's Sons NH
200 Madison Ave., N.Y., N.Y. 10016
Please send me copy(ies) of Night
OF THE Grizzlies by Jack Olsen at
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Address-
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-Zip-
Enclose check or money order with this
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safes tax.)
Suggested
Additional Reading
HOW MEN AND WOMEN
CAME TO LIVE TOGETHER
Introduction to African Litera-
ture. U. Beier, ed. Northwestern
University Press, Evanston, 1967.
African Heritage. J. Drachler, ed.
Crowell-Collier Press. New York.
1963.
The Literature and Thought of
Modern Africa. C. Wauthier. Fred-
erick A. Praeger, Inc., New York,
1967.
FORMS IN THE SKY
Accent on Form. L. L. Whyte. Har-
per, New York, 1954.
Exploration of the Universe. G.
AbeU. Holt, Rinehart & Winston,
Inc.. New York, 1964.
The History of Nature. C. F. Von
Weizsacker. University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 1949.
SEAL HAREMS
IN THE PRIBILOFS
The Behavior and Physiology of
Pinnipeds. R. J. Harrison, R. C.
Hubbard, R. S. Peterson, C. E. Rice,
R. J. Schusterman. Appleton-Cen-
tury-Crofts, New York, 1968.
Reproductive Behavior of the
Alaska Fur Seal. Callorhinus
Ursinus. G. a. Bartholomew and
P. G. Hoel. Journal of Mammalogy,
34(4) : 417-437.
Pelage and Surface Topography of
THE Northern Fur Seal. U.S. Fish
and Wildhfe Service, Washington.
1962.
A BIRD IN THE HAND
The Flamingos: Their Life History
and Survival. R. P.- Allen. National
Audubon Society, New York, 1956.
Life Histories of North American
Marsh Birds. A. C. Bent. Dover Pub-
lications. Inc.. New York, 1927.
EVERGREEN REVIEW
Living Trees of the World. T. H.
Everett. Doubleday & Co., Inc.. New
York. 1968.
Trees of North America. C. F. Brock
man. Golden Press. New York. 1968
Trees: The Yearbook of Agricul
TURE. 1949. A. Stefferud, ed. U.S
Government Printing Office, Wash
ington. 1949.
WEANING
GRIZZLY BEARS
The Grizzly Bear. Sports Illustrated,
May 12. May 19. May 26. 1969.
Grizzlies: The Magnificent Menace.
J. Gorge. Reader's Digest, July, 1969.
The Grizzly Bear. B. D. Haynes. ed.
University of Oklahoma Press, Nor-
man, 1966.
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objects are a few of the ancient
crafts of India interpreted
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(Members of the Museum are entitled to a 10% discount.
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Perfect for figures, forms,
shapes, product & tool de-
^^ signs, negative molds, model
.,,^ making, etc. Easily shaped
by hand, tools. Can be rolled
flat, built up into figures.
Permanently pliable until
baked at 300° F. for 15-30
minutes in oven — no kil
C
olds
eded.
Won't
Stock No. 60.794E 2 lb. .
Stock No. 7I,205E 8 1b. .
Wooden Solid Puizles
n-brittlB hardnes!
:, sawed, drilled.
Here's a fascinating as
ment of 12 different pu:
tn provide hours of ph
P^
^. %* ^
Stoc
New
No 70 205E
low-CosI Gem
ility to
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Take
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and ability to solve
$5.00 Ppd.
Tumbler
Become a rockhound! Fasci-
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iasy. Make
lily
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ivailable
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6-lb. ROCK ASSORTMENT (10 TYPES)
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MAIL COUPON FOR GIANT FREE CATALOG
148 PAGES! MORE THAN
4,000 UNUSUAL BARGAINS!
Completely new 1970 catalog.
icked
ith
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ists, experimenters, workshops. Shop
by mail. Write for Catalog "E" to
Edmund Scientific Company. 300 Eds-
corp Building, Barrington, New Jersey 08007.
Street
City State .
who analyzed actual lunar samples,
tional item, great for study, experin
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Stock No. 41,261 E (I oz.
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$7.00 Ppd.
Liquid-Fuel Rocket Kit
to
to earth on automatic para- \
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lift off, flight, vapor trail.
16" aluminum rocket can be
fired manually or electrically J f
(req. 6v Batt. not incl.). #^
Loads of fun building, dec- if^
orating, launching again & *.
again, includ.: 16 Pg. instruct., engine, timer, separator,
parachute, parachute tube, nose cone, fins, loading valve,
hose, electric firing assembly, launch stand, propellant.
Stock No. 7I,182E _ $15.95 Ppd.
oz. cans)
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GIANT 16' DIAMETER
Stock No. 60,632E _ $7.00 Ppd,
Crystal Growing Kil
Do a crystallography project . ^ .
— illustrate with large beau-
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self. Study & demonstrate
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ing" plus generous supply
of chemicals to grow 7 large
display crystals (clear pur-
green and red)
Stock No 70 336E
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\rds— Monstrous Mammals
^ Explore the fascinating pre-
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Encapsulated Liquid Crys'§
Ama2ing new development —
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similar to solids. Solutions
contained in tiny (20-30 mi-
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No. 70.243E MOON. Last Quarter $7 50 Pd
No. 70,252E MOON, 14 Days $7.50 Pn
Working Model Digital Compute
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I
FABULOUS MEXICO
WHERE EVERYTHING
COSTS LESS
The land of retirement and vacation barga
-that's Mexico
Where you can build a modern home for $6500
and an American retirement income looks like
a fortune. It's the land where your vacation
money can buy double or more what it might
back home — provided you know where to go for
Mexico's best values.
Norman Ford's big book Fabulous Mexico —
Where Everything Costs Less tells you exactly
where to get all of this country's best vacation
and retirement values, where you can Uve Uke
a prince on what you might just get along on
in the U.S.A.
Norman Ford knows Mexico from north to
south, from east to west, and he takes you to
vacation and retirement areas that look more
like the South Seas than Tahiti itself; to whole
sections of just perfect weather where it's Uke
June all year round; plus resort after resort,
towns, cities, spas, and what not else where
you'll have a vacation to remember at a cost
so low it could seem unbeUevable.
If you want a delightful retirement area with
vSSENGER-CARRYING
! FREIGHTERS
are the secret of low cost travel
Ifes. for no more than you'd spend at a resort
'1 can take a never-to-be-forgotten cruise to Rio
1 Buenos Aires- Or through the Canal to either
w York or California. Or to the West Indies or
i ng the St. Lawrence River to French Canada.
\ fact, trips to almost everywhere are within your
i ans.
I^nd what accommodatons you get: large rooms
-h beds {not bunks), probably a private bath, lots
■ good food and plenty of relaxation as you speed
m port to port.
jDepending upon how fast you want to go, a
find-the-world trip can show you every continent
■ earth. And there are shorter trips. Fast, un-
jiwded voyages to England, France, South Amer-
, ; two- or three-week vacations up and down the
cific Coast or elsewhere. Name the port and the
inces are you can find it listed in "Travel Routes
ound the World." This is the book that names
; lines, tells where to go, how much they charge,
efly describes the accommodations. Hundreds of
lusands of travelers all over the world swear by
Travel editors and travel writers say "To learn
w to travel for as little as you'd spend at a
ort get 'Travel Routes Around the World.* "
It's yours for just S1.50, and the big new edition
' ludes practically every passenger-carrying service
■ irting from or going to Nev/ York, Canada, New
Means, the Pacific Coast, Mexico, South America,
*g!and, France, Africa, the Indies, Australia, the
tuth Seas, Japan, Hawaii, etc. There's o whole sec-
^^ called How to See the World at Low Cost.
1^. big $1.50 worth especially as it can open the
I y to more travel than you ever thought possible,
"r your copy, simply fill out coupon.
AMERICA BY CAR
Ajiteriea fey
plenty of Americans around to talk to, he leads
you to all the principal retirement towns, as
well as dozens of httle known, perhaps even
more delightful areas, where costs are way far
down, there's plenty to do and meeting people
is easy. Always, he shows you modern, flower-
bedecked hotels and inns that charge hardly
half of what you might expect to spend in even
such a land of vacation and retirement bargains
as Mexico.
There's a great deal more besides: everythmg
from exploring ancient pyramids as old as
Egypt's to finding fabulous hunting and fishing.
If you might want to share in the high interest
rates Mexican banks pay or to buy equally high-
earning real estate or start a business of your
own, this detailed guide to a fabulous land tells
vou what you must do to start your money earn-
ing so much more than in the U.S.
Fabulous Mexico — Where Everything Costs
Less opens up Mexico to you. It's a big book,
yet it costs only $1.50. So send for yours today.
OFF-THE-BEATEN PATH
These Are America's Own Bargain Paradises
j.'This big book is your
I'iurance of seeing all
^■2 four-star sights in
shatever comer of the
IS. or Canada you
ive to (and it even
vers Mexico as well),
ly by day, America
Car tells you where
go from Alaska to
'lexico. Whether you're
'iiting New England or
ilifomia, Florida or
e National Parks, the
]■ xat Lakes, the Missis-
' >pi. the East, the South
;, the Southwest, the
,1 dian country, etc., it tells >oii r ul b\ r id the
enic way to go and it alwa\s dirLLis \oti lo the
iportant sights along the way and in the cities
In Niagara or Los Angeles. Washington or New
leans, the Black Hills or Montreal, America by
IT takes the guesswork out of travel. Of course it
.mes hundreds upon hundreds of recommended
■ aces to eat and stay.
America is so big, you can easily overlook or
I rget important sights or make many a wrong turn.
I I get America by Car, the book that makes sure
>u'll see everything of consequence and always
avel right.
America by Car is fully 170,000 words in length
w which most publishers would charge $5-$8).
ut it costs only $3.50 while it helps you see any
art of America as you've probably never before
iplored this part of the world.
In Off-the-Beaten Path, the big book by N(
Ford you can read of island paradises aplenty in
the United States and Canada, of art colonies (art-
ists search for picturesque locations where costs are
low!), of areas with almost a perfect climate or
with flowers on every side.
Here are the real U.S.A.-brand Shangri-Las
made for the man or woman who's had enough of
crowds Here, loo, are unspoiled seashore villages,
tropics hke islands, and dozens of other spots just
about perfect for your retirement or vacation at
some of the lowest prices you've heard of since the
gone-forever prewar davs. And for good measure
you also read about the low-cost paradises in
Hawaii, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico.
You can be sure that Off-the-Beaten Path names
the low-cost Florida retirement and vacationing
towns, the best values in Texas, the Southwest.
Cahfornia. the South and East. Canada — and a
dozen other areas which the crowds have not yet
discovered:
vhen
• That island that looks like Hawaii yet is 2,000 miles
nearer (no expensive sea or air trip to get there).
• France's only remaining outpost in this part of the
v^orld— completely surrounded by Canadian territory
. or a village more Scottish than Scotland or age-
old Spansh hamlets right in our own U.S. where no
one ever heord of nervous tension or the worries of
modern day life.
• Resort villages where visitors come by the score, so
you always meet new people . . . (but they never
rome by the thousands to raise prices or crowd you
cut).
Og-the-Beaten Path is a big book filled with facts
that open the way to a different kind of retirement
or vacation made all the more attracUve by the
rock-bottom prices. About 100.000 words and
plenty of pictures. Yet it costs only $2.
How to Travel—
and get paid for it
a ship, with an airUne, in foreign firms, etc. The
full story of what job you can fill it in How to
Travel — and Get Paid for It. Whether you're niale
or female, young or old. whether you want a life-
time of paid traveling or just hanker to roam the
world for a short year or two. here are the facts
you want, complete with names and addresses and
full details about the preparations to make, the
customs to observe, the countries to head for. You
learn about jobs in travel agencies, in importing
and exporting concerns. Here is the story of jobs in
the Red Cross and UN organizations, how doctors
get jobs on ships, the wonderful travel opportimi-
ties if you will teach EngUsh overseas and the
fabulous opportunities for those who know stenog-
raphy. To travel and get paid for it, get this book.
$1.50.
THE ISLAND PARADISES
YOU CAN DRIVE TO
RIGHT here in the U.S. there's many a trans-
planted Tahiti to which you can drive: many a
coral island bordered by a powdery beach and
shaded by coconut palms; many another lush island
gem for a completely different vacation or tempting
low cost retirement.
And nearby are others you can drive to most of
the way: to incredible Cozumel off Mexico, that
country where your dollar buys so much more; to
island retreats just meant for loafing, fishing, boat-
ing; and to many another island as rich in color
and beauty as Capri or Majorca and ideal for a
different vacation this year.
Altogether Utopia Is an Island takes you around
the world to 169 island paradises, to the popular
ones and to unknown ones of equal or greater
charm and much less expensive.
Let your introduction to these island paradises —
to a real modern-day Utopia — be some of the 30
and more you can drive to. Utopia Is an Island, a
book of over 100,000 words, costs $2.
HOW TO TRAVEL
WITHOUT BEING RICH
way to Argentina through colorful Mexico, the
Andes, Peru, etc., by bus and rail? Or that there are
half a dozen round the world routings for aroimd
$1000?
If you know the seldom-advertised ways of reach-
ing foreign countries, you don't need fantastic stoms
of money in order to travel. This book shows you
the lower cost, comfortable ways to practically any
part of the world. Here are the ship, rail, bus, air-
plane, and other routings that save you money and
open the world to you.
This is the guide that helps you explore the West
Indies like an old time resident who knows all the
tricks of how to make one dollar do the work of
two. Roam around Mexico, South America, Eurotw.
elsewhere? This is the guide that tells you where
and how to go at prices you can really afford. $1.95.
I-----------------------""""""""^
I Mail to: HARIAN PUBLICATIONS, 19 Ocean Drive
{ GREENLAWN (Long Island), N.Y. 11740
I I have enclosed $ (cash, check, or money order). Please send me the books
[ checked below. YOU WILL REFUND MY MONEY IF I AM NOT SATISFIED.
□ Special offer #1: All 4 books below-
$8.50 value-for only $5
D Special offer #2: All 4 books listed to
left Plus the 3 books below—
$13.95 value-for $8.95.
I □
I D
!□
Fabulous Mexico-Whcrc Everything Costs
Less. $1.50.
America by Car. $3.50.
Travel Routes Around the World. $1.50.
Off-lhe-Bealen Path-thesc are America's own
bargain paradises. $2.
Q How lo Travel-and Get Paid for It. $1.50.
□ Utopia Is an Island-for the island paradises
you can drive to. $2.
D How lo Travel Without Being Rich. $1.95.
Daumier by Nikon
Many a contemporary master would rather use Nikon
Photographers today enjoy the same creative freedom that has always been
the painters prerogative. Sometimes they come amazingly close to a famo
painter's style — without conscious effort. More often they develop styles
of their own. But with strikingly few exceptions contemporary masters
use the Nikon F camera. It is no coincidence. For some of the reasons,
see your Nikon dealer, or write: Nikon Inc., Garden City, New York, 11530.
HBB Subsid/of Ehrenreich Photo-Optical Industries, l'nc.( In Canada: Anglophoto Ltd., PQ.)
For full-color 16x20" reproduction of "Daumier by Nikon," send $T.
ATURAL HISTORY
FEBRUARY 1970 • $1.00
McGraw-Hill invites you to take a grand tour of the
Art ^easuiBs
in^rance
'
$li
(Below) Van Gogh's portrait of
Dr. Cachet one of the first to
recognize Van Gogh's talent
Shown in full cn'nr
This superbly inlaid 17th
century clock is one of the
many beautiful art objects
shown in full color.
Corregio's Jupiter and Antiope,
Renaissance masterpiece purchased
by Louis XIV in the 1660s, now at
the Louvre. Full page color plate.
SOME OF THE FORTHCOMING VOLUMES
Geijnam
•egular
series price
in this exciting library volume containing 250 superb \^ ■ $5.95
illustrations — nearly 100 in vivid full color — for only I
iH; as your introduction to ART TREASURES OF THE WORLD
ENJOY this dazzling new art volume in your hom(
for 10 days free. If you can't bear to part with it I
keep it for only $1.
For more than 800 years, France has given the
world some of its greatest and most beloved artists -
and in addition her kings and citizens have gatherec
together truly amazing collections from many lands
No other nation possesses within its borders more
magnificent masterpieces.
Now, in Art Treasures in France, you can view thel
famous paintings, sculpture, architecture and object^
of art that draw tourists from all over the world. |
In 250 superb illustrations (nearly 100 in brilUaiu
color!) you will tour all the centuries of French art
history... see the ancient Roman theatres and templesj
still preserved in Aries and Viennes...the splendor of
the Gothic cathedrals of the 13th and 14th centuries
...the Renaissance palaces and chateaux... the glo-
rious age of the court of Louis XIV.
You will see exquisite French paintings by Watteau,;
Fragonard, David, and many others... right up to the^
moderns like Van Gogh, Renoir, Cezanne, Gauguin!
And the most celebrated works of other painters now
in French museums . . . Michelangelo, da Vinci, Titian,
Rubens, Picasso, and more.
Whatever is beautiful to behold — furniture, exquis-
ite jewelry, ceramics and tapestries — all are included
in this amazingly comprehensive art survey of France.
More than 50,000 words of authoritative text, by a
team of specialists, with about 30,000 additional
words of picture captions — including a fascinating
guide to the museums and architectural wonders —
make this volume an art tour supreme.
Why do we make this $1 offer?
Art Treasures in France is offered for only $1 to introduce
you to McGraw-Hill's new and exciting publishing project
ART TREASURES OF THE WORLD. For the first time, the art
masterpieces created or collected in each major country
are made available in this series — at an extraordinarily low
price to subscribers. Each sumptuously illustrated volume,
like the first, contains 250 illustrations — including more
than 100 in full color. The dimensions are king-size, 8 by
1 1 inches; the printing, paper, and binding of a quality to
delight a connoisseur. The authors are outstanding author-
ities, headed by general editors Bernard S. Myers and
Trewin Copplestone.
You are invited to become a Charter Subscriber to the series, if you wish, and
to receive any or all of the forthcoming volumes, each covering a different
country — on approval. But decide that later. First, examine Art Treasures in
France for 10 days free.
Send no money — mail the attached card
Let us send you your introductory volume Art Treasures in France. If you de-
cide not to keep it after 10 days' examination, return it and pay nothing. Or if
you agree it is one of the most beautiful volumes you have ever seen, send only
$1 plus a few cents shipping, as full payment. Your name will then be entered as
a Charter Subscriber to art treasures of the world. A new volume will be
offered to you about every two months (always on approval) at the subscriber's
guaranteed low price of only $5.95, plus shipping. You will be under no obliga-
tion to take every volume or any minimum at all. You may stop whenever you
wish. Mail the attached post card today— it requires no stamp.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 330 West 42 Street, New York, N. Y. 10036
NATURAL HISTORY
OL. LXXIX, No. 2
INCORPORATING NATURE MAGAZINE
FEBRUARY 1970
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
10 BANANAS IN VERMONT Richard M. Klein
A little Yankee ingenuity applied to potential pollution problems could
solve many of Vermont's developing economic woes.
20 PRINCE ALBERT'S WAY OF CATCHING SQUID Susan Schlee
In 1895, Prince Albert I of Monaco discovered overkill as a unique means
to scientific discovery.
26 THE SUN WILL DARKEN ON MARCH 7 Thomas D. Nicholson
AN ECLIPSE-WATCHER'S GUIDE Lawrence B. Nadeau
A special two-part report on the last total solar eclipse visible in
America until the year 2017, and how to view it.
30 FROM SNOWFLAKE TO AVALANCHE Edward R. LaChapelle
When layers of weakly bonded snow fall under great tensile stress,
something has to give— and does.
40 CANNIBALISTIC REVENGE IN JALE WARFARE
Klaus-Friedrich Koch
Ritualized anthropophagy spices up regional conflicts over women, pigs,
or gardens among these western New Guinea people.
52 THE EGG MACHINE Pamela Tyler Lindstrom
The reproductive cells of sea urchins have served the cause of embryological
research for over half a century.
56 THE EVOLUTION OF SLEEP Truett Allison and Henry Van Twyver
Dream sleep, as part of the mammalian heritage, fulfills varied
biological needs for variously adapted species.
cover: a J ale boy emerges from the men's house on the morning following
his initiation into their society.
8 THE AUTHORS
29 CELESTIAL EVENTS Thomas D. Nicholson
66 BOOKS IN REVIEW Herbert R. Harvey
82 SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING
The American Museum of Natural History
Gardner D. Stout, President Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Natural History
Alfred Meyer, Editor Robert E. Williamson, Managing Editor
William Gilman, Jack Hope, Senior Editors Thomas Page, Art Editor
Avis Knifjin, John P. Wiley, Jr., Associate Editors Florence G. Edelstein, Copy Editor
Toni Gerber, Asst. Copy Editor Carol Brcslin, Reviews Editor
Diantha C. Thorpe, Information Services William. Suderman, Production
Ernestine Weindorf, Karen ManuHs, Caroline Doerflinger, Staff Assistants
Editorial Advisers: Gerard Piel, Dean Amudon, Franklyn M. Branley, Vincent Manson,
Margaret Mead, Thomas D. Nicholson, James .4. Oliver, Ethel Tobach
Harvey Oshinsky, Advertising Director Harry F. Decker, Walter E. Mercer,
Gordon Finley, Sales Dinah Lowell, Traffic, Eileen O'Keefe, Asst.
Ann Usher, Promotion Director, Maureen Fitzgerald, Asst.
Joseph Saulina, Circulation Manager
t'ublicadon Ofice: The American Museum o/ Natural Histar); Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, N.Y.
won. Published monthly, October through May; bimonthly June to September, Subscription: $7.00 a year.
In Canada and all other countries: $7.50 a year. Single copies $1.00. Second-class postage paid at New York, N.Y.,
and at additional ofices. Copyright © 1970 by The American Museum o/ Natural History. No part of this
periodical may be reproduced without the written consent of Natural Historv. Manuscripts and illustrations
submitted to the editorial office will be handled with care, but we cannot assume responsibility for their safety.
The opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of The .imerican
Museum. Natural History is indexed in Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature.
The Ohio River Ccnmnission has been fighting and winning
the battle against pollution for over 20 years. Although
man-made pollutants have been reduced, increasing population
and industrial growth create a never-ending challenge.
Turning the tide against pollution along
the capricious Ohio River*
How can you analyze water quality every hour in an ever-
changing river? The Ohio River Commission considered it
vital This story is another example of how IBM, its people
or products often play a part in tackling today s problems.
Darnd Dunsmore examines some of the 130 species of fish fi
"It's not how much information you gather on pollu-
tion that counts," says David Dunsmore, Sanitary
Engineer of the Ohio River Commission (ORSANCO).
"It's how fast you can evaluate it.
"Since 1 965, our automatic mon itoring system has
been sending us enormous amounts of data from 14
locations along the river. But by the time we were able
to do the paper work, the water conditions had
changed.
"As a result, we asked IBM to come up with a
data processing system that would allow us to evaluate
water quality from these locations every hour. A tall
order. But it would be a sure way to evaluate changes
in the water when they happen.
"With the computer installed, we began to handle
over a million water-quality measurements a year. In
fact, the computer saved us so much time we were able
to double the number of monitoring locations.
"Today, current river conditions can be appraised
and trouble areas pinpointed so that downstream cities
and industrial plants can be alerted to take protective
measures.
"Right now, we'reworkingonacomputerized fore-
cast procedure. This will let us predict the quality of
Ohio River water threedaysin advance.
We're confident this will be a significant V V%^ ^
weapon in the continuing fight against I BK Mra
water pollution." AA^HTB
Give a Quality Gift...
IPiWTil^
For centuries, Scandinavian craftsmen have been
aware of pewter's pliable properties, and they have
become masters at fashioning unusual table acces-
sories and beautiful jewelry. Their long experience
and artistic imagination have made the Scandinavian
pewter designers world famous. We have collected a
few of their outstanding designs in serving pieces and
distinctive jewelry, and we are certain that you will
want to look ahead to your gift list for birthdays, wed-
dings, and anniversaries.
FROM SWEDEN
Sand dollar design jewelry
A Pendant— 2" diameter with 14" chain. $6.50 plus 50C
postage and handling.
B Pin— 2" diameter— $5.50 plus 50t postage and handling.
C. Earrings— clip back. %" in diameter. $4.75 pr. plus 50<:
postage and handling.
D Salad Set— Viking Crusader Design. Each piece
8" long. Gift' boxed. $13.95 plus $1.00 postage,
handling, and insurance.
E Salt-and-Pepper shakers. Oxidized, hammer-
textured, 2" high on 4" long stand. $10.00 plus
75C: postage, handling and insurance.
F Pin— fish design— oxidized background. 2" x
ly,". $6.00 plus 5O0 postage and handling.
G Pin— llama design— oxidized background. 1%"
X 1 1/2 • $6.00 plus 50C postage and handling.
DENMARK
The Museum Shop— The American Museum of Natural History
79th St. & Central Park West, New York, N.Y. 10024
Item
Quantity
Amt.
Members of the Museum are
TOTAL
entitled to a 10% discount.
NY. residents pie
ase add taxes
Namp
Aririrp.:;.^
■^tatB
Life mask taken 60 days before Lincoln's death. The hand was cast in 1860. From the collection of Clarence Hay
The pain and exaltation ... the wit and
wisdom ... the doubts and the
monumental courage^ every important
word he ever wrote or uttered . . .
THE C^LECTED works OF j
ABRAHAM LINCOLN
WITH TRIAL MEMBERSHIP IN THE HISTORY BOOK CLUB
ONLY OFFERING THIS YEAR -in observance of LINCOLN'S BIRTHDAY
TODAY a century of legend blurs our image of Lincoln the man, but the human
Lincoln now speaks to us clearly in these nine handsome volumes containing
6870 private and public papers, half of them never before in print.
Collected, indexed and richly annotated by a team of our foremost Lincoln
scholars, headed by Dr. Roy P. Easier of The Library of Congress, the set was
26 years in preparation. It carries a Publisher's List Price of $115. But, in observ-
ance of Lincoln's Birthday, The History Book Club offers it to you with trial
membership at the extraordinary price of just $5.95. The Club consistently offers
fine permanent editions of the most important and readable works in history and
world affairs, always at dramatic savings. (Last year, members enjoyed savings of
over 50% on the books they chose to take.)
With your Lincoln set, choose your first membership book from those listed
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START MEMBERSHIP WITH ANY ONE OF THESE BOOKS
(First price is Publisher's List; boldface shows Member's Price.)
• 9 volumes • 4924 pages
• 6B70 documents • 43 Lincoln
photographs, engravings and manuscript facsii
700. HUEY LONG By T. Harry Wil-
liams. Buffoon, menace, dictator -yet
voice of an authentic American radi-
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his furious, doomed life. $12.50/$7.95
661. A HISTORY OF THE VIKINGS
By Gwvii Jones. Their progress traced
from prehistory to 1066. $9.75/$6.95
677. WITCHCRAFT AT SALEM By
Chadwick Hansen. An objective re-
interpretation of the original docu-
ments. $6.95/$5.75
572. THE CHINESE By Kenneth Scott
Laiourelie. A wealth of information on
four thousand years of China's politi-
cal and cultural history. $12.50/$8.95
607. FROM SLAVERY TO FREEDOM:
A History of Negro Americans By
John Hope Franklin. The Blacks'
course from African origins to North
and South America today.
$10.75/»7.40
651. WHITE OVER BLACK: Ameri-
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1550-1812 By Winthrop D. Jordan.
An outstanding study of the origins of
racism in the U.S. $12.50/»8.95
689. THE ANCIENT MEDITERRA-
NEAN By Michael Grant. Pictured
with clarity and charm, life in the
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man to the 4ih Century. $8.95/$6.75
657. THE CREATION OF THE AMER-
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Gordon S. Wood. The evolution of
American political thought from 1776
to the making of the Conslilutjon.
$15.00/$9.95
690. THE ENLIGHTENMENT: An in-
terpretation: The Science of Free-
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century thinkers and Iheir intellectual
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NUREMBERG 1945-46 By Eugene
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621. THE INDIAN HERITAGE OF
AMERICA By Alvin M. Josephy. Jr.
The history, archaeology, and ethnol-
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371. CIVIL WAR DICTIONARY By
M. M. Boalner III. Over 4000 entries-
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THE AUTHORS
"Bananas in Vermont" is the first
of a two-part article by Richard M.
Klein. Dr. Klein, who has closely
followed the development of atomic
power in Vermont, advocates turning
the potential disadvantages of nu-
clear plants into advantages. Profes-
sor of botany at the University of
Vermont and the author of "The
Florence Floods" for Natural His-
tory (August-September. 1969). Dr.
Klein's future projects include re-
search on the effect of light on cells,
a book on plant physiology for gar-
deners, and a visit to Southeast Asia.
In 1966, our "Naturalist at Large"
Susan Schlee and her four-year-old
son embarked upon a scuba diving
tour of Iceland, Portugal, and the
Canary Islands. Their adventures,
chronicled in local newspapers,
earned her the unusual distinction of
being the first foreign woman to
scuba dive in Iceland. I pon her re-
turn, Mrs. Schlee worked (and
warmed up) in Florida as a reporter
of oceanographic news, and the fol-
lowing year was awarded a Mark
Ethridge Fellowship for the study of
the history of science at Duke Uni-
versity. A graduate of Vassar Col-
lege, Mrs. Schlee is currently work-
ing on a history of oceanography at
the Marine Biological Laboratory in
Woods Hole.
Edward R. LaChapelle is asso-
ciate professor of geophysics at the
University of Washington. Since
1952, he has worked each winter as
an avalanche hazard forecaster for
the United States Forest Service, and
is at present affiliated with the Alta
Avalanche Study Center in Utah. Mr.
LaChapelle's projected studies in-
clude techniques of avalanche fore-
casting, flow of glaciers, and clima-
tology of the snow cover. He is the
author of Field Guide to Snow Crys-
tals, and coauthor with Austin Post
of Glacier Ice, scheduled for publica-
tion soon.
Klaus-Friedrich Koch's article,
"Cannibalistic Revenge in Jale War-
fare," results from two years of field
work in Jalemo, an "unpacified,"
ethnographically unexplored region
of western New Guinea. A lecturer on
social anthropology for the Depart-
ment of Social Relations at Harvard,
fellow in oceanic ethnology at the
Peabody Museum of Archaeology
and Ethnology, and fellow in law and
anthropology at Harvard Law School
(1969-70), Dr. Koch has done field
research in Samoa, Fiji, and the
Ellice Islands. An ardent proponent
of field work as a means to our in-
creased understanding of intraspe-
cies hostility and of cultural pro-
cedures for the resolution of conflict,
Dr. Koch plans a long-range com-
parative study on law and conflict
management in several South Pacific
societies. At present, he is writing a
book entitled War and Peace in
Jalemo: Politics of Conflict in High-
land New Guinea.
Pamela Tyler Lindstrom, the
author of "The Egg Machine," is a
technician in the biology department
at the University of California at San
Diego. A graduate of the University
of Miami, she received her master's
degree in developmental biology in
1966. Although Mrs. Lindstrom is
currently assisting in research on cell
adhesion in chicken embryos, she
continues to work primarily in sea
urchin laboratories.
This month's article on sleep is the
result of a two-year collaborative
study b) Henry Van Twyver and
Truett Allison. A research asso-
ciate at the Veterans Administration
Hospital in West Haven, Connecticut,
Dr. Van Twyver. left, spent a year at
UCLA's Department of Anatomy
after receiving his Ph.D. in neuro-
biology from the University of
Florida in 1967. Last year he joined
forces with Dr. Allison to study the
evolution of sleep. They plan to con-
tinue their research using radio
telemetry in field studies of wild
species in their natural habitats.
After completing his Ph.D. in
psychology at Yale University in
1962, Truett Allison spent two years
in Mexico City studying sleep in
cats. He is presently research psy-
chologist at the Veterans Adminis-
tration Hospital in West Haven and
assistant professor of psychology at
Yale's School of Medicine. Dr. Alli-
son has written various publications
relating to sleep and to brain func-
tion in general.
i
f you want to know something about the latest
liscoveries in anthropology, archeology, astronomy,
)iochemistry, biology, chemistry, drugs, environment,
)e.netlcs, geology, medicine, meteorology, oceanography,
)rti ontology, physics, space, technology and zoology,
the
all here..,.
eeping up with the astronauts kept most
mericans fairly preoccupied during the
ast year, at least so far as science was
Dncerned, but scientists themselves were
eeping busy in other ways. Working at
le sites of ancient cities, or under the
cean, or in laboratories around the
■orld, they have been involved in proj-
cts vital and fascinating to all of us. To
rovide an up-to-the-minute review of
-lese newsworthy developments, the
ditors of Time-Life Books have brought
Dgether in a hardbound, profusely illus-
rated annual a record of the most impor-
ant events in these fields last year.
The annual includes a wide variety
if superb interpretive articles and picture
ssays. There is an article by Time Medi-
;ine Editor, Gilbert Cant, on the ethical
mplications of heart transplants, (e.g.,
Vhen is a donor dead?) and another deal-
ng with the discovery of Sybaris-the
mcient Greek colony deemed one of the
nost important archeological finds since
'ompeii. Former Life Science Library
Editor, Robert Claiborne, writes about
the possibility that the world's largest and
most majestic mammal, the whale, may
be hunted into extinction by the end of
the decade. Other articles examine the
slow drift of the continents, pulsars, those
stars that emit precisely regular pulses of
radio energy and the comeback of steam
and electric cars. The five striking picture
essays include a study of the geological
features of the moon; a discussion of
hybrid agricultural products that may
provide some answers to the world's
hunger problems; and a fascinating look
at some African wild dogs which display
many of the same behavior patterns that
distinguish early man from the other
primates. All of this is contained in 192
Specifications :
192 Pages
64 in full color
X 11", Hardbound
information-filled pages, 64 of which are
in full color. The book is durably hard-
bound and measures 81/2" x 11".
For easy reference by students or
anyone else who needs accurate up-to-
date information, the editors have
included a summary of events in nature
and science during 1969, a listing of
Nobel Prize winners and their achieve-
ments, as well as a complete index.
Examine It Free
In Your Home For 10 Days
TIME-LIFE BOOKS, Dept. 0405, Time & Life BIdg., Chicago, III. 60611
Yes I would like to examine Nature/Science Annual, 1970 Edition
without cost or obligation. I may use the book for 10 days and then either
return it without further obligation or keep it. If I decide to keep it, I will
remit $5.95 ($6.25 in Canada) plus shipping and handling. You may
then confirm my reservation to receive future annuals with the same
10-day free examination. You will notify me in advance of publication
so I may reconfirm delivery instructions.
TIME-LIFE BOOKS, TIME & LIFE BUILDING, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60611
BiBnanas iwu Verwnont
{Aroused Vermonters
may force new,
stricter lltnlts
on the design
and operation
of nuclear
power plants
and turn
one of the
disadvantages
of such plants
Into a hothouse
asset
Vermont is not a wealthy state,
ndustry produces the largest share
'of state income, tourism is second,
and agriculture third. It requires au-
tomation plus 40 to 70 head of cattle
to make a go of the family farm, and
the number of farms is decreasing
each year. In the northeastern part of
the state, the "northeast kingdom,"
where the true Vermonter traces his
ancestry back at least five genera-
tions, some residents live close to the
subsistence level; jacking of deer
provides table meat. Even in the
larger cities underemployment is not
uncommon.
Vermont cities are not large by
California or New York standards,
but some, like Burlington, are seeing
the development of middle-class sub-
urbs whose residents, mostly "instant
Vermonters," are putting increasing
pressures on roads, sanitary facili-
ties, public services, and, overwhelm-
ingly, on schools. These demands on
available funds can, lacking an in-
dustrial base, be relieved only by
pushing up property taxes and, as
was recently done, by imposing a
;reatly resented sales tax.
[
New sources of income must be
found and tapped. The most obvious
of these would be to bring in new in-
dustry sufficient to employ those who
leave the farms and to provide a new
tax base; and the second, to use the
land more extensively and better ex-
ploit its natural beauty by attracting
people who can build summer and,
eventually, permanent homes. Many
of you have seen the ads extolling
"Vermont, the Beckoning Country,"
a publicity venture of the Vermont
Development Commission. Having
recently moved to Vermont, I would
just as lief stop immigration alto-
gether, although I realize that this
would result in action by the federal
government, an organization with
more firepower than we can muster
even with the muzzle-loaders now
selling for exorbitant prices in our
antique shops. Independent of my de-
sire to trout fish twenty minutes from
home, it is obvious that both indus-
try and land development will be en-
couraged.
Despite the church mouse condi-
tion of the state treasury, Vermont is
a geographic area rich in natural
beauty. Its valleys are bucolic rem-
nants of the mid-nineteenth century:
the Green Mountains are soft, and, in
contrast with the Rockies or the Alps,
are "take-in-able." International
Business Machines recognized this a
few years ago when it decided to open
a facility in the Burlington area, thus
enabling its employees to find homes
in a region unexcelled for those fea-
tures that were cover paintings in the
now-defunct Saturday Evening Post.
Running parallel to the mountains
for almost 130 miles and forming
much of our western border is Lake
Champlain. where one can still see
far down into the clear depths to ols-
serve and catch bass, walleye"s. perch,
and northern ]3ike. There is a deep
and abiding love for this environ-
ment, and it is doubtful whether
most residents would knowingly de-
spoil the land or the water. Yet, good
hy Richard M, Klein
intentions are inadequate safeguards
and it is instructive to examine more
closely the problems inherent in
reaching goals dictated by economic
necessity.
For industry to be attracted, it
must be assured of an intelligent
work force, land, good and abundant
water, easily reached markets, and
adequate power. In our modern
transport-oriented society, sources of
raw materials need not be a major
problem; pipelines could bring crude
oil from deepwater ports to refin-
eries on the shores of Lake Cham-
plain or even on top of Mount Mans-
field. This is an extreme, yet there
are residents who would be reluc-
tant but complacent boosters for
heavy, pollutant-producing industry
—"My taxes would drop and it
wouldn't be in my backyard."
Logically, the industrial ideal
would be clean, nonpolluting, skilled
fabrications, but this requires pow er.
Vermont, singularly blessed with
many attributes, has few potential
hydroelectric sites, there is no native
coal, and present power consumption
in the northeast is so great (remem-
ber the November, 196.5. blackout?)
that the addition of more industrial
consumers of power would over-
whelm present facilities. Burlington
just obtained voter approval for an
oil-fired turbine to serve as a back-
stop for its municipally owned coal-
burning generator. Incidentally, the
city fathers in all their wisdom will
site the new plant in an existing
building directly on the lakefront
where there are only tw o beaches for
the whole area, both inadequate and
one now closed because of sewage
pollution.
As Sen. George Aiken has pointed
out. the answer to our power bind
is atomic energy. Recognizing the
profit iniierent in serving new indus-
try, a consortium of private power
companies has already started con-
struction of one plant on the Con-
necticut River near the village of
This Forgotten Islands a(hintuie
Is not for everybody. Happily
There are Edens in the Indian Ocean. We call them the Forgotten
Islands, and their names are poetry. Seychelles. Desroches Ami-
rantes. Farquhar. Aldabra. Grand Comoro. Their small population
their equatorial sea birds, and their leaning palms are blessed by the
absence of civilization. That is why we say that they are not for every-
body. But to explore them in quiet leisure might just be for you.
Our 2,300 ton ship was expressly designed to combine the sophis-
ticated capabilities of an explorer with all of the comforts of a cruise
vessel. All accommodations are air-conditioned, each cabin has its
own private shower and toilet, and the ship has a Lido Deck, swim-
ming pool and shops. She has an Observation Deck and a Crow's
Nest to give you an unrestricted view, and an auditorium for briefings
by world-famous naturalists on the wildlife of each island.
You'll fly by the world's most advanced jet -the BOAC VC 10-
from New York to Nairobi by way of London. Here our Safari vehi-
cles will take you on a day's game-viewing safari through Nairobi
National Park, and you'll then be flown to Mombasa to join the
M.S. Lindblad Explorer, for your most memorable cruise of the
Forgotten Islands.
The inclusive price of this three-week explorer-cruise from New
York starts at $1,614.00*. There are departures every other Satur-
day starting April 11, 1970. To explore this cruise further, see your
Travel Agent, or send in the coupon below.
SAFETY INFORMATION: The M.S. Lindblad Explorer is of
Norwegian registry and meets international safety standards for new
ships developed after 1968 and the 1966 fire safety requirements.
Somebody up there cares.
British Overseas Airways Corporation, Box VC 1 0, Dept 1 5 1 E-692
New York, N.Y. 10011.687-1600.
I am seriously interested in your explorer-cruise. Please send details.
Name
City
-Address.
State.
-Zip.
My Travel Agent is.
'^Trfl T "''"•b'sddfd cabin on cruise and Economy Closs group tour (ore from N.Y. (Subiecl to minimum 15 possen-
gers.l Air supplemeni during certain peal; periods required. uu.jpuisen
SEYCHELLES
Vernon, and this plant, plus cent
plated or completed units throu
out the country, must serve a
model for a Lake Champlain pL
which may eventually be built at
near the town of Charlotte, just so
of Burlington in Addison County.)
Assuming, for a moment, that
other atomic energy plant is inevi
ble, it is obvious that it is the tas
aroused citizenry and concerned
enlists to direct their efforts tow
setting realistic limits on the des
and operation of such a plant. A
cles in Natural History and otl
publications have detailed poten
health dangers and environmental f
suits that accompany the operatii
of any nuclear plant. Others ha>
shown that the Atomic Energy Co:
mission is, like many other maj
federal agencies, capable of disseii-
bling when it is useful to do so. 4
several sympathetic opponents ha
said, it is most difficult for the san
agency to be directed by law both
promote the use of the atom and,
the same time, to regulate its ui
Here lies schizophrenia with a toucj
of defensive paranoia, and tj
Atomic Energy Commission is e_
hibiting symptoms of both thes
mental diseases.
Like the Pentagon, the AEC h,
scarcely been questioned for close t
20 years, and in this period of tiir
it has consolidated an extensiv
power base. Yet, in only three years
there has been a series of blows t^
its hegemony. One hard blow was de
livered by a new activist grou
formed in upper New York State am
centered about Cornell University
Briefly, AEC and several powei
groups decided to construct a fairb
large plant on Lake Cayuga. Th(
boiling-water reactor was to be ovei
800 megawatts in capacity, and like
other plants, it was to follow a desigr'
established by AEC, with safeguards
and performance standards set b)
AEC, and with supplementary fundi
provided by AEC. Prof. David D
Comey and his colleagues presentee
—in public hearings and in two eX'
cellent publications— a serious study
of the inherent and unpublicized
dangers of such a plant, and finally
got the AEC to withdraw its approval
pending restudy. More recently, the
Minnesota legislature insisted that
the state can set more stringent and
restrictive pollution standards than
those of the AEC, a position the com-
12
This summer re-live history
loin the 1970 LEWIS & CLARK expedition
sponsored by FOUR WINDS®
■ »• ou are invited to join a three-week expedition personally
W escorted by distinguished Lewis and Clark scholars— a
■■■ heritage tour designed as an authentic reproduction of
Ajnerica's greatest journey of exploration.
From St. Louis to the shores of Oregon, you'll travel nearly
4000 miles-some of the way by jeep and pontoon-platform
riverboat— exploring America as Lewis and Clark did. Ven-
ture to the source of the Missouri River ... as they did. Stand
on the ridge of the Continental Divide at Lemhi Pass ... as
they did. Follow the Lolo Trail in northern Idaho— a road
without gas pump, home or any vestige of civilization— as
they did!
Visit Indian reservations and historic battlefields. Cruise the
upper Missouri's "Wilderness Waterway"- its spectacular
sandstone cliffs and grotesque rock sentinels virtually un-
changed since Lewis and Clark first gazed upon them 165
years ago. See the turbulent white waters of the Salmon
River, the "River of No Return".
Here is your great opportunity to re-live the drama of Lewis
and Clark's great journey ... to travel through the unspoiled
America of magnificent mountains, rivers and forests that
they conquered . . . and to finally reach the shores of the rock-
bound Oregon coast and triumphantly gaze out over the Pacific!
• Finest accommodations throughout: Luxury hotels in
cities, comfortable camping arrangements for the overnight
stop on the Missouri River's "Wilderness Waterway".
• Authentic routing from St. Louis, Mo. to Tillamook,
Oregon, on the shores of the Pacific-meticulously designed
to follow the original Lewis and Clark route as closely as
possible.
• Scholarly leadership to help re-create history for you.
• Six departures to choose from during June, July and
August 1970; membership limited to 24 persons per tour.
• Nearly 4000 miles off the beaten path through Missouri,
Iowa. Nebraska, So. Dakota, No. Dakota, Montana, Idaho,
Washington, Oregon-by rail, air, motorcoach, jeep, pontoon-
platform riverboat.
• Rate includes best hotels, meals, transfers and transporta-
tion over the tour route.
• All travel details-baggage, tips, etc.— handled for you by
your Four Winds tour escort.
If you are interested in a unique summer travel experience— seeing
America the way Lewis and Clark did-see your travel agent or
clip coupon and mail to
Four Winds Travel Inc
175 Fifth Ave., N.Y., N.Y. 10010 Phone: 212-777-0260
Please send me complete information on your LEWIS
and CLARK expeditions. I would be interested in a de-
parture date in
n June n July D August
Name
n
Address-
City
_Zip_
I'd like information on other Four Winds tours to D Africa
D Orient & Expo '70 D South Pacific D Around the World
L~ n California Rockies and the Pacific Northwest D Mexico _
□ Private Train Tours D South Pacific Cruises. DA-044 I
13
No other
camera
has this
switch. ;
/
Look closely at the
photographer's left
index finger. It's on a
switch which allows
him to make a choice
between two separate
exposure meter systems.
The .Mamiya/Sekor DTL
is the world's first 3Jmm,
single lens reflex camera
with two separate through
the lens exposure reading
systems. Why two ? Because
subjects with front lighting
are measured easiest with an
"averaged" meter system. With
back or side lighting you need a
"spot" meter system to read the
most important part of the picture.
Almost all fine 35mm SLR cameras
have one of these systems ; only the
Mamiya SekorDTL has both. The
DTL with every important SLR
feature is priced from less than
$180, plus case. Ask for a demon-
stration at your photo dealer
or write for folder.
mamiya/sekor
PaniJer&Best, 11201 West Pico'
Boulevard, Los Angeles.
California 90064. '^
mission finds, at best, uncomfortable
and, at worst, unbearable.
With, perhaps, a less firm profes-
sional base, a group of citizens from
Vermont and New York have formed
a Lake Champlain Committee dedi-
cated "to eliminate water pollution
from all sources . . . and to conserve
the natural resources and scenic
beauty of the Champlain Valley."
The Vermont-^sew York Committee
promoted and obtained passage of
landmark legislation in both states to
provide that smaller administrative
units I like Charlotte I cannot be pres-
sured into an environmental blunder.
The temptation for a town can be
strong: the tax intake in a town that
has an atomic energy plant would
vastly increase, while its tax rate
could be substantially reduced. Citi-
zens can picture new parks, new
swimming pools, new municipal
buildings, new schools and, of
course, higher property values.
Senator Aiken and Governor
Davis arranged for the AEC to set up
a public meeting at the University of
Vermont. There, many of their big
guns spoke on the safety, necessity,
and value of atomic energy plants in
general and for Vermont in particu-
lar. The federal armamentarium in-
cluded a Nobel laureate, other mem
bers of the commission, sectioi
chiefs, and a diverse sprinkling o:
scientific talent from the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory'. An expensive
exhibit was brought up from Wash-
ington, miniskirted usherettes with
white blazers lettered "AEC" were
much in evidence, and the rostrum
i\ as graced with the AEC seal as well
as those of the state and the univer-
sity. Vermont, population about 400.-
000. was to get the "big" treatment.
Morning seminars given b)' their
scientists were standing room only,
and as a university' teacher I was de-
lighted with the educational experi-
ences that my students got. The pre-
sentations were, to be charitable, be-
low the standards that we set for
student seminars; expected informa-
tion was not forthcoming, and many
in attendance got the impression that
we were boondocks residents to be
patronized. The formal afternoon
presentations were held in the univer-
sity gymnasium and attended by the
academic community as well as by
the general public. Remember,
please, that town meetings are part i
of our way of life. The AEC was
clearly running scared and the sooth-
ing speeches of commission members
'Vermont . . . was to get the 'big' treatment^'
it^^'
•^W.'** V'-TT
H
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15
Find out more
about the birds
and the bees
For a revealing closeup view of any-
thing in nature, there's nothing lil<e
a pair of Nikon prism binoculars.
Designed by the makers of the
famous Nikon camera, they provide
exceptionally bright, clear, crisp
vision over the entire wide field of
view, through morning mist and
evening dusk. Their superb Nikon
optics are so precisely aligned and
collimated you can view for hours
without eyestrain. Compare them
with any lesser binoculars, and you
will see the difference Nikon quality
makes.
Among the many types of Nikon
binoculars, the 8x30 and 9x35 are
particularly suited for bird watching
and nature study Both feature light-
weight, moisture-resistant construc-
tion and are backed by a 25-year
guarantee. At better optical and
camera stores and departments, or
write; Nikon Inc., Garden City N.Y.
11530. Subsidiary of Ehrenreich
Photo-Optical Industries, Inc. [133
(In Canada; Anglophoto Ltd., P.Q.)
Nikon
Prism
Binoculars
and their scientists were closely fol-
lowed by the audience. After the AEC
had two-thirds of the program, a
panel of four "environmentalists"
joined tlie commissioners for a ses-
sion of screened audience questions.
It was at this point that AEC's care-
ful plan went awry, for the questions
were sharp and to the point (remem-
ber the town meeting syndrome),
and the sympathy of the audience be-
gan to shift away from the official
line and toward the Vermont tradi-
tion of believing what makes "good
sense." This was the first time that
the AEC had mounted a massive pub-
lic meeting, and one of the few times
that variant opinion was allowed to
share the same platform. Certainly
the commissioners were talking to
the nation here, not just to Vermont,
and certainly they were defensive and
a bit apprehensive. Governor Davis
received prolonged applause when he
concluded the afternoon's session
with a firm statement that "the right
to increase safeguards should be re-
served to the state." Vermont has
now submitted a friend-of-the-court
brief in Minnesota's suit— a develop-
ment not planned by the AEC.
In October. Vermont Yankee Nu-
clear Power Corporation teamed up
with the AEC for a two-day public
meeting with the citizens of Bratti
boro, near the site of the nucle
power plant under construction (
the Connecticut River. High scho
and college students as well as loc
citizens attempted to get some fir
information to allay their fears aboi
this plant but, regrettably, heai
only sophistries and "facts" that ai
questioned by many ecologisl
Again, AEC struck out. At about tl
same time, a committee of the stal
legislative council met to draft ne-
laws on energy and power. Vermoi
Yankee officials succeeded in watei
ing down the strong recommendf
tions to the legislature. There was
they said, no quarrel with the nee.
to protect the environment, bu
power needs had to be paramount.
Nongovernmental scientific opir
ion suggests that standards of maxi
mum allowable exposure to radiatioi
should be reduced, which would bi
technically possible with appropriati
changes in plant design. More strin
gent standards will undoubtedly in
crease the construction cost of
generating plant by dollar amounts
that are huge at first glance. What is
not pointed out, however, is thai
when the excess costs are amortized
over plant life, the additional expense
will add only a small fraction to the
With the AEC and other elements of progress in its future,
Vermont will never be the same.
i6
[he South F^dfle isnt that much.
17days. Fiji. New Zealand. Australla.^995
It costs as little as that to splash in a real lagoon, to
beachcomb or explore tropical jungles. To visit New
Zealand, a tranquil bit of England set amidst palm
trees. And wind up with six days to experience the
new frontier — Australia.
That's one of four holidays BOAC has set up to
take you to places you've mused about, for a lot less
than you thought.
The price of each holiday includes your round-
trip jet fare from the West Coast, '^ first class hotel
accommodations, transfers and sightseeing.
17 Days. $908. Fly and Drive in Australia.
A holiday for those who want to thoroughly ex-
plore Australia. We'll fly you to Sydney, give you an
automatic Ford Falcon sedan and 200 free miles (you
pay only 1 1(? for each additional mile). Motel accom-
modations for 14 nights good throughout Australia
and all the maps, mileage charts and suggested tour
routing you'll need. The same holiday is available to
New Zealand. $852.
33 Days. $2741. New Zealand, Australia,
British Solomon Islands, New Guinea
(including Guadalcanal), Fiji Islands.
These Journeys of Adventure and Discovery
read like something out of the travels of Captain Cook
with a bit of Lord Jim added. And an extensive tour
of New Zealand and Australia (you've twelve days in
Australia) along with canoe and yacht voyages, lagoon
swimming, beachcombing, jungle exploring and other
South Pacific pleasures, includes all your meals, boat
accommodations, tips and taxes.
Each holiday is described in its own brochure
available at your Travel Agent. Or by mailing the
coupon.
Somebody Up there cares.
British Overseas Airways Corporation, Box VC 10, Dept, 151-667A New York, N.Y. 10011. 687-1600.
Gentlemen: I've scon your holidays illustrated in a few Gauguin paintings. Please send me the other details.
n Australia and the South Pacific D Journeys of Adventure and Discovery in the South Pacific
D Fly and Drive in Australia D Fly and Drive in New Zealand
Mr.. Mrs.. Miss
Citv
State
Address_
Zip Code
Mv Travel Assent is
♦Prices based on group or individual Ecc
rion with Oantas ond Air New Zealand.
ur lares
Irom tlie West Coast,
subject
to supplomonts dur
ing poolc 500
lion, and :
ihoring twin-boddcd room
SOUTH PACIFIC
17
The Celestron 10
Deep-Sky Telescope Telephoto Lens
Astro Camera Terrestrial Telescope
The 10-inch aperture and ISB-mch (3400mm)
focal length of this instrument causes stellar ob-
jects to appear 900 times brighter than to the
unaided eye. Magnification range of 50 to 1000
power is provided. It is equipped with an ex-
tremely stable fork mount and drive system that
automatically tracks stellar objects.
The superb Schmidt-Cassegrain Mirror-Lens sysfem of
the Celestron 10 Telescope presents as sharp and
stable jrrages as !s theoretically possible using the
most recent advances in optical technology. The
folded optical design allows the packaging of a large
telescope in a most compact size.
Whether your forte is visually examlninq the wIsdv
detail of the Orion Nebula, tracking the ever-
changing moon positions and belt structure of
Jupiter, being awed by the immense detail of our
Moon, or capturing on film the saucy behavior of a
Quail at 500 feet, a Celestron ID is your best
investment.
(Price $2000.00; others from $395.00)
Celestron Pacific ?!"
Amsle
Calif. 90505
(M-3)
LIMITED RELEASE-U. S. GOVT. SURPLUS
SNIPERSCOPE
INFRARED SET
for scientists, gun collectors, naturalists
Built by American Optical Co. In excellent working
condition. Used by our troops for observing enemy
in total darkness v;ithout being detected. Suggested
uses: medical research, study of nocturnal animal
life, mineralogy, industrial and medical research,
crime detection. Rare item for gun collectors. Tele-
scope is 163/4" long; clear aperture of lens is
5Q.4mm. A 5"-diameter filter is attached. Knob ad-
justs focus electrostatically: second knob adjusts
reticle intensity. Reticle also has vertical and hori-
zontal adjustments. Canvas carrying case and shoul-
der strap included. Complete unit includes U"xl4"x
16" chest, telescope with RCA 6032 image tube,
20,000V po.ver pack v/ith canvas carrying case and
shoulder straps, IR light source, steel carbine
bracket, pistol-grip handle v/ith switch control
Formerly highly classified. Limited supply Orig
Govt, cost, $800. Shipping v/t., approx. 30 lbs
Price $249.50
SNIPERSCOPE BATTERY
Rechargeable 6V pov;er source
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Approx. shipping v/t., 15 lbs.
$9.95. Tvfo for $18.00
F.O.B. Tucson, Ariz. No C.O.D.'s please.
C&H SALES CO.
P.O. Box 1572, Tucson. Ariz.
cost of each kilo\vatt hour generated
and sold.
Thermal pollution is. however, an-
other matter. Consequences of pour-
ing millions of gallons of heated
water into any body of water are
still not completely known: but to
assume that because we don't know
the consequences we can move right
in. is ecologically dangerous and sci-
entifically indefensible. A 500 kw.
reactor cooled by lake or river water
must pump .5.600 gallons of cooling
water per second. .\s .4EC reluctantly
admits, there will be alterations in
the biological and physical nature of
a relatively slow-moving lake Hke
Champlain and there will undoubt-
edly be changes in the surrounding
countryside as well. Northern Ver-
mont is very cold in the winter, and
it is a rare year that Lake Champlain
doesn t freeze over. Warmed-up, it
may not freeze over completely. As
cold air, borne by the prevailing
westerlies, comes whisthng down
from the Adirondacks and crosses a
stretch of open water, it will pick up
sufficient moisture to produce severe
fog and sleet. Addison County, self-
st)-led "land of milk and honey"
(which in fact it is) may spend six
months as an inland equivalent of
the Outer Banks.
Of course, if sufficiently pressed,
the designers can include cooling
towers or recycle their cooling water
as a car radiator does. These changes
would cost up to six million dollars,
but in terms of total outlay thev are
not economically impractical. It cer-
tainly will help preseri-e the lake, but
it will provide the makings of fog not
only during the winter— if the towers
can, indeed, work in the 20-below
weather— but in the summer as well.
And if cooling towers do not handle
all the water needed for the plant, do
we go back to the lake?
A bit of imagination, apparently
lacking in AEC as it is conspicuously
lacking in the Corps of Engineers,
might just result in better solutions
than the standard hot-water-into-the-
lake concept, or even cooling towers.
One alternative to the cooling tower
is the construction of a cooling pond,
which would have the advantage of
permitting location of the generating
plant away from the lake entirely.
This would require about 1,500 acres
of surface water, and if land prices
were reasonable and construction
costs low, the added charge would
be about .81.50 per kilowatt hour
cost competitive with cooling towe
It seems to me, however, that
can do more with pollution probles
by making them pay off econo-
ically than by wringing our bans
or letting massive federal bureas
write off an environment in thir
pursuit of power. Philadelphia is mi
packaging its trash, putting it in
empt)- coal cars and then shipjii
the material back to the strip mii
as land fill. The cit)- saves a milli
and a half dollars a year by avoid i;
incineration, and the Reading Ra-
road makes money as well.
Heat from an atomic reactor •
available in tremendous supply. If
is used instead of wasted, several i-
lated problems can be solved. \S
need jobs for agriculturally traine
but underemployed, people: we nee
new taxable industry: we need
clean lake: and we need intellige
land use. The Champlain Valley
good farmland, but the growing se
son is so short that production i
truck crops for the big cit)^ marke
is impractical. Cantaloupes, for ii
stance, produce a crop only occasioi
ally— a risky business, indeed. Su]
pose that the waste cooling wate
were piped away from the reactc
and used to heat large greenhouse
that could produce tomatoes, melon:
cucumbers, and other crops in th
winter? Thermal heat exchanger
could produce air-conditioned area
during the summer to permit mush
room cultivation. Not only could th
power companies sell a waste produc
pollutant at a profit, but they coul<
sell electricity to Ught the green
houses. These are not just pip.
dreams: Iceland has been using tier
mal spring water for many years fo
precisely these purposes, as well a
for heating homes in Reykjavik
Stockholm has placed an atomii
energy plant within the city limit:
and uses the cooling water for homt
and office heating. Rough calcula
tions by a nonengineer I me I have in
dicated that even a modestlv sizec
plant can produce enough waste heal
to make a portion of the Champlain
Valley into an artificial subtropicaJ
paradise. Still a land of milk and
honey— plus tomatoes, mangoes, and
jobs. Might we not also have girls in
grass skirts undulating beneath;
banana trees? <
The second part of this article will I
appear in the next issue
Lindblad Travel announces
two exciting cruising voyages:
1. TO THE "FORGOTTEN ISLANDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN"
2. TO DARWIN'S GALAPAGOS
0 the east in the Indian Ocean or to the west in the Pacific,
vorlds apart, you will find two places with one thing in com-
lon. They both offer excitement such as can be found
owhere else.
M/S Lindblad Explorer
/isit the "FORGOTTEN ISLANDS OF
THE INDIAN OCEAN" on a voyage
)f discovery aboard the brand new
;rulse ship the M/S LINDBLAD EX-
'LORER. You will delight in the white
reaches, the tall coconut palms and
he delicate feathery branches of the
;asuarina trees in peaceful settings,
jninterrupted by lines of tourist
cottages and highrise hotels. Thou-
sands of birds which inhabit these
slands— the terns, boobies, frigate
Dirds, shearwaters, warblers, and
sunbirds are there to meet you. They
nave never known danger and are
:ame beyond belief. And you will
Tave time to visit the game preserves
n Kenya.
For this unforgettable trip to the
r
\, ^
^"'
/'^
"FORGOTTEN ISLANDS" you will
board the M/S Lindblad at Mombasa,
Kenya and BOAC VC 10's will bring
you there and back.
The M/S Lindblad Explorer meets
the international safety standards for
new ships established in 1968, as
well as fire regulation requirements
developed in 1966.
• • •
Ever since Charles Darwin intro-
duced his famous evolutionary theo-
ries, following his visit on the H.M.S.
Beagle to the Galapagos Islands in
1835, these islands on the equator
have fired the imagination of scien-
tist and layman alike.
This is the fourth year in which we
offer you the opportunity to partici-
pate in a special survey of the Gala-
pagos and their fascinating wildlife
and scenery. And as in the past, our
expeditions have been arranged with
the Charles Darwin Foundation. Well
known expedition leaders will in-
clude Dr. Bruce Campbell, Dr. M. P.
Harris of the Charles Darwin Foun-
dation and Mr. Eric Hosking.
X
/- ^^'
.X
/— .
3^E^*^:sF''<
To set foot on these islands is to be
transported back into primeval time,
to witness firsthand the fantastic
birds, animals and reptiles bypassed
by civilization, unknown to most men
until Darwin's visit. It is a once-in-a-
lifetime experience.
You will "set sail" aboard the S.S.
Romantica, a 200 passenger de luxe
cruiser which tor ease and comfort
we will limit to one hundred. You
will be flown by chartered DC-6 jet
to Baltra in the Galapagos from
Guayaquil, Ecuador. Costs from
$1000 per person.
The S.S. Romantica is of Greek reg-
istry substantially meets the interna-
tional safety standards for new ships
established in 1968, as well as fire
regulation requirements developed
in 1966.
Marine Iguana (Galapagos)
Dept. NH-270
LINDBLAD TRAVEL, INC.
Lindblad Travel Building
133 East 55th Street
New York, N.Y. 10022
Please send brochure. I am seriously inter-
ested in:
□ Forgotten Islands of the Indian Ocean
n Darwin's Galapagos
Mr.
Mrs.
Miss
City_
-Zip-
_ _ ^-tiufcir-a
Sooty Terns in the Amirantes (Indian Ocean)
A Naturalist at Large
Prince A^lhert^s
JViBy af CiBtching Squid
Jln cold, black waters thousands of
feet beneath the surface of the sea
swim uncounted numbers and vari-
eties of squid. Not much has been
learned about these curious mol-
lusks, for squid see well and swim
fast, and easil)' avoid fishermen's
trawls towed slowly and blindly from
a surface ship. One way to catch
squid was inadvertently discovered
in 1895 by Prince Albert I of
Monaco as he sailed among the is-
lands of the Azores. His method— kill
a whale.
On the morning of July 18, 1895,
the prince, who was on his eighth
annual scientific expedition in his
specially equipped schooner, the
Princesse Alice, left the island of
Terceira to trawl for deep-sea ani-
mals. The plan that day was to work
in the lee of the island, for even with-
in sight of the green hills and black
volcanic peaks the naturalists on
board could lower the nets and
baited traps through several thou-
sand feet of water. As the roval vacht
came on station and a sounding lead
by Susan Schlee
was about to go over the side, the
prince sighted the sails of two small
boats moving seaward through the
surf from the far end of the island.
He guessed correctly that the boats,
island whalers, were going off to
hunt the sperm whales that swam in
lazy herds through the waters of the
Azores.
Prince Albert, as ardent a hunts-
man as he was an oceanographer,
was particularly anxious to watch the
harpooning of a whale. He ordered
work stopped aboard the Princesse
Alice, and the yacht set out after the
whalers. Through binoculars the
prince watched as the islanders sailed
among the sporadic fountains of
vapor sent up by the small herd. One
of the open boats veered off toward
a far group of whales, while the crew
of the other stoived their sails,
manned the oars, and with the har-
pooner poised in the bow. closed in
on a sperm whale some 40 feet in
length. As the prince watched, the
harpooner struck and the whale
thrashed violently. The men bent to
the oars, pulling the boat clear of the
whale's powerful flukes, which sent
sheets of water twenty feet into the
air with each resounding slap. The
Princesse Alice moved in for a closer
look. The open whaler again' ap-
proached the whale, and the har-
pooner struck the animal with a
heavy lance. The vapor from the
whale's vent blew rose, then blood
red.
"Then, right next to us," wrote
Prince Albert, "began the death
struggle of a giant. His enormous
body, numbed and sluggish, par-
tially submerged in the bloody sea;"
swayed ponderously: his large tail
beat the red water violently which |
heaved w ith the swell and frothed i
with foam.
"The fifty persons on my boat,
grouped at the bow. perched on the
davits, clinging to the rigging, were
dumbfounded. And me. 1 was moved
to the marrow of my bones by the
unknown grandeur of this sight. I
watched as if in a dream. I was
moved by this giant's agony, ex-
e W instons aren t trying to save tne world.
;t a little piece of it
ere are Apaches on the reser-
in Clear Fork, Arizona, who
member the last, hopeless
e uprising in 1900. But for
Alakay, a seven-year-old
e, the enemy is not the U.S.
y-
e and her people are fighting
!r kind of war. This time the
;s are poverty, disease and
r. And for the first time in gen-
is, there's a chance that the
es might win: thanks to the
eous efforts of her own people
ither Americans like the
)ns.
me and Stan Winston and
wo daughters live in a New
;uburb 2,000 miles from the
ition. But it's another world,
instons live in a big, old house
mplain about a big, new mort-
Pheir girls have a closetful of
! and "nothing to wear." They
ikes, skates, games, books, rec-
id "nothing to do."
:11a and her seven brothers
iters have none of these prob-
Her father spends as much
time looking for
work as he does
working. Sanitary
facilities are al-
most non-existent.
Electricity has
yet to reach them.
Water is hauled
. by hand. Even the
necessities are hard to come by.
rough Save The Children Fed-
1, the Winstons are helping
The cost is $15.00 a month.
t a lot of money, but certainly
instons could have thought of
jf other things to do with it.
lately they thought of Delia
) her, these funds make a re-
ble difference. She no longer
gel embarrassed about not hav-
loes, a decent school dress,
supplies, or pocket money,
me of the pressure, too, is off
arents, who can now begin
ng about making their home a
nore livable. Also, and perhaps
mportant, part of the money
into a fund from which the
3 can borrow to start self-help
:ts, including better housing
and a water system.
Already there is a new feeling
of hope among the villagers and
confidence in their ability to help
themselves. Even little DellS has
volunteered to give some time each
week to keep her school playground
clean.
That really is what Save The
Children is all about. Although con-
tributions are deductible as a charity,
the aim is not merely to buy one
child a few hot meals or a warm coat,
Instead, your contribution is used to
give people a little boost to start
helping themselves.
Sponsors are desperately
needed for other American
Indian children as well as chil-
dren in Appalachia, Korea,
Vietnam, Latin America,
Africa and Greece.
As a sponsor ydu will re-
ceive a photo and history of
the child, progress reports and
a chance to correspond.
The Winstons know they
can't save the world for $ 1 5.00
a month. Only a small corner
of it. But maybe that is the way
to save the world. If there are enough
people who care. How about you?
Save The Children Federation,
founded in 1932, is registered with the
U.S. State Department Advisory Com-
mittee on Voluntary Foreign Aid, and is
a member of the International Union of
Child Welfare. Financial statements
and annual reports available on request.
National Sponsors (partial list):
Claude Arpels, Faith Baldwin,
Hon. James A. Farley, Andy Griffith,
Gene Kelly, Mrs. Eli Lilly,
Paul Newman, Mrs. J. C. Penney,
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pressed so majestically, and whic
. . . seemed more intense than that c
lowly beings. I pitied this power c
the sea who, perhaps for centurie:
had pushed his enormous bod
across every horizon, through a
depths, ivithout fear of an enemj
who had played in the swells of
thousand storms and who was no\
succumbing to the lance of a pygmy
"So much blood spilt, so huge
beast dying, it seemed a great sham
—like the felling of a tree or th
foundering of a ship.
"Suddenly, the sperm whale ceasei
beating the sea and, as if our ver
proximity had revived him, he thre\
himself straight towards us at a grea
speed.
''In a flash of apprehension,
wondered what the shock of his bod'
hurled violently against the side o
the ship, willfully, or by an involun
tary convulsion, would do when
some twenty meters from us, the ani
mal disappeared. Would a scrape o
his back or a flick of his tail breal
the keel of the ship or the rudder o:
propeller? Ten long seconds later th(
enormous body reappeared on thf
other side of the ship. It stopped anc
did not move again. The whalemer
came round to deliver a final bloi\
with the lance, and death crepi
throughout the body of the whale
The spectators trembled with a silenl
emotion which left them breathless.
"■>iow the ship and all the actors ol
this drama rode upon a patch ol
bloody water several acres large fur-
rowed by frothy streams of deeper
red which continued to flow from the
animal. These dark red stains slowly
mixed with surrounding waters as
clouds, rolling down the sides of a
mountain, slowly join with the mist
of the plains.
''The enormous head lay right
alongside our stern, and the lower
jaw, loosely hinged, was washed
open and shut by the waves. Then I
saw the mouth . . . vomit several
octopi or squid of a colossal size.
Evidently these had been gathered
during the whale's last excursion into
the abyss ... a mouthful that had
hardly had time to be swallowed."
Recognizing the value of these
"precious regurgitations," Prince
Albert had a small boat launched to
retrieve them, but even as he gave
the order, the gently waving arms
and tentacles were slowly sinking
through the bloody water. The dis-
membered squid were off the stern
of the ship, not thirty feet from her
propeller, and the prince shouted,
"Full astern!" until the turbulence
created by the screw had churned
the remains to the surface. The life-
boat was waiting and the squid were
scooped up with hand nets and deliv-
ered to the crew and the curious
scientists on deck. Enough had been
saved so that five squid could be
identified and, upon a later and more
thorough study, it was found that all
were types never described before.
"One which, alas, had lost its head
in the fracas . . . [had] a body not
less than two meters in length: whose
form was that of a cone supplied with
a large round fin partially covered
with scales. Another, whose body
had disappeared, could be recog-
nized only by its crown of tentacles,
that is to say by its head with its
eight arms, each the size of a man's,
and each studded with a hundred
suckers armed with sharp and power-
ful claws. . . ."
Although clearly puzzled by the
foreigners' concern for whale vomit,
the whale fishermen were delighted
when Prince Albert offered to tow
their whale to shore for them. The
strange procession got under way
with the Princesse Alice towing the
whale by its flukes, and the whaler
trailing behind, attached to the head
of its prey by a harpoon. It was late
in the afternoon when the convoy put
in to Negrito Bay where, on the fol-
lowing day, the whale was to be cut
up and boiled down in the Azoreans'
primitive tryworks. The prince had
asked the islanders for the whale's
brain and stomach, and as they made
no use of these parts, they had
readily agreed.
The Princesse Alice could not an-
chor safely in the bay and so sailed
back to her mooring at Angra. Sev-
eral scientists from the yacht, deter-
mined not to miss the rare opportu-
nity of seeing a sperm whale
dissected— even in a less than scien-
tific manner— returned that evening
to Negrito Bay. Prince Albert and
the others arrived the following
morning.
The whale had been beached on
the rocky shore of the volcanic is-
land; secured by several chains, it
rocked slowly as the waves broke
along its sides. In spite of the scien-
tists' eagerness, the islanders insisted
that nothing could be done until the
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rising tide allowed them to pull the
whale higher up the beach. B)' mid-
morning the tide had reached its
highest point and turned, and the :
fishermen follo^ved the receding
water along the sides of the whale,
cutting as they went.
The sun rose higher and heat haze
blurred the distant peaks and craters.
Black lava stone— the building blocks
of the village, as well as of the island
itself— held the mounting heat, and
a stench, hard to imagine and harder
still to tolerate, rose from the whale.
Half-naked children, bugs, and
mangy dogs all swarmed over the
lilack sand beach. Birds by the hun-
dreds wheeled and screamed in the
air, and fish darted through the surf
nipping at the dismembered whale.
\ot until the second day of this
macabre auto])sy did the scientists
get a chance to examine the contents
of the whale s stomach— two hundred
pounds of "half-digested, violet-col-
ored stew peppered with eyeballs and
squid beaks." Conditions were not
eased by the acrid yellow smoke that
billowed from the try works. It
burned their throats and stung their
eyes, but kept the flies away.
''The vengeance of the whale has
begun," remarked the prince.
The remains of several more squid
were fished from the whale's stomach
but the scientists were not as lucky
in securing the contents of its head.
In draining the prized spermaceti
from the head cavities, the fishermen
had accidently chopped through into
the brain, and the delicate tissue had
rapidly spoiled.
While attending to the dissection
of the whale, the scientists had ample
time to examine the extensive scars
on the animal's jaw.
"They clearly appear to be the
marks left by the powerful suction of
the [squid's] suckers," wrote Prince
Albert. In his imagination there rose
"a vision of colossal battles. ' which
he thought might occur in the depths
of the sea "when the terrible mam-
mal descends to hunt its prey."
"Could they [the scars on tlie jaw]
result from his powerful attempts to
seize some giant squid? The eight
arms would immediately envelop
the whale's head and fix themselves
there ivith all their suckers, ^vhile
the rest of the [squid's] body,
stretched to the breaking point by
the whale's effort to swallow him,
would finally break off at the neck
. . . but the tentacles would remain
tightly fixed to the whale until the
progressive laxity of death relaxed
the suckers' grip one by one. And if,
by chance, the sperm whale did not
wait for the arms of the squid to
slough off before attacking another,
one may picture a monster whose
head is no longer visible beneath a
mass of tangled arms from several
squid."
After spending several days at
Negrito Bay, the prince and his
friends put out to sea again, leaving
the islanders to cope with the final
obligation of Azorean whalemen, the
disposal of the whale's carcass. There
was a strictly enforced government
regulation that the remains of a
whale must be towed out to sea and
if, as w as often the case, an onshore
breeze blew the carcass back onto
the beach, the whalemen were
obliged to tow it off again— and
again.
Prince Albert was much impressed
by his unexpected acquisition of
whale-caught squid and the follow-
ing year he had two small whaling
boats, equipped with power har-
poons, brought aboard the Princesse
Alice. A Scottish harpooner was
hired to command one of the boats,
while the prince directed the other.
During that year's springtime expe-
dition, confined as usual to the Med-
iterranean waters, the prince shot his
first whale. As his whaler approached
the animal, he fired the bow-
mounted harpoon gun, and the
sharp recoil slapped him to the bot-
tom of the boat. A moment later he
was forced to cut the line when the
wounded whale sounded.
Subsequent attempts to capture
whales and dolphins were more suc-
cessful, and the prince made good
use of his gory methods. Of the sixty-
three volumes of scientific reports
published in his lifetime, some of the
most interesting are those contain-
ing descriptions of the squid and
octopuses taken from the stomachs
of whales. Yet, he did sound a note
of regret. "Given their habits, the
cetaceans [members of the whale
family | are my most useful helpers
for the study of certain oceanic do-
mains. Unfortunately, circumstances
oblige me to give them poor thanks
for their collaboration, starting with
a harpoon in the back and ending
with the dissection and pillage of
their stomachs."
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Sky Reporter
The Sun Will Darken March 7
At sunrise on March 7. the shadow of the moon ivill
touch the earth at a point in the South Pacific
Ocean. Then, for a period of slightly more than three
hours, the shadow ^vill race first eastward, then north-
eastward across the North American continent, leaving
the earth at sunset in the North Atlantic Ocean, midway
between America and Europe. A total solar eclipse will
occur along the path swept by the shadow, and part of
that path will cross the heavily populated eastern coast
of the United States. A partial eclipse of the sun will
occur over all of North America except northwestern
Alaska. The total eclipse will take place in a band
nearlv 90 miles wide, extending over central Mexico,
the northwestern Gulf of ^lexico. northern Florida,
Georgia. South Carolina, North Carolina. \ irginia, a
very small part of Maryland, Nantucket Island, Nova
Scotia, and Newfoundland.
Manv Americans— taking advantage of the event's
proximity to iheir homes— will see one of the rarest,
most beautiful, and most exciting of natures skv events.
Not since 1954 has there been an opportunity to see a
total solar eclipse in easily accessible and widespread
areas of the United States. There have been a few lim-
ited opportunities, such as the 1959 and 1963 eclipses,
which were visible in the extreme northeastern part of
the country, but the areas of visibiliti,- were either lim-
ited or difficult to reach. And not until the rear 2017
will there be another opportunity comparable to March
7. The late twentieth century simply does not favor the
accessible parts of Nortli America with many solar
eclipses.
The path of totality for the March 7 eclipse is most
accessible in the areas of southeastern United States
where it occurs, less so in the parts of Mexico diat are
in the band of totality. The best ^veather conditions,
however, favor the Mexican locations, specifically the
southern coastal areas west of the Gulf of Tehuantepec.
In this area, the mountains of the Central American
isthmus serve as a barrier, forcing the prevailing east-
erly winds upward, where condensation removes much
of the moisture that accumulated in the air in passing
over the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Cloudiness
is common over the north coast of the isthmus and the
central mountains: but the air reaching the south coast
is drier and clearer. In early March, the percentage of
cloud cover prevalent in this area is in the low 20's,
and chances for a March day with less than one-third of
the sky in clouds are about one in three. The proba-
bility of seeing the sun at any given time on March 7
is better than 75 percent. These are considered favor-
able prospects for viewing the eclipse.
In contrast to these conditions, the weather outlook
in the southeastern United States is marginal, if not
downright unfavorable. Climatological records indicate
little difference, from the point of view" of weather,
along the eclipse path from Florida to Virginia.
Throughout this area average cloud cover in March is
consistently about 60 percent; clear days occur on
March 7 in about 30 percent of the years for which
records are available, and the chance of seeing die sun
at any given moment on March 7 appears to be about
40 percent in those areas from Florida to Virginia
where the total eclipse will occur. These conditions are
somew hat better than those in the northeast, where the
eclipse will pass over Nova Scotia and Newfoundland,
but, surprisingly, not that much better.
Most professional astronomers and serious amateurs
are planning to do their work in the region of Mexico
where weather conditions appear to give the greatest
chance for success. There are also other factors that
favor the Mexican location. The sun will be higher in
the sky at the time of the eclipse, the total eclipse path
wider, and the duration of totality' longer than at any
other location in North America. As compared to north-
western Florida, where the best conditions in the United
States occur, in Mexico the sun will be 10 degrees
higher during the eclipse; the eclipse path 8 miles wider
(almost 10 percent) : and the totality will last almost
20 seconds longer (3 minutes 31 seconds) . Along the
total eclipse path east and north of Florida, the sun is
progressively lower, the path of total eclipse narrower,
and the duration of totality diminishes continually.
Other factors characteristic of the best locations in
Mexico are their isolation, difficulty of access, and
Map shows the path
totality will follow
across lower Mexico, the
southeastern United States,
and eastern Canada.
The light shading indicates
the total area from which
some part of the eclipse
will be visible.
The dark shading and the
black cone show the area
from which a partial
eclipse and totality,
respectively, will be seen
at one instant of time.
The sketches adjoining the
map show how the sun will
look at mid-eclipse for
cities at varying distances
from the path of totality;
sketch at top left
shows totality.
In the tables, local times
are given for when the
partial phase will begin;
totality or mid-eclipse
will follow by as much as
an hour and a half.
In the table for cities not
along the path of totality,
the percentage of sun covered
is that at mid-eclipse.
Eclipse phenomena: Cities along totality
Eclipse begins
Duration
City
(local time)
of totality
Pochutia, Mexico
10:06 a.m.
3 min
13 sec
MInatitlan, Mexico
10:14
3
22
Perry, Fla.
11:55
3
13
Savannah, Ga.
12:02 P.M.
3
02
Charleston, S.C.
12:05
2
35
Elizabeth City, N.C.
12:16
2
44
Norfolk, Va.
12:17
2
39
Nantucket, Mass.
12:31
2
06
Halifax, N.S.
1:42
2
16
Bonavista, Nfd.
2:34
2
02
Eclipse phenomena: Other cities
City
Boston
Chicago
Dallas
Denver
Helena, Mont.
Juneau
Kansas City, Mo.
Los Angeles
Minneapolis
New Orleans
New York
St. Louis
San Francisco
Seattle
Mexico City
Toronto
Victoria, B.C.
Eclipse begins Percentage
(local time) of sun covered
12:31 P.M.
97
11:10 A.M.
71
10:42
71
9:51
46
10:03
29
9:29
04
10:58
64
8:28
36
11:11
57
10:45
89
12:25 P.M.
96
11:02 A.M.
73
8:37
27
9:02
18
10:10
90
12:22 P.M.
81
9:05 a.m.
16
27
sparsity of population. Only two roads, not completely
paved, serve a few small mountain or coastal villages.
These conditions do not pose an important obstacle to
the ambitions of the professional or serious amateur
astronomer, whose work usually requires him to set
up his instruments and test his procedures several weeks
or even months in advance. Aside from the lack of
electric power and other conveniences that he may
regret, he rather favors the isolation and difficulty of
transport, for these guarantee freedom from large num-
bers of curious visitors.
Others who wish to see the eclipse may be willing to
sacrifice some advantages for the convenience and ac-
cessibility found along the eclipse path in southeastern
United States. In selecting an observing location in
this area, there is little to choose from based on climatic
conditions, although as the day approaches, weather
forecasts could well suggest some preference. Aside
from this problem, other factors generally favor the
more southerly locations as close to the center line of
the eclipse path as possible; these assure the highest
sun. the widest path of totality, and the longest duration
of totality. The total eclipse will last from 3 minutes 13
seconds along the Florida Gulf coast to 2 minutes 55
seconds in eastern Virginia; the path of totality will
range from nearly 90 miles wide in Florida to about 83
miles in Virginia.
The eclipse path in the southeastern Lnited States
will pass over many small communities and near or
over several large cities. Savannah. Charleston, and
Norfolk are within the path of total eclipse: Tallahassee,
and Wilmington ( North Carolina I are almost exactly
on the edges of the path: and Jacksonville, Augusta, and
Richmond are within easy driving distance of the total
eclipse path. The entire area is well served by roads,
public transportation into or near the eclipse path is
excellent, and facilities for travelers are abundant.
Those who cannot or do not travel into the path of
total eclipse will, throughout the United States, see a
partial solar eclipse. The portion of the sun that will
be covered will be greatest in areas adjacent to the
path of the total eclipse, and will diminish with dis-
tance to the west and north of the path. At New- York
City, for example, where the total eclipse will occur
in the nearby Atlantic Ocean, nearly 96 percent of the
suns diameter will be covered by the moon at mid-
eclipse, leaving only a small crescent of the sun visible.
The magnitude of the eclipse will be 72 percent at Chi-
cago, 46 percent at Denver, 36 percent at Los Angeles,
18 percent at Seattle, and only 4 percent at Juneau,
Alaska. The eclipse will occur during the morning hours
along the west coast, progressively later in the day to
the east, and in the early afternoon along the east coast.
Thomas D. Nicholson
An Eclipse-Watchers Guide
A total eclipse of the sun is so spectacular and so
relatively rare that even veteran ivatchers experience
"eclipse fever" and forget to take the lens covers off
their cameras— even forget to take pictures. In the ex-
citement, secondary phenomena are often overlooked
entirely. To help readers prepare for the March 7 eclipse.
here are some of the things they may expect to see. Prob-
ably not all of those mentioned will occur: no two
eclipses are the same. But many will: observers who
know what to look for have a better chance of seeing it.
Partial phase: Along the path of totaUty. the partial
phase will last well over an hour both before and after
totality. First contact of the moon with the sun is es-
sentially undetectable, but within a few minutes ob-
servers will see the moon cutting a scallop out of the
lower right-hand edge of the sun. For the next hour or
so the moon will move across the face of the sun, cover-
ing sunspots as it goes; the mountains and valleys on
the edge of the moon will be silhouetted against the
bright solar disk.
If the fohage around the observer is suitable, tiny
overlapping crescents of light may dapple the ground
beneath trees, the result of innumerable "pinhole cam-
era" effects as the sunlight filters through the leaves.
By the time the sun is 80 percent eclipsed, it will have
the shape of an elongated crescent. Sunlight will be
coming only from the sun's redder limb regions: over-all
illumination on the ground will be duskv and vellow.
becoming progressively redder until totality.
As totality approaches, events will accelerate: the sky
will darken, the temperature drop, and dew may fall.
Cumulus clouds will tend to dissipate, but ground fog
may form in lowlands. Shadows will become sharper as
the sun narrows to a thin arc, and all objects will appear
to be closer to the ground.
For a few minutes before and after totality, an ob-
server may see faint rippling waves of dark and light
moving across the ground or along the sides of buildings
at six to ten miles per hour. Called "shadow bands,"
these waves apparently result from irregularities in the
earth's atmosphere. The darker bands are two to eight
inches across and are separated by eight inches to two
feet. They can best be seen if a white sheet is spread on
the ground.
On March 7 an observer should look to the southwest
to see the approaching lunar shadow, appearing like^a
great storm on the horizon. As it approaches it will ap-
pear to w iden, filling more and more of the southwestern
sky. It can be seen best if it passes over clouds to the
north or south of the observer. Clouds will take on a
yellowish-tan color, merging to reddish umber at the
shadow^ edge. The edge itself will be diffuse and of a deep
umber color, changing to slate, violet, or gray deeper
in the shadow. Moving at some 1.500 miles per hour, the
shadow will bear down on the observer like some mighty
wall of darkness, and at the onset of totality will engulf
him like a curtain of fog. In the last few seconds of the
partial phase, the shadow may even be seen moving
across the ground, especially if the observer is high
enough above the surrounding terrain.
As the thin solar crescent narrows, it will begin to
contract from the "horns"' at its tips and break up into
small segments known as Baily's beads. Rounded or ob-
long in appearance, they sometimes seem to merge or
flow together. Caused by the irregular mountains and
valleys on the lunar limb, they last only a few seconds.
At this point the sunlight will be so feeble that the
Continued on page To
CELESTIAL EVENTS
New moon is on the 6th, after which the moon comes
into the evening sky. First-quarter is on the 12th, and full
moon is on the 21st. The moon then returns to the morning
sky until month's end, with last-quarter on the 28th.
Venus, IVlars, and Saturn are evening stars, but Venus
is too close to the sun to be seen easily. Mars and Saturn
are in the southwest at dusk and set in the early evening.
Mercury may be seen as a morning star, low in the south-
east, during the first week. Jupiter rises before midnight
and remains in the sky until dawn.
February 5: Mercury is at greatest elongation (west)
in the morning sky. This is not a favorable elongation; the
planet is still quite low at sunrise.
February 5: The moon is at perigee 8 hours before the
new moon, and the perigee spring tides on the 6th will
be higher than normal.
February 20-21: The full moon moves past the star
Regulus, brightest star in Leo, tonight. The moon rises
to the right of Regulus on the evening of the 20th, passes
the star about 9:00 p.m., EST, and then moves increasingly
farther to the left (east) during the morning. The moon
occults the star over parts of Canada, Europe, and Asia.
February 21: There will be a partial eclipse of the
moon shortly after 3:00 a.m., EST, but earlier by an hour
in each time zone to the west. Only about 5 percent of the
moon will pass through the earth's shadow, however.
Thomas D. Nicholson
* Hold the Star Map so the compass direction you face is at the
bottom; then match the stars in the lower half of the map with
those in the sky near the horizon. The map is for 9:15 p.m. on
February 1; 8:20 p.m. on the 15th; and 7:30 p.m. on the 28th;
but it may be used for about an hour before and after those times.
*;^ I
I
4-
.fl^
FROM SNOWFLAKI
Although the snow crystal is a thing of beauty,
structural changes can lead to spectacular, sometimes disastrous
surges of accumulated snow down a mountain
by Edward R. LaChapelle
30
rO AVALANCHE
Snow is one of the most variable
substances found in nature. Some
snow surfaces glitter in the sun, while
others remain dull and gray. Some
snow floats as fluff on a modest
breeze, while other kinds, packed
like concrete, can resist a mountain
gale. The skier may find his favorite
slope varying in texture from that of
bottomless feathers to an icy skating
surface. Some snow will remain
firmly planted where it fell, other
kinds will slip off a steep mountain-
side at the slightest touch.
The varied forms that snow can
take are familiar to everyone who
lives in a climate with cold winters.
The householder who shovels half
his walk clear of fresh snow and
leaves the other half until the next
day is uncomfortably conscious that
31
•■■%
"^^ ^
the stiff and heavj' snow he comes
back to is not the same kind that
floated down from the sky. The skier
who carefully times his tour on a
sunny April morning enjoys the de-
lights of corn snow, but the eager
beaver who comes too early skis on
icy '"boiler plate." and the lazy one
who waits until late in the day finds
himself up to his knees in slush— skis
and all.
Other snow forms are less famil-
iar. A recrystallized type, sometimes
called sugar snow . can occur as hid-
den la)'ers deep within a snow cover.
Because it has little internal cohe-
sion, when disturbed it flows freely
like dry sugar, and an unsuspecting
skier or snowmobile driver can sud-
denly sink clear through to the
ground. Another type, the pellet
snow' peculiar to certain mountain
storms, falls as rounded grains re-
sembling hail. When they drop in
large quantities at certain temper-
atures, these pellets— some as large
as peas — flow off steep slopes in a
constant stream. The whole moun-
tainside comes alive with such
rivulets, which deposit the pellets in
deep piles in the hollows and ravines.
Most striking of all the effects gen-
erated by snow variations is the snow
avalanche. Caused by hidden changes
deep within the snow, or by the dep-
osition of one last overload of new
32
snow on a weak layer formed per-
haps a month before, avalanches are
among the most spectacular forces
of nature. They range in size from
the harmless trickle of a few hand-
fuls of snow" to the fall of millions
of tons in a single surge that can
sweep whole forests down a moun-
tainside. In one wav or another all
start with certain combinations of
snow crystals and patterns of winter
weather. Distinguishing these com-
binations from the ones that produce
stable, harmless snow takes skill, ex-
perience, and sometimes a certain
seat-of-the-pants intuition.
Let us begin by looking at the
"raw material." A snowflake is a
group of cohering snow crystals.
While it is true that '"no two snow-
flakes are ever alike." this is only
part of the story. This traditional
phrase generates a vision of ordi-
nary, hexagonal snow crvstals re-
peated in endless variations. Nature,
in fact, offers a far wider variety of
snow crystals; the common, hex-
agonal star is but one of several
basic patterns. A recent classification
scheme devised by Japanese scien-
tists distinguishes 79 different kinds
of snow crystals, but still includes
one "miscellaneous" category to ac-
commodate the leftovers. Even the
greatly abbreviated International
Snow Classification recognizes ten
The intricately branch
symmetrical ste]
crystals, upper left, ar'
conunon form of snt
In freshly fallen snow su
crystals often acquire
icing of rime, photo abo
Falling snow may ta
many forms, some of whi
are listed at rig
different forms of solid precipitation.
This diversity applies to falling snow
as it arrives from the sky.
It is also true that even the same
deposited snow crystal is not alike
from one moment to the next, for
snow shapes of all kinds are ephem-
eral. This susceptibility to change is
characteristic of substances com-
posed of solid particles— in this case,
ice— that are close to their melting
point. Only below -40°F. can snow
crystals persist for days in their
original form. At milder tempera-
tures, metamorphism begins to alter
their shape as soon as they reach the
ground. Change is the one contant
feature of snow.
The intricate shapes of newly
fallen snow are unstable because
they represent a high ratio of sur-
face area to volume and consequent-
ly, a high surface free energy. Nat-
ural processes always work in this
way to minimize this surface energy.
In the case of snow crystals this proc-
ess reduces them from varied and
often beautiful patterns to rounded
grains of ice. The reduction takes
place largely through the difEusion
of water vapor from one part of the
snow crystal to another, leading to
the formation of old snow. This con-
verted snow is "old" in the crystallo-
graphic sense, rather than in a
chronological one, for the rate of
conversion varies widely with tem-
perature. Near the freezing point,
snow becomes old in just a few
hours. This is the process of destruc-
tive metamorphism, which operates
in the absence of large temperature
differences within the snow.
If gradients greater than about
0.2 °F. per centimeter of snow depth
are present, a different process takes
place : water vapor leaves one crystal
and is redeposited as ice on its colder
neighbor. Thus new crystals are
formed with shapes entirely differ-
ent from what they were in the atmos-
phere. Hoar is the general name given
to ice deposited from water vapor,
hence these crystals formed deep
within the snow cover are called
depth hoar, the sugar snow referred
to previously. If severe temperature
gradients are maintained for many
days, the whole snow cover may pass
through the vapor stage and be re-
crystallized to depth hoar. The me-
chanical strength of snow is drasti-
cally reduced by this process, which
occurs most frequently in shallow
snow layers during very cold weather.
But depth hoar formation is not
the only factor that helps explain
avalanche release. The diverse types
of snow crystals formed in the atmo-
From International Snow Classification.
33
sphere can also be modified by ac-
cretion of rime during their fall.
The deposition of rime on exposed
objects during winter storms is fa-
miliar to many people, but few recog-
nize the important role it also plays
^^ itliin clouds— for it is in the clouds
that the foundation for a subsequent
ayalanche is often laid. Cloud par-
ticles consist of either tiny water
droplets (water cloud I or tiny ice
particles f ice cloud I . If a water cloud
is cooled below freezing, the liquid
droplets often will not freeze until
the temperature reaches very low
values. Such supercooling occurs
most readily in pure water within
an uncontaminated enyironment. The
distilled water making up cloud drop-
lets fits this requirement very nicely.
These droplets can remain liquid
only as long as they do not strike
any solid object, especialh' ice. which
can serve to nucleate freezing. \^ hen
wind drives a supercooled water
cloud against mountain peaks or
other exposed objects, the accumu-
lation of freezing droplets leads to
formation of the familiar rime
feathers built up toward the \vind.
Snow crystals generated by the
atmosphere s higher and cooler
clouds I usually ice clouds I mav fall
through the supercooled water clouds
at louver levels. Whenever they strike
a cold water droplet, the droplet
freezes, adding its rime to the crystal.
If the cloud is thick and supercooled
droplets numerous, the extra icing
can completely obscure the original
crystal, eventually forming a rounded
ball known as graupel, soft hail, or
pellet snow. Because most precipita-
tion originates as snow I melting to
form rain I , and because supercooled
water clouds are very common, a
substantial part of the total precipita-
tion reaching the earth's surface is
extracted from clouds in the form
of rime.
In many climate zones, particu-
larly those exposed to maritime
conditions or those with abrupt
mountain ranges that rapidly lift ap-
proaching air masses, 90 percent
or more of the snow crystals that
reach the earth's surface are rime-
coated to some degree. These rimed
crystals lose their ability to sparkle
in sunlight, and the snow takes on
a dull, white appearance.
34
The mechanical pioj>eities of such
sno^\ aie also modified. Rime-coated
ci%btals aie bettei able to bond to
one anothei than iime-fiee ones, so
the snow forms a more cohesive
layer, much in the ^vay that sugar
cakes in a bowl during damp
weather. Because the stiffness of a
snow layer is sensitive to the size of
its component grains, doubling the
grain size makes the layer sixteen
times stiffer. As a result, layers com-
posed of heavily rimed graupel parti-
cles, which are usually much larger
than plain snow crystals, are ex-
tremely reluctant to deform, in con-
trast with the much more plastic
snow made up of smaller, rime-free
crystals. Stiff snow layers cause the
most persistent avalanche danger.
Rime has still another effect on
already fallen snow. It acts as a ce-
ment among snow crystals deposited
on windward slopes exposed to super-
cooled clouds. As the crystals reach
the ground, thev come in contact with
rime being formed on the snow sur-
face, and cementing occurs instantly,
in contrast to the slower bonding, or
sintering, already described. The
product is a very tough, cohesive
deposit of mixed snow and rime that
resists the erosive power of the wind.
This snow stays where it lands on the
mountain. In the absence of rime-ce-
menting, more common in continen-
tal climates, the snow is readily
blown away and deposited in shel-
tered lee areas. Such rearrangement
of snow by wind has a marked effect
on where avalanches will occur.
The presence or absence of rime-
cemented snow also determines in
striking fashion the winter appear-
ance of high mountains. With rela-
tively little or infrequent riming
during snowstorms, the windward
heft, a small loose-snow
alanche plunges down steep
twarzmonch. in the Alps;
low. in Utah, depth hoar
stared the breakaway of a
rge slab avalanche that tore
ray the entire snow cover.
mountain slopes are swept clean of
snow by the wind, leaving large areas
of bare rock exposed throughout the
winter. But if an abundant supply of
rime is present, the mixture of rime
and snow builds up steadily during
the winter into a thick mantle that re-
sists even hurricane-force winds.
There are two principal types of
avalanches with distinctly different
modes of origin. These are the loose-
snow avalanche and the slab ava-
lanche. There is seldom any overlap
between the two— the kinds of snow
causing one type rarely cause the
other. Snow rangers, ski patrolmen,
or highway maintenance crews— who
commonly deal with avalanche haz-
ards—always look for this distinction
because it determines the character
of the danger and the means for deal-
ing with it.
Loose-snow avalanches form when
snow crystals with little attachment
to one another accumulate on a slope
that is steeper than the natural angle
of repose. This type of situation
may come about through snowfalls
with little wind or through meta-
morphism of previously cohering
snow crystals. The intrusion of
*.. <
liquid water produced by rain or
snowmelt can have the same effect.
In either case, such snow behaves
very much like dry sand placed on a
board and carefully tilted up to an
angle where it remains precariously
perched— until a sUght disturbance
sends it cascading down to form a
pile with gentler slopes.
When snow on a mountain-
side is in a condition of
precarious equilibrium,
any slight disturbance
can set a few crystals in motion; as
they fall, they dislodge more and
more crystals until a loose-snow
avalanche is in motion. Such ava-
lanches fall in uncounted numbers
each winter. Most are small and
usually harmless. Snow crystals,
especially the stellar patterns ^\ith
little or no rime on them, are the
ones that most readily form these
avalanches. Because the snow is
highly unstable it avalanches readily
when onlv a few inches have accu-
mulated, thus limiting the likehhood
of large avalanches.
Of course, if the snowfall includes
the more intricately branched stel-
lar crystals, these tend to interlock
when they first fall, building a rela-
tively stable snow layer with a tex-
ture like matted felt. But metamor-
phism soon breaks up the intricate
crystal arms, destroying the feltlike
structure. Such snow tends to pro-
duce loose-snow avalanches a day
or two after it falls. But these ava-
lanches, too, are seldom large and
destructive. The dangerous ones
are more apt to be found in the
wet snow of spring, at places where
deep layers of snow accumulated on
a slope are rendered unstable by the
lubricating effect of liquid water
percolating among the grains. Al-
most all really large, dangerous
avalanches, however, originate as
snow slabs. Because a wide variety
of snow conditions can create the
slabs, these avalanches are difficult
to predict. In general, whenever
snow lies on a slope in a cohesive
layer, which, for some reason, is
poorly bonded to other snow layers
or to the ground, the potential exists
for slab avalanche release. Such a
layer can slide away as a coherent
35
blanket. Moreover, instead of origi-
nating at a point and growing as it
descends, like the loose-snow ava-
lanche, the slab avalanche starts out
big. A whole mountainside can slide
at once, and if this mountainside
happens to be a mile wide, then
a mile-wide avalanche suddenly
springs into motion. Most avalanche
accidents involving skiers start as
slabs, and most are set loose by their
victims, who ski into a danger area
and are suddenly caught in the snow
fracturing all around them. Very
much in the minority are those ava-
lanches in which unsuspecting vic-
tims are engulfed from above.
Examination of the slab phe-
nomenon reveals that
every snowstorm deposits
a distinct layer of snow,
each with its own internal crystal
types and water content. Vari-
ous weathering influences between
storms (wind drift, sunshine, evap-
oration, frost) alter the surface of
each new layer before the next
storm arrives. Some of these modi-
fications leave a surface to which the
next snow layer adheres poorly. The
delicate crystals of hoarfrost are one
example of a poor bonding surface;
another is the slick surface of ice left
by a freezing rain. Or a thin snowfall
of fragile crystals sandwiched be-
tween two heavier layers may inhibit
their attachment. Most insidious are
those snow layers that initially
formed a good bond and still seem
to be stable. However, metamor-
phism of the snow crystals can later
weaken this bond or even the inter-
nal strength of a whole layer. The
depth hoar formed by steep tempera-
ture gradients exemplifies such hid-
den deterioration, which occurs
most frequently between the ground
and the rest of the snow . When a slab
avalanche breaks loose because of
depth hoar, the whole snow cover
slides away. Percolation of liquid
water into the layer boundaries is
still another cause of dangerous
slab conditions.
All such circumstances lead to the
same result— a blanket of snow
sliding off because it is poorly
bonded to the earth or snow under-
neath. The blanket analogy becomes
36
.*^
«4a»^.»iv~ "^
clear to anyone who has tried to keep
the covers on his bed on a cold night
when one of them is a quilt whose
slippery satin finish "forms a poor
bond" with the other blankets.
If adhesion among snow layers
were the only factor affecting their
formation, it would be far easier to
predict slab avalanches. But another
property of snow complicates the
situation, and is the key to their re-
lease. Snow belongs to a class of
substances known as viscoelastic.
Able to deform in a plastic fashion
under even very small forces, it can
at the same time sustain elastic de-
formation very much like a rubber
..lA.
J,.
band. The relative importance of
these two deformations depends in a
complicated way on temperature
and snow structure. The commonest
force at work on the snow cover is
gravity ; on the mountainside it con-
tinually causes the snow to deform
in a downhill direction as well as to
settle in place.
All winter long the snow, even on
level ground, settles under its own
weight; on slopes it also creeps
along by internal deformation and
glides slow ly over the ground. More-
over, most mountain slopes are irreg-
ular, as is the snow cover that rests
on them. This means that the creep
and glide speeds differ from one part
of the snow cover to another, gen-
erating both tensile and compressive
stresses in the snow.
The tensile stresses are the ones
that cause the most trouble. If a
poorly supported snow slab is in ten-
sion under circumstances that favor
elastic deformation, it is stretched
out over a slope much like the thin
rubber of a balloon is pulled into
tension when inflated. Any small dis-
turbance or breaking force on the
snow slab— a lump of snow falling
from a tree or the passage of a skier
—has approximately the same effect
as sticking a pin in the balloon. The
slab fractures, sometimes with the
violence of an explosion if the snow
is hard and the stresses large. If the
snow is very unstable, these frac-
tures can propagate for miles, re-
leasing avalanches wherever they
cross a steep, open slope.
It is this ability to fracture with
sudden violence that makes the slab
avalanche so dangerous and unpre-
dictable. A small disturbance at one
point can set loose enormous forces,
sometimes far from the original dis-
turbance. The susceptibility of snow
to this kind of avalanche release
varies rapidly with time, so that a
hazardous situation may arise in a
Giant avalanche in
motion ten seconds after
a 75mm. artillery shell
was fired at this
danger area in Wasatch
National Forest, Utah.
few hours during a storm, then
diminish rapidly afterward if the
temperature is not too far from
freezing— a condition that allows the
snow to deform readily and relax
the tensile stresses. At very low
temperatures, on the other hand,
the tension can persist for days after
a slab situation is generated, so the
snow remains in a continuously un-
stable and dangerous state.
The kinds of snow that can react
as unstable slabs range all the way
from the skier's soft "powder snow"
through rock-hard wind deposits to
the water-soaked spring snow that
verges on slush. The key factors are
weak bonds between layers and the
presence of tensile stresses. Certain
kinds of snow favor slab formation
much jnore than others, especially
those kinds with higher densities
(more weight and consequent higher
gravitational stresses) and with a
good ability to sustain elastic defor-
mation. When stellar crystals are
free of rime they tend to settle or
slide off in small loose-snow ava-
lanches very readily, hence snow
layers composed of these crystals are
highly unstable, but a serious slab
hazard seldom develops because
such snow can sustain only very
limited stresses— it does not build up
to dangerous thickness as a slab. As
an increasing amount of rime ap-
pears on the crystals, the snow layer
assumes a pseudostability. The
crystals bond together more readily
and the thickness of a layer may in-
crease up to several feet before a
large slab can be released. Hence the
rimed-crystal forrns are much more
eifeclive for generating dangerous
avalanches.
Other snow types, such as needle
crystals and granular fragments
that can pack closely together to
form a heavy slab layer, are also
generators of avalanches. And wind
drifts on lee slopes are especially
37
susceptible to avalanching because
the)' are formed in deep layers of
crystals that have been broken and
then packed by the wind.
Ho^\' do modern avalanche control
measures work? Almost all aim in
one way or another to prevent or
relieve dangerous tensile stresses in
snow slabs. In the Alps massive
fences or barriers are often scattered
across a mountain slope. These
structures break the snow cover into
smaller sections and actuallv support
the sections by inhibiting creep and
glide. Another method, requiring
much Hghter construction, uses a
dense pattern of baffles to break up
^\ ind flow and, therefore, the deposi-
tion of continuous slab layers.
There are also more active meth-
ods of avalanche control. Where
avalanches can be allowed to fall
harmlessly at certain times— for ex-
ample, on highways or ski slopes free
of traffic— control is customarilv
effected by artificial release. This
technique, highly developed by
United States Forest Service snow
rangers in national forest ski areas,
usually involves detonating an ex-
plosive charge— either an artillery
shell or a hand-thrown explosive—
in the known fracture zones of ava-
lanche paths. The blast shatters
any slab lavers present, relieving
stresses and allowing the fractured
slab to fall. In manv cases, if the
layer bonds are good, it does not
fall; but the relief of stress elimi-
nates the danger by allowing the
snow to settle in place. On small
slopes and with carefullv identified
snow conditions, soft slab lavers are
sometimes stabilized by cutting them
with ski tracks to relieve the tension.
But this can be a hazardous occupa-
tion unless executed bv experienced
and safety-conscious personnel.
Occasionally, snow conditions will
reach an extraordinary state of in-
stabilit)', requiring vigorous safetv
measures and control to protect lives
and property in a mountain com-
munity. One instance is documented
in a Forest Service report on a seri-
ous hazard situation that developed
at Aha, Utah, in January, 1964.
Early winter that year brought
light snowfalls alternating with ex-
tended periods of fair weather. The
normal consequence of this weather
pattern ensued— most of the snow
38
cover -svas converted to unstable
depth hoar by mid-December. Sub-
sequent small snowfalls during the
Christmas season and into January
showed an alarming propensity- for
avalanching. The stage Avas set for a
highly hazardous condition if a big
storm arrived. One finally did on
Januarv 21.
Several periods of intense
snowfall during the next
three days culminated in a
prolonged period that
brought the total snowfall for this
storm to 50 inches. Some limited
artillery fire during breaks in the
sno^\'fall had already released large
avalanches. On the morning of
January 24, the skies cleared, but
both the ski area and access high-
way remained closed because of ava-
lanche danger. Just how extensive
this danger was became apparent
only after control measures began
that same day. The heavv burden of
new snow iby this time settled to a
layer 36 inches thick ) was almost
universally too much for the fragile
depth hoar to support. Huge cas-
cades of snow were released bv ini-
tial firing with artillery on those
avalanche regions that most seri-
ously endangered the ski area. One
avalanche, moving at more than 100
m.p.h.. was deflected bevond its nor-
mal path and struck a parking lot
and ski lodge, fortunatelv causing
only minor damage. Another, from a
nearby slope, damaged a cabin and
some mining equipment in its path.
This is an area where the snow
ranger must plan the sequence of
firing carefully, for the artillery has
to be moved from point to point to
fire at different targets, and some of
the firing positions themselves are
exposed to danger. In this instance,
the final shot at the north slopes of
the canyon had to be made from a
position, safe under normal condi-
tions, but exposed in exceptional
cases to possible overrunning by
sliding snow. The last shot brought
down an avalanche that forced the
gun crew to beat a hasty retreat and
partially buried the 75 mm. howit-
zer. But it was quickly dug out and
restored to service; damage had
been minor.
However, the first shot directed at
the opposite slopes, intended to
recheck alignment of the artillery
sights, started a remarkable se-
quence of events. Fracturing of the
highly unstable stressed slabs spread
rapidly from the target zone, leaping
from slope to slope around the head
of a large basin. One avalanche after
another fell in sequence as the frac-
turing continued to propagate
through the snow, until the distur-
bance had circled the entire basin,
bringing an avalanche down behind
the howitzer's position. As firing
moved forward on other targets,
more large avalanches fell, until
practically every major slide path in
the area had discharged its load of
snow. Late in the day the final
shot was fired at a distant slope to
the west of the ski area. The fractur-
ing that began there not only circled
the head of another basin but
jumped over a ridge to the next one
and then to the next one beyond
that, leaving behind it a trail of
falling avalanches that stretched over
several miles.
Highly dangerous conditions like
these demand the utmost safet\' pre-
cautions, as well as skilled use of
the artificial-release techniques for
which the Forest Service snow
rangers are justly renowned. A mis-
take can be disastrous when such
impressive forces of nature stand
waiting to be released at the touch of
a ski or the burst of an artillery
shell. But an even greater potential
for disaster is the failure to under-
stand the conditions that breed ava-
lanches, to recognize the hazard
while it is still in the developing
stage. Here lies the importance of
understanding the role of those
changeable snow crystals that can
end in avalanches.
Alpine trees heavily coate
with rime-cemented snov
On mountain slopes simila
bonding can build up a dee
cover of snow that ma
break away as an avalanche
v*^/\
H'
ll
nBff ■ ' ^R'
lirn^
v_ . " .I*
I
<;^m^/j\
^w
/J
n:
\.
DyKlaus-FriedricliKoch
In October, 1968, two white mis-
sionaries on a long trek between
two stations were killed in a remote
valley in the Snow Mountains of
western New Guinea, and their bod-
ies were eaten. A few days later, war-
riors armed with bows and arrows
gave a hostile reception to a group
of armed police flown to the site by
helicopter. These people, described
by the newspapers as "savages living
in a stone-age culture," belong to a
large population of Papuans among
whom I lived for nearly two years,
from 1964 to 1966.
People living to the west, in the
high valley of the Balim River, call
them "Jale," and this is the name
that I use for them. When I read of
the killing of the missionaries I was
reminded of how I had first heard
that the people whom I had selected
for ethnographic study had anthro-
pophagic (man-eating I predilec-
Jale warriors celebrate
a battlefield triumph with a
victory dance. Brilliant
bird of paradise feathers
punctuate the scene.
41
tions. After arriving at Sentani air-
port on the north coast, I began
negotiations for transport to a mis-
sion airstrip located in the Jalemo,
the country of the Jale. "I hope the
Jale will give us permission to land,"
one pilot said to me. "Just a few
weeks ago the airstrip was blocked
because the Jale needed the ground
for a dance and a cannibalistic
feast to celebrate a military victory."
Our cultural heritage predisposes
many people to view the eating of
human meat with extreme horror.
No wonder then that the literature on
the subject is permeated with
grossly erroneous and prejudicial
ideas about the practice. Few anthro-
pologists have been able to study
cannibalism because missions and
colonial governments have generally
succeeded in eradicating a custom
considered to epitomize, more than
any other, the alleged mental primi-
tiveness and diabolical inspirations
of people with simple technologies.
However, the Jale, completely iso-
lated from foreign influences until
1961, still practice cannibalism as an
institutionalized form of revenge in
warfare, which is itself an integral
aspect of their life.
The Jale live in compact villages
along several valleys north and south
of the Snow Mountains in east-cen-
tral West New Guinea. Until the first
missionaries entered the Jalemo in
1961, the Jale were ignorant of the
"outside" world. Five years later,
when I left the area, many Jale vil-
lages still had never been contacted,
and culture change among the people
living close to a mission station was
largely limited to the acceptance of
a few steel tools and to an influx of
seashells imported by the foreigners.
Two weeks after I had set up camp
in the village of Pasikni, a year-long
truce with a neighboring village
came to an end. Three days of fierce
fighting ensued, during which the
Pasikni warriors killed three ene-
mies (among them a smafl boy),
raided the defeated settlement, and
drove its inhabitants into exile with
friends and relatives in other villages
of the region. At that time I under-
stood little of the political realities
of Jale society, where neither formal
government nor forensic institutions
exist for the settlement of conflicts.
A2
Killed from ambush as he
returned from battle, the
victim, below, is carried
to his fimeral by
members of his own
village, left. The body
will be cremated.
On following pages : Three-day
battle culminates in
plunder of an enemy village
and burning of selected huts,
as victorious warriors watch
from a nearby ridge.
After such a drastic defeat, a
village is usually abandoned
and open hostilities cease.
Later, when I had learned their lan-
guage, I began to comprehend the
conditions that make military actions
an inevitable consequence of the ab-
sence of an effective system of poUti-
cal control.
From an anthropological perspec-
tive any kind of war is generally a
symptom of the absence, inadequacy,
or breakdown of other procedures
for resolving conflicts. This view is
especially applicable to Jale military
operations, which aim neither at ter-
ritorial gains and the conquest of
resources nor at the suppression of
one political or religious ideology
and its forceful replacement by an-
other. All armed conflicts. in Jalemo
occur as a result of bodily injur)' or
killing suffered in retaliation for the
infliction of a wrong. Violent redress
may be exacted for adultery or theft
or for a breach of obligation— usually
a failure to make a compensatory
payment of pigs.
Jale warfare is structured by a
complex network of kin relation-
ships. The Jale conceptually divide
their society into two parts
(moieties) whose members must
marry someone from the opposite
side. By a principle of patrilineal
descent a person always belongs to
the moiety of his father. Links be-
tween kin groups created by intervil-
lage marriages— about half the wives
in a village were born elsewhere—
provide the structure of trade net-
works and alliance politics.
Most villages contain two or more
residential compounds, or wards.
One hut among the group of dwell-
ings forming a ward is considerably
bigger than all the others. This is the
men's house, a special domicile for
men and for boys old enough to have
been initiated. Women and uniniti-
ated boys live in the smaller huts, each
of which usually houses the family
of one man. The residents of a men's
house constitute a unified political
and ritual community, and it is this
community, not the village as a
whole, that is the principal war-
making unit.
As in all societies, there are some
individuals who have more influence
over the affairs of their fellows than
most. In Jalemo a man gains a posi-
tion of authority (which never ex-
tends much beyond the immediate
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! one of the obstacles
! Jale must surinoimt
revenge raids in distant
(leys. Jalemo terrain
unong the most
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-6
kin group) through his acquisition
of an esoteric knowledge of perform-
ing rituals and through the clever
management of his livestock to the
benefit of his relatives, for every
important event demands the ex-
change of pigs— to solemnify or legit-
imate the creation of a new status or
to settle a conflict. Most disputes are
over women, pigs, or gardens, and
any one of them may generate
enough political enmity to cause a
war in which many people may lose
their lives and homes.
In every Jale war one person on
either side, called the "man-at-the-
root-of-the-arrow," is held responsi-
ble for the outbreak of hostilities.
These people are the parties to the
original dispute, which ultimately
escalates into armed combat. Being
a man-at-the-root-of-the-arrow car-
ries the liability of providing com-
pensation for all injuries and deaths
suffered by supporters on the battle-
field as well as by all others— includ-
ing women and children— victimized
in clandestine revenge raids. This lia-
bility acts as a built-in force favoring
an early end of hostilities.
On rare occasions blood revenge
has been prevented by delivery of
wergild compensation, in the form of
a pig to the kinsmen of a slain per-
son. But only those people who, for
one reason or another, cannot rally
support for a revenge action and who
shy away from solitary, surreptitious
ambush attacks will accept such an
offer if it is made at all. A negotiated
peace settlement of this nature is
most likely if the disputants are from
the same village or if the whole settle-
ment is at war with a common out-
side enemy.
When two villages are at war with
each other, periods of daily combat
are interrupted by short "cease-fires"
during which the warriors attend to
the more mundane task of garden
work, but they are always prepared
to counter a surprise attack launched
by the enemy. After several weeks of
discontinuous fighting, however, the
threat of famine due to the prolonged
neglect of proper cultivation induces
the belligerents to maintain an infor-
mal and precarious truce. During
this time small bands of kinsmen and
members of the men's house of a vic-
tim whose death could not be
avenged on the battlefield will ven-
ture clandestine expeditions into
enemy territory, from which a suc-
cessful raiding party may bring back
a pig as well. It is a revenge action of
this kind that often precipitates a re-
sumption of open warfare.
Fighting on the battlefield follows
a pattern of haphazardly coordinated
individual engagements, which rely
on the tactic of "shoot-and-run."
This technique requires a warrior to
advance as far as the terrain affords
him cover, discharge an arrow or
two, and then run back to escape
from the reach of enemy shots. When
one side has been forced to retreat to
its village, the fighting turns into
sniping from behind huts and
V;
fences. Women and children always
leave the village if an invasion is im-
minent and take refuge with friends
and relatives in other villages. As a
last resort the men retreat into the
men's house, which a taboo protects
from being burned. When a battle
reaches this stage, the victorious
warriors often plunder and burn
family huts. Following a catastrophe
of this extent the defeated side
usually elects to abandon their vil-
lage, and the warfare ceases, but the
hostilities linger on until a formal
peace ceremony reconciles the prin-
cipal parties. Arranging the cere-
mony, which features the ritual
slaughter and consumption of a pig,
may take years of informal negotia-
tions between people who have rela-
tives on both sides. Afterward,
dances in both villages and pig ex-
changes on a large scale consolidate
the termination of the conflict.
"People whose face is known must
not be eaten," say the Jale. Conse-
quently, cannibalism is normally not
tolerated in wars between neighbor-
ing villages, and the few incidents
that did oc(^ur during the lifetime of
the oldest Pasikni men are remem-
bered as acts of tragic perversion. In
wars between villages separated by a
major topographic boundary such as
a mountain ridge, however, canni-
balistic revenge is an integral part of
the conflict.
While territorially confined hostil-
ities usually end within a few years,
interregional wars may last for more
By the time these young boys
become warriors, they
will be expert archers.
Training begins early; boys
who can hardly walk carry
bows made by their fathers.
Practice games, above,
perfect the proper stance.
A Jale man carefully aims
his arrow at a pig's heart.
Most socially important
events — especially marriages,
initiations, and dances^ —
require the sacrifice of a pig.
48
than a generation. During this long
period revenge parties from either
side venture sporadic expeditions
into hostile areas, keenly avoiding
any confrontation in hattle and seek-
ing instead to surprise lone hunters
or small groups of ^vomen working
in distant gardens. The geography of
interregional wars favors long-last-
ing military alliances that have a
slahilitv quite unlike the temporary
and shifting allegiances that personal
kin connections and trading partner-
ships create in local conflicts.
If an enemy is killed during a
foray into hostile territory, the
raiders will make every effort to
bring the body home. If tactical ex-
igencies demand that the revenge
party retreat without the victim, an
attempt is made to retrieve at least
a limb. The avengers always present
the body to an allied kin group that
has lost a member in the war. In re-
turn they receive pigs and are feted
at a victory dance, during which the
victim's body is steam-cooked in an
earth oven dug near the village. Be-
fore the butchering begins, the head
is specially treated by ritual experts:
eyelids and lips are clamped with the
wing bones of a bat to prevent the
victim's ghost from seeing through
these apertures. Thus blinded, it will
be unable to guide a revenge expedi-
tion against its enemies.
After the head has been severed,
it is wrapped in leaves. To insure
more revenge killings in the future,
some men shoot reed arrows into the
head while it is dragged on the
ground by a piece of vine. Then the
head is unwrapped and swung
through the fire to burn off the hair.
This is accompanied by loud incan-
tations meant to lure the victim's
kinsmen into sharing his fate.
Following this ritual overture the
butchers use stone adzes and bamboo
knives to cut the body apart. The
fleshy portions are removed from the
skull, and in an established order of
step-by-step incisions, the limbs are
separated from the trunk, which is
split open to allow removal of the
gastronomically highly prized en-
trails. Some small, choice cuts, es-
pecially rib sections, are roasted over
the fire, but the bulk of the meat is
cooked with a variety of leafy vege-
tables.
Before and during the operation,
people who are preparing the oven,
tending the fire, or just standing
around appraise the victim. A
healthy, muscular body is praised
with ravenous exclamations, but a
lesser grade body is also applauded.
When the meat is done, the pit is
opened and the "owners of the
body," as the Jale call the recipients
of a slain enemy, distribute much of
the food among the attending rela-
tives of the person whose death the
killing has avenged. It is also dis-
tributed to the allied kin groups of a
person maimed or killed in the war.
Eligible people from other villages
who could not participate in the cele-
brations are later sent pieces re-
served for them. If mood so moves
the Jale, they may place some of the
victim's bones in a tree near the
cooking site to tell travelers of their
brave deed.
In the course of the dancing and
singing, a poetically gifted man may
introduce a new song. If the lyrics
appeal to others, it becomes a stand-
ard piece in the repertoire. The
songs commemorate fortunate and
tragic events from past wars, and a
typical verse goes like this:
Ngingi. your mother
bakes only tiny potatoes for you.
Isel. your mother too
bakes only the ends of potatoes
for you.
We shall bake big potatoes for you
On the day of Kingkaen"s return.
Ngingi and Isel are the names of
two men from a hostile village, the
home of a )'oung woman named
Kingkaen who was killed in an am-
bush attack in September, 1964. The
lines make fun of the men who. be-
cause of Kingkaen's death, have to
eat poor food prepared by the inept
hands of senile w omen.
When the festival of revenge is
over, the members of the mens house
group of the ow ners of the body ar-
range for the ritual removal of the
victim's ghost from their village.
Rhythmically voicing efficacious for-
mulas and whistling sounds, a cere-
m.onial procession of men carries a
special arrow into the forest, as far
into enemy territory as is possible
without risk. A small lump of pig's
fat is affixed to the arrow- by an ex-
pert in esoteric lore. (Pig's fat used
for ritual purposes becomes a sacred
substance that is applied in many
different contexts. I The arrow is fi-
nally shot toward the enemy village.
This, the Jale believe, w ill make the
ghost stay awav from their own vil-
lage, but as a further precaution they
block the path with branches and
plants over which spells are said.
Protective rites of this kind, and
the vengeance ritual described
above, are the only aspects of Jale
cannibalism that may be viewed as
"religious." The actual consumption
of human meat and organs does not
constitute an act with intrinsic "su-
pernatural" effects. Instead, as my
Jale friends repeatedly assured me,
their reason for eating an enemy's
body is that man tastes as good as
pork, if not better. And they added
that the bad enemies in the other val-
ley had eaten some of their people.
49
These descriptions of Jale rituals
and beliefs do not sufGciently explain
the practice of cannibalism. To do so
would necessitate the compilation of
all available information about this
custom from every part of the world.
On the basis of these data an exten-
sive study would have to be made of
the ecological and cultural variables
found to be associated with institu-
tionalized cannibalism. Perhaps it
would then be possible to recognize
specific ecological and sociological
features that appear to be correlated
with the consumption of human
meat, but the task of interpreting the
custom as a sociopsychological phe-
nomenon would still remain.
It is obvious that the enigmatic
nature of cannibalism has invited
many writers to speculate about its
origin and its biopsychic basis.. Aris-
totle attributed anthropophagy
among tribes around the Black Sea
to their feral bestiality and morbid
lust. In 1688 a treatise was published
in Holland entitled De natura et
moribus anthropophagorum ("On
the Nature and Customs of Anthro-
pophagi" ) , and some ethnographers
writing in the nineteenth century still
regarded the rejection of cannibal-
ism as the "first step into civiliza-
tion." Certainly, the consumption by
man of a member of his own species
is as much a problem for evolution-
ary bioanthropology as it is for eth-
nology and psychology. I have made
an extensive survey of the various
theories proposed by earnest schol-
ars to elucidate the phenomenon, and
I have found that, at best, a few hy-
potheses appear plausible for the in-
terpretation of certain aspects of
some cannibalistic practices.
In Jalemo the eating of a slain
enemy, in addition to its dietary
value, certainly indicates a symbolic
expression of spite incorporated into
an act of supreme vengeance. Violent
retaliation, in turn, must be seen as a
consequence of certain sociopsycho-
logical conditions that determine the
degree of aggressive behavior ex-
pected and tolerated in their culture.
Cross-cultural studies by anthropolo-
gists have supported theories that
are applicable to Jale society. An
accepted model of personality devel-
opment demonstrates that societies
in which boys grow up in intimate
association with their mothers, who
dominate a household situation in
which the boy's male elders, espe-
cially their fathers, do not take part,
are characterized by a high level of
physical violence. Sociological mod-
els developed from large-scale com-
parative research predict that in
societies in which small kin groups
operate as relatively independent
political units, warfare within the
society is a common means of re-
solving conflict.
Both models squarely apply to Jale
society. First, young boys, separated
from the community of the men's
house until their initiation, are so-
cialized in a female environment.
Second, the wards of a village are
not integrated by a centralized sys-
tem of headmanship, and no political
cooperation exists between them un-
til they are threatened by, or faced
with, actual hostility from other vil-
lages. These are the critical variables
that partially determine the belli-
cosity and violence I have observed.
No specific hypothesis can be
given to explain the cannibalism that
the Jale incorporate in their ven-
geance. It is certain, however, that
no understanding can be achieved by
applying precepts of Western
thought. In a missionary's travelogue
published seventy years ago, the au-
thor, speaking of an African tribe,
recounted :
Once, when told by a European
that the practice of eating human
flesh was a most degraded habit,
the cannibal answered, "Why de-
graded? You people eat sheep and
cows and fowls, which are all ani-
mals of a far lower order, and we
eat man, who is great and above
all; it is you who are degraded!"
Several hundred loops of
split liana vine are worn
by Jale men day and night.
As an expression of masculinity,
younger men wear more
loops than their elders. Penis
sheaths, cut from gourds,
are tied around the body.
50
^
%
iV'^^-i
.J^: Xrf
THE
EGG
MACHINE
b J Pamela Tyler Lindstrom "
The female sea urchin Can be rehed
, upon to produce about one milhon
eggs per season, a capacityX
that delights embryologists
//
Sea urchins are round, hard, spiny,
abundant, shallow-water marine
invertebrates that do little but eat
seaweed. Their enemies are few— sea
otters (who crack them against rocks
held on their stomachs I , starfish,
and, perhaps, embryologists. Med-
iterranean people eat them, but only
embryologists carry off so many that
they have endangered a whole popu-
lation of sea urchins— ^r6ocJa
punctulata— at Woods Hole, Mass-
achusetts.
52
Embryologists don't realize that
their interest seems peculiar to
others, for their use of sea urchin
eggs is deeply embedded in their
tradition. But when they go collect-
ing, they expose themselves to the
public, and people watching them
always ask the same question: "Who
cares about their embryos? Why
don't you find out about people
instead?"
The embryologist will point out
the difficulty of doing physiological
experiments on people. But since he,
too, wonders about the fitness of
things, he may ask himself: Why not
dogs, cats, frogs, goldfish, or earth-
worms? Scientists study the behav-
ior, embryology, physiology, and
distribution of all animals, not only
sea urchins, yet more is known about
the developing sea urchin egg than
about any other. There are whole
laboratories that study little else.
Why sea urchin eggs? Well, what
is a sea urchin egg? Herein lies the
whole lure of embryology because
an egg, any egg, is just a cell. Its
internal structure is not unlike that
of other cells. If left alone an egg
runs down and dies in a few hours.
But when it encounters a sperm of
its own species— then without hesita-
tion, without any instructions but
those inside it, and usually without
error— the egg develops into a com-
pletely new creature. From the ap-
parently simple mass of an egg
comes a beast of many parts. From a
I single cell come not only more cells.
1 but different kinds of cells.
iSow , common sense, as well as the
second law of thermodynamics, for-
I bids orderly complexity to arise from
simplicity. During the second half of
the nineteenth century, scientists
overcame their awe of all this com-
* plexity and began to ask questions.
The first embryologists asked, ''What
happens, in detail?"
Late in the nineteenth century sev-
eral German embryologists, using
sea urchin eggs, recorded fertiliza-
tion for the first time. They saw the
sperm enter the egg, then the sperm
and egg nuclei fuse. They used the
eggs of sea urchins because the ani-
mals are easy to find, easv to calcli,
and easy to rob of eggs and sperm.
Their eggs are not only abundant (a
female may produce one million ])er
season I but they are also of the
proper size and clarity for viewing
the meeting of egg and sperm
through a microscope. Embryolo-
gists have since then seen this event
in many types of eggs. ( Fertilization
of human eggs, for instance, was first
seen last year. No one was surprised
that it is basically the same as ferti-
lization of sea urchin eggs.)
The clear sap of the sea urchin
egg allowed the pioneers to watch
mitosis. In that process, immediately
after fusion of the sperm and egg
nuclei, the chromosomes in the com-
bined nucleus are arranged in two
identical sets. The egg divides into
two cells, each containing a complete
set of chromosomes. More cell divi-
sions turn the egg into a clump of
several hundred cells. This clump de-
velops a hollow center (blastula
stage ) . To visualize the next step,
imagine poking your finger into the
wall of a balloon until your finger
reaches the uall on the other side.
Then the turned-in balloon on your
fingertip touches and fuses with that
wall, and a hole appears through the
point of fusion. Thus the embryo be-
comes a sphere with a tube through
it, a gastrula.
The tube becomes the gut, the
embryo grows hairlike processes
on its surface for swimming and de-
velops a primitive skeleton and nerv-
ous system. Then it begins feeding.
Development is simple and fast
because sea urchins reproduce ac-
cording to the theory that one should
make as many eggs as possible, each
with a minimum of yolk for nourish-
ment. Then they all shed eggs (and
sperm) into the water at the same
time, eschewing further responsibil-
ity. Some eggs will be fertilized and
enough will gro\\' up to continue the
species. The egg, of course, has to
turn itself into a feeding larva
c[uickly before it runs out of yolk.
In contrast, land and freshwater in-
vertebrates and vertebrates, with the
exception of most fishes, produce
relatively few eggs, ivhich they then
protect from their harsh environ-
ment—birds, for example, make
eggs with substantial yolk and shells
and female mammals carry their
young inside their bodies.
Although the embryos of sea
urchins, which develop by the first
method, are easier to obtain and see,
pre-1900 embryologists watched
many kinds. They found that differ-
ent embryos follow several different
patterns of development, and that
each requires study. The early events
through gastrula formation are re-
markably similar, however, and sea
urchin development looked like a
good model for all the rest.
About 1900, embryologists real-
ized that their observations had
merely revealed new depths that
needed to be probed. Sperm almost
always attach to eggs of their own
species— but embryologists knew of
no mechanism that would explain
this. Nor did they know the exact
roles of egg and sperm in producing
the new animal. They began the still-
continuing search for the "trigger,"
the event at fertilization that leads to
all the other events. Organized ceU
movements puzzled them— in every
embryo, for instance, the same cells
move inward at the same time to
form the gastrula. Why, they asked,
such elaborate procedure to give
each daughter cell a complete set of
chromosomes?
Later the question of how differen-
tiation occurs came to dominate
embryology. Although the cells of
the blastula look alike, do they per-
haps already differ chemically? With
such questions the era of experi-
mental embryology began, and most
researchers used sea urchin eggs for
their experiments.
One embryologist divided the cells
of a two-celled embryo. Each cell
grew into a normal larva, as did each
of the cells of a four-celled embryo:
but the cells of an eight-celled
embryo did not. These cells must
differ from one another, each con-
taining, not the pattern for a whole
larva, but only the pattern for part
of a larva. But we still do not know
precisely how one cell of an 8-cell
embryo differs from its other cells.
Another embr} ologist pricked ma-
ture unfertilized eggs with a needle.
Some acted as if a sperm had ferti-
lized them and grew into normal
larvae. Cjnics decided that the sperm
was useful only to insure that all
offspring would not be identical to
the mother.
Another caused the eggs to divide
abnormally, so that the daughters
did not get the proper chromosomes.
All the larva were abnormal. Geneti-
cists soon confirmed this, and found
in addition that not only every
chromosome but almost every gene
is necessary for a normal embrvo
and a normal animal. Another found
that a molecule, which he called fer-
tilizin. in the egg's external coat,
reacted with a molecule on the sur-
face of sperm of the same species.
He compared this to antibody-anti-
gen reactions and believed he had lo-
cated the point at which sperm-egg
attachment is species-specific.
Still another embryologist devel-
oped a machine that could measure
the oxygen uptake of a few eggs. He
found that oxygen uptake, reflecting
the metabolic rate, increased at fer-
tilization. He noted changes in rate
that coincided with other important
events in the embryos career. These
metabolic data entered the dogma of
embr)ology, as did the results from
many other experiments with sea ur-
chins. It was years before someone
found that not only were the data
not characteristic of all embryos,
they were not even true for all
species of sea urchins. However, the
overgeneralization does not detract
from the discovery that visible events
during deveiojjment seem to be
manifestations of metabolic, that is,
biochemical events, and that even
before they become visible, events
can be detected in tlie metabolism of
the embryo.
53
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF
SEA URCHIN EGG
Sperm
Time — 0
Unfertilized Egg
Fertilization .
Membrane
Sperm
Nucleus ■
7 Minute
Fertilized Egg
Chromosomes •
1 Hour
Division of
Chromosomes
(Mitosis)
Nuclei
^99
Nucleus
?^ \
2 Hours
Two-cell Stage
Cavity
24 Hours
Blastula
(Several Hundred Cells]
Muscle and
Skeletal Cells
48 Hours
Gastrula
Anus
A great many experiments over 30
years revealed a great many met-
abolic changes. The first general
theories of embryonic development
were based on these results.
The axial gradient theory came
from sea urchin work, and the induc-
tion theory from vertebrate work. Ad-
herents of both sought proof for a
chemical explanation and failed. The
two "general theories" never made
contact: embryologists now know
too much to expect that all the
phenomena of cellular development
will be explainable in terms of any
single phenomenon.
Meanwhile, embryologists, in-
satiably hungry for detail, were mea-
suring each aspect of sea urchin
eggs. They measured amount of pro-
tein per egg, amount of deoxyribo-
nucleic acid (DNA) per egg, amount
and variation among the polysac-
charides, relations between ATP and
ADP, activity of many enzvmes ; and
how these varied among the species
and during development. Each mea-
surement added another reason for
embryologists to use sea urchin eggs
in experiments. There is not now.
and probably never will be, anv other
egg known in such metabolic detail.
But embryologists found no guid-
ing principle in all the detail. They
stiU asked, what tells cells to difPer-
entiate? \^Tiat is the basic event in
becoming different? Some embryolo-
gists had long realized that the genes
played a large part in development.
Pioneers at the beginning of the
century showed that the egg and each
cell of the embryo needed a nucleus
with all its chromosomes for normal
development. No experiments on the
action of genes could be done until
quite recently. That genes control
synthesis of proteins was discovered
in fungi about 1940. About that
time the study of protein synthesis
in egg and embryo began. The
theory of the actual mechanism by
which genes make proteins began in
1953, and is stiU being studied.
Study of the sea urchin egg and
embryo along these lines has come
to occupy the mainstream of embry-
ology. Some sea urchin work has
been checked by using other eggs,
but only amphibian eggs have given
much additional information.
We begin to picture the unfertil-
ized egg as "turned off," but ready
to start developing. Fertilization
seems to remove all the egg's inhi-
bitions. Various enzymes become ac-
tive. More important, the inhibition
of protein synthesis is removed.
Short-lived ribonucleic acid, "mes-
senger RXA." is the intermediate be-
tween the genes and the cell's pro-
tein-making machinery. It was found
that even \\hen the mRNA-making
machinery was poisoned at fertiliza-
tion, early development into a blas-
tula took place normally. To explain
this, embryologists proposed that
"masked messenger RNA" is already
present, but inhibited, in the un-
fertihzed egg. It needs only to be
released ("unmasked") at fertiliza-
tion. This is the mRNA that de-
termines the composition of the
proteins that are made during devel-
opment—up to gastrulation. New
mRNA is normally made by the
fertilized eggs and mav be "masked"
until needed to direct the s)Tithesis
of the new kinds of proteins needed
for gastrulation. A cleaving embryo
unable to make mRNA cannot gas-
trulate, even though it may seem to
develop normally up to that time.
The course of RNA synthesis dur-
ing later development is both com-
plicated and a source of controversy.
So is the identity of the new proteins
made to the direction of the mRNA
synthesized after fertilization. Ex-
cept for proteins of the cell-dividing
apparatus, no new ones have been
isolated from the early embryo. No
doubt new enzyme proteins are-
made, but so few molecules of each
that they cannot be detected yet.
^Tiy has so much embryology
come from sea urchin eggs? In the
beginning, because they were easy to
work with: at later stages, the early
work provided a good foundation for
more advanced study.
This is where embryology stands
today, closer to the deep secrets of
the embryo, and perhaps, at last,
with the right tools for attacking
these secrets.
Sea urchin fertilization: thia
remarkable electron micrograpH
depicts the penetration!
of an egg by a sperm.
Magnification is 50,000 X.
54
-^^.
\
V
i^
.^
THE EVOLUTION
The ability to sleep
distinguishes manmials and
birds from lower orders.
The kind of sleep
reveals much about an
animal's life style
by Truett Allison
and Henry Van Twyver
Field mouse
Macaque monkey
'•-^-
)F SLEEP
For most of us, sleep is a seem-
ingly empty void except for an
occasional remembered dream and a
rested feeling after a night of slum-
ber. This subjective impression is
only partly correct. Each night, four
or five times at intervals of about 90
minutes, the quiet repose of human
sleep is interrupted by a curious set
of physiological and mental events:
A dream begins and develops its own
inner logic. The dream narrative
does not flash through the mind al-
most instantaneously, as was once
commonly thought, but proceeds in
"real time" with a duration about as
long as the events would actually re-
quire. During the dream, the nervous
system and bodily functions are very
different from those of the preceding,
nondreaming sleep. Heart rate and
respiration become irregular, and
the eyes move as if following the
dream events. Muscular twitches of
the hands or limbs occur, but oth-
erwise the dreamer is still.
"Dreaming" sleep is not confined
to Homo sapiens; based on lab-
oratorv studies, it is clearly present
in many lower animals such as mon-
keys, cats, dogs, and rats. For these
animals, however, we use a more
cautious term— paradoxical sleep— to
describe their apparent dream-sleep.
The concept of sleep, viewed in
terms of both humans and lower
animals, raises a number of impor-
tant questions: If animals exhibit the
symptoms of dream-sleep, do they
actually dream? In what sort of ani-
mal did this type of sleep first arise,
and for what reason? Is dreaming,
and all the physiological changes that
accompany it, a necessary biological
event or, as Freud suggested, simply
a means for satisfying psychological
needs ?
Through studies conducted by
many investigators during the past
fifteen years, we can provide tenta-
tive answers to these questions. Of the
numerous species of living animals,
the sleeping states of less than three
dozen mammals and even fewer non-
mammals have been studied in the
laboratory. Still, enough is known to
indicate the broad outlines of a story
that takes us back almost 200 million
years, to the time when mammals
first appeared on earth. Lacking the
opportunity to go back in time to ob-
serve the first mammals, we, and
other investigators, have studied the
sleep of certain living mammals that
approximate critical stages of mam-
malian evolution in order to deter-
mine how these first mammals slept
—and perchance dreamed.
How do we decide when an ani-
mal is sleeping? At first, this prob-
ably sounds like no problem at all:
simply look at the animal and ob-
serve whether it is active or lying
quietly, whether the eyes are open
or closed. What would we say, how-
ever, in the case of a horse or cow,
which seldom closes its eyes, or a
fish or snake, which cannot? Hu-
mans as well as some other mammals
have also been known to sleep with
one or both eyes partially open.
Thus, casual techniques of obser-
vation are often not an objective
means of telling when an animal is
awake or asleep. Instead we use the
electroencephalograph, or EEG ma-
chine, an electronic instrument used
in hospitals to record the electrical
activity of the brain. It consists of
several very sensitive amplifiers that
magnify the extremely small voltages
generated by brain nerve cells. In
humans these signals are detected by
electrodes attached to the scalp, and
the brain activity is recorded by an
ink-writing pen on a moving paper
chart. In animals brain activity can
be recorded in the same manner, and
with certain modifications of the ma-
chine, other physiological processes
—such as breathing, heartbeat, and
muscle activity- can also be re-
corded. To measure these physiologi-
cal events, the animal is anesthetized
and fine wires are placed in various
regions of its brain and body. When
the animal has recovered from the
implantation, the electrodes are con-
nected by cable to the EEG machine,
which then records the changes that
occur during waking and sleep.
After implantation the animals are
normal and do not appear to notice
the electrodes or cables.
Typical EEG recordings during a
cat's waking and sleep states appear
on page 59. The tracings on the left
were made while the animal was sit-
ting quietly. Small electrical charges
generated by the movement of the
eyes were recorded by electrodes
placed around the eyes. In the ex-
ample shown there are two eye move-
ments about four seconds apart. The
electrical activity from the cerebral
cortex, or gray matter, shows many
small, fast fluctuations. (The cortex
is nonexistent in reptiles. Increasing-
ly prominent in higher mammals, it
is believed to underlie complex men-
tal functions. ) The next tracing was
taken from the hippocampus, an area
deep within the brain involved with
memory, whose electrical emanations
accurately reflect changes in arousal.
When the animal is alert and explor-
ing its surroundings, nerve cells in
the hippocampus tend to dis-
charge electrical impulses in syn-
chrony at the rate of several bursts
per second, giving the record a
rhythmic, wavelike appearance. Sev-
eral such waves can be seen in the
left-hand portion of the tracing. The
third tracing show s electrical activity
recorded from the neck muscles. Dur-
ing the waking state these are con-
stantly active to support the head,
resulting in large, rapid fluctuations
recorded as a thick, ragged line.
When the cat goes to sleep
(middle section), muscle tone is re-
duced but still present. Large eye
movements cease, although there
may be occasional slow, rolling
movements. The activity of the
brain is now markedly different.
Large, slow waves, indicating the
synchronous activity of many nerve
cells, are recorded both in the cere-
bral cortex and the hijjpocampus,
hence the name slow-wave sleep.
After several minutes of slow-
wave sleep, the cat then passes fairly
rapidly— the transition takes only a
few seconds— into paradoxical sleep.
Now a number of physiological
events occur. Many of these— such as
57
twitching and eye movements— are
visible to an observer. Others can
only be seen with the aid of the EEG
machine. Eye movements, either
singly or in bursts, appear and con-
tinue sporadically during the para-
doxical sleep episode. The eye move-
ments occur more often and are
jerkier than during waking. Elec-
trical activity of the brain is similar
to that during waking. Indeed, the
hippocampus waves are even more
rhythmic than when the animal is
very alert. All these signs indicate an
alert waking brain, but clearly the
animal is not aw ake. for now muscle
tone has disappeared completely ; the
cat is limp and difficult to arouse.
It is this discrepancy between what
appears to be a waking brain and a
deeply sleeping body that led Michel
Jouvet of the University of Lyons,
France, to coin the term paradoxical
sleep. This state has also been called
rapid eye movement, or REM, sleep.
But since this phase of sleep occurs
also in animals that rarely or never
move their eyes we prefer the term
paradoxical sleep.
In mammals these EEG signs of
sleep are very clear, but in submam-
malian forms such as amphibians
and reptiles, EEG recordings may
not be adequate to define sleeping
and waking periods because the ani-
mals have relatively undeveloped
brains. In the lower animals, behav-
ioral criteria are also necessary;
sleep is defined as a period when the
animal is quiet and less responsive
to stimulation.
We begin our analysis of the evo-
lution of sleep with the bullfrog and
salamander, lowly amphibians that
mark the point of transition from
sea-dwelling to land-dwelling verte-
brates. Both EEG and behavioral
criteria indicate that they almost
certainly do not sleep. Instead they
alternate between periods of quiet
and active wakefulness.
In reptiles, which evolved from
amphibians, the presence of sleep is
not clear-cut. Conflicting results have
been reported by different investi-
gators. As in amphibians, there are
periods during which the animal is
quiet and immobile but still essen-
tially awake. If reptiles sleep at all,
they have only the rudiments of sleep
as compared to mammals.
During cold weather both am-
58
- 250 Million Years Ago
phibians and reptiles retreat to
secluded places where they remain
completely inactive until warm
weather resumes. These periods of
torpidity also occur in some familiar
mammals such as bears.
Interestingly, both stages of sleep
- — slow-wave and paradoxical— are
found in birds. In chicks and pi-
geons, small amounts of paradoxical
sleep can be observed and a clear
stage of slow-wave sleep is evident.
With some variation from animal
to animal and from species to spe-
cies, both kinds of sleep have been
found in all higher mammals studied
in the laboratory. So far, the list in-
cludes, in addition to humans of all
ages, the chimpanzee and several
other primates, various rodents,
hedgehogs, bats, sheep, and goats-
even the pilot whale. Visual observa-
tion of elephants at the Boston Zoo
suggests that they too have paradox-
ical sleep. Since paradoxical sleep is
present in animals as different in
size as mice and elephants, and as
different in life styles as bats and
goats, it is probably safe to say that
all higher animals have both slow-
wave and paradoxical sleep. Given
that sleep is probably not present in
reptiles, but clearly present in mam-
mals and birds, at what stage of mam-
maUan evolution did sleep arise?
The diagram above summarizes
s phylogenetic tree
imarizes the evolution of
le reptile groups and their
cendants. In the mammalian
nch. slow-wave sleep
larently had evolved hy the
e noted by the first arrow,
•adoxical sleep arose some
e after, hut prohably no
n- than the time indicated
the second arrow.
the probable evolution of mammals
as it is presently understood by
paleontologists. About 220 million
years ago the most abundant land
vertebrates were a diverse group of
advanced reptiles, which had in some
respects almost reached the mam-
malian level of development. The
first true mammals, small creatures
resembling shrews in appearance—
and perhaps in behavior— descended
from one of these reptilian groups
about 180 million years ago.
All the later mammals probably
derived from early mammals similar
to this shrewlike creature. One group
of descendants, the therians. eventu-
ally gave rise to the two main kinds
of living mammals, the marsupials
and the placentals. A second group,
the nontherians, became extinct
many millions of years ago with the
exception of two that still survive, the
platypus and the echidna. These re-
markable animals are now found
only in Australia and nearby islands,
where they have survived because
these geographically isolated islands
were until recently inhabited only by
relatively docile marsupials. Pla-
cental mammals tend to displace less
cunning and aggressive neighbors.
The living nontherians— platypus
and echidna— are hairy, maintain a
constant body temperature, and
nurse the young. They are there-
fore unquestionably mammals, even
though they have retained a number
of reptilian features, the most strik-
ing of which is that the young are
hatched from eggs. These two egg-
laying mammals seem to have
changed little (except perhaps in ex-
ternal appearance) since they first
evolved. They provide the oppor-
tunity to study sleep as it appeared
in the first mammals.
The platypus is difficult, if not im-
possible, to keep in captivity. The
echidna, however, adapts readily to
laboratory conditions. We obtained
several echidnas through the cooper-
ation of Mervyn Griffiths of the Com-
monwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organization in Canberra
and were able to study their sleep
habits in detail. We found that this
animal sleeps a great deal, up to
twelve hours a day, and that its sleep
is all slow-wave. We have not de-
tected a single episode of paradox-
ical sleep. Instead the EEC reveals
quiet periods that in many ways
resemble the resting periods of rep-
tiles. Because paradoxical sleep had
been seen in all other mammals
studied, we had expected to find it in
the echidna as well.
It is possible that we were not able
to see paradoxical sleep because its
physiological and nervous system
manifestations are radically differ-
ent in primitive mammals. To test
this possibility we studied sleep in
another primitive mammal, the opos-
sum. This marsupial, which has been
called a living fossil, appears to have
changed little since it first evolved.
Just as the echidna gives us the best
picture of earliest nontherian mam-
mals, the opossum gives the best pic-
ture of early therian life. As it turns
out, both slow-wave and paradoxical
sleep are present in the opossum and
are entirely similar to these states in
placental mammals. The opossum re-
vealed that paradoxical sleep is much
the same in any mammal in \vhich
it is present at all, no matter how
primitive the creature.
With this finding we then checked
the hypothesis that paradoxical sleep
is absent in the echidna because the
animal is highlv specialized in its
life style, and not because it is primi-
tive. To test this possibility we
needed a placental mammal special-
ized, like the echidna, as a digging
animal that spends considerable time
underground and consequently has
poor vision. We decided that the
common mole would provide the best
comparison. Even more adapted to
life underground than the echidna,
and like other animals that live in
darkness, the mole"s visual system
has degenerated. The mole should
therefore serve admirably as an "ad-
vanced echidna."
Moles, we found, are perfectly
normal mammalian sleepers. Their
slow-wave and paradoxical sleep, as
measured by the EEC, are typical
of that seen in other placental mam-
mals and in the opossum. Like hu-
mans, moles sleep about eight hours
a day; about one-fourth of this is
paradoxical sleep. Furthermore, the
electrical activity of their brain dur-
ing sleep is similar to that of man.
These findings indicate that the
lack of paradoxical sleep in the
echidna is probably due to its primi-
Waking Slow-Wave Sleep Paradoxical Sleep
ippocampusAWAA#-VAWMJMAMl^^ \ft[V"w\'^|\AV/^W^ JWM^W>WA\>i#'MfW^'^
eck Muscles IW^IlMlpl^iMMIMffl <i >'**- >■.■'■ "■ ■■ ■
Eyes
■ebral Cortex iifiiimi '■"' ' wn iini i I""*
to Seconds
These electrical recordings,
made from a cat in its waking
state and during two states
of sleep, show that the
pattern of activity in each
state is clearly different.
Recordings taken from other
animals during the same states
would look very similar.
59
THE DREAM WATCHER'S GUIDE
Although episodes of "dreaming," or paradoxical,
sleep can be determined most accurately in the labora-
tory, it can also be seen in animals found around the
house, such as dogs, cats— and children. Indeed, Its
signs are so clear that, in retrospect, it is surprising that
this kind of sleep was discovered less than twenty years
ago.
In cats and dogs, watch for this sequence of events:
When the animal first goes to sleep, "nondreaming," or
slow-wave, sleep always occurs first. Respiration is fairly
regular and slow. Bodily movements are infrequent and
the animal is still and quiet. After a period of ten to
twenty minutes the first paradoxical sleep period begins.
Now the eyes can be seen moving under the eyelids,
which may be partially open. Breathing is irregular
rapid, shallow breaths alternating with periods of breath
holding. The ears and whiskers twitch, often accom
panied by facial twitches and grimaces. The paws maj
twitch, occasionally in synchrony as if the animal were
trying to run.
In children the signs of paradoxical sleep are much
the same except that facial movements often include,
sucking movements. In babies a paradoxical sleep epi-
sode may directly follow feeding.
The frequency of paradoxical sleep varies according
to body size, from about every nine minutes in the
mouse, to fifty minutes in the monkey or child, to ninety
minutes in adult humans.
live mammalian status, not to its par-
ticular way of life. We can judge by
the echidna then that slow-wave sleep
was present in the first true mam-
mals, and thus had probably evolved
in its present form about 180 million
years ago.
Since paradoxical sleep is \drtually
identical in the marsupials and pla-
centals it was probably present in
their common ancestor among the
early therian group. It is unlikely
that paradoxical sleep evolved inde-
pendently in both groups at some
later time. If this reasoning is cor-
rect, paradoxical sleep probably
evolved in its full-blown mammalian
form about 130 million years ago. or
as much as 50 million years after the
development of slow-wave sleep.
This evolutionary history of sleep
is somewhat speculative, since we are
inferring from living animals events
that took place in the distant past.
There are, however, two types of in-
vestigation that could lend further
credence to the sequential develop-
ment of sleep— from nonsleep to
slow-wave to slow-wave plus para-
doxical sleep. One study would in-
volve platypus research. If we found
only slow-wave sleep in this animal,
which came upon earth at about the
same time as the echidna, it would
support the hypothesis that paradox-
ical sleep evolved at a later stage of
evolution. Because it appears impos-
sible to study the platypus in the
laboratory, tiny devices would have
to be implanted under its skin to
transmit EEG information to distant
receivers, as is done with astronauts.
The advantage of telemetry, as this
method is called, is that the animal
is free to live in its natural habitat.
6o
In principle, a second way of test-
ing the idea that slow-wave sleep
and paradoxical sleep arose sequen-
tially is to look at different birds
that approximate critical stages of
avian evolution. So far as can be de-
termined from the scanty fossil rec-
ord of birds, all living forms are rela-
tively recent. There appear to be no
really primitive forms comparable to
the echidna and opossum. However,
the appearance of both phases of
sleep in birds does show that, just as
birds and mammals independently
evolved a four-chambered heart
from the three-chambered varietv of
their reptile ancestors, both phases
of sleep evolved independently at
least twice (in birds and in mam-
mals) in the course of vertebrate
evolution. There may have been tran-
sitional avian species, therefore,
which displayed slow-wave, but not
paradoxical sleep.
What do these findings tell us
about the biological role of sleep?
The descendants of reptiles— the
mammals and the birds — have two
things in common: they both sleep,
and they both maintain constant
body temperatures despite changes
in environmental temperature. The
abilit\' of mammals and birds to be
active at any temperature is a distinct
advantage over the reptiles, which
become sluggish in cool weather. A
disadvantage of this mechanism,
though, is that a great deal of food
is required to keep the bird or mam-
mal body warm; it would be advan-
tageous to turn down the body's
"thermostat" when the stomach is
full or danger is not imminent.
A clear example of this benefit of
lowered body temperatures during
sleep is provided by comparing
shrews and bats. Both are small mam-
mals. When active, their metabolic
rates are very high. The shrew is a
nervous little creature that scurries
around almost constantly in search of
food and that does not exhibit clear
periods of sleep. Under ideal labora-
tory conditions or in its natural habi-
tat both phases of sleep are very
likely present, but observation under
seminatural laboratory conditions in-
dicates that the shrew is an animal
that can, and probably does, get by
with little sleep. In contrast, bats
sleep up to t^vent}' hours per day, and
during sleep their metabolic rate
drops considerably. The life-span of
the short-tailed shrew is about two
years, whereas bats of the same size
live up to eighteen years. Thus the
bat s ability to "turn himself off" ap-
parently results in a ninefold gain in
life-span. In most animals metabolic
rate during sleep does not decrease as
dramatically as it does in the bat, but
nevertheless it seems clear that the
ability to sleep, and thereby conserve
energy, can prolong life.
The daily temperature cycle (and
therefore the underlying metabo-
lism I is independent of sleep; there-
fore subjects deprived of sleep still
have lower temperatures at those
times that would correspond to nor-
mal sleep.
Specifically, we suspect that slow-
wave sleep serves this function. It
alone is present in the echidna, and
it accounts for nearly all the sleep of
birds, yet these animals maintain a
constant body temperature as do
marsupial and placental mammals.
Paradoxical sleep in contrast is a time
of heightened metabolic and nerv'ous
ystem activity. Slo\v-wave sleep may
lave evolved parallel with tempera-
ure regulation, as an active mecha-
lism in the brain for periodically
■forcing"' mammals and birds— with
heir generally high body tempera-
ures— to conserve energy. In am-
phibians and reptiles, whose body
temperatures can drop to low levels,
this active brain mechanism does not
appear to be present.
For man. sleep is a recurring and
persistent need. Attempts to stay
awake for prolonged periods can
have disastrous consequences, both
psvchological and physiological. Not
every mammal, however, must bow
to the demands of eight hours sleep
])er dav. Certain of them, notably
the hoofed animals, have evolved the
ability to do without much sleep. In
ANIMAL
BEHAVIOR AND HABITAT
SLEEP
"Good Sleepers"
Carnivore, active day or night. Lives below ground in
an extensive network of burrows.
Herbivore, hibernates, prey. Lives in extensive bur-
rows of its own making.
Predator. Only the domestic cat has been studied.
Omnivore, strong fighter. Sleeps in tops of tall trees.
Omnivore, most similar to man. Lives in tropical rain
forests and shelters in tree nests at night.
Omnivore. Has mastered defense from other species
and the elements. Chief predator is man. Inhabits all
ecological ranges.
"Poor Sleepers"
Herbivore; nervous, hyperactive, excitable; prey.
Lives in burrows, which it excavates or borrows, in
rocky areas, savannas, swamps, and at edges of
forests.
Herbivore, prey. Some strains are extremely nervous
and easily excited. Usually lives in grass nests on
the surface or occasionally in burrows.
Herbivore; nervous, excitable; prey. Lives in grass-
lands. (Study includes only domestic species.)
Herbivore, excitable, prey. Lives in grasslands or
mountains. (Only domestic species studied.)
Herbivore, excitable, prey. Lives in grasslands. (Only
domestic species studied.)
Omnivore. Strong fighter but subject to predation.
Lives at edges of forests, in savannas and rocky areas.
Sleeps in tops of scrub trees where it is easily visible.
Sleeps 8 hours per day in lab with
almost no adaptation. 24% para-
doxical sleep.
Deep sleeper, about 14 hours a day
in lab. 25% paradoxical sleep.
Deep sleeper, readily sleeps about
14 hours a day in lab. 27% para-
doxical sleep.
After short adaptation sleeps 8
hours a day, 15-20% paradoxical
sleep.
After relatively short adaptation,
sleeps 11 hours a day. 19% para-
doxical sleep.
Deep sleeper. After short adapta-
tion sleeps 8 hours in lab. 24%
paradoxical sleep.
After long adaptation will sleep 12
hours per day. 5% paradoxical
sleep.
Difficult to adapt; sleep Is seen
only after several months in lab with
some strains. Up to 15% paradoxi-
cal sleep when well adapted.
Requires long adaptation. About
4% paradoxical sleep.
After two months adaptation will
enter paradoxical sleep, but only
rarely.
After several months in lab wil
sleep about 4 hours a day, but para
doxical sleep apparently not seen
Enters paradoxical sleep phase af
ter extended adaptation. 4-9% par
adoxical sleep.
Animals that have been studied in the laboratory can be
divided into "good sleepers" and "poor sleepers." Good
sleepers are either predatory or have secure sleeping
places included in their way of life. Poor sleepers tend
to be animals subject to predation at all hours; they
sleep less and experience less paradoxical sleep.
6i
these animals sleep is seen only under
very carefully controlled laboratory
conditions and then only after ex-
tended periods of adaptation.
There are several factors that de-
termine how much a particular spe-
cies needs to sleep, but perhaps the
clearest is the predator-prey rela-
tionship. Predators such as men,
cats, and dogs are good sleepers,
whereas the animals most subject to
predation at any time of the day. the
hoofed mammals, are generally very
light sleepers. Browsing animals—
• such as sheep, goats, and donkeys-
were derived from wild species that
were continually exposed to preda-
tors. These animals are poor sleepers
and only rarely enter the paradoxical
sleep phase. Only under the most
carefully controlled conditions will
they sleep in the laboratory. (This is
also true of the rabbit, chinchilla,
and guinea pig. ) Folklore holds that
domesticated ungulates do not sleep
at all. When questioned, those famil-
iar with various farmyard species
usually cannot recall having seen one
of them lying down with eyes closed,
obviously asleep. It is probable, al-
though lack of exact knowledge of
their habits makes it impossible to
say with any certainty, that most
poor sleepers are surface-dwelling
mammals that, because of their habi-
tat or size, cannot retreat to well-pro-
tected dens or burrows to sleep.
G.
ood sleepers, however, are not
always predators. As examples, con-
sider the 13-lined ground squirrel
and the hamster, which live mainly
on vegetation yet are good sleepers.
These animals are not predatory but
are themselves subject to predation.
They are not surface-dwellers, how-
ever, and thus need not constantly
monitor their surroundings. The
ground squirrel or hamster snugly
enclosed in its burrow can afford the
luxury of deep sleep. Another ex-
ample of a deep-sleeping nonpreda-
tor is the macaque monkey of Asia,
a species studied in the laboratory.
This primate is able to afford the
luxury of deep sleep because his en-
vironmental surroundings allow it.
He sleeps in treetops that have dense
foliage at the crown. Nocturnal pred-
ators are rare. He is light in weight.
nimble and small, and can climb to
high places that his chief enemies
cannot reach. The macaque is a rela-
tively deep sleeper with high per-
centages of paradoxical sleep. In
contrast, the African baboon, al-
though a savage and bold fighter, is
insecure while sleeping. At night, his
chief enemy, the leopard— a skillful
climber— is most active, and the
baboon must seek the tops of the
tallest trees available. Cover is poor
in the scrubby trees of the savanna
environment, and he is usually quite
visible, silhouetted against the night
sky. As a result, the baboon is a fitful
sleeper and rarely enters the para-
doxical sleep phase.
We believe, therefore, that the es-
sential difference between good
sleepers and poor sleepers depends
on the security of the animal's sleep-
ing arrangements and not solely
upon his food-getting status. Exam-
ination of the list of animals studied
in the laboratory indicates that se-
cure sleepers tend to have large
amounts of paradoxical sleep. Thus
it appears that deep sleep and high
percentages of paradoxical sleep go
hand in hand with a safe sleeping
arrangement. Returning to our com-
parison of shrews and bats, we pro-
pose that the bat can afford to sleep
deeply because its security during
sleep is assured, suspended as it is
from the ceiling of a cave or attic.
The shrew, primarily a surface-
dweller, must be much more circum-
spect about the duration and depth
of its sleep.
The importance of security for
deep sleep has also been suggested by
H. Hediger, a zoologist who has ob-
served animals in their natural habi-
tat. He notes that the antelope prob-
ably never sleeps whereas the Indian
sloth bear, a fighter so competent that
even the tiger avoids him, sleeps
deeply.
What biological function is served
by paradoxical sleep? Clearly evi-
dent in man, the most advanced
mammal (while absent in the
echidna, a primitive mammal), this
form of sleep does not appear to be
a vestigial remnant of our prehistory.
Apparently, paradoxical sleep is
not simply a mechanism to provide
dreaming. It occurs in situations in
which the possibility of dreaming is
remote. Cats that have had most of
the brain removed, except for the
vital respiratory and cardiac centers
in the medulla, still have paradox-
ical sleep. Similarly, human beings
with diseases that essentially discon-
nect the cerebral cortex and higher
centers of the brain nevertheless
have periods of paradoxical sleep. In
both these situations it seems un-
likely that dreaming could occur.
Thus, it seems that dreaming does
not necessarily occur during para-
doxical sleep. It is interesting that
these results also suggest that dream-
ing does not cause paradoxical sleep,
but, if anything, is caused by it. Per-
haps an increase in heart rate and
rapid shallow breathing evoke emo-
tional dreams, rather than the other
way around.
One of the most striking and un-
expected findings of sleep research
is that newborn mammals, whether
the)' are humans, cats, or rats, have
much more paradoxical sleep than
adults. The human newborn, for ex-
ample, spends about 50 percent of
his sleep in the paradoxical phase,
while adults spend about 24 percent.
(Premature infants spend an even
larger percentage of their sleep in
this state.) These studies suggest that
at earlier stages of prenatal develop-
ment, all sleep may be paradoxical.
These findings have prompted a
plausible theory for the biological
significance of this form of sleep. The
rapidly developing fetal nervous sys-
tem presumably needs a great deal of
excitation to build in the neural cir-
cuitry necessary for the development
of integrated behavior patterns. Be-
cause paradoxical sleep is a time of
intense central nervous system activ-
ity, it may provide a period of nerve
"exercise," the stimulation coming
from within the brain instead of from
the environment. In the course of
maturation less internally generated
brain stimulation is necessary be-
cause sensory stimulation is now
available from the environment: the
amount of paradoxical sleep, there-
fore, declines.
Other findings seem to lend sup-
port to this hypothesis. At birth, poor
sleepers such as the guinea pig and
lamb have less paradoxical sleep
than more secure sleepers such as
man and the cat. The former, how-
ever, are born at an advanced level
of nervous system maturation. Short-
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ly after birth they can walk, and
their sensory systems are functional,
unlike man and the cat who are born
completely helpless. Presumably,
since the sensory systems are well
developed they need less internally
generated stimulation and spend less
time in paradoxical sleep. Similarly,
the young of the hoofed mammals
must quickly develop a responsive-
ness to their environment ; the rapid
maturation of the brains in such spe-
cies and their small amounts of sleep
are both adaptive responses to the
same environmental pressures.
An intriguing theory of the bio-
logical role of paradoxical sleep was
suggested by Frederic Snyder of the
National Institute of Mental Health.
His view is that this "third state of
existence," as he calls it, serves to
periodically arouse the sleeping ani-
mal so that he can inspect his envi-
ronment for danger. In times of
danger, animals (or men, for that
matter ) tend to sleep fitfully, in short
bursts, and may awaken during a
paradoxical sleep episode. This
would explain why the insecure
sleepers such as sheep, or guinea pigs
get so little paradoxical sleep.
The advantage of such a "sentinel"
mechanism is obvious: the animal
is assured that his sleep will not be
unduly prolonged; possibly forever
in the case of the rabbit that does not
see the approaching hawk. Further-
more, an animal aroused from para-
doxical sleep is alert and reactive,
ready for fight or flight, whereas
awakened from slow-wave sleep he is
disoriented for a few seconds. In ad-
dition, several kinds of evidence indi-
cate that humans or cats can discrim-
inate meaningful stimuli better dur-
ing paradoxical sleep than during
slow-wave sleep. Not only might
paradoxical sleep serve to awaken
the animal in danger, but he would
awake ready to react in an integrated
manner.
As far as can be determined with
laboratory techniques, paradoxical
sleep is similar in all mammals that
exhibit it — from the opossum, a
prototypal therian, to man, presum-
ably the most advanced mammal.
How similar, however, is the mental
activity that might accompany the
physiological signs of dreaming in
animals and man? Is it possible, for
example, for animals to experience
visual imagery and other sensations
during paradoxical sleep?
These are difficult questions to an-
swer. We already know that paradox
ical sleep can occur even when tht
possibihty of any complex mental ac
tivity is highly unlikely. If we cannoi
automatically assume that dreaming
occurs in humans during paradox-
ical sleep, we must certainly be cau-
tious in making such an assumption
about animals. Furthermore, to what
extent can we ascribe human kinds ol
subjective experiences to an animal?
Many scientists believe this is a fu-
tile, hazardous, even heretical under-
taking. Darwin, on the contrary, in-
sisted that mind, or consciousness,
was a biological phenomenon that
evolved from lower forms in much
the same way as did anatomical
characteristics. He pointed out that
emotional expressions indicating
particular "states of mind" were ob-
vious in all animal forms. He went so
far as to say, "even insects express
anger, terror, jealousy, and love by
their stridulations."
While it is difficult to attribute
such complex emotions to so simple a
beast as a cricket, it is reasonable to
suppose that visual, auditory, and
tactile imagery occurs in mammals.
Most scientists have no particular
qualms about attributing subjective
states such as pain, hunger, and fear
to animals. Yet an animal's outward
manifestations of these states are not
nearly so clear, not nearly so similar
to the human manifestations of these
states, as are the animal's signs ofr
dreaming. We agree with the view
stated many years ago by Julian
Huxley :
"It is also both scientifically legiti-
mate and operationally necessary to
ascribe mind, in the sense of subjec-
tive awareness, to higher animals.'
This is obvious as regards the anthro-
poid apes: they not only possess very
similar bodies and sense-organs to
ours, but also manifest similar be-
havior, with a quite similar range of
emotional expression, as anybody
can see in the zoo; a range of curi-
osity, anger, alertness, affection, jeal-
ousy, fear, pain and pleasure. It is
equally legitimate and necessary for
other mammals, although the simi-
larities are not so close. We just can-
not really understand or properly in-
terpret the behavior of elephants or
dogs or cats or porpoises unless we
do so to some extent in mental terms.
This is not anthropomorphism: it is
merely an extension of the principles
of comparative study that have been
so fruitful in comparative anatomy,
64
comparative physiology, compara-
tive cytology and other biological
fields."
If one is willing to admit that it is
possible to infer dreaming in ani-
mals, then several lines of evidence
indicate that it actually does occur.
Recall that muscle tone in the cat is
completely suppressed during para-
doxical sleep. If the brain center that
produces this suppression is not
functioning, however, a bizarre pat-
tern of events takes place during the
cat's paradoxical sleep. Although
completely asleep, the cat will display
behavior almost identical to that dur-
ing the waking state. It will rise, walk
about, attack invisible enemies, stalk
an imaginary prey, or sit quietly and
follow an unseen object with its eyes
for periods of several minutes— all
while deeply asleep! It is difficult
for an observer to deny that some
sort of imagery is present in the cat
brain at these times.
In another experiment that sug-
gests dream life in animals, monkeys
were trained to press a lever when
they saw patterned stimuli flashed on
a screen before them. Later, during
sleep, they were seen to press the
lever as if they were hallucinating or
dreaming of the stimuli acquired
during the waking state. Techniques
such as this bypass the problem that
animals cannot give us spoken re-
ports of their dream life.
We are willing to conclude that
imagery occurs during paradoxical
sleep in animals. To the extent that
they are capable of mental life dur-
ing waking it is equally plausible to
grant them the power of dreaming
during sleep. And what do they
dream about? Anyone who owns a
dog has witnessed the trembling,
jerking, abortive running move-
ments, the grimacing and whimper-
ing that periodically occur during
sleep. A dream of a rabbit chase?
Why not? Freud thought that dreams
are often wish fulfillments. In The
Interpretation of Dreams he wrote:
"I do not myself know what animals
dream of. But a proverb, to which my
attention was drawn by one of my
students, does claim to know. 'What,'
asks the proverb, 'do geese dream
of?' and it replies: 'Of maize!' The
whole theory that dreams are wish
fulfillments is contained in these two
phrases." Perhaps cats dream of the
perfect mouse, and moles of big juicy
earthworms. We like to think so.
AFGHANISTAN-A VISIT TO A NATION
- August 1st to 29th, 1970 - Sep. 19th to Oct. 17, 1970 -
The only extensive tour of Afghanistan ever organized, first carried out by Treasure
Tours in 1969. In 1970, the tour will be led again by Mr. Ali Lawanghin of Kabul
in cooperation with American residents and Afghan notables.
Afghanistan offers the great sights of Central Asia to a far larger extent than Soviet
Cemtral Asia or Outer Mongolia: the deserts of the North, the proud and wealthy
nomads with their Bactrian camels, the Bhuzkashi of the Usbeks, Central Asia's
greatest riding spectacle, ancient Asian cities with splendid mosques, markets and
bazaars, stupendous archaeological monuments of the Graeco-Buddhist and other
pre-Islaniiic cultures and the towering mountains of the Central Hindu Kush clad
in eternal snow.
Contacts with people are easier and more frequent than in other countries of
Central Asia. The most important tribal groups are the nomadic Kochi who are the
nation's political backbone, the Hazara and Tadjik of the Hindu Kush and the Usbeks
and Turkmen of Bactria. The Nurs in their remote mountains are related to the most
ancient populations of the Himalayas. The scenery is overwhelming: the high passes
and dramatic valleys of the Hindu Kush, the mountains of Nuristan, Afghan
Turkestan on the Bactrian Plain between the Oxus and the Hindukush and the
steppes and deserts from Ghazni to Herat. Then, there is a wealth of archaeological
monuments never seen by the transient tourist. The most famous are the Graeco
Bactrian cave monasteries, the temples and stupas of the Kushan Empire and the
mosques, castles and mausolea of the early Islamic dynasties and of the Timurides
in Herat and Balkh. — A side trip is made over the Khyber Pass to the Peshawar
Valley and Taxila in Pakistan. Stopovers are Teheran on the way out and Istanbul
on return. Very good hotels in Kabul, Bamiyan, Kandahar, Herat and Pul i Khumri.
Modest accommodations in Mazar i Sharif and a few other places. Travel is by
modern motorcoach. 15 participants.
All inclusive from New York: US$ 2185.00.— Ask for illustrated tour booklet.
THE PANGI TREK-INNER HIMALAYAS
May 25th to June 23rd, 1970.
Leader: Mr. DESMOND DOIG, Calcutta, noted Himalayan explorer and writer,
who also has led our 'Himalayan Kingdoms' Tour in October 1969. Some of Des-
mond Doig's writings on the Himalayas have appeared in 'National Geographic':
130/4,123/3 etc.
The Pangi Trek, part of our tour of the Inner Himalayas, is the dream of many
Himalayan travellers. It is a 14 days trek from Chamba, a small mountain town in
the area of the Kangra Valley. Alpinistic experience is not needed but one must be
in good health and used to hiking. Easy stages. Sleeping bags and gear are carried
by ponies and porters. Trekking is mostly in the valley of the Chandrabagha River,
a beautiful and rugged area surrounded by mountains from 18 to 24000 feet. Many
small villages will be visited. The people, of Tibetan stock, are famous for the dances
of their pretty women. — The trek is preceded by a car tour of the Kulu and Kangra
valleys with a visit to the Dalai Lama of Tibet, now living in exile at Dharamasala. —
For non-trekkers a very charming nature tour of the Inner Himalayas with the Kulu
and Kangra valleys and Kashmir is available.
Ask for details on Pangi Trek and/or Himalayan Nature Tour.
All inclusive from New York: US$ 1975.00. — 12 to 14 members on the trek.
THE UNDISCOVERED USSR
August 4th to 25th, 1970.
Leader: Professor WOODFORD McCLELLAN, University of Virginia, Charlotte-
ville. Professor McClellan is a specialist in Russian History, has made part of his
studies in the USSR and has led our 'The USSR for the Historian' in 1967. —
A new tour of the USSR with an unusual itinerary of scenically beautiful and his-
torically significant areas and towns. — Novgorod, a medieval merchant republic with
some 40 churches dating from the 11th to the 15th century, palaces, walled mon-
asteries etc. — Kizlii, an island on Lake Onega with a huge wooden cathedral with
22 onion domes and other fantastic wooden churches and farms characteristic for the
medieval rural culture of Northern Russia. — Mtshkcia, capital of ancient Georgia,
in a beautiful valley of the Caucasus, with great Georgian churches and monuments
dating from the 6th to 1 1th century. — The Caucasus between Tbilisi and Erevan and
the Armenian Plateau. — The surroundings of Erevan with the 4th century monastery
of Gegard, the 7th century cathedral of Zvamot and Echmiadzin, the ancient seat
of the Patriarch of Armenia. Armenian architecture, art and folklore. — Khiva, in the
oasis of Kwarazm, in Central Asia, a gigantic architectural complex with a skyline
of conical towers and minarets and the mosques and palaces of the Shahs of
Khorasmia, the ancient rulers of the country. From Tashkent by air via Urgench.
Samarkand, the city of Tamerlane and the Timurides. — Pereslavl Zatcski, Yaroslavl
and Rostov the Great, medieval towns of Central Russia with walled monasteries,
wonderful church architecture, casitles and palaces, all in scenic surroundings. —
Moscow and Leningrad, of course, will also be visited. The tour is a great oppor-
tunity to get away from the cities and to see the countryside in the European and
Asiatic USSR.
All inclusive from New York: Moderate cost, depending on new airfares to Moscow.
De luxe accommodations and meals a la carte wherever available. — Ask for booklet.
TREASURE TOURS INTERNATIONAL
Office of Academic Liaison
1010, St. Catherine W., iVIontreal 110, Canada
INC.
65
Books in Review
The Xinacanteca liVay af Life
hy Herbert R. Harvey
ZiNACANTAN: A MaYA COMMUNITY IN
THE Highlands of Chiapas, by Evon
Z. Vogt. The Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press, $25.00; 733 pp., illus.
Perhaps what we find most intriguing
about the Maya are their ancient
accomplishments and their modern
staying power. Tlie two are not wholly
unrelated phenomena. While many In-
dian groups of Middle America have
lost their distinctive cultural flavor,
most of the Maya groups have not. The
Zinacantecos, a surviving, indeed thriv-
ing, Tzotzil-speaking Maya group with
which this book deals, are no exception.
In fact, it is precisely the combination
of a rich cultural content, which is pe-
culiarly Maya in most details, and the
mechanisms that have maintained it
despite constant external pressures
over the generations that accord more
than the usual significance to this
study.
Zinacantan is an almost wholly In-
dian municipio of nearly 8,000 people
( 1960 census) tucked away in the high-
lands of the state of Chiapas, Mexico,
not far from San Cristobal las Casas.
The Pan-American Highway, which
cuts through the municipio, was opened
in 1950, thus linking the area for the
first time with the modern nation. With
the road came increased economic in-
teraction with the lowlands, tourists,
and a bevy of anthropologists, among
them Professor Vogt and the many
members of his team, who form the on-
going Harvard Chiapas Project. The
present work is but one of many, which
have already appeared or are in prep-
aration, concerning this remarkable
community of Maya Indians.
The author's stated purpose in writ-
ing the book is "to provide the first
general ethnographic description of
this Zinacanteco way of life. . . ." That
is, in a nutshell, what the book is. How-
ever, it is perhaps better viewed as a
"master ethnography" in terms of the
strategy of the Harvard Chiapas Proj-
ect. Over the the course of a decade,
numerous students and colleagues of
the author have participated in a co-
ordinated field program in the area and
66
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67
Zinacanteco shaman is packing
white candles for a pilgrimage
to the mountain shrines.
;"m/.
Shelling maize using cowhide net.
Wooden cross in foreground protects
corn from evil spirits.
have produced a large number of spe-
cialized studies. Throughout, the book
draws upon these (with careful ac-
knowledgement), as well as upon the
author's own, extensive field work. Cer-
tain topics obviously have been more '
exhaustively studied than others, lead-
ing to some imbalance of coverage (an
inevitable failing of general ethnogra- 1
phies). Also, a certain redundancy has
resulted because the topics are dis-
cretely presented. The book emerges,
therefore, as more of a topical com- ,
pendium than a tightly integrated ac- i
count of Zinacantan culture and so-''
ciety. This can be either a virtue or a
vice, depending upon one's approach
to the book. Suffice it to say, it is easy
to read a chapter.
The population of Zinacantan is dis-
Men and animals bearing
heavy loads of maize make
their way along a trail.
tributed between a ceremonial center
(called Zinacantan) and 15 dependent,
outlying hamlets— a familiar settlement
pullirn for Maya. The Zinacantecos are
mai/e farmers, and maize dominates
not only their agricultural production
and diet but also their thoughts. There
is one exceptional aspect to their agri-
culture, however: in addition to their
traditional farm plots in the highlands,
they also have access to. and make ex-
tensive use of. lowland plots in the
nearby Grijalva drainage area.
The characteristic domestic unit in
Zinacantan is the patrilocal extended
family, living either under one roof or
in closely clustered houses forming a
compound, symbolically represented as
a cross. Several house cross groups
make up a patrilineage, and one or
more localized patrilineages constitute
a sna, the next largest recognized social
grouping. In turn, two or more snas
combine to form a waterhole group
which in itself may equal a hamlet
although more frequently a hamlet con
sists of more than one waterhole group
In Zinacantan, the location and compo
sition of settlements are determined
primarily by the availability of water.
Religion is all-pervasive in the lives
of modern Zinacantecos, and over half
the book is concerned with it: the prac-
titioners, the belief system, the sacred
geography, the ceremonies and rituals,
the cargo system (the religious hier-
archy, or cofradia). The religious struc-
ture, essentially indigenous in content,
complex and intricate in form, is por-
trayed with great clarity and detail. As
such, the book is a major contribution
to our growing knowledge of surviving
native religious practices in contempo-
rary Middle America.
What is surprising about this book
is that it all but ignores population. A
few basic facts are presented: the size
of hamlets, the number of children en-
rolled in one school during two differ-
ent years, and the municipio growth
rate, plus a very few others. With vir-
tually no demographic framework es-
tablished, the question of number can
gnaw at the imagination throughout the
book. The author himself cites Frank
Cancian"s thesis that the cargo system,
as it now functions, may not be able to
withstand the rapid population expan-
sion projected for the coming few
years. In Zinacantan, as elsewhere, so-
69
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cial institutions are, or can be, closely
related to the demographic structure.
For many purposes, it would be more
useful to know the present composition
of Zinacantan's population, rather than
the manner of house construction,
which consumes eleven pages.
From the point of view of culture
change. Zinacantan is one of the most
interesting areas encountered in Mex-
ico. In the first place, the question
immediately arises as to how it sur-
vived four and a half centuries of
Hispanic acculturative pressure, yet
retained so much of its indigenous
cultural integrity. While many tradi-
tional patterns are not "pure Maya" in
the sense that they remain unaltered
from pre-Hispanic times, the syncre-
tism that occurred between Maya and
Spanish elements left a heritage that
is today "Indian.'" as opposed to La-
dino or any other. One of the processes
to which Dr. Vogt attributes this is
what he calls encapsulation— "the
conceptual and structural incorpora-f
tion of new elements into existing
patterns of social and ritual behavior
... a special form of syncretism." As
an example, "the trend of events has
been for 'political" offices gradually to
become "religious" offices."' Recently
there has been an intensification in
certain indigenous patterns. The num-
ber of shamans, for example, has in
creased considerably, and the ceremo-
nies performed by cargoholders are
becoming more elaborate and complex.
Zinacantan. in other words, seems to
be reacting to the current threat to its
traditional culture by intensifying its
activities in the religious sphere. A
second question then arises as to what
extent it has reacted in a similar
fashion through the long centuries oi
the post-Conquest era, and by extrap-
olation, how representative is this
group of the patterns of Maya culture
that prevailed pre-Hispanically?
The question opens a whole other
Drum and flute players
at Zinacantan ceremony.
province: historical reconstruction ver-
sus conjectural history, a poor substi-
tute. The author doesn't seem to be
quite sure whether he is using the
present to explain the past or the past
to understand the present. The two are
not mirror images, at least in terms
of methodology. What is interesting
about this book is, not the conjectures
about the ancient Maya (which may
well be valid), but the description of
the modern Maya and the historical
facts that have had a direct bearing
on the present and whose impact or
probalile impact can be reasonably in-
ferred. The author is obviously more
interested in searching the cultural
pantry for "survivals'" than in deter-
mining historical cause and effect, but
what is worse is that he treats the two
as i)eing of equal scale. Thus, "Tzotzil
Prehistory and History" are both the
subject of chapter 2. Also, in chapter
Zinacantan
A
Maya
Community
in the
Highlands
of Chiapas
by
Evon Z. Vogt
Belknap Press
Harvard University Press
Cambridge, Massachusetts
"This handsomely made and beautifully illustrated volume
encompasses one of the most complete descriptions available
of a native Indian culture south of the United States."
— Saturday Review, August 23, 1969
Twelve years ago, anthropologist Evon Vogt initiated the Harvard
Chiapas Project, a long-range field study of Ivlayan communities
in the Mexican highlands. ZINACANTAN is the comprehensive
and lively summation, just published, of Professor Vogt's exten-
sive investigation. S25.00
71
1<S<
A rare view
of India's
hidden beauty
112 pages of superb photo-
graphs, many in full color, will
take you back through the cen-
turies to the fascinating folk
origins of ancient Indian art
and architecture. Shrines, tem-
ples and other structures never
before illustrated are exqui-
sitely reproduced here for the
first time. The text is illuminat-
ing and does much to explain
the history and development of
Indian art. An exciting and im-
portant vi^ork for all who appre-
ciate Indian culture.
FOLK ORIGINS
OF
INDIAN ART
Curt Maury
S27.50
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72
Holding burning censer,
a shaman prays over
ritual paraphernalia.
25. ''Implications for Cultural Change."
such topics as the relationship be-
tween ancient Maya pyramids and
modern lineage organization are treat-
ed along with the very recent impact
of INI health programs on the com-
munity. This same chapter begins in
2600 B.C. with the suggested location
of the proto-!Maya speech community
and ends in 1984 with some predic-
tions about short-range "'culture
change": projected population total,
paved roads, school enrollment, pre-
ferred house types, and others. By the
authors curious kind of logic, the
Zinacantecos are an "ethnic fossil"'
that has changed. This may sound more
harsh than intended because the book
is largely concerned with Zinacantan
in the here and now.
Despite these general criticisms, the
book's net impact is good. The author
sometimes "thinks out loud." which
adds a personal quality. The 200 illus-
trations are superb. Many full-page
photos without borders take the reader
right into Zinacantan. and not one
seems superfluous. It is. in fact, one
of the most skillful uses of photo-
graphic illustrations in the ethno-
graphic literature and hopefully will
start a long-needed precedent. Its eight
useful maps are also tastefully done.
The bibliography is extensive and the
text is well documented.
For the future the author indicates
that his work in Zinacantan will con-
tinue at least through 1984. I think!
that his contribution in this work will!
be appreciated far beyond then.
Dr. Harvey is associate professor in the
Department of Anthropology of the
University of If isconsin at Madison.
Art of Ancient Egypt, by Kazimierz
iMichalowski. Harry N. Ahrams, Inc.,
■$40.00; 600 pp., illus.
The Art of Ancient Egypt, by
Kazimierz Michalowski. has
emerged from behind the Iron Curtain
obviously to compete in the lucrative
field of popular art books presently-
inundating the market, and like the
Great Pyramid itself, it is the weightiest
of its type (8 pounds. 4 ounces) . covers
the broadest base (three books in one) ,
and is visually the most spectacular
(145 color plates). However, unlike
the Great Pyramid, which was sturdily
oriented to all four cardinal points, this
volume is given a totalitarian twist that
distorts its direction.
The section in which Professor
Michalowski. who is Director of the
Polish .Archaeological Institute in
Cairo, writes on the civilization and
art of ancient Egypt is the weakest part
of the book. Ancient Egypt is presented
as a state founded upon a rigid system
of three social classes— the nobility, the
administrators, and the masses— and all
other facets of its civilization are dedi-
cated to maintaining this social struc-
ture. Overseers with whips are trotted
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out to beat the lower classes, but no
mention is made of existing proof that
men of most humble birth could,
through sheer ability, rise to hold the
most important posts in the land. Art,
in its turn, becomes solely a propa-
ganda tool, constructed by craftsmen
according to canon to promote the
power of the pharaohs. No mention is
made that the ancient Egyptian was
a deeply religious man whose art,
created primarily for cult use, gave
esthetic expression to his beliefs.
The picture book section is truly
eye walloping. The color plates, al-
though sometimes a bit dark and lack-
ing in detail, give the over-all impres-
sion that all of Egyptian art was as
sumptuous as the contents of King
Tutankhamen's tomb. These plates, in-
terspersed through the text, are fol-
lowed by a section of some 600 small
black-and-white photographs, which
present a visual history of Egyptian
art from the prehistoric through the
Christian periods, with textual infor-
mation limited to captions.
The section on archaeological sites
is the strongest of the books within a
book. It covers a geographic area from
the Nile Delta to Nubia and describes
44 sites, each of which is identified by
the details presently known about it-
its hieroglyphic, ancient and modern
names, its location within a general
region, and in reference to nearby
towns, its history and ancient impor-
tance. The history of its excavation
since modern discovery is also given
along with bibliographic references.
Finally, the reader is told what remains
to be seen today and is provided with
maps, plans, and drawings. For the
traveler who is serious about his sites,
this is a good guide book but far too
heavy to carry on the trip. It will be
more useful as a ready reference for
students and specialists.
The book is written in an informal,
almost chatty style and moves along
well, with vigor and with a minimum
of errors by translator and editor. New
ideas and theories about unsolved
problems are presented as such at
times, but at other times, they are pre-
sented as established facts. The reader
is given a great quantity of material in
this book. but. unfortunately, few
options for its use, since each section
falls short of its purpose.
Virginia Burton
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Animals and Maps, by Wilma George.
University of California Press, $9.50;
235 pp., illus.
We are all aware that medieval
maps were generally decorated
with animals, plants, and landscape
features, but we tend to think of these
CROWDER
NATURE TOURS
SCHEDULE: Listed below are
starting dates for 1970. Space per-
mits only a brief mention of each
tour, and one should by all means
have the "Tour Catalog" with
thumbnail sketches of each trip, as
well as subsequent detailed itiner-
aries. North America tours are 2
weeks eacli, others 3 weeks, unless
otherwise noted.
— 1 9 7 0 —
FLORIDA
Jan. 10-2 weeks from Wakulla Springs
to northeast coast, across the prairies to
Sanibel, Everglades and the Keys,
MIDDLE AMERICA (4 tours)
Following the Florida Tour (from Tal-
lahassee Jan. 10): Yucatan, from Miami
Jan. 24; Panama, Feb. 7; Colombia, Feb.
21. Ornithologist, for Cent. America, Irby
Davis; Colombia, Dr. Lehmann.
TEXAS - MEXICO (5 tours)
Texas from Corpus Christi March 7;
Taxco, Holy Week special; then Mexico
West & East Coast,
PACIFIC COAST (7 tours)
Baja California camping, from Nogales
Mar. 28: Arizona, from Tucson Apr. 25;
Sierras, from San Diego May 9; Cas-
cades, from Klamath Falls, May 20; fol-
lowed by Alaska South, North and Out-
posts. Remarkable tropics-to-Arctic cov-
erage of spring in Western North
America,
EUROPE (12 tours)
Too much of a program to list here; by
all means send for detailed brochure.
Norway, Iceland, Russia and Siberia espe-
cially recommended. Twelve tours, ex-
tending through May, June, July.
CENTRAL AMERICA
Summer program in rainy season when
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3 tours; Chiapas, Panama, Yucatan.
AFRICA (3 tours)
South and East Africa and Madagas-
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cellent leadership.
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Venezuela. Aug. 15: Colombia. Sep. 5;
Ecuador, Peru, Sep. 26; Chile/Tierra del
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Antarctica.
SOUTH PACIFIC (8 tours)
This is the year of full South Pacific
coverage. Melanesia, Aug. 15 from
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Western Australia, Oct. 3 from Perth;
Australia East, Oct. 24 from the Barrier
Reef at Cairns; New Zealand. Nov. 14
from Auckland; N.Z. West Coast. Dec. 5.
Also special tours of New Guinea West
Irian north coast, and Western Australia
wildflowers.
SOUTH WITH AUTUMN (2 tours)
Geolos>' and ecology* of the eastern
U.S.A., following the wave of fall color
southward. Northeast Coast tour meets
at Bangor Sep. 19; Southeast Coast tour
at Harpers Ferr>' Oct. 10. Leader: Geolo-
gist Isabella Coons, with many assisting
leaders along the way.
Come alon^! . . . intimate, private
groups, expert leadership. We seek out
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CROWDER NATURE TOURS
BOX 222-a
HARPERS FERRY, W. VA. 25425
73
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as purely ornamental because the an-
imals were apt to be mythical or at
least badly distorted. We assume that,
lacking topographic detail, the cartog-
raphers filled in the blank spaces with
the aid of their imaginations. This at-
titude is expressed in Swift's quatrain:
So Geographers in Afric-Maps
With Savage-Pictures fill their Gaps;
And o'er unhabitable Downs
Place Eelephants for want of Towns.
Wilma George began to wonder
whether the mapmakers might not have
had more serious intentions, and she
examined many hundreds of surviving
maps. She found some 350 with "signif-
icant animals on them," dating from
1500 B.C. to A.D. 1804. The vast major-
ity, of course, came from the twelfth
to seventeenth centuries— animal repre-
Medieval map, made in 1290,
is decorated with animals,
plants, and landscape features.
sentation on maps becomes rare aftei
1700.
The oldest kno^vn map with animals
was discovered recently in northern
Italy. "It is a plan of a village engraved
on a rock and dated at approximately
1500 B.C., in the European Bronze Age.
On the outskirts of the village are de-
picted a deer, cow, dog and donkeys,
mules or horses." Animal represent
tations also occur on the clay-tablet
maps of the Babylonians, and presum-
ably they were used on the maps ol
classical Greece and Rome, althougl
there is little direct evidence.
Miss George describes the interesting
maps that have survived from the medi-:
eval period, relating the animal figures
to the bestiaries of the time. The bulk
of the book, however, is devoted to
maps from the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, which depicted the
geographical discoveries of this period
of exploration. As a frame for her dis-
cussion, she uses the geographical
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regions described by A. R. Wallace,
Starting with the Neotropical and end-
ing with the Australian. There is. of
course, little material for the Austral-
ian region, since most of our knowl-
edge of this continent came after the
period when the use of animals on maps
was fashionable.
Miss George was able to identify a
large proportion of the animal figures
used and finds that in general they
correspond with contemporary knowl-
edge. She thinks that the cartographers
were trying to show animal distribution
—not merely trying to fill up space— and
she makes a good case. The book is
generously illustrated with map repro-
ductions, sometimes hard to make out
because of the necessary reduction in
size, but nevertheless fascinating. I
think Animals and Maps could well be
considered a major contribution to
the early history of zoology.
MaRSTON B.\TES
University of Michigan
The Grand Colorado: The Story of
A River and Its Canyons, by T. H.
Watkins and contributors. American
West Publishing Co., $15.00; 310 pp.,
illus.
Every essential fact and many essen-
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200 pictures, ranging from the pale,
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The text is by T. H. Watkins, editor
of American West Magazine, and eight
other specialists. It begins deep in his-
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made by Indians 3.500 years ago during
the prehistoric Desert Culture era. and
concludes with information about the
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fact that the Colorado River began to
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long after man has disappeared. In the
Grand Canyon man faces the basic and
pitiless truths of nature and civiliza-
tion.
It is difficult to deal with The Grand
Colorado adequately in a review be-
cause it contains bewildering records:
the early irrigation adventures that
baffled the river and made an agricul-
tural industry out of a region designed
for individual pioneers; the gigantic
Imperial Valley adventure: the wonder
of the construction of Hoover Dam; the
tourist trade; the river running of to-
day; the conservation crisis— too much
happened, and man and the river have
come into opposition in too many
places to make the record simple. The
Grand Colorado is like the Grand Can-
yon in one respect; it cannot be assimi-
lated casually.
Although the book is not propaganda
it contains many facts pertinent to the
conservation point of view. The Col-
orado River is overcommitted ; too
many people expect too much of it. In
1893 Powell told promoters that there
was not enough water in the Colorado
to irrigate all the land that could be
irrigated. It runs through a region that
has only ten inches of rain a year— only
one-eighth of which survives evapora-
tion and transpiration through the
leaves of plants and trees. In the cen-
tury since Powell removed the last
pocket of mystery, the Colorado has
been exploited and damaged. The proj-
ect for one more dam at Marble Canyon
has not been dropped; it has only been
postponed. Some day the Bureau of
Reclamation, which is in the construc-
tion business, and promoters and poli-
ticians will make further assaults upon
a sorely overworked river.
In protecting the environment, con-
servationists are always at a disadvan-
tage. Industrialists, businessmen,
politicians and bureaucrats have more
influence in Washington than private
citizens. To begin with, the citizens
have no backlog of money. The ex-
ploiters have not only money but or-
ganizations of paid advocates who can
lobby among friends. This book re-
minds us of what happened to the val-
iant David Brower, then of the Sierra
Club, when he defended the Grand
Canyon against exploitation in 1966. To
alert the nation to the proposed dams
and other intrusions on the national
environment. Mr. Brower published a
challenging advertisement in The Netv
York Times and the Washington Post.
Within six months the Internal Rev-
enue Service— acting within the law-
removed the tax-exempt status of tlj
Sierra Club. One arm of the goven
ment (Internal Revenue Service) speet
ily came to the support of another arj
of the government (Bureau of Reel
mation). Although conservationists ai
numerous, they are relatively powe
less. The disposition of the governmei
is to please exploiters of natural n
sources who have political power.
The Grand Colorado, although it
a modest book, tells a story that wi
always be pertinent to the physical an
spiritual health of America. It do(
not let the squalor of business an
politics smother its sense of wonde
about life.
P.S. to the editor and publisher: I
God's name, give us some practic;
maps. The book contains several hi
torical and decorative maps and on
technological map. But it contains n
clear, modern map that performs th
prosy function of locating the place
mentioned in the text.
Brooks Atkinso
Author and Grit
Life and Death of the Salt Marsi
by John and Mildred Teal. Atlanti
Little, Brown and Co., $7.95; 278 pp
illus.
John and Mildred Teals' Life an
Death of the Salt Marsh is one (
those books that makes its greatest e
feet, not by reason of emotion, bi
through objectivity. Written with gre
clear-headedness, this is the detaile
story of an environment that is disaj
pearing at the hands of man.
Basically, a marsh is fertilized an
cultivated by means of the tides. Ma
may be able to raise shrimps, clam
or oysters in pools in salt marsh area
but once destroyed, he cannot brin
back a system that is so dynamicall
and intricately balanced, so depender
on ages of development. Marshes ar
a prime example of an environmer'
that man cannot duplicate. The brute
treatment they are receiving point
up our glaring inability to bridge th
gap between our actions and their rt'
suits. With respect to most nature
environments, we cannot wholly repa
the losses we cause; we cannot mak
substitutions that are ultimately use
ful.
Because of its difficult, constantl
changing environment, a salt mars
is fairly limited in its plant and anims
life. Yet it is a beautifully balance
entity, a living thing that can rebuil
itself. For the very reason that a mars
is a hostile place, it requires som
highly complex adaptations. This boo
has a fascinating chapter, "The Dom:
nant Spartinas," about the two varii
ties of grass that prevail in the marshe
of the east coast: "Spartina survivd
76
nMm
A RELIGIOUS STUDY OF
MAN AND ENVIRONMENT
Frederick Elder. Environmental
pollutants and over-population
are tfie new snal<es in the garden
vvliich threaten to destroy the
natural abundance of the earth.
The author of this unique ecolog-
ical study believes that man must:
adopt a new ethic which stresses
a vigorous asceticism in man's
use of nature — one which
recognizes man's responsibility
to curb the senseless destruction,
$3.95
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in the hostile atmosphere of the sah
marsh and endures the sea by keeping
most of the salt out of its sap, and by
concentrating some of this same salt
in its cells so that they will be able
to resist the tension placed upon the
sap by evaporation occurring through
the stomata. It is a success story of the
most complicated nature."
That is a basic bit of scientific news.
The way in which spartina overcomes
its hazards suggests all kinds of fra-
gility, tensility, areas of balance, all
kinds of hardihood in nature. At-
tendant on the marsh grass, as this
fine hook points out, are many other
adaptations among crabs, marsh snails,
lugworms, insects, ribbed mussels,
and killifish: and the influence of the
marsh is great in the sea waters be-
yond it. Salt marsh grass, on which the
existence of the marsh depends, is a
triumph, a dynamic success, like all
the other lives in this environment.
What better can we do?
Anyone who drives down the east
coast will come across signs of what
man has done to the marshes. There
is not much evidence of compromise.
When we pollute, dredge, fill, and so
on. we do it with an obliterative will.
And the more money talks louder than
the values of life itself, the more
mired we are going to be in our own
wastelands.
This fine book establishes a carefully
documented case. There is some evi-
dence that politics may be starting to
take such cases seriously. In the mean-
time, if reason, plus an admiration for
the working of things, can help save
the marshes, this book will play an
important role. One thing seems obvi-
ous after reading it: the problems of
man"s survival and those of his en-
vironment are inseparable.
John Hay
Cape Cod Museum of Natural History
The -\merican Museum is open to
the public without charge every day
during the year, except Thanksgiv-
ing and Christmas. Your support,
through membership and contribu-
tions, helps make this possible. The
Museum is equally in need of sup-
port for its work in the fields of re-
search, education, and exhibition.
This list details the photographer or
other source of illustration, by page.
COVER — Klaus-Friedrich after Koch
Koch
10-16— John Kabel,
Photo-Library, Inc..
except
1<) — U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission
20 — Courtesy of
Simon & Schuster, Inc.
26-29- Helmut Wimmer
30-35- Edward R. La-
Chapelle except 34 —
top. Swiss National
Tourist Office
36-37— U.S. Forest
Service
39 — James Kline
40-51— Klaus-Friedrich
Koch except 47, AMNH
52— Richard Lindstrom
54— AMNH after Lind-
strom
55 — Everett Anderson
56 — Roy Pinney, Photo-
Library. Inc.
58— AMNH after Virginia
Simon
59— AMNH after Van
Twyver and Allison
62— Victor E. Muniec,
Photo-Library, Inc.
66-67— Mark L. Rosen-
berg
68-72 — Frank Cancian
74— Courtesy of Univer-
sity of California Press
THEY'LL DIE
unless you and we help them. They'll
Die— and thousands more like them
of many different species will die —
unless money is made available to
finance the many requests from East
Africa's National Parks, Research Or-
ganizations and Game Departments.
During 1969 we funded conserva-
tion projects amounting to $74,500 in
Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. We
need your continued support to com-
bat the increasing menace of extinc-
tion for many species of wild animal,
by making a donation or by joining
the Society.
Membership of the Society will cost
you SlOannually. For this you receive
our quarterly magazine "Africana"
and are entitled to buy our ties, car
badges, brooches and cufflinks.
Christmas cards. Calendars, wild life
prints and the Scientific Journal are
available to all.
The wild life of East Africa is now
a world responsibility, shared by ev-
eryone. It is enjoyed by tens of thou-
sands of visitors each year. Help us
to see that millions will continue to
enjoy it.
EAST AFRICAN
WILD LIFE
SOCIETY
P.O. Box 20110, Nairobi, Kenya.
East Africa.
Please enroll me as a member.
I enclose $
Name
Address
. N.H.
77
Sky Reporter (Continued from page 28)
innermost corona (the sun's outer atmosphere) will be-
gin to show as a thin ring of light surrounding the moon.
Sometimes a long-lived bead of sunlight will remain for
a few seconds, glistening like a diamond within the ring
of the corona.
Totality: As totality begins the entire corona will flash
out and the brighter stars and planets will explode into
view. Now the whole landscape is plunged into darkness,
sometimes so great that one cannot see his hand in front
of his face: usually however, one can read a newspaper
by the dim illumination. Generally, the moon appears
jet black— hence the name ''bull's eye moon"— but some-
times it may appear slate colored with tinges of red and
violet. An observer cannot see any detail on the moon's
disk— as he can when the "old moon is in the new moon s
arms." The moon will hang like a ball suspended in
space, giving a strong three-dimensional effect.
For a few seconds at the beginning and end of totality,
the chromosphere, or sun s innermost atmosphere, may
be visible. A very thin arc of light, it has the color and
brilliance of a ruby, contrasting sharply with the black
moon and pearly corona.
Rising upward from the chromosphere at irregular
intervals, sometimes to great heights above the solar
surface, are the prominences, great flamelike jets of
hydrogen gas. Pink, scarlet, reddish violet, or magneta,
they contain a wealth of detail. They are most numerous
at sunspot maximum, a period we have just passed.
Surrounding all this and extending several lun;i
diameters on either side of the moon is the outermo
solar atmosphere, the corona. Pearly white in appea:
ance, its over-all brightness is about that of the fu
moon, but it is some 10,000 times brighter at its ba-
than where it fades into invisibility away from the sui
At the March eclipse great coronal streamers, overlaj
ping one another and extending outward about the sam ,
distance in all directions, should be visible. The coron i
is set in a deep blackish-blue sky that somewhat rf
sembles the night sky during late twilight.
At mid-totalitv. the sky overhead will retain the dar*
navy blue color, but as one looks down toward the hor|j
zon in all directions the sky will become yeflower anfl
redder, as well as brighter. This happens because far ofl
on the horizon the sun is still shining— but only as a thii
crescent. The only sunlight entering the shadow does sm
indirectly, and the blue end of the spectrum is fUterei^
out so that only the red remains. The farther the outsidjj
edge of the shadow, the redder will be the horizon. Ii
March this distance will be at least 40 miles along th
center line of totality, closer to the northwest or south
east near the edge.
As the darkness descends, birds will go to roost, flow
ers will close, and animals will bed down. :
Within about three minutes totality will end and al!
of the phenomena will occur in reverse sequence, thi
lunar shadow moving rapidly off to the northeast. 1
Lawrence B. Nadea'
^^^ Beech Cliff
On The Lake, By The Sea
MOUNT DESERT, MAINE, near Bar Harbor
BOYS 9-16 Pioneer camping in setting
of great natural beauty— plus EXCEP-
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Katahdin Mt Expedition. In-Camp prog.
incl. riflery, archery, tennis, \\'ater skiing,
fresh water swimming, sailing Natural
science emphasized. (Also Caribbean
Oceanographic Summer School ) .
Clifford A. Pulls, 6 Old Marlboro Rd., Concord,
Mass. EST. 1954
Wtiolesale prices on fishing
tackle, and hunting equipment,
archery, skis, and camping
equipment.
FINNYSPORTS
2070-J SPORTS BUILDING
TOLEDO, OHIO 43614
RROW
WILDERNESS TRIP CAMP
Grand Lake Stream, Maine 04637
For 70 boys, ages 12 to 17. Five age
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Series of lake, white water, and
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OGY training. QUAKER LEADER-
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^rite: George : N. Oarrow
780 Mlllbrook Lane
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Phone: (215) Ml 2-8216
CRYSTALAIRE
CAMP FOR GIRLS
Crystal Lake. Frankfort. Michigan. 88 girls, 10-17. 7
week season. Fun, adventure, friendsliip in North
Michigan dune country. Biding, sailing, creative arts.
Waterfront. Individual program, experienced staff.
Trips and natun- -trt--t-d. Island outpost. ACA ac-
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MR. AND MRS. G. N. LEINBACH
1039 Olivia. Ann Arbor. Michigan
SPRUCE
MOUNTAI
BRYANT POND. MAINE
New knowledge, new skills, new challenges in
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time Sports. Boys 11-15. Field, mountiiin, canoe
Outpost at Mt. Katahdin. Ham radio, photo;
plants, animals, weather, geology, ecology, astr
Catalog;
JACKSON HOLE-WYOMINI
Don't you think it's time your fani
enjoyed a ranch vacation?? j
FOR RATES & INFORMATION WRITE
Mr. Larry Moore [
Granite Ranch, Box 971 '
Jackson Hole, Wyoming 83001 I
78
wherever you go in ITIB)CiCD
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Enjoy that wonderful "Welcome, amigo!" service of
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Serkin, Rechanneled for Stereo. 3 Disc Set. Only 7.47
R2640. GREAT PIANO CONCERTI. 13 works: Schumai,|li
Cto 4 Traumerei. Beetlioven "Emperor" & Fur Elise, Grf"'
Cto, Rachmaninoff #2, Tchaikovsky #1, Liszt ttl & LletP-
straum #3, Chopin #2 & Tristesse Etude, Brahms #2, moii
Novaes, Sandor, Brendel, other pianists; Vienna Pro Musjf'
& Volksoper, Bamberg, other Orch's, Perlea, Swarowsky, IJ-
al cond. Stereo. 5 Discs. Special 7.t J
R2639. Five Discs: HANDEL ORGAN CONCERTOS (COI It
PLETE). The 16 Ctos for Organ 4 Orcliestra, the first e\ 11
written with the organ as solo instrument with orchestt t
superb performances by organists Walter Kraft & Eva Hold( |5,
lin, Helma Eisner, hpchd, Stuttgart Pro Musica, Reinhai-'
cond, Stere». SDiscs. Special 7.('"
R2638. Five Discs: IMMORTAL MUSIC OF JOHANN '
STRAUSS. 38 Waltzes. Polkas & Overtures performed by
Eduard Strauss 4 his Syra Orch; Emperor, Blue Danube,
Voices of Spring Vienna Blood, Morning Leaves, Al'- '
celeration, many more. Stereo. 5 Discs, Special 7,88 '
R2633. MANITAS DE PLATA— FLAMING FLAMENCO. T
furious virtuoso guitar of Manilas de Plata in Tierra And
luza, Sol de mi Terra, Espana mia, 4 more. Rechanneled f
Stereo. Puti. at $4.98. Only l.i '
R2630. Handel's MESSIAH (COMPLETE). Parts 1, 2 i
complete with Soloists and the London Philharmonic Orclii
tra, Frederick Jackson cond. Stereo. 4 Discs, Only 5.1
R2490. HAIR— The Tribal Love Rock Musical. Music a -
songs from Hair: Aquarius, Let The Sunshine In, I Got Lil ■
Where Do I Go? 5 more. Stereo. Only 1.:
R2445. Prokofiev: SEMYON KOTKO. Only available recor
ing. the complete work with soloists Gryes. Gelovani Trovi
ski, others, USSR State Radio Orch. Zhukov cond; an S
import. Mono. Pub. at $19.92. 4 Discs, Special Import 3.!
R2438. VAN CLIBURN conducts Vaughan Williams: SERi"
NADE TO MUSIC. Vaughan Williams' celebrated Serena
with Soloists. Interloclien Festival Cho 4 Orch, Van Clibii
cond; ALSO Deems Taylor's THROUGH THE LOOKI.'> -
GL.\SS. Stereo. Pub. at $5.98. Orilv 2.''-
R2435. John Gielgud & Irene Worth: A PROGRAM t,
EDITH SITWELL POEMS. 16 poems by Dame Edith Sitwi
read by Sir John Gielgud & Irene Worth; incl. 8 poems frc
"Facade," Colonel Fantock, The (Jueen Bee Sighed. St
Falls The Rain, more. Mono. Pub, at $5.98. Only 2.' ',
R2474. DINING-IN-MIl
SIC: 3 Record Set. Cil
ated for quiet listenirl
selected to enchant hi
not intrude — lush strirJ
and full orchestra in 3
SONGS: As Time Gol
By, Because You're
Laura, That's Old Feelt
ing. Always, many mor i
Stereo. A $14.37 Valu 3
3 Discs. Only 3.8.
R922. Mozart: ABDUCTION FROM THE SERAGLIO. Rothei f,
berger, Popp. Gedda, Unger, Frick ; Vienna Philharmoni |i
Josef Krips cond; "The best of all recordings of Mozart [^
iling Singspiel," Opera News. Stereo. 2 Discs. Only 3.S
R1973. MUSIC FOR FLUTE, GUITAR & MANDOLIN.
22 works: Paganini's Romanze tor Guitar, Sor's Russian k
Memories for 2 Guitars, Beethoven's Guitar Quintet &
4 Pieces for Mandolin and Hpchd, Vivaldi's Cto for 2
Mandolins and Strings 4 Cto tor Lute & Strings; Solo-
ists, Vienna Pro Musica & Vienna Mandolin 4 Guitar
Ensemble. Stereo. 5 Record Set, Only 9.88
R804. Bach: 6 BRANDENBURG CONCERTOS (Complete.
Schneidewind. Rampal, Pierlot, Hendel, Veyron-Lacroix. et a; ^
Saar Chamber Orch, Ristenpart cond. "Excellent rhythm' i'
textures, and balances . . . exceptional taste and stylist .
assurance of ornamentation . . . fine soloists," High Fidelit '
Stereo. 2 Record Set Complete. Only 4.9
R399. Tchaikovsky: EUGEN ONEGIN— Ist Stereo Recording
The ravishing melodies of Tchaikovsky in a superb, authent
performance by Popovich, Heybalova, Cvejic, Startz; Belgrat
Orera, Danon cond. Stereo. 3 Discs, Only 5.9 i
R180. Beethoven: COMPLETE STRING QUARTETS. The 1) n
quartets complete with Crosse Fugue and standard endini i
of Op. 130; full program notes; superb performance wit i
The Fine Arts Quartet. Stereo. 9 Discs, Special 10.9 i
R577. Bach: CHRISTMAS ORATORIO. Superb complete |
lierformanee wittl Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Agnes Giebel,
Hoffgen, Traxel; Leipzig Thomanerchor 4 Gewandhaiis
Oicli, Kurt Thomas cond. Stereo. 3 Discs, Only 5.94
R575. Massenet: MANON. The beautiful Lady of the
Camellias of Victoria de los Angeles, with Legay 4 t
Dens; Paris Opera-Comique Orch 4 Cho, Pierre Monteux ••
cond. Mono. 4 Discs. Only 7.92 ''
RS61. Berlioz: ROMEO AND JULIET. Bedioz' superbl
moving setting of Shakespeare's masterpiece: soloists Resnik
Tiirp 4 Ward, London Symphony Orch 4 Cho, Monteux 1
Stereo. 2 Discs. Only 4.9:
R576. Handel: MESSIAH. Soloists Elsie Morison, Mar- ]^
jorie Thomas, Richard Lewis, James Milligan: Royal
Liverpool Philharmonic 4 Huddersfield Choral Society.
Sir Malcolm Sargent cond. Stereo. 3 Discs, Only 5.94
R552. Mozart: EINE KLEINE NACHTMUSIK/SYMPHON^
NO. 40. Two of Mozart's most popular, memorable an
beautiful works. Vienna State Opera Orch, Sir Adrian Boiil
cond. Stereo. Only 2.4!
R563. Bach; ST. MATTHEW PASSION. With .\gnes Giebc)
Rennte Gunther. Helmut Krebs, Franz Kelcll 4 Herniani
Wedermanii, Heinrich Schutz Chorale of Heilbronn
Pforzheim Chamber Orch. Fritz Werner cond: text incl.
Stereo. 4 Discs, Only 9.9(
R5G2. Bach: ST. JOHN PASSION. Moving performance will
Phyllis Curtin. Eunice Alberts. Waldemar Kmentt. Frederic
Gutlirie. Vienna State Opera Cho 4 Orch. Scherchen cond.
Stereo. 3 Discs, Only 7.4;
35. Johann Strauss: THE GYPSY BARON (Der Zlgeuner-
n) . Brilliant, Inspired, ever-popular operetta combining
rolls Hungarian Gypsy music with Viennese waltz melo-
; Eberhard Wacllter, Rudolf Scliock, Erzebetli Hazy,
rs; Berlin Opera Cho & Orch, Robt Stolz cond.
|eo. 2 Discs, Only 3.88
I 2608. BACH: COMPLETE MUSIC FOR SOLO HARPSI-
HORD. VOLS. 1 & II. ALL of Bach's music for solo
irpsichord, with complete program notes; Martin Gal-
ig, harpsichord. Stereo.
fub. at $59.70. 18 Discs, Only 19.95
03. Hoist: CHORAL FANTASIA & PSALM g6/Flnzl:
'. S NATALIS. Three very fine contemporary English vocal
is; soloists Janet Baker, Wilfred Brown; Ralph Downs,
n; The English Chamber Onch, I. Hoist & C. Finzi
1. Stereo. Only 1.98
2604. MOZART: THE COMPLETE PIANO SONATAS.
; he inimitable piano artistry of prize-winning pianist
Salter Klein playing .Mozart's 16 Piano Sonatas plus
le Rondo K.494 and Fantasy K.475. Stereo.
;ub. at $19.90. 6 Discs, Only 10.88
'lOO. WOODY GUTHRIE. America's most beloved balladeer
12 songs: Pretty Boy Floyd, John Henry, Hard Ain't It
d, Hey Lolly Lolly, More Pretty Girls Than One, more.
hanneled for Stereo. Only 1.98
i:2603. BACH: THE COMPLETE ORGAN WORKS. All
f Bach's works for organ: Toccatas, Passacaglias,
ugues, Concerti, Partitas, Chorales, Organ Mass, Little
Irgan Book, more; comp. program notes; Walter Kraft,
rganist on organs of Bach's time. Stereo.
■lib. at $59.70. 18 Discs, Only 19.95
299. CARLOS MONTOYA. Montoya's incredibly brilliant,
r original flamenco guitar: Farruca, Variaciones Por Rosa,
jfla, Soleares. Malaguena, Granadinas, more. Rechanneled
Stereo. Only 1.98
R531. Louis Moreau
Gottschalk: FORTY
WORKS FOR PIANO
(CENTENNIAL ALBUM).
rk Rei
rdlngl
.Most pieces previously
unrecorded; incl. Grand
Scherzo, Jota Aragonesa,
Impromptu, Ossian (2
Ballades), Marche De
.Nuit, Chant Du Soldat,
35 more: Alan Mandel,
I)ianist. Stereo.
Pub. at $23.25.
4 Dis
Only 12.95
428. THE AMAZING NINA SIMONE. The very special
z iif siiigtr -pianist-arranger Nina Slmone: Children Go
lerr I .Send You, stompin' At The Savoy, Willow Weep For
, Solitaire, 8 more. Mono. Pub, at $4.98. Special 1.98
R1853. Mozart: THE COMPLETE WIND CONCERTI.
10 works: Clarinet Concerto, Bassoon Concerto, The 4
French Horn Concerti; 2 Flute Concerti, Flute and Harp
^ncerto K.299; and Sinfonia Concertante K.297h; West-
ohalia, Wurttemberg Chamber & Vienna Volksoper Or-
jhestras; Reichert, Faerber & Bauer-Theussl cond.
Stereo. 4 Record Set Complete. Only 6.98
48. KrIps' COMPLETE BEETHOVEN SYMPHONIES. Now,
anged in sequence for automatic record changers, the
nous London Festival definitive performances; corap. notes
Pictorial History of Beethoven's life. Orig. in different
matat $40.00. Stereo. 7 Discs. Only 9.95
;31. Munch conducts BEETHOVEN OVERTURES. Moving
■formances of the Leonore Overtures 1, 2 & 3, Fidelio Over-
'e, Coriolan Overture, & Creatures of Prometheus Overture;
ston Symphony, Charles Munch cond. Stereo. Only 2.49
30. LILY PONS CONCERT. The Met's famed coloratura
12 arias from: Lucia (Mad Scene), Lakme (Bell Song),
Soletto (Caro nome & Tutte la feste al tempio). Seraglio,
norah, Mignon, Coq d'Or, others by Handel, Pergolesi &
Btry. Only in Mono. Only 2.49
i87. Stereo Premiere: MASSENET'S WERTHER. Gorgeous
issenet masterpiece with the glorious voices of Victoria de
I Angeles, Nicolai Gedda, Mesple, Soyer & Benoit; French
dio Children's Cho & Orchestre de Paris, Pretre cond.
ereo. Pub. at $17.95. 3 Discs, Only 13.88
i66. Mozart: DON GIOVANNI. Incomparable, truly incom-
rable performance with Schwarzkopf, Sutherland, Wachter,
ick Taddei; Philharmonia Orch & Cho, Giulini cond. Stereo.
lb. at $23.95. 4 Discs, Only 17.39
188. Callas In Bellini's NORMA. Maria Callas' first Norma
rording, a stupendous vocal tour de force by a marvelous
iging-actress; with Ebe Stignani, Mario Filippeschi &
cola Rossi-Lemenl; La Scala Cho & Orch. Tullio Serafin
nd. Only in Mono. 3 Discs, Only 5.94
R559. Vivaldi: SONATAS FOR CELLO & HARPSICHORD
(COMPLETE). 6 Sonatas, some of the world's most
exquisite chamber music in superb performance by Paul
Torteller, cello, & Robt Veyron-Lacroix, hpchd.
Stereo. Only 2.49
>48. Liszt: HUNGARIAN RHAPSODIES NOS. 1, 4, 5/
ITTLE OF THE HUNS. 3 impular rhapsodies for orchestra
us the famous symiihuiiic poem ; Viiiina State Opera Orcli,
herclien cond. Stereo. Only 2.49
J49. Liszt. HUNGARIAN RHAPSODIES NOS. 2, 3, 6/
AZEPPA. Liszt's dramatically orctiestratcd rhapsodies plus
e famed symphonic poem; Vienna State Opera Orch, Scller-
en cond. Stereo. Only 2.49
R560. Mahler: SYMPHONY NO. 2 "RESURRECTION."
Mahler's "resurrection of the human spirit" symphony:
Coertse & West, soloists, Vienna State Opera Orch & Cho,
Scherchen cond. Stereo. 2 Discs, Only 4.98
527. Budapest String Quartet: COMPLETE BEETHOVEN
fRING OUARTETS, VOL. 1. The Six Quartets, Opus 18
a touchstone performance by The Budapest String Quartet;
Virtually every note is impeccable" — Time. Released in
ono only. 3 Discs, Only 7.47
555. Bach: SUITES FOR ORCHESTRA 1 & 2. Magnificent
chestral works, suites of galanteries, courantes, gavottes,
rlanes, minuets, liourees, sarabandes, polonaises. In the
rench style; Vienna Stale Opera Orch, Scherchen cond.
lereo. Only 2.49
556. Bach: SUITES FOR ORCHESTRA 3 & 4. Bacli's su-
:rb French Ouvertures, dance suites par excellence; Vienna
late Opera Orch, Sclierchen cond. Stereo. Only 2.49
R2425. Grig. Soundtrack: BORN FREE. The beautiful music
from Carl Foreman's famous "Born Free" film starring
Virginia McKenna & Bill Travers, with Born Free vocal sung
by Matt Monro; Mono. Pub. at $4.79. Special 1.98
R2424. ERROLL GARNER— DREAMSTREET. Erroll Garner,
with bass & percussion: Just One Of Those Things, Come
Rain Or Come Shine, Lady Is A Tramp, title song. When
Voure Smiling. 5 more. Mono. Pub, at $4.79. Special 1.98
R2336. TREASURY OF GREGORIAN CHANTS: 4 Disc
Set. 61 Gregorian Chants appropriate to various Feasts
and Services of the year sung by Trappist Monks' Choir
of Cistercian Abbey, Benedictine Monks of En Calcat,
Benedictine Nuns' Choir, & Benedictine Monks of St.
Wandrille de Fontenelle Monastery. Rechanneled for
Stereo. Pub. at $19.92. Special 7.88
R222S. THE WORLD'S GREATEST MUSIC, Vol 3: 10 Disc
Set. 19 complete works with the eminent artist Oistrakh,
Richter, Gilels, Kompe, Ancerl, Barshai, more: incl. Smetana's
The Moldau, Sarka : Mendelssohn's Scotch Sym ; Tchaikov-
sky's 4th Sym, Bach's Piano Cto #1, Violin Cto «1: Beetho-
ven's 5lh Sym, Piano Cto #1; much more. Mono.
Made to sell at $49.50. 10 Discs, Special Package 5.95
R2175. Mahler: SYMPHONY NO. 5. Mahler's monumental
5lh symphony, opulently romantic, thematically prodigal,
dramatically 'moving; superb performance by The London
Symphony, Rudolf Scliwarz cond. Stereo.
Pub. al $9.96. 2-Disc Set, Special 3.88
R590. Dietrich— THE MAGIC OF MARLENE. Wonderful
evening with the incredible Dietrich — 34 SONGS incl. the
famed I'm Naughty Little Lola, Falling In Love Again, Lili
Marlene, Little Drummer Boy, When The Soldiers, In the
Barracks, Lieber Leierkastenmann, Unter'n Linden, more.
Stereo. 3 Discs, Only 12.98
R5S8. THE CHOPIN NOCTURNES. The complete Nocturnes,
among the most genuinely moving of all Chopin's works —
incredibly brilliant performance by Alexis Weissenberg. Stereo.
Pub. at $11.95. 2 Discs, Only 9.56
R564. Richard Strauss' DER ROSENKAVALIER. Ne plus ultra
rierformance with Schwarzkopf, Ludwig, Edelmann; The Phil-
harmonia Orch & Cho, Herliert von Karajan cond. Stereo.
Pub, at $23.95. 4 Discs, Only 17.39
R526. Three Discs: WALTER GlESEKING PLAYS DE-
BUSSY. The legendary pianist's monumental Debussy
series: Preludes, Books 1 & II, Children's Corner Suite i
Suite Bergamasque — classic performances long considered
the ne plus ultra of Debussy interiiretation. Released in
Mono only. 3 Discs, Only 7.47
R513. SIX LEGENDARY PIANISTS. Walter Gieseking (Mo-
zart Fantasy K.475 & Sonata #14), Edwin Fischer (Bach
Cliromalic Fantasia & Fugue, BWV903. Prelude & Fugue,
BWV850, 2 works by Handel), Dame Myra Hess (Beethoven
Sonata #30), Artur Schnabel (Schubert Moments Musicaux),
Solomon (Schumann Carnaval), Alfred Cortot (Chopin Piano
Sonata #2 "Funeral March"). Mono. 3 Discs, Only 5.94
R522. Albanese/BJoerllng: PUCCINI'S MANON LES-
CAUT. Glorious legendary performance, long a highly
sought collector's item, with Licia Albanese, Jussi
Bjoerling & Robert Merrill, each at the lop of their
form; Rome Opera Orch, Perlea cond. Only in Mono.
3 Discs, Only 4.98
R512. SIX CHAMBER MUSIC MASTERPIECES. Mozart Piano
Quartet K478 (Schnabel, Pro Arte Quartet), Beethoven Vio-
lin Sonata #9 "Kreutzer" (Kreisler & Franz Rupp), Men-
delssohn Piano Trio. Op. 49 #1 (Thihaud, Casals, Cortot),
Brahms Horn Trio, Op. 40 (Aubrey Brain, Busch, Serkin),
Faure Piano Quartet #2 (Thihaud, Vieux, Fournier, Long).
Debussy Cello Sonata in D Minor (Marechal & Robt Casade-
sus). Mono. 3 Discs, Only 5.94
R323. COLLECTED PIANO MUSIC OF CHOPIN. 169
complete selections, all the Waltzes, Preludes, Nocturnes,
Etudes, Polonaises, Mazurkas, Scherzi, Ballades & Im-
promptus; performed by Guiomar Novaes, Waller Klien,
Peter Frankl, others: gift boxed. Stereo.
Orig. $57.48. 12 Record Set. Only 14.95
R235. Strauss: ALSO SPRACH ZARATHUSTRA. The complete
.Nietzsche-based symphonic poem — includes ttieme music
featured in 2001 A SPACE ODYSSEY; Vienna Philharmonic
Herbert von Karajan cond. Stereo. Only 1.98
R181. Beethoven: THE COMPLETE PIANO MUSIC. AH 5
Piano Clos, all 32 Piano Sonatas, all Rondos, Variations, etc;
every piano work of Beethoven masterfully performed by
Alfred Brendel; Orch's cond. by Zubin, Mehla, el al; comp.
program notes plus piano music analysis by Romain Roland.
Stereo. 21 Discs, Special 22.95
R2112. Fritz Wunderlleh: SONGS FROM VIENNESE OP-
ERETTAS. Fritz Wunderlleh & Friederike Sailer in 8 songs
and duets from the brightest, merriest of Vienna's operettas,
works by Johann Strauss, Lehar, Von Suppe, others; Stutt-
gart Philharmonic. Mareczck cond. Stereo. Only 1.49
R2044. Rimsky-Korsakov: SCHEHERAZADE. Exotic Arabian
.Nights .symphonic suite; Bolshoi Theatre Orch, Alexei Melik-
Pashayev cond. Mono. Pub. at $4.98. Special 1.00
R637. New Release: Weber's DER FREISCHUTZ. Powerful,
memorable performance with Birgit Nilsson, Nicolai Gedda,
Walter Berry; Munich Opera, Robert Hcger cond. Stereo.
I'uh. at $17. H5. 3 Discs, Only 13.88
R433, Brilioz: HEQUIEM. Tire fuU, tragic beauty of the
llnl.i I: I I iiperbly performed & recorded in La
rli:ii Hi .1 des Invalides, scene of its premiere;
.l.jii ',1 , . iinr, RTF Chorus, Nat. Opera Oreh,
Hernia iin .Sclierchen cond. Stereo. 2 Discs. Only 4.98
R632. Vivaldi: 4 CONCERTOS FOR 2 ORCHESTRAS.
Unique Baroque stereo concert: Clos in C & D, P. 14 &
164 for the Feast of the Assumption, Cto in B Klal,
P.3I>8 with Scordatura Violin & Cto in A, P22i; wilh
Flute Obbligato: Soloists of Brussels & Soloists of Jlllaii,
lipliiikian cond. Stereo. Only 1.98
R629. Mozart: LUCIO SILLA. Only Available Recording of
this superb early opera with soloists Fiorenza Cossolto, Rena
Gary Falachi, Dora Galla, Ferrando Ferrari, Luigi Pontiggia,
others; Milan Polyphonic Chorus & Angelicum Chamber Orcli,
Carlo Felice Cillario cond. Stereo. 3 Discs. Only 7.47
R640. New Release: Beethoven's CREATURES OF PRO-
METHEUS (Complete). Ballet masterpiece wilh the Menuhin
Festival Orcli. .Menuliiu cond. Stereo.
Pub. al $,'5.95. Only 4.69
R639. New Release: Barenboim & Boulez In BARTOK'S
PIANO CONCERTOS 1 i 3. Thrilling performances with
Daniel Barenboim; New Pliilharmonia Orcli, Pierre Boulez
cond. Stereo. Pub. al $6.95. Only 4.69
R638. TRIBUTE TO GERALD MOORE. Gerald Moore at
the piano witti Victoria de los Angeles, Fischer-Dieskau, Janet
Baker, Schwarzkopf. Gedda, plus works with Veliudi Jlenuhiu.
Jacqueline Du Pre, Leon Goossens, Barenboim & de Peyer.
Stereo. Only 4.69
BEETHOVEN BICENTENARY
R636. Daniel Barenboim's BEETHOVEN: THE 32 PIANO
SONATAS. Widely acclaimed Beethoven interpreter Daniel
Barenboim's brilliant cycle of the complete Bectlioven
Piano Sonatas. An $83.30 Value.
Deluxe 14-Disc Package, Only 49.88
R635. Rostropovich/Dvorak: CONCERTO FOR CELLO &
ORCHESTRA. Incomparable performance witli Mstislav Bos-
Iropovich, Royal Philharmonic Orch, Sir Adrian Boult cond.
Stereo. Only 1.98
R634. V BY VIVALDI. Grand Prix du Disque recording of 5
superb Clos for solo instruments & Orch: Clos for 4 Violins.
Soprano Recorder, Two Trumpets, Mandolin, & 2 Mandolins;
Toulouse Chamber Orch, Auriacombe cond. Stereo. Only 1.98
R584. FRANCO CORELLI: Portrait of the Artist. Today's
"prince of tenors" in 33 arias & songs from Aida, Trovatore,
Gioconda, Manon Lescaut, Tosca, Turandot, Cavalleria,
Andrea Chenicr, Puritani, Xerxes, Adriana Lecouvreur, more.
Stereo. 3 Discs, Only 9.38
R583. ELISABETH SCHWARZKOPF: Portrait of the Artist.
Tlie noble, formidable, radiant Schwarzkopf in 28 arias,
scenes & songs: Rosenkavalier Finale, He Shall Feed His
Flock (Messiah), Schubert Erlkonig, Porgi amor & Dove sono
(Marriage of Figaro), arias from Freischuiz, Olello, Boheme.
7 operetta arias, more. Stereo. 3 Discs, Only 9.38
R545. Gustav Hoist: THE PLANETS. Powerful symplionic
suite portraying the astrological "personalities" of the
planets; Vienna State Opera Orch, Sir Adrian Boult cond
Stereo. Only 2.49
R223 THE CLASSICAL GUITAR OF JULIAN BREAM: 3
Record Set. liiid, rii.M «■. S.ir ide i Bouree, 0 more;
Falla- Tomlnaii He I'lauili' li.-lius^j ; Torroba : Nocturno 4;
Burgaicsa 2 more; Sor; i.argo, Kuiiiio Allegretto & Minuetto,
4 more- v'illa-Lobos' 5 Preludes; Turina; Hnmmage A Tarrega,
3 more. Rechanneled tor Stereo. 3 Disc Set, Special 6.88
R2D2. Wagner: PARSIFAL. Never-to-be-forgotten all-star
cast- Wolfgang Windgassen, Martha Modi, George London,
Ludwig Weber; an unsurpassed interpretation with conductor
Hans Knappertabusch & The Bayreuth ^Festival Orcli.
Mono.
5-Disc Set, Only 9.88
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and preserve a beautiful, mighty,
endangered and fascinating river."
— Nelson Bryant, N.Y. Times.
With 16 pages of illustrations and
an endpaper map. $6.95
AT ALL BOOKSTORES
^ NORTON
W. W. NORTON & COMPANY, INC.
55 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10003
Suggested
Additional Reading
BANANAS IN VERMONT
Science and Survival. B. Commoner.
The Viking Press, Inc., New York,
1967.
Moment in the Sun. R. and L. T.
Rienow. Ballantine Books, Inc., New
York, 1967.
The Frail Ocean. W. Marx. Ballan-
tine Books, Inc., New York, 1967.
Conservation Equals Survival. W.
Stegner. American Heritage, Vol.
XXI, No. 1, December, 1969.
PRINCE ALBERT'S WAY
OF CATCHING SQUID
Founders of Oceanography and
Their Work. W. A. Herdman. Long-
mans, Green Company, New York,
1923.
The Whale. Simon and Schuster, Inc.,
New York, 1968.
FROM SNOWFLAKE
TO AVALANCHE
The Avalanche Enigma. C. Fraser.
Rand McNally & Co., Chicago, 1966.
Snow Avalanches. USDA Handbook
No. 194, Government Printing Of-
fice, Washington, 1961.
The Avalanche Hunters. M. M.
Atwater. Macrae Smith Co., Phila-
delphia, 1968.
CANNIBALISTIC REVENGE
IN JALE WARFARE
War: Studies from Psychology,
Sociology, Anthropology. L.
Bramson and G. W. Goethals, eds.
Basic Books, Inc., New York, 1968.
War: The Anthropology of Armed
Conflict and Aggression. M. Fried,
M. Harris, R. Murphy, eds. Natural
History Press, New York, 1968.
Man and Aggression. M. A. Montagu,
ed. Oxford University Press, Inc.,
New York, 1968.
THE EGG MACHINE
Foundations of Experimental Em
bryology. B. H. Willier and J. M
Oppenheimer. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Englewood Chffs, 1964.
Fertilization. C. B. Metz and A
Monroy. Academic Press, New York,
1967.
Chemistry and Physiology of Fer
tilization. a. Monroy. Holt, Rine
hart & Winston, Inc., New York
1965.
EVOLUTION OF SLEEP
Sleep. G. Luce and J. Segal. Coward-
McCann, Inc., New York, 1966.
Studies of the Psychology and Be-
haviour of Captive Animals in
Zoos and Circuses. H. Hediger. 8
vols. Butterworths Scientific Publi-
cations, London, 1955.
Toward an Evolutionary Theory of
Dreaming. F. Snyder. American
Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 123, pp.
121-136, 1966.
]\[atural History
binders
Made especially for
Natural History, this sturdy binder
contains 10 removable blades to
hold an entire year's subscription,
and is bound in maroon leatherette
with gold lettering.
$3-75 postpaid (including member's dis-
count) Please add local taxes where applic-
able. Please send your check or money order
YOU LIVE in the
SPACE AGE...
YOU SHOULD KNOW
MORE ABOUT IT!
