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DEDICATED,     BY    PERMISSION*    TO    HER     MAJESTY. 


Natural  History 


OR 


Suona  ^ib'man  oi  "Cfet  dBnglis^  Cgjtinpabxa/* 


CONDUCTED    BY 


CHAKLES    KNIGHT. 


Volume  I. 


LONDON: 
BRADBURY,   EVANS,  &  CO.,  11,  BOUVERIE   ST.,   FLEET   ST.,   E.C. 
SCRIBNEE,  WELFORD,  &  CO.,  654,  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK. 

1866. 


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it  (.t-KSlS 


209395) 

PIAR  -7  i9l7 


NOTICE. 


Since  the  publication  of  the  ^^  Natural  Hibtort''  Division  of  the  Engush  GYCLOPiEDiA, 
our  knowledge  of  the  laws  which  regulate  the  various  phenomena  of  life  has  been  largely 
increased.  In  the  Supplement  which  is  being  prepared,  the  principal  discoveries  and  the 
results  of  recent  investigations — embracing  the  many  facts  which  have  accumulated,  the 
hypotheses  that  have  been  started,  and  the  various  theories  that  have  been  established — 
will  be  carefully  set  forth,  so  far  as  they  serve  to  illustrate  the  progress  of  this  great 
department  of  Science. 

In  the  current  numbers  of  the  Re-issue,  a  reference  {See  Supplement)  is  made  at  the 
end  of  those  articles  to  which  it  is  intended  to  add  further  information. 


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NATURAL    HISTORY. 


VOLUME   I. 


AAKD-VAKK. 


AARD-VARK. 


AABD-VARK  {Oryeteroput,  Geoffiroy),  in  Zoology,  a  weam»  of 
animalH  belonging  to  the  class  Mammalia,  and  order  Edentata, 
The  Oryeteroput  is  now  separated  from  the  Myrmecophaga,  or 
Ant-Eaters  of  Linnsras,  with  which  it  had  been  formerly  associated. 
In  its  anatomical  stmoture  it  bears  a  much  doser  relation  to  the 
armadillos  than  to  any  other  quadrupeds,  not  even  excepting  the 
ant-eaters,  with  which  it  was  formerly  associated.  Like  these  animals, 
the  Oryeteroput  is  provided  with  large  and  powerful  oJaws,  for  digging 
up  roots  and  insects,  and  for  forming  subterraneous  burrows ;  and, 
like  them,  has  neither  incisors  nor  canine  teeth.  Its  molar  teeth, 
however,  are  altogether  peculiar,  both  in  form  and  structure,  and 
have  no  resemblance  to  the  teeth  of  any  other  known  animal.  Of 
these  there  are  five  large  ones  on  each  side  (both  in  the  upper  and 
under  jaws),  which  are  always  permanent ;  and  a  variable  number  of 
from  one  to  three  smaller  ones,  placed  in  front  of  the  others,  and  appa- 
rently representing  the  false  molars  of  ordinary  quadrupeds.  The  first 
of  the  lai^  molars  is  smaller  than  any  of  the  other  four,  and  of  a 
cylindrical  form,  somewhat  compressed  or  flattened  on  the  sides;  the 
second  is  rounder;  the  third  and  fourth  are  each  composed  of  two 
similar  cylinders,  as  it  were,  soldered  together;  and  the  last  is  a 
simple  cylinder,  like  the  first  and  second.  Immediately  in  front  of 
these  are  the  small  or  false  molars,  which,  falling  annually,  vary  in 
number  according  to  the  individuaL  Properly  speaking,  the  teeth 
of  these  animals  are  destitute  of  real  roots,  and  are  therefore,  like 
the  tuAa  of  the  elephant,  and  the  indsors  of  the  rodentia,  capable  of 
being  indefinitely  increaised,  by  the  deposit  of  new  matter  on  the 
under  extremity,  to  counterbalance  the  continual  wear  of  the  upper 
surface. 

In  the  form  of  the  extremities  the  Oryeteroput  resembles  the 
armadillos  still  more  nearly  than  in  the  nature  of  its  dental  system. 
The  legs  are  remarkably  diort  and  stout ;  the  feet  plantigrade  (that 
is  to  say,  the  animal  walks  upon  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot^  as  in  man 
and  the  bear,  instead  of  bringing  the  point  of  the  toe  only  in  oontaot 
with  the  ground,  as  may  be  obs^n^ed  in  the  dog,  horse,  &c.) ;  and  the 
toes,  of  which  there  are  four  on  the  fore  feet  and  five  on  the  hind,  are 
armed  with  extremely  laige  and  powerful  claws,  flattened  horizon- 
tally, and  scooped  or  hollowed  out  on  the  under  surfiice,  so  as  to  form 
a  most  efficient  instrument  for  digging  and  burrowing  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  This  process  is  still  further  feusilitated  by  the 
oblique  form  of  the  anterior  extremities,  arising  from  the  unequal 
length  of  the  toes ;  the  two  interior  being  considerably  longer  uian 
the  others,  and  the  whole  Himinialimg  gradually  from  tile  index  (or 
toe  corresponding  with  the  fore-finger)  outwards.  In  other  parts  of  • 
its  anatomy  the  Oryeteroput  resembles  both  the  armadillos  and  the 
ant-eaters,  and  particularly  in  the  form  and  structure  of  the  stomach 
and  alimentaiy  canaL  The  reader  who  is  desirous  of  further  informa- 
tion upon  these  subjects  may  consult  Cuvier's  '  Logons  d'  Anatomie 
Compap^'  and  his  great  work,  *  Sur  les  Ossemens  Fossilee,'  ftx)m 
which  the  details  here  given  are  for  the  most  part  abridged. 

The  only  species  of  this  curious  genus  with  which  soologista  are  at 
present  acquainted  is  the  Aard-Vark  {Oryeteroput  Capenti^  It  is  an 
animal  extremely  conmion  in  some  parts  of  SouUiem  Africa,  though, 
from  its  nocturnal  habits  and  extreme  timidity,  it  is  not  so  frequentiy 
seen  as  many  others  which  are  in  reality  scarcer.  Its  colonial  name 
of  a&rd-vark,  or  earth-pig,  by  which  it  is  known  among  the  Dutch 
^habitants  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hone,  is  derived  as  well  from  its 
habit  of  burrowing  as  from  the  general  appearance  which  it  beacs^  at 

HAT.  HWP.  DIT.  VOL,  L 


first  sights  to  a  small,  short-lagged  pig.  This  animal,  when  full  ^wn, 
measures  about  three  feet  five  inches  from  the  snout  to  the  origin  of 
the  tail ;  the  head  is  eleven  inches  long ;  the  ears  six  inches ;  and  the 
tail  one  foot  nine  inches.  The  head  is  long  and  attenuated ;  the  upper 
jaw  projects  b^nd  the  lower,  and  ends,  as  in  the  common  hog,  in 
a  truncated  caUous  snout,  having  the  nostrils  pierced  in  the  end  of 
it ;  the  mouth  is  small  for  the  size  of  the  animal,  and  the  tongue  fiat 
and  slender,  not  cylindrical  as  in  the  true  ant-eaters,  nor  capable  of 
being  protruded  to  such  an  extent  as  in  these,  animals:  it  is^  however, 


Amrd-Vark  {Oryet^rcfut  OaptntU). 

covered  in  like  manner  with  a  glutinous  saliva,  which  firmly  retains 
the  ants,  upon  which  the  animid  lives,  and  prevents  those  which  once 
come  in  contact  with  it  frT>m  escaping  afterwards.  The  ears  are  large, 
erect,  and  pointed;  and  the  eyes,  which  are  of  moderate  size,  are 
situated  between  them  and  the  snout,  about  two-thirds  of  the  distance 
from  the  extremily  of  the  latter.  The  body  of  the  aard-vark  is  thick 
and  corpulent;  the  limbs  short  and  remarkably  strong;  the  hide 
thick,  tough,  and  nearly  naked,  having  only  a  few  stiff  hairs,  of  a 
pale  reddish-brown  colour,  thinly  scattcured  over  it,  excepting  on  the 
flips  and  thighs,  where  thev  are  more  numerous  than  ekewhere.  The 
tail  is  about  half  the  length  of  the  body  and  head  tog^ether,  and,  like 
the  body,  is  nearly  naked ;  it  is  extremely  tiiick  and  cylindrical  at  the 
base,  but  decreases  gradually  towards  tiie  extremity,  and  ends  in  a  sharp 
pointb 

Thus  formed,  the  aard-vark  is  in  all  respects  admirably  fitted  for  the 
station  which  nature  has  assigned  to  it  in  the  grand  economy  of  the 
animal  kingdom.  It  feeds  entirely  upon  ants,  and  in  this  respect 
fulfils  the  same  purposes  in  Southern  Africa  which  is  executed  by  the 
PangoUnt  in  Asia,  the  Myrmecophaga  in  America,  and  the  SAiema  in. 
Australia. 

These  insects  raise  mounds  of  an  elliptical  figure,  to  the  height  of 
three  or  four  feet  above  the  suzfboe  of  tne  ground ;  and  so  numerous 


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AARD-WOLF. 


AARD-WOLF. 


ftre  these  gigaatio  ant-hills  in  some  parts  of  Southern  Africa,  that  they 
are  frequency  seen  extending  over  the  plains  as  far  as  the  eye  can  rrach, 
and  so  close  together  that  the  traveller  s  waggon  can  with  cJUfficulty  pass 
between  theuL  They  abound  more  especially  in  the  Zeurevelden,  or 
sour  districts,  so  called  from  producing  a  kind  of  sour  grass ;  are  seldom 
found  on  the  karroos  or  downs,  and  never  in  very  dry  or  woody  districts. 
By  constant  exposure  to  the  rays  of  a  powerful  tropical  e\m  they  become 
so  hard  and  indurated  on  the  outer  surmce  that  they  easily  support  the 
weight  of  three  or  four  men,  and  even  a  loaded  waggon  will  sometimes 
pass  over  without  crushing  them.  Litemally  these  mounds  are  of  a 
spongy  structure,  something  resembling  a  honeycomb,  and  are  so  oom- 
pletely  saturated  with  animal  oil  that  ^ey  inflame  without  difficulty, 
and  are  an  excellent  substitute  f6r  Wood  or  ooal. 

Wherever  ant-hills  abound  the  aaid-Vaii:  is  sure  to  be  fpxmd  at  no 
great  distance.  He  constructs  a  deep  burrow  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  his  food,  and  changes  his  residence  only  after  he  has  exhausted  his 
resources.  The  facility  with  which  he  burrows  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  earth  is  said  to  be  almost  inconceivable.  We  have  already 
seen  how  admirably  his  feet. and  claws  are  adapted  to  this  purpose; 
and  travellers  inform  us  that  it  is  quite  impracticable  to  dig  him  out, 
as  he  can  in  a  few  minutes  bury  himself  at  a  depth  far  beyond  the 
reach  of  his  pursuers ;  and,  further,  that  his  strength  is  so  great  as 
to  require  the  imited  efforts  of  two  or  three  men  to  drag  him  from  his 
hole.  When  fiiirly  caught,  however,  he  is  by  no  means  retentive  of  life, 
but  is  easily  dispatched  by  a  slight  blow  over  the  snout.  The  aard- 
vark  is  an  .extremely  timid,  harmless  animal,  seldom  removes  to  any 
great  distance  from  his  burrow,  being  slow  of  foot  and  a  bad  nmner, 
and  is  never  by  any  chance  found  abroad  during  the  day-tima  On 
the  approach  of  night  he  sallies  forth  in  search  of  food,  and,  repairing 
to  the  nearest  inhabited  ant-hill,  scratches  a  hole  in  the  side  of  it  just 
sufficient  to  admit  his  long  snouts  Here,  after  having  previously 
ascertained  that  there  is  no  danger  of  interruption,  he  lies  down, 
And,  inserting  his  long  slender  tongue  into  the  breach,  entraps  the 
tots,  which  fly  to  defend  their  dwdOdngs  upon  the  first  alarm,  and, 
hiounting  upon  the  tongue  of  the  aai^-vark,  get  entangled  in  the 
glutinous  saliva,  and  are  swallowed  by  whole  scores  at  a  time.  If 
unintermpted,  he  continues  this  process  till  he  has  satisfied  his 
appetite;  out  on  the  slightest  alarm  he  makes  a  precipitate  retreat, 
and  seeks  security  at  the  bottom  of  his  subterranean  dwelling.  Hence 
it  is  that  these  anirnaln  are  seldom  seen  even  in  those  parts  of  the  country 
in  which  they  are  most  numerous.  Like  other  nocturnal  ftniwiala^  which 
pass  the  greater  part  of  their  lives  in  sleeping  and  eating,  they  become 
exceedingly  fat,  and  their  flesh  is  consiaerMl  to  be  a  wholesome  and 
palatable  food.  The  hind-quarters,  particularly  when  out  into  hams 
and  dried,  are  held  in  great  esteem. 

AARD-WOLF  {Protdet,  Is.  Geof.),  in  Zoology,  a  genus  of  digitigrade 
carnivorous  mammals,  founded  by  M.  Isidore  Qeoffiroy  St.  Hilaire,  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  a  place  to  a  new  and  singular  quadruped  brought 
some  ^ears  ago  from  Cafiraria  by  the  traveller  Delalande.  This 
genus  IS  interesting  to  the  zoologist,  as  forming  the  intermediate  link 
which  connects  the  civets  with  the  dogs  and  hysenas — ^three  genera 
which  have  hitherto  stood,  as  it  were,  insulated  from  surrounding 
groups,  and  widely  separated  from  one  another.  The  dogs  and  hyaanas, 
indeed,  had  been  united  a  short  time  previous,  by  the  discovery  of  an 
intermediate  species  in  the  same  locality  which  has  since  produced  the 
Ptoteles;  but  it  is  this  latter  species  alone,  which,  utdtmg  the  cha- 
racters of  all  these  three  genera,  enables  us  to  trace  their  natural 
affinities,  and  to  assign  to  th^m  their  proper  position  in  the  scale  of 
existence. 

To  the  external  appearance  and  osteological  structure  of  an  hysena 
this  truly  singular  animal  unites  the  head  and  feet  of  a  fox,  and 
the  intestines  of  a  civet.  lU  teeth  are  remarki^ble  :  the  permanent 
canines  are  tolerably  lai:ge,'but  the"  molars  are  small,  and  separated 
by  intervals.  It  has  five  toes  on  the  fore  feet,  and  four  only  on  the 
hind ;  the  innermost  toe  of  the  fore  foot  is  placed,  as  in  the  dogs,  at 
some  distance  above  the  others,  and  therefore  never  touches  the  ground 
when  the  animal  stands  or  walks.  The  legs  also  are  completely  digiti- 
grade ;  that  is  to  say,  the  heel  is  elevated,  and  does  not  come  into 
oontact  with  the  surface,  as  in  man  and  other  similarly  formed  animals, 
which  walk  upon  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot,  and  are  thence  said  to  be 
plantigrade.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  remark  the  difference  between 
these  two  modifications  of  the  locomotive  organs,  because  they  have  a 
very  decided  and  extraordinary  influence  upon  the  habits  and  economy 
of  animal  life.  Digitigrade  animate,  whidi  tread  only  upon  the  toes, 
and  carry  the  heel  considerably  elevated  above  the  ground,  have  much 
longer  legs  than  plai^tigrade  animals,  and  are,  therefore,  espedally 
fitted  for  leaping  and  running  with  great  ease  and  rapidity.  Accord- 
ingly, it  wiU  be  observed  that  the  horse,  the  stag,  itie  antelope,  the 
dog,  and  other  animala  remarkable  for  rapidity  of  course,  partake 
strongly  of  this  formation ;  and  even  tiieir  degree  of  swiftness  is  accu- 
rately measured  by  the  comparative  elevation  of  the  heeL  Inattentive 
observers  sometimes  misapprehend  the  nature  of  this  peculiar  con- 
formation of  the  extremities  of  digitigrade  animals,  and  are  apt  to 
confound  the  hough  with  the  ankle,  azid  to  mistake  for  the  knee  what 
is  really  the  heel  of  the  animal  Thus  we  have  heard  it  said  that>  in 
the  hind  legs  of  the  horse,  the  knee  was  bent  in  a  contrary  direction 
io  that  of  man.  This  is  bv  no  means  true :  a  little  attention  to  the 
viccession  of  the  different  joints  and  articulationfl^  iriU  show  that  what 


is  called  the  cannon-bone  in  the  horse,  and  other  digitigrade  animals, 
in  reality  corresponds  to  the  instep  in  man ;  and  that  what  is  generally 
mistaken  for  the  knee  really  represents  the  heeL 

In  the  particular  case  of  the  ProteUs  the  natural  effect  of  the  digiti- 
grade formation  is,  in  some  degree,  lessened  by  the  pec\iliar  structure 
of  the  fore  legs,  which,  contrary  to  the  general  rule  observable  in  most 
other  animals,  are  considerably  longer  than  the  hind.  In  this  respect, 
also,  the  Protelea  resembles  the  hyeenas ;  and  in  both  genera  this 
singular  disproportion  between  the  anterior  and  posterior  extremities 
abridges  the  velocity  properly  due  to  their  digitigrade  conformation. 
This  genus  contains  but  a  single  speciea 


Aard.Wolf  {Ptrotele$  LaUmdii^ 

The  Aard-Wdlf,  or  Earth-Wolf  (Protdea  LaJUmdii,  Is.  Geof. ;  Viverra 
cristatat  Sparr.),  is  so  called  by  the  European  colonists  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Al^oa  Bay,  in  South  Africa,  tiie  locality  in  which  M.  Delalande 
procured  his  specimens  of  this  animal.  The  size  of  the  aard-wolf  is 
about  that  of  a  fWl-grown  fox,  which  it  further  resembles  in  its  pointed 
muzzle ;  but  it  stands  higher  upon  its  legs,  its  ears  are  considerably 
lai^r  and  more  naked,  and  its  tail  shorter  and  not  so  bushy.  At  first 
sight  it  might  be  easily  mistaken  for  a  young  striped  hysena^  so  closely 
does  it  resemble  that  animal  in  the  colours  and  peculiar  markings  of 
its  fiir,  and  in  the  mane  of  long  stiff  hair  which  runs  along  the  neck 
and  back ;  indeed,  it  is  only  to  be  distinguished  by  its  more  pointed 
head,  and  by  the  additional  fifth  toe  of  the  fore  feet.  The  fur  is  of  a 
woolly  texture  on  the  sides  and  belly,  but  a  mane  of  coarse  stiff  hair, 
six  or  seven  inches  in  length,  passes  along  the  nape  of  the  neck  and 
back,  from  the  occiput  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  and  is  capable  of  being 
erected  or  bristled  up,  like  that  of  the  hyaena,  when  the  animal  is 
irritated  or  provoked.  The  general  colour  of  the  fur  is  pale  cinereous 
(ash-coloured),  with  a  slight  shade  of  yellowish  brown  ;  the  muzzle  is 
black  and  almost  naked,  or  covered  only  with  a  few  long  stiff  mous- 
taches. Around  the  eyes,  and  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  are  dark 
brown  marks ;  eight  or  ten  bands  of  the  same  colour  pass  over  the  body 
in  a  transverse  direction,  exactly  as  in  the  common  striped  hysana ; 
and  the  arms  and  thighs  are  likewise  marked  with  similar  transverse 
stripes.  The  legs  and  feet  are  of  an  uniform  dark  brown  in  front, 
and  gray  behind.  The  long  hairs  of  the  mane  are  gray,  with  two 
broad  rings  of  black,  the  second  of  which  occupies  the  point ;  those 
of  the  tail  are  similarly  marked,  and  equally  long  and  stiff;  whence 
it  appears  as  if  the  mane  and  tail  were  clouded  with  an  alternate 
mixture  of  black  and  gray.  The  ears  are  gray  on  the  interior  surface;, 
and  dark  brown  on  the  outer. 

In  its  habits  and  manners  the  aard-wolf  resembles  the  fox :  like 
that  <^y>iTnft.1,  it  is  nocturnal,  and  constructs  a  subterraneous  burrow, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  it  lies  concealed  during  the  daytime,  and  only 
ventures  abroad  on  the  approach  of  night,  to  search  for  food  and  satisfy 
the  other  calls  of  nature.  It  is  fond  of  the  society  of  its  own  species ; 
at  least,  many  individuals  have  been  found  residing  together  in  the 
same  burrow ;  and,  as  they  are  of  a  timid  and  wai^  character,  they 
have  generally  three  or  four  different  entrances  to  their  holes ;  so  tiiat, 
if  attacked  on  one  side,  they  may  secure  a  retreat  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion. Notwithstanding  the  disproportionate  length  of  their  fore  legs, 
they  are  said  to  run  very  fast ;  and  so  strong  is  their  propensity  to 
burrow,  that  one  of  M.  Delalande's  specimens,  perceiving  itself  about 
to  be  run  down  and  captured,  immediately  ceased  its  flight,  and  began 
to  scratch  up  the  ground,  as  if  with  the  intention  of  making  a  new 
earth. 

M.  Isidore  Geoflfroy  St.  Hilaire  has  bestowed  upon  this  species  the 
name  of  ProUles  Laiandiif  but  Sparrman  and  Levaillant  mentioned 
the  aard-wolf  long  before  the  date  of  M.  Delalande's  journey ;  and 
the  former  has  not  only  described  it  with  tolerable  accuracy,  but  has 
even  ascertained  its  true  generic  characters.  (Sparrman's '  Travels,' 
vol  ii,  p.  177.) 

In  the  ' Second  Voyage'  of  Levaillant,  vol  ii,  p.  860,  mentiop  is 
likewise  made  of  this  animal  under  the  appellation  of  *  Loup  de  Terre, 
which  is  a  simple  translation  of  its  colonial  name,  aard-wol£ 

Sparrman  mentions  having  found  ants  in  the  stomach  of  the  Prddeif 


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6  ABDdfEK. 

and  these  inaocta,  it  may  be  obaerred,  are  also  a  faTourite  food  of 
the  bear. 

ABDOMEN,  the  Bdly,  finom  abdo,  to  hide,  becauBe  it  oonoeals  or 
hides  its  oont6iit&  The  last  syllable  is  only  a  termination.  The 
Lower  Bdly,  Itrnu  Venter,  Alvus,  Gutter,  &c.  ko.,  are  synonymouBL 

The  human  body  is  divided  by  anatomists  into  three  portions — ^the 
oead,  the  trank,  and  the  eztremitiee.  The  head  and  trunk  enclose 
cavities  which  contain  the  organs  or  the  instruments  by  which  the 
most  important  functions  of  the  living  body  are  performed.  The  trunk 
forms  two  cavities,  the  superior  of  which  is  termed  the  Thorax  or 
•  Chest,  and  the  lower  constitutes  the  Abdomen. 

In  the  artificial  skeleton  nothing  is  shown,  because  nothing  remains 
except  the  mere  framework  of  we  body,  or  the  bones ;  but  in  the 
natural  state,  when  the  soft  parts  remain  as  well  as  the  bones,  there 
is  a  complete  partition  between  the  cavity  of  the  chest  and  that  of  the 
abdomen  {jig,  L,  1,  2).    This  partition  is  effected  by  means  of  an  organ 
which  is  termed  the  Diaphragm  (Jig.  L,  1,  2),  a  name  derived  from  a 
Qreek  word  signifying  to  divide.    The  dif^hragm  is  composed  partly 
of  membrane,  but  chiefly  of  muscle  (Fig.  IL)   It  is  placed  transversely 
across  the  trunk  at  about  its 
middle  portion,    dividing   it 
into  two  pretty  nearly  equal 
halves  (Pig.  L)    But  the  dii^ 
phragm  is  a  moveable  body ; 
it  is,  in  £EUjt,  one  of  the  main 
ofgans  of  respiration :  its  chief 
function  consists  in  alternately 
increasing  and  fiitninijihiTig  the 
capacity  of  the   thorax  and 
abdomen,  for  the  purpose  of 
respiration.  But  since  tne  very 
partition  which  separates  these 
two  cavities  from  each  other  is   I 
perpetually  changing  its  rela- 
tive position — ^nowencroaching 

upon  the  one,  and  now  upon  2  • 

the  other — ^it  is  obvious  &at 
their  natural  ci^Muaty  must  be 
constantly  varymg. 

The  cavity  of  tibe  abdomen 
is  bounded  above  by  the 
dii^hragm  (Fig.  L,  1,2),  below 
by  the  bones  of  the  Pelvii  or 
basin  (Fig.  L,  3,  3),  which 
may  be  considered  as  belonging 
to  the  bones  of  the  lower  ex- 
tremities, before  and  at  the 
sidesby  the  abdominal  muscles, 
behind  partly  by  the  muscles 
of  the  loins,  and  partly  by  the 
bone  of  the  spin&    The  Spine  Fio.  I. 

is  composed  of  a  number  of 

separate  bones,  each  of  which  is  termed  a  Vertebra.  The  vertebrsd  are 
finnly  united  together,  and  by  their  union  form  what  is  commonly 
called  the  back-bone,  termed  by  anatomists  the  Spinal  Column,  or  the 
Vertebral  Column. 

The  cavity  of  the  abdomen  is  lined  throughout  by  a  thin,  but  dense, 
finn,  and  strong  membrane,  termed  the  Peritoneum,  from  a  Greek 
word  signifying  to  extend  aroimd. 

We  have  thus  spoken  of  the  abdomen  as  a  cavity,  but  without 
explanation  this  mode  of  expression  may  occasion  misconception. 
During  the  state  of  life  there  is 
no  cavity.  The  abdomen  is  always 
completely  full  Ithas  been  stated 
that  the  diaphragm  alternately 
enlarges  and  diminishes  the  space 
proper  to  the  abdomen;  but  the   J 
abdominal  and  lumbar  muscles,  | 
which  form  so  large  a  part  of  the  I 
boundaries  of  the   abdomen  in  \ 
front,  at  the  sides  and  behind,  in 
like  manner,  alternately  contract 
and  relax.    The  consequence  is, 
that  a  firm  and  uniform  pressure 
is  at  all  times  maintained  upon 
the  whole  contents  of  the  abdo- 
men, so  that  there  is  always  the 
most  exact  adaptation  of  the  con- 
taining to  the  contamed  parts,  yiq.  II.— DUphragm,  remored  ftromitu 
and  of  the  viscera  one  to  the     natural  situation  between  the  Chest 
other,  not  the  slightest  space  or     and  Abdomen, 
cavity  ever  intervening,   either 

between  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  and  its  viscera,  or  between  one 
viseus  and  anothen  By  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  therefore,  is  not 
meant  what  the  expressioii  might  at  first  view  seem  to  denote,  namely, 
avoid  or  emp^ space;  but  the  term  is  merdy  employed  to  mark 
the  extent  of  the  boundary  within  which  the  abdominal  viscera  are 


ABDOMINALEa  6 

The  abdomen,  for  practical  purposes,  is  artificially  mapped  out  into 
the  fallowing  regions. 

Two  imaginary  lines  are  drawn  across  the  abdomen,  one  of  which 
is  supposed  to  extend  from  about  the  seventh  rib  on  one  side  to  the 
Mime  poiat  on  the  opposite  side  (Fig.  III.,  1,  1).  The  second  line  is 
supposed  to  extend  f^m  the  fore  part  of  ihe  lurge  bone  of  the  pelvis 
to  the  same  projecting  point  on  the  other  side  (2,  2).  These  lines  mark^ 
out  three  large  and  distinct  spaces  (8,  4,  5).  The  space  above  the 
upper  line  is  termed  the  Epigastric  Region  (8).  The  space  below  the 
lower  line  is  termed  the  Hypogastric  I&gion  (5).  The  space  included 
between  the  two  lines  is  termed  the  Umbilical  Region  (4). 

Two  lines  are  next  supposed  to  extend  verticallv,  one  on  each  side, 
from  between  the  seventh  rib  to  the  prominence  formed  by  the  large 
bone  of  the  pelvis  (Fig.  III.,  6, 6).  By  these  vertical  lines  the  three  first 
regions  are  still  further 
subdivided  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : — The  right 
and  left  parts  of  the 
Epigastric  Region  form 
two  distinct  regions  (7,7) ; 
these  are  termed  theright 
and  left  Hypochondriac 
Regions  (7, 7);  while  the 
oentral  part  retains  the 
name  01  the  Epigastric 
Region  (8).  In  like  man- 
ner the  right  and  left 
parts  of  the  Umbilical 
Region  form  two  distinct 
regions  (8,  8),  which  are 
termed  the  Lumbar  Re- 
gions (8,  8),  while  the 
central  part  retains  the 
name  of  the  Umbilical 
Region  (4).  Moreover, 
the  right  and  left  parts  of 
the  Hypogastric  Kegion 
are  at  the  same  time  each 
divided  into  two,  which 
are  termed  the  Iliac  Re- 
gions (9,  9),  while  the 
central  part  is  termed  the 
Region  of  the  Pubis  (5). 

The    term   Abdomen, 
as  applied  by  entomolo*  p^^  j^j^ 

gists  to  Insects,   has  a  '  ' 

somewhat  different  signification  from  the  same  term  when  applied 
to  other  animals,  being  u^  for  the  whole  portion  of  the  body 
of  an  insect  belund  the  corselet  (tJwrax),  and  mcluding  the  back  as 
well  as  the  belly.  It  consijBts,  in  most  cases,  of  a  number  of  rings 
without  any  jointed  members  for  locomotion,  and  uniformly  encloses 
a  portion  of  the  intestines,  though  sometimes  but  a  very  small  one. 
These  rings,  or  very  short  hollow  cylinders,  are  severally  united  with 
each  other  by  a  joint,  by  a  membrane,  or  sometimes  by  an  intimate 
junction,  the  exact  line  of  which  is  not  very  apparent.  The  rings  in 
some  cases,  as  in  the  grub  of  the  chameleon-fly,  slide  into  one  another 
like  the  tubes  of  an  opera^lass.  Each  ring  is  technically  termed  a 
segment  (tegmentum),  virtually  composed  of  two  principal  pieces,  which, 
when  distinct,  are  termed  arches ;  the  upper  the  arch  of  the  back,  the 
under  the  ardi  of  the  belly.  In  some  cases  these  two  portions  are  not 
distinct,  but,  when  they  are  so,  the  two  borders  usually  come  into 
contact  When  they  do  not,  but  remain  free,  one  usually,  more  or 
less  over^ps  the  other,  as  in  bees.  In  caterpillars,  grubs,  and  wingless 
insects,  such  as  the  flea,  where  the  joining  of  the  corselet  with  the 
abdomen  is  not  apparent,  the  abdomen  may  always  be  known  by  the 
legs  never  being  jointed  with  it ;  and  in  caterpillars  it  usually  consists 
of  all  the  body  behind  the  six  fore  legs^  which  are  always  on  the 
corselet 

ABDOMINALES,  in  Zoology,  the  name  of  a  group  of  fishes,  to  which 
different  naturalists  have  attached  a  more  or  less  extensive  signification, 


Salmon,  glTen  as  a  spedmen  of  the  fiunily  of  Abdominalea. 

according  to  the  particular  principles  of  their  several  systems.  The 
classification  of  fishes  given  by  LinnsBua  is  founded  qpon  the  presence 
and  position  of  the  ventral  fins  (thoee  of  the  belly)  in  relation  to  the 


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ABELS  TREE. 

1 


ABIES. 


peetoral  (those  of  the  breast) ;  and  these  he  regards  as  analogous  to 
the  fore  and  hind  members  of  quadmpeds,  and  to  the  wings  and  feet 
of  birds.  Linnaus  includes,  in  his  order  Abdominales,  all  those  species 
which  have  the  ventral  fins  plaoed  behind  the  pectoral,  or  upon  the 
abdomen,  the  cartilaginous  fishes  alone  excepted;  which,  i^rthe 
example  of  Bay,  Willoughby,  and  Artedi,  he  very  properly  considers 
as  forming  an  order  apart  This  arrangement  is  not  now  genmdly 
adopted,  but  the  term  AhdomindUs  denotes  a  family,  or  suMi vision, 
of  malacopterygious  (or  soft-finned)  fishes,  only ;  and,  in  this  restricted 
sense,  includes  the  g^reater  number  of  the  fresh-water  species,  as  wdl 
as  those  which,  like  the  salmon,  periodically  migrate  from  the  ocean 
to  deposit  their  spawn  in  fresh-water  lakes  and  rivers.  M.  Cuvier 
subdivides  this  family  into  five  subordinate  groups,  all  of  which  he 
has  defined  by  appropriate  and  imequivocal  characters.  He  denomi- 
nates these  sub-families,  Cyprinoldes,  SUuroldea,  SaUnonoUkSf  Clupeoldea, 
and  Ludolda  respectively,  from  the  carps,  silures,  salmonai,  herrings, 
and  pikes,  the  typical  genera  from  which  their  characters  are  severally 
taken. 
ABELE  TREE,  in  Botany,  the  English  name  of  the  PopuUu  alba, 

[POFULUa.1 

ABELMOSCHUS^  in  Botany,  a  genus  of  the  Mallow  tribe^  usually 
referred  to  H%bi»cus.    [Hibiscus.] 

ABERDEVINE  (Cardudis  spinus,  Cuvier;  FringUla  ligurina, 
Ranzani),  sometimes  called  the  Siskin,  a  well-known  song-bird, 
which  has  some  resemblance  to  the  green  variety  of  the  canary- 
bird,  but  there  is  considerable  difierenoe  in  individual  birds  with 
respect  to  the  brightness  of  colouring.  The  colours  of  the  male 
in  fill  plumage  are  as  follows  :  top  of  the  head,  black ;  ear  coverts, 


Aberdevine,  or  Siskin  (OardwlU  tpmus), 

dusky;  a  line  above  the  ey^ ;  sides  of  neck,  throat,  and  chest,  lemon 
yellow ;  back  and  shoulders,  dark  olive  green,  with  obscure  dusky 
dashes;  qnins,  brown,  with  an  oblique  yellow  bar  and  another 
above,  produced  by  the  yellow  edging  of  the  greater  coverts ;  flanks, 
dusky,  vnth  a  few  brown  dashes;  rump,  yellow,  slightly  washed 
with  green ;  two  middle  tail  feathers,  dark  brown,  the  rest  yellow, 
tipped  with  brown ;  bill  and  legs,  brown  colour.  Length,  ii  inches. 
Ta&,  short  and  forked  The  plumage  of  the  female  is  less  bright  and 
decidedlv  marked 

Sepp  has  delineated  the  nest  of  the  aberdevine  in  the  deft  of  an 
oak,  built  with  dry  bent  mixed  with  leaves,  and  profusely  lined  with 
fealJlers ;  the  base  neatly  rounded,  and  the  feathers  projecting  above 
the  rim,  and  concealing  the  eggs,  which  .are  blueish-white,  speckled 
with  purplish  red,  like  those  of  the  goldfinch.  Temminck,  again, 
says  it  biulds  in  the  highest  branches  of  the  pine. 

It  breeds  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  only  visits  Britain,  (Germany, 
and  France  in  the  autumn  and  winter.  It  is  represented  in  some 
books  as  very  irregular  in  its  migration,  particularly  to  this  country; 
but  we  suspect  that  this  opinion  has  arisen  from  irregular  obser- 
vation, for,  since  our  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  subject,  we 
have  remarked  its  arrival  about  Lee,  in  Kent,  to  be  almost  as  regular 
as  the  departure  of  the  swallows,  which  takes  place  about  the  same 
time.  During  its  winter  stay  with  us,  the  aberdevine  feeds  chiefly  on 
the  seeds  of  the  birch  and  alder. 

As  a  cage-bird  it  is  frequently  paired  with  the  canary,  to  produce 
what  are  turned  mule-birds ;  but  it  is,  besides,  a  livdy  and  persevering 
songster. 

ABIES,  in  Botany  (the  Fir),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  Coniferous  tribe, 
well-known  for  the  valuable  timber  which  is  produced  by  many  of  the 
spedes.  It  was  formerly  considered  a  part  of  the  genus  Pinut ;  but 
modem  botanists  have  made  it  a  distinct  genuQ.  The  English  appd- 
lation  is  the  Saxon /icrA-w^ic^  fir-wood, 


Oen&ic  Character. 

Flowers  monosdous. 

Malet.  Catkins  simple,  solitary,  terminal,  or  axillary.  Stamens 
obtuse,  and  often  callous  at  the  apex,  terminated  by  a  jagged 
membrane. 

FemaUt.  Catkins  somewhat  cylindrical ;  their  scales  two-flowered, 
imbricated,  and  having  frequently  at  their  base  externally  a  bractea, 
which  is  either  very  short  or  lengthened  beyond  the  scales  themselves, 
and  terminated  by  a  taper  point. 

Cones  more  or  less  cylindrical ;  the  scales  imbricated  and  woody, 
but  not  thickened  at  the  extremity;  seeds  ending  in  a  membra- 
nous wing. 

Embryo  about  the  length  of  the  seed,  with  several  dosely-packed 
ootyledons. 

Trees  of  various  sises,  usually  with  a  straight,  conical,  undivided 
trunk,  from  which  proceed  spreading,  horizontal,  or  drooping  branches, 
arranged  in  a  pyramidal  manner.  Leaves  either  solitary,  or  collected 
in  little  fascicles,  deciduous  or  evergreen. 

From  Pinui  (the  Pine-Tree)  Abies  (the  Fir-Tree)  is  obvioudy 
disting^shed  by  its  more  pyramidal  form,  and  br  its  leaves  arising 
singly  from  aroxmd  the  stosi,  not  by  twos  or  threes,  or  a  greater 
number,  from  out  of  a  membranous  shrivelling  sheath,  as  well  as  by 
the  characters  in  the  fructification  above  described  Its  species  form 
four  very  natural  tribes,  of  the  first  of  whidi,  the  Silver  Fir  may  be 
taken  as  the  representative ;  of  the  second,  the  Norway  Spruce  ;  of  the 
third,  the  Larch  ;  and  of  the  fourth,  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon.  As  most 
of  these  are  interesting,  either  for  the  excellence  of  their  wood  or  as 
objects  of  ornament,  we  shall  briefly  notice  those  that  are  at  present 
best  known.  Those  who  wish  for  further  information  should  consult 
Mr.  Lambert's  'Monograph  of  the  Genus  Pinus,'  L.  C.  Richard's 
'  Mdmoire  sur  les  Conif^res,'  Michaux's  '  Histoire  des  Arbres  Forestiers 
de  I'Am^rique  Septentrionale,'  Loudon's 'Arboretum  et  Fruticetum 
Brxtannicum.' 

Sect.  I. — Silyer  Fibs. 

Zeave$  growing  tingly  rov/nd  the  branchet,  and  aU  twned  towarde 
one  tide. 

Abies  PiceOf  the  Silver  Fir  (Abies  pectinata,  De  Candolle;  Pinus 
Picea,  Linxueus).  Leaves  arranged  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb,  some- 
what emaiginate,  of  a  whitish  colour  imdemeath.  Cones  erect, 
with  very  blunt  closely-pressed  scales,  which  are  much  shorter  than 
the  taper-pointed  inflexed  bracts.    It  is  a  native  of  the  mountains  of 


Silver  Fir  {AInes  Picea). 

the  middle  and  south  of  Europe,  in  stony,  dry,  exposed  ntuations. 
Its  favourite  district  seems  to  be  on  the  Pollino  and  in  the  forest  of 
Rubia,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  it  is  found  in  all  its  grandeur, 
often  growmg  from  180  to  150  feet  in  height,  and  richly  meriting  the 
name  putcherrima  (most  beautiful),  appli^l  to  it  by,  VijqgiL  This  tree 
is  readily,  known  by  its  leaves  having  their  points  all  turned  towards 
the  sky,  and  being  mealy  undemeatib,  as  well  as  by  its  long,  erect, 
stalkless  cones,  of  a  greenish-purple  colour,  bristling  with  reflexed 
taper  points  of  the  bracts  that  subtend  the  scales.    It  is  the  Sapim 


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ABIES. 


ABIES. 


10 


of  the  French.  Planks  of  indifferent  quality,  on  account  of  their 
Bofbieaa,  are  sawn  from  its  tnmk,  which  also  yields  Burgundy  pitch 
and  Strasbui^g  turpentine.  For  its  successful  cultivation  in  this 
country  it  requires  strong  land,  such  as  wiU  suit  the  oak,  and  a 
sheltOTed  situation ;  it  will  then  become  a  very  lai^  tree.  From  a 
communication  to  Mr.  Lambert^  it  appears  that  trees  hav&been  felled 
which,  at  100  years  of  age,  contained  six  loads,  or  240  cubic  feet,  of 
timber.  It  is  said  by  some  to  grow  slowly  for  the  first  fifteen  years, 
but  afterwards  with  great  rapidity.  A  plant  in  Wobum  Park  is 
recorded  to  have  grown  for  110  3^ears  at  the  rate  of  one  foot  in  height 
and  nearly  three  and  a  half  cubic  feet  per  annum.  Its  trunk  some- 
times arrives  at  150  feet  in  height^  and  six  feet  in  diameter. 

Antiquarians,  not  considering  that  this  plant  is  the  real  Abiet 
jmUA/errima  of  Virgil,  and  of  the  Roman  authors,  have  lost  themselves 
in  vain  attempts  to  reconcile  the  declaration  of  Csesar  ('  De  BeL  Gal,' 
v.  12),  that  he  found  in  Britain  all  the  trees  of  Gkul,  except  the  beech 
and  abies,'  with  the  well-known  fact  that  fir-wood  is  abundant  in  our 
ancient  mosses,  and  has  been  met  with  even  beneath  the  foundations 
of  Roman  roads.  What  Csesar  meant  was,  no  doubt»  that  he  did  not 
meet  with  the  silver  fir  in  Britain.  Of  the  pine  he  says  nothing,  and 
therefore  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  he  found  it.  ^ 

Abies  Sibirxca,  the  Siberian  Silver  Fir  (Pinus  Sihirica  and  Pinut 
Pickia  of  the  gardens).  Scarcely  anything  certain  has  been  pub- 
lished of  this  tree,  which,  according  ,to  Linnaeus,  Mr.  Lambert^  and 
others,  is  Uie  same  as  the  Abies  pieea.  Gmelin  describes  it  as  a  native 
of  aU  parts  of  Siberia  as  far  as  58**  N.  lat.  in  mountainous  regions, 
especially  in  the  upper  country  lying  between  the  Irtish  and  the  Ob, 
where  it  forms  dense  woods. 

Abies  grandiSf  Great  Califomian  Fir  (Pmus  grcmdis,  Douglas  and 
Lambert).  Leaves  long,  narrow,  very  blunt,  whitish  beneath,  all 
turned  one  way.  Cones  oblong,  erect,  rather  curved,  with  very  broad, 
uneven,  downv  scales,  which  are  longer  than  the  bractese.  Found,  by 
Mr.  Douglas,  m  low  moist  valleys  m  northern  California,  where  it 
attains  the  height  of  200  feet  The  wood  is  soft,  white,  and  of  inferior 
quality.  Cones  from  three  to  four  inches  long ;  bracts  very  shorty 
jagged,  two-lobed,  with  a  short  intermediate  point. 

Abies  baUamea,  the  Balm  of  Gilead  Fir  {Abtes  balsamifira,  Michaux ; 
Pimu  baUamea,  Lambert).  Leaves  flat,  silvery-white  beneath,  either 
emaiginate  or  entire  at  the  point,  all  curved  towards  the  upper  side. 
Cones  cylindrical,  oblong,  erect,  purple,  with  rounded,  even,  undi- 
vided soalee.  Found,  along  with  Abies  nigra  and  Abies  alba,  in  the 
coldest  parts  of  NorUi  iijnerica,  but  fdways  in  detaphed  indivi- 
duals, never  in  large  masses.  It  extends  also  along  the  ridge  of  the 
Alloghaniee  as  far  as  the  crests  of  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina. 
It  forms  a  small  slender  tree,  rarely  more  than  iO  feet  high,  with  a 
diameter  of  from  12  to  15  inches.  The  cones  are  four  to  flve  inches 
long,  and  about  an  inch  in -diameter. '  Its  wood  is  lights  of  a  pale 
yellow  oolour,  and  but  slightly  resinous ;  it  is  of  litUe  value,  and  is 
chiefly  split  up  into  staves  for  fish-barrels.  The  English  name  has 
been  given  in  consequence  of  a  resemblance  between  the  clear  trans- 
parent greenish-yellow  turpentine,  which  is  obtained  from  numerous 
cysts  in  its  bark,  and  the  Balm  of  Gilead  of  the  shops.  The  turpentine 
is  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  Canadian  Bajsam.  In 
England  this  is  a  small  tree  of  very  ornamental  appearance  when 
young;  on  the  skirts  of  plantations,  but  it  rarely  acquires  any 
considerable  sixe. 

Abies  nobilis,  Large-Bracted  Fir  {Pinus  nobilis,  Douglas  and  Lam- 
bert). Leaves  very  numerous,  falcate,  all  turned  one  way,  of 
nearly  the  same  colour  on  both  sides.  Cones  oblong,  erect,  with 
rounded  brood  scales  concealed  by  the  long  wedgeHBhapied  two-lobed 
jagged  scales,  which  are  bent  back,  and  terminate  abruptly  in  a  rigid 
elongated  point.  It  is  a  majestic  tree,  forming  vast  forests  upon  the 
mountains  of  northern  California,  where  it  was  found  by  Mr.  Douglas. 
The  timber  is  said  to  be  of  excellent  quality.  The  cones  are  about 
six  inches  long. 

Abies  Fhttefi,  the  Double  Balsam  Fir  {Pinus  Frateri,  Pursh  and 
Lambert).  Leaves  linear,  emarginate,  silvery-white  beneath.  .  Cones 
oblong,  squarrose.  Bracts  somewhat  leafy,  inversely  cordate,  mucronate, 
reflexed.    A  native  of  the  mountains  of  Carolina  and  Pennsylvania.  . 

Abies  Webbiana,  Webb's  Fir  {Pinus  WObicma,  Wallich  and  Lam- 
bert; Pinus  spedabilis,  Lambert).  Leaves  linear,  solitary,  flat>  all- 
spreading,  and  turned  one  way,  silvery-white  beneath,  with  a  deep 
notch  at  the  extremity.  Cones  oblong,  erect^  obtuse,  with  very  broad, 
rounded,  even  scales.  According  to  the  account  of  Captain  Webb, 
who  first  discovered  it^  this  remarkable  species  attains  the  height  of 
80  or  90  feet,  with  a  diameter  near  the  groxmd  of  $  or  i  feet.  Its 
wood  seems  to  be  valuable.  From  what  has  been  reported  of  its 
general  appearance,  it  is  probably  one  of  the  most  interesting  species 
that  has  yet  been  discovered.  Inhabiting  the  colder  regions  of  northern 
India,  and  found  among  plants  which  are  more  Siberian  in  their 
character  than  Indian,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  of  its  being 
well  able  to  withstand  the  rigour  of  the  winters  of  this  country. 

Abies  Oanadentis,  the  Henuock  Spruce  Fir  (Michaux ;  Pifnus  Cana- 
densis, Lambert).  Leaves  flat,  arranged  irregularly  in  two.  rows; 
when  young  downy,  as  well  as  the  young  slender  branches. '  Cones 
veiy  small,  ovate,  sharp-pointed,  with  rather  acute,  even,  entire  scales : 
seeds  very  smalL — The  most  northerly  situation  in  which  this  tree  is 
found  10  about  Hudson's  Bay,  in  lat  51**.    Near  Quebec  it  forms 


extensive  forests ;  in  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Vermont,  and  the 
upper  part  of  New  Hampshire,  it  is  extremely  common ;  but  in  the 
middle  and  southern  states  of  North  America  it  is  confined  to  the 
Alleghanies  and  their  dependent  ridges,  where  it  inhabits  the  sides  of 
torrents  and  the  bleakest  situations.  It  is  a  noble  enpecies,  rising  to 
the  height  of  70  or  80  feet,  and  measuring  from  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter. 
It  appears  to  be  of  slow  growth,  not  arriving  at  its  full  dimensions  in 
less  than  200  years.  When  from  25  to  80  feet  high  its  form  is  exceed- 
ingly elegant,  but  when  old  its  huge  limbs  are  apt  to  be  rent  and 
broken  \fj  winds  and  snow ;  and  their  naked  stumps,  sticking  out 
beyond  the  young  and  verdant  foliajro,  give  the  trees  an  air  of  decre- 
pitude and  decay.  The  wood  is  of  little  value,  being  neither  sound 
nor  durable.  The  bark  is  valuable  for  tanning ;  mixed  with  oak-bark, 
it  is  said  to  be  much  better  than  oak-bark  alone. 

Abies  Brwnoniana,  the  Deciduous  Silver  Fir  (PiMU  Brwrwniana, 
Wallich ;  P.  dwmosa,  Lambert).  Leaves  fiat,  all  turned 
oneway,  serrulate  towards  the  points,  covered  beneath 
with  a  miUL-white  bloom.  Cones  terminal,  erect^ 
ovate,  blunt>  very  small,  with  lax,  ovate,  very  blunt 
scales. — ^Fbund  in  the  northern  parts  of  India  in  the 
provinces  of  Nepaul,  Bootan,  and  Gossain  Than.  It 
IS  a  tree  70  or  80  feet  high,  with  a  clear  trunk  of 
from  15  to  20  feet,  and  a  spreading  very  branchy 
head.  The  wood  is  of  bad  quality,  bdng  liable  to 
waxp. 

Abia  reUgiosa,  the  Sacred   Mexican  Fir  (Pinus 
reUgiosa,  Humboldt  and  Kunth).     Toung  branches 
quite  smootii.    Leaves  arranged  in  two  rows,  sharp-  Cone  of  it  Brmo^ 
pointed,  covered   beneath   with  a  glaucous  bloom.  nimCa. 

Found  by  Humboldt,  on  the  lower  hiUs  of  Mexico,  at  an  elevation 
of  iOOO  feet  Deppe  and  Schiede  found  it  upon  the  oold  moun- 
tains of  Orisaba,  at  the  highest  limit  of  arborescent  vegetation.  It 
is  described  as  a  lofty  tree,  reMmhMng  Abies  picea  and  Abies  balsamea, 
frx>m  which  it  is  distinguished  by  its  shisurp-pointed  leaves.  The  flowers 
are  unknown.  The  branches  are  used  for  adorning  the  churches  in 
Mexico.  According  to  Mr.  Lambert,  the  cones  are  like  those  of  the 
cedar  of  Lebanon,  but  smaller,  and  almost  black. 

Abies  htrteUa,  the  Hairy  Fir  {Pinus  hirtdla,  Humboldt  and  Kunth). 
Young  branches  covered  with  hairs.  Leaves  arranged  in  two 
rows,  flat>  acute,  covered  with  glaucous  bloom  beneatL  Known 
only  from  the  incomplete  account*of  Humboldt,  who  found  it  on  the 
mountains  of  Mexico,  growing  at  an  elevation  of  between  8000  and 
9000  feet  He  describes  it  atf  a  small  tree,  three  or  four  times  as  high 
asaman. 

Abies  Smithiana,  the  Indian  Silver  Fir  {Pinus  Smithianei,  Wallich). 
Leaves  slender,  foiu>comered,  whitish  beneath,  a  little  turned  towards 
one  side,  dark  green,  from  one 
inch  to  one  .and  a  half  long:  Cones 
from  four  to  six  laches  in  length, 
erect,  ovate-oblong,  with  obovate, 
rounded,  even  scales.  A  native  of  the 
slopes  of  the  HimalayaMoimtains.  It 
is  a  tree  of  enormous  size,  with  nearly 
opposite  branches,  covered  with  short 
down,  and  so  arranged  as  to  form 
generally  two  rows. 

Sbot.  IL— Spbuob  Firs. 

Leaves   gromng  singly  round   the 
branches,  and  aU  spreading  equally, 

Abies  exedsa,  the  Norway  Spruce 
Fir  (De  Candolle;  Pinus  abies,  Lin- 
nseus).  Leaves  scattered,  some- 
what four-cornered,  mucronate. 
Cones  cylindrical,  pendulous,  with 
blunt^  wavy,  slightly-toothed  scales. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  mountainous 
parts  of  the  north  of  Europe,  where 
it  sometimes  constitutes,  as  in  Nor- 
way, the  principal  timber.  It  is 
found  all  over  Siberia  as  high  as  70° 
N.  lat,  in  which  region  it  is  a  certain 
sign  of  the  presence  of  springs  of 
fresh  water,  for  it  is  only  seen  in 
moist  and  springy  places.  When 
growing  singly  in  rich  soil,  separated 
from  other  trees,  this  forms  one  of 
the  most  beautifiil  objects  that  can 
be  imagined,  with  its  long  drooping 

branches  touching  the  very  ground.        Gone  of  the  Indian  SilTer  Fir. 
and  its  regularly  pyramidal  figure :' 

but  in  other  situations,  in  plantations  where  the  trees  are  crowded 
and  deprived  of  their  lower  branches  by  want  of  light  and  air,  it 
becomes,  after  nine  or  ten  years,  an  inelegant  plant  of  little  value 
except  to  be  cujb  for  poles.  When  in  perfection  (and  occasionally 
it  %rrives  at  its  greatest  perfection  in  this  country),  it  acquires  a 
stature  of  150  feet    Its  wood  is  of  a  white  oolour,  of  a  fine  eveo 


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11 


grain,  and  yeiy  durable :  in  the  market  it  is  known  under  the  name 
of  White  Deal  or  Christiama  Deal  In  Norway  it  arriyes  at  maturity 
in  70  or  80  years.  Trees  of  such  an  age  are  what  are  usually  out 
down  for  exportation,  tmd  each  yields  on  an  average  three  pieces  of 


elasticity.  It  ib  employed  for  the  yards  of  ships ;  and  in  America^  in 
districts  where  the  oak  is  scarce,  also  for  their  knees ;  floors  are 
occasionally  laid  with  it^  but  it  is  not  well  adapted  for  this  usage,  as 
the  planks  are  apt  to  split.  From  its  young  branches  is  extracted  the 
Essence  of  Spruce,  so  well  known  as  a  useful  antiscorbutic  in  long 
yoyages.  According  to  Mr.  Lambert,  the  curious  Dwarf  Spruce,  called 
Pinut  elambrcuUiana,  is  probably  a  yarieinr  of  Alnet  fidgrck 

Abiet  DouglaiU,  the  Douglas  Fir  {Piim»  tcue^oUa,  Lambert; 
Pimu  JhvgUuU),  Leayes  spreading  equally,  de^  green,  whitish 
beneath,  obtuse.  Cones  cemuous,  oyate-oblong,  with  rather  uneyen 
cartilaginous  scales,  much  shorter  than  the  bracts,  which  are  three- 
toothed,  the  lateral  teeth  bein^  membranous,  with  the  intermediate 
ones  much  longer  and  more  n^d.  According  to  Mr.  Douglas,  the 
disooyerer  of  this  gigantic  spemes,  it  is  found  in  immense  forests  in 
North-West  America  from  49^  to  52"  N.  lat  The  trunks  yazy  from 
two  to  ten  feet  in  diameter,  and  from  100  to  180  feet  in  height. 
Occasionally  it  arriyes  at  still  greater  dimensions.  It  is  an  eyeigreen 
tree,  with  an  erect  taper  trunk,  which  when  old  is  ooyered  with  a 
rugged  bark  from  six  to  nine  inches  thick,  abounding  in  a  dear 
yellow  resin,  and  making  excellent  f  ueL  The  young  branches  have 
their  bark  filled  with  receptacles  of  resin,  as  in  theBalm  of  Qilead. 


Norway  Spruce  Fir  {Abiea  exeelsa). 

timber,  eleyen  or  twelye  feet  long.  The  Spruce  is  readily  known  by 
its  leaves  of  one  uniform  dull  green  colour,  spread  equally  roimd  the 
branches,  and  by  its  long  pendant  cones. 

Ahia  orierUalu,  the  Oriental  f^  (Pinus  orieniaUa,  liinnfisus  and 
Lambert).  Leaves  very  short,  uniformly  imbricated,  quadrang^ular, 
with  a  callous  point  Cones  ovate,  cyUndrioal,  pendulous,  their 
scales  somewhat  rhomboid.  To  botanists  this  is  luiown  chiefly  by 
a  figure  published  by  Mr.  Lambert  after  a  drawing  by  Aubriet,  the 
draughtsman  who  accompanied  Toumefort  in  his  journey  to  the 
Levant  It  was  found  by  that  traveller  in  the  mountains  south-east 
of  Trebisond,  above  the  convent  of  St  John.  It  has  been  subsequently 
met  with  by  Russian  botanists  in  the  woods  of  Mingrelia,  and  was 
seen  near  Teflis  by  Sir  Gore  Ouseley ;  but  little  has  been  added  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  species.  The  young  branches  are  said  to  be 
hairy.  The  leaves  are  very  short  and  dense.  The  cones  are  small 
and  pendulous,  of  an  ovate,  tapering  figure. 

Abie$  alba,  the  White  Spruce  Fir  (Michaux;  Pinua  alba,  Lam- 
bert). Leaves  rather  glaucous,  spreading  equally  round  the  branches, 
four-cornered,  somewhat  pungent  Cones  narrow,  oval,  tapering 
towards  the  point,  with  even  undivided  scales.  Found  along  with 
Abies  nigra  in  the  colder  regions  of  North  America.  Accordmg  to 
Michaux  it  does  not  advance  so  far  to  the  northward  as  that  species, 
from  which  it  is  known  not  only  by  its  smaller  sise,  the  trunks  rarely 
exceeding  40  or  50  feet  in  height  but  also  by  the  bluish  oast  which 
characterises  the  foliage,  and  which  gives  it  a  much  lighter  appearance 
than  the  sombre  Abtea  nigra.  Dr.  Richardson,  however,  states  that 
it  was  the  most  northerly  tree  observed  in  Franklin's  first  Polar 
Journey.  The  timber  is  of  inferior  quality.  fVom  tJie  fibres  of  the 
root,  macerated  in  water,  the  Canadian  Indians  prepare  the  thread 
with  which  they  sew  together  the  birch-baik  that  forms  their  canoes. 
Its  resin  is  also  used  to  render  the  seams  water-tight  The  bark  is 
said  to  be  occasionally  used  for  tanning. 

Abiet  nigra,  the  Black  Spruce  Fir  (Michaux;  Pityv*  nigra  and 
rubra,  Lambert).  Leaves  spreading  equally  round  the  stem,  short, 
four-cornered.  Cones  ovate-oblong,  obtuse,  with  ragged  rounded 
scales.  It  is  a  native  of  the  most  indement  regions  of  North  America, 
especially  iu  swampy  situations  snd  in  the  yalleys  between  ridges  of 
low  hills,  where  the  soil  is  deep,  black,  and  humid  In  such  situations 
are  found  the  finest  forests  of  this  species,  and  there,  although  the 
trees  are  fo  crowded  together  as  often  not  to  be  more  than  four  or 
five  feet  apart,  the  timber  arrives  at  the  height  of  70  or  80  feet,  with 
a  diameter  of  from  15  to  20  inches.  The  firs  in  the  Isndscapes  of 
northeiTi  scenery  illustrating  Franklin's  first '  Polar  Expedition '  are 
of  this  spedes,  which,  however,  Dr.  Richardson  did  not  observe 
higher  than  65**  N.  lat  The  trunk  is  remarkable  for  the  perfect  regu- 
larity with  which  it  diminishes  ttom  the  base  upwards.  The  head  is 
of  a  regularly  pyramidal  figure,  the  branches  spreading  almost  horizon- 
tally, and  not  inclining  towards  the  earth,  as  in  the  Norway  Spmce. 
The  timber  is  of  great  value,  on  account  of  its  strength,  lightness,  and 


Cone  of  DoQglas  Fir. 

The  timber  is  heavy,  firm,  of  as  deep  a  colour  as  yew,  with  very 
few  knots,  and  not  in  the  least  liable  to  warp.  The  growth  is  exceed- 
ingly rapid. 

A  considerable  number  of  plants  of  this  important  spedes  are  now 
scattered  among  the  parks  and  woods  of  this  country,  some  hundreds 
having  been  raised  and  distributed  by  the  Horticultural  Sodety ;  it 
appears  to  suit  this  climate  perfectly,  and  to  be  likdy  to  prove  more 
valuable  than  even  the  larch  itself,  bemg  evergreen,  end  fully  as  hardy. 

Ahie»  Mendedi,  the  Mensies  Fir  (Pivmi  Metmetii,  Douglas  and 
Lambert).  Leaves  very  short,  rig^d,  rather  sharp-pointed,  whitish 
beneath,  spreading  reg^arly  roimd  the  stem,  very  dedduous.  Cones 
oblong,  composed  of  very  lax,  ragged,  retuse,  ovate,  thin  scales,  much 
longer  than  the  narrow,  serrated,  concealed  bracten.  Buds  ovate, 
acute,  covered  with  resin.  It  is  a  native  of  Northern  California,  where 
it  was  found  by  Mr.  Douglas,  who  describes  the  wood  as  being  of 
excellent  quality. 

Sect.  III.— Larohb. 
Leanset  growing  in  clusUrt ;  deciduout,  • 

By  some  botanists  this  section  is  considered  essentially  different 
from  Abies;  but  the  want  of  any  dear  diBtinctive  characters,  either 
in  the  mode  of  growth  or  the  oigans  of  fructification,  induces  us  to 
concur  with  Linnrous,  Jussieu,  and  Richard,  in  considering  the  Larch 
as  belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  the  Spruce.  The  leaves  of  the 
former  are  dustered  or  fasdculated,  meidy  in  consequence  of  the 
imiversal  non-development  of  lateral  branches;  so  that  the  leaves 
themselves  make  their  appearance  without  a  perceptible  central  axis. 
This  is  proved  not  only  in  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon,  but  even  in  the 
Larch  itself,  by  numerous  cases  where  the  branches  being  less  abortive 
than  usual,  lengthen  enough  to  display  their  real  nature. 

Abies  Larix,  Richard  ;  the  Common  Larch  Fir  (Pinm  Ixmx,  Lin- 
nssus;  Lairix  Ewropofa,  De  Candolle).  Leaves  clustered,  dedduous. 
Cones  ovate-oblong,  blunt  It  is  a  native  of  the  mountains  of  the 
middle  of  Europe,  of  Russia,  and  of  Siberia.  In  the  latter  country  it 
is  the  commonest  of  all  trees,  delighting  in  dry  elevated  situations, 
where  it  forms  vast  forests,  sparingly  intermixed  with  pines.  Its 
trunk  grows  very  erect,  with  graceful  drooping  branches,  gradually 
diminishing  from  the  base  to  the  apex,  and  giving  it  a  regularly 
pyramidal  form.  In  the  spring,  when  its  young  leaves  have  just  burst 
into  Ufe,  it  has  a  peculiar  bright  yellowish-green  tint,  which  is  possessed 
by  no  other  tree  of  our  foresla.    The  Larch  has  been  now  for  many 


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ymn  extennyely  oiiltiT»tod  upon  barren  exposed  Imd,  both  in  England 
and  Scotland,  and  it  has  been  found  one  of  the  nkost  profitable  of  all 
trees  to  the  planter,  provided  the  land  be  well  drained ;  but  it  will 
not  Buooeed  in  swampy  situations.  It  grows  with  great  rapidity,  is 
subject  to  yery  few  accidents,  transplants  with  but  litUe  risk,  and 
iroduoes  timber  of  great  excellence  imd  value,  not  only  for  domestic 
it  for  naval  puiposes.     In  moimtainous  districts  in  Scotland  the 


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thickened  at  the  margin.  Hount  Lebanon  and  the  range  of  Taurus 
are  the  native  spots  of  this  most  stately  and  magnificent  tree,  which 
compensates  for  its  want  of  height  by  its  huge  wideHq>reading  arms, 
each  of  which  is  almost  a  tree  in  itsdf.  According  to  Labillurdiire, 
a  French  traveller  in  Syria,  the  largest  of  those  now  remaining  on 
Lebanon  is  at  least  nine  feet  in  duoneter.  The  trees  are  held  in 
great  veneration,  and  a  holiday  is  set  apart  for  the  Feast  of  Cedars. 
Its  growth  is  far  from  being  so  slow  as  some  imagine ;  on  the  oon- 
trary,  the  observations  of  those  who  have  cultivated  it  with  care  prove 
that  it  will  vie  in  rapidity  of  growth  with  almost  any  forest  tree. 
Cedar^wood  has  the  reputation  of  being  indestructible;  instances 
have  been  named  of  its  having  been  taken  from  buildings  uninjured 
after  a  lapse  of  two  thousand  years.  But  it  appears  highly  probable, 
from  some  interesting  observations  made  at  Tangier  by  lir.  Druxnmond 


The  Larch  {AhUa  Larix). 

Duke  of  Athol  has  planted  it  in  immense  quantities ;  and  it  ajipearB, 
from  a  report  of  that  nobleman  to  the  Horticultural  Socie^,  that  in 
situations  1500  to  1600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  he  has  felled  trees, 
eighty  years  old,  which  have  each  yieldedsix  loads  of  the  finest  timber. 

From  the  boiled  inner  bark,  mixed  with  nre-flour  and  afterwards 
buried  for  a  few  hours  in  the  snow,  the  hardy  Siberian  hunters 
prepare  a  sort  of  leaven,  with  which  they  supply  the  place  of  common 
leaven  when  the  latter  is  destroyed,  as  it  fre(^uently  is,  by  the  intense 
oold  to  which  hunters  are  exposed  in  the  punuit  of  game. 

The  bark  of  the  Larch  is  nearly  as  valuable  to  the  tanner  as  oak-bark ; 
it  also  produces  the  substance  called  Venice  turpentine,  which  flows  in 
abundance  when  the  lower  part  of  tne  trunk  ox  old  trees  is  wounded. 
A  sort  of  manna,  called  Brian9on  Manna,  is  exuded  from  its  leaves 
in  the  form  of  a  white  fiooeulent  substance,  which  finally  becomes 
concreted  into  small  lumps. 

It  is  believed  that  this  species  was  the  frlrvs  of  the  ancient  Qreeks. 
The  orig^  of  the  more  modem  word  larix  is  uncertain. 

Ahia  miicroearpa,  the  Bed  Larch  Fir  (Pinus  microcarpa,  Lam- 
bert). Leaves  clustered,  deciduous.  Conesoblong,  small;  their  scales 
erect,  dose-pressed,  the  upper  ones  much  smaUer  than  the  lower. 
This  is  a  graceful  tree,  with  much  of  the  habit  of  the  common  Larch, 
from  whidi  its  very  small  cones,  of  a  bright  purple  in  the  summer, 
readily  distinguish  it  It  is  a  native  of  Korth  America.  This  tree  is 
by  no  means  so  well  adapted  to  the  planter^s  purposes  as  the  common 
Larch,  growing  very  much  smaller.  The  wood  is  so  heavy  that  it  will 
scarcely  swim  in  water. 

Abie$  pendula,  the  Black  Larch  Fir  (Pmus  pendula,  Lambert). 
Leaves  clustered,  deciduous.  Conesoblong,  with  numerous  spreading 
scales,  which  gradually  diminish  from  the  base  to  the  apex  of  tne  cones. 
Branches  weak  and  drooping.  It  is  a  native  of  North  America,  where 
it  is  found  growing  in  a  rich  clay  soil,  mixed  with  sand,  in  cold 
mountainous  districts.  When  cultivated  in  this  country  it  is  an 
elegant  tree,  having  a  good  deal  of  resemblance  to  the  common  Larch, 
but  being  of  a  br^hter  green  colour,  and  much  more  graceful.  The 
leading  shoot  will  often  begin  to  droop  at  the  height  of  16  or  20 
feet  horn  the  ground,  and,  after  gradually  acquinng  a  horizontal 
direction,  will  bend  towards  the  earth  so  as  to  form  a  natural  arch 
of  great  beauty.  The  wood  is  less  valuable  than  that  of  the  common 
Larch. 

Sboc  it. — Cedabs. 

Ahia  CednUf  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon  Fir  (Pkim  Oednu,  Linnsras 
and  Lambert).  Leaves  clustered,  evergreen.  Cones  oblong,  very 
obtuse^  end,  with  broad  dosely^paokea  scales,  which  are  a  little 


The  Cedar  of  Lebanon  [AUes  (kdrua). 

Hay,  that  the  indestructible  cedar-wood  iras  the  beautiful,  hard,  deep- 
brown  timber  of  Thi^a  artievlata,  the  Sandarac  Tree.  The  wood  of 
Ahie$  oednu  produces  deal  of  very  indiflTerent  quality. 

Abiet  Jkodara^  the  Sacred  Indian  Fir  {Pitim  Deodaniy  Lambert). 
Leaves  evergreen,  in  clusters,  acute,  triangular,  stiff  Cones 
growing  in  pairs,  stalked,  oval,  obtuse,  erect;  the  scales  closely 
packed,  veiy  oroad,  and  nearly  even  at  the  margin.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  mountains  of  Hindustan,  near  the  town  of  Rohilcund,  on  the 
mountains  of  Nepaul  and  Tibet,  at  a  height  of  10,000  or  12,000  feet, 
and  also  in  the  woods  of  Almora.  It  is  a  large  tree,  with  a  trunk 
about  four  feet  in  diameter,  resembling  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon,  frx>m 
which  it  dififers  in  having  its  cones  upon  stalks,  and  its  leaves  longer 
and  more  distinctly  three-sided,  and  also  in  the  quality  of  its  timber. 
The  Hindoos  are  said  to  call  it  the  Devadara,  or  God  Tree,  and  hold 
it  in  a  sort  of  veneration.  Its  wood  is  extremely  durable,  and  so 
resinous  that  laths  made  of  it  are  used  for  candles.  Spars  of  it  have 
been  taken  out  of  Indian  temples,  known  to  have  been  erected  from 
200  to  400  years,  uninjured  except  in  those  parts  which  originallv 
were  sap-wood.  This  tree  has  been  extensively  cultivated  in  Englanc^ 
and  seems  to  be  realising  the  favourable  anticipations  which  were 
formed  on  its  first  introduction. 

To  the  species  now  enumerated,  the  following  almost  unknown  kinds 
have  to  be  added : — 

AhU$  Kmapferi  (PinuM  Kom/pferi,  Lambert).  A  native  of  Japan, 
found  wild  upon  the  mountains  of  Fako. 

AHa  TkvmbtrgU  {PkMU  O^wibergii,  Lambert).  A  scarce  plant 
in  Japan. 

Ah%e$Mowi  (Siebold).  Found  in  Japan,  as  well  as  the  two  following. 
Its  wood  is  in  great  estimation  for  its  whiteness  and  fine  grain. 

Ahiet  Torano  (Siebold). 

Alne$  Araragi  (Siebold).  Wood  brown ;  used  for  various  domestic 
purposes. 

CuUivaiiofk 
The  genus  of  resinous  plants  called  AhUs,  which  we  have  thus 
describ^  comprehend  many  forest  trees  of  great  importance ;  and 
it  will  be,  therefore,  proper  to  add  a  few  remarks  on  their  cultivation. 
Some  of  them,  such  as  the  Larch,  the  Norway  Spruce,  the  Silver  Fir, 
and  the  Balm  of  Gileod,  are  raised  in  the  nurseries  annually  in  the 


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ABOU-HANNESL 


16 


open  ground,  in  laige  quantities,  for  the  supply  of  our  plantations ; 
others,  such  as  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon  and  the  Douglas  Fir,  are 
procured  in  much  less  abundance,  and  are  treated  with  more  care, 
being  usuallj  kept  in  pots  until  thej  are  finally  committed  to  the 
earth  in  the  situation  they  may  be  subsequently  destined  to  occupy. 

All  the  species  are  propagated  by  seeds;  they  may  also  be  propa- 
gated both  by  inarching  and  by  cuttings ;  but  it  is  found  that  plants 
so  obtained  are  either  yeiy  shortiived  or  stunted,  unhealthy,  and 
incapable  of  becoming  yigorous  trees.  In  some  of  the  species,  such 
as  the  Balm  of  Oilead  and  the  Silver  Fir,  the  scales  of  the  cones  readily 
separate  from  their  axis,  so  as  to  render  the  extraction  of  the  seeds  a 
simple  and  easy  operation ;  but  in  others,  such  as  the  Larch  and  the 
Spruce  Fir,  the  scales  will  neither  separate  nor  open :  in  such  cases  it 
is  necessary  to  dry  the  cones  as  mudi  as  possible,  then  to  split  them 
by  means  of  an  instrument  passed  up  their  axis,  and  afterwards  to 
thresh  the  portions  so  separated  till  the  seeds  can  be  sifted  out. 

Like  other  resinous  seeds,  these  are  perishable  unless  sown  within 
a  few  months  after  the  cones  have  been  gathered;  they  will,  however, 
keep  much  longer  in  the  cone  than  if  separated ;  wherefore,  they  should 
always  be  imported  in  that  state. 

It  IS  usual  m  the  nurseries  to  sow  them  in  the  spring  in  beds  of  light 
soil,  in  which  no  recent  manure  has  been  mixed ;  they  are  buried  at 
various  depths,  according  to  the  force  of  the  vital  energy  of  the  species. 
This  has  been  found  by  experience,  as  it  is  said,  to  be  one  inch  deep 
for  the  Silver  Fir;  half  an  inch  for  the  Spruce,  Balm  of  Oilead,  and 
Cedar  of  Lebanon;  a  quarter  of  an  inch  for  the  Larch;  and  lees  for 
the  American  Spruce ;  it  is,  howisver,  probable  that  these  depths  are 
of  veiT  little  importance.  In  order  to  protect  the  surface  of  the  beds 
from  being  dried  while  the  young  seeds  are  sprouting,  it  is  generally 
overspr^id  with  a  thin  laver  of  long  straw,  which  is  removed  as  soon 
as  the  crop  begins  generally  to  appear.  During  the  first  season  the 
seedlings  remain  undisturbed ;  the  only  attention  they  receive  being 
to  keep  them  from  weeds.  In  the  following  spring  the  young  plants 
are  taken  up  carefully,  and  their  roots,  being  a  little  shorten^  are 
imbedded  in  rows  about  six  inches  apart,  where  they  remain  for  one 
or  two  years.  After  this  Uiey  are  transplanted  into  quarters,  in  rows 
a  foot  or  nine  inches  apart,  the  plants  being  about  six  inches  from 
each  other.  Having  remained  in  this  situation  for  a  year,  they  are 
fit.  to  be  transferred  to  the  plantation,  or  they  may  stand  two  years 
in  the  nursery  quarters,  and  then  be  taken  up  and  replaced  in  a 
situation  of  the  same  kind,  if  circumstances  should  render  such  a 
proceeding  desirable.  On  no  account,  however,  should  they  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  quarters  more  than  two  years  at  a  time 
without 4)eing  taken  out,  of  the  ground,  because  they  are  apt  to  form 
long  and  strong  shoots,  which  are  destroved  in  the  process  of  trans- 
plantation, so  that  the  life  of  many  must  he  either  materially  injured 
or  wholly  sacrificed. 

None  of  the  firs  should  be  transplanted  at  a  height  exceeding  three 
feet,  for  the  reason  last  mentioned ;  and  the  Ltm^  is  the  only  kind 
that  will  remove  advantageously  even  at  this  size.  The  Spruce  and 
its  allied  species  may  be  removed  more  successfully  when  fix>m  a  foot 
and  a  half  to  two  feet  high.  To  this  there  is  no  other  exception  than 
that  of  plants  that  have  been  constantly  reared  in  pots,  as  the  Cedar 
of  Lebanon ;  these  may  be  safely  removed  at  any  size,  if  the  trans- 
plantation is  carefolly  attended  to,  because  their  roots  are  iminjured 
in  the  operation.  It  should  however  be  remembered,  in  finally 
planting  out  large  firs  which  have  been  always  kept  in  pots,  that 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  their  roots  should  be  spread  out  among 
the  earth  as  much  as  may  be  practicable  without  straming  or  breaking 
them ;  because,  while  in  pots,  they  necessarily  acquire  a  spiral  direction, 
which  they  will  not  afterwards  lose  unless  it  is  destroy^  at  the  period 
of  final  transplantation ;  and,  if  they  do  not  lose  it,  they  are  apt  to  be 
blown  over  by  high  winds,  on  acooimt  of  their  roots  not  having  pene- 
trated into  the  eurth  far  enough  in  a  horizontal  flirection  to  form  the 
requisite  stay  to  support  the  trunk  and  head. 

Where  great  importance  is  attached  to  the  raising  the  seeds  of  rare 
species  of  fir,  it  has  been  found  a  very  beneficial  practice  to  place  them 
between  two  turfs  placed  root  to  root,  the  one  upon  the  other,  and  to 
watch  them  till  the  seeds  begin  to  sprout;  they  are  then  to  be  sown 
in  the  usual  way,  when  every  seed  will  usually  succeed. 

No  trees  are  more  impatient  of  pruning  than  these.  They  exude, 
when  woimded,  so  large  a  quantity  of  their  resinous  sap  as  to  become 
weakened  even  by  a  few  incisions ;  and,  if  they  have  sufiiered  many, 
they  are  long  before  they  recover  from  the  e£fects.  So  great  is  their 
symmetry,  and  so  uniformly  will  their  branches  form  under  favourable 
circumstances,  that  it  will  rarely  happen  that  a  necessity  for  the  use 
of  the  pruning-knifevcan  arise.  The  great  rule  to  be  observed  in  their 
management  is  to  allow  them  ample  room  for  the  extension  of  their 
branches;  if  this  is  attended  to,  their  beauty  is  not  only  ensured,  but 
the  rate  at  which  they  will  form  their  timber  will  be  a  full  recompense 
for  the  space  they  may  occupy. 

ABIETINEiB.    [Coiofebji]. 

ABOMA,  a  large  species  of  serpent^  which  inhabits  the  fens  and 
morasses  of  South  America,  the  Boa  cenehria  of  Linnaeus.    [Boidji.] 

ABORTION,  a  term  used  in  botany  and  horticulture.  In  Botany, 
abortion  is  employed  to  express  the  absence  of  an  organ  in  relation  to 
an  ideal  type.  Thus  the  flowers  of  ScrofiMLariacea  and  Lamiacea 
have  their  s^ials  and  petals  arranged  with  the  number  five.  According 


to  a  very  general  law  the  stamens  equal  in  number  the  petals  and 
sepals,  but  in  this  case  they  do  not.  In  the  majority  of  instances  the 
stamens  are  but  four :  hence  it  is  scdd  that  one  stamen  is  aborted  or 
there  is  an  abortion  of  one  stamen.  The  want  of  harmony  betwem  the 
parts  of  the  flower  generally  is  thus  spoken  o£  In  other  instances, 
where  the  ovules  are  numerous  and  the  seeds  only  one,  two,  or  three, 
the  remaining  ovules  are  aborted. 

In  Horticulture,  the  premature  development  of  the  fruity  or  any 
defect  in  it,  is  called  abortion. 

ABOU-HANNES  (NutMniv*  IhU,  Cuvier;  TawtaUm  ^tkiopictu, 
Latham),  an  African  bird,  which  has  occasioned  much  discussion 
among  the  learned  as  to  its  identity  with  the  ancient  Ibis.  The 
attention  of  Bruce  was  attracted,  during  his  stay  in  Upper  Egypt>  by 
some  birds  called  by  the  natives  Abou-Hannes,  whose  forms  reminded 
him  of  the  ibis,  as  represented  on  Egyptian  monuments,  and  repeated 
observation  confirmed  him  in  the  opinion  of  their  identity  with  the 
ibis  of  the  ancients.  This  identity  was  subsequently  corroborated  by 
the  distinguished  naturalists,  Qeofroy  and  Savigny,  who  accompanied 
the  French  expedition  into  Egypt>  and  procured  anumber  of  specimens. 
M.  Savigny  published  his  observations  in  a  small  work  ('  L'Histoire 
Nat  et  MythoL  de  I'lbis'),  now  very  scarce,  and  Baron  Cuvier  also 
gave  a  memoir  on  the  Egyptian  ibis  in  the  '  Annales  du  Museum'  for 
1804,  in  which  he  has  deariy  proved,  from  the  comparison  of  a  mummy 
ibis  with  a  stufied  specimen,  that  the  true  ibis  is  not  the  TaiUaliu  Ibu 
of  Linnteus,  that  being  a  much  larger  bird,  but  is  really  a  species  of 
curlew.  This  bird  appears  to  be  also  a  native  of  regions  very  remote 
frt)m  Eigypt. 

Herodotus  attributes  the  veneration  of  the  Egyptians  for  the  ibis, 
to  supposed  services  rendered  them  by  the  biixl  in  freeing  their 
coun^  fh>m  winged  serpents.    That  the  ibis,  however,  could  not  feed 


True  White  Ibii  {yumeniua  J6m]. 

upon  serpents  appears  nearly  certain  from  anatomical  inspection.  The 
bill,  for  example,  being  long,  slender,  considerably  curved,  blunt  on 
the  edges,  and  expanded  and  roundish  at  the  point,  could  neither 
divide  nor  pierce  serpents ;  and  indicates  rather  an  aptitude  to  dabble 
in  marshy  and  moist  grounds. 

On  the  other  hand.  Baron  Cuvier  found,  in  the  mummy  of  the  ibis, 
remains  of  the  skin  and  scales  of  serpents,  and  hence  it  has  been 
inferred  that  the  birds  might  have  been  serpent-eaters.  This  inference, 
however,  is  at  variance  with  the  observations  made  in  Egypt  by  M. 
Savigny  on  a  great  number  of  individuals,  in  the  crops  of  which  he 
uiiiformly  found  land  and  fresh-water  shells  {CydoatomcUaf  AmpuUaruE, 
Plcmorbis,  <fec.),  and  these  shells  were  ^ways  entire  when  their 
inhabitants  had  not  been  previously  digested. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  ibis  breeds  in  Egypt;  but,  on  the 
testimony  of  the  inhabitants,  it  arrives  as  soon  as  the  waters  of  the 
Nile  begin  to  rise,  augmenting  in  numbers  as  the  waters  increase,  and 
diminishing  as  they  subside,  and  disappearing  when  the  inundation 
terminates.  These  birds,  on  their  arrival,  repair  to  the  low  lands, 
which  are  first  covered  with  water;  but  when  the  waters  become 
deeper  and  spread  wider,  the  birds  betake  themselves  to  the  higher 
lands.  They  afterwards  approach  the  river,  where  they  establish 
themselves  by  the  sides  of  the  canals  and  on  the  small  dykes,  with 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  cultivated  grounds  are  surroimded.  • 

The  bird  in  question  sometimes  lives  solitary,  sometimes  in  small 
troops  of  from  eight  to  ten.  Its  flight  is  lofty  and  powerful,  and  it 
utters  at  interyals  hoarse  cries.  When  it  alights  on  a  fresh  piece^  of 
land,  it  remains  for  hours  together  occupied  in  tapping  the  mud  with 
its  bill,  in  search  of  worms,  &c.  It  walks  leisurely  step  by  step,  and 
has  not  been  observed  to  run,  Hke  our  curlew  {Nwneniut  arquataf 
Latham),  to  which  it  otherwise  bears  some  resemblance. 

The  Egyptians  call  the  bird  Ahou-Menzd,  which  literally  means 


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'Father  Siokle-Bill,'  the  bill  being  curred  like  a  uokle.  The 
iEthiopian  name,  Ahott-Hmmei,  means  '  FatherJohn,'  becaiifle,  as 
M.  Dnmont  suppoeeSi  the  bizda  arriye  about  Stw  John's  day. 

Tbe  following  is  the  earliest  account  that  we  have  of  the  ibis,  from 
an  eye-witness  (Herodotus,  iL  76) : — **  The  ibis  is  all  over  very  black  : 
it  has  the  legs  of  a  crsne,  and  a  beak  considerably  curved :  its  sise  is 
about  that  of  a  enx.  Such  is  the  appearance  of  the  black  ibis,  which 
fights  sgalnst  the  serpents.  But  the  other  ibis,  which  is  more  of  a 
domestic  bird  (for  there  are  two  kinds),  has  the  head  and  sll  the  neck 
bare  of  feathers :  it  is  of  a  white  colour,  except  the  head,  neck,  and 
the  extremitiee  of  the  wings  end  tail,  all  which  parts  are  very  black. 
As  to  its  legs  and  beak,  it  resembles  the  other  kind  of  ibis."  The 
bkck  ibis,  according  to  Herodotus,  devoured  the  winged  serpents 
which  yearly  attempted  to  make  their  entry  into  Egypt  from  Arabia. 
It  is  needless  to  add  that  these  winged  serpents  are  a  fable.  Strabo, 
who  himself  was  some  time  in  Egypt,  gives  the  following  account : — 
'*  The  ibis  is  the  tamest  bird  of  all :  in  form  and  sise  it  is  like  tiie  stork. 
But  there  -are  two  varieties  of  colour,  one  of  which  is  that  of  the 
stork,  and  the  other  is  all  black.  Every  street  in  Alexandria  is  filled 
with  them,  partly  to  the  benefit  of  the  citizens,  and  partly  not  The 
bird  is  useful  so  far  as  it  devours  all  kinds  of  vermin,  with  the 
garbage  of  the  shambles,  and  the  refuse  of  the  eating-houses,  &a" 
Here  Strabo  makes  no  distinction  between  the  two,  except  in  colour, 
and  he  describes  both  species  as  living  on  all  kindis  of  garbage.  He 
has  probably  confounded  the  real  ibis  snd  the  stork. 

ABOU  SCHOM,  the  Arabic  name  of  a  species  of  fox  (C7aftif 
vthrtegatiu.) 

ABRAMIS.    [Brbam.] 

ABRAXAS,  a  genus  of  nootonal  Lcpidoptera,  to  which  belongs 
the  common  Magpie  Moth,  A.  grouuUmaict.  The  caterpillar  of  this 
moth  attacks  the  leaves  of  gooseberry  and  currant  bushes  at  the 
b^cimiing  of  the  summer.  It  is  of  a  ydlowish  white  colour,  with  an 
orange  stripe  on  each  side,  snd  oov/ered  with  black  spots.  The 
chrynlis  is  black,  relieved  at  its  pointed  end  with  orange  circles. 
The  expanded  fore-wings  of  the  perfect  insect  measure  about  one  inch 
and  a  half  across.  The  wings  are  of  a  yellowish  white  colour,  variously 
jotted  with  black.  The  fore-wings  have  a  band  of  pale  orange.  The 
body  is  orange,  spotted  with  black.  The  sggs  are  deposited  on  currant 
or  gooseberry  leaves  in  July  or  August,  and  the  caterpillars  are  hatched 
in  September.  To  get  rid  of  the  attadks  of  these  creatures,  they  may 
be  picked  off,  or  dusted  with  the  powder  of  white  hellebore,  or  the 
leaves  of  the  plants  attacked  may  be  burned. 

ABRAZITE  {ZeagimUej  Gtioumdine),  a  mineral  belonging  to  the 
group  of  aluminous  hydrated  silicates,  with  alkaline  and  lime  basest 
It  contains,  besides  sUica  and  water,  about  26  per  cent  of  alumina, 
with  14  per  cent  of  lime  snd  potash. 

ABROCOMA.    [Habboooma.] 

ABBOMA  (from  a  and  fipAfta, '  not  fit  for  food,'  in  opposition  to 
Theobroma,  'food  for  gods'),  a  genutf  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  ByUneriactas.  The  species  consist  of  small  trees,  with 
hairy  lobed  leaves  and  extra-axillary  or  terminal  few-flowered 
peduncdes  at  the  tops  of  the  branches. 

Abroma  tmgutta  is  a  handsome  tree,  with  drooping  purple  flowers, 
seated  on  peduncles  opposite  the  leaves.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  fibrous  tissue  of  the  bark  of  this  plant  is  manufactured 
into  cordage. 

ABRUS  (firom  afifisy  soft),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
pi^Hionaceous  division  of  the  order  LeffwrninomE.  The  calyx  is 
bluntly  4-lobed,  with  the  upper  lobe  broadest  The  legume  is 
oblong,  compressed,  and  4-64eeded.  There  is  but  one  species,  A. 
preccUmua,  which  is  a  delicate  twining  shrub,  with  abruptly  pinnate 
leaves,  bearing  many  pairs  of  leafleta  It  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  but  is  also  found  in  the  tropical  parts  of  Africa  snd  America, 
where  perhaps  it  has  been  introduced.  The  seeds  of  the  commoner 
variety  are  red,  with  a  black  spot,  whilst  other  varieties  produce 
various  coloured  seeds.  These  seeds  are  in  much  request  as  ornaments 
amongst  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  where  they  grow.  They  are 
strung  as  beads,  with  shells,  and  other  hard  seeds.  Tney  are  brought 
to  Europe  from  Guinea  and  the  East  and  West  Indies.  They  are  used 
frequently  as  beads  for  rosaries ;  hence  the  name  preccUoriuB  given  to 
this  species.  The  leaves  and  roots  of  this  plant  secrete  the  sweet 
substance  which  characterises  the  liquorice  plant  (Qlyeyrhiea  glabra). 
In  the  West  Indies  it  is  called  Wild  Liquorice,  and  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  common  liquorice.  The  seeds  have  been  accused  of 
possessing  narcotic  properties,  but  this  is  an  error.  When  swallowed 
they  are  very  indigestible. 

ABSORBENT  STSTEM.  The  delicate  vessels  which  in  the  bodies 
of  vertebrate  animals  are  engaged  in  carrying  the  food  and  other 
matters  into  the  circulation,  have  this  nameu  It^oonsists  of  two 
principal  divisions,  which  may  be  r^mrded  as  two  different  sets, 
given  off  frx>m  a  common  stem.  One  of  these  takes  its  origin  in  the 
walls  of  the  slimentary  canal,  more  especially  the  small  intestines,  and 
is  called  the  '  lacteal '  system,  fr«m  the  white  colour  of  the  liquid  it 
takes  up ;  whilst  the  other  commences  in  the  substance  of  the  body, 
more  especially  the  skin  and  neighbouring  parts,  and  is  called  the 
'lymi^tic'  system,  from  the  colourless  fluic^  called  lymph,  which  it 


The  Ladeals  are  the  smalT  system  of  vessels  by  which  the  chyle,  or 

KAT.  HIST.  DIT.  VOL.  L 


nutritive  part  of  the  food,  is  conveyed  from  the  intestines  to  the  left 
subclavian  vein,  in  which  it  is  mixed  with  the  blood.  They  have  their 
origin  in  the  viUi  of  the  small  intestines,  which  are  short  hair-Hke 
processes,  each  consisting  of  a  fine  net-work  of  lacteal  vessels  siu*- 
roimded  by  capillary  arteries  and  veins.  On  the  outside  the  villi  are 
covered  with  cells,  which  absorb  the  chyle  before  it  is  conveyed  to  the 
loops  of  the  lacteals  in  the  interior  of  the  villus.  From  the  villi  the 
chyle  is  carried,  between  the  layers  of  the  mesentery,  through 
numberless  converging  branches,  to  the  thoracic  duct,  the  main  tnmk 
of  the  absorbent  system,  which,  at  the  part  where  ike  chief  lacteal 
branches  join  it,  is  dilated  into  what  is  ciJled  the  Receptaculum  ChylL 
The  villi  have  no  visible  apertures  for  the  entrance  of  the  chyle,  but 
the  walls  of  the  lacteal  vessels  themselves  are  extremely  thin  and 
permeable,  and  tiieir  canals  are  furnished  with  numerous  and  delicate 
valves,  like  those  of  the  veins  [Ciboulation  of  thb  Blood],  to 
prevent  the  fltud  which  they  contain  from  descending  again  to 
their  absorbing  extremities.  In  their  passage  through  the  mesentery 
the  lacteals  traverse  numerous  mesenteric  absorbent  glands,  where 
they  communicate  with  veins,  and  the  fluid  contained  in  them 
is  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  blood,  from  which  it  acquires 
colouring  matter  and  fibrine. 

The  LymphatieM  consist  of  minute  branched  tubes  of  extremely 
delicate  membrane,  whose  extremities  are  arranged  in  a  more  or  less 
dense  net-work  in  every  part  of  the  body.  From  this  net-work  they 
gradually  converge  into  a  succession  of  branches  of  increasing  sise,  and 
terminate  in  two  main  trunks,  called  the  right  and  left  great  Lymphatic 
Veins,  through  whidi  the  lymph  is  poured  with  the  chyle  from  the 
thoracic  duct  into  the  right  and  left  subclavian  veins.  The  lymphatios 
also  communicate  with  the  veins  at  some  other  parts  of  their  course, 
chieflv  near  their  minute  extremities,  and  more  rarely  by  larger 
branches.  They  have  in  their  interior  numerous  delicate  valves  formed 
of  crescentic  folds  of  the  lining  membrane,  like  those  of  the  veins  and 
of  the  lacteals  [Circulation  of  the  Blood],  and,  like  them,  pre- 
venting the  retrograde  course  of  the  contained  fluid.  The  valves  of 
the  lymphatics,  however,  are  much  more  closely  set  than  those  of  the 
veins,  so  that,  when  full  of  fluid,  Uie  spaces  between  them  being  most 
distended,  they  give  tiiose  vessels  s  knotted  or  beaded  appearance,  by 
which  they  are  easily  distinguished  from  veins  of  the  same  sise.  In 
the  course  of  the  larger  lymphatios  there  are  numerous  glands  of  the 
same  nature  as  those  found  in  the  course  of  the  lacteaLs.  They  are 
called  Lymphatic  Glands.  To  each  of  these  there  pass  two  or  more 
lymphatic  vessels,  which  on  entering  them  become  extremely  tortuous, 
and  after  varied  convolutions  and  anastomoses,  terminate  in  nearly  the 
same  number  of  branches,  which  again  pass  frx>m  the  gland,  and  pursue 
their  course  towards  the  main  trunk.  These  glands  attain  their  fullest 
development  in  man  and  the  mammalia.  They  are  far  less  numerous 
in  birds,  and  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  fish  and  amphibia.  ^  The 
function  performed  by  these  glands  is  somewhat  obscure,  but  it  has 
been  recently  suggested  by  Professor  Bennett,  of  Edinburgh,  that  their 
function  is  to  prepare  or  produce  the  colourless  corpuscles  of  the 
blood.  [Blood.]  He  arrives  at  this  conclusion  from  having  observed 
that  in  cases  where  these  glands  or  the  spleen  are  inflamed,  or  in  a 
condition  of  increased  action,  that  the  colourless  corpusdes  of  the 
blood  can  be  seen  under  the  microscope  to  be  in  larger  quantity  than 
is  normal.    (Bennett,  On  Zeucocythemta,) 

ABSORPTION,  one  of  the  first  and  most  essential  of  the  functions 
of  animal  and  vegetable  tissues.  Both  animals  and  plants  grow  and 
perform  other  vital  functions  through  the  agency  of  materials  derived 
nom  without.  The  passage  of  all  substances  from  the  exterior  to  the 
interior  of  their  IxKlies  is  effected  by  the  function  of  absorption. 
This  function  is  performed  in  all  cases  by  the  aid  of  animal  or 
vegetable  membrane.'  This  membrane  is  always  in  the  form  of  the 
wallB  of  cells  or  the  walls  of  vessels  formed  out  of  ceUs.  Whether  the 
function  of  absorption  be  performed  in  animals  or  plants,  there  are 
certain  general  conditions  of  the  membrane  or  cells  through  which  it 
takes  place,  that  are  necessary  in  all  cases.  In  the  first  place,  as 
liquids  are  found  to  pass  through  the  walls  of  cells  and  membranes, 
it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  permeable.  This  is  found  to  be 
the  case  in  all  organised  bodies,  and  in  proportion  to  the  permea* 
bility  of  the  tissue  is  the  activity  with  which  absorption  is  performed. 
In  certain  parts  of  plants,  as  well  as  animals,  the  cells  become  almost 
impermeable,  and  these  are  the  parts  which  cease  to  grow  or  to  perfonr 
active  functions.  Such  are  the  duramen  or  heart-wood  of  trees,  and 
the  nails,  hairs,  horns,  and  teeth  of  animal  bodies. 

During  the  performance  of  the  various  functions  in  which  absorption 
is  required,  both  liquids  and  gases  pass  through  the  ceU-membrane 
or  cdl-wall  Liquids  containing  salts  in  solution  pass  into  the  plant 
and  animaT  in  the  supply  of  food  for  nutrition.  Gases,  including  the 
vapour  of  water,  are  also  absorbed  by  the  cells  of  plants  as  a  nutritive 
process,  and  by  those  of  animals  during  the  performance  of  the 
respiratory  function.  This  transmission  of  fluids  through  organic 
membranes  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  a  peculiar  vital  proper^  of 
animal  and  vegetable  tissues;  but  it  seems  to  depend  considerably  on 
the  physical  properties  of  the  fluids  and  tissues.  Organic  membranes, 
when  separated  from  the  living  structure,  have  the  power  of  absorbing 
fluids,  and  if  two  fluids  of  different  densities  are  s^Murated  by  a  mem- 
brane, the  flow  through  the  membrane  will  be  greater  from,  the  thinner 
fluid  to  the  thicker  wan  the  contrary.    This  action,  which  has  been 

0 


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ABSORPTION. 


ACAOJUL 


called  £ndo9mo»U  [Endosxosib],  seoms  to  be  a  modification  of  that 
very  general  law  of  attraction  by  which  solids  are  attracted  towards 
each  other,  as  w^  as  liquids  and  gases,  and  which  lies  at  the 
foundation  of  those  phenomena  attributed  to  capillary  attraction. 
Although  It  would  appear  as  the  result  of  this  law  that  there  must 
be  two  currents,  the  one  passing  out  and  the  other  in,  this  does  not 
always  take  place,  as  the  perpetual  remoyal,  for  the  purposes  of  the 
system  either  of  the  plant  or  of  the  animal,  of  the  matter  absorbed, 
prevents  the  action  of  the  outgoing  current^  which  has  been  called 
Exoimosia. 

The  cells  and  surfaces  which  carry  on  absorption  in  the  VegetdbU 
Kingdom  vary  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  plant  In  the 
simpler  plants,  such  as  the  lower  forms  of  AlgoB,  which  consist  of  one 
or  only  a  few  cells,  the  whole  of  the  cells  are  equally  employed  in 
absorbing.  But  as  we  ascend  to  plants  where  the  Tegetative  and 
reproductiYe  organs  are  distinct,  there  we  find  absorption  performed 
more  abundantly  by  the  former.  In  the  higher  forms  of  phanerogamic 
plants  the  active  duties  of  absorption  are  performed  by  the  roots ;  the 
loose  tissue  at  the  ends  of  the  fibrils  of  these  organs  being  remarkably 
adapted  for  the  performance  of  this  function.  The  same  power  is 
also  possessed  by  the  recently  formed  tissues  in  the  stems  of  these 
plants,  and  thus  the  food — ^the  sap — ^is  carried  from  the  soil  to  the 
branches  of  the  plant,  which  are  covered  with  leaves.  The  cells  of 
the  leaves  are  adapted  to  the  exhalation  of  the  fluid  which  has  been 
absorbed  below,  and  thus  a  perpetual  demand  for  new  supplies  ia 
created.  Not  that  the  leaves  are  always  exhaling ;  in  moist  states  of 
the  atmosphere  and  at  night  they  probably  also  absorb.  This  function 
is  also  undoubtedly  performed  by  the  stems  of  the  leafless  Euphor- 
hiaeea  and  by  the  Cadticece,  whida,  possess  very  small  roots,  and  will 
even  grow  without  them. 

Absorption  in  the  Animal  Kingdom,  although  performed  upon  the 
same  general  principles,  and  being  adapted  to  attain  the  same  general 
ends,  presents  more  various  modifications  of  form  and  greater  com- 
plication than  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  In  the  first  place,  the  nature 
of  the  fluids  taken  up  differs,  more  especially  in  the  class  of  cases  where 
that  function  is  adapted  to  nutrition.  Plants  derive  their  food  from 
the  mineral  kingdom.  .Animals  obtain  their  food  from  plants.  Plants 
live  on  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  water,  and  various  salts.  Animals  live 
on  substances  elaborated  out  of  these  compounds  in  the  cells  of  plants. 
In  the  next  place,  animals  receive  their  food  into  an  interior  sac  or  bag 
called  a  stomach,  whilst  plants  plunge  their  absorbent  cells  into  the 
soil  from  which  they  derive  their  nutriment.  In  the  higher  forms  of 
aiiimals,  a  system  of  vessels  called  absorbents  [Absorbent  Stbtbh] 
is  made  subservient  to  the  ends  of  the  function  of  absorption — an 
arrangement  which  is  found  nowhere  to  exist  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  In  the  lower  animals,  as  in  tho  sponges  and  some  of 
the  infusoria,  the  function  of  absorption  is  performed  by  contiguous 
cells  almost  as  simply  as  in  plants.  In  certain  parts  also  of  the  higher 
ftninmla^  we  have  absorption  carried  on  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  cells 
of  cartilage,  and  in  the  contiguous  cells  of  the  mucous  and  cutaneous 
membranes.  In  none  of  the  invertebrate  animals  have  we  any  special 
absorbent  system  at  alL  In  the  animal  kingdom  the  circulating 
system  has  tiie  power  of  absorption  in  even  a  greater  degree  than  the 
absorbents  themselves.  From  the  structure  of  the  walls  of  the  veins, 
arteries,  and  capillaries,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  there  is 
constantly  passing  through  them  a  dense  liquid — the  blood — we  should 
expect  that  these  organs  would  offer  the  necessary  conditions  for  absorp* 
tion.  This  has  been  proved  by  direct  experiment.  M.M.  Tiedemann 
and  Omelin  found  that  when  such  substances  as  gamboge,  madder, 
camphor,  musk,  and  assafoetida,  which  are  easily  detected  by  their 
oolour  and  odour,  were  introduced  with  the  food  into  the  stomach, 
they  were  seldom  found  in  the  chyle  in  the  time  that  they  had  found 
their  way  into  the  blood,  and  some  of  them  even  into  the  lu^e.  It 
was  also  foimd  that  if  poisonous  substances  were  introduced  into  the 
intestines,  ond  secured  in  one  place  by  two  ligatures,  and  eveiy  other 
part  cut  away  but  the  artery  and  vein,  they  exerted  the  same 
influence  on  &e  system,  and  in  the  same  time  as  usual;  whil^  if 
the  intestine  was  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  all  parts  cut  away 
but  the  laeteals,  the  evidences  of  absorption  were  deferred  for  a  much 
longer  period  than  usual  From  these  experiments  and  others  it  would 
appear  that  tho  laeteals  are  adapted  for  receiving  only  a  certain  class 
of  compounds,  more  especially  of  an  oleaginous  and  albuminous 
kind. 

That  part  of  the  absorbent  system  called  Lymphatics  were  at  one 
time  supposed  to  be  engaged  in  conveying  to  the  blood  the  used-up 
matters  from  all  parts  of  the  body  preparatory  to  their  final  expulsion 
from  the  system.  The  nature,  however,  of  the  dear  fluid  lymph  which 
is  contained  in  them  does  not  support  this  opinion,  and  as  this  lymph 
has  a  composition  very  like  to  the  blood  without  its  red  corpuscles, 
it  is  infeired  "tiiat  the  office  of  the  lymphatics  is  to  assist  in  the 
preparation  of  materials  for  the  blood.  These  materials  being 
scattered  all  over  those  parts  of  the  system  on  which  the  lymphatics 
are  distributed,  it  is  to  the  blood-vessels  that  the  office  must  be 
assigned  of  taking  up  effete  matter,  and  carrying  it  into  the  blood. 

That  the  general  cutaneous  and  mucous  surfaces  of  the  body  will 
both  exhale  and  absorb,  are  well-known  facts.  The  skin,  through  its 
penpiriferouB  glands,  which  perform  their  function  through  the  agency 
of  cdli^  exhales  moisture,  whilst  it  is  also  a  powerful  absorbent  surface. 


It  is  proved  by  direct  experiment,  that  the  human  hand  is  capable  of 
imbibing,  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  warm  water, 
which,  for  the  whole  body,  is  at  the  rate  of  biz  or  seven  pounds  per 
hour.  An  interesting  narrative  is  on  record  of  a  ship's  crew  who 
were  exposed  at  sea  for  several  days  in  an  open  boat;  they  had 
consumed  all  their  water ;  they  had  no  fluid  of  any  kind  which  they 
could  drink;  they  soon  began  to  suffer  from  thirst;  the  feeling  at 
length  became  intolerable,  and  the  drinking  of  sea-water  was  found 
only  to  increase  its  intensity.  When  nearly  exhausted,  they  were 
exposed,  during  several  hours,  to  a  heavy  shower  of  rain.  As  soon 
as  their  clothes  became  thoroughly  wet  their  thirst  began  to  abate, 
and  before  the  rain  had  ceased  their  thirst  was  gone.  They  did  not 
£eu1  to  profit  by  this  experience.  From  this  time  each  man,  as  soon 
as  he  began  to  feel  thirsty,  dipped  his  shirt  in  the  sea-water  and  wore 
it  next  his  skin,  which  had  invariably  the  effect  of  removing  his  thirst, 
the  absorbents  taking  up  the  particles  of  water,  but  rejecting  the 
saline  matter  dissolved  in  it.  The  mucous  surfiEice  of  the  lungs  is  con- 
stantly engaged  in  throwing  off  the  vapour  of  water  and  carbonic  add, 
and  absorbing  oxygen  gas.  It  is  also  through  the  pulmonary  surface  that 
poisons  are  introduced  into  the  blood,  which  result  in  the  production 
of  disease,  as  small-pox,  measles,  scarlet  fever,  and  others.  The  different 
relations  of  absorbing  surfaces  to  poisonous  substances  is  an  interesting 
subject.  Thus,  poisons  which  may  be  introduced  with  impunity  into 
the  stomach  wiU  destroy  life  when  applied  to  the  minutest  wound  in 
the  skin,  as  in  the  case  of  the  poison  of  venomous  serpents,  and 
the  Woorara  poison.  This  has  been  proved  not  to  depend  on  any 
decomposition  taking  place  upon  the  surface  of  particular  membran^ 
as  the  Woorara  has  been  introduced  into  the  stomach  and  bladder, 
and  when  rejected  has  been  foimd  to  retain  its  primitive  destructive 
power. 

ABUTILON  (afivrCKov,  the  Qreek  for  mulberry-tree,  which  the 
species  of  this  genus  resemble),  a  genus  of  handsome  plants,  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Malvaeea,  The  species  of  this  genus,  amoimting 
to  about  80,  have  been  removed  from  Sida.  They  have  a  naked  five* 
cleft  calyx,  with  a  multifid  style,  capsular  one-celled  carpds,  6-80 
in  a  whorl  Several  of  the  species  are  cultivated  in  this  country. 
A.  striatum  blossoms  freely  nearly  all  the  year  round,  when  turned 
out  under  a  wall  in  Hampshure.  A.  viHfolium,  A,  venoaum,  A,  rvfi- 
nerve,  and  A.  poeonifiorwn,  are  also  tolerably  hardy  species.  The 
plant  known  as  Bencao  de  Decs,  in  the  province  of  Rio  Janeiro,  in 
Brazil,  is  \he  A,  escvknivm.  It  has  large  purple  solitaiy  axillary 
flowers,  which  are  dressed  and  eaten  with  their  viands  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Rio.  In  cultivation  the  species  require  a  light  rich 
loam  and  peat-soil,  and  should  be  propagated  by  striking  cuttings  in 
sand  in  a  close  frame  or  under  a  glass  in  summer. 

ACA'CIA,  the  name  of  a  plant  belonging  to  the  order  LegwnUnoaoSt 
mentioned  by  Dioscorides,  as  a  useful  astringent  thorn,  yielding  a 
white  transparent  gum.  The  account  given  by  this  Greek  author, 
meagre  as  it  is,  accords  so  well  with  the  gum-arabic  trees  of  modem 
Egypt,  that  we  can  scarcdy  doubt  their  identity.  Accordingly  it  is 
to  these,  and  to  others  closely  related  to  them,  that  the  cla8si(»d  name 
is  still  applied. 

Amonigst  modem  botam'sts  the  Acada  is  a  very  extensive  genus  of 
trees  or  shrubby  plants,  inhabiting  the  tropical  parts  of  both  the  Old 
and  New  World,  and,  in  a  very  few  instances  only,  extending  into 
temperate  latitudes ;  although  over  the  whole  of  Australia,  and  its 
dependent  islands,  the  spedea  are  spread  in  much  abundance.  There 
are  nearly  800  species. 

Gtmeric  Character. — ^Flowers  polygamous.  Calyx,  with  either  fou* 
or  five  teeth.  Petals,  either  four  or  five;  sometimes  distinct  from 
each  other,  sometimes  adhering  in  a  monopetalous  corolla.  Stameus 
varying  in  number  from  10  to  200.  Pod  not  separating  into  many 
joints ;  juiceless,  two  valved.  The  species  are  extremely  variable  in 
the  structure  of  their  leaves  and  flowers.  Some  of  them  have  true 
leaves  that  are  twice  or  thrice  pinnate,  with  a  multitude  of  minute, 
shining,  or  at  least  even,  leaflets ;  others  have  in  a  perfect  state  no 
leaves  properly  so  called,  but  in  their  stead  the  leaf-stalks  enlai^, . 
and  assume  the  appearance,  and  no  doubt  also  the  functions,  of  true 
leaves :  species  of  the  latter  description  are  known  by  their  spurious 
leaves  being  expanded  vertically,  instead  of  horizontally  as  in  leaves 
of  the  ordinary  construction.  By  these  very  remarkable  points  of 
difference  in  stmcture  the  species  may  be  conveniently  separated  into 
two  great  subdivisions. 

I.  Leaves  pinnated  in  various  degrees.    About  200  species  known. 

Acacia  Catechu  (WUldenow),  ^e  Catechu  Acacia  {Mimosa  caieehu^ 
Linufflus).  Spines  growing  in  the  place  of  the  stipules ;  when  yoimg. 
straight,  but  afterwards  becoming  hooked.  Leaves  in  ten  divisions : 
leaflets  in  fh)m  40  to  50  couples,  linear,  downy ;  With  one  depressed 
gland  at  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalk,  and  from  two  to  three  between  the 
upper  di'^ions.  Flowers  arranged  in  <^lindrical  spikes,  which  grow 
two  or  three  together.  It  is  a  tree  witn  a  tolerably  high  and  stout 
stem ;  and  is  found  in  mountainous  places  in  the  East  Indies,  espe- 
cially in  Bengal  and  Coromandel  It  is  moat  common  in  Canara  and 
Bahar.  Its  unripe  pods  and  wood  yield,  by  decoction,  one  of  the  sorts 
of  catediu,  or  terra-japonica.    [Catechu.] 

Acacia  Arahica  (Roxburgh),  the  Gum-Arabic  Tree.  Spines  growing 
in  pairs.  Branches  and  leaf-stalks  downy.  Leaves  in  from  four  to 
six  divisions ;  leaflets  in  from  ten  to  twenty  couples,  oUong-lineari 


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n 


ACACIA. 


ACACIA,  FALSE. 


with  a  gland  between  the  lowest,  and  often  between  the  outermost 
diviaiona  Heads  of  flowers  growing  in  threes  upon  stalks.  Pod 
neoklaoe^haped.    It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  East  Indies,  Arabia,  and 


Acacia  Catechu. 

Abyssinia,  where  it  forms  a  tree  13  or  14  feet  high,  of  inelegant 
appearanoe ;  easily  recognised  by  its  long  curved  pods,  which  are 
diyided  into  a  number  of  round  compressed  joints,  byTneans  of  con- 


Acacia  Arabica, 

tractions  between  the  seeds.  This  is  one  of  the  plants  that  yield  the 
usefal  substance  called  Qum-Arabic,  which  is  procured  by  wounding 
the  bark ;  after  which  the  sap  runs  out,  and  hsurdens  into  transparent 
lumps,  of  various  figures,  very  similar  to  the  concretions  found  upon 
the  bark  of  the  cherry-tree  in  this  country.  Qum-Arabic  is  also  pro- 
duced abundantly  by  some  of  the  species  nearly  related  to  this,  such 
as  A.  NUoiica,  or  vera,  found  in  Egypt;  A.  Fhreribergii,  a  native  of 
Dongola ;  A,  tortUis,  a  common  plant  in  the  west  of  Nubia,  Kordofan, 
and  Arabia,  especially  upon  Mount  Sinai ;  and  A.  Seyal,  an  inhabitant 
of  Upper  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  western  Arabia.  It  is  supposed  that 
Gum-Arabic  is  collected  indifferently  from  aU  these,  and  that  the 
gums  of  Jidda  and  Bassorah,  Qum-Thur,  and  East  India  Gum,  are 
only  picked  samples.  Qum-Senegal  is  the  produce  of  a  distinct 
■pedes,  called  A,  Senegal,  foimd  in  Arabia  and  the  interior  of 
Africa. 

Aeaeia  diteolor  (Do  Candolle),  the  Purple-Stenyned  Acacia  (Mimosa 
ditcdlor,  'Bot  Bepositoiy*),  has  no  spines;  the  leaves  have  five  pairs 
of  pimua.  It  is  a  middle-sized  tree,  foimd  in  the  southern  parts 
of  Australia  and  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  where  it,  in  common  with 
many  others  of  the  same  genus,  is  called  Wattle.  It  appears  better 
adapted  than  most  oiher  Aush^an  species  to  support  our  winters. 
Hear  London  it  succeeds  perfectly  well,  aU  wmter  long;  in  the 


open  air,  if  wrapped  round  with  mats,  and  it  is  to  be  presumed  that 
there  is  no  obstacle  to  its  being  almost  naturalised  in  Devonshire 
and  Cornwall  and  the  west  of  Ireland.  It  is  readily  known  by  its 
bluish  stems  and  leaves,  which  are  slightly  stained  with  dull  purple, 
and  form  a  strong  contrast  with  its  long  erect  bunches  of  yellow 
blossoms. 

Acacia pvheseent  {*  Hortus  Kewensis'),  Downy  Aoada.  No  spines. 
Leaves  with  from  three  to  ten  pairs  of  pinnsa.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
east  coast  of  Australia.  In  this  country  it  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  green-house  plants.  If  allowed  to  grow  freely  in  the  border  of  a 
good  conservatoiy,  it  attains  the  height  of  10  or  12  feet ;  and  in 
January  and  February  produces  a  vast  abundance  of  yellow  blossoms, 
which  weigh  dovm  the  slender  graceful  branches,  and  perfume  the  air 
with  a  weak  but  pleasant  odour. 

Acacia  Julibritsin  (Willdenow),  Silk-Tassel  Acacia  {Mimosa  Jvlibris- 
tin,  Scopoli).  No  spines.  Leaves  with  from  eight  to  twelve  pairs 
of  pinnsB.  It  is  a  native  of  Persia  and  of  the  Levant  Its  specific 
name  is  Latinised  from  two  Persian  words— ^wZ,  a  rose;  and  ebnuchim, 
silk.  In  the  coimtries  where  it  grows  wild  it  becomes  a  small  tree, 
remarkable  for  its  light  airy  foliage,  and  for  the  great  beauty  of  the 
clusters  of  lilac  flowers,  the  long  and  slender  stamens  of  whida  stream 
in  the  wind  and  glitter  in  the  sun,  like  a  number  of  silken  tassels 
artificially  fastened  to  the  bougha  This  species  is  now  oommonly 
cultivated  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe. 

Acacia  aearUhocarpa  (Willdenow),  Prickly-Fruited  Acacia.  Spines, 
from  the  place  of  the  stipulse,  gro^nng  in  pairs,  and  hooked.  Leaves 
in  from  six  to  eight  principal  divisions.  It  is  a  native  of  Mezioo, 
where  it  forms  a  small  tree,  with  flesh-coloured  flowers. 

The  Black  Wood.of  Van  Diemen's  Land  is  the  timber  otAoaeia 
mdofnoxyUm  ;  and  the  astringent  Jurema  Bark  of  Brazil  is  the  produce 
of  Acacia  jurema. 

II.  Leaves  pinnated  in  the  young  plant;  in  the  old,  consitting  ofnotkmg 
hut  the  verticaUy  distended  leaf-stalks,  called  PhyUodia,  About  100 
species. 

Acacia  decipiena  ('  Hortus  Kewensis'),  Paradoxical  Acacia.  Stipules 
spiny,  deciduous.  Phyllodia  either  triangular  or  trapezoidal;  their 
midrib  nearest  the  lowest  side,  and  lengthened  into  a  spine ;  a  single 
glandular  tooth  on  the  upjper  edge.  Flowers  in  nearly  solitary  com- 
pound heads.  This  species  is  remarkable  for  the  blunders  to  which 
it  has  given  rise.  When  botany  was  only  a  science  of  names,  its 
flowerless  branches  were  taken  for  the  leaves  of  a  kind  of  fern ;  and, 
at  a  later  period,  when  botanical  geography  was  as  yet  unheard  of,  it 
was  believed  to  be  a  native  of  the  north-west  coast  of  North  America. 
«It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  south-west  coast  of  Australia,  where  it  forms 
a  bush  of  singular  aspect.  In  this  countiy  it  is  cultivated  in  the 
green-house,  and  it  flowers  in  March,  April,  and  May. 

Acacia  Sophorce  ('  Hortus  Eewensis '),  Fragrant  Acacia.  Phyllodia 
narrow.  Heads  of  flowers  in  dense  slender  racemes.  Pods  long, 
curved,  tapei>pointed,a  little  con- 
tracted between  the  seeds.  It  is 
a  native  of  the  south  side  of 
Australia  and  of  Van  Diemen*s 
Land.  In  this  country  it  is  a 
very  ornamental  greenhouse  plant, 
which,  if  planted  in  the  open 
border,  will  grow  as  high  as  eight 
feet.  Few  plants  are  more  worthy 
of  a  permanent  station  in  a  good 
conservatory. 

Acacia  longifoUa  (Willdenow), 
Long-Leaved  Acacia.  Phyllodia  of 
a  narrow  lanceolate  form,  tapering 
to  each  end.  Spikes  of  flowers 
axillary,  growing  in  pairs,  on  short 
stalks.  It  is  foimd  very  commonly 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Australia, 
especially  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Port  Jackson,  whence  it  was 
introduced  into  Great  Britain, 
among  the  first  of  the  natural 
productions  of  that  remarkable 
country. 

CuUivation. — The  species  of  this 
genus  are  increased  artificially  in 
two  diffbrent  ways.  Most  of  them 
may  be  multiplied  by  cuttings 
struck  in  silver  sand,  placed  under 
a  bell-glass,  and  kept  in  a  warm 
I)lace,  to  which  no  direct  solar 
light  has  access.  Such  of  them, 
however,  as  do  not  increase  vnth 
sufficientcertainty  by  this  method,  _.  ^  . 

A.  Jtdihrissin  for  instance,  have  Fragrant  Acacia, 

the  power  of  producing  shoots  from  pieces  of  their  root  plaeed  in 
earth  in  a  hot-bed ;  and  by  these  the  nurserymen  generally  propagate 
them.    Their  seeds  also  are  veiy  often  received,  and  frvm  tiiese  they 
can,  of  course,  be  multiplied  in  all  cases. 
ACACIA,  FALSER  or  Locust  Tree,    [Bobinia.] 


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ACADIOLITE. 


ACALEFHJS. 


34 


ACADIOLITE,  one  of  a  group  of  minerals  of  doubtful  identity, 
oompoeed  of  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  silica,  with  alumina,  lime,  soda, 
potash,  and  water. 

ACALEPHuE  (firom  heaX'h^j  a  nettle),  SeorNeUUi,  a  class  of 
marine  invertebrate  animalB,  belonging  to  the  sub-kingdom  Radiata. 
It  is  now  made  to  include  a  large  number  of  animals,  of  which  the 
genus  Meduta  of  Linnaeus  may  be  taken  as  a  type. 

The  genus  Meduaa  was  placed  by  Linnaus  m  the  second  section  of 
his  Verme8f  yiz.  MoUtuea.  The  MoUtuea  were  divided  into  six 
sections  in  the  'Systema  Natune ; '  and  in  the  last  of  these,  consisting 
of  those  molluscous  forms  which  had  a  central  mouth  below,  Meduaa 
stood  as  the  first  genus,  followed  hjAtteriag  and  JSchinut.  The  third 
section  of  Vermei  (Tetiaeea)^  with  Chiion  at  its  head,  immediately 
followed.  In  this  arrangement  Meduaa  came  between  Nereis  and 
Aatencu  ;  but  in  the  body  of  the  work'  it  stands  between  Sepia  and 
Aitericu, 

The  following  is  the  Linnsean  definition  of  the  genus  Meduta : — 
Body  gelatinotis,  orbiculate,  depressed.    Mouth  beneath,  central 

The  genus  contained  12  species,  and  these  consisted  not  only  of 
true  MeduatE,  but  of  such  genera  as  Porpita  and  VdeUa. 

The  AeaUpka  of  Guvier  (his  third  class  of  Zoophytes)  comprehend, 
to  use  his  own  terms,  Zoophytes  which  swim  in  the  sea,  and  in  whose 
organization  may  be  perceived  vessels,  which  in  truth  are  most 
frequently  nothing  but  productions  of  the  intestines,  hollowed  in  the 
parenchyma  of  the  body. 

Cuvieor^s  first  order  of  Actdepha,  or  Sea-NetUea,  consists  of  the 
Sifnple  AcalepJuB,  which  he  characterises  as  floating  and  swimming  in 
the  sea  by  means  of  the  contractions  and  dilatations  of  their  body, 
their  substance  being  gelatinous,  without  apparent  fibres.  The  sort 
of  vessels  which  are  seen  in  some  are  hollowed  in  the  gelatinous  sub- 
stance ;  they  often  visibly  come  from  the  stomach,  and  do  not  give 
place  to  a  true  circulation. 

The  genera  contained  in  this  order  are  the  great  genus  Meduaa, 
Linn.,  with  its  subgenera  Porpita  and  Vdella. 

The  great  genus  Meduaa  is  characterised  as  having  a  disk  more  or 
less  convex  above,  similar  to  that  of  a  mushroom,  and  called  the 
umbrelkL  Its  contractions  and  dilatations  concur  to  the  motivity  of 
the  animal  The  edges  of  this  umbrella,  as  well  as  the  mouth,  or  the 
suckers,  more  or  less  prolonged  into  pedides,  which  take  its  place,  in 
the  middle  of  the  lower  surface,  are  furnished  with  tentacles  of  veiy 
different  form  and  size.  These  different  degrees  of  complication  have 
given  rise  to  very  numerous  divisions. 

The  ArachnodemuUa  form  the  second  class  of  M.  de  Blainville's 
Aetinotoariek  He  observes  that  this  class  corresponds  exactly  to  th€^ 
genua  Meduaa  of  Linneeus. 

The  following  is  IL  de  Blainville's  definition  of  this  genus : — 

Body  free,  r^^ularly  oval  or  circular,  subgelatinous,  covered  with 
an  extremely  fine  skin,  which  is  but  little  or  not  at  all  distinct, 
sustained  or  not  by  a  solid  subcartilaginous  part,  and  provided  with 
very  diversiform  radiated  appendages. 

Intestinal  canal  limited  to  the  stomach,  and  provided  with  a  single 
orifice. 

Ovaries  multiplied,  radiated,  and  opening  in  the  interior  of  the 
stomach. 

M.  de  Blainville  goes  on  to  state  that  their  form,  which  is  regular, 
is  nearly  always  circular  (the  Veldlat  alone  being  oval),  sometimes 
discoid  or  spheroidal,  but  most  frequently  hemispherical,  which 
causes  them  to  resemble  our  umbrellas,  and  has  given  rise  to  the 
distinction  of  their  body  by  that  name.  This  body  is  sometimes 
furnished  in  addition,  in  its  circumference,  with  more  or  less  long 
cirrhi,  to  which  the  name  of  tentacles,  or  better,  of  tentaculiform 
oirrhi,  has  been  given. 

The  lower  surface  of  the  umbrella,  he  observes,  is  sometimes  entirely 
naked,  but  in  other  cases  is  provided  with  numerous  and  dispersed 
tentaculiform  suckers,  as  in  the  Porpita  and  VeLdUs,  or  else  with  very 
diversiform  appendages,  capillaceous  at  least  at  their  extremity,  whidii 
Boologists  have  termed  arms,  whence  the  denomination  oi  Brachideoua 
which  they  have  given  to  some  species.  These  appendages  or  arms 
are  sometimes  free  from  their  base,  but  in  other  cases  are  united, 
which  unity  produces  a  sort  of  peduncle,  which  has  originated 
the  designation  of  Pedunculated  for  tiiose  species  that  are  so  pro- 
vided. In  the  middle  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  umbrella  of  these 
Meduaa  is  sometimes  a  species  of  peduncle  formed  by  a  probosddi- 
form  prolongation  of  the  buccal  orifice,  and  they  are  then  called 
Prohoaeideoua ;  but  in  the  greater  number  of  cases,  the  middle  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  umbrella  is  occupied  by  a  more  or  less  con- 
siderable mass,  attaching  itself  to  the  body  by  foiir  roots,  in  the 
form  of  a  cross,  so  as  to  divide  the  buccal  orifice  into  four  semi- 
lunar parts.  This  pedimcle,  terminated  by  more  or  less  numerous 
capillaceous  divisions,  has  caused  the  name  of  Pedunculated,  or 
Polyatomatoua,  to  be  applied  to  those  Meduaa  which  are  provided 
with  it. 

The  first  subdivisions  of  the  Araehnodermata  established  by  M.  de 
Blainmlle  depends  on  the  existence  or  absence  of  a  solid  piece  for  the 
support  of  the  umbrella  or  body  of  the  animal,  and  consists  of  the 
Cfirrhigrada,  which  are  provided .  with  that  support,  and  of  the 
Pulmograda,  which  are  without  any  such  support.  These  orders, 
observes  11  de  Blainville,  are  farther  distinguished '  by  the  very 


different  nature  of  the  appendages  with  which  t|ie  umbrella  is 
furnished  on  the  buccal  surface. 