A rewarding and fascinating
adventure for adults, young
people, the family
Introductory and advanced
day and evening courses in
ASTRONOMY and NAVIGATION
Call or write
The American Museum—
HAYDEN PLANETARIUM
NEW YORK, N. Y. 10024
8Ist street and CENTRAL PARK WEST
Tel.: Tr 3-1300; Ext. 206
82
KEEP PACE WITH SPACE AGE! SEE MOON SHOTS-LANDINGS, SPACE FLIGHTS, CLOSE-UP!.
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normally cost 5274 50 Ttr -^ ^ ^ ^
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"Balls of fun" for kids,
traffic stoppers for stores,
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Do a crystallography project
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Explore the fascinating pre-
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>« %^^^ <^mr Incl.: Giant Brontosaurus.
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motors, anchors, other metal
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Stock No 70 572E 7"2 lbs $18.75 Ppd
Stock No 85 152E \5^a lbs $33.60 FOB
3 Astronomical Telescope
See the stars, moon, phases
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60 lo 180 power. Aluminizcd
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$231). 50 FOB
full color
slides
idly show Apollo II jo
in amazing detail from
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shots in between include
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landscape. Armstrong de-
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man's footprint in virgin soil, classic "portrait-within-a-
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MAIL COUPON FOR GIANT FREE CATALOG
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This picture is^impossible". Can you tell why?
Raindrops on a window, inches from the camera. A girl on a beach, a hundred
feet away Both exquisitely sharp, which gives the picture its special quality
But, how to do it without special equipment?
In theory you'd first shoot the beach scene, focusing on the girl. Moments
later, after rewinding the film one frame, you'd focus on the rain spattered window
and make a second exposure. Quite simple, really Except that it's impossible
with most cameras because their lenses can't provide the tremendous focusing
range required.
With the Nikkormat FTN it was as simple as it sounds. This 35mm single
lens reflex is made by Nikon and accepts the same interchangeable lenses as
the famous Nikon F, It was used here with the 55mm Micro Auto-Nikkor f3,5,
an unusual lens that can be focused for any distance from 2.3 inches all the
way to infinity. [Imagine being able to use the same lens for life-size closeups
of flowers or insects as well as for portraits, kids, parties and the like!]
This is only one example of the uncommon — even '"impossible"- pictures
the Nikkormat FTN brings within your reach. Yet, for all its capabilities, it is
remarkably uncomplicated. Its unique thru-the-lens meter system, for instance,
gives you correct exposure instantly for unusual pictures like this. And it's yours
forunder$270, including 50mm Auto-Nikkorf2 lens See your Nikon/Nikkormat
dealer. Or write for details. ^^j^P»^ ,*.
Nikon Inc. Garden City, N.Y. 11530. Subsidiary of — ^. "
Ehrenreich Photo-Optical Industries, Inc. -**
[In Canda: Anglophoto Ltd., P.O.)
Nikkormat FTn by Nikon
V.
^
\
^
V
NATURAL HISTORY
MARCH 1970 • $1.00
/N>
The flower with 400
/personalities.
There's a Protea no more than one inch high, and there's a
Protea tall as a tree.
In between, there are 400-odd species of Proteaceae.
So it's no wonder that the Protea is South Africa's national
fiower. (Named after Proteus, who could change into any shape
at will.)
You'll want to see them all.
For instance, there's the Giant, or King Protea, which meas-
ures 12 inches across.
And the yellow and pink Pincushion Proteas.
Ivory-and-pink Blushing Bride Proteas.
And woolly-bearded Proteas, with silky black hairs.
While you're looking, watch for the long-tailed Sugar Birds
that hide in theprotea bushes, plunging their beaks into theblooms.
The Proteaceae are one example of South Africa's floral
abundance. The western corner of the Cape province has legions
of flowers found nowhere else in the world.
In the 180 square miles of the Cape Peninsula alone, there are
more than 2,600 kinds of flowering plants.
South Africa's flora and fauna are protected in over 100 game
and nature reserves, including immense tracts of land devoted to
animal life, bird sanctuaries, and flower reserves.
The National Botanic Gardens at Kirstenbosch, devoted en-
tirely to the indigenous flowers of South Africa, rank as one of the
great botanical gardens of the world.
The fastest, easiest way there is by South African Airways. A
Boeing Stratojet whisks you there by the most direct route from
New York in a relaxed, friendly atmosphere. If you want to go
by way of Eiirope, we have daily departures from 10 European
)'\ // / ■ Gateways.
For more information, see your
// ,/ . travel agent or South African Airways,
605 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017.
^
SOUTH AFRICAN AIRWAYS
Come with US.
A litUe off the beaten track.
NATURAL HISTORY
OL. LXXIX, No. 3
INCORPORATING NATURE MAGAZINE
MARCH 1970
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
10 GREEN MOUNTAINS, GREEN MONEY Richard M. Klein
New state controls will hopefully save Vermont from the disaster of
unbridled land development and speculation.
28 THE DAY THE SEA RAN OUT OF FLOUNDER Stephen W. Hitchcock
Shifts in perspective and changes in tone recall the story of the
living and dying salt marsh.
32 ECHOLOCATION IN BATS
Photographs by Nina Leen, Text by Alvin Novick
Varying with the physiology and behavior of each species, a sophisticated
sonar system gives the bat an acoustic grasp of his surroundings.
42 MAKONDE SCULPTURE Megchelina Shore-Bos
By charging old symbols with new meaning, these African sculptors have
retained their artistic heritage in the face of social flux.
50 WILD RICING Richard H. Hofstrand
Harvesting this tvild grain remains a laborious process little changed since
early Indian days.
56 THE BATON OF MONTGAUDIER Alexander Marshack
The artistic efforts of Ice Age man may reveal more about his abilities
and culture than his tools have.
64 THE GULLS OF WALNEY ISLAND
Barbara R. and Michael H. MacRoberts
As man adds to, and subtracts from, this island environment, the vast numbers
of resident gulls multiply into overpopulation.
cover: Two Arizona nectar-feeding bats hover above a century plant.
4 THE AUTHORS
70 SKY REPORTER John P. Wiley, Jr.
71 CELESTIAL EVENTS Thomas D. Nicholson
80 BOOKS IN REVIEW Jerome Lettvin
86 SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING
The American Museum of Natural History
Gardner D. Stout, President Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Natural History
Alfred Meyer, Editor Robert E. Williamson, Managing Editor
William Gilman, Jack Hope, Senior Editors Thomas Page, Art Editor
Avis Knifjin, John P. Wiley, Jr., Associate Editors Florence G. Edelslein, Copy Editor
Toni Gerber, Asst. Copy Editor Carol Breslin, Reviews Editor
Diantha C. Thorpe, Information Services William Suderman, Production
Ernestine Weindorf, Karen Manulis, Caroline Doerfiinger, Staff Assistants
Editorial Advisers: Gerard Piel, Dean Amadon, Franklyn M. Branley, Vincent Manson,
Margaret Mead, Thomas D. Nicholson, James A. Oliver, Ethel Tobach
Harvey Oshinsky, Advertising Director Harry F. Decker, Walter E. Mercer,
Gordon Finley, Sales Dinah Lowell, Traffic, Eileen O'Keefe, Asst.
Ann Usher, Promotion Director, Maureen Fitzgerald, Asst.
Joseph Saulina, Circulation Manager
Publlcalion Office: The American Museum af i\alural History. Central Park Vest at 79th Street, New York. N.Y.
10024. Published monthly, October through May; bimonthly June to September, Subscription: $7.00 a year.
In Canada and all other countries: $7.50 a year. Single copies $1.00. Second-class postage paid at New York, N.Y.,
and at additional offices. Copyright © 1970 by The .American Museum of Natural History. No part of this
periodical may be reproduced without the written consent of Natural History. Manuscripts and illustrations
submitted to the editorial office will be handled with care, but we cannot assume responsibility for their safety.
Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of The American Museum.
Natural History incorporating Naturr Magazine is indexed in Rcail.r'R Guide to Periodical Lilorature.
You are looking at more than five million
square feet of Butyl rubber. Rubber made from
oil by Enjay Chemical Company, a Jersey affiliate.
When Jersey's scientists invented Butyl
rubber more than thirty years ago, they never
dreamed their invention would be used to line
a reservoir. But already several hundred reser-
voirs have been lined this way. This one hap-
pens to be the biggest in the world.
You'll find it on the Hawaiian island of
The rubb:
Molokai, where they have a water proble
rains in the mountains. But, down wher
pineapples grow, it doesn't rain enough. Scl
have to pipe the rain from the mountain;
store it. Hence this mighty hole.
To give you some idea of scale, the
covered by the nylon -reinforced Butyl (
hold a hundred football fields.
Mr. David Wisdom, president of Wis
Rubber Industries, the company that line
servoir.
'oir, said that Butyl rubber was chosen by
ite of Hawaii for good reasons. Compared
oncrete it is inexpensive. Roughly a tenth
iSt.Yet, as a water barrier, there's nothing
it it.
nstallation is remarkably speedy. Seventy
ivs were trained in two weeks. They then
the entire reservoir in seventy -four days.
Butyl is as tough as blazes. So tough that
Visdom has guaranteed his reservoir
against deterioration for twenty years.
The effect of the reservoir on Molokai's
economy will be considerable. It will irrigate
some 18,000 acres of land, most of which will
grow pineapples. But there is also a truck farm-
ing experiment in the area that may well turn
Molokai into the breadbasket of the state.
Our scientists are proud that one of their
inventions is being put to such good use.
Standard Oil Company
(New Jersey)
EAEbE
EYE
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dimension to the
wonder of wildlife
watching with Swift
SPORTSTAR
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razor-sharp definition make this
fine 7X,35 glass the all 'round
favorite in the field. Sportstar
delivers a sweeping panorama 420
feet wide with remarkable clarity.
Boasting a relative light efficiency
of 37.5, close focus to 13 ft., and
an ultra-precise optical system,
Sportstar weighs a mere 27.1 oz.
Amber low reflection coating
Increases light transmission. U.V.
coating gives squint-free viewing.
With retractable eyecups for easy
eyeglass viewing. Built in tripod
adapter. Comes complete with neck
straps and rugged carrying case.
Gift boxed.
See Sportstar and all the other models
of the Exclusive Swift Pattern Binocular
family. Visit your Swift Dealer today, or
write for free literature and name of
nearest dealer.
SWIFT
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Boston San Jose
Mass. 02125 Calif. 95106
THE AUTHORS
"Green Mountains, Green Money,"
a discussion of the problems and
pressures of land development in
Vermont, concludes Richard M.
Klein's two-part article, ""Bananas
in Vermont." Dr. Klein is professor
of botany at the University of Ver-
mont and. with his wife, also a plant
biologist, the author of Discovering
Plants. Dr. Klein emphasizes that he
is writing as an individual, not as a
representative of the university or of
the state of Vermont.
Stephen W. Hitchcock, our
'"Naturalist at Large" this month, is
an entomologist working for the
state of Connecticut. He received his
M.A. and Ph.D. in entomology from
the University of California at
Berkeley, and is currently involved
in a study of aquatic insects. The
author of several popular articles,
including one on the gypsy moth for
Audubon, Dr. Hitchcock has also
published more than thirty research
papers in biological journals. His
field work has included the tax-
onomy of stoneflies, side effects of
pesticides, biology and behavior of
aquatic insects, and biology and
life history of caterpillars.
Nina Leen is a staff photographer
for Life whose work includes more
than fifty covers for the magazine.
Her photographs of bats in this issue
of \atlr.al History are taken from
her latest book, The World of Bats,
with text by Ahin No™k. to be
published this spring by Holt. Rine-
hart and Winston. Although her
photographic topics are diverse— in-
cluding art, people, and history— she
has recently been concentrating
subjects relating to the natural woi
and science. Among her many d
tinctions, Mrs. Leen is the oi
^voman who has -won three pri
awards for color essays in the P
tures of the Year Competition; a)
the only person to photograph tl
reigning monarchs of all the roy
houses of Europe and the heads (
royal families in exile.
Alvin Novick is a physiologii
who has specialized in experiment;
work with bats. Associate professci
of biology at Yale University, D:
Xovick heads a bat laboratorv thei
and has done extensive work i
Africa, Ceylon, and in various Nee
tropical countries.
A native of the Netherlands, Meg
chelina Shore-Bos is a free-lane
researcher, artist, translator, and ai
historian. She has spent the last fou
!Fi
ree
to readers
with an abiding joy in the arts
^'"*i'C;!;
The story of a"monument
to mans visual imagination'
I
F YOUR PLEASURE in art is deep and wide-ranging, we invite
you to send for this handsome booklet.
It is illustrated with beautiful color plates representing man's
creative triumphs from many periods and cultures.
It is in fact a prospectus describing in detail the most ex-
traordinary publishing project of our time — the monumental
Encycfopedia of World Art in 1 5 volumes.
The prospectus is free. We hope the sampling will arouse
the same excitement in you that the Encyclopedia has aroused
in the entire art world. But you incur no obligation in request-
ing a copy. No salesman will call.
The Encyclopedia of Wor/d Art embraces man's greatest
achievements in the visual arts through the centuries. To turn
the pages of these prodigious volumes ... to read, to learn, to
explore their visual delights ... is a remarkable experience.
There are hundreds of absorbing factual articles, prepared
by the most eminent art authorities. In more than 7,000 su-
-SATURDAY REVIEW
perb full-page plates — measuring a full 9 inches by 12 inches
in size — you will view rare treasures of renowned museums and
private collections all over the world. Not only paintings,
sculpture and architecture— but every art from armor to tex-
tiles, ceramics to tapestry, fashions, furniture and landscape
gardening, ivory, jade and stained glass, jewelry and silver.
More than 16,000 works of art are shown, almost 2,000 of
them in magnificent color.
A convenient Reader's Guide shows you how related ar-
ticles can enrich your understanding of any art subject you
wish to pursue.
With your free color prospectus, you will learn how you
may examine Volume I at leisure in your home and, if you
wish, become a subscriber to the Encyclopedia on a conven-
ient budget plan. Mail the attached card or write:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Dept. AY-1 17,
5 JO West 42nd St., New York, N. Y. 10036
Encyclopeclia crfVv&rM^xtr
Whatever mail has created that is beautiful to look upon . . .ina 15-volume art library and "gallery" for the home
"An essential possession for anyone with a serious personal or professional
interest in art ... a work to be explored, studied and enjoyed."
Harry Einbinder, The Saturday Review
"A great landmark in art publications — a monumental undertaking."
Dorothy Adiow, Christian Science Monitor
"Packed with wonders." John Canaday, New York Times
"One of the most spectacular— and praiseworthy- achievements in the
field of literature and fine arts." Rex Barley, Los Angeles Mirror News
MAIL THE ATTACHED CARD
-i I
-r> «
Simply grab your Nikonos II and dive in.
No bulky housing to fuss with topside, or
impede your freedom of movement below.
This unique amphibious 35 by Nikon is
pressure-proofed to depths of 160 feet,
and defies saltwater corrosion. Simplified,
man-sized controls and a slight negative
buoyancy make it easier and faster to
handle under water than many other cam-
eras on land. And there are new features
to facilitate loading and unloading of film.
Nikonos lenses, too, are designed espe-
cially for underwater use. The 28mm UW-
Nikkor f3.5 lens, for example, makes full
use of water density to achieve optimum
underwater correction. The 35mm Nikkor
f2.5 can also be used for out-of-water
photography. Both are interchangeable.
Price of the Nikonos U is $195, with
35mm f2.5 lens. Accessories include under-
water flash and housed exposure meter.
At Nikon camera dealers and diving equip-
ment suppliers,or write: Nikon Inc. Garden
City, N.Y 11530. Subsidiary of Ehrenreich
Photo-Optical Industries, Inc. (In Canada:
Anglophoto Ltd., P.Q.)
NIKONOSn
byNikott
years in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda,
and Ethiopia doing field work on
East African art, particularly the
sculpture of the Makonde. The au-
thor of the forthcoming book The
Art of the Makonde, Mrs. Shore-Bos
plans to continue her studies in tra-
ditional and modern East African
art.
A free-lance photojournalist based
in New York City. Richard H. Hof-
strand grew up in the woodlands of
Minnesota where he first became in-
terested in the wild rice culture of
the area. Primarily interested in the
documentary picture story as a
method of communications, Mr. Hof-
strand has completed a picture essay
on wild rice, which will be pubHshed
in a book by Time-Life this summer.
A researcher at Harvard's Pea-
body Museum of Archaeology and
Ethnology, Alexander Marshack
has spent the last six years using
new microscopic techniques to re-
examine prehistoric Ice Age and
post-Ice Age art treasures of Europe.
In his book. The Roots of Civili\
lion, to be published this fall
McGraw-Hill, he will offer a reinte
pretation of man's first art, symbi
and notation. This research was co
ducted with funds from the Nation
Science Foundation and the Wenne
Gren Foundation.
"The Gulls of Walney Island"
primarily the result of Michai
H. MacRoberts's postdoctoral ri
search with Niko Tinbergen's Ani-
mal Behaviour Research Group in
Oxford. Barbara R. MacRoberts.
also a research officer with this group,
is particularly interested in sociality
and selection pressures in prima le
behavior and in behavioral adapta-
tion. She plans to do further re-
search on Walney gulls relating to
territorial behavior and population
growth. Anthropologists by training,
the MacRoberts have done field work
on the social organization of Bar-
bary apes in Gibraltar and research
on Walney gulls in Lancashire.
This summer re-live history
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sponsored by FOUR WINDS
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3 Private Train Tours PI South Pacific Cruises. DA-045 I
tananas in Vermont, Part II
Green 3MauntaiMBS^ Green 3€aney
Vermonters still have time— but not much— to save the beauty
it their environment from bulldozers
§y Richard iff. Kleiit
The state of Vermont and its peo-
ile have a very favorable image
hroughout the United States. Vi-
ions of frosty mornings and horses
julling sledges of maple sap to a
,teamy sugar house, the Long Trail
In the summer and ski trails in the
vinter, hillsides ablaze with autum-
lal colors, and residents with a
'■eputation for honest taciturnity,
rugality, and homespun hospitality
nake people beam when you say
,'ou are from Vermont. Surpris-
nglv, all this is true: Vermont is a
Reader s Digest ideal. Yet the state
.s caught in the grip of another part
Df the American ideal, the concept
jf rising material expectations, and
is wrestling with the question of
bow to pay for it.
One solution attempted over the
past few years has been to attract
new industry whose activities will
not destroy the land, the water, or
the people. This has been reason-
ably successful; today, industry
brings in more money than farm-
ing, and there are now more people
in the state than cows— a reversal of
the situation that prevailed not too
long ago. To continue to attract
clean. nonpoUuting industry, elec-
tric power is required, and the cur-
rent furor over the construction of
atomic energy generating plants in
Vermont is an ecological example
of the academic "on the one hand,
but then again, on the other. . . ."
It is likely that there will be a second
atomic energy plant built in the near
future, but it is still an open
question whether it will be rammed
down our throats by Vermont Yankee
Power and the Atomic Energy Com-
mission or be designed so as to truly
limit inherent environmental insults
and provide additional benefits to
the land and the people.
Utihzation of land in Vermont
presents about as many problems as
does power. A short growing sea-
son, shallow- soil, traditional rock-
iness of the fields, and abrupt transi-
tions in elevation all dictate that
much of the state is agriculturally
marginal. Large tracts in and near
the Green Mountains were held in
timber, culled to sugar maple, or
left alone with occasional selective
cutting of timber. Up to about the
end of World War II, land simply
wasn't worth much: it went for less
than S20 per acre. Land deeds are
so written that acreage is casually
given as so many acres '"more or
less" and a 10 percent variation, us-
ually greater than smaller, is ex-
pected. Because of depressed valu-
ation, land assessments and land
taxes brought in relatively little
money. Even today, Vermont's De-
partment of Forests and Parks owns
over 100,000 acres in the state and
in 1968 paid town taxes of about
S.31 per acre. In one town, Groton,
the state's holdings constitute more
than 20 percent of the tax listings.
These are fine recreational lands: if
they were taxed according to their
fair market value. Groton would be
wealthy— and the town knows it.
Four lumber companies— St.
Regis. Brown, Atlas Plywood, and
International Paper— own close to
800.000 acres of land in Vermont.
Under sustained-yield forest man-
agement, profit on an acre of tim-
berland is about S1.50 per year.
When land is assessed at its fair
market value, the taxes on such land
can easily be higher than the timber
income. Landowners and towns real-
ized that there is both immediate
and long-term money in developing
the land for recreation. With this
realization, some towns are raising
land ta.\es to force owners to sell
for development, and many towns
are under pressure to sell off their
municipal forests for both immediate
cash and long-term tax gains. The
land boom is definitely on.
Land development and land spec-
ulation are old hat in the United
States, and Vermont is no exception.
The state's founding fathers, Ethan
and Ira Allen, pushed their Onion
River Land Company between bouts
with the British. The first governor
of Vermont, Thomas Chittenden,
speculated in real estate while in
office. Small-scale developers came
and went for a hundred years or so
—their avarice or their honesty had
small effect on the over-all stability
of the environment.
Today's activities are, however, on
a scale several orders of magnitude
greater than anything ever seen be-
fore. The affluence of at least part of
the population, die decreased liva-
bihty of the eastern seaboard's
megalopolis, the extension of super-
highways and the cars that use them,
and the desire of many people to
breathe fresh air at least part
of the year— all these factors mesh
neatly with the situation in Ver-
mont where agricultural and for-
ested lands are economically unprof-
itable, and where the tewns and the
state are desperately searching for a
firmer, broader tax base to meet the
spiraling desire for government serv-
ices. It is no longer a question of
whether Vermont land will serve as
the environmental safety valve for
city people and as the economic sal-
vation of the towns, but rather of who
will provide the developmental serv-
ices and how will such development
be controlled.
Vermont is divided into fourteen
counties. Windham (bounty. m\ focus
of attention, includes tlie southeast-
ern part of the state with the Con-
necticut River forming its eastern
margin. Brattleboro. population
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The special 32-page report on mankind
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City_
12
_Zip_
13,000, is the only community of any
size, with small towns, villages, and
hamlets clotting the rest of the county.
The county is very lovely. It boasts
eight ski areas, including the re-
nowned Mount Snow-Carinthia-Hay-
stack complex and Stratton Moun-
tain. Thousands of well-heeled visi-
tors (a pair of skis can cost $200:
boots. S150) receive their first taste
of Vermont through skiing visits.
Green Mountain National Forest,
several reservoirs, excellent trout
streams, and a series of tranquilizing
vistas have stimulated the desire of
many people to own a piece of Wind-
ham County.
Local officials thought that they
were knowledgeable about summer
people. In 1968 there were 3.246 va-
cation homes (called "camps" bv real
Vermontersi in the county; Ver-
monters owned less than 20 percent
of these. People from Connecticut.
Massachusetts, and New York owned
the rest. About .8600,000 w as realized
from property taxes ; the average tax
bill per camp was less than .S200, and
none of the towns got rich on that.
Of course, purchases and services
brought in additional money. At the
end of 1968, there was greater ap-
preciation of summer residents since
they accounted for one-quarter of all
revenue. As of the fall of 1969, the
situation was very different: it can
best be evaluated by focusing on two
townships in Windham County.
Dover and Stratton. The situation in
these towns is atypical only because
things have moved faster here than
elsewhere in the state.
The town of Dover is just a few
miles from the Mount Snow-Carin-
thia-Haystack Mountain ski complex.
There are 23.000 acres in Dover
TowTiship w ith 2,000 acres tied up as
national forest. Four hundred people
are registered voters. Up to about
1955, Dover's economy was agri-
cultural with considerable lumbering,
but today only one farm is operative
and lumbering is minimal. In keep-
ing with its location, its facilities, and
its economic position, the annual
town expenditures and the decisions
involved in disbursing its funds were
not onerous for the town clerk and
three unpaid selectmen. The spectac-
ular success of the ski areas resulted
in additional revenue; ski patrons
and ski bums were in, but not of, the
town during the winter and generally
disappeared with the snow. There
were 300 summer residents as «
1968, and the possibility of an ii
creased number of camp owners i
colonies surrounding the ski are?
was viewed w ith interest. The Mom
Snow Development Corporatio
owned and planned to develop seven
moderately sized areas, and other si
companies were also considering th
prospect to provide year-round us
of their facilities.
With these possibilities in mine
the town had published a zoning or
dinance in January, 1967. to ensur
the orderly development of summe
homes. The minimum requirement;
for lot and house size, setback fron
roads, access, and so on were in keep
ing with tradition and commor
sense, but they were just that— mini
mal. Except for the general statemeni
that there should be no hazards tc
health and that the creation of un-
sanitary conditions was to be pre-
vented, health and safety regulations
were essentially lacking. Basically.
Dover does not have the manpower
or the expertise to regulate home de-
velopment, and the town finessed
with the hope that state standards and
controls w ould fill in the gaps.
Including the ski areas, there are
now over twenty developers in Dover
holding close to 7,000 acres. In 1966,
West Virginia Pulp and Paper Com-
pany sold 3.400 acres of timberland
to the Pineland Realty Company, and
this parcel was subsequently sold to
the Vermont Lumber Company.
Eugene Coleman, an active land
buyer, acquired Vermont Lumber
shortly thereafter and initiated the
development of Dover Hills. He sold
out quickly to the Cavanagh Leasing
Company of New York and Florida.
Cavanagh Leasing and Caveland
Equities are both directed by Mr.
Coleman: stock, which sold for $9
a share when first issued at the end
of 1966, was worth .§70 per share in
August, 1969.
Vermont Lumber essentially went
out of the lumber business in 1968
when they announced that they were
going to develop 550 acres of their
total acreage. If we ehminate land
already in homes and discount roads
and land that is too steep or otherwise
unsuitable, Vermont Lumber owns
one-sixth of the land area and con-
trols about one-half of the future of
Dover. Decisions affecting the future
of the town are out of the hands of
the people themselves.
We invite you
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^Actually, a conservative esti-
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700. HUEY LONG By T. Harry
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703. THE FLOWERING OF THE
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Crahame Clark. A fascinating out-
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371. CIVILWAR DICTIONARY By
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AMERICA ByAlvin M. Josephy. Jr.
The history, archeology, and
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13
In the spring of 1969 an attempt by
the townspeople to restrict building
height, control road frontage, and
regulate building permits was coun-
tered when urban developers
sw amped the tow n meeting w ith com-
pany lawyers, a company planning
consultant, and S600 in slick publica-
tions. The tidal wave of talk bv this
outside talent effectivelv packed the
meeting, and the local residents— who
are the only voters— didn't have a
chance. One tow nsman. Jack Veller.
has said that those who will deter-
mine the nature of the environment
have no sense of Vermont historv,
no love of land, and no permanent
interest because they ^vill never live
in Dover.
Of Vermont Lumber's six planned
developments, Dover Hills and Dover
Hills West are the biggest and are
being pushed the hardest. Although
lots of one to twelve acres are for
sale, the average lot size is just over
one acre and the average price is
between S5.000 and S6.000. Even at
these prices which, incidentally, have
greatlv inflated the base for tax as-
sessments at "fair market value,"
about three-quarters of the lots were
sold by August, 1969. Assuming that
just Vermont Lumber sells all of its
acreage, a town of 400 voters will in-
clude 3,000 additional homes. Camp
owneis cannot vote, but their impact
on the town and their just demands
for road clearing in winter, police
and fire protection, and administra-
tive services cannot fail to create
severe strains in this communitv.
Dover Hills is being marketed by
the hard sell. iVIy letter from their
marketing director. Paul Thibert,
w as accompanied by a slick brochure
with pictures of beautiful people
lounging before roaring fireplaces,
golfers, pretty girls on horseback,
trout streams, and uncrowded ski-
lift lines I probablv taken on a Mon-
day morning I . Dover Hills is "close
to convenient shopping, schools,
houses of worship, theaters, medical
facilities." It depends on what you
mean by convenient: furthermore,
the public schools of Dover just meet
the state standards for room volume
per pupil, and hospitals are 25 miles
awav in Bennington or Brattleboro.
Vermont Lumber is using telephone
contacts straight from the Connecti-
cut telephone directories: thev have
not had to extend their area of sales
pitch. \i a prospect is at all inter-
ested, the company sends a "sit-sales-
man" to the prospect's home to sit
down w ith the family, present a slide
show, and discuss the matter. If still
interested, the client I no longer a
prospect \ is invited up for an all-ex-
pense weekend where considerable
pressure is employed to get a 10 per-
cent refundable down payment.
Questions about ivho wears what
pants in which family, appeals to
sympathy for the salesman's chil-
dren, discussions of the value of land
as a hedge against inflation, and
downright rudeness limit the percen-
tage of returned down payments.
The company has gone to some ex-
pense to give the client a good show
for his weekend visit. Xew roads run
pleasanth through the development.
They have cleared the brush and
groomed the woods for about one
hundred feet back from the roads,
most effective for giving the impres-
sion of a mature forest. Sales pitches
are replete with promises of things
to come, including a 70-acre lake, a
golf course, stables, a village shop-
ping center, and ( affluent societv, in-
deed! I an airport. As of this writing,
none of these extras has materialized.
Their promotion speaks of "exclu-
sive Ellis Park," but this is a one-
acre site with a picnic table and a
children's section containing slides
and swings like those in manv back-
yards. Because of a weird loophole
in Vermont law . salesmen don't have
to be licensed by the state, or even
be residents, and their promises be-
yond the contract are as reliable as
snow in June. In an effort to allay the
town s concern over schools, one of
Vermont Lumber's officials indicated
that they would consider donating
land, but would assume no responsi-
bility beyond this. Fortunatelv. there
has been little cutting in Dover Hills,
and a restrictive covenant under
consideration may prohibit exten-
sive tree removal, as w ell as set broad
limits of house size, color, and area.
One model home, priced at about
823,000, is completed. It is carpeted,
but its imitation wood paneling is
apparently nailed to bare studs, for
the walls give with gentle finger
pressure. Few of the owners have
erected homes, but those that have
been built are unimaginative, out of
keeping with the land, or downright
ugly. They are mostly precut or mod-
ular units ranging in price from
approximately S12.000 up to about
$45,000 for the more ornate A
frames.
The major entrance road into hot!
Dover Hills and Dover Hills West
comes off the main road in the vil-
lage of Dover Hills West. It has a!
fairly steep grade and it might be
exciting to see some 8,000 people try-
ing to get in or out on a snow y week-
end; snowbound vehicles have al-
ready overtaxed road maintenance
crews. The local fire department is
composed of volunteers whose equip- 1
ment is adequate for present needs,
but the new homes and open woods
present a fire hazard I no hydrants, i
for example I that is likelv to be re-
flected in insurance rates. Vermont
Lumber has apparently given no
thought to rubbish disposal, even
though new state laws drasticallv
limit expansion of town dumps.
Although population pressures,
taxes, aesthetics, and other problems
exist in Dover Hills, the basic wor-
ries are w-ater and sewerage. Ver-
mont gets 35 to 40 inches of rain per
year, and a good share of this perco-
lates into the ground. With Dover
Hills' 550 houses, about 3,000 square
feet of land per housing unit will be
covered by houses and roads, effec-
tively sealing off about 1,650,000
square feet of land surface. Thus,
over 3,000 gallons of w ater per hous-
ing unit for each inch of rain will
have to be carried off instead of en-
tering the ground water supply:
erosion, silting, and minor flooding
can result. Dover Hills will not have
a consolidated water supplv: each
house must have its own well. This
may be fine for the man at the bot-
tom of the hill, but the man on the
top may find that his well will run
dry. The valley householder mav not
be too well off either, because runoff
from the top can flood his property-.
In a report to the governor's Com-
mission on Environmental Control,
my colleagues Hub Vogelmann. Jim
Marvin, and Max McCormack dis-
cussed the ecology of upper-elevation
land in Vermont, defined as areas
above 2.500 feet. They noted that
these lands are the primary sources
of abundant, clean ^vater in the state
because forested land holds rain and
collects fog moisture. The soils are
generally shallow and rockv. and
road construction— or even extensive
foot traffic— severely alters infiltra-
tion and percolation of water. It is
enough to note that a fair propor-
Join up now
for the greatest reading adventure
in the whole natural world
Come. Forage for food with Australia's aborigines.
Discover the microbes that have colonized man. Take a
"giant leap" into space— in the year 2,000. Leap backward
to the Persia of 500 B.C. And hunt American buffalo—
to preserve the species.
Just part of the whole, wide, wild, fantastic world of high
adventure you will explore as a member of the
Natural Science Book Club. Exciting reading. Rewarding
reading. Important savings, too.
A 6c stamp is all it takes to see your first selections. If not
delighted, return them and owe nothing.
We re betting that once you start your fascinating
journey, you won't want to stop.
lake any 3 books
(values to $44.95)
for only 99^each
THE
BUFFALO
oj .hucricanlHM.'ii
and their hunlersjrom pffhistmic
times m the present
-•(UiJSTnArED«-
with a brief trial
membership in the
Natural
Science
Bookclub
Francis Haines
(Retail prices shown.)
66070. OPUS 100. Is
:erpts from the best of Asimov! $5.95
Fascinating ex-
66120. ORCHID FLOWERS: THEIR POLLINA-
TION AND EVOLUTION. L. van der Fiji and Cala-
way H. Dodson. A demonstration of ecology and
adaptive evolution in action. Lavishly illustrated
with drawings and magnificent color photographs.
$12.50
79380. SONGBIRDS IN YOUR GARDEN. John K.
Terres. A "how to" book on attracting birds to city
apartment or country garden. A minor classic com-
bining entertaining anecdotes with practical instruc-
tion. $6.95
32350. AFRICAN SCULPTURE SPEAKS. Ladislas
Segv. The third edition of a highly acclaimed work
on the most celebrated art of Africa-its sculpture.
Lavishly illustrated with nearly 450 photographs
and drawings. $14.95
73440. RAVEN SEEK THY BROTHER. Gavin Max-
well. Camusfearna Island revisited-in magnificent
tales of birds, beasts, and stormy adventures on
land and sea. by the outstanding nature writer of
Ring of Bright Water. $6.95
68560. THE PHILOSOPHICAL FISHERMAN.
Harold F. Blaisdell. A down-to-earth manual that
abounds in fish lore and fish wisdom-as interesting
for the expert as for the tyro. $6.95
88080. YIWARA: FORAGERS OF THE AUSTRAL-
IAN DESERT. Richard A. Could. "A first-hand
vivid account of real stone age men . . ."the Abo-
rigines.". . . human beings almost as friendly and
harmless as Australia's other creatures."— iVfargnre/
Mead. $8.95
32980. AMERICA'S CAMPING BOOK. Paul Cald-
well. Jr. From hiking to hobbies, from survival to
supply houses for camping gear— the most compre-
hensive guide to campcraft and woodcraft ever
published in one volume. 591 pages, profusely illus-
trated. $10.00
36330. BIRDS, BEASTS AND RELATIVES. Gerald
Durrell. Pure enchantment! The author's delightful
childhood; his total involvement with animals and
insects each as individual as his exceptional family.
$5.95
68160. PERSEPOLIS: THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF
PARSA, SEAT OF THE PERSIAN KINGS. Donald
N. Wilbur. The majesty and splendor of the world's
first empire, its priceless treasures of architecture
and art. "Excellent . . . well-illustrated . . . packed
with information."— Beniard Goldman, Natural His-
tory. $7.95
36950. THE BUFFALO. Francis Haines. A brilliant
account of the near extinction of the American
bison, and its virtually miraculous revitalization
from a mere 600 to the over 20,000 flourishing to-
day. Fascinating reading and a serious lesson in
conservation. Illustrated. $7.95
69750. THE PRAIRIE WORLD. David F. Costello.
The special world of the American prairie— its wild-
life, plants, weather— and how it compares in vast-
ness. complexity and beauty to the veld of South
Africa and the steppes of Russia. ". . . to be read
by generations to come. "—Natural History. $7.95
58560. LIFE ON MAN. Thcodor Rosebury. A vastly
entertaining study exploring the dynamic interac-
tion between microbes and man, "the tubbed,
scrubbed and deodorized neurotic." "How can I
convince every literate man and woman to buy this
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$6.95
53400. HISTORY OF ROCKETRY AND SPACE
TRAVEL. Wernher von Braun and Frederick 1.
Ordway III. Complete— from early. research to re-
cent moon shots. $17.50
57060. THE KEY. John Phillip Cohanc. Brilliant
unravehng of historical clues, leading to a major
new theory linking the culture of England and Ire-
land to Mediterranean civilizations of prehistoric
time. $7.50
52570. HELICOPTERS AND AUTOGIROS. Charles
Cablehouse. Updated, authoritative account of the
development of vertical and short takc-oflt aircraft.
$6.95
85440. THE UNEXPECTED HANGING. Martin
Gardner. Mathematical games and puzzlers from
the author's columns in Scientific American. New!
$5.95
67140. THE PARABLE OF THE BEAST. John N.
Bleihtren. Explores challenging problems in mod-
ern biologv to help man understand his complex
nature. $6.95
48670. FLIGHTS INTO YESTERDAY. Leo Deuel.
The revolutionary effect of aerial photography on
archaeology. $8.95
79810. SPLENDOR IN THE SKY. Gerald S.
Hawkins. Illustrated survey of aslronomv, including
pulsars, quasars, the latest sp.icc nights. $8.95
75710. SCIENCE NEWS YEARBOOK 1969 / 1970.
Science Service. The latest developmcm-. in cverv
area of science. Invaluable reference. $9.95
Fill in and mail the card opposite, _
or write to the o
Natural Science Book Club ■?
Riverside, New Jersey 08075 "^
17
Ihis Forgotten Islands adventure
)s not for everybody. Happily.
There are Edens in the Indian Ocean. We call them the Forgotten
Islands, and their names are poetry. Seychelles. Desroches. Ami-
rantes. Farquhar. Aldabra. Grand Comoro. Their small population,
their equatorial sea birds, and their leaning palms are blessed by the
absence of civilization. That is why we say that they are not for every-
body. But to explore them in quiet leisure might just be for you.
Our 2,300 ton ship was expressly designed to combine the sophis-
ticated capabilities of an explorer with all of the comforts of a cruise
vessel. All accommodations are air-conditioned, each cabin has its
own private shower and toilet, and the ship has a Lido Deck, swim-
ming pool and shops. She has an Observation Deck and a Crow's
Nest to give you an unrestricted view, and an auditorium for briefings
by world-famous naturalists on the wildlife of each island.
You'll fly by the world's most advanced jet -the BOAC VC 10—
from New York to Nairobi by way of London. Here our Safari vehi-
cles will take you on a day's game-viewing safari through Nairobi
National Park, and you'll then be flown to Mombasa to join the
M.S. Lindblad Explorer, for your most memorable cruise of the
Forgotten Islands.
The inclusive price of this three-week explorer-cruise from New
York starts at $1,614.00*. There are departures every other Satur-
day starting April 11, 1970. To explore this cruise further, see your
Travel Agent, or send in the coupon below.
SAFETY INFORMATION: The M.S. Lindblad Explorer is of
Norwegian registry and meets international safety standards for new
ships developed after 1968 and the 1966 fire safety requirements.
Somebody Up there cares.
British Overseas Airways Corporation, Box VC 10,Dept. 151F-692
New York, N.Y. 10011. 687-1600.
I am seriously interested in your explorer-cruise. Please send details.
Name
City.
-Address.
State.
-Zip.
My Travel Agent is
*Based on three-bedded cabin on cruise and Economy Class group tour faro from N.Y. (Subject to minimum 15 passen-
gers.) Air supplement during certain peak periods required.
SEYCHELLES
tion of Dover HiUs is located at about
2,500 feet; indeed, lots with breath-
taking views, which command the
highest prices, are at 3,000 feet.
Dover Hills will not have a con-
solidated sewage system ; each house
will have its own septic tank. Assum-
ing that each person in each house
uses 50 gallons of water per day and
that there will be five people in a
house, the septic tank must handle
250 gallons of effiuent daily. You
can multiply this by 550 (the number
of homes ) to get an idea of the vol-
ume of waste to be disposed of.
Bruce Watson, the state soils man,
has surveyed in the Dover area. The
mountain soils are thin, allowing
relatively little soil volume and drain-
age for a leach field. Raw or partly
digested sewage from such a field,
plus seepage from the septic tanks,
may eventually get into the ground-
water and contaminate the wells, par-
ticularly those on the lower slopes.
Septic tanks used sporadically in
vacation homes function more poorly
and break down sooner than those
servicing year-round homes because
they become less efficient. Since bac-
terial action is depressed by cold
weather in areas where soils are shal-
low, overflow of undigested sewage
can be expected. A "sniff test" in sev-
eral developments indicates that
health hazards are already accom-
panied by aesthetic insults. A Public
Health Service team has reported
that about one-third of all water sys-
tems examined in Vermont were con-
taminated with sewage. Indeed, well
pollution in southern Vermont de-
velopments has already been re-
ported by distraught vacation home-
owners. Undigested efiluents can kill
trees, compounding the damage.
Before detailing the reactions of
the state to such a development as
Dover Hills, a look a few miles up
the road might be interesting. In
neighboring Stratton township there
is a major ski resort that may soon
have clusters of vacation homes
around the slopes. In 1968 Stratton
had only 94 vacation homes paying
a bit over $6,000 in taxes. The town-
ship has well over 23,000 acres of
timbered land ripe for conversion
into vacation homes, and virtually
all of it is owned by the International
Paper Company; International Pa-
per owns 60 percent of the town of
Stratton.
The company has been under fire
from both Vermont and New York
because of a paper mill at Ticonder-
oga. New York, at the lower end of
Lake Champlain. This mill has for
many years made a cesspool of the
adjacent segment of the lake. A new
plant may reduce insults to the eye
and nose, not to mention the lake,
but pending its completion, sulfite
sludge keeps pouring into the water.
International Paper's local reputa-
tion as a conservation-minded organ-
ization is minimal.
IPC has excellent corporate ad-
ministrators. They recognized that
their holdings in southern Vermont
were Green Mountain "gold," not
because of spruce for pulp or yellow
birch for cabinet veneers, but for
land development. They realized that
IPC had no knowledge of land de-
velopment and that it would be use-
ful to acquire a company with such
experience. Thus, in 1968 IPC put
out $12 million to acquire American
Central Company, a Michigan-based
firm that had developed about sev-
enty tracts in nine states. According
to Fortune, IPC incidentally gen-
erated a tax write-off by transferring
land to their wholly owned subsid-
iary. The president of IPC. Edward
Hinman, said, "American Central
has had an impressive record in its
ten years of operation for selecting,
planning and developing recreational
areas of this type." To round out
their entrance into land develop-
ment, IPC purchased Spacemakers,
Inc., a Massachusetts firm specializ-
ing in the construction of leisure
homes ("eight weeks from start to
completion") and the interdigita-
tion of IPC land. IPC forest prod-
ucts, and IPC land development was
complete.
No one is sure how IPC's develop-
ment plans for Stratton leaked
out, and it is possible that the
light of understanding dawned only
when bulldozers began clearing the
land. Residents became alarmed in
late June about the instant commu-
nity and transmitted their fears to
state senator Edward Janeway and
Governor Davis. Davis immediately
telegraphed Hinman, IPC president,
for a meeting. A local officer of the
company first presented the over-all
plan to a state commission in late
June, 1969. Asked what would be
done about water and sewerage, the
IPC official replied that each lot
owner would drill his own well and
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19
THEY'LL DIE
unless you and we help them. They'll
Die— and thousands more like them
of many different species will die —
unless money is made available to
finance the many requests from East
Africa's National Parks, Research Or-
ganizations and Game Departments.
During 1969 we funded conserva-
tion projects amounting to $74,500 in
Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. We
need your continued support to com-
bat the increasing menace of extinc-
tion for many species of wild animal,
by making a donation or by joining
the Society.
Membership of the Society will cost
you $10 annually. For this you receive
our quarterly magazine "Africano"
and are entitled to buy our ties, cor
badges, brooches and cufflinks.
Christmas cords. Calendars, wild life
prints and the Scientific Journal are
available to all.
The wild life of East Africa is now
a world responsibility, shared by ev-
eryone. It is enjoyed by tens of thou-
sands of visitors each year. Help us
to see that millions will continue to
enjoy it.
EAST AFRICAN
WILD LIFE
SOCIETY
P.O. Box 20110, Nairobi. Kenya,
East Africa.
Please enroll me as a member.
I enclose $
Name ,
Address
N.H.
install his own septic tank. Asked
by a representative of the Vermont
Water Resources Department about
tests for septic tank feasibility, the
official said that no tests had been
made. Asked about open space, the
official replied that some land would
be left undeveloped, but admitted
that some of this is "rather on the
steep side." Asked about building re-
strictions, he replied that none were
contemplated. Asked what responsi-
bility his company would assume for
sewage treatment plants and a com-
munity water supply, he replied that
a council of citizens might be formed
to study community problems. Asked
if IPC or American Central would
ante up a bond to pay for emergen-
cies brought about by the develop-
ment, he replied that he couldn't
speak for the company. At the end of
tliis meeting someone passed around
a brochure of an American Central
development in Wisconsin that
showed a lake completely sur-
rounded by 60- by 150-foot building
lots. Senator Janeway later admitted
that he shuddered.
Shortly after this interesting ses-
sion, the Stratton Planning Commis-
sion met with a citizens' group, the
Vermont Natural Resources Coun-
cil, to point out that tiny Stratton
was unequal to the task of controlling
the mammoth IPC combine. One
commissioner said that the company
was able to hire all the lawyers
around and had even invited local
selectmen to go on the company's
payroll as consultants. One local con-
servationist reported that he was
warned to get out of the way or he'd
be run over when he tried to take
pictures of operating bulldozers, but
he hired a plane and took his photo-
graphs from the air. According to
people who attended the meeting, the
pictures show a hunk of land cut
by roads from bottom to top, with
virtually no thought of water flow
or other ecological considerations.
Hinman and Governor Davis met
on July 12 in a closed-door session
with the Environmental Control
Commision, but by the end of tlie
session the state was no closer to
learning any details of the plans than
it had been two weeks earlier. Hin-
man did say, in a press release, that
his company had only the best in-
terests of Vermont at heart and that
American Central would work
closely with local and state officials
during the development of its 23,00C
acres. On the basis of this meeting
the governor said the relationship
was starting off as one of the fines]
cooperative ventures ever under
taken with a developer.
Over the weekend, however, i
completely new view of American
Central came to light. Elbert Moul-
ton. special assistant to the governor,
made an incognito visit to Tarn-
worth, New Hampshire, where Araer-i
ican Central is developing a ski and
beach club on a small lake. Moulton
was greeted at the entrance by a
full-dressed clown, complete with
balloons and streamers, who waved
and beckoned to drivers. Posing as
a prospect, Moulton got the hard
sell, with a "weekend-after-the-
Fourth-of-JuIy special," promises of
no lower limit on cost of home build-
ing, favorable financing, and all the
rest. The company advertised in Bos-
ton newspapers that there was a lake
with a natural sand beach, but the
saleswoman admitted that they had
been hauling in sand for the past
week. Moulton. no slouch as a sales-
man himself— he worked out the
"Vermont, the Beckoning Country"
campaign— admitted that he beat a
hasty retreat. In a report to the gov-
ernor, he concluded that if American
Central were to develop in Stratton
as it has been developing in New
Hampshire, Vermont should not al-
low it. At the press conference the
Friday before, neither the president
of IPC nor the president of Ameri-
can Central admitted that they even
knew that American Central was de-
veloping in New Hampshire.
Within two days, things really
began to pop. On Wednesday, Gov-
ernor Davis announced that develop-
ment of Stratton by American Cen-
tral had ceased pending revision of
its plans, that the IPC vice president
for public relations would meet
forthwith ^vith the governor to estab-
lish closer communications, that
aides of the governor would visit
other American Central projects
within a week, and that the president
of IPC had expressed concern over
the type of development being done
by his firm in New Hampshire.
Local newspapers printed unattrib-
uted stories saying that International
Paper was not aware of the building
habits of American Central prior to
its infolding into the corporate
bosom, and that IPC now realized
20
Take this 350-page reference edition of our
MASTER CATALOG of
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BOOK TRADE EXCEPT FOR
MEMBERS OF
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We never foist "club editions" on you
You may not know it but — many selections
received by members of other clubs are what
the trade calls "club editions". (Look for the
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tions." Never give you cheaper paper, smaller
type, or bindings that stain your hands and
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Even if you want something NOT in the
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Naturally, every book you buy through the
club must satisfy you 100%; otherwise feel
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Join the growing number of students,
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MAIL FOR FREE CATALOG
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Catalog will be mine to keep regardless!
V
LEAVE CARES
AT HOME ON YOUR
■70 HOLIDAY!
^
Dalmatia/Tlie Balkans
Maupintour's Eastern Europe
USSR
V
SCANDINAVIA/USSR/BERLIN, 22 days. Copenhagen, Olso,
Stockholm, Helsinki, Leningrad, Kiev, Moscow, Berlin. From $1148.
THE CAPITALS, 22 days. Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, Budapest,
Sofia, Bucharest, Prague, Warsaw, Berlin. From $1073.
BALTIC BLACK SEA CIRCLE, 22 days. Volgograd, Yalta, Kiev,
Leningrad, Moscow, Prague, Budapest, Berlin. From $1033.
DALMATIA/BALKANS, 22 days. Lifeseeing Hungary, Rumania,
Bulgaria, Yugoslavia by air-conditioned motorcoach. From $1068.
SAMARKAND/ORIENTAL RUSSIA, 22 days. Moscow, Tashkent,
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EASTERN EUROPE ADVENTURE. Germany, Oberammergau Pas-
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oslovakia. From $2048. (Aii rates from New York.)
ASK YOUR TRAVEL AGENT for folders or write Maupintour,
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C^Maupintour
world-ivido standard of (ravel e.YCell
OTHER MAUPINTOUR
HOLIDAYS FOR 1970:
n oberammergau Passion Play,
D ^Ips of Europe, D Scandinavia,
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D Italy/Sicily, D France,
D British Isles, Q Greece/Aegean,
n Spain/MalJorca/Portugal,
n Spain/Portugai By Motorcoach,
n Morocco/Canaries/Madeira/AIgarve.
D South Pacific and Q South America.
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that it had misjudged public reactii
to its Stratton development and h;
erred both in its public relations a:
in its reluctance to discuss thin,
frankly with the Environmental Co:
trol Commision the previous wee]
Although IPC admitted that the Ne
Hampshire operation is tawdr
they stated that it is not the best ej
ample of American Central's worl
Unfortunately, reports are alread
filtering in that American Centr£
developments on Cape Cod and els«
where are at the same level.
On July 25, Stratton resident
finally learned officially that mucl
of the township would soon becomi
a community of one-acre lots— 1(
percent down and seven years to pay
The meeting got off to a bad start be'
cause American Central didn't sho«
up and a messenger had to be sen:
up to the mountain to bring a repre
sentative down to the meeting. WTieii
the townspeople asked for some as
surance that American Central would
do right, they were told that the de.
velopment would be a "welcome ad
dition to your town," and that "ou*
company's past record is spotless.'
It didn't allay their fears to be told
that any jump in school-age popula
tion would be the concern of the local
school board, that the township
would double or triple its population
in a few years, that 12 miles of road-
way are being built for the town to
take care of, or that expansion is
virtually certain within the next
three to five years.
At about the same time. Governor
Davis asked a professional planning
consultant to meet with American
Central to insure that Stratton would
be a quality development. By the
end of the week, all work was halted
pending extensive review and evalu-
ation of the entire operation by state
advisers, and by the end of the
month, it was announced that plans
for the development would be shelved
until at least the spring of 1970. The
governor hinted that IPC may decide
that the development might simply
not be wortliwhile because of the un-
favorable publicity and the adverse
reactions of local citizens.
The purchase of large tracts dur-
ing 1969 has not been restricted to
southern Vermont. Interstate high-
ways will soon complete the network
between Massachusetts, Montpelier,
the state capital, and the Canadian
border. It is a short drive through
22
Well send you $5 Cash
if you own a cart or
wheelbarrow which
will pass all of this
basic 15 point test
and it isn't one of our designs.
Practically every home has at least one cart
or wheelbarrow, but it is absolutely amazing
how few of them will be able to answer yes
on all of these 15 points.
Unless you do have a cart or wheelbarrow
which will pass on all 15 points, please mail
the coupon below now so we can send you
complete details and prices of the GARDEN
WAY CARTS we make up here in Vermont.
isBM
S»>#;!* J2£ii4^ti<!
MARVELOUS GIFT IDEA!
This GARDEN WAY CART, Model 16, will pass the test with ease,
as the fascinating sketches on this page show. Iti delightfully
clever, simple design Is based on more than 20 years of Intensive
cart research and experience. It makes such a perfect gift because
of Its handsome, handcrafted quality, rugged and year 'round
usefulness to the whole family. Will last for years and years.
There's no other cart equal to it on the market.
No matter how many carts or wheelbarrows they already have,
they'll be delighted to have another If It is one of these wonderfully
different and better Vermont built GARDEN WAY CARTSl Please
mail coupon below for complete details and attractive prices.
Can you load It heavily,
up front, without it sud-
denly flopping on Its
"face"?
YES D NO D
Is It narrow enough to
go readily through stan-
dard doors, so you can
enjoy using it indoors as
well as out?
YES
D NO D
Is It shaped to take a
great big cardboard box
for leaves and other such
bulky loads?
YES D NO n
Is It designed to take
full size garden tools,
like hoes and rakes?
YES D NO n
Will it "stand on Its
head" to accept heavy
loads, so you don't have
to lift them?
YES n NO n
il
90§
Will It hold two full size
trash cans or two stan-
dard bushel baskets?
YES n NO n
Is It handsome enough so
you want It In the house?
YES n NO n
Can you load it crosswise
without having the load
slide oft forward?
YES n NO n
4t3
Is It low enough to be
just the right height for
gardening?
YES n NO n
.K Are Its legs out of the
/^ n way so they don't con-
stantly bang your heels
or shins?
YES n NO n
■%
Will it pull easily up
steps or over obstacles
without catching its legs
and without dumping its
load out forward?
YES D NO D
Can you handle it with
just one hand, without
constant struggle to
keep it from tipping
YES D NO D
Is it light and compact
enough so it can be eas-
ily lifted, by non-giants,
into a station wagon, for
example?
YES D NO □
Is It rugged en
take rough loads
and, gravel or the
W YES D NO n
s It designed
^.^ K balance a heavy load with
<X\f^>^^ J just one finger, and so
\VwI^^ W, the axle carries the load,
YES n NO n
If you do have a cart or wheelbarrow which is not of our design
and which you think passes on all 15 points, just send us a photo
of It and we'll send you the »S.OO cash If we agree. Of course
we're pretty sure you don't have such a cart unless you built it
yourself, because there isn't any other cart on the market which
can match ours on all 15 points. If you did build your own and It
will pass on all 15 points, we'll be delighted to pay off!
Seriously, no matter how m
own, whether you bought o
positive you'll want at least ■
several for gifts.
ny carts
built the
ne of our'
ir wheelbarrows you now
n yourself, we're almost
for yourself and perhaps
f GARDEN WAY RESEARCH ASSOCIATES
I Dept. 3513
I Charlotte, Vermont 05445
|Na
Please send, by return mall, complete details about yo
GARDEN WAY CARTS, including your attractive prices.
\
I
I
I
I
You'll like our prices, too they're much lower than you'd
expect compared to the prices of other carts. So please do mail
the coupon now. Thanks very much for your interest.
1^
-Zip-
23
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BEAUTIFUllY CONTEMPORARY
s this hand crafted representa-
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In doily use after the Egyp-
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24
SJo, Conway. N. H.
lovely country into the whole north-
ern part of the state, including tlie
hitherto neglected "northeast king-
dom." In one of the kingdom's
counties, Essex, 90 percent of all
land is owned by lumber companies.
Caveland Equities, Inc., also di-
rected by Eugene Coleman (who
started Dover Hills ) , purchased
close to 3.000 acres in the kingdom
for about $100 per acre— a dirt cheap
price. Mr. Coleman, a busy man who
keeps his money working hard, also
purchased 800 acres on yet-un-
spoiled Lake Seymour, and 2,700
acres in Greensboro. Some undis-
closed group apparently took the
trouble to look at a recent state high-
way map (free from the Vermont
Development Commission) and pur-
chased 1.600 acres near Interstate
89 in the town of Sharon. A parcel
of about 30,000 acres was sold by
a financially depressed lumber com-
pany to Laird Properties and Laird's
New England Land syndicate added
about 40,000 acres within a few
weeks. Names like the "Great North-
ern Land Corporation." "Triton In-
vestments" (a California combine),
and several ". . . and Associates"
are beginning to crop up on the list
of purchasers of large acreages.
An interesting sociopolitical note
to the burgeoning land speculation in
the northeast part of the state is the
separatist movement in Quebec.
Man)' of the Anglo-Saxons (anyone
who is not French) have money, and
this is part of the reason for the agita-
tion. They are beginning to hedge
their finances by heavy buying in
those areas of Vermont and New
Hampshire within 75 miles of the
border and are paying not only in-
flated land prices but also an unfa-
vorable exchange rate of 7 percent.
Many townships have no zoning
regulations and, of those with zon-
ing, many have either interim regu-
lations or, as in the case of Dover
and Stratton, minimal zoning. Mere
zoning doesn't insure sewerage sys-
tems, adequate road construction and
maintenance, school sites, a munici-
pal water supply, or even conserva-
tion of open space. These are the
functions of subdivision regulations,
and very few towns have even
started arguing about them. Ulti-
mately, direction, power, and nay-
saying rests at the state level because
the towns haven't the money, men,
experience, or hometown power to
cope with the situation. One official
of a prominent development com-
pany noted that Vermont is a Mecca
for his and other companies just be-
cause of this.
The realization that something had
to be done immediately caused some
soul and law searching in state of-
fices. The secretary of state revealed
that a 1917 law gave him the power
(hitherto unused) to refuse to li-
cense any foreign corporation if the
refusal would "promote the general
good" of the state. Foreign corpora-
tion is defined as a firm whose prin-
cipal place of business is outside
Vermont. It was also suggested that
municipalities could refuse to take
over the roads put in by developers.
This would certainly hurt sales be-
cause a potential buyer would under-
standably be loath to purchase prop-
erty knowing the roads would not be
plowed and maintained in the win-
ter. A simple amendment to existing
law would require only that the
street or transportation portion of
the master plan require approval be-
fore any work can start.
Up to this year, Vermont really
didn't have an integrated system for
regulation, not because previous ad-
ministrations were unaware of the
dangers, but because there was real
citizen resistance to imposition of
state control. This past summer sev-
eral local boards informed the state
in no uncertain terms to keep its nose
out of their communities— they could
handle their own problems, thank
you very much.
Archaic practices worked against
effective control. The tax department
was not permitted to inform other,
state agencies when a large tract of
potential development land changed
hands. Fish and Game, Forests and
Parks, Water Resources, Health,
Planning and Development were
separate and unrelated. Central Plan-
ning could act only when requested
by Development. Highways, respon-
sible for many winter road services,
could assist a town only when in-
vited. The list could be extended for
another half column.
Vermont does have laws regarding
pollution, but like those in many
other states, they are ambiguous, full
of loopholes, and subject to "inter-
pretation." It hasn't helped that two
involved departments. Health and
Water Resources, were independent
and not especially cooperative. A key
p Lindblad Travel offers
3 exciting trips for those who want adventure
/. Explorers' Tour Around the World
2. South Pacific Journey
3. Amazon Safari
Whether you want to visit New Guinea/Papua, or spend a week in a tent on the Gobi
Desert, or perhaps explore Brazil's legendary Mato Grosso region, Lindblad Travel
has 3 inspiring expeditions especially designed for your adventurous mind.
1. Explorers' Tour Around the World.
Moscow, southward to Tashkent and Samarkand, then to remote
Mongolia with a week in the Gobi Desert, an overnight trip on
the Trans-Siberian Railway, Soviet ship to Japan and EXPO 70
wind-up. $1950 per person, excluding air fare. Departures June
6 and July 4, 1970. 30 days.
2. South Pacific.
A 34-day journey of adventure and discovery to lush tropical
islands including the Fiji Islands, New Zealand, the coast of
Australia, New Guinea, and the Solomons (with an optional 12-
day extension to Polynesia). $1795 per person, excluding air
transportation. Jan. 31, March 7, May 23, July 11, Aug. 22, Nov. 7.
3. Amazon Safari.
An 18-day expedition into Brazil's legendary Mato Grosso, in-
cluding 11 days aboard a specially-built "Safari Boatel" explor-
ing the headwaters of the Amazon regions; to Brasilia, and end-
ing in Rio de Janeiro. $1550 per person for land arrangements.
Dept. NH370
LINDBLAD TRAVEL, INC.
Lindblad Travel Building
133 East 55th Street
NewYork.N.Y. 10022
Please send brochure. I am seriously interested in:
□ Explorers' Tour Around the World.
n South Pacific Journey.
n Amazon Safari.
Cily_
section of the Water Pollution Con-
trol Act states that the Water Control
Board may take action against any
person who permits wastes to enter
water so as to reduce the water be-
low the classification set for it. An-
other law provides that any person
who diverts water (such as drilling
a well) and either corrupts it or
renders it impure is liable to the
municipality. At a hearing last year
the water resources commissioner
stated that he didn't believe (but
didn't know) that the board could
press a case against a mass devel-
oper. When asked what would hap-
pen if he did seek an injunction, he
stated that he thought (but didn't
know) that the law allowed him to
act only after pollution has set in.
He was challenged to determine the
legal extent of his power, but he
didn't try. The commissioner knew
that he could assist in design and had
to approve town plans for both sew-
erage and water, but he didn't believe
(but didn't know) he could regulate
a development s plans unless they
were submitted by the town.
The health commissioner admitted
that Vermont has many laws that
provide for regulation, but he noted
that he doesn't have the staff or the
money for environmental control.
Some time back the commission won
an injunction forbidding construc-
tion of additional homes on a site
that couldn't support more septic
tanks, but it hasnt taken advantage
of this precedent. Health officers said
they really don't get complaints
until after damage has been done,
but I can show you water and health
hazards a half hour from my home
that are older than I am. Obviously,
money is a factor, but the prime
considerations are motivation and
some sense of urgency, and both have
been conspicuously lacking. Up to
now the people haven't leaned hard
on the state because they haven't
been aware of the situation.
With the citizens now aroused,
these deficiencies are being cleared
up by an extensive reorganization of
state agencies. Concern for the qual-
ity of the environment, shouted for
years by the conservation-minded, is
now as Vermontish as white rat-trap
cheese or maple sugar on snow with
dill pickles. We now have an Inter-
agency Council on Natural Resources
embracing Forest and Parks, Fish
and Game, and several others. In
26
September, a Planning and Com-
munity Services Commission was
organized to umbrella housing, pov-
erty programs, local affairs, the Cen-
tral Planning Agency and several
others. Not incidentally, it is headed
up by Ted Riehle, who fought for
and eventually secured the passage of
an antibillboard law, only the second
in the United States, which will allow
all of us to see our mountains without
eyeball pollution.
The capstone in any concerted pro-
gram is an environmental control
commission; Vermont established
one last summer. Chaired b)' a legis-
lator with a record of intelligent con-
servation policy, the commission was
charged with making recommenda-
tions on new laws, on integration
among departments, and on coordi-
nation with local governments.
Among its first recommendations
was one for a 90 percent increase
in funds allotted to regional planning
groups on the county level, a fiscally,
politically, and environmentally
sound idea. The commission serves
now as an evaluative center for other
far-reaching plans. The health com-
missioner requested the Environment
Control Commission to seek legisla-
tion that would require all land de-
velopers to submit plans to his de-
partment for approval prior to any
work. He also asked for legislation
to give the health department specific
authority to move against developers.
Should the state set standards for
approving or disapproving certain
lands for development? Should
Health and Water Resources hire
engineers to help towns control land
development? Can taxes be scaled to
provide advantages if land is not
used for development, and what effect
will this have on state and local fi-
nancing? What about pesticide con-
trols, responsibility of town and
state for highway construction, pro-
tection for lands above 2..500 feet?
An important and delicate question
is how much authority the state can
assume without infringing on local
communities. Many argue that local
officials cannot be trusted with au-
thority' over land development be-
cause they have been put on the
payrolls of developers, may be in a
position to profit personally from
development, or are snowed by the
high-priced talent at the command of
the developer.
In late June, the governor an-
nounced that the Environmental
Control Commission will form Devel-
opment Technical Advisory Teams to
provide assistance and advice to com-
munities and planning commissions.
Happily, the commission was flooded
with volunteer expertise, including
nationally known regional planners,
a professor of zoning laws, and others
who are either "instant Vermonters"
or "sunshiners" (owners of vacation
homes). Economists, ecologists, and
other academic tjpes are also avail-
able to the communities — not that
they weren't before, but few ever
asked for their help.
Apparently, the response has been
excellent. The town of Wilmington,
just south of Dover, asked for a
Technical Advisory Team within a
week or so after the teams had been
set up. A few days later the Stratton
Planning Commission sent in an
SOS. There are indications that at
least some of the developers will avail •
themselves of these services. In fact,
the promulgation of new health-
safety regulations that require test-
ing for percolation, groundwater
levels, and other basic data will pro-
vide, for the first time, a basis for the
teams to work effectively. A proposed
revision of the sanitary engineering
regulations, subchapter on subdivi-
sions, provides the teeth to bite off
the outstretched fingers of greedy de-
velopers.
I am usually unsatisfied by upbeat
endings. Lovers wending their way
into the sunset to swelling chords
leave me cold. And yet, a colleague
who has been deeply involved in Ver-
mont conservation recently told me _
that he has never been so optimistic
about the cause, and I respect his
judgment; he has more battle scars
than a Roman gladiator. If there is
light at the end of this long environ-
mental tunnel, it is the result of the
long-overdue realization by Vermont
citizens that the '"beckoning country"
must exist for the future. In a lecture
about two years ago, William 0.
Douglas, a mean infighter for con-
servation, said that only the people
can save their environment, and only
if they will support those who have
long cried in the wilderness, and only
if their wishes are made clear to their
elected representatives. These case
histories in Vermont tend to support
his contention. But public opinion
and public support are fickle
things. ... ■
see a horse of a
different color !
See birds of exotic feather all flock together in Africa
Select a safari— 21 days— $1299"^
It has often been stated that Africa is an "experience." It is
more than that— it is an "emotion." Africa means many differ-
ent things to as many different people.
To the Anthropologist, it means Olduvai Gorge— the birth-
place of Mankind! To the Ecologist, it means the interrelation
of man, bird, beast, and the environment! To the Geologist, it
means a huge trough slicing through Africa from Ethiopia to
Mozambique— the Great Rift Valley! To the Ornithologist, it
means the sight of over 1,000,000 greater and lesser flamin-
goes lining the shores of Lake Nakuru! And, to the Zoologist,
it means the yearly migration of thousands of plains game
across the Serengeti!
But, to most of us, Africa south of the Sahara, conjures up
images of one massive menagerie, and so it is— the last great
refuge of the most spectacular concentrations of wild animals
left on earth!
Whatever your interests, we've got something for everyone
on each of our three exciting 21-Day SELECTASAFARIS.
Samburu, Lake Manyara, Victoria Falls, Mombasa, Tsavo
Park, Ngorongoro Crater, Johannesburg, Nairobi, Murchison
Falls. So many of Nature's wonders to choose from at such
a wonderful price— $1299* per person from New York. In-
cluded is your round trip jet fare from New York, the best
hotels and lodges, most meals, land transportation, sight-
seeing, guides. And, for those who join us from San Fran-
cisco, it's $1516* per person. Frequent departures.
For the dedicated ornithologist, there's our 21-Day Don
Turner Safari to East Africa, now in its sixth year of success-
ful operation. Four departures in 1970. $1995* from New
York. $2212* from San Francisco. Limited membership.
And, we even have something for those who prefer to do it
all "on the wing" our new 21-Day SUNBIRD SKYFARI. Under
$2400 from New York. Limited membership.
We're ready to go when you are! Get our brochures from
your travel agent, or mail the coupon below.
ed on using Economy Cla
Please send me your
D SELECTASAFARIS
n SUNBIRD SKYFARI
(AN AERIAL SAFARI)
• lare Irom NY. back to N.Y. (subject lo
BRITISH UNiT£D AIRWAYS 543 pifth AvBHue New York, N.Y. 1 0036
n ORNITHOLOGICAL SAFARI My Travel Agent
CROWDER
NATURE TOURS
SCHEDULE: Listed below are
starting dates for 1970. Space per-
mits only a brief mention of each
tour, and one should by all means
have the "Tour Catalog" with
thumbnail sketches of each trip, as
well as subsequent detailed itiner-
aries. North America tours are 2
weeks each, others 3 weeks, unless
otherwise noted.
—1970—
TEXAS-NORTHEAST MEXICO
Two weeks from Corpus Christi, March
7, with both bird and wildflower leaders.
From Rockport's Whooping Cranes to
Mexican exotic birds 86 flowers. All ex-
penses, $595. End at Mexico City, with
optional stayover for Holy Week pag-
eantry at Taxco, and for ensuing Mexico
East and West Coast tours.
ARIZONA
Popular SE Arizona bird observation
tour. Expert leadership. Two weeks from
May 9; all expenses, $575.
ALASKA
South Tour from Vancouver June 20;
North Tour from Fairbanks July 4;
"Outposts" from Anchorage July 18.
Three remarkable 2 -week trips, from in-
side passage to Aleutians, Pribilofs and
Point Barrow.
PACIFIC COAST (6 tours)
Baja California camping, from Nogales
Mar. 28; Arizona, from Tucson May 9;
Cascades, from Klamath Falls May 20;
followed by Alaska South, North and
Outposts. Remarkable tropics-to-Arctic
coverage of Spring up the West Coast.
WEST VIRGINIA
Ecological tour: revealing, nearby, in-
expensive. Wheeling July 25; 2 wks.
EUROPE (12 tours)
Too much of a program to list here; by
all means send for detailed brochure.
Norway, Iceland, Russia and Siberia espe-
cially recommended. Twelve tours, ex-
tending throu&h May, June, July. First
tour (Mediterranean) starts April 30,
CENTRAL AMERICA
Summer program in rainy season when
birds are on territory. July and August,
3 tours; Chiapas, Panama, Yucatan,
AFRICA (3 tours)
South and East Africa and Madagas-
car; three tours in July/ September. Ex-
cellent leadership.
SOUTH AMERICA (4 tours)
Columbia, Aug. 15; Venezuela, Sep. 5;
Ecuador/Peru, Sep. 2 6; Chile/Tierra del
Fuego, October 24. Also Galapagos and
Antarctica.
SOUTH PACIFIC (5 tours)
This is the year of full South Pacific
coverage. Melanesia, Aug. 15 from
Samoa: New Guinea, Sep. 5 from Rabaul;
Western Australia. Oct. 3 from Perth;
Australia East. Oct. 24 from the Barrier
Reef at Cairns; New Zealand, Nov. 14
from Auckland.
SOUTH WITH AUTUMN (2 tours)
Geology and ecology of the
U.S.A.. following the wave of fall color
southward. Northeast Coast tour meets
at Bangor Sep. 19; Southeast Coast tour
at Harpers Ferry Oct. 10. Leader: Geolo-
gist Isabella Coons, with many assisting
leaders along the way.
Come along! . . . intimate, private
groups, expert leadership. We seek out
back-country routes, try lor an experience-
in-depth of the natural scene and the
people. (Not recommended it you're
strong lor night life.)
CROWDER NATURE TOURS
BOX 222-a
HARPERS FERRY, W. VA. 25425
A Naturalist at Large
The Day the Se€B
Ran Out af Flounder
by Stephen W. HitchcocU
I he tide comes seeping in over the
marshes. If we watch, the water re-
mains in quiet pools moved only by
an occasional breeze. If we return to
our work and then turn once again
to look, we find the water has ex-
tended its great arms up valleys and
indiscernible hollows, forming great
meadows of water. The once quick-
flowing river is turned into a shallow
lake that pushes its way up to the
fence posts guarding tlie hay fields.
At the point of victory, when it
might overrun the fields, the yards,
and the road, it pauses and then— so
slowly we can only measure it by
successive sticks pushed into the
ground— it retreats. Our world is
safe for now. The marsh snails
move down the grass stems, the mus-
sels close, and the fiddler crabs await
the next tide, vainly hoping to march
through our kitchens on a flood of
brackish water.
The male fiddler crab is easily rec-
ognized by his large claw. Surely he
must be a fierce denizen of his min-
iature world, but no— this claw is
used to attract females to his burrow
or to fence harmlessly with other
males during mating season. He uses
his other, moderate-sized claw to
pick up the bits of organic debris
that he feeds on. The fiddlers burrow
into the mud flats and salt marshes,
their holes speckling the mud. They
do not always stay in their burrows,
however, but wander about at low-
tide searching for the tidbits of life
and retreating when the tide comes
in.
In early summer the fiddlers mate,
and the female carries her thousands
of eggs under her abdomen until
they hatch in early fall. The larvae
float with the plankton of the tides
until the following spring, at which
time they resemble the adults.
Subject to attack by herons, gulls,
and raccoons, and used for bait by
man, the fiddler lives with the
rhythm of the tides and seasons,
scavenging the tidal flats and in sea-
son, beckoning to any passing lady
love. Not bad. for a crab.
Department of the Army
New England Division,
Corps of Engineers
424 Trapelo Road
Waltham, Mass. 02154
notice— please post
This office has under consideration
the application of .
. for a permit to .
The determination as to whether a
permit will be issued must rest pri-
marily upon the effect of the pro-
posed work on navigation. However,
other pertinent factors, including
fish and wildlife conservation as-
pects, will be accepted and made
part of the record and will be con-
sidered in determining whether it
would be in the best public interest
to grant a permit.
Anyone desiring to submit a state-
ment or to enter a protest against the
proposed work is privileged to do so.
Statements or protests will be
considered if received at this ofiice
on or before
Very truly yours,
Arthur J. Kelley
Chief. Permits and Statistics
Branch
Operations Division
My neighbor. Art Schneider, is a
young man, but the reminiscenses of
his youth come from another age.
28
'"There are still ducks around, but
it's not what it was a few years ago.
We did what we called 'creek jump-
— starting at one end of the
marsh, we'd walk through and jump
anywhere from one to a dozen in a
unch. We'd start south of the ceme-
tery. Mr. Lewis kept hunters off his
land north of that, and Hammonas-
sett State Park was posted, except for
a section along the river's edge. In
the park you had to use one of the
state duck blinds.
"If there is a straight piece and
then a twist in the creek, there'll al-
most always be ducks around the
corner. If one person goes ahead and
circles around below, the one trail-
ing gets a shot and drives them over
the guy below."
There are many other things in
the marsh. To a young boy hunting
or exploring, it is not the monoto-
nous expanse it might seem to the
visitor who stops his car on the up-
lands for a moment's glance. There
are creeks, meadows, cattails, and
holes— all different, each with its own
life and anticipations.
"My brother Dick trapped for
muskrats. As a boy that's the way he
made his spending money until syn-
thetics ruined the market. He'd get
thirty to forty skins a month. Our
father would call up an old man by
the East River or a guy in Westbrook
to see who was buying. The skins
had to be perfect to get the best
price."
"What happened to most of the
ducks on the marsh?"
"Oh, probably hunting pressure
and pollution. During hunting sea-
son the ducks fly out to Long Island
Sound early and come back late un-
less a storm drives them in. A few
years ago there were no factories
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.
here and no oil in the water. There
used to be a lot of blue crabs. Some
think the metal from the wire factory
drove out the crabs.'"
During hunting season, we still
hear the bangs of shotguns.
"You've got to get there before
dawn to be ready, or late in the after-
noon as they come in. Usually in the
afternoon there's nothing. Late in
the season, once the ducks are
jumped, they take off. But early in
the season, if you jump them, go
down into the creek bed and wait.
The ducks often circle and come
back and you can get an overhead
shot. Generally though, the first walk
through in the morning gets all. If
there is a hunter ahead of you, you
might as well not bother. First come,
first served."
"What do these people want?
They can't save the whole shore. The
salt meadows don't do any good.
Neither me nor anybody else wants
to live there. It's nothing but mud
and mosquitoes. The only real use
for it is marinas and that's the high-
est value land use. That makes sense.
More and more people are buying
boats, and they have to have a place
to put them. How many people do
you see down on the marsh now? A
few bird watchers maybe. If they
want to bird watch on it. I don't care.
I've got better things to do than that,
but I don't tell them what to do. Why
are they trying to tell me? Which do
you prefer, birds or people?"
Plant life in the tidal marsh is de-
termined by fluctuations in the
amount of fresh water, by intrusions
of salt water, and by the contours of
the land.
Tidal marshes did not excite gen-
eral scientific interest until 1950
when Frank Egler, the Peck's bad
boy of ecology, in collaboration \w\\h
W. R. Miller, did a study of a Con-
necticut marsh. Part of this interest
may have been due to Egler's preju-
dices and pungent style of writing, a
rarity in scientific literature. "Exist-
ing marshes have been lacerated
with ditches with that admirable
thoroughness and pseudo-foresight-
edness with which mankind is apt to
treat the lands of his heritage."
Egler and Miller characterized the
different areas of the marsh and sug-
gested explanations for various
natural features. For example, pans
—shallow depressions with a stuntei
flora— developed when brackish waj
ter was trapped on a receding tide
The water then evaporated, leavin|
a salty residue that killed all but thj
hardiest plants. But even where ii
was saltiest, something survived— tht
lowly glasswort.
Sa/fcornia- glasswort, samphire
or pickleweed— is a low fleshy plant
that looks something like a cactus. I|
is found in saline areas, not because
it prefers or grows better in such re
gions, but because it can live where
others die. In the low, flat pans
where the sun beats down and the
salt crystals form, the glasswort
thrives. Glasswort can germinate al,
higher temperatures and higher
salinities than most other plants. The
fruiting head of English Salicornia^
can float on sea water for threej
months, be cast up on the shore at;
high tide, and the seeds will still
germinate.
In the fall, glasswort compensates
for its inconspicuous spring flower
by turning a deep red that gives a|
sheen of color to the marsh.
The possibilities of this plant do
not end here. The young tender
shoots can be used in salads. Older
plants may be pickled in vinegar and
used through the winter.
No more can be asked of a plant.
It was low tide and several clam
diggers were busy stirring up the
sand and mud. I looked for the man
with the most clams and walked
over. He was short and stocky, and
dressed in a dark blue sweatshi'rt
dirtied with the sand and mud from
his digging. As we chatted, he rarely
glanced up, except to keep track of
his children running up and down
the strand. Other diggers moved
aimlessly about, digging here and
there, but this man worked methodi-
cally forward over a small area. As
he bent over the two-foot handle of
the clam rake, his arms moved
rhythmically up and down w'ith
short, chopping strokes. Every few
seconds he dug rapidly deeper. The
long siphon tube of a clam would
start to withdraw, but with a few
strokes he would unearth it, adding
one more clam to the growing pile
in a wire basket.
"You are getting more clams than
all the rest put together," I said,
hoping to unearth some secret.
30
"They haven't been going clam-
ling for forty years." He pushed
ind over a small, rejected clam, ex-
laining, "the gulls eat them if
ley're left out." He resumed chop-
ing. "They leave them out," he said,
odding toward the dilettantes pok-
ig about with their clam forks.
"Don't all the clams get dug out
n a small beach like this?"
"They try it once or twice and
ive up. I started when I was seven.
7e used to clam all down the shore."
He straightened up and looked
own the line of piers, boats, and
racks toward the tower of a pile
river down the harbor. "Way down
) there. We used to get clams down
lere when I was seven. All the time.
. lot of people did." He glanced at
is children and resumed digging.
One of the dilettante diggers came
y. "There aren't any clams back
lere," he said and began cautiously
igging five feet away from the man
1 the blue sweatshirt.
"There's clams," said the clam
jger. He worked around so his
ent-over bottom was facing the
ilettante, who moved away to the
)ose, dry sand higher on the beach.
"Is there a size limit?" I asked.
"Inch and a half," he said, re-
overing a 2Vi>-inch clam with sand.
"There's enough clams here." He
emed insulted that the other dig-
ers were finding clams so slowly.
"Perhaps it's just as well the others
ren't finding many. The clams
aight get all dug out."
"They won't be back next week-
nd. When I was little we used to dig
lams for $.25 a bushel." The mem-
ry seemed to give him pleasure.
My wife is going to fry these. That's
be best way."
"How about the sand in them?"
"Just in the neck, but we split the
ecks to fry them and clean it all out.
f you want, you can hang them in a
lasket in salt water for three or four
ays and they'll clean themselves."
"You make it look too easy," I
aid. looking at his basket mounded
ith clams. "Makes me think I
hould start digging myself, but I
;uess I'll settle for buying them."
"Where can you buy them?" He
)icked up two more. "I like clams,"
le said, never pausing in his dig-
ig.
I turned to resume my walk down
he shore.
Continued on page 72
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31
Many bats "see"
the world around ttiem
solely Dy Hearing
and analyzing the eclioes
ot tnelr own sounds
PMgraplisDyNlnaLeen
TexlDyAlvinNovicK
Most of the conspicuous bats of
temperate climates leave their
daytime roosts en masse at dusk and
immediately begin their nightly pur-
suit of insects. But in the tropics, bat
populations emerge more or less
sequentially, often long past dark.
In the case of Mount Plenty Cave in
Jamaica, for example, Monophyllus
are followed by Chilonycteris. Arti-
beus and PhyUonycteris emerge
later. In Mexico I have often noticed
that vampires are the last to emerge,
sometimes as late as 10:00 p.m.
Watching bats in tropical caves in
late afternoon, one sees increasing
preening and hears additional bick-
ering and vocalizing toward dusk.
Then, within the larger chambers, a
few bats start flying great circles,
during the course of which they pass
one or more of the principal exits.
More and more individuals join
these flights until some hundreds or
thousands of bats may be moving
together in long swirls. Apparently,
as they pass the exits they judge the
Copyright ©1969 in all countries of the
International Copyright Union, by Nina
Leen, Jay Gold, and Edita S. A. Excerpted
from- The World of Bats, to be published
by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
32 •
intensity of light and decide whether
to emerge or not. On dark, overcast
evenings, bats emerge earlier. They
also emerge earlier through exits that
are deep in ravines or that are heav-
ily shaded than they do through exits
facing the clear sky or open to the
west. Emergence time varies, of
course, with the time of sunset. (I
have found that a cave population
can be substantially "bottled up" be-
yond sunset by placing a single flash-
light in the cave exit, shining in-
ward.) Bats awaken in response to
a built-in rhythm of activity such as
has been demonstrated in a wide
variety of other living organisms.
Their flights past the lighted exits
reset their internal clock, if neces-
sary, and keep it synchronized with
the solar day and night. That is, if
a bat awakens too early, its clock
is reset by its view of full dayhght.
The next night it sleeps longer and
commences flying later.
Flying in a cave in this way, ac-
companied by the swirl of so many
companions, must create serious
orientation problems. The noise level
includes a multiplicity of odd rever-
berations of sound from the irregu-
lar facets of the walls and ceiling,
plus the sound pulses and echoes all
the other bats are using to sense their
environment. In order to echolocate
effectively, a bat must be able to
identify the echoes of its own pulses.
I now believe that bats flying sys-
tematically in their own cave may do
so largely by memory. They are ex-
posed repeatedly to the same, essen-
tially unchanging geometry. To
memorize this configuration ought
not to be a major challenge. In addi-
tion, in several experimental situa-
tions we have observed what D. R.
GrifEn has called the "Andrea Doria
effect": bats may be using echoloca-
tion, a sonar system analogous to
the radar system used by ships, but
in familiar caves they apparently
navigate by custom, paying no atten-
tion to the echoes. If obstacles are
unexpectedly introduced into the en-
vironment, bats will crash into them
even while producing their normal
sonal signals.
Bats that fly in jungle thickets
usually have relatively short, broad
wings and fly slowly. They generally
produce sonar signals of low intens-
ity and short duration, often at a
constant frequency. The wing shape
seems adapted to slow flight, quick
changes in direction, and hovering.
In a jungle, the presence of many ob-
stacles makes it more difficult to de-
tect and pursue food objects. The
use of weaker sonar signals avoids
the reception of echoes from too
many objects because it restricts in-
spection to the immediate vicinity.
Short pulse duration is also charac-
teristic of almost all sonar systems
when a bat is very close to its target,
a common situation in the jungle or
among bats that hunt along walls,
trees, or near the ground. Short
pulses avoid or minimize the fre-
quency of long overlaps at the bat's
ear between outgoing pulses and re-
turning echoes.
Insectivorous bats hunting in
clearings or over ponds often dis-
play the erratic flight paths that have
made bats symbols of inconstancy,
fickleness, or of an erratic nature.
But each change in direction, each
dive, somersault, or sideslip indi-
cates pursuit. When capturing in-
sects at the rate of one or two per
second, a bat will appear to be flying
erratically because of the braking
and accelerating that are required.
The short flights between insect pur-
suits are straight or gently curved.
During the night many bats, hav-
ing fed, will hang up at a nocturnal
roost to rest or sleep while digesting
their catch. Such night roosts can
often be recognized by the heaps of
discarded food fragments found on
them or by their discrete guano'
heaps— each representing the habit-
ual return of a single bat to a specific
site such as a branch or a rocky over-
hang. In some cases, fully fed bats
may be seen returning to their caves
A dog-faced bat, with it
wings fully extended ant
symmetrical as they near thi
end of a downstroke, appean
to simulate a parachute
^tSt:
In a confined space — where
their sonar fails them^ — bats
wheel in confused flight, left.
Ahove, a rousette fruit bat
parts its lips to emit the
acoustic pulses that guide it.
by 10:00 or 11:00 P.M. In other
cases they may be out most of the
night, but they almost invariably re-
turn before dawn.
Besides flying for food, bats en-
gage in long-distance, seasonal mi-
grations to and from nursery col-
onies and fresh foraging areas. Such
flights have been well documented
by naturalists in North America,
Europe, and Australia as ranging
from 50 to 100 miles up to 1,500
miles or more. In general, the data
are derived from banding records
of bats that have been captured,
banded, arid released. In New
England bats of several species re-
treat to Mount Aeolus in Vermont
from diverse summering sites in all
directions and at substantial dis-
tances. We know very little of the
mechanics or details of such flights.
How, for example, do bats provision
for such flights, or do they feed en
route? How do they navigate and
how do they recognize their goal?
What triggers the migrations? Is
there a leader? No answers are yet
available. Recently several investiga-
tors have reopened the question of
whether migrating bats may navi-
gate visually by the use of landmarks
or the constellations.
Acoustic orientation— echolo-
cation— is the only aspect of bat life
that has been investigated in major
fashion. In the suborder Megachi-
roptera only bats of the genus
Rouseltus orient themselves acousti-
cally. They use audible pulses of
sound produced by tongue clicking,
and depend on echoes from these
sounds for guidance in the dark.
Producing no sounds in flight, other
Megachiroptera apparently find their
way by vision and olfaction. How
they manage to forage when there
is no illumination, or very little, is
not known.
Bats of the genus Rouseltus have
evolved a sonar system independ-
ently of the Microchiroptera. Inso-
M,
35
far as they have heen studied, all
bats of the suborder Microchiroptera
depend on echolocation for tracking
insects or other prey and for avoid-
ing obstacles. Those that feed on
fruit, flowers, or vertebrates (which
emit odors) probably also use olfac-
tory information for local orienta-
tion—but their sonar system is never-
theless of prime importance. The
Microchiroptera all send out in-
tensely loud, ultrashort pulses of
high-frequency sound, which are re-
flected by objects in their path. We
have studied such sounds, from a
wide variety of bats, in terms of their
major parameters: frequency, fre-
quency pattern, pulse duration,
pulse-repetition rate, interpulse in-
terval, intensity, and directionality.
In all Microchiroptera that have
been studied so far, the pulses are
produced in the larynx.
Depending upon the species, the
sounds are emitted either through
the mouth or the nostrils. Many, if
not all, of the bats that regularly
emit their orientation pulses nasally
have a nose leaf. This appendage
may serve either to beam the sounds
into a forward, compact, conelike
shape or may instead deflect sound
from a retrograde path to the bat's
own ears. In some bats the nose leaf
may even serve to cast an echo
shadow of some sort on the ears.
Among the many bats that emit
sonar signals orally are some like
Chilonycteris, the mustache bats,
which form their mouth and lips into
a megaphone shape when doing so.
Generally, they lack a nose leaf.
Sonar signals do not spread in all
directions equally. Very little of the
sound can be detected behind, above,
or below the animal. The greatest
sound pressures occur in something
less than a hemisphere in front of a
bat's mouth or nose. Sound travels
in air at about 345 m/sec. and is in-
tercepted by objects in the fore-
ground. In general, objects large
enough to be of interest to bats, per-
haps 1 mm. or more, adequately re-
flect the wavelengths being used.
Some of the echoes reach one or
usually both of the bat's ears. They
are perceived and processed by the
ears and by acoustic interpretation
centers in the brain. The information
received appears to be adequate to
36
L flying fox endures a
ainstorm, one of the
lenalties of roosting
ut in the open.
identify the direction, velocity, dis-
tance, and some elements of the
"nature" of the reflecting surface.
We do not yet understand how bats
identify the characteristics of reflect-
ing objects by analyzing the echoes.
We do, however, have scatterings of
solid evidence, lots of clues, and
some interesting guesses.
Bats' external ears are not only
large but are usually highly mobile.
We also know they are highly direc-
tional. That is, sounds from certain
directions are received optimally
while sounds from other directions
are partially blocked. Presumably,
bats assess the direction of a sound-
reflecting object by comparing the
perceived intensity in the two ears.
In ambiguous cases, they can make
a series of judgments with the ears
and head in different positions. We
know that this method is used by at
least some bats. Reception of a sound
either slightly earlier or at a slightly
higher intensity by one ear than by
the other activates other analytical
processes.
The middle ear of bats, as of other
mammals, conveys sound from the
eardrum to the actual sense organ
of the inner ear. Two small but
active muscles reside in the middle
ear. One, the tensor tympani, alters
the tension of the eardrum. The
other, the stapedius, alters the pos-
ture of the stapes on the mem-
branous material called the oval
window, which lies in the bony wall
of the fluid-bathed inner ear. In all
mammals, these muscles contract
when extra-loud sounds are heard
or while the animal itself is barking
or speaking, yawning or swallowing.
Their function seems to be to pro-
tect the inner ear from disruptive
stimulation. When the muscles are
contracted, the transmission of
sound is diminished. In bats, we
know that the middle ear muscles
contract before each sonar pulse is
emitted and apparently serve to at-
tenuate the intensity of each outgo-
ing pulse that reaches the bat's own
ear. But the muscles usually relax
in time for optimal echo reception.
From the beginning of modern
bat-orientation studies we wondered
how bats could hear faint echoes so
quickly after emitting intense outgo-
ing pulses of sound. There are now
several answers to this question and
more probably still await recogni-
tion. Not only do the middle ear
muscles favor echo reception by
their carefully coordinated contrac-
tions, but the ears (the entire en-
capsulated complex of inner and
middle ear bones) are often quite
isolated from the skull. In some bats,
the otic capsules float in rather loose
attachment to the skull, isolated and
insulated by fatty connective tissue
or by blood-filled sinuses. The isola-
tion from the skull presumably re-
duces bony conduction of sound
from the bat's own larynx and
respiratory passages to its ears. It
also would improve the isolation of
one ear from the other for the assess-
ment of direction.
I he orientation pulses that bats
emit are predominantly of ultrasonic
frequencies. Some sheath-tailed bats
produce frequencies audible to man
(as low as 12 kHz, or 12,000 cycles
per second) along with more intense
higher harmonics. Other bats gener-
ally produce frequencies above 20
kHz. Men generally hear only up to
about 18 or 20 kHz, although young
children may be sensitive to slightly
higher frequencies. A former col-
league of mine reports that in his
childhood in India he was often kept
awake by the loud and ubiquitous
sounds of bats hawking by his bed-
room windows. His nurse, with more
limited hearing, perennially refused
to believe his excuse for remaining
awake. But even adults, sitting
quietly in a well-isolated room and
listening attentively while bats fly by,
can hear a faint but clear low-fre-
quency component of the sonar sig-
nals—the ticklaut. In some bats, cold
molossids for example, die ticklaut
is particularly prominent.
Many bats produce orientation
pulses that we describe as frequency
modulated. Such pulses sweep down-
ward in frequency, often by about
one octave. Vespertilionids, molos-
sids, and natalids, among others, pro-
duce pulses of this sort. The exact
frequency range varies with species.
Among the vespertilionids, sweeps
starting as high as 120 kHz have
been recorded. The common range,
however, is 60 to 80 kHz sweeping to
30 to 40 kHz. The fundamental
sweep is often accompanied by a sec-
ond and even a third harmonic
sweep, one and two octaves higher.
Other bats produce pulses con-
sisting of a constant-frequency (CF)
portion followed by a brief fre-
quency-modulated (FM) termina-
tion. In most of these bats, the CF
portion is characterized by at least
two prominent components, the
fundamental and its second har-
monic, an octave higher. There are
variations on these patterns. In the
slit-faced bats and the Old World
false vampires, for example, the
short orientation pulses are of con-
stant frequency but with several
prominent harmonics.
What determines the frequency
range used? Perhaps an important
consideration in selecting ultrasonic
frequencies is that less interference
is found there. Presumably, relatively
few interfering sounds— insect songs
principally— would be widespread or
conspicuous in this frequency band.
On the other hand, higher frequency
sound is attenuated by air. So per-
haps these considerations counter-
balance each other.
The frequency of pulses may sim-
ply be dictated by the dimensions
of the sound-generating organs. The
smaller and the tenser the mem-
branes, the higher the frequencies
produced. One might guess that
small bats I hence small larynges)
would produce higher frequencies,
but this is often not the case.
In general, one might expect small
bats to feed on small prey and large
bats on large prey. We do not know
if this is true, although there ought
to be some such tendency and. if it
does exist, then small bat species
ought to favor high frequencies,
27
other things being equal. The higher
the frequency, the shorter the wave-
length. Objects with dimensions of
about one wavelength seem to reflect
sound especially effectively. At about
30 kHz the wavelength is about 11.5
mm. Few naturally interesting ob-
jects would be less than 3. .5 mm. in
diameter. Spider web strands, an in-
teresting example, are poorly de-
tected by bat sonar systems and
several ultrasmall species of bats are
reported to become entangled in
them. Again, few edible objecis for
the majority of bats are much larger
than 1 or 2 cm. in diameter. Fruit,
flowers, and vertebrates are probably
detected by a different system, that
is, by olfaction. Therefore the range
of wavelengths seems roughly appro-
priate. Of course, large obstacles also
have to be detected.
Actually, in their ability to detect
objects, bats are not limited to those
larger than 3. .5 mm. in diameter.
Bats of several families have been
observed in detail while traversing
an obstacle course. Such a course
usually consists of a plane of verti-
cally hung wires spaced somewhat
less than a wingspread apart. A bat
is forced to fly repeatedly through
the obstacle plane and its score is
recorded in terms of hits and misses.
Agile individuals of most species
avoid wires with diameters down to
0.08 mm. with better than chance
scores. Since such wires are often
of the order of one-thirtieth of a
wavelength, these are impressive
performances.
Students of bat behavior have suc-
ceeded in studying insect pursuits or
other sequential events in only a few
genera. In these, however, we now
have some understanding of the
functions of pulse duration. In
Chilonycteris psilotis. for example,
the pulses produced during what we
call cruising, or searching, flight are
about 4 msec, in duration. These
bats, when hunting fruitflies in the
laboratory, show the first signs of
beginning pursuit (by shortening
orientation pulses and increasing the
repetition rate ) when they are about
600 mm., or nearly two feet, from
the insect. Sound travels at about 345
mm/msec. A 4 msec, pulse, there-
fore, has a length in air of about
1,380 mm. Since sound has to make
38
a round trip for the echoes to be
perceived, echoes from any object
closer than 690 mm. will overlap at
the bat's ear with the outgoing pulse.
Thus, C. psilotis detect an insect or
at least have their attention directed
to a given insect when their echoes
overlap with the outgoing pulse.
Given a species-characteristic
searching-pulse duration of 4 msec,
objects will always be detected as be-
ing within striking range when they
are about 600 mm. away. Such a
system means that distance (at least
for prey pursuits ) need never be
quantified or measured. Everything
beyond 600 mm. can be categorized
as "distant." Everything producing
an echo that overlaps with the out-
going pulse would be in a narrow
band, perhaps 100 mm. wide, which
we might label as "approaching."
No unnoticed objects can be closer
than this overlap band: they would
then have been detected by previous
pulses and w ould therefore have pre-
viously fixed the bat's attention.
Pulse intensity may be adapted for
detecting objects of interesting size
at this species-specific hunting range.
Pulse repetition rate and flight
speed must also be considered. If
Chilonycteiis psilotis produce about
18 pulses per second, then each pulse
is followed by a silent interval of
about 55 msec, during which the ])at
moves forward about 100 mm. Let us
assume that the bat had just missed
detecting an insect with its previous
pulse. Now it emits a second pulse.
An object previously just beyond
overlap range, that is. 700 mm. away,
will now be about 600 mm. from the
bat. The echo will now overlap by
0.6 msec, with the outgoing pulse.
If the insect is flying directly away
from or toward the bat. if the bat's
flight speed is irregular, if the pulse
durations vary, or if interpulse in-
tervals vary substantially, the
amount of overlap and the depth of
the detection band will vary, but not
substantially. Having detected an in-
sect, Chilonycteris psilotis alters its
flight path to intercept it, and simul-
taneously increases the pulse repeti-
tion rate and cuts pulse durations.
The pursuit and ca])ture of an insect
at this range takes perhaps 250 to
3.50 msec. About 200 msec, are con-
sumed by the approach pha.^e. dur-
ing which the pulse-repetition rate
rises to about 100 per second. The
last 75 msec, or so are the terminal
phase: now the rate rises to 170 per
second or more. The terminal phase
is also called the "buzz," which de-
scribes our subjective perception
when we hear the audible ticklaut
during a pursuit or listen to a pur-
suit via a transducer.
In closely related Chilonycteris
parnellii. search-phase pulses are
about 20 msec, in duration. These
bats also seem to have their attention
drawn to insect targets by pulse-echo
overlap, but because their pulses are
longer, the overlap occurs initially at
about 3.5 m. Pulse duration, there-
fore, also determines hunting range.
Following detection of an insect
at 3.5 m.. Chilonycteris parnellii first
increase their pulse durations to
about 32 msec, and then start to de-
crease them w ith closing target dis-
tance. The initial overlap is about 1
to 2 msec but after the pulses have
been lengthened, overlaps of about
20 msec, occur. These long overlaps,
declining to about 5 msec, late in the
terminal phase, characterize pursuit
in this species. What do such long
overlaps signify?
In one experimental sequence, the
bat flew across a room to an isolated
landing perch. The sequence of
pulses in such a landing is similar to
that in an insect pursuit. Brain activ-
ity w as lo^v during the emission and
perception of the CF portions of the
pulses. Initially, at a distance, the
bat may have been plotting the posi-
tions of several objects— the perch,
the wall, and so forth. As the bat
closed on the perch, it seemed to
close down the interpulse interval to
"focus" on the first of the returning
echoes. That is, it was excluding
echoes or reverberations from more
distant objects. A shallow depth of
field, w ere it to be continued for
long, would naturally leave the bat
vulnerable, but we are speaking of a
period of less than a second. Pre-
sumably the bat can open up the in-
terval if there is some reason to do
so— such as the intrusion of unex-
pected sounds or echoes. Thus, in
Chilonycteris parnellii I believe that
the purpose of lengthening the pulses
on detection is to separate out two
echo functions.
Roosting on a banana leaf, a
Malaysian short-nosed fruit
bat wraps its wings around its
belly and chest. Its feet
are in opposite orientation.
First, the CF echo is received and
processed, then the FM echo is re-
ceived (perhaps to assess target di-
rection). The way the bat regulates
pulse duration during the approach
phase holds these two functions
separate and temporarily fixed rela-
tive to one another.
In Chilonycteris parnellii, during
an approach the echo CF would
be altered by the Doppler shift,
which is imposed by the relative
velocities of the bat and its target.
The difference in frequencies, if it
were being measured, would give a
measure of relative velocity. The dif-
ference in frequencies might also re-
move the echo frequency from com-
petition with the output frequency.
Not all bats operate with pulse
durations designed to produce pulse-
echo overlaps. In addition to the
mustache bats, Rhinolophus and
Hipposideros apparently do so. But
the vespertilionids shorten their
pulse duration during insect pursuits
or obstacle course traversals so as to
preclude pulse-echo overlap. We do
not at present know enough to in-
terpret these different designs.
The orientation pulses of bats are,
in an absolute sense, always very
loud. The human threshold of hear-
ing at our best frequencies is ex-
pressed as being about 0.0002 dynes
per square centimeter. This is
1/5000 of the force needed to move
1/25 of an ounce by 2/5 of an inch.
The faintest bat orientation pulses
known are about 1 dyne per square
centimeter when recorded at about
5 cm. from a bat's mouth or nose.
Rather loud bats produce pulses at
100 or 200 dynes per square centi-
meter. These are truly intense
sounds, comparable with offensive or
even painful noise levels in civiliza-
tion such as those of subways, jet
engines, or boiler factories.
Sound spreads outward from its
source in every direction, expanding
like an ever growing sphere. There-
fore a target of given size receives
a smaller fraction of the total sound
produced as its distance from the
target increases, and less is reflected
back toward the source.
Thus the returning echo is faint
relative to the outgoing pulse. But
the returning echo from objects at
appropriate distances is loud enough
to be perceived and analyzed by a
bat. The output must be sufficiently
intense to serve adequately for the
ranges and object sizes that a bat
works with. Bats that hunt in the
open, especially at high altitudes, use
loud pulses. Loudness, in general,
also goes with long pulse duration,
probably associated with long hunt-
ing ranges.
Bats that fly in the jungle or in
the jungle canopy, also those that
fly close to walls, tree trunks, or the
ground seeking roosting victims, use
relatively quiet pulses. We often call
these the w hispering bats. Some hunt
at short range and thus avoid loss
caused by distance. In addition, they
conserve energy, reduce the output
effect on their sound-processing cen-
39
ters, and perhaps utilize an optimal
echo-intensity band.
Other whispering bats do not hunt
at short range but appear to be faced
instead by an excessively complex-
environment— vines, branches,
leaves, and thorns. I reason that in
such circumstances they may gain
advantage by reducing output in-
tensity so as to set a limit on the
range from which echo information
will return. Perhaps these bats can
process echoes from three objects at
a time or from ten or even more—
but there must be a practical limit.
By reducing the output intensity,
they concentrate their attention on
the closest objects and exclude the
rest. Such a system, of course, re-
quires slow, deliberate flight so as to
preclude colHsions with obstacles
that have not yet been examined and
to assure "seeing" an adequate pro-
portion of food objects before they
have been passed by. In fact, whis-
pering bats can normally hover or
fly slowly. (Loud pulse bats gener-
ally fly swiftly and are relatively un-
able to maneuver.) Whispering bats
also usually use short-duration
pulses. Their hunting range is rela-
tively short, and whether they use or
preclude overlap, short pulses serve
them best.
It may seem strange that I refer
to whispering bats after having said
that all bats use pulses of high in-
tensity. Those that use relatively low
intensities, especially at high fre-
quencies, are technically hard to
study. Our microphones, even today,
are relatively insensitive in the fre-
quency band of bat-orientation
pulses and are often progressively
less sensitive as the frequency in-
creases. Thus, bats are termed "whis-
perers" when we find it difficult to
record their output.
The initial studies of the bat sonar
system done by D. R. Griffin dealt
entirely with North American ves-
pertilionids, particularly Myotis and
Eptesicus. In 1953, he went to
Panama to survey the sonar systems
of bats of several additional families.
His experience with many of the
spear-nosed bats (Phyllostomatidae)
was frustrating. He was unable to
record any sound output from sev-
eral genera. His frustration paral-
leled that of SpaUanzani 150 years
40
before. How could a bat be echolocat-
ing unless it was producing orienta-
tion pulses: and if it was producing
such pulses, why could they not be
recorded? We now know that they
ivere producing orientation pulses
but Griffin's microphones were tech-
nically inadequate to record them.
In the next year. I joined Griffin's
laboratory as a research fellow newly
out of a residency in medicine. I be-
gan a series of experiments designed
to identify the mechanisms of pulse
production. Principally I systemati-
cally denervated the muscles of the
larynx, the tongue, and the palate in
order to localize the sound-produc-
ing motor organ or organs. The
cricothyroid muscles of the larynx
proved to be crucial in the vesper-
tilionids, Myotis and Eptesicus.
These bats, which had had the crico-
thyroid muscles denervated. emitted
audible peeps only and were dis-
oriented in fliajht.
A,
It that time, we had some exam-
ples of the tropical spear-nosed bat
CaroUia living in the laboratory. We
had never heard them emit any
orientation pulses. I operated on
four of them, and we were astonished
to obsene that CaroUia. after crico-
thyroid denervation, were disori-
ented in flight and, for the first time,
emitted audible peeps. Presumably
the effect had been the same as in
the vespertilionids— ultrasonic pulses
had been replaced by useless sonic
ones. Some of these CaroUia sur-
vived and several weeks after sur-
gery, we were again astonished to
find that one of them was no longer
producing audible peeps. On listen-
ing with a microphone sensitive to
higher frequencies, however, we
found that the bat was now produc-
ing ultrasonic pulses and was again
oriented in flight.
I went to Panama briefly that sum-
mer and confirmed these observa-
tions on CaroUia and several other
phyllostomatid genera. They were all
producing technically elusive ultra-
sonic orientation pulses. Dr. Griffin
and I published a paper in 1955 de-
scribing these pulses as best we
could, but our descriptions and
analyses became obsolete in 1956.
In those days any significant ad-
vance in acoustic equipment often
rendered recent experimental find-
ings completely out of date. In the
fall of 1955, for example, I collected
and studied the bats of the Old
World tropics. In the course of ten
months I worked in the Philippines,
Ceylon, and in the Belgian Congo. I
undertook the trip although tech-
nically I was no better off than I
had been in Panama the year before.
About five months out, when I was
in Ceylon, I heard from Dr. Griffin
that he had had a new microphone
built from plans that had recently
appeared in an acoustical journal. He
airmailed the microphone to me,
along with its necessary power sup-
ply and other accessories. The new
microphone. I discovered on the first
day, made almost everything I had
previously accomplished obsolete.
My Philippine observations were ir-
retrievable but I decided to restudy
all the bats that I had previously
covered in Ceylon.
The new microphone made it pos-
sible to record higher frequency and
lower intensity signals than pre-
viously, as well as the output of
many whispering bats when they
were in flight. Previously I had had
to hand-hold them directly in front
of the microphone, risking the pro-
duction of all sorts of artifacts. De-
spite the existence of even better
microphones today, many questions
still remain unanswered.
Improved equipment and research
on echolocation in other organisms,
including certain genera of birds and
several marine mammals, will help
answer some of these questions.
In the light of a pale moon
free-tailed bats continiK
the daily exodus from Brackei
Cave in Texas that begini
in full sunlight. The cav«
population totals 20 millioi
adults during the summer
-f»
'4MMii'
^
-n:
%
w*^
MAKONDE
SCULPTURE
by Megchelina Shore-Bos
// you ivant to knoiv ivho I am,
examine ivith careful eyes
that piece of black ivood
ivhich an unknoivn Makonde brother
with inspired hands
carved and ivorked
in distant lands to the l\orth. . . .
Mozambican poet Noemia de
Sousa pays tribute here to a little-
known but important tradition of
African art and to the people who
gave it birth— the Makonde. Today,
in the midst of the curios that clutter
the streets of Lourenco Marques, Dar
es Salaam. Nairobi, and other East
African cities: in the welter of cheap
imitations and made-to-order carv-
ings that fill tlie so-called African art
shops, the mastery of Makonde
sculpture is being discovered.
Before their conversion to Islam
or to Christianity, the Makonde
practiced a form of ancestor wor-
ship. Their art began as a part of
this worship. Carvings of mother
figures were based upon the ances-
tral woman from whom the tribe
sprang, and who. the Makonde crea-
tion myth tells us. was herself a
carving transformed into a human
being.
In the beginning, it is said, an
unkempt creature, the primordial hu-
man, walked the earth. He lived
among the rocks by the river, and
his wavs were the w ays of the bush.
In time he became lonely, so using
a crude knife he carved the figure
of a woman from the wood of a liv-
ing tree. When night came, he placed
it on the ground before his lair. At
sunrise the next day. he found the
figure had become a woman, and
from their union the first Makonde
was born.
The Makonde live on the northern
plateau of Cabo Delgado Province in
Mozambique and across the Rovuma
River in the Newala District of
southern Tanzania. For a long time
the Makonde plateau in Mozambique
remained relatively unknown to
Europeans. Since there w ere no natu-
ral harbors on the coast immediately
south of the river, the southern bank
never became an African or Arab
trade route, as did the Tanzanian
side. Mysterious and dense as the
plateau may have been, it never gave
rise to stories of legendary wealth or
rich resources. Waterless and cov-
ered by a tangled thicket of bush,
stunted trees, and creepers, it had
little to attract the settler or the Euro-
pean land speculator.
For the Makonde. however, this
was agricultural land. Their crops
thrived on the heavy morning dews,
and their practice of shifting culti-
vation produced excellent harvests of
maize, millet, sorghum, cassava,
pumpkin, sesame, and beans. Water
for village use had to be brought
from the lower lands, usually by
women. Mothers and daughters
made the trip, each carrying across
her shoulders a long pole with large
containers fastened to each end.
From the edge of the plateau, they
scrambled down a steep and difficult
path to the water springs in the
marshy bottom, returning with their
loads up the almost vertical ascent.
Sometimes these trips for water cov-
ered ten miles or more.
Masklike fvmale figure depicts death,
42
Carving in traditional style expresses endurance in the face of life's hardships.
43
Interlocking figures recall the collective spirit of former village society,
44
It was a difficult life, but the Ma- j
konde said that they settled in such
a place because they preferred to live
in- peace rather than in constant fear
of raids at the water sources. They
also feared epidemics of malaria and
other fevers in the marshlands and
along the river banks. It is perhaps I
impossible to say now whether their
choice of a home reflected their
character or whether that home
molded their ways, but they are al
once withdrawn and cosmopolitan, a
mixture of many contradictory and
conflicting characteristics. Through-
out East Africa they are known as a
fierce and aggressive people who
practice witchcraft, eat snakes and
rats, and are better left alone. In
fact, the Makonde of Mozambique
are called Mania, the "angry peo-
ple." The Makonde dislike this term;
yet some scholars believe that they
encouraged its use in order to pro-
tect themselves from marauding
tribes, Arab slave traders, and Euro-
pean invaders.
The structure of Makonde so-
ciety was traditionally ma-
trilineal. Like most of their
neighbors, the Makonde be-
lieved in witchcraft and sought
protection from the spirits and de-
mons who inhabited their hostile,
threatening world. The forests and
rocky outcroppings were the homes
of shetani, spirits that could lead a
man to his death. Or. they might take
possession of him. deprive him of
his reason, and transform him into
an animal or monster. Nandenga.
for example, could assume any
human form, and with lightning as
his servant, inflict evil on man. A
191.5 epidemic of smallpox is attrib-
uted to him: traveling from village
to village, he spread the disease from
a large pot. He is said to have caused
the destruction of the Bambarra
groundnut crop, and he also brought
to an end the use of cassava leaf as
a vegetable. Children are warned to
stay out of his way and not to tempt
him by carelessness or foolishness.
With the coming of Christianity
and Islam, ancestor worship and
belief in the spirit world weakened
considerably. But among older peo-
ple ancestor worship is still widely
practiced, and the younger men and
women, even those in towns and
cities, believe in it in an uneasy way.
The Makonde today live in a some-
what schizophrenic world, a world in
which things are falling apart. Their
matrilineal. horticultural society was
changed by the coming of the white
man and colonial rule, which under-
mined African ideas, beliefs, values,
cultures, and customs. Today,
Makonde laborers work on planta-
tions, farms, sisal estates, mines,
factories, and in the curio trade. In
Tanzania they are part of a newly
developing nation committed to a
philosophy of self-reliance and so-
cialism. In Mozambique they live
under colonial rule and commit
themselves in increasing numbers to
rebellion against that rule.
These social changes have natu-
rally affected Makonde crafts, and
examples of early carvings— includ-
ing boxes, staffs, masks, and figures
—are now to be found mostly in
museums. In contrast to the ebony
and other hard woods used today,
the earlier sculptures were carved
from njala, a lightweight, soft wood
similar to the cottonwood that the
Hopi Indians of America use to
carve their Katcina dolls. Makonde
masks, however, are still made from
soft wood, as are occasional figur-
ines. But time and the tropics
have taken their toll, and most of
the early carvings have disappeared
—victims of insects, fungi, and wan-
ton destruction by colonial adminis-
trators and missionaries.
The first carvings were protective
figures for the household or for peo-
ple to carry on their travels. If a man
went on a journey or a hunt, he
might bind a figure to his back or
hip and carry it with him so that the
spirit of the mother would look after
him. These figures, of various sizes,
were sometimes as high as four feet.
They were carved in a simple, real-
istic manner— erect standing figures
done in broad planes and stark lines
without nuance or subtlety.
Christian missionaries frowned
upon the "paganism and idolatory"
of this art. Many carvings were de-
stroyed, and the beliefs, values, and
customs from which this art sprang
The artist in the city turns his nimmentary and humor on modern times.
45
Old man bends under undefined hurden~the burden of all men's struggle
46
came under fierce and intense at-
tack. In place of local mother im-
ages and the figures of the spirit
world, madonnas, crucifixions, and
figures of the saints were suggested
as more suitable subjects, thus add-
ing commercial incentive, too, for
these could be sold in the churches
and markets of Europe.
Commercialism has made of most
Makonde artists either copyists or,
at best, virtuoso carvers, able to do
in a skilled manner anything that
is ordered from them. In such a sys-
tem truly motivated art tends to dis-
appear. Why should a carver work
hard and long on a piece that ex-
presses the beliefs of his people if it
will simply disappear into a sea of in-
ferior work? Despite these condi-
tions, the art surWves. There are
Makonde sculptors of dedication and
commitment who produce works of
art even as they turn out the curios
to earn their daily bread. In their
hands, sculpture continues to grow,
to develop, and to flourish. They are
not to be found in the villages any
longer, but rather in the major cities
of Mozambique and Tanzania and in
the cultural and artistic program of
the Front for the Liberation of
Mozambique.
Commercialism and the church
replaced njala with harder and more
durable woods that would withstand
time, termites, and the tropical cli-
mate. Most noted of these is ebony.
It not only transformed Makonde
sculptures into long-lasting works of
art. but changed the tools and the
techniques as well. Hammers and
chisels have been added to the knife
and the adz. The techniques re-
semble those used with stone so that
the creative process has become
slower.
The destruction of village life did
not place the artist in a vacuum:
rather, the new urbanization, the
building of a nation in Tanzania.
and the struggle for freedom in
Mozambique gave him new themes
for his work. Traditional symbols of
mothers, spirits, demons, birds,
snakes, and other figures were con-
tinued from the past, but they began
to acquire new meanings. In the
changing contexts, new symbols
were constantly being chosen.
While the tribal carvings of an-
cestors, the works intended for the
education of young girls at initiation
ceremonies, and the other carvings
made specifically for the people of
the artist's own tribe are gone, they
survive in essence in the modern
sculpture. Mother figures are often
the centers of complex, mullifigured
works. Fears, dangers, and threats
are expressed in demonic images.
Spirits, devils, men, and animals
often lend a nightmarish quality to
the Makonde portrayal of the world,
reminiscent of the paintings of
Hieronymus Bosch.
M':
'odern Makonde sculptors
are now creating new and
fluid styles, some realistic,
others expresaionistic and
symbolic. Forms flow into forms, ex-
pressing the process of being and be-
coming, and making tangible the
constant conflict of opposing forces.
To the Makonde, man resolves these
conflicts bv keeping the forces under
control in a kind of dynamic equilib-
rium. Man, himself, is never stati-
cally depicted in the figures as good,
evil, noble, or base. He. too. is the
moment-to-moment result of the
struggle of forces within and with-
out. He is man. animal, and demon.
And both men and women contain
within themselves the characteristics
of masculine and feminine. What
man is at any moment depends on
which forces are dominant, and this
in turn afFects his beha\-ior and the
judgments by which he keeps con-
tending forces under control. The
sex act. for example, has its function
—to produce children and assure the
continuity, the immortality, of the
tribe. In many of the pieces of sculp-
ture, however, it is expressed as lust,
transforming man into beast or
demon by robbing him of his mind.
The production of children also
creates economic and psychological
problems for the male head of the
household. In the midst of his love
for his children, he also experiences
feelings of hostility, aggression, even
hatred toward them, all based upon
a fear of having too many children
to look after as the society around
him becomes increasingly insecure.
The demon spirit !\'andenga unemotionally destroys the vision of a child.
47
InMakonde life cycle, mother figure towers over old age, left, and child.
These feelings are expressed in
ilakonde sculpture through depic-
tions of child murder, dismember-
ment, and torture.
It is possible in Makonde art to
recognize the stylistic characteristics
of individual artists. In the tradition
of this art, a system of master-ap-
prentice relationships was developed.
Older, established artists taught
talented youth, much in the ivav of
die old master painters of the Euro-
pean world. Each artist can proudly
refer by name to the master with
whom he studied, and thus genera-
tions can be traced in the develop-
ment of the art and of individual
styles. A period of careful studv en-
ables one to recognize the work of
such leading modern sculptors as
Muar, Nangonga. Mtundu, Atesi.
Briki, Andiki, Francesco, Samaki,
and others. And there is, of course,
excellent work by unknown artists
still to be found in northern Mozam-
bique, southern Tanzania, and even
in the shops of Dar es Salaam. Some
date back as far as the 1920's and
30 s when commercialism on a fairlv
large scale first began. Some deal
with life in the \-illage and and the
city, some with the Makonde spirit
world, some with the armed struggle
in Mozambique, and some are force-
ful and bitter commentaries on the
church's conversion policies or its
support of Portuguese colonial rule.
Although conditions constantly
threaten to engulf him and destroy
his art. the Makonde sculptor has
struggled to maintain the continuit}-
of his artistic heritage, to enlarge
upon it. and to make it expressive of
a changing societ)^ The Makonde
child can no longer be contained in
traditional huts. Neither can the
artist. He is Mozambican or Tanza-
nian. All the tribes belong to him
and he to them. All the African land-
scape and animals are his own, and
these are his new sources of inspira-
tion. In the process of change, what
was once tribal has grown into new
and vigorous commentary on rural
and urban East Africa. In the society
in \\hich he lives, his future will be
determined by those who look upon
the African heritage as a proud one.
a heritage capable of bringing added
enlightenment and a humanizing in-
fluence to this nuclear a^.
The fluid forms of expressionistic sculptures intertwine the human, the animal, and the spiritual.
49
Flench voyageurs and explor-
ers chanced upon a new taste
sensation when, in 1650. they
first encountered the wild rice
cultivated by the Indians of mid-
America. They called it folle avoine,
"wild oats." The Indians, who had
been harvesting, processing, and eat-
ing wild rice for centuries, called it
manomin. or "good berrv."
In the northern lake country of
what is now Minnesota, tribal wars
flared for two and a half centuries
over the bounty of wild rice, which
supplied 25 percent of the Indians'
caloric intake. Sioux and Chippewa
(Ojibwayl warriors fought each
other for possession of the prized
rice lakes and the valuable lands sur-
rounding them. The Sioux were re-
peatedlv driven from the woodlands
of their native northern Minnesota,
but after the Battle of Kathio in
1750. the Chippewas had undisputed
claim over the territory— that is, un-
til the white man finally drove them
from these same lands and resettled
them on nearby reservations.
Wild rice (Zizania aquatica) has
grown in shallow water along the
borders of North American lakes and
rivers for thousands of vears. It
a species of grass unrelated to ordi-i
nary cultivated rice (also a grass)
and is confined to a small portion of
the North American continent.
About three million pounds of wild
rice are harvested annuallv in Can-
ada and the United States. Minnesota
produces about 60 percent of the to-
tal. Another 35 percent comes from
the Canadian provinces of Manitoba
and Ontario, and Wisconsin pro-
duces 5 percent. These tivo states and
two Canadian provinces are not
Minnesota harvests two-thirds of the
world's wild rice. Once a dietary staple
of the Great Lakes' Indians, the rice
now graces the shelves of gourmet shops
WILD RICING
by Richard H. Hofstrand
Two-man teams harvest Minnesota's wild rice. A skilled
team may harvest 350 pounds of long-kerneled rice per day.
50
he only sections of North America
vhere wild rice grows, but they are
he only areas in which it flourishes.
\ctually, wild rice is indigenous to
m area ranging from the southeast-
;rn corner of Manitoba, eastward to
the Atlantic, and as far south as the
Gulf Coast states.
In the fall the rice plants shed their
grains, which drop to the lake bottom
and lie dormant until late spring,
when they germinate and sprout their
first leaves. During the summer
months the roots anchor the plant
securely to the bottom, while leaves
burst forth on the lake's surface and
flowering stalks shoot upward. The
fruits, or kernels, of the plant de-
velop in late summer and are ar-
ranged in large clusters, called pani-
cles, at the tops of the strawlike
stalks.
Unlike cultivated grain cereals,
which have been selectively bred for
many years to improve their quality,
the genetics of wild rice have not, as
yet, been significantly altered by
breeding techniques. Except for a
few experimental rice stands in the
Lake States region, all wild rice is of
a "shattering" variety. This means
that, unlike domestic grains, the ker-
nels of rice on a particular panicle
do not all ripen at the same time and
do not adhere to the plant head once
they mature. Wild rice begins ripen-
ing on a stalk from the top of the head
downward. Only about 10 percent of
the head ever matures at any one
time. If not harvested, the ripened
grains drop into the water and fall to
the bottom.
Harvesting wild rice, except on
commercial paddies, has changed lit-
tle since the Indians reaped their
miMMSkl
first kernels. The rice areas of Min-
nesota, totaling some 25,000 to
30,000 acres (mostl)^ on publicly con-
trolled lakes), are protected by state
laws that insure that adequate rice
remains to reseed the lakes and that
wildlife can also share in the har-
vest. Ducks, geese, deer, muskrats,
beavers, and blackbirds are partic-
ularly fond of the rice grains.
Wild rice harvesting on public
waters in Minnesota is done from a
canoe or other small boat. Measuring
no more than 18 feet in length and
36 inches in width, ricing craft are
propelled by hand (as opposed to
mechanical propulsion), using long
wooden or metal poles that will not
damage the rice. These poles are
either forked at the end or have
metal "duckbills," which expand on
a hinge when pressed against the
lake bottom and contract when
pulled back through the rice, thus
protecting the stalks. Cedarwood
flails (ricing sticks), which are ap-
proximately 30 inches long and
about an inch in diameter and that
weigh less than one pound, are used
to gently tap the rice from the stalk.
A typical ricing vessel carries two
passengers— a poler, ivho maneuvers
the craft as he stands in either the
bow or the stern, and a ricer. The
ricer sits in the front, middle, or rear
of the boat away from his partner.
Holding a flail in each hand, he al-
ternately works on either side of the
boat, bending rice stalks over the
edge W'ith one flail and gently tap-
ping ripened kernels into the bottom
with the other. Indians are particu-
larly adept at this method of harvest-
ing. Few others are skilled enough to
bring in good clean rice and often
return with reeds, rice stalks, and
broken, badly beaten rice kernels
scattered throughout their boatload
of rice.
The harvesters work all day (or
for as many hours as the law will
allow) during the three- to four-
week season, which usually begins
the last week of August. Seasons are
set according to when most of the
rice will be ripe. Hours and laws may
differ from lake to lake and from
county to county. Rest days are es-
tablished between ricing days to al-
low the stalks to rise again where
boats have run over them and to
52
allow more grains to ripen. An en-
tire rice bed may be harvested
many times during a single season.
As boats and canoes are pulled
onto the landings at the end of the
day, ricers struggle to their feet after
sitting cross-legged all day in the
bottoms of their small boats. Before
leaving the boat, they brush off the
rice that still clings to their clothing
so that none will be wasted. Every
kernel means money to tliese people
(there were 16,443 rice harvesters in
Minnesota in 1968) , most of whom
are seasonally employed laborers
who hold other jobs as iron miners,
resort employees, lumberjacks, or
marginal farmers.
Because rice hulls have a prickly
"beard" on one end, which can cause
discomfort or real pain when it
comes into contact with a harvester's
skin, ricers dress carefully, wearing
tight-fitting clothing tied with twine
at the ankles and wrists. Some use
plastic raincoats, coveralls, or cham-
bray shirts worn back^vards.
k fter docking the boats, har-
/^ vesters transfer the rice
/ ^ into cloth feed sacks. One
-L .S_ member of the team
stretches a flail across the bag's open-
ing, while the other collects the rice
from the boat bottom bv double
handfuls and dumps it into the sack.
A flail or canoe paddle is used to
pack the rice firmly into the bags
and the sacks are then tied. When
filled, each bag weighs from 50 to
80 pounds, depending on the quality
of the rice and the amount of for-
eign matter present. Buyers come to
the landings at day's end to bid on
the rice. But if a better price is avail-
able elsewhere, the har^^esters will
load their sacks into their car trunks
and head for the competitive buver.
Still other ricers will hold their goods
a few days, speculating on a price
increase. They can keep this green
rice only a few days, hoivever, be-
cause it is highly perishable. In
order to prevent spoilage from over-
heating, it must be processed soon
after harvesting. In plentiful seasons,
a pound of green rice may bring only
S.25, but in "short" years rice may
go as high as S2.65. In 1969, the
average price per pound was S.65.
At Rice Lake, on the Rice Lake ^
National Wildlife Refuge, ricing is
regulated by the Fish and Wildlife '
Service of the U.S. Department of
the Interior. Only Indians are al-
lowed to rice on these former tribal
lands. Wild rice at this particular
lake is reputed to be of top quahty !
both because the lake is reserved for
the exclusive harvest by the local
Chippeivas, ivho are excellent ricers,
and because the lake itself produces
good rice. For these reasons, buvers
congregate at Rice Lake each day of
the special ten-day season to bid on
the day's total pick of from four to
ten tons.
Since Rice Lake is on a national
wildlife refuge, the federal govern-
ment has the option of taking 8
percent of each Indian's daily har-
vest for official use in seeding new
lakes in Minnesota and other states,
an arrangement that displeases some
Indians.
On the opening day of the 1969
rice harvest, the highest-paying
buyer ($1.18 per pound) drove
away from Rice Lake's docks with
nearly S12,000 worth of rice in the
rear of his truck. The load v.ould
bring that particular buyer a three
to four thousand dollar profit after
it was processed and sold. In 1968,
1,309,300 pounds of native green
rice, mostly grown on public lands,
were harvested in Minnesota. But
^\'ild rice farmers have recently
begun to add to the wild rice output.
After years of experimentation culti-
vated wild rice, or "paddy rice," was
successfully harvested in 1952.
A wild rice farmer begins his
paddy by selecting a suitable, flat
site accessible to much water. He
clears the land, constructs eight-foot
dikes around its perimeter, tills the
soil to break apart clumps of loose
sod, and in either the fall or the
spring, he floods the completed
paddy. Then he broadcasts the seed
either from a boat or from a plane
flying low over the paddy. Due to
the high initial costs of land and de-
velopment, wild rice farming is
highly speculative. Paddies that pro-
duce a substantial crop one year may
fail completely the next. Neverthe-
less, yields from paddies (about 300
pounds per acre) far exceed those
from native stands (about 40
pounds). Farmers are hoping that
the nonshattering strains now being
grown experimentally will eventu-
ally increase their outputs to 2,000
or 3,000 pounds per acre. Presently,
only a fraction of the rice on either
native stands or domestic paddies is
actually harvested; the remainder is
lost due to inefficient harvesting
methods. While this loss does insure
reseeding in paddies and lakes, too
much rice can result in overcrowded
paddies that bring low yields the fol-
lowing year.
At present, the rice planted in pad-
dies is mostly of the same wild va-
riety that grows naturally in lakes
and rivers. It grows in similar fash-
ion, except that only about six inches
Since portions of a lake's wild rice crop ripen on different
days, teams make successive visits to each harvest area.
of water cover paddy rice plants
during the first three-quarters of the
growing season. Native rice is cov-
ered by water varying from six
inches to five feet, and the level re-
mains relatively constant through-
out the entire season.
As the rice crop approaches ma-
turity in mid-July, farm paddies are
drained to permit fields to dry. Then,
by mid-August, 16-foot-wide har-
vesting combines on half-tracks are
put to work to pick the rice. Thev
comb through a field as many as four
or five times. When all the stalks are
finally bare, the paddies are tilled,
flooded, and reseeded for the follow-
ing year. Despite its riskiness, wild
rice farming will probably produce
most of the wild rice in North Amer-
ica by 1971.
Curing, parching, threshing, win-
nowing, polishing, and grading are
the primary wild rice processing pro-
cedures. T^Tiile modern technologv
has made many changes in primitive
Indian methods, the basic proce-
dures of finishing rice remain the
same. The greatest amount of green
wild rice is finished in small, indi-
vidually operated plants, harvesters'^
cooperatives, or corporation plants.
Plants may process as much as
5,000 pounds of finished rice per day
from more than twice that amount of
green rice. Because the moisture
content of green rice is relatively
high, a weight loss of up to 60 per-
cent occurs during the parching op-
eration. An additional loss of 10
percent is attributable to unclean
rice, which contains stalks, grit, and
excess water. Occasionally, bags of
rice purchased without inspection i
from unscrupulous harvesters have
contained everything from mud tur-
tles to water-soaked trench coats.
Curing, which is the initial step in
the finishing process, takes about two
days. The rice is spread outdoors on
concrete slabs, and workers turn it
continually so that it wiU dry. During
the process, the rice changes its color
m 1
k
At day's end, harvesters beach their rice-laden canoes.
The rice is inspected for quality, transferred to grain sacks,
weighed, and sold to one of the buyers who wait on shore.
54
to a light brown. After two days of
curing, the rice is shoveled into long
metal parching drums that have
slowly turning paddles. As the pad-
dles tumble the rice, the hulls encas-
ing the green kernels are roasted to
a golden brown by the heat from the
long columns of gas burners beneath
the drums. Inside the hulls, the green
kernels turn a rich black.
Parching takes from thirty to
sixty minutes, depending on
how damp the rice is. After
it is dumped from the
drums, the rice travels by conveyor
to a screening machine, which re-
moves all foreign matter larger than
the rice itself, then moves on to the
thresher, where the chaff is removed
from the kernels.
After threshing, the freed grains
of rice are tumbled against each
other in a long tubular polisher. This
removes a portion of the grains'
heavy black coating, improving its
appearance but lessening its nutri-
tional value. Next, it proceeds to
grading machines that use gravity
and mechanical selection to sort the
long from the short grains, the
skinny from the fat, and the whole
from the broken. Most plants sepa-
rate rice into three primary grades.
The small pieces are either ground
into wild rice flour for bread and
pancake mixes or sold as an econ-
omy grade of rice.
Bulk-finished rice is then sent di-
rectly to a distributor, sold to hotels
or restaurants, or packaged for re-
tail sale. Some rice is contracted to
particular companies before the har-
vest actually takes place. Such dis-
tributors then package the rice under
their own labels and ship it to retail
markets. By the time it reaches the
retailer, wild rice may take a number
of different forms or may be in-
cluded in several different products,
including whole grain wild rice; in-
stant, freeze-dried, or precooked
wild rice; wild rice pancake, muffin,
or bread mix; wild rice croutons;
cream of wild rice soup; and wild
rice with duck soup.
Today, wild rice and its derivative
products generally fall under the
classification of "gourmet items." If
rice yields increase to levels pre-
dicted by its producers, this food
may become a relatively common
item in the American diet— although
it can never be as common as it once
was in the diets of those Americans
who discovered this wild delicacy
and perfected its harvesting.
Copyright © 7970
by Alexander Marskack
56
THE BATON
OF
MONTGAUDIER
Reindeer hunters living in France more than 12,000 years ago
discriminated season, sex, and age when they engraved
plants and animals on pieces of antler. Some images
appear to have been subsequently crossed out, hinting at
a sophisticated system of abstract representation at least
8,000 years older than what had been considered the oldest
example, the picture writings of Mesopotamia and Egypt
by Alexander Marshack
In 1885, a clublike staff of reindeer
antler, about fourteen and a half
inches long and with a hole at one
end, was dug out of deep prehistoric
layers of soil at the site of Mont-
gaudier in the Charente hills of
France. It was presumed to be a
ritual staff of some sort and was
therefore called a baton de com-
mandement, although no one knew
what its precise use had been or why
it had a hole. The baton was superbly
engraved on both faces with many
different kinds of animals. Because
reindeer had been extinct in France
for over 12.000 years, the baton had
to be at least that old.
A note in the journal of the An-
thropological Society of Paris in
1887 described it as "one of the
most beautiful specimens of prehis-
toric art known." It would be at
least 8.000 vears before art of this
qualitv— with its realism, fine line,
delicacv of detail, and indication of
Two faces of an Ice Age
baton flank a drawing of the
entire surface as it would
appear if it were "unrolled.'
perspective in the drawing of one
animal behind the other— would ap-
pear again and then it would be
found only in the highly developed
agricultural civilizations. Yet this
prehistoric engraving had been
made by the rough hand of a "primi-
tive" hunter with a stone knife.
Today we know that the baton was
made by the late Magdalenians, the
last of the reindeer hunters who
lived in Ice Age France. It disrefore
represents both the peak and the end
of an art tradition that began in Eu-
rope more than 35,000 years ago,
when the first modern men walked
into Europe carrying a new set of
tools and a beginning skill in tlie
first art of mankind. That skill con-
tinued and developed in Ice Age
Europe for 20,000 years until the
ice sheets began to melt and move
north, the herds of horse, bison, rein-
deer, and mammoth that had roamed
the tundra and valleys disappeared,
and the hunter had to change his
culture and way of life.
One hundred years ago, in the
1860's, the first examples of en-
graved art from the reindeer age
were dug out of the ground in Eu-
rope and were recognized by arche-
ologists as the product of men who
had lived long before history and
^7
Photographic enlargement and
line drawing of engraved
salmon reveal open mouth and
hooked kipe in jaw, a sign
that the fish was spawning.
had hunted animals long since extinct.
Although the first book on these
ancient engraved artifacts was pub-
lished in 1875, ten years before the
baton was found, it was not until
early in the t^ventieth century that
archeologists acknowledged and ac-
cepted the fact that these reindeer
hunters had also painted and en-
graved magnificent animal composi-
tions on the limestone walls of caves
in France and Spain. The most im-
portant of these caves, at Lascaux in
France, was discovered in 1940.
The meaning of this extraordinary
Ice Age art has been debated for a
century. Theorists have proposed
that the images were related to forms
of primitive hunting magic or to
sexual symbolism. But no one knew,
for there was no technique for "de-
coding" or even properly analyzing
the significance of this art.
The baton, for instance, posed a
series of problems. The engraved
composition contains two realistic
seals. Obviously they were drawn on
the basis of precise firsthand obser-
vation. Yet the Montgaudier site is
about a hundred walking miles up-
river and inland from the coast. Dur-
ing the Ice Age the coast of France
lay many miles farther to the west,
for a large percentage of the earth's
water was locked up in the ice sheets
that spread over much of Europe and
58
North America, and as a result, the
seas were far lower. Where had the
reindeer hunter seen these seals?
Why had he drawn them? Had the
seals come more than a hundred
miles upriver, or had the hunter
gone down the river valleys toward
the coasts? Was the reindeer hunter
of France, like the modern Eskimo,
a seasonal hunter of diverse species
in different terrains ? Had he hunted
reindeer in one season and seal in
another? We may never know, for
any campsites that existed along the
coasts are now deep under water.
Besides, seals appear rarely in tlie
reindeer hunters' art, and even rein-
deer images are infrequent when
compared to the number of images
of other animals— horse, bison, and
mammoth.
In 1967, the baton of Montgaudier
suddenly began to give us new in-
formation that placed the meaning of
mankind's first art on a new plane
and gave us important new clues to
the intelligence and culture of this
Ice Age hunter. The baton is rarely
seen, either by archeologists or the
public, for it lies under glass in a
dim cabinet as the only engraved
artifact from this period that is on
exhibit at the French museum de-
voted primarily to animals and their
evolution, the Musee d'Histoire Na-
turelle in Paris. Hundreds of better
known examples of engraved Ice Age
art are displayed in other French
museums that specialize in the artis-
tic works of man.
It is doubtful whether more than
half a dozen archeologists have han-
dled the baton or seen both engraved
faces. It is known primarily through
a line drawing of the compositions
on both faces that was published in
1927 by the Abbe Henri Breuil, the
Catholic churchman who is consid-
ered "the father of European pre-
history."
In 1967, after cleaning the baton
with alcohol to remove the heavy
coat of protective wax with which it
had been covered by the museum
staff, I began examining it with a
modern binocular zoom microscope.
For three days I scanned it slowly,
area by area, making micrographs as
I proceeded. In the first hour I knew
that the composition was signifi-
cantly different from what had been
previously seen or described. When
the analysis was complete, the baton
had become a new document. This
was the first time the technique of
microscopic examination had been
used experimentally on these pre-
historic engravings. The information
revealed made it possible to re-
evaluate the cognitive capacities of
early man. It placed the art of this
hunter on a level with his tools as
in important element of his culture.
In the eighty years since the baton
vas discovered, archeology has
frown up and matured. When the
)aton was excavated, the search for
:arly man was in its infancy. Charles
Darwin had published his revolu-
ionary book Descent of Man in
1871, thrusting the search for the
Drigins and evolution of man upon
science. Yet when he wrote the book,
Darwin had no knowledge of diis
prehistoric art, he knew of no early
skeletons, and he was only vaguely
aware of the existence of certain pre-
historic stone tools. In the hundred
years following his book, the dis-
covery of these stone tools in the
archeological layers helped form
the opinion that the hominid who
had evolved to become man was
basically and primarily a toolmaker.
Through his use of tools he had be-
come supreme and had conquered
the earth. As a result, the art of these
early men w as considered subsidiary.
Archeologists, referring to his tools,
call the period of the reindeer hunter
the Upper Paleolithic, or Late Stone
Age, but there is no term that recog-
nizes that this was also the first age
in which there appeared a complex
human art and symbol. The new in-
formation revealed by the micro-
scope hints that the development of
this intellectual symbolizing skill
was, perhaps, more important in the
eventual development of civilization
than were tools.
The first autliors described the
baton of Montgaudier as displaying
two species of seals, a fish, two eels
or snakes, one insect, and certain
unknown creatures. The Abbe Breuil
later reported that the fish was a
mackerel with its mouth closed, and
that the serpentine forms were a
common variety of garden snake.
Breuil, using only a magnifying
glass, could make no sense of the in-
numerable minor figures he saw,
which he therefore presented as un-
recognizable blobs.
J. he microscope revealed at once
that the fish is a salmon with its
mouth open. The tiny engraved fish,
about one and a half inches long,
has the body markings of the sal-
mon, the lower fins are in their
proper places, and carefully en-
graved on the lower jaw is the hook,
or "kipe," that the male salmon
grows during the season of the
species' migratory struggle upstream
and subsequent spawning. Only the
tail and the upper dorsal line are
cramped and distorted, and the mi-
croscope showed that this is so be-
cause a sharp ledge drops off at this
point and ends this face of the baton.
Behind this edge is a break on the
bone. The distortion had been forced
upon the artist by the abruptness of
the edge. This is not a generalized
fish, or even a fish of a particular
species, but a fish w ith differentiated
sex and seasonal attributes. Rarely
had specialists noted such detailed
seasonal observation in Ice Age art.
Near the mouth of the salmon are
some of the uncertain forms noted
by earlier prehistorians. They are
so small, they were either disre-
garded or given the quickest of ex-
aminations. The microscope re-
vealed that one of these forms is the
perfectly realistic image of a spring
sprout, including a careful engrav-
ing of the downward-pointing
branched roots and the upward
spreading leaves. The image is only
half an inch high and looks as
though it might have been engraved
with the aid of a jeweler's magnify-
ing glass. No such specialized plant
image had ever been reported for the
Ice Age.
Near the sprout, above and to the
right, lightly engraved and only one
thirty-second of an inch larger, is a
more complex image. The micro-
scope revealed that it is the schema-
tized head of an ibex, or mountain
goat, with its two ears and two large,
curved horns clearly indicated. The
muzzle is a mere angle composed of
four strokes. Exceedingly faint, but
clear under the microscope, is an X
across the brow of tliis abstract ani-
mal head, as though it had been in-
tentionally and symbolically marked
or crossed out after it had been
made. This is a most unusual
image— unrealistic and almost ap-
Ears and arced horns identify
a schematized ihex. It
appears to have heen crossed
out with an X across the
hrow, which may say something
about a rite or ritual.
59
Detail never before associated
with the Ice Age appears in
the half-inch image of a
young plant, complete with
spreading leaves and roots
reaching down into the ground.
while the hnear structure of thel
leaves and the exceedingly long stalkj
are entirely dilferent from the formj
of a possible feathered dart. Therei
are engraved or painted harpoons
and darts in Upper Paleolithic art
(I have studied and written about'
them ) , but they have entirely differ-
ent forms. These are plants, and
analysis, over a six-year period, of a
large proportion of Upper Paleo-
lithic engraved art indicates that
many of the so-called barbed wea-
pons present in animal compositions
(such as this one from Montgaudier)
are, in fact, not weapons, but plants.
Here was evidence that suddenly
raised profound questions about the
traditional concept of archeology
concerning hunting magic, ideas that
were once thought to explain many
of the Ice Age compositions.
On the reverse face of the baton,
below the intertwined serpentine
images, is another series of forms.
The Abbe Breuil could make no
sense of these tiny engravings. In
1886 one of the forms had been
called an "insect"; in Breuil's draw-
ing it looks like a medallion or a
shield. Under the microscope, how-
proaching the stage of a sign or a
symbol— that apparendy served some
purpose or use beyond that of mere
art. The X seems to be indicating
something about a rite or ritual.
Now precisely this form of the sche-
matized ibex head, seen front on.
appears on other engraved pieces of
the Magdalenian period, and usually
it is a small, subsidiary image, part
of a complex composition containing
larger figures. These ibex images are
also occasionally yY'ed out. Had I
stumbled on an example of a kind of
symbol and notation that existed
thousands of years before the first
pictographic and hieroglyphic writ-
ing of Mesopotamia and Egypt?
To the right of the ibex head there
is a still smaller form, which at first
seems unrecognizable. The micro-
scope, however, can track all the in-
tentionally made marks, and it
showed that the form may be an
extremely schematized, secondary
"ibex head," indicated only by the
strokes of the arced horns. The mi-
60
croscope also showed that this image
was deliberately crossed out by two
horizontal lines. Was this further
proof that something symbolic was
being notated and said? These three
images near the salmon are so small
ihey cannot be considered art or
decorative motifs.
As the microscopic examination
proceeded, the mystery deepened
and the questions increased in num-
ber. To the left of the fish and the
tiny images, near the bottom of the
baton, are three forms of the type
that, for half a century, were con-
sidered by French archeologists to
represent barbed weapons, whether
they appear in cave art or were en-
graved on smaller objects. They
were presumed to be an indication of
the so-called hunting magic that was
apparently impHed by Ice Age art.
The microscope showed that these
three forms are carefully drawn
plants. The fluid, arced leaves are
angled the wrong way to be effective
as barbs at the point of a harpoon,
5ver, the tiny form turned out to be
a perfectly formed flower in full
bloom. The engraving included the
pedicel, sepal, leaves, and petals in
what appear to be bud form.
had not even finished my micro-
scopic examination, and yet, on a
single object and in one composi-
tion, I had found that an Ice Age
hunter had engraved three different
aspects of plant life, each represent-
ing a separate stage of maturation.
This was as startling as the hook on
the jaw of the salmon. In almost a
century of interpretation there had
never been any discussion that
touched on the possibility that this
early hunter or his art was con-
cerned with such extraordinarily
precise details of his natural world
and its seasonal processes. Almost
all interpretations had been con-
cerned with hunting magic or sexual
symbolism. It is important to remem-
ber that the baton was engraved
many thousands of years before true,
formal agriculture began along the
hillsides of Mesopotamia. Yet here
^
H-
These engravings near the
bottom of the baton appear to
be plants in full leaf. Previously
identified as barbed weapons,
they had given rise to speculation
about Ice Age hunting magic.
more schematized ibex head,
)bably too small to be
isidered art, also seems to
v^e been crossed out, this
16 by two separate lines.
was both a recognition and a record-
ing, or symbolization, of vegetal dif-
ferentiations and seasonal processes.
Why had the hunter been interested?
These tiny images were clearly not
decorative. What was the artist try-
ing to say or record? What meaning
did these plants have in his life?
What stories went with the images?
Did the knowledge and lore implied
in them have anything to do with the
general cultural preparation for the
development of agriculture that
would come later?
To the left of the flower are three
odd creatures, each containing the
same details. Each has an arced
"back," a pointed, stubby "tair' or
"head" at the left, and a series of
tiny centipedelike feet (or a ciliated
fringe) along the bottom. At right,
each has an appended "foot," and
each ends with strokes that form a
kind of "beard." The appearance is
that of a sluglike creature of low or
damp ground or the water bottom.
Since the three forms have the same
basic details, they clearly represent
a species. With all the intentionally
engraved lines now documented, it
should not be difficult for the zoolo-
gist or naturalist to attempt an iden-
tification of the odd creature.
There is one final group of minor
images, six tiny angles deeply cut in
a linear series between the two faces
(page 62). Like the X engraved on
the head of the ibex, these are not
realistic images. Nor are they particu-
larly decorative. Instead, like the A,
they seem to be abstracted marks
with some symbolic meaning. These
angles raise a different set of ques-
tions concerning Ice Age symbolism
and are ])art of another, more diffi-
cult study.
We can no^v turn our microscope
on the major images, the two seals
and the two serpentine forms. Ex-
amination of the seals revealed that
the engraver had difi'erentiated, with
care, not two species as was thought
earlier, but a bull seal with its large
and hea\T muzzle and a smaller,
6i
Sluglike creature has many feet
or cilia, a pointed head or
tail at left, and a large "foot"
and a "beard" at right.
Above the animal is one of
six deep-cut abstract angles.
more delicate seal, probably a fe-
male, although it could be a young
animal. In either case, we again have
■'seasonal" images, because the
dominant bulls collect their harems
of females and mate in a limited
season during tlie summer, and the
young, too, are born and begin to
swim in particular seasons.
The serpentine images on the
baton were at first called eels, but
the Abbe Breuil said that the geo-
metric pattern of their markings and
the presence of the pointed phallus
suggest that they are nonpoisonous,
common grass snakes of the family
Colubridae. snakes that "reappear"
in the springtime and can be seen
swimming in the flooded streams.
The microscope showed that one of
the snakes has an open mouth.
What we have, then, is a compo-
sition in which diverse species from
separate realms (ocean, river,
ground, and mountain I are differ-
entiated according to their season of
appearance, sex, and stage of ma-
turation. All the images are of the
spring and summer. We can conjec-
ture that the precision of rendition
had a complementary vocabulary
for naming and identification, and
that it probably also included a lore
with which the hunter explained the
seasonal reappearance of the species
involved and probably the general
rebirth of spring and summer.
X f the Ice Age hunter had such
highly developed skills of observa-
tion and recognition in the diverse
realms of his environment, with a
presumed lore and mjthology to go
with them, what happened when the
ice melted and his environment
changed? Was he then able to use
these intellectual skills, of which he
has given us evidence, as well as his
knowledge of seasonal periodicities,
in the transition toward agriculture
or specialized fishing? To what ex-
tent did symbol making, that is,
"art," as well as ritual and ceremony
make it possible for him to retain
this basic lore and knowledge of the
seasons even as the species around
him changed?
How much more will the micro-
scope tell us about the range and
quality of this early hunter's
thoughts? Hundreds of engraved
compositions now lie in Europe's
museums and thousands of engraved
and painted images are still on the
walls of the sanctuary caves. Can we
eventually break the code of such
mysterious symbols as the cross and
the angle and learn the meaning of a
vast range of other symbols that this
early man has left us? Can we learn
the meaning of the sequence of his
engraving, for obviously the large
animals on the baton were engraved
first and the smaller images later?
Is it possible to determine the
meaning of the schematized ibex
heads? Can we find any clues to
rituals held in the spring and sum-
mer that may have involved the sac-
rifice of the ibex? Can analyses of
complex engraved compositions,
such as those on the baton, give us
clues to the meaning of the composi-
tions in the caves? Can microscopic
analysis of the holes tell us for what
purpose the batons were used?
The questions are endless. But the
evidence indicates that this man was
thinking and doing, observing and
saying something far beyond what
we have given him credit for. This
man was our first true ancestor. He
is the first fully modern man, and
his art and symbols may tell us more
than his tools ever did.
62
For years, six tiny images like
this one defied description.
Under the microscope they
appear to be flowers in bloom —
complete with pedicel,
sepal, leaves, and petals.
N
^^^
THE GULLS
OF WALNEY ISLAND
by Barbara R. and
Michael H. MacRoberts
The South Walney Nature Re-
serve, on Walney Island off the
northwest coast of England, is a
montage of terns plunge diving in
the shadow of rusting machinery, of
March gales, of mussel beds on the
edge of the low-tide beach, and of
jackdaws nesting inside Piel Castle.
The cranes and docks of Britain's
industrial north loom above the
island's mudflats in juxtaposition
with the crag of Black Combe in the
distance and the green fells of the
lake country across Morecambe Bay.
Gravel trucks bump along the road
from the island's south end, past the
sand dunes and marram grass to the
cities and towns of Cumberland and
Lancashire. The mounds of earth and
pebbles thrown up by the gravel ex-
cavations gradually cover-in meadow
buttercups, and later ragwort and
thistle.
The changing colors of the island's
landscape through the short time of
the breeding season are the expres-
sion of a wide variety of wild flowers
and grasses: oyster plant and sea
holly, yellow agrimony and fox-and-
cubs, horned poppy and henbane,
and the flowers of the fells such as
harebell, heath, and gorse. The
bracken, a glowing brown in winter,
rulls return to Walney after
oraging at Barrow-in-Furness,
'^isible in the background
re the cranes and docks of
Iritain's industrial north.
grows green and velvet in summer.
Walney Island, a seabird breeding
area from time immemorial, is one
of the more spectacular gull colonies
in Europe— with some 70,000 herring
and lesser black-backed gulls nesting
on the 230 acres of the nature re-
serve at the south end of the island.
The area is rich in food not only
from the marine fauna of the tidal
banks of Morecambe Bay and the
beaches of the Irish Sea but also from
the refuse of industrial towns, like
Barrow-in-Furness across the chan-
nel from the reserve, the fishing har-
bor of Fleetwood, and the garbage
dumps of Millom.
In the middle of the last century,
the town of Barrow began to expand,
and man's encroachment into their
breeding areas on the north end of
the island threatened to force the
birds out, but today Walney 's gulls
are protected and have re-established
themselves on the southern end of
the island. The old depredations of
egg collecting and human interfer-
ence are rare. Predators of the past,
like fox and stoat seldom visit the
colony, and hawks no longer cast a
hunting eye over the guUery.
Because of their great numbers,
the gulls are the most striking in-
habitants of the Walney Reserve, but
many other seabirds, waders, and
fieldbirds are found on the island's
south end. Oystercatchers and ringed
plover nest along the high-tide line
and in winter feed here in great
numbers. A pair of mute swans re-
turn every year to raise their four to
six gray young along the banks of
green-scummed ponds. Lapwings
nest on the reserve as do skylarks,
clutches tucked away in the grass;
reed buntings and the snipes and
meadow pipits nest in the pasture
and heath; and stonechats and swal-
lows, in the crevices of gun emplace-
ments left derelict from the war.
On summer days the harsh voices
of greater black-backed gulls give the
air a grumbling undertone. Terns,
which nested in the main reserve
forty years ago, are confined today
to the spit in front of the lighthouse.
This small pebbled peninsula appears
quite bare of nests at first glance, but
after careful searching, the tiny cryp-
tic eggs of little tern suddenly appear
and the downy chicks of arctic, com-
mon and Sandwich terns jump into
focus against the mottled back-
ground.
Shelduck nest in holes in the banks
of hills and dunes, and mallard star-
tle from the brackish pools and reeds
of the salt marsh. These ducks have
great difficulty in raising their young
on the gravel ponds in the middle of
the guUery. The parent birds' de-
fenses are inadequate to cope with
aerial predators in such numbers;
as the gulls hover above, the duck-
lings scatter and dive, only to be
picked off one by one as they surface.
Unlike the shelduck and mallard,
the eiders have been very successful
on the reserve, and over the past
twenty years their numbers have in-
creased. The defense of the female
eider differs radically from that of
the other ducks; she remains in the
water and furiously stands off tlie
swooping gulls; her young, instead
of scattering, cluster around her at
the first sign of attack. Even on the
ponds where most shelduck and mal-
lard young fall prey to the gulls, the
eiders successfully raise their duck-
lings. Eiders begin to come ashore at
the end of March, and early spring
sees the water bright with drakes. By
July the sea and bay are dotted with
brown females and their young, and
long files of hardy black ducklings,
trailing behind their mothers and
often surrounded by other eider
'"aunties," march down to tlie water
a few hours after hatching. By Au-
65
gust, nearly all the ducks have gone
to sea with their young, the drakes
ha\'ing left earlier to molt. One
awaits die next season with especial
anticipation of the beaches covered
with these elegant birds.
It is, however, the return of the
gulls in earlv spring that signals the
beginning of a new cycle. During
February, March, and April the
lesser black-backs return from their
winter quarters in Spain and North
Africa. Those herring gulls that have
spent the winter scattered over north-
western Europe begin to congregate
in and around the reserve in early
February, swelling the ranks of
herring gulls that overwinter on Wal-
ney itself. At first the birds spend
only part of the day in the colony
i\here the}- ^vill later establish ter-
ritories, and even as late as mid-
March the colony may be deserted at
night when the birds leave for the
open beaches, a safer habitat during
dark hours.
The beginning of the breeding sea-
son is a time of settling and unrest.
Most individuals remain attached to
the same mate from year to vear and
set up territories on. or close to. the
area where they nested the previous
spring: but birds returning to their
old nest sites often find their owner-
ship contested by unmated males,
many of which are breeding for the
first time. In a welter of calling and
posturing, the males fight to establish
territorial rights. Females take a less
active part in these early territorial
disputes, which, more often than not
are bluffs rather than battles, al-
though later in the season when they
have paired, the females will defend
their homesites with equal vigor.
Since these gulls generally are
monogamous, the many widowed or
unmated birds are faced with the
problem of finding mates. Lone fe-
males survey the colony from the air
and land on territories of single
males. They approach hesitantly and
come within several feet of the male,
their "mixed feelings" apparent in
their elongated necks and nervous
back and forth approach. The male
alternates between accepting this
strange bird as a desirable mate and
greeting her as an intruder on his
hard-won territory. If, in response to
his gestures, she comes close, he may
suddenly pull and peck at her and
66
drag her about by one wing. This
period of mutual distrust and attrac-
tion, so evident from the postures of
the birds, gradually wanes and am-
bivalence is eventually replaced by
the solidity of the pair bond. As ter-
ritorial boundaries are settled and
pairs form, the colonv becomes
quiet. By late March and early April
territorial sparring and mate-hunt-
ing females are infrequent sights.
The herring gulls favor the
easternmost part of the re-
serve, and they establish
their territories on the turf-
and marram-covered hills or on the
sand dunes common to this part of
the gullery. The lesser black-backs
favor the western sections of the col-
ony, nesting in the bracken and grass
valleys and on hummocks. However,
much overlap occurs, and in mixed
areas a quick perusal of nest loca-
tions shows that the herring gulls
build their more elaborate nests pre-
dominantly on high elevations, and
the lesser black-backed gulls build
their simpler, turf-lined scrapes in
valley bottoms and on gentler slopes.
By early April, the colony is a
patchwork of mated pairs busy with
nest building. During the time be-
fore the eggs are laid, a male feeds
his female a few times a day on half-
digested food that he regurgitates at
her begging request. Mating takes
place several times daily, but ceases
abruptly as does ''courtship feeding"
when the egg laying begins in the
third week of April. The usual clutch
is three blotched brown-and-green
eggs, and although the majority of
herring gulls lay earlier tlian the
lesser black-backs, there is consider-
able overlap of laying dates. In each
species the parents incubate in turn
and keep a sharp eye out for egg-
robbing neighbors. The brooding
birds are difficult to drive off the nest,
but when annoyed they dive at in-
truders, hit out with bill and feet,
and scream insistently.
Thirty days after the eggs are
laid, the chicks begin to hatch
and the tempo in the gullery quick-
ens. Not long out of the shell, wet
and helpless, the chicks quickly
metamorphose into animated down
and scurry into the grass and
bracken. With heads hidden and
tails exposed, they crouch at the first
sign of disturbance. The parents are
kept busy guarding their fast-grow-
ing offspring and the many badly
pecked corpses of chicks attest to the
need for watchful parental eyes.
Neighboring gulls are serious preda-
tors on both eggs and young. The
adults are busy, too. with feeding
runs to the rubbish dump and shore-
lines, although food is apparentlv so
abundant on Walney that the chicks
do little begging. It is not unusual to
see parents reswallow food ignored
by already gorged young.
By late July and August the
speckled chicks have grown into
sleek, mottled brown birds, now as
large as the adults and flying well.
The birds gradually become restless
in the colony and panic easily: great
clouds of gulls shoot up from the
dunes and valleys at the slightest dis-
turbance. The adults spend more
time outside the breeding grounds on
the beaches and mudflats, and large,
loafing groups of juveniles cluster
near the shore. The days become
more and more empty of gulls. By
late September the colony is a litter of
food debris and molted feathers;
the gulls are gone, leaving a scatter
ragged nests and dying bracken,
b the cycle draws to a close, the
;er black-backs migrate to the lit-
al of Spain and North Africa, al-
ugh in recent decades some of
ir number have begun to over-
iter in northern Europe. The her-
s; gulls disperse into areas close to
ir summer residence, but many
!r\vinter in and near the camp.
3ver the last fifty years there has
;n a spectacular increase in the
rth Atlantic gull populations, and
lay hundreds of colonies dot the
item and western Atlantic sea-
ards. Symptomatic of this increase
numbers has been the extension
the breeding range of both species,
e lesser black-back, which does
t breed in North America, has now
en reported as far west as New-
indland in winter. Why the gulls
3 becoming so numerous is an in-
•esting question, and by pooling
; data of many observers it may be
ssible to piece together an answer.
From the meager beginning of a
iv pairs in the 1920's. the Walney
pulation has grown to about 35,-
0 pairs, doubling in number in the
3t four years alone. Initially the
lony spread at its periphery when
gulls acquisitioned new land for
breeding sites. Later the density in-
creased, and between 1965 and 1969
the population doubled primarily by
an increase in density, although
some expansion occurred. In these
four years, the size of territories
decreased from approximately 40
square yards per nesting pair to 25
square yards. In some areas of the
guUery, the density is much higher.
Although the initial settlement of
a colonv must, of course, involve im-
migrant birds, further expansion of
colonies like Walney is due to the
tendencv of young birds to return to
nest in the colony of their origin.
This gives us some idea of the ap-
proximate survival rate of birds.
Food and predators are important
factors in containing the numbers of
animals, and it is probable that the
gulls on both sides of the Atlantic are
living today under conditions some-
what different from those under
which they evolved in the past. Their
breeding areas along the Atlantic
coasts have brought them into in-
creasing contact with an expanding
human population, which has af-
fected the environment in ways that
may give clues to understanding the
Herring and black-backed gulls
swarm over the Walney dump,
where more than l.'i.OOO tons of
human refu.se are deposited
each year. Since 19 IS there
has been less ash and more
foodstuff in the refuse, and
many more gulls feed on it.
67
tremendous increase in gull numbers.
Human activity in many areas has
contributed to the extinction or de-
crease of animals such as the fox,
stoat, weasel, eagle, and hawk, which
have been predators on the gulls. In
Britain, these once important pred-
ators are rare or absent in many
localities, and on \^ alnev there are
no important predators of this sort
todav and it is likely that there have
not been for some time. However,
elsewhere foxes still predate gulls,
and this may contribute to the low
gull populations in those areas.
Man's protection of these and
other seabirds further reduces na-
tural losses. Today man)^ gull col-
onies like Walney are relatively free
not only from such predators as the
fox but also from the depredations
of egg collecting and the killing of
young birds for food bv the human
inhabitants. For example, in the late
nineteenth century, herring gulls
were uncommon in Xew England
where today they number in the
hundred thousands: men took the
eggs and young for food and the
skins for the plumage trade. In Brit-
ain. Lundv Island and Bardsev off
the \^'elsh coast still suffer from egg
collection, and this may be one rea-
son that their gull populations have
not increased at the same rate as
other, protected colonies.
Just as important, man has also
created a situation of potential food
abundance. His dumping of exposed
garbage, his fishing industries, and
his slaughterhouses are food sources
for scavenging gulls. Sewage outlets
run into many feeding grounds of the
gulls. The affluent society of western
Europe and North America, which
throws awav so much, has led to an
increase in edible refuse.
For Walney's gulls, the food sup-
ply is large. The flight distance is
about one hour each way to the
rubbish at Fleetwood and Millom.
The rubbish dump on the island it-
self, where all the refuse from Barrow
and Walney is dumped— some 15,-
000 to 19,000 tons a year-is about
two miles from the gullery. Due to a
better standard of hving since the
war. householders throw away more
foodstuffs. With the use of new forms
of fuel, there has been a decrease
in the ash content of household ref-
use, ivhich may have previously im-
peded the gulls' effective exploitation
of these sources. All the Barrow gar-
bage dumps have been within an
eight-mile radius of the colony, and
there has been a large increase in the
number of gulls feeding on them over
the past several years.
A though both are marine
aquatic birds, the herring
gull is more coast-bound
. than the lesser black-back ;
it scavenges from fishing vessels, gar-
bage scows, and dumps and also
shore feeds on intertidal fauna. In-
land it occasionally follows the farm-
er's plow in search of worms and
insects turned up. The lesser black-
back, although not avoiding shore-
line feeding, has traditionally been a
fisherman in waters of the continen-
tal shelf, in estuaries and sometimes
inland, but more recentlv it too has
begun to exploit human refuse. Feed-
ing habits in these two species over-
lap considerably, perhaps more so
in the last several decades. At Walnev
both herring and lesser black-backs
can be seen patrolling the shoreline
and intertidal area for fish and
marine invertebrates and for edible
debris washed up on the beaches.
Food remains around the nests attest
to a widespread use of the refuse
dumps; butter wrappers and chicken
bones usually outnumber the remains
of natural food items.
Information on glaucous-winged
gulls on the North Pacific coast, on
herring gulls in New England and
Canada, and on other gulls elsewhere
in Europe also suggest that food
abundance is an important factor in
population increases. Researchers of
the Massachusetts Audubon Society
have observed that along the coasts
of New England. Nova Scotia, and
Newfoundland the largest and den-
sest gulleries are near sources of
human refuse. Islands at some dis-
tance from such sources are sparsely
settled even though the habitat does
not differ from sites near centers of
human population.
In the Netherlands, the gulls have
increased despite attempts to control
their numbers. During the war con-
trol measures were not taken; yet.
due to the general food shortage for
the human population, the gulls de-
creased. After the war, when food
was again abundant, the gulls began
to increase, although measures to
control bird numbers were rein-
stated.
Dispersal figures for young and
adult gulls show that not only during
the breeding season, but also during
the winter months, gulls concentrate
in large numbers in areas such as
harbors, large cities, and big coastal
ports. Refuse may be important for
the survival of adult birds during
times of winter stress and may be
especially important for juveniles in
their first year of independence. In
New England, when chicks first leave
the colony at the end of the breeding
season, they congregate in large num-
bers at sewer outlets, fish factories,
and near fishing boats, pig farms,
and dumps. Winter surveys of gulls
from Mexico to Canada have shown a
disproportionately larger number of
young birds at dumps than at natural
feeding areas.
Although the natural foods of the
guUs ( fish, intertidal fauna I have not
increased drastically, the human ref-
use on Walney and elsewhere ap-
parently can support a very large
number of birds. What the potential
gull population maj^ be, we do not
know.
One can conclude, then, that the
factors of decreased predation, pro-
tection, and increased food avail-
abihty— all related to man's behavior
—are the bases of the burgeoning gull
numbers. All these factors are im-
portant at the Walney colony, which
is a dramatic example of a population
explosion. It would not be surprising
to see 100.000 gulls breeding on the
reserve in the next few years, and for
some time to come, Walney likely will
remain the astounding place it is
today.
Cattle graze among th
evenly spaced gulls in part o
the South Walney Naturi
Reserve. Some 70,000 gull
nest in the 230-acre reserve
A QUESTION OF PRIORITIES A panel of
leading U. S. astronomers has published a S250-mil-
lion-a-year ivish list of what they ivould like done in
space during the 1970"s. They have already been told
not to hope for even half of what they asked.
Excited by the starthng discoveries of the last ten
years, astronomers are eager to push farther into space
along the new avenues opened to them at gamma-ray,
X-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths. All are us-
able only above the earth's atmosphere, and satellites
offer months and years of observations in place of the
present rocket and balloon measurements lasting only
minutes or hours. Even without more money, space
astronomers could easily get ahead of themselves. Com-
pared with the total space budget (currently "reduced '
to S4 billion), the $125 million apparently left for space
astronomy is modest, if not austere. But compared witli
the capital budget for ground-based optical astronomy,
it represents unimaginable riches. And without ade-
quate ground-based support, space astronomy could find
itself operating in a vacuum it never intended.
The 200-inch Palomar telescope has been unique
since it was completed in 1949, able to see farther out
into the universe and further back in time than any
other telescope. Only the most promising observational
programs are accepted for it, and then the researcher
may have to wait as long as fourteen months for
his turn. Yet to build another Palomar even at today's
prices, would cost only S25 million. Spread over five
years, this figure is a small fraction of even the current
NASA budget for astronomy.
Many astronomers were publicly bitter when the first
Orbiting Astronomical Observatory failed to operate
after launch in April, 1966. Horace W. Babcock, di-
rector of the Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories,
pointed out in Science that the $62 million spent on
the satellite could have paid for three more Palomar
telescopes (including site development and smaller sup-
porting instruments ) at then prevailing prices.
Two 150-inch telescopes, one in vVrizona and one in
Chile, have been started by U. S. agencies since then,
but they will not meet even existing demand. And space
astronomy project will create new demand. Whenever
a new object is discovered at some exotic wavelength,
further study at the traditional wavelengths usually pro-
vides most of the information— as happened with
quasars and is happening now with X-ray sources. The
ground-based telescope must be large, because the new
objects are, almost invariably, optically faint. Without
accessible, large optical telescopes, discoveries made in
space would remain only tantalizing hints of knowl-
edge yet to be gained. The same sort of argument has
been used against the current schedule of frequent
Apollo trips to the moon— many feel we should not
make a new trip for more information until we have had
time to digest tlie information from the last one and
can plan the next one accordingly.
The space astronomy panel calculated that just the
70
four astronomy satellites already funded, if they work
as long as expected, will require 2.5 years of observa
tions on both of two new 200-inch telescopes to com
plete the picture of the ultraviolet and X-ray objects
being studied.
Perhaps the most important items on the panel's wish
list are, not the orbiting optical and radio telescopes
tlie gamma- and X-ray detectors, and the improved Ex
plorer spacecraft, but the new Palomars on earth, which
the panel feels are essential if space astronomy is to
reach its potential.
INFRARED GALAXIES The betting now seems
to be that all galaxies have extremely bright infrared
sources in their nuclei. In our own galaxy, a small por-
tion about a light-year across radiates in the infrared
with a power some 100 milhon times that of the sun.
And ours is the weakest of the dozen or so galaxies
measured so far.
The infrared portion of the spectrum lies between
visible light and microwaves, the most energetic of the
radio waves. Most infrared radiation cannot penetrate
the earth's atmosphere: it can be observed and measured
only when the instruments are above as much of the
atmosphere as possible— 50,000 feet is standard.
The first galactic infrared "excess" was recognized
only in 1964: the quasar 3C 273 was found to be radi-
ating more power in the infrared than at all other w ave-
lengths. Astrophysicists wanted to know- why this tre-
mendous amount of energy was being released, and
why it was being released in the infrared. A pioneer in
infrared astronomy, Frank J. Low of the University of
Arizona recently offered one solution at the Boston
meeting of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science.
Low^ suggested that just this sort of radiation should
be dominant if matter and antimatter were forming and
then annihilating within small "cells" inside galactic
nuclei. Resultant high-energy particles would radiate in
the infrared as they moved at relativistic speeds through '
a magnetic field. Newly created mass would not be radi-
ated away, but would accumulate in the nucleus until
ejected.
If this much is true (and galactic ejection of mass is
almost certainly going on) , then Low proposes that we
can measure the age of a galaxy by the proportion of
its radiation emitted in the infrared. The youngest proto-
galaxies, or quasars, emit tlie most infrared, followed
by galaxies that still have optically bright nuclei, then
older but still unstable galaxies, and finally, mature
galaxies like our own, in which most of the mass is in
the form of stars.
Using the suffix tron. commonly used for man-made
particle accelerators. Low calls his galactic cells "ir-
trons"— the initial ;> standing for infrared. Do thev
really exist? Low thinks study of the outbursts almost
continually observed in the brightest infrared galaxies
could supply an answer. John P. Wiley, Jr.
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CELESTIAU EVENTS
The moon is in the morning sky until new moon on March
7. It then enters the evening sky, with first-quarter on the
14th and full moon on the 22nd. Thereafter, it is a morn-
ing moon again, with last-quarter on the 30th.
Venus, Mars, and Saturn are evening stars. Venus may
be seen low in the west after sunset toward month's end;
Mars and Saturn are higher than Venus, in the west, and
set later. Jupiter, in Libra, rises in the east shortly after
dusk and remains visible until dawn. Mercury is too close
to the sun to be observed.
March 7: Total solar eclipse visible in Mexico, south-
eastern U.S., and eastern Canada. Eclipse will be partial
over rest of U.S., except western Alaska (see Natural
History, February, page 26).
March 10-11: Mars and Saturn are to the left of the
crescent moon on the 10th, to the right and below on the
11th. Saturn is the brighter planet.
March 16-17: Mars and Saturn appear very close on
these evenings; Mars the uppermost, Saturn the brighter.
Conjunction of the planets occurs at 3:00 a.m., EST, on the
17th.
March 19-20: Regulus is the bright star to the left of
the moon on the 19th, to the right on the 20th.
March 20: The sun arrives at the vernal equinox at 7:57
P.M., EST, and spring commences In the Northern Hemi-
sphere.
March 23: Mercury is in superior conjunction and enters
the evening sky. Thomas D. Nicholson
•Hold the Star Map so the compass direction you face is at the
bottom; then match the stars in the lower half of the map with
those in the sky near the horizon. The map is for 9:25 p.m. on
March 1; 8:30 p.m. on the 15th; and 7:25 p.m. on the 31st; but
It may be used for about an hour before and after those times.
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Fishing, Camping and Hunting Spe
The Day the Sea Ran Out of Flounder
Continued from page 31
"Don't use a shovel," he called
over to me. "The warden'll pick you
up for sure."
"When I was growing up, we used
to go everywhere. Not just along the
shore, but all over the fields and
woods too. You could go anywhere.
Now it's all posted or blocked off.
Well, it's their property, they can
do what they want. Some years ago
the town could have bought the
point, but the price was too high. Of
course, it's worth quite a bit more
now with lots and houses and all.
"We used to go swimming down
off the point. Oh, I don't know, we've
got a beach and it will do us for now.
Land down along the shore is too
expensive, way out of line. I can re-
member when you could get all you
wanted for almost nothing. Well, no-
body wanted it then. No, I don't
think the town needs more land. The
way prices are it will raise taxes.
What'U they use it for anyway? I
sold some shore property. If I'd
held, I could have made more
money, but I got enough out of it. I
still stroll around some. I'm getting
too old to cut across lots, so I stick
pretty much to the roads anyway."
Ruth Billard is a charming, soft-
spoken young woman who is a wild-
life biologist for the Connecticut
Fish and Game Department.
On a walk down to the marsh, she
pointed out where the cattail grow-
ing in the fresh water above the up-
per margin of tidal flow gave way to
more salt-tolerant plants nearer to
the river and its seawater. This vari-
ety of habitat in a narrow compass
favors a greater number of animal
species than does a more uniform
area. The "edge effect" leads to a
greater variety of foods and an inter-
change of animals between areas. In
woodlands, openings are sometimes
purposely made to provide "edge"
for wildlife.
As we walked, Ruth enumerated
the birds that might appear on the
Hammonassett marshes— clapper
rails, marsh wrens, marsh hawks,
bitterns, swamp sparrows. Muskrats
dig into the riverbank and deer
wander across. Black ducks and mal-
lards nest there, but one will never
see a great flock, just scattered in-
dividuals that hunters push out to-
ward open water in the fall. Afl
hunting season the ducks move ba
into the marshes again until cc
weather drives them out altogeth
Perhaps the greatest benefit of t
salt marsh is the food produced on
which is then consumed in the esl
ary or open sea. The fresh water a:
the tide meet so that the water ro
down and churns up a bath of nut
ents for the shellfish, plants, and fis
Offshore, those ducks that overwi
ter in great "rafts" are dependent •
the coot clams, snails, and sea lettu
that live on the nutrients flowii
seaward from the salt marsh.
Ruth participates in the annu
bird count for the eastern flywa
that band of land down the east coa
that serves as a highway for mign
ing ducks and geese. Every year,
the second Monday in January, wil
life biologists along the coast tal
airplane counts of the waterfowl i
and down the shore. I suppose
must become routine after a whil
but Ruth tells me that if the airplar
starts to pitch and drop in wine
weather, it quickly becomes excitir
again. Once she saw two bufflehead
perky little black-and-white duck
take off suddenly and collide hea(
on in midair. Stunned, they droppe
to the water before floating apar
each undoubtedly thinking the othe
a bufflehead indeed.
There cannot be too many cornei
of Megalopolis where one can stan
and say, "This is what it was like 5(
100, 200 years ago. No rebui
houses with imported antiques, n
guides with modern haircuts an
antiquated dress; but standing o
this spot I see exactly what someon
who stood on this spot 100 years ag|
saw."
The Hammonassett cemetery was
according to the marker on th
stone gatepost, founded in 165!;
Within its stone fence is the histor'
of gravestone style— from rud^
scratchings on granite in 1724, t(
sandstone, to marble, to granite
from bare names, to epitaphs, t(
verses, and back to bare names anc
dates once more.
At the back end of the cemetery
where an old apple tree leans ove]
the square-cut granite blocks of thf
cemetery wall, I can stand and lool*
over the upper reaches of the Ham
72
le Koerners aren't trying to save the v^orld.
St a little piece of it.
Jomero is a small farm village
ing to the mountains of Colom-
South America. Poverty is ex-
8. Illiteracy is almost total. Elec-
y, sanitary facilities and run-
water are nowhere to be seen,
small children haul water from
iver three miles away. There is
lool in the district, but convinc-
Darents that education should
precedence over water-hauling
lard argument to win.
The Fuentes are one of the vil-
families. Poor even by Romero's
standards. The mud-brick house
dirt floors they live in isn't even
s. The two-acre farm behind it
ides all the income for the fam-
if nine. Most of the time there
enough to go around. Yet, this
Deen a good year for the Fuentes.
ir 7-year-old daughter Luz Ma-
has been able to stay in school.
This miraculous stroke of luck is
use of a family living in New
:, who are helping Luz Marina,
y're the Koerners. Through Save
I Children Federation, they are
[ributing $ 1 5.00 a month to help.
"For Richard
and Marianne
Koerner the
$15.00 a month
is not an extreme
sacrifice. Yet, with
three robust boys
_ ^^7 of their own, there
■I ni are many ways
J could use the money. But Rich-
whose j ob involves foreign travel,
m't have to imagine the poverty
Fuentes endure. He's seen it. He
ws, too, that Save The Children
do a remarkable number of
gs with the money,
i^irst, Luz Marina's immediate
)ol needs are taken care of. Sec-
ly, funds are available to the
ily to carry out their self-help
1 to raise hens. The eggs will help
■rove the family diet and in-
,se the family income. Finally,
lall portion of the Koerner's con-
ation, together with money from
r sponsors, has been lent to the
agers, With their own hands and
at, they're building a water stor-
^•iiiSP^"
age tank and a pipeline. Hopefully,
the new water supply will increase
the crop yield and the village's in-
come so that some day they will no
longer need help.
Self-help. That's what Save The
Children Federation is all about. Al-
though contributions are tax-deduct-
ible as a charity, the aim is not
merely to buy a child a few hot meals,
a new coat, or shoes. Instead, your
contribution is used to give people
the boost they need to start helping
themselves.
Sponsors are desperately needed
for children in Korea, Vietnam,
Latin America, Africa,
Greece, the Middle East, as
well as Appalachian and
American Indian children.
You can select the child's
nationality and will receive
a photo, regular progress
reports and a chance to
correspond and visit.
Richard Koerner hopes
that one day, one of his busi-
ness trips will enable him
to meet the Fuentes. Many
sponsors do visit their chil-
dren, and tell us that it is one of
the most gratifying experiences of
their lives.
The Koerners know they can't
save the world f or S 1 5 a month. Just
a small corner of it. But, maybe that
is the way to save the world. If there
are enough people like the Koerners.
How about yo'j?
National Sponsors (partial list):
Faith Baldwin, Hon. James A. Farley,
Gene Kelly, Mrs. Eli Lilly, Paul Newman,
Mrs. J. C. Penney, Frank Sinatra.
Save The Children Federation, founded
in 1932, is registered with the U.S. State
Department Advisory Committee on
Voluntary Foreign Aid.
Save The Children Federation
rjORWALK, CONNECTICUT 05852
I WISH TO CONTRIBUTE $180 ANNUALLY TO HELP A CHILD.
n WHERE THE NEED IS GREATEST Q LATIN AMERICA
D AMERICAN INDIAN QAPPALACHIA Q KOREA D GREECE
D VIETNAM D AFRICA DIDDLE EAST
ENCLOSED IS MY FIRST PAYMENT
D $15.00 MONTHLY D $90.00 SEMI-ANNUALLY
a $45.00 QUARTERLY D $180.00 ANNUALLY
I CANT SPONSOR A CHILD. ENCLOSED IS A CONTRIBUTION
0F$.
D PLEASE SEND ME MORE INFORMATION.
CONTRIBUTIONS ARE INCOME TAX DEDUCTIBLE
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by Baja Indians from a wood of natural con-
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Within each tradition, no two sculptures look
exactly alike. The Baja carver interprets the
grain and other qualities of the raw wood
as slightly different characteristics for each
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personifies the rugged Baja Peninsula, right
The "Sun King" (25" toll) originates from
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76
monassett tidal marshes. The Pani-
cum grass at the edge of a narrow
strip of meadow gives way to the
Spartina of the marshes. The river at
low tide sinks down into the peaty
mud of its banks to a soft, sullen
flow. The sedges and rushes wave
proudly beyond until they meet the
wooded slopes on the far side of the
marsh. Here it must look as it has
since the cemetery was founded— the
wind whistling through a gnarled
spruce on the hill, grass stalks blow-
ing against the ancient gravestones,
briars growing over the decayed
stone stumps of long-forgotten
graves. And beyond the wall, the
marsh looks as it did to Victorian
ladies in black organza during Sun-
day afternoon cemetery visits, to
colonials leading their oxen to pick
up the salt hay, to Indians passing
down the bank to spear eels.
Yet the whole marsh is broken
into multiple ownerships, some
being held for speculation. Probably
within the short few years of our
lifetime it will disappear, and the
Hammonassett can do no more than
say, with Mr. Abram Hill who died
September 30, 1840, age 77,
"Farewell my friends my memory
keep. While in death's armes my
body sleeps."
The edible blue mussels gather in
colonies just above and below the
low-tide mark, each attached to the
substrate by the fibrous anchor lines
of its byssus. With the decline of the
oyster and with an increasing num-
ber of clam beds declared off limits
because of pollution, the mussel may
eventually be the main collect-it-
yourself shellfish along our shore.
At low tide, clusters of blue mus-
sels, which may also be black or dark
brown, can be seen in the shallow
water clinging to rocks, submerged
logs, and mud flats.
The mussels spawn from late
spring through the summer. The
female mussel, influenced by rising
temperatures, releases millions of
eggs into the water. Fertilized by the
males, these eggs are carried about
by the currents. Within a day, a fer-
tilized egg develops into a micro-
scopic larva, and before a week is
out, the young mussel larva is able to
swim rapidly. The prodigality of
nature is not wasted, for millions of
the young larvae serve to feed the
numerous animals that filter the
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water for food. The adult mussel re-
plies in kind, for in pumping about
ten gallons of water a day for its own
feeding, it may account for 100.000
barnacle larvae every twenty-four
hours.
Gradually the first evidence of a
shell appears, and before two months
have passed, the young mussel settles
down. It anchors itself with the
byssal threads formed b\ a glandular
secretion and begins to grow and
mature. Where it settles depends, in
part, on the vagaries of wind and
wave. Onshore w aves wash the larvae
over the surfaces where they can
attach. If the waves are too high, the
young will be transported above the
normal tidal flow and be left high on
the shore where they soon die. If
too many are deposited at any one
point, competition for the available
resources will mean the certain death
of many individuals.
Even the adults are not free of
I all danger. Although those below the
I low-tide mark do not have to close
shut tw ice a day with each tide, and
therefore have longer to feed, they
are the prey for many other animals
in the water These predators move
up with the rising water to feast on
those mussels situated between the
tides. As the water recedes, birds
come to the shore to pick over the
mussels waiting for the next tide.
The beach at Hamnionassett State
Park is a long sandspit on Long Is-
land Sound. Behind the beach are
parking lots and campgrounds for
hundreds of tents and trailers. In
back of all this, and running to the
Hammonassett River, are acres of
salt meadow. This level land is sub-
divided by ditches that drain off the
water from the pools where salt
marsh mosquitoes breed. The mea-
dows sit alone and lonely, penetrated
only by the occasional hunter or
hiker. The mosquito ditches act as
moats, and deter all but the most de-
termined wanderer. This back-
ground serves as cool, open space
away from the bustle of the crowded
beach. It is also potential space for
filling, dumping, and dredging.
The state dump at Hammonassett
is at the head of the narrow valley
that is part of, and leads out into, the
salt meadow. The highland at the
edges of this small valley is covered
by red pine on one side, cedar on the
other. Bordering the trees, there are
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Young persons with an interest in natural
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shoulders of tall Phragmites reed,
which in turn taper down to the
shorter sedges.
In the best tradition of sanitary
land fill, a field of sand, grooved by
rivulets and the ruts of car tracks,
slopes to the edge of the dump. At
the edge, it drops abruptly down to
the reeds and salt meadow. At the
top of the slope are decayed and
burned fence posts, discarded
boards, parts of three cars, the re-
mains of a pink upright piano, the
cab of a pickup truck, several mat-
tresses, four couches (one. a particu-
larly repulsive faded salmon-purple
color) , beer cans, bottles, and a
Sports Illustrated whose pages are
interleaved with pictures of naked
women cut from some other maga-
zine. A small bird chirps in the reeds,
three gulls fly by in the sunlight over-
head, and another bird perches and
teeters on the wires strung on poles
across the little valley.
The ancestors of laconic Yankee
Dan Willis were cutting salt hay on
the salt meadows more than a hun-
dred years ago. It was used for
forage by the first settlers and later,
for bedding cattle, but with the de-
creasing use of animals, salt haying
went into a decline, which was
hastened by the mosquito ditches
that made much of the meadows in-
accessible. In recent years there has
been a better market as suburban
gardeners demand it for garden
mulch. Salt hay, Spartina, is particu-
larly useful, for it doesn't seed in a
new crop of grassy weeds like regu-
lar hay.
To the experienced, harvesting
salt hay presents no special problem,
but let the incautious beware. I was
once exclaiming over the high cost
of salt hay, more costly than the
best alfalfa, when a farmer spoke up
for the prevailing state of things. He
told of the time his family decided
to harvest the salt hay on an obscure
piece of marshland they owned.
Cutting was difficult. The thick and
matted hay kept clogging the cutter
bar of the mower and the machine
periodically bogged down in slippery
mud. Finally all was done; the hay
cut, dried, and stacked to be taken
away the following day. That night
there was an onshore wind and a
high tide, and all the carefully
gathered salt hay floated out to sea.
When I repeated this story to Dan
Willis he listened without commenl
He treats sah hay just as he doe
regular hay: cutting, baling, an
storing. He paused before addini
that one must also consult thj
Farmer's Almanac. He then gazej
out over his meadow while waiting
for the question I had to ask. Thi
answer was simple. The Farmer';
Almanac gives the height of the
tides. Salt hay has to be cut at thi
lowest tides, for a high perigee tide
can wet the hay or wash it away
The rising scientific interest in sail
marshes and estuaries must be near-
ing flood tide with the recent pub-
lication of a 757-page tome on
Estuaries by the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science.
Studies of increasing complexity and
detail (invariably described aS
"more sophisticated") suggest thd
same conclusion. Salt marshes are
of great biological and geologic in-
terest. They have tremendous pro-
ductivity and are probably essential
to much of the offshore sea life.
Acre for acre, salt marshes are
equal in total production to the'
highest-value croplands, even when
the latter are aided by all the science
and art of man. This nutrient pro-
duction comes not only from the
obvious plants but also from the
minute algae that grow on the mud-
banks of the tidal creeks and ditches.
The larger marsh plants die and
break down into detritus, minute
organic particles that serve to feed
the animals of the estuaries. A study
in Georgia showed that 45 percent
of this plant production is eventually'
lost to the tidal waters that flow
through and over the marshes and is
carried to the animals in the streams,
estuaries, and oceans. The users of
this food production, therefore, are
far removed from its source. Like
our great cities that depend on the
remote wheat fields of the plains for
sustenance, the cities of sea animals
—which we draw on for food and
sport— depend on the marshland.
These animals can be shellfish,
crustaceans, or fish. The Niantic
River estuary, for example, provides
about 300 pounds of scallops per
acre per year, which is more than
the beef yield on good grazing land.
Moreover, the marshes and tidal
inlets serve as necessary nurseries
for many kinds of fish that are later
caught as adults farther out to sea.
78
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resh water swimming, sailing Natural
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lass. (617) 369-4095 EST. 1954
SUMMER
SCIENCE
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on
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ages 13-18
FILMSTRIP AVAILABLE
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STUDY ECOLOGY UNDER THE TETONS
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The full story has yet to be worked
out. Sally Richards and W. G.
Pearcy, working in the nearby
Mystic River estuary, found .59
species of fish, including the eggs of
13 species, the larvae of 26 species,
and the juveniles and adults of 51.
Menhaden, striped mullet, and win-
ter flounder may be totally dependent
on the marshes when young. If the
marshes go, the flounder go.
Early in December, I walked near
the mouth of the river. After looking
for a little while at great creosoted
piles being driven for new marinas,
I stood and watched the oily water
float by. A cardboard sign nearby
proclaimed that any discharge in
these waters was strictly illegal. As
I read the sign, the periods were
accented by the pound of the pile
driver as it drove its stake deep into
the mud. The pile driver was a large
tracked vehicle and probably not as
remarkable as many other modern
machines. Yet with the assistance of
only two men, bundled in red-
checked wool against the winter
wind, the machine swung out to the
higher, graveled parking lot. plucked
a twenty-foot post from a pile and
lined it up for driving. Ker-blam.
Ker-blam. The post sank down until
it receded into line with the others.
The margin of the shore dropped
sharply down to the oily water.
Wooden floats stretched out to pro-
vide mooring for the many boats
drawn up to await spring. At my
back, a few last weeds rattling in the
wind pushed through the dirt and
gravel. Farther up the harbor a ten-
foot dike of dried mud held back the
dredged spoils that covered the old
salt meadows. The pile driver worked
slowly toward the dike. The machine
did not need to hurry. Next summer
or perhaps the summer after, the dike
would be bulldozed down, more piles
would be driven, more floats would
be launched, more oil would be
spilled, more progress would extend
up the Hammonassett River.
I turned and walked along the
empty harbor. Old colonial houses
were juxtaposed with summer cot-
tages and cheap apartments. A few
yards from the shore a motel had
built a swimming pool. The remains
of summer's trash blew by on the
wind, but it was quiet in December
—it was deathly quiet along the
Hammonassett River shore. B
This is a complete recording of
Edward Fitzgerald's 5th version,
and is the cumulative effort of
three men of genius.
It is followed by a few comments
and con5>ari3ons, and also Pedro
Calderon de la Barca's The Dream
Called Life and Life is a Dream.
Lastly, beginning with Hamlet's
soliloquy, there is seme of the
best that is to be found in
Shakespeare.
oOo
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my treasure."
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by Louis Zoul.
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79
Boohs in Revietv
The Rise and FeBll af Progress
hy Jerome Lettvin
The Coming of the Golden Age: A
View of the End of Progress, by
Gunther S. Stent. The Natural History
Press, $4.95; 146 pp.
Gunther Stent holds that we have
reached the heat-death ( JFarme-
stod) of the spirit. Not only are science
and art at the end of their progress,
but the force that drove them, the will
to power, is played out, bred out,
trained out. His description of our pres-
ent state is faultless; no practiced eye
could miss the symptoms— the plucking
at the coverlet, the disconnected mum-
bling we all noted at the American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Sci-
ence this last Christmas.
Stent argues from the apathy that to-
day afflicts any son of a dogma. For who
will deny that genetics and molecular
biophysics have run their course, now
to mummify as an engineering subspe-
cialty? But he sees, too, the decay of
spirit in physics and mathematics, those
archetypes of all science. (He excepts
only, as a possibility, a science of
nervous action. That. I believe, is only
because he doesn't know much about
the field: it is a genetic marvel, an ex-
ample of total inherited sterility. ) What
has happened is that the goals of sci-
ence have become unclear. "What, ac-
tually, would it mean if one understood
the origin of the universe?" asks Stent.
"And what would it mean if one had
finally found the most fundamental of
the fundamental particles?" The goal
is hidden "in an endless, and ultimately
tiresome succession of Chinese boxes."
One has a vision of hordes of pale scien-
tists wandering like the undead, bound
by pointless rules, and fed, not so much
by human blood as by printed lists of its
composition. I do not have any compe-
tence in exact science, only friends
who profess it. Stent's view is just, by
what they say. The case is similar with
the arts, but I prefer to stay with his
treatment of science.
I cannot be as pessimistic on this
point as is Stent. His area of blindness
is important to discuss. It is revealed
by three citations in his text. First, he
remarks that certain proteins (for ex-
ample, those that form the head and
tail structures of bacteriophage or
those that form the flagellae of bacteria)
combine in vitro to form the definite
80
shapes from which they are extracted.
Next, he quotes Eddington about the
differences between a "physicist" (who
must have prior theory to accept a fit-
ting observation) and a "stamp collec-
tor" (who just likes to arrange observa-
tions like flowers ) . Finally, he presents
Mandelbrot's analysis of the "sponta-
neous activity of a system," saying that
it is of the utmost importance for cogni-
tion of the system, and then showing the
difficulty of building an adequate obser-
vational base from which to say any-
thing at all about complex systems
where the mean values of observations
do not rapidly converge to a limit.
These points characterize the atti-
tude of most modern scientists, particu-
larly the biophysicists. Such an atti-
tude has resulted in the decay of all
those amiable empirics, such as zool-
ogy, botany, anatomy, physiology, that
once ornamented the schools while
they distressed the students. Ramon y
Cajal or von Humboldt would have dif-
ficulty getting into the biology depart-
ments at MIT or Harvard. For the feel-
ing is. and it is really a superstition,
that forms are easily accounted for
once one knows the elements and rules
for composing them. The particular
shape that an insect has, and the par-
ticular sequence by which a tick drops
onto a mammal, are deemed only com-
binations of ultimately describable ele-
ments that pose no paradox to physics.
But the self-organization of proteins in-
to a phage cage has as much relation
to the making of complex animal forms
as the bonds that result in an alpha-
helix have to the rules of growth of a
snail shell. Such relations are, to put
it precisely, metaphorical. The great
problems confronting quondam physi-
cists, as well as stamp collectors, are
the classical questions of long-range
order— the rules by which a macro-
scopic object is inherent in the descrip-
ion of its components. Crystallography,
which is the simplest case, is already
difficult to handle.
The absurdity of using Mandelbrot's
approach to complex systems is analo-
gous to considering statistics on the oc-
currence of phonemes when a man is
reading the Bible aloud. For who will
deny that the Sabbath lesson is spon-
taneous activity in that complex sys-
tem, man? If the mean values of ob-
servations do not converge rapidly, po
sibly the goal of the observation is in
proper if you want a theory about th
system observed. On the other hand, i
all you seek is a theory of making th
best of indifferent modes of observ£
tion. then Mandelbrot's work is ver
relevant. His study alone is sufficier
to indict our colleagues in the socia
sciences and their absurd approach t
understanding the society: they, witl
their Golem computers, spawned b
Jonathan Swift out of Tom Swift.
What I am trying to say is that i
Stent rests his case only on the reduci
bility of all natural science to physic
and the death of progress in physic
itself, he is beating a dead horse. It i
one thing to say that the rules of physici
must not be violated; it is entirely dif
ferent to suppose that if the rules oi
physics are not violated, then, a fortiori
biology is an example of the use o:
physical law and is, thereby, not inter
esting. This is tantamout to examining
Shakespeare for forbidden sequences
of letters, for example, -gx, and then
retreating in boredom when we find no
surprises or paradoxes. And, certainly,
all of Shakespeare is writ with English
letters. To suppose, next, that letters
can be linked together by some rule to
form Shakespeare's works, and that
this rule depends on the characteristics
of the letters themselves, is to say very
little about Shakespeare's works.
Nothing much is revealed about Shakes-
peare if I shake up the two letters n and
o in a dice box and then show that how-
ever they appear in sequence, they
form a word.
The funeral of physics is not the sut-
tee of all sciences, but only of all those
that depend analytically upon it. There
is an entirely different set of sciences,
unmentioned by Stent, that can prop-
erly be called synthetic. They are meta-
physical, deal more with laws of mind
than of particles, more with informa-
tion (in the most general meaning)
than with energy. Physical laws hold
no great constraint upon these sciences.
To answer the question, how is per-
ception possible? it is not enough to
give a wiring diagram of the brain
and the state function of the external
world. What is required in addition
are rules for operation and the rela-
tions of these rules to each other. I
vould be very surprised to learn that
uch rules could be expressed as sets
if chemical bonds, for instance.
These objections are really aca-
lemic. because in a practical sense
stent is correct, and contemporary
icience and art are dead, but continue
o talk through suggestion or habit,
rhe success of past progress in physics
md its dependent engineering appli-
:ations have changed the world so
nuch that alternative approaches are
lardly possible any more. Even the ar-
tists have bought the dictum that we
are hypostasized in uncertainty; we
move by conditional probabilities; we
bear the same connection to underly-
ing conditions as a spot on a film bears
to the photon buried there. We are all,
every one of us. particulars illustrat-
ing a norm. The death of aesthetics
lies in the conviction that it makes no
difference which note is where, which
word follows another. This view is, of
course, a caricature of what science,
means, but, except for Herman Weyl.
whom no])ody reads anymore, what
scientist looks seriously at perceived
forms as the elementals?
Professor Stent goes on from the
death of progress in science and art
(about which he is. in principle, more
pessimistic than he should be) to the
death of spirit, the stasis of society.
And here he is more optimistic than
he should be. He uses the l)eatnik and
hippie as indices of social response to
the decay of progress and to the limit
of creative knowledge in the world.
He sees the future in terms of beat and
hip herds, cropping consumer goods on
the great plains of the city streets and
chewing their mental cuds on acid and
pot. A few squares would keep the
wheels rolling and act the Disney ver-
sion of Dr. Faust. He supposes that
lack of interest in the world could be-
come sufficiently endemic that nuclear
holocaust would be averted. He sees,
in a word, that Faust's verweile dock—
du bist so schon actually expresses the
leisured hell to which we've come
through the whole damned drama, at
once the reward and punishment for
having been Faustian man. The ver-
tveile dock is equivalent to giving up
the will to power, lo the release of
Ariel by Prospero; and we become as
buffalo.
Stent apparently has not seen the
metamorphosis of our young to a new
instar— the activists, the radicals. What
characterizes their political action is
that, for the first time in history (out-
side of some early Christian sects)
there is a revolutionary movement that
renounces any structural goal. .lust as
one could not imagine what it would
mean to know the origin of the uni-
verse, so, too, one cannot imagine what
social conditions would satisfy the
present revolutionist. There are not
even fake ideologies to play with. One
can take on the trappings of Stalinist
or Trotskyite. anarchist or Spencerian
social evolutionist, but no more seri-
ously than one would wear Edwardian
clothes as a kind of identifying mark.
Yet all their actions are consistent if
not deliberate— the left-wing revolu-
tionaries deny any structural goal ex-
cept destruction of the system. "Power
to the people" is a serious matter; they
do not presume to say what should be
done by that power, only that it should
ll
be released and shaped from day to
day. It is a Quixotic madness that I
like rather more than the constipated
selfishness of right-wing radicals who
sport the motto: "What has posterity
ever done for me?"
In any case, with many of these radi-
cals the will to power, for lack of any
solid stuff to push around— the absence
of "participator)" politics" in any con-
temporary government— is without pur-
pose, like a mixing machine that one
forgot to fill. And precisely because
there is no reason for doing politics,
any more than for doing art or science,
the world will go. by default, to them.
And we thereby may end up. not in
Polynesia, but in Bedlam— and chained
if we are not blown up first.
In summary. I wish to say that
Gunther Stent's book is absolutely
first-class. He foretells that we are en-
tering a dark age as bad as what came
on in the first millennium a.d. His argu-
ment is compelling, although I dis-
agree with some details. It is a book of
civilized despair at an unavoidable
situation— it is not a jeremiad. One
cannot be sure whether the world is
more likely to end with a whimper
than with a bang. Professor Stent in-
clines to the former view. For almost
religious reasons I hope he is right, be-
cause then there still might be a renais-
sance. However. I am not convinced by
his optimism.
Dr. Jerome Lettvin is professor of com-
munications physiology and a lecturer
in the Department of Humanities at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Prehistoric Animals and Their
Hunters, by I. W. Cornwall. Frederick
A. Praeger,'s7.50; 214 pp.. illus.
Widespread interest in man's
Pleistocene life had developed
even before Robert Ardrey's African
Genesis titillated the cocktail circuit
with the thought that all of us are sub-
limated killer apes with a weapons
fixation. Pleistocene experts in paleoe-
cology and archeology must now make
way for psychologists and ethnologists,
among others.
Most of the 110 billion people esti-
mated by Edward S. Deevey. Jr.. to
have walked the earth, lived in igno-
rance of agriculture (Scientific .imer-
can, 1961). Thus any genetic control
of human behavior should be sought in
the selective forces operating on the
prehistoric hunters. A few hunting-
gathering people remain, perhaps 30,-
000. doubtfully representing the horde:
of the Ice Ages.
For example, the surviving hunter;
now rely on meat less than one migh
expect, at least in the low latitudes
According to Richard B. Lee in Mar,
the Hunter, the !Kung Bushmen o1
South Africa get only a third of theii
caloric intake from meat; the rest is
obtained from plants, mainly mon-
gongo nuts gathered by the women.
Both sexes enjoy considerable leisure
time, with an average of only twelve to
nineteen hours a week devoted to get-
ting food. Starvation is not much of a
threat even when drought strikes. The
aged are respected and senilicide is ex-
tremely rare.
Not much encouraged by looking for
a key to the past in present cultures,
one returns to the flakes, blades, broken
bones, charcoal, and masterful Paleo-
lithic art that represent our Ice Age
inheritance. Cornwall recaps the ge-
ology, prehistory and. above all. the
vertebrate paleontology of the last
several million years, letting the an-
cient hunters furnish his illustrations.
One learns, or is reminded, that even
in a primitive, savage state man is the
most adaptable of animals, modifying
his habits to suit his habitat and ul-
timately modifying both. The prehis-
the
ainerican wnuseuwn
ai
wtiBtural histary
announces
A SPECIAL SERIES OF LECTURES
ON WEDNESDAY EVENINGS, BEGINNING
MARCH 18 ON THE TOPIC
CAN MAN SURVIVE?
Course Chairman: Dr. James A. Oliver, Co-
ordinator of Scientific & Environmental Pro-
grams. The American Museum of Natural
History.
Overpopulation, advancing technology,
and the resultant pollution of our planet are
destroying the quality of our environment.
We are contaminating the land, air and waters
far more rapidly than nature can cleanse them.
What is at stake now is survival — the survival
of man and of the living world.
In this series of eisht lectures the Museum
presents the outstanding authorities on some
of the most important environmental prob-
lems of our time. They will discuss the bio-
logical, medical, legal, social, and cultural
imphcation of our continuing abuse of the
environment: and they will offer recommen-
dations for reversing the trend and reestab-
Ushing a world in harmony.
Fee for entire series: Adults $30, registered
students $20. (Single admissions for adults
$4.50; for registered students $2.50)
For further information, call area code 212: 873-1300, Ext. 462, or write
Department of Education, The American Museum of Natural History,
Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, N.Y. 10024
82
''A monumental book of outstanding and lasting
values in the cause of wildlife protection."
FAIRFIELD OSBORN, Past President, New York Zoological Society
• There are only a few hundred surviving
specimens of the blue whale, the largest
animal the world has ever known.
Hunting from airplanes and powerboats
has virtually obliterated the polar bear.
• The California condor and the whooping
crane, two survivors from prehistoric times,
have fallen prey to hunters' bullets... and
in some instances, poison.
• Insect-control campaigns and man's con-
stant tampering with the natural habitat
have brought countless amphibians to the
verge of extinction.
• Indiscriminate use of chemical weed-killers
and mechanized agriculture to increase
food production has jeopardized various
plant species and gravely upset the balance
between man and his vegetal environment.
The first and only complete account of the crisis threat-
ening wildlife throughout the world, based on the daily findings of
naturalists, ecologists, and zoologists of the International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This highly
readable and profusely illustrated volume "should stand for years
as a classic volume on the shelves of every conservationist, every
naturalist, and every citizen who knows that the destruction of the
living world about us diminishes our own humanity."
-LOREN EISELEY
WlOre than 200 articles give unparalleled coverage of en-
dangered mammals and birds— from the orang utan and aye-aye
to the trumpeter swan and Hudsonian godwit— including distinc-
tive characteristics, habits and habitats, as well as what is being
... or can be . . . done to preserve them. In addition, there are more
general discussions of imperiled species of reptiles, amphibians,
fishes, and plants.
Over 200 striking illustrations (half in color) capture
some of the world's rarest fauna and flora. Some 150 of them
were especially commissioned for this book from leading wildlife
artists and have never been reproduced before. The others are by
such classic artists as Audubon, Lear, and Gould. In addition,
there is an iconography, an index of common and scientific names,
and endpaper maps to show the world distribution of threatened
mammals and birds.
WILDLIFE IN DANGER is an astonishing panorama of wild-
life on the brink of annihilation. It is essential reading for anyone
concerned about the current and future state of the world.
WILDLIFE IN DANGER
Uready in its second printing, Wildlife in
)anger has received unanimous acclaim:
For years we have needed a book that tells the sad
truth about our over-captured, over-killed, and over-
exploited wildlife... Here is that book."— peter fare
One can hardly overestimate the importance of its
message."— GORDON Harrison, Book World
Thorough and fascinating... long overdue."
— PETER MATTHIESSEN
Wildlife conservationists will refer to this exciting
new book more often than to any other volume in
their libraries."— roger tory Peterson
'A magnificent production."— ivan t. Sanderson
;'A very disturbing book."
—CHRISTOPHER LEHMANN-HAUPT, New York Times
by JAMES FISHER, NOEL SIMON,
JACK VINCENT, etal.
Preface by JOSEPH WOOD KRUTCH
Get your copy at your bookstore or use this handy coupon:
THE VIKING PRESS, Dept. NH-3-70
625 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022
Gentlemen: Please send me copy(ies) of WILDLIFE IN DAN-
GER at $12.95 each, plus applicable sales tax. Payment is enclosed;
send postage paid. I understand that if I am not completely satisfied, 1
may return the book(s) within ten days for full refund of the purchase
price.
Name_
Address.
City
.Zip_
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toric weapons race ran from pebble
tool to haiidax. spear, and bow; un-
doubtedly other weapons of destruc-
tion, such as fire and poisons, were
used. While extinction was the fate of
many large animals, especially in the
.\mericas. it was not a hazard for man
himself despite the constant danger
individual hunters endured. Carnivores,
seldom man's prey or predator, may
have suffered as his unwitting com-
petitors.
In the Introduction. Cornwall notes
that species threatened with extinction
in our time are only the successors of
many more that have died out, largely
from natural causes in the more or less
distant past. Yes. yes ; but there is more
to it than that, and what may have been
true for the dinosaurs may not help ex-
plain the fate of the mammoths.
In the text Cornwall glibly states that
reindeer moss is an essential part of
reindeer diet (no single species of
plant can be so regarded for any large
herbivore) ; that the roman-nosed saiga
exist only in small numbers (true in the
time of the czars, but the Soviets are
very proud of having rebuilt the herd
to some three million) : that beaver are
indicators of a boreal climate (until
being trapped out in the nineteenth
century, they ranged south into the
Sonoran Desert and the lower Rio
Grande) ; and that mastodonts reached
the most northern parts of South
America (they ranged widely through-
out that continent) .
While Cornwall is more sensitive to
the Pleistocene features of Europe,
where he is on home ground, I'm not
ready to believe that fossil hippo are
sure indicators of a frost-free climate
or that Eurasian musk-oxen were fin-
ished off by hunters with firearms after
successfully resisting attacks by Stone
Age hunters. Cornwall is not guilty of
as many moot points as the above col-
lection might suggest, and if he were
provocative, a la Ardrey. I could for-
give him. Mostly he is bland— bland
about a subject thoroughly fascinating
and at times marvelously mysterious.
As Ardrey realized, a Pleistocene sce-
nario deserves more.
Paul S. Martin
University of Arizona
Briefly looted:
North American Birds, by Lorus and
Margery Milne. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
S25.00; 340 pp., illits.
The paintings of Marie Nonnast
Bohlen and the commentary of Lorus
and Margery Milne have combined to
produce a truly beautiful book of birds
that should prove irresistible to any-
one with more than a casual interest in
the subject. Covering more than 300
species, the book is divided into hab-
itats (swamp, shore, forest, etc.), and
discusses migration habits, song, food.
and plumage. For some species th
book may someday serve as a memori
rather than a guide, for the Miln<
have included a notable number of ei
dangered birds. Though the price of tl
volume is high, in this case, it is we;
worth it.
The Hudson River, by Robert Boyl
r. r. Norton & Co., Inc., $6.95; 3^,
pp., illus.
For those who think of the Hudsol
River as a sewer separating New Yoi
from New Jersey, Robert Boyle oper
up undreamed-of vistas. Boyle covei
the Hudson, section by section, unfolc
ing the incredible diversity of anim;
and plant life that populates the rive
as well as the varying terrain that forn:
its shores. Far from mourning the Hut
son as a dead body of water, Robei
Boyle celebrates its amazing vitalit'^
Although heavily polluted in som
areas, it still abounds with striped has:
bluefish, carp, yellow perch, and se
sturgeon— to mention just a few. Th
author details New York State's abus
of the river and offers a very illumina
ing chapter on the battle to stop Cor
solidated Edison from building a powe
plant at Storm King Mountain. A fu)
bibliography is provided for those wh
wish to pursue a particular aspect o
the book.
The World of Ants, Bees and Wasp^
by Brian Vesey-FitzGerald. Transat
lantic Arts, §6.25; 117 pp., illus.
Aside from a sometimes militantl!
anthropomorphic attitude, Mr. Vesey
FitzGerald does provide a thorougl
survey of the lives of the social insect
—ants, wasps, and bees. The writing i
clear and interesting when the autho
sticks to the subject, but his philo
sophical meanderings are somewha
distracting. "Oh, how anthropomorphi
can you get?" asks Mr. Vesey-Fitz
Gerald at one point. Just read the boo^
and find out!
C.Bl
The American Museum is open to
the public without charge every day
during the year, except Thanksgiv-
ing and Christmas. Your support,
through membership and contribu-
tions, helps make this possible. The
Museum is equally in need of sup-
port for its work in the fields of re-
search, education, and exhibition.
This list details the photographer oi
other source of illustration, by page.
COVER— Nina Leen
10— Reynold Ruffins
33-41— Nina Leen
42-49— Megchelina
Shore-Bos
50-55— Richard H,
Hofstrand
56-63 — Alexander
Marshack
64 — Niko Tinbergen
66-67— Michael H,
MacRoberts; except
map, AMNH after Mac
Roberts
69 — Niko Tinbergen
71 — Helmut Wimmer
81— UPI Photo
84
;EEP pace with space AGE! see moon shots-landings, space flights, CLOSE-UP!
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CHEDEUC LIGHTING HANDBOOK
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light boxes. MusicVislon.
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the cloud chamber— s
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Amazing new development —
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ck No. 71. USE $10.00 Ppd.
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m. 12" dia., wt. 3/4 lb.
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GIANT 16' DIAMETER
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CRYSTAL GROWING KIT
Do a crystallography project ^ ^
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fraction. piezoelectric effect ^ ^r?«MI
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TERSUBLE LIZARDS-MONSTROUS MAMMALS
Explore the fascinating pre-
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Go treasure hunting on the ^ - • .,^ms». 1
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Suggested
Additional Reading
GREEN MOUNTAINS,
GREEN MONEY
Our Plundered Planet. F. Osborn.
Little. Brown and Company, Boston.
1948.
Perils of the Peaceful Atom. E,
Hogan and R. Curtis, Doubleday &
Company, Inc., Garden City, 1969.
THE DAY THE SEA RAN OUT
OF FLOUNDER
Estuaries. G.H. Lauff, ed. Publication
#83. American Association for the
Advancement of Science. T^ ashing-
ton. 1967.
Life and Death of the Salt Marsh.
J. and M. Teal. Atlantic-Little.
Brown and Company, Boston, 1969.
ECHOLOCATION IN BATS
Listening in the Dark. D. R. Griffin.
Yale University Press. New Haven.
19.58.
Bats. G. !M. Allen. Dover Publications.
Inc.. New York. 1939.
The \\'orld of Bats. Photographs by
N. Leen, text by A. Novick. Holt.
Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New-
York. 1970.
MAKONDE SCULPTURE
Masks and Figures from Eastern
AND Southern Africa. L. Holy.
Tudor Publishing Co.. New York.
1968.
African Art. P. Meauze. The World
Publishing Company. Cleveland.
1968.
WILD RICING
The Wild Rice Gatherers of the
Upper Lakes. A. E. Jenks. The An-
nual Report of the Board of Regents
of the Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington. 1901.
OjiBWAY Myths and Legends. P.
Radin and A. B. Regan. Journal of
American Folklore, vol. 41. pp. 81-
146, 1928.
THE BATON OF MONTGAUDIER
Palaeolithic A.rt. P. Graziosi. Hil-
lary House Publishers. Ltd., New-
York, 1960.
Treasures of Prehistoric Art. A.
Leroi-Gourhan. Harry N. Abrams.
Inc., New York, 1967.
Palaeolithic Cave Art. P. Ucko and
A, Rosenfeld. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York. 1967,
THE GULLS OF WALNEY ISLAND
Visual Isolation in Gulls. N. Tinber-
gen. Scientific American. October.
1967.
Seabirds. J. Fisher and R. M, Lockley.
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
1954.
The Herring Gull's World, N. Tin-
bergen, Basic Books, Inc., New York,
1961,
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THE SANTA FLEET
CARIBBEAN • SOUTH AMERICA
The Galapagos Islands off the coast of Ecuador are a naturalist's
paradise. They haven't changed for a million years.
Many of the plants and animals here exist nowhere else on earth.
Some are still waiting to be named.
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homebound Grace Liner.
You cruise aboard one of Grace Line's air-conditioned, fin-stabilized
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cruise. Regular cruise rates start at $705. The optional side excursion
to the Galapagos costs from $275, including air fare and all expenses.
a. h
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See your Travel Agent or write
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The Great
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Safety Information: All Grace Line passenger ships are registered in the
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■MMflMlJ
You may never have to shoot an Alosa pseudoharengus being fitted with a contact lens.*
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quality in your work. All it takes is a Nikon F, a Nikkor lens and a bit of creative imagination.
You supply the imagination. The Nikon F will provide the handling ease to help you get the pictures you want
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LbUDLl In Canada: Anglophoto Ltd., P.Q. _ '
*This was part of an experiment in the schooling behavior of fish conducted by
Dr Evelyn Shaw of the Museum of Natural History and Dr Edward Baylor of the
StateUniversityof New York at Stony Brook, The naturallyfarsighted fish were
made even more farsighted, very nearsighted and normal, but the lenses
irritated their eyes and the effect on schooling behavior was not determined.
NATURAL HISTORY
THE WORLD OF LINDBLAD TRAVEL
Let Lars-Eric Lindblad take you on an exciting
expedition to the white continent of Antarctica
The well-known expedition leader, Lars-
Eric Lindblad, invites you to join him on
a visit to the white continent of Antarctica
and the Ross Sea area via McMurdo
Sound. In the past 6 years he has led
several expeditions into the Antarctic but
this one promises to be the most interest-
ing adventure ever made to these regions.
The brand new, luxuriously appointed
M/S LINDBLAD EXPLORER*, designed
especially for ice breaking duty and with
cruising speed of 15 knots, will afford the
opportunity to view the unique fauna and
flora of many Sub-Antarctic islands and
areas which until now have been rela-
tively free from the influence of man.
Two 34-day tourist expeditions in Janu-
ary and February of 1971 are scheduled
at $2,900 up plus air fare. Dr. Roger Tory
Peterson and Mr. Peter Scott will accom-
pany these expeditions.
They will be preceded by a Christmas
and New Year Cruise through the Indian
Ocean, 32 days, $1950 up plus air fare.
•M/S LINDBLAD EXPLORER is of Norwegian
registry.
To avoid cutting cover see extra coupon on page 78
Dept. NH 470
LINDBLAD TRAVEL, INC.
Lindblad Travel Building, 133 East 55th St.
New York, NY. 10022
I am seriously interested in:
D The Antarctic Expedition.
n The Indian Ocean Cruise.
Mrs.
Miss.
City_
NATURAL HISTORY
OL. LXXIX, No. 4
INCORPORATING NATURE MAGAZINE
APRIL 1970
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
8 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SETTING AND CHARACTERS
OF THE TRAGICAL FARCE OR FARCICAL TRAGEDY
OF VICTORIA BLUFFS, S.C. Alan P. Ternes
Where chemical plant meets salt marsh, the cause of ecology makes for
strange bedfellows.
20 A STUDENT MANIFESTO ON THE ENVIRONMENT Pennfield Jensen
A young activist outlines how student revolt can help us meet the
nonnegotiable demands of our polluted environment.
24 EAST IS A BIG BIRD Thomas Gladwin
In the Jet Age, a Pacific people find island-hopping by traditional
seafaring methods a necessary ingredient for cultural well-being.
36 HEART POISONS AND THE MONARCH
Miriam Rothschild and Bob Ford
How some butterflies confound their predators by becoming unappetizing —
if not downright deadly — fare.
38 BARNARD'S STAR: THE SEARCH FOR OTHER SOLAR SYSTEMS
Peter van de Kamp
A perplexing wobble in the path of earth's second-closest star may be
proof of a two-planet solar system.
44 PREHISTORY DOWN UNDER D.J. Mulvaney
In adapting to and shaping their environment, the Australian Aborigines
have left traces that tell true stories of Stone Age times.
52
4
60
63
68
79
THE MANY CLOCKS OF MAN John D. Palmer
Built-in "living clocks" regulate countless biological rhythms that recur
in man day by day.
cover: "On Puluwat, the sailing canoe is not merely a part of [the] way of
life, it is the very heart of it."
THE AUTHORS
SKY REPORTER John p. Wiley, Jr.
CELESTIAL EVENTS Thomus D. Nicholson
BOOKS IN REVIEW Spencer Klaw
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING
The American Museum of Natural History
Gardner D. Stout, President Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Natural History
Alfred Meyer, Editor Robert E. Williamson, Managing Editor
Barbara L. Cline, Avis Kniffin, Alan P. Ternes, John P. Wiley, Jr., Associate Editors
Thomas Page, Art Editor Florence G. Edelstein, Copy Editor
Toni Gerber, Asst. Copy Editor Carol Breslin, Reviews Editor
Diantha C. Thorpe, Information Services William Suderman, Production
Ernestine Weindorj, Karen Manulis, Caroline Doerflinger, Staff Assistants
Editorial Advisers: Gerard Piet, Dean Amadon, Franklyn M. Branley, Vincent Manson,
Margaret Mead, Thomas D. Nicholson, James A. Oliver, Ethel Tobach
Harvey Oshinsky, Advertising Director Harry F. Decker, Walter E. Mercer,
Gordon Finley, Sales Dinah Lowell, Traffic, Eileen O'Keefe, Asst.
Ann Usher, Promotion Director, Maureen Fitzgerald, Asst.
Joseph Saulina, Circulation Manager
/■ublication Office: The American Museum af Natural HLuory. Central Park H'eil at T)th Street, New York. N.Y.
10024. Publhltrd monthly, October tlirouuli May; bimonthly June to September. Subscription: $7.00 a year.
In Canada and all other countries: $7.50 a year. Single copies SI.OO. Second-class postage paid at New York, N.Y.,
and at additional offices. Copyright © 1970 by The American Museum of Natural History. No part of this
periodical may be reproduced without the written consent of Natural History. Manuscripts and illustrations
submitted to the editorial office will be handled with care, but we cannot assume responsibility for their safety.
Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of The American Museum.
^ATUllA.. History incorporating Naliirc Magazine ;.( indexed in Header's Guide lo I'criodical Lilernliire,
King Ranch is a hunk of pure Americana
under the huge Texas sky. It is a lot of things in
a large place. And they all get on remarkably
well together.
There are thirty thousand cattle and
twenty-eight oil and gas fields; two thousand
miles of fencing and one thousand miles of
buried pipeline; over three hundred windmills
and the world's largest natural gas plant. You
can see it in our picture.
There are schools and stores and fire sta-
Coexistence oi
tions. Five hundred cowboys. Two thousai
cow ponies. A training track for race horsi
And five hundred miles of private road. Yet the
is more wildlife on the ranch today than ev
before in its history.
We, at Jersey, believe this last fact pro\!
something about our affiliate. Humble Oil
Refining Company. Good housekeeping.
They have been drilling for oil and gas
the ranch for forty-five years. If running an
field were the noisy, messy business some peoi
think it is, how come wild geese, wild turk
i ¥^^''"
he King Ranch.
i bobwhite quail elect to stay and multiply
the thousand?
If pipelines and gas plants pollute the
ter, how come deer, nilgai and javelinas
zzle it? And thrive.
One more point about this precious water,
e King Ranch gas plant uses thousands of
Ions an hour for cooling purposes. When this
ter is returned to the ponds and creeks, the
tie drink it.
These include the famous Santa Gertrudis,
the first breed of cattle developed in the Western
Hemisphere. They are now bred in forty-eight
foreign countries. Quite an export.
Would the owners of King Ranch expose
these rich, red beauties to anything less than
good water? Not on your life.
Standard Oil Company
(New Jersey)
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you. You'll see wild game in the
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phants, lions, leopards, and cheetahs.
Take a shot of them (but only with
camera) from safari vehicles. Then
there is the grandeur of the land
tself : the crater of Mt. Ngorongoro,
Rutshuru Falls, Lake George, and
Ruwenzori Range with a peak over
16,000 feet. You'll also see Uganda,
Kenya, Tanzania and much, much
more. Three weeks for $2,266.*
Departures: July 7 and 21; Aug. 25;
Sept. 8. Clip the coupon for more
information.
*Based on the SAS 14/21 day ITX fare
(economy class), including round-trip air
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and safari lodges, most meals, sightseeing,
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THE A UTHORS
The personal analysis of the so-
cial side of a conservation problem
is the result of Alan Ternes's
"journalistic odyssey," which en-
compassed Beaufort County, Co-
lumbia, Charleston, and Hilton
Head Island, South Carolina; as
well as New York City. A former
newspaper photographer, reporter,
and editor, Mr. Ternes is presently
a Ph.D. candidate in geography at
Columbia University. His previous
work for Natural History in-
cludes a two-part article on Ethi-
opia (February, March, 1968) and
the Natural History Special Sup-
plement, "The State of The Spe-
cies," of which he was editor.
Pennfield Jensen's "A Student
Manifesto on the Environment" is
partially based on the paper he
presented at the recent conference
of the United States Commission
on UNESCO: "Man and His Envi-
ronment, A View Toward Sur-
vival." Executive director of the
Urban Nature Institute for Youth
(UNIFY) and a teacher at the Cen-
ter for Environmental Education,
San Francisco State extension, Mr.
Jensen became acutely aware of the
need for environmental reform by
observing the vast inHux of popu-
lation and the destruction of the
countryside near San Francisco,
where he grew up. His principal
concern is with the development ol
meaningful curricula for the under-
educated and environmentally un-
derprivileged. Mr. Jensen's article,
"Ecotactics" will be published this
year by the Sierra Club. •
Thomas Gladwin's article
"East is a Big Bird," the second
part of which will appear in the
May issue, stems from his 196"/
field work on Puluwat, a smal
Pacific island. His research focuses
on the logic behind Puluwat navi'
gation and its implications for ar
increased understanding of th«
thinking processes in educationall}
disadvantaged people in the Unitec
States. Currently visiting professo:
of anthropology at the University
of Hawaii, his future research wil
include comparative studies o
postcolonial imperialism as a limit
ing factor in national development
Professor Gladwin's forthcominj
book, East is a Big Bird: Naviga
Hon and Logic on Puluwat AtoU
from which his article is taken, wil
be published later this year by Har
vard University Press.
Peter van de Kamp, the au
thor of "Barnard's Star: Th(
Search for Other Solar Systems,''
has been associated with Swarth
more College since 1937. He is cur
rently chairman of the Departmen
of Astronomy and director of th(
Sproul Observatory. Born in th(
Netherlands in 1901, Professor vai
de Kamp came to the United State;
in 1923 to carry out research at thi
McCormick Observatory, Univer
sity of Virginia. The author
Basic Astronomy, Elements of As
tromechanics, and Principles of As
trometry, he was appointed to th
National Science Foundation i
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56120. ORCHID FLOWERS: Their Pollination and
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58580. LIFE ON A LITTLE KNOWN PLANET.
Howard Ensign Evans. An exciting study of the
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64560. THE NEW WORLD OF THE OCEANS.
Daniel Behrman. A lively introduction to oceanog-
raphy, based on interviews with the most interesting
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1954 as the first program director
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led to his 1963 discovery that Barn-
ard's Star has one or more unseen
coinpanions of planetary size.
A native of Victoria, Australia,
D. J. Mulvaney completed a mas-
ter's thesis on British Iron Age pre-
history at the University of Mel-
bourne in 1951, and two years
later received an M.A. in arche-
ology from Cambridge University.
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Since 1955, he has participated in
field surveys and excavations
various parts of Australia, and last
year, he worked in Sulawesi on a
joint project with the National
Archeological Institute of In-
donesia. At present, Mr. Mulvaney
is a senior research fellow in pre-
history at the Research School of
Pacific Studies at The Australian
National University. The author of
Australian Archeology: A Guide to
Field Techniques and The Pre-
history of Australia, Mr. Mulvaney
will spend this year at Oxford writ-
ing a biography of Sir Baldwin
Spencer, the famous anthropologist
of aboriginal Australia.
"The Many Clocks of Man" is the
latest of several articles on biological
rhythms John D. Palmer has writ-
ten for Natural History. Dur-
_Zip_
ing 1963 and 1964, Dr. Palmer
studied at the University of Bristol,
England, as a National Science
Foundation Fellow. He earned his
doctorate at Northwestern Univer-
sity in 1962 and is now professor
of biology and chairman of the-
Biology Department at New York
University.
Miriam Rothschild was born
in Ashton. England, a member of
the famous banking family, many
of whom were also keen naturalists.
Her uncle amassed a worldwide
collection of animals and insects,
including 2^/2 million butterflies,
and this collection aroused her
early interest in the Lepidoptera.
"Heart Poisons and the Monarch."
her third article for Natural His-
tory, is coauthored by Bob Ford.
Dr. Rothschild has written over
160 papers on varied subjects,
ranging from the parasites of snails
to mimicry in scent and sound. She
is joint author of a popular book.
Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos.
EAGLES, HAWKS
AND FALCONS
OF THE WORLD
By Leslie Ihcivn and Dean
Aniadon. The definitive com-
pendium of current knowledge
on more than 300 diurnal birds
of prey — illustrated with 166
full-page color plates of paint-
ings by well-known bird artists.
Includes 94 maps showing
birds' ranges. Sponsored by the
National Audubon Society.
946 pages, 311 illustrations,
2 slipcased volumes, $59.50
THE AUDUBON
ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOK
OF AMERICAN BIRDS
ll'ntten by Edgar 21. J?c;/iv,
Jr.; edited by OUii S. PettingiU,
Jr. Magnificent species - by -
species coverage of every bird
commonly found north of Mex-
ico. Includes over 400 photo-
graphs by leading photogra-
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Earl Gilbert. Sponsored by the
National Audubon Society.
544 pages, 35 color & 375 black-
and-white photographs, $25.00
Examine any of these books
in your home for ten days
WILD FLOWERS OF
THE UNITED STATES
Vol. One: Northeastern States
ll'ritten by Jiarold V. Hickelt,
Qen. Ed., 'M'iWiam C. Steere.
Stunning color photographs
and text identify some 1700
wild flowers from the Atlantic
to Minnesota, and from Can-
ada to Virginia and Missouri.
A publication of The New
York Botanical Garden.
572 pages, 1200 color plates,
2 slipcased volumes, $39.50
THE LAROUSSE
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
ANIMAL LIFE
Special Jntrod[iciion by Robert
Ciishman Murphy. Sumptuous
world - wide survey includes
1000 true-to-life photographs
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640 pages, 1000 illustrations
(more than 100 in color), $25.00
WILD FLOWERS OF
THE UNITED STATES
Vol. Two: Southeastern States
li'ritlen by Harold It', ticket t ,
Qen. Ed., ll'illiam C. Steere.
Identifies nearly 1900 wild
flowers from North Carolina
and Tennessee to the Gulf of
Mexico, and from the Atlantic
to Arkansas and Louisiana. A
publication of The New York
Botanical Garden,
760 pages, 1685 color plates,
2 slipcased volumes, $44.50
WILD FLOWERS OF
THE UNITED STATES
Vol. Three: Texas
Written by Jiarold IV. Hickelt ,
Qen. Ed., li'illiam C. Steere.
Identifies approximately 1200
Texas wild flowers — including
hundreds of colorful Mexican
species whose ranges extend
north only into Texas. A publi-
cation of The New York Bo-
tanical Garden.
566 pages, 1200 color plates,
2 slipcased volumes, $39.50
iVIall coupon noNA/
McCRAW-Hll.l. BOOK CO.MPANY, Dcpt. N H-4
330 West 42nd Street, New York, N. Y. 10036
Please send me the following book(s) to examine in my own home for ten
days free. At the end of that time, 1 will cither return the book(s) in the
carton provided or remit the price(s) shown, plus a few cents for delivery:
□ EAGLES, HAWKS AND FALCONS OF THE WORLD $-"='1.^0
□ Check here for Budget Terms (S9.50 plus delivery in 10 days, then
$10 monthly for five months).
□ AUDUBON ILLUS. HANDBOOK OF A.MERICAN BIRDS ...$35.00
□ Check here for Budget Terms ($5 plus delivery in 10 days, then $10
monthly for two months).
□ WILD FLOWERS— Vol. One: Northeastern States $39.50
□ Check here for Budget Terms ($7.50 plus delivery in 10 days, then
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U WILD FLOWERS— \'ol. Two: Southeastern States $-14.50
□ Check here for Budget Terms ($8. ."JO plus delivery in 10 days, then
$9 monthly for four months).
□ WILD FLOWERS— Vol. Three: Texas $39.50
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$x monthly for four months).
□ LAROUSSE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ANIMAL LIFE $2.5.00
□ Check here for Budget Terms ($5 plus delivery in 10 days, then $10
monthly for two months).
City.
—Zip-
f
in inMclion lo me selling and diaraciers ul ll
DyllanTernes
South of sand -yellow Victoria
Bluffs, on the Colleton River in
Beaufort County, South Carolina,
lies an 1,800-acre plot of second-
growth woodland and salt marsh. It
is a nondescript site, its young
trees barely beginning to win out
over the dense underbrush that
took over after it was lumbered off.
"I wandered through there for
half a day and couldn't find any-
thing to photograph," complained a
Life photographer recently.
Yet hints of beauty exist, espe-
cially the deep-green, long-needled
yellow pines, which have broken
out of the canopy and are suddenly
growing with an adolescent fervor
that could lead to an elegant south-
ern pine forest. But it is futile to
describe the potential beauty.
Because the governor of South
Carolina and most of his staff, most
of the state legislators and prob-
ably most of the folk of Beaufort
County look forward to the devel-
opment of a complex of chemical
plants on the Victoria Bluffs site.
And the efficient management of
the BASF Corporation, a German-
owned chemical company in New
York City, foresees the opening of
the first plant in the final quarter
of 1974.
A few Beaufort County residents,
most of them living on nearby Hil-
ton Head Island, have launched a
quixotic campaign to prevent the
construction of this complex.
The two groups — ^proponents and
opponents — would make an appro-
priate cast for a modern version of
a Shakespearean play, with Hamlet
the ideal narrator. It is difficult to
decide whether the drama would be
a comedy or a tragedy. It contains
elements of both : farce and buffoon-
ery, deceit and betrayal.
Beaufort County, located along
the deeply embayed coast between
Charleston and Savannah, is a clas-
sic example of a troubled lowland
area of South Carolina. A decade
ago it was considered seriously de-
pressed, with chronic unemployment,
an aging, unskilled labor force, and
poor public services. Its only trump
card, which the area has played re-
peatedly, has been venerable Rep. L.
Mendel Rivers, chairman of the
south Carolina lideiands
SHELLFISH WATERS
aMBH POLLUTED WATERS
0 10 miles
igicai farce or farcical irageiiii of vicloria Bluffs, S.C.
House Armed Services Committee.
Congressman Rivers has repaid
the perennial loyalty of his con-
stituents by channeling funds into
Beaufort County military facilities,
which include the U.S. Marine
training camp at Parris Island, a
Marine air station, and a naval
hospital. But even these boons pro-
vided few benefits for the many
residents of the county, especially
the large number of impoverished
blacks, many of whom were mal-
nourished, worm infested, and il-
literate.
"Do you remember last year
when they showed those colored
folk in poverty on national tele-
vision?" asked Eddie Boyer, ex-
ecutive director of the Beaufort
County Development Commission.
"That was right here in Beaufort
County."
He was the first of many who
spoke, with anger and shame, of
the poor image the nation got of
Beaufort County, of the way the
television crews searched out the
worst houses, the poorest-fed, sick-
liest children. Yet he admitted
freely that the county had great pov-
erty, that more than 20 percent of
the population had family incomes
of less than $2,500 a year in 1968.
"We want to do something for
the colored people .... I never
know anymore what they want to
be called. I was raised to call them
colored, so that's what I use. They
need job opportunities and educa-
tion."
Boyer, a short, jolly man, leaned
back in his swivel chair. A clutter
of papers, letters, and brochures
lay scattered across his desk and on
adjacent shelves. A map of the Vic-
toria Bluffs site was mounted on
the wall.
"We acquired the site in 1959,"
he said, "when the South Carolina
State Ports Authority bought it for
industrial development. The county
has been trying to find a buyer
since then.
Many firms had looked at the
site — General Dynamics, Litton In-
dustries. Bath Iron Works, Rock-
well-Standard— but each time the
deal faded. Several years ago Boyer
and some other county officials vis-
ited the BASF Corporation in New
York City and showed them an ae-
rial film of the site and an adjacent
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area, Hilton Head Island. At the
time, BASF turned down the site
for the project they were planning.
Two years later, however, the cor-
poration decided to buy the site for
another, greater project: a vast
chemical complex with an original
investment of SlOO million.
Boyer thinks one of the crucial
factors in bringing BASF to Beau-
fort County was the decision, about
ten years ago, to make a freshwater
canal from the Savannah River to
Beaufort much larger than neces-
sary. The federally subsidized canal
was built partly to supply water to
the Parris Island Marine Base.
County officials at that time de-
cided to construct a canal capable
of carrying 125 million gallons
daily, even though the maximum
capacity of the Beaufort-Jasper
County Water Plant is 9 million
gallons a day, with future needs es-
timated at 24 million gallons. This
left some 100 million gallons of
fresh water a day available for in-
dustrial use, and so the devel-
opment board could woo wet in-
dustries like the BASF dyestuffs
and pigment plant, which will use
some 2^2 million gallons of water a
day. Because the groundwater sup-
ply of the coastal plain is limited,
the county could have attracted
only dry industries if the large
canal had not been constructed.
Wet industries tend to pollute
nearby waters more than dry in-
dustries, so the building of the
large canal set the stage for high-
pollutant industries to come to the
county.
'"BASF will broaden our eco-
nomic base. Last year over half our
income, .f36 million, came from
military payrolls. The other big in-
dustry was recreation, and every-
one knows it is the first one to get
in trouble in a recession.
"With this plant, we'll have
steady, good-paying jobs. We figure
there'll be 1,000 jobs in the plant,
and 3.000 new jobs in service in-
dustries.
"It'll add more than $9 million
to the tax base, and we need that.
Most of the investment in the
county is federal property, so we
don't get any taxes from it.
"We'll have the finest technical
training center in the state."
Boyer was warming up to his fa-
vorite subject. Someone knocked
and stuck his head in the doorway. It
was a junior public relations man
from BASF. Boyer obviously had a
busy schedule with the BASF
people, including an appointment
with Dr. Hans Lautenschlager, cor-
poration president, who was making
a goodwill tour. Boyer's secretary
was just finishing a letter of welcome
to Dr. Lautenschlager from the Beau-
fort County Chamber of Commerce, -
and arrangements still had to be
completed for several speeches. Al-
though I was anxious to leave, not
wanting to interfere with these mo-
mentous events, I still had a few
questions to ask Boyer about a
touchy subject: pollution.
"I know the people at Hilton
Head are harping on the pollution
angle, but I don't think there'll be
any problem," Boyer continued.
"The company plans to have two
stages of processing of the effluent.
They've agreed to obey the state's
pollution laws. What more can you
ask of them? I visited their plants
in Germany, and while I'm no ex-
pert, I didn't notice any pollution."
"A final question, what if the op-
ponents stop the plant?"
Boyer hardened: "I'm a sales-
man. My job was to sell that site,
and I did. I had the check for it
right here, right in my hand. Noth-
ing is going to stop the plant now.
We're confident that we've got it
tied up."
Boyer's visible agitation when he
thought of the opposition to the in-
dustrial development was a good
indication that the opponents were
having some success. Because nego-
tiations had been secret, there was'
no opposition when the BASF Cor-
poration announced, on October 1,
1969. its plans to invest ",5100 mil-
lion in a vast industrial complex to
be developed on an 1.800-acre site
in South Carolina. ..." A dye-
stuffs and pigments plant and a ^
styrene polymers plant were sched-
uled to begin production in about
three years. Site development was
to begin immediately. But even in
its first news release, the company
tried to disarm potential opposition
to its plans by including the follow-
ing paragraph:
"Dr. Lautenschlager said that
contrary to the usual pattern of
events which follows the industrial-
ization of any virgin area, BASF
Corporation and the State of South j
Not since the frontier days have
merican Indians faced greater
s to their existence than they do
Malnutrition, disease and despair
ampant. The school drop-out rate is
greater than the national average.
:iployment is 10 times the rate of
Americans. The American Indian
has the shortest life expectancy
' group in the country.
Their desperate poverty is a leg-
)assed on from one generation to
ext. The statistics show that few es-
Eight-year-old Lisa Redfox is one
2 somber statistics. Or she will be
unless someone with $15 a month
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Through Save the Children Fed-
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Sponsors are desperately needed
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As a sponsor you will select the
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That's what Save the Children is
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Carolina are working together with
the Beaufort County Council to de-
velop a master plan which will pre-
serve the ecology of Port Victoria.
He highlighted the fact that consid-
erable amounts of money have al-
ready been allocated for preventing
air and stream pollution."
That statement is misleading. If,
when it says ''preserve the ecol-
ogy," the BASF Corporation means
to maintain the existing ecosys-
tem, it is proposing to do the im-
possible. The daily effluent of some
2.5 million gallons from the
dyestuffs plant, no matter how it is
treated, will change the ecosystem.
So will the dredging of a channel
to the site.
A BASF press release a month
later was more realistic when it
quoted Lautenschlager as saying.
"Development of the dyestuffs and
pigments plant will at all stages ad-
here to the basic BASF policy of
close cooperation with all relevant
governmental authorities to assure
protection of the total environ-
ment." This means only that the
company will obey the South Caro-
lina Pollution Control Law and the
regulations of the state's under-
staffed Pollution Control Authority.
The residents of Beaufort County
responded in a variety of ways to
the BASF announcement. Some,
like Boyer and officials of the State
Development Board, saw the new
plant as a great boon to the low-
land economy. Many businessmen
saw an opportunity for sales and
profits, and most blacks saw a
chance for good-paying jobs. But
the members of a black fishermen's
cooperative and many other resi-
dents of Hilton Head Island saw
disaster. From this group slowly
arose the organized opposition to
the BASF plans.
The opposition groups have now
joined forces under the save-the-en-
vironment banner, swearing oaths
to ecology and nature: but the first
impulses of many seemed to be di-
rected more by self-interest than by
lofty principles. For example, two
of the most influential and well-
heeled opponents to the BASF com-
plex are Charles Fraser. a lawyer,
and Fred Hack, a former lumber-
man. Both are now land developers
and, together with their partners,
they control a major part of Hilton
Head Island.
Charley Fraser is dynamic, flam-
boyant, and successful. He has both
political and financial influence.
His development, the Sea Pines
Plantation, has been cited for "Ex-
cellence in Private Community
Planning," by the American In-
stitute of Architects, and its success
is envied by other developers. To
live there, you would fit best if you
were white, wealthy, semiretired,
and a golf maniac. If you have had
a lifetime dream of retiring to a
tasteful, upper-middle-class home,
surrounded by similar homes over-
looking the ocean or a golf course,
and if you can dig up $50,000 to
$250,000 to finance your dream,"
you might like Hilton Head Is-
land— the biggest coastal sea island
between New York and Florida.
But if you want to be exposed to
nature, to experience the natural
richness of the semitropical envi-
ronment of the southeastern coast,
avoid Hilton Head Island. Because
its developers — despite their pious
proclamations about preserving the
"natural beauty," about creating
wildlife sanctuaries, about setting
up an Institute of Environmental
and Leisure Studies in a restored
lighthouse keeper's house — are en-
gaged in a ceaseless war with the
natural world. Labor crews and
tractors with brush-cutting rigs are
constantly assaulting the under-
growth so that the landscape will
have a parklike appearance despite
the 300-day growing season. Dredg-
ing equipment has cut deep chan-
nels through many parts of the is-
land, changing the drainage and
destroying w-et sites and their dis-
tinctive biota. Other areas are filled
in with the spill from dredging
The result is that the natural fauna,
such as deer, have been driver
from much of the island and wil
soon vanish. The turkey and dovt
populations are maintained foi
sport shooting by annual restock
ing. The alligator population has
been greatly depleted. The flora —
once distinctive and varied — is ra
pidly succumbing.
The developers' callous attitudf
toward the island vegetation reflect:
their heritage as lumbermen. The^
originally bought the island to lum
her off its large stands of yellov
pine. Once, when Charley Frase
was examining a plot of land witl
a salesman, he came upon a beau
12
tiful, mature pine tree standing in
lonely splendor. "I wonder how we
missed that one," Fraser remarked.
"It's a shame what they've done
to that island," said a University of
South Carolina biologist, one of a
group of scientists that had sur-
veyed the biota of the island two
decades ago.
At Eraser's Sea Pines Plantation,
the street names serve as a quaint
reminder of the natural heritage.
Many are named after birds that
have been recorded on the island:
"Ruddy Turnstone-2, Green Heron-
4. Wood Ibis-6, Oyster Catcher-9,
Black Skimmer-22, Royal Tern-24,
Belted Kingfisher-34. Brown Peli-
can-37," and many more. The num-
bers, which run sequentially, were
added later because many people
complained that they were confused
by all the bird names and could not
locate the streets, much less recog-
nize the birds.
A major imprint on the Hilton
Head Island landscape has been
made by the proliferation of golf
courses. There are at present 135
holes of golf on the island, with
several more courses planned.
Since an 18-hole course occupies
about 250 acres, nearly 2,000 care-
fully maintained acres of the island
have been landscaped and planted.
Ultimately, one-tenth of the island
will probably be occupied by golf
courses, which may be pretty by
some tastes, but which certainly are
not examples of natural beauty.
The building of golf courses is
not just a crazy scheme of sports
nuts. For the developer, the crea-
tion of a golf course provides many
opportunities for homesites along
the fairways. At Hilton Head Is-
land the fairways are deliberately
trung out to create a maximum
amount of real estate frontage for
housing. The prime sites on the
eighteenth hole of the new Harbour
Town Golf Course reportedly sold
at the rate of $400,000 per acre.
The building of golf courses, ex-
tensive housing projects, condo-
miniums, shopping and recreation
centers, private road networks, plus
all the additional features of Char-
!ey Fraser's 5,200-acre Sea Pines
Plantation development, requires
big money. Harbour Town, a new
project in Fraser's complex, report-
edly will cost some .$30 million.
The major source of funds for Har-
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hour Town and other Sea Pines
projects has been Travelers Insur-
ance Company of Hartford, Con-
necticut,
Obviously, anything that threat-
ens such speculative, finance-heavy
developments would cause great
concern among its executives. And
they generally believe that the con-
struction of a chemical plant com-
plex on the mainland some five
miles from Hilton Head Island
would be detrimental to the care-
fully conceived character of the re-
gion and would lower property val-
ues. Charley Fraser and other
developers of Hilton Head Island
are concerned about saving an en-
vironment, but it is an environment
that they have created, and it is as
far removed from the natural envi-
ronment as are the conceptions of
BASF.
Fred Hack has neither the flash
nor the financial backing of Char-
ley Fraser, but he does control
more undeveloped land on Hilton
Head Island than anyone. With his
associates and through various cor-
porate arrangements, he owns some
11,000 acres, most of it undevel-
oped. Some of Fred Hack's most
picturesque property is on the
northeastern part of the island,
overlooking Port Royal Sound, and
only a few miles downstream from
the BASF Corporation's plant site.
"Fred Hack has a lot more at
stake than Charley Fraser," one
businessman on the island noted.
"It's a simple matter of construc-
tion economics. If he develops his
holdings and sells lots for $15,000
or more apiece, anyone who buys a '
lot will have invested $60,000 or
more by the time he has built his
house. But if the BASF plant goes
in, that property won't be worth
half as much. People will be in-
vesting $25,000 for a house and
property. That would mean a to-
tally different, a much cheaper,
type of development, and a lot less
profit for Hack." There is room for
possibly 100 oceanfront lots —
which may bring more than
$100,000 each — along with another
500 lots adjacent to the beach on
Hack's undeveloped property along
Port Royal Sound. A little multipli-
cation shows the multimillion dol-
lar loss that a chemical complex
might cost Hack and his associates.
So it is understandable why Fred
14
Hack went along with his brother
Orion's plan to oppose the BASF
construction.
Orion D. Hack moved to Hilton
Head Island in 1953 to sell prop-
erty that his brother, who had lum-
bered out the area a few years ear-
lier, was developing into residential
sites. He is now vice-president and
treasurer of the Island Devel-
opment Company, vice-president of
Port Royal Plantation, Inc., and a
member of the board of Hilton
Head Company — all parts of the
corporate network that Fred Hack
has developed. Orion Hack sin-
cerely loves the natural world of
Hilton Head Island: he has studied
its bird and plant life in detail. He
has tried to photograph in color ev-
ery wildflower on the island, per-
manently recording them before
they disappear. And he has prob-
ably been as disturbed as anyone by
the gradual destruction of the natu-
ral fauna and flora. Yet for two
decades, he has taken an active role
in that destruction, and no doubt
some of the lines in his friendly
face have deepened because of the
strains of that paradox.
Orion, who has put more soul
and effort into the campaign to
stop the construction of the BASF
complex than anyone, recalls that
he felt hopeless when he first read
about BASF's plans. It meant the
end of "one of the few large areas
of estuaries on the East Coast un-
polluted by industrial waste."
Then, with his brother's approv-
al and financial support, Orion
started reaching beyond the con-
fines of Hilton Head Island and
South Carolina for help. He felt
that if he could somehow bring to-
gether enough concerned people,
they could save the beauty of Beau-
fort County's unspoiled marshlands
and estuaries.
"I called the scientists and natu-
ralists that I knew. They, too. liked
the idea, and their concern was so
great that a chain reaction was
created. Each person I contacted
would give me telephone numbers
throughout the country."
Phone service on Hilton Head Is-
land is not quite, but almost, as
bad as that on Manhattan Island.
To make the hundreds of calls
across the country that Orion made
is a heroic feat. One of my perpet-
ual images of Orion will be of his
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tall frame stooped over a telephone
on a knee-high, corner table, wait-
ing interminable minutes for a con-
nection. Then his deep, Carolina-
accented voice loudly introducing
himself over the resistant circuit:
"Hello, sir. This is Orion Hack
at Hilton Head Island in South
Carolina. We have an estuarine pol-;
lution problem down here. . , ." |
He called Barry Commoner sev-
eral times. He called the attorney
general of Illinois. He called the
editors of conservation magazines.
He called people at the American
Forestry Society, the American Lit-
toral Society, the Audubon Society,
the Friends of the Earth, the Isaac
Walton League, the National Wild-
life Federation, and the Sierra
Club. He called scientists at univer-
sities and research institutes. He
called county, state, and national
government officials. In return for
their participation, he offered the
free, plush hospitality of the Port
Royal Plantation Inn and free
transportation to and from Hilton
Head Island. After two weeks ol
calling. Orion had a sore ear — and
a symposium.
A few days after the symposium,
when Orion and others realized
that I was really interested in
learning more about the coun-
tryside and the BASF plant site;
about poverty and children with
worms; about the island, its devel
opers and its golf courses; they be^
came less open and more cautious
about what they would say. At times
they were more honest, as wher
Orion changed roles suddenly om
day and said. "We developers don'i
have to fight so hard to save Hiltor
Head. We could sell and get out
We don't have to stay here."
Then his almost defiant mooc
changed, and he talked about th<
wild bees, native orchids, and thi
rare wood ibis he had seen in £
nearby marsh. Yes, I am sun
Orion's paradoxical life has deep
ened the lines in his friendly face.
At first it was just called the
Conservation Symposium, but thei
someone hung a big sign, "Soutl
Carolina in Crisis," behind thi
speaker's rostrum, primarily fo
the press photographers and tele
vision. So everyone began calling i
the "Conservation Symposium
South Carolina in Crisis." Thosi
who attended the symposium wer
i6
i
an odd mixture, ranging from dedi-
cated young scientists to unscru-
pulous freeloaders who had whifEed
a chance to live high on the Hilton
Head hog. li the participants had
to be summed up, most would have
to be called second and third rank,
the lieutenants of the conservation
and academic worlds. The big
names, the Commoners, the Odums,
the Browers. did not show. Yet for
such short notice. Orion Hack man-
aged to scrape up a fairly impres-
sive crowd of people willing to
spend several expense-free days at
the Port Royal Plantation Inn.
It was evident from the wide
range of attitudes and platitudes
that the group was too large and
too diffuse to accomplish anything,
so the symposium broke up into
three subcommittees: scientific, eco-
nomic, and citizen's action. These
met separately, exchanged views on
why the BASF complex would be
harmful, and drew up reports with
recommendations. The three re-
ports were combined into a single
document, which was released and
read with some fanfare to the in-
vited press and television represen-
tatives on the fourth and final day
of the symposium.
The ten members of the scientific
subcommittee arrived at the almost
inevitable conclusion reached by
scientists involved in a dynamic
public issue: that preliminary stud-
ies were needed. They recommended
a moratorium on all coastal con-
struction, and that "detailed pre-
liminary studies of at least two
years' duration of the coastal
ecosystem, involving hydrographic,
biological, chemical, and physical
investigations, be conducted. . . ."
The recommendations of the other
subcommittees were similarly weak.
The scientists' cry for more stud-
ies is often a shirking of responsi-
bility, a refusal to take a firm stand.
It reflects the weakness and uncer-
tainty of their knowledge, as well
as their inability to handle broad
problems.
I am convinced that every scien-
tist at the symposium knew in-
tuitively, if not scientifically, that
the chemical complex would de-
stroy the natural ecosystem of the
area. Yet the strongest stand they
could take was to call for prelimi-
nary studies and a moratorium. I
am further convinced that most of
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the scientists, especially the bright,
young ones, felt certain that their
call for a moratorium on construc-
tion would be ignored and that the
BASF complex would be built.
At a press conference on the final
day, one representative of the local
scientific establishment did take a
stand, to the chagrin of many who
were present.
By the time Roger Pinckney,
civil engineer, marine contractor
and county coroner, was halfway
through his lengthy harangue, sev-
eral people were wishing there was
a trapdoor that could be sprung be-
hind the podium.
Waving two U.S. Coast Guard
charts to support his claims, Pinck-
ney declared that he was only
presenting the facts, and "let the
charges fall where they will."
The crux of Pinckney's long
pitch was that dredging a channel
to the Colleton River would destroy
the freshwater aquifer of the re-
gion. "Ladies and gentlemen, you
won't drink water any more, you'll
have to drink bourbon or some-
thing else.
"You will never make a deep
channel out of Port Royal Sound.
The Lord didn't intend it that way.
I challenge any man to deny what
Pve said and to tell me I'm
wrong," he concluded triumphantly.
Most of the scientists at the sym-
posium missed the county coroner's
performance because they had al-
ready returned to their universities
and research institutes. One who
remained for the press conference
was Dr. Herbert L. Windom, a ma-,
rine chemist at the Skidaway In-
stitute of Oceanography in Georgia.
Dr. Windom judiciously presented
the scientific subcommittee's report
and listened politely to Pinckney's '
speech. He maintained a decorum
that makes even more surprising
the vituperative political charges
that were subsequently leveled
against him.
Two weeks earlier Windom had
become indirectly involved in the
BASF dispute when he and Dr.
Fred Marland. a marine ecolog-
ist from the University of Georgia,
examined an estuary near a small,
two-year-old dye plant of Tenneco
Chemicals, in Beaufort County.
They had been asked to do so by
the owner of the adjacent land.
Windom and Marland found anj
ecosystem devastated by pollution.
The salt marsh grass was dis-
colored and dying. All the mussels
and many oysters were dead.
Windom measured the pH near the
sewage outfall of the Tenneco
plant, and found that it ranged
from 1.5 to 2.5, in contrast to the
7.7 pH reading in a nearby unpol-
luted area. He found excessive
traces of metal and a lack of oxy-
gen in the waters near the plant.
Although the Tenneco plant has
no direct connection with BASF's
plans for a much larger dye and
pigments plant, the scientists'
findings highlighted the dangers of
pollution from a new plant and re-
vealed the ineffectiveness of the
state's Pollution Control Authority.
Before the Tenneco plant was built,
Tenneco spokesmen and the execu-
tive director of the Authority had as-
sured county legislators that there
would be no pollution.
Dr. Windom's investigation of
the pollution around the Tenneco
plant and his role in the sym-
posium must have touched some
sensitive nerves because it caused
the usually smooth Gov. Robert E.
McNair to lose his cool. Two days
after the symposium the Charleston
News and Courier had run a ban-
ner headline exclaiming. "Chemist
Should Remain in Georgia. Says
McNair." The governor, reported
the newspaper, said "that Dr.
Windom would be better advised to
stay in Georgia and help Gov. Les-
ter C. Maddox correct the pollution
problems in that state rather than
come to South Carolina and tell
this state what it should do about
pollution." The paper noted that
"Gov. McNair was extremely dis-
turbed at Dr. Windom's remarks at
the symposium."
"I'm really angry at the gover-
nor," said one of the South Caro-
lina scientists who had been at the
symposium. "He was unfair to Dr.
Windom. The report at the sym-
posium was from ten scientists, not
just from Dr. Windom. I really feel
I should do something about the
governor's remarks." But he did
not do anything, possibly because
he has to live and work in Gover-
nor McNair's state.
The governor has been deeply in-
volved in the wooing of BASF to
South Carolina. He was at the for-
mal announcement ceremony last
October at BASF headquarters in
Germany, and he has gone far to
see that BASF officials have had
the full hospitality and cooperation
of the state.
He met with Charley Fraser and
Fred Hack early in December in an
effort to turn aside their objections
to the BASF project. "I assured
them," he announced, "that the
State of South Carolina would live
up to its responsibility in seeing
that the environment of the area
would not be changed by industry.
"We have assurances from BASF
that the company is vitally con-
cerned about the ecology and
beauty of the area and that steps
are being taken to satisfy all legal,
environmental, and industrial re-
quirements in safeguarding the air
and water from pollutants." The
governor made this assuring public
statement two weeks before the
Tenneco plant mess hit the head-
lines, which may explain his irrita-
tion with Windom, since governors
do not like to have their foolish
statements made to look foolish.
"What about the Tenneco
plant?" I asked Clair Guess, the ex-
ecutive director of the South Caro-
lina Water Resources Commission.
"Boy, they really blew the fuse
on that one, didn't they," he re-
plied, laughing but saying very
little else on the subject.
Guess is the governor's top advi-
ser on water problems. His com-
mission has just completed an im-
pressive 178-page "South Carolina
Tidelands Report," which focuses
on many of the problems of the
coastal area and recommends
sweeping legislative action. One of
the findings of the two-year study
is that fourteen state agencies and
six federal agencies have interests
or responsibilities, which often con-
flict, in the tidelands. This division
of responsibilities makes over-all
planning and broad-scale environ-
mental protection impossible.
In a move that seemed timed to
counteract the effects of the con-
servation symposium, the governor
requested Guess and his commis-
sion to "conduct a thorough study
of the environmental and ecological
conditions existing in the lower
part of South Carolina, particularly
that area around the proposed loca-
tion of BASF."
Conlinued on page 64
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ANaturalisiatLarge
A Student Manileslo on tli
byPennfieldJensen
The phenomenon of student ac-
tivism is as much a barometer of
global crises as it is a manifesta-
tion of personal frustration and or-
ganized disruption. The celebrated
generation gap is little more than
the naturally holistic consciousness
of young people facing a way of
life that is not only ugly, irrelevant,
and neurotic but that threatens to
destroy us all. The natural environ-
ment, on the other hand, presents to
the sensually connected but cul-
turally shocked young person the
clear light of moral value and socie-
tal obligation. Earth: Love it or
leave it.
The impatience demonstrated
with the establishment is the best
part of today's activism. The worst
part is seldom seen for what it
really is: a despairing apathy that
stultifies all endeavor. The activist
is basically a constructivist, a crea-
tive and productive person dedi-
cated to "making it better" while,
at the same time, demonstrating
that the culture, the economics, and
the politics of the United States are
hopelessly antediluvian. It's not
right. It's not working. Shut it
down. The healthy concerns of to-
day are directed toward the envi-
ronment and reach beyond all na-
tional boundaries. For nationalism
itself is a disease of the mind that
settles over a country, smothering
its intelligence under a blanket of
rot thicker than the smog we
breathe. When a young man's life
becomes shattered by the blind
trauma of a useless war or by the
faceless sadism behind an official
load of buckshot, one hears win-
dows begin to break the world
over. These are dead-ends. Ulti-
mately, activism wants a big an-
swer to a big question. We don't
want merely to survive; we want to
live. There is only one place to live
and that is on this planet and we
must live here together.
While individuals of stature and
wisdom are arguing for an inter-
national ecological congress to es-
tablish laws for international use of
the earth's resources, the ecological
crisis has already precipitated stu-
dent activism into one of the
world's most potentially construc-
tive forces. The activists do not
struggle against educational sys-
tems because education is despised
but because education is needed.
The naivete, enthusiasm, and ideal-
ism of young people is not a thing
to be scorned; it is rather to be cele-
brated as the raw material of con-
structive growth.
The ecological perspective shows
all of life connected into dynamic
processes with ineluctable conse-
quences should those processes be
changed.
The ecological sentence for man-
kind is: "Get with it or die."
In the meantime society is asking
its young people to be satisfied
with what they have, believe in the
American Dream, and accept the
heritage of genocide and pollution
with pride, patriotism, and pur-
pose. In short, we are asked to vol-
unteer our suicides, and to do so
quietly without disturbing the
peace of our retiring benefactors,
the over-40 generation. America
was given the greatest single mir-
acle of natural creation ever be-
stowed upon any civilization, but
the gallery of "Great Americans"
who so utterly and systematically
destroyed it is a morgue celebra-
ting the perpetuation of our fan-
tasies of greed and power.
The consequence of genocide
cannot be pardoned. The partici-
pants in that genocide cannot be
excused. We do not look upon in-
dustries, churches, developers, busi-
nessmen, and politicians as being
necessarily bad; we simply see
them as our executioners. I am not
going to befriend my executioner. I
am not going to dedicate my talent
and intelligence to his irresponsi-
bility. I am going to dedicate my-
self to the only element that predi-
cates our survival and the survival
of our children on down to the 10'*
power: the stable ecology of this
planet. Whatever stands in front of
that goal will be- destroyed. If it is
the church, we will shun its halls.
coW^'r AS ^®rcaU0VVjt,A\es V^^
'^m' -
jor more information, write Dept. NH,-4
If it is the school, we will shut it
down. If it is the bulldozers of
the profit-mad conglomerates, troop
trains to corrupt wars, insane com-
mercial gluttony or the logging
trucks of our paper-tiger economy
that need stopping, then we will
stop them. We will stop the destruc-
tion of this planet even at the cost
of our own futures, careers, and
blood. The situation is simply like
that. If you are not going to live
for the earth, what are you going
to live for?
As a species we continue to com-
mute, pollute, and salute in right-
eous arrogance the despoiled flag
of our environment. This cannot
and will not be tolerated any
longer. The irony, and I hope it
never becomes the tragic kind, is
that never before has mankind had
the tools for self-perception and
global understanding that are avail-
able to it today. This statement does
not, however, place the argument
in the hands of the technocrats
of the space-race, the bomb-now-
and-study-later school of scienti-
fic panaceas, for this is surely a
pitiful travesty on the true role of
science in the play called "Man-
kind." Rather, science has given us
an understanding of the evolu-
tionary play in the ecological the-
ater and has awakened us to a true
and challenging comprehension of
man and of man's place on this
planet. The future, in spite of its
grim portent, is the greatest hope
and the greatest challenge any life
form has ever had. Let it be clear,
though, that the great blight of hu-
man overpopulation is the problem
of success, and let us further be-
ware lest our epitaph read: Here
lies a species that failed only be-
cause it succeeded too well.
The misapprehension of the mo-
tives and intentions of today's
young activists comes from a larger
misapprehension of the age in
which we live. The inner yearnings
of nearly all young people are for a
simple and enriching life. Coupled
with the problem of global survival
is the much more personal crisis of
emotional survival. The cities stink.
The rivers are polluted. There is no
way to make an honest buck. The
goal of most young people is self-
realization : riddance from neu-
roses, anxieties, and guilt. In short,
people are seeking and expressing
their freedom. It is the crowning
achievement of democratic culture;
it is for the most part a tremen-
dously healthy thing. The un-
healthy things are catchwords in this
era: alienated, freaked-out, hung-up,
and others, and take their signifi-
cance with respect to whichever side
of the "gap" you happen to be on.
The second part of this urge to
emotional wholeness and survival
takes the form of a large-scale ex-
odus from the cities to the country,
but this cannot last either: there
simply isn't enough country. The
consequences of this step-by-step
introduction to the spiritual, emo-
tional, and physical nourishment of
the undeveloped, ecologically whole
countryside will be an ever greater
demand for access to our natural
areas, for more natural areas, and
for the information, sustenance,
and peace they provide. The ecolo-
gical perspective provides a picture
of life that focuses on a miracle of
creation and evolution that is won-
derful, brutal, and inspiring.
Where, one may ask, is the activ-
ism of youth heading? It is certain
that the ecological perspective and
the reality of the ecological crisis
will mature the destructive and vola-
tile naivete of the young leftist.
The "hashish dreams of guerrilla
warfare" based on lineal Marxist
pollutionist dogma are a tunnel vi-
sion to a sign reading "no exit."
The real revolution is the one al-
ready under way on global food
chains and on our as yet unborn.
The constructive nature of stu-
dent involvement with the issues
stemming from environmental
awareness is emphasized in the de-
mands of the following manifesto
composed by the youth delegates to
a recent conference.
On a national scale, we urge:
• The mobilization of the national
effort to attain stability of numbers,
and equilibrium between man and
nature, by a specified date, with the
attainment of this goal to be the
guide for local and national policy in
the intervening years:
• The immediate assumption of a
massive, federally financed study to
determine the optimum carrying ca-
pacity of our country, on the com-
munity, city, county, state, and
national levels, ivith this carrying
capacity to be predicated on the
quality of life, the impact upon ivorld
resources, and the tolerance of raa-j
tural systems;
• The adoption of new measures of
national well-being, incorporating
indices other than the rate of growth
of the gross national product, the
consumption of energy resources,
and international credit ratings;
• The immediate rejection of inter-
national economic competition as.
valid grounds for the creation of na-
tional policy. 1
On an international scale, we en-
dorse :
• The proposal that the leaders of
all nations through the United Na-
tions General Assembly declare that
a state of environmental emergency
exists on the planet earth;
• The creation of colleges of human
ecology and survival sciences in
the member nations of the United
Nations ;
• The creation of national, re-
gional, and global plans for the de-
termination of optimum population
levels and distribution patterns ;
• The creation of national, re-
gional, and worldwide commissions
on environmental deterioration and
rehabilitation ;
• The proposal that the United
Nations General Assembly adopt a
covenant of ecological rights sim-
ilar to the U.N. covenant of human
rights.
Within the changing fabric of
activism itself, there is a great role
yet to be played by the con-
servationists. It is to these people
that the maturing young are going
to look for help, education, and
leadership. It is truly to "the men
of the earth," to the men of global
understanding and international
commitment, that the reins of
world leadership will be handed.
This is the one area where the co-
operation of all sides can be gained
and the only area where the power
structure can communicate and
join forces with today's enthusias-
tic young activists. Without this
coming together over the common
goals of a quality environment and
a stable ecology, we will continue
to suffer the ravages of con-
frontation and disruption only to
reap the grim harvest of irredeem-
able waste of energy, intelligence,
and human life.
This "Student Manifesto on the
Environment" is a warning . . . but
more than that, it is a supplication.
22
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EAST IS A BIG
"To imasfine Puluwat without the elan of its seafarino; life one must think
can remind men they are men, the canoes that Puluwatans build, and
not just its men, with a sense of purpose and fulfillment."
Puluwat is an island of green,
edged in white and set in a tropic
sea. Already distant, a canoe is
sailing away. Its sail accents the
scene, a white cockade bobbing
over the waves, impudent and alone.
Then the canoe and its crew are
gone. In the days or weeks there-
after no one on Puluwat can know
where they are. Finally someone,
perhaps high in a tree picking
breadfruit, sees a tiny white
triangle on the horizon and emits a
whoop. The cry is carried from
voice to voice, and wthin a minute
everyone on Puluwat knows a ca-
noe is coming. More men climb
trees, and soon eyes practiced in
the scrutiny of sea and sails dis-
tinguish a familiar mark or shape.
The canoe is identified. The stud-
ied indifference of those left be-
hind gives way to excitement. If the
journey has been long and the day
is pleasant, the lagoon will fill with
canoes paddled out to greet the
travelers as they enter the pass in
the reef. The voyage is over. All of
Puluwat shares in the reaffirmation
of a proud heritage.
From the canoe, the perspective
is quite different. Anyone who has
sailed a small boat in the open sea
need not be told that the image of
a liltle sail bobbing over the water
would scarcely come to the minds
of those on board. The sail domi-
nates them not only by its size, but
by its tense struggle to contain the
^nnd it has deflected to its own use.
Vibrating, it strains at its lashings.
Alternately the sail shades the crew
or blinds them with its whiteness.
The spars sway and shudder as the
boat lifts and plunges through the
steep w"aves of the open Pacific.
The canoe itself, a narrow V-
shaped hull about 26 feet long.
with platforms extending out both
sides, lurches with a violence that
requires constant holding on. If the
crew is lucky and the wind holds
steady, this pitching and twisting
will go on. without rest, day and
night for the day or two or three it
takes to reach their destination. But
the wind may drop and leave the
crew drifting under an equatorial
sun. Or it may rise to a storm with
gusts wracking the canoe and driv-
ing chilling rain into the skin and
eyes of the crew. Through all of
this the navigator, in sole com-
mand, keeps track of course, drift,
and position, guided only by stars
and waves and other signs of the
sea. and in recent years by a large
but unlighted compass. Even at
night he stays awake and vigilant,
trusting only himself. They say you
can tell die experienced navigators
by their bloodshot eyes.
Copyright © by the President mid Fellows of Harvard College
HRD
by Thomas Gladwin
irited people. While the exhilaration of trolling over the reefs
iges that they undertake to distant islands, suffuse the entire island,
There is a heroic quality to this
kind of sailing. Happily, everyone
on Puluwat and the other islands of
their seafaring world agrees as to
its heroism. Even more happily,
virtually every man. every child,
and any woman who cares to can
experience again and again the life
of a hero. It is thus a hospitable
sort of heroism despite its frequent
hardships. Sailing canoes are com-
plex and temperamental craft, but
manageable enough for anyone
brought up on them to qualify as
crew. One is therefore not faced
with a fear of failure. True, only a
few achieve the skills of the naviga-
tor, but you do not have to be a
navigator to be a hero.
Voyaging is hospitable, too, be-
cause, unless there is some occasion
for worry, or bad weather is mak-
ing everyone miserable, the pre-
vailing mood at sea is one of good
fellowship. Jokes find an audience
eager for amusement, tales can be
embellished endlessly without fear
of losing listeners, and on most
trips there is food to eat any time
one becomes even a little hungry.
There are discomforts, of course-,
and also risks. Without them there
would be no zest, and no occasion
for heroes. But the discomforts are
transitory and, when you are used
to them, quite toleralile. The risks
are real, but not nearly as great as
one would expect contemplating the
vast stretches of ocean, the tiny sliv-
ers of wood and cord that are a
canoe, and the little dots of land
that are the islands to which Pu-
luvvatans sail. The reason the risks
are not greater lies in the realm of
technology. It lies in canoes, which
may look complicated and some-
times crude, but that are extraor-
dinarily tough and versatile in the
responses they can make to all
manner of conditions and crises. It
lies in a system of navigation that,
in the hands and eyes of a gifted
and vigilant navigator, covers just
about every contingency. But above
all it lies in the skill and resource-
fulness of a people born to the sea
and proud of its mastery.
Puluwat is one of a long chain
of low coral islands that lie be-
tween volcanic Truk on the east
and Palau and Yap on the west.
Taken all together, these islands
comprise the Western and Central
Carolines: they cover more than a
thousand miles of the Pacific Ocean
north of New Guinea. The low is-
lands, from Puluwat and its neigh-
bors westward to Sonsorol, south-
west of Palau. share a similar
culture and languages. They are
closely related to Truk, but differ
sharply from Yap and Palau.
In recent centuries the Carolines
have been controlled successively
by Spain. Germany, Japan, and the
United States. Through most of this
time, however. Puluwat was little
influenced. Explorers, traders, mis-
sionaries, and administrators re-
mained on the island only occasion-
ally and temporarily. During World
War II the Puluwatans were evacu-
ated by the Japanese to nearby
Pulusuk for military reasons, but
after the war they returned to take
up a life little diflierent from before.
Only the Americans have tried to
bring about radical change, prin-
cipally through education, Christian
missions, and indoctrination of lead-
ers. Although these have had some
impact, thus far one is struck more
by how little has changed than by
how much.
Beyond Puluwat lies a world of
little islands, some inhabited and
some not, but each with its own
special shape and nature, and each
in its own assigned place upon the
vast surface of the sea. As one
thinks of these islands, one over
there, another there to the north, a
third over here closer, the sea itself
is transformed. No longer is it sim-
ply a great body of water that, en-
countering Puluwat, shoves around
it and re-forms on the other side to
flow on to an empty eternity. In-
stead the ocean becomes a thor-
oughfare over which one can think
of oneself moving toward a particu-
lar island of destination, which as
one comes upon it will be waiting,
as it always waits, right where it is
supposed to be. When a Puluwatan
speaks of the ocean the words he
uses refer, not to an amorphous ex-
panse of water, but rather to the
assemblage of seaways that lie be-
tween the various islands. Together
these seaways constitute the ocean
he knows and understands. Seen in
this way Puluwat ceases to be a
solitary spot of dry land; it takes its
place in a familiar constellation of i
islands linked together by pathways
on the ocean.
The Puluwatan pictures himself
and his island in his part of the
ocean much as we might locate our-
selves upon a road map. On a road
map, places — mostly communities
— appear as locations with names,
linked by lines of travel. Those we
know from having visited them
spring to mind : the buildings, the
people, the spirit of the place. Those
we know only at secondhand have
a less clear image, and some are
nothing but names. But each has
its place, and there is a way to
get to each one. Each has its part
to play in the totality, which is a
state or region or country. So it is
with the island world of the Pu-
luwatan. He knows of many islands
and can visualize where they are
and how to get to them. Some he
has visited; he knows people and
places on them that set them apart.
Others he has heard about because
people from them have visited
Puluwat, and Puluwatans have
traveled the seaway there on their
canoes. Still other, more distant is-
lands are spoken of only by their
names and legends. While the navi-
gators know the star courses to
them, they have never traveled
these courses — but they know thai
if they did, the islands would be
there.
Historically it was essential thai
Puluwat be a part of this larger is-,
land world. It would never have de-
veloped as it has if it stood alone.
Puluwat canoes glide over
gentle swells in the
open ocean. Usually they
travel alone, but company
means added safety.
3zens of islands stretched over a
ousand miles of ocean from Yap
the west to Truk and the islands
yond on the east have been
iked by their seafaring men and
jir sailing canoes into a network
social, economic, and often polit-
d ties without which they prob-
ly could not have survived, much
(S evolved the complex and secure
ly of life they now enjoy. The op-
rtunity to exchange people, goods,
d information permits these tiny
mmunities to survive disasters —
tably typhoons — to draw from a
ol of ideas and innovations larger
m just their own, to integrate
len useful into larger political
supings, and to extend the range
choice in marriage beyond the
lited number of unrelated part-
es available on one's own island.
These are all highly practical, in-
sd essential, considerations. Yet
yond its practical value, the sea-
•ing life, the constant voyaging
sailing canoes back and forth
tween islands, has acquired a
v^chological worth of its own. It
ds a measure of meaning and
lue to every other act, on land as
11 as at sea. Nothing could attest
this more eloquently than a
radox: as the seafaring culture
Puluwat renews itself with un-
ninished vitality — building new
loes. training young navigators,
jerimenting with novel tech-
[ues — the practical necessity for
las all but disappeared. Virtually
of the exchanges of people and
igs and ideas outlined above
Id be achieved reasonably well
ough travel on small passenger-
rying ships, which have been
king regular administrative and
ding trips through these islands
the past twenty years.
The Puluwatans approach fishing
much the same way. Seine nets,
idlines, and spearfishing are of-
more productive, but Puluwa-
s prefer trolling over the outer
fs at high speed, chasing the
eeling seabirds that signal school-
fish below. The canoes take
jeating — rougher treatment and
re risks than would be acceptable
a long ocean voyage. But fishing
3art of what the canoes are built
, and as all the canoes strain
1^
T^r
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PHILIPPINE?-'
.IVIARIANAS.
Saipan -■ MICRONESIA
\ POLYNESIA
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MARSHALL. ISLANDS
.'C A R.6 LJ-N'.E- I'S L.A N'D &•
WESTERN PACIFIC
OCEAN
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SAMOA
a '. ';
toward a school of fish, you know
at once which sails the best and
which captain is most skilled and
daring. This is the good way, the
proud way to catch fish.
The truth of the matter is that
the Puluwatans are not objective
about their canoes, even less objec-
tive perhaps than we in the United
States are about our automobiles.
Especially for those of us who live
in cities, the minor inconvenience
of public transportation should
weigh far less in the balance than
the cost and trouble of keeping a
car. yet most of us not only keep
our cars but at intervals buy new
ones. We say the automobile has
become part of our way of life and
we do not want to give it up. On
Puluwat the sailing canoe is not
merely a part of their way of life,
it is the very heart of it. To suggest
that the Puluwatans should beach
their canoes and retire their na-
vigators would be to foretell dis-
aster. To imagine Puluwat without
the elan of its seafaring life one
must think of a dispirited people.
While the exhilaration of trolling
over the reefs can remind men they
are men, the canoes that Puluwa-
tans build, and the voyages that
they undertake to distant islands,
suffuse the entire island, not just its
men. with a sense of purpose and
fulfillment. In the last analysis ev-
erything on Puluwat is justified by
the contribution it makes to the
capability of boats and people to
travel well and safely at sea.
There is no sign that this en-
thusiasm is waning. If anything, it
is growing stronger. The rest of the
world may see virtue in mecha-
nization, in power and efficiency,
but on Puluwat almost every young
man still aspires to become a na-
vigator. Only a handful make it,
but those who fall by the wayside
are willing to settle for the lesser
glory of being a crew member on a
Puluwat canoe. Thus far very few
young people appear inclined to
leave Puluwat to seek their futures
in the district center on Truk or
elsewhere. Rather, the young men
are learning to build, to sail, and
hopefully even to navigate canoes,
and young women are readying
themselves to be wives of seafarers.
In the Carolines there are goo<I
seasons for sailing, and bad. The
Puluwatan navigator knows these
limes by the rising and setting of
certain stars just before dawn or at
dusk through the cycle of each
year. He knows the weather and
winds associated with each of these
star months and can thus forecast
llie seasonal changes.
In April atmospheric pressure
from the north weakens, the dol-
drum belt begins to move north to-
ward the equator, and the trade
winds, although still blowing fairly
steadily from the northeast, drop in
strength to comfortable levels. The
27
sailing canoes have been over-
hauled, and one after another, or in
convoys of two or three, they set
off on their various journeys.
During July and August the dol-
drum belt has moved so far north
that Puluwat lies south of it. Now
the trade winds are coming from
the south. Although below the
equator the trades typically blow
from the southeast, when they cross
the equator the same winds turn
and come from the southwest. This
more westerly wind is fine for voy-
ages to the east. With a south-
westerly breeze one can go to Pi-
saras. East Fayu. or the Halls with
the wind astern, and thereafter run
down to Truk itself with the same
wind comfortably on the beam.
Then wait a week or two and the
wind will often shift around to
blow you home again.
Linger too long, however, and
the doldrum belt will have passed
again to the south. This usually
happens toward the end of Septem-
ber. Cooler air from the north
comes upon water heated by the
summer sun and doldrum winds,
and the mix becomes unstable. This
is the season of typhoons, identical
to the hurricanes that are spawning
at the same time and for the same
reasons in the Caribbean and adja-
cent Atlantic waters. These storms
come up so fast and with such fury
that only the most daring, or per-
haps foolhardy, of navigators will
venture on a long trip during late
September or October. After this
the weather stabilizes again, the
northeast trades (which actually
vary between northeast and east)
dominate, and canoes that were
caught on Truk can return home to
Puluwat with a good wind behind
them. Gradually the winds grow in
strength, with an occasional letup
near the end of December, until the
steady, discouraging blow of the
drab winter months sets in and ev-
eryone stays home to await liber-
ation by the gentler weather of
spring.
The intention to make a long
trip, such as one to Truk or Sa-
tawal, usually develops over a pe-
riod of several weeks or more. This
is not always true, however. If, for
example, a canoe is long overdue,
28
worried relatives on Puluwat may
decide overnight to set off on a
search for them and leave within a
few hours. Stops are then made
at all the islands, however distant,
which the missing craft had planned
to visit, plus any others along the
way, to learn whether the canoe
was sighted and when.
The actual decision on when to
leave, however, is usually reached
only two or three days, never more
than a week, in advance. If the
question is pressed, one is told this
short lead time is necessary in or-
der to be able to forecast favorable
weather during the first leg of the
trip. However, the weather fore-
casting system operates essentially
as an almanac dependent upon the
rising and setting of stars and the
phases of the moon. The Puluwa-
tans know quite enough about these
matters to be able to forecast the
positions of the heavenly bodies
weeks ahead, but the final decision
of whether to leave on the ap-
pointed day is determined by the
look of sky and sea at the time.
Preparation for a voyage begins
with rounding up a crew. Four to
six men comprise a full com-
plement. Most of them are likely to
be members of the navigator-cap-
tain's canoe house or co-owners of
the boat or both. Although a core
group of men seems to travel regu-
larly on each canoe, there is noth-
ing rigid about this. The canoes are
sufficiently alike that no technical
problems arise from riding on an
unfamiliar craft, and there are no
special loyalties associated with
individual canoes. The word soon
gets around that so-and-so is mak-
ing a trip to Truk or Ulul or Sa-
tawal. Anyone who is waiting for a
chance to go there can be fairly
sure of finding a place on the ca-
noe just by asking. The navigator
presumably intends to round out
his crew with some of his younger
relatives whose services he can vir-
tually command, so he easily makes
a place for the petitioner by drop-
ping one of these. He must also, if
possible, include in his crew at
least one other man with naviga-
tional skills in case he is himself
incapacitated.
If women or children are coming
Crew members strain to
refloat their canoe after
turtle hunting on Pikelot.
They lift up, as well as
push, to minimize damage
to the bottom of the hull.
along, it is necessary to install a
small, domed cover of plaited pan-
danus leaves over the lee platform.
This little cabin is usually carried
on any long voyage since under
these circumstances there will prob-
ably be a good number of trade
goods, gifts, and personal effects,
which should be kept dry, and the
shelter is welcome too for sleeping
if the weather turns wet and cold.
Women and children require more,
however, than food and shelter.
There must also be a man in the
crew who is responsible at all times
for each passenger. For women this
is almost invariably their husbands.
Particularly in the old days when it
was believed that women posed a
supernatural threat to the rest of
the voyagers, it was essential that
someone be available to assist them
with any of the bodily needs that
emphasized their femaleness. One
could scarcely ask anyone but a
husband to scoop up seawater time
after time for a bath, so that as the
woman poured the water over her-
self the sound of it striking the sea
below would mask the noise of her
urination. Even today, although the
threat is gone, embarrassment is
still possible when one or two
women live with a group of men
for several days on a very small
boat. In these circumstances the
only really appropriate intermediary
is a woman's husband.
Children require even more at-
tention. Despite the objections of
their worried mothers, boys and
girls are often taken on their first
canoe trip to another island when
they are only five, or sometimes
even four years old, so that, early
in their lives, they will get to know
Extremely narrow hull of
an oceangoing canoe
is balanced by outrigger,
extending out to the left,
and lee platform, right.
and to enjoy life at sea. To this end
they are allowed the run of the
boat, not cooped up in the little
cabin except in bad weather. Thus,
in addition to seeing that they are
fed and that their other physical
needs are cared for, someone must
watch little children all the time.
They can swim — Puluwat children
swim almost as soon as they can
toddle to the water — but falling
overboard can still be very dan-
gerous, especially at night. There-
fore, for any child aboard there
must also be two men, relatives of
the child, who will be responsible for
him. If there were only one he would
spend all his time watching his
charge and fail to do his share of
the rigging, bailing, fishing, and
other seagoing chores. Nor would
he be able to take a nap, even when
the child slept, lest the latter wake
up and fall overboard. These and
other considerations frequently re-
quire a little juggling of the roster
before the list of crew and passen-
gers is firmly established, but it is
usually possible to please every-
one— and those who might be un-,
happy because they have been un-
ceremoniously pushed aside are
likely to be young relatives of the
navigator who made the decision,
and therefore may not appro-
priately voice any public com-
plaint.
As the morning wears on, the
A master builder shapes
the keel piece, which ;
determines the dimensions
of the finished hull.
¥
S>
^^'
K-^x-
ir^
Unlike their counterparts
on Truk, 150 miles to
the east, Puluwat children
fear no one, not even
strangers of another race.
boat is gradually loaded with
equipment and supplies. With ev-
erything carefully stowed the out-
line of the canoe does not change
markedly, but the boat settles in
the shallow water and is moved out
a little way. Finally, all is ready
and the sail, wrapped in loose folds
over its spars, is carried out. When
folded together, the boom and yard
to which the sail is secured do not
match in their respective curves.
giving a clumsy appearance to the
long bundle of wood and cloth.
This clumsiness will vanish once
the sail is raised. Then these same
curves create the graceful, piquant
sail profile that is the hallmark of
canoes in the Central Carolines.
With the sail aboard there is a
pause. The crew comes ashore and
may share a cigarette or two,
passed from- hand to hand among
themselves and the well-wishers
who will remain behind. Often be-
fore a longer trip everyone goes to
church for a prayer and a blessing.
In a touching gesture, the naviga-
tor may go to ask his old naviga-
tion instructor's last-minute advice
if the mentor cannot physically
lend his presence to the departure.
Then, without any formal farewells.
the men wade out through the shal-
Puluwat men weave rope
from coir (coconut husk
fiber) to barter for
tobacco and imported goods
on the next trip to Truk.
low water to the canoe. If women
are going along, they board first,
settling themselves as best they can
in the cramped space under the
cover of the lee platform. The line
or lines that hold the boat are un-
tied and someone shoves it away
from shore. As one or two men
start paddling, the others get ready
to hoist the sail. Those on shore
watch as the canoe moves away and
then drift off in twos and threes
about their various affairs. By the
time it is out of sight no one is left
in front of the canoe house to
watch, except perhaps some old
people who have neither an excuse
nor the energy to move elsewhere
for a while.
Coming up to the wide pass,
bounded on one side by the south-
ern tip of Puluwat and on the other
by a tiny islet that is the roosting
place of at least a thousand sea-
birds, the canoe quickens to the mo-
tion of the sea. Inside the lagoon it
has been gliding along unperturbed
by the rippling water. Now after
scarcely a moment of transition it
is plunging and rearing through
waves flung high as they breast the
current, which most of the time
swirls powerfully outward over the
reef. Outside, the canoes settles
down a little, but a narrow 26-foot
hull, even though balanced by an
outrigger, has no chance to stay
still while moving through the laby-
rinth of massive waves that march
and countermarch across the west-
ern Pacific.
Once in the open the navigator
establishes his strategy for the first
leg of his trip. He sets his course,
tests the wind, and often calls for
further adjustments of mast or sail.
Perhaps he tells someone to move
aft so his Aveight will sink that end
of the canoe deeper in the water
and thus improve its trim when the
wind is on the beam. Only after he
is at sea does the navigator deter-
mine his sailing plan and make his
final adjustments. Before they left
he doubtless noted the general
weather and wind so that he had
some idea how rough it would be
and whether they would tack or
run before the wind, but if the
weather were not such as to create
undue risks, he paid it little further
heed. The sailing directions learned
during the years of his apprentice-
ship are sufficiently complete to
guide him in executing the voyage
under almost all possible condi-
tions. Beyond these general direc-
tions individual judgments must be
attuned to the conditions actually
observed at sea — seen with the eye,
felt with the motion of the boat,
and heard in the sound of the
wind — conditions that cannot be in-
ferred while standing on unyielding
land with the wind blowing at full
force only in the treetops.
Soon the canoe is well out at sea,
settled on its initial course. The
crew can relax. A line or two may
be rigged for trolling, but only if
there are reefs below teeming with
fish or if the trip is short. A troll-
ing line creates drag, which on a
longer trip can slow a canoe
enough that it may not make its
landing at a distant island before
dark. Like all good sailors, Puluwa-
tans are constantly concerned with
getting the last ounce of perform-
ance from any boat they are on.
The rigging and trim are contin-
ually readjusted, and even the sand
is omitted from the iron cooking
box to save weight on a long voy-
age. Every extra pound makes the
canoe ride lower and thus slower in
the water.
As the journey goes forward
anyone is free to make a suggestion
about the course the canoe is on.
the set of the mast, the look of the
weather, or perhaps a detour over a
reef to catch some fish. The naviga-
tor is in command, with all the au-
thority and responsibility we are
accustomed to associate with the
role, but this does not set him
apart, aloof from the rest of the
crew. He joins in the jokes and
gossip and talks about his naviga-
tion quite freely, especially if he
has a son or other student naviga-
tor aboard who can learn from his
example. If there is some cause for
anxiety or question, the responsible
navigator feels obligated to pay
particular attention to the sugges-
tions or doubts of his crew mem-
bers. They in turn will not speak
up unless they have some seniority
and competence to back up their
views. Examples of these inter-
33
changes appear frequently in ac-
counts of voyages told by naviga-
tors: it appears they are proud of
their willingness to attend to these
queries, rather than resenting those
who question their judgment.
The routine at sea. unless there
are storms, is relatively undemand-
ing. At times everyone is talking;
at other times, most are asleep —
either stretched out, curled up. or
propped against almost anything
that offers support. No matter how
crowded the canoe, people seem to
find places to sleep without falling
overboard. Occasionally, more of-
ten if the weather is rough, the ca-
noe needs bailing. Someone sits on
the little bench or thwart installed
for this purpose down in the hull
and throws the water over the lee
side with a bailer, a scoop
carved — like everything else — from
breadfruit wood. All except the na-
vigator take turns at this w"eari-
some task without prodding or
complaint. The crew members sim-
ilarly relieve each other steering
with the big steering paddle astern
when this is made necessary by a
following wind. Everyone is as-
sumed to have the skill necessary to
be a steersman, although it is soon
obvious that some can hold a
course better than others. Manning
the sheet, which trims the sail and
thereby trims the canoe, is more
exacting. Sloppy work on the sheet
can affect all aspects of the canoe's
performance, as well as its safety.
Most of the time the navigator
tends it himself. When he i\-ants re-
lief he designates who shall take
over. For a young man this can be
an exciting responsibility, a reward-
ing gesture of confidence by the
older navigator.
As with sleeping, so with eating.
People eat when they feel like it.
Usually one man gets out some
food and the others join in. If fish
have been caught, either they are
eaten raw (especially tuna and bo-
nito I or someone kindles a fire in
the iron cooking box. It is set well
aft on the outrigger platform so
that sparks flying from the little,
glowing heap of coconut husks will
stream over the side. The fish are
roasted whole on top of the fire
and when they are done the fire is
doused so that the husks can be
used again, and also so that no
more sparks will blow about.
Nowadays it is unusual for a ca-
noe, if it does not run into some
sort of trouble, to be at sea for
more than four or five days, at
most a week, at one stretch. In the
past, trips were often longer, pri-
marily because the canoes were
slower and it took longer to get
from one island to another. More
distant journeys than are now cus-
tomary were also made, but most
of these were accomplished, as they
still are, in stages, stopping at one
island after another. A few. really
long, unbroken voyages were made
to more distant islands, islands
large enough to minimize naviga-
tion problems in reaching them.
They could be sighted over long
distances and made large targets.
These were islands such as Guam,
Saipan, and Ponape. The men who
made these heroic voyages were
probably no better navigators than
their modern counterparts, possibly
even a little less accurate, but they
were rugged and determined. They
arrived at their destination half
starved, dehydrated, and so burned
by the sun they were black and al-
most poisoned by its effects. The re-
turn would not be made for months,
and such trips were undertaken only
rarely. Those recent enough to be
remembered were made primarily to
Saipan to trade with the Spaniards
there for iron tools and knives,
which could not be obtained in any
other way. (Last year Hipour, a
Puluwat navigator, using only his
traditional knowledge, guided a
modern ketch across 600 miles of
open water to Saipan and then back
again, making his return landfall
unerringly on tiny Pikelot.)
Once the canoe has arrived, espe-
cially at an island where the crew
have many friends and relatives,
the welcome is warm and life is
easy. No one need work. Their
hosts feed them and entertain them
with drink, good talk, and often at
night a companion for their bed. If
a man has not brought his wife
along he can expect someone on the
island who is his "brother," a rela-
tionship no less binding if it is
artificial, to offer his own wife for
the visitor's pleasure. Apparently
not only do the visiting men appre-
ciate this custom, but also the
women. The wife who is offered in
hospitality appreciates the novelty
of a new sexual partner, and even
the traveler's wife left at home un-
derstands and expects this sort of
thing — as long as he does not try it
once he is back on Puluwat! When
such a warm welcome ashore is
added to good fellowship and pride
in their skill at sea, it is small won-
der that men in return take lightly
the risks and hardships of their
long travels.
Finally the canoe comes home.
In the past the men of the crew
spent the first few days following
their return living together without
women in their canoe house. This
ended with a small feast and cere-
mony in which they put behind
them the world of the sea and for-
mally returned to the island and to
their families. Now, however, when
the canoe has been unloaded and
secured, or perhaps carried up into
its place in the canoe house, the
men disperse to their o«ti houses to
take up once again the lives of hus-
bands and fathers.
Yet before long they will leave
again on another trip, and another
and another. Puluwat is a good is-
land. It is a good place to be born,
to grow strong, and even to die.
Yet to discover its essence one can-
not look only to the land. The land
is only the backdrop and the place
of preparation. Without its sailing
canoes and seafaring men, Puluwat
would have no past and no future.
So with every voyage, and only
through each voyage, its worth is
renewed and its destiny fulfilled.
The second part of this article uill
appear in the next issue
Small sailing canoes return
across the lagoon after
a day of fishing along the
reefs in the open ocean.
34
Heart
Poisons
and
the
Monarch
As part of its defense mechanism the monarch but-
terfly [Danaus plexippus) stores heart poisons in its
body tissues. These substances, known as cardeno-
lides, or cardiac glycosides, are derived from milk-
weeds— common plants on which the butterfly feeds
during its larval stage ( 1 ) . The poisons are ingested
by the caterpillar and carried through the pupal stage
(2) to the adult (3).
If swallowed, cardenolides produce violent vomiting
in certain bird predators such as crows and wood
hoopoes. In this fashion the predator rids itself of the
poison before absorbing enough to stop the heart.
As a consequence, one such experience with the
monarch — either at its caterpillar, pupal, or butterfly
stage — has a lasting effect: the predator will there-
after give the insect a wide berth. Also, the monarch's
bright colors — known as warning coloration — and its
evocative scent serve as an aide-memoire for future
occasions should the bird meet this prey again.
The milkweeds ( Asclepiadaceae) , on which the
monarch feeds, owe their name to the milky sap that
exudes from the stem if it is broken or injured. While
we were rearing the monarch we had occasion to pull
some leaves off the main stem of one of the plants,
resulting in a copious flow of creamy fluid down the
stalk. Immediately, two of the monarch caterpillars in
the vicinity abandoned the leaves on which they were
feeding and advanced rapidly toward the stream of
milky sap. Quickly imbibing the fluid, they finished
every drop like a couple of thirsty cats ( 1 ) . We repeated
this experiment on many occasions, and in each case
the caterpillars eagerly drank up the exuding sap.
Poisonous substances are not always found in equal
concentrations in all parts of a plant. It is well
known, for example, that the stems of rhubarb are
edible while the seeds and the leaves are poisonous.
The point is illustrated by some experiments car-
ried out recently in collaboration with Prof. Tadeus
Reichstein. We reared a warningly colored, yellow
greenfly, or aphid {Aphis merii) , on Asclepias cu-
rassavica, the same plant from which our monarch
caterpillars were lapping up the milk. These insects,
although they feed on leaves and young shoots, insert
their mouthparts directly into the sieve tubes and im-
bibe the tissue (phloem). When we analyzed the aph-
by
3iiritttn
Itothsehild
tMnd
Bob Ford
ids' body content it was found that they contained
other cardenolides but not calactin, which is the chief
heart poison found in the monarch. It seems likely
therefore that the principal toxic elements stored by
the monarch in its hemolymph and body tissues are
derived from this plant's milky latex (which is par-
ticularly rich in calactin ) upon which the greenfly
apparently does not feed. Thus, having evolved the
habit of sap-drinking, the caterpillars can rapidly in-
crease their store of protective heart poisons.
Not all milkweeds contain cardenolides, and those
that do may contain different sorts of heart poisons of
varying toxicity. Thus the cardenolides found in As-
clepias syriaca, a common food plant of the monarch
in the United States, may not be as poisonous as those
in Asclepias curassavica, and could well exert some-
what different effects on vertebrates. It is also possible
that the monarch caterpillar, like the grasshopper
Poekilocerus bufonius Klug is "hooked" on certain
cardenolides. This grasshopper, which emits a poi-
sonous foam(4) when it is disturbed or attacked,
deliberately selects leaves that have been coated with
calactin-rich latex, but it will not eat foxglove (Digi-
talis) from which we extract the cardenolide drug
called digitalis, used extensively in the treatment of
human heart disease. It is possible that the monarch
caterpillar can discriminate between those plant spe-
cies that contain the highest concentrations of these
chemicals and can assess the quality as well as the
quantity of heart poisons in their food plant. Some
experiments are now in progress to investigate this
aspect of their behavior.
Not all predators, or potential predators, of the
monarch are sensitive to cardenolides. Mice, which
are said to wreak havoc among hibernating hordes of
this butterfly, eat them with impunity (5), and the
Japanese quail iCoturnix japonica) appears more or
less immune to the effects of these substances. In cap-
tivity this bird may eat the monarch, but not with
enthusiasm. It can. however, swallow a dose of digitalis
large enough to kill fifty men and apparently suifer no
ill effects. This illustrates a very important principle:
the protective devices evolved by animals are never
absolute, for some predators invariably manage to keep
pace with them.
BARNARD'S STAR: The
A nearby star is wobbling as it hurtles through space, a sure sign that
it Is accompanied by its own retinue of planets
by Peter van de Kamp
For eighteen long years — during
which the earth was convulsed
by World War II. the reign of nu-
clear terror started, and new na-
tions began to proliferate around
the globe — my staff and I patiently
made thousands of photographs of
a single star: then measured
differences in position of 1/25,000
of an inch. In 1956 we found what
we were looking for. We spent an-
other seven years verifying the data
before we were certain enough of
our evidence to publish the results:
an object, which could only be
called a planet, was orbiting an-
other star. We had found a planet
of Jovian dimensions, the first such
planet ever found outside our own
solar system.
To make the photographs we
used a relatively modest 24-inch
telescope. We worked in eastern
Pennsylvania, a part of the country
not renowned for clear skies. The
real search came when we bent
over the measuring machine,
plotted the results, and then made
the mathematical analyses that re-
vealed what no earthbound tele-
scope had ever shown, a planet or-
biting another star.
The story actually began in June,
1916, when the astronomical com-
munity was surprised by the dis-
covery that a faint red dwarf star
was moving across the sky far
more rapidly than any other known
star. The motion was real, of the
sort that astronomers call "proper
motion." It takes about 170 years
for the star to cross an apparent
distance in the sky equal to the
moon's diameter; this may sound a
bit tortoiselike, but it is far faster
than the motion of any star dis-
covered before or since.
The discoverer, Edwin Emerson
Barnard, was an amateur astrono-
mer then on the staff of the Yerkes
38
Search for Other Solar Systems
Observatory in Chicago. It had
been known for nearly 200 years
that the stars were not fixed on the
celestial sphere but move relative to
each other. Edmund Halley, whose
namesake comet will return in
1986, first recorded these motions.
How much a star will appear to
move relative to other stars de-
pends greatly on how close it is
and in which direction it is moving
relative to our line of sight. A star
moving straight toward or away
from us will not appear to be mov-
ing at all relative to the stars
around it.
Barnard's Star, a 9.5-magnitude
object in the constellation Ophi-
uchus, has a proper motion of
10.31 seconds of arc annually. It is
5.9 light-years away, the second
nearest star. It appears to be mov-
ing across our line of sight at
about 55 miles a second and to be
coming toward us at 67 miles a sec-
ond. The star's intrinsic luminosity
is about 1/2300 that of the sun.
Because of its proximity. Bar-
nard's Star is more than an oddity;
^'^ it offers the best chance of detect-
ing planets orbiting another star by
observing their gravitational effects
on the motion of their parent body.
Looking like automobile
headlights, these double dots are
actually twin images of faint
stars caught in two photographs
taken 11 months apart. The images
that appear tilted in the center
are of Barnard's Star. To make
this picture the negatives were
shifted so that the later image
of all the stars fell to the
right of the earlier. The images
of Barnard's Star appear tilted,
however, because of its
perceptible movement toward the
north (top of the picture)
in the ll-month interval.
It is not now possible to detect
such planets by direct means, for
reasons that become clear if we re-
verse the situation. From the near-
est star, Alpha Centauri, the largest
planet in our system, Jupiter,
would at best appear as a 23-
magnitude object separated from
the sun, now a first magnitude star,
by no more than four seconds of
arc. A still fainter earth would be
totally lost in the glare of the sun.
Gravitational effects are observ-
able at such distances, however;
as long ago as 1844 F. W. Bessel
discovered the unseen stellar com-
panions of Sirius and Procyon by
this method. The technique works
because even if an object has no
light of its own. its mass affects the
path of a nearby object. Newton's
laws of motion tell us that a single
star, or the center of mass of a
multiple system, will move at uni-
form speed in a straight line unless
affected by some outside force. Any
deviation reveals the presence of an
unseen companion.
Barnard's Star thus offers a
unique opportunity to detect un-
seen companions small enough to
be planets. The task is simply
stated : Plot the deviations in the
path of Barnard's Star across the
sky. and then calculate how large —
or small — a body would be re-
quired to account for them. Per-
forming the task was something
else. The deviations, called per-
turbations, amounted to about 0.03
seconds of arc. Measuring them was
like detecting a one-inch movement
at a distance of one hundred miles.
The basic instrument is a long-
focus telescope adapted for photog-
raphy, really just a long-focus
camera. The long-focus character-
istic yields large-scale portrayal of
small portions of the sky, which in
turn permits precise measurement
of small, angular displacements.
The precision of the instrument,
the photographic plate, and the
measuring machine are such that
very high positional accuracy can
be obtained. A single photographic
exposure furnishes a position rela-
tive to a reference background of
"fixed" background stars with an
accuracy of about 0.04 seconds of
arc. Multiple exposures, up to four
a night, can improve the accuracy
to 0.02 seconds of arc. By further
combining several nights' observa-
tions into one "normal point," posi-
tions with an accuracy of 0.01 sec-
onds of arc or better are obtained.
Measurements must not only be
accurate; they must be compatible.
As observations are made over a
period of decades, the telescope
must be kept optically constant,
filters and photographic emulsions
should not be changed, and not
only should the same measuring en-
gine be used but ideally the same
person should use it. Use of more
impersonal measuring machines in
the future may yield further im-
provements in accuracy over the
measurements made so far. which
rely on the visual bisection of star
images by individual measurers.
At the Sproul Observatory we
began a systematic program of
measurement in 1937. By the end
of 1968 we had 3,036 plates, con-
taining 10.452 exposures taken on
766 nights; these included 25
plates taken during the interval
1916-19 following the star's dis-
covery. The hardest part of the
work is not making the photo-
graphs, but determining thousands
of accurate positions.
The position of Barnard's Star is
measured against a reference back-
ground of faint stars (page 38).
Positions are measured in two
coordinates. parallel and per-
pendicular to the celestial equator,
known as right ascension and dec-
lination. The reference stars are
moving too, of course, but because
they are much farther away their
proper motions are much smaller
and are known with sufficient accu-
racy to be taken into account.
Once the positions are plotted,
they have to be corrected for the
effects of the earth's revolution
around the sun, for the motion of
RASALHAGUI
BARNARD'S STAR
The small cross indicates the position of Barnard's Star in the summer sky, jiist to the right of
the Milky Way. The cube is an enlargement of this part of the universe with Barnard's Star
in its 1970 position at the* bottom. From our vantage point near the sun, Barnard's Star will close
from its present distance of S.9 light-years to 3.75 light-years by the year a.d. 11,800. ♦
This cube is an enlargement of the path of Barnard's Star in the first cube. It shows the spiral
motion (which we see as a wobble) of the star around its mean path (arrow). The size of
the.wobble has been exaggerated 2,000 times. The viewpoint is from the center of gravity of our
solar system, a point never more than about a million miles from the center of the sun.
Other effects, like that of earth's motion, have been eliminated. The two planets shown here,
moving in the same direction in nearly the same plane in circular orbits, would account
nicely f&r the wobble; the effedt of their pulling Barnard's Star out of its path is very clear
arouhd 1950, when both planets were lined up on the same side.
rr. ^ .Wi/^/^E.(9
the reference stars, for the motion
of Barnard's Star itself, and for the
changing perspective as Barnard's
Star comes closer to us. After
eighteen years ^of photographing,
plotting, and analyzing, we found
the evidence of perturbations for
which we were hoping. When our
corrections had all been made, we
were left with a systematic devia-
tion, mostly in right ascension,
with a cycle approximately one-
fourth of a century. The subsequent
decade has confirmed this inter-
pretation. There appears to be no
other way to explain this deviation
than by interpreting it as a per-
turbation caused by an unseen
companion.
If there is just one companion,
our calculations show it has a mass
one and a half times that of Jupiter
and revolves around its sun every
25 years, at a distance 4.5 times
that at which the earth circles our
sun. Instead of a nearly circular or-
bit, such as all planets in our solar
system exhibit, however, this com-
panion would travel in a highly
elongated ellipse. My first reaction
to this unexpected feature was. why
not? Should we demand nearly cir-
cular orbits just because we were
born on a planet that happens to
have one? My next thought was
that perhaps we should be im-
pressed by the near-circular orbits
of the planets in our solar system.
Immediately an alternate inter-
pretation of the perturbations be-
came possible. Within the uncer-
tainties of the data, the asymmetry
ascribed to a highly elliptical orbit
could easily be explained by the
presence of two planetary compan-
ions with different periods of revo-
lution in near-circular orbits. The
idea of two companions had been
contemplated ever since dips in right
ascension turned up in the data for
both 1955 and 1956. One dip could
have been bad luck: two in con-
secutive years could not be dis-
regarded so easily. I felt a little as
though I were retrograding from the
Keplerian viewpoint of elliptical or-
bits to the Copernican scheme of
circular orbits; I felt better after
reminding myself that highly ellip-
tical orbits are contrary to the only
experience we have.
Simple trial and error ( I wasn't
going to let a computer do this; I
wanted to savor for myself the
pleasures of playing with various
orbits, for a slide rule and simple
desk calculator are all that is neces-
sary in these ultimate studies)
showed that two circular, corevolv-
ing, nearly coplanar orbits with pe-
riods of 26 and 12 years and radii
of 4.7 and 2.8 times the earth— sun
distance, respectively, represented
the observations very well. ( The
corresponding figures for Saturn
are 29.5 years and 9.5 times the
earth-sun distance; those for Jupi-
ter are 12 years and 5.2 times the
earth— sun distance.) The masses of
both perturbing objects worked out
to be still closer to that of Jupiter
than had the mass of the hypothe-
sized single companion.
Because of the feeble luminosity
of Barnard's Star, the two planets
would have surface temperatures so
low that any discussion of life on
them is out of order.
It seems clear that these two
companions, which I call simply Bl
and B2, are true planets and not
just very small stars in a complex
multiple system. Both stars and
planets are spheres of matter. Stars
result from spheres of matter having
so much mass that contracting under
the force of gravity, they heat up
enough to start nuclear reactions
and glow with their own light. Their
mass classifies them as stars even if
at the end of their life they collapse
to planetlike dimensions. Planets
are considered to be the end prod-
uct of smaller contracting spheres
that lack sufficient mass for nuclear
reactions, or possibly the result of
the accretion of scattered material.
Planets never shine by their own
light.
The present study does not per-
mit any interpretation that would
involve more than two planets. It
would be totally impossible to dis-
cover a planet the size of the earth.
The mass of the earth is only
1/319 that of Jupiter, not enough
to cause noticeable perturbation of
the central star.
This gravitationaltechnique is so
sensitive, however, that if Bar-
nard's Star had no unseen compan-
ions, it would show deviations
caused by the perturbations of
Jupiter and Saturn on our sun. The
wobble of the sun in its path
caused by Jupiter and Saturn, and
to a lesser extent by Uranus and
Neptune, is large enough to pro-
duce wobbles in the paths of
nearby stars. The wobble produced
in Barnard's Star is not enough for
Jupiter and Saturn to be discovered
if for some reason they had been
previously overlooked, but it is
large enough to be allowed for in
analyses of the path of Barnard's
Star.
The size of the perturbation ob-
served in Barnard's Star makes it
certain that something is there; the
amplitude is ten times the margin
of error. Whether the one- or two-
planet hypothesis is to be preferred
may be decided in the next several
years. A\'hen we can test our pre-
dictions against new observations.
To date, Barnard's Star is the
only star other than our sun to show
clear evidence of having planets.
Other nearby stars are under intense
study, and there appears to be
some tentative evidence for planets
circling still other stars, but any
definite statement is several years
away. Barnard's Star is the second
closest to us. The farther away a
star is, of course, the more difficult
it is to detect the very slight wobble
any planets would cause.
The search for extrasolar planets
has been going on for 32 years,
slowly, painstakingly, with none of
the excitement of more glamorous
fields of science. Curiosity, pa-
tience, perseverance, and faith re-
main basic and continued require-
ments. Natural limitations are ever
present. The scientist is destined to
create the universe in his own im-
age and in that of his times. In the
Scale drawing compares orbit
in our solar system will
those of planets orbiting
Barnard's Star. One astronomica
unit is the mean distanci
from the earth to the sun
about 93 million miles
42
present case he is bound to be
influenced by what he knows about
the motions and physical properties
of the planets in his own solar sys-
tem. The temporal extent of his ob-
servations prejudices him and per-
mits him to discover only events
with cycles not exceeding the inter-
val covered by the observations.
And because of unavoidable limita-
tions in observational accuracy, the
size of deviations sets a lower limit
to what he can discover in the way
of perturbations.
None of this is reason for de-
spair. It is a good principle in sci-
ence not to overdiscuss; there is no
merit, however, in underdiscussing
the available data. Deviations from
existing knowledge lead to new in-
sights. Unexpected and unforeseen
discrepancies are one of nature's
ways of beckoning us, drawing at-
tention to facts that are asking to
be discovered. Frequently, such rev-
elations are ignored or swept under
the rug. Such reaction is hardly in
the spirit of scientific adventure.
We need insight and the courage to
heed nature's signals.
It is sound procedure to care-
fully examine and check our tech-
niques, thereby insuring that devia-
tions from prior knowledge do not
result from human and in-
strumental errors. Such procedure
is even more desirable if the dis-
crepancies indicate the existence of
the very phenomenon we would be
happy to discover. Only after hav-
ing eliminated possible errors
should we, still a bit reluctantly but
with a sense of relief and ex-
hilaration, accept the observed pat-
tern as having cosmic reality. In
our case we appear to be operating
well above the threshold of what
can be observed, and there is little
reason to doubt the reality of the
data. We should not be afraid to
draw the apparently inevitable con-
clusions. Lest we perish, we should
dare to have vision; while we need
not be fools rushing in, there is no
reason why we cannot tread care-
fully and still be on the side of the
angels. We should be hopeful, have
faith, and be ready and willing to
take a chance on meeting the reve-
lations of the universe more than
halfway. ■
43
PREHISTORY
DOWN
UNDER
Archeology illuminates the dark continent
of prehistory, as Aboriginal settlement
and artistry are traced further back
into Australia's antiquity
by D. J. Mulvaney
V \
With a perspective of history
that reflects tlieir European
origins, Australians are now cele-
brating the bicentennial of Capt.
James Cook's "discovery" of Aus-
tralia in April, 1770. When Cook
took possession of the eastern half
of the continent for his British
sovereign, hoivever, upward of
250,000 people had been in occupa-
tion of Australia for considerably
more than 25,000 years. Pre-
historians have a rewarding task in
assigning a vital role to the Aborig-
ines in the story of Australian set-
tlement, and the e^ idence they are
uncovering is impressive.
Australia, the only continent
whose prehistory ended with the
Industrial Revolution, possesses ad-
vantages that make it a unique lab-
oratory for the study of ecological
and cultural relationships that ex-
isted during the stone-using hunter-
gatherer stage of human social or-
ganization. Superficially, at least,
this society appears akin to long
extinct Paleolithic communities in
other continents. This explains its
fascination for evolutionary social
nong the oldest art in the
rid. the finger tracings,
ove. lie deep iindergronnd in
darkness of Koonalda Cave,
leir age is greater
in many classic European
leolithic art sites.
left, recently excavated
»ni covering sand, this gallery
engraved rocks was salvaged at
)unt Cameron West. Tasmania.
45
theorists of the nineteenth century,
including Lewis Henry Morgan,
whose Ancient Society borrowed
from Australia, and Edward B. Ty-
ler, who contributed a paper on
"The Tasnianians as Representa-
tives of Palaeolithic Man."
Unfortunately, these early work-
ers treated Aboriginal institutions
and implements like butterflies im-
paled on a collector's board. They
assumed that the Aborigines were
living fossils whose customs, pos-
sessions, bodily form, and even
mental capacity had survived unal-
tered since the dawn of mankind.
Accordingly, they classified them
rigidly. They assumed further that
this arrested development persisted
in a harsh land of unchanging en-
vironmental conditions. This atti-
tude bred an intellectual scorn for
the "poor, primitive savage," while
the static and selective concept of
both culture and environment was
artificial and misleading.
Aboriginal society is undergoing
close scrutiny today, but the condi-
tioning philosophical notions of the
investigators have changed. Aborig-
inal life and the natural environ-
ment are recognized as being dy-
namic, interrelated, and fluctuating.
While the Aboriginal situation is
still studied because it offers in-
sight into, or is analogous to, life
at a comparable economic subsist-
ence level in Paleolithic times, this
is an incidental consequence. The
chief interest is in the Aborigines
as people and in their past adap-
tations to the natural environment.
Fundamental research in Austra-
lia can contribute substantially to
the sum of world prehistory. This
is the only continent where non-
agricultural/pastoral people have re-
tained total occupancy into the
"ethnographic present."' Although
rarely attempted, it has been pos-
sible (and in some regions, it still
is) to record and analyze the role
of an individual Aboriginal
hunter; the technological and eco-
nomic organization, as well as the
artistic and ceremonial life, of en-
tire communities; and the spiritual
bonds and linguistic affiliations of
those societies.
Archeologists can examine sites
that were not disturbed by later ag-
46
riculture or industry, where or-
ganic materials are frequently pre-
served. There are even unique
examples of perishable Stone Age
field monuments surviving. Impres-
sive "canoe trees," for example,
their trunks scarred where the bark
has been removed to make water-
craft, still line some waterways.
The unrivaled opportunity still
exists to meet Stone Age men — to
talk with the present occupants of
an archeological site about its func-
tion, or to be led to a ceremonial
or art site by^ its owners, who can
explain its meaning. In these cir-
cumstances, it is possible to docu-
ment aspects of ethnoarcheology —
for example, the manufacture and
use of tools by Aboriginal crafts-
men and the resultant effects of
wear — that are of concern to all
prehistorians of the Stone Age.
The ethnographic specimens col-
lected in museums, the relatively
bulky written records and sketches
by early explorers, settlers, and an-
thropologists, and the oral sources
mentioned above facilitate ethnohis-
torical reconstruction. In this way,
the pattern of Aboriginal life near
the end of its prehistoric phase can
be presented as a form of history.
This evidence also contains valua-
ble clues concerning the demograph-
ic situation at the time. Population
estimates of these hunter-gatherer
groups, although rather vague, are
probably more reliable than figures
for any comparable society in the
past and are therefore relevant to
any discussion of prehistoric world
population densities.
Collated with the results of eco-
logical research, such data also pro-
vide insight into the flora, fauna,
and landscape immediately preced-
ing the drastic impact of farmers
and pastoralists. Of even greater
significance is the possibility of
eventually reconstructing the envi-
ronment at the time of initial Abo-
riginal colonization. Then the role
of the nomadic Aboriginal, his dog,
and his firestick as factors in trans-
forming plant and animal commu-
nities will be clarified. There are
hints that these factors were far-
reaching in their effect, and some
authorities believe that, particularly
through fires instigated by man,
huge tracts of forestland were con-
verted to open grasslands, and that
the giant marsupial fauna became
extinct only after man's arrival. But
such theories require unequivocal
proof, and field work to that end is
in progress.
Australian prehistorians are at
present preoccupied with a chron-
"Canoe tree," right, shows
scar in its trunk left by the
removal of bark for an
Ahoriginal canoe, similar to
the one that appears below.
ological leapfrog. Ten years ago,
the oldest carbon 14-dated Aborig-
inal site positively associated with
man was about 8,500 years b.p. In
1962, my excavation at Kenniff
Cave, Queensland, took prehistory
firmly into late Pleistocene ( Ice
Age) times, with dates back to
about 16.000 years. Then the work
of other archeologists produced
ages of 20.000 years and more for
occupation in Arnhem Land, in the
north, and at Koonalda Cave, on
the NuUarbor Plain near the south-
ern coastline. More recently, a cave
at Burrill Lake, on the eastern
seaboard south of Sydney, also
proved to have been occupied
20,000 years ago.
Greater antiquity is probable,
but until substantiated by further
field work, it remains less securely
based. There is presumed human
association with an age of perhaps
26,000 years at Lake Menindee, in
western New South Wales; a com-
parable antiquity is inferred at an-
other site in that region, and field
work is in progress. Just outside
Melbourne, the Keilor soil pit pro-
duced a date of some 31,000 years,
which the excavator, A. Callus, as-
sociates with human occupation.
He infers even greater antiquity for
other finds, but his interpretation
of the fractured stone at this site is
disputed by some archeologists,
who consider natural lactors a pos-
sible explanation.
Within a few years, then, Austra-
lia's human time-span has been
trebled, and the initial colonization
is firmly based in the last major
stage of the Pleistocene ice ad-
vance, if not earlier. This implies
that at the time of this migration,
sea levels were lower by 300 feet or
more, and vast plains emerged
from the seabed to the north of
Australia, adding perhaps 10 per-
cent to the area of the continent.
New Guinea and Australia were
connected, and the flat plains ex-
tended toward Indonesia, cutting
the extent of water separating in-
sular southeast Asia from Austra-
lia, but never bridging the ocean
deep of Wallacea, the region of the
Wallace Line of zoogeographic
fame. Migrants therefore required
some form of watercraft.
The most significant archeo-
logical discoveries within recent
years concern human fossil re-
mains. N. W. G. Macintosh, of Syd-
ney University, has reappraised
existing data, concluding that two
basic groups are represented in the
fossil record. One group (which in-
cludes the presumed terminal
Pleistocene-aged Keilor cranium)
possesses many characteristic mod-
ern features, implying that people
with the morphology of modern
Aborigines had reached southern
Australia by the late Pleistocene.
The second group has many
archaic features, and as their pre-
sumed age is comparable to that of
the first group, it raises the possi-
bility that they coexisted within the
same region of Australia. This pro-
vides the background to recent
significant discoveries by A. G.
Thorne. also of Sydney University.
w 111! lias located a number of fossils
nf (lie archaic group buried in a
sand lunette not far from the Co-
huna site, where an archaic cra-
nium was found many years ago.
So far, he has discovered seven in-
47
dividuals, and further finds are an-
ticipated from large-scale, inter-
disciplinary excavation.
The deposit in which the burials
occur is undated at present, but it
is presumed to be at least 20,000
years old. The bones are heavily
mineralized and carbonate en-
crusted. All individuals possessed
very rugged features: the jaws and
brow ridges were massive, the cra-
nial bone was exceptionally thick,
and the foreheads receded more
than in any other known Australian
specimens. Indeed, some of these
characteristics suggest comparison
with the Javanese fossils of Pith-
ecantliTopus (Homo erectus). whose
order of antiquity is some half-
million years.
Thome's definitive report on
these remains will constitute a land-
mark in Australian physical an-
thropology. Normally, a researcher
has to interpret single and fragmen-
tary fossil finds. In this case, with
seven individuals already obtained
from the one site, including post-
cranial bones, he has available for
analysis a unique and challenging
human population.
Australian prehistory contains
other surprises. During 1964-65. in
the course of research at The Aus-
tralian National University. Carmel
White excavated several sites in the
Oenpelli area, Arnhem Land. In
two of them, radiocarbon dates
back 18.000 to 23.000 years were
obtained, and in both instances this
occupation was associated with the
use of edge-ground axes. Such an
antiquity for grinding techniques
was unexpected, and interest was
further enhanced because some of
the axes ivere shaped in a tapering
or waisted fashion, while others
possessed deliberate grooves. These
technological developments were
once considered the type indicator
of the New Stone Age.
Interest then focused on the an-
tiquity of Aboriginal art. The de-
posit at Kenniff Cave contained
ocher fragments throughout, and
some indefinite esthetic purpose
might be inferred from their pres-
ence even in Pleistocene levels. The
real breakthrough in this regard
was made at Koonalda Cave, a site
used by prehistoric artisans as a
flint quarry. In total darkness deep
inside the cave, hundreds of square
feet of linear finger tracings and
grooves cover the soft limestone
walls, in a style and arrangement
reminiscent of some Paleolithic
caves in France. A massive rock
fall that crashed down against them
coincidentally allowed a minimum
age to be assigned to these designs.
Subsequent flint miners, working in
the dark, had tossed burned
wooden torches onto this rubble,
thereby piling up ideal radiocarbon
samples against the future. This
wood is older than 18,000 years,
giving the wall art an age greater
than many classic European Pa-
leolithic art sites, and proving that
the early Aborigines possessed an
esthetic sense.
The motifs engraved on Koo-
nalda's walls include simple finger
tracings and linear incisions, but
their purpose and interpretation
are debatable. Across the continent,
however, in a shelter at Ingaladdi.
200 miles south of Darwin, ex-
cavations recovered several sand-
stone fragments with similar
abraded grooves. Presumably, they
had disintegrated from the rock
face, and when they fell, they scat-
tered over the prehistoric habitation
floor. Because an accumulating de-
posit later buried them below three
feet of occupational debris, their
minimum age is the age of the
layer in which they were imbedded,
and this dates from 5,000 to 7,000
years ago.
Whatever the purpose of these
markings, further evidence for a
remarkable stylistic continuity
through time comes from the same
district. Observations made during
this century by anthropologists at a
nearby Aboriginal ceremonial site
at Delamere cattle ranch establish
that similar abraded grooves were
rubbed into the rock by Aboriginal
participants during rain-making rit-
uals. Calcite crystals were also used
in these ceremonies, and it is there-
fore relevant that we excavated
similar calcite crystals in the In-
galaddi deposit.
From studies of contemporary
Aboriginal rituals the prehistorian
also learns that more of the decora-
tive devices are designed for de-
struction than for permanence on
rock surfaces. Indeed, the time and
trouble taken to produce perishable
art forms — body painting, intricate
ceremonial regalia destroyed dur-
ing the ceremony, and large-scale
ground paintings and sand draw-
ings— far surpass that spent on the ^
rock art by which Paleolithic so-
cieties are known.
A major survey and film record
of Central Australian rock art, un-
dertaken by Robert Edwards of the,.
South Australian Museum, has dis-
closed many engraved sites- From'
the extent of their patination and
weathering, he inferred they were
of great antiquity. The most re-
markable of such galleries is in the
remote sandstone Cleland Hills,
west of Alice Springs. In addition
to the familiar linear motifs of
other sites, there are striking en-
graved human figures of some ar-
tistic merit, staring from the past
with owlish gaze.
The Australian Institute of
Aboriginal Studies recently spon-
sored a major salvage project at
Mount Cameron West, in north-
western Tasmania. Work centered
on a large gallery of art engraved
upon soft eolianite. wind-deposited
rock, situated on an exposed ocean
beach. Excavations showed that
drifting sand had covered many en-
graved rocks, and that previous hu-
man occupation of the site had re-
sulted in an accumulation of
midden against the lowest rocks.
Radiocarbon dating of charcoal >
from this level, therefore, should
provide a minimum age for the art.
A consideration of interest to Ed-
wards, who photographed the site,
is that circles and other art forms
on this monument are reminiscent
of designs on those Central Austra- |
lian sites to which he attributes
great antiquity.
Tasmania is archeologically in-
triguing. The rising seas following
the melting of the ice sheets made
it an island some 10,000 years ago.
As far as can be ascertained at
present, its Aboriginal population
arrived by land before that time
and thereafter remained isolated
from outside influences until the
fatal impact of the European ar-
rival in the late eighteenth century.
ment, reflected the technological
status attained by mainland Aborig-
inal society about the end of the
Pleistocene. It is tempting also to
infer that Tasmanian rock art was
part of the "invisible baggage" of
these early migrants- If the art
style does prove to be so ancient,
however, the possibility of contin-
uity of tradition emerges. About
A.D. 1800, the Tasmanians were
seen to draw similar motifs on
sheets of bark.
It has become a truism of Aus-
tralian archeology that the older
layers on many excavated mainland
sites contain types of stone tools
whose affinity with the Tasmanian
material seems close. Both these
early mainland collections and Tas-
manian implements are made of
cores or flakes. Blade tools are ab-
sent from Tasmanian collections.
The distribution of a considerable
variety of small and carefully
trimmed blades and points is lim-
ited to continental Australia, where
their first appearance, 6,000 to
7,000 years ago, came long after
Tasmania became isolated.
This technological change from
core and flake production to blade
tools was vividly illustrated at In-
aaladdi. The lower lavers. which
Ancestors of this present-day
Aborigine came from
Southeast Asia to occupy
Australia more than 25,000
years ago. At right, following
a successful kangaroo hunt
the animal is cooked in a
hoUowed-out mound of ashes.
Their way of life at that time was
materially simpler than that of
the mainland Aborigines, and ex-
cavations have shown that appar-
ently their stone technology did not
change significantly during the
long duration of their occupation
of Tasmania.
It seems justifiable to assume,
therefore, that Tasmanian material
culture, particularly its stone equip-
Rock paintings, left, at
Delamere cattle ranch, adorn
Aboriginal site used
during rainmaking rituals.
Less than 50 miles away,
painted figures such as the
one at right, some almost
ten feet tall, gaze from stone
walls at Ingaladdi shelter.
Below, painted animals
cavort on a rocky
overhang at the bottom
of a canyon wall.
contained the engraved rocks, also
produced numerous trimmed flakes
(scrapers) and small cores that ap-
parently had served as chopping or
planing tools. The upper layers
contained a different assemblage,
consisting primarily of thousands
of small, pointed blades, presum-
ably projectile points, carefully re-
touched on one or both faces. This
dichotomy between an earlier flake
and core industry made on fairly
large pieces, and a later, small
blade and flake complex, has been
reproduced at several excavated de-
posits across the continent, in-
cluding those at Kenniff Cave and
Burrill Lake. The form these tools
take is subject to regional variation.
Another rock shelter that seems
to follow this pattern is on the
slopes of Mount Burr, an extinct
volcano in southeastern South
Australia. Men occupied it over
8,000 years ago, although the area
was still volcanically active.
Nearby, Mount Gambier last
erupted little more than 4,000 years
ago. This is a reminder that the
Aborigines have adapted to many
far-reaching environmental changes
since their arrival in Australia: the
seas rose and the coastline shrank,
inland lakes dried up, major river
systems flowed intermittently, and
numerous volcanoes on the exten-
sive southeastern basalt plains be-
came extinct.
Certain changes may have been
assisted by the Aborigines. Early
explorers commented upon their
widespread practice of firing the
countryside, and this regular burn-
ing, particularly of semiarid land-
scapes, may have produced drastic
changes in vegetation cover, native
fauna, and soil erosion.
Predatory man also introduced
another scourge of native fauna,
the dingo — a reddish-brown wild
dog. It must have crossed the seas
from Asia with man at an early
date in the history of animal do-
mestication. The earliest evidence
for its presence in Australia con-
sisted of a 3,000-year-old skeleton
excavated at Fromm's Landing,
South Australia. Subsequently,
bones that may be 8,000 years old
have been recovered at the Mount
Burr shelter, so that dogs had
reached the southern coast by that
early date.
On present evidence, therefore, it
appears that man, the hunter and
food gatherer, probably arrived on
this continent before the settlement
of the New World. Even 20,000
years ago, he possessed artistic and
technological skills that earlier pre-
historians would not have attrib-
uted to him because they assumed
that the Aborigines were so "primi-
tive." In both adapting to and
shaping the Australian environ-
ment, the Aborigines left traces
that research can transform into
prehistory.
50
[I
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THE MANY CLOCKS
OF MAN
The 24 -hour period is only one of the biological rhythms of human hfe
by John D. Palmer
In most cases the intervals of
time we recognize are arbitrary,
man-made designations. Periods
such as seconds, hours, or weeks,
plus the more esoteric intervals —
weekends, the "cocktail hour," va-
cation time — are obvious cerebral
artifacts of our present civilization.
Mixed in with all the arbitrary
units of time is the period of a day.
A day is the interval between suc-
cessive sunrises and is generated by
the rotation of the earth on its axis
in relation to the sun. At present,
days are 24 hours long, but just a
short 370 million years ago (a
fleeting instant in the 4.6 billion
years that the earth has existed )
the earth gyrated more rapidly, and
days were only 22 hours long.
At first thought one might decide
that the 24-hour day is just another
arbitrary interval of time chosen
by man because of its ease of rec-
ognition and its convenient dura-
tion. We sleep at night: work and
eat in the daytime. If no other
clues were available to know what
to do next, we would need only to
look for the sun. Still, we know
that men isolated from all view of
the sun and from man-made time-
pieces— either deep in a cave or in
soundproof laboratory quarters —
still continue to settle down for the
"night," to eat, and to regulate
their activities around a 24-hour
schedule. And while this evidence
is often said to reflect our adjust-
ment to a heavenly time interval, it
may also be interpreted to mean
that this 24-hour rhythm is an in-
trinsic characteristic of man's inner
workings.
This period is also found to be a
constant feature of plants and ani-
mals (NATUR.4L History, March,
1966; February, 19671. As shown
by literally thousands of observa-
tions, organisms maintained under
laboratory conditions in which all
time clues are eliminated still con-
tinue to measure out 24-hour peri-
ods with surprising accuracy, lead-
ing some researchers to conclude
that a period of approximately 24
hours is a fundamental attribute of
protoplasm. It may be that a peri-
od of 24 hours is a kind of abso-
lute in the biotic kingdom. Scien-
tists are now aware that within the
bodies of all organisms is a "living
clock" signaling ofi these periods.
One concrete example of these
rhythms is the sleep— wakefulness
cycle in man. About ten years ago,
a young speleologist became ob-
sessed with the idea that it was sci-
entifically important for him to live
in an ice-filled cave, sans clocks,
for a protracted period of time.
For sixty-three days he lived 375
feet below ground where the tem-
perature held constant at 32° F.,
the relative humidity remained un-
changed at 100 percent, and the
darkness was complete save for a
small, battery-powered light. Each
time he awoke, ate. or prepared to
retire, he called over a field tele-
phone to a surface camp, where the
times of the calls were recorded.
The inexorable cold and dampness
reduced his body temperature to
less than 97° F., and he was con-
stantly threatened by avalanches
and cave-ins — still he held out for
the sake of science and whiled
away his time writing a best seller
on his subterranean adventures.
Throughout his underground stay
he tried mentally to keep track of
the passage of time on the surface.
When the men in the surface camp
informed him on September 14 that
his experiment was over, he esti-
mated the date at August 20. His
judgment of the passage of time
had been exceedingly sluggish.
Mentally, he had lost 25 days!
However, his living clock (as
evaluated by the times of his retir-
ing/awakening phone calls) had ig-
nored his mental confusion and
guided his body functions all the
while, measuring off periods of ac-
tivity and sleep that totaled just
longer than a day: 24 hours and 31
minutes on the average.
A slight deviation from an exact
period of 24 hours is the rule
rather than the exception when
plants and animals are maintained
in strictly unvarying conditions.
However. a slight inaccuracy
should not dethrone the 24-hour pe-
riod as an absolute, for when one
contemplates the possible intervals
from less than nanoseconds to the
life-span of the universe, a "near-
miss" to 24 hours should be
leniently accepted. After all, even
the atomic clock of the Bureau of
Standards, the paragon of accu-
racy, mysteriously slows down ev-
ery sunrise.
As seen in the graph on page 55.
because the period of the cave
dweller's rhythm was slightly
longer than 21 hours, his sleep-
wakefulness cycle fell out of phase
with the actual day-night cycle.
Only once again during the ex-
periment did it come into phase
with the day-night cycle outside,
53
bringing about a rather interesting
result. "Daily" during his under-
ground sojourn in this quasi limbo,
he entered limited scientific obser-
vations and numerous complaints
in a log. Save for one entry, the
diary is a hodgepodge of chron-
icled discomforts, misadventures,
perpetual intestinal uprisings, cave-
ins, and real and imagined terrors.
In this particular entry, however,
the diary tells us that "for the last
few days I have felt very optimis-
tic, I suffer less from the cold; I
am better adapted to conditions."
During this optimistic period ( days
•36-39 on the graph I his sleep-wake-
fulness rhythm ^vas again in phase
with normal day-night cycles in the
French Alps outside the cave.
Since this pioneering venture,
more sophisticated, more comfort-
able, and considerably less dan-
gerous observations of man in iso-
lation have been carried out,
especially at the Max Planck In-
stitute in Germany. In these ex-
periments, light and temperature
(the major time-signaling cues of
our environment) can be held ris-
'^iU-
ft
'■v.^as
orously constant, while subjects re-
main in isolation for many weeks.
Despite the relative comfort of
the modern experimental setup ( in-
cluding kitchens and baths), it is
still difficult to obtain a suitable
number of volunteers. Few people
are willing to subject themselves to
the rigors of prolonged isolation
and the indignities of continuous
medical measurements. Luckily,
money can entice some into cooper-
ating, and in the end investigators
turn to that always popular ex-
perimental subject — the graduate
student. His captive willingness is
enhanced by his penury, and in ex-
change for three meals a day, the
quiet of constant conditions in
which to study, and a temporary
escape from the pressures of gradu-
ate school, he is more than willing
to provide periodic blood and urine
samples and to sit impaled on rec-
tal temperature probes for days on
end. This traditional exploitation
has an additional advantage — the
student, as a burgeoning scientist,
can relate his experiences to the in-
vestigator in a meaningful way af-
ter the experiment is over.
In the last few years more than
fifty subjects have lived for various
lengths of time in these bunkers,
and in all cases their internal
clocks continued to govern their
sleep-wakefulness pattern and other
body rhythms in close accordance
with the 24-hour time period.
The sleep-wakefulness rhythm
does not appear to be present at
birth. In a study in which parents
of newborns were asked to jot
down the times that their babies
awakened or fell asleep, it was
found that not until the third week
of life were signs of a rhythm ap-
parent. During the next few weeks
the neonates' nocturnal sleep time
increased to an average of ten
hours while the day sleep decreased
to slightly longer than three and a
half hours, beginning to approxi-
mate an adult pattern. It is. of
course, several years before all day
sleep is abandoned. In most of
these studies the children were
raised in the usual pattern: the par-
ents, for convenience' sake, actively
labored to develop sleeping pat-
terns in their new'borns that would
be similar to their own. However,
interesting data came from one set
of indulgent parents who allowed
their child to determine its own
sleeping pattern. In this case, a pat-
tern of sleep geared to a 24-hour
day did not develop until the
child's eighteenth week of life.
Apparently the major stimulus
for the development of a sleep-
^vakefulness pattern is the parents'
concern for getting the child's
schedule to conform to their own.
However, maturation of the child
also plays an important role, as is
shown in studies of premature
babies. Rhythmicity in these tiny
infants develops much iriore slowly
than it does in full-term neonates,
despite hospital pressures, to get
them to conform to a daily pattern.
The living clock may also func-
tion in a related aspect of sleep:
the ability of some people to
awaken at a predetermined time
each morning without the aid of an
alarm clock. All men are not
equally endowed with this capacity,
and those who have it show dif-
ferent degrees of accuracy. Vari-
ous idiosyncratic rituals have been
developed by some people to im-
press the waking time upon their
minds: one expert stamps out the
desired hour on the floor — much
like the old counting horse of
vaudeville — before retiring; and
another, a politician, slowly raps
out the waking hour with his fore-
head against the bedpost while pa-
triotically whistling "The Star-
Spangled Banner."
T emperature rhythms
The body temperature of man is
also something of an absolute. Un-
der the control of an elaborate
thermostat located in the brain,
body temperature is regulated at
about 98.6° F. Like the interval of
24 hours, this too is a "relative"
absolute in that body temperature
is not perpetually 98.6° F., but
varies by a few degrees around this
average. In 1842 it was discovered
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■■^^^^^^■EXPERIMENT TERMINATED
that in the small hours of the
morning one's temperature is low,
rising to a maximum during mid-
day or afternoon. An afternoon
temperature slightly over 99° does
not necessarily mean that one is
slightly feverish, while the same
temperature in the morning could
indicate febricity.
Since body temperature depends
on the balance between heat pro-
duction and loss, one immediately
thinks of the effects of muscular ac-
tivity, food intake, and sleep as the
causal factors of the rhythm. While
all these factors exert profound
influences on body temperature,
they are not the causes per se of
the rhythm. Studies in which sub-
jects are confined to bed for several
days, eating identical meals at reg-
ularly spaced intervals or fasting,
show that these treatments do not
abolish the rhythm or decrease its
1 amplitude. One man. completely
paralyzed with poliomyelitis for
sixteen months, still displayed a
normal temperature rhythm.
Because body temperature is so
easily measured, it is one of the
most commonly studied human
rhythms. Like other body rhythms
it has been shown to persist
whether in the constant conditions
of deep caves or in the laboratory.
For example, before the start of
their lonely confinement in the ex-
perimental bunkers described ear-
lier, rectal temperature probes were
implanted in each volunteer so that
deep body temperature could be
continuously recorded during the
times of wakefulness and sleep
without disturbing the subject.
Even in these static conditions, all
subjects displayed distinct tempera-
ture rhythms. A particularly inter-
esting case is shown in the graph
on page 56. This subject displayed
a sleep-wakefulness rhythm with a
period of 33 hours, but a tempera-
ture rhythm with a period of a
more normal 24.8 hours. Therefore,
the individual "lost" over 5 days
during his stay in constant condi-
tions, while his thermostat lost only
half a day. A possible conclusion
to such a finding is that the body
must have multiple clocks, each con-
trolling a specific function.
Several studies show that man's
mental abilities and physical dex-
terity vary rhythmically over a 24-
hour span and that the forms of
these rhythms are similar to the
form of his personal daily tempera-
ture curve. For example, the speed
of performing such simple tasks as
dealing four hands of cards, sort-
ing a deck of cards by denomina-
tion, or multiplying eight digit
numbers by each other is studied at
various times over the day. These,
along with reaction times and
steadiness of the hand, are com-
monly found to be rhythmic- When
the subject's temperature curve is
simultaneously determined, its form
and the forms of the above param-
eters are usually similar.
Experiments such as these, to-
gether ^vith a plethora of similar
findings, suggest a causal relation-
ship between body temperature
changes and efficiency. The rela-
tionship is further strengthened by
the finding that "morning" people
— those who rise early and work,
learn, or perform best in the morn-
ing— have temperature curves that
reach their daily maximum before
noon; while "evening" people have
temperature curves that peak in the
late afternoon or early evening.
The latter case, in which peak per-
formance is delayed until late in the
day, discredits the old adage that
"sleep recharges the body like a bat-
tery" and that body energy gradu-
ally runs down during the day.
Rhythmic time perception
A few years ago it was found
that one's subjective time per-
ception varies rhythmically. For ex-
ample, if a subject is asked to esti-
mate the passage of a 60-second
interval at different times of the
day. he tends to overestimate — in-
dicate periods longer than 60 sec-
onds— when his temperature is low-
est and underestimate when it is at
its peak, suggesting that the rate at
which an endogenous physiological
"time-perception" mechanism runs
is dependent on body temperature.
This is a logical conclusion, for it
is well known that all metabolic
processes run faster at higher tem-
peratures. Therefore if this clock,
which would be expected to be a
metabolic entity, was caused to run
faster by higher temperatures, then
the subjective evaluation of time
would be shorter, and vice versa.
This deduction was proved ex-
perimentally many years ago by an
eminent physiologist who capital-
ized on his wife's bout with influ-
enza. Throughout her illness she in-
dulged him by estimating 60-second
intervals wliile lie recorded her at-
tempts with a stopwatcli. The higher
her fever, the quicker she supposed
time to be passing. These findings
have now been confirmed many
times by artificially augmenting hu-
55
man body temperature with expo-
sure to diathermy or drugs.
The body's chemical rhythms
Many, if not all, of the myriad
chemical reactions that take place
within the human body are prob-
ably rhythmic. Because the end
products and excesses of some of
these reactions are excreted from
the body in the urine, the progress
of these inner body reactions can
be followed by urinalysis. Just about
^
TEMPERATURE AND
SLEEP CYCLES
98.6-— ;7^
BODY TEMPERATURE
24-HOUR INTERVALS
every component easily analyzable
in the urine — potassium, chlorine,
sodium, phosphate, and hormones,
plus pH and water volume — are
found to vary rhythmically, with
peaks occurring in the daytime and
minima at night. These rhythms
make their first appearance in the
newborn between the fourth and
fifteenth week of life, and are not
caused by diet, activity, sleep
-wakefulness, or other cycles.
An interesting and unusual series
of observations on excretory
rhythms has been carried out north
of the Arctic Circle. On the Spits-
bergen Islands, north of Norway,
the sun never sets during the sum-
mer months and the days are usu-
ally overcast, making it difficult to
guess the time of day from the sky.
Nineteen subjects — again, mostly
graduate students — assisted in an
experiment in this desolate region.
Before arriving in Spitsbergen
many of their rhythms, especially
their excretory ones, had been stud-
ied at great length. Once in Spits-
bergen, complete camping equip-
ment was issued to the students,
including sham watches, which os-
tensibly recorded standard 24-hour
days, but which actually (and un-
known to the subjects) measured
out 21- or 27-hour "days."
Two camps, completely isolated
from one another in uninhabited
territory, were set up and the sub-
jects, unaware of the timepiece sub-
terfuge, were instructed to carry
out their daily activities within the
framework of time signaled by
their watches. Their routine was in-
terrupted every few hours to take
oral temperatures and urine sam-
ples (in which potassium, sodium,
chlorine, and water content were
measured) .
It should be pointed out that liv-
ing within these abnormal time
schedules meant that every eight
21-hour days were equal to seven
real days; and every eight 27-hour
days were equal to nine real days.
Halfway through either set of eight
experimental days the subjects were
exactly 180° out of phase with real
time — they were up and active at
what would have been nighttime
Isack home. The results of the six
weeks' study were surprising.
The temperature rhythm of all
but one subject adjusted quickly to
the 21- or 27-hour days. Less quick-
ly, the rhythms in sodium, chlorine,
and water volume also locked into
the artificial days. The potassium
rhythm, however, seemed less sus-
ceptible to "deceit," and in most
cases, maintained its 24-hour peri-
odicity. While some of the body's
rhythms can be made to operate ac-
cording to time intervals of slightly
more or less than 24 hours, others
I the potassium rhythm for example)
cannot. The results suggest that
there is probably more than one
living clock to control separate
body functions, and furthermore,
that the dependability of each is
variable.
It is biologically necessary for a
rhythmic process to be adaptable to
change, for man is not sedentary in
his habits, but moves restlessly over
the face of the earth. Today, jet
travel shaves hours off. or piles
hours on, the length of a single
day as travelers speed eastward or
westward, and these geographic re-
locations place considerable stress
upon one's living clock. For ex-
ample, a person leaving New York
at 6:30 p.m. will arrive nonstop in
Rome at 8:30 a.m. (local time)
just as this ancient city is awak-
ening. However, the traveler's liv-
ing clock is signaling 2:30 a.m.
(New York time) and is informing
him that it is time to retire. The
clock must readjust to the new lo-
cal time, and until it does, a person
will not feel up to par. It is inter-
esting to note that lack of imme-
diate adjustment to new time zones
was first observed in 1860 in an
orangutan that was being shipped
from Java to Germany. The crew-
men noticed that the ape tended
to maintain its Java sleep pattern
in spite of the ship's westward
movement through consecutive time
zones. Unfortunately, the observa-
tions were cut short at the Cape of
Good Hope when the animal died
after drinking a bottle of rum.
The diplomatic services, large
corporations, and athletic coaching
staffs want their representatives to
be in peak form when entering into
business and competitive events in
other countries, and a number of
studies have recently been under-
taken to this end. The procedure is
simple but expensive: enthusiastic
volunteers are flown from the
United States to all parts of the
^^-orld. and the rates at which their
rhythms adjust to these new local-
ities are measured. In addition to
rhythmic processes, other assess-
ments— reaction time, subjective fa-
tigue, and decision time — are made
on each subject before and after
translocation.
After westerly translocations, for
example, from Italy to the United
States (crossing six time zones) or
from the United States to Japan
(ten time zones), subjects had to
force their living habits to conform
with the new local time. It was
found that in general the various
rhythms took five to six days to
completely rephase to the new local
times. Reaction and decision times
were impeded, and fatigue was
significantly increased the first day
in the new location, but settled
56
down to near normal by the second
day. Older men showed higher fa-
tigue levels than younger subjects.
On easterly flights — from Japan
to the United States and from the
United States to Italy — the rhythms
rephased to local time much more
rapidly: most were completely ad-
justed to the new local times by
the second day. As with westward
flight, reaction and decision times
were impaired and the level of
fatigue increased on the first day.
North-south flights in which trav-
elers remained in the same time
zone had no effect on the biologi-
cal rhythms, but again, fatigue was
experienced after both outgoing and
return flights.
The relative ease with which
rhythms adjust after eastward
flights as opposed to westward
flights can be seen in the following
example. A businessman traveling
to Rome, and unaware of biological
rhythms, would schedule his flight
so that he could leave New York at
a convenient time and arrive in
Rome on the morning of the day of
his appointment. He would there-
fore leave New York at 8:00 P.m.
so that after an eight-hour flight he
would arrive in Rome at 10:00
A.M. (local time), which corre-
sponds to 4:00 A.M. of his own
"body time." Biologically he should
still be asleep, but he can force
himself to carry out his business
(with reduced efficiency, perhaps)
and still engage in after dusk social
activity there. By bedtime he will
be quite tired : his own clock will
be registering about 7:00 P.M. (it
is already adjusting), and he will
asily sleep through the remain-
der of the Roman night. On the
other hand, suppose our business-
man is with an Italian firm and
must come to America. Leaving
Rome at 9:00 a.m. would bring him
into New York at 11:00 A.M. (local
timet giving him time to conclude
his first day of business and join in
some social activities, but he will
have to force himself to stay awake
much of this time. He then tries to
retire with New Yorkers just after
midnight, but his biological clock
is now signaling about 7:00 a.m.
Roman time, which is his time to
awaken. Even though he has been
up for 24 straight hours (assuming
he did not sleep in the plane) he
now finds it difficult lo fall asleep,
for while it is easy to avoid sleep
by a conscious effort, it is impos-
sible to force oneself to fall asleep
through mental persuasion. Thus,
adaptation can be expected to re-
quire a longer time after a long
westward flight than after an east-
ward flight.
Thus far I have described only a
few of the rhythms known to exist
in man — there are many more. The
list includes pulse rale, blood out-
put by the heart, circulating red
and white blood cells, the amount
of protein in the blood at any one
time, circulating blood volume,
blood pressure, the capacity of the
lungs, cell division, a variety of
psychiatric iUnesses, the adaptation
of the ear to new sounds, hormone
secretions, the retention of memo-
rized material, and about thirty or
forty other rhythms. Surprisingly,
even one-time or infrequent events
in the human life-span also appear
to be subject to rhylhmicity. For
example, the rate of childbirth is
greatest between 2:00 and 7:00
a.m. and lowest between 2:00 and
8:00 P.M. (No wonder obstetricians
often appear haggard.) Death rale
is also highest between 2:00 and
7:00 a.m. Women tend to begin
menstruation in the wee hours.
Another natural period on earth
is the synodic-lunar month, the
time between successive new
moons. It is an interval of 29.5
57
days. There are many organismic
rhythms — most of them reproduc-
tive cycles in lower marine ani-
mals— with periods of 29.5 days.
For example, certain insects hatch
out of their pupal cases into adults
at the times of full moon. Summer
egg production in the Mediterra-
nean sea urchin is greatest at the
time of full moon as was known by
Aristotle, who recommended that
gonad aficionados collect them at
this time to obtain maximum en-
joyment of the delicate ovaries.
That the moon was believed to
have some influence on man is in-
dicated by the reference to insanity
as "lunacy." As it turns out there
have been few scientific studies de-
signed to examine the possibility of
the effect of the moon on human
life. Even the hint of interest in
such an investigation would gener-
ate condemnation from fellow sci-
entists, for one of the great
triumphs of science in the past has
been to abandon astrology and the
notion that the movements of heav-
enly bodies in some way influence
the lives of man. Some brave souls.
however, in the interest of scientific
inquiry, are willing to suffer ostra-
cism by their colleagues and look
for moon-related influences on hu-
man endeavor.
The human menstrual cycle, by
its very name, implies a relation-
ship to the month and moon. How-
ever, even elementary textbooks
promulgate that the menstrual cycle
averages 28 days (rather than
29.5 — the number of days in a sy-
nodic-lunar month), and so in-
grained is this belief that the eight
and a half million women using the
"pill," regulate their menstrual
cycles to 28 days. Close re-exam-
ination of the data collected by ear-
lier workers fthe same data that
produced the 28-day interval for
the menstrual cycle) has now
shown that the true average period
of the human menstrual cycle is
29.5 days — the exact length of the
synodic-lunar month. It was also
found that the average gestation pe-
riod— the time elapsed between the
day of conception and delivery —
was exactly nine lunar months
(266 days I.
Armed with this information it is
OVULATION
T 1 r
> 10 15 20 25
DAYS OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE
now possible to count backwards
266 days from a birth date to learn
the day of conception. By exam-
ining a large number of birth
dates, then, it should be possible to
learn if there is a synodic-lunar
monthly rhythm in the time of con-
ception. After statistically exam-
ining the birth dates of over a
quarter of a million children born
in New York municipal hospitals, it
was found that the birthrate, and
therefore the conception rate, is
highest during the three days
around full moon, which gives the
''moon-spoon-June" ditty some sci-
entific validity. An increase in con-
ception rate at full moon suggests
an increase in mating activity —
a phenomenon seen in many lower
animals.
Ecologists were quick to postu-
late that the added light reflected
onto earth from the full moon must
be the cause for the increased mat-
ing activity, although there is no
proof of this. Nevertheless the
newspapers made headlines of this
■'fact" nine months after ''Black
Tuesday" (November 9. 19651. the
day the east coast of the United
States was incapacitated by the
pandemic power failure. It was
amusingly reported that just nine
months after the blackout, birth-
rates in the New York hospitals
had increased. "Therefore." the
newspapers proffered, "the ecolo-
gists are wrong, it is complete dark-
ness that stimulates mating activ-
ity." The papers may have been
wrong, for, as can be seen in
photos taken that night, Black
Tuesday was a night of full moon.
Scientists and others have always
wondered if there might not be
some sort of a rhythm in the hu-
man female s sexual desire. For
years it has been tacitly assumed
by the medical profession that the
female desire for sexual union is
greatest around the time of ovula-
tion: however the little literature
there is on the subject is a mixture
of folklore and fact. Last year a
study was done in an attempt to re-
solve this question. The greatest
difficulty in carrying out the study
was the selection of suitable sub-
jects. All volunteers who were tak-
ing birth control pills had to be
eliminated as were those who had
undergone hysterectomies, those
having intercourse regularly and
thus often sated, those who were
admittedly frigid, and those who
''always felt like se.x." The in-
vestigator finally assembled thirty
women, who all had regular men-
strual cycles and no regular sex
life. In addition they were in psy-
chotherapy and could be queried
about their sexual feelings during
each session with the psychiatrist.
In this way a periodic desire for
intercourse over 75 menstrual
cycles was documented. The chart
on this page shows that the women's
libido was highest during the latter
half of menses and during the pe-
riod prior to ovulation. Other stud-
ies have shown that women also
reach orgasmic climax more often
around the middle of their men-
strual month.
One of the most intriguing as-
pects of time-dependent processes is
the rhythmic response of recipients
to various toxins and medications.
For example, if identical doses of
bacterial toxins are injected into
mice at various times of day, in-
duced lethality is found to be
rhythmic: 80 percent of the mice
are killed when injected at 8:00
P.M. while less than 20 percent die
from identical injections adminis-
tered at midnight. Similar studies
with ethyl alcohol caused death to
60 percent of a sample mouse pop-
ulation when the alcohol was ad-
ministered at 8:00 p.m., while 20
percent died after 8:00 a.m. in-
58
p
jections. Many drugs used on hu-
man beings come only in alcohol
solution. Sodium pentobarbital, a
commonly used anesthesia, was ex-
perimentally administered to rats
and mice at different times of the
day; injections given at night pro-
duced intervals of unconsciousness
66 percent longer in duration than
identical doses given during the
daytime. Damage caused by whole
body X-irradiation has also been
shown to be rhythmic, nighttime
exposure being the most dangerous.
It has been shown that the aller-
gic reaction in man varies with the
dme of day. Injection of common
house dust just under the skin
causes an inflammatory reddening
and a welt, the severity of which is
greatest after 11 P.M. injections,
ind least after 11:00 a.ji. Many
patients with asthma have more
frequent attacks at night. Another
jtudy concerned itself with the
ength of time that aspirin contin-
ues to circulate in the blood. It was
[ound that it remains in circulation
i shorter length of time if taken at
night, indicating that the analgesic
benefits are prolonged when the
medication is taken during the day-
time.
Some of the most useful and
relevant studies on the human liv-
ing clock should come from the
field of medicine. The discovery
that the effect of some medications
varies with the time of day could
alter some of the basic tenets of
therapeutic medicine and the test-
screening procedures of new drugs.
Unfortunately, the medical profes-
sion is far behind in the study of
human rhythms. There are many
questions that need answering in
this area. For instance, should the
heartbeat rhythm be taken into ac-
count before a heart transplant is
attempted? Should not surgeons be
sure that a donor's kidney is in
phase with the excretory rhythms
of the potential recipient? Is it
wise to subject "evening people,"
whose temperature cycles and body
processes do not reach a maximum
until afternoon, to early morning
surgery? Are their bodies in a state
best able to survive at this hour?
Should manned space shots be in-
itiated early in the morning when
most men's reaction times and
work proficiency have not yet
peaked for the day? Would not
more world records be broken if
athletes were aware of their body
rhythms in performance efficiency?
There is a great deal left to learn.
Because of the living clock's re-
lentless activity, we are not the
same person from one hour to the
next; but at the same time each
day, we are much like we were the
day before and much like we will
be tomorrow. Thus far, our studies
of time-dependent processes in man
are only in the initial, descriptive
stages; we are discovering and de-
scribing more and more new
rhythms. Unfortunately, as yet we
have few concrete notions as to
how the internal machinery of the
living horologe actually functions.
This mechanism must be deci-
phered because of its medical im-
plications, because rhythmic behav-
ior is a fundamental property of all
life, and because of the insight il
may provide into the personal and
social functioning of our species.
Full moon over Neiv York City during blackout, November 9, 1965.
SKY REPORTER
''If
i
Meteor's calculated orbit extended beyond that
of Mars. Its fall to earth was caught by
an automatic camera at Hominy. Oklahoma.
Stars appear as trails because camera
lens was left open as earth turned.
A rotating shutter divided the meteor track
into one-second segments.
The 22.6-pound meteorite, far right, was the
first recovered by the Smithsonian's camera
network. Richard McCrosky, at left,
scientist-in-charge, examines it with
Gunther Schwartz, network field manager,
who found it on a road just half a mile from
the predicted point of impact.
TRACKING A FIREBALL Last January 3
a piece of stone from the asteroid belt blazed into the
earth's atmosphere at 35,000 miles per hour. It broke
up over the central United States, spraying fragments
over a section of eastern Oklahoma centered around
Lost City, about 45 miles east of Tulsa. While a num-
ber of people saw the meteor move across the sky as a
fireball, apparently no one witnessed the fall of any of
the fragments.
The meteor's fiery passage was photographed by
automatic cameras in Hominy, Oklahoma, and Pleas-
anton, Kansas, two of 16 unmanned camera stations
that comprise the "Prairie Network" of the Smithso-
nian Astrophysical Observatory. The network was set
up in 1964 in the belief that one or two fireballs a
year would be tracked well enough so they could be
found after landing.
None was found until January of this year, how-
ever. Working with the photographs from Hominy
and Pleasanton, Smithsonian scientists computed the
meteor's trajectory closely enough to say where it
6o
should have fallen and where in space it had come
from. Despite nine inches of fresh snow, the network
field manager found a 22.6-pound fragment in the
middle of a deserted country road just half a mile
from the predicted point of impact. Snow had melted
from around the object, uncovering a stony mass
"like no other rock in the area," with a black, burned
crust. Later a Lost City farmer searching a pasture
for a lost calf found a second fragment, this one
weighing ten ounces.
Working backwards along the trajectory, Smithso-
nian investigators found the meteorite had come from
the asteroid belt beyond the orbit of Mars.
Why was this the first meteorite to be recovered in
five years? Smithsonian scientists had expected to re-
cover at least one a year, and the first months of
network operation had revealed that fireballs are
more frequent than had been thought. The answer ap-
pears to be that most fireballs are comet fragments:
largely slush balls of ice and dust that vaporize com-
pletely before they hit the ground. There is other
positive evidence for this view, in addition to the fail-
ure to recover meteors after tracking them; a meteor
composed of ice rather than metal or stone slows
down much more quickly when it hits the atmosphere,
a characteristic revealed by the cameras.
The Lost City meteorite was only the second ever to
be recovered by photographic techniques. One that
fell near Pribram in Czechoslovakia in 1959 was re-
covered the same way, but the astronomers involved
had not been specifically attempting a recovery.
Unfazed by the paucity of results in the United
States and Czechoslovakia, the Dominion Observatory
of Canada expects to complete its own 12-station net-
work between Edmonton and Winnipeg by July. Alan
T. Blackwell, project director, feels that bad luck may
have been an important factor in the Smithsonian's
failure to find a meteorite for five years. He says most
authorities agree that at least 1,000 meteors a year
make it to the surface on the land portions of the
earth (only about 10 are found each year). If this
number is valid, he argues, then the 2.50,000 square
miles covered by his cameras should yield an average
of up to five a year. In choosing a site for their net-
work, the Canadians, like their U.S. counterparts,
chose a region in which meteorites would be relatively
easy to find: comparatively flat land free of natural
rocks. BlackweU is hoping that meteorites will not
break the ice of Manitoba lakes but will remain on
top. easily visible to a search party.
SLOW DOWN IN SPACE Cuts in the na-
tional space agency's budget are starting to show up
in canceled or postponed plans. The schedule of lunar
landings has been stretched out, primarily to save
money, rather than to give scientists more time to
evaluate tlie results of one trip before embarking on
the next. The Apollo 20 flight has been scrapped. The
1973 instrument landing on Mars has been put off
until 1975. A flight to Venus scheduled for 1973 is
still on, but now only one spacecraft, instead of the
original two, will make the trip.
No lunar landings at all are planned during 1972.
Instead the first three-man crews will be flown to an
orbiting laboratory to operate a large solar telescope.
Plans to fly a 12-man space station as the first seg-
ment of an eventual .50-man behemoth, originally set
for 1975. now appear certain to be postponed.
The budget cuts also mean less XASA money for
academic research. This loss, together with the con-
gressional directive to the Defense Department to stop
paying for research not clearly related to military
goals and the growing disenchantment with science on
the part of politicians, may signal the start of a
difiicult decade for astronomers and space scientists.
MORE NAKED-EYE COMETS The last
comet of 1969, discovered in South Africa on Decem-
ber 28, was expected to become a naked-eye object as
it moved north tlirough the sky during March. Kno^\"n
as Comet Bennett, it made 1970 a bonanza year for
comet watchers, with three bright comets visible in
just the first three months. During February. Tago-
Sato-Kosaka faded as it moved away from the sun
after having been as bright as magnitude 2.6 in
January and having displayed a tail 10 degrees long,
20 times the diameter of the full moon. By the middle
of March, Tago-Sato-Kosaka had faded to magnitude
9.4 as it moved north through Perseus.
During February, a comet discovered in Japan,
Daido-Fujikawa, swung by the sun at a distance of
just over six million miles, brightening to magnitude
— 3, nearly as brilliant as Venus at its brightest. Its
nearness to the sun made it difiicult to see. but one
observer in Arizona reported at least 4 degrees of tail
visible in binoculars on the morning of February 7,
despite the light of dawn. On the 17th the comet
passed within 10 minutes of arc of Venus, an appar-
ent distance equal to about one-third the diameter of
the full moon. Moving exceptionally fast, the comet
was expected to be 150 million miles from the sun by
April 15. when it would have faded to magnitude 15.
In [March Comet Bennett became the third con-
62
secutive naked-eye comet of the year. Both the British
Astronomical Society and the Central Bureau for As-
tronomical Telegrams in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
estimated that Comet Bennett would brighten to at
least second magnitude in March. During the month
of April the comet was expected to be moving north
through the constellation Pegasus. Predicted magni-
tudes were 2.4 on April 4, 3.8 on the 14th. and 5.1 on
the 24th.
It could be a record year. Eight periodic comets,
discovered on previous approaches to the sun. are ex-
pected to return during the balance of 1970. None is
expected to become a naked-eye object, however. One,
a comet called Encke, which returns every three years, '
will still be coming in toward the sun as the year
ends, and should be brighter than ninth magnitude.
JoHx P. Wiley, Jr.
Editors' ISote: Because of the vagaries of mail deliv-
ery, we have decided to provide information on celes- (
tial events further into the future, beginning with this
issue. The Star Map on the facing page would nor-
mally be published in the May issue: thus it is correct
for 11:20 p.m. on April 1 and 8:30 p.m. on May 15.
We are extending the Celestial Events column to 45
days, to cover the first half of May as well as all of
April. Similar adjustments will be made in all future
TWO IMPORTANT SKY EVENTS
IN EARLY MAY
Transit of Mercury On May 9, the planet Mercury
goes through inferior conjunction, coming bet\\'een
sun and earth. The path of the planet on that morn-
ing, as \-iewed from earth, will take it directly across
the sun's face, and the planet will be visible as a black
dot moving swiftly from left to right across the sun.
Such an event is called a transit. Only Mercury and,
more rarely, Venus can be seen in transit across the
sun from earth.
The transit of Mercury on Saturday. May 9, will
already be in progress at sunrise in eastern and cen-
tral Lnited States, and the planet may still be seen
moving to the right across the sun. The planet will
reach the point of egress I where it leaves the sun's
disk I at about 7:10 to 7:13 a.m., EST. depending on
one's location. Farther west, the transit will have
ended by sunrise.
Occultation of Regulus The first-quarter moon passes
between earth and the star Regulus, in Leo, on the
afternoon and evening of May 13. Such an event, in
which a star is temporarily hidden by the moon, is
called an occultation. Regulus will be occulted during
early evening twilight in eastern North America. The
emergence of the star from behind the bright edge of
the moon should be easily observed shortly after 8:20
P.M., weather permitting. Farther west, the occultation
occurs in daylight.
T.D.N.
#%^.,
.'' S(N^^''V \
'oissvoW ^^ ..
a3'i*°^^^*'"^"^
-i ..^-
• %.
^-"^"x ./
In April, new moon Is on the 5th, first-quarter on the
13th, full moon on the 21st, and last-quarter on the 28th.
In May, new moon is on'the 5th, first-quarter on the 13th.
Four planets are evening stars — Saturn, Venus, and
Mercury low and close together in the west; Mars some-
what higher. Jupiter is in the east in early evening, set-
ting in the west In the morning.
April 7-8: The early crescent moon passes above four
evening planets. Saturn, Venus, and Mercury are in line
below the moon on the 7th; Mars is above and to the left.
All planets are below the moon on the 8th.
April 11: Venus and Saturn, with Mercury close by, are
in conjunction in the western sky after sunset.
April 12: Mercury is in conjunction with Saturn. Bright
Venus is almost between them; Mars is higher and to the
left.
April 18: Mercury is at greatest evening elongation
from the sun. The planet is easily seen as an evening
star in the west for about a week before and after today.
April 21: Jupiter is at opposition from the sun. Look
for it near the full moon tonight.
April 26: Advance clocks to daylight time.
May 2: Saturn enters the morning sky.
May 3-6: Mars, Venus, and the star Aldebaran, in Tau-
rus, are close in the evening sky. Aldebaran is in conjunc-
tion with Mars on the 3rd; with Venus on the 6th.
May 6-7: Mars and Venus are to the left of the crescent
moon on the evening of the 6th, closer to the moon and
beneath it on the 7th.
May 9: Venus and Mars are in conjunction.
THOMAS D. NICHOLSON
those in the sky. The map is for 11:20 P.M. on April 1; 10:25 on
the 15th; 9:30 on the 30th; and 8:30 on May 15; but it may be
used for about one hour before and after the times indicated.
QUESTAR PHOTOGRAPHS
HIGH-PRESSURE DIAPHRAGM OPENINGS
At NASA's Ames Research Center, three
research scientists teamed up a Questar
with an image converter camera to view a
diaphragm through a window in the end wall
of a shock tube. The image of the dia-
phragm is reflected into the telescope by
an optically flat mirror at the end of the
tube. The telescope's long focal length
permits it to photograph the action and
provide a relatively large image (about
y2-inch diameter) of the 4-inch target
located 40 feet away. The ICC transforms
the optical image into an electron image,
recreates the image at high intensity, and
projects it onto photographic film.
Metal diaphragms act as quick-opening
valves in shock-driven facilities, and the
time of the opening is significant in the
formation of the shock waves in the tube.
The Questar 7 with Rolleiflex FL-66 attached,
mounted on the smooth-as-silk Miller Fluid
Head with Lindhof Heavy Duty Tripod.
The method for viewing an opening dia-
phragm was developed in the Ames 30-
inch electric arc shock tunnel, and the
most satisfactory way to study the per-
formance of a diaphragm is to photograph
the actual process within the shock tube.
However, with previous methods used, in-
sufficient lighting, small size of image,
and inadequate resolution could not pro-
duce a usable picture.
The arrangement devised by Robert E.
Dannenberg, Dah Yu Cheng, and Walter E.
Stephens, utilizing the SVs-inch Questar
with its focal length of 1600 mm. and over-
all length of 8 inches, was employed for
this application. The camera could record
three frames of the event in rapid se-
quence with an adjustable, programmed
delay between each frame.
The entire process is described in an
article in the June AIAA JOURNAL.
This is only one of the many special
applications for which Questar is the in-
stant answer, because this telescope, with
the finest possible resolution for every
optical need, is on the shelf ready to go
the day you need it.
The Questar seven-inch Is very big with
research and development, too, yet is so
easily portable thatyou can carry it around
with you wherever you need it. Those who
use it for laser sending or receiving, for
rocket-borne instrumentation, for closed-
circuit television, or just for taking pic-
tures of nature, marvel at the performance
which easily doubles that of the 3y2-inch.
And it, too, is immediately available.
QUESTAR. THE WORLD-S FINEST, MOST VERSATILE SMALL TELESCOPE. PRICED FROM $795 IS
DESCRIBED IN OUR NEWEST BOOKLET WHICH CONTAINS MORE THAN 100 PHOTOGRAPHS BY
QUESTAR OWNERS. SEND $1 FOR MAILING ANYWHERE IN NORTH AMERICA BY AIR TO
REST OF WESTERN HEMISPHERE. $2.50; EUROPE AND NORTH AFRICA. $3.00: ELSEWHERE $3 50
TAR
BOX 60, NEW HOPE, PENN. 18938
An introduction to tlie setting and ctiai
acters in tlie tragical farce or farcici
tragedy of Victoria Bluffs, S. C. '
I
Continued from page 19
Opponents of BASF claimed thsj
the study by a state agency ■\voul
be a "whitewash." That charge wa
an insuh to Guess and his "natior
ally recognized professional abilit
as a conservationist." Governo
McXair was reported as saying.
Guess is friendly, polished; har
dies questions easily. I do not re
call seeing a window in his plus'
office. His first step, when the govei
nor tossed him the political he
potato of the study, was to call i:
his staff and outline the broades
approach. They suggested the follow
ing categories: physical, chemica.
biological, economic, and sociologf
cal.
"That's a 10-year project." h
said. "And I haven't got a dime ye
to finance it. BASF has offered ti
contribute, but I w'ould rather no
take their money — unless I get a:
equal amount from the opposition
'"It's impossible to do all that. I
would take years. And ecology . .
you can get so bogged dowm tryinj
to study it . . . ecology' will kil
you."
Guess views his commission anc
its pending study as "a cushion be
t^^■een vested interests. You can'
satisfy' everyone. Some people an
going to charge that the study is i
whitewash, no matter what we do
But you expect that kind of reac
tion. Many people are still worriec
about Christ, you know."
Mr. J. D. Little. Jr.. director o:
the South Carolina Developmen
Board, is one of the vested interests
that Guess must cushion. Little is f
thin, djTiamic. nervous man, ivhost
foremost concern is bringing in
dustry to the state. Last year, new
and expanded plant expenditure;
totaled S706 million, well above the
previous year's record of S6.36 mil-
lion. The BASF investment — SIOC
million initially, possibly anothei
SlOO million for a petrochemical
facility', mth hints of an ultimate
figure of -5400 million — is an im-
portant part of the state total.
"Water is an economic re-
source," Little stated, "and it is up
to the people of the state to deter-
mine what they want to do with it."
64
He pointed out that the state has
, always accepted a degree of water
pollution for economic benefits.
Pulp mills are one example. "We
don't like the smell, but it smells
like money," Little said, pleased
with his phrase.
"And don't forget, there's a lot
.of natural pollution, like swamp
water."
i For Jay Little, the issue of envi-
ronmental protection could hinder
his drive to bring industrial devel-
opment to the state. He believes
that the tidelands are ripe for an
economic boom, and that BASF
.picked the Victoria Bluffs site be-
icause all the better deepwater sites
ioT a wet industry had been taken.
In Little's opinion, South Caro-
lina's depressed, underdeveloped
coastal region has become a great
asset because, at a time when other
states are beginning to run out of
large tidewater sites, it still has vast
[ireas that are excellent for indus-
trial development.
I The fate of the salt marshes, of
iill that polluted swamp water, of
the estuary ecosystems are, for him,
|a minor matter when compared to
.the benefits of development.
; Dr. H. J. Webb's heavy frame,
Isagging in a swivel chair behind
his paper-smothered desk, was in
sharp contrast to Little's. It was
late and Webb, associate director
land designated future director of
the South Carolina Pollution Con-
trol Authority, appeared tired.
Mixed in among the other papers
on the desk was a subpoena that
had upset his whole day. It de-
manded that the agency explain in
court why it had not properly
monitored the effluent of the Ten-
neco plant and why it had not can-
celed the plant's permit to dis-
charge waste. With the legal
document was a pile of worked-
over notes and maps prepared for a
discussion of the case with the at-
torney general's office.
The subpoena was a new type of
problem, a new tactic by con-
servationists to protect the tideland
environment. Webb, whose author-
ity is responsible for policing both
air and water pollution in the state,
looked like an unwilling draftee in
the escalating war to save the envi-
ronment.
"The authority only has 48 au-
thorized employees for the whole
Reserve yours^
a natural history first!
I : THE AGE OF REPTILES
A first day of issue cover, of course, with tliis beautiful new
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32 short and long prose
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THE WILDERIMESS
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nineteen of the beloved,
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STORIES OF THE
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Edited by 2ack Taylor
MacQuarrie was one of the pioneers of outdoor
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state," Webb said. "We've asked
for 87 new positions in the next
budget. That would include 39 new
field people in water alone."
Webb believes that the state's
pollution control law, which he
helped draft, is a good one. The
main problem is a staff too small to
adequately police the potential pol-
luters. Unless the authority gets
most of the new positions it re-
quested, the natural environment of
South Carolina will be without a
watchdog, in constant danger.
Columbia, the capital of South
Carolina, is in the hills of the Pied-
mont, overlooking the state's
coastal plain, or lowlands. From
those heights, the state's officials,
Mc?Vair, Guess, Little, Webb, and
many others, seem to view the Hil-
ton Head Island-BASF dispute as a
local skirmish, as a contest be-
tween several pieces on a chess
board. BASF, with its financial
power, is a rook, the island devel-
opers are bishops, and then there
are pawns that are hardly noticed.
Yet a pawn can decide the game.
The rook, the BASF Corpo-
ration, is confident how the game
will end. Dr. Lautenschlager. in his
30th-floor. corner office in Manhat-
tan, outlined the schedule: detailed
topographic studies and test bor-
ings this spring, ground-breaking
by the fall, the first plant in oper-
ation— its output on-stream — by the
fourth quarter of 1972.
BASF chose the Victoria Bluffs
site because there was "enough
room"; because the labor supply
and traffic connections to the south-
ern textile and furniture markets
were good. The state officials were
cooperative, but "we did not get
any unusual concessions." They
had looked at many places: Clin-
ton. Iowa; on the Ohio River;
along the Gulf Coast: but none had
all the advantages of the Beaufort
Count\' location.
Lautenschlager repeated his pitch
about environmental protection,
about modern pollution controls
that would cost at least .$210 mil-
lion, about plans to leave a green-
belt of trees along the highway.
"We will be a good neighbor. I
think people will be surprised. We
plan to make this a model plant, an
example for all industry. Perhaps
people someday will thank us."
Dr. Lautenschlager is a physical
chemist, not a biologist or an ecol-
ogist. He still talks about an
"ecological survey" as though a sci-
entist could, over a short period,
count the organisms and measure
the physical conditions of the Col-
leton River, and from that define
the local ecosystem. He has yet to
gain the wisdom of Mr. Guess that
"ecology can kill you" because of
its complexities and dynamics. *"'
"Wait and see," he said, sensing
my skepticism. "We will have a
pool next to the plant, filled by the
treated effluent. We'll have live fish
in the pool. Then will you believe
me?" ^
"I'll wait and see." I thought
later that I should have asked him.
"What kind of fish . . . sea trout
or carp?"
As usual, I held some of the un-^;
pleasant questions until the end of
the interview. "Some of your oppo-
nents at Hilton Head believe that if
they can delay your construction
for one or two years, so that your
product would not be able to go on-
stream until 1974 or later, you
would build elsewhere. Is that
true?"
The frown, the long pause, and
Lautenschlager's reply that he did
not tliink it would be possible to
delay the plant, but that a delay
could be a problem, all confirmed
my intuitive feeling about the im-
portance of one of the pawns at
Hilton Head Island.
William F. Kenney is one of the
retired, small-lot residents of the is-
land. He is part of a citizens'
group, many of them northerners,
called the Hilton Head Island Com-
munity Association, that has be-
come increasingly active in oppos-
ing the BASF project.
When he retired as a vice-presi-
dent and general counsel of Shell
Oil Company last year. Kenney
made several radical changes in his
life. He moved from New \ork to
an oceanfront home on Hilton
Head Island. He stopped wearing a
watch. And. after 29 years of advo-
cating the rights of an oil and
chemical company in legal battles,
he shifted to the other side.
Because of his long experience
in legal matters against conser-
vationists ("I have never lost a
case"). Kenney is probably one of
the most realistic and effective op-
ponents of the chemical plant com-
66
By Nicholas Roosevelt
A lifelong conservationist ex-
plains the urgency of our conser-
vation problems and tells of past
struggles to preserve the wild,
with lessons to be learned from
them.
Conservationists acclaim it
"A valuable conservation book
. . . The neophyte conservationist
will do well to study Nicholas
Roosevelt's volume, for the ex-
perience of two generations is
distilled in its pages. The sea-
soned conservationist will recog-
nize the good judgment of many
of Roosevelt's conclusions."
— Stewart L. Udall, Former Secre-
tary of the Interior
$5.95
DODD, MEAD —
This is a complete recording of
Edward Fitzgerald's 5th version,
and is the cumulative effort of
three men of genius .
It is followed by a few comments
and comparisons, and also Pedro
Calderon de la Barca's The Dream
Called Life and Life is a Dream.
Lastly, beginning with Hamlet's
soliloquy, there is scsne of the
best that is to be found in
Shakespeare.
oOo
A purchaser writes: "The record is
being played over and over; it is
my treasure."
luperlotive delivery of luperlotive poetry
by Louis Zoul.
W.50
Available Only By Mail
PUBLIC OPINION
Box N-4044 Long Island Citr. Long Island
New York 11104
plex. He acknowledges a selfish mo-
tive: "Most of us on Hilton Head
moved here to get away from in-
dustry and pollution." But he also
believes that Beaufort County will
lose more — in public expenditures,
tax revenues, job opportunities,
and resources — than it will gain
from the BASF project.
When he first joined the efforts
of the Hilton Head Island Commu-
nity Association to oppose BASF,
Kenney felt the group did not have
a chance of winning. Now. after
months of maneuvers, after trips to
Washington, after close scrutiny of
all the applicable laws, Kenney be-
lieves that the chances of stopping
BASF are about one in four.
Kenney sees a need for two kinds
of tactics: short-run legal maneu-
vers to delay construction of the
BASF facilities and long-run efforts
to shift public opinion.
For the short-run legal tactics,
Kenney has found several possible
precedents, including part of the
Rivers and Harbors Act of 1890,
that may be effective in delaying
construction. There is even a slim
chance, he believes, that BASF
might build elsewhere if they faced
a one-to two-year delay because of
legal action. However, the long-run
struggle is far more important:
"We must never lose sight of the
fact that our opponents are the
public officials, not BASF. As long
as the public officials want the firm,
there is almost no chance of stop-
ping it. On the other hand, if the
public officials changed their minds
and decided they did not want the
plant, the company would not
build, even if it had the legal right
to do so. No company will move
into a state where the government
is hostile to it. The only way to
change the opinion of the govern-
ment is to arouse enough public
opinion against the plant. Legal ac-
tion may give us the time we need
to reach the public."
li Kenney's analysis is correct,
and I think it is, then the battle to
save the Colleton River estuary in
Beaufort County or the tidelands of
South Carolina or the natural envi-
ronment of the United States is a
battle for the minds of the pawns:
the American public who. by their
concern or by their apathy, will de-
termine the future environments of
the United States. ■
"Shining
intelligence"
illuminates the new book
by one of our most distin-
guished anthropologists,
says the New York Times.
"We may resist Dr. Mead's
quiet and commonsensical
notion that the pace of
change has so accelerated
that traditional forms of
culturally incorporating it
are insufficient. We resist
at our peril."
CULTURE AND
COMMITMENT
A Study of the
Generation Gap
MARGARET
MEAD
$5.00
"Sacred, profane,
romantic,
practical, penniless, prodi-
gal, indefatigably zealous
. . . this is the man who
emerges in AUDUBON, BY
HIMSELF. . .Audubon was
bewitched and we are
wondrously fortunate for
his thralldom. We are
fortunate, too, for Miss
Ford's scrupulous presen-
tation of his 'self-portrait'
. . . It serves well as an
autobiography."— lVas/7-
ington Post Book World
AUDUBON,
BY HIMSELF
A Profile of John
James Audubon, from
Writings. Edited by
Alice Ford
Illustrated, $8.95
67
CROWDER
NATURE TOURS
SCHEDULE: Listed below are
starting dates for 1970. Space per-
mits only a brief mention of eacb
tour, and one should by all means
liave the 'Tour Catalog" with
thumbnail sketches of each trip, as
well as subsequent detailed itiner-
aries. >sorth America tours are 2
weeks each, others 3 weeks, tmless
otherwise noted.
ARIZONA
Popular SE Arizona bird observation
tour. Expert leadership. Two weeks from
May 9; all expenses, S515.
ALASKA
South Tour from Vancouver June 20:
North Tour from Fairbanks July 4:
"Outposts" from Anchorage July 18.
Three remarkable 2-week trips, from in-
side passage to Aleutians, Pribilofs and
Point Barrow.
WEST VIRGINIA
Ecological tour: revealing, nearby, in-
expensive. Wheeling July 25; 2 wks.
EUROPE (12 tours)
Comprehensive 12-tour program covers
continent broadly. 3-week trips connect
into fascinating north-^^ith-spring and
across-Siberia routes. Dates:
Mediterranean: April 30, Lisbon
Britain: Ma\- 28, London
Balkans: May 28. Venice
Europe North: May- 28, Amsterdam
Europe East: June 18, Rownania
NorK-ay: June IS, Oslo
Iceland (2 wks): June 25
Iceland Center. July 9
Iceland II: July 20
Russia: Jidy 9. Helsinki
Siberia: July 30, Tashkent
A one-week Seminar on Basic Ornithol-
ogy and Natural History of Europe is
planned at Coniston. Lake District of
England, beginning May 21.
CENTRAL AMERICA
Summer program in rainy season when
birds are on territon-. July and August,
3 tours. Ctiiapas, Yucatan. Panama.
AFRICA (3 tours)
South and East Africa and Madagas-
car; three tours in July September. Ex-
cellent leadership.
SOUTH AMERICA (3 tours)
Colombia. Aug. 15; Venezuela, Sep. 12;
Argentina; Tierra del Fuego, October 17.
Also Galapagos and Antarctica.
SOUTH PACIFIC (5 tours)
This is the year of full South Pi
■ific
coverage. Melanesia. Aug. 15 from
Samoa; New Guinea, Sep. 5 from Rabaul;
Western Australia, Sep. 26 from Perth;
Australia East, Oct. 17 from the Barrier
Reef at Cairns; New Zealand, Nov. 7
from Auckland.
SOUTH WITH AUTUMN (2 tours)
Geoloay and ecoloay of the eastern
U.S.A., "foUowing the wave of fall color
southward. Northeast Coast tour meets
at Bangor Sep. 19; Southeast Coast tour
at Harpers Ferry Oct, 10. Leader: Geolo-
gist Isabella Coons, with many assisting
leaders along the way.
Come along! . . . intimate, private
groups, expert leadership. We seek out
back-country routes, try for an experience-
in-depth of the natural scene and the
people. (Sot recommended if you're
strong for night life.)
CROWDER NATURE TOURS
BOX 222-a
HARPERS FERRY, W. VA. 25425
Books in Review
Mission
Impossibie:
A Humane Science
btf Spencer Ktaiv
Reason Awake: Science for Man,
by Rene Dubos. Columbia University
Press, S6.95 ; 280 pp.
Scientists are in trouble in Amer-
ica today. More and more people
are questioning the relevance of sci-
ence to the betterment of human life.
Scientists are being bitterly re-
proached by their own students, among
others, for the immoral and antihu-
man uses to which their work is put.
In Washington, too, there is dis-
illusionment. Federal patronage,
which has had so much to do with
the spectacular flowering of Ameri-
can science since World War II. no
longer flows in such copious streams.
Professors of physics or biology who
used to complain, half-seriously. that
American scientists were eating too
high on the hog are now hard
pressed to find the money to keep
their own laboratories running.
There are scientists who blame
their difficulties on the public's im-
perfect understanding of science and
its limitations. This view is sharply
challenged by Prof. Rene Dubos of
Rockefeller University, who argues
that scientists have largely forfeited
the right to the respect of their fel-
lowmen. They have successfully
claimed the support of society, he
points out. on the ground that great
material benefits will inevitably
spring from their work. And having
proposed this bargain, scientists can
not then honorably disclaim responsi-
bility when the promised benefits fail
to appear — or when the fruits of
their work are used to degrade the
environment of man and man him-
self. "As the power of science in-
creases." Dubos writes, "its uses be-
come less sacred, more trivial, more
brutal, and often more immoral. Sci-
entists are not entirely responsible
for this desecration, but we have
done little to prevent it. As a commu-
nity we have betrayed our ideals by
. . . promoting our wares through ir-
responsible promises to society of
perfect health, economic prosperity,
and military power."
Reason Awake is a plea and a
brief for a more human science, a
science guided by a determination to
help men realize their highest po-
tentialities. This is a plea more often
advanced by nonscientists than by
scientists themselves. Knowledge is
best pursued, scientists are apt to ar-
gue, when the pursuit is seen as an
end in itself, and a science guided by
external considerations — even so
noble a consideration as the welfare
of mankind — is necessarily a me-
diocre science. Dubos, however,
whose earlier books include a biogra-
phy of Louis Pasteur, is not only a
thoughtful and sophisticated student
of the history of science. He is also a
distinguished experimental scientist,
who has turned from microbiology to
the study of how animal development
is affected by environment.
The heart of Duboss argument is
the contention that science and its
applications have become so closely
coupled over the past 150 years that
"pure" science has lost such meaning
and virtue as it may once have had,
and that scientists must therefore
accept responsibility for the conse-
quences of their work.
69
Natural History Books
at 10% OFF
THE SiLT-WATER AQUUIUM
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illustrated, 360 page book.
Reg. sn.50 Your Cost $11.25
EXPLORING THE REEF
by Roberf P. L. Sfraughan
An excitinp. illustrated ad-
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A practical guide for the
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maximum safety. Special
chapter on the Great Bar-
rier Reef.
Reg. $17.50 Your Cost $15.75
WITH JOHN BURROUGHS
IN FIELD AND WOOD
Edited and Illustrated by
Elizabeth Burroughs Kelley
Selections from the essays
of a famed naturalist. The
best of Burroughs' discrim-
inating observations with
his sense of humor, poetic
imasination, and engaging
st\le of writing. Illustrated
with the author's own
photographs and drawings
that enchantingly capture
the spirit of Burroughs'
work.
Reg. $5.95 Your Cost 55.35
ROCKS and MINERALS
of
A Guide for Collecto,
the Eastern United Stales
by H. H. Nicolay
and A. V. Stone
An intensely interesting
geologic tour which
crosses every state bound-
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through almost every
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where rocks and minerals
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City . . .
Many scientists these days accept
this responsibility in principle. Dubos
observes, but too few are prepared to
do much about it. As a case in point,
he recalls that soon after the publica-
tion of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring
President Kennedy appointed a blue-
ribbon committee to advise him on
the pesticide problem. "All the mem-
bers of this committee." Dubos
writes, "were eminent biologists who
held influential faculty posts in great
universities. Their report confirmed
facts that had been long known by
anyone familiar with the field, and it
also emphasized the need for further
study." Nevertheless. Dubos contin-
ues, "there is no indication that any
member of the committee did any-
thing to encourage his staff or gradu-
ate students to work on pesticide tox-
icity. Nor is there any evidence that
the committee has fostered such re-
search in other institutions during
the several years that have elapsed
since the preparation of the report."
Dubos adds bitterly. "Membership
in a blue-ribbon committee or a task
force is at best a form of sublimation
that provides a glamorous substitute
for becoming involved in the prac-
tical affairs of the world."
If man is to save himself from the
consequences of his own tech-
nological prowess. Dubos argues, gift-
ed scientists will have to give up the
luxury of pure science and immerse
themselves in the difficult and com-
plicated business of finding ways to
use science beneficially. This will re-
quire, he says, a migration of scien-
tists from the universities to research
institutes of a new kind, organized
for the purpose of bringing to bear
on a particular social problem — the
effect of environmental factors on hu-
man emotions, for example — the re-
sources of a number of different sci-
entific disciplines.
Dubos concedes that a scientist
who leaves the university for a "mis-
sion-oriented" laboratory sacrifices
some of his freedom to choose re-
search problems purely for their in-
trinsic scientific interest. And he rec-
ognizes that the climate of large,
applied-research laboratories has not
always favored initiative and creativ-
ity. But he is confident that this need
not be the case, provided that scien-
tists are encouraged "to become in-
timately involved in the formulation
of the social objectives to which their
work will contribute."
This summary of Professor Dubos's
central thesis does not suggest the
scope and texture of his engagingly
discursive essay. Although Dubos. at
sixty-nine, often sides with the angry
student critics of the scientific estab-
lishment, his mode of discourse is
characterized less by anger than by a
grave and luminous rationality. Here,
by way of illustration, are his
thoughts on a few of the matters he
dwells or touches on :
On Science and Beer: "Some of
the factors that affect the direction of
the scientific effort are rather unex-
pected. It has been suggested, for ex-
ample, that the practical problems
posed by brewing practices greatly
stimulated the early development of
science in Europe. The process of
converting barley into beer involved
physicists in the problems of gas
pressure, chemists in the structure of
starch, enzymologists in the study of
yeasts and bacteria."
On Intellectual Escapism: "Scien-
tists find it much more entertaining
to talk about such a far out possi-
bility as the manipulation of the gen-
etic code, than to concern themselves
with the control of lead poisoning, a
childhood disease which is a social
crime of today."
On the Futility of Countertech-
nologies and "Technological Fixes":
"Developing countertechnologies to
correct the new kinds of damage con-
stantly being created by technological
innovations is a policy of despair. If
we follow this course we shall increas-
ingly behave like hunted creatures,
fleeing from one protective device to
another, each more costly, more com-
plex, and more undependable than the
one before. . . ."
On the Need for a Higher Criti-
cism of Science: "A society that
blindly accepts the decisions of ex-
perts is a sick society on its way to
death. The time has come when we
must produce, alongside specialists,
another class of scholars and citizens
who have broad familiarity with the
facts, methods, and objectives of sci-
ence and thus are capable of making
judgments about scientific policies.
Persons who work at the interface of
science and society have become es-
sential simply because almost every-
thing that happens in society is
influenced by science."
On Jfhy There Is Ground for Hope:
"In an inspired passage in Sci-
ence and the Modern W^orld, White-
head suggests that tlie order of
nature as conceived by scientific de-
terminism has now taken the role of
Fate in the Greek tragedy. . . . For-
tunately, the applications of science
to human affairs do not have so high
a degree of inevitability as do the
laws of nature. Contemporary man
seems to be poised between passive
acceptance of scientific technology
for its own sake, violent rejection oi
it, or conscious use of it for some ul-
timate concern. The social ferment
which is beginning to agitate the
70
Mexican onyx egg
approximately 2V2" high.
No two alike. $5.50 plus
75<: postage and handling
Egg stand
IV2" diameter — gold-
colored metal — $4.00 plus
50<!: postage and handling
e4n <Egg for
^very ^aste
There is a polished Mexican onyx egg showing the beautiful
markings of the stone, a faithful reproduction of an egg of
prehistoric times, and a container for small bowling pins from
Poland. And, for the gourmet, we have a pair of Royal
Worcester porcelain egg coddlers made in England.
Bowling set
approximately 5" high —
contains 9 soldier bowling
pins and two small bowl-
ing balls. $3.25 plus 75<:
postage and handling
Dinosaur egg
5V2" long— $3.75 plus 750
postage and handling
Egg coddler
2V2" high— $7.50 pr. plus
75<^ postage and handling
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
CENTRAL PARK WEST AT 79TH ST.
NEW YORK, NEW YORK 10024
■ The Museum Shop— The American Museum of Natural History
f 79th St. & Central Park West, New York, N.Y. 10024
1
1
1
'
Quantity
Amt. [
Members of the Museum are TOTAL
entitled to a 10% discount. N.Y. residents please add taxes j
n.ty ^t?»» Zm Code j
' »
NBC-TV Friday, April 3
(Consult your local listings.)
Arthur C. Clarke, author of "2001 ," com-
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brain, animal communications, plant
behavior and other unexplained phe-
nomena.
An Encyclopaedia Britannica Special,
sponsored by Weyerhaeuser Company.
Weyerhaeuser
THE STRAGGLER
Adventures of a Sea Bird
By Ester Wier. Illustrated by Leon-
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of the life cycle of a gatrnet. There is
a fascinating and compassionate ac-
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as it takes part in great adventures
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LITTLE DICKENS,
JAGUAR CUB
By B. r. Beebe. Illustrated by James
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Ages 11-14. $4.25
EVERGLADES ADVENTURE
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McKAY —
community of scientists gives hope
that man still has a chance to control
his destiny by imposing a direction
on the scientific endeavor and. in par-
ticular, by consciously planning the
scientific technology that will shape
the modern world."
Spencer Klaiv is the author of The
New Brahmins: Scientific Life in
America. A former editor of Fortune,
whose articles have also appeared in
Harper's. Esquire, and other maga-
zines, Mr. Klaiv now teaches a course
on environmental reporting at Colum-
bia University.
The American West: A Natural His-
tory, by Ann and Myron Sutton. Ran-
dom House, S20.00; 270 pp., illus.
Not all "beautiful books" are worth
S20. This one is. The text is by two
of the most experienced and technically
capable outdoor interpreters in the
land. Both the superb color and black-
and-white photographs, well keyed to
the text, are by some of America's
leading camera artists, including Ansel
Adams, Josef Muench. and Eliot
Porter. It is an ambitious chore to pre-
pare a book that encompasses a de-
scription of the natural history of the
entire western region from the Mexican
border to. and including. Alaska. The
authors have walked many of the trails
themselves and have used expert judg-
ment in selecting not only the high
spots but also many areas that often
escape attention in lesser works.
Of particular interest are the fasci-
nating accounts of the origin and de-
velopment of various geologic fea-
tures, the life they supported in bygone
eras, and the plant and animal life that
inhabit them today. The authors have
been careful to place first things first
throughout this large-sized volume
(ten by twelve inches I by providing
adequate background material before
introducing the more obvious aspects
of everyday observation, as they take
the reader from one remarkable region
to another. The text could easily stand
by itself, and this is indeed high praise
for a book of this nature.
A rounded ecological approach is
used in practically all references to
wildlife and plant life— both individual
species and the broader aspects in-
volved in populations as a whole. A
high degree of objectivity is apparent
in these descriptions, especially where
the so-called predator species are con-
cerned. There are no bird or mammal
villains in this book, although there
are passages that tell of unfavorable
results from certain forms of overpro-
tection as well as from lack of protec-
tion. The geographic distribution of
plants and animals receives satisfac-
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tory attention and. here again, the whys
and ivherefores underlying environ-
mental conditions essential for species
survival are stressed. In effect, the
authors say. "Take a good look at this
animal, this plant, or this geologic for-
mation before going on to something
else." This is the way it should be.
One cannot read this book without
gaining a renewed appreciation of the
great heritage that is ours in the still
wild places of the American West. By
the same token one cannot but become
newly aware of the serious threats that
face many of the regions under consid-
eration, especially the threats imposed
by ever increasing human population
pressures upon the often fragile wild-
life and plant life ecosystems that make
this life possible. In the book's conclud-
ing paragraph the authors express
themselves in relation to future pros-
pects for wildlife in Alaska: "If a love
of nature prevails in the hearts of men
and they hear in the voice of the crane
an echo of the past and a song of the
future, these men will have approached
the kind of maturity that stewardship
of the land requires. And if by listening
to the music of a mountain stream and
the gentle rustling of cottonwood leaves
they find their vision enlarged and their
burdens lifted, then the West has been
won and its greatness will endure."
This handsome book will certainly en-
large one's vision, too.
William H. Carr
Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum
Great Botanical Gardens of the
World, by Edward Hyams and Wil-
liam MacQuitty. The Macmillan Com-
pany, 835.00; 288 pp., illus.
This profusely and beautifully illus-
trated work is the commendable
production of two talented Britishers,
Edward Hyams. a veteran author of
garden books, and William MacQuitty,
a Fellow of the Royal Geographical So-
ciety and a noted photographer and
film producer. It must have been truly
frustrating to select just fifty great
botanical gardens from a possible 525
(listed with their addresses at the back
of the book— a most useful compilation
taken from the International Directory
of Botanical Gardens ) . This reviewer
feels grieved that The New York Bo-
tanical Garden, in the Bronx, is dis-
missed with the ijrief comment that
"while it is true that the research staff
of the Bronx Garden is engaged in the
most advanced scientific work— notably
in molecular biology— being done in
any American botanic garden, the gar-
den itself is very inferior to the Brook-
lyn one."' May I state that in addition to
its "advanced scientific work'' The New
York Botanical Garden continues to
hold a foremost place with its elemen-
INDONESIAN EXPEDITION
Under the auspices of the Indonesian Directorate of Forests, planned by Mr.
W. Sinaga. Head of the Indian Conservation and Wildlife Services and by Mrs.
Lee W. Talbot, led by Mrs. Lee M. Talbot of the Smithsonian Institution and by
Mr. S. Segito of the Indonesian Wildlife Services.
• Komodo Island, between Sumbawa and Flores, habitat of the world's last pre-
historic dragon, the 9 ft. long Komodo Dragon. By chartered helicopter. Never
visited by nature travelers.
• Unexplored East Java, with primeval forests and turtle beaches and nature re-
serves of the South Coast-Sukamade, Baluran, Pasirputih — the unknown Idjen
Plateau of the interior and the Tengger region with ascent of the Bromo volcano
from Tretis, a proposed nature reserve.
• West Sumatra; the country of the Menang — Kaban people in villages around
Bukit Tinggi, Forests, lakes and mountains. The Anai Rift Canon, a proposed
nature reserve.
• North Sumatra: The Batak tribes and their villages around Lake Toba.
• Bali: Crater and lake villages of Mt. Batur, Besaki on Mt. Agung, Uluwatu etc. —
Motion picture photography of temple festivals and life cycle ceremonies. Re-
cording of gamelan music and songs.
• Central and West Java: The Ramayana dance drama in Jogjakarta, the highlight
of Java's performing arts, with up to 500 dancers and musicians. Solo and
Borobodur, the Dieng Plateau of Central Java, Bandung region and Bogor.
An unusual natural and cultural experience, mostly in untravelled parts of In-
donesia.
Komodo, Bali and Java — August 24th to September 21st.
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Bali, Java and Sumatra — August 31st to October 3rd.
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12 to 15 participants
Expedition prospectus from Treasure Tours International Inc.
Office of Academic Liaison, 1010 St. Catherine W., Montreal 110, Canada
THE HIMALAYAS
WITH DESMOND DOIG
THE UNSEEN NEPAL • SIKKIM AND BHUTAN • THE UNKNOWN INDIA
Desmond Doig. the noted Himalayan writer and explorer, has kindly agreed to
lead for Treasure Tours a number of journeys for small groups in the more re-
mote parts of Nepal and India, and also in Sikkim and Bhutan. Mr. Doig is
known to most Himalayan enthusiasts on our Continent b>' his book. 'High in
the Thin Cold Air" (Collins, London) and by several articles in the National
Geographic (130/4, 123/3 etc.). Mr. Doig has led one of our Himalayan King-
dom groups in October 1969 and will be also leading our "Inner Himala>as" in
June 1970. Those who travelled with him were delighted v.ith his charming per-
sonality and his intimate knowledge of the natural and human scene of the
Himalayas.
He has lived with the peoples of the mountains for many years, has gained their
friendship and confidence and understands their ways of life, their culture and
their religious beliefs. Desmond Doig's leadership on our tours will bring a new
dimension to Himalayan travel.
There will be scheduled departures from September 1970 through April 1971.
Mr. Doig has written programmes and inspired descriptive booklets for the tours.
The booklets — printed by us — can be obtained from Treasure Tours. For further
information and reservation, please write to Mrs. Maria Nyman at Treasure
Tours. Some of the proceeds from the tour will be set apart for assistance to
Sherpas schools and Tibetan refugees in India.
Information is also available on the following tours:
• AFGHANISTAN • HIKING IN THE AUSTRIAN ALPS
• ZAGROS, ELBURZ AND PARS , juc rnRPATHIAN*;
• KHORASAN, PARS AND KHUZISTAN "Z ,",„""„, „„„^
/pgll) • THE INNER HIMALAYAS
• THE UNDISCOVERED USSR • WEST & CENTRAL APRICA (Winter)
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1010 St. Catherine W., Montreal 110, Canada
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tary and advanced training courses in
botany and horticulture. However, the
vastness of the contents of this present
work under review cannot be easily
overlooked. Hyams and MacQuitty
toured almost the entire world, inter-
viewed the directors and prominent
members of the staffs of countless insti-
tutions, absorbed their history, learned
of their current projects and activities,
and obtained copies of plans, prints,
paintings, and photographs of numer-
ous gardens and individual plants.
Twenty-four countries are represented,
and the subjects range from the six-
teenth-century gardens of Padua and
Pisa to the new botanic garden at
Meise near Brussels with its very mod-
ern Palace of Plants— the largest green-
house in the world.
There are many facets of interest
throughout this book: biographical
notes on botanists, horticulturists, land-
scape gardeners; historical data on
plant introductions and plant hybridi-
zation: illustrations of natural features
in landscape design and of unusual
collections of specific groups of plants.
Frequently we find references to gar-
den publications that are available for
further study. Some of these bo-
tanic gardens, such as those at
Singapore and Peradeniya. founded
primarily to serve as acclimatization
stations and trial grounds for economi-
cally valuable plants, occupy an im-
portant place in the world history of
foods, condiments, and textiles. The
policy of others, like the Royal Botanic
Gardens at Kew and Munich's Bo-
tanische Staatsammlung. is not only to
serve scientific botany but also to at-
tract the general public to their gar-
dens of ornamental plants and collec-
tions of exotic flora. Several of the
gardens described were originally cre-
ated for wealthy individuals, ardent
amateur plantsmen who provided that
after their deaths their magnificent es-
tates be forever open to the plant-loving
public. Fine examples of these are the
Longwood Gardens at Kennett Square.
Pennsylvania, of Pierre S. du Pont:
Villa Taranto on Lake Maggiore. of
Captain Neil McEacharn; The Fair-
child Tropical Garden on the outskirts
of Miami, Florida, of Col. Robert
Montgomery; and the Huntington Gar-
den at San Marino, California, of
Henry Edwards Huntington.
It may surprise some people to learn
that the USSR has many more botanic
gardens than any other country in the
world and that "the Nikitsky Botanical
Garden is not only one of the most
interesting of the gardens described in
this volume; not only one of the most
active in the fields of botanical science
and economic botany ; it is also one of
the most beautiful."
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nforniation there are bound to be
ninor errors and omissions. I notice
hat the first director of the Arnold
Vrboretum is given as James Sprague
jargent instead of the correct Charles
sprague Sargent. Omitted in the index
tre the names of several directors of
nstitutions that are mentioned in the
ext— Russell Seibert of Longwood
hardens; Harold Fletcher of the Edin-
lurgh Botanic Garden; Richard How-
ird of the Arnold Arboretum.
' However, because there is so much
o praise in this truly fine work, we are
jreatly indebted to author Hyams and
)hotographer MacQuitty for present-
ng so magnificently, within the covers
pf one volume, this treasury of botani-
•al and horticultural endeavors and
itccomplishments.
Elizabeth C. Hall
The Horticultural Society of New York
'since Silent Spring, by Frank Gra-
lam, Jr. Houghton Mifflin Company,
^i6.95; 333 pp.
It^r. Graham provides a compre-
LtA hensive and responsible review
)f "hard" pesticides from the time
heir ecological effects were first ob-
served down to the present moment.
The end of the story, of course, be-
longs to the remote and "iffy" future.
I The problem was brought into
jiharp focus for the first time by Si-
ent Spring, the book that Rachel
Larson did not want to write. Turn-
ing from more congenial literary
)rojects with a sense of obligation
md urgency, this gifted and very pri-
'ate person knowingly took on a host
)f enemies: the agricultural hier-
irchy — from the United States De-
jartment of Agriculture down to the
Mate- and county-agent level — food
irocessors. the mass media, the chem-
cal industry, and the professors who
liad entered into a comfortable sweet-
leart relationship with the manufac-
lUrers of DDT compounds.
I But Silent Spring accomplished its
)urpose. It synthesized the issue of
he persistent pesticides and the
hain of life. With the appearance of
he book in 1962. the subject was be-
jore the larger public, which ulti-
'nately determines social goals. Yet
he squirt-gun mentality continues to
ioom large in Mr. Graham's lucid
)ages as he weaves together the
trands of evidence against the in-
Jiscriniinate use of the chlorinated
lydrocarbons for pest control. It is
Instructive to learn, for example, that
.s late as 1961, an assistant secretary
■f agriculture assured Congressman
ohn V. Lindsay that no new legisla-
tion was needed to protect the public
■ rom environmental pollution. The
lialogue was frequently frustrating.
THE SHADOW OF THE
TELESCOPE
A Biography of John Herschel
by Giinther Buttmann
Hailed as a major biography both here and abroad, this first
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of his humanity. "Fascinating reading." —Sky and Telescope
$7 95
OUR BLUE PLANET
The Story of the Earth's Evolution
by Heinz Haber
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— WERNHER VON BRAUN $5.95
THROUGH RUGGED
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The Reminiscences of an Astronomer
by Harlow Shapley
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the gieat discoveries of the first quarter of the 20th century
were made. I wish Copernicus had written a book like
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THE RIDDLE OF
GRAVITATION
by Peter G. Bergmann
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-American Scientist $7.95, $2.65 paperback
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The friends of the earth talked about
life. The friends of DDT talked about
money. Control had become an end
in itself, so that we had. and still
have, the extraordinary phenomenon
(if wildlife agencies largely devoted to
Compound 1080 and the extermina-
tion of wildlife.
The author, a well-known writer on
conservation topics, concludes his sur-
vey by citing certain recent develop-
ments that suggest there may be "A
Light at the End of the Road." They
derive from a breakthrough in hor-
mone research and advanced tech-
niques in biological controls that
may — emphasize may — help us to
maintain a saner relationship with
the environment than the kind of
management provided by the DDT
sprayers. Meanwhile, the political
process is catching up. Last year
Michigan became the first state to
outlaw the sale of DDT, followed by
Arizona. California. Florida. Mary-
land. Washington, and Wisconsin.
-Aerial spraying is banned in Connect-
icut, and there are signs of movement
in the ponderous bureaus of official
Washington, where it has been decided
to phase out the use of persistent poi-
sons over a period of two years. (Ex-
cept in some cases!) The rest of us
will be well advised to remember that
the problem is not going to go away,
and to continue to follow the direc-
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in small type where it says, "Buyer
assumes all risk."
Gerald Carson
Author
Prehistoric .-iND Primitive Art, by
Luis Pericot-Garcia, John Galloway,
and Andreas Lommel. Harry N.
Abrams. S25.00 ; 340 pp., illus.
' I ^he authors of this handsome vol-
-•- ume make it clear that we can re
spond to and evaluate the arts o
Stone Age man and of the tribal cul-
tures of Africa, the Pacific Ocean ba
sin. and North American Indians
even though they are so exotic to us.
However, while we can intellectually
grasp some of their symbols and
meanings, we cannot directly experi-
ence, and therefore cannot understand,
the compulsions that forced prehis-
toric and primitive peoples to create
what they did the way they did.
Pericot-Garcia has the most difficult
task for, historically speaking, there
is no way of our ever knowing what
caveman meant by his art. but he pro-
vides a guide to those sites that have
yielded evidence of the arts of Stone
Age hunting and fishing communities
and early agricultural peoples. He ac-
cepts (with some reserve) the theory,
popular since the nineteenth century.
that cave art was an expression of the
sympathetic magic used to insure suc-
cess in the hunt. In the past few dec-
ades this position has come under
attack ; many cultural historians have
suggested alternate, equally persua-
sive theories growing out of recent de-
velopments in psychological and psy-
choanalytic thinking. For example, it
has been suggested that the major
role of Upper Paleolithic art was to
relieve by symbolic action the tensions
and anxieties created by the dawning
awareness of man's identity in an alien
and frequently hostile environment
{see "The Baton of Montgaudier,"
NATUR.-iL History. March, 1970).
On the basis of present evidence
Pericot-Garcia also accepts the theory
of a single epicenter of prehistoric
art — western Europe — from which it
spread worldwide. This diffusionist
approach to cultural innovation is. of
course, disputed by proponents of the
idea that simultaneous invention of
similar patterns in different parts of
the world is possible and probable.
The other two authors have a
somewhat easier task, for they chron-
icle cultures that are closer to us in
time, and for which there are still
remnants of oral tradition more or
less untouched by European influence.
Thus, they can speak with some de-
gree of assurance of the manifold
functions of art within the several
cultures: social, political, magical,
cultic, funereal, sexual, etc. Professor!
Galloway surveys the continents of|
-Africa and North America, describing
the arts of the major tribes and eth-i
nic units. Lommel covers the Pacific
Ocean, an area so diverse in its eth-
nic composition that he describes the
arts, not by cultural groups, but by
major design motifs.
It has long been obvious that thei
tribal arts of the world collapsed be-
fore the onslaught of Western cul-i
ture; those artificially stimulated,
"folk arts" that remain are forced
imitations of earlier crafts. And it
should be equally obvious that citi-
zens of the modern world can never'
go back to primitive cultures, mores,
traditions, styles, or patterns. Links
with the past can never be reforged
I as an unscientific American author
intuitively knew when he said that
"you can't go home again").
An interesting thought emerges
from a reading of this excellent sur-
vev. Prehistoric and primitive arts
are related to each other but different
in kind from that of the complex Ori-
ental and Western cultures, which, in
turn, are different in style but related
in kind. Is the difference that of liter-
acy? There is the interesting coinci-
dence of highly stylized symbolic art
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of nonliterate peoples giving way to
naturalistic narrational art when
writing is introduced. The invention
of writing may have had more
profound effects on the visual arts
than we have hitherto supposed.
Bernard Goldman
Wayne State University
Briefly Xoted:
International Zoo Yearbook 10,
edited by Joseph Lucas. The Zoologi-
cal Society of London, $21.00; 373
pp., illus.
The tenth volume of this excellent
series contains twenty papers on owls
and other birds of prey in captivity;
a section on new developments in the
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world's aquariums, bird parks, and
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book provides zoo people, con-
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opportunity to keep up with devel-
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is also an indispensable source of
knowledge for anyone interested in
the behavior, conservation, and care
of wild animals. The text is accom-
panied by 52 high-quality, black-and-
white photographs.
The World of the Giant Panda, by
Richard Perry. Taplinger Publishing
Co., Inc., $7.50; 136 pp., illus.
After covering the world of the tiger,
walrus, and polar bear in previous
books, Richard Perry has turned his
sights on perhaps the most appealing
mammal of all— the giant panda. The
book is a fine compendium of informa-
tion drawn from numerous historical
records and from Mr. Perry's own
observations of captive animals. The
illustrations consist of many excellent
close-up photographs of these sad-eyed
animals plus charming drawings by
Wolfgang Weber.
C.B.
Intecol Bulletin, International As-
sociation of Ecology, semiannual, $3 a
year.
Published by the newly formed In-
ternational Association for Ecology,
this bulletin is designed as a forum
for news of research, requests for in-
formation, reports on activities of na-
tional ecological societies, suggestions
for conferences, and almost any other
news of interest to ecologists. The as-
sociation hopes to become the voice of
world ecologists, able to advise govern-
ments and international agencies. De-
tails on the bulletin and the association
are available from the Secretary Gen-
eral, Institute of Biology, 41 Queens
Gate, London S.W.7, England.
J.W.
"A powerful and
instructive indictment"*
SINCE
SILENT
SPRING
FRANK GRAHAM, JR.
Rachel Carson's Silent Spring
was one of those rare books that
change the course of history. It
was the tocsin to the to.vins —
rousing the world to the suicidal
potential of chemical pesticides.
Originally vilified by the proph-
ets of progress-for-profit, Miss
Carson posthumously has been
proved right. What have we done
about it?
In SINCE SILENT SPRING
Frank Graham describes the
background of this remarkable
woman, the genesis of her book,
and where the pesticide question
stands today. The fight is far
from won, but victory is in sight;
Mr. Graham shows what the
embattled citizen can do now,
today, to make that victory total.
"SINCE SILENT SPRING is
a valuable, much-needed care-
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on three levels: as a tribute to
a remarkable woman, Rachel
Carson; as a solidly documented
source book for conservationists;
as a factual record that is often
as exciting as a mystery story."
— Edwin Way Teale
"Reports not only what has been
accomplished in recent years, but
also what has yet to be done.
And it suggests how the average
citizen can help."
— Christian Science Monitor
"Should be a powerful weapon
in the continuing struggle against
the pollution of the air and
waters ... It offers added and
exciting evidence against the
])csticide crimes."
— John Kieran
'PuhliHhrrn' Wrrklii
S6.95 from vour bookseller
HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
2 Park St., Bo.ston, Mass. 02107
77
ANCIENT OIL LAMPS
over 1300 years old
From ancient Palestine, these terracotta lamps were
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pieces for home and ofFlce. A superb all-occasion
gift. Mounted on walnut base with parchment cer-
tificate of authenticity $10.95 ppd.
Lamps with Cross motif $23.95 ppd.
FREE Gift Catalog
. . . illustrating Jewelry, Amulets, Coins, Buddhas,
Roman Glass, Figurines and more!
Museum & Dealers inquiries welcome.
ALADDIN HOUSE, LTD.
N-4H • 648 NINTH AVE., N.Y., N.Y. 10036
BUFFET FOR "HUMMERS"
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Write for FREE illustrated trappinp: guide and
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HAVAHART
158-P Water Street, Ossining, New York 10562
Please send me FREE new guide and price list.
The American Museum is open to
the public without charge every day
during the year, except Thanksgiv-
ing and Christmas. Your support,
through membership and contribu-
tions, helps make this possible. The
Museum is equally in need of sup-
port for its work in the fields of re-
search, education, and exhibition.
This list details the photographer or
other source of illustration, by page.
COVER— Peter Silver-
8-9— Tom Page
24-25— Saul Riesen-
berg
26 — Philip Bogetto
27— AMNH
29 — Philip Bogetto
30-35 — Peter Silverman
36-37- Miriam Roths-
child
38— Roy W. Delaplaine,
Sproul Observatory
40-43 — Helmut Wimmer
44-51— Robert Edwards
except map, AMNH and
50 — bottom, Maxine
Eastman
52-58— Tom Page
except charts. AMNH
after Palmer
59— Time-Life
60-61— Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observa-
tory
63 — Helmut Wimmer
68-69— UP! Photo
To our readers:
Errors were inadvertently introduced in the subtitle and captions for the
article. "The Baton of Montgaudier." by Alexander Marshack, which ap-
peared in our March issue. We are printing corrections below in exactly
the same size and form as the original; readers should clip them and paste
them in the proper places in that issue.
Subtitle, page 57:
Reindeer hunters living in France more than 12,000 years a
discriminated season, sex, and age when they engraved '
plants and animals on pieces of antler. Some images hint at i
sophisticated system of abstract representation at least
8,000 years older than what had been considered the oldest
example, the picture writings of Mesopotamia and Egypt
Caption, page 58:
Photographic enlargement and
line drawing of engraved
salmon reveal open mouth and
hooked kipe, indication that
the fish was a male
in the season of spawning.
Caption, bottom of page 61 :
A more schematized ibex head
also seems to have been
crossed out, this time by
two separate lines.
Caption, top of page 61 :
These engravings near the
bottom of the baton appear to
be plants in full leaf.
Theories of Ice Age hunting
magic had given rise to
the concept that
these were barbed weapons.
Caption, bottom of page 63:
For years, this image defied
description. Under the
microscope it appears to be a
flower in bloom — complete with
pedicel, sepal, leaves, and petals.
Natural History regrets these errors. The author writes: "Because of the
new concepts and methodology reported in the article, the errors in captions
and subtitle are probably understandable. I do hope that the general reader
as well as the specialist will also avoid making too hasty interpretations or
reinterpretations from the data, for this is a new field and it will be years
before the full significance of the research is realized."
See our advertisement on the inside back cover . . .
BRITISH OVERSEAS AIRWAYS CORPORATION
Box VCIO, Dept. 151-885
New York, N.Y. 10011 Tel. 687-1500
Gentlemen, please send me your
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Name
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See our advertisement on the inside front cover
LINDBLAD TRAVEL, INC.
Lindblad Travel Building
Dept. NH 470
133 East 55th Street
New York, N.Y. 10022
I am seriously interested in:
D The Antarctic Expedition
n The Indian Ocean Cruise
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Address ^^^^___^___^_^_^___^____^^
City
.State ,
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-78
A satin-finish metallic facsimile of
the sacred beetle revered by the an-
cient Egyptians as a form of the Sun
God. 3Vi" long, 2" wide.
Descriptive card enclosed witli each
paperweight explaining the inscrip-
tion on the base. $7.50 plus $1.25
postage and handling.
Members of the Museum are entitled
to a 10% discount. N.Y. state resi-
dents please add tax and send your
order and check to
The American Museum of Natural History
Central Park West at 79lli Street
V New York, New York 10024 11
40 MILLION YEAR OLD FOSSIL FISH
(DIPUOMYSTUS HUIVILIS) $17.95
500 MILLION YEAR OLD TRILOBITE
(ELRATHIA KING) S2.25
DOVER SCIENTIFIC
Box 6011 c
Long Island City, N.Y. 11106
Send 25c for Illustrated Catalog
of Minerals, Fossils & Shells
'^^^ Beech Cliff
On The Lake, By The Sea
VIOUNT DESERT, MAINE, near Bar Harbor
50YS 9-16 Pioneer camping in setting
)f great natural beauty— plus EXCEP-
TIONAL TRIP PROGRAM. Each camper
elects { without extra charge ) Wilderness
Danoe Trips, Windjammer Sailing Cruise,
Catahdin Mt Expedition. In-Camp prog,
ncl. riflery, archery, tennis, water skiing,
resh water swimming, sailing Natural
cience emphasized. (Aho Caribbean
Jccanograpnic Sunuyier School age 14-17).
Ijfford A. Pulis, 6 Old Marlboro Rd., Concord,
lass. 1617) 369-4095 EST. 1954
Suggested
Additional Reading
THE TRAGICAL FARCE OR
FARCICAL TRAGEDY
OF VICTORIA BLUFFS, S.C.
A Symposium on Estuarine Fish-
eries. American Fisheries Society,
Special Publication No. 3, 1966.
The Wildlife Wetlands and
Shellfish Areas of the Atlan-
tic Coastal Zone. G. P. Spinner.
Folio 18, Serial Atlas of the Ma-
rine Environment, American Geo-
graphical Society, New York.
A STUDENT MANIFESTO ON
THE ENVIRONMENT
Future Environments of North
America. F. F. Darling and J. P.
Milton, eds. Natural History Press,
New York. 1966.
A Sand County Almanac. A. Leo-
pold. Oxford University Press, Inc.,
New York, 1966.
EAST IS A BIG BIRD
Lamotrek Atoll and Inter-Island
Socioeconomic Ties. W. Alkire.
University of Illinois Press, Ur-
bana, 1965.
The Eastern Carolines. J. L. and
A. M. Fischer. Taplinger Publish-
ing Co., Inc., New York, 1957.
BARNARD'S STAR
We Are Not Alone. W. Sullivan.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, 1966..
Exploration Of the Universe. G. 0.
Abell. Holt. Rinehart and Winston,
Inc., New York, 1964.
Modern Astronomy. D. S. Birney.
Allyn & Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1969.
PREHISTORY DOWN UNDER
The World of the First Austra-
lians. R. M. and C. H. Berndt.
University of Chicago Press, Chi-
cago, 1965.
Yiwara. R. Gould. Charles Scribner's
Sons, New York, 1969.
THE MANY CLOCKS OF MAN
Time Measurement in Plants and
Animals. F. A. Brown, J. W. Hast-
ings, J. D. Palmer. Academic
Press Inc., New York, 1970.
Sleep and Wakefulness. N. Kleit-
man. University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, 1963.
The Physiological Clock. E. Biin-
ning. Academic Press Inc., New
York, 1964.
HEART POISONS AND
THE MONARCH
Mimicry in Plants and Animals.
W. Wickler. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1968.
Ecological Chemistry. L. Brower.
Scientific American, February, 1969.
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1
Join our
^ebliorhinephant
^►afari
It costs $1654* and in 22 days takes you and your camera
to Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania by way of London. The price
includes just about everything: Economy Class round-trip air
fare from New York on a BO AC VC 10, transportation in
Africa, hotel and lodge accommodations, most meals, all taxes,
tips, guides, excursions and visas. In fact, we give you so much
for your money we call it our Value Safari.
Join it in New York, weekly departures throughout the year.
And enjoy a day's leisure in London en route to Nairobi,
where your Safari really starts. We'll take you to famous
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If our 22-day Value Safari isn't enough wild life for you and
your camera, there's our famous $2354* Wing Safari, whose
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aboard a de Havilland Twin Otter STOL aircraft. For complete
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our fact-and beast-filled Value and Wing Safari brochures.
Maybe you'll be the first to photograph a Zebliorhinephant.
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•Based on Economy Class Tour basing fare from New Yoik. Air fare supplement required during peak period.
To avoid cutting cover see extra coupon, on page 78
Photo-expressionism
A photographer can capture reality, or heighten reality, just like a painter,
He needs only the imagination and the cannera. He can, for instance,
take a far-off plane and bring it up close to a nearby building to do his
artistic bidding.
In this case, he did it with a 35mm camera, the Nikkormat FTN. And
a most unusual lens, the 500mm Reflex Nikkor This lens looks like it
would be at home in an astronomical observatory Cworks like the Mt.
Palomar telescope! yet it's so light and compact that you can hand hold
it. It is one of more than 10 "long" lenses which fit the Nikkormat FTN,
all of which will give you this fascinating compressed effect in varying
degrees. There are 30-some other lenses and accessories for almost
every purpose, all from the famous Nikon system.Yet the
Nikkormat, for all its capabilities is so uncomplicated
and responsive that it never distracts you from the
photograph. Sells for less than $270 with a 50mm
f2lens. Isn't it time you discovered your own reality? _
See your Nikon dealer, or write. Nikon Inc.
Garden City,NewYork11530. Subsidia_ryof
Ehrenreich Photo-Optical lnd.,lnc.[lBD
(In Canada: Anglophoto Ltd., P.Q.)
Nikkormat FTn by Nikon
VATURAL HISTORY
MAY 1970 • $1.00
^J.il
The interchangeable back.
It's just as important as the interchangeable lens.
In the beginning the camera
was a one-piece unit.
Then somebody had an idea. If
the lenses could be made to
change, then the camera could
be made to see more. And the
interchangeable lens was born.
Victor Hasselblad had an
equally interesting idea when he
set out to build his 21/4" single
lens reflex. If the back could be
made to change, he reasoned
then you could build other backs
for other purposes.
Then if you could also change
the viewer, and the film advance
mechanism, and then could add
on all kinds of accessories, you'd
have much more than a camera
You'd have a whole system of
photography. And the Hasselblad
System was born.
Today, many good cameras
have interchangeable lenses.
Some have interchangeable view-
ers. But few have interchangeable
film magazines.
Which is puzzling. Because a
fixed back really ties a camera
down, by letting it do only one
thing at a time.
For example, with other cam-
eras you have to finish or waste
your roll of black and white be-
fore you can change to color. With
Hasselblad you can switch from
black and white to color, or from
color negative to color reversal
film at any time, simply by switch-
ing backs. Each back is like hav-
ing an extra camera.
And while other cameras can
take only one size of film (such as
35mm), Hasselblad can take 120,
220 and 70mm film, as well as
any of the numerous cut films.
It's all done with interchangeable
backs.
And where other cameras take
film in a limited number of shots
per roll, there are Hasselblad
backs that give you 12, 16, 24
and even 70 exposures per roll.
Other cameras take pictures in
one size only. Hasselblad gives
you three choices of picture size,
2y4"x2y4", i%"x2y4", i%"xi%"
(for making superslides). It's all
done with the same camera. Only
the backs change.
With other cameras re-loading
is time consuming. Which can
cost you a lot of good shots. With
Hasselblad you can carry a few
extra pre-loaded backs and just
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NATURAL HISTORY
VOL. LXXIX, No. 5
INCORPORATING NATURE MAGAZINE
MAY 1970
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
10 WHERE HAVE ALL THE BEACH CLUBS OF OLD HAVANA GONE?
Everett Gendler
Fidel Castro's Cuba combines recreation with a multiple-use philosophy in
managing nationalized beach front and mountain parklands.
24 BIOLOGY OF THE WAY-OUT John Eastman
Today's "outlaw" organisms — those deviates from a species' norm — may
well become the "establishment" of tomorrow's natural world.
30 ANCIENT MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA
Photographs by Lee Boltin
A photographic sneak preview catches the ancient grandeur of some inhabi-
tants of the Museum's soon-to-open Hall.
36 MIGRATION OF THE SPINY LOBSTER IFilli^m F. Herrnkind
When the autumnal spirit moves them, these crustaceans queue up head-to-
tail and march in persistent parallel columns across the ocean floor.
46 THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE C. D. Darlington
The development and spread of agriculture depended not so much on the
farmer's innovative techniques, but on the evolving response of plants to
cultivation.
58 EAST IS A BIG BIRD: Part II Thomas Gladivin
Waves, reefs, seabirds, stars, and the "shape of the sky" guide Puluwat
mariners through the open sea-lanes of the Carolines.
COVER : This covered far figure, a unique find from central Mexico,
shows Teotihuacdn influence and probably dates to a.d. 400-500.
The incised patterns across the eyes, representing a serpent,
left, and a butterfly, right, are generally associated with water.
THE AUTHORS
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
SKY REPORTER John P. Wiley, Jr.
CELESTIAL EVENTS Thomas D. Nicholson
BOOKS IN REVIEW Luther P. Gerlach
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING
The American Museum of Natural History
Gardner D. Stout, President Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Natural History
Alfred Meyer, Editor Robert E. Williamson, Managing Editor
Barbara L. Cline, Avis Kniffin, Alan P. Ternes, John P. Wiley, Jr., Associate Editors
Thomas Page, Art Editor Florence G. Edelstein, Copy Editor
Toni Gerber, Asst. Copy Editor Carol Breslin, Reviews Editor
Diantha C. Thorpe, Information Services William Suderman, Production
Ernestine Weindorf, Karen Manulis, Caroline Doerflinger, Staff Assistants
Editorial Advisers: Gerard Piel, Dean Amadon, Franklyn M. Branley, Vincent Manson,
Margaret Mead, Thomas D. Nicholson, James A. Oliver, Ethel Tobach
Harvey Oshinsky, Advertising Director Harry F. Decker, Waller E. Mercer,
Gordon Finley, Advertising Sales Dinah Lowell, Traffic, Eileen O'Keefe, Asst.
Ann Usher, Promotion Director, Maureen Fitzgerald, Asst.
Joseph Saulina, Circulation Manager
I'ublkation Office: The American Museum af Natural Hittory, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York. N.Y.
10024. Published monthly. October through May; bimonthly June to September, Subscription: (7.00 a year.
In Canada and aU other countries: $7.50 a year. Single copies $1.00. Second-class postage paid at New York. N.Y.,
and at additional offices. Copyright © 1970 by The American Museum of Natural History. No part of thU
periodical may be reproduced without the written consent of Natural Histobv. Manuscripts and illustrations
submitted to the editorial office will be handled with care, but we cannot assume responsibility for their safety,
ors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of The American Museum,
porating Nature Magazini: is indexed in Rcadi-r'n Guide to I'crioilical Literature.
; expressed by i
A. AZTEC STONE MASK-fNH 117)
A fine example of pre-Columbian carving
typical of the Late Aztec style. The origi-
nal was given to this Museum in 1903 by
the great patron of Mexican archaeologi-
cal studies, the Duke of Loubat. Repro-
duced in a smoothly polished mottled
green Alvastone*. lOVa" high including
base. $37.50 Express Collect.
B. WHISTLE FIGURINE-fNH 115)
This amusing figurine of a child is of the
Las Remojades Culture of central Vera
Cruz. The face of the figure shows simi-
larities to the famous Smiling Heads,
which are the best-known of Las Remo-
jadas sculptures. These appear to have
been popular in the Late Classic Period,
about AD. 600-1000, and this is the
approximate date we can give to this
figure. It is 7" long and is reproduced in
sand-colored Alvastone*. $1 8.50 postpaid.
C. URN-fNH 116)
The original dates to the early Classic
Period — ad. 300-500. Urns of this type
are usually found beside larger 'deity'
urns in the tombs of the Zapotec peoples
of Oaxaca. Reproduced in sand-colored
Alvastone* with small areas of red ocher
resembling the original. This figure, beau-
tiful in its simplicity, is 772" high includ-
ing the base. $20.00 postpaid.
D. TEOTIHUACAN MASK- (NH 114)
The original mask, carved in dark-colored
serpentine, was found near Cuernavaca
in the State of Morelos, Mexico. In style
it is typical of the Classic Period culture
of Teotihuacan of central Mexico and
dates from the period of about ad. 300-
700. The hollows of the eyes and mouth
are left rough and undoubtedly contained
insets of other materials that are now
missing. Reproduced in black Alvastone*.
6%" including base. $16,00 postpaid.
REPLICAS? of course..
the originals are on
exhibit in our new
HALL OF MEXICO
and
CENTRAL AMERICA
OPENING MAY 15
'Alvastone -Trademark tor a gyp-
sum cement formula developed to
reproduce objects in great fidelity
and registered by Alva Museum
Replicas. Inc.
Members of the Museum are entitled to a 10% discount
N.Y. State residents please add tax and send your
order and check to
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, N.Y., N.Y. 10024
i
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Everett Gendler obtained his
B.A. from the University of Chi-
cago in 1948, and then went on to
study at the Jewish Theological
Seminary. After being ordained as
a rabbi in 1957, he did graduate
work in history and philosophy of
religions at Columbia University
and Union Theological Seminary.
Currently affiliated with Packard
Manse, an ecumenical center in
Stoughton, Massachusetts, and Haz-
urat Shalom Community Seminary
in Somerville, Massachusetts, Rabbi
Gendler spent three months in Ha-
vana during 1968-69 where he con-
ceived the idea for an article on Cu-
ban national parks. The author of
several articles and essays, he is
particularly interested in the re-
definition of contemporary reli-
gious thought.
A free-lance writer living in
Kalamazoo, Michigan, John East-
man is the author of "Biology of
the Way-Out." As our "Naturalist
at Large" this month, Mr. Eastman
discusses the problem of abnormal
behavior in animal species, particu-
larly birds, and its importance,
through publication in scientific
journals, as an area of biological
investigation. Since receiving his
B.S. degree in biology from Mich-
igan State University in 1965, he
has worked as a biological assistant
for the Illinois Natural History Sur-
vey and as a manuscript editor of
biological textbooks. His previous
work for NATURAL HISTORY in-
cludes "A Field Guide to Field
Guides," November, 1969.
Lee Boltin was staff photog-
rapher for several years at The
American Museum of Natural His-
tory. As a free-lance photographer,
he has done assignments for Natu-
ral History and other leading na-
tional magazines. Best known for
his photographs of sculpture, he
recently completed a catalog for
The American Museum in con-
nection with the opening this month
of the Museum's Ancient Mexico
and Central America Hall.
Assistant professor of biological
science at Florida State University
since 1967, William F. Herrn-
kind has conducted intensive re-
search on the spiny lobster during
the last several years. His work in
this area involves mechanisms of
navigation and mass migration. He
has also studied orientation mecha-
nisms in crustaceans and shore and
reef ecology in Florida and the Ba-
hamas. The author of several sci-
entific articles, Dr. Herrnkind re-
ceived his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
from the University of Miami.
CD. Darlington, the author of
"The Origins of Agriculture," has
been Sherardian Professor of Bot-
any at Oxford University, keeper of
the Botanic Gardens, and fellow of
Magdalen College since 1953. For
fifteen years previously he was di-
rector of the John Innes Horticul-
tural Institution. He became a fel-
low of the Royal Society in 1941,
was awarded its Royal Medal in
1946, and was president of the Brit-
ish Genetical Society from 1943 to
1946. Professor Darlington has
written many well-known books on
genetics, cytology, and evolution,
the latest of which is The Evolution
of Man and Society, to be pub-
lished by Simon and Schuster later
this year. He was also a founder of
the journal Heredity.
The second part of "East is a Big
Bird" by Thomas Gladwin exam-
ines the complex system of naviga-
tion devised by the Puluwatans. Co-
author of "Truk: Man in Paradise"
and Mental Subnormality : Biolog-
ical, Psychological and Cultural
Factors, and the author of Poverty
U.S.A. as well as many other works,
Dr. Gladwin has done extensive
field research in Truk (Micronesia,
1947) and Puluwat (1967).
treasons
why you should read
psychology today
1 Why words are the least important of the ways we communicate with each other.
2 The sexual reason behind the popularity of natural childbirth.
3 Why political leaders are constantly in danger of insanity.
4 Why Asians make better politicians than Westerners.
5 Do men need more recreation than women?
6 What kind of parents do hippies make?
7 Why it may be time to end the taboo against incest.
8 The inferiority feelings of men who seek corporate power.
9 What the schizophrenic is trying to tell us.
10 Are campus activists rebelling against the system-or their parents?
1 1 What your daydreams reveal about your ethnic background.
12 Why do swingers tend to become impotent?
13 Is it time to grant the right to commit suicide?
14 Does a child think before he can talk?
15 Why are today's students attracted to violence?
16 Are "hawks" sexually repressed?
17 Are some men born criminals?
Want to learn what modern psychology
has learned about people? Including you?
Until recently, that was quite an order. Your choice would have been to plow
through professional journals. Read weighty new books as quickly as they
came out. Or trust the mass media-where psychology is often sensational-
ized, distorted, oversimplified.
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY has changed all that
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY is a new magazine that enables the educated layman
to catch up with the social sciences. And keep up. With full coverage of all
the different approaches to understanding the human condition. The view-
points range from hard-core Freudianism to the newer behaviorists who,
frankly, think Freud was all wet.
It's psychology the way you'd want it to be presented. Excitingly. Without
tired jargon. No cliche-ridden definitions. And with contributions by many of
the most famous names in the behavioral sciences-like Bruno Bettelheim,
Kenneth B. Clark, Rollo May, Ashley Montagu, Carl Rogers and B. F. Skinner.
Send for a complimentary issue
You can find out what PSYCHOLOGY TODAY is like-and
learn a few things you may never have known before—
without paying a penny. If you mail the coupon, we'll send
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psychobgytoday
P.O. Box 2990, Boulder, Colorado 80302
Please send me my complimentary current issue of PSYCHOLOGY
TODAY. I may keep my sample copy and owe nothing. However,
unless I cancel, you may enroll me as a trial subscriber and send
me the next 11 issues. Bill me after my subscription has started
for just $6.00, my special Introductory rate-instead of the regular
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(Please Pnnl)
.-J
7
Lelters lo the Editor
Thermal Pollution
Richard B. Klein"? "Bananas in Ver-
mont"' ■\va? interesting reading, but
his treatment of the Atomic Energy
Commission and -ivhat he calls lack of
attention to imaginative solutions for
the thermal pollution problem is
hardly fair. He implies that if there
were no nuclear plants in ^ ermont.
there would be no thermal pollution
problems. The difference in the pol-
luting capacity of fossil plants and
nuclear plants is not worth getting
excited about if both stay within the
restrictions already set by the Federal
Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration. In any case, and unfortu-
nately, the law does not give AEC or
the Federal Power Commission au-
thority to regulate hot water dis-
charges from power plants. Never-
theless, the AEC is working hard on
ways to reduce thermal pollution. The
advent of higher temperature and
thus more efficient reactor plants
(High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reac-
tors. Liquid-Metal-Cooled Breeder
and Molten-Salt Breeder), due to go
onstream in the next decade, will pro-
vide thermal efficiencies at least as
good as the best fossil burners. But
all of us must accept the fact that
thermal pollution of air or water is
going to continue to be a problem as
long as electricity is generated —
whether from fossil fuel or nuclear
fuel since it is an absolutely in-
escapable by-product.
We at the Oak Ridge National Lab-
oratory have been working (for AEC
and HUD I on ways to utilize heat
and reduce heat discharge to streams
for nearly two years. Our work has
examined benefloial uses of waste
heat, such as de-salting water, recy-
cling sewage and waste water, heating
and cooling cities, heating and cool-
ing large food production facilities
(greenhouses, poultry houses, fish
culture ponds, etc.). Several of these
applications appear attractive in spe-
cial situations (such as Vermont's).
They are all technically feasible —
even banana culture — hut they are
not likely to provide much abatement
unless implemented on a very large
scale, because the quantities of heat
are so large. Capital outlay require-
ments are great enough to be prob-
lems in organization, finance and op-
eration. For example, the heat re-
quirements of greenhouses at Bur-
lington. \ ermont. assuming 30°F. be-
low zero air temperature, would be
only about 2.5 Mw(tli) per acre. The
relatively small Vermont Yankee 514-
Mw(el station could heat a 400-acre
range and could produce maybe 100
million pounds of vegetables each
year — enough to supply every person
in \ ermont with 250 pounds per year.
Such quantities would either present
a great sales opportunity or be a hor-
rible marketing problem, depending
on your point of view.
So we must explore problems
which may not be apparent at first
glance: the needs of a particular
area: reliability of service: load fac-
tors: the cost of delivering the heat at
different temperatures: the economics
of vegetable, poultry, and fish culture
in controlled environments for hun-
dreds of acres of food-growing oper-
ations. \\ e are optimistic about the
outcome and firmly believe that the
heat can be used profitably, but we
feel that these and other related prob-
lems need to be studied more thor-
oughly before we claim that we can
solve the waste heat problem.
More generally, we are convinced
that the central problem is to get the
waste heat transferred to the atmo-
sphere (where it is subsequently radi-
ated to outer space) with the least
perturbation to the biosphere. This
criterion underlies the FWPCA water
temperature guidelines and also our
efforts in aquatic ecology, cooling
towers, and the like.
Finallv. vour readers might be in-
terested to know that tlie concern of
an increasing number of scientists is
the change in planetary heat balance
apparently being brought about by
the additions of COj ("greenhouse
heating effect" I and particulate mat-
ter ("higher albedo cooling effect")
into the atmosphere, in large measure
from emissions of fossil-fueled power
plants.
Sam E. Beall, Jr.
Director, Reactor Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Do Cows Sleep or Not?
In "The Evolution of Sleep." Feb-
ruary. 1970. it was stated that those
"familiar with various farmyard spe-
cies of domesticated ungulates cannot
recall having seen one of them lying
do\vn ^vith eyes closed, obviously
asleep."
Our neighbor's ponies are seen ly-
ing down in their pasture, obviously
asleep. our neighbor"s pigs are lying
down obviously asleep, our neighbor's
riding horses are seen lying down ob-
viously asleep, and our own cows
seem to be lying down much of the
time either w-hen they are in the barn
or in tlieir small pasture area. They
certainly would appear to be asleep
as they are most difficult to arouse
sometimes, and one especially does
quite a bit of snoring.
Hoard's Dairyman magazine of
Fort Atkinson. Wisconsin, recently
published an article on whether cows
slept. I forget exactly what the article
concluded, but I thought it said that
cows slept. At any rate. I would insist
that our cows sleep. And several older
people have stated that they never
saw a horse lie down to sleep: but
perhaps a workhorse was keyed to his
master's footsteps and would rise be-
fore his master got there, either ex-
pecting to be fed or to be harnessed;
but 1 see lots of horses lying down.
Mrs. Robert Hildebrandt
Marshall, JTisconsin
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City
A glimpse of national parks in revolutionary Cuba
M
y immediate purpose in visit-
Cuba recently was to min-
ister to the religious needs of Ha-
vana's Jewish community, which
had been without a rabbi for a
number of years. But at the same
time, I intended to learn as much as I
could about a society that is ex-
perimenting radically in so many
areas: and as a conservationist, I
was especially curious about Cuba's
policy and practice with regard to
parks and recreation areas, such as
beaches.,
Cuba — whose population is now
estimated to approach eight mil-
lion— has more than 2,000 miles of
coastline, and this includes some
extraordinary beaches. The first ex-
cursion of my seven-week stay on
the island was to the beach at Santa
byEverenGendler
Maria del Mar, which lies a half
hour's drive east of Havana. (My
transportation was provided by
ICAP, the government agency that
looks after foreign visitors to the is-
land.) The golden sand of Santa
Maria del Mar is some twenty
yards wide, extends for more than a
mile, and is bordered by a sizable
planting of pine trees. I was struck
not only by the physical beauty of
the place but also by the public bus
stops posted at frequent intervals
along the road paralleling the beach
and by the people emerging from
the buses. I noticed, too, that the
apartment and hotel facilities near
the part of the beach I used did not
impede access to it.
Although it was early October
and, by Cuban standards, not prime
«-«.
Monument to the island's
aborigines, at left, stands in
Zapata Peninsula National
Park, not far from the
Bay of Pigs.
Above, a postrevolutionary
teachers" school in the
wilderness of the Sierra
Escambrav National Park.
beach time, there was a sprinkling
of people all along tlie water,
among them a fair number of
blacks. Talking with the bathers at
random. I discovered that one
couple, retired, were living rather
modestly on their savings: another
group comprised a working man
and his family on off-season vaca-
tion: still another, workers off for
the day. Unlike many beaches of
the Caribbean, this was not the ex-
clusive domain of the affluent and
of tourists. It was quite clearly pub-
lic property'. Some 11.000 shower
and locker facilities in the area
were available for general use at
hardly any cost.
The famous Varadero Beach, a
twelve-mile stretch of superb white
sand about two hours west of Ha-
vana, exhibited some of the same
characteristics. The International
Hotel — a well-kept, prerevolution-
ary structure that represents the
maximum of comfort presently avail-
able at Varadero — was at this off-
season time mostly filled with tour-
ists (East Germans and East Euro-
peans, plus a few British, French,
and Italians I . On the beach, how-
ever, the egalitarian mood of Cuba
today could be felt. I met a family
of five from Oriente Province who
were spending; a week in a rented
house not far from the hotel. Their
house, which included a living room,
terrace, kitchen, bathroom, and two
bedrooms, cost about $80 ( pesos I
for the week; according to the family
(the father was a mechanic), a va-
cation in a place like this is within
the financial range of many Cuban
working-class families.
How so? The island's minimum
monthly wage is only .S85. It is true
that the basic necessities of life
are inexpensive. Rent cannot exceed
10 percent of what the man of the
house earns; medical care is free;
education is free ; and the children —
300.000 of them at any rate — are
given free school lunches. In addi-
tion more than half of the students
receive full board, housing, and
clothing. Rationed food is also com-
paratively inexpensive I eggs 4 cen-
tavos each, milk 20 centavos a liter,
rice 5 centavos a pound I . Still, hoA\
can a working-class family afford to
spend something like a month's
wages to rent a beach house for a
week? The answer, my informant
told me, is that, increasingly, all
adult members of a family work — a
growing number of day-care centers
provide for the children while the
mother is away — and so a family
can draw on more than one salary.
My informant assured me that va-
cations such as he was enjoying
with his family were quite common.
Later when I asked the driver of
my car about the \ acation homes of
Varadero and those who used them,
he took me for a tour of se\eral
miles along the beach, where there
were hundreds of homes like the
one I had seen. He remarked at
points along the way that they
"used to be closed to us blacks."
Poor people, he said, couldn't get
near these beach areas. But now, he
went on, "I can bring my wife here
for a week, just like anybody else.
So what do you think of our revolu-
tion?" Whatever else I may have
thought about their revolution, I
observed wherever I went in Cuba
a use of the beach by local resident?
far exceeding anything I lia\e seen
on other Caribbean islands.
Once back in Havana. I went to
the National Institute of Tourism
(INITl to find out more about the
government's beacii policies. I was
told that major goals are pres-
ervation of the beauty of the
beaches and assurance that ihey be
maximally available to residents of
Cuba; a secondary policy is to en-
courage the use of beaciies by tour-
ists to the island.
I learned that beacli \acation
homes owned by people wlio leave
Cuba become state propcrtx. Own-
ers of beach property who remain
in Cuba are allowed to retain title
to one beach home if they had
owned it before the revolution. I
did. in fact, meet two families who
owned their beach houses as before.
The state-owned beach houses are
now available to families as vaca-
tion rental units, with stays limited
to two weeks during the summer
season of peak demand. There are
also arrangements available for sev-
eral families to share room and
board, as well as facilities for single
persons. All prices are fixed and res-
Tlie rock-humped land of
Vinales Valley in Pinar del
Rio province is used
by both farmers and hikers.
ervations are controlled by INIT.
which reports space for some
10.000 persons at Varadero alone.
Besides the residence facilities at
Varadero. there are many addi-
tional units along the north coast
between Santa Maria del Mar and
Jibacoa. and the latter has extensive
camping facilities directly on the
beach.
The expanded day-use of beaches
since the revolution is indicated by
the newly constructed locker and
shower facilities, refreshment and
restaurant areas, and children's
playgrounds. I saw these at Ji-
bacoa. Siboney ( Oriente Province I ,
and in Havana. All are unobtru-
sively located near but not on the
beach and the architecture struck
me as handsome and spare. In Ha-
vana I also visited three formerly
private beach clubs that are now
open to the public.
Construction near the beaches
has not been extensive: year-round
housing and basic industrial devel-
opment have first claim on the is-
land's scarce construction re-
sources. What will happen in the
future? I was told that INIT has
the authority, in consultation with
the Central Planning Board (JUCE-
PLAN ) . to pass on construction
projects near beaches. Depending,
of course, on the taste and sensi-
tivity of the planners, there is a
chance that Cuba might be spared
the unsightly, sprawling, and ulti-
mately destructive "developments"
that currently disfigure so many
Caribbean beaches.
H
"he Cossums arent trying to save the Avorld.
ust a little piece of it.
Lester Davis is a friendly, dark-
ed little boy whose smile can light
an entire room. But for most of
! six years, he hasn't had much to
lile about.
Lester lives in Laurel Creek, an
)palachian town of 200 people in
:ounty with a per capita income
S557 a year. Like most of the
ler people of Laurel Creek, Lester
es in a three-room weatherboard
use, along with his mother and
her and nine brothers and sisters,
ley have no well, and of course no
;ide plumbing. So Lester's mother,
pssie, carries all the family water
Irom the nearby creek.
Lester's father, Ray, used to work
the coal mines, but since the
nes "played out" he's been unem-
)yed. As Tressie admits, "It's aw-
hard going. We never could get
a good start before." They still
luldn't have a "start" if it weren't
■ the Cossum family.
Ed and Martha Cossum live in
suburban community of contem-
rary homes. Looking out back you
1 see one of those large, above-
ground plastic
swimming pools.
And you can see
the beginnings of
■ a redwood deck
around the pool,
b ^''S^ which Ed and his
^^^^ two children, Bill
jm:m''mKnmw-J- and Carol, are
ilding themselves.
Ed is a systems analyst. He
3nds most of his day thinking
out third generation computers,
rtunately, Ed and Martha also
nk about this generation of chil-
3n living in Appalachia.
Through Save The Children
deration, the Cossums are helping
sums' money to buy and feed two
cows, then sell the calves as they
come along. As Mr. Davis says, "A
man likes to find ways to take care
of his own family."
Already there is a new feeling
The Cossums know they can't
save the world for $15 a month.
Only a little piece of it. But maybe
that is the way to save the world, if
enough people care. How about you?
Save The Children Federation,
. oave 1 lie \^[iiiurcii rcueraiiun
of hope in the Davis family, and con- founded in 1932, is registered with the
fidence and pride in their ability to
help themselves.
That really is what Save The
U.S. State Department Advisory Com-
mittee on Voluntary Foreign Aid.
Financial statements on request.
Children is all about. Although con- National Sponsors (partial list)
.ributions are deductible as a char- St"*.tT.tSt^'^S,,
ity, the aim is not merely to buy one ^^^^ f^^jjy^ ^„ £,,• ^-jjy^
child a new pair of overalls or a Paul Newman, Mrs. J. C.Pennej
warm coat. Instead, your contribu- Norman Rockwell, Frank Sinat
tion is used to give people
a little boost to start helping
ster and his family. They contrib- themselves.
5 $ 1 5 a month. Though it's not a
: of money, the Cossums could
Dbably have done a lot of other
ings with it.
The Cossums' contribution will
made available to the Davises
t as a gift, or charity, but as a loan.
1 interest-free loan which Lester's
Sponsors are desper-
ately needed for other
Appalachian children and
American Indian children,
as well as children in Korea,
Vietnam, Latin America,
Africa and Greece.
As a sponsor you will
ve The Children Federation
NORWALK, CONNECTICUT 06852
I WISH TO CONTRIBUTE $180 ANNUALLY TO HELP A CHILD.
a WHERE THE NEED IS GREATEST D LATIN AMERICA
D AMERICAN INDIAN Q APPALACHIA O KOREA Q GREECE
D VIETNAM n AFRICA
ENCLOSED IS MY FIRST PAYMENT
a $15.00 MONTHLY Q $45.00 QUARTERLY
a $90.00 SEMI-ANNUALLY D $180.00 ANNUALLY
I CANT SPONSOR A CHILD. ENCLOSED IS A CONTRIBUTION
0F$
D PLEASE SEND ME MORE INFORMATION.
ther can borrow to begin a self- receive a photo and history
Ip project.
Mr. Davis already has a project
mind. He plans to use the Cos-
of the child, progress re-
ports and a chance to cor-
respond.
CONTRIBUTIONS ARE INCOME TAX DEDUCTIBLE nH 5/0
with its abundance of flora
and fauna and sunny temperate
climate all year round must
be added to your travel ex-
perience.
The Protea
of which there are over 400
species, as well as more than
16,000 species of South African
flora, including genera found
only in South Africa, are pro-
tected in numerous nature reserves.
The Kirstenbosch Gardens on the
slopes of Table Mountain, unique
in its devotion to indigenous
flora, ranks as one of the world's
major botanical gardens.
Tours for botanists, nature
lovers, birdwatchers and keen
photographers, visiting South
African gardens, nature reserves,
the forests along the Cape Garden
Route and the sub-tropical Natal
Coast, are available at your
travel agent. With regular depart-
ures from New York, all inclusive
tours range from $1,700 approx.
for 21 days to $3,470 for 48 days.
For further information write to
S A T 0 U R
SOUTH
AFRICAN
TOURIST
CORPORATION
New York: 610 Fifth Avenue,
New York, N.Y. 10020
Los Angeles: 721 Wilshire
Beverly Centre, 9465 Wilshire
Blvd., Beverly Hills, Cal. 90212
Canada: 2 St. Clair Avenue W.,
Toronto 195, Ontario.
The Big Board:
spring planting is charted
for a greenbeh of
citrus trees, sugar cane,
bean and coffee plants
near Havana.
One other thing I saw on Cuba's
coast — a sobering sight — should be
mentioned. At several places be-
tween Havana and Matanzas there
were oil derricks. Fortunately^ they
were not situated near the good
beach areas nor were they located
offshore (no Santa Barbara yet) .
They do. however, represent pros-
pecting for petroleum deposits near
the shoreline.
Since the economic blockade im-
posed by the United States. Cuba
has been importing nearly all her
oil from the Soviet bloc. Of the al-
most five million tons of fuel oil
consumed in Cuba in a recent year,
only 113.000 tons were produced
domestically. Given the Cuban effort
to mechanize agriculture and de-
velop some industry, fuel consump-
tion is likely to continue to rise and
the search for local petroleum de-
posits will continue. One only hopes
that no significant deposits lie near
Santa Maria del Mar or Varadero.
The areas of Cuba officially des-
ignated as national parks are. for
the most part, in mountain terrain,
some of it difficult to reach. Accord-
ing to the most recent (1968)
official map of Cuba, there are
seven parks in all: four in Oriente
Province, one in Las Villas, and
two in Pinar del Rio Province. In
some respects the parks are much
like our own — beautiful, largely un-
touched terrain, with perhaps some
small areas devoted to recreational
facilities or simple accommodations.
There are. however, differences.
Two of the Cuban national parks,
the Sierra Maestra and the Sierra
Escambray. include within their
boundaries teacher-training in-
stitutes of impressive size. The one
I \ isited. Topes de Collantes in the
Sierra Escambray park, was former-
ly a private sanitorium. Since the
revolution, it has been enlarged and
more than 7.000 students are now
in residence, plus another thousand
or so teachers, administrators, and
construction workers. Although not
what one would expect to find in a
national park, the development has
not obliterated a sense of the natu-
ral surroundings, whose ruggedness
is felt throughout the institute.
Why a teacher-training institute
in a national park? A member of
the central committee of the Com-
munist party — the central govern-
ing body of Cuba today — explained
that they wish to encourage an ap-
preciation of rural and mountain-
ous settings, and thus develop
teachers ready and eager to serve
outside the cities. He gave other
reasons, too, reasons that explain
why at least two new towns have
O °Q
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Nature photography is second
nature to the Minolta SR-T 101.
Because it's the faster handling
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With the SR-T 101 you never
have to take your
eye away from the
viewfinder to com-
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and shutter speed
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And things al-
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brightest. The
SR-T 101 viewfinder stays bright
because the lens diaphragm stays
open until you shoot.
Our patented through-the-lens
metering system, called the Con-
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and automatically compensates so
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nothing gets overshadowed.
No matter how you look at na-
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of interchangeable meter-coupled
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They range from
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long-range tele-
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Each meter-cou-
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re-aligning aper-
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The MC Rokkor 200mm f/3.5
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been placed on the periphery of na-
tional parks.
In Oriente Province, the Sierra
Cristal National Park has at its
edge, in addition to a historical site
(the Frank Pais Second Front
Command Headquarters of the re-
cent revolutionary struggle ) . the
new town of Mayari Arriba. Here a
nucleus of some 7,000 inhabitants
serves as a center for some 30.000
other people who reside in the sur-
rounding area. Mayari Arriba is
complete with new housing units,
shops, schools, medical facilities, a
Circulo Infantil ( day-care center
for children under five years old),
a public auditorium, a playground
with rides, and a movie theater. The
town represents part of the govern-
ment's attempt to redress rural-ur-
ban imbalance by creating attrac-
tive living conditions outside cities
(and by building teacher-training
institutes there) .
The other new. park-bordering
town I visited is San Andres, situ-
ated on the boundary of Los Or-
ganos National Park in Pinar del
Rio Province. As with Mayari Ar-
riba, there is a concerted effort to
bring urban attractions to an un-
derpopulated region.
How will these attractions affect
the natural beauty of the parks?
The member of the central com-
mittee to Avhom I addressed this
question responded as follows: the
new towns are at the edges of
parks, not within them. The towns
are carefully planned not to
disfigure the natural surroundings:
buildings are low. the environs re-
main for the most part untouched.
Areas of the parks that were badly
exploited in prerevolutionary times
are benefiting from the govern-
ment's massive reforestation pro-
gram. (Nearly 330 million trees,
not including citrus, were planted
on the island between 19.59 and
1965, and since then the rate of
planting has increased four to five
times.) In addition, he said, set-
tlements at the borders of national
parks means that they will enjoy
greater human use. Finally, the
roads that make a park area acces-
sible cannot be limited to recrea-
tional use at this stage of Cuba's
struggle to get beyond the state of
underdevelopment. To be econom-
ical, a road must also serve resettle-
ment and development.
i8
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My reaction to these arguments
was colored by the experience of
overdevelopment and overaccessibil-
ity here in the United States. I often
found myself trying to communicate
these dangers to Cubans, but they
saw such problems as a long way off:
'Underdevelopment isn't overcome
that quickly, compaiiero!" Mean-
while, they delight in a road that
opens up an isolated area, for to
them this represents a further im-
provement of the circumstances in
i\"hich people live.
One of the most beautiful of
Cuba's national parks is the one on
Zapata Peninsula in a swamp area
not far from Playa Giron ( the Bay
of Pigs I . The Zapata Peninsula Na-
tional Park, which includes turtle
and crocodile hatcheries, is part of
a major project in which canals
were dredged and sided, wind-
breaks of pines were planted, and
at the side of the Laguna del Tesoro
( Treasure Lagoon I , an entire vaca-
tion settlement, Guama, was con-
structed. Guama was built solely
from local materials. For example,
majagua was used for the exterior
walls of the thatched-roof restau-
rant, mahogany for the floors, bam-
boo for the interior walls and a cir-
Piiie plantings wall canals
of the Zapata Peninsula
park, formerly swampland.
cular staircase, wicker for lamps,
and local pottery for dishes and
ashtrays.
There are attractive and comfort-
able cabanas for lodging, rowboats
for locomotion, a children's play-
ground, a swimming pool, an in-
door museum of indigenous culture,
and a small island devoted entirely
to rather touching statues of the
Siboney, the earliest inhabitants of
Cuba, who arrived from South
America about 2,000 B.C. I was re-
minded of the newly mounted dis-
play of indigenous life and artifacts
at the Bacardi Museum in Santiago
de Cuba, showing an interest —
reflected also in speeches of Pre-
mier Castro — in establishing and
maintaining contact with the memo-
ries of Cuba's early inhabitants
even while modernization receives
the major social emphasis.
I was struck by one other feature
of Guama. To reach the cabins re-
quires a 40-minute ride by motor
launch from the entry point to the
canals, and the dock itself is some
miles inside the park. Hence Guama
is remarkably quiet: no automo-
biles anywhere and no traffic noise,
not even from afar.
Cuba at this point appears to be
treating her recreational facilities
and park resources with some con-
sideration. There is, moreover, a
program of nature-oriented activi-
If you could shoot on both sides of this fence
you could make better movies.
Sit down at X and we'll show you why.
All set? Okay. You've brought
a camera along. Any conven-
tional super-8 camera.
This is your picnic. You're go-
ing to bring it back alive.
Shooting it just as it happens.
So, between bites, start pick-
ing shots. Hovj about this
one?
So what can you shoot? See
that fence? It's 4 ft. from your
seat, the closest most conven-
tional cameras can focus. So
you can get any shot— outside
the fence. But nothing but
blurs inside it.
Which brings us to these, the
unconventional Bolex lyiacro-
zoom cameras. They're the
first super-8s that can shoot
on both sides of the fence.
Because they can focus at
least as near— or as far— as
your eyes can.
With these Bolex cameras
you can get any shot you can
see. Including telephoto shots
like this one.
Stop fiddling with the knob.
He's just 2 ft. from the lens.
You'll never get him in focus.
And if you snap on the free
little tvlultitrix attachment, you
can title on location, like this.
Maybe this would work? SVz
ft. away? Nope. Still too blurry.
This tiny visiting frog? If you
could locus within inches
you'd get him big enough to
see. But you've got a conven-
tional camera.
The Bolex 160-with power
zoom and single-frame re-
lease—and the Bolex 155
focus from one inch of the
lens to infinity. Handheld.
Without attachments. The 7.5
does the same thing from 5
inches, like this.
Shoot stills. Shoot— and dis-
solve through— a slide. Make
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ties run by the Union de Pioneros
Cubanos, the Cuban Communist
scouting movement, in which al-
most every school child partici-
pates. The Pioneros place heavy
emphasis on matters of con-
servation.
Still I doubt that we shall ever
see in Cuba a national-park policy
ivith great stress on the pres-
ervation of wilderness as such,
"Multiple use." to borrow from our
own vocabulary, strikes me as the
more likely tendency.
At first I was troubled by this.
Yet on reflection it does seem that
the stage of a country's devel-
opment must be given weight in
evaluating its conservation policies.
Where resources are very limited:
where immediate human needs are
very pressing: and where, as in
Cuba, much effort is being ex-
pended in reforestation, replanting,
and repairing the ravages of former
practices, multiple use may mean
something different from what it
usually means here.
But what will be the effect of
Cuba's drive to develop industry
and mechanize agriculture? To re-
lieve men of physical exertion un-
der a scorching Caribbean sun is
understandable, indeed commend-
able. At the same time, coming from
a society where labor-saving devices
and so-called conveniences are in-
creasingly assisting our alienation
from nature while threatening to
bury us alive with waste, I find my-
self wondering: Will the Cubans,
too. fall prey to "progress" and "de-
velopment"?
It seems to me that the question
of parks and recreational facilities
transcends political boundaries. All
of us. whatever our nation or politi-
cal system, must deplore the misuse
anywhere of the natural resources
entrusted to us for transmission to
future generations. Equally, we can
take heart from their wise, consid-
erate use. I, for one. hope that con-
ditions will soon permit a full and
free exchange of observation and
insight between Cubans and other
citizens of the Western Hemisphere.
Despite our different situations,
such exchanges could contribute
much to our mutual understanding.
As fellow citizens of this planet, the
use and abuse of parks and recrea-
tional facilities is a concern we all
share. ■
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The Peterson Field Guide Series is spon-
sored by the National Audubon Society and
the National Wildlife Federation. Copies
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HOUGHTON MIFFLIN
COMPANY, Publishers
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THEY'LL DIE
unless you and we help them. They'll
Die— and thousands more like them
of many different species will die—
unless money is made available to
finance ihe'many requests from East
Africa's National Parks, Research Or-
ganizations and Game Departments.
During 1969 we funded conserva-
tion projects amounting to $74,500 in
Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. We
need your continued support to com-
bat the increasing menace of extinc-
tion for many species of wild animal,
by making a donation or by joining
the Society.
Membership of the Society will cost
you $10 annually. For this you receive
our quarterly magazine "Africana"
and are entitled to buy our ties, car
badges, brooches and cufflinks.
Christmas cards. Calendars, wild life
prints and the Scientific Journal are
available to all.
The wild life of East Africa is now
a world responsibility, shared by ev-
eryone. It is enjoyed by tens of thou-
sands of visitors each year. Help us
to see that millions will continue to
enjoy if.
EAST AFRICAN
WILD LIFE
SOCIETY
P.O. Box 20110, Nairobi, Kenya.
East Africa.
Please enroll me as a member.
I enclose S
Name
Address
N.H.
A Naturalist at Large
Dy John Eastman
Sometimes the lives of our animal
brethren on this planet look like
pretty settled business to us. Natu-
ral history is an establishment, and
as such emphasizes history more
than nature. Each known and stud-
ied species goes about achieving its
reproduction, food, and shelter in
precise and structured ways, ac-
cording to what appear to be its
own "laws" of instinct and survival.
All we need do is to observe these
behaviors and locate the creature's
environmental slot; then we can
define its adaptations and, with
little fuss, write its biography. Oc-
casional variations from the norm
seem nowhere near as significant as
the definitive pattern itself; so bi-
ologists often tend to rate the "ab-
normal" (when they don't ignore it
entirely ) as an inferior concern of
serious study.
Still, those forms and behaviors
most conveniently labeled abnormal
deserve better of biology than
they've received. Because this sci-
ence, if any, is truly the study of
becoming, of life always moving —
to change, dead end, or blossom.
Evolution occurs by abnormal
adaptations, by way-out devel-
opments and strange pioneers. Cer-
tain ancestors of every living spe-
cies appeared quite abnormal, no
doubt, in the company of their nor-
mal, but now extinct, peers.
In man's realm, too, the tendency
to limit life's expressions to the fa-
miliar is an old story. New inven-
tions christened by horselaugh, new
music hooted, new ideas banned and
new heretics of every threatening
persuasion lit. hatcheted. and shot.
The fear of allowing anything new
is plainly documented in our own
natural history.
While recognizing these tenden-
cies, we are nonetheless curious
about the future. The only way we
may be able to preview where many
organisms are biologically headed
is by taking a second look at these
"outlaws" — just as we might antici-
pate what our grandchildren may
consider stuffy and proper by ob-
serving what is bizarre about our
children today.
Nowhere does truth blaze wilder
than fiction than in the natural
world. Exceptions to all sorts of
rules abound in front of our eyes.
Of course, the unusual things wit-
nessed may not weigh equally in
terms of plotting the long-range fu-
ture of a species — few scientists
would hazard predictions from one
or two instances — but these devia-
tions may tell us something about
an organisms capacities, its pos-
sible ability to adapt. They can
teach us respect for variation, and
they can teach us to keep our eyes
open, even in the most mundane
and predictable circumstances of
observation.
A good place to observe what
many biological outlaws are doing
is in the biological journals. Biolo-
gists who concentrate on a few, pos-
sibly only one, species are well
trained to report their observations
in precise, scientific terms. That's
different from the neighbor down
the block telling us about a "crazy
robin" or a "tame squirrel." In al-
most every issue of the quarterly
journals, scientists add to the out-
law records. The frequent appear-
ance of oddities and curiosities in
these journals is more often a by-
product than a result of serious re-
search. It's simply a matter of con-
scientious habit to get them recorded
in the literature. And the best part
of it for those interested in strange
animal tales, is that these reports can
be trusted.
Take just one area of biological
investigation: ornithology. Several
old and excellent journals devote
themselves exclusively to birds.
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"Excellent, exciting, and
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These include The Wilson Bulletin,
The Auk, The Condor, and Bird-
Banding, among others. Various
smaller journals, such as The Jack-
Pine Warbler of my own state
Audubon Society (Michigan), al-
though always cramped budgetwise,
have nevertheless achieved an es-
teem that far transcends their lim-
ited circulations. Some of the most
conscientious researchers in the
country publish in these small jour-
nals, receiving no payment; indeed,
they usually pay for their own re-
prints, since the publications are,
more often than not, precariously
funded. But they maintain rigorous
standards, and their additions to
scientific literature are monuments
to the loving care of scholarship.
In looking for reports of way-out
things in some of these journals, I
found an item about turkey vultures
(Cathartes aura). Some creatures
possess more power over human
feelings than others, and the turkey
vulture is a bird that claims this
power. It demonstrates the capacity
to arouse epithets like "disgusting
habits," "foul," and "hideous,"
mostly from nature writers who
lack any real respect for nature.
While all of us may share some vis-
ceral feelings toward vultures, I
don't know of anyone who isn't fas-
cinated by them. Though vultures
are members of the raptor tribe,
most of them, unlike hawks and
eagles, are scavengers, carrion eat-
ers unable to kill prey. A great
deal of keen observation (although
not nearly enough) has been fo-
cused on these huge birds, and their
necrophagous behavior has, no
doubt, accounted for much of the
interest. The facts seemed clear-cut
until Helmut C. Mueller and Daniel
D. Berger witnessed a turkey vul-
ture killing and eating a house
sparrow (Passer domesticus) . Al-
though the sparrow was tethered
near a mist-net (restricting its mo-
tions), the basic significance of the
observation, as reported in The
Auk, was important. Turkey vul-
tures can, if only in special circum-
stances, kill prey. That's something
new, something to watch.
Vultures surprise us in other
ways, too. In Nature (a British
journal not restricted to ornithol-
ogy), Jan and Hugo van Lawick-
Goodall came up with a start-
ling observation on Egyptian vul-
tuies {Neophron percnopterus) .
These birds, according to the two in-
vestigators, use stones as tools for
opening ostrich eggs.
It may be that tool-using behav-
ior by vertebrates other than man
isn't as rare as zoologists once
thought. Every year more species
are added to this particular list.
Among the latest is the brown-
headed nuthatch iSitta pusilla) as
reported by Douglass H. Morse in
The Wilson Bulletin of June. 1968.
These small forest birds remove
pine bark scales and use them as
wedges in prying up other random
bark scales; then forage upon the
newly exposed surfaces for insects.
Morse thinks that tool use among
the birds he observed is a local
characteristic only and not a trait
of the species at large. But once
again, we see adaptive capacities
demonstrated, a specific finding
that enlarges the picture and gives
other observers chances to zero in
and learn more.
Among outdoor professionals fire
is a dirty word, and has been for a
long time. It's easy to see why; but
it's also plain that the peculiar ana-
thema of fire owes much to propa-
ganda preached over the years by
foresters, who. after all. have no
more money to burn than the rest
of us. From the economic aspect,
fire remains a dirty word indeed.
Ecologically, however, a whole
new area of research involving fire
is opening up. The findings are, in
many cases, not as surprising as
our massive scientific ignorance of
the subject. American Indians knew
the uses of fire on land, and at least
one bird species, the Kirtland's
warbler (Dendroica kirllandii) . has
apparently evolved dependency
upon a periodic conflagration for
renewal of its jack-pine nesting
habitat.
Now come rather direct hints
that fire, far from wreaking abso-
lute havoc in the environment, was
a force integrated by the ecosystem
millions of years before man came
to witness and fear its capacity to
destroy. To say that fire is not an
unnatural, "outside force" is now
considerably less heretical than it
used to be. Pioneers like Herbert L.
Stoddard and E. V. Komarek in
Georgia have conclusively demon-
strated the beneficial effects of pre-
scribed burning, not only on game
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The moon walk was the most
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SCIEHCE NEWS
YEARBOOK 1970
Compiled and edited by Science Service
Introduction by Glenn T. Seaborg
$9.95 _
Part One: SPACE
Apollo 9 • Apollo 10 • Apollo 11
• Two-way Quarantine •
Scientists and Moon Findings •
Apollo 12: Return to the Moon •
The Soviet Program • Planetary
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Bonnie • The End of MOL •
Other Space Events
Part Two: BIOMEDICINE
Immunology • Molecular Biology
• Genetics • Viruses • Drugs
and Environmental Chemicals
Part Three: EARTH
The Restless Ocean Floors • The
Dynamic Earth • The Oceans •
The Atmosphere • The Earth's
Resources
Part Four: ASTRONOMY
Cosmology • Pulsars •
Gamma-ray and X-ray
Astronomy • Other Planetary
Systems • Molecular Astronomy
• The Solar System
Part Five: PHYSICS
Gravitational Waves • Particle
Physics • Accelerators •
Solid-state Physics: The
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• Plasma Physics • Nuclear
Physics • Fluid Dynamics
Part Six: CHEMISTRY
Nuclear Chemistry • Pesticides
• Pollution: A Problem for
Chemists • Polywater •
Synthetic Food
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ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
Pollution by Numbers • The
Attack on Air Pollution • Water
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Remodeling the Environment
Part Eight:
SCIENCE POLICY
Changing Trends • Congress •
Technology Assessment •
Research Funding and
Education • Administration •
People and Policies
At your bookstore or mail to: Nl-
ICHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
!p'597 Fifth Avenue, New York 10017
Please send me copies of the
SCIENCE NEWS YEARBOOK 1970 at
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-Zip-
Please add city sales lax
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production but on timber as well.
Fire ecology is slowly coming into
its own, both as a habitat-manage-
ment tool and as a rich field for
basic, solid research. If previous
theoretical experience furnishes any
guidelines. Ke may probably expect
to discover many more adaptations
among animals to fire.
A recent note in The Wilson Bul-
letin encourages this expectation.
The observation concerned the re-
sponses to fire of three Illinois
game birds, and it interested me
particularly because I had the brief
good luck to work with the two in-
vestigators during the beginning
phase of their controlled-burn ex-
periments. William R. Edwards and
Jack A. Ellis report that bobwhites
[Colinus virginianus) . mourning
doves iZenaidura rnacroura) . and
American woodcocks ( Philohela mi-
jior) "responded positively" to fire
in their environment. These actions
took the form of calin, deliberate
behavior by the birds; in most
cases they landed and flew close to
the flames without apparent alarm.
In contrast to most of the data,
such observations make us wonder
ho^\' much we really know about
normal behavior. Despite our scare-
oriented conditioning by Bambi
and Smokey the Bear, we have much
to learn about fire and its effects.
Probably no area of bird re-
search has matched the attention
that structural abnormalities re-
ceive in almost every issue of the
journals. Deviations in wings, bills,
feet, and coloration from the spe-
cies norms are easily spotted — and
lucky the observer who spots one,
since, if the deformity isn't too
common, it's usually good for a few
lines in a reputable journal. Usu-
ally these brief notes consist of no
more than a detailed description of
the abnormality and the circum-
stances of observation, but their in-
clusion in scientific journals fur-
nishes a useful, credible record.
After many years of this kind of
cataloguing, ornithologists are now
learning that such structural abnor-
malities aren't that rare in bird
populations. Joseph J. Hickey. in
his classic Guide to Bird Watching,
charts the results of a 1934 banding
program in which 10.000 starlings
were trapped and examined. More
than 5 percent of the birds pos-
sessed deformities, ranging from
clubfeet and swalloAvtails to hooked
bills and partial albinism. Many de-
formities result from accidents, of
course, and the means birds de-
velop to compensate for missing
legs, broken bills, and injured
wings make notable reading in the
journals. But genetic defects may,
as we know, provide new directions
for the operation of natural selec-
tion on the species as a whole — so
that 5 percent of starlings could
represent the most important part
of the starling population in terms
of the long-range health of the spe-
cies (not that we need any more
starlings). And that's why the
strange, the deformed, and the dif-
ferent continue to merit space in the
journals. Such news keeps us alert
to what can happen, and what can
happen, may.
Nevertheless, a reaction is grow-
ing against the profusion of re-
ported abnormalities flooding the
scientific journals. In a recent issue
The annual index for
Natural History, Volume LXXVIII
(January through December 1969)
may be obtained by writing to :
INDEX
American Museum of Natural History
Central Park West at 79th Street
New York, N.Y. 10024
of The Wilson Bulletin, Kenneth C.