The  difficulty  of  examining  the  Aealepha  is,  from  the  ver^  nature 
of  their  texture,  considerable,  and  that  of  preserving  them  m  spirit 
great  It  is  not,  then,  to  be  wondered  at  that  a  great  portion  of  their 
organisation  remained  for  a  long  time  in  obscurity,  and  that  much 
relating  to  it  still  remains  to  be  cleared  up.  To  observe  them  with 
anything  like  a  satisfactory  result,  they  must  be  studied  on  the  spot, 
and  while  they  are  alive ;  and  thus  it  is  that  several  points  relative  to 
their  organization  and  habits,  and  their  generation  especially,  have 
only  lately  been  cleared  up.  The  possibili^  of  fairly  preserving  them 
in  spirit  is  shown  in  the  museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in 
London,  where,  in  the  department  comprehending  the  first  division 
of  the  reparations  of  Kat  Hist,  in  spirit,  several  of  the  Acalephans, 
(No.  64  to  78  A,  both  inclusive)  are  to  be  seen  so  preserved.  In  the 
following  remarks  the  structure  of  the  typical  Meduaa  will  be  more 
especially  referred  to. 

The  disk  presents  a  uniform  cellular  appearance  internally,  and  the 
cellular  substance  is  very  soft.  In  its  mass  no  fibre  has  hitherto,  we 
believe,  been  traced,  and  indeed  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  in  the 
whole  animal  must  be  very  smalL  Those  who  have  taken  Meduaa 
out  of  the  sea,  and  laid  them  upon  a  dry  board  or  dry  stone,  must 
have  observed  how  soon  they  sink  into  a  sort  of  deliquescence. 
Spallanzani  came  to  the  condusion  that  the  sea-water  penetrating  the 
organic  texture  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  the  volume  in  the 
Meduaa,  some  of  which  when  newly  taken  out  of  the  sea  weighed  50 
ounces,  though  their  dried  remains  gave  a  weight  of  little  more  than 
5  or  6  grains.  A  fine  muscular  membrane  appearing,  when  examined 
with  a  magnifying  glass,  t6  be  composed  of  numerous  fieshy  fibres 
disposed  in, small  bundles,  radiating  as  regards  the  axis  of  the  Meduaa^ 
and  adheriiig  closely  to  the  gelatinous  substance  of  the  disk,  may  be 
seen  in  some  species  stretch&g  over  a  given  extent  of  the  lower  suHiace 
of  the  umbrella,  a  little  within  its  outer  margin.  Portions  of  the  disk, 
or  umbrella,  have  been  cut  from  these  animals  whilst  they  were  alive : 
those  portions  which  had  no  part  of  this  muscular  membrane  attached 
to  them  exhibited  no  signs  of  motion ;  in  those,  on  the  other  hand, 
whose  coimection  with  the  muscular  membrane  was  preserved,  the 
reciprocal  contraction  and  dilatation  were  continued  for  some  time. 
Those  Pvlmograda  which  have  cilia  around  their  margins. have  also 
circular  vessels  running  along  their  bases,  and  most  of  the  projectile 
and  extensile  tentacles  and  filaments  have  sacs  and  canals  with  con- 
tained fiuids  at  their  roots.  If  these  cilia  may  be  regarded,  and  they 
doubtiess  may  be,  as  one  of  the  causes,  and  a  principal  one,  of  loco- 
motion, the  pensile  tentacles  of  the  Meduaa  may  be  viewed  as  ancillary 
at  least  to  that  faculty,  though  tiiey  probably  are  principally  employed 
as  nutrient  organs.  They  are  hollow  and  simple,  and  appear  to 
increase  in  their  extensibility  in  proportion  to  their  connexion  with 
the  appendages  of  the  digestive  cavities,  or  when  furnished  with  a 
veside  at  their  base.  Suckers  are  found  at  the  extremities  and  along 
the  sides  of  these  tentades  in  several  of  the  genera,  so  as  to  enable 
them  more  securely  to  catch  the  floating  destined  prey,  or  to  assist  in 
anchoring  the  Meduaa  when  it  would  rest,  as  we  have  reason  to 
believe  it  occasionally  does. 

Nervoua  Syatem  and  Senaea, — ^We  are  not  aware  of  any  quite  satis- 
factory demonstration  of  a  nervous  system  in  the  Acalephans.  Dr. 
Grant  indeed  ('  Zool.  Trans.,'  vol  i)  notices  a  structure  in  Cydippe 
which  in  his  opinion  can  only  bdong  to  that  system ;  but  Eschscholtz, 
whose  labours  in  investigating  the  organization  of  this  class  were  not 
small,  failed  to  discover  nerves  in  the  lai^est  which  he  examined. 
That  they  enjoy  sight  has  been  a  question.  Ehrenberg  has  endeavoured 
to  show  that  Meduaa  aurita  possesses  eyes  in  the  form  of  small  red 
points  visible  on  the  surface  of  the  eight  brown  masses  which  are 
round  the  circumference  of  the  umbrella ;  and  he  has  compared  these 
so-called  eyes  to  those  of  certain  Jtotifera  and  Entomoatraca.  He  con- 
siders the  glandular  body  at  the  base  of  the  pedide  to  be  an  optic 
ganglion,  and  notices  its  connection  with  two  filaments  that  decussate 
about  the  middle  of  their  course ;  and  he  views  these  as  constituting 
part  of  a  nervous  cirde,  situated,  for  the  greater  part  of  its  extent, 
directiy  along  the  bases  of  the  row  of  tentacles  surrounding  the 
umbrella,  and  so  forming  a  sort  of  outer  wall  of  the  circular  vessel  or 
appendage  of  the  intestinal  cavity  which  runs  round  the  maigin  of 
the  umbrella.  He  also  describes  another  nervous  cirde,  formed 
of  four  ganglion-hke  masses.  These  he  states  to  be  disposed  round 
the  mouth,  and  to  be  each  coxmected  with  a  corresponding  group  of 
tentacles. 

But  the  general  opinion  seems  to  be  that  touch  is  the  only  sense 
possessed  by  the  Acalephans,  as  far  as  proof  has  hitherto  gone.  That 
they  are  sensible  to  light,  though  the  evidence  in  favour  of  their 
possessing  sight  properly  so  called  may  not  be  deemed  condusive,  will 
be  generally  admitted.  It  is  said  that  some  of  the  smaller  tribes  have 
been  known  to  shun  a  bright  lights  and  to  sink  into  deep  water  to 
avoid  it 

The  chief  seat  of  the  touch  appears  to  be  in  the  tentacula  and  cirrhi 
with  which  the  majority  of  Acalephans  are  furnished.  Many  of  them, 
as  we  have  ourselves  observed,  make  no  sign  when  wounded  extensivdy 
in  the  umbrella  or  disk. 

Muacvlar  Syatem, — In  most  of  the  spedes  of  PuUnoyrade  Meduaa 
distinct  muscular  fibres  exists  which  present  the  peculiar  markings 


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ACALEPRS. 


ACALEPHiS. 


obfleired  on  the  fibres  of  Toluntary  xnueoleB.  Where  these  csanot  be 
seen,  tissue  consisting  of  a  granular  substance  exists  which  possesses 
the  peculiar  power  of  contraction.  Professor  K  Forbes  says^  that  he 
has  "paralysed  one  side  of  a  JRhizoBtowui  Aldrcvamdif  whose  disk 
measured  more  than  a  foot  across,  by  removing  with  a  scalpel  the 
bands  of  that  hal^  whilst  the  other  side  contracted  end  expanded  as 


Skixostoma  eerulea  (CaTier). 

usual  though  with  more  rapidity,  as  if  the  animal  were  alarmed  or 
suffering:''  The  tentacles  or  most  species  nure  capable  of  wonderful 
extension  and  retraction,  moyements  which  must  be  effected  by  means 
of  muscular  tissue. 

Food  and  Digutum,-^The  food,  small  fishes  and  marine  snimals, 
both  living  and  dead,  is  probably  conveyed  to  the  mouth  not  only  by 
the  tentacles  end  dniii  with  which  the  greater  part  of  the  Medutce  are 
furmshed,  but  also  by  contractions  in  the  timbrella  or  disk  itsell 
Fishes  of  some  size  have  been  found  dead  and  entangled  in  the  tentades 
of  Medu$<E,  kflled  most  probably  by  that  benumbing  or  stinnng  qualitv 
which  has  obtained  for  them  ihe  name  of  Sea-Nettles,  mfessor  E. 
Forbes,  speddng  of  the  habits  of  Sartia  tubfdotOf  says,  "being  kept  in 
a  jar  of  sslt  water  with  small  Crustacea  they  devoured  these  animals, 
80  much  more  highly  oiganised  than  themselves,  voraciously,  appa- 
rently enjoying  the  destruction  of  the  unfortunate  members  of  the 
upper  claBses  with  a  truly  democratic  relish.  One  of  them  even 
attacked  and  commenced  the  swallowing  of  a  Lizsia  odoptmeUUa, 
quite  as  good  a  Medusa  as  itself.  An  ammal  which  can  pout  out  its 
mouth  twice  the  length  of  its  body,  and  stretch  its  stoma(Ui  to  corres- 
ponding cUmensions,  must  indeed  be  '  a  triton  among  the  minnows,' 
and  a  very  terrific  one  too." 

By  the  investigations  of  M.  Milne-Edwards  principally,  we  now  know 
that  all  the  Pidmoffrada  have  gastric  cavities,  but  all  have  not  mouths 
in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  word.  In  Bhwutoma,  for  instance, 
the  only  communication  between  the  stomach  and  the  outer  sur£sce  is 
carried  on  through  numerous  branching  canals  in  the  pensile  arms. 
In  most  cases  a  system  of  vessels  is  observed  proceeding  directly  from 
the  stomach,  partly  nutritive  and  partly  respiratoiy,  but  there  does 
not  appear  to  be  any  distinct  blood-vessels.  From  the  recent  researches 
of  Vm,  Leuckart,  and  E.  Forbes,  it  does  not  appear  that  any  special 
blood-fluid  exists  amongst  the  spedes  they  have  examined. 

BeproducHveSyHemmd  Devdopment. — The  majority  of  the  Acalephn 
have  very  distinct  r^roductive  glands.  In  the  Pulmograda  they  are 
placed  either  on  the  surface  of  the  sub-umbrella,  or  on  the  inner  and 
upper  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  peduncle.  In  most  cases  these  animals 
appear  to  be  bisexual,  though  the  two  sexes  are  often  united  in  the 
same  individual;  but  Milne-Edwards,  Wagner,  and  Will  have  observed 
individuals  vrith  sperm-odls  only,  and  with  germ-cells  only.  Although 
probably  in  all  cases  reproduction  takes  place  by  conjunction  of  these 
cells,  the  Medata^  Uke  some  other  lower  animals,  have  the  power  of 
nrodudng  their  offiipring  by  germination.  This  fsct  was  fint  made 
known  by  Sars  in  1836.  PVofeesor  E.  Forbes,  in  his  great  work  on 
the  British  Naked-Eyed  Meduss,  says,  "  I  have  observed  four  modes 
of  propagation  by  germination  among  the  Medusae.  1.  Qermination 
from  the  ovaries,  as  observed  by  Sars.  2.  Qermination  from  the 
peduncular  stomach.  3.  Germination  from  the  walls  of  a  tubular 
proboscis.  4.  Qermination  fr>om  the  bases  or  tubercles  of  the  four 
marginal  tentacles  in  Santa  proUfera,"  In  order  to  suggest  the  naturo 
of  thii  mode  of  reproduction,  Forbes  has  the  following  passsge: — 
"What  strange  and  wondrous  changes t  Fancy  an  elephant  with  a 
number  of  little  elephants  sprouting  from  hie  shoulders  and  thighs, 
bunches  of  tusked  monsters  hanging  epaulette-fiAshion  from  Ids  flimks 
in  every  stage  of  advancement.  Here  a  young  pachydenn  almost 
amorphous,  tiiere  one  more  advanced,  but  all  ears  and  eyes ;  on  the 
right  shoulder  a  youthfrd  Chuny,  with  head,  trunk,  toes,  no  legs,  and 
a  shapeless  body ;  on  the  left,  an  infant  better  grown,  and  struggling 
to  get  away,  but  his  tail  not  suffidentiy  oiganised  as  yet  to  permit  of 
libwty  and  free  action !  The  comparison  seems  grotesque  and  absurd, 
but  it  really  expresses  what  we  have  been  describing  as  actually  ooouz^ 
ring  among  our  Naked-Eyed  Medusn  1 " 


The  history  of  the  development  of  the  ova  is  not  less  interesting. 
When  first  produced  they  are  retained  in  the  interior  of  the  oreatnre 
until  they  are  oovered  with  cili%  when  they  pass  out^  and  are  found  in 
the  water  resembling)^.  1.  In  the  course  ox  a  littie  time  it  attaches 
itself  to  some  fixed  object,  and  then  puts  out  four  arms.  In  the 
first  stage  we  have  an  infusorial  animalcule ;  in  the  next>  ^.  2,  we 
have  a  x^tifer  or  hydroid  polype.  Not  only  have  we  the  resemblance  to, 
but  some  of  these  forms  have  been  shewn  by  Steenstrup  ('Alternation 
of  Qenerations ')  to  have  been  mistaken  for  permanent  states  of  other 
animals.  The  first  four  arms  are  succeed^  by  four  more^  Af'^*  &t 
tlus  stage  germs  or  buds  frequentiy  grow  from,  its  side,  fig.  4 :  the 
polypiform  body  then  lengthens,  and  at  last  becomes  wrii^ed.  Jig,  5 : 
depressions  appear,  and  the  elongated  body  is  out  ud  into  a  series  of 


horiiontal  dices,  from  the  edges  of  which  tentades  grow.  Jig,  6 : 
layer  escapes,  and  presents  itself  in  the  form  of  a  young  Medusa,  fig,  7. 
Such  is  the  histoiy  given  bv  Steenstrup,  in  one  of  the  common  forms 
of  Pulmograde  Medusa,  and  such  with  modifications  appear  to  be  the 
changes  which  each  ovum  of  the  Medusa  passes  through  before  it 
becomes  a  Ailly  devdoped  animaL 

Power  of  Swinging,— i:he  name  Aealepkaf  Sea-Netties,  suggests  this 
property.  It  is  not,  however,  improbable  that  thii  ftmction  is  possessed 
only  by  a  few  spedes.  Some  possess  this  property  in  a  remaikable 
degree^  as  the  Oyanea  capillaia,  which  is  a  terror  to  bathers  in  our 
teas.  At  most  two  or  three  others  possess  it  in  relation  to  the  human 
skin.  ^  It  is  probable  they  exert  greater  power  over  their  prey  or  their 
enemies  amongst  the  lower  clftssea  The  stinging  power  is  supposed 
to  redde  in  small  capsular  hairs,  which  are  founa  in  the  tissues  of 
the  AcaUpha  as  well  as  in  AcUnus  and  other  polypes. 

Photpkoretcence, — On  whatever  property  this  phenomenon  depends, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  possessed  in  a  high  oegree  by  almost  every 
spedes  of  MeduscB,  The  circumstances,  however,  on  wMch  it  depends 
seem  to  be  littie  known.  On  some  occadons  the  Aealepha  with  other 
marine  ereatures  will  give  out  abimdance  of  light,  whilst  at  other  times 
not  a  glimmer  can  be  observed.  ^ 

The  Aealepha  have  been  divided  into  four  fSamilies :  the  Pvlmograda, 
the  Oiliograda,  the  Cirrhigrada,  and  the  Phyeograda.  The  following 
is  the  arrangement  of  the  PtUmograda  given  by  M.  de  Blainville,  who, 
by  intercalating  the  genera  of  P^ron  and  Leeueur,  and  of  Eschsohdts, 
the  existence  of  whidi  he  is  fieu:  frx>m  guaranteeing;  gives  us  the  follow- 
ing synoptic  table : — 

PULMOGBADA,  or  MSDUSASIA. 

Sect.  1,— Simple, 
Genera :  Sudor  a,  Sphyra,  Phorcynia,  EuLymene,  Charybdaet. 

Sect.  IL^TeiUacfdated. 

Qenoa :  Beremcef  ^quorea,  MetOTiemOf  PoUxtna,  ^gina,  CSmma, 
FoveoUOf  Eurylna,  Pegatia,  ObeUa, 

SscT.  IIL-Sub-Proboecidean, 

Genera:  Oceemia,  AglamrOf  Melicerte,  Oylacie,  ThamHumHat,  Tima, 
CampaneUa, 

SsoT.  lY.— Pro^cseuiAm. 

Genera:  Oritkyia,  Cferyonia,  Saphenia,  Diamaa,  Limche^  Pctvcnia, 

Lytimorea,  Sthenonia, 

SsoT.  Y,—BrachuUtmt  and  Pedimeuiated, 

Genera:  Oeyrik,  Oaeeiopeei,  Aurdia,  Mdiiaa,  Svagoreif  Oep^ 
ShiMoetoma,  Chryeaora,  Pelagia, 

We  now  proceed  to  Uj  before  the  reader  examples  of  these  stvefal 
sections. 


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AGALEPH2B. 


ACALEPHiE. 


SBcnox  L 

Generic  CharacUr, — ^Body  yery  much  depreeaed,  diaooid,  umple, 
without  tentacular  drrhi,  without  either  pedundea  or  appeudagea, 
and  offering  within  only  ramified  canala  opening  (s'abouchant)  by  four 
large  trunks,  in  the  form  of  a  croaiy  into  a  amall  central  cavity  without 
extmnal  werture. 

Example,  £udora  tmdulota  (Pdron  and  Lesueur). 


there  was  a  membrane  on  the  lower  rorface,  and  he  inquires  whether 
thia  was  not  perhaps  B<)me  remains  of  the  stomachal  cavity. 

Cuvier  united  this  genus  with  the  Qerycnia,  Eschscholts  places  it 
in  his  family  Berenicida,  and  unites  Eurytde  with  it. 

Chari/bdeBa, 

Oeneric  Character. — ^Body  hemispherical,  sub-conical,  or  even  semi- 
elliptical,  furnished  on  its  circumference  with  foliaceous  subtentaoular 
lobes,  hollowed  below  by  a  great  stomachal  excavation  with  an  aperture 
as  large  as  itsell 

Exunple,  Charybdcea  peripkyUa  (P^r.  and  Lea.). 

Section  U. 
.Squorea, 

Oeneric  Character. — Body  slig^y  diversiform,  Aimished  at  its 
circumference  with  a  cirde  of  filamentous  tentacular  cirrhi,  often 
very  long,  and  more  or  less  numerous,  a  good  deal  excavated  below, 
with  a  median  orifioe  often  at  the  exia^mity  of  a  sort  of  circular  lip, 
which  is  more  or  less  projecting  or  provided  with  tentacular  fringes. 

Stomachal  appendages  linear,  numerous,  or  sacciform  and  not 
numerous. 

Example,  jBquorea  cyanea  {F6r.  and  Les.). 

ira6i/a<.— South  Seas. 


Eudora  mtditlota, 

a,  view  of  the  upper  tide ;  h,  in  profile,  or  with  the  edge  of  its  disk  towards 
thespecUtor;  0,  view  of  the  knrer  side. 

M.  de  Blainville  remarks  that  he  only  knows  this  genus  from  the 
characteristic  and  short  description  given  by  P^ron  and  Lesueur.  He 
doubts  whether  this  Medusa  has  not  a  mouth  ;  for  he  thinks  that  the 
centre  of  the  reunion  of  the  four  laige  trunks  of  the  canals  ought  to 


Charifhdaa  per^pkftta, 

be  Tsgaxded  as  a  stomach.    He  further  inquires  whether  the  individual 
figured  was  complete.    He  layi  that  Id  licsueur  informed  l)im  that 


JBjuorea  eyansa, 
a,  the  animal  complete ;  b,  a  portion  thereof. 

M.  de  Blainville  divides  this  genus  into  the  following  sections : — 

* 

Maxginal  cirriii  very  numerous;  stomachal  appendages  equally 
numerous  and  linear. 

A    Lip  simple. 

Qenus  jEquorecL 

B.    Lip  fringed. 

Qenus  MeBonema.    (EscL) 

*  * 

Marginal  cirrhi  as  well  as  the  stomachal  appendages  sufficiently 
numerous,  or  not  numerous. 

C.  Cirrhi  sufficiently  numerous,  originating  opposite  to  the  trian- 
gular stomachal  appendages. 

Qenus  Polyxena,    (Each.) 

D.  Cinhi  and  sacciform  stomachal  appendages  few. 

Qenus  jBgina.    (Esch.) 
We  have  selected  a  genus  of  the  first  subdivision  for  illustration. 

SBonoN  IIL 

Oeneric  Character — ^Body  hemispherical,  provided  at  its  circum- 
ference with  tentaculiform  cirrhi  which  are  bulbous  at  the  root ;  veiy 
much  excavated  beneath,  and  having  in  its  middle  a  free  pedunculiform 
stomachal  cavity  dividing  itself  into  daviform  canalsy  and  terminated 
by  a  simple  buccal  orifice. 


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«  ACALEPELfi. 

Examplfi,  Thamnantioi  cymbaUHdea.  (Med,  cym.  Slabber. ;  Dumcea, 
eymb,,  Ltm.) 


ACAL£PHi& 


to 


ThaumatUitu  eymbaUndea, 

Placed  by  F^ron  among  his  OceanicB. 

BabUcU. — Coasts  of  Europe ;  Holland. 
Tima. 

Qenerie  Character, — Body  hemispherical,  depressed,  furnished  on  its 
droomference  with  a  circle  of  tentaculiform  drrhi,  which  are  short 
and  numerous ;  not  much  ezcayated  beneath,  and  prolonged  into  a 
very  thick  conic  peduncle,  which  is  ^tirely  exserted,  and  terminated 


Tima  flavilahri»» 

by  a  plicated  enlargement ;  buccal  orifice  at  the  centre  of  four  labial 
appendages;  stomachal  cavity  in  the  enlargement  of  the  peduncle, 
and  giving  origin  to  four  ascending  canals,  and  communicating  with  a 
mai:g^ial  canal 

Example,  TimaJlavUabrii, 

ffabitat.—The  Azores, 

Sbctiok  IV. 

Diancea  (Quoy  and  Gkum.) 

Generic  Chairacter. — Body  hemispherical,  furnished  on  its  circum- 
ference with  a  Small  number  of  tentaculiform  cirrhi ;  excavated  beneath 


Qenerie  CfKarader. — ^Body  subhemispherical,  with  neither  cinhi  nor 
tentaculiform  marginal  cilia ;  rather  deeply  excavated  beneath,  with  a 
long,  median,  probosoidif orm  prolongation,  having  at  its  root  six  or 
ei^t  braohideous  appendages,  furnished  with  radidfoEm  sadkers. 
Four  ovaries. 

Example,  Fawmia  Octonema.    (Orithyia  OetonemOf  Lam.) 

JJoMtoe.— South  Seas. 


Dianaa, 

Jjjftnnotxcu 

Oeneric  Character, — ^Body  subhemispherical,  furnished  on  its  cir- 
cumference with  very  fine,  short,  and  numerous  tentacular  cilia; 
rather  deeply  excavated  beneath,  and  provided  with  a  long  proboscidi- 
form  prolongation,  having  at  its  base  eight  bifid  and  findy  divided 
appendages.    Four  ovaries,  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 

Example,  Lymnorea  triedra,    (DiaMsa  triedra,  Lam.) 

ira6tta<.— South  Seas. 


Favonia  oetontma. 


and  provided  at  its  middle  with  a  strong  exserted  proboscidiform 
^pendage,  with  four  bradddeous  appendages  at  its  eztzemity. 


I^fmmorea  triedra, 
a,  the  disk  Men  tnm  above. 

SscmoN  V. 

Pdagia, 

Qenerie  Charaeter, — ^Body  subhemispherical,  lobated,  aurioukted, 
famished  on  its  circumference  with  a  few  tentaculiform  oiirhi ;  eight 
inferior  i^Mrtures  at  the  extremity  of  a  fistulous  pedunde  piamed 


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St 


AClLLEPnM. 


ACALEPOS. 


with  four  rery  airong  and  foliaoeous  arms.    Four  oyariei.    Stomach 
with  ceeiform  appcodages. 
Example,  Pdagia  Lcikhe,  Each.   (CyameaLabiekt,  Quoy  and  Oaim.) 


Felagia  Labieht. 

Hhigottoma, 
Cfenerie  Cfhetraeter. — ^Body  circular,  hemispherical,  provided  on  its 
circumference  with  lobes  or  festoons  intermingled  with  auricles,  largely 
excayated  below,  with  four  semilunar  orifices,  produced  by  four  roots 
of  insertion  of  a  considerable  pedunculated  mass,  afterwards  divided 
into  eight  very  complex  bracbideous  appendages  furnished  with  fibril- 
lary suckers,  without  a  median  prolongation.    Four  ovaries,  in  the 


Species  having  a  peduncle  of  insertion  for  the  root^  with  radical 
appendages,  besides  those  of  the  arms. 

B. 

Species  havixtg  a  very  short  peduncle  of  insertion,  without  radical 
appendages,  besides  the  four  bifid  arms.    {Evagora,  F6t.) 

We  have  given  an  illustration  of  the  first.  The  specnes  grows  to  a 
very  large  size. 

Chrytoftra, 

Cfaurie  Charaeter. — ^Body  circular,  hemispherical,  festooned,  and 
provided  with  at  least  twenty-four  tentaculiform  drrhi  on  its  circum- 
ference ;  excavated  internally  into  a  considerable  cavity  with  sacciform 
appendages ;  communicatmg  externally  by  a  single  orifice,  pierced  in 
the  centre  of  a  median  pedimcle,  provided  with  distinct  brachideous 
appendages.    Four  ovaries. 

Example,  Cktytaora  l^Uea. 


ShUottoma  Ouvieri, 

shape  of  a  cross.     Stomachal  cavity  very  laige  and  vascular  at  its 
drcumference. 

Example^  JSAtsoffonui  (hmeri, 

^oMof.— European  Seas. 

K  do  Blainville  separates  the  genus  into  two  dirisioiis. 


Okryaaara  luUa, 
a,  one-foorth  of  the  disk  or  umbrella,  teen  from  below ;  ft,  disk  without  its 
■ppendages. 

The  Pulmograde  Medusas  have  been  recently  studied  with  great 
care  by  Pkx>fe88or  E.  Forbes,  and  he  proposes  to  divide  them  into  two 
groups  according  as  their  eyes  or  ocelli  are  covered  or  destitute  of  this 
protection.  When  any  of  the  more  common  forms  of  Medusce  are 
examined,  as  the  species  of  Jthixoatoma  or  Pdagia,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  maigins  of  the  ocelli  are  protected  by  more  or  less  compli- 
cated membranes,  hoods,  or  lobed  coverings.  This  character  accom- 
panies another  of  great  importance,  that  is,  the  possession  of  a 
complicated  anastomosis  and  ramification  of  the  vessels.  In  the  case 
of  Tkawnantuu  and  other  genera  it  will  be  found  that  the  ocelli  are 
either  absent  or  entirely  naked,  and  this  condition  is  accompanied 
with  a  verjr  simple  vascular  system.  Hence  Professor  Forbes  proposes 
the  followmg  classificatiotL 

L  SrsaANOFTHALiCATA  {<rrrfav6sy  covered). 
Qenera.  AwtUa,  P^ron;  Meduea,  Eschscholts;  Pelagia,  P^n  and 


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ACALEPHiB. 


AOALEPH^ 


84 


Lesueur;  CkryMaarOf  P^ron;  RhizotUmOy  Cuvier;  Cotttopeo^  P^ron; 
OyaMt€^  P^ron. 

II.  Otmnofhthalicata  (yvyat6sf  naked). 

1.  YeaselB  branched  ( WiUtiadce). 
Oenii&     WiOtia,  Forbes. 

2.  Veflflelfl  simple.  Ovaries  convoluted,  and  lining  the  pedunculated 
stomach  (OceanicUe). 

Qenera.    Twria,  Lesson ;  Sapheniciy  Escbscholtz ;  Ocecmto,  P^ron. 
8.  Vessels  simple,  eight  or  more.  Ovaries  linear,  in  the  course  of  the 
vessels  on  the  sub-umbrella  {jBquoreadce). 

Genera.    Stomchraehium,  Brandt ;  Polyxenitiy  Escbscholtz. 

4.  Vessels  simple,  eight.  Ovaries  as  many  as  the  vessels,  small,  in 
the  course  of  the  sub-tunbrella  {Cfirceadce), 

Qenus.     Circe,  Mertens. 

5.  Vessels  simple,  four.  Ovaries  four,  in  the  course  of  the  vessols 
on  the  sub-umbrella  {Oeryoniadoe). 

Genera.  Qtryonia,  P^ron ;  Tima,  Escbscholtz ;  Oeryonoptis,  Forbes ; 
TkawmanHoi,  Escbscholtz ;  StabberiOy  Forbes. 

6.  Vessels  simple,  four.  Ovaries  in  the  substance  of  the  peduncle 
{SarncuicB), 

Genera.  Sania,  Lesson;  BovgainttUea,  Lesson;  Liatia,  Forbes; 
Mooderia,  Forbes ;  Eu/phyea,  Forbes ;  Steenatrttpici,  Forbes. 

This  arrangement  applies  to  the  British  genera  only,  the  species  of 
which,  with  figures,  are  described  in  Professor  Forbes's  'Monograph  of 
the  British  Naked-Eyed  Medusad/  published  by  the  Bay  Society. 

The  second  order  of  the  AcaJ^pha  are  the  CiLioaRADA,  of  whiq^  De 
Blainville  gives  the  following  definition :  — 

Body  gelatinous,  very  contractile,  free,  diversiform,  evidently  binary 
or  bilateral,  sometimes  appearing  subradiated,  provided  with  a  kind 
of  straight  ambulacra,  formed  by  the  approximation  of  two  series  of 
vibratory  cilia. 

Intestinal  canal  complete,  or  provided  with  two  orifices,  a  mouth 
and  a  vent 

The  term  OiUograde  has  been  given  to  these  MeduscB  on  account 
of  the  minute  oigans  called  Vibratile  Cilia,  with  which  they  are 
covered. 

ArrangemefU, 

De  Blainville,  whose  amended  arrangement  we  take,  observes  that 
SYstematists  have  hitherto  agreed  to  imitate  Gmelin  more  or  less  on 
the  subject  of  the  place  of  the  CUiograda  in  the  animal  series,  that  is 
to  say,  in  making  them  a  genus  approximating  to  the  MedutcB  ;  and 
he  instances  Lsmciarck,  Cuvier,  Latreille,  and  Oken,  as  not  having 
expressed  any  doubts  on  the  subject. 
Genera. 
1.  BerSe, 

a.  Species  whose  cilia  are  smaller  than  the  uiterstioeB  which  separate 
them.    (Genus,  Berde  of  Escbscholtz.) 

Example,  Berde  ovata.  Those  found  by  Browne  seldom  exceeded 
three  inches  and  a  half  in  length,  or  two  and  a  half  in  the  largest 
transverse  diameter.  "This  beautiful  creature,"  says  Browne,  '  Jamaica,' 
T).  384,  "  is  of  an  oval  form,  obtusely  octangular,  hollow,  open  at  the 
larger  extremity,  transparent,  and  of  a  firm  gelatinous  consistence ;  it 


Serde  ocata. 

contracts  and  widens  with  great  facility,  but  is  always  open  and 
expanded  when  it  swims  or  moves.  The  longitudinal  radii  are 
strongest  at  the  crown  or  smaller  extremity,  where  they  rise  from  a 
▼eiy  beautiful  oblong  star,  and  diminish  gradually  from  thence  to 
the  maigin :  but  each  of  them  is  furnished  with  a  single  series  of  short, 
delicate,  slender  appendices  or  limbs  (the  cilia)  that  move  with  great 
celerity  either  the  one  way  or  the  other,  as  the  creature  pleases  to 
direct  its  flexions,  and  in  a  regular  accelerated  succession  from  the  top 
VA&  Hm.  Diy.  vou  i. 


to  the  margin.  It  is  impossible  to  express  the  liveliness  of  the 
motions  of  those  delicate  organs,  or  the  beautiful  variety  of  colours 
that  rise  from  them  while  they  play  to  and  fro  in  the  rays  of  the  sun ; 
nor  is  it  more  ea^  to  express  the  speed  and  regulari^  with  which 
the  motions  succeed  each  other  frx>m  the  one  end  of  the  rays  to  the 
other."  Dr.  Browne  frequently  met  with  tiiese  animals  to  the  north 
of  the  western  islands  (West  Indies). 

fi.  Species  whose  cilia  are  twice  as  long  as  the  interstices. 
(Genus,  Medea,  Eschscholte.) 

Example,  Berde  r^fetcem. 

y.  Species  whose  ^ia  are  situated  in  two  ambulacral  ridges. 
(Genus,  Pandora,  Escbscholtz.) 

Example,  BerSe  PUmingii. 

2.  Cydippe, 

Body  regular,  free,  gelatinous,  divided  into  eight  sections,  more  or 
less  distinct,  by  as  many  double  longitudinal  rows  of  vibratoiy  cilia. 
An  internal  cavity,  with  a  large  buccal  (?)  aperture,  whence  issue,  and 
are  prolonged  more  or  less  below,  a  pair  of  long  appendages,  which 
are  retractile,  and  also  furnished  with  vibratory  cilia. 

Example,  Cydippe  pileiu ;  Medusa  pileus,  Gmelin ;  Berde  pUeut, 
Lamarck;  Plewohrachia,  Fleming;  Eucharit,  P^ron,  who  really 
established  the  genus ;  but  Escbscholtz  having  transferred  the  last 
name  to  a  genus  of  Ciliobranchians,  De  BlainvUle  prefers  following 
him,  to  avoid  greater  confusion.    [Beboe.] 


-^^1 


BerSe  {Cfydippe) pileus, 

8.  CaUianira.    [Calliaitiba.] 
4.  MnemuL 

Bodv  smooth,  oval,  elongated  vertically,  very  much  compressed  on 
one  siae,  and  as  if  lobated  on  the  other.  Buccal  opening  between  the 
prolongation  of  the  sides ;  conical  appendages,  on  which  the  rows  of 
vibratoiy  cilia  are  ranged. 

Example,  Mnemia  fieteroptera,  CaUianyra  heteroptera  of  Chamisso, 
thus  described  by  Chamisso  and  Eisenhardt : — Body  hyaline,  cylin- 
drico-tubular,  dilated  at  one  extremity,  with  a  transverse  mouth,  into 
which  it  was  impossible  to  penetrate.  A  laige  cestoid  wing  on  each 
side,  with  vibratory  cilia  on  its  edges ;  six  intermediate  smaller  wings, 
of  which  the  four  inferior  (buccal)  are  lanceolated,  ciliated  on  titie 
edges,  and  attached  to  the  base  of  the  body ;  two  superior  cestoid 
wings  uniting  themselves  to  the  two  large  lateral  ones,  which  P^ron, 
according  to  the  desoribers,  erroneously  regarded  as  branchisa. 

5.  Cdtymma,    [Caltvma.] 
6.  Axiotima, 

Body  a  little  elevated,  a  little  compressed,  or  subcircular,  prolonged 
to  the  right  and  left  into  a  sort  of  appendages,  bearing  the  series  of 
cilia  towards  their  terminal  half  only,  and  up  to  their  end.  Mouth 
.small,  entirely  deprived  of  labial  appendages. 

Example,  Axiotima  QaXdis,  Escbscholtz.  Locality,  South  Seas, 
near  the  equator. 

7.  Sucharis  (Escbscholtz). 

Body  oval,  sufficiently  elevated,  slightly  compressed,  or  subcircular, 
covered  with  papillae,  with  the  ambmacra  of  natatory  cilia  extended 
from  the  summit  to  the  base.  Mouth  smsll,  provided  with  two  rather 
long  pairs  of  appendagea 

Example,  Eucharis  Tiedmanni,  Escbscholtz.  Locality,  seas  of 
Japan.  This  name  had  been  employed,  as  we  have  seen,  by  P^ron,  to 
distinguish  another  genus  of  Ciliograda,  and  should  not  have  been 
transferred  :  for  in  all  such  cases  confusion  must  be  the  consequence. 
The  student  must  now  remember  that  the  Eucharis  of  P^ron  and  that 
of  Escbscholtz  represent  two  different  generic  forms. 

8.  Ocyrde, 

Body  gelatinous,  transparent,  vertical,  cylindrical,  provided  above 
with  two  lateral  musculo-membranous,  bifid,  thick,  wide  lobes,  and 
with  two  fleshy  ciliated  rib-like  elevations,  with  two  other  ciliated  riba 
upon  the  edges  between  the  lobes :  aperture  provided  with  four  ciliated 
arms. 

Example,  (kyrde  crystaUina,  Rang,  who  founded  the  genus.    Do 

D 


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Sf 


ACALEPBJE. 


ACALEPHiB. 


Blainville  thinkfl  that  it  bears  much  resemblance  to  the  last  species  of 
CaUianira — CaUianira  kexagona  f 

9.  AleynOe, 

Body  gelatinous,  transparent,  yertica],  cylindrical,  with  eight 
ciliated  ribs,  hidden  in  part  under  the  vertical  natatory  lobes.  Aper- 
ture provided  with  four  ciliated  appendages. 

Example.  Alcyn6e  vermictdaiii,  Rang,  who  established  the  genua. 
Locality,  coasts  of  BrasiL 

10.  Cettrni, 

Body  gelatinous,  free,  regular,  very  short,  but  extended  or  prolonged 
on  each  side  into  a  long  riband-Hke  appendage,  bordered  on  each 
angle  with  a  series  of  vibratory  ciUa,  thus  forming  four  ambulacra^ 


Ouium  Veneris, 


two  on  each  side.    Mouth  inferior  and  mesial,  aocompanied  by  a  pair 

of  long,  ciliferous,  retractile  and  simple  appendages. 
Example,  Cettwn  Veneris,  Leeueur. 

Although  there  is  not  much 
resemblance  between  this  singular 
genus  and  the  typical  forms  of 
Ciliograda,  yet  they  are  connected 
by  a  succession  of  intermediate 
links.  If  we  refer  to  the  genus 
CaUianirOf  we  shall  find  that  its 
globular  body  is  so  extended 
laterally  as  to  have  a  wing-like 
appendage  on  either  side.  In 
other  genera  these  lateral  ap- 
pendages are  still  more  extended, 
until  the  globular  body  in  the 
centre  is  entirely  lost  The  ali- 
mentary canal  of  Cestwn  runs 
across  the  middle  of  its  length, 
and  from  it  extends,  as  from  the 
stomach  of  the  Medusce,  a  series 
of  gastric  canals  which  carry  the 
nutriment  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

The  third  order  is  the  Cirrhi- 
ORADA.  They  are  thus  called  from 
the  cirrhi  which  are  attached  to 
the  disk  upon  which  their  oi^gana 
are  disposed.  These  cirrhi  are, 
some  of  them,  tubular,  and  are 
furnished  with  suckers.  The 
ciecal  appendages  are  attached 
to  their  base,  in  which  are  pro- 
duced the  ova,  which  pass  out  at 
the  mouth  of  the  cirrhi.  The 
following  is  De  Blainville's  defi- 
nition of  the  order  : — 

Body,   oval  or  circular,   gela- 
tinous, sustained  in  the  interior 
of  the  dorsal  disk  by  a  solid  sub- 
cartilaginous  part,  and  provided 
on  the  lower  surface  of  the  disk 
with  tentactiliform  cirrhi,  which 
are  very  extensible. 
Qenera. 
1.  VdeUa, 
Body  membranous,  oval,  veiy 
much  depressed,  convex,  swollen, 
sustained  above  by  a  transparent 
y ,  ,,    .  oval      subcartllaginous       piece, 

"  "  ^'  marked  with  concentric  striae,  and 

ff,  upper  side ;  h,  lower  side.  surmoimted  by    a    vertical  and 

oblique  crest,  concave  below,  with 
a  sort  of  mesial  nucleus,  offering  a  central  mouth  at  the  extremity 
of  a  proboscidiform  prolongation,  surroimded  by  tentacular  cirrhi  of 
tw9  kinds,  the  external  being  much  longer  *h*^n  the  internal  ones. 


De  Blainville  observes  that  Imperato  and  Colimma  would  appear  to 
be  the  authors  who  first  noticed  the  animals  which  constilHite  thi£ 
genus,  established,  at  first,  under  the  name  of  PhyUidoce,  by  Patrick 
Browne,  and  figured  by  him  in  his  'History  of  Jamaica,'  tab.  48,  fig.  1. 
Forskahl,  who  gave  a  very  good  description  of  it,  arranged  it  under  his 
genus  HolothwicL  Loefling  made  it  a  Medusa,  denominating  the  species 
known  to  him  Medusa  VeUUa,  a  name  adopted  by  Linnasus  in  the 
'  Systema  Naturs.'  Dana  ('  Soc  Roy.  de  Turin,'  1766)  proposed  the 
name  of  Armenistartu  for  it ;  and  Lamarck  published  it  under  the  generic 
appellation  of  Velella,  by  which  it  is  now  generally  known  to  naturalists. 
This  form  is  widely  difilised,  and  has  been  found  in  the  seas  of 
Europe,  America,  Asia,  and  Australasia.  One  of  the  species,  V.  livfibosa, 
is  often  taken  on  the  southern  coasts  of  England.  The  animals  are  met 
with  far  at  sea,  and  often  huddled  togetiier,  young  and  old,  in  con- 
siderable masses.    Sailors  are  said  to  fry  and  eat  theuL 

The  PhyUidoce  labris  ccendeis,  the  SaUy-Man  of  Browne,  appears  to 
be  the  VdeUa  cyanea,  of  Lesson  and  Gamot^  and  one  at  least  of  the 
species  which  gave  rise  to  the  Medusa  Velella  of  Linnaeus  and  Qmelin 
(Lamarck  quotes  the  last  name  as  well  as  Browne's  PhyUidoce,  as 
synonyms  of  his  VeUUa  muUca). 

2.  HataruL 
Body  oval  or  circular,  sustained  by  a  subcartilaginous,  compressed, 
elevated  pieoe,  with  a  muscular,  moveable,  longitudinal  crest  above^ 
concave  below,  and  provided  in  the 
middle  with  a  free  proboscidiform 
stomach,  and  with  a  single  row  of 
marginal  tentaculiform  suckers. 

E^hscholtz  established  this  genus 
for  some  very  small  cirrhigrade  animals, 
whose  back  is  sustained  by  a  subcar- 
tilaginous piece,  not  elevating  itself  in 
the  dorsal  cavity,  and  which  only  offer 
mai^al  cirrhi  on  the  central  surface. 

JZotenamftrate.  highly  magnified.  5«  ?^^!'  after  observing  that 
Forskahl  has  figured  with  his  HoLothwria 
spirants  {VdeUa  limbosa  of  Lamarck)  some  very  small  animalw,  which 
M.  Eschscholtz  himself  regards  as  closely  approximating  to  his 
Bataria  cordata,  says  that  it  seems  possible  that  the  Batarice  may  be 
only  degrees  of  development  of  Veldla.    Example,  RcUaria  mUrata, 

8.  Porpita, 
Body  membranous,  regular,  circular,  depressed,  slightly  convex  above; 
internal  cartilaginous  support  circular,  with  its  surface  marked  by  con- 
centric striae  crossing 
radiated  striae,  cover- 
ed on  its  upper  sur- 
face   by   a    delicate 
membrane     merely. 
The  body  is  concave 
below,  and  the  infe- 
rior surface  is   frir- 
,   nished  with  a  great 
i  number  of  tentacula^ 
j  I  of  which  the  exterior 

I  ones  are  the  longest^ 
and  furnished  with 
small  cilia,  each  ter- 
minated by  a  glo- 
bule :  they  sometimes 
contain  air;  and  the 
internal  ones  are  the 
shortest,  the  most 
simple,  and  the  most 
fleshy.  In  the  centre 
of  these  tentacula  is 
the  mouth,  in  form  of 
a  small  proboscis, 
which  leads  to  a 
simple  stomach,  sur- 
rounded by  a  some- 
what glandular  sub- 
stance. 

Cuvier,  from  whom 
a  great  portion  of  the 
above  description  is 
taken,  says,  in  the 
last  edition  of  the 
'  R5gne  Animal,'  that 
there  is  but  one 
species  (PorpHa  gi- 
garUea)  of  a  beautifrd 
blue  colour,  from  the 
Mediterranean,  and 
other  warmer  seas. 
Lamarck,  who  esta- 
blished the  genua 
for  on  animal  which 
had  been  placed  among  the  Medusa  by  Linnseos,  gives  four  species* 


Porpita  gigantea, 
a,  upper  side ;  b,  lower  side. 


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»  ACALEPHJB. 

but  De  BlainTiUe  and  MM.  Chamisso  and  Einenliardt  ooincide  with 

Cuvier  in  believing  that  they  are  all  referable  to  one,  though  the 

former  admits  that  the  fact  Ib  still 

Kunewhat  doubtful      He  observes 

that    Boflo's     species,    Hclothuria 

appendictUaiiif  (Porpita  appefidictt- 

lata.  Lam.)  was  evidentlvestablished 

on  an  impaired  animal  Eschscholtz, 

under  the  name  of  Porpita  Mediter- 

ranea,  conjoins  three  of  Lamarck's 

spedesy  and  describes  three   new 

ones,  taking  for  his  character  the 

proportion     of    the     cartilaginous         VxotXe  ot  Pwpita  glandifera. 

disk,  and  especially  that  of  the  marginal  cirrhL 

Oeoffraphical  I)utributum.^Like  that  of  VeteUa,  very  wide.  Bosc, 
who  met  with  them  at  sea,  says  the  animal  has  the  appearance  of  a 
24-eou8  piece  borne  along  by  the  waves.  Examples,  Porpita  gigarUea, 
and  P.  gUmdiftra, 

L  Polj/bi-achionia,     (Guilding). 

Dorsal  support  (sustentaculum)    cartilaginous,  naked,    flattened, 
rounded,  radiated,  concentrically  striated;  mantle  (pallium)  narrow, 
firee,  surrounding  the  support;  arms  numerous,  parallel,  of  various 
lengths,    elon- 
gated,  afi&xed 
beneath,  with 
a    power     of 
taking   a    de- 
clining    posi- 
tion   for    the 
purpose        of 
taking      prey. 
Mouth  below, 
central,  purse- 
shaped,  exten-  ' 
sale.  Tentacula 

many,  varying  [ 

in  form,   sue-  : 

torial,  cover- 
ing the  whole 
ventral  sur- 
fece.  Eggs, 
Tery  small, 
innumerable, 
nestled  among 
the  tentaoula. 
Example,  Po- 
lybrachionia 
LinncBana. 

This  genus 
has  been  esta- 
blished by  Jlr. 
Guilding,  who 
describes  the 
support  as 
broad  and 
vitreous,  the 
body  as  ceru- 
lean, the  ten- 
tactda  as  pal- 
lid, and  the 
arms,  which 
are  in  a  triple 
series,  glandu- 
lous,  the  glan- 
dules being 
pedunculated. 
The  diameter 
of  the  mantle, 

exclusive      of  Polybraehionia  Linn€tana,  enlarged 

^e    arms,    is  ^^  ^pp^r  side ;  J,  lower  side, 

stated    to    be 

eleven  and  a  half  lines.  Mr.  Guilding  states  that  the  animal  is 
wonderfully  beautiful,  swimming,  or  rather  floating  on  the  serene 
surface  of  the  Caribean  Sea  in  calm  weather,  and  embracing  its  prey 
by  the  sudden  downward  application  of  some  or  all  of  its  arms, 
which  are  easily  broken  by  attrition. 

We  think  there  is  hardly  enough  to  warrant  a  generiQ  separation  in 
this  case;  the  species  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Porpita 
cceruUa  of  Eachscholtz.  Mr.  Guilding  observes  that  the  Medusa 
porpita  of  the  'Anucnitates  Academicse'  seems  nothing  more  than 
the  central  disk  of  some  species  deprived  of  all  thp  9igan8  of  the  body. 

The  fourth  order  is  the  Phtsoqrada.  The  structure  of  the 
creatures  belonging  to  this  order  were  but  little  known  till  the 
publication  of  Mr.  Huxley's  researches,  in  'Philosophical  Transac- 
tions '  for  1849.  They  are  allied  to  the  preceding  oraer  both  in  the 
conformation  of  the  gastric  organs  and  in  their  means  of  locomotion. 
The  principal  difference  between  this  and  the  preceding  families  i^, 


ACALEPHiB.  88 

that  we  here  lose  the  radiate  form,  and  observe  in  the  creatures  which 
belong  to  it  a  lateral  symmetry.  This  order  is  now  made  to  include 
the  genus  Phyaalia  and  its  allies,  which  are  possessed  of  an  air-bag, 
by  means  of  which  they  float  through  the  ocean,  and  also  the  various 
forms  of  DipkydoB.  These  two  forms  were  included  by  Cuvier  in  his 
division  of  Hydrostatic  AcalephcB.  Before  referring  to  their  arrange- 
ment, we  shall  give  the  principal  results  of  Mr.  Huxley's  researches 
into  the  anatomy  of  these  creatures,  as  given  by  him  in  the  'Report  of 
the  Twenty-First  Meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science.*  We  shall  speak  first  of  the  DiphydcB.  If  one  of;, 
these  creatures  is  examined,  it  will  be  found  to  consist  of  two  trans-" 
parent  crystalline  pieces,  which  look,  when  taken  out  of  the  water, 
Ukc  morsels  of  cutglass.  One  or  both  of  these  pieces  contains  a  wide 
cavity,  lined  with  a  muscular  membrane,  by  the  contraction  of  which 
the  animal  is  propelled  through  the  water.  The  attachment  of  the 
posterior  piece  to  the  anterior  is  very  slight,  and  when  detached  it 
will  swim  about  independently  for  hours  together.  It  was  tills  cir- 
cumstance which  led  Cuvier  to  suppose  that  the  two  pieces  were  two 
independent  animals,  and  in  this  he  has  been  followed  by  the  majo- 
rity of  zoologists.  He  describee  the  two  individuals  as  always  together, 
one  including  itself  in  a  hollow  of  the  other  (I'un  s'emboitant  dans 
un  creux  de  I'autre),  an  arrangement  which  nevertheless  permits  their 
separation  without  the  destruction  of  life.  They  are,  he  observes, 
gelatinous,  transparent^  and  move  very  nearly  like  the  Medusas,  The 
including  individual  (I'emboltant)  pit>duces  from  the  bottom  of  its 
hollow  a  chaplet  (chapelet)  which  traverses  a  demi-canal  of  the  inclu- 
ded individual  (l'emlx>it^),  and  would  seem  to  be  composed  of  ovaries 
and  of  tentacula  and  suckers  like  those  of  the  preceding  genera. 
Cuvier  then  goes  on  to  state  the  divisions  estabhshed  by  MM.  Quoy 
and  Gkdmard,  according  to  the  relative  forms  and  proportions  of  the 
two  individuals.  Thus  in  the  Diphyea,  properly  so  called,  the  two 
individuals  are  nearly  alike,  pyramidal,  and  with  some  points  round 
their  opening,  which  is  at  the  base  of  tho  pyramid.  In  the  Calpes, 
the  included  individual  has  still  the  pyramidal  form,  but  the  inclu- 
ding individual  is  very  small  and  square.  In  the  Ahyles,  the  included 
individual  is  oblong  or  oval,  and  the  including  rather  smaller  and  bell- 
shaped.  In  the  CvhoideSf  it  is  the  included  individual  which  is  small  and 
bell-shaped ;  the  including  individual  is  much  larger  and  square.  In 
the  NaviculeSf  the  included  individual  is  bell-shaped;  the  including 
individual  laige  also,  but  slipper-shaped  (en  forme  de  sabot).  Cuvier 
concludes  by  remarking  that  there  are  many  other  combinations. 
There  are  two  prominent  forms  of  Diphyda,  the  Monogastrie  and  the 
Pdygastric,  In  the  former  a  single  polype  is  developed  in  a  special 
cavity  of  the  anterior  piece.  In  tibe  polygastric  a  long  chain  of  such 
polypes,  each  enveloped  in  a  littie  tnmsparent  braot>  occupies  a 
similar  position.  These  polypes  have  no  oral  tentacles ;  but  a  long 
thread-like  tentacle,  bearing  lateral  branches,  which  are  terminated  by 
small  sacs,  is  developed  from  the  base  of  every  polype.  The  small 
prehensile  sac  has  a  peculiar  form,  but  is  only  a  dilatation  of  its 
pedicle.  It  is  much  thickened  on  one  side,  and  contains  a  great  number 
of  the  stinging  hairs  to  which  we  have  before  alluded.  The  repro- 
ductive oigans  are  medusiform  bodies,  which  are  developed  by 
gemmation  from  the  pedicle  of  the  polype. 

In  the  Polygastric  JDipkydos  new  polypes  are  continually  being 
produced  by  gemmation  at  the  attached  extremity  of  the  polype- 
chain,  and  in  all  the  species  the  same  gemmation  is  continually  going 
on  among  the  prehensile  and  reproductive  oigans. 

The  structure  of  the  other  forms  of  Physograda  are  modifications  of 
a  common  type,  in  the  main  identical  with  that  of  the  IHphyda^ 
The  great  difference  is  in  the  absence  of  the  air-oigan,  or  float  The 
same  continual  multiplication  of  parts  by  germination  goes  on  among 
the  PhyssophoridcB  as  among  the  JHphyda,  and  the  structure  and 
mode  of  development  of  the  young  oigans  are  the  same.  Great  variety 
is  presented  by  the  reproductive  organs,  from  the  form  of  mere  sacs 
to  that  of  freeWimming  bodies  precisely  resembling  Medusas,  and 
developing  the  generative  elements  only  subeequentiy  to  their 
liberation.  In  Physalia  the  female  organs  are  free-swimming  medusi- 
form bodies,  while  the  male  organs  are  simply  pyriform  sacs. 

As  a  general  conclusion  it  may  be  stated  that  the  Physograda  are 
essentially  composed  of  two  membranes,  an  outer  and  an  inner,  which 
are  called  by  Mr.  Huxley  'foimdation  membranes,'  since  every  oigaa 
is  formed  by  the  modelling  into  shape  of  one  or  other  or  both  of  these; 
commencing  as  a  simple  process,  or  diverticulum,  and  assuming  its 
perfect  form  by  a  gradual  change  of  development.  The  stomach  has 
no  walls  distinct  from  those  of  tiie  general  varieties.  The  reproductive 
organs  are  always  developed  externally.  The  stinging  hairs,  or  thread- 
ers, are  found  in  all  the  species  in  the  greatest  abundance. 

The  following  is  the  arrangement  of  these  creatures  according  to 
M.  de  BlainviUe  :— 

Phtsoobada. 

• 

Natatory  organ  simple  and  lamellar. 

1.    Physalia, 

Generic  Character.— Body  oval,  rather  elongaiBd,  more  narrow  and 
proboscidiform  anteriorly,  hydatiform  in  the  middle,  attenuated  and 
obtuse  posteriorly;  mouth  star-shaped  and  terminal;  anus  lateral; 
a  foot  u  fonn  of  a  crest  or  oblique  laminai  directed  from  before 


Digitized  by  V^UOQIC 


ACALEPHiE. 


ACALFPHiR. 


backwards;  branchisB  very  anomalous,  and  composed  of  a  great  number 
of  diversiform  cirrbous  productions ;  organs  of  generation  terminating 
at  tbe  anterior  third  of  the  right  side  hj  two  closely  approximated 
orifices. 

Example,  Phi/tcUia  AretJtuta, 

This  is  the  Arethuta  of  Browne ;  Medusa  CaraveUa  of  Miiller  and 
Eschscholtz ;  Phytalui  Pdagicut  of  Liamarck ;  the  Portuguese  Man-of- 
War  of  English  yoyagers.  This  Phytalut  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  warm 
seas,  but  a  shoal  of  them  are  sometimes  driven  into  our  bays, 
particularly  on  the  south-west  coast 


Example,    Bhizophyta  planottoma,  P^ron.     {Bkiaophyta  P&onii, 
Each., '  Acaleph./  p.  148,  No.  ii,  t.  lZ,fig.  3.) 

Species  whose  tentaouliform  productions  are  covered  with  cirrhiform 
fihunents.    Natatory  organs  mJmown.     (Qenus  Epibulia,  Esch.) 
Example,  Bhizophyta  JUtformit.    {Phyaophm^  JUtformitf  Fonk.) 


Phffialut  Pelagiem  /  the  crest  not  txpanded. 

*    * 

Locomotive  organs  complex  and  vesicular. 

2.    Physsophora, 

Generic  Character. — Body  more  or  less  elongated,  cylindroid, 
hydatiform  in  its  anterior  part,  provided  below  with  two  series  of 
vesicular  diversiform  bodies,  vnih.  a  regular  aperture,  and  behind  with 
a  variable  number  of  very  diverse  cirrhiform  productions,  two  of 
which  are  longer  and  more  complex  than. the  others;  mouth  at  the 
extremity  of  the  hydatiform  part ;  anus  terminal 

Example,  Phyuophora  Muzonema. 

M.  de  BlfdnviUe  states  that  the  PhyssophoroB  differ  from  the  Phytalice 
in  swimming  or  floating  in  a  vertical  position,  the  air-bag  being 
above  and  the  cirrhiferous  productions  below.  The  distinction  of  the 
species  appears  to  him  to  depend  especially  on  the  number  and  form 
of  the  natatory  organs. 

8.    JHphyio. 

Generic  Character. — ^Body  cylindrical,  elongated,  contractile,  mus- 
cular, composed  of  three  parts,  the  anterior  part  vesicular,  the  middle 
part  bearing  on  its  lower  part  two  hollow  natatory  organs,  placed  one 
before  the  other,  and  the  third  part  (which  is  the  longest)  provided 
above  with  a  fibrillo-capillaceous  plate,  and  below  with  cirrhiform 
productions ;  mouth  terminal 

Example,  Diphyta  tmgvlaru  (Quoy  and  Qaimard;  'Astrolabe, 
Zoologie '). 

4.    Bhixophyta. 

Generic  Character. — Body  free,  transparent,  very  contractile,  very 
much  elongated,  swollen  at  one  extremity  into  a  sort  ofaeriferous 
bladder  with  a  terminal  orifice,  provided  throughout  its  length  with 
scattered  tentaculiform  productions  mingled  with  cirrhiform  filamenta 

This  genus  is  divided  by  M.  de  Bloinville  into  two  sections. 

a. 
Species  with  simple  tentaculiform  productions.     Natatory  organs 
hollow.    (Qenus  Rhisophyta,) 


1.  Jthiaophytaflliformit;  2.  Physaophora  Mwumima, 
•     *     * 
Species  provided  with  two  sorts  of  locomotive  organs,  the  Ulterior 
ones  hollow,  the  posterior  solid. 

5.    Apclemia, 
Generic  Character. — Body  very  much  elongated,  cylindrical,  vermi- 
form, provided  anteriorly  with  many  hollow  natatory  organs  in  two 
rows,  and  behind  with  solid  squamous  organs,  between  which  come 
forth  tentaculiform  cirrhi,  fumifdied  with  vermiform  suckers. 
Example,  Apolemia  Urania^ 

6.  StephanonUcu 

Generic  Character. — ^Body  in  general  very  much  elongated,  cylin- 
drical, vermiform,  covered  throughout  its  extent,  except  in  the  lower 
median  line,  with  squamous  natatory  organs,  fall  and  di^rlBed  in 
transverse  bands,  between  which  come  forth,  and  especially  inferiorly, 
long,  very  much  diversified  cirrhiform  productions,  mingled  with  the 
ovaries.     Orifices  of  the  intestinal  canal  terminaL 

Example,  Slephanomia  Amphitridcs,  P^ron  et  Lesueur  ('Voyage 
aux  Torres  Austr.,'  p.  45,  pL  29,  fig.  6). 

7.  Protomedea. 

Generic  C haraeter. ^-Body  free,  floating,  cylindrical,  fistulous,  very 
long,  provided  above  with  an  imbricated  assemblage  of  gelatinous 


Digitized  by 


Google 


JlCJlLKPBJE. 


ACALEPHiE. 


bodies  (in  two  aHemate  rows)  which  ore  fUll  and  hippopodiform, 
and  throughout  the  rest  of  its  length  with  filamentouB^  cirrhoua, 


transverse    aeriee,    and    with   a   yariable   number   of   filamentoua 
diverBiform  productions.    Mouth  and  anus  terminal 
Example,  Jthodophysa  Udianthut, 


1,  a  portion  of  Apchwtia  Urania, 
a^  a  part  ttill  more  highlj  magnified ;  h,  a  tingle  tucker. 

diTersiforin  productions.    Mouth  proboscidlform,  at  the  extremity  of 
a  tort  of  veaieular  stomach. 
Example,  ProUnnedca  lutea, 

8.    Bhodophyicu 
Gmtric  CharacUr. — ^Body  shorty  cylindrical,  fleahy,  swollen  above 


Mkodophfta  EelUnUhus, 

into  an  auriferous  bladder,  and  provided  below  with  a  variable  number 
of  gelaftizioas  bodies,  which  are  full,  costiform^  forming   a  single 


Cfueuhatiu  cordiformit. 


Prciomedea  IvUa, 
DiPHTDA. 


Diphyda  whose  anterior  part  has  but  a  sin^^e  cavity  (Monogastric). 
Qenera. 

1.  Cucuhalm. 

Body  provided  with  a  lar^e  probosoidiform  exsertile  sucker,  with  a 
bxmch  (grappe)  of  ovaries  at  its  base,  lodged  in  a  large  bingle  excavation 
of  a  natatory  anterior  cordiform  organ,  receiving  also  the  posterior, 
which  is  also  cordiform  and  hollowed 
into  a  cavity  with  a  posterior  and  sub- 
oval  orifice. 

Example,  Cttcubalua  eordiformU,  the 
only  species  cited  of  the  genus  esta- 
blished by  MM.  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 
Length,  two  lines.  Differs  from  the 
other  Diphydotf  first,  in  having  the 
nucleus  much  less  hidden  and  sunk  in 
the  anterior  natatory  body,  which  has 
moreover  only  one  large  cavity  in  which  it  is  plunged ;  secondly,  in 
having  the  oviferous  production  very  short ;  and,  lastiy,  in  the  mode 
of  locomotitn,  for  the  animal  always  swims  vertically. 

2.  (hcuJOm, 

Body  furnished  with  a  great  exsertile  proboscidifonn  sucker,  with 
a  bundi  of  ovaries  at  its  base,  lodged  in  a  deep  excavation,  the  only 
one  in  the  anterior  natatory 
organ,  i|i  form  of  a  hood,  in 
which  the  posterior  i3  inserted 
(s'emboite);  the  latter  is  te- 
tragonal, and  pierced  behind 
with  a  rounded  terminal  orifice. 

Example,  CucuUuiDorei 
(Quoy  and  Gaimard). 
lity.  New  Guinea. 

8.  Cfymba  {NaceOe). 

Body  furnished  with  a  laige 

exsertile   and    proboscidifonn 

sucker,  having  at  its  base    a  Oueullus  Doreyonut. 

mass     of    ovariform     oi^ans, 

lodged  in  the  single  and  rather  deep  cavity  of  a  naviform  natatoiy 
oigan,  receiving  and  partially  hiding  the  posterior  natatory  organ, 
which  is  sagittiform,  pierced  behind  with  a  rounded  orifice  crowned 
with  points,  and  hollowed  on  its  free  border  by  a  longitudinal  gutter. 


reyanvs 
Loca- 


Digitized  by  V^nOU 


glQ 


48 


ACATiEPHJB. 


ACALEPHiB. 


Example,  Cymha  sagittata  (Quoy  and  Oaimard) ;  NacdU  tagittata 
(De  Blainyille).    Locality,  Straits  of  Gibraltar. 


Cfmba  $agittata, 

H.  de  BlainTille  remarks  that  he  ought  to  observe  that  M.  Eschscholtz 
says  that  this  genus,  to  which  he  imites  the  two  following  genera, 
possesses  an  anterior  natatory  oxgan  with  two  cavities,  and  of  these 
the  natatory  cavity  projects  in  the  form  of  a  tube.  M.  de  Blainville 
further  observes  that  this  genus  does  not  differ  from  the  CucvUif 
except  in  the  form  of  the  natatory  organs ;  in  fact»  the  disposition  of 
the  nucleus  in  the  bottom  of  the  single  cavity  into  which  the  anterior 
oiigan  is  hollowed,  and  the  penetration  of  the  posterior  oi^an  into  this 
■ame  cavity  are  absolutely  the  same  as  in  the  two  preceding  genera, 
as  11  de  Blainville  has  been  able  to  satisfy  himself  from,  the  examina- 
tion of  many  individuals  preserved  in  spirit. 

4.  Cvho\dt8,  ^ 

Body  nudeiform,  provided  with  a  large  proboscidiform  sucker, 

surrounded      by     an 

hepatic  mass,    having 

fi  at  its  base  an  ovary, 

whence  proceeds  a  fili- 
form ovigerouB  produc- 
tion, contained  in  a 
large,  single,  hemisphe- 
rical excavation  of  an 
anterior,  cuboid,  nata- 
tory organ,  much 
^  larger  than  the  pos- 
terior one,  which  is 
tetragonal,  and  nearly 
entirely  hidden  in  the 
first 

Example,  CvboUa  vUreua  (Quoy  and  Gaimard).  Locality,  Straits 
of  Gibraltar. 

This  again,  according  to  M.  de  Blainville,  is  a  genus  scarcely 
distinguuuiable  from  the  preceding  genera^  and  only  by  the  form  and 
proportion  of  the  natatory  organs. 

5.  Ermeagona. 

Body  nucleiform,  provided  with  a  laige  exsertQe  sucker,  haying  at 
its  base  an  assemblage  of  ovaries,  whence  proceeds  an  oviferous  pro- 
duction. Anterior  natatory  oigan  enneagonal,  containing  with  the 
nucleus  in  a  single  (?)  excavation  the  posterior  organ,  which  is  much 
smaller,  with  five  points,  and  canaliciuated  below. 

Example,  Bnneagona  hyalina  (Quoy  and  Gaimard). 


OuboXdei  titrtuM, 
a,  naturtl  size ;  ft,  magnified. 


^^^B 


16 

Enneagona  hyalina, 
1,  1  a,  1  h,  JSntteagona  hyalina  under  different  aspects ;  1  e,  visceral  part ; 
I  df  nnoleas. 

6.  Amphiroa, 

Body  nucleiform,  of  considerable  volume,  furnished  with  a  probos- 
cidiform stomach,  having  at  its  base  a  bimch  of  ovaries,  prolonged 
into  along  filament,  contained  in  an  anterior,  polygonal,  short,  natatory 
organ,  cut  squarely,  with  a  single  cavity  in  which  the  posterior  organ, 
which  is  equally  shorty  polygocued,  and  truncated,  is  inserted. 

Example,  Amphiroa  alata  (Lesueur).    Locality,  Seas  of  Bahama, 

DiphydcB  whose  anterior  part  is  furnished  with  two  distinct  cavitieB. 

1.  Cdtpe. 
Body  nucleiform,  without  an  exsertile  proboscis,  having  a  sort 
of  aenferous  vesicle,  and  at  its  base  an  ovary  (?)  prolonged  into  a 
long  cirrhigerous  and  oviferous  production.  Anterior  natatory 
oigan  short,  cuboid,  having  a  distinct  locomotive  cavity ;  posterior 
natatory  ozgan  yery  long,  truncated  at  the  two  extremities,  not 


penetrating  into  the  anterior  organ,  and  provided  with  a  round 
terminal  aperture. 

Example,  Calpe  perUagona  (Quoy  and  Gaimard).    Locality,  Straits 
of  Gibraltar? 


Amphiroa  alata, 
1,1a,  Amphiroa  alata  ;  1  i,  its  nnelens  extracted. 


Cb/jM  pentagona, 
1,  Oaipe  pentagona  (profile) ;  1  a  (under  aide) ;  1  i,  nnoleni. 

2.Ahyla, 

Body  nucleiform,  inconsiderable,  with  a  very  long  dirhigerous  and 
oviferous  production.  Anterior  natatory  body  much  shorter  than  the 
other,  subcuboid,  with  a  distinct  cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  anterior 
extremity  of  the  posterior  natatory  body,  which  is  polygonal  and 
very  long. 

Example,  Ahyla  trigona  (Quoy  and  Gaimard).  Locality,  Straits  of 
Gibraltar. 


Abyla  trigona, 
1,  Ahyla  trigona ;  1  a,  posterior  part ;  1  h,  anterior  or  visceral  part 

8.  Diphyet, 

Body  nucleiform,  indistinct,  situated  in  the  bottom  of  a  deep  cavity, 
whence  proceeds  a  long  tubular  production,  furnished  throughout  its 
extent  with  proboscidiform  suckers,  having  at  their  root  granular 
corpuscles  and  a  cirrhiferous  filament  Natatory  bodies  nearly  equal 
and  similar;  the  anterior  with  two  distinct  cavities,  the  posterior  with 
a  single  one,  with  a  round  aperture  provided  with  teeth. 

Example,  Diphyet  Bory  (Qiloy  and  Gaimard) ;  Diphyes  campaiMdifara 
(Eschscholtz). 


Doubtful  species,  or  those  with  one  part  only. 

1.  Pyramid 
Body  free,  gelatinous,  crystalline,  rather  solid,  pyramidal,  tetragonal, 
with  four  unequal  angles,  pointed  at  the  summit,  trimcated  at  its  base, 


Digitized  by  V^Uijy  It: 


ACALEPH^ 


ACALEPH^ 


with  a  single  rounded  aperture  communicating  with  a  singla  deep 
cayity,  towards  the  end  of  which  is  a  granular  coipusde. 
EiLample,  Pyrcmit  tetrag<ma  (Otto). 


Id 


Diphyet  Sory. 

1,  the  entire  animal  (profile) ;  1  a,  anterior  part  of  the  same;  1  h,  posterior 
part ;  1  c,  animal  magnified ;  1  d,  posterior  part  of  the  same. 

If.  Eschflcholtz  makes  this  organised  body  a  species  of  his  genus 
Eudaxia,  which  comprehends  Cucvhalm  and  CwvMi  of  Quoy  and 
Gaimard,  admitting  that  the  two  nata- 
tory organs  are  intimately  united  so  as 
to  form,  apparently,  but  one. 


2.  Praia. 

Body  subgelatinous,  rather  soft, 
transparent)  binary,  depressed,  obtuse, 
and  truncated  obhquely  at  the  two 
extremities,  hollowed   into   a    cavity  Pyrami*  tetragona. 

of  little  depth,  with  a  round  aperture  nearly  as  large  as  the  cavity, 
and  provided  with  a  laige  canal  or   furrow 
above. 

Example,  Praia  dubia  (Quoy  and 
Gaimard). 

8.  Telragona. 

Body  gelatinous,  transparent,  rather  solid, 
binary,  of  an  elongated,  paralldopiped,  tetra- 
gonal form  canaliculated  below,  truncated 
obliquely  anteriorly,  pierced  behind  by  a  gaping 
orifice  fiinushed  with  symmetrical  points,  and 
leading  into  a  long  blind  cavity. 

Example,    Tetroffona   hitpidum  (Quoy   and 


TOroffona  hitpidum, 
1,  ntrayona  hxMpidwn;  2,  3,  4,  details  of  the  same. 

4.  Svlcvleolaria. 
Body  subcartilaginoua,  transparent^  elongated,  cvlindrold,  traversed 
throu^out  its  Icoogth  by  a  very  large  furrow,  bordered  with  two 


membranes,  truncated  at  the  two  extremities,  with  a  posterior  aper- 
ture, with  appendicular  lobes  on  its  circumferenoe,  and  loading  mto 
a  very  long  and  blind  cavity. 

Example,  SulaUeolaria  quadrivalvit  (Lesaeur).    Locality,  Mediter- 
ranean (ISrioe). 


SulcuUolaria  quadrivalvu, 

A  genus  characterised  by  De  Blainville,  who  found  it  established  in 
the  figures  of  Lesueur,  from  those  figures ;  but  the  foimer  is  stronglv 
inclined  to  believe  that  the  genus  is  foimded  on  the  part  of  an  anima^ 
and  not  on  an  entire  one. 

5.  Oaleolaria, 

Body  gelatinous,  rather  firm,  perfectly  regular,  symmetrica],  sub- 
polygoniJ  or  oval,  compressed  on  the 
sides  and  furnished  with  two  lateral 
rows  of  extremely  fine  cirrhi  A  large  J 
posterior  aperture  pierced  in  a  sort  of 
diaphragm  with  appendicular  lobes, 
binary  above,  leading  into  a  luge 
cavity  with  muscular  walls.  An  ovary 
at  the  anterior  superior  sur£EU», 
coming  out  by  a  mesial  and  bilabiated 
orifice. 

Example,  GaleotariaauitraliSfBerMet 
aut^ralit  (Quoy  and  Gkdmard). 

6.  Rotacea, 

Body  free,  gelatinous,  very  soft,  transparent^  suborbicular,  with  a 
single  terminal  aperture  at  one  of  the  poles  leading  into  an  oval  cavity 
which  co^imimicatee  with  a  depression,  whence  proceeds  a  drrhiger- 
ous  and  oviferous  production. 

Example,  Jtosacea  CetUetuU  (Quoy  and  Gaimard). 


OaUolaria  mutraUt. 


Sotaeea  OtuimtU. 


7.  NoctUuea, 


Body  free,  gelatinous,  transparent^  spheroidal,  reniform,  with  a  sort 
of  infundibuliform  cavity,  whence  proceeds  a  proboscidiform  contractile 
production. 

Example,  Noctiluca  miliarit  (Lamarck). 

M.  Surriray,  a  doctor  of  medicine,  while  investigating  the  cause  of 
the  phosphorescence  of  the  sea-water  at  H&vre,  appears  to  have  beeo 
the  first  who  observed  and 
called  attention  to  the  genus 
NoctUnca,  which  he  described 
and  figured  in  the  memoir 
that  he  communicated  to  the 
class  of  sciences  of  the  French 
Listitute.  Its  size  hardly 
equals  that  of  a  small  pin's 

head,  and  it  is   as  transpa-  KceWuca  maioHi, 

rent  as  crystal;  he  found  it 

very  common  in  the  basins  at  H&vre,  sometimes  in  such  abundance 
as  to  form  a  considerably  thick  crust  (croilte  asses  ^paisse)  on  th« 


Digitized  by  V^UOQIC 


47 


ACkLEPHJR, 


ACANTHION. 


mirface  of  the  water.    It  has  also  been  obeerred  in  England  as  the 
cause  of  phoephoresoence  in  the  ocean. 

8.  DoUolum, 

Body  gelatinous,  hyaline,  cylindrical,  truncated,  and  equally  atte- 
nuated at  the  two  extremities,  which  are  laigely  opened  and  without 
apparent  oigans. 

Example,  DoUdwn  MediUrrcmewn  (Otto). 

11  Otto  describes  the  oigamsm  on  which  he  has  established  this 
genus  as  swinmiing  by  ejecting  and  absorbing  the  water  by  means  of 
the  alteniate  dilatation  and  contraction  of  its  two  orificea  M. 
Belle  Chiaje  ('Mem.,'  tom.  iii)  seems  inclined  to  believe  that  the 
DoUolwn  of  Otto  is  merely  a  fragment  of  a  species  of  ffolotkuna, 
which  he  names  ffolothwria  inhcerent.  De  Blainville  observes  that  if 
Otto's  description  of  the  motion,  &c.,  above  stated,  be  correct,  it  is 
probable  that  the  animal  is  a  true  Biphore, 

"Among  the  genera,"  says  De  Blainville,  "ineertce  sedit,  which, 
wrong  or  rights  have  been  connected  with  Phyuophora  or  Diphyes, 
without  even  being  very  certain  that  they  are  anirnals,  we  shall  cite 
the  following  genera  intentionally  omitted  in  our  work." 

Oupiditet  (Quoy  and  Gaimard),  placed  among  the.  PhyuopkorcSf 
whose  capsules  are  disposed  on  each  side  of  a  very  long  axis, 
established  on  an  organised  body,  figured  pL  87,  fig.  4 — 16  in  the 
zoological  part  of  the  '  Voyage  of  the  Urania'  l^ot  having  met 
with  this  animal  in  their  second  voyage,  MM.  Quoy  and  Gumard 
doubt  ('  Astrolabe,  Zoolog.,'  t.  iv.  p.  53  n.)  whether  it  is  an  incom- 
plete Phystophora  or  a  St^honumiae  {Stephanomia  t)  with  hollow 
natatory  organs.  Cuvier  places  the  genus  between  Hippopm  and 
Racemi9, 

Polytoma  (Quoy  and  Qaimard,  'Zool.  of  ihe  Uranie,'  pi.  87,  fig.  12, 
18),  which  may  be  defined  to  be  an  oval  mass  of  p'lobular  trivalvular 
corpuscles  (corpuscules  globuleux  conmie  trivalves),  and  which 
MM.  Quov  and  Qaimard  conceive  to  be  rather  a  Biphore  than  a 
Phyaoffraae, 

Tetragona  (p.  10),  (Quoy  and  Qaimard,  'ZooL  of  the  Uranie,'  pL  86, 
fig.  11).  This  the  authors  themselves  ('Astrolabe,'  iv.  p.  108)  have 
recognised  as  being  nothing  more  than  the  posterior  point  of  viphya 
hiapida. 

RacemU  (Delle  Chiaje,  Cuvier),  figured  by  Delle  Chiaje, '  Mem.'  tab. 
50,  t  11,  12,  and  described  as  a  globose  vesicle  endowed  with  a  very 
quick  motion,  and  disposed  towards  an  ovate  shape ;  but»  observes 
De  Blainville,  the  figures  and  description  are  too  incomplete  to  affbrd 
a  supposition  of  what  it  is ;  in  fact,  Delle  Chiaje  confines  himself  to 
stating  that  his  Bacemii  ov(Ua  executes  all  the  rotatory  and  rapid 
motions  at  the  surfieu>e  of  the  water,  and  that  those  of  each  vesicle 
are  so  lively  that  it  has  been  absolutely  impossible  to  perceive 
the  aperture  with  which,  according  to  Delle  Chiaje,  they  are  pro- 
vided. Cuvier  only  adds  to  the  description  of  Delle  Chiaje,  who 
also  places  RacemU  near  the  PhyMtophorcef  a  small  membrane  with 
which  each  veside  is  furnished.  SL  De  Blainville  concludes  by 
observing  that  he  had  seen  a  drawing;  by  M.  Laurillard,  which  had 
been  taken  at  Nice  from  one  of  these  organised  bodies  while  alive, 
and  that  he  supposed  that  it  might  well  be  a  mass  of  eggs  of 
Afoausca, 

Belationa  of  the  Acalephce  to  the  other  InvertebrtUcL — Mr.  Huxley,  in 
his  memoir  before  referred  to,  proposes  to  consider  the  Acalepfue  in 
some  new  relations.  The  presence  of  stinging  hairs  in  these  animals, 
in  common  with  the  ffydroid,  Sertvlarian,  and  Anthozoic  Pclypee, 
he  regards  as  a  fact  of  primary  importance.  He  endeavours  to  show 
that  this  fact,  combined  with  the  radiate  polype  form,  and  the  compo- 
sition of  the  body  of  two  distinct  membranes,  forms  a  very  good 
positive  character  for  a  group  embracing  the  Hydr&id  and  Anthozoic 
Polypes,  and  the  AcaUphce.  He  proposes  to  give  the  name  of  Nemor 
tophora  {*  thread-bearers ')  to  this  group,  in  allusion  to  the  charac- 
teristic presence  of  the  '  thread-celL'  Frey  and  Leuckart  had,  how- 
ever, applied  the  term  C(deTUer<Ua  to  the  same  group.  It  will  admit  of 
subdivision  into  two  equivalent  subclasses:  one  including  the 
BydrOfd  Pclypei,  the  ZHphyda,  Phyuophorida,  and  Medutidof,  in 
which  the  stomach  is  not  distinct  from  the  common  parietes,  and 
the  reproductive  organs  are  external;  the  other,  embracing  the 
Anthowoic  Polypes  and  BerOida  in  which  the  stomach  is  distinct 
from  the  common  parietes,  and  the  reproductive  organs  are  intemaL 
The  author  proposes  the  terms  Anacioa  and  JBcioa  for  these 
two  divisions.  These  groups  mutually  represent  each  other  as 
follows : — 


Air^fiCiOA. 

Bydroldce, 
Corynidce, 
Pennatulidce, 
BeroUke. 


JEciOJL. 

Actiniada. 
Zocmthidcg, 
Phyuophorida, 
Meiutida, 


On  these  grounds  Mr.  Huxley  proposes  to  break  up  the  class  Radiaia 
of  Cuvier  into  four  groups.  Supposing  the  Ccdenteraia  to  form  a  sort 
of  central  group,  we  have,  on  we  one  hand,  the  Atcidiant  and  the 
BryoMoa  leading  to  tiie  MoUueca  ;  on  the  other,  the  Echinodermt  and 
the  Eniowoa  leading  to  the  Amvuiosa:  whi]i#  the  Pot/ygattriOf  Sponges, 


and  Oregartnado!  conduct  us  towards  the  lowest  plants.    These  rela- 
tions may  be  thus  represented  : — 


MOLLUSOA. 


AirsxjiMk, 


r 


Asoidians.    Bryosoa.     Echinodermata.    Entoioa. 
RADIATA. 

CJELUfTBBATA. 

Ansecioa.    Moios^ 

Protozoa. 

Polygastrica.    Spongiadse.     Gregarinadtt. 


Fossil  Impbxssiohb  of  MsDU&sf 

Mr.  Babbage,  in  his  paper  '  On  Impressions  in  Sandstone  resembling 
those  of  Horses'  Feet,'  December,  1886,  in  which  he  noticed  those  in 
the  channel  of  a  stream  on  the  extensive  moor  called  PwU-y-Duon, 
about  seven  miles  from  Merthyr  Tydvil,  to  which  his  attention  was 
drawn  by  Mr.  Guest  of  Dowlais,  and  the  analogous  casts  in  the  old 
red-sandstone  of  Forfarshire,  there  called  Kdpies'  Feet>  described 
some  observations  made  by  Sir  C.  Lyell,  on  impressions  left  by 
Medmce  on  the  rippled  sand  near  Dundee.  On  amoving  the  gelati- 
nous body  of  the  animal,  a  circular  space  was  exposed,  not  rippled, 
but  having  around  half  the  border  a  depression  of  a  horse-shoe  fonn. 
These  marks,  however,  were  not  considered  by  Sir  C.  Lyell  as  identical 
with  those  called  Kelpies'  Feet^  but  merely  so  far  analogous  as  to 
invite  further  observations,  and  to  make  it  desirable  to  possess 
drawings  of  the  impressions  which  diflferent  species  of  Medusa  leave 
when  thrown  by  the  tide  upon  a  beach  of  soft  mud  or  sand.  (*  GeoL 
Proc.,'  voL  ii.)     [See  Sdpplembnt.] 

ACANTHA'CE^,  an  order  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Monopeta- 
lous  division  of  Dicotyledons.  Its  type  is  the  genus  Acanthus.  The 
species  are  herbaceous  or  shrubby ;  they  are  extremely  common  in 
every  tropical  country.  Many  of  tiie  species  are  mere  weeds ;  others 
bear  handsome  flowers  with  gaudy  colours,  but  seldom  with  any 
odour;  a  vexy  small  number  have  been  occasionally  employed 
medicinally  as  emollients  or  diuretics. 

The  roots  of  Acanthacea  are  either  annual  or  perennial.  The 
stems  are  usually  four-cornered  when  young,  but  afterwards  become 
nearly  round ;  their  inside  is  occupied  by  a  large  proportion  of  pith, 


Analysis  of  Aeanthaeem, 

which  is  enclosed  in  a  thin  layer  of  imperfectly  formed  wood ;  and  at 
each  joint  there  is  a  slight  tumour  with  an  articulation,  bv  which 
they  are  readily  known  from  both  Scrophviariacece  and  Verbenacece. 
Their  flowers  are  often  enclosed  within  large,  leafy,  imbricated 
bracts  (1).  The  calyx  (2)  is  usually  composed  of  either  four  or  five  parts, 
which  overlap  each  other,  and  occasionally  grow  together  at  the 
base.  ^  The  corolla  (8)  is  monopetalous  and  irregular.  The  stamens  (4) 
are  either  two  or  four,  but  in  the  latter  case  are  of  unequal  lengths. 
The  pistillum  (6)  is  superior  and  turcilled.  The  seed-vessel  (5)  con- 
tains two  cells,  which  burst  when  ripe,  often  with  elasticity,  and 
expose  a  few  roundish  seeds  hanging  to  the  cells  by  curious-hooked 
processes. 

The  stems  of  all  the  species  emit  roots  veiy  readily  from  their 
tumid  articulations ;  on  which  account  gardeners  universally  inovase 
them  by  cuttings  of  the  full-grown  branches.  They  are  always  easy 
to  cultivate,  provided  they  are  not  kept  in  too  cold  or  too  dry  a 
situation.  The  annual  kind»  freely  produce  seeds,  by  which  they  are 
readily  multiplied. 

The  most  common  genera  are  Justicia,  Acanthus,  RueUia,  Thunberffia^ 
BarUrick,  Eranthemvm,  Lankesteria,  and  Benfreya. 

(Brown's  Prodromus  Flora  Nova  HoUandia:  Bartling's  Ordines, 
NaiuraUs  ;  Lindle/s  Introduction  to  the  Natural  System  ;  and  Nees  von 
Esenbeck's  Exposition,  in  the  third  volume  of  Dr.  Wallich's  Planta 
Asiatica  RoHores.) 

ACA'NTHION,  in  Zoology,  a  genus  of  Rodentia,  estoblished  by 
11  F.  Cuvier,  and  embracing  two  species,  which  are  only  known,  at 
present,  by  tiieir  osteology.    In  the  number  and  form  of  their  teeth« 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ACANTHODERMA. 


ACANTHURUS. 


50 


these  animalfl  agree  in  all  respects  with  the  oomznon  poztsupine 
from  which,  indeed, 
thej  only  differ  in  the 
general  form  or  outline 
of  the  cranium,  and  the 
comparative  develop- 
ment of  the  bones  of 
the  fBice  and  skuU; 
characters  which  have 
no  very  assignable  in- 
fluence upon  the  habits 
and  economy  of  animal 
life.  There  has  been 
some  difference  among 
zoologists  as  to  the  use 
of  this  term.  Thus, 
AcantMon  of  F.  Curler 
is  Acantherium  of  J.  E.  Gray,  whilst  the  Accmthion  of  Gray  includes 


Skull  of  AcanthioB. 


BkoU  of  Poronplne. 

both  the  genera  Eystrix  (Porcupine)  and  AccmthUm  of  F.  Cuvier. 
(Waterhouse,  Jtodentia.) 

ACANTHODEHMA,  a  fossil  genus  of  fishes,  from  Glaris.  (Agassiz). 

ACANTHO'DES,  a  genus  of  fossU  Ganoid  fishes,  established  by  M. 
Agassiz.  The  species  occur  in  the  carboniferous  strata  near  Edin- 
burgh.   (Agassiz.) 

ACA'NTHOPHIS  (from  AKca^a,  athoni,  and  itpis,  a  snake),  in 
Zoology,  a  genus  of  venomous  serpents,  allied  to  the  vipers,  but  dis- 
tinguished by  having  a  single  series  of  plates  beneath  the  tail,  except 
towards  the  veiy  extremity,  where  they  are,  in  some  cases,  separated 
into  two  small  rows.  The  bodies  and  tails  of  these  animals  are 
elongated  and  cylindrical ;  their  heads  roimd,  obtuse,  rather  promi- 
nent over  the  eyes,  and  covered  in  front  with  nine  or  ten  polygonal 
plates.  The  back  and  upper  surface  of  the  tail  are  coverea  with 
reticulated  scales  of  a  rhomboidal  form ;  the  breast  and  belly  are 
covered  with  single  transverse  plates,  as  is  likewise  the  tail,  excepting 
towards  the  very  extremitv,  which  is  sometimes  furnished  with  a 
double  row  of  plates,  as  in  the  common  viper.  The  tail  is  terminated 
by  a  little  spur,  or  homy  excrescence,  which  has  suggested  the  name 
of  AcaiUhophtM  (that  is  '  thorn-snake ')  for  this  genus.  It  springs  out 
of  the  very  end  of  the  tail,  and  does  not  appear  to  be  of  the  same 
utility  as  the  two  homy  spurs  which  grow  upon  each  side  of  the  anus 
in  the  Pythons  and  Boas,  and  which,  being  retractile,  or  capable  of 
being  erected  and  depressed  at  will,  execute  important  functiona  in 
the  economy  of  these  animals. 


TtHoiAMmthophii. 

The  head  of  the  AcofiUhophu  is  broad  and  compressed,  the  mouth 
capable  of  great  distension,  and  furnished,  on  each  side,  besides  the 
retractile  poison-firngs  common  to  all  the  family  of  truly  venomous 
serpents,  with  a  double  row  of  sharp  curved  teeth.  The  species  of 
this  genus  are  of  small  size,  reside  on  the  surface  of  the  diy  land,  and 
feed  upon  frx>gB,  lizards,  and  small  mammals.  They  are  viviparous, 
and  secrete  themselves  in  rat-holes,  or  beneath  the  roots  of  trees. 
They  never  strangle  or  crush  their  prey  by  coiling  themselves  round  its 
body,,  but  expect  a  more  speedy  and  certain  victory  from,  the  deadly 
effects  of  their  poison.     The  species  best  known  are— 

The  AcaiUhophit  eeratiiniu,  first  described  by  Merrem,  and  so 
named  f^m  the  general  similarity  which  it  bears,  at  first  sight,  to 
the  CeratteSf  or  Homed  Viper,  in  its  short  body,  large  flat  heid,  and 
eyes  surmounted  by  prominent  scales.  The  length  of  this  species  is 
about  fifteen  inches,  of  which  the  tail  measures  rather  more  than  a 
fifth  pert ;  the  body  is  thick  in  proportion  to  its  length,  having  a 

VAT.  BOB,  DIT.  YOL.  L 


circumference  of  two  inches  and  a  half  in  the  middle,  frx>m  whence  it 
gradually  tapers  towards  either  extremity.  The  native  country  of 
this  species  is  unknown. 


AMnihophit  oeroitiniu. 

The  Accmthophii  Brovmii  is  briefly  described  by  Dr.  Leach,  and 
figured  in  the  firat  volimie  of  the  *  Naturalist's  Miscellany.'  The 
specific  name  is  g[iven  out  of  compliment  to  Mr.  Robert  Brown,  the 
celebrated  botanist^  from  whose  manuscripts  the  brief  description  of 
Dr.  Leach  was  taken.  The  body  is  said  to  be  of  a  unifomi  dark 
brown,  the  under  lip  whitidi,  the  upper  with  a  transverse  groove  in 
ftont^  the  tail  smaU  and  rather  abroptly  contracted  at  its  junction 
with  the  body,  and  the  apex  compressed  laterally.  This  is  probably 
the  Death  Adder,  or  Tammem,  referred  to  by  Mr.  G.  Bennett^  in  his 
'  Wanderings  in  New  South  Wales.'  It  is  a  hideous  and  exceedingly 
venomous  roptile. 

ACANTHOPTERY'GII  (from  Akco^o,  a  thorn,  and  wr/pwl,  a  wing), 
in  Zoolo^,  one  of  the  three  primary  divisions,  or  natural  orders,  of 
fishes.  The  fishes  aro  divided  into  three  orders— the  Chondroptayffii 
(ftt)m  x^f'Spof,  cartilage,  and  vr^pv^  a  wing  or  fin),  or  cartiiaginoua 
fishes,  without  a  solid  bony  skeleton ;  AeaiUliopterygiif  fishes  having 
bony  dLeletons  with  prickly  spinous  processes  in  the  dorsal  fins; 
and  Malacopierygii  (fiaXaK6s,  soft,  and  irr4pv^,  a  wing),  fishes  with 
bony  skeletons  indeed,  but  with  soft  articulated  radii  in  the  dorsal 
fins.  These  divisions  wero  first  emploved  by  Willughby  and  Ray. 
Cuvier  divides  the  Acanthopterygious  Fishes  into  fifteen  natural  fami- 
lies, which  he  c^  after  the  names  of  their  typical  or  most  common 

1.  Percid<B,  including  the  common  Perch,  the  Sea-Perch,  the  Barber 
of  the  Mediterranean,  the  Weevers,  the  Staigazers,  and  the  Sea-Pike. 

2.  TrigUdOt  which  include  the  Gurnards,  the  Flying-Fishes,  the  Bull- 
Heads,  we  MlUer^s-Thumb,  and  the  Sticklebacks. 

8.  Scicenida,  which  include  the  Maigres,  the  Stone-Perch,  the  Drum- 
heads, the  Bed-Throats,  and  a  nimiber  of  other  fishes  leas  known. 

4.  Sparida,  including  the  Sea-Breams,  the  Spanish  Bream,  the  GiH- 
Head,  and  Black  Bream. 

5.  Menidce,  a  small  family  whose  species  are  not  much  known. 

6.  Squamipennea,  including  the  duetodons  and  other  curious  fishes^ 
as  the  Ck)achmen,  the  Horsemen,  and  others.    • 

7.  ScmberidcB  include  the  Mackerel,  the  Tunnies,  the  Sword-Fishes, 
the  Pilot-Fishes,  the  John-Dory,  and  the  King-Fish. 

8.  Tcenidce,  ^i^filnd^rg  the  Scabbaid-Fish,  the  Hair-Tail,  Bed-Band- 
Fish,  and  others, 

9.  Theutyea,  including  the  Jjancet-Fishes,  and  some  other  genera 
remarkable  for  their  powerful  cutting  spines. 

10.  AnahadcB  include  the  Climbing  Perch  and  other  allied  freeb 
water  fishes. 

11.  MugiUdm  include  the  Gray  MuUeti  the  Bamando  of  Nice,  and 
some  others. 

12.  CMiioda  include  the  Blenpiee,  the  Gobies,  or  SeapGodgeons,  and 
the  Dragonet* 

18.  Zophiada  include  the  Anglers,  the  Fiahing-Frog,  or  SearDevil, 
and  the  IVog-Flshes. 

14.  labrida  include  the  Wrasses,  or  Bodk-Fiabes,  the  <  Old  THves  of 
the  Sea,'  the  Captains,  and  the  Scams. 

15.  PittvlaHda,  include  the  Pipe-Mouths,  the  Snipe-Fish,  the  Se» 
Trmnpet,  or  Bellows-Fish. 

ACANTHUHUS  (from  Sicoytfo,  a  thorn,  and  ohpd,  a  taQ),  a  genus  of 
Acantiiopteiygious  Fishes.  It  contains  a  great  number  of  species, 
many  of  which  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  external  forma, 
and  the  variety  of  their  colours.  They  are  distinguished  from  proxi- 
mate genera  by  the  form  of  the  body  and  tail,  which  are  exceedingly 
compressed ;  by  their  trenchant  teeth,  denticulated  like  a  very  fine 
comb ;  but  above  all  by  the  moveable  spines,  edged  and  sharp  like  a 


Digitized  by  V^UOQIC 


n 


ACANTHUS. 


ACANUS. 


lancet^  with  which  they  are  aimed  on  each  aide  of  the  tail,  and  with 
which  they  inflict  dangeroua  woundB  upon  the  hands  of  those  who 
touch  them  incautiously.    It  is  this  circumstance  that  has  acquired 


Outtodon  OkirurgUHt.    (Blooh.) 

for  the  Aeanthmri  the  names  of  Doctors  and  Lancet-Fishes,  by  which 
they  are  well  known  to  the  English  aailora  and  colonists.  These 
AniTTiftU  have  the  mouth  small,  and  the  muzzle  rather  advanced.  They 
are  among  the  small  number  of  fishes  which  live  entirely  upon 
vegetable  substances,  feeding  only  upon  Fuci,  and  other  marine 
plants;  their  intestinal  canal  is  consequently  longer  and  more 
complicated  than  in  other  spedes,  and  their  flesh  has  a  peculiar 
flavour,  very  different  from  that  of  fishes  in  general  The  duigerous 
weapons  with  which  nature  has  provided  these  otherwise  harmless 
fiahes  are  well  calculated  to  defend  them  from  the  attacks  of 
their  enemies.  They  abound  in  all  the  tropical  aeas,  both  of  the 
East  and  West  In<ues,  and  are  never  known  to  advance  beyond 
the  tropics ;  consequently  they  are  unknown  in  the  more  temperate 
latitudes. 

ACAN^THUS.  Under  this  classical  name  have  been  described,  by 
ancient  authors,  at  least  three  totally  different  plants.  Ftrsthr,  a 
prickly  tree  with  smooth  eveigreen  leaves,  and  small  round  saffron- 
coloured  berries,  frequently  alluded  to  by  Virgil ;  this  is  oonjeotured 
to  have  been  the  HoUy.  Secondly,  a  prickly  Egyptian  toee,  described 
by  Theophrastus  as  having  pods  like  those  of  a  bean ;  it  is  probable 
that  this  was  Uie  Acacia  Arabica.  Thirdly,  a  herb,  mentioned  bv 
Dioscorides,  with  broad  prickly  leaves,  which  perish  at  the  approach 
of  winter,  and  again  sprout  forth  with  the  return  of  spring.  It  is  said 
that  the  idea  of  the  Corinthian  capital  of  Qreek  oolumns  was  taken 
from  some  of  the  leaves  of  this  Aeanthut.  To  this  latter  plant  the 
name  is  now  applied.  The  word,  in  aU  casea^  alludes  to  the  prickly 
nature  of  the  leaves  or  stems. 

In  modem  botany  Aeanthut  is  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  found 
in  the  south  of  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  and  India,  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  AearUhoMJe, 

The  commonest  spedes  is  Aeanthut  moBit,  or  Brankursine,  a  native 
of  many  parts  of  the  South  of  Europe,  growing  in  shady  moist  places, 
among  bushes.    Its  stem  is  about  two  feet  high,  and  is  covered  from 


the  middle  to  the  top  with  fine  laige  white  flowezfl^  slightly  tinged 
with  yellow.     The  leaves  are  huge,  sof^  deeply  cut^  hairy,  and 


ahining,  and  surround  the  lower  part  onlv  of  the  stem.  Both  the 
leaves  and  the  roots,  whidi  are  perennial,  abound  in  mudlage,  which 
has  caused  them  to  be  substituted  in  domestic  medicine  for  l£e  maiah- 
mallow.  It  is  this  roedes  which  is  usually  supposed  to  have  given 
rise  to  the  notion  of  the  Qredan  capital  But  it  wpears,  fi^om  the 
investigation  of  Dr.  Sibthorp,  that  it  is  nowhere  to  be  found,  dther 
in  the  Qreek  islands,  or  in  any  part  of  the  Peloponnesus ;  and  that  the 
plant  which  Dioscorides  must  have  meant  was  the  Aeanthut  tpinotutf 
still  called  Acoytfo,  which  is  found,  as  he  describes  ii>  on  the  borders  of 
cultivated  grounds,  or  of  gardens,  and  is  firequent  in  rocky  moist 
situations.  This  spedes  differa  firom  A.  moUit  in  having  a  dwarfer 
stem,  flowers  tinged  with  pink  instead  of  yellow,  and  spiny  leavee, 
much  more  deeply  cut.  Both  the  one  and  the  other  are  half-hardy 
perennials,  incrcwsed  by  division  of  the  summit  of  the  root  They 
have  been  long  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  Ghreat  Britain,  but  periaL 
if  not  protected  from  severe  frost 

A'CANUS,  a  fossil  genus  of  fishes,  firom  Glaris.    (Agassis.) 

ACA'RIDiE,  a  division  of  Araehnida  [Abachnida],  whidi  oompre* 
hends  the  small  apider-like  animals  popularly  termed  Mites  (ileort), 
as  well  as  Water-Mites  and  Ticks.  Some  of  these  are  wanderers  on 
land  or  in  water ;  others  are  fixed  upon  various  animals,  whose  blood 
or  humours  the^  suck,  and  even  insinuate  themselves  beneath  the  akin, 
and  often  multiply  prodigiously. 

These  minute  animalfl  are  not  considered  by  modem  na^bnralists  to 
rank  amonff  insects,  on  account  of  their  structure  being  very  different, 
jtnd  frx>m  their  having,  in  most  cases,  like  spiders,  eight  feety  while  no 
insect  has  more  than  six  feet  Their  mouths,  in  some,  are  furnished 
with  jaws  {mandUmla),  dther  having  pincers  or  clawsi,  but  concealed 
in  a  projection  of  the  oreast-plate  {ttenmm)  in  form  of  a  lip ;  in  others 
it  is  in  the  form  of  a  syphon  or  sucker ;  and  in  others  it  presents  a 
simple  cavity.  11  Latreule  makes  four  divisions  of  the  AcaridcB : — 
1,  Mites  {Tromhiditet) ;  2,  Ticks  {lUcinUet) ;  8,  Water-Mites  (ffydraeh- 
neUce) ;  and  4,  Flesh-Worms  (Miervphthira), 

All  the  creatures  now  embraced  in  this  fionily  were  induded  by  Lin- 
nsBus  under  his  genus  ilcems,  and  the  whole  of  the  spedes  are  populariy 
called  Mites,  or  AearL  They  are  all  vexy  minute,  some  being  almost 
miorosconicaL  They  are  very  generally  distributed.  Some  are  paradtic, 
whilst  others  are  free.  The  itch  is  now  well  known  to  owe  its  exist- 
ence to  a  creature  of  this  tribe.  Others  live  naturally  in  the  human 
skin,  whilst  beetles  and  other  insects  are  very  liable  to  be  attacked 
bv  them.  They  are  found  on  the  leaves,  fruit,  flowers,  and  bark  of 
plants ;  and  on  all  kinds  of  providons^  as  flour,  dried  meat^  dried 
cheese,  and  putrid  animal  matters. 

Amongst  the  tme  Mites  {Tromhiditet,  Latreille),  the  following  com- 
mon forma  are  placed : — 

The  Domestic  Mite  (Acamu  damettieutf  De  (}eer),  is  very  commonly 
found  in  collections  of  insects  and  stuffed  birds,  and  is  exceedingly 
destructive  to  cabinets.  Camphor  has  some  effect  in  destroying  thu 
pest»  but  is  not  powerful  enough  to  prevent  it  altogether.    Moistening 


*fA 


Domtstio  Mite  {Aaarut  domttticut.) 

the  specimens  with  a  weak  solution  of  corrodve  sublimate,  is  said  to 
prove  an  effectual  preventative.  The  species  found  in  flour  and  on 
food  is  called  A,  Farina, 

The  Itch  Mite  {Aearut  JScahiei,  Fabridus,  Sarcoptet  Oalei,  L.)  is  a 
microscopic  animal,  found  under  the  human  skin  in  the  pustules  of 
a  well-known  cutaneous  diseasa  It  has  a  remarkable  suctorial  appa- 
ratus, by  means  of  which  it  secures  its  hold  under  the  epidermis  of 
the  skin,  into  which  it  has  the  power  of  penetrating.  This  animal  is 
most  effectually  destroved  by  sulphur ;  uul  indeed  this  is  a  specific 
for  the  diseaso  which  the  Aeanu  produces. 


Itoh  Mite  {Aaamt  SeMtL) 


The  Sugar  Mite  {Aeanu  taeeharinum)  is  found  in  the  brown  sugar 
of  commerce.  Thirty-five  out  of  thirty-six  specimens  examined  oy 
the  analytical  commisdoners  of  '  The  Lancet^' bought  in  the  shops  of 
London,  in  1850,  were  foxmd  to  oontain  these  creatures. 

The  Bed  Spider  of  the  hot-houses  is  the  Aearut  teilariut.  It  is  the 
nest  of  hot-houses  and  green-houses.  Though  so  small  as  scarody  to 
be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  its  effects  on  plants  are  vexy  obvious.  These 
creatures  live  upon  the  juices  of  the  plant  which  they  attack,  and  also 
prevent  the  function  of  the  leaves  from  being  properly  performed.  They 
are  best  destroyed  by  sulphur.  The  mode  of  applying  itis  to  sprinkle  the 
sulphur  on  the  hot  pipes  or  on  plates ;  afterwards^  the  planta  ahoold 


Digitized  by 


Google 


63 


ACARUa 


ACER. 


be  syringed.    Other  n>ecie8,  as  A,  kortentii,  A,  holoiericeut,  A,  ffenicth 
lattu,  attack  Yarious  plants,  and  the  best 
way  of  treating  them  is  the  same  as  the 
above. 

The  Sparrow  Kite  (Acartu  pa$tennut, 
Fabrioiiia)  is  distinguished  by  the  remark- 
able size  of  its  third  pair  of  legs. 
Geofflroy  called  ii^  the  Bat  Tick,  and  • 
Latreille  foimerly  placed  it  in  his  genus 
JSareoptes, 

A  vexy  interesting  form  of  these  crea- 
tures is  that  first  described  by  Dr.  Simon, 
of  Berlin,  as  inhabiting  the  sebaceous 
sacs  and  hair-follicles  of  the  human  skin. 
He  called  it  an  Acanu,  but  Professor  Sparrow  Mite. 

Owen  regards  it  as  a  lower  form  of  one  of  the  higher  dlvieions  of 
Araeknida.  He  names  it  Demodex  FoUicvlorwn.  It  has  also  been 
described  in  this  country  by  Mr.  Erasmus  Wilson,  under  the  name  of 
£niomon  FoOicfdortmL  It  has  an  elongated  body,  with  eight  short 
legs,  and  is  foxmd  veiy  commonly  in  the  sebaceous  follicles  of  the 
nose.  In  its  parasitical  habit  it  resembles  some  of  the  lower  forms  of 
the  Onutcicea,  as  the  CyiMthoe  and  Bopyrut;  and,  perhaps,  through 
the  Tardigrade^  it  has  a  relation  with  the  Rotiferct, 

The  Ticks  (JJiantte*,  Latreille)  are,  some  of  them  free,  some  parar 
sitia  The  latter  have  no  eyes.  They  embrace  the  genus  Ixodes,  which 
are  well  known  from  attaddng  cows,  horses,  dogs,  and  even  tortoises. 
They  bury  their  suckers  so  deeply  in  the  skin,  that  they  frequently 
cannot  be  taken  away  without  tearing  the  flesh.  They  deposit  a 
prodigious  quantity  of  eggs,  which  are  discharged  from  the  mouth. 
The  genus  Argot  is  found  on  pigeons  and  other  birds.  The  A,  Penicus 
is  the  Tenomous  bug  of  Miana. 

The  Water  Mites  (ffydrachndke)  live  only  in  the  water.  They  are 
often  parasitic  on  aqiiatic  insects.  Dugte  has  recently  made  some 
important  observations  on  the  development  of  these  mites,  in  which 
he  shows  that  in  theis  earlier  stages  of  growth  they  have  but  six  legs. 
If  this  be  correct,  it  will  probably  lead  to  the  rejection  of  Latreille's 
fourth  division,  theiftcropA^Aira,  which  are  characterised  by  possessing 
six  legs,  as  they  are  probably  only  earlier  stages  of  some  of  the  higher 
forms. 

ACARUa    [Acawdjl] 

ACCIPENSER.   JBturionidjl] 

ACEPHALOCYST,  one  of  the  sunpleet  forms  of  Entotoa,  also  called 
Eydatid.    [Entozoa.j 

ACER,  a  name  given  l^  the  Romans  to  a  tree  called  MapU  by  the 
English.  It  is  now  applied  to  a  genus  of  arborescent  or  shnibby 
plants,  niany  of  which  are  extremely  valiiable  for  the  sake  either  of 
their  timber  or  of  their  ornamental  appearance.  It  is  the  type  of  the 
natural  order  AceracetE.  It  has  the  following  characters : — ^Flowers 
green  and  inconspicuous,  either  containing  stamens  only,  or  pistik 
only,  or  both  united,  upon  the  same  individual.  Calyx  divided  into 
five  lobes,  of  uncertain  length.  Stamens  occasionally  five ;  more  fre- 
quently vaiying  fix>m  seven  to  nine.  Leaves  in  all  cases  simple. 
Fruit  double ;  each  division  containing  one  single^weded  cavity,  and 
extended  at  the  back  into  a  kind  of  wing,  called  Kty  in  English,  or 
Samara  by  botanists. 

1.  Acer  obUmgwn,  Oval-Leafed  Maple,  an  evergreen  tree,  of  rapid 
growth,  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  India,  both  in  Nepaul 
and  Kumaon.  It  is  probabh^  confined  to  the  hot  valleys  of  those 
regions,  for  it  has  beeoi  found  incapable  of  supporting  the  climate  of 
England. 

2.  iloer  Umgatwn  (Wallich),  the  Polished  Maple.  Leaves  oblong, 
taper-pointed,  slightly  serrated,  shining,  green  beneath.  Flowers  white, 
in  branched  erect  thyrses.  Keys  broad,  short,  smooth.  It  is  found 
in  the  woods  of  the  higher  mountains  of  Nepaul,  and  also  in  the  Alps 
of  Sirmoor,  where  it  acquires  a  trunk  thirty  or  forty  feet  high,  and 
fix>m  three  to  four  feet  thicL  Its  growth  is  slow ;  its  timber  is  said 
by  Dr.  Wallich  to  be  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  Nepaul  for  rafters, 
beams,  and  similar  building  purposes. 

8.  Acer  Tataricwn  (Linnsus),  the  Tartarian  Maple.  Leaves  heart- 
shaped,  oblong,  unequally  serrated,  usually  undivided.  It  forms  an 
ornamental  tree,  or  rather  laige  bush,  frrom  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high, 
often  met  with  in  gardens  and  plantations.  Its  native  oountries  are 
the  southern  provinces  of  Russia  in  Asia,  whence  it  extends  as  far 
as  Hungaiy,  there  finding  its  most  western  limit.  From  its  keys, 
deprived  of  their  wings,  the  Calmucs  form,  by  the  aid  of  boiling  water, 
an  astringent  beverage^  which,  mixed  with  an  abundance  of  milk  and 
butter,  forms  a  favourite  article  of  their  diet.  The  wood  is  hard  and 
white,  mixed  with  brownish  veins. 

4.  Acer  striatum,  the  Striped-Bark  Maple  {A,  Peiuuylvanieum, 
Linnaeus).  Leaves  roundish,  finely  serrated,  divided  at  the  upper  end 
into  three  nearly  equal  tapering  lobes ;  when  young,  covered  with  a 
mealiness,  which  is  gradually  thrown  off  as  they  increase  in  sise.  It 
is  a  native  of  North  America,  from  Canada  to  the  high  lands  in  Georgia. 
In  those  countries  it  forms  a  considerable  part  of  Uie  undeigrowth  of 
the  woods,  among  sugar-maples,  beeches,  birches,  and  hemlock-spruce 
firs.  It  rarely  exceeds  eight  or  ten  feet  in  height,  except  in  a  vexy  few 
favourable  situations,  wh^  it  win  occasional^  grow  double  that  height. 
Its  wood  ii  Tii7  whiter  and  is  used  by  the  North  Americans  for  imay- 


ing  cabinet-work ;  its  shoots  afford  food  to  various  animals,  especially 
to  the  moose-deer,  in  winter  and  spring,  whence  it  has  acquired  the 
name  of  Moose- Wood.  In  Europe  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  planta-' 
tions,  where  it  is  remarkable  for  the  bright  rosy  tint  of  its  yoimg  leaves 
in  spring.  When  ctdtivated,  it  fr^uently  grows  to  thrice  its  native 
size^  in  consequence  of  being  grafted  upon  the  Sycamore  Maple. 


forms  of  the  lesTes  of  Spedes  of  Maple. 

Z.  A,  Tatarieum.  II  a  vod  h.  A,  Oretieum. 

10.  A.  MOfMpe«ni/antrai.  7  a.  A,  ojm/tM.  8  a.  A,  obtu$ahim, 

4.  A,  ttriatum.  5.  A,  barbaium, 

5.  Acer  harhaium  (Michaux),  the  Bearded  Maple.  Leaves  heart- 
shaped,  three-lobed,  nearly  equally  serrated ;  the  lobes  of  nearly  equal 
sise,  or  the  lateral  ones  much  the  smallest ;  nearly  smooth  beneath. 
It  is  a  native  of  deep  pine  and  cedar  swamps  in  Jersey  and  Carolina, 
where  it  forms  a  small  tree. 

6.  Acer  tpicatwn,  the  Spike-Flowered  Maple  {A,  mofUcmwn,  Alton). 
Leaves  heart-shaped,  smooth  above,  downy  and  glaucous  beneath,  of 
an  oblong  figure^  with  about  five  unequal,  tapering,  coarsely  and 
unequally  serrated  divisions.  It  is  a  native  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  red  colour  of  its  keys  in  the  autumn  forms  its  principal 
beauty. 

*!,  Acer  opuhu  (Alton),  the  Queldres-Rose-Leaved  Maple.  Leaves 
more  or  less  heart-shaped,  roundish,  five-lobed,  smooth  beneath.  It 
is  a  small  tree^  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  foxmd  in  France,  especially  in 
Dauphiny. 

^,  Acer  fibimatmi^  (Willdenow),  the  Neapolitan  Maple.  Leaves 
heart-shaped,  roundish,  five-lobed,  woolly  beneath ;  the  lobes  either 
obtuse  or  pointed,  and  coarsely  serrated.  Flowers  in  drooping  corymbs. 
Hungary,  Croatia,  and  many  parts  of  Italy,  produce  this  beautiful 
spedes.  On  all  the  hills  and  lower  mountams  of  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  in  Camaldoni,  Castellamare,  and  the  Abruxzi,  it  is  found 
abundantly,  growing  usually  to  the  height  of  forty  feet ;  it  is  extremely 
striking,  with  its  x^ddish-purple  branches,  in  uie  wood  of  Lucania, 
between  Rotonda  and  Rubia ;  and  in  the  Basilicata  and  Calabria  it  is 
said,  by  Tenore,  to  acquire  colossal  dimensions.  It  is  certainly  very 
m'ngiilar  that  so  fine  a  tree  as  this,  occupying  so  laige  a  tract  of 
country,  frequently  visited  by  English  tourists,  should  be '  almost 
unknown  in  this  country ;  and  yet,  although  it  is  perfectly  hardy,  and 
very  easily  multiplied,  it  is  scarcely  ever  met  with  in  any  but  botanical 
collections.*  There  are  two  forms  of  the  leaf— one  with  blunt,  and  the 
other  with  pointed  lobes. 

9,  Acer  campettre  (Linna)us),  the  Common  Maple.  Leaves  heart- 
shaped,  with  three  or  five  deep  segments  which  are  not  serrated,  but 
generally  two-lobed  or  three-lobed,  and  narrow  at  their  base ;  downy 
beneath — at  least,  when  young.  Branches  covered,  when  old,  with  a 
corky  baik.  Flowers  in  erect,  branched,  downy  corymbs.  Keys  short, 
smooth,  with  nearly  parallel  edges,  diveiging  at  right  angles.  Found 
in  eveiy  hedge-row  in  England,  and  sprrad  over  the  greater  pert  of 
Europe.  It  is  said  not  to  be  indigenous  in  Scotland,  and  on  the  conti- 
nent it  does  not  approach  the  north  nearer  than  the  southern  provinces 
of  Sweden.  It  advances  as  far  to  tfie  eastward  as  the  range  of  the 
Caucasus,  where  it  disappears.  In  England  ^is  is  either  a  bush  or 
a  small  tree,  of  inelegant  appearance,  and  its  wood  is  of  little  value^ 
exoept  for  the  use  of  the  torner,  who  makes  it  into  cups,  bowli^  &c. 
The  Common  Maple  is  sometimes  planted  by  formers  upon  bad  land, 
for  the  purpose  of  fencing ;  for  which,  however,  it  is  ill  adapted. 
.  10.  Acer  Monepettulammn  (Linnseus),  the  Montpellier  Maple.  Leaves 
deciduous,  veiy  slightly  cordate,  and  downy  at  the  base,  with  three 
peifBctly  entire^  neaily  equal,  diveiging  lobes,  slightly  hairy  beneatl^ 


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«^ ACER. 

It  U  found  in  dry  stony  situations  in  Languedoc,  Dauphiny,  Provenoe, 
and  Piedmont;  it  even  occurs  as  far  north  as  the  departments  of 
the  Rhine. 


ACER. 


M 


33.  A.  LohelH. 
23*  A.  triocarpon. 


20.  A,  taceharinwm, 
18a.  A^caudatunu 


24.  A,  rvbrum, 

6.  A,  spicstum. 


lb.  A,  opulut,  15.  A,  tttrculiaeeHm,  U,  A,  obtusaium, 

11,  Acer  Oraicum  (LinnsBOs),  the  Candian  Maple.  Leaves  ever- 
green, variable  in  form,  wedgenshaped  at  the  base,  leathery,  glossy, 
smooth,  with  three  entire  or  serrat^  lobes,  of  which  the  side  ones  are 
the  shortest^  sometimes  undivided.    It  is  a  native  of  the  mountains 


of  Candia  and  the  Qredan  Archipelago ;  it  is  frequently  cultivated  in 
the  South  of  Europe. 

12.  Acer  heterophyUum  (Willdenow),  the  Variable  Maple.  Leaves 
eveigreen,  ovate,  unequally-serrated,  entire  or  occasionally  three-lobed, 
very  glossy.  This  is  the  plant  sold  in  the  English  nurseries  under  the 
name  of  A,  OreUcum,  It  is  rather  delicate,  and  is  a  native  of  the 
Levant. 

18.  Acer  pieudo-platamu  (Linnseus),  the  Sycamore  Maple.  Leaves 
heart-shipped,  coarsely  and  unequally  seirated,  glaucous  and  downy 
on  the  veins  beneath ;  with  five  lobes,  of  whidi  the  lower  ones  are 
generally  the  smallest  This  noble  tree  is  scarcely  met  with  in  a 
truly  wild  state  beyond  the  limits  of  middle  and  southern  Europe :  it 
is  occasionally  seen  on  the  lower  ridges  of  the  Caucasus,  and  does  not 
appear  to  extend  much  farther  eastward.  In  Italy  it  is  said  to  arrive 
at  its  greatest  degree  of  perfection,  acquiring  the  height  of  50  and  60 
feet  Its  English  name  has  originated  in  an  erroneous  notion  that 
this  is  the  sycamore  of  Scripture— a  totally  different  tree,  the  Fiau 
Spcamorut,  It  flourishes  in  many  parts  of  England :  many  varieties 
are  known  to  gardeners. 

14.  Acer  macrophyUum  (Pursh),  the  Broad-Leaved  Maple.  Leaves 
deeplv  heartahaped,  not  serrated,  divided  into  five  deep,  spreading, 
alightly-lobed  segments,  the  middle  one  of  which  is  often  narrow  at 
its  base,  and  the  lower  ones  generaUy  smaller  than  the  others ;  when 
young  slightly  downy,  when  old  shining  and  perfectlv  smooth :  is  a 
native  of  the  north-west  coast  of  North  America,  wnere  its  timber 
is  used. 

15.  Acer  atercuUaceum  fWallich^,  the  Shady  Mi^le,  is  a  large  tree, 
with  a  trunk  often  three  feet  in  diameter;  found  in  NepauL 

16.  Acer  viUoeum  (Wallich),  the  Shaggy  Maple,  is  a  very  large  tree, 
found  on  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  approaching  the  limits  of  perpetual 
snow  in  Sirmoor  and  Kumaon. 

17.  Acer  oMliratum  (Wallich),  the  Curve-Keyed  Mc^le,  is  a  laige 
tree,  native  of  the  r^ons  towards  the  Himalayas,  in  Kumaon  and 
Srinaghur. 

IS,  Acer  ca/udatwn  (Wallich),  the  Long-Pointed  Maple.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  highest  regions  of  Nepaul,  of  Sirmoor,  Kumaon,  and  Srinaghur. 

19,  Acer  PkUanofdet  (Linnseus),  the  Norway  Maple.  Leaves  heart- 
shaped,  veiy  smooth,  except  at  the  axils  of  the  veins ;  five-lobed,  the 
lobes  taper-pointed  and  diverging,  with  a  few  taper-pointed  diverging 
teeth.  This  is  a  fine  tree,  with  very  handsome  gloeirp^  deep-green 
leaves,  for  the  sake  of  which  it  is  a  great  deal  cultivated.  The  noi&em 
and  midland  parts  of  Europe,  and  the  north  of  Asia,  as  far  as  the  Ural 
Mountains,  produce  this  species.  In  the  Russian  Empire  it  passes 
from  the  state  of  a  shrub,  in  the  northern  provinces,  to  that  of  a 
handsome  tree  with  a  trunk  two  feet  thick,  in  the  more  southern 
districts.  Its  wood  is  valued  for  turners'  work.  From  its  ascending 
sap  a  kind  of  coarse  sugar  has  been  procured,  in  the  same  way  as 
from  the  A,  eaocharinwm,  in  America.  Two  varieties  are  known  to 
gardeners ;  one,  the  Silver-Striped,  in  which  the  leaves  are  slightly 
stained  with  white ;  and  the  other,  the  Cut-Leaved,  in  which  the 
leaves  are  deeply  and  irregularly  jagged.  When  the  foot-stalks  of  the 
leaves  are  broken  they  exude  a  nulky  fluid. 

20.  Acer  taecharinum  (Linnaeus),  the  Sugar  Maple.  Leaves  heart- 
shaped,  glaucous  beneath,  vexy  smooth,  except  at  the  axils  of  the 
veins ;  five-lobed,  the  lobes  taper^pointed,  and  very  coarsely  toothed 
Flowers  in  nodding  corymbs.  Keys  not  much  c^veiging.  From  a 
iitUe  to  the  north  of  the  Saint  John,  in  Canada,  to  the  woods  of  Upper 
Virginia,  and  probably  still  farther  south,  this  species  prevails ;  and  it 
forms  a  large  portion  of  the  vegetation  of  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia, 
Vermont^  and  New  Hampshire,  sometimes  becoming  as  much  as  80  feet 
high.  In  the  autunm  the  woods  of  those  coxmtries  are  dyed  of  a 
crimson  hue  by  the  changing  leaves  of  the  Sugar  Maple.  The  wood 
is  hard,  and  has  a  satiny  Tustire,  but  it  is  readily  attacked  by  insects, 
and  is  not  of  much  value,  except  when  its  grain  is  accidentally  waved, 
and  then  it  is  in  request  for  the  cabinet-makers.  The  younger  Michaux 
states,  that  it  may  be  at  all  times  known  from  that  of  the  Red  Maple 
by  a  vexy  simple  test  If  you  pour  a  drop  or  two  of  solution  of 
sulphate  of  iron  upon  the  wood  of  the  Sugar  Maple,  in  a  minute  it 
becomes  of  a  greenish  cast,  while  that  of  the  Red  Maple  becomes  deep 
blue.  The  saodiarine  matter  contained  in  its  ascending  sap  is  the 
principal  cause  of  this  species  being  in  so  much  request  From  this, 
obtained  by  tapping  the  trunk  in  tne  spring  during  the  Epace  of  six 
weeks,  a  vexy  considerable  quantity  of  a  fine  brown  sugar  is  procured  ; 
as  much,  it  is  said,  as  88  lbs.  per  tree.  The  Sugar  Maple  does  not 
generally  succeed  vexy  well  in  England,  where  it  is  rarely  seen ;  and 
even  when  in  health  does  not  attain  a  height  of  more  than  fifteen 
or  sixteen  feet 

21.  Acer  nigrwn  (Michaux),  the  Black  Sugar  Maple.  This  plant  is 
a  native  of  wTnilar  situations  with  the  last,  of  which  perhaps  it  is 
only  a  variety. 

22,  Acer  Lobdii  (Tenore),  LobeVs  Maple,  is  found  among  the 
mountains  in  the  nox-bh  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

2Z.  Acer  eriocarpon  (Michaux;  A.  datycarpwn,  Willdenow),  Sir 
Charles  Wager^s  Maple  is  found  in  most  parts  of  North  America  on  the 
eastern  side,  where  it  is  commonly  called  White  Maple.  It  grows  with 
great  rapidity,  and  is  extremely  common  in  the  plantations  of  all 
Europe,  where  it  is  remarkable  for  the  deep  crimson  hue  of  its  leaves 
in  autumn.    Its  wood  is  lights  and  of  little  or  no  value  except  to  the 


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ACONITU^L 


68 


turner.  It  is  said  to  make  excelleiit  charcoal  for  gunpowder.  The 
nnraeiTmeii  UBuallj  call  this  species  the  Cut-Leaved  Scarlet  Maple. 

2i.  Acer  rubmm  (LimiflBus),  the  Bed  or  Scarlet  Maple.  The  deep-red 
colour  of  the  flowers  in  the  spring;  and  of  the  keys  and  leaves  in 
autumn,  have  given  rise  to  the  name  of  this  species,  which  Ib  found, 
from  Canada  to  Florida,  growing  in  swamps  along  with  alders.  Its 
wood  is  used  by  the  Americans  for  articles  of  furniture,  and  is  also  in 
request  for  the  stocks  of  rifles— for  which,  when  it  Ib  what  thev  call 
'  curled,'  its  toughness  renders  it  well  adapted.  Two  varieties  of  this 
species  are  cultivated  in  this  country,  under  the  names  of  A.  coedneum 
•ad  A,  imUrmedimk, 

25.  Acer  eireinatum  (Pursh),  the  Curled  Maple,  grows  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  North  Axnerica,  and  is  a  small,  scrubby,  worthless  tree. 

(hUUeaUon, — ^The  hardy  maples,  which  are  the  only  kinds  of  any 
importance  in  tlus  country,  are  all  increased  either  by  seeds  or  layers. 
The  Buropean  spedes  readily  yield  their  keys,  which  should  be  gathered 
when  fully  ripc^  and  immediately  buried  in  heaps  of  river  sand,  where 
they  may  remain  till  the  following  February;  they  may  then  be  sown 
in  beds;  rather  thinly,  and,  when  one  yeat*  old,  should  be  transplanted, 
and  treated  like  ottier  forest  trees.  They  ought  never  to  be  headed 
back,  as  oaks  and  Spanish  chestnuts  are.  From  layers  thev  all  make 
exoeUent  plants  very  rapidly.  They  are  occasionally  budded  upon  the 
common  sycamore,  but  this  mode  is  little  practised  in  EnglancL 

ACERAS,  a  genus  of  Orchidaceous  plants,  of  which  one  species,  the 
A.  cmikropopharct,  is  found  growing  in  Ghreat  Britain.  It  is  a  small 
plants  firam  8  to  12  inches  in  height.  It  has  a  long  lax  spike  of 
greenish  yellow  flowers,  the  parts  of  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  give 
them  the  appearance  fk  the  small  figure  of  a  man :  hence  tlus  plant 
has  been  called  the  Man-Orchis. 