Parkes of the Carnegie Museum in
Pittsburgh suggests that the occur-
rence of crossed bills in birds is so
common that observers ought to
stop taking up valuable space in the
journals reporting it. Parkes isn't
likely to win any popularity con-
tests among his peers for that shot.
That he can now make such a sug-
gestion validates the usefulness of
the data, of course, as well as the
space that the data have filled in the
journals. The luxury of clear con-
clusion is hard-won through the
efforts of many; but it is the goal of
all scientific observation.
A big attraction of the journals
is that whatever the biological fu-
ture holds, prophetic hints of it are
likely to show up in their pages
first. Think what a story we could
relate if biologists had been around
to record the abnormalities among
the Eocene avifauna. Maybe our own
far descendants (providing we
leave them any world at all) will be
able to indulge in some really luxuri-
ous conclusions.
V
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Photographs by Lee Boltin
Maya ceramic figure from Campeche, Mexico. (11 inches)
>
Human head
in mouth of jaguar.
ceramic frogmen I.
Vera Cruz. Mexico.
(9 inches )
Z}"-^
iV.,Afcp^
Hunchback
ceramic figure.
fFestern Mexico.
(6y^ inches)
Three views of ha
of ceramic figui
Nayarit, Western Mexic
(28^2 inches oier-al
Before the voyages of Columbus and Cortez made it known to
Europeans in the early part of the sixteenth century,
the area of Mexico and Central America was occupied
')y various peoples — Mayas, Aztecs, Zapotecs, Totonacs, and
inany others. Each of these groups was linguistically
and culturally distinct, but they all were part of and
together formed a larger unit, which we now identify as the
civilization of Middle America, or Mesoamerica.
'c We think of Middle American civilization as something
equivalent to the several early civilizations of the Old World :
Ceramic figure with tall headdress. Vera Cruz, Mexico. (8 inches)
Ancient Egypt, the Near East, or Bronze Age China. Like them,
Middle America was characterized by large, permanently settled
populations living amid impressive productions of art
and architecture, by cities and advanced political systems,
by complex religious and ceremonial organization, and by
thriving markets and wide-ranging commerce.
By 1890, when anthropology as a scientific discipline was
little more than a generation old, the scope of The American
Museum's Department of Anthropology was broadened to
include archeology. Its field research comprised pioneer studies
in the reconstruction of Middle American history. It
began much of the detailed work of filling in the picture of
Mexico's and Central America's cultures, their sequence
and their geographic distribution. This month the Museum's new
Hall of Mexico and Central America opens to the public.
The photographs shown here, from the 128-page book based on
the Hall, are just a token of the Museum's collection,
but they open the way to an appreciation of the great artistic
and creative spirit that animated Middle American civilization.
MIGRATION OF THE
During autumnal mass movements, thousands of
lobsters marcli along the sea bottom in strikingly
straight queues of up to fifty animals each
by William F. Herrnkind
The migrations and mass move-
ments of animals have long in-
fluenced man and stirred his curi-
osity. He has wondered about the
cause and purpose of the periodic
exodus by lemmings and the incred-
ible navigational capabilities of
salmon returning to their home
stream or adult eels returning to
spawn at their birthplace a thou-
sand miles out in the Sargasso Sea.
I, too, have been intrigued by the
appearance overhead of hundreds
of Canada geese in V-formations
and by the swirling masses of
wormlike black elvers in the es-
tuaries near my childhood home.
However, while I had occasionally
reflected on these phenomena, it
was not until 1963 that I began to
direct my scientific research toward
comprehending such events, par-
ticularly one that is, curiously, both
spectacular and virtually unknown.
As a graduate student assistant
working on a bioacoustic research
program at the Institute of Marine
and Atmospheric Science, Univer-
sity of Miami, it was my job one
October day to trace a breakdown
in the underwater cable linking our
hydrophones to The American Mu-
seum's Lerner Marine Laboratory
in Bimini. The installation was lo-
cated on the edge of the Florida
Strait at a depth of 65 feet. Sea
conditions, which had been intoler-
able owing to an autumnal squall,
had improved enough to permit my
co-worker and me to maneuver out
in a skiff to the vicinity of a main
junction in the cable. We donned
SCUBA gear and dropped into the
murky water to begin a search for
the splice box. Particulate matter,
stirred up and held in suspension
by the rough seas, limited under-
water visibility to 15 feet in an area
where it is usually about 100 feet.
Peering through the haze below me
as I sank, I saw what I first be-
lieved to be long, dark furrows or
^vaterlogged timbers lying on the
bottom, but as I dropped farther
they resolved into lines of dozens of
spiny lobsters, Panulirus argus,
marching head to tail in single-file.
I was surprised because this de-
lectable creature is typified by its
sparse numbers in the open sand
areas where we located our acoustic
array. As I settled onto the bottom,
still another column marched stead-
ily by without missing a step. I re-
alized then that I was witnessing a
"crawl," or "crawfish walk," long
known to professional fishermen
and other old salts, but poorly
known and, in some cases, dis-
believed by marine scientists. I first
heard of these mass movements of
thousands of lobsters from biologist
William C. Cummings, who had
witnessed a similar event off Bimini
in 1961. I also realized, as another
column of twenty lobsters went by,
that we would be unable to locate
the splice box in such murky water,
so we spent as much time as pos-
sible studying the lobsters.
These mass, single-file marches
by spiny lobsters are unique, the
only known formation movements
by bottom-living crustaceans. Fur-
thermore, the marches markedly
contradict the established view of
this species' behavior pattern.
Spiny lobsters are nocturnally ac-
A distant, clawless relative
of our Maine lobster, the
spiny lobster lives mainly in
the Caribbean and in the
waters of the Bahamas.
5PINY LOBSTER
tive: they wander about at night to
feed on annelid worms and small
mollusks. but return before day-
break to shelter in crevices on the
reef, under rock ledges, or among
dense fronds of sea whips. Why.
then, do all the lobsters in a region
become active each fall, moving by
day. in formation, over exposed
areas where they are never seen at
other times?
Perhaps the most striking feature
of the mass movements, aside from
the sheer numbers involved, is the
single-file formation, which I call a
queue. Some other crustaceans
travel in more or less definable
groups: fiddler crabs and soldier
crabs form great droves, or herds,
which scour the beach for food at
low tide, while some shrimps aggre-
gate in clusters, or schools. How-
ever, none approach a stable, spa-
tial configuration to match the long,
straight queues of Panuliriis argiis.
All queuing lobsters maintain the
precise course and speed of the
leader and move through turns as
tiiough they were on rails. More
amazing is that all the queues, no
matter how far apart, travel in
equivalent or parallel headings!
Just how do the lobsters organize
themselves into queues, establish
leadership, and maintain forma-
tion? What is the biological
significance of the mass migra-
tions? Where do the migrants come
from and where are they going?
The questions seem endless.
The difficulty of answering them
lies in the necessity of performing
much of the research in the sea at a
relatively unpredictable time, at a
relatively unpredictable location,
under conditions that severely re-
strict visual studies. In studying the
Arctic tern or indigo bunting, at
least we know where they come
from, where they go. and what they
do when they get there I although
we still don't know how they navi-
gate I . After observing that march-
ing horde of spiny lobsters. I felt
irresistibly challenged to discover
their secrets.
At first my lobster research pro-
ceeded slowly since I was com-
mitted to a doctoral research prob-
lem on a distant relative of the
spiny lobster, the fiddler crab. This
doctoral research provided useful
background when I later tackled the
more formidable problem of lobster
migration and orientation.
Other sources of help were the
numerous professional lobstermen.
conservation officers, and skin div-
ers I spoke with, who related their
observations of similar marches in
different regions. In all cases the
general descriptions were similar —
the events took place in the fall af-
ter intense storms and involved
large numbers of lobsters of ap-
proximately the same size, traveling
in long queues. Each queue in a
given march headed in the same
compass bearing, and the compass
bearing was specific to each loca-
tion. The stories told to me also
suggested striking behavior I had
never witnessed myself. For ex-
ample, a fisheries officer from Flor-
ida described a marching column
that extended, with few breaks in
rank, for nearly one-quarter mile:
that would conservatively comprise
one thousand spiny lobsters. Sev-
eral Biminites independently told of
an immense number of lobsters that
wandered into the Bimini Lagoon
and. upon reaching a cul de sac
along the shore, swirled about in a
great mass with many individuals
walking out of the water onto the
beach. During 1969 in Bimini a mi-
gration occurred in which about ten
lobstermen captured an estimated
20.000 lobsters in five days. And
they by no means caught them all,
probably less than 10 percent.
A colorful description of a march
by one Bimini fisherman included
the explanation that the lobsters mi-
grate when they get "the spirit." I
have subsequently found that this is
a valid descriptive term for the in-
ternal state of the animals during
these events. For my first opportun-
ity to observe the persistence of this
spirit I must thank a fellow student
at Miami who called me at one
o'clock one morning to invite me to
witness a mass movement at Boca
Raton. I gathered my diving para-
phernalia and drove up in the wee
hours to get overboard at daybreak.
Sure enough, the columns of lob-
sters were marching alongshore and
were literally piling up at a rock
jetty, which looked from under-
water like a pincushion of anten-
nae. I mainly wanted some undam-
aged live specimens to bring back
to the Marine Institute for study,
but had overlooked bringing my
Constant contact enables all
queue members to walk at the
same speed and in the same
direction, even when the leader
detours around an obstruction.
38
hand nets. A feverish chase ensued,
during which I captured some li%'e
specimens and hauled them back to
a vinyl-lined seawater pool, 15 feet
in diameter. Upon release, a group
formed a queue and marched clock-
wise around the pool almost contin-
uously, day and night, for the next
two weeks. All in all, it was almost
five weeks, and an estimated 500
miles, before the marching activity
halted along the endless migratory
pathway presented by the perimeter
of the circular pool.
D
uring that time I fed the
lobsters and attempted to induce
them to enter a concrete block shel-
ter. However, they would eat only
for brief periods interspersed with
marching and would not take up
residence in the shelters. This
matches the behavior exhibited by
lobsters while marching in the sea.
There, certain members of a file
stop occasionally and grasp such
objects as starfish and small sea cu-
cumbers, then move on, eating as
they march. Columns also cluster
under rock ledges for some minutes,
as many as 200 in a 10 cubic
foot space, with groups continually
forming and moving off as others
arrive. All these actions are in
strong contrast to the responses of
both captive and wild lobsters at
other times, when feeding lasts much
longer and the shelters are inhabited
through the daylight hours.
The extraordinary behavior of
captive migrating lobsters under
artificial conditions suggests that
their "spirit" is a modified internal
state, or drive, responsible for the
maintenance of the migratory activ-
ity. It might be likened to the inter-
nal processes that cause birds to be-
come restless at the time of
migration, a condition termed Zu-
gunruhe. In some birds Zugunruhe
is brought on by a modification of
the hormonal system, the result of
changes in day length or, more sim-
ply, photoperiod. Thus, as fall days
shorten and nights lengthen in the
North Temperate Zone, changes in
birds' internal processes are mani-
fested as a general increase in activ-
ity and a tendency to fly southward.
A similar Zugunruhe occurs in the
spring increase of photoperiod, but
brings on a tendency to fly north-
ward. The seasonal nature of the
mass movements by spiny lobsters,
and the continuous hyperactivity of
captive specimens, suggests control
by some internal process brought on
previously by environmental changes
associated with autumn.
The autumnal storms always re-
ported to precede the marches
seemed a strong possibility at first
as a cause of the internal changes.
But present evidence suggests that
this is not so. Violent storms also
occur at other times of year — par-
ticularly in the winter, spring, and
in association with summer hurri-
canes and tropical depressions — but
marches have been reported only
during the September through No-
vember period. And, in the area off
Bimini where I had made my origi-
nal observation, a small march of
brief duration occurred in October,
1969. during a two-week period of
almost uninterrupted calm.
It appears, then, that some other
factor brings on the internal state
preparatory to migration, and that
storms at that time act to trigger
and synchronize the movement of
the population.
This past summer I investigated
some nutritive factors as possible
causes. This was suggested by ma-
rine biologist Robert Schroeder,
who mentioned that captive lobsters
would begin to march around their
enclosure shortly after being
switched from a mollusk diet to
fish, as though fish lacked some
necessary substance that inhibited
the Zugunruhe or, perhaps, con-
tained some inductive substance
lacking in mollusks. To test this
effect I placed groups of ten lob-
sters in three pools provided with
running seawater, sand substrate,
and terra-cotta pipes for refuge. Ex-
cept for the dietary regime, each
group had nearly identical condi-
tions. We fed the mollusk group
surf clams, the fish group chopped
fish, and the third group nothing,
and monitored the activity palterus
daily for any changes. By the
fourth day the fish group became
hyperactive and exhibited marching
during ihe day. while the others re-
tained the normal pattern of in-
activity by day. thus confirming
Schroeder 's observations. The situ-
ation remained the same through
the following week indicating a rela-
tively long-lasting effect.
At tins time we switched the diets
of the fish group and mollusk
group. Aclivily decreased dailv in
the new mollusk group I former fish
group I and increased in the new
fish group (former mollusk group).
Thus, a change in diet is a factor
that can control activity and is a
39
possible cause of
ever, the animals
haved in accord
nocturnal pattern
migration. How-
;iven no food be-
with the normal
leaving us in a
quandary. If the lack of some sub-
stance in fish causes the migratory
state, why doesn't the absence of
food have the same effect? It may
be that fish flesh contains an in-
duction substance, but we feel that
this would be a remote possibility
as a cause of mass movements in
nature since spiny lobsters prob-
ably do not ever eat fish: they sim-
ply are not equipped to catch them.
Fish-fed lobsters, however, may
continually add body tissues lack-
ing in some necessary substance (s)
found in mollusks. which must he
kept in balance with the added
body material for normal growth.
The imbalance causes modifications
in the metabolic system that sub-
sequently result in the migratory
state. Starved lobsters gain none of
this substance either, but they are
losing, not adding body material
and, therefore, are not affected in
the same way. More studies of the
type described, along with studies
of internal processes, must be con-
ducted to define the role of nutri-
tion as a causal factor.
Other factors may also work in-
dependently of, or in conjunction
with, dietary modifications to bring
on the migrations. For example,
photoperiod seems a likely possi-
bility: light exerts a strong influ-
ence on the hormonal physiol-
ogy and behavior of many crusta-
ceans, including Panuliriis argiis.
And temperature flux may be in-
volved, since temperature drops of
several degrees centigrade often
result from autumn storm activities.
Another possibility is increase in
population density, which most of
you may have already thought of in
connection with lemming and locust
emigrations. Being gregarious, lob-
sters tend to cluster by day in
habitable crevices, so an increase in
immigrants or an increase in the
living biomass of lobsters in the
population, as occurs during syn-
chronous molting, might produce a
density effect culminating in emi-
gration from that area.
We do not yet have conclusive
evidence about where the lobsters
come from or go. At present, I
believe that migrant lobsters oil Bi-
mini originate in shallow areas well
to the north of the island group.
Finding their ultimate destination
is a problem in tracking. Using a
sonic pinger tag. which pulses a sig-
nal detectable by directional hydro-
phone. I was able to follow a lob-
ster at Bimini by boat for several
miles. The path of this specimen,
and others I've observed in the
area, suggests that the migrants dis-
perse into suitable habitats along
the west edge of the Bahama Bank
five to ten miles south of Bimini.
An expanded tracking program
should clarify this in the future.
When we turn to the striking fea-
ture of queuing, we find that it is a
basic component of this species' be-
havioral repertoire, since even
voung lobsters two to three inches
During November, 1969.
migration, lobsters maintained
strong southerly bearing, despite
turbulent seas. Beginning
and end of pathway are unknown.
SOUTH BIMINI
long sometimes form single-file
lines. Queues also occur at times
other than the mass movements —
whenever a group of lobsters is
deprived of shelter or is introduced
to a novel habitat situation. This
tendency to congregate — even in
the large circular pools of the labo-
ratory— has enabled me to observe
the sequence of queue formation
and the sensory mechanisms used
in maintaining it.
I recorded data on queuing by
means of an event recorder. This
device has separate, manual push-
buttons for each of twenty pens,
which trace paths on a moving
chart. Thus a button coded for each
separate action was depressed by
the observer whenever that action
took place and for as long as it
lasted. Afterward, the chart was re-
viewed to determine the number of
times an action occurred, its dura-
tion, and its sequential relationship.
We found that an isolated, sta-
tionary lobster visually perceives,
and directs its antennae toward, a
moving individual up to several
yards away. It then queues up by
approaching the moving lobster
from behind until antennal contact
is made. At this point its antennules
are brought into contact with each
side of the lead lobster's abdomen,
completing the alignment. The
queue is maintained by the almost
constant contact of the antennules
or by the hooking of the tips of the
pereiopods (walking legs) around
the telson (tail) of the lead lobster.
This tactile locking into place en-
ables all the queue members to walk
at the same speed and in the same
direction, resulting in strikingly
straight columns of up to .50 lob-
sters. The contact also permits the
queue to maintain its integrity
when the leader changes course to
detour an obstruction. The signifi-
cance of constant contact is sug-
gested by the effort that separated
individuals immediately make to
close up any gaps.
But could lobsters deprived of
their antennae, antennules, or ante-
riormost pereiopods still queue?
Losses of these appendages are
common in nature. To test this, we
recorded and compared the per-
formance of individuals deprived of
one of these receptor-appendages ei-
ther by forcing autotomy (self-re-
lease of appendages at certain
joints) or by taping them up so
they could not receive stimulation.
In all three cases the lobsters could
still queue since they substituted us-
age of one of the other remaining
appendages. The lobsters, like the
Apollo moonships, possess redun-
dant back-up systems to take the
place of any one that should fail.
The strongest evidence for con-
cluding that tactile cues are the
most important for aligning and
maintaining the queue formation
came from studies on lobsters
blinded by opaque tape. These
would queue up only after some
tactile contact was made with an-
other lobster, at which time the
taped lobster turned neatly into
alignment and maintained position
as effectively as untaped individ-
uals. It seems likely, then, that
spiny lobsters can queue even in
cloudy water and at night.
Since the queue involves a num-
ber of lobsters led by only one indi-
vidual, it would seem that the
leader should be outstanding for
some noticeable attribute — perhaps
size, indicative of age and ex-
perience, or peculiar behavior rec-
ognizable by the others. However,
upon examination of over fifty
"leaders" captured during one mi-
gration, we found them to fall by
size and sex ratio right in the aver-
age for all the lobsters collected at
that time. This, together with our
laboratory studies, suggests that
leadership is produced, not by ex-
terior appearance, but by the be-
havioral manifestation of some in-
ner drive.
Queues that I observed in the
open sea formed in several ways,
but the following was the most
striking: Lobsters clustered to-
gether in a closely packed group
and turned about the center in a
light circle, giving the impression
of rotation. At some point an indi-
vidual moved off tangentially, pur-
sued by the other lobsters. The for-
mation then became a queue as
individuals fell into single file.
In the indoor pools, queues
The author takes notes
underwater while releasing
specimens during orientation
experiments off North Bimini.
formed in back of those individuals
that ^\-eve most actively moving
about the enclosure. Tests with
"models" made from molted lobster
carapaces mounted on glass rods
proved that activity is the most cru-
cial sign stimulus for leadership. I
was able to induce queuing by
merely moving the model about the
test pool near the captive lobsters,
in some cases even when they were
inactive.
The question of the significance
of queuing to survival arises. An-
swering this is far more difficult
than determining the mechanism of
queuing because it implies that the
behavior has selective value in
maintaining the species. As an edu-
cated guess, lobster queuing prob-
ably performs a defensive function.
These lobsters are not offensive
creatures of prey: they possess no
claus or other weapons of attack.
They rely on defense for their sur-
vival: hiding in a hard, horny ar-
mor, which deters all but the largest
or hardest-mouthed fishes: moving
rapidly when in retreat, as the tel-
son snaps forward propelling them
backward: and keeping the ab-
domen, the least-protected por-
tion of their anatomy, under a
rock ledge. The pointed, hard front
end is exposed to the predator,
which usually gets either puncture
wounds or a meal consisting of a
spiny, almost hollow, autotomized
antenna for its trouble. In open
areas away from rock ledges, the
abdomens of queuing lobsters are
"protected" by the cephalothorax of
the lobster behind. Of course, the
last individual in line is at a de-
cided disadvantage. Hiding under a
rock doesn't always work either.
My research assistant once came
upon a lobster that had retreated
from the open to the safety of a
rock crevice only to find itself
grasped tightly by a large Octopus
vulgaris already in residence there.
The ability to move in a straight
queue, whether or not the forma-
tion offers protection, seems of little
value unless the movement is di-
rected somewhere. This aspect of
orientation brings up exciting prob-
lems because spiny lobsters are ca-
pable of feats that defy explanation.
Witnesses of mass movements re-
ported that all lobsters in a given
area traveled in about the same di-
rection although the direction var-
ied from area to area : southerly at
Bimini. northerly at Boca Raton,
westerly at Grand Bahama. During
the fall of 1969. at the Lerner Ma-
rine Laboratory in Bimini I ob-
served a five-day mass movement
and recorded the bearings of over
250 queues comprising some 2.000
spiny lobsters. The headings were
strongly to the south over a dis-
tance of at least six miles. The lob-
sters maintained that bearing while
moving over substrate of variable
slope and at varying depths, in ^\a-
ter visibility less than six feet, un-
der completely overcast skies, and
in areas of complex currents, all of
which either occlude guidance cues
or make them extremely variable.
To appreciate this, consider your-
self trying to walk on a direct
course several miles through hill
country, without a compass, in a
dense London-stvle fog. while being
buffeted by strong winds from
different angles.
T
JL h*
he most astounding perform-
ance by spiny lobsters occurred in
experiments in Bermuda in 1949.
Edwin Greaser and Dorothy Travis
trapped and tagged lobsters, then
released them at various distant lo-
cations. Afterward they regularly
checked lobster traps located at the
points of capture for any returns.
Two lobsters released out at sea at
a depth of 1..500 feet, two miles
from the original point of capture,
were retaken less than one week
later! Since lobsters sink rapidly
and are benthic creatures, it is un-
likely they swam back near the sur-
face. Returning two miles along the
sea floor in virtually complete dark-
ness suggests either a very effective
guidance mechanism or a whole lot
of luck.
To test orientational capabilities,
I captured lobsters in nonmigratory
condition from selected areas in the
waters off Bimini. The animals
were marked and released under-
water at depths of 15 to 30 feet on
level submarine sand plains devoid
of vegetation. Each lobster's path
was recorded on a plastic slate until
it passed out of sight. The animal
was then retrieved and released
again to a total of eight times, each
time at a compass heading 45 de-
grees from the preceding one to
control for any bias introduced by
the direction the lobster was facing
at the time of release.
The typical behavior of 26 lob-
sters after 208 releases was forward
locomotion for a few yards, fol-
lowed by a turn to a new heading,
then direct movement over the un-
derwater horizon. Twenty of the 26
lobsters distributed their runs in a
nonuniform manner, that is, all
eight runs fell in a specific range of
compass bearings f within the 90
degree sector from west to north).
Several individuals followed paral-
lel paths on each release, crossing
within 10 degrees or a few yards of
a given point on three or four runs.
We interpret this behavior as an in-
dication of their ability to orient
themselves and maintain a bearing
in a relatively featureless area.
Gonvinced that spiny lobsters
■were capable of establishing a
course in the open sea. we next
wondered whether the process was
effected visually. In further ori- f
entation experiments using lobsters
blinded by opaque tape, twelve of
fourteen lobsters exhibited parallel
headings on each of the eight runs.
In fact, several showed stronger ori-
entation than the unblinded lob-
sters. It was particularly startling to
release to the south a lobster that
had previously run north and have
it immediately turn 180 degrees
and ^\alk across my plastic slate.
Doubtless, the spiny lobster can es-
tablish bearings without vision,
which is not too surprising since
they are nocturnal animals. But we
are left with the question of what
sensory mechanism and what envi-
ronmental guidance cues are used
to accomplish orientation under
nonvisual conditions.
At this point we are not presum-
ing that a single cue or mechanism
is the only possible guidance factor.
Rather we are alert to having sev-
eral physical stimuli operating to
42
guide the migration under different
conditions. We feel this way for
two reasons. First, it is becoming
more and more apparent that other
orienting animals, such as salmon,
bees, pigeons, and fiddler crabs, re-
spond to several types of cues. For
instance, fiddlers can and do orient
their movements by the sun and
polarized sky when underwater, in
tall grass, and under other condi-
tions when only the sky is visible.
However, if they are on the open
beach, they orient by local land-
marks even when the sun is clearly
visible. So, if landmarks aren't
available they use the sun-compass,
if the sun isn't visible they use land-
marks, and if neither is visible, as
during rain or fog, we have some
evidence that they don't bother to
move more than a few yards away
from the sanctuary of their bur-
rows. The environment of the spiny
lobster also has cues such as the
sun. landmarks, and bottom slope
available under some conditions,
and these cannot be eliminated as
possibilities.
A second reason is evident if one
looks closely at the sensory capa-
bilities of spiny lobsters. They have
large eyes capable, at least, of rec-
ognizing other spiny lobsters: fine
chemical and tactile sensors in each
antennule. pereiopod tip. and also
around the mouth: as well as tactile
sensors in the telson and antennae.
Internally there are proprioceptors,
which sense not only movements of
the appendages but also external
forces such as gravity and uneven
pressures. Additionally, there are
indications of numerous receptors
we have not yet characterized. If
you look at the scanning elec-
tromicrographs taken of surface
features, you will see numerous
hairlike processes, clumps of setae,
and pits in the chitin.
The functions of some of these
are not yet known and one gets the
strong impression that the spiny
lobster is equipped as a walking un-
dersea probe. Between the multitu-
dinous physical cues of the ocean
and the equally varied receptors, a
self-contained guidance unit may be
operating, exceeding any that man
has yet devised.
When key sensory receptors
are taped during experiments,
lobsters still queue; they
simply substitute other
appendages to lock into place.
And Now CollapSarS As the proprietors of a discipline
that often manages to be the newest as well as the
oldest of the sciences, astronomers frequently find
themselves coining names for new phenomena.
Recently, followers of the science have been in-
troduced to quasars (quasi-stellar objects) and pulsars
(pulsing radio sources). Now they have to contend
«ith "collapsars."
The term refers to a star that has collapsed into
extremely dense, compact matter; its gravitational
field becomes so strong that no light can escape its
surface. Such an object disappears from the visible
universe. For this reason collapsars can never be
directly observed, a characteristic that at first thought
would seem to make theoretical discussions about
them an exercise in futility. But according to most
current cosmological theories, the total amount of mat-
ter in galaxies in the form of stars and clouds of gas
and dust is substantially less than what calculations
show it should be. Invisible collapsars could account
for the missing mass.
Sea-floor Spreading on the Moon Continental drift
and sea-floor spreading, the scientific bandwagon of
the 1960's, are now being invoked for the moon as
well as the earth. The idea is to explain the lunar seas,
the maria, as areas of the moon where hot material
from the interior broke through the surface, pushing
back the older upland areas and creating broad ex-
panses of relatively smooth terrain.
J. W. Elder, a geophysicist at Cambridge L'niversity
in England, proposed this lunar application in the
journal Nature. In making his case, he offered analogies
with the earth, for which the drift theory is now general-
ly accepted, as well as the results of his work with a
laboratory model in which blobs of a hot. viscous fluid
well up to a cooled surface, pushing aside continental
crust represented by a thin layer of aluminum powder.
Elder cites the fact that lunar domes occur almost
exclusively in the maria and argues that they may be
analogous to the volcanic cones on terrestrial ocean
floors. This type of volcanism does not occur on conti-
nental areas, he points out. Then he notes that the
rills, ridges, and other structures found on the maria
can be identified with similar ridge systems on the
ocean floors of the earth and with results produced in
his laboratory model: he considers them evidence of
activity beneath the surface. He also points to lunar
mountain chains that often border the maria and com-
pares them to the island chains formed at the edge of
terrestrial seas where a spreading sea floor pushes up
against a continental margin.
According to Elder's thesis, all planet-sized bodies
go through the same surface-roiling process as they
cool after formation. In a small body such as the
moon, cooling is rapid and convection currents in its
upper layers quickly lose strength; the surface of the
body "freezes" into its final shape. On a larger body
such as the earth, sufficient energy is left at this point
for weaker secondary processes to continue. Blobs
may no longer have the energy to penetrate the sur-
face, but the slow turning over of material beneath the
surface carries the continents along as though they
were on conveyor belts.
How to Make a Spiral Galaxy To an observer with a
life-span of 10 billion years or so, the spiral galaxies
that dot the universe may appear to be so many pyro- J
technic pinwheels, throwing off gobs of glowing mate-
rial., which in turn eject still more galaxy-sized sparks.
This spectacular picture could offer the best ex-
planation of how such galaxies (including ours) ac-
quire spiral arms and why. as a galaxy rotates with its
center moving faster than the outer reaches, the arms
do not simply wind up and disappear. The proposal *
comes from Halton Arp of the Mount Wilson and <Ji
Palomar Observatories, writing in the European jour-
nal Astronomy and Astrophysics.
The prototype spiral galaxy is the Whirlpool Neb-
ula in the constellation Canes Venatici: amateur as-
tronomers know it as number 51 in the Messier cata-
log of deep-sky objects. Its spiral arms were first
detected in 1845. decades before astronomers realized
the galaxies were, in fact, island universes far distant
from our own.
Arp focused his study on spirals that have compan-
ion galaxies at the end of one or more spiral arms; he
considers these companions to be masses of material
ejected from the nucleus of their parent galaxy 10 to
100 million years ago. Presumably they were smaller
than their parent nuclei when first ejected, but they
have now expanded to comparable size. The compan-
ions are galaxies in their own right, complete with
stars, gas. and dust: they act like galaxies in going on
to eject material of their own.
There are well-known cases in which a galaxy is I
ejecting material in the form of a jet or as a discrete
object. Radio astronomers have known for years that
many galaxies are flanked by pairs of radio sources,
apparently ejected in opposite directions. Even in the
case of our own galaxy, there is some evidence that a
bridge of hydrogen extends from the galaxy to two
small companions, the Magellanic Clouds. A secondary
ejection appears to be going on in the smaller cloud.
Arp believes that the spiral arms form when masses
of material are ejected on opposite sides of a gal-
axy, but readily admits that in many cases there is
a visible companion at the end of only one of two
spiral arms. He suggests that in these cases the second
ejected body may have moved beyond the end of the
arm. may have expanded to the point where it is too
dissipated to be seen, or may not yet have expanded to
visible size.
Arp believes that the spiral arms do wind up as the
galaxy rotates, but that by the time they do. the
bright, supergiant stars that mark them have faded.
The arms dissolve into the general galactic disk. While
this is happening, however, new ejections are forming
new arms. Thus the galactic disk builds up even as
more and more arms are formed.
John P. Wiley. Jr.
44
^^^''^^,,,'
\?' '"'k-
\ ■•.
celestial Events
The moon in May is new on the 5th, at first-quarter on
the 13th, full on the 20th, and at last-quarter on the 27th.
There will be a new moon on June 3, and a first-quarter
moon on June 11.
In the evening sky, Venus (the brighter) and Mars are
low in the west, separating slowly. Jupiter is high in the
southeast at dusk, and it sets before sunrise. Saturn and
Mercury pass from the evening to the morning sky.
May 9: Transit of Mercury, partly visible after sunrise in
eastern and central United States. Venus and Mars are in
conjunction.
May 13: Occultation of Regulus by the moon, partly vis-
ible in eastern United States as Regulus emerges about
8:20 P.M., EST.
May 17: Mercury and Saturn are in conjunction.
May 18: Jupiter is near the moon this evening.
May 21: Mercury resumes direct (eastward) motion
May 28: Mercury and Saturn are again in conjunction.
June 2: Saturn is near the rising crescent moon this
morning.
June 4: Mercury is at greatest elongation in the morning
sky. It may be seen low in the east after dawn.
June 5: Venus and Mars are on either side of the cres-
cent moon.
June 11-12: Venus is near the stars Pollux and Castor, in
Gemini.
June 14: Jupiter is near the gibbous moon tonight.
THOMAS D. Nicholson
* Hold the Star Map so the compass direction you face is at the
bottom; then match the stars in the lower half of the map with
those in the sky. The map is for 11:25 p.m. on May 1: 10:30 p.m.
on May 15: 9:25 p.m. on May 31: and 8:25 p.m. on June 15: but it
may be used for about one hour before and after those times.
THE ORIGINS
OF
AGRICULTURE
The earliest grain farmers began to cultivate the wild
ancestors of our crop plants about 10,000 years ago. Their
unforeseen harvest was the transformation of human life
by
C. D. Darlington
According to the notions of our
forebears, early man first
learned to forge and smelt iron to
make his weapons and his tools.
Then he tamed his beasts and tilled
the earth, sowed the seeds of the
plants he had collected for food,
and so raised his crops. Finally,
years of cultivation improved these
crops to a standard that came to
support agriculture. Man could now
provide better fodder for his stock,
and could, therefore, breed im-
proved beasts. These developments
had occurred in many parts of the
world with different kinds of crops
and stock on which the different
civilizations were based.
This view of agriculture's origins
had been reasonably supported by
the European discovery of the
American civilizations, and it was
still generally held at the beginning
of the nineteenth century. It showed
man progressing almost inevitably
by his own efforts, his own skill
and intelligence, and in a way that
commended itself well to the thought
of the nineteenth century.
But in the middle of that century
all these ideas were rudely shaken
by a series of unforeseen dis-
coveries. It was then that arche-
ology began to show that agricul-
ture had long preceded the smelting
of metals. History and language be-
gan to indicate that crops had been
carried far away from the places
where they were first grown. And
two naturalists, Darwin and De
Candolle, argued that it was not
cultivation in itself, but selection by
the cultivator — the choice of species
and the choice of variations to
sow and propagate — that had played
the decisive part in improving cul-
tivated plants.
Darwin and De Candolle thus ad-
vanced our understanding of the
origins of agriculture for the first
time in two thousand years. In the
hundred years that have followed
them, however, a far greater up-
heaval of ideas has occurred. It has
been set off from two directions.
One was the study of how plant
breeding and selection actually
work among primitive farmers.
This we owe largely to the Russian
geneticist and plant breeder Nikolai
Vavilov. The other was Willard
Libby's 1947 discovery of the use
of radiocarbon. This led to the
physical dating of prehistoric re-
mains and settled the arguments of
earlier centuries. What happened
when these two fields of inquiry, so
utterly remote from one another,
came together?
To see how these great advances
transformed the problem of the ori-
gins of agriculture, we have lo look
at the world as it was when agricul-
ture began, the world of 10.000
years ago.
First, consider the people. There
were about five million people in
the world. They were divided into
'' -~^
47
thousands of tribes, all living by
various kinds of hunting or collect-
ing, mostly by both. Like their sur-
viving descendants, these people of-
ten had special skills for dealing
■with foods and fibers, drugs and
poisons, weapons and boats. The
tribes also included some individual
artists and craftsmen, as well as
men with special knowledge of
trade, especially trade in miner-
als— tools and ornaments, for ex-
ample, made from obsidian, amber,
and precious stones. But. in gen-
eral, these people had a vast and
accurate knowledge of what they
could do with the plants, the ani-
mals, and the earth on which they
depended for their living.
There isas. however, one factor
in their surroundings on which the
main masses of mankind could not
depend. This was the climate, for
the climate at that time was chang-
ing unusually fast. The last Ice Age
was in full retreat. The snow was
melting all around what is now the
temperate Northern Hemisphere.
Mountain ranges were becoming
passable. The oceans were rising
and cutting off islands. Inland seas
^^■ere drying up. In short, vast new
regions were being opened or
closed to human habitation.
In these circumstances it is evi-
dent that movements of people must
have been taking place on a greater
scale than ever before. Inevitably
the greatest movements of all. and
the greatest meeting and mixing of
peoples, would be concentrated in
those necks of land that join the
three continents of the Old World
and the two continents of the New.
Significantly, therefore, the first evi-
dences of settled agriculture are
found close to these necks of land.
Over the last twenty years, radio-
carbon dating of the organic re-
mains in a great number of early
agricultural settlements has sho^NTi
beyond doubt that agriculture be-
gan at different times in different
regions. And it has shown the order
in which it actually began in these
different regions. The use of radio-
carbon has corrected many slight
— and a few big — misconceptions.
First, agriculture began, not ex-
actly in -sv'hat the American Egyp-
tologist James Breasted called the
The World
After Agriculture
Fertile Crescent, not in the fertile
valley bottoms, but rather on the
hillsides and tablelands adjoining
them. This nuclear zone, as it has
been called, is a three-pronged area
stretching from the headwaters of
the Euphrates, west through Ana-
tolia into the Balkans, south into
the Jordan Valley, and east along
the foot of the Zagros Mountains
toAsard the Persian Gulf. Later
there was a fourth prong crossing
Persia south of the Caspian Sea. In
other words, the nuclear zone was
just at the neck, or the crossroads,
of the Old World.
Secondly, we find that tliis zone
of original settlement did not ex-
pand— apart from seaside intru-
sions into Egypt and the Crimea —
until about 4000 B.C. There are
three or four silent millennia be-
tween the beginning of agriculture
10,000 years ago and the great
transformation and expansion that
followed it. To be sure, during this
period pottery was invented. Artists
and traders were attracted by the
security of the permanent set-
tlements and put their skills and
goods at the service of the new,
rich, settled communities. But the
great technical and biological dis-
coveries of bronze and writing, the
wheel and the horse, lay ahead.
These discoveries were made
only at the end of the silent mil-
lennia, when the great geographical
# Origins of
agricultural settlements
Mixed farming
Pure pastoralism
Expansion by sea
O Centers of
city development
^ Centers of agricultural
development and transformation
Paleolithic man
Neolithic man
expansion was beginning. In the
fourth millennium B.C. the tribes of
grain cultivators began to move out
of the nuclear zone and to settle or
colonize the wild lands of the hunt-
ers and collectors, which lay
around them. They moved in four
main directions: into Europe, into
Africa, into India, and into China.
They had waited a long time to
make these journeys, and they took
a long time, more than a thousand
years, to accomplish them. Why?
The answer depends mainly on the
crops they were cultivating. And. as
we shall see. these crops give us the
answers to several other questions.
That we know exactly what crops
were cultivated by the earliest farm-
ers is the result of the work of the
Danish botanist Hans Helbaek. The
foundation of their agriculture was
wheat, and its two main forms con-
tinued to live and were cultivated
side by side in the nuclear zone for
the nine succeeding millennia. The
first of these, known as emmer, ex-
isted and still exists there wild. The
second does not exist wild. It is de-
rived, as we know by experimental
breeding and by looking at its
chromosomes, from hybridization
between emmer and a wild grass
also still found growing in this re-
gion. This second grain is bread
wheat, and today it is still the most
important of all man's food crops.
Along with the two wheats, a va-
riety of other food plants were cul-
tivated, a variety that increased
with the passing of time: peas and
lentils for porridge, barley for beer,
linseed for oil, and the vine for
wine. Doubtless many unidentified
fruits and vegetables were also col-
lected, without at first being bred
and cultivated.
But when men passed to the new
lands the picture changed. In
warmer Egypt linseed began to be
grown, not for oil, but for fiber; it
was retted and spun for flax and
was used to make linen, the first
substitute for wool. In colder Eu-
rope a new grain, oats, appeared
beside the wheat. In India, cotton
took the place of wool and flax. In
Central Asia the native buckwheat
displaced wheat and barley. On the
Upper Nile, sorghum displaced the
other grains. And almost every-
where various kinds of new light
grains, the millets, began to take the
place of the heavy-grained wheat and
barley.
Some of these later displacements
were no doubt due to conscious se-
lection. But some, it seems, were
quite unconscious. In 1916 a Ger-
man geographer, Engelbrecht, at-
tempted to account for these dis-
placements. As a crop is taken into
a new territory or habitat, it is apt
to be invaded by new weeds. Rye
appears as a weed of wheat and dis-
places the wheat as the crop moves
north or moves higher into the
mountains. This happens today
with cultivated rye, and originally
wild rye would have done the same.
No doubt this transformation of
crops was exceedingly slow, and in-
deed its speed was probably the
limiting factor in allowing the ex-
pansion of agriculture from the nu-
clear zone. The cultivator had to
wait for an evolutionary change,
which depended on processes of se-
lection of which he was quite un-
con.scious.
The idea of unconscious selection
was Darwin's, but he had no idea
how far it would go. It turns out to
be the key to the underslanding of
the development of agriculture. The
decisive changes undergone by cul-
tivated plants are not. as one might
suppose, in the visible yield, but in
properties of behavior which, to the
49
layman or nonfarmer, would seem
unimportant.
The discovery of this principle
was the main contribution of Vavi-
lov. who found that nearly all culti-
vated plants had gone through cer-
tain parallel transformations. In
cultivation they had lost the faculty
of distributing their seeds, which
was necessary for their survival in
nature. And. at the same time, they
had acquired a new faculty of sub-
mitting to convenient harvesting of
fruits and threshing of seed, which
was necessary for their survival in
the hands of the cultivator.
Take the crowning instance of
Vavilov's principle. The ear of wild
emmer, when it is ripe, shatters into
its separate parts, each containing
one grain protected by its coat, the
chaff, and armed with a beard that
will catch in the coat of any passing
animal. When the grain falls to the
ground it will dig itself in. But the
ear of cultivated emmer or bread
wheat does not shatter when ripe. It
can be cut and carried unbroken.
Only when it is threshed does it
gently shed its naked grain into the
farmer's bushel or bin.
This extraordinary transmuta-
tion, it might be thought, could be
the result of conscious selection. It
could, if the selector were one who
knew all that we know thousands of
years later. But how could those
first farmers have known what evo-
lutionary changes were possible?
And how could they have foreseen
how the rich harvests that lay ahead
of them might be won?
There is, however, an even more
striking example of the scope of un-
conscious selection. In general, the
wild ancestors of crop plants have
built-in mechanisms of self-incom-
patibility: genetic devices that pre-
vent the pollen from growing in the
styles and fertilizing the ovules of
the same plant. These devices are
necessary for the evolutionary suc-
cess of all wild species for they in-
sure that a proportion of the seed
will be crossbred. In cultivation
these devices cease to matter. They
confer no immediate advantage; in-
deed they can only impair the yield.
And, sure enough, they are nearly
always lost in cultivation. For ex-
ample, wheat and barley, peas and
beans, which all allowed cross-fer-
tilization in their wild ancestors are
regularly self-fertilized in their mod-
ern cultivated forms. This change
was made by selection, but it was
not made by conscious selection, for
until the last century no one knew
it had happened: no one even knew
that it could happen.
The cultivator who improved his
crops did so, therefore, not by his
intelligent practice of plant breed-
ing, but by his intelligent practice
of cultivation. And this was a ca-
pacity for which, we cannot doubt,
the cultivator himself was continu-
ally being selected.
T
JL he
he contrast, indeed the con-
flict, between the tiller of the soil and
the keeper of cattle, between the
peasant and the herdsman, between
Cain and Abel is so ancient and ob-
vious that we naturally think of the
domestication of plants and of ani-
mals as belonging to separate and
opposed problems. But this is mis-
leading. Out of the grain farmer
came the ancient civilizations.
Around the grain farmer assembled
every kind of agricultural and civi-
lized activity. Before grain farm-
ing, there was the collecting and
even the cropping of roots in many
parts of the world. Long before the
grain farmer, there was the use of
the dog for hunting, for food in
time of famine, and later, for herd-
ing sheep and goats. But none of
these activities led to a more com-
plicated life, which in turn meant a
more complicated, a stabler, and ul-
timately, a more productive society.
No great development came about
until the grain farmer had, during
his four silent millennia, laid the
foundations of the future.
The various kinds of stock and
stockmen were therefore bound to
have had different histories because
of their different relations with the
grain farmer. What these relations
were are still partly obscure. The
early settlements mostly contain
bones of cattle, pigs, and sheep; but
to what extent had these been bred
and fed by the farmer and to what
extent had he taken them by hunt-
ing? Did the early herdsman allow
his domesticated female animals to
mate with wild males or males that
had gone wild? This is the practice
of Nagas in India with their aaur
cattle today. It is also the practice
in mating dogs with wolves. The
distinction between what is wild
and what is domesticated is there-
fore harder for the archeologist to
draw with stock than with crops.
Allowing for these uncertainties,
we inay say that sheep and pigs
were probably the first to be taken
under man's care, probably during
the seventh millennium B.C. Later,
in the sixth or fifth millennium,
came the cattle. Whether their first
use was for sacrifice in religious rit-
ual will take us a long time to dis-
cover. But certainly this first in-
troduction was quickly followed by
their diversified uses for plowing,
for milk, for meat, and later, in the
salt-hungry regions of Africa, for
blood.
When we come to the means of
improving domesticated animals
along their different lines, we can
think of them together and we can
see them in contrast with crop
plants. The herdsman, it is clear,
has from the beginning understood
something of the purpose and prac-
tice of selection. Indeed we may say
that the first herdsmen could never
have improved their lot until they
understood that better animals
could be raised by choosing and
setting apart better parents. It is a
principle that is suitably and elab-
orately commemorated by the story
"The peasant is a man who
knows and loves his
soil and crops. . . . He and his
women will accept serfdom
rather than be
separated from their land."
5°
m.
m-
x/v. ■"•
mTr"^^^"mi'a'rr
^V''-.> >
'^:^:?%n);v V .;:
.-^^.
f \ .. .
^
"Out of the grain farmer
came the ancient
civihzations. Around
the grain farmer assembled
every kind of agricultural
and civilized activity."
It
K^r
,v >» -'^
4
l9
i'k
t i #
I '
f^
4^1
:-/
of Jacob and Laban in the Book of
Genesis.
The processes of animal breeding
have thus been more conscious than
those of plant breeding, and this
has been true at every stage. For
example, when the cultivators came
into India in the third millennium
B.C.. they allowed their cattle to
hybridize with the native humped
cattle. This was no doubt an uncon-
scious and merely traditional prac-
tice. But in the Indus city of Mo-
henjo Daro they also deliberately
domesticated new species, notably
the native water buffalo. Man's de-
pendence on conscious purpose in
dealing with animals as opposed to
plants is further indicated by the
length of time — five thousand years
after the beginning of cultivation —
that it took him to acquire the in-
itiative, skill, and audacity to do-
mesticate the most difficult animals,
the horse and the camel.
If early farmers were sometimes
aware of their effects on crops and
stock, it is certain that they were
wholly unaware of any effects their
crops and stock were having on
them (that is. beyond feeding,
clothing, or working for them I . But
those who have observed peasants
and pastoralists most closely have
seen that between these two great
classes of men, there is a genuine
and profound contrast, a contrast
related to their work. The record
goes back, as we saw. to the legend
of Cain and Abel, which takes its
root in the conflict between the des-
ert and the sown, between the Bed-
ouin shepherds and their peasant
neighbors. But on the way. it fills a
large part of our history. It is the
story of the borderland struggle be-
'*'Tlie first herdsmen could
never have improved their lot
until they understood that
better animals could
be raised by choosing and
setting apart better parents."
tween the English farmers and the
Welsh drovers during the Middle
Ages. It is also the story of the
struggle between the farming Ki-
kuyu and the grazing Masai in
Kenya today.
How are we to describe it? In the
first place it should be noted that
each class is of many kinds. The
nomadic pastoralist may sow crops
for a quick harvest during his sum-
mer grazing, while the settled peas-
ant may breed cattle or horses to
till his land, a practice that has
transferred the main labor of farm-
ing from the woman with a hoe to
the man with a plow. The basic
contrast remains however. It is one
of character, behavior, and belief.
Q
n the one hand, the peasant
is a man who knows and loves his
soil and crops. He even worships
them. His life, like the lives of his
ancestors for two or three hundred
generations, has depended on his
prudence and industry in handling
the soil and crops. He is therefore
deeply attached to them, and he and
his women will accept serfdom
rather than be separated from their
land. As a consequence, they are in-
bred— conservative and traditional,
stubborn but peaceful.
How different is the pastoralist!
He is correspondingly attached to
his animals, but his animals can
move and usually have to move in
search of pasture. He is therefore
mobile, alert, and aggressive. He
will steal the cattle and tlie women
of his neigJiliors. Consequently, he
is relatively outbred. And the most
mobile of his animals, the horse
and the camel, are kept by the most
mobile and alert, aggressive and
warlike, of herdsmen.
How. then, did this contrast
arise? In part, of course, the
differences were there in the ances-
tors, the collectors and the hunters
from whom each was partly de-
rived. But it developed during those
long silent millennia because the
earliest men who chose to adopt
these different ways of life were
themselves from the beginning de-
pendent for survival on the crops or
the stock they were raising. They
were therefore dependent on their
different abilities to cope with
different ways of life. The croppers
were in fact being unconsciously se-
lected by their crops, and the stock-
men by their stock. Each way of
life was tied up together in one re-
lated and adapted system.
To put it in another way. man
thought himself to be consciously in
control of his destiny, but he was in
fact unconsciously having his des-
tiny, his evolutionary destiny,
thrust upon him. It is a situation
from which we can see he has not
yet by any means escaped.
The greatest of all human ex-
periments was man's invasion of
the New World. Whether it hap-
pened fifteen or twenty thousand
years ago does not much matter.
What matters is that mankind had
put himself into two separate boxes
between which there was effectively
no exchange of people or ideas, of
plants or animals, or even of their
diseases. That was the situation for
over ten thousand years. And dur-
ing that time, agriculture arose and
developed independently in the two
boxes. This was. as we may say. an
experimental situation, for it goes a
long way in showing us what mat-
ters and what does not matter for
the whole process of developing ag-
riculture.
Looking first at the similarities
between the Old World and the
New. it can be seen that in the New
World, cultivation began around a
kind of central or nuclear zone. It
began about 7000 B.C. when the ice
was melting at its fastest. And it be-
gan with a grain crop that the Eu-
ropeans called Indian corn or
maize. A variety of other crops —
beans and potatoes, gourds and
peppers, cotton and tobacco—
slowly assembled around this early
crop. But the processes of improve-
ment and distribution show us a
number of rule-breaking novelties.
Several of these concern maize.
Unlike any of the other impor-
tant grains, maize has its male and
female flowers, the tassels and silks,
on different parts of the plant. This
55
has meant that the ordinary evolu-
tion toward inbreeding could not
occur. Maize remained, and was
bound to remain, crossbred. For
that reason, it ultimately became
the object of the most remarkable
of all crop improvements: the
American hybrid corn industry of
the twentieth century turned an old
shortcoming into a controlled ad-
vantage.
B
'ut maize is also unique with
respect to its origin. No botanists
would believe that maize was de-
rived from a slender, wild Mexican
grass, teosinte. Indeed they had put
the two plants into different genera,
Zea and Euchlaena. Yet when the
hybridization is tried, the two spe-
cies are found to cross readily.
Their chromosomes pair in the hy-
brid. And. as Dr. Paul Mangelsdorf
found, the hybrid is fertile, yielding
the expected recombinations of
characters in the second generation.
Evidently the selection of muta-
tions, probably conscious selection
in this case, has produced the most
remarkable evolutionary plant trans-
formation known. All in the course
of 9,000 years of cultivation.
There is another American crop,
the sweet potato, to which we owe
an equally important piece of en-
lightenment. This plant, coming from
Mexico or Peru, was already being
cultivated across the Pacific all the
way to New Zealand at the time of
Columbus. The Maoris had brought
it there from the mid-Pacific one or
two hundred years earlier, and it
had since become the main crop in
the North Island. They knew it as
kumara. the same name that it had
borne in Central America. By their
languages, their blood groups, their
canoes, and their other crops, we
know that the Maoris, like other
Polynesians, came originally from
Indonesia. It is the sweet potato
that tells us that at some earlier
time other people traveling west-
ward from America had joined
them. The two boxes of which I
56
spoke had been almost entirely
closed. But not quite.
The great difference between the
Old World and the New, however,
had nothing to do with these or any
other crop plants. In the first place,
the nuclear zone of America, in-
stead of being a single, broad, and
well-connected area, was split into
two by the narrow, twisted 1.500-
mile neck that runs from Tehuante-
pec to Panama, a track that had to
be followed by everyone passing
from North to South America. In
the second place, stock raising was
absent in America. In the previous
five millennia the American Indian
hunters had killed off what could
have been the farmer's stock.
Horses and mammoths were no
longer available for domestication.
All that were left were Hamas and
turkeys.
These two differences, together
with the lesser area and resources
of the New World, slowed down the
development of agriculture and of
civilization. The silent millennia
were longer. When the two worlds
were brought together in 1492, the
civilizations of the New World were
found to be about three millennia
behind those of the Old World.
Mexico and Peru proved to be not
unlike the Egypt of Hatshepsut and
Thutmose in 1500 B.C. The con-
sequences of this difference in evo-
lution, the submergence of the
Amerindians, are with us now, but
they are beyond our present in-
quiry. They show us, however, in a
practical way, the overwhelming
importance for us today of what
happened during the distant years
when men and women first began to
hoe the earth and sow the seed.
"Along with the two wheats,
a variety of other food
plants were cultivated, a
variety that increased with
the passing of time."
^B* «r
mg
V* •„<*■.
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i:
Part II
EAST IS A BIG BIRD
"You steer by the
shape of the sky.
You are sailing into
a part of the heavens,
not toward
a dot of light."
by Thomas Gladwin
Picture yourself on a Puluwat
canoe at night. The weather is
clear, the stars are out. but no land
is in sight. The canoe is a familiar
little world. Men sit about, talk,
perhaps move around a little within
their microcosm. On either side of
the canoe water streams past, a line
of turbulence and bubbles merging
into a wake and disappearing in the
darkness. Overhead there are stars,
immovable, immutable. They swing
in their paths across and out of the
sky but invariably come up again
in the same places. You may travel
for days on the canoe but the stars
will not go away or change their
positions aside from their nightly
trajectories from horizon to hori-
zon. Hours go by. miles of water
have flowed past. Yet the canoe is
still underneath and the stars are
still above. Back along the wake,
however, the island you left falls
farther and farther behind, while
ailing downwind, a Puluwat
teersman uses his foot
0 hold the steering paddle
lown and deflect it.
I
the one toward which you are head-
ing is hopefully drawing closer.
You can see neither of them, but
you know this is happening. You
know too that there are islands on
either side of you, some near, some
far, some ahead, some behind. The
ones that are ahead will in due
time fall behind. Everything passes
by the little canoe — everything ex-
cept the stars by night and the sun
in the day.
We can call this a figure of liter-
ary style, a canoe pictured pushing
through the sea with everything
moving past it except the stars
poised overhead. For the Puluwat
navigator it is not a matter of style.
It is a convenient way to organize
the information he has available in
order to make his navigational
judgments readily and without con-
fusion. This picture he uses of the
world around him is real and com-
plete. All the islands which he
knows are in it, and all the stars,
especially the navigation stars and
the places of their rising and set-
ting. Because the latter are fixed, in
his picture the islands move past
the star positions, under them and
backward relative to the canoe as it
sails along. The navigator cannot
see the islands, but he has learned
where they are and how to keep
their locations and relations in his
mind. Ask him where an island is
and he will point to it at once,
probably with considerable ac-
curacy. Puluwat navigation is entire-
ly a dead reckoning system. It de-
pends upon features of sea and sky
which are characteristic only of the
locality in which it is used, that is,
the chain of islands in the Western
and Central Carolines from Yap to
Truk and the Mortlocks.
Navigation by dead reckoning
means that one's position at any
time is determined solely on the
basis of distance and direction trav-
eled since leaving the last known lo-
cation. Put the other way around if
means that if you lose track of how
far you have come from where you
were, you are lost. In contrast to
this. Western celestial navigation,
loran. and other techniques make it
possible to establish a precise posi-
tion without any knowledge of
where you have been, except in the
most general sense of knowing what
part of the world you are in. The
latter methods depend, however, on
a very complex technology, either
of timekeeping and star-tracking or
of electronics. Yet dead reckoning
is inherently no more or less accu-
rate than they are. If there are
available sophisticated techniques
for keeping track of direction and
distance traveled, it is possible by
dead reckoning alone to establish a
position with great precision. In-
ertial navigation, for example, is a
system solely of dead reckoning
which is widely used as a primary
method of navigation on everything
from submarines to missiles, and a
lot of ships and aircraft in between.
True, with less sophisticated tecli-
nology the accuracy of dead reck-
oning declines. Yet it must be re-
membered that none of the Western
techniques are even conceivable in
the absence of a complex tech-
nology. Celestial navigation had to
await astronomy and the engineer-
ing marvel which is a chronometer,
while loran and other still more so-
phisticated techniques were born
only in the last quarter-century of
our electronic age.
Successful navigation from one
island to another under a system of
dead reckoning falls into three
phases or sets of tasks. First, one
must set out in a direction such
that, knowing the conditions to be
expected en route, one will arrive in
the vicinity of the island of destina-
tion. Second, while on the way to
this island the canoe must be held
steady on its course and a ruiming
estimate maintained of its current
position. Finally, when the craft is
0 bu the President anil Frllmrs nf lliirvaril Cnlh-iic
59
near its goal there should be avail-
able techniques for locating the des-
tination island and heading toward
it. If the system is to work, it is
necessary that the amount of abso-
lute error introduced during the
first tivo phases, that is. in the in-
itial heading and the en route
course, be less than the maximum
range at which it is possible to lo-
cate and home in on the final is-
land. In other words, when you are
heading for an island you must be
able to come close enough to it to
find it.
Central to Puluwat navigation is
familiarity with the positions where
the stars rise and set. The stars, as
we all know, rise in the east and set
in the west, as do the sun and the
moon. Away from the equator, as
in the United States and Europe,
they rise above the horizon at an
angle and describe a sloping arc
through the sky. an effect produced
by being located toward the "top"
of the spinning globe. Near the
equator, however, the stars appear
to rise and set vertically, except
those in the extreme northern and
southern sky. This means that even
though a star is sighted some dis-
tance above the horizon, it is never-
theless almost directly over the spot
where it has risen or where it will
set. It is this quality of vertical
movement in equatorial stars which
has been observed and used by Ca-
rolinian navigators. They have se-
lected various stars both for their
prominence and because the places
of their rising and setting are
spaced around the horizon. In this
way, the sky on a clear night be-
comes a vast compass, the various
headings picked out by familiar
stars as they move up and down
near the horizon. Yet the particular
star which is named and stands for
a given bearing is visible in a set-
ting or rising position only part of
the time. At some seasons it does
not appear at all. Even when it is
visible it spends part of the night so
high in the sky that it is not pos-
sible to obtain a bearing by looking
at it. For these reasons other stars
are noted and remembered which
are at the same celestial latitude —
"travel the same road" — and can
therefore substitute for the named
navigation star when it is unavail-
able.
Thirty-two directions or bearings
are defined by the navigation stars,
which happen also to be the num-
ber of points on a traditional mari-
ner's compass. The thirty-two stars
in the Puluwat navigation system
are. however, historically much
older than the advent of the West-
ern compass in this area, and are
therefore not derived from it. Al-
though the stars are spaced around
the horizon they are not exactly the
same distance apart, and therefore
do not quite coincide with the
points of the mariner's compass.
X^_^^n Puluwat the cardinal di-
rection is east, under the rising of Al-
tair. the "Big Bird." However, the
star compass system can most read-
ily be described to a Westerner by
beginning with the North Star, Po-
laris, "the star which never moves."
The North Star is low at the lati-
tude of the Carolines, roughly 7 de-
grees north, and frequently ob-
scured by cumulus clouds which
often ring the tropical horizon even
at night. Nevertheless, it is highly
valued because it is always there
and, being close to the horizon, can
provide a good bearing when
sighted. Near the North Star, and
thus rising a little to the east of it,
is the Little Dipper. Being so far to
the north, the Little Dipper swings
in a fairly tight circle about the
North Star and does not stay
directly over its point of rising for
as long as the other stars do. It has
the further disadvantage of being a
constellation of several stars, al-
though its brightest star, Kochab,
catches the eye and provides the
most obvious bearing. Just as the
Little Dipper rises a little to the
east of the North Star, so it sets to
the west by an equal amount.
Therefore, like most other naviga-
tion stars for constellations), it
defines two points or bearings on
the circle of the horizon, its posi-
tions of rising and setting being
equal amounts to the east or west.
Next around the circle of the sky
both east and west (rising and set-
ting) come two large constellations,
the Big Dipper and then Cassiopeia.
Although the Puluwat navigator
does not include in these con-
stellations precisely the same stars
which we do, each still covers a
great deal of the sky. If they were
swung toward each other around
the pole without changing their lati-
tude to north or south they would
overlap. How, then, with their great
extent and their overlap can they
provide the navigator with clearly
defined bearings distinct from each
other? The answer appears to be
that they do not. In the south the
situation is little better. Due south
is located by the Southern Cross in
its upright position. When in this
position the Southern Cross is a
little too high in the sky for a really
good bearing, but otherwise it is
satisfactory: it is actually very close
to true south and is a neatly sym-
metrical cross whose center is
unambiguous. But the next position
to one side, corresponding to the
Little Dipper in the north, is the
same Southern Cross leaning over
at approximately 45 degrees, and
next to that is the Southern Cross
yet again, lying on its side as it
rises and sets. The disadvantages of
this arrangement are obvious. I
was puzzled through most of my
stay on Puluwat by this, which
seemed to me sloppy and vague in a
system otherwise so precise. How-
ever, the more I pressed for the
same consistency and rigor in the
northern and southern extremes of
the star compass as obtains in the
remainder, the more the people I
asked became confused, and so did
I. It was not until I took my in-
structional voyage to Pulusuk and
back with Hipour. a Puluwat nav-
igator, that I realized the dilemma
was created by a different set of ex-
pectations of the system on my part
and on theirs. I took it for granted
that a star "compass" that formed
the heart of a demonstrably accu-
rate system of navigation must it-
self necessarily be accurate — in all
its parts. In actuality, however, the
Puluwat navigator requires of his
star compass only two qualities.
First, it must be systematic enough
60
Backsight ranges for
estimating course for
departure to Pikelot
Tip of
island
PULUWAT ATOLL
Backsight range -
for heading to
Pulusuk with
correction for
westerly current
Landmarks used
to set courses from Puluwat
Backsight range
for heading to
Pulusuk with
correction for
easterly current
■Backsight range for
trU^ course to Pulusuk
that it can be explained and taught.
The named star positions ranged
around the horizon serve this pur-
pose. Second, it must be sufficiently
accurate to guide him to any desti-
nation he needs to reach, but gains
nothing from being more accurate
than is necessary. It is the latter
that I was slow to recognize.
The return trip from Pulusuk to
Puluwat was intentionally made
largely at night. The course was
nominally just west of north — to-
ward the setting of the Little Dip-
per— but in order to make good
this course against a westward cur-
rent and a generallv northeasterly
wind we held a heading as close to
north as possible during much of
the journey. Small cumulus clouds
were scattered across the sky but.
except when distance made them
appear to bank up at the horizon,
they did not interfere with periodic
star sightings until the ^veather
turned bad near the end of the trip.
The Little Dipper was up, but was
rising during the early hours of the
night Avhen we ivere watching the
stars. Thus it was on the wrong side
of the North Star for our purooses.
The North Star was up as ah\^ays.
but the clouds and some haziness
made both it and the Little Dipper
hard to keep in sight. The Bis Dip-
per, however, was high and spar-
kling bright.
As we sailed along through the
beautiful night, the wind just right,
the sea not too rough and glisten-
ing with splashes of phosphores-
cence. I was -ivatching the stars and
asking questions. Occasionally the
North Star would shine through the
clouds slightly to the right of the
heading of the canoe. Even when
the North Star was obscured, the
Big Dipper was there above the
clouds, at least part of it in sight all
the time. The two "pointer" stars of
the Dipper showed where the North
Star was hidden. I soon became
used to how the Dipper lay and un-
thinkingly shifted my attention
from the North Star's projected po-
sition to just the Dipper alone in
gauging when we were on course or
off. Then I realized that in this
northern part of the sky. where all
the significant stars are more or
less bunched together, it is not nec-
essary to have a discrete point on
which to set a course. Instead, to
borrow an expressive image from
the Mississippi River pilots of
Mark Twain's day, you steer by the
shape of the sky. You are sailing
into a part of the heavens, not to-
ward a dot of light. This must be
even more true on a southerly head-
ing, because much of the time the
extreme southern sky holds only
one bundle of significant stars, the
Southern Cross. In both cases the
configuration of the stars is suf-
ficiently distinctive that one can
estimate a course with considerable
ease and accuracy. This procedure
would not be sufficiently precise for
a long voyage, but in the Central
Carolines almost all north-south
trips are conveniently short.
Moving south from Cassiopeia
through a fairly ^vide arc of the sky
devoid of na\dgation stars, we come
to the first of a succession of indi-
vidual stars or small constellations
which occupy positions fairly close
together in the eastern sky at their
rising and. correspondingly, in the
western sky at their setting. There
are nine closely grouped star posi-
tions, beginning with Vega on the
north and ending with Antares on
the south. When these nine rising
positions are combined with their
setting counterparts on the west,
they embrace in the intervals be-
tween them sixteen, or half, of the
thirty-two intervals into which the
entire star compass is divided. The
arc, however, betvveen these same
stars is only about 66 degrees on
either side, adding up to little more
than one-third of the whole 360-de-
gree circle of the sky. This bunch-
ing together of star positions to
east and west, as well as the pre-
cision possible with single bright
stars or such compact constellations
as the Pleiades, reflects the greater
demands for accuracy which are
placed on the navigation system as
a whole by longer east— west pas-
sages.
'^U,
A^ef^
/m.P^''
j:_
62
In the middle of this arc. rising
due east, is Altair, the ''Big Bird."
Just to the north and south of Al-
tair— in the same constellation
which we in the West also call a hig
bird, the Eagle — are its wings,
Gamma and Beta Aquilae. Altair is
where the count of stars on Puluu at
begins, the greatest navigation star
of all. Although it actually rises and
sets 7 degrees north of the ecjua-
tor, because Puluwat is 7 degrees
north, Altair always bears true east
and west. Not only that but it has two
bright companion stars, Procyon and
Bellatrix. on alinost exactly the same
latitude but around on the other side
of the heavens, so that when one is
down another is up. Between the
three of them, they can provide a
rising or setting bearing at almost
any season or time of night. Altair
is the star for Satawal to the west
and Truk to the east, the two long-
est passages Puluwat navigators
regularly make without intermedi-
ate stops.
Altair is not the only navigation
star which has alternate companion
stars around the sky at the same
latitude, that is, rising and setting
at the same locations. A number of
other stars have at least one substi-
tute, and for almost any position
there are other recognized stars
which rise and set close enough to
the right or left of the position of
the navigation star when it is not
itself up to provide at least an ap-
proximate bearing. Furthermore, it
is not necessary that the star that is
going to be used lie straight ahead.
A sight to the rear will serve as Avell
because the navigator is concerned
only with lining up the heading of
the narrow hull of his canoe with
the star. He can do this by looking
in either direction.
The foundation of any sailing
plan is the star position which pro-
vides a bearing between the destina-
tion island and the island from
which the journey begins. Satawal
is due west of Puluwat so the star
course is "under." as the Puluwa-
tans express it. the setting of Altair.
Pikelot, northeast of Satawal. lies
under the setting of Pleiades from
Puluwat. One can go on around the
islands which, near or far. encircle
Puluwat. calling off the course star
for each. A similar round of star
courses to other islands can be re-
cited for each of the islands in the
area, and every navigator knows
them all.
Although the nominal star course
between any pair of islands usually
reflects the true bearing between
them, this true course in some cases
is virtually never used, at least at
the start. A deviation of one star
position, sometimes even two. is of-
ten introduced to compensate for.
or take advantage of. characteristics
of the seaway between the two is-
Apprenticcs use circle of
pebbles to represent
stars in a stndy session
with an elderlv navigator.
lands. Compensation is principally
for the effect of currents. The run
of prevailing currents throughout
the seas ranged by Puluwat canoes
is known to navigators. Com-
pensation for these currents is an
integral part of the package of in-
structions which comprise the sail-
ing directions between island pairs.
The initial course from Puluwat to
Satawal offers a good example. Sa-
tawal lies under the setting of Al-
tair. However, one usually starts
out one star position to the south of
this under Beta Aquilae to counter
a strong current which sets from
the southeast in this area. Yet some-
times even this is not enough.
In this part of the Pacific Ocean
there is great variability in cur-
rents. To the north, the North
Equatorial Current runs westward,
while to the south the Equatorial
Countercurrent goes in the opposite
direction. The Caroline Islands not
only lie along the line of transition
between them, but here too a large
proportion of the Countercurrent is
actually generated by a reversal of
the North Equatorial Current. Thus
there are both vast eddies and ab-
rupt changes in the direction of the
currents whicli occur almost from
day to day. Part of the routine for
departure on a trip, therefore, is to
gauge the direction and rate of the
current before losing sight of the
fixed positions of the island and its
surrounding reefs.
The other major element in the
sailing directions between island
pairs are the seamarks en. route.
The most common seamarks are
reefs. There are extensive reefs
throughout the Central Carolines,
although they become rare to the
south. In general they are 60 to 120
feel below the surface at their
edges, often deeper toward the cen-
ter. They range from the great com-
plex of the Gray Feather and Mo-
gami Banks, which together extend
more than a thousand square miles
under the ocean, to single isolated
heads of coral which cap hidden
pinnacles risen from the ocean
floor. Because of the clarity of the
tropical water and its subtle shad-
ings in sun and shadow, the reefs,
despite their depth, can readily be
detected from a canoe. This is true
6,5
even when the wind is blowing the
surface of the water into spume. In
addition the current running over a
reef roils the water and steepens the
waves. Thus in the daytime a reef
can often be detected a mile or t»vo
away by the whitecaps it creates,
ishile at night it imparts a special
uneasiness to the motion of a sail-
ing canoe. The suspicion of a reef
which this uneasiness engenders
can readily be checked by a sound-
ing with the fishline which is al-
ways on board.
Interisland and paddling
canoes are pulled up
along the shore; two canoe
houses nestle in the trees.
Once over a reef it is possible to
determine one's position. Often pass-
ing over a reef is part of the sail-
ing plan and sighting it below
verifies that the canoe is on course.
At other times the canoe might be
lost or uncertain of its position.
Then it is necessary to sail along
the edge of the reef until its bearing
and some of its outline can be es-
tablished. In the middle of a reef
there is no way to tell one from an-
other, but every reef has its unique
outline. The skilled navigator
knows them all. Therefore, even if
dai\Ti breaks and finds him in the
center of a big bank he need only
sail off in almost any direction to
find its edge. Then by traveling
along it for a way he can determine
which reef he is over and his loca-
tion along its perimeter.
Thus reefs can serve not only as
guideposts along the seaway to an
island but also as a screen to arrest
a canoe if it has strayed from its
course, or perhaps even gone past
its destination. If a navigator who
is not expecting to pass over a reef
sights one under him, he stops and
casts about to find out where he is.
Even more is this true if he should
sight an island other than the one
toward which he is heading. For
this reason, whenever possible a
course is set so that reefs, or better
still islands which can be seen from
afar, lie in a direct line beyond the
destination, a screen to catch the
canoe if it should miss its mark.
This is far safer than a course in
which there is only open ocean be-
yond and illustrates an essential
characteristic of Puluwat naviga-
tion: sailing directions are always
conservative, incorporating every
precaution the seaway can offer.
From every island there are sea-
ways radiating in all directions.
Each has its unique set of sailing
directions designed not merely to
set a proper course but also to in-
clude every special precaution the
arrangement of islands and reefs
4
■i*f d
jm *»■•
will permit. All of them are stored
in the memory of the navigator. As
his canoe moves away from the is-
land, even though he may have
given no thought to his itinerary
until that moment, he already
knows exactly what he should do
and the course he should set.
u
sually this departure occurs
in broad daylight. Worse still, all
preparations for a trip are likely to
be finished about noon, the most
elusive time of day for establishing
a course. At this hour there are not
only no stars but even the sun is
near its zenith and useless for deter-
mining direction. However, the is-
land which the canoe is leaving usu-
ally can provide enough information
for at least a preliminary heading.
As the canoe sails away the navi-
gator looks back. He has learned
how the island should look from a
canoe as it heads toward each of
the various islands to w hich he might
journey. For shorter trips the gen-
eral configuration of the island pro-
vides sufficient orientation to set a
course. However, for more precision
there are usually two points visible
from the sea which are directly in
line with each possible island of des-
tination and thus provide ranges to
sight along. Puluwat is especially
handy for this purpose because the
complex of closely spaced little is-
lands which forms the atoll offers a
multitude of distinguishable land-
marks to be lined up one behind
another. By sailing so that they re-
main in line the navigator who
knows his backsight ranges can
keep his canoe steadily on course
for its destination until the island
drops out of sight.
A heading can also be established
in some directions by passing over
designated portions of reefs near
the island of departure. The reefs
around Puluwat offer little ori-
entation, partly because the princi-
pal reef, Uranie Bank, stretches off
to the southeast, a direction in
which no islands lie. Its northern
edge, however, runs due east from
Puluwat and sailing along here a
canoe can line up exactly on course
for the main pass into Truk. As a
consequence, no land-based back-
sight is necessary for Truk when
departing from Puluwat.
Backsight ranges and orientation
courses over reefs serve two pur-
poses. One is to establish the force
and direction of any current which
may be running. Once away from
the fixed reference of land or reefs
there is no way to estimate the cur-
rent, or even to know whether one
is running at all.
The other is to set a course when
neither sun nor stars are available
at the time of departure. Such a
s\
1
J
j
H^^^^Br^^P^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
Before changing course,
crewmen move the sail
from one end of the
canoe to the other.
course once set can be maintained
by use of a compass and by observa-
tion of the waves until either sun or
stars come into view close enough
to the horizon to define a more ac-
curate heading. In the past only the
waves could be used for this pur-
pose. Now the waves are still ob-
served as a check and an alternative
to the compass. The six to eigh'
miles through which the backsight
landmarks can be seen and utilized
are barely enough to average out
the compass readings, to emerge
into an area of clear ocean waves
free of interference from the island,
and to verify that the course being
held with compass and waves is a
true course. Once this has been
done tlie task of the navigator
moves into its second and longest
phase, that of maintaining a course
and knowledge of his current posi-
tion until he. is close enough to his
destination to home in on it.
Throughout the trip both the com-
pass and waves remain available
to provide a heading whenever the
sun or stars cannot be used for this
purpose.
The navigator alone watches the
compnss. This is obviously appro-
priate when the canoe is on a reach
and the navigator is the one who is
steering by trimming the sail with
the sheet he holds in his hands.
However, even when the canoe is
Hipour tends the sail
from the navigator's
platform, where he will
sit for most of the voyage.
running before the wind or is on a
broad reach and steering is being
done with the paddle by a man aft.
it is still the navigator who watches
the compass. The steersman is ex-
pected to observe the waves or keep
an eye on a distant cloud. At inter-
vals the navigator looks at the com-
pass. If the heading is off he calls
back to the steersman. ''Come
around this way, a little more, a
little more . . .there!"
Thus the waves are still used
even though, with a compass
aboard, they need not be observed
as assiduously or relied upon as
fully as in the past. However, there
are occasions at night when the sky
is overcast and there is no light for
the compass — no flashlight, no
matches, no coals from a fire — and
at such times the waves must be
used exclusively to hold the course
true. Despite its reduction to second-
ary status, the art of sensing direc-
tion by waves is thus by no means
obsolete.
T
■ hree wave systems are recog-
nized and used by Puluwat naviga-
tors in maintaining a course at sea.
I have observed two of them, but
the third kind of wave, which is
weakest, was not running at any
time I was out on a canoe. Coming
from due east is the Big Wave (lit-
erally the "big, big wave"), rela-
tively steep and short and quite dis-
tinctive once you have learned to
recognize it. All manner of waves
cross and impinge one upon an-
other at various angles even far
from land. Two or three crests go
by. then another set intrudes from
elsewhere. Yet the Big Wave has in
a fashion difficult to describe more
character. Perhaps the unbroken
crest of the wave extends farther
from side to side than do the lesser
waves, or there are a few more
crests which pass in review before a
different set intrudes. These impres-
sions are visual and untutored, and
therefore inadequate. Puluwalans
steer bv the feel of waxes under the
canoe, not visually, so what I am
able to report at first hand is sev-
eral steps removed from the actual
sensory inputs which guide the nav-
igator on his way. My observa-
tions can thus testify only that the
Big Wave is distinguishable, does
come regularly from the east, and is
therefore real, something which 1
found difficult to credit before I
had been out on a canoe and seen it
for myself.
The North Wave is the second of
the major waves and actually comes
in more from the northeast. Gener-
ally it runs a little east even of that,
typically coming under Vega, one
point east of northeast when the
magnetic and star compasses are rec-
onciled. It is a long swelling wave
and would be called in English ver-
nacular a ground swell. Other steep-
er waves crisscross its surface as it
moves majestically past, sometimes
on a calm day seeming to heave the
entire surface of the ocean up on its
broad crest.
The third, or South Wave, coines
from a position correspondingly a
little east of southeast, under An-
tares. It is much weaker and less
regular in occurrence. I cannot de-
scribe it further because I have not
seen it.
Because the Big Wave has a more
pronounced character and passes
with greater frequency it is pre-
ferred to the North Wave. Either is
more useful than the unreliable
and often weak South Wave. How-
ever, the choice of a wave depends
not only on which one is running
strongly but also on the course to
be held. In general it is easiest to
steer by waves which are either at
right angles or parallel to the travel
of the canoe. Waves met diagonally
can be confusing. Let us say a ca-
noe is sailing fairly straight into
ihc waves. A wave crest comes
along and lifts its front, then passes
amidships. The canoe begins to
pilch forward as the supporting wa-
ter falls away from its front end. Il
is ])ossible to sense {[uile accurately
when the wave crest passes under
the center of the canoe. Meanwhile
the outrigger float is also riding
over the same wave. It too rises and
falls. If the canoe is headed exactl>-
perpendicular to the wave the float
67
will pass the crest at the same in-
stant as the hull and there will be
no sideways motion at all. If, how-
ever, the canoe is turned at even a
slight angle to the wave, the float
will pass the crest a trifle before or
after the center of the hull. This
will impart a discernible, even
though tiny, roll to one side or the
other. This roll need only be sensed
for two or three waves in a row in
order to define the bearing of the
canoe in the wave system with con-
siderable precision. As long there-
after as the roll remains the same,
going over each wave in succession,
it is certain that the canoe is hold-
ing its course. Correspondingly, a
change in the amount and timing of
this little roll can be translated into
a precise amount of course change.
The principle is essentially sim-
ilar when steering by waves which
are coming from the side of the ca-
noe. It is possible from the relative
motion of hull and outrigger float
to tell the precise moment when the
hull is on top of a wave crest. If it
is exactly parallel to the crest it will
slide over without any pitching for-
ward or aft. However, if it is at
even a slight angle to the wave, the
front or the back, as the case may
be, will find itself out of the water
and unsupported before the other
end. It will drop a trifle, looking
for water to buoy it up. Once again,
then, there will be a characteristic
movement, in this case a pitch for-
ward or aft rather than a roll side-
ways, which will show not only that
the canoe is not quite parallel to the
waves but also in what direction
and how far it is out of alignment.
To steer on this heading requires
only that the amount of and direc-
tion of pitch be kept constant from
wave to ^\"ave. Needless to say, sim-
ilar motions, slightly less clear be-
cause of pressure from the sides of
the waves, occur in the troughs.
The range at which it is possible
to home in on an island of destina-
tion determines the amount of error
allowable in any navigation system.
Navigation en route must be able to
get the canoe close enough to its
destination so that the navigator
can find it with the techniques at
his disposal. For the Puluwat navi-
gator one technique for homing
on an island which is out of sight is
so heavily relied upon that it over-
shadows all others. This is observa-
tion of the flight of seabirds. True,
there are others. Reefs can guide a
navigator toward some islands. Tell-
tale disturbances are occasionally
noticeable in the waves. If freshly
broken branches are found drifting
they suggest that an island is near:
this is especially likely after a
storm, and storms are times when
canoes can get lost. These signs are
rarely used, however, because the
seabirds locally available for obser-
vation provide such efiicient hom-
ing that navigators do not need
anything else.
F
■ ou
our principal species of sea-
birds — noddies, white terns, sooty
terns, and one species of booby I
could not identify — are relied upon
for homing on an island which is
out of sight. All share the essential
qualities of sleeping on land at
night and flying fairly directly to-
ward this land at dusk and away
from it at dawn. In addition, none
range much more than twenty or
twenty-five miles away from land as
they wander over the sea during the
day.
The homing range of seabirds
can also be viewed in a somewhat
different way. It has been referred
to in terms of single islands. If in-
stead one visualizes a twenty-mile
radius of safety surrounding each
of the islands in the Puluwat area,
the resultant overlapping circles,
each forty miles in diameter, will
be seen often to stretch across the
sea in long chains or screens able to
intercept a canoe crossing them at
any point. One such screen extends
north and south with only one short
gap, from Magur at the northern
end of the Namonuito Atoll over
one hundred and fifty miles south
to Pulusuk. The gap results from
the sixty-mile span of open ocean
between Ulul and Pulap. This
leaves an area perhaps twenty miles
across without homing birds. How-
ever, a canoe sailing west through
this area would almost certainly
pass soon after over Gray Feather
Bank and thus locate itself, so the
hiatus is even less serious than it
might appear.
A far longer screen emerges if
the islands of this area are viewed
as they would appear from the
north. This view is of some histori-
cal interest because it is the view
from Saipan. Seen from the north
there is a continuous screen of
overlapping bird ranges extending
for three hundred miles from Gafe-
rut on the west to Pisaras on the
east. If one will concede to the
longer-ranging boobies of East
Fayu a capability almost to close
the sixty-mile gap east of Pisaras,
the screen can be extended more
than a hundred miles farther east to
Murilo in the Halls. This screen
was used deliberately on the return
from Saipan in the past when that
voyage of over five hundred miles
was occasionally made. Going north
the canoe would make a final provi-
sioning stop at Pikelot or occasion-
ally Gaferut. Then it took off for
the grueling ordeal of at least ten,
usually more, hungry, thirsty days
under the sun. The navigator sailed
north until he was at about the lati-
tude of Saipan. and then if he did
not sight that island he turned west.
Since Saipan is in the middle of a
chain of high volcanic islands,
many of them (including Saipan)
quite large, he was bound to hit
something. However, returning to
the Central Carolines some months
later there were no large islands to
be sighted. Instead the navigator
just headed south into the long
screen of islands, reefs, and birds.
He always found something — or if
he did not. presumably he never
told anyone about it!
The start of another
voyage — creAvmen raise the
sail as the canoe moves
out into the lagoon.
W'S,
Captain Eco
BOOKS in review
Eco-GeminhTwolorilieTeacli-ln
DyLuiherP.Geriacn
EcoTACTics: The Sierra Club Hand-
book FOR Environment Actimsts,
edited by John G. Mitchell. Pocket
Books, Inc., $.95; 288 pp. The Envi-
ronmental Handbook, edited by
Garrett De Bell. Ballantine Books,
S.95; 360 pp.
Ecology is where the action is —
some action, anyway, and much
talk. Citizens' groups, scholars, gov-
ernment officials, national leaders,
and, yes. even industrialists expound
on the pressing dangers of environ-
mental destruction. The media ampli-
fy and contribute to this alert. The
president of the United States has en-
dorsed the fight for a better biophys-
ical environment, and as yet the vice-
president has not publicly awarded
environmentalists one of his witty la-
bels of derogation and exclusion from
the ranks of Middle America. Indeed,
it almost looks as if this environmen-
tal movement is not an insurgent
thrust at all. but rather an expression
of the national will and spirit.
Everywhere people say that envi-
ronmental concern will unite and save
the country. For some the path to
such salvation is clear: alert the pub-
lic to the growing ecological crisis,
then add money and technology, and
Zap! — pollution is dead or at least
pacified. In any event. Middle Amer-
ica is relieved to see its youth engage
in the rites of ecology this spring
instead of protesting Vietnam or
promulgating revolution. Apparently
mainstream Americans have not yet
perceived that ecology, taken and ap-
plied seriously, is revolution, that it
demands radical change: that ecology
is "the subversive science" (as Siiep-
ard and McKinley label it in a book
(if the same name. Houghton Mifflin,
1969).
The ecology movement celebrated
its first large-scale revival — or should
we say "arrival" — this spring, the
third week of April. 1970. At least two
books were prepared for the occasion,
presumably to contribute to the
"talk" about environment and to sug-
gest modes of action. These books are
The Environmental Handbook, a
Friends of the Earth book edited by
Garrett De Bell (henceforth abbre-
viated Handbook) , and Ecotactics, a
Sierra Club book.
Many essays and comments in
Handbook and Ecotactics spell out the
revolutionary implications of the
ecology movement, though perhaps
not always with especial efficiency,
tightness, or precision. But the mes-
sage is there.
Of course, the message has been
around for some time. For example,
the radical left has for more than two
years called for a radical restructur-
ing of society to save the environ-
ment, arguing that destruction is a
natural by-product of our present
way of life, which must be remade if
we are to have a living environment.
Writers with this viewpoint, such as
Keith Lampe of Earth Read-Out, con-
tribute essays and statements for the
Handbook and Ecotactics. It might be
added that the Black Muslim press
(in Muhammed Speaks) has also
voiced similar sentiments, although as
far as I can ascertain these contribu-
tions have not been included in the
Handbook.
Side by side with radical state-
ments that zero in on the need for
revolutionary change, both books also
include leports about the state of the
movement and the characteristics of
some of its outstanding or typical
participants. For example, in an ar-
ticle in Ecotactics entitled "The Age
of Ecology." Peter Janssen. the edu-
cation editor of Neicsweek, describes
some of the types of groups and indi-
viduals in tile movement. He does not
tell us how long this age will last. i)ut
implies that the ecological revolution
is here to stay becau.se without such
revolution man cannot survive. He
lurtiier claims that "the ranks of the
eco-activists cut across old traditional
social and i)olitical lines, bringing to-
gether such strange barricade-fellows
as short-haired athletes and long-
maned hippies, the reactionary right
and tiie revolutionar)' left." Such a
coalition, he explains, occurs because
these diverse individuals realize they
share a common and deadly enemy,
pollution. In short. Janssen implies
that this movement can generate a
rather broad-based unity. But he goes
on to give some examples of nonagree-
ment between student environmental
groups and members of the general
public. For instance. University of
Arizona students protesting pollution
from local copper mines found that
"their issue was not overwhelmingly
popular" because so many Arizonans
"depend on the copper industry."
Janssen seems to explain this schism
on the "trouble . . . some activists
have ... in establishing any valid
line of communication within the
community." A cynic might say that
Janssen is wrong — the students have
succeeded only too well in commu-
nicating to the community and
therein lies the trouble. They simply
have not persuaded the community
because of a very pragmatic conflict
of interest. It certainly is not all that
obvious to people that pollution is as
much a threat to their survival as loss
of employment.
Janssen refers to the work of Earth
Read-Out editor Keith Lampe. and
states Lampe's prediction that stu-
dents will become more radical and
militant in "arriving at" solutions to
ecological problems. He also notes
that another writer for Earth Read-
Out "believes tliat students will in-
creasingly adopt an anti-growth phi-
losophy." These two propositions are.
of course, repeated ibrougliout the
Handbook and Erutnctics. Hut. Jans-
.sen also notes that other observers of
tiie movement say that most partici-
l)ants in the movement "aren't radical
enough to consume less." In short.
Janssen should be led to the proposi-
tion that his "strange barricade-fel-
lows" will soon split, and present un-
ity will dissolve. In this respect, a
more recent statement by Lampe in
the mid-March issue of Earth Read-
Out is to the point: Lampe explains
that, superficially, everyone from
President Nixon down is all for sav-
ing the environment. But he sees this
71
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mo
as a sham, a red herring, which di-
verts people from the issue of revolu-
tionary change. He ridicules the "hi-
there" liberals who are playing the
ecology game without being really
committed to revolution. He asks the
truly serious ecology radicals to stand
up and show their revolutionary com-
mitment by helping to "roll back the
police state." Indeed, like other
ecology radicals he states that the
Teach-ins themselves are so con-
trolled by the liberal establishment
that they are not to be taken seriously
by revolutionary ecologists.
A study of movement dynamics will
quickly reveal that this progressive
fission within a movement is quite
natural and predictable. Indeed, it is
a defect in both Handbook and Eco-
tactics that the writers who report on
the state of the movement, such as
Janssen. do not go beyond mere de-
scription of that movement. What the
volumes lack is a perspective essay on
the general nature of social move-
ments and their function in gener-
ating change. Within such a frame-
work the ecology movement could be
examined as one example of a class
of events. Furthermore, it could be
examined as one thrust of the much
broader multirevolution (social, reli-
gious, ecological) that is trans-
forming the United States. But, given
the real function of these volumes as
statements of the ideology and tactics
of the ecology movement, perhaps
such a perspective would seem out of
place. Frequently, participants in a
social movement consider their move-
ment unique and resist its comparison
with similar phenomena.
It must also be noted that, in addi-
tion to using a few new works, the
Handbook reprints some ecology clas-
sics, while Ecotactics concentrates on
new papers by students concerned
with ecology.
Some of the essays feed coherently
into the developing ideology of radi-
cal ecology. Some suggest areas of
significant ideological and tactical
difference within the movement and
between it and established society.
For instance. Garrett Hardin argues
that man will not be motivated to de-
crease environmental despoliation
simply by appealing to his conscience
or warning him of impending dis-
aster. (In contrast we have already
noted that Janssen explains coalition
of "strange barricade-fellows" on the
grounds that everyone perceives the
danger in pollution.) Hardin explains
that instead man must be coerced by
official restrictions if he is to be re-
strained from exploiting his environ-
ment to its death. Presumably this is
to be done within the present system,
using its legal mechanisms. John
Gardner, now chairman of the Urban
Coalition Action Council, notes that
"our system of checks and balances
dilutes the thrust of positive action"
and seems to say that we had better
get some powerful leadership from
tlie top down if we are to get needed
action. Does this also imply that our
present system of checks and balances
must be scrapped in favor of a more
monolithic and totalitarian one?
Gardner doesn't say this, but a fear
voiced by the New Left is that some
members of the establishment will use
the ecology crisis as a means "to in-
itiate massive programs within the
[obsolete] frames of competitive
society'" : then assume dictatorial
powers to protect the old order.
In comparison. Ralph Nader, in a
provocative introduction to Ecotac-
tics, suggests that necessary ecolog-
ical change can be generated partly
because the institutions that control
America (corporations and adminis-
tration) are in fact not monoliths but
rather divided into diverse parts. He
claims that the various groups within
the ecology movement can change the
system by penetrating it through
those components that are sympa-
thetic to ecology.
While accepting the cold realism of
Hardin in evaluating conventional
maximizing man. movement vision-
aries still feel that some people can
be transformed and given an ecolo-
gical conscience through radicalizing
acts and identity-changing experi-
ences. Gary Snyder's "Four Changes"
certainly illustrates the steps of such
transformation. And Rene Dubos in an
introductory remark in the Handbook
also notes the value of "romantic
emotion" in powering a movement of
ecological survival. He realizes that
Environmental Teach-ins function
more to alert people to problems and
define areas of concern than to pro-
vide new knowledge.
As noted. certain ideological
themes do run through these books.
These themes reflect the general de-
velooment of ecology movement
ideology, and their emergence was
quite predictable a few years ago. T^'e
might identify a few of the major
themes:
The Doomsday Theme: Some say we
are in "the last days." others that we
have "one last chance" for survival.
Guilt: To gain its high standard of
living, the United States, more than
any other nation, has sinned against
nature by exploiting it, consuming re-
sources, and polluting air and water.
The Concept of the Limited Good:
The resources of the world are finite,
and if we consume them, others will
be deprived.
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The Concept of Closed System: The
earth is. for all practical purposes, a
closed system (a variant of the lim-
ited-good idea), a spaceship, as it
were, with only limited amounts of
life-sustaining energy.
The Need for Recyclmg: Recycling of
outputs, which would otherwise be
considered ivaste, is a necessity to
maintain Spaceship Earth.
The Concepts of a No-Growth Econ-
omy and Zero Population Growth:
This links to concepts about main-
taining systems in a steady state; re-
ducing consumption in an environ-
ment of limited good.
The Concept of Ecosystem and Inter-
dependence: Environment and man
interrelate dynamically. As yet popu-
lar awareness of ecosystem is at a
rudimentary level and focuses chiefly
on gross relationships between man
and environment. There is little dis-
cussion or understanding of relation-
ships among various sociocultural in-
stitutions or between sociocultural
man and biophysical man.
The Acceptance of a Need for
Marked Change to Save the Environ-
ment: Within this dimension there
are. as suggested above, many diver-
gent lines. The most obvious split is
between those who would (a) endorse
change within the system or (6)
change the entire system radically.
The Concept That Individuals Must
Commit Themselves to Change.
The Concept That System Change
Also Means Change in Life Style:
Here again we note a significant
cleavage in the movement. There are
those who say that individuals must
"give up" many of the artifacts of a
high standard of living — cars, extra
electric appliances, and "labor-sav-
ing" devices. This seems a logical se-
quel to the concepts that man is ap-
proaching doomsday and must feel
guilty about his sins against the envi-
ronment. But this ethic of sacrifice is
unlikely to have broad appeal. Far
more attractive is the positive reward
proposition that reducing his con-
sumption gives man a chance to get
off the treadmill and enjoy life in a
better environment. In a Handbook
essay, editor Garrett De Bell holds
out the vision of such positive gains if
only we change.
A useful comparison can be made
here with the Black Power movement.
A few black visionaries have argued
that the changes promulgated by the
Black Power movement offer white
America — all of America — a better
future. But in the main, blacks and
whites ask for such changes on the
threat of riot and destruction or by
implication of guilt.
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73
CROWDER
NATURE TOURS
SCHEDULE: Listed below are
starting dates for 1970. Space per-
mits only a brief mention of each
tour, and one should by all means
have the "Tour Catalog'' with
thumbnail sketches of each trip, as
well as subsequent detailed itiner-
aries. IN'orth America tours are 2
weeks each, others 3 weeks, unless
othenvise noted.
ARIZONA
Popular SE Arizona bird observation
tour. Expert leadership. Two weeks froin
May 9: all expenses. S515.
ALASKA
South Tour from Vancouver June 20;
North Tour from Fairbanks July 4;
"Outposts" from Anchorage July 18.
Three remarkable 2-week trips, from in-
side passage to Aleutians, Pribilofs and
Point Barrow.
WEST VIRGINIA
Ecological tour: revealina. nearby, in-
expensive. \\'heeling July 25; 2 wks.
EUROPE (12 tours)
Comprehensive I2-tour program covers
continent broadly. 3-week trips connect
into fascinating north-with-spring and
across-Siberia routes. Dates:
Mediterranean: April 30, Lisbon
Britain: Mar 28, London
Balkans: May 28, Venice
Europe Xorth: May 28, Amsterdain
Europe East: June 18, Roumania
Norway: June 18, Oslo
Iceland (2 wks): June 25
Iceland Center. Julv 9
Iceland 11: Julv 20
Russia: Julv 9. Helsinki
Siberia: July 30. Tashkent
A one-week Seminar on Basic Ornithol-
ogy and Natural History of Europe is
planned at Coniston. Lake District of
England, beginning May 21.
CENTRAL AMERICA
Summer program in rainy season when
birds are on territory. July and August,
3 tours. Chiapas. Yucatan, Panama.
AFRICA (3 tours)
South and East Africa and Madagas-
car; three tours in July/September. Ex-
cellent leadership.
SOUTH AMERICA (3 tours)
Colombia. Aug. 15; Venezuela, Sep. 12;
Argentina Tierra del Fuego. October 17.
Also Galapagos and Antarctica.
SOUTH PACIFIC (5 tours)
This is the year of full South Pacific
coverage. Melanesia. Aug. 15 from
Samoa; New Guinea. Sep. 5 from Rabaul;
Western Australia, Sep. 26 from Perth;
.'\ustralia East. Oct. 17 from the Barrier
Reef at Cairns; New Zealand, Nov, 7
from Auckland.
SOUTH WITH AUTUMN (2 tours)
Geoloev and ecoloev of the eastern
U.S.A.. following the wave of fall color
southward. Northeast Coast tour meets
at Bangor Sep. 19; Southeast Coast tour
at Harpers Ferry Oct. 10, Leader; Geolo-
gist Isabella Coons, with many assisting
leaders along the way.
Come along! . . . intimate, private
groups, expert leadership. We seek out
back-country routes, try for an experience-
in-depth of the natural scene and the
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CROWDER NATURE TOURS
BOX 222-a
HARPERS FERRY, W. VA. 25425
It can be proposed tliat. given some
of these concerns, the ecology move-
ment will collide and conflict with the
Black Power movement. For example,
the rising expectations of blacks for a
bigger slice of the American pie will
clash with development of the concept
of a limited good in a no-growth
economy. Also, blacks see that the
ecology' issue diverts attention and re-
sources from their plight. The ecology
movement will also collide with those
who wish to promote American indus-
trial growth in other lands. And. of
course, as noted above, very radical
whites will become disenchanted with
the liberal establishment's approach
to ecology.
These two books do not really dis-
cuss this type of potential conflict. If
the ecology movement is. indeed, to
unite people in an honest and
effective environmental crusade and
not simply further polarize society,
then participants must determine how
to involve and include people from
across the spectrum of American
society.
In conclusion, we might speculate
on the effect of these books. Certainly
they provided grounds for discussion
during the environment teach-in.
Probably few readers will appreciate
the revolutionarv- implications of
many of the essays. The teach-in was
a time of talk, not application. Every-
one is on the ecobandwagon. At this
stage of the movement, its rhetoric
will not alarm.
-A.S an aftermath of the teach-in
there will be an increase in ecoac-
tion. some of it directly sparked by
suggestions presented in the Hand-
book and in Ecotactics. More car en-
gines wiU be buried: more disposable
bottles will be returned; some indi-
viduals will begin to consume less.
This will not alarm the public, for
few wiU take it seriously, few will be-
lieve that students really want to re-
ject the automobile or to change their
life style. After all. right now pollu-
tion protesters drive cars to meetings
that are held, with all lights burning,
in rooms fiUed with the cigarette
smoke of those demanding that this
or that power company stop despolia-
tion of air and water.
Conflict will come later. It will
come when present high expectations
of environmental change are not met.
when the general public is so super-
saturated with talk of environment
and pollution that it tunes out. when
hard-core ecology activists really get
to work, and when participants in the
more radical groups call upon new
recruits to demonstrate their total
commitment.
Given the broad significance of
these books it hardly seems fair to
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74
focus on some of their more technical
defects. But perhaps some such cri-
tique is called for. It is unfortunate
ivhen editors of anthologies, even of
anthologies hastily pulled together to
meet a crisis, do not write those state-
ments of introduction, transition, and
summary that would give their collec-
tions needed perspective and inter-
relatedness. This would seem to be a
very common failing of editors today.
It is too bad that De Bell follows in
such footsteps. He contributes some
good essays to the Handbook, but he
does not pull the total work together.
Ironically, he includes and endorses
an essay on the need for coherence in
education, written by John Fischer
(September. 1969. Harpers). Fischer
says that a liberal arts education is
not relevant because it is incoherent;
it is incoherent because it consists of
bits and pieces that don't stick to-
gether. Fischer claims that to make
such education cohere, it should re-
volve around central concepts and
problems, such as ecology. It seems
equally clear that merely lumping es-
says together under one cover because
they deal in various ways with what
superficially is the same subject is not
enough to make them cohere. Fischer
would seem to know this, but does
editor De Bell?
It is worth raising an additional
question in this context: Robert and
Leona Train Rienow contribute a
chapter from their book. Moment in
the Sun, to the Handbook. They men-
tion the good work of Doctors Leake
and Rusden who call for "extensive
planting of trees and other green
things to depollute the air." by con-
verting carbon dioxide to oxygen.
This .sounds great, and surely tree
planting would be a great pastime for
budding ecology activists! But on
page 72. in an article entitled
'"Energy." we learn something that is
exactly the opposite: "a plant pro-
duces only enough oxygen for its own
use during its life plus enough extra
for the oxidation of the plant after
death. . . ." Who wrote this? Why,
Garrett De Bell, the edit<ir. Surely, as
editor he should have spotted some-
thing that seems so contradictory,
and then set his readers straight so
they know what to expect from so
seemingly satisfactory an ecoaction as
tree planting.
But let us not quibble about such
minor defects and consider instead
ways in which the concepts and sug-
gestions contained in these two vol-
umes can help us achieve a much
needed ecological awareness, which,
in turn, can lead to a more adaptive
design for living.
Luther P. Gerlach is an associate pro-
THE
^ WORLD'S ^
MOST MISUNDERSTOOD
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That was the bat. Until now.
Until Life photographer Nina Leen and noted physiologist Dr.
Alvin Novick produced this unprecedented — and astoundingly
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For this is the first photographic study ever attempted of the
animal behavior of bats. Ahhough bats constitute the second largest
population of mammals on earth, their habits and history are virtually
unknown to the average layman. Superstition, fear, and repugnance
dominate most thinking about this unique winged creature.
A PHOTOGRAPHIC BREAKTHROUGH
Now, after three years of painstaking study and pioneering camera work. Miss Leen
presents 120 pages of photographs (many in color) that strip aside all the ugly stereotypes
to reveal an animal of amazing complexity and rare beauty. With exquisite skill, she shows
us bats in flight and feeding, swimming, hanging upside down, grooming — and even yawning!
Dr. Novick's superlative text, written for the non-scientific reader, explains the fan-
tastic sophistication of bat sonar, the com-
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s sivfl JO amo«
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Nature lovers and photography buffs alike
will be impressed by the stunning beauty of
this large-format (lOVi" x 12", 170 pages)
volume, produced in Switzerland by fine art
printers. To share in this unusual publishing
experience, please mail the coupon below.
THE WORLD OF BATS
photographs by Niaa Leen,
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
383 Madison Avenue, N.Y., N.Y. 10017
Please send me, postpaid, a copy of TIte
World of Bals. I enclose $23.95. (Add sales
tax where applicable. Offer not valid after
Sept. 15, 1970. For outside U.S.A., add 50c
for postage and handling.)
text by Alvin Novick, edited by Jay Gold cnv state zip . '
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SEE tlie Blue Grouse till his air sacs in mating display
9604 Rocky Mountain Sheep and the White-Tailed
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LEARN from natures linest engineer as tie constructs
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COMPARE the teeding and nesting habits ol the Mourning
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75
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feasor in the Department of Anthro-
pology at the University of Min-
nesota.
Shipvcrecks and Archaeology: The
Unharvested Sea. by Peter Throck-
morton. Atlantic-Little, Brown and
Company, $6.95; 270 pp., illus.
In a very real sense, underwater
archeology was born less than
twenty years ago when Jacques
Cousteau began the extended in-
vestigation of a wreck discovered off
the French coast near Marseilles. One
of the pioneers of the new science is
Peter Throckmorton. In this book,
drawing upon his varied and rich ex-
perience, he sketches for the general
reader what materials are available
for the underwater archeologist to
work on. what techniques he has de-
veloped, and what the future holds
for this newly fledged field.
The underwater archeologist is pri-
marily concerned with wrecks. Not
all, however, are grist for his mill. In
the opening chapters the author de-
scribes what happens to a ship after
it hits the sea floor; how, and to
what extent, it will disintegrate; and
where divers can expect to find
wrecks whose condition will warrant
investigation. He relates his own ex-
periences in working on remains
found on coral or stone reefs, point-
ing out the special problems these
present. He discusses the identi-
fication of wrecks, tells in detail
of the tragic end of the Nautilus, a
British sloop of war that went down
off Greece in 1806, and describes how
he was able to locate its remains.
The second half of the book con-
centrates on ancient wrecks. Throck-
morton begins it by giving a com-
prehensive account of the 1901
excavation of the famous wreck off
Anticythera that held a priceless
cargo of Greek art. The work was
more treasure-saving than excavation,
and it was carried out entirely by
sponge divers pressed into the service
of archeology. Throckmorton has
combed the newspapers of the time
for information, and the story he
convincingly reconstructs is consid-
erably different from the official ver-
sion. He then turns to the subsequent
history of underwater archeology and
explains the various techniques that
have been devised to insure that un-
derwater sites are excavated with the
same precision as those on land. A
prime problem is to mark and photo-
graph a wreck in such a way that all
objects are identified and their loca-
tion recorded before they are re-
moved. The solutions have ranged
from painfully slow measuring and
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RELCO D 154
BOX 10839, HOUSTON, TEX. 77018
95
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tagging by hand to the use ol a spe-
cial two-man submarine with water-
proof cameras designed for stereo-
photography.
One particular motif runs through
the whole book and is given extensive
treatment in the final chapter — the
sorrowful fact that much of the po-
tential fruit of underwater archeology
will never be harvested, thanks to the
ruthless plundering of wrecks by
treasure and souvenir hunters. The
author cites one sad case after an-
other of finely preserved wrecks that,
within a year of discovery, had been
viciously mutilated or picked clean.
Throckmorton is an enthusiastic
and skillful writer who says what he
has to say with speed and verve and
in clear, nontechnical language. The
illustrations are plentiful but. un-
fortunately, neither well chosen nor
well reproduced.
Lionel Casson
New York University
Seeds of Change: The Green Revo-
lution AND Development in the
1970's. by Lester R. Brown. Praeger
PiihUsheis, S6.9S: 205 pp.
Over the past two years the press
has been saturated with con-
fusing and often contradictory state-
ments concerning the "Green Revolu-
tion." The public has seen warnings
of famine by some experts; warnings
of food surpluses by others. Lester
Brown was. at the age of .32. ap-
pointed liead of the U.S. Department
of Agriculture's International Agri-
cultural Development Service. He
played a major role in initiating the
Green Revolution, and he is emi-
nently qualified to write a l)ook on
the .subject. He lias wrilten a fine one,
indeed.
Seeds of Change will be welcomed
by all those interested in the problem
of feeding the burgeoning human
population. It chronicles the devel-
opment of new high-yield grains and
describes early successes (and some
failures) associated with their in-
troduction to Asia. But the meat of
this book is the discussion of how
these early successes might be con-
verted into a long-term triiiniiib. a
true agricultural revolution in ihe
poor countries of tlie globe.
Considering his personal in-
volvement, it is not surprising that
Brown is enlhusiastic about the |io-
tential of the new agricultural tech-
nology to bring about the needed
transformations. It is to his great
credit, therefore, that he gives very
detailed consideration to the dif-
ficulties that must be overcome if
long-term success is to be achieved.
He discusses social, political, and eco-
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nomic problems, pointing out critical
areas and suggesting ways of avoid-
ing trouble. For example, he urges
great care in introducing mecha-
nization into the agriculture of under-
developed countries (UDCs), point-
ing out that agriculture must remain
quite labor-intensive. The underde-
veloped world, with roughly 45 per-
cent of its population under 15. will
have a high level of unemployment in
the immediate future (as those chil-
dren enter the labor pool), and many
UDCs show extremely rapid rates of
urbanization as well. Mechanization
of agriculture, driving people off the
land, would greatly exacerbate these
problems.
Brown devotes a chapter to the
population explosion, giving strong
emphasis to the coming employment
crisis. Unlike many other writers, he
recognizes that the Green Revolution
"is by no means a solution to the pop-
ulation problem [although] it is di-
minishing the prospects of famine in
the near future and buying time —
perhaps an additional fifteen years —
in which to develop the technologies,
the will, and the strategies to stabilize
global population growth." Brown
also makes clear his awareness of the
role of agriculture in the problem of
environmental deterioration, although
the ways in which that deterioration
may itself decrease available food
supplies are not made explicit.
Although the book is brief, it con-
tains a wealth of information — con-
siderably more than its title would in-
dicate. For instance, there is a fine
discussion of some important agricul-
tural problems in the United States.
Examples are well chosen and inter-
esting, and the clarity of the writing
is outstanding. The book is suitable
for any intelligent layman and is re-
quired reading for all professionals
interested in the population-resource-
environment crisis.
The tone of Seeds of Change is op-
timistic. Some people concerned with
the population-resource-environment
crisis, including myself, are more pes-
simistic. In my own case the pessi-
mism stems largely from three sources.
First, I feel the problem of environ-
mental deterioration is probably the
most serious we face, and that the ac-
tions of some "Green Revolution-
aries" without Brown's insight may
accelerate that deterioration. For in-
stance, massive pesticide inputs in
UDCs may seriously reduce the criti-
cally important harvest of protein
from the sea. Second, I know that
even the most dramatic, immediate
success in the area of population con-
trol will not be able to halt popu-
lation growth for many decades, and
I am doubtful if any conceivable suc-
cess with the Green Revolution can
buy us that much time. And, third, I
am enough of a cynic to believe that
many of the very intelligent sugges-
tions that Brown makes in the area of
agricultural development will never
be implemented. In addition, we are
still a long way even from the first
serious attempt to halt the population
explosion, to say nothing of a success-
ful program. But that I am more pes-
simistic than Lester Brown is not a
criticism of Seeds of Change, which I
recommend highly to anyone who is
concerned with the problem of feed-
ing a vastly overpopulated world.
Paul R. Ehrlich
Stanford University
Briefly Noted
Night of the Grizzlies, by Jack 01-
sen. G. P. Putnam's Sons, $6.95; 254
pp., illiis.
This account of the events leading
to the fatal maulings of two campers
by bears in August, 1967, is perhaps
the most hair-raising book of the
year. Jack Olsen has assembled all
the ingredients of this tragedy — the
huge grizzlies whose free-roaming ter-
ritory is being relentlessly eroded;
the rangers who suspended park
rules, better judgment, and common
safety precautions; and the inex-
perienced campers and tourists to
whom these bears were part of the
"show." Actors and events are
brought to a horrifying climax in a
drama that the author believes may
signal the beginning of the end for
this carnivore. As Olsen says, "The
grizzly needs space, and the continen-
tal United States no longer has space
to give him."
C.B.
The American Museum is open to
the public without charge every day
during the year, except Thanksgiv-
ing and Christmas. Your support,
through membership and contribu-
tions, helps make this possible. The
Museum is equally in need of sup-
port for its work in the fields of re-
search, education and exhibition.
This list details
other source of
COVER— Lee Boltin
10-11— Edward Rice,
Photo Trends
12-13— Everett Gendler
14 — Photo Trends
16 — Edward Rice,
Photo Trends
20— Everett Gendler
31-34— Lee Boltin
36-37- Arthur W.
Ambler, National
Audubon Society
38-43- William Herrn-
kind except map,
AMNH after Herrnkind
45— Helmut Wimmer
46-47— Eric Lessing,
Magnum
the photographer or
illustration, by page.
48-49- AMNH after
Darlington
51 — Marilyn Silverstone,
Magnum
52-53— Charles Harbutt,
Magnum
54— Elliott Erwitt,
Magnum
57— Charles Harbutt,
Magnum
58 — Thomas Gladwin
61— AMNH after
Gladwin
62-63 — Peter Silverman '
64-69 — Thomas Gladwin
70 — Barbara Hollings-
worth
ORIOLE "FUN-BAR"
This exclusive Feeder will attract many tun-
loving golden Orioles to your garden, patio or
balcony (see actual photo). Hang anywhere and
then watch the fun. Orioles are not only beauti-
ful, but "characters" as well. A grand gift any
time. No rust, easy to clean. Moneyback guaran-
tee, full instructions. $i.95 plus 34(# pp. In Calif,
add 25(# tax. Sorry no COD. HUMMINGBIRD
HEAVEN. 6818-N Apperson St.. TUJUNGA,
CALIF. 91042. (Makers of the famous "Hummy-
Bird Bar" ®.) 15th Year!
% Beech Cliff
On The Lake, By The Sea
MOUNT DESERT, MAINE, near Bar Harbor
BOYS 9-16 Pioneer camping in setting
of great natural beauty— plus EXCEP-
TIONAL TRIP PROGRAM. Each camper
elects (without extra charge) Wilderness
Canoe Trips, Windjammer Sailing Cruise,
Katahdin Mt Expedition. In-Camp prog,
incl. riflery, archery, tennis, water siding,
fresh water swimming, sailing Natural
science emphasized. (Aho Caribbean
Oceanograpnic Summer School age 14-17 ) .
Clifford A. Pulls, 6 Old Marlboro Rd., Concord,
Mass. 01742 (617)369-4095 EST. 1954
Accredited lYr.U.S.Tour
Coed, 14-18. Exciting one year ecology
adventure to natural, historical & cultural
wonders. Stimulates learning, maturity,
cooperation, responsibility. Endorsed by
leading educators & parents. Few va-
cancies left in small (20) student group
leaving N.Y. Sept. 7. For infor. or filmed
preview, call: (212) 989-2224.
traitsiJe CountiyScfioo/
40 MILLION YEAR OLD FOSSIL FISH
(DIPLOMYSTUS HUMUIS) $17.95
500 MILLION YEAR OLD TRILOBITE
(ELRATHIA KING) S2.25
DOVER SCIENTIFIC
Box 6011 c
Long Island City, N.Y. 11106
Send 25c for Illustrated Catalog
of Minerals, Fossils & Stiells
HARRIS TWEED, SHETLAND TWEED
and WOOLEN WORSTED
All garments for Ladies and Gents tailored. Capes and
Norfolk Jackets $46.00. Suits and Overcoats $55.00,
Jackets $38.00, Skirts and Trousers $19.00. Prices in-
clude all cloth. All cloth sold by the yard. Satisfaction
guaranteed. Send $1.00 for air-mail swatches to;
ALEXANDER GRAHAM Borve, Isle of Lewis, Scotland
Sugoested
Additional Reading
WHERE HAVE ALL THE BEACH
CLUBS OF OLD HAVANA GONE?
Castro's Cuba, Cuba's Fidel. L.
Lockwood. The Macmillan Com-
pany, New York, 1967.
Socialism in Cuba. L. Huberman
and P. Sweezy. Monthly Review
Press, New York, 1969.
BIOLOGY OF THE WAY-OUT
Nature and Man's Fate. G. Hardin.
New American Library, Inc., New
York, 1961.
Learning and Instinct in Animals.
W. H. Thorpe. Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, 1963.
A Guide to Bird Watching. J. J.
Hickey. Anchor Books, Garden
City, 1963.
ANCIENT MEXICO
AND CENTRAL AMERICA
Indian Art of Mexico and Central
America. M. Covarrubias. Alfred
A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 1957.
The Maya. M. D. Coe. Frederick A.
Praeger, Inc., New York, 1966.
Mexico. M. D. Coe. Frederick A.
Praeger, Inc., New York, 1962.
Handbook of Middle American In-
dians. R. Wauchope, ed. University
of Texas Press, Austin, 1964.
MIGRATION
OF THE SPINY LOBSTER
Something Rich and Strange. R.
Schroeder. Harper & Row, New
York, 1965.
Crustaceans. W. L. Schmitt. Univer-
sity of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor,
1965.
Curious Naturalists. N. Tinbergen.
Anchor Books, Garden City, 1968.
Undervtater Guideposts. A. D. Has-
ler. University of Wisconsin Press,
Madison, 1966.
THE ORIGINS OF
AGRICULTURE
The Origin of Cultivated Plants.
A. De Candolle. Hafner Publishing
Co., Inc., New York, 1959.
The Variation of Animals and
Plants under Domestication. C.
Darwin. 8 vol. D. Appleton and
Company, New York, 1900.
EAST IS A BIG BIRD
Nature Is Your Guide. H. Gatty. E.
P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New York,
1957.
The Canoes of Polynesia, Fiji, and
Micronesia. J. Hornell. Vol. I of
Canoes of Oceania by A. C. Had-
don and J. Hornell. Bernice P.
Bishop Milseum, Special Publica-
tion 27, Honolulu, 1936.
BUFFET FOR "HUMMERS'
Hummingbirds, colorful playboys of the feath-
ered world, have sipped 4-at-a-time for 15 years
now from genuine "Hummy-Bird Bars"® (Ac-
tual photo). They Jove the real wood perch on
their private buffet. No other birds or bees can
reach the goodies. No drip or rust, easy to clean.
Always a heartwarming gift! Moneyback guar-
antee. Full instructions. $2.95 plus 2%i pp. In
Calif, add 15(^ tax. Sorry no COD's. HUMMING-
BIRD HEAVEN, 6818-N Apperson St., TU-
JUNGA, CALIF. 91042 (Makers of the popular
Oriole "Fun-Bar" for fun-loving Orioles ) .
MADE IN U.S.A.
MAGAZIIVE-BOOK TREE
ingenious, new
chairside li-
brary. Holds over
100 magazines,
newspapers, cat-
alogs — even
phone books —
wrinkle free, or-
derly — easy to
see, ready to use.
Top holds any
paper-
books -- ^ ,
lots &
lots. It's porta-
ble, practical and
so pretty. Ideal
for home, oflSce,
reception room.
White birch
gs. Ii
..jney pine or
maple, antique
pine or waUiut finish. 28"H, 16"W.
15"D. $15.95. HOME KIT: For
easy assembly & finish. Simple in-
stnictions. $9.95 Postpaid. Add
85(? each West of Mississippi.
BEAUTIFUL NEW FREE CATALOG— 1000 PIECES
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include Zip No. YIELD HOUSE
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Trapping
with humane
HAVAHART
TRAPS
Learn
about
humane
trapping
from
Havahart
It's sure, simple, and sale! Did you know— rabbits like rolled
oats? Woodchucks can't resist string beans? Gophers go (or
peanut butter? Corn lures coons? Snapping turtles kill game
birds? Rats can be controlled? Skunks can't spray without
lifting their tails? Ttiese are a tew of the fascinating facts from
the HAVAHART Trapping Guide! t^ew edition contains a wealth
of useful information as well as price list for the complete line
of cages, traps, and animal carriers. Send (or FREE copy!
Learn ttie secrets of trapping success.
HAVAHART, 158-M Water St., Ossining, N.Y. 10562
Please senif price list and free trapping guide.
Name
Address
City State Zip
79
i:%fl
IBM's Dennis Leonetti, who began working
on Allegheny County's long-standing
air-pollution projea in 1967, at the site of
a planned sensing station.
They re keeping an eye on unseen
pollutants in a city^s ain
Once a 3'white'shirt'a-day city, Pittsburgh did a remarkable job of
cleaning up its visible air pollution. But how do you fight the stuff
you can^t see? Dennis Leonetti's story is another example of how IBM,
its people or products often play a part in tackling today's problems.
'Air taken in through 'sniifers' like these is continuously analyzed for pollutants. Readings are then fed into a central computer."
"There were days when Pittsburgh was dark by noon.
And some people wore three shirts a day," reflects
Dennis Leonetti, IBM Marketing Representative to
the Allegheny County Bureau of Air Pollution Control.
"They really did a remarkable job of cleaning up
the visible pollution. As far back as 1962, a U. S. Public
Health Service study, covering thirteen cities, showed
that Pittsburgh had less 'dust' than eleven of them.
Only Salt Lake City had clearer air.
"But the most difficult part of the job is still ahead.
"What we're after now are the pollutants you can't
see. Carbon monoxide. Sulphur dioxide. And what's
called fine particulate, the stuff that stays suspended in
the air.
"By this summer, the County will have seven sens-
ing stations with 52 sensors. The final plan calls for
seventeen stations with 103 sensors.
"These 'sniffers' take continuous readings of pol-
lutant levels, which, along with weather data, are fed
into the computer over telephone lines.
"Readings are printed out every five minutes. But
when a pollutant exceeds a specified level, the print-
out appears in red and the computer automatically re-
quests new readings every fifteen seconds.
"A system like this can pinpoint excess pollutants
and their sources. And give pollution authorities an
opportunity to take appropriate action.
"What's more, we'll eventually be able to use it as
an early warning system — spotting dangerous condi-
tions before critical pollution levels are reached.
"Nobody's looking for any awards yet. We haven't
eliminated air pollution. But what
we're doing will help here. And, we
hope, in other cities as well."
IBM
KEEP PACE WITH SPACE AGE! SEE MOON SHOTS-LANDINGS, SPACE FLIGHTS, CLOSE-UP
TTT7r*lH LLlH
for FUN. STUDY or PROFIT
GREAT INT'L PAPER PLANE BOOKl
Official fly-them-yourself
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from SCIENTIFIC AMERI-
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plans of ail winning entri^,
time-aloft records, photos,
technical data. commen-
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for easy tear-out. You won't
believe how some of them
fly! Amusing, entertaining. 128 pages, 9" x WYa".
Stock No. 939 1 E $2.95 Ppd.
BATTERY POWERED GYROSCOPE
For the first time— have the
fun &. enjoyment of a gyro
without bother of constant
string winding & pulling. 5"
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Spin
edge
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switch to otT is an experience-
tor armost 3 min. without powe
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Stock No. 7l,l6iE
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formance. Ev(
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nber— see
atoms explode with the spin-
thariscope— check ionization
and radioactivity ot every
day materials . . . these are
just a few of the fascinating
projects possible with this
amazing 43 part kit. Con-
tains everything needed to
construct your personal
atomic energy laboratory. Absolutely safe. Includes atomic
cloud chamber, projector, illuminator, electroscope, spin-
thariscope, 22 p. instruction booklet with suggested experi-
ulate student's scientific interest
product & tool de-
egatii
olds. I
lily shaped
by hand, tools. Can be rolled
flat, built up into figures.
Permanently pliable until
baked at 300' F. for 15-30
minutes in oven — no kiln
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eded.
shrink. Acquires permanert.
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Stock No. 60.794E
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WOODEN SOL/D PUZZLES
fascinating assort-
ment of 12 different puzzles
to provide hours of pleasure
ability to
WM
think and
'^
Stock No 70.205E
s. Take
them apart and reassemble
them. Lots of fun for the
whole family. Will test skill,
patience and ability to solve
S5.00 Ppd.
NEW, tOW-COST GEM TUMBLER
ickhi
I Fasci-
loads of
>, easy. Make
tumble-fini
readily available gemstones
. . . then polish to high
lustre . . . brings out beau<
tiful colors. Rugged 3-lb. ca-
pacity tumbler w/conlinuous
duty motor. Full instructions.
Stock No. 70.874E SI0.75 Ppd.
6-lb. ROCK ASSORTMENT (10 TYPES)
Stock No. 70.868E ..^ ^ $ 9.00 Ppd.
''^"t'N 4,000 UNUSUAL BARGAINS
I MORETHAN
pletely new catalog. 148 pages
Led with nearly 4.000 unusual
argains. Exciting new categories.
lany new items. lOO's of charts.
lustrations. Many hard-to-get war
irplus bargains. Enormous selec-
on of telescopes, microscopes, bi-
ulars. magnets, etc. for hobbyists.
erimenters, workshops. Shop by
il. Write for Catalog -'E" to Ed-
nd Scientific Company, 300 Eds-
ngton. New Jersey 08007.
AMERICAN MADE 7x50 BINOCULARS
Big
'ings
Br;
Crystal-cIf
power. Every optical element
is coated. An excellent night
glass— the size recommended
for satellite viewing. Indi
vidual eye focus. Exit pupjl
7 mm. Approx. field at 1.000
yds. is 376 ft. Carrying Case
included. American 7x50 s
normally cost S274.50. Ter
rific bargain.
Stock No. I544E $99 50 Ppd
AMERICAN-MADE 6x30 S
Stock No. 963E $65.00 Ppd.
PLASTIC MODEL V-8 ENGINE
Hours of fun! Get thrill of
building your own easily as-
sembled engine from over
350 parts. Then push starter
and watch it run. Crankshaft
revolves, pistons move, valves
open and close in sequence
with spark plugs. Does ev-
erything but burn oil. 'A
scale molded in 4 colors.
Same motor used in many
mechanic courses. Excellent,
easy-to-understand tech manual."
Stock No 70 448E $12.95 Ppd.
GIANT WEATHER BALLOONS
"Balls of fun" for kids,
traffic stoppers for stores,
terrific for amateur meteo-
rologists. Create a neighbor-
hood sensation. Great back- ,„ „^^^^ i^c.
yard fun. Exciting beach -^ .^m^^M 'Of*-
attraction. Amateur meteo-
rologists use to measure
cloud heights, wind speed,
and temp. Made of heavy
duty neoprene. Inflate with
vacuum cleaner, auto air hose; or helium for high rise.
Stock No. 60,568E 8' $2.00 Ppd.
GIANT 16' DIAMETER
Stock No. 60.632E ..$7.00 Ppd.
NEW LIQUID-FUEL ROCKET KIT
Apollo-type rocket soars to
1. 000 feet at 300 ft- pw sec-
ond . . . then gently returns
to earth on automatic para-
chute. Fantastically realistic
lift off. flight, vapor trail.
16" aluminum rocket can be
fired manually or electrically
(req. 6v Batt. not incl.).
Loads of fun building, dec-
orating, launching again &.
again. Includ.: 16 Pg. instruct., engine, timer, separator,
parachute, parachute tube, nose cone, fins, loading valve,
hose, electric firing assembly, launch stand, propellant.
Stock No. 7I,I82E $15.95 Ppd,
EXTRA PROPELLANT (2 15 oz. cans)
Stock No. P7 1.1 92E . . $ 4.00 Ppd.
TERRIBLE LIZARDS-MONSTROUS MAMMALS
Explore the fascinating pre
historic world of dinosaurs
200,000,000 years ago. New
kit contains 24 authentic
scale models (12 dinosaurs
— 12 mammals) accurately
detailed in sturdy plastic 1^* sg&dJ'*^^^" ' ^^sgfe^
Incl.: Giant Brontosaurus '^ .-*^«**'i -^^^^S^
fierce Tyrannosaurus Rex
Wooly Mammoth — range in
size from 2" to 6". Also inst
to build your own dinosaur land and Wi^nder Book
Stock No. 70.8I7E $6 00 Ppd
"FISH" WITH A MAGNET
^^^sb, " Go treasure hunting on the
C'^'^'rZ'' .^^^^ -. bottom! Fascinating fun &.
H _^^. ^^^^ - sometimes profitable! Tie a
- ^ ^■\^^R •■'v^' '^ke or ocean. Troll it
mi; ^B ^ ^^k -^ along bottom — your "treas-
'^-^" mlB m ^^ -'='^ "'"^"' ^^"' ^^^ ^^ outboard
■*^^'^^W Sc^^-^J^ motors, anchors, other metal
\^ -w |y_. 7^(^ valuables. 5-lb. Magnet is
^ war surplus — AInico-V Type
—Gov t cost $50. Lifts over 150 lbs. on land — much greater
weights under water.
Stock No. 70.571 E 5 lbs. $14.00 Ppd.
Stock No. 70,570E 3V2 lbs. S 8.75 Ppd.
Slock No. 70.572E 7'/2 lbs SI8.75 Ppd.
Stock No. 85.I52E 15^^ lbs $33.60 FOB
3" ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
See moon shots, orbits-star-, ^s™j« . -^ .
phases of Venus, planets ^^^^^'^^ ^
close up. 60 to 180 power.
Aluminized and overcoated
3" diameter f/IO primary
mirror. ventilated coll
Equatorial mount with locks
on both axes. Equipped with
60X eyepiece and mounted
Barlow lens. 3X finder tele-
scope. hardwood tripod
FREE: "STAR CHART"; 272-page "HANDBOOK OF
HEAVENS"; "HOW TO USE YOUR TELESCOPE"
Stock No. 85,05OE ...„ _ $29.95 Ppd.
Stock No. 85,i05E 414" - $94.50 FOB
Stock No. 85,086E ..._ 6" -. $239.50 FOB
AMAZING "TRICK" PHOTOGRAPHY
1 pro-
Now any amateur c
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Wild way out photo effects.
No special knowledge or
equipment required. Unique
kit enables you to turn
friends into monsters, show
house with water to 2nd
floor make psychedelic
slides kaleidoscopic pho-
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Complete instructions reveal the secrets — includes all ae-ii
cessories needed. \\
Stock No. 7I.229E $10.50 Ppd.
Solve proble
play games with miniature
of giant electronn
bled. 12" X 3'/2" x 4%".
Incl. step-by-step assembly
diagrams, 32-p. book on op-
eration, computer language ,
(binary system) programming problems & 15 experlmenw. h
Stock No. 70.683E . _ _ $5.9RPpd. 'I
ANALOG COMPUTER KIT
Stock No. 70.341 E .- .. _ - $18-95 Ppd.
For Boys— Girls— Adultsi SCIENCE TREASURE CHESTS
Extra-powerful magnets, po- f
larizing filters, compass, one-
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fraction grating and lots of
other items, plus a Ten-Lens
Kit for making telescopes,
microscopes, etc. Full in-
structions included.
No. 70,342E $5.50 Ppd.
Deluxe Science Treasure
Chest
Stock No. 70,343E $12.00 Ppd.
MAGIC JUMPING FUN DISCS
ents It'll take-off. Loads
Put one of the&e quarter-
sized crazy buttons down and
stand back. In a matter of
seconds it'll jump almost 6
feet high. Just like magic
. . . but it's really scien-
tific. Actually, the warmth
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metal discs makes the trick.
After palming a disc, place
it on any coo] surface and in
of fun for kids of all ages. Terrific conversatio
Package of twelve only $2.
Stock No. P-4I.150E $2.00 Ppd.
Stock No. P-41,I80E set of 100 $12.00 Ppd.
Large personalized quantities available — write for info.
BIG BOOM & FLASH CANNON
Perfectly safe giant noise-
maker for sports, games, the
4th and Just plain fun pro*
duces brilliant flash and
loud bang. Completely harm-
less— no gun powder, match-
es or recoil. Easily operated.
Beautiful reproduction of
regular Army 60 MM cannon
in hefty cast iron. "Ammo"
is pulverized Bangsite com-
bined with water in cannon
producing harmless gas. Cannot be ignited by hottest flame
or heaviest concussion. Incl. ammo for 200 shots, inst. Wt
21,4 lbs.
Stock No. 70,898E $6.95 Ppd.
EXTRA AMMO (About 400 Shots)
Stock No. P4I,005E .- $1.30 Ppd.
HOT-AIR^ FLYING SAUCER KIT
nd la
over and over. Low cost.
Lots of fun. Can carry '/a
lb. objects with string teth-
er. Fly school colors at
games, use for advertisina.
attach mirror — play "spy
white model paper gores, 8
red panels for portholes, wii
damaged.
Stock No. 7I,I75E .
9 Ft. Hot-Air Balloon Kit
Stock No. 60.691 E .
», eord. Easily repalreil If
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and to a hosi ol ancient culture centers in iviexicG and Central America.
The American Museum of Natural History is proud to announce tiie publication
of Ancient Mexico and Central America, a profusely illustrated book based on
the new permanent archeologicai exhibit opening this month at the Museum. The
photographs by Lee Boltin capture the stunningly high level of art achieved by
these ancient civilizations. An introduction by Dr. Gordon F. Ekholm
conveys the archeologicai and cultural significance of the treasures that
represent those civilizations.
The book is 1 28 pages long and has 32 pages of full-color photographs of the
order shown in this issue of Natural History. It is rounded out with 55 pages
of black-and-white photographs and contains a useful chronological chart of the
evolution of these dramatic, shining cultures.
Come browse awhile in the realm of the Maya, the Aztec, and the Olmec.
The price is only $5.00. For your copy, please mail check or money order to
The American Museum ot Natural History, 7 west 77tli Street, New York, New York 10024
Most thru-the-lens
meter systems average
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the main subject.
With a spot meter system,
you'd probably take several
readings and average them
yourself. (A single reading
of the wrong area would
produce faulty exposure.)
Dual systems, using both
spot and averaging meters,
not only inherit the
problems of both, but also
slow the photographer
down because he has to
make a choice.
Nikon beats the averages
with the Photomic FTN "center-weighted" meter system for Nikon F. It
measures the brightness of the entire scene but gets 607o of its exposure
information from just 1/7 of the picture area, outlised in the center of
most NLkon F finder screens. From here, its sensitivity diminishes rapidly
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In our e.xample. the FTN will automatically compensate for the bright-
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as in normal situations, it provides correct exposure, with a single reading
What's more, the FTN measures subject brightness on the finder
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New features offered by the Photomic FTN include r automatic lens
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The Photomic FTN is interchangeable with all other Nikon F finder
systems, except that earlier Nikon F bodies require some adaptation.
For details see your Nikon dealer, or write, Nikon Inc., Garden City,
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lln Canada: Anglophoto Ltd., P.Q.)
Nikon Photomic FTn
NATURAL HISTORY
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This was part o< an experiment in the schooling behavior of fish conducted by
Dr. Evelyn Shawof the Museum of Natural Historyand Dr. Edward Baylor of the
StateUniversityof New York at Stony Brook. The naturally fa rsighted fish were
made even more farsighted. very nearsighted and normal, but the lenses
irritated their eyes and the effect on schooling behavior was not determined.
VATURAL HISTORY
)L. LXXIX, No. 6
IN'CORPCIRATINC NATURE MAGAZINE
JUNE-JULY 1970
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
4 LET'S SING "AULD LANG SYNE" FOR THE UPPER BRANDYWINE
Luna B. Leopold Illustration, "Buttonwood Tree," by Andrew Wyeth
This sad tale of quashed plans for conserving a river basin's natural beauty
attests to the fact that people very often fear ivhat they do not understand.
18 THE STAR DRAGON Loren Eiseley
Musing on the time before man ivas ascendant, this naturalist-poet envisions
a fiery apocalypse now 30,000 years cold.
27 YOU AND THE ECOLOGY' MOVEMENT Prepared by Luther P. Gerlach
and Virginia Mine
Friends, readers, members of the grass roots ecology movement are urged to
lend their opinions to objective analysis in this questionnaire.
30 THIS GENTLE & ELEGANT CAT George B. Schaller
Despite its deserved reputation for fleetness, the shy and aristocratic cheetah
may be running a losing race ivith extinction.
40 TINY WOLVES OF THE WATER David Barr
Photographs by Helen Sutton
A versatile and voracious predator, the water mite is a potential candidate
for a role in pollution and pest control.
46 BARRIER BEACHES OF EASTERN AMERICA Christopher J. Schuberth
Man must understand the inconstant nature of surf-washed sand if he ivishes
his works to endure on these coastal islands.
56 NORTHWEST PASSAGE Bob Skovbo Photographs by Paul von Baich
JF'ith pack and paddle a man ranges across silent barrens that ivill soon hear
the rumble of earthmovers, the giant tanker's groan.
66 MUSHROOMS Peggy Young
Introducing the ubiquitous and delectable cibus diorum, "the food of the
gods," ivhile cautioning that when it comes to edible fungus, a little knowl-
edge is a dangerous thing.
cover: "Aloof and self-contained, [the cheetah] remained an enigma"
until very recently.
2 THE AUTHORS
72 SKY REPORTER John p. Wiley, Jr.
73 CELESTIAL EVENTS Thomas D. Nicholson
78 BOOKS IN REVIEW Richard 1. Ford
92 SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING
The American Museum of Natural History
Gardner D. Slout, President Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Natural History
Alfred Meyer, Editor Robert E. JVilliamson, Managing Editor
Barbara L. Cline, Avis Knlffin, Alan P. Ternes, John P. Wiley, Jr., Associate Editors
Thomas Page, Art Editor Florence G. Edelslein, Copy Editor
Toni Gerher, Asst. Copy Editor Carol Brcslin, Reviews Editor
Diantha C. Thorpe, Inlormalion Services William Suderman. Produclion
Ernestine Weindorj, Karen Mamilis, Caroline Doerflinper, Staff Assistants
Editorial Advisers: Gerard Piel, Dean Amadon, Franldyn M. Branley, Vincmt Manson,
Margaret Mead, Thomas D. Nicholson, Ethel Tobach
Harvey Oshinsky, Advertising Director Harry /•'. Decker, Waller E. Mercer,
Gordon Finley, Advertising Sales Dinah Lowell, Traffic, Eileen O'Keefe, Asst.
Ann Usher, Promotion. Director, Maureen Fitzgerald, Asst.
Joseph Snulina, Circulation Manager
I'ublkalion Office: The American Museum u/ Natural History, Central Park IT'est at 79th Street, New York, f/.Y.
W024. Published monthly, October through May; bimonthly June la September, Subscription: $7.00 a year.
In Canada and aU other countries: $7.50 a year. Single copies $1.00. Second-class imslagc paid at New York, N.Y.,
and at additional offices. Copyright © 1970 by The American Museum o/ Natural History. No part oj this _
periodical may be reproduced without the mrillen consent o/ Natuii»,i. Histobv. Manuscripts and illustrations
submitted to the editorial office will be handled with care, but u>e cannot assume responsibility for their safety.
Uhors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of The American Museum.
:orporating Natiirn Mngazinu is indexed in Reader's Guide to I'erioilieal Lileralure.
Opini,
Luna B. Leopold, the author of
"Let's Sing "Auld Lang Syne' for
the Upper Brandywine," is a senior
research hydrologist with the U.S.
Geological Survey. While in recent
years Leopold's primary concern
has been geomorphology — espe-
cially river mechanics and sediment
movement — his research has in-
cluded studies in climatology, soils,
and hydrology.
Benjamin Franklin Professor of
Anthropology and the History of
Science at the Universits- of Penn-
,sylvania, Loren Eiseley also
serves as curator of Early Man at
the University Museum. His article,
"The Star Dragon." is taken from
his latest book, The Invisible Pyra-
mid, to be published this fall by
Scribner's.
Since 1966 George B. Schaller
has been a research associate witli
the Institute for Research in Ani-
mal Behavior of the New York Zoo-
logical Society and Rockefeller Ur
versity. His article on the cheetah i
based on a three-year study of th
big cats in the Serengeti Nations
Park of Tanzania where he was
member of the Serengeti Researc.
Institute.
Chistopher J. Schuberth is
lecturer in geology at The Amer
can Museum and an adjunct le(
turer in the Department of Geolog
and Geography at Herbert H. Leh
man College, New York. Based on
fifteen-year study of Fire Island, hi
article demonstrates how nature
processes and human populatio:
pressures affect barrier reefs.
Can you pick out your Scotch?
J
X.
**Black &.Whiter Scotch for peop]
All Scotches shown above were photographed under identical lighting with equal proportions of whisky and ice, using an 8x10 Ploubel camera with 1
Assistant curator of the Depart-
aent of Entomology and In-
ertebrate Zoology of the Royal
Ontario Museum in Toronto, Da-
le! Barr received his B.S. in
iology from the University of To-
onto. He went on to Cornell Uni-
ersity. where he received his Ph.D.
n entomology in 1969. Coauthor
/ith Denton W. Crocker of The
landbooJt of Crayfishes of Ontario,
iarr plans further studies of water
nite larvae.
Boh Skovbo is the pen name of
he Canadian author of "Northwest
'assage." Born in Latvia, he stud-
ed at the University of Manitoba
n Winnipeg and at Carleton Uni-
■ersity in Ottawa. A lab technician
n virology for several years, in
96.5 he went to the Northwest Ter-
itories to work for a mining ex-
ploration company. Finding the
country far too magnificent to work
in. he returned the following year
to sinipK travel and observe.
A native of Yugoslavia, Paul
von Baicli studied photography at
the Vienna School of Arts in
Austria. After having traveled and
worked extensively in Europe, he
went to Canada in 1960. Von Baich
was the cameraman on docu-
mentary films made with the Aus-
trian designer-writer Rudi Haas in
Canada.
Peggy Young, the author of
"Mushrooms," operates a one-
woman photographic business that
specializes in children's portraits.
Her interest in mushrooms grew
out of a photographic assignment
of a purely compositional nature.
She is currently at work on a collec-
tion of photographs of west coast
wildfiowers.
Associate professor of anthro-
pology at the University of Min-
nesota. Luther P. Gerlach and his
students have, since 1965. con-
ducted research on movements of
social transformation. He is current-
ly producing a film about the ecology
movement entitled "People-EcoAc-
tion." A research associate of Ger-
lach's since 1965. Virginia Hine is
coauthor of People, Power, Change,
their book on social movements.
It isn't easy.
These five leading Scotches look pretty
much alike.
They all look light.
And they taste light, too.
Where Scotches do vary is in smoothness.
And that's where we shine. People who
know Scotch consider "Black &White"
(second from right) the smoothest of them all.
Maybe you'll agree.
Maybe you won't.
But we'd like you to try it.
1
ho know the difference.
«er Super Angulon lens at F/64. For names of other Scotches shown, write to The Fleischmonn Dist. Corp., 625 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022.
AGED, StENDED. BOTTIED IN SCOIIAND 86.8 PSOOF SCOTCH WHISKY THE FIEISCHMANN DISTIllING COSP, NYC SOIE DISTRIBUTOR
Let's Sino'lld Lang Syo
Buttonicood Tree
Andrew Wyeth. 1941.
Courtesy of Alfred E. Bissell
Or, 10 continue with Burns, iiow itie Dest laid
environmental schemes ol men "gang an a-gley"
by Luna B. Leopold
Perhaps the most lamentable mis-
ke that one can make is to be
ght too soon. This was the story
the Brandywine Plan, an attempt
organize local people for the per-
anent protection of the environ-
ental amenities of their own land.
The Upper East Branch of
randywine Creek drains a rolling
isin of farms, fields, woodlands,
id a sprinkling of residential
eas. Because it lies at the far edge
the commuting range to the pop-
ation centers of Philadelphia and
ilmington, the basin's natural
:auty has barely been touched by
e blight of suburban sprawl. The
aters of its streams are clear; its
nple woodlands and fields are
led with wildlife. Driving slowly
roug:h the basin's winding roads
id across its narrow bridges evokes
e feeling of a pastoral painting,
the ideal landscape of rural east-
n America.
For two years, I had the privilege
working closely with a group pre-
iring a land plan for the Brandy-
ine area. The plan was designed
offer the inhabitants of the basin
feasible way to preserve forever
e natural tiualities of their region
om the inevitable wave of urban-
ation. A report in Science maga-
ne called it the perfect plan that
iled.
My connection with the Brandy-
ine Plan began one day in 196.5
hen three people came into my of-
36 in Washington. I had not pre-
viously known them, but their sub-
sequent influence on my views
about living in this world has been
immense. Lawyer Ann Louise
Strong, pretty and vivacious; Rob-
ert Coughlin, tall, taciturn, and
practical; and Benjamin Stevens,
dynamic idea man, wanted to talk
about a project for which hydro-
logic help was necessary. They were
affiliated with the Institute of Envi-
ronmental Studies of the University
of Pennsylvania and the Regional
Science Research Institute.
Over the previous several years I
had been attempting to organize a
study project in which a com-
bination of people — engineers, hy-
drologists. land planners, econo-
mists, and lawyers — might study
the impact of urbanization on land-
scape in some local area. I had met
with practically no success because,
although I could muster the neces-
sary talent in the engineering and
hydrological fields. I could not find
the right kind of people from the
other disciplines. When my visitors
explained that they had such a
project well under way and now
needed the infusion of engineering
and hydrologic talent. I felt as if
Dame Fortune had delivered them
into my lap. "Your project has just
acquired a hydrologist," I said.
They had not as yet picked the
land area on which the experiment
was to be tried, but they had
worked out in some detail the
things ihey believed the project
might accomplish. The general idea
was to choose a basin of small or
moderate size and to draw up a
land plan, hydrologically sound and
legally possible, that would give as-
surance of the long-term main-
tenance of landscape amenities. The
plan would be predicated on the
idea that landowners within the ba-
sin, with the support and authority
of their local elected officials, would
take community action to achieve
the desired results.
The plan would allow for popu-
lation increase, but the location of
developments would be guided.
Through her legal and land-plan-
ning experience. Mrs. Strong had
developed some innovative schemes
that centered around the purchase
of easements against uncontrolled
development. Voluntary community
action could lead to the design and
testing of these new legal in-
struments. Hopefully, the plan
Avould overcome some of the in-
trinsic and time-proved weaknesses
of mere land zoning.
Under the plan, landowners in
various parts of the basin would
sell easements, thereby precluding
any further development of those
lands. Each landowner would not
only be paid a fair price for the
easement on development rights
but, we reasoned, would also bene-
fit because the land surrounding the
undeveloped tracts would gain in
value. In fact, we believed that the
preservation of certain sites from
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development would ultimately in-
crease total property values so that
tax revenues eventually would be
greater for the region. However,
such a scheme had never been tested.
This meant that we had to ob-
tain financial support for the plan,
including funds to buy the ease-
ments. And we had to convince the
inhabitants that their participation
in the plan would reap both esthetic
and financial benefits to themselves.
We believed the plan would prove
itself in the long run. but we found
to our regret that the success or
failure of a plan depends on short-
run events.
First came the selection of a river
basin. We considered several sites
and finally settled on the Upper
East Branch of the Brandywine
Creek for many reasons. The region
had a heritage of watershed protec-
tion through the efforts of the
Brandywine Valley Watershed As-
sociation. The leader of the associ-
ation. Robert Struble. was also ex-
ecutive director of the Chester
County Water Resources Autliority,
a state-authorized agency. The ba-
sin was sufficiently close to our
technical headquarters at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in Phila-
delphia and was of adequate size,
but not too big. It covered 23.500
acres and was about 12 miles long
and 3I0 miles at its widest point.
The area already was feeling the
pressures of urbanization, yet it
still remained agricultural, with
only 3 percent of the land covered
with homes, barns, streets, and
driveways.
The upper part of Brandywine
Creek watershed is located primar-
ily in Chester County. Pennsylva-
nia, but the mouth is at Wilming-
ton. Delaware. The lower end of tlie
basin is the site of some beautiful,
large estates owned by executives of
that industrial city. The upper part
of the basin, farther from the cen-
ters of industry, is populated by
middle-class landowners. We felt it
would have been easier to persuade
a group of Iando\\Tiers whose eco-
nomic status afforded them the lux-
ury of foregoing development of a
portion of their land. However, as a
pilot project applicable in principle
to other areas, a watershed owned
primarily by wealthy landowners
would not be representative. We
therefore chose the difficult job of
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persuading people of modest means
to organize in their own behalf for
purposes that would have to be only
partially monetary. I still think that
decision was right, although it was
the underlying cause of many of '■
our impending difficulties.
One of the principal constraints
in the development of the land plan
was the legal authority under which
it would be possible to buy ease-
ments. Over a period of time
Strong and her associates had as-
sisted in the preparation of legisla-
tion that, if passed by the Pennsyl-
vania legislature, would clarify and
extend the powers of the state and
counties to act for resource protec-
tion. But for the present, the main
legal basis for the plan was a for-
ward-looking but somewhat restric-
tive Pennsylvania law that per-
mitted a county to form a water
resources authority with certain le-
gal powers. Among these powers
was the right of eminent domain
for the protection of the water re-
sources of that county. This law
gave protection of the water re-
sources as the only justification for
the exercise of the legal rights. The
law did not include protection of
other environmental features, such
as natural beauty, open space, and fl
recreation. Under this legislation,
therefore, we had to devise a plan
whose net result would be justified
by its protective effect on the quan-
tity and quality of the water.
Next came the financing of the
project. Since the easement concept
had never been tried, we felt we
needed major financial support to
implement the Brandywine Plan.
Toward this end. Strong, Coughlin,
Stevens, and John Keene, a lawyer-
planner who was on the team, had
been negotiating for some time with
the Ford Foundation even before
they had approached me for help in
hydrologic work.
I remember well my first meet-
ing, in the fall of 1965. with Gor-
don Harrison of the Ford Founda-
tion when we called on him at his
New York office. We realized tliat
we were talking about an ex-
periment, indeed, a far-out one.
There were many possibilities of
failure. We did not know whether
the basic Pennsylvania legislation
was sufficient for our purposes. We
had no idea whether the residents
of the Upper East Branch would be
nterested. We did not know
.fhether the county commissioners
ould be persuaded to let us make a
ry. We did not know how much the
tudy would cost or exactly what
he technical problems were of com-
dling maps of soils, woodlands, land
lopes, and land ownership.
Harrison was patient and under-
tanding. but he was trying to make
n honest assessment of whether the
iroject's likelihood of success was
ufficient to justify the Ford Foun-
lation's financial help. There was a
ot of money involved. To do the
ilanning and associated studies
luring a period of a year and a
lalf could cost several hundred
housand dollars. If the landowners
ccepted the plan, we were asking
he Ford Foundation for a com-
uitment to provide at least a por-
ion of the cash needed to purchase
and easements. We argued that if
ve had a firm guarantee that the
oundation would provide half of
he money necessary for the pur-
:hase of the easements, the possi-
lility of interesting the federal gov-
irnment in providing the other half
TOuld be enhanced.
To his credit, Harrison agreed
hat the project was worthwhile. He
tated that he would recommend to
lis board the approval of an im-
)ortant part of the money we re-
[uested. Further, if they agreed to
inance the project through the
ighteen-month planning stage, the
inancing would be accompanied by
. gentleman's understanding that
he Ford Foundation would furnish
ome support for the purchase of
lasements. So far, so good.
Next came technical problems of
1 type none of us had ever faced
)efore. To my discomfiture, it be-
lanie clear that the designation of
he lands to be protected against de-
'elopment would have to be based
m hydrologic principles alone be-
;ause it was only for the protection
)f water resources that the state law
lUowed a county water resources
luthority to exert legal jurisdiction.
To protect the water resources of
1 small basin from degradation —
.ither by pollution, increased flood-
ng, or erosion — what parts of the
)asin would be the most important
o protect and what should be the
lature of the protection? Research
esults give some hints of possible
mswers, but there is an amazingly
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QUESTAR— the portable observatory
No need to go to the moon to enjoy its unearthly beauty: our files are full of
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of Sarasota, Florida.
Below, Questar is pictured fully mounted for celestial use, and in its fifteen-inch-tol
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a matched set of optics brought to perfection with performance tests until it is
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BOX 160, NEW HOPE, PENN. 18938
small amount of quantitative infor-
mation available on the effects of
urbanization on the hydrologic
functioning of stream basins. A
flood plain is that part of a river
valley where water spreads out dur-
ing heavy storms and floods. The
river constructs its channel only
large enough to take the highest
flow of water of every year or every
other year. Discharges in excess of
this spread widely over the valley
flat, a mechanism that decreases
flood peaks as a flood control reser-
voir would. Long experience has
shown that when people build on the
flood plain, they are asking for
trouble. When structures border the
channel itself, flood damage is as-
sured. This knowledge and ex-
perience made it evident that there
must be restrictions against per-
manent buildings on the flood plain.
The Brandywine Basin, like
many similar agricultural drainages
in eastern United States, has no
central water supply system and no
sewage disposal plants. Because the
houses are dispersed, each must have
an individual septic system, which
moves sewage from a tank into tile
drains from which the efiluent infil-
trates the soil. In a satisfactorily
operating septic tank system, where
most of the organic materials are
broken down by bacterial action in
the tank, effluents in the drain fields
are screened of bacteria within
distance of 100 feet in permeable
soils. We reasoned, therefore, that
all structures should be set back
from even the minor stream chan-
nels by at least 100 feet. Further-
more, soil eroded from'construction
sites within 100 feet of a small, usu-
ally dry channel will find its way
into the channel and move into the
river system. To protect the river
system against erosion products
from construction and other activi-
ties, it was felt that a 100-foot set-
back from minor channels was not
sufficient and 300 feet would be
preferable.
Steep slopes produce more rapid
runoff and are more susceptible to
soil erosion. The maximum slope
on which construction should be
allowed was another point not
clearly shown by research data. We
believed that slopes steeper than 15
percent gradient (a 15-foot fall per
100 feet of distance) should be pro-
tected from encroachment.
To be portable a camera has to be more than small.
If you want to switch from color
) black and white in the middle
f a roll, and your camera won't
it you do it, it makes no differ-
nce how small your camera is.
ou might as well have no camera
t all.
Hasselblad offers five inter-
hangeable film magazines. They
ot only let you switch from one
pe of film to another, but to
ther film sizes as well. And they
ive you a choice of 12, 16, 24,
nd 70 exposures. By carrying a
!W extra pre-loaded backs, you
ave continuous shooting capac-
y. Each back is like having an
xtra camera along.
If you're itching to take a pic-
jre of someone unobserved, but
ou have the kind of camera you
ave to hold up to your eye to see
Trough, forget it.
With Hasselblad's waist-level
nder and big bright viewing
creen, you could have aimed the
amera to the side while facing
traight ahead.
The Hasselblad also lets you
hoot from positions where you
ouldn't or wouldn't want to be
ourself. You can shoot with the
camera on the ground, without
having to lie down beside it
(an advantage if you're shooting
near a giant ant hill). You can
even shoot above hedges or
crowds by viewing with the cam-
era held upside down, overhead.
If you really want to put dis-
tance between yourself and the
camera, the electrically-driven
Hasselblad can be operated from
a mile and a half away. By remote
radio control.
A good camera should let you
see your results without the need
of enlarging equipment. The Has-
selblad takes big 21/4" square pic-
tures, which you can see clearly
with your naked eye.
A good travelling camera
should have good lenses, in a
variety of focal lengths. The Has-
selblad System includes ten inter-
changeable Carl Zeiss lenses. The
selblads have performed every-
where from deep in the sea to the
airless surface of the moon. (Has-
selblads have been used on every
manned space flight since 1962.)
A good camera should let you
take good pictures even when
widest covers a sweep of 88° . The
longest narrows down your field
to 9°, to shoot details or to bring
far away objects closer.
A good portable camera should
be able to be used with portable
lighting equipment, such as elec-
tronic flash, at all speeds. Which
means it shouldn't have a focal
plane shutter. Hasselblad has
Compur shutters in all lenses,
which can be synchronized with
electronic flash at all speeds up
to 1/500 second.
A good camera should be able
to follow you to the ends of the
earth without complaining. Has-
there isn't time to focus properly
{for instance when you're being
chased by a creature bigger than
yourself). With the Hasselblad
Super Wide C you can shoot while
running. Everything will be sharp
from 12" to infinity.
And of course the camera you
take with you should be comfort-
able to carry. When you sling a
Hasselblad over your shoulder
lens down, it doesn't feel much
different than a 35mm camera.
Yet the 2'/4" x 2'/4" images it pro-
duces are more than three times
larger than the 35mm image.
So while we couldn't in good
conscience describe the Hassel-
blad as a miniature camera, it's
actually the smallest camera in
the world that can do all the
things it does.
For more information, see your
Hasselblad dealer. For his name,
and a free 48-page catalog on
The Hasselblad System, write to
address below.
HASS€L£LAD
Paillard Incorpoiatcd,
1900 Lov.ci Road. Linden. N.J. 07036.
Other products. Dolox movie oquipmeni,
Hermos lypowiiters and figuring machines.
The System
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Address.
City
^/
At the suggestion of the Pennsyl-
vania Department of Forests and
Water, the importance of trees as
watershed cover was recognized in
the plan. It was decided that
wooded areas in excess of ten acres
should be protected against en-
croachment and timber cutting,
both for watershed protection and
for the visual amenities that are
provided by the mixture of open
land and woods.
When the areas chosen for re-
striction were plotted on a map, the
result was close to our intuitive esti-
mate that about 50 percent of tlie
total drainage basin would have to
be protected from housing and other
development if the hydrologic
functioning was to be preserved.
This protected area would be a fan-
shaped interfingering of open green
space, coincident with the channel
network following each valley
nearly to its headwaters. The un-
protected area where housing and
other development would be con-
centrated would be the uplands.
From there, houses and factories
would have a vista downhill into a
mixture of woods and fields so that
nearly everybody on the upland
would be only a short distance from
some portion of the protected green
space. There would be another ad-
vantage to this type of distribution
of housing and industry: it would
lead to cluster development rather
than the less interesting pattern of
one house right after another in
boring uniformity.
To maintain this kind of land
pattern as the population continued
to increase, lands would be pro-
tected by the sale of an easement to
the County Water Resources Au-
thority. The easement would be a
legal contract, permanently and ir-
revocably attached to the property
deed. The landowner would, under
the terms of the easement, be able
to continue whatever land use was
presently on the property, but he
would forfeit the right to construct
new buildings, put in a housing de-
velopment, or construct a factory.
Each property owner, however,
would have the right to build one
house for his own use.
Another innovation was the pro-
posed formation of a land devel-
opment corporation into which
landowner could invest the money
from his easement in hilltop land
Announcing America's first (and only)
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which, because of the plan, would
be far more likely to be used for
housing or industrial development.
In addition, the Brandywine Plan
proposed long-range studies of re-
gional water supply and sewerage
installations located with regard to
environmental protection as well as
to engineering feasibility.
When the legal and technical de-
tails were worked out, the hard
work began — the job of convincing
the people. I live in Washington,
whereas Strong. Coughlin, Stevens,
and Keene live near Philadelphia.
One can hardly imagine the number
of meetings that were required.
First, it was necessary to convince
the elected county commissioners of
Chester County. We wanted to per-
suade them to let us make a try
with the understanding that if the
local people accepted the plan, the
county commissioners would give it
the weight of their authority in car-
rying out the implied legal obliga-
tions. Then it was necessary to con-
vince the recently created Water
Resources Authority of Chester
County, a body hardly in a position
to be looking for new legal tests of
its authority. We needed the support
of the County Planning Commis-
sion. There were evening meetings
in schoolhouses and firehouses. in
churches, and in community halls.
We got the go-ahead from the
county commissioners provided we
could persuade the elected super-
visors from nine townships. That
meant convincing not fewer than
eleven administrative entities and
many more individuals. It took
many meetings with each group,
and in all of these meetings, the
people donated their time to hear
us out.
Amazingly, we persuaded the
county commissioners and the Water
Resources Authority, as well as the
elected representatives of all the
townships, to allow us to proceed
with developing the plan. It was un-
derstood that the plan would be a
document that could be presented
to the constituencies of each of
these bodies for some sort of refer-
endum. Although I attended many
of the meetings, the time I spent
was small compared with that spent
by my associates. All I can say is
that the job of convincing people,
persuading people, and telling
people was unbelievably time con-
suming. How my colleagues kept
peace in their respective families
during these trying times, I don't
know, because the number of eve-
nings away from home, traveling to
some distant schoolhouse, were
practically beyond count.
I remember a meeting in a
schoolhouse one snowy evening in
1966. My presentation concerned
the characteristics of flood plains
and why such areas should not be
used for building houses. We tried
to elicit questions but the small au-
dience, mosdy farmers and business
people, although attentive, was not
inclined to speak out. Even when
the forma! presentations were over,
it was not easy to engage tlie land-
owners in conversation. I always
had the feeling we were not quite
reaching them — maybe we were not
explaining ourselves in their terms.
In the early stages it was impossible
to tell each owner how the plan
would affect his particular land.
A few began a vigorous and
vocal campaign to defeat the plan,
even while it was still being con-
structed. In October, 1967. oppo-
nents formed the Chester County
Freeholders' Association, w-hich gar-
nered a membership of about 50 of
the 1.400 families that owned land
in the basin.
A typical "letter to the editor"
from these opponents appeared in
the Local News of West Chester on
February 17, 1968:
"We believe that time-honored
private property rights and man-
agement of private lands are a
basic keystone in a capitalistic de-
mocracy. We believe that when a
state agency attempts to restrict
these rights for eternity in from 50
percent to 60 percent of the land
areas of whole townships, we are
approaching a decision which will
affect our heritage and future as
free citizens. . . .
"This program is not con-
servation, it is conscription. It is
not in the public welfare. Projects
such as these are dangerous, not
only because of the loss of the indi-
vidual's rights but because they
may well lay government open to
vastly increased opportunity for ve-
nality in conjunction with builders
and developers, who naturally will
flock to influence just which land
areas will be restricted and which
adjacent land will rise enormously
in value because of the artificially
created scarcity of building ground.
"We hope that you, Mr. Weaver
[Secretary of Housing and Urban
Development], will see through this
thinly veiled power grab. That you
will learn just who will benefit from
this loss of citizens rights, and that
you will protect us against the first
thrust of a forcible seizure of civil
rights, which if allowed will create
a precedent undermining the very
bedrock philosophy of our Democ-
racy."
Many factors contributed to the
ultimate failure, which came in tlie
form of voted disapproval by sev-
eral townships even before the final
plan was printed. The disapprovals
snowballed. Where had we failed?
One of our greatest bungles was
the attempt to persuade the land-
owners to agree to the use of emi-
nent domain to obtain easements
from the presumably small propor-
tion of owners who would refuse to
sell an easement. The inhabitants of
the basin had experienced bitter
battles with utility companies and
other bodies who had used eminent
domain to obtain easements for pipe-
lines, a 500-kilowatt powerline, and
a reservoir. They had had enough
of eminent domain, regardless of
the purposes. We realized this too
late, and by the time the staff
backed off from eminent domain
and accepted the idea of voluntary
sale of easements, the public reac-
tion against any plan had built up
beyond reversal.
But perhaps the greatest mistake
lay in our failure to organize
leaders among the landowners as
principal spokesmen for the plan.
We relied too much on the project
staff to give the explanations and to
answer questions. So it appeared to
the landowners that the plan was
something concocted by outsiders
to be pressed upon them, rather
than merely a proposal aimed at ac-
complishing what they, the land-
owners, wanted for themselves.
Though we had support from many
owners who could see the need for
such land planning to protect their
oivn interests, these friends of the
effort were never organized to be
the principal leaders in public dis-
cussion. Whether we could have
spurred local leadership to organize,
it is impossible to say.
Then we had a poor streak of
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luck in the process of obtaining in-
dependent appraisal of the mone
tary value of the easements. The
staff hired an experienced land ap-
praiser, and he used two local ap-
praisers, but his work started late.
Further, his appraised values were
less specific than we needed and did
not cover the variety of combi-
nations of acreage, location, land
type, and land use that existed. As a
result, when owners first asked how
much tliey could expect from the
sale of a particular easement, we
were unable to give any answer.
And at the end the answers were
too unspecific to satisfy the poten-
tial seller. Also we experienced
what other planners have seen: thai
the seller of an easement often
jacks his price up to an amount
equal to, or perhaps greater than,
the present sale value of the land
itself. Some owners, therefore, fell
that the staff was, in the early
stages, being devious about the
monetary value of an easement
when, in fact, we were trying des-
perately to obtain specific apprais-
als. And when appraisals became
available, some owners felt that the
easement was worth more than the
appraised value.
An interesting aspect of the fail-
ure of the plan was apprehension.
The landowners had several fears,
some quite understandable, others
irrational but nevertheless in-
fluential. They were worried by the
possibility that if an easement were
sold, they could not get a mortgage.
Although local bankers disclaimed
the possibility in private, absence of
clear public statements allowed the
apprehension to persist.
Residents had an understandable
fear of legal entanglement. They
also were concerned about whether
the protected land in woods and
flood plain would be open game for
location of highways, pipelines,
electric lines, and other utilities.
There was a pervasive fear of gov-
ernment— that government was im-
personal, unresponsive to local
needs and desires, and corruptible.
There was concern that at some fu-
ture time the Chester County Water
Resources Authority, who would
o^^•n the easements, would use them
in some unforeseen way to the det-
riment of landowners.
We conducted an attitude survey
of owners in the basin to determine
i6
how important landscape beauty
and amenities were to the local pop-
ulation. A surprisingly large pro-
portion. 83 percent of those inter-
viewed, expressed themselves as
being concerned with their natural
environment. But this expressed at-
titude was apparendy outweighed
by natural cupidity, for a large
number of owners harbored the
idea that if urbanization did spread
into the basin, they would make a
killing by sale of property to some
developer. There were many people,
on the other hand, who believed
that the basin would not change,
that urbanization was far away and
would not strike their watershed.
The actual record of land sales and
growth on the immediate edges of
the basin and along the main high-
ways in the basin did not dispel this
complacency.
Finally, the plan rested on loo
weak a legal base. If the protection
of the landscape — the whole envi-
ronment— has meaning, then basic
legislation should spell out not
merely the water resources, but also
amenities of a nonmonetary and es-
thetic type as societal values to be
given some legal protection.
In the three years since the
Brandywine Plan was voted down,
great impetus has been given to the
imperative need for environmental
protection as a necessary ingredient
in maintaining the quality of life.
But even if the surge of public in-
terest had begun earlier, the de-
tailed problems faced by any new
scheme for achieving rational land
planning would have been the same.
There is no substitute for local
leadership in community action, in
the collection and dissemination of
relevant facts, and in grassroots or-
ganization. These take time. The
terms of the financing for our plan-
ning effort did not permit us to take
the time that, hindsight says, was
required.
The protection of the environ-
ment is a lofty goal. Necessary as it
seems in principle, it is in many re-
spects diffuse and elusive. A society
attains it indirectly by action or in-
action on common and mundane
matters, heavily influenced by cus-
tom, by monetary considerations,
and by political forces. Experience
on the Brandywine is a clear signal
that the road to such a goal is long,
steep, and rocky.
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ANaluralistatLarge
The
Star
Dragon
Evolution became history
when man developed a
specialized organ — the brain-
whose essential purpose
was to avoid specialization
Qy Loren Eiseiey
In the year 1910 Halley's comet — ■
the comet that had flared in 1066
over the Norman invasion of Eng-
land— was again after many visita-
tions brightening the night skies
of earth. "Menace of the Skies,"
shrieked the more lurid newspapers.
Like hundreds of otlier little boys
of the new century, I was held up
in my father's arms under the cot-
tonwoods of a cold and leafless
spring to see the hurtling emissary
of the void. My father told me
something then that is one of my
earliest and most cherished mem-
ories.
"If you live to be an old man,"
he said carefuOy, fixing my eyes on
tlie midnight spectacle, "you wifl
see it again. It will come back in
sevent>--five years. Remember," he
whispered in my ear, "I will be
gone, but you will see it. All that
i8
time it will be traveling in the dark,
but somewhere, far out there . . ."
he swept a hand toward the blue
horizon of the Plains, "it will turn
back. It is running glittering
through millions of miles."
I tightened my hold on my fa-
ther's neck and stared uncom-
prehendingly at the heavens. Once
more he spoke against my ear and
for us two alone. "Remember, all
you have to do is to be careful
and wait. You will be seventy-eight
or sevent\'-nine years old. I think
you will live to see it — for me," he
^vhispered a little sadly, with the
foreknowledge that was part of his
nature.
"Yes, Papa," I said dutifully,
having little or no grasp of seventy-
five years or millions of miles on
the floorless pathways of space.
Nevertheless, I was destined to re-
member the incident all my life. It
i\ as out of love for a sad man who
clung to me as I to him, that, young
though I was, I remembered. There
are sixteen years still to pass, and
already I am breathing like a tired
runner, but the voice still sounds in
my ears and I know with the sure-
ness of maturity that the great wild
satellite has reversed its course and
is speeding on its homeward jour-
ney toward the sun.
At four I had been fixed with the
compulsive vertigo of vast distance
and even more endless time. I had
received, through inherited tem-
perament and inclination, a nostal-
gic admonition to tarry. Besides, I
had given what amounted to a des-
perate promise. "Yes, Papa," I had
said with the generosity of child-
hood, not knowing the chances that
men faced in life. A month ago, af-
Copyright © 19T0 Lorcn Eiseleij
This picture is'impossible'. Can you tell why?
Raindrops on a window, inches from the camera. A girl on a beach, a hundred
feet away. Both exquisitely sharp, which gives the picture its special quality.
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later after rewinding the film one frame, you'd focus on the rain spattered window
and make a second exposure. Quite simple, really Except that it's impossible
with most cameras because their lenses can't provide the tremendous focusing
range required.
With the Nikkormat FTN it was as simple as it sounds. This 35mm single
lens reflex is made by Nikon and accepts the same interchangeable lenses as
the famous Nikon F. It was used here with the 55mm Micro Auto-Nikkor f3.5.
an unusual lens that can be focused for any distance from 2.3 inches all the
way to infinity. (Imagine being able to use the same lens for life-size closeups
of flowers or insects as well as for portraits, kids, parties and the like!)
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gives you correct exposure instantly for unusual pictures like this. And it's yours
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dealer Or write for details.
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19
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My travel agen
Phone
t is:
■ ■■■■
ter a visit to my doctor, I had writ-
ten anxiously to an astronomer
friend. "Brad," I had asked, "where
is Halley's comet reported on the
homeward track? I know it must
have turned the elliptic, but where
do you calculate it now, how far —
and how long, how long?"
I have his answer before me.
"You're pushing things, old man."
he writes. "Don't expect us to see it
yet — you're too young. The orbit is
roughly eighteen astronomical units
or one billion six hundred and fifty
miles. It headed back this way
probably in 1948."
1948. I grope wearily amidst
memories of the cold war, Korea,
the Berlin blockade, spies, the im-
possible-to-be-kept secrets of the
atom. All that time through the
black void, the tiny pinpoint of
light has been hurrying, hurrying,
running faster than I, thousands of
miles faster as it curves toward
home. Because of my father and the
promise I had made, a kind of per-
sonal bond has been projected be-
tween me and the comet. I do not
think of what it heralded over Hast-
ings in 1066. I think it is racing
sunward so that I can see it
stretched once more across the
heavens, and momently restore the
innocence of 1910.
But there is inner time, "per-
sonal, private chronometry." a
brain surgeon once told me. There
is also outer time that harries us
ruthlessly to our deaths. Some
nights in a dark room, staring at
the ceiling, I can see the light like a
mote in my eye, like a far-off train
headlight glimpsed long ago as a
child on the prairies of the West.
The mournful howl of a train
whistle echoes in my head and min-
gles with the night's black spaces.
The voice is that of the comet as I
hear it, climbing upward on the arc
of space. At last in the dark I com-
pose myself for sleep. I pull the
blanket up to my chin and think of
radar ceaselessly sweeping the hori-
zon, and the intercontinental mis-
siles resting in their blast-hardened
pits.
But no, I dream deeper, slipping
back like a sorcerer through the
wood of time. Life was no better,
not even as safe, proportionately, in
the neolithic hill forts whose tiny
trenches can be seen from the air
over the British downs. A little
band of men, with their families be-
side them, crouched sleepless with
ill-made swords, awaiting an attack
at dawn. And before that, the caves
and the freezing cold, with the ice
creeping ever south^^'ard autumn by
autumn.
The dead we buried in red ochre
under the fire pit, the red standing
for blood, for we were quick in
analogies and magic. The ochre was
for life elsewhere and farewell. We
tramped away in our furred garb
and the leaves and snow washed
over the place of our youth. We
worked always toward the south
across the tundra, following the
long trail of the mammoth. Some-
one saw a vast flame in the sky and
pointed, but it was not called Hal-
ley's comet then. You could see it
glinting through the green light and
the falling snow.
Farther backward still, across
twin ice advances and two long in-
terglacial summers. We were cruder
now, our eyes wild and uncertain,
less sure that we were men. We no
longer had sewn garments, and our
only weapon was a heavy, pointed
stone, unhafted and held in the
hand. Even our faces had taken on
the cavernous look of the places we
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inhabited. There were difficuhies
about making fire, and we could
not always achieve it. The dead
were left where they fell. Women
wept less and the bands were
smaller. Our memories consisted of
dim lights under heavy sockets of
bone. We did not paint pictures or
increase, by magic, the slain beasts.
We talked, but the words we needed
were fewer. Often we went hungry.
It was a sturdy child that survived.
We meant well, but we were ter-
rifyingly ignorant and given to
frustrated anger. There was too
much locked up in us that we could
not express.
We were being used, and perhaps
it was against this that we uncon-
sciously raged the most. We were
neither beast nor man. We were
only a bridge transmitting life. I
say we were almost animals and
knew little, but this we felt and
raged against. There were no words
to help us. No one could think of
them. Sometimes we were stalked
by the huge cats, but it was the in-
ner stalking that was most terrible.
I saw a star in the sky with a flam-
ing tail and cowered, shaking, into
a bush, making uncouth sounds. It
is not laughable. Animals do not do
this. They do not see the world as
we do — even we.
I think we are now well across
the last ice, toward the beginning.
There is no fire of any sort but we
do not miss it. We are far to the
south and the climate is warm. We
have no tools except an occasional
bone club. We walk upright but I
think we are now animals. We are
small — pygmies, in fact. We wear
no clothes. We no longer stare at
the stars or think of the unreal. The
dead are dead. No one follows us at
nightfall. Do not repeat this. I think
we are animals. I think we have
reached the bridge. We are happy
here. Tell no one.
I sigh in my sleep but I cannot
hold to the other side of the
bridge — the animal side. The comet
turns blazing on its far run into
space. Slowly I plod once more
with the furred ones up the ladder
of time. We cross one ice and then
another. There is much weeping,
too much of memory. It is all to do
over again and go on. The white-
robed men think well in Athens. I
heard a man named Pindar acclaim
something that implied we have a
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likeness to the immortals. "What
course after nightfall," he ques-
tioned, "has destiny written that we
must run to the end?"
What course after nightjall? I
have followed the comet's track re-
turning and returning while our
minds and our bodies changed. The
comet will appear once more. I will
follow it that far. Then I will no
longer be part of the bridge. Per-
haps I will be released to go back.
Time and space are my inheritance
from my father and the star. I will
climb no further up the ladder of
fiery return. I will go forward only
one more rung. What will await me
there is not pleasant but it is in the
star's destiny as well as mine. I lie
awake once more on the dark bed. I
feel my heart beating, and wait for
the hurrying light.
I n 1804, just one hundred and
sixty-six years ago, Capt. William
Clark recorded in his diary far up
the unknown Missouri that ahead
of tlie little expedition that he
shared with Meriwether Lewis hung
a formidable curtain of blowing
dust through which they could not
see.
"Tell us what is new," the few
savants in the newborn American
republic had advised the explorers
when they departed westward. Men
continued to have strange ex-
pectations of what lay hidden in the
still uncharted wilds behind the
screen of the great eastern forest.
Some thought the mammoth, whose
bones had been found at Big Bone
Lick, in Kentucky, might still wan-
der alive and trumpeting in that
vast hinterland. The "dreadful cur-
tain" through which the youthful
captains peered on that cold, for-
bidding day in January could have
hidden anything. Indeed the cloud
itself was symbolic. It represented
time in inconceivable quantities —
time, not safe, not contained in
Christian quantity, but rather, vast
as the elemental dust storm itself.
The dust in those remote regions
was the dust of ice ages, of moun-
tains wearing away under the splin-
tering of frost and sun. The Platte
was slowly carrying a mountain
range to the sea over giant fans of
gravel. Fremont's men would later
report the strange and grotesque
sculptures of the wind in stone. It
was true that a few years earlier the
Scottish physician James Hutton
had philosophically conceived such
eons of time as possible. His views
had largely proved unwelcome and
had been dismissed in Europe. On
the far-western divide, however,
amid the roar of waters falling
toward an unknown westward
ocean, men, frontiersmen though
they were, must have felt with an
increasing tinge of awe the weight
of ages unknown to man.
Huge bones bulked in the ex-
posed strata and were measured
with wonder. No man knew their
names or their antiquity. New
things the savants had sought sur-
rounded the explorers, not in the
sense of the living survival of great
elephants, but rather in the sense of
a vaster novelty — the extension of
time itself. It was as though man
for the first time was intruding
upon some gigantic stage not de-
vised for him. Among these wastes
one felt as though inhuman actors
had departed, as though the drama
of life had reached an unexpected
clima.x.
It is perhaps a significant coinci-
dence that man's full recognition of
biological novelty, of the invisible
transformations of the living sub-
stance itself, came close upon the
heels of the discovery of the vast
wilderness stage which still held the
tumbled bones of the former actors.
It was a domain that had remained
largely unknown to Europeans. Sir
Charles Lyell, who, in the 1830's,
successfully revived Hutton's lost
doctrines of geological, antiquity,
visited the United States in the
1840's and lectured to enthralled
thousands. Finally, it was Charles
Darwin, the voyager-naturalist,
who. as a convinced follower of
Lyell. had gazed upon a com-
parable wilderness in South Amer-
ica and had succeeded, in . his
mind's eye, in peopling the aban-
doned stage with the creatures of
former epochs. It was almost as
though Europe, though rife with
speculation since the time of the
great voyagers, could not quite es-
cape its man-centeredness or its
preoccupation with civilized hedge-
rows and formal gardens. Its think-
ers had still to breathe, like Dar-
win, the thin air of Andean
highlands, or hear the falling of
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stones in mountain cataracts.
To see his role on the ivorld
stage, Western man had twice to re-
vise his conception of time: once
from the brevity of a few thousand
years to eons of inconceivable an-
tiquity and. a second time, with far
more difficulty, to perceive that this
lengthened time-span was peopled
ivith wraiths and changing cloud
forms. Time was not just aged
rocks and trees, alike since the be-
ginning of creation; its living as-
pect did not consist merely of end-
less Oriental cycles of civilizations
rising and declining. Instead, the
living flesh itself was alterable. Our
seeming stability of form was an il-
lusion fostered by the few millennia
of written history. Behind that his-
tory lay the vast and unrecorded
gloom of ice ages inhabited by the
great beasts, which the explorers, at
Thomas Jefferson's bidding, had
sought through the blowing curtain
of the dust.
Man, but not man in the garb we
know, had cracked marrow bones
in those dim shadows before his
footprints vanished amidst tlie
grass of wild savannas. For inter-
minable ages winged reptiles had
hovered over the shores of ancient
seas: creatures still more strange
had paddled in the silence of
enormous swamps. Finally, in that
long backward range of time, it was
possible to emerge upon shores that
no longer betrayed signs of life, be-
cause life had become mere
potential.
At that point one could have seen
life as the novelty it truly is. "Tell
us all that is new." the eager scien-
tists had said to the explorers. Now,
past midcentury. an answer could
be made. It was life itself that was
eternally, constantly new. Dust set-
tled and blew the same from age to
age; mountains were worn down to
rise again. Only life, that furtive in-
truder drifting across marsh and
field and mountain, altered its
masks upon the age-old stage. And
as the masks were discarded they
did not come again as did the lava
of the upthrust mountain cores.
Species died as individuals died, or
if they did not perish, they were al-
tered beyond recognition and re-
call. Man cannot restore the body
that once shaped his mind. The
bird upon the bough cannot, any
more than a summer's yellow butter-
fly, again materialize the chrysalis
from which it sprang.
Indeed, in the end, life can be
seen not only as a novelty moving
through time toward an endlessly
di\erging series of possible futures
but also as a complete phantom. If
we had only the scattered chemicals
of the cast-off forms and no ex-
perience in ourselves of life's exis-
tence, we would not be able to iden-
tify its reality or its mutability by
any chemical test known to us. The
only thing that infuses a handful of
dust with such uncanny potential is
our empirical knowledge that the
phenomenon called life exists, and
that it constantly pursues an unseen
arrow which is irreversible.
Through the anatomical effort
and puzzle-fitting of many men,
time, by the mid-nineteenth cen-
tury, had become gigantic. When
The Origin of Species was pub-
lished, the great stage was seen not
alone to have been playing to re-
mote, forgotten audiences; the ac-
tors themselves still went masked
into a future no man could antici-
pate. Some straggled out and died
in the wings. But still the play per-
sisted. As one watched, one could
see that the play had one very
strange quality about it: the charac-
ters, most of them, began in a kind
of generous latitude of living space
and ended by being pinched out of
existence in a grimy corner.
Once in a while, it is true, a pris-
oner escaped just when all seemed
over for him. It happened when
some oxygen-starved Devonian fish
managed to stump ashore on their
fins and become the first vertebrate
invaders of the land. By- and large,
however, the evolutionary story had
a certain unhappy qualih,'.
The evolutionary hero became a
victim of his success and then could
not turn backward; he prospered
and grew too large and was set
upon by clever enemies evolving
about him. Or he specialized in
diet, and the plants upon which he
fed became increasingly rare. Or he
survived at the cost of shutting out
the light and eating his way into
living rock, like some mollusks. Or
he hid in deserts and survived
through rarity and supersensitive
ears. In cold climates he reduced
his temperature with the season,
dulled his heart to long-drawn spas-
modic efiort, and slept most of his
24
life away. Or, parasitically, he
slumbered in the warm intestinal
darkness of the tapeworm's eyeless
world.
Restricted and dark were many
of these niches, and equally dark
and malignant were some of the
survivors. The oblique corner with
no outlet had narrowed upon them
all. Biological evolution could be
defined as one long series of spe-
cializations— hoofs that prevented
hands, wings that, while opening
the wide reaches of the air, pre-
vented the manipulation of tools.
The list was endless. Each creature
was a tiny fraction of the life force;
the greater portion had died with
the environments that created them.
Others had continued to evolve,
but always their transformations
seemed to present a more skilled
adaptation to an increasingly nar-
row corridor of existence. Success
too frequently meant specialization,
and specialization, ironically, was
the beginning of the road to ex-
tinction. It was the essential theme
that time had dramatized upon the
giant stage.
1 1 may now appear that I have
been wandering mentally amidst ir-
relevant and strange events — time
glimpsed through a blowing curtain
of dust and, among fallen stones
and badland pinnacles, bones de-
noting not just the erosion of ages
but the mysterious transformation
of living bodies.
Man after man in the imme-
diately post-Darwinian days would
stare into his mirror at the bony
contours of a skull that held some
grinning secret beyond the simple
fact of death. Anatomists at the dis-
secting table would turn up odd
vestigial muscles and organs. Our
bodies held outdated machinery as
strange as that to be found in the
attics of old houses. Into these
anatomical depths few would care
to probe. But there were scholars
who were not averse to delving
among fossils, and the skulls they
found or diagnosed would multiply.
These would be recognized at last
for what they were, the dropped
masks of the beginning of Nature's
last great play — the play of man.
Strangely, it is a different play,
though made partly of old in-
If you could shoot on both sides of this fence
you could make better movies.
Sit down at X and well show you why.
All set? Okay. You've got a
camera on your lap. Any con-
ventional super-8 camera.
That's your son, up atiead.
Out to catcti tils first fish.
You're out to catch the whole
story.
Got your eye to the viewer?
How's this shot for openers?
And if you snap on the free
little Multitrix attachment, you
can also title on location, like
this.
Stop fiddling with the knob.
That shot's just 12 inches
from your lens. You'll never
get it in focus.
Which brings us to these, the
unconventional Bolex IVIacro-
zoom cameras. They're the
first super-8s that can shoot
on both sides of the fence.
Because they can focus at
least as near— or as far— as
your eyes can.
The Bolex 160— with power
zoom and single-frame re-
lease—and the Bolex 155
focus from one inch of the
lens to infinity. Handheld.
Without attachments. The 7.5
does the same thing from 5
inches like this one.
What about this? Nearly 3 II.
away? Nope. Still too blurry.
You'd have to walk on water
to get far enough to shoot it
with yourconventional camera.
So what can you shoot? See
that fence? It's 4 ft. from your
seat, the closest most conven-
tional cameras can focus. So
you can gel any shot— outside
the fence. But nothing but
blurs inside it.
With these Bolex cameras
you can get any shot you can
see. Including telephoto shots
Shoot stills. Shoot— and dis-
solve through— a slide. Make
complete movies in the camera.
Want to see Ihem for your-
self? Write to the address be-
low for the name of your
nearest Bolex dealer. And,
while you're there, see these
unconventional Bolex projec-
tors. One of them will even
record a soundtrack onto your
film, turning your silents into
talkies. /^/\
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1 900 Lower Rd, Linden. N J, 07036.
Other products: Hasselblad
cameras, Hermes typewriters
and figuring mactiines.
25
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ASK YOUR TRAVEL AGENT for folders or write Maupintour,
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The Celestron 10
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The 10-inch aperture and 135-mch (3400mm)
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gredients. In three billion years of
life upon the planet, this play had
ne^er been acted upon the great
stage before. We come at a unique
moment in geological history, and
we ourselves are equally unique.
We have brought with us out of die
forest darkness a new unprophe-
siable world — a latent, lurking uni-
verse within our heads.
In the world of Charles Darwin,
evolution was particulate: it con-
tained and traced the history of
fins, claws, wings, and teeth. The
Darwinian circle was immersed in
the study of the response of the in-
dividual organism to its environ-
ment and the selective impact of the
environment upon its creatures. By
contrast, just as biological evolu-
tion had brought the magic of the
endlessly new in organic form, so
the evolving brain, through speech,
had literally created a superorganic
structure unimaginable until its
emergence.
Alfred Russel Wallace. Darwin's
contemporary, perceived that with
the emergence of the human brain,
man had. to a previously inconceiv-
able degree, passed out of the do-
main of the particulate evolution of
biological organs and had entered
upon what we may call history. Hu-
man beings, in whom the power of
communication had arisen, were
lea\'ing the realm of phylogeny for
the realm of history, which was to
contain, henceforth, our essential
destiny. After three billion years of
biological effort, man alone had
seemingly evaded the oblique trap
of biological specialization. He had
done so by the development of a
specialized organ — the brain — ■
whose essential purpose was to
evade specialization.
The tongue and the hand, so dis-
proportionately exaggerated in our
motor cortex, were to be its
primary instruments. With these we
^vould elude channelized instinct
and channelized organic devel-
opment. The creature who had
dropped from some long-ago tree
into the grass had managed to tot-
ter upright and free the grasping
forelimb. Brain, hand, and tongue
would henceforth evolve together.
Fin, fur, and paw would vanish into
the mists of the past. Henceforth it
would be the brain that clothed and
unclothed man. Fire would warm
continued on page 74
Readers are urged to answer this questionnaire
and mail it to NATURAL HISTORY for scientific analysis
Prepared by Luther P. Gerlach and Virginia Hine
Interest in ecology has moved from scholars to the
public^ Environmental Concern, the New Conserva-
tion, Ecology Activism, and Participatory Ecology
are various names given to what appears to be a grow-
ing grass roots movement.
As anthropologists, we believe that this movement
and its effects are so significant that it should be ob-
jectively studied and the consequent findings broadly
disseminated. It is our belief that such information
will contribute to adaptive change.
We began our study of the ecology movement in the
summer of 1968, considering it as both significant in
its own right and as one case study of a class of events
we call "Movements of Personal Transformation and
Social Change." Religious and sociopolitical move-
ments constitute other cases of this class of events that
we have studied. Our findings will be published this
year in articles and a book, and are the subject of a film
produced at the University of Minnesota. To obtain
our data in these cases we used participant observa-
tions, interviews, media reviews, and questionnaires.
Results from the following questionnaire will com-
plement our other findings. We will analyze the returns
in a fall issue of Natural History and relate the con-
clusions to our larger research.
We invite your assistance so that our results will
most accurately reflect your personal experiences and
opinions. We need your assistance.
Please answer the following questionnaire by filling
in the answer box according to the instructions for
each section. Mail your answers to:
Natural History Magazine
77 West 77th Street
The American Museum of Natural History
New York. New York 10024
INSTRUCTIONS
Please answer the first thirteen ques-
tions by putting in the answer box on
the following page the number that
describes your attitude, as follows :
(1) Strongly agree
■ (2) Agree
(3) Uncertain
(4) Disagree
(5) Strongly disagree
1. I believe that plants and animals
exist primarily for man's use and en-
joyment.
2. With advances in technology, I
tliink that man will always be able to
draw the resources he needs from the
environment.
3. I think that pollution and racism
are bodi part of the same basic prob-
lems in our society.
4. I do not think that I am person-
ally responsible for our present state
of pollution.
5. I am afraid that industrial and
military plans to exploit the ocean's
resources may seriously endanger hu-
man life on this planet.
6. I think that owners of private
property should be free to use the
plants and other natural resources on
it pretty much as is now permitted by
law and convention.
7. I believe that the profit motive in
our society (desire for individual eco-
nomic gain) is now outdated and
must change.
8. I feel that our environmental
problems probably cannot be solved
by existing American political and
economic institutions.
9. I think that all American families,
regardless of social or economic posi-
tion, must limit the number of chil-
dren to two. or three at most.
10. I believe that our ecological crisis
can be solved primarily by appli-
cation of technology.
11. I feel that American beliefs and
values have been a basic cause of our
present environmental problems.
12. I believe that economic growth is
nearly always good for any commu-
nity.
13. I think that population control
should be encouraged by removing
tax exemptions for more than two
children.
Please complete the rest of the ques-
tions by putting in each answer box
the number of the statement (in par-
entheses) that best describes your
opinion.
14. Do you feel that wild animals
have any rights?
(1) Yes, equal to man's.
(2) Yes, but subordinate to
man's.
(3) Undecided
(4) No
15. Have you ever been in a wilder-
ness area beyond all roads and hu-
man habitation ?
(1) Yes
(2) Uncertain
(3) No
16. If so. do you feel yourself to be
different wlien you are in a wilder-
ness area than when you are in a
more man-niaiie environment?
(1) Yes
(2) Undecided
(3) No
17. How do you see yourself in rela-
tion lo the influential and powerful
groups in your community?
(1) I am part of them and have
27
a voice in decision making.
(2) I feel part of tliem even
though I do not make deci-
sions.
(3) I am part of them but dis-
like it.
(4) I am outside of them but
not opposed to them.
(5) I am outside of them and
dislike them.
(6) I am outside of them and
actively oppose them.
IS. How do you feel about the move-
ment within the churches to increase
acti\e involvement in social prob-
lem??
(1) Strongly agree
(2) Agree
(3) Uncertain
(4) Disagree
(5) Strongly disagree
(6) I do not knov/ enough about
it to answer.
19. How do you feel about the move-
ment? within tlie church that stress
personal religious experience i such
as charismatic gifts, speaking in
tongues, or other ecstatic experi-
ences) ?
(1) Strongly agree
(2) Agree
(3) Uncertain
(4) Disagree
(5) Strongly disagree
(6) I do not know enough about
it to answer.
20. How do you feel about the peace
movement i anti-\ iet Nam war I '
(1) I support it and am active
in it.
(2) I favor it generally but have
not been active in it.
(3) 1 am uncertain hov/ I feel.
(4) I agree with its goals but
disapprove of its methods.
(5) I disapprove of the move-
ment but am against repres-
sive action.
(6) 1 disapprove and would like
to see the movements sup-
pressed.
21. How do you feel about the stu-
dent movements in colleges?
(1) I support them and am ac-
tive in them.
(2) I favor them generally but
have not been active.
(3) I am uncertain how I feel
about them.
(4) I agree with their goals but
disapprove of their methods.
(5) I disapprove of the move-
ments but am against re-
pressive action.
(6) I disapprove and would like
to see the movements sup-
pressed.
22. How do you teel about the Black
Power movement.''
(1) I support it and am active
in it.
(2) I favor it generally but have
not been active.
(3) I am uncertain hov/ I feel.
(4) I agree with the goals but
disapprove of the methods.
(5) i disapprove of the move-
ment but am against repres-
sive action.
(6) I disapprove and would like
to see the movement sup-
pressed.
23. How do you feel about the con-
servation and ecology movements?
(1) 1 support them and am ac-
tive in them.
(2) I favor them generally but
have not been active.
(3) I am uncertain hov/ I feel.
(4) I agree with the goals but
disapprove of some of the
methods.
(5) I disapprove of the move-
ments but am against re-
pressive action.
(6) I disapprove and would like
to see the movements sup-
pressed.
24. Do you think diat diere is any
connection between all of these vari-
ous movements in our society?
(1) They are all aspects of one
single wave of revolutionary
change.
(2) They may be related but are
still separate movements.
(3) I am uncertain what I think.
(4) There is no connection be-
tween them.
23. Please give vour age group.
(1) teen
(2) 20-24
(3) 25-29
(4) 30-39
(5) 40-49
(6) 50-59
(7) 60 and over
26. Sex.
(1) Male
(2) Female
27. Education.
(1) Eighth grade or less.
(2) Attended high school but
did not graduate.
(3) High school graduate.
(4) Attended business or tech-
nical school.
(5) Attended three years or less
of college or university.
(6) Hold B.A. or B.S. college de-
gree or about to graduate.
(7) Hold M.A.. M.S., or Ph.D.
degree.
28. Annual family income from all
sources.
(1) Under $3000
(2) $3000 to $5000
(3) $5000 to $7500
(4) $7500 to $10,000
(5) $10,000 to $15,000
(6) $15,000 to $25,000
(7) $25,000 to $50,000
(8) $50,000 to $100,000
(9) Over $100,000
29. Occupation of the head of your
household.
(1) Manufacturing or distribution
of products.
(2) Construction, building trades,
or real estate.
(3) Retail, merchandising, or
sales.
(4) Engineering or technical.
(5) Government or military.
(6) Professional, education, or
social service.
(7) Farming, fisheries, lumber-
ing, mining.
(8) Banking or finance.
(9) Transportation, communica-
tions, or utilities.
(10) Arts or entertainment.
(11) Other
30. ^ hat is die present level of
work of the head of your house-
hold?
(1) Director, executive, or ad-
ministrator.
(2) Assistant executive or ad-
ministrator.
(3) Supervisor, teacher, or fore-
man.
(4) Clerical.
(5) Craftsman, mechanic, ma-
chine operator.
(6) Laborer or service worker.
(7) Other
31. How often do you attend reli-
gious services or meetings ?
(1) Daily
(2) Twice a week
(3) Weekly
(4) Twice a month
(5) Once a month
(6) Few times a year
(7) Very seldom
(8) Never
If you are active in the consenation
and ecologv- movements or support
them in any way, please complete the
questionnaire. If not, leave the rest
blank.
32. How many conservation, ecology,
or other organizations concerned with
environmental problems do you be-
long to?
(1) None
(2) One
(3) Two
(4) Three
(5) Four or more
33. How often do you usually talk to
other people involved in the move-
ment (in telephone conversations, in-
formal meeting?, organizational meet-
ings, etc.) ?
28
(1) Never
(2) Few times a year
(3) Once a month
(4) Once a week
(5) Twice a weel<
(6) Three or four times a week
(7) Daily
34. Of the five people you feel closest
to. how many are also involved in the
movement?
(1) All five
(2) Four
(3) Three
(4) Two
(5) One
(6) None
35. How many people have you per-
sonally influenced to become active in
the movement?
(1) None
(2) One or two
(3) Three to five
(4) Six to ten
(5) Over ten
36. How many people have you tried
to interest in environmental problems
by talking, making speeches, writing
articles, etc.?
(1) None
(2) One to ten
(3) Ten to twenty
(4) Twenty to fifty
(5) Fifty to one hundred
(6) Several hundred
(7) Several thousand
37. Write in the spaces provided the
numbers of any of these methods of
influencing decision-makers that you
would approve of.
(1) Writing letters to govern-
ment officials.
(2) Speaking at public hearings.
(3) Lawsuits against corpora-
tions, government agencies,
or individuals guilty of en-
vironmental negligence.
(4) Boycotts against companies
that pollute.
(5) Rallies, marches, demonstra-
tions.
(6) Nonviolent direct action
such as sitting in front of
bulldozers.
(7) Citizen take-overs of offices
of government agencies or
industries to enforce de-
mands.
(8) Destructive (violent) action,
if other means failed (such
as sabotage or bombings).
38. In your involvement with the
movement have you ever had an ex-
perience that radically changed your
ideas about yourself and made you
act differently toward your environ-
ment?
(1) No
(2) Undecided
(3) Yes, I have changed in
some ways.
(4) Yes, I have been radically
changed.
39. If your participation in the
movement has involved any risks,
write in the spaces provided the num-
bers of any of the following you have
experienced.
(1) Expenditure of great time or
money.
(2) Loss of friends.
(3) Threatening mail or phone
calls.
(4) Pressure from employer.
(5) Serious family rift.
(6) Loss of job.
(7) Destruction of personal prop-
erty.
(8) Jail sentence.
(9) Bodily harm.
40. If involvement in the movement
has caused you to change your life
style in significant ways, please list
such changes in the space provided.
41. Please list the conservation,
ecology, or citizen's organizations ac-
tive in environmental problems that
you support or are active in.
Describe your role in each group
(such as officer, committee member,
full-time employee, sustaining mem-
ber, etc.). Then describe the ap-
proach of each group by checking it
as conservative, moderate, activist, or
radical.
40. Changes in life style:
To:
Natural History Magazine
77 West 77th Street
New York, N.Y. 10024
Here are my answers to your questionnaire
12 3 4 5 6 7
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn i
I 37 1 38 I 39 1
nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn |
41. Organization
Your role
Cons. Mod. Act. Rad.
29
THIS GENTLE gi
On the
Serengeti Plains
of East Africa
the cheetah selects
its prey carefully
and kills it
efficiently
By George B. Schaller
With its small round head, trim
waist, and long, slender legs, the
cheetah is the most atypical of the
cats, an animal built for speed, a
greyhound with the coat of a leop-
ard. A delicate and aristocratic ani-
mal, it seems to belong with roy-
alty: indeed trained cheetahs were
used as early as 865 B.C. by King
Hashing of Persia to hunt antelope.
In the sixteenth century the Mogul
emperor Akbar the Great of India
is said to have kept 1,000 cheetahs.
A hooded cat would be transported
in a bullock cart to within 300 feet
of a herd of blackbuck antelope.
With the hood removed, the cheetah
slipped off the cart, crept closer,
and finally sprinted after the prey.
If it missed, the keeper came up,
chanting, '"Oh, great King, do not
be angry, you will kill the next
one," as he slipped the hood over
the cat's eyes. But if it captured an
adult male, as it was taught to do,
success was rewarded by a cup of
blood from the slain animal.
Today this sport is extinct in In-
dia and so is the cheetah — the last
one was shot there in 1952. A few
survive in southwestern Iran and
some possibly in Turkmenistan and
in one or two localities in the Near
East. Strays occur only occasionally
in North Africa. Fortunately chee-
tahs are still widespread in the open
woodlands and plains south of the
Sahara where suitable prey sur-
vive. But they are nowhere abun-
dant, not even in the national
parks. The 5,000 square miles of
the Serengeti in Tanzania contain
XEGANT CAT
perhaps 150 cheetahs, one per 33
square miles; the large Kruger Na-
tional Park in South Africa has
about one per 27 square miles.
Considering the long contact that
man has had with the cheetah, re-
markably little was known of its
habits until recently. Aloof and self-
contained, it remained an enigma,
even refusing to breed in captivity.
Among Emperor Akbar's 1,000
cheetahs, only one had young, a lit-
ter of three. No other captive births
were reported until 1956. and since
then only seven litters have been
born in zoos. When I joined the
Serengeti Research Institute in
1966 to study predators, particu-
larly the lion, in the Serengeti Na-
tional Park, I became intrigued by
the cheetah, not only by its mystery
but also by its delicate beauty and
lithe grace.
Most Serengeti cheetahs are mi-
gratory, following the movements
of their principal prey, the Thom-
son's gazelle. During the rains early
in the year, when the gazelles are
on the plains, the cheetahs are there
too, but when the grass dries up in
July, both move 25 and more miles
to the edge of the acacia woodlands
that cover much of the park. There
some cheetahs remain for several
months. Occasionally one stays
within a three- to four-square-mile
area for a month, but usually each
uses some 20 to 25 square miles of
terrain in the course of a season.
The same cheetah tends to return
yearly to the same locality, and one
of my pleasures was to recognize an
individual after a long absence.
Cheetahs do not establish terri-
tories in the sense of defending a
locality against other cheetahs. Sev-
eral animals commonly range over
the same area, but they avoid con-
tact. When two see each other,
they veer apart without associating.
Cheetahs also squirt a mixture of
scent and urine against tree trunks
and often deposit their feces on
prominent locations such as ter-
mite mounds. A cheetah that smells
a fresh marker knows that the area
has been visited recently and can
then plot its movements to avoid a
meeting. Cheetahs do not advertise
their presence by roaring in the
manner of lions. Their only louder
calls are a birdlike chirp and a se-
date, staccato chirr used mainly to
keep mother and cubs in contact
with each other.
It has often been said that adult
cheetahs are sociable and travel
mainly in groups. I found this in-
frequently in the Serengeti. Ex-
cluding mothers with cubs, 52 per-
cent of my sightings were of
solitary individuals, 31 percent of
the cheetahs were in pairs, and the
rest in groups of three to four. Two
or three adult males sometimes be-
came companions for months, but I
never saw two adult females in a
group. Adult males and females as-
sociated mainly during courtship.
Although I frequently saw groups
of two to four males and females,
these were with few exceptions lit-
ters of grown cubs that had not yet
split up. The extent to which female
cheetahs are asocial was shown
well by a mother and her two
grown daughters. Although all
three wandered over the same area
and sometimes saw each other, to
my knowledge, they never met.
This particular family provided
me with some of my most inter-
esting observations on cheetah life
history. The mother gave birth to at
least three cubs in July. 1967, in a
jumble of granite boulders and
brush. By September she had only
two cubs left. Most cheetahs lose
about half of their cubs as a result
of illness, predation, and abandon-
ment, but a few manage to raise
their whole litters of four to five.
Her cubs, like those of all cheetahs,
were black with a long blue-gray
mantle of hair on their heads and
backs, a striking natal coat that is
lost at about three months. The
cubs began to follow her around
ivhen they were about six weeks
old; at three months they ceased to
suckle. They were a close-knit fam-
ily and shared kills without fight-
ing. After a meal they licked each
other's faces, purring loudly. Yet
somehow their social existence
seemed constrained; it lacked that
intense quality of contact found
among lions and even leopards.
Perhaps it was because cheetahs do
not rub their cheeks and bodies
sinuously together in greeting, as
lions and other cats do. Perhaps
their tenuous social contacts as
adults make an intimate bond be-
32
tween mother and offspring irrele-
vant. In fact, one observation sug-
gests that mothers cannot recognize
their young when they are small.
Once two mothers, each with tiso
cubs about three months old. met
inadvertently at a kill, then parted
after briefly threatening each other.
But one cub followed the wrong
mother. She noticed the addition
but could not distinguish the new-
comer from her own. She cuffed
any cub that approached her until
all three cringed, and she refused to
associate with them for at least
eight hours. I was afraid that she
would abandon all of them. Some-
how the extra cub was reunited
with its mother that night.
H.
-ow to hunt was perhaps
the most important lesson these cubs
had to learn while still with their
mother. At first they played around
her while she stalked, sometimes
alerting the prey by running ahead.
But later, at about three months
of age a change occurred. They fol-
lowed discretely or watched while
she hunted. A female may even pro-
vide her cubs with the opportunity
to learn the techniques of killing.
My wife, Kay, watched a cheetah
carry a live gazelle fawn to her
five-month-old cubs and release it.
They tried to capture it, and once
they knocked it down but were
unable to kill it. Finally the mother
did so. At the age of about one year
cubs themselves will initiate some
hunts. For example, in August.
1968, when she was 13 months old,
a cub of the litter I had observed
for over a year bowled over a ga-
zelle fawn several times with a swat
of her paw. But she was so inept at
grabbing it that finally the mother
ran up and killed it. In three sub-
sequent hunts the mother took the
initiative. On October 1, when they
were almost 15 months old, the
cubs bungled yet another hunt, only
to be helped again by their mother.
Some two weeks later, on Octo-
ber 17, the family was still together,
but on the following day the cubs
Thomson s gazelles scatte
before the charge of a cheetal
The cat already has singled oi
its victim from the hen
separated permanently from their
mother. It was a sudden and dra-
matic break, especially considering
the cubs' inability to hunt well.
There was no gradual severing of
the social bonds, no tentative, sol-
itary excursions, just an abrupt
transition from dependence to com-
plete independence. These cubs
never again associated with their
mother. Other litters behaved sim-
ilarly. In contrast, the leopard, an-
other solitary cat, behaves in a
more typical manner. One female
cub whose history I traced from
birth began to occasionally roam
on her own at the age of 13 months,
but continued to meet and share kills
with her mother until she was 22
months old. Three months later her
mother conceived again.
The two cheetah sisters lost
weight after separating from their
mother, but they survived, and with
the onset of the rains they moved to
the plains. By February, 1969, they
too had split up. for I met one as I
was walking across the plains. She
lay on her side, looking around
with raised head in the curiously
detached manner of cheetahs. I sat
down 100 feet from her and fifteen
minutes later heard a gazelle fawn
bleat. Then over a rise came two
jackals in pursuit of the fawn. The
cheetah sprinted past me. knocked
the fawn down, and grabbed it by
the neck. She had obviously learned
to hunt. As she ate I moved slowly
toward her, finally reclining fifteen
feet away. She stared at me with
Tense and intent, a cheetah
stalks toward its prey on the
grassy plains of the Serengeti.
f^^-
*•
'm.
%
^^
%
ikV
j^yj,"
v^;>
^
«-,r <
#c^
4diV.'-<
guileless, amber eyes but did not
flee. We stayed together for over
half an hour, once only ten feet
apart, one of my most memorable
experiences with a wild animal.
o
ne of these young females
conceived in April, 1969, when 21
months old, and her sister courted
in May. A tame but free-living
cheetah raised by Joy Adamson
also bred at the age of 22 months
for the first time. On July 12, I
found the litter of the first young
female: four cubs only a day or two
old, with eyes still closed, weighing
a mere 12 ounces each. They lay in
a patch of grass six miles from the
place where their mother was born
two years earlier. She was just mov-
ing the cubs to a thicket 900 feet
away, carrying them one at a time
by the back or a leg. After all had
been moved, she returned twice
more and searched the site, seem-
ingly unable to count with pre-
cision. At the age of three weeks the
cubs could walk unsteadily. On Au-
gust 19, the photographer Simon
Trevor saw her take the cubs to
their first kilt. The gazelle was not
dead and the cubs were obviously
frightened, jumping back each time
it kicked. Another generation had
to learn to become a predator.
The hunt of a cheetah is surely
one of the most exciting spectacles
in Africa — the slow stalk, the tense
period of waiting until the prey is
inattentive, and finally the explosive
rush at speeds of at least 60 miles
per hour, making the cheetah the
fastest of all land mammals. Chee-
tahs may hunt at any time during
the day, and on moonlit nights as
well, but usually they do so between
7:00 and 10:00 A.M. and 4:00 and
6:00 P.M. They seldom work hard
for their meals, but lie in the shade,
seemingly waiting for prey to drift
into the vicinity. Or from a termite
hill, they scan the horizon for prey
and then slowly walk in its direc-
tion. At some time between spotting
a possible quarry and chasing it,
the cheetah selects one, and I was
34
particularly interested to find out
what determined that choice.
Size of prey was obviously one
factor. In the parts of the Serengeti
where I observed cheetahs, Thom-
son's gazelle was the preferred prey
(91 percent), followed by Grant's
gazelle, wildebeest, impala, and
hare in that order. A Thomson's ga-
zelle weighs some 3.5 to 40 pounds,
just one large meal for a cheetah
weighing 110 to 1.30 pounds. Adult
Grant's gazelle, impala, and reed-
buck were also killed, but of the
wildebeest only the calves were cap-
tured. Similarly, some 68 percent of
the cheetah kills reported from
Kruger National Park consisted of
impala, and most of the other prey
was relatively small too. A cheetah
hunting alone seldom preys on any-
thing weighing much more than it-
self and this limits it to the small
antelopes and the young of the
large ones. But several cheetah to-
gether may attack a large animal, as
in Nairobi National Park where four
males killed kongoni and zebra.
Prey selection can operate in two
ways. In one, the predator chooses
a particular animal out of a herd —
a sick one. a newborn one — and
pursues it, ignoring all others. In
the other, the prey selects against
itself, so to speak, by becoming vul-
nerable in some way. Leopards, for
example, catch nearly twice as
many adult male Thomson's ga-
zelles as would be expected from
their number in the population.
The charge. No animal can run
as fast. But the cheetah tires
quickly and can run no more than
about 900 feet at full speed.
These seem to lie nioslly nonterri-
torial males that roam through high
grass and along river courses where
leopards hunt, in contrast to females
and territorial males that remain in
areas of short grass where they are
nol so vulnerable to leopards.
Cheetahs hunt mainly in the open
plains. There they catch about 30
percent fewer adult males than ex-
pected, possibly because cheetahs
35
prefer to select prey that is fleeing
rather than standing around alertly
as territorial males do. I collected
and aged the jaws of 163 gazelle
kills. The cheetahs had captured
many fawns less than six months
old, whereas yearlings, some 9 to
24 months old, were almost immuj.e
to predation. The cheetahs took
many adults but no age class was
particularly selected. Most of the
adult prey taken were presumably
healthy, although the cats may have
been able to detect slight dis-
abilities, which I could not. Ga-
zelles sometimes suffer from heavy
infestations of lungworm or sarcop-
tic mange and such animals possi-
bly respond less briskly to the chee-
tah. However, when the ages of
gazelles killed by cheetahs are com-
pared with those killed by lions, it
is obvious that the two cats select
very similarly. A lion captures its
prey by surprise in a short fast
rush, during which there is little or
no time to test for weakness in an
Jmji^-
Alerted by circling vultures,
a lion drives a cheetah
away from its prey. Lions
occasionally kill cheetahs.
individual. In contrast, the cheetah
may take its prey with a long run.
Despite their different hunting tech-
niques the adult gazelles killed by
these two cats had a similar age
structure, except that lions kill
fewer small young and more year-
lings. Possibly cheetahs catch the
sick, and lions, the healthy, but I am
inclined to think that most prey se-
lected by both species was in rea-
sonably good condition.
When observing a cheetah hunt,
the selection for fawns is obvious —
any fawn in a herd is immediately
pursued. This is not surprising
when hunting success is considered.
Although cheetahs can attain tre-
mendous speed, they are unable to
keep it up for more than about 900
feet. If the gazelle dodges several
times, the cheetah, exhausted, may
have to give up the chase, and 23
out of 26 unsuccessful hunts that I
observed failed for that reason. A
fawn can run neither fast nor far,
and in 31 chases after them, the
cheetah was successful every time
after an average run of 600 feet. On
the other hand, of .56 pursuits after
large young and adults only 54 per-
cent resulted in a kill after a chase
up to some 900 feet. Cheetahs are
pragmatists: better a small meal
than none at all.
Cheetahs prefer to hunt a solitary
individual or one in a small herd,
because they have difficulty select-
ing a gazelle and keeping it in sight
in a large, milling herd. Individuals
that enter tall grass, graze behind
some bushes, or otherwise enable
the cheetah to stalk undetected are
chosen. With endless patience the
cat may wait for a gazelle to lower
its head and graze while briefly fac-
ing away from the danger, thus giv-
ing the cheetah an undetected sec-
ond during the rush — often the
difference between success and fail-
ure. The selection process is not al-
ways an easy one. Cheetahs some-
times bound toward a herd, then
give up for no obvious reason,
probably because they are unable to
find a suitable quarry. Or they first
pursue a herd at moderate speed
before suddenly making a selection.
Here are two typical hunts:
A female cheetah climbs ten feet
up a tree and spots ten gazelles
about 700 feet away. She ap-
proaches the herd slowly, with head
held low, until she is some 300 feet
from the animals. She sits and
watches for five minutes. One ga-
zelle grazes somewhat apart from
A phalanx of vultures watches
a cheetah and its victim.
The cat usually eats
about 60 percent of a carcass.
37
the herd. The cheetah rushes and is
within 100 feet before the gazelle
flees. After a chase of about 480
feet, which includes a sharp 180-de-
gree turn, the gazelle flips forward,
tripped by the cheetah, which
lunges in and grabs the throat. Af-
ter five minutes, the gazelle dies
from strangulation.
A female cheetah spots a dozen
gazelles on a burned stubble 800
feet away. She slowly walks 300
feet toward them; then, at a moder-
ate speed, bounds about 500 feet
before selecting the smallest indi-
vidual in the fleeing herd. She
sprints after it, follows three zig-
zags closely, and after 400 feet,
catches it in a cloud of dust. She
emerges holding it by the throat.
A
fter knocking a gazelle
down by hitting its flank or rump
with a paw, the cheetah typically
grabs it by the throat and throttles
it, a task that requires four and a
half minutes on the average. The
carcass is often dragged to a shady
spot. Cheetahs usually eat the meat
off one thigh first; after that they
cut the meat from the abdomen and
rib cage, sometimes stopping to lap
up any blood that collects in the
body cavity. Finally they strip the
rest of the meat from the inside. All
that generally remains is the articu-
lated skeleton with much of the skin
and the whole digestive tract. The
cats eat rapidly, glancing nervously
around at intervals. This is not sur-
prising, for lions, hyenas, and other
predators often arrive at the kill,
having been alerted by the descend-
ing vultures that a meal is in the
offing. Cheetahs are timid creatures,
low in the predator hierarchy, and
12 percent of their kills end in
someone else's stomach. Twice I
saw a cheetah driven from its kill
by a solid phalanx of vultures. The
cheetahs did little to retaliate when
their kill was scavenged except to
hiss and moan in a peculiar manner,
although one bold hyena was slapped
in the face.
To find out how often a cheetah
kills, several persons with the Ser-
38
engeti Research Institute and I
watched a female with two small
cubs for 26 days. There is a primi-
tive pleasure in spending a day
with a predator. Nothing happens
for hours. The plains shimmer with
heat waves. Yet there is a tension in
the air. a feeling of impending vio-
lence. During these 26 days the
cheetah killed 24 Thomson's ga-
zelles, ranging from small fawns to
adults, and one hare. At this rate
she would kill 337 gazelles per
year. She caught nothing on three
days, although she tried, but on two
days she captured two gazelles
each. She captured an average of
22 pounds of animal per day, but
she lost two kills to lions and one to
hyenas. About 40 percent of the
weight of a carcass was not eaten,
mainly the digestive tract and
bones. This left about llVi; pounds
of meat for the mother and two
cubs, almost twice as much as she
actually needed, judging by the
amount fed to cheetahs in zoos.
Other mothers killed equally often,
but solitary cheetahs captured prey
probably only once every two to
three days. Taking into account the
size of the cheetah population, the
percent of gazelle in their diet, and
other factors, it seems likely that
the Serengeti cheetahs kill 15,000-
20,000 gazelles a year, only a small
percentage of the several hundred
thousand gazelles in the park.
Given such a large amount of
prey and their success in catching
it, there were surprisingly few chee-
tahs in the park. The Nairobi Na-
tional Park, only 44 square miles in
size, usually had some 10 to 15 resi-
dent cheetahs, showing that the spe-
cies can tolerate quite high den-
sities. Adult females outnumbered
males by a ratio of 2:1 and one-
third of the females were accom-
panied by cubs, often large ones.
Females that lose their litter may
come into estrus again within a
week, and the gestation period is
only 90 to 95 days. The Serengeti
cheetahs have a high reproductive
potential, a satisfactory number of
cubs are raised, and food seems to
be no problem. Yet something
keeps the population depressed at a
low level. A leopard killed and
stored a cheetah in a tree, several
lions captured and strangled one,
and a litter burned in a grass fire,
but such deaths were insignificant
to the total cheetah population.
The wild dog, an equally rare
predator in the park, provided a
hint. These pack-living predators
raised large litters, but canine dis-
temper killed over half the mem-
bers of one pack and undoubtedly
affected other packs as well. During
my stay in the Serengeti the wild
dog population did not increase. It
had failed to increase since at least
1956, the period for which there is
information. The dog population
seems to be controlled by disease,
not by the food supply. Possibly
cheetahs are also affected by dis-
ease, although I have no evidence
to show this. The basic question of
just what factors operate on the dog
and cheetah populations to keep
them stable at such a low level re-
mains unanswered. Disease can
cause a decrease but something else
must finally determine that level at
which the population stabilizes.
The cheetah is uncommon to rare
everywhere, and the species balances
itself delicately between security and
extinction in an area. Any addi-
tional mortality, such as shooting
by man, may well have a serious
effect on a population. Yet in 1966
75 cheetah coats were sold in New
York alone to satisfy the vanity of
a few women. A total of 3,168
cheetah skins were imported into
the United States in 1968-69, as
many as would normally be found
in 98,525 square miles of Africa,
given the densities in Kruger and
Serengeti national parts. Unless
the cheetah is more strictly pro-
tected, this gentle and elegant cat will
surely follow its Indian cousin into
extinction over much of Africa.
A cheetah cub is born
ivith a black coat and a
mantle of long blue-gray
hair. The natal coat
disappears at about
three months of age.
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The barely visible
water mite,
a colorful carnivore,
leads a complex,
predacious lile
by David Barr
Photographs by
Helen Sutton
On the hunt for prey, mites
of genus Liinnochares, top,
move through aquatic vegetation.
Bottom, the male mite Arrenurus,
magnified about fifty
times, is heavily armored.
To slip beneath the calm surface
of a marsh or pond is to enter a new
world, a complex world inhabited
by armored and jointed creatures,
by serpentine segmented worms, by
larvae, nymphs, and scuttling adults
of many kinds. And in this profu-
sion of freshwater invertebrate life
the most colorful creatures by far
are the water mites. Most people
generally see the conspicuous,
bright-red members of this group,
but there are many lesser-known
common water mites, richly pat-
terned in tones of brown, yellow,
blue, green, violet, and magenta.
All are tiny: the largest no more
than a quarter of an inch long; the
average, about a sixteenth of an
inch. Observations of water mites
usually have to be carried out with
a low-power microscope.
At first glance, a water mite
could be mistaken for a small
aquatic spider. In fact spiders and
mites, which are grouped together
as arachnids, share a number of im-
portant features. Both have piercing
jaws, the chelicerae, and a pair of
sensory, accessory mouthparts, the
pedipalps. Like the spider, the mite
possesses four pairs of legs used for
locomotion, and is a carnivore,
sucking the body juices of its prey.
The most obvious difference be-
tween the two arachnids lies in the
spider's narrow waist, which divides
its body into two main sections. All
water mites have an undivided body.
Like most freshwater animals,
mites are a little heavier than water.
While some species live on the bot-
tom of the pond, others swim easily
with the aid of long, brushlike tufts
of hair that increase the surface
area and improve the efficiency of
the legs for aquatic locomotion.
Adult water mites are free-living
and predacious — the wolves of their
world. On a suiniy day a relatively
large, bright-red water mite, such as
Eylais, can be seen swimming,
legs flailing like a miniature wind-
mill, on the hunt for tiny crusta-
ceans. The mite will enter a brows-
ing school of its translucent prey,
seize one with the strong, clawed
pedipalps, and drop in a crimson
arc to the pond bottom.
The crustacean prey is pierced by
the needlelike mouthparts, and the
mite feeds on its body juices. Soon,
the meal over, this voracious pre-
dator returns to the hunt, aided by
two pairs of simple eyes usually
placed above the mouth, one pair
on either side of the body. In some
cases all four eyes are mounted to-
gether on a central plate, and in
several primitive families, a fifth
eye is present as well.
An animal that requires a micro-
scope for its observation is not eas-
ily studied. To begin with, speci-
mens are difficult to gather. One
way to obtain large numbers of wa-
ter mites for observation is to dip
into a weedy pond with an aquatic in-
sect net. In such a favorable habitat
mite population densities may ap-
proach hundreds per square meter.
When plant and animal material
taken from the bottom of the pond
is dumped out in a shallow, white-
bottomed pan of water, mites swim
out of the mass of vegetation. They
can be picked up with a medicine
dropper, one at a time, and trans-
ferred to a collecting vial.
Water mites have a wide variety of
different habitats and different
ways of life. Stream-living mites of-
ten congregate in clumps of sub-
merged moss or in masses of tree
rootlets projecting into the water.
Because they lack the holdfast de-
vices that enable many insects of this
habitat to avoid being swept away,
mites invariably seek a spot shel-
tered from the current.
Aquatic mites even manage to
eke out a living where tliere seems
to be no water at all. There are
many natural situations where wa-
ter exists only as a thin surface
film, places such as the lush banks
41
of moss kept constantly wet by
spray from a waterfall, the damp
shoreline of a lake or pond, or the
soggy surface of marshy ground.
Mites of the water-film habitat do
not swim, but have short, strong,
spiny legs for crawling laboriously
along the surface. There is no way
to collect them except to get down
on your hands and knees, and pick
them up one by one with a pair of
soft forceps.
II
_ few persistent water mite col-
lectors have located substantial pop-
ulations of small, pale-colored mites
in the underground water that flows
around the gravel particles and
sand grains beneath stream beds.
One biologist has a foolproof
method for determining whether a
gravel bar is a good collecting
spot. With hip boots and collecting
gear, he wades out to the bar, then
with each step, bounces up and
down, first on one foot, then on die
other. If the surface feels spongy,
so that his boots sink in an inch or
two, there will be enough water
flowing among the gravel particles
to support a good mite population.
Adding to the difficulty and chal-
lenge of studying water mites are
the complex life cycles character-
istic of these creatures. While many
terrestrial mites are either parasitic
or predatory, water mites demon-
strate their versatility by trying out
both styles during the course of a
life cycle. There are usually at least
six readily distinguishable life his-
tory stages: egg, parasitic larva,
first chrysalis (nymphochrysalis) ,
nymph, second chrysalis (tele-
iochrysalis), and adult. Each stage
of each species has a characteristic
appearance and way of life — and
there are at least 5,000 species of
water mites.
I feel challenged each time I ex-
amine a field collection of water
mites. It usually contains male and
female adults of a variety of spe-
cies, some of them closely related.
Each mite, lor example, a fast-
42
An egg-laden Unionicola drills,
slowed by elongated, radiating
legs. Leg hairs improve
the locomotive efficiency.
swimming, blue-green female of the
genus Arrenurus, poses questions:
what is the male of the species like?
when are the eggs laid? what does
the larva look like? which insect
serves as host? into what kind of
nymph does the larva develop?
These questions lead toward a
larger goal: to understand the place
of the species in the habitat and its
relationship to the other organisms
there. Thus the first step in the
study of a water mite ecology is to
establish a complete set of life his-
tory stages for a species.
In examining a field collection
suppose one discovers a mite for
which only the male is known to
science. The first step in tracing the
life history of mite X is the analysis
of numerous collections of adult
mites. It is often possible to decide
which male and female form belong
to the same species from the obser-
vation that they are always found
together. If, in addition, the same
type of male and female mate read-
ily when kept together in an aquar-
Emerging eggs, magnified
about eighty times, sink to
an underwater plant. Most
mite larvae, when they hatch,
become parasites on insects.
ium, one can be fairly certain that
they are conspecific. Such a
male-female association is the first
of a series of links in a life history.
In the laboratory, female mites
will lay spherical red or yellow
eggs, deposited singly or in large
masses, but always invested with a
gelatinous envelope. In nature,
these vermilion egg clusters are
glued on submerged plants or on
stones, dead leaves, or bits of twig;
but in the laboratory they are usu-
ally deposited on the walls of the
aquarium or glass dish in which the
mites are kept. Thus one can watch
the hatching of the egg, and, when
it appears, examine the next impor-
tant life history stage, the larva.
The larvae are extremely small and
can be examined carefully only un-
der the highest magnifications of a
compound microscope. They usu-
ally have the same kind of mouth-
parts as the adults, but unlike
adults, the larvae have just three
pairs of legs.
The water mite larval stage is
typically parasitic upon one or an-
other variety of aquatic insect — a
dragonfly, a water bug, a beetle, or
a mosquito. If the adult host spends
most of its time in the water
(beetle, water bug), the mite larva
attaches its mouthparts directly into
some part of the insect body. But if
the adult host is aerial (dragonfly,
inosciuito). the larval mite has to
contact the insect at an immature
stage, when it is aquatic. The con-
tact may be made underwater or at
the surface when the insect is leav-
ing the water in preparation for its
transformation to the adult form.
Thus the glistening, last subadult
stage of an emerging insect often
carries several dozen tiny, red or
green, hitchhiking mite larvae out
of the water with it. As the imma-
ture host insect sheds its exo-
skeleton a final time, the mite lar-
vae quickly crawl to the pale, newly
hatched adult and before the body
hardens, they plunge in their mouth-
parts.
So far it has proved difficult to
induce mite larvae to attach to a
host insect in the laiioralory so tiiat
they will engorge and change into
nymplis. This makes the larva—*
nymph step a critical one, requiring
43
intensive field collecting of all kinds
of aquatic insects. A graduate stu-
dent working on just such a project
learned that it can be tougher than
it sounds. He suspected that his
mites were using aquatic beetles
and bugs as hosts. But the per-
centage of parasitism was so low
that time after time he had to col-
lect and examine several hundred
insects to find a dozen or so that
were parasitized.
In the laboratory, parasitic lar-
vae, looking like tiny red balloons
decorating the host body, can be re-
moved and their detailed structure
compared with that of the larvae
hatched from eggs. If the two are
identical, one then knows the host in-
sect (or at least one of them) for
this species.
I hen the larva is fully engorged
it enters a resting stage called the
nymphochrysalis. analogous to the
pupa of butterflies and moths. In-
side the old, distended larval skin, a
series of drastic anatomical altera-
tions occur, and a new life stage,
the nymph, forms. \^Tien fully de-
veloped, the nymph simply ruptures
the old larval skin and drops off,
leaving behind a stalk of larval
mouthparts attached to the host in-
sect. Probably some precise behav-
ioral mechanism allows it to do this
only when the host is flying over or
swimming in a body of water. The
larvae so laboriously located on
field-collected host insects complete
their development in just this way.
If the hosts are kept in or over wa-
ter, the newly hatched nymphs will
drop off and swim around in the
container, where they can be col-
lected for examination.
The nymph is like a miniature
edition of the adult mite with four
pairs of legs and similarly shaped
mouthparts and body plates. It usu-
ally differs only in lacking an open-
ing in the genital region and in
having genital plates that are of
reduced complexity.
The nymph also imitates nearly
the adult mode of life, swimming or
crawling through its habitat, vora-
ciously capturing and consuming
its natural prey of smaller in-
vertebrate animals. When it has fed
enough, it climbs onto a bit of vege-
tation, wraps its legs tightly around
the stalk, and enters another nium-
mylike. quiescent period, called the
teleiochrysalis. Inside the nymphal
skin the new adult takes shape, and
when this transformation is com-
pleted, it ruptures its prison and
bursts forth to take up a free-living,
predatory existence once more.
When the nymph— >adult step is
established and the life history as-
sociation complete, a chart can be
drawn for the entire life cycle of
the mite. This is the first step
toward understanding its place in
the complex aquatic ecosystem.
Certain water mites alter the
basic life cycle I have described.
For instance, females of some spe-
cies have the remarkable ability to
lay eggs in which the larva forms
but never hatches. While still inside
the egg cuticle, the larva is trans-
formed into a tiny nymph, and
when this hatches it can begin
searching immediately for prey. By
this device the mite gives up para-
sitism and avoids the risk of not
being able to find the right host at
just the right time. Still other gen-
era have evolved a magnificently in-
dividual adaptation and parasitize
aquatic mollusks. especially fresh-
water mussels or clams. All stages,
with the exception of the active
larva, may be found inside the mus-
sel, embedded in its fleshy gills or
labial palps.
It is just possible that a knowl-
edge of water mite life histories will
be of great practical interest to
mankind one day. aside from the
insight it now gives into the work-
ing of freshwater environments.
Water mites attach to a wide vari-
ety of insect hosts, among them
some that most plague man: mos-
quitoes and blackflies. There are in-
dications that heavy infestations of
parasitic mites can seriously weaken
host mosquitoes, even prevent them
from reproducing. The remote pos-
sibility of using water mites to con-
trol troublesome insects suggests a
welcome alternative to insecticides.
Mite larvae, looking like
balloons, enter a resting stage
on their host, a giant waterbug.
Moreover, the spectrum of mites
that inhabit freshwater can serve as
a delicate indicator of the level of
organic pollution in natural water
sources. Mites are sensitive to
changing water quality. A biologist
studying communities of stream
mites in western North America
discovered that the addition of
treated city sewage to a mountain
creek reduced the mite populations
almost to zero for several miles
downstream, and that below the
point of sewage outflow the mites
never built up to their natural num-
bers again. To read the subtle story
of pollution levels in aquatic habi-
tats, however, we first have to know
much more about what constitutes a
natural water mite population, an
impossible task in the absence of a
complete life history picture for
each of the species present. Thus, a
deeper acquaintance with the richly
varied, colorful animals that live in
natural, clean freshwater may serve
to protect this habitat for both mite
and man.
Leaving its nymphal skin
attached to an underwater
stalk, the mite Eylais begins
a predatory adnlt life.
44
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46
By shilling consianily, mese narrow sand islands
survive me lury 01 Alianilcsiorms.
The worKs ol man are less durable
iiyciirlstopiierj.sciiuberih
A slender ribbon of light-colored
sand, about thirty miles long and
less than a mile wide, arches grace-
fully southward from Long Island
and pierces the dark blue waters of
the Atlantic Ocean. Cartographers
call it Great South Beach, but to
most New Yorkers it is known as
Fire Island. Fire Island is the
northernmost segment of an almost
continuous chain of low barrier is-
lands that extends from New York
to Florida. Similar barrier chains
line much of the Gulf Coast, the
North Sea coast of Holland, and the
Baltic Sea coast of Poland. In the
United States a number of impor-
tant industrial and resort cities —
Galveston, Miami Beach, Atlantic
City, to mention three — have devel-
oped on these islands.
Unlike the immobile rock ram-
Waves from a late November,
1969, storm, which removed
a protective dune, swirl beneath
precariously perched siunmer
homes at Wcsthaniplon
Beach, New York.
parts of the New England coast, the
barrier beaches respond sensitively
to the changing forces of the
coastal environment. Occasionally
they founder temporarily beneath
the abnormally high tides and gale
force winds that accompany intense
coastal storms or tropics-spawned
hurricanes. But more often, these
fragile lines of sand maintain the
mainland's outer defense against a
dynamic and aggressive sea.
Vacationists in ever increasing
numbers continue to flock to
these islands. On Fire Island the
growth of summer communities has
been so rapid that land for new
seaside homes is almost nonexis-
tent. The Fire Island National Sea-
shore, established in 1967. now
maintains in a natural state all tlie
undeveloped land of the barrier is-
land outside the borders of Smith
Point County Park. Robert Moses
State Park, and ihe thirteen estab-
lished communities. This has in-
creased the demand for land within
the communities and lias inllalcci
prices tremendously.
Natural, ocean-facing dunes of
windblown sand, so vulnerable to
^vave erosion during limes of severe
storms, yet so essential for the pro-
tection of the island's interior, have
become the most highly inizcd i)ar-
cels of real estate. Hundreds of
47
summer homes, including many ex-
pensive ones, have occupied these
protective dunes. In many places
these homes, with their spindly sup-
portive legs, now stand exposed to
the full fury of storm-driven waves.
Senseless tampering with protective
dunes has made many of the is-
land's interior communities suscept-
ible to an invasion by the sea.
Much is at stake, both in terms of
personal financial investments —
now totaling several tens of mil-
lions of dollars — and the stability
of the island itself.
The geologic processes that shape
a barrier island do not change with
the arrival of man. The complex
coastal processes — their broad pat-
terns and detailed variations — are
part of an ongoing history of physi-
cal change in which neither of the
antagonists, waves nor beaches,
gains a permanent victory. The pro-
cess of sand transportation within
the surf, for example, is a response
by the beach to the changing pat-
tern of breaking waves. The prob-
lem for man is not the movement of
sand as such, but rather its move-
ment away from areas where it is
needed for the protection of ex-
pensive homes. When the ocean-
front was unoccupied, the beach
could shift without alarming any-
one. Now, with the presence of
houses and other fixed objects
against which shoreline changes
can be measured, island dwellers
become dismayed by the loss of
tlieir sand.
In futile attempts to maintain
shoreline stability and protect prop-
erty on the barrier beaches of Long
Island from wave damage, millions
of dollars of private and public
funds are periodically invested to
replace sand removed by wave ac-
tion. Dredged out of the shallow,
backwater areas of Great South
Bay, sand is pumped onto the
oceanfronts of troubled commu-
nities. Within a few years, this ex-
pensive sand is swept away to col-
lect, unwanted, in other areas. The
endangered properties remain in
the same hazardous position, and
the additional sand often moves to
inlets and other navigational chan-
nels where it is not wanted. To ag-
gravate this situation, the source of
dredgeable sand is not endless. Al-
ready nearly all available sand has
been removed from some areas in
Great South Bay.
The so-called erosional problem
involves normal, well-understood
geologic processes, which have been
in operation since the barrier first
formed some 5,000 years ago.
These same coastal processes con-
tinue to reshape the shorefront de-
spite the presence of man and his
works. It is only when man comes
to cross-purposes with the natural
design of change, when his devel-
oped real estate is threatened by
normal, ongoing geologic pro-
cesses— volcanism, earthquakes,
landslides, the shift of a barrier is-
land— that these processes take on
alarming new dimensions and be-
come geologic hazards. But, if man
presses closer to the flanks of active
volcanoes or straddles regions of
seismic instability (such as the San
Andreas Fault in California), if he
develops housing atop unstable
rainsodden slopes in the Pacific
Coast ranges, or pushes onto the
protective dunes of the wave-moved
barrier sands, does he have the
right to consider the effects of these
natural processes as hazards? Since
man is the transgressor, is it not
more realistic to consider the haz-
ards involved as human ?
To cope with the problems of
coastal erosion, we must define three
basic terms before we can under-
stand the significant geologic pro-
cesses involved. A barrier island is
an elongate ridge of unconsolidated
sand, often dozens of miles long
and between a few yards to a mile
Top: In the spring of 1961
a dune and berin protect an
oceanfront hotel on Fire Island.
Bottom: After a storm
in March, 1962, the
damaged hotel stands exposed
to the Atlantic. The littoral
current swept away
more than 75 feet of sand.
« — •■
11
wide, that generally parallels the
mainland shore. Its sea-facing
dunes, if naturally formed from
windblown sand, rarely rise more
than fifty feet above high water.
The barrier is separated from the
mainland by a shallow bay, or la-
goon, which may be several miles
wide. Each barrier island is sepa-
rated from the next in the chain by
a tidal inlet, rarely more than a
mile wide.
The geologist defines a beach as
the whole downsloping zone of
oceanfront in which sand is in a
near-constant state of movement by
ordinary wave action. Thus, a
beach extends from the normal
high-tide line to a depth of water
generally not exceeding 30 feet be-
low low tide. Below 30 feet in
depth, wave motion, even during a
severe storm, rarely stirs the sand.
The familiar part of the shore, the
near-horizontal terrace of heavily
trampled sand that extends seaward
from the foot of the dunes to the
high-tide line, is known as the berm.
It is built up by sand brought ashore
through the turbulent action of
breaking waves.
The problems of oceanfront resi-
dents result from the energy re-
leased by the continual breaking of
ocean waves. More than 8,000
breakers pound Fire Island's beach
every day — an average of six each
minute — with a force of as much as
2,000 pounds per square foot.
When ocean waves move into shal-
low water, usually less than 30 feet
deep, the circular orbit of their wa-
ter particles is distorted. As each
wave steepens, and becomes asym-
metrical, the distance between
crests decreases. Continuing land-
ward, the ever steepening wave be-
comes so distorted in the shallow
water that its crest curls over, and
the wave breaks with a thunderous
crash to form the white, frothy
surf. A swirling mass of sand-laden
water, the swash, is hurled across
the exposed beach face. When the
energy of the swash is spent, a less
turbulent flow of water returns to
the sea and on out to the breaker
zone as a below-surface undertow,
which is recycled landward with the
next breaking wave.
Most of the breaker's energy is
49
1834
Scale in feet
2000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Westward Growth ot Democrat Point
released in the strong turbulence of
the surf and swash. In this turbu-
lent zone, untold numbers of sand
grains are dislodged and moved
about in such a pattern that they
never return to their original posi-
tion. Moved, for example, a tenth of
an inch ivith each breaking wave,
an individual sand grain could mi-
grate in the surf as much as 100
feet in a day.