ACEBATHEIUUM.  Some  Fossil  Hhinaeerata  have  been  thus 
named  by  Kaupi 

ACEBDESE^  in  mineralogy,  a  hydrous  sesquiozide  of  Manganese, 
called  also  MamgemUe,  Vaneties  of  it  have  been  called  NewkirkUe  and 
VaroaeUe, 

ACERACEiE,  an  order  of  Poln>etalous  Dicotyledons.  Their  flowers 
•re  unsymmetrical,  their  stamens  hypogynous,  their  fruit  is  wioged,  and 
their  petals  have  no  appendages  upon  them.  The  species  are  all  trees  or 
shruba^with  opposite  stalked  ezstipulate  leaves,  and  are  found  exclusively 
in  the  north  of  Europe,  Asia,  America,  and  India.  A  sweet  mucilaginous 
sap  is  common  in  these  plants,  from  which  sugar  can  be  manufactured. 


1.  Uniseziua  Flower.      3.  Stamen  on  Disk.      8.  Stamens  separate. 
«.  Petal.    5.  Blsexnal  Flower.    6.  PittiL     7.  Fruit.    8.  Seed. 
9.  Embryo. 

ACERVULAltlA,  a  genus  of  Fossil  MadrephyUioea, 

ACHILLEA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
OompatUaf  consisting  of  60  or  70  spedes,  foxmd  exclusively  m  the 
colder  diinates  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  This  genus  is  found  in 
the  suborder  Oarymbifera,  and  is  distingmshed  by  the  florets  of  the 
duk  being  hermaphrodite  and  tubular,  and  the  tube  being  plane, 
compressed,  and  two-winged.  The  fruit  is  compressed,  and  has  no 
pappus.  Thete  are  five  British  species.  A.  Ptarmiea  is  an  abundant 
plant,  and  on  account  of  its  strong  odour  is  called  Sneeaewort 
A.  milUfoUftm  has  got  its  specific  name  from  the  segmented  character 
of  its  leaves.  It  is  called  in  English  Millefoil  and  Yarrow.  This 
plant  has  the  tome  and  stimulant  properties  of  the  sub-order  to  which 
it  belongs  in  a  slij^t  degree,  and  on  that  account  has  been  employed 
as  a  remie^  in  some  diseases,  but  its  medical  properties  are  very  feeble. 

ACHILLE^UM,  a  genus  of  Fossil  SpongiadcB,  of  whidi  two  spedes 
ocemrinthe  cretaceous  strata  of  England.    (Ooldfuaa) 

AUUlME^ES  (from  a,  prefix,  and  x«<)<a>  "winter),  a  genus  of  plants 
bdonging  to  the  order  ^^BfiKroceee.  The  spedes  of  this  genus  are  very 
numerous,  and,  although  not  useAil,  they  are  many  of  them  exten- 
sivdy  cultivated,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  tiidr  flowers.  In  con- 
sequence of  their  general  culture,  a  great  many  varieties  of  the  spedes 
are  becoming  known.  After  flowenng,  the  stems  die  down ;  and  the 
tubers  should  be  dug  up,  and  kept  free  from  frost  and  wet  till  Januair, 
when,  by  planting  them  in  succession,  flowers  may  be  obtained  till 
the  summer.  They  may  be  planted  in  a  mixture  of  loam  and  leaf- 
mould,  with  a  litde  silver  sand.  They  can  be  placed  out  in  the 
summer,  but  require  shading  on  hot  days. 

ACHIHUS,  a  genus  of  flat-fish,  bdonging  to  the  sub-branchiate 
dividoQ  of  MalfeejpierygU.    In  external  form  these  fishes  resemble  the 


oommon  sole^  Like  the  Pleuronectet  in  general,  they  have  the  body  and 
tail  very  much  compressed,  and  the  eyes  both  on  the  same  side  of  the 
head;  but  they  are  easily  distinguished  from  all  other  genera  of 
flat-fish  by  the  total  want  of  pectoral  fins. 


Aohirut  marmoraiui. 

The  spedes  of  Achirut  have  no  air-bladder,  and  consequently  remain, 
for  the  most  part,  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea ;  being,  in  fact^  ungifbed 
with  the  facmty  of  increasing  or  diminishing  their  specific  gravity, 
which  the  poasesdon  of  this  important  oxgan  bestows  upon  ordinary 
fishes.  Their  power  of  locomotion  in  o&er  directions  is  however 
condderable ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  disadvantages  of  their  form, 
and  the  oblique  direction  in  which  this  necessarily  compels  them  to 
move,  their  motions  are  firequentl^  very  rapid.  Their  habits,  as 
fMT  as  at  present  known,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Plewroneetet,  ■ 
They  are  found  in  the  warmer  regions  both  of  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  but  not  in  deep  water,  or  in  ntuations  far  removed  from  land ; 
they  abound  along  the  shores,  and  furnish  a  plentiful  and  wholesome 
food  to  the  inhabitants. 

Various  spedes  of  A  chirm  have  been  enumerated  by  coologists,  the 
most  remarkable  of  whidi  appeara  to  be  the  Adurvs  marmoratui  of 
Lac^pMe.  The  fiesh  Ib  of  a  delicate  flavour,  and  highly  esteemed :  it 
inhabits  the  coasts  of  the  Isle  of  France.  The  Achirut  pavcnicm  is 
distinguished  by  the  beauty  of  the  spots,  which,  like  the  eyes  on  the 
peacock's  tail,  cover  its  body ;  and  the  il.  fatcictiUUiu  and  A.  biUneaiue 
are  easily  recognised  by  the  characten  firom  which  they  respectivdy 
derive  their  names.  The  former  is  found  on  all  the  coasts  of  America 
and  the  West  Indies  :  the  latter  inhabits  the  shores  of  China,  and 
feeds  upon  small  Crustacea  and  moUusca. 

ACHLTA,  a  genus  of  Cryptogamous  plants,  bdonging  to  the  order 
CkmfenHicecB,  It  Ib  oomposed  of  a  single  tubiform  cdl,  which  expands 
at  the  end  into  a  large  cdl,  which  is  cut  off  from  the  lower  portion 
of  the  tube  by  the  formation  of  a  partition.  In  this  enlarged  cell  a 
circulation  of  granular  partddes  has  been  observed.  In  the  course  of 
time  cdls  are  formed  in  this  enlarged  cavity,  and  fill  it  up.  The  parent 
cdl  eventually  bursts  at  some  spot,  and  allows  of  the  escape  of  the 
endosed  cells ;  but  before  this  takes  place  the  cdls  in  the  interior  move 
about,  and,  after  their  escape,  exhibit  for  a  considerable  time  an  active 
movement  They  are  good  examples  of  the  Zooepore,  They  soon 
attadi  themsdves  to  some  fitting  object,  and  grow  into  little  plants, 
like  their  parent.  A  similar  process  goes  on  in  most  of  the  Al^  but 
is  not  so  easily  observed  as  in  this  case. 

The  only  species  of  AcKLya  which  has  been  described  is  the  A, 
prdUferOf  whicn  is  foxmd  paradtic  upon  fish  and  other  aquatic  Aw^malff, 
This  plant  is  more  espeddly  devdoped  on  fish  and  aquatic  reptiles 
kept  in  confinement  It  was  first  observed  on  gold  fij£,  but  severd 
writers  have  described  it  as  existing  on  other  animals,  as  the  Stickle- 
back, Water  Salamander,  Frog,  and  Newt. 

(i2eporfo (myotony, Bay  Sodety,  1845 ;  Lindley's  VeffeUOU Kingdom.) 

ACHMITK      [EuCHThlOERITB.] 

ACHBAS,  a  genus  of  tropical  plants  bdonging  to  the  natural  order 
SapotaeecB,  It  has  a  cdyx  divided  into  six  parts ;  a  corolla  monope- 
talous,  divided  into  six  lobes ;  stamens  twdve,  of  which  six  are  sterile 
and  six  fertUe ;  and  an  ovarium,  with  from  six  to  twdve  cdls.  The 
fruit  resembles  an  apple,  with  from  one  to  twdve  seeds,  contained  in 
hard  bony  nuts,  which  have  a  shining  coat,  and  a  long  hard  scar  over 
the  whole  of  their  inner  angle. 

The  genus  contains  only  one  spedes,  whidi  yidds  a  copious  milky 
fluid  when  wounded.  Its  leaves  are  entire,  leathery,  undivided,  ahining, 
of  a  lanceolate  form,  without  stipules.  The  flowen  are  laige^  white, 
bdl-duqped,  and  grow  ^singly  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  This  is 
called,  XQ  the  West  Indies,  the  Si^>odilla  Hum.  The  fruit  in  sise  and 
shape  resembles  a  bergamot  pear ;  like  the  medlar,  it  is  only  eaten  in 
a  state  of  decay ;  before  that  period  it  is  austere  and  uneatable,  but  in 
the  proper  state  it  Ib  so  rich  and  sweet  as  by  some  to  be  conddered 
only  inferior  to  the  orange. 

ACHYBA'NTHESy  a  genus  of  plants  bdonging  to  the  order  Atna^ 
ranUieecB.  A.  atpera  and  A.  frwticoea  are  used  in  Lidia  as  remedies  in 
dropsy:    A,  globiUtfera  ib  used  in  Madagascar  as  a  remedy  in  syphilis. 

ACIDA^PIS,  a  genus  of  fossil  Onutaeea,  of  the  group  of  TrUohitet  ; 
found  in  the  Wenlock  limestone.    (Murchison.) 

ACONITE,  WINTER    [Erahthb.] 

ACONI'TUM,  a  genus  of  plants  bdonging  to  the  natural  order 
iZcHMmcMlacM.    Fh>m  veiy  early  times  it  nas  borne  the  same  nams^ 


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ACROCHORDUa 


and  has  been  known  for  the  dangerous  properties  of  many  of  its  speoies. 
They  are  all  hardy  herbaceous  plants,  many  of  them  of  great  beauty; 
and  are  so  easily  cultivated,  that  one  of  them,  A.  Napdlut,  is  found  in 
dvexy  cottager's  garden.  The  English  call  them  Wolfs  Bane.  From 
all  other  ranunculaceoua  plants  Aeonitum  is  at  once  known  by  its 
having  the  very  large  uppermost  segment  of  its  calyx  overhanging  the 
petals  and  other  parts  in  the  form  of  a  helmet 

The  conmion  species,  A,  Napdlutf  is  one 

of  those  in  which  the  greatest  degree  of 

virulence  has  been  found  to  reside.    It  is  a 

native  of  alpine  pastures  in  Switzerland  and 

other  mountainous  parts  of  Europe.    Its 

leaves  are  very  dark  green,  deeply  cut  into 

from  five  to  seven  long  segments.     The 

stem  is  about  three  feet  high.  The  flowers 

are  in  long,  stiff  spikes,  and  of  a  deep  blue 

colour;  they  appear  from  May  to  July. 

All  the  parts  of  this  plant  are  extremely 

acrid,  especially   the   roots,   which   are 

scraped  and  mixed  with  food  to  form  a 

bait  for  wolves  and  other  savage  ftnimftln, 

Poisonous  properties  are  probably  found 

^  in  all  the  species  of  the  genus.    A.  cam- 

maruMf  A.  lycoctonuftif  and  A,  arUhora  are 

certainly  equally  dangerous.      None    of 

them  however,  noi^l.  Napellua  itself,  can 

be  compared  for  fatal  energy  with  the 

dreadful  Bikh  of  Nepaul,  the  Ac<mitum 

feroXf  which  seems  to  possess  the  con- 

AeonUumTfapellui.  centrated   power   of   all   the    European 

•  species. 

ACO'NTIAS  (from  Akow,  a  javelin),  the  name  of  a  genus  of  serpents 

established  by  Cuvier,  for  the  purpose  of  diBtingmshing  certain  species 

hitherto  placed  with  the  genus  Anguit,  or  common  sna^ke.     This  genus 

is  characterised  by  the  absence  of  all  the  bones  which  represent  the 

extremities  in  the  genus  AnguU,  while  it  retains  the  structure  of  the 

head  conmion  to  these 

animals  and  to  the 
lizards,  and  has  the 
body  similarly  covered 
with  small  scales  only, 
without  the  homy 
plates  which  guard  its 
\mder  surface  in  the 
common  serpents,  and 
protect  them  firom  in- 
jury in  the  various 
rapid  motions  which 
they  perform.  The 
species  of  Actmtiat 
seem  thus  to  afford  a 
link  between  the  com- 
mon snakes  and  true 
serpents. 
.  As  might  naturally 
'  be  expected  from  this 
conformation,  the  pro- 
gressive movements  of 
the  species  of  Aconticu 
are  very  different  fipom 
those  of  common  ser- 
pents. Thev  do  not 
glide  along  the  surface 
like  these  animals,  but 
boldly  carry  their  heads 
and  breasts  erect ;  and 
if  closely  pursued  de- 
fend themselves  cou- 
rageously, and  dart 
with  the  velocity  of  an 
arrow  against  their 
.     ^.     ^,  assailant  Though 

AeontuuM^Uagn..  dreaded  in  their  native 

countries,  because  confounded  with  their  venomous  congeners,  these 
animals  are  perfectiy  harmless,  and  neither  possess  the  means  nor 
have  the  desire  of  being  injurious.  They  have  no  poison  fangs, 
and  their  cheek-teeth  are  so  small  as,  in  some  species,  to  be  barely 
perceptible^  Their  habits  are  gentle ;  and  they  are  so  timid  that 
they  generally  fly  at  the  least  noise,  or,  upon  the  slightest  appear- 
ance of  danger,  conceal  themselves  imder  some  shrub  or  tuft  of 
grass,  or  even  buiy  themselves  under-groxmd  when  no  other  refuge 
is  at  hand. 

They  are,  generally  gpeaking,  of  a  small  size ;  and,  as  their  mouths 
are  not  susceptible  of  the  enormous  dilatation  possessed  by  the  true 
serpents,  thev  are  incapable  of  swallowing  any  animal  approaching  to 
their  own  dimensions,  and  feed  upon  worms  and  insects.  Different 
speoieB  of  Acontuu  are  foimd  in  almost  every  part  of  the  old  world. 
The  arid  pla^  of  Syria  and  Palestine  produce  a  species  which  has  been 


mentioned  by  the  prophet  Isaiah  (xxxiv.,  15),  under  the  Hebrew 
denomination  Kippot,  improperly  translated '  the  great  owl '  in  our  com' 
mon  version  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  but  which  the  learned  Boehart 
('  Hierozoioon,'  pars  post  lib.  liL  cap.  xi)  has*  shown^to  reifer  mors 
properly  to  tiie  AeonHat,  or  Anguii  jaeuku,  the  Dart  Snake  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  Other  speoies  inhabit  Asia  Minor,  Elgypt,  and 
Persia;  India  and  China  have  also  their  AomUioi;  and  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  produces  a  spedes  without  eyes. 

Of  the  common  Egyptian  Acontias  many  faUes  are  reoorded  by 
ancient  authors,  principally  arising  from  oonfounding  this  really  barm- 
less  species  with  the  more  deadly  and  venomous  Morpents  of  the  same 
localities. 

ACORI'K^  ACORIDKfi,  or  ACORA'CKfi,  a  small  natond  oider 
of  Endogens,  with  the  following  essential  character : — ^The  fiowen  are 
hermaphrodite,  surrounded  witii  scales.  The  spathe  is  leaf4ike^  but 
not  rolled  up.  The  stamens  are  complete,  placed  opposite  the  scales, 
and  have  two-celled  anthers  which  are  turned  inwanis.  The  ovaries 
are  distinct  The  fruit  is  baccate,  juicy  at  firsty  but  finally  juioeleas. 
The  seeds  have  the  embryo  seated  in  the  axis  of  a  copious  albumen. 
The  rootstock  is  jointed ;  the  leaves  sword-shaped,  and  embracing  each 
other  in  the  bud.  Such  is  the  character  given  this  order,  whi<£  was 
first  separated  from  AraeecB  bv  Agardh,  and  the  separation  was  after- 
wards adopted  by  Schott,  Link,  and  Lindley.  The  genera  assigned  to 
this  order  by  Lindley  were  Aconu,  Opmnottaehpt,  Ttipittra,  and  A»pi- 
dislra.  The  two  last  genera  are  now  assigned  by  the  same  author  to 
the  order  Liliacea.  Tbis  small  group  of  plants  in  its  geographical 
distribution  is  confined  to  the  eastern  hemisphere.  None  of  them 
have  the  acrid  properties  of  some  of  the  AracecB,  The  Scorns  CakuMU 
is  a  British  plants  and  has  slightiy  aromatic  properties. — {Lindley, 
Vegetable  Kingdom.) 
ACORN,  the  English  name  of  the  frrdt  of  the  oak.  rQucB0XJ8.1 
A^CORUS,  the  botanical  name  of  the  plant  that  producee  the  arag 
called  in  the  shops  Calami  aromoHcut.    It  is  the  tjrpe  of  the  natunS 

order  Acoracece,    It  is  found 

abundantly  in  the  fresh-water 

marshes  of  many  parts    of 

1  England.    It  has  a  perennial, 

creeping,  horizontal  stem,  as 
thick  as  the  finger,  the  whole 
of  the  under  side  of  whic^ 
sends  down  roots  into  the  mud 
or  earth,  in  which  the  plant 
uniformly  grows.  From  this 
spring  many  deep-green 
sword-shaped  leaves,  about 
three  feet  long.  In  the  midst 
of  all  is  a  leai-like  stem,  from 
below  the  point  of  which 
protrudes  a  cylindrical  or 
rather  conical  spadix  of 
greenish  flowers,  which  are  so 
closely  packed  together  that 
the  stalk  is  not  to  be  seen. 
The  leaves  when  bruised  are 
fi-agrant;  for  which  reason 
thby  were  formerly  employed 
to  strew  the  floors  of  rooms, 
or  of  churches,  under  the 
name  of  rushes.  This  prac- 
tice is  still  maintained  in 
some  places,  where  the  plant 
is  common,  as  at  Norwich,  the 
cathedral  of  which  dty  is 
strewed  with  sweet  rushes 
upon  certain  high  festivals. 
The  flowers  are  so  seldom 
produced,  that  it  is  a  common 
belief  that  they  never  are 
borne.  Calamtu  anmuUicut 
is  slightly  aromatic^  and  is 
'  occasionally  used  as  a  stimu- 

AeonuCMamut,  lant;  but   is    of  very  Httie 

importance.     The   part  em- 
ployed is  the  dried  creeping  stem,  or,  as  it  is  improperly  called,  root 

ACOTYLE'DONES,  or  ACOTYLEDONE^E,  the  name  of  the  first 
dass  in  Jussieu's  '  Natural  System  of  Botany.'  It  is  derived  from  tiie 
circumstance  of  all  the  plants  which  it  comprehends  vegetating  with- 
out the  aid  of  the  seed-lobes  called  cotyledons.  Such  plants  are  also 
in  all  cases  destitute  of  flowers,  and  are  in  fact  the  same  as  what 
LinntBus  called  Oryptogamia.  They  are  also  called  CeUmlaret, 
ACOUCHY,  a  small  species  of  Cavy.  [AaouTLl 
ACRITA  (from  AKpiros,  indistinct),  a  division  of  the  dass  Radiata, 
adopted  by  Owen,  and  applied  to  the  Accdephce,  the  PoUyp^era, 
except  the  Bryozoct,  the  Potygattricot  and  certain  forms  of  Aitosoo, 
in  none  of  whidi  are  the  indications  of  a  nervous  system  dedded,  and 
they  constitute  the  lowest  forms  of  the  radiate  group  of  i^nima1«_ 

ACROCHOHDUS  (from  ixpoxopiin',  a  wart),  a  genus  of  serpents 
discovered  in  Java  by  the  trayeller  Homstedt  It  is  eMJly  distingiiiihed 


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ACROCULTA. 


ACROGENa 


62 


from  oihfln  of  the  iimoziofiB  fionilj  of  wi^f>ent8  by  the  XDnumersble 
small  Boales  which  ooyer  every  part  of  the  head  and  body  both  abore 
and  below,  and  which  in  preserved  specimens,  or  when  the  live 
a>mn^1     distends    the 


Jeroehordw  Jopameut. 


lungs  and  body  with 
air,  aanmie  the  appear- 
ance of  so  many  granu- 
lated  warts  or  tuber- 
desL  This  circmn- 
stance  has  suggested 
the  name  of  Acroekor- 
dm.  The  head  of  the 
aoroehord  is  flat,  the 
month  is  provided  with 
a  double  row  of  small 
sharp  teeth,  but  with- 
out poison-fangs,  and 
the  throat  is  capable  of 
enonnous  dilatation. 
The  tongue  is  short 
and  thid[,  the  vent 
simple  and  without  the 
homy  spun  which  are 
common  to  many  other 
genera  of  serpents. 
The  only  species  of 
which  much  is  known 
is  ^  the  AerockorduM 
JmmAem  of  Lac^pMe 
and  others.  This 
animal  averages  firom 
six  to  ten  feet  in 
lengthy  and  the  body 
grows  gradually  thicker 
from  the  head  to  the 
vent»  and  there  sud- 
denly contracts^  so  as  to  fonn  a  veiy  short  slender  tail.  In 
the  thickest  part  of  the  body,  inmiediately  above  its  junction 
with  the  tail,  the  individ^ial  procured  by  Homstedt,  of  which 
the  entire  lei^h  was  eight  feet  three  inches,  measured  three 
inches  in  diameter,  whilst  Uie  greatest  breadth  of  the  tail  did  not 
exoeed  half  an  inch,  and  its  length  was  scarcely  a  ninth  part  of 
that  of  the  whole  body.  This  individual  was  a  female,  and,  when 
opened,  was  found  to  contain  five  young  ones  perfectly  formed, 
and  about  nine  inches  in  length.  It  was  caught  in  a  plantation  of 
pepper-trees,  and  the  Chinese,  who  accompanied  Homstedt,  cooked 
and  ate  its  flesh,  and  reported  it  to  be  of  a  most  delicious  flavour. 
The  stomach  contained  a  quantity  of  half-digested  fruit,  from  which 
it  has  been  inferred  that  thu  serpent  is  frugivorous.  Cuvier,  however, 
doubts  on  this  point. 

ACROCUXIA,  a  fossil  genus  of  Gasteropoda,  allied  to  the  NeriUdce, 
It  occurs  in  Palaeozoic  str^     (Phillips.) 

A'CRODUS,  a  ^us  of  fossil  Placoid  fishes,  established  by  H. 
Agasmit.  The  species  occurs  almost  ezdusively  in  the  lias  and  oolite. 
One  British  species  (A.  minimut)  is  referred  to  the  keiiper  series  by  M. 
Agassiz.  It  occurs  at  Aust  Cliff  in  the  bone-bed.  The  others  abound 
at  Lyme  Regis.  Batii,  and  Stonesfield. 

ACRO'OASTEB,  a  oenus  of  fossil  fishes.    (Agassiz.) 

ACROGENS  (frcmi  itpos,  the  topmost,  and  ywydw,  to  produce),  in 
Botany,  one  of  the  primairclasses  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom,  accord^ 
to  the  Natural  System.  This  class,  with  identical  limits,  is  also  known 
by  the  following  designations : — 

AcotyUdom  (Jussieu),  so  named  from  the  fiiot  of  the  absence  of 
cotyledons  amongst  this  dass  of  plants. 

ExembnfonaUB  (Richard),  designating  the  absence  of  any  regular 
embryo  in  the  reproductive  odls,  or  sporea 

CUOMlcura  (De  CandoUe),  denoting  the  general  absenoe  of  vascular 
tissue  and  the  prevalence  of  cellular  tissue  in  these  plants. 

AgamuB,  of  various  authors,  implying  the  absence  of  the  necessity  of 
the  union  of  two  cells  in  order  to  reproduce  a  new  individual 

Oryptogamia  (Linnaus),  intended  to  convey  the  idea  that  if  two 
cells  were  neceasaiy  to  the  reproduction  of  the  new  plant  in  this  class, 
it  was  not  obvious,  as  in  the  Fhsenogamoua  plants. 

The  Acrogau,  as  equivalent  to  the  above  exprdtadons  for  the  same 
dafli,  embrace  all  those  plants  which  are  included  in  the  above  defi- 
nitionsL  This  term  itself  is,  however,  only  applicable  literally  to  those 
plants  which,  destitute  of  flowers,  jpoaaess  a  stem  growing  in  a  manner 
distinctive  horn  those  called  JSxogent  [Exoobnb]  and  Endogem 
rEKDOOEn].  It  has  been  thus  restricted  by  Lindley  in  his  *  Vegetable 
Kingdom,'  and  he  places  the  stemless  flowerless  plantain  another  class, 
called  l%aaog€ni.  The  structure  of  the  stem,  however,  is  at  beet  an 
artificial  character,  and  the  adoption  of  the  terms  for  the  daases 
expressive  of  its  characters,  has  rather  been  accidental  than  necessary. 
On  this  account  it  is  perhaps  better  to  regard  the  ThaUogem  as  a 
section  of  Acrogens  than  an  independent  and  equal  group. 

The  stems  of  Aerogem  differ  much  in  appearance  from  those  of 
Exogens  and  Endogens.  The  wood  is  not  secreted  firom  lavers  of 
tissue,  which  have  the  power  of  reproducing  regular  lonee  of  wood, 


as  in  Exogens,  or  a  regular  arrangement  of  vascular  and  cellular 
tissue,  as  in  Endogens.  There  is  generally  but  a  single  ring  of  vascular 
bundles  even  in  the  Ferns.    These  vascular  bundles  do  not  go  on 


Chnoophora  exeelta,  an  acrogcnoos  Btem. 

increasing  in  size,  but  are  all  developed  together.    The  lower  part  of 
the  stem  does  not  continue  to  increase  in  size,  and  its  growth  is  deter- 


Portion  of  oatiiido  of  stem  of  Chnoophora  ezcelsa, 

mined  by  the  development  of  new  vascular  bundles  in  connection 
with  the  leaves  of  the  point  or  upper  part  of  the  stem  :  hence  their 
name.  In  the  Liverworts  and  Mosses  there  is  oaly  a  simple  vascular 
bundle  in  the  centre  of  the  steuL  In  Itoetet  ioo  there  is  a  ring  of 
vascular  bundles.  Science  is  very  deficient  in  good  observations  on 
the  structure  of  the  stems  of  these  plants. 

The  reproduction  of  the  Acrogens  is  not  so  simple  as  was  at  one 
time  believed.    The  recent  researches  of  Suminki,  Hofl^eister,  and 


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ACROOENa 


AGROLEPia 


64 


oihen,  nhow  that  in  the  Fenu  and  many  other  Acrogens  the  spore  is 
but  a  tranaitionaiy  condition^  which  results  in  the  production  of  two 
sets  of  cells,  by  the  union  of  whioh  alone  oan  a  new  indiyidiial  be 
produced.    [Plants,  Reproduotiow  iif.] 


External  portion  of  an  Acrogenoua  ttem. 


Section  of  Btcm  of  AUophUa  vettita. 


Till ne  of  an  Aorogenous  item. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  alliances  and  orders  found  in  the 
class  of  Acrogens,  according  to  the  system  adopted  by  Ldndley  in  his 
'  Vegetable  Kingdom.'    Thus 

Asexual  (?)  or  flowerless  plants,  Acrogens. 

Stem  and  leaves  distinguishable.  True  Aoroosns. 

Stem  and  leaves  indistinguishable.       Thallogens. 
Alliances  of  Thallooens. 
AlffdUt. — Cellular  flowerless  plants,  nourished  through  their  whole 
surface  by  the  medium  in  which  they  vegetate ;  living  in  water,  or  very 
damp  places ;  propagated  by  zoospores,  oolourod  spores,  ortetraspores. 
/'ttf?^a^--Cellular  flowerless   plants,    nourished   through   their 
thallus  (spawn  or  mycelium);  living  in  air;  propagated  by  spores 


oolourles  or  brown,  and  sometimes  endosed  in  aad ;  destitute  of 
green  gonidia. 

LichenaUt. — Cellular  flowerleas  plants,  nourished  throng^  their 
whole  suiface  by  the  medium  in  wnich  they  vegetate ;  living  in  air; 
propagated  by  spores  usually  enclosed  in  asd,  and  always  having 
green  gonidia  in  their  thallua 

Natural  Ordert  ofAlgaUt. 

1.  DiatimaeecB, — Crystalline  angular  fragmentaiy  bodies,  brittle, 
and  multiplying  by  spontaneous  separation. 

2.  ConfervauoB. — ^Vesioular  filamentaiy  or  membranous  bodiei^ 
multiplied  by  zoospores  generated  in  the  interior,  at  the  expense  of 
their  green  matter. 

8.  fueacecB, — Cellular  or  tubular  unsymmetrioal  bodies,  multiplied 
by  simple  spores  formed  extemallv. 

4.  CeramiacecB. — Cellular  or  tubular  unsymmetrical  bodies  multi- 
plied by  tetraspores. 

5.  Charaeece. — Tubular  symmetrically-branched  bodies,  multiplied 
by  Bpiral-ooated  nucules  filled  with  starch. 

Natural  Ordert  o/Fv/ngalet. 

6.  JBymenomyetUt,  or  Agarieaeea.^Qu(am  generally  quatemate  on 
distinct  sporophores ;  hymeniiun  naked 

7.  OatUramyeeUi,  or  Lycoperdacea, — Spores  generally  quatemate 
on  distinct  sporophores ;  hymenium  enclosed  in  a  peridium. 

8.  ConiomyeeUit  or  Ureainaeea, — Spores  single,  often  septate  on 
more  or  less  disUnct  sporophores;  flood  of  the  fruit  obsolete,  or 
mere  pedundes. 

9.  byphomyeeUt,  or  Botrytaeea. — Spores  naked,  often  septate; 
thallus  flocooee. 

10.  Aic&myceUi,  or  Hdvdaota, — Sporidia  oontained  (generally  eight 
together)  in  ascL 

11:  Phyaomyodet,  or  ifttcoracecBL— Spores  suxrounded  by  a  vesioalar 
veil  or  sporangiiun ;  thallus  floocose. 

NatwraL  Orden  oflAehendUi. 

12.  Oraphidaeea, — ^Nudeus  breaking  up  into  naked  spores. 
18.  CoUemacea. — ^Kudeus  bearing  asoi ;  thallus  homogeneous,  gela- 
tinous, or  carfeilsginoua 

14.  ParmdiacetB. — Nudeus  bearing  asd;  thallus  heterogeneous, 
pulverulent^  or  odlular. 

Alliances  of  Acrogens. 

MuicaU$, — Cellular  (or  vascular)  spore-cases  immersed  or  calyp 
trate,  i.  e.  either  plunged  in  the  substance  of  the  frond,  or  enclosed 
within  a  hood,  having  the  same  relation  to  the  spores  as  an  involucre 
to  a  seed  vessel 

LycopodaUa. — Vascular;  spore-cases  axillary  or  radical,  one-  or 
nym^-celled ;  spores  of  two  sorts. 

Ftlicale$. — Vascular;  spore-cases  maiginal  or  dorsal,  one-oelled| 
usually  surrounded  by  an  elastic  ring ;  spores  of  but  one  sort 

Natwral  Ordert  of  Mutealet, 
1.  Hepaticoi. 

15.  JUcciaeeee, — Spore-cases  valvelees,  without  operculum  or  elaters. 

16.  Marchantiacea, — Spore-cases  valvdess,  or  bursting  irregularly, 
without  operculum,  but  with  daters. 

17.  JungermawUaceoL — Spore-cases  opening  by  a  definite  number 
of  equal  valves,  without  operculum,  but  with  daters. 

18.  EquisetacecB, — Spore-cases  pdtate,  splitting  on  one  nde^  without 
operculum,  and  with  an  elater  to  eveiy  spore. 

2.  Mueci, 

19.  ilncJresacsa;.— <Spore-oa8es  opening  by  valves^  with  an  operculum, 
without  elaters. 

20.  ^ryooecs.— Spore-oases  valveless,  with  an  operculum,  without 
daters. 

Natural  Orden  of  LycopodaUa, 

21.  Lycopodiaeea, — Spore-cases  one-  to  three-celled,  axillazy,  repro- 
ductive bodies  similar. 

22.  ifar«tf«ica».— Spore-cases  many-celled,  radical  (or  axillary), 
reproductive  bodies  dissimilar. 

Natural  Ordera  of  FUiealea. 

28.  OpKiogloaaaeece, — Spore-cases  ringlees,  distmct^  two-valved; 
formed  on  the  margin  of  a  contracted  lei3l 

24.  Polypodiaeea, — Spore-cases  ringed,  dorsal  or  maiginal,  distinct, 
splitting  irregularly. 

25.  .Dana;a6e(P.---Spore-caBes  ringless,  dorsal,  connate,  splitting 
irregularly  by  a  ventral  cleft. 

(Lindle/s  Vegetable  Kingdom  ;  Schldden's  Principlea  of  Scientific 
Botany,  translated  by  Dr.  Lankester;  Henfre/s  Report  <m  ike  Higher 
Oryptogamoua  Planta,  at  the  Twenty-first  Meeting  of  the  British 
Assodation.) 

ACRO'QNATHUS,  a  genus  of  fossil  Cydoid  fishes,  found  in  th« 
chalk  of  Sussex.    (Agassiz.) 

ACRO'LEPIS,  a  genus  of  fossil  Ganoid  fishes,  found  in  the  ma|<^ 
nesian  limestone  of  Durham.    (Agassiz.) 


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ACROPTERia 


ACTINIADJE. 


ACROTTERIS  (ftom  tucpos,  a  pointy  and  wrfyu,  a  fern),  a  genus  of 
Ferns  allied  to  Atplenivm, 

ACROSALE'NIA,  a  genus  of  Focunl  E^^modennata,  (Agassiz.)  It 
occurs  in  the  Isle  of  Sheppy. 

ACBOSTICHON  (firom  axpos,  a  point,  and  rrlxos,  a  row),  a  genus 
of  Feins,  meet  of  which  require  stove  heat  in  cultiyaidon.  The  whole 
of  the  species  now  referred  to  this  genus  are  extra-European,  being 
inhabitants  of  the  West  and  East  Indies,  and  Australia. 

AGROTE^MNUS,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Q^noid  Fishes.  il./Vi5a  is  found 
in  the  chalk  of  Sussex.    (Agassiz.) 

ACT'.£A.  Under  ihe  name  of  Htcrri,  the  Greeks  described  a  medi- 
cinal plant,  which  the  modems  haye  ascertained  to  be  what  is  now 
called  Sambueua  Ebulus,  rSAMBUons.]  Linnasus  applied  the  name  to 
a  genus  of  perennial  herbaceous  plants  found  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  and  the  north  of  Asia,  and  America,  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  S4MMineulaee(B,  and  only  in  a  slight  degree  resembling  the 
species  intended  bv  classical  authors.  The  genus  thus  understood  is 
kiiown  from  all  others  of  the  Ranunculus  tribe  by  its  anthers  being 
turned  inwards,  so  that  when  they  burst  the  pollen  may  immediately 
fall  upon  the  stigma,  while  its  flowers  have  only  four  sepals  and 
four  petals.  The  properties  of  all  the  species  are  nauseous  and 
deleterious,  as  might  be  expected  from  their  affinity  to  the  poisonous 
Aconite. 

One  species,  Aei€Ba  tpicaUi^  a  common  European  plants  is  found 
occasionally  in  the  north  of  Torkshire  among  bushes ;  it  is  popularly 
called  Black  Baneberries  and  also  Herb  Christopher.  It  has  purplish- 
black  juicy  fruits,  which  would  be  dangerous  from  their  tempting 
appearance,  if  the  fetid  odour  of  the  leaves  did  not  prevent  their 
being  touched. 

Another*  species,  the  A,  eimieifuga,  a  Korth  American  plants  derives 
its  name  from  the  belief  that  its  fetid  leaves  have  the  power  of  driving 
away  bugs. 

ACTINIA-    rAcmiUDJB.] 

ACTINI'ADib,  a  family  of  Helianthoid  Polypes,  having  for  its  type 
the  old  genus  Actinia/  the  Sea  Anemoniet.  It  has  the  following 
characters.  Animal  single,  fleshy,  elongate  or  conical,  capable  of 
extending  or  contracting  itself,  fixed  by  its  base,  but  with  the  power 
of  locomotion ;  mouth  m  the  middle  of  the  upper  disk,  veiy  diltttable, 
siuTOunded  by  one  or  more 

rows  of  tentacula ;  oviparous  "••  *• 

and  viviparous ;  marine. 

The  internal  structure  of 
the  ActtnitB  has  been  care- 
fully investigated  by  Spix, 
Tesde,  and  others.  They  pos- 
sess an  alimentary  cavity, 
with  a  single  aperture, 
very  lanm  at  tiie  lower  end, 
and  so  uastio  and  contractile 
that  it  can  easily  be  turned 
inside  out  The  cavity  is 
surrounded  with  flat  muscles, 
running      lengthwise      and 

P««J1«L  ^        .      ,  Smtll  Leathery  iUiimal-noirer 

The  egg  oigan  iovantm),  {AoHnia  coriacea), 

according   to  Teale's   obser- 

vations  m  Actinia  coriacea,  ^^^'  *• 

forms      elongated       masses  ' 

attached  along  the  inner 
border  of  a  series  of  organs 
called  leaflets,  flg.  2,  A  A. 
"  Each  ovary  is  composed  of 
several  folds  or  plaits,  which, 
when  unfolded,  show  this 
structure  to  be  about  three 
times  the  length  it  assumes  ^ 
when  attached  to  the  leaflet.  ^ 
By  carefriU^  spreading  out 
these  folds,  the  ovary,  with 
the  assistance  of  a  lens,  is 
seen  to  consist  of  two  very 
delicate  layers  of  membrane,  & 

envelc^ing    a   closely    com-     Vertical  seetloii  of  the  above,  to  show  its 

pacted  layer  of  ova.    After  ^^^  The  ■kta**'*** **'^**^"' 
«ivelopii^theova,themem.***;  The  bate;  by  which  the  aaimali.  fixed 
branous  layers  are  placed  m  ^  the  rocks, 

apposition,  and  form  a  kind        c.  The  three  rows  of  feelers  (tentacula). 
of  mesentery,  by  which  the       d.  The  mouth. 
ovary  is  attached  to  the  in-       e.  The  stomach, 
temal  border  of  the  leaflet"       /.  Longitudinal  museles. 
The  AetiniacUe  propagate  all       ff-  Point  in  which  they  unite, 
the    year    round,    although     *  *•  The  orarles,  which  open  by  their  OTi- 
perhaps  in  some  species  ttie  ^^^  *°^  *^«  "tomach. 

ova  are  d€poeited  most  abtmdantly  in  autumn.  The  ova  are  roundish, 
and  like  those  of  polypes  in  general,  are  moved  by  means  of  vibratHe 
cilia,  which  cover  their  surfkce.  After  being  discharged  from  their 
parent  they  move  about  actively  for  swnd  days,  during  which  they 
undeigo  some  change  in  form.  They  thX  relax  their  activity,  the  cilia 
Hat.  mSfT.  DIY.  YOL.  L 


ma.  The  ovaries  greatly  magnified. 
h.  The  oviduct. 
e.  Eggs. 
d.  Ditto,  with  the  first  appearance  of  the 

embryo. 
«.  Ditto,  farther  advanced. 
/.  Ditto,  ditto. 

Fxo.  4. 


are  absorbed,  they  attach  themselves  to  a  spot^  and  pass  through  a 
series  of  forms,  before  arriving  at  maturity. 

Although  Spix  has  described  in  Actinia  coriacea  a  nervous  syBtem, 
this  has  not  been  confirmed  by  more  reoent  observers. 

The  habits  of  the  A  ctinim  have  been  studied  by  the  Abb^  Dioquemare 
and  others.  *.  The  forms  of  ActinioB  vaxy  according  to  their  contraction 
or  expansion,  presenting  in- 
numerable varieties.  Their  Fto«  S. 
expansion  is  said  to  be  amore 
certain  indicator  of  fine 
weather  than  the  rise  of  the 
barometer;  but  this  cannot 
be  practically  taken  advan- 
tage of  except  during  summer, 
as  the  cold  of  winter  drives 
iheActimcB  from  the  shore  to 
the  deeper  waters,  where  the 
temperature  is  more  equable 
and  mild.  On  ftli««g»Ticf  their 
place  of  abode,  some  abandoir  i 
themselves  to  the  mercy  of  | 
the  waves,  others  creep  along 
the  bottom,  turning  them- 
selves inside  ont^  and  making 
use  of  their  tentacula  as 
feet  When  they  find  a 
suitable  place,  they  fix  them- 
selveai,  often  so  firmly,  that 
they  cannot  be  detached 
without  tearing  their  bodies. 

Our  distinguished  y^ngiiaii 
naturalist,  Ellis,  has  given  a 
very  minute  and,  so  far  as  it 
goes,  an  accurate  account  of 
these  M^iTwoJ"  in  the  'Philo- 
sophical Transactions,'  voL 
Ivii,  part  of  which  it  may  be 
interesting  to  quote : — 

"The  lower  part,"  he  says, 
''of  these  bodies  have  a  com- 
munication with  a  firm, 
fieshy,  wrinkled  tube,  which 
sticks  fast  to  the  ro<^  and 
sends  forth  other  fleshy  tubes, 
which  creep  along  them  in 
various  directions.  These  are 
full  of  difiiarent  sizes  of  these 
remarkable  animals,  which  rise 
up  irregularly  in  groups  near 
to  one  another. 

"This  adhering  tube,  that 
secures  &em  hst  to  the 
rock  or  shelly  bottom,  is 
worthy  of  our  notice.  The 
knobs  that  we  observe  are 
formed  in  several  parts  of  it 
by  its  insinuating  itself  into 
the  inequalities  of  the  coral 
rock,  or  by  graspiog  pieces  of 
shells,  part  of  n^ch  still 
remain  m  it^  with  tiie  fleshy 
substance  grown  over  them. 
This  shows  us  the  instinct  of 
nature,  that  directs  these 
aniTnals  to  preserve  them- 
selves from  the  violence  of 
the  waves,  not  unlike  the 
anchoring  of  mussels,  by  their 
fine  silken  filaments  that  end 
in  suckers;  or  rather,  like 
the  shelly  basis  of  the  Serpula, 
or  worm-shell,  the  tree-oyster, 
and  the  slipper-bamadle,  fta, 
whose  bases  conform  to  the  shape  of  whatever  substance  they  fix 
themselves  to,  grasping  it  fast  witti  their  testaceous  daws,  to  with- 
stand the  fiuy  of  a  storm. 

"  When  we  view  the  inside  of  this  animal  dissected  lengthwise,  we 
find  a  little  tube  leading  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach,  from  whence 
there  rise  ei^t  wrinkled  small  guts,  in  a  circular  order,  with  a  yeUowish 
soft  substance  in  them ;  these  bend  over,  in  the  form  of  arches,  towards 
the  lower  parts  of  the  bulb,  from  whence  they  may  be  trooed  downr 
wards  to  the  nairow  part  of  the  upright  tube,  till  they  come  to  the 
fleshy  adhering  tube,  where  some  of  them  may  be  perceived  entering 
into  a  papilla,  or  the  beginning  of  an  animaj  of  the  like  kind^  most 
probably  to  convey  nourishment  till  it  is  provided  with  daws :  the 
remaining  part  of  these  slender  g^ts  ore  continued  on  their  fleshy  tube, 
without  doubt,  for  the  same  purpose  of  producing  and  supporting 
more  young  ones  from  the  same  common  parent 


DistribuUon  of  the  nerves  at  the  base  of 

the  Aetiniw,  according  to  Spix. 
o.  The  nervous  ganglions. 
h.  Nerves, 
c  Nerves  of  eosmumieatio&  between  the 

ganglions. 
d.  The  longitudinal  musdes. 

Fxo.  5. 


Longitudinal  Muielei,  with  the  fiselers 
(magnified). 


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ACTINIAD^ 


ACTINIADJL 


''The  many  lon^tadinal  fibres  Uiat  we  diBCOver  lying  pftraUel  to 
each  other,  on  the  inside  of  the  semi-transparent  skin,  are  all  inserted 
m  the  several  claTvs  roond  the  animal's  mouth,  and  are  plainly  the 
tendons  or  musdes  for  moving  and  directing  the  daws  at  the  will 
of  l^e  animal :  these  may  be  likewise  traced  down  to  the  adhering 
tube." 

A  strong  light  incommodes  the  Actinia,  noise  startles  them,  they 
are  a£fected  by  odours,  and  fresh  water  causes  them  to  die.  These 
various  feelings  originate  in  their  great  irritability,  which  appears  to 
increase  accordmg  to  their  sufferings.  They  can  support  a  temperature 
as  low  as  45**,  and  up  to  140%  Fehr. ;  but  beyond  these  extremes  they 
perish.  They,  are  often  left  expomd  to  the  air  during  spring-tides ; 
but  in  such  cases  they  always  retain  a  great  quantity  of  water,  which 
they  squirt  out  with  force  when  molesteid. 

These  singular  creatures  have  a  power  of  reproduction  equal  to  that 
so  well  known  in  the  Fresh-Water  Polyp  (Polypui  viridia,  Bory.,  Mydra 
viridis).  They  may  be  cut  perpendicularly  or  across,  and  eadi  cutting 
will  give  origin  to  a  new  animaL  The  young  AcHma  are  seen  issuing, 
already  formed,  sometimes  from  the  mouth ;  and  sometimes  the  base  of 
the  old  animal  is  dissevered,  a  portion  remaining  attached  to  the  rock, 
where  it  continues  to  live,  increasing  in  sise,  beooming  more  and  more 
rounded,  while,  in  a  short  time,  a  mouth,  stomach,  and  tentacula  are 
formed,  presenting  a  complete  ilc^io.  At  length,  the  side-portions 
of  this  base  give  out  globules^  which  are  detached,  fix  themselves  upon 
adjacent  rocks,  whore  they  grow,  and  produce  a  new  colony  like  the 

parent  a-niTnal. 

The  ActinicB  feed  upon  small  crustaceous  and  molluscous  animals 
and  fishes,  which  they  seize  with  their  tentacula^  and  afterwards 
disgoige  what  they  cannot  digest  They  are  foimd  in  every  sea,  some 
suspended  from  the  vaults  of  sub-marine  reefis,  others  covering  the 
more  exposed  sides  of  rocks  with  a  sort  of  flower-like  tapestry,  and 
some  confining  themselves  to  the  smooth  sands,  on  the  surface  of 
which  they  spread  out  their  tentacula,  and  even  withdraw  under  the 
sand  when  danger  threatens.  Each  spedes,  indeed,  generally  selects  a 
peculiar  haunt  Some  of  the  spedes  have  the  power  of  stinging,  like 
the  AcaUphcBf  which  depends  On  their  poeseesing  in  their  structure 
the  same  organ  as  the  Aealepha,  and  other  forms  of  polypes,  and  known 
under  the  name  of  Thread-Cells,  or  Stinging  Hairs. 

Many  of  the  spedes  are  used  as  food  in  tropical  countries,  on  the 
coasts  of  which  they  are  more  numerous  than  in  colder  oUmatea. 

The  genera  comprising  the  family  AcCvniadce  form  several  natural 
groups: 

A,  Such  at  have  the  tentacula  reduced  to  the  form  of  tuberdet, 
A  single  spedes,  constituting  the  genus  Ditcotoma  of  Leuckarty 
belongs  to  this  division,  which  cannot  be  regarded  as  certainly 
established,  the  genus  referred  to  having  been  founded  on  a  specimen 
preserved  in  alcohol,  which  alters  materi&Qy  the  forms  of  seapanemonies. 
Ehrenberg  asserts  that  it  is  his  Acttnia  brevicirrhata,  which  has  yeiy 
small  and  numerous  tentacula.    Ex.  JHecoioma  mmmiforme. 


JBdwardsia  vutita* 

B,    Such  Sea-Ajiemonies  aa  have  iimple  tentacula, 
following  are  the  prindpal  genera  :-^ 


Of  these  the 


1.  MinyaSf  Cuvier  {AeHmiata,  Blainville),  Free  AeHmce  having  more 
or  lees  globose  bodies  inflated  at  one  end,  and  having  at  the  other  a 
disk  covered  by  a  great  number  of  very  short  tentacula.  Cuvier  placed 
this  genus  among  the  Behinodermata,  but  the  observationa  of  Lesoeor 
and  Quov,  who  have  seen  the  living  animal,  place  it  without  a  question 
amonff  tiie  true  AcHmadce.  As  many  of  the  usuallv  fixed  spedes  are 
capable  of  swimming  and  of  inflainng  their  suctorial  disks,  it  is  by  no 
means  sure  that  sudi  is  always  the  habit  of  Miniyae ;  indeed,  we 
have  observed  an  allied  and  undeeoribed  animal  which  inhabits  the 
Mediterranean,  swinmiing  at  the  sur&oe  of  the  sea  in  winter,  but 
vdien  confined  in  a  glass  of  vrater  it  atUiered  to  the  sides  in  the  maamer 
of  anil  c^Miia  properly  so  called. 

Exanvple,  Mim/yoM  cyanea. 

2.  MoecAataf  Benieri,  vermiform  and  free,  and,  according  to  Da 
Blainville,  incrusted  with  adhering  substances.  It  is  said  to  live  fioating 
in  the  sea.  Both  Ehrenberg  and  Ihi jardin  have  supposed  that  there 
was  some  mistake  regarding  this  genua,  and  that  it  might  have  been 
founded  on  specimens  of  A  cHnia  (Oribrina)  hdlie.  It  is  more  probably 
however  identical  with  the  Edwardtia  of  M.  de  Quatref ages  ('  Annales 
des  Sdenoes  Naturelles,'  1842),  founded  on  some  remarkable  vermiform 
Aeiiniada  whidi  are  invested  with  a  sort  of  tube  to  which  sand  and 
gravd  adhere.  Three  spedes  of  Bdwardtia  have  been  discovered  by 
the  author  of  the  genus  on  the  west  coast  of  France,  and  a  fourth  in 
the  Qredan  Ardtipelago  by  FMfessor  £.  Forbes^  the  habits  of  which 
are  very  remarkable.  It  can  move  up  and  down  freely  in  its  mem* 
branous  tube,  and  when  kept  for  some  time  in  sea-water,  the  tube 
having  been  ix^uied,  it  came  out  of  it  altogetiier  and  moved  about 
twisting  its  body  in  the  manner  of  some  AnneUdee.  On  being  supplied 
with  sand  and  graved  it  pro4>9eded  to  construct  another  tube,  rolling 
itself  up  in  the  sand  and  secreting  glutinous  matter  for  the  membraaoos 
lining.  It  ei^  voradoualy,  and  attacks  such  animals  as  come  within 
reach  of  its  tentacula.  It  lives  buried  in  sand,  and  in  placee  a  few 
inches  below  sea-leveL 

8.  IkumUhue,  Forbes  ('Annab  of  Natural  History,'  voL  r,,  1840.) 
A  single  spedes  only  is  known.  • 

The  body  is  free,  and  tapers 
posteriorlv  to  a  pointy  which  is 
probably  buried  m  the  soft  mud 
among  which  it  lives.  The  mouth 
is  round,  and  surrounded  by  nu- 
merous long  filiform  tentacula. 
The  lUtanthue  ScoHcue  was  found 
in  four  fathoms  of  water  in  Loch 
Ryan. 

4.  Actima,  Linnsras,  now  re- 
stricted to  such  spedes  as  hav^ 
simple  tubular  retractile  tenta^ 
oula,  and  adhere  by  a  broad  base. 
Ehrenberg  has  separated  such 
Actinice  as  have  a  glandular 
epidermis,  under  the  name  of 
Oribrina,  From  the  glands 
protrude  long  filaments,  the  uses 
of  which  are  unknown.  The 
tentacula  of  all  the  spedes  are 
(oontraiy  to  the  suppodtion  of 
Ehrenborg)  perforated  at  thdr 

extremities.        The      subgenus  IhiaiUhue  SeeHnu, 

Adamsia  has  been  constituted, 

by  Professor  R  Forbes,  for  the  reception  of  the  curious  paramtical 
Actinia  maoulata,  which  envelopes  the  mouths  of  dead  shells,  generally 
sdecting  such  as  have  been  previously  invested  by  the  Alcyonidium 
echinatwn.  As  such  shells  are  frequently  inhMiited  at  the  same  time 
by  the  Hermit  Crab,  not  a  few  naturalists  have  mistaken  the  ooind- 
dence  for  some  necessary  and  mysterious  friendship  of  the  zoophyte  for 
the  crustacean. 

A  large  number  of  species  ot  Actima  have  been  described,  but  many 
of  them  not  with  suffident  distinctness,  and  it  is  probable  many  more 
will  be  ultimatdy  ascertained.  The  following  are  common  species  on 
the  British  coasts : 

The  Stout-Armed  Animal-Flower  {Actinia  eraeaicomii,  Miiller)  is 
three  inches  broad,  with  a  leathery  unequal  envdope  of  an  orange 
colour;  the  tentacula  in  two  ranges,  umially  marked  with  a  rose- 
.  coloured  ring.    Its  abode  is  commonly  in  the  sand. 

The  Purple  Animal-Flower  {Actinia  Jlieeembrytmthemum)  has  a  soft 
skin,  findy  striated,  usually  of  a  beautiful  purple,  often  douded  with 
greeiL  The  tentacula,  to  the  number  of  a  hxmdred,  vary  much  in 
colour.  When  the  tide  retires  this  spedes  may  be  seen  ornamenting 
the  searrocks  with  its  beautiful  colours — "purple,  violet,  blue,  pink, 
yellow,  and  green,  like  so  many  flowers,"  says  M.  I^miouroux,  ''in  a 
meadow." 

The  White  Animal-Flower  {Actinia  IHanihus,  Ellis)  is  four  or 
more  inches  broad,  of  a  white  colour ;  the  margins  of  the  mouth  are 
expanded  into  lobes^  all  f urmshed  with  innumerable  tentaoulm  There 
is  an  inner  row  of  these,  stUl  larger. 

In  his  '  British  Zoophytes,'  Dr.  Johnstone  enumerates  twenty  spedes 
of  the  genus  Actinia,  as  foux^in  the  British  islands.  It  ia,  however,  a 
question  whether  all  these  aR  roally  different  q>edes;  as  few  animals 


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ACTINIAD^. 


ADANSONIA, 


have  a  greater  tendea<^  to 
of  tlUia  genuB. 


asBuxne  different  forms  than  the  members 


Btoat-Armed  Animal-nower  {A,  cnmioomis). 


Pnrpls  Animal-Floirer  {A.  nuitwibryanthemum).       White  Animal-Flower 

{A.  DiatUhut). 

6.  Anihea,  Jolmstone,  incladeB  saoh  Aetiniai  as  have  not  the  power 
of  retraotizig  their  tentacula.  Several  of  the  species  grow  to  a  large 
size. 

Example,  Jn^Aea  TM^  Johnstone,  'Brit  Zoophytes,'  p.  222,  fig.  88. 

6.  AeiinolobcL,  Blainyille  {Metridium,  Oken),  species  in  which  the 
oral  disk  is  divided  at  the  margin  into  more  or  less  rounded  lobes, 
which  bear  short  simple  tentacula. 

Example,  A,  diantkut,  'PhiL  Trans.,'  vol  Ivil,  tab.  19,  fig.  8. 

7.  Capnea,  Forbes,  of  which  one  species  onlj  is  known.  The  disk 
is  round,  with  sereral  drcles  of  exoeedinglv  short  tubercular  i«tractile 
tentacula,  and  the  body  it^in  part  invested  with  a  peculiar  epidermis, 
which  is  divided  at  the  margin  into  eight  lobes. 

Example,  C.  sanguinea,  ^'AnnaLs  of  Natural  History/  voL  viL, 
pi  1,  %  1.)     Irish  Sea. 


Otpnta  ianguinosn, 
0.  8ea-AnenumU»lwvingfM>reorUupiv^^ 

8.  Actiiieria,  Quov  and  Gaimard.    Such  as  have  the  entire  disk 
covered  bv  very  small  villose  ramified  tentacula. 

Example.  A.  viOota,  Quoy  and  Qaimard.  ('Voy.  Astrolabe,  Zooph.,' 
pi  49,  figa.  1,  2.)    Tonga  islands. 

9.  Aetinodaidron,  Quoy  and  Qaimard.    Species  having  very  long 
arboreeoent  tentacula  disposed  in  one  or  two  series  on  the  oral  disk. 

Example,  A.  dU:y<nkMeun^    (' Voy.  Ast,'  pi  48,  figs.  1,  2.)    This 
aniinal  is  more  than  a  foot  in  height,  and  secretes  a  stinging  mucus. 

10.  Thcdauianthui,  Leuckart     One  species  only  is  known,  the 


T.  otter f  an  inhabitant  of  the  Red  Sea,  figured  in  the  plates  to  Riippell's 
'Voyage.'  Its  tentacula  are  numerous^  short,  and  pinnate.  It  is 
probably  identical  with  the  Epidadia  of  Ehrenberg. 

11.  ffeterodactyUif  Ehrenberg.  The  tentacula  are  of  two  sorts, 
some  simple  and  others  pinnate. 

Example,  ff.  HempriML    Bed  Sea. 

12.  Me^aUeHtf  Ehrenberg,  founded  on  an  animal  from  the  same 
locality  with  the  last,  and  characterised  by  having  all  the  tentacula 
arborescent,  but  the  internal  ones  ate  the  larger  and  more  pinnate,  and 
have  their  extremities  hollowed  into  a  sort  of  so<±et 

Example,  MegdUetU  ffempricML    [See  Supplsmknt.] 

ACTrNOCAMAX,  a  division  of  Betemnites,  proposed  by  the  late  Mr. 
liiller  of  Bristol,  upon  the  supposition  that  the  species  which  he 
ranked  in  it  had  no  true  alveolar  cavity  or  phi^gmacone.  The 
correctness  of  this  view  is  doubtful  The  species  belong  to  the 
cretaceous  strata.     [Belemkite.] 

ACTINOCARPUS  (from  cucrly,  a  ray,  and  Jcopr^Jj,  a  fruit),  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  AlitmacetB.  One  of  the  species  of 
this  genus,  A.  damatanium,  is  a  British  plants  though  rare.  Like  the 
order,  it  is  an  aquatic  plant,  and  has  cordate^  oblong,  floating  leaves, 
with  white  flowers.  Another  specieii^  A.  minor,  is  sometimes  found 
cultivated  in  our  gardens. 

ACTINO'CERAS,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Cephalopoda,  separated  from 
Orthocerat  by  Mr.  Stokes.  The  species  belong  to  the  Pal»oBoio  strata. 
A.  SUnmsii  occurs  in  Irebmd. 

ACTINOCRINITES,  a  genus  of  Crmoidea  [Encbinites],  con- 
taining many  species.  It  occurs  in  Silurian  and  Carboniferous 
strata.    (Miller^ 

ACTI'NOLITE,  a  crystallised  mineral  of  a  green  colour,  a  variety 
of  hornblende,  found  in  primary  stratified  rocks,  and  occasionally  in 
trap-rocks.  The  name  is  derived  from  ljcr\p,  a  ray  of  light,  and 
KlBos,  a  stone,  from  the  crystals  being  arranged  in  tiie  form  of  rays. 
It  occurs  in  masses  or  asbestiform. 

ACU'LEUS,  or  PricJde,  in  Botany,  is  a  hard,  conical,  often  curved 
expansion  of  the  bark  of  some  plants,  such  as  the  rose,  and  is  intended 
either  for  their  defence  against  enemies,  or  to  enable  them  to  hook 
themselves  upon  their  neighbours,  so  as  to  gain  a  more  fr«e  access  to 
light  and  air,  or  for  other  purposes  unknown  to  us.  The  prickle  is 
composed  entirely  of  cellular  tissue,  which  is  at  first  soft  and  flexible, 
and  onlv  acquires  its  hardness  and  rigidity  when  old.  In  some  respects 
it  may  be  compared  to  a  hair,  from  whioi  it  chiefly  differs  in  its  lai^ge 
sise  and  greater  permanence.  Care  must  be  tsJLen  by  the  young 
botanist  not  to  coxiifoimd  the  prickle  with  the  spine  or  thorn,  which 
is  of  a  totallv  different  nature.  [Spots.]  They  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  prickle  breaking  readily  from  the  bark,  and  leaving  a  dean  scar 
behind ;  while  the  spine  cannot  be  torn  off  without  rending  through 
the  bark  into  the  wood  itsel£  Leaves  are  often  metamorphosed  into 
spines,  but  never  into  aeuUL 

ADAMANTINE  SPAB,  a  simple  mineral,  more  commonly  deno- 
minated Conmdum  by  mineralogists,  the  name  given  to  it  in  India, 
from  which  country  it  was  first  brought  to  Europe.  The  first 
specimens  of  it  were  sent  by  Dr.  Anderson,  of  Madras,  to  Mr. 
Benr,  a  lapidary  in  Edinbuivh,  as  the  substance  used  in  India  to 
poliui  masses  of  crystal  and  all  other  precious  stones,  except  the 
diamond.  It  was  examined  by  Dr.  Black,  who  ascertained  its  peculiar 
nature^  and  from  its  great  hardness  he  called  it  Adamantine  Spar. 
With  the  exception  of  the  diamond,  it  is  the  hardest  substance 
known.  It  contains  about  90  per  centb  of  alumina,  a  little  iron,  and 
a  little  silica,  is  usually  of  a  pale  grey  or  greenish  colour,  but  is  also 
found  of  various  tints  of  red  and  brown.  It  is  usually  met  with  in 
rough  ill-defined  crystals,  in  granite,  and  sometimes  in  primary 
limestone,  and  is  found  in  Chma,  many  parts  of  India,  and  occa- 
sionally in  different  parts  of  Europe.  Emery,  the  well-known 
substance  used  in  the  cutting  and  polishing  of  glass,  in  polishing 
steel,  making  razor-straps^  and  similar  purposes  in  the  arts,  is  a 
granular  variety  of  Corundum,  usually  veiy  much  mixed  with  iron 
ore.  It  is  chidiy  imported  from  the  Isle  of  Naxos,  in  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  but  is  also  foxmd  in  Saxony.  The  SappMre  is  a 
remarkable  instance  how  the  mysterious  chemistry  of  nature  in  the 
mineral  kingdom  produces  from  the  same  elements  substances  the 
most  different  in  external  form ;  this  beautiful  precious  stone  yielded 
by  the  analysis  of  Chenevix  94  per  cent,  of  alumina;  and  Tennant 
foxmd  in  emery,  when  freed  firom  its  admixture  of  iron,  92  per  oent 
of  the  same  earth.  The  sapphire  is,  after  the  diamond,  the  most 
valuable  of  gems;  it  is  usuallv  dark  blue,  but  also  occasionally  colour* 
less,  and  the  predous  stones  called  by  li^idaries  Oriental  Ruby,  Oriental 
Topaas,  OrietUal  Am«thytt,  and  Oriental  Emerald,  are  red,  yellow,  violet^ 
and  green  Sapphires,  distinguishable  from  the  other  gems  of  the  same 
name  which  have  not  the  prefix  Oriental,  by  their  greatly  miperiar 
hardness  and  greater  specific  gravity.  Sapphires  are  found  in  gravel 
and  sand  in  the  island  of  Ceylon  and  in  Pegu,  but  they  have  never 
been  seen  in  a  matrix.  They  are  also  occasionally  found  in  gravel  in 
different  parts  of  Europe^  and  thev  have  been  met  with  of  a  clear 
blue  colour  and  cnrstallised,  in  the  lava  of  Nieder  Meodig,  near 
Andemach  on  the  Rhincu 

ADANSONIA,  so  called  in  honour  of  Michael  Adanson,  the  French 
naturalist,  is  an  extraordioary  tree  foxmd  in  Africa  within  the  tropics, 
particularly  in  Senegal,  where  it  is  called  Baobab, 


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ADAPIS. 


ADHESION. 


The  celebrated  traveller  Humboldt  conBiden  it  as  the  'oldest 
organic  monument  of  our  planet,'  in  consequence  of  the  calculations 
of  Adanson  that  specimens,  still  found  on  the  north-west  coast  of 
Africa,  are  probably  5000  yean  old ;  these  calculations  are,  however, 
>pen  to  many  objections. 

In  appearance,  Adanaonia  is  unlike  any  other  known  tree:  the 
enormous  dimensions  of  its  trunk  bear  a  striking  disproportion  to 
the  other  parts.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  a  trunk  not  more  than 
12  or  16  roet  firom  the  root  to  the  branches,  with  a  circumference 
of  76  or  78  feet  The  lower  branches  are  very  long,  and  at  first 
horizontal,  extending  perhaps  60  feet ;  the  conse<^uenoe  of  which  is 
that  thiy  bend  down  to  the  ground,  entirely  hidmg  the  trunk,  and 
giving  the  tree  the  appearance  of  a  huge  mass  of  veidure.  The  wood 
is  very  soft,  even  when  in  perfection,  and  is  subject  to  a  disease,  which 
may  be  compared  to  the  very  malady  of  which  its  celebrated  dis- 
coverer died — a  sort  of  softening  of  all  the  hard  parts,  so  that  the 
least  storm  is  sufficient  to  overthrow  and  dismember  its  enormous 
bulk.  A  curious  practice  prevails  among  the  negroes  of  hollowing  its 
trunk  out  into  chambers,  and  therein  depositing  the  bodies  of  male- 
factors, or  of  persons  to  whom  the  usual  rites  A  sepulture  are  denied. 
In  this  situation  the  bodies  become  dried  up,  and  soon  acquire  the 
state  of  perfect  mummies. 

Adanioma  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Bamhaeemf  among  which  it 
is  at  once  known  by  a  broad  tube  of  stamens  and  deciduous  calyx, 
combined  with  a  woody  dosed  fruity  containing  a  soft  pulp. 

The  onlv  species  is  Adamonia  diffUaiOf  the  Monkey-Bread,  Sour 
Qourd,  Lalo  Plants  kc,  of  the  African  negroes.    The  leaves  are  deep 


Leaf  and  flower  of  Adan$onia  di^Uata, 

green,  and  divided  into  five  unequal  parts,  each  of  which  is  of  a 
narrow  lanceolate  figure,  and  radiates  from  a  common  centre,  the 
outermost  divisions  being  the  smallest  The  flowers  grow  singly  in  a 
pendulous  position  from  the  bosom  of  the  leaves,  are  very  large, 
white,  crumpled  at  the  edge,  and  have  the  petals  Very  much  reflexeid. 
The  stamens  are  very  numerous,  and  are  collected  into  a  tube,  which 
spreads  at  the  top  into  a  sort  <k  umbreUa-like  head,  from  the  midst 
of  which  arises  a  slender  curved  style,  terminated  bv  a  rayed  stigma. 
The  fruit  is  an  oblongs  dull  green,  downy  body,  eight  or  nine  inches 
long,  containing  several  cells,  in  each  of  which  there  is  a  number  of 
hard  shining  seeds  immersed  in  a  soft  pulp,  which  is  scarcely  jmcf. 
From  this  pulp  the  negroes  prepare  an  acidiilous  drink,  much  used  m 
the  fevers  of  uie  country.  The  bruised  leaves,  in  a  dry  state,  form  a 
substance  called  lalo,  which  they  mix  with  their  food  and  imagine  is 
useful  in  checking,  or  coimteracting,  the  effects  of  profuse  perspi- 
ration. Like  the  rest  of  the  order,  Adaruonia  is  emollient  and 
mucilaginous  in  all  its  soft  parts.  [See  Supflbmint.] 
'  ADAPIS,  in  Zoology,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  Fossil  Pachydermatous 
(thick-skinned)  mammals,  described  by  M.  Cuvier,  in  his  great  work 
'  Sur  les  Ossemens  Fosdles,'  voL  iiL  p.  265.  The  word  is  found  in 
Qesner,  as  a  synonyme  of  the  common  rabbit  (not,  as  stated  in  the 
reference  to  Cuvier  just  given,  of  the  ffyrax),  and  is  appropriated  to 


the  present  genus,  from  the  presumed  similarity  in  size,  oiganizatioii, 
and  habits,  which  probably  existed  between  the  hedgehog  (Eyrax 
and  the  f osidl  spedes. 


Skull  of  the  Foiitt  Adt^it. 

The  remains,  upon  which  IL  Cuvier  has  founded  this  genus  Adafus, 
the  only  specimen  which  he  was  able  to  procure  during  a  period  of 
twenty-five  years  devoted  to  researches  after  fossil  bones,  consist  of 
three  fragments  of  skulls,  found  in  the  plaster  quarries  of  Mont- 
martre,  Paris,  celebrated  for  the  enormous  quantity  and  variety  of 
the  remains  of  extinct  animals  which  they  have  produced,  and  which,  • 
in  the  hands  of  M.  Cuvier,  have  effected  such  improvements  in  the 
kindred  sdences  of  zoology  and  geology.  The  first  of  these  fragments 
is  a  head,  nearly  perfect  on  the  side,  imbedded  in  the  mass  of  gypsum 
which  contained  it ;  and  exhibiting  the  dentition  nearly  in  a  perfect 
form.  The  general  outline  of  this  skull  dosely  resembled  that  of  the 
hedffehog,  but  it  was  about  one-third  larger :  there  were  four  incisor 
teeth  in  each  jaw,  trenchant  or  edged  and  oblique ;  followed,  on  each 
side,  by  a  canine  tooth,  of  a  conical  form,  but  in  other  respects 
differing  little  fixnn  the  molar  teeth  in  length  and  figure.  Of  these 
latter  there  appear  to  have  been  seven  in  eadi  side  of  eadi  jaw.  Two 
other  fragments  procured  by  M.  Cuvier — one  a  })ortion  of  a  lower 
jaw,  another  of  an  upper  jaw — served  to  complete  his  description,  by 
supplying  some  of  the  back  teeth  which  were  wanting  in  we  more 
perfect  roedmens. 

ADDA,  the  Arabic  name  of  a  small  spedes  of  lizard  (Scineut  offici- 
TidUt)  odebrated  by  the  eastern  physicians  on  account  of  its  pretended 
efficacy  in  the  cure  of  elephantiasis,  leprosy,  and  other  cutaneous 
diseases,  to  which  the  Arabs  and  inhabitants  of  Egypt  are  peculiarly 
subject ;  and  of  which,  according  to  Bruce,  they  are  more  afraid  than 
of  the  plague  itself. 

The  Adda,  as  described  by  Bruce,  is  about  six  indiee  and  a  half  in 
length ;  the  body  and  tail  are  cylindrical,  the  latter  thick  at  the  base, 
and  ending  in  a  very  sharp  point;  the  head  is  conical,  and  the  mouth 
provided  with  two  rows  of  small  feeble  teeth ;  the  face  is  covered 
with  five  black  lines,  whidi  cross  one  another  like  a  net;  the  body  is 
of  a  light  straw  colour,  crossed  with  eight  equidistant  bands  of  black, 
and  the  scales  are  so  finely  polished  that  thev  almost  appear  as  if  they 
had  been  varnished.  The  adda  is  found  in  Arabia,  "Emit,  and  Nubia ; 
it  is  particularly  abundant  in  the  ndghbouriiood  of  the  andent  Meroo 
(near  the  Kile,  about  17^  N.  lat)  ;  and,  in  shorty  throughout  every 
part  of  the  sandy  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  wherever  the  dighteet 
traces  of  moisture  exist  ''  It  burrows,"  says  Bruce,  **  in  the  sand, 
and  performs  the  operation  so  quickly,  ina,t  it  is  out  of  sight  in  an 
instant,  and  appears  rather  to  have  found  a  hole  than  to  have  made 
one  :  yet  it  oftoi  comes  out  during  the  heat  of  the  day  to  bask  itself 
in  the  sun ;  and,  if  not  very  mufihfrightened,  will  take  refuge  behind 
stones,  or  in  the  withered,  ragged  roots  of  the  absinthium,  dried  in 
the  sun  to  nearly  its  own  colou^ 

ADDAX.      [AlTTELOPE.] 

ADDER,  a  name  of  the  common  viper.    [YiferidaI 
ADELFORSITE,  a  variety  of  mineral,  induded  under  Heulandita, 
[Hbulaicditb.] 
ADELO'CRIKUS,  a  fossil  genus  of  Crinoidea,  from  North  Devon. 


ADHEiSION,  in  Botany,  is  applied  to  the  union  of  parts  which  arc 
separate  in  other  plants,  or  in  younger  states  of  the  same  plant 
Many  of  the  characters  which  cause  uie  diversity  of  appearance  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom  originate  in  the  adhedon  of  a  few  very  simple 
oigans ;  and  what  we  are  accustomed  to  oondder  parts*  of  extremely 
different  nature,  only  seem  so  in  consequence  of  the  way  in  which 
such  adhedon  occurs.  Thus,  the  stem  of  a  tree  is  not  a  homogeneous 
mass  of  vegetable  matter,  perforated  by  holes,  or  filled  by  little 
cavities  caused  by  the  extrication  of  air  in  it  when  in  a  soft  state,  but 
is  produced  by  the  adhedon  of  certain  dementary  bodies,  oalled 
Cellular  Tissue  and  Vascular  Tissue  [Tissues,  Vegetable],  arranged 
in  a  definite  manner,  which  varies  in  every  spedes ;  ndther  is  a  leaf,  or 
a  fruit,  or  a  fiower,  a  mere  mass  of  pulp,  or  an  expandon,  like  the  honi 
of  an  animal,  but  also  consists  of  these  same  dementaiy  oigans  in 
a  state  of  adhedon. 


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ADHESION. 


ADIPOSE  TISSUR 


74 


Gnided  bj  these  fsMstSy  modem  botanists  haye  made  use  of  this 
property  of  adhesion  to  explain  the  nature  of  ererj  organ  that  plants 
bear,  and  there  are  few  anomalies  that  are  not  due  in  a  great  measure 
to  the  union  of  contiguous  parts. 

Some  leayes  are  said  to  be  stem-dasping,  or  amplezicaul,  when  their 
baoe  partially  surrounds  the  stem  (fig.  a);  while  some  stems  are  said  to 
be  perfoliate,  when  they  seem  as  if  they  pierced  through  the  leaf,  as 
in  Bu/pUMTwa^  roimd^iliwn  (fg*h)\  but  the  latter  differ  ftom  the 
former  only  in  this,  that  in  the  first  the  lobes  at  the  base  of  the 
leaf  embrace  the  stem  without  adhedng,  while  in  the  second  they  not 
only  dasp  the  stem  but  grow  together  where  their  margins  come  in 
ccittact  Some  leayes  are  hollow,  as  in  the  Pitcher  Plant,  and  these 
were  formerly  thou^t  to  be  special  organs  with  which  no  analogy 
oould  be  diB^yered;  they  are  now  known. to  be  leayes  which  haye 
rolled  up  so  that  their  opposite  margins  come  in  contact  and  adhere. 
Other  leayes,  growing  from  opposite  sides  of  a  stem,  adhere  in  conse- 
quence of  their  bases  becoming  connate  (fig,  c),  as  in  the  honeysucMe ; 
and  finally  there  acD  others,  many  of  which  grow  in  what  botanists 
call  a  wh(nl,  that  is  to  say,  all  round  a  stem  upon  the  same  plane,  and 
adhere  by  their  margins  into  a  sheath  (fig.  cQ,  as  in  Catuarinek 


In  other  organs  adhesions  of  a  similar  nature  occur. 

In  the  calyx,  all  the  sepals,  or  parts^  are  often  distinct^  as  in  the 
RammcuUu ;  but  they  also  often  adhere  by  their  edges,  into  a  sort 
of  eup»  as  in  the  cherry.  In  the  corolUb  the  petals  are  either  all 
■eparate,  as  in  the  rose,  or  they  adhere  by  their  edges  into  a  cup  or 
bell,  as  in  the  different  heaths^  Camponulaf  andthelike. 

Similar  adhesions  take  place  between  the  stamens.  In  tiie  rose  tiiey 
are  all  distinct  firom  each  other ;  in  the  geranium  they  slightly  adhere 
st  the  base  (fig.  e) ;  in  the  mallow  they  adhere  into  a  tube,  except 
near  the  upper  extivmity,  where  they  are  not  united,  and  haye  their 
ordinary  appearance  (fig,  f) ;  in  other  plants  they  grow  together  ioto 
a  soHd  tube  in  which  no  trace  of  separation  can  be  discoyered,  as  in 
thegenus  Ouarea  (fig.  g). 

Fmally,  in  the  pistil  there  are  certain  parts  called  carpels,  each  of 
which  is  a  hollow  body  tenninated  by  a  style  and  stigma.  These 
carpels  are  hollow,  because  they  are  formed  of  a  flat  oigan,  doubled 
up  so  that  its  edges  come  in  contact  and  adhere  to  each  other. 
Sometimes  onl^  one  carpel  is  present  in  a  flower,  as  in  the  cherry 
(fig-  A) ;  aometimes  seyeral,  as  in  the  rose  (fig.  «).  In  the  Ntgdla,  the 
styles  of  the  carpels  are  all  distinct  (fig.  k),  but  in  the  lily  and 
the  myrtle  (fig,  I)  the  styles  of  the  carpels  adhere  so  completely  that 
there  seems  to  be  but  one.  In  the  apple,  the  calyx  sebms  to  grow 
from  the  top  of  the  frnit ;  this  is  caused  by  the  carpels  haying  at  a 
yery  early  period  adhered  to  the  inside  of  the  calyx,  which  afterwards 
grows  WTth  their  growth,  and,  finally,  leayes  its  extremities  in  a 
withered  state  near  the  top  of  the  curpels :  in  the  cherry,  on  the 
contraiy,  no  adhesion  eyer  takes  place  between  the  cupel  and 
the  calyx ;  and,  consequently,  when  the  frxut  is  ripe,  there  is  no  trace 


of  the  latter  upon  its  upper  end.  In  the  raspberry,  the  fruit  is 
enabled  to  slip  like  a  thimole  from  off  the  receptacle,  because  the 
carpels  all  adhere  by  their  sidea 

(De  Candolle,  TKSorie  SUmentaire  de  la  Botaniqw;  Lindley,  IfUro- 
duietum  to  Botany  ;  Schleiden,  PrincipUs  of  Seieniifie  Botamu.) 

ADIANTUM  (iSlayrov),  a  genus  of  Ferns,  so  called  by  Uie  Qreeks 
because  the  leayes  are  of  mick  a  nature  that  water  will  not  readily 
moisten  them.  The  plant  described  by  Hippocrates  and  his  successors 
under  this  name  appears  to  haye  been  the  A,  CapUhu  Veneritf  or 
the  Maiden-Hair  Fern — a  rare  European  spedes,  occasionally  met  with 
on  moist  rooks,  and  old  damp  widls,  eyen  in  this  countiy.  From 
other  genera  of  the  same  tribe  it  is  known  by  its  size,  or  masses 
of  roi^oductiye  partides,  being  situated  ui)on  the  mai^gin  of  the 
leayes,  and  coyered  oyer  by  a  thin  curyed  scale  which  separates  from 
the  leaf  by  its  inner  edge. 

The  number  of  spedes  is  yery  considerable,  probably  not  far 'from 
80  or  90,  aiid,  as  is  the  case  in  all  extensiye  genera  of  Ferns, 
comprehends  eyery  degree  of  diyidon  of  the  leayei^  from  perfect 
simplidty  to  the  most  compound  conditions.  All  those  in  which  tho 
leayes  are  much  diyided  are  remarkable  for  the  yery  delicate  elastic 
stalks  on  which  the  broad  leidiets  aro  attached ;  it  is  to  this  circum- 
stance that  the  name  of  Maiden's  Hair  has  been  giyen  to  the  European 
spedes.  The  genus  is  scattered  oyer  all  the  world,  from  Europe  to 
New  Zealand^  but  is  not  found  in  any  high  latitudes  in  either 
hemisphere.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  spedes  inhabit  damp 
tropical  woods. 

A.  Capillua  Veneris  is  a  dark-green  stemlees  plants  found  in  damp, 
rough  rooky  places,  by  the  side  of  water-courses,  and  on  the  edge  of 
wells,  whero  the  air  is  keen  and  dry.  Its  leayes,  which  aro  from  six 
to  fifteen  inches  high,  haye  a  blackish-purple  highly-polished  stalk, 
diyided  into  a  great  number  of  yery  slender  ramifications,  frt>m  the 
extremities  of  which  proceed  the  thin,  delicate,  wedgo«haped  leaflets, 
which  aro  notched  irregularly  upon  their  upper  edge,  and  haye  the 
most  graceful  appearance  imaginable  when  growing  a  little  aboye 
the  eye,  and  gentiy  agitated  by  the  wind.  Wonderful  medicinal 
properties  were  once  ascribed  to  this  spedes,  but  they  hftye  long  since 
been  discoyered  to  haye  no  existence  except  in  the  exag^^eration  of 
fanciful  practitioners.  All  that  can  be  discoyered  in  it  is  a  slight 
but  pleasant  aromatic  flayour;  the  French  occasionally  use  it  in 
slight  coughs.  CapiUaire  is  prepared  by  pouring  boiling  syrup  upon 
the  leayes  of  this  spedes,  or  of  A.  peaaium,  an  American  plant  of 
larger  growth  and  far  lees  diyided  leayes ;  a  little  flayour  is  afliarwards 
giyen  with  orange-flowers. 

ADINOLE,  a  laminated  yariety  of  Fehroar,  sometimes  called 
Fusible  Homstone,  Leelite,  and  Petro-silex.    [Fsuspab.] 

ADIPOSE  TISSUE  is  usually  associated  with  Areolar  Tiseue 
[Arbolab  Tibsus],  the  two  being  gencnndly  known  coUectiydy  as 
CelMar  Tistue.  U  must  be  distinguished  from  Fat  [Fat],  adiposo 
tissue  being  a  membrane  of  extreme  tenuity  in  the  form  of  dosed 
cells  or  yedcles,  while  fat  is  the  material  contained  within  them.  The 
membrane  of  the  adipose  yedcle  does  not  exceed  the  20,000th  of  an 
inch  in  thickness,  and  is  quite  transparent ;  it  is  moistened  by  watery 
fluid,  for  which  it  has  a  greater  attnu^on  than  for  the  fat  it  contains. 
ESadi  yedde  is  a  perfect  little  oigan,  yarying,  when  fiilly  deydoped, 
tram  the  800th  to  the  800th  of  a  line ;  mmute  capillaries  may  be 
obseryed  on  their  external  Boittce,  (Fig.  2).  When  fat-yemcles  aro 
deponted  together  in  large  numbers,  as  is  usually  the  case,  they  assume 
a  more  or  less  regular  polyhedric  form  from  their  mutual  pressure. 

Fio.  1. 


When  tiie  fiivt  traces  of  fiitt  appear  is  not  accurately  known.  In  a 
well-formed  fiye-months'  human  fcstus,  Valentin  found  in  the  subcuta- 
neous cellular  tissue  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  not  merdy  fktcells,  such 
as  occur  in.  adults,  yaiying  frx>m  the  ordinary  size  to  the  125th  or 
100th  of  a  line,  within  and  around  which  wero  numerous  small  yedcles 
(fig.h  <^)f  hut  other  forms  which  throw  more  light  on  their  structure 
and  deydopment  In  some  the  surrounding  cell-membrane  was  much 
moro  distinct  than  as  it  occurs  in  adults  (h).  In  othen  there  appeared 
to  be  a  depontion  of  fat,  not  occupying  tne  whole  space  of  the  cell  (c) ; 
the  remainder  of  the  cell  haying  oft«i  a  striped  or  streaky  appearance, 
and  forming  a  lateral  projection;  this  is  seen  in  c,  and  m  a  more 
marked  degree  in  d  and  e.    In  other  fat-cdls  there  were  obseryed  to 


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ADIPOSE  TISSUE 


ADIPOSE  TISSUE. 


be  two  vesicles,  separated  by  a  septum,  against  which  they  wore 
|>artial]y  flattened  hv  pressure  (g),  or  merely  separated  by  a  constriction 
m  the  external  walls,  as  in  f.    This  form  leads  us  to  oondude  that 


Fio.  S. 


fat-oellB  increase  by  division.  The  fat-vesicle  of  the  human  subject 
contains  Margarin,  a  solid  fat^  and  OUin,  a  fluid  fat  These  sometimes 
separate  spontaneously,  presenting  a  very  beautiAil  microscopic 
appearance.  The  margann  collects  in  a  spot  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  cell-membrane^  and  presents  the  appearance  of  a  small  star, 
whilst  the  olein  occupies  the  remainder  of  the  vesicle,  unless  when  the 
quantity  of  ftt  in  it  is  rather  smaller  than  usual,  in  which  case  we 
may  observe  a  little  aqueous  fluid  between  the  olein  and  ^ 
ceU-membrane.  (Fig,  1,  h.) 

The  chemistry  of  the  substances  Margitrin  and  Olein  is  somewhat 
complicated,  but  the  Amotion  of  the  adipose  tissue  cannot  be  explained 
without  it  These  two  substances,  with  Stearin,  are  the  most  widely 
distributed  fats  in  the  oiganic  kingdom,  but  th^  are  not  the  only 
ones.  The^  were  formerly  regarded  as  salts  formed  by  fatty  adds  with 
OHycervn,  Recent  investigations  have  however  diown  that  this  view 
re(juires  a  slight  modification.  Berzelius  thinks  that  glycerin  does  not 
exist  ready  formed  in  the  neutral  fats,  but  that  it  is  a  product  of  the 
formation  of  soap ;  and  he  considers  the  base  of  the  neutral  fats  to  be 
the  oxide  of  a  radical  ^C,  HJ  which  he  terms  Lipyle,  Glycerin  is  then 
formed  fh>m  two  eqmvalents  of  the  oxide  of  Upyle,  wiui  three  equi- 
valents of  water:  2  C,  H,  0  +  8  H  0=C«  H.  0.  If  to  this  we  add 
one  equivalent  of  watw,  we  obtain  the  usiud  formula. 

According  to  this  view,  which  w  supported  by  Redtenbacher, 
Varrentrap^  and  Mulder,  the  base  of  every  neutral  fat  yielding  glycerin 
is  a  compound  which  is  represented  bv  d,  H,  0. 

The  most  important  of  the  fatty  acids  are  : — 

Stearic  Add C^,  H„  0,  -h  H  0 

Maigaric  Add     .        .        .        .        C^  H^  0,  -h  H  0 
OldcAdd C^H^O^  +  HO 

These  are  universally  diffused  in  plants  and  animals ;  and,  combined 
with  the  oxide  of  lipyle  (C,  H,  0),  they  form  the  neutral  fats-nrtearin, 
maigarin,  and  olein ;  and  tms  is  the  form  in  which  they  most  commonly 
occur  in  the  oiganic  kingdouL  Sometimes^  however,  a  more  powerful 
base  (potash,  soda,  Ac.)  removes  the  oxide  of  lip|vle,  and  there  are 
then  formed  compounds  of  the  &t^  adds  with  alkaues. 

In  connection  with  this  subject,  Mulder  observes  that  "  when  salad- 
oil  is  conveyed  into  the  stomach,  it  mav  pass  unchanged  into  human 
fat^  for  both  consist  of  maigaiin  and  olein,  altiioug^  in  different  propor- 
tions ;  and  as  margarin  and  olein  are  found  in  many  v^etables  used 
for  food,  nothing  is  more  simple  than  to  assume  that  these  substances 
are  directiy  transferred,  without  change,  into  the  fats  of  the  animal 
body. 

''  But  if  these  same  vegetables  aie  eaten  by  a  sheep,  the  olein  and 
margarin  must  undergo  some  diange  in  the  body  of  the  animal,  since 
mutton-fat  contains  a  large  amount  of  stearin.  In  this  case  the  change 
is  easily  understood,  for  2  eq.  margaric  add  (C^,  H^,  Oq)  =  1  eq.  stearic 
add  (Cos  Hm  Os)  -i-  1  eq.  oxygen.  Thus,  from  two  equivalents  of 
margaric  aod  one  equivalent  of  stearic  add  is  produced,  and  one 
equivalent  of  oxygen  is  given  oflEl  In  all  probability  such  a  deoxidation 
of  the  maigaric  acid  in  the  food  of  the  sheep  is  really  effected ;  a^d 
on  the  contrary,  when  mutton-&t  is  used  for  food  by  man,  stearic  add 
is  most  probably  converted  into  margaric  add  by  the  alMorption  of 
oxygen."  It  is  now  believed  by  our  first  phydologbts,  that  the  neutral 
fats  taken  as  food  do  not  directiy  form  fatty  tissue^  but  that  they  enter 
the  blood  in  a  saponified  state.  In  fact  the  alkaline  character  of  the 
bile  as  it  enters  the  duodenum  renders  it  impbadble'for  the  fat  to 
enter  the  blood  without  undeigoing  this  change.  '  If  it  be  saponified, 
we  readily  understand  how  compounds  of  fat^  adds  and  soda  should 
exist  in  the  blood  and  in  various  parts  of  the  body.  When  a  soda- 
soap  however  exiifts  in  the  blood,  it  cannot  form  a  neutral  fat^  such 
as  maigarin  or  olein,  without  combining  with  glycerin.  This  leads 
to  the  inquiry,  in  the  first  place,  whether  these  soaps  meet  with 
glycerin ;  and  secondly  if  they  do,  whether  the  glycerin  would  combine 
with  the  fatty  adds  and  form  neutral  fats.  There  is  good  reason  for 
believing  that  both  these  questions  may  be  answered  in  the  negative, 


for  the  glycerin  set  f^  when  the  soda^oap  is  formed,  is  most  probably 
at  once  decomposed ;  and  further,  glycerin  will  not  remove  the  soda 
from  the  fatty  add  and  form  a  neutral  fat 

It  has  been  suggested  by  Mulder,  that  although  (^yoerin  will  not 
enter  into  this  combination,  the  oxide  of  lipvle  in  a  nascent  state  may 
do  so,  and  that  in  this  manner  the  fatty  acids  may  be  converted  into 
neutral  fats,  and  deposited  in  the  cellnlar  tismie,  and  other  parts  of  the 
body.  We  have  already  shown  that  (according  to  the  opinion  of 
Berzelius)  fflyoerin  is  tlie  oxide  of  the  radioid  (C,  H,)  lipvle.  The 
second  oxide  of  this  radical  exists  in  lactic  add,  wmch  is  supposed  by 
the  great  nujority  of  diemists  to  be  present  in  most  parts  of  tiiebody. 
When  lactic  add  (C^  H.  0^}  is  sublimated,  we  obtun  a  white  subli- 
mate, the  compontion  of  which  is  C,  H,  0, ;  while  the  composition  of 
the  oxide  of  lipyle  is  C,  H,  0. 

It  may  happen  that  there  are  causes  of  deoxidation  at  work  in  the 
system,  by  which  some  of  the  substances  usually  oooverted  into  lactic 
acid  are  xnade  to  produce  oxide  of  lipyle,  which  in  the  nascent  state 
unites  with  the  fatty  adds,  forming  neutral  fats. 

Hence  in  all  probability  the  neutral  fats  are  not  deponted  directly 
and  unchanged  in  the  cdlnlar  tissue,  but  are  first  saponified,  and 
entering  tiie  blood  as  maigarate  and  oleate  of  soda,  are  again  reduced 
to  neutral  fats  by  the  influence  of  lactic  add. 

The  next  question  for  our  consideration  is  the  formation  qffat — a 
subject  which  has  given  rise  to  much  angiy  and  intemperate  discussion 
between  the  leading  chemists  of  France  and  Germany.  Dumas,  who 
may  be  regarded  as  the  representative  of  the  French  sdiool,  maintains 
that  all  the  fat  of  animals  originates  in  and  is  obtained  fixmi  plants ; 
while  Liebig,  on  the  contrary,  maintains  that  a  })ortion  of  it  is  formed 
by  the  animal  itself,  from  starch,  sugar,  and  gum.  The  goose  was  the 
anixnal  respecting  whidi  the  dispute  originated.  When  fattened  with 
Indian  com,  the  starch  must,  according  to  Liebig,  have  been  changed 
into  fat,  because  he  had  found  but  a  minute  quantity  (about  1  part 
in  1000)  of  fat  in  that  kind  of  grain.  Dumas  however  extracted  9  per 
cent  of  fat  from  Indian  com  (or  ninety  times  as  much  as  Liebig),  and 
thus  he  foimd  in  the  food  which  the  goose  had  eaten  much  more  fiat 
than  had  to  be  accounted  for.  The  actual  fact  is,  that  the  amount  of 
fat  in  this  grain  is  so  variable  that  no  condudon  can  be  drawn  from 
the  experiment  Liebiff  quotes  many  examples  of  substances  which, 
although  they  contain  little  fat,  are  well  known  by  experience  to  be 
especially  fit  for  fattening  the  animal  body.  Rice,  peas,  beans,  and 
})otatoes  are  all  known  to  possess  this  property ;  yet  rice  gives  only 
0*2  to  0*8  per  cent  of  matters  soluble  in  ether  (the  ordinary  means  of 
determining  the  amount  of  fat^ ;  peas  1*20  to  2*1 ;  beans  0*70,  and 
dried  potatoes  0*85  per  cent  Thus  any  animal  that  has  eaten  1000 
pounds  of  one  of  these  substances  ma^  obtain  from  them  2  to  8, 12  to 
21,  7,  or  84  pounds  of  fat  respectivdy.  He  makes  the  foUowing 
calculations : — ^Three  pigs  to  be  fattened  in  thirteen  weeks  require 
1000  pounds  of  peas,  and  6825  pounds  of  boiled  potatoes,  the  latter 
being  equal  to  1688  pounds  of  dry  potatoes.  These  contain  in  all  26 
pounds  of  fiat,  the  peas  yielding  21  pounds,  and  the  potatoes  6.  One 
fattened  pig  gives  on  an  average  50  to  55  pounds  of  fat,  the  three 
yidding  150  to  165  pounds.  Each  pig  before  fattening  contains  on  an 
average  18  pounds  of  fiat— that  is,  54  pounds  for  the  three.  If  to  these 
54  pounds  be  added  26  pounds  contained  in  the  food,  we  get  80  })ounds ; 
and  if  we  subtract  these  frt>m  150  to  165  pounds,  there  is  a  remainder 
of  70  to  85  pounds  of  fat  produced  from  the  starch,  ftc.,  of  the  food. 
Liebig's  opinion  is  further  strengthened  by  the  droumstance  that  some 
fats  are  undoubtedly  produced  in  the  body,  as,  for  instance,  the  fats 
peculiar  to  the  bram,  ChoUtterin,  Oeiine,  Phoeenine,  &c.  To  obtain 
these  from  other  fiat  requires  just  as  much  a  new  arrangement  as  if 
they  were  produced  frt>m  starch ;  hence,  in  a  sdentific  point  of  view, 
there  is  nothing  improbable  in  tiie  suppodtion  that  animals  are  able 
to  produce  fiats. 

With  regard  to  the  formation  of  fat  in  plants,  it  is  worthy  of  obser- 
vation that  all  seeds  which  yield  oU  on  pressure — as  the  castor-oil  seed, 
hemp-seed,  &c. — contain  starch  in  their  eariy  stases,  this  starch 
disappearing  as  the  oil  increases,  and  when  the  seed  is  completely 
developed  not  a  trace  of  the  starch  remaining^  This  renders  it 
probable  that  these  fatty  matters  are  formed  firom  starch.  From  their 
ultimate  compodtion  it  is  obvious  that  whenever  fats  are  produced 
frt>m  any  substance  there  must  be  produced  at  the  same  time  dther 
highly  oxidised  compounds^  or  else  that  oxygen  must  be  itself  liberated. 
Liebig  observes  that  if  frt>m  the  formula  for  starch,  C|,  H^q  0|o  ,  we 
take  nine  equivalents  of  oxygen,  there  will  remain  in  100  parts — 

C,, 79-4 

Hxo  10-8 

0 9.8 

The  empirical  formula  for  fat  which  comes  nearest  to  this  is  C„  H,o 
0,  which  gives  in  100  parts — 

C.j '.    78-9 

H,o n-6 

0 9-5 

According  to  this  formula  on  equivalent  of  starch,  in  order  to  be 
converted  into  fat,  would  lose  one  equivalent  of  carbonic  add  and 
seven  of  oxygen,  or  (expressed  in  symbols)  C^,  H„  0^=  C^i  H„  O 
+  C  0,-h  7  0. 


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uECIDIUM. 


73 


The  mme  point  is  also  clearly  shown  hj  contrasting  the  ultimate 
composition  of  starch  and  fat 

Staroh.  HomanFat.  (Cherreul.) 

Carbon     .        .        .    44*91    .  .    .    7900 

Hydrogen     .        .  611    .  .    .    11-42 

Oxygen    .        .        .    48*98    .  .    .      9*58 

Ab  we  are  not  acquainted  with  any  constituent  of  plants  which  con 
take  up  the  oxygen  thus  liberated  in  the  formation  of  fat,  we  must 
regard  this  as  one  of  the  sources  of  the  oxygen  given  off  by  plants. 
Vulder  has  given  the  following  scheme  as  iUustrative  of  the  mode  in 
which  starch  may  poasibly  be  conyerted  into  fat  or  oil  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom  i— 

C  H  0 
To  7  equiv.  of  starch  .  .  .  .  84  70  70 
Add  8  equiv.  of  water  ...  88 


84 

78 

78 

84 

84 

8 

44 

40 

4 

a 

4 

2 
69 

84 

78 

78 

And  we  have  .... 

Which  are  equal  to 
1  equiv.  of  maigaric  acid 

1  equiv.  of  oleic  acid 

2  equiv.  of  oxide  of  lipyle 
69  equiv.  of  oxygen 

Making  as  before 

As  to  the  mode  in  whidi  fat  is  deposited,  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  it  is  immediately  formed  out  of  the  blood,  without  any  glandular 
apparatus  for  secreting  it,  bv  the  capillary  arteries  of  the  adipose 
veaides.  By  chemical  amdysis,  the  materials  of  fat,  like  those  of  all 
the  other  seicretiona^  are  found  to  be  contained  in  the  blood. 

As  diffused  over  the  bodv,  the  adipose  membrane  consists  of  mannon 
which  vary  considerably  m  their  magnitude  and  shape.  In  some 
places  they  are  rounded,  in  others  pear^iaped,  and  in  the  median  line 
of  the  abdomen,  egg-shaped.  The  distribution  of  the  membrane  is 
exceedingly  unequair  There  is,  in  general,  a  considerable  layer  imme- 
diately beneath  the  skin ;  and  espedallv  between  the  skin  and  the 
abdominal  muscles,  where  it  occasionaUy  accumulates  in  enormous 
TnTiiwofl,  Between  the  folds  of  the  membranes  which  form  the  omentum 
and  meeenterv  there  is  usually  a  large  quantity;  also  around  the 
heart  and  the  kidneys ;  on  the  face,  and  especially  on  ike  cheeks,  and 
in  the  orbits  of  the  eyes ;  in  the  palms  of  the  hsmds,  the  soles  of  the 
feet ;  the  pulp  of  the  fingers  and  toes,  the  flexures  of  the  joints,  the 
fibres  of  muscles,  and  the  sheath  of  vessels.  In  most  of  these  organs 
it  never  entirely  disappears,  whatever  be  the  degree  of  leanness  to 
which  the  body  may  be  reduced ;  while  in  the  cranium,  the  brain,  the 
eye,  the  ear,  the  nose,  and  several  other  organs,  there  is  none,  what- 
ever be  the  degree  of  corpulency. 

The  functions  of  the  adipose  tissue  are  manifold  and  apparent 

1.  It  fills  up  interstices,  and  acts  as  a  kind  of  pad  or  cushion  for  the 
protection  of  oxgans  which  would  be  otherwise  imured  by  the  move- 
ments of  the  body;  so  essential  does  it  appear  m  some  parts  that 
even  where  there  is  great  emaciation  it  does  not  wholly  disappear. 

2.  By  its  non-C(mducthig  power  it  assists  in  maintaiTiing  the  heat  of 
the  bodv  when  exposed  to  external  cold.  It  is  foimd  in  immense 
quantities  in  the  animals  inhabiting  the  Arctic  Seas,  as  in  the  whale 
tribe,  and  also  in  all  animals  living  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  earth. 
Z.  It  acts  as  a  storehouse  for  fuel  during  times  of  necessity.  Some 
•"iw>a1«  are  exposed  to  a  want  of  combustible  food  in  the  winter  time, 
and  they  aocoDiingly  become  fat  in  the  autumn,  and  are  thus  supplied 
with  material  for  Tnftfnfjifnmg  their  animal  heat  It  is  well  known 
that  fats  are  amongst  the  most  important  agents  of  food  by  which 
anbnal  heat  is  maintained.  Anfmalw  that  hybemate  depend  solely  for 
their  existence  upon  the  fat  deposited  in  their  bodies,  which  ts 
gradually  consumed  during  hybernation.  4.  The  presence  of  fEit 
seems  to  fiivour  the  development  of  protein  tissues.  It  is  always 
found  in  the  ova  of  ftninnua  before  the  embryo  is  formed.  The 
administration  of  oik  in  certain  diseases  attended  with  emaciation,  as 
in  phthisis,  has  beeoi  found  most  beneficial,  and  appears  to  act  favour- 
ab&,  by  aswinting  the  development  of  protein  tissues 

(Lebinann,  Phy$iologieal  Uhemutry;  Kolliker,  ffandXmch  der  OewAe- 
IcAre  ;  Carpenters  Prineipla  of  Phynohgy) 

ADJUTANT.    [Crawbb.] 

ADCNIS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  JZomm- 
erdaeeat  and  containing  many  species  of  veiy  great  beauty.  The  name 
is  merely  poetical  AdonU  is  distinguished  firom  Raminculut  by  the 
want  of  a  littie  scale  at  the  base  of  me  petals,  and  from  other  genera 
of  the  order  by  the  numerous  hard,  dry,  sharp-pointed  gndns  of  which 
its  fruit  consists. 

Botanists  divide  the  genus  into  two  sections,  the  first  ef  which 
comprehends  all  the  annual  kindl^  the  second  all  the  perennials.  Ten 
species  are  spoken  ot  as  belonginff  to  the  first  section,  inhabiting  corn- 
fields and  similar  dry  exposed  j^aoes,  chiefly  in  the  south  of  Europe 
and  north  of  Africa.  Some  of  them  have  deep  oiimson  flowers,  as 
A,  amiwmnaUM,  the  common  Fheasant's-Eye  of  our  gardens ;  in  others 
the  blossoms  are  yellow :  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  are  fdl  varieties 
of  the  same  spedesL 

Of  the  peruinial  kinds,  A,  vemaUi,  which  is  common  in  gardens  in 
Eoglandy  ]b  found  in  a  wild  state  abundantiy  on  all  the  mountains 


of  middle  Europe.  Its  flowers  have  frt>m  ten  to  twelve  petals  of  a 
yellow  colour,  and  of  a  brilliancy  which  is  rendered  the  more  «lft««ling 
by  the  deep  green  tuft  of  finely-divided  leaves  among  which  they 
expand.  It  is  only  a  few  inches  high,  anH  is  one  of  the  early  har- 
bingers of  spring.  Three  others  are  described,  all  mountain  plants, 
resembling  A,  vemaHt  in  general  appearance,  but  perhaps  still  more 
beautifuL  They  seem  to  have  been  occasionally  brought  to  this 
country,  but  to  have  been  soon  lost  again. 

Nothing  has  been  remarked  as  to  the  sensible  properties  of  these 
plants ;  they  doubtless  partake  of  the  acridity  so  prevalent  in  their 
tribe. 

ADCyJAf  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Araliaeea, 
The  only  species  of  this  genus  is  the  A.  MoichatdUna,  which  is  a  little 
inconspicuous  plant  foimd  in  woods  and  groves  in  all  parts  of  Europe. 
It  is  common  at  Charlton  and  Hempstead,  near  London,  and  in  many 
other  spots  in  England. 

From  a  granular  rooty  which  when  dry  is  white  as  snow,  arise,  early 
every  spring,  a  few  leaves  about  four  or  five  inches  high,  divided  into 
three  principal  divisions,  each  of  which  is  also  three-leaved,  with  every 
lobe  deeply  cut  into  roundish  segments.  The  stem  that  supports  the 
flowers  has  two  opposite  leaves,  like  those  of  the  root,  only  they  have 
a  short  stalk,  and  consist  of  but  three  leaflets.  The  flowers  have  a 
musky  smell,  are  pale  green,  and  are  collected  in  littie  round  heads. 
Each  one  consists  of  a  superior  calyx  of  five  lobes ;  there  are  no  petals ; 
the  stamens  are  ten ;  the  styles  five ;  and  the  ovarium  contains  five 
cells.  This  last  ohuiges  to  a  succulent  berry,  having  five  compressed 
seeds. 

In  English  this  is  called  Mosohatel ;  it  is  a  pret^,  interesting  plant, 
much  sought  after  by  the  curious  for  the  sake  of  its  deUoate,  modest 
appearance.    No  known  medioinal  properties  belong  to  it 

ADULABIAy  a  synonym  of  Felspar.    [FxlbfabJ 

^CI'DIUM,  a  genus  of  minute  parasitic  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Fwigi,  found  in  great  abundance  in  tiiis  and  other 
northeni  countries.  By  some  modem  writers  it  has  been  combined 
with  Undo  and  others ;  but  it  appears  diitinotiy  characterised  by  its 
peridium,  or  enveloping  membrane,  having  a  tubular  form,  and  being 
altogether  distinct  from  the  outide  of  the  plant  on  which  it  grows. 

The  species  are  umversally  parasitic  upon  the  leaves  or  flowers  or 
bark  of  living  plants,  where  they  are  generated  beneath  the  cuticle 
Thdir  structure  is  of  the  most  simple  kind ;  <*^"^fMng  of  nothing  more 
than  a  littie  mass  of  excessively  minute  sporules,  or  reproductive 
partides,  much  smaller  than  the  finest  sand,  molosed  in  a  thin  bag,  oi 


1.  jE&kUtm  ctmeOUamky  on  a  leaf,  natural  liae.        f .  Peridia,  magnified. 
8.  ifi^icUiMiSfrftiridtff,  natural  iixe.    4.  Peridia,  magnified.    A.  Spomlet. 

either  a  fibrous  or  reticulated  structure,  whfch  in  time  pierces  the 
cuticle  under  which  it  lies,  gpradually  assumes  a  tubulac  appearance^ 
and  finally  bursts  at  the  apex  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  sporules 
to  escape. 


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AEROLITES. 


A  great  many  spedea  are  found  upon  the  weeda  and  trees  of  Europe, 
▼arying  in  colour,  nxa,  and  form.  Of  these  the  two  following  are 
among  the  most  common : — 

JBeidivm  caneeUatvmf  the  Pear  JSoidium.  This  plant  is  often  very 
common  in  the  latter  months  of  autumn  on  the  back  of  the  leayes 
of  the  cultiTated  pear-tree,  to  which  it  gives  a  singularly  warted  aspect 
It  makes  its  appearance,  crowded  in  little  patches  of  a  pale  brown 
colour,  which,  when  examined  with  a  microaoope,  are  aeen  to  coosiBt 
of  numerous  oval  bodies,  about  a  line  long,  rather  tiie  broadest  towaids 
the  upper  end.  These  bodies  are,  when  young;  slightly  furrowed,  but 
at  a  more  advanced  period  they  divide  into  tough  parallel  fibres,  which 
open  at  the  sides,  but  do  not  separate  at  the  apex.  Through  the 
passages  thus  formed  between  the  fibres  fiill  the  sporules,  or  seed-like 
partides. 

To  inaccurate  observers  this  species  would  appear  an  aggregation  of 
the  nests  of  some  minute  insect^  for  which  we  know  it  to  be  often 
mistaken.  It  probably  does  not  produce  any  iigurious  effect  upon  the 
plants  it  attacks,  for  it  generalhr  makes  its  appearance  late  in  the 
season,  when  the  leaves  have  nearly  completed  their  office  for  the  year. 

JScidvum  JBerberidii,  the  Barbeny  Blight.  The  bright  orange  powder 
that  collects  upon  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  common  Barbeny  con- 
sists  of  the  sporules  of  this  species,  which  aro  dischaiged  firom  thou- 
sands of  little  tubular  apertures,  that  spread  in  patches  over  all  the 
tender  parts.  These  apertures  aro  the  open  ends  of  the  peridia  in  a 
state  of  maturity,  and  aro  borderod  at  first  by  a  ragged  toothed  mem- 
brane, which  finally  falls  away.  Thero  is  a  popular  notion  that  Barbenr 
bushes  blight  corn.  The  rust  of  com  is  a  spedes  of  Puecinia  [PuoonoAj, 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  spores  of  jScidkian  from  the  Barbeny 
may  produce  Pttceinia  on  the  coni. 

(Hendow's  Jowmal  ef  the  Rafftd  AgrieuUurcd  SociOy,  1841.) 

.SOA'aRUS,  a  wild  species  of  Ibex,  called  Paseng  by  the  Persiana 

[OOAT.] 

.SOOPODIITH  (from  &(,  a  goat,  and  voSi^r,  a  little  foot),  a  genus 
of  plants  bdonging  to  tiie  order  Uwhdl^era,  One  spedes^  JB.  poda- 
graria,  ia  common  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  grows 
abundantly  in  Great  Britain.  It  has  a  stem  one  or  two  feet  high,  with 
furrows.  The  leaves  aro  two  or  three  times  temate ;  the  leaflets  unequal 
at  the  base  and  acutdy  senate.  It  has  a  oreejping  root,  and  grows  in 
damp  places.  Although  well  known,  and  havmg  the  names  of  Goat- 
Weed,  Ash- Weed,  Heri>  Gerard,  and  Wild  Masterwort^  it  seems  to  possess 
no  medicinal  properties.  Linnaeus  says  that  it  is  boiled  when  young, 
and  eaten  as  greens  in  Sweden. 

AE'LODON,  the  generic  title  applied  by  H.Ton  Meyer  to  the  fossil 
crocodile  or  gavial  of  Monheim. 

AEROLITES,  called  also  Meteoric  Stonei,  aro  bodies  which  have 
fiillen  on  the  earth  from  the  atmosphero,  and  aro  named  from  &V> 
atmosphere,  and  \t$os,  a  stone.  We  possess  historical  records 
from  very  romote  antiquity,  and  numerous  writers  in  all  ages  have 
mentioned  instanoeB  of  the  romarkable  phenomenon  of  stonv  bodies 
having  been  seen  to  fall  from  the  sky ;  yet,  till  within  the  last  fifty 
years,  all  such  accounts  wero  treated  as  tales  of  the  ignorant  and  super- 
stitious. The  first  man  of  sdence  who  directed  attention  to  the  subiect 
of  aerolites  was  Chladni,  a  German  philosopher,  who,  in  a  tract  published 
at  R^  and  Leipzig,  in  1794,  upon  the  mass  of  native  iron  found  by 
Pallas  in  Siberia,  maintained  the  credibility  of  the  traditions  of  that 
and  other  stony  bodies  having  fiillen  from  the  air.  His  sagacious 
inductions,  although  they  fkiled  at  the  time  to  make  any  great  impres- 
don,  proparod  philosophers  for  a  mora  willing  reception  of  the  evidence 
as  to  two  instances  of  the  same  extraordinary  event,  which  were  diortly 
afterwards  brought  under  their  notice.  In  1796  a  stone  waa  exhibited 
in  London,  weiglung  66  pounds,  whidi  fell  at  Wold  Cottage,  in  Tork- 
shira,  in  Deoembor  of  the  preceding  year ;  but^  although  the  faxst  was 
attested  by  several  credible  witnesses,  the  posdbility  of  sudi  an  occur- 
rence was  still  doubted.  It  was  remarked,  however,  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  that  there  was  a  great  resemblance  between  the  Torkshiro  stone 
and  one  in  his  possession,  sent  to  him  from  Italy,  with  an  account  of 
its  having  fallen  from  the  doud%  along  with  many  others  of  a  similar 
nature,  near  Sienna,  in  July,  1794.  In  the  year  1799  Sir  Joseph  Banks 
received  a  circumstantial  account^  accompanied  by  spedmeos,  of  a  fall 
of  stones  from  the  atmosphere,  which  was  said  to  have  taken  place 
near  Benares,  in  Hindustan^  in  the  preceding  December;  and  as 
these  specimens  were  also  neariy  identical  with  the  Torkdure  stone, 
incredulity  began  to  give  way.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  appear- 
ance of  the  odebrated  paper  of  Howard,  in  the  '  Philosophical  iVans- 
actions'  for  1802,  giving  an  account  of  his  analysis  of  the  Benares 
stone,  that  men  of  sdence  declared  their  bdief  in  the  phenomenon, 
supported,  as  the  evidence  then  was,  by  the  researches  and  opinion  of 
so  cautious  and  accurate  an  inquirer ;  and  a  fall  of  stones  at  L' Aigle, 
in  Normandy,  whidi  took  place  in  the  following  year,  at  the  time  the 
mempir  of  Howard  was  in  the  hands  of  the  public,  removed  all  doubt 
The  Institute  of  France  deputed  the  cdebrated  Biot  to  examine,  on 
the  spot,  the  whole  circumstances  attending  this  remarkable  event ; 
and  the  result  of  his  labours  will  be  found  in  his  report^  in  the  seventh 
volume  of  the  *  Mdmoires  de  I'lnstitut'  He  satisfied  himself  of  the 
authentidty  of  the  facts  whidi  had  been  narrated ;  and  the 
he  collectea  on  the  ground,  being  analysed  by  Y auqudin  and 
yidded  the  same  result  as  the  analysis  of  the  Benares  stone  bv  Howard. 

An  account  of  tiie  droumstances  that  attended  the  fall  of  stones  at 


Benares  and  at  L'Aigle  will  convey  the  best  idea  of  the  phenomenon, 
not  only  as  it  occurred  in  these  two  cases,  but  in  most  other  instances 
of  which  a  circumstantial  description  has  been  preserved.  They  are 
always  accompanied  by  a  meteor,  which  at  night  appears  like  a  burning 
fiery  ball,  surrounded  by  a  brilliant  vapour,  and  with  a  tail  like  a  comet ; 
in  the  day,  on  accoimt  of  the  strong  light  of  the  sun,  and  the  smoke 
and  vapour  evolved,  the  meteor  looks  more  like  a  small  doud  of  diffe- 
rent colouTB^  and  of  a  m'ngnlar  form,  which,  after  a  powerful  explodon, 
seems  to  burst  and  scatt^  its  contents. 

At  a  short  distance  from  Benares,  on  the  19th  of  December,  1798,  a 
very  luminous  meteor  was  observed  in  the  heavens,  about  dght  o'clock 
in  tiie  evening  in  the  form  of  a  large  ball  of  fire ;  it  was  accompanied 
by  a  loud  noise,  resembling  that  of  thunder,  which  was  immediatdy 
followed  by  the  sound  of  the  feill  (^  heavy  bodiea  On  ftTMm'i^mg  the 
ground,  it  was  observed  to  have  been  newly  torn  up  in  many  places, 
and  in  these  stones  were  found  of  a  peculiar  appearance,  most  of  which 
had  buried  themsdves  to  the  depth  of  six  inches.  At  the  time  the 
meteor  appeared  the  sky  was  perfectly  serene ;  not  the  smaUest  vestige 
of  a  doud  had  been  seen  since  the  11th  of  the  month,  nor  were  any 
observed  for  many  days  after.  It  was  seen  in  the  western  part  of  the 
hemisphere,  and  was  only  a  diort  time  visible.  The  Ught  from  it  was 
so  ereat  as  to  cast  strong  shadows  from  tiie  ban  of  a  window  upon  a 
dark  carpet,  and  it  appeared  as  luminous  as  the  brightest  moonlight 
Many  of  the  stones  were  collected,  and  some  of  them  weighed  two 
poundseach. 

On  the  26th  of  April,  1808,  at  one  o'dock  in  tiie  afternoon,  the  sky 
being  dear,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  light  douds,  a  ball  of  fire  was 
observed  in  Normandy,  in  many  places  &x  distant  from  each  other— 
namdy,  Caen,  Falaise,  Alen9on,  Verneuil,  and  Pont  Audemei^— which 
moved  repidly  from  south-east  to  north-west;  and  about  the  same 
time,  in  the  district  of  L'Aigle,  loud  explodons  were  heard,  whidi  lasted 
from  five  to  six  minutes^  resembling  the  sound  of  cannon  and  musketiy, 
and  were  followed  by  a  long-continued  noaae,  like  that  of  many  druma 
The  meteor  from  wmch  the  noise  proceeded  appeared  not  so  much  like 
a  ball  of  fire,  but  rather  like  a  small  rectangular  doud,  which,  durmg 
the  phenomenon,  seemed  not  to  move ;  but  the  vapour  of  which  it 
consisted  was  sent  out,  after  each  explodon,  in  all  directions.  It  seemed 
to  be  about  half  a  league  north-west  from  L'Aigle,  and  must  have  been 
at  a  very  oondderable  devation,  as  it  appeared  to  the  inhabitants  of 
two  villages,  more  than  a  league  distant  from  each  other,  to  be  imme- 
diately over  their  heads  at  the  same  instant.  Throughout  the  whole 
district  over  which  the  doud  hung  there  was  heard  a  JiimnTig  noiae^ 
like  that  of  a  stone  from  a  sling;  and  a  vast  number  of  stones  fell  to 
the  ground.  The  n>ace  on  which  they  fdl  formed  an  dlipse  of  two 
leagues  and  a  half  long  by  one  broad,  the  larger  diameter  being  from 
south-east  to  north-west^  the  direction  in  wmch  the  meteor  moved : 
the  largest  stones  wero  found  at  the  south-east  end  of  the  dlipse,  and 
the  smallest  at  the  oppodte  extremity.  Above  2000  wero  collected, 
and  they  varied  in  weight  from  2  drachms  to  17  pounds  and  a  hal£ 

ASroUtes,  when  taken  up  soon  after  their  fall,  aro  extremdy  hoi 
They  aro  generallv  angular,  of  prismatic  and  pyramidal  forms,  the 
angles  bdng  rounded ;  thdr  broken  irregular  surface  is  coated  with  a 
fused  black  crusty  like  varnish,  sddom  exceeding  a  quarter  of  a  line  in 
thickness.  When  broken,  they  differ  a  littie  in  appearance ;  but  they 
are,  for  the  most  party  composed  of  a  collection  of  small  spherical 
bodies,  of  a  grey  colour,  imbedded  in  a  gritty  substance,  and  often 
interspened  with  ydlow  spots.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  drcum- 
stances  is  the  great  similarity  of  compodtion  of  all  the  meteoric  stones, 
on  whatever  part  of  the  earth  they  have  fallen.  Iron  is  found  in  dl, 
and  in  a  oondderable  proportion,  partiy  in  a  malleable  state,  partly  in 
that  of  an  oxide,  and  always  in  combination  wi^  a  greater  or  leas 
proportion  of  the  rare  metal  called  nickel  The  earths  silica  and 
magneda  and  sulphur  constitute  the  other  diief  ingredients;  but 
the  earths  alumina  and  lime^  the  metals  manganese,  chrome,  and 
cobalty  together  with  carbon,  soda^  and  water,  have  also  been  found 
in  minute  and  variable  quantities,  but  not  in  the  same  spedmena. 
The  variations  discovered  by  analysis  are  never,  however,  sumdent  to 
destroy  that  affinity  of  external  character  by  which  they  aro  instantiy 
recognised.  No  new  substance,  nothing  with  which  we  are  not  already 
acquainted,  has  ever  been  discovered  in  their  composition.  Bu^ 
dthough  all  the  constituent  dements  are  found  in  different  mlnerd 
substancea,  no  combination  of  them,  similar  to  that  in  meteoric  stones, 
has  ever  been  met  with,  either  among  the  stratified  rocks  of  any  period 
of  formation,  or  among  the  unstratified  rocki^  or  among  the  products 
of  any  volcano,  extinct  or  in  activity.  Their  specific  gravity  is  about 
8*60,  but  varies  according  to  the  proportion  of  iron  whidi  they  contain. 
They  are  sometimes  very  friable,  sometimes  very  hard ;  and  some  that 
aro  friable  when  they  first  fall,  become  hard  afterwards.  In  size  they 
vary  from  2  drachms  weight  to  800  pounds.  One  of  the  stones  which 
fdl  at  L'Aigle  yidded  by  the  analysiB  of  Th&iard, — 

Silica 46  per  cant 

Magnesia 10    „      „ 

Ij?^- *«    «      » 

Nickd 2    „       „ 

Sulphur 6    „       „ 

and  Laugier  afterwards  discovered  the  presence  of  dirome  in  it 
FVequentiy  small  detached  portions  of  malleable  iron  are  dissnmlnated 


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AEROLITES. 


through  the  zxuuh^  and  the  black  crust  acta  powerfiilly  on  the 
magnet. 

The  appearance  of  these  bodies  is  not  periodica],  nor  connected 
with  any  particular  state  of  the  atmosphere,  Aor  of  the  weather;  and 
they  have  fallen  in  all  climatesy  on  eveiy  part  of  the  earth,  at  all 
■PMons,  in  the  night  and  in  the  day. 

Chladni  has  compiled  a  yeiy  copious  catalogue  of  all  recorded 
inBtanopiB,  from  the  earliest  times :  of  which  twenty-seren  axe  previous 
to  the  Christian  era ;  thirty-five  from  the  beginning  of  the  first  to  the 
end  of  the  14th  century;  eighty-nine  from  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  to  the  date  of  the  fiUl  at  L'Aigle  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century.  Ih  1887  M.  Quetelet,  of  BrusselSy  published  a 
catalop^e  of  remarkable  meteors,  and  again  in  1841.  Mr.  Henick,in 
America^  and  M.  Chasles,  in  IVance,  also  published  lists  in  1841. 
The  latest  accounts  have  been  published  by  Professor  Baden  Powell, 
in  the  'Transactions  of  the  British  Association,'  since  the  year  1847. 
Numerous  as  the  instances  are  in  which  these  phenomena  have 
been -witnessed  they  can  form  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  whole 
amount^  when  we  compare  the  small  extent  of  surface  occupied  by 
thoeo  ci4>able  of  keepmg  a  record  of  such  events,  with  the  wide 
ezpazue  of  the  ocean,  the  vast  uninhabited  deserts,  mountains,  and 
forests^  and  the  countries  possessed  by  savage  nations.  Many  of 
those  which  occur  in  the  night  must  also  escape  observation  even 
in  civilised  countries. 

Among  the  more  remarkable  fastancfis  to  be  met  with  in  ancient 
authors,  the  following  may  be  mentioned.  Livy  states  that^  in  the 
reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius  (about  654  B.O.),  a  uiower  of  stones  fell 
on  the  Alban  Mounts  not  far  distant  firom  Rome.  Plutarch,  in 
the  '  Life  of  Lysander/  describes  a  stone  that  fell  at  ^gos  Potami, 
in  the  Hellespont^  near  the  modem  GkiUipoli,  about  405  B.a,  which  is 
also  mentioned  by  the  elder  Pliny  (iL).  who  says  that  it  was  to  be 
seen  in  his  time,  that  is,  five  himdred  years  afterwards,  and  that  it 
was  as  lai^  as  a  waggon,  of  a  burnt  colour,  and  its  fall  was  accom- 
panied by  a  meteor.  It  is  also  recorded  in  the  '  Parian  Chronicle.' 
The  mother  of  the  gods  was  worshipped  at  Peasinus,  in  Oalatia,  imder 
the  form  of  a  stone,  which  was  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven ;  and 
that  stone,  in  consequence  of  a  treaty  with  Attslus,  king  of  Peigamus, 
was  solemnly  brought  to  Rome  by  Publius  Scipio  Nasica,  about  204 
years  B.C.,  and  placed  in  the  temple  of  Cybele.  The  sun  was 
worshipiied  at  Emesa,  in  Syria,  under  the  form  of  a  laige,  conical, 
black  stone,  which,  as  the  people  about  the  temple  reported,  fell  upon 
the  earth.  It  was  afterwaids  brought  with  great  pomp  to  Rome  by 
KagabaluB,  who  had  been  high-priest  of  the  temple ;  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  it,  given  by  Herodian  (v.),  accords  witii  the  appearance  of 
a  meteoric  stoneu  In  China  records  exist  of  occurrences  of  this 
kind  during  a  period  of  2400  years.  These  were  translated  by  M. 
Biot ;  and  to  give  an  instance  of  the  nature  of  these  records  we  may 
state  that  between  the  years  A.D.  960  to  1270  no  lees  than  1479 
meteors  axe  registered.  Of  course  these  were  not  all  aerolites.  The 
great  stone  at  Cholula  in  America  was  asserted  by  the  Mexicans  to 
have  fallen  from  heaven. 

One  of  the  cases  of  more  modem  date,  most  circumstantially 
described,  is  that  of  the  stone  which  fell  at  Ensisheim,  in  Alsace, 
in  1492.  The  emperor  Mft-HTniliftTi  being  there  at  the  time,  ordered 
an  account  of  the  event  to  be  drawn  up.  It  weighed  270  pounds ; 
and  was  afterwards  suspended  by  a  chain  in  the  church  at  Ensisheim 
far  three  centuries.  During  the  French  Revolution,  it  was  carried  off 
to  Colmar,  and  many  pieces  were  broken  from  it  One  of  these  is  in 
the  museum  at  the  J  ardin  dee  Plantes,  in  Paris ;  it  is  identical  in 
composition  with  other  meteorio  stones,  and  contains  native  or 
malleable  iron.  What  remained  of  the  precious  relic  has  since 
been  restored  to  the  good  people  of  Ensisheim,  and  it  now  stands 
near  the  great  altar  in  their  church. 