A sand grain follows two broad
patterns of movement along the
beach. The swash pushes a sand
grain up the beach face, while the
backflow carries it seaward. But sand
grains rarely follow a straight up-
and-down path. As each sand grain
moves landward and seaward it
usually also moves parallel to the
beach.
The distance and the direction
that sand grains move are related to
the coastal conditions of summer
and winter seasons. During the
summer, waves are usually low, the
surf is not turbulent, and the corre-
sponding swash is a thin sheet of
gentle water. Few storms occur. Un-
der these quiet weather conditions,
friction will hold sand grains
against the bottom during the
gentle backflow of water, and most
are not carried back in the under-
tow to the breaker zone. As a result,
the net movement of sand is land-
ward. Beginning in early summer,
billions of sand grains along the
length of beach slowly build up a
broad terrace, known as the sum-
mer berm, which widens as the sea-
son progresses. Throngs of bathers
enjoy the wide berm and swim in
the gentle surf during July and Au-
gust. And the widening summer
berm may relieve the anxieties of
oceanfront property owners.
But the existence of a wide berm
is short-lived. From late fall to
early spring coastal storms, often as
many as one a month, churn up the
Atlantic waters. In the long run,
these produce the great physical
changes along the oceanfront. High
waves force a great volume of tur-
bulent water across the beach and
onto the summer berm. The strong
turbulence keeps sand in suspension
so that the powerful counter-
currents of backflow carry the sand
out to the breaker zone. Behind the
breaker zone, in the deeper, less
turbulent water, most of the sand
accumulates. It forms an offshore
bar. a low underwater ridge of sand
that parallels the shore. As the bar
grows in height, the waves break
farther offshore and turbulence
scours the top of the bar. Although
usually seen only at extreme low
water, bigger waves break initially
over the ofEshore bar; lower waves
re-form in the deeper water land-
ward of the submerged bar. only to
break finally along the winter beach.
Intense winter-spring storms with
onshore winds of gale force often
produce high tides and chaotic pat-
terns of breaking waves. A turbu-
lent surf and a powerful swash
flood the winter berm and often
tear into the dunes, removing tens
of thousands of cubic yards of
sand. During the March 6-8. 1962,
storm, the surf, with unusually high
30-foot waves, swept away 96 dune
homes and severely damaged an-
other 195, from Fire Island east to
Montauk Point. Waves breached
dunes at 50 places, exposing the
back dune areas to intense wave
erosion. Three thousand feet of
roadway at Westhampton Beach
were destroyed; a new tidal inlet,
over 1,200 feet wide, was created
where formerly developed proper-
ties existed; and about 70 feet of
beach, berm, and dunes were wiped
off the map. An estimated 350
homes were destroyed as far south
as Virginia, over 20,000 sustained
major wave damage, and property
losses exceeded S234 million.
Six years later, in November, a
small coastal storm inflicted S2 mil-
lion in property damage and re-
moved over $900,000 worth of
sand fill designed to protect ocean-
facing homes along a half mile of
Westhampton Beach. Thirteen
months later, during the "Christmas
Day Storm.'" an additional half
dozen hoines were destroyed in two
Fire Island communities.
Yet, during this seven-year pe-
riod, not a single hurricane threat-
ened the coastal region, a most un-
usual and fortunate circumstance,
for if one had, wave erosion and
^^'ind damage would have left the
now-unprotected communities in
shambles.
After each storm the beach and
berm undergo partial recovery. The
dunes may suffer more permanent
damage because vegetation must
take hold again to keep the blowing
sand in place. Over the next several
days a less turbulent surf, almost
contritely, returns some of the off-
shore sand as each wave, stumbling
over the submerged bar, lifts sand
grains into suspension. Moved for-
ward in the next breaking wave, the
suspended sand slowly advances
landward. The narrow, concave
early poststorm profile of the shore-
front is altered to a wider, convex
late poststorm profile. However,
this widening and filling in of the
barm over the next few weeks is of-
ten interrupted by another storm.
Over the entire winter-spring sea-
son, much of the sand of the sum-
mer berm remains in the sub-
merged bar.
If the sand moved only in a
straight line away from the shore in
the winter and back in the summer;
if, in other words, the same sand
moved back and forth in a closed
system, then beach erosion would
be a simple problem. Unfortunately,
sand also moves lengthwise along
the beach. The system is not closed;
it loses sand constantly. Therefore,
sand must be added to one part of
the system to replace the losses
from other parts. Otherwise the
barrier islands, in time, would dis-
appear. Each year hundreds of
thousands of cubic yards of sand
leave the barrier island system and
are deposited in other areas, par-
ticularly in the tidal inlets that con-
nect the lagoonal waters with the
open sea.
The sand particles move along
the chain because waves rarely ap-
proach parallel to the beach. The
angle at which waves approach the
shore is determined largely by wind
direction at the surface of the open
ocean where waves build up. North-
east winds produce the largest
waves, capable of moving the great-
est volume of sediment, on the bar-
rier beaches of Long Island.
A wave from the northeast
breaks from east to west. The up-
rush of water from the breaking
wave, plus the sand particles, moves
obliquely up the beach face. But the
return flow and the sand particles
follow a straight path down the
beach face. When moved by the
next swash, the sand grains follow
the same stepwise pattern. Multi-
plied by countless repetitions on a
seemingly infinite number of sand
grains, this action transports a vast
amount of sand along the entire
beach, primarily in the surf zone.
This process is called beach drift-
ing, and the movement of water is
known as the littoral current.
On Fire Island the littoral cur-
rent each year moves 600,000 cubic
yards of sand westward. Most of it
remains in the quieter waters of
Fire Island Inlet and forms sub-
merged sand bars, which quickly
coalesce into low above-water accu-
mulations. This sand persistently
extends Democrat Point, the west
end of Fire Island. Six hundred thou-
sand cubic yards of sand is equiva-
lent to a convoy of cement trucks
dumping loads of sand at nine-
minute intervals, 24 hours a day,
year-round. The Fire Island light-
house, erected in 1858 at the western-
most tip of the island, now stands
five miles inland. Democrat Point
continues to extend westward at an
average rate of 212 feet each year.
Beach drifting is man's major
problem on any barrier island that
undergoes intensive development.
Coastal erosion costs the United
States approximately $150 million
annually. For many years, the ac-
cepted method of dealing with this
problem was to build groins, dam-
like rock structures a few feet high
and about a hundred feet long, per-
Long Islands
■|-ire Islai'l
N.J. J'
'Atlantic City
. Md. X(
s.c.
Galveston
Ga.f ATLANTIC OCEAN
GULF OF MEXICO
O
Barrier Beaches of Eastern America
Miami Beach
51
pendicular to the shoreline. Sand is
trapped on the updrift side of the
groin, and the berm and beach
widen quickly. But the sand supply
is thereby reduced and, on the
downdrift side, the beach and berm
must retreat. So, another groin is
needed "downstream" to trap what-
ever sand is available in the littoral
current. The beach and berm begin
to retreat downstream from the sec-
ond groin. So another groin is
built, and another, turning a former
unsullied stretch of shore into a
field of ugly groins. The groins
create a series of curving, flotsam-
retaining berms and beaches.
The effects of groins are local
and temporary. Owners of ocean-
front properties in immediate dan-
ger of being washed away are un-
derstandably eager to see fast
action and quick solutions in the
hope of restoring their beach. But
too often changes are made without
realizing the consequences. Groins
may easily accelerate erosion.
Eleven groins recently completed
along Westhampton Beach had this
effect. Intensified wave action on
the downdrift side of the west-
ernmost groin was the primary
cause of the $2 million in prop-
erty damage during the November,
1968, storm and an estimated
$900,000 loss in sand fill.
Groin fields at Miami Beach have
had litde positive effect in stabiliz-
ing the shorefront. The first of
many was installed after the dis-
astrous 1926 hurricane. Yet all the
groins combined have not stemmed
the outflow of sand, which contin-
ues at the average rate of 150,000
cubic yards each year. Today, sev-
eral shorefront hotels have no berm
remaining, and their hastily erected
seawalls send ocean spray into
parking lots and swimming pools.
Because groins rarely provide a
long-term solution, they should not
be considered a preferred method
for sustaining a beach and berm. In
the long run they are usually more
expensive and less effective than
well-planned programs of beach
nourishment, a method that inte-
grates the natural forces in opera-
tion along the coast.
On Fire Island, some commu-
nities tried to nourish their beach
and berm with sand dredged from
Great South Bay. Each attempt to
restore the berm met with failure
simply because the volume of sand
involved was insufficient to main-
tain the entire berm. The littoral
current redistributed this small
amount of sand along the complete
stretch of beach to the west.
The only way to maintain a
beach and berm is to consider the
entire oceanfront, from inlet to in-
let, as a single system. On Fire Is-
land, for example, sand quickly ac-
cumulates along the updrift side of
jetties constructed for the purpose
of keeping Moriches Inlet, at the
east end. and Fire Island Inlet, at
the west end, free of sand. A sand-
transfer plant could pump sand
through a buried pipe, less than
three miles long, from the east side
of Moriches Inlet and discharge it
onto the downdrift side — on the
east end of Fire Island — into the
headwaters of the littoral current.
There, the sand would re-enter the
littoral conveyor belt and, as a
berm-widening wedge, continue
down the beach all the way to the
inlet at Democrat Point, 30 miles to
the west.
Furthermore, the sand building
up along the east side of Fire Is-
land Inlet could be pumped back
east ten miles or so and discharged
into the littoral stream, where it
would be recycled westward, sup-
plying additional sand to widen the
berm and beach. To keep the navi-
gation channels free of accumulat-
To save tlirealeiied real estate,
a bulldozer and dredge (above)
move sand from the surf zone
to the berm at Point O'Woods,
Fire Island. Such efforts are
usually futile, as shown in
the sequence from the same
community. When the dune (top)
diminished in May, 1962, the
community added sand from the
interior lagoon to build up the
dune in January, 1963 (middle).
By February, 1964 (bottom),
it was gone.
ing sand. Fire Island Inlet is now
dredged periodically and the sand
hauled several miles out to sea and
dumped. Why such valuable sand is
removed permanently from the lit-
toral current is somewhat obscure,
particularly since some of this sand
has, at great expense, already been
dredged out of Great South Bay
and added to the beach and berm in
front of the troubled communities
to the east. The least that could be
done with this excess sand would be
to transfer it across Fire Island Inlet
and feed it into the littoral stream
along the heavily eroded east end of
Jones-Oak Beach.
The best natural defense of a
barrier island coast is a contin-
52
uously wide berm, and the least ex-
pensive way to achieve this is to
rebuild and nourish it. In 1968, the
Corps of Engineers authorized a
beach nourishment project to rede-
velop and to maintain the shore-
front of Miami Beach. With an in-
itial investment of $30 million, the
project would pump 15 million
cubic yards of sand onto the entire
ten miles of oceanfront between
Government Cut and Bakers Haul-
over Inlet to produce a 2Y2-ioot-
high shelf, called a hurricane berm,
that will extend about 20 feet be-
yond the present shoreline. From
this berm, the beach will slope
down to a new high-water line
about 150 feet east of the present
shoreline. Then, at an estimated ex-
pense of about $1 million each
year, 200,000 cubic yards of sand
will be dredged annually to nourish
and maintain the 10-mile beach.
Most of the sand will be obtained
from the inlets, which will be kept
free from sand accumulation. Wave
action and the littoral currents
would redistribute the sand along
the entire shorefront.
If barriers such as Miami Beach
and Fire Island require such care-
ful management for their continued
existence, how did they develop?
How did they gain their initial toe-
hold against the sea? Several theo-
ries on the origin of barrier
beaches have been proposed.
Chains of barrier islands form
only along a gently sloping conti-
nental coast of mostly sand and
gravel. Such a condition might re-
sult from either a gentle crustal up-
lift of the continental shelf or be-
cause of a fairly rapid rise in sea
level across a gently sloping glacial
outwash plain or broad river delta.
One popular theory suggests that
because of the shallowness of the
water under these conditions,
breakers develop several miles off-
shore and a low, submerged sand-
bar develops. Eventually the bar
rises above sea level and becomes a
barrier island.
One objection to this theory of
barrier island formation is particu-
larly critical. When simulating bar-
rier island conditions in a wave
tank, upward development of sub-
merged bars always stops as the
water level is reached. Wave wash
over the top prevents further sand
accumulation, and the submerged
bar does not become an island.
Furthermore, there are no barrier
islands in an early formative stage
of development in the world today.
Considerable evidence suggests
that some chains of barrier islands
resulted from the breaching of spits,
or islands connected to the main-
land. Sand for these barrier chains
was obtained from major head-
lands containing unconsolidated
materials. By means of the littoral
current, the sand was transported
along the coast as an ever lengthen-
ing spit. Sandy Hook on the New
Jersey coast is an example of such
a formation. Breaching of the spit
during storms formed the isolated
barriers in the chain.
The headlands at Montauk Point
apparently provide most of the
sediment for Long Island's chain;
Southampton Beach is the residual
spit, having been breached several
times to form individual islands
that have continued to lengthen
westward and seaward with the
continued addition of sediment
eroded from the headland bluffs.
The Montauk headland consists of
a terminal moraine, a ridge of jum-
bled boulders, cobbles, gravel, and
sand. This collection of debris w-as
scraped away from southern New
England by glacial erosion, carried
across what is today Long Island
Sound, and deposited when the vast
ice sheet stopped there some 17.000
years ago. Meltwater streams car-
ried sand and gravel beyond the
edge of this glacier and laid this
sediment down as a gently seaward-
sloping outwash plain, which once
extended many miles farther south-
east. A postglacial rise in sea level
flooded almost all of the outwash
plain along the east end of Long
Island. With the stabilization of sea
level in the past 5.000 years, wave
erosion has removed the outwash
sands that formed the spit and bar-
rier islands. Today the terminal
moraine stands face to face with
the sea. The continued erosion of
the moraine was recognized as
early as the eighteenth century
when George Washington, in de-
signing the Montauk Point light-
54
house, ordered that it be built at
least 400 feet back from the mo-
rainal bluffs so that it would stand
for at least 200 years. Recent mea-
surements show only about 100 feet
remaining, and at the present rate
of retreat, only 50 feet will separate
the base of the lighthouse from the
sea at its bicentennial in 1997.
Recently, samples of sand grain
surfaces along 20 miles of shore,
from Montauk Point to East Hamp-
ton, were collected and studied
under an electron microscope.
These studies demonstrate that
eroded glacial till is the major sedi-
ment source for Long Island's bar-
rier chain. When magnified 5,000
times, sand grains from the glacial
deposits at the foot of the light-
house show a characteristic series
of conchoidal, arc-shaped, semi-
parallel steps with considerable re-
lief. These appear only on the sur-
faces of glacially transported
sands. They do not occur on wave-
moved sands or windblown dune
sands west of East Hampton. Beach
sands contain a number of V- or
pyramid-shaped patterns, appar-
ently indentations formed when the
grains collide with each other in
the littoral current. If the source is
the glacial sand at Montauk Point,
the beach pattern would be ex-
pected to become superimposed
onto the glacial pattern; sand
grains west of Montauk Point do
show progressively fewer arc-
shaped steps of high relief and
more V-shaped patterns. Twenty
miles west of Montauk Point the
glacial pattern is replaced by the
distinct V-shaped beach pattern.
After all the coastal surveys have
been completed and detailed obser-
vations and measurements taken to
indicate the source of sand, the vol-
ume of loss in one place and gain
in another; after wave-tank demon-
strations have shown clearly the un- ;
derwater effects of high or low
waves, of rapid-approaching or
Sand builds up on the west
side of Westhanipton Beach,
at bottom, and spills into
Moriches Inlet and the
lagoon at right. By pumping
it across the inlet, the sand
could be fed into the westward
moving littoral current for the
beaches of Fire Island, at top.
slow-approaching waves, man still
cannot alter the basic natural pat-
terns between land and sea. For
thousands of miles across the open
sea, energy stored from distant
storms will be transmitted in never-
ending patterns of undulating
swells and troughs. On nearing the
coast, this energy will be trans-
formed into steepened waves hurl-
ing thunderous breakers in one fi-
nal, furious assault. And the land
will continue to shift, either
straightening its front to ofFer the
least possible area for attack, or
outmaneuvering the sea by rede-
ploying material to an underwater
position on which the waves must
trip and sap their energies.
If man wishes to build his works
on the fringes of such a battle-
ground, he must understand that
the rules of this ancient battle re-
quire the beach, the berm, and the
dunes to shift constantly before the
assault of the sea. If man tries to
change these rules, he can only
fail; and in his failure he may even
undermine the fragile hold of these
outposts against the powerful sea.
NORTHWEST
PASSAGE
No supertankers, no radios, no hoopla — just a man
by Bob Skovbo
Photographs by Paul von Baich
Great Slave, Great Bear, Dogrib
Country, the Northwest Terri-
tories— whatever images one associ-
ates with these names, I expect a
distinct bleakness distinguishes
them all. Barren and windswept
tracts, icebound shores, stunted for-
ests, lichen-crusted rocks, sinister
bogs, chewed moccasins in aban-
doned cabins, nine months of snow
and three months of mosquitoes: in
short, no place to venture lightly;
in fact, best perhaps to avoid.
This view is not entirely un-
founded. Dogrib Country does look
bleak on occasion, and can be an
inhospitable place to be caught in.
But this is largely a lopsided view,
based mainly on tales of how some
people did get caught there — these
days commonly by crashing a plane
provisioned with such survival
items as several bottles of pop,
some crackers and candy bars, and
a change of nylon anklets for extra
comfort. An acquaintance with the
"howling wilderness" on these
terms may make a good story, but
it rarely makes a pleasant one.
Since, however, good stories make
better copy than merely pleasant
ones, it is generally some such tale
of disaster that reaches the public
and helps to create a picture of the
Northwest Territories as a place of
grim and unrelieved desolation.
But there are other ways of get-
ting acquainted with that country.
The one I favor is by pack and
paddle, and the view one then gains
of its nature is quite different. The
sense of awe it evokes may not be
lost, indeed may be enhanced; but
it is not a sense of the fearsome, the
awful, but rather of the awe-in-
spiring. Boundless to your eye and
indifferent to your puny presence,
the country proves to be a land
where you can travel and live with
little hardship and much reward, in
a setting whose beauty and interest
are both inexhaustible and of a
kind increasingly difficult to find
elsewhere on our crowded planet.
As an introduction to this aspect
of the Territories — nature in its
pristine state — no region serves bet-
ter than the interlake country be-
tween Great Slave and Great Bear,
the ancestral territory of the Dogrib
Indian. Virtually undeveloped save
for a few small, but conveniently
spaced settlements, it is still easily
accessible and easily traveled. Fur-
thermore, it is rich in splendid and
varied scenery fascinating to both
naturalist and student of man and
of the proper proportions for a first
trip through a true wilderness. Its
300-odd miles can be negotiated
without undue hurry in three weeks
to a month, just about the time a
load of provisions can be made to
last without having to strain one's
back, tighten one's belt, or resort to
supplements other than fish and
perhaps an occasional waterfowl.
The country abounds in fish, espe-
cially whitefish, lake trout, and
pike, with pickerel and grayling oc-
curring in places. Despite its short-
ness and other advantages, the
route was unknown until 1900, and
to this day remains little traveled in
summer.
Because of a misadventure that
befell me on my first attempt I have
made the trip twice. My intention
had been to make the interlake tra-
verse to Great Bear merely the first
lap of a journey to the Arctic
Ocean, but instead I capsized on a
lake in a flat calm and spent two
weeks marooned on an island, until
I was rescued by a canoeing party
that happened to pass that way. I
joined it as far as Great Bear and
spent the rest of the season along
the shores of that prodigious lake.
The following year I tried again
with more success, this time making
sure to have some fellow enthusiasts
along in order to extricate me more
promptly from similar contin-
gencies. But I can't say I regret ei-
ther capsizing or having had to re-
peat the first lap. As a castaway I
was no doubt exceptionally lucky,
for I lost little equipment other
than kayak and gun. Living on fish
and a fair stock of provisions, I
spent two of the most memorable
and idyllic weeks of my life on that
little island. And as for doing the
,. ,.i^
same stretch twice over, I wouldn't
mind doing it a third time. Such is
the appeal of that magnificent land.
The accompanying photographs
were taken on the second trip by
my habitual companion Paul von
Baich. We took a canoe rather than
a kayak, mainly because we felt a
canoe was more in style in the
woods, but either craft is suitable
for the trip.
We set out from Fort Rae in
early June, with the ice. For anyone
interested in the birdlife and bot-
any of the country this is the most
rewarding time to travel, and it is
also the most enjoyable. Fort Rae is
a Dogrib village squatting on an
outcrop by Marian Lake, an exten-
sion of the north arm of Great
Slave. Being shallow, it opens up
well before the great lake, and a
shore lead is all you require. The
long hours of light, its brilliance on
the ice and water, the blend of ice
chill and hot sun, the arrival of
birds in full voice and gorgeous
plumage, the leaves opening and
first flowers bursting into bloom —
all these conspire to create a sense
of renewal and exhilaration no
other season can quite match. The
weather, too, tends to be best at this
time. Nor are you likely to get
windbound for long should it turn
bad ; there is so little water for
waves to form. If you hit an open
lake on a windy day, you travel at
night when the wind drops. Last
but not least, the mosquitoes
haven't hatched yet. They will, of
course, but by that time it is too
late for regrets, and not far to the
big lakes of the Camsell watershed
where they are less of a nuisance.
Because the ice lasts long on these
lakes, its chill delays the advance of
the season, so you tend to travel
through a perpetual spring right up
to Great Bear.
T
M he Marian River flows into
Marian Lake. Ascending the river is
the hardest part of the trip. The
current can be quite strong at this
time; it has many more rapids than
are marked on the map: the por-
tages aren't marked at all: and
some are well concealed. But it is a
delightful river, remarkable for the
lushness of vegetation along sec-
tions of its lower course, where you
will find spring in its first full
flush: tall birch groves clad in
feathery green; horsetails, mare's
tails, rushes, and pond lilies push-
ing up from the river bottom; pecu-
liar diked bayous lined with alder
and willow, on whose still waters
gleam the resplendent drakes of
mallard, pintail, widgeon, scaup,
and bufflehead. Northern sparrows
— fox, Lincoln's, white-crowned,
and white-throated — warble from
waterline thickets, while from spruce
tops backriver ring the chimes of
the hermit and olive-backed thrush.
Here. too. I once saw a flock of the
rare Sabine's gull skimming after
mayflies above a shallow lake, in no
obvious hurry to reach their breed-
ing grounds in the Arctic. No doubt
they got there in time, though; it
was I who didn't make it on that
occasion. The huge yellow-billed
loon is another migrant occasion-
ally encountered on its way north,
as are swans, several small waders,
the odd jaeger, and above all, the
merry old squaw ducks, whose loud
voices and courtship antics in-
variably enliven the ice fringe of
the melting lakes.
If I have stressed the more lush
and verdant aspects of the country
as it appears from the river, it is
because of their unexpectedness at
diis latitude land longitude) rather
than their preponderance in the
biome. In this area along the lower
Marian, the bare rocky heights jut-
ting above the skyline are just as
characteristic a feature of the view,
and a sortie away from die river
reveals the typical boreal taiga
spreading everywhere over low-
lands and hollows. On the portage
trail, the polygons of frost-cracked
earth remind the traveler of the rig-
or of the climate, and as he pro-
ceeds toward higher land, the tall
barren outcrops become increasingly
prominent. By the time he reaches
Mazenod Lake — where I spent my
days as a castaway — they dominate
the topography. Rarely rising more
58
'Of all these marks of man, only the gaunt
frames of abandoned villages and the little
woodland cemeteries, their crosses and fenced
graves half-hidden in the tall grass, have
achieved a harmony with their setting."
than 300 to 500 feet above the level
of the land, their massive bareness
bulks out of all proportion to their
actual height. Geologically, they
represent glacier-scoured mountain
roots of the Canadian Shield, here
folded into exceptional prominence
as the shield thrusts against the Pa-
leozoic formations to the west. This
provides another fascinating fea-
ture of the route: it skirts the con-
tact line between the major geologic
formations of the subcontinent, the
igneous shield and the western sedi-
mentaries. All the major lakes are
bounded on the east by the domed
bastions of the Archean granites
and gneisses, while to the west
stretch the immense, calm contours
of the Paleozoic formations depos-
ited in Ordovician seas.
Not inappropriately, perhaps, the
history of man is little evident
against this prodigious backdrop. It
seems a mere footnote to the bold
writ of the land itself, and only
60
emerged from prehistory a mere
century ago, when the explorer-
priest Emile Petitot first penetrated
the area by dogsled in winter. He
traveled somewhat to the west of
the Marian-Camsell route. That wa-
terway itself was not discovered un-
til the year 1900, by the geologists
Bell and Camsell. By the head-
waters of the Camsell lies the little
Dogrib village of Rae Lakes, a
pleasant but somewhat saddening
relic of a doomed way of life. With-
out government-built cabins and
airlifted staples, it would hardly
survive. Since the 1930's, periodic
flurries of prospecting and mining
have left an imprint here and
there — abandoned mines at Hottah
and Beaverlodge lakes, a wrecked
Bristol aircraft inhabited by swal-
lows, a pulley chain rusting by the
river, trail blazes slowly healing at
the foot of a portage. Lately, two
mines have opened along the lower
Camsell just before Conjuror Bay,
m::.
j-i..
"All the major lakes are
bounded on the east by the
domed bastions of the
Archean granites and
gneisses, while to the west
stretch the immense, calm
contours of the Paleozoic
formations deposited
in Ordovician seas."
"It is not a sense of the fearsome, the awful,
but rather of the awe-inspiring.
Boundless to your eye and indifferent
to your puny presence. ..."
and a winter tractor road serving
Echo Bay Mines at Great Bear in-
tersects the canoe route at several
points. This mine, incidentally, is
the successor to Eldorado, which
furnished the uranium for the first
atomic bombs. The mine itself lies
well off the route; the wide swath
of the winter road is all that may
remind the traveler of this fateful
link with the outside world. And he
may well find himself occupied
with less momentous but more im-
mediate concerns — such as abrupt-
ly vanishing into a bottomless bog.
This nearly happened to me once;
the winter road offers the most
treacherous footing of the entire
route. In places it melts into a livid,
pinkish mush, known (to us) as
"loon puke," afloat above a floor of
ice that has a way of suddenly cav-
ing in. It seems instructive to reflect
that the most dangerous place to
walk in that country should be a
man-made trail.
Of all these marks of man, only
the gaunt frames of abandoned vil-
lages and the little woodland ceme-
teries, their crosses and fenced
graves half-hidden in the tall grass,
have achieved a harmony with their
setting. Most strike the traveler as
scars on the face of the land.
But as yet this impression is little
more than a question of sensibility.
The price that progress has exacted
still seems small when measured
against the enormous span of un-
touched nature. Nor can it be de-
nied that an epic and melancholy
beauty often haunts these tokens of
our spasmodic efforts to wrest
wealth from an indifferent land. In-
deed I must confess that, traveling
alone. I have sometimes welcomed
the sight of something as unepic as
an empty sardine tin. One may go
there to learn about virgin nature,
but it can become a rather lone-
some quest, and a few oil cans or
sardine tins can be an oddly heart-
warming discovery. That some
scraps of human refuse are able to
call forth such sentiments in an age
where elsewhere they threaten to im-
peril our very condition of life, per-
haps demonstrates most con-
vincingly the primeval state of this
country.
It is always easy to forget the tin
cans and scars in the ground and
return one's attention to the things
and beings that have their home
here. The bald eagles — the day is
rare that you don't see one beat and
soar above the lakes; the vigor of a
cold gray trout flapping in your
grip; a moose turning its head as
you paddle past; the vast mosquito-
ridden muskegs afroth with the
bloom of Labrador tea; the blue si-
lence ringing with wings as scoters
lift from the lake; the yell of the
loon; its soundless plunge into
the depth over which your boat
moves toward another horizon. As
you proceed north, two smaller
loons appear, along with the com-
mon: the red-throated and the su-
perbly elegant Arctic, with its pearl
gray nape and weird voice. In-
cidentally, and contrary to its repu-
tation in this regard, loon makes
excellent eating, at least when at-
tacked with the appetite that inevi-
tably develops on such a trip. I
mention this as a hint to anyone
low on provisions; otherwise you
are not supposed to molest them, of
course.
As you cross into the Camsell wa-
tershed you have reached the hin-
63
terlands of Great Bear. It is here
that the country unfolds in its full
grandeur. It is a land of rock —
rock scoured and planed and frac-
tured, veined and warped, upthrust
into domed heights, leveled to ramps
and platforms, loosened into rock-
slides, broken and piled up on the
shores or into bizarre islands of gi-
gantic rubble, which appear to have
erupted from the lake bottom. Yet
the boreal forest of spruce (black
and white), birch (canoe and
dwarf), and a scattering of poplar
(aspen and balsam), with its under-
brush of currants and soapberry,
continues to thrive wherever roots
can find lodgment and drainage is
adequate. Only the jackpine is miss-
ing: its last stands are seen a little
north of Rae Lakes village. Flowers
grow in profusion: arnica, cinque-
foils (especially Potentilla fruti-
cosa] , and saxifrages (Saxifraga tri-
cuspidata) seem to be by far the
commonest species; Parnassia pa-
htstris: the minute lavender prim-
rose Primula incana; the secretive,
insectivorous butter wort: several
kinds of Indian paintbrush; vetches;
chickweeds; and willow herb —
these in particular brighten the
shorelines. Roses abound, and in
the forest shade the shinleaf
sprouts, while the exquisite rock-
harlequin (Corydalis) grows on
outcrops exposed to wind and sun.
The profusion is greatest in bogs:
ledums, andronieda, rosebay. cloud-
berry, and the bog cotton are the
most conspicuous representatives of
this flora. The only flower I had
hoped to find north of the Marian
River, and didn't, was the orchid
Calypso bulbosa.
Unfortunately I am no botanist;
no doubt this indiscriminate list of
showy species merely reflects my
enthusiastic ignorance of the sub-
ject. On the distribution of birds,
hoivever, I was able to make some
more pertinent observations. Here
the Marian/Camsell divide seems
to roughly coincide with some range
boundaries. Thus the last nighthawk
and white-throated sparrow were
seen both at the divide and just south
of it, whereas the Lapland longspur,
the tree sparrow, and the gray-
cheeked thrush did not appear be-
fore the upper Camsell. The bittern,
on the other hand, as well as the
eastern kingbird, olive-sided fly-
catcher, black tern, and shoveler
■(vera not encountered above the
lower Marian, and the song spar-
row and the Caspian tern not be-
yond Marian Lake. The Caspian
tern colony at the head of that lake,
incidentally, appears to be the most
northerly known nesting site for the
species on this continent. It had not
been previously reported, which il-
lustrates how easily a small contri-
bution to zoogeography can be
made in these parts.
X^_^^ f mammals one sees rela-
tively few. The muskrat is common,
beaver occur off and on, mink and
otter, more rarely. Neither foxes nor
lynxes were reported plentiful by
the Indians, and martens and wol-
verines are rare. I never saw a wolf
in the region, although tracks were
common. In summer, the caribous
are out in the barrens. Moose are
invariably encountered en route, al-
though the population is anything
but dense. I saw but one bear dur-
ing the time I spent in the coun-
try— that one I not only saw% but
felt. too. As I slept in the tent, he
woke me up by patting the tentcloth
just off my left ear. Others have
been luckier in sighting bears,
though. These are all black, griz-
zlies seem confined to the country
north and east of Great Bear.
As the season wears on and you
pass through the austere ap-
proaches to Great Bear — Hottah,
Grouard, Conjuror Bay — birdlife
is no longer as evident. Fewer
voices are heard, the silent spefls
grow longer. Spring is slowly turn-
ing into summer, even though the
ice stiU holds out on the open
reaches of Hottah Lake.
Often, while sitting on some out-
crop smoking your pipe, the land
seems empty as you survey its im-
mense spread. A distant gull, some
ringlets thro^^-n up by a fish, a few
mosquitoes. Sometimes nothing at
all. But you don't mind. For it is
not the emptiness of a void that en-
circles you. but a presence, a vast-
ness, a quiet assurance that there is
still room on earth. Not room to in-
vade and occupy, but just room —
inviolate and vast enough to harbor
untold forms of life, as well as this
calm inherited from an age before
any life existed. For there is life
in that lichen, too, on that rock by
your boot. You learn to sense this,
perhaps because of the calm. In a
land so quiet and immutable, the
smallest, slowest event, such as a
lichen growing, seems almost to im-
pinge on awareness. So also with
the slim, dark spruce crowding the
folds of the land, the horsetails and
sedges at the waterUne, the waves
lapping, the clouds. No wonder
then that one northern sparrow's
warble can flood that silence to the
rim and proclaim life more purely
than the roar of an entire city.
Often, while sitting on some outcrop
smoking your pipe, the land seems empty as
you survey its immense spread."
65
Lactarius deliciosus
Pleurotus
Sparassis radicata
Coprinus comatus '€S,'^'-
MUSHROOMS
A brief guide to the tricky business of knowing which ones you can eat
by Peggy Young
Several botanists know and often
tell the tragic story of Family X.
Having just emigrated from a coun-
try in middle Europe to Rockland
County, a suburb some 12 miles
north of New York City, Fainily X
undertook a mushroom hike one
bright Saturday morning. They
scoured a nearby forest, and in a
few short hours they had gathered
enough mushrooms to provide a
handsome lunch. They went home
and in their huge black frying
pan, they sauteed the mushrooms in
butter and then ate them, evidently
with great relish. What they did not
finish they fed to Sally, their large
calico cat. Within ten minutes,
Sally suddenly began convulsing
and Family X, horrified, rushed
themselves to the local hospital.
Their stomachs were pumped, emet-
ics and tonics were administered,
and Family X, after much uncer-
tainty and discomfort, miraculously
pulled through. Following their re-
lease from the hospital. Family X
went home and there, nestled in a
pile of sweaters on the top shelf of
the linen closet, lay Sally, blissful
as can be. She had given birth to
seven kittens. Family X had mis-
judged a symptom.
The ancient Romans called mush-
rooms cibus diorum, "food of the
gods." The Greeks ate them, too,
and even earlier the Chaldeans as-
signed names to some of their species.
We call them mushrooms, toad-
stools, or fungi. In fact they are all
fungi, but a certain amount of con-
fusion surrounds the terms mush-
room and toadstool. Some people
use the word mushroom to desig-
nate all edible fungi, and refer to
the poisonous species as toadstools.
Others say that the meadow mush-
room, Agaricus campestris, is the
only mushroom and that all others
are toadstools. A third group calls
any fungus a toadstool if it grows
elsewhere than under commercial
cultivation. For the sake of clarity
it is best to drop the word toadstool
altogether and refer instead to
edible or poisonous mushrooms.
Many species of mushrooms are
not only edible but delectable;
many more can be eaten safely by
some people but not by others; and
a few species are lethal. There is
only one way to tell the good from
the bad, and that is to learn to rec-
ognize the different species beyond
all possible doubt. Various so-called
tests for discriminating among
mushrooms have circulated in the
past. Mushrooms have been said to
be edible if they peel easily, or poi-
sonous if they tarnish silver or turn
milk sour, and so on, but the truth
is that none of these tests has any
validity. The only way to know if a
mushroom is edible is to recognize
it in the same way that you recog-
nize a blackberry or a strawberry.
It takes a certain amount of time
and study, but if you are going to
eat wild mushrooms, it is necessary.
There are no short cuts.
In Europe wild mushrooms have
long been popular, but the people of
one country sometimes regard as
poisonous a species that is freely
•alen in another. Agaricus cam-
Cantharellus cibarius
rdon perlatutn
pestris, for example, is considered
poisonous in certain parts of
France. Most Finnish people will
not touch any mushrooms at all. In
many European countries wild
mushrooms are sold fresh in the
markets, and several species, in-
cluding the king boletus and the
chantarelle {Boletus edulis and
Cantharellus cibarius) are har-
vested and then dried or canned for
export.
The most highly prized, perhaps,
of all edible mushrooms are morels
(Morchella) and truffles (Tuber).
Morels appear in the spring and are
found in both Europe and North
America, growing in open woods,
along roadsides, and in partially
shaded meadowland. Truffles are
native to Europe, and grow chiefly
in France and the Piedmont section
of Italy. They grow under de-
ciduous trees, usually oaks, a foot
or more beneath the surface of the
ground; pigs and specially trained
dogs are used to detect them.
The commercial cultivation of
mushrooms began in France during
the reign of Louis XIV, and today
there are mushroom beds in tunnels
and caves stretching for miles un-
der the streets of Paris and its sub-
urbs. On this continent the greatest
mushroom-growing area is in Penn-
sylvania, where half the country's
annual 130-million-pound crop is
raised. Near Pittsburgh the largest
mushroom farm in the world pro-
duces 10 million pounds yearly in
an abandoned limestone mine. Un-
derground operation makes pos-
sible complete control of such vital
factors as temperature, humidity,
and ventilation. Almost the only
mushroom grown commercially in
North America and Europe is
Agaricus bisporus. In Southeast
Asia the preferred species is the
paddy-straw mushroom, Volvaria
volvacea, and in the Far East it is
the Shiitake mushroom, Lentinus
edodes, which is raised com-
mercially on logs.
Although mushrooms have been
eaten for hundreds of years, it is
only recently that they have been
recognized as plants. Before the
nineteenth century, the poisonous
qualities of some mushrooms, their
association with decay, and their
habit of apparently springing up
overnight, out of nowhere, caused
them to be thought of as mysterious
entities belonging, not to the plant
world, but to a separate world of
their own. Superstition and folklore
surrounded them; mushrooms were
an important ingredient in the
witches' brews of medieval Eng-
land. Today mushrooms are under
study by drug companies as a
source of antibiotics, especially an-
titumor substances, and in the case
of Mexican hallucinogenic mush-
rooms (Psilocybe) . as a source of
tranquilizing drugs.
Mushrooms do differ from most
other plants in that they contain no
chlorophyll, cannot carry on the
food-making process of photosyn-
thesis, and depend for their nour-
ishment on the organic matter that
has been manufactured by green
plants from inorganic coinpounds.
Most mushrooms live on decaying
vegetable or animal matter, al-
though a few are parasitic on living
plants.
The life of the mushroom begins
with the spore, which leaves the
parent plant and drifts away on air
currents. It has been estimated that
a single mushroom can produce
more than a billion spores. Most of
these perish, but here and there one
spore comes to rest where condi-
tions meet its exacting requirements
for growth. The spore germinates
and produces threadlike structures,
hyphae, which grow and branch out
in all directions, penetrating the
surrounding environment. Enzymes
secreted by the hyphae digest some
of the organic matter with which
they come in contact, converting it
into a form that the plant can ab-
sorb. The mass of hyphae is known
as the mycelium, or spawn. In time
the mycelium sends up fruiting
bodies, frequently in the familiar um-
brella shape ; when these mature and
release their spores the life cycle of
the mushroom is complete.
Mushrooms vary greatly in the
environmental conditions they need
for growth. Some species, such as
Agaricus campestris, flourish only
in open meadows. Others, like Pleu-
rolus porrigens, or angel wings,
will grow only on rotting conifer
logs. Still others grow among fallen
leaves, in moss, on manure, or in
other specific locations. Some spe-
cies grow only among the rootlets
of certain trees, forming fungus
roots, or mycorrhiza. The associ-
ation between a fungus and another
living plant is sometimes necessary
for the existence of both: orchids,
for instance, need certain fungi, as
does the Indian pipe of northern
forests. The exact relationship be-
tween tree and fungus in mycorrhiza
is not understood.
Geography plays its part in
habitat, too, and some species of
mushrooms are found in one sec-
tion of the country but not in an-
other, even though the ecology of
both regions appears to be similar.
Moisture, light, and temperature
have a great deal to do with the
aboveground appearance or non-
appearance of mushrooms. Once
the mycelium is established it can
live on in the same place as long as
there is nourishment for it, but the
production of fruiting bodies de-
pends upon variations in tempera-
ture, rainfall, and probably other
factors not yet recognized. The
longevity of the mycelium is dra-
matically illustrated by the fairy
rings sometimes found in grassy
plains. The spot where the spore
fell is the center of the ring; from
there the hyphae spread out to form
a circular mass with mushrooms
growing up around its rim. In time
the mycelium at the center dies, but
it continues to expand at the per-
imeter at the rate of about thirteen
inches a year, with fruiting bodies
coming up in an ever widening
circle. In Colorado and south-
ern England there are fairy rings
estimated to be more than four hun-
dred years old.
Sometimes a mushroom species
that has appeared regularly for a
long time in one localitv will van-
(thriisting mushroom,
aring spores, grows from
inching strands of
^ subterranean plant known
the mycelium. At an
rlier stage of development,
; mushrooms look
e buttons.
ish, and then, after ten years or
more, return. Possibly the weather
was unfavorable at certain critical
stages of its life. One of the fasci-
nating aspects of mushroom hunt-
ing is that you can visit the same
spot year after year and find some-
thing different each time.
M
ost mushrooms we see
belong to the Basidiomycetes divi-
sion of fungi, and among these the
Agaricaceae, or agarics, form the
largest group. The agarics bear
their spores on a series of gills, or
plates, which radiate from the stem
like the spokes of a wheel and are
attached by their upper edges to the
underside of the mushroom cap.
Two other groups, the Boletaceae
and the Polyporaceae (boletes and
polypores) have pores and tubes in-
stead of gills. The Hydnaceae, or
hydnums, have a layer of down-
ward-pointing teeth, and in the
Clavariaceae, or coral fungi, the
spores are produced all over the
surface of the branched, coral-like
fruiting body.
The division of fungi known as
Ascomycetes, or sac fungi, differs
from the division Basidiomycetes
mainly in certain microscopic fea-
tures having to do with the means
by which sexual spores are pro-
duced. The morels belong to this di-
vision: they can be recognized by
their hollow, elongated caps cov-
ered with deep, irregular pits.
Other sac fungi are cup-shaped, like
the orange fairy cup (Aleiiria aiiraii-
tia) ; or wrinkled and convoluted.
like the brain mushroom (Gyro-
initra esculenia) and the elf saddle
{Helvella lacunosa) . Although such
sac fungi as the morel and truffle are
highly prized by gourmets, it is
among the gilled agarics that most of
the edible species are found, as well
as most of the poisonous ones.
The typical gilled mushroom be-
gins as a tiny globular form en-
closed in what is known as a uni-
versal veil, or volva. Then, as the
mushroom grows, the veil splits and
either remains as a cup around the
base of the stem and in patches on
the cap. or disappears. Certain spe-
cies have a second membrane, the
partial veil, or annulus, stretching
from tlie stem to the edge of the
cap. As the cap expands, this veil
tears, either at the cap edge or at
the stem: it may remain on the
stem in the form of a ring, or it,
too. may disappear. The presence
or absence of a cup or ring is a
great help in identifying any mush-
room.
Another important feature in
identification is the color of the
spores. In most instances the spore
color will fall into one of five cate-
gories: white to creamy, pink to
flesh color, rusty brown, purple-
brown, or black. To determine their
color, it is necessary to make a
spore print: this is done by placing
the mushroom cap, gill-side down,
on a sheet of paper and covering it
with a dish. Within a few hours a
mass of spores will have fallen on
to the paper to make a clearly dis-
cernible white or colored pattern.
(White spores can be seen on white
paper by holding the paper at an
angle to a light source.)
A vital piece of equipment if you
wish to hunt mushrooms is a note-
book; memory can be unreliable,
and notes made on the spot are in-
valuable. It is important to set
down where and how the mush-
room grows. Look for a ring on the
stem or a cup around the base, and
make certain that there is no cup
hidden below the surface of the
ground. Note the size and color of
the cap, its shape, and texture.
Turn the mushroom over and
look at the underside, noting
whether the gills are free from the
stem, broadly or narrowly joined to
it. or running down it. In some spe-
cies the gills are crowded closely to-
gether: in others they are far apart.
They may be narrow or broad, of
er|ual or of varying lengths; their
color may be the same as that of
the cap or different from it.
Examine the stem and note if it
is thick or ihin. long or short,
tough or fragile, hollow or solid, or
stufl^ed with a pithy core. In some
species it is firmly attached to the
69
cap, in others it is easily broken off.
In most species the stem is attached
to the middle of the cap, but in
some, it is off-center and in others,
joined to the edge.
In a few mushrooms the flesh
changes color when broken or
bruised. Others exude a liquid —
colorless, white, or colored — that
may or may not change its hue with
exposure to air.
After noting these features, wrap
your mushroom carefully in ^vaxed
paper or a plastic bag (a separate
wrapping should be used for each
specimen), take it home and make a
spore print.
With the foregoing clues to help
you and a good mushroom guide in
hand, you may possibly be able to
identify your find. Possibly, but not
necessarily. No one book covers all
the several thousand species of
mushrooms in North America, and
you could easily have collected a
species omitted from the book or
books at your disposal. Many spe-
cies can be positively identified
only by their microscopic charac-
teristics. It is advisable never to try
to force your specimen to fit into a
species if it differs in the slightest
degree from the published descrip-
tion. If you are gathering mush-
rooms for the table, a mistake could
be disastrous.
That some mushrooms are per-
fectly safe for one person, but not
for another probably accounts for
the differences of opinion among
the authorities as to which species
are edible and which are not. Some
species of the genus Coprimis have
been known to cause trouble only
when eaten by people who have
been drinking alcohol. When trying
a new mushroom, be sure to obtain
only young, fresh specimens, and
restrict yourself to a very small por-
tion, even if others have eaten it in
quantity. You may be allergic to it.
The three basic types of mush-
room poisons are the protoplasmic
poisons, the nervous system poi-
sons, and the gastrointestinal irri-
tants. The protoplasmic poisons at-
tack the heart, liver, kidneys, and
skeletal muscles; symptoms appear
suddenly after a delay of from
eight to forty hours, and, in more
than half the known cases, death is
70
said to come within a few days. The
nervous system poisons cause hallu-
cinations and other symptoms, but
are seldom fatal. The gastrointes-
tinal irritants cause vomiting,
cramps, and diarrhea, with recov-
ery following fairly rapidly. Treat-
ment for victims of poisoning is
complicated because some mush-
room species contain more than one
poisonous substance. Furthermore,
there is always the possibility of
toxins not yet identified.
T
J_ he
he greatest number of poison-
ing cases are caused by species of
the Amanita genus. A few of the
Amanitas are edible, but most are
extremely toxic. Many are beautiful
in appearance, large and brilliantly
colored, with a frill-like ring on the
stem, a cup at the base, and white,
wartlike patches on the cap. But
sometimes the ring is fragile and
disappears, heavy rain washes the
warts off the cap, or the cup is bur-
ied under ground debris. Not all
Amanitas are trightly colored, and
not all are recognizable on sight.
Amanita muscaria, the fly agaric,
is a very common species with a
cap that measures up to eight
inches across. In North America the
color ranges from bright scarlet in
the west to orange or almost yellow
in the east. It has been eaten in
minute amounts (chiefly by the na-
tives of Kamchatka in northern
Russia) and is said to produce beau-
tiful hallucinations and sensations of
wefl-being, but the dosage is so
critical that a fraction too much
brings acute pain, destruction of
tissues, and finally death. Amanita
pantherina, found in the Northwest
woods, has proved fatal to children
who ate only a mouthful. Several of
the white Amanitas are called "de-
stroying angel," a name that speaks
for itself.
While it is best to give all Ama-
nitas a wide berth, it is not neces-
sary to forgo all mushrooms for
fear of encountering a poisonous
one. Among the edible mushrooms
pi good flavor are a number that
■are easy to recognize. Any puffball
can be eaten when it is young and
still pure white inside, with no tinge
of yellow and no holes indicating
the presence of insect larvae. Cut
the puffball in half lengthwise to
make sure that it is not an Amanita
still enveloped in its veil: the Ama-
nita will exhibit a stem, cap, and
gills; the puffball is homogenous in
form. Calvatia gigantea, a puffball
that grows to enormous size, is so
tender that it can be eaten raw in
salads. It is sometimes cut into half-
inch slices and sauteed in butter, or
it can be cooked like French fried
potatoes.
Most of the mushrooms with
pores instead of gills can be eaten,
but avoid any that turn blue when
cut, and any with red pore mouths.
The king boletus, which can reach a
size of ten inches across, belongs to
the pore group. In Europe it goes
under a number of names — cepe
(France). steinpilz (Germany),
boroviki (Poland), stensopp (Den-
mark)— indicating its widespread
popularity. The ancient Romans
served the king boletus at banquets,
using special dishes called "bole-
tarii." In North America it grows
in open woodlands from the Atlan-
tic to the Pacific, and for the best
flavor should be cooked the day it
is picked.
The chantarelle was another fa-
vorite of the Romans. This de-
licious mushroom is a bright egg-
yolk yellow in all its parts — cap,
stem, and gills. The fruity flavor,
somewhat like that of ripe apricots,
is so delicate that, according to
gourmets, the chantarelle should
never be combined ^vith other
foods, but always served as a sepa-
rate dish. It requires gentle cooking
over low heat; overcooking or too
hot a fire will cause it to shrivel
and become tough. In appearance
the chantarelle bears some resem-
blance to another mushroom, the
orange clitocybe (Clitocybe auran-
tia) , which is suspected of being
poisonous to some degree. The Cli-
tocybe, however, has a dry, tan-col-
ored cap and bright orange gills;
the resemblance is not marked
enough to cause confusion once you
have actually seen a chantarelle.
A familiar mushroom is the
shaggy mane, Coprinus comatus,
which grows along roadsides, in
wasteland, in city gardens, and
back lanes. Its tall, cylindrical cap,
grayish white in color and covered
with ragged scales, is unmistakable.
It must be picked young and
cooked at once, for if left for only a
few hours the gills dissolve into an
inky fluid. Oven cooking is best for
the shaggy mane, as the caps are
soft and fragile and tend to dis-
integrate unless handled carefully.
The cauliflower mushroom. Spar-
assis radicata, is another unmistak-
able species. It looks like a large,
pale head of lettuce and grows un-
der conifers; it is tough and
strongly flavored, but very good in
soups and gravies. Much milder in
flavor are the angel wings that grow
on fallen trees in the forest. These
are white, fragile, and fanshaped;
when dried and salted, they can be
eaten raw.
In order to retain their subtle
flavors, mushrooms are best pre-
served by drying. They should be
spread out (small ones whole and
large ones in slices) on cheesecloth
trays and subjected to a steady
stream of warm air until completely
dry and crisp, then stored in mois-
tureproof jars. Before use they will
require soaking — from one to three
hours, depending on the thickness
of the slices.
The food value of mushrooms
compares favorably with that of
most garden vegetables. It varies
somewhat with the different species,
but in general mushrooms are high
in several of the B complex vita-
mins and vilamin C, and are a good
source of iron and copper. They are
moderately high in proteins and
low in calories.
The nutritious, dangerous, and
delicious mushroom is eaten by
many animals other than man. In
the wild, cattle, deer, squirrels,
slugs, snails, and innumerable in-
sects and insect larvae regularly
partake of the "food of the gods."
Clavaria pulchra
Amanita pantherina ^<<<$?>^\'\\^l''5''/// :-ii5;^-3ji^=^
Aleuria aurantia ji
Amanita muscaria
Carbon Monoxide in Space Another chemical com-
pound has been found in the '"empty"' reaches of inter-
stellar space. A team of Bell Telephone Laboratories
scientists, working at Kitt Peak in Arizona, has de-
tected carbon monoxide in at least five radio sources,
including one at the center of our galaxy.
The existence of hydrogen in space has been known
for years, and radio astronomers have been able to
map the heavier concentrations. Then last year am-
monia, water, and formaldehyde molecules were de-
tected for the first time. Now we can add carbon mo-
noxide to the list — and wait to see what turns up next.
End of a Comet Most asteroids have very irregular
shapes, a characteristic to be expected if they are in-
deed fragments left when larger bodies collided. But at
least a few asteroids may be the final remains of
comets that have lost their volatile components and can
no longer produce tails.
The asteroid Icarus, which came within five million
miles of the earth in 1968, is a case in point. Tom
Gehrels. Elizabeth Roemer, R. C. Taylor, and B. H.
Zellner of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory in Tuc-
son, writing in the Astronomical Journal, report that
Icarus is a stony-metallic object, less than half a mile
across, that rotates in two hours. It is nearly spherical,
while asteroids typically are irregular. Brian G. Mars-
den of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
points out in the same issue that the orbit of Icarus
strongly resembles a comet: it sweeps in close to the
sun. within 18 million miles, and then out beyond the
earth in a highly eccentric orbit — most asteroids have
more circular orbits. Finally, a meteor stream is asso-
ciated with its orbit, as is the case with a number of
comets.
How do you tell an asteroid from a comet? An aster-
oid presents the sharp, pointlike image of a star. A
comet, on the other hand, looks diffuse. A solid nu-
cleus is surrounded by a coma — a cloud of gas — -
boiled off the nucleus by the heat of the sun. When a
comet comes close enough to the sun, the gases are
pushed away by the solar wind and the sunlight itself,
producing the characteristic comet tail. An object like
Icarus experiences surface temperatures of some 2,000
degrees at its closest approach to the sun; it goes
through this every 409 days, and presumably by now
all its volatile elements have long since been lost. If. as
is generally believed, comets are balls of frozen water
and gases mixed with dust grains and pebbles, then
when the last of these volatiles has evaporated, the
remains may be compared to a flying gravel bank.
Halo Around Comet Bennett A scientific satellite has
detected a cloud of hydrogen eight million miles
across surrounding Comet Bennett, the morning-sky
comet that reached first magnitude near the end of last
March.
An orbiting geophysical observatory scanned the
comet when it was about 65 million miles away in
early April. It found a cloud of hydrogen, the most
common element in the universe, ten times the size of
tlie sun. The discovery was only the second of its
kind: last January another satellite found a similar
cloud around Comet Tago-Sato-Kosaka.
Galactic Explosions The explosions and ejections of
large clouds of matter that we see going on in otlier
galaxies apparently happened in our own as recently
as ten million years ago. This is the suggestion of a
Dutch radio astronomer who has been studying the
motions of hydrogen clouds around the center of our
galaxy.
We cannot optically see into the center because
clouds of dust block die view. But radio waves can
penetrate the dust, and radio telescopes on earth can
pick up the emissions of hydrogen atoms near the ga-
lactic center, some 25,000 light-years away. The
wavelength at which they are received indicates
whether the source is moving toward or away from us,
and how fast. P.C. van der Kruit used a radio tele-
scope at Dwingeloo to refine our picture of the center.
He reported in Astronomy and Astrophysics that
two clouds of hydrogen appear to have been ejected
from opposite sides of the galactic nucleus at a large
angle to the plane of the galactic disk, and that they
may be falling back into the plane at some distance
from the center. The quantity of matter involved is
equal to about five million suns.
Van der Kruit also finds that two arms of hydrogen
expanding out from the nucleus in the galactic plane
may have received their impetus from the same or
similar explosions, one tens of millions of years ago
and one five to ten million years ago.
The ejected clouds appear to be larger, less dense,
and longer-lived than those now seen being ejected
from a class of galaxies with violent nuclei known as
Seyfert galaxies. Van der Kruit suggests that the activ-
ity in our galaxy may represent a later stage of
evolution.
Revising the Solar Constant A key number for any
physical study of the whole earth is the quantity of
radiation it receives from the sun. Even a small
change could have large effects on the world's climate.
Now scientists are finding, not that the sun is varying
its output, but that their measurements have been a
little off.
The accepted figure for the total radiation received,
the solar constant, has been two calories per square
centimeter per minute. It is a difficult number to deter-
mine because some t^^pes of radiation can be measured
only above the earth's atmosphere. Now two groups,
working with airplanes, rockets, balloons, and space-
craft, have found the total radiation reaching the earth
is 3 percent less than had been thought: the solar con-
stant should be 1.94 calories. The amount of visible
light is 8 percent less. These are small differences, but
small differences in very large forces can have large
effects. We must know what the forces are to know
what is happening, and what will happen.
John P. Wiley, Jr.
72
.siwaawoiawra .'
The moon is in the evening sky in mid-June, becomes full on
the 19th, then reaches last-quarter on the 25th. In July, new
moon is on the 3rd, first-quarter on the 11th, full moon on the
18th, and last-quarter on the 25th. New moon returns in August
on the 2nd, first-quarter on the 10th.
Venus and Jupiter dominate the evening sky. Venus is very
bright in the west during early evening twilight, becoming
brighter and setting later during the summer. Jupiter appears
high toward the south at dusk and sets about midnight or ear-
lier. Saturn is a morning star.
June 17: The star near the moon is Antares, in Scorpius.
June 21: Summer begins at 2:43 p.m., EST, when the sun ar-
rives at the summer solstice in Gemini.
July 4: Earth arrives at aphelion, where it is most distant from
the sun. 94,514,000 miles away.
July 6-7: The crescent moon is near Venus on these evenings.
The star nearby is Regulus, in Leo.
July 11: Venus and Regulus are in conjunction.
July 11-12: The moon is near Jupiter in the evening sky.
July 29: The relatively weak Delta Aquarid meteor shower,
about 20 meteors per hour per observer, reaches maximum with
moonless morning skies.
August 5-6; You can find Venus near the crescent moon on
these evenings.
August 8: The crescent moon Is near Jupiter.
August 12: One of the best meteor showers of the year, the
Perseids, reaches maximum this morning with an hourly, rate of
50 or more. With early moonset, observing conditions should be
good for several mornings before and after the 12th.
Thomas D. Nicholson
* Hold the Star Map so the compass direction you face is at the iDottom;
then match the stars In the lower half of the map with those in the sky
near the horizon. The map Is for 10:25 p.m. on June 15; 9:25 p.m. on July
1; 8:30 p.m. on July 15; and 7:20 p.m. on August 1; but it can be used for
about an hour before and after the tir
The Star Dragon
Continued from page 26
him, flint would strike for him, ves-
sels would carry him over dan-
gerous waters.
In the end, with the naked body
of an awkward and hastily read-
justed climber, he would plumb the
seas' depths and mount, with wings
spun in his brain, the heights of
air. Enormous computations upon
the movements of far bodies in
space would roll in seconds from
his computers. His great machines
would leap faster at his bidding
than the slower speed of his own
nerves.
Because of speech, drawn from
an infinitesimal spark along a nerve
end, the vague, ill-defined surround-
ings of the animal world would be
transformed, named, and cate-
gorized. Mind would reach into a
past before its becoming; the misty
future experienced by dim animal
instinct would leap into sudden,
clear perspective. Language, whose
constituents have come down the
long traverse of millennia, as rolled
and pounded by circumstance as a
flint ax churned in a river bed,
leaves no direct traces of its dim be-
ginnings. With the first hieroglyph,
oral tradition would become his-
tory. Out of a spoken sound, man's
first and last source of inex-
haustible power, would emerge the
phantom world that the anthro-
pologist prosaically calls culture.
Its bridges, its towers, and its light-
nings lie potential in a little globe
of gray matter that can fade and
blow away on any wind. The nov-
elty of evolutionary progression
through time has begotten another
novelty, the novelty of history, the
evolutionary flow of ideas in the
heads of men.
About ourselves there always
lingers a penumbral rainbow — what
A. L. Kroeber termed the super-
organic — that cloud of ideas, vi-
sions, institutions that hover about,
indeed constitute human society,
but which can be dissected from no
single brain. This rainbow, which
exists in all heads and dies with
none, is the essential part of man.
Through it he becomes what we call
human, and not otherwise.
Man is a creature not to be con-
tained in a solitary skull vault nor
is he measurable as, say, a saber-
toothed cat or a bison is measur-
able. Something, the rainbow danc-
ing before his eyes, the word
uttered by the cave fire at evening,
eludes us and runs onward. It is
gone when we come with our
spades upon the cold ashes of the
campfire four hundred thousand
years removed.
Paradoxically, the purpose of the
human brain is to escape physical
specialization by the projections of
thought. There is no parallel organ-
ism with which to compare our-
selves. The creature from which we
arose has perished. There is no
twilight world of living fossils on
the direct hominid line that we can
subject to examination. At best we
are forced to make inferences from
less closely related primates whose
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activities lie below the threshold of
speech.
The nineteenth century, through
the efforts of men like Hughlings
Jackson, came to see the brain as
an organ whose primary parts had
been laid down successively in
evolutionary time, a little like the
fossil strata in the earth itself. The
centers of conscious thought were
the last superficial deposit on the
surface of a more ancient and in-
stinctive brain. As the roots of our
phylogenetic tree pierce deep into
earth's past, so our human con-
sciousness is similarly embedded in,
and in part constructed of. path-
ways that were laid down before
man in his present form existed. To
acknowledge this fact is still to
comprehend as little of the brain's
true secrets as an individual might
understand of the dawning of his
own consciousness from a single
egg cell.
The long, slow turn of world-time
as the geologist has known it. or the
invisibly moving hour hand of evo-
lution perceived only yesterday by
the biologist, has given way in the
human realm to a fantastically ac-
celerated social evolution induced
by industrial technology. So fast
does this change progress that a
growing child strives to master the
institutional customs of a society
that, compared with the pace of
past history, compresses centuries
of change into his lifetime. I my-
self, like others of my generation,
was born in an age that has already
perished. At my death I will look
my last upon a nation that, save for
some linguistic continuity, will
seem increasingly alien and remote.
It will be as though I peered upon
my youth through misty centuries. I
will not be merely old; I will be a
genuine fossil embedded in onrush-
ing man-made time before my actual
death.
I here never was a first man or
a first primate," Dr. Glenn Jepsen
of Princeton once remarked icono-
clastically. The distinguished pa-
leontologist then added that the
"billions of genetic filaments in our
ancestral pliylelic cord are of many
lengths, no two precisely the same.
We have not had our oversized
brain very long but the pendactyl
pattern of our extremities origi-
nated deep in . . . the Paleozoic."
It is now possible to add to Dr. Jep-
sen's observation that we have, of
late, discovered that our bipedal,
man-ape ancestors seem to have
flourished for a surprisingly long
time without any increase in their
cranial content whatever — some
four or five million years, in fact.
It used to be thought that the
brain of protoman would have had
to develop very early to enable him
to survive upright on the ground at
all. His bipedal pre-man phase
lasted much longer — five or six
times at least — than his whole arche-
ological history down to this very
moment. What makes the story so
mystifying is that the expansion of
man's neurocranium took place rel-
atively rapidly during the million
years or so of Ice Age time, and
has not been traced beyond this
point. The supposed weak-bodied
creature whom Darwin nervously
tried to fit into his conception of
the war of nature on the continents
has romped through a longer geo-
logical time period than his large-
brained descendants may ever see.
We know that at least two million
years ago the creature could make
some simple use of stones and
bones, and may possibly have fash-
ioned crude windbreaks. He was
still small-brained in human terms,
however, and if his linguistic po-
tentialities were increasing, there
remains no satisfactory evidence of
the fact. Thus we are confronted
with the question why man, as we
know him, arose, and why, having
arisen, he found his way out of the
green confines of his original
world. Not all the human beings
even of our existing species did.
Their brains are comparable to our
own, but they have lingered on.
something less than one percent of
today's populations, at the edge of
a twilight world we have forgotten.
There can thus be no ready asser-
tion that man's departure from his
first world, the world of chameleon-
like shifts and forest changes, was
either ordained or inevitable. Nei-
ther can it be said that visible tools
created brains. Some of the forest
peoples — though clever lo adapt —
survive with a paucity of technical
equipment.
As to why our pygmoid ancestors
or, more accurately, some group of
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them, took the road to larger brains
we do not know. Most of the sug-
gestions made ^vould just as readily
fit a number of nonhuman primate
forms who did not develop large
brains. Our line is gone, and while
the behavior of our existing rela-
tives is worth examination, we can-
not ravel out of another genetic
strand the complete story of our
own.
Not without interest, however, is
the fact that much of this devel-
opment is correlated ^vith the ad-
vances and recessions of the conti-
nental ice fields. It is conceivable,
at least, that some part of the hu-
man stock was being exposed dur-
ing this time to relentless genetic
pressure under conditions of suc-
cessive isolation and mixture. A
few scattered finds from remote por-
tions of the Euro-Asiatic land mass
will never clarify this suspicion. For
hundreds of thousands of years of
crucial human history we have not
a single bone as a document.
There is another curious thing
about the Ice Age. Except for the
emergence of genuinely modern
man toward the close of its icy win-
ter, it is an age of death, not a
birthtime of species. Extinction has
ahvays follo^ved life relentlessly
through the long eras of earth's his-
tory. The Pleistocene above all else
was a time of great extinctions.
Many big animals perished, and
though man's hunting technology
was improving, his numbers were
still modest. He did not then pos-
sess the capacity to ravage conti-
nents in the way he was later to do.
The dinosaurs vanished before
man appeared on earth, and their
disappearance has caused much de-
bate. They died out over a period
many millions of years in extent
and at a time ^s'hen the low^ warm
continents lapped by inland seas
were giving way to bleaker high-
lands. The events of the Ice Age are
markedly different. First of all,
many big mammals — mammoth,
mastodon, sloth, long-horned bi-
son— survived the great ice sheets
only to die at their close. It is true
that man, by then dispersing over
the continents, may have had some-
thing to do with their final ex-
termination, but there perished also
certain creatures like the dire
wolves, in whom man could have
taken little direct interest.
We are thus presented, in con-j
trast to the situation at the close of'
the age of reptiles, with a narrowly
demarcated line of a few thousand
years in which a great variety of
earth's northern fauna died out
^vhile man survived. Along with the
growing desiccation in Southwest
Asia, these extinctions gave man.
the hunter, a mighty push outside
his original game-filled Eden. He
had to turn to plant domestication
to survive, and plants, it just hap-
pens, are the primary road to a set-
tled life and tlie basic supplies from
which cities and civilizations arise.
A half-dying green kingdom, one
might say. forced man out of a rela-
tionship that might otherwise have
persisted do^ni to the present.
But, the question persists, why
did so many creatures die in so
little time after marching back and
forth with the advancing or retreat-
ing ice through so many thousand
years? Just recently the moon voy-
age has hinted at a possible clue,
though it must be ventured very
tentatively when man's observa-
tional stay upon the moon has been
so short.
The Apollo 11 astronauts ob-
served and succeeded in photo-
graphing melted or glazed droplets
concentrated on points and edges of
moon rock. Thomas Gold, director
of Cornell University's Center for
Radio Physics, has suggested that
these glasslike concretions are evi-
dence of melting produced by a gi-
ant solar flare persisting for only a
few moments, but of an unexpected
intensity. Giant storms are known
to lick outivard from the sun's sur-
face, but a solar disturbance of the
required magnitude to account for
such a melting — if it was indeed
sun-produced — would have seemed
from earth like the flame of a
dragon's breath. Most of the ul-
traviolet of the sun-storm, gener-
ated perhaps by a comet hurtling
into the sun's surface, would have
been absorbed by the earth's atmo-
sphere. A temperature effect on
earth need not have been pro-
nounced so long as the flare was
momentary. The unprotected sur-
face of the moon, however, would
have received the full impact of the
dragon's tongue.
Gold has calculated by various
means that the event, if actually
produced by a solar flare, lies some-
76
w liere close to thirty thousand years
from us in time and is therefore un-
recorded in the annals of man. But
here is the curious thing. The pe-
riod involved lies in the closing Ice
Age, in the narrow time zone of
vast extinctions in the Northern
Hemisphere. Was tlie giant flare, an
unheard-of phenomenon, in some
way involved with the long dying of
certain of the great mammals that
followed? Seemingly, the earth es-
caped visible damage because of its
enveloping blanket of air. No living
man knows what the flicking tongue
of a dragon star might do, however,
or what radiation impact or atmos-
pheric change might have been pre-
cipitated upon the earth. Some
scholars are loath to accept the so-
lar flare version of the moon glaze
because of the stupendous energy
that would have had to be expended,
and the general known stability of
the sun. But men are short-lived,
and solar catastrophes like the sun-
ward disintegration of a comet
would be exceedingly rare. Lntil
more satisfactory evidence is at
hand, most scientists will probably
prefer to regard the glazed rock as
splashed by the heat of meteoritic
impact.
Nevertheless, the turbulent out-
pouring of even ordinary solar
flares is on so gigantic a scale as to
be terrifying in a close-up view.
Until there is further evidence that
ours is not a sleepy dragon star,
one may wonder just what hap-
pened thirty thousand years ago,
and why. among so many deaths, it
was man who survived. Whatever
occurred, whether by ice with-
dra^val or the momentary pene-
tration of the ultraviolet into our
atmosphere. man's world was
changed. Perhaps there is some-
thing after all to the story of his
eviction from the green Garden.
When I lie in bed now and await
the hastening of Halley's comet. I
would like to dream my way back
to that single, precise instant when
the star dragon thrust out its
tongue. Perhaps the story of all
dragons since comes from that mo-
ment. Men have long memories
when the memories are clothed in
myth. But I dream, and the train
whistle mingles and howls with the
heaven sweeping light in my dream.
It is 1910. 1 am going back once
more. ■
'* We read Marston
Bates' book with
all the excitment
of looking for the
first time through
a microscope"
-LOREN EISELEY
"In a world of increasing specialization, Marston Bates amply de-
serves the historically rich title of 'naturalist.' He has taken all life
for his province. A Jungle In the House is w/ritten with the appeal-
ing simplicity that used to constitute the true strength of scientific
literature. By the experiment of introducing a bit of the tropics into
his home in winter Michigan, Bates has spectacularly heightened
our sensitivity to the living world."— Loren Eiseley
"A book of love, real love, shamelessly expressed and utterly capti-
vating; a love of all life."— Isaac Asimov
"A Jungle In the House describes highly entertaining facts about
plant, animal, and human life. But more importantly Marston Bates
builds a solid and attractive bridge between the ecological and
social sciences. He helps us to understand human problems by
delineating with concrete examples the meeting of natural history
and social history."— Rene Dubos
"A fascinating book. . . . Highly stimulating and provocative facts
about man and the natural world. . . . Like good conversation by
an intelligent, articulate, and amiable host."— John K. Terres
A Jungle in the House is based on two years of columns in Natural
History magazine.
At your local bookseller or
WALKER and Company
720 Fifth Avenue
New York, N.Y. 10019
Please send me .
. copies of A Jungle in the House.
1 enclose my check or money order (or 37.50 per copy and
understand you will pay shipping costs. I( I wish, I may return
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ADDRESS.
CITY
77
Books in Review
t
DyRicMLFord
The Indian is in! Boutiques sell
pseudo-Indian st\'les. hippies feed
their spirits Indian fashion, while
headline stories show Indians desper-
ately claiming forlorn and forgotten
Alcatraz Island. ]Magazine articles re-
veal that many of these so-called van-
ishing Americans, who live as govern-
ment wards in needless poverty, are
actually rapidly increasing in num-
bers. At the same time, the increased
interest and concern for tlie Indian
has not escaped the book publishers.
As the bookstalls swell, baffled
lavmen often ask anthropologists.
'Which of these books will tell me
what I should know about Indians?"
My own library' reflects these trends
as they have accelerated in the past
decade, but before I answer the ques-
tion of which books are most informa-
tive, we need to explore die impli-
cations of this oft-repeated query.
The American Indian was living here
many thousands of years ago. built
the colossal monuments, created the
artwork, and told the beautiful stories
that capture our imaginations today.
Their descendants greeted first Co-
lumbus and later, preachers and poli-
ticians, who often only bore a Trojan
horse. During the conquest of the
West, it was more than evident that
Indians actually belonged to different
tribes with markedly different cul-
tures, but this knowledge did not pre-
vent people from forming degrading
stereotypes of all Indians. Failing to
exterminate the people, government
agents then attempted to forcibly
extinauish Indian cultures. This is
no longer official policy, but it had
an effect on the quality of antliropo-
logical and historical research — the
very sources we turn to for answers to
our questions — as well as on the atti-
tudes of the Indians themselves.
Each of these episodes has been de-
scribed by different specialists. For
answers about the Indians' pre-Co-
lumbian past we must turn to arche-
ologists. The Indians' initial contacts
with European-derived cultures pro-
vide the grist for the ethnohistorian,
while the ethnologist attempts to re-
construct various Indian cultures at a
time before too much disruption oc-
curred, known as the ethnographic
present, or he attempts to study con-
temporary changes. This is by way of
saying that the initial question of
what books to read lacks a simple an-
swer, that the selection must come
from works designed to give us an un-
derstanding of American Indians
from a variety of perspectives, in-
cluding the point of view of the In-
dians themselves.
For those readers who desire a sensi-
tive and accurate account of the ef-
fect of an alien culture on Indians. I
particularly recommend four ex-
quisitely written paperbacks. The
first is Ishi in Tiio Worlds, by Theo-
dora Kroeber. which records tlie life
of the last Yahi Indian in California,
who miraculously turned up at the
end of the extermination period. The
second is Thomas Berger's Little Big
Man. which faithfully reflects many
Indian attitudes. Another work diat
presents contemporary life is the hu-
morous story. Stay Aicay, Joe, by Dan
Cushman. The fourth book, House
Made of Dawn, the 1969 Pulitzer
Prize winning novel, is a fateful story
about a Jemez Indian who symbolizes
the lot of so many Indians. It was
written by N. Scott Momaday, a
Kiowa.
Few authors have tackled the difi
cult challenge of describing all a
pects of the American Indian, from
his prehistoric arrival in North Amer-
ica to the present. Although it in-
cludes South America. Alvin M. Jose-
phy, Jr.'s The Indian Heritage of
America is one extremely successful
paperback. Another, which has in-
furiated many Indians because of its
call for a Society for the Preservation
of Cultures and which has angered
andiropologists for molding facts into
a particular evolutionary theory, but
which, nevertheless, presents normally
tedious information in a beautifully
written way, is Man's Rise to Civ-
ilization as Shoun by the Indians
of North America from Primeval
Times to the Coming of the Industrial
State, by Peter Farb. Robert F. Spen-
cer and his colleagues have compiled
a readable and easily understood text-
book on North American prehistory
and ethnology entitled The Native
Americans.
Recently, a number of books have
joined Clark Wissler's The American
Indian and Ruth Underbill's Red
Man's America as summaries of
tribes or cultural traits in the eth-
nographic present. This Land Was
Theirs, by Wendall Oswalt, sketches
7^
KEY TO SURVIVAL!
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HOPE FOR THE FUTURE
Announcing a pioneer book club that will help you stay
abreast of the ecological dilemmas that face us:
1. Can we achieve population control without radi-
cally upsetting the racial and cultural patterns
of the world?
2. Will the "have" nations accept a lower standard
of living in order to feed and protect the "have-
nots?" (The U.S. is feeding 111 of these nations
today.)
3. Can we learn to raise food ecologically or will we
continue to mine the soil, aided by pesticides that
threaten all wildlife and perhaps all human life
as well?
4. Will the sea become a new source of food
— or are we rapidly and irreversibly
destroying its food potential?
5. Will we continue to pollute our atmosphere with
fossil fuel fallout, or will we shift to the unknown
hazards of nuclear power?
6. Can our city ghettos be dispersed? Or must we
accept a permanent, multiplying, indigent popula-
tion fed at taxpayers' expense in return for votes?
7. Above all, can any of these — and a dozen similar
dilemmas be resolved under our present demo-
cratic form of government?
Choose any of these important current books as your first selection:
These and similar questions are
part of the fascinating subject of
ECOLOGY. They all go together.
They concern you and your children.
By joining the Ecological Book
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being written on all aspects of ecology.
Will they be technical? No. Difficult
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Good, clear writing will be a con-
stant requirement for books selected.
Every - other - month selections will
help you build a basic ecology library,
but not over-tax your reading time.
A special feature of the Club will
be a newsletter telling of happenings
here and abroad in the world of
ecology: Who is doing what; reprints
of important articles that you might
miss.
Enjoy a pioneer membership in a
book club that is different!
£0/TOR(>tL >IDVISORr BOARD
Devereux Butcher, author and editor
Roland C. Clement, Vice President
National Audubon Society
F. Raymond Fosberg, Ecologist
Smithsonian Institution
Samuel H. Ordway, Chairman,
The Conservation Foundation.
CRISIS IN EDEN, by Frederick Elder
How far can man go in exterminating other
torms of life and altering the earth? An
i-thical appraisal of our vandal attitude
stemming from Genesis.
Special price $3.20
I Regular $3.95)
ROAD TO RUIN, by A. Q. Mowbray
How the destructive billion dollar Federal
Highway Program creates pollution, is des-
troying our finest open spaces, with no end
in sight.
Special price $4.50
(Regular S5,95)
FAMINE 1975.
by Wtn. & Paul Paddock
As population outruns the food supply a
moment of truth is approaching. Only lour
nations are prepared to meet it. A serious
discussion of what lies ahead.
Special price $5.00
(Regular $6.50)
THE HUDSON RIVER.
/)(/ Robert H. Boyle
The natural (and unnatural) history of a
unique river, what man is doing to it. how it
may be saved. Beautifully written, illustrated.
Special price $5.95
(Regular $6.95)
Devin A. Garrity, Bdifor
THE ECOLOGICAL BOOK CLUB
P.O. Box 682 • Rye. New York 10580
Please enroll me. I agree to buy four books in the course of 18 months
at special low prices. I enclose $
Name
Address
City State Zip
Send as first selections: D ROAD TO RUIN D FAMINE 1975!
n THE HUDSON RIVER \J CRISIS IN EDEN NH
79
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Westerners cannot duplicate
without complex instruments. In
EAST IS A BIG BIRD, anthro-
pologist Thomas Gladwin de-
scribes the seafaring life of the
few hundred natives of the love-
ly South Seas atoll of Puluwat
in Micronesia, and analyzes
their astounding intellectual
feats. The insights he has
gained into cognition and intel-
ligence open new perspectives on
educational problems for the
disadvantaged of the U.S.
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past and present life in ten selected
tribes. His book contrasts ■svith Har-
old E. Driver's encyclopedic Indians
of Aorth America, which describes
and maps distributions of such cul-
tural traits as iveaving and house
npes. Fred Eggan's The American
Indian is a superb book recom-
mended for the reader desiring a
more technical analysis. Two ex-
cellent paperbacks, part of The Amer-
ican Museum Science Book series,
that describe two culture areas are
Indians of the Plains, by Robert
Lowie. and Indians of the Northuest
Coast, by Philip Drucker.
Anthropologists are most often
asked for information about particu-
lar tribes. George P. Murdock's Bib-
liography of North American Indians
provides a fine start. Two reprinted
books, the threescore-year-old, but
still useful. Handbook of American
Indians North of Mexico, edited by
Fredrick W. Hodge, and The Indian
Tribes of North America, by John R.
Swanton. contain much information,
and it is regrettable they are not con-
sulted more often.
A good, inexpensive account of the
prehistory of the American Indian is
still needed, and presently no book
incorporates the most recent inter-
pretations. Nevertheless. Gordon R.
Willey's well-illustrated synthesis. An
Introduction to North American Ar-
chaeology, is highly recommended.
Another is Prehistory of North .Amer-
ica, by Jesse D. Jennings, which is a
good textbook but which, unfortu-
nately, reads like one. An apprecia-
tion for the direction in w-hich Ameri-
can Indian archeology is headed,
which differs significantly from the
presentations in the above books, can
be found in the essays in Anthropolog-
ical Archeology in the Americas,
edited by Betty Meggers, and in New
Perspectives in .Archeology, edited by
Sally R. and Lewis R. • Binford. A
word of warning, however: these are
highly technical papers, which only
an experienced reader will fullv
appreciate.
Anthropology is a young science,
and anthropologists were not around
when they should have been — at the
time of contact. Consequendy, for an
appreciation of "pristine" life just be-
yond the frontier, we must rely on ac-
counts bke Joseph P. Donnelly's ex-
pensive but important Wilderness
Kingdom: The Journals and Paint-
ings of Nicholas Point, S. J., or on
summaries of other eyewitness obser-
vations abridged in another Harold
E. Driver paperback, The Americas
on the Eve of Discovery.
Indian artists have also provided us
with insight into their own lives and
tribes. Red Hawk's drawinss were
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THE
ALBATROSS OF
MIDWAY ISLAND
A Natural History of the
Laysan Albatross
By Mildred L Fisher
Scientifically accurate, this story of a
young "gooney bird," as he begins life
and matures to adulthood, is told with
imagination and feeling. The powerful
fascination of this huge, far-traveling
bird is captured here for nature-
lovers young and old.
Illustrated with more than sixty
photographs. June $5.95
At your bookseller or from
SOUTHERN ILLINOIS
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Carbondale, Illinois 62901
(In Canada, from Burns & MacEachern Ltd.)
published by Robert E. Ritzenthaler
in Sioux Indian Drawings, and the
paintings of two other Plains Indians
incarcerated in Florida during the
1870's appear in A Cheyenne Sketch-
book and Howling Wolf. Isleta Paint-
ings, edited by Esther S. Goldfrank,
is a valuable visual record of Pueblo
ceremonial life. Many more Indian
artists remain anonymous or have
their works published in compilations
by others, including such general
works as Frederick J. Dockstader's In-
dian Art in America and Charles
Miles's Indian and Eskimo Artifacts of
Aorth America, or regional collections
such as Dorothy Dunn's American In-
dian Paintings of the Southivest and
Plains Areas and Audrey Hawthorn's
Art of the Kwakiutl Indians and
Other Northivest Coast Tribes.
From among the customary eth-
nographic accounts. New Yorkers in
particular will profit from reading
about Iroquois culture in Hazel W.
Hertzberg's The Great Tree and the
Longhouse. In addition to traditional
ethnographic accounts, descriptions
of particular tribes by native sons are
increasingly important sources of in-
formation. Outstanding examples are
Cheyenne Memories, by John Stands
in Timber and Margot Liberty, and A
Pictographic History of the Oglala
Sioux, by Amos Bad Heart Bull and
Helen H. BHsh.
My earlier reference to hippie spir-
itual practices records but one mani-
festation of the growing curiosity
and, hopefully, respect for native
American philosophy and religion,
with its oral and ritual expressions.
Four paperback anthologies of Indian
stories and songs make enlightening
reading: American Indian Prose and
Poetry, edited by Margot Astrov; In-
dian Tales of North America, edited
by Tristram P. Coffin; and the re-
printed editions of The Indians' Book,
songs and legends recorded by Na-
talie Curtis; and Tales of the North
American Indians, assembled by
Stith Thompson. A good comparative
summary of religious beliefs in vari-
ous tribes is found in Ruth M. Under-
hilPs Red Man's Religion. Jack F.
and Anna G. Kilpatrick have captured
tlie spirit of religious thought in their
book that deals w-ith the Oklahoma
Cherokees, Run Toward the Night-
land. Finally, a southwestern pueblo
will never be the same to the tourist
who reads the overnight classic by Al-
fonso Ortiz, The Teua JForld. All
these works reveal how much of basic
philosophical importance has survived
in many tribes despite intimidation
and persecution in the past.
Women are playing an important
part in the ongoing struggle for In-
dian rights, as well as in the eco-
nomic life of many tribes. Tliis is re-
flected in the latest autobiographies
of Indians, most of which are by
women. The life of Mountain JFolj
Woman, Sister of Crashing Thunder,
edited by Nancy 0. Liirie, contrasts
with the catastrophic events endured
by her brother whose autobiography
was published years ago by Paul
Radin. Florence C. Shipik has
brought us the tragic story of a Cali-
fornia Indian in The Autobiography
of Delfina Cuero, A Digueno Indian.
Some Indians forsake their tribal
lives but maintain an Indian identity
in another culture. The lives of two
such Indians, the first, a Navaho and
the second, a Hopi, who left their
natal villages are recorded in Kay
Bennett's Kaibah and Polingaysi
Qoyawayma's No Turning Back. Not
to deny the men. however, readers
will enjoy the autobiography of a
Mackenzie Delta Eskimo, /, Nuligak,
edited by Maurice Metayer.
The news stories about Indians are
making the invisible American vis-
ible, but the activities that generate
these features and the outpouring of
books are a continuation of a series
of events that, in a sense, started
about the time of the National Indian
Chicago Conference in 1960. Since
then, Indians themselves have under-
gone a new sense of identity on reser-
vations, in cities, and on campuses.
The next decade will see more activi-
ties directed toward redressing past
abuses and eliminating future mal-
treatment. For the reader, bewilder-
ment will turn to comprehension
through an understanding of the con-
ditions of American Indians today.
The historical background is clearly
illuminated by William T. Hagan's
American Indians. Excerpts from
documents detailing Indian-white re-
lations are found in The Indian in
Americans Past, by Jack D. Forbes,
and for those desiring fuller docu-
mentation, Wilcomb E. Washburn's
The Indian and the White Man is su-
perb. Accounts of the processes and
results of culture change in various
Indian communities can be obtained
in a scholarly volume edited by Ed-
ward H. Spicer. Perspectives in
American Indian Culture Change. A
more readable and less copious dis-
cussion is found in Apologies to the
Iroquois, by Edmund Wilson. The fate
and dilemma of communities that
claim undocumented Indian ancestry
are revealed in Brewton Berry's Al-
most W hite.
The problems currently confronting
Indians and the reasons their solu-
tions are so perplexing are explicated
in a series of very important books.
In a short book. The Indian Tribes of
the United States. D'Arcy McNickle
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83
and to a host of othe
in Mexico and Centri
ent culture center:
The American Museum of Natural History is
proud to announce the publication of Ancient
Mexico and Central America, a profusely
illustrated book based on the new permanent
archeologicol exhibit at the Museum. The
stunning photographs by tee Boltin capture
the high level of art achieved by these ancient
civilizations. An introduction by Dr. Gordon F.
Ekholm conveys the orcheological and cultural
significance of the treasures.
The book is 128 pages and has 32 pages of
full-color photographs. It also contains 55 pages
of black-and-white photographs and a useful
chronological chart of the evolution of these
dramatic, shining cultures.
Come browse awhile in the realm of the
Maya, the Aztec, and the Olmec. The price i
only $5.00, plus 25?: postage and soles tax
where applicable. For your copy, please ma
check or money order to:
The American Museum of Natural History
73 West 77th Street, New York, New York
10024
examines governmental policy and
the persistence of the Indians. Wil-
liam A. Brophy and Sophie D. Aberle
spell out legitimate grievances and
future needs in a scholarly and
statistical fashion in The Indian:
America's Unfinished Business. Con-
temporary conditions of Indians in
general as well as problems of spe-
cific tribes are presented in Stuart Le-
vine and Nancy O. Lurie's The Amer-
ican Indian Today. Difficulties In-
dians encounter in dealing with the
government are outlined in Our
Brother's Keeper, edited by Edgar S.
Cahn for the Citizens' Advocate Cen-
ter. Despite seemingly insurmoun-
table obstacles, individual Indians
have made progress and others are
actively challenging the status quo.
The recent struggles by Indians to se-
cure their rights is chronicled in sen-
sational journalistic style by Stan
Steiner in The Neiv Indians. Finally.
an important presentation of Indian
wants — to remain Indians, to retain
their lands, to make their own deci-
sions, and to receive developmental
assistance, among others — is spelled
out by Vine Deloria. Jr.. a leader in
the Indian rights movement, in Custer
Died for Your Sins.
These selections of literature about
the unvanishing Indians are my per-
sonal recommendations. They should
enlighten the reader's perspective of
pre-Columbian and aboriginal life
ways, in addition to elucidating con-
temporary Indian conditions, needs,
and reactions.
Dr. Ford is an assistant professor of
anthropology at the University of
Michigan, specializing in ethnobotany
and cultural ecology of .American In-
dian societies, past and present.
Back to Nature: The Arcadian
Myth m Urban America, by Peter J.
Schmitt. Oxford University Press,
S6.50; 230 pp.
Tj^or a long time I've watched for a
-*- scholarly attempt to analyze a vig-
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ways expected the definitive study
would finally be accomplished by a
naturalist. But Peter Schmitt is a his-
torian, and it's probably better that
way after all. I guess this book is the
one I've been looking for.
Remember the nature writers? The
old-timers, I mean: gray patriarchs
like John Burroughs and "John 0'
Mountains" Muir, wise woodsmen
like Dan Beaid and Ernest Thompson
Seton, romantic novelists like James
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Oliver Curwood and Stewart Edward
White. All of them worshiped the out-
doors, and all took overlapping gener-
ations of readers with them on their
rambling jaunts. With Burroughs,
one's adventure was intensive, culti-
vated, and literary; his eye was for
vulgaris, common things. Seton. Cur-
wood, and White, on the other hand,
wrote of (and in) superlatives — bliz-
zards, w-olves. and fires in the "tall
uncut." Some of the prolific fiction-
ists and essayists were really terrible
writers whose imaginations often ma-
nipulated any chance accuracy of ob-
servation. But others, like Jack Lon-
don and Dillon Wallace, were able to
w-eave good, loquacious tales that ac-
tually made their authors seem griz-
zled despite a minimum of trail
experience.
On a personal level. Back to Na-
ture, which is part of Oxford's "Ur-
ban Life in America" series, brought
me back to some old. long-unread
friends of my youth. I'm afraid I
flinched at Schmitt's objective treat-
ment of them, but I have to state that
the formal reintroductions were, for
me, a delight.
Schmitt's thesis is that the nature
\vTiters gave best expression to a pur-
suit tliat has always dwelt deep in
American culture and still does. He
calls it the Arcadian myth, the quest
for some kind of natural Utopia in
the outdoors. Ironically, he points out
that most of these wilderness lovers
were city folk who fled to the suburbs
and never stayed aw^ay too long when
they did head into mountains or for-
ests. !Many of them were con-
descending toward native country
people who lived far from urban cen-
ters the year-round. So the myth, ac-
cording to Schmitt, was a city myth —
the grass looked greener from there.
But writers weren't the only ones
looking for Arcadia. The author con-
siders landscape architecture, park
planning, the camping mania, and the
ups and downs of the scouting and
conservation movements as important
aspects of this romantic quest. Inter-
est in nature came to a head roughly
during the first quarter of this cen-
tury, and. Schmitt maintains, it still
figures prominently in American
consciousness.
Today we see this Arcadian im-
pulse regenerating in the wide con-
cern with the environment and
ecology. Planners like Ian McHarg
and naturalists like Joseph Wood
Krutch and Edwin Way Teale are di-
rect descendants, widely read and re-
spected. The heavy traffic not quite
absorbed by our state and national
parks these days also indicates tliat
the myth is alive and well.
Peter Schmitt has made some sense
86
The Pilgrim 350th Anniversary Committee is proud
to present the official, hallmarked, limited edition of
The Pilgrim Herit^^
The official series of 12 superbly crafted proof medals
in solid fine silver, solid bronze, or solid platinum ....
Yours by charter subscription,* one set to a subscriber.
What American heart docs not thrill
to the Pilgrim story?
An indomitable band of men and
women, determined to find liberty,
crossed the wintry Atlantic in a
'crowded, ill-supplied 180-ton ship. In
the New World a "General Sickness"
decimated their ranks, "the living scarce
able to bury the dead." Yet, sustained
by courage, resolution and faith in
God, they prevailed in the face of fear-
ful odds, building their thatched dwel-
lings, planting and conserving their
fields, establishing trade, and signing a
treaty with the Indians kept so scrupu-
lously by both sides that the Pilgrims
walked "as peaceably and safely in the
woods as in the highways of England."
Your own enduring chronicle
Three centuries and a half after The
Historic Landing at Plymouth, the
Pilgrim 350th Committee has commis-
sioned America's famed International
^4int to strike a series o( superbly de-
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Pilgrims' first crucial years in England,
Holland, and the New World. Each
heavy-gauge medal is 32 mm. in diam-
eter and is available in your choice of
.999 solid fine silver, solid bronze, or
solid platinum.
Subjects and dates for this note
worthy issue were selected by a distin*
guished Advisory Board.
To create the medals themselves.
The International Mint brought to-
gether Mr. Donald Struhar, designer
of International's hallmarked, limited
edition honoring America's Men in
*L1MIT: One charter subscription per
Space, Mr. Philip Krackowski, noted
American sculptor whose works in-
clude The Centennial Civil War Series,
and the master engravers who struck
the personal coins another generation
of Pilgrims carried to the moon.
The Official Commemorative Issue
The results of this collaboration are
tnasterly. So triumphantly has the
medalists' art united dignity, tradition,
and enduring value that The Town of
Plymouth, Massachusetts, has desig-
nated The Pilgrim Heritage as the offi-
cial commemorative issue for the 350tb
Anniversary of The Landing.
Excellent investment potential
Sets of the 12 coin medals, which give
every promise of becoming precious
historical heirlooms, are available by
charter subscription.* Only ten thous-
and numbered sets will be struck in
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numbered sets in solid platinum. Your
charter subscription is doubly valua-
ble, for it certifies ownership and in-
sures the prices as given here. Even
though precious metals fluctuate widely
in price and many economists foresee
imminent rises. The Pilgrim 350ch An-
niversary Committee and The interna-
tional Mint guarantee no increase in price
for charter subscriptions postmarked prior
to September 16, 1970.
We suggest you act now
Due to the limited number of fine
silver sets available, only a compara-
tively few individuals and families will
be privileged to own and cherish this
permanent record of the Biblical heri-
tage, the precedent of responsible self-
government, and the example of pri-
vate enterprise and conservation be-
queathed by the Pilgrims. Conse-
quently we urge you to act now. The
charter subscription form below is for
your convenience. We recommend
mailing it with your remittance today.
The 12 events depicted
The Pilgrim beginnings at Scrooby
The departure from Delftshavcn
The Pilgrims leave Plymouth
The Pilgrims sign the Mayflower
Compact
The Pilgrims' first religious service ifl.
the New World
The Landing at Plymouth
The Pilgrims' Progress
The Pilgrims' treaty with the Indians
The Mayflower returns to England
The Pilgrims conserve the soil
The First Thanksgiving
The Pilgrims choose private enterprise
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College
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Find out more
about the birds
and the bees
For a revealing closeup view of any-
thing in nature, there's nothing like
a pair of Nikon prism binoculars.
Designed by the makers of the
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of this particular madness, no ques-
tion. And I like his book. But O ado-
lescence! I'll never forget the balsam
scent in White's The Forest; the
chilling terror of DiUon Wallace's
Lure of the Labrador Wild; the
ethereal beauty of Curwood's defiant
virgins against a backdrop of clear
lakes and raging rivers in the far
North. Because, for better or worse. I
grew up with them. Despite the well-
deserved obscurity of most of them
today, it's nice to know that historical
scholarship has finally recognized and
treated them right.
John E.^stman
Conservation: Notf or Never, by
Nicholas Roosevelt. Dodd, Mead &
Company, $5.95; 238 pp.
There are not many still around
who talked with Theodore Roose-
velt, argued with Gifiord Pinchot. and
went on from there to get in on the
great conservation struggles of the
1960's, including the fight to save the
Big Sur coast and the battle of Storm
King. But Nicholas Roosevelt, cousin
of T.R.. was there through it all. Con-
sequently, when he takes time to
write a book, it behooves the late-
comers to the environmental crusade
to take a little time to read it.
Conservation is an excellent review
of conservation history, from Hetch
Hetchy to the Redwood National
Park, written by a participant. Some
of the stories have been told before,
but not from the vantage point of one
who knew all the actors. One realizes
from this book, all too keenly, just
how much difference it can make to
have the right man in the right place
at the right time. Unfortunately, but
nevertheless inevitably, the history of
conservation success, even the recent
gains under the massed banners of
new recruits, is a history of individ-
uals. Earlier it was a Roosevelt, a
Muir. or a Mather. Today perhaps it
will be a Stewart Udall. a Russell
Train, or a Nat Reed. Behind them
are other individuals, usually alone or
in small groups, digging out the facts,
writing the proposals, testifying be-
fore hostile committees. Mass support
may tip the political balance, but it is
never aroused without the efforts of
the few who must at first carry on in
a seemingly hopeless struggle.
Conservation books, even my own.
make me angry. It is wrong that the
kind of exhausting struggle to some
dubious conclusion described again
and again in this book should have to
occur. Why should we have to argue,
as Roosevelt does, in the affluent
America of the 1970's, that the view
from the road should not be ugly?
Why should we still be fighting the
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lamps with Cross motif S23.95 ppd.
FREE Gift Catalog!
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Museum 8, Dealers inquiries welcome.
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All garments for Ladies and Gents tailored. Capes an„
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ANIMAL FOOTAGE WANTED
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e Koerners aren't trying to save the v^orld.
;t a little piece of it.
Dmero is a small farm village
ig to the mountains of Colom-
outh America. Poverty is ex-
, Illiteracy is almost total. Elec-
, sanitary facilities and run-
vater are nowhere to be seen,
nail children haul water from
/er three miles away. There is
lol in the district, but convinc-
irents that education should
irecedence over water-hauling
ird argument to win.
le Fuentes are one of the vil-
imilies. Poor even by Romero's
andards.The mud-brick house
lirt floors they live in isn't even
. The two-acre farm behind it
les all the income for the fam-
nine. Most of the time there
nough to go around. Yet, this
ien a good year for the Fuentes.
7-year-old daughter Luz Ma-
las been able to stay in school,
tiis miraculous stroke of luck is
se of a family living in New
who are helping Luz Marina,
re the Koerners. Through Save
"hildren Federation, they are
butingS 15.00 a month to help.
For Richard
and Marianne
Koerner the
$15.00 a month
is not an extreme
sacrifice. Yet, with
three robust boys
of their own, there
. _ are many ways
could use the money. But Rich-
'hose j ob involves foreign travel,
I't have to imagine the poverty
lientes endure. He's seen it. He
s, too, that Save The Children
io a remarkable number of
s with the money,
irst, Luz Marina's immediate
)1 needs are taken care of. Sec-
/, funds are available to the
y to carry out their self-help
to raise hens. The eggs will help
ove the family diet and in-
e the family income. Finally,
ill portion of the Koerner's con-
tion, together with money from
sponsors, has been lent to the
^ers. With their own hands and
t, they're building a water stor-
■^.
age tank and a pipeline. Hopefully,
the new water supply will increase
the crop yield and the village's iht
come so that some day they will no
longer need help.
Self-help. That's what Save The
Children Federation is all about. Al-
though contributions are taxrdeduct-
ible as a charity, the aim is not
merely to buy a child a few hot meals,
a new coat, or shoes. Instead, your
contribution is used to give people
the boost they need to start helping
themselves.
Sponsors are desperately needed
for children in Korea, Vietnam,
Latin America, Africa,
Greece, the Middle East, as
well as Appalachian and
American Indian children.
You can select the child's
nationahty and will receive
a photo, regular progress
reports and a chance to
correspond and visit.
Richard Koerner hopes
that one day, one of his busi-
ness trips will enable him
to meet the Fuentes. Many
sponsors do visit their chil-
dren, and tell us that it is one of
the most gratifying experiences of
their lives.
The Koerners know they can't
save the world for S 15 a month. Just
a small corner of it. But, maybe that
is the way to save the world. If there
are enough people like the Koerners,
How about you?
National Sponsors (partial list):
Faith Baldwin, Hon. James A. Farley,
Gene Kelly, Mrs. Eli Lilly, Paul Newman,
Mrs. J. C. Penney, Frank Sinatra.
Save The Children Federation, founded
in 1932, is registered with the U.S. State
Department Advisory Committee on
Voluntary Foreign Aid.
ave The Children Federation
NORWALK, CONNECTICUT 06852
I WISH TO CONTRIBUTE $180 ANNUALLY TO HELP A CHILD.
D WHERE THE NEED IS GREATEST Q LATIN AMERICA
a AMERICAN INDIAN QAPPALACHIA Q KOREA Q GREECE
D VIETNAM P AFRICA D MIDDLE EAST
ENCLOSED IS MY FIRST PAYMENT
D $15.00 MONTHLY D $90.00 SEMI-ANNUALLY
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CONTRIBUTIONS ARE INCOME TAX DEDUCTIBLE
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of Minerals, Fossils & Shells
entrenched arrogance and embattled
viciousness of bureaucrats in such or-
ganizations as the Bureau of Public
Roads, state highway departments,
Army Corps of Engineers, and sim-
ilar narrow-minded agencies? It is
time that their power was trans-
ferred to other, more responsible
hands. It is also time, as this book
will bear out, that the right of a land-
owner to do what he pleases with his
lands — the greatest single cause of
environmental degradation in Amer-
ica today — was brought into serious
question,
Nicholas Roosevelt is more chari-
table and tolerant than most con-
servationists are inclined to be today.
I think that tomorrow those agencies
that were in his opposition will wish
that he were back.
R.WMOND F. D.A,SM.4NiN'
The Conservation Foundation
Briefly Noted:
S'S/T AND So-Nic Boom H.^ndbook,
by William A. Shurcliff. Ballantine
Books, S.95; 153 pp., illus.
Dr. Shurcliff has written an angry,
persuasive book opposing the build-
ing of the supersonic transport plane.
He has numerous objections to the
plane — passenger discomfort and
danger, possible damage to prop-
erty— but it is the sonic boom that
draws his main fire. The possibility
that "500.000.000 persons in America.
Europe, and Asia may be jolted every
hour, day and night, by sonic booms"
is truly staggering. The book is not
an emotional diatribe, but a carefully
documented presentation of just what
the plane will cost the public in dol-
lars, degradation of environment, and
bombardment by noise. A number of
heljjful appendixes are included — the
first, and foremost, a list of anti-boom
groups to join. C. B.
The American Museum is open to
the public without charge every day
during the year, except Thanksgiv-
ing and Christmas. Your support,
through membership and contribu-
tions, helps make this possible. The
Museum is equally in need of sup-
port for its work in the fields of re-
search, education, and exhibition.
This list details the photographer or
other source of illustration by page.
COVER — George Magazine'^ Time, Inc.
Schaller 40.45— Helen Sutton
4 — Andrew Wyeth 46-55— Christopher
courtesy of Schuberth except
Alfred Bissel map. AMNH after
18— Walter Ferro Schuberth
30-39— George Schaller 57-64- Paul von Baich
except 33 top, 34-35— 66-71- AMNH
lohn Dominis — Life 73 — Helmut Wimmer
01^
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VIELD HOUSE
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STERLING SCHOOL
CRAFTSBURY COMMON,
VERMONT 05827
is pleased to announce
a colleg-e-preparatory course espe-
cially designed for boys whose
career .o'oals are varied, but whose
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leadership and such outdoor activi-
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study.
Sterling School, an accredited
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90
MURDER
FOR
PROFIT
photo by Brian Davies
The baby seal in the photo was one of 50,000 killed in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, one of over half a million seals
clubbed, speared, shot, gaffed during the 1970 Canadian-
Norwegian slaughter in the Atlantic.
Don't believe furriers who would persuade you that
Friends of Animals has been "misleading" you, that any
slaughter anywhere is done for the benefit of the seals.
1, Alice Herrington, testify that on March 21 , 1970-the
second day of the Canadian season on seals— I saw the
same brutal massacre against which Friends of Animals,
of which I am president, has been protesting for years.
As the bubble-domed helicopter flew low over the first day's
kill, 1 saw mother seals nuzzling the skinless corpses of
their babies. Standing ten feet away from the killers on the
ice floes, twenty miles out in the Gulf, I saw baby seals,
clubbed twice, and then sliced open. Other babies were
battered as many as fourteen times while the mothers
watched in terror and stress.
If You Are One Who Cannot Be Indifferent to the Suffering
of Other Creatures
YOU CAN HELP
First— by refusing to garb yourself in the agony of another,
by refusing to buy the skins of wildlife.
Second— by causing this advertisement to be inserted in
your local newspaper. (A mat will be sent upon your request
to Friends of Animals. See coupon below.)
Third— by sending a tax-deductible contribution to
Friends of Animals, Inc., a non-profit organization that
intends to pound on the world's conscience until sentient
men and women everywhere are made aware of the
unnecessary cruelty and destruction being inflicted upon
animals. Your contribution will be used to plead for those
creatures who cannot speak for themselves but who dumbly
implore your pity.
Friends of Animals, Inc. I
11 WEST60TH STREET i
NEW YORK, N.Y. 10023 !
n Enclosed is my tax-deductible '
contribution to help stop the slaughter I
of marine mammals. .
n Send me a mat of this advertisement so I
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(also tax-deductible). |
Norton
VJT ,
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from prehistoric times to the
present . . . Witty as well as
learned." — Publishers' Weekly.
This lively book by a contributor
to Scientific American raises such
questions as: How is man in-
fluencing climate? Can he control
it and, if he can, will he? In all,
an absorbing, critical approach to
a fascinating subject.
Illustrated. $8.95
At all bookstores
Norton^s^
W.W. NORTON & COMPANY, INC.
55 Fifth Ave.. N.Y. 10003
Suggested
Additional Reading
LET'S SING "AULD LANG SYNE"
FOR THE UPPER BRAND^^INE
Forest Landscape. R. B. Litton.
USDA Forest Service. Paper PSW-
49. Berkeley. 1968.
Design with Nature. 1. L. McHarg.
The Natural History Press. Garden
City, 1969.
Brandywine Basin. P. Thompson.
Science, March 14. 1969.
THE STAR DRAGON
Apollo 11 Observations of a Re-
markable Glazing Phenomenon
ON the Lunar Surface. T. Gold.
Science, September 26. 1969.
The Field Notes of Captain '^'il-
liam Clark 1803-1805. E. S. Os-
good, ed. Yale University Press,
New Haven, 1964.
THIS GENTLE & ELEGANT CAT
The Cats of Africa. M. Edey, ed.
Time-Life Books. New York. 1969.
SiMBA. C. A. Guggisberg. Chilton
Book Company. Philadelphia. 1963.
The Tiger and Its Prey. G. B.
Schaller. Xatural History, October,
1966.
BARRIER BEACHES
OF EASTERN AMERICA
Waves .and Beaches. W. Bascom.
Doubleday & Company. Inc.. Gar-
den City. 1964.
The Winter Beach. C. Ogburn, Jr.
William Morrow & Co.. Inc.. New
York. 1966.
Development and Migration of
Barrier Islands, Northern Gulf
of Mexico. E. G. Otvos. Jr. Geo-
logical Society of America Bulletin,
Vol. 81. No. 1. 1970.
TINY WOLVES OF THE WATER
Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the
United St.ates. R. W. Pennak.
The Ronald Press Company, New
York. 1953.
Freshwater Biology. W. T. Ed-
mondson. ed. John ^'iley & Sons,
Inc.. New York. 1959.
The New Field Book of Fresh-
water Life. E. B. Klots. G. P.
Putnam's Sons, New ^ ork, 1966.
:mushrooms
The ^Mushroom Hunter's Field
Guide. A. H. Smith. University of
Michigan Press. Ann Arbor. 1963.
The Field Book of Common Mush-
rooms. W. S. Thomas. G. P. Put-
nam's Sons. New York. 1948.
The Savory Wild Mushroom. M.
McKenny. University of Washing-
ton Press. Seattle, 1969.
BUFFET FOR "HUMMERS"
Humminorbirds, colorful playboys of the feath-
ei-ed world, have sipped 4-at-a-tiine for 15 years
now from genuine "Hummy-Bird Bai-s"® (Ac-
tual photo). They love the real wood perch on
their private buffet. No other birds or bees can
reach the g:oodies. No drip or rust, easy to clean.
Always a lieartwarming ^ift! Moneyback guar-
antee. Full instructions. S2.95 plus 26c pp. In
Calif, add 15i tax. Sori-v no COD's. HUIIIIING-
BIRD heaven, 6818-N Apperson St., TU-
JUNGA, CAUF. 91042 (Makers of the popular
Oriole "Pun-Bar" for fun-loving Orioles).
MADE IN U.S.A.
YOU LIVE in the SPACE AGE
you should know more about it
AMERICAN MUSEUM
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81st Street at Central Park West
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Tel: (212) TR 3-1300, Ext. 209
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to:
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KEEP PACE WITH SPACE AGE! SEE MOON SHOTS-LANDINGS, SPACE FLIGHTS, CLOSE-UP!
iA*iM ••Wl-m
for FUN, STUDY or PROFIT
book of paper airplanes
from SCIENTIFIC AMERI-
CAN'S -Ist Internationa!
Competition". Includes
plans of all winning entries,
time-aloft records, photos,
technical data, commen-
taries. Has 20 unusual de-
signs on perforated pages
for easy tear-out. You won't
believe how some of them
ly! Amusing, entertaining. 128 pages. 9" x iPj".
itock No. 939IE S2.95 Ppd.
ime — have the
n &. enjoyment of a gyro
thout bother of constant
winding &. pulling. 5"
flying-saucer shaped.
on your head, hanging
. 7I.I6IE
S6.00 Ppd.
ONG-WAVE BLACK LIGHT FIXTURE
Extremely versatile, com-
pactly designed, long wave
(3200-4000 angstroms) black
light (ultraviolet) fixture.
Has 6-watt. IIO-v lamp
with built-in filter— elimi-
nates harmful shorter wave
ultraviolet rays. Use to
identify minerals, fungi,
bacteria — check for surface
-. . flaws, oil and gas leakage —
perfect for displays with
fluorescent paper, paints, chalk, crayons, trace powder, incl.
adjustable aluminum reflector. fHount vert., horr., or on
corner. 10" L.. PA" W.. I'/," H.
Stock No. 70.364E SI2.50 Ppd.
Stock No. 60.I24E (REPLACEMENT BULB) . .S4.50 Ppd.
:awfpa'body fos? astpophotos
Economical 35-mm. S.L.
camera body comes wi
adapters for direct hookup-
erate.
otography.
Includes focal-plane
shutter, waist-level finder,
removable back, self -timer,
direct optical viewfinder.
ec. Excellent for general pic-
and accessories.
Stock No. 70,857E $79-00 PPd.
CAMERA HOLDER FOR TELESCOPES
Take exciting moon pictures.
;ket attaches to anv
icope. Removable rod
I adjusting bracket holds
I to focus
. see sunspotsl includes
ickets. 2334" rod. projec-
CAR OF THE FUTURE HERE NOW!
One of mo:
ence toys
^fi^
aphically de
pgly
to Ford's and Curti
Wright's new wheelless air-
cars. Sturdy red and yellow
plastic. 8" wide. 9" deep.
Operates on 2 flasnliqni oatTt;rir>
_ ._ ne. battery cast
Stock No. 70.307E S3.50 Ppd.
HOT-AIR FLYING SAUCER Kn
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nstructlons. 16 prc-cut #1
white model paper gores. 8
red panels for portholes, wire. cord. Easily repaired if
damaged.
Stock No. 7I.I75E $3.00 Ppd.
9 FT. HOT-AIR BALLOON KIT
Stock No. 60.691 E $2.00 Ppd.
AMERICAN MADE 7x50 BINOCULARS
Crystal-clear viewing — 7
power. Every optical element
IS coated. An excellent night
Ter
incl'uded. American 7x50
normally cost S274
rific bargain.
Stock No. I544E
AMERICAN-MADE 6x30'
Stock No. 963E
AMAZING "TRICK" PHOTOGRAPHY
duce all kinds of weird,
wild, way-out photo effects.
No special knowledge or
equipment required. Unique
kit enables you to turn
friends into monsters, show
house with water to 2nd
floor, make psychedelic
slides, kaleidoscopic pho-
tos, impressionistic photo-
art — unlimited possibilities.
Complete instructions reveal the secret
cessories needed.
Slock No. 7I,229E $10.50 Ppd.
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE KITS
icludes all
5-lb. Magnet—
along bottom — your
Stock No. 70.571 E
Stock No. 70.570E
Stock No. 85.152E
Magnet is
Inico V Typo
much greater
SI4 00 Ppd
S 8 75 Ppd
S33 50 FOB
No. 70.003E . . . $9.75 Pi
6" DIAMETER— I" ThicL
Stock No. 70.004E $13.95 Ppd.
GIANT WEATHER BALLOONS
cloud heights, wind speed
and temp. Made of heavy
duty neoprene. Inflate with
vacuum cleaner, auto air hose.
Stock No. 60.56eE
GIANT 16' DIAMETER
Stock No. 60.632E $7.00 Ppd.
NEW LIQUID-FUEL ROCKET KIT
Apollo-type rocket soars to
1,000 feet at 300 ft. per sec-
ond . . . then gently returns
to earth on automatic para-
-i chute. Fantastically realistic
i lift off. flight, vapor trail.
; 16" aluminum rocket can be
J r fired manually or electrically
mi- (req. 6v Batt. not incl.).
y ] Loads of fun building, dec-
orating, launching again i
again. Inciud.: 16 Pg. instruct., engine, timer, separator,
parachute, parachute tube, nose cone. fins, loading valve.
hose, electric firing assembly, launch stand, propellant.
Stock No. 7I.I82E $15.95 Ppd.
EXTRA PROPELLANT (Two 15 oz. cans)
Stock No. P7I.I92E _^ S 4-0O Ppd.
YOUR OWN "MOONDUST"
Looks like it. feels like it.
performs like it. Simulated
Moondust authoritatively
corresponds in texture, color,
overall appearance .
even down to minute glass
beads. Exclusively prepared
etc. Easily shaped
;. Can be rolled
Permanently pllabh
baked at 300° F. for 15-30
minutes in oven — no kiln nor
plaster molds needed. Re-
quires no curing. Won't
shrink. Acquires permanent, non-brittle hardness when
shaped & baked. Can then be cut. sawed, drilled, sanded,
painted, embossed. Smooth, non-sticky, harmless.
2 lb. S 3.60 Ppd.
8 1b. $10.50 Ppd.
c
WOODEN SOLID PUZZLES
Gold.
f original scientists
nalyzed actual lunar <
great for study,
stance slightly adhesive. Tv
Stock No. 4I.26IE (I
Stock No. 4I.262E (4
Mde hours of pie
lity to
^nimals
'4^' f^ w
them. Lots of fun for the «^ . . rl^ ^^.-"V, ■
whole family. Will test skill. fAj/ '>^ F^W" .
patience and ability to solve T^ '.-^^ F i
problems. , ^
Stock No. 70.205E
NEW, LOW-COST GEM TUMBLER
nating hobby
NEVER BEFORE A BOOK LIKE THIS:
■'All About Telescopes"—
the world's best illustrated
easily understood book of its
kind. Graphic illustrations
and easy-to-read languages.
Instructs how to build, buy
. loads of
easy. Make
jewelry of all kinds — decora-
tive book-ends, table tops.
eti\ Simply tumble-finish
readily available gemstone
. . . then polish to hiel
lustre . . . brings out beau
tiful colors. Rugged 3-lb. ca
pacity tumbler w/continuou
telescope,
with photography — take
lestial pictures and h
distance shots of bi
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Stock No. 70.874E
6.lb. ROCK assortment (10 TYPES)
Stock No. 70.868E ^^___^^
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192 pagei
amazing heights. Easy to
assemble and launch. Use
over and over. Low cost.
Lots of fun. Can carry V2
lb. objects with string teth-
cr. Fly school colors at
games, use for advertising,
attach mirror — play "spy in
the sky." Includes complete 60X eyep
3 ' ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
shots, orbits-stars.
Venus, planets
60 to 180 power,
d and overcoated
:er f/IO primary
ventilated cell,
mount with locks
es. Equipped with
nted
3X finder tele-
scope, hardwood tripod.
FREE: "STAR CHART"; 272-pag6 "HANDBOOK
HEAVENS"; "HOW TO USE YOUR TELESCOP
Stock No. aS.OSOE . . S29.95 F
Stock No. 85.I05E 41,4" $94.50 F
Stock No. 85.086E 6" $239.50 F
Con
tely
catalog. 148 pages
e.irly 4.000 unusual
charts!
packed
bargair
illustrations. Many hard-to-get war
surplus bargains. Enormous selec-
tion of telescopes, microscopes, bi-
noculars, magnets, etc. for hobbyists,
experimenters, workshops. Shop by
mail. Write for Catalog "E" to Ed-
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Jersey 08007.
ORDER BY STOCK NUMBER • SEND CHECK OR MONEY ORDER • MONEY-BACK GUARANTEE
- 300 EDSCORP BUILDING
I BARRINGTON, NEW JERSEY 08007
93
Five years ago thelyonek Indian!
The Tyonek Indians in Alaska used to
struggle for their living. Their sole means of
support was trapping and fishing.
Then one of our affiliates, Humble Oil &
Refining Company, paid the Tyoneks several
million dollars for the right to explore for oil
on their land.
We didn't discover any oil. But we're ui
to that. (After all, only one out of every f j
exploratory wells drilled in the U. S. actuj
results in the discovery of oil in commer
quantities.)
The Tyoneks used their money wisely.
They invested in a modem office buildi
in nearby Anchorage, for future income.
They bought a share in a utility compe
eeded food. Now they need an industry.
wmill and a small airline.
And they formed their own construction
ipany, and rebuilt their village, complete
h modern homes, electricity, roads and a
' school.
While they were rebuilding their village,
Tyoneks learned to be welders and electri-
is and surveyors and technicians.
Now the work is done.
The village is completed. The Tyonek
Indians have many new skills. And now they're
looking for some new ways to use them.
Standard OU Company
(New Jersey)
\ ^
A unique and beautiful calendar to
be treasured by wildlife lovers
1971 Calendar
The artist and designer of the
Society's 1971 Calendar is Kenya
resident Harald Olaf Nickelsen.
Each page of the Calendar features
a black and white study of East
African game or scenery. Below
each painting are five still photos in
full color drawn from some of the
region's top photographers.
One of the twelve
pages of the Society's
1971 Calendar (9"x12")
East African wi
All proceeds benefit East African wildlife conservati
Calendars: $1.50 Post free
surface mail; $3.00 Air Mail
1971 JANUARV igyi
SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
'Hi 25 26 27 28 29 30
THE EAST AFRICAN WILD LIFE SOCIETY
To EASTAFRICAN WILD LIFE SOCIETY
P.O. Box 20110
Nairobi, Kenya
Please send the quantities marked in the boxes to:
Name-
Address.
Surface Mail/Air Mail
Amount enclosed
Or charge to my Diners Club account.
Quantity
1. Giraffe n
2. Lion cubs □
3. Leopard □
4. Sunset □
5. River crossing □
6. Bee-eater □
7. Zebra n
8. Ngorongoro Crater □
9. Butterflies D
10. Dusty Elephant n
(David Shepherd reproduction)
Calendar □
- j^
-f
^vji
7
diflHi
^^''^^l
,^
jHBHH
^9
rjj
ii^]
K^^MmP*"
*^
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^^
■■^'.'n+'^'i.-:
10
^ta
1970 Christmas Cards
All cards (lightweight) size 6V2 x 4V2 . Blank cards
(without greetings) also available and we can
undertake individual overprinting. Write for details.
Cards with envelope $0.15 each. Add 10 per cent
extra for packing and postage (surface mail) on
orders for under 100.
Order earln-Suriace Mail to the II8A-3 moRtiis
Yure invited to achii
for amateur photographers
IF YOU HAVE THAT RARE TALENT FOR GREAT
PHOTOGRAPHY, HERE IS YOUR CHANCE TO RE-
CEIVE RECOGNITION, AN EXCITING ZEISS IKON
CAMERA AND A $1,000.00 COMMISSION.
A>-*<*^
•v^^
%
meter from 10 sec. to 1 /500
plus a 4) I K^'^-^'^^'^— ^^^ ^ sec. Distance, speed and
commission to take photos aperture visible in finder,
with your Contaflex 126 for With Zeiss Tessar f/'2.8, 42
publication with full credits mm lens, valued at $154.95.
in the Zeiss Ikon IMAGE
MAKERS AWARD portfolio
in Popular Photography.
CONTAFLEX 126 r-\ \ K^^Hfe'E ^'"""^^^^ ^^6 SE
The easiest-to-use instant /nO IL'^B - I^^hS ^ winning combination of
load, single lens reflex sys- ^ ^^^^^^^^BP '"stant loading, compact-
tem camera with automatic VITESSA 500 SE ness and automatic elec-
exposure control for day- A compact, electronic, full tronic exposure to 10 sees.,
light and flash. Body and frame 35 mm camera with flash cube provision. With
outstanding Zeiss Color electronic shutter and self- fast Color Lanthar f/2.8,
Pantar f/2.8, 45 mm lens timer and automatic ex- 38 mm lens, valued at
valued at $179.95. posure control thru CdS $94.95.
^
..^
^3^!^*
ir «.
", «
-4'
YOU'RE AN AWARD CANDIDATE
by submitting your best photo-
graph for judgment. It can be of
any subject, b/w or color, slide
or print, taken by any camera. It
should exemplify photography
as a medium for creative ex-
pression. Photos should be cur-
rent and cannot have won
awards or been previously pub-
lished. Please insure your entry,
we cannot assume responsibility.
Photos will not be returned un-
less accompanied by return
postage. Entries must be post-
marked no later than 8/1/70.
Mail to: Amateur NH, ZIV of
America, P.O. Box 1181, Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J. 07632.
ZEISS IKON
THE IMAGE MAKERS
NATURAL HISTORY
AUGUST-SEPT^IBER 1970 • $1.00
MOST AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSIONS
DRIVING EASY ON THE DRIVER -^m
OUR AUTOMimC TRANSMISSION ALSO MjIkE^
DRIVING EASY ON THE CAR. ". iiM
mm
The Austin America saves
your right arm and your left leg.
It has no clutch. And you can
simply put it in "D" and go.
Which, at $1949*, makes it
one of the lowest priced cars with
a fully automatic transmission.
But our car is not only easy
on your muscles and your wallet.
It's also easy on itself.
Because built into the
automatic transmission are four
forward speeds. One more than
any other car.
So when you speed up or
slow down, there's one more gear
that can kick in.
So the engine is more often
running at peak efficiency. So it
lasts longer. And gets more miles
out of every gallon of gas.
The Austin America also has
front wheel drive and liquid
suspension (no springs, no shock
absorbers).
And the engine is set in
crooked, so it takes up less room
and gives more room to the
passengers.
They can appreciate it more.
Made by the people who
make the Jaguar, Rover, Triumph
and MG. ,.
1
6
At Austin-MG dealers.
AUSTIN AMEIUCA.THE PERFECT SECOND CAR.
NATURAL HISTORY
VCORPORATING NATURE MAGAZINE
The Journal of The American Museum of Natural History
Vol. LXXIX, No. 7 August-September 1970
BIG SUR STORM Sam Abrams
Wind, spray, fishing, man — an impressionistic essay.
The American Museum
of Natural History
Gardner D. Stout, President
Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Natural History
Alfred Meyer, Editor
Robert E. Williamson, Managing Editor
Alan P. Ternes, Senior Editor
Thomas Page, Art Editor
Associate Editors
Avis Kniffin
John P. Wiley, Jr.
Frederick R. Hartmann
Karen Manulis
Florence G. Edelstein, Copy Chief
Toni Gerber, Copy Editor
Carol Breslin, Reviews
Diantha C. Thorpe, Research
William Suderman, Production
Staff Assistants
Ernestine Weindorf
Caroline Doerfiinger
Editorial Advisers
Dean Amadou
Franklyn M. Branley
Vincent Manson
Margaret Mead
Thomas D. Nicholson
Gerard Piel
Ethel Tobach
Advertising Sales
Harvey Oshinsky, Director
Harry F. Decker
Walter E. Mercer
Gordon Finley
Dinah Lowell, Traffic
Eileen O'Keefe, Assl.
Circulation Promotion
Ann Usher, Director
Maureen Fitzgerald, Assl.
Fulfillment
Joseph Saulina, Manager
18 AN ENVIRONMENTAL LAWYER URGES: PLEAD THE NINTH
AMENDMENT! E. F. Roberts
Our Constitutional right to a decent environment — as yet unarticulated —
may be the very right that makes all others possible.
28 DEATH BY THE PLOW Richard Brewer Photographs by Steven C. JFUson
Remembrance of things past: the eastern prairies, once rich with vegeta-
tion and wildlife, are now cultivated rows of turned earth.
36 THREE FLEEING BULLHEADS John Bardach and Trudy Villars
The odors of man-made pollutants are apt to confuse smell-sensitive fish — •
with the dire result of a breakdown in chemical communications.
42 THE GAELTACHT OF WEST KERRY Photographs by Lisa Stephens
An excursion into visual anthropology, this pictorial supplement meditates
on the "long littleness" of everyday life in an Irish village — and finds the
vital and enduring spirit of a people.
92 THE SUPERCIVILIZED WEATHER AND SKY SHOW
Henry Lansford
. . . presenting "false" cirrus clouds, meager rains, atmospheric pollutants,
and a host of drastic climate and weather changes.
98 THE MIGRATION OF THE BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU
John P. Kelsall
In hordes of countless thousands, Canada's migrating caribou crisscross
700,000 square miles of water, boreal forest, and lichened tundra.
cover: In scattered places, barbed wire could not keep the prairie out —
and defeated sodbusters left their desolate outposts to the wind.
2 AUTHORS
108 SKY REPORTER John p. Wiley, Jr.
109 CELESTIAL EVENTS Thomus D. Nicholson
114 BOOKS IN REVIEW Barbara Blau Chamberlain
130 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
133 SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING
Publication Office: The American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at
79lh Street, New York, N.Y. 10024. Published monthly, October through May;
bimonthly June to September, Subscription: $7.00 a year. In Canada and all other
countries- 87 50 a year. Single copies SI. 00. Second-class postage paid at New York,
N.Y., and at additional offices. Copyright © 1970 by The American Museum of Natural
History. No part of this periodical may be reproduced without the written consent of
Natural History. Manuscripts and illustrations submitted to the editorial offiice
will be handled with care, but we cannot assume responsibility for their safely. Opinions
expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the pobcy of The
American Museum. Natural History incorporating Nature Magazine is indexed in
Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature.
Saii with us, Norwegian Style...
2Autumn
Cruises fhl"
Southern Cross
Late October is a marvelous time to join
us on a leisurely cruise to lands beyond the
Equator where our Fall is their Springtime.
Choose either of two great adventure voy-
ages under the skies of the Southern Cross
— to the South Pacific aboard our famous
Bergensfjord, or to the South Atlantic on
our magnificent flagship Sagajjord. Both
ships are stabilized for smooth sailing and
fully air-conditioned. Landings are dock-
side at most ports.
You unpack only once and live in a spa-
cious stateroom with private facilities and
telephone. Pretty stewardesses and gallant
stewards pamper you Norwegian Style, and
superb international cuisine is served at a
single unhurried sitting. Our shipboard
parties are lively, our swimming pools and
sauna baths wonderfully relaxing.
South Pacific Cruise
M.S. BERGENSFJORD
59 days • 17 ports • from $1,500*
Oct. 20. from N. Y. Oct. 22 from Port Everglades, Fla.
On this first cruise voyage after an extensive
face-lifting, the immensely popular Bergens-
fjord rewards her devotees with glamorous
new comforts and conveniences. And a fabu-
lous itinerary, too. From New York to Port
Everglades, San Bias Islands, Cristobal, Bal-
boa, Papeete (Tahiti), Moorea (French Poly-
nesia), Bora Bora, Avarua, Nukualofa, Suva,
Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, Rapa-Iti,
Pitcairn Island, Easter Island, Callao, Balboa,
Cristobal, Port Everglades and New York,
South America & Africa Cruise
M.S.SAGAFJORD
51 days • 13 ports • from $1,400*
Oct. 27 from N.Y. Oct. 29 from Port Everglades, Fla.
An extraordinary voyage to two great con-
tinents washed by the South .Atlantic. The
Sagajjord, your elegant home afloat, docks at
every port... no need to rely on ship-to-shore
tender schedules. From New York to Port
Everglades, Barbados. Bahia, Rio de Janeiro,
Tristan da Cunha, Cape Town, Luanda, Pointe
Noire, Monrovia, Freetown, Conakry, Dakar,
Cape Verde Islands, St. Thomas, Port Ever-
glades and New York.
Other SAGAFJORD Cruises 1970-71
CRUISE DAYS
PORTS
MIN.*
European Vacation 31
11
$1,000
September European 28
11
$ 760
West Indies 9
3
$ 300
Christmas & New Year
West Indies 17
7
$ 550
1971 Grand World 93
20
S3, 150
^Minimum, subject to ava
lability
M.S. Sagajjord and M.S. Bergensfjord are reg-
istered in Norway, where pride in seamanship
is 1,000 years old.
p^jUiM/e()UMi AmEOtea [^
29 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10006 • Tel. (212) 944-6900
Chicago • Miami • San Francisco • Los Angeles
Portland • Seattle
E, F. Roberts is a professor at
Cornell University Law School and
a member of the Massachusetts Bar
Association and the American Law
Institute. His article treats his long-
standing concern — land-use planning
and environmental law. A graduate
of Northeastern University with an
LL.B. from Boston College. Roberts
is preparing a book on this subject
within the framework of environ-
mental planning.
Richard Brewer, author of
"Death by the Plow," is associate
professor of biology at Western
Michigan University. He is primar-
ily interested in the organization
and evolution of ecosystems; in
particular, the relationship between
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ecosystem organization and the
population structure and life his-
tory of the constituent organisms.
He plans future studies on the com-
munity organization of oak fores^sj
and on habitat selection in birds.
A film maker and photographer,
Steven C. Wilson's field studies
include the migration of the barren-
ground caribou in the Arctic and
a photographic survey of the Great
Plains region of North America. Mr.
Wilson has recently completed a
documentary on the ecology of
American rivers entitled "Dam the
Downstream," part of a series oi
hour-long color films on man and
his environments.
John Bardach is professor of
natural resources at the University
of Mi( hii-'an wliere he directs a lab
INTERNATIONAL PAPER ANNOUNCES
A $101 MILLION, FOUR-YEAR PLAN TO COMBAT
POLLUTION.
I
hternational Paper Company believes that the aspirations of our society for a
better hfe can be met, that the pollution of our environment can be controlled, and
that the vital quality of the basic resources we all share can be maintained within
the framework of our economy. International Paper is dedicated to do its part as an
ndustrial citizen to achieve these goals.
I can now report to you that the Company has adopted a four-year plan, to be
;ompleted by 1974. This plan places International Paper in the forefront of those taking
)ositive, constructive measures to solve the problem of environmental quality.
We estimate the total cost of this program will be $101 million.
When this program is completed every one of our U.S. pulp and paper mills will
36 equipped with primary and secondary waste water treatment systems.
Water so treated does not adversely affect the complicated life chain in natural
A^aters-from bacteria to plankton, to plants and fish life.
In terms of air quality this program will utilize the latest technology, which will
permit us to remove over 99% of particulate matter from mill emission points. Presently
installed equipment has an efficiency factor of about 90%. It will also include adaptation
of newtechnical developments that will control the odors of a kraft paper mill.
International Paper pledges to apply its technology its resources, and the efforts
of its people to this end.
EDWARD B. HINMAN
President, International Paper Company
THEY'LL DIE
unless you and we help ihem. They'll
Die— and thousands more like them
of many different species will die —
unless money is mode available to
finance the many requests from East
Africa's National Parks, Research Or-
ganizations and Game Departments.
During 1969 we funded conserva-
tion projects amounting to $74,500 in
Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. We
need your continued support to com-
bat the increasing menace of extinc-
tion for many species of wild animal,
by making a donation or by joining
the Society.
Membership of the Society will cost
you $10 annually. For this you receive
our quarterly magazine "Africana"
and are entitled to buy our ties, car
bodges, brooches and cufflinks.
Christmas cards. Calendars, wild life
prints and the Scientific Journal are
available to all.
The wild life of East Africa is now
a world responsibility, shared by ev-
eryone. It is enjoyed by tens of thou-
sands of visitors each year. Help us
to see that millions will continue to
enjoy it.
EAST AFRICAN
WILD LIFE
SOCIETY
P.O. Box 20110, Nairobi, Kenya.
East Africa.
Please enroll me as a member.
I enclose $
Name
Address „
N.H.
oratory specializing in physi-
ological ecology of fishes. He is
also the author of tivo popular
books on man's interference in the
hydrosphere. Doivnstream. and Hut-
vest of the Sea.
Coauthor of '"Three Fleeing Bull-
heads" and Bardach's assistant,
Trudv Villars is the fish observer
and trainer. Her involvement in
studies of the beha^doral mecha-
nisms of learning, particularly in
rats, stems from her interest in
physiological psychology from the
behavioral point of view.
An intuitive impulse coupled
with her Welsh-Irish background
led Lisa Stephens to spend tsvo
years in Ireland during 1963-64.
Through reading the Irish play-
wright. John Synge, she became
particularly interested in the
Gaeltacht area of West Kerry, and
her current photographs celebrate
this region. A photographer for
twelve years, Stephens originally
majored in history at UCLA and
studied drawing and painting with
several leading California artists.
As a continuation of her interest in
Gaelic culture, she is currently
spending six months in the Heb-
rides working with film and stiH
photography and studying the sim-
ilarities and differences between the
Gaels of Scotland and Ireland.
Henry Lansford's article on in-
advertent weather modification
grew out of his work at the Na^
tional Center for Atmospheric Re
search in Boulder, Colorado, where
he has been a public informatior
officer since 1965. Previously, Lans
ford worked for the United States
Atomic Energy Commission as pub
lications officer. He has writter
articles on the atmospheric sciences:
natural history, and other subject;
for a variety of publications.
John P. Kelsall has written ex
tensively on the barren-ground car
ibou, the subject of his current ar
tide. After traveling and working
in the Canadian Arctic for nin(
years with the Canadian Wildlifi
Service, Kelsall attended the Uni
versit>' of Western Australia wher
he received his Ph.D. in zoology ii
1965. At present, he is a researd
scientist for the Canadian Wildlif
Service, fellow of the Arctic In
stitute of North America, and direc
tor of the Canadian Society oj
Wildlife and Fishery Biologists. H
is currently at work on a study c
waterfowl plumage and its possibl
applications in aging and sexin
birds.
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I of Earth taken by
.astronauts, we become
...latically aware that all
'■ ^ankinpl is on this trip through
/ space together.
^Atvthis distance, subtle geopolitical
^6undaries are indistinguishable.
'Our planet is a mutually shared
^e in which the problems
tone area become the
AL'^ problems of all.
From our new vantage point, we
can also see things to help
^ solve some of these problems.
With this nation's existing space
f technologies we could monitor
; world crops for disease or locate
V new fisheries resources. We could
i; open new frontiers in meteorology,
education, navigation, forestry,
;.. communications. With benefits in
nearly every area of human activity.
: Think about the possibilities.
The Boeing Company.
Dr Harry Weintraub, Principal, drops in on
Miss Simmons' class during a Discaf reading session
Distar arithmetic and language programs
also are used in the school.
The sounds these children are making
will help them read six months sooner*
Can you teach kindergarten children— including the dis-
advantaged—how to read ? A new teaching system published
by Science Research Associates, an IBM subsidiary, shows
the way. This story is another example of how IBM, its people
or products often play a part in tackling today's problems.
^~^'C^
nod
mod
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A kindergarten class in Brooklyn, N.Y. Schools in 45 states already use the Distar^" Systerr[s, published by SRA, a subsidiary of IBM.
Ruth Simmons teaches kindergarten at P.S. 321 K, in
Brooklyn, New York. Dr. Harry Weintraub is the Prin-
cipal. Between them, they've taught and observed all
kinds of youngsters— bright, slow, and the educationally
disadvantaged.
"Usually,we don't teach formal reading to children
before the first grade," says Dr. Weintraub. "But last
year we experimented with a new system called Distar
that starts them off in kindergarten.
"This system provides teachers with a technique
designed to reward even the slowest child with a sense
of success. You have no idea how important this is for
such youngsters."
The Distar System evolved from five years of re-
search by Siegfried Engelmann and colleagues at the
University of Illinois. The program includes material for
teachers, workbooks and take-home sheets for children.
Miss Simmons explains some of the classwork.
"We teach the sounds letters of the alphabet represent.
If a child finds it hard to grasp, we don't point out his
troubles. We merely reprogram the lessons a little to
give his problem special attention without anyone be-
coming aware of it.
"When the children learn these sounds, we teach
them how to put several of them together. All of a sud-
den, they're reading words. And do they feel great!
"Our District Superintendent, Dr. Anthony Fer-
rerio, introduced Distar to two schools in our district
last year after hearing how successful it was in schools
around the country.
"I'm very enthusiastic about it. I know my kids
will be reading stories before they get
to the first grade. And that's really
something."
IBM
ANaluralistatLarge
Cole Weston : Surf and headlands. Big Sur, California
January MO
Yesterday Big Sur looked like
''ermont Ly the Pacific, sycamores
roviding the fall yellow. Today
the seventh) I walked up the mesa
nd down through the canyon to
le sea. I saw the bushtit, local
hickadee equivalent, supposed to
e a small chickadee-like bird, but
is not only smaller than the other
lembers of its family but finer,
rawn out into warbler-like deli-
acy. Like chickadees and some
arblers it is a tree cleaner, search-
ig over the leaves and crevices in
le bark for dormant or slow insect
3rms . . . heard the western song
parrow sing, January song spar-
ows, vain to compare with the
lirds along the Charles in protected
laces singing in February Mas-
achusetts sun in alder swamp now
ighway.
Still not at home in the West, the
orms are surprising and extrav-
gant — shrubs are trees, annuals
ivelve feet high. Cannot find a
lace to sit outside, although when
tie snow in Vermont was still two
eet deep in the low woods, I found
sun-warmed bank of graveyard
rail, shielding wind and reflecting
lore sun, dry enough to lie down
the cemetery six feet above the
Big Siir Storm
bySamAhrams
fields where plow and grazing had
got at topsoil — another story). Not
sure that my inability to find a
place to sit down is purely igno-
rance, tradition of western leather
pants and thorny drought armor.
Step out of the woods onto the
beach, adjust to open society, the
herring gulls around a fisherman
all but talk English. Don't look
them in the eye and they trust you.
For a second. Competitive and
vocal and smart.
The weekenders are like trading
stamp catalog pics or, with a little
more bread, like an Abercrombie
window . . . they show up on the
beach when a low tide coincides
with a sunset on a weekend, with
full wet suits, special clamming
hoes, measuring bars attached, and
clamming bags, and ten of them get
one clam between them in three
hours.
The catchers are mostly old re-
tired, show up on a rainy weekday
morning for the lowest tide of the
month with equipment as elaborate
and expensive as the weekenders
but homemade. The superfisherman
had made his own rod spike from
about four feet of three-inch steel,
two small, tin can bait cups sol-
dered or welded to it, rag hook, big
heavy-duty modern worn fiber glass
pole, plenty of blood on it, ex-
pensive largest-size spinning reel.
He rigged two hooks on either side
of a three ounce or so triangular
sinker, for one hook he had a bait
can full of freshly dug sand crabs,
mostly half inchers which he com-
plained were too small, and for the
other, store-bought fresh mackerel
cut into blunt one and a half by
three-quarter-inch wedges (with a
very sharp knife) and soaked over-
night in red food dye . . . reels in,
rod in spike, inspects the bait two
inches from the eye and drops a
piece of mackerel and a live sand-
crab (the gulls rustle a little in the
waiting circle), picks up the rod.
walks knee-deep, casts out right
into the hole between the bars back
up the beach, sets the rod in the
spike, dries hands, watches rod tip
there's a bite ... he lost interest in
talking to me when I didn't see the
bite fast enough. I projected disgust
at my inattention to the quivering
rod top. I am always forgetting that
the only way to tell the difference
between the jerking of the rod/line
caused by the sinker bouncing in
the complex rhythm of the waves is
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the change in rhythm ... he was a
mean codger anyway. A pleasure to
watch him unhook a fish, the econ-
omy of attention. I told him at the
beginning I was not a good fish-
erman. The next time when he was
talking with his buddy just back
from clamming, homemade wet suit
of plastic, parka with rubber bands
at wrist, sneakers, caught nine in 45
tninutes.
The Japanese are like the catch-
ers but oriental. Stand behind one
on the beach and the curve from his
rod and all the curves of the bay
transpose into Rangoon, Joseph
Conrad, and the Dragon Lady. This
guy is wearing Hong Kong waders
and a plastic raincoat, baseball cap,
has a big good modern rod but ob-
solete bait-casting type reel. The
rod is fiber glass and must have
been made for a spinning reel so he
had to adapt, you can get very good
bait reels cheap, but they have
nothing like the range of the spin-
ners, though an expert can be just
as accurate within the limited range
with a bait reel as with a spinner.
His creel is homemade and very
elaborate, army bag base with extra
wide nylon straps and a smile-
shaped foam shoulder pad on the
strap covered in something black.
He is catching small ones.
On a rainy day (the eighth), the
skyscape and the mountainscape
are even better. Pink washes over
the Santa Cruz Peninsula, ten miles
to my north, and to the south Mon-
terey, massive Big Sur beyond it,
thirty miles across the bay filling a
full third of the horizontal orb of
vision. Around the hundred and
eighty horizontal degrees only two
or three made up of the Moss Land-
ing power station huge smoke-
stack verticals, which disrupt the
sweep of the eye from cloud mass
to wooded peninsula to line after
line of breakers and the wheeling
lines of gulls the actual dance of
the planets. The huge tides we have
been having and the beginning
storm have not stopped the good
fisherman who has been waiting for
the tides, have driven the herring
gulls from the docks to the low tide
bars to scavenge on the discarded
bait of fishermen and the under-
sized pismo clams . . . the limit on
pismo clams is ten a day and the
minimum size is five inches and all
the clam hunters carry little U-
shaped cast aluminum measurin
bars in the fancy rigs attached tt
the shovel which has crosspiecd
and levers on it. But though they a.
have fancy rigs only the guys wh(
know the bars and the waters evei
get any. The clams used to be hai
vested by huge horse-drawn rake!
and were a cheap item of food . .
cockles and mussels alive alive (■
. . . now they are only found on
on the last bar, they used to hoi
the whole intertidal, like the abf
lone. Luckier than the abalone the;
live in the roughest waters to.
murky for scuba gear even if ^o\
could swim, so the remnant is onl
vulnerable at the year's lowest tides
These experts are getting near thei
limits (up to seven inches) but the
dig up thirty to fifty undersizei
ones for every bag of legal one;
The law says that undersized one
are to be replaced immediately
the holes from which they cam
which is of course impossible in t^
roaring waist-high surf and shiftin'
sands, so they wash ashore for thi
gulls who are too numerous todai
for the available clams and ar
fiercely and vainly fighting ove"
them. I watch a mature adult gull'
bright black and white, scarlet spoi
glowing on yellow bill, all the sexi
ual plumage of all the birds hal
been growing brighter the las
weeks . . . adult has a clam and i
holding off three, no five, dusky im,
matures. He is clearly dominan
enough over them all to keep then
away from the clam but he can'
drive them far enough away fo:
him to pick up the thing half-burie(
in sand and get up speed with thi
load and find an updraft and gaii
altitude and find a hard surface anc
drop it and recover. After five min
lites of threats he lifts it up anc
takes off lumbering in toward th
beach. He gets no more than twentjl
feet from the bar when he is vulner!
able and one of the immatures ati
tacks from behind and two o'clock
high, forcing him to drop it at the
edge of the surf on the main beach!
where it gets half-buried in thej
sand as he lands beside and easily]
beats off the others again and tries'
to dig it out. Less than five yards
from me the five immatures and the
adult arrange themselves in a pre-
cise geometry of fear and hunger.
The anxiety lines from me and the
dominant adult and the attraction
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lines from the half-buried clam
clear as a radio diagram on the flat
heach.
The superfisherman arm in arm
with his wife arrives about twenty
yards up the beach. I see from the
gulls rearranging themselves and I
take a wider sweep and see how the
gulls are also taking into account
the superfisherman and wife and
basset hound twenty yards off and
the clammer on the bar thirty yards
off and the gulls wheeling high
above and maneuvering for posi-
tion to make a grab in space and
wind. The gulls shift constantly in-
sane paranoid complex taking in
the whole gull scene edging for ad-
vantage. The basset walks straight
to the half-buried clam and the
gulls retreat very reluctant a few
feet off eyeing him without much
fear. He sniffs it and walks back to
his master. I take my turn and with
a firm but smooth pace I walk to
the clam and lift it . . . over a
pound, anyway . . . pismos have
tremendously thick dense strong
shells. I have a piece in front of me
as I type, it has the heft and feel of
old-time restaurant china like the
plates we got for ten cents each at
one of the many secondhand stores
selling the stuff of the dead in
Santa Cruz, city with more retired
folk than any except Fort Lauder-
dale and somewhere else in Florida.
The gulls weigh tops five pounds,
average less, the adult picked up
the clam the short way, and flew
. . . tough-arse birds like crows,
sea crows a Greek bird name, man
followers, exploding first over the
west coast of the Atlantic then the
almost identical form on the Ameri-
can east coast, they are a weed bird,
one that follows man's sim-
plification of the environment, om-
nivores, garbage dump circles of
gulls going a quarter of a mile into
the golden afternoon air, late pm
thermals spinning thousands of
gulls above dumps here as in Cam-
bridge freshpond shopping center
or Tinbergen's Amsterdam ... to
gull, a city word, a civilized bird.
I rap about the gulls with the su-
perfisherman from whom one can
learn and find out that he had dug
up and replaced seventy undersized
clams recently and there are plenty
of em left out thar and did not tell
him that's what they said about the
buffalo and started home and found
floundering on the beach a sic!
probably oiled (Santa Barbara? it
over 300 miles of coastline aw£
though the storm is from the south
adult male surf scoter. I pick hi)
up in my silk scarf and cradle hii
to my chest and calm him by ma
saging the base of his neck with tl
ball of my thumb the way I saw tl
guy from Moss Landing e;
perimental station do it like hai
dling a baby, delicate bones glidin
into relaxation in my arms. Scotei
live above the pismo clams spen(
ing all their time in winter in t^
white water, bobbing and glidin
under the heads of the breakei
. . . when the afternoon sun shine
through the green curls before tl
moment of breaking you can somi
times see the scoters swimming fl;
ing underwater through the peak (
the breaker . . . they fly pretl
good, except for taking-off dif]
culties, at best can only waddle o
land which they visit to rest brief]
at low tide when no one is on tl
beach, half-buried in the wet sari
in the last creamy inches of sui
sometimes straining the syruj
sand for food . . . living that w£
their feathers are fantastic i
sulation. They are fairly closely r
lated to the eiders I guess, tl
feathers of the bird in my arms a:
more like fur behind his neck, thi(
and light, sable shiny black all ovi
except for his proud sex marks
brilliant white cap on the back (
his head running down his nee
just to where my soothing thun
rubs, a white spot on the face an
shiny ivory white bil] with brilliai
line of black and spot orange on e
ther side. He sleeps in my arms ar
I walk carefully, the long w£
around so as not to disturb him 1:
climbing, up the beach throug
the railroad cut, the scale becor
ing like childhood, like the Gree
scale, how far can you walk carrl
ing a duck . . . you cannot res
Aeschylus unless you have live
without a car . . . through the pi
vate road to the top of the cliffs ar
home, wrap him in a dry towel ar
the good old wool blanket and p
him on the seat of the truck whej
the kids won't disturb him. Joshul
upset, wanting the bird to like hi.'
and be well and nobody in at tl
experimental station where th'
told me to bring oiled birds and 1 i
newspaper and radio full of t;
12
Photo-expressionism
A photographer can capture reality, or heighten reality, just like a painter,
He needs only the imagination and the camera. He can, for instance,
take a far-off plane and bring it up close to a nearby building to do his
artistic bidding.
In this case, he did it with a 35mm camera, the Nikkormat FTN. And
a most unusual lens, the 500mm Reflex Nikkor This lens looks like it
would be at home in an astronomical observatory (works like the Mt.
Palomar telescope), yet it's so light and compact that you can hand hold
it. It IS one of more than 10 "long" lenses which fit the Nikkormat FTN,
all of which will give you this fascinating compressed effect in varying
degrees There are 30-some other lenses and accessories for almost
every purpose, all from the famous Nikon system, Yet the
Nikkormat, for all its capabilities is so uncomplicated
and responsive that it never distracts you from the
photograph. Sells for less than $280 with a 50mm
f2 lens. Isn't it time you discovered your own reality? ,
See your Nikon dealer or write Nikon Inc.
Garden City New York 11530. Subsidia^yof
Ehrenreich Photo-Optical lnd.,lnc.[l@D
(In Canada; Anglophoto Ltd.. P.O.]
Nikkormat FTn by Nikon
13
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Story of the "more than 3.600"
birds who died despite treatment af-
ter the first Santa Barbara spill and
we finally reach the ornithologist
lady who says as I usually do say
and believe that the best you can do
is leave them on the beach to get
better themselves and I guess she is
right cause when I go to take him
in the house before we go to the
movies he is dead and stiff and I
put him in a plastic bag and put
him in the freezer compartment of
the refrigerator next to the golden-
crowned sparrow that flew into our
picture window yesterday and con-
sole Joshua the best I can by telling
him that although we can't bring
the bird back to life we can take his
body to the doctors at Moss Land-
ing experimental station where they
will use it to find out what's making
the birds sick and so be able to help
the other birds, more of a lie than
even I know cause the receptionist
at the experimental station tells us
over the phone next day that they
already have a freezer full of dead
scoters and we went on to the mov-
ies, a long newsreel about North
Vietnam, the same picture for
thirty years, scared women clutch-
ing their children and hurrying for
bomb shelters and ruins and Mod-
ern Times with Charlie Chaplin
who I want to be when I grow up.
The storm (the ninth) was full
lottsa rain, eucalyptus trees groan-
ing and shedding long strips of
bark. I notice culverts under what I
thought was solid land and begin to
dig how much work it is to hold
this beach front, in a land of
drought, erosion is always a mighty
force . . . no one about except a
state cop sitting in his car at state
beach parking lot . . . drives up to
me in my international yachting
parka visible enough . . . con-
cerned about a parked car with
lights on. but I haven't seen anyone
on the beach since early morning
fisherman and do not as I walk
down the beach . . . every rainy
day. With this much vista part of
the sky is clear and today it is an
arc, a lozenge, no more than thirty
degrees along the horizon and
reaching no more than ten vertical
degrees, say 95 percent of the sky is
overcast except for this inverted
smile reaching twenty degrees north
to ten south of due west and the sun
sets in it. appearing from behind
the one hundred seventy degrees (
gray, the entire red disk of the su
filling the center of the clear ai
. . . there are two rainy-face
teenyboppers who don't own the ci
with the lights on and a big piec
of ship planking twenty by twent
with a hatch is stranded by tl;
beach shack.
Clear (the tenth) after two da^
of heavy rain, down on the beac
just after turn of very high tid
hardly room to walk, waves sti
have storm force and wash almoi
up to the sharp fresh-cut ban^
heaped with new wracks of jetsai
sea-sorted by size and specific gra'
ity . . . sky over the semicircle (
bay is clear except for fine herrinj
bone lace of altocumulus throug
which the sun has no trouble shii
ing. over the peninsulas to nort
and south triangular flying wedg<
of cumulus climb echoing th
shapes of headlands. Two local kic
pass on a minibike disturbing tb
birds and crushing the succulents f
they are forced to ride above tf
cut banks, waves not leaving thei
enough room on the sand and
don't stop them and ask if the
aren't afraid with their stink of tb
beach gods and sea gods. Remen
ber the chief narc who got gobble
by a freak wave at Acapulco la;
summer. They get ahead and
watch a flock of eleven wille'
where three months ago there was
flock of three hundred sanderling
thirty or fifty willets seventy c
eighty marbled godwits and tw
black-bellied plovers. The eleve
are tired and manage to arrang
themselves with a lot of anxiety an
pushing around by one dominai
bird, tuck their bills under wing
eyes open, prop up on one locke
leg ... I carefully walk aroun
them in the brush, not lookin
toward them and manage to get li
without disturbing them . . .
people knew what a tough life tlie
led, would they bring their dop
western dogs are all saner and liaj
pier and well mannered, to clia;
them on the beach ... I feel relui
tant to walk on the beach unl
there is room to do it without bu;
ging them . . . the weirdest piec 1
of shiny black jetsam, some flowe 1
from the depths of the kelp fores
stem resolves itself into a neck, si
pals into wings, closed petals in
the body of a seabird, duck c
14
Here are the books
that are changing the"rules"of
education, politics, religion-
even sex.
■ji ^-Oy.
THE AGE OF AQUARIUS: Technology and the Cultural
(evolution, William Braden. A brilliantly argued prophesy of the
uture as an escalating struggle between humanists and technologists
Jraden examines current conflicts and suggests the crises they will
iltimately lead to. Pub. ed. S5.95
113. EVERYTHING YOU ALWAYS WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT
SEX BUT WERE AFRAID TO ASK. David Reuben, M.D. "It is not
jnly informative, frank, up-to-date, and complete ... but howlingly
unny ... a can't put-it-down reading and learning adventure."
'ub. ed. S6.95
12 more fine books to choose from!
^'^'■^
1310. THE NEW YORKER BOOK
3F POEMS. Selected by the editors
'3f The New Yorker. After 44 years
.3f publishing poetry, the New
■Worker's editors have selected the
best for this anthology. Pub. ed.
S12.50
412. PRIME TIME. The life of
Edward R. Murrow. Alexander
'Kendrick. Penetrating biography
,of a broadcasting giant, his bouts
'with sponsors, network brass, Joe
McCarthy. ". . . richly informed,
incisive, pungent book." N.Y.
Times. Pub. ed. 58.95
406. GANDHI'S TRUTH. Erik H.
'Erikson. Modern day saint or a
^mixture of fakir and huckster?
"Subtle, widely ranging study . . .
Remarkable and persuasive." News-
week. National Book Award Winner.
Pub. ed. SIO.OO
817. JOYS AND SORROWS. Re-
' flections by Pablo Casals, as told
to Albert Kahn. Intimate view of
this beloved musician. "Here, con-
tinually elbowing his way out of the
epic, is a human being . . ." N.Y.
Times. Pub. ed. 57.95
819. THE NASHVILLE SOUND.
Paul Hemphill. An incredibly rich
portrait of the gritty reality of
country and western music. LIFE
commented: "So much the best
writing on that subject that there
is nothing with which to compare
it." Pub. ed. 55.95
387. IDENTITY, YOUTH ANC
CRISIS. Erik Erikson. Is an "iden.
tity crisis" real or imagined, dan-
gerous or not? Freudian approach
into modern-day problem. "Erikson
speaks, people listen." L.A. Times.
Pub. ed. $6.95
315. WESTWARD TO LAUGH-
TER. Colin Maclnnes. The fictional
memoirs of a young 18th Century
Scotsman, forced into slavery on
the Caribbean island of St. Laugh-
ter. Pub. ed. 55.95
811. IN THE SERVICE OF THEIR
COUNTRY. War Resisters in Pri-
son. Willard Gaylin, M.D. A psy-
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and frightening, pub. ed. 56.95
812. ROCK ENCYCLOPEDIA. Lil-
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trivia. All concerning the cultural
phenomenon of our time. Every-
thing, everyone, everywhat about
rock music. Pub. ed. 59.95
807. MALCOLM X. THE MAN
AND HIS TIMES. Edited by John
Henrik Clarke. 21 black writers
analyze the "prophet." Includes
Malcolm's speeches, writings, key
position papers. ". . . excellent
job." N.Y. Times. Pub. ed. 57.95
415. THE OMNI-AMERICANS:
New perspectives on Black Experi-
ence and American Culture. Albert
Murray. Attacks social science's
assumption that Negroes are crea-
tures of a debilitating and deficient
culture. Pub. ed. 56.95
824. HORACE LIVERIGHT. Pub-
lisher of the Twenties. Walker
Gilmer. A biography of the man
who revolutionized the stagnant
American publishing industry, and
who reflected the flamboyance and
magination of that incredible era.
Pub. ed. 58.95
816. MY LAI 4: A Report on the Vietnam Massacre
and Its Aftermath. Seymour Hersh. A classic instance of
investigative reporting, for which Mr. Hersh has been
awarded the Pulitzer Prize. The first complete account
of the My Lai tragedy. Pub. ed. 55.95
417. THE MUSIC OF THEIR LAUGHTER. Roderick
Thorp and Robert Blake. Thirty-two youngsters explain
with brutal frankness why they reject the comfortable life
lovingly offered by their parents. Highly persona! accounts
of their experiences with school, drugs, sex. Pub. ed. $7.95
The Book Find Club
invites-you to
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Take
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15
Measure
of a
man.
V
Here's the most elegant steel tape measure ever made.
Gleaming chrome, upholstered in black cowhide. Spring-
loaded 10' rule. Not just feet and inches, but meters
and centimeters too. Hairline reading window. And
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If you have a special man, this is his measure. Or yours.
From France $10
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N.Y. 10021. Please add any tax and SI delivery. Sorry, no c.o.d.
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884 Madison at 72nd -1053 Madison at 80th
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Konica cameras get taken to where the
fun is, because they're fun to use.
They can take great pictures quickly
and easily. And you can take the credit,
proudly.
Choose from the world's smallest,
lightest rangefinder 35mm camera, or the
most compact super 8 cartridge-loading
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KONICA Bss«
"The lens alone is worth the price" Photo IhcLm
murre, completely enclosed in shin-
tar . . . and Barbara yells, finds an
other one and for days we kee]
finding them as they dry out a
high tide they look like oversizei
black Smyrna figs ... we are usei
to dead and dying birds from oi
and the poison river, the Pa jar
which flows through the industria
farmlands of Watsonville and Cas
troville, "artichoke capital of th
world," spaced fields of miles o
nothing but artichokes, then mile
of apples, factory with tiowen
river picks up the pesticides am
runs out past Moss Landing, aii
sometimes crop-dusting copters wi
buzz and dust off a flock of seabird
for fun and they often dump thei
extra into the ocean and the baj
thirty miles across, has eddy cui
rents . . . they recently did fin
tests for sewer pollution in Mont(
rey Bay, lowest reading in the ope
sea off Pacific Point was eleve
thousand per milliliter or liter c
whatever of coli bacteria when tl
limit is one thousand. We are use
to the sight of dead and dying
rotting birds and sea lions . . . bi
these oiled birds must have con
all the way from Santa Barbai
channel more than 300 mile:
coastline away where they had aiJ!
other leak a week or two ago.
The beach shack has collapsed i
the storm and is beyond repair 1
one man and two boys . . . tl
piece of shipdeck is awash again,
at least half of it, the waves to
and twelve-foot lengths of two 1
fours detach themselves and
caught on the beach . . . there
grebe flopping aboiit in the sar
... we gather round him
western grebe, long white nee
gray back, sharp yellow bill
mad red eye, his feet semiwebbe
fronded, and green, he flops aw;
from us and we leave him and
saw a grebe the next day swimmii
all right closer in than they usual
stay and hope it was him reco
ering and when we get home fro
the beach there is a letter telling n
that Charles Olsen, the teacher
our friends, is dying ...am;
who through the yahoo years
Eisenhower and McCarthy prov
that it was possible to be a man
America ... in a New York hos)
tal, not by the sea, the literary v;
tures and those who love him gai
ering around. . . .
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A complete natural science library in itself
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440. RAVEN SEEK THY BROTHER. Gavin Max-
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340. GEM HUNTER'S GUIDE. Riusell P. Mac-
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1530. HOME BOOK OF TAXIDERMY AND TAM-
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: in preserving and mounting any specimen
I mouse to a moose. $7.95/$6.25
1350. READING THE WOODS. Vinson Brown.
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i330. BIRDS, BEASTS AND RELATIVES. Gerald
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ital involvement with animals and insects, each as
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67140. THE PARABLE OF THE BEAST. John N.
Bleibtreu. Explores challenging problems in modern
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Harold F. Blaisdell. The ruminations of an experi-
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pulsars, quasars, the latest space flights. Illustrated.
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85440. THE UNEXPECTED HANGING. Martin
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64560. THE NEW WORLD OF THE OCEANS.
Daniel Behrinan. First-hand interviews and obser-
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r
— TRIAL MEMBERSHIP APPLICATION —-i
Natural Science Book Club , on* I
Riverside, N.J. 08075 ^""^ 1
fpon a.r.'ptaii.M' nl" lhi> onl.T. please enroll me |
slliliin ( I'.i' !. 1 A . :• Inal rii.'li.lirr. 1 .iiinr |
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17
In
lawner
urges:
by E.F. Roberts
Picture a man sitting in his
house on a hill overlooking a lake.
Pausing in his ruminations to look
out the window, he must gaze
through a maze of electric utility
pylons in order to enjoy his view of
the lake. The lake water, once blue,
has been changed to a murky gray
by sewer effluents and by thermal
pollution from a nearby atomic
power plant. To drown out the
noise of a jet aircraft he turns up
the volume of his stereo while wip-
ing away the dust that has wafted
in from a recently opened cement
factory. This reminds him that the
cement is being poured for the
foundation of a new hi-rise apart-
ment house being built at the last
remaining natural spot on the lake.
Perhaps this description will
make the reader inquire about the
legal system that permits such a
scene to occur. The inquiry could
be a ghastly experience because the
law can be a dreadful bore. But
let's have a try at it.
The law's concern with order and
justice is immutable, but this is not
so for the work-a-day rules that
maintain order while justice ap-
pears to be done. Rules normally
change so slowly that they appear
to be immutable to any one gener-
ation. Indeed, when too many rules
change too quickly, a sense that
something is wrong with the system
may afflict society — witness some of
the reaction engendered by the
Warren Court in recent years. Such
reactions and criticisms often are
meritorious because, in the last
analysis, the law depends for its ef-
fectiveness upon its acceptance by
the governed, and this acceptance
depends in large measure upon the
law appearing to be a fairly immu-
table set of principles, rather than a
hodgepodge of ad hoc responses
concocted by pragmatic lawyers.
Periodically, however, the whole
system of rules is overhauled in rel-
atively short order when, during an
economic or social convulsion, the
society's fundamental notions about
justice undergo a dramatic change.
Because a legal system does not
command so much as it channels
social activity into peaceful ave-
nues, during these convulsive peri-
ods the judges rapidly restructure
the rules. This restructuring keeps
the system responsive to the felt
needs of society. We are now living
through one of these traumatic
riods, and the recent concern witi
the environment typifies the new so
cial values that are causing th
judges to overhaul the rule syster
with haste.
Suppose, for example, that
coke-manufacturing plant had bee:
built in an American city durinj
the late nineteenth century. Tl
manufacturing technique of t
time involved quenching the bur:
ing coal with water, a process thai
generated vast clouds of gases]
smoke, and soot and rendered th
neighborhood uninhabitable fo
gentlefolk. If the old-time resident
turned to the law for help agains
the plant, they found a doctrin^
dating back to the reign of Henr
II to the effect that no one should
do things on his land that woul<
disturb his neighbors' enjoyment oj
their land. Presumably, the homei
owners in our hypothetical situi
ation should have been able to oh
tain either an injunction to stop tb
polluting of their environment or :
judgment for money damages com
mensurate with the depreciation ii
value inflicted upon their homes. Ii
all likelihood, however, they wouli
l!
^fy
r
19
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1970 RECORD CLUB OF AMERICA, INC.
H
RECORD CLUB OF AMERICA
VOOl
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I9B
If you could shoot on both sides of this fence
you could make better movies.
Sit down at X and well show you why.
All set? Okay. You've brought
a camera along. Any conven-
tional super-8 camera.
This is your picnic. You're go-
ing to bring it back alive.
Shooting it just as it happens.
So, between bites, start pick-
ing shots. How/ about this
one?
So what can you shoot? See
that fence? It's 4 ft. from your
seat, the closest most conven-
tional cameras can focus. So
you can get any shot— outside
the fence. But nothing but
blurs inside it.
Which brings us to these, the
unconventional Bolex Macro-
zoom cameras. They're the
first super-8s that can shoot
on both sides of the fence.
Because they can focus at
least as near— or as far— as
your eyes can.
With these Bolex cameras
you can get any shot you can
see. Including telephoto shots
like this one.
And if you snap on the free
little Multitrix attachment, you
can title on location, like this.
Stop fiddling with the knob.
He's just 2 ft. from the lens.
You'll never get him in focus.
Maybe this would work? ZVz
ft. away? Nope. Still too blurry.
This tiny visiting frog? If you
could focus within inches
you'd get him big enough to
see. But you've got a conven-
tional camera.
The Bolex 160— with power
zoom and single-frame re-
lease—and the Bolex 155
focus from one inch of the
lens to infinity. Handheld.
Without attachments. The 7.5
does the same thing from 5
inches, like this .
Shoot stills. Shoot— and dis-
solve through— a slide Make
complete movies m the camera.
Want to see them for your-
self? Write to the address be-
low for the name of your
nearest Bolex dealer. And,
while you're there, see these
unconventional Bolex projec-
tors. One of them will even
record a soundtrack onto your
film, turning your silents irUo
talkies.
Paillard Incorporated,
1 900 Lower Rd., Linden, N.J. 07036.
Other products: Hasselblad
cameras, Hermes typewriters
and figuring machines.
have gotten nothing, no satisfaction
at all, because the law went through
a convulsive _periocl early in the
nineteenth century.
During the Industrial Revolution
rules were overhauled wholesale,
and the values of the agrarian
society evolved into a new coda
compatible with commerce and
manufacturing. Under the prevail-
ing ideas of laissez faire, or rugged
individualism, conventional wisdom
was reoriented around personal re-
sponsibility, and government was
relegated to a minimal role in a,
society governed largely by the
natural laws of the marketplace.
Action, go-getting, and progress be-
came virtues. Consequently, no one,
including that mythical "legal per-
son." the corporation, was to be
held liable for the harm his actions
occasioned others unless it was
clearly the actor's "fault." Put an-
other way. the losses occasioned
by accidents in a rugged society
had to be borne by the victims.
This conventional wisdom, when
crystallized into law, amounted in
effect to a subsidy to incipient in
dustry during the takeoff period of
industrialization.
In this restructuring process the
law of nuisance was translated into
the prevailing ideology of fault.
Our hypothetical coke manufac-
turer was not at fault — in legal
terins he was not negligent — be-
cause he followed the accepted
procedures in the manufacture of
coke. Equally manifest, he was not
at fault in locating his plant in the
city because capital, labor, raw ma-
terials, and transport'ation routes
converged there to make large-scale
manufacture possible. Therefore, the
harm visited upon the city's resi-
dents had to be chalked up as an ac-
cidental by-product of progress.
Ours may have been more of a
class society than we generally real-
ize, or agrarian values may have
persisted outside the cities. I say
this because, had our hypothetical
entrepreneur attempted to build his
coke plant in a polite suburb, he
would have been enjoined at the
drop of a hat. Notice carefully that;
he could not have been faulted if he
had followed accepted manufac-
turing techniques: rather, his fault
would lie in locating his plant in an,
area more suitable for residential
development. To an extent, law con-j
20
The flower with 400
y personalities.
There's a Protea no more than one inch high, and there's a
Protea tall as a tree.
In between, there are 400-odd species of Proteaceae.
So it's no wonder that the Protea is South Africa's national
flower. (Named after Proteus, who could change into any shape
at will.)
You'll want to see them all.
For instance, there's the Giant, or King Protea, which meas-
ures 12 inches across.
And the yellow and pink Pincushion Proteas.
Ivory-and-pink Blushing Bride Proteas.
And woolly-bearded Proteas, with silky black hairs.
While you're looking, watch for the long-tailed Sugar Birds
that hide in the protea bushes, plunging their beaks into the blooms.
The Proteaceae are one example of South Africa's floral
abundance. The western corner of the Cape province has legions
of flowers found nowhere else in the world.
In the 180 square miles of the Cape Peninsula alone, there are
more than 2.600 kinds of flowering plants.
South Africa's flora and fauna are protected in over 100 game
and nature reserves, including immense tracts of land devoted to
animal life, bird sanctuaries, and flower reserves.
The National Botanic Gardens at Kirstenbosch, devoted en-
tirely to the indigenous flowers of South Africa, rank as one of the
great botanical gardens of the world.
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\ , For more information, see your
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SOUTH AFRICAN AIRWAYS
Come with us.
A little off the beaten track.
21
How many great pictures
have you taken, only to find
out later that your exposures were
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Name
trolled the environment even durin
the wilder phases of the Industriil
Revolution by segregating the env
ronment into clean (country) an
dirty (city) zones. In 1932 or
judge, apparently giving solace 1
some neighbors of a particularly o
fensive coke plant, preserved th
dichotomy for posterity' when 1
calmly observed that one '"wh
chooses to live in the large centei
of population cannot expect ti
quiet [?] of the country."
The energies released by the Ii
dustrial Revolution have been tj
undoing of the conventional wi
dom of that phenomenon. The pro
pering factories that have coai
ulated in the cities, belching fumi
and disgorging chemically exot
wastes, have created conditioi
whereby the chance occurrence of
weather inversion can turn a cit
into a death camp. The banker
lawyers, advertisers, and executivi
associated with commerce and ii
dustry realize too well that the
must work in the cities. The cit
dwelling working class, increasing
cognizant of its power to disrupt,
no longer put off with nineteentl
century sophistries to justify i
deteriorating environment. With tl
exhaust from automobiles, even tl
most self-rusticated suburbanite hj
come to recognize that the old se;
regation approach no longer i:
sulates him from the dangers (
pollution. Worry over the deteri
rating quality of the environment
no longer endemic to a few ivor
tower-based ecologists ; insecurv
has spread through the body po.
tic. It is only to be expected th
judges should begin to tinker wi
the rules of nuisance law in ordi
to make the law more responsive
the felt needs of the day.
Should our hypothetical entrepr
neur open his coke plant in an u
banized area today and shower pc
lutants upon his neighbors, tl
result would be different but. inte
estingly enough, not totally. Agai
given the facts that the area was a
propriate and that convention
manufacturing techniques were ei
ployed, the plant probably wou
be assessed with a judgment f
money damages to offset declinii
values in the immediate neighbc
hood. In all likelihood, however, i
injunction would be issued to clo
the plant. This halfway change
nuisance law aptly reflects today's
conventional wisdom.
During the nineteenth century if
some defective item slipped through
the manufacturing process without
anyone's fault, the consumer suf-
fered the loss if he was hurt as a
result. Today the manufacturer has
become liable, fault or no fault, for
the damages suffered by the con-
sumer. In today's scheme of values,
a sense of security, a feeling of
being able to rely on the products
of modern industry, has replaced
the old sense of individual fortune,
for good or bad. Modern industry
calculates an addition to the regular
price of each item in order to create
what amounts to an insurance fund
to cover the costs of these accidents.
Looked at another way, because he
contributes to a fund set up for his
unlucky colleagues who happen
upon a defective product, the Amer-
ican consumer participates in a sys-
tem of social insurance every time
he buys a product. Thus, in han-
dling pollution cases such as our
hypothetical coke plant, judges who
rule that manufacturers are respon-
sible for damages inflicted upon
their neighbors, are simply apply-
ing the already current idea that a
product should bear its true costs,
including the cost of damages.
Exercising their power to enjoin
nuisances, the judges could shut
down our hypothetical plant. This
option, however, still gives the
judges chance to pause. Increased
production, more jobs, and more
taxable enterprises are still basic in-
gredients in the accepted economic
formula for relieving the plight of
the poor. Shutting down plants
would decrease employment op-
portunities and subtract from the
number of taxable enterprises nec-
essary to sustain current welfare
programs. While judges have been
willing to restructure the rules to
accommodate the law to contempo-
rary needs, they are unwilling to re-
cast the law into a new mold until
they are certain that society has re-
jected growth as the keystone of its
value system.
The judges are saying, in effect,
that the solutions to industrial pol-
lution must be devised by the legis-
lative branch of government.
Whether the public is willing to pay
the price for eliminating pollution
is better ascertained through the
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ballot box than through the best
hunches of the judiciary. Whether
the costs of a program should be
borne by the public via relatively
higher taxes, which would be the
case if industry were given gener-
ous deductions for environmental
programs, or whether everyone J
should pay the extra costs imposed
by an enforced system of environ-
mental quality standards, is a ques-
tion of high policy. Innumerable
options for solutions come to mind.
Lawsuits, which only decide who
won and who lost — after the fash-
ion of a feeble computer pro^*!
grammed in binary logic to respond
with either "0" or "1" — are not apt
forums in which to hammer out
broadly gauged and complex pro-
grams of social reform. In short,
lawsuits do not hold forth the
promise of immediate solution to
the environmental mess into which
we have gotten ourselves.
While we wait upon the legisla-l
ture to devise programs to clean up
the mess we have created, judges
have taken to working out new
rules that would checkmate the
spread of pollution. They have
come to recognize that laissez fairel
& I.eitA Inc.. RiKklciiih. NJ. 07M7
has been replaced by a Keynesian
mixed economy, which legitimizes
a working partnership between
business and the government to
create a highly planned economy
designed to achieve steady growth
without untoward inflation. This
partnership is often managed under
the powers of a semiautonomous
public agency. Considered from the
perspective of over-all material
plenty, this alliance' cannot be
faulted. In terms of the environ-
ment, however, this growth-oriented
behemoth, which tends to make its
decisions effective through various
regulatory agencies, can become a
menace. An agency decision to al-
low a pipeline across Alaska, an oil
rig off Santa Barbara, a hydro-
electric reservoir in a beautiful val-
ley, or a supersonic transport route
across the entire country can li-
cense the ravishment of what is left
of our unspoiled environment. Is it
possible to devise a containment
policy to see that this does not hap-
pen?
The mixed economy illustrates
anew how convolutions in the un-
derlying society have made tradi-
tional rules of law obsolete. Bureau-
^4
ary Carnwath isn't trying to save the work .
5t a little piece of it.
he Hopi Indians' village of Ship-
i in Arizona sits on land so poor,
ile and inhospitable that so far no-
has tried to take it away from
lectricity has not yet reached the
s. Water must be hauled from
miles away. Jobs are few and far
. Only poverty and despair are
by and in abundance,
et for the first time in generations,
Carnwath and people like her are
ig hope among the Hopis.
lary Carnwath works and lives
housand miles away, in Manhat-
4er own daughter is now grown-
id through Save the Children Fed-
m she is sponsoring one of the
e girls, 8-year-old Grace Mahtewa.
he Mahtewas (two parents, three
en, one grandmother and a sister-
v) live tightly packed in a tiny
and mud house. The father, who
s ranch work but can't find any
of the year, isn't able to provide
mily with even the bare necessities,
irace. bright, ambitious and indus-
trious, would possi-
bly have had to quit
school as soon as she
was old enough to do
a day's work. But, be-
cause of Mary Carn-
wath, that won't be
necessary.
^f > The $15.00 a
:h contributed by Mary Carnwath
oviding a remarkable number of
s for Grace and her family,
irace will have a chance to con-
: schooling. The family has been
to make its home a little more liv-
A small portion of Mary Carn-
I's contribution, together with
iy from other sponsors, was bor-
d by the village to renovate a dilap-
d building for use as a village cen-
Fhe center now has two manual
ng machines that are the begin-
3 of a small income-producing busi-
It's only a small beginning. More
ey and more people like Mary
wath are needed. With your help,
aps this village program will pro-
enough money to end the Hopis'
for help. That is what Save the
hen is all about.
^r/*^
Although contributions are deduc
tible, it's not a charity. The aim is not
merely to buy one child a few hot meals
a warm coat and a new pair of shoes
Instead, your contribution is used to
give the child, the family and the village
a little boost that may be all they need
to start helping themselves.
Sponsors are desperately needed
for other American Indian children —
who suffer the highest disease rate
and who look forward to the short-
est life span of any American group.
Sponsors are also needed for
children in Appalachia, Korea, Viet-
nam, Latin America, Africa, Greece
and the Middle East.
As a sponsor you will receive a
photo of the child, regular reports
on his progress and, if you wish, a
chance to correspond with him and
his family.
Mary Carnwath knows that she
can't save the world for $15.00 a
month. Only a small corner of it.
But, maybe that is the way to save th<
world. If there are enough Mary Can
waths. How about you?
National Sponsors (partial list):
Faith Baldwin, Hon. James A. Farley, j
Gene Kelly, Mrs. Eli Lilly, Paul Newman, I
Mrs. ,]. C. Penney, Frank Sinatra.
Save The Children Federation, founded in 1932 \
is registered with the U.S. State Department
Advisory Committee on Voluntary Foreign Aid. ^
)aveThe Children Federation
NORWALK, CONNECTICUT 06852
I WISH TO CONTRIBUTE $180 ANNUALLY TO HELP A CHILD
a WHERE THE NEED IS GREATEST O LATIN AMERICA
□ AMERICAN INDIAN D APPALACHIA O KOREA D GREECE
□ VIETNAM □ AFRICA □ MIDDLE EAST
ENCLOSED IS MY FIRST PAYMENT
□ $15.00 MONTHLY Q $90.00 SEMI-ANNUALLY
□ $45.00 QUARTERLY D $180.00 ANNUALLY
I CAN'T SPONSOR A CHILD. ENCLOSED IS A CONTRIBUTION
OF $
□ PLEASE SEND ME MORE INFORMATION
CONTRIBUTIONS ARE INCOME TAX DEDUCTIBLE
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crats and businessmen in the
agency system may make good eco-
nomic judgments, but who speaks
for the environment? Who can ap-
peal to the courts when an agency
decision threatens to license an un-
conscionaJsle environmental atroc-
ity? Traditional rules are not much
help because hitherto plaintiffs have
complained about damage inflicted
upon their own persons or their
own homes; what claim has anyone
to sue to prevent damaging a valley
down the road apiece? Again the
judges have reworked the old rules
so that today it is generally ac-
cepted that concerned members of
the public may participate in
agency hearings and may sue to
have agency decisions set aside
when they do not reflect a proper
concern for the environment.
Here we reach the crucial ques-
tion: do the agencies have to take
the environment into account? In
one famous case the Federal Power
Commission (FPC) was reversed
when, upon purely hard-headed
economic considerations, it licensed
a hydroelectric project that would
have destroyed one of the most
scenic sites along the Hudson River.
The case was significant because it
established the right of con-
servationists to sue. The case was
decided against the FPC because
the congressional statute that had
created the agency had expressly in-
structed it to take environmental
considerations into account, some-
thing the FPC had flagrantly neg-
lected to do. What if the statute had
not contained that instruction?
What would the conservationists,
once in court, have talked about?
What "law" could they point to in
order to fault the agency for its
failure to take seriously the envi-
ronmental consequences of their de-
cision?
This need to find some law that
would require an agency to con-
sider the environment arose re-
cently when New Hampshire au-
thorities sought to have a federal
court reverse an Atomic Energy
Commission decision to license a
nuclear power plant along the Con-
necticut River. Water used to cool
the plant would enter the river so
superheated that downstream tem-
perature would increase to a point
that even warm water fish could not
survive. The judicial response was
to scan the legislation that created
the AFC and to conclude that not
only was the agency not required to
take the environment into account,
it also lacked the authority to re-
quire developers to install alterna-
tive cooling devices simply to save
the environment.
At this point some lawyers, in-
cluding myself, conclude that the
only answer to this conundrum lies
in the Bill of Rights. To put it
bluntly, there exists a constitutional
right to a decent environment,
which mandates that every govern^
ment agency — be it federal, state
or local — cast its decisions so as nol
to contribute further to the decline
of today's environmental status
quo. This decision would only oper-
ate prospectively and would not ex-
tend retroactively. The harm thai
has already been done can only be
undone by legislative action anC
not by words alone; words alone
however, when they are constitu
tional law words, are able to ensure
that past mistakes will not bi
repeated.
From whence can this right bi
derived? This is a horse soon cur
ried. In Griswold v. Connecticut
for example, the Supreme Couri
discovered a "right of privacy" in
herent in the Bill of Rights, even
though that right was not ther^ in)
so many words. In fact, the long ig-
nored ninth amendment warns us
that the listing of rights in the other
amendments, such as those guaran-
teeing freedom of religion and
speech, does not eliminate other
rights "retained by the people."
Manifestly, if the people have the
freedom to exercise free speech and
to enjoy their privacy, they must
also have the right to a decent envi-
ronment. Why is this clear? Be-
cause if we do not have a right to a
decent environment, the rest of our
rights will prove illusory. We can-
not enjoy our other rights if we are
all dead. True, this right has never
been articulated before, but until
the advent of a potentially lethal
technological society there was no
need to insist upon such a right.
Now that there is a potential for en-
vironmental disaster, the time has
become propitious for the Supreme
Court, sensing the felt needs of the
time, to implement within the sys-
tem this fundamental right held by
the psople. ■
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Death by the Plow
The eastern grasslands
of North America, which once
occupied large tracts of
the Midwest, have vanished —
except for a few traces
and the haunting descriptions
of early settlers
by Richard Brewer
photographs
by Steven C. Wilson
When the first wave of settlers entered the Great
Lakes region early in the last century, they found
small expanses of grassland scattered through the hard-
wood forest. These natural communities, up to a few
square miles in size, made up only about 100.000
acres in Michigan, somewhat more in Ohio, and still
more in Indiana where, north of the Wabash and west
of the Tippecanoe, they began to merge into the
Grand Prairie of Illinois. These grassland commu-
nities also existed in Kentucky and Ontario. Called
prairies, barrens, or, where studded with bur oak
trees, plains or oak openings, the eastern grasslands
were settled early. On the great grasslands farther
west, the settlers moved away from the river-fringing
forests slowly. The pioneers there feared the prairie
fires of the dry autumn, the winter blizzards, and the
miasmal wetness of the spring. The prairie sod was
hard to break; there were no trees to build with, no
acorns for pigs.
The small prairies and oak openings in the Great
Lakes region had fewer disadvantages, and the fertile
land there was quickly settled and broken. While the
sod was not so deep as that of the great grasslands of
Illinois. Iowa, and Missouri, the breaking of it with a
bull plow — all wood except for the share and colter —
and two voke of oxen was an event that stood out
even in lives where exhausting physical labor was the
daily routine. The first pioneer to break the prairie
never forgot it nor did the community that grew
around him. When he died, full of years and honor,
his epitaph would include the words, "He plowed the
first furrow." Almost none of the prairie escaped
plowing and, because it is the best cropland in the
region, most of it is still cultivated today.
The natural prairies are gone, or almost gone, but
for those who concern themselves with such things,
their past locations can be discovered. In the log-
books of the early surveyors, a section corner marked
by a stake, rather than by witness trees, or by witness
trees of bur oak a chain or more away, usually in-
dicates prairie. On a drive after spring plowing you
can still mark the edge of some of the prairies where
the black prairie earth gives way to the pale soils that
developed under oak forest. The names of villages
and landmarks — Flowerfield, Indian Prairie School,
Prairie Ronde Township — and, better still, historical '
records tell where the prairies were when the flood of '
settlers arrived in the 1820's and 30's.
What the prairies were like is harder to learn.
Friends and colleagues of mine have received grants
and fellowships to study here and there over the
world. For my part. I would like to apply for a Ful-
bright scholarship to colonial America. There is no
other way. I am afraid, to be sure of what the eastern
grasslands, or many other communities, were like
then. Until my award comes through, we must make
do with reconstructions based on the few remaining
relicts, on the journals and recollections of settlers and
early travelers, and, cautiously, on studies of man-
produced grasslands of similar structure.
In some ways the early wTitings give a clearer pic-
ture of the prairies than of the original forests.
Prairies were outside the experience of the emigrants
and travelers from the forested east and, accordingly,
worthy of comment. The historian of Madison
County. Ohio, wrote:
"The prairies consisted of level stretches of country
covered with sedge-grass, and dotted here and there
with patches of scrubby burr-oak growing upon the
highest points of land. The sedge-grass grew to an
enormous height, sometimes sufficient to hide man
and horse when travelling through it. Nearly every
autumn prairie fires swept over the country, destroy-
ing everything in their path."
The image of a man on horseback hidden by the
28
tall grass recurs in almost every account. The recol-
lection is faithful, but partial. Big bluestem and In-
dian grass on moist sites, slough grass, bluejoint, and
Phragmites on wetter ones reached heights of six to
eight feet or more; but little bluestem, the dominant
grass on the drier prairies, grew only to two or three
feet. Even for the moister sites, the image is one of
late summer or autumn. Early in the spring the new
growth of grass was overtopped by the earliest spring
flowers. The tall stalks of the preceding year were
flattened and matted by the winter snow or gone alto-
gether, consumed by a prairie fire.
JL or the identity of the grasses, and of the other
plants that grew with them ("The prairies were jew-
eled with strange and brilliant flowers — 'the stars that
in the earth's firmament do shine.' "). we must depend
on the relict prairies. These are few and small, mostly
narrow strips along the rights-of-way of the earliest
railroads and on the fringes of pioneer cemeteries.
Although they have escaped continuous cultivation,
they have suffered many other trials, and probably
reflect the original grassland as imperfectly as the pio-
neer looking glasses, which we now see in museums,
reflected the faces of the settlers. Even so, we can
learn from them that the low flowers of early spring
include such plants as Pennsylvania sedge, bird's-foot
violet, and shooting star. Later in the season there are
patches of northern bedstraw, erect rather than reclin-
ing like most of its relatives, and prairie phlox. These
are taller than the spring flowers.
The flowers of July are taller still. Coneflower sends
up stalks three or four feet high bearing heads with
drooping yellow rays and a brown-black disc. In the
same month, wild bergamot is pale lilac; butterfly-
weed, a milkweed without milky juice, is orange; and
wild indigo, the shrub New Jersey tea. and Culver's
root are all white. The settlers used Culver's root to
make a decoction for malaria ("We now came to
where the water was very bad. the country being flat
and the water stagnant. After straining, it would still
exhibit live insects, which they call wiggles.").
Later in the summer, goldenrods, sunflowers, and
five-foot-tall rosinweeds bear yellow flowers. There are
several species of each to be found on the relicts to-
day. Some, such as rigid goldenrod. grow on either
wet or dry sites, but others are more restricted. Gray
goldenrod, a short plant with dense grayish-white
hair, is a part of the vegetation of the drier prairies
with bush clovers and Indian tobacco. Riddell's gold-
enrod, with scythe-shaped leaves folded lengthwise,
and giant goldenrod grow in wet soil with rattlesnake-
master and closed gentian.
In September and October, when the big bluestem
is tall and bearing its turkeyfoot racemes, the asters
and blazing-stars close out the season. The bur oak
leaves turn to reds and browns. Some fall with the
first frosts, but others hang on, dropping a few at
a time through the winter.
The relict sites are too small to provide testimony
on the animals, except possibly for some of the in-
vertebrates and small mammals. The prairie vole, for
example, can still be taken on some sites, but the
runways in the bluegrass of the surrounding country-
side are those of its relative the meadow vole. From
historical records we know that deer were present. A
winter traveler in Calhoun County, Michigan, wrote:
"But, lost as I was. I could not help pausing
frequently when I struck the first burr-oak opening I
had ever seen, to admire its novel beauty. It looked
more like a pear-orchard than anything else to which
I assimilate it — the trees being somewhat of the shape
and size of full-grown pear trees, and standing at
regular intervals apart from each other on the firm
level soil. . . . Here, too. I first saw deer in herds;
and half-frozen and weary as I was. the sight of the
spirited-looking creatures sweeping in troops through
these interminable groves, where any eye could follow
them for miles over the smooth snowy plain, actually
warmed and invigorated me. and I could hardly re-
frain from putting the rowels into my tired horse, and
launching after the noble game."
From similar accounts we know that there were
bison and elk. although these were all but gone by the
time the settlers arrived. There were badgers, and a
few survive today, not on the prairies, but here and
there in the less frequented parts of the countryside
where they have managed to escape the attention of
man. The massasauga is now a bog species for the
same reason; in early times it was common on the
prairies ("We camped out two nights . . . and slept
without any apprehension, except from the prairie
rattlesnake, a small but very poisonous reptile,
frequently to be seen in these parts.").
The gray wolf roamed both the prairie and the for-
est; stories, possibly slightly enhanced in memory, of
nocturnal encounters with wolf packs form substan-
tial portions of the published recollections of the pio-
neers ("Coming to a tamarack swamp we made up
our mind our only salvation was to strike a fire, for
the wolves were on our track and when darkness
fairly set in an attack was certain.") .
The pioneers had little to say about birds, although
as early as 1838 a catalog of the birds of Ohio was
published by Jared P. Kirtland and a year later, one
for Michigan by Abraham Sager. The relicts are not
very informative either; the birds that visit the narrow
strips are mainly those that nest in the adjoining vege-
tation. There is, nevertheless, a fascination in trying
to reconstruct from knowledge of the present-day
habitats of birds and from limited historical informa-
tion what the bird community of the early grasslands
might have been like. If I were the man on horseback,
what birds would have been singing about me in the
summer or swirling across the snowy plain ahead of
me in winter?
JL or the last eight years I have studied an area of
about 40 acres of unmowed hayfield in Kalamazoo
County, Michigan. The plants of this grassland are
not prairie plants; there is brome grass instead of
bluestem and alfalfa instead of beach-pea or bush
lespedeza. But in other ways — general structure and
appearance, the amount of new plant material pro-
duced in a season — the resemblance is tolerably close.
In this area, the most common bird species are red-
winged blackbirds. Henslow's sparrows, bobolinks,
Eastern meadowlarks. Savannah sparrows, ring-
necked pheasants, short-billed marsh wrens, and dick-
cissels. This provides a starting point that can be
checked against other sources.
A paper read by L. Whitney Watkins before the
second meeting of the Michigan Academy of Sciences
in 1895 deals with birds of open country and is one
of the first papers written on the subject of bird com-
munities. We do not need Watkins to tell us that the
introduced ring-necked pheasant would have been ab-
sent in earlier times, but he does confirm that in place
of the pheasant there were probably bobwhites on the
drier sites and prairie chickens on the moister ones.
He indicates also that the red-winged blackbird was
probably all but absent from the original grasslands
("once found to leave its customary reeds and cattails
in the bog and build its nest in a tuft of grass in an
open marsh"). From this source and others are de-
rived the following lists, which represent my best an-
swers— or guesses — to the question of what birds char-
acterized the eastern grasslands 1 50 vears ago;
Winter
Red-tailed hawk
Rough-legged hawk
Marsh hawk
Sparrow hawk<
Prairie chicken
Bobwhite
Mourning dove
Snowy owl
Short-eared owl
Horned lark
Northern shrike
Common redpoll
Summer
Mallard
Swallow-tailed kite
Red-tailed hawk
Marsh hawk
Sparrow hawk
Prairie chicken
Bobwhite
Sandhill crane
Upland plover
Mourning dove
Short-eared owl
Nighthawk
Short-billed marsh wren
Loggerhead shrike
Bobolink
Eastern meadowlark
Dickcissel
Grasshopper sparrow
Henslow"s sparrow
Vesper sparrow
American tree sparrow
Lapland longspur
Snow bunting
Some of the birds listed did not restrict their move-
ments to the prairies. The mallard female nested there
within walking distance of water; the sparrow and
red-tailed hawks nested in trees but searched the
prairies for mice or grasshoppers. Having included
these species, we might well include several others:
where a bur oak provided a suitable nest site, eastern
kingbirds would be a part of the community, and in
the shrubbier areas with gray dogwood and prairie
willows, there would be song sparrows or field spar-
rows.
Some of the species deserve further comment.
What of the swallow-tailed kite, now a scarce bird of
southern swamps? According to Kirtland, it was
present on the prairies of Ohio where it fed on snakes
and frogs, but disappeared quickly as the land was
broken. Farther south on the small prairies of Ken-
tucky, southern Illinois, and Indiana, the Mississippi
kite also was present. Robert Ridgway visited Fox
Prairie. Illinois, in August, 1872:
"As we came well out on the prairie, a beautiful
and unlooked-for sight appeared; in short, we were
completely transfixed by the to us novel spectacle of
numerous exquisitely graceful swallow-tailed kites
floating about on buoyant wings, now gliding to the
m^-^Nen:
:t^-
right or left, then sweeping in broad circles. Soaring
lightly above them were many Mississippi kites, of
w^ich one would now and then close its wings and
plunge downward, as if to strike the very earth, but
instantly checking the velocity of its fall by sudden
spreading of the wings, would then shoot upward
again almost to the height from which it had de-
scended. When two or more passed one another at
opposite angles— as frequently happened— the sight
was beautiful in the extreme."
R
_ idgway visited the prairie again, twelve years
later: "The change which had taken place in the in-
terval was almost beyond belief. Instead of an abso-
lutely open prairie some six miles broad by ten in
extreme length, covered with its original characteristic
vegetation, there remained only 160 acres not under
fence.'' The kites were gone.
Some open country species, however, increased or
even invaded the region as the forests were cleared
and pastures and fields of row crops spread over the
land. The horned lark may have been one of these in
the easternmost prairies. I have listed it only as a
winter resident, represented by the yellow-browed
northern subspecies that came down from Canada to
32
^
-•'• -k;^
'?jr
feed in the sparser grasslands and along the lake
shores. The prairie subspecies that now nests in the
region may not have arrived from the west until after
man had opened up the country. Another grassland
bird not originally present may have been the Sa-
vannah sparrow. According to Morris Gibbs, a physi-
cian who prepared the first list of birds of Kalamazoo
County, Michigan, the sparrow was unknown there
until 1873 or 1874 and was not yet known to nest in
the county in 1885 when Gibbs prepared his catalog.
From Michigan it moved southward, reaching north-
ern Ohio sometime after 1903.
Other species may belong in this same category,
but the absence of a species from the early lists is not
always evidence that it was not present. None of the
early lists, for example, includes the Henslow's spar-
row, but it is easy to see how that inconspicuous,
almost inarticulate little bird could have been over-
looked. I would guess that its strange evening chorus
of hiccup-like notes was the one most characteristic
sound of the eastern prairies, more so than the boom-
ing of the prairie chicken, the trill of the short-billed
marsh wren, or the bubbling, tinkling flight song of
the bobolink.
I
n the winter, I often walk from one end of the
hayfield that I study to the other without raising a
bird. Much the same must have been true of the
prairies. I once saw a flock of snow buntings, several
thousand, that had spent the winter on Prairie Ronde,
in Michigan, feeding in fields of unharvested sorghum
and, with horned larks and Lapland longspurs, in pig-
pens and on recently manured fields. As I watched
the sight, I imagined that I was seeing what a pioneer
on Prairie Ronde might have seen 140 years ago.
Snowflake is the old-time name for the snow bunting,
and at times so many birds were in the air, swirling
and flashing white, that the flocks did look like blow-
ing snow. But then 1 walked along an abandoned rail-
road right-of-way where a few patches of prairie vege-
tation still grow. The snow was deep, and the only
food to be seen was a sparse selection of goldenrod
and aster fruits of little food value and coneflower
and sunflower fruits which, from their size, may be a
little more nourishing. If such flocks lived on the early
prairies they must have moved often, as they ex-
hausted the food, and after they had gone, the plains
must have seemed even emptier.
The treelessness of the prairies puzzled the early
travelers and naturalists. Why should one piece of
land support prairie while another, not far away, held
maples and beeches with trillium and Solomon's seal
in the shade below? Many answers have been proposed.
The dense prairie sod, wet in spring and dry in au-
tumn, is a poor seedbed for trees. In many trees the
roots must join with fungi in unions called mycor-
rhizae to function well; possibly these fungi were ab-
sent from the grasslands. The climate of the region
where the eastern prairies occur is peculiar, with a
strong tendency towards drought and high tempera-
tures in the summer. Fires favor grassland over forest.
A fire sweeping through the dry grass of a prairie at
the end of a growing season does little harm to the
grasses; indeed, they may well make better growth the
next year because of it. But a small tree, the result of
several seasons' precarious survival, will probably be
killed. After Indian fires were stopped, the pioneers
saw enough instances of trees invading grassland to
convince ttiem that burning was important in the
maintenance of many grasslands. In the oak openings
region, the Indian word for fire, sciitay, or sco-tay,
also meant prairie.
The ability of grassland to resist the encroachment
of forest is probably explained by some combination
of these possibilities, but they do not get at the ques-
tion of how prairie came to be there at all. There is
still no completely satisfactory answer to this prob-
lem, but it is clear that the answer, like many answers
in ecology, must consider history as well as contem-
porary environment. One possible reconstruction goes
something like this:
When the last glaciers of the Wisconsin period left
the region some ten or fifteen thousand years ago,
pioneer plants invaded the bare glacial drift. Under
the cool, moist climate that prevailed as the glaciers
wasted away to the north, tundra and then a forest of
spruce and fir developed. A long, warm period fol-
lowed, eliminating the spruces and firs. They were
replaced by trees adjusted to warmer conditions. The
warm climate became increasingly dry. In this xero-
thermic period dry forests and grassland expanded at
the expense of other vegetation. Grassland and the
animals associated with it pushed eastward and sent a
peninsula of prairie to Ohio and beyond. More
recently, the climate has become cooler and moister.
Botanists studying the fossil pollen of northern bog
lakes find an increase in the pollen of trees of cool,
moist conditions. The grasslands and dry forests
apparently shrank as the forests made up of these
trees expanded.
One point of debate is. when did the eastward mi-
gration of prairie species occur? Much of the move-
ment may have been in a postglacial xerothermic pe-
riod as in the reconstruction just given, but there are
at least two other possibilities for which support can
be found. It is possible that the open vegetation that
Conlinucil on page 1 10
Base (0-15 seconds): (1) RP3, p3 (2)
RP4, beh p3 (3) RP4 fr. wind.
STIM. 15 sec.
p
I Response (15-60"): (1) no resp. (2) sp2,
alert, ho, cr2 dart Ep3
[ Retnrn to normal (5-6 minutes): (1)
Th, pu (2) Th (3) N (3) Iv p3, ho cr2
(1) MD (2) MD (1) Th, Th (2)
desc RP3, beh p3
Or:
THREE
FLEEING
BULLHEADS
by John Bardach and Trudy Villars
36
The strange code at left is an al-
most direct transcription of the be-
havior of a bullhead (Ictalurus na-
talis) community of three, after the
introduction of an alien smell into
their tank. The base is background
information: all three fish are
quiet, on the bottom of the tank
(RP — resting position) each in its
own territory or shelter, (either in-
side a broken clay flower pot p3 —
pot #3) , behind the pot (beh p3) , or
at the front of the tank (fr. wind).
Upon introduction of the smell
fSTIM.) all show signs of anxiety
by "breathing" harder (sp — stress
pump), and of alertness by hov-
ering, cruising, and then darting
into the safety of the central clay
pot (Ep 3 — enter pot #3). Five
minutes later, as their fear dimin-
ishes, the original resident of the
central pot ejects the two sudden
visitors with some mild threats: Th,
thrust: N, nip; pu, push; and MD,
mouth display. They leave (Iv) and
return to their original positions.
Olfactory acuity in fishes is re-
markable. The late Harold Teich-
mann trained small eels to detect
phenylethyl alcohol at a concentra-
tion so low that only one or two of
the alcohol molecules could be
found in the animals' nasal cham-
bers when they responded.
Another fish with a keen sense of
smell is the skipjack tuna, a fast-
swimming predator well capable of
using olfaction to approach its
prey. We tested tuna scent-tracking
methods and found that when a
cupful of water in which a speci-
men of their customary prey had
resided for about a minute was
poured into their large circular ba-
sin (the volume of about a tank
car), the tuna began a frantic
search. The number of scent mole-
cules available to the tuna inust
have been about the same as in the
case of Teichmann's eels.
Fishes are able to detect ex-
tremely dilute concentrations of an
olfactory stimulus, but this does not
necessarily mean that they have the
ability to make fine distinctions be-
tween slightly different smells; they
may be sensitive to only a few sub-
stances. Observations by a student
of Von Frisch, however, indicate
otherwise. W.L. Wrede noted that
different fishes smell differently,
even to us, as anyone can test for
himself when he sniffs at a freshly
caught carp, a sunfish, or perhaps
an eel. She demonstrated that fish
also can distinguish several species
of fishes by smell. Another student
of Von Frisch then demonstrated
that the small minnow Phoxinus
could be trained to recognize by
smell individual members of its
own species.
For some fish, at least, olfaction
appears to be a very sensitive and
discriminating sense. Yet, as we
tried to determine how the bullhead
locates food, it became apparent
that smell didn't seem to be in-
volved at all; the fish proved to us
that they could locate food solely
by taste. They are unusually well
fitted for gustatory searching be-
cause they have tens of thousands
of taste buds all over their bodies,
especially concentrated at the tips
of their barbels — the long, slender
projections from their lips.
Seiendipity led us to determine
exactly what the nose does for our
bullheads. Hundreds of tanks in our
laboratory serve as temporary
homes for the fish. Some contain
several small fish, while others hold
one large, tough old fighter. One
evening, two neighboring tanks
were not completely covered. One
of these tanks had three medium-
sized, sleek bullheads, which had
formed a stable community for tem-
porary coexistence. The other tank
contained one large fish. The next
morning the tank with the three
fish ^vas empty, ^vhile the tank with
the solitary inhabitant was the
scene of nocturnal mayhem. The
three smaller fish had jumped into
their neighbor's tank and had been
severely beaten. We returned them
to their original tank, and after
they recovered they resumed their
communal existence. Several days
later a small beaker of water from
the tank in which they had under-
gone their traumatic experience was
gently poured through the water fil-
ter of their tank so that the visual
and vibratory clues would be elimi-
nated. After a few seconds, terror
struck the three fish. Each darted,
apparently in extreme fright, to its
respective shelter in its own ter-
ritory. This was a highly specific
response to some chemical stimulus,
through either smell or taste. We
remembered that the earlier Ger-
man experiments, as well as our
own, had shown that gustation was
clearly involved in food search,
even though smell is the keener
sense. Therefore we followed the
hunch that smell, rather than gusta-
tion, was the key to this kind of so-
cial response.
Although there is much research
on olfaction in fishes, especially its
function in detecting food and in
the homing behavior of such fish as
salmon, its role in their social, or
even sexual, behavior is still rela-
tively unknown. Our observations
encouraged us to examine the na-
ture of the chemical stimulus of
smell. What kind of compound is it,
is it soluble or volatile, what rela-
tion does it bear to commonly en-
countered, or specific, rare chem-
icals in the environment, and what
is its source? We were also inter-
ested in the role of the receptors
and central nervous system in be-
havior.
In fish, as in other vertebrates,
smell and taste are two separate
channels for the reception of chem-
ical stimuli. Each reacts to a differ-
ent category of stimuli (although
there is some overlap; for example,
certain amino acids are both
smelled and tasted). The taste ca-
pabilities are restricted to the con-
ventional sweet, salty, sour, and bit-
ter soluble compounds, with some
peculiar permutations and com-
binations of these basic categories.
Compounds that fishes smell belong
to a variety of chemical substances,
mostly volatile.
In analyzing the role of these
chemical substances in behavior we
used two basic experimental meth-
ods, behavioral observations and
conditioning. The behavior code
that begins this article is an ex-
ample of how the observations were
recorded, using a table of 56 behav-
ioral units prepared by fellow re-
searcher John Todd. These units
can be roughly classified into a
feeding group, a social group, and
a neutral group. The following,
condensed table describes some of
the more important units in the so-
57
cial and neutral groups. With this
shorthand system we documented
observations of the fishes' reactions
to their customary tankmates or to
a strange fish.
Neutral :
(or) Cruise: neutral swimming.
Enter: going into a shelter.
Hover: being suspended in
one place, with slight fin and
tail movements.
Resting position: parts of
lower side of fish resting on
bottom.
(El
(ho)
(RP)
Social:
(apl Approach: cruising toward
another fish,
(av) Avoid: turning and cruising
away from another fish.
(Bi) Bite: long mouth contact with
other fish, frequently gripping
the other with his jaws.
(MD) Mouth display: mouth opened
threateningly, resembling a
"silent roar."
(MFj Mouth fight: two fish grab
each odier by the jaw and tug
at one another violently.
(RP5) Resting position 5: last in a
series indicating closeness to
substrate. An escape behavior
visible only in defeated fish in
which it appears to cringe and
attempts to melt into the bot-
tom.
(sp) Stress pump: high intensity
breathing, indication of "'anx-
iety" or stress.
(Th) Thrust: lateral head and body
swings aimed at the opponent.
(WP) Window push: escape behav-
ior in which fish pushes his
nose vigorously against the
^vindow.
After observing small commu-
nities of these catfish we soon sus-
pected that the bullheads recognize
each other as individuals. There is
a regularity in their reactions to
one another and each fish's re-
sponse patterns vary with the indi-
vidual to which it responds. For ex-
ample, a fish whose rank in the
tank is about in the middle will
avoid those fish that have proved to
be stronger. When they approach
he might flee or hover in a weak,
defensive position calculated to ap-
pease his opponents. This same
fish, however, might show a great
deal of aggression toward a smaller
fish less capable of defending itself.
These patterns are highly con-
sistent, so much so that it is usually
possible to identify a fish by its be-
havior toward another fish; even
slightly changed patterns are quite
noticeable.
Observations of numerous bull-
head communities revealed ( 1 ) that
bullheads recognize as individuals
other bullheads with w-hom they
share a large tank, (2) that it is
primarily the nose and therefore
the sense of smell that mediates this
recognition, (3) that there is an
adaptive advantage for fishes of
such home range habits as the bull-
head in recognizing its neighbor,
and (4) that an adverse experience
such as a fight changes an animal's
odor, and after an encounter he is
not recognized any more by mem-
bers of a community with whom he
had previously established stable
relations. Proof that recognition
is dependent upon olfactory, not
taste, input was obtained by means
of conditioned reflex training of
certain bullheads. Todd simulated,
under controlled conditions, the sit-
uation that had first made us note
the involvement of smell in social
behavior, namely, clear-cut reac-
tions— in the absence of visual or
tactile clues — to the water from the
tanks of other fishes. Tiers of
aquariums held test fish and smell
donors in solitary confinement. The
test fish were trained with food re-
ward and electric shock punishment
to discriminate between the tank
waters of two donors. When the ol-
factory epithelium of a trained fish
was destroyed by cold cautery,
however, it was no longer able to
discriminate between the tank wa-
ters, a good indication that the
distinction was dependent on smell.
The reaction of the test bullhead
to the tank water paired in reflex
training with electric shock was one
of flight, with occasional elements
of mild aggression. This is reminis-
cent of the behavior of the second
or third ranking member of a three-
fish community of untrained fish.
The response of a bullhead to an
unknown bullhead is outright ag-
gression, but attacks against famil-
iar fish, when they occur, are less
intense. Using aggression as a mea-
sure of recognition, Jelle Atema,
another researcher working with us,
found that interference with ol-
factory input resulted in increased
aggression against both known and
unknown fish.
Aggression is an emotional re-
sponse controlled in mammals and
man by the limbic system, a set of
ganglia and their converging neu-
rons interposed between higher and
lower brain centers. This system is
analogous to the fish forebrain, the
area most prominently involved in
fish smell. It may be coincidence,
but interesting nevertheless, that in
bullheads interference with smell or
the forebrain promotes aggression.
There are three characteristics
that might account for the unique
odor of a fish. These are its slime
I continuously produced by mucous
glands in the skin), its urine, and
its feces. All three enter the water.
Of these, slime and urine are most
likely to change with different con-
A bullhead fight :
fish at top aims lateral
head and body swings (thrust
behavior) at an intruder.
CHARACTERISTIC
BULLHEAD BEHAVIOR
Dig and headstand
ditions. such as trauma, that the
fish encounters. The appearance of
stress products in fish urine after
exposure of the fish to oxygen depri-
vation or temperature shock has
been reported.
We believe the urine is only a
minor factor in recognition by
smell because of strong evidence
that the slime is the prime contrib-
utor. Pat Dubowey. a graduate stu-
dent in our lab. trained each of sev-
eral bullheads to recognize the dif-
ference between the slime of specific
other bullheads. She carefully rinsed
the animals with neutral water and
then swabbed the slime only from
the dorsal region of the donors.
The cotton wool swab was rinsed
into a beaker so that the slime-
containing water could then be used
as stimulus. Because the slime was
taken from the donor's back, far
from the vent, urine was ruled out
as a contributor. The experimental
subjects learned well to dis-
criminate between the slime of two
donor fish ( as Todd's fish had
learned to discriminate between the
waters in which t^vo donor fish had
resided I . However, when she sub-
jected her donors to forced hostile
encounters by introducing them
into a strange tank, the slime col-
lected from them for a day or two
after the encounter was not recog-
nized by the experimental subjects.
Assuming that recognition by
smell is based on a specific chemical
signature, it is to be expected that
this signature is blurred or altered
because of stress-product-induced
changes in the metabolism of the
animal after a fight. A small number
of distinct chemicals, perhaps three
or four, would be enough to give
each fish its chemical signature,
provided the chemicals occur in dis-
tinguishably different amounts in
the slime of each fish. Xonrecogni-
tion following stress may be the re-
sult of the addition of a compound
(or compounds I not present before,
or it may be caused by an alteration
in the levels of pieviously present
components. Nonrecognition may
simply be caused by the greatly
heightened production, under stress,
of one of the components of the
smell, similar to certain insects
where a pheromone at a low con-
centration initiates aggregation and
at a high concentration, flight.
The existence of chemical com-
munication in aquatic animals by
means of social pheromones is one
of those subtle evolutionary adjust-
ments to a complex ecological situ-
ation that may well be upset by
man. Man-made additives to natu-
ral waters can stop chemical recog-
nition in two ways. Some com-
pounds, such as detergents and
possibly hydrocarbon insecticides,
depress or eliminate the function of
chemoreceptors. Other compounds
may act as pheromone analogues or
interfere with a pheromonal code.
Thus, messages may not be received
or their meaning may be altered.
These are sublethal pollution ef-
fects. They do not kill the animals,
but they confuse them so that they
cease to behave normally. Even-
tually fish may be decimated in this
manner just as effectively as if they
had been poisoned outright.
Originally, our bullhead research
was specifically directed to the
chemistry of smells, the physiology
of olfaction, the interpretation of
scents by the central nervous sys-
tem, and species specific beha\'ior.
As we proceeded we realized that
this research applies to a very
subtle aspect of pollution, the inter-
ference with natural smells by man-
made ones. We now have at least
the technical, if not the social,
know-how to deal with the massive
addition to our waters of domestic
effluents or most industrial poisons,
but alleviation of subleihal pollu-
tion effects requires more knowl-
edge than we presently possess. We
hope that our research findings
have at least made a beginning
toward understanding and con-
sequently repairing some of the
damage man has unwittingly
wrought in aquatic ecosystems.
Refuge in a fiowerpo
two small LuUlieads take com
in another's shelter aft
detecting an alien sine.
L
The life here is not dramatic on the surface; we don't go down to the sea in
currachs, we only go to the creamery with the horse and cart. There are no
great forests here or no great lakes or no great deserts to feed the imagination.
There are no earthquakes or great floods or hurricanes to remind us that life
is wonderful and terrible. It is a land of little fields and of people who
lead what seem to be uneventful lives. You think about "the long littleness
of life" and in infertile moments you say to yourself "that's this place,
all right. " But in your secret heart you know you are wrong. You know
that under the accretions is the profound life, almost smothered by the
inhibitions engendered by a land where there is so little spiritual room,
almost worn away by the attrition of living, but always alive and now and
then reaching the surface.
Human nature may be the same from China to Peru but the life of a place is
powerfully influenced by the shape of the landscape, the color of the sky,
the sun and the rain, the history of the people. The life takes on its
own unique texture.
Words of a Kerryman
43
44
W^r.
,^i
PHOTOGRAPHS BY LISA STEPHENS^
45
The rocky Dingle Peninsula of West Kerry juts
out from southwestern Ireland into the purple-
blue Atlantic Ocean. At the tip of the peninsula, west
of the main town of Dingle and over the windswept
mountains, lies a stark, rugged plain of some 100
square miles that slants down to the sea. On this
gray land, beneath looming Mount Brandon, a few
thousand Irish live on scattered farms and in small
hamlets of the parishes of Ballydavid, Ballyferriter,
and Dunquin.
The whole fabric of their lives contains many
threads of the old way. The people speak Gaelic,
the ancient language of Ireland. They live off the
land, subsisting mainly on the crops they grow, with
a small cash income from the sale of fresh cream
and hvestock. The rhythms of their daily and yearly
hves follow the changing seasons.
When winter comes in November, the wind
blows in hard off the Atlantic, past the great head-
lands of Brandon, Sybil, and Slea, bringing cold
rain and sending life inward. Except for trips to the
creamery, little is done outside the wall that en-
closes the haggard, or farmyard, and shelters both
men and animals. The men patch and repair equip-
ment, rebuild walls, spread sand over the mud paths
and shed floors. The women, caught in a dawn-to-
dark cycle of cooking, baking, milking, knitting,
mending, washing, feeding chickens, and other
chores change their routine little throughout the
year. "One woman in the house," suggests an old
proverb, "should be always working." The easing
of field chores enables the farmer to take part in
the annual holiday season, from Advent, the fourth
Sunday before Christmas, to Epiphany, January 6.
Then the farmer begins his annual work again:
planning the spring planting, cleaning out ditches
and drains on clear days, preparing seeds. The talk
at night around the turf fire is about the fields, the
croos, calving.
The farmer's spring begins on St. Bridget's Day,
February 1 . Hard, clear days occasionally break the
winterlong monotony of almost constant rain and
clouds. The wet, brown fields, coated in the fall
with kelp, begin to dry. In February and March the
farmer tills the field, plants potatoes and mangles,
and then sows the wheat and oats. In spare time the
kitchen garden is turned over and planted with cab-
bage, onion sets, and other vegetables. Within the
haggard, the pace quickens, too. The newborn pig-
lets, lambs, and calves must be tended. Milk pro-
duction increases, and cows are milked twice a day.
The evening milk is set aside in cans for the morn-
ing delivery by horse-drawn cart to the cooperative
creamery. No refrigeration is needed because the
sea winds are always cool.
By May, as the weather grows warmer and the
number of sunny days increases, the bogs have
dried out enough for the annual digging of the peat.
Pushing on his sharp-edged sldn, the farmer slices
neat rectangular clumps of peat from the bog and
stacks them carefully in piles to dry out in the sum-
mer sun. The first vegetables are taken from the
garden, bringing a welcome change to the winter-
long staples of potatoes, bread, milk, eggs, bottled
cheeses, and canned beans.
The main harvest begins in late July or early
August, when all thoughts and energies are directed
to gathering first the hay, then the oats. The harvest
is always a race against the wet weather that comes
in early fall.
From September through November, life ebbs
back to the haggard and the house. The hay is
brought into the haggard and carefully stacked in
the great hayrick. Turf, dried by the brief summer
sun, is brought down from the bog ricks to the
farm. The root crops are pulled, sorted, and stored.
The day shortens, the weather worsens, and life
turns inward again. The men gather in the evening
at certain farmhouses or at small crossroads pubs
to talk, to listen to the radio, to play cards.
For the children, who participate in the daily and
seasonal tasks, the compulsory primary school im-
poses another pattern on their lives. Many walk
miles every day through sodden fields, over bracken-
covered hills, and down boreens to reach the paved
road leading to the single parochial school in each
parish. While most children end their formal ed-
ucation with primary school, a few go over the
mountain to the secondary school at Dingle, but the
difficulties of travel and the fees, although small,
put this level of education beyond the means of the
average family.
The cold, dark month of December is a holiday
period. Children are home from school. Prepara-
tions are made for holiday meals. Young people
play the accordion, as their elders played the fiddle.
Families sing and listen to stories, although the
great storytellers are disappearing along with the
fiddlers — both seemingly replaced by the radio.
Early on the day after Christmas, called The
Day of the Wren, groups of young and old, wear-
ing costumes and masks, go from door to door ask-
ing for money. They carry musical instruments and
sing songs. As the day continues, they work their
way into Dingle, where the celebrating continues
far into the night. This traditional day of public
ribaldry, so unlike the other 364 toil-filled days of
the farmer's year, is strangely appropriate. It sym-
bolizes the struggle of men who, by persistently
clinging to an ancient language, to a poetic speech,
to stirring songs, and outlandish symbols, demon-
strate that the human spirit can prevail.
46
Dingle Peninsula
Atlantic Ocean
Sybil Point
a
o
Siea Head
Brandon Point
47
49
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54
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56
57
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62
C"^
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64
66
A dramatization of "Chicken Little" in Gaelic.
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71
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On the Day of the Wren, December 26, masked revelers trek through the streets to Dingle.
m
The country was full to ttw lid of songs and stories, and you would not put a stir
out of you from getting up in the morning to lying down at night but you would meet
a poet, man or woman, making songs on all that would be happening.
It is not now as it was then, but it is like a sea on ebb, and only pools here
and there left among the rocks."
Thomas O' Crithin
90
ofCODirailsjusundCO.
bv Henry Lanslord
"Rain follows the plow." During
the last part of the nineteenth cen-
tury, when the Great Plains of the
United States were opened up to
homesteaders, that catchphrase was
the sodbuster's central article of
faith and the shibboleth of the
prophets of manifest destiny. It
neatly expressed the Avidely held
belief that breaking ground for ag-
riculture would produce a prompt
and substantial increase in precipi-
tation on the semiarid high plains,
which Maj. S. H. Long had called
the "Great American Desert."
The idea was generally accepted
both by promoters and by home-
steaders for whom it filled a deep
emotional need. But believers also
included many scientists and public
officials who should have been
more skeptical. For this belief was
based on a combination of wishful
thinking and bad logic: Home-
steaders had plowed and planted
the land, followed by several years
of decent rainfall, more than had
been noted previously. Therefore,
rain must follow the plow.
The logic was refuted soon
enough by half a century of alter-
nating dry and not-so-dry spells,
marching along in a heartbreaking
cycle that could dry up a farm and
bloiv it away just when the home-
steader had decided, on the
strength of three or four good
years, that he was going to succeed.
The Dust Bowl years of the 1930's
underlined the inescapable con-
clusion that the climate had been
swinging through natural variations
unaffected by man's scrabbling at
the face of the earth.
The settlers of the Great Plains
ivere neither the first nor the last
men to jump to unwarranted con-
clusions about man's effects on
\\'eather and climate. The ancients
believed that great battles brought
deluges sent by the gods to wash
away the blood and gore. And in
our time, during a long East Coast
rainy spell that followed the Apollo
11 moon landing, television weath-
ermen received many telephone
calls from people who were certain
that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Al-
drin had somehow put an end to
clear days and sunny skies.
But can skepticisrri go too far?
Although the above notions have
no apparent scientific basis, many
atmospheric scientists are now con-
vinced that man is indeed changing
weather and climate, perhaps on a
large scale, and doing so quite
unintentionally. The changes are
side effects from various human ac-
tivities. Some of these scientists can
support their hypotheses with de-
tailed documentation. Others admit
that they are speculating, but their
scientific credentials, and the poten-
tial consequences of events they
suspect are taking place, present a
powerful argument for promptly
and thoroughly investigating the
effects of human activities on the
atmospheric environinent.
Most weather phenomena involve
tremendous amounts of energy. The
source of this energy is our nearest
star, the sun. Each week, our planet
receives more energy from the sun
than that contained in all the coal,
oil, and gas that man has ever
burned and in all the known re-
serves of these fossil fuels on earth.
Much of this short-wave solar
92
energy passes through the atmo-
sphere, is absorbed by the land and
the oceans, and is radiated back
into the atmosphere as long-wave
heat energy, which provides the
driving force for the large-scale
motions of the atmosphere. Even a
brief, local thunderstorm involves
energy that probably equals the
amount released by several hydro-
gen-bomb explosions.
How, then, can the side effects of
man's puny enterprises influence
systems of such enormous energy?
The answer may be expressed in an
elementary analogy. How can a
man stop a charging rhinoceros by
twitching his right index finger?
Triggering mechanisms, by which a
small input sets off a large result,
can determine the behavior of
weather systems just as a squeeze
of the trigger finger can send out a
high-powered bullel and stop a
rhinoceros.
1 can see one highly visible ex-
ample of an atmospheric triggering
mechanism by looking out of my
window at the National Center for
Atmospheric Research in Boulder,
Colorado. High-flying jet airliners
traverse the skies over this area al-
most constantly. Often, on a bright
morning in fall or winter, I look
out my window to see white trails
beginning to cross the sky. These
are contrails — condensation trails —
triggered by jet aircraft. The gen-
eral public began seeing these when
high-flying jet bombers, such as the
B-52. came into use. The advent of
jet airliners has made them an in-
creasingly common sight over much
of the world. Produced by the com-
bination of heat, moisture, and par-
ticulate matter in the jet-engine ex-
haust, they are simply highly local-
ized artificial clouds.
At first, the contrails over Boul-
der are like clean chalk lines on a
blackboard. Sometimes ihey vanish
imniedialely. But if conditions are
just right, they start to blur and
spread : by midafternoon they often
merge into a thin layer of cirrus —
wispy, high-altitude clouds com-
posed of tiny ice crystals. Some
meteorologists call them "false cir-
rus" to distinguish them from cir-
rus formed without the benefit of
jet aircraft. But they are identical
in every other respect to "'natural"
cirrus clouds.
Is this inadvertent triggering im-
portant in the development of
weather patterns? Will it become
more significant as jet aircraft be-
come bigger and more numerous?
Dr. Walter Orr Roberts, presi-
dent of the University Corporation
for Atmospheric Research, has
been watching contrails for many
years and speculating about their
influence on weather. He says that
we simply lack enough data to pre-
dict the consequences of present
trends in air-transport technology,
and adds that it's rather late to
start such studies after the new
technology lias arri\ed and begun
affecting the environment.
First. Roberts feels we should
find a solid, quantitative answer to
the question of whether man's in-
tervention via jet aircraft operation
is actually adding to the cirrus
cover. If the jets are creating cirrus
that would not have formed natu-
rally, how does this affect weather,
iiiid what will hapijcn when the era
93
Increasing amount? of carbon dioxide tend
to lieat tlie earth. Sunlight reaches
the surface, but the resuhing heat energy
cannot escape back into space.
of the supersonic transports ( SST's)
becomes a reality? Again, we lack
hard data, but some scientists, deep-
ly concerned ^dth the urgency of
the problem, are willing to hazard
informed guesses.
Dr. Reid Bryson. head of the
Institute for Environmental Studies
at the University- of Wisconsin, has
speculated that we may see a strik-
ing result as soon as there are sev-
eral hundred supersonic jet trans-
ports in tlie air at the same time.
They might well produce 100 per-
cent cirrus cover over those regions
■\s-here most of them will operate.
Bryson belie^"es that such cloud
cover would definitely cause cli-
matic changes and is dismayed by
other implications of his prognosis:
"We would like our grandchildren
to experience blue skies more often
than on rare occasions." Other cli-
matologists qualify their pessi-
mism. One vie^\'point. for example, is
that of all the different types of
clouds. cirrus have tlie least
influence on our planet's heat bal-
ance: only when they become un-
commonly dense, or when they
form at unnaturally high altitudes,
are they likely to play an important
part in weather processes.
Dr. Roberts adds that the cirrus
cover could have significant effects
if it occurs in the right place at the
right time. If it is winter, persistent
and general cirrus cover over a
high-latitude region where tlie sur-
face temperature is comparatively
warm, perhaps the Gulf of Alaska,
might have an important efiect on
the global circulation. This would
result from holding back heat
energy that other^vise would escape
from the atmosphere into space.
At first glance it is tempting to
choose the simplest, cheapest way of
finding the answers, namely, to wait
and see what happens to the bal-
ance of forces in the atmosphere
i^^hen ^\"e have several hundred
SST's flying around in tlie atmos-
phere. But once you've pulled the
trigger, it's too late to change your
mind about killing the rhinoceros.
And once the general circulation
patterns of the atmosphere have
been altered, it may be too late to
reverse the processes that are caus-
ing the new kinds of weather.
Another scientist concerned -with
possible weather changes caused by
human technology is Dr. Vincent J.
Schaefer. who heads the Atmo-
spheric Science Research Center at
the State University of New York.
In 1946 he performed the first suc-
cessful cloud-seeding experiment
I see "When Will We Change the
Weather?" Natur.\l History. De-
cember. 1967). Since then, Schae-
fer has tested many cloud-seeding
techniques. But he is beginning to
suspect that he may have done
more cloud seeding inadvertently —
with his automobile — than he has
done deliberately in all his years of
research.
Cloud seeding is based on the ex-
istence of atmospheric water in the
form of supercooled clouds that are
made up of tiny, still liquid water
droplets, although tliey are colder
than 32' F.. the nominal freezing
point of water. If conditions are
right, and ice crystals do form in
such a cloud, tliey grow rapidly,
taking up moisture from the drop-
lets around them. And if enough
moisture is available, the crystals
soon grow into snowflakes large
enough to fall from tlie cloud. On a
cold day they reach the ground as
sno^v; Avhen it is ivarm. they melt
and fall as rain.
Cloud seeding is a technique for
stimulating the formation of the
first tiny ice crystals in a super-
cooled cloud. Tiny airborne par-
ticles— so-called freezing nuclei — -
serve as centers around which the
crystals form and grow. In the ab-
sence of sufficient natural nuclei, a
cloud may be seeded artificially by
introducing crystals of dry ice, sil-
ver iodide, or some other effective
substitute. The principle of most at-
94
'^0L^^^'
On the other hand, more dust in the air may cool the earth hy
reflecting sunlight away before it can reach the surface.
At left is a droplet of sulfuric acid — spewed into
the atmosphere by both natural and man-made processes —
which may also reflect significant amounts of sunlight.
tempts at deliberate weather
modification is that if the right
amount of seeding material is
placed in a cloud under the right
conditions, precipitation can be
stimulated and rain or snowfall
can be increased.
Lead iodide has proved to be an
effective seeding material; a small
quantity of lead iodide can have a
large effect on a supercooled cloud.
Although lead iodide itself is not
naturally present in the atmo-
sphere, iodine is nearly always
there. It enters the air from sea
spray, wood smoke, and other natu-
ral sources. Thus the "trigger" is
cocked; to "pull it" requires only a
source of lead to combine with the
iodine. Lead is one of the additives
in the fuel we burn in automobile
engines. Daily, in every large city,
a flood of leaded gasoline is poured
into the tanks of hundreds of thou-
sands of automobiles. The exhaust
gases from the automobiles, heavy
in lead compounds, are a major in-
gredient of the air pollution that
spreads through the atmosphere
around metropolitan areas.
Does the lead in this urban
effluent combine with the iodine in
the atmosphere to produce a com-
pound that can effectively seed su-
percooled clouds? Schaefer believes
that it does. He introduced iodine
vapor and automol)ile exhaust
gases into a laboratory cold cham-
ber, at various subfreezing tem-
peratures, and got high concentra-
tions of freezing nuclei. He
followed this experiment by com-
bining the exhaust gases with natu-
ral sources of iodine. "I have now
discovered." he reports, "that if I
burn thin wood chips in my cold
chamber and then add to the air a
sample of auto exhaust. I again
find high concentrations of ice
crystals."
He performed these laboratory
tests to try to account for some un-
usual atmospheric phenomena that
he has observed in recent years
when flying near large cities. These
phenomena include a number of
snow and rain storms in the east-
central part of New York State.
They produced snow that was al-
most like a fine dust, and rain that
drifted down in tiny droplets. The
surmise is that these storms were
overseeded by pollutants: that with
an overabundance of nuclei the
available moisture produced a tre-
mendous numlier of tiny particles,
leaving insufficient moisture to
make them grow larger. Schaefer
lias also noted another apparent re-
sult of unnatural seeding — exten-
sive plumes of ice crystals above
and downwind from large cities
such as New York. Chicago, De-
troit, and Buffalo. In sum. his ex-
periments support his theory that
the atmosphere in the vicinity of
large cities is being inadvertently
seeded by air pollutants.
This process could have a variety
of effects on the weather. It could
suppress normal precipitation by
turning all of a clouds jnoisture
into ice crystals too small to fall.
Furthermore, if an urban-produced
plume of ice crystals encounters a
large mass of moist air the sudden
sublimation of large amounts of
water vapor onto the ice crystals
could release great quantities of la-
tent heat, triggering a massive
storm. And we have already seen
that a cover of false cirrus might
alter the development of weather
systems. Like many fellow scien-
tists. Schaefer admits that he can-
not explain precisely what is hap-
pening, but he suspects that the
effects of unintentional seeding
may be ^^■idespread and serious:
"In a subtle manner it seems to be
changing the nature of clouds over
increasingly large areas of the
globe." He goes on to warn that if
pollution leads to increased dusti-
ness from ill-used land, to more
cloud nuclei from burning trash,
and to many more ice nuclei from
leaded gasoline, not only will we
95
lose the possible advantage we now
have of extracting some additional
water from our ''sky rivers," but
we might even be confronted with a
drastic change in our climatolog-
ical patterns.
It was such a change, on a local,
rather than on a global scale, that
led Stanley A. Changnon. Jr., of
the Illinois State Water Survey, to
investigate and document one of
the most striking examples of inad-
vertent weather modification that
has yet been detected. Concerning
this phenomenon. Avhich he calls
the La Porte weather anomaly,
Changnon reported: "A notable in-
crease in precipitation, moderate-
rain days, thunderstorm days, and
hail days has been occurring since
192.5 at La Porte, Indiana. Because
La Porte is .30 miles east of the
large complex of heavy industries
at Chicago, there is a strong sug-
gestion that the increases are due
to inadvertent man-made modifica-
tion."
Changnon's case for the reality
of the La Porte weather anomaly,
though circumstantial, is highly
convincing. Long-term 'sv-eather
records from La Porte show that
precipitation there increased be-
tween 30 and 40 percent over a
period of 40 years. This increase
parallels the upAvard curve of iron
and steel production in the industri-
al complex at nearby Chicago and
Gary. Indiana. The precipitation
curve follows the fluctuation of the
industrial production curve faith-
fully, swinging up in the early
1940^s when World War II caused
a sudden increase in steel produc-
tion. Analysis of the records for
1965 shows that La Porte had 31
percent more total precipitation, 38
percent more thunderstorms, and
246 percent more hail days during
that period than nearby weather
stations in Illinois, Indiana, and
Michigan. Furthermore, La Porte's
days of bad weather correlated
closely with days when Chicago's
air pollution was bad. Hence the
belief that La Porte's long run of
bad weather can be attributed to
the great quantities of heat, mois-
ture, and pollutants belched into
the atmosphere by Chicago's in- '
duslry. The heat and moisture, par-
ticularly during cool hours of night
and early morning, stimulated the
formation of cumulus clouds. Car-
ried out across the tip of Lake
Michigan by prevailing westerly
winds, the growing clouds picked
up more moisture. By the time they
reached the La Porte area, thev
A jet contrail slowly diffuses into a cirrus
cloud, below. Pollution such as that
along Lake Erie, at right, may overseed storms
downwind, producing very fine rain or snow.
96
were thunderheads ready to be
ieeded by nuclei in the pollutants
that were also drifting east from
Chicago.
Climatological records have also
led to other theories about the pos-
sible effects of human activities on
average worldwide temperature. As
with Changnon's analysis, these are
after-the-fact attempts to account
for changes shown by long-term
records. However, the La Porte
records concerned striking changes
in a local area, with a correlation
between hypothetical cause and ac-
tual effect that could be established
rather conclusively. The theories
about global temperature changes,
while they are based on facts, are
much more speculative. Long-term
records clearly indicate a gradual
but steady global warming trend
from about 1880 until 1940. This
warming was not the sort that
would substantiate the old-timer's
claim that winters aren't as hard as
they were when he was a boy. It
amounted to less than one degree
of increase in the world mean tem-
perature over a 60-year period. But
it was real enough.
Some scientists have tried to ac-
count for the trend by citing the
"greenhouse effect." Like the glass
roof of a greenhouse, atmospheric
carbon dioxide admits short-wave
radiation from the sun but blocks
the escape from earth of long-wave
heat energy. Carbon dioxide is pro-
duced when coal and oil are
burned: and the warming trend
coincided with the period when in-
dustrial growth was occurring over
much of the world. Hence the ex-
planation that man's industry nmst
have caused the trend. And, added
the Cassandras, this warming
would eventually melt the polar ice
caps, thereby raising the level of
the oceans and drowning New
York. London, and other coastal
cities. This theory has a fine apoc-
alyptic ring, and has gotten a
good bit of attention over the years
in the Sunday supplements. But as
far as logic is concerned, this is
simply a case of "rain follows the
plow" writ large. Nobody knows
enough about the actual carbon
dioxide levels, or understands the
role of carbon dioxide in the radi-
ation budget with sufficient pre-
cision, to say for certain that in-
dustry's carbon dioxide caused the
warming.
Then, about 1940, the trend be-
gan to reverse itself. Gradually, the
annual mean temperature started
Continued on page 112
MIGRATION
OF THE
BARREN-GROUND
CARIBOU
i
by John P. Kelsall
My introduction to the barren-
ground caribou, nearly two decades
ago, was an unforgettable event.
With an equally inexperienced com-
panion I camped on the Arctic
coast at Bathurst Inlet, about a mile
and a half north of the Arctic
Circle. In order to study calving
(not previously seen by scientists)
and calves, we planned to intercept
caribou migrating northward.
On May 25, 1950. two days after
we had set up our base of oper-
ations, a major caribou migration
across ten to twelve miles of sea ice
began from the far side of Bathurst
Inlet. During the next three days,
more than thirty thousand animals
crossed the ice. The feeding animals
covered the surrounding hills:
sometimes they literally stumbled
over our tent ropes. We lay motion-
less on the open ground and found
that even downwind of us caribou
would pass within ten to fifteen
feet. Their movement was accom-
panied by a steady clicking sound,
like that of castanets, produced by
the hooves with each step. Occa-
sionally, the thousands of caribou
on the ice all advanced purposefully
toward us in long, parallel files of
10 to 150 animals each, spreading
out only when they rested or fed.
Before the first movement of car-
ibou was over, a second herd ap-
proached the inlet from the oppo-
site direction, apparently to drop
their calves among the big hills just
vacated by the first herd. We were
98
treated to the sight of two major
herds of caribou migrating through
each other. Literally thousands of
animals, some files going east, some
west, countermarched across the ice
within yards of, but seemingly
oblivious to, each other.
The caribou migration generated
all sorts of activity by other ani-
mals. Eskimo hunters, after a long
winter of eating seals, came to
shoot caribou for meat, both to eat
fresh and to dry for later use.
Wolves, denning nearby, frequently
visited their kills and carried meat
back to their pups. Scavengers, too.
were active. Ravens and glaucous
gulls were common and noisy. A
pomarine jaeger and fi.ve gulls
waited for more than an hour to
feast on the remains of a freshly
killed caribou being sampled by a
wolf. A den of red foxes lived well
by scavenging.
Small, ground-nesting birds, on
the other hand, did not fare well.
Nests of Lapland longspurs. horned
larks, and golden plovers were
trampled by the hooves of passing
caribou. Larger nesting birds — wil-
low and rock ptarmigan, parasitic
jaegers, and some of the \\'ater-
fowl — defended their nests by a
form of brinkmanship. They would
sit tight until they were about to be
stepped on, then suddenly flush,
causing the startled caribou to shy
away. Whistling swans simply
drove the animals away.
We discovered a phenomenon
common to most arctic researchers
in spring and summer — sleep-
lessness. Twenty-four hours of day-
light, combined with a tundra alive
with animals, fresh growth, and
blossoming plants, made us be-
grudge the time necessary for sleep.
We shared the spirit of the Eskimo
children. Full of the joys of spring,
they simply ran until they dropped,
slept for a while, and refreshed, got
up to run again.
On the Canadian mainland bar-
ren-ground caribou {Rangifer tar-
anclus groenlandicus) have a con-
tinuous range of over 700,000
square miles, made up almost
equally of tundra — the so-called
barren grounds — and boreal, or
northern, forest. This enormous
land area has generally low relief
with elevations rarely exceeding 2,-
000 feet. The gently undulating
landscape is marked by the past ac-
tivity of glaciers — residual drum-
lins and eskers — as well as striations
and gouges on exposed rock sur-
faces. Myriad lakes range from tiny
ponds to freshwater bodies among
the largest in the world. Great Bear
Lake, for example, covers 12.000
square miles and is considerably
larger than either Lake Ontario or
Lake Erie. In some localities, lakes
Miles of icy lake present
obstacle to the caribou,
excellent swimmer. Its Canadi
range is one-third wati
*.>i^'%>
are so numerous, they cover up to
60 percent of the land area. This
accumulation of water is almost en-
tirely due to short, cool summers —
which inhibit massive evapora-
tion— and to the permanently fro-
zen subsoil, or permafrost, just a
few inches below ground level —
which inhibits drainage.
The presence of so much water is
curious because over most of the
caribou range the total annual pre-
cipitation, both rain and snow, is
within limits usually associated
with deserts. The forested parts of
the range receive an annual precipi-
tation of ten to thirteen inches, of
which about half is winter snowfall.
Northward on the tundra, precipi-
tation varies from ten inches to six
inches or less, and again, about half
of it is in the form of snow. Even
during winter caribou ranges are
not snowbound; they generally
have a snow cover of less than
twenty inches at any given time.
Temperatures in the north are
not so extreme as many people
think. I have experienced 85° F. at
the Arctic Circle in summer but,
over most of the mainland tundra,
mean maximum temperatures are
about 5° lower. Mean minimum
temperatures of — 50° F. are re-
markably similar throughout the
barren-ground caribou ranges. That
undoubtedly seems very cold to
those who have never experienced a
Canadian ^vinter. but it is not much
colder than temperatures tolerated
by hundreds of thousands of Cana-
dians in major metropolitan areas
farther south.
No thumbnail sketch of caribou
ranges is complete without mention
of the vegetation. The coniferous
forests of the winter ranges are
dominated by white and black
spruce or by jackpine, depending
on the location. In the forest, car-
Massed together during July's
plague of biting insects.
harassed herds run furiously
and erratically about the tundra.
■Jbt/i
''^*!$f^
■^m,, /w*'
-m^
^m^
%'^ft ^-f'
Castanet-like clicks — thought to
come from foot tissue movements
- hreak the snowy silence
as an Alaskan herd heads north.
ibou primarily eat lichens — the so-
called caribou moss. Using their
forehooves to dig beneath the snow,
they unearth Cladonia. Cetraria,
Peldgera, and Stereocaulon — among
the most important lichens to car-
ibou in north-central Canada. The
winter diet also includes a variety
of sedges, shrub leaves and twigs,
and arboreal lichens. Because the
slow-growing lichens preferred by
caribou are most plentiful in climax
coniferous forests, forest fires are
extremely damaging to caribou
winter ranges. Studies in Canada
show that lichens may take more
than 100 years to recover from fire
and to regain their usefulness to the
animals.
In spring, summer, and early au-
tumn, caribou are much less choosy
about what they eat. Now they are
en the tundra, where their main
foods are green-growing plants of
all sorts, particularly the new
shoots of sedges, many species of
low-growing tundra willows, and
glandular birch, as well as large
quantities of lichens. And they like
variety. I have watched caribou in
the spring select the carrotlike roots
of lousewort. Using their lips, they
worry around a plant, exposing the
root so that it can be grasped firmly
and pulled up.
Except in particularly arid or
rocky sites, there is no shortage of
food on the tundra. In this respect,
the commonly used term "barren-
grounds" is a misnomer. Ernest
jCarihou on the move form long,
j^parallel files, spreading out
|to rest or feed. Migrations
^ften exceed five hundred miles.
Thompson Seton called die tundra
range of the barren-ground caribou
by the more appropriate term "arc-
tic prairies." Although vegetation
generally grows low, in most places
it covers at least 70 percent of the
ground. In early summer. I have
competed with caribou and ground
squirrels for abundant mushrooms
and other edible fungi. Later in the
season, I have displaced ptarmi-
gan, geese, and other birds as well
as mammals in a search for cloud-
berries, bilberries, and mountain
cranberries. But on occasion I have
been displaced by the rarest great
mammal of the tundra — the barren-
ground grizzly.
The barren-ground caribou's gre-
gariousness and migratory habits
are the chief factors that complicate
its study and management. Range
maps, of the sort on page 104. can
give only a general picture of car-
ibou distribution. The southern
boundary of "extreme winter
range" shows the caribou's greatest-
known penetration of forests since
1935, and no point along it has
been reached more than twice dur-
ing that period. In winter most car-
ibou occupy the area of "usual
winter range." but specific points
within that area are generally vis-
ited by the animals no more often
than every other winter and,
frequently, not even that.
Occasionally in spring and early
summer the animals become almost
unbelievably concentrated. I once
watched northward-bound caribou
that were temporarily blocked at
the confluence of the Dubawnt and
Thelon rivers by swift waters full of
broken ice. For several days the ani-
mals jammed the shore of the river
waiting for the water to clear; so
many and so dense were they that
accurate counts were impossible.
However. experienced observers
made aerial estimates of 80,000 to
100.000 animals. y\t least one-third
of the entire caribou population
had gathered in an area of about
250 square miles.
At most times of the year barren-
ground caribou cluster together in
groups. Pregnant females enjoy a
brief solitude during calving, but
only within the restricted area of
their calving grounds. Otherwise
August is the only season in which
the animals scatter widely. Then,
the first frosts eliminate or greatly
reduce the blackflies and mos-
quitoes, which for the previous five
weeks harassed tlie herds almost to
the point of desperation and caused
the animals to lose as much as 20
percent of their body weight. No
longer plagued by tliese pests, the
caribou turn to the individual pur-
suits of resting, eating, and regain-
ing tlieir strength and weight, as
they drift southward toward the
treeline. Once there, about the end
of August, they move haphazardly
and unpredictably for a month or
more. They travel back and forth
along the treeline, sometimes pene-
trating the forests for considerable
distances before returning to the
tundra, where they coalesce once
more into aggregations that grow
larger and larger as the season ad-
vances. The rutting period in late
October and early November still
finds most of the caribou wander-
ing at the treeline.
T
he first heavy snowfall seems
to trigger migration toward the for-
ested winter ranges, even though
the rut may be in progress. The cari-
bou are usually in full migration
in November, arriving at their win-
ter quarters in early December.
There, the animals are concen-
trated and movement is leisurely.
They tend to move dow-n snow
gradients, from tliose areas where
snow is deep. hard, and dense to
where it is shallow, soft, and fluffy.
Here, travel and digging for food
is easy. While most barren-ground
caribou take to the forested ranges
in winter, there arc exceptions, and
in some years of light snow, up to
half the population has remained
on the tundra.
Starting in late March, spring
migration draws caribou from their
winter ranges to calving areas far
out on the tundra. During this mi-
gration, the pregnant cows travel
swiftly and purposefully, hindered
103
only by impassable topographical
obstacles or violent weather. After
covering vast distances, often more
than five hundred miles, tlie ani-
mals arrive on the calving grounds
by late May and drop their calves
among the melting snowdrifts in
early June.
Bulls and nonbreeding cows of-
ten lag behind but may catch up
ivith the cows during the calving
period. When they do, they congre-
gate on lush river valleys and
coastal plains, while the coW'S drop
their calves nearby on the high,
barren, and bleak country. How-
ever, when the migration routes are
long and lake and river ice breaks
up early, the laggards may become
isolated from the cows and calves
and rejoin them only in late sum-
mer. Cows and newborn calves de-
scend to lower, better pastures,
sometimes joining the bulls in the
first week of July.
Routes, ranges, and times of mi-
gration vary from year to year, but
there is an annual pattern basic to
all movements of barren-ground car-
ibou. Their travels take them in a
specific direction. In spring, migra-
tion is decidedly goal-oriented,
moving from the winter range to
the nearest calving area. As can be
seen on the map. the eastern car-
ibou migrate along an approxi-
mate north-south axis, but the west-
ern caribou's migration tends
to^vard an east— west axis — the
shortest distance between winter
and summer ranges.
Added to basic annual move-
ments are population shifts that
cause a complex and changing pic-
ture of caribou distribution -(vhen
vie^^■ed over several years. Such un-
usual movements occur during non-
migratory periods in the winter, or
after calving in the summer. At
these times, the animals may wan-
der far to one side of the lines fol-
lo-\\-ed during their previous migra-
tion. Yi'hen the next migratory
period arrives they simply head for
the nearest winter range or calving
area, depending on the season. In a
single season, caribou may shift lat-
erally several hundred miles across
normal migration lines. Movements
that cover vast distances and that
cross established migration routes
are unpredictable and. as yet.
inexplicable.
s
ince the seventeenth century
caribou have been literally the staff
of life for many of the explorers,
traders, missionaries, and other
travelers of the Canadian north and.
of course, to the native people be-
fore them. The success, or failure, of
many human enterprises has de-
pended absolutely on whether cari-
bou could be secured for food and
other needs. While travelers and
traders no longer rely on it, many
scattered residents still do. Within
the past two decades Canadian Es-
kimos have starved to death be-
cause they could not obtain caribou
and had no alternative food re-
source.
The fur trade opened Canada's
northland and, until recently, was
its only major commercial enter-
prise. It flourished for more than
two hundred years and expanded to
all parts of the northern caribou
range, where the trading posts were
the only permanent centers of Eu-
ropean civilization. The ubiquitous
caribou, supplemented by fish, pro-
vided food for the steadily increas-
ing numbers of traders and trap-
pers. Today, most trading posts are
supported entirely by commercial
food products, but this has been the
case at many of them for no more
than twenty or thirty years, and a
fe^\- outposts and small Christian
missions still depend on caribou
and fish for much of their protein.
Canadian Indians and Eskimos
traditionally took few more animals
than were needed for food, cloth-
ing, and tents. It has been estimated
that those totally dependent on car-
ibou required about forty animals
per adult per year; those with other
food sources, such as marine mam-
mals or moose, needed fewer.
Before expansion of the fur
trade, Indians and Eskimos kept a
few dogs as an occasional con-
venience. The fur trade, however,
made large and powerful dog teams
necessary to transport gear and furs
around extensive traplines and to
maintain an enormous commu-
nication network between northern
settlements in winter. The nomadic
natives could not permanently sup-
port more than a few dogs, but the
introduction of a trapping econ-
omy, and firearms to secure game
at any time, made it essential and
possible to keep large dog teams. In
recent years, most Eskimo hunters
have had teams of six to ten for
more I dogs: and most Indians.
Caribou drop their calv«
in melting snow drifts far oi
on the tundra. Black areas on maj
left, indicate calving ground
Ensrinam
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four to seven. On that basis, the av-
erage native family was feeding
more dogs than humans. Even
though it weighs less than half as
much, a sled dog needs about half \
the protein ration of a human.
Therefore, it is likely that dogs
have eaten at least half of the car-
ibou taken in the north. In the last
decade, motorized toboggans have
made the sled and its voracious do§
team obsolete, and fortunately for
caribou, dog populations in the
north have been greatly reduced.
More than two hundred years of
exploitation resulted in a period of
crisis for caribou shortly after the -
Second World War. The ranges of
tundra and boreal forest probably
supported over two million animal?
in early times. The first range-wide
survey, in 1948-49, estimated 668.-
000 caribou. A second survey in
1955 estimated 272,000. That cat-
astrophic decline, often referred to
as Canada's caribou crisis, stimu-
lated much research and manage-
ment, including my nine-year em-
ployment as a caribou biologist.
Implementation of sound con-
servation measures; unusually high
survival of calves for several years;
and the entry of native hunters into
the wage economy when caribou be-
came too hard to get, all resulted in
a population increase — to nearly
400.000 in 1967.
However, the barren-ground car-
ibou's future is neither safe nor
particularly hopeful. Recent legisla-
tion by the government of the
Northwest Territories permits any
person with a year's residence to
shoot five barren-ground caribou —
of any sex or age — annually and in
any season. More disturbing, In-
dians and Eskimos, who were al-
ways permitted to take all the car-
ibou they could use for their own
consumption, are now allowed to
sell the meat, within generous lim-
its, to anyone, including restau-
rants, mining camps, and hotels.
Previously, market hunting of game
had not been legal for many dec-
ades in Canada.
The Canadian prairie provinces
share the migratory caribou with
the Northwest Territories. Should
public pressure force a relaxation
of hunting regulations in these
provinces to conform to those of
the Territories, the results could be
disastrous for the animals.
\ \
Famous Explorer
Lars- Eric Lindblad
invites you to discover
the heavenly islands
of the Seychelles...
and he gives you 7 wonderful reasons why you should
visit these "Forgotten Islands of the Indian Ocean."
1. Since the days of Vasco da Gama
the landfalls and atolls of these islands
have seen few, if any, visitors. Stepping
ashore, after crossing the pink reefs in
a whaleboat, you will feel you are the
first man or woman ever to set foot on
the vast white beaches, preserved by
time and uninterrupted by tourist cot-
tages and highrise hotels.
2. The hosts greeting you will be the
thousands of birds which inhabit this
paradise; the terns, boobies, frigate
birds, shearwaters, warblers and sun-
birds. They have never known danger
and are tame bevond belief.
3. Free of fog and mist, the Indian
Ocean is probably the kindest of all
the oceans as far as weather is con-
cerned. The Seychelles are the photog-
rapher's paradise.
4. Each island is a dream for the
conchologist. Hundreds of varieties of
cowries are there to be admired.
5. For the fisherman, snorkler and skin
diver, the Indian Ocean will open up
a new adventure perhaps unequaled
anywhere in the world. Close to the
reefs you can watch your hooked fish
fighting you 20 feet below in a fabu-
lous forest of five coral. And the clear
waters are teeming with the famous
bone fish, the wahoo, caranx and bar-
racuda.
6. Your floating hotel will be the brand
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LINDBLAD EXPLORER of Nor-
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very latest in comfort and design. You
will enjoy the Lido deck with a small
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where Mombasa serves as home port
for the M/S LINDBLAD EX-
PLORER.
We suggest you send for our brochure
and be the first to see these islands
which time forgot.
THE WORLD OF LINDBLAD TRAVEL
Dept. NH870
LINDBLAD TRAVEL, INC.
133 East 55th Street
New York, N.Y. 10022
I am seriously interested in the Forgot-
ten Islands of the Indian Ocean. Please
send brochure.
Mr.
Mrs.
Miss_
Address.
City
-Zip.
Phone (Area Code).
The Moons of Mars So tiny they might properly be
called moonlets. the two Lilliputian moons of !\Iars
have been pretty much ignored while astronomers con-
centrated on bigger game. They have been literary
curiosities of a sort, because their existence was pre-
dicted by both Jonathan Swift and Francois Voltaire a
century before their discovery by Asaph Hall in 1877.
More recently they enjoyed a brief notoriety when the
Russian astronomer I. S. Shklovski proposed that they
might be spherical artificial habitats launched into
Martian orbit when that planet was no longer able to
support life.
The truth appears to be, as many suspected right
along, that the t^vo moons. Phobos (Dread) and
Deimos (Terror), are probably small, irregular
chunks of asteroids, captured when they swung too
close to Mars. Even from the surface of Mars. Deimos
would be no brighter than Venus seen from the earth.
Phobos would be more interesting: it would appear to
have about a third of the apparent diameter of our
moon as seen from earth. Phobos is so close, just 3,-
700 miles above the Martian surface, that it could not
be seen from high latitudes. It revolves around its par-
ent in just 7 hours and 39 minutes, less than a third of
the Martian day. This means that Phobos would ap-
pear to rise in the west and set in the east, going
through more than half its phases in its 41'o-hour pas-
sage through the sky.
As Mariner 7 approached Mars last summer, pic-
tures taken at a distance of 81.000 miles show Phobos
in silhouette against a relatively bright portion of the
planet just west of the prominent dark area Syrtis Ma-
jor. The image is fuzzy and featureless, but does re-
veal two important characteristics: the moonlet is elon-
gated along its orbital plane, and it is darker than
any other known body in the solar system.
Phobos is fourteen miles across the orbital plane
and eleven miles up and down, slightly larger than
previously thought. Bradford A. Smith of New Mexico
State University, reporting his findings in Science,
suggests the asymmetrical shape means that Phobos
did not form by accretion as it orbited within tlie
planetesimal cloud around primordial Mars, but was
captured in its present form at some later time.
The moonlet's surface is so dark, he suggests, be-
cause meteoric bombardment may knock off any dust
that would accumulate. Incoming meteors travel fast
under the pull of Martian gravitation, while the grav-
itation of Phobos is so weak and its escape velocity so
small that any loose particles are knocked free (a man
standing on Phobos would weigh only an ounce or
two; he could easily jump several miles) .
No images of Deimos have been identified from the
Mariner pictures. It is even smaller, only five or six
miles across, and also presumably a captured asteroid.
Mapping Mercury Continent-sized "rough spots" on
the planet Mercury are being mapped with radar by
astronomers at the Goldstone Tracking Station in Cali-
fornia. The topographic features, similar to those de-
tected earlier on Venus, could be mountains, boulder
fields, craters, or any rough surface.
Mercury is difficult to study optically because it is
never very far from the sun in the sky. It also presents
a difficult radar target because of its distance from tlie
earth and its small size. But three times a year, when
Mercury comes closest to the earth, a Goldstone team
headed by Richard M. Goldstein aims a 450-kilowatt
beam at the innermost planet. It takes each pulse ten
minutes to travel to Mercury and return to earth.
More difficult are analyses of the returns. The first
observations were made in the spring of 1969, but tlie
first results were not ready to publish until a year
later. Essentially ^shat is measured is the reflectivity of
that portion of the planet's surface passing through
the beam at a given moment. The resulting maps are
of dark or rough regions in a bright or smooth back-
ground. Goldstein said the contrast between bright
and dark areas is less pronounced on Mercury than it
is on Venus.
Gamma Rays from the Crab The Crab Nebula in Tau-
rus, the throbbing remains of a star that was seen
to explode in 1054, has been a rewarding subject for
every new technique developed by astronomers. Using
the first crude telescopes. Renaissance astronomers
found the fuzzy cloud east of Aldebaran. Three hun-
dred years later radio astronomers found one of the
sky's strongest sources of radio emissions, and still
later a pulsar, at that position. Astronomers using
rockets have found an X-ray source there. Now,
French astronomers using balloons have detected a
source of gamma rays in the Crab.
Gamma rays are the most energetic of the entire
electromagnetic spectrum. The French scientists re-
ported that those they discovered coming from the
Crab appear to be pulsed 30 times a second, as are the
optical, radio, and X-ray emissions. The nebula and
the neutron star apparently pulsing in its center are
thus the complete object for any astronomer, whatever
his predilections.
John P. \^'iley. Jr.
Partial Lunar Eclipse August 16 There will be a partial
eclipse of the moon on the evening of August 16—17,
visible at least in part throughout North America ex-
cept in the extreme northwest. During such an event,
part of the moon passes through the earth's shadow.
The part of the moon in the shadow will appear dark,
though with a faint copper-red light, for any observer
on the nighttime side of the earth at the time.
The moon first enters the shadow of the earth at
10:17 P.M., Eastern Daylight Time. Maximum eclipse
occurs at 11:23 p.m., when about 41 percent of the
moon's diameter will be in shadow. The moon leaves
the earth's shadow at 12:30 a.m. Times will be one
hour earlier in Central Daylight Time, two hours ear-
lier in Mountain Daylight Time, and three hours ear-
lier in Pacific Daylight Time. Where standard time is
observed, one hour should be subtracted from the day-
light time.
Thom.\s D. Nicholson
lo8
%.'--- -.I'^ar,
■*sA <y
'^-'-^^t-^pWCOR**^^
celestial Events
The moon is full on August 16, at last-quarter on the 23rd,
and new on the 31st. In September, first-quarter is on the 8th,
full moon (the harvest moon) on the 15th, last-quarter on the
22nd, and new moon on the 30th. There is a first-quarter moon
on October 7 and a full moon (the hunter's moon) on the 14th.
Venus and Jupiter are evening stars, low in the west at dusk.
Venus is the brighter and lower of the two, moving closer to Jupi-
ter in August and early September. The two planets are nearest
on September 14. In the morning sky, Saturn rises before mid-
night and appears high in the south at dawn; Mercury may be
seen low in the east at dawn for several days before and after
September 28.
August 16: Mercury is at greatest elongation in the evening
sky, but too low to be seen easily.
August 23: Saturn Is below the moon this morning.
August 31: The star near Venus is Spica, in Virgo.
September 1: Venus is at greatest evening elongation, but is
not favorably placed for viewing.
September 4-5: The crescent moon passes near Venus and
Jupiter.
September 23: Autumn begins when the sun arrives over the
Equator at the autumnal equinox at 5:59 a.m., EST.
September 28: Mercury is at greatest elongation in the morn-
ing sky. The planet is well up by sunrise.
October 3: The crescent moon passes near Venus and Jupiter
this evening. Venus is brighter, lower, and nearer the moon than
Jupiter.
October 6: Venus reaches greatest brilliancy in the evening
sky, shining at magnitude —4.3.
Thomas D. Nicholson
* Hold the Star Map so the compass direction you face Is at the bottom;
then match the stars in the lower half of the map with those in the sky
near the horizon. The map is for 12:25 a.m. on August 15; 11:20 p.m. on
September 1; 10:25 p.m. on September 15; 9:20 p.m. on October 1; and
8:25 P.M. on October 15; but it may be used for about an hour before and
after those times.
A new
edition of
BoUingen
Series I
WHERE
THE TWO
CAME TO
THEIR
FATHER
A Navaho War
Ceremonial
Given by Jeff King, recorded
by Maud Oakes, with a com-
mentary by Joseph Campbell.
The first number published in
Bollingen Series in 1944 and
long out of print is available
again in a new clothbound port-
folio format containing all the
original text with separate 17"
X 12" silkscreen prints of 18
Navaho pollen-paintings. "Elo-
quent and colorful and brim-
ming with the Navaho concep-
tion of man and his world." —
Hal Borland, The New York.
Times Book Review. S17.50
Available from your bookstore
Sponsored by
Bollingen Foundation
Published by
PRINCETON
UNIVERSITY
PRESS
Princeton, New Jersey 08540
Death by the Plow Continued from page 35
developed soon after glacial recession contained some
prairie plants that extended their ranges eastward on
the land left bare by the melting ice. Even if prairie
plants were absent from this vegetation, it is possible
that the vegetation was close enough in appearance
and structure to that of prairie plants for some prair-
ie animals to have found it to their liking and to
have used it as a corridor to move eastward. The sec-
ond possibility is that expansion of prairie occurred
slightly later, at the time when conditions were be-
coming less and less favorable for spruce-fir forests;
prairies, or some sort of herbaceous vegetation with
prairie species, may have entered as a kind of wedge
between the retreating conifers and the deciduous
species migrating northward from their glacial ref-
uges. Pollen diagrams show that beech did not reach
northern Indiana until well after it was established in
central and southwestern Michigan. Something made
its migration northward through Indiana slower than
its movement westward from the Alleghenies. If that
something was the Prairie Peninsula, it is older than
the xerothermic period. There is also evidence of the
early presence of grassland animals in the east. In
Pennsylvania, fossil deposits of a prairie mammal, the
thirteen-lined ground squirrel, and a prairie bird, the
sharp-tailed grouse, have been dated back 11,000
years, according to radiocarbon tests.
Another unresolved problem is the role of fire in
the formation and spread of prairie. Fires were in-
volved in the maintenance of prairies in the east at the
time of settlement. Either naturally set by lightning or
deliberately or accidentally set by early man. fires
may also have been involved in the prairies' estab-
lishment. The old saw that you can't have a prairie
fire without a prairie is true enough, but it is also true
that the fire could open up a forest — either the de-
teriorating conifer forests of the early postglacial pe-
riod or the beech and maple forests of a few thousand
years later — and allow the entrance of prairie species
that could perpetuate themselves.
We cannot now be sure whether burning was still
spreading grassland at the expense of forest in the
early 1800's or whether, under the climate of that
time, the hazels and oaks were edging in, narrowing
the prairies year by year and century bv century. As
likel}' as not, the latter was true, and the prairies of
the east were on their way to a slow extinction. In any
case they are gone now. In a prairie graveyard on
Prairie Ronde there is a tombstone that reads:
D-Sept 10, 1872 aged 76 yrs 6 mo 8 da He
plowed the 1st furrow & raised the 1st wheat on
this Prairie or in this county. Do not say that I
have said, or done, to much or to little, for the
absent can not reply.
The absent cannot reply, but neither must they
deny the living the right to recognize and profit from
the mistakes of the past. The time is gone, if it ever
existed, when "he plowed the first furrow" was an un-
qualified commendation. The pioneer philosophy that
inspired the epitaph must be modified if the natural
landscapes that still remain are not to go the way of
the eastern prairies. ■
We may tell you more
about yourself
than you care to knoAv.
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY IS about your hopes. Your fears. Your
potentialities. And what science has learned about them.
Every month, you'll read in its pages what the world's
foremost authorities have to say about the human condi-
tion. Men like B. F. Skinner. Rollo May. Ashley Mon-
tagu. David Riesman. Bruno Bettelheim. These behav-
ioral scientists explain their latest discoveries in clear,
straightforward language, without oversimplifications or
pseudo-profundities.
Some of their findings are reassuring. Some are alarm-
ing. Some just plain fascinating. All of them are a giant
step ahead of the kind of psychology you may have picked
up in school. Or from your friends who are in analysis.
Where psychological writing all too often tends to nar-
row the possibilities— reducing almost every impulse to
oedipal complexes, guilt feelings or sexual hang-ups —
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY has just the opposite attitude. It sees
the behavioral sciences as enlarging our possibilities . . .
as endlessly multiplying the choices open to us. Instead
of seeing men and women in black and white, psychol-
ogy TODAY finds human behavior encouragingly colorful.
In its graphics, psychology today is a splendid gal-
lery of all the things we've lately learned about the mys-
teries of perception. Each issue is a visual adventure . . .
an uninhibited collaboration between science and art.
Many issues include revealing tests, visual experiments
and fold-out games.
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Among the current and coming articles in
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY:
The Grim Generation
Does ESP Exist?
Learning Under Drugs
Is Suicide a Human Right?
Are Leaders Made or Bom?
Impulse, Aggression & the Gun
Homosexuality Reconsidered
The Sickness of Corporations
Hiding from Big Brother
Adult Play Therapy
Love and Will
The Mentally Retarded Child
Is Man a Machine?
The Nudity Explosion
Who Will Help in a Crisis?
Dangers of Group Therapy
Are I.Q. Tests Intelligent?
Memory's Molecular Maze
Can We Immunize the Weak?
Nudity in Group Therapy
A Conversation with Masters
& Johnson
The White Race and Its Heroes
Breast Feeding
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III
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The Spectacular Weather and
sliding back down. And now proph-
ets of disaster are talking about a
new Ice Age by the year 2000.
Might man be inadvertently re-
sponsible for this reversal? Reid
Bryson is one of the scientists who
does not discount the possibility. He
suspects that the decrease in tem-
perature may be caused by a layer
of dust gradually building up in
the stratosphere — dust that is
reflecting more and more of the so-
lar energy that would otherwise
reach the earth and warm it. In
short, this cooling effect would
i\ork counter to the greenhouse
effect. Bryson admits that he is
raising a highly provocative hypo-
thesis based on scanty evidence.
But his measurements show that at-
mospheric turbidity — dustiness — is
definitely increasing all over the
world, and he can cite climatolog-
ical records to show that after pe-
riods of violent volcanic activity,
■when eruptions throw great quan-
tities of dust high into the atmo-
sphere, average worldwide tempera-
tures drop until the dust has time
to settle. "The point is," says Bry-
son, "that man is now the equiva-
lent of many continuous volcanic
eruptions."
He suspects that most of the dust
layer comes from agricultural
rather than industrial sources, but
adds that it could include all sorts
of "junk' from varied sources. The
problem is primarily one of over-
population with a general increase
in all sorts of human activity.
Much of the dust probably comes
from agriculture in semiarid areas
of China. India, and Africa. Sam-
ples of atmospheric dust taken both
in India and on the island of Bar-
bados, where the dust has crossed
the Atlantic from Africa, carry
strong traces of DDT and contain
phytoliths, tiny deposits of silica
that form in the leaves of plants.
Bryson regards this as pretty good
evidence that the dust is largely ag-
ricultural in origin.
He admits that the rest of his
theory — the effect of dust on global
temperature — is highly speculative,
and hopes that it will receive morei
examination by researchers than itl,
has so far. He is concerned withli.
112
iky Show
Continued from page 97
the same point that troubles Rob-
erts, Schaefer. and most of the
other scientists who are afraid that
man is unsuspectingly modifying
weather and climate. They feel that
we don't know what we are doing
to the atmosphere, and that we're
not trying hard enough to find out.
Dr. Thomas F. Malone. a highly
respected spokesman for the atmo-
spheric sciences community, stated
this viewpoint vigorously during
recent congressional hearings. Ask-
ing Congress to support more com-
prehensive studies of technology's
effects on the environment, he cited
the greenhouse theory: "The im-
portant consequence is that if this
goes on for 1.000 years, the sea
level will rise about 400 feet, or
about four feet per decade. This
can happen. We are not sure. Spe-
cial committees of the National
Academy of Sciences, the National
Science Foundation, and Congress
have pointed out this hazard, as
they have pointed out an alternative
hazard, that an increase in particu-
late matter may have the effect of
cooling off the atmosphere, and we
would then be in danger of entering
a glacial age."
Dr. Malone went on to explain
that we have sufficient scientific
knowledge as well as the technical
resources to evaluate these threats,
if we will take them seriously
enough. "We understand enough
about the physical processes to cast
them in mathematical forms. We
have the computers to solve the
mathematical equations. We have
the satellites and the observational
equipment to bring the worldwide
carbon dioxide content and weather
patterns under surveillance. And
these three things give us the capa-
bility to simulate what will happen
if the carbon dioxide increases by
so much, or if the particulate mat-
ter increases by so much. These
two forces may work in opposite
directions, but we do not need to
wait fifty or one hundred years to
find out what is likely to happen.
. . . For three million years we
have been trying to protect man
against environment. It is now time
we began protecting environment
against man."
^^Its purpose is to be.
Man^s role should be
•••let It be/'
A young ecologist shares the impact of a long and
arduous walkthrough the Arctic wilderness: an expedi-
tion into the threatened, vanishing glories of Alaska's
Brooks Range — crossing the Arctic Divide and the
unexplored tundra to the Arctic Ocean. "The feelings
evoked in the reader by what may be final glimpses
of the unspoiled Alaskan mountain wilderness," writes
the advance reviewer in Publishers' Weekly, "inevi-
tably echo the author's implicit and explicit plea to
keep this region as it is ... a living solitude beautifully
worth the rugged journey."
Justice William 0. Douglas writes: "This journal puts
us all on notice of the unique wilderness about to be
mutilated by an oil pipeline ... Oil has values; but so
do caribou and lichen floor litter, grizzlies, wolves, Dal!
sheep, and the host of animals in the food chain . . .
Will the people accept supinelythe mutilation of this,
our last pristine arctic wilderness?"
With 38 photographs and drawings; just published.
NAMELESS VALLEYS,
SHINING MOUNTAINS
John P. Milton
\\A// ^^ you'' local bookseller or
|«| Walker
x^TvJ^ AND COMPANY
'" 720 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10019
Please send me copies of Name/ess Valleys. Shin-
ing Mountains. I enclose my check or money order for
$7.50 per copy and understand you will pay shipping
costs. If I wish. I may return the book(s) within two
weeks for a full refund.
ADDRESS.
CITY
Books in Review
An islanil Consciousness
DyBarDaraBiauCiiamberiain
Cape Cod and the Offshore Is-
lands, by Walter Teller. Prentice-
Hall, Inc., SS.95; 256 pp., illus. Mar-
tha's Vineyard, photographs by
Alfred Eisenstaedt: text by Henry
Beetle Hough. The Viking Press,
S8.95; 96 pp.
In how many hearts is there a corner
set aside for islands? Where else
in our potential for experience — ex-
cept perhaps the lifeless lunar sur-
face— ride any hopes of escape from
a world we should not have made, but
did?
The books written about the much-
loved sandy islands off Massachusetts
would fill a long shelf, and two more
might easily prove repetitive. But
these are sufficiently different from
what has gone before not only to
stand on their own but also to fill
gaps in the Cape-Island literature
available until now.
Hough's Martha's Vineyard . con-
cerns itself wholly with Martha's
Vineyard, of course. Teller's Cape
Cod and the Offshore Islands covers
the entire group, down to the tiny
Elizabeth Islands, heretofore rather
neglected in regional accounts. Each
is an island book.
As an island. Cape Cod is a
latecomer. Born a peninsula, it be-
came an island with the building of
the Cape Cod Canal. Although ties to
the mainland are close and you can
get there on macadam, you may still
walk a Cape Cod beach and be twenty
miles at sea. Martha's Vineyard,
smaller and completely adrift off Cape
Cod. is a full-fledged island of suffi-
cient size and variety to know both
rolling pastures and rolling seas.
Nantucket, smaller yet. the far-away-
land, is influenced. solely by the sea.
The tiny Elizabeths, strung out from
southwestern Cape Cod, are for the
most part blessedly unpopulated and a
haven for birds.
Neither book is, in any sense, a re-
hash of the old tourist guide — cutely
written, riddled with "quaints." duly
illustrated with old mills and mani-
114
Menemsha in the hurricane of 1938.
From Martha's Vineyard
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cured village greens and. perhaps, a
bit patronizing. Neither is a guide at
all. Read the two of them, linger over
the lovely and apt photographs, and
you ■will experience the Massachusetts
islands in a way that has seemed
unattainable in print since Thoreau.
These books are not the wine list;
they are a sip of the wine.
The authors differ enormously in
their approaches, so if you can read
the two as a unit, an interesting di-
mension will be added. Unfortunately
neither book has an index, which is
inexcusable in works of this sort.
Teller's book gives the impression
that the author remains the informed
outsider, the knowledgeable summer
resident. His is the summer home on
Martha's Vineyard; he has another
home and other interests the rest of
the year. This leads to a summertime
Weathered pier of fishing village.
From Cape Cod and the Offshore Islands
point of view rare in many earlier
books. How well I remember my own
young years as a "summer person" on
Cape Cod. Only a Cape summer was
conceivable; winter, fall, or spring
were haunting concepts — magical, un-
thinkable, unattainable. Could a
work-a-day year exist? Later we be-
came year-rounders, and I came to
know Cape seasons well. The prosaic
conquered. The winter beach re-
117
Will our
children live in a
world without
animals?
•^
^v--
THE WORLD'S
VANISHING ANIMALS
By Cyril Littlewood, Director. Youth Service,
World Wildlife Fund. Foreword by Thomas L. Kimball
National Wildlife Federation /
It's hard to believe that within a few years many
of man's favorite animals may vanish forever.
Since 1900, over one hundred species of wild
animals have been wiped out by the ruthless
exploitation of nature. Today over 1.000 more
are on the danger list — not just from hunters.
but from the deadly pollution of their natural
environments. Cyril Littlewood leader of the
urgent campaign to save the wild animals that
remain before time — and space — run out, de-
scribes here the physical characteristics, eco-
logical environment and habits of 75 mammal-
ian species that are rapidly disappearing from
the earth: the Polar Bear, Panda, Cheetah.
Otter, Wild Horse, Gorilla, Coala, Orang-utan,
Indian lion, many others. Each animal is lo-
cated on a fascinating map according to its
origin and where it may be found today. 64
huge SVn" x IIV4" pages. Every animal is su-
perbly illustrated in lull color by E. W. Ovenden.
For every copy sold, the publisher pays a roy-
alty to the World Wildlile Fund to aid in pre-
serving wildlile throughout the world.
RISK-FREE EXAMINATION
Send coupon below with $4.50 for your copy
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days of delivery for immediate
refund in full. Mail today!
At your bookseller or:
ARCO PUBLISHING CO
219 Park Ave. South,
New York, N.Y. 10003 NH-8-70
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World's Vanishing Animals. If not delighted,
may return book within 30 days of delivery
for immediate refund in full.
^
City/State Zip
\tity
.^
mained a thing of beauty, but no
longer was it a tiling of magic.
Whatever 1 lost. Teller still has. Of
course, he is far removed from the
naivete of a teenage girl. But his de-
scriptions of the off-season Cape and
the islands are receptive, open, enthu-
siastic. At one point a lingering patch
of snow on the beach compels him to
snap its picture, since it would be
hard to imagine snow on the sand in
summertime.
Since Teller is not fiercely protec-
tive of, or emotionally tied to. the re-
gion, he remains unhindered. What
he sees, he reports. He acknowledges
the lobster shack with its '"Native Lob-
ster" sign, but does not ignore the dis-
quieting "New Homes" sign near
it and very near the marshes. Ambling
here and there, we move with Teller
from island to island, talk to all and
sundry, not just about Cape-Island
charms but about problems, too. Fact
and history blow our way, lore of the
sea and life of the land. Apparently a
lot of research has gone into this
book.
Unfortunately, sometimes the fac-
tual passages have the dutiful ring of
a required — and somewhat hastily re-
searched— school report. His personal
observations, free and pleasant, are
much more fun to read. However, too
much subjectivity can become a little
annoying. At times it almost seems as
though Teller is trying to out-
Thoreau Thoreau. and this can drag
a bit. In addition, perhaps it is ex-
cessive to devote the better part of a
chapter in a broadly-based book such
as this one to Capt. Joshua Slocum,
who was the first, as far as we know,
to sail the world alone. Teller is an
expert on Slocum. and his interest is
understandable. Another chapter,
more justifiably, is devoted solely to
Vineyarder Nancy Luce, a more un-
usual Vineyard product than Slocum.
Many have sailed the world alone,
post-Slocum. But Miss Luce's heart-
rending poems to beloved chickens
anticipate tlie simple elegance of Rob-
ert Frost by three-quarters of a cen-
tury:
"She opened her eyes and
looked up into my face.
For the last time.
0 heart melting. . . ."
On the whole, certainly, the Cape
and Islands become very vivid under
Teller's pen. And the most appealing
aspect of his Cape-Island ramble is a
very real sensitivity to nature and its
precarious existence under the dread
hand of man. The land developer, the
marsh dredger, the polluter on Cape
Cod and the islands are not ignored.
Indeed, one developer is interviewed,
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the lands beyond
118
noneditorially, and others discussed.
They do not always come up roses.
All the good intentions in the world
about pleasant life styles cannot
bring back one acre of ravished
marsh nor. indeed, one family of bull-
dozed nestlings. And it is happening:
"This summer you see the table set.
First someone puts a knife on the
table — you hardly notice. Then some-
one else adds a fork — and another, a
spoon. Comes a napkin, saltshaker
. . . Then an airlines-type plastic
glass. Suddenly the table is set, and
suddenly you see the difference."
The book ends on a haimting
note — a detailed account of the sad
story of the heath hen, a wild voice
last heard on earth across Vineyard
fields. A tragic tale that might be-
Memento of the seafaring past.
From Marthas Vineyard
come one chapter in a full-fledged
horror story.
Hough's Marthas Vineyard makes
a different sort of reading. Teller is
an enthusiastic visitor; Hough, an en-
thusiastic authority. He knows the
Vineyard through and through and. it
is obvious, loves the island dearly. No
doubt less impartial than Teller,
Hough has, nevertheless, a more easy
command of lore and fact.
A Vineyard book such as this has
been needed for some time; this one
is a good one. Eisenstaedt's photo-
graphs are a joy, and the text is a fine
partner to them. A charming, the-
matic thread leads us through an is-
land year, beginning with early
spring. Woven around this thread is
the colorful and solid fabric of the
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43 color plates and 246 black-and-.
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City ...
book. Did you know, for instance,
that Shakespeare's Tempest might
have taken place on Martha's Vine-
yard, about which Shakespeare may
have learned from Gosnold's ac-
counts? And that Ariel may have
been the spirit of peeping pinkletinks
(tree toads), while cruder Caliban
may have emerged from cacklings of
the heath hen? Far-fetched, no doubt,
but fun to contemplate.
Thus range the subjects in this
book, broadly and ramblingly. Since
each town receives descriptive and
historical homage, it more nearly ap-
proaches a guidebook than Teller's
book; yet it is not that either. It is
about seafaring and whaling, camp-
grounds and landscapes and legends.
It is. simply, what the name implies:
Martha's Vineyard. Hough keeps
himself in the background and the
Vineyard up front.
Perhaps the book could have been
more evenly divided between huma-
nistic and naturalistic concerns. Na-
ture is not neglected by any means,
but seems to take second place. Some
of the historical facts seem so esoteric
as to interest only those fairly in-
timate with the region. Yet the author
shows himself so sensitive to the natu-
Giant Oak.
From Martha's J inevard
ral surroundings that we wish he had
given us more of them:
Early April: "The sun's warmth,
quickly gaining, becomes mingled
with the chill of the clear night past
and the cold breath of the waters
around the island, producing once
again a long-remembered experience
of renewal. Vineyard Sound lies in
streaked idleness, in an elongated
pattern of lighter and darker shades
of blue expressing the wiU of the
tides, the early light, and the gentle-
ness of a new spring."
Like Teller, Hough sees the threats.
Despite the rapid erosion of the Vine-
yard's outer shores, he recognizes
that, not nature, but man is the ulti-
mate danger — "man's haste, indiffer-
ence, ignorance, laziness and greed."
Would that he had stressed the prob-
lems more strongly, for they are is-
sues that need to be sounded relent-
lessly by leaders such as himself.
What of Hough's own statement:
"Now there are no islands anymore."
A terrible thought! Perhaps only the
passing of the frontier offers an ana-
logue in terms of a geographical effect
on man's spirit. Yet, as both these
books show, an island consciousness
still drifts with the sea breezes across
Cape Cod and the offshore islands.
Certainly there are no islands any-
more, off Massachusetts or anywhere
else, in the old sense. For better or
worse, insularity is no longer syn-
onymous with isolation. Certainly
those tentacles of progress — power
lines and gasoline hoses — have is-
lands tightly within their grip. Cer-
tainly the glass and tin and ghastly
inert plastic, effluvia of an affluent
world, line island beaches no less
than mainland beaches. Certainly is-
land gardeners use chlordane as
lavishly on their posies as mainland
gardeners — although Massachusetts
has stopped this. But a modified is-
landness — a bit of the sense of
dreams attained — still clings.
Islands are not safe, their survival
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is that their insularity has survived at
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The
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Thirty-five distinguished
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stories of 35 different spe-
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ALIVE IN
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Edited by Victor H. Cahalane
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Drawings by Robert Candy
$9.95
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beaches, their calling birds, their
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have helped.
Barbara Blau Chamberlain is the
author of ''These Fragile Outposts: A
Geological Look at Cape Cod, Mar-
tha's J ineyard, and Xantucket."
Hunting for Dinos.\urs, by Zofia
Kielan-Jaworowska. The MIT Press,
$7.95; 177 pp., illus.
Among the most famous and sig-
nificant series of fossil hunts
ever carried out were the Central
Asiatic expeditions of The American
Museum of Natural History, which
probed the Mongolian desert for di-
nosaurs, other fossil reptiles, and var-
ied fossil mammals during the 1920's.
In 1946. a yoimg Polish student of
paleontology, Zofia Kielan-Jawo-
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American Museum expeditions and
was completely fascinated by what
she learned. A decade and a half
later, she led a series of similar ex-
peditions into Mongolia, to continue
A good place to be in Nantucket.
From Cape Cod and the Offshore Islands
the search for fossil reptiles and
mammals. In this modest but attrac-
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these expeditions and of some of the
results that were obtained. It is good
reading, written with authority and
made especially effective by attractive
and well-chosen field photographs.
After the war. Soviet paleontolo-
gists made tliree expeditions into the
Gobi, to supplement and expand the
pioneer work of The American Mu-
seum expeditions. In 1961. it was de-
cided that the Polish Academy of Sci-
ences, working in cooperation with
the Mongolian Academy of Sciences,
would conduct a series of expeditions
into the desert to continue tlie search
for new paleontological knowledge.
A first expedition was made in
1963 to survey tlie region and collect
preliminarv' information. This was
followed by two large-scale efforts in
1964 and 1965. the purpose of which
was to search for and collect fossils,
no matter what the difficulties might
be. And there were difficulties, as
there are bound to be for those work-
ing in remote desert regions — the
heat in the daytime, and the cold at
night, the ever-present problem of wa-
ter, the hish winds and sandstorms,
122
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ancJ many lesser irritations. Moreover,
there were the problems of collecting
large and heavy fossil skeletons, of
which these expeditions found numer-
ous examples.
The manner in which the Polish
scientists carried on their work and
solved the many problems that beset
them is interestingly recounted by
Miss Kielan-Jaworowska. She also de-
votes numerous asides to descriptions
of the Mongolian people with whom
the expeditions had contact.
The Polish-Mongolian expeditions
were successful, to say the least.
Their success was due in large part to
hard work by the dedicated and well-
trained members of the expeditions,
and to the use of good equipment.
They traveled in sturdy field cars and
heavy-duty trucks, and they camped
at various localities in the Gobi.
Their greatest collections were made
in the Nemegt Basin, a great depres-
sion occupying southwestern Mon-
golia, and at the Flaming Cliffs of
Bain Dzak, or Shabarakh Usu, where
The American Museum expeditions
had collected dinosaur skeletons and
eggs and a number of early mammal
skulls.
In the Nemegt. Miss Kielan-Jawo-
rowska and her colleagues found sev-
eral skeletons of the large Cretaceous
tyrannosaur. Tarbosaurus, as well as
skeletons of birdlike ornithomimid di-
nosaurs. But their most spectacular
discoveries were of a huge sauropod
dinosaur, which was most unexpected
at this late stage in the Mesozoic his-
tory of Mongolia, and of an amazing
theropod forelimb, nine feet in
length, with claws a foot or more
long. At Bain Dzak the Poles and
their companions found a series of
Cretaceous placental mammal skulls,
to supplement the original discoveries
that had been made by The American
Museum parties. All of these dis-
coveries by the Polish-Mongolian ex-
peditions greatly broaden our knowl-
edge of life in Mongolia during the
final stages of the Age of Dinosaurs.
Edwin H. Colbert
Museum of Northern Arizona
The Death and Rebirth of the
Seneca, by Anthony F. C. Wallace.
Alfred A. Knopf, $8.95; 384 pp., illus.
Anthony Wallace combines the best
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method with a style that commands
fascinated attention. The Death and
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with regard to bloodcurdling customs
of warfare and torture as well as to
instances of individual venery and
frailty as to make even more com-
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from Africa?
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to another?
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drama, nobility of philosophy, per-
ceptiveness of world view, and shrewd
Realpolitik of the Seneca people.
The book opens with a prefatory
account of a typical Six Nations
Meeting as first observed by Wallace
in 1951 at the Allegany Seneca Res-
ervation in western New York. The
meeting is really a four-day ceremony
inspired by the message preached by
the Seneca prophet Handsome Lake
at the turn of the nineteenth century,
when the fortunes of the Iroquois
were at their lowest ebb. As detailed
in Part I. "'The Heyday of the
Iroquois." the Five Nations of Seneca.
Onondaga. Cayuga. Oneida, and Mo-
hawk had joined together as a
League of Peace under a much ear-
lier prophet. Dekanawida, whose
teachings had welded these colingual.
but sometimes mutually hostile, tribes
into a well-organized confederacy
against their common, native enemies.
With the coming of Europeans, the
league benefited immensely — in mate-
rial terms — from trade goods. Playing
an astute political game, it carefully
maintained the balance of power be-
tween the French and British in their
long struggle for sovereignty over
northeastern North America. About
1720. the league expanded and be-
came the Six Nations when the
Iroquois-speaking Tuscarora. fleeing
north from the incursions of the Vir-
ginia colonists, sought its protection.
Ethnographic descriptions of the
Iroquois go back more than a cen-
tury, and Wallace selects skillfully
from this vast literature, detailing
where details are pertinent to his
story and referring the more curious
reader to appropriate works on sub-
jects he treats in passing. He dwells
particularly on the rich cosmological
and ritual life created by the
Iroquois, which persists in recogniz-
able form in the ceremonial cycle of
the modern Iroquois.
Part IL "The Decline of the
Iroquois." actually covers the last of
the heyday from a political and his-
torical perspective, showing how
Iroquois power — dependent on the
fur trade and the constant playing-off
of Britain and France — began to de-
cline with the ascendancy of Britain
and the expansion of the settlers'
frontier. With the defeat of the
French, the restive American colonists
loomed as a new power to manipulate
in the Iroquois interest, but the
league could not make common cause
in readjusting the play-off system. On
the eve of the American Revolution,
the league agreed officially to the urg-
ing of both the British and Ameri-
cans to stay out of what was essen-
tially a '"family fight" among English
brothers. However, as the war pro-
124
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gressed, neither side could afford to in-
sist that the Iroquois observe this pol-
icy. Both sides found allies among the
Six Nations. With American victory,
the British supporters — mainly Mo-
hawk, but including a scattering of
forces from all the tribes — fled to Can-
ada while those who had fought at
the side of the Americans or had kept
the neutrality remained in their
homelands to become increasingly im-
poverished and demoralized. Deprived
of the political strength of the league,
they were unable to hold their sepa-
rate tribal lands safe from squatters
and land speculators. That any land
remains to them at all probably
reflects the shrewd negotiations of the
practiced Iroquois, who during the
darkest times managed to retain a
few tracts and parcels in Canada and
New York State through successive
treaties and land sales after the revo-
lution.
The final section, "The Renaissance
of the Iroquois." is devoted to what
Wallace designates as the apocalyptic
and social gospels of Handsome Lake
and their effects through the nine-
teenth century. Up to this part of the
book. Handsome Lake is noted only
in passing references to his participa-
tion in events, or knowledge of them,
during the period of Iroquois decline.
In the last part he emerges as a cen-
tral personality. However, the charis-
ma attached to his memory in his
later years, from about 1799 to his
death in 1815. prevents even Wallace
from presenting him fully as a per-
son. It could not be otherwise, of
course, because it was his role as
prophet and reformer, rather than the
man himself, which revitalized first
the Seneca and then all the Iroquois.
Today, nearly a quarter of the
Iroquois are declared followers of
Handsome Lake's religion, while the
rest generally respect his Code and
many avail themselves of opportu-
nities to hear it recited. Crises pro-
duce prophets such as Handsome
Lake but. as Wallace has shown in
his earlier works, a successful revitali-
zation movement is dependent on
dedicated converts; institutionalization
and reformulation of doctrine, making
it practicable and perpetuating it
beyond the lifetime of the prophet:
and demonstrable "truth" in the mes-
sage that things do get better if
people abide by the doctrine. Hand-
some Lake's effectiveness as a prophet
permitted his followers to take advan-
tage of opportunities to fulfill the pro-
phecy of deliverance from threatened
extinction as a people. Foremost among
these opportunities was the happy
fact that Quaker missionaries came
among the Seneca at the crucial pe-
riod when the reformed drunkard
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Thanks,
from my
mother.
When Kim Young Sook thanked her
Foster Parents for her mother's wet
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their understanding, their love and
their help.
Young Sook's mother dove for sea
greens and shellfish and sold them to
earn the 39c a day that was the fam-
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the summer, because in the winter it
was too cold.
Her Foster Parents knew that their
donation of $16 a month could help
make up for the loss of income and
provide the family with basic neces-
sities. But they felt that their gift of a
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themselves and so they sent a wet suit
to Young Sook's mother.
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my mother, I found it hard to refrain from tears. I don't know just how to
thank you for your kindness." The wet suit proved so helpful to the family
that Young Sook's Foster Parents sent another one to their Foster Child's
older sister.
This is an example of Foster Parents Plan at its best; a reaching out to
less fortunate people with a gift of love. Because Foster Parents Plan is more
than food, clothing, medical care or schooling. It's a Foster Parent helping a
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When someone somewhere cares, someone somewhere survives.
emerged as inspired prophet. The
Quaker philosophy, free of doctri-
naire proselytizing and dependent
upon good works and encouraging
each individual to discover his own
''inner light" in his own way, posed
virtually no challenge to Iroquois val-
ues. The particular Friends who came
to the Seneca proved to be unusually
wise and perceptive men, appreciating
the potential for good in Handsome
Lake's preaching. They simply
brought new technical means to re-
place an irrevocably shattered so-
cioeconomic system, allowing the spir-
itual values of the Seneca to again
give meaning and an ineffable rich-
ness to life. Handsome Lake did not
seek to destroy or replace the old
ways, but merely to reform them and
to do away with the more recent er-
rors in Seneca thinking and behavior,
which he believed had brought them
to their sorry state. His message made
the old ways usable in a changing
world and kept alive the sacred spirit
and form of the league after it had
ceased to exist as a viable political
entity.
Then, suddenly, the book ends.
Most readers will hope that Wallace
now plans to write the story of the
Seneca since he began field work with
them in the 1950's, tracing the course
of their protracted legal battles and
final defeat in the courts, which de-
creed that the waters of the Kinzua
Dam would rise over much of the Al-
legany Reservation. What has be-
come of the Seneca and the tradition
of Handsome Lake since the people
were driven from their old homes in
the alleged "national interest" for a
"just compensation" in the materialis-
tic terms of the white man?
Nancy Oestreich Lurie
Vniversity of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
The American Museum is open to
the pubhc without charge every day
during the year, except Thanksgiv-
ing and Christmas. Your support,
through membership and contribu-
tions, helps make this possible. The
Museum is equally in need of sup-
port for its work in the fields of re-
search, education, and exhibition.
This list details the photographer or
other source of illustration by page.
COVER— Steven C. Wilson
8 — Cole Weston
18 — Barbara Hollings-
..orth
31-34— Steven C. Wilson
38-41— John Bardach
42-91 — Lisa Stephens
93 — The Boeing Company
94-95 — National Center
for Atmospheric Research
—diagrams AMNH after
Henry Lansford
96 — Henry Lansford
96-97 — Atmospherics
99-101— Gerald Parker
102-105— Steven C.
Wilson except map,
AMNH after Clint
Jorgensen
109— Helmut Wimmer
114-115— Alfred Eisen-
staedt, courtesy of
The Viking Press
117 — Josephine Von
Miklos, courtesy of
Prentice-Hall
119-121— Alfred Eisen-
staedt, courtesy of
The Viking Press
122 — Josephine Von
Miklos, courtesy of
Prentice-Hall
126
I
NORTHWEST
EVERGREEN
TIMBERED ACREAGES
'uiEon tUatw, CImu' dLr
^
^
rm^.
<-'<,
5 - 10 - 20 - 40 - ACl^Jcb
FOR PEOPLE WHO LOVE THE LAND -
A TRACT OF RECREATION LAND FOR YOUR OWN!
In Northern Idaho, Northeastern Washington, and Western Montana. In the heart of
lakes and big game country. All covered with growing timber. Access, Title insurance
with each tract. This is select land with natural beauty, recreational and investment
values. We have tracts of many types and sizes from which to choose, including
beautiful Northwest Waterfront property. Your inspection welcomed. Write us for
free list, maps and complete information. Write to: Dept. G.
P.O. Box 106
Opportunity
Station
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This bird sanctuary
Imagine a tiny green hump of an island in
a Louisiana swamp. Its total area is less than
five square miles.
Put t^^'0 hundred houses on it and seven
hundred people. Add one of America's largest
rock salt mines, the Tabasco® sauce factory
and over a hundred oil wells. And what have
you got? Overcrowding?
Quite the opposite. Avery Island seems al-
^
most undiscovered. A place for the painter a]
the poet.
Its bird sanctuary sits in a 200-acre garde
Here you find irises from Siberia. Grapefru:
from Cochin. Evergreens from Tibet. Bamb
from China. Lotuses from the Nile. Soap tre
from India. Daisies from Africa's Mountains'
the Moon. And the world's most complete ci
lection of camellias. |
The sanctuary itself is a sight for any sor
eyed conservationist. It was established twent
seven years ago by Mr. Edward A-Mcllhennj^:
member of the family that has owned the isla:.
-:^.-%
} an oil field.
153 years. It had one purpose. To save the
wy egret from extinction.
Known as Bird City, the sanctuary started
h only seven egrets. Now, over 100,000 nest
und its man-made lake every year. To see
se alabaster birds sharing their Eden with
ons, ducks, coots, swans, cormorants, tur-
., deer and alligators is almost a primeval
erience. It seems to put the clock back to
beginning.
And, wherever you wander on this peace-
island, you have to look hard to spot the oil
Is. Many are hidden by grandfatherly oak
is bearded with Spanish moss. Others are
>.
screened by banks of azalea and rhododendron.
To Jersey's affiliate. Humble Oil & Refining
Company, this respect for environment is only
right and proper.
The oil industry provides Louisiana with
one-third of its total revenue. But even this con-
tribution would be a poor excuse for defiling
beauty or disturbing wildlife.
Amen say the egrets.
Standard Oil Company
(New Jersey)
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Leilers lo Ihe Edir
Barrier Beach Backwash
I was indeed most interested in
your article "Barrier Beaches of
Eastern America," and believe it or
not, found time to read it the day it
came in.
It was not only sensible, but very
beautifully written. I only wish I
could enjoy the luxury of looking
at the problems of Fire Island geo-
logically. The problems of Fire Is-
land as they are presented to me
are much more strident and imme-
diate and demanding. There just
isn't any way to make a man whose
house is washing away appreciate
the fact that this is "part of an on-
going history of physical change in
w-hich neither of the antagonists,
waves nor beaches, gains a per-
manent victory." I guarantee you
that any congressman who attempts
this approach loses a permanent
vote.
Otis G. Pike
House of Representatives
Washington, B.C.
While w^e do not take issue with
Christopher Schuberth's main
points in his article on barrier
beaches, we were disappointed to
find that some of the most vital
points about the ecology of barrier
beaches were overlooked or under-
emphasized.
We are referring to the mindless
and endless construction of houses,
beach clubs, tennis courts, marinas,
bulkheads, discotheques, and park-
ing lots, which are fast filling up
the barrier beaches of Long Island,
the Jersey shore, and the rest of the
Atlantic coast as well. Barrier
beaches are, it is generally believed,
stabilized by vegetation. They have
limited freshw^ater resources and a
fragile ecology. In their wake, they
produce that rarest and most valu-
able of natural features, the salt
marsh. The marshes, bays, and la-
goons formed behind barrier
beaches are a unique and, by far,
the most productive and valuable
ecological environment on the East
Coast south of Cape Cod. Yet count-
less acres of stabilizing beach grass
and vegetation have been uprooted
or asphalted over for house and
road construction; countless wells
have been, and are being, drilled
into the limited freshwater re-
sources : dredging, bulkheading,
and filling proceeds apace on the'
bay side, eliminating thousands of
marsh acres. In short, the whole in-
tegrity of the barrier beach is being
violated more and more, day by
day.
Serious and immediate thought
ought to be given to the barrier
beach problem, not in bits and
pieces, not in terms of just the
movement of berm and sand, but ini
some larger perspective. The whole
ecology of the beach- — from surf
(or perhaps farther out) to interior
bav — should be studied and treated
WHEN YOU WRITE TO NATURAL HISTORY
change of address.
'iption, billing, or any kind of adjustment, send the
ss— attach your address label in this dotted area and fill in your new address below
Natural History, Central Park West at 79th St., New York, N.Y. 10024.
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ill in your NEW address at right and mall to;
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HANHOC
New Address
City State
130
as a whole. The public nature of the
berm must be reaffirmed and the
strongest possible action must be
taken.
Eric and Lorna Salzman
Brooklyn Heights, New York
Barnard's Star
Dear Professor van de Kamp:
I was interested to read your ar-
ticle, "Barnard's Star: The Search
for Other Solar Systems," in the
April, 1970, issue of Natural His-
rORY. I remember, from my visits
:o Swarthmore, that you had been
working on this subject.
I was puzzled by one of the illus-
trations. This illustration [page
11], showing the wobble of the
star, indicates a still greater wobble
of the center of mass of the star
and its two planets.
The last sentence in the legend
ilso seems easily capable of mis-
interpretation.
I surmise that there really is a
nistake in the drawing and that the
Irawing was made by the illustra-
:or, rather than by you ; but there is
he possibility that I have misun-
lerstood the argument in some
vay. My curiosity as to the latter
)ossibility has caused me to write
0 you.
Linus Pauling
Stanford University
The Author Replies
Dear Professor Pauling :
Thank you for your thoughtful
etter. The legend is incorrect and
nisleading. The best way to correct
he confusion would seem to be a
tatement like this:
The "planets" in the diagram
epresent the gravitational effects
ittributed to the inferred planets
ather than the planets themselves,
n fact, the planets are on the oppo-
ite side of Barnard's Star at dis-
ances some 150 times larger than
hese effects.
I regret this error, which some-
low was not caught in time. And I
"This book will be our
classic on the wolf"
—William 0. Douglas
"A fine, comprehensive survey of the
ecology and habits of the wolf— his food,
habitat, hunting, mating, social behavior
and much more. Written in non-technical
language, the book sets down just about
everything we know about this beautiful
and— propaganda aside— shy animal,
who, authorities agree, has never in this ,
country attacked a man."
—New York 7/mes Book Review
THE
WOLF
by L. DAVID MECH
Foreword by Ian McTaggart Cowan;
photographs by L. David Mech, Patricia
Caulfield and others. $9. 95 at all booksellers
VLD DOUBLEDAY-
ITT I NATURAL
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AMERICAN HAWKING
By Hans J. Peelers and E. W. Jarrescn, Jr
A definitive account of hawking in the New
World, this beautifully illustrated book
treats the care and training of North
American sporting hawks. Conservation of
raptors is emphasized, and there are sec-
tions on the biology of both raptors and
quarry, as well as on diseases and mod-
ern remedies. The needs of present-day
falconry are explained so as to assist the
serious beginner and stress difficulties to
the dilettante. Seven full-page original
colored plates and thirty-six half tones by
the senior author illustrate many aspects
of American falconry, and four pen and
ink drawings depict hawking gear.
Designed and printed with the artistry
of Lawton Kennedy, this volume is an es-
sential addition to a complete library of
outdoor sports. Available from the authors
for twenty-five dollars.
814 J Street, Davis, California 95616
131
being masterfully
at home ^
I outdoors, ^
for an Jf
hour or J
weeks j
THE ART AND SCIENCE
OF TAKING TO THE WOODS
by C. B. Colby and Bradford Angier
...the encyclopedia of woodslore
and outdoor living
America's two top pros combine a century of
experience to tell about everything that works
— whether going in style or roughing it, way out
or close by, walking or riding, on mountaintop
or at the shore. ..and when nature's mild or wild.
In 50 chapters. 288 jammed, 8-1/2 x 10-1/2
pages, the experts show the shortcuts, basic
skills, and advance techniques, including...
planning • budgeting • buying gear • clothes •
equipment care • backpacks and backpacking •
using motor vehicles, trailers, bicycles, trail
scooters • boats and canoes • hiking trails •
bivouacking • shelters • direction finding • tent
pitching " footwear • stoves and campfires •
camping tools • vacation camping • camping to
hunt and fish...and hundreds of other tips about
everything from air mattresses to zippers.
With nearly 200 precise drawings. The Art
and Science of Taking to the Woods becomes
the all-in-one, complete blueprint for building
great times outdoors. $7.95
knowing the stories told by
' • *- the outdoors,
for browsers on
foot or wheels
READING
the WOODS
...seeing more in
nature's familiar faces
A layman's eye view of tales told by the forests,
soil, rocks, and land formations. Author-
naturalist Brown provides simple, accurate
descriptions and several hundred sharp photos
and drawings that help one to read and under-
stand nature's signs. Those signs. ..of growth
and movement, of the influence of weather,
fire, man, animals, insects, birds, of nature's
own plan for the continuity of its green things...
all provide ways to see beyond surface appear-
ances, unlocking a new appreciation and more
of the beauty of the things around us.
Reading the Woods is a key. A key to a more-
than-passing acquaintanceship with, and a non-
specialists' course in the past, the present, and
the future of the outdoor world. $5.95
STACKPOLE BOOKS
Dept. 309
Cameron and Kelker Streets
Harrisburg, Pa. 17105
Please send me
copies of The Art and Science of
Taking to the Woods S7.95
copies of Reading the Woods S5.95
□ Bill me, please, including shipping-
handling
Q Payment in full enclosed. Include my free
copy of Pocket Guide to Animal Tracks
Send all to
Name . .
Street -
City
_State-
.Zip_
Send payment with your order and get a
FREE copy of the 52 95, hardbound PocAef
Guide to Animal TracAs— pictures and
details about the footprints left everywhere
by 44 North American game animals
appreciate the gentle manner in
which you drew my attention to it.
We are continuing work on this
star. I am terribly aware of the pos-
sible sources of errors that may af-
fect these small deviations in long-
range series of photographs. I am
keeping my fingers crossed and in-
tend to accumulate material "in-
definitely." At the moment it seems
to me that appreciable improvement
in accuracy could be attained by
remeasuring all the material on a
modern measuring machine.
Peter van de Kamp
Swarthmore College
Mushrooms, anyone?
In the June-July issue of Natural
History Peggy Young has a long
article on mushrooms that is notable
for its dogmatic presentation. Not
that she is necessarily in error, but
I feel that the editor should not
encourage such leanings. Or am I
old-fashioned?
In his book "The Life of the
Fly," Jean Henri Fabre includes
some extraneous notes, including
the French peasants' method of pre-
paring mushrooms. Presumably
poisonous types are boiled in salt
water, then drained, before other
cooking. Fabre ridicules the idea
that the poisonous types should be
learned and avoided. Has anyone
else made a test?
WiLLARD F. Hollander
Professor of Genetics
Iowa State University
YOU CAN ORDER
REPRINTS OF
THE
GAELTACHT
OF
WEST KERRY
for classroom, study group, or as
gifts to friends.
Please send name and address with
payment — check or money order —
made out to The American Museum
of Natural History.
Cost is SQi per reprint.
Quantity prices upon request.
Mail to: Reprints
Natural History Magazine
Central Park West at 79th
Street
New York, New York 10024
SHARKS!
'h'ue or false:
A. All sharks are cold-blooded.
B. Sharks are found only in salt
water.
C. Shark skin is covered with
tiny teeth.
D. Sharks are afraid of porpoises.
(answers below)
If the answers to these questions
surprise you, you will find a
wealth of other surprises in THE
NATURAL HISTORY OF SHARKS,
by Thomas H. Lineaweaver III and
Richard H. Backus. The scuba
age has overthrown many
cherished misconceptions about
sharks: It has long been pro-
claimed that sharks must turn
over to bite. (This one goes back
to Aristotle). And naturalists who
should have known better have
often pronounced the shark weak
and harmless.
Lineaweaver and Backus, both
associated with the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution, have
assembled a complete survey of
all that is known about sharks
today. They include their own
observations and those of others,
from William Beebe to Marco
Polo. Their book is copiously
illustrated with photographs and
drawings showing all the major
species of shark. And it includes
—for the fisherman or amateur
naturalist— a complete key to
quick identification of any shark.
The price of this fascinating
volume is surprisingly low, only
$6.95. Order your copy today.
(A. False B. False C. True D. False)
mi. B. LlPPINCOn COMPANY J
■ East Washington Square NH-8-70 ■
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19105 ■
■ Send me, postpaid, a copy of THE NATURAL ■
HISTORY OF SHARKS. I reserve the right to ■
return the book, for any reason, within 10
days of delivery for a full refund of the
purchase price. I enclose $6.95.
□ Check n Money order
(In Ark. Col., N.C., N.D., N.J., N.Y., Pa.,
Tenn. add state and local sales tax.)
NAME
13a
BIG SUR STORM
Call Me Ishmael. C. Olson. William
Morrow & Co., Inc., New York,
1947.
Between Pacific Tides. E. F.
Ricketts. J. Calvin, J. W. Hedgpeth,
eds. Stanford University Press,
Stanford, 1962.
How TO Kill a Golden State.
W. Bronson. Doubleday & Company,
Inc., Garden City, 1968.
AN ENVIRONMENTAL
LAWYER URGES:
PLEAD THE
NINTH AMENDMENT!
The Supreme Court in Modern
Role. C. B. Swisher. New York
University Press, New York, 1958.
Governing Nature. E. F. Murphy.
Quadrangle Books, Inc., Chicago,
1967.
The New Industrial State. J. K.
Galbraith and M. S. Randhawa.
Houghton Mififlin Company, Bos-
ton, 1967.
DEATH BY THE PLOW
North American Prairie. J. E.
Weaver. Johnsen Publishing Co.,
Lincoln, 1954.
Postglacial Vegetational History
OF the Great Plains. P. V. Wells.
Science, Vol. 167, No. 3925, pp.
1574-1582. 1970.
My Antonia. W. Gather. Houghton
Mifflin Company, Boston, 1961.
Ecology of North America. V. E.
Shelford. University of Illinois
Press, Urbana, 1963.
THE SUPERCIVILIZED
WEATHER AND SKY SHOW
The Weather Changers. D. S.
Halacy, Jr. Harper & Row, Publish-
ers, New York, 1968.
Climatic Change. H. Shapley, ed.
Harvard University Press, Cam-
bridge, 1953.
Is Man Changing the Climate of
the Earth? R. A. Bryson. Satur-
day Review, April 1. 1967.
The Inadvertent Modification of
THE Atmosphere by Air Pollu-
tion. V. J. Schaefer. Bulletin of the
American Meteorological Society,
Vol. 50. No. 4. April, 1969.
THE GAELTACHT
OF WEST KERRY
The Aran Islands and Other Writ-
ings OF John M. Synge. R. Tracy,
ed. Random House, Inc., New York,
1962.
The Islandman. T. 0 Crohan.
Translated by R. Flower. Oxford
University Press, Inc., New York,
1951.
The Irish Countryman. C. M.
Arensberg. Doubleday & Company,
Inc.. Garden City. 1968.
Twenty Years A-Growing. M. O'Sul-
livan. The Viking Press, New York,
1963.
THREE FLEEING BULLHEADS
The Territorial Imperative. R. Ar-
drey. Dell Publishing Co., Inc.,
New York, 1968.
On Aggression. K. Lorenz. Har-
court. Brace & World, Inc., New
York. 1966.
Olfaction in Fishes. H. Kleereko-
per. Indiana University Press,
Bloomington, 1969.
The Frail Ocean. W. Marx. Ballan-
tine Books, Inc., New York, 1969.
MIGRATION OF THE
BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU
A Biological Investigation of the
Thelon Game Sanctuary. C. H.
D. Clarke. National Museum of
Canada Bulletin 96, Biological
Series No. 25, 1940.
TuKTu: A Question of Survival.
F. Symington. Canadian Wildlife
Service, The Queen's Printer, Ot-
tawa, 1965.
THE
GER
MAN
51 WEST 64th STREET.
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SC 4-7158
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KENMORE. MILFORD HN-588. NEW HAMP.OSOSS
133
wondng.
Reynolds
reclamation plan for aluminum cans
and other aluminum scrap.
In Los Angeles alone, Reynolds
test program got people to redeem
over 1,000,000 aluminum cans per
month. Now we're working on six-
teen more states.
Answers to the hard problems —
such as Utter and solid waste dis-
posal— don't come easy. But, with
effort and persistence, they do
come.
Reynolds has working proof of
this with its anti-litter, aluminum
can recycling program. Starting in
Miami over three years ago, we've
developed approaches that are now
about to be put to work in 16
states.
They'll be pulling used alumi-
num cans and other discarded
aluminum products off the scrap
-•rf' -^i
kJ>
heap and back to our reclamation
plants. They'll be helping to clean
up our streets and conserve our
nation's resources at the same time.
Los Angeles gets involved.
We know these programs work.
One plan, with a Reynolds promo-
tion drive behind it, has Los
Angeles citizens bringing more
than a million cans a month into
our plant there. It has not c
made Los Angeles people rr
aware of their litter problem'
has involved them, stimulated tli
into doing something about i
Now we're expanding our Mi
effort to cover all of Florida. V
be launching our campaign in T
York City, and will move i
northern New Jersey, Housi
San Francisco, and the Pac
Northwest.
In addition, we are working '
Adolph Coors Company of C
rado to help reclaim their i
aluminum beer cans. We'lb
taking their cans from Ariz(i(
Colorado, New Mexico, Wyom^
Utah, Nevada, Kansas, Oklahcn
Texas, and California.
ed aluminum is valuable.
at makes the program work is
basic value of aluminum itself,
ip aluminum is worth $200 a
, because it can be melted down
reused so readily. Scrap steel,
comparison, brings only $20
m; paper, $16 a ton.
o used aluminum cans are
:th picking up, worth saving
taking to a reclamation plant,
'nolds is able to offer Vi0 per
, and to suggest that Boy Scouts,
pital charity groups, and other
anizations — and individuals —
e funds by collecting and re-
ling aluminum scrap,
hey're taking our suggestions.
; milUon cans that don't show
up in Los Angeles garbage heaps
every month prove that.
Letters for anti-litter.
Our anti-litter efforts have brought
us much applause from Boy
Scout officials, Congressmen, Keep
America Clean groups, civic lead-
ers, and many others. But our chief
satisfaction is in being able to help
with this most difficult and impor-
tant problem. We intend to keep
at it, and to work even harder.
Reynolds Metals Company, P.O.
Box 2346-LII, Richmond, Virginia,
23218.
Individuals and organizations bring oil-
aluminum cans to the Reynolds reclamation
center.
Used cans pass through a magnetic separator
and are then shredded.
Ingots then move into other Reynolds plants
to be formed into sheet, plate or other mill
products.
The recycled aluminum re-enters the econ-
omy in a variety of attractive, durable new
products.
y^2
"«**
'"'^m^^"
In three weeks he may be dead.
In the beautiful woods and valleys of eastern Oklahoma
time is running out. Up to fifty percent of the newborn fawns
are being lost each year because of ticks.
When large numbers of these crab-like pests attack a healthy
young deer, he cannot live for more than a few weeks.
And it isn't just deer that are affected. Ticks will attack
virtually any land animal or bird they can get hold of.
But there is a way to control these marauders — kill them
on the ground where they breed.
To do this, the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife
Conservation together with Oklahoma State University are
using Shell's Gardona®, an insecticide. A mere pound to an acre
can kill the resident tick population for up to nine weeks.
Yet it will not harm animals, birds, plants or people.
Shell has also funded a grant to Oklahoma State
University's Department of Entomology for more intensive
study on the control of ticks.
Shell's concern with wildlife is only part of an all-out
program to help save our environment. So far we've backed
our commitment with millions of dollars a year in the
war against pollution.
And we're moving as fast as we can.
Because, like the fawn, we're all running
short on time.
m tne
VATURAL HISTORY
OCTOBER 1970 • $1 .00
when youVe stalked white rhino at Umfolosi . . .
safaried through 16 game reserves... heard the call
of Zulu herdsmen in the Valley of a Thousand Hills
...then youVe seen something of SOUTH AFRICA
...and you have lived a little
Experience the Kruger National Park - the most
famous game reserve in the world. Travel the many
other wildlife sanctuaries. See everything from the
elephant to the tiny oribi ... in comfort with an expert
guide. Come-see for yourself.
For further information on South Africa, contact your travel
agent or write to the South African Tourist Corporation,
Rockefeller Center, 610 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10020, or
721 Wilshire Beverly Centre, 9465 Wilshire Boulevard, Beverly
Hills, California 90212.
Break away from the herd . . . SOUTH AFRICA appeals to the adventurer in you.
NATURAL HISTORY
The Journal of The American Museum of Natural History
Vol. LXXIX, No. 8 October 1970
8 WIT, WISDOM, & WOE Luther P. Gerlach and Virginia Hine
Or, the readers strike back (with our thanks for your enthusiasm).
The American Museum
oj Natural History
Gardner D. Stout, President
Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Natural History
Alfred Meyer, Editor
Robert E. Williamson, Managing Editor
Alan P. Ternes, Senior Editor
Thomas Page, Art Editor
Associate Editors
Avis Knifjin
John P. Wiley, Jr.
Frederick R. Hartmann
Karen Manulis
Florence G. Edelstein, Copy Chief
Toni Gerber, Copy Editor
Carol Breslin, Reviews
Diantha C. Thorpe, Research
William Suderman, Production
Staff Assistants
Ernestine Weindorf
Janet Stinchcomb
Editorial Advisers
Dean Amadon
Franklyn M. Branley
Vincent Manson
Margaret Mead
Thomas D. Nicholson
Gerard Pie I
Ethel Tobach
Advertising Sales
Harvey Oshinsky, Director
Harry F. Decker
Walter E. Mercer
Gordon Finley
Dinah Lowell, Traffic
Eileen O'Keefe, Assl.
Circulation Promotion
Ann Usher, Director
Joan Meintfies
Gail White
Fulfillment
Joseph Saulina, Manager
26 THE CLICHE OF THE KILLER Victor B. Schefjer
A bad press and a fearsome reputation have left the gentle killer whale
unprotected by state or national laivs.
32 GEORGIA GRANITE ir'Uliam A. Bake, Jr.
Geologic antiquity and botanical uniqueness distinguish the beautiful
coastal rocks of the southern piedmont.
40 PEOPLES OF INDOCHINA Charles F. Keyes
Turmoil in Southeast Asia today is complicated by a long legacy of cultural,
tribal, and religious differences among this region's peoples.
54 LIFE IN THE SKY Bruce C. Parker
As high-flying ecosystems, certain clouds may harbor thriving colonies of
nutrient-making organisms.
60 MADE IN JAPAN Rodger Mitchell
Unlike the plastic gewgaius made for export, the true toys of Japan boast
fine craftsmanship and local legendary significance.
66 DISSECTING THE CRAB Geoffrey BurbUge
More than 7,000 years ago, a superstar burst — and this giant cosmic ac-
celerator ivas born.
cover: While modern warfare disrupts Indochina, ancient religious sym-
bols, such as this Buddha in Bangkok, continue to have great
influence.
4 THE AUTHORS
38 SKY REPORTER John p. Wiley, Jr.
39 CELESTIAL EVENTS Thomas D. Nicholson
88 BOOKS IN REVIEW Robert Cushman Murphy
96 SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING
Publication Office: The American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at
79th Street, New York, N.Y. 10024. Published monthly, October through May;
bimonthly June to September, Subscription: $7.00 a year. In Canada and all other
countries: $8.00 a year. Single copies SI. 00. Second-class postage paid at New York.
N.Y., and at additional offices. Copyright © 1970 by The American Museum of Natural
History. No part of this periodical may be reproduced without the written consent of
Natural History. Manuscripts and illustrations submitted to the editorial office
will be handled with care, but we cannot assume responsibility for their safety. Opinions
expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of The
American jlluscum. Natural History incorporating Nature Magazine is indexed in
Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature.
What kind of worl
We live on a tiny, fragile, vulnerable
planet. We must learn how to care for it.
Six years ago, Standard Oil Company (New
Jersey) affiliates began using a method for
washing tanker compartments at sea that helps
to eliminate putting any oil into the ocean.
We developed and are using an under-
water seismic device that replaces dynamite in
oil exploration and does not harm marine life.
Jersey researchers are working with auto
manufacturers to develop fuels and emission
systems which together will be virtually p
lution-free.
Our affiliates are building special plai
in Venezuela and Aruba to take sulfur out
heavy fuel oil used by our eastern cities.
We have spent millions of dollars to i
prove the environmental performance of (
refineries and chemical plants, new and old.
Real accomplishment. Enormous cost. I
there is much more to be done. ■
The search for and production of oil
^4^»K^MH»,
ill we leave them?
y affiliates must continue to be accom-
;d by vigilant care for the ecology.
Dur refineries will be looked at again and
I for ways to improve their environmental
irmance.
We will continue to seek ways to improve
ransportation methods on land and sea.
It will take continued dedication and
: to solve our problems. But all industry,
;d all citizens and their municipalities, will
to act with equal concern.
To improve the total environment will
take time. It will take billions of dollars. And
the cost will have to be shared by all of us.
We intend to do what one company can
do to improve the quality of life on this planet.
It will be a long and difficult battle for all
of us. But this is a battle we must win.
Standard Oil Company
(New Jersey)
--.,4 v-.;
During his thirty-one years as a
research biologist wdth the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service Victor
B. Scheffer worked primarily ivnth
mammals, especially seals and
whales. The recipient of the Depart-
Sea Liom, and Walruses: The Year
of the Whale: and The Year of the
Seal.
A free-lance i\Titer and photog-
rapher and an active conser-
vationist. William A. Bake, Jr..
Associate professor of anthro |
pology at the Lniversity of Wash!
ington, Charles F. Keyes has con|;
ducted extensive research on thji
peoples of Indochina, particularLj^
the Thai. His field work in Thai
land includes tivo years in th
northeast studying village-nation re
lations, peasant social organizatioi
and peasant Buddliism: and a yea
in the north'i\"est region researchin
ment of the Interior's Distinguished
Service Award in 1965 and the
John Burroughs Medal in 1969,
SchefEer's field work includes the
north Pacific and Alaska, where he
studied marine mammals, England,
the USSR, and Antarctica. He is the
author of numerous articles as well
as several books, including Seals.
has combined these interests in a
study of the granite outcrops of
Georgia. A resident of northeastern
Georgia, Bake is an instructor of
educational media at the University
of Georgia and newsletter editor for
the Georgia group of the Sierra
Club. He received his M.A. in
American history from Emory Uni-
versitj" and is currently is'orking on
his doctorate in education. A mem-
ber of the Georgia Consers'ancy, his
articles and photographs have ap-
peared in several national publica-
tions.
Thai-tribal relations and ethnc
history. The recipient of a numbe
of fellowships, Keyes is preparing
book with Prof. A. Thomas Kirsc
of Cornell on the anthropologv' c
Southeast Asia.
Can you pick out your Scotch?
L
A
i K,
.M-
"Black &White? Scotch for peop
All Scotches shown above were photographed under identical lighting with equal proportions of whisky and ice, using an 8x10 Plaubel camera with
Professor of botany at Virginia
jlytechnic Institute in Blacksburg
nee 1969, Bruce C. Parker re-
ived his M.S. from Yale Univer-
i;y in 1957, and his Ph.D. from
e University of Texas in 1960.
fter spending the following year
University College, London, as a
ational Science Foundation post-
)ctoral fellow, he became assistant
ofessor of botany at the Univer-
ty of California, Los Angeles, in
)61. Four years later he joined the
iff of Washington University in
. Louis as associate professor of
)tany. Author of numerous arti-
'es for scientific journals, Parker
■ editor of Contributions to Phy-
ilogy.
As a Fulbright research professor
Ibaraki University in Mito, Rod-
ger Mitchell spent a year in Japan
studying the biology of water mites.
During his stay, he collected many
native toys and used them to en-
courage his Japanese friends to talk
about their folk tales and tradi-
tions. Currently professor of zool-
ogy at Ohio State University, Mitch-
ell's studies involve the analysis of
the relations of parasitic mites to
their host.
British-born Geoffrey Bur-
bidge of the University of Califor-
nia, San Diego, has been a major
force in strengthening the scientific
foundation on which modern cos-
mology is based. A theoretical
physicist, Burbidge accepted a Car-
negie Fellowship to Mount Wilson
Observatory in 1955. In 1962, after
five years on the faculty of the Uni-
versity of Chicago, during which he
and his wife made the observations
from which they determined the
masses of galaxies, he joined the
faculty of the University of Califor-
nia, San Diego, as professor of
physics. Among their many notable
contributions to the field, llu-ii tlir-
ory of the origin of the elements is
considered to be a classic in as-
tronomy. A fellow of the Royal
Society and of University College,
London, Burbidge plans a theo-
retical study of radio galaxies,
quasi-stellar objects, and nuclei of
galaxies.
It isn't easy.
These five leading Scotches look pretty
much alike.
They all look light.
And they taste light, too.
Where Scotches do vary is in smoothness.
And that's where we shine. People who
know Scotch consider "Black (StWhite"
(second from right) the smoothest of them all.
Maybe you'll agree.
Maybe you won't.
But we'd like you to try it.
ho know the difference.
er Super Angulon lens af F/64. For names of other Scotches shown, write to The Fleischmonn Dist. Corp., 625 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022.
AGED, BLENDED, BOTTLED IN SCOTLAND 8(5.8 PROOF SCOTCH WHISKY THE FIEISCHMANN DISTILLING CORP. NYC SOLE DISTRIBUTOR
In Lexington, Mass., there's a service stati
Lexington, Massachusetts, is rich in colonial history.
200 years ago, the great and near great swept tlu'ough
Lexington. Men like George "^^'ashington. Benjamin
Franklin. Samuel Adams and John Hancock.
And on practically every corner stands a landmark,
or a famous colonial home. The Hancock-Clarke house
built in 1698. The old Monroe Tavern on Massachusetts
Avenue, where George Washington was wined and dined
in 1789.
The people of Lexington are deeply committed
their heritage. And. needless to say. they w-anted to
preserve it. Thus, when Shell arrived in Lexington
redesign a service station, some questions were rai;
The people feared a station that would be a comple
contradiction to their community. Its character anc
historv.
'^^&ii*^./.
>y . " « , '»';f'
«^
>5
■ the people, by the people and for the people.
'mm^^fiam
But their fears were unnecessary. Shell engineers
)mitted a number of pleasing designs to the town's
storical Architectural Board. And the people on the
ard selected one.
The result: Shell has a thriving, attractive station,
th a portico and a quaint belfry. And the people of
xington have a station that blends in with the town's
tory and its scenery.
Shell, as a company, is committed to enhancing the
environment. Not detracting from it. That's why our
new stations are specifically designed to blend in.
Older ones are remodeled. Dilapidated ones, torn down.
And station clutter, such as banners and
pennants, are outlawed.
Shell wants to keep America the Beautiful
...beautiful.
orn down.
hHELLj
IP% JVisdom,
& JVoe
A preliminary report on tlie
replies to Xatural H'lstory^s questionnaire,
^^You and the Ecology Movement^''
By Luther P. Gerlach and flrginia Hine
One characteristic of Natural
History readers is their remarkable
responsiveness. To date more than
six thousand readers have returned
the ecology questionnaire that ap-
peared in the June-July. 1970. is-
sue. The answers came from every
section of the continental United
States, from Hawaii, Alaska, Mex-
ico, Canada. England. France, Ar-
gentina, and Pago Pago. Many
readers duplicated the question-
naire form and distributed it to
friends, neighbors, colleagues, or
students. Two bundles arrived from
high school teachers: one repre-
sented the total student body of one
school; the other, the freshman and
senior students.
Lengthy comments in the mar-
gins or in separate letters indicated
lively interest in the questionnaire's
subject matter. Such comments —
some enthusiastically supportive,
some sharply critical — add greatly
to the information collected. Even
though it increases the task of
analysis and interpretation of the
data, we are most grateful to those
who took the time to make personal
comments.
The mechanics of processing and
analyzing all of these responses is
so time-consuming that a full report
of the results will not be published
until a later issue. But interest in
this project is such that a prelimi-
nary report, to you who have coop-
erated so willingly, is mandatory.
The most frequent comment ac-
companying the answer forms had
to do with the advisability of print-
ing the form on the back of a par-
ticularly charming picture of chee-
tahs. Some chided gently: others
were outraged. The questionnaire at
least determined clearly that a grati-
fying number of readers keep each
issue of this magazine on per-
manent record.
The second most frequent type of
comment had to do with the ques-
tionnaire itself. These comments
ranged from "this questionnaire
was just great" to "this question-
naire is not very bright. The an-
swers are too bloody simple. Next
time why not get pros to make up
the questionnaire?"
Some respondents felt the limited
choice of answers on the question-
naire was "unrealistically confining"
or ''an offense to the intelligence of
readers.' This is a classic reaction
to multiple choice questionnaires —
from census forms to college en-
trance exams. Everyone resents the
implied uniformity of precoded
questionnaires. It offends our sense
of individuality. It also appears to
reduce complex questions to sim-
plistic answers. This is particularly
true in areas of vital concern. When
feelings run deep, they are not eas-
ily boxed into neat little categories.
The survey method, however, is
one of the best for discovering gen-
eral trends in the opinions of large
numbers of people. Many readers
commented sympathetically on the
problems of a project of this na-
ture. Two teams of social scientists
trusted its validity sufficiently to
ask for access to the data for use in
their related research projects.
There were numerous criticisms
of "bias," "lack of objectivity," and
"loaded questions." The more irate
of these critics viewed us as scien-
tific "charlatans" or just "down-
right stupid," and suggested that in
the future we submit our questions
to a panel of experts. Actually, sev-
eral months of planning and con-
siderable expertise went into the
selection and wording of the
questions. The content of the ques-
tions was generated out of hun-
dreds of personal interviews with
people involved in conservation and
ecology groups, as well as with
people who actively oppose them.
The statements and questions were
phrased in terms that these individ-
uals and groups used originally in
ABOUT $10 A FIFTH. PRICES MAY VARY ACCORDING TO STATE AND LOCAL TAXES. 12 YEAR OLD BLENDED SCOTCH WHISKY. 86.8 PROOF.
BOTTLED IN SCOTLAND. IMPORTED BY SOMERSET IMPORTERS, LTD., N.Y., N.Y.
mmbTHEIANDOFTHEMAYA
The extraordinary travel event of 1971 on two renovyned cruising
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You are invited on voyages designed for dis-
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Konica cameras get taken to where the
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They can take great pictures quickly
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Choose from the world's smallest,
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"The lens alone is worth the price"
discussing the issues. On such a
survey, one aims for common ter-
minology as it is popularly used,
rather than for professional ex-
actitude. The questions were then
gone over carefully in cooperation
with a team of psychologists doing
similar surveys. This was followed
by repeated pretesting with several
groups of people who were invited
to suggest changes in phraseology.
Several items were also run in a
Minnesota poll sponsored by Min-
neapolis newspapers. All items were
then reworked so that the terms
used would be commonly under-
stood by the widest range of poten-
tial respondents.
The so-called slanting of some of
the questions was intentional. Ac-
tually the items that drew most of
this type of criticism were not ex-
actly questions. They were state-,
ments. Furthermore, they were
statements commonly heard among
environmentally minded people of
different persuasions. "Loading"
for most people means that a spe-
cific answer is expected. There were
no "answers" as such to these state-
ments. There was an opportunity to
express various degrees of agree-
ment or disagreement with them.
We neither expected, nor did we
get, predictable concentrations of
responses.
A review of the questionnaire
will reveal that on controversial
points half of the statements were
loaded in one direction and the
other half in the opposite direction.
The purpose of this was to elicit
precisely the value judgments so
deplored by some of our critics.
Emotionalism, they said, served
only to muddy the waters.^
It would be nice if Hiiman re-
sponses to serious problems were
based solely on reason. It would be
even nicer if environmental deci-
sions were made solely on the basis
of scientific facts. The assumptior
that our decision makers can oper-
ate without emotional bias is a wist
fully held myth in our society. As
one respondent put it: "The solu
tions of these [environmental]
problems will be found through th(
use of our brains and not our emo-
tions." Others wrote that emotion
alism has no place in scientifii
investigation, and several tool
Natural History to task for no
"sticking to the facts."
First price is publisher's list. Boldface
700. Huey Long: A Biography,
By T. Harry Williams.
National Book Award and
Pulitzer Prize winner.
$12.50/7.95
554. The Trial of the Germans:
Nuremberg, 1945-46.
By Eugene Davidson.
$12.50/8.95
607. From Slavery to Freedom:
A History of Negro Americans.
By John Hope Franklin.
$12.00/7.40
679. Napoleon: From IS Brumaire
to Tilsit, 1799-1807 (Vol. I).
By Georges Lefebvre.
$7.50/6.50
680. Napoleon: From Tilsit to
Waterloo, 1807-15 (Vol. ID.
By Georges Lefebvre.
$7.50/6.50
613. Stonewall Jackson
and the American Civil War.
By G. F. R. Henderson.
$8.95/6.95
646. Expansion & Coexistence:
The History of
Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-67.
By Adam B. Ulam.
$12.95/8.95
370. The Spanish Civil War.
By Hugh Thomas.
S12.50/7.5O
shows member's price.
460. Hitler: A Study In Tyranny.
By Alan Bullock.
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651. White over Black: American
Attitudes toward
the Negro, 1550-1812.
By Winthrop D. Jordaa
$12.50/8.95
645. The Great Terror;
Stalin's Purge of the Thirties.
By Robert Conquest.
$9.95/7.40
621. The Indian Heritage
of America.
By Alvin M. Josephy, Jr.
$10.00/6.95
476. The Life of Lenin.
By Louis Fischer.
$12.50/8.50
470. 20th Century China.
By O. Edmund Qubb.
$7.95/5.95
688. World Prehistory:
A New Outline (2nd Edition).
By Grahame Clark.
$7.50/5.95
489. William the Conqueror.
By David C. Douglas.
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661. A History of the Vikings.
By Gwyn Jones.
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606. Henry Vili.
By John J. Scarisbrick.
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657. The Creation of the
American Republic, 1776-1787.
By Gordon S. Wood.
Bancroft Award Winner.
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687. Anti-lntellectualism
in American Life.
By Richard Hofstadter.
$7.95/5.95
591. Louis XiV.
By John B. Wolf.
$12.50/8.75
698. The Epic of the Crusades.
By Rene Grousset.
$10.00/6.95
714. The Great Betrayal: The
Evacuation of the Japanese-
Americans during World War 11.
By Audrie Girdner & Anne Loftis.
$12.50/8.75
695. The Court of Richard II.
By Gervase Mathew.
$6.95/5.95
715. The Boston Massacre.
By HiUer B. Zobel.
$8.50/6.75
677. Witchcraft at Salem.
By Chadwick Hansea
S6.95/5.75
673. The Historian as Oetective:
Essays on Evidence.
Edited by Robin W Winks.
$ia95/7.50
/ ■ . -
The History Book Club
Stamford, Connecticut 06904
Please enroll me as a trial
member and send me, for
only 99 cents, the three books whose
numbers I have iilled in below;
Also send me, at the special member's
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CD
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They did more to change the course of
history than an army of good guys.
That's why we'd like to send you any
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The History Book Club
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We might point out that environ-
mental facts are only half of the
equation — the easiest half to study.
It is easier to measure the particu-
late matter in automobile emissions,
for instance, than to measure the
variety of human reactions to it.
But one of the most crucial com-
ponents in any ecosystem is the hu-
man decision-making process. Ob-
servation of environmental decision
making in different parts of the
country over the past three years
indicates that human value judg-
ments and the degree of emotion
with which they are held are per-
tinent facts in the ecological crisis.
These are the kinds of facts that the
questionnaire was written to elicit.
One of the most interesting find-
ings, even at this preliminary stage
of the analysis, is the wide differ-
ence of opinion among Natural
History readers on the relevance of
political or economic issues to the
ecological crisis. Here we touched a
sensitive spot.
"I do not see, for the life of me,
how the elimination of the profit
system has any connection with
ecology or pollution," wrote one re-
spondent. Others resented the in-
clusion of questions about Black
Power, campus movements, antiwar
efforts, and religious reforms as ir-
relevant, if not positively "subver-
sive."
These questions were included,
not because the authors are "trying
to force a connection between con-
servation and New Left politics," as
one person suggested, but because
many of the people active in con-
servation and ecology groups are
already making these connections
in their thinking. Extensive per-
sonal interviews have turned up
many participants who view politi-
cal, economic, religious, and other
aspects of human life as inter-
related in the same way that differ-
ent species within a biological
ecosystem are interrelated. We
wanted to find out how widespread
this view is among environmentally
oriented people.
The preliminary tabulations in-
dicate that a large majority of those
who answered the questionnaire do
view the various protest movements
as related in some way to the con-
servation-ecology groups. Of these
a sizable minority see them as not
only related but as different aspects
12
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13
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of a single thrust for fundamental
social change. Respondents were
about evenly divided on the ques-
tion of whether racism and pollu-
tion are part of the same or difEer-
ent problems. We were rather
surprised by these preliminary find-
ings.
It would appear that participants
in conservation-ecology groups tend
to practice what they preach. Re-
spondents were very specific about
changes in their behavior patterns
that resulted from their new eco-
logical awareness. The most
frequently mentioned change in be-
havior had to do with buying
habits. People are using fewer dis-
posable products, refusing to use
detergents and certain pesticides,
avoiding plastics like the plague, re-
jecting no-return bottles, and leav-
ing paper bags with the check-out
girl. Many mentioned cutting down
on the use of water and electricitv,
increased use of bikes, and walking
more. Household waste-recycling
practices are popular, and the
World War II victory garden has
reappeared as the survival garden.
Litterers are frowned upon by all
and personally accosted on the
street by the more audacious. There
were also reports of occupational
changes into jobs more relevant to
the ecological crisis. For some this
has meant reduced salaries.
Population control has become a
personal matter for some, especially
those who are just beginning their
families. The "stop at two" motto is
apparently being taken very se-
riously. One reported an abortion
as part of her ecological effort.
Many older respondents who al-
ready have four or five children ex-
pressed support for the concept of
population control, but as one fa-
ther quipped: "Wliat should I do
with my last two children? Throw
them away?"
Another factor that seems to be
emerging is the pressure adults feel
from their children. Children
apparently are becoming outspoken
critics of adult litterers. One teen-
ager made life miserable for her
mother until she stopped throwing
vegetable matter down the disposal
and started putting it on a compost
heap. Another wrote that he "ang-
ers my parents' friends continually"
by criticizing their environmental
habits.
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le Seymours just gave birth to a nine-year-old.
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One of the attitudes that we
found prevalent in our personal inr
terviews was also expressed by re-
spondents to this questionnaire.
Older conservationists pointed out
that all the present hullabaloo
about ecology only meant that peo-
ple were beginning to catch on to
what they have been talking about
all their lives.
More than half of those active in
the conservation-ecology groups ap- '
proved of more activist methods of
achieving their goals. A majority
approve of rallies, demonstrations,
marches, and even nonviolent direct
action such as sit-ins in front of
bulldozers. Clearly this approval is
largely theoretical. It has not been
tested by most, and only a small
fraction of respondents reported
having taken any risks in their
ecological activism. But it might
suggest an impatience with con-
ventional methods of achieving en-
vironmental goals.
In conclusion, something must be
said about the validity of what sta-
tisticians call the "sample." How
representative are the responses of
those who answered the question-
naire? As pointed out by one of our
respondents, the people who an-
swered this questionnaire are by no
means representative of the general
public. Natural History readers,
she wrote, are "specifically conserva-
tion oriented." In addition, we might
add, our sample is also characterized
by a willingness to answer such a
questionnaire, so that it may not
be wholly representative even of all
Natural History readers.
Analysis of the responses will al-
low us to understand much about
this particular group of people. Our
plans include giving the same ques-
tionnaire to other types of groups.
It is being published, for instance,
by Industry Week. Eventually, we
will be able to draw comparisons
between the responses of Natural
History readers and those from
groups who do not share a "specif-
ically conservation orientation.''
We hope that these data will add to
our growing understanding of our
ecosystem, of which human society
and the human decision-making
process are such important compo-
nents.
The following comments, selected
from the thousands that were re-
ceived, indicate the range of opin-
i6
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ion and the great emotion that the
questionnaire evoked.
The Questionnaire
Your questionnaire for readers
of your magazine was most inter-
esting and thought provoking. We
have made several copies and have
distributed them to other workers.
Your suggestion that the ecology
movement, black power, and the
"student rebellion" are interrelated
is very disturbing to me. I think
they have little or nothing in com-
mon except a feeling of urgency
and frustration. The enemies of the
ecology movement are trying to
promote the idea that we are just
another bunch of radicals. On the
contrary, we never see the hippie
types in the woods.
Birmingham, Alabama
I heartily approve of your study
of the ecology movement. However,
in my opinion your questions are
difficult to answer. For example, my
emotional reaction is somewhat dif-
ferent, in some cases, from my
weighed reaction.
Flagstaff, Arizona
This questionnaire seems to he of
a higher caliber than the usual
stilted type. However, there are still
a couple of questions like "When
did you stop beating your wife?"
Yonkers, New York
I fee! your questionnaire is much
too limited in scope, and perhaps
slanted to those who make a lot of
noise but have never picked up a
beer can. I feel that the '"ecology
movement," as you term it, has far
greater significance than your sur-
face treatment would indicate.
Bedford Hills, New York
Gerlach and Hine may be hell on
wheels as anthropologists, but ei-
ther their bias shows or they are
lousy "'objective question" devel-
opers. The questions have no place
for a person who can see both sides
of the question. The reader is as-
sumed to be committed to all-out
conservation or all-out despoliation.
I am afraid that the big emphasis
on ""ecology " ( seldom has a word
been more misused I will be fol-
lowed by a letdown which will ne-
gate any gains won by the current
l8
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ace, a place seldom accessible to
foreign tourists. Every evening tickets
for the ballet and opera will be pro-
vided. And you will visit the small an-
cient towns of Suzdal and Vladimir
where you will enjoy a thrilling troika
ride over the snowy winter landscape.
BOAC 707 jets will fly you there via
London, where a theatre and concert
evening will be yours to enjoy as well
as a Sunday excursion to Cambridge.
For 1971, Mr. Lindblad has also
scheduled 6 journeys of adventure in-
to the dense jungles of New Guinea.
Here you will find cloud-piercing
mountains, rivers plunging through
deep gorges, and you will meet fasci-
nating people whose culture is un-
changed from the mists of the stone
age. Perhaps the highlight will be an
incredibly exciting houseboat trip on
THE WORLD OF LINDBLAD TRAVEL
the Sepik River. And BOAC will fly you
to New Guinea via famous VC 10s.
So, whether you like it hot or cold,
send for one of our brochures.
Dept. NH1070
LINDBLAD TRAVEL, INC.
133 East 55th Street
New York, N. Y. 10022
Please send brochure. I am seriously
interested in:
□ Russia in Winter
□ New Guinea Safari
Address_
City
Teleplione (Area Code).
19
In fact, just about twice as available.
To put it another way, Miranda
Sensorex* now tal<es "impossible"
available-light pictures in half the light
or at twice the speed you used to need.
It took a new Miranda Sensorexto
do it; a Sensorex that combines a
through-the-lens zone-metering
system with a spectacular 50mm
f/ 1.4 lens which stays wide open for
precise readings and brilliant
view-finding.
More selective than full-area
meters, more sensitive to dim-light
situations than spotmeters, this
unique zone system isn't fooled by
the bright-sky bugaboo that fools
other meters.
And we've located it on the instant-
return mirror, where it can measure
the dimmest glimmer before the light
can be reflected or diffused. And where
it will stay when you want to switch
to a waist-level finder or one of our
other accessory finders.
Of course, this new Sensorex still
offers those good old Miranda extras:
optics independently judged superior
to those on highly touted $400 SLRs;
a lens mount that accepts over 1,500
lenses and accessories (yours and
ours); and overall excellence we stand
behind with the only 3-year guarantee
in the industry.
Miranda Sensorex. The SLR that
thinks of everything. So you can see
picture-taking in a new light.
New zone-metered
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THE SIXTH SENSE
(l^-jj^ Allied Impex Corp., 168 Glen Cove Rd. Carle Place
InJOlS: In Canada, Kingsway Film Equipment Ltd., Ontaric
ely packed, plus a S2.50 charg
ling, handling i
"hard-sell." Too bad we cannot be
moderate in all things.
My 'vvife agrees with me, s(
know I am right.
Grants Pass, Oregoi
Thank you for putting out this
questionnaire. It helped sort out
some of my own thoughts on these
matters !
Moraga, California
Saving the Cheetah
In the current issue of your ex-
cellent publication is a question-
naire relating to an anthropological
study of the ecology movement, a
subject which reaches me both as
an anthropologist and a zookeeper.
I wanted very much to submit this
questionnaire, but was disturbed by
the necessity, in doing so, of muti-
lating the delightful photograph of
a female cheetah and young which
accompanied Dr. Schaller's article
beginning on the reverse side of the
page. I elected to submit the com-
pleted form, but I will always
regret the defacement of one of my
copies of Natural History.
Houston, Texas
If you think that I'm going to cut
up my issue of \atur-al History
to answer your questionnaire, you
are out of your gourds. I Besides,
the cheetah on page thirty is al-
ready rare enough. I
Woodbridge, Connecticut
The printing of the questionnaire
on the reverse side of an interesting
article is a small example of the in-
competence of so-called leaders that
is so common in American society.
This one factor is the greatest stum-
bling block to the solution of im-
portant ecology problems.
Jamaica, New York
My copies of our beautiful maga-
zine pass along to one family after
another until they eventually wear
out or wind up in school to be
shared as widely as possible. Imag-
ine the consternation of my chain
of readers at finding half a page
torn out. half the photo of the crit-
ters on pages 30-31 denied them.
Not everybody has a machine
handy to copy things and avoid niu-
eather
weinhts
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the amazing ncMA lightweights that are
heavyvireights on performance.
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of intensive scientific research in developing the
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and premium quality. And, best of all, that would
sell for a reasonable price.
Incredibly light, incredibly compact, and incred-
ibly accurate, Trilyte binoculars by Swift are des-
tined to become the binocular of the future.
Swift's Trilyte 7X,35 weighs only 18,7 oz. and is
a mere 4% inches high open. A general purpose
binocular that features unique "roof" prisms,
5-lens Erfle-type ocular cells, air-spaced objec-
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Wide, 393 ft. panoramic field. Relative light
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The remarkable Swift Trilyte is also available
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See the fabulous Swift Trilyte
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nearest Swift Dealer today.
Write for free literature.,
WfT-
SWIFT INSTRUMENTS, INC.
BOSTON, MASS. 02125 Dept NH SAN JOSE, CALIF. 95106
In Reading, Pennsylvania,
tliere's a wisliing weii tliat
reaiiy worlcs.
It works because every time someone tosses in a coin, it helps Foster Child
Ho Bau and his family. Bau's wishes may not be like your child's but they
are just like those of thousands of children who are waiting for Foster
Parents. They wish to enjoy childhood without the pain of hunger. Without
the fear of sickness. Without the desperation of poverty.
Everyone who visits the Museum and Art Gallery in Reading and tosses
his money in its wishing well is Bau's Foster Parent. They read his letters
which the museum displays. He writes of his classmates in the fourth grade
(where his favorite subject is composition), of his brothers and sisters, and
of helping his mother work their small piece of land.
Through Foster Parents Plan's program you can bring help and hope to
a child and his family. Your $16.00 monthly contribution provides them with
a cash grant, medical care, counseling from social workers and household
supplies.
Won't you help another child like Bau and make his wishes come true?
Foster Parents Plan, Inc. international Headquarters
352 Park Avenue South • New York, N.Y. 10010
I want to be a Foster Parent for one year or more of a boy Q girl D
No preference Q (This allows us to
age
_country_
choose a child on our ennergency list). My payment of $16 per month
for one year will be made: monthly D quarterly Q semi-annually Q
annually D- I enclose my first payment of $
I want to be a contributor. I enclose $ for the General Fund.
Make checks payable to Foster Parents Plan, Inc. All contributions are tax deductible.
PLAN operates in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Indonesia, Korea, the Philip-
pines, and Viet Nam. PLAN is a non-political, non-profit, non-sectarian, independent
organization, registered under No. VFA019 with the Advisory Comm. on Voluntary
I Foreign Aid of the Agency for Int'l. Development. nh-io-70
When someone somewhere cares, someone somewhere survives
tilation of originals. Why couldn't
an insert such as the enclosure be
used, instead of your method which
forces most readers to commit may-
hem?
If you have nobody around to
stand guard against iniquities of
this nature, I will be glad to serve
as anti-atrocity editor for a retainer
of 5^' a year, paid in advance.
Mount Clemens, Michigan
An Old Story
I have been "conservation
minded" for 2-5 years. Suddenly, it
is popular! It would appear that
persons with serious personality
'■fractures" have found another
cause in ecology.
Lawrence, Kansas
The way we now feel about the
environment is how we've always
felt — the difference is that now
other people don't think we're so
nutty to want to have nice areas to
sit and look at birds, etc.
San Diego, California
I've been an ecofreak for 30
years.
Winchester, New Hampshire
I have always lived close to na-
ture and supported conservation. I
would starve before living in a
large urban center.
Nederland, Colorado
I am 82 years old and have
passed the torch.
St. Louis, Missouri
What to Do?
A good number of us have been
concerned at the decreases in bird,
animal, and fish life in our Ever-
glades and in our coastal waters.
Some have been active in their pro-
tests, but the government keeps on
doing what it wants — and con-
servation is ignored.
Please, if you can suggest an ac-
tive way for us to participate in our
environmental improvement and
the whole ecology, I would appre-
ciate hearing from you.
Palm Beach, Florida
He doesn't just sing.
He broadcasts the weather.
fe?:^:"
When you hear the sound of the striped crested
cuckoo on a South African nature trail, listen closely.
He's a weather broadcaster.
If his song consists of descending notes, then the
weather will be fine. But if it mounts, look out for rain.
For a different kind of forecasting, keep an eye
out for the African hoopoe. When he appears, the
Bantu know it's time for ploughing.
Another helpful bird is the honey guide. With
his excitable chirp and directed flight, he leads hu-
mans and animals to hives of wild honey.
All this should tell you South Africa is particu-
larly rich in bird life. If you can imagine the sound
of a million birds awakening, then you will know
what daybreak is like out in the bush.
There are over 100 game and nature reserves in
South Africa, including bird sanctuaries, flower re-
serves, and immense tracts of land devoted to ani-
mal life.
At one reserve, there are no fewer than 300
species of birds to be seen. This includes an abun-
dance of aquatic bird life, such as the fish eagle,
dwarf goose, water dikkop, fishing owl, African ja-
cana, and South Africa's national bird, the blue crane.
Come see it all.
The fastest, easiest way there is by South
African Airways. A Boeing Stratojet whisks you
there by the most direct route from New York in a
relaxed, friendly atmosphere. If you want to go by
way of Europe, we have daily departures from 10
European Gateways.
For more information, see your travel agent or
South African Airways, 605 Fifth Avenue, New
York, New York 10017.
yr^ '
Nv
^
SOUTH AFRICAN AIRWAYS
Come with us.
A little off the beaten track.
Ethiopian Airlines' Historic Tour is a detective game: The Land of the
Queen of Sheba is veiled in mystery. A few facts are known, but
from there on it's up to you. What primitive people, for instance,
could have hand-carved out of solid rock the eleven subterranean
churches of Lalibela? Who built the castles in Gondar? Who fashioned
the towering obelisks at Axum? Who? When? How? Relax. In less
cerebral moments, you'll enjoy the many-splendored landscape, the
beautiful beaches, the wild game, bargain shopping, modern
hotels, Ethiopian jazz, and Spring-like climate. A unique vacation.
See your Travel Agent, or any international airline.
&
Boeing fan lei Passenger and Cargo Servic
51 E«l 42nd Sireel, New Yofk City 10017, or
1800 North Argyle St., Hollywood, Calif. S0028
ETHIOPIAN AIRLINES ^^.
51 East 42nd Street, New York City 10017, or
1800 N. Argyle St., Hollywood, Calif. 90028.
Please send me information about the excitement of travel to incredible
Ethiopia and East Africa, with stopovers in Europe, on Ethiopian Airlines'
Boeing Fan Jets departmg from European Gateways.
Name
Address
I City.
I would like to know how I might
be of assistance. What can I do?
After all, I am a big. fat nothing as
of now. I would like to contribute
something worthwhile before I die.
Washington, D. C.
A Feeling of Hopelessness
I personally do not think the en-
vironment can be saved. Man, in
my opinion, is too egocentric to pay
the price in time; therefore, I'm
about to switch from an active to a
passive role.
El Paso, Texas
What's the use of trying? Ever
try to stop strip mining?
West Liberty, West Virginia
The more T see incompetent
young people refusing to learn the
necessary hand skills, scholarly dis-
cipline, and historical and scientific
knowledge, and resorting to foul-
mouthed criticism as an all-purpose
remedy, the more disheartened I
am to see that my 30-year com-
mitment to a cleaner, better, hap-
pier world was a hopeless dream. I
wish I had spent my life indulging
myself instead of working and
studying and paying taxes.
Bloomington, Indiana
I have a sense life is over and
although I fight. I really wait to
die. Regressive selection has gone
too far with man. We should have
never gone beyond food gathering.
I use work as a drug. I farm
part-time. I live on a personal basis.
I belong to nothing.
Coopersburg, Pennsylvania
I personally believe it is time for
man to leave the earth: he is more
a destroyer than a builder.
Let earth renew itself.
Bronx, Neiv York
I think it's making me neurotic.
Baltimore, Maryland
Ecoaction
I am no longer content to sit by
and say "you can't do anything
about it because everybody does
Continued on page 80
24
Most thru-the-lens
meter systems average
total scene brightness.
They work fine for
most normal pictures.
But, in situations like this,
an averaging system would
befooled by the bright
background. Result: severe
under-exposure for
.the main subject.
With a spot meter system,
you'd probably take several
readings and average them
yourself (A single reading
of the wrong area would
produce faulty exposure.)
Dual systems, using both
spot and averaging meters,
not only inherit the
problems of both, but also
slow the photographer
down because he has to
make a choice.
Nikon beats the averages
with the Photomic FTN "center-weighted" meter system for Nikon F. It
measures the brightness of the entire scene but gets 60% of its exposure
information from just 1/7 of the picture area, outlined m the center of
most Nikon F finder screens. From here, its sensitivity dimmishes rapidly
towards the screen edges. . . • u.
In our example, the FTN will automatically compensate for the bright-
ness difference between central subject and background. Here, as weU
as in normal situations, it provides correct exposure, with a single reading.
What's more, the FTN measures subject brightness on the finder
screen, where the image is in focus. It permits wide-open readings with
all Auto-Nikkor lenses as well as stop-down measurements, with non-
automatic lenses and when bellows or extension tubes are used.
New features offered by the Photomic FTN include: automatic lens
indexing, which eliminates need to adjust ASA/aperture alignment when
interchanging lenses; shutter speed visible in finder; 2-second and 4-sec-
ond exposure measurements where required, among others.
The Photomic FTN is interchangeable with all other Nikon F fmdef
systems, except that earlier Nikon F bodies require some adaptation.
For detaUs see your Nikon dealer, or write, Nikon Inc., Garden Uty.
N.Y. 11530. Subsidiary of Ehrenreich Photo-Optical Industnes Inc.^
(In Canada: Anglophoto Ltd., P.g.)
Nikon Photomic FTn
Africa
calls!
A Naturalist at Large
Come discover
the insider's Africa
on the
SAS^^Mini Safari'^
Rendezvous with rhinos. Live it up
with lions. Get to know a gnu. An
SAS "Mini-Safari" whisks you in
special Safari Vehicles through all
that's most wild and wonderful in
Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda. Gaze on
parks teeming with game. Ngoron-
goro Crater. Mt. Kilimanjaro. Famed
Murchison Falls. And — coming and
going — get the bonus of a stop in
wonderful Copenhagen.
Yes — Africa Calls. So come swing
through Africa on this SAS "Mini-
Safari". Weekly departures. 21 days
from S 1,751*. Mail our coupon for
details.
"Based on 14/28 day EXC economy round
trip air fare on SAS from New York to Nairobi
via Copenhagen. Check your travel agent for
prices through our other gateways.
SAS, Box 3443, Grand Central Sta-"
tion. New York, N.Y. 10017
Please send me your free folder on
SAS "Mini-Safari" Tours.
Name
Address
City
State
Zip
My Travel Agent is
Let yourself go ^/M ^ I
on safari on ^.^mmM \
The Cliclie ol the Killer
Dy Victor B.sciiener
Along the shores of the Puget
Sound of Washington, the Norwe-
gian fishermen call the killer whale
"spekkhoggeren." or fat-chopper.
They see it in action. They watch it
go rushing through a school of
seals, porpoises, or fish, tearing out
great chunks of meat, then circling
to pick up the pieces. And when a
fisherman has a chance to photo-
graph a killer — perhaps one found
dead on the beach or tangled in a
net — he focuses on the teeth, the
awful weapons of destruction,
strong and yellow, evenly spaced,
up to fifty in number. The photog-
rapher can be expected to stress
this feature, which perpetuates the
cliche of the killer whale as a
vicious and bloodthirsty beast. The
killer I Orcinus orca I has had a
very bad press.
In the lore of the killer, two
stories are often recounted as evi-
dence of its fierceness. The first is
that of Ponting, the photographer
who traveled with Robert Scott to
the Antarctic in 1911. Ponting was
standing on an ice floe, camera in
hand, waiting for a group of eight
killers to reappear. Suddenly the
animals rose beneath the ice, break-
ing it into bits and forcing him to
dance from one bit to another to
gain the safety of the shore.
"And not a moment too soon,"
he wrote. "As I looked back, a huge
black and tawny head was pushed
out of the water at the spot, and
rested on the ice. looking round
with its little pig-like eyes to see
what had become of me. The brute
opened his jaws wide, and I saw the
terrible teeth which I had so nar-
rowly escaped." Ponting came to no
harm, and down to the present day
there is no authentic record of a hu-
man attacked by a killer whale.
Frightened, indeed, but not at-
tacked.
The second story, Professor Esch-
richt's. was published in 1866. From
the stomach of a stranded killer he
recovered thirteen porpoises and
fourteen seals; a fifteenth seal was
stuck in the animal's throat. But
reading his story with a critical eye,
you find that this impressive meal
was, in fact, only fragments repre-
senting food eaten over an uncer-
tain period of time.
A more recent story is told by
John Prescott, curator of Marine-
land of the Pacific, in southern Cal-
ifornia. Among the Channel Islands
he saw a killer whale leap clear of
the water while holding an adult
male sea lion crosswise in its jaws.
"The whale then played with the
sea lion for about twenty minutes,
sometimes throwing the carcass
high into the air." No mean trick,
when a bull sea lion may weigh
600 pounds!
Although today we know a great
deal about the killer whale, we con-
tinue to marvel at what we learn.
The largest of the dolphin family
(up to nine tons), it can outswim
any other marine mammal I up to
thirty knots), and it lives in all the
seas of the world to the limits of
polar ice. In the course of evolution
it has become a predator supreme.
If you were to select a counterpart
among tlie sea mammals to match
the lion or the wolf, or any otlier
large, active, pack-hunting animal
of the land, the killer whale would
uniquely be your choice. Among
the eighty kinds of cetaceans, only
the killer whale feeds extensively on
warm-blooded prey.
The marine waters near my home
26
in the Pacific Northwest liave be-
come famous as the birthplace of
the idea that the dread killer whale
can be tamed. In captivity it proves
to be docile, "friendly." articulate,
and responsive to individual train-
ers whom it learns to identify. Hav-
ing no enemies in the sea, it looks
upon man without fear. We are just
beginning to realize the value of the
killer whale to entertainment, edu-
cation, and research. And we are
beginning to realize that certain
ethical problems in the chase and
capture of this magnificent creature
will have to be solved. But more
about this in a moment.
To the best of my knowledge, no
killer whale has ever been taken
alive and unharmed anywhere in
the world outside the sheltered wa-
ters of Washington State and Brit-
ish Columbia. (A dying individual
was once held in southern Califor-
nia for less than two days. I A biol-
ogist who studies whales for the
United States government believes
that in Puget Sound "the killer
whale population is probably den-
ser than anywhere else in the
world," while two local whale hunt-
ers claim that "as many as 200 or
more at a time may swim into this
inland area of water."
New light on the killer whale can
be dated precisely from July 16,
1964, when collectors from the
Vancouver Public Aquarium fired a
harpoon into a surprised young
male near Saturna Island, British
Columbia. They were after a fresh
carcass to be used as a model for a
museum replica. But the victim was
only stunned, and in a flash of ser-
endipity, the collectors decided to
tow him alive to Vancouver, forty
miles away. This they did, and
If you had been
readino: PASSPORT-
you'd kuow the answers
to these 17 questions
• What's the most fashionable hotel in Rome now?
• Who's a reliable rental agent for an apartment in Paris?
• Where can you pick up good English chintz in London?
• Why should you be so careful about buying a Rodin
bronze in Paris?
• What's England's equivalent of "Maine Chance?"
• What 10 things should you be sure to check if renting a
villa abroad?
• What's the most common — and expensive — mistake
shoppers make in Hong Kong?
• What's the best hotel in Tokyo?
• What's the best hotel in Istanbul?
• What are 33 of the world's best known ruins?
• What are Rome's best restaurants?
• Why is Norway worried about its salmon fishing?
• A trip up the Rhine — is it worth it?
• What cardinal rule do knowledgeable travelers always
insist on observing when ordering bottled water?
• Why should you be careful about shipping things back,
from Africa?
• When should you never switch from one airline
to another?
• What's happening in the French chateaux country?
ANSWERS TO ALL THE ABOVE QUESTIONS — plus an interesting variety of
others — 39 in all — have been selected from recent issues of PASSPORT —
the monthly newsletter for the discriminating international traveler. All are
bound into an attractive 34-page "PRINT-OUT." This informative volume is
yours together with a 6-month trial subscription to PASSPORT itself for only
$20.00. These questions typify the kind of up-to-the-minute, hard-to-get, travel
information you'll find in this intriguing, much talked about, monthly newslet-
ter. Keeps you way ahead of the guidebooks. Not a mass travel publication.
Appeals only to independent or deluxe-class travelers. Best resorts, hotels,
restaurants, art, music, theatre, golf and other sports. For people of taste and
discernment who want the best in world travel.
In no way connected with any travel service. Completely independent. Pays its
own way. Tells it straight — whether at the opera in Milan or the Palace in St.
Morilz. We work only for our subscribers — and our reports are confidential.
Start your subscribtlon today! Your 34-page "PRINT-OUT" comes with your
first issue.
The
Newsletter
For
Knowledgeable
Travelers
YES — please start my six-month
trial subscription to PASSPORT
at once. I understand I will receive
my copy of the 34-page "PRINT-OUT"
with the first issue.
iMame
City
.«?tatp
ZiD
D $20 c
PASSPORT
heck
• 20 N
enclosed. D
WACKER DRIVE •
$20 cash enclosed.
CHICAGO. ILLINOIS 60606
^7
QUESTAR KEEPS REPEATING ITSELF
We note that many schools and colleges start out with one Questar, and then as
trme goes by, repeat orders begin to come in, letting us know that a whole science class
is being equipped so that each student will have his own telescope. To us this makes more
sense than providing one big instrument for a large group, it permits a student to give his
full time to observing instead of waiting his turn for a brief look. If would seem that the
important question is — how many Questars will your budget allow rather than how lorge
a telescope you can get.
This was the point of view at Southern Connecticut College, where Robert L. Brown is
shown conducting a class engaged in solar observation. The Questars are equipped with
totally safe sun filters which keep out all harmful rays.
This is the great thing about Questar — it does so many jobs that the instrument is
never idle. Moon and planetary observation at night, sunspots in the daytime, or a trip into
the field where it is used in nature studies, often to observe phenomena that would
otherwise be inaccessible — this easily portable instrument makes it all possible. Also with
Questar, students learn the art of high-power photography by taking pictures of all they
observe. And however they use it, they learn to appreciate fine resolution.
The following letter from Dr. Wesley M. Roberds, Head of the Department of Physics
at Samford University, is an example of the tribute Questar receives from many educators:
"We are very pleased with the 3 y2-inchQuestar we recently purchased. We are
particularly pleased with the precision and ease with which we can locate celestial
objects. We measured the coordinates of Mercury and then went to the Ephemeris and
found that our discrepancy was only 2 minutes "off" in R.A. and less for Dec. (this is not
correcting for atmospheric refraction.) Also, the sun and its spots are beautiful. Of course,
objects are not as bright as they are in our 1 6-inch reflector, but the resolution is every
bit as good."
Quesfar, the world's finest, most ver-
satile telescope, is now available in
two sizes, the 3 '/2 "^""^ ^' °rid in nu-
merous models. Prices begin at $865.
Send for our booklet containing more
than TOO photographs by Questar
owners. For mailing anywhere in N.A.,
$1.00. By air to rest of Western Hem-
isphere, $2.50; Europe and North Af-
rica, $3.00; elsewhere $3.50.
Box 260
TAR
New Hope, Pa. 18938
there they kept him in a makeshif
pen for eighty-seven days. Thou
sands of visitors came to see the
world's first captive killer whale I
On a special radio program hisi
voice was heard by millions across
Canada, while the Canadian Na-
tional Film Board released a movie
about him in forty-four countries.
The name Moby Doll, chosen in £
radio contest, proved embarrassing
to the aquarium staff when they fi-
nally learned his sex.
Public interest in killer whales
was still running high when, six
months after the death of Moby
Doll, another killer was accidentally
trapped behind a fishnet near the
village of Xamu. British Columbia.
This was a big one. twenty-one and
a half feet long, weighing 7,.52C
pounds. Seattle promoters pur-
chased him for S8.0G0 and towed
him to a pen on the Seattle water-
front. Here Namu. as he was called,
became very tame and eventually
allowed men to ride on his back. He
lived for a year in the polluted wa-
ters at the edge of the city, then
died of a bacterial infection.
The first killer whale deliberately
chased and taken alive was the
young female Shamu, who was sur-
rounded in a purse seine near Pu-
get Sound in 1965. She lived peace-
ably for several months in the pen
with Namu, then achieved dis-
tinction as the first killer whale to
fly. She was sent in a turboprop
plane to Sea World, in San Diego,
California.
Still there. Shaniu has learned an
amazing repertoire of tricks, one of
which is to leap vertically to clear
the water with the length of her
graceful seventeen-foot body. An-
other trick is to open her jaws wide
to admit the head of her trainer,
who plays the role of doctor exam-
ining her tonsils.
Thirty to forty killer whales have
been captured in the Pacific North-
west and held for sale or display
since the summer Moby Doll made
the headlines of the world. Reliable
figures are hard to obtain, for the
hunting of small whales and dol-
phins is unregulated in \^ ashington
State. In one spectacular catch in
1967 in Puget Sound, fifteen killers
were netted; of these, seven were
released, three died of injuries, and
five were held for sale.
Continued on page 7t
Don't
die,
Florido.
UJe need you.
You can be sure we'll ail feel it if Florida plunges into
ecological collapse. And that's what's about to hap-
pen to the Sunshine State. It's beginning to feel Na-
ture's own backlash. A backlash strong enough to
turn this citadel of tourism, beefsteaks, winter vege-
itables, and wealth into an environmental corpse.
The Sierra Club believes the crisis warrants a
book. Now we have that book. It's called Everglades.
Everglades demonstrates how human blunder-
ing and plundering in South Florida can create eco-
nomic havoc and ultimately affect the lives of
Americans everywhere.
i The problem isn't just the threat of a proposed
super-jetport near Everglades National Park. It's peo-
ple. People unaware of the fragility of this unique
subtropical ecosystem. People who pick away at Flor-
[ida's land and water resources with bulldozers, tree
jcrushers, draglines, and DDT. People unintentionally
'destroying water, soil, vegetation, and wildlife
through the misuse of technology.
If we are to save the nation's only subtropical
jwilderness, then people must be made to understand
all of the values at stake in South Florida. Everglades—
the story that had to be told— is where each of us can
jbegin.
The beauty of the region is preserved in sixty-
five full color photographs by Patricia Caulfield. Her
jwork reflects the dynamic life force of the Everglades:
the snarling cougar, the implacable alligator, the soar-
ing ibis, bursting red blossoms of saw grass, and tur-
bulent thunderheads stacked like mountains against
the sky. Complementing the photographs are selec-
tions from the writings of Peter Matthiessen, novelist
and author of such works as Wildlife in America and
Under the Mountain Wall. And there is a fact-packed
essay in six chapters by John G. Mitchell, a former
Newsweek science editor, now editor-in-chief of the
Sierra Club.
Everglades is another in the Sierra Club's
award-winning Exhibit Format Series— big books
about big wild places that must never be allowed to
grow tame.
Hopefully, Everglades will open enough eyes
to help keep this one great wilderness untamed— and
Florida alive and well. For as Florida goes (or Maine,
or Ohio, or Utah), so goes the nation.
That's why we need Florida. That's why we
believe no state should be allowed to write its own
epitaph: How to Secede From the Union Without
Really Trying.
EVERGLADES
65 full color photo-
graphs.
Large (lOVi" x 1334")
format. 144 pages.
$27.50.
A $25.00 prepublica-
tion offer extends until
Christmas, 1970.
Now at your bookstore.
Or mail this coupon to
SIERRA CLUB BOOKS
Box 102, 1050 Mills
Tower, San Francisco,
California 94104
n I've enclosed $_
copies of Everglades. (Note: Price
per copy after December 25, 1970 is $27.50.)
D Please send me information about how I can help
the Sierra Club's conservation efforts.
Name-
Address
City, State, Zip.
A two-inch empty pipe
can carry 230,000 telephone conversations.
The pipe is no bigger than your wrist.
Yet what really makes it news is that there's abso-
lutely nothing inside.
Except room for 230,000 simultaneous telephone
conversations.
In the years to come, millimeter waveguide pipe will
be buried four feet underground. In a larger cradling pipe
to give it protection and support.
It'll also have its own amplifying system about every
20 miles. So your voice will stay loud and clear.
Even after 3,000 miles.
Yet this little pipe is capable of carrying a lot more
than just conversations.
It can also carry TV shows. Picturephone® pictures.
Electrocardiograms. And data between thousands of
computers.
All at once.
The American Telephone and Telegraph Company
• and your local Bell Company are always looking for new
ways to improve your telephone service.
Sometimes that means developing a better way to
use two inches of empty space.
Georgia Granite
Amid scattered woodlands and rolling hills,
islands of ancient bedrock foster
an unusual collage of texture and color
by William A. Bake, Jr.
East of the Blue Ridge, where the land smooths
into the southern piedmont and drops toward the
fall line, ancient rocks shove upward. The skeletal
land mass seemingly defies its inevitable dis-
appearance beneath the Atlantic with one last shrug.
Through the worn red clays — from the Carolinas to
Georgia to Alabama — the rock swells and bubbles
to the surface in gray masses of granite. Known lo-
cally as mountains, or flatrocks, the granite outcrops
of the southern piedmont are a unique environment
that has survived time and change.
At a distance, the granite appears drab and form-
less. But this is only an illusion; far from being
formless, the rock, rounded by the ages, has an ele-
mental simplicity. To sense the form, one must
catch the nuances: the play of light across textured
surfaces or the symmetry of water-carved pools.
Weathering, here, has been a story of small per-
sistences far antedating the sculptural forces seen on
glaciated granites to the north and west. Walking the
granite outcrops of the southeast, one sees their sub-
tleties: the power of countless rainstorms and of
plant decay, of a million litde nothings gnawing at
the rock and finally subduing it.
At closer range, the continual life process unfolds.
Ice lies packed among the rocks or spills over a cliff
into a tapestry of icicles. Gnarled pines and cedars
thrust from cracks, gripping and splitting their way
toward elusive water. Plants grow and decay, paving
the way for more of their kind while struggling to
produce enough soil to sustain them.
Time has been the essential catalyst in the evolu-
tion of this unique ecosystem. Despite the variation
in age and structure of the granites of this region,
they all extend from the earliest beginnings of life on
earth — more than half a billion years ago. Although
the date of their exposure to the surface remains
unknown, the finely tuned ecology of these outcrops
suggests that most of them were uncovered well into
ancient geologic time. In a process that has the
promise of being timeless, the exposures resist the
erosive powers that will eventually level the pied-
mont. Soil that takes centuries to form can be
washed away in one rainstorm, and vegetation that
has needed years to colonize one flaw in the granite
may be killed in a single drought. Occasionally, soil
may cover an outcrop, but its triumph is an ex-
ception. The shallow, soil-filled bowls, or "weath-
ering pits," that dot the outcrops attest to their ex-
tended absence of soil. Studies have shown these pits
to be anywhere from 100,000 to a million years old.
In the Yosemite Valley, where the granite is similar,
weathering pits can be found only in areas that have
escaped the glaciation that carved the valley.
Molded and matured by various plants, many of
which are confined to the outcrops, the granite incor-
porates a complex flora. Of these, two are especially
commanding. Early in March, shallow, soil-filled
depressions in the rock seem to fill with a crimson
broth as tiny Diamorpha cymosa begins to grow.
Like many of its sister granite plants it bears no
common name — a testimony, not to lack of beauty,
but to the confined company it keeps. Found almost
exclusively on the southern granite outcrops, it is an
uncommon relative of the less vibrant rock cresses
of the New World. By late spring it disappears, ag-
ing into miniature forests of red stalks and seed
pods.
Diamorpha s association with the granite is no ac-
cident. Given ample time, natural dependencies de-
velop. With no glaciers to scour them, the southern
granite exposures became the exclusive domain of a
score of plants, many of which are unlike even their
Diamorpha cymosa in full bloom covers
Heggie's Rock near Augusta, Georgia. As with
many granite plants, it bears no common name.
iX'knv
m
ivmWA'Ji'iffi.K*; ■>^,x:--^- , <' <-• < i, . i.ji^.-j.. ,-- iii-i--»n- ., .*-.z^"*^^*j
By late spring only the red
stalks and seed pods of f'
Diamorpha cymosa remain.
Seeds of this plant, an annual]
survive the harsh climate.
Water cascades over a
granite bed in the high shoals
area of the Appalachee River.
Cedar and mosses are common
granite outcrops, but the scf
rock and water deter the creati
of a permanent soil laj
Lichen occupies a niche on a granite
outcrop in the winter, when much
of the rock is under ice. It also
lives through the hot, dry summer.
The depth of a rounded
"weathering pit" on Big Flat
Rock near Veazy, Georgia,
helps date the granite outcrop.
-^^^i#'
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m
i.^
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•^
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nearest relatives. Common to them all is the ability
to survive harsh conditions. In January the rock may
be sheathed with ice; by late summer it is parched
by weeks without rain. The special savagery of
the environment imbues the unique flora with the
same immortality seen in the parent granite and, in
turn, makes the outcrops areas of botanical curiosity
unsurpassed in eastern North America.
Most of the granite plants remain scattered, hid-
den, and little noticed. Botanists and naturalists
delight in them; others pass them by. One major
exception is Viguiera ported. On Stone Mountain,
near Atlanta, Georgia, where the vistas are most ex-
pansive, these yellow, daisylike plants proliferate.
Every square foot of soil, every flaw in the granite,
hosts countless Viguiera. Like the granite itself, Vi-
guiera is an imposter on the landscape. Near rela-
tives of the flower are found no closer than the
southwest and Mexico. An inhabitant of arid re-
gions, its element is dry rock. Like Diamorpha. it
survives the harsh environment as an annual, living
only to produce seeds in a tenuous, yet durable,
cycle.
In conjunction with the endemic botany of the
granite outcrops there is a profusion of lichens and
mosses. Rust orange, sun-scorched gray, spring
green, the lichens flourish where little else can sur-
vive. With them, in dependence, exist carpets of
thick velvety moss. Shimmering, emerald green when
wet, or dormant and gray when dry, they cling to
streamsides, fissures, low places — wherever water
gives them life. These delicate mosses and lichens
provide a lush counterpoint to the harsh rock.
Yet the granite is so unyielding that not even the
soil-building power of the mosses and lichens has
been of importance. As quickly as they are freed
from the rock, weathering removes the grains of
granite loosened by these pioneering plants. Only
water and ice seem to impair the rock's endurance.
Water causes an infinitesimal expansion of the rock,
eventually leading to shallow seepage parallel to the
surface. In time, in a process called exfoliation, the
onfederate daisies ( Viguiera porteri)
•oliferate on the granite slopes of
;one Mountain near Atlanta, Georgia.
water and ice undermine the rock, forming numer-
ous flat slabs. Like sloughs on some giant epidermis,
these slabs lie scattered across the granite, casualties
of a battle that the weathering process may never
win.
In yet another sense, the granite exposures are
counterpoints to the land. To a large extent, the
ecology of these outcrops is segregated from that
of the piedmont. In the humid southeast, complex-
ity rules. A large number of species compete and
thrive in undisturbed piedmont forests. On the gran-
ite, however, the rule is reversed. The rock is a
great reducer, transforming the complexity of the
surrounding forests into a well-ordered but relatively
simple series of life systems, each dependent on its
own tolerance.
A variety of abuses have long plagued the granite
exposures. Several have already been destroyed by
quarrying. Others face a similar fate. One of the
most beautiful and undisturbed, Reggie's Rock near
Augusta, Georgia, is currently owned by a gravel
company, and its granite will probably be shredded
and scattered across rural roads. In most areas local
residents regard the outcrops as ideal dumps, and
smashed bottles, cans, and car engines litter them.
Still other areas have been substantially altered by
grazing.
At present only two granite exposures, both in
Georgia, are receiving protection. Panola Mountain
is maintained as a natural area by the Georgia State
Parks Department. Stone Mountain (1,686 feet) —
the largest outcrop — receives minimal protection as
a nationally known recreational area and bears the
burden of a plague of trash and grafitti. While pro-
tection of one or two granite exposures may be in-
finitely better than nothing, it is indicative of the
ecological tokenism prevalent today. Lacking an es-
sential systems approach on a national scale, we
have been satisfied to preserve only the remnants of
our natural areas.
Perhaps the granite exposures of the southern
piedmont will serve as reminders. At once inter-
related yet uniquely independent, their individual ex-
istence remains important to their continued sur-
vival. Destruction of any one may eventually affect
another. As we are slowly learning, there are no
free-fire zones in nature. In another sense, these
granite islands relate to man's larger island. In their
time-carved uniqueness and perfection, they offer, in
microscosmic perspective, a glimpse of the inter-
relatedness and complexity of all life systems.
Astronomy at Phoenix House "Do you think people
are nuts to believe in flying saucers or life in other
solar systems?"
"Is the moon dead, or could there be life under the
surface?"
"Is astronomy hooked up with astrology and horo-
scopes?"
The questions came faster and faster from the au-
dience, a mix of teen-agers and adults, blacks and
whites, men and women. The speaker. Robert Galan-
dak of the American Museum-Hayden Planetarium,
gestured mightily as he tried to explain trigonometry
and nuclear fusion without a chalkboard. The air in
the cellar of the renovated Brooklyn tenement was
warm and stale, thick with cigarette smoke.
Members of the audience had one thing in common :
they were all ex-drug addicts. Many had been in
prison for crimes ranging up to manslaughter. Some
had shaved heads or wore stocking caps to show
their guilt for transgressions against their peers. They
were attending a regular afternoon educational session
in Phoenix House, on Prospect Place in the Park
Slope section of Brooklyn, one of 15 such houses in
New York run for. and by. ex-addicts.
Galandak became involved nearly two years ago
when he picked up the telephone in his office at the
planetarium and a voice said: "Hello. My name is
Jerry , and I'm a drug addict. I want you to
come and talk to us." Startled. Galandak listened fur-
ther, and shortly thereafter gave his first lecture at the
original Phoenix House.
Since then Galandak has spoken more than 30 times
at Phoenix Houses in Manhattan, the Bronx. Queens,
and Brooklyn. For subsequent visits to a given group,
he prepares a structured presentation, complete with
slides. But on an initial visit, he simply throws the
floor open to questions. The approach worked well at
Park Slope.
Easily fielding the questions, which he says are
pretty much the same wherever he goes. Galandak
tried to introduce critical thinking as he went along.
Discussing life on other worlds (which he feels sure
must exist elsewhere in the universe), he first led the
discussion into a definition of life. Discussing as-
ti'ology, he got into superstition and man's fear of the
unknown — and into trouble, as well.
He noted that many parents use fear of the un-
known to discipline children: they are told to be good
or the bogeyman will get them. He asked the audience
whether anyone had actually seen a bogeyman: amid
explosive laughter, at least half nodded that they had.
Informal talks like Galandak's are not the only
educational program at the Phoenix Houses. The aver-
age age of those now coming into the program today
is twelve or thirteen (currently the youngest is an
eight-year-old who was both using and selling heroin).
and regular schooling by licensed teachers is impor-
tant. In September each of the Phoenix Houses be-
came a part of the city school system, right down to a
P.S. number. If plans being made by Galandak and the
education chairman of each Phoenix House work out,
astronomy will be part of the curriculum.
On the Compressional Velocity of Provolone One of
the innumerable problems perplexing scientists in the
wake of the lunar voyages concerns the extremely low
velocities at which compressional waves move through
moon rocks. Compressional waves are a sort of sound
wave moving through solid matter; the most familiar
example are the waves that travel through the earth
after an earthquake [see "Earthquakes," December,
1969 I . Such waves pass through surface rocks on the
earth at velocities of four miles a second or faster;
similar waves going through moon rocks are slowed to
about a mile a second.
The difference was discovered when men created
their own quakes on the moon (by crashing lunar
modules on the moon's surface) and then read the
results from seismometers left there by the astronauts.
Most of the moon rang like a low-pitched bell for a
long time — up to 50 minutes. But the signal lasted
only a short time in the surface material, moving
slowly and quickly losing strength.
Two geophysicists at Columbia University's La-
mont-Doherty Geological Observatory experimented
iiith compressional waves on two samples of moon
rock and on a variety of terrestrial substances. The
two men, Edward Schreiber and Orson L. Anderson,
reported their findings in Science. In their words:
"To account for this very low velocity, we decided
to consider materials other than those listed initially
.... The search was aided by considerations of much
earlier speculations concerning the nature of the
moon, and a significant group of materials was found
which have velocities that cluster about those actually
observed for lunar rocks.
"These materials are summarized in [the table]
.... The materials were chosen so as to represent a
broad geographic distribution in order to preclude
any bias that might be introduced by regional sam-
pling. It is seen that these materials exhibit com-
pressional velocities that are in consonance with those
measured for the lunar rocks — which leads us to sus-
pect that perhaps old hypotheses are best, after all,
and should not be lightly discarded."
Most of the authors' table listed, for comparison,
the compressional velocities of various rocks and min-
erals found on earth. The most interesting portion,
reproduced below with kilometers converted to miles,
compared lunar rocks and a variety of cheeses.
Compressional velocities of lunar rocks and earth cheeses
Velocity
Material (miles per
tested second)
Sapsego (Swiss) 1.21
Lunar rock 10017 1.14
Gjetost (Norway) 1.13
Provolone (Italy) 1.09
Velocity
Material (miles per
tested second)
Cheddar (Vermont) 1.07
Emmenthal (Swiss) 1.02
Muenster (Wisconsin) 0.97
Lunar rock 10046 0.78
John P. Wiley, Jr.
'rim^''^*!'>^>»^.
'i .-- ..o<^-^^
^V--:.,-'' ■-:%.!' V.^:/
l..f\-^
The moon becomes full on October 14, then moves into the
morning sky. Last-quarter occurs on the 21st, and new moon on
the 30th. In November, first-quarter moon is on the 6th, full
moon on the 13th.
Among the planets, only Saturn is in good position to be seen
in October and early November. Rising about an hour after the
sun sets and remaining visible all night, the planet Is moving
westward into Aries. Venus and Jupiter are evening stars, very
low in the southwest at sunset, and become morning stars in
early November. Mercury and Mars are morning stars.
October 16: Saturn rises below the moon tonight and the two
move up the sky together.
October 20: Venus becomes stationary and begins to move '
westward, taking it closer to the sun.
October 21: Maximum of the Orionid meteor shower occurs,
but a rising last-quarter moon will brighten the sky after mid-
October 27: Mercury is in superior conjunction with the sun
and now enters the evening sky. Look for Mars, a dim, reddish
star, to the left and above the rising crescent moon this morn-
ing.
November 5: The Taurid meteor shower reaches maximum
with dark, moonless morning skies.
November 9: Jupiter enters the morning sky.
November 10: Venus passes between sun and earth and enters
the morning sky.
November 11: Saturn is at opposition from the sun. The planet
now rises at sunset, sets at sunrise.
Thomas D. Nicholson
♦ Hold the Star Map so the compass direction you face is at the bottom;
then match the stars In the lower half of the map with those in the sky.
The map is for 10:05 p.m. on October 15; 9:20 pm on October 31; and 8:20
p M on November 15; but It may be used for about an hour before and
after those times.
39
•TV
IN
Peoples of
•It
CHINA
by Charles F. Keyes
The small community of Mae
Sariang, a district seat on the Bur-
mese border in northwestern Thai-
land where I did anthropological
field work, is a microcosm of the
cultural complexity of Southeast
Asia. In the market, one shopkeeper
is from Yunnan; the father of an-
other came from Fukien in south-
eastern China. Across the street are
the shops of several Indian Mus-
lims, and in a nearby drugstore the
Burmese owner compounds folk
medicines from prescriptions writ-
ten on a palm leaf manuscript. On
another street, shopkeepers identi-
fied as Thai speak languages dis-
tinctively different from the one
used by the Thai of Bangkok. Some
of these Thai in Mae Sariang are
Shan from Burma; but the majority
are Yuan, the Thai-speaking group
that predominates in northern
Thailand. Central Thai, or Siamese,
are found only in government offices.
The different architectural styles
and rituals of the Buddhist temples
emphasize the variant forms of
Buddhism in Mae Sariang. Most
monks and congregations of Mae
Sariang follow Yuan customs. In
two temples, Burmese forms are fol-
lowed, and in another two, the
practices are Shan in origin. In the
main temple, periodic services fol-
lelief at Banteay Srei
'emple, Angkor, Cambodia
The war-worn human fabric
of Southeast Asia
has survived many strains
low the forms of Siamese Buddhism.
Secluded behind the market in
Mae Sariang is a small mosque
where both Indian and Chinese
Muslims worship. A few Chinese
also maintain Confucian customs in
their homes. Five different Chris-
tian missionary groups, four Pro-
testant and one Catholic, have rep-
resentatives in Mae Sariang, all
living in compounds on the out-
skirts of the community.
In the Mae Sariang district, as in
all of Southeast Asia, a marked cor-
relation exists between the ecolo-
gical adaptations and the cultural
traditions of ethnic groups who live
in different parts of the district.
Most of the people living in the
town of Mae Sariang and the sur-
rounding villages in the valley prac-
tice wet-rice cultivation and follow
the major cultural traditions, espe-
cially Buddhism. The people in the
hills flanking the valley are ethni-
cally quite different from the low-
landers. They live primarily
through the cultivation of dry rice
by the slash-and-burn technique of
agriculture. These hill dwellers, or
tribal peoples, follow mainly ani-
mistic religions. Some are recent
converts to Christianity.
Each tribal group in Mae
Sariang has a distinctive back-
ground. One, the Lawa. is some-
what comparable to the American
Indians in that their ancestors pre-
ceded the Thai in this area. An-
other group, the Karen, began mi-
grating into the Mae Sariang region
some 200 years ago. The Miao are
the most recent migrants to Mae
Sariang, having established them-
selves only about five years ago.
The Miao have brought their most
famous occupation — the cultivation
of opium poppies — with them.
As a border community, Mae
Sariang has felt many of the major
political changes that have occurred
throughout Southeast Asia. In the
thirteenth century it became part of
a Yuan kingdom. Between the six-
teenth and eighteenth centuries,
Mae Sariang, like the rest of north-
ern Thailand, was part of the Bur-
mese empire, which extended into
parts of Laos and China. During a
series of wars involving the Bur-
mese, Yuan, and Siamese at the end
of the eighteenth century, Mae
Sariang lay directly on the route of
invading armies. At the end of the
nineteenth century, Mae Sariang.
along with the rest of northern
Thailand, was integrated into the
kingdom of Thailand.
Although Mae Sariang district
numbers only about 40.000 in-
habitants, it has all the problems of
ethnic and cultural heterogeneity
that plague many American cities.
Animosities and misunderstandings
exist between lowlanders and hill
people: between Buddhists and
Christians: between old. established
tribal people and new migrants;
and between the numerically domi-
nant Yuan and the politically domi-
nant Siamese.
Mai Sariang resembles all of
41
Southeast Asia in the constant shift-
ing of its ethnic composition, in the
changing political status, and espe-
cially in the problems of ethnic and
cultural conflict. An understanding
of all these themes is important for
any comprehension of the In-
dochinese conflict in which the
United States has been embroiled
for nearly a decade.
The three major traditional civ-
ilizations of the region — the Khmer
for Cambodian), the Siamese (an-
cestors of the populace of central
Thailand), and the Vietnamese —
were based in regions where large
populations could engage in wet-
rice cultivation. The Khmer built
their civilization on the Cambodian
plain, which could be irrigated by
the waters ( f the Tonle Sap. or
Great Lake, aiid the Mekong River.
The original homeland of Vietnam-
ese civilization was in the valley
and delta of the Red River of Ton-
kin in North Vietnam. Siamese civ-
ilization developed in the central
plain of Thailand, which is domi-
nated by the Chao Phraya River.
These three natural regions, to-
gether with that of the Mekong
Delta, still comprise the cores of the
major states of the area.
T^Tiile the densely populated val-
leys, plains, and deltas were occu-
pied primarily by single ethnic
groups, the thinly settled highlands
of Indochina have long supported a
large variety of different groups.
The people who live in the hills
flanking the valleys of northern
Thailand, in the uplands of North
Tonkin and Laos, in the Annamese
Cordillera, which lies astraddle the
frontiers of Laos. Cambodia, and
Vietnam, and in some of the lesser
hill regions all practice a type of
slash-and-burn agriculture. Also the
upland people do not follow the his-
toric religions found in the low-
lands. Beyond these two broad sim-
ilarities the upland people follow a
vast range of cultural traditions.
In the centuries just prior to the
Christian Era, people of three dif-
ferent language families occupied
the Indochinese area. Mon-Khmer-
speaking groups lived in Thailand.
Laos. Cambodia, and the Mekong
Delta region of Vietnam. Along the
coast of central Vietnam and in the
hill areas west of the coast, the pop-
ulace spoke Malayo-Polynesian lan-
guages. Finally, speakers of Viet-
namese languages populated the
Red River Delta.
The impact of the civilizations of
China and India upon the in-
digenous lowland cultures of South-
east Asia has led to both sim-
ilarities and contrasts between the
various Indochinese ethnic groups.
Population shifts, including the im-
migration of groups into the re-
gion, also have contributed to the
cultural differences.
lj:,' uring the first millennium of the
Christian Era, a number of South-
east Asian cultures borrowed In-
dian ideas and amalgamated them
with indigenous customs to form
new civilizations. The Cambodians,
or Khmers. established one of the
most significant of the Indianized
states in Southeast Asia. Khmer
civilization found its ultimate ex-
pression in the elaborate monu-
ments erected at Angkor near the
Great Lake in Cambodia. Each of
the monuments was an architectural
embodiment of the concepts of the
state cult of the god-king. From
the tenth to the fifteenth centuries
the god-kings of Angkor made the
Khmer empire the dominant polit-
ical power in the region.
The first major challenge to the
Khmer empire was posed by an-
other Indianized kingdom, the
Chams. a Malayo-Polynesian-speak-
ing people living in central Viet-
nam who advanced into the Khmer
empire. However, they were forced
to return to their homeland to repel
attacks made by their northern
neighbors, the Vietnamese.
The ancestors of the present-day
Vietnamese first appear in history
in the second century B.C. when
their country, the Red River Delta
region, was incorporated into the
Chinese kingdom. After gaining
their independence in the tenth cen-
tury, the Vietnamese rulers pro-
moted, rather than halted, the proc-
ess of Sinification. To this day the
Vietnamese display a Chinese tradi-
tion, developed during more than a
millennium under Chinese rule, that
stands in marked contrast to the
rest of Southeast Asia.
With independence, the Vietnam-
ese began to expand. Because the
highlands to the west were ill-suited
to their wet-rice cultivation, they
expanded almost exclusively
toward the south. At first, they ac-
quired coastal territories under
Cham rule. By the end of the fif-
teenth century, the Vietnamese
"push to the south" and periodic at-
tacks from the west by the Khmer
led to the collapse of the state of
Champa in central Vietnam.
After the collapse of Champa, the
Vietnamese continued to expand
into the Mekong Delta region,
which had formerly been part of
the Khmer empire and which con-
tained sizable Khmer populations.
In the eighteenth century, these Me-
kong territories were formally an-
nexed by the Vietnamese. From the
late seventeenth century on. the
Vietnamese also began to challenge
the Siamese influence over the
Khmer court in Cambodia.
The expansion of the Thai-speak-
ing peoples into Southeast Asia par-
allels in some ways the Vietnamese
push to the south. From their home-
land in southeastern China, Thai-
speaking people spread southward
sometime before the eleventh
century. By the beginning of the
thirteenth century a number of
Thai colonies had organized into
petty states on the northern pe-
riphery of the Khmer empire. Other
Thai colonies within the empire
were ruled by Khmer governors. A
number of these Thai colonies con-
verted to Therevada Buddhism.
The combination of Thai socio-
political organization with There-
vada Buddhism brought the elite
closer to tlie masses and led to the
emergence, in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, of a new polit-
ical force in Southeast Asia. After a
successful revolt against a Khmer
overlord by Thai chiefs, they
founded states in north-central
Thailand that eventually evolved in-
to the powerful kingdom of Thai-
land (Siam), with its capital at
Bangkok.
Wliile the Siamese were estab-
42
lishing themselves in the Chao
Phraya Basin in central Thailand,
another group of Thai established
themselves in the middle Mekong
Valley. These people, who later be-
came known as the Lao. formed the
state of Lan Chang, which emerged
in the middle of the fourteenth
century. In the thirteenth century
yet another Thai group in northern
Thailand, the Yuan, founded the
kingdom of Lannathai.
Both Lan Chang and Siam devel-
oped at the expense of the Khmer
empire. By the middle of the fif-
teenth century, the Khmer empire
ceased to exist, a consequence of in-
ternal weaknesses and external at-
tacks by the Siamese. Cambodia,
the successor kingdom to the
Khmer empire, built its capital at
Phnompenh, which was more defen-
sible against Siamese attack than
the Khmer capital of Angkor. For
all their animosities, the Siamese
and Khmer exchanged many cul-
tural traits and today have similar
cultural traditions. The Siamese
took over many of the Indian con-
cepts of statecraft that had been
employed at Angkor, while the
Khmer adopted the Siamese form
of Therevada Buddhism.
While Cambodia was nominally a
tributary of Siam for most of the
period between the fifteenth and
eighteenth centuries, Siam inter-
fered little in the internal affairs of
Cambodia and made no new claims
upon Cambodian territories.
Early in the eighteenth century,
the old Lao kingdom of Lan Chang
broke up into the three small states
of Luang Prabang, Vientiane, and
Champassak. Siam, which was un-
der attack by the Burmese, did not
take advantage of the Lao weakness
until the next century. By 1827,
Siam had reduced Champassak to a
Siamese province, totally destroyed
the kingdom of Vientiane, and
forced Luang Prabang to become a
vassal state. Moreover, Siam also
moved large numbers of people
from the Lao states across the Me-
kong and settled them in north-
eastern Thailand. Today there are
eight to ten times more Lao in
northeastern Thailand than in Laos.
Siam also attempted to extend
her influence eastward, beyond the
Lao states and into western Tonkin.
While the people of this area were
primarily Thai-speakers, the Viet-
namese had long considered the re-
gion to be within their orbit.
With the emergence early in the
nineteenth century of two strong
dynasties — in Vietnam and Siam —
a clash between these two powers
seemed inevitable. Both Cambodian
and Lao areas were sources of con-
flict.
During the first half of the nine-
teenth century, the Siamese and
Vietnamese directly confronted one
another over both Cambodia and
the Thai areas northeast of the Lao
states. Open conflict broke out on
two occasions. On the eve of the
French arrival in 1858 the disputed
principalities were tributary to both
Vietnam and Siam. although Siam
dominated Cambodia and the Viet-
namese dominated the Thai area.
I he French intervention caused a
redrawing of the borders between
the states of Southeast Asia. The
French fixed the borders between
Cambodia and Vietnam and forced
Siam to renounce her suzerainty
over Cambodia and cede back the
northern and eastern provinces,
which had been taken during the
nineteenth century. The French
created Laos out of several differ-
ent territories lying mainly to the
east of the Mekong. The Siamese
were forced to renounce suzerainty
over Luang Prabang and to give up
the trans-Mekong provinces that
had once been part of the kingdoms
of Vientiane and Champassak. The
border between Tonkin and Laos
was also fixed.
These French actions have been
viewed as having preserved Khmer
and Lao independence from the
Vietnamese and Siamese. However,
this conclusion is open to serious
question. The French justified their
expansion into Laos and Cambodia
with reference to traditional Viet-
namese claims over these areas. In
other words, the creation of French
Indochina laid a mortgage against
the futures of Laos and Cambodia,
for Indochina was defined as that
part of Southeast Asia that lay
within the Vietnamese sphere of in-
fluence.
The French further complicated
the picture by dividing Vietnam
into three separate entities: the col-
ony of Cochin China in the south,
the protectorate of Annam in the
center, and the protectorate of Ton-
kin in northern Vietnam. This dis-
memberment of Vietnam had some
historical and cultural justification.
Prior to the nineteenth century,
Vietnam had been so divided.
Moreover, the southern Vietnamese
had somewhat different character-
istics from the northerners because
of more intensive contact with In-
dianized peoples and greater dis-
tance from Chinese influences.
However, by refusing to recognize
the unity that had been achieved
during the first part of the nine-
teenth century by the Nguyen dy-
nasty, the French created condi-
tions that exacerbated the problems
faced by the Vietnamese people to-
day.
Other effects of French rule con-
tributed to the cultural complexity
of the region. In their adminis-
tration of the tribal areas, espe-
cially in the Annamese Cordillera
and in the uplands of Tonkin, the
French chose not to work through
the Vietnamese, thus widening the
gap between the tribal peoples and
the Vietnamese. French rule also
undermined the traditional cultural
bases of Vietnamese society, thus
laying the groundwork for the ap-
pearance of new cultural forms.
Many Vietnamese looked to other
sources for cultural leadership. A
significant proportion accepted
Catholicism, which was spread by
missionaries. Others joined new
sectarian movements such as the
A Yuan woman in the
Mae Sariang district of Thailand
harvests a wet-rice crop.
The lowland cultures throughout
Indochina cultivate this grain.
44
yJkl^^J' ^
Thailai
',M^
'tlk
In the lowlands along major rivers and on the
large deltas in Indochina, large, homogeneous
cultures have developed, based on the
control of water for rice cultivation. Animal
and hand labor perform most jobs, including
the dragging of teak logs from the jungle by
elephants, the harrowing of rice paddies with water
buffaloes, irrigation using primitive buckets held
on tripods, and the threshing of grain.
At left, Karen women prepare a meal of small
frogs — a good source of protein.
47
Cambodia
■iiiiiiiiMiiiaii^
Saigon, South Vietnam
48
iffiffi^
With the growth of national economies
tluoughout Indochina since the colonial period,
the population in urban areas
has grown rapidly. Chinese immigrants
often dominate the commercial sectors
of the cities. Attracted by the variety of
goods and the opportunity to sell homemade
wares, many women from surrounding tribal
areas go to the cities to trade. Housing is a
problem in many cities, and although houseboats
are common, living conditions on the
boats are crowded and sanitation is poor.
jigon, South Vietnam
49
«' I.
Almost all of the major religious traditions
are represented in Soutlieast Asia. The largest
proportion of the people practice either
Therevada Buddhism, Islam, or the amalgam of
Confucianism, Taoism, and Mahayana Buddhism developed
by the Chinese. There are many Christian communities.
Hinduism, once a major tradition in the region, has
left its imprint. And several million people follow a host of
animistic traditions. Cao Daism, a hybrid of Buddhism
and Daoism. is practiced in the temple above.
The turret of the Buddhist temple, top right,
reveals a Chinese influence. The reclining Buddha and
seated statues represent Therevada Buddhism.
Catholic girls, right, celebrate their first communion.
50
South Vietnam
Thailand
j
i^^^S^^iS"-
MMb.^-^ --1 ^
-T:*^ "■■ ■■'■
l-s^^"!"'^
>>' ^-^^. -■•=.. '-
Bangkok, Thailand
Saigon, South Vietnam
51
m^.
m
•c---^^
^*»ld
Liong tribesmen watch as others
rgain at a North Vietnamese
irket. Creation of autonomous
bal zones in this country
s minimized internal conflicts.
Cao Dai and Hoa Hao. Yet others
were attracted by a resurgent
Buddhist movement. The Commu-
nist movement also provided a new
cuhural tradition for a large sector
of the population.
For the Vietnamese, French rule
led to a radical break with the past,
but it did not have the same effect
in Cambodia and Laos. These two
countries were preserved almost as
cultural museums. The French did
little to interfere with traditional
cultural institutions and little to im-
prove the educational and economic
systems.
While the French were contrib-
uting to the problems of ethnic and
cultural complexity in Indochina,
the Siamese were making advances
in overcoming cultural parochial-
ism in the territories under their
rule. In a series of reforms at the
end of the nineteenth century, the
Siamese sovereign brought under a
central administration the core area
of metropolitan Siam in central
Thailand, the Yuan areas of north-
ern Thailand, the Lao areas of the
northeast, and some of the Malay
areas in the south. This process of
integration was so effective that
both Yuan and Lao were able to
join with the Siamese in a common
identity as Thai. The success of the
Siamese king in molding what was
to become the nation of Thailand
greatly enhanced its ability to meet
the challenge of Western expansion
in the region. Of all the Southeast
Asian states, only Thailand re-
mained independent during the co-
lonial period.
The colonial period brought an-
other change in the cultural mosaic
of Southeast Asia. The majority of
the forebears of the Chinese and In-
dians now living in the region came
during the colonial era. They were
attracted by the opportunities
created by the expanding economy
of the Southeast Asian area.
Chinese migrants, coming mainly
from the poverty-stricken rural
areas of southeastern China, settled
in significant numbers throughout
Southeast Asia. Most of the Chinese
who migrated to Vietnam settled in
the south. The south afforded
greater economic opportunities be-
cause the French spent more of
their energies and resources in de-
veloping this region than the north.
Small numbers of Chinese migrated
to Cambodia and even fewer to
Laos because the economies of
these countries did not expand
greatly during French rule. Thai-
land, although not under colonial
rule, underwent a radical economic
change in response to the Western
impact. Her expanding economy
drew more Chinese migrants than
any other country in Indochina.
I he Chinese in all of these coun-
tries assumed a dominant role in
the commercial sector. All the so-
cieties of Southeast Asia have per-
ceived this Control of a sector of the
economy by aliens as threatening.
The colonial rulers fostered pol-
icies that perpetuated the alien
status of the Chinese. In Thailand,
however, the Chinese had to accom-
modate themselves to an indigenous
elite. Partially for this reason. Thai-
land has had the highest assimi-
lation rate of Chinese of any South-
east Asian country. Still, the Chi-
nese remain one of the biggest mi-
nority problems for Thailand, as well
as for all the countries of South-
east Asia.
Since at least the middle of the
last century, Tibeto-Burmese, Ka-
ren, and Miao-Yao upland peoples
have migrated in increasing num-
bers into northern Thailand. Laos,
and North Vietnam. These groups
are ethnically different from the in-
digenous tribal groups and pose
new problems for the societies into
which they have moved. The new
immigrant groups have in some
cases disrupted the ecological bal-
ance between lowland and upland
groups. They also have continuing
relations with their relatives in
China and Burma and maintain a
communications system across na-
tional boundaries; this is often
looked upon ^vith mistrust by the
rulers of the countries in which
they now live. Finally, some of
these groups are primary partici-
pants in opium production and
trade — a source of considerable
friction in recent years.
Ethnic and cultural factors are of
critical importance in the present
war in Indochina. While com-
mitments to different ideologies un-
derlie the fratricidal war of the
Vietnamese, attempts to view the
Indochinese conflagration in strictly
ideological terms obscure the com-
plexities and lead to misinterpre-
tations of the motives of many of
the actors.
For example, the montagnards, a
tribal people of South Vietnam, are
more concerned with their ethnic
integrity than with the type of gov-
ernment residing in Saigon. The
creation of autonomous tribal zones
in North Vietnam, and the com-
mitment by the National Liberation
Front to create similar zones in the
south, has great appeal to the mon-
tagnards. particularly since the
South Vietnamese government has
a poor record in dealing with up-
land minorities.
For the Khmer and the Lao the
ideological coloring of the Vietnam-
ese who have entered their terri-
tories is less important than that
the Vietnamese are again making
claims to control their destinies.
The French-created fiction of In-
dochina has left a fearful legacy for
the Khmer and Lao. On several
occasions during the sixteen years
of Cambodian independence the
Khmer have expressed fear of Thai
aggrandizement. Cambodia is ethni-
cally the most homogeneous coun-
try of Indochina, partly because of
territorial losses to her neighbors.
In contrast. Laos faces major, pos-
sibly insurmountable problems in
attempting to create a national en-
tity out of the people of diverse cul-
tures and histories willed to it by
the French. Laos as a nation-state is
a figment of the imagination.
Continued on page 74
LIFE
IN THE
SKY
"Within those cumulus puffballs and towering
thunderheads, tiny animals and plants are living:
eating, excreting, and reproducing"
by Bruce C. Parker
Two years ago, while studying
lakes in the St. Louis area, I took a
new detection device home to test in
my goldfish pond. The device was
a sampler designed to collect dis-
solved organic substances that
might be important in under-
standing water pollution problems.
One of the substances it could detect
was vitamin B12.
I started my goldfish pond ex-
periments during the spring rainy
season, and found almost imme-
diately that the level of vitamin B12
in the pond water rose significantly
following certain rains, especially
those accompanying thunderstorms.
Concurrently, algae in the pond
grew luxuriantly, suggesting the
possibility that these algae were
stimulated by the vitamin or per-
haps by other nutrients in the rain-
water.
This discovery in my own back-
yard set me to collecting and
analyzing rainwater for other or-
ganic substances. After two years of
this work, primarily in Missouri
and Virginia, it now seems clear that
in addition to vitamin B12 other or-
ganic substances occur periodically
in rainwater, including such natural
vitamins as biotin and niacin. In
fact, I determined that the total
amount of organic matter in freshly
collected raindrops, which had
fallen through a relatively nonpol-
luted atmosphere, often exceeded
that found in an equal volume of
lake or sea water.
The discovery that rainwater can
be a major source of essential natu-
ral vitamins and other nutrients im-
mediately raised the question:
"Where do they all come from?"
One might first suspect that the
substances are somehow trans-
ported from the ground into the at-
mosphere. Because these vitamins
are not gases at normal tempera-
tures and pressures, their only logi-
cal mode of transport from ground
to sky would appear to be in associ-
ation with airborne dust, such as
soil particles, pollen, or spores. But
if pollen and dust from soil are ma-
jor sources of soluble vitamins ap-
pearing in rainfall, one would ex-
pect to find correlations between
the amount of airborne particles of
these types and the concentration of
vitamins in rainwater.
I found no good correlations of
these sorts, except perhaps for nia-
cin and biotin, which increased
somewhat proportionally with the
amount of airborne tree pollens.
Vitamin Bi^ showed no clear rela-
tionship with the amount of pollen.
Furthermore, I found no connection
between the total amount of dust in
rainwater and the occurrence of
vitamin B,^, and I was unable to
extract significant amounts of this
vitamin from collected dry airborne
dust.
These results all led to the con-
clusion that some process other
than the capture of airborne dust
by falling raindrops must bring
about the high levels of certain bio-
logically important substances dis-
solved in rainwater. In search of
such a process, I speculated that
clouds might be viewed biologically,
as atmospheric ecosystems having
significant numbers of functioning
microorganisms. Such microorgan-
isms, representing aeroplankton, do
not have to be completely dormant
55
Green soil algae,
magnified 450 times,
thrive in a laboratory
culture after extraction
from airborne dust.
or in resting stages as with spores
and pollens, but might under certain
circumstances be capable of meta-
bolic activity within clouds, produc-
ing, among other things, extracellu-
lar vitamins. Finally, intracellular
vitamins might be released into so-
lution by freezing in clouds.
In other words, within those cu-
mulus puffballs and towering thun-
derheads, tiny animals and plants
are living: eating, excreting, even
reproducing.
While this hypothesis has not
been proved, a number of facts sug-
gest that it is entirely feasible.
These include aspects of the physics
of clouds, the chemistry of rain-
drops, and the distribution and
metabolism of airborne micro-
organisms.
For some years cloud physicists
have known that particles up to 50
microns in diameter ( 1 micron is
about 1/25,000 of an inch) reside
in clouds, especially continental
ones. At least some of these par-
ticles function as nuclei for rain
droplet condensation. While most
condensation nuclei are of sizes
smaller than those of micro-
organisms, at least a few particles
from 0.5 to 50 microns in diameter
occur almost universally in every
cubic yard of cloud. Thousands of
microorganisms have cells whose
sizes fall within this range. Un-
fortunately, the difficulty of captur-
ing and studying cloud particles of
these sizes has largely prevented
their detailed characterization.
Not all clouds would appear to
afford ideal environments for many
earth-inhabiting microorganisms. In
terms of living, actively growing
microorganisms, the environment of
cumuliform clouds is of particular
interest. Cumuliform clouds include
the white, puffy cumulus clouds and
the steeply piled cumulonimbus
(thunder) clouds. Over continents
the development of these clouds
frequently accompanies strong up-
drafts. This same feature occurs for
a special type of cloud, the oro-
graphic cloud, which forms from
moist updrafts on the lee side of
mountains. For thunderclouds the
updraft velocity often exceeds 12
miles per hour, while associated
horizontal velocities may exceed 75
miles per hour. But even lower up-
draft velocities are more than ade-
quate to carry large dust particles,
with their associated moisture and
microorganisms, to high altitudes.
Even in nontropical climates, such
as the continental United States,
cumulus clouds often occur at suffi-
ciently low altitudes 12.000-20.000
feet) to have temperatures above
32 degrees Fahrenheit. Also, while
temperatures sometimes are below
32 degrees, water often remains in
liquid form in many clouds up to
20,000 feet because the reduced
pressure at this altitude lowers the
freezing point. Because many micro-
organisms, such as those inhabiting
our polar regions can grow at 32
degrees, metabolic activity may be
taking place within these clouds.
In terms of man's life-span,
clouds are truly ephemeral. Some
clouds form and dissipate in less
than 30 minutes; others may last
for days. Clouds do not necessarily
rain, however; many begin form-
ing, then dissipate. Important here
is that we do not know the fate of a
microorganism entering a cloud as
part of the dust. In some micro-
organisms a few hours at optimum
temperatures are sufficient for sev-
eral cell divisions.
The process of water vapor con-
densation in clouds is complicated
and still inadequately understood
by cloud physicists. They have
known for a long time that clouds
contain more moisture than the sur-
rounding cloudless sky, and that
condensation nuclei play an impor-
tant role in droplet formation. Con-
densation begins even before the air
becomes saturated with water
(when the relative humidity is less
than 100 percent). No evidence ex-
cludes microorganisms as one frac-
5(^
lion of these condensation nuclei in
clouds, although the majority may
l)p smaller than microorganisms.
Furthermore, the larger the con-
densation nucleus, the more readily
condensation occurs. This means
that particles as large as micro-
organisms, however sparse, may
well be the first to absorb, and the
last to give up. their moisture.
Cloud physicists have also shown
that cumulonimbus clouds have
fewer numbers of droplets per unit
volume than other cloud types, and
that the droplet sizes are the larg-
est. Furthermore, the total amount
of water per volume of thunder-
cloud is greater than for all other
cloud types.
I have already noted that clouds
contain appreciable moisture and
that once condensation has begun,
the distribution of water occurs
as droplets. Thunderclouds contain
droplets of the largest size, their
mean radius approaching 100 mi-
crons. In thunderclouds, growth of
droplets of such size often requires
more than an hour and a half.
Generally, photosynthetic micro-
organisms are unable to grow and
conduct normal metabolism at light
intensities as high as those oc-
curring on bright, uncloudy. sunny
days. The light intensity in clouds
is. however, much reduced, and per-
haps more optimal for photosyn-
thesis. Also, energetic ultraviolet
solar radiation harmful to micro-
organisms is, by and large, filtered
out by the ozone layer high above
the highest cumuliform clouds, and
still further by the cloud moisture.
This distribution and content of
moisture in clouds, together with
the tendency for moisture to con-
dense around particles, makes it
possible that some airborne micro-
organisms are associated with water
droplets in clouds, thereby having
sufficient water to perform metabol-
ism.
Nutrients are also important if,
in addition to cell metabolism,
growth is considered. No doubt, a
significant amount of potential nu-
trient comes from gaseous or vol-
atile phases of substances. In addi-
tion to such well-known, biologically
important gases as carbon dioxide,
oxygen, and nitrogen — which dis-
solve readily in water droplets —
trace amounts of nitrous oxide, am-
monium, other oxides of nitrogen,
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
methane, butane, acetone, and butyl
alcohol also occur in unpolluted air.
Also, we know that plants give off
volatile organic substances, such as
terpenoids. Rising in convection cur-
rents into the atmosphere, they inter-
act with ozone, aggregate, and may
to some extent function as con-
densation nuclei for rain. Such vol-
atile substances are often seen in
desert environments where they ap-
pear as a natural haze.
Essential nutrient elements such
as phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, and iron are not vol-
atile, but could be borne into the
atmosphere by soil and other dust
particles. It is questionable whether
these nutrients would be essential
for microbial metabolism and lim-
ited growth in clouds because many
microorganisms are known to store
surpluses of nutrients. For example,
algae accumulate excesses of phos-
phate, which enables them to con-
tinue growth for many cell divi-
sions even when phosphate becomes
scarce in the natural environment.
As noted previously, there are
few biological data for clouds. We
know that viable airborne micro-
organisms, called aeroplankton. oc-
cur throughout the lower atmo-
sphere. These include bacteria, fungi,
and algae. Many pollens, seeds, in-
sects, feathers, spiders, and spider
webs have also been collected.
Recently. R. Malcolm Brown has
reported the distribution of algae in
air among the Hawaiian Islands.
When a dish containing a culture
medium I mineral agar ) was ex-
posed to air from a moving au-
tomobile or airplane, then exposed
to light for about two weeks in the
laboratory, a great variety of mi-
Another species of
live soil algae, taken from
a cloud, proves that
aeroplankton remain viable
while in the air.
Pts
The water droplets in
thunderstorms are large
enough for microorganisms
within them to metabolize.
croorganisms (algae, fungi, bac-
teria) grew into visible colonies.
Brown's data reveal that large num-
bers of viable algae and other mi-
croorganisms occur in orographic
clouds of Hawaii, while almost no
microorganisms occur above these
clouds. These data, of course, do
not prove that microorganisms are
metabolically active in clouds, only
that they reside in a viable state
therein.
I used dry airborne dust accumu-
lated on filters in two series of ex-
periments. This dust was collected
50 feet or more above ground level
and at relative humidities below
100 per cent, so there was no free
moisture associated with the dust
samples.
The first series of experiments in-
volved placing these dry dust sam-
ples beneath a microscope and
moistening them with a drop of wa-
ter containing small amounts of a
chemical known as TTC, which in
dilute solution appears colorless or
pale yellow. It is absorbed by living
cells and attacked by enzymes that
remove specific hydrogen atoms.
The resulting product is a water-in-
soluble, pink compound kno^vn as
formazan. Because these enzymes
occur in nearly all viable micro-
organisms and because they are gen-
erally absent from cells that have
been dead even for a relatively
short period, one can apply a dilute
solution of TTC to a suspension of
cells and obtain some idea of their
potential viability. When the
freshly collected air dust was moist-
ened with TTC solution, numerous
cells became visibly pink in fifteen
to twenty minutes. Now. a resting
or dormant cell normally requires
from one to many hours to absorb
and convert sufficient TTC to
achieve visible concentrations of
pink formazan. Therefore, these re-
sults suggest that some micro-
organisms in air occur in vegeta-
tive, nonresting stages. Direct
microscopic observation of air dust
also suggests that numerous micro-
organisms occur in nondormant
stages. For example, I observed nu-
merous algae as vegetative cells that
were indistinguishable cytologically
from algae grown in my laboratory.
Also, a number of these algae are
not known to have resting stages.
In a second series of ex-
periments, filters containing dry air
dust were placed in transparent
plastic chambers. The chambers
were sealed, and a measured vol-
ume of radioactive carbon dioxide
was injected into the chambers
without breaking the seals. As con-
trols I used identical chambers in-
jected with radioactive carbon diox-
ide, some containing filters without
dust and others containing filters
with dust that had been pre-
sterilized to kill any existing micro-
organisms. After 24 hours' ex-
posure to the radioactive gas in
either darkness or fluorescent light-
ing, these chambers were opened
and the filters removed and treated
\vith dilute acid and formalin to re-
move adsorbed or replaced radio-
active carbon and to stop all fur-
ther biological activity. Then all
filters were counted for radio-
activity. Repeatedly there was
higher radioactivity with the non-
sterile, air dust filters than with the
sterilized controls. Light-exposed,
nonsterile filters usually had high-
est radioactivities, while dark-ex-
posed ones often followed a close
second. These preliminary findings
leave little doubt that fixation of
carbon dioxide into organic matter,
both in light I photosynthesis) and
in dark, occurred.
The important point is that nu-
merous metabolic reactions, those
associated with light and dark in-
58
corporation of carbon dioxide into
organic matter, had taken place in
these experiments under conditions
involving an atmosphere subsatu-
rated with water vapor. Thus, while
the relative humidity was less than
100 percent, apparently some viable
microorganisms possessed sufficient
water associated with their cells and
neighboring dust particles to un-
dergo measurable metabolism.
Admittedly we are perhaps a
long way from demonstrating
directly that clouds are living mi-
crobial ecosystems in the sense of
lakes or soils. We know only that
some clouds contain viable micro-
organisms, that these micro-
organisms need not necessarily be
in resting or dormant stages to sur-
vive, and that the physical and
chemical properties of some clouds
should, in theory, afford environ-
ments compatible with growth and
metabolism of some microorganisms.
The vitamin Bi;. apparently pro-
duced in some clouds hints that
something is in fact going on.
In the absence of direct evidence,
the idea that clouds are living
ecosystems must remain hypothet-
ical, but the search for such evi-
dence should receive more than pass-
ing interest, however, bfecause an
understanding of the biology of
clouds could have considerable im-
pact on other areas. For example,
clouds may play significant roles in
the dispersal of microorganisms
and chemicals. Some of the micro-
organisms may be pathogens, and
consequently involve the mecha-
nisms of the spread of disease. The
chemicals may be of natural origin,
such as the vitamins now known to
occur in some rains in significant
concentrations. Also, synthetic
chemicals may occur in clouds. Such
pesticides as DDT have already been
detected in some rains and associ-
ated with airborne dust. We know
also that levels of DDT no greater
than those reported from such rains
can inhibit photosynthesis in marine
phytoplankton.
Finally, we might speculate on
the role of clouds in air pollution.
Cloud formation may accompany
accumulation of numerous water-
soluble, airborne substances. If mi-
croorganisms do occur in clouds
and are capable of metabolic activ-
ity, they may not only be affected
by air pollutants but may modify
these pollutants before they rain
out from the cloud ecosystem. In-
deed, one might envision some fu-
ture technology capable of seeding
clouds with microorganisms or ma-
nipulating the microbial com-
position of clouds in some manner
to change or reduce the pollutants
in our atmosphere.
Orographic clouds, which
form when moist air is forced
upward by mountains,
appear to be good candidates
for living ecosystems.
MADE Ii\ JAPAN
Owls of grass, horses of wood, men of cocoons and stone - a gallery of folk
toys expresses the ageless charm of simple design and indigenous materials
by Rodger Mitchell photographs by Tom Beiswenger
The Japanese produce about 90
percent of the world's souvenirs,
made by affixing different decals to
a few standard models stamped out
of plastic or porcelain. We have few
alternatives to these unimaginative
mementos, but the Japanese them-
selves have a treasure of in-
digenous local toys from which to
collect reminders of travel in their
own country. Produced by a cottage
industry that antedates plastics and
assembly lines by more than two
hundred years, some of these toys
are purely decorative, others are
playthings for children; but by defi-
nition a local toy must be associ-
ated with a single place in Japan.
Such toys are often made of a ma-
terial found in the area — a special
stone, wood, or grass — and manv
of them refer to local legends or
stories.
Toy owls sold at the Zooshigaya
Temple in Tokyo, for instance, are
made from heads of zakuro, a tall
grass that often grows on the dikes
surrounding rice paddies. The owl-
making tradition, said to go back
400 years, supposedly began with a
young girl who was unable to pay
for her mother's medicine. She
went to Zooshigaya Temple to pray
to the goddess Kishibojin — a fe-
male demon who ate children until
Buddha taught her to prefer pome-
granates. The goddess appeared
to her as a marvelous talking but-
terfly and advised her to make owls
of zakuro grass and sell them at
the temple. The scheme was so
profitable that the girl was able to
buy the medicine to cure her
mother; in fact, manufacturing the
owls was such an ideal occupation
for the children and women of the
family that to this day three fami-
lies, each claiming descent from
that girl, make these owls.
The heads of grass from which
the owls are made are a reminder
to the Japanese of the bright fall
days when the sun makes the grass
heads sparkle. Despite the intense
60
urbanization of the Japanese, as in-
dividuals they still live by the sea-
sons and enjoy many seasonal ac-
tivities reminiscent of simpler
times. Of course many of the sea-
sonal traditions and activities have
been lost, and others are remem-
bered only by the elderly. Certainly,
collecting bagworms in the fall is
not as important as it once was.
Not too many years ago the sturdy
bags of the bagworm caterpillar
were collected, cut open, and
stitched together to make small
purses. Bagworms are still col-
lected near the city of Otsu and are
used to make a toy representing a
monk who had been careless with
temple funds. The monk was in
despair because the temple needed
repairs and no one would make
contributions. A stranger stopped
at the temple and suggested that if
the monk wore the mask of the
temple guardian, Jizo, he would
have success when begging for
alms. The monk, however, was not
only careless with temple funds, he
was incompetent as well and made
the mistake of taking the mask of
one of the mischievous demons,
on/, instead of the mask of the
temple guardian. This resulted in
people laughing and throwing
stones at him until his straw cape
was so tattered that it looked like a
bagworm cocoon. The common
name for the bagworm in Japan is
"straw-cape bug," m'mo-mushi.
The oni face on the bagworm toy
is a folk imitation in the style of
Motabei Iwasa (1578-1650), a
painter of scrolls that now hang in
the Onjoji Temple in the city of
Otsu. These toys are called Ofsu-e,
"Otsu pictures," and a wide variety
of toys, made by various families in
Otsu, are sold at the temple gates.
By far the most useful of these
Otsu-e is the child-protecting oni.
Originally devils, Buddha eventually
tamed on/ and made them serve
men; nevertheless, they still remain
somewhat unpredictable and are
not above using trickery for their
own amusement.
Almost all of these toys come in
small, decorative boxes, which also
contain written explanations of the
stories behind the toys. The child-
protecting oni, for example, is said
to frighten off the spirits that make
children cry. Since crying was for-
merly blamed on evil spirits, it fol-
lowed that children cried only if the
oni was neglecting his duties. A
wise parent would therefore keep
an on/ toy on hand at all times.
Just a glimpse of the oni, who
laughs and cries at the same time,
is said to cheer anyone who is sad.
Japanese toys often carried a
charm or expressed a hope for the
future of a child. Horses, for in-
stance, were considered to be mes-
sengers of the gods, and since the
horse epitomizes the virtues of
strength and reliability, each one of
the hundreds of horse toys is sup-
posed to remind one to honor the
gods, who gave horses to men. in
addition, boys who play with toy
horses are supposed to acquire the
horse's virtues.
In several areas of Japan, boys
ride gaily decorated horses to the
temple on festival days as a remin-
der of ancient times when samurai
who had been successful in battle
gave their horses to a shrine. The
most famous of these festivals oc-
curs at Marioka City on Boy's Day,
when horses decorated with bright
ribbons and bells are ridden to the
shrine. One of the toy horses made
in this area is called cliangu-changu-
The sound of prancing bellec
horses in the Boy's Day celebratior
at Marioka gives this festive toy its
name — changu-changu-umako
V '*' \
-m-
^BUBu^iiwyvyjEflM^^^BPI
i
'■^4
Evil spirits are turned aside by
these carved talismans. Sansho
(right) represents a spirit of the
mountains who is heard as an echo.
Made from the branch of a tree
belonging to an ancient genus, he
is carried by woodsmen for good luck.
This stone from Awaji-sfiima has
had its personality revealed by the
artist Empe Ogura. An old man of
great reputation, Ogura works with
stones he collects on the beach
near his home.
Servants of a nobleman, carrying
decorated lances and treasure
boxes, parade on the arrival
of his household in Tokyo.
These parades were common during
the feudal period when noblemen
had to alternate residences between
their local estates and Tokyo.
The seven gods of fortune are said
to have been devised by the priest
Tenkai when asked by the shogun
what constituted natural nobility.
The answer: longevity, fortune,
popularity, candor, amiability,
dignity, and magnanimity.
Fukurokuji, at left, represents
popularity. He is made from the
weathered, broken end of a cypress
branch; only the features are
carved and the rough surface of the
break forms his robe.
id example of the traditional
of folk carving called itobori,
/hite fox was cut in straight,
I strokes that are never altered
lished.
tional mementos of the Deer
at Nara are wood carvings of
but a small shop now makes
whimsical animals of bamboo
nings.
reature at left represents a
< worn in the festivals of
izawa. The peculiar dances of
region are said to date back to
ime when the lord of Kaga was
dden to train an army. So his
rals simply invented dances
would develop fighting skills.
s once customary for a
rious samurai to give his horse
shrine as a gesture of gratitude
e gods. Now a variety of straw
e toys are made as tokens to
;ft at shrines.
Owls of zakuro grass are woven by
three Japanese families and sold at
a Tokyo temple.
Many Japanese playthings involve a
minimum of labor. These rough-cut
wheeled birds are still made as
they were in the tenth century,
when the men of the Heike clan
were driven out of Kyoto and spent
their idle days making toys.
For ten centuries young girls have
carried flowers from a shrine in
Shirakawa to the Gosho Imperial
Palace in Kyoto on April 7. This doll
represents the Shirakawa maiden.
A monk who had been careless with
temple funds is represented here
wearing the mask of a mischievous
demon. The body of this toy from
Otsu is the cocoon of a bagworm, a
larval moth that covers its cocoon
with leaves, sticks, or pieces of bark.
M
M.
L
umako, to suggest the sound of the
prancing of a belled horse. Con-
structed of seven rectangular pieces
of kiri wood, the toy is heavily deco-
rated with cloth and small metal
bells.
The word umako means little
horse. There are at least three other
styles of toy horse made in Marioka
City, and these horses are called
kuro-goma. Kuro means black, and
goma is used for horse because it is
easier and more euphonious to say
kuro-goma than kuro-uma.
Black horse toys are made in
many villages and towns, but the
oldest and most famous come from
the village of Miharu. Called, of
course, the Miharu-goma, this
horse is supposed to be a reminder
of a famous battle held in A.D. 782.
At that time General Sakanoue-no-
Tamuramaro set out from Kyoto to
conquer the northern barbarians.
Before he left Kyoto, the Buddhist
priest Entin, founder of the Kyo-
mizu Temple, made a hundred
horses from lumber scraps left over
from the construction of the temple
and gave them to the general, who
put them into his armor case for
good luck before traveling north to
battle. The battle was joined near
the present site of Miharu. Just
when the general was sure he
would suffer defeat, the hundred
little horses came to life and over-
ran the enemy's camp. It is said
that the villagers of the area have
been making horses identical to En-
tin s original model ever since the
battle, but there are skeptics who
say that the tradition was estab-
lished only two hundred years ago.
Whatever the truth, the Miharu-
goma follow a single model and are
instantly recognizable as a token
from Miharu that will bring strength
and manliness to young boys.
The creation of local Japanese
toys has been a continuous pro-
cess, and often an old story will in-
spire a new toy. The nue is such a
toy. It was created by the modern
i
hata-hata, a puffer caught off
;oast of Japan, is re-created in
i in the simple lines of the
itry's traditional toys.
painter, Amashiko Ishida, who while
on a holiday in southern Japan was
reminded of an eleventh-century
tale of a beast with the body of a
badger, the legs of a tiger, the tail
of a snake, and the head of a mon-
key. This remarkable animal was re-
puted to move from rooftop to roof-
top singing in a voice that sounded
to ordinary mortals like the voice of
a nightingale. Emperors, however,
are the descendants of the gods
and therefore hear things very dif-
ferently. To them the song of the
nue is the voice of utter chaos and
confusion and brings sickness and
death.
During the reign of the emperor
Shirakawa Howo some 800 years
ago, a nue took up residence on the
palace roof, causing a crisis in the
royal household. The emperor asked
his most resolute samurai, Mina-
moto Yorimasa, to help him. In spite
of the curse that would fall upon
him, Minamoto vowed to destroy the
nue. A famed scholar and warrior,
he was noted for his single-minded
pursuit of any goal. Displaying these
virtues to the fullest, he hid in the
palace grounds and when the nue
came, dispatched it with a single
arrow.
The word nue has many mean-
ings in Japanese and some of these
are associated with the fabled
beast. In earlier usage nue meant
chaos and irrationality because the
animal was a confused mixture of
the elements. The word has come
to mean "gossip," and so the toy
reminds one not to ruin his reputa-
tion through idle talk. It is also
used as a basis for telling a child
the story of Minamoto and remind-
ing him to act on the premise,
"Don't doubt — decide clearly be-
tween good and evil and act as Min-
amoto did." Although the nue is a
modern creation, it reflects the tra-
dition of local toy makers rather
than the gaudiness of twentieth-
century industry.
The natural materials of the
older toys often form a part of their
significance. A toy from Lake Toro
on the northern island of Hokkaido,
for example, is made from seeds
that are the burrlike fruit of an
aquatic plant called hishi. The
seeds are used by the Ainu both for
food and for making wine, and as
with most elements in the world of
the Ainu, the hishi plant has its
protecting spirit who must be prop-
erly placated and thanked for his
gift to man. Consequently, a festi-
val to honor the spirit of the hishi
is held in late summer just before
the harvesting of the seeds begins.
The festival's dances have become
a tourist attraction, and the toy,
made of painted hishi seeds, depicts
the ceremonial dancers.
By directing attention to some
aspect of nature, most of the toys
help nurture an awareness of na-
ture and the heritage of Japanese
culture. Despite industrialization
the Japanese are close to the land
and the sea. Fish are an important
part of their world, and the supply
of fish is clearly dependent upon
the season and the weather at any
given moment. Because fish is of-
ten served raw it must be very
fresh so that the proper delicacy
and flavor are retained. It is consid-
ered a gentlemanly accomplishment
to be able to order the best variety
of fish at the peak of its season,
and the mastery of this ability
might begin in childhood with the
toys representing various well-
known fish caught off the coast of
Japan.
One of these, the hata-hata, is a
kind of puffer and has inspired a
toy showing the graceful simplicity
of traditional Japanese playthings.
Hata-hata are caught in the fall of
the year when they come close to
the shore to breed. Because the
weather is generally stormy then,
and because the fish appear in
large groups that resemble black
clouds, they have been given a sec-
ond name of thunderfish, kami-
nari-uo. At one time, in a province of
northern Honshu, overfishing of
hata-hata became a problem and the
governor of the province ordered the
people to stop taking this fish. But
hata-hata fishing continued; the
fishermen simply began to call the
fish buriko. The buriko, however, is
quite unlike the hata-hata in every
respect but its similar egg mass.
Fishermen may have claimed that
they were selling bunko, but no one
would be fooled if they looked at
the fish.
Such complex word associations
are as much a part of everyday life
in Japan as they are a part of Japa-
nese poetry. Like the haiku verses
that create images with only a few
words, Japanese toys reflect the
delight of their creators in the
world around them — a delight also
expressed in their stories, in the
objects they use in their homes,
and in the souvenirs they collect as
reminders of their travels.
65
From naked eye lo
x-ray deiecior,
every insirument man
has used lo study
the Crah Nebuta has
revealed more about
stellar catastrophes
by Geoitrey Burbidge
More than 7,000 years ago a star
in the constellation Taurus reached
the end of its normal life. Its inner
part started to collapse and its
outer envelope followed. By some
process that we don't properly un-
derstand, the implosion was con-
verted to an explosion, and tre-
mendous quantities of energy in the
form of gamma rays and neutrinos
were released, followed shortly af-
terward by optical radiation that
made the object one of the brightest
in the sky. The light from that ex-
plosion took more than 6,000 years
to reach the earth, where it was de-
tected by Chinese and Japanese as-
tronomers on July 4, 1054. Al-
though thousands of light-years
Indian drawings in Navajo
Canyon, northern Arizona,
depict the Crah supernova
helow a crescent moon.
away, the object was seen in day-
light in Peking for 23 days, and
could be seen at night for about
two years until it faded.
Not only was it seen in Asia; it
was probably also seen in North
America by Indians who depicted it
in cave drawings in northern Ari-
zona. William Miller, staff photog-
rapher at the Hale Observatories
(Mount Wilson and Palomarl, has
proposed a highly plausible inter-
pretation of two ancient drawings
that he and Helmut Abt found: one
in a cave, the other on a canyon
wall. Miller demonstrated that the
circle and the crescent, highly un-
usual in such drawings, most likely
represent the crescent moon with a
very bright star near or just below
one cusp. He calculated the position
and phase of the moon for early
July, 1054, and asked anthropolo-
gists to investigate the probability
that Indians were living at the site
at that time. He found that the
moon was 2 degrees (about four
times its apparent diameter) north
of the position of the exploding star
just before dawn on July 5. 1054,
and that Indians were living at the
site sometime between 900 and
1100. Thus, both arguments favor
the idea that the Indians had
recorded their sighting of the su-
pernova.
In the place of the bright star
that appeared in the sky in a.d.
1054, we now see the remarkable
nebula known as the Crab. How do
we know that it is the remnant of
the supernova, and what is it doing
now? It appears that the nebula
was first recorded in the astronom-
ical records by an English physi-
cian. John Bevis, in ITol. He pre-
pared a set of star charts called the
Uranographia Britannica, but it
was never published because the
cost of the engraving was so high
that the printer went bankrupt and
the plates went to the creditors. The
charts appeared later, but without
any acknowledgment to Bevis. In
1758, the nebula was independently
discovered by Charles Messier,
who, at the time, was looking for
the first predicted return of Halley's
comet. He wrote, "The comet of
1758, the 28th of August, being be-
tween the horns of the Bull, I dis-
covered below the southern horn
and a short distance from the star
zeta of that constellation a whitish
light elongated in the form of the
light from a candle, not containing
any star." In Messier's famous
Catalogue, he gave it the number
Ml, but attributed its first dis-
covery to Bevis.
The well-known astronomers of
the nineteenth century, the Her-
schels. Lord Rosse, and William
Lassell, observed the nebula and
wondered if it could be made up of
stars. Lassell decided that this was
not true because while stars can be
seen over the face of the nebula,
they are not more numerous than
those in areas outside the nebula. It
was first photographed in 1892 by
Isaac Roberts with his 20-inch tele-
scope: then successively by the
early astronomers at the Lick and
Mount Wilson Observatories, using
larger telescopes. From these photo-
graphs it became clear that because
of its shape and its peculiar fila-
mentary structure, the Crab was a
unique object among the thousands
of known nebulae.
The next remarkable discovery
was the work of Carl Lampland
at the Lowell Observatory in Flag-
staff. Arizona, and John Duncan at
Mount Wilson. In 1921, with photo-
graphs taken several years apart,
they demonstrated that the struc-
ture of the nebula appeared lo be
changing. Duncan showed that
twelve of the outer filaments were
moving outward. Thus, they con-
cluded that the nebula was ex-
panding at a measurable rate. Only
a few years previously two novae,
Nova Persei ami Nova Aquilae, the
67
first exploding stars to be dis-
covered, had been shown to have
expanding shells. A few years after
this Edwin Hubble pointed out that
if the Crab had been expanding
constantly at the rate measured by
Duncan, it must have started from
a central point about 900 years be-
fore.
The detection of expansion sug-
gested that some kind of explosion
had occurred, and Crab's position
relative to the position and bright-
ness of the new star reported by
ancient Chinese and Japanese as-
tronomers led the Swedish astron-
omer Knut Emil Lundmark to sug-
gest, in 1938, that the object must
have been a supernova. In a previ-
ously published list of the ancient
Chinese observations of novae, he
had noticed that in 1934 a Japanese
historian, Iba, had found indepen-
dent evidence in ancient Japanese
records of the appearance of the
new star in 1054. The Japanese as-
tronomers had staled that the star
was as bright as Jupiter. This infor-
mation, that a star appeared as
bright as Jupiter although it was
5,000 or 6.000 light-years distant,
forced Lundmark to the conclusion
that the star was much too bright to
be a nova — it must have been a
supernova.
Supernovae were first in-
vestigated and christened early in
the 1930's by Walter Baade and
Fritz Zwicky. They were describing
exceedingly bright objects that flare
up in other galaxies and, in some
cases, become as bright as the
whole galaxy for a short period.
Their light then decays over many
hundreds of days until it eventually
fades below the level of detection. It
is estimated that one occurs in our
galaxy about every 50 years; we
can only see those in our part of
the galaxy, however. Our own sun
could explode in another five or six
billion years.
At the time of the discovery of
supernovae, Baade and Zwicky
made several startling predictions.
They felt that the energy output
was so great that a whole star must
be effectively shattered. They also
suggested that supernovae might
well be the sources of cosmic rays,
and that the remnant left after the
explosion might be a neutron
star — an extremely dense object in
which the electrons and protons
in the nuclei of atoms have been
crushed together to form neutrons.
The importance of these suggestions
will become apparent as our story
of the Crab unfolds.
B
y the late 1930's the realization
that the Crab was the only known
supernova remnant that could be
studied in detail stimulated great
interest. For example. Jan Oort,
now director of the Leiden Obser-
vatory, interested the Dutch ori-
entalist J.J.L. Duyvendak in the su-
pernova's early history, and it was
he who uncovered the details that
led Oort and Nicholas U. Mayall in
1941 to the conclusion that the
Crab and the supernova of 1054
were identical, and that this super-
nova was one of the most luminous
ever detected.
At this stage the first studies of
what can properly be called the
physics of the Crab began. That is,
what are the physical conditions as
we see them at present, and how
does the Crab continue to radiate so
powerfully?
Walter Baade and Rudolf Min-
kowski made the first detailed in-
vestigations with the 100-inch tele-
scope on Mount Wilson in 1937.
They showed that the nebula was
made up of two kinds of radiating
regions. There is a filamentary net-
work made up of gas heated and
ionized by strong ultraviolet radi-
ation and containing such elements
as hydrogen, helium, oxygen, neon,
and sulfur. Electrons are stripped
away from atoms leaving ions. Min-
kowski and later Lodwijck Wol-
tjer, then a student of Jan Oort,
and others found values for the
density of the gas in the fila-
ments— about 1,000 electrons and
ions per cubic centimeter — and the
temperature of the gas — some tens
of thousands of degrees. For all of
the elements studied, with the ex-
ception of helium, they found that
the composition of the gas is sim-
ilar to that found in most young
stars and also in the solar system.
Helium appears to be much more
abundant than it is in normal stars,
however, and we believe that this
must be a result of nuclear proc-
esses that took place immediately
before or during the explosion.
How much matter is present in
the filaments? If one knows the
density and can estimate the frac-
tion of the Crab's volume that is
filled with this hot gas, the mass
can be estimated. The calculations
have ranged from about 1/10 to the
modern value of about 1/2 the mass
of the sun.
The other component is a large
amorphous region. It is this com-
ponent that was so difficult to ex-
plain when it was first isolated. The
natural explanation was that it was
radiation emitted from a much hot-
ter gas cloud than the clouds mak-
ing up the filaments.
The next major discovery that
bore directly on this last question
came with the advent of radio as-
tronomy in the late 1940's. One of
the first powerful radio sources to
be discovered was named Taurus
A — the most powerful source in the
constellation Taurus — and in 1949,
Bolton, Stanley, and Slee, in Aus-
tralia, identified this radio source
with the Crab. It was one of the
earliest sources to be identified with
an optical object, but at the time
there was little, if any, under-
standing of the mechanisms that
were giving rise to the powerful ra-
dio sources. The most obvious one
was that radio sources were really
thermal sources — radiating in an
easily predictable way at all
wavelengths.
But the temperature needed to
emit the radio power radiated by
the Crab (about 100 times more
than the total optical radiation
from the sun and a few percent of
the optical radiation from the
Crab) would require impossible
conditions in the gas. Thus, a dif-
ferent kind of mechanism, a non-
thermal inechanism that would tend
to concentrate energy in restricted
parts of the electromagnetic spec-
trum, seemed to be indicated. Soon
it became clear that the spectra of
the radio sources had shapes that
also suggested that they must have
a nonthermal origin.
The German astrophysicist K. 0.
Kiepenheuer and the Swedes H.
Alfven and N. Herlofson first pro-
posed that cosmic radio Avaves were
being emitted by the so-called syn-
chrotron process. This is a classical
radiation process in which charged
particles emit radiation as they
spiral in a magnetic field. In this
process, the characteristic fre-
quency of the radiation is deter-
mined only by the mass and charge
of the particle, its energy, and the
strength of the magnetic field in
which it moves. The process is
highly inefficient for all particles
but electrons. Radio radiation in
the frequency range observed could
easily be expected, however, if the
particles were extremely energetic
and the magnetic fields were very
weak by terrestrial standards. An
important property of radiation
emitted by this process is that it is
highly linearly polarized. This
means that the image of an object
radiating by this mechanism will
look very different as one rotates a
piece of polaroid in front of the im-
age plane.
It was the Russian astrophysicists
S. B. Pikelner, V. L. Ginzburg, and
I. S. Shklovsky who, in the early
1950's. first proposed that the syn-
chrotron process was responsible
for the radio source in the Crab.
But they went much further. They
suggested that the mysterious, con-
tinuous optical radiation arose
from the same process and pointed
out that a test of this idea would be
to determine if the optical radiation
was polarized. Tliis was done at the
Byurakan Observatory by Vash-
akidse and Dombrovskv, then in
Images built up by carefully
timing exposures during
a large number of cycles
sliow tlie pul,><ar at
minimum Hglit, above,
and at maximum ligbt, below.
69
more detail by Oort and Walraven
in Holland and by Baade at Palo-
mar. A very large amount of linear
polarization was found, confirming
the hypothesis. This was a great
step forward, because not only was
the optical radiation explained but
the synchrotron theory for radio
sources was firmly established.
Even more remarkable were the de-
ductions that could be made about
the energy sources in the Crab. It
was now apparent that the object
contains a vast number of very high-
energy electrons, spiraling about
the weak magnetic field threaded
through it. These electrons emit the
optical and ultraviolet radiation
that excites the gas.
The Crab is a gigantic cosmic ac-
celerator. The total amount of
energy carried by these particles
and in the magnetic field is at least
equivalent to all the energy emitted
by the sun in the last million years.
Now, while we can deduce
directly from the presence of this
synchrotron radiation only that
high-energy electrons are present,
we have every reason to believe that
high-energy protons (the nuclei of
hydrogen atoms), alpha particles
(nuclei of helium atoms) . and
heavier nuclei are also present in
great numbers, and in total energy
they may be more important than
the electrons.
We have, therefore, reached a
point at which we have good reason
to believe that a supernova remnant
is a very powerful source of high-
energy particles, with just the prop-
erties that are found in the primary
cosmic rays that continuously
bombard the earth and are appar-
ently spread thinly throughout our
galaxy. It was natural therefore for
the Russians Ginzburg and Sy-
rovatsky to propose that the Crab
Nebula and other supernova rem-
nants are the sources of cosmic rays
in the galaxy. This, then, was a re-
vival of the early proposal of Baade
and Zwicky. made some twenty
years before, that supernovae were
the sources of cosmic rays. This
supernova origin theory has been
developed extensively in the last
fifteen years, particularly by Ginz-
burg and Syrovatsky. While it
has gained a large measure of sup-
port, some, including Fred Hoyle
and myself, have suggested an al-
ternative and, in some ways, even
more spectacular proposal: namely,
that the strong radio sources spread
throughout the universe and the ex-
ploding nuclei of galaxies are gen-
erating cosmic rays at such a high
rate that they fill the whole universe
at the density seen in our galaxy. If
this turns out to be true, super-
novae contribute only a small part
of the universal cosmic rays.
B
ut let us return to the Crab.
Having shown that it is a great res-
ervoir of very high-energy par-
ticles, is it reasonable to suppose
that these particles were originally
produced in the supernova ex-
plosion of 900 years ago? The rate
at which the electrons radiate their
energy is determined by their
energies and by the magnetic fields
in which they are moving. The
larger the energies and the stronger
the fields, the more energy they
radiate. At the same time, the
higher the electron energy and the
stronger the magnetic field, the
shorter will be the wavelength of
the radiation. This means that the
electrons radiating radio waves (ra-
dio electrons) will radiate more
slowly than those radiating light
(optical electrons) . It turns out that
the radio electrons that were accel-
erated when the supernova ex-
ploded can go on radiating for a
hundred thousand years or more,
but the optical electrons present
now will lose their energy in only
about 100 years, a short time com-
pared with the age of the Crab.
This reasoning led to the con-
clusion that even 900 years after
the explosion there must still be
some very powerful source contin-
uously pumping high-energy par-
ticles into the nebula.
There was indeed some direct
evidence from the photographs of
continuing activity in the Crab.
Walter Baade photographed the
nebula from 19.37 until the late
1950's, when he retired. He dis-
covered some remarkable light rip-
ples near the center that appeal
somewhat irregularly several times
a year. They seem to move at very
high speeds, perhaps a tenth oi
more of the velocity of light, anc
disappear a short distance from the
central star. In recent years thej
have been studied in more detail h^
Jeffrey Scargle, a young astronomei
now at the Lick Observatory. It is
thought that the ripples are the re-
sult, not of material motions, but oi
wave motions, perhaps involving
the magnetic fields; these are callec
hydromagnetic waves. When Baade
first described these, various theo
reticians thought that, in some way
these waves must be continuouslj
accelerating the particles. As
shall describe, however, it now ap
pears to be somewhat more com
plicated than this.
By the 1960's it was the turn o
the X-ray astronomers to add to th(
mystery of the Crab. X-ray
tronomy is a young branch of as
tronomy — only about five year;
old. To see what the universe look:
like at X-ray wavelengths we mus
observe it from above the earth's at
mosphere. Thus, observations havi
to be made using telescopes at
tached to rockets, which spend onb
about five minutes at altitudes o
about 60 miles; balloons, which cai
be made to rise to altitudes of 120.
000 feet or more and remain ther
for a few hours; or, best of all, sal
ellites, which can stay in orbit ani
make observations for years. In th
last few years, 30 or 40 X-ra
sources have been found, mostly us
ing balloons and rockets, but onl
two or three have been definitel
identified with optical objects. Ine\
itably. one of these is the Crab. A
X-ray source was already known t
be in the vicinity of the Crab, hi;
its position was not known acci
rately. The identification of th
Crab as a source, as well as a roug
determination of the size of th
source, was made by Herbert Friec
mann and his colleagues at th
Naval Research Laboratory. Wai
ing until the moon was about 1
pass in front of the Crab (a luns
occultation) . they launched rocke
timed precisely to observe the 3
70
■ay source as the moon occulted the
]rab and then as it appeared again,
rhey found that the X-rays were
limmed and then extinguished alto-
tether as the occultation occurred,
ind then reappeared. By this means
hey established conclusively that
he X-ray source lay in the Crab
Vfebula. They also showed that its
iize, although somewhat smaller
han the optical nebula, is still
arge, perhaps between one and two
ight-years across. Many observa-
ions have now been made showing
hat the Crab is an exceedingly
)owerfuI X-ray source.
w
hat is the process responsible
or this radiation, which is much
nore powerful, perhaps by a factor
)f 50. than all of the energy emitted
n the optical part of the spectrum?
t is generally thought that this is
dso synchrotron radiation, but. if
lectrons are to emit radiation with
vavelengths as short as those of X-
ays, much higher energy particles
itill, or much stronger magnetic
ields, or both, are required. Such
'C-ray electrons will have much
horter lives than the optical elec-
rons, perhaps only a few months
ong, and certainly not more than a
'ear or so. This limitation places
van greater demands on the
nergy-generating machine, which
ve have not as yet been able to ex-
)Iain. Because the particles have
ives of only a year or less, they
vould lose most of their energy
ong before they reached the outer
(arts, particularly since they must
)e spiral! ng in the magnetic field
1 md cannot be moving in straight
) ines. Therefore, it is hard to under-
i tand how they can make a source
IS big as the one we see if they
vere only injected at a single cen-
ral point.
il By now it should be clear that
i'hiie the modern discoveries asso-
iated with the Crab had opened up
1 whole new field of investigation
I hat told us much about the high-
energy processes that go on after a
supernova explodes, they had not
yet led us to any real understanding
of how such an energetic object
maintains itself.
Then the pulsars descended on
us.
Pulsars are radio soui-ces that
emit pulsed signals at exceedingly
regular intervals; the first one dis-
covered did this every 1.337301109
seconds. Just about two years ago,
discovery of the first pulsar was an-
nounced from Cambridge. England.
The initial report was quickly fol-
lowed by the detection of many
more pulsars; about 40 are now
known. At first two theories were
proposed to explain them. Because
periods of pulsation are all very
short — the longest is 3.7 seconds —
it was clear that they must come
from very small objects that are ei-
ther pulsating or rotating. The only
stars conceivably small enough
were white dwarfs (very dense stars
near the end of their lives with no
inner sources of nuclear fuel: a
matchboxful of their matter would
weigh several tons) or neutron
stars (still denser objects: a dime
at their density would weigh more
than two million tons). Both ideas
were explored, but it became clear
that if very short period pulsars
were found, rotating neutron stars
would be the only possible explana-
tion based on well-established stel-
lar models. In the latter part of
1968, a group of astronomers at
the National Radio Astronomy Ob-
servatory found two pulsars close
to the Crab Nebula. Once accurate
positions were determined, it was
found that one of these pulsars,
NP 0532, lay inside the Crab, while
the other. NP 0527. lay outside it
about a degree away in the sky. The
pulsar NP 0532 was found to have
the shortest known period of
0.03309014 seconds — pulsing about
30 times a second. This period was
so short that it had to be concluded
that this pulsar — and presumably
the others — was a rotating neutron
star. Strangely enough, the pulsar
outside the Crab has the longest
known period of 3.745491 seconds.
When the first pulsar, which has
nothing to do with the Crab, was
found, attempts were made to see
whether it emitted light signals with
the same period as the radio sig-
nals. Despite theoreticians' thoughts
that this was highly unlikely,
serious efforts were made to look
for the effect, and early work sug-
gested that perhaps such light
pulses were being emitted. But it
was soon found that these results
were spurious.
When the radio pulsar was dis-
covered in the Crab, three young
astronomers at the University of
Arizona — Cocke, Disney, and Tay-
lor— attempted to see if they could
detect light pulses with the same pe-
riod as the radio pulses. They suc-
ceeded immediately, and within a
few days other groups working at
the McDonald and Kitt Peak Na-
tional Observatories confirmed
their results. The latter group, and
Miller and Wampler at the Lick Ob-
servatory, were able to show that
the object emitting the light pulses,
and presumably the radio pulses as
well, was the star that, thirty years
before, Baade and Minkowski had
thought was probably the remnant
of the supernova. Of course they
had thought that it was a com-
paratively normal star, but had
they looked at it with a time resolu-
tion of one-thirtieth of a second or
better, they would have seen that its
light was coming to us in sharp
pulses.
By 1969 it was established that a
rapidly rotating neutron star in the
Crab is emitting tremendously pow-
erful pulses of radio and optical
emission like a gigantic rotating
lighthouse beam. But this was not
the end of the discoveries con-
cerning the Crab pulsar. Another
finding was that X-ray pulses are
also being emitted with the same
period, so that most of the energy is
emitted in the X-ray pulses. The
Crab pulsar is, so far. unique in
that it does emit pulses of light and
X-rays as well as radio pulses.
With these discoveries the next
step was clear. The pulsar must be
the energy source for the Crab, so
that not only is it emitting radi-
ation directly by the synchrotron
process, but it is also ejecting large
numbers of charged particles from
its surface, and these are being ac-
celerated in the very strong mag-
netic fields that theoreticians be-
lieve must be present in neutron
stars. These fields are colossal. Ele-
mentary calculations make us be-
lieve that the surface fields in such
a star have strengths of hundreds of
billions of gauss, as compared with
about half a gauss on the earth, one
or two gauss on the surface of the
sun, and thousands of gauss in sun-
spots where flare activity or mag-
netic storms are generated. Thus,
the energy generator in the Crab is
a small (a diameter of only a few
miles), incredibly dense star (its
density is about the same as that of
the nuclei of atoms), with a very
strong magnetic field, and it is ro-
tating about 30 times a second.
Thus it is a gigantic rotating mag-
net. Many people have studied it
theoretically to try to understand
how it is able to accelerate par-
ticles, and while many details are
not understood, most agree that ra-
pid acceleration is to be expected.
The rotation period of the pulsar is
getting longer, so it is clear that it
is slowing down, and the rotational
energy being dissipated is the
energy that is maintaining the
Crab.
N
I o one has yet been able to ex-
plain why the radiation is pulsed,
that is, why it is generated in such
a way that it is emitted only in a
small, cone-shaped angle from the
surface of the neutron star. The
radiation cannot be emitted uni-
formly from the surface; if it were,
the star would not emit pulsed
signals. This raises another inter-
esting question. If we see pulsars
only when they are rotating in such
a way that the signals they emit are
pointing toward us once each revo-
lution, how many more pulsars are
there that we cannot see? Could
there indeed be more than one ro-
tating neutron star in the Crab?
There is perhaps some evidence
that there is more than one center
of activity in the Crab, although the
evidence is only tentative. Several
72
years ago, before the discovery of
the pulsars, the Cambridge radio
astronomers discovered a small, in-
tense, steady source of radio emis-
sion in the Crab, with a size no big-
ger than the solar system. Because
it is weak compared with the whole
of the radio emission from the
Crab, its position is not well deter-
mined, and many people believe
that it is centered on the pulsar. But
this may not be true, and there may
thus be at least two condensed ob-
jects in the Crab. Other evidence
may point in the same direction. I
mentioned earlier that the Crab is
emitting X-rays from a region per-
haps two light-years across. And I
noted that if all of the high-energy
electrons that radiate these X-rays
were accelerated in the known pul-
sar, it is very difficult to see how
they could travel out so far from
the pulsar and still have enough
energy to emit X-rays at distances
of one light-year or more from the
center. This difficulty can be
avoided if we suppose that in real-
ity the X-rays come from several
condensed objects spread through-
out this region ; in other words,
that there are a number of radi-
ating neutron stars in the Crab, and
not just the one that we see as the
pulsar. X-ray astronomers can test
this idea. If it is correct, then when
they are able to look at the Crab
with high resolution, it will appear
to be made up of a number of
small, bright regions. On the other
hand, if it appears to be a smooth,
extended source, then we must con-
clude that despite the difficulties the
pulsar at the center is able some-
how to accelerate all of the particles
that are now spread throughout the
Crab.
There is one final topic of some
interest. Do we really understand
how a neutron star is left behind in
a supernova explosion? When a
star has evolved so that it has no
nuclear energy sources left in the
center, it collapses, and a number
of theories have been suggested to
explain why the outer part will be
ejected. But general relativity tells
us that only stars or parts of stars
with masses less than a critical
value close to the mass of the sun,
can withstand gravitational collapse
and turn into stable neutron stars.
If the central part of a star going
through this process has a mass
greater than the critical mass, the
theory tells us that it will collapse
indefinitely and become what rela-
tivists have called a "black hole,"
effectively cutting itself off from the
universe except for the effect of its
gravitational field.
Thus it is not obvious at present
why the supernova that produced
the Crab left behind just one neu-
tron star and not a more massive
black hole. One possibility is that
the part of the star that collapsed
did have a mass much greater than
the critical value, but that it was
spinning so rapidly that it broke up
into a number of pieces, each of
them with a small enough mass to
form a stable neutron star. This
would fit the suggestion that there
are perhaps a number of condensed
objects in the Crab, but only one
that we see to emit pulses.
I have attempted to tell the story
of the Crab Nebula as astronomers
have developed it over the last sev-
eral hundred years. Now in 1970
we believe that many of its mys-
teries are at least superficially un-
derstood, but it is still of immense
interest. This summer the Inter-
national Astronomical Union, the
official international association of
astronomers, held a whole sympo-
sium on the Crab at the Nuffield
Radio Observatories at Jodrell
Bank, which brought together op-
tical, radio, and X-ray astronomers,
as well as theoreticians who work
in almost all branches of astrophys-
ics. It is hard to predict what will
happen next.
Nine hundred yei
after the central si
exploded, hot gai
continue to stream outw^
at 600 miles a secoi
By now the nebula is seve
light-years aero
'Quite simply there
has never been
anything in the
history of the effort
to popularize
science comparable
to these volumes"
-The New York Times Book Review
Peoples of Indochina
Continued from page 53
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74
One of Thailand's major prob-
lems, that of unrest in the north-
eastern region, often has been seen
as a result of Lao predominance
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of their followers. The Chinese hav
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among all Thai-speaking peopl
with leadership drawn from Ths
groups living in South China. An^
the United States has recently give:
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of Cambodia by undertaking join
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lod in U.S. and Canada only— expires December 31, 1970.)
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STERLING SCHOOL
Craftsbury Common, Vermont 05827
An academic short-course in OUTDOOR
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June '71— Boys or Girls, Grades 8, 9, 10
Activities— Fishing, white-water canoeing,
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The Cliche of the Killer
Continued from page 28
In the spring of 1968, fishermen
of Pender Harbour. British Colum-
bia, perfected a method of netting
killers inside a narrow inlet. They
captured eight that year. Pender
Harbour has proved to be an ideal
place to hold killer whales. It is
sheltered, clean, and close to a fish
dock where food for the whales can
be easily obtained. Since 1968 the
Vancouver Public Aquarium has
maintained a research station there.
Scientists come throughout the year
to study killer whales under semi-
wild conditions. The animals often
"talk" to their companions outside
the fence.
At one time or another, killer
whales have been exhibited in at
least seventeen oceanariums: in
Australia (1), Canada (3), Eng-
land (2), France (1). the Nether-
lands (1), and the United States
(9).
The killer whale is the largest
marine mammal ever held in cap-
tivity and is therefore of interest to
scientists who plot animal functions
on the so-called shrew-to-elephant
curve, or the curve illustrating the
physiology of mammals from the
smallest in weight to the largest.
Actually, a bat may be the smallest
mammal and the blue whale is cer-
tainly the largest. For example: a
shrew weighing less than an ounce
will eat food equal to 150 percent
of its body weight per day, while a
killer whale the size of Namu,
weighing 7,520 pounds, will eat
only 5 percent.
Other zoologists study the killer
whale's adaptations to swimming
and diving. A killer was found tan-
gled in a submarine cable off Van-
couver Island at a depth of 3,378
feet. A killer in Puget Sound, carry-
ing a harpoon, line, and floats, re-
mained under water for 21 minutes.
The Vancouver Public Aquarium
has a splendid female killer named
Skana. I recently watched as a team
of physiologists put a modified
"plumber's friend," or suction cup,
over her blowhole to collect respir-
atory gases. Others took blood
samples from her tail for study of
the oxygen content. Still others took
electrocardiograms, Skana, who has
known only kindness in captivity,
was remarkably patient during the
four-hour probing of her life proc-
esses. She had learned to accept
the periodic "letting down of
Skana." when her pool is drained
and scrubbed and she herself is
stranded on a foam rubber cushion,
surrounded by eager investigators.
I will never forget that scene as
the water slowly drained away and
six men in black rubber suits stood
on the floor of the pool beside the
black-and-white beast. By gently
tugging her tail or flipper now and
then they persuaded her to settle on
the cushion, like a mother hen on
the nest. Once, in what might have
been apprehension, she jerked her
tail and baptised a man by total im-
mersion. Had she released the full
power of that tail, she would have
broken his neck.
On an ordinary day when Skana
is loafing in her pool, she may be
visited by a zoologist intent on lis-
tening to the songs she sings under-
water and out. Her clicks are useful
for echolocation ; her whistles and
squeaks for communication with
the killer whales of the open sea
who now live only in her memory.
It took more than 1,600 trials to
test the sharpness of Skana's vision
underwater. Surprisingly, her eye-
sight is equal to that of a cat in air.
She occasionally slips into periods
of deep sleep like that of men and
other terrestrial mammals. In scien-
tific language, one expert has writ-
ten that Skana gives off "low in-
tensity aperiodic vocalizations"
during sleep. (That is to say, she
snores.)
A spin-off result of holding killer
whales in captivity is new light on
their husbandry, or care. How does
one wean a toothless, 800-pound
suckling baby? In one report, a
veterinarian force-fed a baby whale
three times daily, using a formula
made up of one gallon of fresh
whipping cream mixed with human
baby food, some fish, warm water,
and vitamins — until the animal be-
gan eating independently.
And towering above the scientific
value of captive killer whales is the
knowledge that millions of people
are now being led to a new ex-
perience— a combination of enter-
tainment and education — that sure-
ly leaves them with a warmer and
closer feeling for animals.
The distressing fact remains,
76
Our wildlife book offer
expires January 1 , 1 971
The wildlife may last
a little longer.
It may be an exaggeration to set an ex-
piration date on America's native wildlife,
but it is no exaggeration to say that our
wildlife is in serious danger. Once there
were 40 million pronghorns, 60 million
bison, and more than five billion prairie
dogs. When they were numerous, they
were largely ignored by naturalists; and
now that their habitats are being pre-
empted, it is becoming harder and harder
to study them in the natural state. (David
F. Costello was involved in research on
the social habits of prairie dogs when
rodent exterminators arrived unan-
nounced and poisoned all his subjects.)
LIVING WORLD BOOKS serve as an au-
thentic, permanent record of this imper-
iled natural world. They offer a wealth of
ecological information that is vital to an
understanding of the present plight of
our wildlife and to development of plans
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To date, twenty-one LIVING WORLD ti-
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Each is fully illustrated with photographs,
and explains, in complete detail, the hab-
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thors describe their research and offer
the naturalist — professional or amateur
— valuable advice on where the animals
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graphed. Anyone interested in the nat-
ural environment — its appreciation and
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The
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however, that the pursuit, capture,
and even killing of this splendid
species of wildlife is unregulated in
the United States. Killer whales be-
long to all of us, yet any amateur
with a spear, gun, or net can now
legally chase them.
I recall one Sunday when a killer
whale created the worst traffic jam
in the history of the Columbia
River Bridge near Portland. A fe-
male killer had wandered 110 miles
up the river from the ocean. She
sported for several days off Jantzen
Beach, where thousands came to see
her from the shore. One night, she
was harpooned and killed by two
men. the Lessard brothers. Arrested
for taking a "fish" with illegal
tackle, they were later released
when the difference between a
whale and a fish was made clear to
the prosecutor.
Several years ago. an editorial on
Seattle's radio station KIRO an-
nounced that "the real purpose of
the whale-catching [in Puget
Sound] is abundantly clear. It's to
make music on the cash register,
whether as entertainment ... or to
sell whales to other marine shows."
As I write today, the price of a live
killer whale is about S20.000.
In closing this narrative of the
gentle whale and what it has done
for men, I suggest what men can do
for the whale. I endorse the enact-
ment of a law for the regulation of
killer whale hunting in Washington
State. In Canada, one needs a fed-
eral permit to hunt whales within
the twelve-mile limit, and additional
regulations are being drafted.
In January, 1969, a bill provid-
ing for the management of killer
whales was introduced in the Wash-
ington legislature. Although it was
shelved for study, I am encouraged
to believe that it may pass in 1971.
Why should the killer whale be
brought into a wildlife management
scheme? I suggest the following
reasons:
The whale populations should be
monitored to insure against over-
killing. A hunting license would
bring revenue to support popu-
lation research.
There have been unintended
cruelties in the hunting of whales.
Shrouded in secrecy, at least six
whales have been killed by Seattle
showmen. One disappeared when a
drug syringe was fired into its
back from a helicopter. But zoolo-
gists know that you can't immobilize
a marine mammal in the water; it
will drown. Another whale, a five-
ton bull, died of infection. The
hunters had thrust a 16-inch har-
poon into its back, and to the har-
poon had tied a 1,000-foot line with
floats. Their intention had been to
mark the largest male of a family—
the group leader, or "pod bull" — so
that they could track the family and
eventually surround it with nets. A
whale law would allow an observer
with no financial interest in the op-
erations to be present during the
chasing and handling of whales.
Hunting should be banned from
waters where many people now
thrill at the sight of whales in the
wild and free. At present there are
more than 186,000 pleasure boats
operating in Puget Sound. The
thought has often been expressed
that persistent hunting will drive
the whales away from their usual
haunts. I have enough respect for
the intelligence and social instinct
of Orcinus to believe that this may
be so. A whale law would establish
no-hunting preserves in scenic wa-
terways and within sight of urban-
ized shores.
Whether the whales of Washing-
ton State should be managed at the
state or federal level is not alto-
gether clear. Little is known about
the movements of any American
dolphin, porpoise, or small whale,
with the exception of the Alaskan
beluga, or white whale. One could
argue that by its very nature a ma-
rine mainmal is free to travel across
state and national boundaries and
is thus a proper subject for national
and international regulation. In ray
opinion, however, it would be more
practical to regard as resident spe-
cies those that are commonly seen
feeding — and perhaps even breed-
ing— within state waters. Rather
than quibble about jurisdiction, we
should take the first step: regulate
by license the hunting, holding, and
killing of killer whales in Washing-
ton State.
To those who believe tliat noth-
ing is worth doing unless we can
beat the Communists at it. I offer
no encouragement. The Russians
have already banned the hunting of
dolphins in the Black and Azov
seas for a ten-year period that
started in 1966. ■
78
o o o o
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Wit, Wisdom, & Woe
Continued from page 24
it" — in other -svords — you can fight
City Hall.
Nejv York, Neiv York
I now refuse to cooperate with
police, serve on juries, show respect
for public officials, and pay local or
state taxes on which I can cheat. I
trust nobody connected with the
law: judges, lawyers, etc. All be-
cause I was kidnaped by the local
Gestapo for protesting noise pollu-
tion to the very public officials
creating the din. I was put in jeop-
ardy: subjected to slander, vilifica-
tion, obscenity, and intimidation by
court ofiicers: sold into frame-ups
by shysters I hired to represent me :
subjected to prejudice by courts:
and once beaten by a cop. I have
asked for justice everywhere, but it
seems, you can't fight City Hall.
Mostly, I have no competent lawyer
and can't find one.
Bridgeport, Connecticut
I tried in 1936 to get a good
sewer system but was defeated by
two votes. Now it has been done, so
in the end we win, I believe. Now.
•34 years later, it is passed. Hurray!
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Though I am blind, association
with ecology groups has given me
greater incentive to go on, and as-
sociation with the people in them
has given me new values.
Bell, California
There has been considerable re-
duction in what is considered "nor-
mal" social activity. I find the ani-
mals much more interesting than
most people.
Laurel, Maryland
I shout at slobs that I catch litter-
ing and polluting. (I'd shoot them
if it were legal.)
Santa Monica, California
I no longer use any colored pa-
per and I waste a lot less and think
a lot more when I do. I lecture all
the time. I keep dreaming of bomb-
ing Con Ed.
Bloom field Hills, Michigan
My profession is law. I have cho-
sen to exclude myself from profes-
sional employment involving causes
which are antithetical to the goals
of the movement.
Los Angeles, California
I boycott products that are high
waste producers. We've given up
hunting and fishing.
Longvieiv, Washington
After obtaining a B.S. in engi-
neering, I have abandoned my in-
tention of seeking my M.S. in ther-
modynamics. I have decided on an
extra year of undergraduate work in
biology and graduate work in
ecology and/or environmental engi-
neering.
Los Angeles, California
I'm starving because I left a goodjj
job to return to college and get a
degree in environmental health. I
quit using DDT and other sprays
except the unstable kinds. Quit
smoking and burning trash outside.
Quit hunting.
Kingsport, Tennessee
I am an immigrant and a success-
ful artist. But at the age of 37 I j
enrolled at Hunter College School-.-
of General Studies to study biology":
and psychology. I intend to become
a biopsychologist and spend the
second half of my life working onjy
environmental and behavioral prob-
lems. I have no children ( I am ster-
ilized) and plan to move out of
New \oTk City to a more natural
environment (Midwest?). We have
no car, don't buy "no return'
items, and have convinced my laun-
dry service not to use plastic
wrapping. I never buy fur coats. 1
keep plants for pets. And it seems
that many friends of mine are
following the example.
Neiv York, New Yorl
I resigned from a S12.000 posi-
tion as a research chemist engineei
to work for next to nothing in the
movement.
Neiv Orleans, Louisiana
Upon retirement within a few
months, I plan on spending all oii
near full time with or without payj
on antipollution work, believing'
that pollution can best be elimi-
nated at its source.
Livermore, Californic
8o
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you a sample or $5.00 brings you a glittering
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collector's list. Barry & Shirley Rothman, RO #2,
Hill House, Downingtown, Pa. 19335.
Our own plan is to develop a
small area of watershed land (15
acres) into a game protection area
within a heavy farming community,
by reforesting and planning food
and shelter areas. We hope we can
donate this area — to be retained in
this state — to an agency which will
insure its safety as such.
Liulestoivn, Pennsylvania
For 39 years I have lived in a
forest that in late years has become
a real estate development dream. I
have resisted successfully. If I don't
die soon I will have trouble with
taxes.
Houston, Texas
I own and protect a 3.000-acre
mountain cove (with farm in bot-
tomlands) against hunters and de-
spoilers — and the usual careless
damned fools.
Mill Spring, North Carolina
After careful evaluation of the to-
tal situation and the complete frus-
tration involved with attempting to
change individual man — let alone
society — I slowly became a so-
called hippie. Last October I closed
my professional office, moved to a
reasonable degree of country, and
became a student of life.
As I watch this society destroy it-
self, minority groups within it,
other countries and their people,
and the environment of the entire
world, I feel the total frustration of
attempting to effect a meaningful
change by nonviolent means — the
only meaningful answer seems to be
to stop supporting the system. This
is why I stopped working, paying
taxes, and buying things I do not
absolutely need. I also use feet or a
bicycle instead of a car.
Point Reyes Station, California
I have chosen a life style of sub-
sistence farming, without use of
electricity, automobiles, phones, etc.,
— communal, in Maine.
Richmond, Indiana
I live communally in an ecologi-
cally concerned community (Syiia-
non). I try to minimize use of un-
ecological products such as plastics,
coated papers, detergents, etc. I
have stopped polluting my own
body with caffeine and chemicals as
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Dept. NIO-0, North Conway. N.H. 03860
a personal demonstration.
Santa Monica, California
My conservation practices have
intensified. However, most signifi-
cant changes in my life style are at-
tributable to my life as a nudist (10
years) .
Greenville, North Carolina
Studying and learning the param-
eters of the environmental prob-
lem begins to consume most of my
leisure time; I have cast off my
GNP-oriented consumer attitudes;
socially I seem to be suffering the
results of a kind of xenophobia — in
my own country!
Neiv York, New York
I now bring up the problems of
pollution, etc.. to all clients for
whom it is relevant (I am in the
advertising business). I urge them
not to treat it as a public relations
problem but to do something about
it.
Englewood, New Jersey
We now try to buy only return-
able bottles and detergents that
break down in water. My wife has
decided not to purchase a fur coat,
which prior to this was one of her
main objects to acquire.
Monticello, Neiv York
I now question the motives of
conservation writers and adherents.
Menlo Park, California
I will not buy anything made of
sealskin, alligator, or from the fur
of wild animals. I try to buy soaps,
which add the least pollution. I am
most conscious about littering, and
have fought the use of DDT since I
had DDT poisoning some years
ago.
Neiv York, New York
I have completely given up using
detergents, even for dishwashing.
Save water; save electricity. For the
past 4 years I have kept local mos-
quito control sprayers with their
damned DDT off my 6-acre place.
Leonardtown, Maryland
The ecology movement has af-
fected me to the extent that where
before I would think nothing of lit-
tering, I now never litter, and pick
up litter I see on the street. I also
speak with people who wear
ecology buttons and still litter — the
damn hypocrites !
West Hurley, New York
Ecoconversions
In the last few years I have had a
gradual broadening of my outlook.
I have changed from "leave well
enough alone" to "let's get the facts
and see what we can do."
Bronx, New York
My life has been changing in thq
last year and conservation and
ecology are affected, but I have
been close to nature all my life. I
have become a vegetarian and prac-
tice yoga; I have found more inner
peace and awareness of God.
Spruce Pine, North Carolina
I am much more aware and con
cerned for my environment. I was
once shy, but am now constantly
talking to people young and ok
about our problems. For once, I be
came involved in something I believi
in!
Westhrooh, Connection
It changed me from an overly po
lite, mild-mannered, non-joining ir
trovert, to a brash, aggressive
"nothing is too big to tackle" ej
trovert. It also made me realize tha
good government is up to me.
New York, New Yor
I was a happy bird watcher. Noi
I am an unhappy conservationist,
am interested in very little excel
nature, conservation of what wi
derness is left, preservation of wik
life, and a clean and healthy env
ronment. I write hundreds of letter;
Beaumont, Texi
Involvement has been minima
but for the first time in my life
have written letters to governmei
officials, namely Secretary Hick
about the Everglades. I have wri
ten for a list of detergents low
phosphates, and am determined
use as little of such detergents
possible. I have shortened my skir
so as not to be mistaken for one
the dismal, silent majority. My (
forts have been small and person;
Polk, Pennsylvan
I have gone from the typical gray
flannel suit city-type to an informal,
longer hair "outdoor" type.
Neiv York, New York
Awareness combined with anger
has caused me to involve myself
through letter writing and phone
calls to industrial polluters — we are
not group joiners, but the crisis
may force us to be.
Allston, Massachusetts
The Automobile
I am doing without as many
man-made products as possible. I
do not own a car and am violently
opposed to the automobile and all it
has done to our society and our
morality as a people.
W ashington, D. C.
We are bad for the economy —
with relish. I drive a seven-year-old,
perfectly tuned, four-cylinder car
(31 miles/gallon).
Berkeley, California
I now ride a bike to school. I
haven't been in a car since April 3
(59 days).
New York, Neiv York
I am anxiously waiting for the
practical electric car. one that can
go more than 50 miles before being
'plugged in."
Moosiip, Connecticut
Every day I wish for the down-
fall'of the combustion engine.
Woodland Hills, Calijornia
Economic System
I eat mainly organic foods, avoid
driving, buy only secondhand
clothes and furniture, and generally
try to avoid supporting the U.S.
economic system.