Besides  aSrolites  properiy  so  called,  masses  of  malleable  iron,  often 
of  vast  sixe,  have  b^  found  in  situations,  which,  together  with  their 
composition,  leave  no  doubt  as  to  their  b^ng  of  meteoric  origin.  An 
rmmtmmgk  mass,  seeu  by  Pallas  in  Siberia^  which  forms  the  sutject  of 
Chladni's  tract  in  1794  above  alluded  to,  was  found  quite  insulated, 
at  a  great  elevation  on  a  mountain  of  slate  near  the  river  Tenesei, 
removed  fbom  everything  that  could  excite  suspicion  of  its  being  a 
production  of  art,  and  totally  different  from  any  ore  of  iron  seen  either 
before  or  since  that  time.  The  tradition  waa^  that  it  had  fiillen  from 
heaven,  and,  as  such,  was  held  in  veneration  by  the  Tartars ;  but  it 
was  removed  in  1749  to  the  neighbouringtown  of  Erasnojarsk  by 
the  inspector  of  the  iron  mines  there.  The  mass,  which  weighed 
about  1400  lbs.,  was  of  an  irregular  form,  not  solid,  but  cellular,  like  a 
sponge,  the  cells  containing  small  granular  bodies  of  a  glassy  nature, 
afterwards  fbund  to  be  the  sim^e  mineral  olivine,  so  common  in 
basalt  The  iron  was  tough  and  malleable,  and,  according  to  the 
analysis  of  Howard,  yielded  17  per  cent  of  nickel;  but  Elaproth  and 
John  found  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  nickel,  and  Laugier  found, 
by  another  analysis,  silica,  magnesia,  sulphur,  and  chrome.  The 
disagreement  of  such  skilfrd  operators  shows  that  the  mass  was  not 
imiform  in  its  composition.  Another  vast  mass  of  meteorio  iron  was 
found  in  South  America,  in  the  jurisdiction  of.  Santiago  del  Estero, 
U)out  500  miles  north-west  from  Buenos  Ayres,  and  is  described  in 
a  memoir  in  the  Spanish  language,  printed  in  the  'Philosophical 
Transactions'  for  1788,  by  Don  Rubin  de  Cells,  who  was  sent  by  the 

VAT.  mST.  DIT.  VOL.  L 


governor  of  the  province  to  examine  it.  It  lay  in  a  vast  plain  of 
above  100  leagues  in  extent,  half  sunk  in  the  ground,  and  the  sise  ^ 
such  as,  estimating  it  by  iJie  specific  gravity  of  iron,  would  j  ' 
weight  of  more  than  18  tons.  According  to  the  analysis  of  ] 
and  of  Howard,  it  contains  90  per  cent  of  iron,  and  10  of  nickel 
Specimens  of  this  mass,  which  were  sent  to  the  Royal  Society  by  Don 
Rubin  de  Celis,  are  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum.  A  mass 
of  meteorio  iron  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  mentioned  by  Bairow  in 
his  'Travels  in  Africa,'  as  an  artificial  production,  is  described  by 
Van  Marum  in  the  'Haarlem  Transactions,'  a  large  portion  of  it  having 
been  sent  to  the  public  museum  there  by  the  governor  of  the  colony. 
The  mass,  when  found,  was  equal  to  about  177  lbs.,  but  much  had 
been  cairied  away.  The  i9)ecific  gravity  is  7*604.  Tennant  found  it  to 
contain  1*10  per  cent  of  nickel,  and  a  trace  of  carbon,  and  Stromeyer 
detected  cobalt  in  it^  which  last  metal  has  also  been  found,  by  Dr. 
Turner  in  some  meteoric  iron  from  Buenos  Ayres.  Another  mass 
was  found  in  Brazil,  about  50  leagues  from  Bahia,  tiie  weight  of 
which  was  estimated  at  14,000  lbs. ;  a  fragment  of  this,  analysed  by 
Dr.  WoUaston,  yielded  4  per  cent  of  nickel  Many  other  instances  of 
similar  masses  of  iron  might  be  mentioned,  which  are  evidently  of 
meteorio  origin;  but  the  only  instance  on  record  of  iron  having  been 
actually  seen  to  fail  from  the  atmosphere,  is  that  which  took  place  at 
Agram,  in  Croatia,  in  1751.  On  the  26th  of  May,  about  six  o'clock  in 
the  evening^  the  sky  being  quite  dear,  there  was  seen  a  ball  of  fire, 
which  shot  along  with  a  hollow  noise  from  west  to  east,  and  after  a 
loud  explosion,  accompanied  by  a  great  smoke,  two  masses  of  iron  feU 
from  it^  in  the  form  of  chains  welded  together. 

Aerolites  and  meteoric  iron  are  not  the  only  products  of  meteors 
which  have  fallen  upon  the  earth  after  explosion.  Numerous  instancae 
are  mentioned  of  black  and  red  dust^  which  has  covered  great  tracts 
of  land ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  such  dust  has  generally  been  found 
to  contain  small  angular  grains  resembling  augite.  There  have  also 
been  cases  of  the  fall  of  a  soft  gelatinous  matter  of  a  red  colour  like 
coagulated  bldod,  which  have  given  rise  to  the  stories  of  the  sky 
having  rained  blood.  Such  appearances  have  not  unfrequently 
accompanied  the  fall  of  stones.  On  the  15th  November,  1775,  rain  of 
a  red  colour  fell  around  Ulm  and  the  Lake  of  Constance,  and  on  the 
same  day  in  Russia  and  Sweden.  The  red  water  was  of  an  acid  taste, 
probably  from  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid ;  and  the  precipitate, 
which  was  flaky  like  snow,  when  dried,  was  attracted  by  the  magnet 
In  the  night  of  the  5th  March,  1808,  a  red  dust»  in  some  p^ces 
accompanied  by  rain,  fell  in  different  parts  of  Italy.  In  Apulia,  there 
was  first  a  veiT  high  wind  with  much  noise,  and  then  a  reddish-black 
cloud  appeared  ooming  from  the  south-east,  from  which  there  fell  a 
yellowish-red  rain,  and  afterwards  a  quantity  of  red  dust  It 
continued  the  whole  of  the  fbllowing  day  and  put  of  the  succeeding ; 
the  dust  was  examined,  and  was  not  found  to  be  volcania  Fabroni,  in 
the  'Annales  de  Chimie,'  tom.  Ixxxiii,  says,  that  near  Arezzo,  in 
March,  1813,  the  ground  being  then  covered  with  snow,  there  was  a 
ahower  of  fresh  snow  of  a  red  colour,  which  continued  for  many 
hours,  accompanied  the  whole  time  with  a  sound  like  that  of  the 
violent  dashing  of  waves  at  a  distance ;  the  greatest  fall  was  accom- 
1  with  two  or  three  explosions  like  thunder.  The  red  snow 
melted,  a  precipitate  was  obtained  of  a  nankeen  colour,  which 
d  silica,  lime,  alumina,  iron,  and  manganese. 

The  origin  of  this  remarkable  class  of  natural  phenomena  is 
involved  in  great  obscurity,  and  many  different  theories  have  beeoi 
proposed  to  account  for  them.  By  some  they  have  been  supposed  to 
be  bodies  ejected  from  distant  volcanoes  belonging  to  our  earth,— a 
coDJeoture  which  is  refuted  by  every  circumstance  connected  with 
them.  No  substance  in  the  least  resembling  aerolites  has  ever  been 
foimd  in  or  near  any  volcano ;  they  fEdl  fr^m  a  height  to  which  no 
volcano  can  be  supposed  to  have  projected  them,  fax  less  to  have  given 
them  the  horizontal  direction  in  which  meteors  invariably  move  for  a 
oonsiderable  part  of  their  course.  Another  hypothesis  is,  that 
meteoric  bodies  are  formed  in  the  atmosphero,  which  is  equally 
untenable ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  thero  is  no  ground  for  supposing, 
from  any  discoveries  yet  made  in  chemistiy,  that  the  elements  of 
which  they  are  composed  exist  in  the  atmosphere ;  and  even  if  they 
did,  the  enormity  of  the  volume  of  the  atmosphero,  attenuated  as  it 
is  at  the  great  height  from  which  the  meteors  fall,  which  would  be 
required  to  produce  a  solid  mass  of  iron  of  thirteen  tons  weighty 
places  the  conjecturo  beyond  all  credibility.  A  third  hypothesis  is, 
that  they  are  bodies  thrown  out  by  the  volcanoes  which  are  known  to 
exist  in  the  moon,  with  such  force  as  to  bring  them  within  the  sphere 
of  the  earth's  attraction.  This  hypothesis  was  so  far  entertained  by 
Laplace,  that  he  calculated  the  degree  of  lunar  volcanic  force  that 
would  be  necessary  for  this  purpose.  He  calculated  that  a  body 
projected  from  the  moonp  with  a  velocity  of  7771  feet  in  the  first 
second  would  reach  our  earth  in  about  two  days  and  a  half;  but 
Olbers  and  other  astronomers  are  of  opinion  that  the  velocity  of  the 
meteors,  which  has  been  estimated  in  some  cases  to  be  at  first  equal 
to  some  miles  in  a  second,  is  too  great  to  admitx>f  the  possibility  of 
their  having  come  from  the  moon.  The  theory  which  is  most 
consistent  with  all  knovm  facts  and  laws  of  naturo  is  that  proposed  by 
Chladni,  namely,  that  the  meteors  are  bodies  moving  in  space,  either 
accumulationB  of  matter  as  originally  oroated,  or  fragments  separated 
from  a  laiger  mass  of  a  similar  nature.    This  bpinion.  has  also  been 


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iLESCHINITE. 


-ffiTHUSA. 


81 


ftdTinoed  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  at  the  concluaion  of  one  of  his 
impen  in  the  'Philosoimical  Transactions'  for  1817,  giving  an  aocount 
of  his  researches  on  flame.  It  is  idso  the  opinion  of  Sir  John 
Herschel  and  Alexander  yon  Humboldt ;  the  latter  of  whom,  in  his 
'Cosmos,'  deyotes  a  large  space  to  the  consideration  of  this  highly 
interesting  8ul]!ieot 

Those  who  wish  to  inyestigate  this  curious  subject  will  find  it  most 
ably  and  copiously  treated  in  Chladni's  woxlc,  UAtr  Pevter-MeUore, 
Hna  aher  die  mU  dentdbm  herabgefaUmen  Manmf  Vienna,  1819, 
which  is  a  second  edition  of  his  flnt  treatise.  The  lAikologie  Atmot- 
phirique  of  Izam  may  also  be  consulted ;  also  a  good  compilation  by 
Bigot  de  Morogues,  entitled  Mimcire  Hittorique  et  Phytiqtte  iur  Us 
CMUa  det  Pierra,  Orleans,  1812;  Humboldfs  Cotmot;  and  the 
Qitarterly  Review  for  December,  1852.    [See  SuPFLiMBirT.] 

AESCHINITE,  a  mineral  of  which  the  principal  sslt  is  a  titanate 
of  siroonia.    [TiTAinniL] 

^'SCULUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  tiie  natural  order 
ffippocattanecs.  It  consists  of  trees  found  in  the  temperate  parts 
of  America  and  Asia,  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers  and 
leayes,  and  for  their  fonning  in  some  sort  a  type  of  tropical  yegetation 
in  northern  latitudes.  It  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  iusculus 
of  the  Romans,  which  was  a  kind  of  oak.  [Qusbcus.]  The  best 
known  species  is  the  Common  Horse-Chestnut  {jBtcfUue  Hippoeaa- 
Ummn),  a  yer^  handsome  timber-tree,  formerly  much  used  for 
ayenues^  and  still  extensiyely  planted  whereyer  round  masses  of  wood, 
or  gay  flowering  trees,  are  required.  Its  bark  and  its  nuts  are  also 
among  the  niore  useful  products  that  the  hardy  trees  of  this  climate 
sfford.  It  is  yery  singular  that  the  natiye  country  of  this  species 
should  be  unknown.  One  writer  says  it  inhabits  the  northern  parts 
of  Asia ;  another,  that  it  is  found  in  the  cold  proyinces  of  India ;  and 
a  third  assigns  it  to  the  mountain-chains  of  Asia  Minor ;  while  all  the 
positiye  infoimation  that  books  really  afford  is,  that  it  was  brought  to 
Vienna  from  Constantinople  in  the  beginning  of  the  16ih  centuiy, 
and  was  thence  dispersed  through  idl  Europe.  The  popular  name 
of  HoTM^hestnut  has  arisen  horn,  the  custom  among  the  Turks 
of  erinding  the  nuts  and  mixing  them  with  tiie  provender  giyen 
to  horses  that  are  broken-winded.  Starch  is  also  yielded  in  yery 
considerable  quanti^  by  the  nuts;  and,  deprived  of  its  bitterness  by 
maceration  in  weak  ley,  has  been  recommended  as  excellent  nutritious 
food  for  horses,  goats,  oxen,  and  sheep.  The  general  characters  of 
the  Horse-Chestnut  are  too  well  known  to  require  description.  As  a 
forest-tree,  it  is  well  adapted  to  light  lands,  upon  which  it  will  thrive, 
although  they  may  be  very  sterile ;  in  tenacious  olay,  it  is  always 
stunted  and  unhealthy,  as  in  the  Regent's  Park ;  in  rich  alluvial  soil, 
it  acquires  its  greatest  beauty.    The  timber  is  soft  and  spongy,  and 


Uor4e-CUei»Qiut  {Jitculut  Sippooatttmum), 

therefore  of  liUle  value.  There  are  no  yery  old  specimens  in  this 
country,  the  spedee  having  been  introduoed,  ss  it  is  said,  only 
in  1688. 

A  second  species,  the  .^eetUui  Ohiotentit,  is  found  wild  in  North 
America,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  between  Pittsbui^  and  Marietta. 
In  stature  It  varies  from   10  to   35  feet ;   and  difiers   from  the 


common  kind  in  having  larger  and  much  more  imdulated  leaves.  It 
has  been  cultivated  for  some  years  in  this  country,  but  has  never 
flowered. 

Besides  these,  a  third  species,  uBeeuhu  cornea — or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  JEecuhu  rvhicmdoy  or  roHa—\B  occaaioxially  met  with  in 
gardens.  Its  origin  is  unknown.  For  all  purposes  of  ornament^  tiiis 
is  much  superior  to  the  co«nmon  kind. 

The  Buck's-Eve  Chestnuts  of  North  America  belong  to  the 
genus  Pcmek    [PAyiA.] 

The  flrst  two  species  of  Horse-Chestnut  are  propagated  by  sowing 
their  seeds  either  in  the  autumn  at  such  a  deplii  below  the  surfooe  as 
to  be  secure  from  the  attacks  of  mice,  or  else  in  the  sprmg ;  but  in 
the  latter  case  they  must  be  preserved  during  the  winter  in  heaps  of 
sand.  The  seeds  should  not  be  placed  less  than  six  inches  apart 
in  the  beds,  because  the  leaves  are  so  large  as  to  require  more  than 
usual  space  to  expose  themselves  to  light  The  last  species,  azid  th« 
varieties  of  the  first^  not  yielding  seeds,  are  multiplied  by  budding 
upon  the  common  Horse-Chestnut. 

AESHNA.  In  this  recent  genus  of  Xt(6a«Zuia  Mr.  Strickland  rankv 
a  fossil  insect  firom  the  Liss  of  Warwickshire. 

AETHOPHTliLUM,  a  fossil  genus  of  plants  from  the  Eeuper 
Sandstone.    (Brongniart) 

iBTHU'SA  is  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
UtnheUiferce,  which  includes  among  its  species  one  of  the  most 
poisonous  plants  known  in  Europe. 

jBthuta  Cynapivm  is  a  little  annual  plants  found  commonly  in  gar- 
dens and  fields,  resembling  the  common  parsley  so  much  that  it  haa 


JEtkuta  Oynapium, 

acquired  the  vulgar  name  of  Fool's  Parsley.  From  a  taper  whitiah 
root  arises  an  erect  branchy  stem,  about  a  foot  high,  genendly  stained 
with  purple  near  the  ground.  This  is  covered  by  finely-cut  shining 
leaves  of  a  deep  green,  much  resembling  those  of  Qarden  Parsley, 
from  which  they  are  laiown  thus :  in  the  true  Parsley,  the  leaves  are 
twice  pinnated  or  divided,  and  the  leaflets  are  broad,  and  cut  into 
three  wedge-shaped  toothed  lobes ;  in  the  Fool's  Parsley,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  leaves  are  thrice  pinnated,  and  the  leaflets  are  narrow, 
sharper,  and  jagged;  besides  which,  the  leaves  of  Fool's  Panley  have 
a  disagreeable  nauseous  smell,  instead  of  the  flne  upomatic  odour  of 
Common  Parsley.  When  in  flower,  JSthuea  has  its  principal  umbels 
destitute  of  inyolucra,  while  the  partial  umbeli  are  furnished  with  an 
involucrum,  consisting  of  four  or  five  narrow  sharp  leaves^  hanging 
down  from  one  side  only  of  the  common  stalk ;  this  Isst  circumstance 
will  distinguish  it  when  in  fiower,  not  only  from  parsley,  but  from  all 
other  Brituh  umbelliferous  plants. 

Many  dangerous  accidents  have  occurred  from,  mistaking  this  plant 
for  parsley.  The  symptoms  attendant  upon  poisoning  by  .^ScAiisa  are, 
swimming  of  the  head,  nausea,  cold  perspiration,  and  dullineas  at  the 
extremities.  To  counteract  its  effects,  emetics  are  recommended,  and 
the  immediate!  use  of  weak  vegetable  acids,  such  as  lemon-juioe, 
vinegari  or  sour  wine. 


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65 


AETOBATES. 


AQAMA. 


AETO'BATES,  a  genuB  of  foasU  fishes  allied  to  the  Rays.  The 
species  are  found  in  the  London  da/  of  Sheppey.    (Agaasiz.) 

AOALLOCHUM.    [Exoscaria;  Aquilariacks  ;  Eaoub-wood.] 

AGAIiMATOLITE(a]8oi>a^O(2ite,jBt;<2ste»fi,Zar(2»te).  This  mineral  is 
found  in  China,  and  is  seldom  brought  into  this  country  except  cut 
into  vaiiotis  figures.  Less  characteristic  varieties  have  been  found  in 
Transylyania  and  Saxony ;  it  is  found  also  in  Wales.  Occurs  massiye. 
Fracture  coarse  splintery,  imperfectly  slaty.  Soft  Colour  white, 
with  a  shade  of  gray,  green,  yellow,  red,  or  brown,  none  of  them 
bright  Streak  shinmg.  Unctuous  to  the  touch.  Slightly  trans- 
lucent^ but  in  most  cases  only  the  edges.    Specific  gravity  2*815. 

Before  the  blowpipe  infusible,  but  becomes  white.  Partly  soluble 
in  sulphuric  acid,  leaving  a  residue,  chiefly  of  silica. 

Analysis  of  the  Chinese  variety  by  Vauquelin : — 

Silica 56 

Alumina 29 

Lime 2 

Protoxide  of  Lron 1 

Potash 7 

Water 5 

100 

A'GAMA,  in  Zoology,  a  genus  of  reptiles  belonging  to  the  order 
Saurianif  and  £unily  fyuaniant,  of  Baron  Cuvier. 

In  the  form  of  their  beads  and  teeth  the  s^ies  of  Agcma  resemble 
the  common  liEards,  but  difier  in  the  imbricated  scales  which  cover 
their  tails.  These  animals  have  the  bod^  thick,  and  shorter  in  pro- 
portion than  the  generality  of  the  saunan  fSeaxiily ;  the  skin  is  lax, 
and  capable  of  being  distended  or  pufifed  out  with  air  at  the  will  of 
the  reptile ;  the  whole  body,  as  well  as  the  head,  neck,  and  feet,  is 
covered  with  minute  rhomboidal  or  hexagonal  scales,  often  prolonged 
in  the  form  of  little  spines,  and  bristling  when  the  body  is  inflated 
wiUi  air.  The  head  is  short,  broad,  and  flat>  particularly  towards  the 
occiput ;  the  neck  also  is  short,  and  the  tail  seldom  longer  than  the 
body.  These  proportions  give  the  Agamas  much  of  the  hideous  and 
diogusting  appearance  of  toads.  Li  many  parts  of  South  America 
they  are  called  Chameleons,  from  their  power  of  dilating  the  skin 
with  air,  and  imitating,  to  a  certain  extent,  those  aninialw  in  the 
various  hues  which  they  are  capable  of  assuming.  In  other  respects 
the  various  species  of  Agamas  difier  so  considerably  from  one  another, 
as  to  have  induced  Baron  Cuvier  to  arrange  them  in  separate  sub- 
genera, distinguished  by  the  form  of  their  scales  and  the  presence 
or  absence  of  pores  in  the  thighs.  Generally  speaking,  the  Agamas 
have  no  thigh  pores ;  some  however  are  provided,  as  is  the  case  with 
many  other  saurian  reptiles,  with  a  row  of  these  pores  along  the  inner 
sur&ce  of  each  thigh ;  some  species  have  the  toes  so  short  and  rigid 
as  to  compel  them  to  live  entirely  on  the  surface  of  the  eartl^  where 
they  reside  among  rocks  and  heaps  of  stone,  and  conceal  themselves 
in  the  crevices;  oHbhers  again,  which  have  long  and  flexible  toes,  ascend 
trees  with  great  fiicility,  and  sport  among  their  branches  with  the 
utmost  security.  All  are  of  a  diminutive  size,  and,  like  most  other 
reptiles,  feed  upon  insects  and  other  small  ftTiimals :  one  or  two 
species  however  are  reported  to  be  herbivorous.  Their  geogra- 
phical distribution  is  vexy  extensive,  and  embraces  all  the  hot  and 
most  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  known  world:  Asia,  Africa, 
Australia,  and  South  America  have  each  their  appropriate  species, 
which  often  differ  from  one  another  very  slightly. 

The  most  remarkable  species  are,  of  those  without  pores  on  the 
interior  &ce  of  the  thighs : — ^The  Muricated  Agama  {Agama  mwicatii, 
Cuvier),  first  described  by  the  celebrated  John  Hunter  in  tiie 
zoological  part  of  White's  'Voyage  to  New  South  Wales.'  It  is 
one  of  the  most  common  lizards  of  that  colony ;  measures  upwards 
of  a  foot  in  length,  comprehending  the  tail,  which  is  twice  as  long  as 
the  body,  and,  Arom  the  great  length  and  perfect  division  of  its  toes, 
readily  ascends  trees,  and  lives  entirely  in  the  woods,  where  it  hunts 
about  for  insects  and  caterpHlara  Its  general  colour  is  a  brownish 
gray,  marked  with  dusky  bars,  which  run  in  a  longitudinal  direction 
on  the  body,  but  transversely  on  the  legs  and  tail  The  scales  which 
cover  the  upper  and  outer  part^  of  the  trunk  and  extremities  are 
rhomboidal  and  carinated,  or  elevated  into  sharp-pointed  ridges, 
forming  parallel  lines  or  rows  of  spines  upon  the  back  and  sides, 
from  the  shoulders  to  the  veiy  point  of  the  toiL  The  head  is  covered 
with  similar  scales,  all  directed  backwards  and  prolonged  upon  the 
occiput  into  a  crest  of  weak  spines.  The  toes  of  all  the  feet  are  well 
separated,  and  furnished  underneath  with  small  pointed  scales ;  the 
two  middle  toe^  of  the  hind  feet  are  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the 
othersL 

The  AffOttia  harbata  of  Cuvier  is  another  roecies  from  the  same 
locality.  It  is  rather  larger  than  the  Muricated  Agama,  but  preserves 
the  eame  relative  dimensions,  and  lives  in  the  forests  in  the  same 
manner.  This  species  is  figured  and  described  in  White's  'Voyage,' 
p.  255,  but  was  considered  by  Mr.  Himter  as  a  mere  variety  of  the 
former. 

Other  species  of  this  division,  having  pores  on  the  inner  surface  of 
the  thighs,  are  the  LeMepit  {A.  guUaia  of  M.  Cuvier)  of  Cochin- 
China,  with  white  ravs  and  spots  on  a  bright  blue  ground;  the 
TropidoUpu  (A:  wndwaia)^  of  a  uniform  dark  blue  colour  with  a 


white  cross  on  the  throat,  and  which,  as  well  as  the  kindred  species, 
A,  nigrirCoUarig  and  A,  cydurus,  described  by  Spix,  inhabits  various 


parts  of  South  America ;  the  Brachylophei  {A,  vUtaia),  which  seems 
to  form  the  connecting  link  between  this  genus  and  the  guanas,  from 
which  latter  it  is  distinguished  only  by  the  absence  of  teeth  in  the 
palate ;  it  is  foimd  in  India,  and  has  light  blue  bands  upon  a  dai^ 
blue  ground :  and  lastly  the  Phyiignathes  (A.  cocincimu),  from  the 
Malayan  Peninsula,  remarkable  for  its  large  size,  uniform  blue 
colour,  but  more  particularly  from  being  one  of  the  very  few 
species  of  saurian  reptiles  which  feed  upon  vegetable  substances. 
Baron  Cuvier  asstires  us  that  it  lives  entirely  upon  fruits  and  nuts. 

Of  the  Agamas  without  pores  in  the  thighs,  the  principal  species  are, 
the  ^inous  Agama  {A,  acuUata)  of  a  vellowish  gray  colour  with 
numerous  transverse  brown  bands.  All  uie  upper  parts  of  the  body 
are  covered  with  elevated  scales,  forming  small  pointed  pyramids  of 
four-sides ;  the  body  is  short  and  thick,  the  tail  likewise  short,  the 
head  broad  and  fiat,  and  the  b«(Uy  protuberant  Excepting  in  the 
length  of  the  tail,  and  the  body  being  covered  with  scales,  the  whole 
animal  has  much  of  the  form  and  appearance  of  a  fn^  or  toad :  it  is 
found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  is  of  larger  size  than  the 
generality  of  the  other  species. 


The  Tapayaxin  i(A.  crbicvlarU)  of  South  America  is  very  similar 
to  the  species  last  described  in  its  form  and  proportions,  but  is 
still  shorter  and  thicker.    The  extraordinary  figure  of  this  reptil* 


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approaching  almost  to  the  form  of  a  perfect  sphere,  its  broad  flat 
head,  ita  skin  covered  with  small  tubercles  or  warts  interspersed  among 
the  scales,  and  the  faculty  which  it  possesses  of  distending  its  body 
with  air,  and  to  a  certain  degree  aswiming  different  shades  of  colour, 
have  caused  it  to  be  sometimes  compared  to  a  toad,  and  sometimes  to  a 
chameleon ;  but  the  truth  is,  that  it  has  no  actual  relation  or  affinity  to 
either  of  these  ftnimiLlg,  but  is  indebted  solely  to  its  naturally  disgusting 
aspect  for  the  calumnies  which  the  early  Spanish  writers  have  heaped 
upon  it.  The  Tapa3raxin  inhabits  the  mountainous  and  rocky  parts 
of  South  America,  from  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  to  Patagonia. 

Other  sub-genera  and  species  belonging  to  this  division  of  the  Agamas 
are — Trapelut  (A.  jEgyptictu),  remarkable  for  its  change  of  colour,  even 
more  sudden  than  that  of  the  true  chameleon ;  the  A.  calotet,  of  a 
bright  blue  colour  with  transverse  white  marks  on  the  sides,  from 
the  Molucca  Islands;  the  Lophyrea  {A,  giganteaf  Kuhl),  with  a  crest 
of  long  elevated  spines  on  the  neck ;  and  the  Lyriocephaliu  {A.  sctUata), 
which  has  a  simiLEur  elevated  crest  along  the  back,  and  the  tail  keel- 
shaped.  This  latter  species,  in  many  respects  a  most  singular  reptile, 
inhabits  Bengal,  and  lives  upon  fruits. 

For  ample  details  concerning  the  specific  differences  of  the  AgBmas, 
we  refer  the  r^er  to  the  works  of  Cuvier,  Daudin,  and  MerreuL 

A'QAM^,  in  Botany,  is  a  name  given  bysome  authors  to  the  large 
division  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom  called  Howerless  Plants,  and  may 
be  considered  equivalent  to  the  older  term,  Ciyptogamic    [Aobooens.] 

A'QAMI  {Trophia  crepitans,  Latham),  an  interesting  bird,  sometimes 
also  termed  the  Qold-Breasted  Trumpeter,  classed  by  Pallas  among 
Cranes,  by  Biisson  among  Pheasants,  and  making  the  first  genus  in 


Agami, 

Temminck's  Alectorides.  It  is  the  size  of  a  pheasant  or  large  fowl, 
being  22  inches  in  length,  but  appears  laiger  from  having  a  long  neck, 
and  from  standing  high  on  its  legs.  It  bears  some  slight  resemblance 
to  the  pheasant  in  the  glossy  iridescent  green  on  the  breast^  and  in  a 
space  round  the  eyes  naked  of  feathers ;  but  has  a  very  diort  tail, 
consisting  of  twelve  black  feathers,  over  which  the  long,  loose,  silky 
Bcapulary  rump-plumes  hang  droopingly.  Its  long  greenish  legs 
assimilate  it  to  wading  birds  {Orallatoret),  but  it  is  said  not  to  have 
the  habits  of  these,  never  visiting  fens  and  the  margins  of  water,  and 
living  wholly  in  upland  forests  and  arid  moimtains.  It  inhabits  the 
forced  of  tropical  America,  and  never  visits  the  cleared  groimds  or  the 
settlements.  According  to  M.  Monoucour,  it  is  very  gregarious,  being 
foimd  in  numerous  flocks,  which  walk  and  run,  but  r&rely  fly,  an<^ 
when  they  do,  seldom  rise  more  than  a  few  feet  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Even  when  pursued  they  trust  most  to  their  speed  in 
running. 

Several  naturalists  have  given  accounts  of  the  Agami  in  a  domestic 
state.  Its  docility  and  attachment  to  man  are  remarkable.  "The 
Agami,"  says  Monoucour,  "is  not  only  tamed  easily,  but  becomes 
attached  to  its  benefactor  with  all  the  fondness  and  fidelity  of  the  dog ; 
and  of  this  disposition  it  shows  the  most  unequivocal  proofs.  When 
bred  up  in  the  house,  it  loads  its  master  with  caresses,  and  follows  his 
motions ;  and  if  it  conceives  a  dislike  to  persons  on  account  of  their 
foibidding  figure^  their  offensive  smell,  or  of  injuries  received,  it  wiU 


pursue  them  sometimes  to  a  considerable  distance,  biting  their  lega^ 
and  testifying  every  mark  of  displeasure.  It  obeys  the  voice  of  its 
master,  and  even  answers  to  the  call  of  all  those  to  whom  it  bears  no 
grudga  It  is  fond  of  caresses,  and  offers  its  head  and  neck  to  be 
stroked;  and,  if  once  accustomed  to  these  familiarities,  it  becomes 
troublesome,  and  will  not  be  satisfied  without  continual  fondling.  It 
makes  its  appearance  as  often  as  its  master  sits  down  to  table,  and 
begins  with  driving  out  the  dogs  and  cats,  and  taking  possession  of  the 
room ;  for  it  is  so  obstinate  and  bold,  that  it  never  yields,  and  often, 
after  a  tough  battle,  can  put  a  middle-sized  dog  to  flight.  It  avoids 
the  bites  of  its  antagonist,  by  rising  in  the  air,  and  retaliates  with 
violent  blows  with  its  bill  and  nails,  aimed  chiefly  at  the  eyes ;  and 
after  it  gains  the  superiority,  it  pursues  the  victory  with  the  utmost 
rancour,  and,  if  not  parted,  will  destroy  the  fugitive." 

The  peculiar  noise  which  these  birds  make,  without  opening  the 
bill,  is  one  of  their  most  remai'kable  characteristics.  This  noise  is  no 
doubt  produced  by  a  peculiar  conformation  of  the  oxgan  of  sound 
According  to  Pallas,  the  larynx,  which  is  on  the  outside  of  the  breast, 
is  about  as  thick  as  a  swan's  quill  and  almost  bony,  becomes  much 
more  slender,  loose,  and  cartilaginous  when  it  enters  within  the  breast, 
where  two  semicyrindrical  canals  of  a  membranous  texture,  and 
capable  of  being  extended,  proceed  from  it.  The  air-bag  on  the  right 
side  descends  to  the  pelvis,  and  within  the  breast  it  is  divided  into 
three  or  four  cells  by  transverse  membranes.  The  air-bag  on  the  left 
side  is  narrower.  Vosqiaer  tells  us  that  the  sound  is  sometimes 
preceded  by  a  wild  cry,  interrupted  by  a  call  somewhat  like  '  scherck, 
scherck,'  and  then  follows  the  characteristic  noise  somewhat  resembling 
the  cooing  of  pigeons.  It  utters,  in  this  way,  five,  six,  or  seven  times, 
with  precipitation,  a  hollow  noise  nearlv  resembling  the  syllables  'too 
too,  too,  too,  too,  too,'  resting  upon  the  last  a  very  long  time,  and 
sinking  the  sound  gradually  toll  it  terminates.  During  this,  the  breast 
is  seen  to  heave,  as  in  birds  while  singing,  though  the  bill  remains  shut 
It  is,  no  doubt^  produced  by  the  air  pressed  up  from  the  lower  air-bags 
on  the  light  and  left  above  descril:^  which,  meeting  with  the  trans- 
verse membranes  in  its  passage,  causes  them  to  vibrate  and  soimd,  and 
this  is  communicated  to  the  suiroimding  muscles,  and  by  these  to  the 
external  air. 

The  Agami,  like  the  rest  of  the  Alectorides,  builds  no  nest,  but 
scratches  a  shallow  place  at  the  root  of  a  tree  where  it  deposits  its 
eggs,  from  10  to  16  in  number,  and  of  a  light  green  colour.  They  are 
somewhat  larger  than  a  hen's  egg,  and  of  a  rounder  fonn.  The  do^n 
remains  a  long  time  on  the  young,  and  grows  into  long  silky  plumes, 
very  close,  like  fiir,  and  it  is  not  till  they  are  one-fourth  the  size  of  the 
adult  birds  that  the  true  feathers  appear. 

Dr.  Latham  tells  us,  that  "  one  of  the  Agamis,  a  young  bird,  found 
its  way  into  a  farm-yard  in  Surrey,  and  associated  with  the  poultry. 
It  was  perfectly  tame,  and,  on  one  occasion,  acconipanied  the  hounds 
for  three  miles,  and  kept  up  with  them.  It  was  last  in  the  possession 
of  Lord  Stanley,  but  died  on  its  way  into  Lancashire." 

AQARIC-MINERAL,  an  earthy  variety  of  calcareous  spar,  resem- 
bling chaUL    It  is  also  called  ^de-Milk,    [Calcareous  Sfab.] 

AGARI'CIA  (Lamouroux),  the  Mushroom  Madrepore,  a  genus  of 
coral  madrepores,  so  called  fix)m  its  resemblance  in  form  to  mushrooms 
{Agarici).  The  animal  inhabitants  of  Agaricia  are  unknown,  with  the 
exception  of  a  single  species  observed  by  M.  Lesueur  on  the  shore  of 
St-Thomas  in  the  Antilles.  Lamarck  enumerates  five  species,  and 
Parkinson  severL 

AGA'RICUS  is  the  generic  name  by  which  aU  the  species  of 
Mushrooms  properly  so  called  are  collectively  known.  It  com- 
prehends such  plants  of  the  fungus  tribe,  as  have  a  cap  (or  pileus) 
of  a  fleshy  nature,  supported  upon  a  distinct  stalk,  and  a  number  of 
parallel  unequal  vertical  plates  or  gills  arising  out  of  the  cap,  and 
inclosing  the  particles  by  which  the  species  are  reproduced ;  particles 
which  the  vulgar  call  seeds,  and  botanists  sporules.  This  genus,  now 
divided  into  a  large  number  of  sub-genera,  consists  of  not  fewer  than 
1000  species,  inhabiting  meadows,  and  heaths,  and  rooks,  and  masses 
of  decaying  vegetable  matter,  in  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the  earth.  Among  them  a 
large  proportion  are  poisonous,  a  few  are  wholesome,  but  hj  far  the 
greater  number  are  altogether  unknown  in  regard  to  their  action  upon 
the  human  constitutioiL  The  species  are  often  extremely  similar ;  there 
are  no  means  of  distinguishing  botanically  the  tribes  that  are  poisonous 
from  such  as  are  wholesome,  l)ut  in  every  case  practice  is  requifflte  to 
determine  that  point  independently  of  general  structure.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  the  use  of  wild  mushrooms  is  so  dangerous.  Indeed 
there  is  this  most  remarkable  fact  connected  with  their  qualities— a 
fact  which  seems  to  show  that  their  properties  depend  upon  climate 
and  situation,  and  accidental  circumstances,  rather  than  upon  any 
specific  peculiarities — ^those  kinds  which  are  wholesome  in  one  country 
are  not  so  in  another ;  thus,  in  Great  Britain,  the  Common  Mushroom, 
Agaricus  campestrU  {fig.  1),  the  Fairy-Ring  Agaric,  A.  prcUennaifig-  2), 
and  the  A.  Qeorgii,  are  the  only  sorts  that  it  is  quite  safe  to  eat ;  while 
the  Fly  Agaric,  A,  mutcarius  {fig.  8),  and  A.  virtmu  ''{fig.  ^)j;  *^ 
extremely  poisonous.  But  in  other  countries  of  Europe  it  w 
different.  In  Rome  one  of  the  few  mushrooms  excluded  from 
the  markets  by  the  goverrmient  inspectors  is  the  A.  cam^*^**M.  1° 
France,  in  Italy,  and  especially  in  Russia,  a  usual  aliment  is  afforded 
by  a  great  variety  of  species  whidh,  although  very  common  in  ™** 


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country,  it  wovild  be  extremely  dangerous  to  eat ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  even  the  dangerous  A,  fnutcariui  is  a  species  of   food  in 

The  following  characters  will  serve  to  distinguish  such  Agarios  as 
are  poisonous  or  suspicious : — 

1.  Such  as  have  a  cap  veiy  thin  in  proportion  to  the  gills. 

2.  Such  as  have  the  stalk  growing  from  one  side  of  the  cap. 

3.  Those  in  which  the  giUs  are  all  of  equallength. 

4.  Such  as  have  a  milky  juice. 

5.  Such  as  deliquesce ;  that  is,  run  speedily  into  a  dark  watery  liquid. 

6.  And  lastly,  every  one  that  has  the  collar  that  surrounds  the 
stalk  filamentous,  or  resembling  a  spider's  web. 

As  to  the  rest,  the  eatable  lunds  that  can  be  safely  employed  In 
Great  Britain  are  the  following : — 

A.  campestritf  the  Common  Mushroom  {fyf.  1),  the  species  that  is 
so  commonly  raised  artificially  for  food.  This  Ib  readily  known  in 
any  state  by  its  fragrant  odour,  by  which  alone  it  ma^  be  always 
recognised,  and  the  absence  of  which  is  extremely  suspicious.  When 
in  a  very  young  state  it  resembles  little  snow-white  balls,  which  are 
called  Buttons ;  afterwards  it  acquires  a  stalk,  separates  its  cap,  and 
becomes  shortlv  conical,  with  liverooloured  gills,  and  a  white  thick 
fleshy  cap,  marxed  with  a  few  particles  of  gray.  At  a  more  advanced 
age  -Uie  cap  Ib  concave,  the  colour  gray,  and  the  gills  black ;  in  this 
state  it  is  called  a  Flap.    [Fuhgl] 

A.  Georgii  is  like  the  latter,  but  its  gills  are  always  yeir  pale,  and 
its  flavour  inferior.    It  is  said  oocasionaQy  to  wei^  as  much  as  14  lbs. 

A,  pratefuis,  or  oreada,  the  Faizy-Ring  Mushroom,  is  so  well  known 
by  its  popular  designation  as  to  require  no  description.  Well  may  it 
have  gained  that  name ;  for,  in  former  times,  there  would,  doubtless, 
be  great  dififlculty  in  imagining  how  such  produotioni(4x>illd  spring  up 
in  a  few  hours  in  the  regular  rings  they  appear  in,  vdthout  the  aid  of 
some  supernatural  agency.  The  use  to  which  this  species  is  usuaUy 
applied  is  that  of  being  powdered  and  mixed  with  rich  sauces,  after 
having  been  previously  strung  upon  a  line,  and  dried  in  the  shade. 
Dr.  Badham,  in  his  work  on  'The  Esculent  Funguses  of  Britain,' 
shews  that  a  laige  number  of  other  species  may  be  eaten  with 
impunity.  Great  caution  is  however  necessary,  and  no  person 
should  venture  on  the  eating  of  strange  species  unless  practically 
acquainted  with  their  distinctions.  Dr.  Badham's  work  contains 
drawings  of  the  species  which  will  greatly  assist  those  who  may  be 
desirous  of  distingnishing  the  edible  kinds. 


Eatable  Agariei, 


Poisonous  Agariei, 

A'GATE,  an  ornamental  stone  used  in  jewellery,  and  for  some 
purposes  in  the  arts:  it  is  sometimes  called  Scotdi  Pebble.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  Ax*^"»»>  *  atone  described  by 
Theophrastus,  and  which,  he  says,  came  from  the  river  Achates,  in 
Sicfly,  now  the  Drillo,  in  the  Val  di  Noto.  It  is  one  of  the  numerous 
modifications  of  form  imder  which  silica  presents  itself,  almost  in  a 
state  of  purity,  constituting  in  the  agate  98  per  cent  of  the  mineral 
The  silicious  particles  are  not  so  arranged  as  to  produce  the  tran- 
■parency  of  rock  crystal,  but  a  translucent,  sometimes  almost  opaque 
■ubetance,  with  a  resinous  or  waxy  fracture;  and  a  variety  of  shades 
of  colour  are  produced  by  a  minute  quantity  of  iron.  The  same 
stone  sometimes  contains  parts  of  different  degrees  of  translucency, 
and  of  various  shades  of  colour;  and  the  endless  combinations  of 
these  iiroduce  the  beautiful  and  singular  internal  forms,  for  which, 


together  with  the  high  polish  they  are  capable  of  receiving,  agates  are 
pmed  as .  omamentsd  stones.  Although  occasionally  found  in  other 
rocks,  they  are  most  usually  met  with  io  that  variety  of  the  trap 
rocks  called.Amygdaloid  or  Mandelstein,  forming  detached  rounded 
nodules,  not  cemented  to  the  base  or  mass  of  the  rock,  but  eosilv 
separable  from  it^  and  having  generally  a  thin  laver  of  green  eartL 
interposed,  and  a  rough  irregular  exterior,  as  if  moulded  on  the 
asperities  of  the  sides  of  a  pre-existing  cavity.  The  silicious  particles 
have  often,  but  far  JBrom  constantly,  arranged  themselves  in  thm  layers 
parallel  to  the  external  surface  of  the  nodule ;  sometimes  the  nodule 
IS  not  solid,  but  a  hollow  space  is  left  in  it,  studded  with  crystals  of 
quartz ;  and  not  unfrequently  crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  other 
minerals,  totally  distinct  in  composition  from  that  of  tiie  agate,  are 
superimposed  on  the  quartz  cxystals. 

Tlie  theory  of  the  formation  of  agates  is  a  problem  of  great  difllculty, 
and  we  must  be  much  Airther  advanced  than  we  are,  in  our  knowledge 
of  the  chemical  processes  of  nature  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  before 
we  can  expect  to  throw  any  light  on  this  very  obscure  subject  The 
great  supply  of  agates  is  from  a  class  of  rooks  to  which  all  geologists 
now  assign  an  igneous  origin,  analogous  to  that  of  lava  in  existing 
volcanoes.  The  theory  divides  itself  into  two  parts ;  first,  the  forma- 
tion of  ^e  cavities  in  which  the  agates  are  found ;  and,  secondly,  the 
filling  of  these  cavities.  With  regard  to  the  first,  we  have  many 
analogies  from  modem  lavas,  and  from  procooDes  of  urt,  to  guide  us  to 
a  pre&y  satLef actory  conclusion.  Gases  are  evolved  in  great  quantities 
by  v6lcanoes,  and  u  produced  at  the  same  instant  with  a  flow  of  lava, 
they  would  rise  in  bubbles  in  the  melted  mass ;  but  in  proportion  as 
that  became  more  viscid  they  would  rise  with  greater  difficulty  to  tiie 
surface,  and  when  it  consolidated  would  fonn  cavities,  the  shape  of 
whidi  would  be  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  pressure  of  the 
Burrounding  viscid  lava.  To  account  for  the  filling  up  of  the  cavities 
three  theones  have  been  proposed :  one  supposes  die  silicious  matter 
to  have  been  introduced  in  aqueous  solution  firom  without,  and  to 
have  been  gradually  deposited  in  the  cavities;  another,  that,  in 
obedience  to  some  peculiar  laws  of  attraction,  it  has  separated  from 
the  net  of  tlie  rook,  and  insinuated  itself  into  the  hollows  left  by  the 
gases;  and  a  third,  that  these  hollows  were  filled  bv  the  sublimation 
of  the  silica  and  other  materials  from  the  rest  of  the  mass  by  the 
action  of  heat  Each  hypothesis  is  supported  by  particular  cases, 
which  it  satisfiBotorily  explains,  but  there  are  probably  as  many  agaibst 
as  in  favour  of  each ;  all  of  them  imply  conditions  of  chemi<»l  action 
different  from  anything  of  which  we  have  had  experience.  We  fre- 
quently find,  it  is  tru6,  masses  of  silicious  petrified  wood  in  which 
hollows  of  the  tree  have  been  filled  with  agate,  not  to  be  distinguished 
from  many  nodules  found  in  the  trap  ro^ ;  and  that  the  matter  of 
the  agate  must  have  been  introduced  into  the  wood  by  aqueous 
infiltrations  there  can  be  no  doubt:  but,  in  this  case,* the  whole 
substance  of  the  sustaining  mass,  the  wood,  is  penetrated  by  silidous 
matter ;  and  the  difficulty  of  the  theory  of  infiltration,  in  the  case  of 
the  trap  rocks,  oonsiBts  in  the  absence  of  any  trace  in  the  rock  of  the 
channel  by  which  the  solution  of  silidous  matter  could  have  airived 
at  the  cavity.  The  following  section  of  an  agate  is  a  good  example 
of  the  filing  up  ^ 

of  a  cavity  by  - 

infiltration,  for 
it  is  evident 
that  the  sili- 
dous matter, 
in  whatever 
way  it  may 
have  arrived, 
was  introduced 
at  the  point  a, 
and  that  there 
was  a  gradual 
deposition  of  it 

Such  examples  | 

would  be  more 
frequently  met 
widi,    if  there 

was     anything  Agate, 

in  the  external 

coat  to  teU  us  in  what  direction  to  slit  the  stone  :  this  same  specimen 
might  have  been  cut  in  many  directions  without  throwing  any  light 
upon  its  mode  of  formation,  and  the  section  we  now  see  was  an 
aoddental  cut  in  the  right  direction.  An  attentive  consideration  of 
the  products  of  volcanoes  may  lead  to  some  satisfactory  condusion ; 
for  although  agates  have  not  been  found  in  lavas,  cavities  in  them  are 
often  partially  or  entirdy  filled  vrith  minerals  distinct  from  any  in  the 
rest  of  the  rock.  ,     ,     ,     ,    ,      ^    . 

Agates  are  often  found  as  loose  pebbles  in  the  beds  of  nvers,  or  m 
gravel,  but  in  these  cases  they  have  been  derived  from  the  disinte- 
gration of  Amygdaloids,  the  base  of  which  is  very  often  subject  to 
decomporition  when  exposed  to  air  and  moisture,  and  then  the  silicious 
nodules  fall  out  They  vary  in  size  from  that  of  millet  seed  to  a  foot 
in  diameter;  but  one,  two,  and  three  indies  in  diameter  are  the  most 

common.  ...         -i  i    •  5    •      i.     xi. 

The  stones  distinguished  by  mmenJogists  and  lapidanoe  by  the 


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AGATHIS. 


AGAVR 


names  of  CameUan,  Caloedony,  Onyx,  Sardonyx,  MoohapStone,  Blood- 
stone, ChrysopFBae,  and  Plasma,  are  so  closelv  allied  to  agate,  that 
they  may  be  oonveniently  described  under  this  head.  In  chemical 
composition  they  are  not  distinguishable,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
chrysoprase  by  its  colouring  matter. — Camdian,  so  called  because 
some  kinds  are  of  a  flesh  colour  (corruf,  Latin  for  flesh),  is  that  yariety 
of  a  unifoim  colour  which  is  of  most  common  occuirenoe :  oamelians 
are  never  figured  or  striped.  The  colours  are  shades  of  red  and  yellow, 
the  deep  dear  red  being  the  rarest  and  most  yaluable.  The  great 
supply  of  camelians  is  from  Japan,  where  they  exist  in  yast  quantities, 
and  they  are  also  imported  from  Bombay,  being  collected  in  the 
province  of  GKuEerat ;  but  the  best,  according  to  Niebuhr,  come  from 
the  Qulf  of  Cambay.  Many  of  the  antique  gems  are  engraved  in 
camelian,  and  it  is  now  much  used  for  seals.— CoZoecioiiy,  so  called 
from  having  been  eariy  found  at  Cakhedon  (sometimes  incorrectly 
written  Chalcedon)  in  Bithynia,  opposite  Constantinople,  is  also  of  a 
unifoim  colour,  generally  of  a  milky  white  or  pale  yellow,  like  turbid 
jelly,  often  with  an  internal  wavr  structure  in  the  form  of  stalactites, 
and  very  generally  with  a  pecunar.  mammillary  suifiAoe.  It  is  found 
in  great  abundance  in  the  Faroe  Islands,  in  Iccdand,  in  Cornwall,  and 
many  places  of  Great  Britain,  as  well  as  other  countries ;  sometimes 
in  laige  masses,  from  which  cups  and  other  venels  are  formed.  Pliny 
describes  it  as  being  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Thebes  in  Egypt 
and  as  brought  to  Rome  from  Carthagei — Chut  is  a  kind  of  granular 
calcedony,  and  forms  a  transition  to  the  rock  called  JffamtUme, — 
Onyac  In  this  agate  the  silioious  particles  are  arranged  in  altemkting 
horizontal  layers  of  opaque  white  and  translucent  blue,  gray,  or  brown ; 
and  because  tiiese  have  a  resemUanoe  to  the  marics  on  the  human 
naU,  the  stone  was  called  from  the  Greek  word  for  nail,  6rv^,  It  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  was  employed  by  them,  as  it  is  now,  for 
those  beautiful  gems  called  cameos,  the  figure  being  cut  out  of  the 
opaque  white,  the  dark  part  forming  the  groimd,  or  the  contrary.  It 
is  most  valuable  when  the  contrast  of  colours  is  strong,  and  when  ^e 
layer  is  thick  enou^  to  give  a  high  relief  to  the  object  to  be  engraved. 
In  the  royal  Ubraiy  at  Paris,  there  ia  an  antique  cameo  out  out  of  an 
onyx  with  four  layers,  representing  the  apotheosis  of  Augustus,  eleven 
indies  by  nine,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  finest  in  existence.  Agates 
with  an  onyx  structure  are  not  imcommon,  particularly  among  odce- 
donies,  but  the  finest  are  brought  from  India.  Cameos  are  sold  at 
Rome  which  are  made  from  a  thick  shdl,  having  difierent  coloured 
layers  like  an  onyx. — Sardonyx  is  a  variety  of  onyx  which  is  supposed 
by  some  to  have  received  its  name  from  having  been  brouj^t  from 
Sardes,  in  Lydia.  By  others  it  has  been  said  that  the  name  comes 
from  Sardo,  the  Greek  name  of  Sardinia,  there  beiDg  some  reason  for 
thinking  that  the  Carthaginians  brought  the  stones  from  that  island, 
and  exported  them  during  their  occupation  of  it.  In  this  the  opaque 
white  alternates  with  a  rich  deep  orange  brown  of  considerable  trans- 
lucency,  and  as  tins  is  of  rare  occurrence  the  sardonyx  is  of  greater 
value.  The  finest  are  brou^^t  from  the  east^  and  some  antique  gems 
are  formed  of  thenL — MochorSUma  and  Mou-Agatea  are  semitransparent 
calcedony,  induding  various  ramified  forms,  produced  by  iron,  manga- 
nese, bitumen,  and  chlorite  or  green  earth,  but  sometimes  also,  as  has 
been  proved  by  Daubenton  and  MaoCullooh,  produced  by  the  presence 
of  real  vegetable  bodies,  such  as  Oonferva  and  mosses.  The  first  are 
found  in  Guzerat,  but  received  their  name  from  having  been  brought 
from  Mocha,  in  Arabia. — Bhod-StonCf  or  Heliotrope,  is  a  green  agate 
coloured  by  chlorite,  with  numerous  bright  xed  spots  like  drops 
of  blood.  It  is  also  called  oriental  jasper. — Chrytopraae  (from 
XinwioSf  golden  or  beautiful,  and  wpdirov,  a  leek)  is  a  rare  apple-green 
calcedony,  found  in  Silesia,  which  owes  its  colour  to  the  presence 
of  the  metal  nickeL — PUuma  is  another  scarce  green  semitransparent 
calcedony,  but  of  a  dark  tint,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  MacCulloch,  is 
coloured  by  chlorite. — Sard  is  a  deep  reddish-brown  variety. 

The  great  supplv  of  the  figured  agates  of  commerce  is  from  Ober- 
stein,  in  the  old  Palatinate^  about  80  miles  east  of  Trevei^  and  45  miles 
south  of  Coblenz.  When  they  were  used  as  buttons,  knife-handles, 
&C.,  the  trade  was  more  extensive  than  at  present  They  are  found 
in  many  parts  of  Scotland,  especially  at  the  Hill  of  Kinnoul,  near 
Perth,  where  there  is  an  amygdaloidal  trap  very  full  of  fine  specimens. 

A'GATHIS  is  the  generic  name  given  by  botanists  to  the  trees, 
known  in  common  language  by  the  name  of  Dammar  and  Kawrie 
Pines.  These  plants  belong  to  the  natural  order  Conferee,  from  all 
other  spedes  of  which  they  are  known,  firstly,  by  their  broad,  lance- 
shaped,  leathery  leaves,  the  veins  in  which  are  numerous  and  neariy 
parallel,  diveiging  a  little  at  the  base,  and  converging  at  the  apex ; 
and,  secondly,  by  their  seeds  having  a  wing  on  one  side  instead  of 
proceeding  from  the  end. 

The  Danunar  Pine  (Agathis  loranthifolia),  or  the  Pinui  JDammara 
of  LinnKus,  is  a  laige  tree  found  on  the  very  siunmits  of  the  mountains 
of  Amboyna,  Temate,  and  in  many  of  the  Molucca  Islands.  When 
young  it  has  something  of  the  aspect  of  a  young  cedar,  the  wood  of 
which  it  is  said  to  resemble.  It  is  occasionaUy  cultivated  in  the 
hot-houses  of  curious  persons;  but  is  of  little  value  except  for  its 
resin,  which,  when  pure,  is  white,  dear,  and  brittle  as  glan,  but  in 
time  becomes  amber-coloured. 

Its  timber  is  represented  to  be  light  and  of  imerior  quality,  wholly 
imfit  for  any  situation  exposed  to  wet,  but  answering  tolerably  weU 
for  in-door  purposes. 


The  Kawrie  Pine  {Agathia  Atutralii)  grows  only  in  New  Zealand,  in 
the  forests  of  which  it  attains  a  considerable  hei^t,  with  a  straight 
dean  stem,  which  from  its  lightness  and  toughness,  has  been  found 
well  calculated  for  the  masts  of  ships.  It  is  distinguished  from  ^e 
Dammar  Pine  by  its  narrower  and  more  acute  leaves,  and  by  its  more 
rapid  mode  of  growth. 

AGATHOPHTOiLUM  (from  itryaOhs,  good,  and  ^AXoy,  a  leaf),  a 
genus  of  plants  bdonging  to  the  natural  order  LaMraeea^  one  species 
of  which,  the  A,  anomoiticum,  yidds  the  dove-nutmegs  of  Madagascar. 

AGATHC/TES  (from  iyalMrjis,  goodness),  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  OenHanaeece.  It  is  distinguished  bv  having  a 
rotate  4-parted  corolla,  with  two  pores  at  the  boie  of  each  segment. 
A.  ^iragta  is  a  wdl-known  spedes,  a  native  of  Kepaul,  Kumaon,  and 
the  Himalayas.  The  specific  name  is  an  imitation  of  the  Sanscrit  and 
Bengalee  names.  This  plant  has  been  known  for  agreat  length  of  time 
as  a  remedy  in  India,  but  has  oi^  recently  been  introduced  into 
European  practice.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  about  three  feet  high, 
flowering  in  the  rainy  season.  The  whole  plant  is  taken  up,  and  the 
proper  tmie  for  collecting  it  is  just  when  tlie  flowers  begin  to  wither. 
When  dried  it  has  an  intensdy  but  agreeable  bitter  taste,  and  is  destitute 
of  aroma.  The  root  is  possessed  of  the  greatest  bitterness.  The 
bitter  prindple  is  readily  imparted  to  water  and  to  alcohol  [Chibatta, 
Eva.  Ctc,  in  Abt8  ahd  Sa  Diy.] 

AGATE,  a  genus  of  plants  bdonging  to  the  natural  order, 
AfMryllidaeea^  The  spedes  are  known  by  the  name  of  American 
Aloes,  and  produce  dusters  of  long  stiff  fleshy  leaves,  collected  in  a 
drde  at  the  top  of  a  vetr  short  stem,  and  bearing  flowers  in  a  long 
terminal  woody  scape.  With  DcryanUha  and  Yucca  it  forms  in  the 
natural  order  AmairyUidacca  an  instance  of  high  development  both  in 
Y^getation  and  fructifioatitfn,  compared  with  what  is  more  generally 
characteristic  of  that  tribe.  If  a  CrvMun  or  an  AmaryUU  had  the 
stem  elongated  into  a  woody  trunk,  instead  of  being  contracted  into  a 
short  disk,  lying  at  tiie  bottom  of  a  scaly  bulb,  the  affinity  between 
them  and  Agane  would  at  once  be  obvious. 

There  are  many  spedes  of  this  genua^  one  only  of  which  requires  to 
be  mentioned. 

Agave  Amerieanaf  or  the  American  Aloe,  is  a  plant  which,  when  full 
grown,  has  a  short  cylindrical  woody  stem,  which  is  terminated  by 


American  Aloe  {Agave  America$ta), 

hard,  fleshy,  spiny,  sharp-pointed,  bluish  green  leaves,  about  aix  feet 
long,  and  altogether  resembling  those  of  the  arborescent  aloes.  Each 
of  these  leaves  will  continue  to  exist  for  manv  years,  so  that  but  a 
small  number  have  withered  away  by  the  time  the  plant  has  acquired 
its  full  maturity.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  this  occurs  only  at 
the  end  of  one  hundred  years ;  but  this,  like  many  other  popular 
opinions,  is  an  error;  the  period  at  wlidch  the  Agave  arrives  at 
maturity  varying,  according  to  drcumstances,  from  ten  to  fifty,  or 
even  seventy  years.  In  hot  or  otherwise  favourable  climates,  it  grows 
rapidly,  and  arrives  sooner  at  the  term  of  its  existence ;  but  in  colder 
regions,  or  under  the  care  of  the  gardener,  where  it  ia  frequently 


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AGE. 


AGE. 


94 


impracticable  to  attend  to  all  the  circumstances  that  accelerate  its 
deyelopment^  it  requires  the  longest  period  that  has  been  assigned  to 
it.  Having  aoqtiired  its  full  ^wth,  it  finally  produces  its  gigantic 
flowepntem,  after  which  it  perishes.  This  stem  is  sometimes  as  much 
as  40  feet  high,  and  is  suirounded  with  a  multitude  of  branches 
ammged  in  a  pyramidal  form,  with  perfect  83nzunetrY,  and  haying  on 
their  points  dusters  of  greenish-yellow  flowers,  which  continue  to  be 
produced  for  two  or  three  months  in  succession.  The  natiye  country 
of  the  American  Aloe  is  the  whole  of  America  within  the  tropics, 
fiKvm  the  plains  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  sea,  to  stations  upon  the 
mountains  at  an  elevation  of  between  9000  and  10,000  feet.  From 
these  r^ons  it  has  been  transferred  to  almost  eveiy  other  temperate 
coimtry ;  and  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Spain,  it  has  already  combined  with 
the  date  and  the  paJmetto  to  give  a  tropical  appearance  to  European 


Independent^  of  its  beauty  and  curiosity,  this  plant  is  applicable 
to  many  useM  purposes.  Its  sap  may  be  made  to  flow  by  incisions 
in  the  stem,  and  fdmishes  a  fermented  liquor  called  by  the  Mexicans 
Pulque ;  from  this  an  agreeable  ardent  spirit^  called  Vino  Mercal  is 
distilled.  The  flbres  of  its  leaves  form  a  coarse  kind  of  thread,  and 
are  brought  to  this  country  under  tiie  name  of  Pita  Flax ;  the  dried 
flowering  stems  are  an  almost  impenetrable  thatch ;  an  extract  of  tiie 
leaves  is  made  into  balls,  which  will  lather  water  like  soap ;  the  fresh 
leaves  themselves  cut  into  slices  are  occasionally  given  to  cattle ;  and, 
finally,  the  centre  of  the  fiowering  stem  split  longitudinally  is  by  no 
means  a  bad  substitute  for  a  European  razoinrtrop,  owing  to  minute 
particles  of  silica  forming  one  of  its  constituents. 

AQE.  The  term  of  human  existence  is  divisible  into  distinct 
periods,  each  of  which  is  distinguished  by  characters  peculiar  to  itself. 
These  charaoters,  as-fer  as  they  are  external,  are  obvious  to  every  one ; 
but  these  external  characters  depend  on  internal  states  which  are  not 
obvious,  and  which  have  been  discovered  only  by  careful  and  perse- 
vering research.  And  the  curious  and  interesting  facts  which  those 
researches  have  disclosed,  show  that  the  different  epochs  into  which 
life  18  divided  are  not  arbitrary  distinctions,  but  arise  naturallv  out  of 
constitutional  differences  in  the  system,  dependent  on  different 
physiological  conditions.  The  natural  epochs  of  human  life  are  six, 
namely,  the  period  of  infimcy,  childhood,  boyhood  or  girlhood,  adol- 
escence, manhood  or  womanhood,  and  old  age.  The  space  of  time 
included  in  the  fint  four  of  these  periods  is  fixed.  In  all  peroons  after 
the  lapse  of  a  certain  number  of  years,  a  definite  change  in  the  system 
unifonnly  takes  plaoe^  in  consequence  of  which  the  peculiarities  which 
distinguiBh  one  period  give  place  to  those  which  charaoteriBe  the 
Bucoe^Ung.  Thus  the  period  of  infiincy,  commencing  at  birth,  extends 
to  the  end  of  the  second  year,  the  point  of  time  at  which  the  fint 
dentition  is  completed :  the  period  of  childhood,  commencing  at  the 
close  of  the  second  year,  extends  to  the  termination  of  the  seventh  or 
eighth  year,  the  point  of  time  at  which  the  second  dentition  is  com- 
pleted :  the  period  ot  boyhood  or  girlhood  extends  firom  the  seventh 
or  eighth  year  to  the  commencement  of  the  age  of  puberty ;  that  is, 
in  general,  in  this  country,  in  the  female,  frmn  the  twelfth  to  the 
fourteenth  yeur,  and  for  the  male,  firom  the  fourteenth  to  the  sixteenth 
year :  the  period  of  adolescence  extends  from  the  commencement  of 
the  period  of  puberty  to  the  twentieth  year  of  the  female,  and  tiie 
twenty-fourth  of  the  male :  the  period  of  womanhood  extends  firom 
the  twentieth,  and  of  manhood,  firom  the  twenty-fourth  year,  to  an 
age  neither  determined  nor  determinable  with  any  degree  of  exactness ; 
because  the  point  of  time  at  which  mature  age  lapses  into  old  age 
differs  in  every  individual  It  differs  in  many  cases  by  a  considerable 
number  of  years ;  and  it  differs  according  to  primitive  constitution,  to 
the  management  of  early  infbncy  and  childhood ;  according  to  regimen, 
exercise,  occupation  physical  and  mental,  and  the  several  other 
circumstsnees  included  under  the  general  term  '  mode  of  life.' 

It  is  an  observation  femiliar  to  every  one,  that  some  persons  are 
older  at  fifty  than  others  are  at  seven^,  while  instances  every  now 
and  then  occur  in  which  an  old  man  who  reaches  his  hundredth  year 
retains  as  great  a  degree  of  juvenility  as  the  majority  of  those  who 
attain  to  ei^ty.  The  period  extending  from  the  age  of  thirty  or  forty 
to  thai  of  extreme  old  age  is  then  the  only  variable  period  in  the  term 
of  human  existence ;  the  only  period  not  fixed  by  limits  which  it  is 
beyond  the  power  of  man  materially  to  extend  or  abridge. 

The  ohsnffes  which  take  place  in  the  system  at  the  different  epochs 
of  life  consist  of  changes  in  the  physiosl  condition  of  the  body,  and 
are  intimstely  ooxmected  with  and  munly  dependent  on  the  operation 
of  a  principle  of  consolidation^  tiie  influence  of  which,  commencing  at 
the  fhrst  moment  of  existence,  continues,  without  intermission,  until 
the  last  moment  of  life.  By  this  principle  the  body  is  changed,  first 
from  the  state  of  a  fluM  into  that  of  a  solid ;  and  next^  fh>m  a  soft 
and  tender  solid,  into  a  solid  which  slowly,  imperceptibly,  but  never- 
theless uninterruptedly,  increases  in  firmness  and  hardness. 

When  first  the  human  embryo  becomes  distinctly  visible,  it  is 
almost  wholly  fluid,  oonsistmg  only  of  a  soft  gelatinous  pulp. 
[FoETiTS.]-  In  this  gelatinous  pulp  solid  substances  are  formed,  whidi 
grsdually  increase,  and  are  fashioned  into  organs.  These  organs,  in 
their  rudimentary  state,  are  soft  and  tender,  but^  in  the  progress  of 
their  development,  constantly  acquiring  a  greater  number  of  solid 
particles,  tile  cohesion  of  which  progressively  increases,  the  organs  at 
length  become  dense  and  firm.    As  the  soft  solids  augment  in  bulk 


and  density,  bony  particles  are  deposited,  sparingly  at  first  and  in 
detached  masses,  but  accumulating  by  degrees:  these,  too,  are  at 
length  fashioned  into  distinct  osseous  structures,  which,  extending  in 
every  direction,  until  they  touch  at  every  point,  ultimately  form  the 
connected  bony  frame-Work  of  the  system.  This  bony  fSabric,  like  the 
soft  solid,  tender  and  yielding  at  first,  becomes  by  degrees  firm  and 
resisting,  fitted,  as  it  is  designed,  to  be  the  mechanical  support  of  the 
body,  and  the  defence  of  all  tiie  vital  pigans. 

Wldle  the  osseous  system  is  thus  extending  in  every  direction,  and 
everywhere  increasing  in  compactness,  the  progressive  consolidation 
of  the  body  is  equally  manifest  in  all  the  tissues  which  are  composed 
of  the  cellular  membrane  as  well  as  in  all  those  which  possess  a  fibrous 
nature.  The  membranes,  the  ligaments,  the  tendons,  the  cartilages, 
gradually  increase  in  firmness  and  elastidW,  and  proportionally 
diminish  in  fiexibility  and  extensibility ;  and  this  change  takes  place, 
to  a  considerable  ext^t,  in  the  muscular  fibre  ako,  as  is  manifest  firom 
the  toughness  of  the  flesh  of  animals  that  are  used  for  food,  the  degree 
of  which  every  one  knows  is  in  proportion  to  the  age  of  the  animal ; 
and  firom  the  conversion  in  extreme  old  age,  in  many  parts  of  the 
body,  of  muscle  into  tendon,  a  denser  material  being  substituted  for 
theproper muscular  fibre. 

The  steady  and  increasing  operation  of -the  principle  of  consolidation 
is  still  more  strikingly  manifest  in  the  depomtion,  as  age  advances,  of 
bony  matter  in  tissues  and  organs  to  which  it  does  not  naturally 
belong,  and  the'ftmctions  of  which  it  immediately  impairs  and 
ultimately  destroys.  The  textures  in  which  these  osseous  depositions 
most  commonly  take  place  are  membranes,  tendons,  cartilages,  and 
the  coverings  of  the  viscera,  but  above  all  the  coats  of  the  blood-vessels, 
in  consequence  of  which  these  higUy  flexible,  elastic,  and  moveable 
organs  become  firm,  rigid,  and  immoveable.  But  even  when  not 
converted  into  bone,  several  of  these  structures  lose  their  flexibility 
with  advancing  age,  and  acquire  an  increasing  degree  of  rigidity.  This 
is  strikingly  manifest  in  all  the  parts  of  the  apparatus  of  locomotion ; 
in  the  joints,  the  mechanical  contrivances  for  racilitating  motion,  and 
in  the  muscular  fibre,  the  generator  of  the  power  by  which  motion  is 
produced.  The  joints  in  old  age  are  less  pliable,  less  elastic,  and  more 
rigid  than  in  youth ;  flrst»  because  the  ligamentous  and  cartilaginoua 
structures  of  which  they  are  composed  are  more  dense  and  firm ;  and, 
secondly,  because  the  oily  matter  which  lubricates  them,  and  which 
renders  their  motions  easy  and  springy,  is  secreted  in  less  quantity, 
and  of  inferior  quality.  Induration  and  proportionate  deterioration 
take  place  then  in  the  muscular  flbre,  the  origin  of  the  motive  power, 
and  in  the  joints  the  instrument  by  which  the  operation  of  the  motive 
power  is  fiicilitated ;  and  consequently  the  movements  become  slower, 
feebler,  less  steady,  less  certain,  and  less  elastic. 

But  among  all  the  changes  induced  in  the  body  by  the  progress  of 
age,  none  is  more  remai^ble,  or  has  a  greater  influence  in  diminishing 
the  energy  of  the  actions  of  the  economy,  and  in  causing  the  ultimate 
termination  of  all  those  actions  in  death,  than  tiie  change  that  takes 
place  in  the  minute  blood-vessels.  The  ultimate  divisions^  or  the 
smallest  branches  of  the  arteries  and  veins,  the  capillary  vessels,  as 
they  are  tenned,  are  exceedingly  abundant  in  the  early  periods  of  life, 
and  are  as  active  as  they  are  numerous.  The  capillary  arteries,  the 
masons  and  architects  of  the  system,  by  the  agency  of  which  all  the 
structures  are  built  up,  and  all  the  parts  of  the  body  grow  and  are 
developed,  are  numerous  and  active  m  the  early  stages  of  life,  while 
they  are  oanying  on  and  completing  the  organisation  of  the  firame. 
But  ttom.  infancy  to  childhood,  firom  childhood  to  youth,  firom  youth 
to  maturity,  and  firom  maturity  to  old  age,  the  number  and  activity  of 
these  vessels  progressively  diminish.  Their  coats,  like  other  soft 
solids,  increase  in  density  and  rigidity ;  their  diameter  contracts,  many 
of  them  become  completely  impervious  and  ultimately  disappear. 
The  diameter  of  the  capillary  vems,  on  the  contrary,  emarges.  The 
ooats  of  the  veins,  originally  thiimer  than  those  of  the  arteries,  instead 
of  thickening  and  contracting,  seem  rather  to  grow  thinner  and  more 
dilatable :  hence  their  fulness,  their  prominence,  their  more  tortuous 
course,  and  their  greater  capacity.  At  the  two  extreme  periods  of 
life  the  quantity  of  blood  contained  in  these  two  sets  of  vessels  is 
completely  inverted.  In  infancy,  tiie  proportion  of  blood  contained 
in  the  capillaiy  arteries  is  greater  than  that  contained  in  the  capillary 
veins ;  in  youth,  this  disproportion  is  diminished ;  at  the  period  of 
maturity,  the  quantity  in  one  set,  nearly  if  not  exactly  balances  that 
in  the  other ;  in  advanced  age,  the  preponderance  is  so  great  in  the 
veins,  that  these  vessels  contain  probably  two-thirds  of  the  entire  mass. 
This  dififorence  in  the  distribution  of  the  blood,  at  the  different  epochs 
of  life,  affords  an  explanation  of  several  important  phenomena 
eoimected  with  health  and  with  disease.  It  shows,  for  example,  why 
the  body  grows  with  so  much  rapidity  at  the  early  periods  of  life ; 
why  it  remains  stationary  at  the  period  of  maturity ;  why  it  diminishes 
in  bulk  as  age  advances ;  why  a  plethoric  state  of  the  system  affects 
the  arteries  in  youth,  the  veins  in  age ;  why  hsemorrhage,  or  a  flow  of 
blood,  is  apt  to  poceed  in  the  young  from  the  arteries,  and  in  the 
aged  firom  the  veins;  and  so  on. 

The  growth  of  the  heart  does  not  keep  pace  with  the  extension  of 
the  sanguiferous  system,  nor  does  its  force  increase  with  the  augmenting 
density  and  resistance  of  the  solids ;  hence  there  is  a  disturbance  of 
the  balance  between  the  forces  of  propulsion  and  of  extension  which 
increases  with  advancing  age ;  the  diminished  energy  of  the  heart  being 


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AGE  OF  ANIMALa 


AQE  OF  TREEa 


indicated  by  the  languor  and  Blownen  of  the  pulse,  often  not  exceeding 
fifty  puUations  in  a  minute,  and  Bometimes  sinking  even  lower  than 
this.  Hence,  not  only  is  leas  blood  sent  to  the  Beveral  organs,  but  that 
which  is  sent  is  less  completely  acted  upon  b^  the  air  in  respiration 
on  account  of  the  diminished  quantity  which  is  transmitted  through 
the  pulmonary  system  of  yesaels;  hence,  the  diminution  of  all  the 
Beoretions,  and  hence,  finally,  the  faQure  of  the  function  of  digestion, 
the  source  of  the  materials  from  which  the  blood  itself  is  prepared  and 
its  losses  replenished. 

Upon  the  whole,  then,  it  is  clear  that  two  great  changes  take  place 
in  the  physical  condition  of  the  body  in  the  progreaa  of  age ;  firsts  a 
gradual  diminution  in  the  quantity  of  the  fluids,  both  of  the  entire 
mass  contained  in  the  system,  and  of  the  ^proportionate  quantity 
contained  in  each  organ;  and  secondly,  a  progressiye  augmentation 
and  induration  of  the  solids.  With  this  change  in  the  physical  condition 
of  the  body  is  uniformly  combined  a  no  less  important  change  in  its 
vital  action.  Progressively  and  proportionally  as  the  solid  parts 
increase  in  density  and  rigidity,  they  decrease  in  irritability  and 
mobility ;  that  is,  they  are  less  sensible  to  the  influence  of  stimulants, 
and  the  power  of  contraction  resident  in  the  muscular  fibre  is  less 
excitable. 

AOE  OF  ANIHALa  It  is  often  a  matter  of  great  practioal 
importance  to  possess  some  means  of  determining  the  age  of  animala, 
The  data  that  exist  at  present  are,  however,  very  inadequate  to 
determine  this  point.  Amongst  domestic  animals  the  age  may  be 
judged  of  by  the  presence^  absence,  or  change  of  certain  oigans  in  the 
body. 

The  age  of  the  horse  is  known  principally  by  the  appearance  of  the 
incisor  teeth,  or,  as  they  are  technically  called,  the  nippers.  Of  these 
there  are  six  in  each  jaw,  broad,  thin,  and  trenchant  in  the  foal,  but 
with  flat  crowns  marked  in  the  centre  with  a  hollow  disk  in  the  adult 
animaL  The  foal-  or  milk-teeth  appear  fifteen  days  after  birth ;  at  the 
age  of  two  years  and  a  half  the  middle  pair  drop  and  are  replaced  by 
the  cozresponding  permanent  teeth ;  at  three  years  and  a  half  the  two 
next^  one  on  each  side,  fall  and  are  likewise  replaced ;  and  at  the  age 
of  four  years  and  a  half  the  two  external  incisors  of  the  first  set  drop 
and  give  room  to  the  coiresponding  pair  of  permanent  teeth.  All 
these  permanent  nippers,  as  we  have  already'  observed,  are  flattened 
on  the  crown  or  upper  surface,  and  marked  in  the  centre  with  a 
circular  pit  or  hollow,  which  is  gradually  defaced  in  proportion  as  the 
tooth  wears  down  to  a  level  with  its  bottonL  By  the  degree  of  this 
detrition,  or  wearing  of  the  teeth,  the  age  of  the  animal  is  determined, 
till  the  eighth  year,  at  which  period  the  marks  are  generally  effaced ; 
but  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  external  incisors,  as  appearing  a  year 
or  two  after  the  intermediate,  preserve  their  original  form  propor- 
tionaUy  for  a  longer  period.  After  the  eighth,  year  the  age  of  the 
horse  may  be  still  determined  for  a  few  years  longer  by  tibe  appearance 
and  comparative  length  of  the  canine  teeth  or  tushes.  These,  it  is  true, 
are  sometimes  wanting,  particularly  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  in  mares 
are  rarely  developed  at  aU.  Those  of  the  under  jaw  appear  at  the  age 
of  three  years  and  a  half,  and  the  upper  at  four;  tiU  six  they  are 
sharp-poiubed,  and  at  ten  they  appear  blunt  and  long,  because  the 
gums  begin  about  that  period  to  recede  from  their  roots,  leaving  them 
naked  and  exposed ;  but  after  this  period  there  are  no  further  means 
of  judging  of  the  horse's  age,  excepting  from  the  comparative  size, 
bluntneas,  and  discoloured  appearance  of  the  tushes.  The  duration 
of  the  horse's  life  seldom  surpasses  thirty  years,  though  there  have 
been  instances  recorded  in  which  it  is  said  to  have  extended  to  double 
that  period. 

In  cattle  with  horns,  the  age  is  indicated  more  readilv  by  the  growth 
of  these  instruments  than  by  the  detrition  and  succession  of  the  teeth. 
The  deer  kind,  which  shed  their  horns  annually,  and  in  which,  with 
the  single  exception  of  the  rein-deer,  the^  are  confined  to  the  male 
sex,  have  them  at  first  in  the  form  of  simple  prickets  without  any 
branches  or  antiers ;  but  each  succeeding  year  of  their  lives  adds  one 
or  more  branches,  according  to  the  species,  up  to  a  certain  fixed 
period,  beyond  which  the  age  of  the  animal  can  only  be  guessed  at 
from  the  size  of  the  horns  and  the  thickness  of  the  burr  or  knob 
at  their  roots  which  connects  them  with  the  skulL  In  the  common 
sti^,  the  pricket  or  first  horn  falls  during  the  second  year  of  the 
animal's  life,  and  is  replaced  by  one  with  a  single  antler,  and  called, 
from  this  circumstance,  the  fork.  This  again  faUs  during  tiie  third 
year,  and  is  replaced  by  the  third  horn,  whidi,  as  well  as  the  fourth 
or  following  pair,  have  commonly  three  or  four,  and 'sometimes  even 
five  branches.  In  the  same  manner  the  number  of  antlers  goes  on 
increasing  till  the  eighth  year  of  the  animal's  life,  beyond  which 
period  they  follow  no  fixed  rule,  though  they  still  continue  to  increase 
in  number,  particularly  towards  the  summit  of  the  horn,  where  they 
are  often  grouped  in  the  form  of  a  coronet,  and  in  this  state  they  are 
called  royal  antlers.  The  fSallow-deer,  the  roe-buck,  and  others  of  this 
genus,  present  similar  phenomena ;  the  number  of  the  antlers  increases 
according  to  certain  fixed  rules  up  to  a  certain  period,  beyond  whidi 
the  age  can  only  be  determined,  as  in  the  stag,  by  the  comparative  size 
and  development  of  the  burr  and  shaft,  or  that  part  of  the  horn  frt>m 
which  the  antlers  grow.  In  the  former  species,  the  prickets  of  the 
second  year  are  replaced  by  homs  bearing  two  antlen^  and  already 
beginning  to  assume  the  palmated  form  which  distinguishes  them 
from  the  antlers  of  most  other  deer.    Afterwards  this  palm  increases 


in  breadth,  and  assumes  an  indented  form  on  the  superior  and 
posterior  borders  :  these  are  the  fourth  horns,  which  are  died  in  the 
animal's  fifth  year,  and  are  replaced  by  others  in  whidi  the  palm  is 
cloven  or  subdivided  irregularly  into  distinct  parts,  so  that  the  hoins 
of  old  animals  frequently  assume  a  great  diversity  and  singularity  of 
form.  From  this  period  the  homs  begin  to  shrink  in  size,  and  an 
even  said  to  end  in  becoming  simple  prickets  as  in  the  first  year. 

The  homs  of  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  and  antelopes,  which  are  hollow 
and  permanent,  are  of  a  very  different  form,  and  grow  in  a  different 
manner,  frx>m  those  of  the  deer  kind.  These,  as  is  well  known, 
consist  of  a  hollow  sheath  of  horn,  which  covers  a  bony  core  or  process 
of  the  skull,  and  grows  from  the  root,  where  it  receives  each  year  an 
additional  knob  or  ring,  the  number  of  which  is  a  sure  indication  of 
the  animal's  age.  The  growth  of 'the  homs  in  these  animals  is  by  no 
means  uniform  through  the  whole  year,  but  the  increase,  at  least  in 
temperate  climates,  takes  place  in  spring,  after  which  there  is  no 
further  addition  till  the  following  season.  In  the  cow  kind,  the  homs 
appear  to  grow  uniformly  during  the  first  three  years  of  the  animal's 
life;  conse<}uently,  up  to  that  age  they  are  perfectly  smooth  and 
without  wrinkles,  but  afterwards  each  succeeding  year  adds  a  ring  to 
the  root  of  the  hom,  so  that  the  age  is  determined  by  allowing  three 
years  for  the  point  or  smooth  part  of  the  horn  and  erne  for  each  of  the 
rmgs.  In  sheep  and  goats  the  smooth  or  top  part  counts  but  for  one 
year,  as  the  homs  of  these  animals  show  their  first  knob  or  ring  in  the 
second  vear  of  their  age ;  in  the  antelopes  they  probably  follow  the 
same  rule,  though  we  have  very  little  ^owledge  of  their  growth  and 
devdopment  in  these  animalsL 

There  are  very  few  instances  in  which  the  age  of  animals  belonging, 
to  other  daases  can  be  determined  by  any  general  rules.  In  birds  it 
may  be  sometimes  done  by  observing  the  form  and  wear  of  the  bill ; 
and  some  pretend  to  distinguish  the  age  of  fishes  by  the  appearance  of 
their  scales,  but  their  methods  are  founded  on  mere  hypotheses,  and 
entitled  to  no  confidence.  The  age  of  the  whale  is  known  by  the  size 
and  number:  of  laminse  of  whale-bone,  which  increase  yearly,  and,  if 
observation  can  be  relied  upon,  would  sometimes  indicate  an  age  of 
three  or  four  hundred  years  for  these  animals. 

AOE  OF  TREES.  Plants,  like  animals,  are  subject  to  the  laws  of 
mortality,  and  seem  mostly  to  have  a  limited  period  for  their  existenca 

It  is  chiefly  to  annual  and  biennial  plants  that  what  may  be  called 
a  precise  period  of  duration  is  fixed ;  a  period  determined  by  the 
production  of  their  fruit,  and  not  capable  of  being  prolonged  beyond 
that  event,  except  by  artificial  means.  Plants  that  live  for  a  long  time 
belong  either  to  the  class  of  Endogent  or  Exogtm, 

To  the  first  of  these  classes  belongs  the  PaLm  Tribe,  and  some  other 
tropic^  trees.  There  is  scarcely  any  well-attested  evidence  of  these 
plants  ever  acquiring  any  considerable  age.  It  has  indeed  been 
supposed,  that  certain  Brazilian  oocoaruut  palms  may  be  from  600  to 
700  years  old,  and  that  others  probablv  attam  to  the  age  of  something 
more  than  300  years.  But  the  method  of  computing  the  age  of  palms, 
whidi  is  either  by  the  number  of  rings  externally  visible  upon  their 
rind  between  the  base  and  summit  of  the  stem,  or  by  oomparing  the 
oldest  specimens^  the  age  of  which  is  unknown,  with  young  trees  of  a 
known  age,  is  entirely  ooiyectund,  and  not  founded  upon  sound 
physiological  considerations;  besides  which,  the  date-palm  which  is 
best  known  to  Europeans,  does  not  at  all  Justify  the  opinion  that 
palms  attain  a  great  age;  the  Arabs  do  not  assign  it  a  greater  longevity 
than  frt>m  two  to  thrae  centuries  Independently  of  this,  the  mode 
of  growth  of  such  endogenous  trees  as  palms  seems  to  predude  the 
possibility  of  their  A-ruAmg  beyond  a  definite  period  of  no  great 
extent.  The  diameter  to  which-their  trunks  finally  attain  is  very 
nearly  gained  before  they  begin  to  lengthen,  and  afterwards  all  the 
new  woody  matter,  whidi  every  successive  leaf  necessarily  produces 
during  its  development,  is  insinuated  into  the  centra.  The  consequence 
of  this  is,  that  tne  woody  matter  previously  existing  in  the  centre  is 
displaced  and  forced  outwards  towards  the  drcum&rence.  As  this 
action  is  oonstantly  in  progress,  the  droumference,  which  in  the 
beginning  was  soft,  becomes  gridually  harder  and  harder,  by  the 
pressure  from  withhi  outwards,  till  at  last  it  is  not  susceptible  c^  any 
further  compression.  After  this  has  occurred,  the  central  parts  will 
gradually  solidify  by  the  incessant  production  of  new  wood,  which 
thrusts  outwards  the  older  wood,  tall  at  last  the  whole  stem  must 
become  equally  hard,  and  no  longer  capable  of  giving  way  for  the 
reception  of  new  matter;  for  what  has  once  been  formed  always 
remains,  and  is  never  absorbed  by  surrounding  parts.  It  is  probable, 
for  Uds  reason,  that  endogenous  trees,  sudi  as  palms,  attain  no 
considerable  age,  and  that  the  duration  of  their  existence  must  be 
abeolutdy  fixed  in  each  spedes  by  the  power  they  may  respectively 
have  of  permitting  the  descent  of  woody  matter  down  their  centre. 

In  exogenous  trees  it  is  quite  the  reverse,  and  to  their  existence  no 
limited  duration  can  be  assigned.  In  consequence,  first,  of  the  new 
woody  matter  which  is  constantly  formed  breath  the  bark  near  the 
circumference  of  their  trunk,  and,  secondly,  of  the  baric  itsdf  being 
capable  of  indefinite  distention,  no  compression  is  exercised  by  the 
new  parts  upon  those  previously  formed ;  on  the  contrary,  the  bark  is 
incessantly  giving  way  to  make  room  for  the  wood  beneath  it>  while 
the  latter  is,  in  consequence,  only  glued,  as  it  were,  to  what  succeeds 
it,  without  its  own  vital  powers  being  in  any  degree  impaired  by 
compression.    It  is  in  the  newly-formed  wood  that  the  greatest  degree 


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AGE  OF  TREEa 


AGE  OF  TREEa 


of  vHalitj  residM:  in  the  old  wood  near  the  centre  life  in  time 
becomes  extinct ;  but  aa  each  sucoeaBiYe  layer  poBaeaBes  an  existence  in 
a  great  degree  independent  of  that  which  preceded  it,  the  death  of 
the  centr^  part  of  an  exogenous  tree  is  by  no  means  connected 
with  any  dimmntion  of  vitality  in  the  circumference.  Hence  it  is  that 
hollow  trees  are  often  so  healthy ;  and  that  trees  in  the  most  yigorous 
state  are  often  found  decayed  at  the  heart  without  any  external  sign, 
as  timber-merchants  frequently  discover  to  tiieir  cost  Of  the  many 
remarkable  cases  upon  record  of  aged  trees  the  following  are  among 
the  more  interesting  :— 

At  Enerdie,  the  birth-plaoe  of  Wallace,  three  miles  to  the  south- 
west of  Paisley,  stands  an  oak,  in  the  branches  of  which  tradition 
relates  that  on  one  occasion  that  chieftain  concealed  himself  with  three 
hundred  of  his  followers.  However  improbable  the  latter  circumstance 
may  be,  it  is  at  least  certain  that  the  tree  may  well  have  been  a 
remarkable  object  even  at  the  period  assigned  to  it  by  tradition, 
namely,  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  centuxy;  and  if  so,  this 
individual  must  be  at  least  700  years  old.  Its  branches  are  said  to 
have  once  covered  a  Scotch  acre  of  ground ;  but  its  historical  interest 
has  rendered  it  a  prey  to  the  curiosity  of  the  stranger,  and  its  limbs 
hare  gradually  disappeared  tiH  little  remains  except  its  trunL 


Tke  Wallaoe  Oak. 
Of  ancient  yews  several  autiientic  instances  can  be  named.  At 
Ankerwyke  House,  near  Staines,  is  a  yew  older  than  the  meeting  of  the 
Engliah  barcms  at  Ruiujmede,  when  they  compelled  King  John  to 
grant  Magna  Charta.  This  tree,  at  8  feet  from  the  ground,  measures 
9  feet  8  inches  in  diameter;  and  its  branches  overshadow  a  oucle  of 


The  Ankerwyke  Tew. 
SOT  foet  in  dremnf erence.  The  yews  of  Fountains'  Abbey,  in  Toikshire, 
are  probably  more  than  1200  yean  old,  and  to  othen  an  age  of  tram 
2600  to  8000  years  has  been  assigned. 

VAT.  B38T.  DIT.  VOL.  L 


Even  this  degree  of  antiquity  is,  however,  much  less  than  that  of 
the  Baobab  trees  of  Africa,  estimated  by  Adanson  at  5160  vears ;  and 
the  deciduous  cypress  of  Chapultepec  in  Mexico,  which  the  yoimger 
De  CandoUe  considers  still  older. 

The  following  list  of  old  trees  is  trom  Moquin  Tandou's  '  Terato- 
logic V^gdtale  :* — 

There  are  known — 


Palma  of 

SOO.  800  year 

Cerois 

800      „ 

Chirodendroa  . 

327      .. 

UlmuB  (Elm) 

845     „ 

CnpreMos  (Cypreai) 

S8S     „ 

Heder»(Ivy)        .        . 

. 

448      „ 

Aoer  (Maple)  . 

816      „ 

Larix  (Larch)       . 

• 

M8,  878      .. 

Cutanea  (Chettaat) 

860,  6S6      ,. 

Citnu  (Oraogea,  Lemons, 

Ac.) 

400,  800,  640      u 

Platanus  (Plane) 

720      „ 

Cednu  (Cedar)     . 

. 

300,  800      ., 

JogUna  (Walnut)     . 

800      „ 

TilU  (Lime)         i 

, 

864,  880,  800,  885,  1076      „ 

Ablet  (Spruee) 

.        .                                 1800      „ 

Qnercus  (Oak)      . 

. 

660,  800,  860,  1000,  1600      „ 

Olea  (Olive)     . 

700,  1000,  SOOO      „ 

Taxus  (Tew) 

. 

1814,  1466,  8588,  8880      „ 

SehnbertU       . 

8000.  4000      „ 

LegominoMB 

. 

2058, 4104      „ 

6000      „ 

Dracaena  (Dragon  Tree) 

• 

6000      „ 

The  way  in  which  the  age  of  some  of  these  spedmens  has  been  com- 
puted is  twofold ;  firstly,  l^  comparing  them  with  other  old  specimens, 
the  rate  of  growth  of  which  is  known;  and  secondly,  by  cutting 
out  a  portion  of  their  circumference^  and  counting  the  number  of 
concentric  rings  that  are  visible.  For  in  exogenous  trees  the  woody 
cylinder  of  one  year  is  divided  from  the  succeeding  one  br  a  denser 
substance,  which  marks  distinctly  the  line  of  sepantion  of  the  two 
years. 

In  the  oouive  of  inquiries  into  the  method  of  computing  the  age  of 
ancient  trees,  a  discovery  has  been  made  of  some  importance  to  timber 
growers,  inasmuch  as  it  shows  that  those  who  plant  for  profit  alone 
should  not  allow  their  trees  to  grow  beyond  a  certain  number  of  years, 
varying  according  to  species :  for  it  has  been  found  that  so  far  are 
exogenous  trees  from  continuing  always  to  increase  in  diameter  at  the 
same  rate,  that  every  kind  diminishes  in  its  rate  of  growth  after  a 
certain  age  :— the  oak,  for  example,  between  its  fortieth  and  its  sixtieth 
year,  the  elm  after  its  fiftieth,  the  insruce-fir  after  its  fDrtieth,  and  the 
yew  probably  after  its  sixtietL  With  reference  to  this  subject^  Pro- 
fessor De  CandoUe  has  cooBtructed  a  table  of  rate  of  growth,  which  we 
subjoin. 


Table  of  the  rate  oflncrease  in  Diameter  of  certain  Exogenous 

Trees,  expressed  in  lines. 

S 

QMnrat 

MUlU> 

ion.  til 
7Mn  old. 

flon.tas 
jcmold. 

BtaB 

TMnsU. 

Tew 

Yti.         In. 

1  to  10 

54 

10 

18 

48 

16 

8 

10  .     20 

62 

16 

33 

61 

44 

H| 

SO  .     80 

54 

22i 

39J 

58 

584 

IS 

80  .     40   . 

60 

18 

88 

78 

72 

lOj 

40  .     50 

48 

18J 

S3 

46 

88 

«i 

7 

60  .     60 

44 

14 

IH 

57 

74 

isi 

60  .     70 

56 

io| 

9 

46 

78J 

8 

70  .     80 

44 

11 

^k 

29 

66 

80  .     00 

82 

l\ 

A 

80 

59 

90  .  100 

82 

8 

24 

45 

100  .  110 

30 

H 

7| 

32 

80 

110  .  120 

36 

9 

Bi 

28 

80 

»4 

120  .  130 

30 

9 

8 

20J 

24 

180  .  140 

o| 

10 

22 

24 

140  .  150 

10 

8 

28 

18 

150  .  160 

H 

n 

SI 

19 

160  .  170 

9 

9 

80 

m 

170  .  180 

10 

8 

19 

23 

180  .  190 

9 

8 

18 

30 

190  .  200 

9 

7 

SI 

84 

200  .  210 

9 

8 

22 

34 

210  .  220 

7 

22J 

26 

220  .  280 

6 

21 

86 

280  .  240 

8 

22 

28 

240  .  250 

8 

201 

26 

850  .  860 

tk 

24 

860  .  270 

8 

17i 

270  .  880 

8 

2G 

280  .  290 

H 

23 

290  .  300 

4 

29 

800  .  310 

9 

16 

810  .  820 

8 

16J 

820  .  880 

8 

21 

Digitized  by 


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AOENEIOSES. 


AGOUTL 


100 


AOENEIOSES,  in  Ichthyology,  a  genus  of  Abdominal  Malacoptery- 
gious  fiflhea,  separated  from  the  SUwrei  by  Lao^pkle,  and  containing 
two  species,  both  from  the  fresh-water  lakes  and  riYers  of  Surinam. 

AGQERZEEN.    [Ahtilopm,  Strepticerot.] 

AOILA-WOOD.    [AQuiLARiAaBJi.J 

AGNO'STUS,  the  remarkable  fossil  genua  of  Oimdaeea  usually  found 
with  A»aphu$  Buchii  and  other  trilobites  in  the  lower  Paleozoic  strata. 
(Brongniart)  Called  BaUut  by  Dalman.  It  abounds  near  Llandeilo 
and  Christiania. 

AQNOTHEHIUM,  a  fossil  genus  of  Mammalia.    (Kaup.) 

A'GONUS,  in  Ichthyology,  a  genus  of  Acanthopteiygious  fishes, 
first  separated  from  the  Cotti  by  Bloch,  and  afterwards  adopted,  by 
Lac^pMe  and  Pallas,  under  the  difierent  names  of  Atpidophortu  and 
Phalangiitet.  The  greater  number  of  the  species  belonging  to  the  genus 
Agonut  are  found  in  the  northern  Pacific  Ocean,  particularly  along  the 
coast  of  Japan,  and  northward  as  far  as  Behring's  Straits.  They  are 
all  of  diminutive  size,  never  exceeding  nine  or  ten  inches  in  length,  and 
are  nowhere  used  as  an  article  of  human  food.    One  species  only,  the 


Affonut  Aeeipmterinus, 
Pogge  (A.  Furopanu),  inhabits  our  own  coast,  as  weU  as  the  coasts  of 
France,  Holland,  Iceland^  and  even  Greenland ;  it  is  also  found  in  the 
Baltic,  but^  according  to  Baron  Cuvier,  never  in  the  Mediterranean, 
though  Brunnich  expressly  affirms  the  contrary.  (Hittoire  NaturdU 
de  Poiuont,  of  Baron  Cuvier  and  M.  Valenciennes.) 

AGOUTI  (Datyproeta,  Illiger;  Odoromya,  F.  Cuvier),  In  Zoology,  a 
genus  of  animals  belonging  to  the  class  Mammalia  and  onler  Rodentia. 

The  most  prominent  zoological  characters  of  the  Agoutis  are  found 
in  the  nature  and  conformation  of  the  feet  and  toes.  The  toes  are 
provided  with  large  powerful  daws,  and  yet  the  animals  make  no  use 
of  them  in  digging  or  burrowing;  th^  are  pretty  long  and  perfectly 
separate  fix>m  one  another,  enabling  them  to  hold  their  food  between 
their  fore-paws,  and  in  this  manner  to  convey  it  to  their  mouth.  Like  all 
other  aniznals  which  are  thus  accustomed  to  use  the  fore-paws  as  hands, 
they  have  a  habit  of  sitting  upright  upon  their  hind-quarters  to  eat^ 
and  frequently  also  assume  the  same  position  when  they  would  look 
around  them,  or  are  surprised  by  any  unusual  sound  or  occurrence.  Their 
food  is  exclusively  of  a  vegetable  nature,  and  consists  most  commonly 
of  wild  yams,  potatoes,  and  other  tuberous  roots :  in  the  islands  of  the 
different  West  India  groups  they  are  particularly  destructive  to  the 
sugar<»ne,  of  the  roots  of  which  they  are  extremely  fond.  The  planters 
employ  every  artifice  for  destroying  them,  so  that  at  present  they  have 
become  comparatively  rare  in  the  sugar  islands,  thouj^  on  the  first 
settlement  of  the  Antilles  and  Bahamas  they  are  said  to  have  swanned 
in  such  ooimtless  multitudes  as  to  have  constituted  the  principal  article 
of  food  for  the  Indians.  They  were  the  largest  quadrupeds  indigenous 
in  these  islands  upon  their  first  discovery.  The  same  rule  of  geogra- 
phical distribution  holdsgood  generally  in  other  cases,  namely,  that  where 
groups  of  islands  are  detached  at  some  distance  from  the  mainland  of 
a  particular  continent,  the  smaller  spedes  of  inhabitants  are  usually 
found  spread  over  both,  whilst  the  larger  and  more  bulky  are  confined 
to  the  mainland  alone,  and  are  never  found  to  be  indigenous  in  the 
small  insulated  lands. 

Though  the  Agoutis  use  their  fore-paws  as  hands  to  hold  their  food 
whilst  Uiey  eat^  yet  their  toes  are  nevertheless  rigid  and  inflexible, 
and  their  daws  laige,  blunt,  and  nearly  straight.  They  are  conse- 
quently deprived  of  the  power  of  ascending  trees ;  and  as  they  also 
do  not  construct  burrows,  they  wander  at  laige  among  the  woods, 
sheltering  themsdves  beneath  fallen  timber,  or  in  the  hollow  of  some 
decayed  tree.  Here  they  produce  and  nurture  their  young;  bringing 
forth,  according  to  some  accounts,  three  or  four  times  in  the  year ; 
according  to  outers,  never  having  more  than  a  single  litter  in  the  same 
season,  and  even  that  consisting  of  not  more  than  two  or  three  indi- 
viduals. It  IB  probable,  however,  from  the  amazing  numbers  of  these 
animals  found  m  all  the  hotter  parts  of  South  America^  notwithstand- 
ing the  destruction  made  among  them  by  small  carnivorous  am'mals, 
as  well  as  by  the  Indians,  and  likewise  frt>m  the  close  affinity  which 
they  bear  to  the  hare  and  rabbit  of  our  own  country,  that  the  AgoutiB 
are  tolerably  prolific.  The  young  are  brought  forth  with  their  eyes 
dosed,  as  in  the  case  of  most  of  the  JtodeiUia  and  Ckumivora  ;  but  they 
are  covered  with  hair,  or  rather  small  bristles  of  the  same  colour  as 
the  mother :  they  soon  acquire  the  use  of  their  limbs,  and  learn  to 
shift  for  themsdveiL 

Tlie  hind  legs  of  the  Agoutis  are  considerably  longer  than  the  fore, 
and  their  pace  is  tolerably  rapid  for  a  short  distance.  But  they  sddom 
trust  to  speed  of  foot  for  their  safety,  but  seek  for  shelter  and  security 
in  ihe  first  hollow  tree,  or  under  the  first  rock  they  meet  with.  Here 
they  allow  themsdves  to  be  captured,  without  any  other  complaint  or 
resistance  than  the  emission  of  a  sharp  plaintive  note.  The  head  of 
the  Agouti  is  lai^  the  forehead  and  face  convex,  the  nose  swollen  and 
tuberous,  the  ears  round,  shorty  and  nearly  naked,  and  the  eyes  large 
and  blade     The  hair  is  annulated  in  different  degrees  wiUi  black, 


yellow,  and  green ;  it  is  generally  coarse  and  bristly,  like  the  weak 
spines  of  a  hedgehog,  though  in  one  species  it  apprMtches  in  finenesB 
to  the  frtr  of  the  rabbit ;  the  tail  is  most  commonly  a  mere  naked 
stump  or  tuberde,  which  in  the  Acoudiy  alone  attains  any  apparent 
length,  and  is  covered  with  a  few  short  scattered  hairs.  The  teeth  are 
twenty  la  all ;  namely,  two  incisors  and  eight  molars,  four  on  each 
side,  in  each  jaw.  The  latter  are  all  nearly  of  the  same  size,  oval  in 
fiffure,  and  with  fiat  crowns,  which  exhibit  the  different  convolutions 
of  the  enamel  as  it  penetrates  the  softer  materials  of  which  the  body 
of  the  tooth  is  composed.  It  is  impossible  from  mere  description  to 
convey  an  idea  of  the  intricate  figures  which  these  convolutionB  aamime ; 
and  we,  therefore,  refer  to  the  annexed  figure,  where  a  and  6  in  the 
diagram  represent  respectivdy  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  and  the 
figures  I,  2,  and  8,  the  appearances  of  the  teeth  at  different  ages,  or 
after  different  degrees  of  trituration :  No.  8,  representing  the  teeth 


y 


Teeth  of  the  Agoati,  flrom  CaTier*s  *  DenU  dee  Hommifiret.' 
shortly  after  they  begin  to  wear ;  No.  2,  their  intermediate  state ;  and 
Na  1,  when  very  much  worn.  The  teeth  are  exclusivdy  adapted  for 
vegetable  food ;  they  are  essentially  formed  for  grinding  and  bruising, 
not  for  cutting  and  tearing.  The  stomach  and  intes^es  therefore, 
which  are  always  in  harmony  with  the  organs  of  mastication,  are  fitted 
only  for  the  digestion  of  vegetable  substances.  The  flesh  of  theee 
onimftlM  is  white  and  tender ;  it  is  a  very  common  and  favourite  article 
of  food  in  South  America,  and  is  dressed  like  hare  or  rabbit  The 
following  flnpedes  are  distinctly  known : — 

1.  The  Common  Agouti  (DaByfroda  Aguti),  sometimee  called  the 
Long-Noeed  or  Tdlow-Rumped  Cavy,  from  its  long  nose  and  the  preva- 
lent cdour  of  its  back  and  shoulders,  is  the  size  of  a  middling  hare, 
being  one  foot  eight  inches  in  length,  and  about  deven  or  twdve  inches 
hi^  at  the  croup.  The  head  resembles  that  of  Uie  rabbit,  the  noee  is 
thick  and  swollen,  the  face  ui^ed,  the  upper  lip  .divided,  the  ean 
round  and  naked,  the  eyes  large,  the  upper  jaw  considerably  longer 
than  the  lower,  and  the  tail  a  zuiked  flesh-coloured  stump.  The  hairs 
of  the  upper  and  fore  parts  of  the  body  are  annulated  with  brown, 
yellow,  and  black,  which  give  the  animal  a  speckled  yellow  and  green 
appearance  on  the  neck,  head,  back,  and  sides ;  on  the  croup  however 
they  are  of  a  uniform  golden  yellow,  much  longer  than  on  any  other 
part  of  the  body,  and  duvcted  backwards  ;  the  breast,  belly,  and  inner 
side  of  the  fore-arms  and  thighs  are  light  straw  colour,  and  the  mous- 
taches and  feet  blaoL  The  general  length  of  the  hair  on  the  upper  and 
anterior  parts  of  the  body  is  about  an  inch,  that  of  the  croup  is  upwards 
of  four  mdies  long,  and  all,  excepting  the  short  coarse  fur  of  the  legs 
and  feet,  and  that  on  the  breast  and  bdly,  is  of  a  stiff  harsh  nature, 
partaking  more  of  the  quality  of  bristles  than  of  simple  hair. 

2.  The  Black  or  Crested  Agouti  {Datyproeta  criitata),  is  rather  impro- 
perly called  the  Crested  Agouti  by  M.  Qeoffroy  Si  Hilaire,  ainoe  the 
hairs  of  its  head  and  neck  do  not  exceed  those  of  the  shoulders  and 
back  in  length.  It  is  consideiably  smaller  than  the  Common  Agouti, 
being  about  the  size  of  a  rabbity  whilst  that  spedes  i^proadies  the 
dimensions  of  the  hare.  Its  general  proportions  and  form,  however, 
are  the  same;  but  the  hairs  of  the  back  and  sides,  instead  of  being 
annulated  with  various-coloured  rings  as  in  that  spedes,  are  neainj 
uniform  black,  whilst  the  long  hairs  of  the  croup  are  perfectly  so ;  the 
bdly  and  legs  are  equally  covered  with  diort  dark  hair.    There  is 


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101 


AQRIMONIA. 


AGROSTIS. 


102 


not  anj  appearance  of  cresty  and  the  tail  is  still  shorter  than  in  the 
Common  Agouti  Both  this  speoies  and  the  former  seem  to  inhabit  the 
■ame  olixnatee— Surinam  Quiana,  and  Brazil;  the  Conmion  Agouti, 


Blade  or  Crested  Agouti  {Datvproeia  eristata). 

howerer,  appearing  to  have  a  rather  more  extensiTe  range,  and  to 
be  likewise  found  in  the  West  India  Islands,  and  even  as  far  south 
asPSfaguaj. 

S.  The  Aoouchj,  or  Olive  Agouti  (Datyprocta  A  eueht),  is  considerably 
smaller  than  either  of  the  foregoing  spedee,  and  is  at  once  distinguished 
by  the  greater  length  of  its  &1,  which  is  upwards  of  two  inches  in 
length,  not  much  thicker  than  a  crow's  qui^  and  covered  with  short 
scattered  hairs  like  those  on  the  tail  of  a  rat    In  other  respects  it  is 


The  Aoooohy  {Jkuffprocta  AcueM^. 

of  the  same  form  as  the  Agoutis ;  has  the  same  naked  round  ears,  the 
same  huge  black  era,  and  the  same  olive-green  colour  mixed  with 
yellow  and  blacL  The  hairs  of  the  croup  are  not  so  long  as  in  the 
Agoutis,  but  are  perfectly  black ;  and  all  the  imder-parts  of  the  body, 
the  breast)  belly,  and  interior  of  the  arms  and  thighs,  straw-coloured 
with  a  tinffe  of  red.  The  hair  of  the  legs  and  feet  is  short  and  black, 
and  that  of  the  bodv  much  finer  in  quality  than  the  hair  of  the  AgoutLs. 
It  inhabits  some  of  the  West  India  Islands,  Quiana,  and  the  northern 
parts  of  BradL 

4.  White-Toothed  Agouti  (Jkuyprocta  croeonata,  Wagler)  is  a  speoies 
founded  by  Wagler  upon  a  specimen  brought  by  Spix  from  the 
river  Amazonas.  It  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  Common  Agouti, 
but  it  differs  in  its  incisor  teeth  being  entirely  white,  in  having 
the  tani  shorter,  the  nails  shorter,  and  the  general  hue  of  its  fur 
much  richer. 

5.  l)atyproda  prymnolopha  is  a  species  described  by  Wa^er,  which 
inhabits  Guiana.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  species,  and 
is  readily  distinguished  by  the  broad  black  band  which  runs  along  the 
hinder  half  of  the  back,  and  is  continued  to  the  tail 

6.  The  Sooty  Agouti  {Datyprocta  fuUgiru>i<iy  Wagner).  This  species 
is  the  same  as  the  D.  mgricana  of  Natterer  and  the  D.  nigra  of  Dr.  J. 
E.  Gray.  It  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  black  colour  and  laige 
size.    It  inhabits  the  northern  provinces  of  Brazil 

7.  Azara's  Agouti  (Datyprocta  Azara\  a  species  inhabiting  Para- 
guay, Bolivia,  and  the  southern  parts  of  Brazil  Mr.  Waterhouse  says 
it  is  identical  with  Dr.  Gra/s  D,  punctata. 

AGRDfO^IA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Botaeea, 
It  is  known  from  all  the  other  geneiu  of  the  same  tribe  by  its  having 
only  two  or  three  pistils  enclosed  in  the  deep  tube  of  its  calyx,  from 
7  to  20  stamens,  and  small-notohed  petals. 

The  conmion  species,  Agrimonia  Eupatoria  (Common  Agrimony), 
is  an  erect,  hairy,  herbaceous  plant,  frequent  by  the  side  of  hedges  in 
fields,  on  iiie  slorts  of  woods,  and  in  simUar  situations  all  over  England. 
Its  lower  leaves  are  interrupted-pinnated,  with  Uie  leaflets  of  an  oval 
form,  and  coarsely  serrated.  When  bruised,  they  yield  a  slight  but 
pleasant  aromatic  odom:.  The  stem  is  nearly  simple,  and  a  foot  and  a 
lialf  or  two  feet  high.  The  flowers,  which  are  small  and  yellow,  are 
succeeded  by  little  bur-like  fruits. 

The  leaves,  which  are  astringent  and  aromatic,  have  been  foimd 
usefrd  in  the  jpreparation  of  fever-drinks,  and  for  the  cure  of  slight 
inflammation  m  tne  mouth  or  throat;  on  this  account  Agrimony  is 


always  reckoned  one  of  our  wild  medidnal  plants^   and  la  often 
employed  as  an  ingredient  in  herb-teas. 


Oommon  Agrimony  {Affrimonta  Ry^toHa). 

AGRIMONY.    [AaRDCONiA.] 

AGRIOPES  (^jrriopiw,Cuvier),  in  Ichthvology,agenusof  Acanthop- 
terygious  fishes,  belonging  to  the  feunily  which  M.  Cuvier  denominates 
Jouet  Cwrattiet,  and  which  are  distinguished  frt)m  other  families  of 
the  same  order,  by  having  the  suborbital  plates  extending  backwards 
over  the  cheeks,  so  as  to  cover  either  the  whole  or  the  greater  part  of 
them,  and  thus  defending  them,  as  it  were,  with  a  buckler  or  cuirass. 
But  what  particularly  cQstinffuishes  the  Agriopee  from  most  other 
genera  of  fishes  is,  that  they  have  only  nine  rays  in  the  pectoral  fins, 
a  ntunber  very  rarely  found  in  this  class  of  animals.  Three  species 
are  enumerated  by  Messrs.  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes : — 

1.  The  Agriopus  torvut.  This  fish  inhabits  Table  Bay  and  the  seas 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  it  is  called  by  the  Dutch 
colonists  Zee-Paard  (or  Sea-Horse).  This  fish  exceeds  two  feet  in 
length,  and  is  oommon  in  the  markets  of  Cape  Town. 

2.  The  Warty  Agriope  (A,  verrw!09tu\  is  so  called  frt)m  having  the 
■kin  of  the  head  and  body  entirely  covered  with  prominent  conical 
tubeitiles,  surrounded  at  the  base  with  small  papUls.  It  grows  to 
the  same  size,  and  inhabits  the  same  localities,  as  the  preceding  species. 

8.  The  Agrioput  Perwfiamu  is  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lima, 
and  grows  to  the  length  of  eight  or  nine  inches. 

AGROSTEMMA  (from  irypis,  a  field,  and  ^iu/ta,  a  crown),  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the 
SUeneout  division  of  the 
order  CaryophyUaceat,  It 
has  several  species,  the 
best  known  of  which  is 
the  Com  Cockle,  which  is 
now  referred  to  the  genus 
LychnU  [LtohnibJ  or 
QithagOm 

AGRO'STIS,  a  genus 
of  Grasses,  consisting 
of  a  considexable  number 
of  spedes  with  looee- 
branoned  capillary  pani- 
dee  of  flowers,  and  a  creep- 
ing habit  Among  British 
grasses,  it  is  at  once 
known  by  the  glumes  (a) 
or  outer  scales  of  each 
flower  being  two  in 
number,  unequal  in  size, 
of  a  membranous  tex-  i& 
ture,  and  containing  but  i 
a  single  floret;  while  the 
palesB,  or  inner  scales^  are 
short,  very  thin,  almost 
transparent,  and  two  in 
number,    ^e    larger    of  ^ 

them  oocasionally  having  ^  AgrottU  alba, 

an  awn  at  its  batuc 

Two  species  only  are  natives  of  this   country — one  of  which, 


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AlZOOJf. 


lOi 


A,  vulffarii,  is  found  eveiywhere  in  dzy,  exposed,  barren  situations, 
and  is  of  yery  little  value  to  the  farmeri  except  for  its  earliness ;  the 
other,  A,  tUba,  is  equaBy  abundant  in  marshy  places,  where  it  forms 
a  Yaluable  pasture.  Xfnder  the  name  of  Irish  Florin  Grass,  this 
specieB  has  been  the  object  of  much  attention  from  experimental  agri- 
tmlturists,  some  of  whom  haye  extolled  its  qualities  yery  highly  as  a 
manh-fodder;  but  the  experience  of  others  does  not  confirm  their 
ojunion;  nor  does  it  appear  to  thriye  in  England  so  wdl  as  it  is 
represented  to  do  in  Ireland,  where  its  yigour  is  such  as  to  haye  led  to 
the  belief  that  the  Irish  plant  is  a  distinct  speciee,  called  A.  ttolonifera. 
In  England  it  is  best  known,  along  with  A,  mdgarit,  under  the  name 
of  Quitdi,  or  Quicks,  and  is  generally  extirpated  as  a  troublesome 
weed,  in  consequence  of  the  rapidity  with  whidi,  by  means  of  its 
creeping,  rooting,  yiyaoioos  atems,  it  spreads  and  oyeiruns  pasture- 
and  garden-ground. 

AI.    [Bbadtpus.] 

AIR-SLADDER,  a  peculiar  oxgan  with  whi^  the  great  minority 
of  fishes  are  proyided,  and  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  adapt  the 
specific  grayity  of  their  bodies  to  the  yarious  pressures  of  the  super- 
incumbeat  water  at  different  depths.  It  is  composed  of  a  lengthened 
sac,  sometimes  simple,  as  in  the  common  percn,  sometimes  divided 
into  two  or  more  compartments,  by  a  lateral  or  transyerse  ligature, 
as  in  the  trout  and  salmon,  and,  at  other  times,  furnished  with 
appendices,  more  or  less  numerous  according  to  the  particular  species. 
In  all  cases,  it  is  composed  of  a  thick  internal  coat  of  a  fibrous  texture, 
and  of  a  yery  thin  external  coat ;  the  whole  being  enyeloped  in  the 
general  coyering  of  the  intestines. 

The  modifications  of  this  organ  are  infinitely  yaried  in  different 
genera  and  species  of  fishea  In  the  greater  nimiber  of  instances  it 
has  no  external  opening,  and  the  air  wkb.  which  it  is  found  distended 
is  belieyed  to  be  produced  by  the  secretion  of  a  certain  glandulous 
organ,  with  which  it  is  in  all  these  cases  provided.  This  air  has  been 
examined,  and  found  to  consist  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  but  with  less 
oxygen  than  common  air.  In  freeh-water  fishes,  tiie  air-bladder 
communicates  sometimes  with  the  oosophagus,  and  sometimes  with 
the  stomach,  by  means  of  a  small  tube;  and  it  is  observable,  that 
in  the  greater  number  of  these  instances,  in  which  it  has  a  direct 
external  communication  with  the  intestines,  the  secreting  glands 
above  mentioned  do  not  exist ;  thus  giving  us  strong  reason  to  believe 
that  its  Amotions  and  uses  are  not  tmiformly  the  same  in  all  the 
different  classes  of  fishes.  A  very  limited  number  of  species,  among 
others  the  common  eel,  have  air-bladders  not  only  opening  by  an 
external  duct,  but  likewise  provided  with  secreting  glands ;  and  thus 
ooeupying  an  intermediate  station  between  the  two  larger  classes,  at 
least  as  far  as  the  nature  and  functions  of  this  oigan  are  concerned. 

In  general,  all  fishes  which  ei^joy  great  powers  of  locomotion,  and 
have  occasion  to  pass  through  various  degrees  of  superincumbent 
pressure  in  their  rapid  transitions  from  the  sur£BU»  to  the  bottom  of 
the  ocean,  are  provided  with  this  important  organ ;  and  so  indispensable 
is  it  in  their  economy,  that  those  which,  for  the  sake  of  experiment, 
have  been  deprived  of  it^  have  sunk  helpless  to  the  bottom,  and 
there  remained  incapable  of  moving,  or  even  of  maintaining  their 
equilibrium.  But  to  fishes  whose  habits  and  oiganixation  confine 
them  either  to  the  surface  of  the  water  or  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea^ 
and  whidi,  therefore,  do  not  require  to  pass  through  different  depths, 
or  to  enoounter  different  degrees  of  pressure,  the  poesession  of  an  air- 
Uadder  is  by'no  means  so  essentially  requisite.  Accordingly  we  find, 
that  all  the  different  species  of  rays  and  PUwroncetet  or  flat-fish,  such 
as  skates,  soles,  turbots,  brills,  etc.,  which  live  only  upon  the  coasts 
and  sand-banks  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  as  well  as  the  mackerel 
and  others  which  find  their  food  entirely  at  the  sur&ce,  have  no 
air-bladder;  and  so  small  is  the  relation  of  this  otherwise  imi>ortant 
oigan  to  the  general  conformation  of  fishes,  that  we  sometimes  find  it 
present  in  one  species,  and  wanting  altogether  in  another  of  the  same 
gentis.  Although  it  does  not  appear  that  the  air-bladder  is  connected 
with  the  function  of  respiration  in  fishes,  it  occupies  the  position,  and 
has  the  same  relations,  as  the  lungs  in  reptiles.  It  is,  in  fact,  the 
homologue  of  these  ozgana  Fishermen  are  well  acquainted  with  the 
nature  and  functions  of  the  aiivbladder,  or,  as  they  most  commonly 
call  it,  the  Swim,  They  are  accustomed  to  perforate  this  vessel  wit& 
a  fine  needle  in  ood  aoid  other  species  which  require  to  be  brought 
freah  to  market,  sometimes  from  a  very  great  distance.  By  this 
operation,  the  confined  air  is  allowed  to  escape^  and  the  fish  oonstrained 
to  remain  quiet  at  the  bottom  of  their  well-boats,  where  they  live  for 
a  veiy  considerable  period.  Cod-sounds,  which  are  brought  in  great 
quantities  from  Newfoundland,  are  nothing  more  than  the  salted 
air-bladders  of  these  fishes*  The  Icdand  fishermen,  as  well  as  those 
of  America,  prepare  isinglass  of  a  very  excellent  quality  from  cod- 
sounds,  thou^  they  are  not  acquainted  with  the  method  of  darifying 
xt^  which  the  Russiana  practise  in  preparing  isinglass  from  the  sound 
of  the  sturgeon. 

(  Owen,  LeetyiteM  an  ChmparoH/ve  AwHtomyt  toL  il) 

AIR-CJSLLS,  in  plants,  are  cavities  in  the  leaves  or  stems,  or  other 
parts  containing  air.  In  water-plants  they  have  a  vexy  definite  form, 
and  are  built  up  of  little  vesides  of  cellular  tissue,  with  as  much 
regulari^  as  the  walls  of  a  house ;  they  no  doubt  enable  the  plant  to 
float  lliey  are  well  seen  in  the  structure  of  the  VicLoria  regia.  In 
plants  which  do  not  floaty  the  form  of  the  air^ells  is  lees  definite; 


they  often  appear  to  be  mere  lacerations  of  a  mass  of  cellular  sub- 
stance, and  their  object  is  unknown ;  well-known  instances  of  their 
presence  are  the  chambers  in  the  pith  of  the  walnut-tree,  and  the 
tubular  cavities  in  the  stem  of  the  bamboo,  and  other  Grasses. 

AIR-PLANTS  are  so  called  because  they  possess  the  power  of  living 
for  a  considerable  time  suspended  in  the  air.  It  is  however  a  mistake 
to  suppose  that  tiieee  plants  are  naturally  suspended  freely  in  the  air, 
and  tnat  such  a  situation  is  that  in  which  they  will  thrive ;  they  will 
only  exist  in  air  for  a  shorter  or  longer  period,  according  to  the  spedes 
and  to  other  circumstances,  but  in  the  end  they  wiU  perish.  This 
arises  from  tbe  fact  that  all  plants  require  inorganic  as  well  as  oiganic 
oonstituentfl,  and  although  these  latter  dements  can  be  eapplied  from 
the  air  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid,  ammonia^  and  water,  the  former 
cannot 

There  are  two  different  tribes  to  which  tiie  na^  of  Air-Plants  baa 
been  applied;  of  which  one^  containing  the  moas^lika  TiUandtia 
utneoidet,  which  hangs  in  festoons  from  the  branches  of  trees  in  the 
hot  damp  forests  of  tropical  America,  and  the  fragrant  T.  xiphioida, 
which  adorns  the  balconies  of  the  houses  in  Buenos  Ayrea,  is  called 
by  botanists  BramdiacecB;  the  other,  abounding  in  spedes  of  the  moit 
different  nature  and  appearance,  is  named  Orchidaeece, 

Till  within  a  few  years  the  cultivation  of  Air-Plants  of  the  Orckit 
tribe  was  supposed  to  be  attended  with  insuperable  difficulties ;  and  of 
the  many  hundreds  of  beautiful  spedes  that  are  found  in  foreign 
countries,  scarcdy  any  were  known  in  Europe,  except  from  drawings^ 
bad  descriptions,  and  imperfect  dried  specimens. 

The  native  countiy  of  these  curious  plants  is  wherever  a  climate  is 
found  in  which  heat  and  moisture  are  in  excess.  Within  the  tropics 
in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America^  in  damp  and  shady  forests,  by  the  side 
of  fountains,  within  reach  of  the  ^>ray  of  waterfialls,  perched  upon  the 
brandies  of  trees,  or  clinging  to  rocks  and  stones  by  means  of  their 
long  and  writhing  roots— creeping  among  moss,  rearing  their  flowers 
in  we  midst  of  brakes  and  other  moisture-loving  tribes — ^in  all  such 
situations  they  are  found  in  abundance.  The  prineipel  stations  for 
them  are  the  woods  of  Bozi)  and  Peru,  the  lower  mountains  of  Mexico, 
the  West  Indies,  Kada^pBuscar,  and  the  adjoining  islands,  and  the  whole 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago;  in  Java  alone  nearly  300  speduBS  have  been 
discoyered. 

The  conditions  under  which  Air-Plants,  of  the  kind  now  described, 
naturally  thrive  are — 1.  high  temperature;  2,  diffused  light,  like  that 
of  a  shady  grove,  and  not  direct  solar  light ;  S,  a  great  degree  of 
dampness ;  and,  4,  a  perfect  free^fm  from  stagnant  water  sound  their 
roots :  for  on  the  trunks  of  taaes  or  on  stones  and  ro^cks  no  water  can 
lodge,  and  all  the  moisture  they  recdve  must  necessarily  be  in  the  fomi 
of  vapomr  or  of  &lling  rain.  And  it  is  to  circumstances  of  this  nature 
that  the  gardener  has  chiefly  to  attend.  Damp,  shade,  heat,  and  good 
drainage  will  be  his  objects;  the  three  former  will  cause  him  do 
trouble,  but  the  latter  will  require  him  to  alter  entirely  his  usual 
mode  of  cultivation.  Instead  of  considering  in  what  kind  of  soil  his 
Air-Plants  are  to  be  placed,  he  will  endeavour  to  dispense  with  soil, 
and  to  supply  its  place  with  bits  of  rotten  wood,  chopped  moss  in  very 
small  quantities,  fragments  of  half-baked  pottery,  audi  as  garden-polB. 
and  the  like. 

Another  point  of  great  importance  in  the  cultivation  of  these  plants 
is,  securing  for  them  a  season  of  repose.  In  their  native  climate', 
although  they  have  no  winter,  they  have  a  period  of  comparative  re^t 
from  growth,  and  securing  for  them  this  repose  whilst  under  cultui-u 
is  a  gr^  secret  of  success.  It  is  to  a  knowledge  of  this,  taken  in 
coigunction  with  the  circumstances  before  exjplained,  that  we  owe  the 
remarkable  improvement  that  has  taken  place  m  the  mode  of  cultivating 
these  plants  in  Qreat  Britain. 

(Lindley,  OUervaHona  in  the  JVaiMaeHont  of  tkeSbrtituUural  Sodetyt 
voL  I,  New  Series,  p.  42,  and  the  later  volumes  of  the  JBotanical 
Beffister.)    pEpiPHTnBB;  OBCHiDAcaLiB.] 

AIR-VESSELS,  in  plants,  are  what  botanists  call  Spiral  Veatdt. 
It  is  supposed  by  some  that  these  are  the  only  parts  through  which 
air  is  conveyed  into  the  vegetable  system,  and  it  has  been  proved  that, 
in  some  cases  at  least,  the  air  that  they  contain  consists  of  a  laiger 
proportion  of  oxygen  than  atmospheric  air.  But  it  is  doubtfrd  whether 
the  action  of  these  vessels  is  more  than  local,  and  it  is  certain  that  air 
has  tolerably  free  access  to  many  parts,  as  the  leavei^  for  example,  by 
means  entirdy  independent  of  the  spiral  vessels. 

AIRA,  a  genus  of  Grasses  bdonging  to  the  tribe  Setieriea,  and 
distinguished  by  possessing  a  lax  panicle,  two-flowered  glumee^  the 
outer  pale  terete  on  the  back,  and  a  dorsal  awn.  There  are  several 
spedes,  but  that  whidi  is  best  known  is  A.  cceapitotcL,  the  Tufted  Hair- 
Grass.  It  has  long  and  flat  leaves,  with  a  fibrous  perennial  root  It 
flowers  in  the  beginning  of  August,  and  reaches  a  height  of  four  feei 
It  grows  naturally  on  marshy  damp  soils,  in  the  form  of  large  tufts. 
It  is  a  wiry  harsh  grass,  and  is  rejected  by  domestic  ftnimnlw.  It  may, 
however,  be  advantageoudy  sown  as  a  cover  for  game,  and  also  bv  the 
side  of  ponds  and  mardies  for  snipe  and  wild  fowL  (Lawson,  Acrot- 
tographick.) 

AITONIA  (after  Mr.  W.  Aiton,  for  many  years  head-gardener  at 
Kew),  a  genufl  of  plants  bdonging  to  the  order  Mdiacea,  The  A. 
Caperuis  is  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  is  cultivated  in  our 
greenhouses. 

AIZOON.    [TsTBAGomiLC&a.] 


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AJOWAMS,  or  AJWAMS,  tho  ladian  name  for  the  fruits  of 
XTmbeUiferouB  plants  belonging  to  the  genus  PtychotU.  They  are 
chiefly  employed  in  yeterinary  medicine. 

ALABASTEB,  a  white  stone  used  for  ornamental  purposea  The 
name  is  deriyed  from  Alabastron,  a  town  of  Egyp^  where  there 
appears  to  have  been  a  manufactory  of  small  vessels  or  pots,  made 
of  a  stone  found  in  the  mountains  near  the  town.  These  vessals 
were  employed  for  containing  certain  kinds  of  perfumes  used  by  the 
ancients  m  their  toilet,  and  with  which  it  was  the  custom  to  anoint 
the  heads  of  their  guests,  as  a  mark  of  distinction,  at  their  feasts. 
There  are  in  Horace  many  allusions  to  this  custom.  In  like  manner, 
Mary,  the  sister  of  Laaarus,  poured  upon  the  head  of  our  Saviour,  as 
he  sat  at  supper,  ''yezy  precious  ointment"  from  an  alabaster-box. 
Vessels  of  a  similar  form,  although  not  made  of  the  white  stone,  bore 
the  same  name  amongst  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  white  stone  to  which  antiquaries  and 
artists  give  the  name  of  alabaster :  the  one  is  a  carbonate  of  lime ; 
the  other  is  gypsum,  or  sulphate  of  lime.  Man^  of  these  ancient 
perfume-yessels  are  inade  of  the  compact  cmtallme  mass  deposited 
from  water  holding  carbonate  oi  lime  in  solution,  which  is  found  in 
many  places  in  almost  every  country.  When  the  deposition  takes 
place  on  the  ground,  it  forms  what  mineralogists  call  a  stalagmite, 
from  a  Greek  word  signifying  a  drop,  and  it  is  often  composed  of 
layers  distinguishable  by  <Hfferent  degrees  of  translucency,  giving  the 
stone  the  ap|>earanoe  of  the  striped  agates,  called  onyx.  [Agate.] 
Hence,  aooording  to  Fliny,  the  alabastrites  was  sometimes  called 
onyx.  But  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  of  which  of  the  two  kinds  a  vessel 
IS  composed,  for  carbonate  of  lime  is  hard,  and  effervesces  if  it  be 
touched  by  a  strong  acid ;  but  sulphate  of  lime  does  not  effervesce, 
and  is  so  soft  that  it  may  be  scratched  with  the  naiL  The  term 
alabaster  is  now  generally  applied  to  the  softer  stone.  This  last, 
when  pure,  is  a  beautiful  semi-transparent  snow-white  substance, 
easily  worked  into  vases,  lamps,  and  various  other  ornament^  but  it 
is  seldom  found  in  masses  large  enough  for  statuary ;  and,  indeed, 
artists  would  be  unwilling  to  execute  any  great  work  in  a  material  so 
veiy  Liable  to  injury.  The  finest  quality  known  is  fo^nd  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Y  olterra  in  Tuscany,  and  it  is  cut  into  a  variety  of 
works  of  great  taste  and  beauty  at  Yolterra,  Florence,  Leghorn,  and 
other  places  in  that  part  of  Italy,  whence  they  are  sent  all  over  the 
world,  and  sold  at  very  reasonable  prices. 

Alabaster  is' found  in  Derbyshire  and  Staffordshire,  and  is  manu- 
factured at  Derby  into  small  ornaments  and  tov&    [Gtfsuu.] 

ALABAUDINE,  a  name  for  Manganese-Blende,  a  sulphuret  of 
manganese. 

AL  ABES,  a  genus  of  fishes  belonging  to  the  order  Malacopterygii, 
and  family  Apodet.  This  genus,  which  consists  of  a  single  species  of 
small  size,  a  native  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  resembles  in  most  respects 
the  common  Conger-Eel  {Murama)  of  our  own  seas. 

ALARIA,  a  genus  of  sea-weeds.    [Auam], 

ALAUDA.  JAlaudinjb], 

ALAUDIN^  a  sub-family  of  birds  belonging  to  the  order 
Pasiermce,  and  the  family  Coniroetree,  ia  thus  characterised  by 
Mr.  Swainson: — 

Bill  more  lengthened  than  in  any  of  the  FringiUidoi;  the  tip 
entire  or  obsoletely  notched.  Tertial  quills  considerably  lengthened, 
pointed,  and  generally  as  long  as  the  quUls.  Claws  very  slightly 
curved ;  the  daw  of  the  outer  toe  alwavs  shorter  than  that  of  the. 
inner  toe ;  the  hinder  claw  considerably  lengthened^  and  either  nearly 
straight  or  very  slightly  curved. 

Alaudu,    (Linn.) 

Bin  cylindrical ;  nostrils  concealed.  Wings  very  long  ,*  no  spurious 
quill ;  the  firsts  second,  and  third  quills  longest,  and  nearly  equal ; 
the  rest  considerably  graduated ;  tips  of  the  lesser  quills  emarginate. 
Tail  forked.    Head  crested.    (Sw.) 

The  Larks  are  characterised  by  their  having  the  hind-claw,  which  is 
like  the  fore-daws,  somewhat  straighty  and  longer  than  in  the  pipits 
and  the  wag-tails.  The  bill  is  strai^ht^  and  rather  short  and  strong, 
the  upper  mandible  being  arched  without  any  notch,  and  not  longer 
than  the  under.  The  nostrils,  situated  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  are 
oolong,  and  protected  by  small  plumes  and  bristles  directed  forwards. 
The  feathers  on  the  back  part  of  the  head  can  be  raised  up  at  the  will 
of  the  bird  into  the  form  of  a  crest 

Various  spedes  of  larks  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  are 
everywhere  distinguished  by  their  vigilance  and  their  singing.  They 
are  peculiarly  birds  of  the  fields,  meadows,  and  other  open  places.  The 
conformation  of  their  feet»  except  in  a  few  instances,  such  as  the  wood- 
larl^  does  not  adapt  them  to  perch  upon  trees.  They  aocordinglv 
always  build  on  the  ground,  mJdng  in  general  a  rather  slight  though 
neat  nest,  and  laying  about  five  eggs,  usually  of  a  grayish  white,  with 
specks  of  a  brown  colour.  They  frequently  rear  two  broods  of  young 
during  the  summer. 

They  are  almost  all  birds  of  passage ;  for  even  in  Britain,  where  some 
remain  during  the  winter,  the  greater  number  flock  together  and 
migrate,  either  southward  or  to  the  sea-coast  During  these  migra- 
tions immense  numbers  of  them  are  caught  in  nets  for  the  table,  parti- 
culariy  on  the  continent,  where  small  birds  are  more  sought  after  for 
this  purpose  than  in  Britain. 
"  ZocalUiei, — ^Europe  and  America. 


^Lt*.  Sw.iiuaja  couBideru  this  as  the  FiasiiHMtral  ty2)e. 

Example: — Alaitda  arvenais.  This  is  the  AlowttCf  Alouette  Ordi- 
naire, and  Ahuette  dee  Champi  of  the  French;  Zodola,  Lodola 
Canterina,  Lodola  di  Pauo,  and  Lodola  di  Montagna  of  the  Italians ; 
Peld  Lerehe  of  the  Germans ;  Hedydd  and  Uchedydd  of  the  andent 
British ;  and  Skylark  (in  Sootch  Lavrock)  of  the  modem  British 

The  Skylark  is  too  well  known,  from  its  inexpressibly  beautiful  song, 
dianted  forth  far  up  in  the  air  when  at  Uberty  and  in  its  natural  state, 
to  require  any  description. 

Pood, — Insects  and  their  larvae,  with  many  sorts  of  seeds  and  grain. 

Neat, — On  the  ground.  Eggji  four  or  five,  greenish  white,  spotted 
with  brown. 

Loealiliea, — ^All  the  parts  of  Europe ;  also  in  Asia  and  the  northern 
parts  of  Africa,  but  not  in  the  south  of  that  vast  continent  (Temm.) ; 
the  whole  of  Europe  within  the  temperate  zone,  many  parts  of  Asia, 
and  the  north  of  Africa.    (Selby.) 

CalejuMa,    (Linn.) 

Bill  thick,  much  oompressed;  i^  culmen  curved  and  convex ;  the 
commissure  arched ;  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  wide  above  and 
inflexed.  Wings  long  or  moderate;  tke  first  quill  very  small  and 
spurious;  the  second  nearly  equal  to  the  third  and  fourth;  lesser 
quills  shorty  emaigiaata.  Tail  slightly  forked  Lateral  toes  equal 
Africa.  The  Dentirostral  type — C,  magniroetris,  '  Ois.  d'Afr.,'  pL 
198.  (Sw.) 

Sub-genera : — Myrafra,  Uovat — ^Bill  as  in  Calendula,  Wings  short, 
rounded;  greater  <^iul]0  havdly  longer  than  the  secondaries  and 
teitials ;  the  first  quills  spurious,  half  the  length  of  the  second,  which 
is  shorter  than  the  third ;  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  equal,  and 
longest  Tail  short,  even.  Legs  long. — If,  Javanic€t,  'Linn.  Tr.,' 
xiii  169.  (Sw.) 

Braconyx,  Sw.  (JBrachonyx). — ^Bill  as  in  CalendulcL  Hinder  claw 
very  short    Wings  and  tarsi  much  lengthened    Africa.  (Sw.) 

Agrodroma.     (Sw.) 

Bill  slender,  considerably  compressed;  both  mandibles  of  equal 
length ;  the  tip  of  the  upper  one  not  reflected  over  the  lower,  and 
with  a  small  notch,  almost  obsolete.  Wings  long ;  the  first  four  quills 
nearly  equal ;  the  rest  rapidly  diminishing,  and  emaiginate  at  their 
tips ;  tertials  lengthened,  pointed,  as  long  as  the  quills.  Tail  moderate, 
even.  Legs  pale,  long,  slender.  Tarsus  longer  than  the  middle  toe. 
Lateral  toes  equal,  but  the  outer  claw  shorter  than  the  inner.  Colour 
brown,  lark-like.  Distribution  universaL  The  Inseesorial  or  pre- 
eminent ty]^e^Agrodroma  rufeecent,  *  EnL,'  661|  t  L  (Sw.) 
Macronyx,    (Sw.) 

Bill  slender,  compressed,  thrush-like,  entire ;  nostrils  large,  naked, 
the  aperture  lateral  Wings  short ;  the  primaries  not  longer  than  the 
tertiids,  the  first  four  of  equal  length ;  secondaries  long,  emarginate. 
Tail  moderate,  even.  Feet  enormous.  Tarsus  and  hinder  toes  very 
long^  and  of  equal  length  Lateral  toes  unequal,  the  inner  shortest 
Africa.  The  Rasorial type— Jf . ;tor*cottt»,  'Ois.  d'Afr.,'  pL  196;  M, 
fiavigatter,  Sw.,  'Birds  of  West  Africa,'  ('Naturalists'  Library/  Omi- 
thology,  vol  viL,  p.  216.) 

CerthUa/wda.    (Sw.) 

Bill  slender,  lengthened,  more  or  less  curved ;  nostrils  round,  naked. 
Wings  very  long ;  the  first  quill  spurious ;  the  three  next  nearly  equal 
Tail  moderate,  even.  Feet  lengthened;  the  lateral  toes  equal ;  length 
of  the  hinder  daw  variable,  althou^  typically  short  and  straight. 
Africa.  The  Tenuirostral  type—C^rtAOottda  Itrngi/rotAra, '  Ois.  d'Afr./ 
192;  aUfoMciata,  Riipp^,  '  Atlas,' plate  5;  a  mvota^  Sw., '  Birds  of 
West  Africa'  (vol  viL,  p.  216.) 

Sudi  are  Mr.  Swainson's  views  as  to  the  arrangement  of  this  sub- 
family. [FRnreiUJDii.]  The  genus  Anihue,  Bechst,  is  placed  by  Mr. 
Swainson  at  the  end  of  his  sub-family  MotacUliaw  (Wagtails),  under 
his  family  Sylviada  (Warblers). 

Ponil  La/rka, 

Dr.  Buckland  fiffures  a  lark  (Alavda)  among  the  land  Mammifens 
and  Birds  of  the  third  period  of  the  Tertiary  Series,  in  the  first  plate 
of  the  illustrations  of  his  'Bridgewater  Treatise.'  He  had  previously 
noticed  the  remains  of  the  lark  in  Eirkdale  Cave.  ('  ReUquia  Dilu- 
vianss,'  pp.  16,  84,  plate  xL,  ff.  24,  26.) 

ALBATROSS  (iHomedea),  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds,  comprising 
three  spedee— the  Albatross  of  China  (D.  fuliginoaa,  Latham) ;  thf; 
Yellow-  and  Black-Beaked  Albatross  (D,  cMororynehos,  Latham) ;  and 
the  Common  Albatross  {D,  exvlana,  Linnaeus.)  The  genus  is  princi- 
pally distinguished  by  the  following  characters : — a  very  strong,  hard, 
long  beak,  which  is  straight  to  near  the  extremity,  when  it  suddenly 
curves.  The  upper  mandible  appears  composed  of  many  articulated 
pieces,  fiirrowed  on  the  sides,  and  crooked  at  the  point ;  the  lower 
mandible  smooth  and  cut  short ;  the  nostrils  lateral,  and  placed  like 
small  rolls  in  the  furrow  of  Ihe  mandible ;  the  feet  short ;  the  three 
toes  long  and  completely  webbed ;  the  wings  very  long  and  narrow. 
The  name  Albatross  is  a  word  apparently  corrupted  by  Dampier  from 
the  Portuguese  Alcatraz,  which  was  appUed  bv  the  early  navigators  of 
that  nation  to  cormorants  and  other  la^  sea-birds. 

The  Common  Albatross  is  the  spedes  which  is  most  frequently  met 
with  in  the  seos  of  Southern  Africa.    It  is  the  largest  searbird  known. 


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ALBIN. 


ALBINOa 


The  top  of  the  head  is  a  ruddy  gray ;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  white 
with  the  exception  of  Beyeral  trumverw  black  bands  on  the  back,  and 


Common  Albatroei  {Diomedea  exulant), 

a  few  of  the  wing  featherB.  The  feet  and  membrane  are  of  a  deep 
flesh  colour ;  the  bill  a  pale  yellow. 

The  weight  of  this  bird  has  been  variously  stated  from  12  to  28 
pounds;  and  a  similar  difference  appears  to  exist  in  authors  with 
respect  to  the  distance  between  the  extremity  of  the  extended  wings. 
Forster  says  above  10  feet ;  Parkins,  11  feet  7  inches ;  Cook,  11  feet ; 
another  says  12  feet;  a  specimen  in  the  Leverian  Museum  measured 
18  feet ;  and  Ives  (p.  5)  mentions  one,  shot  off  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope, 
which  measured  17^  feet  frx>m  wing  to  wing. 

We  can,  from  this  circumstance,  readily  understand  the  exten- 
sive range  in  which  the  Albatross  is  found;  not  being  confined,  as 
Buffon  imagined,  to  the  Southern  Ocean,  but  being  equally  abundant 
in  the  northern  latitudes,  though  Forster  says  he  never  observed  it 
within  the  tropics.  These  birds  are  seen  in  immense  flocks  about 
Behring's  Straits  and  Kamtchatka  about  the  end  of  Jime,  frequenting 
chiefly  the  inner  sea,  the  Kurile  Islands,  and  the  Bay  of  Pentschinensi, 
whereas  scarcely  a  straggler  is  to  be  seen  on  the  eastern  or  American 
shore.  They  seem  to  be  attracted  thither  by  vast  shoals  of  fish,  whose 
migratory  movenients  the  albatrosses  follow.  On  their  first  appearing 
in  those  seas  they  are  very  lean,  but,  frt)m  finding  abundance  of  foo^ 
thev  soon  become  fat.  Their  voracity  is  so  grea^  that  they  will  often 
swallow  a  salmon  of  four  or  five  pounds  wei^t 

Thev  do  not,  however,  confine  themselves  to  fish,  but  will  prey  on 
any  ower  sea-uiimal ;  and  Cook's  sailors  caught  them  with  a  line  and  a 
hook.  The  Kamtchatkadales  take  them  by  fieuitening  a  cord  to  a  large 
hook,  baited  with  a  whole  fish,  which  the  birds  greedily  seize.  Their 
usual  food,  however,  seems  rather  to  be  fish-spawn  and  small  shell-fish. 

Notwithstanding  their  strength,  they  never  venture  to  attack  other 
sea-birds,  but  are,  on  the  contrary,  attacked  by  the  gulls.  **  Several 
laige  gray  gulls,"  says  Cook,  "  that  were  pursuing  a  white  albatross, 
afforded  us  a  diverting  spectacle :  they  overtook  it,  notwithstanding 
the  length  of  its  wings,  and  they  tried  to  attack  it  under  the  beUy, 
that  part  being  probably  defenceless :  the  albatrooB  had  now  no  means 
of  escaping  but  by  dipping  its  body  into  the  water;  its  formidable  bill 
seemed  to  repel  them. 

Their  fiesh  is  tough  and  dry ;  but  the  Kamtchatkadales  take  them 
for  the  sake  of  their  entrails,  which  they  blow  up,  and  use  as  buoys  for 
their  nets.  They  employ  the  wing-bones  also,  which  Edwards  says 
are  as  long  as  their  whole  bodv,  for  tobacco  pipes. 

ALBIN,  a  white  variety  of  ApophyllUe,    [Apofhtllite.] 

ALBINOS,  a  word  of  Portuguese  origin,  by  which  the  Portuguese 
voyagers  denominated  tiie  white  negroes  whom  they  foimd  on  the  coast 
of  .^rica.  These  negroes  were  iSso  termed  Z^cBthiopet — a  term 
signifying  white  negroes.  Both  names  are  now  used,  but  the  former 
popularly,  to  designate  individuals  who  exhibit  characters  similar  to 
those  observed  in  the  white  negroes,  among  whatever  race  or  in 
whatever  country  the  variety  may  arise. 

These  m'nyilw  beings  are  distinguished  frt)m  other  individuals  of  the 
human  race  by  remarkable  characters,  which  are  invariably  the  same 
among  whatever  people  or  under  whatever  external  circuxniBtances  the 
variety  ia  found,  ^eir  most  striking  peculiarities  consist  in  the 
coloiur  of  their  skin  and  in  that  of  their  hair  and  eyes. 

Their  skin  is  of  a  pearly  whiteness,  without  any  admixture  whatever 
of  a  pink  or  a  brown  tint.  In  the  snow-white  skin  of  the  fairest 
European  woman  theris  is  always  some  tint  of  a  pink  or  brown  colour, 
but  in  the  Albinos  the  skin  ia  wholly  destitute  of  either  tinge,  and  is 


of  a  dull  pearly  whiteness.  It  is  often  not  soft  and  smooth  in  proper 
tion  to  its  whiteness,  as  is  generally  the  case  with  the  blonds  of  the 
European  race ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  is  rough,  dry,  and  harsh. 

The  whiteness  of  the  hair  always  corresponds  to  the  whiteness  of 
the  skin.  Not  oidy  the  hair  of  the  head,  but  also  that  of  the  eyebrows, 
eyelashes,  beard,  and  even  the  soft  down  that  covers  the  external 
surface  of  the  body,  has  the  same  unnatural  whiteness. 

With  this  whiteness  of  the  skin  and  hair  is  cozmected  a  still  more 
striking  peculiarity,  namely,  a  redness  of  the  eyes.  That  part  of  the 
eye  called  the  iris  is  of  a  pale  rose  colour,  while  the  pupil  is  intensely 
red :  in  a  word,  the  eye  is  exactly  similar  to  that  of  many  forms  of 
white  animals,  as  the  white  rabbit,  rat,  mouse,  &a 

This  peculiarity  depends  upon  the  absence  of  certain  ceUs  in  the 
body,  ca&ed  pigment-cells,  which,  wherever  present,  give  a  more  or 
less  dark  ooloiu*  to  the  sur^Eiace  on  whioh  they  are  developed.  It  is  the 
formation  of  ihese  cells  in  the  skin  and  hair,  and  in  the  interior  of  the 
eye,  that  gives  the  various  colours  to  these  parts  of  the  body ;  and 
when  these  cells  are  absent  they  present  the  appearances  observed  in 
Albinos.  In  the  skin  the  part  which  secretes  these  cells  is  the  upper 
surface  of  the  cutis,  or  true  skin.  They  are  mixed,  however,  with 
varying  proportions  of  colourless  cells.  These  cells  together  constitute, 
when  they  lie  fiat  upon  the  surfeu^e  of  the  body,  the  epidermis,  or 
scarf-skin.  The  cells  which  have  not  yet  become  hardened  were 
supposed  to  form  a  soft  layer,  which  was  called  the  rete  fnuamm,  or 
mucous  layer.  It  is  in  the  black  races  of  mankind  that  the  pigment- 
cells  most  abound,  and  just  in  proportion  as  the  skin  is  fair  do  we  find 
them  deficient  in  quantity  or  less  dark  in  colour :  but  in  the  furest 
races  these  pigment-cells  are  found.  In  the  same  manner  their 
presence  in  the  hair  produces  the  various  shades  of  colour  obserred 
m  this  appendage  of  the  skin,  and  they  may  be  very  numerous  in  the 
hair  and  not  so  in  the  skin  generally.  The  eye  requiring  for  its  function 
a  dark  chamber,  has  devdoped  in  its  interior  a  large  quantity  of 
pigment-cells,  constituting  the  pigmentvm  rUffrum  of  its  interior 
membranes.  What  is  true  of  man  is  also  true  of  the  lower  animals, 
and  the  colour  of  their  skin  and  hair  dependa  on  these  peculiar  cells. 

The  anatomical  condition  of  Albinism  is  the  absence  of  the 
pigment-cells.  In  the  complete  Albinos  they  are  everywhere  absent 
from  the  skin,  the  hair,  and  the  eyes.  It  is  this  which  gives  the 
unnatural  whiteness  to  the  skin  and  the  hair,  and  the  redness  to 
the  eyes ;  this  latter  phenomenon  resulting  from  the  delicate  blood- 
vessels reflecting  the  colour  of  the  blood  in  them,  an  appearance 
which  is  entirely  absent  when  the  pigment^^ells  are  deposited  as 
usuaL 

On  the  other  hand  it  appears  that  there  is  a  tendency  in  some 
animals  which  have  natux^ly  only  a  few  pigment-cells  to  develop 
them  in  greater  number  than  usual,  as  we  see  in  the  occasional 
presence  of  black  sheep  in  a  flock.  Black  varieties  and  white  varieties, 
with  a  mixture  of  the  two  colours,  are  not  at  all  uncommon  amongst' 
our  domesticated  animals.  .  Of  the  causes  which  produce  this  pecuUar 
affection  of  the  organs  in  question  we  are  ignorant ;  and  the  speculations 
of  Buffon  on  this  subject  afford  a  striking  example  of  the  absurdities 
into  which  men,  even  of  acute  minds,  fall  when  they  substitute 
conjecture  for  investigation,  or  deem  it  consistent  with  the  spirit  of 
philosophy  to  place  trust  in  fancy,  when  they  are  without  knowledge. 
Thus,  aasuming  that  white  is  the  primitive  colour  of  nature,  he  says, 
that  this  colour  may  be  varied  by  climate,  food,  and'  manners,  to 
yellow,  brown,  or  black;  that  these  colours  may,  imder  certain 
circmnstances,  return  to  the  primitive  colour,  but  so  much  altered, 
that  it  has  no  resemblance  to  the  original  whiteness,  because  it  has 
been  adulterated  by  the  causes  that  have  been  assigned.  Nature,  he 
tells  us,  in  her  most  perfect  exertions,  made  men  white ;  and  this  same 
Nature,  after  suffering  every  possible  change,  still  renders  them  white; 
but  the  natural  or  specific  whiteness  is  very  different  from  the 
individual  or  accidental  It  is  useful,  occasionally,  to  recur  to  what 
was  formerly  considered,  and  is  still  sometimes  considered,  as  an 
explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  nature. 

Some  writers  represent  the  peciiliarities  which  distinguish  the 
Albinos  as  altogether  the  result  of  disease.  They  found  this 
opinion  on  the  roughness  and  harshness  of  the  skin,  on  the  tender- 
ness of  the  eyes,  and  the  comparative  physical  weakness  of  these 
individuals.  But  the  harsh  and  almost  leprous  appearance  of  the 
skin,  though  sometimes  foimd,  is  by  no  means  universal;  the 
tenderness  of  the  eyes  arises  from  the  increased  sensibility  of  the 
organs  in  consequence  of  the  abstraction  of  the  dark-coloured 
substance  by  which,  in  the  natural  state,  they  are  defended  from 
the  light:  and,  even  admitting  it  to  be  a  fact,  which  however  does 
not  appear  to  be  fully  established,  that  these  persons  are  physically 
weaker  than  other  men,  it  would  not  follow  that  this  weakness  is  the 
result  of  disease.  As  far  as  can  be  judged  from  external  appearance, 
and  from  their  accounts  of  their  own  feelings.  Albinos  appear  perfectly 
healthy,  and  many  do  not  exhibit  a  single  mark  of  disease  whatever.  It 
is  also  certain  that  domestic  animals  which  exhibit  varieties  perfectly 
analogous  to  those  of  the  human  Albino  are  free  from  disease.  This 
peculiarity  has  been  observed  in  the  sheep,  pig,  horse,  cow,  dog,  cat-, 
mouse,  ferret,  monkey,  squirrel,  rat,  hamster,  guinea-pig,  mole, 
opossum,  martin,  "^eaaeH,  roe,  fox,  rhinoceros,  elephant,  badger, 
beaver,  bear,  camel,  buffalo,  and  ass;  and  even  in  the  crow,  blackbird, 
canary-bird,  partridge,  common  fowl,  and  peacock.    It  is  remarkable, 


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however,  that  it  has  never  been  seen  in  any  cold-blooded  animal  In 
all  the  Tnn.Twma.1iiL  and  birds  just  enumerated,  the  nature  and 
characters  of  the  deviation  seem  to  be  perfectly  analogous  to  those 
of  the  human  Albino.  The  pure  whiteness  of  their  skin  and  other 
integumentg^  and  the  redness  of  the  iris  and  pupil,  mark  the  same 
deficiency  of  colouring  matter.  A  white  mouse,  possessed  by  Blumen- 
bach,  exhibited  the  same  inability  to  bear  the  lijgfht  which  has  been 
observed  almost  universally  in  the  human  examples;  the  animal 
kept  its  eyelids  closed  even  in  the  twilight. 

The  physical,  intelleotua],  and  the  moral  qualities,  associated  with 
this  singular  conformation  of  the  body,  have  not  been  stated  with 
distinctness  and  accuracy.  It  would  seem  that  the  Albino  is  both 
physicaUy  and  mentally  somewhat  weaker  than  other  men.  All 
accounts  agree  in  representing  his  physical  strength  as  inferior  to 
that  of  persons  of  the  ordinary  conformation.  Saussure,  in  his 
'Voyage  dans  les  Alpes,'  exurenly  states,  in  relation  to  two  boys 
whom  he  examined  with  much  attention  at  Chamouni,  that,  when 
they  were  of  a  proper  age,  they  were  unable  to  tend  the  cattle  like 
the  other  diildren ;  and  that  one  of  their  imdes  maintained  them  out 
of  charify,  at  a  time  of  life  when  others  were  capable  of  gaining  a  sub- 
sistenoe  by  their  labour.  Wafer,  the  old  To^ager,  in  bu  account  of 
the  Indifl^  Albinos  in  the  Isthmus  of  Danen,  while  he  represents 
them  as  being  as  nimble  in  the  moonlight  as  the  other  Indians,  states 
that  they  are  not  so  strong  and  lusty.  But  in  what  degree  their 
intellectual  powers  are  coodSned,  or  whether  indeed  there  be  any 
decided  inferiority,  we  have  at  present  no  means  of  fonning  an 
accurate  judgment 

Some  inconvenience  certainly  arises  from  the  conformation  of  the 
eye  peculiar  to  Ihe  Albinos.  A  strong  light  cannot  be  borne,  and 
even  the  fuU  glare  of  day  appeals  to  excite  some  degree  of  imeadness. 
Hence  the  eydids  are  usually  more  drawn  over  the  ball  of  the  eye 
than  is  common  with  other  persons,  and  the  eyes  are  generally  wei^ 
tender,  and  watery ;  while  vision  is  more  agreeable  and  more  perfect 
in  twi%ht.  But  the  inconvenience  of  an  ordinary  degree  of  lights 
and  the  advantage  of  imperfect  darkness,  have  been  exaggerated. 

It  would  seem  that  there  is  a  greater  tendency  to  the  formation  of 
this  variety  in  some  parts  of  the  world  than  in  others.  It  is  mors 
common  among  the  African  and  the  Indian  tribes  than  among  the 
European  people.  In  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  and  in  some  H  the 
oriental  islands,  it  is  so  frequent  that  some  writers  have  oonoeived 
that  those  persons  fbrm  a  distinot  and  peculiar  tribe ;  but  for  this 
opinion  there  is  no  foundation.  Mr.  Bowdich,  however,  states  that 
the  king  of  Ashantee,  who  seems  to  have  considered  persons  of  this 
description  as  a  great  curiosity,  and  to  have  indulged  his  taste  for 
collecting  them  in  a  truly  Oriental  manner,  had  assembled  about  him 
nearly  a  hundred  white  negroes.  Blumenbach  states  that  he  has 
himaelf  seen  sixteen  Albinos  in  various  parts  of  Qerma^;  and 
examples  have  been  not  unfrequently  found  in  Denmark,  &igland, 
Ireland,  France,  Switserland,  Italy,  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  and 
Hungary.  It  is  common  in  both  sexes,  but  it  would  appear  to  be 
somewhat  more  fr^uent  in  males  than  in  females. 

ALBITE,  a  mineral  of  the  Felspar  group,  in  which  the  Pptash  of 
felspar  is  exactly  replaced  by  soda.  It  includes  Perieline,  Tetartine, 
CamatUe,  and  Cleavlanditt.  It  occurs  maarive  and  crystallised. 
Primary  form  a  doubly  oblique  prism.  Cleavage  parallel  to  the 
primary  planes.  Colour  commonly  white,  sometimes  gray,  greenish, 
bluish,  or  red ;  streak  white.  Fracture  uneven.  Hardness  6*0.  Lustre 
pearlvon  the  cleavage  planes,  vitreous  in  other  directions.  Transparent, 
translucent  Spedfio  gnmiy  2*6  to  2*68.  The  massive  varieties  have 
a  laminar  structure.  Found  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Dauphiny,  St- 
Gothard,  Scotland,  and  accompanying  felspar  in  most  of  its 
numerous  localities;  fix>m  this  it  differs  ohieflv  in  containing  soda 
instead  of  potash.  Analysis,  by  Stromeyer:  silica,  70*68;  alumina, 
19-20;  soda,  9*06;  lime,  0*28. 

ALBUCA  (aibtUy  white),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  LQiacece,  The  species  are  mostly  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  They  are  cultivated  in  this  country,  and  require  the  treat- 
ment of  greenhouse  bulbs. 

ALBUICBK. — In  plants  this  term  has  been  improperly  applied  to 
the  substance  which'  in  some  seeds  is  interposed  between  the 
embryo  and  tiieir  coal  It  varies  very  much  in  density,  and  other 
characters,  and  is  often  the  most  valuable  part  of  a  plant  In  the 
oococ^nut  it  is  the  meat,  the  milk  being  a  fluid  uncondensed  portion 
of  it ;  in  the  ooifee-seed  it  is  the  part  that  is  roasted ;  and  in  com  it 
is  that  which  is  ground  into  flour.  The  oil  of  the  castoroil  plant, 
and  of  the  poppy,  the  aroma  of  the  nutmeg,  and  the  greasy  nutntious 
substance  that  forms  chocolate  are  all  the  produce  of  albumen.  In 
the  ivoiy-nut  it  is  the  hard  part  from  which  it  has  acquired  its 
nama 

This  substance  in  the  beginning  ii  of  a  pulpy  nature,  and  is  the  matter 
in  which  the  younf  embryo  first  makes  its  appearance ;  in  this  state 
it  is  present  in  aU  plants,  but  as  the  embryo,  for  the  nutriment  of 
which  it  is  destined,  increases  in  size,  the  albumen  is  gradually 
absorbed  by  it,  either  wholly,  as  in  the  turnip,  the  pea,  the  bean,  and 
the  like ;  or  in  part  only,  the  residue  being  of  a  consistence  varying 
between  softness,  as  in  the  poppy,  and  extreme  hardness,  as  in  the 
date-palm.    FSesd.] 

Botanists  mid  its  preitnoe  in  abundance,  or  its  total  or  almost  total 


absence,  a  character  of  very  great  importance  in  distinguishing^  the 
different  tribes  of  plants. 

ALBURNUM,  in  plants,  is  that  part  of  the  stem  of  trees  which 
timber-merchants  call  Sapwoad,  It  is  the  newly-formed  unchanged 
wood  lying  immediately  below  the  bark,  and  is  always  of  a  very  light 
colour.  It  is  the  principal  channel  through  which  the  crude  sap  i» 
conveyed  from  the  roots  into  the  leaves,  and  is,  therefore,  an  indis- 
pensable part  in  all  exogenous  trees.  [^zooEire.]  It  consists  of  deli- 
cate fibrous  tissue;  in  which  respect  it  differs  from  Rearttoood,  or 
Dnramen,  in  which  the  tissue  is  combined  with  BoUd  secretions,  the 
nature  of  which  varies  with  species.  It  is  probably  on  the  latter 
account  that  heartwood  is  so  much  more  durable  than  sapwood ;  for 
simple  fibrous  tissue  is  in  itself  very  perishable,  and  it  only  ceases  to 
be  so  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  secretions  of  a  less  destruo- 
tible  character. 

While  many  plants  have  the  alburnum  and  heartwood  distinctly 
sen>arated,  there  are  others,  technically  called  Whitewooded  Trees, 
which  consist  of  nothing  but  alburnum.  This  arises  from  their  not 
forming  any  solid  secretions  which  can  give  durability  to  the  central 
parts ;  nence  all  such  trees  are  quickly  perishable^  aoid  are  generally 
unfit  for  any  but  temporaiy  purposes. 

ALCA  (duvier),  the  Auk,  a  genus  of  Web-Footed  sea-birds,  which 
has  a  singularly-formed  bill,  b^ng  very  broad  when  viewed  laterally, 
straight  towards  the  base,  but  much  curved  towards  the  point  Both 
the  mandibles  are  half  covered  by  projecting  feathers,  and  furrowed 
near  the  point.  The  upper  mandible  is  crooked,  and  the  under  forms 
a  projecting  angle.  The  nostrilB  are  towards  the  middle  of  Ihe  sides 
of  the  upper  mandible,  being  very  narrow  and  idmost  dosed  by  a 
membrane  covered  with  feathers.  The  legs  are  short,  and  placed  far 
back,  so  that  the  birds  when  standing  have  their  backs  nearly  perpen- 
dicular. There  are  only  three  toes  fully  webbed,  the  ba^  toe  beinf 
wanting.  The  daws  are  somewhat  pointed.  The  wings  are  short,  ana 
the  first  quill  is  as  long  as  the  second,  or  perhaps  a  UtUe  longer. 

Only  two  n>edes  are  known,  the  Great  Auk  {Alea  impennii),  and 
the  Razor  Bill  (Alca  Torda),  both  natives  of  the  British  Isles.  [Auk.] 

ALCEDO  (Limueus),  Kingfisher,  a  genus  of  birds  of  which  the 
characteristics  are : — Thib  bill  long,  straight,  quadrangular,  thick,  and 
pointed ;  the  tongue  short,  fieshv,  flat,  and  slightly  arrow-shaped  at 
the  point ;  the  nostrils  at  the  side  of  the  base  of  the  bill  running 
obliqudy,  and  nearly  dosed  by  a  naked  membrane ;  the  legs  with  the 
shank  {iar»ui)  short ;  the  feet  with  three  toes  forward,  the  outer  joined 
to  the  middle  one  as  feu*  as  the  second  joint ;  the  inner  one  sixnilarly 
joined  as  far  as  the  first  joint  Thehind  toe  is  broad  at  the  base.  The 
wings  have  the  first  and  second  quills  nearly  equal,  but  these  are 
shorter  than  the  third,  which  ia  the  longest  in  we  wing. 

There  is  only  one  spedes  of  Kingflsher  {Alcedo  Itpida)  indigenous 
to  Britain.  It  is  the  most  beautiful  of  our  native  birds.  More  than 
sixty  spedes  have  been  described  by  naturalists,  chiefly  natives  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  all  distinguished  by  the  splendid  colours  of  their 
plumage.    [Halotohida] 

ALOES,  the  Elk.    [Deer.] 

ALCTNOE.    [AOALEPHJB.J 

ALCTONELLA  (diminutive  of  Alcyonitm),  a  genus  of  animals 
bdonging  to  the  Fresh-Water  Polyzoa,  or  Aseidian  Zoophytet.  The 
spedes  of  this  genus  were  originally  regarded  as  plants.  They  are 
composed  of  a  fleshy  sponge-like  mass,  which  consists  of  vertical, 
segregated,  membranaceous  tubes,  whidh  open  on  the  sur&oe.  In 
these  tubes  the  polypes  are  seated,  which  are  asddian ;  the  mouth  is 
endrded  with  a  siogle  series  of  fi^orm  tentacula,  whidi,  like  those 
of  the  whole  fiqnilv,  are  depressed  or  incomplete  on  one  ride.  The  eggs 
are  contained  in  the  tubes,  and  are  coriaceous  and  smooth. 

The  most  common  spedes  is  the  A.  %tagnorvm  of  Lamouroux,  which 
is  commonly  found  in  stagnant  waters,  especially  when  they  contain 
iron  in  solution.  The  polype-mass  of  tins  spedes  is  a  sponge-like 
substance^  somewhat  dastic,  of  a  blackish  green  colour,  and  is 
more  or  lees  apparently  porous.  It  is  composed  ot  tubes  which  rise 
from  the  base  to  the  surf&ce,  and  are  connected  together  by  a  firm 
transparent  gelatinous  substance.  The  walls  of  the  tubes  are  composed 
of  a  thin  pelludd  colourless  membrane,  through  which  the  ova  in  their 
interior  can  be  easily  seen.  The  ova  are  very  numerous,  although  the 
animal  itsdf  is  comparativdv  rare,  abounding  at  one  season,  and 
almost  absent  at  another,  in  the  same  pond. 

This  animal  was  origioally  described  by  Trembley  in  1741,  and 
although  he  was  perfecUy  aware  of  its  nature  at  that  early  period,  it 
has  be^  often  described  since  both  as  a  plant  and  a  sponse.  One  of 
the  best  modem  accounts  is  that  of  Mr.  T.  P.  Teale,  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Leeds  Philosophical  and  Literary  Sodety.' 

(Johnston,  BrUiA  Zoophytes^ 

ALCTONIDiB,  a  funily  of  the  Asteroid  Polypes,  oontainmg  the 
genera  A  Icyonivm  and  SareodielyofL  They  are  distinguished  from  the 
PeiMoiuluUB  (Sea-Pens),  and  the  OorffoniadcB  (SearFans),  by  the  polype- 
mass  being  tough  and  fiediy,  without  any  distinct  axis^  but  strengthened 
by  the  irregular  distribution  of  calcareous  spicules.  The  polype-cells 
are  placed  in  the  fieshy  mass,  and  scattered  over  its  sur&oe. 

The  best  known  of  the  spedes  of  this  ftmOy  is  the  AleyonUm 
digitatum,  which  was  described  by  EUis  under  its  popular  name  of 
Dead  Man's  Hand,  or  Dead  Man's  Fingers.  It  has  been  described  by 
natoialists  by  other  names,  especially  LolnUaria ;  but  this  is  inadmissible, 


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OB  haYing  been  previously  employed  to  name  a  plant.  Aleyonium  ia 
deriyed  from  Alcyon,  the  kingfisher ;  and  this  word  means  sea-foam, 
of  which  the  kingfishers  were  supposed  to  make  their  nests. 

The  species  in  question  ia  one  of  the  most  conmion  of  our  maritime 
productions,  and  is  found  on  stones  and  shells  and  rocks,  and  can 
frequently  be  collected  at  the  low-water  mark  during  a  spring-tide. 
It  sometimes  coyers  the  object  to  which  it  is  attached  as  a  mere  crusty 
at  other  times  it  rises  up  in  one  or  more  conical  masses.  Where  there 
is  only  one,  the  fishermen  giye  it  the  name  of  the  Cow's  Paps,  from  its 
resemblance  to  the  teat  of  the  cow's  udder.  The  skin  is  tough,  and 
when  examined  presents  httle  radiated  points,  which  indicate  where 
the  tentacles  of  tne  polypes  exist  The  tentades  are  shorty  obtuse,  and 
ciliated  on  the  margins.  The  polype-oeUs  are  placed  just  under  the 
skin,  at  the  termination  of  a  series  of  aquiferous  canals  which  run 
throughout  the  polype-mass.  These  tubw  communicate  with  each 
other,  so  that  many  of  the  polypes  are,  as  it  were,  collected  together, 
forming  a  compound  animal  The  space  between  the  tubes  is  occupied 
by  a  loose  fibrous  network,  forming  losenge^haped  compartment!^ 
with  smaller  meshes  in  them.  These  interstices  are  filled  with  gela- 
tinous matter,  in  which  irregular  calcareous  spicule  lie  embedded. 
The  oya  are  developed  in  the  polype-tubes,  and  are  about  the  size  of 
a  grain  of  sand.  They  are  produced  in  spring  and  summer,  and 
ultimately  dischaiiged  from  the  mouth  of  the  polype. 

A  second  species  of  Alcyonitun,  A.  gUmarUuin,  has  been  described 
by  Dr.  A.  H.  HassalL 

The  genus  Sarcodietyon  has  been  described  by  Professor  Edward 
Forbes.  It  differs  from  Alcycnium  in  the  incrusting,  creeping,  and 
anastomosing  form  it  assumes.  Its  polypes  also  are  distant  from  each 
other,  and  placed  in  uniserial  prominent  cells.  It  has  eight  pinnated 
tentacula.    Only  one  species  hiuB  been  described^  &  cateacUa, 

(Johnston,  BrUiah  Zoophytet.) 

ALCTONIDIXnd  (from  Alcyoniumf  on  account  of  its  external 
resemblance),  a  genus  of  animals  belonging  to  the  Infundibulate  section 
of  the  Polyzott,  or  Atciduxn  Zoophjitea.  It  presents  a  fleshy  yariously- 
lobed  mass,  containing  in  it  5-sided  cells,  which  contain  ascidian 
polypes  surrounded  with  a  double  sheath.  The  most  common  species 
of  this  genus  is  the  A,  gdatinowm.  It  is  one  of  the  most  common 
productions  of  the  sea-shore,  and  few  persons  can  have  been  at  the 
seaaide  without  having  noticed  it  The  older  botanists  described  it 
as  a  plant  Qerard  in  his  '  Herbal '  says : — "  This  is  a  ver^  succulent 
and  fungous  plant  of  the  thioknesse  of  one*s  thumbe ;  it  is  of  a  dark 
yellowish  colour,  and  buncheth  forth  on  everie  side  with  many  unequal 
tuberosities  or  knots."  He  called  it  the  '  Sea  Ragged  Staffe.'  Ray 
called  it  a  Fuctu;  but  Lamouroux,  who  first  classed  it  amongst 
plantar  has  the  honour  of  having  discovered  that  it  was  studded  all 
over  with  polypes.  We  are  indebted  to  Dr.  Arthur  Farre  for  a  very 
elaborate  account  ('  FhiL  Trana,'  1839)  of  this  creature.  The  polype- 
m%Bs  grows  naturally  in  deep  water  attached  to  old  ahells  and  stones. 
It  is  however  washed  upon  most  of  our  coasts  after  every  storm.  The 
mass  is  clustered  or  fingered,  and  rises  to  the  height  of  from  6  to 
12  or  18  inches.  It  resembles  a  compact  sponge,  but  is  more  pellucid 
and  gelatinous.  The  sur&ce  is  smooth,  but  is  speckled  with  dots 
which  indicate  the  spots  where  the  polypes  are  contained.  The 
polypes  are  so  closely  connected  with  their  cells  that  it  is  impossible 
to  separate  them  without  mutilation.  The  tentacles  are  16  in  number. 

Two  other  species  have  been  described  as  frequent  on  the  British 
coasts,  A.  hir§tUvm  and  A.  parantium. 

(Johnston,  Britith  Zoophytes,) 

ALCYONIUM.    [Aloyokida] 

ALDER.    [Ajlnus]. 

ALECTO  (one  of  the  Furies  of  the  Greek  mythology),  a  genua  of 
Infundibulate  Polyzoa,  characterised  by  the  creeping  and  branched 
character  of  its  polype-masa  There  are  several  species,  all  of  which 
are  found  attached  to  old  shells  and  stones,  and  are  mostly  dredged 
for  in  deep  water. 

ALETHOTTERIS  (Sternberg),  a  genus  of  Fossil  Ferns,  mostly 
from  the  Coal  formation.    {Pecopterit  of  Brongniart) 

ALETRIS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
LUiacetE,  One  of  the  species,  A.  fdrinota,  is  the  most  intense  bitter 
known.  It  is  found  in  fields  and  the  edges  of  woods  veiy  commonly 
in  the  United  States,  and  is  used  in  infusion  as  a  tonic  and  stomachic. 
Large  doses  produce  poisonous  effects. 

AlEURITES,  a  genus  of  Euphorbiaoeous  plants,  many  of  the  species 
of  which  are  now  referred  to  Oroton,    [Cboton.] 

ALEXANDRITE,  a  name  given  to  specimens  of  the  mineral  Chry- 
aoberyl,  brought  from  the  UraL    [Chbtbobebtl.] 

ALGiB  is  the  name  given  by  botanists  to  the  tribe  of  plants  which 
comprehends  the  Sea-Weeds,  Lavers,  and  fresh-water  submersed 
species  of  similar  habits.  In  structure  they  vary  through  a  vast 
variety  of  intermediate  gradations,  from  the  state  of  simple  microscopic 
vesicles  to  branched  woody  individuals  many  fS&thoms  in  length. 
Some  of  them  are  only  visible  to  the  naked  eye  when  they  are 
collected  in  heaps ;  of  this  nature  is  the  green  and  red  slime  that  we 
find  in  damp  walks,  at  the  bottom  of  shaded  walls,  and  in  similar 
situations ;  othen  grow  together  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  and  when 
they  rise  to  the  surface  fonn  floating  banks  of  such  extent  as  to 
impede  the  course  of  ships;  of  this  kind  are  the  Chorda JUum,  or 
Sea  Cat-Gut^  of  Orkney,  meadows  of  which  have  been  seen  in  Scalpa 


Baj ;  and  the  Gulf-Weed  of  navigators,  which,  according  to  Humboldt» 
being  cairied  by  the  Gulf  Stream,  forms  two  banks  in  the  great  buon 
of  the  Northern  Atlantic  Ocean,  one  of  which  stretches  over  11  degrees 
of  latitude,  and  the  other  over  4  degrees. 

The  plants  included  imder  this  designation  are  every  day  becoming 
better  known  through  the  influence  which  the  microscope  and  better 
methods  of  inveatigation  an  producing  in  every  department  of 
natural  histoiy.  Under  the  term  Alga  Linnteus  included  the 
Lichens  and  other  plants  as  an  order  in  the  class  Oryptogamia,  or 
Aerogmt.  The  Lichens  have  been  long  ainoe  sepsiated;  but  the 
plants  that  are  now  ordinarily  called  Alga  present  differences  quite 
as  wide  as  any  that  separate  the  orders  of  the  class  Exogent,  so  that 
we  cannot  r^aird  the  term  Aha  as  of  only  ordinal  valuer  Dr.  Lindley, 
in  his  'Vegetable  Kingdom,  constitutes  an  alliance  which  he  csIIb 
A  Igata,  and  which  he  makes  to  embrace  the  following  natural  orders  :— 

1.  JHatomaeea,  or  Brittlewortai 

2.  Confervacees,  or  Confervas. 
8.    FucaceOf  or  Sea  Wracks. 

4.  Ceramiacea,  or  Rose  TangLes. 

5.  Charaoea,  or  Charads. 

The  first  of  tiiese  orders  includes  the  Jktmidea,  which  are  almost 
entirely  microscopic.  They  are  hardly  oompr^ended  under  the 
term  Alga  at  all  [Diatomacejb  ;  Dwjmtdk^.]  It  is  onlv  veiy 
recentiy  that  naturalists  have  come  to  the  condusiGn  that  they  are 
plants.  The  Charads,  or  fifth  order,  present  in  many  respects  a 
much  higher  development  than  the  rest,  and  may  be  justly  regarded 
as  not  belonging  to  Alga,  [Chabacbil]  The  relation  of  these 
groups  to  each  other  and  the  animal  kingdom  may  be  seen  in  the 
following  diagram,  given  by  Professor  Harvey  in  his  work  on  the 
'British  Algs.' 


As  Mr.  Harvey  is  the  most  recent  writer  on  this  subject  we  shall 
follow  him  in  this  article.    He  divides  the  Alga  into  three  sub-dassea 

1.  MdanoaperfMeB,  which  are  marine  pluits  of  an  olive  green,  or 
olive  brown  colour,  having  a  moncociouB  or  dioecious  fructification. 
The  spores  are  oliveHX>lourod ;  each  enveloped  in  a  pellucid  akin,  and 
either  simple,  or  separating  into  two,  four,  or  eight  sporules.  They 
possess  arUheridui,  or  transparent^  orange-coloured,  vivacious  ooipusde^ 
moving  by  means  of  vibratile  <n\it^ 

2.  IViodotpermea,  which,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  are  marine 
plants,  mostiy  of  a  rosy  red  or  purple  colour.  The  fructification  is  of 
two  kinds  :  either  of  spores  in  external  or  immersed  conoeptacles,  or 
densely  aggregated  together  and  dispersed  throughout  masses  of  the 
frond;  or  of  tetraspores  of  a  red  or  purple  colour,  eztemal,  or 
immersed  in  the  fh>nd,  and  each  enveloped  in  a  pellucid  skin  whidi 
at  maturi^  separates  into  four  sporules.  Some  pooesB  antberidia 
which  are  nUed  with  yellow  corpuscles. 

3.  ChhroapermeoB,  which  are  marine  or  fi«sh-water  plants  of  a 
green  colour.  The  fructification  is  dispersed  throu^  all  parts  of  the 
frond.  The  spores  are  green,  formed  within  the  oeUs,  and  often  at 
maturity  having  vibratile  cilia.  They  produce  also  gemmules,  or 
external  vesidee^  which  contain  a  dense^  daik^odlouxed,  granular  mass, 
which  finally  separates  from  the  Arond. 


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The  MeUmospermece  include  the  following  orders :  —  FucaceaSf 
Sporochnaoea,    Laminariacece,    IHctyotacea,    ChordariacecB,    Ectocar- 

The  FucactCB^  which  have  for  their  type  the  genuB  FwyiUf  are  all  of 
them  marine  plants.  They  are  of  an  olive  brown  or  greeniah  colour, 
and  very  fine  in  their  texture.  The  cellular  Btruoture  of  which  all 
the  Alga  are  composed  is  in  these  plants  in  a  very  condensed  state, 
awniming  a  leatheiy  and  sometimes  even  a  woody  character.  The 
base  of  tiieir  stem  or  stipes  forms  a  dense  shield-like  root^  whilst  their 
upper  part  is  (tften  expanded  into  a  broad  foliaoeous  appendage.  The 
reproductive  organs  consist  of  small  black  or  very  dark  spores,  which 
are  collected  into  sori  or  are  found  scattered  on  various  parts  of  the 
frond.  These  spores  are  enveloped  in  a  thick  gelatinous  mucus, 
which  seems  to  be  a  provision  for  the  purpose  of  attaching  them  more 
securely  to  the  rocks  on  which  they  grow  in  the  midst  of  the  restless 
element  to  which  they  are  constancy  exposed.  They  are  of  very 
rapid  growth,  and  only  a  few  months  serve  to  cover  a  surface  of 
naked  rock  with  a  forest  of  various  species  of  i^uci  Kelp  is  manu- 
factured from  the  species  of  plants  belonging  to  this  section  of  A  Igm  ; 
the  one  most  commonly  collected  for  this  purpose  is  the  Fuctu 
veticuioius.  Kelp  is  not  now  manufactured  to  any  great  extent  in 
this  country,  but  a  few  years  since  it  was  a  source  of  great  wealth  in 
the  Western  Islands  and  the  western  shores  of  Scotland.  [Kslp.] 
At  one  time  the  quantity  made  in  Scotland  and  its  acyaoent  isles  was 
not  less  than  20,000  tons  annually,  which  sold  at  the  average  price  of 
102.  per  ton. 

Of  all  the  species,  that  which  is  the  most  common  is  the  Fucua 
vttieulotut,  great  quantities  of  which  are  cast  upon  our  ooasta,  and 
which  is  known  by  its  strap- 
shaped,  olive-gp^een,  forked  divi- 
aioDS,  having  little  yellowish  oval 
uneven  pods  at  their  points,  and 
by  the  crackling  noise  it  makes 
when  trodden  upon;  a  drcum- 
stance  whidi  is  owing  to  its  stems 
having  a  considerable  number  of 
air-bladdflTB,  by  means  of  which  it 
floats.  The  structure  of  the  pods 
is  highly  curious.  Externally  they 
ooDsist  of  a  hard  rind,  covered 
with  tumours,  each  of  which  has  a 
little  hole  in  its  oentre.  Internally 
they  contain  a  soft  mucous  sub- 
stance, in  which  lie,  next  the  rind 
vid  immediately  below  its  tumours, 
a  number  of  round  balls  (a). 
These  little  balls  are  composed  of 
jointed  threads  (6)  which  hold 
together  a  great  many  little  oval 
grains  (c)  enveloped  in  a  sort  of 
jelly.  These  grams  are  the  spores 
by  means  of  which  the  plant  is  propagated,  and  when  ripe  they  are 
discharged  through  the  holes  in  the  tumours  above  described. 

Although,  from  the  simple  structure  of  the  Algos,  we  should  not 
expect  that  tibey  would  elaborate  many  of  those  secretions  which  in 
higher  plants  are  found  subservient  to  the  use  of  man  and  other 
»jtimaiu  as  food,  yet  among  many  of  these  a  gelatinous  matter  is 
secreted,  which  is  nutritious.  In  Qobhland,  the  F.  vetieulotui  is  given  as 
provender  to  hogs,  and  hence  is  called  Swine-Tang.  Many  other  animals 
will  also  eat  this  plant  as  food,  in  times  of  scarcity.  It  is  also  collected 
in  Jersey,  and  when  dried  is  used  as  fuel  The  fishermen  both  of  our 
own  and  the  Dutch  ooasts  use  this  Fvtcui  and  the  F,  terraiua  for  pack- 
ing up  their  fish ;  the  latter  is  however  preferred,  as^  from  containing 
less  mucus,  it  is  less  likely  to  ferment.  The  Fuci  were  at  one  time 
used  considerably  in  medidne,  as  well  as  other  forms  of  Alg<B,  but 
since  the  discovery  of  their  active  principle,  iodine  [Iodins,  Enq.  Cra, 
AsTS  ASD  So.  Drv.],  they  have  been  comp«ratively  little  used.  Accord- 
ing to  Ecklon,  the  Laminaria  huccinaliB  of  the  Cape  of  Gfood  Hope  is 
the  sea-weed  that  produces  the  greatest  quantity  of  iodine. 

T|ie  Sargauum  vtOgare,  or  .Tropic  Orape,  the  Fucut  trntam  of  older 
writers,  is  remarkable  for  the  immense  quantities  in  which  it  occurs  in 
certain  portions  of  the  ocean.  It  only  grows  within  forty  degrees  of 
the  equator,  on  each  side,  although  occasionally  thrown  up  by  currents 
on  our  own  shores.  In  some  parts  of  the  ocean  it  is  so  constant  that 
it  is  said  to  assist  pilots  in  rectifying  their  longitude.  It  was  the 
occurrence  of  immense  fields  of  these  weeds  that  struck  the  sailors  of 
Columbus  with  so  much  awe,  and  led  them  to  suppose  that  Providence 
had  determined  to  ftxistrate  their  course,  which  nearly  terminated  in 
the  giving  up  of  their  great  attempt  to  discover  the  New  World. 

AUtria  eaeuletUa,  when  stripped  of  the  thin  part,  forms  a  part  of  the 
simple  &re  of  the  poorer  classes  of  Ireland,  Scotiand,  Icdand,  Denmark, 
and  the  Fnroe  Isluids. 

The  SporoeknacecB  are  a  small  group,  composed  of  the  Scatter-Tuft 
(JSparochmui)  and  three,  other  genera,  which  are  remarkable  for  bearing 
little  tufts  of  fine  green  filaments  on  the  fixmds.  They  are  of  an  olive 
or  yellowish  green  colour :  they  become  flaccid  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
acquiring  a  ve^igris  colour,  and  possess  the  property  of  decomposing 
other  Alff(B  with  ivhich  they  may  come  in  contact 

VAT.  mat,  DIV.  YOL.  L 


I\ieut  teiieulotus. 


The  Laminariacece,  or  Tangles,  have  a  densely  fibro-ceUular  structure 
and  their  spores  are  collected  togethw  in  sori  on  the  surface  of  the 
frond.  These  plants  are  coriaceous  or  membranaceous  in  structore, 
and  are  little  changed  by  exposure  to  the  air.  Some  of  them  are  used. 
Laminatia  etculerUa  is  an  edible  spedes.  It  grows  to  the  length  of 
20  feet,  and  the  midrib,  stripped  of  its  membranaceous  covering,  is  the 
part  that  is  eaten.  L.  sacchairirM,  or  the  Sugar  Sea-Belt,  is  said  to  be 
eaten  by  the  Icelanders.  In  Japan  it  is  also  considered  a  great  delicacy. 
L,  digitata,  or  Sea-Wand,  is  eaten  in  Scotland,  and  is  cried  about  the 
streets  of  Edinburgh  as  Tangle,  Many  of  the  sea-weeds  belonging  to 
this  and  other  genera  have  been  found  to  make  excellent  manure  for 
grasB-land&  Kdp  has  in  many  instances  been  used,  and  it  has  perfectly 
succeeded.  It  has  been  tried  as  a  top-dressing,  and  singly  or  in 
oombination  with  other  manures  on  com,  pasture,  potatoes,  turnips, 
&;a,  with  the  best  effect 

To  this  section  belongs  the  Chorda  JUum,  SeapWhiplash,  or  Sea- 
Whipcord,  which  is  often  found  80  or  40  feet  in  length.  The  fiond  of 
this  plant  is  hollow  within,  interrupted  at  short  distances,  an  arrange- 
ment which  appears  to  be  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  plant  to 
float  in  the  water,  and  thus  securing  the  same  end  as  the  more  highly 
developed  vesicles  of  Fiteu$  venculonu. 

The  Dietyotaeeaf  or  Sea-Networks,  are  a  larger  section  than  the  last, 
and  are  characterised  by  the  beautifully  reticulated  texture  of  the  tegu- 
ment   Their  fix>nds  are  of  various  forms,  but  all  of  them  are  ribless. 

The  Chordariaeea  and  FetooarpaeecB  have  their  fronds  formed  of 
jointed  filaments,  which  are  either  fr^ee  or  united  into  a  compound  body 

The  Fctoeairpacea  are  olivaceous  or  green  marine  plants;  their 
fructification  is  monoBdous,  the  capsules  external,  and  the  globules 
placed  between  swollen  ramulL  It  contains  the  genus  Eoioearpui  and 
two  others. 

The FhodotpermecB  include  the  following  orders: — Jthodomelacea 
LaurenciaceoB,  OoralUnaeecef  Ddetaeriacea,  Bhodymmiaeea,  Orypto- 
nemiaeetE,  Ceramiaeece,  These  orders  are  distinguished  by  their 
brilliant  and  littie-fSeding  tints,  their  leaf-like  fronds,  and  the  collection 
of  their  spores  into  sori,  or,  if  scattered,  by  the  spores  being  arranged 
on  a  ternary  plan.  The  Chondrus^erieput,  or  Carrageen  Moss,  belongs 
to  the  order  Otyptonemieieecg,  In  Ireland  it  is  used  extensively  as  an 
artide  of  food,  and  has  lately  been  sold  in  London  as  a  substitute  for 
Iceland  Moss.  It  is  frequently  employed,  instead  of  isinglass,  for  the 
mani^^aoture  of  blano-mange  and  jellies.  It  has  a  slight  bitter  flavour, 
which  may  be  removed  by  steeping  for  some  time  previous  to  boiling. 

Another  genus  of  the  same  order  is  Oelidiwn,  A  species  of  thu 
genus  is  said  to  be  the  substance  collected  by  the  swallows  and 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  edible  nests  of  Java.  Strange  as 
it  may  seem  that  a  taste  for  birds'  nests  should  exist  among  any 
people,  yet  so  strong  is  this  taste  in  China,  that  tiie  trade  in  birds' 
nests  forms  a  very  lucrative  and  extensive  branch  of  commerce. 
Burnett,  in  his  '  Outlines  of  Botany,'  observes,  "  It  has  been  estimated 
that  242,400  lbs.  of  birds'  nests,  worth  in  China  284,290Z.  and  upwards, 
are  annually  exported  from  the  Indian  Archipdago."  The  only  pre- 
paration the  birds'  nests  undergo  is  that  of  simple  drying,  without 
direct  exposure  to  the  sun;  iSter  which  they  are  packed  in  small 
boxes.  They  are  assorted  for  the  Chinese  market  into  three  kinds, 
according  to  their  qualities ;  and  the  common  price  for  birds'  nesta 
of  the  first  sort  at  Canton  is  no  less  than  8500  dollars  the  pecul,  or 
51.  IBs.  1  id.  per  lb. ;  for  the  second,  2800  Spanish  dollars  the  pecul ; 
and  for  the  third,  1600.  The  collecting  these  birds'  nests,  according 
to  Mr.  Crawfrird,  is  as  perilous  a  toil  as  our  fearful  trade  of  gathering 
samphire ;  for  he  says,  "  The  nests  are  obtained  in  deep  and  damp 
caves,  and  are  most  esteemed  if  taken  before  the  birds  have  laid  their 
eggs.  The  coarsest  are  those  collected  after  the  young  have  been 
fledged.  The  finest  nests  are  the  whitest ;  that  is,  those  taken  before 
thev  are  defiled  by  the  young  birds.  They  are  taken  twice  a  y^ear, 
and  if  regularly  coUected,  and  no  unusual  injury  offered  to  the  caverns, 
the  produce  is  very  equal,  and  the  harvest  very  little  if  at  all  improved 
by  being  left  unmolested  for  a  year  or  two.  Some  of  the  caverns  are 
extremdy  difficult  of  access,  and  the  nests  can  only  be  collected  by 
persons  accustomed  from  their  youth  to  the  office.  In  one  place  the 
caves  are  only  to  be  approached  by  a  perpendicular  descent  of  many 
hundred  feet  by  ladders  of  bamboo  and  rattan,  over  a  sea  rolling 
violentiy  against  the  rocks.  When  the  mouth  of  the  cavern  is  attained, 
the  perilous  office  of  taking  the  nests  must  often  be  performed  by 
torch-light^  by  penetrating  into  the  recesses  of  the  rock,  where  the 
slightest  trip  would  be  instantiy  fatal  to  the  adventurers,  who  see 
nothing  below  them  but  the  turbulent  surf  making  its  way  into  the 
chasms  of  the  rock."    (Crawford's  'Eastern  Archipdago.') 

Several  other  spedes  of  Odidiwn  are  made  use  of  as  food,  more 
especially  in  the  East,  where  they  are  added  to  dishes  to  render  the 
hot  and  biting  condiments  more  palatable. 

The  Iridea  edulia,  Edible  Dulse,  is  a  favourite  food  with  many  of  the 
Ortutaeea,  as  lobsters,  crabs,  &c. :  it  is  also  eaten  by  fishermen,  both 
raw  and  roasted.  It  is  said  to  resemble  in  flavour  roasted  oysters. 
The  ffalymmia  pahnata  was  at  one  time  used  as  a  masticatory,  but 
its  use  has  been  supplanted  by  tobacco.  It  is  still,  however,  used  as 
a  popular,  remedy  in  scorbutic  and  other  cutaneous  diseases.  "  To 
the  Icelanders  it  is  a  plant  of  condderable  importance.  They  prepare 
it  by  washing  it  well  in  fresh  water,  and  expodng  it  to  dry,  when  it 
gives  out  a  white  powdery  substanoe,  which  is  sweet  and  palatable. 


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and  coven  the  whole  plant  They  then  pack  it  in  oukB  to  keep  it  from 
the  air,  and  thus  preserve  it  ready  to  be  eaten,  either  in  this  state  with 
fish  and  butter,  or,  according  to  the  practice  of  wealthier  tables,  boiled 
in  milk,  and  mixed  with  a  little  flour  of  17&  The  cattle  are  also  very 
fond  of  this  sea-weed,  and  sheep  are  said  to  seek  it  with  such  avidity 
as  often  to  be  lost,  by  going  too  Ua  from  the  land  at  low-water." 
(*  Quart  Rev.,'  vii.  68.)  From  tips  latter  drcumstanoe  it  was  oaUed 
Fueut  ovinuSf  or  Sheep  Dulse.  In  Kamtchatka  it  is  used  for  makings 
fermented  beverage,  which  is  easily  produced  on  account  of  the  great 
qusLtity  of  sugar  this  plant  oontams. 

Amongst  the  Sh/odymeniacea  is  the  genus  GraeUUnria,  the  species 
of  wfaddi  are  also  used  as  food,  and  one  of  them,  0,  liehenoideif  is  highly 
valued  in  Ceylon  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  and  bears  a  great 
resemblance  to  0.  compreua,  a  species  of  the  British  coast,  and  which 
Dr.  GreviUe  says  is  little  inferior  to  the  firsts  and  has  been  used  in  this 
countiy  both  as  a  pickle  and  a  preserve.  The  O.  tenax,  the  Fucub 
tenax  of  Turner,  is  invaluable  to  the  Chinese  as  the  basis  of  an  excel- 
lent glue  and  varnish.  **  Though  a  smsll  planty"  says  Dr.  Greville, 
"  the  quantity  annually  imported  at  Canton  from  the  provinces  of 
Fokein  and  Tchikiang  is  stated  by  Mr.  Turner  to  be  about  27,000  lbs. 
It  is  sold  for  6d.  or  8d.  per  pound,  and  is  used  for  the  purposes  to 
which  we  apply  glue  and  g^um  arabia  The  Chinese  employ  it  chiefly 
in  the  manu&cture  of  lanterns,  to  strengthen  or  varnish  the  paper,  and 
sometimes  to  thicken  or  give  a  gloss  to  silks  or  gauze."  Mr.  Neil^ 
thinks  it  probable  that  the  gummy  matter  called  chm-chou,  or  hai-tsai, 
in  China  and  Japan,  may  be  composed  of  this  substance.  Windows 
made  of  slips  of  bamboo,  and  crossed  diagonally,  have  frequently  their 
interstices  wholly  filled  with  the  transparent  glue  of  hai-tsal 

A  celebrated  vermifuge  on  the  Continent  is  prepared  from  the 
SdmirUhocorton^  a  genus  which  grows  in  the  Meditexranean,  and  goes 
by  the  name  of  the  Coralline  of  Corsica.  It  has  a]so  been  recommended 
as  a  remedy  in  cancer,  but  is  seldom  used  in  this  cotmtiy. 

TheP/ocamiiMii,  or  Hau>Flag  {IkUa9eriacta\  is  one  of  the  most  elegant 
plants  of  this  section.  It  was  formerly  used  much  in  the  construction 
of  artificial  landscapes  on  paper,  and  its  collection  and  preparation 
gave  employment  to  many  of  the  poor  on  our  coasts. 

The  order  Cer€miacem  contains  six  genera,  one  of  which  is  the 
Qriffithtia^  a  plant  named  after  Mrs.  Griffiths,  who  has  done  much  to 
advance  the  knowledge  of  the  order  Alga  in  Great  Britain.  The 
most  extensive  genera  in  this  tribe  are  ColaUhamnionKDA  Potynj^ftonia. 
Most  of  the  species  belonging  to  these  two  genera  are  natives  of  the 
sea,  and  are  found  attached  to  rocks,  and  to  shells,  stones,  and 
corallines  which  are  thrown  up  by  the  waves.  Many  of  them  are  also 
found  parasitic  upon  the  larger  sea-alga,  as  the  various  species  of 
Fuem  and  others. 

The  Chlorotpermecg  include  the  orders  Siphonaeeof,  (hnftrvacea^ 
^vaeecBy  OitciUatoriacecB,  NottoeacecB,  and  Palmellaeea 

The  order  Siphonacea  consists  of  plants  which  are  found  in  the  sea, 
in  fresh  water,  or  on  damp  ground,  of  an  herbaceous  green  colour. 
The  frond  is  either  compoeeid  of  membranaceous,  filiform,  continuous, 
simple,  or  branched  tubes,  or  formed  of  a  combination  of  similar 
tubes,  forming  a  spongy  or  onistaoeous,  globular,  cylindrical,  or  flat 
body;  the  reproductive  organs  are  vesides  produced  on  the  outer 
sur&ce  of  the  tubes,  filled  with  a  dark  green  granular  mass.  This 
tribe  contains  four  genera :  Codium^  Btyoptia,  Vaiueherifi,  and 
Botrydium,  The  most  interesting  genus  is  Vaucheria,  on  account 
of  the  remarkable  obaervations  that  have  been  made  upon  its  repro- 
ductive granules  by  Unger  and  other  botanists.    [Vauchbbia.] 

Codivm,  the  Sea-Puise,  is  a  hollow,  sub-globose,  dark  green  plants 
composed  of  an  interwoven  mass  of  tubular  continuous  filamente,  the 
repx^uctive  vesicles  being  attached  to  the  filaments  nesr  the  surface 
of  the  frond.  There  are  two  British  species  found  on  submarine 
rocks.  JBryoptit  has  two  British  species,  which  are  slso  marine  plants. 
The  frond  is  membranaceous,  filiform,  tubular,  cylindrical,  glistening, 
branched ;  the  branches  are  imbricated,  or  distichous  and  pinnated, 
and  filled  with  a  fluid  containing  minute  granules.  Their  numerous 
branches  give  them  the  appearance  of  feathered  mosses — hence  their 
name.  Botrydimn  (from  Ek^rpvs),  a  G^|fe-Bunoh,  is  nothing  more  than 
a  spherical  vesicular  receptacle,  filled  with  a  watery  fluid :  it  opens 
at  the  apex,  and  has,  descending  from  the  lower  part,  a  bunch  of 
radical  fibres.  In  structure  this  plant  resembles  Cbdtum,  but  it  is 
much  smaller,  the  receptacle  not  b^ng  bigger  than  a  grain  of  mustard, 
and  it  grows  upon  the  ground  in  moist  shady  situations.  Granules 
are  contained  in  the  watery  fluid  within  the  plant,  and  when  the 
weather  is  dry,  the  upper  part  of  the  receptacle  collapses,  giving  the 
plant  a  cup-shape. 

The  ConftrvQ^cecB  are  for  the  most  part  green  plants,  but  sometimes 
pink  or  brown.  The  fructification  consists  of  a  granular,  coloured 
internal  mass,  which  assumes  various  forms. 

The  genus  Conferta,  although  still  containing  numerous  spedes, 
has  been  much  reduced  by  the  formation  of  new  genera.  It  has 
however  still  an  indefinite  character,  on  account  of  the  comparatively 
little  attention  which  the  order  Alga  has  received  from  botanists. 
The  *' filaments  are  articulated,  free,  distinct,  uniform,  simple  or 
branched.  Fruit  (?),  an  internal,  coloured,  granular  mass  (endo- 
chrome).  Colour  green,  rarely  puiple  or  orange."  The  species  of 
Conferva  are  found  wherever  there  is  water.  In  running  streams 
ihev  sttafih  themselves  to  the  stones  at  the  bottom,  and  are  so 


abundant  frequently  in  stagnant  ponds  and  pools  as  to  eonoeal 
everything  else.  Some  few  of  them  are  found  in  sea-water,  and 
some  on  dry  land.  Some  of  th^  species  have  been  found  developing 
their  peculiar  forms  under  the  influence  of  the  ingredients  of  different 
'  mineral-springs ;  and  one,  the  (kn^trca  tAermaZtt,  is  only  found  in  ther- 
msl  springs.  Under  favourable  circumstances  they  sometimes  go  on 
developing  to  an  immense  extent  in  lakes  or  ponds  in  which  they 
grow.  They  are  generally  at  first  green,  but  as  they  ascend  to  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  are  exposed  to  the  air,  they  become  whitish. 
The  rapidity  of  the  growth  of  these  plants  is  sometimes  very 
extraordinary,  and  lakes,  and  even  the  ocean  itself,  are  covered  for 
several  miles  with  floating  masses  of  Cknrferva  several  inches  in  depth. 
Of  the  various  species  of  Cvnferva,  the  0.  frada,  the  C.  criipata, 
and  O,  riwlarii  are  most  abundant  in  this  country.  These  plants  are 
frequently  called  Crow-Silks,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  when 
dried,  they  have  been  used  for  the  purpose  of  stofi^g  beds,  also  as 
wadding  for  stuffing  gsrments.  Dr.  Lightfoot  says  he  has  seen  at 
Edinburgh  a  kind  of  paper  manufactured  from  the  fibres  of  Conferva 
fritetci,  O.  agagropUa,  Globe  Crow-Silk,  or  Moor-Ball,  is  found  with 
its  filaments  rolled  up  into  the  form  of  a  ball,  so  that  it  has  the 
appearance  of  the  balls  of  hair  oocasionslly  found  in  the  stomachs  of 
animalft  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  lakes,  but  is  rarely  found.  It  is  not 
fixed  to  anything,  but  floats  about  at  the  mercy  of  the  waves.  The 
balls  vary  in  diameter  from  hslf  sn  inch  to  four  inches. 

The  genus  Hydrodictyon  has  fiilsments  which  form  a  network  with 
regular  polygonal  meshes,  and  vivipsrous  articulations.  There  is  but 
one  species,  the  H.  ulricvJUUvm,  Common  Water^Net,  which  is  a  rare 
plant,  and  found  only  in  ditches  and  pools  in  the  middle  and  southern 
parts  of  England.  It  is  a  beautiful  plsnt,  forming  a  tubular  net, 
which  floats  freely  in  the  water.  The  meshes  of  the  net-work  are 
pentagonal  or  hexagonal,  and  vary  in  diameter  from  half  a  line  to 
half  an  inch,  and  the  fiilaments  from  the  width  of  a  humsn  hair  to 
that  of  the  oocurseet  hog^s-bristle. 

The  genus  Mov^eotiOf  named  after  J.  R  Mougeot,  a  German 
botanist,  has  articulated  simple  filaments,  which  are  finally  united  by 
transverse  tubes.  The  endoohrome  is  granulsr,  at  length  forming 
roundish  globules  at  the  point  of  conjugation.  This  is  ^ne  of  the 
genera  of  confervoid  plante  whose  filaments  are  said  to  unite  before 
reproduction  takes  place.  That  this  conjugation  does  take  place 
previous  to  their  granules  possessing  any  reprodac^ve  power,  in 
msny  of  the  species,  there  can  be  no  doubt  But  there  are  many 
species  of  Conferva  which  belong  to  the  conjugate  group  of  genera, 
in  which  the  phenomenon  of  conjugation  does  not  take  place  previous 
to  reproduction.  These  exceptions  occur  more  particularly  in  the 
genus  Zygnetna.  [Ztohxma.]  Several  species  of  Mottgeotia  are  found 
in  Great  Britain ;  the  most  common  is  the  M.  gem^kxOf  which  is 
abundant  in  pools  and  ditches,  sometimes  covering  a  space  30  or  40 
feet  in  diameter,  and  being  of  a  yeUowish-green  or  dull  yellow  colour. 
The  filaments  are  exceedingly  fragile. 

The  genus  Tyndaridea  hss  simple  filaments,  inosculating  hj 
transverse  tubes.  The  endochrome  is  in  two  roundish  mannfii,  which 
after  conjugation  unite  to  form  a  single  globule.  The  species  are 
found  in  ponds  and  ditches,  mostiy  oonunencing  their  existence  at 
the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  after  a  littie  time  rising  to  the  surface, 
where  they  form  masson  varying  in  size,  of  a  yellowish  and  yellowish- 
green  colour. 

The  Ulvacea  include  plants  which  are  found  in  the  sea,  in  fresh- 
water, or  on  the  damp  ground :  they  are  generally  of  an  herbaceous 
green  or  fine  purple  colour,  and  have  a  thin,  tender,  membranaceotu, 
reticulated  structure,  rarely  gelatinous ;  they  are  generally  furnished 
with  a  very  minute  scutate  root,  which  is  either  expanded  or  tubular 
and  continuous ;  the  reproductive  organs  consist  of  roundish,  mostly 
quatemate  granules,  or  minute  opercular  grains,  which  are  imbedded 
in  the  delicate  membtane  of  the  plant  This  order  contains  about 
ten  genera,  of  which  the  five  following  are  British  i—Porphyra,  Ulva, 
Tetraaporot  Enieromorpha,  and  Bangia, 

Porphyra  (from  wofipiiptos),  the  Purple  Laver,  has  a  plain  frond, 
exceedingly  thin,  and  of  a  purple  colour.  The  reproductive  organs 
are  of  two  kinds: — 1,  Roundish  granules  arranged  in  foun,  and 
imbedded  in  the  whole  substance  of  the/rond ;  2,  Masses  of  smaller 
ovate  granules,  which  are  scattered  without  order,  chiefly  towards  the 
margin  of  tiie  frond.  Four  species  of  the  Purple  Laver  are  enums' 
rated.  The  most  common  is  the  Porphyra  laeiniatOf  which  has  its 
fronds  sggregatedand  deeply  cleft>  the  segments  dilated,  and  variously 
out  and  waved.  This  plant  is  common  in  the  sea  fix>m  spring  to 
autumn,  and  grows  on  rocks  and  stones,  whence  it  is  often  torn  by 
the  violence  of  the  waves,  and  thrown  on  the  shore.  The  frond  of  this 
plant  abounds  in  a  viscid  gelatinous  matter,  which  is  said  to  be  vei7 
nutritious.  On  this  account  this  plant,  under  the  name  of  Laver,  is 
much  eaten  in  many  places,  especially  the  south  of  England.  When 
collected,  it  is  kept  in  jara  with  salt,  and  when  brought  to  the  table 
is  served  up  with  lemon-juice.  Dr.  Lightfoot  states  that  in  the 
Western  Isles  it  is  gathered  in  the  month  of  March,  and  that,  when 
pounded  and  macerated  with  a  little  water,  the  inhabitants  eat  it  with 
pepper,  vinegar,  and  butter.  It  is  sometimes  stewed  with  leeks  and 
onions.  But  although  this  plant  is  abundant  enough,  it  is  only  ver^ 
partially  used  as  an  article  of  diet 

Ulva  the  Green  Laver,  has  a  membranaceous  frond  of  a  green  colour 


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with  its  reproductive  granules  arraDged  in  fours.  There  are  seven 
British  species  of  Ulva :  three  growing  in  the  sea,  one  in  fresh  water, 
and  three  in  damp  places  on  the  land. 

U.  latitnmaf  the  Broad  Qreen  Laver,  has  a  plain,  widely-oblong  or 
roundish  frond,  waved,  and  of  a  green  oolotur  and  tender  substance. 
It  is  an  abundant  plant  on  the  rocks  and  stones  of  the  sea  in  sununer 
and  autumn.  In  common  with  U.  Ltictuca,  the  Lettuce  Qreen  Laver, 
it  is  gathered  and  eaten  in  the  same  way  as  the  Purple  Laver.  It  is 
also  known  under  the  name  of  Oyster  Green.  This  plant  is  populsrly 
supposed  to  be  good  for  scrofulous  habits.  It  is  sometimes  applied  to 
the  forehead  to  relieve  headache  in  fevers,  and  also  to  procure  sleep. 
U.  buUoBO,  the  Blistered  Green  Laver,  is  the  fresh-water  species.  It 
has  an  obovate,  saccate  frt>nd,  which  is  gelatinous,  and  at  length 
becomes  irregularly  expanded,  waved,  and  buBate.  It  is  a  veiy  fre- 
quent plant  in  stagnant  pools  and  ditches  of  fresh  water,  often  covering 
Uie  ^hole  suifaoe  of  the  water,  and  giving  it  the  appearance  of  being 
in  a  state  of  fermentation.  Microscopically  examined,  this  is  an  object 
of  no  common  beau^ ;  it  seems  as  if  composed  of  little  green  balls, 
about  as  big  as  the  blood-ceUs  in  the  human  blood,  having  no  sort  of 
adhesion  with  each  other,  but  holding  together  by  a  transparent  thin 
jelly.  It  is  by  these  little  green  baUs,  or  by  the  matter  they  contain, 
that  the  Ulva  is  propagated.  The  ocftnmon  Laver  of  the  shops  very 
nearly  resembles  it,  but  is  a  marine  spedes.  The  terrestrial  species 
of  l/Zva  are  found  growing  on  walls,  roc^  the  roo&  of  thatched  houses, 
and  especially  in  places  exposed  to  much  moisture.  U.  thermaUa  grows 
in  hot^rings  at  a  temperature  of  117**  Fahrenheit. 

The  genus  Tetnupora,  named  ttom  the  qiiatemary  arrangement  of 
its  granules,  inhabits  fresh  water,  and  includes  two  British  species. 
The  frt>nda  are  tubular  or  inflated,  and  gelatinous. 

The  Bntenmorpha,  Water-Gut,  has  a  tubular,  hollow,  membra- 
naoeouA  frond,  of  a  green  colour  and  reticulated  structure;  the 
reproductive  granules  are  arranged  in  threes  or  fours  in  the  reticu- 
lations. Seven  or  eight  species  of  this  genus  have  been  described  as 
British.  They  are  lul  inhabitants  of  the  sea»  or  of  pools  and  ditches 
of  salt-water,  with  the  exception  of  E.  intettinaliBf  which  is  also  found 
in  fresh- water  pools.  All  the  species  are  long,  varying  from  two  or 
ihne  inches  to  three  feet  in  length,  and  whoi  floating  in  the  water 
very  much  resemble  the  intestines  of  an  animal — Whence  their  name. 

Bangia  was  named  after  Hoflbnan  Bang;  a  Danish  naturalist,  who 
wrote  a  work  on  the  (kmderwz.  It  has  a  flat,  capillary,  membranaceous 
frond,  of  a  green,  reddish,  or  purple  colour. 

The  order  OteiUaioriacece  is  composed  of  plants  which  are  green  or 
brown  in  colour,  with  continuous  tubular  filaments,  seldom  branched, 
though  often  joined  together  so  as  to  appear  brandied.  The  fructifi- 
cation consists  of  an  internal  mass  divided  bv  transverse  septa,  finally 
separating  into  roundish  or  lenticular  sporidia.  This  tribe  of  plants, 
like  the  others,  is  found  wherever  there  is  water,  and  is  more  abundant 
in  fr-esh  water  than  in  the  sea.  There  are  however  many  of  them 
found  in  the  sea,  and  also  in  mineral-waters  Many  of  the  species, 
especially  of  OtcQitUoria,  are  endowed  with  a  power  of  movmg  so 
appuren^y  spontaneous,  that  some  naturalists  have  placed  them  among 
animals,  as  well  as  the  more  minute  forms  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
order  A  Iga,  Captain  Carmidhael,  who  devoted  much  attention  to  this 
subject,  has  made  the  following  observations,  which  were  published 
frtmi  among  his  MSS.  by  Mr.  Harvey : — "  I  have  been  induced  to 
bestow  considerable  attention  on  such  of  the  species  as  fell  under  my 
notice,  on  account  of  the  singnlar  motion  remarked  in  the  filaments 
hy  various  naturalists ;  and  I  do  confess  that  the  result  is  something 
like  conviction  that  they  belong  rather  to  the  animal  than  to  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  This  motion  or  osdllaidon  has  been  attributed 
to  various  causes — ^to  the  rapidity  of  growth,  to  the  action  of  the 
light,  or  to  the  agitation  of  the  water  m  which  the  specimens  were 
immersed  for  inspection;  but  none  of  these  afford  a  satis&ctory 
explanation.  The  last  may  be  put  to  the  proof  by  a  very  simple  con- 
trivance. Let  a  small  portion  of  the  stratum  be  placed  in  a  watch- 
glaas  nearly  filled  with  water,  and  covered  with  a  circular  film  of  talc, 
so  that  its  edge  may  touch  the  glass ;  the  water  will  be  rendered  as 
fixed  as  if  it  was  a  piece  of  ice.  The  g^ass  may  now  be  placed  under 
the  microscope,  and  the  oscillation  of  the  filaments  viewed  without 
an^  risk  of  disturbance  from  the  agitation  of  the  water.  Bjr  following 
this  course  it  will  be  speedily  perceived  that  the  motion  m  question 
is  entirely  independent  of  that  cause.  The  action  of  light  as  a  cause 
of  motion  cannot  be  disproved,  because  we  cannot  view  our  spedmens 
in  the  dark ;  but  indirectly  there  is  nothing  easier.  If  a  watch-glass 
ehaiged  as  above  be  laid  aside  for  a  night,  it  will  be  found  that  by 
next  morning  not  only  a  considerable  radiation  has  taken  place,  but 
that  multitudes  of  the  filaments  have  entirely  escaped  from  the 
stratum ;  both  indicating  motion  independent  of  light  Rapidity  of 
growth  will  show  itself  in  a  prolongation  of  the  filaments,  but  will 
not  account  for  this  oscillation  to  the  rig^t  and  left,  and  still  less  for 
their  travelling  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  to  the  distance  of  ten 
times  their  own  length  from  the  stratum.  This  last  is  a  kind  of  motion 
unexampled,  I  believe,  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  There  is  another 
point  in  the  natural  historv  of  the  Otcillatoriea,  which  favours  the 
opinion  that  they  are  animalcules.  It  is  the  extremely  linlited  term 
of  their  existence.  The  commimity,  if  I  may  so  call  it,  lives  for  several 
months ;  but  the  individuals  die  off,  and  are  succeeded  by  others  with 
a  rapidity  to  which  there  ib  no  parallel  among  genuine  plants.    If  a 


small  portion  of  stratum,  say  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  be  left 
for  three  or  four  days  in  a  watch-glass  filled  with  water,  the  whole 
area  of  the  glass  will  be  found  coveiod  with  a  thin  transparent  pellicle 
or  incipient  stratum,  derived  from  the  filaments  that  had  successively 
radiat^  and  died  in  the  course  of  that  short  period." 

There  are  sevcoal  genera  in  the  order  (keilUUoriacece>-^8tiff(mema 
has  cylindrical,  cartilaginous,  branched,  inarticulate  filaments,  inclu- 
ding granules  ranged  in  transverse  dotted  rings.  Scytonema  has 
branched,  fiacdd,  tough,  continuous,  tubular  filaments,  with  brown 
or  olive-«oloured  endochrome,  which  is  transversely  striated,  and  at 
length  separates  at  the  strise  into  lenticular  sporidia.  Calothrix  has 
erect  tufted  or  fasciculate  filaments  destitute  of  a  mucous  layer, 
fixed  at  the  base,  somewhat  rigid,  without  oscillation.  The  tube  is 
continuous,  and  the  endochrome  is  at  length  dissolved  into  lenticular 
sporidia.  Many  of  the  species  of  Calothrix  are  parasitical  on  other 
plants.  It  is  to  this  genus  that  the  Conferva  nwea  of  Dillwyn  belongs. 
It  is  the  Calothrix  nivea  of  Agardh.  This  plant  is  remarkable  for  its 
habitat  in  springs  impregnated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  It  was 
first  found  in  the  sulphur-springs  of  Croft  in  Yorkshire,  by  Dr.  Willan. 
and  has  since  been  found  bv  other  obanrvers.  Dr.  Daub^ny  found  it 
in  many  of  the  sulphur-springs  of  the  Continent,  and  Dr.  Lankester 
collected  specimens  at  Mofiat,  Harrowgate,  Askem,  and  other  places 
where  there  were  springs  impregnated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 
The  decomposition  of  this  plant,  probably  mixed  with  the  remains  of 
other  organic  beings  inhabiting  the  springs,  has  led  to  the  supposition 
that  the  springs  in  which  it  was  found  contained  a  pseudo-organic 
matter  whi(^lias  beoi  called  by  the  names  of  Baregine,  zoogene,  and 
^airine.  This  was  the  opinion  of  the  late  Professor  Anglada ;  but 
Dr.  Lankester,  having  been  able  to  form  glairine  by  the  decomposition 
of  the  filaments  of  Calothrix  nivea,  renders  it  probable  that  there  are 
no  compounds  in  mineral-waters,  except  the  8alti^  which  have  not 
been  derived  from  plants  or  animalcules  inhabiting  the  waters. 
('Annals  of  Nat.  Hist,'  1841 ;  '  Notice  of  Plants  and  Animals  found 
in  Sulphureous  Waters,'  by  K  Lankester,  MD.)  The  genus  Lyngbya 
has  froe,  flexible,  elongated,  continuous,  decumbent  filaments,  destitute 
of  a  mucous  layer;  the  endochrome  densely  annulated,  and  separating 
at  the  annuli  into  lenticular  sporidia.  This  genus  was  named  after 
H.  C.  Lyngbye,  a  Danish  botanist,  and  author  of  a  work  on  the  Alga 
of  Denmark.  Some  of  the  species  are  vexy  common.  The  L.  muroZu 
is  found  almost  on  every  damp  wall  or  walk,  forming  an  intensely 
green  stratum  of  indefinite  extent,  which  is  very  conspicuous  after  a 
shower  of  rain.  Other  species  are  parasitic  upon  some  of  the  Fwsi 
and  are  found  in  the  sea. 

The  genus  OtciUatoria  has  rigid,  elastic,  oscillating,  simple, 
continuous  filaments,  which  are  invested  by  a  common  mucous 
matrix.  The  species  are  veiy  numerous,  but  many  of  them  are  very 
difficult  to  Hinf.iTigniph,  They  are  not  all  found  immersed  in  water, 
but  always  occupy  damp  places.  The  0.  ieMiisnma  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  warm  springs  of  Bath,  occupying  broad  velvet-like  patches  of  a 
dark  green  colour.  Its  if^^giiUr  appearance.  Sir  J.  E.  Smith  observes, 
**  arises  from  Ihe  filaments  being  collected  together  into  little  ascending 
tufts,  apJNtfently  rooted  in  the  muddy  deposit  of  the  water.  Eatik 
tuft  proves^  on  examination,  to  consist  of  simple,  reniform,  even 
filaments,  crowded  together,  and  quite  pellucid  and  equally  destitute 
of  joints  and  branches ;  their  diameter  is  not  more  than  an  8-lOOOth 
or  10-lOOOth  piurt  of  an  inch." 


OtciUatoria  dittorta,    o,  natural  sise ;  &,  e,  magnifled. 

The  order  Nogtocacea  consists  of  plants  with  elliptical  or  globose  cells 
connected  in  gelatinous  moniliform  strings.  The  filaments  are  separate, 
or  several  are  united  together  in  a  gelatinous  frond.  The  cells  com- 
posing the  filaments  are  of  two  kinds;  first,  a  set  of  a  bright  green 
colour,  which  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  filaments,  and 
secondly,  solitary  cells  of  different  form  and  size  to  the  lost,  destitute 
of  colour,  and  covered  with  ciha.  They  occur  at  intervals  m  all  the 
filaments,  and  are  caUed  'connecting  cells,'  or  'heterocysts.'  They 
probably   represent    the    antheridia    in    the   higher  plants.      Tb^ 


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ALGiE.  FOSSIL. 


ALLIGATOR. 


130 


lioaiocacea  are  chiefly  found  in  fresh-water  streamB  and  damp 
ditches. 

The  Palmdlaeea  are  amongst  the  lowest  forms  of  the  Alffce.  They 
consist  of  globose  or  elliptical  cells,  which  are  more  or  less  distinct, 
and  are  coUected  together  by  means  of  a  string-layer  into  a  fh>nd. 
The  genus  Protoeoecut  has  only  one  species,  the  P.  tUvaiis.  This  little 
plant  has  gained  a  large  share  of  attention  on  account  of  its  being 
supposed  at  one  time  to  be  the  cause  of  red  snow.  Now  however  the 
animal  kingdom  has  put  in  a  claim  for  a  share  in  the  production  of 
this  phenomenon.  [Skow.  Red.]  Most  of  the  species  of  MctmatoeoecuM 
are  of  a  red  colour,  and  give  an  appearance  like  that  of  blood  to  the 
rocks  on  which  t^ey  grow.  These  appearances  have  often  been 
regarded  with  a  superstitious  eye,  and  looked  upon  as  warnings  or 
omens  from  Heaven.  One  of  the  species  of  PalmeUa,  the  P.  etntefUOf 
has  a  dark  blood-red  colour,  and  on  that  accoimt  has  been  called  'gory 
dew.'  It  occurs  on  white-washed  walls,  especially  in  damp  cellars ; 
and  in  such  situations  has  sometimes  given  occasion  for  alarm,  on 
account  of  its  having  the  appearance  of  stains  of  blood.  The  other 
vpecies  of  Palmetta  have  various  colours,  as  yellow,  green,  and  black. 
They  are  fotmd  in  fresh  water  streams  and  on  rocks  on  the  seanshore. 

(Harvey,  Britith  Marine  Alga;  Hooker,  Briiiah  Flora;  Agardh, 
Speciea  Alga/rwn  ;  Greville,  Alga  JBritannica ;  Lindley,  Vegetable 
Kingdom;  Hassall,  FreaJi-Water  Algce;  Burnett^  (huUnee  of  Botany.) 
ALGM,  FOSSIL.  The  remains  of  sea-weeds  in  a  fossil  state  are 
less  common  than  their  probable  abundance  in  the  ancient  ocean  and 
the  generally  marine  origin  of  the  strata  might  lead  us  to  suppose. 
This  arises  perhaps  from  the  cellular  texture  and  destructible  nature 
of  the  marine  plants.  Traces  however  of  several  genera  occur  in 
Silurian,  Carbomferous,  liaasic,  Oolitic,  Cretaceous,  and  later  deposits. 
ALGAROBA  BEAN.    [Cbratoitia.] 

ALHAGI  (from  the  Arabic  Aghul  or  Algti^,  a  genus  of  plailts 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Legwninoia^  The  species  are  imder- 
shrubs  or  herbs  with  simple  leaves  and  minute  stipules.  The  flowers 
are  red,  and  disposed  in  racemes  along  the  peduncles. 

A.  Maurorvm  is  a  native  of  the  deserts  of  Egypt»  Syria,  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  other  countries  of  the  East.  This  pluit  yields  a  species  of 
manna  which  is  called  Trungibin  or  Terengabin.  It  is  chiefly  gathered 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tauris  where  the  plant  grows  abundantly. 
The  manna  is  a  natural  exudation  from  the  leaves  and  branches  of 
the  plants  and  is  most  abimdant  during  hot  weather.  In  Arabia  it  is 
supposed  that  the  manna  falls  from  heaven  on  the  plant.  It  flrst 
appears  in  the  form  of  a  small  drop  as  of  honey,  which  goes  on 
increasing  in  size  till  it  is  about  as  large  as  a  coriander  seed.  The 
manna  yielded  by  this  plant  does  not  appear  to  be  imported  into  this 
country.  It  is  principally  made  use  of  a^  the  present  day  in  Persia, 
and  is  known  by  the  name  of  Persian  MamuL  It  is  employed  as  food 
for  cattle.  Two  other  species,  A.  Camdonun  and  A.  Nipoudenaitf  are 
described  by  botanists,  and  cultivated  in  the  greenhouses  of  this 
country.  Tiiey  also  yield  mamuL 
ALISMA.    [ALiaifAOSJE.] 

ALISMA'CEiE,  a  natural  order  of  plants  belonging  to  the  class 
Endogent,    It  is  known  from  all  the  other  orders  of  the  same  division 

by  its  genera  having  the 
sepals  and  petals  perfectly 
distinguishable  from  each 
other  both  in  colour  ahd 
situation,  and  by  their 
carpels  being  extremely 
numeroua  In  many  points 
they  approach  very  nearly 
to  the  Crowfoot  Tribe 
(Ranwnculaeea),  from  which 
the  structure  of  their 
embryo  «nd  their  endoge- 
nous ioo49  o|  growth  dis- 
tinguish  tiiem. 

All  the  species  are  aquatic 
plants,  witii  rather  broad- 
ribbed  leaves  and  white 
flowers.  They  appear  to 
be  destitute  of  any  active 
properties,  except  a  slight 
degree  of  acridity,  which 
»  however  does  not  prevent 
the  rhizoma  of  some  of  them 
from  being  eaten  in  China. 

The    order    receives   its 

name  from  the  genus  A  litma, 

one     species     of    .which, 

Aliema  PUsiUago.  a  common 

Great  Water  Plantain  {Ali»ma  Plantago),  .  ^^  ^^j^^  ^^  q^^^  Britain, 

in  wet  ditches  and  by  river  sides,  has  had  the  imfounded  reputation 
of  being  a  cure  for  hydrophobia.  Its  powdered  root  is  given  in  doses 
of  from  half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm,  either  infused  in  wine  or  mixed 
with  syrup. 

ALKANET.    [Ahohusa.] 

ALLAGITE,  in  Mineralogy,  is  a  variety  of  the  tri-sHicate  of 
Manganese. 


ALLALITE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  variety  of  Dioptide  or  Pyroxene, 
[Ptboxbwe.] 

ALL  AMANDA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
ApocynacefB,  It  was  named  after  Frederick  Allamand,  a  surgeon  who 
travelled  in  Guiana,  in  1769,  and  afterwards  in  Russia.  He  was  a 
correspondent  of  Linnasus. 

The  specie8x>f  this  genus  are  shrubs  yielding  ^  milky  jvioe,  with 
yerticillate  leaves,  and  many-flowered  peduncles  of  large  yellow  flowers. 
They  are  worthy  of  cultivation  on  acooimt  of  the  beauty  of  their 
flowers  and  foliage.  They  are  all  natives  of  South  America,  azid  when 
cultivated  require  a  strong  moist  heat  to  make  them  flower  freely. 

An  infusion  of  the  leaves  of  A,  cathartica  is  said  to  aci  as  a 
powerful  purgative,  and  an  overdose  to  produce  poisonous  efiectai 

ALLANITE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  synonyme  of  Orthiiey  which  is  one 
of  the  silicates  of  cerium  mixed  with  other  substances.    [Obthits.] 

ALLIGATOR,  a  name  originally  given  by  the  British  Co^oniBta  of 
ihe  Southern  States  of  the  North  JUnerican  Union,  to  a  large  specie? 
of  reptile  closely  resembling  the  Crocodile  of  Egypt,  but  which 
modem  researches  have  shown  to  possess  characters  generically  dififering 
from  those  of  that  animal  The  word  is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption 
of  an  old  Indian  name.  According  to  its  modem  acceptation  among 
zoologists,  the  name  is  no  longer  confined  to  the  q>ecie8  most 
commonly  found  in  Carolina,  Louisiana,  and  the  other  Southern 
States  of  the  Union ;  but  it  is  applied  generically  to  all  the  other 
American  species  which  agree  with  it  in  its  most  prominent  and 
influential  characters,  and  which  have  been  called  Caymans,  Jacar^ 
&C.,  by  the  Spaniards,  Portuguese,  and  Indians  of  South  America. 
The  characters  which  are  proper  to  the  Alligators,  and  by  which  ^ey 
are  distinguished  from  the  Crocodiles  of  the  Old  World,  are  by  no 
means  of  such  importance  with  respect  to  Uie  influence  they  may  be 
reasonably  supposed  to  have  upon  the  habits  and  economy  of  these 
animals  as  to  warrant  the  formation  of  these  reptiles  into  a  distinct 
and  separate  genus :  their  manners  and  habits  are  precisely  thoee  of 
the  true  crocodiles,  and  if  they  differ  in  certain  minor  details  of 
stracture,  this  difference  should  be  considered  not  as  a  generic  charac- 
ter, but  as  purely  spedfia 

M.  Cuvier  thus  diotinguishes  the  Alligators  from  the  true  Crocodiles : 
"The  alligators  have  the  head  less  oblong  than  the  crocodiles;  its 
length  is  to  its  breadth,  measured  at  the  articulation  of  the  jaws,  as 
throe  to  two ;  the  teeth  are  unequal  in  length  and  size ;  there  are  at 
least  19,  sometimes  even  as  many  as  22,  on  each  side  in  the  lower  jaw, 
and  19  or  20  in  the  upper.  The  front  teeth  of  the  imder  jaw  pierce 
through  the  upper  at  a  certain  age,  and  the  fourth  from  the  front, 
which  are  the  longest  of  all,  enter  into  corresponding  holes  of  the 
upper  jaw,  in  which  they  are  concealed  when  the  mouth  is  dosed 
The  hind  legs  and  feet  are  round  and  neither  fringed  nor  pectinated 
on  the  sides;  the  toes  are  not  completely  webbed,  the  connecting 
membrane  only  extending  to  their  middle;  and  finally,  the  post- 
orbital  holes  of  the  cranium,  so  conspicuous  in  the  tme  crocodiles, 
are  veiy  minute  in  the  alligators,  or  even  entirely  wanting."  The 
Crocodiles,  properly  so  called,  on  the  contrary,  have  the  head  at  least 
twice  as  long  as  it  is  broad ;  15  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  lower  jaw, 
and  19  on  each  side  of  the  upper.  The  incisor  or  front  teeth,  as  in 
the  alligators,  pieroe  through  the  upper  jaw,  at  a  certain  age,  but  the 
fourth  or  lai^gest  of  the  lower  jaw,  instead  of  being  received  into  a 
corresponding  hole  of  the  upper,  passes  into  a  notch  on  each  side  of 
it;  and  finally,  the  hind  feet  are  bordered  by  a  denticulated  fringe, 
and  the  toes  are  completely  united  by  a  swinmung  membrane. 

The  characters  here  reported  as  peculiar  to  the  alligators  and  croco- 
diles respectively,  are  evidently  not  of  sufilcient  iivportance  to  exert 
any  very  sensible  influence  upon  their  general  economy.  Of  the 
characters  and  organic  modifications  which  they  possess  in  cominon, 
the  principal  is  the  long  taper  tail,  strongly  compressed  on  the  sides, 
and  surmounted  towards  its  origin  with  a  double  series  of  keel-shaped 
plates,  forming  two  upright  denticulated  crests^  which,  gradually  con- 
verging towards  the  midSe  of  the  tail,  there  unite  and  form  a  single  row 
to  the  extremity.  Its  great  sLse,  and  laterally-compreased  form,  render 
the  tail  an  organ  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  crocodiles  and 
alligators :  it  is  troe  that  its  weight  materially  impedes  their  motkns 
on  dry  land,  but  it  is  a  most  powerful  instrument  of  progression  in  the 
water,  and  influences  the  aquatic  habits  of  these  animals  much  more 
than  their  webbed  feet  The  latter  character,  indeed,  is  comparatively 
of  little  weight :  the  hind  feet  are  only  used  to  aarist  the  progression 
in  slow  and  gentle  motion,  but  in  all  sudden  and  violent  actions  the 
tail  alone  is  the  active  instrument;  and  even  when  the  animal  is 
surprised  on  land,  as  we  are  assured  by  Adanson,  it  becomes  a 
powerful  weapon  of  offeiyse.  The  compression  of  the  tail  is  not 
peculiar  among  reptiles  to  crocodiles,  though  so  powerfully  influencing 
their  habits ;  but  the  second  character  wmch  is  common  to  the  entire 
genus,  namely,  the  palmated  or  semi-palmated  hind  feet,  is  exhibited 
by  no  other  genus  of  reptiles,  though  all  are  more  or  leas  addicted  to  an 
aquatic  life.  This  f&ct  sufficientiy  demonstrates  the  small  influence 
which  the  palmated  form  of  the  extremities  exerts  upon  tiie  economy 
of  these  animals  in  general  Still  this  character  is  by  no  means  devoid 
of  importance,  though  in  proportion  to  its  utility  in  aquatic  progroosion 
it  renders  the  terrestrial  motions  of  the  animals  extreme^  slow  and 
awkward ;  and  this  effect  is  still  farther  increased  by  the  length  and 
weight  of  the  tail  at  one  end,  and  by  the  jmatomioal  structore  of  tho 


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ALLIGATOR. 


ALLIGATOR. 


1S2 


neck  at  the  other.  Each  of  the  cervical  yertebrsB  haa  on  either  aide  a 
specieB  of  fiAlae  rib,  and  their  meeting  at  the  extremities  along  the  whole 
zieck  completely  hinders  the  animal  finom  taming  its  head  to  either  side, 
and  renders  all  ita  morements  stiff  and  constrained  Neither  is  the  jmce 
of  the  crocodiles  on  land  so  swifb  as  to  make  them  objects  of  fear  to 
ordinary  quadrupeds ;  a  man  can  easily  outstrip  them,  and  so  sensible 
are  these  animals  of  their  own  inferiority  in  this  respect^  that  they 
immediately  retreat  to  their  more  congenial  element  upon  the  most 
distant  appearance  of  the  human  species. 

The  ouer  general  characters  of  the  crocodiles  and  alligators  consist 
in  their  long  flat  heads,  thick  neck  and  bodies,  protected  by  regular 
transverse  rows  of  square  bony  plates  or  shields,  elevated  in  the 
centre  into' keel-shaped  ridges,  and  disposed,  on  the  back  of  the  neck, 
into  groups  of  different  forms  and  numbers,  according  to  the  species. 
The  mouth  is  extremely  large,  extending  considerably  behind  the  eyes, 
and  furnished  in  each  jaw  with  a  single  row  of  conical  teeth,  all  of 
different  sizes,  and  standing  apart  from  one  anotiier :  these  are  Ixollow 
within,  and  never  vary  in  number,  but  are  successively  pushed  out  and 
replaced  by  others  of  laiger  dimensions,  as  the  animals  increase  in  age 
and  size.  The  tongue  is  shorti  and  fleshy,  and  attached  to  the  under 
jaw  throughout  its  whole  extent.  It  is  consequently  incapable  of 
protrusion,  and  from  its  small  size  and  backward  position  seldom  seen 
even  when  the  animal  opens  its  mouth,  which  circumstance  occasioned 
the  belief  so  universally  prevalent  among  the  andents,  that  the  croco- 
dile was  altogether  deprived  of  this  organ.  The  eyes  are  placed  on 
the  upper  surface  of  tiie  skull,  are  much  approximated  towards  one 
anofther,  and  provided  each  with  three. distinct  lids  :  the  nostrils  form 
a  long  narrow  canal,  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle ;  the  ears 
are  dosed  externally  by  two  fleshy  valves,  and  beneath  the  throat  are 
two  small  pouches  or  glands,  wmch  open  externally  and  contain  a 
muaky  sub^ance^  Finally,  the  feet  are  provided  with  five  toes  before, 
long  and  separate,  and  four  behind,  more  or  less  perfectly  united  by 
membranes :  of  these,  the  three  interior  alone  on  each  foot  are  pro- 
vided with  daws,  so  that  the  two  outer  toes  on  the  fore-feet,  and  one 
on  the  hind,  are  constantly  olawless. 

Habitt  of  the  AUiffotor. — It  is  reported  by  Pliny,  that  the  Egyptian 
crocodile  retires  to  a  secret  cave  or  hiding-place,  on  the  approach  of 
winter,  and  spends  three  or  four  of  the  coldest  months  in  a  state  of 
lethaigy,  and  without  taking  any  food :  this  phenomenon,  usually 
called  l^bemation,  is  almost  universal  among  reptiles  and  serpents, 
at  least  in  temperate  and  high  latitudes,  and  has  been  repeatedly 
observed  with  regard  to  the  alligators.  On  the  approach  of  the  cold 
season  these  i^wirnnlw  bury  themselves  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of 
some  stagnant  pond,  where  they  remain  concealed  and  inactive  tiU 
the  return  of  spring.  Travellers  assure  us  that  they  are  never  to  be 
found  in  running  streams,  but  that  they  frequent  in  preference  some 
stagnant  pend  or  the  creeks  of  laige  rivers.  Here  they  may  be  seen 
in  almost  oountiess  multitudes,  for  they  are  extremely  numerous  in 
the  remote  unfrequented  parts  of  South  America,  protruding  their 
large  flat  heads  through  the  leaves  of  the  Nymphcea,  PorUederiaf  and 
other  aquatic  plants  which  cover  the  aaifauce  of  the  water,  and 
watching  for  prey ;  or  sometimes  basking  in  the  sun  or  sleeping  on 
the  banks.  They  never  come  on  shore,  except  during  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day,  and  always  retire  to  the  water  on  the  approach  of 
night,  during  which  time  they  are  extremely  active  in  search  of 
prey.  Their  food  oonsists  principally  of  fish,  and  it  is  conjectured 
by  some  physiologists,  that  the  musky  fluid,  secreted  by  the  glands 
mider  the  throat,  acts  as  a  kind  of  bait  to  attract  their  i»ey.  The 
alligators  are  seldom  known  to  attack  the  human  species,  unless  in 
defence  of  their  eggs  or  yotmg;  the  females  of  these  reptiles  are 
reported  to  exhibit  a  much  stronger  degree  of  maternal  afifection  for 
their  offspring  than  usually  belongs  to  their  class.  They  generally 
lay  from  fldfty  to  sixty  eggs  in  <me  place,  of  about  the  same  size  as 
those  of  a  goose,  which  they  oover  up  with  sand,  and  leave  to  be 
batched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun;  never  however  removing  to  any 
great  distance.  When  the  young  ones  come  forth,  they  are  about 
five  or  six  inches  long;  and  are  immediately  conducted  to  the 
water  by  the  female  alligator.  Seldom  more  than  half  the  entire 
brood  live  to  reach  the  water.  Many  are  destroyed  while  in  the  egg. 
The  vultures  waylay  and  watch  the  female  alligator  when  she  goes 
ashore  to  deposit  her  eggs^  which  they  scratch  up  and  devour  as  soon 
as  she  retires.  Nimibers  of  them  also  fall  a  prey  to  the  grown  males 
of  their  own  spedee,  and  to  various  descriptions  of  ravenous  fishes 
which  greedily  devour  them.  The  Indians  eat  the  flesh  of  the 
alligatotB,  notwithstcviding  its  strong  musky  flavour;  and  even  Euro- 
peans, who  have  suooeeded  in  overcoming  tikeir  prejudices  so  far  as  to 
partake  of  it^  report  it  to  be  both  delicate  and  savoury.  A  single 
peculiarity  of  habit  seems  to  distinguish  the  alligators  from  the  real 
crocodiles :  the  former  never  leave  the  fresh  water,  whilst  the  latter 
are  known  to  frequent  tiie  mouths  of  laige  rivers,  and  even  to  pass 
between  different  islands,  at  considerable  distances  from  one  another ; 
and  so  perfectly  is  this  chancteristic  of  the  two  sub-genera»  that  the 
'crocodile  of  the  West  India  Islands  differs  from  all  the  other  American 
spedes,  and  exhibits  only  those  modifications  which  properly  belong 
to  those  of  the  Old  World- 
It  was  only  at  the  conmienoement  of  the  present  century  that  the 
different  spedes  of  alligators  were  properly  distinguished  from  one 
another,  or  even  that  tiiey  were  suspected  to  be  specifically  different 


from  the  crocodile  of  the  Nile.  This  distinction  is  entirely  duo  to  the 
late  Baron  Cuvier,  and  since  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  of  his 
work  'Sur  les  Osaemens  Fossiles'  little  further  addition  has  been 
made  to  the  subject.  He  enimierates  three  spedes,  which  he  has 
definitely  characterised ;  and  describes  a  fourth,  which  he  suspects  to 
be  distinct,  but  of  which  he  did  not  at  that  tiJoie  possess  a  suffident 
number  of  spedmens  to  enable  him  to  determine  the  question. 

1.     The  Alligator  {Orocodilus  Lucius,  Cuvier)  properly  so  called, 
which  inhabits  the  fresh  waters  of  the  Carolinas,  tiie  Mississippi,  and 
other  southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  of  whose  fierceness  and 
voradty  Bartram  has  related  such  extraordinary  accounts.    It  grows, 
according  to  Catesby,  to  the  length  of  14  or  15  feet,  the  head  being 
one-seventh  of  the  entire  length,  and  half  as  broad  at  the  articulation 
of  the  jaws  as  it  is  long.    It  appears  to  be  more  fierce  and  voradous 
than  the  South  American  species,  often  attacks  men  and  quadrupeds 
whilst  bathing  or  crossing  the  rivers,  and  is  even  said  to  prefer  the 
flesh  of  the  negro  to  all  other  food ;  probably  because  the  slave  is 
more  exposed  to  its  attacks  than  his  master.     The  alligators  prey 
chieny  by  night ;  they  assemble  in  vast  numbers,  besetting  the  mouth 
of  some  retired  creek  into  which  they  have  previously  driven  the  fish, 
and  bellowing  so  loud  that  they  may  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  a 
mile.     To  catch  the  fish  they  dive  imder  the  shoal,  and  having 
secured  one,  rise  to  the  surface,  toes  it  into  the  air  to  get  rid  of 
the  water  which   they  necessarily 
take  in  along  with  it,  and  catch  it 
again  in  its  descent.    When  how- 
ever  they  succeed  in  capturing  a  land 
animal,  which   is  too  laige  to  be 
swallowed  at  a  single  mou^ul,  thev 
oonceal  the  body  beneath  the  bank 
till  it  begins  to  putrefy,  for  as  their 
teeth  are  not  formed   for  cutting 
or  masticating,  they  are  unable  to 
tear  the  tough  flesh  in  its  fresh  state ; 
it  is  then  dragged  on  shore   and 
devoured  at  leisure.     When  about 
to  lav,  the  female  digs  a  deep  hole 
in    the    sand,    and    depodts    her 
eggs  in  layers,  separated  from  one 
another  hy   intervening   strata   of 
leaves    and  dry  grass.      It   would   * 
appear  that  she  lays  only  one  batch 
of  eggs   during  the  same  season, 
though  in  the  hotter  parts  of  South 
America,  if  the  report  of  Laborde  . 

is  to  be  depended  on,  the  Cayman,  I  ^ 

or  alligator  of  Surinam  and 
Cayenne,  lays  at  two  or  even  three  * 
different  periods  of  the  year;  but  Oerrical  rutca  of  Alligator, 
as  each  batch  is  said  to  consist  of  only  twenty  or  twenty-five  eggB,  it 
is  probable  that  the  whole  does  not  exceed  the  number  usually 
asdgned  to  the  common  alligator.  The  female  of  this  latter  spedes, 
it  is  said,  never  loses  sight  of  her  nest  till  the  young  are  hatched,  and 
for  months  afterwards  affords  them  the  most  unremitting  care  and 
protection. 

This  spedes  is  frequently  found  up  the  Missisdppi  hi^er  than  the 
Red  River.  In  general,  the  alligator  of  North  America  buries  himself 
under  the  mud,  at  the  bottom  of  the  swamps  and  matahes  which  he 
inhabits,  as  soon  as  the  cold  weather  fairly  sets  in,  and  continues  in  a 
lethargic  sleep  till  the  return  of  spring.  During  the  very  severe  frosts, 
sensation  is  so  completely  suspended,  that  the  b^^dy  of  the  animal  may 
be  cut  into  slices  without  dispelling  his  lethargy ;  yet  it  is  never  actually 
frozen,  and  the  partial  return  of  a  few  hours'  bright  sunshine  is  at  all 
times  suffident  to  restore  suspended  animation.  It  is  particularly  in 
the  rivers,  lagoons,  and  swamps  of  Florida,  G^igia,  South  CaroUna, 
and  Louisiana,  that  the  alligator  reaches  his  greatest  dimensions. 
Bartram  foimd  immense  numbers  of  alligators  and  fish  in  a  mineral 
spring  near  the  Musquito  River,  in  Flori<^  though  the  water,  at  ita 
exit  from  the  earth,  was  neariy  at  the  boiling  point,  and  strongly 
impregnated  with  copper  and  vitriol 

Beddea  the  characters  common  to  all  the  American  crocodiles,  this 
spedes  exhibits  the  following  modifications  which  distinguish  it  from 
others : — The  snout  is  flattened  on  its  upper  surfoce,  and  slightly  tuned 
upwards  at  the  extremity;  the  rides  of  it  are  nearly  parallel,  and  the 
nose  forms  a  regular  parabolic  curve.  It  was  this  similarity  to  the 
head  of  a  pike  that  gave  to  the  present  spedes  the  name  of  Orocodilus 
LueiuB,  or  the  Pike-Headed  Crocodile.  The  internal  rim  of  the  orbits 
is  large  and  protuberant,  but  without  being  united  by  a  transverae  crest 
as  in  the  CrocodUus  Mclcropc,  or  Spectaded  Alligator.  The  external 
openings  of  the  nostrils  are  separated  by  a  long  knob ;  the  skull  has 
two  shallow,  oblique,  oval  pits,  in  the  bottom  of  which  are  two  small 
holes.  On  the  back  of  the  neck  are  four  principal  plates,  elevated  in 
the  centre  into  keel-shaped  ridges ;  and  in  front  and  rear  of  these 
respectivdy,  two  smaller  ones  of  similar  fonn.  The  back  exhibits 
18  transverse  rows  of  similar  plates,  the  flrst  with  only  two  crests  or 
ridges,  then  two  with  four,  afterwards  three  with  six,  then  six  with 
eight,  then  again  two  with  six,  and  finally,  the  last  four  rows  with  four 
crests  each.    The  ridges  or  crests  on  the  body  are  of  nearly  equal  siz^ ; 


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ALLlaATOft. 


ALLIGATOR. 


those  of  the  tail  are  much  lai^r,  and  amount  to  88  in  all,  19  before  I  species  shows  not  the  slightest  trace  of  those  postorbital  perforatioas, 
the  union  of  the  two  lateral  series,  and  as  many  afterwards.  The  whidi  are  so  conspicuous  in  the  oroeodile  of  the  Nile^  and  moze  or 
eol  nir  is  a  deep  greenish-brown  aboTe,  and  light-yellow  on  the  under  { less  dereloped  in  all  tha  other  species* 


Trcnk  cf  the  lame ;  Tcntnl  upeet 


Ontline  of  the  head  and  uUerior  parts  of 
Cyoeodilut  Luciu$,  seen  ttom  ahore. 

sur&oe  of  the  body ;  the  sides  regularly  marked  with  alternate  bands 
of  both  these  colours. 

2.  The  Cayman  {CrocodUut  palpebroBut^Cnvier)  is  at  once  distinguished 
from  all  other  species  by  the  bony  structure  of  the  eyebrows,  which 
fonn  Utrge  knobs  of  the  size  of  a  man's  fist ;  and  by  the  small  extent 
of  the  membrane  connecting  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet,  which  in 
prepared  specimens  can  soanely  be  recognised.    The  skull  of  this 


This  is  the  oommon  species  of  Surinam  and  Ouiana :  it  is  there 
called  Cayman,  a  word  most  probably  of  natire  origin,  whilst  the 
following  species,  which  is  likewise  found  in  the  same  countries,  though 
its  more  appropriate  locality  would  appear  to  be  Brasil  and  Buenoci 
Ayres,  is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Crocodile.  The  Cayman  does 
not  attain  so  laige  a  size  as  the  other  species,  nor  will  he  venture  to 
attack  a  man  on  diy  land,  or  even  in  the  water,  so  long  as  he  keeps  hia 
legs  and  arms  in  motion.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  a  single 
layer,  and  after  covering  them  slightly  with  sand,  abandons  them 
to  the  vivifying  influence  of  the  tropical  sun,  wiUiout  taking  any 
further  charge  either  of  them  or  of  the  young  progeny. 

8.  The  CrocodUut  trigonatut  of  Sdhneider  is  a  species  of  crocodile^ 
exhibiting  all  the  peculiar  characters  which  properly  Hinfit^g^iiBh  the 
alligators  of  America,  and  yet  suspected  to  be  of  African  origin.  It  is 
even  so  closely  allied  in  form  and  general  characters  to  the  CavuMUh 


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ALLIGATOR, 


ALLIUliL 


IM 


that  Baron  Cuvier  hM  desoribed  it  as  a  mere  vsrietj  of  that  speciea. 
The  principal  diatinctiou  between  this  and  the  foregoing  species  consists 
in  a  ridge  which  rises  in  front  of  the  orbits,  and  runs  towards  the 
■nout^  and  a  small  notch  in  the  posterior  border  of  the  skull ;  the 
second  row  of  cervical  plates  is  lai^r  thfm  the  others,  and  towards  its 


Oerrical  PUtes  of  the  Cayman  Cenrical  Plates  of  C.iyigonaiw, 

{C.  palp^rotui.) 

middle  are  two  or  three  small  scales,  with  irregularly  diiposed  crests; 
the  ]ai;ge  ridges  assume  the  form  of  scalene  triangles,  which  gives  the 
whole  animal  a  rough  and  bristly  appearance ;  there  are  16  transverse 
bands  on  the  back,  the  number  of  plates  appearing  to  vary  according 
to  the  species,  and  from  19  to  2^  on  the  tail,  9  or  10  before  the  junction 
of  the  lateral  ridges,  and  from  10  to  17  afterwards.  Nothing  whatever 
is  known  of  the  manners  or  habits  of  this  species  or  variety. 

4.  The  Jacar^  {OrocodtUu  scUroptf  Schneider)  appears  to  be  spread 
over  the  whole  of  tropical  America,  but  is  more  especially  nimierous 
in  Brazil,  where  it  attains  a  very  large  size,  snd  is  found  in  all  the  rivers 
and  lakes.  Its  head  is  more  attenuated  than 
in  the  alligator  of  North  America ;  the  sides 
converging  towards  the  snout^  so  as  to  form 
very  nearly  an  isosceles  triangle ;  the  surface 
of  Uie  bones  of  the  skull  has  a  rough  scabrous 
appearance,  as  if  arising  from  disease ;  the 
orbits  of  the  eyes  are  surrounded  by  large 
prominent  rims  of  bone,  and  these  are.  con- 
nected together  by  an  intermediate  ridge, 
giving  the  whole  very  much  the  appearance 
of  a  pair  of  spectacles;  finally,  the  skuU  is 
pierced  by  two  very  smiall  holes  behind  the 
orbits.  The  cervical  plates  are  remarkably 
large;  they  are  arranged  in  four  transverse 
bands,  of  which  the  first  two  contain  four 
each,  and  each  of  t^e  others  two.  The 
transverse  bands  of  the  back  vary  according 
(o  age,  and  it  would  even  seem  according  to 
the  individual ;  they  most  commonly  consist 
of  two  rows,  vrith  two  plates  each,  four  with 
six,  five  with  ei^t»  two  with  six,  and  four 
with   four.      The   colour  of  the  animal  is 

greenish-brown   above,   marbled  irregularly  — — ^ 

with  diflTerent  ihades  of  green,  and  pale  Cervical  Plates  of  the  Jacar* 
gpeenish-yellow  below.      TWs  species  grows  ^  '  **  •^'^'•^ 

to  the  size  of  from  14  to  18  feet  in  length ;  the  whole  length  is  from 
eight  to  eight  and  a  half  times  that  of  the  head. 

The  Jacur^,  according  to  Azara,  are  never  known  to  attack  men,  or 
even  dogs,  in  passing  the  rivers,  unless  it  should  happen  to  be  near  the 
place  wha«  they  have  deposited  their  eggs ;  and  even  then,  they  are 
never  known  to  prey  upon  the  body,  contenting  themselves  with  the 
fish  and  water-fowl  which  they  find  so  plentiful  in  their  own  element 
During  the  night  they  are  exceedingly  active,  and  always  keep  in  the 
water,  showing  only  their  heads  above  the  surface,  but  towards  the 
middle  of  the  day  they  come  ashore  to  enjoy  the  heat  of  the  sim ; 
they  Uien  sleep  profoundly,  but  always  retreat  to  the  water  on  being 
disturbed.  The  eggs  are  about  the  size  of  those  of  a  goose ;  they  are 
white,  and  much  sought  after  by  the  free  Indians,  who  also  eat  the 
flesh  of  the  Jacar^  itself,  though  it  has  a  strong  musky  smell,  and 
scarcely  any  juice.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  sand  in  a 
single  layer,  and  covers  them  with  straw  or  leaves ;  few  of  them, 
however,  escape  the  quick  eye  of  the  vulture,  and  even  many  of  the 
young  fiiU  a  prey  to  the  fuU-grown  nudes,  which  at  the  period  of 
their  first  appearance,  in  the  hottest  part  of  summer,  are  puticularly 
fierce  and  ravenous,  the  marshes  which  they  inhabit  being  then  dried 
up,  and  tlieir  food  difi&cult  to  obtain.  This  species  appears  to  have 
pretty  neariy  the  same  range  towards  the  south  of  the  continenty  that 
the  aOigator,  or  pike-headed  crocodile,  has  to  the  north.  According 
to  Azara   it  is  never  found  beyond  82*  of  south  latitude.    Many 


interesting  facts  regarding  the  habits  of  this  species  are  recorded  in 
the  narratives  of  Prince  Maximilian,  Spix  and  Martius,  and  other 
Brazilian  travellers.    [Cbooodilia,  Sufplbmekt.] 