East Harlland, Connecticut
Involvement in ecology is an in-
volvement in life and the will to
live without the threat of imminent
destruction. Involvement in ecology
is involvement in messy politics and
a need for revolutionary changes in
U.S. economic and social life.
Pacific Palisades, California
The vast majority of Americans
believe very much in our present
private enterprise system which has
given us the greatest good for the
greatest number of people in his-
tory. I feel that any publication
which draws erroneous associations
regarding our system will even-
tually harm itself.
Los Angeles, California
I now prefer to be in the moun-
tains rather than the cities; I no
longer believe in progress and the
American Dream.
Chicago, Illinois
To us, it is not a matter of this
economic system being good and
that one being bad. but rather that
man makes an economic system ei-
ther good or bad in his application
of it.
Sal ford, Pennsylvania
We are totally pessimistic for the
long range. This society is one of
greed and selfishness, and by the
time it hits the pocketbooks of the
greedmongers it will be too late.
Canton, Missouri
I am in my sixties and perhaps
overly pessimistic. I do not think
man is going to make it.
The Third World and socialist
countries feel that antipollution de-
vices are too expensive and will im-
pede their construction programs.
The capitalist countries put im-
mediate gain above ultimate good. I
receive all sorts of business trade
journals. They agree that some an-
tipollution devices will become
mandatory, but advise "play it cool.
Jack." just do the bare mininum to
get by.
Let's not laugh at the dinosaur.
He lasted, was it one hundred or
two hundred million years? We
have been here — two million? If
man survives for two more cen-
turies it will be unforeseen by me.
Los Angeles, California
The great drawback in all anti-
pollution is that it costs money to
avoid pollution — and people aren't
willing to pay more for a product
that is made without pollution than
they would for the same product
made cheaper by easy disposal of
the pollutant.
Glens Falls, New York
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Address-
Cltl
The problem of pollution will be
solved by those agencies and indi-
viduals who are able to do things
differently than they presently are
and by individuals who are willing
to pay the cost of more expensive
services and higher taxes. Some of
the worst polluters are municipal-
ities, and the importance of the lat-
ter should not be overlooked.
Scott, Mississippi
Population Problem
I believe that all our present
problems are directly or indirectly
based on the population problem!
Neiv York, New York
I won't have more than 2 kids
(watch me have triplets). I kind of
think now that it's morally wrong.
New Haven, Connecticut
Even though I am a working
mother we have eliminated the use
of paper napkins, plates, cups, tow-
els, tissues. As a Catholic family we
have had a rift with the church
over birth control. I quit a job
working for an oil company.
San Diego, California
A serious study of the population
crisis led my wife and me to resolve
to have only 2 children even though
I never got the girl that I wanted.
San Diego, California
My concern with overpopulation
has hardened my attitude toward
death, causing me to lose interest in
life-saving medical research. I also
feel there is no cure for human mis-
ery and inequity as long as over-
population exists.
Danbury, Connecticut
I am choosing sterilization over
any other form of birth control. I
have undertaken conservative gar-
dening practices. An increased
awareness of conservation in all
daily tasks — aimed at lessening all
kinds of pollution. I bought GM
stock to give proxy to Nader. I am
considering giving up my automo-
bile.
Binghamton, Neiv York
I drive a 4-cylinder auto. I had a
vasectomy to prevent having more
children. I purchase as much food
and beverages as possible in return-
able packaging. I have a tendency to
talk too much.
Osceola, Missouri
I will not have children primarily
because population is the direct
cause of environmental pollution.
Anaheim, California
Beautiful People
I am less concerned with material
things. I have feelings of ex-
hilaration at times because so many
good, beautiful people are backing
the movement.
Bonners Ferry, Idaho^
Can't we think, plan, discuss, or
act without letting our hair grow
and carrying a placard?
Studio City, California
Our duty is to the earth first, but
to get there we must free ourselves
from the oppressors! Since time is
short, moderate and compromising
measures do not change situations.
Seize the Time. Off the Slime, Free
Huey, The Panthers, Puerto Rico.
Free Amerikkka. Liberation of all
Third World People. Give the Earth
back to Nature!!! Free the Anglo-
Saxon from his binding puritan-
ical beliefs. Learn to breathe,
dance and sing.
New York, Neiv York
I am not in any trouble-making
movement and as a taxpayer I am
tired of anarchy in this country.
Nought is to be gained by it. If
presidents following Lincoln had:
sent all Negroes back to Africa asl
Lincoln intended, such rackets
wouldn't exist today. Don't messj
with strife — I served my country
loyally and am enjoying my retire-j
ment writing a historical novel.
Los Angeles, California
I do not join organizations on
follow leaders — I lean toward an-
archy (classical). " ;
Chicago. Illinois]
' own and work in our own store
1 talk to the public if the occa-
n presents itself. I do not ap-
iwe of radical groups. Each per-
1 can influence another to think
ecology if he will not use the
'rible radical methods. The radi-
: s are the filthy pollutors. Also, I
ieve, Communists.
Harrisbiirg. Illinois
Concern with population/poUu-
n/environment tends to make one
•evolutionary. I now devote more
le. more thought, more money to
;se organizations than I did a
ir ago.
La Grange, Illinois
On the basis of considerable ex-
rience (as a university professor)
th activist students I caution that
jlogy as such does not really in-
est the revolutionary but is being
sd as a convenient cause. The
lalogy movement can unite the
untry; to associate it with politi-
1 revolution would be disastrous.
Collinsville, Oklahoma
Mine is a life style of change. I
1 a traveler. A yoga student. A
liotographer. A bum fl don't work
l|r pay. but for life). A writer. A
1 alt- student. A farmer. A lover of
(■ I where nature is. so I am also).
I llicse are part of loving life and
ituri-.
No address
ARCHEOLOGY TOUR
j Getting Away
' Have substituted a bicycle for a
ir. Am moving to New Guinea in
ictober.
I Downey, California
I We prepare much more fresh
i>od rather than buy tins, reuse all
Jastic; have decided that so little
|in be done in the United States
iiat we are emigrating to New Zea-
..nd.
I Berkeley, California
! I am doing without many con-
snient items. Decided to have only
children. Use one small car. Also
ave up in despair and am moving
) Australia.
Jacksonville, Florida
TO MESOAMERICA
Conducted by The American
Museum of Natural History
23 DAYS-FEBRUARY 27
TO MARCH 21, 1971
An unusual study tour to see the
past splendors of the great Maya
civilization. Journeys into the
Peten Jungle, the arid Yucatan
peninsula, and the fertile coun-
tryside and wilderness region of
Honduras. The famed sites of
Copan, Tikal, Palenque, Uxmal,
Chichen Itza, and many other
noted areas will be visited.
Other American Museum
Field Study Tours:
WEEKEND FIELD TRIP FOR
BIRD ENTHUSIASTS
WEEKEND FIELD TRIP
IN GEOLOGY
For further inlor,
or write:
lation call
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
The American Museum of
Natural History
Central Park West at 79th Street
New York, N.Y. 10024
Tel. TR 3-1300, Ext. 462
ABOVE IT ALL !
An aerial study
of the Anatomy of Africa
A SKYPARI in our twin-engine specially fitted Cessna's and
Pipers offer a luxurious and unparalleled opportunity to
observe the vastness and grandeur that is AFRICA— the land,
the people, their culture and the fantastic Big Game. All
weave themselves into a brilliant tapestry which will hang
forever on the walls of the mind.
Ngorongoro Crater, Samburu, Murchison Falls, Serengeti
Plains and Fort Lamu are just part of the excitement await-
ing those who take our SKYFARI. Limited Membership 22
Days from New York. All inclusive arrangements from New
York $1625.00 per person. .
^ * plus air fare f-^^^^^^^ (^
■.TTTTXT .•.- ■>. Ple.ase send me a copy of your
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NATURE TOURS
Friends are reminded that we continue
to operate group trips in the U.S. and
most countries of the world at the rate of
30 to 40 tours a year.
These are general nature trips, with
first emphasis on birds, second on botany.
They are of 2 weeks' duration in North
America, 3 weeks in the rest of the world.
They are usually set up in chains so that
more than one can be taken on a single
departure. These are not advertised com-
mercially and this is not a profit enter-
prise; accordingly prices are moderate. If
this interests you, please drop us a line.
UP-COMING DATES
October-December A series of five tours
in Melanesia, New Guinea, Australia
and New Zealand.
January-February Florida (2 weeks be-
ginning Jan. 9), Yucatan and Central
January-March Four exciting tours in
South Asia, from Malaysia to the
Himalayas.
southeast Arizona tour
May-August Europe in 1971 offers a
choice of 10 tours, including a nature
seminar in England, tours of Norway
and Iceland, and our biennial route
across Russia and Siberia. (Outer Mon-
golia this year).
CROWDER NATURE TOURS
BOX 222-a
HARPERS FERRY, W. VA. 25425
We are in the process of becom-
ing homesteaders. We feel that this
is the only way in which one can
truly have freedom of speech and
action. All have adopted the motto.
"Think small."
Franklin, Vermont
Having been residents of "subur-
bia" in New York for 22 years,
chucked job, friends, and family
and moved to a wilderness home in
northeastern Vermont.
Springfield, Vermont
Ecophilosophy
What is urgently needed is a rev-
olution in values, and no sabotage
or bombings will bring this about.
Wamvatosa, Wisconsin
I am less interested in material
gain, physically more active, philo-
sophically more active: educational
and intellectual goals have changed,
I spend more time off ray tail and
out in the field.
Calif an, New Jersey
Maintain ascetic ethic with hedo-
nistic violations.
Vancouver, Washington
I believe strongly in the oneness
of all creation, and in the responsi-
bility of each to all others: human,
animal, plant, and inanimate.
Reno, Nevada
I have become more aware that I
am as responsible as most other in-
dividuals for the causes of pollu-
tion. It has given me a much
broader perspective of my vocation
as clergyman.
Grafton, Virginia
I have altered my goals in life,
have become less materialistic, have
rejected Christianity and all reli-
gions; I am selling my large home
to live in a smaller and more mod-
est one.
Chester, New Jersey
I ride a bicycle whenever pos-
sible. I do not use air conditioning.
I restrict my use of electricity. I
pray regularly for the sake of the
world. I have stopped smoking. I
use organic foods as much as pos-
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CHIPMUNK
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THE CARNATION PRESS
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An illustrated
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sible. I restrict my use of pesticides,
plastics, nonreturnable bottles, etc.
[ petition my government for re-
dress of grievances. I contribute to
ecology organizations.
I pray a lot for the world.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
The Next Generation
I am only twelve but I have at-
tempted to answer your question-
naire. It's hard to get yourself in-
volved with grownups but among
my classmates, my friends and I
have started an anti-DDT cam-
paign.
Poughkeepsie, Neiv York
I'm observant in watching people
for littering or polluting. I don't let
my brothers shoot any rabbits or
birds. I scare them away.
Chicago, Illinois
I had once tried but failed to get
involved with a group. Like every-
thing else. I was more or less ruled
out by the caste system. I'm only in
the fifth grade and they were in the
ninth.
Elizabeth, Netv Jersey
I am only a high school student,
currently in the 11th grade, but I
have been made aware of the crisis
facing us through publications such
as Natural History. Unfortunate-
ly, not all young people have access
to such, or the interest.
What I'm getting at is this: more
should be done to interest young
people in ecology and conservation.
Classes should center around these
important themes, and student con-
servation groups should be encour-
aged. Many adults I have spoken to
about this critical issue have the
same idea : "Well, let these student
pinkos do it; I'll be out of it soon
enough, anyway." And kids say.
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get through to young people. And
the older generation, too. No telling
how long any of us will be here.
Carbon Hill, Alabama
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Books in Review
I
hyRoDertMmanMurptiy
The Storm Petrel and the Owl of
Athena, by Louis J. Halle. Princeton
Unhersity Press, ST. 50; 268 pp., illus.
LOUIS J. Halle, highly regarded
for earlier, sensitive works such
as Spring in ITashington, Sedge, and
.Men and Nations, has now written
this volume of oddly diverse title. In
the preface he states that "Parts One
and Two. although superficially dif-
ferent, tend to repeat each other in
their underlying thought like a theme
and variations in music." Some read-
ers may feel this harmony clearly:
others will disclaim any such funda-
mental cohesion, despite the author's
attempt to effect a linkage of the
parts by means of epilogues. But.
whether it is read as one book or two.
all will find his text rewarding.
Mr. Halle is a diplomat with orni-
thological leanings. Throughout long
years he tracked "local birds over
field and meadow, through woods and
swamps." while sea fowl remained
mostly in his imagination. Finally, in
order to become familiar with the lat-
ter also, he betook himself and his
family to one of the world's great
centers of oceanic birds — the Shet-
land Islands. There, for the first time,
he resided cheek by jowl among
storm petrels, fulmars, gannets. cor-
morants, auks and their relatives,
gulls, skuas — large and small — terns,
phalaropes. waders, loons, and eiders,
with side glances at such ubiquitous
immigrants as rock doves, starlings,
and house sparrows. His observations
are critically sound, his enjoyment
keen, and his account correspond-
ingly refreshing. In addition, he
proves himself a masterly illustrator.
His drawings are of the simplest sort,
but they ring true of the birds in tone
and stance, and his seascapes suggest
admirably the misty-moisty atmos-
phere of the Scottish isles.
On Mousa, no longer inhabited by
man. the mysterious storm petrels
come only after dark to their hidden
homes in the massive, unmortared
stone walls of a broch, or round
tower, built by unknown aborigines.
The tower itself has been superbly
pictured by Halle's pencU. and like-
wise the tiny petrel seeking its en-
trance chink against the vertical wall.
His portraits of fulmars in the air, or
on the nest all set to shoot stomach
oil at an intruder, are equally con-
vincing, as are his man-attacking
skuas, murres. red-throated loons,
perky puffin, black guillemots, and
others. Three cheers for a writer who
can give us such perfect alfresco like-
nesses of his birds.
The fulmar is the most numerous
of Shetland birds and Halle offers an
entertaining story of its behavior and
life history. As a species, this once ex-
clusively Arctic petrel has in recent
times undergone a population ex-
plosion without known precedent.
This has brought vast numbers down
into temperate seas and has ringed
with nesting colonies virtually the
whole coast of the British Isles and
even the channel cliffs of France.
Halle follows Fisher in the orthodox
explanation that the expansion of the
fulmar is due to the increased food
supply resulting from whaling and
trawling operations. But a quite dif-
ferent hypothesis has been advanced
by the Danish ornithologist Salomon-
sen. This authority emphasizes that
there has been no perceptible enlarge-
ment of the population from Iceland
northward. The entire increase ap-
pears to stem from the island of St.
Kilda. Salomonsen therefore pos-
tulates a mutation in the St. Kilda
population that has widened the cli-
matic and feeding tolerances of the
affected fulmars, and which repre-
88
3nts, indeed, an incipience of speci-
tion. The fulmars, in Salomonsen's
iew, have not moved down from the
rctic. Rather, the birds of a limited
rea have acquired adaptations that
nable them to take advantage of a
reviously unexploited environmental
iche.
As Halle writes elsewhere in his
ook, the search for truth is always
ubversive of orthodoxy and fashion
like!
And so, with chapters that deal
ith gulls, skuas, the extinct great
uk and its nemesis, man. the gannet,
nd wading birds, he proceeds with
is intelligent discussion of the pro-
esses of evolution. His epilogue to
'art One then points out the utterly
ifferent view of the cosmos that mod-
m man holds, or should hold, from
le one presented in the Book of Gen-
esis, where the earth was the central
point of the universe and man's ap-
proved function was "dominion" over
all other forms of life. With what dis-
asters has that attitude brought us
face to face.
But here the author begins to de-
velop as well his teleological faith,
where he is on much less certain
ground. Birds sing, he writes truth-
fully, "to inform other individuals be-
longing to their species that they are
on their own territory, which they
. will defend. But this is as readily
achieved by those species that simply
croak as by the Nightingale, which is
moved to engage in a performance at
once elaborate, inventive, and as
beautiful in its way as a sonata by
Mozart." Here we see Halle contin-
uing the argument of Delamain in
Pourquois les oiseaux chantent. Nei-
ther author, however, gives us a hint
as to why the "croakers," which have
enjoyed the same eons of time as the
nightingale to improve their perform-
ance, have so signally failed.
Part Two of this book comprises a
series of previously published essays,
in which the author writes at random.
It is by no means all ornithology, and
yet more than 250 species of birds re-
ceive at least mention. It has the
thousand strands of a broom, whereas
Part One seemed as single-pointed as
a bayonet. Individually, the chapters
carry us far and wide — from Geneva,
where Halle now resides, to the Isles
of Greece and Socrates, and to the
pampas of Argentina and W. H. Hud-
son. The author's ideas of design and
purpose in life are further extended.
Here, as always, readers will enjoy
the style and stimulation of an ac-
complished pen.
The factual errors in Halle's book
are few, and chiefly due to forgetful-
ness or oversight. "Petrel." despite
the persistence of an a posteriori defi-
nition, has nothing to do with St. Pe-
ter's walking on water. The spelling
of the word in early English was
"pitteral," and seems to refer to the
pitter-patter of the birds on the sur-
face of the ocean. Adult goshawks
have red, not yellow, eyes. The Do-
minican gull, or kelp gull, of the
Southern Hemisphere is almost cer-
tainly a herring gull that has ac-
quired a black mantle (or perhaps
the transposition went the other
way). Most surprising of the author's
lapses is his statement that the Pele-
caniformes are "unique among sea-
birds in being altricial rather than
praecocial," confined to the nest in-
stead of running about as chicks. The
petrel-albatross order (Procellarii-
formes) is made up exclusively of al-
tricial birds, which have an even
longer period of helpless infancy than
the pelicans and their kin.
One final criticism will illustrate
the speed of scientific discovery, with
which a devotee can scarcely keep up
in his own field. Halle writes: "The
notion that they [Arctic terns] do in-
herit knowledge that their ancestors
have learned surpasses the bounds of
genetic orthodoxy." Does it? How sci-
entists of a mere twenty years ago
would have laughed at the following
quotation from Lockley's Animal Na-
vigation (1967). Yet today it is con-
sidered altogether orthodox, even
though recorded anthropomorphically
as the soliloquy of a bird about to
start on its first migration:
"To find winter quarters I must fol-
low such and such a star pattern,
which I can look at in the chart-room
of my brain, and clearly remember
because I was given a whole set of
charts of the celestial pallcrns which
matter to me before I was born. I
have a reliable chronometer in my
light-sensitive biological clock, which
was correctly set by local solar (or
sidereal) time as soon as the first
flash of light greeted me on hatching.
So I can read every movement of the
stars each hour of the night, and
compensate for their movements so as
to head in a straight line south. If I
go south beyond the Equator I shall
lose the North Star (my friend and
"Remarkable"
NEVER
IN ANGER
Portrait of an Eskimo Family
Jean L. Briggs
Jean Briggs, an anthro-
pologist, lived for nearly
a year and a half as an
"adopted" daughter in a
family of Utku, a remote
Eskimo group northwest
of Hudson Bay.
Her detailed and an-
thropologically accurate
description of important
aspects of a people's life,
their emotional concepts
and inter-personal reac-
tions to out-of-culture be-
havior, and her invalu-
able data on the tensions
of field "work in an unfa-
miliar culture is "absorb-
ingly and affectingly writ-
ten. A remarkable book
. . . one that bids to be-
come an anthropological
classic." — Publishers'
Weekly*. S15.25 At your
bookstore or ' -
mail this cou- — — ^
pon today. ''*'•
^9
HARVARD
University Press
Dept. XH-10
79 Garden Street
Cambridge, Mass. 02138
Please send me copies of NEVER
IN ANGER ® $15.25.
I posta
guide up north), but other bright
stars will come up to guide me. . . .
Of course, I shall also recognize -isin-
ter quarters, aldiough I have never
seen them before . . . because the po-
sition of winter quarters under cer-
tain stars and the local physical ap-
pearance of the region is also
recorded in the chart-room, from the
data I inherited in my genes from
both parents. Finally I have this over-
whelming desire to fly, also gen-
etically determined for me. for a lim-
ited period during which I must
achieve winter quarters before the im-
pulse dies, or my (fat) reserves of
energy run out."
Robert Cushman Murphy is Lamont
Curator Emeritus of Birds at The
American Museum of Natural History.
Congress and the Enmronment, ed-
ited by Richard A. Cooley and Geof-
frey Wandesforde-Smith. University
of Washington Press, S8.95; 277 pp.
Recognizing that a solution is no
solution without implementation.
Americans concerned with protecting
the environment are giving increasing
attention to the workings of the fed-
eral government. The result is a new
field — environmental policy — and the
appearance of this fine collection of
essays. Congress and the Environment
is the product of an extended seminar
at the University of Washington. At
the time the volume was v\Titten, the
contributors were, for the most part,
untried graduate students and begin-
ning professors. But the editors,
whose guidance is evident tliroughout
the book, are established scholars.
Moreover, Grant McConnell and Lyn-
ton K. Caldwell, the leading figures
in environmental policy, have contrib-
uted characteristically perceptive es-
says in tbe form of a prologue and
epilogue. The quality of this book i
evidence that properly directed grad
uate students constitute a scholarl;
resource we cannot afford to ignore
Congress and the Environmen
makes its point in no uncertain terms
The common denominator for all th
essays is the assumption that th
United States government, and Cod
gress in particular, have not re
sponded satisfactorily to environmer
tal problems. Again and again th
reader is provided with examples o
how the nature of the American polr
ical process prevents meaningful soli
tions. Specifically, the authors ider
tify five liabilities: (II the lack of
national policy respecting the env:
ronment and the consequent tendenc
toward narrow, short-term, piecemec
solutions; (2) the eclipse of ethics
and esthetic considerations by materis
ones: (3) poor institutional arrangi
ments — particularly the congressionj
committee system — for handling env
ronmental issues: (4) a preference fc:
compromise rather than leadership;
and (5) a reluctance to challenge pr
vate property and corporate interest fc
societal good. Congress, the contril
utors agree, muddles and stumbles ii
eptly where the environment is coi
cemed. It is frequently paralyzed, dea
negative, and irrelevant even in the fa(
of crisis. The tone of this book is unde-
standably gloomy. Only a few coit
gressional successes relieve the chroj]
icle of failures.
The core of this volume is tt
series of case studies that put flesh c
the bones of generalization. We a'
taken to the Indiana Dunes, tl
North Cascades, and the Redwoo(
for analyses of federal policy. Otlii
essays concern particular laws su(
as the Land and Water Conservati(
Fund Act, the Highway Bea
tification Act, and the Wilderne
Act. Still others take up such specil
problems as water quality standard
solid waste disposal, and noise poll
tion. Most of the contributions a
legislative histories, which trace tl
formation and implementation of ;
act while drawing the political si
ence moral. In most cases the a
counts are the best in print for the
respective subjects.
While only minor caveats can
made with respect to the case studii
it is possible to question the maj
theme of Congress and the Enviro
ment to the extent of asking, "Is Cc
gress really to blame?" Granted tt
many improvements in congressior
procedure could be made, still it £
pears that the electorate must at let
share the blame for environmen!
deterioration. Lynton K. Caldw
suggests this when he states that '
90
FRANC JOHNSON
A NEW BOOK of traditional folk stories
:old to Navajo children about the native
birds of the Southwest. The author, an
honored Nev^ Mexico folklorist, lived
among the Navajo people for 25 years.
Although set down for younger readers,
these authentic tales will delight persons
of all ages interested in American Indian
folkways. The tales, ostensibly told by an
elder, also show how boys and girls live
on Navajo lands in Arizona and New
Mexico. S3. 95
' 'Hummingbird 1^
Earns Many ^^^!^^~?^^
Colors." Wt--^-'-^
—liiustrated
byNa-Ton-Sa-Ka,
Navajo Ceremoni-
al Arts Museum,
Santa Fe.
"■ At your bookshop— or postpaid from
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shape the enviroiiinent of a civilized
society means nothing less than shap-
ing the nature of the society." He
goes on to ask, "Does the stracture of
American society — pluralistic, demo-
cratic, historically biased in favor of
an 'everyman's laissez faire' — permit
the shaping of its environment in any
way other than by combat and com-
promise?" Few others in the book are
similarly concerned about whether it
is the American or his Congress that
needs improvement.
Extending this idea, it can be ar-
gued that current congressional pol-
icy is really quite an accurate reflec-
tion of the environmental tastes of
Americans as a whole. We must re-
member that the vogue of environ-
ment is not universal in our society'.
^ e are stiU in transition from the old
pioneer, exploitative ethic to a newer
one based on ecology and steward-
ship. Many Americans are ambiva-
lent. They like wilderness, for in-
stance, but the}' also like mines and
mass, mechanized recreation. In view
of this, the Wilderness Act may have
been a very accurate expression of the
national desire in 1964. Political sci-
entists and conservation leaders may
gnash their teeth in frustration, but
Congress is adjusting about as fast as
American thought in general to the
new environmental imperatives. We
need, it would seem, to resurrect the
iild Jeffersonian maxim about educat-
ing the electorate. Good government
will follow.
Roderick Nash
University of California
Santa Barbara
Looking for Dilmun, by Geoffrey
Bibby. Alfred A. Knopf, SIO.OO; 383
pp., illus.
This is a delightful and informa-
tive work that should be on the
bookshelf of every archeologv- buff.
For some fifteen campaigns. Mr.
Bibby conducted excavations and sur-
veys at various points along the east-
ern coast of Arabia and on islands in
the Arabian Gulf. The results are
striking and important, for they docu-
ment hitherto largely unknown an-
cient cultures lying along the sea
roads that link Mesopotamia and In-
dia. Bibby worked at sites on the is-
land of Failaka near the mouth of the
combined Tigris-Euphrates rivers of
Iraq, and at such places as Thaj. Qa-
tar, and .\bu Dhabi on the Arabian
mainland. His work on the island of
Bahrain, where some of the most ex-
tensive ancient cemeteries in the
world are located, is probably the
best known.
The ancient Sumerians and Akka-
dians recorded the names of lands ly-
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A rewar(jing and fascinating
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« JUST PUBLISHED'
JEAN DORST
BEFORE NATURE DIES
Never has the devastating im-
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this new book by one of the
world's most distinguished zool-
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reading. Photographs. $8.95
GUY i\,!iU'HjNTFORT
THE VANISHING
JUNGLE
Some of the world's greatest
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jimgles are found in Pakistan,
which embraces an extraordi-
nary range of climate and vege-
tation and a tremendous variety
of mammals, reptiles, and plants.
To help the Pakistani govern-
ment create a comprehensive
conservation program, the au-
thor led two World Wildlife
expeditions on a 15,000-mile sur-
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Eric Hosking, many in full color.
$12.50
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HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
Boston 02107
ing east and south of their territories
with whom they traded. Among these,
Dilmun, Makan, and Meluhha have
especially intrigued modern research-
ers. Bibby's work now makes clear
that Dilmun. at least, was an exten-
sive mercantile cuhure stretching for
hundreds of miles along the Arabian
coast, but centered on the island of
Bahrain. The amount of material evi-
dence he and his numerous colleagues,
have unearthed is monumental. Archi-
tecture, sculpture, metal work, seals,
and pottery graphically depict a cul-
ture thriving on the proceeds of mer-
cantilism from the early third millen-
nium B.C. to as late as 600 B.C. One of
the most important finds was the
presence of prehistoric village sites on
the mainland whose artifacts identify
them as belonging to the Ubaid cul-
ture of Mesopotamia. Tliis culture
lies in tlie direct line of development
that led to the birth of Sumerian civ-
ilization, the earliest such cultural
form in the world. The presence of
these early villages so far to the
southeast of Sumeria suggests that
between 4000-3000 B.C. there must
have been strong motivations for
movement in search of land and other
resources in the region. Settled life is
a necessary prerequisite of civ-
ilization, and in the spread of the
Ubaid we witness the sowing of the
seeds of early civilization.
The book teems with ideas, with
descriptions of finds, with familiar
tales of fund-raising, government per-
mission-seeking, and expedition prob-
lems. It is all told with charm and
fluency, supplemented by meaningful
drawings, maps, and photographs. It
is worth its cost twice over.
"W. A. Fairservis, Jr.
The American Museum
Defoliation, by Thomas Whiteside.
Ballantine Books, Inc., $.95; 168 pp.
On June 16. 1962, the New Yorker
magazine published the first sec-
tion of a three-part article by Rachel
Carson. Subsequently published in
book form. Silent Spring stirred up a
storm that has still not abated. It has
been said that county agricultural
agents, normally nonreaders of the
magazine, circulated it even in Du-
buque. Iowa — where the Neiv Yorker
is not supposed to be found. Only this
year did federal authorities move to
limit the use of DDT, a pesticide that
Miss Carson discussed in great detail.
Within the logical framework of a
large-scale military operation in Viet-
nam, there were excellent reasons in
1961 to initiate a program of defolia-
tion and herbicide spraying. Enclaves
and potential ambush sites could be
quickly opened up in the jungle
areas of the country, and the mang-
rove associations lining the rivers
could be eliminated to prevent sniper
fire directed toward our patrol boats.
By extension of the scorched-earth
policy, used militarily since at least
the time of Attila the Hun, crops
could be destroyed to deny food to
the enemy. A variety of effective
compounds were available, there was
a reasonable level of sophistication on
the use of the materials, and cargo
planes could be quickly fitted with
tanks and spray nozzles. The mOitary
benefits were obvious and, with no
one to say them nay, the military be-
gan what has since escalated into a
massive program of defoliation and
herbicidal treatments. Both civilian
and military authorities have stated
categorically that the program is suc-
cessful within tlie context of military
goals and that American and Allied
lives have been saved.
A few voices were, of course, raised
in protest. Some of the critics were so
antiwar that they might be presumed
to object to anything that the Penta-
gon suggested. A few people were
concerned with questions of the mor-
ality of destroying food. A small
group of plant physiologists, ecolo-
gists, conservationists, and applied
plant scientists pointed out that there
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were, in addition to the mOitary ben-
efits, an array of actual and potential
costs and dangers that had to be in-
cluded in any assessment and balance
sheet. But in general, our citizens
were not aroused. In part, this can be
attributed to a lack of personal and
immediate involvement — Vietnamese
forests and rice paddies are 3,000
miles away. Active or passive support
for our "mission" in Southeast Asia
serves to preclude dissent from any
practice that is stated to advance the
policies of the Pentagon and the ad-
ministration. Another factor, one that
this book can provide, has been a
lack of information. The public has
not been supplied with hard facts on
the compounds used, the concentra-
tions applied, the plant species af-
fected, the persistence of the com-
pounds, or their side effects. We
haven't even been presented with an
equivalent of a body count!
Bits and pieces of data have, of
course, appeared in professional jour-
nals, but these were inadequate even
for the professional biologist. I know
of only two visits to Vietnam by pro-
fessional scientists looking specific-
ally at the consequences of defolia-
tion and herbicidal action, one by a
forester and the other by a team of
two animal ecologists. In addition, a
trickle of reports from the military, a
hearing by a congressional com-
mittee, and a few other odds and ends
are all we have with which to begin
even a preliminary assessment of the
immediate and long-term con-
sequences of "Project Ranchhand"
and other equally fancifully named
spray programs. Yet, a fairly small
piece of real estate about the size of
Rhode Island has been subjected to
the most massive exposure to phyto-
destructive chemicals that has ever oc-
curred.
The New Yorker again performed a
public service in first presenting
Thomas Whiteside's essay and letter
of amplification. Ballantine Books, in
cooperation with Friends of the
Earth, has augmented this service by
putting the information into an in-
expensive, paperbound volume. The
New Yorker information has been
supplemented with a preface by Prof.
George Wald. by documentation of
the statements, and with several form
letters to be sent to congressmen and
secretaries of various governmental
agencies, to international adminis-
trators, and to the President. A useful
and comprehensive index is included.
Defoliation probably won't stir up
the controversy that Silent Spring
did, partly because we have become
inured and cynical. But it is accurate,
carefully crafted, adequately docu-
FLYING BIRDS
By DAVID and KATIE URRY
In this handsome, 8"xl0" book,
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With 175 photographs of more than 25 species.
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jnted, and hard-hitting. Those who
int facts and a "body count" will
d their ammunition here and only
re. This is an important book.
The consequences of our use of
foliants and herbicides cannot fail
be felt in Vietnam for years, per-
ps decades, after the last C-123
rgo plane has dumped its load on
e land. Bamboo now grows where
onomically useful stands of hard-
)od formerly grew. Picloram may
rsist in what used to be orchards,
opland, and woodlots. Children
ive been born with abnormalities
at may have been caused by con-
minants in at least one of the
foliants. Other children may show
ental retardation resulting from in-
lequate protein intake occasioned
' "denying food to the enemy." It
ok us eight years to catch up with
achel Carson. How long will it take
catch up with Thomas Whiteside?
Richard M. Klein
The University of Vermont
tPLORING THE OcEAN WORLD, edited
f C. P. Idyll. Thomas Y. Crowell
ompany, $14.95 ; 280 pp., illiis.
rhis is a comprehensive history of
oceanography, ranging in time
om the voyages of the ancient Egyp-
ins to the adventures of Jacques
justeau and Jean Picard, with par-
;ular emphasis on the voyages of
e Endeavour, the Beagle, and the
hallenger during the pioneering cen-
ry from the 1770's to the 1870's.
ich of the ten articles (written in a
insistent style ostensibly by ten lead-
g specialists in the field) presents
i subject chronologically, from as
r back as history permits up to the
■esent.
The book is profusely illustrated,
ostly in black and white, but with
irty pages in color, and presents
ctorially organisms, institutions,
;rsonages, activities, ships old and
!w, maps and charts, and many ex-
lanatory diagrams. Altogether it is a
ry useful compendium, particularly
3cause of its comprehensive bib-
)graphy and unusually complete in-
iX.
The editor, C. P. Idyll, has written
1 excellent introduction and also,
ith Hiroshi Kasahara of the United
ations Development Program, a real-
tic appraisal of present and poten-
al food from the sea, which together
ith C. F. Hickling's account of
irming in the sea, should bring some
arry-eyed population optimists down
earth where we all belong. Other
■sources of the sea are interestingly
jid sensibly discussed by Robert
ietz of the Environmental Science
Services Administration, while the
physics and chemistry of the sea and
of seawater itself, the sweep and
power of currents and waves, and the
great complexity of the mineral solu-
tion, which in essence we retain in
our blood to this day, are well
presented by James Rucker and Neil
Anderson of the U.S. Naval Ocean-
ographic Office. My only complaint
with regard to the section on winds
and currents, man's primary interest
since accurate navigation led the way
to the exploration of the ocean as a
whole, is that no mention is made of
William Dampier. The most romantic
sailor of all time, he discovered the
fundamental features of the trade
winds, published a book on the winds
and currents of the world, and was a
member of a group of pirates who
sailed with Henry Morgan.
Last but not least are the chapters
on the biology of the sea, by Charles
Lane; on underwater archeology, by
Mendel Peterson ; and particularly,
the one by Robert Dietz on the under-
water landscape, which emphasizes
the rapid coming-into-focus now tak-
ing place with regard to both the
making of oceans and the not-too-dis-
tant past fragmentation of a world
continent. The book ends with an ar-
ticle on man beneath the sea. by
Capt. Edward Beach of the Naval
War College, an appropriate and per-
haps slightly ominous ending that
shows modern technological society
about to take over the sea as it has
the land, all for man's benefit.
Whether man can survive on earth is
in doubt; also doubtful is whether
the frail and lovely ocean and the
land it surrounds can survive human
ingenuity.
N. J. Berrill
Swarthmore College
The American Museum is open to
the public without charge every day
during the year, except Thanksgiv-
ing and Christmas. Your support,
through membership and contribu-
tions, helps make this possible. The
Museum is equally in need of sup-
port for its work in the fields of re-
search, education, and exhibition.
This list details the photographer or
other source of illustration by page.
COVER-Bruno Barbey, Riboud, Magnum; right.
Magnum Bernard B. Fall
33-36-William A. Bake. Collection
Jr. 52— Bernard B. Fall
39-HelmutWimmer Collection
40-Charles F. Keyes 54-National Center for
43— Miklos Pinther Atmospheric Research
45-46-Charlcs F. Keyes 56-59-Bruce C. Parker
except 46-top right. except 58-National
Pictorial Parade Center for Atmospheric
47-Rene Burri, Magnum Research
48-Left. Pictorial Parade; 61-64-Tom Beiswenger
bot., Charles F. Keyes 66-William C. Miller.
49-50-Bernard B. Fall Hale Observatories
Collection except 49- 69-Lick Observatory
right; 50-bot., Pictorial 73-Hale Observatories
Parade 8890-Louis J. Halle.
51-top, Rene Burri, © 1970 Princeton
Magnum; left. Marc University Press
400 magnificent wash drawings
and photographs! Written by
50 noted ornithologists!
A MUST volume for every
bird lover!
464 huge
8V2" X 11" pages
BIRDS IN OUR LIVES
Edited By Alfred Stefferud and Arnold L. Nelson
This lavish, brand new volume overflows with
rare pictures and little-known facts about the
birds of America. But it is far more than just
a pretty picture book of birds! In fabulous
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you learn about the vital part birds play in
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birds. Wildlife laws. How birds have affected
the arts and sciences. And the all-important
subject of pollution — and how it is affecting
the survival of our winged friends. Hundreds
of species are covered, A to Z, from the South
American Antbird to the Zimbabwe Stone
Bird. A book that reveals the delights and
joys of birds in our lives.
Risk-Free Examination
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Suggested
Addliionai Reading
THE CLICHE OF THE KILLER
WH.A.LES. E. J. Slijper. Basic Books,
Inc., New York, 1962.
The M-4RIXE M.amm.^ls of the
Northwestern Coast of North
America. C. M. Scammon. Dover
Publications. Inc., New York, 1968.
Making Friends with a Killer
Whale. E. I. Griffin. National Geo-
graphic, Vol. 129, pages 418-466,
1966.
GEORGL\ GRANITE
Studies of the Flora of the Gran-
ite Outcrops of Georgia. W. B.
Baker. Emorr University Quarterly,
I. pages 162-171. 1945.
The Vegetation of the Gr.a.nitic
Flat-Rocks of the Southe.^stern
United St.\tes. R. iMcVaugh. Ecolo-
gical Monographs, April. 1943.
PEOPLES OF INDOCHINA
The Making of Southeast Asia. G.
Coedes. University of California
Press. Berkeley, 1966.
Southeast Asian Tribes. Minorities
and Nations. P. Kunstadter. ed.
Princeton University Press. Prince-
ton, 1967.
Southeast Asia: Crossroads of Re-
ligions. K. P. Landon. University' of
Chicago Press, Chicago, 1969.
LIFE IN THE SKY
Clouds, R-\in and Rainm-\king. B. J.
Mason. Cambridge University
Press. New York, 1962.
From Raindrops to Volcanoes. D. C.
Blanchard. Doubleday & Company.
Inc., Garden City, 1967.
MADE IN JAPAN
Japanese Toys: Playing with His-
tory'. K. Sanobe and K. Sakamoto.
Translated by C. Pomeroy. Charles
E. Tuttle Co.. Inc.. Rutland. 1965.
The Folk Arts of Japan. H. Mun-
sterberg. Charles E. Tuttle Co..
Inc.. Rutland, 1958.
DISSECTING THE CRAB
Exploration of the UNnTRSE. G. 0.
Abell. Holt. Rinehart & Winston,
Inc., New York, 1969.
Astronomy of the Twentieth Cen-
tury. 0. Struve and V. Zebergs.
The Macmillan Company, New
York. 1962.
Nebulae and Interstellar M.\tter.
B. M. Middlehurst and L. H. AUer,
eds. University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, 1968.
"The moving
story of the
dehumanization
of a great
Indian leader."
—Peter FarJ
EDITED »
"F. W. Turner's introduction is i
splendid dividend, a perceptive ex
amination of how one culture
vjhlie American, can destroy an
other, and in the process possibi;
itself as well."-PeferFa/-£)
"Turner makes a strong ecologica
statement; and the autobiograph;
itself is more powerful than direc
propaganda or logical argument
the stuff of tragedy. Can be rea(^
purley as autobiography; as an epi
sode in history; as a morality talt
of terrifying relevance."
—Theodora Kroebe
"Fascinating and poignant. .
Here in moving, simple terms, i:
the pathos of the proud red mai
humbled yet living on. Enhancei
by illustrations and painstakini
scholarship."— Pui)//s/7eAs' Weekli
$6.95 at booksellers
?dutto
96
a new discovery
the blood sucking moth of malaya
Not all moths are innocuous nectar eaters. In Malaya there is a species that lives on blood,
like mosquitoes and tsetse flies do. But unlike dipterous "vampires", the moth has a
blood-drilling mechanism that is unique in the entire insect world, enabling it to pierce the
hide of deer, antelope and tapir! In his fascinating article in FAUNA, the Swiss
entomologist who discovered the blood sucking moth carefully traces its evolution,
explains its feeding habits, and fully describes its unique structure for the first time ever
published. And his vivid illustrations, including close-up photographs, are superb. But the
blood sucking moth is just one of the exciting new discoveries reported in FAUNA. There are
many more in every bimonthly issue.
FAUNA itself is new-a new magazine and a new concept: it is both a scientific journal
and a popular magazine. It brings you the latest discoveries reported by the very research
people who make them. FAUNA'S authors and editors are exclusively professional zoologists.
They relate new information about familiar animals. ..they introduce you to animals you
never even heard of before. All articles in FAUNA are written in depth, but in non-technical
terms. Readable, stimulating, but not superficial, they reveal a thorough picture covering
all aspects of wild animal life — behavior, ecology, physiology, habits, distribution and
evolution. And illustrations, many in full color, are the finest imaginable.
FAUNA'S purpose. ..to bridge the wide gap between the specialized technical journals
and the popularized nature magazines. FAUNA is different from any periodical published.
And it is as exciting as it sounds for everyone seriously interested in wildlife.
*The new discovery? It's in FAUNA'S first issue. Blood sucking moths and a variety of
intriguing animals await you there. And more discoveries are coming. Order your Charter
Subscription and discover for yourself the entire fascinating world of FAUNA.
FAUNA /
//. .oo/oyica/
ai/,,2,
P.O. Box 895 Rancho Mirage. California 92270
YES. I want to receive the finest wildlife magazine ever published. Please enter my Charter
Subscription to FAUNA, published bimonthly, to begin with the first issue (January 1971)*.
Subscription rates, $9 per year. D Check enclosed D Send me a bill
NAME
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order. Please enter GIFT SUBSCRIPTIONS on a separate stieeL Tell us from whom to sign Gift Cards and include
/Af zoo/oy/cfi/ m/iytisin^ your Own name and address With Order.
A thundercloud, captured on
film during a NASA Apollo mission,
presents a striking example of
how existing space techholog^f
offers new ways for coping v^&i
problems here on Earth. ^
Camera-equipped satellites,
tracking weather around the
world, can give advance warning
of storms, rain, hail and frost.
It has been estimated that accurate
5-day weather forecasts could
save over six billion dollars
annually in the U.S. alone when
applied to agriculture, forestry,
transportation, retail marketing
and other business and resource
management.
Think about the possibilities.
The Boeing Company.
when youVe seen the herd at wallow under the
Fever tree... you've watched the Ndebele bead artists
at work... you've analysed the growth potential of
the market... then youVe learned something of
SOUTH AFRICA...
and maybe done a little business.
Take a little pleasure with your business. Where the
game is. Where African peoples dwell on spectacular
backdrops. And where you can guarantee return on
your capital at 15% per annum . . . with a prospect of
even greater growth. Make the opportunity to see for
yourself.
For further information on South Africa, contact your travel
agent or write to the South African Tourist Corporation,
Rockefeller Center, 610 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10020, or
721 Wilshire Beverly Centre, 9465 Wilshire Boulevard, Beverly
Hills, California 90212.
Travel where the profit is . . . SOUTH AFRICA appeals to the opportunist in You
NATURAL HISTORY
NCORPORATING NATURE MAGA:
The Journal of The American Museum of Natural History
Vol. LXXIX, No. 9 November 1970
The American Museum
of Natural History
Gardner D. Stout, President
Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Natural History
Alfred Meyer, Editor
ihert E. Williamson, Managing Editor
Alan P. Ternes, Senior Editor
Thomas Page, Art Editor
Associate Editors
Avis Kniffin
John P. Wiley, Jr.
Frederick R. Hartmann
Karen Manulis
Florence G. Edelstein, Copy Chief
Toni Gerher, Copy Editor
Carol Breslin, Reviiiws
Diantha C. Thorpe, Research
William Suderman, Production
Staff Assistants
Ernestine Weindorf
Janet Stinchcomb
Lillian Berger
Editorial Advisers
Dean Amadon
Frunkiyn M. Branley
Margaret Mead
Thomas D. Nicholson
Gerard Piel
Ethel Tohach
Advertising Sales
Harvey Oshinsky, Director
Harry F. Decker
Walter E. Mercer
Gordon Finley
Dinah Lowell, Traffic
Eileen O'Keefe, Asst.
Circulation Promotion
Ann Usher, Director
Joan Mein tfies
Gail White
Fulfillment
Joseph Saulina, Manager
6 THE AUTHORS
10 A NEW THEORY OF PYRAMID BUILDING Olaf Tellefsen
Or, hoiv the ancient Egyptians manuevcred over two million 3-joot-square
blocks of stone into a 480-foot-high pile—without back strain.
24 POWWOW John Eastman
Conscious of his history but sensible too of the tourist trade, the Indian
must jugi:'" the new realities that could destroy him.
28 THE CHROMATIC WOOD SCULPTURE OF MORTIMER BORNE
ll'ith a wifely assist to his memory, artist Borne reminisces, gossips, and
discusses his work for the Natural History tape recorder.
34 PERSUASIVE SCENTS IN MOTH SEX LIFE IVlartin fiirch
Everything you always wanted to knoiv about scents . . .'•'"
40 THE AMERICAN LION IMaurice G. Hornocker
This cat-of-many-names, a predator extraordinaire, stubbornly flourishes
where bounty hunters and creeping civilization iconld have him fail.
50 SKY REPORTER John P. Wiley, Jr.
51 CELESTIAL EVENTS Thomas D. Nicholson ■
52 BENTHIC LIFE IN THE FJORDS OF NORWAY Michael Berrill
Dredging the ocean depths reveals simple communities of animals that
glisten an intriguing red lehen surfaced for study'.
60 HEALING IN THE SIERRA MADRE David Weriier
Hair of dog and rattler's bile, dung of coiv and catfish oil : fust a few standard
items from a campesino's medicine chest.
80 ARDREY IN WONDERLAND A review by Ronald Singer
An anthropologist enters the ivorld of Robert Ardrey's Social Cmitract. and,
like Alice, finds that it groivs "curiouser and curioiiser."
88 SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING
COVER: During rough tdaho winters, the elusive mountain lion folloics
his prey into the valleys, ichere his tracks record the events of
his ivanderings.
*. . . but iverc afraid to ask.
Palilicalion Offce: The American Mnsrum of Natural History, Central Park ICest at
79th Street, New York, N.Y. 10024. Puhlished monthly, October through May;
bimonthly June to September. Subs< rijilKm : ^7.110 u year. In Canada and all other
countries: $8.00 a year. Single copies st.OO. Srmnd-class postage paid at Nctv York,
N.Y., and at additional offces. Copyright © 1970 by The American Museum of Natural
History. No part of this periodical may be reproduced tvilhout the written consent of
NATtiHAi, HiSTOiiv. Manuscripts and illustrations submitted to the editorial offiee
uill hr hanillrd with care, but we cannot assume responsibility for their safely. Opinions
r\prc\siil In inithors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of The
American Museum. Natural History incorporating Nature Mapazinc ('.s indexed in
Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature.
When fishermen first saw oilmen drilling
in the Gulf of Mexico some twenty years ago,
they were shocked. "The fishing will never be
the same," they said. And they were right.
Nearly a thousand oil-producing platforms
now rise from gulf waters and the fishing\is
better than ever. Far better. \
Not only are catches more abundant. Th^
variety is more interesting. At least a dozen*
species of fish, which were seldom ^seen in the
The fishing i
area before, are turning up near the platfor;
Among these are the aristocratic pompanc
And the big fellows seem to be movi
closer too. The annual Tarpon Rodeo at Grj '
Isle, in the heart of Louisiana's offshore i
fields, is now one of the largest fishing contt^
in the United States.
Jersey's affiliate, Humble Oil & Refiri
Company, operates many of the offshore w«a
Here's how they explain the fish phenomerj
jtter than ever.
When the legs of a platform are thrust into
cean floor, they attract various forms of
ne life, such as plankton, algae and bama-
These attract small fish. And the small fish
,ct big fish. And so on and so on, in the
at-fish rhythms of the sea.
For Jersey or Humble to claim credit for
natural process would clearly be absurd,
imply point out that it might not happen
if we ran our oil platforms without caring
about the waters in which they stand.
By the way, commercial fishing in the
gulf is going great guns too. Trawlers are now
catching over four times the weight of fish they
caught in 1940.
Standard OU Company
(New Jersey)
#
/
In this superb new book you'll
jee many tropical birds never before
)hotographed.
And many that may never be
)hotographed again.
Portraits of Trojjical Birds began as a labor of love and gi'ew into a
^ork of camera art and scientific achievement. For John S. Dunning, a Field
ollaborator of the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, the goal was to photograph
s many of the neotropical birds of Central and South America as time and effort
rould allow. And, to photograph them under conditions as near to their natural
nvironment as humanly and technically possible.
The result is a beautiful book and eloquent testimony to Dunning's
uccess. Here, the birds of Central and South America are captured on film by a
lasterf ul photographer and an ornithologist of exceptional skill and patience.
)unning's tireless tracking of the lowland jungles and awesome mountain
anges has produced stunning portraits of birds never before
hotographed. Many are virtually unknown to ornithologists, and
thers, near the brink of extinction, may never be photographed again.
Hummingbirds and trogons, jacamars and motmots, puffbirds ahd
Ducans, the Andean cock-of-the-rock, are represented in all their magnificent
lumage. Above all, are the tanagers, brilliant blue or iridescent green, crimson
r gold, photographed in their characteristic attitudes.
These handsome portraits constitute a permanent record of each
pecies. The scientific value is great. The photographs are superb. The text offers
ascinating insights into how much— or more often, how little— we know
f these tropical birds.
In an absorbing chapter. Dunning tells of techniques he had to
evelop to photograph his fragile and elusive subjects under natui-al or
ear-natural conditions. The equipment he used is clearly described,
D encourage other nature photographers.
Portraits of Tropical Birds is a rare achievement. Sadly, as the
ulldozer and power saws continue to chew up the landscape, it's a work that
lay never be possible to duplicate.
[ Although the book will not be generally distributed un_til_l_9'71 , ^
dvance copies will be ready in November ["
3r Christmas giving or keeping. j HU"^®*°^eId 011x1^^ Company
'he number is limited, so use the coupon | wynnSvood? Penna^l9096
elow to reserve your copy now. I „, ' e-n ,. -^ fv ^■,.„^
,,, ,. -* ,11 ^"^ ,, I Please reserve a copy of Portraits of Tropical
Lt the same tmie you 11 save on the Bij.^s f oi- ^.g. Enclosed is payment at the pre-
re-publication price. } publication price of $17.95. As soon as available
rush my copy to :
I
ORTRAITS OF TROPICAL BIRDS |
yJohnS. Dunning • ^^"^
74 pages j address
2 color plates ■ city & state^ .
17.95 until December 31, 1970 j (Pa. residents please add e% sales tax.)
20.00 thereafter I
A retired design engineer. Olaf
Tellefsen was Lorn in Arendal,
Norway, and came to the United
States in 1928. Professionally
trained in Norwegian schools, Tel-
lefsen's life-long avocation has been
the analysis of ancient structures
from an engineering point of view.
He has made many trips abroad —
to Egypt, Greece, Italy, and Stone-
henge — in pursuit of additional in-
formation with which to test his
theories.
John Eastman, author of
"Powwow," is a free-lance writer
from Kalamazoo, Michigan. He re-
ceived a B.S. degree in biology
from Western Michigan University
in 1965, and has since worked as a
biological assistant for the Illinois
Natural History Survey and as a
manuscript editor of biological text-
books. His previous works for
Natural History include "A Field
Guide to Field Guides," November,
1969, and "Biology of the Way-
Out," May, 1970.
Born in Rypin, Poland, artist
Mortimer Borne came to the
United States in 1916. After a pe-
riod of experimentation, he pio-
neered in the technique of color
drypoint using three plates. A for-
mer lecturer of art at the New
School for Social Research, Borne
has had one-man shows at the Cor-
coran Gallery of Art, the Museum
of Fine Arts (Montreal), and the
Smithsonian Institution. His works
are in many permanent collections,
including that of the Library of
Congress and the Rosenwald Collec-
tion of the New York Public Li-
brary. Borne currently resides in
Nyack, New York.
The destruction by deathwatch
beetles of the roof of his cleric fa-
ther's country church triggered
Martin Birch's interest in insects.
an interest that eventually led to a
Ph.D. in entomology from Oxford
University. A native of England,
Birch is currently a lecturer and re-
search felloiv at the University of
California at Berkeley where he is
working on bark beetle control. He
is also continuing his research on
pheromones in Lepidoptera. with
emphasis on chemical commu-
nication in animals for possible ap-
plication in pest control without
harmful side effects. His work has
taken him to Denmark and Crete to
study ladybird beetles. Moscow and
West Germany for research with
moths, and Kenya where he studied
army worms and termites.
Leader of the Idaho Cooperative
Wildlife Research Unit at the Uni-
versity of Idaho, Maurice G. Hor-
nocker received his B.S. and M.S.
degrees from the University of
Montana and his Ph.D. from the
University of British Columbia.
HdrncKkci',- \V(irk cm magpie-pheas-
^;
ant relationships, and his research'
on raptors, grizzly bears, and
mountain lions have earned him a
respected position in the field of an-
imal behavior. His present researcl^
focuses on the ecology of predation.
How many of these books from
Natural Science Book Club
have you been wanting?
■i HBe good to yourself-and choose them now!
^1 (retail prices sliown)
I
54090. HUMAN SEXUALITY.
James Leslie McCrary. $9.75
67140. THE PARABLE OF
THE BEAST. John N. Bleib-
ireu. Man's vital relationship
to his animal self. $6.95
Botany
I
I
I
66120. ORCHID FLOWERS:
Their Pollination and Evolu-
tion. L. van der Fiji and Cala-
Kay H. Dodson. $12.50
Astronomy
32720. AMATEUR ASTRON-
OMY. Patrick Moore, F.R.A.S.
$6.95
79810. SPLENDOR IN THE
SKY. Gerald S. Hawkins. Fas-
cinating survey of astronomy.
$8.95
78230. THE SHADOW OF
THE TELESCOPE. Guniher
Bultman. Life story of John
Herschel, son of the famous
astronomer. $7.95
I
I
I
I
Recreation
53530. HOME BOOK OF
TAXIDERMY AND TAN-
NING. Gerald J. Grantz.
$7.95
68S60. THE PHILOSOPHI-
CAL FISHERMAN. Harold
F. Blaisdell. $6.95
73350. READING THE
WOODS. Vinson Brown. How
to read plant and animal signs
in the woods. $5.95
50340. GEM HUNTER'S
GUIDE. Russell P. MacFall.
$5.95
32980. AMERICA'S CAMP-
ING BOOK. Paul Cardwell,
Jr. Comprehensive guide.
$10.00
74260. INTRODUCTION TO
ROCK AND MOUNTAIN
CLIMBING. Ruth and John
Mendenhall. $5.95
Oceanography
47380. EXPLORING THE
OCEAN WORLD: A History
of Oceanography. Edited by
C. P. Idyll. $14.95
64560. THE NEW WORLD
OF THE OCEANS. Daniel
Behrman. The pioneer ocean-
ographers - first-hand inter-
views and observations. $8.95
Archaeology
58840. LOOKING FOR DIL-
MUN. Geoffrey Bibby. Search
for an ancient civilization.
$10.00
68160. PERSEPOLIS: The
Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of
the Persian Kings. Donald N.
Wilbur. $7.95
Geology
50350. GEOLOGY OF THE
MOON. Thomas A. Mutch.
Counts as 2 choices. $17.50
Anthropology
88080. YIWARA: Foragers of
the Australian Desert. Richard
A. Gould. $8.95
88040. YANOAMA: The Nar-
rative of a White Girl Kid-
napped hy Amazonian Indians.
As told to Ettore Biocca.
$7.95
Adventure
64850. NOTES FROM THE
CENTURY BEFORE: A
Journal from British Columbia.
Edward Hoagland. $6.95
87290. THE WOLFLING.
Sterling North. $5.95
We invite you
to take any 3 books
(values to $39.95)
for only
with a trial membership
TRIAL MEMBERSHIP APPLICATION 4 S-o
Natural Science Book Club, Riverside, N.J. 08075
Upon acceptance of this oitier, pk'a.sc enroll me as a trial member and .send
the thri'o books whose numbens I have niled in below. Bill me just 9i)c
cat-h. plus shippinK and handling. If not delighted, 1 will return them
within 10 days and my membership will be cancelled.
As a trial member, I need accept as few as 3 more .s.le<linn.s during On-
ii'xt 12 months, always at reduced member's prices plus .shi[llllll^: •,m<\
iiandiniK' ;md I may cajicel membership any time thertaiicr. Kai ii numih I
wilt letelvo adviinee review.s describing the forthcomlnj; srlfi-iimi. alonj;
With a cdnvenirnt form for requcstlnR alternate selecllons or no book at
ehX'
3 books for only 99c each (write in numbers)
X-,.,.,o
(Somo cxpcnsivu
books coun
as 2 seluctlons. )
AH,lr™»
City
Stiili.
Zip
59640. MAN A>fD ANIMAL
IN THE ZOO. Heini Hediger.
$11.95
33780. ANIMALS IN MIGRA-
TION. Robert T. Orr. $12.50
85890. VENOMOUS REP-
TILES. Sherman A. Minton,
Jr. and Madge Rutherford
Minton. $7.95
Conservation
and Ecology
78350. SINCE SILENT
SPRING. Frank Graham, Jr.
$6.95
69750. THE PRAIRIE
WORLD. David F. Costello.
$7.95
37400. CHALLENGE FOR
SURVIVAL. Edited by Pierre
Dansereau. $7.95
Mathematical
Games and Puzzles
46650. EXCURSIONS IN
GEOMETRY. C. Stanley
Ogilvy. $6.00
85440. THE UNEXPECTED
HANGING. Martin Gardner.
$5.95
Science Classics
85980. WALLACE AND
BATES IN THE TROPICS.
Edited by Barbara C. Beddall.
Key contributions to theory of
natural selection. $5.95
73480. RATS, LICE AND
HISTORY. Hans Zinsser.
Biography of a disease —
typhus. $6.95
65320. ON ANCIENT CEN-
TRAL-ASIAN TRACKS. Sir
Aurel Stein. Famous early-
20th-century archaeological ex-
peditions. $5.95
571S0. KING SOLOMON'S
RING. Konrad Lorenz. All
about animal conversation.
$6.95
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Why Robert R Talbot
never returned to the
Okeefenokee Swamp.
He never had to. Bob takes his own bird photo-
graphs, but he doesn't take chances. He devel-
ops thefiim and makes the enlargements on the
spot. He can do it because he's got a Durst IVI301
enlarger. It packs in a carrying case that's no
bigger than a bread box. And sets up in minutes
in camper, tent, air boat -or outdoors on a dark
night. The Durst IV1301 is for 35mm and smaller,
and its only-slightly-bigger brother, the Durst
M600. goes to 2-1/4 square. They make great
enlargements in B&W and color, and work
equally well in kitchen, bathroom, closet or even
darkroom. Prices start at under S70. Your dealer
also offers complete, money-saving Durst en-
larging outfits. By the way. with an inexpensive
bulb adapter and an auto headlight bulb you
too can print in the field. . .using a car battery.
Write for details. Durst (USA) Inc. Garden City.
NewYorkll530.SubsidiaryofEhrenreich Photo- nijDCT f|sjl/^rqers
Opticallndustries. lnc.[ll^D
^ -^^ii^S'
Assistant professor of biology at
Trent University in Ontario, Mi-
chael Berrill spent the summer of
1969 observing marine animals in
Norway. His objective in exploring
deepwater fauna was to find an in-
vertebrate subject for studies of the
development of behavior. Berrill.
who earned his M.S. at the Univer-
sity of Hawaii and his Ph.D. at
Princeton, both in biology, is the
author, with N. J. Berrill, of Life of
Sea Islands. His field work has
taken him to the Caribbean, Japan,
and Newfoundland.
Davitl Werner, author of
"Healing in the Sierra Madre," has
been the director of Project Piaxtla
for the Hesperian Foundation since
its inception in 1965. The aim of
this project has been to improve the
health and living standards of the
villagers in Mexico's isolated "las
barrancas" region. Werner received
his B.Sc. in biology from the Uni-
versity of New England in New
South Wales, Australia, and super-
vised the high school student ar-i
ticle, "Sabino Grove Ecolog>ji^
Study," which appeared in thci
May, 1965, issue of Natural His||
TORY.
the incomparable world of DONALD L. FERGUSON, LTD., Tours and Cruises |
THE WORLD... three fabulous ways around it:
GREAT WORLD AIR CRUISE (our third annual) by private all First Class TWA
Boeing 707, including such travel rareties as Morocco, East Africa, Iran,
Afghanistan and Bali. From San Francisco February 18, 1971. 37 days. $7785.
home city to home city.
GRAND TOUR AROUND THE WORLD (for our sixteenth successive year) -the
best of everything on a leisurely, comprehensive itinerary. From San Francisco
in spring and autumn. 84 days. $3860.*
37-DAY WORLD TOUR- for those with less time who still wish a complete
itinerary and first class arrangements. Four times yearly from San Francisco.
$1845.*
SOUTH PACIFIC and the complete ORIENT. ..three unique programs:
GREAT PACIFIC AIR CRUISE (never before offered) -to New Guinea, the
Antipodes and the romantic islands of the South Seas — by private all First Class
TWA Boeing 707 over an itinerary beyond parallel. January 14, 1971. 31 days.
$6385. from San Francisco.
TOURS OF THE ORIENT— unmatched itineraries, unmatched luxury. 27 days.
From San Francisco spring and autumn. $1685.*
ENCHANTED ISLES OF THE EAST-a travel first-49 days completely off the
touristed track including Sumatra, Java, Bali, Sulawesi, Borneo and all the
Philippines. From San Francisco, February and September. $3150.*
AFRICA... the entire continent or the safari country of East Africa alone:
GRAND TOUR OF AFRICA — every possible point of interest between Capetown
and Addis Ababa, including the finest of the game reserves. 57 days. From
New York, spring and autumn. $3965.*
EAST AFRICA AIR/LAND SAFARIS-the most professionally-planned safaris
available with a carefully-considered combination of motor and air travel. An
impressive thirteen game reserves in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. From New
York, throughout the year. 24 days. $1795.*
INDIA... "In depth" in two months or the highlights in one month:
GRAND TOUR OF INDIA. Nowhere else is such a complete program available.
Our sixteenth successive year on the sub-continent "in the Grand Manner."
From New York, spring and autumn. 55 days. $4130. Including Economy Class air
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"THE MANY FACES OF INDIA"-a 30-day program of independent travel,
including all the expected features plus the Himalayas and southern India. Weekly
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Donald L. Ferguson's "world" features only one category of
travel- the finest to be had. Top hotels-best rooms-a la carte
dining— no "optionals."
Remember, too, that "our world" encompasses unusual
summer tours through Scandinavia and throughout Eastern
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in the Caribbean and our renowned "Voyage Into Antiquity"
in the Mediterranean.
Your TRAVEL AGENT can explain the merits of these travel
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*International air fare to be added.
^tV'\/^K [ A I r~\ ■ ^ Please send informali(
:RGUSON,^^"
219 Paiefmo Ave., Coral Coliles, Flciiid.l 3313-1
Zip
A NEW THEORY
OF
PYRAMID
BUILDING
'3>.-*--';%.f^
After 5,000 years
of speculation, a
fresh approach
eliminates the need
for a Cecil B.
deMille set and
a cast of 100,000
by Olaf Tellefsen
Egyptologists and engineers have
been fighting over the great pyra-
mids for years. The archeologists
hold for a hundred thousand men
hauling three-ton blocks up earthen
ramps more mammoth than the
pyramids themselves. The engineers
produce pages of calculations to
show there wasn't enough man-
power in all Egypt to build such
ramps, and further, that the Egyp-
tians couldn't have gotten enough
men on top of a pyramid, even with
scaffolding, to heave the huge top
piece into place.
The engineers have not come up
with anything to replace the ramp
theory, however. The problem is
simply stated: Devise a means of
building a 180-foot-high monument
out of more than two million 3-foot-
square blocks of stone, without us-
ing any power other than human or
animal strength. Based upon an ac-
cidental observation in present-day
Eg>T3t, I have an answer that in-
lO
:**«^et-j^'
^^^^rnrni
'ry^'^^'mm:^^:
II
Africa
calls!
Come discover
the insider's Africa
on the
SAS ''Mini Safari''
Rendezvous with rhinos. Live it up
with lions. Get to know a gnu. An
SAS "Mini-Safari" whisks you in
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Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda. Gaze on
parks teeming with game. Ngoron-
goro Crater. Mt. Kilimanjaro. Famed
Murchison Falls. And — coming and
going — get the bonus of a stop in
wonderful Copenhagen.
Yes — Africa Calls. So come swing
through Africa on this SAS "Mini'
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12
volves the use of one simple tool
easily accessible to the ancients and
that does away with the need for a
ramp and all but a few thousand of
the postulated hordes of workers.
On a trip up the Nile some years
ago, I saw three men moving large
stones to the water's edge from a
pile that could well have been the
remains of some ancient structure.
When I saw the size of the stones
my engineering sense told me that I
had run across a technological cu-
riosity of note. The primitive piece
of equipment the men were using
was a triumph of elementary phys-
ics— a large weight arm, consisting
of a heavy timber that pivoted on a
sturdy, 6-foot-high fulcrum. The
short arm was less than 3 feet long;
the long arm 15 to 16 feet. A pallet
was attached to the long arm. upon
which rocks could be piled for
counterweight. While the unit was
roughly built, apparently with no
tool other than an ax, it served its
purpose admirably.
As I watched, the men slid a
sling under one of the stones, loop-
ing the bight over the short end of j
the weight arm where one man held
it in place while the other two piled j
rocks on the pallet. They piled on
rocks until it almost balanced, then
brought the beam down by adding
their combined weight. That lifted
the big stone about a foot, enough
for the third man to place planks,
rollers, and a pair of runners under
it. With that done, the men at thej
pallet eased the stone down on thfrl
rollers and proceeded to dump the 8
counterweight. The sling was re-|
moved, and the load was now readjjj
for moving. Two men pushed with
wooden levers while the third man
shifted the rollers and leapfroggecj
the planks.
The block of stone must have
weighed more than two tons, but
the placing of it on the rollers had
taken little more than ten minutes.
I felt sure the apparatus I had
seen must have been based on an
In conventional explanations,
the pyramid builders used giant
ramps to raise the stone blocks
up to the working area. The
ramps either corkscrewed up the
sides, as in this representation,
or were built straight up to
one face. Remains of ramps have
been found at some pyramids,
but many experts doubt
that ramps were used
all the way up to the 480-foot level,
^■"^^.
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•"^•fi^^^S*!!
Photo -surrealism
Raindrops on a window, inches from the camera, A girl on a beach, a hundred
feet away. Both exquisitely sharp, which gives the picture its special quality.
But, how to do it without special equipment?
In theory you'd first shoot the beach scene, focusing on the girl. Moments
later, after rewinding the film one frame, you'd focus on the rain spattered window
and make a second exposure. Quite simple, really Except that it's impossible
with most cameras because their lenses can't provide the tremendous focusing
range required.
With the Nikkormat FTN it was as simple as it sounds. This 35mm single
lens reflex is made by Nikon and accepts the same interchangeable lenses as
the famous Nikon F It was used here with the 55mm Micro Auto-Nikkor f3 5,
an unusual lens that can be focused for any distance from 2.3 inches all the
way to infinity (Imagine being able to use the same lens for life-size closeups
of flowers or insects as well as for portraits, kids, parties and the like!)
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idea inherited from the past, where
it had played a key role in the rais-
ing of the huge stone structures of
the past, including the Great Pyra-
mid. I could visualize a hundred
weight arms being used on that
great project, each serving several
gangs of five or six men who, to-
gether, could easily place up to 600
of the regular building stones per
day. This simple machine would re-
duce the manpower requirement
from the assumed 100.000 to a few
tliousand men.
To substantiate what I intuitively
felt to be true, I decided to elimi-
nate what we positively know was
nonexistent at tlie time, then deter-
mine what was left. The ancient
master builders did not have poorer
equipment, block and tackles, or
hand winches, but they had every-
thing else, including a firm grip of
elementary physics.
The Egyptologists have con-
cluded that, in the absence of aids
more advanced than ropes, levers.
and Asooden rollers, the inclined
plane in the form of a ramp was
used "up which the blocks of stone
^vere dragged by \ ast gangs of men
to their position on the pile." In
contrast, engineers have shown by
cool figures that there was not man-
power enough in the entire country
to build such a ramp beyond the
halfway mark. To double the height
of a ramp, you must use eight times
the amount of fill material and ten
times the number of man days.
Fifty feet or so is the practical
limit. In addition, engineers have
shown tliat the top piece could not
have been elevated to the 480-foot
level b> manpo^ver alone. There
wouldn't be room for that many
men on any scafi^olding that could
be erected. It seemed obvious to en-
gineers that the builders must have
used some mechanical aid, but they
were unable to agree on what it
might have been. The Egyptologists
clung to the ramp explanation, feel-
ing thev had no clear alternative.
Built ^\ ith iiotliing more than an
ax. a weight arm enables two
men to lift several tons.
Counterweights are piled on a
pallet hung from the long end ;
then the men simply pull
dowTi on that end, lifting the
load with the short end.
14
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And from them it found its ^vay
into our school textbooks.
Although the situation looked dis-
couraging. I remained confident be-
cause I had the winning ace in the
hole — the missing apparatus.
Although it has been the work-
horse of peoples ever since man
learned to build with heavy stones,
the weight arm is so completely out
of use in our power-conscious age
that it has virtually been forgotten.
It isn't even mentioned in our col-
lege dictionaries. The more general
term lever is defined and usually il-
lustrated, but there are many forms
of the lever. Each should be defined
in accordance with its special char-
acteristics. For example, the func-
tion of a pinch bar is pushing,
while that of a weight arm is pull-
ing. A pinch bar, or pry, can only
push or tilt an object, while the
weight arm can pull or lift it in a
sling. And theoretically there is no
limit to the capacity of a weight
arm.
To push a heavy stone block onto
rollers ^vith pinch bars is a slow
and awkward process, and to push
it onto loose skids is nearly impos-
sible. The block must be lifted so
that skidway and skids can be posi-
tioned under it, exactly as I saw it
done. The Egyptologists did not
consider greased skids because they
knew of no way such lifting could
have been accomplished. But with
the weight arm greased skids sug-
gest themselves. They are particu-
larly practical for moving heavy
loads up a steep incline, while roll-
ers are preferable on the level.
Thus, skidways of heavy planks, laid
flat against the face of the pyramid
from ground to working level,
would be the ideal means for elevat-
ing the stone blocks. Several gangs
of 25 to 30 men each would do the
pulling, using a two-part tackle. Al-
though they did not have pulleys as
we knoAv- them, a rounded piece of
hardwood, well greased and cov-
ered Avith a loose leather sleeve,
would serve equally well. (
For the lower half of the pyra-
mid as many as 30 skidways would
be necessary, each with a ■weight
An approximation of a weight arm
turned iip in pyramid-building
scenes in a 1955 film. Land of
the Pharaohs. The load-bearing
end appears to be far too long
to be practical, however.
i6
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I '■ r- r f~* Jr i~t- I f r-f— /~j— /,.4:;j
arm at top and bottom for transfer
of the stones. Ten pulling gangs
would be needed, each serving three
skidways. At the halfway level, for
example, each gang could pull three
stones per hour or a total of 300
per day for all ten gangs. This
quantity could easily be placed by
100 placing gangs of five or six
men each. Then, assuming there
were 100 delivery gangs, also of
five or six men each, for pushing
the blocks on rollers from the stag-
ing area to the skidways, and 200
masons with as many helpers for
the passages and chambers, it
would appear that 3,000 men could
have raised the pyramid. In that
figure are included masonry dress-
ers, repairmen, and riggers.
The huge stones and slabs for the
passages and chambers would be
moved on timber skidways by
banks of weight arms, rigged for
lateral pull. The top piece would be
hauled to its position by two banks
of weight arms, ivhich could move
it about a foot with each bite. A
scaffold on three sides of the pyra-
mid top would accommodate the
weight arms and their operators.
As to the regular masonry, it is
most probable that three courses
would be completed before each ex-
tension of the skidways. The blocks
would be elevated to each second
and third course by means of port-
able wooden ramps of easy incline,
and placing gangs would double up
for the short push uphill. The ex-,i
ception would be in the pull-up area
itself where there would be no room
for such ramps. There, the blocks
would be lifted with dual weight |
arms — one to lift and one to pull
sideways. Incidentally, Herodotus
mentioned some such rig, calling it
"a machine made of short planks."
The full passage, in Rawlinson's
translation, reads: "The Pyramid
was built in tiers, battlementwise,
as it is called, or. according to oth-
ers, stepwise. When the Pyramid
was completed in this form, they
A double weight arm can work in
tight places. The left arm
raises a block in the normal way.
Then the right arm is lowered
and the sling attached. When it
is raised, the block w"ill move
to the right as well as up.
Mr. and Mrs. Diamond aren't trying to save the world.
Just a little piece of it.
Willie Sam Roberts is one of
the luckier children in his Southern
Tennessee town. He's just passed
his fourth birthday. Hardly remark-
able. Unless, like Willie Sam, you
live in a place where one of every
four children never lives to his
fourth birthday. But Willie Sam
has another reason to consider him-
self lucky. He has a future. A future
that has suddenly turned bright.
For this, he thanks a New York
couple by the name of Diamond.
Through Save the Children Federa-
tion, the Diamonds are helping
Willie Sam and his family to lift
themselves out of the poverty that
engulfs so many of their neighbors.
In 1 8 2 4, when Willie Sam's town
was founded, its rich Mississippi
valley was described as, "beautiful
and bountiful". The description no
longer fits. Years of soil depletion
and reckless timber cutting have
left the land grudgingly productive.
And the people desperately poor.
Average per capita income is less
than $1,000 a year, and half the
men can't find work half the year.
Much of the hous-
ing is unfit to live
in, and sanitary
facilities just
don't exist. Most
families have a
hard time getting
f • 1 along, let alone
f / getting ahead.
And without help, chances are Wil-
lie Sam would grow up to be just
another name on the poverty rolls.
That's where Minerva and Irv-
ing Diamond entered the picture.
They're not nearly as wealthy as
Willie Sam and his family imagine.
Middle aged, middle income, prob-
ably describes them best. But now
that their two daughters are grown
and on their own, the Diamonds can
afford to enjoy the things they've
always wanted to do. Travel. Golf.
And spending time doting on their
grandchildren. Yet, while enjoying
the comforts they've earned, the
Diamonds are seeing to it that Wil-
lie Sam has his chance.
The $15 a month contributed
makes a remarkable difference to
the Roberts. The father has been
able to realize a dream of starting a
business. With an interest-free loan
advanced by Save The Children he
opened a dry-cleaning shop which
seems to be succeeding. And which
for the first time has given the fam-
ily hope of a productive, self-suffi-
cient future. That, of course, is what
Save The Children is all about. Al-
though contributions are deductible
as a charity, the aim is not merely
to buy one child a few hot meals or
a warm coat. Instead your contribu-
tion is used to give people a little
boost to start helping them-
selves.
Sponsors are desperate-
ly needed for other children
in the South as well as chil-
dren living on American
Indian reservations, in Appa-
lachia, Europe, the Middle
East, India, Korea, Vietnam,
Latin America and Africa.
As a sponsor you will receive
a history of the child and fam-
ily, photos, progress reports
and a chance to correspond.
The Diamonds know they can't
save the world for $15 a month.
Only a small corner of it. But maybe
that is the way to save the world.
If there are enough people who care.
How about you?
National Sponsors (partial list)
Claude Arpels, Faith Baldwin, Joan
Crawford, Andy Griffith, Gene Kelly, Mrs.
Eli Lilly, Paul Newman, Mrs. J. C. Penney,
Norman Rockwell, Frank Sinatra.
Save The Children Federation, founded in
1932, is registered with the U.S. State
Department Advisory Committee on
Voluntary Foreign Aid, and is a member ol
the International Union of Child Welfare,
Financial statements and annual reports are
available on request.
Save The Children Federation
NORWALK, CONNECTICUT 06852
I WISH TO CONTRIBUTE $15 A MONTH TO HELP A CHILD.
D WHERE THE NEED IS GREATEST D SOUTHERN U.S.
n AMERICAN INDIAN O APPALACHIA D EUROPE
D MIDDLE EAST Q INDIA Q KOREA Q VIETNAM
D LATIN AMERICA D AFRICA
ENCLOSED IS MY FIRST PAYMENT
D $15.00 MONTHLY D $90.00 SEMI-ANNUALLY
D $45.00 QUARTERLY D $180.00 ANNUALLY
I CAN'T SPONSOR A CHILD. ENCLOSED IS A CONTRIBUTION
OF $
D PLEASE SEND ME MORE INFORMATION.
CONTRIBUTIONS ARE INCOME TAX DEDUCTIBLE.
19
Natiire photography is second
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And things al-
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Our patented through-the-lens
metering system, called the Con-
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and automatically compensates so
Hi.^
nothing gets overshadowed.
No matter how you look at na-
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of interchangeable meter-coupled
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raised the remaining stones to their
places by means of machines
formed of short beams of wood.
The first machine raised them from
the ground to the top of the first
step. On this there was another
machine, which received the stone
upon its arrival, and conveyed it to
the second step, whence a third ma-
chine advanced it still higher. Ei-
ther they had as many machines as
there were steps in the Pyramid, or
possibly they had but a single ma-
chine, which, being easily moved,
was transferred from tier to tier as
the stone rose — both accounts are
given and therefore I mention both.
The upper portion of the Pyramid
was finished first, then the middle,
and finally the part which was low-
est and nearest the ground."
Herodotus is apparently refer-
ring here to the final dressing of
the exterior of the pyramid. This is
the only kno^vn reference to how
the blocks were raised, and it points
directly to the weight arm.
No matter what aids were used,
the pyramids were still
basically built with brute for<
20
I have shown how the Great
Pyramid could have been erected
with only a few thousand men and
without the use of a monstrous ramp.
The capital question is, therefore,
whether or not the engineers of the
Fourth Dynasty could have suc-
ceeded without the devices I have
mentioned.
Because there are no known
records of on-the-spot observations
or builders' perspectives, it is the
popular verdict that we shall never
know for sure. But we should be
able to establish which is the most
reasonable explanation.
Egyptologists have recently con-
cluded, on the basis of new and
more reliable evidence, that the
manpower supply during the
Fourth Dynasty was not as ample
as previously believed. There were
actually few slaves because foreign
conquests were at a minimum. In-
stead, seasonal farm workers, who
otherwise would be idle during the
growing season and during high
QUESTAR KEEPS REPEATING ITSELF
We note that many schools and colleges start out with one Questar, and then as
time goes by, repeat orders begin to come in, letting us know that a whole science class
is being equipped so that each student will have his own telescope. To us this makes more
sense than providing one big instrument for a large group. It permits a student to give his
full time to observing instead of waiting his turn for a brief look. It would seem that the
important question is — how many Questars will your budget allow rather than how large
a telescope you can get.
This was the point of view at Southern Connecticut College, where Robert L. Brown is
shown conducting a class engaged in solar observation. The Questars are equipped with
totally safe sun filters which keep out all harmful rays.
This is the great thing about Questar — it does so many jobs that the instrument is
never idle. Moon and planetary observation at night, sunspots in the daytime, or a trip into
the field where it is used in nature studies, often to observe phenomena that would
otherwise be inaccessible — this easily portable instrument makes it all possible. Also with
Questar, students learn the art of high-power photography by taking pictures of all they
observe. And however they use it, they learn to appreciate fine resolution.
The following letter from Dr. Wesley M. Roberds, Head of the Department of Physics
at Samford University, is an example of the tribute Questar receives from many educators:
"We are very pleased with the 3 '^-inch Questar we recently purchased. We are
particularly pleased with the precision and ease with which we con locate celestial
objects. We measured the coordinates of Mercury and then went to the Ephemaris and
found that our discrepancy was only 2 minutes "off" in R.A. and less for Dec. (this is not
correcting for atmospheric refraction.) Also, the sun and its spots ore beautiful. Of course,
objects are not as bright as they are in our 1 6-inch reflector, but the resolution is every
bit as good."
Queslar, the world's Finest, most ver-
satile telescope, is now available in
two sizes, the 3'/2 and 7, and in nu-
merous models. Prices begin at $865.
Send for our booklet containing more
than 100 photographs by Questar
owners. For mailing anywhere in N.A.,
$1.00. By air to rest of Western Hem-
isphere, $2.50: Europe and North Af-
rica, $3.00: elsewhere $3.50.
Box 260
TAR
New Hope, Pa. 18938
Drop-in movies.
Drop in . . . shoot! Just drop
in the film cartridge and you're
ready to shoot bright, colorful
super 8 movies. Automati-
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This Kodak Instamatic M9
movie camera has power zoom,
reflex viewing, extra-fast f/1.8
lens, automatic electric eye. Four
shooting speeds. Less than $200.
At your photo dealer's. ^
Kodak Instamatic M9 movie camera.
isljA'
alsfej
Was Nero a
Good Emperor?
Did Vikings settle in North America? Was
Stonchenge built by IVIinoans? Arc the
legends of Hercules — Medusa— the Phoenix
— based on facts? If these questions
intrigue you. read (and give)
ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY NEWSLETTER
packed with little-known facts about the
Pagan world, new finds and deductions,
reports from "digs", travel tips. Now in its
6th year. Subscribers include university
and other libraries. Send $6.00 for 2 year
subscription to OTTO F. REISS, Publisher,
243 E 39th St., Box N, New York, N.Y. 10016.
-ANCIENT COINS:
Specia
1 Greek corn, over 2000 yrs.
old, 1 large Roman bronze
coin w. Imperial portrait (Au-
gustus to Constantino) plus
4-issue subscription, only $20.00. (N.Y. res.
add sales tax.) Handsome coins are guaran-
teed genuine, come with indiv. histories.
Make perfect gifts! Money back in ID days.
Send check or M.O. to above address.
NATURE TOURS
Friends are reminded that we continue
to operate group trips in the U.S. and
most countries of the world at the rate of
30 to 40 tours a year.
These are general nature trips, with
first emphasis on birds, second on botany.
They are of 2 weeks' duration in North
America. 3 weeks in the rest of the world.
They are usually set up in chains so that
more than one can be taken on a single
departure. These are not advertised com-
mercially and this is not a profit enter-
prise; accordingly prices are moderate. If
this interests you, please drop us a line.
UP-COMING DATES
October-December A series of five tours
in Melanesia, New Guinea, Australia
and New Zealand.
December Post-Xmas tour covering Ha-
waii.
January-February Florida (2 weeks be-
ginning Jan. 9), Yucatan and Central
America.
lamiary-March Four exciting tours in
South Asia, from Malaysia to the
Himalayas.
May Popular southeast Arizona tour
(May 9).
May-Augusi Europe in 1971 offers a
choice of 10 tours, including a nature
seminar in England, tours of Norway
and Iceland, and our biennial route
across Russia and Siberia. (Outer Mon-
golia this year).
CROWDER NATURE TOURS
BOX 222-a
HARPERS FERRY, W. VA. 25425
Nile, provided tlie bulk of the work
force on the pyramid. This arrange-
ment resulted from the Nile-ori-
ented economy, Avhich necessitated
the maintenance of a sizable man-
power pool for the short rush peri-
ods of planting and harvesting. To
be available from year to year,
those men had to have off-season
work of a nature that would permit
absences. It had become the custom
of the Pharaoh to provide such
work — the building of irrigation
canals, temples, and tombs. Over
the centuries, this continuous build-
ing activity had fostered a realm of
craftsmen and engineers of a skill
and creativity that has seldom been
equalled, and in some respects,
never surpassed. It also indicates
the attainment of an extremely well-
ordered society in which the Phar-
aoh could do his building without
straining the regular industry and
economy. And we must assume that
his brilliant engineers planned on
that basis, utilizing their techno-
logical knowhow to the utmost.
The Pyramid of Kliufu —
\'iewed here from the
Great Sphynx — remains,
after nearly 5,000 years,
the largest stone
structure in the world.
'"^-^""ZT. /""•w' "w^t^ -'^'z^
n^ _.J«,^ -*„ ''■",' t,Jf*"-- —^
Certainly in planning a project
as immense as the Great Pyramid,
their foremost concern would have
been that without numerous labor-
saving devices the limited and fluc-
tuating work force could not com-
plete the bulky structure during the
Pharaoh's reign. They needed a
method of magnifying the power of
a few men for lifting or pulling. I
believe that the weight arm alone
could have filled that bill. The de-
e — made entirely of wood — was
quite within the possibilities of the
Bronze Age. There is no physical
reason why it could not have been
used. It should be possible to deter-
mine definitely whether it was or
not. The determining factor is the
manpower situation of the time be-
cause, if it were in short supply,
something like the weight arm must
have been used.
At this point I must return the
case to the Egyptologists. I hope I
have convinced them that a drastic
reconsideration of the entire pyra-
mid question is in order.
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See drop-in movies at your
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How many great pictures '-^
have you taken, only to find
out later that your exposures were
off? Natural life is always on the
move, sometimes the sun is over your
back, more often it's behind the
subject. When the subject is back-lit,
you need a built-in behind the lens
spot meter system to get the correct
exposure. With front lighting you're
better off with an averaging meter
system. Almost all fine 35mm SLR
cameras have one of these systems,
only the Mamiya/Sekor DTL
and the bees
and our
Creative Switch
has the Creative Switch
with two built-in exposure
metering systems. The DTL with
every important SLR feature is
priced from less than $ 180, plus case.
Ask for a demonstration at your
photo dealer or write for folder to
PonderScfiest, Inc., Corporate offices:
1 1201 West Pico Boulevard,
Los Angeles, California 90064.
The Creative Switch...
only the Mamiya/Sekor DTL has it.
23
iNatiiraiisfatLargt
Caught in their own stereotype and wrapped up
in show hiz, the indians stilt evotie powertui
Images ot America's past hy John Eastman
'Indians are definitely in the vi-
cinity' today. Many of them have
come from far distances to be here.
If you see one. observe carefully.
Look at his face, his ornaments, his
feet. You may even wish to go so
far as to say 'how' to him. or talk
with him. Indians are here today,
ladies and gentlemen. Look around,
you might see one."'
The deep voice of John Bosin.
Kiowa Indian, spoke over the pub-
lic address system while we drank
orange pop from paper cups. And
see Indians we did. It was the first
annual All-Indian Powwow, spon-
sored by the Potawatomi Indians of
Michigan and Indiana, Inc. The
fierce July sun beat down on the
gathering at the spacious Berrien
County Youth Fairgrounds, near
Berrien Springs, Michigan.
Voices over the loudspeaker
urged the dancers to "check sun-
dials" and change into their cos-
tumes for the two o'clock perform-
ance, sang Indian lullabyes. or
pitched for souvenir sales, causing
my companion to remark, "They
are very American, aren't they? '
At 2:00 P.M. the dancers — men,
women, and tots barely able to
^valk — emerged from the rear of the
grandstand, blazing like exotic
birds in crafted, intricate colors.
Bells and bangles jangled as they
moved. Their first go-round on the
concourse green was a flag cere-
mony, not without irony as the
American flag led the proceedings.
^S'hile the audience stood and the
Indians paraded like Shriners. the
ubiquitous drums in llie middle of
24
the field rolled out a rousing patri-
otic opener.
PotaA^atomi tribal chieftain John
R. Winchester, an articulate man in
a red shirt and a cowboy hat. acted
as master of ceremonies. And while
the show was ostensibly ceremonial,
the mood was highly informal: the
audience. predominantly white.
However, the war dance and round
dance performances indicated that
for most participants the po^\'wow
was not merely a perfunctory gam-
bol for the palefaces. The movement
of Indian feet to Indian drums was
practiced and well established: sev-
eral young men responded with
grace and restraint in a dance me-
dium that often seems jumbled and
hysterical to outside observers.
John Bosin. accomplished lead
drummer and singer, introduced
several respected tribal officials to
the audience. While Winchester
ti-anslated from the Potawatomi,
Paul Hamilton of Niles. Michigan,
blessed the grounds in a short,
simple prayer. John Shano, an "'or-
dained" Chippewa medicine man,
cast out all resident evil spirits with
a series of convincing leaps and
gesticulations. And between the
dances, prayers, and songs, John
Winchester spoke about Indians.
He strongly protested stereotyped
concepts of Indians and stressed
that Indians today act and dress,
try to live, find jobs, and raise chil-
dren just as the rest of us do. It is
astonishing diat in 1970 such facts
must still be announced and, fur-
ther, that they come as a revelation
to many. Yet despite his protest.
one is forced to acknowledge that to
a large degree the stereotype has
been accepted and absorbed by
many Indians. Some costumes,
some dances, and. especially, some
songs were undoubtedly authentic.
But so corrupting is the Hollywood
myth, so pervasive our conditioning
to think of American Indians as cir-
cus performers — creatures of pow-
Avows — that one wonders who is the
more deceived by a "typical" tribal
dance — the performers or the au-
dience.
In this group we saw Winnebagos,
Chippewas. Cherokees. Miamis,
Ottawas, Sioux, and Potawato-
mis — peoples once as diverse and
discrete as nations — all being tradi-
tional together. But there were dis-
turbing hints of self-mockery: Bo-
sin's veiled sarcasms over the
loudspeaker: the "shave and a hair-
cut" theme on the drums, -ivhich in-
variably climaxed the dance num-
bers. One wonders: is this really all
there is left? Do such performances
signify a gigantic loss, a hole in
both white and Indian cultures? Do
Indians perform this way in their
own. nongrandstand gatherings?
One cannot avoid the impression of
almost desperate self-parody be-
neath die surface color and cere-
mony. It is as if no one could be
more aware of the display's circus-
like irrelevance than these origin-
al Americans, force-feeding them-
selves on their own stereotypes. One
cannot escape the sadness — for
them, but also for us — of a people's
faded richness.
John Winchester was aware of
On October 28, 1967
one hundred children learned the
real meaning of Sunday school.
They learned that love, brotherhood and charity don't know any denomination.
That giving and caring are their own rewards.
On this day these children of the Church of Holy Trinity Sunday School adopted
a Foster Child through Foster Parents Plan. By giving less than 5«; apiece each
week, they raise the necessary $1 6 a month. And by exchanging letters every month,
they create a bond of sharing and understanding with Victoria San Jose.
The children know that Victoria will never again fear sickness, because now she
and her family have PLAN'S doctors, medicine and clinics to take care of them.
They'll never again fear hunger because, finally, they have enough nourishing food.
They won't fear tomorrow. Because Victoria is getting an education, and she and
her whole family are receiving vocational and personal guidance.
And Victoria knows that these children, through PLAN, have reached out to her
in her world of deprivation of body and spirit to say: we care about you.
What lesson could ever be more important? The answer can be seen in the lives
of one hundred and one very important children.
Foster Parents Plan, Inc. international Headquarters • 352 Park Ave. South • N.Y,, N.Y. 10010
I want to be a Foster Parent for one year or more of a boy D girl D age
country . No preference D (This allows us to choose a child on our emer-
gency list). My payment of $16 per month for one year will be made: monthly Q
quarterly D semi-annually D annually D. I enclose my first payment of $
want to be a contributor. I enclose $ for the General Fund.
Make checks payable to Foster Parents Plan, Inc. All contributions are tax deductible. PLAN operates
in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia. Ecuador, Peru, Indonesia, Korea, the Philippines, and Viet Nam. PLAN is
a non-political, non-profit, non-sectarian, independent organization, registered under No. VFA019
with the Advisory Comm, on Voluntary Foreign Aid of the Agency for Int'l. Development nh-ii-70
When someone somewhere cares, someone somewhere survives.
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the conflicts, the ironies. "Some ac-
cuse Indians of being lazy or shift-
less," he said. "But it takes tre-
mendous energy to make one's way
in tr^vo cultures, as we do. We can't
make it without hard work. Being
an Indian today in America is hard
work. Some of us fall by the way —
just as many of us have fallen in
the past — but then, of course, Cus-
ter died for your sins." He lashed
his microphone cord like a whip
toward the stands.
As Bosin's drummers pounded a
fast beat that rose to a frenzy lone
of the drummers was named Joe
Thunder), spectators armed with
fast-action cameras surged from the
benches to the railing, and beyond.
Circus time again. Cotton candy
fluffed and popcorn crunched. A
child vomited down in front. A
pregnant woman sitting ahead of
me moaned while her husband
wound film. Although a sprinkling
of Indians, white-shirted and
shawled, sat in the stands, none of
them was taking pictures. On the
grounds outside the stands, the only
Indian concessionaire I saw was a
silent, sad-looking woman who
dipped dough into boiling oil and
charged S.25 for a piece of freshly
fried bread.
In the exhibition building, family
craftsmen and professional traders
occupied half the tables: the rest
were empty. On one trader's table,
stacks of ""Red Power' bumper
stickers lay next to "America — Love
It or Leave It" decals. Beads, jew-
elry, miniature birchbark canoes,
coonskins. and ornamental cloth of
varying size and utility covered the
Indian family tables. One tiny, an-
cient woman dressed in blue ging-
ham dozed behind her table while
dozens of white souvenir sharks fin-
gered her display of beadwork and
bookmarks.
Museum cases at the end of the
row of tables displayed some old
treaty maps: one faded daguer-
reotype showed Simon Pokagon —
Potawatomi statesman, lawyer, and
novelist — with his briefcase. One
day, historians will rediscover Poka-
gon: he ranks with the wisest and
ablest minds of frontier America.
Behind the museum cases, dozens
of Indian family photos lined tlie
walls. Most were simple snapshots,
each with a carefully typed label
identifying the persons pictured.
One quickly grew accustomed to
Potawatomi names: Winchester,
Topash. Mackety, and Shagonaby
looked like tribes in themselves.
These were obviously the dominant
families of the area, and we ob-
served that, as photographs pro-
ceeded from tintype to box camera
to Instamatic generations, the faces
looked less and less Indian. To
qualify on tribal rolls as a Potawa-
tomi (or Chippewa) Indian today,
one requires '"quarter-blood min-
imum"— that is, one Indian grand-
parent.
Speaking of history, white men
like their Indians hurting but
proud. Yet. despite this comfortable
racism and much genetic dilution,
there is no ruin like that of an old
Indian visage, whatever the color of
the beads he sells. Nothing is so es-
sentially American as this sight,
more inspiring than any flag or an-
them. Among these Indians, whose
ancestors evolved with this land, we
beheld faces that were true ex-
pressions— the truest perhaps — of
America as it once was. They were
America's product and metaphor,
transcending politics, as each native
organism is a metaphor of its own
earthly ground, air, water, and
neighbors. The most striking meta-
phor of all is a human face, and
what we saw in many of these cop-
per faces were place-experiences,
lapsed ecologies of the continent. In
some awe-inspiring, time-numbing
sense, it was confrontation with
truth and symbol of a depth rarely
experienced in 1970. the kernel truth
and symbol of our own homeland.
It is notable that the majority of
Potawatomi faces at the Berrien
Springs assembly were descended
from outlaws and renegades. "The
two Algonquin tribes (Chippewa
and Potawatomi I did not at first
understand the attitudes of the set-
tlers toward land ownership." said
John Winchester, "and they did not
realize the full meaning of the
treaties by which they ceded their
acreage for small financial com-
pensation."
Thus, in 1840, Potawatomis and
Ottawas were force-marched from
the Great Lakes region to reserva-
tions in Oklahoma and Kansas.
This Trail of Tears migration
turned into a death march as mur-
derous and inhuman as any war
atrocity. In my hometown of Kala-
26
mazoo, where many were brought
in chains to await shipment, the
record states that their laments
could be heard for miles. "Tears
formed in the eyes of many Kala-
mazooans as they watched the
mournful procession," reads a con-
temporary account. But genocide
with little pretense was official pol-
icy. "Groups of Potawatomis es-
caped from the column." said Win-
chester, "and returned to the lake
area woodlands of Wisconsin, up-
per northern Michigan, and Wal-
pole Island, Ontario, Canada."
"Most of our local Potawatomi
are descendants of those who re-
mained in the region," explains
Pauline Topash Synold, an unoffi-
cial tribal historian.
One of the Potawatomis' domi-
nant concerns now is raising money
to put their youngsters through
high school. The proceeds of the
Berrien powwow were to be used
for this purpose; Winchester made
an eloquent plea on this behalf.
Just as eloquent, perhaps, is a
modern story that Mrs. Synold tells
about two small Potawatomi girls
walking to mass one Sunday morn-
ing. Suddenly a deer came running
down the street, a not uncommon
occurrence in some Michigan
towns. But the children were fright-
ened because they thought a kang-
aroo was coming toward them. On
the same day, a deer (probably the
same one) tried to break into the
local high school through a window.
"Potawatomi Indians," says Mrs.
Synold, "are becoming so assimi-
lated into the general population
and life as it is now, that our
people are losing contact with na-
ture and wildlife." An Indianlike
thought occurs: perhaps the deer
was trying to assert an ancient
ecological connection, was trying to
be an object of instruction again.
From the grandstand I could see
the cloudless blue sky and heat-
shimmered countryside beyond the
Berrien fairgrounds. The crowd-
pleasing tot in feathers and bangles
drew applause again, and the
"ladies and gentlemen," show biz
syndrome thrived in the sweat-
damp afternoon. But as Bosin and
his drummers chanted a wild
sound, I wondered if this land,
which once included its deep Indian
roots, was reawakening to an old
tune. ■
After you listen to Washington,
you can IieartheKremliifs reply
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27
The Chromatic Wood Sculpture
of Mortimer Borne
NH: How did you get started in wood sculpting?
MB : Oh, well, let's see now. I started in with tradi-
tional carving. [To Mrs. B.] And that would have
been how long ago?
Mrs. B: Well, 1929, anyway.
MB: You see the chestnut figures there? About
1929 or 1928, something like that, I started to
carve them. Occasionally, I would carve a piece of
wood. A piece of chestnut or a piece of apple wood.
Then I — oh. how did this come about?
Mrs. B: You became interested in color.
MB: Oh, yes. Everything I was doing ... oh, yes,
this I've got to tell you. I started to do etchings and
I became fairly successful at it — won several prizes
with them. You see, we had the Brooklyn Society of
Etchers, later the Society of American Etchers; I
won a prize — two prizes — and Mr. Armes. John
Taylor Armes, was the godfather of all the Ameri-
can etchers, himself an etcher. I told Mr. Armes
that I'm doing experiments trying to make color dry-
point. He thought that was a very bad idea. In fact,
he sent me a letter which 1 cherish. It's a long let-
ter, four or five pages, and he's worried that Amer-
ica is going to lose a great talent because he himself
had attempted to do color prints in etching twenty
years before me and had to give it up because it
just didn't work.
Mrs. B: Are you gossiping?
MB: I'm gossiping, yes. However, I continued on
with the experiments. I figured that it could be
done in drypoint. It had been done in etching, just
a bit in etching, or in aquatint, mezzotint, tone
media; but it was never done as line, color line,
and after a few years — at first, I got nothing but
mud, but after a while, I began to get results. Since
then. I think a great number of museums have my
work in the color drypoint. Wliere was I? Oh yes,
this business here of adding color to the drypoint,
making drypoints in color, made me think about
the woods. Wliy should I depend on the texture and
color of one piece of wood? At that time I was
remodeling this house.
Mrs. B: Oh no, that came long before.
MB: I was remodeling this house. I learned quite a
bit about woodworking tools and woods. Then
came this great discovery. I bought many varieties
of hardwood and that really bowled me over!
There are over 50,000 varieties of hardwood, each
one somewhat different in texture and color.
NH: How did this discovery hit you? How did it
start?
MB: [To Mrs. B.] Wasn't it the books, the Depart-
ment of Agriculture?
Mrs. B: Oh yes, I started to write for inforination
about wood, generally, because we didn't know
much about different kinds of woods, and I got a
government publication. When he heard 50,000, he
said, "Well, if I can get 100. . . ."
MB: Yes. Then I started to do the large pieces.
Large pieces. . . .
NH: Because you were remodeling the house, you
got interested in. . . .
Mrs. B: I don't like to contradict him because he's
forgotten. He just did that on a limited scale. He
got the idea on the color drypoint to do that, and
so he did a limited number of woods, you know
. . . small . . . and he liked the technique. Then he
got involved with other things, his painting and
such. Then we moved from Brooklyn Heights to
Nyack, and then he began to work more and more
with tools. In other words, he did this a long time
ago but not on a large scale, not huge pieces; but
28
^s^m^'
Keyhole
23 inches high
lT
The Prophet
33 inches high
M
1
1
-^"^
Rosewood Figure
63 inches high
■"^'r-w/^*^ ^*^
^J^l
to^i-^-1
-^.-
4 ■ j<^\
*
The Cherub
42 inches high
m
w
L'i
H^
mm
If
i
Serenity
27 inches high
Double Hinge
21 y>2. inches high
V i^:
if
^A
■
.-^
'^■:
i ^^
1
•
J
The Moon
1. English Harewood (Acer pseudoplatanus)
2. Zebrawood (Goncalo alves)
3. Lignum vitae (Guaiacum officinale)
4. Purpleheart (Peltogyne densiflora)
5. African Rosewood (Guibourtia tessmannii)
6. Brazilian Rosewood (Dalbergia nigra)
7. Australian Blackwood (Acacia melanoxyJon)
8. American Holly (Ilex opaca)
9. Korina (Terminalia superba)
10. Birch (Betulaalba)
11. Black Ebony CD/ospyros ebenum)
12. West Indian Boxwood (Aspidosperma vargasii)
13. Honduras Mahogany (Swietenia mahogoni)
14. Bulletwood (Manikara bidentata)
15. East Indian Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia)
in the back of his mind it was like maybe he'll
develop it someday. This is what happened. He
came here and he remodeled this porch. Getting
into wood that way. And then we began a real
search into how many woods are available, where
can we get them. Then we went to the forestry
school at Yale just to look. They had 42,000 sam-
ples of wood.
NH : These were microscopic cross sections?
Mrs. B: That's right. They had little pieces, you
see, with identification, so we read all about the
different ones with the little circles. They use them
to study cellular structure. They have little pieces,
you know, and so we spent a whole day there. The
interest grew and grew when we saw the tremen-
dous potentiality.
MB: Then 1 discovered who imports woods.
NH: Who does?
MB: Well, there are several importers in New
York, some in Philadelphia, one in Chicago. Here
in New York you have Marshall, and also Mon-
teath. Each one carries maybe fifty or sixty vari-
eties of wood. All kinds. For example, they supply
the people who make musical instruments, furni-
ture, all sorts of things. And each thing is designed
for a certain kind of — for example, there is a cer-
tain kind of boxwood that is used for bows of vio-
lins.
NH: How do you go about getting the kind of size
that you want?
MB: I go down to the lumberyard and I pick it
out. Sometimes it's rough; it isn't sanded, you
know. The wood is in the rough. It's usually in
large boards. Heavy boards, rough boards. They
come as much as eight- to ten-feet long.
Mrs. B: This is a rosewood piece here.
MB: That rosewood piece — I picked it up from the
pile.
Mrs. B: Because he liked it.
MB: It happened to be a short piece, only five feet
long, some are bigger. But what I learned is that I
must carry some sandpaper with me out there, sand
it up, and see what the color is like. Put a little
water on there, and then I see what it's really like.
But I already know approximately what this wood
is going to be like from the books, the descriptions.
NH: Are the woods expensive?
MB: Well, yes, but it's not as expensive wholesale;
they also sell those things to hobbyists retail and
they're prohibitive. They charge them as much as
$6 a square foot for ebony, for example, and
they're 12 by 12 by 1/4 inch. I don't pay anything
like that.
Mrs. B: We have to buy a large quantity at one
time.
MB: I pay less than a quarter of that.
NH : Do you buy large quantities?
MB: Yes. I have to buy at least 100 feet at a time.
Mrs. B: In other words, if he's going to spend less
than SlOO, let's say, he can't do it, you know at a
time.
NH: All this time, did you find that you were
learning more and more about the woods? Or was
your interest mostly in the texture and color? You
took sandpaper along with you . . . did you find
out anything else about the woods as you got into
this more?
MB: No. except the technical side of it where 1
have to know which is really kiln dried or air
dried, which is properly seasoned. If I didn't have
properly seasoned wood. I'd get into trouble.
NH: Have you gotten into trouble?
MB: No, never, when they say it's kiln dried, it's
kiln dried. In fact, most of the time, I can tell just
by picking up a piece of wood, whether it's dry or
not simply by the experience of how much it should
weigh.
NH : Can you identify these woods botanically?
Mrs. B: We have the Latin names for all these.
NH: Do importers identify them that way when
they sell them, or is that something you know?
MB: No, I don't think so. I suppose if you asked
them, they might know. We have books that give
Continued on page 74
33
PERSUASIVE SCENTS
by Martin Birch
Female moths call for
mating partners by
releasing an irresistible
scent that is operative for
miles. Enticed by this
attractant, males fly
upivind until the seductress
is located, but can only
persuade her to submit by
shoivering her ivith an
extremely effective scent
of their oivn.
Hoiv siveet it is!
males are only accepted by the fe-
male if they inundate her with
scent.
The scents of male and female
moths have, therefore, very differ-
ent roles. The female's is primarily
a long-range attractant, whereas the
male's scent operates at close range
to induce the female to mate, act-
ing, in effect, as a sedative. Both be-
long to the class of secretions
known to biologists as phero-
mones — derived from the Greek
pherein, "to carry," and horman.
"to excite. ' Pheromones are chem-
ical substances secreted by an indi-
vidual that trigger either behavioral
or developmental sexual processes
when perceived by other members
of the same species. These are dis-
tinct from substances, such as defen-
sive compounds, that are de-
signed to affect members of another
species — usually to deter would-be
predators. Sex attractants released
by female moths are carried down-
wind and perceived by males,
ivhich respond by flying upwind.
Various 1:>"pes of chemical sex at-
tractants occur widely throughout
the animal kingdom, from plan-
arian worms to primates. Males or
females of almost all orders of in-
sects employ sex attractant phero-
mones to bring the sexes together,
to induce mating, and to deter other
males from interfering with copula-
tion.
When a moth such as the angle
shades, Phlogophora meticulosa,
emerges from the pupa, the wings
must first of all inflate and harden.
Females do not fly at this stage, but
from the second night after emer-
The human species takes im-
mense care to remove all traces of
natural body odors, only to replace
them \vith perfumes derived from
animal secretions intended to have
the same effect as those so carefully
removed. These artificial perfumes
are usually supposed to make the
wearer more attractive to the oppo-
site sex. It is thought that early fe-
male Homo sapiens indicated their
receptiveness to, or disinterest in,
males partly through natural vari-
ations in body odor, and this may
explain why today's females adorn
themselves with more scent than
males do. Correlated, perhaps, with
a growing demand for sexual equal-
ity, perfume for men is becoming a
booming industry.
\^ hen compared to the effect of
scent on the sexual behavior of
some insects, the vast resources in-
vested by man in the perfume in-
dustry have an almost negligible ef-
fect on his sexual behavior. The
female lure substance of a moth can
entice males from miles around. Fur-
thermore, the perfume emitted by
the males of some species has to be
100 percent effective, since these
Highly efficient
structures that
store and
disseminate
scent have
evolved in the
form of brushes
in many species,
including the
male angle
shades moth,
Phlogophora
meticulosa.
Contained in
abdominal
pockets, they are
not normally
visible.
^^^^^^^^^^H
■
Ba
1
H
^m ^^^^JKjjjB
mtN^ ^^H
1
34
N MOTH SEX LIFE
gence onward they usually release
their sex attractant as a ''call."
Timing the release of the attractant
is often critical for each species. In
the angle shades this is about dawn
in midsummer. Females call every
day at the same time until they
have mated two or three times —
sometimes up to a maximum of
seven matings. In other species,
such as the silk moth, Bombyx mori,
females stop calling as soon as they
have mated once. Any sex attract-
ant still on the gland surface or ab-
domen appears to be absorbed
through the body wall and metabo-
lized.
Because of the recent devel-
opment of physicochemical tech-
niques for the analysis of minute
quantities of material, about a
dozen female moth sex attractants
have been identified to date. But the
task is still very difficult. For ex-
ample, Adolf Butenandt, the Ger-
man biochemist, had to extract the
pheromone from half a million vir-
gin females of the silk moth to ob-
tain 12 milligrams of pure chemical
attractant. Most of the identified at-
tractants are made up of large
molecules, such as unsaturated alco-
hols and their esters and fatty
acids, containing about 14 carbon
atoms. Their similarity may be a
result of the function they have to
perform. The compound must be
small enough to be manufactured
without the expenditure of too
much energy; it must be volatile,
yet sufficiently stable so that it is
not chemically changed in the air.
Also, with higher molecular
weights, more specific variation is
possible.
When these female sex attract-
ants were first described, it seemed
to biologists that the use of a differ-
ent sex attractant by each species
was the key process in species isola-
tion. It is not that simple, however,
as several species have now been
found that respond to the same at-
tractants. Thus, it now seems likely
that other methods of species isola-
tion are also important, such as dif-
ferent times for the release of the
attractant and different emergence
and activity periods. These factors
then act in conjunction with the sex
attractants to achieve the necessary
reproductive isolation.
Male moths perceive the phero-
mone through a simple and effec-
tive system. While calling, the fe-
male rapidly vibrates her wings to
create a current of air over the
pheromone gland, thereby assisting
evaporation of the secreted attract-
ant. The pheromone then disperses
and is carried downwind, even-
tually impinging on the antennae of
a male of the same species. If stim-
ulated by enough of the attractant,
males respond by simply flying up-
wind, rather than by responding to
the increased concentration gradi-
The scent-laden
brushes can he
easily seen when
a male specimen
of the
angle shades
moth is inflated
with air, everting
the brushes from
the abdominal
pockets.
ent of female pheromone molecules.
They continue to fly upwind as long
as they can perceive the pheromone
stimulation. However, as soon as the
odor is lost, they alight or make
frequent turns until they locate it
again. Males can lose the scent by
flying too far upwind past the fe-
male. When this happens, the usual
method for precisely locating her is
to alight as quickly as possible and
search on either the ground, bushes,
or trees, until tactile contact is
made. Precise location of the female
may be made by responding to her
increased temperature as she vi-
brates her wings or by echoloca-
tion.
Detailed investigations over a
number of years by Dietrich
Schneider's laboratory in Germany
have shown that 70 percent of the
Magnified 7,000
times, a brush
hair displays an
intricate surface
network that
provides a large
area for the
storage of scent,
as well as its
dispersal.
35
receptor cells on tlie antennae of
the male silk motli respond only to
the female attractant. The antennae
act as a molecular sieve absorbing
over 30 percent of the sex attractant
molecules passing through the an-
tennal profile. Schneider's group
has also demonstrated tliat at the
thresliold level of perception, 300
molecules sti-iking the antennae are
enough to elicit a positive behav-
ioral response. The system is so
sensitive that one molecule strike
can stimulate a receptor cell and in-
itiate an impulse to die brain. Thus
the male apparatus of tliis species is
certainly well adapted to react to
calling females over long distances.
T"
B iirning to the scents secreted
by the male motlis. ^\'e find that, in
contrast to female attractants, male
scents are for the most part com-
posed of small. \ olatile. and un-
stable molecules released very close
to the female. ^Hiereas female
pheromones cannot be detected by
humans, the scent of a single male
moth often has a strong, detectable
smell. At first sight, the variety of
structures that have evolved to dis-
seminate the scent appears almost
limitless, but all the organs com-
bine a glandular source of scent
with eversible structures to disperse
it. Scent brushes have evolved on
the abdomen, thorax, and legs of
many moths, and air-filled tubes,
called coremata. occur ahnost as
frequently. Some of this variety is
demonstrated by the anterior ab-
dominal brushes of the Noctuidae
I a large family of night-flying
moths that includes such destructive
agricultural pests as the bollworm
and the cotton leafworm I and die
Sphingidae, or hawkmoths. both of
different origin; and by the spec-
tacular coremata of tlie Arctiidae.
or tiger moths. Brushes connected
with the genitalia are also common,
an elaborate form of which are
sported by the clouded silver moth.
Moths, which comprise the vast
majority of Lepidoptera, show the
36
greatest variety of male organs. Yet
because the organs are normally
kept concealed by the scales or in
folds or pockets of cuticle, they
have remained relatively unnoticed
by generations of lepidopterists
whose first wish has been to pre-
serve, for their cabinet collections,
fine, undamaged specimens witli no
scales missing. Tlie brushes, how-
ever, can be displayed quite easily
by simply squeezing tlie abdomen
between finger and thumb. The in-
creased internal pressure will then
force out any brushes or coremata
and also the genitalia. More satis-
factorily, the everted organs can be
displayed, and then preserved, by
inflating the body ivith air through
a fine tube and quickly drying the
moth over a light bulb. With care,
only a few scales are lost and the
species is quite recognizable. This
method requires a freshly killed
moth.
All these structures are alike in
being eversible and confined to the
male and would seem to play an im-
portant role in courtship. The gar-
Tiibclike organs.
or coremata.
siip])ort the
scent-dispersing
hairs of
this male
Malaysian moth,
Creatonotus
gangis. When
sufflcieiitly close
to a calling
female, the male
actuates the
release of scent
by inflating these
tubes uith air.
Fully inflated,
the corejnata in
this species
reach more than
three times
body size.
den carpet moth. XauthorJwe fluc-
tiiata, for example, and other
species of this genus, such as the
clouded silver, have extremely long
coremata. which they readily use in
courtship. Virgin females call by
rhythmic protru-sion of the attract-
ant gland. A male attracted by this
will fly to her. cAert the coremata
^\'ithin one or two centimeters of
her. and then proceed to copulate.
In spite of their small size (two-
centimeter wingspanl. the coremata
are easily seen on these moths in
breeding cages as their striking
A\-hite coloration stands out sharply
against a black muslin lining. After
eversion the coremata remain in-
flated for one or two seconds. Their
volume can be twice that of the to-
tal volume of the moth, so we may
suppose that the ventilatory current
of air, necessary to supply the
flight muscles with enough oxygen,
is suddenly directed into the core-
mata at the critical time. It is easy
to play a trick on tlie males of these
carpet moths by separating a pair
as soon as copulation starts, but be-
tr^- . :aEia£s
fore the male has had time to pass a
spermatophore. He evidently still
retains his mating drive and will
still pursue and court many other
calling females on the same night.
Any pheromone originally present
on the coremata is discharged on
the first attempt, however, and is
now exhausted so that the coremata
have no more effect that night. A
similar system of restricted scent
operates in the Noctuidae.
In our investigations, we have
looked at the brush organs of noc-
tuid moths in much more detail.
The attractive angle shades moth is
typical of 150 other British Noc-
tuidae in that it possesses large an-
terior abdominal brushes, many of
which give off strong, distinctive
odors. Their structure is rather
more complex than that of the
groups so far described. A pair of
brushes is mounted at the tips of
hardened sclerotized levers arising
from the base of the abdomen. The
levers are hinged about a basal scle-
rite, which can be moved by muscle
action to swing the brush away
from the body. The hairs are
fanned out by muscles across the
basal plate of the brush itself. At
rest, the brushes are concealed in a
pair of abdominal pockets extend-
ing halfway along the abdomen.
Muscles along their lips open the
pockets to release the hairs and to
assist in replacing the hairs after
aversion. In action, the brushes are
suddenly flung away from the body
and expanded by the coordinated
contraction of all these muscles.
As with the other species de-
scribed, female angle shades release
a sex pheromone that initiates a
series of responses in males: (1)
Males fly upwind until they lose
track of the pheromone-laden air
and then cast about for the female;
(2) they make contact using the an-
tennae; (3) their pheromone-laden
brushes then fan out very close to
the female, and remain everted for
only one or two seconds, followed
immediately by (4), an attempt to
copulate; (5) the female either ac-
cepts or rejects the male.
In a whole series of experiments,
we found that females seldom re-
fused males after the scent had been
produced, but males were usually
The everted
coremata
of tiger moths
demonstrate the
variety of
scent organs that
have evolved in
different species.
Top: the
ruby tiger,
Phragniatobia
fuliginosa. Left:
the white ermine
tiger, Spilosonia
lubricipeda.
Right: the Jersey
tiger, Euplagia
qiiadripunctaria.
unsuccessful if we had previously
removed the brushes or had
anesthetized them and discharged
any scent on the brushes. These
scentless males only managed to
mate with less discriminating fe-
males that had been calling for sev-
eral nights without attracting a
mate.
One interesting feature of this
type of scent organ is that the scent-
producing gland is active only in
the later stages of the pupa. The se-
cretion is stored within the gland
until the moth emerges, then all the
contents of the gland are dis-
charged onto the brush and be-
tween the scales lining the pocket.
The characteristic fruity smell of
the angle shades' brush develops
only after discharge from the
glands and in conjunction with a
secretion from the base of the
pocket scales. The scent glands are
not active again and actually de-
generate, so that the male is pro-
vided with a finite amount of scent
to last his adult life; enough, in
fact, to charge the brushes three
times with scent.
We can tell how many times fe-
males have mated by dissecting fe-
males caught in our light traps.
Such females in flight are usually
those that have finished mating and
are flying to oviposit. A male passes
one spermatophore, or sac, at one
mating. This is stored in the female
bursa copulatrix for later fertiliza-
tion of the eggs, and a count of the
number of spermatophores will re-
veal the number of times she has
mated. The average number is two.
Unlike males, females, are not re-
stricted to three matings, and be-
cause some mate up to a maximum
of seven times, others do not mate
at all.
Under the high power of a scan-
ning electron microscope, the sur-
face of each of the brush hairs is
seen to consist of an intricate net-
work of ribs, somewhat like a sheet
of expanded metal, with a less regu-
37
lar, spongy matrix beneath. All the
noctuid species with this type of
brush organ have similar surface
structures differing only in the pat-
tern of ribbing. In the angle shades
it is an irregular diamond shape; in
the wainscot moth, a regular repeti-
tion of diamonds; and in the dark
arches moth, a regular hexagonal
pattern like a honeycomb. Long be-
fore the advent of such sophis-
ticated tools as the electron micro-
scope, Fritz Miiller in the late
nineteenth century had said that
"one could hardly find a more ef-
fective method of employing any
odoriferous substance than that of
saturating with it the hairs of a
brush, and then suddenly opening
■them out in all directions so as to
provide an enormous surface for
evaporation." This is exactly how
the noctuid brush works. In fact,
the whole system is now seen to be
much better adapted as an odor
spray than Miiller could have imag-
ined. The sudden eversion of the
brushes probably results in scent
being shaken or flung off the hairs
rather than evaporated. The huge
surface area provides a large area
for storage of scent while the
brushes are in the pockets.
Several male scents have been
identified. They are very unattrac-
tive to the human nose and would
certainly not act as human aphro-
disiacs. Compared with female at-
tractants they are, as previously
stated, much smaller, more volatile
molecules. The "fruity" angle shades
scent is a mixture of two monoter-
penes and a simple carboxylic acid.
Both terpenes are also known from
ants where they are used as alarm
pheromones in transmitting warn-
ing messages between the members
of a colony. Of the other noctuid
moths, three species of wainscot
moths, genus Leacania, produce a
mixture of benzaldehyde and iso-
butyric acid. The scent smells of al-
monds to us as benzaldehyde com-
prises over 80 percent of the
secretion. Butyric acid has a very
unpleasant smell, like that of rancid
butter for which it is also respon-
sible. It crops up again as the nor-
mal isomer in the clouded silver
moth of quite a different family, the
Geometridae. Benzaldehyde also oc-
38
curs in several other Noctuidae.
The brushes of the dot moth are
saturated with a mixture of ben-
zaldehyde and phenyl ethanol.
Closely related to it is the grey
arches, which has both these com-
pounds and also benzyl alcohol.
The most complex compound so far
identified is pinocarvone from the
dark arches. Apamea monoglypha.
It is related to camphor and smells
rather like a mixture of camphor
and menthol. Bark beetles also use
the related pinenes, derived from
their host trees, as pheromones for
assembling and for mating stimuli.
The male moth compounds have
much in common with each other.
They are all small molecules re-
leased near the female in relatively
large quantities. As our observa-
tions showed, their immediate func-
tion is equivalent to that of a seda-
tive. So far there is no explana-
tion of why certain Lepidoptera
have evolved these sex scent sys-
tems while others have lost them,
or why well over half the species
have not evolved them at all.
One immediately attractive the-
ory is that the male pheromones
provide a species specific signal
that prevents cross mating, particu-
larly between species where the fe-
male sex attractants have been
shown to be attractive to males of
other species. However, three spe-
cies of wainscot moth — the smoky
wainscot (Leucania impura) . com-
mon wainscot (L. pallens) , and the
brown-line bright-eye (L. conigera)
— appear to have male scents that
are identical (benzaldehyde/iso-bu-
tyric acid ) . How do the three coex-
ist as separate species? All occur in
the same locality, have similar life
histories, eat the same food — a va-
riety of common grasses — and
emerge at the same tiine of year.
Electrophysiological recordings
from male antennae show that
males of each species can at least
perceive the female pheromones of
the other two species as well as
their own. although behavioral ex-
periments have not been conducted
to find out if they actually respond
in this way in the field. The only
observable difference comes from
light trap catches, which indicate
that each species flies at different,
but overlapping, times of night.
The smoky wainscot is the earliest
flier, with a peak of activity about
10:00 P.M.; the common wainscot
flies the latest, building up to a
peak around dawn. Male flight ac-
tivity often coincides with the re-
lease of female attractant, and these
variations may indicate that the fe-
males have different calling times
during the night. This method of
species separation is not impossible.
Detailed observations on the silk
moths, Saturniidae, indicate that
many species have the same attrac-
tant, but are separated by different
calling times.
While the inale scent inay not be
directly instrumental in species sep-
aration, it may affect the female
directly by promoting oogenesis. It
could stimulate release of the juve-
nile hormone that initiates yolk de-
position, clearly an advantage if the
final stages in egg formation are
A common
woodland species
in Britain, the
male clouded
silver moth,
Bapta temerata,
has elaborate
scent brushes
associated with
its genitalia.
triggered by a stimulus received
when the sperm are transferred.
Also, the release of male scent at
the start of copulation may repel
other males more effectively than
the mere cessation of the female
scent. Certainly the male scents are
in many ways very like defensive
substances. Both are released in
large quantities close to the target
animal and possess an unpleasant
smell to other animals, in contrast
to the properties of female sex at-
tractants. Indeed, in the hawkmoth
family, Sphingidae, males have
brushes that are everted as part of a
defensive display when attacked by
predators.
o
ne possible explanation of
how the system of male brushes may
have evolved was originally put for-
ward by Miriam Rothschild. She
pointed out that any character that
fulfills a double function has a bet-
ter chance of selection and evolu-
tion than one possessing a single
beneficial attribute. She suggested
that insect attractants and courtship
scents first evolved in connection
with the scents of their food plants,
thus linking flowers and their polli-
nators in time and space. Their role
as courtship pheromones would
have developed subsequently. From
there it would only be a short step
to boosting the odors produced by
scent brushes so that they could
function as both courtship scents
and as deterrents to other species.
On the other hand, it is just as
likely that male scents were origi-
nally selected as deterrents, and
that hawkmoth brushes are now at
this stage of development. Simple
experiments, such as removing the
brushes of newly emerged males or
gluing them into their pleural folds,
proved that the brushes are not
used in mating. It thus seems that
their role in the defensive display is
their main function, but this sug-
gestion implies that males are more
likely than females to be attacked
by predators.
For many species of moths, if not
for all animals, one of the most vul-
nerable periods of their lives is
when they are copulating. In those
species that can copulate aloft,
flight is likely to be clumsy. Copula-
tion is one time when there would
be no need for both sexes to pro-
vide defenses, explaining the puzzle
of a supposed defensive organ con-
fined to one sex.
Since it seems likely that poten-
tial predators would learn to re-
spond either directly to the scent of
a calling female or to the males
converging towards her, the scent
may be designed to deter small
mammals, particularly the night ac-
tive bats, which can take moths
both in flight and from the ground.
By day, when birds become active,
copulation has usually terminated
and both sexes are mostly hidden.
If the scent does, in fact, act against
nocturnal predators, selection
would soon favor females mating
with males that produced a pre-
dator repellent, since females mat-
ing with other males would tend to
be eliminated. The system can be
traced through to the Noctuidae
where the female only mates with
scent-producing males.
Of course, this is pure specula-
tion. Although the male scents are
undoubtedly unpleasant to one
mammalian predator, namely man,
this is hardly evidence that they re-
pel other predators, nor do we
know if the scents are persistent
enough to last the duration of copu-
lation without evaporating.
Also difficult to explain is the evi-
dence that many species have sec-
ondarily lost their brush organs, as
appears from the numerous vestig-
ial organs in the Noctuidae. Clearly
there are some exciting questions
waiting to be solved by research.
Our over-all picture is that male
brushes and coremata are very plas-
tic structures. Within the thirty or
so species of British tiger moths,
brushes or coremata have evolved
independently at least eight times.
A detailed investigation of the Noc-
tuidae shows us that the lever and
Continued on page 72
The scent, or
pheromone,
carried on the
brushes of
the male clouded
silver moth is
composed of
butyric acid.
Discharged over
the female as a
prelude to
copulation, it
may also serve
as a means
of species
identification.
39
by Maurice G.Hornocker
Alive and well, this
myslery-siirouded cat
roams liie rugged
mountain lastnesses
01 Idaiio
The mountain lion is the prince
of Western Hemisphere predators.
Naturalist Ernest Thompson Seton
described the lion as "lithe and
splendid beasthood. His daily rou-
tine is a march of stirring athletic
e%'ents that not another creature — in
America, at least — can hope to
equal." Capable of living in habi-
tats ranging from tropical jungles to
deserts to subalpine types, the lion
(Felis concolor) can exist exclu-
sively on a diet of small rodents
or elk. Ultrasecretive, this splendid
cat shuns proximity to man and
inhabits rugged, inaccessible wil-
derness country.
The American lion is perhaps the
most mysterious and misunderstood
of all the world's large carnivores.
This is evident from the many names
applied to this great cat through-
out its range — puma, painter, cou-
gar, panther, catamount, leone. Most
adaptable of all the large cats, it
once had the widest distribution of
any mammal in the Western Hemi-
sphere, and perhaps in the world. It
ranged over both American conti-
nents, from the east to the west
coast of North America and from
central British Columbia south to
Patagonia. Authentic records of
mountain lions are available from
47 of the 48 conterminous states
and the District of Columbia. As
the white man populated North
America, lions vanished from much
of their range. They now live in
sizable numbers only in the western
and southwestern states, in Central
and South America, and in parts of
British Columbia and Alberta. A
population of undetermined size ex-
ists in the Florida Everglades, and
recent information suggests there
are lions in eastern Canada.
Because of emotionalism regard-
ing large predators, a wealth of
misinformation has accumulated on
the mountain lion. Theodore Roose-
velt spoke of the "big horse-killing
cat, the destroyer of the deer, the
lord of stealthy murder. . . ." Many
others have written of the lion's
presumed insatiable taste for de-
struction, of its bloodthirsty lust
for killing. Lions do sometimes kill
domestic stock, thereby strengthen-
ing man's intolerance toward them.
As a result, indiscriminate killing
of the mountain lion, often en-
couraged by bounties, has been the
rule.
That lions kill other animals,
some of them, such as deer, of spe-
cial interest to hunters, is a fact;
but the effect of this killing on pop-
ulations had never been assessed
objectively. Nor had the dynamics
of a population of lions ever been
studied: its density, productivity,
fertility, mortality, and range and
space requirements. It was obvious
that to preserve this species, and
those animals upon which it preys,
a thorough investigation was
needed.
For the past six years, I have ,
been trying to find answers to some
of these questions in the rugged
wilderness of central Idaho. My
study area encompassed 200 square
miles in the Big Creek drainage ba-
sin in the center of the li4-million-
acre Idaho Primitive Area. I chose
this splendid country for several
reasons. According to diaries of set-
tlers in the mid-1800's and govern-
ment records in the early 1900's the
region was a stronghold for the
mountain lion. More recently,
bounty records and sportsmen's kill
figures indicated that sufficient lions
occurred there to obtain adequate
quantitative data.
Big game, mainly mule deer and
elk, also were abundant and during
winter months were confined to a
relatively small sector of their total
range. Deep snow drives game ani-
mals to the lower elevations along
major stream courses. Lions also
seek these lower elevations and thus
were more available for study and
A lion sits on a ridge, whe
he can survey the remo
Salmon River country. Wh<
winter snow drives mule de
and elk into the vallejl
mountain lions follow them dow
40
31
"1
* f^W^M 1^
To determine the
whereabouts and
ondition of the lions,
trained hounds are
set out on trails.
When the dogs tree
; cats, such as the two
tens, upper right, the
lions are shot with a
lative, lowered to the
ground, marked,
weighed, and then
released to the wild.
tW
\
capture. Because of the difficulty of
working in summer, when the ani-
mals move up to higher elevations
and range over a much larger area,
I did most of my research during
the winter and spring, from Novem-
ber to May.
I had two objectives: to study the
dynamics of the lion population
and to assess its impact on big
game. I suspect mountain lions
have spent many more hours watch-
ing me than I have spent minutes
observing them. Although I studied
them for six years and spent
months in their remote mountain
sanctuaries, I rarely got more than
a glimpse of a free-roving lion —
and then it was usually because he
had seen me and was moving away.
Therefore, to study them I had to
capture and individually mark each
lion so it could be identified. Then,
by tracking them in the snow and
by repeatedly recapturing individ-
uals every season and over the
years, I gathered a fund of infor-
mation on each individual and, ulti-
mately, on the population. I hired
Wilbur Wiles, a long-time resident
of the Primitive Area and a veteran
lion hunter, to assist me. His
trained hounds were used through-
out the study to tree lions, which
were then immobilized with drugs,
marked, and recorded. After this,
each was released, unharmed, back
into the wild.
We have, over the six-year pe-
riod, captured, -marked, and re-
leased 51 different lions, 44 of them
in the Big Creek study area. Thirty-
six of these were recaptured in sub-
sequent years, many of them 15
times. We caught one male 20
times. In all, we made 173 captures
of lions and tracked them in the
snow for literally hundreds of
miles. These capture-recapture
data, the events interpreted from
tracks, and the information gained
from the return of tags from lions
killed by hunters give us a good pic-
ture of the lion's population status
and ecology.
The lion population was stable,
with no more than ten adults as
full-time winter residents of the
200-square mile study area. Of the
other lions we captured, 29 were
kittens and 12 were transient
adults. Every year two litters, num-
bering two or three kittens each,'
46
Crouched low in the spring
grass, a lion is nearly hidden
as he stalks prey. Although lions
eat a wide range of food, including
grasshoppers, their main winter
diet consists of elk, below, and
mule deer, bottom.
were born, except in 1969 when we
recorded only one litter.
The resident adults had firmly es-
tablished territories. Each lion con-
fined itself to a definite range. Fe-
males shared some areas but males
appeared to maintain rigid bound-
aries between territories. The size
of the females' winter home range
varied from 5 to 25 square miles;
males utilized an area of 15 to 30
square miles. These are minimum
home ranges based on capture— re-
capture data; I believe some lions
actually use larger areas.
Territoriality appeared to be the
primary factor regulating the num-
ber of lions in our study area. The
number of adults well established
on territories remained unchanged
from year to year despite the birth
of four to six kittens into the popu-
lation each year. After becoming
self-sufficient at about 18 to 20
months of age. young lions all left
the area: none of the offspring of
resident females was captured on
the study area beyond its second
winter.
Further evidence of strong ter-
ritoriality was the movement each
winter of additional lions — prac-
tically all young — into the study
area, but none stayed. I believe they
recognized that they were in the es-
tablished territory of another lion.
The resident animal never forcibly
evicted these transients, and tracks
indicated they avoided contact.
Different individuals used the
same areas but never at the same
time — lions were spaced in time as
well as area. Scrapes or scratch
marks appear important in this
spacing, as well as in the estab-
hshment of territorial rights. Lions
scrape leaves, twigs, fir needles, or
sometimes, snow into small mounds
and frequently urinate or defecate
)untain lions are able to
ide man partly because of
iir protective coloring,
ich here blends with the
ben-covered rocks.
on top of them, making an ol-
factory as well as a visual mark.
These marks inform other lions that
one is already in the area, how
recently he was there, and perhaps
even which individual made the
mark.
All lions, but especially males,
make these marks on trails, on high
ridges, and at lion crossings; some
permanent marking stations occur
in each territory. Both males and
females visit these sites. Ordinarily
they follow an accustomed route,
whether hunting or seemingly just
traveling. On a number of occa-
sions an animal tracked to one of
these sites abruptly changed course,
sometimes retracing its route for a
considerable distance. Invariably
we found another lion or family of
lions in the area.
I believe this behavior, which I
call mutual avoidance, is necessary
for the survival of solitary, special-
ized predators. A solitary predator
depends on its physical well-being
to survive. Consequently, unlike
gregarious species such as wolves,
lions cannot afford the luxury of
fighting in defense of a territory.
An injured wolf may survive as a
member of a pack; an injured lion
probably would starve. The mutual
avoidance mechanism appears to
have evolved as a nondamaging
means of spacing solitary lions.
Mountain lions, like certain other
carnivores, appear to limit their own
numbers and thus maintain a bal-
ance with their prey reserves. Can-
nibalism is an extreme manifes-
tation of this self-limiting mecha-
nism. In February, 1966. we docu-
mented this for an adult male.
Turning the dogs loose on the
single track of a kitten, we soon
found that this track merged with
others — two other kittens, an adult
that we assumed was the mother,
and a large male. The hounds soon
broke out in frenzied baying, in-
dicating they had treed one or more
lions. We reached the dogs after a
30-minute climb up a mountainside.
We found they had two lions treed:
a large male. No. 18. and No. 16,
the mother of the kittens. Circling
the area we found the remains of
two kittens and the tracks of a third
that had escaped down the slope.
By tracking and backtracking, we
unraveled the story, distinctly
spelled out in the snow. The male
had entered the canyon area where
the female had left three kittens
while she hunted. He killed and ate
two of the 50-pound kittens; the
other, whose tracks we had first
seen, had escaped. The female re-
turned and apparently attacked the
marauding male, but to no avail.
The newness of the snow indicated
that lions, hounds, and men all ar-
rived on the scene within twelve
hours of each other.
Not all adult male lions practice
cannibalism, however, and many
males and females with families in-
habit the same territory without
conflicts. Cannibalism is an "in-
ternal" population control mechan-
ism, which is common to the large
predators, and which seems to oper-
ate when other checks are not ef-
fective. It is probably essential to the
survival of the species.
During the six-year period, five
females produced ten litters for a
total of 25 kittens. Three of the five
females produced offspring at a
two-year interval, information is in-
complete for one female, and the
other produced three litters in
slightly over five years. All kittens,
with the exception of one litter in
early November, were born in
spring or early summer. One litter
of two males became self-sufficient
when slightly more than a year old;
all other offspring remained with
the female until they were approxi-
mately twenty months of age.
Young lions remain dependent
on the lioness for a long period.
While they possess certain inherent
abilities, they must learn to hunt
the various kinds of prey. They
must also learn killing techniques,
which are crucial for such large
prey as deer and elk. The first few
weeks after becoming self-sufficient
are probably critical in a lion's life.
Some young lions have difficulty
stalking large animals or are inept
at killing them after a successful
stalk. We saw, from tracks in the
snow, several instances where in-
experienced lions had trouble
bringing down young deer. Such in-
dividuals must rely to a greater ex-
Continued on page 68
49
Runaway Stars and Pulsars in our galaxy, most hot
blue stars occur in binary systems near die galactic
plane. They depart very little from their normal cir-
cular motion in the revolving galaxy. Some, however,
are streaking away from the galactic plane at speeds
of 50 miles a second or more.
Astronomers generally believe that these "runaway'
stars were once members of pairs in or near the galac-
tic plane. They were released when their companions
blew up and suddenly ceased to exert the gravitational
pull that had kept the runaway star in a tight orbit
around its partner. The concept is similar to that of
the hammer throw at a track and field meet. A man
spins around as he swings a weight. When he releases
it, the weight moves off in a straight line at the speed
at which it had been moving in a circle.
Binary stars present an interesting variation, how-
ever. The star that explodes loses so much mass that
its remnant is dragged along in the wake of the runa-
way star. In the mid-1960's astronomers searched for
these remnants without success. Now they believe they
know what they look like and believe they have found
at least 50 of them. They know them as pulsars.
The evidence was marshaled in Astrophysical Jour-
nal Letters recently by J. Richard Gott III, James E.
Gunn, and Jeremiah P. Ostriker, who worked on it
when they were at Princeton University Observatory.
They show that most pulsars found near the galactic
plane blink rapidly, while those farther away are
slower. Pulsars are believed to slow down as they age.
The newer ones are still near the plane; the older ones
have mo\'ed away from it.
They point out that the famous pulsar in the Crab
Nebula, NP0532, is going 60 miles a second, as fast as
a runaway star. Another pulsar, NP0527, is just out-
side the nebula. NP0532 has the shortest-known pe-
riod; NP0527, the longest. The authors propose that
both were once binary stars revolving around each
other in the constellation Gemini. Three million years
ago the star that became NP0527 blew up; its com-
panion flew off in the direction of the constellation
Taurus, dragging NP0527 with it. Then, in 1054. the
companion also exploded, leaving as its remnant
NP0532.
The Princeton group offered predictions on how
fast NP0527 should be slowing down and what its
apparent motion relative to the background stars
should be if their hypothesis is correct. They also sug-
gest that all pulsars be checked to see if they are mov-
ing at speeds typical of runaway stars.
Shuddering Moon Every 28 days, when it comes clos-
est to the earth, the moon apparently bulges enough to
crack and quake for nearly an hour. The gravitation
of the earth causes a tide in the solid surface of the
moon, similar in kind and cause to the tides the moon
raises in earth's oceans and, to a much lesser extent, in
the shape of the solid earth.
The monthly shudder causes "moonquakes" strong
enough to register on the seismometer left on the
moon by the Apollo 12 astronauts just a year ago. Of
the 160 signals received from the seismometer in the
first seven months, 14 occurred when the moon was at
perigee, some 30,000 miles closer to the earth than it
is at apogee. The quake signals came in pairs, one just
at the tune of perigee and the other a day or two later,
apparently as the moon settled back to its former
shape.
Gary Latham, the Columbia University seismologist
in charge of the experiment, has suggested that the
quakes may be severe enough to release gases trapped
under the lunar surface. These emissions could ac-
count for the widely reported "transient lunar phenom-
ena"— momentary patches of color, usually red, seen
obscuring lunar features from time to time.
The hilly region around the crater Era Mauro,
where tlie Apollo 14 astronauts are scheduled to land
next year, may be the center of moonquake activity,
according to Latham. Professional and amateur as-
tronomers have been asked to concentrate their watch
for transient lunar phenomena in this region, particu-
larly around the time of perigee each month.
A Clean Bill of Health Before men first stepped on
the moon, there was a very real fear that they might
bring back alien organisms that would wreak havoc on
earth. Returning astronauts, and the samples they
brought back, were quarantined and rigidly tested.
In one test, ten species of lower animals were ex-
posed to lunar material by contact and even ingestion.
The 14-man team reported happily in Science last
summer diat their search for an "Andromeda Strain" '
had proved fruitless. Many of the individuals of one
species did die, but the team found no evidence that
the lunar samples had played any part. They con-
cluded: "No pathological effects or evidence of the
presence of replicating organisms were detected in any
of the exposed experimental animals."
No changes were observed in two species of proto-
zoans. Planarian worms also were unaffected, but the
team noted that worms in a bowl treated with ster-
ilized lunar material spent more time swimming on the
surface of the water than did their counterparts. Ger-
man cockroaches, which ate some of the sample,
showed no damage to their gut from the glass beads
that comprised much of the sample. No changes were
found among houseflies, while greater wax moths
showed a slightly higher, but statistically insignificant,
survival rate.
Brown shrimp and freshwater and saltwater min-
nows showed no changes, either during the 28-day test
period or in autopsies of selected individuals. Only
oysters raised a question: many died during the test
period. The scientists concluded, however, that ex-
posure to lunar samples was not the cause. They
pointed out diat the tests occurred during the spawn-
ing season and that many of the animals were in poor
condition. Postmortems showed nothing related to the
lunar material.
At this point the moon looks pretty safe. Mars, if |
man decides to go there, is another question.
John P. Wiley. Jr.
50
••::-i->
~\ siTvaawonaww "^^ ,'
i '/.^^
■«■ . 1 a,
.^ ARIES • ' '5
eiesiiai Events
The moon is in tine morning sky in late November, witli last-
luarter on the 20th and new moon on the 28th. The evening
rescent appears in the first weel< of December. First-quarter is
in the 5th and full moon on the 12th.
Venus, Mars, and Jupiter are all morning stars in late Novem-
)er and early December. Saturn is in the sky most of the night:
ising in the early evening, setting during morning hours. Mer-
;ury, an evening star, is not well placed for observing.
November 17: The Leonid meteor shower, which produced a
ipectacular display in the western United States during 1966,
eaches maximum. Though moonlight will brighten the after-
nidnight sky, the shower sometimes produces very bright ob-
ects.
November 24: Mars, in the morning sky, has been moving to
he left toward the bright star Spica, in Virgo. They are nearest
me another this morning.
November 25: The reddish star near the rising crescent moon
this morning is Mars. The star Spica, brighter than Mars, Is
nearby.
December 910: The bright object near the moon is Saturn.
The moon will move closer to the planet during the night, and
appear closest by dawn.
December 10: Mercury is at greatest elongation in the evening
sky. The planet is less than ten degrees above the horizon at
sunset, however.
December 14: Maximum of the Geminid meteor shower, pro-
ducing about 50 meteors per hour per observer, occurs this
morning. A bright gibbous moon, however ,*makes observing dif-
ficult. Thomas D. Nicholson
* Hold the Star Map so the compass direction you face is at the bottom;
then match the stars in the lower half of the map with those in the sky
near the horizon. The map is for 10:20 p.m. on November 15; 9:20 pm. on
December 1; and 8:25 p.m. on December 15; but it can be used for about
an hour before and after those times.
51
BENTHIC
LIFE
IN
THE
FJORDS
OF
NORWAY
by Michael Berrill
The deeper parts of the ocean
generally lie far from continental
shorelines, so most of what we
know about life there has been ob-
served on ships at sea. Some ben-
thic animals are collected by ex-
peditions, but because ships are
small and expeditions short of time,
the animals are quickly preserved
and rarely observed alive for long.
As a result, we know which animals
inhabit deepwaler sea floors, but
are ignorant of how they actually
go about living in their dark and
pressurized environment.
Occasionally, however, moder-
ately deep water, together with its
strange fauna, is found close to
shore. Ocean depths penetrate Nor-
way, for instance, in fjords, modi-
fying a land and a people in the
process, and bringing the usually
inaccessible animals tanlalizingly
near. And so for a monlh in Norwe-
gian summer sunshine I hauled nels
full of animals up to the surface,
observed some briefly, and kept
others living for days and weeks,
gradually learning a little about the
benthic community of a Norwegian
fjord.
The fjords that have made Nor-
way so special were carved by ice
and time. About 10,000 years ago
the last Ice Age withdrew and re-
leased Norway from the glaciers
that had covered it with ice as
much as two miles thick. New land
emerged from under the ice or out
of the sea, new coasts limited it,
and new islands modified its coastal
^vaters.
The nature of this land of Nor-
way, which rose unevenly from its
glacial covering, is itself a product
of the ice. In preglacial limes, riv-
ers flowed down from the Norwe-
gian plateau, often along fault lines,
and the relentless, scouring glaciers
that followed molded these fault
lines into deep, U-shaped valleys.
The shores of Norway, then, are
ice-scraped shores, and its fjords
are valleys that were once glaciated
and are now submerged.
The fjords reacli far into Nor-
5:
Much slenderer than the
American species, the Norway
lobster, Nephrops iiorvegicus,
fights as belligerently as its
menacing appearance suggests.
way, sometimes more than 100
miles, meeting their tributaries
amid steep mountains and plunging
waterfalls. Sognefjord, for example,
the longest and deepest, is over 4,-
000 feet deep at its mouth. This is
far greater than the 500- to 600-
foot depths that characterize the
inner portions of the continental
shelves extending around most
large land masses. The bottom-liv-
ing animals of the fjords are much
the same as those that live in deeper
water many miles from land, but in
the fjords the animals are only a
mile or two offshore, and the water
is calm and easy to work from.
I lived beside, and collected
from, Raunefjord, southwest of
Bergen, which is more exposed and
not as deep as Sognefjord. It is a
fjord half -surrounded by large, bar-
ren islands and interspersed with
smaller ones known as skerries.
About 150,000 such islands make
up what the Norwegians call the
skjaergard. Helped by staff mem-
bers of the biological station at the
University of Bergen, I hauled ani-
mals up from depths of 800 feet or
more and took them back to the sta-
tion on the edge of the fjord, where
I observed and photographed them
in aquariums that I had made as
natural as possible.
We collected the benthic animals
from the Fridtjof Nansen, a vessel
named for the famed polar ex-
plorer. Each day that we went out
we dropped an otter trawl and
dragged it along, picking up those
animals that were on, or just above,
the bottom surface, but not catch-
ing anything that burrowed deeply.
It wasn't particularly difficult
work, but it was slow. The trawling
net — wide-meshed, with glass balls
along its upper edge — was attached
to the end of about a mile of cable.
It took us at least half an hour to
drop the net, and another hour to
pull it back up and clean it in the
surface water. A winch did all the
work, but still we could not expect
to drag the bottom more than two
or three times a day. And we never
knew until we had the net and its
catch on board whetlier we had
caught anything special or, for that
matter, anything at all.
Trawling in August proved to be
a lesson in frustration, for day after
day the sun shone, warming the
surface water until it was comfort-
able enough for swimming — and
lethal for those animals coming up
in the net from the cold of the bot-
tom.
The fjord bottom is constantly,
unvaryingly cold, about 42° to 43°
F., and it is muddy. In order to
wash some of the mud from the net
we had to drag it around in the sur-
face water for at least twenty min-
utes, and few animals can tolerate
such a sudden and prolonged in-
crease in temperature. Time after
time we dumped a netful of animals
on deck, and time after time I
found some species were always
54
dead, some dying, some weak, and
some still healthy. All the living ani-
mals were put into a huge cold tank
in hopes that enough would recover
so that I could observe them and,
over the weeks, many did.
I had never seen living deepwater
animals before I visited Raune-
fjord, so each one was something
new to lit into a general picture of
the benthic community. Most of the
species that invariably died from
exposure to the warm water and de-
creased pressure were fish. They
were the main predators of the
community, foraging over it to feed
on other animals that did not hide
or defend themselves successfully.
Numerous crustaceans, including
shrimps, crabs, and lobsters, walked
about on the mud also foraging for
food; but these were mainly scav-
engers, searching for dead or weak
animals. Some animals, such as sea
cucumbers and worms, lived on the
mud surface or burrowed under it
and ate the mud, digesting any food
it might contain. Others, such as
sea anemones, sat quite still, often
mostly buried in the inud, filtering
the water around them for its de-
tritus and small organisms. And
some buried themselves or walked
about, filtering the water, eating
mud, or scavenging, all depending
upon the circumstances.
As species after species was col-
lected and put into the aquariums, I
was more and more struck by what
is probably the most obvious fea-
ture of these benthic animals: most
of them are red. Sea anemones and
sea cucumbers, shrimps and lob-
sters— even a species or two of
fish — all had exposed or dorsal sur-
faces that were not only red but of-
ten seemed to be the same shade of
red. I had heard that this was true
of many deepwater benthic animals,
but I had no idea of how wide-
spread and consistent the redness
actually was.
However, while these animals ap-
pear red at the water's surface, they
look black in their deepwater
habitat. As water gets deeper, it
progressively absorbs the longer
wavelengths of light. Red and or-
ange are the first to go and are vir-
tually absent below a depth of 100
feet, causing red objects to appear
black.
The similarity of red coloration,
embracing animals that bear no vis-
ual relationship to one another, can
be attributed primarily to dietary
factors. The basic food source of
much of this benthic community are
the deepwater jDlanktonic animals.
A northern shrimp, Pandalus
borealis, right, pirouettes
across an observation tank as
squat lobsters, Munida sarsi,
engage in threat behavior,
below left. If molested, the sea
cucumber, Stichopus
tremulans, below, will expel
its intestines through the anus.
which contain high concentrations
of red pigment in the form of caro-
tenoids. Also, in the dim light and
black mud of the benthic world, red
probably serves a protective func-
tion, for it matches the color of the
substrate on which these animals
live.
I wanted to concentrate my ef-
forts on one species of the commu-
nity, one I could watch in its own
world. For this I needed an easily
caught species that could survive
the warm bath in the surface water.
I also wanted it to be a species that
would be interesting to experiment
with, not one that would sit around
inactively. So I searched for an ani-
mal that was abundant, tolerant, and
active.
The only well-known animal that
I caught was the large, translucent
red shrimp, Pandalus borealis, the
shrimp that most of us eat. It is
also the shrimp that started people
trawling the coastal waters of the
North Atlantic in search of its
schools, and so it has indirectly led
us to a host of other animals we
normally would not see. The
schools of P. borealis are large
when they are found, but they don't
always turn up when and where
expected. They also may not be as
common as they once were.
This shrimp was certainly abun-
dant in Raunefjord. and although
only 10 or 20 percent of those I
caught lived, there were enough for
me to work with. I had expected the
shrimp to school actively, even in
captivity, and I hoped to discover
what kept the members of such a
school together in a world as dim
as theirs. So what did my captives
do? They mostly sat on the bottom
and sometimes walked about on it,
but I could not induce them to
school.
I observed other species of
shrimp, as delicate and colorful as
Pandalus borealis, but far less com-
mon, and they also spent their time
stalking about on the mud, refusing
to school. The large crabs I had un-
der scrutiny scavenged and in-
timidated just about everything ca-
pable of sensing their presence.
Several Norway lobsters, Nephrops
norvegicus, fought belligerently
whenever they met, and never left
each other alone long enough to dig
their customary shallow burrows.
But I didn't catch enough of these
animals to do more than observe
them casually, hardy and active
though they were.
The most tolerant and abundant
animal I caught was Stichopus
tremulans, a sea cucumber whose
dorsal side was even redder than
most of its benthic neighbors. Some
succeeded in making it up to the
surface in the trawl even when the
net had not opened properly or
when nothing else was captured,
and when most other animals died
from exposure, S. tremulans lived.
Unfortunately, like most sea cucum-
bers, these were not exactly the
most exciting animals to watch as
they lay eating the mud in their
aquariums, doing little more than
look colorful.
They did have one ability, how-
ever, that may partially explain
their abundance and sluggish, ex-
posed behavior. When I molested
one, it simply expelled its intestines,
forcing them out through its anus.
Had I been a fish, presumably I
would have eaten this mass of in-
testines and gone on my way, not
bothering with the leathery, taste-
less bag that had contained it. Yet
that empty bag is perfectly capable
of growing a whole new gut, even if
it takes a year to do so, and at the
cold temperatures that Stichopus
tremulans inhabits, it might well
take that long.
Another sea cucumber, Bathy-
plotes nutans, was as rare as Sti-
chopus tremulans was common.
Pink and somewhat flat and fleshy,
it convinced me that not all sea cu-
cumbers just creep around and eat
mud. This one could swim. The eve-
ning after I caught my only speci-
men, it swam around the aquarium
for an hour or two, and its flatness
and fleshiness seemed to be adap-
tations for making it more buoyant.
It swam by undulating its body up
and down, rather than sideways as
fish do. I have heard that fishermen
have caught this swimming sea cu-
cumber at virtually all levels off the
bottom, and so I expect that the one
I caught was an intermittent visitor
to the benthic community.
Just as tantalizing as finding this
one swimming sea cucumber was
finding several individuals each of
Rossia macrostoma and R. glau-
copis, small species of the cephalo-
pod family that includes the squids
and cuttlefish. They arrived on
board ship very weak and lived
only long enough to assure me that
they were as fascinating as they
looked. As the various members of
this genus are almost always deep-
water animals, no one knows much
about them other than that they of-
ten bury themselves in the mud.
They are blunt-ended little animals,
rarely more than several inches
long and very different from their
larger, streamlined relatives. Like
the fish that swim over the bottom,
Rossia are predators of the various
animals living in and on the mud.
And because of their small size,
they are, in turn, a common source
of food for the larger fish. I saw
none of their natural behavior, for
the ones I caught simply flashed
their chromatophores and swam
around for a few minutes before
settling down and quietly expiring.
Even though the shrimp didn't
school, the little cephalopods didn't
live, and I didn't catch enough lob-
sters or swimming sea cucumbers to
work with, I did find an active and
aggressive crustacean that was both
hardy and relatively abundant, and
whose behavior no one seemed to
know much about.
It was a crustacean of the group
known as the galatheids, which are
something like a cross between a
shrimp and a crab, and somewhat
distantly akin to hermit crabs. This
animal was Munida sarsi and like a
crab, its tail was turned under its
thorax; but like a shrimp, its body
was longer than it was wide. It also
tended to walk forward, not side-
ways, and exhibited the usual shade
of red on top with white under-
neath. Its first pair of legs were
long claws reaching way out in
front of the body, the kind of claws
that typify reptant crustaceans,
which walk about on sea bottoms
everywhere.
Although most reptants are scav-
engers, foraging for their food and
feasting on dead companions, Mu-
nida sarsi, like so many of its com-
munity, is a mud-eater. This it does
by picking up bits with the pincers
on the large claws and also by
scraping its walking legs through
the mud and cleaning them off in
mouthparts modified for this pur-
pose as well as for filtering par-
ticles of food from the water. More-
over, its thin, prehensile hind legs
roam all over its body, picking and
cleaning everything from legs, eyes,
and antennae, even to the inside
surface of its carapace. After a stint
of such cleaning, each of these legs
always reaches to the mouthparts to
be cleaned in turn, giving the ani-
mal yet another source of food.
The three pairs of legs that Mu-
A starfish begins to burrow in
the sand, a technique it often
uses for hunting bivalves.
Left : akhough some species
of cephalopods have attained
the largest size of any
invertebrates, those collected
in Raunef jord, such as this
specimen of Rossia glaucopis,
rarely exceeded a few inches.
nida sarsi has left for walking or
standing are also modified for the
texture of the loose mud. They are
fine and pointed, covered with
bristles, and as pterfect for walking
on mud as they are impractical for
walking on rock.
My captive Munida sarsi not
only ate the mud but dug in it as
well. Each scooped a shallow de-
pression for itself and sat in it with
only its long front claws draped out
over the edge. There it sat for long
hours each day, half hidden from
sight except for its redness in the
shallow water.
If this was all that Munida sarsi
did, I doubt that it would have held
my attention for very long. How-
57
ever, the quiet cleaning, picking,
and scraping were only partially
characteristic of the animal and
contrasted remarkably with its ag-
gressive behavior. Although they
were relatively inactive for hours,
at other times they roamed, stimu-
lated by internal urges, by the
roaming of others, or by outside
disturbances. As they moved about
in the finite space of an aquarium,
they could not help but meet repeat-
edly or wander into each other's
depressions. And when they met,
they rarely ignored each other.
More likely, they would start dis-
playing or even fighting.
Munida sarsi threatened by
stretching and raising its long claws
out in front, while at the same time
raising its whole body a little far-
ther oS the mud. It could, and did,
vary this display according to how
great the threat was or how aggres-
sive it appeared to feel. Sometimes
when one roaming individual
walked near another sitting quietly
in its depression, the latter would
raise one or both of its claws in
threat, but not bother to exert itself
any more than that. On the other
hand, when two roaming individ-
uals met, they seemed to stimulate
each other to display with increas-
ing intensity, until their claws were
as high as they could go and their
bodies were so far off the mud that
half of their walking legs could no
longer reach it.
Most interesting were the ex-
traordinary fights that two such
threatening individuals might get
into, for fearsome though they
looked and acted, the fights in-
variably were harmless and highly
stereotyped. Facing each other and
threatening, they would snap only
at each other's claws, apparently
aiming for the joints. They looked
then as if they were fencing rather
spastically, following a set of rigid
rules.
I wanted to discover just what
elements of the display of one ac-
tually stimulated another to display
in return, and so I spent a while
making the kind of toy that imme-
diately identified me as a student of
animal behavior. I made models of
Munida sarsi, painted them the
right colors, gave them movable
and correctly proportioned appen-
dages, and confronted the real ani-
mals with them. I even made some
into puppets in the hope of stimu-
lating a few fights as well as dis-
plays.
My models, of course, were ig-
nored. They did not fool Munida
sarsi, although they looked good to
me. I know now that the elements I
was looking for were not simple
ones. As so often happens, however,
pure chance provided some insights
into the most important features of
a display.
I did not catch enough Munida
sarsi to systematically cut off ap-
pendages in order to observe behav-
ioral changes, but a number lost an
appendage or two when they were
caught in the trawling net. So I
had, in addition to my intact ani-
mals, some that were missing one
or more walking legs, some missing
one of the large claws and several
missing both large claws. Only these
last individuals, lacking both of
their weapons of combat, were en-
tirely ignored by all the others, no
mj
matter how much they raised their
bodies off the mud and strutted
about. Those lacking only one large
claw fought, and won, as often as
those that had both claws to fight
with, and those lacking one or two
walking legs seemed unaffected by
their loss.
The display and combat of Mu-
nida sarsi were typical of what we
recognize as aggressive encounters.
It was stereotyped, involving spe-
cific postures, actions, and reac-
tions. The movements were subtle
and finely coordinated, and this I
expect explains why my models
were so unsuccessful. The patterns
of color on the appendages, and the
contrast of dark and light that a
threatening individual displayed,
helped to emphasize the movement,
just as body posture emphasized the
extension of the claws. And al-
though I watched over a hundred
fights and countless displays, I
never saw an animal harmed. When
one was grasped at a possibly pain-
ful spot while in combat, it would
either cease fighting or spurt ener-
getically away.
Munida sarsi reserved its fencing
behavior for conflicts with its own
kind ; when otherwise disturbed, it
reacted with what seemed to be in-
discriminate behavior. Some kind
of social hierarchy usually accom-
panies stereotyped conflict, but I
could not discover any in this case.
Although every fencing match had
a winner, I could rarely predict
which animal would emerge vic-
torious, even though I could detect
differences in body size or claw
length and knew the previous
records of the combatants. The
benthic world is not one of complex
social systems, perhaps because
elaborate communication is difiS-
cult in such an environment.
Rather, each animal seems con-
cerned only with defending its own
private space, no matter how small
that may be. At least, that is the
way it appears to be for Munida
sarsi.
This community of animals, all
adapted to living in a deep, cold,
dim, featureless, and muddy envi-
ronment, is not entirely untouched
by problems of the twentieth century.
Traces of our pollutants probably
extend to the deepest parts of the
oceanic abyss. Moreover, the hun-
grier we become over the next dec-
ades, the more we will keep of what
we now throw back from a full
trawling net. Today, the deepwater
benthic community is almost un-
touched. Because it remains so in-
accessible, it continues to withhold
most of its secrets from us. It is not
affected by the little we know about
it. The community of red animals
has been in existence for a long,
long time and should survive our
current crises more easily than most.
One of the most powerful
and agile of the crustacean
swimmers, the red crabs.
Geryon tridens, intimidated
all the other animals
under observation.
HEALING IN THE
SIERRA MADRE
Prescription: Heat in alcohol one scorpion, one centipede,
one black widow spider. Expose overnight to the dew
by David Werner
In a small Mexican village I was
shaken awake one night by a young
campesino whose sister had just
been stung by a scorpion. He
pleaded with me to come quickly.
Armed with an injection of antiven-
in I hurried to the family's adobe
house, but found that the treatment
had already begun. The young
woman's husband had hunted down
the offending scorpion on the dirt
floor, chopped off its tail, split the
animal open on its ventral side, and
bound the still-wriggling creature to
his wife's stung finger.
In the barrancas, the steep ravine
country of the Sierra Madre of east-
ern Sinaloa, northeast of Mazatlan,
such a treatm_ent is typical. Here,
many small farms are a day's jour-
ney or more from the closest road,
and in the summer rainy season,
weeks may pass when communica-
tion with the outside world is im-
possible. Although the Mexican gov-
ernment has taken large steps toward
providing rural health centers in
isolated sectors, the remote reaches
of the Sierra Madre have no such
services as yet. The people are
forced to rely on their own ingenu-
ity, plus the traditional folk cures
handed down from the past.
While the modern medical aid I
have been providing for the past
five years is usually gratefully ac-
cepted, the villagers are under-
standably reluctant to give up the
folk cures in which they have
placed their faith and hope for cen-
turies. Many come for help only af-
ter their attempts with home reme-
dies have failed, and if modern
medicine seems too slow or un-
promising to them, they may sud-
denly switch back to traditional
remedies. More often, however,
folk medicine is applied simulta-
neously with whatever treatment I
recommend.
On the surface there seems to be
more madness than method behind
the array of herbal cures and folk
treatments found in the barrancas.
But I have learned from the curan-
deras, as female herbal healers are
called, that many cures are guided
by time-honored assumptions. For
example, the treatment for scorpion
sting described above reflects a lo-
cal saying that "every poisonous
animal also has an antipoison."
Such home brew "antivenins" are
common. One broad-spectrum rem-
edy, claimed effective against many
different bites and stings, is pre-
pared by heating one scorpion, one
centipede, and one black widow
spider in alcohol. To give it po-
tency, villagers insist that the brew
be exposed overnight to the dew.
Other remedies are specific for par-
ticular poisonous creatures. For rat-
tlesnake bite, for example, some vil-
lagers cut open the live snake,
remove the gall bladder, and smear
the bile on the bite. Others claim it
is more effective for the victim sim-
ply to catch the snake and quickly
The author holds the venomous
beaded lizard, whose cast-off
skin is applied to bites
of other poisonous animals.
ring treatment for
obhing headache, the
ient's forehead is
•ked with a live toad.
6i
bite a piece out of it, although I
have yet to see this done.
"The more poisonous the animal,
the more potent its antipoison," is
another folk rule of the barrancas.
Since the Mexican beaded lizard — a
close relative of the venomous Gila
monster — is feared as the most
deadly of all animals, it is under-
standably revered as an antidote
against every type of animal toxin.
Its shed skin is applied against the
poisoned bite or sting to effect a
cure.
Although the villagers believe,
quite rightly, that the beaded lizard
is highly poisonous, they also main-
tain, erroneously, that this lizard
can spit large distances and that its
saliva is the cause of pinto, a pie-
62
bald skin condition of the aged.
Piebald skin is also reputedly
caused by eating pork and drinking
milk at the same meal or by getting
angry after taking a purgative. This
sort of explanation for ailments, es-
pecially skin conditions, is common
in the barrancas. For example,
ringworm of the scalp is said to re-
sult from a butterfly landing on
one's hair. Ringworm of the body,
however, is attributed either to
moth's urine or to the bite of a
mosquito that has previously
sucked a toad's blood.
These odd and unfounded ex-
planations for otherwise in-
explicable maladies call to mind the
American folk myth that "toads
cause warts." In the barrancas.
Villagers believe infants' fallen
brains cause diarrhea, so
women "raise" them by sucking
fontanel and pressing on palate,
toads are, in fact, considered
deadly, but they are not accused of
causing warts. Nevertheless, one
must be careful never to kill a toad,
as this may cause the rains to fail
in the summer planting season. As
for warts, every campesino "knows '
they are caused by contact with
iguana blood.
In the pharmacology of the bar-
rancas, the application of venomous
animals extends far beyond their
use as antivenins. The rattlesnake,
or vibora de cascabel, for example,
is a crawling medicine chest. Rare
is the village hut that does not have
a coil of vibora hanging by a
leather thong over the cooking fire
within handy reach in case of medi-
cal emergency. Various anatomical
parts of the rattlesnake are used for
infirmities ranging from boils to
bronchitis. While the treatment of
tonsillitis requires a species of rat-
tlesnake found only in the high
sierra, for most cures any rattle-
snake will do. Most of the pre-
scriptions are very explicit. Con-
sider the treatment for miner's
cough (silicosis). "Cut off the head
and tail of the rattlesnake, powder
the remains, mix with water and
drink. For best results, tease the
snake before killing it,' as this po-
tentiates the 'antimicrobial' action."
The ratdesnake has even entered
the realm of preventive medicine.
When I asked a mother why she
hung a necklace of rattlesnake
bones around her baby's neck, she
replied, "To prevent the diarrhea
caused by teething, of course."
The use of venomous animals to
treat venomous bites is representa-
tive of the homeopathic, or "like
cures like," principle, which crops
up time and again in the folk medi-
cine of the Sierra Madre. Some as-
pect of the curative agent usually
resembles or strongly suggests the
infirmity it is supposed to counter.
A wart, attributed to contact
with the blood of an iguana,
is treated by searing it
with hot cigarette ash.
Such resemblances probably in-
spired the discovery of the treat-
ment in the first place, although
perhaps unconsciously, for the cu-
randeras — who gain knowledge of a
new cure in a trance or dream —
seem totally incognizant of the
homeopathic relationship. Never-
theless, it is often quite evident. The
rattle of the rattlesnake, for ex-
ample, is pulverized and placed in
the ear for treatment of earache.
The fang is used for curing tooth-
ache, the tip being inserted into the
offending cavity.
Many quasi-homeopathic cures
can be cited. To prevent a dog bite
from becoming infected, the hair
from the tip of the dog's tail is
boiled and the wound washed with
the water. If, however, the victim
wishes to revenge himself against
the dog. he plasters a poultice of
red chili pepper against the bite.
Being hot, the chili pepper is sup-
posed to "bite back" and cause the
dog's death.
Absurd as it may sound to us,
this sort of "remote control" seems
probable to the villager whose life
is rich with witches, demons, and
other supernatural beings. In his
world there are many similar exam-
ples. The infected fissures that de-
velop on a cow's teats because of
poor milking hygiene are attributed
to spilling some of the cow's milk
over hot coals; therefore the villag-
ers always heat milk with great cau-
tion. When a fishbone sticks in
someone's throat, he must hurry to
the cooking fire and turn a flaming
fagot so that the unlit end ignites;
this will dislodge the fishbone.
Many of the herbal as well as an-
imal remedies reflect the quasi-
homeopathic principle. There are
literally hundreds of herbal folk
medicines, for another saying goes,
"Every plant has a curative func-
tion, if one can but discover what it
is." Fortunately, many of the plants
give away their secret function
through some telltale characteristic
of their morphology. Thus we find
that yedra, a crimson red wood fun-
gus once prized as tinder by the In-
dians, is used in the treatment of
nosebleed and hemorrhage. The
broad conical spines, or "bumps."
on the bark of pochote (wild
kapok) are ground up and fed to
a child with measles in order to
make the spots come out, for it is
believed that when the spots bud
the disease ceases to be dangerous.
Guaco, a serpentine vine with a
strange, dark flower shaped like the
head of a reptile, is widely used in
the treatment of snakebite and
other poisoning.
Consistent with the homeopathic
trend of folk medicine, unpleasant
maladies often have unpleasant
cures. The more revolting the in-
firmity, the more repulsive the cure
tends to be. For goiter, the un-
sightly protrusions that bulge from
the throats of many of the high-
landers as a result of iodine defi-
ciency, there exist a variety of such
remedies: tear open a freshwater
crab (common in the mountain
streams) so that its innards exude,
then bind it against the goiter;
smear the brains of a turkey vulture
upon the goiter three times a day;
stroke the goiter with the hand of a
dead child; or plaster the goiter
with yerba sin raiz, "herb without
roots," a euphemism for human ex-
crement used medicinally.
In the barrancas, scatology has
become a medical art. Animal as
well as human excrement is used in
scores of specific treatments. Re-
cently I was called to the aid of a
three-year-old child who had stum-
bled into a vat of boiling lard and
burned 40 percent of his body. By
the time I arrived on muleback. the
boy was already suffering from se-
vere electrolyte imbalance and had
begun to convulse. As I entered the
dark adobe room where the boy
was sheltered, I smelled and then
saw a platter of fresh cow manure
beside the cot. The boy's distraught
mother explained that it should be
spread on the child's hand, but
unable to remember whether the
dung should be smeared on the
right hand or the left, she hadn't
dared apply it. I talked the mother
out of the dung cure and adminis-
tered a balanced salt solution. The
child responded, and fortunately, the
burns developed no infections.
Urine, like excrement, is a com-
mon constituent of barrancan phar-
maceutics. Its application ranges
from the use of human urine in
the emergency cleansing of wounds
to a tonic for bronchitis prepared
from horse urine. Some of the
treatments have mythological over-
tones. For example, washing the
face with human urine controls
acne effectively only when done for
nine consecutive days beginning
with a full moon.
63
Although the spiny-tailed
iguana is not used for food in
the barrancas, its meat is eaten
as a cure for depression.
I, myself, once had the dubious
fortune to be the recipient of a folk
cure using child's urine. I had
fallen from a rock wall at night and
broken several ribs. An old curan-
dera was called at once to my aid.
She spread out a sackful of corn
from which she selected the most
rotten and shriveled grains. These
she charred over the cooking fire,
then ground them into a powder in
a big bowl. She then bade her six-
year-old granddaughter urinate in
the bowl, and when the child had
shyly obliged, she mixed the
charred powder and urine into a
dark, evil-smelling paste. Plastering
this over my ribs, she said, "This
will prevent the injury from devel-
oping pasmo or cancer." (Both
pasmo and cancer are terms used to
define severe infections. Cancer, as
a folk term, bears no relation to
carcinoma. 1 The remedy did, in-
deed, prove successful, insofar as
no infection resulted. As for side ef-
fects: it itched!
Creatures renowned for their fe-
rocity are also frequently credited
with medicinal powers. The meat of
the peccar" fwild boar) is cooked
and eaten as treatment for general
debility. Lard of mountain lion is
smeared on painful joints to relieve
arthritis.
In addition, animals that are in
some way odd or atypical may be
blamed for otherwise unexplained
infirmities, and therefore used in
curing them. The praying mantis is
accused of causing cattle bloat. The
bat is reputed to cause blindness by
urinating in the eyes of sleeping
persons. Glowworms are thought to
be deadly and are blamed when
someone who has slept in the fields
dies unaccountably.
The list of animal remedies goes
on and on. and as I flip through the
file I have drawn together, I find,
for example, the following annota-
tions under louse: place a human
louse in the eye to remove a foreign
object. And, throw a pig louse in
the ear of a mule to cure it from
rearing its head back when the bit
is put in its mouth. Under pig, I
find: to cure your husband's alco-
holism, secretly sneak one thimble-
ful of pig's milk into his liquor.
Under iguana: for depression, eat
fried iguana meat, but not the meat
of the green iguana. Green iguana
is thought poisonous and is blamed,
along with the devil, for staggers in
cattle.
With this kaleidoscope of folk
cures, the question arises as to how
many, if any, of these remedies
have medicinal value. Apart from
their psychological benefits, the ef-
ficacy of many of the treatments is
at best dubious, yet some have defi-
nite merit.
As a general rule, I find the
greater the number of folk cures en-
listed for one malady, the lesser the
likelihood that any will be effective.
(The same is true, of course, for
modern medicine. One need but re-
view recent medical literature
tetanus or snakebite to see how var^
ied and contradictory are the find-
ings and recommendations wher
dealing with such often fatal, yel
enigmatic, maladies.) Few, if any
of the antipoisons have merit in th(
treatment of venomous reptile anc
arthropod bites. Therefore, oii(
64
finds an astonishing array of addi-
tional remedies: animal, herbal,
fecal, mineral, and even musical.
Violin music is prescribed for the
bite of poisonous spiders! (The lat-
ter treatment ^\'as perhaps suggested
by the violin-shaped marking on
the cephalothorax of the deadly
brown recluse spider.)
On the other hand, if one single
cure exists for a malady, and espe-
cially if that cure is widely prac-
ticed, there is a fair chance that it
may be effective. In the treatment
of cuts and other wounds, the as-
tringent juice of the cactus Pachy-
cereus pecten-aboriginiim is appar-
ently effective in checking bleeding.
I have seen this demonstrated many
times, and now I even prescribe
mouthwashes of the juice of this
cactus, with good results, in cases
of severe bleeding following tooth
extraction.
Chemical analysis has validated
the medicinal properties of certain
of the local plants of the barrancas.
The herbs with proven curative
properties, however, are usually not
those with telltale characteristics re-
lating them to the maladies they
serve. The same is true of animal
cures: the more obvious the home-
opathic link between malady and
remedy, the less likely it is that the
cure has any physiological value.
There are. however, some curious
folk cures worthy, at least, of fur-
ther investigation. The small
amount of venom that remains on
he rattlesnake's fang may, in fact,
lave an anesthetic function for
oothache. Crayfish, eaten whole
nid alive to increase lactation in
•omen do. no doubt, provide
leeded calcium. In some cases, the
ise of cow's urine mixed half-and-
lalf with milk and taken on an
mpty stomach apparently is effec-
ive in the expulsion of intestinal
ioriiis. One cure for arthritis, that
f letting a bee sting the affected
nint seems improbable: yet. before
he introduction of corticoids. some
'.uropean doctors used honeybee
enom to treat joint disease.
The use of oil of vagre, "catfish."
1 the late stages of bad burns de-
Jrves special study. Gross scarring
1 severely burned villagers treated
ith catfish oil is often dramati-
cally less than that of patients with
equivalent burns treated in the best
American hospitals. This is of spe-
cial interest in light of similar results
described in studies of Eskimos,
who also use fish oils to treat burns.
The villagers may even be on to
some unique biological medicines.
For infections in postpartum
women, they brew a tea from un-
derground fungus gardens of leaf-
cutting ants. Like penicillin, this
fungus may combat bacterial in-
fection. Conversely, fresh cow
dung, plastered on a child's scalp to
control fungal infection, sometimes
seems to work, perhaps due to the
action of fungus-suppressing bac-
teria so abundant in fecal material.
If some of the folk remedies of
the barrancas have probable merit,
others are regrettabh harmful.
With few possible exceptions, the
use of feces, for example, is of no
benefit, and when applied to open
sores or wounds may be the source
of tetanus or other disastrous in-
fections. No less detrimental to
health is the so-called dieta, or regi-
men, prescribed for a wide variety
of ailments. Most illnesses are clas-
sified according to their cause as
either caliente. "hot." or fresco,
"cold." and foods used in treatment
are classified in the same way. This
classification is arbitrary, and bears
no relation to either the temperature
or spiciness of the food. For some
illnesses hot foods are to be avoided,
for others, cold foods. If a person
has a bad cold, for instance, he
should under no circumstances eat
an orange, as oranges are mur
fresco and may produce congestion.
{Congestion, for which there exists
a formidable gamut of causes and
remedies, is a catch-all infirmity
covering everything from appendi-
citis to heart failure and tetanus.)
One of the most far-reaching and
devastating dietas is that which a
postpartum mother must follow.
She must not bathe for fifteen days
following childbirth. She must not
eat eggs for tweiity days. For forty
days she must not eat any fruits or
vegetables, including beans, the vil-
lagers' main source of protein. Dur-
ing these fort>' days, the new
mother may eat young roosters, but
not hens — and not roosters that
have begun to mate. She must avoid
going barefoot or handling moist
earth. For twenty' days she must
avoid eating venison because it is
"very cold." In short, about all the
postpartum mother ends up eating
is corn and. if available, white rice.
As most of the women in the bar-
rancas are anemic even before preg-
nancy, the nutritional deficiencies
that result from the dieta lower
even more their resistance to hem-
orrhage and infection. If the
mother succumbs, the distraught
villagers search her past for some
violation of the dieta, and only
when an answer has been guessed
at and irrevocably confirmed by re-
peating it many times do they rest
easy once again.
One must wonder about the ori-
gin of many of these beliefs and
folk remedies. How- old are they?
From where do they stem? The
campesinos live inhinsically off the
land, and the land, with its unique
flora and fauna, its torrential rains
and droughts, its absolutes and un-
certainties, goes far in shaping the
lore of its people. The folk medi-
cine of the barrancas is not static,
but slowly evolving, like the land-
scape itself.
Historically, however, there are
three conspicuous sources of the lo-
cal medical lore. Out of the past
have come the myths and medicines
of the endemic Indian civilization
and of the invading Spanish civ-
ilization, whose merger produced
the present mestizo population. In
addition, there are smatterings of
modern science. The influences
from these three sources have been
turned and twisted until they can
exist side by side in the minds of
the people. It is not uncommon to
see a woman with a migraine head-
ache first bind her brow with the
leaf of a wild arum lily, as did her
Indian predecessors: then consult a
curandera to have the causative hex
lifted, as did her Spanish ancestors
in the Dark Ages: and finally go to
a modern quack in the next village
to have herself injected, because
"injections are good."
From the former Indian culture
have come not only the basic herbal
cures, but also an intriguing moon
lore. Older villagers recall that the
^S
full-blooded Indians would sleep
with their wives only during the
waning moon so that their off-
spring would be strong and live
long. Although this custom has
gone out of vogue, the villagers to-
day still cut timber for huts and
fences only when the moon is wan-
ing, insisting that timber cut during
the waxing moon rots more quick-
ly. They still believe, also, that the
light of an eclipsing moon will
cause developing fruit to shrivel be-
fore it matures, but that flying a
piece of red cloth from the tip of
the tree may prevent this "eclips-
ing" of the fruit. Once, on my re-
turn from the upper villages. I
found my favorite red shirt flap-
ping from the top of the mango tree
outside my dispensary. In like man-
ner, birth deformities are reputedly
engendered when the light of the
eclipsing moon falls on a pregnant
woman. The danger exists when the
moonlight strikes one side of a
woman only. As a preventive mea-
sure, pregnant women (and often
nonpregnant ones, just to be sure)
go outside during the eclipse and
turn around three times.
Through the Spanish side of the
ancestry come other ideas and leg-
ends. The oldest relic of folklore
pathology in the barrancas ti'aces
back to the notorious basilisk of the
ancient Greeks. This mythological
dragon. aUeged to have caused in-
stant death to anyone who looked
upon it. has shrunken noticeably in
the 2.500 years of its evolution. To-
day in the Sierra Madre. the basil-
isco is said to be a strange little an-
imal, rarely — or more probably,
ngyer — encountered, which hatches
from the undersized egg of a
chicken that has mated with the soil
instead of a rooster. It is said that
one has only to look at this ugly,
lizardlike apparition and he will go
as blind as if he had been urinated
upon by a bat.
A number of mythological ail-
ments and their treatments stem
from traditions of medieval Spain.
One. caida de mollera, means
"fallen fontanel." When infants get
severe diarrhea — as they frequendy
do in villages where the only sani-
tary facility is the omnivorous
pig — tissue dehydration from fluid
loss may cause the fontanel, or un-
closed portion of the cranium, to
sag inwards. The villagers, observ-
ing this, have put the cart before
the horse by concluding that the
child has diarrhea because its
brains have slipped downward.
Treatment consequently consists of
elevating the brains back into place.
Each curandera has her own proce-
dure. These include holding the
baby upside down over a bowl of
hot cooking oil and slapping the
bottoms of its feet three times to
jolt the brains back into position.
Or, moistening the baby's crown
with hot oil and sucking upward
three times on the fontanel to lift
the brains into position. Another
recommendation is to open the
baby's mouth and push upward on
the palate with the forefinger to
hoist the baby's brains back into
position.
It is surprising how many babies
not only survive this treatment, but
show improvement afterwards. A
few, however, die.
Whatever merits and demerits it
may have, the medical lore of the
barrancas is not wanting in inge-
nuity or imagination. The one con-
cept utterly lacking in folk medi-
cine, however, is that very concept
upon which modern medicine is
founded: scientific method. True,
the campesinos' desire for answers
equals that of the modern re-
searcher. When confronted by an
infirmity, they also search for both
cause and cure, and find them. Of-
ten their line of reasoning is both
logical and complex. But there is no
provision for checking a rational
answer against physical events, no
allowance for testing a hypothesis.
Rather, the hv'pothesis is trans-
muted into a conclusion by the pro-
cess of simple repetition. "Might it
have been this?" becomes, "It must
have been this," and finally, irrevo-
cably, "It was this!" Thus we find,
because someone's great-grand-
mother, years ago, ate an orange in
the evening and that night died of a
heart attack, that today no one in
the barrancas will touch an orange
after sundown.
Similar conclusions from coinci-
dental events have given rise to folk
beliefs that "eggs eaten after dark
cause congestion" that "the bite of
the green iguana poisons calves,"
and to many other causes and cures
for maladies. By the same token, it
is no surprise that the dieta of post-
partum mothers is so limited. The
incidence of puerpeural mortality is
high, largely due to lack of sterile
techniques by midwives, and the re-
sultant infections are invariably
blamed on some violation of the
dieta. If no violation can be found,
a new source of the problem is
sought. "It must have been the
mango she ate," is quickly abbre-
viated to. "It was the mango," and
from that day on the mango is in-
cluded on the blacklist. And so the
list is expanded until the dietu itself
becomes a contributing factor in
maternal mortality.
Yet never is an attempt made to
systematically gather evidence that
will either support or disprove a
proposed cause or remedy. To
search for evidence is to admit un-
certainty, and in the Sierra Madre,
as anywhere, uncertainty is difficult
for man to tolerate. It is easier to
live in dread of something spe-
cific— even if m^-thological — than to
admit that one does not know the
direction in which the danger lies.
Fear of the unknown is the great-
est fear of all. and in the prescien-
tific world of the barrancas, the un-
known looms large indeed. The
campesino has neither the equip-
ment nor the know-how to decipher
even the simpler enigmas of nature.
If he did not buffer his reality with
a battery of rational, if sometimes
ill-founded, explanations, the maze
of unforeseen dangers and in-
explicable events would soon be
overpowering. Thus we find that in
the barrancas, the \nllagers are de-
voted, not so much to seeking causes
and cures that are valid, but to se-
curing clear-cut causes and cures
for everything.
A scorpion that has just stu^
a woman's finger is split
its ventral side and til
against the finger as treatiliei
66
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tent on smaller prey species.
The training of young lions to
kill is long and arduous. When the
kittens are quite young, the lioness
leaves them and hunts alone. Upon
making a kill, she returns and takes
her family to the prize. She may be-
gin hunting again from this kill be-
fore it is entirely consumed, or she
may move her family to a different
area and start a new hunt. If hunt-
ing is difficult, the young may be
left alone and unattended for two
or more days.
As the kittens grow and are bet-
ter able to travel, a lioness may
take one with her on her forays,
leaving the others behind. We
recorded this numerous times, but
we never observed a female taking
an entire litter on a hunt. It is prob-
ably difficult for a whole family to
approach prey successfully. The
young are playful and frolic a great
deal — certainly no asset to the hunt-
ing mother. More important, I feel,
is that the female can better train
one kitten at a time in the tech-
niques of hunting and killing deer
and elk.
In December, 1967, we tracked
female No. 4 and one of her two 18-
month-old kittens. They were hunt-
ing and had made three unsuccess-
ful stalks on elk. In each instance
they had frightened the animal be-
fore approaching within striking
distance. Finally, the tracks in the
snow indicated they had success-
fully approached an elk calf, and
the kitten had launched an attack.
While his mother stayed above on
the slope, he bounded twice from
cover and was upon the elk, but
being unskilled he could not com-
plete the kill. The calf had run
diagonally across the slope, plung-
ing through the deep snow with the
young cat clinging to it. Then the
elk's tracks ended abruptly — from
above, the female had bounded
down the slope and literally killed
the calf in its tracks. A skid mark
to the willows below revealed its re-
mains, neatly buried under snow,
leaves, and sticks. We captured this
female and her kitten a short dis-
tance away.
The lions hunt as much, if not
more, in the day as they do at
night. The amount of traveling and
hunting depends upon their success.
After killing a large animal, such as
an elk or a deer, an undisturbed
lion usually remains with the car-
cass until it is completely con-
sumed. We found no instance of
wanton killing. And their diet is not
limited to big game. They kill and
eat a wide range of small mam-
mals: snowshoe hares, wood rats,
mice, squirrels, raccoons, and even
coyotes. Droppings revealed that
The minimuin winter home
ranges of three male and six
female lions are shown in the
Big Creek basin in Idaho
Males may overlap female
territories, but maintain a
definite boundary with
othf
lales.
ground squirrels and pocket go-
phers were common in their summer
diet, along with other, smaller spe-
cies. Some droppings contained
nothing but grasshopper remains.
Lions, like most predators, eat what
is most easily obtained.
Capturing and observing treed
lions at close range told us much
about their behavior under stress.
Without exception they were calm
once they were out of reach of the
clamoring hounds. On several occa-
sions, when cornered in bluffs or on
a cliff, they lashed out at the press-
ing dogs but never attacked. And
never did they attempt to reach us,
although we were within striking
distance of treed lions several
times.
Two instances are memorable. In
one, a male sought refuge on a nar-
row ledge. As we approached, he
disappeared from view. Thinking
he had gone around the bluff, Wil-
bur climbed the ledge to see what
route he had taken. Pulling himself
up over a rim. Wilbur came face to
face with the lion, crouched on the
end of the ledge. It had nowhere to
go but back toward him. With a
mighty effort the lion leaped di-
rectly over Wilbur's head and was
gone. Another time we released
the dogs on fresh tracks of a male
and female. While tracking the pair
we paused under a small fir where
the lions had slept. I glanced up in-
stinctively and there, not more than
ten feet above Wilbur, was the male
calmly staring down. Apparently he
had leaped up the tree as the dogs
neared, but they just dashed on in
pursuit of the female. These in-
stances and others convinced us
that lions attack only as a last re-
sort. They want only to get away.
As we learned more about their
habits, we wondered how hunting
pairs or families keep track of one
another. The key to this question
came in March. 1966, when the Di-
vision of Wildlife Services of the
U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and
Wildlife gave me two newborn kit-
tens orphaned in its control oper-
ations.
From the time they were very
small these kittens made interesting
sounds. These could best be de-
scribed as whistles and resembled
bird calls more than anything else.
They used different tones when
greeting me or each other, when
alarmed, or when calling. Other
tones (along with a rumbling purr)
indicated pleasure and contentment.
At no time did I hear them
"scream," nor have I ever heard
anything like a scream in the wild.
They could, and did, make many
sounds similar to that of housecats,
but much louder.
I am certain that lions in the
wild communicate by means of
these whistlelike sounds. I had won-
dered how hunting pairs could sep-
arate— one dropping into a canyon,
the other circling the basin — then
rejoin each other to continue the
hunt. Or how a female could call
her kittens from a distant ridge.
A piercing, whistlelike sound is
used as a warning. Once we met,
almost head on in a steep section of
trail, a female. No. 7, and her two
20-month-old kittens. The female
bounded down the mountainside
but the kittens were confused and
not particularly alarmed. The fe-
male paused and sounded a sharp
whistle. Immediately the kittens fol-
lowed their mother, running pell-
mell down the slope. The female
crossed the creek bottom and
paused again. By that time we had
released the dogs. She emitted a
piercing whistle, and the kittens re-
sponded by climbing the nearest
tree. The dogs tore on in pursuit of
the female, past the tree with the
kittens, and treed her a quarter-mile
beyond. She had evidently warned
her kittens with those sounds.
In addition to studying the dy-
namics of a lion population, we
wanted to establish the ecological
role of the mountain lion in a wil-
derness environment. To assess pre-
dation and its effect on populations
of prey animals, various factors
must be considered. These factors,
first advanced by Aldo Leopold, in-
clude population densities and the
behavioral characteristics of both
the predator and prey. Each of
these variables considered sepa-
rately tells us little, but when con-
sidered in combination, sound in-
terpretations of the interrelation-
ships can be made.
For four years, throughout win-
ter and spring, we made observa-
tions on numbers, sex, and age of
big game. Mule deer and elk were
the major prey species in winter. A
population of 100 to 125 bighorn
sheep in the study area made up an
"Anextraordinaiybook."
-John Livingston
THIS second volume of The
Naturalist's America
brilliantly portrays the complex
world of one of America's great-
est mountain ranges, the Sierra
Nevada. Sensational even on this
continent, the 400-mile expanse
of rugged peaks, fir forests, red-
wood groves, meadows and chap-
arral is a wonder of wonders. If
you want to explore the Sierra
Nevada by trail, car, from an
armchair, in the classroom, from
close-up or afar, this is the book
for you. It provides the ecological
perspective of a century's accu-
mulated knowledge and field ob-
servation. The author is at once
a professional biologist, an ex-
perienced ornithologist, and an
outstanding wildlife photog-
rapher.
Sierra
Nevada
By VERNA R. JOHNSTON
Illustrated with photographs,
8 pages in full color. $7.95
THE NATURALIST'S
AMERICA
a new series written by leading au-
thorities and beautifully illustrated,
has made an auspicious beginning.
These books fill an urgent need, de-
scribing our country's unique com-
binations of life and landscape from
the ecological point of view. First
in the series is
The ^Appalachians
By Maurice Brooks
A book for those "who like to get
meaning and excitement out of driv-
ing or walking or poking around,
who want to know where to go to
see significant and extraordinary
things." — New York Times Book
Review $6.95
At your favorite bookseller's
HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
2 Park St., Boston 02107
69
-", /r'M^^" . *
^ges^R.
THEY'LL DIE
unless you and we help ihem. They'll
Die— and thousands more like them
of many different species will die —
unless money is made available to
finance the many requests from East
Africa's National Parks, Research Or-
ganizations and Game Departments.
During 1969 we funded conserva-
tion projects amounting to $74,500 in
Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. We
need your continued support to com-
bat the increasing menace of extinc-
tion for many species of wild animal,
by making a donation or by joining
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Membership of the Society will cost
you $10 annually. For this you receive
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and are entitled to buy our ties, car
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insignificant part of the lions' diet.
Each spring, when big game move
to new grass on open, south-facing
slopes, aerial surveys were taken.
It is difficult to establish a total
population size for big game in
such a rugged, mountainous area.
However, the data obtained from
ground observations, together with
those from aerial counts, allowed a
reasonably accurate estimate.
The numbers of both deer and
elk increased each year. The num-
ber of fawn deer per 100 does and
calf elk per 100 cows also increased
each year. This increase was attrib-
uted to three consecutive mild win-
ters. Because snowfall was light,
deer and elk were not forced to con-
centrate at low elevations on the
winter range. They ate many food
plants that would have been unavail-
able in a normal winter and came
through in good condition. As a re-
sult, fawn and calf crops were high,
survival was up, and the herds in-
creased. These increases occurred
despite the pressure of human hunt-
ing each fall and steady predation
by lions during the study period.
We found kills by tracking lions
to them; in addition, ravens, mag-
pies, and golden eagles often in-
dicated the presence of a carcass.
Lions made most kills in rugged
bluff areas, on heavily timbered
north slopes, along creeks, and in
brushy ravine bottoms. We encoun-
tered and subsequently captured
many lions at kills. At some kills,
we were able to identify the pre-
dator by characteristic signs.
Deer and elk made up the great-
est share of the lions' winter diet.
Examination of 198 lion feces
showed that these two species com-
prised 70 percent of the prey.
Snowshoe hares occurred 5% per-
cent of the time, and various small
mammals and grass made up the re-
mainder. We also documented kills
of three coyotes, two bighorn sheep,
and one mountain goat.
We examined 53 elk and 46 mule
deer killed by lions in the four-year
period and recorded their sex, age,
and physical condition. Of the elk,
75 percent were young (1.5 years
or less) or old (8.5-9.5 years or
more) ; 62 percent of the deer were
young or very old. Lions killed — in
proportion to their number in the
total population of deer and elk —
more adult males and fawns and
calves. As shown by the figures in
the table below, they killed fewer
Elk and Mule Deer Killed Annually by Mountain Lions
in Big Creek Basin During Winter Season, 1964-68
ELK
70
Estimated
% of total
Killed
%of
population
population
by lions
lion kill
Adult males
121
12
9
17
Adult females
687
68
16
'30
Calves
202
20
28
53
Total
1,010
100
53
100
MULE DEER
Estimated
% of total
Killed
%of
population
population
by lions
lion kill
Adult males
220
13
16
35
Adult females
1,101
65
14
30
Fawns
373
22
16
35
Total
1,694
100
46
100
adult does and cows than had been
expected.
The data in the table suggest that
lions (1) select young and old ani-
mals and (2) select adult males.
While this may be true, particularly
in the case of calf elk, I believe en-
vironmental factors, including den-
sity of the prey, are more important
in determining the kind of animal
killed. Lions are opportunists. They
will kill an animal that places itself
in a vulnerable position. The young
and the old do this more often than
prime animals. However, buck deer
and bull elk often remain alone and
at higher elevations than do the
does and cows. Further, some bucks
and bulls, following the rut, enter
the winter in a weakened condition.
These factors increase their vul-
nerability, which, in my opinion, is
much more important than numer-
ical availability in determining the
makeup of the kill by mountain
lions. The lion does not select a
particular prey animal; rather, it is
selected for him by different envi-
ronmental factors that increase that
particular animal's susceptibility.
These factors include prey density,
behavior, age, health, interspecific,
and perhaps, intraspecific com-
petition, and the lion's predatory
characteristics.
To determine the relationship of
the elk and deer to their food sup-
ply, I appraised the condition of
the vegetation on the winter range.
Mountain mahogany and bitterbush
are probably the major plants in
the diet of elk and deer. Despite
three consecutive mild winters and
the availability of alternate food
plants, these two plants were over-
browsed, an indication that too
many game animals inhabited the
range.
The information gained in our
study allows us to make three
points and draw the role of moun-
tain lion predation more sharply
into focus:
(1) The mountain lion popu-
lation remained stable throughout
the study period.
(2) Populations of elk and mule
deer, the principal prey species, in-
creased during the four-year period
they were studied.
(3) Elk and mule deer over-
utilized key winter forage species
during the study period.
These data show that lion pre-
dation was not limiting the elk and
deer populations, but that winter
food was the most important factor
limiting their numbers. Factors
other than food supply controlled
the number of lions. By spacing
them throughout the area, territo-
riality limits the size of the lion
population within the area. For de-
termining ultimate numbers of elk
and deer, lion predation was in-
consequential.
Lion predation does, however,
dampen severe oscillations in the
number of elk and deer. Lions
lower the rate of increase of their
prey before more drastic forces,
such as disease or starvation, take
their heavy toll. Lions also keep
deer and elk moving on the winter
range, thus distributing them more
evenly on restricted range and re-
ducing local overuse of the vegeta-
tion. In an ecological sense, there-
fore, the influence on surviving
animals is tremendously important.
Predation by lions in our study
area clearly benefits mule deer and
elk populations.
Our work is continuing. Some
questions can only be answered by
more refined techniques. Graduate
student Jack Seidensticker has
joined Wilbur Wiles and me in ex-
tending our work throughout the
year by means of radiotelemetry.
By attaching small radio trans-
mitters to the lions, we hope to gain
specific information about their
year-round activities.
Mankind tends to view wild ani-
mals as either "good" or "bad."
The large carnivores, such as
wolves, lions, and tigers, have al-
ways been bad. Literature, movies,
and, more recently, television have
perpetuated this villainous image.
Ironically, although man regards
such qualities as intelligence, adap-
tiveness, strength, and agility as bad
in an animal, he admires these
qualities in his fellowman and
strives for them himself. Fortu-
nately, as we lose some of our pio-
neer attitudes, the image we hold
of many predators is changing. Our
society is becoming more apprecia-
tive of all wildlife and is demanding
a halt to the persecution of many
species. The mountain lion, which
has long suffered such persecution,
now stands to be recognized by an
enlightened human society for what
he is — a princely animal. ■
"A remarkable construction
of the life history of Norths
America's largest and
most impressive
bird.-Ei.
SOURCE OF
THE THUNDER
The Biography of a
California Condor by
ROGER CARAS
author of Panther! and
Monarch ol Deadman Bay
Roger Caras, nature and conser-
vation commentator on TV and
radio and author of authentic doc-
umentary novels about America's
vanishing wildlife, has now writ-
ten the dramatic story of the mag-
nificent soaring bird that has vir-
tually disappeared from the face
of -the earth. Following the life
cycle of a single condor — one of
just fifty that remain where thou-
sands flourished only ISO years
ago — Mr. Caras portrays the spe-
cies in every aspect of its life and
habits. The condor's flight train-
ing, his encounters with predators
(including man, the greatest of all
predators), and his highly ritual-
ized mating and family-raising pro-
cedures are accurately and color-
fully re-created in words and
drawings.
In the words of Roland C. Cle-
ment, vice president of the Na-
tional Audubon Society, Source of
the Thunder is "sensitive, neces-
sarily fictionalized but honest . . .
delightful reading." But more than
a portrait of a rare species, the
book is a stirring reminder of how
greed and stupidity, through hunt-
ers' guns, housing tracts, and giant
logging operations, have threatened
the survival of the condor. Point-
ing out the ecological importance
of the great bird whom the Indians
referred to as "source of the thun-
der," Mr. Caras vividly demon-
strates why mankind must increase
its efforts to preserve not only this
one species but all the gifts that
the wilderness provides.
Everyone interested in the out-
doors will want to read this enjoy-
able, instructive book. Get your
copies now at leading bookstores,
or order direct from the publisher.
■ — — — — — — -^ ^ — ^_
. To your bookstore or NH-1 1 ;
I Little, Brown and Company, Inc.
I 34 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. 02106
; Please send me copies of Source of
I ttie Tliunder (128384) at $5.95 each.
I I enclose Q check □ money order in the
(amount of $ including appli-
cable sales tax. If not fully satisfied, I
may return the boo
a complete refund.
I CITY_
I STATE.
71
Persuasive Scents in Moth Sex Life Continued from page 39
brush type of organ has been lost in
many species and, in at least one
instance, a completely new organ
has developed from the vestiges of
it. The implication is that whatever
their function, the brush organs are
certainly of great adaptive value
and as such, are subject to powerful
and variable selection pressures; al-
though, as yet, we can only guess at
what these pressures might be.
Moth scents have not emerged
from our study as universal aphro-
disiacs for the would-be seducer;
rather, the scents act primarily as
either sedatives or attractants, de-
pending on the sex of the producer.
For the male moth, enticed by the
female lure, they are, in fact, some-
what of a handicap since he is re-
fused his ultimate aim until he pro-
duces means of identification or
evidence of value as a protector.
The current awareness of pollu-
tion problems and the alarm over
indiscriminate use of insecticides
has created interest in using phero-
mones. for moth control. The eco-
nomic implications of this are
enormous when we consider that
among Lepidoptera in which sex at-
tractants are known to be present
are the corn earworm, the fall army
worm, codling moths, leaf rollers,
cabbage loopers, and cutworms, to
name but a few. The female at-
tractants are effective in minute
amounts and over long distances.
They are stable and almost species
specific for this purpose. They are
also nontoxic to other animals. One
possibly effective method would be
to use pheromone lures to attract
males to particular points where
they could then be destroyed with-
out universal insecticide appli-
cation. This has been attempted
with the gypsy moth, Lymantria
dispar, a severe forest pest, but did
not reduce the pest to a low enough
density to be termed successful.
Pheromone traps are. however,
used to indicate when the pest pop-
ulation is building up to plague
proportions, and thus, when and
where spraying can be carried out.
A slightly different approach sug-
gested by the Canadian entomolo-
gist R. H. Wright involves saturat-
ing the atmosphere with female at-
tractant to confuse and disorient the
males. Hopefully, none will then lo-
cate females and mate, although in-
variably some would mate either
through chance encounter or be-
cause of the difficulties of insuring
an even saturation of the air. The
success of any of these methods
would depend on the cost of manu-
facturing and applying the phero-
mones involved as compared to the
cost of insecticides, assuming that
the theory would work in practice.
The possibility of eliminating
serious agricultural depredations
caused by insects is important
enough to warrant serious research.
With the application of effective
and economical pheromone tech-
niques, the abolition of hard pesti-
cides from the world environment
could become a reality. The ben-
efits, for both food production and
the ecology, would be immense. ■
THIS YEAR, STONE SANTA
Well, maybe not literally. But consider the aggravation of finding truly meaningful gifts for those
adults and children who have the necessities of life. We have several suggestions for tranquilizing
Christmas madness :
STUFF SOX WITH ROCKS?
Of course. We recommend GEODES. A geode is a ball-shaped hollow rock lined with glittering
quartz and other crystals. They are positively lovely, totally natural — cannot be made in Taiwan
out of plastics — about 40 million years old and no verbal description or flat photograph does them
justice. Hence, our calm guarantee: Return if unhappy for full and prompt refund. Since no two ge-
odes are ever alike, they make truly special gifts.
#1. For $5. we'll ship you a 3 to 4" diameter SPLIT MATED GEODE PAIR (the halves fit back together
quite neatly).
#2. A selected GEODE HALF, at least SVi" dia., with a hand-polished agate rim is just $10.
We personally pick the above items for sparkle and beauty.
#3. A baker's dozen UNOPENED MEXICAN GEODES, just as they come from the mines. Avg. 2 " dia., may
or may not be hollow. Solid types frequently contain swirled gray/blue/ white agate; hollows may bej
lined with smoky, clear or purple amethyst crystals. Break 'em with chisel and hammer. Incredible
stocking stuffers. May also be used (with sling) to slay large Phillistines. $6 for the bagfull.
#4. A box containing assorted, identified small sparkling crystal specimens. If you like pleasant surprises
for $5.
#5. One of everything for $25.
All Prices INCLUDE Postage
Your first order places you on our mailing list for periodic bulletins listing geodes, splendid minerals
and other nifty stuff.
ROTH M A N ' S • RD #2, mU House • Downingtown, Pa. 19335
72
THE MUSEUM SHOP
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
CENTRAL PARK WEST AT 79TH. STREET
NEW yORK, N.Y. 10024
Membefs of the Museum are entitled to
TOTAL
N.Y. residents please add taxes.
ADDRESS _
^X CITY k_
. STATE .
elMstnttas
For your tree — from Mexico
colorful tin anitnals
A. HORSE -approx. 5" high
B. LION — approx. 5" long
C. REINDEER — approx. 6y2" high
D. BIRD — wingspreatd SVz" long
E. ELEPHANT- approx. 41/2" long
Please give 1st, 2nd, and 3rd choice.
SET OF THREE $6.00*
For the home - from Mexico
F. TREE OF LIFE-colorfui candle holder-
8%" tall. NO TWO ALIKE $6.00*
For your tree - front Taiwan
animals nuide of hurlap
G. H. I. HORSE, LION, ELEPHANT -about AVz"
long. SET OF THREE $5.25*
From Poland
J. CRECHE -approx. 41/2 "high
K. CRECHE -approx. 4" high
NO TWO ALIKE $5.75 each*
'Includes postage and handling.
Our remarkable new loll about typewriter end table
IS the most \ersdtile and completely usable desk ever.
It opens and extends into a full fledged portable
liome office Drop leaf lifts for a large writing sur-
face— iiolds adding machine, too. Top drawer stores
any standard portable typewriter, rolls out and up
to perfect typing height. Middle drawer is storage.
Bottom is standard filing drawer (legal size flies
sideways). And all rolls smootlily on large, con-
cealed casters. You'd never know this handsome end
table load so many beautiful faces. Hand crafted of
select knotty pine, in honey tone or maple, antique
pine or walnut finish. 29"H 23V'. "D 18^'i"\V f36"W
leaf up). $65.95. COMPLETE KIT: All machined,
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Both Express Charges Collect.
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BEAUTIFUllY CONTEMPORARY
s this hand crafted representa-
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Key of Life" in solid sterling
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1 daily use after the Egyp-
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naiiaiiiasQisa
incfudtt outstanding reproductions of
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If N-SFJ • 648 Ninth Avenue
New York, NY. 10036
r %\ WICKER
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Rooms—
Our princely frog
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for wastepaper,
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don't kids love to fill him upl Hand-woven natu-
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HELP ENDANGERED SPECIES
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The Chromatic Wood Sculpture of Mortimer Borne Continued from page 33
you all the commercial names and
all the scientific names. That's ac-
tually English maple, over there.
Mrs. B: I can't pronounce it. Any-
way, here it is: A-c-e-r. And then
the next word is pseudoplat. . . .
MB: Oh, forget it. I really. . . .
NH: Well, in the process of putting
together one of these sculptures, do
you take an ax in your hand, or
whatever — it's fourteen feet — what
do you do, have chunks or pieces
and then just cut them up, and then
something grows out of that or
what?
MB: No, well, I have the wood
standing around downstairs. Just
standing around. And then I'll
make a decision what to start with.
A single piece of wood. After start-
ing on it, I have a rough idea in my
mind now about the image I'm try-
ing to project and then I cut that
piece on the band saw and I pro-
ceed— if it's on a panel — to glue it
and dowel it on the panel. If it's in
the round, I don't do anything until
I get the next piece and then I join
this piece to the other. But the dow-
eling is most important.
NH: Do you work with any special
kind of glues?
MB: No. Basically, I use Elmer's
glue or Weldwood. But I don't de-
pend on it. I depend on the dowels.
Whenever possible, I have two dow-
els in a piece.
Mrs. B: Sometimes the temperature
will affect the glue.
MB: I was told that certain glues
are impervious to this, to that, but I
really don't believe it — a change
from hot to cold can loosen it up.
But with the dowel in, there is no
possibility.
NH : What are some of the most ex-
otic woods you have worked with?
MB: Well, let's say, bulletwood, for
example. It's very hard — one of the
hardest woods — and it was used by
the inhabitants of the Virgin Is-
lands way back to build their
houses against marauders; in fact,
after a hundred years, the parts of
those buildings that were made of
the bulletwood are still standing;
the rest of the house has deterio-
rated. Actually, a bullet does not
penetrate — a bullet in those days, I
imagine. Maybe now they have bid-
lets that can penetrate even steel.
Mrs. B: Actually, over a hundred
years of exposure to the tropical
elements, we still find door frames.
windows. ...
MB : Yes, made of that wood.
NH: What is the scientific name of
it?
Mrs. B: M-a-n-i. . . .
MB: Oh, read it, will you please?
Mrs. B: All right. Manilkara biden-
tat a.
NH: What are some other woods
you've used?
MB: I was just thinking about a
very simple wood — birch. I got the
shock of my life when I received a
piece of birch from Sweden or Nor
way, I don't remember which.
When I sanded it, it seemed to be
as tough and as close-grained as
steel. One of the most beautiful
woods I've ever used. And in a
way — the look to it — I have it in
one of the sculptures.
NH: You don't interest yoursell
very much in the leaves or flowers
or fruits.
MB: No, no. I think it's difficult
enough for me to be acquainted
with so many different varieties —
with what it looks like. Oh, ]
learned a lot — I used to think tha
ebony was such a hard wood; com
pared to some of the woods that 1
use, ebony is soft.
NH : Can you work these things
with chisels?
MB: I rough them out on a bam
saw. That I should have told you. 1
started out by using regular wood
cutting blades on the band saw anc
I used to break at least one a da^
because it would get hot cutting
and spring open. Then I discoverec
that if I use a metal-cutting blade
it's slower but it stands up a lonj
time. So that's what I use — a metal
cutting blade for roughing it out
after that, chisels and the gouge,
same as any carving.
NH: Were you ever interested ii
going to the tropics to see some o
these woods in their natural state'
MB: Yes, of course. I've never ha(
the opportunity so far. Eventually
I think I'll do that. I'd especialb
like to see lignum vitae which I un
derstand grows right in the watei
That's an amazing wood. The spe
cific gravity of that wood is almos
the same as stone, extremely heavy
'
74
the heaviest. I believe lignum vitae
is the heaviest. An interesting thing
about that: they still use lignum
vitae for gears in certain in-
accessible places — on boats, where
it is difficult to oil certain parts.
Lignum vitae is self-lubricating and
lasts something like three or four
times longer than steel. That's an
interesting characteristic in wood
that few people know about.
NH: Do you have a favorite wood?
MB: Oh, I don't know. The favorite
I guess is the one that's most diffi-
cult to obtain. American holly. Dif-
ficult to obtain because the trees
don't grow very large. And it's the
whitest wood. When I need a white
accent, I use the holly.
Mrs. B: What about the California
redwood?
MB: I'm thinking about California
orangewood. I was using California
orangewood and the sawdust made
me quite sick.
NH : You were allergic. . . .
MB: Everybody is — the sawdust,
just the fine sawdust will make any-
body sick. I read an interesting
thing about that. All you have to do
is walk into a room in which that
California orangewood sits and
you'll react. Of course, when it's
waxed and dried, it's dead already,
you know.
V//; Imagine somebody going into
one of your exhibitions, walking in
and ....
MB: No, not after it's waxed. It
inly affects you immediately after
avrtng it.
Mrs. B: It's really the sawdust thai
loes it.
^B: I've gone downstairs and I've
melled a piece of orangewood and
here was that telltale smell, you
now.
^H: Do you find chestnut harder
o get?
IB: Chestnut is not considered a
lardwood.
'•IH: You say you've used it, occa-
ionally.
iB: I used it solid. Before I
tarted this chromatic wood sculp-
Lire. I call this chromatic wood
culpture. I named it. I don't know
low aptly.
Irs. B: I think it's very apropos
ecause, you see, you have what is
ailed polychrome sculpture. That's
sculpture made of one kind of wood
and then you use paint and gold
and silver, and if you are going to
want to look up a piece of work
that is sculpture made in that way,
you would have to look it up in the
index under "polychrome sculp-
ture." Since this is so very differ-
ent, the thought was not to use poly-
chrome sculpture because it would
simply get mixed in. It's entirely
different. So this is one of the rea-
sons why we named it chromatic,
which, of course, means color.
MB: What I really should do is
have an exhibition in New York of
the chromatic wood sculpture for
about twenty people, which I still
haven't done yet. Nowadays, this
business here about galleries is so
precarious. There was a time when
quality meant something. You went
to a gallery in New York and if
they thought you had something
there, they'd put on an exhibition
for you and you wouldn't even pay
for the catalog. Today it's differ-
ent— anybody can get an exhibi-
tion. You just pay for everything.
Mrs. B: Literally anybody.
MB: It's three, four, five thousand
dollars — big business. Now I don't
go in for that kind of thing, and 1
was just waiting for a museum.
When a museum gives you an exhi-
bition, you don't pay. That's what I
was waiting for.
NH: Is there any aspect of the
wood sculpture that we haven't
touched on?
MB: I think the most important
part of it is the fact that you're able
to construct an image of various
colors and textures that is different
from traditional sculpture. In tradi-
tional sculpture, you depend on one
wood, one color. You hope to get
little differences of grain in the di-
rection of cutting, but that's where
it ends. I thought that one could
build up sculpture with various tex-
tures and various colors, as the
spirit dictates. That gives a lot of
freedom to the sculpture. You're
not bound to that one material and
still it could have the unity of mate-
rial because it's all wood. The poly-
chrome sculpture — much of it is
very interesting, but it moves away
from sculpture altogether. It be-
comes a colored image, and in fact.
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the material in which the poly-
chrome sculpture was made is so
completely hidden that you don't
know of its existence. It could be
plaster or anything else, not wood
any more. Although wood was used
originally. From the fourteenth to
the sixteenth century, both in the
north countries of Europe and in
Spain and even in South America
there was much of this polychrome
sculpture. It was put mainly in the
churches and it was used as a deco-
rative material. It was not intended
as an expressive material and all
the gold and the semiprecious
stones that they used were meant to
harmonize with the interiors, where-
ever it was placed. It is surprising
that all through these centuries,
somebody did not use wood for
what it was meant to be used.
A'^: How was wood meant to be
used?
MB: It was meant to be used as a
color, as a texture, as a material in
building sculpture.
NH: Is that the prime reason for
trees?
MB: Oh, I see what you mean.
Well, I guess, from the point of
view of an artist, I guess that's the
prime purpose. Either to warm
yourself at a fireplace or to carve it
into an image. But aside from that,
it is surprising because I think even
the Egyptians must have had access
to various woods and yet they took
a piece of wood and either carved it
or left it alone, but most of the
time, 99 out of 100 times, they
painted it. Oh, and there's another
thing I want to mention — you
people I guess know. From the
fourteenth to the sixteenth century,
the business of clothing that piece
of sculpture was done by a crafts-
man, not by the same artist who did
the sculpture. They were specialists
and they would take, for example, a
carved figure of a saint and hand it
over to this specialist, this crafts-
man, who put linen on top of the
whole thing and then he put clay on
top of the linen, and then he would
paint it and then he would put gold
and silver on top of that. It was
completely out of the hands of the
sculptor. Now I reacted against all
of these things. One of the reasons I
started to do chromatic wood sculp-
ture was because I didn't think poly-
chrome was the right way to handle
wood. And since every material —
wood or steel or metal — has its own
quality, my idea was to use the
maximum of the material.
Mrs. B: Don't you prefer to build
up rather than to cut down ?
MB: Yes, that's another thing. That
is another thing. It has always both-
ered me — this business of reducing
a stone or marble or wood to your
image. It seemed to me that the way
a man thinks is more a constructive
process: you add your thoughts,
one to the other, and someday I|
hope to be able to do a very fine'
piece of sculpture by using this]
building-up process, because thai
would follow my way of thinking ir
the very process of making th(
thing and it would reflect the pro-,
gression of thoughts which is the
highest aim, I think, that art has.
NH: Are you going to do mucl
more wood sculpture?
MB: Yes, as soon as I sell some be
cause my house is getting filled ui
now.
Mrs. B: He's working.
NH: Are you going to let us pub
lish the prices. We can run some ii
the magazine and put the price oi
them or would you rather not d
that?
MB: I don't think it would be
good idea.
Mrs. B: Actually, prices in the fieli
of art do change a great deal.
MB: Wouldn't the magazine objec
to it anyway?
Mrs. B: Some of the sculpture ha
been appraised for $25,000.
MB: That's not the idea — you stai
with a low fee if you want to giv
an approximation of prices: it goe
from so much to so much, yo
know. I would say it goes froi
$500 to $25,000.
NH : That letter in Science mag£
zine, what was that all about?
MB: This was a thing that was gc
ing on about whether science an
art can be combined and my lettf
dealt with the fact that the Alban
museum put on an exhibition (
photographs taken with an electro
microscope intenningled with ori
nal abstract paintings and the cor
ment there was that the peop
couldn't tell the difference betwee
the photographs and the painting
My point was that it's unfortunat
that the whole idea was wrong,
photograph is never a work of a
76
in that sense. The electron micro-
scope can discover for us things
and objects which we never nor-
mally see. It could be the beginning
of an inspiration to do an abstract
painting, but in itself it isn't, and it
should not be confused. I mean,
that was the general idea there.
There are others who claim that it's
all right.
NH: On what basis do they say
that?
MB: I think they claim simply,
what difference does it make what
the intention of the artist is when
the superficial effect is the same.
My point was that it was only a su-
perficial judgment and that any
deeper judgment would discover a
difference. Not only that, but I
think that anything that is mechani-
cal is not the human artistic pro-
cess. I'll put it this way: No matter
how good a thing is, if it does not
display the progression of reactions
that an artist has to his work, which
goes on all the time while he's mak-
ing it, then it is not alive. The dif-
ference between man's work and
the very best photograph or other
mechanical production is just that;
man's work shows the progress of
his thoughts as he's carving or
painting or drawing, while in the
mechanical part, it's just Bam!
there it is and it's finished. There-
fore, it is not alive. From my point
of view, it is not alive because it
does not show the process of living,
changing, during the process of the
work. If someday, they will be able
to do a photograph which will show
the various sensitivities of the pho-
tographer to the subject, I imagine
that I would have no objection. But
until such time, I draw the line be-
tween's man's work and the me-
chanical. But actually, I may be in-
fluenced by things I saw through
the microscope. It doesn't mean
that I take the simple photomicro-
graph, put a frame around it and
say, "Here it is," no more than I
would take a tree, put it in a frame
and say I made a tree.
NH: That would be presumptuous.
Mfi; It would.
Mrs. B: In other words, an artist
may be inspired by scientific sub-
jects, the same thing as one may be
inspired by looking at a landscape,
but an artist is not a camera.
MB: I would say that a photo-
micrograph is part of our environ-
ment today. The same way that the
photograph was, until now, a part
of our environment.
Mrs. B: Optical illusions are the
same thing. They can be some as-
pect, something that goes into art
but is not art.
MB: I didn't realize that this was
going past the point.
NH: Have you ever tried making
anything useful, like a canoe.
MB: In chromatic wood sculpture?
No, not quite.
Mrs. B: Something useful is that
bookcase there. He made that one.
MB: Sure, decorating the bookcase.
Mrs. B: And he built this room out
there — that was just another porch.
MB: Well, that's simply decorating
useful objects. I think that utility
and expressive art are also at vari-
ance with each other.
NH: Some of your work reminds
me of certain primitive. . . .
MB: You mean the South Sea Is-
landers. Yes.
NH: Have you ever been stimu-
lated by that kind of sculpture or
even something like that of the
Northwest Coast Indians?
MB: I have seen, oh yes, when I
used to visit your museum I was en-
amored with the Northwest — I for-
got the name of the tribe — oh yes,
the Haida. I like their designs. 1
also read books on Egyptian art
and African art, you know. All of
these probably influenced me but I
don't think any one in particular. I
didn't try to imitate the American
Indian or the African. I don't be-
long in the frame of mind. Ours is
a different frame of mind.
NH: Tell me something — a lot of
young sculptors today are working
in metal and glass. Do you have
some feeling about wood that keeps
you there as opposed to some of
these newer materials?
MB: In a way, I would say yes.
Wood is an organic material and
we react more to organic materials
because we are organisms, living
organisms. Wood is closer to life
than the stone or the metal.
NH: Is that true of people living in
New York City?
MB: Even so, even so. Because they
live with other people and they
have children and so forth and they
have communion with their own
species. There's a warmth. I think
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most people would say that wood
has a warm feeling as opposed to
metal which is a colder feeling. But
as far as what you mentioned — ex-
ploiting all the different materials
that are coming up — that's all very
well except that if I cannot do it in
a simple material and I cannot do it
any better in a fancy new material,
it's ridiculous to go to the new ma-
terial. In other words, I wouldn't
try to take plastics and imitate
wood. The simpler the material, the
more pliable it is to the eyes. The
more difficult it is, the less pliable.
One of the reasons why I never
went in for metal sculpture is be-
cause of the rigidity of the material
and the difficulty of bending it to
my will.
NH: And at the same time you say
that you are delighted with the
hardness of wood so that you're
also dealing with a rigidity.
MB: A relative rigidity. Relative. I
can still bend it to my will; in fact,
I bend it to my will much more
since I started doing chromatic
wood sculpture. I can blend various
strains of wood, shape them any
way I like. Almost anyway I like.
NH: Let's get back to the organic
nature of wood. I don't think you
finished that. There was something
more intimate about that. The
warmth. . . .
MB: Yes. A tree is a living organ-
ism, at least the way we understand
it. Maybe what we call inert matter
is also living in some way, but not
in the way we understand it. The
tree breathes, the tree takes in cer-
tain chemicals, lets out other chem-
icals, produces leaves, reproduces,
and all that. I think that ever since
I could remember, I reacted to wood
differently than to other materials
around me. It's more intimate. I
was going to say — you see that little
piece there, that breast in the mid-
dle figure? That's the one piece that
I'm very proud of. It's from my
apple tree.
NH: You cut the tree down?
MB: Yes, there was one tree that
spoiled; it became hollow in the
center all the way up, and the agent
from the forestry department told
me that it was gone. So I cut it up
and found some parts whole. I
made two sculptures out of it and
then I had a few pieces left, the rest
of it was burned up. That's what
became of my apple tree. ■
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ArdreylnWondeM
liy Ronald Singer
The Social Contract, by Robert Ar-
drey. Atheneum Publishers, $10.00;
247 pp., illus.
Ardrey writes again! With verba]
J\ pistols flaming, he straddles his
hobbyhorse of territorial aggression
and charges up and down evolu-
tionary trails, shooting off behavioral
anecdotes in all directions. Like Don
Quixote, he lunges at every aspect
of daily life, seeking out and ex-
pounding on evolutionary causes for
student unrest, race riots, postural at-
titudes at cocktail parties, vrai, lan-
guage, family life, men's clubs and
pubs, slum ghetto overcrowding —
anything, in fact, that will grip the
reader's imagination and attention.
He seeks out the animal in our past,
present, and future behavior, contin-
ually squeezing the sponge of animal
experiments, observations, and sto-
ries— some over and over again — in
order to propound and "prove" his
theories and philosophies. He wor-
ships at the shrine of Science, he tells
of elephants cognizant of death (but
forgets the whales), and he exalts in
the escapades of lions a la Schaller
and of mice and men.
His racy style will delight his ad-
mirers as he builds up and constantly
reshapes his plan of order in dis-
order, while stirring and whipping up
a sort of masochistic brew of remind-
ers that man is but a partially liber-
ated animal. Melodrama stalks the
open savanna, the dense Asian for-
ests, laboratory cages and psychologi-
cal mazes. Wizardlike, Ardrey pulls
trick after trick out of the ethological
hat, each more remarkable than the
previous one.
His critics will find, possibly expec-
tantly, his bombast, cockiness, and ho-
lier-than-thou attitude irritating and
distracting. He is on sure ground when
he is championing and reciting the
work and results of others, often in a
most personal way (which must be
80
embarrassing to all those pioneering,
ambitious, world's finest scientist
friends that he name-drops, and an-
noying to those whom he waves aside,
denounces, or harangues). However,
when Ardrey gets involved in matters
of race and genetics, he flounders in a
sea of inaccuracies and dangerous con-
cepts; some will accuse him of rac-
ism and European arrogance. In his
attempt to give a thumbnail sketch of
genetic history relative to his theme —
a popular digest of the theory of nat-
ural selection and a philosophical
view of evolution — he moves beyond
his depth and sinks in a morass of
Books in Review
superficiality. While some of his
hypotheses are plausible and stir the
imagination, others fall flat on their
faces because he does not seem to ap-
preciate fully that natural selection
acts, not on specific genes or traits,
but on whole genotypes and phe-
notypes. He clutches at rare possi-
bilities, trying to convince the reader
that maybe they are facts of potential
major significance. Although he con-
cedes that natural selection means
differential reproduction of genes and
gene combinations, his theories re-
flect a different conceptual basis.
Although justifiable, his attack on
behavioral psychologists and sociolo-
gists for nonbiological thinking leaves
his own flank (biological depth) ex-
posed to the adage, "Judge not, that
ye be not judged." He dramatizes, eu-
logizes, and expands on the impor-
tance of variability in human evolu-
tion— the central feature of his
concept of disorder — but he falters on
the handle of population genetics.
Again there rears the despised head
of the concept of '"racial purity." For
example, he speaks of the Zulu and
Xosa (and others) as "hybrid peoples
with languages and physical charac-
teristics distinct from the pure parent
race."
It would be interesting if he re-
vealed the secret of this, or any, "pure
parent race." And what authority is
the source of the gobbledygook that
"until about the time of Christ, the
black race — what we regard as a
human subspecies — was confined to
West Africa, excepting only a branch
that seems to have spread along the
Sahara rim to the Upper Nile"? To
say the least, the author has a some-
what skewed, jaundiced view about
African genesis in terms of its living
populations.
The Social Contract develops the
theme of a balance of order (protect-
ing the members of society "whatever
their diverse endowments") and dis-
order (providing "every individual
with full opportunity to develop his
genetic endowment, whatever that
may be"). The balance varies in rigor
according to environmental hazard.
The subtitle states that the book is "a
personal inquiry into the evolutionary
sources of order and disorder." It is a
variation on the theme of heredity
versus environment, and one detects a
thread of Darlington's dynamic view
of history in it. There the similarity
ends. The book has many interesting
and enlightening facets, which fill one
with admiration for the author's ex-
tensive research. The re])etition of
the thematic sequence, however, tends
to bore and is relieved only by the
skill of Ardrey's turn of word and
phrase. It helps if the serious reader
recognizes that the dramatic tone, the
intensity and exaggeration, and the
views and philosophy of the play-
wright are based on inquiries into se-
lected source materials that have been
adapted for the audience and the
times: the author is not an authority
and the theories are not facts.
This does not detract from the rec-
ognition that Ardrey is knowledgeable
about things behavioral, that he has an
incisive mind and a vivid imagination.
He often hits the nail on its ugly head
when developing the backdrop to anti-
establishnientarianism. so-called youth
revolt, independence and the lack of
parental authority, stimulation and
boredom, security and anxiety, and
violence. Ardrey uses violence in the
restricted sense, although occasionally
he confuses international violence and
domestic social change and places
heavy emphasis on the "romance" of
violence.
He laces his text with some delight-
ful phrases: for example, "the ferti-
lized egg. this randomly determined
recombination of parental possibili-
ties, is the accident of the night." and
"the pursuit of equality, that natural
impossibility, condemns to mediocrity
the gifted." Again, writing of Rous-
seau, "his yearning for those solitary
woodland walks where the dream
suffers least contradiction." Of course,
there is also his devotion to the gim-
micky catchphrase. clever in concep-
tion and. as intended, lingering in
the memory, such as some of his
chapter headings: "The Alpha Fish"
(individual leadership in the rank or-
der of dominance). "Tuskless in Para-
dise." and "The Risen .Ape" (as op-
posed to the fallen angels in the
writings of Rousseau ) .
Viewed purely from the scientist's
standpoint, there is much for which
to take Ardrey to task — not for a
healthy difference of opinion (al-
though he takes every opportunity to
hammer his critics), but for mislead-
ing information, obviously uninten-
tional, that may disturb or fool the
innocent reader. It is a pity that he is
not aware of, or ignores, his limita-
tions: he reaches into too many dark
corners and burns his fingers. Sup-
position and hypothesis are signs of
an imaginative and critical mind and
should not be discouraged, but non-
sense is nonsense.
This volume is dedicated to Jean-
Jacques Rousseau, whose revolution-
ary views had considerable influence
on his time and ours. In The Social
Contract (1762), also based on natu-
ral laws. Rousseau revealed "the revo-
lutionary society in which, property
abolished, individuals surrender all
sovereignty to the 'general will,' thus
regaining at least as full as possible
the amity and equality of their ori-
gins." Ardrey's book postulates and
proposes the opposite, especially in
his concept of the individual, setting
the scene for future human devel-
opment. Possibly, he hopes that his
book may leave his mark and vibra-
tions as forcefully on society as did
Rousseau, for none-too-modestly Ar-
drey writes. "Rousseau's work ap-
peared over a century before Dar-
8i
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win's Descent of Man, whereas mine
appears just a century afterward."
Rousseau's book also appeared
shortly before another event of world-
wide significance, the Declaration of
Independence. It is unfortunate that
Ardrey misinterprets (or misuses)
Jeflferson's words. In developing his
thesis on the disorder of diversity, of
inequality, he quotes Thomas Jeffer-
son's "all men are created equal" as
being presented as a self-evident
truth, but as false in its premise and
with no room for maneuver: "And so
for almost two centuries American
thought, with increasing agony and
distortion, has been nailed to a cross
of revolutionary propaganda, a pass-
ing political slogan which its sophis-
ticated author would have been the
last to take seriously." It is doubtful
if many people believe Jefferson to
have meant biologically equal in the
sense of identical, which is what Ar-
drey implies.
Similarly, Ardrey's irresponsible
discussion of matters dealing with ra-
cial inequalities is rather inflamma-
tory. Most paragraphs in that section
can be seriously challenged for in-
accuracy and superficiality. The in-
dignities perpetrated on, and the mal-
treatment of, black people (not race,
as Ardrey insists) are a matter of
history and cannot be dismissed by
any reports. There is adequate ex-
planation and sociological reason for
"the Negro had failed in American
schools." but when this statement ap-
pears unclothed in a chapter of pseu-
doscientific discussion on race in
which words like "inferior" and "su-
perior" are loosely used without
proper qualification, then it can be
mistaken for racism. What world does
Ardrey dwell in to state, "until the
scientist, without threat to his life,
is free to explore in all candor racial
differences, and to prove or disprove
systematic inequalities of intelligence,
an observer of the sciences has little
to offer"? The view from his hilltop
in Rome must be very blurred.
While cherishing and highlighting
man's unique characteristics and indi-
viduality, Ardrey occasionally lapses
into cynicism and despair. The
twentieth century is depicted as a
rather unproductive, ineffective, ob-
scure period in which men wander
about aimlessly: insecure, unable to
discern a pattern for living, derelicts
of animated time. This apparent lack
of historical perspective begs the
question of mental mass suicide. Why
should we become depressed that we
are not yet superhuman, not divine in
our determination of a blazing path-
way through an unknown future? A
healthy understanding of evolution
and a vigorous grasp of its pattern
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should make him set aside his Sun-
day cloak of the lay preacher spelling
doom on the street corner, proclaim-
ing evolutionary hellfire and brim-
stone. In the long view, there is no ter-
ror in extinction; more successful
forms usually fill the gaps (if there
ever were any), and the directional
forces, natural selection, move on.
Are we to believe that Man sits on
top of the evolutionary tree and that
no further branching is likely or pos-
sible? If the past teaches a lesson, it
is that of the optimism of the present.
Nietzsche so aptly stated: "Man is a
bridge, not a goal."
Ronald Singer is chairman of the De-
partment of Anatomy and professor
in the Department of Anthropology at
the University of Chicago.
TnK Plan't Hunters, by Alice M.
Coats. McGraw-Hill Book Co., $10.95;
400 pp., illus. The Plan't Hunters.
by Tyler Whittle. Chilton Book Co.,
S8.95; 281 pp., illus.
Extraordinary, if not downright
uncanny. Two books on the
same curious but, nonetheless, en-
grossing subject, both with the same
title, appearing nearly simulta-
neously. Even the subtitles are sim-
ilar. Nor does the resemblance end at
this point. Both authors are British.
"Painting and writing occupied [Miss
Coats] for a number of years," de-
claims one of the dust jackets. Mr.
Whittle "has devoted himself to writ-
and painting" since 1947, de-
clares the other. The similarity ap-
pears to end there, thank goodness,
except that each study, in its individ-
ual way, is interesting and well done.
The strangeness of the coincidence is
compounded in light of Mr. Whittle's
observation that "a comprehensive
history of botanical exploration has
never [before] been attempted."
The two studies approach the sub-
ject in strikingly divergent fashion.
Miss Coats's book, more detailed and
almost twice the length of Mr.
Whittle's, begins with the Renais-
;ance. She chooses to break the sub-
ject down geographically. Thus, her
chapters deal separately with plant
hunting in "The Mediterranean and
the Near East" — where this activity,
like civilized man himself, had its
apparent beginnings — "Scandinavia
and Russia," "Japan," and so on, the
final chapter treating plant hunting
n South America, the last great re-
gion to be penetrated by horticultur-
ists. Whittle, who discusses the sub-
ject from its beginnings in the third
millennium B.C., adopts a more con-
ventional approach — treating the ex-
ploits and discoveries of one hunter
after another in order of his appear-
ance historically. Miss Coats's style is
terse and straightforward, but never
dull. Mr. Whittle combines a breezy
style with an engaging flair for the
oomic.
In a way it is unfair to evaluate
two such similar books in the same
review, for there is the nagging temp-
tation to weigh one against the other
in nearly every respect, with one or
the other always coming off second
best. Each, in fact, might succeed ad-
mirably in its own way — which ap-
pears to be the case in this instance.
While laymen may be inclined to
picture plant hunters as benign, retir-
ing creatures generally lacking in the
stamina, resourcefulness, and spirit of
men who hunt and kill animals, they
were, according to Miss Coats, men of
courage as well as broad learning.
"Besides a good knowledge of botany
and gardening, a collector frequently
had some skill in ornithology, zool-
ogy, geology, surveying or medicine
.... He had to be adaptable and
able to get on with natives, and his
life often depended on his being a
good shot and fisherman. He had also
to have great tenacity and endurance,
the conditions of travel being often
such that only curiosity, the greatest
human motive-power next to love and
hunger, could enable him to support
them."
The life style and nonbotanical
pursuits of earlier plant hunters
might have made good copy for the
tabloids of bygone ages — just as it
has provided good copy for these his-
tories, particularly Whittle's, with his
bent for a racy tale. Not the least of
such adventurers was Capt. William
Dampier (1652-1715), "hydrographer,
navigator, author, pirate, and botani-
cal collector" who, according to
Whittle, "made life such hell for
everyone that his guardian was de-
lighted to turn a blind eye when the
boy ran away to sea." It was Dampier
who rescued Alexander Selkirk-
Defoe's model for Robinson Crusoe
— from a desolate isle in the South
Seas. When not plundering the high
seas. Dampier also gathered speci-
mens for such London luminaries as
Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn, who
wined and dined him for his botanical
favors.
Coats and Whittle terminate their
histories with the decade before
World War II when, it appears, plant
hunting in its most adventurous
sense came to an end. "Except in a
few remote and backward areas,"
comments Miss Coats, "plant-collect-
ing as hitherto understood tends to
diminish, if not to cease." After read-
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ing either of these excellent studies,
one cannot reflect on her observation
without a measure of regret.
He who feels stimulated to revive
the "lost art" of plant collecting may
turn to the final pages of Whittle's
text where he will find all the infor-
mation he needs about collecting in
the field, drying, preserving, mount-
ing, and storing botanical specimens.
David M. Walsten
Encyclopaedia Britannica
The Buffalo, by Francis Haines.
Thomas Y. Croivell Co. $7.95; 242
pp., illiis.
The subtitle of this book. The Story
of American Bison and Their
Hunters from Prehistoric Times to the
Present, aptly describes it. Haines
presents the rise and fall of the buf-
falo in North America, and along
with it the rise and fall of Plains In-
dian culture. The two are inter-
related, but the relationship was rein-
forced by the introduction of the
horse into the Plains area, thus pro-
viding a more eSlcient (i.e., deadly)
means of hunting this animal. The
prime agent provocateur in this
drama is the white man in North
America. In current parlance, this is
a historical-ecological study. In it
Haines has done a scholarly job.