ALLIUM,  a  very  extensive  genus  of  bulbous  Monoootyledonous 
plants,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  LUiacete*  The  spedee  are 
all  remarkable  for  having,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  the  odour  of 
garlic,  and  for  the  agreeable  stimulating  efifects  that  acoompany  it 
For  this  reason  some  of  them  have  been  objects  of  cultivation  from 
the  highest  antiquity. 

As  'a  genus.  Allium  is  known  among  other  ZUiaeetBf  by  the 
flowen  growing  in  round  heads  or  umbels,  bv  the  perianth  being 
deeply  divided  into  six  spreading  lobes,  and  by  having  a  capsule  with 
three  angles,  three  valves,  and  ^ree  cells,  sometimes  so  deeply  lobed,  ' 
as  to  have  the  appearance  of  six  cells.  The  number  of  species  is  vtery 
considerable;  they  are  almost  exclusively  natives  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and  are  principallv  found  wild  in  the  meadows  and  groves 
of  Europe,  in  the  north  of  Asia,  and  the  north  of  I^ypt ;  a  small 
proportion  only  inhabiting  corresponding  latitudes  in  North  America. 
Many  of  them  are  handsome  flowering  plants,  but  as  they  are  mora 
important  on  account  of  their  useful  properties,  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  to  some  account  of  the  kinds  commonly  cultivated  in  the 
kitchen-garden. 

Allium  CepcLt  the  Common  Onion,  is  too  well  known  to  require 
description.  It  is  not  certain  of  what  country  it  is  a  native,  but  it 
has  from  time  inmiemorial  been  cultivated  in  Egypt  Its  varieties 
are  not  very  numerous,  considering  that  it  is  slmost  exclusively 
increased  bv  seed :  the  most  remarkable  are  the  Blood-Red  Onion, 
which  is  the  most  pungent;  the  Strasbuig  Onion,  which  is  the 
hardiest;  the  Silver^kinned  Onion,  which  is  the  smallest,  and  the 
most  fitted  for  pickling;  and  the  onions  of  Portugal  and  Tripoli, 
which  are  the  largest  and  the  most  delicate.  In  this  country 
the  bulbs  do  not  generally  arrive  at  the  lai^ge  size  of  those  imported 
from  Portugal  and  Spain;  but  skilful  gardenen  have  nevertheless 
succeeded  in  procuring  them  fully  as  fine.  Their  method  has  been 
to  take  the  small  onions  of  a  late-sown  crop  of  the  previous  year,  and 
to  plant  them  in  rows  in  the  beginning  of  April,  laying  them  on  the 
sunace  of  the  soil,  each  surrounded  with  about  a  himdful  of  decayed 
and  nearly  dry  manure.  All  the  time  that  is  usually  lost  in  seed- 
sowing  is  thus  avoided,  and  the  moment  the  bulbs  push  forth  new 
roots,  they  find  themselves  in  the  midst  of  an  abundant  store  of 
food,  which  continues  to  supply  them  with  nutrition  during  the 
whole  of  the  growing  season.  As  they  advance  in  size,  the  soil  round 
the  bulbs  is  frequently  disturbed  by  the  hoe,  for  the  sake  of  ex^sing 
as  much  as  possible  the  carbonaceous  matter  of  the  manure  to  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere.  This  process  is  only  discontinued  when 
the  leaves  b^in  to  turn  yellow ;  the  bulbs  are  then  allowed  to  ripen 
as  usuaL 

AUium  sehcmopratum,  the  Chive,  is  a  little  tufted  plants  with 
slender,  cylindrical,  taper-pointed,  dark-green  leaves ;  its  flowen  are 
arranged  in  a  smsll  compact  round  head,  and  are  of  a  purplish  or 
pale  violet  colour ;  the  bulbs  are  small,  long;  and  white,  and  grow  in 
dense,  matted  tufts.  It  is  a  native  of  the  mountainous  regions  of 
Europe,  from  Lapland  to  Italy ;  and  is  found  here  and  there  in  Great 
Britam.  It  is  more  employed  by  the  French  for  their  cookery  than 
in  this  country. 

AUium  JUtuloium,  the  WeUih  Onion,  is  a  native  of  Siberia,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  gained  its  English  name  from  having  been  imported 
originally  from  Q^many,  with  the  name  Walsch,  or  foreign,  attached 
to  it  It  is  a  perennial,  and  cultivated  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of 
being  sold  in  the  markets  when  very  voung,  at  which  time  its  flavour 
is  ddicate ;  its  hardiness  enables  it  when  young  to  brave  our  spring 
cold  better  than  the  common  onion. 

AUitun  Asealonieum,  the  Shallot^  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  is  in  many 
respects  similar  to  the  chive,  from  which  it  is  known  by  its  larger 
leaves,  its  smaller  and  more  deeply-coloured  flowers,  and  by  its 
stamens  having  alternately  throe  pomts  on  the  filaments.  It  more- 
over produces  bulbs  of  sufficient  size  to  be  fit  for  use,  and  accordingly, 
while  the  leaves  only  aro  employed  in  the  chive,  the  bulbs  aro  the 
parts  sought  for  in  the  shallot  These  multiply  abundantly,  so  that 
every  year,  whrni  the  crop  is  taken  up,  thero  is  plenty  of  small  bulbs 
whidi  can  be  reserved  for  planting  the  succeeding  season,  while  the 
fine  fully-formed  ones  are  selected  for  the  kitchen.  To  obtain  the 
bulbs  in  the  greatest  perfection,  they  should  not  be  buried  in  the 
earth,  as  is  the  common  practice,  but  merely  placed  on  the  surface  of 
the  soiL 

Allium  »aiivum,  Qarlic,  has  been  found  wild  in  Sicily,  and  some 
parts  of  Provence.  Its  stem  is  simple,  erect,  and  furnished  with  flat, 
narrow,  pointed  leaves ;  the  flower^eads  have  usually  a  number  of 
little  bulbs  lying  among  the  flowers,  which  are  white  or  pinkish ;  the 
bulbs  are  remarkable  for  the  development  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
axillary  buds  of  their  scales ;  these  buds  grow  rapidly,  and  acquiro  a 
bulbous  state,  and  form  what  aro  called  the  cloves  of  the  garlic,  which 
are  the  parts  employed  in  cooking. 

AUium  ophiotcorodon,  Rocambole,  or  Spanish  Shallot^  is  very 
slightly  different  from  garlic,  being  chiefly  distinguished  by  its  larser 
size  in  all  the  parts,  and  by  the  upper  part  of  its  stem  being  generally 
twisted  spirally  just  before  flowering.  It  is  a  native  of  most  parts  of 
the  south  of  Europe. 


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ALLOCHROITR 


ALLUVIUM. 


IS 


Allium  porrvm,  the  Leek,  has,  like  mftiiy  other  cultiTated  plants,  I 
disappeared  iu  a  wild  state,  so  that  its  origin  is  unknown.  It  is  a 
broaid-leaved  succulent  species,  not  oapable  of  forming  a  bulb,  because  | 
the  leaves  do  not  perish  till  the  plant  itself  dies  away,  but  producing 
instead  a  cylindrical  body  composed  of  the  tender,  colourless  bases 
of  the  leaves,  which  are  rolled  round  each  ol^er  in  a  compact  manner. 
As  the  ezoellenoe  of  the  lo^  depends  entirely  upon  the  large  size 
of  this  part^  the  attention  of  the  cultivator  is  exclusively  directed  to 
that  before  all  other  considerations.  It  has  been  found  that  no 
method  is  so  successful  as  to  sow  tiie  seed  early  in  a  light  and  well- 
manured  soil,  and  then,  when  the  young  ledcs  have  arrived  at  the 
thickness  of  the  little  finger,  or  even  sooner,  to  drop  them  into  holes 
about  2^  or  8  inches  wide,  and  6  inches  deep,  in  the  bottom  of  which 
some  very  fine  manure  has  been  deposited. 

•    ALLOCHROITE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  variety  of  Gaznet,  charaoterised 
with  other  minerals  by  possessing  free  silica.    [Garhet.] 

ALLOMORPHITE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  variety  of  Heavy  Spar,  whibh 
it  a  sulphate  of  barytes. 

ALLOPHANE,  a  mineral  belonging  to  the  group  of  Clays  whibh 
contain  a  huge  proportion  of  water.  It  occurs  reniform,  botiyoidal, 
globular,  ana  massive.  No  deavage.  Colour  blue,  green,  brown. 
Fracture  conchoidaL  Hardness  S'O  nearly.  Lustre  vitreous,  trans- 
parent»  transluoent.  Specific  gravity  1*852  to  1*859.  It  is  found  at 
Baalfold  in  Thuringia,  at  Schneebexg  in  Saxony,  and  other  pkces. 
Its  analysis,  by  Stromeyer,  gives :— Silica,  21 '922;  alimiina,  82-202; 
lime,  0*780 ;  sulphate  of  lime,  0*517 ;  carbonate  of  copper,  8*058 ; 
hydrate  of  iron,  0270 ;  water,  41*801. 

ALLSPICE.    [EnoBinA.] 

AJjLUVIUM,  a  name  given  to  those  accumulations  of  sand,  earth, 
and  loose  stones  or  gravel  brought  down  by  rivers,  which,  when 
spread  out  to  any  extent^  form  what  is  called  Alluvial  Land.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  Latin  verb  alluere,  signifying  'to  wash  upon,' 
as  the  sea  does  upon  the  coasts,  or  a  river  upon  its  banks,  and  is 
chiefly  used  as  a  term  in  geology.  Many  geologists  restrict  the 
expression  to  such  water-worn  materials  as  have  been  deposited  either 
recently  or  within  the  historical  era,  and  which  do  not  include  the 
remains  of  extinct  species  of  organised  bodies :  but  as  there  are 
similar  aocumulations  of  transported  materials,  belon^;]ng  to  almost 
every  geological  period  in  the  history  of  the  earth,  it  is  an  unwar- 
ranted restriction  of  the  term  to  confine  its  use  to  the  recent  period 
only.  There  is,  no  doubt,  thia  distinction  between  modem  alluvia 
and  those  of  ancient  periods,  that  in  the  latter,  besides  the  remains 
of  extinct  species  of  animals  and  plants,  there  is  more  frequently  a 
consolidation  into  stone.  To  these  last  accumulations  of  water-worn 
materials  some  geologists  apply  the  name  Dilwimm,  which  is  objection- 
able, because  it  expresses,  not  a  particular  state  of  the  materials, 
but  a  theory  of  their  formation ;  that  is,  that  they  were  produced 
by  a  deluge, — some  indeed  go  so  far  as  to  assert  that  they  were 
accumulations  from  the  Mosaic  fiood.  The  word  Alluvium  might  be 
conveniently  used  as  a  general  term,  and  we  might  say  Ancient 
Alluvium  and  Modem  Alluvium,  as  the  French  geologists  say  Terraint 
de  Tramport—Aneieni  and  Modema.  We  might  go  farther,  and  say 
Secondary  and  Tertiary  Alluvium,  and  the  Alluvia  of  particular 
groups  of  strata. 

In  treating  of  this  subject  we  have  to  consider  three  operations : 
1,  The  disintegration  and  decay  of  the  superior  crust  of  the  earth  by 
the  action  of  meteoric  agents,  of  tides,  currents,  and  streams  ot 
running  water ;  2,  The  transportation  of  the  loosened  materials  by 
streams  and  currents ;  and  8,  The  deposition  of  the  matter  at  the 
bottom  of  rivers,  lakes,  estuaries,  and  the  ocean.  The  surface  of  the 
earth  is  subject  to  unceasing  changes  from  the  operation  of  three  great 
classes  of  agents,  namely,  the  meteoric,  the  aqueous,  and  the  igneous. 
Under  the  first  of  these  classes  are  comprehended,  the  air  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold,  moisture  and  rain,  lig^t, 
electricity,  and  the  wind :  under  the  second  class,  running  water  of 
every  kind  on  the  surface  of  the  land,  the  tides,  waves,  and  currents 
of  the  sea  as  they  strike  against  its  shores :  the  third  class  comprehends 
volcanoes  and  earthquakes,  which  will  be  discussed  under  another 
head.  It  is  the  second  class  with  which  we  have  chiefly  to  do  at 
present,  and  we  shall  only  briefly  touch  upon  the  first  as  subservient 
to  the  subject  with  which  we  are  occupied. 

All  rocks,  and  indeed  almost  all  mineral  substances,  have  a  greater 
or  less  tendency  to  combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere^ 
espeoiallv  when  under  fiEivourable  circumstances  of  heat  and  moisture, 
and  prooably  also  of  electricity  and  light :  carbonic  acid  and  water 
also  are  absorbed  by  rocks  in  considerable  quantity ;  and  the  efiect  of 
these  oombinations,  whether  chemical  or  mechanical,  is  to  loosen  the 
cohesion  between  the  partides  of  the  stohe,  and  induce  a  tendency  to 
disintegration.  This  separation  of  the  parts  is  very  much  accelerated 
by  those  sudden  expansions  and  contractions  which  are  occasioned  by 
vidssitudes  of  temperature,  and  especially  during  frost,  when  the 
imbibed  moisture  is  converted  into  ice.  This  slow  and  silent  work  of 
waste  is  unremittingly  going  on  wherever  rocks  are  exposed  to  the 
weather.  No  snecies  of  stone  is  exempt ;  and  even  granite,  which  in 
general  is  so  little  subject  to  change  as  to  be  proverbially  a  symbol  of 
endurance,  and  is  selected  for  our  bridges  and  other  great  works  of 
architecture^  under  particular  circumstances  of  constitution  and 
exposure,  is  remarkably  disposed  to  disintegration.    "  The  granite  of 


some  parts  of  Finland,"  says  Mr.  Strangwaya^  "is  so  liable  to  decom- 
position, that  a  great  boulder  of  it  may  often  be  seen  with  a  hole  cut 
in  it  laige  enough  to  admit  a  cart  and  horse ;  and  the  stone,  though 
at  a  sm^  distance  it  seems  calculated  to  last  for  ages,  ia  cut  down 
and  shaped  away  with  the  same  ease,  and  much  in  the  aame  manner, 
as  a  hay-rick."  The  same  agents  sometimes  give  mora  marked  prooti 
of  their  destruottve  power,  when  lighlziing  shiven  a  pinnade  of  rock, 
or  when  a  mass  of  water,  enclosed  in  a  cleft  and  converted  into  ice, 
rends,  by  its  great  expansive  force,  vasts  blocks  asunder.  The  effect 
of  these  several  indefatigable  agents,  all  working  together,  with  graviir 
in  their  favour,  is  a  system  of  universal  decav  and  degradation,  whi(i 
may  be  traced  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  land,  from  the  mountain- 
top  to  the  seasihore.  The  wind,  thou^  it  may  sometimsa  detach 
partides,  is  diiefly  instrumental  in  transporting  to  a  distanoe  matter 
already  separated.  Every  drop  of  rain  that  faUs,  as  soon  aa  it  touchea 
the  ewth  becomes  an  instrument  of  destraction,  and  the  minute 
fragments  which  eveiy  shower  washes  away  are  hurried  along  the 
streams  into  a  river,  and  are  either  deposited  at  a  lower  levd,  or  are 
transported  to  the  sea :  thus,  a  solid  body  which  once  formed  a  part 
of  a  mountain-top  among  the  Andes,  after  being  swept  along  for 
thousands  of  miles  through  the  bed  of  a  river  into  the  waten  of  the 
AUantic,  ma;^,  by  ocean-currents,  be  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Qulf  of  Mexico,  while  the  fragment  with  which  it  was  once  united 
may  be  carried  far  into  the  deptiis  of  the  Pacific. ' 

To  this  assertion  of  the  constant  waste  of  the  land,  and  the 
conduil^ons  which  are  drawn  from  it,  it  has  been  objected,  that  we 
can  hutUy  discover  any  diange  in  the  shapes  and  altitudes  of  moun- 
tains, that  the  forms  of  many  lands  have  continued  unaltered  since  the 
earliest  records,  and  that  even  productions  of  human  art  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  weather  for  many  centuries  have  undergone  no 
perceptible  decay.  No  doubt  the  prooess  is  dow,  if  compared  with 
the  progress  of  events  in  which  the  human  race  has  had  concern,  but 
no  one  will  deny  that  riven  are  loaded  during  every  flood  with  solid 
matter;  and,  as  the  matter  so  suspended  can  onlj  be  derived  from 
the  land,  it  necessarily  follows  that  a  continuance  of  the  process  muat 
in  time  wear  down  the  loftiest  mountains,  where  the  rocks  are  not 
protected  by  a  covering  of  turf  horn  the  action  of  the  destradave 
agents.  Of  the  rapidity  of  this  vraste  we  have  no  means  of  judging; 
and  any  attempt  to  express  our  conjectures  by  figores  would  be  little 
better  than  an  idle  occupation.  It  is  almost  within  our  own  time 
that  anv  accurate  measurements  of  heights  have  been  made :  and  aa 
two  estimates  of  the  same  mountain,  made  with  all  the  accuracy  of 
which  our  instruments  are  capable,  often  give  a  diflerence  of  several 
feet,  we  aro  not  even  now  able  to  leave  behind  us  data  by  which  posterity 
may  mark  the  progress  of  this  spedes  of  geological  change;  for  the 
removal  of  such  a  mass  of  matter  as  should  <iimini>>i  the  height 
of  a  mountain  by  three  or  four  feet,  by  ordinary  agents,  may  require 
thousands  of  yean  for  its  accomplishment.  If  Mont  Blanc,  by  our 
most  accurate  measurements,  be  now  15,744  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  and  if  the  geologisti,  many  centuries  hence,  by  newly-diicovared 
methods  not  liable  to  error,  should  find  it  only  15,740,  it  would  be 
impossible  for  hyn  to  know  whether  the  difference  was  to  be  set 
down  to  geological  change,  or  to  the  imperfSection  of  the  instromenta 
of  his  ancestors. 

In  geological  speculations  we  must  lay  amde  all  condderations  as  to 
time :  we  have  only  to  do  with  that  dement  when  our  inquiries  relate 
to  man ;  and  if  we  ara  to  be  guided  by  andogy  in  our  reasonings,  we 
must  be  satisfied  that  a  space  of  time  of  vast  duration  must  have  been 
requidte  to  produce  any  great  amount  of  geologicd  dumga  We  lee 
even  in  many  chemicd  processes,  that  long-continued  action  gives 
birth  to  substances  which  could  not  otherwise  be  obtained, — aa,  for 
example,  crystala  of  felspar  are  formed  if  the  heat  be  maintained  for 
some  weeks,  but  not  otherwise;  and  long-continued  action  in  the 
great  laboratory  of  Nature  has  no  doubt  been  an  equally  powerful 
instrument. 

Although  we  can,  in  strictnesB,  only  say  that  certain  geologicd 
events  must  have  preceded  others,  we  are  not  warranted  in  with- 
holding any  length  of  time  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  change, 
\nerelv  because  we  are  imable  to  form  a  conception  of  an  indefinite 
period :  it  would  be  as  irrationd  as  if  we  wero  to  withhold  our  assent 
to  some  of  the  established  truths  in  astronomy,  merdy  because  we  are 
incapable  of  forming  an  idea  of  indefinite  space.  It  has  been 
eloquently  add  by  Playfair,  that  **  It  affords  no  presumption  sgainsi 
the  reality  of  the  progress  of  decay  that,  in  respect  of  man,  it  is  too 
slow  to  be  immediatdy  percdved.  The  utmost  portion  of  it  to  which 
our  exj)erience  can  extend  is  evanescent  in  comparison  with  the 
whole,  and  must  be  regarded  as  the  momentary  increment  of  a  vast 
progresdon,  circumscribed  by  no  other  limits  than  the  duration  of  the 
world.  Time  performs  the  office  of  integrating  the  infinitesimd  parts 
of  which  this  progresdon  is  made  up ;  it  coUects  into  one  sum,  and 
produces  from  them  an  amount  greater  than  any  that  can  be  assigned." 
But  slow  and  silent  as  the  work  of  these  agents  of  destruction  is,  we 
have  only  to  direct  our  view  towards  those  parts  of  Uie  earth  where 
the  machinery  of  Nature  is  to  be  found  on  its  grandest  scde,  to  be 
sendble  of  the  prodigious  effects  which  their  unceasing  operation 
must  produce  in  the  long  lapse  of  ages. 

The  force  of  water,  when  directed  against  any  obstade  in  its  course, 
is  veiy  considerable,  even  by  its  own  wdght  done,  especially  if  it  be 


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ALLUVIUM, 


ALLUVIUM. 


180 


flowing  oTer  a  highly-inclined  Burfaoe ;  but  its  destractlTe  power  is 
greatly  augmentea  if  it  be  loaded  with  sand  and  grayeL  In  floods, 
▼eiy  considerable  blocks  are  carried  by  the  stream  to  great  distances ; 
for  it  must  be  remembered  that  these  sre  much  more  easily  moved  in 
water  than  on  land,  in  consequence  of  the  law  in  hydrostaUos,  that  a 
solid  body  ftilly  immersed  in  water  weighs  so  much  less  tlum  it  does 
in  air  by  a  sum  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  mass  of  water  which  it 
displaces.  If  the  water  flows  with  a  velocity  of  8  inches  per  second, 
its  force,  when  free  from  suspended  matter,  is  sufficient  to  tear  up 
flne  day ;  6  inches  per  second,  fine  sand ;  12  inches  per  second,  fine 
gravel ;  and  8  feet  per  second,  will  tear  up  beds  of  loose  stones  of  the 
size  of  an  egg  The  flood  occasioned  by  the  bursting  of  the  banier  of 
a  lake  in  the  valley  of  Bagnes  near  Martigny,  in  the  Vallais,  moved  at 
first  with  the  tremendous  velocity  of  88  feet  per  second,  afterwards 
diminished  to  18,  and  11 ;  and  at  the  end  of  its  ooursey  when  the 
water  reached  the  Lake  of  Qeneva,  it  was  still  runnins;  at  the  rate  of 
6  feet  per  second.  From  the  barrier  to  this  pointthe  fiJl  is  4462 
feet ;  the  distance  is  45  miles ;  and  the  mass  of  water  passed  over  this 
laige  space  in  54  hours.  It  swept  along  houses,  bridges,  and  trees; 
masses  of  rock  equal  in  dimensions  to  houseai,  wluch  it  tore  out  of  an 
ancient  alluvial  soil,  were  carried  a  quarter  of  a  mile  down  the  valley. 
A  flood  which  happened  in  the  noiih  of  Scotland  in  1829  afforded 
numerous  examples  of  the  power  of  running  water  to  transport  large 
blocks  of  ston&  In  the  river  Nairn,  a  fragment  of  sandstone  rode, 
14  feet  long,  by  8  feet  wide,  and  1  foot  thick,  was  carried  above  200 
yards  down  the  river.  The  river  Don  forced  a  mass  of  400  or  500 
tons  of  stones^  many  of  them  200  or  800  pounds  weight,  up  an  indined 
plane,  rising  6  feet  in  8  or  10  yards,  and  left  them  in  a  rectangular 
heap,  ^at  8  feet  deep,  on  a  flat  groimd.  The  small  rivulet  called 
the  College,  in  Northumberland,  swollen  by  a  flood  in  August,  1827, 
carried  several  masses  of  stone^,  weighing  from  a  half  to  thne-quarters 
of  a  ton,  two  miles  down  its  course ;  a  lazge  block,  weighing  nearly 
tiro  tons,  was  transported  to  the  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mUe. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  instruments  of  waste  employed  by  Nature 
are  far  more  powerftil  in  their  effects  than  is  generaUy  supposed.  It 
is  also  evid  ent  that  such  powers,  unremittingly  exerted,  must,  after  a 
long  period,  cause  changes  in  the  configuration  of  the  earth's  surface^ 
and  we  shall  now  proceed  to  point  out  some  of  the  efibots  which  are 
produced  by  the  working  of  this  powerfal  machinery. 

The  cause  of  the  formation  of  valleys  is  a  subject  of  great  controversy 
among  geologists.  Some  ascribe  their  formation  to  ezteaordinary  floods^ 
waves^  or  deluges,  which  in  their  sudden  passage  scooped  out  the  land ; 
others,  to  the  gradual  efiidct  of  those  natural  ag^ts  of  whose  existence 
and  power  we  have  had  experience.  It  may  fairly  be  presumed  that^ 
when  the  continents  were  raised  out  of  the  sea,  their  surfaces  did  not 
present  a  uniform  plain,  but  were  broken  by  numerous  ridges  and 
mequaliUes,  and  tnat  the  ridges  themselves  were  travened  by 
numerous  fissures,  one  of  the  efibots  of  the  power  by  which  th^ 
were  raised.  The  first  rains  that  fell,  and  the  first  springs  whici 
btust  forth,  would  neceasarilv  collect  in  the  lowest  levels,  and  thus 
the  diraction  of  the  great  truxuc  of  a  river  would  be  determined;  and 
it  might  also  happen  that  other  clefts— depressious  at  a  higher  level — 
would  communicate  with  this  main  channel  But  that  every  such 
great  depreasion  would  have  a  direct  communication  with  the  sea,  and 
that  sudi  a  combination  of  subordinate  valleyB  ss  compose  a  river- 
system  could  have  been  formed  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  earth's 
crust,  either  by  elevation  or  subsidence,  can  hardly,  we  think,  be 
maintained  by  any  one.  A  river^ourse,  or  system,  may  be  not  inaptly 
compared  to  a  picture  of  a  great  troe,  whose  branches  gradually 
diminish  in  sisei,  but  increase  in  number,  aa  ihay  recede  from  the 
stem.  The  great  trunk  of  the  river  is  divided  into  many  branches^ 
which  spring  from  it  at  various  distances  from  one  another;  and  these 
again  are  subdivided  into  an  infinity  of  smaller  ramifications^  each 
diminishing  in  size  as  it  increases  in  distance  from  the  main  trunk — 
a  regular  communication  being  kept  up  between  every  point  and  the 
line  of  greatest  depression;  ''forming  together  a  system  of  valleys 
communicating  with  one  another,  and  having  suck  a  nice  adjust- 
ment of  their  declivities,  that  none  of  them  join  the  principal  valley 
either  on  too  high  or  too  low  a  level"  Some  idea  may  be  formed  A 
the  extent  to  whmh  the  surface  of  the  land  has  thus  be«i  frurowed  by 
ineans  of  the  subordinate  streams  that  feed  a  great  river,  from  whii 
^ede  says  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Isar,  wluch,  flowing  from  the 
Tyrolese  Alps^  snd  pMsinff  by  Kunioh,  joins  the  Danube  some  miles 
above  Ftasao.  This  river  is  fed  on  its  right  bank  l^  488  streams,  on 
its  left  by  800;  thefozmer  joiningthe  main  bed  by  59  (Aannels,  the  latter 
by  44.  But  the  Isar  is  only  one  of  the  84  great  branches  of  the  Danube, 
and  holds  only  a  fourth  rank  among  them ;  snd  even  the  Danube  is  a 
river  of  the  third  magnitude  in  the  physical  history  of  the  earth. 

We  have  direct  proofii  of  the  power  of  watir  to  wear  a  channel  in 
the  hardest  rocks  in  almost  every  country,  and  even  in  a  remarkably 
short  time^  A  stream  of  lava,  poured  out  from  ^tna  in  1608,  floweol 
serosa  the  bed  of  the  Simeto,  the  laigest  river  in  Sicily,  which  flows 
along  the  base  <^  the  mountain  and  mils  into  the  sea  near  Cataniiu 
The  stream  has  now  out  a  passsge  through  the  hard  rock^  which  is 
only  a  litae  less  compact  than  basalt^  to  the  depth  of  from  40  to  50 
feet^  and  from  50  to  several  hundred  feet  wida 

The  Nertnlddl^  a  river  of  Hindustan,  has  worn  a  ohannel  in  a 
basaltic  rock  to  the  depth  of  100  feek    Ftofeasor  Sedgwick  and  Sir 

VAZ  HHT.  Dry.  YOU  !• 


Boderiok  Hurchison  state,  that  in  the  enormous  masses  of  horisontal 
coarse  conglomerate,  found  in  many  of  the  valleys  of  the  Eastern  Alps^ 
rivers  have  often  scooped  out  goiges  to  the  depth  of  600  or  700  feet; 
and  that  in  the  valley  of  the  Inn,  near  Innspruck,  snd  in  that  of  the 
Drave,  between  Elagenfrirt  and  Marburg^  there  are  splendid  examples 
of  these  phenomena. 

The  rock  over  which  the  water  of  the  Niagara  is  precipitated  at  its 
celelnated  FaUs  is  undergoing  a  daily  waste ;  so  that  the  cataract  has 
receded  nearly  50  yards  in  the  last  40  years.  The  river  below  the 
Falls  runs  in  a  channel  above  150  feet  deep,  and  160  yards  wide^  for  a 
distance  of  7  miles,  where  it  emeiges  into  a  plain ;  and  this  channel 
has  evidently  been  formed  by  the  same  operation  as  that  which  is  now 
in  progress.  Sir  Charles  Lyell  computes,  from  this  and  other  data, 
that  the  FsUs  have  been  80,000  years  in  wearing  this  channel  The 
waste  is  accelerated  by  the  action  of  the  water  at  the  Falls  on  an 
under-bed  of  soft  clay,  which  being  washed  away  leaves  the  superin- 
cumbent limestone  steta  unsupported,  when  tiiey  fall  down  in  huge 
mnsnoo.  A  slmilsr  effect  is  produced,  even  in  mountains  of  considerable 
elevation,  when  the  superficial  water,  or  undeiground  springs,  obtain 
access  to  an  inferior  bed  of  soft  materials^  and  ^adually  wash  it  away. 
This  took  place  in  1806  at  the  Bossberg,  near  the  Lake  of  Zug  m 
Switserlan^  a  mountain  more  than  5000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  stony  Tnassos  which  were  imdermmed  were  inclined  at  an  angle 
of  45**;  and  thus  slid  down,  covering  the  valley  below  with  an 
enonnous  heap  of  hlockB  ot  stone  and  earth,  and  overwhelming  seyeral 
villages,  in  which  above  800  persons  perished. 

There  are  many  valleys  and  narrow  defiles,  which,  on  aooountof  deep 
lakes  that  occur  in  tiiem,  the  bazrien  by  which  they  are  indosed,  and 
the  levels  of  the  a4Joining  country,  could  not  have  biMn  formed  by  the 
action  of  the  waters  now  passing  through  them,  however  much  we  may 
suppose  them  to  have  been  swollen  by  floods.  In  such  esses,  elevations 
and  subsidences  of  the  land,  brougjht  about  bv  those  subterranean  s^ts 
which  give  rise  to  earthquakes^  must  be  looked  to  ss  the  most  rational 
explanation.  But  there  is  perhaps  not  one  of  these  which  has  not 
been  subsequently  modified  m  a  considerable  dsgree  by  the  action  of 
running  water  operating  during  a  long  period. 

The  wearing  and  transporting  powers  of  rivers  depend  upon  the 
volume  of  water,  the  quantity  and  sise  of  the  solid  matter  suspended^ 
and  the  velooiiy  with  which  it  moves.  A  river  generally  runs  with 
greatest  rapidil^  in  the  higher  parts  of  its  course,  where  indeed  it 
often  consists  of  a  succession  of  torrents  and  cataracts  for  msnv  miles^ 
but  it  has  not  vet  acquired  its  fall  destructive  force,  because  the  mass 
of  water  is  still  comparatively  small,  nor  has  it  yet  become  loaded 
with  solid  matter.  In  the  lower  part  of  its  course,  long  before  it 
joins  the  sea,  it  has  usually  reached  a  level  country,  and  there  its 
velocity  becomes  greatly  retarded.  The  Senegal  hi  Africa  does  not^ 
aocordmg  to  Adanson,  fall  more  than  24  feet  from  Podor  to  the  see, 
a  distance  of  60  lesgues.  The  destructive  force  is«  thus  lessened  by 
the  <iimiiii«hA.i  Telocity,  snd  by  the  consequent  inability  of  the  stream 
to  drag  itsheavyartiUeiy  along  with  it  It  is,  therefore,  in  the  middla 
part  of  its  course  that  a  river  commits  the  greatest  wsste^-rsfter.it  has 
acquired  a  considerable  volume,  has  become  loaded  with  solid  matter, 
and,  from  the  indinaticn  of  tiie  ground,  still  possesses  power  to  wield 
its  more  mighty  weapons  of  destruction. 

The  increase  of  the  vdlume  of  water  in  rivers  during  the  flood- 
seasons  is  often  prodigious.  The  bed  of  theMississippi,at  Natches,  sbout 
800  miles  above  New  Orlesns^  measuring  slong  the  course  of  the  river, 
scarcely  exceeds  a  mile  hi  breadth  when  the  water  is  low;  whereasmtha 
flood-season  the  mass  of  water  is  nearly  80  miles  wide.  The  Orinoco^ 
at  St-Thomai^s,  200  miles  from  its  embouchure^  is  aoout  84  miles  wide 
m  the  dry  season;  but  when  flooded,  its  waters^  according  to  Dupens^ 
stretch  out  to  the  enormous  breadth  of  70  miles. 

The  loss  of  destructive  power,  by  diminished  ydodty  in  the  level 
country,  is  sometimes  compensate^  in  a  considerable  degree^  by  the 
effects  inoduced  by  the  weight  of  the  great  volume  of  water  impmgmsr 
certain  parts.    This  will  be  better  undsratood  by  the  annexed 


When  the  river,  in  its  oblique  coutm  at  the  entrance  of  the  pI^Siv 
strikes  agamst  the  bank  a,  it  roeedily  forms  a  steep  or  vertical  cliff 
which  turns  off  the  water  in  its  downward  oouzse  into  sn  opposite 
dueotion.  The  river  now  &Ua  with  its  whole  force  against  the  pdnt  c^ 
whid^  m  its  turn,  becomes  predpitoui^  and  deflects  the  water  towsrds 
the  point  a;  snd  in  this  manner  the  process  is  repeated*  sA  short 
intenrsl^  producing  a  series  of  salient  and  re-entering  anglesL 

The  diagram  represents  a  river  after  the  process  of  erosion  has  ood> 
siderably  advanced;  at  first  the  course  would  be  much  less  tortooos. 
If  the  oounixy  be  composed  of  rock,  both  banks  are  usually  steep; 
but  if  the  ground  consist  of  looser  materials,  the  spaces  between  the 
precipitous  parts  of  the  banks— that  is,  between  the  salient  angles— 


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ALLUVIUM. 


133 


consist  of  flat)  fertile,  aUuTial  land,  with  a  grayelly  bottom,  the  gradual 
creation  of  the  stream.  -  Sometimee  the  course  of  we  riYcr  is  so  tortuous 
that  two  points,  A  and  m,  may  be  within  a  few  hundred  yards  of  each 
other,  and  yet^  following  the  line  of  the  stream,  they  may  be  some 
miles  asunder.  In  this  case,  the  narrow  neck  of  land  is  acted  upon 
doubly ;  for  the  force  of  .the  water  is  directed  against  it  on  each  side. 
In  time  this  isthmus  is  breached,  and  the  river  either  flows  entirely 
through  the  new  channel,  or,  dividing,  forms  the  land  A  into  an  island. 
Sudi  tortuous  courses,  when  they  are  cut  through  solid  rock,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Moselle,  whose  banks  are  sometimee  600  feet  high,  are 
among  the  strongest  proofb  of  the  destructiTe  power  of  running  water, 
for  no  sudden  deluge,  however  powerful,  oould  hare  scooped  out  such 
a  trough ;  and  that  a  deft  of  such  a  nature  should  be  occasioned  by 
any  disruption  of  the  earth's  cnut,  is  not  less  improbable.  More 
sudden  and  therefore  more  striking  instances  of  the  waste  of  the  land 
occur  where  a  river  flows  through  a  lake^  and  by  its  wasting  action 
causes  a  breaking-down  of  the  bairier.  We  have  already  aUuded  to 
the  bursting  of  a  lake  in  the  valley  of  Bagnes  in  Switaenand.  That 
flood  was  produced  by  the  melting  of  ice,  which,  falling  in  successive 
seasons  from  neighbouring  glaciers,  had  formed  so  continuous  a  mass 
as  to  dam  up  the  water  of  a  stream  which  flowed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
valley.  If  the  barrier  of  a  lake  consist  of  strata  of  rock,  supported  by 
beds  of  clay  or  sand,  and  if,  by  any  change  of  drcumstancee,  .the 
running  water  get  access  to  this  inferior  bed,  and  gradually  wash 
it  away,  the  superincumbent  rock,  thus  undemiined,  suddenly  breaks 
down,  and  devastation  and  ruin  overwhelm  the  country  below. 

The  distance  to  which  the  detached  fragments  are  carried  depends 
upon  the  volume  of  water,  and  the  nature  of  the  ground  over  wmch  it 
flows.  The  torrents  from  the  south-western  Alps,  rushing  over  a  steep 
uninterrupted  dope,  transport  large  blocks  to  the  sea;  but  a  river 
that  runs  through  a  long  stretch  of  levd  countiy  deponts  the  grosser 
matter  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course^  and  oairies  to  its  mouth  only 
that  which  is  more  eadly  hdd  in  suspendon.  The  larger  stones,  after 
being  detached  from  their  parent  rock,  hove  therefore  to  undergo  an 
intermediate  process  of  abradon,  by  bdng  rubbed  against  each  other 
in  the  bed  of  the  stream  before  their  partides  are  findlv  committed  to 
the  deep.  If  a  river  pass  through  a  lake^in  its  course,  the  solid  matter 
will  be  depodted  in  that  trough  until  it  has  filled  it  up ;  and  if  the 
lake  be  very  large,  even  the  lighter  particles  will  have  time  to  fall, 
and  the  water  will  flow  out  dear  from  the  other  extremity.  The 
Lake  of  G^eva  affords  a  remarkable  instance  of  this  process ;  for  the 
Rh6ne^  where  it  enters,  is  extremely  tnibid ;  but  at  Qeneva^  where  it 
leaves  the  lake,  it  is  beautifully  tnmsparent.  At  the  upper  end  there 
is  a  tract  of  alluvial  land  nearly  8  miles  in  length,  which  has  been 
gradually  formed  by  the  depodts  from  the  river ;  and  some  measure 
of  its  progress  is  obtained  by  the  change  in  the  dtuation  of  the  town 
of  Port  Vallaia,  which  was  once  at  the  water's  edge,  but  in  the  oourae 
of  about  800  years  has  been  left  a  mile  and  a  half  inland.  Other 
torrents,  on  botii  ddes  of  the  lake,  likewise  pour  in  laige  quantities  of 
solid  matter ;  and  thus,  dthough  from  its  great  depth  a  long  period 
must  elapse  if  the  present  order  of  nature  remains  undisturbed,  the 
Leman  Lake  will  be  converted  into  green  meadows,  and  cattle  will 
graze  where  there  are  now  160  fkthoms  of  water.  Nor  is  this  an 
extravagant  expectation,  or  more  than  has  taken  place  elsewhere  in 
past  time&  The  vast  fertile  valley  between  the  Vosges  Mountains 
and  those  of  the  Black  Forest,  through  whidi  the  Rhine  flows  for 
above  100  miles,  between  Strasburg  and  Worms,  without  fSslling  more 
than  two  feet  in  a  mile,  is  in  great  part  covwed  wil^  alluvium,  and  is 
filled  to  an  unknown  depth  under  the  soil  with  sand  and  gravel 
dmilar  to  that  now  transported  by  the  Rhdne.  There  is  every  reason 
to  bdieve  that  this  valley  was  at  one  time  the  site  of  a  lake  far  larger 
than  that  of  (Geneva,  and  probably  quite  as  deep. 

The  Rhine,  in  the  higher  part  of  its  course,  is  filling  up  the  Lake 
of  Constance,  where  a  oondderable  tract  of  alluvid  Uma  has  been 
formed ;  and,  after  issuing  pure  from  the  lower  end,  it  appears  fix>m 
the  observations  of  Hammer  to  have  carried  on  the  work  of  destruc- 
tion so  powerfully  in  the  comparatively  short  distance  between  the 
Lake  of  Constance  and  the  bottom  of  the  falls  at  Sdiaffhausen,  as  to 
have  supplied  materials  sufficient  to  fill  up  several  lakes  beitween 
Schaffhausen  and  Strasburg,  beddes  the  gx-eat  lake  bdow  Strasburg 
already  spoken  of.  There  are  numerous  inBtanofis  of  this  gradual 
filling  up  of  lakes,  espedally  in  the  courses  of  the  greater  rivers,  as  in 
the  Danube  between  Ulm  and  Neubuig  above  Vienna,  and  most 
eminently  so  in  the  case  of  the  St.-Lawrence.  Simond  states  that 
the  river  Lint,  in  Switaerland,  is  perpetually  filling  up  its  old  channel, 
and  overflowing  into  a  new  one,  m  consequence  of  the  mass  of 
rubbidi  and  stones  brought  down  from  the  Glarus  Mountains ;  and 
that  the  level  of  the  Lake  of  Wallenstadt  had  been  actually  raised  10 
feet  in  the  previous  60  years  by  this  accumulation.  If  the  river  does 
not  meet  with  lakes  in  its  course,  and  flows  over  a  great  extent  of 
country  having  a  slight  degree  of  inclination,  the  transported  matter 
very  often  so  accumulates  as  to  raise  the  bed  of  the  stream  itself. 
One  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  tills  kind  is  affbrded  by  the  Po, 
the  common  receptacle  of  the  waters  of  the  numberless  torrents 
which  rush  down  on  both  ddes  of  it,  loaded  with  spoils  from  the 
Alps  and  Northern  Apennines.  The  effect  of  this  has  been  that  the 
river  has  frequently  stufted  its  course ;  and,  to  prevent  the  damage 
that  ensues  from  such  events,  the  inhabitants  of  Lombardy  have 


protected  thdr  lands  by  embankments,  which  confine  the  river  to  \\m 
chaimel.  This,  however,  is  a  work  of  incessant  labour,  and  deoeptiye 
security,  for  the  accumulation  of  matter  in  the  bed  goes  on  with 
unremitting  constancy ;  and,  to  prevent  the  water  fr^m  overflowing, 
the  matter  must  be  taken  fr?om  the  bottom  and  thrown  upon  .the 
banks,  sometimes  as  mudi  as  a  foot  in  a  season.  The  effect  of  thia 
has  been,  that  in  the  lower  parts  of  its  course  the  Po  runs  on  the  top 
of  a  high  mound,  which  even  overtops'the  houses  in  Ferrara. 

In  a  mountainous  country  where  the  land  rises  rapidly  from  the 
diore,  the  rivers  descending  over  a  steep  bed  sweep  all  the  contents 
into  tiie  sea.  If  the  neighbouring  sea  be  deep,  and  tne  tides  be  strong, 
an  estuaiy  or  inlet  is  formed  at  the  mouth  of  the  river— that  is,  the 
sea  forms  a  deep  indentation  into  the  land,  of  a  triangular  shape, 
forming  what  Rennell  and  other  geographers  have  fancifully  called  a 
'negative  ddta.'  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  low  didving  diore,  and  the 
absoice  of  strong  tidd  currents  &vour  the  gradual  and  tranquil  deposit 
of  the  solid  matter  brought  down  by  the  river,  an  extendve  level  of 
alluvid  land  is  formed.  In  this  case  the  main  river,  at  a  distant  point 
inland,  often  divides  itself  into  two  streams,  whidi,  graduallv  diverging 
until  they  reach  the  sea,  indoee  a  triangular  space  of  land  having  the 
form  of  the  fourth  letter  of  the  Qreek  alphabet.  A,  and  hence  called  a 
deU€L  The  mass  of  water  does  not^  however,  long  continue  divided 
into  two  streams  only ;  the  process  of  separation  is  repeated  severd 
times,  and  thus  the  ddta  is  traversed  by  severd  channels,  and  the 
great  river  empties  itself  into  the  sea  hymaaj  mouths,  as  may  he  seen 
hy  the  inspection  of  the  Nile  and  Ghuoges  m  any  map  of  Egypt  or 
Hindustan  on  a  tolerably  large  scde.  In  this  way  a  delta  is  formed  at 
the  mouths  of  the  Rhine,  RhAne,  Po,  Danube,  Wolga,  Nile,  Indiu, 
Ganges,  Orinoco,  and  many  others.  The  magnitude  of  the  ddta, 
generally,  dthough  not  dways^  corresponds  to  the  volume  of  the 
waters  by  which  it  has  been  created.  The  head  of  that  of  the  Rhine 
is  about  90  miles  distant  ftom  the  generd  line  of  sea-ooast  of  Holland ; 
and  dthough  the  name  of  the  main  river  is  almost  lost  by  the  fsub- 
dividon  of  its  waters  and  the  junction  of  other  rivers,  we  indude 
within  the  Rhine  delta  the  whole  of  the  low-land  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Calais  to  the  north-eastern  diores  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  which 
makes  the  base  of  the  triangle  neariy  200  miles.  The  head  of  the  ddta 
of  die  Ganges  is  220  miles  frx>m  the  sea,  its  base  is  200  miles  long, 
including  we  space  occupied  by  the  two  great  arms  of  the  Ganges 
whidi  bound  it  on  either  dde.  The  tract  in  the  lower  part  of  this 
ddta,  called  the  Sunderbunds,  a  wildemeas  infested  by  tigers  and  croco- 
diles, is,  according  to  Rennell,  equd  in  extent  to  the  prindpdity  of 
Wdes.  The  whole  of  a  depodt  within  a  delta,  as  well  as  much  above 
and  on  eadi  dde  of  it,  is  therefore  an  encroachment  of  the  land  upon 
the  sea,  and  in  many  riven  this  growth  of  the  land  is  in  a  steady  pro- 
gress of  advancement;  as,  for  example,  the  dty  of  Ravenna,  formerly 
a  seaport  of  the  Adriatic,  is  now  4  miles  inknd.  There  are  causes, 
however,  which  often  prevent  the  frurther  increase  of  a  delta  after  it 
has  advanced  a  certain  length :  such  seems  to  be  the  case  with  the  delta 
of  the  Nile,  which  does  not  advance  with  the  rapidity  that  might  be 
expected  from  the  quantity  of  matter  brought  down  by  the  river. 
[Nile,  in  Gboo.  Drv.j 

Great  as  is  the  amount  of  new  land  thus  formed,  it  is  insigiuficant 
in  comparison  with  the  quantibr  of  solid  matter  carried  down  by  rivers, 
and  deposited  in  the  depths  of  the  sea.  It  is  impoedble  to  form  any 
estimate  of  this  upon  which  reliance  can  be  placed,  because  no  accurate 
observations  have  been  made  to  supply  the  data.  To  come  to  anything 
like  a  satis&ctory  condudon,  it  would  be  neoeasazy  to  have  a  verticd 
section  ol  the  river  at  a  given  point,  obtained  by  numerous  soundings, 
so  as  to  get  the  profile  of  the  bed,  and  by  observations  at  different 
seasons  to  get  the  mean  hei^t ;  we  must  also  have  the  results  of  expe- 
riments throughout  the  year,  to  sscertain  the  mean  velodty,  and  the 
volume  of  solid  matter  contained  in  a  given  bulk  of  the  water.  The 
quantity  of  mud  and  sand  poured  by  the  Ganges  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengd  is  so  great,  in  the  flood-season,  that  the  sea  recovers  its  trans- 
parency only  at  the  distance  of  60  miles  fix>m  the  coast  Sir  Charles 
LyeU,  in  his  'Prindples  of  Geology,'  makes  a  cdoulation  (founded  upon 
the  computations  of  Higor  Rennell)  as  to  the  mean  quantity  of  water 
disdiarged  by  the  Ganges  into  the  sea,  by  which  he  shows  that,  sup- 
posing the  water  to  contain  one  hundredth  part  of  solid  matter,  a  maBS 
equd  in  bulk  to  the  greatest  of  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt  is  brought  down 
by  the  Ganges  every  day.  The*  sea  is  discoloured  for  many  leagues 
frx>m  the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco,  and  the  solid  contents,  swept  by  ocean- 
currents  through  the  GKilf  of  Paria,  after  bdng  partiy  depodted  on  the 
shores  of  Giuana  and  the  island  of  Trinidad,  are  carried  into  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  and  Gulf  of  Mexico.  By  the  observations  of  Colond  Sabine, 
it  appears  that  the  muddy  waters  of  the  river  Amazonas  may  be  distin- 
gddied  800  miles  horn  its  moutiL  The  great  badn  of  the  Amasonas, 
which  is  drained  by  that  mightiest  of  rivers  and  its  vast  and  countless 
tributaries,  embraces  an  area,  according  to  Humboldt,  only  onedxth 
less  thm  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  through  this  the  main  stream  flows 
for  nearly  3400  miles.  The  river,  at  the  point  where  its  waters  unite 
with  those  of  the  Atlantic,  is,  according  to  the  same  illustrious  traveller, 
40  miles  broad. 

If  a  river  loaded  with  sand  encounter  a  marine  current  at  its  mouth, 
the  effect  frequently  is  to  throw  up  a  great  sand-bank  or  bar,  oft^  to 
the  detriment  of  the  navigation  in  the  adjoining  sea,  and  sometimes 
to  the  entire  destruction  of  a  harbour.    If  such  sand-banks  be  thrown 


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up  opposite  to  the  delta  of  a  great  river,  they  accelerate  its  formation, 
for  uie  matter  brought  down,  in  place  of  being  carried  hr  out  to  sea, 
Lb  deposited  in  the  intermediate  space,  and  the  sand-bank  in  time 
becomes  united  to  the  delta. 

An  eztensiye  waste  of  the  land  is  in  constant  progress  along  every  line 
of  coast  which  presents  an  abrupt  fisuse  to  the  sea.  The  amount  and 
rapidity  of  that  waste  depend  upon  a  variety  of  circumstances : — ^the 
nature  of  the  rocks  of  which  the  diffli  are  composed,  according  as  they 
are  capable  of  long  resistanoe,  or  are  easQy  acted  upon  by  the  weather 
and  the  sea ;  the  force  of  the  tides  and  currents ;  the  greater  or  less 
frequency  of  storms ; — all  these  aooelerate  or  retard  the  destructive 
force  of  ihe  ocean.  In  this  case  also,  as  well  as  in  the  action  of  running 
water  on  the  land,  the  force  is  greatly  augmented  when  the  water  is 
chazged  with  solid  matter.  The  violent  surge  of  a  tempest  dashing 
agaii^  a  diff  detaches  laige  blocks,  and  sweeps  them  away ;  but  the 
next  returning  wave  hurls  them  back  again  against  the  cliff,  and  thus 
a  powerful  artillery  is  supplied  by  the  knd  for  its  own  destruction. 
When  we  look  upon  a  map  of  the  world,  and  see  the  irregular  form 
and  indented  line  of  coast  of  every  continent  and  island,  we  have  before 
us  the  most  irresistible  proof  of  the  powerfcd  force  of  the  waves,  and 
that  the  line  of  the  shore  must  have  been  formed,  in  a  great  di^p^ee, 
by  the  action  of  the  sea. 

The  east  and  south  coasts  of  Qreat  Britain,  from  the  nature  of  the 
rocks  of  which  they  are  composed,  and  from  the  violent  storms  to 
which  they  are  exposed,  are  extremelv  subject  to  decay.  The  Shetland 
and  Orkney  Iskmds  are  laid  open  to  the  whole  violence  of  the  waves  of 
the  Atlantic,  and  the  ocean-current  runs  in  the  Pentland  Frith,  in 
ordinary  spring-tidea^  at  the  rate  of  I04  miles  an  hour,  and  about 
18  miles  during  stonns.  The  steep  clifib  on  the  shores  of  the 
Shetland  Ialan£  are  hdlowed  out  mto  caves,  so  that  the  sea  enters 
in  some  places  to  the  depth  of  250  feet»  lofty  arches  are  worn  in  pro- 
jecting rocks,  and  almost  every  promontoiy  ends  in  a  cluster  of  pillars, 
obeliakB,  and  towers,  the  last  fragment  of  extensive  continuous  strata. 
In  stormy  winters,  vast  blocks  are  moved  from  their  seat,  overturned, 
dashed  into  the  sea,  or  carried  considerable  distances  up  acclivitie& 
In  this  case,  even,  rocks  of  the  hardest  composition  have  been  unable 
to  withstand  the  force  with  whidi  they  have  been  assailed.  Islands 
have  been  wholly  destroyed,  and  the  remains  of  others  rise  like  the 
ruins  of  a  Palmyra  in  the  desert  of  the  ocean.  Representations  of 
these  have  been  given  by  Dr.  Hibbert  in  his  description  of  the  Shet- 
land Idandsy  and  tiie  following  i^  a  copy  of  one  x>f  the  most  striking. 


'  In  the  year  1795  a  village  on  the  coast  of  Eoncardineshire  was  swept 
away  by  a  storm  in  one  n^t,  and  the  sea  penetrated  150  yards  inland, 
where  it  has  maintained  its  ground  ever  since.  Almost  the  whole 
coast  of  Yorkshire,  from  the  Tees  to  the  Humber,  is  in  a  state  of 
constant  decay,  especially  between  Flamborough  Head  and  the  Spurn 
Pointy  the  rate  of  encroachment  at  Owthorpe  being  at  present  about 
four  yards  in  a  year.  An  inn  at  Sherringham,  on  the  Norfolk  coast> 
built  m  1805,  70  yards  from  the  sea,  in  1829  was  separated  only  by  a 
small  garden  from  the  edge  of  the  diffi  There  is  now  a  depth  of  water 
suffident  to  float  a  frigate  at  one  point  in  the  harbour  of  that  place, 
where,  cmly  half  a  century  ago,  there  stood  a  cliff  50  feet  high,  with 
houses  upon  it.  The  whole  site  of  andent  Cromer  now  forms  a  part  of 
the  Qerman  Ocean.  Dunwidi,  once  a  flourishing  and  populous  town, 
and  the  most  considerable  sea-port  on  the  coast  of  Suffolk,  has  been 
gradually  swept  away,  so  that  there  now  only  remain  about  twenty 
houses.  The  church  of  Beculver,  on  the  coast  of  Kent,  was  nearly  a 
mile  inland  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ;  it  is  now  little  more  than  60 
yards  from  the  water's  edge. 

The  whole  coast  of  Sussex  has  been  incessantly  encroached  upon  by 
the  sea  from  time  immemorial ;  tracts  of  400  acres  have  been  carried 
away  at  one  time ;  and  the  old  town  of  Brighton,  which  stood  between 
the  site  of  the  present  cliff  and  the  sea  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  has 
been  wholly  destetiyed.  The  projecting  foreUnd  of  Beachy  Head  is 
falling  away  rapidly :  in  the  winter  of  1852  many  large  portions  gave 
way  aod  ful  into  the  ae&,  among  which  were  some  of  a  picturesque 
form,  known  as  the  Charleses,  which  were  mudx  visited  by  tourists. 
By  the  undermining  of  the  sea  on  the   coast  of  Dorsetshire,  in 


1792,  a  portion  of  land  000  yards  from  east  to  west,  and  a  mile  and 
a  quarter  from  north  to  south,  sunk  50  feet  in  24  hours.  The  island 
of  Heligoland,  off  the  entrance  of  the  river  Elbe,  has  been  reduced  to 
the  fourth  part  of  ito  size  within  the  last  500  years,  and  since  1770  has 
been  divided  into  two  parts,  the  channd  between  them  being  navigable 
by  large  ships.  Nowhere  has  the  sea  made  greater  inroads  man  on  the 
coast  of  Schleswig.  The  island  of  Nords&and,  in  the  earlier  part  of 
the  18th  century,  was  separated  from  the  main-land  by  a  narrow 
stream,  and  was  50  miles  long  and  85  broad,  populous  and  highly 
cultivated  In  the  year  1240  a  great  part  of  it  was  destroyed,  and  at 
the  end  of  th^  16th  century  it  was  reduced  to  an  area  of  20  miles  in 
circumference.  The  industrious  inhabitants  endeavoured  to  save  their 
territory  by  the  erection  of  lofty  dikes ;  but  in  October,  1634,  a  great, 
storm  devastated  the  whole  island,  destroyed  1840  people,  and  50,000* 
head  of  cattle ;  and  three  small  idets,  which  have  since  condderably 
diminished,  were  all  that  remained  of  the  once  fertile  and  populous 
Nordstrand 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  give,  in  this  plaoe,  farther  instanoes  of 
the  like  nature :  those  we  have  already  mentioned  have  all  ocpuned 
within  the  histoijcal  era ;  others,  however,  still  more  remarkable  in 
extent)  date  from  a  much  earlier  period  of  the  earth's  history,  and  the 
evidence  of  their  occurrence  is  supplied  by  the  identity  in  compodtion 
of  the  oppodte  portions  of  the  separated  lands.  There  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  England  once  formed  a  part  of  France :  the  di£b  on 
the  oppodte  ddes  of  the  channd  are  identical  with  those  at  the  Straito 
of  Dover ;  and  between  Folkestone  and  Boulogne  a  submarine  chain 
of  hills  is,  in  some  places,  only  14  feet  bdow  the  surface  at  low  water. 
From  the  (German  Ocean  to  the  Straits  the  water  becomes  gradually 
more  shallow,  diminishing,  in  a  distance  of  200  leagues,  from  120  to 
18  fathoms ;  and  in  the  same  manner,  frt>m  the  Struts  to  the  mouth 
of  the  English  Channel,  there  is  a  gradual  incresse  of  the  depth  of  the 
water,  so  that  at  the  Straits  there  is  a  ridge  with  a  fdl  to  the  west  and 
to  the  east.  In  the  wearing  of  the  ddes,  and  consequent  widening  of 
the  Straits,  which  is  now  going  on,  we  see  only  an  advanced  stage  of  a 
work  of  destruction  which  has  been  many  thousand  years  in  operation. 
That  Sicily  was  at  one  time  united  to  Italy  was  a  tradition  in  the  time 
of  ViigU  e  ^neid,'  iii.  414)  :— 


*  Th*  Italian  ahote 


And  fair  Sidlla'a  ooaat  vera  one  before 

An  earthquake  oanaed  the  flaw :  the  roaring  tides 

The  paaaage  broke  that  land  from  land  diridea ; 

And  where  the  landa  retired  the  mahing  ocean  ridea.** 

Dryden's  2Van«. 

AH  modem  obeervationB  on  the  structure  of  the  oppodte  shores, 
the  bottom  of  the  intervening  sea,  and  the  violence  witn  which  it  is 
often  agitated,  give  every  degree  of  credibility  to  the  tradition.  But 
as  Sicily  is  in  that  part  so  frequently  convulsed  by  volcanic  fires,  it  is 
very  probable  that  subterranean  movements  have  greatly  contributed 
to  the  formation  of  the  Straits  of  Messina.  In  like  manner,  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  the  idand  of  Ceylon  was  at  one  time  united 
to  the  continent  of  Hindustan.  [Adam's  Bridge,  in  Oeoq.  Div.] 
Humboldt  is  of  opinion  that  the  Caribbean  Sea  was  once  mediteira- 
nean,  indosed  by  a  circuit  of  land,  of  which  St.-Domingo,  Jamuca,  and 
Cuba»  are  the  principal  renudns ;  and  the  whole  form  of  the  land  from 
the  promontoiy  of  Yucatan,  through  the  above-named  idands  to 
Trimdad,  and  the  coast  of  Cumana,  with  its  deeply-indented  shores, 
the  numerous  idets  and  shoals,  give  countenance  to  the  coi^ecture, 
and  justifies  the  belief  that  we  see  in  the  West  India  Idands  the 
monuments  of  the  irresistible  force  of  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic, 
co-operating  with  subterranean  agency,  through  an  indefinite  succes- 
don  of  ages. 

To  what,  it  may  be  asked,  does  all  this  lead  ?  If  such  a  constant 
destruction  of  the  land  be  a  part  of  the  system  of  Nature,  it  necessarily 
follows^  that,  if  her  laws  continue  to  endure,  the  whole  of  our  preeent 
continents  must  in  time  disappear  under  the  sur^eice  of  the  sea. 
Undoubtedly  to  that,  and  to  no  other  ooncludon  must  we  arrive ;  but 
such  a  transference  of  the  land  which  now  rises  above  the  surface  of 
the  sea  is  in  perfect  accordance  with  what  geology  tells  us  has  been 
the  economy  of  Nature  in  times  past  All  the  stratified  masses  of 
which  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  composed,  however  high  their  podtion 
may  now  be,  must  at  one  time  have  been  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea ; 
and  the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed  must  have  constituted 
the  component  parts  of  other  rocks,  which,  in  a  former  condition  of 
the  earth's  sur&oe,  must  have  been  acted  upon  and  abraded  by  similar 
agents.  In  every  (^reat  group  of  strata  we  find  beds  composed  of 
luge  water-worn  fragments,  materials  supplied,  most  probably,  by 
rivers  which  had  a  rapid  descent  to  the  sea;  but  as  such  water- 
courses form  but  a  small  proportion  to  those  which  traverse  low  and 
level  countries,  and  carry  only  the  finer  partides  to  the  sea,  so  we 
find  that  the  beds  of  conglomerates  bear  only  a  small  proportion  to 
those  strata  the  materiaJb  of  whidi  are  in  a  comminuted  state — an 
additional  fact  in  support  of  the  doctrine,  that  the  formation  of  strata 
in  past  times  took  place  imder  circumstances  andogoitf  to  those  which 
are  now  in  progress ;  that  is,  that  the  laws  of  Qie  material  world 
have  continued  unaltered.  But  renovation  as  well  as  decay  is  a  part 
of  the  economy  of  Nature ;  and  the  same  subterranean  forces  which 
raised  our  present  continents,  may,  in  after  1^^  repeat  th«  DinooBau 


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135 


ALMANDINE. 


ALOE. 


136 


Mid  other  Alps  and  other  Andes  may  be  produced  from  the  materiaU 
which  are  now  washed  from  our  shores,  and  are  accumulating  in 
the  unfathomable  depths  of  the  ocean.  We  can  in  no  way  conclude 
these  obserrations  so  well  as  by  quoting  the  following  eloquent  passage 
from  the  < niustrations  of  the  Huttonian  Theory:' — "How  ofb^ 
these  vicisBitudes  of  decay  and  renovation  have  been  repeated,  it  is 
not  for  us  to  determine :  uiey  constitute  a  series,  of  which  we  neither 
see  the  beginning  nor  the  end — a  droumstance  that  aooorda  with  what 
is  known  concerning  other  parts  of  the  economy  of  the  world.  In  the 
planetary  motions,  where  geometry  has  carried  the  eye  so  far  both 
into  the  future  and  the  past»  we  discorer  no  mark  either  of  the 
commencement  or  the  termination  of  the  present  order.  It  is 
.  unreasonable,  indeed,  to  suppose  that  such  marks  should  anywhere 
exist.  The  Author  of  nature  has  not  giren  laws  to  the  universe, 
which,  like  the  institutions  of  men,  cany  in  themselves  the  elements 
of  their  own  destruction.  He  has  not  permitted,  in  His  works,  any 
symptom  of  in&ncy  or  of  old  a^  or  any  si^  by  which  we  may 
estiftiate  either  their  future  or  their  past  duration.  He  may  put  an 
and,  as  He  no  doubt  gave  a  beginning,  to  the  present  system,  at  some 
determinate  period;  but  we  may  safely  conclude  that  this  great 
catastrophe  will  not  be  brought  about  by  any  of  the  laws  now  existing, 
and  that  it  is  not  indicated  by  anything  which  we  perceive." 

ALMANDINE,  in  Mineialogy,  the  precious  Garnet  It  is  the 
mineral  which  is  most  commoiSy  employed  in  jewellery  under  the 
common  name  of  garnet  It  is  a  silicate  of  alumina  and  magnesia. 
[Qaritit.I 

Almanain&'Rubv  is  a  name  given  to  a  variety  of  Spinell  which  is 
an  aluminate  of  magnesia.    [SpiinLL.] 

ALMOND.    [Amtgdalub.] 

ALNUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  BehUacea. 
It  was  formerly  united  with  the  birch  in  the  same  genus,  but  modem 
botanists  have  separated  it,  because  its  fruif  is  wingless  and  its  stamens 
only  four. 

Several  species  are  described  in  botanical  works,  most  of  which  are 
found  in  America,  between  the  mountains  of  New  Granada  and 
Hudson's  Bay :  a  small  part  belongs  to  Europe,  and  northern  and 
middle  Asia.  Of  these,  tiie  only  species  that  ne«d  be  noticed  here  are, 
the  Common  Alder,  the  Turkey  Alder,  and  the  Heart-Leaved  Alder. 

Alrniu  glutinoio,  the  Common  Alder,  is  an  inhabitant  of  swamps  and 
meadows  in  all  Europe,  the  north  of  Africa  and  AaA,  and  North 
America.    Iti  favourite  station  is  by  the  side  of  rivulets,  or  in  the 


Common  Alder  {Atwut  glutinoM), 
elevated  parts  of  marshy  land  where  the  soil  is  drained ;  it  does  not 
thrive  so  welL^  plaoed  in  absolutely sts^nant  water.  Next  to  the 
charcoal  froniBlacK  Dogwood  {Rhamnm  franffula),  that  supplied  by 
the  Common  Alder  is  of  the  best  quality ;  and  thu  tree  is  in  conse- 
quence extensively  cultivated  in  plantations  for  use  in  the  manufac- 
tories  of  gunpowder.  Its  juice  contains  a  great  abundance  of  tannin, 
^hich  renders  the  bark  valuable  for  taumng,  and  the  young  shoots 


for  dyeing  various  colours  when  mixed  with  other  ingredients ;  the 
veiny  knots  of  its  wood  are  cut  into  veneer  by  cabinet-makers  for 
ornamental  purposes;  and  its  stems,  hollowed  ou^  are  among  the  best 
materials,  next  to  metal,  for  water-pipes  and  imderground  purposes. 

Its  foliage  being  laige,  and  of  a  deep  handsome  green,  the  alder  is 
rather  an  ornamental  tree ;  and  when  old  it  frequently  becomes  «> 
picturesque  object^  if  unbroken  or  uninjured  by  the  hatchet  of  the 
woodman. 

Several  varieties  of  the  Common  Alder  are  met  with  in  collections, 
and  among  them  one,  called  the  Cut-Leaved,  which  is  extremely 
ornamental  when  yoimg :  there  is  also  another,  with  very  much-lobed 
leaves,  called  the  Hawthorn-Leaved,  in  which  almost  all  trace  of  the 
usual  appearance  of  the  alder  has  cUsappeared. 

Alnus  incanc^  the  Turkey  Alder,  or  Upland  Alder,  is  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  by  its  more  erect  mode  of  growth,  and  by  its 
leaves  being  destitute  of  clamminess,  but  covered  instead  with  copious 
white  down  on  the  under  side.  It  is  fotmd  all  over  continental  Europe, 
from  Sweden  to  the  north  of  Italy,  and  esst  beyond  the  Caucasus,  as 
far  even  as  Tra^inf/»>i>^fr.lrR  Like  the  Common  Alder,  it  shows  itself  in  a 
number  of  varieties,  among  which  several  are  of  dwarfish  stature ;  but 
its  general  character  is  to  grow  more  rapidly  and  to  acquire  a  larger 
size  than  the  Common  Alder.  What  mi^es  it  particularly  valuable  is, 
that  it  will  grow  on  light  land  where  there  are  neither  rivulets  nor 
ditches ;  an  important  property,  as  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  from  its 
appearance,  that  it  possesses  wnatever  usefhl  qualities  are  found  in  the 
Common  Alder.  Botanists  seem  to  suppose  that  the  Turkey  Alder  is 
their  A.  obUmgattif  but  this  is  a  manifest  error. 

A.  cordifdia,  the  Heart-Leaved  Alder,  resembles  but  little  in 
appearance  either  of  the  preceding.  It  forms  a  rather  la^e  and  very 
handsome  round-headed  tree,  witii  broad,  deep-green,  shining  leaves, 
deeply  heartshapcMl  at  the  base.  It  grows  with  rapidity,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  ornamental  trees  that  have  of  late  years  beeo 
introduced  into  cultivation.  Though  a  native  of  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  and  a  most  distinct  species,  its  very  existence  was  unknown 
till  within  a  few  years.  It  is  a  perfectly  hardy  plant,  notwithstanding 
its  southern  station. 

All  the  Aiders  are  increased  with  great  facilily  by  layers ;  they  will 
also  strike  readily  enough  from  cuttings,  but  the  latter  are  longer  in 
becoming  huidsome  plants.  Common  Aider  is  obtained  by  the  nursery- 
man from  seed ;  which  should,  if  possible,  be  sown  in  very  light,  rioi, 
damp  soil,  in  the  autumn,  soon  after  it  is  ripe.  If  kept  till  the 
spring,  even  if  preserved  in  sand,  it  loses  in  a  great  degree  its  power 
of  vegetating ;  and  if  not  kept  in  sand,  it  will  scarcely  ever  grow  at  all 

ALOE,  a  genus  of  succulent  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
LiUaoea,  It  comprehends  a  very  considerable  number  of  species 
which  diflbr  from  each  other  exceedingly  in  the  sise,  form,  and  surface 
of  their  leaves,  in  stature,  and  in  the  colour,  size,  and  structure  of 
their  flowers.  The  greater  part  of  them  are  mere  objects  of  curiosity, 
and  are  only  seen  in  collections  of  succulent  plants ;  but  among  them 
are  species  of  much  value,  on  account  of  their  yielding  the  well-known 
medicinal  drug  called  Aloes. 

From  what  particular  species  the  resinous  substance  called  Aloes  is 
procured,  and  whether  the  difibrent  samples  known  \mder  the  name 
of  Hepatic  Aloes,  Socotrine  Aloes,  and  Horse  Aloes  are  yielded  by 
difibrent  species,  or  are  only  di£Ebrent  qualities  of  the  same  species, 
are  points  not  settied. 

Ail  that  appaani  certain  is  that  plants  nearly  related  to  Aloe  perfo- 
Uata  of  Linnseusi,  which  some  consider  distinct  species,  while  others 
pronounce  them  mere  varie^iM  of  each  other,  are  what  the  drug  is 
prepared  frouL  In  all  probability,  all  the  species  of  the  genus  having 
an  arborescent  stem  and  thick  succulent  leaves  will  yield  the  substance 
equally  welL 

That  which  has  the  reputation  of  producing  the  best  sloes  is 
A.  Socotrind,  a  plant  having,  when  old,  a  round  stem  8  or  4  feet 
high ;  leaves  of  a  sword  form,  14  to  2  feet  long,  sharp-edged,  sawed, 
hard,  and  pungent  at  the  apex,  often  collected  in  clusters  at  the  top 
of  the  stem ;  and  red  flowers  tipped  with  green,  borne  in  clusters  on 
tall  stdks  which  rise  erect  from  among  the  leaves.  This  is  a  native 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  island  of  Socotra,  but  it  is  now 
commonly  cultivated  in  the  West  Indie&  The  processes  of  preparing 
the  drug  are  various.  Sometimes  the  leaves  are  cut  off  at  their  base 
and  plaoed  in  iron  vessels  to  drain,  until  they  have  discharged  all  their 
juice,  which  is  then  inspissated ;  in  other  places,  the  leaves  are  cut 
mto  slices  and  boiled  for  ten  minutes,  after  which  the  water  in  which 
they  have  been  boiled  is  evaporated ;  occasionally  pressure  is  resorted 
to  for  the  purpose  of  procunng  the  greatest  quantity  of  juice. 

Socotrine  Aloes  seem  to  be  the  purest  kind  obtained  by  draining 
only;  Hepatic  or  Barbadoes  Aloes,  which  are  obtained  from  the 
Aloe  vulgarii,  are  less  pure,  and  may  be  obtained  by  boiling  or 
slight  pressure;  while  Horse  Aloes  are  undoubtedly  a  coarse  prepa- 
ration of  the  dregs  of  the  last-mentioned.  [Aloes,  in  Abts  i^i> 
SaDiv.] 

No  plants  can  be  more  easy  to  cultivate  artificially  than  the  Aloe 
Tribe.  They  are  incapable  of  parting  rapidly  with  water,  and  therefore 
require  to  be  planted  in  a  soil  that  is  very  slightiy  retentive  of  moisture, 
so  that  they  may  not  be  gorged  with  it  by  their  roots ;  for  this  reason, 
they  are  potted  in  a  compost  consisting  of  littie  more  than  lime  rubbuh 
mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  ordinary  soil,  and  carefully  drsined. 


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ALOPECURUS. 


ALUMINITE. 


133 


They  require  a  gpreen-house  which  ia  capable  of  being  maintained 
tot  a  temperature  of  not  less  than  40°  in  the  depth  of  winter,  at 
which  time  they  should  have  no  water  whatever ;  in  the  summer  they 
want  no  fire-heat»  but  may  ba  watered  regularly,  the  supply  being 
always  in  proportion  to  their  rate  of  growth  and  to  the  temperature 
of  the  air ;  that  is  to  say,  when  in  full  growth  and  in  a  high  tempe- 
rature, ti^ey  may  have  abundance  of  water,  and  when  growing  slowly 
in  a  low  temperature  they  should  have  but  y^  little. 

AliOPECUHUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Graminaeecs.  It  is  distinguished 
from  all  other  British  grasses  by 
its  flowers,  which  grow  in  close 
cylindrical  heads,  consisting  of 
two  glumes  of  equal  size  and  a 
keeled  compressed  flg^ire,  in- 
closing a  single  pcdea,  from  the 
base  of  which  arises  an  arista 
or  beard.  It  contains  many 
species. 

Alopecttnu  pratentis,  the 
Meadow  Foxtail  Grass,  is  a  valu- 
able plant  to  the  fimner.  It  is 
BO  much  larger  thim  any  other 
British  species  oi  Alopecurus  as 
to  be  easily  reoognised ;  and  from 
PkUvm  pratente,  which  it  re- 
sembles, it  may  be  inmiediately 
known  by  its  not  having  two 
palese,  and  by  its  beard  proceed- 
ing from  its  palea  and  not  from 
its  glomes.  It  grows  commonly 
in  meadows,  where  it  fonns 
rather  a  coarse  but  an  abun- 
dant and  early  herbage,  of  ^ 
which  catUe  are  veiy  fond. 
In  such  situations  it  is  in- 
valuable,     but      it      becomes 

worthless  if  sown  on  li^t  diy       Meadow  Foxtail  Grass  {Alopecttnu 
BoiL  praUntU), 

A.  agrettu^  Slender  or  Field  FoxtaQ  Grass,  has  a  fibrous  root,  and 
blossoms  in  July  or  August  Although  a  troublesome  weed  amongst 
wheat,  it  is  useful  for  sowing  on  light  sandv  soils  on  the  sea-ooast  In 
such  situations  it  grows  better  than  even  the  oonmion  rye-grasses. 

ALOYSIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
VerbenacecB,   A,  cUriodora  is  the  Sweet^oented  Vervain  of  qur  gardens. 

[VERBE5A.] 

ALPINIAy  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Zinffi- 
heracea.  The  species  have  thick  tuberous  horizontal  roots.  The  stems 
are  numerouB  and  perennial,  with  lanceolate  leaves,  having  a  slit  ligulate 
sheath.  The  flowers  are  in  panicles,  or  loose  racemes  or  spikes.  The 
tube  of  the  csoroUa  is  short,  the  inner  limb  I-lipped.  The  filament  of 
the  stamens  linear.  The  fruit  is  capsular  and  8-ceUed,  with  winged  seeds. 

A.  Qalomga  is  a  native  of  Siunatra,  and  is  cultivated  in  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  Its  roots  arepungenty  acrid,  and  aromatic,  and  are  often 
substituted  for  ginger.  They  are  sold  by  druggists  under  the  name 
of  Golofnga  major,  A  plant  related  to,  if  not  identical  with,  the 
A.  exaUata  of  Meyer,  the  Eenealmia  exaUaia  of  Linnteus,  is  called 
Corowatti  in  British  Guyana,  and  is  described  by  Dr.  Hancock  as 
a  bitter  pungent  plants  and  when  taken  acting  as  a  diaphoretic  and 
diuretic,  and  in  large  doses  as  emetia    [Galanga.] 

ALTERED  STRATA.  In  addition  to  the  consoUdation  and 
division  by  cracks,  joints,  and  fissures,  to  which  all  rocks  have 
been  subjected,  in  unequal  degrees,  there  are  special  cases  of 
uncommon  induration,  internal  re-arrangement  of  particles,  and  even 
the  production  of  new  mineral  ingredients,  which  happen  in  the  strata 
near  to  rocks  of  igneous  origin,  and  along  certain  great  fractures  and 
flexures.  Heat  is  usually  appealed  to  for  these  effiects,  and  justly; 
but  in  addition  to  mere  pecvading  warmth.  Von  Buch  supposes 
▼aporisation  of  some  ingreoients  (as  magnesia,  which  converts  lime- 
Btone  to  dolomite),  and  the  solution  of  others  in  hot  water,  to  be 
necessary  to  explain  the  various  contents  of  mineral  veins. 
,  ALTERNAJION  OF  GENERATIONS,  an  expresssion  introduced 
into  natural  history  by  Professor  Steenstrup,  a  Danish  naturalist^  to 
designate  the  difitoenoe  of  form  observable  between  the  parents  and 
mlmediate  o£bpring  in  the  lower  animals,  as  in  the  Acalepha 
[AcALXFHiBl  Salpa  [Salfaobje],  and  some  others.  [Geitxbations, 
AltirwatilJ 

ALTH.£A,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Malvaeeeg,  It  is  kaown  by  its  double  calyx,  the  outer  whorl  of  which 
has  six  to  nine  sepals,  whilst  the  inner  has  five.  A,  oJ^Mnalis  is  the 
Marsh-Mallow,  a  plant  the  use  of  whose  mucilaginous  roots  and  leaves, 
m  all  cases  in  which  emollient  or  demulcent  substances  are  required, 
»  of  great  antiquity.  It  is  a  common  European  plant,  and  is  often 
found  in  marshes,  especially  near  the  se%  in  great  abundance.  It  is  a 
Ifreimial,  with  a  carrot-shaped  white  fleshy  root,  as  thidk  as  the 
thumb,  and  a  foot  or  more  long.  The  stems  are  two  or  three  feet 
high,  covered  all  over  with  a  soft  down,  which  also  is  found  on  the 
leaves,  to  which  it  gives  a  hoary  aspect.    The  leaves  are  soft,  stalked, 


often  a  little  heart-shaped,  divided  into  three  or  five  shallow  serrated 
lobes.  The  flowers  are  of  a  pale  rose  colour,  and  appear  in  very  short 
clusters  from  the  bosom  of  the  leaves ;  their  calyx  is  5-toothed,  and 
surrounded  with  eight  or  ten  or  even  more  bracts.  The  corolla  and 
other  parts  are  like  tiiose  of  the  Common  Mallow.  The  demulcent 
lozenges  sold  in  the  shops  under  the  mame  of  PAte  de  Guimauve,  arc 
made  of  Marsh-Mallow. 


MarriiOfallow  {Altluea  officinalis). 

AUhaa  roMCL  the  Hollyhock,  is  another  spedes.  It  is  found  wild 
in  China,  and  d  now  extremdy  common  in  our  gardens.  Linnaeus 
considered  it  a  distinct  genus,  which  he  called  Alcta, 

ALUM-ROOT,  the  root  of  Gtranivm  macuUUum,  It  contains  alum, 
and  is  a  powerful  astringent    [Gebaitiuil] 

ALUM-SLATE,  a  rook  frt>m  which,  as  its  name  implies,  alum  is 
prepared.  It  is  found  in  Germany,  Sweden,  &c ;  and  in  Yorkshire  a 
stratum  occurs,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Winter  (Nicholson's  'Journal,' 
Na  25,  p.  241),  is  28  miles  in  length,  extending  from  10  miles  to  the 
southwajxl  of  Whitby  to  18  miles  to  the  northward ;  the  cliffii  are  in 
general  precipitous,  god  their  height  is  from  100  to  750  feet  The 
colour  of  this  shite  is  bluish-gray :  its  hardness  varies ;  fit  the  top  part 
of  the  stratum  it  may  be  cnunbled  between  the  fingers,  whereas  %t  a 
considerable  depth  it  is  as  hard  as  roofing-slate.  The  snedfic  gravity 
is  about  2*48.  By  exposure  to  tiie  air  it  effloresces,  and  acquires  ^o 
taste  of  alum.  Alum-slate  has  not  been  accurately  analysed;  it 
contains  silica,  alumina,  and,  before  efflorescence,  probably  pyrites  or 
bisulphuret  of  iron. 

At  Hurlett,  near  Paisley,  and  Campsie,  near  Glasgow,  alum  is 
manufactured  from  what  appears  to  be  slateHolav  impresnated  with 
bisulphuret  of  iron ;  it  is  obtained  firom  old  coal-pits,  and  having  been 
long  exposed  to  air  and  moisture,  sulphate  of  iron  and  sulphate  of 
alumina  are  formed,  and  orystaUise  so  as  completely  to  destroy  the 
texture  of  the  slate. 

This  double  sulphate  of  iron  atid  alumina  occurs  in  the  form  of  soft 
delicate  fibres,  easily  separable  from  each  other ;  it  is  nearly  colourless, 
of  a  silky  lustre^  and  resembles  asbestos  in  appearance.  It  is  readily 
soluble  in  water ;  the  solution  yields  crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron ;  and 
when  potash-salts  are  added  to  the  remaining  solution  of  sulphate  of 
alumina,  crvstals  of  alum  are  immediately  formed ;  and  this  is  the 
process  of  uum-making  already  noticed. 

ALUM-STONE,  a  mineral  which  occurs  in  a  secondary  rock  at  La 
Tolfa  in  Italy,  and  is  there  used  in  tibie  preparation  of  alum ;  it  is  found 
in  small  masses  and  veins,  and  according  to  Cordier  it  eidsts  in  most 
burning  volcanoes.  It  is  said  to  be  met  with  also  in  Tuscany  and 
Hungary. 

This  mineral  is  either  massive  or  crystallised ;  the  former  is  usually 
grayish-white,  and  sometimes  red.  It  is  translucent,  easily  frangible, 
scratches  calcareous  spar,  but  is  scratched  by  fluor  spar.  When  heated 
by  the  blowpipe  it  decrepitates,  and  by  continuing  the  heat  emits  a 
sulphureous  sinelL 

The  crystals  are  generally  situated  in  the  cavities  of  the  massive 
substance;  they  are  small,  shming,  sometimes  externally  brownish; 
their  form  is  an  obtuse  rhomboid,  variously  modifled. 

Both  varieties  have  been  analysed— the  massive  by  Yauquelini  and 
the  dystallised  by  Cordier ;  the  results  are— 

Maasire.  CrjBtalUaed. 

Solphnrlc  add  •  •  .  S5'00  Salphwic  add  .  •  •  S5-495 
Alomina  «...  48*93  Alumina  .  •  •  •  S9'654 
Potash        ....      8-08     Potash      ....    10*031 

Silifla S4-00     Water,  a  trnco  of  oxide  of 

Water        ....      4.00        iron  and  Iom    .        .    •    14*880 

100*00  100*000 

ALUMINITE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  variety  of  native  Sulphate  of 
Alumina,  also  called  Webtterite,  It  is  found  in  reniform  masses  and  in 
botryoidal  concretions  in  Halle  in  Plrussia,  Epemay  in  Fnaot,  and  at 


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ALUMO-CALCITR 


AMABYLLIDACEiE. 


140 


NewhaTen  in  Siusex.  It  has  a  white  or  yellowish-white  colour.  It 
is  Bofb  and  friable,  and  has  an  earthy  fracture.  It  is  occasionally 
translucent^  but  more  frequently  opaque.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
1*7.  It  IB  a  hydrous  sub-sulphate  of  alumina^  and  has  the  following 
composition : — 

Sulphiuio  Acid 2327 

AlwmiTiA 29*87 

Water 46*86 


100*00 
ALUMO-CALCITE,  a  mineral  belonging  to  the  group  of  Clays  con- 
taining a  laige  quanti^  of  water.  It  occurs  in  the  defbs  of  ironstone 
veins  at  Eybenstock,  in  the  Erzgebiige.  It  is  massive^  and  has  a  white 
colour  inclining  to  blue.  It  has  a  white  streak,  a  conchoidal  fracture, 
and  is  so  soft  that  it  may  be  crushed  between  tiie  fingers.  It  adheres 
strou^y  to  the  tongue.  The  specific  gravity  is  2714.  Its  analysis  by 
Kerstan  gives — 

Silica 86*60 

Alumina 2*25 

Lime 6.25 

Water  ....  4*90 


[Alum- 


10000 
ALUNITE,  in  Kineralogy,  a  name  for  the  Alum-Stone. 
STOirsJ 

ALVEOLITES  (Lamarck),  a  genus  of  Fossil  Polypiarui,  from  the 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  Strata. 

AMADOU,  the  name  of  an  inflammable  substance  occasionally 
used  as  tinder.  It  is  prepared  from  the  dried  plant  of  the  BoUtut 
igniarius,  steeped  in  a  strong  solution  of  saltpetre,  and  cut  into  thin 
riices.  This  plant  grows  horisontally  frt>m  the  sides  of  the  cherry, 
the  ash,  and  other  trees.  When  it  first  makes  its  appearance  it  is  a 
little  round  wart-like  body,  the  size  of  a  pea  of  a  yellow  colour,  and 


BoMui  iffniariut. 

of  a  soft  yielding  substance ;  it  gradually  increases  in  size  and  hardneas 
till  it  becomes  of  a  darkish-brown,  azui  is  as  large  as  an  apple.  It 
afterwards  takes  a  horizontal  direction,  forms  a  border  and  becomes 
covered  with  numerous  closely-packed  tubes  oniits  under  surface, 
i^hich  are  exceedingly  minute.  When  the  plant  is  full  grown  the 
tubes  are  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  and  of  a  hard  woody  texture ; 
and  the  upper  surface  is  of  various  colours  disposed  in  gray,  brown, 
or  clouded  concentric  elevated  circles.  The  plant  is  perennial,  and 
increases  yearly  in  size. 

AMABANTA'CEiE,  Amaranths,  a  natural  order  of  Apetalous 
Dicotyledonous  plants,  remarkable  for  the  dry  coloured  m^es  of 
which  all  their  bracts  and  floral  envelopes  are  composed — a  character 
by  which  they  are  principally  known  from  Chenopodiacea,  Their 
essential  distinction  is  briefly  this :  calyx,  diy,  coloured,  not  fidling 
away;  petals,  wanting;  stamens,  five  or  more ;  ovarium, quite  simple, 
superior;  fruit,  an  utricle,  containing  .a  single  seed,  which  has  an 
embiyo  curved  round  a  central  farinaceoUs  albumen;  leaves,  destitute 
of  stipules. 

The  species  are  found  chiefly  in  tropical  countries,  where  they  are 
often  troublesome  weeds.  The  Cock*s-Cdmb,  the  Globe- Amaranth,  the 
Prince's-Feather,  the  Love-Lies-Bleeding,  of  our  gardens,  belong  to 
this  ord6r. 

Many  of  the  species  are  used  in  the  countries  where  they  grow  as 
pot-herbs,  and  mdeed  none  of  them  present  any  tmwholesome 
properties.  The  seeds  of  AvMur<aUkv*  frumaUaceus  and  A,  Anardhana 
are  gathered  as  com  crops  in  India.  A  large  number  of  the  species 
have  a  reputation  for  posbessing  medicinal  properties,  hui,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  majority  of  such  remedies,  they  seldom  bear  out  the 
encomiums  bestowed  upon  them  by  the  ignorant  (Lindley,  *  Vegetable 
Eliiigdom.') 


Amaranthui  polygawwa, 

1.  A  calyx  and  bract  with  stamena.  2.  The  aame  with  the  piatiL 

3.  The  piatil  opening.  4.  A  aeed. 

6.  A  aced  cat  down,  ahowing  the  embryo.      6.  The  embryo.    All  magnified. 

AMARYLLIDA'CRfi,  AmarylUds,  the  Narcissus  Tribe,  a  natural 


Amaryllis  reticulata,  dlminiahed  in  alee. 
1.  The  flower  cat  open.  2.  A  atamen  the  natural  aixe. 

order  of .Monoootyledonous  plants^  to  which  the  Daffodil,  the  BeUadonna 


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AMAZONSTONR 


AMETHYST. 


141 


Lily  tfnd  Guenuey  Lily,  the  showy  BnmfiTigias  ond  Blood-Flowen 
(Jffcefnanthui)  of  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope,  and  the  American  Aloe  belong. 
They  are  characterised  by  having  six  stamens,  a  highly-coloured  flower, 
and  an  inferior  ovary.  The  beauty  of  their  blossoms  serye  as  a  doak 
to  their  poisonous  properties,  and  shows  how  little  the  external 
appearaucee  of  plants  are  to  be  trusted  in  judging  of  their  virtues. 
To  form  an  opinion  only  ftom  their  aspect^  these  would  be  pronounced 
the  most  harmless  of  juants,  while  in  fact  their  bulbs  are  dangerous 
poiaons.  The  juice  of  that  of  ffionanthtu  toxiearim  is  inspissi^ed  by 
the  Hottentots,  who  smear  their  arrow-heads  with  it ;  other  kinds 
are  not  less  fatal,  and  even  the  common  daffodil  and  snowdrop  contain 
within  their  bulbs  an  acrid  irritating  principle  which  renders  them 
emetic.  Like  many  other  poisonous  families,  this  occasionallv  secretes 
a  kind  of  foocula,  or  flour,  which,  when  separated  from  the  juice  that 
is  naturally  mixed  vrith  it,  becomes  a  wholesome  article  of  food.  The 
aiTow-rL.ot  of  Chili  is  yielded  by  an  AUtrGmeria,  which  belongs  to 
AmafyUida«€g, 

The,  species,  wMch  are  chiefly  scattered  over  Brazil,  Africa,  and 
tropical  Asia,  are  nearly  all  bulbous ;  a  few  only  acquire  a  high  degree 
of  development,  and  lose  their  bulbous  character,  as  the  JhrfarUhet, 
Affove,  and  LiUoBo,    [Aoaye.] 

AMAZON-STONE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  green  variety  of  Felspar. 
[FklbpabJ 

AMBER,  a  carbonaceous  mineral  which  occurs  in  beds  of  lignite, 
in  Greenland,  Prussia^  France,  Switaerland,  and  some  other  oountrie& 
The  greater  portion  of  it  comes  from  the  southern  coasts  of  the  Baltic 
Sea,  where  it  is  thrown  up  between  Eonigsbeig  and  MemeL  (Ber* 
ceHus,  'Traits  de  Chimie,'  vi  589.) 

It  is  also  stated  ('Annales  de  Chimie,'  xvi  215)  that  it  is  obtained  by 
mining  at  a  distance  of  200  feet  from  the  sea,  and  at  a  depth  of  about 
100  feet,  and  is  found  in  small  cavities.  It  is  occasionally  met  with 
(Aikin's  '  Diet  of  Chemistry,'  i  57)  in  the  gravel  beds  near  London, 
in  which  case  it  is  merely  an  alluvial  deposit  Amber  occurs  generally 
in  small  pieces,  which  are  sometimes  colourless,  frrequentiy  light- 
yellow  or  deep-brown,  and  veiy  oonmionly  translucent;  two  laige 
masses  have,  however,  been  found,  one  of  them  weighing  upwards  of 
thirteen  pounds,  and  the  other  more  than  eighteen. 

Amber  is  rather  harder  than  common  resins,  which  it  resembles 
in  several  properties :  it  is  susceptible  of  a  good  poUsh,  and  when 
rubbed  becomes  electrical ;  indeed  the  word  dechieiiy  is  derived  from 
ffA<«r^r,  the  Ghreek  name  for  amber.  Its  density  varies  fsom.  1*065 
to  1  "070.  When  bruised  it  exhales  a  slight  aromatic  odour ;  and  when 
heated  to  448"  Fahrenheit  it  melts,  inflames,  bums  with  a  bright 
flame,  and  emits  a  smell  which  is  not  disagreeable. 

Th»  subject  of  the  origin  of  amber  is  one  which  has  been  much 
diacuased.  According  to  Berzelius  ('Chimie,'  vi  589),  it  was  origi- 
nally a  resin  dissolved  in  a  volatile  oil  or  natural  balsam.  The  procnb 
of  tiiiis  opinion  are,  he  conceives,  numerous.  Thus,  it  has  often  the 
impression  of  the  branches  and  bark  upon  which  it  has  flowed  and 
solidified ;  it  often  contains  insects,  some  of  which  are  so  delicately 
formed,  that  they  could  not  have  ocouired  except  in  a  very  fluid  mass. 
Dr.  Brewster  ('  Edinburgh  FhiL  Journal,'  iv.  382)  concludes,  from  an 
examination  of  the  optioal  properties  of  amber,  that  it  is  an  indurated 
▼egetable  juice. 

Amber  consists  of  a  mixture  of  a  volatile  oil,  two  resins  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  in  ether,  succinic  add,  and  a  bituminous  body  that 
resists  the  action  of  all  solvents^  and  which  is  the  principal  part  of 
amber. 

Water  does  not  act  upon  this  substance ;  it  does  not  even  dissolve 
any  of  the  succinic  add.  Alcohol  takes  up  a  soft)  yellow,  limpid 
resin.  Cold  concentrated  sulphiuic  add  dissolves  amb^ ;  the  solution 
baa  a  brown  colour,  and  when  water  is  added  to  it,  the  greater  part 
of  the  amber  is  predpitated.  Nitric  add  converts  it  into  a  resinous 
sabatance,  and  dissolves  it  totally. 

When  amber,  in  the  state  of  fine  powder,  is  boiled  in  a  salution 
of  potash,  a  great  quantity  of  succinic  add  is  dissolved. 

According  to  Drapiez,  tiie  composition  of  amber  is  as  follows  :-* 

Carbon 80*59 

Hydrogen 7'81 

Oxygen 6-78 

Ashes 8-27 

Lofli 210 

100-00 

The  ashes  consist  of  lime,  silica,  and  alunmUL  This  analysis  can  only 
be  oonddered  as  an  approximation. 

Amber  is  employed  for  ornamental  purposes,  in  the  manufacture 
of  necklaces,  ftc.  It  is  used  also  for  preparing  amber-vamish,  for 
obtaining  a  peculiar  oil  used  in  medicine,  and  it  yidds  succinic  acid 
employed  in  chemical  investigations. 

AMBERQRIS,  a  substance  of  animal  origin,  found  prindpallyin 
warm  climates,  floating  on  the  sea,  or  thrown  on  the  coasts.  The 
best  comes  from  Madagascar,  Surinam,  and  Java.  It  has  been  found 
in  the  intestinal  canal  of  the  Phyteter  mcurocephalutf  mixed  with  the 
remains  of  several  marine  animals  which  have  served  it  for  food.  On 
this  account  it  has  been  supposed  to  be  a  morbid  product  analogous 
to  biliary  oalcoli 


Ambeigris  of  good  quality  is  soli^,  opaque,  of  a  bright  gray  colour, 
which  is  darkest  externally,  and  intermixed  with  yellow  or  reddish 
strin.  When  it  is  heated  or  rubbed,  it  exhales  an  odour  which  is 
agreeable  to  most  persons.  It  is  sufficiently  soft  to  be  flattened 
between  the  fingers.  Its  fracture  is  fine-grained,  with  traces  of 
lamellar  structure.  The  heat  of  the  hand  is  suffldent  to  soften  it. 
Its  specific  gravity  varies  from  0*908  to  0*920. 

When  ambezgris  is  heated  with  boiling  alcohol  of  the  specific  gravity 
0*888,  untlL  it  is  saturated,  a  peculiar  substance,  called  Ambrein,  is 
obtained  as  the  solution  cools,  grouped  in  mamnullated,  small, 
colourless  crystals.  The  solution,  by  evaporation,  yidds  a  further 
portion  of  ambrein,  which  may  be  rendered  pure,  by  bdng  redissolvad 
in  aloohol,  and  then  crystalUsed. 

Ambrein,  thus  obtained,  is  brilliant,  white,  and  insipid ;  it  has  an 
agreeable  odour,  whidi  appears,  however,  to  be  adventitious,  because 
it  is  diminished  by  repeated  crystallisations;  by  fudon  or  a  long- 
continued  gentle  heat  it  acquires  a  reshious  odour.  Nitric  add  con- 
verts it  into  a  peculiar  add,  called  Ambreie  Acid.  The  oaustio  alkalies 
do  not  form  soap  with  it. 

According  to  Juch  and  Bouillon-Lagrange^  benzoic' add  exists  in 
distilled  ambergris ;  by  the  analysis  of  Joh^  ambergris  appears  to  be 
composed  of  ambrdn  0*85,  an  extractive  matter  soluble  in  alcohol, 
and  probably  containing  benzoic  add,  0*025 ;  watery  extract  with 
benzoic  add  and  common  salt,  0*015 ;  with  0*11  not  accounted  for. 

Ambeigris  is  used  as  a  perfume ;  and  as  the  alcoholic  solution  is  the 
most  odorous  preparation  of  it,  it  is  generally  employed  in  that  form. 

AMBLIGONITK,  a  mineral,  consisting  of  phosphate  of  alumina 
and  lithia.  It  has  a  greemsh-white  colour,  and  oc^nirs  both  masdve 
and  in  rhombic  prisms.  It  is  found  at  Chursdorf,  near  Penig,  in 
Saxony,  and  at  Avendal  in  Norway.  The  cleavage  is  paralld  to 
the  ddes  of  the  prism.  It  has  an  uneven  fracture,  and  in  thin 
laminie  is  tranduoent  or  transparent  The  following  is  the  analysis 
of  Berzelius : — 

Phosphoric  Acid 54*12 

Alumina 88*96 

Lithia 6*92 


100*00 

AMBLYSE'MinS  (Agassis),  a  Fossil  Fidi,  from  the  Oolite  of 
Northamptonshire. 

AMBLyUHUS  (Agassis),  a  genus  of  Fossfl  Fishes,  teom  the  Lias 
of  Somersetshire. 

AMBUKIA,  a  genus  of  plants  bdonging  to  the  natural  order 
Chmopodiaeea,  several  of  the  spedes  of  whi(m  yidd  volatile  oils  that 
are  employed  as  medicines  m  the  countries  where  ^ey  grow. 
A.  anihtfrnifiaica  is  a  native  of  North  America,  and  its  oil  is  extracted 
and  used  as  an  anthelmintic  under  the  name  of  Worm-Seed  Oil 

AMELANCHIER  (the  Savoy  name  of  the  Medlar),  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  sub-order  Pomea  {Pomaeea,  Lindley),,of  the 
order  PoioeecB,  It  has  a  5-cleft  calyx  with  lanceolate  petids,  and  an 
ovary  of  10  cells,  with  a  solitary  ovule  in  each.  The  mature  finiit  is  8-5- 
ceUed,  with  one  seed  in  each  oelL  The  spedes  are  small  trees^  mik 
dmple  serrated  dedduous  leaves^  and  racemes  of  white  fiowers, 

A,  wlgariif  the  common  species,  is  a  native  of  rugged  plaoea 
throughout  Europe.    It  is  the  AvotUa  rotundifoUa  of  Persoon. 

A,  io^iyapkm,  the  Qrape-Pear  or  Canadian  Medlar,  is  a  very  com- 
mon plant  in  Canada ;  it  is  also  a  native  of  Newfoundland,  Virginia, 
and  the  higher  parts  of  Columbia.  It  is  a  shrub  6  or  8  fSset  in  height, 
with  a  puiple  fruit. 

A,  ovoUm  is  also  a  shrub  6  or  8  feet  high,  and  is  a  native  of  North 
America,  throughout  Canada  ftom  Lake  Huron  to  the  Saskatchewan 
and  Mackenzie  rivers,  and  as  far  as  the  Bocky  Mountains.  Sir  John 
Richardson  says  that  it  "  abounds  on  the  sandy  plains  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan. Its  wood,  named  by  the  Crees  Mewut-^wU^iUUiek,  is 
prized  for  making  arrovra  and  pipe-stems,  and  is  thence  termed  by 
the  Canadian  voyageurs  'Bois  de  Fldche.'  Its  berries,  about  the  size 
of  a  pea,  are  the  finest  fruit  in  the  country,  and  are  used  by  the  Crees 
under  tiie  name  of  MeesoMteootoom-meena  both  in  a  fredi  and  dried 
state.  They  make  a  pleasant  addition  to  pemmioan,  and  excellent 
puddings  very  little  inferior  to  plum-pudding." 

Another  North  American  species  is  known  by  the  name  of  A» 
tanffuitnea.    Its  fruit  is  of  a  blood-red  colour. 

(Don,  Dichlamydeovt  PlanU.) 

AMENTA'CEuE,  a  name  sometimes  ^van  to  a  group  of  plants, 
chiefly  forest-trees,  found  in  the  north  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America ; 
the  flowors  of  which  are  arranged  in  a  dense  cylindrical  dedduous 
spike,  called  by  botanists  an  AvMMtwn,  Such  are  &e  poplar,  the  birch, 
tne  hazel,  the  willow,  the  oak,  and  many  others.  But  as  these  genera 
are  in  feuit  constructed  in'  very  diBRnent  manners,  Amentaeeat  are  more 
correctly  separated,  by  modem  botanisto,  into  several  di£forent  orders. 
[CoBTijLCius ;  Salioao&b  ;  Bbtulaoejb,  fta] 

AMETHYST.  This  name  has  been  applied  to  two  predons  stones 
of  essentially  different  natures.  The  Oriewtal  Amdhytt  is  a  rare 
variety  otAacmamtiM  Spar  [ADAiCAirrnri  Spar]  or  Oorimdum,  The 
Oceidental,  or  Common  Amithyit,  now  to  be  described,  is  a  variety 
of  quartz  or  rock  crystal,  which  is  met  with  in  manv  parts  of  the 
worid,  as  India,  Siberia,  Sweden,  Germany,  Spain,  ftc  It  occurs 
in  various  forms,  as  masdve,  in  rounded  pieces,  and  cryHtaUised.  The 


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AMMANIA. 


AMMONITEa 


m 


primary  form  of  the  cryBtal,  like,  that  of  quarti^  ia  a  diglitlj  obtuae 
rhomboid,  but  it  is  uraaUy  found  in  the  aeoondaiy  form  of  a  6<«ided 
prism,  terminated  at  one  or  both  ends  by  a  Cndded  pyramid;  some- 
times, though  rarely,  the  prism  is  wanting,  and  the  pyramids  being 
then  united  base  to  oase,  the  secondary  crystal  is  a  dodecahedron  with 
triangular  faces. 

The  amethyst  is  principally  distinguished  firam  common  quarts  by 
its  colour,  which  is  occasionally  of  eyeiy  shade  of  yiolet,  or  rather 
purplish-yiolet,  and  this  in  the  perfect  amethyst  is  pratty  equal 
throughout  the  crystal :  yery  commonly  the  summits  only  of  the 
crystiJ  are  amethystine,  the  lower  part  beinf  nearly  colourleai,  or 
tinged  with  green.  By  long-continued  heat  the  colour  is  destroyed 
and  the  crystals  become  white  and  opalescent  Sometimes  the  cirstals 
are  aggregated  or  fiasciculated ;  in  the  Palatinate  they  are  found  lining 
geodes  of  agate,  and  in  Silesia  capillary  ciystals  occur  mixed  with 
micaceous  iron  ore. 

The  crystals  of  the  amethyst  yary  from  diaphanous  to  translucent, 
and  they  exhibit  yarious  degrees  of  splendour,  both  externally  and 
internally.  The  fracture  is  commonly  conchoidal,  and  the  firagments 
are  of  indeterminate  form.  Like  quarts,  the  amethyst  is  sui&ciently 
hard  to  giye  fire  with  steel  and  to  scratch  glass ;  and  has  also  been 
found,  like  it,  with  cayities  contAiuing  water;  it  is  infusible  by  the 
common  blow-pipe.    According  to  Rose^  it  consists  of— 

Silica 97*50 

AliiTnina •2<^ 

Oxide  of  Iron  and  Manganese  ...  *60 

98-25 
AJOCAKIA  (in  honour  of  John  Amman,  a  distinguished  botanist), 
a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  LffthnuetB.  The 
species  are  aquatic  plants,  with  smooth  opposite  entire  leayes, 
4-comered  stems,  and  small  pink  or  red  flowers.  They  are  natiyes  of 
both  the  Kew  and  Old  Worlds,  and  yery  generally  distributed.  One 
species,  A,  veiictUoria,  has  a  strong  peculiar  smell,  and  the  leayes  are 
yery  acrid.  They  are  used  by  the  natiye  doctors  of  India  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  blisters,  which  they  do  in  the  course  of  half 
an  hour. 

AMMODYTES,  a  genus  of  fishes  belonging  to  the  diyision  of 
Apodal  Malaeopteryffii  and  family  AnamUida.  The  body  is  yery  long 
and  the  head  lanceolate.  On  the  ba^  is  a  dorsal  fin  extending  nearly 
its  whole  length.  The  anal  fin  is  also  long ;  and  the  caudal,  which  is 
forked,  is  separated  from  both  the  dorsal  and  anaL  Two  species 
occur  on  the  coasts  of  the  British  Islands,  the  Ammodyta  tdoia$iiu$ 
and  the  Ammodytea  Umceok  The  former  is  the  laiger,  and  is  distin- 
guished by  the  greater  sise  of  the  head,  and  by  the  dorsal  fin,  which 
commences  in  a  line  with  the  extremities  of  the  pectorals,  whilst  in 
the  A.  lancea  it  commences  in  a  line  with  the  middle  of  the  pectorals. 
The  Sand-Ed,  by  which  name  the  first  species  is  popularly  known, 
attains  a  length  of  between  12  and  15  inches.  When  aliye  the  back 
is  of  a  dark  bluish-green,  and  the  sides  and  belly  bright  silyery-white. 
It  frequents  sandy  shores  in  great  numbers,  but  is  capricious  in  its 
visits,  more  so  than  its  congener.  At  the  ebbing  of  the  tide  it  buries 
itself  with  great  dexterity  and  rapidity  in  the  wet  sands  to  the  depth 
of  from  4  to  6  inches,  whence  it  is  extracted  by  means  of  yarious 
instruments,  such  as  peculiarly  formed  ffripes  and  sickles  with  blunt 
edgv,  made  for  the  purpose.  It  is  mu<£  esteemed  by  fishermen  as  a 
bait,  and  is  also  sou{^t  after  on  many  parts  of  the  coast  as  an  article 
of  food,  being  yery  delicate  eating  when  fresh,  and  excellent  when 
dried  in  the  sun  and  grilled. 

The  Ssnd-Launce,  Ammodytet  lancea,  is  a  smaller  species,  and  usually 
of  a  more  brownish  hue,  with  a  tinge  of  red  about  the  head.  It  is 
moi«  abunduit  than  the  Sand-Ed,  and  has  always  been  distinguished 
from  it  by  the  fishermen,  though  for  a  long  time  confounded  with  it 
by  naturalists.  The  distinctions  between  the  two  species  were  first 
pointed  out  by  M.  Lesauyage  of  Caen.  Both  appear  to  be  generally 
distributed  through  Northern  and  Western  Europe^    In  Scotland  thie 


Sand-Eel  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Homer,  and  in  the  Isle  of  liui 
tiie  two  mcies  are  distinguished  firom  each  other  as  the  Gray  Gibbon 
and  Red  uibbon. 

(Tarrell,  ^rif  tt4^ttM,yoLiL;  TumSl,  FUhet  of  the  Frith  rf  Fwih.) 
AMMONITES,  a  fossil  genus  of  Cephalopodous  MolUiica,  allied  to 
the  recent  genus  NaiUUus,  The  species  are  known  by  the  old  Latin 
name  Oonm  Afnmonii,  These  Oormta  AfnmoM$,  Comes  dAvmon  at 
the  FVenoh,  were  so  called  from  a  fSancied  resemblance  to  the  horns 
with  which  the  head  of  Jupiter  Ammon  was  sculptured.  In  the  earlier 
times  their  orisin  was  ysiiously  accounted  for.  Some  thou^t  them 
petrifactions  ^  real  rams'  horns,  taking  the  name  aboye-mentioned 
m  a  strict  and  downright  matterof-fact  sense ;  others  thought  they 
were  the  curled  tails  of  certain  animals;  some  took  them  for  petrified 
marine  worms  rolled  up ;  others  saw  in  them  coiled  serpents,  whoice 
thmr  were  called  Snak»«tonea.  The  I^ends  of  the  saints  inyested  them 
with  a  sacred  interest 

Of  thoosaad  makee,  each  one 

Was  changed  into  a  coil  of  stone, 

When  holy  Hilda  pnty*d. 

And  the  prayer,  we  are  told,  was  not  only  foUowjid  by  petri&ciion,  but 
by  decapitation.  We  beUeve  that  there  is  a  similsr  traditienof  St 
iLsyna,  who,  when  she  found  herself  in  a  wood  at  Keynsham,  between 
Bath  and  Bristol,  suirounded  by  seipents,  changed  them  by  the  fanroor 
of  her  deyotions  into  headless  stones.  Nor  were  these  opinions  con- 
fined to  the  mere  yulgar.  Wormius  described  Ammonites  as  petrified 
adders.  Langius  considered  them  to  be  either  the  yertebne  of  serpents 
or  conyduted  marine  insects.  These  notions  were  not  lost  on  the 
dealers ;  and  there  are  few  fossil  collections  which  do  not  even  now 
possess  what  was  called  'a  perfect  Comu  Ammumii,' th^t  is,  an  Ammo- 
nite with  a  caryed  serpent^s  h6ad  ingeniously  fitted  on  to  the  fossil 
shell  by  way  of  aperture.  Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  dwell  on 
this  fabulous  part  of  the  history  of  Ammonites  nirther  than  to  observe 
that  other  learned  men,  Torellus  Sarayna,  fVacastorius^  and  others, 
considered  them  as  hum  Naturce,  formed  hy  the  plastic  power  of  the 
earth.  The  andents  held  them  in  hi^  estimation  as  yery  sacred  and 
of  the  highest  yalue  to  the  dreamer.  Thus  Pli^  C  Hist  Mund,' 
xxxyi  10),  **  Hsmmonis  comu  inter  sacratissimss  ^tmopise  genunas, 
aureo  colore,  arietini  oomus  efligiem  reddens,  promittitur  pnediTina 
somnia  representare ;"  and  eyen  to  the  present  time  the  Indians  sre 
said  to  ascribe  extraordinary  properties  to  thena. 

To  the  Boologist  Ammonites  are  objects  of  great  interest^  and  to  the 
geologist  they  are  of  the  utmost  consequence.  "  It  is  essy,"  says  Ifr. 
Phillips,  in  his  '  Quids  to  Geology'  (8yo.  1884), ''  to  see  howimportanl^ 
in  questions  concerning  the  relatiye  antiquity  of  stratified  rocks,  is  a 
knovrledge  of  Ammonites,  since  whole  sections  of  them  are  characteristic 
of  certain  systems  of  rocks."  (sea  82.)  Dr.  Buckland  ('  Bridgewater 
Treatise,'  p.  388),  thus  comprehemdyely  describes  the  range  of  these 
extinct  cephalopodous  mollusks :  ''The  family  of  Ammonites  extends 
throug^  the  entire  series  of  the  fossiliferous  formations,  from  the 
transition  strata  to  the  chalk  indusiye." 

According  to  Mr.  Owen's  system,  the  Ammonites  form  the  fourth 
genus  of  hu  second  famijk  (AmmoniHdcB)  of  his  first  order  Tetra- 
frrafwAtato,  of  the  dass  Cephalopod<t,  In  the  opinion  of  all  natu- 
ralists this  great  group  of  fossils  requires  to  be  subdiyided.  The 
GoniatiUt  [Gokiatitxs]  of  the  Palseosoic  rocks  haye  been  efiiootuaUy 
separated ;  the  CeraiUee  of  the  triassio  strata  may  be  also  withdrawn, 
but  stiQ  the  number  of  genuine  Ammonitee  which  remain  is  too 
enormous  to  be  treated  except  in  sections  more  or  less  founded  on 
structural  aiBnitie&  Without  discussing  what  may  be  the  best 
principles  for  such  a  classification,  we  may  refer  to  that  of  Von  Budi, 
as  most  generally  accepted  by  geologists.  This  is  mainly  founded  on 
a  consideration  of  the  sutures,  or  sinuous  lines  at  the  surfiBce  of  the 
shell,  formed  by  the  edges  of  the  diaphragmal  plates  which  separate 
the  chambers. 

To  ittustrate  this  yiew  of  the  subject  we  subjoin  a  few  examples  of 
characteristic  Ammonitic  sutures. 


ilaiSMfrfMf  JtiU0v{f  (Sowerby).    From  KeUoway  rook. 


^■VTIA  -^vVTW- 


AmmimiU$rrakatmiBowtithj).    RomfhsUas. 


AMmmttM  veMutue  (PhiUips).    F^om  Speeten  Olay. 

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AMMONITES. 


AMMONITES. 


140 


The  following  are  Von  Buch's  groups,  with  their  prevalent  geological 
distribution : — 

Ariete9.---The  back  vn  usually  broad,  and  oarinated  (often  a  furrow 
on  each  aide  of  the  keel) ;  the  ribs  are  simple  and  strong.  The 
■utuxal  line  formed  upon  the  following  general  model :— • 


The  group  of  Arietet,  including  A.  BvMamdi,  A.  Conyhwuri,  &a, 
belongs  almost  wholly  to  the  Lias  formation. 

Faisiferi, — ^The  back  is  narrow,  acuminated  to  a  sharp  keel  (no 
furrow  on  its  sides) ;  the  ribs  are  elegantly  and  sigmoidally  bent. 
The  sutures  differ  fix>m  those  of  Aridetf  the  dorsal  sinuB  D  being 
much  less  deep,  with  divexving  and  not  puralld  sides ;  the  sinusL 
ia  yery  much  deeper,  and  tmre  are  three  or  four  smaller  ones,  a  a' 
a",  near  the  inner  edge  of  the  whorls.  The  latter  whorls  usually 
embrace  the  preceding  ones. 

These  AmmomUB  are  numerous  in  the  Upper  Lias  and  Lower  Oolite 
formations.  A,  Strangwaptii  of  Sowerby  is  an  example.  {Amtnonita 
WaleoUn  does  not  belong  to  this  divisioa) 

AmaUkei. — The  back  is  generally  acute  and  keeled,  the  keel 
generally  crenated ;  the  ribs  generally  a  little  sigmoidal ;  the  latter 
whorla  embracing  the  preceding  one&  The  sutures  are  in  general 
form  much  like  those  of  the  last  division,  but  more  richly  la(Sniated 
and  foliaceous. 

This  group  belongs  to  the  Upper  Lias  and  Oolitic  formations. 
Ammonitei  amaltkeut  of  Schlottheim  (A,  Stoketii,  Sowerby)  is  an 
example  from  the  Lias. 

Capricomi, — The  back  broad,  without  a  keeL  The  ribs  simple, 
straight,  strong,  and  crossing  the  back.  Inner  whorls  exposed. 
The  sutures  often  approach  to  those  of  the  Arietea  in  respect  of  the 
sinus  D ;  but  the  posterior  edge  of  D,  L,  and  1  range  on  the  same 
line,  and  the  undulations  are  all  lower  and  less  foliaceous  than  in  the 
Faiciftri  and  AmaltheL  Ammonitei  planicoit<Uut  (Sowerby)  ia  an 
example.    The  species  are  oonmion  in  the  Lias. 

PlamUati. — The  back  and  sides  rounded;  no  keel;  the  inner 
volutions  exposed.  The  ribs  are  often  divided  over  the.dorsal  region. 
The  sutures  are  remarkably  laciniated  and  complicated ;  the  sinus  (L) 
extremely  deep,  and  generally  trifurcate. 

The  species  occur  commonly  in  the  Lias  and  Oolitic  formations. 
Ammonitei  eommwiis  (Sowerby)  is  an  example  from  the  Lias;  A, 
plieatUu  (Sowerby)  from  the  Coralline  Oolite. 

Donati. — The  back  is  broad  and  not  keeled;  the  whorls  often 
quadrate :  the  ribs  are  simple  on  the  aides,  but  divided  over  the 
back,  and  generally  bear  a  tubercle  at  the  point  of  division. 
Ammonitei  Lavcei  (Sowerby)  is  an  example  from  the  Lias. 

Corcnarii. — The  back  without  a  keel,  usually  broader  than  the 
sides ;  the  ribs  are  straight  and  simple  on  the  sides,  but  divided  into 
two,  three,  or  more,  as  they  cross  the  back,  and  the  point  of  division 
is  usually  sharply  tuberoulate.  The  sutures  resemble  those  of  the 
PlannlaH.  The  species  occur  in  the  Oolites,  as  A,  Humphraianui 
(Sow.) ;  A,  Cfowerianui  (Sow.) ;  and  in  the  Lias,  as  A,  Bechei  (Sow.). 

Macrocephali. — ^The  back  is  without  keel,  and  round  and  broad,  and 
the  umbilicus  deep.  The  ribs  are  straight  on  the  umbilical  faoe  and 
simplct,  but  sometimes  arched,  and  generally  divided  across  the  back. 
The  sutures  resemble  those  of  the  PUamUUi,  but  are  somewhat 
differently  proportioned  to  the  dorsal  and  umbilical  surfiitoes.  The 
i^>ecies  occur  in  the  Oolite  and  Chalk.  The  Ammonitei  iublcnit 
(Sow.),  is  a  good  example,  from  the  Kelloways  Rock. 

ArmaH, — The  back  without  a  keel,  often  broader  than  the  sides ; 
ribs  tuberculated  on  the  8ide&  The  inner  whorls  exposed.  The 
suturea  have  the  dorsal  sinus  (D)  large  and  deep,  the  latmJ  sinus  (L) 
widely  removed  from  it  and  very  deep,  and  somewhat  triftiroate. 
Occurs  in, the  Lias- and  Oolite,  and  more  plentifully  in  the  Chalk. 
Ammonitei  Bakoria  of  Sowerby  is  an  example. 

Omati. — ^The  back  flat  or  even  hollow,  narrow,  and  not  keeled; 
the  broad  sides  joining  it  at  a  right  angle,  marked  in  general  by  a 
row  of  snuJl  tubercles  or  the  numerous  fine  ribs  which  cross  the 
back  and  toward  the  inner  edge  unite  in  parcels  to  form  acute  or 
knotted  ridges.  (The  old  sheUs  are  often  plain.)  The  sutures  have 
the  dorsal  sirras  (D)  shallow,  the  lateral  (L)  deep.  The  species  are 
almost  confined  to  the  Oxford  Clay  and  Kelloways  Rock :  as  A. 
CaUoviemii  (Sow.) ;  A.  Jhmeani  (Sow). ;  A.  gemmatui  (PhiL),  &c. 
(Von  Buch  riffhtly  separated  from  these  the  Dentati  in  his  original 
memoir,  though  they  have  been  injudiciously  reunited  again.) 

Dentati. — To  this  group  we  leter  Ammonitei  ipUndeni,  A,  lautui, 
A.  dentiitui,  Ac  of  tiie  Gault.  The  back  is  flat  or  concave,  and 
margined  by  tubercles,  or  prominent  ends  of  strong  ribs,  often  united 
near  the  inner  edge  into  tuberculated  ridges,  but  not  crossing  the 
back.    The  sutures  resemble  in  general  form  the  preceding. 

FUxuoii. — ^The  back  narrow,  with  borders  tuberculated  or  serrated 
by  the  terminations  of  the  ribs,  and  in  a  young  state  with  a  tuber- 

arax.  rir.  diy.  you  u 


culated  keeL  The  ribs  are  ridged  or  tubercled  near  the  inner  edge. 
This  group  is  quoted  from  the  upper  Oolitic  and  Chalk  formations, 
and  A.  atper  and  A,  JUxuotui  are  examples. 

The  classification  above  sketched  is  very  far  from  perfect  *^  It  is 
difficult  to  define  the  groups,  when  we  pass  from  the  typical  to  the 
ordinary  species,  and  there  are  many  forms  which  rwise  to  be 
included  in  the  formula.  Still  it  is  an  admirable  sketch,  and  when 
the  Ammonitida  are  fully  developed,  according  to  the  principles  thus 
exemplified  by  Von  Buch,  we  shall  have  them  x^oognised,  not  as  a 
genus  with  subdivisions,  but  as  a  femuly  including  many  genera. 
(D'Orbigny's  * Palaeontologie  Frangaise;'  'Annaleedes  ScL  Nat,'  1841, 
N.S.,  xvi  p.  118,  also  (1829)  xvii  267  ;  xviiL  417 ;  xxix.*6.) 

Having  given  this  i^etch,  it  will  be  necessary  to  meet  the  question 
whether  the  Ammoniiei  were  external  or  internal  sheila.  Cuvier  and 
Lamarck  thought  that  they  were  internal  The  former  says  ('  R^gne 
Animal,*  last  edition),  ''The  smallness  of  the  last  chamber  might 
induce  us  to  believe  ibat,  like  the  Spirula,  they  were  internal  shells." 
Mr.  Owen,  in  his  arrangement  above  quoted,  says,  "Animal  unknown, 
presumed  to  resemble  the  Nautilus;  shell  external  ....  The  last 
chamber  the  largest  and  lodging  the  animal;"  and  probably  tbw  was 
the  actual  state  of  things.  Dr.  Buckland,  in  his  '  Bridgewater  Treatise,' 
says,  "  The  smallness  of  the  outer  chamber  or  place  of  lodgment  for  the 
animal  is  advanced  by  Cuvier  in  favour  of  his  opinion  that  Ammonites, 
like  the  Spirula,  were  internal  shells.  This  reason  isprobably  founded 
on  observations  made  upon  imperfedt  specimens.  Tne  outer  chamber 
of  Ammonites  is  very  seldom  preserved  in  a  perfect  state ;  but  when 
this  happens,  it  is  found  to  bear  at  least  as  laise  a  proportion  to  the 
chambered  part  of  the  shell  as  the  outer  cell  of  uie  ifauiilui  PompiUui 
bears  to  the  chambered  interior  of  that  shelL    It  often  occupies  mora 


AmmotUtti  ohtuttu,    a,  h,  o,  d,  outer  ehamber. 

than  half^  and,  in  some  cases,  the  whole  circumference  of  the  outer 
whorL  This  open  chamber  is  not  thin  and  feeble,  like  the  long 
anterior  chamber  of  the  Spirula,  which  is  placed  within  the  body  of  the 
animal  producing  this  shell,  but  is  nearly  of  equal  thickness  with  the 
sides  of  the  close  chambers  of  the  Ammonite." 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  specimen  is  appaientiy  imperfect 
at  the  aperture.  The  siphon  or  tube  of  communication  may  be  traced 
from  df  where  it  opens  into  the  last  or  outer  chamber,  along  the  edge 


Ammonitit  rMtraim* 


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AMMONITES. 


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of  the  section,  e,  f,  g,  h,  «,  to  the  very  nudeiia  of  the  ahelL  The  waTed 
transvene  lines  represent  the  partitions  of  the  chambers. 

The  large  proportion  of  the  outer  chamber  is  reiy  strongly  marked 
in  speoimens  of  AmmonUet  rottnttvif  that  haTe  the  aperture  perfect  or 
nearly  so. 

**  Moreovei\"  continues  Dr.  Buckland,  "the  margin  of  the  mature 
Ammonite  is  in  some  species  reflected  in  a  kind  of  scroll,  like  the 
thickened  maigin  of  the  shell  of  the  garden  snail"  (hourrdet  of  the 
French),  "  giving  to  this  part  a  strength  which  would  apparently  be 
needless  to  an  internal  shell.  The  presence  of  spines  also  in  certain 
species  (as  in  AfMnonitet  airmaius,  A,  Sowerhit)  affords  a  strong  argument 
against  the  theory  of  their  having  been  internal  shells.  These  spines, 
which  haye  an  obvious  use  for  protection,  if  placed  externally,  would 
seem  to  have  been  useless,  and  perhaps  noxious,  in  an  internal  position, 
and  are  without  example  in  any  internal  structoe  with  which  we  are 
acquainted." 

Sir  Henry  de  la  Beche  has  proved  from  the  mineral  condition  of  the 
outer  chamber  of  Ammonites  from  the  Lias  at  Lyme  R^gis,  that  the 
entire  body  was  contained  in  it^  these  animals  having  be^  suddenly 
destroyed,  and  buried  in  the  earthy  sediment  of  which  the  Lias  is 
composed,  before  their  bodies  had  either  undergone  decay  or  been 
devoured  by  the  then  existing  crustaceans. 

Dr.  Buddand  very  happily  illustrates  the  different  arrangements  bv 
means  of  which  a  union  of  lightness  and  strength  is  secured  to  the  shell, 
both  from  the  external  conformalion  and  the  mode  in  which  the  trans- 
verse plates  are  disposed ;  and  as  our  limits  will  not  allow  us  to  enter 
minutely  into  the  subject^  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  the  '  Bridgewater 
Treatise'  for  the  interesting  details,  which  show  that  a  more  perfect 
■instrument  for  affording  universal  resistance  to  external  pressure— an 
instrument  in  which  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  lightness  combined 
with  the  greatest  stren|^  was  required — could  scaroely  be  imagined ; 
and  must  confine  ourselves  to  the  doctor's  summary : — "As  the  animal 
increased  in  bulk,  and  advanced  along  the  outer  chamber  of  the  ahell, 
the  spaces  left  behind  it  were  successively  converted  into  aiz^«hambers, 
simultaneously  increasing  the  power  of  the  float.  This  float  being  regu- 
lated by  a  pipe  passing  through  the  whole  series  of  the  chambers  "  (see 
the  cut  of  Ammonitei  dbhmu),  "formed  a  hydraulic  instrument  of 
extraordinary  delicacy,  by  whidi  the  animal  could  at  pleasure  control 
its  ascent  to  the  surface  or  descent  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  To 
creatures  that  sometimes  floated,  a  thick  and  heavy  shell  would  have 
been  inapplicable ;  and  as  a  thin  shell  indosfaig  air  would  be  exposed 
to  various  and  often  intense  degrees  of  pressure  at  the  bottom,  we  find 
a  series  of  provisions  to  afford  resistance  to  such  pressure  in'  the 
mechanical  construction  both  of  the  external  shell  and  of  the 
internal  transverse  plates  which  formed  the  air^hambers.  First, 
the  shell  is  made  up  of  a  tube  coiled  round  itself,  and  externally 
convex.  Secondly,  it  is  fortified  by  a  series  of  ribs  and  vaultings 
disposed  in  the  form  of  arches  and  domes  on  the  convex  surface  of 
this  tube,  and  stiU  further  adding  to  its  strength.  Thirdly,  the  trans- 
verse plates  that  form  the  air-chambers  supply  also  a  continuous 
succession  of  supports,  extending  their  ramificationl^  with  many 
mechanical  advantages,  beneath  those  portion!  of  the  shell  which, 
being  weakest^  were  most  in  need  of  them." 

AmmonUei  with  perfieet  moaths. 


Rcinecly/  Yon  Buch,t  Zieten,t  and  De  Haan  §  are  among  those 

•  Maris  protogai  NantUos  et  Argonaatoa,  vnlgo  (hmua  AmmoHU,  In  acnro 
Coburgico  et  Tieino  reperinndoa,  dflieripdt  et  delineavit,  ete.,  D.  I.  C.  IC.  £ei. 
neckc.     Cobnrfi,  1818,  8to. 

t  Ucber  die  Ammoniten  la  den  ilteren  Gebirgi^Schiehteii.  Gelaaen  in  der 
Akademle  der  WiMenschaften,  am  1  April,  1880.  4to.  Beoneil  de  Planchee 
de  F^trifloationt  remarqnablefl,  par  Leopold  de  Bach.    Berlin,  1831,  folio. 

t  Die  Yenteineniiiffen  Wartemberffs,  tc.  Btattgart,  1880,  and  following 
years,  folio. 

S  Specimen  Philoeopblonm  Inang:nrale,  ezhibens  Monographiam  Ammo- 
niteorum  et  Goniatiteorum,  cto.     1825.    LogduAi  BaUv. 


who  have  written  treatises  on  this  interesting  genus,  or  haye  illtu. 
tratedit 

The  species  of  Ammonites  are  veiy  numerous,  and  although  tiie 
arrangemmt  of  Yon  Buch  is  at  present  the  best,  it  is  probable  tkt 
when  more  is  known  of  the  form  of  the  aperture,  it  will  serve  u  a 
leading  character. 

AmmonitM  with  perfect  mwxihB.—  iOimtinued.) 


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AMMONITES. 


AMOMUM. 


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The  aoeompanying  cut«,  which  are  copied  from  De  Blainyilley  will 
not  only  give  the  reader  Bome  idea  of  the  shape  of  the  aperture,  but 
alflo  of  the  eztemal  appearance  of  the  shell,  whUe  the  following,  from 
Dr.  Buckland'a  '  Bridgewater  Treatiae,'  will  oonvey.  a  notion  of  the 
ooncamerations  in  some  of  the  species.  An  internal  view  of  a  Tory 
simple  form  of  these  and  of  the  siphon  or  pipe  will  be  seen  in  the  out 


Oeologieal  Dufn^ti^ioik— Professor  PhillipB,  in  his  <  Guide  to 
Geology/  published  in  1834,  since  which  tmie  numerous  additions 
hare  been  made,  thus  distributee  the  Ammonites  among  the  differoit 

formations. 


SUBGENERA  OF  AMMONITES. 


• 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

a 

1 

i 

=H 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

In  Tertiarjr  StraU  . 

In  CreUoecnu  System         .    . 

J  ^ 

, , 

, , 

2 

4 

, , 

,  , 

, , 

,  , 

9 

14 

IS 

2 

2 

In  OoUtie  Syitem  . 

, , 

, , 

, , 

22 

27 

10 

26 

i 

11 

11 

11 

4 

5 

S 

., 

S 

IS 

In  PriBMry  StraU     .        .    . 

17 

Total,  228  spedet. 

CfeographieaZ  DittrthuiioiL — As  the  Ammonites  were  evidently  prin- 
cipal agents  for  keeping  within  bounds  the  moUusks,  &c.,  the  orusta* 
cttDs,  and  perhapa  fiahea  of  the  periods  prior  to  the  Chalk  Formation, 
and  belongmf^  to  the  latter  epoch,  we  should  eipect  to  find  them 
"widely  distributed.  Accordingly,  they  occur  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America  in  strata  apparently  of  the  same  date.  In  aome  instances, 
the  genera  and  eyen  the  species  are  identical  Dr.  Qerard  found  in 
the  Himalaya  Mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  16,000  feet^  AmfMnitei 
H^o/cotttiand  AmmoniUi  eommunitf  fossils  that  are  found  in  the  Lias  of 
Lyme  Regis.  M.  Menard  met  with  one  in  the  Maritime  Alps  at  an 
eleyation  of  1600  toiaes.  Their  numbers  must  have  be^  C^reat. 
H.  Dofresne  infonned  Lamarck  that  the  road  frt>m  Auxerre  to  Avalon 
in  Buigundy  was  absolutely  paved  wjith  them.  The  individual 
agency  too  of  aome  of  these  carnivorous  instruments  for  preserving 
the  balance  of  marine  animal  power  must  have  been  of  no  small 
importanoei  Lamarck  says  that  he  has  aeen  Ammonitee  of  two  feet 
(French)  in  diameter.  Mr.  James  Sowerby  and  Dr.  Mantell  record 
Ammonites  in  the  Chalk  with  a  diameter  of  three  feet ;  and  Dr.  Buck- 
land  states  that  Sir  T.  Harvey  and  Mr.  Keith  measured  Ammonites  in 
the  Chalk  near  Margate  which  exceeded  four  feet  in  diameter;  and 
this  in  cases  where  the  diameter  could  have  been  in  a  very  small 
degree  enlaiged  by  pressure.    [See  Sufpluoiit.] 

AMOIBITEI  in  Mineralogy^,  a  variety  of  Arsenical  Nickel,  containing 
from  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  mckel  and  14  per  cent  of  sulphur. 

AMCyMIJM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Zingiheroeta,  It  consista  of  apecies  having  white  flowera  collected 
in  dose  heads,  which  arise  frt>m  the  base  of  the  leaves,  and  only 
just  raiae  themselves  above  the  ground ;  the  lower  lip  of  the  flower 
is  very  broad  and  large  compared  with  the  others,  and  the  other  has 
a  two-lobed  crest  ^The  seeds  are  contained  in  a  looae  akin,  and  are 
inclosed  in  a  rather  tough  capsule,  which  is  separated  into  three 
cells  by  as  many  membranous  partitions,  and  finally  opens  into 
three  valves.  The  leaves  are  of  a  bzoadly  lanceolate  or  oval  figure 
tapering  to  the  point,  and  enwrapping  the  stem  like  a  sort  of'' 


A.  Cardamomtttn  has  a  root-stock  creeping  under  the  surface  of  the 
aoil  like  that  of  the  Ginger,  but  it  ia  amaller.  The  stems  rise 
obliquely  to  the  height  of  from  two  to  four  feet.  The  leaves  are 
alternate.  Flowers  in  spikes,  seated  in  lanceolate  acute  villous 
Bcarious  ash-coloured  bracts.  The  tube  of  the  corolla  slender.  The 
anther  double,  with  a  lai^  three-lobed  concave  crest.  The  fruit  a* 
capsule  containing  roxmdi^  angular  dotted  brown  seeds.  This  plant 
is  a  native  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  and  is 
commonly  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  India.  The  seeds  are  aro- 
matic, and  are  used  by  the  Medays  instead  of  the  true  Cardamoms, 
which  are  the  produce  of  the  Eletta/ria  Cardanumwn.  [Elbttaria.] 
Sir  J.  K  Smith  states  that  this  plant  ia  the  Amomwn  verum  of  tho 
older  botonistSi 


JUnOMtMN  MWXmMIOMIIM. 

A.  cmguitifoUvm  is  a  shazp-leaved  species,  and  a  native  of  marahy 
ground,  in  Madagascar.  It  is  cultivated  in  the  Mauritius.  It  has  a 
deep  blood-red  calyx,  and  the  outer  segment  of  the  corolla  is  rod. 
The  whole  plant  is  aromatiq,  and  the  fruit  constitutes  the  Cardamomum 
majue  of  the  older  writers. 

A,  aromatic¥m  is  a  native  of  the  valleys  on  the  eastern  frontiers 
of  Bengal  The  frxut  has  similar  qualities  to  those  'of  the 
true  Cwdamoms,  for  which  they  are  often  sold  to  the  druggists  of 
India. 

A,  Cfrana-ParadUi  has  a  perennial  root-stalk,  giving  off  erect  fclender 
stems,  8  feet  high.  .  The  leaves  are  numerous  and  crowded.  The 
capsule  is  large,  14  inch  long,  and  half-an-inch  in  diameter.  It  haa  a 
very  strong  aromatic  odour  and  flavour.  The  seeds  have  the  aame 
properties  as  the  Cardamoms.  ^  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Quinea,  near 
Sierra  Leone.  The  fruits  are  known  by  the  name  of  Qraina  of 
Paradiae,  and  Melligetta  or  Malagueta  Pepper. 

A,  grandifiarwn,  of  Smith,  ia  alao  a  native  of  Sierra  Leone.  It  has 
large  flowera,  and  yields  seeds,  which  difier  from  those  of  Oraius  of 
Paradise  in  being  gray  or  lead-coloured,  much  less  polished,  and 
possessing  a  totd^v  different  flavour,  resembling  that  of  camphor. 
Thev  may  be  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  Cardamoms. 

The  Cardamoms  of  commerce  are  the  capsulea,  which  are  gathered 
as  the  seeds  ripen,  are  dried  in  the  aun,  and  are  then  fit  for  aale.  The 
amall  capaules,  or  Lesser  Cardamoms,  are  the  most  valuable.  [Carda- 
MOMB,  in  Abtb  AiTD  So,  Dnr.] 

(Ldndley,  Flora  Medico.) 


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Ill 


AMPELIDEJE. 


AMPHIBIA. 


m 


Amomum  grandifiomm, 
u.  The  lip  and  a  back  Tiew  of  the  anther. 
h.  A  front  Tiew  of  the  anther. 


e,  Oaljz. 
d.  Stigma. 


AHPELIDE  JS,  one  of  the  xiames  of  the  Vine  Tribe.    [  Vitacjba] 
AMPHERrSTUS,  a  FobbU  Fiah,  from  the  Isle  of  Sheppy.    (Eonig, 
Icon,  FotsiL) 

AMPHI'BIA  ^from  the  Greek  word  ifuptfiios,  which  dgnifies 
'having  a  double  life' ),  the  name  of  an  order  of  the  class  of  lUpHlet. 
In  common  oonyersation  we  are  accustomed  to  call  all  mtLmm»\^^  such 
as  seals,  otters,  beavers,  &c.,  amphibious,  whose  ozganisation  disposes' 
them  to  resort  indifferently  either  to  the  land  or  water  for  procuring 
food,  and  other  purposes,  or  ifi^ose  habits  are  at  once  terrestrial  and 
aquatic;  thus  we  usually  denominate  the  Conmion  Campagnol 
(Arvicola  amphibia),  and  the  White-Bellied  Shrew  {Sorex  focUms), 
the  Water-Rat,  and  Water-Shrew  respectively,  and  consider  them  in 
every  respect^  aa  amphibious  animals.  But  in  this  sense  of  the  word 
every  land-animal  is  more  or  less  amphibious,  for  all  resort  occasion- 
ally to  the  water,  and,  with  the  single  exception  of  man,  all  appear 
to  have  an  instinctive  power  of  swimming.  Previous  to  the  time  of 
Linnseus,  the  earlier  naturalists  attached  no  more  definite  meaning  to 
the  word  than  that  which  was  sanctioned  by  popular  custom,  and 
which,  it  will  be  observed,  is  more  properly  expressed  by  the  term 
aquatic   The  great  Swedish  philosopher,  however,  rejected  this  vague  | 


and  improper  signification,  and  applied  the  term  generally  to  the 
third  class  of  his  system  of  zoology,  which  comprised  not  only  all 
the  animals  since  more  properly  denominated  J2g)«tlei,  such  as  the 
tortoises,  lizards,*  serpents,  and  frogs,  but  likewise  ti^e  Caitilaginous 
Fishes.  Linnnus  was  evidently  ignorant  of  the  true  characters  and 
natural  Hmits  of  this  class  of  animals.  The  term  Amphibia  ma 
certainly  very  applicable  to  many  of  the  genera  and  species  which 
it  embraced,  but  with  regard  to  the  great  minority  pf  them  it  was  m 
absolute  misnomer.  The  shark  and  the  ray  are  as  incapable  of 
existing  out  of  the  water  as  man^  of  the  common  lizards  are  of 
living  in  it,  and  consequently  neither  the  group  which  Linnxiu 
proposed  to  establish,  nor  the  name  by  which  he  designated  it,  has 
been  adopted  by  mote  recent  zoologists.  The  Cartilaginous  F^hes 
have  been  refeired  to  the  other  aquatic  tribes,  with  which  their 
habits  and  oiganic  oonformatiun  naturally  connect  them,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  dass,  which  stands  in  Qmelin's  celebrated  edition  of 
the  'Systema  Naturae'  under  the  name  of  Amphibia,  is  admitted 
into  modem  systems  under  the  more  appropriate  designation  of 
ReptiUt, 

Taken  in  its  strict  and  literal  sense,  the  term  amphibious  would 
applv  only  to  such  animals  as  have  the  power  of  living  indifferentlj 
at  the  same  time,  either  upon  land  or  in  water.  To  fulfil  this 
condition  it  is  necessary  that  a  truly  amphibious  animal  should  be 
provided  with  the  means  of  breathing  in  either  of  these  elemente, 
that  is,  that  it  should  simultaneously  possess  both  lungs  and  gilk 
Kow  there  are  four  genera  of  batracluan  reptiles  which  actually  do 
possess  this  extraordinary  double  apparatus  for  extracting  the  principle 
which  supports  animal  life  indifferently  from  either  element;  and 
these,  as  Baron  Cuvier  has  justly  observed,  comprise  in  reality  the 
only  known  vertebirated  animals  which  are  truly  amphibious.  They 
are  the  Axoiotlt,  the  Menobranchi,  and  the  Siretu,  all  of  which  inhabit 
the  rivers  and  lakes  of  America,  and  the  Proteut,  which  is  found  in 
subtorraneouB  streams  connecting  certain  lakes  in  Camiola  and 
Hungary.  Tlieee,  then,  are  the  only  strictly  amphibious  reptiles  ;  but  if 
the  term  is  takenrin  a  little  more  extended  sense,  it  may,  without  impro- 
priety, be  applied  to  the  entire  order  of  BeptHa  which  M.  Brongniart, 
and  after  mm  most  modem  naturalists,  denominate  Bairachiam, 
because  all  these  animals,  without  exception,  breathe  by  means  of  gills 
in  their  tadpole  state,  and  only  aoquire  lungs  when  they  assume  the 
more  mature  and  perfect  form  of  reptiles.  In  this  sense  the  term  is 
now  employed  by  Rnglish  naturalists. 

Some,  indeed,  as  Mr.  Bell,  Dr.  Grants  and  other  writers,  separate 
the  Amphibia  from  the  Reptilei,  as  a  distinct  dass. 

The  Amphibia  differ  essentially  from  the  other  three  orders  of 
Reptiles :  Chdoniant  (Tortoises),  Sawiant  (Lizards),  and  Opkidians 
(Scurpents).  They  have  no  ribs,  or  rudiments  of  ribs  only.  Their  akin 
is  naked,  being  without  scales.  They  have  feet  The  male  has  no 
external  oigans  distinctive  of  sex.  In  we  Frog  Tribe  the  ova  are  fecun- 
dated on  their  exclusion  from  the  body  of  the  female :  they  are  shelless 
and  generally  laid  in  the  water.  The  young,  which  are  called  Tadpola, 
when  first  hatched,  breathe  by  means  of  branchise,  or  gills,  veiy  much 
after  the  manner  of  fishes,  being  in  their  early  stage  of  growth  quite 
unlike  their  parents,  and,  in  that  state,  forming  a  natui^  passage  to 
the  last-named  dass  of  animals.  These  branchise  disappear  in  the 
higher  Amphibians,  and  one  order  has  therefore  been  named  the 
Caducibranchiate  Amphibia,  which  have  been  divided  into — first, 
the  Anouroui  or  TaUUu  Batrachiafu,  having  no  tails  except  in  their 
young  state,  including  the  Frogs  and  Toads ;  and  second,  the  UrodUa 
or  Tailed  Batrcujhiantt  such  as  &e  Salamanders. 

Under  the  Perennibranchiate  Amphibia  are  included  the  Pntteru, 
Siren^  Menobranchui,  and  AxolotL 

The  following  arrangement  of  the  Amphibia  or  Batrachtam  has 
been  published  bv  Messrs.  Dumeril  and  Bibron,  in  their  elaborate 
'  Erp^logie  G^n^e'  :— 


NuU. 


Four  or 
two. 


Body,  varied  in  form ;  »kin  naked ;  moat  Areqnently  without  either  earapace  or  scales. 
Head,  with  two  oecipital  condyles,  not  carried  upon  a  narrower  neck. 
Charaetera  ^  Feet,  variable;  as  regards  their  presenoe,  their  nnmber,  their  proportion ;  toes  most  frequently  without  elaws 
Sternum,  moat  frequently  diatinet,  never  united  to  the  ribs,  which  are  short  or  null. 
^  Male  organa  of  generation  not  projecting.    Eggs  with  soft  not  calcareous  shells.    Young,  subject  to  metamorphoaia. 

Suborders.  Groups.  Famlliea. 

^^^jParomllaf  ....        Ophiotomet 1.  OcecUioidtt. 

i  Distinct  Phaneroglo$9M :  (  Toothed  :  enda  of  toes  (  Little  or  not  dilated  .  <  S.  Bami^farmn, 

with  the  upper  {  \  Very  dUated       .        .        .  S.  EyUtf^rmM, 

Jaw        .        .  (  Without  teeth 4.  Buffm^fonnet, 

NuU  T%rynaglo9»e» 5,  Pipwfonna. 

With  neither  hdea 

norbranehisB      ArStodirei 6. 

WithsUUordis.)  _.     ,  .^  ,,.  .        ,,  (NuU 7 

i-«*  K«i^         }  2)rinuUodire§ :  with  branchi©     . 


(^     tinet  holes 

In  this  article  we  shall  speak  of  the  oiganisation  and  natural  history 
of  the  Amphibia  in  two  groups:  first,  the  Anovrout  or  TaUUst 
Amphibia,  and  secondly,  the  UrodUa  or  TaXUd  Amphibia, 

Anourous  or  Tailliss  Aufhibia. 
SkdeUm, — ^The  skull,  in  the  Reptiles  generally,  is  made  up  of  the 
■ame  parts  nearly  as  that  of  the  znammiferous  animals,  though  the 


(  Visible  and  persistent 


Sttkanandridet, 
Amphiumndtt, 
8.  ProUtdu, 


proportions  are  different.  But  the  lower  Amphibia,  which  approach 
the  fishes  in  this  particular,  have  not  the  internal  cavity  corresponding 
so  completely  with  the  surface  of  the  enoephalon  as  the  other  Reptiles. 
The  skull  is  very  much  flattened ;  and  small  as  the  cerebral  cavity  is, 
it  is  by  no  means  filled  with  the  brain.  It  is  narrower  and  more 
elongated  in  the  species  which  pass  their  whole  lives  in  the  water  than 
it  is  in  the  Anowrviu  Amphibia,  or  True  Frogs. 


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The  yertebral  column  commenoes  at  the  posterior  part  of  the  head, 
aDd,  unlike  the  rest  of  the  Reptiles,  the  Bairachiaru,  like  the  raysy  the 
Bharks,  and  the  mamraiferous  animals,  possess  two  condyles  situated 
on  the  sides  of  the  Tertebral  hole.  In  the  Tadpole  the  vertebrse  are 
of  the  same  calibre  throughout^  but  a  difference  takes  place  when  the 
limbs  are  developed.  At  this  period,  the  yertebral  canal  diminishes 
gradually  in  length,  the  spinal  marrow  contracts,  and  no  trace  of  the 
canal  is  left  in  ti^e  elongated  coccyx.  It  is  in  the  TaUlett  Amphibia 
that  the  yertebral  column  is  shortest,  for  the  Frogs  haye  only  ten  and 
the  Pipas  but  eight  yertebne. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  anterior  extremities  are  shorter  than  the 
posterior  limbs;  but  in  some  of  the  Frogs  especially,  the  lower 
extremities  are  twice  or  thrice  as  long  as  the  anterior  feet,  as  might 
be  expected  in  animals  whose  progression  is  principally  effected  by 
leaps.  Ribs  there  are  none ;  but  the  sternum  is  highly  deyeloped  and 
a  large  portion  is  very  often 
cartilaginous.  It  reoeiyee  an- 
teriorly, or  in  its  mesial  por- 
tion, the  two  davides  and 
two  coraooids  which  fit  on  to 
the  scapula.  The  whole  makes 
a  sort  of  band  which  sustains 
the  anterior  extremities,  and 
an  elongated  disk  which  forms 
a  support  for  the  throat,  and 
assists  in  the  offices  of  de-  > 
g^utition  and  respiration. 
Another  disk  extending  back- 
wards, being  for  the  insertion 
of  the  recti  muscles,  protects 
the  abdominal  yiscera  in 
some  species.  The  pelris  is 
well  developed  in  the  Frogs, 
especially  in  the  Pipa,  and 
though  apparently  deprived 
of  all  traces  of  a  tail  after 
undergoing  their  last  trans- 
formation, there  remains,  in- 
ternally, a  true  coccygeal  piece, 
most  frequently  even  moveable 
and  elongated,  but  without 
anything  like  vertebral  form. 

The  bone  of  Uie  humerus  or 
arm  is  single,  and  is  long  m  pro-  o^cicwin 

portion  to  the  bones  of  the  fore-aim,  which  are  united  throughout  thdr 
length,  their  duality  being  manifested  by  a  simple  furrow  or  depression. 
These  bones  are  distinct  in  the  reptiles  generally,  and  the  radius  is 
generally  rather  the  longest ;  the  ulna  is  prolonged  backwards  into  a 
kind  of  olecranon,  and  sometimes  this  apophysis  is  distinct,  and 
becomes  a  sort  of  seeamold-bone  in  the  thick  part  of  the  tendon  of 
the  extensor  musdes.  The  Pipas,  the  Tortoises,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  Saurians  have  this  conformation.  The  bones  of  the  carpus, 
or  wrist,  exhibit  nothing  extraordinary  in  their  structure ;  nor  do 
those  of  the  fingers,  whidi  are  without  naUs  or  daws,  require  particular 
notice. 

The  bones  of  the  well-devdoped  pdvis  present  considerable 
differences  in  the  various  genera  of  Anourous  Ampk&>ia,  Thus  in  the 
Frogs  (l^ma)  and  the  Tree-Frogs  {ffyla)^  the  oesa  ilii  are  very  much 
eloi^ted,  articulated  in  a  moveable  manner  on  the  sacrum,  and  very 
mvudk  approximated  below  towards  the  cotyloid  cavity ;  so  that  the 
two  heads  of  the  thigh-bones  seem  to  be  placed  in  contact^  a 
conformation  whidx  much  influences  the  action  of  the  posterior  limbs 
npon  the  trunk  in  Uie  execution  of  the  motions  of  swimming  and 
leaping.  In  the  Ptpa,  or  Surinam  Toad,  the  ossa  ilii  are  very  much 
widened  at  the  point  of  junction  with  the  sacrum,  which  is,  itself, 
dilated,  forming  a  strong  union  by  means  of  a  true  symphysis.  The 
femur,  or  thigh-bone^  is  very  much  dongated,  and  slighUy  curved  in 
the  form  of  &e  letter  S  in  the  Frogs  {Bona),  and  in  the  Tree-Frogs 
{ffyla) ;  it  18  a  little  diorter  in  the  Toads  {Bfrfo),  and  is  flattened  in 
the  Pip<L  The  bones  of  the  l«g  (tibia  and  fibula)  are,  in  the  Reptiles, 
generdly  distinct;  but  in  the  Anounmt  Amphibia,  BanOf  Hylay  and 
jPipa,  for  instance,  they  are  so  soldered  together  as  to  form  but  a 
single  articulation  with  the  femur  and  tarsus,  and  to  present  the 
appearance  of  a  single  very-much-dongated  bone,  which  some  have 
erroneoody  oonsideied  as  a  supernumerary  bone,  or  second  femur. 
The  knee-joint  and  articulating  bones  are  so  dii^sed  that  the  feet 
have  always  a  direction  outwards.  In  the  Reptiles  generally,  the 
posterior  feet  are  more  developed  than  the  anterior  limbs ;  and  this 
modification  is  particidarly  observable  in  the  Anourout  Amphibia,  which 
have  the  tarsus  so  much  elongated  as  to  induce  some  to  consider  the 
first  bones  composing  it  to  be  a  fibula  or  tibia.  The  bones  of  the 
metatarsus  coirespond  to  the  number  of  toes. 

The  Teeth, — ^As  these  are  very  important  organs  in  the  whole  of 
the  Amphibia,  we  shall  now  present  an  abstract  of  this  subject  from 
Professor  Owen's  celebrated  work  entitied  '  Odontography.'  He  remarks 
that  the  variations  which  the  dental  system  presents  in  the  Amphibia 
are  more  conspicuous  in  the  number,  situation,  and  structure  of  the 
teeth,  than  in  their  form  or  mode  of  attachment  Certain  Batraohians^ 


he  observes,  are  edentulous,  the  genus  Hylapletia  among  the  Tree- 
Frogs,  for  example,  and  the  Bufonidas,  or  Toad  Family,  with  the 
exception  of  some  spedes  of  Bmnbinator,  The  teeth  when  present 
are  described  by  him  as  g^erally  numerous,  simple,  of  small  and  equal 
size,  and  dose-set^  either  in  a  single  row  or  aggregated,  like  the  teeth 
of  a  rasp,  and  he  points  out  a  characteristic  condition  of  the  dental 
system  in  fishes,  namely,  the  absence  of  teeth  on  the  superior  maxillary 
bone,  as  being  continued  in  those  genera  of  Perennibranchiate  Batra- 
chians  which  stand  lowest  in  the  class  of  Reptiles ;  not  only  the  superior 
maxillary  teeth,  but  the  bones  themselves  are  absent^  he  observes,  in 
Siren,  Menobrcmchua,  and  Proteut.  In  the  Siren,  he  describes  the 
lower  margin  of  the  intermaxillary  bones,  and  the  sloping  anterior  and 
upper  margin  of  the  lower  jaw,  as  trenchant,  and  each  encased  in  a 
sheath  of  firm,  albuminous,  minutely  fibrous  tissue,  harder  than  horn. 
The  bones  thus  armed  slide  upon  each  other,  he  teds  us,  like  the  blades 

of  a  pair  of  curved  scissors, 
when  the  mouth  is  closed, 
and  are  well  adapted  for 
dividing  the  bodies  of  small 
fish,  aquatic  larvae,  worms,  fta 
The  homy  substitute  for  teeth 
in  the  lower  jaw  is  supported 
by  the  bony  element  corre- 
sponding with  the  premandi- 
bular  of  the  Lepidonren. 
[PBOTOFTSBua.]  A  second 
bony  pieoe  applied  to  the 
inner  surface  of  the  branch  of 
the  jaw  (representing  the 
splenial  or  opercular  dement 
in  the  jaw  of  the  oroco- 
dJe)  is  beset  with  numerous 
minute  pointed  teeth,  set  in 
short  oblique  rows,  and  di- 
rected obllqudy  backwards. 
The  palatal  surface  of  the 
mouth  is  described  as  present- 
ing on  each  side  two  flat» 
thm,  and  moderatdy  broad 
bones^  forming  an  apnparentiy 
sin^e,  oblique^  oval  plate^ 
which  converges  to  meet  its 
^  _  feUow  at  the  anterior  part  of 

Common  Frog.  ^^  ^^  ^  ^  coiyomtiy  to 

constitute  a  broad  rasp-like  surfitoe  in  the  form  of  a  chevron.  The  Pro- 
fessor regards  the  anterior  long  plate  on  each  ride  as  the  representative 
of  the  divided  vomer,  and  it  supports  6  or  7  oblique  rows  of  small . 
pointed  retroverted  teeth ;  the  smaller  posterior  plate,  whidi  he  thinks 
may  probably  be  the  homologue  of  the  pterygoid,  is  beset  with  4  rows 
of  similar  teeth ;  and  thus  we  have  10  or  11  rows  on  each  side  of  the 
chevron  of  the  palate.  The  greatest  number  of  dentides  (11  or  12) 
is  in  the  middle  rows;  in  the  Ulterior  and  posterior  rows  they  are 
fewer ;  all  are  of  similar  size  and  form,  corresponding  with  those  of 
the  lower  jaw  opposed  to  theuL  "  The  condition  of  the  dental  system 
in  this,  the  lowest  of  the  dass  of  reptiles,"  says  Mr.  Owen,  "  is  not 
without  interest,  independently  of  the  absence  of  the  superior  maxillary 
teeth,  and  of  the  presence  of  the  palatal  and  inferior  maxillary  denU 
en  ccirde."  If,  for  example^  the  dense  sheath  of  the  trenchant  anterior 
parts  of  the  upper  and  lower  I'aws  had  been  completdy  calcified  and 
converted  into  hard  dentine,  the  correspondence  b^ween  the  Siren  and 
the  Lepidotiren  would  have  been  very  striking  in  this  part  of  their 
structure ;  but  the  maxillary  sheaths  of  the  Siren  being  composed  of 
horn,  and  being  moreover  easily  detached  from  the  subjacent  bones, 
much  more  dosely  resemble  the  dedduous  mandibleslof  the  Tadpoles 
of  the  higher  Batrachians.    (Part  ii,  pp.  188, 189.) 

In  the  AxoloU  also  the  idithyic  character  of  the  rasp-like  teeth  are 
aggregated  in  numerous  rows  upon  the  palatal  region  of  the  mouth, 
and  upon  the  splenial  or  opercular  element  of  the  lower  jaw ;  but  here, 
Mr.  Owen  observes,  the  superior  maxillary  bones  are  devdoped,  and 
support  teeth.  The  premandibular  and  the  intermaxillary  bones,  he 
adds^  instead  of  presenting  the  larval  condition  of  the  homy  sheath, 
have  their  alveolar  border  armed  with  a  single  row  of  small,  equal, 
fine,  and  sharp-pointed  dentides,  which  are  continued  above  along  the 
nuucillaries ;  tnus,  he  observes,  establishing  the  commencement  of  the 
ordinary  Batrachian  condition  of  the  marginal  teeth  of  the  buccal  cavity. 
As  in  we  Siren,  the  dentigerous  bones  of  the  palate  consist  of  two 
plates  on  each  side ;  the  anterior  pair,  or  vomers,  converge  and  meet 
at  their  anterior  extremities^  and  the  minute  dentides  whidi  they 
support  are  arranged  quincundally.  The  posterior  pair  of  bones 
continued  backwaids,  according  to  the  usual  dispodtion  of  the  ptery- 
goids, abut  against  the  tympanic  or  quadrate  bones ;  and  the  dentides 
are  confined  to  the  anterior  part  of  tneir  oral  surface,  resembling,  in 
their  arrangement  and  anchylosed  attachment^  those  of  the  palatal 
series,  of  which  they  are  the  posterior  termination. 

The  superior  maxillaries  and  their  teeth  are,  it  appears,  wanting  in 
Menobranehut  [Nscturus]  ;  but  in  this  form  an  advance  to  a  higher 
type  of  dentition  is  perceptible  by  the  arrangement  of  the  teeth  in  a 
mngle  row,  both  upon  the  roof  and  at  the  maigins  of  the  moutiL    The 


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intennazillary  bones  are  produced  backwardt,  and  the  single  row  of 
amall  pointed  teeth  which  thej  support  is  opposed  to  a  siznilar  series 
upon  the  premandibular  bones  below.  The  palatal  teeth  form  a  single 
row  on  each  of  the  broad  bones  which  correspond  with  those  described 
by  CuTier  as  the  divided  Tomer  in  the  higher  Batrachians,  and  extend 
backwanis  upon  the  pterygoids^  which  support  a  few  teeth. 

The  three  preceding  genera  are  perennibranohiate,  sad  though  the 
Proteus,  like  them,  always  retains  its  external  gills,  it  offers  a  further 
advance  to  the  dentition  of  the  higher  BatraohiAns,  and  to  that  of  the 
Amphiwma  especially.  Each  intermaxillary  bone  carries  on  its  alveolar 
border  a'row  of  8  or  10  minute,  fine,  sharp-pointed  teeth,  and  each 
pemandibular  bone  is  armed  with  a  greater  number  of  similar  but 
larger  teeth,  arranged  also  in  single  series.  The  palatine  bones  (two 
vomers  of  Cuvier)  support  a  row  of  denticles,  similar  to  the  inter- 
maxillary cresoentic  series,  and  parallel  with  them ;  but  Mr.  Owen 
points  out  that  the  horns  of  the  palatal  dental  crescent  are  continued 
much  farther  back,  terminating,  as  in  Menobtxmehut,  on  the  anterior 
part  of  the  pterygoid  bones.  Twenty-four  teeth  are  contained  in  each 
naif  of  the  "  oresoentio  or  chevron-shaped  seriea^"  as  the  arrangement 
is  appropriatelv  designated  by  the  Professor,  who  adds  that  the 
superior  maxillary  bones  are  represented  in  this  form  by  mere 
cartilaginous  rudiments. 

The  Ampkimwia,  like  the  Proieui,  presents  the  Batrachian  disposi- 
tion of  the  teeth  in  a  single  dose-set  series  along  the  alveolar  border 
<^  both  upper  and  lower  jaws.  * "  The  upper  series  extends  along 
well-developed  maxillary  and  intermaxillary  bonea^  and  in  tiie  extent 
of  Uie  maxillary  and  palatal  seriei^  especially  in  Amphiwna  tridaetyUmf 
the  indication  of  a  highly  interesting  character  in  regard  to  the  affinities 
of  an  extinct  race  of  gigantic  Batrachians  with  biconcave  vertebrae  is 
disoemible." 

In  the  Amphiiima  the  palatal  teeth  nm  in  a  single  dose^et  row 
along  the  lateral  margins  of  the  vomer^  forming  an  acute  angle  at  its 
anterior  portion,  whence  the  series  is  extended  backwards  on  either 
side  nearly  longitudinally,  and  parallel  with  the  maxillary  teeth.  "  Ail 
the  teeth  are  conical,  pomted,  slightly  curved  backwards  and  inwards ; 
their  pouxts  glisten  with  a  yellow  metallic  lustre,"  whence  Dr.  Mitchell's 
name  ChirywiotUa.  The  number  of  teeth  in  Ampkiwrna  meamt  is 
considerably  less  than  in  Amphuma  tridactylm^ 

"The  MeMpome  exhibits,"  says  Professor  Owen,  '*  the  same  essen- 
tially Batrachian  condition  of  the  teeth  as  the  Amphnma ;  but  in  their 
disposition,  and  in  the  dispontion  and  form  of  the  vomer,  it  makes  a 
near  approach  to  the  Caducibranchiate  ffroup,  and  allies  itself  most 
closely  with  the  gi^tic  Newt  of  Japan  (iSie&oUia,  Bonap.),  and  with 
that  equally  mpantio  extinct  species  of  Newt  so  noted  in  palaeontology 
as  the  ffomoJHlwm  Tuti$  of  ScheuchMr.    In  the  peraistence  of  the 
branchial  apertures,  and  the  more  complex  straotnre  of  tiie  os  byoides, 
the  Mmopome  however 
manifests    its    generic 
distinctness   from    the 
SiebMitk      The  single  ; 
dosenwt  series  of  smiJl, 
equal,     conical,      and 
slightiy-recurved  teeth 
describes   a   semidrde 
on  both  the  upper  and 
lower  jaws:    the  row 
of  simUar  but  smaller 
teeth   on   the  anterior 
exp«nded  border  of  the 
divided    vomer     runs 
paralld  with  and  at  a 
short   distance  behind 
the  median  part  of  the 
maxillary  series.     The 
premandibular      teeth 
are  recdved   into   the 
narrow  interspaoe   be- 
tween the  two  rows  in 
the  upper  jaw  when  the 
mouUi  is  dosed.    The 
teeth  of  the  Mencpotne, 
as  of  the  Amphiwma, 
are  anchylosed  by  their 
base   and  part   of  its 
outer  side  to  a  sUghUv 
devated     external    al- 
veolar ridge. 

"Subokk<k-^The  Pe- 
rennibranchiate  or  Fidi- 
like  Amphibia,  doubt- 
ful reptiles'  as  they 
have  been  termed,  .lead  by  so  easv  a  series  of  transitions  to  the 
Cadudbranchiate  group,  in  which  all  external  tracdof  the  branchial 
apparatus  is  lost,  that  the  artificial  nature  of  such  a  division  of 
the  order  is  evident,  and  some  naturalists  have  even  hesitated 
whether  to  separate,  generically,  the  last  of  the  Perermibranchians 
from  the  spedes  SithMia  gigantea,  with  which  the  description  of  the 
dental  system  in  the  higher  division  of  the  Batrachians  is  here  com- 


Skeleton  of  Daetylethra  Lalandii. 
The  fignres  on  each  tide  show  the  difference  of  the  sternum  in  the  Common  Frog,  and  in  the 
J>Qetylethra  ;  a  represents  the  sternum  of  the  former ;  h  that  of  the  Utter. 


mencod.  As  regards  the  teeth,  the  difference  between  the  great 
aquatic  Salamander  of  the  volcanic  mountains  of  Japan  and  tlmt  of 
the  Alleghanies  is  very  slight^  and  merdy  specific ;  the  form,  disposi- 
tion,  and  attachment  of  the  teeth  are  the  same  in  SiAoldia  as  in 
Menopome;  thev  diffScr  dightly  in  the  relative  siiEC,  those  of  the 
Japanese  Newt  naving  the  advantage  in  this  respect^  with  a  somewhat 
deeper  implantation  of  their  andiylosed  base^  and  the  alveolar  parapet 
of  the  intermaxillary  bones  is  higher  and  is  slightly  incurved.  There 
are  14  teeth  in  each  intermaxmary,  72  in  each  superior  maxilkiy, 
and  64  teeth  in  each  vomer  of  the  Sidtoldia  ffipantetL" 

All  the  CaducibroMtckiaU  Amphibia  with  tails,  as  the  Newts  and 
Land  Salamanders,  have  teeth  on  the  inferior  maxillary  and  vomerine 
bones,  as  well  as  on  the  intermaxillaries  and  superior  maTillsrim 

The  Frogs  have  no  teeth  on  the  lower  jaw,  thou^  in  some  spedes 
(Ccralophryt  for  example)  the  alveolar  edge  of  the  lower  jaw-bone  is 
finely  notched  or  dentated.  The  £^fomaa,  as  a  general  rde,  aie 
toothless,  but  in  the  Bombinatora  the  subgenus  Myladacli^  has 
teeth  upon  the  vomer,  and  Sckrophryi  has  teeth  on  both  the  iniet- 
maxillary  and  maxillary  bones. 

Muscular  System,  parUcularly  as  rdalimg  to  LoeomoUtm. — The 
musdes  destined  to  give  activity  to  the  framework,  examples  of 
which  are  given  bdow,  are,  like  those  of  all  the  Reptiles,  remarkable 
for  their  irritability.  There  are  not  wanting  soologists  who  have  seen 
Toads,  Salamanders,  Tortoiaes,  and  Serpent^  deprived  of  their  heads 
and  skins,  but  kept  moist,  display  muscular  motion  for  whole  wedm. 
In  the  Auowrom  Amphibia,  the  fVo^  especially,  the  musdes  of  the 
abdomen  are  more  devdoped  than  in  the  other  ReptileB^  offiaring  in 
this  particular  some  analogy  to  the  abdominal  structure  of  the 
Mammifers.  But  it  is  in  the  dispodtion  of  the  musdes  of  the  thigh 
and  1^  in  the  Frogs  and  others  of  tins  group,  that  the  greatest  singu- 
larity is  manifested.  These,  whether  taken  oo^jointiy  or  singly,  present 
the  greatest  analogy  with  the  muscular  arrangement  of  tiie  same  parte 
in  Man.  We  fina  the  roimded,  dongated,  conicd  thi^  the  knee 
extending  itself  in  the  same  direction  with  the  thigh-bone,  and  a 
wdl-fashioned  calf  to  the  leg,  formed  by  the  belly  of  the  gastrocnemii 
muscles.  It  is  imposuble  to  watch  the  horixontd  motions  of  a  frog  in 
the  water,  as  it  is  impdled  by  these  musdes  and  its  webbed  feei, 
without  being  struck  with  the  complete  resemblance  in  this  portion 
of  its  frame  to  human  conformation,  and  the  almost  perfect  identity 
of  the  movements  of  its.lower  extremities  with  those  of  a  man  making 
the  same  efforts  in  the  same  dtuatioiL 

We  have  seen  that  the  ribs  are  absent  in  the  Afwurom  AmpMbiOf 
and  the  functions  of  respiration,  as  wdl  as  those  of  deglutition,  being 
carried  on  by  means  of  particular  musdea^  as  we  diall  presentiy  have 
to  notice,  those  bones  would  have  been  mere  incumbrances.  In  the 
Frogs,  the  muscles  are  not  attached  to  the  skin,  whidi  envdops  the 

whole  muscular  airaoge- 
ment  in  a  sort  of  insu- 
lated, inaendble,  move- 
able bag:  in  the 
UrodHet,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  integoments 
serve  as  the  point  of 
insertion  to  almost  all 
the  active  organs  of 
motioiL 

The  locomotion  of 
the  Anourous  Atn- 
phibia  on  land- consists 
in  walking,  running, 
and  leaping,  in  it^ 
^  various  modificatioDs; 
the  latter  bdng  the 
motion  most  prevdeni 
The  greater  part  of 
them  are  excellent 
swimmers;  snd  when 
thev  betake  themselves 
to  this  exerdse,  the  body 
isextendedhorizontally, 
and  the  animd  is  pro- 
pelled by.themeduuuam 
of  the  lower  extremi- 
ties done— amechanism 
admirablv  adf^ted  to 
this  mode  of  progres- 
don,  as  well  as  to  the 
other  varices  of  move- 
ment whidi  the  necee- 
dties  of  the  aiiimd  re- 
quire.  By  the  aid  of 
these  wdl-devdoped  lower  limbs,  and  the  prodigious  power  of  their 
muscular  and  bony  levers,  a  Frpg  can  raise  itself  in  the  air  to  twenty 
times  its  own  height^  and  traverse,  at  a  single  bound,  a  space  more 
than  fifty  times  the  length  of  its  own  body. 

JXgestive  Oryans. — The  Anourous  Amphibia,  in  their  adult  state, 
are,  like  the  greater  part  of  the  existing  Reptiles,  carnivorous,  and 
swallow  their  living  prey  without  mastication.    The  mouth  in  many 


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AMPHIBIA. 


AMPHIBIA. 


ia 


of  them  is  wery  wide ;  so  wide,  indeed,  in  Bome  (the  large  Frogs  and 
Bipas,  for  infltanoe),  as  to  wimit  of  their  swallowing  yertebrated 
animalB;  bat  inseeti,  annelides,  and  mollusks  form  the  chief  portion 
of  their  food.  They  have  no  true  fleshy  lips,  nor  indeed  have  any  of 
the  Reptiles;  but  the  fresh-water  tortoises  are  furnished  with  folds  of 
skin  as  a  oovering  for  their  cutting  jaws,  and  perhaps  as  a  more 
complete  apparatus  for  shutting  the  mouth.  The  same  conforma- 
tion is  observable  in  the  greater  number  of  the  Tadpoles  of  the 
Batrachians,  the  larger  portion  of  which,  in  their  adult  state,  have 
the  lower  jaw  received  under  a  soft  skin  which  ooyers  and  edges  the 
mandible.  The  branches  of  the  lower  maxillary  bone  are  rarely 
soldered  at  the  symphvsiB,  and  sometimes,  as  in  the  genera  Bona 
and  ff^a,  there  is,  at  tae  point  of  junction,  a  mere  cartilage  which 
admits  of  a  certain  amount  of  motion.  In  the  Frogs  and  the  UrodUes, 
the  number  of  pieces  composing  each  of  the  branches  amounts  to  three. 
One  of  these  pieces  correaponds  with  the  symphysis,  and  is  armed  with 
teeth;  the  second  serves  for  articulation,  and  the  third  is  situated 
backwards,  and  prolonged  below.  On  the  palate  of  many  of  these 
Amphibia  are  certain  processes  which  may  be  termed  teeth ;  but  these 
are  pointed,  and  not  tubercular,  as  the  old  error  of  naming  some  of  the 
teeth  of  foadl  fishes  BufcmUn  might  lead  us  to  suppose.  These  palatal 
teeth  form  a  part  of  the  bones  to  which  they  are  attached,  as  in  the 
case  of  fishea. 

The  tongue  petfonns  a  leading  part  in  the  capture  and  deglutition  of 
the  prey.  La  the  greater  portion  of  this  group  the  structure  of  this  oigan 
ia  altogether  anomalous,  and  its  insertion  is  equally  at  vanance  with  the 
mode  adopted  in  the  otiier  vertebrated  animals.  It  is  veiy  soft,  fleshy 
almost  throughout^  and  is  not  supported  at  its  base  by  an  os  hyoldes. 
Its  attachment  is  the  leyerse  of  that  generally  seen,  for  it  is  fixed  in 
the  concavity  which  is  formed  by  the  approach  of  the  two  branches  of 
the  lower  jaw  towards  the  symphysis.  In  a  state  of  repose,  and  when 
the  mouth  ia  shut,  this  tongue^  which  has  its  root^  so  to  speak,  in  the 
interior  edge  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  lower  jaw,  has  its  free  extremity 
in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  and  before  the  aperture  of  the  aiz^passagee ; 
but  when  tbe  animal  puts  it  forth,  it  is  considerably  elongated  and 
thrown  sharply  out  of  the  mouth,  as  if  by  an  effort  of  expulsion.  The 
end  reaches  to  a  considerable  distance,  as,  turning  on  the  pivot  of  its 
anterior  fixtore,  it  is  reversed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  surface  which 
was  below  wlien  the  tongue  was  in  the  mouth,  and  in  a  state  of  repose, 
ii^  when  it  is  thrown  out,  above ;  and  when  the  tongue  is  returned 
into  the  month,  the  surface,  which  was  an  instant  before  above, 
r»umes  its  original  position,  and  is  again  beneath.  The  organ  is 
armed  with  a  toiaciouB  viscous  secretion;  and  when  it  touches  the 
prey,  the  latter  acUieres  so  firmly  to  it,  that  it  is  carried  back  with  the 
tongue  into  t^e  mouth.  There  it  is,  in  most  cases,  compressed,  involred 
again  in  a  glutinous  sort  of  saliva»  and  almost  instantly  submitted  to 
the  act  of  deglutition.  The  motion  of  throwing  out  and  retuniing 
the  tongue  is  often  performed  with  a  rapidity  which  the  eye  can 
hardly  follow.  If  any  one  will  observe  a  toad  in  a  melon-finune,  he 
will  see  the  ants  or  ower  insects  which  come  within  shot  of  its  tongue 
dimppear ;  but  his  vision  must  be  very  acute  and  prompt  to  detect  the 
action  of  tiie  tongue.  The  musdes,  whose  office  it  is  to  move  the  bones, 
cartilages,  and  other  parts  of  the  mouth,  act  more  especia]ly  upon  the 
lower  jaw,  upon  the  bone  of  the  mandible,  and  upon  the  tongue,  which, 
after  being  shot  forth  as  we  have  endeavoured  to  describe,  is  returned 
and  swallowed,  as  it  were^  with  the  captured  prey,  and  the  act  of 
dariutition  is  continued  till  the  food  is  lodged  in  the  stomach. 

The  pharynx  in  mammiferous  animals  consists  of  that  backward 
cavity  of  the  throat,  into  which  the  lower  orifices  of  the  nostrils,  the 
orifice  of  the  mouth,  the  canal  of  the  ear,  the  larynx,  and  the  casophagus 
open ;  but  in  the  reptiles  there  cannot  be  said  to  be  any  true  pharynx ; 
for  the  nostrils,  as  well  as  the  glottis,  open  into  the  mouth,  the  oaso- 
phagos  commences  immediately  behhid  the  nostrils,  and  the  muscles 
that  act  more  especially  upon  these  parts  and  upon  the  tongue  are 
those  that  b^;in  the  act  of  de|;lutition :  we  shall  presently  see  that 
these  same  muscles  are  also  put  m  requisition  to  force  the  air  necessaay 
for  respiration  into  the  glottis  and  trachea,  in  order  to  supply  the 
cftvily  of  the  lungs.  The  stomach  of  the  Arwvunmt  Am^Kihitk  does  not 
require  any  particular  notice ;  but  the  maxim  that  the  more  carni- 
vorous an  anunal  is,  the  shorter  and  the  less  flexuous  is  its  intestinal 
eanal,  is  well  illustrated  in  that  tribe.  The  TadpK)le,  which  lives  upon 
vegetables,  possesses  an  extremely  long  digestive  tube ;  but  in  its 
periect  state,  and  when  its  appetite  nas  become  altogether  carnivorous, 
the  intestines  become  very  much  shortened,  losing  four-fifths  of  the 
length  which  distinguished  them  when  the  animal  was  in  its  early  staffs 
of  ezirtence.  The  vent  is  rounded  and  wrinkled.  The  liver  generally 
consists  of  three  lobes,  and  the  gall-bladder  adheres  to  and  is  hidden 
in  the  concavity  of  the  liver,  very  high  up.  The  spleen  in  the  Frog 
and  Toad  is  rounded,  not  of  large  dimemdons,  and  situated  in  the 
mesial  region,  under  the  intermediate  lobe  of  the  liver.  There  is  also 
ft  pancreas,  and  the  chyliferous  veins  may  be  distinctiy  traced.  The 
digestive  oi^gans  vary  considerably  in, the  Tadpole.  In  this  early  stage 
they  have  a  mouth  furnished  with  lips,  and  homy  cutting  processes, 
that  act  as  jaws  hi  the  division  of  the  vegetable  food  which  forms  their 
principal  nourishment,  and  their  intestinal  canal  is  coiled  spirally 
yithin  their  large  rounded  abdomen.  The  metamorphosis  is  complete, 
internally  as  well  as  externally,  when  this  armed  littie  mouth  is 
(^ged  into  the  widely-opening  gape,  which  reaches  beyond  the  eyes^ 


and  the  animal  swallows  its  living  pr^  entire.  In  this  their  last  stage 
they  can  endure  a  long  abstinence.  They  grow  slowly,  and  they  live 
to  a  considerable  age.  The  skin  which  edges  their  jaws  is  wo% 
and  forms  a  sort  of  gum  or  external  lip  ;  their  under-jaw  is  received 
into  a  kind  of  rim  or  eroove,  which  nms  along  the  upper-jaw,  and  its 
two  branches  are  slightiy  moveable  towards  the  symphysis:  this 
junction  of  the  jaws  is  as  complete  as  the  shutting  of  a  well-fitted 
lid  of  a  snuff-box. 

OvrcuUaingSyaten^ — ^The  curculation  in  the  Anourom  Ampkihia  vaziea 
with  the  different  metamorphoses  which  the  animal  undergoes.  In 
the  early  or  tadpole  stsffe  the  whole  of  the  blood  is  driven  by  the  heart 
into  the  branchial  vesseLs,  the  circulation  at  that  period  being  the  same 
as  it  is  in  fishes.  The  apparently  single  auricle  (for  according  to  the 
observations  of  Dr.  Davy  and  of  Messrs.  Saint  Ange  and  W^bert,  it  is 
in  fact  separated  into  two  divisions),  or  rather  the  partition  which 
exists  at  the  point  where  the  oxygenated  blood  arrives  through  the 
pulmonary  veins,  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  distinct,  and  the  venous 
blood,  which  is  poured  into  it  by  the  large  vena  cava,  penetrates 
finally  into  the  single  ventricle,  which,  by  contracting,  pushes  the  blood 
into  the  single  arterial  trunk,  furnished  at  its  base,  near  the  valvules, 
with  a  sort  of  bulb,  or  contractile  swelling.  This  artery,  which 
contains  the  black  or  venous  blood,  is  divided  into  two  trunks,  one 
directed  to  the  right,  the  other  to  the  left;  and  these  are  then  sub- 
divided into  two,  three,  or  four  branches,  according  to  the  number  of 
the  branchial  leafiets :  on  their  arrival  there,  they  inosculate  with  the 
venous  trunks,  and  ly  that  time  the  blood  has  assumed  its  arterial 
qualily  and  colour.  These  arterial  veins  unite  successively,  so  as  to 
form,  by  means  of  two  principal  trunks,  the  origin  of  one  great  artery, 
or  aorta  descendens.  which  is,  at  the  point  of  its  formation,  plaoed 
near  the  head,  to  which  it  gives  off  many  branches,  and  continues  to 
descend  down  the  vertebral  column. 

But  when  the  time  of  metamorphosis  arrives,  and  when  the  animal 
which  had  been  breathing  by  means  of  gills  is  to  respire  through  the 
medium  of  lungs,  an  entire  and  necessary  change  takes  place.  In 
proportion  as  the  branchin  of  the  Tadpole  are  destroyed  aftd  absorbed, 
the  calibre  of  the  venous  arteries,  which  were  distributed  to  them, 
diminishes  gradually,  till  they  are  at  last  entirely  obliterated.  The 
first  of  these  vessels  then  develops  itself,  and  receives  on  each  side  the 
whole  of  the  blood,  giving  off  three  principal  trunks — one  for  the 
head,  corresponding  to  the  carotid  artery ;  one  for  the  anterior  limbs, 
or  a  branchial  artery ;  and  one,  the  longest  of  all,  for  the  cellular  lung, 
which  is  of  consicferable  volume.  The  rest  of  the  principal  trui& 
follows  the  medal  line,  and  unites  with  its  congener,  so  as  to  form  a 
true  aorta  for  the  supply  of  the  viscera  and  lower  extremities^  Hrhioh 
acquire  their  large  dimensions  at  this  period. 

keapiraiory  SytUim  and  VoeaL  OrgaiM, — Theabsence  of  theribs  prevents 
any  application  of  costal  influence  upon  the  respiratory  organs  of  the 
An/owrout  Amphibia^  as  is  the  case  with  the  mammiferous  animals ;  but 
though  their  form,  as  well  as  the  medium  in  which  they  live,  is  so 
totally  di£forent  in  the  early  and  late  part  of  their  life,  the  principle  of 
action  on  these  organs  is  nearly  the  same.  The  young  may  be  said 
to  swallow  water,  or  at  least  receive  it  into  the  cavity  of  the  mouth, 
before  they  force  it  into  the  branchial  vessels ;  and  though  the  mode 
of  breathing  is  so  entirely  changed  in  after-lift^  the  operation  consists 
in  the  perfect  animal  of  a  succession  of  deglutitions  A  air. 

When  the  Amphibia  leave  the  ogg^  tiieir  branchisB  appear  externally 
like  littie  coloured  fringes  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  so  they  remain 
in  the  UrocUUs,  as  long  as  their  lungs  are  not  suffidentiy  devdoped  to 
serve  for  complete  respiration.  But  in  the  Frogs  and  the  Anouroui 
Amphibia  the  flrst  stage  of  the  animal's  life  endures  but  a  short  time. 
It  soon  assumes  the  Tadpole  form,  with  an  enormous  belly  and  head, 
in  one  undistinguished  outline,  and  a  lon^  tail  At  this  period  the 
branohiie,  or  gills,  are  hidden,  being  contamed  in  a  cavity,  and  then 
the  water  enters  the  mouth  b^  the  orifice  of  the  nostrils,  which  are 
supplied  with  valves.  When  m  the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  which  is 
well  dosed  on  aU  sides,  with  the  exception  of  the  throat,  where  are 
placed  the  branchial  slits,  the  water,  acted  upon  by  the  muscles  which 
cover  them,  traverses  these  spaces,  and  bathes  the  branchise  before  its 
exit  through  the  branchial  holes.  The  blood  which  is  pushed  into 
these  branchi»  is  then  distributed,  as  it  is  in  the  fishes,  and  passes,  as 
we  have  seen,  fiY>m  the  arterial  venous  vessels  into  the  arteries  which 
unite  to  form  the  aorta. 

On  acquiring  their  perfect  form,  and  when  the  obliteration  of 
certain  points,  and  the  development  of  the  others,  have  adapted  the 
Anowwu  Ampkitfia  for  breathing  air,  by  means  of  its  two  large 
lungs,  the  muscles  employed  in  deglutition  are  the  great  agents  for 
carding  on  the  respiration.  The  anterior  nostrils^  as  we  have  before 
stated,  open  neariy  straight,  by  means  of  simple  apertures  in  f^nt  of 
the  palate ;  the  tongue  is  appued  as  a  kind  of  stopp,4r  upon  the  back 
noetnls,  and  the  trachea  is  terminated  by  a  glottis  opening  into  the 
mouth.  The  air  thus  imprisoned  is  forced  or  pumped  at  each  gulp 
through  the  glottis,  to  be  distributed  over  the  lungs. 

In  the  museuih  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  are  several 
preparations,  illustrative  of  the  aSration  of  the  blood,  by  means  of 
branohiie,  in  the  early  stage  of  Jtana  paradoxa,  and  also  of  the  mode 
of  respiration  in  the  adult  forms  of  the  same  group  of  animala 

The  activity  of  respiration  is  inereaaed  in  proportion  to  the  elevation 
of  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air.    M.  Delaroche  found  that 


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AMPHIBIA. 


AMPHIBIA 


Frogs  exposed  to  a  tempeFatore  of  27  degrees  Centigrade  (80*  Fahr.), 
absorbed  four  times  as  much  oxygen  as  those  submitted  to  a  tem- 
perature of  6  or  7  degrees  (42'*  to  47'  Fahr.)  only. 

The  oigans  of  the  Toiee  in  the  Anouroui  Amphibia  are  only  put  in 
action,  generally  speaking,  at  the  season  of  reproduction,  and  then 
prindpslly  by  the  males  :  their  croakings  and  <sies  seem  intended  to 
make  the  one  sex  sensible  of  the  presence  of  the  other.  The  trachea 
is  indeed  very  short  in- the  Frog ;  but  it  is  longer  in  the  male  than  it  is 
in  the  female,  and  the  rima  glottidis  is  also  longer  in  the  former. 
But  in  some  Frogs  the  males  are  distinguished  by  peculiar  membranous 
bags.  Thus,  the  Qreen  Frog  has  two  dieek-pouches,  which  are  inflated 
by  the  animal  in  the  breedmg  season,  by  means  of  two  apertures  dose 
to  the  rLma  glottidis;  and  the  chord»  Tocales  are  very  large  and 
distinct  in  many  species.  The  glottis  bears,  apparently,  oonaidenble 
analogy  to  the  upper  laiynx  in  birds ;  but  m  the  birds  the  Toice 
reoeiyes  its  modincation  onl^  from  the  edges  of  the  glottis^  which 
shuts  the  trachea  at  the  point  where  it  opens  into  the  mouth ;  the 
sounds  being  produced  by  the  lower  laiynx,  which  is  formed  at  the 
point  of  junction  of  the  two  branches  which  constitute  the  origin  of 
the  trachea.  When  the  air-passages  of  the  reptiles  emit  soundi,  they 
are  produced  b^  the  single  larynx  and  the  glottis :  from  the  absence 
of  moveable  lips,  and  the  velum  palati^  or  their  inconsiderable 
development,  those  sounds  cannot  be  much  modified.  Nevertheless, 
the  vood  powers  of  these  animiJs  vary  very  much,  according  to  the 
varying  mechanism  manifested  in  each.  The  cries  of  the  different 
species  of  Rana,  from  the  well-known  croaking  of  the  Common  Frog 
to  ^e  bellowing  of  the  Bull-Frog ;  the  shrill  trebles  of  the  species  of 
Hyla,  of  the  males  especially;  the  flute-like  and  metallic  sounds 
occasionally  given  ou^  and  the  sort  of  seemingly  ventriloquous 
grumbling  which  some  spedes  of  Toads  exert^  are  vocal  sounds 
emitted  above  the  larynx — a  sort  of  fSalsetto  or  voe$  di  teito— from 
the  buccal  cavity,  or  some  of  the  accessory  sacs. 

Connected  with  the  phaenomena  of  bieathing^  it  should  be  stated 
that  the  naked  skin  of  the  Froge,  and  indeed  of  the  Batrabhians 
generally,  has  the  power  of  acting  upon  the  air  in  such  a  way  as  to 
fulfil,  in  a  great  degree^  the  functions  of  the  lungs,  and  that  aerated 
water  may  be  made  subservient  to  this  cutaneous  rei^iration.  The 
experiments  made  on  frogs  which  have  been  kept  m  vessels,  ^d 
under  water  chaiged  with  air  renewed  from  time  to  time,  and  on 
toads  wMdi  have  been  kept  alive  for  months  in  nets  sunk  under 
running  water,  at  a  low  temperature,  without  any  direct  access  to 
atmospiieric  air,  prove  this.  These  powers,  the  faculty  of  enduring 
long  abstinence,  their  hybenation,  and  the  age  (as  great  as  86  years) 
to  which  the  Aiwuroua  Amphibia  are  said  to  attain,  naturally  lead  us 
to  the  consideration  of  the  stories  told  of  the  discoveiy  of  toads, 
'antediluvian  toads'  as  they  were  once  called,  inclosed  in  solid  rocks 
and  in  the  heart  of  trees,  where  they  had  been  supposed  to  have 
existed,  for  centuries,  deprived  of  the  possibility  of  access  to  either 
food  or  air,  though  when  found  they  were  alive  and  vigorous.  Nor 
do  these  stories  rest  solely  on  the  doubtful  hearsay  evidence  of  unedu- 
cated persons.  Thus  Smellie,  in  his  'Philosophy  of  Natural  History,' 
alludes  to  the  account  in  the  '  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences ' 
for  the  year  1719,  of  a  toad  found  alive  and  healthy  in  the  heart  of 
an  old  elm ;  and  of  another  discovered  in  the  year  1781,  near  Nantz, 
in  the  heart  of  an  old  oak,  without  any  visible  entrance  to  its 
habitation.  From  the  size  of  the  tree  it  was  concluded  that  the 
aniQial  must  have  been  confined  in  that  situation  at  least  80  or 
100  years.  He  adds,  that  in  the  many  examples  of  toads  found  in 
solid  rocks,  exact  impressions  of  their  bodies,  coiresponding  to  their 
respective  sizes,  were  unifoimly  left  in  the  stones  or  trees  from  which 
they  were  dislodged ;  and  he  asserts  that  it  was  said  that  there  existed, 
when  he  wrote,  a  marble  chimney-piece  at  Chatsworth  with  a  print  of 
a  toad  in  it ;  and  that  there  was  a  traditionaiy  account  of  the  place 
and  manner  in  which  it  was  found. 

That  frogs,  toads,  snakes,  and  lizards  "occasionally  issue  from 
stones  that  are  broken  in  a  quany,  or  in  sinking  wells,  and  sometimes 
even  from  strata  of  coal,  at  the  bottom  of  a  coal-mine,"  may  be  readily 
admitted ;  but,  as  Dr.  Buckland  well  observes,  in  a  paper  recording 
some  experiments  on  this  subject — and  to  these  we  shall  presently 
allude—"  tiie  evidence  is  never  perfect  to  show  that  the  reptiles  were 
entirely  inclosed  in  a  solid  rock ;  no  examination  is  ever  made  tmtil 
the  reptile  is  first  discovered  by  the  breaking  of  the  mass  in  which  it 
was  contained,  and  then  it  is  too  late  to  ascertain,  without  carefully 
^placing  every  fragment  (and  in  no  case  that  I  have  seen  reported 
has  this  ever  been  done),  whether  or  not  there  was  any  hole  or 
crevice  by  which  the  animal  may  have  entered  the  oavitv  from  which 
it  was  extracted.  Without  previous  examination,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  prove  that  there  was  no  such  communication.  In  the 
case  of  rocks  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  in  stone  quarries, 
reptiles  find  ready  admission  to  holes  and  fissures.  We  have  a 
notorious  example  of  this  kind  in  the  lizard  found  alive  in  a  chalk-pity 
and  brought  alive  to  the  late  Dr.  Clarke."  The  same  author  remarks, 
that  the  first  effort  of  the  young  toad,  as  soon  as  it  has  left  its  tadpole 
state,  and  emerged  from  the  water,  is  to  seek  shelter  in  holes  and 
crevices  of  rocks  and  trees.  "  An  individual,  which  when  young  may 
have  thus  entered  a  cavity  by  some  very  narrow  aperture,  would  find 
abundance  of  food  by  catching  insects,  which  like  itself  seek  shelter 
within  such  oavitiei^  and  may  have  soon  increased  so  much  in  bulk 


as  to  render  it  impossible  to  go  out  again  throu^  the  nanow  ap6^ 
ture  at  which  it  entered.  A  small  hole  of  this  kind  is  very  likely  to 
be  overlooked  by  common  workmen,  who  are  the  onlv  people  whose 
operations  on  wood  and  stone  disclose  cavities  in  the  mteiior  of  sadi 
substanoes." 

Without,  then,  attempting  to  throw  discredit  upon  the  obserrations 
published  upon  this  curious  subject  by  authors  whose  bharaetsr  for 
veracity  is  unquestionable^ — those  of  Ouettard,  in  1771  C  M^moirB  sor 
diff($rentes  Parties  des  Sdenoes  et  des  Arts,'  tooL  iv.) ;  of  Edwards,  1824 
('  De  rinfluence  dee  Agens  Physiques  sur  la  Vie ') ;  uid  of  Mr.  Thomas, 
in  Silliman's  Journal,  in  addition  to  those  above  alluded  to  for 
example— we  may  conclude  with  Dr.  Buckland,  in  his  remarks  on  the 
last  publication,  that  the  several  authentic  and  weU-atteeted  cases  to 
be  foimd  in  such  memoirs,  "amount  to  no  more  than  a  repetition  of 
the  facts  so  often  stated  and  admitted  to  be  true^  namelv,  that  reptiles 
occur  in  cavities  of  stone,  and  at  the  depth  of  many  feet  in  soil  and 
earth ;  but  they  state  not  anything  to  disprove  the  poasihihty  of  a 
small  aperture  by  which  these  cavities  may  nave  had  oonununication 
with  the  external  surfkoe,  and  insects  have  been  admitted.  The 
attention  of  the  discoverer  is  always  directed  more  to  the  toad  than 
to  the  minutia  of  the  state  of  the  cavity  in  whidi  it  was  contained." 

Dr.  Buckland  made  some  experiments  on  this  subject  which  he 
commenced  in  November,  1825.  He  caused  12  droular  cells  to  be 
prepared  in  a  large  block  of  ooaxse  Oolitic  Limestone,  from  Heddington 
quarry,  near  O^dbrd.  Each  cell  was  about  1  foot  deep,  and  6  inchei 
in  diameter,  and  had  a  groove  or  shoulder  at  its  upper  margin, 
fitted  to  receive  a  circular  plateof  s^ass,  and  a  otronlar  date  to  protect 
the  glass ;  the  margin  of  this  douUe  cover  was  closed  round,  and 
rendered  impenetrable  to  air  and  water,  by  a  luting  of  soft  day. 
Another  block  of  compact  silioious  sandstone  (Pennant  Qrit,  of  the 
Bristol  coal-formation)  was  made  to  contain  12  snaaller  ceUa,  each 
6  inches  deep  and  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  each  under  the  same 
double  cover  as  the  first-mentioned  cells.  A  live  toad  was  placed  in 
each  of  these  24  cells  on  the  28th  November,  1825,  and  the  double 
cover  of  glass  and  slate  was  placed  over  each  of  them,  and  cemented 
down  by  a  luting  of  day.  Dr.  Daubeny  and  Mr.  DUlwyn,  who  were 
present^  ascertained  and  noted  the  weight  of  each  toad  (they  had  all 
been  imprisoned  together  in  a  cucumb^  frame,  some  of  them  for  two 
months  previously),  as  it  was  immured.  The  largest  weighed  1185 
grains;  tiie  smallest  115  grains;  and  they  were  dlitributed  equally, 
small  and  large,  among  the  Limestone  and  Sandstone  odls.  The  blocks 
were  buried  in  the  euth  of  Dr.  Buokland's  garden,  8  feet  deep.  On 
the  10th  of  December,  1826,  these  blocks,  which  had  remained 
unopened  from  the  period  of  their  inhumation,  were  examined. 
Every  toad  in  the  smaller  cells  of  the  Sandstone  block  was  dead,  and 
so  much  decayed,  that  they  must  have  been  dead  for  some  months. 
The  greater  part  of  those  in  the  larger  cells  of  the  oolitic  block  were 
alive.  No.  1,  which  weighed  when  placed  in  its  cell  924  grains,  was 
reduced  to  698  grains.  Na  5,  whose  weight  at  the  same  period  was 
1185  grains,  had  increased,  it  is  asserted  to  1265»grainB.  Dr.  Buckland 
observes,  that  the  glass  cover  over  tlus  toad's  cell  was  slig^tiy  cracked, 
so  that  minute  insects  might  have  entered;  but  none  were  discovered 
therein.  In  another  cell,  the  glass  of  which  was  broken,  and  iti 
tenant  dead,  there  was  a  lai^ge  assemblage  of  minute  insectB ;  and  a 
similar  assemblage  was  observed  also  on  the  outside  of  the  glass  of  a 
third  cell.  In  the  cell.  No.  9,  a  toad  which  weighed  at  its  entrance 
988  graina,  had  increased  to  1116  grains.  The  glass  cover  of  this  cell 
was  entire,  but  the  luting  that  secured  it  was  not  attentively  examined ; 
and  Dr.  Buckland  observes,  that  it  is  probable  that  there  was  some 
aperture  by  which  small  insects  found  admission.  No.  1 1  had  decreased 
from  936  to  652  grains. 

The  result  of  Dr.  Buokland's  experiments  was,  that  all  the  toads, 
both  large  and  small,  inclosed  in  Sandstone,  and  the  small  toads  in 
the  Limestone,  were  dead  at  the  end  of  IS  months,  a  fate  which  befel 
all  the  large  ones  also,  before  the  expiration  of  the  second  year :  these 
last  were  examined  several  times  during  the  second  year,  through  the 
glass  covers  of  their  cells,  but  without  removing  them  to  admit  air; 
they  appeared  alwavs  awake,  with  open  eyes,  and  never  in  a  state  of 
torpor;  but  at  eadi  successive  examination  they  became  more  and 
more  meagre,  till  at  last  they  were  found  dead.  The  two  toads  which 
when  first  examined  had  increased  in  weighty  and  were  at  the  end  of 
the  first  year  carefully  closed  up  again,  were  not  exempt  from  the 
common  annihilation,  but  were  emaciated  and  dead  before  the 
expiration  of  the  second  year. 

when  Dr.  Buckland  inclosed  these  toads  in  stone,  he  at  the  same 
time  placed  four  other  toads,  of  moderate  size,  in  three  holes  cut  for 
that  purpose,  on  the  north  side  of  the  trunk  of  an  i^ple-tree.  Two 
were  placed  in  the  largest  cell,  and  each  of  the  others  in  a  single  cell, 
the  cells  being  nearly  circular,  about  5  inches  deep  snd  8  inches  in 
diameter.  These  were  carefully  closed  with  pluss  of  wood,  so  as  to 
exclude  access  of  insects,  and  were  apparentiy  air-tight  Every  one 
of  the  toads  thus  'pegged'  in  the  knot^  entrails  of  the  tree  was 
f oimd  dead  and  decayed  at  the  end  of  the  first  year. 

Four  toads  were^  at  the  time  the  others  were  shut  up,  each  placed 
in  a  small  basin  of  plaster  of  Paris,  4  inches  deep  and  5  indies  in 
diameter,  having  a  cover  of  the  same  material  luted  over  them :  these 
were  buried  at  tiie  same  time  and  in  th^  same  place  with  the  blocks 
of  stone,  and  on  being  examined  at  the  same  time  with  them,  in 


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]«l 


Doeember,  1826,  two  of  the  toadB  w«re  dead;  the  other  two  aliTe,  but 
greatly  emaciated. 

Dr.  Buckland  oondndee  from  the  experiments  generally,  that  toads 
cazmot  live  a  year  excluded  totally  from  atmospheric  air ;  and  from 
the  experiments  made  in  the  larger  cells  in  the  Oolite,  that  there  is  a 
probability  that  those  animals  cannot  survive  two  yean  entirely 
excluded  from  food.    ('  Zoological  Journal/  vol.  v.  p.  814.) 

Ahtorption  of  Air  and  Waier,  Bxhalation,  and  Trcmtpiration. — A 
rapid  process  of  absorption  and  evaporation  of  fluids,  by  th&  pores  of 
the  skin,  gives  to  the  Anotiroiu  Amphibia  the  power  of  resLsting  heat. 
If  a  frog  be  plun^  into  water,  of  a  temperature  of  4/^**  Centigrade 
(104**  Fahr.),  it  will  not,  it  is  asserted,  live  more  than  two  minutes, 
though  the  head  be  left  out  so  as  to  enable  it  to  reroire  freely;  yet  a 
frog  will  sustain  the  action  of  humid  air  heated  to  the  same  tempera- 
ture, for  four  or  five  consecutive  hours.  A  sudden  transition,  however, 
from  a  low  temperature  to  a  high  one,  is  generally  speedily  fatal  to 
these  animals.  Their  proper  balance  of  animal  heat  is  kept  up  by  a 
regulation  of  the  evaporation  of  liquid  absorbed,  or  by  the  transpiration 
of  the  matter,  the  quantity  of  which  is  augmented  in  proportion  as 
the  external  heat  is  more  intense ;  and  the  animal  resists  it  as  long 
as  the  moisture  is  not  desiocated  by  the  air.  When  it  can  no  longer 
repair  the  loss  of  the  moisture  already  taken  up,  by  a  fresh  absorption 
of  liquid,  it  perishes.  The  Frogs,  in  this  particular  of  their  organisa- 
tion, have  been  compared  to  the  vessels  which  in  Spain  are  called 
Alcarazas,  used  for  ooofing  water,  by  the  transudation  permitted  by 
their  poroua  structure.  Dr.  Townson,  who  made  obeervationB  to 
Bome  extent  upon  this  subject,  and  had  two  frogs,  which  he  named 
Damon  and  Musidora,  found  ^t  a  frog  would  sometimes  absorb  in 
half  an  hour  as  much  as  half  its  own  weight  in  water,  and,  in  a  few 
hours,  nearly  its  entire  weight.  When  the  animal  so  filled  was  placed 
in  a  warm  and  dry  situation,  it  gave  off  this  fluid  nearly  as  rapidly  as 
it  had  accumulated  it.  He  contends  that  the  Frog  Tribe  never  drink, 
and  general  observation  goes  to  prove  that  ^e  Frogs,  Tree-Frogs,  and 
Salamanders  do  not  swallow  liquids,  being  supplied  by  the  process 
before  mentioned.  The  meagreness  of  some  of  these  animals,  in  a 
state  of  comparative  desiccation,  and  their  apparent  plumpness  after 
they  have  renewed  their  supply  of  moisture,  is  very  striking.  K, 
when  BO  supplied,  they  are  suddenly  surprised,  they  can  get  rid  of 
their  load  instantaneously.  Few  who  have  come  on  a  frog  by  surprise, 
in  a  moist  meadow,  have  not  observed  that,  during  its  flrst  leap,  it 
emits  a  quantity  <k  liquid  f^m  its  vent.  "  Whatever  this  fluid  may 
be,"  says  Dr.  Townson, ''  it  is  as  pure  as  distilled  water  and  equally 
tasteless.  This  I  assert  as  well  of  that  of  the  toad,  which  I  have  often 
tasted,  as  that  of  frogB."  This  fluid  is  the  liquid  absorbed,  by  the 
skin  of  the  abdomen  principally,  and  for  which  toads  and  frogs  are 
ever  on  the  look-outb  The  dew  on  the  herbage  is  a  frequent  source 
of  this  necessary  supply,  and  in  dry  seasons  toads  will  bury  themselves 
in  moist  sand  or  earth  for  the  purpose  of  sucking  up  through  their 
Bkin  any  aqueous  particles  which  may  be  around  them.  The  fluid 
is  oontaaned  in  a  sac,  generally  consisting  of  two  lobes,  situated  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  under  the  viscera,  and  is  conducted  to 
the  receptacle  by  particular  vessels,  which  are  certainly  not  the  ureters 
or  ttrinaiy  canals  from  the  kidneys:  these  urinary  canals  have  their 
nit  lower  down  in  the  cloaca.  Blumenbach,  and  even  Cuvier,  in  his 
'  Lefons  d' Anatomie  Compar^e,'  considered  this  bilobated  bag  as 
the  urinary  bladder  in  the  frog  and  toad ;  but  Townson  shows  that  it 
has  no  connection  with  the  ureter,  whidt,  as  we  have  seen,  has  its 
posterior  opening  lower  down  in  the  cloaca,  while  these  receptacles 
temunate  in  the  front  of  that  intestine. 

^rstn,  Nervoui  Spsiem,  and  Senta. — The  brain  and  nervous  system 
of  the  Anourotu  Amphibia  are,  as  in  the  Reptiles  generally,  composed  of 
ui  encephalon  consisting  of  a  cerebrum,  cerebellum,  and  medulla 
oblongata;  a  spinal  oord;  and  the  nerves  which  are  given  off 
<nnn  these  sources  to  the  different  organs  of  the  body.  So  far  the 
ajstem  is  modelled  upon  that  of  Mammiferous  Animals  and  Birds, 
but  the  cerebellum  is  proportionally  much  less.  The  Reptiles  have 
also  a  ganglionary  nervous  system,  or  a  great  double  sympathetic 
nerve. 

Touek-^The  naked  skin  and  its  sensibility  to  variations  of  tempe- 
rature would  seem  to  indicate  a  considerable  degree  of  perception,  as 
to  the  physical  and  even  chemical  nature  of  the  bodies  with  which  it 
comes  in  contact  But  touch,  properly  so  called,  can  hardly  exist 
in  a  high  state  of  development  in  the  greater  part  of  the  Anourous 
Ampkihia.  They  have,  indeed,,  no  nails  on  their  toes,  which  are  much 
longer  in  the  frogs  than  in  the  toads ;  and  in  many  of  the  genera  and 
species  the  toea  are  terminated  by  fleshy  appendages,  as  in  Pipa, 
which  has  also  an  elongated  fleshy  muzzle ;  the  Tree-Frogs  (Bpla)  also, 
have  the  extremities  of  their  toes  dilated  into  fleshy  disks,  which,  like 
the  acetabula  of  the  SepiadcB,  adhere  by  their  circumference.  These 
«nable  the  animals  to  walk  in  all  directions  upon  flat  surfoces,  and  to 
adhere  to  them  even  when  the^  are  of  the  smoothest  nature.  The 
Mnse  of  touch  is  probably  more  highly  developed  where  this  organi- 
sation is  manifested. 

Tatte, — Probably  not  at  all  acute.  The  tongue,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
u  organ  for  the  capture  -of  the  prey,  which  is  swallowed  entire 
almost  in  the  same  moment  that  it  is  taken. 

StnelL — ^This  sense  would  seem  to  be  almost  rudimentary  in  the 
A.mphibia.    A  simple  opening  pierced  from  the  end  of  the  muzzle  to 

»AT.  nisT.  Dnr.  vol.  l 


the  f^nt  of  the  palate,  with  a  fleshy  and  concave  membrane  at  its 
external  extremity,  moving  in  unison  with  the  respiratory  action,  is 
strongly  contrasted  with  the  intricate  and  beautifiil  structure  of  the 
nasal  organs  which  are  so  highly  developed  in  the  CamivoroaB 
Mammalia  and  Birds. 

ffearing. — ^There  is  a  considerable  diffsrenoe  in  the  structure  of  the 
organ  of  hearing  among  the  Anovrous  Amph4bia.  The  Pipa,  for 
instance,  hss  a  sort  of  small  valve  upon  the  tympanum,  somewhat 
similar  to  that  possessed  by  the  crocodiles^  and  probably  intended  to 
protect  the  membrane  agiunst  the  pressure  ef  the  water  when  the 
animal  resorts  to  great  depths,  ffyla  and  Mana  have  the  tympanum 
distinctly  manifested  by  the  delicacy  of  its  structure  when  compared 
with  the  other  integuments  of  the  head.  In  the  Toads  the  tym- 
panum is  not  apparent.  Examples  of  the  structure  of  the  ear  may 
be  seen  in  some  of  the  preparations  in  the  museum  of  the  CoU^ge  A 
Surgeons. 

Sight. — ^The  precision  with  which  a  Toad  measures  the  distanoe  of 
an  insect,  and  captures  it  with  its  tongue  the  moment  the  victim  is 
within  reach  of  that  organ,  shows  a  high  and  accurate  development 
of  the  organs  of  sight,  as  applicable  to  short  distances  at  least  The 
pupil  is,  in  general,  round,  but  in  the  Anourous  Amphibia  whose 
habits  are  nocturnal  (the  toad,  for  instance)  it  is  angular  or  linear.  The 
humours  vary  in  their  proportions  in  the  different  genera,  but  the 
crystalline  humour  has  been  noticed  of  greater  density  and  of  a  more 
spherical  figure  in  the  aquatic  species.  The  orbits  are  generally 
incomplete,  and  sometimes  protected,  as  in  CenUophrys,  by  folds  of 
thickened  cuticle. 

Beproduetion, — The  special  reproductive  tissues  of  the  male  in  the 
Anourous  Amphibia  are  situated  in  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  below 
the  kidneys,  and  the  deferent  canals  terminate  in  the  cloaca.  The 
ovaries  in  the  females  are  found  in  the  same  situation  with  the  oor* 
responding  parts  in  the  males,  and  are  of  considerable  volume.  Their 
free  extremity  forms  a  sort  of  trumpet-shaped  opening,  and  the  oviduct 
terminates  in  Ihe  cloaca,  whence  the  egga  are  excluded.  Blumenbaoh 
describes  the  Frogs  of  his  country  as  having  a  lar^  egg*cavity,  divided 
by  an  internal  partition  into  two  parts,  from  which  two  long  convo- 
luted oviducts  arise,  and  terminate  by  open  orifices  at  the  sides  of 
the  heart  The  ovaria,  he  says,  lie  under  the  liver,  so  that  it  is 
difficult  to  conceive  how  the  eggB  get  into  the  above-mentioned 
openings.  The  egg-cavity,  he  adds,  opens  into  the  cloaca^  The  Toadsi, 
according  to  him,  have  not  a  large  egg-cavity;  but  their  oviducts 
terminate  by  a  oommon  tube  in  the  doaciL 

At  the  season  of  reproduction,  besides  the  vocal  manifestations, 
there  are  others  which  visibly  diBtingnish  the  male  in  many  of  the 
Amphibia.  At  each  croak,  the  male  Qreen  Fro|;s  project  from  the 
commissure  of  the  mouth  two  globular  bladders  mto  which  the  air  is 
introduced,  and  the  throat  swells  and  becomes  coloured.  In  the  males 
of  the  Red  Frog  the  thumbs  of  the  anterior  feet  become  oonsiderabW' 
swollen  and  covered  by  a  black  and  rugose  skin  at  this  period. 
The  eggs  are  not  fecundated  until  after  th/sy  have  been  extruded  into 
the  water.  These  eggB  are  enveloped  in  a  sort  of  delicate,  mucous, 
permeable  membrane;  they  are^  when  excluded,  most  frequently 
agglomerated  either  in  glutinous  masses  or  chaplets,  and  increase 
considerably  after  they  are  plunged  in  the  water.  There  are  however 
some  curious  modifications  of  the  disposition  of  the  eggs  in^  certain 
species  of  the  Anourous  Am^ibia.  In  the  Toad,  called  by  Laiurenti 
from  its  habits  Bufo  obsteiricans,  the  male,  for  instance^  alter  the 
exclusion  of  the  eggs,  takej  up  the  chaplets,  and  disposes  them  round 
his  thighs,  something  in  the  form  of  a  figure  of  8.  He  is  then 
said  to  carry  them  about  till  the  eyes  of  the  embryo  become  visible. 
At  the  proper  period  for  hatching,  he  ooiiveys  his  progeny  to  some 
stagnant  piece  of  water,  and  deposits  them,  when  the  eggs  break  and 
the  tadpoles  come  forth  and  swim  about  The  male  Pipa,  or  Surinam 
Toad,  as  soon  as  the  eggs  are  laid,  plaoes  them  on  the  bade  of  the 
female,  and  in  that  situation  they  become  fecundated.  The  female 
[see  figures}  then  takes  to  the  water,  and  the  skin  of  her  back  swells, 
and  forms  cellules,  in  which  the  eggs  are  hatched,  and  where  the 
young  pass  their  tadpole  state,  for  they  do  not  quit  their  domicile 
till  s^r  the  loss  of  their  tail  and  the  development  of  their  legs. 
At  this  period  the  mother  leaves  the  water,  and  returns  to  dry 
land. 

Swaxnmerdam  gives  the  number  of  eggs  in  a  female  frog  as  1400, 
and  M.  de  Montbeillard  counted  1800.  In  these  eggs  tiiere  is  a 
greenish  albumen  which  is  not  easily  coagulable.  The  yolk  or  vitellus 
is  absorbed  by  the»  embryo,  and  an  abdominal  dcatxix  indicates  the 
umbilicus  in  young  individuals.  It  is  not  rare  to  meet  with  double 
germs  in  a  single  egg,  but  most  of  these  prove  abortive,  though  some 
produce  monsters  with  two  heads,  six  legs,  and  two  tails,  as  well  as 
hermaphrodites.  In  our  dimatee,  the  early  part  of  the  spring  is  the 
season  of  mating,  when  the  frogs  and  toads  of  both  sexes  quit  the 
localities  of  their  late  hybernation  and  their  ordinary  haunts,  and 
move  instinctively  to  those  stagnant  waters  whidi  are  proper  for  their 
purpose,  and  where  they  are  then  collected  in  swanna 

The  yoimg  of  the  Amphibia  enter  life  under  an  entirdy  different 
form  from  that  which  they  are  afterwards  to  assume ;  and  undergo, 
like  the  insects,  a  series  of  metamorphoses  or  transformations,  till 
Ihey  arrive  at  their  perfect  state.  In  their  first  stage,  the  young  have 
an  elongated  body,  a  laterally  compressed  tail,  and  external  brauohiss; 


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their  small  mouth  is  fiirniflhed  with  homy  hooks  or  teeth  for  the  separa- 
tion of  vegetable  matter,  and  they  have  a  small  tube  on  the  lower  lip 
by  which  they  attach  themselTes  to  aquatic  plants,  fta  The  extemal 
branohife  next  disappear,  and  become  ooTcred  with  a  membrane, 
being  placed  in  a  sort  of  sac  under  the  throat ;  and  the  animal  then, 
as  we  have  observed  when  treating  of  its  respiration,  breathes  after 
the  manner  of  fishes.  The  head,  which  is  furnished  with  eyes  and 
nostrils,  is  confounded  with  the  large  globular  trunk  distended  with 
the  great  extent  of  the  digestive  canaJ,  and  it  has  a  large  tail  for 
swimming.  In  this  state  it  is  called  in  English  a  TadpoU,  and  in 
French  Titctrd,  from  the  great  apparent  volume  of  the  head.  Soon 
the  posterior  limbs  are  gSradually  put  forth  near,  the  origin  of  the 
tail,  and  are  developed  first ;  the  anterior  feet  then  beg^  to  show 
themselves ;  the  tail  graduidly  becomes  leas  and  less,  short^is,  shrinks, 
and  seems  at  laet  to  be  absorbed ;  the  mouth  widens,  and  loses  its 
homy  processes  or  jaws ;  the  eyes  are  guarded  bv  'eye-hds ;  the  belly 
lengthens  and  diminishes  in  comparative  size ;  the  mteetines  become 
short ;  the  true  lungs  are  developed,  and  the  internal  branchiee  are 
obliterated;  the  circulation  undergoes  an  entire  change;  and  the 
animal,  hitherto  entirely  aquatic  and  herbivorous,  becomes  carnivorous, 
and  for  the  most  part  terrestrial. 

Mr.  Thomas  Wharton  Jones  ('ZooL  Proc.,'  March,  1837)  observes, 
that  when  the  right  gill  of  the  Tadpole  dLra^pears,  it  is  not,  as  is 
usually  supposed,  by  the  closure  of  the  fissure  through  which  it 
protrudes,  but  by  the  extension  of  the  opercular  fold  on  the  right 
side  towards  that  of  the  left,  forming  but  a  single  fissure,  conmion 
to  the  two  branchial  cavities,  through  which  the  left  gill  still  pro- 
trades.  He  also  remarks,  that  conditions  analogous  to  those  widck 
occur  during  several  stages  of  this  process  exist  in  the  branchial 
fissures  of  the  Anguilliform  genera,  Sphagebranehtu,  Monopterut,  and 
Sfffibranchus. 

PartietUair  Excretwns. — The  alleged  venom  of  the  Common  Toad, 
so  long  a  subject  of  popular  belief,  had  been  rejected  by  many  modem 
natundists,  among  whom  Cuvier  may  be  particularly  mentioned.  Dr. 
Davy,  however,  found  the  venomous  matter  to  be  contained  in 
follicles,  chiefly  in  the  true  skin  and  about  the  head  and  shoulders^ 
but  also  distributed  generally  over  the  body  and  on  the  extremitiesi 
Pressure  causes  this  fluid  to  exude  or  even  spirt  out  to  a  considerable 
distance,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  may  be  thus  collected  for  examina- 
tion. Dr.  Davy  found  it  extremely  acrid  when  applied  to  the  tongue, 
resembling  the  extract  of  aconite  in  this  respect ;  and  it  even  acts 
upon  the  hands.  With  a  small  residuum  it  is  soluble  in  water  and  in 
alcohol ;  acetate  of  lead  and  corrosive  sublimate  do  not  affect  the 
BolutionsL  It  remains  acrid  on  solution  in  ammonia;  and  when 
dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  it  imparts  a  purple  colour  to  it  Combined 
with  potaah  or  soda,  it  becomes  less  acrid,  apparently  in  consequence 
of  partial  decomposition.  It  is  highly  inflammable  as  left  by  evapora- 
tion of  its  aqueous  or  alcoholic  solutions ;  and  the  residuum  which 
appears  to  give  it  consistence  seems  to  be  albumen.  More  acrid  than 
the  poison  of  the  most  vei^mous  serpents,  it  produces  no  ill  effect 
when  introduced  into  the  circulation.  A  chicken  inoculated  with  it 
was  not  affected.  Dr.  Davy  coigectures  that  this  '  sweltered  venom'  is 
a  defence  to  the  Toad  from  carnivorous  animals ;  and  we  have  seen  a 
dog,  when  urged  to  attack  one  without  hesitation,  drop  the  animal 
from  its  mouUi  in  a  manner  that  left  no  doubt  that  he  had  felt  the 
effiBcts  of  thifl  excretion,  which  Dr.  Davy  thinks  may  be  auxiliary  in 
decarbonising  the  blood. 

The  Toads  are  also  said  to  possess,  besides,  two  glandular  masses 
(parotidB),  which,  when  pressed,  exude  through  small  holes  a  yellowish 
thick  humour  of  a  musky  odour.  The  other  odours  also  which  many 
species  of  Toads  produce,  it  does  not  seem  yet  ascertained  from  what 
source,  are  very  remarkabla  Roeeel,  author  of  the  beautiful  work  on 
Frogs,  compares  some  of  these  to  the  smell  of  garlic  or  of  volatilised 
Tapour  of  arsenic,  or  even  ignited  gunpowder;  others  again,  he  says, 
produce  an  effect  on  the  nose  like  the  vapour  of  horse-radish,  mustard, 
or  the  leaves  of  monk's-hood  rubbed  between  the  fingtra.  In  one 
instance  only  he  states  it  to  be  probable  that  this  emanation 
comes  from  the  cloaca;  and  such  seems  to  be  the  opinion  of  M. 
Dum^ril,  who  states  that  he  has  been  assured  that,  in  certain 
instances,  the  water  in  which  some  of  these  animals  had  been  placed 
and  there  purposely  irritated  or  excited,  had  become  so  acrid  that  the 
tadpoles  of  frogs  and  saUmanders  introduced  therein  hardly  survived 
the  immersion. 

Oeographieal  Dittnbution  and  ffabitt, — ^Warm  and  temperate  but 
moist  climates  are  the  localities  most  favourable  to  the  Ammroui 
Amphibia.  Extreme  cold  is  fatal  to  them,  and  so  is  extreme  dry 
heat  They  are  unable  to  sustain  violent  and  sudden  changes  of 
temperature.  In  moderately  warm  climates,  and  those  where  there  is 
a  considerable  degree  of  cold  during  a  part  of  the  year,  they  buiy 
themselves,  in  wioter,  either  under  the  earth  or  in  the  mud  at  the 
bottom  of  the  water,  and  there  pass  the  season  of  hybernation 
without  taking  food  or  air,  till  the  ^ring  calls  them  forth ;  when  the 
same  frog  wluch  had  passed  so  many  months  without  respiration 
would  expire  in  a  few  minutes  if  prevented  from  shutting  its  mouth 
and  so  supplying  itself  with  air  by  deglutition.  The  general  habits  of 
the  tribe  may  be  collected  from  the  different  sections  of  this  article, 
and  from  the  descriptions  of  those  forms  in  it  which  may  be  noticed 
in  the  course  of  this  work. 


The  following  cuts  will  convey  to  the  reader  an  idea  of  Mm«  d 
the  leading  forms  among  the  Anourous  Amphibia  in  their  adult  state  :^ 


llarsh  Frog  (Sana  paluttris).    Two-thirds  natonl  size.    Europe 


Ceratophry*  granota.     Two-thirds  natuni  size.    America, 


Common  Toad  (Bttfo  tmlgaru).    Half  natural  sise.     Europe. 
AVith  an  under  view  of  the  foot. 


Bfla  Ueol^r,   Half  natnral  aiae.    Sovth  AiLcrica. 


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Eit(fy$toma  mturmoratum,    India* 


Kpa  morutro9a,  Lanrenti  {Atterodaetylut,  Wagler),  Surinam  Toad,  famale, 
ndoeed.  The  upper  fimire  shows  the  disposition  of  the  cells,  and  their  situation 
in  the  skin,  which  is  turned  back,  and  the  muscle  seen  below.  The  small  sepa- 
r*tc  flcvM  ar*  Tadpoles,  in  different  stages  of  derelopment. 


(hfrhfnehui  hicolor.   South  America. 


Messrs  Dum^ril  and  Bibron  {*  Erp^tologie ')  make  the  Bufoniform 
Family  of  the  Anourout  Amphibia  {Anoures  Phan^roghsaee)  consist  of 
the  foUowing  genera : — 

DendrobateSf  WagL  (ffylapUna,  Boie,  Tschudi)  Example,  Dendro- 
batea  tinetorifu.    (Cayenne.) 

Bhinoderma  Dam.  and  Bibr.  Example,  Rhinoderma  Darvnnit. 
(Chile.) 

Atdopnt,  Dnm.  and  Bibr.    Example,  Atdopui  JUrveieeni.    (Guyana.) 

JSufo,  Lanr.  Example,  Bufo  vulgaris,  the  Common  Toad.  (Europe, 
Japan.)  Messrs.  Dum^ril  and  Bibron  reoord  18  species  of  this 
genus. 

Phryniteuty  Wieg.  (CkawMia,  Tschudi.)  Example,  Phrynitcut 
nigricani,  Wieg.    (Montevideo.) 

BraekycephakUf  Pitzing.  {Bphippiferf  Coot.)  Example,  Brachy* 
eej^udui  ephippiwn,  Fitzing.     (Bradl,  GKiyana.) 

Hylasdaeiyhtty  Tschud.    Example,  Hyladaetyhu  hdleaiut.  (Java.) 

PUdropus,  Dum.  and  Bibr.   Example,  Pleetroput  pictus.  (Manilla.) 

Bngytkma,  Fitzing.  (Mieropa,  Wagl. ;  StenocephahUf  TschudL) 
Example,  Bngyttoma  ovale,  (Surinam,  Buenos  Ayres.) 

Uperodon,  Dum.  and  Bibr.  Example,  Uparodonmarmoratut.  (Monta- 
valle,  Indian  Peninsula.) 

Brevicept,  Merrem  {Engyitoma,  part,  Rtring.;  Syttoma,  Wagl, 
Tschudi).  Example,  Brevioept  gtbhotui.  (South  Africa,  near  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.) 

Bhinophrynmt,  Dum.  and  Bibr.  Example,  Bhinopbrynus  dortalis, 
(Mexico.) 

Oeographical  Distribution  of  the  Family. — ^Messrs.  Dum^ril  and 
Bibron  state  that  the  number  of  species  of  the  Bufoniform  Family 
known  to  them  (1841)  was  85,  a  much  less  number  than  that  of  the 
Raniform  Family,  which  includes  51,  and  less  still  than  the  Hyliform, 
or  Tree-Frog  Family,  which  comprises  64. 

Nevertheless,  observe  these  excellent  herpetologists,  species  of  this 
family  exist  in  all  the  five  parts  of  the  world,  where  they  are 
distributed  in  a  manner  not  less  unequal  than  the  Raniform  and 
Hyliform  species,  and  always  with  a  greater  proportion  for  America, 
whilst  the  smallest  portion  of  them  belong  to  Europe,  which  has  not 
even  a  single  Sf>ecie8  peculiar  to  itself ;  for  the  two  there  found,  the 
Common  Toad  and  the  Green  Toad  {Bufo  viridis,  Laur.),  also  inhabit 
Africa  and  Asia,  which  produce  moreover,  the  one  Bufo  ^antherinua 
and  Brevicepa  gibbosus,  the  other  Ptectropui  pictus,  Engy stoma  omatum, 
JBfyUxda^ylus  baleatus,  Uperodon  marmoratum,  and  Bvfones  cruentatus, 
scaber,  biporeaius,  isos,  and  asper. 

Oceania,  which  after  America  is,  they  observe,  best  furnished  with 
Hyliform  species,  and  where  two  of  the  Raniform  Family  are  found, 
has  not  hitherto  yielded  more  than  a  single  Bufoniform  species,  namely, 
Phryniscus  Australis. 

America,  besides  six  species  of  Bufo,  namely,  strunumis,  mdanotis, 
musicus,  Americanus,  margaritifer,  ctOrbignyi,  and  LeschenauUii, 
furnishes  Dendrobaies  tinctorius,  obscwrus,  and  pictus ;  Bhtnoderma 
Darunnii;  Atdopus  fiavescens  ;  Phryniscus  nigricans ;  Brachycephalus 
ephippium  ;  and  Engystomaia  ovale,  Carolinense,  rugosvm,  and  microps. 

Mr.  Darwin,  spiking  of  the  Fauna  of  the  Galapagos  Archipelago, 
says  :  **  Of  snakes  there  are  several  species,  but  all  hannless.  .Of  toads 
and  frogs  there  are  none.  I  was  surprised  at  this,  considering  •how 
well  the  temperate  and  damp  woods  in  the  elevated  parts  appeared 
adapted  to  their  habits.  It  recalled  to  my  mind  the  singular  stat^ 
ment  made  by  Bory  St.  Vincent,  namely,  that  none  of  this  family  are 
to  be  found  on  the  volcanic  islands  in  the  great  oceans.  There  certainly 
appears  to  be  some  foundation  for  this  observation,  which  is  the  more 
remarkable  when  compared  with  the  case  of  lizards,  which  are  generally 
among  the  earliest  colonists  of  the  smallest  islet  It  may  be  asked 
whether  this  is  not  owing  to  the  different  facilities  of  transport  through 
salt-water  of  the  eggs  of  the  latter,  protected  by  a  calcareous  coat,  and 
of  the  slimy  spawn  of  the  former."     (*  JoumaL') 

URODtLEB,  or  Tailbd  Amphibia. 

Under  this  designation  the  following  genera  are  included : — PUuro- 
dHes,  Walt^. ;  Bradybates,  Tsch. ;  Salamandra,  Linn. ;  Pseudosala- 
mandra,  Tsch. ;  Ambystoma,  Tsch. ;  Onychodactylus,  Tsch. ;  Plethodon, 
Tsch. ;  Cylindrosoma,  Tsch. ;  (Edipus,  Tsch. ;  Salamandrina,  Fitz. ; 
Oeotriton,  Bonap. ;  ffemidacfylium,  Tsch. ;  Cynops,  Tsch. ;  ffyriobius, 
Tsch. ;  Pseudotriion,  Tsch. ;  Triton,  Laur. ;  Xiphonura,  Tsch. ; 
Megalobatrachus,  Tsch.  (Sicboldia,  Bonap.) ;  Andrias  (fossil)  Tsch. ; 
Menopoma,  Harl. ;  Siredon,  Wagl.  (Axolott);  Amphiunui,  Gard.; 
MenAranchuSf  Harl ;  Hypockton,  Men*.  {Proteus) ;  Siren ;  and  many 
others. 

Skeleton. — The  skull  of  the  Terrestrial  Salamander  {Lacerta  Sala- 
mandra, Linn. ;  Salamandra  terrestris,  Aldr.  and  Ray)  is  well  described 
by  Cuvier  as  being  nearly  cylindrical,  widened  in  front  in  order  to 
form  the  semicircular  face,  and  behind  for  the  two  crucial  branches 
resembling  those  of  the  frogs,  and  containing  the  internal  ears.  But 
though  the  composition  of  Uie  head  resembles  that  of  the  frogs  in  the 
back  and  under  parts,  it  differs  remarkably  in  other  parts  :  there  is 
no  girdling  bone  {os  en  ecinture),  and  the  only  representation  of  the 
ethmoid  bone  appears  in  a  membranous  state. 

Above,  the  cranium  is  divided  nearly  equally  between  the  two  frontal 
and  the  two  parietal  bones.  The  anterior  part  of  the  frontal  bones  is 
articulated  forwards  with  the  bones  of  the  nose,  and,  laterally,  with 


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the  anterior  fronUl  bonee.  The  apophyiea  liamg  ftom  the  inter- 
maxillary bones  are  yeir  lai^  which  pUcet  the  external  oflseouB 
nostrilB  Tery  far  apart.  The  nasal  bone  ia  placed  on  the  upper  part 
of  each  of  them,  between  the  intermaTillary,  the  frontal^  the  anterior 
frontal,  and  the  maxillary  bones.  The  anterior  frontal  bone  occupies 
the  cheek  in  front  of  the  anterior  angle  of  the  orbit,  but  does  not 
descend  into  the  cavity,  the  anterior  wall  of  which  is  simply  mem- 
branous Cuvier  belicTed  that  he  saw  a  very  small  lachrymid  bone  at 
the  external  angle  of  the  anterior  frontal  bone.  The  dental  part  of 
the  upper  maxillary  bone  is  carried  backwards  as  usual,  but  without 
forming  a  junction  with  either  the  pterygoid  or  jugal  bones.  Cuvier 
found  only  two  occipital  bones,  as  in  the  other  Batrachians,  and  each 
of  them  Was  intimately  united  vrith  a  part  analogous  to  the  ospetrosum 
(rocAer).  A  great  round  hole  serves  for  the  en^  to  the  vestibule,  and 
consequently  to  the  fenestra  ovalis.  In  the  living  animal  it  is  closed 
by  a  cartilaginous  plate,  vdthont  any  stem,  and  entirely  hidden  under 
the  muadea.  To  this  bone,  which  occupies  the  place  of  both  the  occi- 
pital, lateral,  and  petrous  bones,  are  attached  thne  others,  the  lower  of 
which  (the  pterygoid),  vrith  its  triangular  figure,  brings  to  the  mind 
of  the  observer  the  three  branches  of  which  it  is  form^  in  the  frogs. 
Its  anterior  angle,  as  has  been  stated,  does  not  reach  the  maxillary 
bone,  and  ia  only  connected  to  it  by  a  ligament ;  neither  does  the 
intenial  angle  reach  the  sphenoid  bone:  the  external  angle  exists 
under  the  second  of  the  three  bones  here  noticed,  namely,  the  inter- 
mediate bone— that  to  which  belongs  tiie  facet  for  the  articulation  of 
the  jaw.  This  bone,  Cuvier  remarks,  is  very  difficult  to  define ;  and 
he  further  says  that  he  shall  perhaps  be  considered  very  rash  if  he 
names  it  the  jugal  bone,  for,  Ur  from  being  placed  horizontally,  and 
going  forwards  to  join  the  maxillary,  it  lies  transversely  on  the 
posterior  border  of  the  pterygoid  bone;  nevertheless,  there  is  a 
ligament  which  unites  it  to  the  posterior  point  of  the  maxillary  bone. 
The  third  and  upper  of  these  bones  lies  upon  the  preceding,  and  in 
the  same  direotu>n;  it  is  oblong  and  flat,  and  is  attached  by  its 
internal  extremity  upon  the  lateral  occipital  bone,  without  readiing 
to  the  parietal.  Supposing  the  jugal  bone  to  be  well  named,  this 
would  be  the  tympanic  bone ;  and,  in  fact,  if  the  little  plate  which 
covers  the  fenestra  ovalis  had  a  handle  (manehe),  it  would  pass  behind 
the  bone  of  which  we  speak,  as  in  the  frogs  it  passes  behind  the 
tympanic  bone. 

Below  there  is  only  a  single  sphenoid  bone,  which  is  oblong.  Two 
laige  triangular  bones,  which  are  manifestly  analogous  to  those  named 
vomers  by  Cuvier  in  the  frogs,  form  the  flooring  of  i^e  nostrils  below, 
and  give  off  each  a  slender  apophysis,  which  extends  backwards  under 
the  sphenoid  parallel  to  its  correspondent.  It  is  to  these  hones  and 
to  their  apophyses  that  the  two  longitudinal  rows  of  the  palatal  teeth 
of  the  Salamanders  adhere.  Between  the  anterior  part  of  these  bones, 
behind  the  intermaxillaries^  is  a  large  oval  space,  which  is  filled  by 
the  membrane  of  the  palate  only;  their  posterior  and  dentary 
apophysis  extends  nearly  as  far  backwards  as  the  sphenoid  bone. 
Perhaps,  observes  Cuvier,  it  is  divided  at  certain  periods  into  two  by 
a  suture,  and  a  palatine  bone  may  then  be  distinguished,  but  he  had 
not  been  able  to  perceive  one.  There  is  in  the  orbit,  at  its  anterior 
wall,  a  great  membranous  space  between  the  maxillary  bone,  the 
anterior  frontal,  and  the  vomer ;  and  it  is  at  the  bottom  of  this  space, 
and  in^  a  notch  of  the  vomer,  that  the  internal  nostril  is  pieroMi  on 
each  side.  The  bottom  of  the  orbit,  on  the  side  of  tiie  cranium, 
between  the  frontal  and  parietal  bones  on  one  side,  and  the  vomer  and 
sphenoidal  bones  on  the  other,  is  occupied  by  an  oblong  bone  in  which 
the  optic  hole  is  pierced,  and  which  can  only  answer  to  the  orbital 
wing  of  the  sphenoidal  bone.  It  is  this  part  which  is  membranous 
in  the  frogs,  anid  has  no  existence  in  the  serpents,  in  which  the  parietal 
and  frontal  bones  each  nipply  it  by  halves ;  here  it  is  elevated  to  the 
state  of  a  particular  bone.  OAie  two  occipital  condyles  are  very  much 
separated  from  each  other,  and  placed  at  the  two  sides  of  the  occipital 
hole. 

The  cranium  of  the  European  Aquatic  Salamanders  differs  in  general 
from  that  of  the  Terrestrial  in  having  the  entire  head  more  oblong, 
(he  external  nostrils  more  approximated,  the  space  between  the 
vomers  a  simple  small  hole^  thepterygoid  bone  a  mere  plate,  wide 
behind  and  pointed  before,  ko.    They  auo  differ  among  themselves. 

The  OS  hyoldes  is  subject  to  changes  in  the  Salamanders,  as  in  the 
firo^  In  its  larva  state  it  nas  two  hyoidian  branches  springing  from  the 
occipital  bones,  uniting  forwards  under  the  lower  jaw,  and  a  cartila- 
ginous branchial  apparatus  suspended  at  the  point  of  union  of  those 
branches,  and  supporting  four  arches  on  each  side,  the  first  of  which  is 
attached  to  an  intermediate  stem,  the  three  following  to  a  second  two- 
jointed  stem,  and  these  two  pairs  of  stems  to  an  unequal  branch,  as  is 
more  clearly  manifested  in  the  AxclotL  The  adult  Aquatic  Salamanders 
preserve  in  the  bony  state  the  branches  which  still  are  attached  below 
the  fenestra  ovalis,  and  terminate  forward  by  a  truncation  under  Uie 
middle  of  the  lower  jaw ;  but  the  anterior  articulation  of  these  branches 
is  now  become  membranous.  The  unequal  stem,  in  the  bony  state, 
supports  on  each  side  an  osseous  branch  consisting  of  two  joints^ 
termiaated  by  a  cartilaginous  point,  and  moreover,  internally,  another 
branch  which  is  simple  and  reduced  to  a  filament,  which  goes  from  the 
unequal  stem  to  the  second  articulation  of  the  external  branch.  In 
the  Terrestrial  Salamander,  which  can  only  pa^o  &  ▼oiy  short  time  in 
the  larva  state,  all  remains  cartilaginous.    The  two  suspensive  branches 


or  anterior  horns  are  delicate  and  flat,  and  do  not  join  the  cnmhun ; 
and  the  unequal  stem  with  its  two  branches  soldered  on  each  tide  bv 
their  two  ends,  forms  only  a  sin^^e  chevron-shaped  cartilage,  each  branci 
of  which  is  pierced  with  a  considerable  gap.    This  remainder  or  vestige 
of  the  branobial  apparatus  does  not  prevent  the  co-existence  of  a  laiyiiz 
and  the  rudiment  of  a  sternum ;  both  indeed  weak  and  membranous 
rather  than  cartilaginous.    The  shoulder  of  the  Salamander  is  very 
curious  on  account  of  the  close  junction  of  its  three  bones  into  a  single 
one,  which  has  the  glenoid  fosset  at  its  anterior  edge,  sends  towacds  the 
spine  a  square  lobe  slightiy  enlaiged  above,  which  is  the  omoplate,  and 
towards  the  breast  a  rounded  disk,  slightiy  lobated,  which  is  oompoeed 
of  the  clavicle  and  coracoid  bone,  where  a  suture  which  qpparates  them 
may  for  a  long  time  be  observed,  and  where  there  -always  remaina  a 
small  hole.    The  omoplate  has  its  spinal  edge  augmented  by  a  cartila- 
ginous prolongation.    The  deido-coraoold  is  also  surrounded  with  a 
great  cartilaginous  blade  in  form  of  a  crescent,  which  crosses  upon  its 
congener  under  the  breast;  for  the  only  vestige  of  a  sternum  remaining 
is  a  cartilaginous  blade  placed  behind  the  two  preceding,  and  vhich 
represents  the  xipho'id.    The  atlas  of  the  Salamander  is  articulated 
with  the  head  by  two  concave  facets,  and  with  the  second  vertebia  by 
the  face  of  its  body,  which  is  also  concave ;  for,  contrary  to  the  case 
of  the  frogs  and  lisards,  all  the  anterior  faces  of  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebns  are  convex  in  the  Salamanders,  and  all  the  posterior  faoea 
concave;  the  upper  part  is  flat  The  articular  apophyses  are  horiiontid, 
and  united  on  each  side  by  a  crest,  which,  Joined  to  tiiat  of  the  other 
side,  gives  to  the  vertebra  a  sort  of  roof  which  is  rectangular,  bat  with 
its  lateral  borders  a  little  re-entering.  The  posterior  parts  of  a  vertehn 
lie  on  the  anterior  parts  of  that  which  follows  it    in  lieu  of  spinoui 
apophyses,  there  is  only  a  slight  appearance  of  a  longitudinal  ridge. 
The  body  of  the  vertebra,  which  is  cylindrical  and  narrowed  in  ita 
middle,  adheres  under  the  roof  above  noticed.  The  transverse  apophyaea 
also  adhere  under  the  lateral  crests,  are  directed  slightiy  backwuda, 
and  divided  by  a  fiirrow  on  each  of  their  faces,  so  that  their  extoemity 
has  as  it  were  two  tubercles  for  carrying  those  into  which  the  base  of 
the  small  rib  is  divided.  These  small  rilM  adjoin  all  the  cervical,  doisal, 
and  lumbar  vertebne,  except  the  atlas,  but  are  (mly  two  or  tluee  linea  in 
length,  and  are  fiar  frx>m  surrounding  tiie  trunk  or  reaching  the  stenram. 
Among  the  Aquatic  Salamanders,  the  Triton  Ganeri  hastfie  crest  of  the 
dorsal  vertebns  more  elevated  and  sharp  than  the  Terrestrial  Salamander; 
this  crest  is  also  rather  more  developed  in  Triton  alpegtru,  and  even  in 
Triion  jmnctatua  and  Triton  paUnaitu  ;  but  what,  adds  Cuvier,  is  veiy 
singular,  it  is  precisely  in  Tritan  cruta^iu  that  this  crest  is  most  e&ced, 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  vertebra  neariy  plain.    The  vertebrae  of  the 
tail  (25  or  26  in  number)  in  the  Terresteial  Salamander  have  crests  and 
transverse  apophyses  like  those  of  the  back ;  they  become  smaller  and 
smaller,  and,  counting  from  the  third  caudal,  there  is  under  the  body 
a  transverae  blade  directed  obliquely  backwards,  pierced  with  a  hole  at 
its  base,  which  represents  the  chevron-bones  of  the  lizards  and  the 
other  long-tailed  genera.    Cuvier  counted  88  caudal  vertebne  in  the 
Trit<m  alpettrU  and  Triton  eristattu,  34  in  Triton  Oemeri,  and  86  in 
Triton  punctatw.    They  form,  he  observes,  a  tail  flattened  laterally,  in 
consequence  of  the  elevation  of  their  upper  and  lower  cresta    The 
bones  of  the  limbs  are,  says  Cuvier  in  continuation,  proportioned  to 
the  smallnesB  of  the  members  themselves.    The  humerus  has,  above, 
a  round  head ;  a  littie  lower,  forwards,  there  is  a  compressed  and  obtoee 
tuberosity;  and  backwards,  a  littie  lower  still,  another  venr  pointed 
one.    Its  lower  head  is  flattened  from  before  backwards,  and  widened 
to  suit  the  condyles,  between  which  is  an  articular  head,  rounded  for 
the  fore-arm,  and  above,  forwards,  a  small  fosset    The  Aquatic  Sala- 
mander has  this  bone  more  widened  above  than  the  Terrestrial  spedeib 
The  fore-arm  is  composed  of  two  separate  bones.    The  radius  baa  a 
round  upper  head,  a  narrowed  body,  and  a  compressed  and  widened 
lower  head.    The  cubit  is  more  equal  in  sise,  and  its  olecranon  is  vexr 
short  and  rounded.     The  carpus  has  5  bones  and  2  cartilages  which 
occupy  the  place  of  bones,  7  pieces  in  all:  the  whole  of  these  are 
flat,  angular,  disposed  in  a  pavement-like  order,  and  in  some  respecta 
announce  the  structure  to  be  seen  in  the  letk^otaurut.    In  the  first 
rank  are  two,  of  which  the  smallest  or  radial  is  csrtilaginous.    The 
greatest  belongs  to  the  radius  and  ulna;  between  them  on  the  second 
rank  is  a  single  one ;  then  come,  on  the  third  rank,  four  for  the  meta- 
carpals.   The  first  remains  cartilaginous.    The  metacaipals  ai«  short, 
flat,  and  naxrowad  in  their  middle.    Cuvier  found  only  one  r^*^*^"* 
ossified  on  the  first  finger,  two  on  the  second  and  fourth,  and  tiiree  on 
the  third.    The  variety  of  points  by  which  the  pelvis  is  attached  to 
the  Bpii^e  u,  he  remarks,  a  very  singular  thing.    He  had  individuals  of 
the  Terrestrial  Salamander  in  which  it  was  suspended  from  the  15th 
vertebra  (counting  in  the  atias),  and  others  in  which  it  was  suspended 
from  the  16th ;  and  he  refers  to  a  specimen  (species  undetermined) 
seen  by  M.  Schultze,  'in  which  it  was  suspended  on  one  side  to  the 
16th  vertebra,  and  on  the  other  to  the  17th.    With  regard  to  the 
Aquatic  Salamanders,  Cuvier  found  it  oonstantiy  suspended  to  the  14th 
in  Triton  paimatut  and  Triton  alputrit,  to  the  15th  in  Trittm  pmetatui 
and  TSritcn  Oetneri,  and  to  the  17th  or  18th  in  Triton  erittaint.    He  had 
an  individual  of  tiie  last-named  spedes,  in  which  it  was  suspended  on 
one  side  to  the  17th  vertebra,  and  on  the  otiier  to  the  18th.    The 
pelvis  itself  is  quite  differentiy  formed  horn  that  of  the  froga    The 
vertebra  which  supports  it  is  like  those  which  precede  it,  and  has,  like 
them,  on  each  side  a  small  rib,  at  the  extremity  of  which  the  os  ilii  is 


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AMPHIBIA. 


170 


Kupended  by  a  ligament    It  is  cylindrioal,  and  widens  a  little  on 
arriTing  at  the  cotyloid  cavity.    The  pubis  and  ischium  are  soldered 


together,  and  form,  with  those  of  the  other  side,  from  wliich  they  are 
distinct,  a  laige  disk,  concave  above^  flat  below,  cut  square  in  fix>nt 
and  at  the  anterior  puts  of  the  sides,  notched  laterally  and  narrowed 
behind  the  cotyloid  fosssB,  and  terminated  backwards  in  a  coneave  arch. 


Forehand  of  Sieboldta. 


Skull  of  Jf 


_m  below. 


4 


8k«]etoD  of  TerrMtrial  laUmsnder.  a.  Skull  in  profils ;  h,  from  below. 

The  pubis  remains  cartilaginous  much  longer  than  the  js^^^wn,  ?dth 
whidti  it  is  united  by  a  suture  which  makes  a  cross  with  the  symphysis, 
And  in  front  of  this  svmphysiB  is  a  cartilage  in  the  form  of  a  T  in  the 
muscles,  which  recalls  to  the  observer  ttie  marsupial  bonsa  of  the 


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AMPHIBIA. 


m 


Opoasums.  The  upper  head  of  the  femur  ia  oval ;  sb  the  internal  fiaoe 
of  the  neck,  there  is  a  very  pointed  apophysifl,  occupying  the  place  of 
a  trochanter :  the  lower  head  is  widened  and  flattened  from  before 
backwarda.  There  are  two  bones  in  the  leg.  The  tibia,  which  ia  very 
Btout  upwards,  haa  in  front  a  ridge,  which  detaches  itself  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  bone  in  the  form  of  a  slender  stem,  resembling  the 
vestige  of  a  fibula  discernible  in  various  Rodents,  but  this  does  not 
prevent  the  development  of  a  true  fibula  as  large  as  the  tibia,  and 
which  descends  a  littie  lower.  There  are  9  tarsal  bones,  all  flat  and 
disposed  in  a  pavement-like  order:  the  lower  rank  has  5  for  the 
five  metatarsal  bones ;  the  four  others  consist  of  one  small  (tiie  tibial) 
at  the  internal  border,  one  great  (the  fibular)  at  the  external  border, 
an  oblong  one  between  them,  placed  obliquely  and  answering  to  the 
tibia  and  fibula,  and  one  square  in  the  middle  of  all  the  others. 
Cuvier  found  but  one  phalanx  on  the  first  finger,  two  on  the  second, 
three  on  t^e  third  and  fourth,  and  two  on  the  last 

Reproduction  of  Parts. — The  power  of  reproducing  excised  or 
injurod  parts  has  been  observed  in  no  family  among  the  reptiles 
more  carefully  than  in  the  Tailed  Amphibia.    Plateretti,  Spallanzani, 


Murray,  and  others  have  recorded  their  observations  with  respect  to 
this  power;  and  Bonnet  particularly  has  given  most  accurate  descrip- 
tions and  figures  of  his  careful  experiments.  The  arms  or  thighs  of 
Tritons  amputated  sometimes  on  one  side^  sometimes  on  the  other,  or 
both  on  the  same  side,  were  oonstantiy  reproduced,  and  the  tOes  were 
again  gradually  formed  and  endowed  with  motion.  The  tail,  too,  cut 
off  at  various  points,  was  renewed,  pushing  out  by  littie  and  littie  from 
the  amputated  base.  In  one  case  tne  same  limb  was  reproduced  four 
times  consecutively  in  the  same  animal  Bonnet  found  that  this 
reproduction  was  favoured  by  heat  and  retarded  by  cold.  He 
observed  that  the  parts  of  excised  limbe  were  often  reproduced 
with  remarkable  alterations,  either  of  defect  or  excess ;  the  deficiency 
or  exuberance  of  certain  parts  taking  upon  themselveB  very  singular 
forms.  In  many*  species  of  Tritons  the  long  bones  of  the  limbs 
detached  from  their  principal  articulation,  and  remaining  suspended 
by  some  points  which  still  caused  them  to  adhere  to  the  flesn,  were 
found  completely  consolidated  in  a  few  days.  The  most  extraor- 
dinary observation  was  that  consequent  on  the  total  extirpation  of  the 
eye,  which  was  entirely  reproduced  and  perfectiy  oiganised  at  the  end 
of.  a  year.  Dufay  has  recorded  their  faculty  of  remaining  frozen  up 
in  ice  for  a  long  period  without  perishing. 

Their  tenaci^  of  life  was  strongly  shown  in  an  experiment  made  by 
M.  DumdriL  Three-fourths  of  the  head  of  a  Triton  marmoratue  was 
removed  with  a  pair  of  scissors.  The  mutilated  animal  was  placed  by 
itsedf  at  the  bottom  of  a  large  glass  vessel  in  fresh  water  about  half  an 
inch  deep,  and  which  was  careAilly  renewed  at  least  once  a^y.  The 
animal,  although  deprived  of  the  fbur  principal  senses,  without  nostrils, 
without  cr^ee  and  ears,  and  without  a  tongue,  continued  to  live  and  move 
slowly.  Its  only  commimication  with  externalB  was  carried  on  by  touch 
alone.  M.  Dum^ril  relates  that  it  was  evidentiy  conscious  of  existence, 
and  walked  slowly  and  cautiously.  It  raised  the  stomp  of  its  neck 
towards  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  during  the  first  days  was  seen 
making  efforts  to  breathe.  In  less  than  three  months  reproduction 
and  cicatrisation  had  so  done  their  work  that  there  remained  no 
aperture  for  the  lungs,  or  for  food.  At  the  end  of  three  months,  M. 
Dumdril  was  compelled  to  leave  it  to  the  care  of  another  during  an 
absence,  and  it  died,  in  all  probability,  as  he  observes,  from  want  of 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  person  who  undertook  the  care  of  it. 
This  specimen  is  now  preserved  in  the  Paris  Museum,  and  exhibits,  as 
M.  Dum^ril  remarks,  the  singular  fact  of  an  animal  having  lived  without 
a  head ;  and  a  proof  of  the  possibility  and  neceesily,  even  in  the  Batra- 
chians,  of  a  sort  of  re^iration  by  means  of  the  sBn.  In  this  animal 
M.  Dum^ril  states  that  respiration  was  certainly  thus  carried  on  for 
three  months,  ^though  the  stump  of  the  amputated  part  presented  a 
cicatrice,  the  smooth  surface  of  which  proved,  even  when  examined 

by  a  magnifying  glass,  that 
there  was  a  complete  obtura- 
tion of  the  oesophagus  and 
larynx. 

Dr.  Von  Siebold  has  also 
recorded  his  observations  on 
the  reproduction  of  wounded 
^  lost  parts  in  the  TViton  ni^er. 
The  following  are  some  of 
the  more  remarkable  genera 
belonging  to  the  Tadled  Am- 
phibia: — 

ProUmopeie. 
Head  fiat»  broad;  two  con- 
centric rows  of  teeth  (the  inner 
row  palatine)  in  the  upper  jaw, 
and  a  single  row  only  in  the 
lower  jaw;  tongue  tree  in 
frx>nt;  operculum  situated 
about  half  way  between  the 
posterior  edge  of  the  rictua  of 
the  mouth  and  the  fore-leg; 
three  opercular  oartilagea»  between  the  posterior,  two  of  which  form 
tha  aperture;  feet  fimbriated  on  thdr  outer  edge;  toes  four  on  the 


Head  of  Proionepeit,  seen  from  above. 


anterior  feet,  and  five  on  the  posterior ;  of  the  latter  the  fourth  aad 
fifth  are  webbed  and  without  daws. 

This  is  the  Ahranchut  *  and  Menopoma  of  Harlan ;  Protonopeu  of 
Barton ;  Cryptobranchut  of  Leukardt  and  Fitzinger ;  Salamandropi  of 
Wagler. 

There  are  two  species  known,  the  Protonopeii  horrida  and  P.  fuaea. 
The  first  species  is  well  known.  Its  lengtii  is  about  two  feet ;  head 
broad  and  flattened;  mouth  wide;  nostrils  projecting;  body  thick 
and  stout ;  tail  compressed  vertically,  and  nearly  as  long  as  the  body ; 
legs  stout  and  short;  colour  slaty  with  dark  spots  on  the  body;  a 
dark  line  runs  through  the  eyes. 

This  is  the  Bellbender,  Mvd  Devil,  Ground  Puppff,  and  Toung  A  tUgator 
of  the  Anglo-Americans ;  and  FteeK-Salamander  of  the  Germans. 

It  inhabits  the  Ohio  and  Alleghany  rivers. 

This  Batrachian  is  carnivorous  and  very  voracious ;  nothing  that  it 
can  devour  is  spared  by  it.  The  fishermen  dread  it  very  much,  and 
believe  it  to  be  poisonous.  Indeed  the  appearance  of  the  animal  ia 
altogether  uncouth  and  forbidding. 

Michaux  appears  to  have  been  the  first  traveller  who  discovered 
and  noticed  the  Protonopsit,  He  states  that  in  the  torrents  of  the 
Alleghanies  is  found  a  species  of  Salamander,  called  by  the  inhabitants 
'  Alligator  of  the  Mountains,'  and  that  there  are  some  which  are  two 
feet  in  length. 

There  is  a  well-preserved  skeleton  of  Pr§tonoptis  horrida  in  the 
museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  London. 