It is apparent that the spread of
the white man in North America dis-
turbed the ecological balance between
the buffalo and the Plains Indians to
the point where for all practical pur-
poses the buffalo disappeared. The
buffalo was the staff of life, providing
the staple food for the Plains In-
dians; it was also the basis for many
material products such as clothing,
dwellings, containers, and trappings,
and the hides were a means of ex-
change for trade goods. Success and
prestige in hunting the buffalo con-
tributed to the focal aspects of the so-
cial and political structures of Plains
Indian societies. Thus, these soci-
eties were dependent for their per-
petuation on this species. This way of
life is effectively illustrated by black-
and-white reprints of Catlin's and
Miller's paintings. Haines describes
the gradual elimination of the buffalo
as primarily due to the demand for
hides and meat made by white men.
The chapter on "The Great Slaugh-
ter" is particularly devastating and
should be read by all who are not yet
alert to preserving ecological balances
in the world today.
The book's closing chapters are a
sad commentary on the preservation
of a species that, before the coming of
the white man, had successfully re-
produced and spread extensively
throughout much of North America.
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Plains Indian hunting techniques,
even before the introduction of the
horse and gun, were effective and at
times wasteful; but with the coming
of the horse and gun, this waste-
fulness increased. At no time, how-
ever, did the hunting techniques of
the Plains Indians contribute to the
almost complete destruction of the
buffalo, for this was an animal well
adapted to survival. The virtual de-
struction of this species was caused
by wanton hunters interested primar-
ily in making a "fast buck," and by
the hordes of white Americans who
trekked across the continent making
inroads on the grazing lands and the
buffalo, and permanently upsetting
the ecological balance.
Ruth S. Freed
Neiv York University
Climate, M.^n and History, by
Robert Claiborne. JF. IF. Norton &
Co., §8.95; 444 pp.
Cluttered up by an incredible mo-
rass of tangential discussions and
polemics. Claiborne's book sets out to
present a paleoclimatology from the
early Pleistocene to the twentieth cen-
tury, examining everything from cli-
mate and race to why the Vikings
were so bold. The author has so many
axes to grind, from the psychology' of
Black nationalism to climate control,
that I constantly had to refer back to
the table of contents to rediscover the
direction of his central argument. In
the end Claiborne's prefatory com-
plaint that he had had to read '"liter-
ally dozens of books, scientific arti-
cles, and interviews" rang true in my
ear: he just had not read enough to
graduate from skeptical dabbling to
critical evaluation. The opening sen-
tence of Claiborne's "new philoso-
phy" states that Climate, Man and
History will outrage many scientists;
instead. I found the intellectual pot-
pourri and the game of bait-the-scien-
tist amusing and at times hilarious.
But the book is too expensive for one
merely to participate in the author's
indulgences.
Karl W. Butzer
The University of Chicago
Briefly Noted:
The Moon as Viewed by Lunar Orbi-
rER. l)y L. J. Kosofsky and Farouk
El-Baz. N.4SA, Government Printing
Office, S7.75; 152 pp., illus.
The portfolio comprises 18.3 of the
most dramatic of the 3.100 pictures of
:he moon returned from the five Orbi-
:er missions flown in 1966 and 1967.
Some are well known to the public.
such as the first shot of the earth with
the moon in the foreground and the
oblique view of Copernicus, which
gave many viewers their first inkling
of what it might feel like to be there.
Most will be new.
The book measures 10% by 14 and
the full-page pictures are a generous
81/2 by 11 with extended captions. Af-
ter a short introduction explaining
how and why they were made, the au-
thors move right into the pictures.
First, distant views orient the reader;
then close-ups examine examples of
morphological features. A separate
section is devoted to the moon's far
side. Stereoscopic views of four fea-
tures are offered (a viewer is pro-
vided ) . The book ends with technical
data on each picture.
J.W.
Persia, by James Morris. Roger
Wood, and Denis Wright. Universe
Books, $15.00; 216 pp., illus.
In his introductory essay to this
book. James Morris evokes the con-
trasting sights and sounds of ancient
and modern Persia — bell-adorned
camels lurching their way to market,
majestic archeological sites and
monuments, traditionally dressed no-
mad women with their herds of goats
and sheep, modern sophisticated
cities with their discotheques. The
photographs, however, are the focal
point of the book. Roger Wood has
captured all the ornate beauty and
color of Persia's people and places in
a series of beautiful black-and-white
and color plates. Denis Wright, a for-
mer British ambassador to Persia, has
provided the notes to the plates. This
is a handsome work produced by
three people obviously enamored of
their subject. C.B.
The American Museum is open to
the public without charge every day
during the year, except Thanksgiv-
ing and Christmas. Your support,
through membership and contribu-
tions, helps make this possible. The
Museum is equally in need of sup-
port for its work in the fields of re-
searcli. ediicatinn. and exliibition.
This list details the photographer or
other source of illustration by page.
COVER— Maurice G.
Hornocker
10-11— Lloyd Birming-
12— Museum of Science.
Boston
14— AMNH after Tellefsen
16— Culver Pictures
18— AMNH after Tellefsen
20-21— Culver Pictures
22-23— Elliott Erwitt.
Magnum
29-31— Courtesy of Mor-
timer Borne, except 29
bot,. Pamela Meyer
32— Pamela Meyer
34-39— Martin Birch
41-43— Maurice G.
Hornocker
51— Helmut Wimmer
52 — Tore Johnson.
Tiofoto
54-59— Michael Berrill
60-67— David Werner
68— Miklos Pinther
80— Julio Fernandez
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sized crazy butions down and
stand back. In a matter of
seconds it'll jump almost 6
feet high. Just like magic
. . . but it's really scien-
tific. Actually, the warmth
of your hand holding these
metal discs makes the trick.
After palming a disc, place
noments it'll take-off. Loads
Terrific conversation piece.
it on any cool surface and in
of fun for kids of all ages.
Package of twelve only $2.
Stock No. P-41,I50E $2.00 Ppd.
Stock No. P-4I,I80E set of 100 $12.00 Ppd.
L_ar9e personalized quantities available — write for info.
BIG BOOM & FLASH CANNON
Perfectly safe giant noise-
maker tor sports, games, the
4th and just plain fun pro-
duces brilliant flash and
loud bang. Completely harm-
less— no gun powder, match-
es or recoil. Easily operated.
Beautiful reproduction of
regular Army 60 MM cannon
in hefty cast iron. "Ammo"
zed Bangsite com-
producing harmless ga
I for 200 shots, Inst. Wt.
Stock No. P4I,005E $1.30 Ppd.
CRYSTAL GROWING KIT
•" kl*' m-Si ^^ ^ crystallography project
tas^ Itif IPsH* — illustrate with large beau-
tiful crystals you grow your-
Study & demonstrate
factors affectii
fraction, p
symmetry,
"Crystals & Crystal Grow-
upply
ish 10 long Full d
brings distant ob-
■ $13.50 Ppd.
lours of fun! Get thrill of
uilding your own easily as-
embled engine from over
oO parts. Then push starter
nd watch it run. Crankshaft
evolves, pistons move, valves
pen and close in sequence
park plugs
erything but bu
til. 'A
i -
-_^«i*tfri^ Same motor used in many
mechanic courses. Excellent,
easy-to-understand "tech manual."
Stock No. 70.448E $12.95 Ppd.
MAIL COUPON for FREE CATA10G"E"
4,000 UNUSUAL BARGAINS
categories,
items. lOO's of charts.
Many hard-to-get war
of telescopes, microscopes, bi-
ars, magnets, etc. for hobbyists.
imenters, workshops. Shop by
I. Write for Catalog "E" to Ed-
OECORATIVE "3-D" STAR CHART
Quickly, easily locate -
stars in your sky — any-
time, anywhere. Handsome
10" high Sky and Earth
Globe has fixed transpar-
ent 7" diam. outer celes-
tial sphere with equator
calibrated in months. 4"
diam. inner earth sphere
(in relief) revolves on in-
clined axis— includes long.
& lat. markings. Corre-
late location on earth globe with current month — oute
globe shows stars visible in your sky. Inch Free Star
Atlas, Instr.
Stock No 70 984E ^
AMAZING "TRICK" PHOTOGRAPHY
.$14.50
Complete instructit
Stock No 7I,229E . .^ $10.50 Ppd.
ENCAPSULATED LIQUID CRYSTALS
Amazing new development —
appear like liquids but have
orderly molecular structures
similar to solids. Solutions
contained in tiny (20-30 mi-
crons) capsules coated onto
sides of six 6" x 12" Mylar
sheets with 6 diff. temp,
ranges. Surface changes color
according to temp. -cover 66°
to I20°F (19°-49''C). Use
for precise measurements, tind hot spots, structural defects,
study radiation, test conductivity, etc. Use indefinitely
WITHOUT mess, contamination. Easily handled.
StockfJq. 7i.l43E __ - $10.00 Ppd.
$ 4.00 Ppd.
16 Pg.
earth on automatit
te. Fantastically ?■
off, flight, vapor
}q. 6v Batt. not incl.).
ads of fun building, dec-
iting, launching again &
again. Includ.
parachute, parachute tube, nose cone, fins, loading valvi
hose, electric firing assembly, launch stand, propellant.
Stock No. 7I,I82E „ $15.95 Ppd.
EXTRA PROPELLANT (Two 15 oz. cans)
Stock No. P7I,192E
$16.50 AIR POLLUTION TESTER
1st LOW-COST survey-type
instrument. Quickly provides
quantitative results in
threshold limit ranges set
by Amer. Conf. of Gov't In-
dustrial Hygienists. Sensi-
tive, accurate, wide mea-
suring range. Includes 2
ampoules each to test for
CO.,, CO. H„S, NO,, and
SO.^. Sufficient for 2' to 4
tests depending on concentrat
$ 4.00 Ppd.
instructions with scale:
replacement ampoules i
Stock No. 7I.349E . .
Electric Generator,
ates up to 90 volts by turn
ing crank. Use in high
impedance relays. Charge
ground &. bring up night
crawlers for bait or study
2 Alnico Magnets alone
worth more than
gov't cost of $15,
lbs.
Stock No. 50.225E
6 X 78 MONOCULAR FOR $S>
Real surplus bargain' Tiny
but powerful prisma"
monocular sells elsewh'
for more than twice
price. Fully coated opt
360' field of view at I
yards. R.L.E. 12. 0
finger focusing from 4'
infinity. So compact, light
weight and portable you cai
carry in shirt pocket . . .
and almost not know you have it. Sturdy 2' 2''lg.xl'/4''w.
Black, baked enamel finish. 3 oz. Lens caps incl.
Stock No. I,551E $5.00 Ppd
AMERICAN MADE OPAQUE PROJECTOR
Projects illustrations up to
3" x SV2" — enlarges them
to 35" X 30" if screen is
6' 2 ft. from projector larger
pictures if screen is farther
. Lightweight Kit In-
upling tubes, complete
to determine results Sets (4) of
ailable separately for $4 75
way. No filn
egatn
needed. Primarily intended
for children. Projects charts
diagrams, color or black and
white in darkened room
I I5v A.C. ... 6 ft cord
and plug included ~
I lb. 2 ozs. Plastic c
Stock No. 70. I99E
$8 75 Ppd.
50-150-300 POWER MICROSCOPE
Amazing Value — 3 Achro-
matic Objective Lenses on
Revolving Turret! Color-
corrected, cemented achro-
matic lenses in objectives
give far superior results to
usually found
this
nge. Re;
Jits i
ope prici
i worth the
Stock No. 70,OOaE
MOUNTED 500 POWER OBJECTIVE:
Threaded achromatic lenses, 3mm F.l_
Stock No. 30. I97E $5.75 Ppd.
POCKET METER SHOWS WIND SPEED
Useful to all outdoorsmen, \
especially sai lors, shooters,
fliers, golfers. Lightweight !
Pocket Wind Meter
rate to within I MPH. Two \
scales — low and high
ity. One from 2-10 MPH !
graduated in V2 MPH in- :
crements. Second from 10-
66 MPH in 2 MPH incre-
ments. Easily read even in __
inclement weather. 6%" long x l'/2" wiae x %' xnick. Wt
approx. 2 OZS. Plastic pocket carrying case, instr. In-
cluded.
Stock No. 60,349E $5.95 Ppd
DIRECT MEASURING POCKET 'SCOPE-S0>
than an ordinary ^
'landy
pocket instrument is ideal
for making direct reading
measurements; for checking
small parts and dimensions
under powerful magnifica-
tion. Speeds up quality con-
trol. Instrument contains a
precision, glass etched reti-
cle calibrated for measure-
ments up to 1/10" by 001" divisions Estimates to 0005'
can easily be made Chrome reflector at base of instrument
reflects light on object examined or measured Sturdj
construction assures long, useful service.
Stock No. 30,225E $7.95 Postpaic
LOW-COST DOUBLE-BARRELED TUMBLEl
Rugged 12-lb. tumbler has
TWO big 6-lb. (4'/2-Pt.)
tumbling actio:
fan-cooled, continuous-duty
1550 rpm motor; V-belt
drive w/nylon bearings; cov-
ered safety belt Sl pulleys, neai muiiBj-jKivoi
shops, experimenters— great for rockhounds. IOV9
Stock No. 80,|32E (18 lbs.) $39-95 Ppd
ECOLOGY KITS FULL OF LIFE!
Man's survival depend
upon suitable ecological bal
ance. These 5 well planned
experiment kits explore dif
ferent portions of environ
ment — introduce factors 01
which natural balances rely
Perform numerous experi
ments with materials in
eluded (-f few avail, local
ly). Compl. instruct. Perfee
for everyone alive.
Stock No. 7I.353E GREEN LEAVES $5.00 Ppd
Stock No. 71,354E WATER LIFE $6.00 Ppd
Stock No. 7I.355E ... PREDATOR PREY ....$6.00 Pprf
Stock No. 7I.356E LIFE MOVERS $5.00 Ppd
Stock No. 7I.357E ..LIFE FROM DE.A.TH ..$5.00 Pptf
4Va ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOP
See craters on moon, rings V
of Saturn, double stars. Up
corrected to better than
retical
imited resolution
d pinion focusing
Aluminu
m tube. 6x finde
telescope
2 standard eye
d Barlow lens give
to 270x. Free wit
icope: Star Chart. 272- gag
ndbook of the Heavens" plus "How to Use You
Telescope". Shipping wt. 42 lbs,
Stocll No. 85.r05E ^^4.5
EDMUND
SCIEIMTIFIC CO.
300 EDSCOF^P BLDG.
r^ BARRIIMGTON, NEW JERSEY 08007
KEEP PACE WITH SPACE AGE! SEE MOON SHOTS-LANDINGS, SPACr FLIGHTS, CLOSE-UP!
iiLTiLi*iH q w m^Wi^'
for FUN, STUDY or PROFIT
tXCtLLl
GREAT INTCRNATIONAL PAPIK PLANE BOOK!
Official fly-them-yourself
book of paper airplanes
from SCIENTIFIC AMERI-
CAN'S "1st International
Competition". Includes
plans of all winning entries,
time-aloft records, pliotos.
tectinical data. commen-
taries. Has 20 unusual de-
signs on perforated pages
for easy tear-out. You won't
believe how some of them
fly] Amusing, entertaining. 128 pages. 9" x M%".
Stock No. 9391 E $2.95 Ppd.
fun &. enjoyme
AMERICAN MADE 7x50 BINOCULARS
7x50
ally cost $274.50.
Mtc« No. I044E
AMERICAN-MADE 6x30's
Stock No. 963E
■FISH' WITH A MaGNlJ
pedestal. 9" dii
Stock No. 71.161E
Operate:
$6.00 Ppd.
LONG-WAVE BLACK LIGHT FIXTUKl
Extremely versatile, CO
'- pactly designed, long w
(3200-4000 angstroms) bl:
light (ultraviolet) fixture.
—Govt cost J50. Lifts
weights under water.
Stock No. 70.571E
Stock No. 70.570E
Stock No. 85.152E
153^ lbs.
5-lb. Magnet is
IS— Alnico-V Type
$14.00 Ppd
$ 8 75 Ppd
$33 60 FOB
6-watt.
nates hai
filter— elimi-
ful shorter wave
rays. Use to
dentify minerals, fungi,
jacteria — check for surface
, flaws, oil and gas leakage —
perfect for displays with
fluorescent paper, paints, chalk, crayons, trace powder, Incl.
adjustable aluminum reflector. Mount vert., horr,, or on
corner. 10" L., M/j" W., I'A" H.
Stock No. 70,364E WA1 ?"?'
Stock No. 60,124E (REPLACEMENT BULB) ..$4.75 Ppd.
the cloud chamber— see
atoms explode with the spin-
thariscope— check ionization
and radioactivity of every
day materials . . . these are
I few of the fascinating
GIANT WEATHER BALLOONS
"Balls of fun" for kids,
traffic stoppers for stores,
terrihc for amateur meteo-
rologists. Create a neighbor-
hood sensation. Great back
yard fun. Exciting beach
attn
ologi'
to
Stock No. 60.568E
GIANT 16' DIAMETER
Stock No. 60,632E
'%
ojects possible with thi;
nazing 43 part kit. Con-
ins everything needed to
nstruct your personal
itely safe. Includes atomic
inator, electroscope, spin-
ope, 22 p. instruction booklet with suggested experi-
ments. Ideal to stimulate student's scientific interest.
Stock No. 70.899E $11.95 Ppd.
WOODEN SOLID PUZZLES
-iJfe^-^^"""'
kits
offered in one low-cost pack-
age even the youngest child
will realty enjoy. Not only
lots of fun but extremely
, educational. Easily teaches
basic scientific concepts
while building actual work-
. ing pinhole camera, electric
motor, double-platform bal-
ance, transparent flashlight,
hydraulic pump, push-button
telescope. Perfect for
TREASURE HUNT ON LAND & SEA
Find buried gold, silver,
coins, treasure. Powerful
^ ^ ^W
Jere's a fascinating assort-
ment of 12 different puzzles
0 provide hours of pleasure
nd stimulate ability to
hink and reason. Animals
nd geometric forms. Take torized. loop detector
probes deep into earth, up
to 2!/2 feet in water in per-
fect safety. Sensitive e
them. Lots of fun for the
whole family. Will test skill,
nd ability to solve
Stock No. 70.205E
problei
$5.00 Ppd.
LOW-COST GEM TUMBLER
Become a rockhound! Fasci-
. . loads of
easy. Make
ilry of all kinds — decora-
book-ends, table tops.
through earth, wood, vege
tation. salt water, snow or ice Instant ;
meter and headset tone when object detected
lightweight O'/a lbs.), trouble-free unit uses in
9 volt battery (ii * " " "" "
nating hobby
eadily
Simply tumble-finish
lilable gemstones
I polish to high
Full jnst
Stock No 70.874E
i-lh. ROCK ASSORTMENT (10 TYPES)
Stock No 70.868E
iOT-AW FLYING SAUCER KIT
lustre . . . brings out bei
tiful colors. Rugged 3-lb.
pacity tumbler w/continu'
teach log-
ic, play games with minia-
ture version of giant
electronic braint Adds,
nuttiplfes.
shifts.
nplei
Stock No. 70.
ANALOG COMPUTER KIT
Stock No. 70.341 E
Tients.
38. Colored
plastic parts easily assem-
bled. 12" X 3'/2" X 43/4".
Incl step by step assem
biy diagrams 32-p in-
structions covering opera
problems & 15 experiments
$ 5 98 Ppd
^^
amazing heights. Easy to
assemble and launch. Use
over and over. Low cost.
Lots of fun. Can carry '/2
lb. objects with string teth-
er. Fly school colors at
games, use for advertising,
attach mirror — play "spy in
the sky." Includes complete
instructions. 16 pre-cut #1
white model paper gores. 8
'ed panels for portholes, wire, cord. Easily repaired if
cins
. 60 to 180 power
Alu
3'
dian
zed and overcoated
leter f/IO primary
ventilated ctll
Egl
ator
on both
eyepiece and mounted
ow
ens. 3X finder tele
hardwood tripod
^%
j^
I FT, HOT-AIR BALLOON KIT
Stock No. 60.691 E $Z.OO pm).
FREE: "STAR CHART". 272 page HANUbuuK OF
HEAVENS": "HOW TO USE YOUR TELESCOPE
$29 95 Ppd
ck No. 85,050E
Stock No. 85. 105E " 414'
Slock No nS.OHBE ... fi"
TERRIFIC BUY! TOP QUALITY!
PRICE BREAKTHROUGH IN LARGE SIZE
OPAQUE
PROJECTOR
"Best Opaque
of its Kind
Under S200
Projects brilliant,
sharp 4'/a foot square
image from 8 feet
away using up to
5 X5" color, b & w
illustrations. Retains
all original colors a
blueprints, watercolo
objects. Revoutionary ligh..... .
brightness, retains entire field In focus.
speed, 200mm anastigmatic projection lens (f3.5, 8"
KL ): powerful peanut-size guartz halogen lamp (50 hr.
lire) : unique internal refiecting system. Can be used up-
h'l^Ln ^r:^"?-^ "''■"flat by magnetic platens. Turbo-
^l°3*"VB.?i°i''o,7,?"'^,5'=f'« =''S»- 5'/= "• cord,
(0-!j X6 X12'/2" — III/2 lbs.)
Stock No. 7I.272E $89.75 Ppd.
. . „ . NEVER BEFORE A BOOK LIKE THIS:
All About Telescopes" —
Instructs how to build, buy
& use your telescope. Use
with photography — take ce-
lestial pictures and long-
distance shots of birds.
Perfect to
shapes, product & tool de-
signs, negative molds, model
making, etc. Easily shaped
by hand, tools. Can be rolled
fiat, built up into figures
Permanently pliable until
baked at 300° F. for 15-30
minutes in oven — no kiln nor
plaster molds needed Re-
Quires no curing. Won t
shrink. Acquires permanent, non-brittle naiuness wnen
shaped & baked. Can then be cut, sawed, drilled, sanded,
painted, embossed. Smooth, non-sticky, harmless.
Stock No. 60.794E 2 lb $ 3.60 Ppd.
Stock No. 71,205E 8 1b $10.50 Ppd.
Explori
historic world of dii __
200.000.000 years ago New
kit contains 24 authentic
scale models (12 dinosaurs
— 12 mammals) accurately
detailed In sturdy plastic
incl.: Giant Brontosaurus
fierce Tyrannosaurus Rex
Wooly Mammoth— range in
size from 2" to 6". Also inst
to build your own dinosaur \i
Stock No. 70,8I7E.,
nd Wonder Book
CAR OF THE FUTURE HERE NOW!
mpressive sci-
:iples that apply
2" hifh with 41 propeller 0[
orates on 2 flashlight batteries
battery case
, $3 50 Ppd.
MAIL COUPON FOR GIANT FREE CATALOG
^-h'IU.OOO UNUSUAL BARGAINS
Completely new catalog. 148 pagt
packed with nearly 4.000 unusuf
bargains. Exciting new categoric
I Butlding
Many new items. lOO's of charts,
illustrations. Many hard-to-get war
surplus bargains. Enormous selec*
tion of telescopes, microscopes, bi-
noculars, magnets, etc. for hobbyists,
experimenters, workshops. Shop by
mail. Write for Catalog "E" to Ed-
300 Edscorp
■^ f^ ly^ J| ■ l|VI^^% ^^P*" ORDER BY STOCK NUMBER ■ SEND CHECK OR MONEY ORDER ■ MONEY-BACK GUARANTi
ELJIVIUIMLJ », 300 EDSCORP BLDG.
5CIEIMTIFIC CO. ^^ BARRIIMGTOrM. IMEW JERSEY 08007
87
BOOK
STAND
A superl
reading, re
lecture stand.
Adjusts to 3
positions (40"
to 42"H) to
suit your pur-
beautifuUy
turned birch
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Folds com-
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is 18y=x24"
W with 1"
lip. S26.95.
HOUK KIT:
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needed.
S16.93. Shp.
fn^fudeiipCode ^TELD HOUSE
\ot Sold In Stores Dept. -Nll-0
Money Back Guarantee No. Conway, N.H. 03860
Elegant for
Home Library
I t^l INDIAN ARTIFACTS
FOSSILS-MINERALS
SHELLS-SCOPES-BOOKS
SEND 25?: for New
Illustrated Catalog
DOVER SCIENTIFIC
Box 601 IC
Astoria, N.Y. 11106
This is a complete recording of Edward
Fitzgerold's 5th version, and is the cu-
mulative effort of three men of genius.
It is followed by a few comments and
comparisons, and also Pedro Calde-
ron de la Borca's The Dream Called
Life and Life is a Dream.
lastly, beginning with Homlet's solilo-
guy, there is some of the best that is
to be found in Shakespeare.
A purchaser writes: "The record is be-
ing ployed over and over, it is my
treasure."
And from Canada, this judgment and
request: "Because the record is such a
beauty, send me another one . . ."
A z^jp^rloVivfi delivery of
superlative poetry by Louis Zoul.
56.50
Plus Applicable Sales Tax
(only lor N.Y. Stofe residents)
Available Only By Mail
PUBLIC OPINION
N-4044 Long Island City. Long Island
New York 11104
Suggested
Additional Reading
A XE'^" THEORY
OF PYRAMID BUILDING
The Pyramids of Egypt. I.E.S. Ed-
wards. Pitman Publishing Corpora-
tion. New York. 1961.
Ancien't Kingdoms of the Nile.
W. A. Fairser^is. Jr. Thomas Y.
Crowell Company, New York, 1962.
Most Ancient Egypt. W. C. Hayes.
University of Chicago Press, Chi-
cago, 1965.
PERSUASIVE SCENTS
IN INIOTH SEX LIFE
Insect Sex Attractants. M. Jacob-
son. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
Y^ork, 1965.
Moths. E. B. Ford. W. Collins, Lon-
don, 1955.
The Science of Smell. R. H.
Wright. Basic Books, Inc., New
York, 1964.
An Introduction to Animal Beh.av-
lOR. A. Manning. Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, 1967.
THE AMERICAN LION
The Puma. S. Young and E. Gold-
man. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, 1946.
A Preliminary Study of Dis-
tribution AND Numbers of Cou-
gar, Grizzly and Wolf in North
America. V. H. Cahalane. Bulletin
of the New York Zoological Society,
New York, 1964.
Notes on Cougar Productivity and
Life History. W. L. Robinette,
J. Gashwiler. and 0. Morris. Journal
of Mammalogy, 42: 204-217, 1961.
benthic life
in the fjords of norway
The Lower Animals. R. Buchsbaum
and L. J. Milne. Doubleday & Com-
pany, Inc., Garden City, 1960.
Aspects of Marine Zoology. Sym-
posia No. 19. N. B. Marshall, ed.
Zoological Society of London, Aca-
demic Press, London, 1967.
heaung in the
SIERRA MADRE
Free
CuRANDERisMO. A. Kiev. The
Press. New York. 1968.
The Healer of Los Olmos and
Other Mexican Lore. W. M. Hud-
son, ed. Southern Methodist Uni-
versity Press. Dallas. 1951.
PuNO Mexicano. J. F. Dabie. South-
ern Methodist University Press,
Dallas, 1969.
Susan Book
Coffee Tables
FINISHED OR IN KIT
The Loveliest, Most Completely Useful Table Made
Handsome swivel coftee table holds books, record albums,
magazines — all neatly arranged, titles clearly visible,
easily accessible from any seat. Skillfully crafted of rich
grained pine with hidden rugged ball bearing swivel. In
honeytone pine or maple, antique pine or walnut finish.
Both 16M"H (book area I2%"H). 36"dia. (holds 10(1
books) S41.50; 24"dia. (holds 40 books) $29.95. COM-
PLETE EAST KIT. Ready lor nuick assembly and
finish Simple instructions. 36"dia. S31.50: 2-l"dia.
SI 9.95. Esp. Che. Col.
BEAUTIFUL NEW FREE .CATALOG— TOOO PIECES
Finished and Kit Furniture in Friendly Pine
Include Zip No. YIELD HOUSE
Not Sold In Stores Dept. Nll-0
AAoney Back Guarantee North Conway. N.H. 03S60
NOW IN PAPERBACK
The bestseller that "transforms the
generation gap from a contemporary
cliche into a probing-an(J
disturbing-gui(ie
to our current
crisis.
—Newsweek
$195
Doubleday/
Natural
History Press
ivieail
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE TOUR
PREHISTORIC CAVE PAINTINGS
(April 19-May 21, 1971)
Due to the proaressive deterioration of the pre-
historic murals of Spain and France, the AIA is
sponsoring a tour to the caves of Altamira,
Candamo, Les Cambrelles and Pech-Merle and
many others to study these magnificent paintings
while thev are still visible. The tour, costing
about 51,950, will be under
qlos Maz
the
_,oduction of prehisloric art. For further infor-
mation write or call the Archaeological Institute
of America, Dept. N-1, 260 West Broadway,
New York, N.Y. 10013
Applause*
... as clear and concise an
ntroduction to Meso-American
archeology as you are likely to
find anywhere. Lee Boltin's
photographs are (as usual)
first rate . . . Applause.
- — John Canaday*
The New York Times
The ancient civilizations of Middle America left few written records.
But they did leave their art.
Now you can see the greatness of these cultures through photographs
of their art in ANCIENT MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
Based on the new permanent archeological exhibit at The American
Museum of Natural History, and with written introductions by
Dr. Gordon F. Ekholm, Curator of Mexican Archeology, this elegant
book takes you directly to the ancient, exotic realms of the Maya,
the Aztec, the Olmec,
le 128 pages contain over 80 shining photographs, many in color, and
a chronological chart of the evolution of the cultures discussed.
Only $5.00. Please mail check
or money order to;
The American Museum
of Natural History
77 West 77th Street, New York. New York 10024
*■ ■ ■ • .■--
■?^?'*^ :'■••■ ' •'%'.;>
<■■ ;*
This photo of Taiwan, taken from
a NASA Gemini spacecraft, could
double that nation's fishing yield.
The deep blue water along the upper
west coast, an upwelling that raises
nutrients from the ocean floor, is an
ancestral fishing ground. The similar
upwelling on the east coast, discov-
ered by this photo, may prove to be as
rich in fish as the traditional grounds.
Orbiting satellites could locate new
fishing grounds around the world
and help manage and conserve all
our ocean resources. It's one of. j, f
the ways our existing space ag
technologies could benefit f*^*
all mankind. ^ _ ^-l ,
Think about the possibilities. '^ 4. •
The Boeing Company. ^
NATURAL HISTORY
DECEMBER 1970 • $1.00
Johnnie V/aiker* Black Label 12 Year Old Blended Scotch Whisky, 86.8 Proof. Bottled in Scotland.
Imported by Somerset Importers, Ltd., N.Y., N.Y. Prices may vary according to state and local taxes.
^iristmas gifts, $60 and under.
r Black Libel Six-Pack, about $60. Sold separately, nboiit$ 10 a fifth.
NATURAL HISTORY
INCORPORATING NATURE MAGAZINE
The Journal of The American Museum of Natural History
Vol. LXXIX, No. 10 December 1970
The American Museum
of Natural History
Gardner D. Stout, President
Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Natural History
Alfred Meyer, Editor
bert E. Williamson, Managing Editor
Alan P. Ternes, Senior Editor
Thomas Page, Art Editor
Associate Editors
Avis Knifjin
John P. Wiley, Jr.
Frederick R. Hartmann
Florence G. Edelstein, Copy Chief
Toni Gerber, Copy Editor
Carol Breslin, Peviews
William Suderman, Production
Staff Assistants
Ernestine Weindorf
Janet Stinchcomb
Lillian Berger
Editorial Advisers
Dean Amadon
Franklyn M. Brantey
Margaret Mead
Thomas D. Nicholson
Gerard Piel
Ethel Tobach
Advertising Sales
Harvey Oshinsky, Director
Harry F. Decker
Walter E. Mercer
Gordon Finley
Dinah Lowell, Traffic
Eileen O'Keefe, Asst.
Circulation Promotion
Ann Usher. Director
Joan Meintjies
Gail White
Fulfillment
Joseph Saulina, Manager
4 AUTHORS
8 THE GREAT PYRAMID DEBATE Kent Weeks, I.E.S. Edwards
Two noted Egyptologists take strong exception to a new theory of pyramid
building espoused by engineer Olaf Tellefsen last month in Natural
History.
16 MANY CONCERNED, FEW COMMITTED
Virginia Hine and Luther P. Gerlach
An analysis of the responses to Natural History's questionnaire shows
that environmental concerns are changing the values of many readers.
18 ALL THE FAT AND SULLAGE FUDDY MURRINERS Susan Schlee
While we no longer make beer from river effluents, effective control and
use of water pollutants remain a problem.
30 CONCEPTIONS OF THE UNIVERSE Franklyn M. Branley
Paintings by Helmut K. Wimmer
Ancient man showed the same desire as modern man to understand outer
space — and his descriptions were way-out.
36 ROCK MUSIC John F. Gibbons II and Steven Schlossman
The Case of the Mysterious Ringing Rocks is solved by four geologists,
three physicists, two engineers, and one botanist.
42 THE FLORENTINE CODEX A review by Herbert R. Harvey
The monumental work on the Indians of ancient Mexico, tvhich laid the
foundations for ethnographic science.
52 SKY REPORTER John P. Wiley, Jr.
54 CELESTIAL EVENTS Thomas D. Nicholson
56 JOURNEY TO PULYKARA Richard A. Gould
A recently discovered group of Australian Aborigines still use stone tools
as part of a culture unaffected by Western civilization.
68 GOOSE OF THE HIMALAYAS Lawrence W. Swan
Up, up, and over. Bar-headed geese of India and Tibet overfly the highest
Himalayan peaks in a migration at record altitudes.
90 SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL READING
COVER: As late as the Middle Ages, men thought the universe ivas sealed,
and that if the outer boundaries could somehow be penetrated, the glories
of heaven would unfold.
Publication Office: The American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at
79th Street, New York, N.Y. 10024. Published monthly, October through May;
bimonthly June to September. Subscription: S7.00 a year. In Canada and all other
countries: $8.00 a year. Single copies Sl.OO. Second-class postage paid at New York,
N.Y., and at additional offices. Copyright © 1970 by The American Museum of Natural
History. No part of this periodical may he reproduced without the written consent of
Natural History. Manuscripts and illustrations submitted to the editorial office
will be handled with all possible care, but we cannot assume responsibility for their
safety. The opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect
the policy of The American Museum. Natural History incorporating Nature
Magazine is indexed in Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature.
Fish used to be scared when we looke
Not long ago, the oil industry usually
looked for offshore oil with dynamite.
They exploded it underwater and recorded
the telltale echoes on a seismograph.
When carefully done, this did little or no
harm to aquatic hfe. But lish were sometimes
scared and fled to quieter waters. Fishermen
frowned.
Now, the Esso Production Research Com-
pany (a Jersey affiliate) has invented a substitute
for dynamite. We have nicknamed it the pop;
and you can see one in our picture. It does
go bang Hke dynamite. It simply goes pop.
The device is beautifully simple. A n
ture of propane and oxygen is ignited b:
spark plug inside a rubber sleeve. The i
inflates the sleeve like an instant balloon.
This sudden expansion is strong enougl
give a seismic echo, but not so strong tha
hurts the fish.
But fishermen aren't the only people
cheer.
Dynamite is often tricky stuff to han
V"
►r oil. Now they couldn't care less.
; popper is much safer. Exploration crews
e less danger to contend with.
What's more, a crew using a popper can
in underwater survey six times faster than
ew using dynamite. They can work night
day in rough weather. Whereas a dynamite
/ needs daylight and comparative calm.
I our popper gives a better seismic picture
^le bargain.
Esso Production Research has now made
the popper available to the oil industry around
the world.
' Good news for oilmen. Great news for fish.
Quite an invention.
Standard Oil Company
(New Jersey)
fSso]
Luther P. Gerlach and Vir-
ginia Hine, designers of the ques-
tionnaire, "You and the Ecology
Movement," which appeared in our
June-July issue, presented a prelim-
inary analysis of it in our October
issue. This month they offer a final
evaluation of their study.
Gerlach is associate professor of
anthropology at the University of
Minnesota; Hine is his research as-
sociate. The background to their
work is given in their book People,
Poiver, Change: Movements of
Social Transformation, published
by Bobbs-Merrill last month. Re-
search on the ecology movement
and related phenomena was fund-
ed by the Hill Family Foundation,
the Rockefeller Foundation, the
Office of Water Resources Research
of the U.S. Department of the In-
terior, and the University of Minne-
sota Graduate School.
An independent investigator at
the Marine Biological Laboratory
at Woods Hole, our "Naturalist at
Large" Susan Schlee recently re-
turned from a trip to Britain, where
she studied the Challenger collec-
tion from the British scientific ex-
pedition led by Sir Charles Wyville
Thomson in the 1870's. A graduate
of Vassar College in the history of
art and architecture, she studied
oceanography at Florida Atlantic
LIniversity and the history of sci-
ence at Duke University. Mrs.
Schlee is currently working on a
history of oceanography.
Franklyn M. Branley received
his doctorate in science education
from Teachers College, Columbia
University, in 1957, at which time
he was associate astronomer and
director of educational services
for the American Museuni-Hayden
Planetarium. Currently chairman of
the Planetarium, he has served as
consultant and adviser to many
schools, organizations, and scien-
tific publications. A member of the
American Astronomical Society and
fellow of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science,
Branley has published more than
seventy-five books and articles, pri-
marily in the field of astronomy,
for children and adults.
Helmut K. Wimmer, whose
paintings depicting ancient con-
ceptions of the universe appear in
this issue, is art supervisor of the
American Museum-Hayden Plan-
etarium. Born in Munich in 1925,
Wimmer was apprenticed at the age
of fourteen as a sculptor and archi
tectural model-maker. After joining
the German army in 1943, he
served in the Alpine Troops until
1945, when he was captured by
Czech partisans six days after the
war ended in Europe and turned'
over to the Soviets as a prisoner-of-i
war. During his four years in cap-'
tivity he worked first in lumber
camps in the Ural Mountains and
later as a sculptor restoring public
buildings in the city of Gorki. In
1949 he returned to Germany wherej
he continued to work as a sculptoi
on the restoration of war-damaged
churches and public buildings. Five
years later he emigrated to the
United States and joined the art de
partment of the Hayden Plan
etarium. A master of air-brusl
painting in astronomy and thf
physical sciences, his illustrations
have appeared in many publica|
tions.
Not since the frontier days have
the American Indians faced greater
threats to their existence than they do
today.
Malnutrition, disease and despair
are rampant. The school drop-out rate is
50% greater than the national average.
Unemployment is 10 times the rate of
other Americans. The American Indian
today has the shortest life expectancy
of any group in the country.
Their desperate poverty is a leg-
acy passed on from one generation to
the next. The statistics show that few es-
;ape. Eight-year-old Lisa Redfox is one
jf the somber statistics. Or she will be
;oon, unless someone with $15 a month
:ares enough to do something about her.
Through Save the Children Fed-
;ration you can do a remarkable num-
ber of things for a child like Lisa. Your
.•ontribution will provide funds for the
:lothes and supplies she needs to con-
inue school. A grant or loan may enable
ler parents to make their home more liv-
ible or to start a self-help project. And a
)ortion of the money will be put into a
'und from which a community can bor-
ow to build a village center, install sani-
|ary facilities, provide vocational train-
ig or other community projects. But
lost of all, this money, and the self-help
rojects it is used for, will provide a di-
late of hope and a vision of a better
Jture.
That's what Save the Children is
11 about. Our aim is not merely a new
Dat, warm gloves or a few hot meals.
/e're interested in giving children, their
arents and their communities the little
oost they need to start helping them-
Ives. Once people start helping them-
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ley can do.
Sponsors are desperately needed
If American Indian children, as well as
lildren in Appalachia, South Korea,
Duth Vietnam, Latin America, Africa,
le Middle East and Europe.
As a sponsor you will select the
child's nationality. You will receive a
photo of the child, a case history and reg-
ular progress reports. Also, you will have
the opportunity to correspond with the
child and his family. This personal con-
tact can be as close and frequent and
rewarding as you wish it to be. You may
even some day wish to visit with your
child to see first hand what a remarkable
difference you have been able to make.
There's a child waiting for you to
fill out this coupon. You are his or her
best hope. We're not asking you to save
the world. Just a little piece of it. Per-
haps, if there are enough people like you,
that is the way to save the world.
National Sponsors (partial list): Faith Baldwin, Joan
Crawford, Gene Kelly, Mrs. Eli Lilly, Paul Newman,
Mrs. J. C. Penney, Frank Sinatra. Save the Children
Federation, founded in 1932, is registered with the
U.S. State Department Advisory Committee on Vol-
untary Foreign Aid.
To you this is a coupon.
To Lisa Redfox it's iier ticket out of hell.
Find out more
about the birds
and the bees
For a revealing closeup view of any-
thing In nature, there's nothing like
a pair of Nil<on prism binoculars.
Designed by the makers of the
famous Nikon camera, they provide
exceptionally bright, clear, crisp
vision over the entire wide field of
view, through morning mist and
evening dusk. Their superb Nikon
optics are so precisely aligned and
collimated you can view for hours
without eyestrain. Compare them
with any lesser binoculars, and you
will see the difference Nikon quality
makes.
Among the many types of Nikon
binoculars, the 8x30 and 9x35 are
particularly suited for bird watching
and nature study Both feature light-
weight, moisture-resistant construc-
tion and are backed by a 25-year
guarantee. At better optical and
camera stores and departments, or
write: Nikon Inc., Garden City, N.Y.
11530. Subsidiary of Ehrenreich
Photo-Optical Industries. Inc. iSu
(In Canada: Anglophoto Ltd., RQ.)
l\lilcon
Prism
Binoculars
John F. Gibbons II received his
B.A. and M.S. degrees from the
University of Arkansas and his
Ph.D. in geology from Syracuse
University. Currently assistant pro-
fessor of geology at Rutgers Uni-
versity, he has done field work in
the Arkansas valley, Colorado
Front Range, and the eastern
Ozarks. His projected studies in-
clude experimental research on the
physical properties of rock and a
textbook on rock mechanics.
Coauthor with Gibbons of "Rock
Music," Steven Schlossnian is
working on his M.S. in geology at
the University of Massachusetts.
The findings of their study in
northern Bucks County, Pennsylva-
nia, were first presented in a paper
at the Geological Society of Amer-
ica in 1969. Schlossman is cur-
rently studying the Helderberg
Mountains in New York State, and
plans further research in structural
geology.
Associate Curator of North
American Archeology at The Amer-
ican Museum, Richard A. Gould
received his Ph.D. from the Univer-
sity of California at Berkeley in
1965. His archeological field work
has been varied: he studied south-
western archeology at Glen Canyon,
Utah: Tolowa Indian ethnology
and archeology in northwestern
California: Mayan cave archeology
at Alta Verapaz, Guatemala; and
Polynesian archeology at the Tua-
motu and Marquesas Islands, French
Polynesia. His current article on
Pulykara is based on his recent
studies of Aborigine ethnology and
archeology in the Western Desert of
Australia. The author of Yiwara:
Foragers of the Australian Desert
as well as of numerous articles for
scientific journals, Gould plans fur-
ther studies of the Australian desert
Aborigines.
Born in Darjeeling, India, in
1922, Lawrence W. Swan is pro-
fessor of biology at San Francisco
State College and research associate
at the California Academy of Sci-
ences. His article on bar-headed
geese is based on research conducted
on several visits to the eastern
Himalayas, including Nepal and
Sikkim. He has previously studied
high-altitude ecology on Mount Ori-
zaba and other volcanic mountains
in Mexico, and has done field work
in East Africa, the Galapagos Is-
lands, and Costa Rica. He is the au-
thor of several articles for scientific
periodicals and a previous piece
for Natural History, "Ecology of
the Heights" (April, 1963). Swan's
projected studies include pollution!
fallout on high-altitude snow.
THE WORLD OF UNDBLAD TRAVEL
Waved Albatross, mating pair, Hood Island
Lars-Eric Lindblad offers two priceless journeys
of adventure for nature lovers and conservationists.
1. An expedition to Darwin's Galapagos; an island world where time stood still.
2. A Wing Safari into the heart of Hemingway's Africa.
Darwin's Galapagos
Ever since Charles Darwin put forward his
famous theory of evolution, following up
on his visit to the Galapagos Islands in
1835, these islands on the equator in the
Pacific Ocean have fired the imagination
of scientists and laymen alike.
Elephant at foot of Mt. Kilimanjaro
This is the fifth year in which Lindblad
Travel, Inc. offers you the opportunity to
participate in a special expedition to
Galapagos with its fascinating wildlife.
The flora and fauna of the Galapagos have
been jealously guarded and protected by
isolation of time, and to set foot on these
islands is to return to a state of nature as It
was thousands of years ago.
The one-class Lina A, of Greek registry,
has been chartered for this cruising expe-
dition. It is fully air-conditioned with all
outside cabins, accommodating a maxi-
mum of 50 passengers.
African Wing Safari
You will travel by private STOL airplane
through Hemingway country, over the
Serengeti Plains, from the Anchole of
West Uguanda to the Masai manyattas of
Ngorongoro ... no major park has been left
out. Land Rovers will be used in the
majority of the game parks, allowing you
to come within arm's length of many of
the fascinating animals. The very best
accommodations will be at your disposal
and each safari will be limited to 10 per-
sons and will be accompanied by a host.
So, if you have a yen for great adventure,
Lars-Eric Lindblad suggests that you
make your reservations early. BOAC jets
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THE GREAT PYRAMII
Engineer Olaf Tellefsen argued last month in Natural History that the
ancient Egyptians, by using a simple de\-ice. built the pyramids with
far less work and fewer men than is commonly believed. This month two
famous Egyptologists rebut his theory, but Tellefsen refuses to concede
Probably no group of structures
is more widely known than the
pyramids of Egypt, and certainly
none has given rise to more liter-
ature. The pyramids have been
studied and explained from a thou-
sand points of view. They have
been called the granaries of Moses,
the evil works of creatures from
other planets, the painful reminders
of a cruel and deranged king. They
have been labeled products of a
mentalitj' so great we may never
fathom all the secrets their propor-
tions hide. Their dimensions have
been measured, added, divided, and
squared — in a host of unusual units
— to reveal dates in man's past and
predict events in his future.
Fantastic ideas? Yes, and with
no basis whatsoever. Yet the facts
concerning the pyramids are no less
amazing than these fictitious no-
tions. Take, for example, the Pyra-
mid of Khufu: so accurately was it
constructed that the joints between
blocks are never more than 1/50 of
an inch ^vide: the difference be-
t\veen the longest and shortest sides
is only 7.9 inches (an error of
about 0.0009 percent) ; its sides are
witliin five arc minutes of perfect
alignment ^vith true north. Yet the
pyramid was built of 2,300,000
blocks of stone, each weighing an
average of 2.5 tons (the heaviest is
about 15 tons) ; it stood 481 feet
high: its sides were 755 feet long;
its volume over three million cubic
yards.
How was it built? How could a
people without knowledge of the
pulley, ^vithout use of the ^vheel,
erect not just this enormous and
almost perfectly aligned structure
but nearly eight>^ other (although
admittedly less impressive) pyra-
mids as well?
There are many problems to take
into account: quarrying and trans-
porting the stones, raising them
into position, fitting and dressing
them — all these are operations re-
quiring - considerable knowledge
and skill. Numerous theories have
been proposed to explain how these
tasks were performed, and one of
Tracing of a painting from 14o0 B.C. shows construction rainp iri use
)EBATE
the most discussed is the task of
moving and raising the blocks to
their position in one of the pyra-
mid's upper courses. The problem:
how did the Egyptians manage to
raise thousands of two-ton stone
blocks several hundred feet without
those tools we consider indis-
pensable?
Several devices have been pro-
posed to solve this formidable prob-
lem, the best-known and most dis-
cussed being the ramp and sledge
and any of several kinds of levers.
The use of levers, such as the
weight arm described in the article
by Olaf Tellefsen, has been pro-
posed several times in the past few
decades. Such proposals are usually
based on adaptations of the shadilf,
a device used by Egyptian peasants
to raise water from the Nile to their
fields. One study of its applicability
to pyramid construction was that
done by a German engineer, L.
Croon, who estimated that 3,500
such levers would have been needed
to build the Great Pyramid. In
some ways, this and other proposed
forms of levers might represent
workable solutions to the stone-rais-
ing task. But there are several prob-
lems.
First, there is absolutely no evi-
dence to show that levers were used
in this manner. If they were a part
of the contractor's repertoire of
tools one would think that, like
ramps and sledges, they would have
been depicted in tomb paintings
found near pyramid sites, or at
least mentioned in texts.
Second, those who seek to justify
the use of levers in the construction
of pyramids seem to assume that all
pyramids are similarly constructed
of regularly laid courses of blocks.
In fact, only a few pyramids are of
solid masonry construction, and
none is built of layer upon layer of
stone. Instead, for reasons we do
not fully understand, they are con-
structed in what almost appears to
be a series of shell-like additions,
whose "accretion faces" would
make the shaduf-\ike device ex-
tremely difficult, if not impossible.
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to use. It lias been suggested that
this building technique would allow
the pyramid to be quickly finished
off at any of several stages in the
event of the king's premature death.
But the dearth of evidence for
other devices is only part of the
reason that Egyptologists have long
favored the ramp and sledge for
pyramid construction. Not only are
they among the simplest of devices
for moving large weights upward,
but there is also considerable evi-
dence that they were, in fact, used
by Egyptian engineers.
In the XVIII dynasty {ca. 1450
B.C.), a tomb painting, pages 8 and
9, shows a ramp used for the
erection of columns in a temple
courtyard. Remains of actual ramps
have been found at several sites, in-
cluding Medum, Giza, and Lisht,
where they lie in relation to pyra-
mids. In Papyrus Anastasi I, there
is a challenge to a scribe, asking
that he determine the number of
bricks necessary to construct a
ramp (the Egyptian word was
pronounced something like "setja")
more than 1,200 feet long, 90 feet
wide, and nearly 100 feet high. The
description of this ramp fits very
well that of the ramp found near
the second pyramid at Giza. and its
slope is about the same as that of a
ramp found near the V dynasty
pyramid of Neuserre at Abu Sir.
Every one of these ramps had a
slope of approximately 15 degrees.
This seems an eminently manage-
able angle up which to pull blocks.
Yet Tellefsen's theory requires us to
believe that the stones were pulled
up the side of the pyramid itself, an
angle of 51 degrees in the Great
Pyramid, and rarely less than 42
degrees in others. A task formi-
dable enough; but we also know
from several archeological sources
that placing the casing stones was
one of the last stages in construct-
ing a pyramid and an even slope
simply would not have been avail-
able up which to haul the core
blocks. Thus hauling blocks up the
side of the Great Pyramid would
have meant hauling them up a stair-
case. The nature of the evidence, in
short, is such that there seems little
doubt that the type of ramp to
which Tellefsen objects played a
major role in pyramid construction
and in construction generally.
The evidence for the use of
sledges rather than rollers alone is
equally as good. Actual sledges
have been found at several Egyp-
tian sites, and they are shown in
use in a tomb painting, page 12, of
the XII dynasty, where a statue
weighing about 60 tons is being
pulled on a sledge by 172 men.
Note also in this scene the man
pouring water or oil under the
skids to reduce friction, and the
three men beside the statue carry-
ing a piece of wood (is this another
kind of lever, the pry ? ) .
Critics of the ramp and sledge
technique argue that too many men
would have been needed to haul
blocks and that the ramp itself
would have been a project rivaling
the pyramids in magnitude. How
many men were used? We have Old
Kingdom records of 3.000 men
being used to haul a sarcophagus
lid from its quarry to the Nile, and
we know that during the annual in-
undation large numbers of peasants
would have been freed from farm
work to participate in such a "state
project." The statement of Herod-
otus, that four hundred thousand
men labored for twenty years, is
certainly an exaggerated picture of
the building of Khufu's Pyramid.
Petrie estimated that fewer than
100,000 men, working three months
each year, could easily have built
the Great Pyramid in less than
twenty years, and some scholars be-
lieve even this figure is unnecessar-
ily high. In any case, we certainly
are talking in terms of a labor force
Egypt, with an estimated popu-
lation of 1.5 to 2 million people
during the Old Kingdom, could re-
alistically have supplied. As to the
size of the ramp, Jean-Philippe
Lauer, who has devoted most of his
life to the study of Egyptian archi-
tecture, argues that most estimates
of its dimensions are overblown be-
cause people forget that while the
first course of a pyramid may con-
tain, say, 64,000 blocks, a middle
course would require only 16,000,
and one seven-eighths of the way to
the top only 1,000. Thus the ramp
could be severely reduced in size as
it rose and still accommodate the
necessary men and stones.
If, as Tellefsen suggests, Egyptol-
ogists seem to cling tenaciously to
the ramp theory of pyramid con-
struction, it is because only it, of all
the theories proposed, is supported
by archeological evidence. We do
not deny the use of levers — such as
a pry perhaps used to load the
stones onto a sledge — but careful
examination of the ancient records
gives us every reason to believe that
the ramp was the basic device used
in constructing these most awe-in- '
spiring of monuments.
Kent R. Weeks
Assistant Curator
Department of Egyptian Art
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Tellefsen's article seems to me to
disregard the archeological evi-
dence and to offer a theory that is
hardly likely to commend itself to
Egyptologists. To quote Herodotus,
who lived more than 2.000 years af-
ter the Great Pyramid was built, is
not equal to citing contemporary
evidence. The theory simply does
not take into account what has sur-
vived, including traces of building
ramps.
The author should examine the
standard work on ancient Egyptian
methods of building, namely,
Ancient Egyptian Masonry, by
Somers Clarke and R. Engelbach
(Oxford, 1930), and then find rea-
sons to refute the arguments of the
authors, which are based on arch-
eological discovery. Incidentally,
despite Tellefsen's opening con-
tention, not all engineers and
Egyptologists have disagreed : Engel-
bach was himself an engineer, and
he agreed completely with the con-
ventional theory of pyramid build-
ing.
Tellefsen ventures some views on
the size of the Egyptian population
at the time the pyramids were built,
but neither he nor any one else has
the slightest evidence about the
matter; it is pure conjecture. In
other areas he reveals how little he
knows about Egypt: he talks about
digging irrigation canals in the
"off-season," when the canals in
question would have had to be dug
under the water of the inundation!
On the question of labor, there is
no evidence of "slaves" from for-
eign countries at the time the pyra-
mids were built.
This article is one of several that
have been sent to me over the years,
written by engineers and based on
Loren
Eiseley
THE INVISIBLE
PYRAMID
The distinguished naturalist and con-
servationist views the Space Age In
this unique book — the first humanist
account of the rocl<et century.
"I am bewitched by the style which
Is often that of a poet and not uncom-
monly that of a seer and prophet. . . .
[Eiseley] was one of the very first
scientists to proclaim publicly that
mankind must reinsert itself into na-
ture. ... He is teaching our genera-
tion to recapture that cosmic sense
which is unique to man."
—•RENE DUBOS,
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fine mind." —RAY BRADBURY
Illustrated by Walter Ferro
Major selection of
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THE YEAR OF
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The author of The Year of the Whale,
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ISLAND AT THE
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New Light on Easter Island
"This handsome book, richly illus-
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the work of the only white man who
cpme to know the present islanders
intimately. Father Englert lived
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membered of their departed ances-
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Saturday Review Syndicate
32 pages of full color
photographs by George Helton
Selection of the
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pure theory. I am sorry that my
opinion of it is not more favorable.
I. E. S. Edwards
Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities
The British Museum
The Author Replies
It is gratifying indeed to see the
accompanying comments on my ar-
ticle by experts. It is gratifying be-
cause the literature on Egypt, and
on the Great Pyramid in particular,
is so bulky, so diverse and vague
that it is difficult to discern ^vhat is
what, and there has long been a
need for a condensation of the es-
sence. Now it appears that Natu-
ral History has become a forum
for critical debate that may result
in the realization of such a goal.
Personally, I am not interested in
academic debate for its own sake.
My most fervent desire is to see an
age-old enigma decided on the basis
of technological realities as well as
on archeological evidence.
My article speaks for itself and
needs no defense or further proof
of technical soundness: for what I
have proposed can be demonstrated
to be feasible, and furthermore, my
theory does not involve anything
that wasn't ^vell within the capabil-
ities and the material resources of
the pyramid builders. Its weakness,
according to the experts, is that
there is no physical evidence to in-
dicate that the apparatus I have de-
scribed was used by the ancient en-
gineers.
I believe that there is.
In his comments Dr. Edwards
writes as follows: "To quote Hero-
dotus, who lived more than 2,000
years after the Great Pyramid was
built, is not equal to citing contem-
porary evidence. The theory simply
does not take into account what has
A sledge is used to move 60-ton statue in this tomb-painting tracing.
12
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survived, including traces of build
ing ramps" [my italics].
That comment, I believe, con
tains two items whose resolution i
essential for the resolution of thi
over-all pyramid question. The firs
of these is the writings of Hero
dotus. It is true that he lived 2,00(
years after the pyramid was built
but he got his information fron
priests who had preserved record
of their own — records that wer^
contemporary in origin with th
reign of Khufu. Herodotus did no
take his report out of thin aii
although it contains some of hi
own misconceived observations
mistakes that led to summary rejec
tion of the entire report. Som
Egyptologists, however, have endear
ored to analyze the sources of hi
information, and with some signifi
cant results. Prof. Margaret Murra
of the University of London, for es
ample, has written that the priesi
had a grievance against Khufu an
they vilified him to the best of thei^
ability. They exaggerated the loa
he placed on the people for his sel:
ish purposes, including the buildin
of his enormous tomb, which thre^
the records completely out of tru
perspective.
But. to my knowledge at least, n
Egyptologist so far has paid an
attention to the reasonab
assumption that the priests had n
bone to pick with the pyramid eng
neers. There was no reason fc
them to falsify the records with n
spect to how the structure w
raised. It is my opinion that if
huge ramp were the princip;
means for elevating the blocks
would have been mentioned,
wasn't. Instead, they stressed tl
use of a "machine" made of sho
planks. Egyptologists, however, ha
to reject this because they had coi
vinced themselves there simp'
couldn't be any such thing.
I claim that there could, and
am prepared to build one and den
onstrate its efficiency.
This is the first item to be
solved to the satisfaction of all coi
cerned. It is favored by the fa
that it is mentioned in the ancie:
records, and it is the only exta:
evidence of contemporary origin .
to how the Great Pyramid was raise
The second item is that there
no contemporary evidence of
huge ramp being used. All su(
14
assumed evidence is taken from
post-Great Pyramid structures, and
anachronisms can never be contem-
porary. Dr. Edwards will have to
yield on that score. Which same ap-
plies to the summary comments by
Dr. Weeks, for what has evidence
from the XII and XVIII dynasties
to do with the Great Pyramid?
Yet, arguments of this nature
really settle nothing. There can be
no question that Egyptologists
know infinitely more about Egypt
than any engineer; but neither can
there be any question that engi-
:neers know more about the appli-
cation of basic physics and tecton-
ics than the former. And it has
become evident that neither dis-
cipline by itself can encompass all
the factors that go to unravel the
puzzle of how the Great Pyramid
ivas raised. But with a sober and
sincere dialogue between the two —
devoid of all bias — it should be pos-
sible at least to eliminate incon-
gruities, leaving only what is tech-
nically and circumstantially sound.
j The Great Pyramid was the first
Tue pyramid; it was the largest,
he most meticulously planned and
ocated, and it bears the hallmark
)f being a monument to man's
chievements up to that time, more
ban being strictly a tomb. It em-
)odies evidence of every achieved
knowledge and skill, so intricately
nterwoven in the structure that a
)ermanent record is preserved in its
eatures. Whether by design or by
xpediency it is a treasure trove of
rcheological gold, mutely challeng-
ng and serenely aloof. It is a com-
)lex all by itself, original in con-
ept as well as in execution, and all
ater pyramids are merely simula-
ions but with evidence of new ex-
eriments, particularly in construc-
ion procedures. Hence, such later
tructures cannot be used as evi-
ence applying to the original. The
7reat Pyramid must be treated as
inique, as a product of the con-
ummate knowledge of the time. As
uch, the question of how it was
uilt can be resolved only by defin-
ng the level of that knowledge and
le manpower economics of the
ime — the one being complementary
0 the other.
And I proudly claim that my ar-
icle is a constructive effort toward
hat end.
Olaf Tellefsen
©Mm^M^^ms?&M^o
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More than 7.000 Natural His-
tory readers responded to the
ecology survey published in the
June-July issue this year. Consid-
ering the length and format of the
questionnaire, this is a remarkable
response. It indicates a lively inter-
est both in the problems con-
fronting this nation and in this
attempt to discover trends in envi-
ronmental thinking through the sur-
vey method.
Forty-five percent of all the re-
turns came from the northeastern
states, 18 percent from the West
Coast, mostly California, and 16
percent from the Midwest. The rest
were fairly evenly distributed in
other areas of the country.
Sixty percent of the sample
I 5.092 were received in time to be
coded and processed) are active in
groups concerned with environmen-
tal problems. Of these, almost half
belong to three or more such orga-
nizations. These people are not only
ecologically aware, but they tend to
be well educated and comfortably
situated. Seventy-nine percent are
college educated, with 30 percent
holding advanced degrees. Forty-six
percent have an annual family in-
come of S15.000 or more. Occu-
pationally, the group is weighted
(42 percent) in the areas of the
professions, education, and social
service.
For purposes of analysis, the
sample was divided in several dif-
ferent ways: on the basis of age. of
sex (57 percent men, 43 percent
women ) , of occupation, and of par-
ticipation in environmental groups.
While the group as a whole may be
assumed to differ from the general
public in its environmental ori-
entation, there are some interesting
differences within the sample itself.
The much-touted generation gap
is not apparent, at least on environ-
mental issues within this sample. In
general, younger people (the under-
30 group), women over 30, and
men over 30 in the professions,
education, or social service occupa-
tions tend to be somewhat similar
in diverging from conventional
attitudes and the basic assumptions
common in our society. Men over
30 in other occupations tend to
hold more to conventional views.
This sample is. of course, far too
small and too representative of con-
servation-minded people to make
any statements about society as a
whole. But it might be wise, for
those who are interested in social
change to stop thinking simply in
terms of older- and younger and to
explore instead the possibilities of
position in the social structure as a
key to changing attitudes.
The least controversial issue for
this sample of conservation-minded
people is population control. Most
(79 percent) feel that all families
should limit the number of children
and a slightly smaller majority (68
percent) would favor encouraging
this by removing tax exemptions
for more than two children.
Another point on which there is
little divergence is the sense of per-
sonal responsibility for pollution.
Most ( 62 percent I feel a personal
involvement, and 35 percent specif-
ically spelled out the ways in which
they are attempting to consume
less, recycle wastes, clean up litter,
or make even inore radical changes
in life-style.
Biologists from the University oi
California at Santa Barbara, in an
article for the Center Magazine last
year, wrote that they felt the job oj.
the ecologist is to dispel "the domi-j
nant American philosophy that the
answer to most of our problems is
technology." They might be encour
aged to know that, for this samph
at least, faith in technology seem;
to be wavering. Only 18 percent oi
the total feel that the environmen
tal crisis can be solved primarih
through technological advances. Al
i6
A (inai report on the
Natural History survey reveals
that wiien women and tiieunder-30 group
rally at the environmental barrjcades,
the generation gap disappears
hy Virginia Hine and Luther P. Gerlach
subgroups are similar in trend of
thinking, but there are differences
in degree. Women over 30 seem to
have the least faith in technology
(less than the young) , and not sur-
prisingly, men over 30 in engineer-
ing and technical jobs, the most.
Another issue that has been
raised by growing concern for the
environment is man's relationship
with nature, and his place in the
universe. Most Natural History
respondents (81 percent) disagree
with the statement that plants and
animals exist primarily for man's
use and enjoyment. It would seem
that this is one issue that sets
environmentalists apart from the
general public. In our prelimi-
nary surveys of those groups
not involved in the conservation-
ecology movement, people are
about evenly divided on this ques-
tion. Many people feel that this is
essentially a religious issue. In a
much-quoted article entitled "The
Historical Roots of our Ecological
Crisis" (Science, March 10, 1967),
Lynn White has suggested that
"human ecology is deeply condi-
tioned by beliefs about our nature
and destiny — that is, by religion."
Our science and technology. White
believes, have grown out of the
ludeo-Christian concept of man as
superior to, and dominant over,
other forms of life. "By destroying
pagan animism, Christianity made
it possible to exploit nature in a
mood of indifference to the feelings
of natural objects."
A question on the survey about
whether or not wild animals have
any rights is related to White's
thesis. Fifty percent of the group
felt wild animals have equal rights
with man; slightly less than half
(45 percent) felt animals' rights
were subordinate to man's. The rest
were undecided or felt wild animals
have no rights. When we broke the
sample down into subgroups, some
interesting differences appeared.
People under 30 (about one-third
of the total sample) are more likely
to view wild animals as equal with
man, while people over 30 hold to
the animal-subordinate view.
Equal
Subor-
dinate
All respondents
Under 30
Over 30
When the over-30 group is divided
on the basis of sex and occupation,
we find that women over 30 are
similar to the under-30 group in
weighting on the side of equal
rights, while men over 30 tend to
opt for animals as subordinate. Of
the occupational groups among
men over 30, businessmen (as dis-
tinct from those in the professions,
government, or the military, or in
engineering and technical jobs) are
least likely to grant wild animals
equal rights with man.
White's suggestion that Western
religions have institutionalized the
concept of man's dominance and,
by extrapolation, control over his
natural environment suggests fur-
ther lines of research, which we are
now exploring. Our preliminary
findings indicate that people deeply
involved in institutional church ac-
tivities do. indeed, differ from the
Natural History sample on this
score. Their responses to these two
questions are very much more heav-
ily weighted toward the view of
other living species as subordinate
to man and existing primarily for
his use and enjoyment. In-
cidentally, this sample indicates
Natural History readers as a
group are not exactly dedicated
churchgoers. Most (67 percent) at-
tend religious services only a few
times a year or less, and 30 percent
report that they never go.
This conservation-oriented sam-
ple is definitely beginning to chal-
lenge a number of the fundamental
Continued on page 76
17
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A briel account
01 several hundred
glorious years
01 inadequate
sewage disposal
and
water pollution
hy Susan schiee
When, in 1851, a thundering
storm swept in off the Atlantic and
pounded away the sand dunes on
the west coast of Mainland Island,
in the beautiful Orkneys north of
Scotland, it uncovered the simple
sewers of Skara Brae. These were
not much as sewers go — shallow
ditches dug from hut to hut — but
because this settlement is consid-
ered a remnant of the Stone Age,
with a history going back some 3,-
500 years, its sewers have gained a
certain distinction. At the very least
they serve to show that the problem
of waste disposal is not new. But in
Skara Brae the problem was a rela-
tively simple one of segregation : a
way was needed to keep the sewage
and the food apart. The ditches ef-
fected this separation: beyond that,
they probably attracted flies, but
little notice.
My intention, however, is not to
speculate on Stone Age sewage dis-
posal or even to touch, with better
documentation, on the ingeniousi
sewer systems evolved by the Chi-'
nese, Greeks, Babylonians, and Ro-,1
mans, but to consider instead some)
of the problems, so akin to ourt
own, that developed in the indus-J
trialized and densely populated)
communities of the late eighteenth^
and early nineteenth centuries.
In the years just prior to the In-
dustrial Revolution, most of the
wastes produced by homes andj
workshops were allowed to lie'
where they fell, and if they landed
in a river, so much the better,;
There seemed to be no particulaii
reasons for changing this hap-i
hazard system : the river lost its odor
and recovered its clarity a fev
miles downstream, and the cholert
and typhoid epidemics that swep'
through riverside villages were as
sociated with the wrath of God, no
the wealth of sewage. In fact, for i
few enterprising souls, there was a
good living to be made as long as thd
i8
A Naturalist at Large
irrlners
sewer ways remained as they were.
An illustration of that last, and
rather curious reason, may be
found in a small book published in
1702, entitled Hints to Brewers and
intended for London brewmasters.
"Thames water," it states, "taken
up about Greenwich at Low water
when it is free of all brackishness
of the Sea, and has in it all the Fat
and Sullage from this great city of
London, makes a very strong drink.
It will of itself ferment wonder-
fully, and after its due purgation
and three times stinking, it will be
so strong that several Sea Com-
manders have told me that it has
often fuddled their Murriners."
A more common way of utilizing
domestic wastes was to strain out
the "soot, leaves, matches, straw,
candle ends, oily and tarry sub-
stances, and other rubbish," then
spread the remaining effluent on
farm lands. A sewage irrigation
system of this sort was started in
the 1700's near Edinburgh, and
that city's sewage ( said to be of ex-
ceptionally high class I was spread
upon the rich fields that slope
toward the southern shore of the
Firth of Forth.
These peaceful scenes of sewage
disposal ended quite abruptly in the
early years of the nineteenth cen-
tury when industrialization came
clattering in, and the production of
cloth, paper, iron, leather goods,
beer, beet sugar, and potato starch
moved out of sheds and dormers
into smelly, steam-powered facto-
ries. Farmers' sons and daughters
left home to work in the mills, and
swelled by their numbers, villages
grew into towns, towns into cities.
It wasn't long before the wastes that
had been spread over the country-
side began piling up in stinking
heaps throughout the new cities.
Sewage disposal became a problem.
At first, an easy answer seemed
to lie with the rivers. To remain
1-
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habitable, cities kept their wastes
moving steadily into every stream
and freshet within their lines. In
England, a Towns Improvement
Clauses Act of 1847 required local
authorities to discharge their crude
sewage into rivers. Obediently, fell-
mongers, flax retters, slaughterers,
dyers, and millers poured their
wastes into a common stream and
soon "a great diversity of noxious
substances" rode upon the waters.
Both trade wastes, as industrial
sewage was then called, and domes-
tic wastes were dumped into the wa-
terways, which a mile or so down-
stream, furnished some other town
with water for drinking, washing,
bathing, fishing, and manufac-
turing. Because the waterways were
also highways, barges loaded with
raw materials and finished goods
moved cumbrously up and down
them. This river traffic, itself, was
often a source of further pollution.
In Russia, for exainple, naphtha
was transported in leaky wooden
barges along the Volga and other
rivers, and where these barges
streamed their toxic hydrocarbons
not a fish or a frog survived.
Gradually it became evident that
using rivers as open sewer ways
was not an acceptable method of
sewage disposal. Most frequently, it
was the unimaginable stench, rather
than the mounting death rate, that
initially suggested a change was in
order. To keep the smell at a toler-
able level, some cities tried board-
ing over their narrow streams and
canals. As early as 1637, certain
sections of London's putrescent
Fleet River were covered. In
smaller cities and in those located
on rivers swifter than the sluggish
Thames, conditions did not become
intolerable until a much latei
date — about the mid-nineteenth
century — when concern for both
the smelly nuisance and the newly
suspected danger of water-borne
disease began to be expressed.
Official concern for water pollu-
tion took the form of either royal
orders or parliamentary acts — both
equally impractical and difficult tc
enforce — and was directed primar
ily toward the safety of people and
the protection of fish. One of th(
earliest of such decrees was an Iris!
Fisheries Act passed in 1842, whicl
made it an offense to add to i
stream any substance harmful t*
20
treasons
why you should read
psychology today
1 Why words are the least important of the ways we communicate with each other.
2 The sexual reason behind the popularity of natural childbirth.
3 Why political leaders are constantly in danger of insanity.
4 Why Asians make better politicians than Westerners.
5 Do men need more recreation than women?
6 What kind of parents do hippies make?
7 Why it may be time to end the taboo against incest.
8 The inferiority feelings of men who seek corporate power.
9 What the schizophrenic is trying to tell us.
10 Are campus activists rebelling against the system-or their parents?
1 1 What your daydreams reveal about your ethnic background.
12 Why do swingers tend to become impotent?
13 Is it time to grant the right to commit suicide?
14 Does a child think before he can talk?
15 Why are today's students attracted to violence?
16 Are "hawks" sexually repressed?
17 Are some men born criminals?
Want to learn what modern psychology has learned
about people? Including you?
Until recently, that was quite an order. Your cfioice would have been to plow
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It's psychology the way you'd want it to be presented. Excitingly. Without
tired jargon. No cliche-ridden definitions. And with contributions by many of
:he most famous names in the behavioral sciences— like Bruno Bettelheim,
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edible fish. Twenty years later a
series of royal orders was issued in
Belgium against dumping in rivers;
and in Britain, the Royal Commis-
sion on Rivers Pollution, later su-
perseded by the Royal Commission
on Sewage Disposal, was estab-
lished to determine how "by new
arrangements the refuse from in-
dustrial processes can be kept out
of the streams or rendered harmless
before it reaches them, or utilized
or got rid of otherwise than by dis-
charge into running waters."
In addition to governmental con-
cern, a generation of active and en-
thusiastic naturalists took up the
cause of cleaner rivers. The English
zoologist Francis T. Buckland wrote
The Pollution of Rivers and Its Ef-
fect upon the Fisheries and Supply
of Water to Toivn and Villages, and
in America, zoologist Tarleton
Bean bombarded the magazine
Forest and Stream with "Rubbish
in the Thames." "Effects of Gar-
bage on Fish." "Sawdust in
Streams." and "Susquehanna River
Pollution." In Germany the inevi-
table handbuchs appeared, and in
France, scholarly professors wrote
etudes on noxious substances, ti-
tling them, in their philosophical
way, with unanswerable questions.
Whether these efforts, both pub-
lic and private, helped clean up
streams is a moot point; however,
the concern they expressed did
bring into focus the problem of us-
ing rivers as sewers, and by the last
quarter of the century it was gener-
ally agreed that the harmful ele-
ments of sewage should be barred
from public waters. But what were
these substances, and how could
they be detected in, and therefore
kept out of. the water supply?
During the first half of the nine-
teenth century, anyone curious
enough to inquire could find out
from town and city records that the
death rate in riverside communities
was curiously affected by a city's
position on the waterway. The rate
was lowest in towns near the river's
source and awesomely high in those
at its mouth. No sound explanation
for this pattern was offered until
the 1860's when the theory was
advanced that disease was caused
by minute organisms and that some
of these could live for a time in wa-
ter, thereby infecting entire city
populations. Bacteriologists, search-
"The trouDiesome goop
was tried as an ingredient
olcement...anditwas
evenpurilied(atter
atastiion)andniixed
witti Deet pulp to De
sold as came feed."
24
ing for these insidious invaders,
soon found them. In 1880, the con-
nection between typhoid fever and
a bacillus was made, and three
years later the German physician
Robert Koch isolated the Asiatic
cholera bacillus. In subsequent
years it was learned that certain
amoebas caused dysentery and that
some flativorms caused other wide-
spread and debilitating diseases.
The detection of these dangerous
organisms was facilitated by new
techniques such as staining and cul-
turing, and by the turn of the cen-
tury, water of suspect purity could
be sampled and its impurities could
be identified with a fair degree of
accuracy. This is, of course, an over-
simplification; what actually de-
veloped in many instances was the
practice of testing water for cer-
tain easily cultured or identifiable
"indicator organisms" whose exis-
tence suggested that other dan-
gerous but less tractable organisms
were present as well. Some species
of colon bacilli became particular
favorites among bacteriologists and
were used extensively as indicators
of dangerous contamination.
With methods for such detection
well in hand, public health workers,
who were increasingly given the re-
sponsibility of exposing water pol-
lution, went out into the proverbial
"field" to test all kinds of water.
The field for one employee of the
United States Hygienic Laboratory,
a division of the Public Health Ser-
vice, was the railroad station in
Washington, D. C., and there, in
1914. he took water samples from a
thousand railroad cars. The sam-
ples, which he carefully collected in
sterilized flasks, were categorized
according to the water's origin —
Boston, Chicago. New Orleans, Key
West, and a hundred points in be-
tween— as well as by their source
on the train — a big, gurgling water
cooler on a sleeping car, a tank rid-
ing below a dining car, or a small,
refillable cooler on a day coach or a
mail car. The results of the analyses
were no surprise. The water supply
on the trains from the north and
west were fairly free of colon ba-
cilli, but on the Seaboard Air Line
from Key West, the Southern Rail-
road from New Orleans, and the
Atlantic Coast Line from Florida,
Georgia, and the Carolinas, the
"storage and handling of drinking
It wakes you up. Puts you to sleep.
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Our answer to clock radio.
PANASON
just slightly ahead of ourtfme.
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25
Nature photography is second
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Because it's the faster handHng
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water [was] wholly inadequate."
The water was crawling with ba-
cilli. Train #82 on the Atlantic
Coast Line was a particular hazard.
Water samples collected from its
cars on repeated trips to the Wash-
ington station contained colon ba-
cilli in 43 percent of the sleeping
car samples, 36 percent of the mail
car's, and 72 percent of the day
coach's. Another unsurprising re-
sult was that no sudden changes
were made in the south's railway
system as a consequence of the Hy-
gienic Laboratory's Bulletin #100.
The detection of dangerous chem-
icals, which might enter the water
with either industrial waste or do-
mestic sewage, was in some ways
less complicated than the detection
of bacteria, but the effects of these
chemicals on humans and fish were
very difficult to determine. Even the
effects of naphtha or lead tended to
be less dramatic than an epidemic
of typhoid or cholera and, such
being the case, chemical pollutants
were less productive of anxiety and
consequent correction. Early tests
for undesirable chemicals included
subjective observations of the color
of the water, its taste, odor, and
turbidity. Later, more precise deter-
minations were made of the water's
salinity, hardness, acidity, and
alkalinity and, in the last half of
the nineteenth century, additional
tests were devised for the detection
of metals, acids, and various forms
of nitrogen, which, if present, im-
plied domestic contamination. The
ability to detect a potentially harm-
ful chemical sometimes outran the
ability to predict its effects. Right
after World War I, for example,
there occurred a catastrophic mor-
tality among oysters from southern
Italy to northern Ireland. The pop-
ular explanation for the oysters' de-
mise was the practice of dumping
surplus TNT and other explosives
off the mouths of rivers. There f
could be little doubt that some oy-
ster beds had received at least small
doses of TNT— 1,250 tons of it had
been dumped into the Thames
alone — but no one knew how these
chemicals affected oysters, so it was
impossible to claim that the dump-
ing constituted a case of harmful
pollution.
Investigators at the Marine Bio-
logical Association in Plymouth,
England, setting out to solve the
26
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"The death rate in
riverside coininunities
wascuriousiyaliected
hy a city's position
on the waterway. The
ratewasiowestin
towns near the river's
source and awesomely
high in those at its
mouth;
Bdi 105N Grade Sta.
New York 10028
mystery, added TNT and other ex-
plosives to several of their oyster
tanks. Other oysters were placed in
cages with lumps of TNT and the
whole trap was then sunk in an es-
tuary. Explosives, the scientists
found, dissolved very slowly at sea
and even the shellfish caged with
TNT were apparently unaffected.
Other sorts of chemical pollution
were then accused but each time
tests seemed to deny their alleged ill
effects, and the cause of the oyster
mortality of 1920 and 1921 was
never satisfactorily determined.
TNT's acquittal, however, was
almost the exception that proved
the rule. So many substances were
known to kill fish and such a fright-
ening array of germs was recog-
nized as lethal to humans that cities
and governments could no longer
postpone some attempt at sanitary
engineering on the grounds that the
evidence for pollution's ill effects
was insufficient.
The obvious first step in sewage
control was to screen the solids
from the effluent before it was
poured into a river. In some
countries, Germany for example,
screening was the total extent of
sewage treatment, for it was be-
lieved that big, swiftly flowing riv-
ers could handle vast quantities of
liquid effluent without permanent
damage. But in England, and later
in other countries as well, further
refinements were required. To re-
move some of the more finely di-
vided particles, the screened ef-
fluent was allowed to stand for
several hours in settling tanks;
soon it was discovered that if lime
and other chemicals were added,
many more of the suspended par-
ticles would sink to the bottom.
This helped clear up the efiluent,
but it also produced great quan-
tities of muddy residue at the bot-
tom of the tanks, and the problem
became one of sludge disposal.
Many schemes were devised for '
the use and removal of sludge. The
troublesome goop was tried as an
ingredient of cement, it was used as
fertilizer and as a .source of
ammonia, and it was even purified
(after a fashion) and mixed with
beet pulp to be sold as cattle feed.'
A different approach to the prob-
lem was to avoid the production of
sludge by allowing organic pro-
cesses to decompose the sewage to!
28
riuch an extent that only a liquid re-
mained. The idea of a septic tank
was developed in England and Ger-
many, and at first seemed to offer a
complete solution to the sludge
problem. A septic tank, as the name
implies, allows sewage to putrefy,
and the bubbling, gaseous decom-
position did indeed break down
many solid particles, but not all
and not enough. The sludge prob-
lem remained despite the many
types of septic tanks that began to
appear in the 1870's and ISoO's.
The English named their inventions
"biolytic tanks" and "cultivation
tanks," while the Germans pre-
ferred to name theirs after them-
selves, the Imhoff tank and the
Francke tank, or after the river
they were meant to clean up.
The next great leap forward in
sewage technology was the in-
vention of the "activated sludge"
system. With this method, devised
shortly after World War I and cur-
rently in use in many English "sew-
age farms" and in American "sew-
age plants," sewage is mixed with
specially prepared particles (the
"sludge" part of the name), which
have been overgrown with a thin
layer of sewage-devouring bacteria
or protozoans (the live, or "activat-
ed," part). The murky mixture is
agitated and aerated to encourage
maximum oxidation and decompo-
sition, and then the whole is
allowed to settle. Since not all of the
solids are decomposed, the sludge
that remains is dried and burned,
used as fertilizer, or dumped into
rivers.
With big cities and big busi-
nesses polluting and with septic
tanks and activated sludge systems
removing the toxic elements identi-
fied by chemists and bacteriologists,
we are more or less up to date in
the essentials of the water pollution
problem. Men have learned what
pollution can do and men have
learned how to control it — at a
price. And there's the rub.
"Little is accomplished except
where local conditions here and
there become intolerable," wrote
:he director of the New York
\quarium in 1908. Today the intol-
;rable here's and there's cover a
nuch greater area than they did
3ven sixty years ago, and the un-
;rowded days of Skara Brae are not
;yen a memory. ■
Konica cameras get taken to where the
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29
Ancient man devised eiaDorate explanations tor wtiat
he oDserved in ttie sky-out no more eialiorate ttian
tnose modern man napptiv accepts
py Franklyn Braniey paintings dy Helmut K. Wimmer
In spite of the air pollution of tliese times, the
stars above the eastern Mediterranean deserts
continue to shine with the brilliance of millen-
niums past. But today people see the sky quite
difFerently than did the Chaldeans. Babylonians,
Assyrians, and Egyptians of long ago. Many of
them slept under the stars. Spreading their
couches on rooftops or on the ground, they
gazed at the stars, and occasionally a planet, as
sleep overtook them. The last sight they saw
were the sparkling stars, apparently fastened to
a vast inverted hemisphere. Upon awakening,
they were greeted by the rising sun. Small won-
der that the sun and the moon, the stars and the
star wanderers (the planets) held such promi-
nent places in their explanations of the scheme
of things.
Failing to find reasons for the motions of the
sky, for the coming and going of the sun, the
waxing and waning of the moon, and the wan-
derings of Mercury. Venus. Mars. Jupiter, and
Saturn, the ancients atti'ibuted them to forces be-
yond understanding. In many instances, the ce-
lestial objects were the gods themselves, some
appearing every day: others making periodic
visits that called for special observances.
The earth and the sky dominated the lives of
men. They were of supreme importance; they
were omnipresent, yet they eluded probing and
understanding. What were the earth and sky?
How were they shaped? How large were they?
Where did they begin and end? Such questions
have always confounded men. But man of
ancient times was not as confounded as we are.
In his ignorance of the composition of space
and its geometry, ancient man devised ex-
planations for the things he observed and for
their motions. For example, ancient Egyptians
considered their world to be a large, rectangular
box. The larger dimension of the rectangle was
from north to south: the shorter, from east to
west. The bottom of the box was the earth,
where continents and seas alternated. EgjiDt was
at the center of the narrow, sunken floor, and at
the top of the rectangular box was the sky. It
seems that some people carried the box analogy
to the sky, thinking it too was a flat surface, hut
others found this idea difficult to accept. They
could not deny their senses, which told them the
sky was bo^vl shaped, and so they thought of the
sky as the inner surface of a great dome.
Helmut Wimmer presents us with his versions
of both conceptions (page 31 top, 32-33). In
each, the sky is supported by four high moun-
tain peaks located at north, south, east, and west.
The peaks are joined together by rolling hills,
creating a wall that surrounds the world. The
near surface of the sky, the part toward the
earth, is hung with lamps held securely by
strong ropes. During the day the lamps are ex-
tinguished, probably by a special god, but lit at
night, they shine forth and bejewel the sky.
The sun is a disk of fire, the god Ra. which
floats in a barge on the celestial river. At sunset
tlie boat passes into the valley of the gods, and
can no longer be seen. At sunrise, the craft
emerges from the valley, and can again be ob-
served from the earth.
The Chaldeans, a Semitic people who lived in
the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in
Asia Minor, were a branch of the Babylonians.
They were learned men, often credited ivith the
intellectual and academic achievements of the
Babylonians. The Chaldeans were concerned
about the rising and setting of the sun, the ap-
pearance of the stars, and the size and shape of
their world and universe.
To the Chaldeans the universe was a com-
pletely enclosed region that floated on top of the
great sea {page 31 bottom). In their conception,
earth was at the center of the enclosure, a great
mountain surrounded by a high, impenetrable
wall. The sea betiveen the central earth and the
surrounding wall was completely forbidden. A
person would be lost forever if he ventured upon
it. Special permission from the gods was needed
to make a crossing; permission rarely, if ever,
given.
30
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Heaven was a great vaulted dome that rose
above the universe and rested upon the sur-
rounding walls. Heaven was designed and made
by Jupiter, one of the important gods of the
Chaldeans. He built the dome from a hard metal
that reflected the light of the sun during the day.
At night the dome was a deep blue backdrop for
performances by the gods (the planets), the
moon, and the stars.
0,
ne half of the universe's great wall was solid.
The other half was hollow and had openings at
either end. In the morning the eastern gate was
opened and Shamesh, the sun god, came through
it in a great chariot drawn by two onagers — wild
donkeys of Asia. The disk of the sun, which men
on earth saw, was one of the chariot's bright,
golden wheels. With breakneck speed Shamesh
drove across the sky. As evening approached, he
slowed down, went through the west gate, and
entered the hollow cave of the surrounding wall.
Twilight closed the gate. All night the chariot
was drawn through and around the wall to
emerge in the morning when dawn opened the
eastern gate once more.
The people of ancient days often thought of
the universe as boxed, or walled, in. This desire
to put boundaries and limitations on space has
persisted to the present. In this so-called enlight-
ened age, people still find it difficult to com-
prehend the vastness of space, the great dis-
tances involved, the multitude of galaxies. We
prefer to think of the universe as our ancestors
did — a neat, closed system with specific bound-
aries and limitations.
As did most early people, the ancient Greeks
believed that the earth was flat, an idea strongly
supported by the sage Thales of Miletus who
lived some 2,500 years ago. Thales taught that
water was the basic essence of the earth. He also
said the earth was a flat, circular disk (page 34
top) , whose outer part was bounded by a great,
impenetrable river-ocean. Stars appeared out of
this boundary sea and set in it each morning.
Helios, the sun god later associated with
Apollo, rose out of the eastern ocean in a chariot
drawn by four white chargers. As Helios drove
the chariot across the sky, the horses breathed
light and fire. The appearance of Helios out of
the ocean each morning caused the stars to dive
pell-mell into the western sea.
Helios was an all-seeing god; his light pene-
trated everywhere. He was a beneficent god who
brought to people the good things of life — light,
heat, the growth of crops. No wonder that living
sacrifices were made to Helios each year, in-
cluding the casting of four white horses into the
sea.
The Greeks believed that Ethiopians, who
lived at the far reaches of the earth, were
scorched by the hot sun as it appeared and dis-
appeared below the east and west horizons.
At the outset, the Pythagoreans upset the
teachings of Thales, maintaining that the earth
was a sphere fixed in the center of the universe,
not flat and round, and not floating in a sea of
water. The followers of Pythagoras, prominent
among whom was Heraclides, ascribed daily ro-
tation to the earth and annual motion around a
central fire. Two hundred years later Aristarchus
guessed that the earth was a planet moving
around the sun. But as we know, Hipparchus,
and later Ptolemy, rejected such fantastic ideas.
Thus the idea of a sun-centered universe lay dor-
mant for some 1,800 years, waiting upon the
work of Copernicus.
The cobra has long been sacred to Hindus,
and it remains so in many parts of India. In
their concept of the world (page 34 bottom), we
see once more the desire to enwrap their sur-
roundings, to provide boundaries, thereby giving
one security and a feeling of completeness.
To the Hindus the bottom of the universe was
a sea of milk bounding all sides. A huge turtle
swam in the sea, and became the foundation for
the world. Four elephants stood on the turtle's
back at each of the four cardinal points: north,
east, south, and west. The elephants supported
the earth, a symmetrical disk, which sloped up-
ward from all points to a towering central moun-
tain. Atop the mountain was a gigantic fire (a
candle according to some versions of the story).
All was contained within the coils of a cobra: a
neat, compact world.
The need to think of the universe as closed,
with definite boundaries, persisted into the
Middle Ages, as shown in Mr. Wimmer's cover
painting. This concept lost prominence grudging-
ly only as the Copernican idea received greater
attention.
Earth was thought of as a flat plain. Unlike
the idea of the early Babylonians and one ver-
sion of the Egyptian concept, which taught that
the sky was a flat plate from which the stars
were suspended, this view held that the sky was
a hemisphere. It was a solid surface, however,
with stars suspended from it by strings. Or, in
alternate versions, holes were punched in it, and
the bright light of space, or heaven, shone
through. The sun and moon were closely related,
and they were associated with earth, rather than
with the stars (the sky) .
The painting illustrates man's desire to physi-
cally achieve abstract ideas, in this instance,
heaven. Heaven must be something real and con-
crete. It was logical to believe that it existed
somewhere out beyond the sky. All one had to
do to see heaven itself was to discover some
manner of penetrating the sky. Once this was
done, a man need only poke his head through
to see the glories that abounded there.
35
by John Gibbons and Steven Sdilossman
On a June day in 1890, Dr. J. J.
Ott played several musical selec-
tions for the Buckwampum Histori-
cal Society in Bucks County, Penn-
sylvania. He was accompanied by a
brass band, but, in the words of one
who was there, "the clear, bell-like
tones" he was playing "could be
heard above the notes of the
horns." What made the concert dif-
ferent was that Dr. Ott was making
music by hitting boulders with a
hammer.
Dr. Ott had put together an oc-
tave of ringing rocks from a boul-
der field in Bridgeton, one of many
dotting eastern Pennsylvania and
western New Jersey. The peculiar
ability of the rocks in some of the
fields to ring like a bell had been
known long before, but not until
1965 was a serious attempt made to
find out why.
Local myths about the boulder
fields abound to this day. Little is
known about the Indians' opinions,
but many early settlers apparently
attributed the boulder accum-
ulations to the aborigines them-
selves. A vague picture of the fields
as ceremonial sites built by the In-
dians runs through many accounts.
Nearly all the explanations, in fact,
call upon man or some supernatural
force for the genesis of the fields;
natural origins are rejected alto-
getlier. Other explanations invoke
witchcraft, arguing that the fields
are either the site of a great curse
or are areas possessed by witches.
The fields have been called the
ruins of ancient civilizations, the
landing sites of spacecraft from
alien planets, and almost anything
else that comes to mind. One local
maintained that the WPA piled the
rocks in a "make-work" effort.
The common thread through
most of the region's mythology ap-
pears to be a rejection of natural
origins for the fields. The failure of
science, through some sixty years of
intermittent investigation, to pro-
vide any better answers must have
helped to confirm that idea. Al-
though the fields may have been
visited by naturalists long before,
the first comprehensive description
was not published until 1909.
The ringing rocks fields are not
very different from the other boul-
der fields in the area. Irregular
clearings of ten to fifteen acres in
the predominantly hardwood forest,
the fields are floored by loosely
piled boulders varying in size from
one to fifteen feet in diameter. The
boulders are made up of a dark ig-
neous rock called diabase that is
about 180 million years old. There is
no soil between the boulders in the
field, and they lie on a sloping bed-
rock surface of the same rock type.
Some worts and lichens are the
only plants to be found there. The
absence of soil to retain rainfall
makes the presence of rooted plants
impossible. The microclimate of the
area has been aptly described as
desertlike.
The boulders themselves are usu-
ally flat, and their exposed surfaces
are often stained reddish by iron
oxides. Weathering has sculptured
the upper surfaces into a pitted and
grooved pattern. The surrounding
forest floor contains boulders sim-
ilar in size and composition to
those in the boulder fields. Outside
the fields, however, the boulders do
not ring, have no reddish stain, and
display a peculiar "crazed," or
cracked, pattern on their surfaces.
One of the persistent observations
about the boulders is that they
cease to ring if they are removed
from the fields.
B. F. Fackenthal published the
first scholarly work on the ringing
rocks (1909 and 1919). Fackenthal
was a naturalist of the breed re-
sponsible for much of the early de-
scription and exploration of this
country. A natural scientist of
broad interest and great curiosity,
hou-/4^iu)o^'_ *^''^'
fte;^-'
'//
his description of the ringing rocks
fields is an interesting and wonder-
fully informative work. In the 1919
volume of the Bucks County Histor-
ical Society Proceedings, he wrote
about the geologic setting of the
area, and about the then-current ex-
planations of the phenomenon. Ven-
turing a guess of his own about the
ringing phenomenon, he said :
"The ringing properties are
doubtless due to the texture of the
diabase of which they are com-
posed, but why some should re-
spond with a ring and others lying
alongside are non-resonant, does
not to my mind fully appear. They
were doubtless cooled or annealed
differently and therefore the crys-
talization may have been different."
Little more was written about
ringing rocks for the next forty-five
years, but boulder fields in general
were studied enough to be consid-
ered a well-understood phenome-
non.
Boulder fields of the kind found
in the Bucks County area are not
particularly uncommon throughout
the temperate and arctic regions of
the world. Under climatic condi-
tions that feature severe tempera-
ture variation above and below
freezing, along with enough rain or
snowfall to keep the ground wet,
frost action can easily produce such
boulder fields, or felsenmeer (liter-
ally "stone seas"), as they are
called in Europe. Water soaking
into the bedrock surface expands
upon freezing and breaks up that
surface. Frost heave, the movements
produced in soil by freezing and
thawing, tends to move the boulders
toward the surface. If the climate
is severe enough to prevent plant
cover from developing, the soil may
eventually be flushed away by sum-
mer rains. The result is a boulder-
covered bedrock surface with little
or no soil.
Huge expanses of boulder-car-
peted terrain may be seen today
above timberline in most mountain-
ous regions. These felsenmeer are
more or less permanent features in
those regions of high altitude or
high latitude having rigorous cli-
mates. How, then, can they be re-
lated to the temperate, humid cli-
mate of the middle Atlantic region?
The answer lies in the history of the
last Ice Age. Although the glaciers
that last retreated from the area
about 12,000 years ago never ex-
tended to the actual site of the
ringing rocks fields, their presence
profoundly affected the area's cli-
mate. The nearest ice masses are
thought to have occurred only
about twenty miles northwest of the
site. This places the boulder fields
well within the range of periglacial,
or near glacial, climatic effects. The
areas marginal to the glaciers ex-
perienced rigorous climates quite
analogous to high alpine climates.
G. Gordon Connalley, a glacial
geologist, proposes that all of the
region's hillslopes were shattered
by severe frost action during glacia-
tion. After the glaciers retreated
and the climate returned to its
present state, the boulder seas were
gradually reclaimed by the forests.
The fields still in existence are the
last remnants of once extensive fel-
senmeer. Even these remnants are
being encroached upon by the for-
est. The trees near the edges of the
field are younger than the rest of
Diabase blocks lie strewn
across a Bucks County boulder
field, where conditions are
perfect for the slow weathering
that produces ringing rocks.
38
the surrounding forest, and in some
places the boundaries are blurred by
the advance of shrubs and vines
into the fields.
In general, none of these ideas
about the origin of boulder fields is
new. Most geologists have long
agreed that most fields originated
in the way just outlined. The trick
is to explain why the ringing boul-
ders ring.
In 1965 Richard Faas, an ocean-
ographer and geologist from near-
by Lafayette College, and John
Flocks, a student, took up the prob-
lem. Faas and Flocks were inter-
ested in problems of sound travel in
rocks. This interest arose from
Faas's studies of sound travel in
ocean bottom sediments.
Faas and Flocks demonstrated
that the audible tone produced by a
blow on a ringing boulder was the
product of interference between
several subaudible resonant fre-
quencies. That is, when struck, the
boulder vibrates at several fre-
quencies. None of these frequencies
is audible, but the sum of the inter-
fering and interacting frequencies
produces a tone that can be heard
by the human ear. The subaudible
vibrations have unusual frequencies
(cycles per second) and attenuation
(duration) for rock materials. Faas
and Flocks also pointed out that the
tones produced showed some corre-
lation with boulder size.
We became interested in the
problem through Faas and several
teaching trips to the fields. Our
field observations, added to Faas's
sonic data, led us to a tentative
hypothesis about the ringing boul-
ders and eventually to a systematic
study. The ringing boulders often
spall (flat chips break off from the
surface) when tapped lightly with a
hammer. These spalls are sur-
prisingly energetic, sometimes fly-
ing past one's ear with a humming
sound. If a ringing boulder, which
is vCTy tough, is broken apart with
a sledge hammer, it soon stops ring-
ing altogether. Such breaks produce
a peculiar surface pattern often
seen in metals that have broken un-
der large internal stresses. The
boulders are unusually absorbent
when wet. The outer inch or so of
most of the boulders is noticeably
altered in color and texture by
weathering, and that altered zone
soaks up water at a surprising rate.
Formation of a workable hypoth-
esis, one that would form a solid
foundation for research, is a criti-
cal matter in such a project. If the
hypothesis is carefully thought out,
it has an organizing effect on the
whole effort. It is necessary to be-
gin with a question — in this case:
Why do the ringing rocks ring?
The next step is to assemble all
available information. This infor-
mation can then be used to weed
out the most likely answer or an-
swers. Once a test hypothesis has
been chosen, it is important to state
it in the simplest and most concise
terms possible. When that is done
the questions needed to test the
hypothesis become clear almost
automatically. If the questions are
answered in the afiirmative, that is,
if the correct hypothesis was cho-
sen, then interpretation of the im-
pact of the hypothesis on other, re-
lated questions is the final step.
m n the case of the ringing rocks
the process went something like
this. Question: Why do the boul-
ders ring? Information: The rocks
were very energetic (spalling, frac-
ture type) ; they resonated at a fre-
quency different from the "natural"
frequency; and there was some-
thing unusual about the fields' dry
and exposed environment that
seemed to produce or at least local-
ize the abnormal resonance. Our
search for a hypothesis seemed to
lead back each time to one focus:
How can the resonant frequency of
rock be altered by a natural pro-
cess?
All materials have what may be
called a natural resonant frequency.
That is, because of its atomic struc-
ture any material has one vibration
frequency at which it resonates, or
responds harmonically, to its own
vibration. Natural resonance is a
well-defined concept that has been
thoroughly studied by metallurgists
and engineers. The natural reso-
nance of crystalline substances,
such as minerals, depends primarily
upon the strength of the atomic
bonds and upon the atomic spacing.
The most feasible way of chang-
ing the resonant frequency of a ma-
terial is to subject it to an elastic
strain. Elastic strains are imperma-
nent changes in the shape or size of
a body. That is, if a body is elasti-
cally strained and the stress is re-
moved, the body returns to its orig-
inal shape or size. Elastic strain
involves no breaking or rearrang-
ing of atomic bonds. Ratlier, the
material changes shape by what can
be thought of as stretching the
bonds. When the stress is removed,
the bonds rebound, returning the
atomic structure to its original posi-
tion. While the bonds are stretched,
however, the resonant frequency of
the material is changed because the
atomic spacing is altered. A good
example of this principle is the old
musical saw act from vaudeville
days. The musician changed the
tone of the saw by bending (elasti-
cally straining) the saw while he
stroked it with a violin bow.
Now we can modify our original
question: Why do the ringing rocks
ring? If elastic strain is the most
easily visualized means of changing
the resonant frequency of a body,
the question can be rewritten : Do
the ringing rocks ring because they
are somehow under stress?
We decided the best way to find
out would be to dissect the rocks
and see if they showed signs of
stress. This technique assumes that
any body subject to stress over a
long period of time will reach
equilibrium, a balanced state, if it
does not break. Ice in a glass bottle
provides a familiar analogy. As the
ice expands, tension increases in the
glass. The forces are balanced — un-
til the glass breaks. Before the glass
breaks, it is possible to measure the
stresses in the ice-bottle system in-
directly. Melting the ice removes
the stress; then the return of the
bottle to its original size and shape
can be measured. Because the force
needed to "stretch" glass (this is
known as its elastic constant) is
known, it is easy to compute how
much stress was required to stretch
the glass bv the measured amount.
39
Rocks are more complicated than
ice in bottles because the balanced
forces exist in the same object. But
the stress regions tend to lie paral-
lel to the object's surfaces when
equilibrium is complete. So by slic-
ing ofF sections parallel to the sur-
face, we can measure the change as
the core returns to its original size
and shape. We also have to know
the elastic constant of the material
involved, but this is either available
in published reports or can be eas-
ily measured in the laboratory.
Then we can say how much stress
was present in the rock.
To use this technique we sawed
the ends and sides from boulders,
leaving only central cores. We care-
fully measured the cores many
times over a long period of time to
determine whether any change of
dimensions took place. The first
ringing rock core we measured was
almost eleven inches long. A relaxa-
tion (contraction) of almost 1/500
of an inch was observed.
That measurement exceeded our
wildest estimates and led us to be-
lieve that the technique of measure-
ment was introducing a large
amount of error into the data.
Therefore we decided to use elec-
tronic measurement with foil strain
gauges. These tiny strips of metal
and plastic can measure extremely
fine changes of shape on a surface
when coupled with the proper elec-
trical receptors, amplifiers, and
strip-chart recorders. They have the
additional advantage of constantly
recording the change in shape of the
body as time passes, producing a new
kind of information, as well as great-
er accuracy and precision.
The sensitivity of foil strain
gauges is fantastic. While testing
and calibrating the equipment we
glued a strain gauge to an old core
of very hard diabase, about one
and a half inches on a side and
nine inches long. Just for fun. one
of us placed the core over his knee
and tried to bend it. The recorder
dutifully recorded 1/100,000 of an
inch strain.
Foil strain gauges showed that
the cores from ringing boulders re-
laxed an average of approximately
1/10,000 of an inch per inch of
specimen length. Nonringing boul-
40
ders from outside the fields showed
no relaxation. In most cases total
relaxation required between seventy
and eighty hours. Early relaxation
was rapid, followed by a long period
of gradual change of specimen
shape. Occasionally, the gradual ta-
pering off was interrupted by sharp
fluctuations; in two cases these
could be correlated with the forma-
tion of visible fractures.
Core relaxation as time passed
was plotted as a curve on a strip-
chart recorder. The various forces
that can change the shape of a body
tend to produce curves that have
characteristic shapes, or "finger-
prints." The curves from the ringing
boulders compared well with curves
for a type of relaxation metallurgists
call after-working, or anelastic
strain. In the field of rock mechanics
the same phenomenon is called re-
coverable creep.
N
1 ^ ormally the strain magni-
tudes measured indicate the result of
tremendous stresses. By using the ex-
perimentally determined elastic
constants for diabase, published by
Francis Birch, and the relaxation
figures that we obtained, we could
compute theoretical values for the
stresses stored in the rock. For some
rocks these values were as high as
15,000 pounds per square inch. Such
large stress values are particularly
perplexing in boulders lying in an
open field acted upon by no observ-
able external forces.
Creep, or anelastic behavior, is a
particularly logical explanation for
this apparent paradox. It can pro-
duce fairly large strains at rela-
tively low stresses, with the impor-
tant qualification that the stresses
be applied over a long period of
time. Therefore, the large stresses
seemingly indicated by the compu-
tation based on Birch's short-term
constants are not particularly rele-
vant. The strains observed seem to
be the result of stresses applied
over very long periods of time.
The origin of the stresses was de-
termined by more conventional geo-
logic techniques. We prepared thin
sections from several areas within
each boulder and examined them
under the petrographic microscope.
The outer "skin" of the boulders is,
as already mentioned, quite per-
meable to water. Water combines
chemically with minerals and
changes them in the process called
chemical weathering. New minerals,
usually clays, are often produced
when the original minerals are bro-
ken down by water.
Microscopic examination showed
that chemical weathering had in
some cases advanced two or three
inches into the boulders. The most
chemically susceptible mineral in
diabase is pyroxene. The pyroxenes
in the diabase were completely re-
moved at the surface of the boul-
ders. Near the surface the pyrox-
enes were completely altered to a
type of clay known as montmorillo-
nite. Alteration of pyroxenes to clay
diminished as distance from the
surface became greater.
The source of the stresses in the
boulders was clear at once. The
change from pyroxene to montmo-
rillonite produces a volume change.
If a given volume of pyroxene is
weathered to montmorillonite, the
montmorillonite occupies more
space than the original pyroxene.
The expansion of many grains of
pyroxene during weathering pro-
duces an expansion of the outer
shell of the boulders and a corre-
sponding tension in the core. The
strain resulting from the tension
raises the resonant frequency from
its natural value to that observed in
the ringing rocks.
Stresses caused by weathering ex-
ist in many rock types. In most, the
stresses cause a surface sloughing
known as exfoliation. The com-
bination of unusual strength and
slow production of stress allows the
diabase to accumulate stresses of
great enough magnitude to produce
the ringing effect.
The arguments presented up to
this point are entirely internal : they
all come from a study of the boul-
ders. Now we needed some external
confirmation to make the argument
tight. Relaxed cores, which no
longer rang, were fitted with steel
grips. When restressed in an engi-
neering tensile tester to 10,000
pounds per square inch, the cores
rang clearly. With this reasonably
independent confirmation of the as-
sociation between strain and ring-
ing, we were satisfied that our orig-
inal hypothesis was confirmed.
We also wanted to know the role
of the special boulder-field environ-
ment in producing the ringing ef-
fect. Apparently the answer lies in a
very delicate balance between
weathering rate and rock strength.
The boulders in the fields are not
buried in soil or shaded by over-
hanging trees. They are wet only
for a short period following a rain
or snowfall. This makes the chem-
ical alteration of the minerals and
the stresses produced by those alter-
ations accumulate at a very slow
rate. Frost action, the breaking of
rock by expanding ice, is probably
also minimized by the short time
water stays in the system. Long pe-
riods of time for the establishment
of a state of stress equilibrium are
thus provided.
Where the forest encroaches
on a boulder field, the shade
slows evaporation, moisture
is retained, weathering
proceeds faster, and soon
the rocks no longer ring.
Those boulders outside the fields
exist in a different environment:
they are shaded and usually lie on
or in water-retaining soil and forest
litter. Weathering and frost action
proceed much more quickly. Time
for adjustment of the stresses in the
rock to an equilibrium state is in-
sufficient, and the boulders "crack
up."
This conclusion explains why
boulders removed from the field
stop ringing. If left outside in a
rock garden or other shaded spot
the boulders are soon overstressed
and break up. Ringing rocks kept
dry in geologic collections continue
to ring indefinitely.
The delicacy of environmental
controls on the ringing effect can be
illustrated by examining the edges
of the boulder fields: the zone sepa-
rating boulders that ring from
those that do not is relatively sharp.
The boundary usually lies several
feet within the field. The position of
the boundary was a puzzle until a
botanist friend accompanied us to
the site one day. His chance com-
ment about the plants growing
along the shade line from the bor-
dering trees struck home. The
boundary of the ringing boulders
area corresponds roughly to the av-
erage position of the shade pro-
duced by the larger trees about the
edges of the field. More shade
means less evaporation and thus
more moisture retained. Enough
gg
^^W|EmHBBpife^'' 'HhL ,<^6£^ ^
«^^
1
^^
2f«
^fi
^KHr^-'«>,>^
lii^^L^^S^Df
B^SIk^^^^^Bi
apparently, to disrupt the balanced
processes that cause the boulders to
ring.
We therefore propose that the an-
swer to the ringing rocks lies, not
in witchcraft or ancient ruins, but
in a very subtle and delicate inter-
action between earth materials and
environment over very long periods
of time. These are things that can-
not be observed in terms of man's
unaided senses. The concept of the
immensity of geologic time is pecu-
liar enough to most people. The
measurements necessary to detect
and measure the data presented
here are impossible without com-
plex instruments. Faced with
phenomena for which there are no
observable causes, it is completely
logical that supernatural ex-
planations should be proposed.
Such proposals are the product of
the same curiosity that has pro-
duced all sciences, especially the
natural sciences.
The face of the natural sciences
has been changing radically over
the past few years, and the pro-
posed solution to the ringing rocks
problem presented here is a good
example of that change. Once,
people like B. F. Fackenthal were
naturalists. Their approach to prob-
lems could be broad and general
because the volume of material to
be mastered in the natural and
physical sciences was relatively
small. Then came the "information
explosion." It has become impos-
sible for a man to be acquainted
with all the knowledge in his own
field, much less in many fields at
once. The Renaissance man seems
to be lost. Workers with narrow
specialties are the rule. This situ-
ation has led to many scientific im-
passes. Problems involving natural
systems are often simply too broad
and complex to be managed by one
man's education.
The solution appears to lie in the
multidisciplinary approach. The
team we put together to solve the
mystery of the ringing rocks in-
cluded three physicists, two engi-
neers, four geologists of varying
specialties, two biology students,
and one botanist. Once we all got
together, those rocks didn't stand a
chance.
41
Books in Review
THE
FLORENTINE
CODEX
A sixteenth-century friar's tale records, in words and pictures^
the daily life, customs, and beliefs of the Aztecs
by Herbert R. Harvey
Had the main challenge to the
Spanish conquerors of ancient
Mexico been merely to achieve mili-
tary victory, we would today know
much less about the civilization of
their Indian adversaries. \^Tiile the
natives capitulated to Spanish rule
after the fall of Tenochtitlan in
1521, spiritual domination required
many decades, indeed centuries,
to achieve. One by-product of the
church's long effort to convert the
natives to Christianity, however,
was a corpus of written descriptions
of the Indian cultures. By far the
greatest and most comprehensive of
the early clerical accounts of native
life was Fray Bernardino de Saha-
gun's General History of the Things
of Neiv Spain, or as it is better
known, the Florentine Codex. With
FLORE^"TII\•E Codex: General His-
tory OF THE Things of New Spain.
Book 6: Rhetoric and Mor.\l
Philosophy, by Fray Bernardino
de Sahagun. Translated by Charles
E. Dibble and Arthur J. 0. Ander-
son. University of Ltah Press,
$13.00; 260 pp., illus.
the publication of Book 6, Arthur J.
0. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble
have completed and made available
for the first time a full translation
of the IVahuatl text of Sahagun's
monumental work.
The Florentine Codex is a com-
pendium of ethnographic and his-
torical facts on the Nahuatl-speak-
ing peoples of the Valley of Mexico
as they existed at the time of the
Spanish Conquest and during the
early colonial era. It is di^'ided into
t^velve books, of which the first six
are primarily concerned with mat-
ters of morality and religion, while
the remainder deal with a variety of
topics, such as the political system,
economics, trade, history, natural
history, and the conquest of Mexico
(from the Indian vie\NT3oint) . The
work forms an integrated ^^-hole.
and often a single topic may be
dealt with in a number of different
books.
Sahagun was a Franciscan friar,
who had come with others to Mex-
ico from Spain in 1529 to convert
the Indians to Christianity. Nahua-
tl, plus closely related dialects,
was the principal language of the
region, and the learning of it was a
necessity for the early missionaries.
Perhaps because of his ability with
the language or his personal in-
terest in native culture or both,
Sahagun was ordered by his su-
periors in 1557 to prepare a treatise
in Nahuatl that would be useful to
other missionaries in carrying out
their conversion of the Indians. Sa-
hagun, in fact, began his preface to
the work with the observation that a
doctor could not prescribe treatment
without a knowledge of the malady
or its cause. It follows that a thor-
ough understanding of the customs
and beliefs of the Indians was
deemed essential to facilitate con-
version. At the same time, he also
explicitly determined to prepare a
document that would in itself be the
foundation for a dictionary of the
language, since a corpus of liter-
ature, classics for example, was not
available for the purpose. To some
extent, therefore, his linguistic ob-
jective influenced the style for his
ethnographic description.
The Florentine Codex was the
end product of a long process of
planning, inquiry, writing, and re-
42
irstfiptiW«H' tn«htra»A5a. Haftite**««^ «M_
^lOit ilaiWatii^ <^\\vct^i!C!i.ytt. , too" i<^uac na.m\o..in
xixif^,msi. 7 ^n<lwtTnJl<J^^Jh.'^a.l1cA. i ni'n>s.«ayo ^ti
^Axccm 7 ioa oUhiM.i\ i^u:'<^u<\ya yitiQUiOtipn.
J^MtytfiTuirf (ia:x'«*.yfi , •i;pan t'ccinipsjant' -^itichiqwa
nayquirthn tcpialWar, (jumauatja'yA ,on«»r«ju\\sik
\»na.y^ i^m'xipaiyxyek. Auh I'ru'mtVjayo cOHtVtptuH
j'/tfluiK'n flucA. cenm<^<^uiV\i^« r c«m|>«tli(l)u>ri(|)^
iniiof tftnenot ■' 'pan tcfluinrnjctt loj^^x »'n evatl , uji .
mw|!9i«ih,n XHilt^miaya \nrn»ccv<\\ti' loaiialAtayt^.
lOA rmvi'ptlrt^or caw pa* valnem An a! 0 -^"y ''^".k-
poticujrtTntoKJHiUyrt. •y""''«vdy« Hafa, -ytiicmi^x*.
n*^ x>ici|>tiT)«,, loiTmatentvek ayrtcuclj pocolle «i»ih
C*<H I'mpamiirfiaipc*. liip'pilh' inmrtcevalh' ant^
lirvtnti^ h'anaux\ct> Vni»e. ©ntcfci'^eCVia I'ntitrfftl
•TiflfcVrtti' mo&ytffacati yya-'^aeach ■sni'tx^mifoftoty,
'^nipAilhuiXi' i'c«nip<;<i[it^wtf moct^xiiacaii V^ilcyj'
tiniyjgya, 'yxnctv, ^cogytt^A , •ynechi'fhi'nl^ •
fo« corm)fcrtlmanalqya..TJnit mitoaiga :tocHvitian*l£^
JKbwa imJccrviteH "yancuifcT "'«ponya,ntprtpa' *oe\r>\tl
KHamrtnaVoy*- AuW t'mc motancWA C0ucive<»l-ni4nA
l«5a,i^eb««a incoM>ei > ■He^ > "">*«*y* imc i-liimanAl«
^ tpan motemy* mrenrtv ■S"««: >»n»lrtfnoJUjlovAy»<i
cKcf Wblo 't „;lKw» '^«>^> inHdrtea Mctj wBorf ayrt,
ni0<)ui4UAya>7i]ut'ni'<]iia£' luowwai'jttoi mondior ifjvMtf
l»«l <|ni'<jaAy(». , Can* i'uli<)uV xucbiH ayayacvtl (jiuW^gid ,
o*»op(t. i'ctUun*na.loyatn|'n il^uiH q>*jVA.yA ipdiaa)rtBl»
<»tn«y mafc* . '>jloa wiUoayt* bftWdriaiittc 'inifn»!toay<x
iiMdltahlo > "f*<\c incempodlilhvitl i>n«a<ju'ibf -y"in«
»«yo,»Uai, cauyi^ coritUvgA ,invjtoc »>»toca(^,ftfl
The illustrations are reproduced from
the Paso y Troncoso color edition of
the Florentine Codex, 1905-07.
43
44
17. Festival of Tezcatlipoca : the
god's chosen impersonator offers
himself for sacrifice at the temple.
47. A mother consults with a reader
of day signs.*
48. Seven Serpent was a particularly
favorable day for bathing a newborn
child.*
45 and 46. After the childrens' ear-
piercing ceremony, all exchanged
wine and the babies were given food
dipped in wine.*
52. For human sacrifice, victim was
held by priests, his chest opened with
a flint knife, and the throbbing heart
ripped out and offered to the sun.
18. Small boys lived together in the
young men's house.
89. After the bathing of a newborn,
the parents gave a great feast.
19. Musicians with characteristic in-
struments, rattles and drums.
21. Ceremony to the god Xipe Totec:
a dancer wearing his victim's flayed
skin stands by as Montezuma receives
a foreign delegation.
*Scrollsnear mouths indicate speech.
%^
IPk^^'iy^- — X
\^uf/
w*
^
1^
i
w
n
^^
* //<^
19.
^
45
■ill.
:^^5^
o ^^
.N.\)
.((,
^a^illn^veuRp-^
Casting Gold Objects:
51. After firing, the object was burnished
with alum and then refired.
52. After refiring, the gold object was
rubbed with a mineral to make it more
yellow.
53. The gold object was polished until
it glistened.
Food Production:
410. (a) Planting (b) Fruit tree
411. Sapodilla, an edible fruit
96, 97, 98. Planting, cultivating, and
harvesting corn.
99, 100, 101. Harvesting, threshing, and
storing amaranth.
46
mm
47
6.^
olf or fox
315.
Butterfly
139.
Falcon with rabbit
134.
Falcon
215.
216. Frogs
197.
Turtle
138.
Falcon
193
and 194. Varieties of sea fish
171.
Varieties of the native
turkey
246.
Rattlesnake
5. A
variety of ocelot (?)
205.
Lizard
219.
(a) Shrimp (b) Larva
of dragonfly
49
if'
%calhy
-^j^\i£U^^\
50
Primeros Memoriales depiction of native
gods in the Tepepulco manuscript.
writing. The project lasted more
than ten years, and was carried out
with the aid of many trilingual
(Spanish, Latin, and Nahuatl) In-
dian assistants and numerous native
informants. Beginning in 1558, in
the town of Tepepulco, a few miles
to the northeast of Mexico City in
the Province of Texcoco. Sahagun
first prepared a questionnaire and
then assembled a dozen of the old-
est, most learned men of the Indian
community to serve as informants.
They responded in the manner fa-
miliar to them — by preparing a
series of drawings and then ex-
plaining them. Their responses
were recorded by Sahagiin's native
assistants. The work continued
through 1560, and the result was a
document now known as the Pri-
meros Memoriales, which is on dis-
play in the National Palace in
Madrid. This document, the first,
preliminary version of what was to
become the Florentine Codex, was
divided into four main sections:
(1) and (2) religious matters. (3)
politics and the state, and (4) hu-
man aifairs.
From Tepepulco, Sahagun moved
to Tlatelolco, the old market center
of the Aztecs, now part of Mexico
City, where he resumed work on the
manuscript in 1564^65. His method
was the same — assembling a group
of ancianos. who were respected for
their knowledge, to comment on the
drawings of Tepepulco and to dis-
cuss his questions. A few more pic-
torial descriptions were added to
the corpus. The result of this effort
was an enlargement of the earlier
work and the addition of subject
matter on natural history. The latter
document is also in Madrid, at the
Royal Academy of History.
From Tlatelolco, Sahagun moved
to Mexico City, where he completed
the final version of his work, the
Florentine Codex, between 1565
and 1569. His earlier outlines un-
derwent several additional revi-
sions; some sections were subdi-
vided and new topical coverage was
added: rhetoric and moral philoso-
phy, and the Conquest. The final,
twelve-book version, a clean copy
without the marginal notations of
the previous drafts, is in the Lau-
rentian Library in Florence.
In 1570, Sahagiin's funds for as-
sistants were cut, and his ambitious
enterprise came to a halt. For more
than two centuries after his death
in 1590. the work remained unpub-
lished, largely unknown. During his
lifetime, he had made two Spanish
versions. The Florentine Codex it-
self was drafted in two parallel col-
umns, Nahuatl and Spanish, with a
pictorial supplement, adapted from
the earlier drawings of Tepepulco.
Curiously, the Spanish is not a di-
rect translation of the Nahuatl, but
rather, more of a paraphrasing, and
at times a supplement, since in
some instances a point of substance
treated in one is omitted in the
other. The other Spanish draft,
which may well antedate the
Florentine draft, is closely similar
but not identical. It was from the
latter Spanish version, the Tolosa
manuscript, that the first publica-
tion of Sahagun's work was made
in 1829-30. Since then, a number
of Spanish editions have been pub-
lished, as well as a facsimile edition
issued in 1905-07 with colored
plates on the codex, and trans-
lations of sections of the Nahuatl
text of all three documents. Dibble
and Anderson's is the first complete
translation of the Nahuatl text of
any of them.
In completing the translation, An-
derson and Dibble worked to-
gether for more than twenty years.
Book 1, Part 2. The Gods, was pub-
lished in 1950. With the exception
of Books 4 and 5, Soothsayers and
Omens, which are bound under one
cover, the individual volumes have
appeared at random intervals, and
not in numerical sequence. Thus,
Book 6. Rhetoric and Moral Philos-
ophy, was reserved to last because
of its length and difficulties in
translation. The final volume. Book
1, Part 1, yet to be published, will in-
clude a Preface. Table of Contents,
Bibliography, and General Index.
In publishing the Florentine Co-
dex, Dibble and Anderson have pre-
served the basic format of the origi-
nal document: two parallel col-
umns, one in English, the other in
Nahuatl. They have also repro-
duced in black and white the Paso
y Troncoso copies of the original
drawings that accompanied the text.
Moreover, their strategy of trans-
lation has been to preserve, as
much as possible, the flavor of
Sahagun's writing. They have used
a device of employing archaisms,
thus giving the translation a sort of
King James quality. While it is not
easy to judge the accuracy of trans-
lation, it must have been a tremen-
dous task, for it took the authors
twenty years to complete it. As for
their translation, they have obvious-
ly exercised utmost care in their
search for meaning. They continu-
ously cite Sahagun's Spanish text;
whenever possible, translations by
others of the same passage are noted,
and they frequently discuss in foot-
notes alternate meanings for parti-
cular terms or concepts.
While the translation is one
thing, understanding and inter-
preting the content is quite another.
Much of the Florentine Codex is
straightforward description — of the
market in Tlatelolco, for example,
or the attributes of the different
gods or the kinds of wild animals
found in the realm. At the time of
the Spanish Conquest, however, the
Valley of Mexico was composed of
a number of city-states, each with a
different history, each with a di-
verse ethnic background. Sahagun
is not always clear as to which he is
describing. He started his work in
Tepepulco. a minor town of the Cul-
huas, and finished it in Tenochtit-
lan (Mexico City), the capital city
of the Aztecs. There were language
differences between these places,
which are apparent in the several
manuscripts. Between the towns of
the Valley of Mexico there were cul-
tural differences as well. At the
time, Texcoco was recognized by
both the Spaniards and the natives
as having been the center of the
arts, that is, the cultural capital of
the Valley of Mexico. A factor that
complicates the problem even more
is the difference between the nobles
and commoners, which is known —
in great part from Sahagun's
work — to have been vast. So, while
it may often be apparent to whom
Continued on page 82
51
Mapping Venus with Radar Our neighbor Venus,
known to generations of science writers as "mysteri-
ous" and "cloud shrouded," is slowly giving up her
secrets to powerful radar beams that can penetrate her
veils. Reproduced here is a radar "map" of one hemi-
sphere on which surface features are clearly present.
The resolution of the map (about 50 miles) is
roughly twice tliat of the naked eye looking at the
moon. Just as naked-eye observation of the moon does
not reveal what kind of features you are seeing, so the
radar map of Venus tells you only that some areas
reflect more of the incoming beam than do others. The
brightest feature on the map is Alpha, the white area
in the lower right portion. But the resolution is not
good enough to reveal whether Alpha consists of
mountains, craters, boulder fields, extensive lava
flows, or some other geologic formation. The best that
can be said about it is that it is about 600 miles
across, has a "great deal of structure," and is brightest
along its own lower left edge.
Other, much smaller bright spots appear on the
map, mostly in the left-hand portion. Some of the dark
areas appear to have discrete roundish shapes; they
are about 150 miles across. A few of the dark regions
have bright spots in the middle.
To prepare the radar map, Richard Goldstein of
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory has been using a
radio telescope ordinarily used to track spacecraft. He
places a radar transmitter at the center of the 240-foot
Goldstone antenna and aims the beam at Venus. An
extremely complicated receiving system, and mathema-
tical analysis of the results, produced the map shown
here, which was first published in the journal Science.
Goldstein expects to be making improvements to the
map by the time this appears in print. Venus went
through inferior conjunction (passed between the sun
and the earth) on November 10, and during this time
of closest approach the radar beam flicked out again
across 30 million miles of space. Goldstein also hopes
to be able to use a more powerful beam, and thus
obtain significantly better resolution.
Back to the Old Plotting Board Like scientists in
other fields, astronomers spend their time not only dis-
covering new things but also finding out that what they
already know is not always true. The history of the
discipline is studded with agonizing reappraisals of
established facts.
One set of facts that undergoes periodic revision is
the distance scale of tlie universe. Only in this century,
in the lifetime of a single man, have astronomers ex-
panded their horizons froin a single island universe of
a few thousand light-years diameter to a much larger
home galaxy that is but one of billions flung across
billions of light-years of space.
One method astronomers have used to measure dis-
tances in our galaxies or to nearby galaxies has in-
volved a class of stars known as Cepheid variables.
Relationships have been discovered between their light
cycles and their absolute magnitudes (that is, their
intrinsic brightness; it is expressed as how bright the
star would appear at the standard distance of 32 light-
years). Once you know the absolute magnitude of a
star and can measure its apparent magnitude as seen
from the earth, you can say how far away it is.
One type of Cepheid was particularly easy to use,
because all stars of this type were thought to have the
same absolute magnitude: 0.0. These were the RR
Lyrae stars, named after the first of their class to be
discovered in the constellation Lyra. They vary by
about a magnitude, and complete a cycle from max-
imum to maximum in less than a day.
The problem is that while astronomers still believe
that all RR Lyrae stars have the same absolute magni-
tude, they are not sure what it is. When the Variable
Star Commission of the International Astronomical
Union met in England last summer, the experts agreed
that they were still far from an accurate magnitude.
52
Describing that meeting to the American Association
of Variable Star Observers at their fall meeting, Dor-
rit HofHeit of the Maria Mitchell Observatory on Nan-
tucket said that current estimates of absolute magni-
tude range from 0.3 to 1.3, with 0.6 appearing to be
the best guess.
She further explained that this range in absolute
magnitudes for the RR Lyrae stars produces estimates
for the distance from the sun to the center of the
galaxy ranging from 19,200 to 32,000 light-years. The
uncertainty will be reduced as better measurements
are made of the motions through space of the closest
RR Lyrae stars so that direct estimates of their dis-
tance can be made. Once a few distances are known
accurately, astronomers will be sure of their absolute
magnitude and the RR Lyrae variables will serve as
mileposts wherever they are found.
The Sun as a Variable Star Life on earth depends
on a stable sun. If our nearest star were to flare up
into a nova, life would be incinerated. If it were to
dim, the ensuing cold would be lethal. In fact, however,
the sun's total radiation appears remarkably constant.
The paleontological record confirms this stability over
the eons.
But the sun does vary. All radio operators are fa-
miliar with its 11-year cycle of sunspot and magnetic
storm activity; during maxima, communications on
earth can be severely disrupted. And it is becoming
increasingly clear that the sun varies in other ways.
In the September isssue of the Astrophysical Journal,
James A. Van Allen (discoverer of the radiation belts
around the earth) and Jean Gibson reported on the X-
rays emitted by the sun in 1966-68 (a time when the
sun was "quiet") as measured by the earth-orbiting
satellite Explorer 33 and the moon-orbiting satellite
Explorer 35. They found the radiation to be essen-
tially constant over periods of a day or so, but that it
varied by a factor of six over a month's time.
Next they compared their findings with the records
of the sun's radio emissions compiled at the Algon-
quin Radio Observatory in Ontario and found an ex-
traordinarily close match. Maxima and minima lined
up right beneath one another. The visible light from
the sun is remarkably stable, but the radiation on both
sides of the visible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum does vary substantially and in near unison.
Thus while the sun is more than stable enough to
support life on earth, and is expected to be so for
some time to come, it is by no means an unwavering
beacon. Superimposed on its 11-year activity cycle lie
significant monthly swings in both X-ray and radio
output. Doubtless, as more detectors are flown outside
the atmosphere, we will find still more variety in the
activities of our nearest star.
Drawing a Blank on Uranus Believe it or not, this
is the sharpest photograph of the planet Uranus ever
made. The picture was made last March, when Uranus
was 1.6 billion miles from earth (that's the closest it
ever comes) and presented a disk just four seconds of
arc across (1/450 the size of the full moon).
The photograph has a resolution of about a tenth of
a second, ten times better than the limit usually im-
posed on earthbound telescopes by the churning of the
atmosphere. It is one of a series taken with a 36-inch
telescope floating under a balloon at 80,000 feet, well
above most of the earth's atmosphere. Called Strato-
scope II, the balloon-telescope rig is the work of Robert
E. Danielson and Martin Schwarzschild of the Prince-
ton University Observatory.
During the flight, pictures were also made of Jupi-
ter, lo (a Jovian satellite), and the bright nucleus of a
Seyfert galaxy. The pictures of Jupiter are being com-
bined and a computer used to eliminate known blur-
ring. They are expected to be released next year.
John P. Wiley, Jr.
53
The moon is in the morning sky in mid- and late-December, reach-
ing last-quarter on the 20th and new moon on the 28th. On New
Year's Eve we shall see a slim crescent moon in the evening sky,
waxing to first-quarter on January 4 and to full moon on January 11.
Planet watchers in late December and early January had best plan
on rising early for their pleasures, for it is in the morning sky that
three, Venus, Jupiter, and iVIars, are dominant. All recent entrants
into the family of morning stars, these three are gathering now in or
near the constellation Libra. Mars is highest and dimmest of the three
in the dawn; Venus brightest and lower than Mars; Jupiter lowest of
the three and between them in brightness.
Saturn alone, among the bright planets, is in the evening sky.
Located among the dim stars of Aries, it is well up in the east at
sunset and sets well before dawn. Mercury is technically an evening
star in late December, a morning star in early January, but it is
hopeless to look for it.
December 16: Venus is at greatest brilliancy in the morning sky,
with bright Jupiter nearby to the left, dim Mars to the right and more
distant.
December 17-18: The star near the gibbous moon tonight is Regu-
lus, in Leo.
December 22: The weak and dim Ursid meteor shower reaches
maximum, but the last-quarter moon will brighten the sky for morning
viewers.
December 22: The sun reaches the winter solstice at 1:36 a.m.,
EST, and winter begins in the Northern Hemisphere. The sun now
stands farthest south over the earth, directly overhead at the Tropic
of Capricorn.
December 24: The crescent moon this morning is in conjunction
with Mars at about 8:00 a.m., EST. Mars is well above and to the left
of the moon, but easy to find with the horn of the crescent as a
pointer,
December 25: The crescent moon and nearby Venus and Jupiter
present a striking view early on this Christmas morn before the rising
of the sun.
December 28: Mercury, dallying in anonymity as an evening star,
passes between earth and sun, in what is technically called inferior
conjunction.
January 3-4: Venus and Jupiter have been getting closer to one
another in the morning sky, as Venus races more swiftly eastward in
its path through Libra. They are nearest at midnight on the evening of
the 3rd, with Venus the higher and brighter.
January 4: Today is the day the sun is nearest earth. We, in our
orbit of the sun, reach perihelion, but, as you can see by the ther-
mometer, it doesn't have much effect on our weather.
January 6: The bright object near the gibbous moon this evening is
Saturn, rather lovely among the obscure stars of Aries.
January 14: The moon is back again near Regulus. After passing
the star on the evening of December 17-18, the moon has gone once
round the sky to return again to the same direction in space.
Thomas D. Nicholson
■A" Hold the Star Map so the compass direction you face is at the bottom;
then match the stars in the lower half of the map with those in the sky.
The map Is for 11:25 p.m. on December 15; 10:20 p.m. on January 1; and
9:20 p.m. on January 15; but it can be used for about an hour before and
after those times.
M3ddl)3 311111
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EWDANUS
■•f.^&^^^^d^l^^l^^iC^^^S^SSSl^l^^jl^^^^
JOURNEY
TO
PULYKARA
In an era marked by moonshots and urban blight,
wars and dissent, ten Australian Aborigines peaceably
subsist as hunters and gatherers with time to spare
by Richard A. Gould
In November, 1969, I received a
report of a small group of Austra-
lian Aborigines who had never seen
Europeans. They were said to be
living in the heart of the Gibson
Desert, at a place called Pulykara,
near Mount Madley, about 330
miles northwest of the Warburton
Ranges Mission. They were dis-
covered by Bob Verburgt, then a
patrol officer for the Weapons Re-
search Establishment at Woomera.
This was four months after the as-
tronauts had made their first moon
landing, and it seemed to me then,
as I am sure it did to many others,
that there was no place left on earth
that Western technology had not
penetrated. It was ironic to think
that while the rest of the world
fought wars, built and destroyed
cities, created art and literature, the
ancestors of these people and the
people themselves — as recent arche-
ological evidence suggests — re-
mained completely unaware and
unaffected by it all.
At the time of their discovery,
my wife and I were organizing an
archeological field camp at the
Warburton Ranges in Western Aus-
tralia, and could not visit these
Aborigines until our own project
was well under way. Five months
later, in April, 1970, we set out
from Warburton in search of them.
Although our previous visit to
this area in 1966-67 had provided
the opportunity for us to live with
and study a group of Aborigines
who had formerly been to white set-
tlements and had subsequently re-
turned to the desert and resumed
their nomadic existence, we had
never before encountered anyone so
isolated from, or untouched by.
Western culture. The Aborigines
living at Warburton, many of
whom came from areas adjacent to
the Mount Madley region, admitted
that they, too, did not know who
these people were — a remarkable
admission from people whose net-
work of kin relationships often ex-
tends over hundreds of miles.
During the five-month interval, a
Western Australian Native Welfare
patrol had contacted them briefly
and brought a young man named
Yutungka into Warburton to be cir-
cumcised. He was accompanied by
an elderly man named Tjitjinanya.
The group had been isolated for so
long that Yutungka was well past
the age when men normally are cir-
cumcised, and he was anxious to
have it done as soon as possible.
For many years his group had not
met with other groups of Abori-
gines to form a gathering large
enough for the precircumcision cere-
monies to take place.
The operation was performed
early in April, and we offered to
transport the tw'o men back to their
country as soon as Yutungka was
well enough to go. We also took
with us an elderly Aborigine named
Minmara, an intelligent man of out-
standing good humor, whom we
had come to know well during our
previous stay in the desert. We had
been with him many times in his
own country, about 150 miles
northwest of Warburton, and by
now he was familiar with the na-
ture of our work. We brought him
with us in the hope that, in his own
way, he would be able to explain to
the others what we were doing.
With small, unacculturated groups
there is always the danger that the
anthropologist's presence wiU dis-
rupt their activities. We wanted to
observe as much as possible of their
normal daily routine, but we also
wanted to record what we saw with
photographs, maps of their camp,
tape recordings, and ordinary field
notes. Minmara, already familiar
with our equipment, could reassure
the others.
We outfitted two vehicles for the
trip, a Land Rover and a two-wheel
drive truck. Because of the distance,
supplies were a problem and lim-
ited us from the start. We had to be
completely self-sufficient. The truck
was loaded with drums of fuel and
water and we intended to drive it as
far into the desert as possible. For
two days we drove up a deserted
rocket range access road, locally
called the "Gunbarrel Highway," to
a point about 80 miles from where
the Aborigines were said to be
camped. Then we refueled the Land
Rover and left the truck where it
would serve as a gas station for us
on our return trip.
J__^F uring the trip out, Minmara
did several things that seemed odd
and unlike him. On one occasion he
asked me for some cigarettes. Be-
cause I want to avoid having to
feed the people we are with, I al-
ways try to be generous with to-
bacco instead. For anthropologists,
feeding the people is a never-ending
problem. If we are to observe their
normal food-getting behavior, we
cannot always feed them. This
leaves us open to accusations of
stinginess. On this trip, however, I
had brought only plugs of chewing
tobacco. Minmara had never before
asked me for cigarettes and, in
truth, I had never seen him smoke
them. Nevertheless, he seemed dis-
appointed when I offered him some
chewing-plugs. Later he came to me
again and asked for my rifle and
one bullet. Minmara had borrowed
my rifle many times before to go
kangaroo hunting, but he had al-
ways asked for as many bullets as
he could get. When I asked him
why he wanted only one bullet this
time, he seemed genuinely at a loss
to explain. After I gave him the
gun and the single bullet, he walked
to the edge of our camp where the
other two men could see him,
loaded the rifle, and fired it ofE into
the air. Then he returned the gun to
me and in a low voice explained
that these were ignorant men who
did not know about such things.
This really floored me, since I could
remember when, not so very long
ago, Minmara himself had been a
desert Aborigine just like these
men. He obviously had meant to
smoke the cigarettes in front of
them as well, to impress them with
his newfound sophistication.
We continued our cross-country
trip to the west, skirting several
sandhills and wide stretches of
burned-over country. Yutungka ex-
citedly pointed out places where he
himself had set the fires. As we
were traveling in a time of drought,
the wind was shifting the sand in
many burned-over places. At War-
burton, less than an inch of rain
had fallen in two years, and condi-
tions looked similar here. I was
particularly anxious to observe
these Aborigines under drought
conditions, since our previous trip
to the Gibson Desert had been dur-
ing a period of exceptionally good
rains, with a corresponding abun-
dance of plant and animal foods.
Eventually we saw Mount Madley —
tivo tiny rock knobs standing about
25 feet above the surrounding sand
plain, yet appearing highly signifi-
cant in comparison with the rela-
tively flat terrain. Claypans and salt
lakes provide the few landmarks in
this region, which on the whole is
among the most featureless and un-
friendly looking country we have
ever seen in the Australian desert.
The spinifex, a spiny grass that
grows in clumps of varying size
and density throughout the Gibson
Desert, appeared parched and yel-
low. There were some signs of re-
cent rain on several claypans we
crossed, but rain in this region is
notoriously fickle and often falls
only in localized patches. The
mulga scrub we passed also looked
dry and brittle. On our previous
trips in the Gibson Desert, we had
Yutungka's mother huddle?
with her dogs on an early winter
morning at the camp at Pulykara.
At right, Yutungka stands
halfway down a 15-foot-deep
native well.
seen the country at its best; now it
seemed we were seeing it at its
■worst.
Arriving at Pulykara on the morn-
ing of April 20, we found that the
Aboriginal camp consisted of three
small clusters of hearths, each
surrounded by cleared patches of
sand — the sleeping and sitting
areas — and a low brush windbreak.
The arrangement was typical of the
winter campsites of Gibson Desert
Aborigines, which we had observed
on previous occasions. Situated on
the slope of a sandhill at the edge
of a dry lake bed, it was sur-
59
At tlie c'laypan of \\ alaliika.
fifty miles from Pulykara.
Yutungka tests the water,
and finds it potable.
rounded by a profusion of flies, an
inevitable feature of Aboriginal
camps. The wind was blowing
fairh- hard when we arrived, and it
\vas apparent that there was little
natural cover here or anywhere
nearby. Burned acacia bushes and a
few low clumps of ti tree, spinifex.
and saltbush gave the whole place a
rather cheerless look. The water
hole, a so-called native well dug
about 15 feet in the lake bed to the
water table, lay about 425 feet
southwest of the camp. These native
wells are, in most cases, nothing
more than soakages into which the
Aborigines dig for water. Often
they get deeper as the water table
retreats downward. Pulykara, a
classic example of this type of well,
had a flow at that time of about a
gallon in ten minutes. ^ e had al-
ready been- told that Pulykara was
one of the most dependable water
sources in the region and was vir-
tually permanent.
No one was visible when we ar-
rived at the camp, but on top of the
sandhill there were several ema-
ciated, howling dingoes, dogs kept
by the Aborigines and sometimes
found wild. Yutungka set fire to
some ti trees as a smoke signal to
indicate our presence, while Tjitji-
nanya and Minmara went on foot
over the sandhill to look for the
people. A few minutes later they re-
turned with Tjitjinanya's wife, a
tiny woman with a greatly dis-
tended stomach. She had heard us
approaching — the whine of a Land
Rover's gears can be heard for
miles — and was frightened, so she
ran off into the sandhills to hide.
The others, she said, had left earlier
to look for food.
This timidity was apparently one
reason why this group had not been
contacted earlier. Later on. Yu-
60
tungka told us that when he was a
small boy, a truck (probably an-
other Land Rover) had passed this
way with one man driving it. Ev-
eryone had run into the sandhills
and watched the white man from
behind some bushes. The vehicle
missed the camp by about a quarter
of a mile, passing on the far side of
a sandhill to the north, where the
man had stopped and spent the
night before continuing his journey
in the morning. The Aborigines
stayed awake all that night watch-
ing him, but they never revealed
themselves. This, no doubt, must
have happened many times to gov-
ernment patrols sent out to locate
desert Aborigines.
After the others arrived, there
were nine people, comprising three
small families, present; Yutungka's
mother and father, Tjitjinanya and
his wife, and finally a third couple
and their two daughters — a six-
year-old named Pannyi and an in-
fant. While talking with them we
quickly discovered several words
derived from English, and learned
that the young couple had pre-
viously spent some time at the Car-
negie Homestead, a remote sheep
station a little more than 100 miles
southwest of Mount Madley. Also.
Yutungka's father said he had once
spent a few days at Jiggalong, a
mission and Aboriginal reserve
about 200 miles northwest of
Mount Madley. Aside from these in-
stances and Yutungka and Tjitji-
nanya's recent trip to Warburton,
these people had lived all their lives
in this area of the desert. As Betsy
was the first white woman that most
of them had seen, the women could
not stop touching her arms and
hair and discussing her appearance.
Some of them had a few scraps of
clothing given them by the preced-
ing patrols, and they possessed a
steel axhead. The tenth member of
the group, a young man named
Yiwa. had gone off to the west by
himself to look for some spear-
wood. We missed seeing him, since
he still had not returned when we
departed for Warburton. These
6i
\'*^.
^!^.^
'iife.,:
^Hiiii
-i*^.--
While carrying a dog
around her waist, Tjitjinanya's
wife sympathetically covers
its eyes so it will not see her
eat a piece of candy.
people spoke a dialect, which they
called Ngatjara. one of the many
mntually intelligible dialects spoken
by Aborigines throughout the Gib-
son Desert.
Yutungka was clearly delighted
to. see his parents and other rela-
tives again. They greeted him by
wailing loudly, while his mother
flailed herself on the head with a
wooden bowl until the blood ran
freely from her scalp. This was out
of sorrow for the pain he had un-
dergone while being initiated at
Warburton and in recognition of
the death-rebirth symbolism of the
whole initiation ceremony. Once
these formalities were over, the
group settled down to discuss their
recent activities and, no doubt, us,
while we set up our own camp
about 100 yards away. Yutungka
kept everyone up late that night
with his dramatic and highly ani-
mated account of his experiences at
Warburton.
The Gibson Desert Aborigines
live entirely by hunting and gather-
ing wild foods. They do so in what
is probably the poorest environ-
ment, in terms of food resources, of
any in the world where people have
lived by foraging directly off the
land. In our earlier studies we
found that the Aborigines in this
area subsist on 38 edible plant spe-
cies, called mirka, and 47 named
varieties of meat and fleshy foods,
called kuka. Kuka is always pre-
ferred over mirka, but our studies
indicated that mirka is almost al-
ways more important in the over-all
diet. As there are no large game an-
imals, the kangaroo, which rarely
exceeds 100 pounds, is the largest
animal hunted, although they are
uncommon in the Gibson Desert.
Herds of game animals, such as one
finds in Africa today, do not exist
in this area. Most of the protein ob-
tained by these people comes pri-
marily from two species of goanna
lizard found in the sandhill and
sand plain country. With the ex-
ception of rare occasions when
heavy rains have fallen for two or
more consecutive seasons in one
spot, providing abundant vegetation
and therefore attracting game, the
diet is almost entirely vegetarian,
revolving around at least seven
staple plant foods. I have defined a
staple here as any plant species
that, singly or in combination with
another, accounted for at least 50
percent of the total diet by weight
during the period it was collected
and consumed. Other edible plants
act to supplement and vary the diet.
Although men hunt regularly for
kangaroos, emus, wallabies, and
other game, it is the women who
are the mainstay of the economy
and who provide virtually all of the
vegetable foods, as well as much of
the small game.
c
^^^_>| ompared with other hunting-
and-gathering societies, the Gibson
Desert Aborigines fare poorly even
in the best of seasons. For example,
the !Kung Bushmen of the Kalahari
Desert of Africa, a group recently
studied in detail by anthropologist
Richard Lee. distinguish 54 edible
species of animals (including some,
such as giraffes and various ante-
lopes, that are larger than anything
found in the Australian desert) and
85 edible plant species, one of
which, the mongongo nut, accounts
for one-half to two-thirds of the to-
tal vegetable diet by weight. The
Bushmen, therefore, can afford to
pass up such small game as rodents,
snakes, lizards, termites and other
insects, all of which are eagerly
sought by the desert Aborigines.
Any anthropological discussions
about the material culture, social
organization, and religion of the
desert Aborigines must be seen in
terms of the basic ecological consid-
erations. Not only is the Gibson
Desert generally impoverished in
edible plant and animal species, it
is also unreliable in terms of the ri-
pening and availability of these spe-
cies. There are no regular wet and
dry seasons, such as one finds in
the Kalahari or even in tropical
Australia. Rainfall, generally low to
begin with, fluctuates tremendously
with time and place. The table
shown here for vegetable staples for
1966—67 represents a foraging sea-
son under optimum conditions of
rainfall for this region: a kind of
Aboriginal woman's "shopping list"
at a time when there was plenty of
rain to stimulate plant growth. The
table for 1969-70, although com-
plete for only eight months, shows
the plants collected by these same
people as staples during a drought
year.
It was with this general back-
ground of information in mind that
we began our visit with the desert
Aborigines at Pulykara. On the day
we arrived, Yutungka's mother ap-
peared carrying a wooden bowl
containing ten grubs and a piece of
backbone from a feral cat, which
she had evidently taken with her as
a snack to eat while out looking for
grubs. The young woman, named
Yatungka, arrived in camp shortly
afterward with a wooden bowl
filled with about ten pounds of sun-
dried quandong, a native fruit with
a large kernel, of which only the
outer husk is eaten. I was imme-
diately interested, because neither
woman had been out collecting for
more than a couple of hours that
day. Also, the people seemed in
good condition. Things might be
hard at Pulykara during the
drought, but certainly no one was
starving or even close to it.
In the days that followed we set-
tled into a routine of steady, low-
key observation as the Aborigines
went about their daily affairs. On
most days I went out hunting with
Yutungka and one or more of the
other men, while Betsy either
stayed in camp or went foraging
with the women. Although we trav-
eled as much as ten to fifteen miles
a day in search of game, the results
of the hunt were poor. At no time
did we see any fresh kangaroo or
emu tracks and, after four days of
(>J
effort we had obtained only a feral
cat, a falcon, and three rather small
goannas. For me these hunting trips
were useful, more for the opportun-
ity of learning about the country
around Pulykara and getting to
know the men better, than for the
game we caught.
F
oraging, on the other hand,
was more successful. There was an
extensive area of quandong trees lo-
cated about two miles from camp
on the other side of the dry lake.
Here it was possible to collect al-
most unlimited amounts of the sun-
dried fruit from the ground directly
beneath each tree. As long as the
weather is dry, this fruit, which the
Aborigines call tjaivili, can lie on
the ground for months without
spoiling. A woman, working for
about an hour, could collect be-
tween ten and twenty pounds, de-
pending on the size of her wooden
bowl. Not only was the tjawili
abundant and easy to collect, but
on this occasion it was easy to
transport, as well, because the walk
across the lake bed was fairly short
and flat. Grubs, although hardly a
staple at this time, were larger and
more abundant than we had ever
seen in our previous travels
through the desert. Pried from the
roots of small acacia bushes and
from the stems of desert poplar
trees that were dying from the
drought, they are prized for their
flavor by the Aborigines and are eat-
en either raw or lightly roasted.
What impressed me most, however,
was the ease and relative speed with
which the women found enough
food for the whole group, even un-
der what seemed, superficially, to
be adverse conditions. It was nei-
ther gourmet eating nor a balanced
diet, but it was enough; and it took
only a few man-hours to collect. So
much for the commonly held view
of hunter-gatherers as people with-
out any leisure time because of
their constant need to search for
food. Under the conditions at Puly-
kara, the women spent most of
their day in camp sleeping or talk-
ing among themselves. Their forag-
ing was so efficient that it gave
them abundant time to relax, while
at the same time it freed the men
for hunting and other activities. It
also became obvious that the group
could never have survived on the
fruits of hunting alone, although no
opportunities for getting game were
overlooked.
Another glance at the tables will
reveal several essential differences
between foraging in a relatively wet
season and foraging in a drought.
While the drought reduced the
available species of staple food
plants from seven to three, the over-
all amounts of food collected and
the work required to collect them
remained about the same. (Despite
the incompleteness of our observa-
tions in 1969-70, there is good
evidence to suggest that there were
no more than tliree staples that
Yutungka cleans the feathers
from a falcon killed dviring a hunt.
Hunting, however, provided only
a small part of the group's food.
year.) That is, in both wet and dry
years large quantities of these j
staples can be collected by the
women without consuming too
much time or effort in the process.
Of course, our observations at Puly-
kara were brief, but these were
augmented by further studies made
with similar groups closer to the
Warburton Ranges Mission. It is
also important to note that the peri-
ods of availability of the same plant
species vary greatly from one year
to the next. Ngaru, for example, ap-
pears to ripen earlier and last
longer in dry seasons than in wet
years, while yili, "wild figs," and
tjaivili ripen at almost opposite
times in a dry year from one that is
wet. In addition, these food re-
sources can vary dramatically from
place to place. No wild figs were
available in the Pulykara area dur-
ing our visit in April, but they were
abundant at that time in areas
closer to Warburton.
Each morning when the men and
I set out to hunt, some of the camp
dogs tried to follow us. The men
would constantly turn and drive
them back toward camp, since they
did not want them along on the
hunt. Under traditional nomadic
conditions, dingoes are a liability
on hunts, as they tend to frighten
game. These Aborigines hunt main-
ly from concealment, that is, from
64
behind blinds of brush or rock or,
sometimes, by careful stalking when
an animal is encountered in the
open. In either case, dogs are not
wanted. Nevertheless, I noticed that
Yutungka's favorite dog, Pitji-pitji,
would continue with us, lurking
cautiously about a quarter of a mile
behind us or off to one side. Its
presence was tolerated as long as it
did not get too close to us or other-
wise interfere with the hunt.
We counted nineteen dingoes in
and around the camp, all of whom
would join in piercing choruses of
howling in the morning or at night.
They were often fondled but rarely
fed, although the people expressed
sympathy for their hunger. Once,
after I had given a piece of candy
to Tjitjinanya's wife, she covered
the eyes of the dog she was carry-
ing. When I asked about this, she
said the dog was ngaltutjara, "the
one to feel sorry for," because it
could not have the food, so she was
ov.
Oct.
Sept.
Aug,
July
June
May
Apnl
Mar.
Feb.
Jan.
VEGETABLE STAPLES (1966-67)
yawalyuru -edible berries
fCanthium \aii1oUum)
kalpari -edible seeds
(Chenopo6\uru rhadinostachyum)
wangunu -edible seeds
fEragrostis enopoda)
kampurarpa (fresh) -edible fruit
(native tomato-So/anum sp.)
wayapu -edible fruit
(quandong-Santalum acuminatum)
yiji -edible fruit
(wildfig-Ficus sp.)
ngafu -edible fruit
(Solanum eremophilum)
kampurarpa (dry)-edible fruit
(native tomato-So/anum sp.)
VEGETABLE STAPLES (1969-70)
ngaru -edible fruit
fSofanum eremoph/7um)
yilr -edible fruit
(wild fig-FJcus sp.)
wayanu -edible fruit
(quandong-Santa/um acuminatum)
INADEQUATE
OPPORTUNITY
TO OBSERVE
INADEQUATE
OPPORTUNITY
TO OBSERVE
covering its eyes in the hope that it
would not see her eating.
Not only were these the skinniest
dogs I have ever seen, but they
were also compulsive cringers and
skulkers. Throughout our stay we
had to be on guard against their
getting into our belongings, since
we found that they will eat almost
anything. Despite our efforts, one
of them consumed the electric plug
and three feet of heavy-duty electric
wiring from our portable generator.
On past occasions dingoes have de-
voured boots, entire boxes of deter-
gent, and magazines; occasionally,
they have even pierced tin cans
with their teeth and extracted the
contents with their incredibly pre-
hensile tongues. One glance and a
hissing shout of payi was always
enough to drive them away for a
while, but it was a never-ending
battle in which the dingoes' per-
severance inevitably won out.
Most Aborigines, both men and
women, have their favorite dogs,
but we noticed from the start that
Yutungka's mother behaved very
strangely toward her dogs. She car-
ried this behavior to a fanatical ex-
treme, and we christened her the
"Dog Lady" because of it. She
cared for about a dozen dogs,
which formed a seething pack
around her whenever she was
seated in her camp. She seldom fed
them but fussed over them con-
stantly in other ways. When they
were asleep she built little shade-
shelters of twigs and boughs for
them, which she moved periodically
as the sun's shadow shifted, being
careful all the while not to disturb
the sleeping dogs. Like most of the
others, she was naked when we met
her on the first day, but Tjitjinanya
had given her some tattered dresses
and other clothing he had acquired
during his brief stay at Warburton.
Instead of wearing these herself she
laid them over the dogs while they
slept during the day. At this time
the days were warm, about 80 de-
grees Fahrenheit in the shade, but
at night it was close to freezing. On
chilly nights the desert Aborigines
always sleep next to a fire with
their dogs huddled around them to
keep warm; Yutungka's mother, of
course, had most of the pack
wrapped around her. One night I
tried taking flash photographs
showing how the people sleep with
their dogs. No one minded the pic-
ture-taking except the dogs: I had
not reckoned on their reaction to
the flash. After my first photo-
graph, they ran off into the sand-
hills while the people lay shivering
by their little fires, bereft of their
doggy "blankets." I apologized, but
it was a while before the dogs came
back.
The Gibson Desert Aborigines
are among the last people anywhere
who still make and use stone tools
as a regular part of their culture.
On our previous trips into the
desert we learned that these people
possess a limited variety of stone
tools used for cutting meat and sin-
6S
ew, as well as for scraping or adz-
ing wooden tools (see Natural
History, February, 1968). They
classify these tools as tjimari and
purpunpa, respectively. For arche-
ologists in particular this is useful
information, since they are con-
cerned much of the time with the
ways in which ancient stone arti-
facts were made and used. Since
this activity rapidly declines once
the Aborigines obtain metal tools,
we were fortunate to see as much of
this skill in action as we did. But
there were still some unanswered
questions; the most important of
these was the role of hand axes and
hand-held stone scrapers.
All of the groups we had previous-
ly observed had already obtained
enough steel axes for their needs.
Aboriginal stone axes had been
seen in use by eailier scholars such
as anthropologists Norman Tindale
and Donald Thomson, but their
classification within the native sys-
tem remained uncertain, along with
other details concerning their man-
ufacture and use. As I had hoped
for some time to find a group of
desert Aborigines who had not yet
transferred to the use of steel axes,
the group at Pulykara proved ideal.
The single steel ax they possessed
was not sufficient for their needs as
its large size made it awkward to
handle and limited its usefulness;
therefore, they continued to make
and use large, hand-held stone tools
along with other kinds.
The people at Pulykara classified
all hand-held scrapers and hand
axes as purpunpa, regardless of
size. Always trimmed on one edge
only, they were used exclusively for
cutting and shaping wooden ob-
jects. In general, hand axes and
large stone scrapers were trimmed
by chipping just enough to provide
a steep working edge suitable for
woodworking. These observations
are of particular interest to Austra-
lian archeologists, since recently ac-
cumulated evidence points to the
persistence of a hand-held, stone
flake tool tradition in some parts of
Australia for over 30,000 years. Al-
though various hafted stone tools,
some of them quite delicately made,
appeared at least 6,800 years ago in
the Gibson Desert, they never dis-
66
placed the tradition of making
large, hand-held tools. Further
analysis of the tools will be needed
before this pattern can be described
in detail, but preliminary studies
indicate that we are dealing here
with one of the most dramatic and
well-documented examples of cul-
tural conservatism in the world.
By our fifth day at Pulykara our
supplies were dwindling and it was
obvious that we had to leave before
we consumed our reserves. In the
Australian desert one always keeps
enough extra food and water for a
possible breakdown or emergency
en route. The evening before we left
there was an intense discussion in
camp. Tjitjinanya wanted to return
to Warburton with us — he craved
the excitement of other people. The
women countered him, saying they
liked the things he had brought for
them from the mission but they
wanted him to remain at Pulykara
with them. The argument went on
late into the night, and in the end
Tjitjinanya agreed to stay. Betsy
and I did not interfere, but we
both knew that it was far better at
that time for Tjitjinanya and his
wife to stay in the desert. For one
thing, the two older men at Pul-
ykara address Tjitjinanya as ka-
muTu and regard him as a mother's
brother — an obligatory sharing
relationship in which most of the
goods and services flow from the
sister's son to the mother's brother.
Tjitjinanya and his wife have no
children of their own, and since
they are both getting old and one of
them is infirm much of the time,
they must consider who will sup-
port them in their old age. Even un-
der the harsh conditions of desert
existence, the Gibson Desert Abori-
gines do feed and look after old or
sick people — but only if a sharing
relationship based on kin ties exists
between the people involved. Tjitji-
nanya and his wife had no close kin
at Warburton and might suffer pri-
vation there. On the other hand, be-
cause of Tjitjinanya's kamupi rela-
tionship to the oldest man in each
of the other families at Pulykara,
they had, in effect, two families
working for them, gathering food,
firewood, and other necessities. It
was undoubtedly wiser for them to
i
remain at Pulykara, and I was re-
lieved when the ladies finally -won
out. We left for Warburton the next
morning, accompanied by Min-
mara, while the others remained at
Pulykara.
What had we achieved by mak-
ing this trip? Certainly we made no
startling or fantastic discoveries;
we found no "vanished tribes." Es-
sentially, these people at Pulykara
were like those we had encountered
in our earlier work in the Gibson
Desert. Although they live in a poor
and undependable physical environ-
ment, they have survived and devel-
oped rich oral traditions and cere-
monies along with a social system
of amazing subtlety and com-
plexity. Further research must in-
quire into how these systems are
supported by the economy and how,
in turn, they serve to maintain the
economy. Our trip to Pulykara of-
fered us another glimpse of the
day-to-day economy of a nomadic
group of Aborigines, and increased
our understanding of how these
people have adapted to their desert
existence. However, there still are
things we do not know. For ex-
ample, how do people like this sup-
port themselves in a drought of ten
or twelve years duration?
Like many anthropological ex-
peditions, we obtained scientifically
useful results without undue hard-
ship or excessive fanfare. And from
a personal point of view, there was
something esthetically satisfying
about this trip. We met these people
on their own terms, in their own
country. It was indeed a , pleasant
change from meeting Aborigines, as
we have so often, living on the
fringes of white settlements where
they are increasingly dependent on
the white man's culture. The friend-
liness, independence, and pride of
this small community provided a
rare and rewarding experience.
After several hours in the
bush, Yatungka and her daughter
Pannyi return with about ten.
pounds of sun-dried quandong.
GOOSE OF
THE HIMALAYAS
Bar-headed geese
migrated between India
and Tibet
before the Himalayas
rose up 30,000 feet.
Mountains or not,
they still ply
the same route,
honking as they fly
at altitudes ivhere
they should not
be able to breathe
by Lawrence W. Swan
At night there is a quietness in
the high mountains. Far into the
Himalayas, among the glaciers and
the walls of great peaks, a stillness
settles, and when the wind is gone
and the torrents are frozen, there is
no background of singing crickets
or airplanes or distant voices. The
quiet is different from that of a
closed room, for against the stars
the dim outlines of crests and
ridges show the vastness of the
space — and it is all soundless. It is
as if the whole world had ceased.
One seems to hear the very absence
of sound. Then the roar of an ava-
lanche or a rockfall booms across
the valley, sudden and brief and
then gone, echoing its way down
the canyons into silence again.
On one such cold and still night
in early April, I stood beside the
Barun Glacier. At 16,000 feet,
above nearly one-half of the atmo-
sphere, the stars were brighter; and
old, familiar constellations acquired
new, small bits of light unseen at
lower elevations. Even without a
moon the peaks could still be seen,
and the great dark cliffs of Makalu
rising more than two miles above
68
me to the northeast were outlined
by a halo of starry brightness.
Mount Everest some miles up the
glacier to the northwest, Chamlang
to the southwest, and Tutse to the
south encircled my spot on the mo-
raine in a dark ring against a
lighted sky. I was listening to the
silence. And then a sound came, a
quiet hum muffled by distance. But
this sound had a pitch, an alien
quality in a land where sound is
generally a clatter or a roar or a
hiss. It grew louder, and suddenly I
knew. I had heard it before. Com-
ing from the south, the distant hum
became a Call. Then, as if from the
stars above me, I heard the honking
of bar-headed geese.
1 searched for their outlines in
the darkness, hoping to see a spot
of light go off and on as their wings
passed a star, but they were too far
above me. 1 know that it is possible
to locate an object by sound within
a very few degrees of its actual po
After mating, a male bar-headed
goose spreads its wings ividely
over the female a common sight
on the spring breeding grounds.
sition and confident of this ability,
I listened and followed them across
the sky. Their calls diminished, and
finally, somewhere beyond the Ba-
run-Kangshung Divide over Tibet,
their sound ceased. I realized then
that I had followed their movement
directly over the summit of Makalu,
27,824 feet high.
Later I learned that climbers had
seen geese fly over the summit of
Mount Everest, 29,028 feet above
sea level, but that night beside the
Barun Glacier I felt I had witnessed
the most incredible feat of bird
flight. At 16,000 feet, where I
breathed heavily with every ex-
ertion and where talking while
walking is seldom successful, I had
witnessed birds flying more than
two miles above me, where the oxy-
gen tension is incapable of sustain-
ing human life — and they were call-
ing. It was as if they were ignoring
the normal rules of physiology and
defying the impossibility of respira-
tion at that height by wasting their
breath with honking conversation.
Thinking about the wonder of
this accomplishment, three ques-
tions posed themselves. First, be-
cause it seemed so strange from my
own high-altitude experience, I
wondered why the geese were not
silent, thereby conserving oxygen.
Second, of all the places to fly
across the Himalayas, why should
they pick the highest spots to
cross? A few miles to the east, the
69
Arun Gorge reaches Tibet at less
than 10,000 feet and this passage to
the 14,000-foot plateau would seem
much easier to negotiate. Third,
why should these geese, which
spend the winter months in the
warm waters of the Indian plains,
fly to Tibet where most of the lakes
are barren, salty wastes and where
greenery itself is an exception?
Why should they make such a seem-
ingly poor choice and in doing so
have to cross the greatest mountain
barrier in the world?
I think I may have a few an-
swers: some obvious, others specula-
tive. A study of the migration of
the bar-headed goose (AnseT in-
dicus) provides much information
about the history of Central Asia. It
touches on the geology of moun-
tains and tells us in rather vivid
terms of the changes in the past.
A look at the map of Tibet shows
a desert raised up to 14,000 feet or
more, where dryness is augmented
by bitter cold. The severity of the
environment can scarcely be
matched. For the most part its hills
are barren and its valleys waterless.
Nevertheless, Tibet has many lakes
and it is these lakes — their posi-
tions and shapes — that are perhaps
most revealing in the story of the
geese. In the west the tributaries of
the Indus reach into Tibet, and be-
yond the present limits of these riv-
ers a series of lakes can be seen.
They are generally at the same alti-
tude along a continuous basin, and
some of them reveal in their shape
a long, sinuous outline as if a river
valley had been filled with water.
Throughout Tibet lines of con-
nected lakes tell the story of old
river valleys that somehow became
dammed and separated from the
main stream. It is difficult to dam a
river. To the south, where the Arun
and other rivers cut tremendous
gorges right through the Hima-
layas, it is clear that the stream pre-
ceded the mountain uplift. The
huge mass of the mountains rising
athwart the rivers was not able to
dam them. The reason lies in the
amount of water carried by the
stream. If the river is running full,
it generally cuts down just about as
fast as the mountains can build and
it will not be stopped.
Geologic observations indicate
that the old Tibetan rivers flowed
eastward from western Tibet, the
highest part of the Tibetan plateau.
Today this is a vast deserted land
lying mostly above 18,000 feet. The
area of the plateau lying between
elevated western Tibet and the mod-
ern sources of the Yangtze, Me-
kong, and Salween rivers far to the
east, is a land of lakes. The
Tsangpo River is the only remnant
of the old river system that today
flows entirely across Tibet from
west to east, but its course has been
rudely interrupted and captured by
an active tributary of the Brahma-
putra River, the Dihang. which has
cut its way directly through the
Himalayas of Assam. The Tsangpo
now flows through a huge gorge
into India as the major tributary of
the Brahmaputra but, in all likeli-
hood, it was once one of several
main tributaries of the Salween.
Perhaps the Tsangpo remains as a
relic of this old river system be-
cause it gets some water from the
nearby snow-capped Himalayas,
whereas the old tributaries of the
Yangtze, Mekong, and Salween far-
ther north were not able to cut and
prevent their occlusion by the up-
lifted land of Tibet. Without suf-
ficient water, they degenerated into
strings of lakes with no outlet to the
sea. The sources of the modern riv-
ers now lie far away on the eastern
slope of the Tibetan plateau where
some moisture reaches up from
China and Southeast Asia. How did
the old Tibetan rivers lose most of
their water and the fullness of flow
that kept them active?
Precipitation in Tibet is gener-
ally less than 10 inches per year.
The moisture that settles as snow on
the highest peaks is a mere wisp of
the monsoon. The snowmelt keeps
some of the lakes fresh and also
supplies the flow to the Tsangpo,
which ultimately becomes the great
Brahmaputra of India. South of the
Himalayas, places like Cherrapunji
may get 900 inches of rain an-
nually. In 1861 a world record of
1,041 inches fell on this town in the
Khasi Hills of Assam. Rainfall of
more than 100 inches is com-
monplace on the southern slopes of
the Himalayas. The monsoon
reaches up the valleys and in those
few gorges that traverse the range
some clouds carry through and
reach up to Tibet. Most of the
range exceeds 20,000 feet, and little
effective moisture crosses this huge
barrier directly into Tibet. The dry
hills of Tibet are a result of the Hi-
malayan range, which reaches up
through most of the atmosphere
and effectively throws a rain
shadow across Central Asia. Be-
cause the now dead rivers of Tibet
did at one time flow, the Himalayas
could not have always been the bar-
rier they are today.
Recent research reveals the sud-
denness, in geologic time, of the fi-
nal upthrusts of the Himalayas. The
beginnings of the range date back
ten to fifteen million years into the
early Miocene Epoch, but for most
of the time since then, the Hima-
layas were insignificant and did not
materially impede the movement of
moist air from the south. It was
only in the late Pliocene and early
Pleistocene, perhaps a million years
ago, that the Tibetan plateau was
uplifted to nearly its present height.
This was followed in turn by the
final upthrust of the highest Hi-
malayan peaks, which must have
risen 10,000 feet or more in the
space of a few hundred thousand
years. This last spectacular up-
heaval of the earth was essentially
completed less than half a million
years ago. and with it the climate of
Central Asia must have turned from
humid to arid. The rivers that were
already cutting their valleys into
the elevated land of Tibet ceased.
Lakes formed in the river beds and,
as with the desert lakes of the
American West that were left after
the glaciers retreated, they shrank
by evaporation, concentrating their
supplies of dissolved minerals. The
salt lakes began, and to the accom-
paniment of the cold and warm
phases of the Pleistocene, the envi-
ronment of Tibet became a desert.
I
nto this picture came the bar-
headed goose. When it first arrived
in India is only a guess, but as the
behavior of most migrating birds
suggests, these geese responded to
the glacial expansions and retreats
Migrating bar-headed geese
fly over such imposing
obstacles as Mount Baruntse
(23,688 feet), in Nepal.
of the Pleistocene glaciers, and
their presence in Central Asia prob-
ably predates the beginnings of gla-
ciation during the Pleistocene. At
that time — presumably during the
late Pliocene Epoch — it is likely
that parts of Tibet had lush green
valleys with lakes and streams in
summer. The flight between India
and the north was a simple adven-
ture— from winter feeding grounds
to a congenial breeding summer in
the moist valleys of Tibet. Then the
earth started to move and the
Himalayas reached for the sky.
Year after year the birds flew their
annual circuit and as the thousands
of years went by, the mountains
rose beneath them. Higher and
higher they drove the geese, which
in turn met the challenge. Surely a
mountain range reaching that high
through the atmosphere into the
frigid lower limits of the strato-
sphere would defeat the flight of
birds? No — the birds beat the
mountains. Each year they accom-
plish the incredible: in one majestic
flight to the north in March or
April and a similar return in Sep-
tember or October, they span the
highest ramparts of the earth. Their
flight, like a behavioral fossil, tells
of a time when the Himalayas were
small and the rivers flowed full in
Tibet. The geese over Makalu are
older than the hills below them.
The challenge of the Himalayan
altitudes was accompanied by the
forbidding threat to survival posed
by the drying up of Tibet. In place
of a multitude of wet marshes,
ponds, and streams, the habitats of
the geese dwindled to a few hostile
valleys. The birds now congregate
along the Tsangpo River, and here
and there on the freshwater lakes.
They are wary and elusive on the
northern plains in India where they
are hunted throughout the winter.
From the few accounts of travelers
who ha\'e encountered them in Ti-
bet, it seems the geese are cro^\ded
and careless of their safety. I have
heard that in places they are so
tame, they can be clubbed. At any
rate, these concentrated flocks
among the rocks and arid slopes
surrounding unproductive ponds
are a far cry from the birds of In-
dia. But even this great change has
not been enough to destroy them. It
may be of significance that until
recently the Tibetans were Bud-
dhists, who generally protected life
or at least did not wantonly destroy
living things. Sven Hedin remarks
in his great work Tianshimalaya
that Tibetans considered bar-
headed geese to be particularly fa-
vored for protection inasmuch as
the birds mated for life and the kill-
ing of one bird left the other in a
state of humanlike remorse. Killing
geese, as he learned from the objec-
tions of Tibetan hunters, was in a
difl^erent moral category from kill-
ing sheep or pheasants. Perhaps the
geese, in their lameness and their
protected status in the vicinity of
monasteries and religious preserves,
owe something of their survival to a
considerate human population in
the past. Whether this situation
changes remains to be seen. Recent
political and economic instabilities,
and the presence of armed Indian
and Chinese troops, are not con-
ducive to the survival of edible
wildlife. It would be instructive to
get information on the population
status of the bar-headed goose as it
returns each year from Tibet. It
seems to be declining. It may be that
after all the victories over moun-
tains and climate and time, the bird
will be defeated by man's callous-
ness and its demise related in some
way to the demise of Buddhism it-
self in Tibet.
Next there is the question of why
the birds fly over the highest peaks
and apparently avoid the several
gorges that penetrate the Himalayas
at lower altitudes. Perhaps some of
them do fly at lower altitudes, hut I
have not heard them in the gorges.
I have heard them far above Dar-
jeeling headed directly toward the
great massif of Kangchenjunga,
and other reports of their presence
coincide with the main mountain
71
barriers along tlie eastern Hima-
layas.
The air over India before the
monsoon is probably the dustiest in
the world. Distant views are out of
the question. But as an airplane
rises out of the murky air of Bihar
or Bengal the form of the Hima-
layas emerges to the north. From
200 or 300 miles away the great
range is not a continuous line but
can be seen only as patches of white
snow scattered and separated across
the northern horizon. These are the
great groupings of peaks divided by
lower mountains and the deep river
trenches of the range. The Kang-
chenjunga group is discernible in
far-off northern Sikkim; nearly 70
miles to the west the Everest-Ma-
kalu group stands out, and beyond
that, the Rolwaling summits, then
the Ganesh Himal, the Annapurna
chain, and Dhaulagiri. The human
observer sees the highest points,
visible at enormous distances from
the south. Couldn't this also be the
case with the geese? The great Hi-
malayan upthrusts can be identified
and located, whereas the gorges and
passes would be difficult to find and
follow. Furthermore, most flights
reach the mountains during the
night when flying between the peaks
and cliffs could be precarious.
In the matter of safety there is
also the consideration of wind. In
spring the Himalayan traveler is
sometimes able to see the great
peaks displaying long plumes that
reach out from the mountains for
several miles. These long, steady,
bannerlike clouds are not typical.
They may be likened to the con-
trails of jet airplanes and are un-
doubtedly caused by enormous
winds. I know of no accurate
analysis of this type of cloud. It is
obviously not composed of wind-
blown snow over its full length of
several miles, although in the vicin-
ity of the peak, as the flight over
Mount Everest in 19.33 demon-
strated, there is a violent hail of ice
particles. It would appear that on
its lee side the sharp summit of a
mountain in a high wind produces
a sufficient air pressure decrement
to initiate condensation, which in
turn must freeze into minute ice
particles that remain suspended in
the air as a long and stable cloud.
Typically these banners affect only
the highest peaks and from Sandak-
phu, near Darjeeling, I have seen
a trio of plumes extending from Ev-
erest, Makalu, and Kangchenjunga
at the same time. It is possible that
these three great peaks, all over 27,-
000 feet, are high enough so that
their summits are occasionally
swept by a low jet stream of the
stratosphere, with air moving at
more than 200 miles per hour. I
have seen a plume from fairly close
on Makalu. Whereas the air below
was still, the summit pyramid was
boiling with white spumes of
clouds, and down the ridges from
the summit, twisting vortices of
snow, like miniature tornadoes,
gave evidence of the power of the
air. Even though the peak was a
mile or more away, the whole
mountain seemed to moan. The
roaring wind on the mountain top
covered the valley below with a low,
steady sound like the deep tones of
an organ.
Consider a bird flying into this
maelstrom. Unless it could fly
higher than the highest peak, it
would be hurled into a mountain.
Flying high, it might be driven
hundreds of miles out of its course,
but it could survive.
1
. ncidentally, as far as I know, no
carcasses of bar-headed geese have
been found in the high snowfields of
the Himalayas. Georges Blond in
his book The Great Migrations
writes poetically of greylag geese
being driven by winds into the
snow slopes of Mount Everest, but I
cannot find any actual reports of
such an event.
There are other geese in India,
notably the greylag goose (Anser
anser) and the white-fronted goose
(A. albifrons) . These, together with
a few rare species more typical of
other parts of Asia, must also cross
parts of Central Asia to get to their
summer breeding grounds in Si-
beria. The greylag goose is known
to cross high mountains. Indeed, in
order to fly from western Siberia to
Kashmir and northwestern India it
must cross, depending on its desti-
nation, the Tien Shan Range, the
Takla Makan Desert, the high bar-
rier of the Kunlun Range, the Tibe-
tan plateau and the far western
Himalayas. Some of these geese
must surely fly over the Karakoram
and Pamir barriers. There is a re-
port, which I have been unable to
authenticate, of an airplane sight-
ing of these geese flying at 26,000
feet.
Another report involves a flight
of geese over the western Hima-
layas. The geese, probably either
greylag or bar-headed, were seen
through a telescope as they passed
in front of a full moon. Their alti-
tude was estimated at 29,500 feet,
but because it was impossible to use
triangulation, the figure is subject
to doubt. For the most part, how-
ever, the specific routes of these
trans-Tibetan migrating geese are
not known. Apparently, they do not
fly over the eastern Himalayas. The
migration patterns of some birds
suggest that geese other than the
bar-headed goose move first to
northwestern India and Kashmir
and then cross the mountains to the
north.
It seems that many smaller birds
foUow the routes of river trenches
such as the Indus and Sutlej in the
west and the Arun and Brahma-
putra in the east; however, migrant
birds of many species are found
deep in the Himalayas making their
way across the high passes but stay-
ing close to the ground.' Wollaston,
during the 1921 reconnaissance of
Mount Everest, recorded among mi-
grants Temminck's stint (Calidris
temminckii) , pintail snipe [Galli-
nago stenura) , house martin (Deli-
chon urbica) , Blyth's pipit {Anthus
godlewskii), Hodgson's pipit (A.
roseatus) , and several other mi-
grants from the plains of India at
altitudes above 17,000 feet beside
the glaciers on the Tibetan side of
the Himalayan Range. He also
records a hoopoe {Upupa epops)
from 21,000 feet flying over the
Kharta Glacier. This is a few m.iles
directly north of the Barun Glacier,
where at 19,000 feet I met a hoopoe
going up while I was coming down.
72
Both of us were walking. In the
barren waste of the glacier this bird
of the warm plains seemed unreal,
and the power of the drive to mi-
grate was dramatrically portrayed in
its steady gait as it hopped over the
boulders and went doggedly on up
toward the 20.000-foot pass at the
head of the glacier. It must have
covered a quarter of a mile while I
watched. ( Fortunately, WoUaston's
observation of a hoopoe in flight
dispels the uncomfortable and im-
probable possibility that this bird
walks all the way to Tibet. I There
may be more than 30 species of
birds that regularly migrate across
the high passes of the Himalayas.
The bar-headed goose, the only
one known to migrate over the
eastern Himalayas and the only
goose known from the lakes and
rivers of southern Tibet, is accom-
panied in its high habitats on the
plateau by several other species of
Indian-wintering wildfowl. These
include ruddy sheldrakes (Tadorna
ferruginea) , common teals (Anas
crecca) . pintails (A. acuta), gad-
walls (A. strepera) , wigeon (A.
penelope) . and several other water
birds. These birds undoubtedly mi-
grate across the Himalayas, but it is
not known whether they fly over the
peaks, keep to the passes, or follow
the gorges. I have seen teal resting
in a small, glacial pond at 18,000
feet on the south side of the range,
and the pintail has been seen on the
Khumbu Glacier at 16,000 feet.
This clearly suggests that these
birds do not fly directly over the
summit of the peaks. Elsewhere in
the world, birds flying at 20,000
feet have been seen on radar
screens. Perhaps radar studies in
the Himalayas would yield informa-
tion concerning the flights of birds
over this highest of mountain bar-
riers.
Lastly there is the question of
why the geese keep honking while
flying in high, oxygen-deficient air.
Unfortunately, most extensive stud-
ies on acclimatization and the phys-
iological responses of animals to
high altitudes have been conducted
almost entirely upon mammals. In-
vertebrates and the lower exo-
thermic vertebrates seem little af-
fected by low pressures and oxygen
tensions. To these creatures high
mountains are primarily inhospita-
ble because of low temperatures.
Endothermic birds and mammals
require more oxygen for survival;
but it seems the physiological adap-
tations of birds to high altitudes has
been a neglected field. It has been
found that birds with high-altitude
habitats have larger hearts, and lab-
oratory pigeons have been shown to
increase their red blood cell quan-
tity in response to lowered oxygen
levels, but most other knowledge
seems to be inferred from mam-
malian physiology.
H
owever, the respiratory
system of sea-level birds has been
studied and something can be said
about their ability to breathe. Birds
do not have the diaphragm and mov-
able rib cage that allow air to enter
the chest cavity of mammals. In
fact, their lungs are fixed to the
ribs and are scarcely inflatable.
They have, instead, a series of air
sacs. Air passes through the lungs
to these air sacs, then passes back
through the lungs to the outside. In
flight the powerful movement of the
wing muscles creates a pumping de-
vice that empties and fills the air
sacs and passes the air repeatedly
through the lungs. A mammal must
breathe with special musculature re-
served for respiration, and since it
has an in-and-out type of breathing,
residual, oxygen-deficient air must
remain in the trachea and bronchi.
Birds, however, fly and breathe
with the same nmscles and, since
the air passes entirely through their
lungs, this organ does not hold a
component of residual air. The
breathing of a bird is essentially
more eflicient than that of a mam-
mal. Conceivably, at high altitudes
in thin air where flight may require
a faster wingbeat. the respiration
may be accordingly enhanced.
Mammals such as yaks, pikas,
wolves, foxes, and sheep wander
above 20,000 feet to an approxi-
mate maximum of about 21,500
feet in the Himalayas, and acclima-
tized man with incredible per-
severance has reached over 28.000
feet on Mount Everest without the
use of oxygen apparatus. The early
climbers on Mount Everest who
were able to achieve this physi-
ological milestone were visited by
scavenging alpine choughs iPyr-
rhocorax graculus) that wandered
regularly up to the 27,000-foot
camps, always on the lookout for
human waste. These birds, together
with the red-billed chough {P.
pyrrhocorax) and the Tibetan raven
(Corviis corax tibetanus) are
known to follow man and his beasts
and any wandering wild mammal
wherever they go. The alpine
chough was seen by Sir Edmund
Hillary on his way to the summit of
Mount Everest at 28.000 feet, and I
believe it likely that the little cache
of biscuits and candy placed on the
summit by Tensing Norkay in May,
1953, was visited by alpine choughs
on their patrols in search of human
debris.
Lammergeyers (Gypaetus barba-
tus), huge vultures of the Hima-
layas, have been seen flying at 25,-
000 feet; an eagle carcass was
found on the South Col of Mount
Everest at 26.000 feet: and a flock
of small birds, probably mountain
finches, have been seen to fly over
this same gap. I have seen a Hi-
malayan griffon vulture (Gyps hi-
malayensis) flying at the limit of
vision directly above me, a mere
speck in the blue sky, while I lay on
my back in the sun at 18,000 feet.
Through binoculars it seemed un-
believably high, and it flew far
above the 22.000-foot peaks of the
Rolwaling that surrounded me.
Since it is possible to distinguish a
moving man at two miles, I believe
the six- to eight-foot bird may have
been flying at over 28.000 feet. All
these records indicate that birds are
more independent of altitude as a
limiting factor than are mammals,
and that it is their food supply and
nesting opportunities that restrict
their actual residency to lower alti-
tudes. In this regard, alpine
choughs have been seen nesting at
21,500 feet, and I have found the
nest and eggs of a snowcock {Tet-
raogallus tibetanus) at nearly 19,-
000 feet. It should be noted, how-
73
ever, that the bar-headed geese
begin their northward flight at
nearly sea level and may reach an
altitude approaching 30,000 feet in
the same day, allowing no time for
acclimatization. This it seems would
be a challenge to any type of respi-
ratory system. I think it is incred-
ible. Perhaps there are preparatory
changes in their hemoglobin and
vascular system prior to their
flight, but this would seem even
more incredible.
T
JL he
L
he sound-making apparatus
of birds is the syrinx, located where
the bronchi join the trachea. It does
not function exactly like the mam-
malian larynx. The syrinx is related
to the unique respiratory system of
birds. The call of some birds in
flight may last through several
wingbeats and a continuous ex-
piration would be necessary for this
to occur. This would presumably
interfere with regular breathing. If
the sounds of geese are made to
synchronize with wingbeats, and
this does not seem to be the case,
then their calling should not re-
quire any alteration of their breath-
ing rhythm or a deficiency in their
oxygen supply. It would be similar
to a man who merely grunts upon
expiralion when he breathes. Talk-
ing or longer sounds require con-
trol of the diaphragm and cessation
of the breathing rhythm. Perhaps
birds have evolved some method of
sound production that does not in-
terfere with breathing rhythm or
has little effect upon a regular oxy-
gen supply but, as far as I know,
this speculation, which derives from
the sound of birds high above Ma-
kalu, is unanswered.
Nevertheless, why should geese
keep honking while flying in oxy-
gen-deficient air? It has been sug-
gested that they communicate with
each other. From older studies and
from more recent computerized cal-
culations, the V-shaped formation
of flying geese appears to be of
aerodynamic importance: if it is
properly positioned, each bird gets
74
some lift from the wingbeats of
its neighbors. Conceivably, the calls
of geese enable the birds to better
appraise the shape of the flight and
allow for distinct positions to be
maintained. This may be true, but I
see another function. My answer is
speculative, but nevertheless in-
triguing.
It is well known that some birds
that live in dark caves, such as the
oilbirds { Steatornis caripensis) and
some swiftlets of the genus Collo-
calia, use echolocation, but the use
of sonar by night-migrating birds is
apparently unreported. The pres-
ence of an echolocating ability in a
variety of nocturnal mammals other
than bats and tenrecs seems a justi-
fiable assumption inasmuch as it
has been demonstrated that man
himself, an almost strictly diurnal
mammal, can locate relatively small
objects by hearing echoes from his
voice. The ears of birds, although
lacking the three ossicles of the
middle ear of mammals, seem to
function as well with a single bone.
Most birds are diurnal and would
not use echolocation as a substitute
for eyes, but many nocturnal birds
are also prominent sound-makers.
The shrill calls and flight behavior
of nighthawks {Chordeiles) and re-
lated birds, and their ability to
catch flying insects in twilight and
near-darkness, suggest an echolocat-
ing ability reminiscent of bats. This
would be a fine subject for re-
search. There are other examples of
bird behavior that could be in-
vestigated for information con-
cerning echolocation. I am im-
pressed by the clicking sounds
made by my pet great horned owl
(Bubo virginianus pacificus) when
it is surprised in darkness. The
sound greatly resembles the noises
made by echolocating cave birds.
These clicking sounds are also
made by the night-flying swallow-
tailed gull (Creagrus furcatus) of
the Galapagos Islands. When they
are disturbed at night in my aviary,
the peculiar hovering flight of or-
ange weaverbirds, or red bishops
[Euplectes orix) , together with a
repeated, sharp call that differs
from the diurnal call, further sug-
gests echolocation by birds, espe-
cially when these strictly diurnal
birds return to perches in nearly to-
tal darkness. It should be remem-
bered that echoes are characteristic
of nearly all sounds. When played
backward, tape-recorded sounds
made in different-sized rooms or out
of doors in the presence of trees or
walls reveal a preceding echo that
is usually ignored when the tape is
played normally. The echo is gener-
ally interpreted as part of the origi-
nating sound and is sensed as a
quality of the originating sound.
Sound in a large room is clearly
distinct from sound in a small
room, yet we do not consciously at-
tribute the difference to the echo.
The ability to echolocate does not
necessarily imply a highly special-
ized attainment such as that exhib-
ited by bats and oilbirds. If man
can echolocate and utilize this tal-
ent at night or when sightless, then
it is likely that many nocturnal ani-
mals may also use some form of
orientation derived from sensing
echoes.
We know that man rarely flies in
silence. Almost all our flying ma-
chines make noises. The glider
hisses and the hot-air balloon is
heated by a roaring and noisy
flame: the propeller airplane drones
and the jet plane roars. But the he-
lium or hydrogen balloon is quiet,
and in the flights of such craft we
come closest to birds. The air is
still because the balloon moves with
the wind. Far above the ground the
pilot can hear dogs barking and
people talking: it seems that sound
from the surface moves upward
aided by an echo from the earth
and travels better vertically than it
does horizontally. Normally we en-
counter few experiences that allow
us to appreciate this phenomenon.
It would seem that sounds made
above the earth produce a returning
echo, yet I know of no experiments
that have Iseen conducled to demon-
strate this. It would be interesting
to put sound-recording apparatus
on high-flying birds, and perhaps
some suggestions can come from
tests made while parachuting or
ballooning. Could it not be that the
sounds made by birds high in the
air echo back to them and give
them a perception of their height
above the land?
I speculate that the sounds made
by flying geese are a means of de-
termining altitude. At night this so-
nar over a mountain terrain would
readily inform flying birds of a val-
ley or the rising land beneath them.
I like to think that the geese calling
high above Makalu are getting the
signal that the summit of their
flight has been reached. They are
honking to localize the peaks in the
darkness below them, and the in-
creasingly distant echo that they
hear coming from the jagged slopes
tells them that they are safely above
the highest mountains of the world.
I should like to know that I am
right.
Wary and elusive in their
Indian wintering grounds, the
geese are remarkably tame
in Tibet.
75
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When someone somewhere cares, someone somewhere survives,
Many Concerned, Few Committed
Continued from page 17
assumptions and values of our
society and even to question the ca-
pacity of American economic and
political institutions to solve envi-
ronmental problems.
Most people in this sample find it
easier to question social values than
social institutions. This is consistent
with our observations based on ex-
tensive interviews and on personal
participation by research team
members in conservation and
ecology groups. A large majority of
the Natural History sample (71
percent) agreed with the statement
that American beliefs and values
are a basic cause of our present en-
vironmental problems. The various
subgroups do not differ in trend of
thinking, only in degree. As might
be expected, people under 30 ques-
tion basic values more (77 per-
cent), and men over 30 in the busi-
ness world question it slightly less
(business 61 percent, engineering
58 percent) . On this point men
over 30 in the professions and in
government or the military and
women over 30 hang together at
about 70 percent.
The assumption, common in our
society, that economic growth is
generally good for any community
is clearly challenged. Only 20 per-
cent subscribe to this view, with 63
percent rejecting it. A slightly
higher percentage (75 percent)
feel that present laws and con-
ventions governing the use of natu-
ral resources on private land are
inadequate to the present crisis.
Some in the conservation-ecology
movement see no connection what-
soever between an economic system
based on the profit motive and
ecological problems. Others hold
firmly to the view that the profit
motive is inconsistent with rational
use of the world's natural resources.
Some even see the economic system
as a threat to human survival on
this planet. As expected, subgroups
disagreed widely on this point.
A majority of people under 30,
women over 30, and men over 30 in
the professions, education, and so-
cial service tend to view the profit
motive as outdated. Men over 30
in other occupations trend in the
opposite direction. The following
table sets forth the trends of opin-
ion with respect to the statement:
76
THEY'LL DIE
unless you and we help ihem. They'll
Die— and thousands more like them
of many different species will die —
unless money is made available to
finance the many requests from East
Africa's National Parks, Research Or-
ganizations and Game Departments.
During 1969 we funded conserva-
tion projects amounting to $74,500 in
Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. We
need your continued support to com-
bat the increasing menace of extinc-
tion for many species of wild animal,
by making a donation or by joining
the Society.
Membership of the Society will cost
you $10 annually. For this you receive
our quarterly magazine "Africana"
and are entitled to buy our ties, car
badges, brooches and cufflinks.
Christmas cards. Calendars, wild life
prints and the Scientific Journal are
available to all.
The wild life of East Africa is now
a world responsibility, shared by ev-
eryone. It is enjoyed by tens of thou-
sands of visitors each year. Help us
to see that millions will continue to
enjoy it.
EAST AFRICAN
WILD LIFE
SOCIETY
P.O. Box 20110, Nairobi, Kenya,
East Africa.
Please enroll me as a member.
I enclose %
Name
Address
N.H.
"I believe that the profit motive in
our society is now outdated and
must change." Subgroups are: (1)
people under 30, (2) women over
30, (3) men over 30 in the profes-
sions, education, or social service,
(4) men over 30 in business, (5)
men over 30 in government or the
military, and (6) men over 30 in
engineering or technical jobs.
Under 30
Female, o\
One of the issues frequently dis-
cussed is whether or not ecological
problems can be solved within the
framework of existing political and
economic structures. Of the Natu-
ral History sample, 45 percent
doubt that our present system is
adequate to cope with the problems,
37 percent feel that it is, and 18
percent are uncertain. Not unex-
pectedly, the younger group ex-
pressed less faith in the system
(only 30 percent feel that existing
institutions can cope). Men over 30
tend to be more evenly divided on
the question. Women over 30 are
closer to the under-30 group, with
only 35 percent feeling that envi-
ronmental problems can be solved
within existing institutions.
Columnist James Reston, report-
ing in The New York Times on a
meeting of business executives and
professional men under the auspices
of the Aspen Institute for Humanis-
tic Studies in September of this
year, pointed out that many
thoughtful people are beginning to
see the environmental crisis "not
only as a physical and technical
problem but as one that raises fun-
damental political, economic, and
philosophical questions."
According to Reston, participants
at the Aspen Institute meeting chal-
lenged some of the same values and
institutions as did the respondents
to this survey — unrestricted use of
land and the natural resources on it
by private owners, the desirability
of economic growth and expansion,
private initiative as the guiding
principle for economic develop-
ment, and "long-established con-
cepts of the rights of private prop-
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77
erty in a capitalistic society." People
active in conservation and ecology
groups also are beginning to set
their environmental concerns in a
wider context of need for funda-
mental social change.
As we noted in our preliminary
report on this project in the Octo-
ber issue of Natural History,
there were some vociferous objec-
tions to our questions about politi-
cal and economic issues, especially
questions concerning attitudes
toward other protest movements in
our society. These respondents are
in the minority. Most (86 percent)
report that they do see a connection
between all of the movements — the
conservation-ecology movement, so-
cial action movements in the
churches, Black Power, the student
movements, and the antiwar move-
ment. Only 9 percent felt there was
no connection and 5 percent were
uncertain what they thought about
it. A majority (59 percent) felt that
all of these were related, but sepa-
rate, movements, and 27 percent felt
that they were all aspects of one
wave of fundamental social change.
The connection between all of
these movements is not just ideo-
logical. There is an interesting
amount of overlapping participa-
tion. The following table shows the
percent of the total sample who re-
port that they are active in each of
four movements. It also shows the
differential participation of each of
the subgroups. While 60 percent of
the total sample are active in orga-
nizations concerned with environ-
mental problems, only 46 percent
reported that they are active in
the conservation-ecology movement.
This makes sense in view of the fact
that many of the environmentally
concerned groups listed by respond-
ents were civic clubs, planning
boards, and organizations such as
the League of Women Voters or the
Boy Scouts.
During our five years of research
in movements of different types, we
have been able to identify five fac-
tors that are characteristic of a
growing movement, even though
the movements may have different
goals and different means of accom-
plishing them. One of these factors
is personal commitment. We have
found that individuals who perceive
themselves as truly committed to a
movement, and who are so per-
ceived by their fellow participants
(and frequently by their oppo-
nents), have two things in common.
First, they see their commitment as
having been generated out of a sub-
jective experience, or series of ex-
Ecology
Social Movements
ace Student
Black
Power
All Respondents
Under 30
Female, over 30
Male, over 30
Professional
Governmental
Business
Engineering
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7:8
periences, following which they
felt themselves to be radically
changed — changed in the way they
view themselves, as well as in the
way they relate to others. We have
called these "identity-altering ex-
periences." Participants in religious
movements, of course, call it "con-
version." Second, they report some
sort of bridge-burning act — an ob-
jective, observable event involving
risk. In some way significant to
him, these bridge-burning acts cut
the participant off from society at
large or from his previous role in
it. They cut across past patterns of
behavior, frequently disrupt past
relationships, and identify him with
a different set of values and a
changed life-style.
We have found that individuals
who report such an identity-altering
experience and the performance of
such bridge-burning acts are sig-
nificantly more involved in move-
ment activities. They interact sig-
nificantly more frequently with
other movement participants and
have more close personal friend-
ships within the movement.
We found, further, that there
were many individuals in these
movements who describe such a
commitment experience, but for
whom participation in the move-
ment involved no real risk or
bridge-burning act. There were oth-
ers who had burned bridges but
who had had no identity-altering
experience. These people were more
involved in movement activity than
participants who had neither ex-
perience, but less so than people
^vho had had both.
In interviewing and interacting
with participants of the con-
servation-ecology groups, we have
found the same to be true of this
movement. There is also some sup-
port for these observations in this
sample of Natural History read-
ers. Only a small number (8 per-
cent) of this sample felt that they
had been radically changed by an
experience as a participant in the
movement or reported that partici-
pation had involved high risks,
such as loss of job, physical injury,
time in jail, etc. Of this group only
9 percent (0.8 percent of the total
sample) reported both aspects of
commitment. This small group con-
trasts sharply with the total sample
and with the other subgroups in
several ways.
Committed participants (as we
have defined commitment) interact
much more frequently with other
movement participants in formal
and informal meetings. If we define
high interaction as three times a
week or more, the proportionate in-
teraction frequencies are as fol-
lows:
a \\'eek
Less tha
a week
Committed participants are not
all young (38 percent are over
30) . Distribution among the vari-
ous annual family income and
educational categories is about the
same as for the whole sample. On
most environmental issues the trend
of thinking of this group is the
same as the whole sample, but the
committed group is consistently
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more heavily weighted to the ex-
treme direction. For instance, 81
percent of the total sample and 92
percent of the committed group re-
jected the statement that other spe-
cies exist primarily for man's use
and enjoyment. As for wild ani-
mals, 50 percent of the total and 68
percent of the committed would
grant them an importance equal to
man's.
On most issues a consistent pat-
tern emerged — the committed
group is most change oriented,
young people are next, women over
30 a close third, men in the profes-
sions are fourth, and men in other
occupations hold closer to moderate
or conventional attitudes.
The committed group differs
most in its tendency to connect so-
cial and environmental problems.
Young people tend in the same di-
rection but to a lesser degree. Re-
sponses to the statement "I think
that pollution and racism are both
part of the same basic problems in
our society" were as follows :
Un-
Agree Disagree certain
Over 30
Under 30
Committed
12%
17
The differences are even more
apparent in the way these three
groups view the relationship be-
tween various movements within
our society. A much higher propor-
tion of the committed group see the
ecology movement as part of a
broader movement of social change.
In addition, a much higher per-
centage of the committed group is
active in the other movements. In
the following table (A I represents
the view that all of these move-
ments are aspects of a single wave
of revolutionary change, (B) the
movements are related but separate,
(C) there is no connection between
them, and (D) undecided. There
were no really important differ-
ences between the over-30 sub-
groups on this question.
Under 30
Committed
A mood of activism prevails
among conservationists. Not sur-
prisingly, 77 percent of the com-
mitted group approves of quite
radical means to accomplish envi-
ronmental goals. About half of the
under-30 group approve of civil
disobedience, while largely reject-
ing violence. But interestingly, 41
percent of the people over 30
approve of civil disobedience for
exerting pressure on environmental
decision-makers. Again, important
differences occur between sub-
groups of the over-30 sample. More
of the women over 30 and men in
the professions, education, and so-
cial service approve of civil dis-
obedience than do men in other oc-
cupations. In the following table
'"conventional means" includes
writing letters to public officials, ap-
pearing at hearings, legal action,
consumer boycotts, and peaceful
demonstrations. "Civil disobedi-
ence" includes nonviolent direct ac-
tion, such as sitting down in front
of bulldozers or sitting-in at govern-
mental agencies or in private busi- '
nesses to enforce demands. "Vio-
lence" means such destructive
action as sabotage or bombings, if
other means fail. Only the most ex- .
treme measure indicated by a re-
spondent was tabulated.
CivU
Cionven-
dis-
tional
obedi-
Vio-
lence
30
Committed
Under 30
Female, ov(
Male, over 30
Professional
Government
Engineering
Business
In view of the current concern
about youthful proclivities toward
violence, it is interesting to see that
for this sample a willingness to use
violent means is less related to age
than to what we have defined as
commitinent experiences.
In summary, then, environmental
concern is generating changes in
attitudes about man's relationship
to nature, is raising serious ques-
tions about some basic assumptions
in Western society, and is inspiring
efforts to make changes in life-style.
These changes are minor ones for
most, major ones for some. For
many, the concept of ecology is ex-
panding to include the social as
well as the natural environment. On
all of these issues, differences in
attitudes are not so much a function
of age as of the degree of com-
mitment. ■
8o
replfcas <S)S Wilis'
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Books in Review Continued from page 51
the description applies in this re-
spect, the question still arises of dif-
ferences between the nobility and
commoners of one place and those
of another. Sahagiin, however, was
no less an accomplished ethnogra-
pher because his work does not pro-
vide all the answers. Actually, some
such questions may be resolved
when the earlier versions are fully
translated and available for close
comparison with the Florentine Co-
dex and Sahagun's own Spanish
version. As it is. Dibble and
Anderson have advanced the cause
immeasurably.
In his method and execution of
the work, Sahagun emerges as the
indisputable founder of ethnograph-
ic science. Employing native in-
formants, accommodating himself
to their style of discourse, using
their language, checking and re-
checking the responses, his legacy is
more than a landmark, rather, it re-
mains an exemplary model of the
art. By selecting the elders as infor-
mants, the Florentine Codex is a
firsthand account by men who wit-
nessed the era of greatest Aztec ex-
pansion, the coming of the
Spaniards, and the upheaval that
altered the course of their civ-
ilization forever. While native pic-
ture writing preceded the written
text, the product nevertheless was
an account with full pictorial illus-
tration. These paintings depict all
manner of things covered in the
text: the gods, their temples and the
mode of sacrifice, the manner of
dress, the weaving of textiles, the
preparation and planting of fields,
the vendors of the market, the kings
and lords of the realm, the plants,
the wild animals, the insects and
the treatment of bites, a lazy farmer
and a bad woman, the battle scenes
of the Conquest, and countless
more. Sequential events and proc-
esses are indicated by means of a
series of interrelated drawings. The
Florentine Codex contains over 1,-
800 drawings, photographically re-
produced by Dibble and Anderson
from the only color edition of the
codex ever published, that of Paso
y Troncoso of 1905—07. These
black-and-white reproductions of
the color plates are, of course, use-
ful, but color symbolism was most
important in ancient Mexico. The
color ascribed to every aspect of a
god's mask and attire, for example,
holds meaning — so that color re-
productions are less luxury than
necessity. With respect to the draw-
ings, it is interesting to note that
while those of the Florentine Codex
were copied in Sahagun's time from
the original Tepepulco drawings,
the former are done in a style ex-
hibiting much more European in-
fluence. Thus, toenails are added to
the human figures, for example,
and a few cherubs and other
doodles were occasionally added by
the copying artist, who undoubtedly
was not so native as were the original
informants.
Book 6, Rhetoric and Moral Phi-
losophy, appears to have been writ-
ten about 1547 in the town of Tepe-
pulco well prior to Sahagun's
commission to write the general his-
tory. It may in fact have been the
catalyst for his later assignment. In
any case, it is written in the "pol-
ished" language of Texcocan
Nahuatl, the standard for proper
speech for all of ancient Mexico. It
is a volume of prose and poetry
that unveils the heart and inner
thoughts of the people more than
anything ever written about them
or in their language. To his critics,
who thought it a pack of lies, Saha-
gun replied, "What is written in
this book is beyond the human
mind, a mortal man could not in-
vent the language which is found in
it."
Book 6 contains 43 chapters:
prayers to the gods, exhortations of
the rulers, a few adages, riddleSj
and metaphors. Much of the content
is ritualistic, extremely formal —
prayers and exhortations learned
by rote and passed down from gen-
eration to generation in the calme-
cac or telpuchcalli, the schools of
Aztec society where the young re-
ceived formal instruction. Most of
the volume would seem to pertain
to higher society — the rulers, the
nobles, the well educated — but the
sayings and the riddles are collo-
quial expressions known to all, rich
and poor, noble and commoner.
The contents of the volume might
have differed somewhat were it to
have derived from a place other
than Tepepulco — thus, the great
god Tezcatlipoca, so prominent in
82
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Book 6, was especially revered
there, as had been Quetzalcoatl in
ancient Tula, or Huitzilopochtli in
Tenochtitlan. TIaloc, Lord of the
Rain, however, was everywhere re-
vered.
Sahagiin's work was controver-
sial. The contents of Book 6 alone
indicate why. In Aztec thought, as
expressed in this prayer to Tezcatli-
poca, man was by nature weak and
required divine guidance. To ascribe
such concepts to idolatry bordered
on heresy.
Verily, that which a man will
do, that which he will perlorm
to attract thy wrath, thy anger,
thy annoyance, to stir up casti-
gation is not his doing. Open
his eyes, open his ears, advise
him, set him upon the road,
guide the commoner. Consider
not only the commoner, the
laborer; consider the governed.
Verily, now, inspire him, ani-
mate him, for thou makest of
him thy seat, for he is as thy
flute. Make him thy replace-
ment, thy image.
There is also a profoundly uni-
versal quality to Aztec thought as it
is so simply and elociuently ex-
pressed in the wisdom imparted by
a father to his daughter when she
reached the age of discretion :
Hear well, 0 my daughter, O
my child, the earth is not a
good place. It is not a place of
joy, it is not a place of con-
tentment. It is merely said it is
a place of joy with fatigue, of
joy with pain on earth; so the
old men went saying. In order
that we may not go weeping
forever, may not die of sorrow,
it is our merit that our lord
gave us laughter, sleep, and our
sustenance, our strength, our
force, and also carnal knowl-
edge in order that there be
peopling.
Then, of course, there is a lighter
side — the riddles :
What is that which says: "I
go this way, thou goest that
way, so that we shall meet
there?" The breech cloth.
What is that which enters the
forest going with its tongue
hanging? The axe.
What is that which becomes
pregnant in only one day? The
spindle.
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Despite their success, their power,
one of the striking things about
these people was the air of pessi-
mism and gloom, the feeling of
anguish, the fear of destruction, a
fear for mankind that always
lurked in their thoughts. It is no
better expressed than in the haunt-
ing prayer to Tlaloc, the Lord of
the Rain, greatest of the gods:
May it soon come to pass, to
happen — that which the old
men, the old women come know-
ing, come guarding; that that
which is above us will fall in;
that the demons will descend,
will come to destroy the earth,
will come to eat the common
folk; that there will be eternal
darkness on earth ; that nowhere
wiU there be people on earth.
And while the Aztec way of life
perished as their prophesies had
warned, we are much the richer to-
day for a poor friar's toil and for
Dibble and Anderson's effort in
making this masterful work avail-
able to the English-reading world.
Dt. Harvey is associate professor in
the anthropology department at the
University of Wisconsin at Madison.
The Book of Imaginary Beings, by
Jorge Luis Borges. Translated by
Norman Thomas di Giovanni. E. P.
Button & Co., $6.95; 256 pp.
The author, famous in the Spanish-
speaking world as a poet, story-
teller and litterateur, and his colla-
borator, Norman Thomas di
Giovanni, disarm the reader of their
handbook of apocryphal biology by
announcing at the outset: "There is a
kind of lazy pleasure in useless and
out-of-the-way erudition." Although
the title imposes no limits and might
justify the inclusion of any creatures
conceived by the human imagination,
from Prince Hamlet to "each one of
us and . . . the god-head," it refers
actually to a collection of one hun-
dred and twenty sketches in which
the fantastic zoology of the bestiary is
revisited by a sophisticated and schol-
arly contemporary. Some of the
sketches are as brief as a single page;
none is longer than three pages. All
are presented with the deceptive sim-
plicity of a chiseled stylist and the
learning of a world scholar who is,
among other things, Director of the
Argentine National Library. Also
present are the philosophic overtones
84.
"Game theory"
applied to
air pollution?
It happens in one of the 23
original studies in this
provocative bool<. Each study
investigates some aspect
of human ecology, the
relationship between man
and his environment;
together, they offer a survey
of the most up-to-date
scholarship in human ecology.
ENVIRONMENT
AND CULTURAL
BEHAVIOR
Ecological Studies in
Cultural Anthropology
Edited by Andrew P. Vayda
$7.95; $4.50 paperbound
DOUBLEDAY
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of a cultivated mind at home in many
eras and cultures: classical, medieval,
European, Oriental, and Asian.
Entering Mr. Borges' zoo of sphinxes,
griffons, and centaurs, one is clearly
in the demesne of literature, not sci-
ence, unless it is argued that my-
thology and folklore should be sub-
sumed under anthropology. In any
event, here are beautifully delineated,
quick vignettes of some of the legen-
dary beasts we have heard of — the
basilisk, behemoth, chimera, and hip-
pogriff; the deathless phoenix; the
pelican, which, according to medieval
fable, "opens its breast and feeds its
young with its own blood"; and sev-
eral fearsome creatures from the oral
traditions of the United States, such
as the hidebehind, which devours
lumberjacks in the north woods but
cannot be described because it is
always hiding behind something.
Regrettably absent is the sidehill
hoofer, or to give it its scientific
name. Mernbri-inegualis decUvitatis,
which grazes in hilly country and by
a marvel of adaptation has two long
legs on the downhill side and two
short legs on the uphill side. If it
turns the wrong way, the hoofer, or
gouger. as it is sometimes called, falls
and breaks its neck. Extensive paleo-
zoological remains have been reported
from Marion County, Arkansas. Un-
known to the present reviewer, at
least, although it is mentioned by
Borges, following Pliny, is the re-
mora, a sucking fish that can hold a
ship fast by "a cartilaginous disk
with which it creates a vacuum. . . ."
The charm of this book, judged by
the standards it sets for itself, can be
properly conveyed only by quotation.
Let us take up the case of the squonk,
Lacrimacorpiis dissolvens. Its range is
limited to the hemlock forests of
Pennsylvania, and it is so morbid in
temperament that "hunters who are
good at tracking are able to follow a
squonk by its tear-stained trail, for
the animal weeps constantly. . . . Mr.
J. P. Wentling. formerly of Pennsyl-
vania, but now at St. Anthony Park.
Minnesota, had a disappointing ex-
perience with a squonk near Mount
Alto. He had made a clever capture
by mimicking the squonk and in-
ducing it to hop into a sack . . . [but]
suddenly the burden lightened."
When the squonk hunter investigated
his bag, "There was nothing but tears
and bubbles."
The author, content to present his
zoological mythologies descriptively,
does not attempt to pull them to-
gether into any general synthesis.
"We are ignorant of the meaning of
the universe," he writes, adding only
this concession, that "there is some-
thing in the dragon's image that fits
ANCIENT OIL LAMPS
over 1300 years old
From ancient Palestine, tiiese terracotta lamps were
used by early Christians & Jews. With varied de-
signs, they make unique archaeological display
pieces for home and office. A superb all-occasion
gift. Mounted on walnut base with parchment cer-
tificate of authenticity $10.95 ppd.
lamps with Cross motif $23.95 ppd.
FREE Gift Cal-aioq!
. . . illustrating Jewelry, Amulets, Coins, Buddhas,
Roman Glass, Figurines and more!
Museum & Dealers inquiries welcome.
ALADDIN HOUSE, LTD.
N-12H . 648 NINTH AVE., N.Y., N.Y. 10036
INDIAN ARTIFACTS
FOSSILS-MINERALS
SHELLS-SCOPES-BOOKS
SEND 25(2 for New
Illustrated Catalog
DOVER SCIENTIFIC
Box 601 IC
Astoria, N.Y. 11106
MAGAZINE
BOOK
TREE
, office,
reception
room. White
birch tiirn-
iiiR.s. In honey tone or maple,
antique pine or w,ilnut Bnish.
2,S"H 16"W 15"D. $17.50.
HOME KIT: Easy assembly
and finish. Simple directions. $11.50. Ppd.-.idd
75«' ea. W. of Miss.
SEND FOR FREE 1971 CATALOG-1000 ITEMS
Liciucic Zip Code YIELD HOUSE
Mone.v ISiifk (Jiiarnntco Donl. N12-0
Nol Solil In Slorus Norlll Culiway. N.II. 038GO
BICYCLING — HIKING — CAMP-
ING trips through the countrysides of
the world for 14-17 year olds. Europe,
New England, West Coast, Canadian
Rockies. Nova Scotia. Free Brochure.
Student Hosteling Program of Ncvy
England, Inc., Rochester, Vermont
05767.
85
NATURE TOURS
Friends are reminded that we continue
to operate group trips in the U.S. and
most countries of the world at the rate of
30 to 40 tours a year.
These are general nature trips, with
first emphasis on birds, second on botany.
They are of 2 weeks' duration in North
America. 3 weeks in the rest of the world.
They are usually set up in chains so that
more than one can be taken on a single
departure. These are not advertised com-
mercially and this is not a profit enter-
prise; accordingly prices are moderate. If
this interests you, please drop us a line.
UP-COMING DATES
October-December A series of five tours
in Melanesia, New Guinea, Australia
and New Zealand.
Januarv-February Rorida (2 weeks be-
ginning Jan. 9), Yucatan and Central
America.
Januan--March Four exciting tours in
South Asia, from Malaysia to the
Himalayas.
A/ai' Popular southeast Arizona tour
(May 9).
May-August Europe in 1971 offers a
choice of 10 tours, including a nature
seminar in England, tours of Norway
and Iceland, and our biennial route
across Russia and Siberia. (Outer Mon-
golia this year).
CROWDER NATURE TOURS
BOX 222-a
HARPERS FERRY, W. VA. 25425
HOME OFFICE
FILE
CABIXETS
FINISHED OR IN KIT
Now the ausl
Three drawer
units combine to hold
your records (file
legal size side-
ways). Drawers
glide smoothly
tique pine
walnut finish.
loli'W. $49.95
sembie and fin-
ish. S34.95 . . .
ea. ShDB. Chgs.
Col. (Special
11EU> HOUSE
Dept. NI2-0, North Conway, N. H. 03860
40 MILUON YEAR OLD FOSSIL FISH
(KNIGHTIA SP.) $20.00
500 MILLION YEAR OLD TRILOBITE
(ELRATHIA KINGI) §3.25
DOVER SCIENTIFIC
Box 6011 C
Long Island City, N.Y. 11106
SeniJ 25c for Illustrated Catalog of Shells,
Minerals, Fossils, ln(dian Artifacts & Books
man's imagination. . . ." But this
distillation from "old authors and
abstruse references" nevertheless de-
serves a place on a special shelf, near-
er to poetry than biology, together
with such good companions as T. H.
White's The Book of Beasts and The
Most Wonderful Animals That Never
Were, by the recently mourned Jo-
seph Wood Krutch,
Ger.\ld C.vrson
Americ.\'s L-\st Wild Horses, by
Hope Ryden. E. P. Button & Co.,
S8.95: 311 pp., Ulus.
In 1968. plans ^vere under way to de-
stroy a small herd of wild horses in
the Pr\"or Mountains area of southern
Montana when an indignant John
Walsh, of the International Society
for the Protection of Animals, tele-
phoned Hope Ryden and informed
her of the threatened destruction. It
was a news story, and Miss Ryden, in
her capacity as a feature producer for
ABC Evening News, responded to it
as she had on previous occasions. She
investigated; she researched the back-
ground; she became personally in-
volved. This book, with the many sup-
porting photographs she made of wild
horses in the field, is her easy-reading
report. It is mostly a history of North
America west of the Appalachians,
seen through "horse-colored" glasses.
Hope Ryden's book attempts none
of the Texan literarv' style that the
late J. Frank Dobie wrote into The
Mustangs. It mentions only super-
ficially the fossil evidence that George
Gaylord Simpson presented so well in
Horses. Its focus precludes the light,
deft, fictional form of the family
books about horses by Marguerite
Henry, who writes for younger
audiences. Instead, America's Last
Wild Horses appeals to the senti-
ments of horse-loving adults who can
be alarmed into action by learning
how free horses in the New World are
rapidly being kiUed, cut up, and proc-
essed for dog food. It stresses that
for Equus this is a second decline, the
first having been completed at the
end of the Ice Age when Amerindians
all the way from Alaska to Patagonia
could include horsemeat in their diet.
Horse bones are among the charred
remains of their ancient campfires,
but no one yet knows from the fossil
record when the last wild horse in
North America disappeared.
The first of tlie new wave of horses
to reach America came aboard the
ships of Christopher Columbus's sec-
ond expedition. Left in the West In-
dies as breeding stock, these and sim-
ilar animals from southern Europe
gave the small bands of Spaniards an
uncanny power over the Amerindians
they met. "The survival of these ani-
mals was a life and death matter to
the cavaliers. Cortes plainly stated
that he valued the life of one horse
above the lives of twenty men." But
not until after 1600, when Juan de
Oiiate tried to settle with his livestock
near tlie site of Santa Fe, did tlie In-
dians learn how to ride and care for
horses — and carelessly let many ani-
mals escape to form nuclei of feral
herds. The Indians were "reckless
with the providential supply of Span-
ish ranch animals from which they
could always replenish their losses."
Among the descendants of these an-
imals introduced by the Spanish, a
surprising number in the western
mountains have maintained a degree
of genetic isolation. Despite sporadic
dilution by recent recruits from mod-
em breeds of horses, a few retain the
five large lumbar vertebrae that char-
acterized the backbone of the original
YOU CAN ORDER
REPREVTS OF
THE
GAELTACHT
OF
WEST KERRY
for classroom, study group, or as
gifts to friends.
Please send name and address with
payment — check or money order —
made out to The American Museum
of Natural History.
Cost is 500 per reprint.
Quantity prices upon request.
Mail to: Reprints
Natural History Magazine
Central Park West at 79th
Street
New York, New, York 10024
stock. It goes with a zebra striping on
the legs of newborn foals, which has
otherwise been lost in the intervening
centuries. By comparison, Arabian
and Andalusian breeds of modern
horses have a five-and-a-piece series
of lumbar vertebrae, and the remain-
ing man-made, or "tinkered," horses
in our world have six large lumbar
vertebrae. Nearly 200 individuals (al-
though never more than 20 mares at
a time) have been certified as Spanish
mustangs with five lumbar vertebrae
by the Spanish Mustang Registry,
which was established in 1958 and is
directed solely toward the restoration
of the lost breed.
Other associations interested in
America's wild horses are almost as
numerous as the names by which
86
these animals go: broncs, broomtail
horses, cayuse or Cheyenne ponies,
Indian ponies, cow ponies, cutting
ponies, estrays, mavericks, and mus-
tangs in the United States and Can-
ada; baguales in Argentina; crioUos
in Chile. A National Mustang Associ-
ation (Salt Lake City, Utah) aims to
conserve and control all wild horses
still in America, and to grade each
captured animal according to how
much Spanish blood it appears to
carry. The American Mustang Associ-
ation (Phoenix, Arizona) maintains a
registry and seeks to breed up to a
standard size and conformation the
animals that are recovered from the
wilderness. Humane treatment of the
surviving wild horses is the sole aim
of the International Society for the
Protection of Mustangs and Burros
(Reno, Nevada) and of the Canadian
Wild Horse Society (Richmond. Brit-
ish Columbia). All of this agitation
comes at the last moment, for from
an estimated two million wild horses
in the American West at the begin-
ning of the century, the number
fell to a million in 1926. to 150.000 in
1934, to 33,000 in 1958, to 17.000
in 1967, and continues downward.
Hope Ryden, chronicling the mis-
management of this living resource,
shows why the "Wild Horse Annie
Bill." passed by Congress in 1959,
does not insure a future for these ani-
mals. Her hope is that more wild
horse refuges will be established, sim-
ilar in concept and planned manage-
ment to the one she helped stir Stew-
art Udall to set aside in the Pryor
Mountains in 1969. Her call is for an
informed public to press for realistic
cooperation between the Bureau of
Land Management, the Fish and
Wildlife Service, the National Park
Service, and state agencies to halt the
butchery of wild horses before they
disappear again.
LoRus AND Margery Milnk
University of New Hampshire
The American Museum is open to
the public without charge every day
during the year, except Thanksgiv-
ing and Christmas. Your support,
through membership and contribu-
tions, helps make this possible. The
Museum is equally in need of sup-
port for its work in the fields of re-
search, education, and exhibition.
This list details the photographer or
Jther source of illustration by page.
;OVER— Helmut Wimmer
-12— Susan Weeks
.8-19— Bettmann Archivi
1-34 — Helmut Wimmer
16-37— Barbara Hollings
'orth
8-41- John F. Gibbon!
ind Steven Schlossman
3-50— AMNH Archives
2 — Jet Propulsion Lab
53— Princeton University
Observatory
54-55— Helmut Wimmer
56-67— Richard Gould
except map page 58 and
chart page 65 — AMNH
after Gould
68-75— Hermann Kacher
except 70 — Lawrence
Swan
No Matter Where You Look —
YOU SEE MORE WITH A QUESTAR
On our first day in Athens we climbed the Hill of Philopappas and turned our
Questar on the Acropolis across the valley, searching out those architectural triumphs
that have survived the centuries. The high-powered views of Athena's vast temple
were so overwhelming that we were reminded of Thomas Craven's moving words
"Behold the Parthenon, the only perfect building erected by man." It was through
a measured air path of 1800 feet, in air that trembled noticeably in the eyepiece,
that we took this picture. Nevertheless it delineates the careful mending of the precious
marble, the lion rainspout at the roof corner, and the pillars within the deep shadows.
Only the perfect telescope could capture such detail, and with every Questar we
deliver goes our firm conviction that no amount of money or human effort could
substantially improve this masterpiece of the optician's art.
The world's finest, most versatile telescope, priced from
SS76, is described in our new booklet with more than
100 photographs by Questar owners. Send $1 for mailing
anywhere in North America. By air to rest of Western
Hemisphere, $2.50; Europe and North Africa, $3.00; else-
where $3.50.
QUESTAR
New Hope, Pa. 18938
[
87
KEEP PACE WITH SPACE AGE! SEE MOON SHOTS-LANDINGS, SPACE FLIGHTS, CLOSE-UP!
TKT*1HM
ViV
XMIAS
for FUN, STUDY or PROFIT
FASCINATING "ACTION" LAMPS
NEW DIMCNSIONS IN BiAUTIFUL LIGHTING
Create Illusion Lamps Are Moving
Turn on any one of four new style lamps, and the room "turns on" v
whirling, ever-chanjing patterns and colore. Table-top 8", 12" heat-dri
glass ATMOSPHERES or motor-driven IB" and 24" plastic models (tal
top or hanging versions). COLOR COLUMN Patterns loop and roll aro
10' high Sky and Earth
Glohe has fixed transpar
cnt 7" diam. outer celes-
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ind
25" tall,
plastic
lllu
(irl
block . . . down the next brightly colored plastic section of the 14" high,
heat-driven PAGODA. COMBO LIGHT'S 3-way switch turns on glass,
read-by globe, the plastic "action" column, or both. Heat-driven and
22'/2" high. Six additional and interchangeable masks are available for
each sensational decorator lamp.
ATMOSPHERES
S3I.00 Ppd. 12"— No. 85.108E S40.O0 Ppd.
... .S65.00 FOB Hanging— No. 85.I07E $65.00 FOB
i.OO FOB Hanging— No. 85.201 E $01.50 FOB
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I LIGHT— No. 80.I47E S63.50FOE REPLACEMENT MASKS—
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SO-lSO-300 POWER MICROSCOPE
C->-
PE
Tiazing Value— 3
Achro-
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ses on
volving Turretl
Color-
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gle lenses usually
found
PLASTIC MODEL V-8 ENGINE
Hours of fun! Get thrill of
building your own easily as-
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watch it run. Crankshaft
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diffei
Results are worth the
_ ng. Imported!
Stocit No. 70,008E $19.50 Ppd.
MOUNTED 500 POWER OBJECTIVE:
Threaded achromatic lenses. 3mm F.L.
Stock_No. 30,197E . . - ■ - -^ $5.75 Ppd.
ENCAPSULATED LIQUID CRYSTALS
Amazing new development —
appear like liquids but have
orderly molecular structures
similar to solids. Solutions
contained in tiny (20-30 mi-
crons) capsules coated onto
sides of six 6" x 12" Mylar
sheets with 6 difT. temp,
ranges. Surface changes color
according to temp. -cover 66°
to I20°F (I9°-49°C). Use
for precise measurements, find hot spots, structural defects,
study radiation, test conductivity, etc. Use indefinitely
WITHOUT mess, contamination. Easily handled.
Stock No. 71, USE ...^ $10.00 Ppd.
EXPERIMENTERS KIT— 4"x6" sheets
Stock No. 60,756E $ 4.00 Ppd.
1,000 feet at 300 ft. per sec-
ond . . . then gently returns
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chute. Fantastically realistic
lift off. flight, vapor trail.
and cl<
spark plugs. Does s
ng but burn oil.
molded in 4 coloi
motor used
inic courses. Excellent
Real surplus barga
but powerful prismatic
monocular sells elsewhere
for more than twice the
price. Fully coated optics.
360' field of view at 1.000
yards. R.L.E. 12. One-
finger focusing from 4' to
infinity. So compact, light-
weight and portable you can
carry in shirt pocket .
Stock No. 1.551 E $5.00 Ppd.
LOW-COST DOUBLE-BARRELED TUMBLER
Rugged 12-lb. tumblei
of
alu
again. Includ.: 16 Pg. instruct.,
parachute, parachute tube, nose
hose, electric firing assembly, la
Stock No. 7i.l82E
EXTRA PROPELLANT (Two 15
Stock No. P7I,192E
nually ot
1. 6v Batt.
ds of fun bu
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be
odels
Quiet, resilient, dependable,
safe operation. Features
fan -cooled, continuous- duty
1550 rpm motor; V-belt
w/nylon bearings;
electrically ered safety belt & pulleys.
igine, timer, sep^u-ator.
ne, fins, loading valve,
ich stand, propellant.
... $15.95 Ppd.
enters— great for rockhounds. lOVa" >
I I'i" X l2'-j".
Stock No. 80.I32E (18 lbs.) $39.95 Ppd,
NEW BINOCULAR-TO'CAMERA HOLDER
Fits any camera for excit'
ing telephoto
$16.50 AIR POLLUTION TESTER!
ngs distant ob-
Ideal
ong-range photos of wild
ships, people, planes.
Attaches easily. Us —■
quantitati
threshold limit ranges set
by Amer. Conf. of Gov't In-
dustrial Hygienists. Sensi-
ampoules each to
COo. CO. H..S. r
SO.,. Sufficient for
ntratioh. Lightweight Kit
upling tubes, complete
to determine results. Sets (4) of
npoules available separately for $4.75.
Stock No. 71,349E $16.50 Ppd.
MAIL COUPON for FREE CATALOGUE"
Sr^^^'hIn 4,000 UNUSUAL BARGAINS
categor
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lustrations. Many hard-to-get war
us bargains. Enormous selec-
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j Stock_No 70 343E
Id lots of
I Ten-Lens
telescopes.
Full in-
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No 70 342E $5.50 Ppd.
Chest
ed. Uniqi
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AMAZING "TRICK" PHOTOGRAPHY
kinds of weird,
out photo effects,
il knowledg
triends into monsters, show
house with water to 2nd
floor, make psychedelic
slides, kaleidoscopic pho-
tos, impressionistic photo-
art- unlimited possibilities.
Complete instructions reveal the secret;
cessories needed.
Stock No. 7I.229E $10.50 Ppd
4Vi ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
of Saturn, double stars. Up
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corrected to better tha
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limited
focusing.
Aluminum tube, 6x finder
telescope. 2 standard eye-
pieces and Barlow lens gives
power up to 270x. Free: Star Chart. 272-page
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.$94.50
MAGIC JUMPING FUN DISCS
Tients :
Put one of these quarter-
sized crazy buttons down and
stand back. In a matter of
seconds it'll jump almost 6
feet high. Just like magic
. . . but it's really scien-
tific. Actually, the warmth
of your hand holding these
metal discs makes the trick.
After palming a disc, pi;
it on any cool surface anc
of fun for kids of all ages. Te
Package of twelve only $2.
Stock No. P-4l,150E $2.00 Ppd.
Stock No. P-4I.180E set of 100 $12.00 Ppd.
Large personalized quantities available — write for jjifo.
BIG BOOM & FLASH CANNON
Perfectly safe giant noise-
maker for sports, games, the
4th and Just plain fun pro-
duces brilliant flash and
loud bang. Completely harm-
less— no gun powder, match-
es or recoil. Easily operated.
Beautiful reproduct'
regular Army 60 MM
in hefty cast iron. "Ammo"
is pulverized Bangsite com-
bined with water in cannon
producing harmless gas. Inignitable by hottest flame or
heaviest concussion. Incl. ammo for 200 shots, inst. Wt. 2Va
lbs.
Stock No. 70.898E $6.75 Ppd.
EXTRA AMMO (About 400 Shots)
Stock No. P4I.005E .$1.30 Ppd.
ECOLOGY KITS FULL OF LIFE!
Man's survival depends
upon suitable ecological bal*
ance. These 5 well planned,
experiment kits explore dif-
ferent portions of environ-
ment— introduce factors on
which natural balances rely. |
Perform numerous experi-
ments with materials in-
cluded (-f- few avail, local-
ly). Compl. instruct.
Stock No. 71.353E GREEN LEAVES $5.00 Ppd.
Stock No. 7I.354E WATER LIFE $6.00 Ppd.
Stock No. 7I,355E PREDATOR PREY $6.00 Ppd.
Stock No. 7i.356E LIFE MOVERS $5.00 Ppd.
Stock No. 7I,357E ..LIFE FROM DEATH ..$5.00 Ppd.
No larger tha
fountain pen, this handy
pocket instrument is ideal
for making direct reading
measurements: for checking
small parts and d
tio
altbrated for
ments up to 1/10" by 001" divis
can easily be made Chrome ref1e(
refiects light on object exam in
construction assures long, useful service. i
Stock No. 30.225E $7.95 Postpaid.
WAR SURPLUS ELECTRIC GENERATORI
Brand new Signal Corps
Electric Generator. Gener-
ates up to 90 volts by turn-
ing crank. Use in high
impedance relays. Charge
ground & bring up night
crawlei
2 AIni
worth more than
gov't cost of $15.
Estimates to 0005"
base of instrument|
measured Sturdyi
5E ". .. .S8.50 Ppd
EDMUND
SCIEMTIFIC CO.
300 EDSCORP BLDG.
BARRIIMGTON, NEW JERSEY 08007
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XMAS
GREAT INTERNATIONAL PAPER PLANE BOOK!
Krr-^. .Ti^^^^^^^ Official fly-th
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from SCIENTIFIC AMERI-
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plans of all winning entries,
time-aloft records, photos,
technical data, commen-
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for easy tear-out. You won't
believe how some of them
flyl Amusing, entertaining. 128 pages, 9" x 11%".
Stock No. 9391 E $2.95 Ppd.
BATTERY POWERED GYROSCOPE
For the first time — have the
fun &. enjoyment of a gyro
). ring pedestal,
batt. (not incl.).
S6.00 Ppd.
Stock No. 7I.I6IE
LONG-WAVE BLACK" LIGHT FIXTURE
versatile, com-
pactly designed, long wave
(3200-4000 angstroms) black
light (ultraviolet) fixture.
110-'
.._. 6-watt.
with built-in filter— elimi
nates harmful shorter wav
ultraviolet rays. Use 1
identify minerals. fung
check for surface
flaws, oil and gas leakage —
perfect for displays with
fluorescent paper, paints, chalk, crayons, trace powder. incL
adjustable aluminum reflector. Mount vert., horr.. or on
10" L.. I'/a" W.. \Va" H.
atoms explode with the
check i
tivity
thai
day materials . . . these ar(
just a few of the fascinatinc
projects possible with thi;
amazing 43 part kit. Con-
tains everything needed t(
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atomic energy laboratory. Absolutely safe. Includes atomic
cloud chamber, projector, illuminator, electroscope, spin-
thariscope, 22 p. instruction booklet with suggested experi-
ents. Ideal to stii
WOODEN SOLID PUZZLES
Here's a fascinating assort-
' ment of 12 different puzzles
< Jr to provide hours of pleasure
Vt-l n k." A and stimulate ability to
1^ "W* 1«« V.^ think and reason. Animals
%^ It ^^ ^^ and geometric forms. Take
them apart and reassemble
them. Lots of fun for the
whole family. Will test skill,
md ability to solve
nrnhlpm<:.
Stock No. 70.205E
'r^
proble
$5.00 Ppd.
NEW, LOW-COST GEM TUMBLER
Become a rockhoi
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. loads of
easy. Make
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duty motor. Full insti
Stock No 70.874E $10.75 Ppd.
6-lb. ROCK ASSORTMENT (10 TYPES)
Stock No. 70,868E $ 9.00 Ppd.
HOT-AIR FLYING SAUCER KIT
nd lau
over and over. Low cost.
Lots of fun. Can carry Vi
lb. objects with string teth-
er. Fly school colors at
games, use for advertising,
attach mirror — play "spy in
the sky." Includes complete
instructions. 16 pre-cut #1
white model paper gores, 8
red panels for portholes, wire, cord. Easily repaired if
9 FT. HOT-AIR BALLOON KIT
Stock No. 60.69IE $2.00 Ppd.
AMERICAN MADE 7x50 BINOCULARS
'ings! Bra
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$50 Lifts over 150 lbs
Stock No 70.571 E
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Stock No. 85.I52E
tJOttorr
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Additional Reading
THE GREAT
PYRAMID DEBATE
Ancient Egyptian Masonry. S.
Clarke and R. Engelbach. Oxford
University Press. London. 1930.
Observations sur les Pyramides. J.
Pli. Lauer. Bibliotheque d'etude,
Institut Francais d'Archeologie
Orientale, Tome 30. Cairo, 1960.
The Pyramids. A. Fakhry. University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1961.
ALL THE FAT AND
SULLAGE FUDDY MURRINERS
River Pollution and Fisheries.
H. C. Redeke. Rapports et Proces-
Verbaux des Reunions, Volume
XLHI. International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea, May, 1927.
The Problem of Water. R. Furon.
American Elsevier Publishing Co..
Inc., New York, 1967.
The Biological Aspects of Water
Pollution. C. G. Wilbur. Charles
C. Thomas, Springfield, 1969.
CONCEPTIONS
OF THE UNIVERSE
Discoverers of Space. E. Lessing.
Herder and Herder, Inc., New
York, 1969.
Early Greek Astronomy. D. R.
Dicks. Cornell University Press,
Ithaca, 1970.
Cosmology. J. Charon. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1970.
Watchers of the Skies. W. Ley.
The Viking Press, Inc., New York,
1963.
JOURNEY TO PULYKARA
The Prehistory of Australia. D. J.
Mulvaney. Praeger Publishers, Inc.,
New York, 1969.
The World of the First Austra-
lians. R. M. and C. H. Berndt.
University of Chicago Press, Chi-
cago, 1965.
The Australian Aborigines. A. P.
Elkin. Doubleday & Company, Inc..
Garden City, 1964.
The Native Tribes of Central Aus-
tralia. B. Spencer, F. J. Gillen. Do-
ver Publications. Inc.. New York,
1968.
GOOSE OF THE HIMALAYAS
Mount Everest. T. Hagen, G. 0. Dyh-
enfurth, C. Von Furer-Haimen-
dorf, E. Schneider. Oxford Univer-
sity Press, London, 1963.
The Senses of Animals and Men. L.
and M. Milne. Atheneum Publish-
ers, New York, 1962.
Mount Everest. H. W. Tilman. Cam-
bridge University Press, New York.
1938.
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Applause
*
... as clear and concise an
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— John Canaday'''
The New York Times
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The 128 pages contain over 80 shining photographs, many in color, and
a chronolooical chart of the evolution of the cultures discussed.
Only S5.00. Please mail check
or money order to:
The American Museum
of Natural History
77 West 77th Street, New York, New York 10024
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