Protonoptis  AlleghtmimuiM, 
a.  Month  open,  fbpwing  the  arrangement  of  the  teeth. 

Sieholdia, 

Head  laige,  trigono-ovate ;  rostrum  produced,  vertex  convex; 
forehead  concave;  noetrils,  in  the  anterior  margin  of  the  maxilla, 
approximate;  eyes  very  small,  hardly  distinguishable;  no  parotida; 
tongue  not  distinct ;  palatine  teeth  numerous ;  a  crest  on  the  anterior 
margin  of  the  vomers;  posterior  feet  with  cutaneous  appendages ;  toes 
small,  free,  with  depressed  cutaneous  lateral  lobes ;  tail  rather  round 
at  the  base,  veiy  much  depressed  in  the  middle  and  behind,  head 
thickly  covered  with  glands ;  body  depressed,  with  transverse  foldj 
and  a  long  thick  cutaneous  appendage  on  each  side. 

Figures  of  the  skuU,  showing  the  teetii,  of  the  skeleton  of  the  fore- 
hand, and  of  some  of  the  vertebrse,  are  given  on  the  preoeding  page. 

This*  is  tfie  genus  Megalobairachus  of  Tschudi ;  but  the  Prince  of 
Canine's  name,  Sieboldiaf  has  the  right  of  priority.  The  genus  belongs 
to  the  sub-family  Andriadina  of  the  Prince's  SalamandricUe, 

SieboUUa  maxima  is  the  Salamandria  m^ixima  of  Schlegel  ('Fauna 
Japon.,'  viL,  tab.  vi,  vii,  viiL),  and  was  found  by  Dr.  Von  Siebold  in 
a  lake  on  a  basaltic  mountain  in  Japan.  He  brought  away  a  male  and 
a  female ;  but  the  former  devoured  the  latter  during  the  passage.  The 
gill-aperture  slit  always  remains  open  in  ProUmoptiMy  but  in  this  great 
newt  the  slits  are  closed.  This  animal  is  the  nearest  living  analogue  of 
Andriae  Scheuchaeri,  the  celebrated  Homo  DUvmi  Tatit  of  Soheuchxer. 
Triton. 

Head  rounded,  convex;  vertex  somewhat  flattened;  tongue  m»^ 
semi-globular,  sliightiy  free  at  each  side,  free  and  pointed  behind; 
palatine  teeth  numerous,  disposed  in  two  rows;  body  grannlons; 
no  parotids ;  tail  compressed,  as  long  as  the  body ;  glsmdular  portf 
behmd  and  over  the  eves,  and  a  longitudinal  row  of  distant  and 
similar  pores  along  each  side.  Toes  four  on  the  anterior  and  five  on 
the  posterior  feet    Crests  of  the  back  and  tail  (in  the  male)  separate. 

Example,  Triton  crietatui. 

The  colour  is  blackish,  orange-coloured  beneath,  sprinkled  with 
round  black  spots ;  sides  dotted  with  white ;  upper  lip  oveihangiQg 
the  lower,  but  not  having  a  distinct  lobe ;  body  waiiy  or  ^^'^''^' 
lated ;  tail  rather  smooth,  compressed,  sharp,  trenchant  above  and 
below.    licngth  six  inoh'M«T 

Male  (in  the;q>ring)  with  an  acate  toothed  dorsaT  OMst;  tail  with 

•  Afterwards  changed  to  Menopoma  lij  Dr.  Harlan,  Abrattehm  havlnff  bees 
pre-ooonpisd  bj  Van  Haaaelt  to  designate  a  ganiu  of  mnllniks. 


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a  longitadina]  white  siripe.  In  winter  without  a  crest^  and  much 
reaemhling  the  female. 

FemaiU, — No  crest ;  lower  edge  of  the  tail  orange. 

Ywmg. — Olive-brown  with  a  Bolphureons  dorsal  line;  abdomen 
orange,  spotted  with  black ;  lower  edge  of  the  tail  orange-red. 

This  is  the  Laceria  palutiris  of  Linnsems;  Salamandra  aqtuUica 
of  Bay;  Salamandra  crutata  of  Schneider,  Daudin,  kc;  Triton 
peUuMtris  of  Fleming ;  Balamand/ra  platyeauda  of  Rusconi ;  Molge  of 
Merrett ;  Molffe  paluMtria  of  Merrem ;  Grotte  Weuier-Salamander  and 
Sufmrpf-Salamander  of  Bechstein ;  Wcirty  Lizard  of  Pennant ;  Common 
Warty  Newt  and  Cfreat  Water-NwBt  of  the  British. 

It  is  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  is  found  in  western 
and  northern  Asia. 

H'abiU. — The  ponds  and  ditches  of  this  country  abound  with  this 
tiie  laifpest  Briti^  Newt,  and  a  most  voracious  animal  it  is.    Aquatic 


Triton  erUtatw,  male,  in  the  spring  season,  seen  from  above. 


Triton  eristatns,  female,  in  the  act  of  oompreMing  a  turned  leaf  upon  her 
included  egg.  The  leaves  folded  back  represent  those  in  which  eggs  have 
already  been  thus  laid.     (RusconL) 

insects,  and  indeed  any  small  living  animals  which  come  in  its  way, 
are  unsparingly  devoured.  It  is  a  great  destroyer  of  tadpoles,  and 
the  smafier  Water-Newt  (Lissotritonpunctatvs)  frequently  fieUls  a  victim 
to  its  ferocity  and  voracity.  Mr.  Bdl  has  taken  them  more  than  once 
in  the  act  of  swallowing  an  individual  of  the  smaller  species,  which 


was  BO  large  as  to  occasion  great  diffioidty  and  delay  in  the  act  of 
deglutition.  In  swimming,  the  legs  are  turned  backwards  to  lessen 
resistance,  and  the  animal  is  propelled  principally  by  the  taiL  Every 
one  has  observed  the  Newts,  or  Efts,  as  they  are  called  in  many  places, 
floating  motionless  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  with  their  limbs 
extended  at  right  angles  with  the  body,  and  their  toes  spread  out 
Their  progression  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  on  land,  is  per* 
formed  creepingly  with  their  small  and  weak  feet 

Generation. — For  our  knowledge  of  this  subject  we  are  chiefly 
indebted  to  the  observations  of  Rusconi  Mr.  Bell,  in  his  work  on 
'British  Reptiles,'  has  confirmed  most  of  Rusconi's  observations,  and 
also  added  some  of  his  own. 

Rusconi  enters  into  minute  details  of  the  actions  of  the  male  from  the 
time  of  its  first  pursuit  of  the  female  to  the  period  of  fecundation,  for 
which  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  work  itself.  {*  Amours  des  Salamandres 
Aquatiques,  et  Developement  du  T6tard  de  ces  Salamandres  depnis 
rCEuf  jusqu*  It  TAnimal  Parfait,'  Milan,  1821,)  Prior  to  the  time  of 
depositing  her  eggs,  the  female  remains  immoveable ;  at  last  she  moves, 
and  slowly  goes  in  search  of  a  plant  proper  for  receiving  her  < 


chooeong  almost  always,  when  present,  the  Polyffoman  Persicaria,  She 
first  approaches  her  head  to  the  edges  of  a  1^,  and  turns  it  with  her 
snout  m  such  a  way  that  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf,  which  was  towards 
the  bottom,  is  turned  towards  her  breast :  then  with  her  fore-paws  she 
passes  the  turned  leaf  beneath  her  belly,  seises  it  with  her  hind-pavrs, 
and  conducts  it  beneath  the  vent,  folding  it  at  the  same  time,  and 
forming  with  it  an  angle  the  opening  of  which  is  directed  towards  the 
tail  The  egg  in  escaping  fh>m  the  vent  would  thus  pass  through  the 
middle  of  the  angle  formed  by  the  leaf,  but  the  salamander  stops  it 
in  its  fall  by  her  hind-feet,  shuts  up  this  angle  with  them,  and  thus 
forms  in  the  leaf  a  fold  in  which  the  egg  is  held.  Still  on  the  removal 
of  the  feet  the  egg  would  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  water;  but  the 
careful  parent,  before  she  quits  the  leaf,  folds  it  so  firmly  with  her 
hind-feet  that  the  gluten  with  which  the  envelope  of  the  egg  is 
surrounded  spreads  from  the  pressure  on  the  two  internal  surfiicee  of 
the  leaf,  and  prevents  the  folds  from  opening.  *  When  several  eggs 
have  been  laid  in  this  manner,  in  different  leaves,  the  female  remains 
quiet  until  another  male  comes  to  caress  her.  Rusconi  did  not 
ascertain  how  long  the  period  of  laying  continued ;  but  he  found  eggs 
OS  early  as  the  middle  of  April  and  as  late  as  the  middle  of  July. 

The  following  figures,  given  by  the  same  author,  exhibit  the  several 
stages  of  the  evolution  of  the  egg  which  was  kept  on  its  proper  leaf : 
these  stages  are  denoted  }9j  the  dates  of  the  days  on  which  the 
drawings  were  made.  Thus,  the  figure  marked  28rd  April  shows  the 
egg  of  its  natural  size,  and  the  figure  below  it  the  same  magnified. 

April  23.      April  26.      AprU  28.        April  30. 


May  2. 


Mays. 


0  "**y*0  May  5.0 


99 


The  temperature  of  the  water  during  the  period  of  Rusconi's  obser- 
vations varied  from  22^  to  27**  Centigrade  (71'6-  to  80*6**  Fahr.)  The 
globule  in  the  centre  of  the  ovum  is  white  with  a  yellow  tint,  and  is 
environed  with  a  glairy  matter,  to  which  it  is  not  attached,  so  that  it 
can  move  freely  in  every  direction.  Its  envelope  is  membranous,  of 
glassy  transparence,  and  covered  with  a  very  clear  viscid  matter :  the 
specMc  gravity  of  this  matter  appears  to  be  less  than  thai  of  the 
globule.  In  three  days  the  globule  liad  imdetgone  the  change 
exhibited  at  April  26.  Under  the  microscope  may  be  observed  in  the 
embryo  the  commencement  of  the  parts  which  are  to  l>ecome  the 
head,  the  belly,  and  the  tail  The  globule  at  first  becomes  enlarged, 
then  elongated,  and  its  previously  smooth  sur&ce  presents  some 
smaU  eminences.  If  it  has  not  been  fecundated,  or  has  lost  its  prolific 
power,  it  enlarges,  nevertheless,  during  the  first  days,  as  in  ordinaiy 
cases,  but  afterwards  changes  so  as  to  resemble  a  vesicle  half  filled 
with  water :  when  this  appearance  comes  on,  the  egg  has  lost  its 
vitality. 

On  the  28th  of  April  (fifth  day)  the  embryo  has  grown  so  long  that 
it  becomes  bent  in  order  to  acconmiodate  itself  to  the  circumscribed 
envelope.  Now  the  head,  abdomen,  and  tail  are  easily  distinguishable, 
and  near  the  head  (the  larger  extremity)  small  elevations  (the  rudi- 
ments of  gills  and  fore-feet)  are  perceptible.  These  parts  become 
more  i^parent  by  the  30th,  when  in  the  concave  side  of  th«  Qmbryo 


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and  towards  the  head  a  amall  furrow  ia  seen  which  sepfiratea  the  head 
from  the  abdomen,  and  the  rudimenta  of  a  apine  are  distinctly  Tisible 
along  its  convex  border. 

By  the  2nd  of  May  the  position  of  the  embryo  is  changed,  and  the 
tail  has  already  assumed  its  oar-like  form.  The  embrro  begins  to 
moTe,  and  its  heart  may  be  seen  to  beat ;  colour,  too,  oegins  to  be 
present  This  appears  to  be  a  critical  state  of  the  embryo ;  for  alny)st 
half  of  those  of  which  the  deyelopment  was  watched  by  Rusooni,  died 
at  this  period  or  soon  after.  Srd  May.  On  one  side  of  the  head,  and 
before  the  two  elevations  which  are  the  rudiments  of  the  fbre-feet» 
filaments  to  the  number  of  four  on  each  side  may  be  observed.  4th 
May.  The  changes  of  position  become  frequent.  In  that  here  presented 
the  embryo  shows  the  lower  part  of  its  head  and  trunk,  which  is  white 
inclining  to  green.  On  the  chest  between  the  gills  of  the  two  sides, 
where  tiie  pulsations  of  the  heart  are  seen,  sxnall  irregular  blackish 
spots  are  observable.  Before  the  two  olaspers  ars  seen  also  other 
blackish  spots,  forming  the  junction  of  the  two  bands  which  run  along 
the  back,  as  shown  in  the  preceding  figure.  The  circulation  of  the 
blood,  which  is  simple,  and  performed  by  a  single  curved  vessel,  is 
seen  in  the  gills,  which  are  of  a  glassy  transparence,  and  consist  only 
of  a  single  filament  without  leaflets  as  yet  6th  May.  Traces  of  the 
eyes  may  now  be  just  seen ;  and  the  rudiments  of  the  two  leaflets  are 
perceptible  on  the  two  longest  gills.  6th  May.  The  upper  small  figure 
shows  the  young  Salamander,  seen  from  above,  and  of  tiie  natural  size, 
just  escaped  from  the  envelope.  Before  its  escape,  the  embryo  as  it 
enlarges  gradually  dilates  the  envelope,  which  at  last  it  tears,  and  so 
forces  its  way  out  As  yet  the  eyes  are  scarcely  defined,  though  they 
form  two  prominences  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  its  mouth  is  so 
slightly  traced  that  attentive  observation  is  required  to  detect  it ;  for 
it  IS  indicated  only  by  a  slight  transverse  depression  beneath  the  head, 
and  between  the  two  prominences  formed  by  the  eves,  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  space  between  the  anterior  border  of  the  Ikead  and  the 
origin  of  the  neck.  Its  fore-feet  begin  to  separate  like  buds  from  the 
gills,  which  last  are  gradually  furnished  with  small  leaflets. 

May  6. 


8UgM  of  derelepment  of  Trit&n  eriitahu  after  exelnsion  from  the  egg. 


a  shows  the  Salamander  in  this  stage,  magnified  and  seen  from 
below ;  hb  are  the  two  prominences  formed  by  the  globes  of  the  eyes, 
and  between  them  is  the  slight  depression  which  afterwards  becomes 
the  mouth ;  e,  the  hook  of  the  right  side ;  <2,  the  gills  of  the  same 
side ;  r ,  rudiment  of  fore-feet  of  the  same  side ;  /  represents  the  same 
seen  in  profile,  and  g  the  same  seen  from  above. 


Further  stages  of  development  of  lYiton  eriHatut, 

The  middle  and  small  figure  above  shews  the  natural  size  of  the 
Salamander-Tadpole  on  the  18th  of  May,  twelve  days  after  its  exclusion 
from  the  egg.  By  this  time  the  fore-feet  have  become  lengthened,  and 
ar«  divided  at  Aeir  extremity  like  a  bicuspid  tooth ;  these  two 
tubercles  elongate,  and  are  converted  into  two  toes.  Now  the  eyes 
are  disclosed ;  the  pupil  black,  the  white  speckled  with  various  ooloiirs. 
The  yellow  back  of  the  little  animal  has  become  green,  and  the  gills 
are  now  furnished  with  leaflets,  in  which  red  blood  circulates.  The 
transverse  depression  between  the  eyes  above  noticed  has  become  a 


very  large  mouth,  whose  extremities  extend  on  the  sides  of  the  head 
to  the  eyes.  The  head,  hitherto  narrow  behind,  has  become  much 
enlarged  near  the  origin  of  the  giUs.  The  two  hooks  by  idiich  the 
animal  anchored  its&  have  diasppeared,  and  the  opaque  body  has 
become  so  transparent  thai  the  action  of  the  heart  and  the  form  and 
disposition  of  tne  abdominal  viscera  may  be  observed  in  the  living 
animal  With  this  advance  in  organisation  the  sluggishness  of  the 
animal  has  vanished,  and  its  habits  are  now  msnifeeted.  It  may  be 
seen  near  the  surface,  hiding  beneath  leaves  or  swimming  with 
rapidity.  If,  while  it  floats  at  resty  a  small  aquatic  insect  should  pass 
before  it  near  the  surfboe,  it  pursues  it  deliberately,  and  as  soon  as  it 
approaches  within  reach,  darts  upon  it  and  swallows  the  prsy.  Here 
then  we  have  the  little  Salamander  in  the  enjoyment  of  aetire 
animal  life. 


Farther  stages  of  deTelopment  of  THton  erittatut, 

a,  shows  the  yonog  Salamander  at  this  stage,  natoral  sise,  seen  tnm.  ahore ; 

and  b,  the  same  magnified,  seen  from  ahore  and  in  profile. 

By  the  28th  of  May  the  Salamander  has  put  on  the  form  above 
given  in  the  upper  figures,  Seen  from  above.  About  this  time  the 
hind-feet  begin  to  appear,  and  the  fore-feet  are  well  developed ;  these 
last  are,  as  will  be  seen,  long  in  proportion  to  the  trunk.  The 
following  are  the  principal  points  manifested  under  the  microscope  in 
this  stage : — 1,  two  small  eminences  or  excrescences,  extending  from 
the  axiUse  to  the  abdomen ;  2,  the  parietes  of  the  abdomen  ti&e  the 
colour  of  the  insects  on  which  the  animal  feeds ;  8,  the  changes  of 
colour  from  yellow  to  green,  during  the  growth  of  the  tadpole,  are 
purely  accidental,  and  commence  immediately  on  the  escape  of  the 
animal  from  the  egg ;  4,  the  inner  toes  first  push  forth,  and  this  holds 
good  also  with  regard  to  the  hind-feet ;  5,  the  amylaceous  bone  of  the 
oigan  of  hearing  is  now  formed,  and  may  be  seen  through  the  skull 

and  skin;    6,  at  this 

period,  and  even  sooner, 

the  itnima-l  begins  to 

expel   air    from    the 

mouth.  The  two  lower 

cuts    show   the   same 

salamander     on     the 

12th  June ;  the  small 

figure  represents  it  of 

.    the  natural  size  snd  as 

seen  from  above,  and 

the  larger  figure  msg- 

nified  and  in  profila 

Now  the  hind-feet  have 

almost  attained  their 

<»i  development)    though 

the  fifth  toe  iswanting. 

Last  stage  of  the  tadpole  of  TVUoh  eristatuM.         The  lungs  extend  about 

half-way  down  the  trunk,  and  are  visible  through  the  parietes  of  the 

abdomen.    The  longest  gills,  which  were  furxushed  with  only  18  or 

14  leaflets  18  or  14  days  previously,  have  now  nearly  20. 

On  the  18th  of  July  the  young  Salamander,  as  represented  above, 
had  arrived  at  the  maturity  of  its  tadpole  state,  and  it  is  represented 
watching  a  small  moUusk  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  living  and  fit  for 
prey.  Rusooni  found  that  on  this  day  the  gills  appeared  rather  shorter 
than  on  the  day  before.  On  the  next  day  the  leaflets  at  the  extremities 
of  the  gills  were  obliterated,  and  the  g^-etem  itself  was  shortened. 
On  the  27th  of  July  the  Salamander  had  lost  even  the  smallest  trace 


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lAsaotriion  punetatuSf  seen  Irom  sbove. 
Oj  Male,  the  toes  of  whose  hincUfeet  are  ftir- 
nished  in  the  breeding  seeeon  with  a  black, 
spotted  membrane,  in  the  act  of  lashing  his 
tail ;  b,  female. 


either  of  giUs  or  of  branchial  apertures.    It  respired  atmospheric  air 
only,  and  haying  arrived  at  its  perfect  state,  made  strong  efibrts  to 
escape  from  the  vessel  in 
which  it  had  undergone 
its  metamorphoBis. 

In  its  complete  state 
this  species  habitually 
Uvea  in  the  water,  and 
is  seldom  to  be  found  on 
land  unless  the  pond* 
which  has  been  its  abode 
IB  dried  up,  and  the 
animRl  finds  itself 
obliged  to  walk  in  search 
of  another. 

The  development  of 
the  Common  Smooth 
Kewt  {LmoiriUm  pwne- 
tains.  Bell;  Tritonptune' 
testes,  Auci ;  Triton 
palM§iris,  Laur.;  Salci- 
mamdra  pwnotata,  Dand. ; 
Molffe  punctata,  Merr.; 
Salamandra  exigua, 
Busc.;  BndBfwmlAzard 
of  Pennant)  was  also  ob- 
served by  Ruaconi ;  bat 
it  did  not  require  parti- 
cular notice,  being  very 
similar  to  that  of  Triton 
eriitatni,  Triton  punc- 
iatmt,  however,  showed 
itself  much  the  more 
brisk  animal  of  the  two; 
and  the  lashings  of  the  tail  of  t^e  male  in  his  approaches  to  the 
female  wero  mudi  more  rapid. 

Sakmiandra. 

Head  thick;  eyes  large ;  gape  of  the  mouth  ample ;  tongue  broad ; 
palatine  teeth  arranged  in  two  long  series;  parotids  laige;  body 
sprinkled  with  many  small  glands ;  toes  free ;  tail  rather  smooth. 

Example,  Salamandra  maculosa,  Laur. 

This  species  is  black  with  yellow  spots^  and  has  numerous  prominent 
warty  excrescences  on  the  sides ;  tongue  very  laige ;  palatine  teeth 
epafeolifonn;  toes  smooth. 

This  is  the  Saianumda^  of  Gesner;  Salamandra  torrtatris  of 
Aldrovaiidus,  Bay,  and  others ;  Salamandre  de  Terre  of  the  French ; 
and  O^/Uc^  Erd-Salamander  of  the  Gtermans. 

It  ii^iabits  Central  Europe  and  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  south 
of  Eoropei 

The  Land  Salamander,  unlike  the  Tritons,  is  ovoviviparous,  though 
the  young  at  first  inhabit  the  water  and  undergo  metamorphoses  till 
they  arrive  at  the  mature  state  which  fits  them  for  living  upon  land, 
idiere  they  haunt  cool  and  moist  places,  being  not  unfrequently  found 
about  fallen  timber  or  old  walls.  Their  food  principally  consists  of 
insects,  worms,  and  small  molluscous  animals.  In  the  winter  they 
retire  to  some  hollow  tree  or  hole  in  an  old  wall,  or  even  in  the  ground, 
whCTB  they  coil  themselves  up,  and  remain  in  a  torpid  state  till  the 
spring  again  call^  them  forth. 

The  body  of  tiie  Salamander  is  laigely  covered  with  warty  glands. 
These  secrete  a  milky  fluid  of  a  glutinous  and  acrid  nature  like  that 
of  the  toad,  which,  if  not  capable  of  affecting  the  larger  and  more 
big^y-orgazuaed  animals,  appears  to  be  a  destructive  agent  to  some 
of  those  which  are  less  highly  organised.  Thus  Laurenti  provoked 
two  gray  lizards  to  bite  a  Salamander,  which  at  first  attempted  to 
escape  from  them,  but  being  sfciU  persecuted  ejected  some  of  this  fluid 
into  their  mouths ;  one  of  the  lizards  died  instantly,  and  ttie  other 
fen  into  convulsions  for  two  minutes,  and  then  expired.  Some  of 
tUs  juice  was  introduced  into  the  mouth  of  another  lizard;  it 
became  convulsed,  was  paralytic  on  the  whole  of  one  side,  and  soon 
died. 

This  is  the  only  foundation  for  the  long-cherished  notion  that  the 
Salamander  was  ota  of  the  most  venomous  of  animals.  Nicander,  in 
his  'Alexmharmaca,' gives  an  appalling  picture  of  the  symptoms  pro- 
duced by  its  bite,  llie  Bomans  looked  on  it  with  horror,  as  most 
destructive ;  and  considered  it  as  deadly  a  part  of  the  poisoner^s 
laboratory  as  aconite  or  hemlock.  Hence  came  a  proverb  that  he 
who  was  bitten  by  a  Salamander  had  need  of  as  many  physicians  as 
the  animal  had  spots ;  and  another  still  more  hopeless  :  "If  a  Sala- 
mander bites  you,  put  on  your  shroud." 

Not  only  was  its  bite  oonsidered  fatal  and  the  administration  of  the 
animal  itself  taken  internally  believed  to  be  deadly,  but  anything  that 
its  saliva  had  touched  was  said  to  become  poisonous.  Thus,  if  it  crept 
over  an  apple-tree,  it  was  supposed  to  poison  all  the  fruit  with  its 
saliva ;  and  even  herbs  on  wluch  the  fluid  fell  were  believed  to  affect 
those  who  tasted  them  with  vomiting.  These  fables  had  taken  sudi 
strong  hold,  that  it  was  thought  wor&y  of  record  in  the  '  Acta  Acad. 
Kat  Cur.'  that  a  man  had  eaten  a  Salamander,  which  his  wife  had  put 

HAT.  HIST.  DtV.  VOL.  I. 


into  his  food  in  the  hope  of  becoming  a  widow,  without  suffering  any 
inconvenience. 

But  the  grand  absurdity  of  all  was  the  belief  that  the  Salamander 
was  incombustible ;  that  it  not  only  resisted  the  action  of  fire,  but 
extinguished  it ;  and,  when  it  saw  the  flame,  charged  it  as  an  enemy 
which  it  well  knew  how  to  vanquish. 

Aristotle,  whose  Salamandra  (caXaiiAvZpa)  this  appears  to  be,  has 
been  quoted  as  giving  his  sanction  to  this  belief,  and  indeed  he  cites 
it  as  a  proof  that  there  are  animals  over  which  flame  has  no  power  : 
**  the  Salamandra,  as  they  say,  when  it  goes  through  fire,  extinguishes 
it."  ('  Hist.  An.,*  v.  19.)  iJow  this  is  evidently  only  a  reference  to 
report ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  a  copious  secretion  of  the  fiuid 
above  noticed  might,  in  a  rapid  and  short  passage,  so  damp  the  fire 
that  the  animal  might  get  through  comparatively  unhurtw  ^lian 
{n.  SI)  says  not  only  that  it  will  live  in  the  fiames,  but  that  it  attacks 
nre  like  an  enemy.  Nicander,  Dioscorides,  and  Pliny  all  add  their 
authority ;  and  the  latter  not  only  relates  that  they  extinguish  fire  by 
their  touch,  but  that  they  are  withouttsex  and  produce  nothing.  He 
dwells  on  their  poison  as  being  of  the  worst  description,  and  is  profuse 
in  his  catalogue  of  remedies.  ('Hist.  Nat,'  xxix.  4.)  But  even  so 
late  as  1789  there  was  an  attempt  to  revive-these  wondrous  tales.  A 
French  consul  at  Bhodes  relates  that,  while  sitting  in  his  chamber 
there,  he  heard  a  loud  cry  in  his  kitchen,  whither  he  ran  and  found 
Ills  cook  in  a  horrible  fright,  who  informed  him  that  he  had  seen  the 
devil  in  the  fire.    M.  Pothonier  then  states  that  he  looked  into  a 


a 


Salamandra  maculosa,  seen  f^om  above,    a,  profile  of  head. 

bright  fire,  and  there  saw  a  little  animal  with  open  mouth  and  palpi- 
tating throat.  He  took  the  tongs  and  endeavoured  to  secure  it.  At 
his  first  attempt  the  animal,  whioh  he  says  had  been  motionless  up  to 
that  time  (two  or  three  minutes),  ran  into  a  comer  of  the  chimney, 
having  loi^  the  tip  of  its  tail  in  escaping,  and  buried  itself  in  a  heap 
•of  hot  ashes.    In  his  second  attempt  the  consul  was  successful  drew 


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AMPHIBIA. 


ISO 


the  onimal  out,  which  he  describes  as  a  kind  of  small  Hard,  pluDged 
it  into  spirit  of  wine,  and  gave  it  to  Buffon.  This  appears  to  be  yenr 
circumstantial,  and  M.  Pothonier,  whose  head  was  evidently  filled  with 
preoonoeiyed  opinions,  may  be  acquitted  of  any  intention  to  deceive. 

That  Ihe  slun  of  an  ammal  which  could  resist  the  action  of  fire 
should  be  considered  proof  against  that  element  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at  We  accordingly  find  that  a  doth  said  to  be  made  of  the  skins  of 
salamanders  was  incombustible,  as  is  noticed  by  Marco  Polo,  who 
however  was  shrewd  enough  to  observe  that  these  fire-proof  cloths 
were  really  made  of  a  mineral  substance  (asbestos,  no  doubt^  which 
the  old  writers  termed  Salamander^s  Wool).  Such  most  probably  was 
the  Salamander-Cloth  sent  by  the  Tartar  king  to  the  Roman  pontiff, 
In  which  the  Holv  Napkin  {Sudariwn  Domini)  is  preserved. 

Among  the  ower  fables  may  be  noticed  the  belief  that  the  saliva 
of  the  Salamander  was  depilatory — having  the  power  to  remove  hair, 
and  substitute  bald  places  for  luxuriant  tresses.  Martial  has  an 
epigram,  of  which  this  notion  forms  the  point  (lib.  iL,  ep.  Izvi). 

Its  hearty  worn  as  an  amulet^  was  considered  to  be  a  prophylactic 
against  fire,  and  it  was  used  in  medicine  to  eradicate  leprosy. 

It  could  hardly  be  expected  that  the  alchymists  would  ne^ect 
animals  of  which  such  wonders  were  rife ;  and  we  accordingly  find 
that  Ihe  power  of  transmuting  quicksilver  into  gold  was  attributed  to 
them.  To  this  end  the  wretched  reptiles  were  placed  in  a  vessel  on 
the  coals,  and  quicksilver  introduced  tnrough  an  iron  tube  was  poured 
upon  them.  This  experiment  was  supposed  to  be  accompanied  with 
danger  to  the  life  of  the  operator.  Those  who  would  fiuther  dwell 
on  the  legends  connected  with  this  subject  may  consult  Funk's  work, 
'  De  SalamandraB  Terrestris  Vita,  Evolutione,  et  Formatione.' 

In  the  catalogue  of  Ihe  specimens  of  Amphibia  in  the  British 
Museum  the  following  arrangement  is  adopted.  The  ctUialogue  of 
the  first  suborder,  the  Awmtwu  Amphibia,  is  not  yet  publiii^ed 
(June^  1868). 

Order  I.    BATRACHIA. 

Suborder  I.    Salzbntia  (including  ^e  Frogs  and  Toads). 

(Arrangement  not  yet  published.) 

Suborder  II.    Qradhhtu. 


Fam.L 


Name. 
Salamandra  nigra 


Salamandbidjl 

Locality. 
Europe. 


PlewrOoUt  WalU    . 
TriUmPoiretii   . 

„      crittalMB       ... 

„      marmoraiua 

„       aipuirit 
Nciophihalmui  mmiatiu 

„  vwtdaoou 

JSuprocUu  piatycephalui 
OyncpM  jpyrrhigatkr 
Taricha  toroia    . 

„       lugubri$ 
Bradybates  ventricoiUi 
Lophtnut  pvnetahu 
„        palmaiut 
Ommatoiritcn  viUatnt 
Seiranota  penpiciUaia 

Fam.II. 
ffyndbiut  ne&Wotiw 
Molffettriata 

Fam.  III. 

Onychodaet^MS  Japanicut 

ffderotriton  ingent 

Xiphowu/ra  J^enomana 

Ambyttoma  CaroUna 
„  HgHnwn 

„  talpoideum 

„  opacwn 

„  pvnet^daJtwn 

„  maerodactyUm 

„  moffortium 

„  epitcopui     . 

)}  ^ythronotuim  . 

„  ScUdemam  (f) 

froniale  (?)      . 

Ptethodon  gUainoiwn 
„        granuUUtim 

Jkimoffnathus  niger 

„  fv9CU9  . 

„  awiefdatu$ 

HemiidaetyUim  tcrUaiwm 
Batraehotepi  attenuatui  . 

tt  qtuulridigitatut 

Spderpei  langicaitda 


North  Africa. 
Europe. 

y* 
» 

North  America^  East  Coast. 

Corsica  and  Sardinia. 

JenpaiL 

California. 

North  America. 

Spain. 

Europe. 

t» 
Syria. 
Europe. 

MOLGIDJL 

.    Japan. 


PLBTHODONnDA 

Japan. 

North  America^  East  Coast. 


West  Coast 


East  Coast 


West  Coast 
East  Coast 


Spderpa  cirrigtra 
„        bUineaia  . 
„        gtUUhlineata 
„        rubra 
„        montana 
„        talmonea  . 
„        porphyritiea 
„        BdUi 
Cfeotriton  fiucut 
CEdiput  variegatiu 
Bntatina  BtchtchoUzii 
Axdotl   . 

,,      maavdata 


Order  II. 
Fam.  I. 
SiAMia  m>axima  .        . 
Protonoptit  horrida    . 
„  futea    . 


North  America,  East  Cotst 


Mexico. 

Italy. 

North  America,  West  Gout 

ft  n 

Mexico. 


PSEUDOSAURIA. 

PBOTONOrtlDJl. 

.    Japan. 
.    .    North  America,  East  Coai4 


Fam.IL 
Amphiwna  meant 
Munenopna  tridactyla 


AxpHnnaDA 
.    .    North  America,  East  Coait 


Order  IIL    PSEUDOPHIDIA- 
Fam.  L    CmxmjiDM, 


CcBcHia  graeilis  . 

„      tenlaeuUUa 

„      eompreaticauda 

„      rottriMia 

„      oxyura  . 

„      aqualoitoma 
Siphtmopt  inUrrupta  . 

„        Mexicana 
lethyophit  gkntinotua  . 
BMmatrema  bwUkUum 


Orderly. 
Fam.  L 
Lepidoiiren  paradoxa 
Protoptenu  amneotms 
f,         rhinocryptit 


Tropical  America. 


Malabar. 
West  Africa. 
Tropical  America. 

» 
Ceylon.  ' 
Tropical  America. 

PSBUDOICTHYASw 
Levwosolkstdm, 

.    .    Tropical  America. 
.    West  Africa. 


MEANTIA 
Pbotbidjl 

.    Europe. 
.    .     North  America,  East  CoMi 


Order  V. 
Fam.  L 
Prcteut  angwimu    . 
Neeiurtu  maeuUmu 

$»       uucraUt     •        ,        ,        ,  '     ff  „ 

Fam.  n.    SmENXDA 

Siren  Laeertina Carolina. 

„    intermedia     ....    Texas. 
Pteudobranchiu  tiriatut  .    .    North  America,  East  Coast 

Fossil  Amphibia. 
Foesil  Anourotu  Amphibia. — ^Fossil  Frogs  have  been  found  in  the 
Coal-formation  of  the  Rhine  {Papier-Kohl)  in  company  with  the  fishei 
Leueitew  maeru/riu  and  L.  papyraeeta.  Two  species  hare  be«n 
described,  and  there  are  many  examples  in  the  museum  at  Bodd. 
In  this  country  specimens  are  to  be  found  in  the  collectioiu  of  the 
Earl  of  Enniskillen  and  Sir  Philip  Egcrton,  Bart 


Palteophrynot  Oe$$n§ri,     (Tschadi.) 

Fottil  Toade, — Here  may  be  noticed  the  fossil  specimens  from  th« 
CEningen  Bed»— .Som^tmKor  CEHin^eiiMr,  Agass.    (PehpikSMi  Aga»ii»H 


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Tflchudi),  and  PaUeophrynoa  Oeaneri,  Tschudi    (See  '  Claasification 
der  Batrachier'  of  J.  J.  TKhudi,  pp.  84,  89,  tab.  1,  ff  2,  8.) 

FouU  Scdamandrida, — ^Few  fonilB  have  awakened  more  curioeity 
than  the  Homo  DUuvii  Tetiit  of  Scheuchzer,  who  was  unwearied  in 
collecting  oiganic  remainfl,  which  he  considered  irrefragable  evidence 
of  the  general  deluge.  At  length  he  obtained  from  the  (Eningen  Beds 
(Miocene  Period  of  Lyell)  a  fossil  which  he  viewed  with  transport  as 
the  unequivocal  remains  of  Man  himself  A  short  description  of  this 
specimen  was  published  by  him  in  the  '  Philosophical  Transactions' 
for  1726.  He  again  brought  forward  this  piece  of  'good  fortune' — (in 
his  rapture  he  writes  the  last  two  words  m  Greek — )  in  his  '  Physica 
Sacra,  where  he  tells  us  that  previously  he  had  only  possessed  two 
dorsal  vertebne.  Of  the  humamty  of  his  prize  he  certsomy  entertained 
no  doubt.  In  his  rapturous  vision  he  saw  in  the  fossil  not  only  one 
part  of  the  human  skeleton,  but  many  parts.  No  fancy  could  possibly 
lead  astray  in  a  case  where  there  were  appearances  of  bones^  and  flesh, 
and  even  the  softer  parts  of  flesh,  impressed  on  the  solid  stone.  Here 
indeed  was  a  rari^  above  all  rarities.  He  gives  no  bad  figure 
of  the  fossil  in  tab.  xlix.  of  the  work  last  quoted.  When  we  look  at 
that  figure,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  such  remains  could  have 
i^peared  to  a  physician,  who  must  have  had  some  acquaintance  with 
osteology,  to  be  those  of  man ;  and  we  can  only  account  for  it  by 
the  blindness  which  an  excited  imagination  and  a  determined  adherence 
to  theory  can  produce.  The  iteration  and  determination  of  Scheuchzer 
had  its  effect,  and  naturalists  adopted  his  opinions.  Qesner  (1768) 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  tnrew  deserved  doubt  on  the  ulegea 
nature  of  the  fossil ;  for  though  he  quotes  it  as  an  anthropolite,  he 
nevertheless,  having  become  possessed  of  a  similar  specimen,  offers 
his  conjecture  that  it  was  a  fossil  fish  {SUvnu  glaniSf  Linn.),  and  the 
obsequious  naturalists  were  now  as  ready  to  foUow  him  as  they  had 
been  eager  to  run  after  Scheuchzer. 

Geroer's  specimen  does  not  appear  to  have  been  engraved,  nor 
another  which  was  said  to  be  m  the  convent  of  Augustins  at 
CEningen;  but  a  third  specimen,  more  complete  than  Scheuchzer's, 
came  into  the  poeaession 
of  Dr.  Ammann  of  Zu- 
rich, and  is  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  A 
figure  of  this  was  pub- 
li^ed  by  Kaig,  in  the 
'Memoirs  of  the  Society 
of  Naturalists  of  Suabia.' 
Cuvier  well  observes 
that  a  comparison  of 
the  specimen  with  the 
skeleton  of  Man  must  at 
once  have  destroyed  the 
idea  that  it  was  anthro- 
polite ;  and  it  would  be 
a  waste  of  space  to  repeat 
here  the  details  of  that 
comparison  which  Cuvier 
so  well  follows  out^  and 
to  which  we  refer.  ( *  Os- 
semens  Fossiles,'  tom.  v., 
pt  2,  p  433,  ed.  1824.) 

Kaig,  after  figuring 
Dr.  Ammann's  specimen, 
expressly  stated  that  he 
had  no  doubt  that  the 
fossil  was  a  SiUinu,  an 
opinion  which  JiLger 
refuted  by  placing  by 
the  side  of  the  figure  of 
the  fossil,  one  of  the 
skeleton  of  SUwruigkmii, 
Cuvier  disposes  of  this 
opinion  with  the  same 
success  as  attends  his 
former  demonstration.  ^ 
The  rounded  head  and 
great  orbits  of  the  fossil 
struck  Cuvier  as  strongly 
resembling  the  head  of  a 
frogor  a  salamander;  and 
he  states  that^  as  soon  as 
he  beheld  Kaig^s  figure,  he  perceived  in  tho  vedages  of  tho  hind-feet 
and  the  tail  evidence  in  favour  of  the  last-named  genua. 

Cuvier,  bemg  at  Haarlem  in  1811,  ebtained  pennission  to  work  upon 
we  stone  which  contained  the  pretended  anthropolite  of  Scheuchzer, 
for  the  purpose  of  uncovering  any  bones  which  might  be  still 
hidden  there.  During  the  operation,  the  figure  of  the  skeleton  of 
a  salamander  was  placed  before  the  operators;  and  Cuvier  relates 
the  pleasure  which  they  felt,  as  they  saw,  while  the  chisel  chipped 
ft^ay  pieces  of  the  stone,  the  bones  which  the  figure  had  akeady 
announced. 

But  by  far  the  finest  head  of  Andria$  Scheuchzeri  is  figured  by 
Tschndi,  in  his  work  above  quoted,  tab.  8 ;  and  many  most  interesting 


of 


AnUrior  ^Tt  ot  Andrias  SohsueJkMeri,  Tsehadi, 
seen  from  sbore.     (Cnvier.) 


details  tace  given  in  tab.  4  and  tab.  5.    These  show  how  neariy  allied 
this  gigantic  Fossil  Newt  was  to  SiebMia  fnaxima, 

Salamandra  ogygia^  Qoldf,  is 
found  in  the  Braimkohle  (Ter- 
tiary), where  also  TrUon  Noor 
chicuSf  Qoldf.  occurs.  Triton 
palustris  {?)  jotnLu  of  Elarg  is 
from  the  (Eningen  Slate. 

Under  the  generic  title  Sola- 
mandroidei,  Professor  J&ger 
described  a  fossil  reptile  from 
the  German  Keuper,  giving  it 
the  specific  name  of  gigaaUeua, 
This  fossil  now  appears  to  be 
identical  with  Mattodomavunu 
and  PhytoMwnu,  Professor 
Owen  therefore  proposes  to 
designate  this  gigantic  genus  of 
extinct  Batrachiuis — for  to  that 
order  he  has  satisfactorily  shown 
that  the  form  belongs — ^by  the 
name  of  Ldbyrinthodon  (from 
the  extraordinary  structure  of  ^^ 
its  teeth),  in  his  pai)er  '  On  the  ^p 
Teeth  of  Species  of  the  Genus 
JxU>yrinthodon{JI£<uiod<mtauru9, 
Salamandroidea  andPhytotOMrua 
(?)  of  Jager^  f^m  the  German 
Keuper  ana  the  Sandstone  of 
Warwick  and  Leamington.' 

The  following  description  of 
the  teeth  of  thu  animal,  from 
the  '  Proceedings  of  the  Geolo- 
gical Society,'  will  afford  both*, 
idea  of  the  peculiarity  of  its 
structure : — 

"  The  plan  and  principle  of 
the  structure  of  the  tooth  of 
the  Zdbynnthodon  are  the  same 
as  those  of  the  tooth  of  the 
Ichthyotaurui,  but  they  are 
carried  out  to  the  highest 
degree  of  complication.  The 
oonveiging  vertical  folds  of  the 
external  cement  are  continued 
close  to  the  centre  of  the  tooth,  ^ 
and  instead  of  being  straight  i 
simple  lamellffi,  they  present  a  ^ 
series  of  irregular  folds,  Ln- 
creasmg  in  complexity  as  they 
proceed  inwards,  and  re- 
sembling the  labyrinthic  an- 
fractuosities  of  the  tnuUce  of 
the  brain;  each  oonveiging 
fold  is  slightly  dilated  at  its 
termination  close  to  the  pulp- 
cavity.  The  ordinary  laws  of 
dental  structure  are  however 
strictly  adhered  to,  and  every 
space  intercepted  by  a  con- 
volution of  the  folds  of  the 
cement  is  occupied  by  corre- 
sponding processes  of  the  den* 
tine.     These  characters  were 

presented  J)y  a  transverse  seo-      ...i.^  ^^...,,4.^.  -^v^.  .^  |^^ 
tion  of  a  fragment  of  a  tooth     '^'^^^rioi  8eh0uekB0rt,  T»d^^  mm  Inn 

of  the   ZabyrifUhodan   Jdgeri  '^•-     ^^"^'^ 

from  the  German  Keuper,  which  included,  about  the  middle 
third  part  of  a  tooth,  and  Mr.  Owen  considers  that  the  entire 
length  of  the  tooth  might  be  Si  inches^  and  the  breadth  at  the  basis 
14  inch. 

"The  external  longitudinal  grooves,  whi3  correspond  to  the 
inflected  folds  of  the  cement^  extend  upwards  from  the  base  of  the 
tooth  to  about  three-fourths  of  its  heignt,  decreasing  in  number  as 
the  tooth  diminishes  in  thickness,  and  disappearing  about  half  an 
inch  from  the  summit  of  the  tooth.  Each  f(^  of  cement  peoetiatea 
less  deeply  as  the  groove  approaches  its  termination ;  and  Mr.  Owen 
conceives  that  the  structure  of  the  upper  part  of  the  tooth  may  be 
more  simple  than  that  of  the  lower,  but  he  has  not  yet  been  able  to 
extend  his  investigations  to  it 

"  The  dentine  consists  of  a  slender,  central,  conical  column,  or 
'modiolus,'  hollow  for  a  certain  distance  from  its  base,  and  radiating 
outwards  from  its  circumference  a  series  of  vertical  plates,  which 
divide  into  two,  once  or  twice,  before  they  terminate  at  the  periphery 
of  the  tooth.  Each  of  these  diverging  and  dichotomizing  vertical 
plates  gives  off  throughout  its  course  narrower  vertical  plates,  which 
stand  at  nearly  right  angles  to  the  main  plate,  in  relation  to  which 
they  are  ^generally  opposite,  but  sometimes  altematc^'Many  of  th« 


»t 


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AMPHIBIA. 


AMPHIBIA. 


1S4 


secondary  plates  which  are  given  off  near  the  centre  of  the  tooth  also 
divide  into  two  before  they  terminate.  They  partake  of  all  the 
undulations  which  characterise  the  inflected  folds  of  the  cement. 

''The  central  pulp-cavity  is  reduced  to  a  line,  about  the  upper 
third  of  the  tooth ;  but  fissures  radiate  from  ity  corresponding  in 
number  with  the  radiating  plates  of  the  dentine.  One  ofwese 
fissures  is  continued  along  the  middle  of  each  plate,  dividing  where 
it  divides,  and  penetrating  each  bifurcation  and  process;  the  main 
fissures  extend  .to  within  a  line  or  half  a  line  of  the  periphery  of  the 
tooth ;  the  terminations  of  these,  as  well  as  the  fissures  of  the  lateral 
processes,  suddenly  dilating  into  subcircular,  ovsl,  or  pyriform  spaces. 
All  these  spaces  constitute  centres  of  radiation  of  the  fine  calcigerous 
tubes,  which,  with  their  uniting  dear  substance,  constitute  the  dentins 
The  number  of  these  calcigerous  tubes,  which  are  the  centres  of  minor 
ramifications^  defies  all  calculation.  Their  diameter  is  the  jAgfh.  of 
a  line,  with  interspaces  equal  to  7  diameters  of  their  cavities. 

By  the  permission  of  Professor  Owen  we  are  enabled  to  give  a 
section  of  this  highly  complicated  tooth,  from  his  elaborate  '  Odonto* 
graphy'  (pL  64,  A.),  in  which  the  subject  is  treated  with  minute 
detail  ( part  ii,  p.  208,  kc). 


TransTerse  Section  of  Tooth  of  Lahyrinthodon  J&geri  (Owen) ;  2fa*todon~ 
saunu  JSferi  (Meyer) ;  natural  sise,  and  a  segment  magnified,  a,  pulp-cavity, 
from  which  the  processes  of  pulp  and  dentine  radiate ;  (,  cement. 

In  connection  with  this  subject  we  may  call  the  reader^s  attention 
to  some  facts  of  considerable  interest^  which  have  lately  been  studied 
with  much  care  and  success,  and  have  become  of  such  importance  as 
to  constitute  a  distinct  branch  of  inquiry  under  the  name  of 
Ichnology  ( Ix^j,  a  footstep,  and  \6yoSf  a  discourse). 

This  department  of  geological  investigation  is  conversant  with  the 
phenomena  of  footsteps  impressed  by  animals  on  the  strata  of  the 
earth. 

In  1828  Mr.  Duncan's  account  of  tracks  and  footmarks  of  animals 
impressed  on  sandstone  in  the  quarry  of  Com-Cockle  Muir,  Dumfries- 
shire, appeared  in  the  'Transactions  -of  the  Koyal  Society  of 
Edinburgh.'  Dr.  Buckland  caused  a  living  Emys  and  Testudo  GrcBca 
to  walk  on  soft  sand,  clay,  and  paste  or  imbaked  pie-crust.  He  foimd 
the  correspondence  of  tJie  footsteps  of  the  latter  with  the  fossil 
footsteps  sufficiently  dose,  allowing  for  difference  of  species,  to  render 
it  highly  probable  that  the  fossil  footsteps  were  impressed  by  Testudo 
OrcBca. 

In  Saxony,  at  the  village  of  Hessbei^,  near  Hildbui;ghausen,  fossil 
footsteps  were^  a  few  years  ago,  discovered  in  several  quarries  of  gray 
Quartzose  Sandstone  alternating  with  beds  of  Red-Sandstone,  nearly 
of  the  age  of  the  Red-Sandstone  of  Com-Cockle  Muir.  Dr.  Hohnbaum 
and  Professor  Kaup  state  that  those  impressions  of  feet  are  partly 
concave  and  partly  in  relief;  the  depressions  are  described  as  being 
upon  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  Sandstone  slabs,  but  the  footmarks  in 
relief  are  only  upon  the  lower  surfaces,  and  cover  the  depressions. 
In  shorty  the  footmarks  in  relief  are  natural  casts  formed  in  the 
subjacent  footsteps  as  in  moulds.  On  one  slab,  6  feet  long  by  6  feet 
wide,  many  footsteps  of  more  than  one  animal  and  of  various  sizes 
occur.  The  larger  impressions,  which  seem  to  be  those  of  the  hind- 
foot,  are  generally  8  inches  in  length  and  6  in  width,  and  one  was 
12  inches  long. 

I  The  name  of  Chirotherivm  was  proposed  by  Professor  Elaup  as  the 
provisional  name  for  the  great  unknown  animal  that  impressed  the 
larger  footsteps,  from  a  supposed  resemblance  in  the  marks  of  both 
the  fore-  and  hind-feet  to  the  impress  made  by  a  human  hand ;  and  he 
thought  that  they  might  have  been  derived  from  some  quadruped 
allied  to  the  MarsupiaLia,  Dr.  Siekler,  in  a  letter  to  Blumenbach 
( 1834 ),  gave  a  further  account  of  these  footsteps.  Fragments  of 
bones  were  found  in  the  quarries  where  the  footsteps  had  been 
impressed,  but  those  fragments  were  destroyed. 

The  existence  of  footprints  of  this  kind  soon  became  more  exten- 


sively known.  In  his  address  to  the  Qeologioal  Society,  in  1840,  Dr. 
Buckland  says  : — "  Further  discoveries  of  the  footsteps  of  C%«rolA«- 
ritim  and  five  or  six  smaller  reptiles  in  the  New  Red-Sandstone  of 
Cheshire,  Warwickshire,  and  Salop,  have  been  brought  before  us  l^ 
Sir  P.  ^rton,  Mr.  J.  Taylor,  jun.,  Mr.  Strickland,  and  Dr.  Ward. 
Mr.  Cunningham,  in  a  sequel  to  his  paper  on  the  footmariLs  at  Storeton, 
has  described  impressions  on  the  same  slabs  with  them,  derived  from 
drops  of  rain  that  fell  upon  thin  lamina  of  day  interposed  between 
the  beds  of  sand.  The  clay  impressed  with  these  prints  of  ram-drops 
acted  as  a  mould,  which  transferred  the  form  of^  every  drop  to  the 
lower  Bur&oe  of  the  next  bed  of  sand  deposited  upon  it^  so  that 
entire  surfeices  of  several  strata  in  the  same  quany  are  respectiTelj 
covered  with  moulds  and  casts  of  drops  of  rain  that  fell  whilst  the 
strata  were  in  procoss  of  formation.  On  the  surface  of  one  stratum 
at  Storeton,  impressed  with  large  footmarks  of  a  ChirUherwmf  the 
depth  of  the  holes  formed  by  the  rain-drops  on  different  parts  of  the 
same  footstep  has  varied  with  the  unequal  amount  of  pressure  on 
the  day  and  sand,  by  the  salient  cushions  and  retiring  hollows  of 
the  creature's  foot;  and  fcom.  the  constancy  of  this  phenomenon 
upon  an  entire  series  of  footmarks  in  a  long  continuous  track,  we 
know  that  this  rain  fell  after  the  animal  had  passed.  The  equable 
size  of  the  casts  of  large  drops  that  cover  the  entire  sur&oe  of  the 
slab,  except  in  the  parts  impressed  by  the  cushions  of  the  feet, 
record  the  falling  of  a  shower  of  heavy  drops  on  the  day  in  which 
this  hu^e  animal  had  marched  along  the  ancient  strand.  Hemispherical 
impressions  of  small  drops,  upon  another  stratum,  show  it  to  have 
been  exposed  to  only  a  sprinkling  of  gentle  rain  that  fell  at  a  moment 
of  calm.  In  one  sznall  slab  of  New  Red-Sandstone  found  by  Dr.  Ward 
near  Shrewsbuzy,  we  have  a  combination  of  proo&  as  to  meteoric, 
hydrostatic,  and  locomotive  phenomena,  which  occurred  at  a  time 
incalculably  remote,  in  the  atmosphere,  the  water,  and  the  movements 
of  animals;  and  from  which  we  infer,  with  the  certainty  of  cumulative 
circumstantial  evidence,  the  direction  of  the  wind,  the  depth  and 
course  of  the  water,  and  l^e  quarter  towards  which  the  animals  were 
passing:  the  latter  is  indicated  by  the  direction  of  the  footsteps 
which  form  their  tracks ;  the  size  and  curvatures  of  the  ripple-marks 
on  the  sand,  now  converted  to  sandstonei,  show  the  depth  and 
direction  of  the  current;  the  oblique  impressions  of  the  lain-drops 
register  the  pohit  from  which  the  wind  was  blowing  at  or  about  the 
time  when  the  ft"*™»^^«  were  passing." 

Soon  after  this  address  was  delivered,  Professor  Owen  proved  the 
existence  of  a  gigantic  Batrachian  at  the  period  when  the  New  Red- 
Sandstone  was  formed,  and  described  three  species  of  LabyriiUhodtm. 
He  conduded  that  tl^se  cpeatures  produced  the  foot-prints  that  had 
been  observed,  and  maintained  the  following  positions : — 

1st  Proof  from  the  skdeton  that  Labyrinthodon  had  hind  extre- 
mities much  larger  than  the  anterior  extremities. 

2nd.  That  the  foot-prints  of  Chirotherimn  are  at  least  as  much  like 
those  of  certain  Toads  as  those  of  any  other  animala 

Srd.  That  the  size  of  the  known  spemes  of  Labynnthodon  corre- 
sponds with  ihe  sice  of  the  foot-prints  of  the  different  spedes  of 
Uhirotheriwn;  e.g.  Lahyrinthodon  Jdgeri,  with  the  foot-print  of 
Chiroiherium  HtrcvJUa  (Bgerton) ;  Labyrinthodon  pcichyffnaihut,  with 
the  foot-marks  of  the  common  Oh4rotherium ;  and  Labyrinthodon 
leptognathua  with  the  impressions  of  the  smaller  Batrachian  figured 
in  the  memoir  by  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  and  Mr.  Strickland. 

4th.  Labyrinthodon  occurs  in  the  New  Red-Sandstone  strata  to 
which  Chirotherian  impressions  are  peculiar.    And 

Lastly,  no  remains  of  animals  that  could  have  left  such  impressions 
as  those  of  the  Chirothtriwn  have  been  found  in  these  strata,  except 
the  remains  of  the  Labyrinthodon, 


Fore  and  hind-foot  of  the  tame. 

It  is  true  that  the  structure  of  the  foot  is  still  wantang,  and  that  a 
more  connected  and  complete  skeleton  is  required  for  demonstratioD ; 
but  the  cireumstantial  evidence  above  stated  is  strong  enough  to 


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AMPHIBOLE. 


AHPHISB^KA. 


186 


produce  the  oonviction  that  Chirotherian  and  Labyrmthodontic  foot- 
unprcflsions  are  identical ;  and  that  M<utod<m$auru8,  Satamandroldes, 
Phytotaurutj  Chirctherium,  and  Labyrinthodon  are  one  and  the  some 
genua,  whidi  ought  for  the  fiitiu^  to  be  designated  by  the  last- 
mentioned  name.  We  owe  this  evidence,  principidly  to  the  use  of  the 
microscope  in  skilful  and  judicious  hands ;  and  it  is  impossible  not 
to  be  struck  with  the  wonderful  applicability  of  that  instrument  to 
the  lai^gest  of  created  bodied  as  well  as  to  the  smallest,  when  we  look 
at  the  results  of  Professor  Owen's  discovery  of  the  highly-organised 
dental  structure  in  Lahyrinihodon,  an  extinct  animal  of  a  low  grade, 
where  it  could  har^  have  been  expected  to  occur. 

The  reading  of  Frofessor  Owen's  memoir  was  accompanied  by 
the  exhibition  of  a  diagram  representing  a  restoration  of  two  species 
of  LahyriaUhodon,  By  the  Professor^s  kindness,  we  have  been  enabled 
to  give  a  greatly  reduced  copy  of  one  of  them.  [See  the  preceding 
column.]  The  bones  which  appear  within  the  outline  are  those  which 
were  known  when  the  paper  was  read.  The  animal  is  represented  as 
impressing  its  footsteps  on  a  shore  of  sand,  now  New  Red-Sandstone. 
-  There  is  reason  for  believing  that  this  Batrachian  was  not  smooth 
externally,  but  was  protected,  on  certain  parts  at  least,  by  bony  scutella. 

Spedmena  of  the  foot-prints  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum 
and  in  that  of  the  Royal  College  of  Suigeons  in  London. 

AMPHIBOLE,  a  mineral  belongiog  to  the  group  of  silicates  of 
magnesia,  lime,  iron,  and  manganese.    [AuaiTE.] 

AMPHIBOLI'TE,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  simple  mineral 
more  commonly  adled  Hornblende,  and  which  was  introduced  by 
Haiiy,  the  mineralogist,  who  uselessly  changed  many  names.  He 
call^  Hornblende  i4mpAt5o2e,  because  it  is  easily  mistaken  for  Augite, 
another  simple  min^al  closely  allied  to  it  m  composition,  tcom. 
iLfi^i^Xos,  equivocal 

AMPHIDESMA,  a  genus  of  Marine  Bivalve  Shells,  which  are  found 
in  the  sand  on  the  sea-coast  of  tropical  climates.  The  shells  are  oval 
or  rounded,  sometimes  rather  twisted  and  slightly  gaping  behind. 
They  have  two  hinge  teeth  in  each  valve,  and  often  distinct  com- 
pressed lateral  ones.  The  elastic  cartilage  is  placed  in  a  small 
triangular  cavity  just  behind  the  hinge  teetih.  The  animals  of  these 
shells  are  tmknown ;  but  they  are  supposed  to  have  long  e^hons, 
like  the  Tellens,  as  the  shells  have  a  broad  deep  inflation  on  the  back 
edge  of  the  submarginal  scar,  formed  by  the  attachment  of  the 
muscles  which  retract  these  syphons,  as  in  the  Tellens,  from  which 
genus  it  simply  differs  in  the  position  of  its  cartilage. 

Lamarck  gave  the  name  of  AmphidesTna  to  this  genus,  because  he 
observed  that  it  had  a  ligament  and  a  cartilage,  which  he  regarded  as 
peculiar  to  this  genus,  he  having,  like  the  rest  of  the  zoologists  before 
the  appearance  of  the  Conchological  Observations  in  the  '  Zoological 
Journal,'  considered  what  is  usually  cfldled  the  ligament  of  bivalves  as 
only  one  substance.  It  ia  however  two  substances,  of  very  different 
structure  and  use ;  the  outer,  or  ligament^  being  inelastic,  and  only 
employed  to  keep  the  two  valves  together,  is  formed  of  fibres 
extending  from  the  edge  of  one  valve  to  the  other;  but  the  cartilage 
is  elastic,  and  formed  of  perpendicular  fibres,  like  the  prismatic 
crystalline-structured  shell,  its  use  being  to  separate  the  valves  from 
one  another  when  the  muscles  which  keep  them  closed  are  relaxed. 
When  the  valves  are  dosed,  this  part  is  compressed  by  their  edge. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  sometimes,  as  in  the  shell  under  consideration, 
placed  in  a  small  triangular  cavity  close  to  the  hinge,  when  the  shell 
is  said  to  have  an  internal  cartilage,  the  ligament  being  still  in  its 
visual  place.  In  other  shells  it  is  placed,  along  with  the  Ugament,  on 
the  maigin  of  the  valves,  and  is  pressed,  when  the  valves  are  closed, 
•gainst  the  ligament  itself,  which  forms  its  outer  wall.  The  resist- 
ance which  the  ligament  offers  is  the  means  of  opening  the  sheU.  The 
cartilage  has  opaline  reflections,  and  the  cartilages  of  some  large  sheUs, 
as  the  mother-of-pearl  shells,  are  sold  by  the  jewellers  imder  tiie  name 
of  Peacock-Stone,  or  Black  Opals.  They  are  not  so  much  used  now 
as  fonnerly,  but  they  are  still  much  sought  after  on  the  Continent^ 
especia^in  Portugal. 

AMPHI'DETUS,  a  genus  of  Echinidce,  found  in  the  Crag  of  Sufiblk. 

AMPHIQENE,  a  mineral  abundani^  in  ihe  lava  of  Vesuvius,  con- 
Bisting  of  silica,  alumina,  and  potash.    [Lbucitb.] 

AMPHI'ON  (Pander),  a  genus  of  Fossil  Crustacea  (THloHtes),  four 
5>«cies  of  which  have  been  described,  from  Tyrone  and  Waterford,  by 
ColondPortiock.  '       .      '  ^    ' 

AMPHIOXUS.     [BRAN0HI08T0MATA.] 

AMPHIROA.    [AcALKPHJB.] 

AMPHISB^NA  (from  i^trfiauta,  which  signifies  'an  animal  that 
ttjn  walk  m  both  dhrections ' ),  a  genus  of  Serpents,  distinguished  by 
thett  bodies  haying  nearly  the  same  imiform  thickness  from  the  head 
^  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  by  their  small  mouths  and  extremely 
ouninntive  eyes,  their  remarkably  short  tails,  and  the  numerous  rings 
ofsmall  square  scales  which  completely  surround  this  organ  and  the 
*»ay.  A  rsnge  of  smaU  pores  runs  m  front  of  the  vent>  which  is 
ntaated  nearly  at  the  end  of  the  taU ;  the  jaws  alone  are  provided  witii 
A  nngle  row  c^  small  conical  teeth,  t^e  palate  beiiig  without  any ;  and 
•▼en  those  of  the  jaws  are  few  and  distant  from  one  another.  They 
y^^oTwxver  destitute  of  fangs,  and  are  consequently  harmless  and 
"^^^^▼«i  living  for  the  most  part  upon  ants  and  other  small  insects, 
and  mhabtting  ant-hills  and  burrows  which  they  themselves  construct 
^^'^^  ground.    The  nature  of  l^eir  food  does  not  require  these  ft^iTwala 


to  possess  the  power  of  dilating  the  mouth  and  gullet  to  the  extraordi- 
nary extent  that  is  observed  in  the  boas,  pythons,  and  other  serpents  in 
general,  which  live  for  the  most  part  upon  animals  proportionally  much 
larger  than  themselves,  and  in  order  to  admit  the  huge  mouthful  have 
the  upper  and  under  jaws  both  equally  moveable  upon  the  cranium. 
In  the  Ampkishcena,  on  the  contrary,  the  upper  jaw  is  fixed  to  the 
skull  and  intermaxillary  bones,  as  in  birds  and  mammals,  so  that  the 
head  remains  constantly  in  the  same  plane  with  the  body — a  form 
which  permits  the  animal  to  move  equally  well  either  backwards  or 
forwards,  and  which  has  acquired  for  it  the  name  by  which  it  is 
distinguished.    [See  BoiDjg,  cols.  548,  549.] 

The  head  of  the  Ampkiabcena  is  so  small,  and  the  tail  so  thick  and 
short,  that  it  is  difficult  at  first  sight  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other, 
and  this  circumstance,  united  to  the  animal's  habit  of  proceeding  either 
backwards  or  forwards  as  the  occasion  may  require,  has  given  rise  to 
the  popular  belief  very  generally  spread  throughout  Bra^  and  other 
parts  of  South  America,  the  native  countries  of  this  genus,  that  it 
possesses  two  heads,  one  at  each  extremity,  and  that  it  is  impossible 
to  destroy  the  animal  by  simple  cutting,  as  the  two  heads  mutually 
seek  one  another  in  case  of  such  a  serious  acddent,  and  soon  re-unite 
as  if  nothing  had  happened.  Ignorance  is  the  parent  of  superstition 
and  absurdity,  and  one  wonder  naturally  produces  twenty.  It  is  not 
therefore  surprising  that,  among  an  ignorant  and  credulous  people,  the 
singularity  of  the  Amphisbama*8  form  and  habits  should  have  given 
rise  to  this  and  a  multitude  of  other  gross  fictions.  "  Another  siiake," 
says  Stedman,  in  his  '  History  of  Surinam,'  "  which  I  also  observed 
here,  is  about  3  feet  long,  and  annulated  with  different  colours ;  it  is 
coHed  Amphisb(ena,£rom  the  supposition  of  its  having  two  heads; 
and  the  truth  is,  that  from  its  cylindrical  form  the  head  and  tail  so 
much  resemble  each  other  that  the  error  is  almost  pardonable ;  beddes 
which,  the  eyes  are  nearly  imperceptible.  This  is  the  snake  which, 
being  supposed  blind,  and  vulgularly  said  to  be  fed  by  the  large  ants 
already  described,  is  in  this  country  honoured  with  the  name  of  King 
of  the  Emmets.  The  flesh  of  the  Amphiihcena,  dried  and  reduced  to 
a  fine  powder,  is  confidently  administered  as  a  sovereign  and  infallible 
remedy  in  all  cases  of  dislocation  and  broken  bones ;  it  being  very 
natundly  inferred  that  an  animal  which  has  the  power  of  heaUng  an 
entire  amputation  in  his  own  case,  should  at  least  be  able  to  cure  a 
simple  fracture  in  the  case  of  another."  Two  centuries  have  scarcely 
passed  since  opinions  equally  credulous  and  absurd  were  universally 
prevalent  among  the  most  enlightened  nations  of  Europe,  when  grave 
and  learned  phydcians  administered  the  bezoar  or  rhinoceros*  horn 
with  as  much  confidence  as  l^e  simple  Brazilian  at  the  present  does  the 
powdered  flesh  of  the  AmpKxsbcencL 

The  genus  AfophUibcena,  as  at  present  defined,  contains  only  American 
spedes,  which  are  confined  to  Brazil,  Surinam,  and  other  tropical  parts 
of  the  Continent     Of  these  the  following  are  the  prindpal : — 

1.  The  A.  ftUiginosa,  the  first  and  still  the  best-known  spedes  of 
the  whole  genus,  is,  like  all  the  other  Amphisbsenas,  confined  to  the 
hotter  regions  of  South  America,  and  does  not  inhabit  Ceylon  or  any 
other  part  of  the  East  Indies,  as  Linnaeus  and  LacdpMe  have  errone- 
oudy  supposed,  and  asserted  on  the  authority  of  Seba.  The  general 
colour  of  this  serpent  is  a  deep  brown,  varied  with  shades  of  white, 
more  or  less  intense  according  to  the  difference  of  the  individual  and 
the  season  of  casting  the  old  and  acquiring  the  new  external  skin.    It 


Amphubana  fuliginota  {Clothonia  Johnifj, 

grows  to  the  length  of  18  inches  or  2  feet,  of  which,  however,  the  tail 
measures  only  1  inch  or  1 5  lines.  The  body  is  surrounded  by  upwaids 
of  200  rings,  and  the  tail  by  25  or  80  the  eyes  are  covered  and  almost 
concealed  by  a  membrane,  which,  added  to  their  natoraQy  diminutiye 


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AMPHITHERIUM. 


AMYGDALUS. 


188 


size,  has  given  riae  to  the  popular  opinion  that  the  animal  waa  entirely 
deprived  of  sight ;  an  opinion  extended  with  no  better  reason  to  the 
Clommon  Blind-Worm  {Anguit  fragilu).  It  lives  upon  worms  and 
insects,  particulariy  ants,  in  the  mounds  of  which  it  usually  conceals 
itself.  The  antipathy  which  most  people  entertain  against  serpents  in 
general  has  given  rise  to  a  belief  common  among  travellers,  that  this, 
species  is  venomous,  but  without  the  slightest  foundAtion  in  reality,  as 
it  is  entirely  destitute  of  fangs,  and  its  teeth  in  other  respects  so  small 
as  to  be  incapable  of  inflicting  a  woimd. 

2.  A,  €Ubci,  so  called  from  its  colour,  which  is  that  of  imiform  pale 
straw  without  any  marks  or  spots.  The  head  of  this  species  is  short 
and  thick,  and  its  mouth  small.  The  body  usually  measures  finom 
1  foot  6  inches  to  1  foot  9  or  10  inches,  and  is  surrounded  by  223  rings ; 
the  tail  is  from  1^  to  8  inches  in  length,  and  is  surrounded  by  16  or 
18  rings.  The  tldckness  of  the  body  seldom  exceeds  that  of  a  man's 
fore-finger,  and  is  uniform  throughout  its  whole  length ;  that  of  the 
former  species,  on  the  contrary,  equals  the  thickness  of  the  wrist  of  a 
child  of  1 0  or  1 2  years  old.  The  ^4 .  alba  inhabits  the  same  localities  and 
lives  in  the  same  manner  as  the  A.  fidiffinota,  from  which  indeed  it 
differs  only*  in  size,  colour,  the  proportionate  length  of  the  tail  and 
body,  and  in  having  the  mouth  provided  with  a  greater  number  of 
teeth,  all,  however,  equally  small  and  weak. 

8.  A.  ca!ca,  a  species  mentioned  by  Baron  Cuvier  in  the  second  edition 
of  the  '  R^gne  Animal,'  but  without  any  detailed  description.  It 
inhabits  the  island  of  Martinique,  and  is  said  to  be  entirely  deprived 
of  sight,  at  least  M.  Cuvier  was  imable  to  discern  anv  trace  of  eyes. 
He  supposes  it^  nevertheless,  to  be  identical  with  the  AmpkMima 
vermiadarii  of  Spix,  which  ih&i  naturalist  describes  as  having  eyes 
scarcely  perceptible. 

AMPHITHE'KIUM  (Blainville).  This  Fossil  Mammal,  from  Stones- 
field,  is  now  termed  Thylacotheriwn  by  Owen. 

AMPHlUMA,  a  singular  genus  of  Amphibian  Reptiles,  first  noticed 
by  Dr.  Garden  in  1771,  in  a  letter  to  Ldnnseus.  The  remarkable  and 
anomalous  order  Amphibia^  to  which  this  genus*  belongs,  is  more 
extensively  spread  throughout  the  New  World,  and  exhibits  a  far  greater 
diversity  of.oivanic  modification  in  the  western  hemisphere,  Uian  in 
all  the  rest  of  the  earth  together.  It  is  here  alone  that  the  Mmoponug, 
the  Amphiumcef  the  Axolotlt,  the  Menohranchi,  and  the  Sirens,  are  to 
be  found.  I'hese  singular  animals  aboimd  in  all  the  lakes  and  stagnant 
waters,  and  astonish  the  observer  equally  by  the  variety  as  by  the 
novelty  of  their  forms.     [Amphibia.] 


The  external  form  of  the  Amphiuma  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
conmion  eel,  but  the  whole  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  animal 
anproximates  it  more  nearly  to  the  Common  Water-Newt  (Triton 
mirmorata)  than  to  any  other  known  species.  From  this  creature 
indeed  it  differs  principally  in  the  extreme  length  of  its  body  and  the 
diminutive  size  6f  its  extremities,  which  rather  resemble  small  tentaculi 
than  actual  legs.  The  only  two  known  species  inhabit  the  stagnant 
pools  and  ditches  in  the  neighbourhood  of  New  Orleans,  and  those  in 
Florida,  Geoi^a,  and  South  Carolina.  They  bury  themselves  in  the 
mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  ditches,  partictuarly  on  the  approach  of 
winter,  and  vast  numbers,  of  them  are  sometimes  found  in  draining 
and  clearing  ponds,  at  the  depth  of  8  or  4  feet  from  the  sur&ce.  They 
are  also  capable  of  existing  on  land,  but  as  their  food  in  all  probability 
exists  only  in  the  water,  they  never  voluntarily  abandon  that  elements 
The  two  known  species,  A.  didaclyla  and  A.  tridactylOf  differ  prin- 
cipally in  the  number  of  their  toes,  the  one  having  only  two,  the  other 
three  on  each  foot. 

AMPHODELITE,  a  mineral  allied  to  ScapoUte,  from  which  it 
differs  in  possessing  magnesia  instead  of  lime.  It  is  composed  of 
silica,  alumma,  and  magnesia^    [Soapolite.] 

AMPLEXUS  (Sowerby),  a  fossil  genus  of  MadrephyUiaa,  remark- 
able for  the  simplicity  of  its  structure  and  the  variability  of  its 
general  figure.  It  occun  in  the  Mountain  Limestone  and  Devonian 
Limestone. 


AMPULLA'RIA,  a  genus  of  Fresh-Water  Spiral  Univalve  Shells, 
which  are  found  in  the  rivers  and  ponds  of  India,  Africa,  and  South 
America.  They  are  of  a  globular  or  rather  depreawd  form,  are  covered 
with  a  thick  olive  or  black  periostraca,  and  often  banded.  Their  mouth 
is  ovate,  with  the  lips  complete  all  round,  and  often  slightly  thickened 
or  reflexed.  The  animals  are  somewhat  similar  to  thC'Common  Pond- 
Snail  (Paludina)f  but  they  have  the  front  of  the  head  nicked  aad 
furnished  with  two  slight  conical  horn-like  processes ;  and  they  have 
long  slender  tentacles,  with  the  eyes  placed  on  small  pedicles  at  their 
outer  base :« these  horns  and  the  tentacles  often  contract  into  a  spiral 
form.  But  the  great  peculiarity  of  these 'animals  is,  that,  unlike  all 
other  molluscous  animals  with  comb-like  gills,  they  have  a  large  bag 
which  opens  beneath,  placed  on  the  side  of  the  respiratory  cavity, 
which  they  probably  can  fill  with  water;  and  it  is  this  structure 
which  most  likely  gives  them  the  power  of  living  for  a  long  time 
out  of  water,  specimens  having  been  brought  from  Egypt  to  Paris 
alive,  by  only  packing  them  in  a  little  sawdust.  Their  operculum 
is  formed  of  concentric  rings  with  the  nucleus  nearly  in  the  centre ; 
in  the  species  which  come  from  India,  this  part  is  generally  shelly, 
but  in  those  of  America  and  Africa  it  is  always  homy.  The  Tndian 
species  lay  globular  pale-green  ^ggs  about  the  size  of  small  peas^ 
which  are  placed  in  clusters  on  sticks  and  other  things  in  the  ditches; 
the  ^ggs  when  dry  form  most  beautiful  objects.  Some  of  the  African 
species  are  reversed,  or  have  the  whorls  of  the  shell  turned  frt>zn  the 
right  to  the  left,  and  these  have  been  separated  into  a  genus,  under 
the  name  of  Lanittetf  on  this  account  It  has  been  generally  supposed 
by  the  geologist,  that  all  the  species  of  this  genus  are  purely  fr^esh- 
water,  but  the  large  Egyptian  species,  A.  ovata,  discovered  by  Olivier 
in  Egypt,  lives  in  Lake  Mareotis,  where  the  water  is  salt ;  therefore 
there  is  no  proof  that  some  of  the  fossil  species  are  not  marine. 

AMPTX  (Dalman),  a  genus  of  Fossil  Crustacea  (7Vi2o6tfet),  four 
species  of  which  have  been  described  by  Colonel  Portlock,  from 
'Tyrone. 

XMYQDAUEM  (Drvpacea  of  Lindley),  a  sub-order  of  the  natural 
order  Rosacea  [Rosaceje],  among  which  it  is  known  by  its'  bearing 
the  kind  of  fruit  called  a*drupe,  by  the  stamens  being  numerouB  and 
arising  from  the  orifice  of  a  tubular  calyx,  and  bv  the  leaves  and 
other  parts  of  the  plant  yielding  hydro<7anic  acid  Owing  to  the 
last  circumstance,  the  species  are  all  more  or  less  poisonous,  es}>ecially 
in  those  parts  where  tne  prussic  acid  is  concentrated,  as  the  leaves 
of  the  common  laurel,  the  skin  of  the  kernel  of  the  almond,  &c.  On 
the  other  hand,  those  parts  in  which  the  prussic  acid  exists  either  in 
very  minute  quantity,  or  not  at  all,  as  the  succulent  fruit,  and  some- 
times  the  kernel,  are  harmless,  and  are  often  valuable  articles  of.  food. 
It  is  on  this  account  that,  while  the  general  character  of  the  foliage 
Ib  either  unwholesome  or  suspicious,  the  frnit  of  many  of  them  is 
much  cultivated.  The  peach,  the  nectarine,  the  plum,  the  cherry,  the 
almond,  the  apricot,  prune,  damson,  and  bidlace  are  produced  by 
different  species  of  this  order. 


6 


1.  An  expanded  flower. 
3.  The  same  eat  throagb. 
6.  Stone. 


Amygdahne, 

2.  The  same  with  the  corolla  removed. 
4.  Anthers.  5.  Drupe. 

»  7.  Embryo. 


The  bark  of  Amygdalea  yields  a  gum  which  is  similar  in  its 
properties  to  g^m  arable;  and  an  astnngent  substance  which. gives 
some  of  the  species  so  muc^  efficacy  in  fevers,  that  their  bark  has  been 
compared  for  utility  to  Peruvian  Bark. 

AMYGDALOID,  the  name  of  a  variety  of  the  Trap-Rocks,  when 
in  a  uniform  base  there  are  imbedded  round  or  almond-shaped  bodieai, 
consisting  of  agate,  calcareous  spar,  or  zeolites,  like  almonds  in  a 
cake :  the  term  is  derived  from  the  Greek  i^ivyiaXoti^t,  resembling  an 
almond. 

AMT'GDALUS,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of  the  suborder 
Amygdalece,  comprehending  the  almond,  and  the  peach  and  nectarine, 
besides  a  few  bushes,  the  <£ief  interest  of  which  arises  from  their  gay 
appearance. 

A.  communitf  the  Conmion  Almond,  is  a  native  of  Barbary,  whence 
it  had  not  been  transferred  into  Italy  in  the  time  of  Cato ;  it  has, 
however,  been  so  long  cultivated  all  over  the  south  of  Europe  and 
the  temperate  parts  of  Asia  as  to  have  become,  as  it  were,  naturalised 
in  the  whole  of  the  Old  World  from  Madrid  to  Canton.  In  this 
country,  it  is  only  grown  for  the  si^e  of  its  beautiful  vernal  flowers ; 
but  in  the  countries  that  have  a  long  and  hot  summer,  it  is  the  frxdt 


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189 


AMYRIDACEJE. 


ANACARDIACE^ 


KO 


for  which  it  is  esteemed.  This,  which  is  produced  in  very  large 
quantities,  is  partly  exported  into  northern  countries,  and  partly 
pressed  for  oil,  or  consumed  for  various  domestic  purposes.  Although 
botanists  distinguish  only  one  species  of  eatable  almond,  yet  there  are 
many  varieties,  of  which  the  principal  are  the  Bitter  Almond  and  the 
Sweet  Almond ;  of  each  of  which  the  French  and  Italians  have  several 
sub- varieties  distinguished  by  the  hardness  or  softness  of  their  shell, 
and'the  form  or  size  of  the  kernel  These  have  all  been  introduced 
into  Elngland,  but  none  of  them  are  capable  of  ripening  their  fruit  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  London,  except  in  unusually  fine  hot  summers, 
preceded  by  mild  and  imintemipted  springs. 

A.  Pertica,  the  Peach,  once  called  the  Persian  Apple,  because  it  was 
introduced  from  that  country  into  Europe,  has  for  ages  been  an 
object  of  careful  cultivation  for^the  sake  of  its  delicious  fruit,  and 
has  almost  naturalised  itself  in  America.  In  the  country  round 
about  Buenos  Ayres  it  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  trees,  and  bears 
abundant  and  delicious  fruit.  In  our  gardens  many  varieties  are 
known,  which  are  classed  under  the  two  heads  of  peaches  and  nectarines 
according  as  their  fruit  is  smooth  or  downy;  of  the  varieties  there  are 
few  that  are  not  worthy  of  cultivation,  but  the  best  are,  perhaps,  the 
Bed  Magdalen  Peach,  the  Noblesse  Peach,  the  Royal  Qeorge  Peach, 
and  the  Smith's  Newington  or  Tawny  Nectarine.  For  a  late  crop  of 
peaches,  the  Tdton  de  Venus  may  be  recommended;  but  not  the 
Catherine,  nor  indeed  any  of  the  thick-skinned  October  peaches, 
which,  however  excellent  in  the  south  of  Europe,  seldom  ripen,  and 
never  acquire  their  natural  flavour  in  this  country.  For  preserving, 
the  Blood-Red  Peach,  or  Sanguinole,  the  flesh  of  which  is  of  the 
deepest  crimson,  is  worth  a  place  in  a  garden. 

AMYRI'DACE^,  AmyricU,  a  natural  order  of  plants  consisting  of 
tropical  trees  or  shrubs,  the  leaves,  bark,  and  fruit  of  which  abound 
in  fragrant  resin.  It  is  imown  among  the  Polypetalous  Dicotyledonous 
orders  by  its  hypogynous  stamens,  which  are  twice  as  numerous  as 
the  petals,  by  the  large  disk  in  which  the  ovarium  is  inserted,  by  its 
one^eeded  fleshy  fruit,  covered  all  over  with  resinous  glands,  and 
generally  dotted  leavea 

The  species  are  natives  of  tropical  India,  Africa,  and  America. 

This  order  is  remarkable  for  gelding  various  fragrant  resins  as 
Myrrh,  Frankincense,  and  other  products.  The  Frankincense  of  India 
is  the  produce  of  a  species  of  Botwellut.  Olibanum  is  yielded  by 
jBotwdUa  tenattL  Myrm  is  obtained  on  the  Abyssinian  coast  from  the 
Bdbamodendron  myrrha.  B.  OpobaUamum  yields  the  Balm  of  Mecca. 
Bdellium  is  produced  in  Africa  by  B.  Africanwn.  American  Elemi 
oomes  from  Idea  Idcariba.  Resin  of  Courina  from  /.  ambrotuKci. 
The  Gimi  EHemi  of  commerce  is  said  to  be  yielded  by  several  species 
of  Amyrit.     (Lindley,  Vegetable  Kingdom.) 

A'NABAS  (from  hfofialyUf  to  ascend),  the  name  given  by  Cuvier  to 
a  genus  of  Acanthopterygious  Osseous  Fishes,  remarkable  for  the  power 
possessed  by  the  species  of  living  for  some  time  out  of  water,  and 
making  their  way  on  land.  Tlus  power  depends  on  a  structure 
characteristic  of  the  family  of  which  it  ia  the  type,  part  of  the 
pharangeals  being  labyrinthiform ;  that  is  to  say,  divided  into  a  number 
of  irregular  lamellae,  more  or  less  numerous,  forming  cavities  and 
Httle  cells  capable  of  retaining  a  certain  quantity  of  water.  This 
apparatus  is  so  protected,  that  when  the  animals  are  out  of  their 
native  element  the  evaporation  of  the  contained  water  takes  place 
very  slowly,  and  the  gUls  are  kept  moist^  by  means  of  which  remark- 
able provision  the  fishes  of  this  family  are  enabled  to  leave  the  rivers 
and  manhes  where  they  usually  reside,  and  to  travel  over  land  for 
considerable  distances,  creeping  among  the  herbage  or  along  the 
ground.  Although  this  fact  has  been  but  recently  known  to  modem 
naturalists,  the  ancients  appear  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  it, 
and  Theophrastus  has  recorded  the  existence  in  India  of  certain  little 
fiihes  which  leave  the  rivers  for  a*time,  and  again  return  to  them :  he 
doubtless  alludes  to  the  Anahas  and  its  allies. 

The  genus  AnahaSf  of  which  there  is  but  one  species,  the  Anabaa 
icandeM  (Perca  scandena  of  Daldorf,  Anthias  testudineua  of  Bloch),  is 
distinguished  by  a  well-marked  character,  the  borders  of  its  opercle, 
auboperde,  and  interopercle  being  denticulated,  whilst  the  preopercle 
is  not  so,  nor  even  distinctiy  mai^ated.  The  head  is  round  and 
broad ;  the  muzzle  is  very  short  and  obtuse,  the  eye  placed  very  near 
its  extremity.  The  mouth  is  small,  and  laige  scales  cover  the  head. 
The  body  is  oblong,  compressed  centrally  and  behind.  The  lateral 
line  is  interrupted  at  its  posterior  third,  reconmiencing  a  little  lower. 
The  tail  is  somewhat  rounded.  The  whole  body  is  covered  with  large 
scales.  There  is  a  single  dorsal  and  an  anal  fin,  nearly  equal  in  height^ 
and  in  both  the  spinous  rays  prevaiL 

In  colour  it  appears  to  vary,  being  brown  or  bluish-black  or  dark 
green,  paler  beneath  and  having  violet  fins.  In  form  the  individuals 
are  constant,  and  reach  the  length  of  6  inches. 

This  fish  inhabits  all  parts  of  India  and  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
living  in  marshes  and  feeding  on  aquatic  insects,  and  Dr.  Cantor 
observed  it  at  Chusan.  Respecting  its  habits  there  has  been  much 
discussion.  In  1797  a  Danish  gentleman,  M.  Daldorf,  communicated 
an  account  of  its  habits  to  the  Limuean  Society  of  London,  in  which 
he  stated  that  he  had  observed  it  in  the  act  of  ascending  palm-trees 
near  marshes,  and  had  taken  it  at  a  height  of  no  less  than  5  feet  above 
the  Buifibce  of  the  water,  effecting  its  movements  of  ascent  by  means 
of  its  fins  and  taU  and  the  spines  of  its  operoles,  in  a  similar  maimer 


to  that  by  which  it  progressed  •  along  the  ground.  Another  Danish 
observer,  M.  John,  published  a  similar  statement,  adding  that  it  ia 
called  in  Tranquebar  by  a  name  which  signifies  Tree-Climber.  Other 
naturalists,  who  have  equally  observed  it  in  its  native  countries,  such 


Anabas  seandens. 


Head  of  Andbett  tcandens,  laid  open  to  show  the  peculiar  pharyngeal  apparatus. 

as  Reinwardt,  Leschenault,  and  Hamilton  Buchanan,  whilst  tiiey  record 
its  habit  of  creeping  on  the  ground  and  living  a  long  time  out  of  water, 
deny  or  omit  all  mention  of  its  power  to  ascend  trees. 

To  the  same  family  with  Anabiu  belong  the  genera  ffdoitoma, 
Polyaca^hut,  Colua,  Macropodtu,  Osphromenut,  TnchopiUf  and  SpirO' 
branchu,  of  which  the  habits  are  as  yet  veiy  imperfectiy  known, 
though  the  peculiarities  of  their  anatomy  warrant  us  m  supposing  that 
they  have  a  similar  power  of  living  out  of  water. 

{Linnaan  TramacUoru,  vol.  iiL ;  and  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes,  ffist, 
Nat.  de»  Poissont,  tom.  vii) 

ANABATHRA,  a  Fossil  Tree,  from  Allenbank,  Berwickshire,  is 
thus  named  by  Mr.  Witham,  and  figured  in  *  Foss.  Yeg.'  t  8  and  t  10. 

A'NABLEFS  (from  AyegSXrirw,  to  look  up),  a  genus  of  Malaoopte- 
rygious  Osseous  Fishes,  remarkable  for  the  curious  structure  of  their 
eyes,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  division  of  the  iris  and  cornea  by 
transverse  ligaments,  have  two  pupils,  and  appear  as  if  double,  whilst 
there  is  only  one  crystalline  humour,  one  vitreous  humour,  and  one 
retina.  There  is  no  other  example  known  of  such  a  modification  of 
structure  among  iheVertebrata.  This  peculiarity  of  the  AnabUpt  has 
given  rise  to  several  stories  of  four-eyed  fish,  with  exaggerated 
accounts  of  their  habits.  The  Anahlepi  tetrt^hthalfMU  inhabits  the 
rivers  of  Guyana  and  Surinam.  Its  body  is  cylindrical,  and  covered 
with  strong  scales ;  its  head  is  flattened,  and  snout  blunt.  The  upper 
jaw  projects  beyond  the  lower. 

ANACARDIA'CE^,  Anaccurds  or  the  Caskew  Tribe,  is  a  natural 
order  of  plants,  consisting  exclusively  of  woody  plants,  abounding  in 
an  acrid  resin,  which  is  easily  discovered  by  bruising  tiie  leaves,  but 
which  is  not  indicated  by  its  being  collected  in  transparent  receptacles 
in  t^e  leaves,  as  is  most  commonly  the  case.  They  are  polypetalous 
dicotyledons,  with  perigynous  stamens,  a  simple  one-seeded  superior 
fruit,  and  alternate  leaves  without  stipules. 

Their  juice  is  often  used  as  a  kind  of*  varnish,  for  which  it  is  well 
adapted  in  consequence  of  its  turning  hard  and  black  when  dry.  It 
is,  however,  often  dangerous  to  use,  because  of  the  extreme  acridity 
of  the  funtes,  which  are  apt  to  produce  severe  inflammation  in  many 
constitutions.  The  best-known  genera  of  the  order  are,  in  the  first 
place,  BhuSf  or  the  Sumach,  of  which  so  many  species  are  cultivated 
in  our  gardens ;  and  the  PistaciaSy  the  nuts  of  which  are  served  at 
desserts,  and  their  juice  is  commonly  sold  in  the  shops  under  the  name 
of  Mastich  and  Scio  Turpentine.  Besides  these,  there  are  the  Chilian 
Dwroiuu,  which  resemble  myrties,  the  Mango,  the  fruit  of  which 
is  so  delicious  in  tropical  countries,  and  the  Cashew  or  Acajou  Nut, 
Anacardivm,  from  which  the  order  takes  its  name. 

The  last,  Anaeardiwn  occidentale,  is  a  small  tree  found  all  over  the 
West  Indies,  where  it  is  much  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  bunches 
of  fragrant  rosy  flowers,  as  well  as  of  its  fruit  Its  stem,  if  wounded, 
yields  abundantiy  a  milk,  which,  when  inspissated,  becomes  intensely 
black  and  hard,  besides  which,  it  secretes  a  g^um  not  inferior  to  gum 
arabia  The  nut  is  a  kidney-shaped  body,  seated  on  a  large  fleshy 
protuberance,  and  being,  in  £Ekct,  the  extremely  dilated  disk  or 
receptacle ;  the  latter  is  sometimes  red,  sometimes  white.  The  nuts 
contain,  in  abundance,  beneath  the  outer  shell,  the  black  caustic  oil  of 
the  order,  which,  when  volatilised  by  heaty  as  happens  in  the  process 
of  roasting,  is  apt  to  produce   eiysipelas  and    other   diaa^^weable 


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19L 


ANAGALLIS. 


ANAKRHICAS. 


193 


affectioiiB  in  the  face  of  persoiiB  standing  over  the  fumes ;  the  kernel 
is  a  well-known  wholesome  article  of  food.  In  the  West  Indies  it  is 
used  as  an  ingredient  in  puddings,  is  eaten  raw,  and  is  roasted  for  the 


« 

^ 


1.  Male  flower. 
4.  Fruit. 


Ducaua  dependmt, 
2.  Hermaphrodite  do.  8.  Back  of  do. 

5.  Section  of  do.    All  slightly  magnified. 


purpose  of  mixing  with  Madeira  wine,  to  which  it  is  thought  to 
communicate  a  peculiarly  agreeable  flavour.      In  this  country  the 


Cashetr  Nut  {Anaeardium  occidentale). 

Cashew  Nut  never  flowers,  and  can  only  be  cultivated  as  a  tendei 
stove-plant. 

The  Spondiaa,  or  Hog  Plum,  which  is  the  type  of  the  order 
Spandiacea,  is  referred  by  Lindley  to  this  order.  [Spondiaoejb  ;  Rhus.] 

ANAQAliLI^  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Primvlace(B: 
among  which  it  is  known  by  its  flat  or  wheel-shaped  coroUaa  and  by 
iU  capsule  opening  into  two  halves,  of  which  the  upper  fits  the  undei 
l^e  the  lid  of  a  Iwx.    A  very  common  species  is  the  Pimpernel,  oi 


Poor  Man's  Weather-Qlass,  so  called  because  its  flowers  generally  open 
at  eight  in  the  morning  and  dose  in  the  afternoon,  and  also  revise  to 
expand  in  rainy  weather.  It  is  a  little  trailing  plant  with  brick-red 
flowers,  very  abundant  in  corn-fields ;  it  was  once  thought  useful  in 
cases  of  madness,  especially  such  as  arose  from  the  bite  of  rabid 
.animals,  but  it  is  in  no  esteem  at  the  present  day.  There  is  a  purple 
variety  called  by  Sir  J.  K  Smith  A.  cceruUa.  A  far  more  beautiful 
species  is  the  AnagcUlia  tcneUa  (Bog  Pimpemel),  which  grows  in  the  drier 
parts  of  marshes,  along  with  Pinguicula  and  Drosera;  it  has  delicate 
flesh-coloiu^d  flowers,  in  the  centre  of  which  grows  a  cone  of  stamens 
covered  all  over  with  glittering  transparent  hairs;  these  and  its 
peculiarly  neat  appearance,  entitle  it  to  be  called  the  queen  of  British 
wildflowers.  Some  botanists  regard  it  as  a  distinct  genus,  and  describe 
it  under  the  name  of  Irastkia,  One  or  two  foreign  species,  with  largo 
blossoms,  are  cultivated  in  greenhouses. 

ANALCIME,  also  called  Cubidte  and  Sarcclite,  is  a  mineral  belonging 
to  the  group  of  hydrous  silicates  of  alumina.  It  contains  according 
to  analyses  by  Rose  and  Connell,  the  following  constituents : — 

Rose.        ConneU. 

SiHca 55-12        55*07 

Alumma 22*99        22*23 

Soda 18-53        13*71 

Water 8*27  8*22 

99*91  99-28 
It  is  foimd  crystallised,  the  primary  form  being  a  cube.  The  cleavage 
is  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  cube,  but  is  obtained  with  difficulty.  It 
has  an  uneven  imdulating  fracture.  It  scratches  glass,  but  not  readily. 
It  is  brittle,  and  is  of  a  white  colour  with  a  shade  of  red.  The  streak 
is  white,  and  it  has  a  vitreous  but  not  brilliant  colour.  It  is  either 
transparent,  translucent,  or  opaque.  The  specific  gravity  is  2*068.  It 
melts  into  a  dear  glassy  globule  by  the  blow-pipe  on  charcoaL  It 
gelatinises  in  hydrochloric  add.  It  is  prindpally  found  in  the  Basaltic 
and  Amygdaloidal  rocks  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  the  Tyrol,  and  other 
countries. 

ANAMIRTA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Menitpermacece,  including    some    of  the  spedes  of  the  old  genus 

CoCCVlliS.      [COCCULUS.] 

ANAMORPHO'SIS.    (Botany.)    [Metamobphosis  of  OBGAjra] 

ANANASSA,  a"  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
BromdiacoK,  found  wild  in  the  woods  of  South  America,  and  now 
commonly  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  rich  Europeans.  It  is 
distinguished  from  tiie  Bromdia,  to  which  it  was  once  referred,  by  its 
succulent  fruit  collected  in  a  compact  head. 

Of  Ananassa  tativa,  the  Common  Pine-Apple,  a  great  number  of 
varieties  are  known,  of  which  the  Moscow  and  Common  Queen,  the 
Black  Jamaica,  and  the  Antigua  Queen  are  the  best  for  summer  luse, 
the  Enville  and  the  Trinidad  the  laigest,  the  Black  Jamaica  the  best 
for  winter  use,  and  the  Blood-Red  the  worst  for  any  purpose  or 
season. 

The  fruit  is  a  mass  of  flowers,  the  calyxes  and  bracts  of  which  are 
fleshy  and  grow  firmly  together  into  a  single  head ;  it  is  the  points  of 
these  parts  that  together  form  what  gardeners  call  the  jpips,  that  is  to 
say,  the  rhomboidal  spaces  into  which  the  surface  is  divided.  When 
wild,  Pine  Apples  bear  seeds  like  other  plants;  but  in  a  state  of 
cultivation,  generally  owing  to  the  succulence  of  all  the  parts,  no  seeds 
are  produced,  and  consequently  the  plants  can  only  be  multiplied  by 
suckers,  or  by  their  branches,  which  gardeners  call  the  gills  and 
crown.  The  latter,  which  surmounts  the  fruit,  is  in  reality  the  end  of 
the  branch  round  which  the  flowers  are  arranged,  and  if  it  has  any 
tendency  to  ramification,  as  sometimes  happens,  it  becomes  what  is 
called  double. 

The  Pine- Apple  was  undoubtedly  unknown  before  the  discovery  of 
America;  its  incomparable  flavour  soon  however  caused  it  to  be 
introduced  into  Africa  and  Asia,  where,  in  a  suitable  climate,  ^  it 
multiplied  so  rapidly  as  to  acquire  as  firm  a  footing  in  those  oountriee 
as  their  aboriginal  plants.  In  Asia  it  has  even  improved  so  much  in 
quality,  that  the  Birmese  Pines,  which  have  never  yet  reached 
England,  are  said  to  be  the  finest  in  the  world.  With  tins  exception 
it  is  believed  that  we  already  possess  the  best  varieties  that  exist ;  and 
it  is  undoubted  that,  except  in  the  kingdom  of  Birma,  the  most 
delicious  specimens  of  the  fruit  are  produced  id  England.  Within  a 
recent  period  Pine-Apples  have  been  imported  laigely  into  England 
from  the  West  India  Islands,  where  the  cultivation  has  in  consequence 
been  more  carefully  attended  to,  the  quality  greatly  improved,  and 
this  branch  of  commerce  laigely  extended.  P*inb-Applb,  in  Abts 
AND  So.  Div.l 

ANANCHY'TES  (Lamarck),  a  fossil  genus  of  ^Awwcfcrnurfo,  found 
abundantly  in  the  Chalk. 

ANAHRHICAS,  a  genus  of  Acanthopteiygious  Osseous  Fishes^ 
established  by  Linnaus,  and  retained  by  subsequent  ichthyologists. 
They  are  very  nearly  allied  to  the  Blennies,  so  that  Cuvier  remarked 
they  might  be  regarded  as  Blennies  without  ventral  fins.  They  have 
round  smooth  blunt  heads;  elongated  bodies,  covered  by  minute 
scales ;  a  single  long  dorsal  fin,  and  an  extended  anal  fin,  both  sepa- 
rated from  the  caudal;  no  ventrals;  the  mouth  armed  with  formidable 
teeth  of  two  kinds,  conical  incisors  and  flat  grinders.  One  spedes, 
the  Wolf-Fish,  Sea-Cat,  or  Cat-Fish  {Anarrhiccu  Juput  of  Linnaus),  ia 


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ANAS. 


ANATOMY. 


common  in  the  northern  seas,  and  in  Britain  is  frequently  taken  on 
the  east  coast  of  Scotland  and  the  Orkneys,  though  rare  on  the 
Knglish  shorea.  Its  range  extends  to  Greenland.  It  grows  to  the 
length  of  6  feet,  and  is  a  ferocious  and  formidable  animal,  destroying 
the  nets  of  fishermen ;  when  caught  ib  defends  itself  to  its  last  gasp, 
inflicting  severe  wounds  by  means  of  its  powerful  teeth  and  jaws.  It 
lives  chiefly  on  Crustacea  and  testaceous  molluscs,  and,  like  most  fish 
which  subsist  on  such  food,  its  flesh  is  excellent  eating,  though,  from 
the  ugly  appearance  of  the  animal,  usually  rejected.  It  finds  its  way 
however  to  the  Edinbuigh  market,  where,  by  naturalists  especially, 
whose  knowledge  of  its  good  qualities  enables  them  to  vanquish 
their  prejudices  against  its  aspect^  it  is  much  esteemed.  The 
Cat-Fish  is  of  a  light  gray  colour  marked  with  seven  or  eight  broad 
vertical  bands  of  bluish  gray.  When  old  it  b&comes  darker.  Its 
skin  is  covered  with  slima    (Tarrell's  Britiih  Fishes.) 

ANAS,  the  Duck,  a  genus  of  birds  under  which  Linnseus  included 
a  great  number  of  species  now  separated  into  several  genera  by  recent 
naturalists.    [Ducks.] 

ANASTATICA,  a  genua  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
CruciferecB.  One  species,  A.  hio'ochiuUinaf  is  the  Rose  of  Jericho. 
[Jericho,  Bose  of.] 

ANASTOMOSIS,  fiom  ii4,  through,  and  arrdtia,  a  mouth,  signifies 
the  communication  of  blood-vessels  with  each  other  by  the  opening  of 
the  one  with  the  other.  The  blood-vessels  are  the  tubes  by  which 
the  different  parts  of  the  body  are  supplied  with  nourishment.  If  the 
blood-vessels  destined  to  nomish  a  part  be  obstructed,  so  that  it 
cannot  receive  a  due  supply  of  blood,  that  part  must  necessarily  die, 
or,  as  it  is  technioUly  termed,  mortify.  But  the  blood-vessels  are 
soft  compressible  tubes,  liable  by  innumerable  circumstances  to  have 
their  sides  brought  so  closely  into  contact  as  to  prevent  the  flow  of  a 
single  particle  of  blood  through  them.  In  order  to  prevent  the  con- 
sequences that  would  result  to  the  system  from  the  operation  of 
causes  thus  tending  to  impede  the  circulation,  provision  is  made  for 
the  freest  possible  commimication  between  the  main  trunks  of  the 
blood-vessels  and  their  branches,  and  between  one  branch  and  another. 
All  the  branches  which  form  such  communications  are  called  anasto- 
mosing branches,  and  this  union  of  branch  with  branch  ia  termed 
Anastomosis, 
ANATASE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  variety  of  Titanic  Add.  [Titanium.] 
ANATHERUM,  a  genus  of  Qrasses,  belonging  to  the  group  ^of 
which  species  yield  fragrant  volatile  oils.  A,  muricatum  is  the  Vetian 
of  the  French  and  the  Khus  of  the  Hindoos.  Its  fragrant  roots  are 
employed  in  making  tatties,  covers  for  palanquins,  &c.  It  is  admin- 
istered medicinally,  and  has  stimulating  and  diaphoretic  qualities. 
A.  nardus  is  also,  on  account  of  the  volatile  oil  it  contains,  called 
Ginger-GrasB,  or  KoobeL 

ANATID.£  (Leach),  the  Duck  kind,  a  group  formed  by  Dr.  Leach 
to  include  his  genera  formed  from  the  great  genus  Ancu  of  Linnaeus. 
fDucKa]^ 

ANATOMT,  from  a  Oreek  term  (&y«ro^4),  which  literally  signifies 
'  the  seperation  of  a  thing  into  parts  by  cutting; '  the  term  Anatomy 
is  use&  to  sigmfy  particularly,  dissection,  or  knowledge  acquired  by 
dissection.  Anatomy  is  at  once  an  art  and  a  science ;  an  art,  inasmuch 
as  the  puiHuit  of  it  requires  skilful  manipulation ;  and  a  science, 
inasmudli  as  certain  general  principles  are  deducible  from  it.  The 
object  of  anatomy  is  to  ascertain  the  structure  of  organised  bodies. 
Of  the  two  great  kingdoms  of  nature,  the  inoxganic  and  the  organic, 
it  oomprdiends  the  whole  range  of  the  latter.  Like  the  oiguiised 
kingdom  itself,  it  forms  two  divisions,  the  one  including  the  structure 
of  plants — ^Vegetable  Anatomy ;  tiie  other  the  structure  of  animals — 
Ammal  Anatomy.  Animal  Anatomy  is  divided  into  comparative  and 
hmnan :  Comparative  Anatomy  includes  an  account  of  the  structure 
of  all  rlnsBoo  of  animal «^  excepting  that  of  man ;  Human  Anatomy  is 
restricted  to  an  account  of  the  structure  of  man  only.  Human 
Anatomy  is  subdivided  into  descriptive,  general,  and  pathological 
Ikscriptive  Anatomy  comprehends  a  description  of  all  the  various 
parts  or  organs  of  the  human  body,  together  with  an  account  of  their 
situation,  connections,  and  relations,  as  these  circumstances  exist  in 
the  natural  and  sound,  or,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  the  normal, 
condition  of  the  body.  The  human  stomach,  for  example,  is  composed 
of  a  number  of  membranes,  which  are  united  in  a  particular  manner ; 
a  number  of  blood-vessels  which  are  derived  from  particular  arterial 
trunks ;  a  number  of  nerves  which  proceed  from  a  particular  ]>ortion 
of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord ;  a  number  of  absorbent  vessels,  and  so 
on ;  moreover,  this  organ  is  always  placed  in  a  particular  cavity  of  the 
hody,  and  is  always  found  to  have  certain  specific  connections  or 
relations  with  other  organs.  The  anatomy  of  the  human  stomach 
comprehends  an  account  of  all  the  particulars  of  this  kind,  which  are 
uniformly  found  to  concur  in  all  humui  bodies  in  which  the  confor- 
mation is  regular  or  natural ;  and  so  of  every  other  organ  of  the 
body :  and  because  such  an  exposition  of  the  structure  of  Uie  various 
organs  include  a  description  of  all  the  circumstances  that  relate  to 
their  organisation,  it  is  caJled  Descriptive  Anatomy. 

After  the  study  of  tiie  human  body  in  this  mode  has  been  carried 
to  a  certcdn  extent,  with  a  certain  degree  of  success,  it  necessarily 
giTes  origin  to  a  second  division  of  the  science,  that  termed  General 
Anatomp.  It  is  found,  that  many  of  the  circumstances  which  belong 
to  any  one  organ,  belong  at  the  same  time  to  several  organs ;  and  that 

»AT.  HIST.  DIV.  VOL.  I. 


thus  several  individual  circumstances  are  common  to  many  organs. 
Of  the  membranes,  for  example,  of  which  it  has  been  stated  that  the 
stomach  is  composed,  some  are  common  to  it  and  to  the  intestines, 
to  the  bladder,  to  the  heart,  to  the  air-passages,  and  so  on.  In 
like  manner  with  respect  to  any  one  of  tnese  membranes,  when  its 
structure  is  carefully  examined,  it  is  found  that  in  many  points  its 
organisation  is  exactiy  similar  to  that  of  all  other  membranes.  This 
view  extended  leads  to  further  important  and  interesting  results. 
AH  the  arteries  of  the  body,  whatever  their  situation,  size,  or  office, 
are  found  to  be  composed  essentially  of  the  same  substances,  disposed 
in  nearly  the  same  order  and  form.  All  the  veins  have,  in  like 
manner,  a  structure  essentially  the  same.  AH  the  absorbent  vessels, 
all  vessels  of  every  kind,  all  the  bones,  musdes,  and  nerves,  the  whole 
external  covering  of  the  body  or  the  skin,  widely  as  these  various 
structures  differ  from  each  other,  present  no  material  difference  as  far 
as  regards  the  oiganisation  of  each  particular  class.  Hence  various 
organs  of  the  body  are  disposed  into  what  are  called  common  systems, 
and  these  common  systems  are  said  to  consist  of  common  substances 
or  tissues.  All  the  vessels,  for  example,  are  collected  and  arranged 
under  one  common  class,  called  the  vascular  system :  in  like  manner, 
all  the  bones  are  collected  and  arranged  under  another  dass,  called 
the  osseous  system ;  all  the  musdes  imder  another,  called  the  mus- 
cular system  ;  all  the  nerves  imder  another,  called  the  nervous 
system,  and  so  on.  The  material  that  enters  into  the  composition  of 
each  of  these  systems  consists  of  a  substance  of  a  peculiar  nature ;  but 
as  this  substance  is  more  or  less  generally  difinised  over  the  whole 
body,  entering  as  a  constituent  element  into  the  various  organs,  it  is 
termed  a  common  substance,  or  tissue.  What  is  termed  the  common 
cellular  or  areolar  tissue,  for  example,  is  the  substance  which  enters 
most  commonly  into  the  compositition  of  the  organs  of  the  body ; 
the  muscular  tissue  is  the  substance  of  which  the  musdes  are  com- 
posed ;  the  nervous  tissue  is  the  substance  of  which  the  nerves  are 
composed :  and  tihus,  the  structure  of  the  body,  analysed  in  this 
mode,  innumerable  and  complex  as  the  substances  appear  to  be  of 
which  it  consists,  is  ultimately  reduced  to  a  very  few  simple  material^ 
by  the  combination  and  modification  of  which  all  the  different  animal 
substances  are  produced. 

Qeneral  Anatomy  also  indudes  the  study  of  certain  fluids  from 
whidi  the  membranes  or  textures  are  formed.  The  following  is  a  list 
of  the  fluids  and  textures,  given  by  Dr.  Sharpey  in  Quain's  'Elements 
of  Anatomy :  * — 

The  Blood,  Chyle,  and  Lymph. 

Epidermis  Tissue  (induding  EpitheHum,  Cutide,  Nailfl^  and  Hairs). 

Pigment 

Adipose  Tissue. 

Cellular  Tissue. 

Fibrous  Tissue. 

Elastio  Tissue. 

Cartilage,  and  its  varieties. 

Bone  or  Osseous  Tissue. 

Muscular  Tissue. 

Nervous  Tissue. 

Blood-Vessels. 

Serous  and  Synovial  Membranes. 

Mucous  Membranes. 

Skin. 

Secreting  Qlands. 
These  textures  and  fluids  will  be  treated  of  under  their  respective 
heads. 

Descriptive  and  general  anatomy,  then,  indude  an  account  of  the 
structure  of  the  body  as  it  exists  in  the  state  of  health.  But  there  is 
no  organ  of  the  body,  and  no  tissue  which  enters  into  its  composition, 
which  is  not  subject  to  disease ;  in  consequence  of  disease,  the  regular 
or  natural  structure  of  the  component  substances  of  the  body  becomes 
changed  in  a  great  variety  of  modes.  That  part  of  anatomy  whidi 
displays  these  diseased  or  morbid  changes,  and  which  deacribesaU 
the  droumstanoes  relating  to  them,  is  oiJled  Pathologieal  or  Morbid 
Anatomy.  We  may  say,  then,  that  Descriptive  Anatomy  comprdiends 
an  account  of  all  the  parts  or  organs  of  the  body  as  they  exist  in  the 
state  of  health ;  Oeneral  Anatomy  comprehends  an  account  of  all  the 
separate  substances  of  which  those  organs  are  composed,  not  as  these 
substances  exist  combined  in  organs,  but  as  they  form  distinct  and 
pecuUar  substances ;  Pathological  Anatomy  comprehends  an  account 
of  all  the  changes  of  structure  produced  by  disease,  whether  in 
individual  organs,  or  in  the  primitive  or  common  substances  of  which 
these  organs  are  composed. 

The  term  Anatomy,  as  we  have  seen,  is  diiefly  appUed  to  the  sdenoe 
which  determines  the  nature  and  relations  of  the  various  organs  of 
the  human  body.  A  general  term  is  here  used  in  a  restricted  sense. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  we  would  express  the  extension  of  the 
sdence  of  anatomy  to  the  whole  animal  creation,  we  employ  the 
general  term  with  the  addition  of  the  word  Comparative,  This 
anomaly  has  doubtless  proceeded  from  the  drcumstance  thati  till 
within  a  very  recent  period,  the  study  of  animal  structure  was  almost 
exclusively  confined  to  the  human  subject;  and  that  even  BoologiBti 
were  contented  with  inquiring  into  the  functions  of  animals,  instead 
of  determining  the  character  of  the  organs  which  were  oonnaoted 
with  those  functions.  By  the  term  Comparative  A  natom/y  is  understood 


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IflS 


ANBURY. 


ANCYLUa 


the  science  which  conveyB  a  knowledge  of  the  differenoee  in  the 
strnoture  and  oiganiBation  of  the  whole  animal  kingdom  in  all  its 
olassee,  orden,  and  speoies. 

It  is  evident  that  a  scienoe  possessing  such  an  extensive  range  must 
be  exceedingly  imperfect ;  especially  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that 
scarcely  half  a  century  has  elapsed  since  the  first  attempts  were  made 
to  simplify,  by  systematising,  its  almost  infinite  details.  It  has 
however  made  sufficient  progress,  not  only  to  have  furnished  the 
most  important  aids  to  the  study  of  human  anatomy  and  physiolc^, 
jt>ut  to  have  supplied  a  secure  and  broad  foundation  for  all  zoological 
knowledge,  both  as  regards  existing  and  extinct  races.  As  the  basis 
of  modem  zoology,  comparative  anatomy  presents  a  subject  of  the 
highest  interest,  and  the  most  successful  methods  of  classification 
have  been  produced  mainly  by  its  aid.    [Akimal  Kinqdoil] 

ANBURY  and  CLUB-ROOT,  a  sort  of  Galls  produced  by  msects  on 
the  roots  of  cabbages,  turnips,  hollyhocks,  and  other  species  of  culti- 
vated plants,  and  popularly,  but  incorrectly,  supposed  to  arise  from 
peculiarities  of  soil,  or  from  growing  the  same  crop  successively  on 
the  same  field,  or  to  be  owing  to  variations  of  seasons.  Nothing  can 
be  more  simple  than  the  disproof  of  all  these  theoretical  notions.  If 
we  take  some  of  the  cabbages  or  turnips,  whose  roots  are  infected 
with  anbury,  and  keep  them  in  garden-pots  covered  over  with  close 
gauze,  in  a  short  time,  if  the  plants  be  kept  growing,  the  little  weevils, 
evolved  from  the  grubs  in  the  interior  of  the  roots,  will  make  their 
appearance,  ready  to  multiply  their  species,  by  depositing  their  eggs, 
as  their  parents  had  done,  on  the  first  turnip  or  cabbage  they  can  find. 
The  weevil  thus  arising  continues  to  be  no  less,  but  often  more, 
destructive  than  the  grub  had  proved  to  be  in  feeding  on  the  roots ; 
for  it  thrusts  its  beak  (rostrum)  into  the  seed-leaf  of  the  turnip,  and 
greatly  injures  the  crop.  When  the  turnip  is  advanced  to  Uie  rough 
leaf,  these  insects  either  die,  as  most  insects  do,  when  they  have  laid 
their  eggs,  or  betake  themselves  to  some  other  plants  such  as  clover, 
which  is  suited  4o  their  taste. 

It  will  be  therefore  evident,  that  no  peculiar  rotation  of  crops,  nor 
peculiar  manure  for  dressing  the  soil,  can  be  of  any  avail  in  preventing 
anbury,  or  in  stopping  its  progress  when  the  insects  have  obtained  a 
lodgement  within  the  roots.  The  destruction  of  the  adult  insects 
before  they  have  laid  their  oggs,  is  the  only  remedy,  though  in  the 
case  of  so  small  a  species  it  is  peculiarly  difficult  to  effect 

ANCHOVT  {BnffrauhUf  Cuvier),  a  genus  of  Abdominal  Malacopteiy- 
gious  Fishes,  separated  by  Baron  Cuvier  from  the  C^ifpece,  or  Herrings  of 
Linnteus,  from  which  they  are  distinguished  by  the  superior  number 
of  their  branchiostegous  rays,  amounting  to  twelve  or  upwards,  by 
the  gape  of  the  mouth  extending  behind  the  eyes,  and  by  the  straight 
and  prolonged  form  of  the  superior  maxillary  bones,  which  form  a 
small  muzzle,  projecting  considerably  b«yond  the  mouth.  The 
genus,  as  at  present  constituted,  consists  of  six  or  seven  species,  all 
of  diminutive  size,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  Common  Anchovy 
(B,  encrtuiehoUu),  and  a  nearly  allied  species  distinguished  from  it  by 
M.  Cuvier  {B.  mdeUa),  all  inhabitants  of  the  tropic^  seas  of  India  and 
America.  Whether  Uiese  latter  agree  with  the  European  species  in 
the  savour  and  other  qualities  of  the  fiesh,  for  which  it  is  so  highly 
esteemed,  is  a  doubtful  question;  at  all  events  we  are  not  aware  that 
the  fishing  of  the  native  spedes  has  ever  been  attempted  either  in 
America  or  India. 

The  Common  Anchovr  is  a  small  fish,  not  much  longer  than  the 
middle  finger,  of  a  bluish-brown  colour  on  the  back,  and  silvery-white 
on  the  belly.  The  anal-fin  is  remarkably  short,  and  the  dorsal  situated 
immediately  above  the  ventral ;  these  characters  will  serve  readily  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  sprat  and  other  kindred  species,  with  whidi  it 
might  otherwise  be  confounded,  and  which  are,  in  fact,  not  unfre- 
quently  imposed  upon  the  public  for  the  real  anchovy.  It  abounds 
in  the  Mediterranean  along  the  shores  of  Spain,'Ita]y,  and  Greece;  in 
the  AtlantLc  it  is  found  along  the  coasts  of  Portugal  and  France,  and 
occasionally  has  been  taken  off  the  shores  of  England  and  Holland. 
Considerable  fisheries  of  Anchovies  are  established  along  the  coasts 
of  Provence  and  Catalonia;  but  the  most  productive  of  all  is  off 
Gorgona,  a  small  island  west  of  Leghorn.  The  latter  fishery  is  carried 
on  only  during  the  months  of  May,  Jtme,  and  July,  at  which  period  the 
anchovies  quit  the  deep  seas  and  approach  the  shores  for  the  puipose 
of  depositing  their  roe ;  it  is  then  only  that  they  are  found  in  the 
Mediterranean,  which  they  enter  in  enormous  shoals,  by  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar,  at  the  commencement  of  the  breeding  season,  and  leave  it^ 
after  fulfilling  this  duty,  to  retire  asain  to  the  depths  of  the  AUantia 
They  are  fished  for  only  during  the  night,  and  are  attracted  round 
the  boats  by  means  of  charcoal  fires  which  are  kept  burning  in  the 
stems. 

After  being  caught,  the  heads,  gills,  and  entrails  are  separated  from  the 
bodies,  whidi  are  siJted  and  arranged  in  small  barrels,  varying  from 
5  to  20  pounds  in  weight :  this  is  the  only  preparation  which  they 
undergo  previous  to  being  sent  to  market;  and  if  proper  means  be 
taken  to  exclude  the  air  they  will  in  this  state  keep  for  a  considerable 
period.  If,  when  the  banels  are  open,  the  fish  are  found  to  be  small 
and  firm,  round-backed,  with  a  sUveiy-white  skin  and  red  flesh,  and  a 
plump  compact  form,  they  are  probably  the  true  anchovy ;  if,  on  the 
contrary,  they  taper  very  much  towards  the  tail,  are  of  a  dark  brown 
oolour  without,  and  have  flabby  pale-coloured  flesh,  they  will  probably 
turn  out  to  be  the  Sardine  (E,  maleUa),  another  Mediterranean  species 


frequently  mixed  with  real  anchovies,  or  even  sold  separately  as  the 
genuine  fish. 

No  condiment  is  more  generally  known  and  esteemed  than  anchovy 
sauce.  It  was  also  in  use  among  the  Romans,  and  was  one  of  the 
kinds  of  sauce  called  Garum,  which  appears  to  have  formed  an  indis- 
pensable article  of  seaaoning  in  their  most  expensive  and  luxurious 
dishes. 

ANCHOVY  PEAR    [Griaa] 

ANCHU'SA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Boraginacea,  and  to  the  sub-tribe  AnckuaeoL  The  calyx  is  5-fid ;  the 
corolk  funnel-shaped,  with  a  straight  tube,  the  throat  being  dosed  by 
prominent  obtuse  scales ;  the  stamens  are  included,  and  subaessile ; 
the  fruit  a  nut,  which  is  depressed.  The  species  are  dueflyinhabitaotB 
of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  earth,  either  on  the  mountains  of  tropical 
regions  or  the  temperate  zone.  They  are  aU  of  them  rough  plants,  aad 
are  known,  as  well  as  the  species  of  LycoptU  and  Bckimm,  by  the  oom- 
mon  name  of  Bugloes.  Some  of  the  species  have  been  used  in  medicine^ 
while  others  are  employed  in  tiie  arts  for  dyeing.  Two  are  inhabitants 
of  Great  Britain. 

A.  offieinaUt,  Common  Alkanet  or  Bugloss,  has  lanceolate  hispid 
leaves,  unilateral  crowded  spikes,  ovate-lanceolate  bracts^  the  aegments 
of  the  calyx  bluntish,  hairy  on  both  sides,  the  scales  of  the  ooioUa 
hairy.  The  flowers  are  a  deep  purple.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  Great 
Britain,  on  waste  ground,  but  is  a  rare  plant  In  the  south  of  France, 
Germany,  and  Switzerland  it  is  everywhere  common,  in  uncultivated 
places,  on  old  walls,  and  bv  the  road-side.  The  young  plant  ia  Bom» 
times  boiled  and  eaten.  The  roots  contain  a  considen^e  quantity  of 
gum,  and  when  boiled  yield  a  demidcent  drink,  which  was  once  in 
repute  as  a  medicine. 

A.  9emperviren$f  Evergreen  Bugloss,  has  ovate  leaves,  with  lower 
leaves  on  long  stalks,  the  peduncles  axiUaiy,  each  bearing  two  dense 
spikes  with  an  intermediate  flower,  the  segments  of  the  calyx  hairy  on 
the  outside  only,  the  bracts  minute  lanceolate,  scales  of  the  corolla 
downy,  flowers  blue,  salverahaped  This  plant  is  found  on  waste 
ground,  near  ruins,  in  Great  Britain,  but  is  rare. 

A.  tindoria,  Dyers'  Bugloes  or  Alkanet,  has  diffbse  stems,  oblong 
hispid  leaves,  bracts  longer  than  the  calyx,  the  segments  of  the  corolla 
shorter  than  the  stamens.  The  corolla  has  a  deep  blood-coloured  tube, 
with  the  limb  deep  blue.  The  root  is  woody,  descending,  and  of  a 
dark  blood-red  colour.  This  plant  is  a  native  of  Peloponnesus,  the 
island  of  C^rus,  and  the  deserts  about  Alexandria.  It  is  cultivated 
in  the  south  of  FVanoe  for  the  sake  of  the  root,  which  yields  a  fine  red 
oolour  to  oUs,  wax,  all  unctuous  substances,  and  to  spirits  of  wine.  Its 
chief  use  is  in  colouring  lip-salves,  ointments,  Ac.  It  is  however  some- 
times employed  for  staining  wood  and  dyeing  cotton.  It  is  also  used 
for  colouring  many  of  the  beverages  sold  under  the  name  of  port  wine, 
and  the  corks  used  for  the  bottles  in  which  this  fluid  is  sold. 

A.  amgustifolia,  Narrow-Leaved  Bugloss,  has  linear  lanceolate  hispid 
leaves,  ovate-lanceolate  bracts,  6-fid  calyx,  with  blunt  teeth.  The  tube 
of  the  corolla  is  pale  purple,  the  limb  deep  blue.  In  gardens  it  attains 
a  height  of  two  feet,  but  when  wild  it  is  not  more  than  a  foot  high. 
It  grows  in  Italy,  Germany,  and  Switzerland,  by  roadwndee^  amongst 
rubbiBh,  and  on  the  borders  of  ploughed  fields. 

In  the  cultivation  of  the  species  of  this  genus  but  little  care  is 
required,  as  they  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil,  and  are  easily  increased 
by  seed.  The  A.  Capennt,  Cape  Bugloes,  requires  the  treatment  of  a 
greenhouse  plant  Many  ef  them  are  pretty  annuals  for  the  garden, 
as  A.  panictUat<i,  A.  Barrdi^,  &c. 

ANCILLA  or  ANCILLA'RIA,  are  the  names  given  by  Lamarck  to 
a  genus  of  Spiral  Univalve  Marine  Shells,  aUied  to  the  Olives.  Like 
them  they  are  covered  with  a  hard  shining  coat,  destitute  of  any 
periostraca,  and  are  immured  in  the  large  foot  of  the  animal,  so  that 
the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  shell  can  be  alone  discovered  They 
chiefiy  differ  from  the  Olives  in  the  suture  of  the  whorl,  being  callou/t 
and  not  furnished  with  a  groove,  formed  by  a  thread-like  filament 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  mantle,  which  is  wanting  in  this  genus :  they 
are  also  furnished  with  a  small  ovate  operculum.  The  species  are 
numerous,  and  are  chiefly  confined  to  tropical  dimates ;  some  have  a 
small  tooth,  like  the  Unicom  Shell  (Monocerot),  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
groove  crossing  the  front  of  the  shelL  The  best-known  species  is  the 
Ivory  Shell,  which  with  a  few  others  differ  from  the  rest  of  the  genus 
in  having  the  front  of  its  axis  deeply  pierced. 

ANCYLO'CERAS  (D'Orbigny).  This  FcasU  genus  of  M.  D'Orbigny 
includes  several  species  of  HamUn  (Phillips),  from  the  Speeton  Clay 
and  Lower  Greensand. 

A'NCTLUS  is  the  name  of  the  shell  which  is  usually  called  the 
Fresh- Water  Limpet  They  are  small  pellucid  conical  shells,  with 
slightly-recurved  tips.  The  cavity  is  simple,  and  maiked  with  a 
horseHshoe-ahaped  muscular  scar  near  the  margin,  which  is  interrupted 
on  the  middle  of  the  left  side  over  the  respiratory  holes,  as  in  the 
genus  Syphonariok.  Iliis  animal,  like  the  Pond-Snail  (Limnta),  has 
two  compressed  triangular  tentacles,  with  the  eyes  sessile  on  the 
outer  base ;  and  a  respiratory  cavity  placed  on  the  middle  of  the 
back,  with  an  apertiuw  closed  by  a  valve  opening  in  the  middle  of  the 
left  side. 

This  genus  is  very  nearly  aUied  to  the  Pond-Snail,  from  which  it 
chiefly  cUffers  in  the  simple  conical  form  of  its  body  and  shell ;  and 
some  species,  dA  Ancylm,  are  allied  to  it  by  having  the  apex  bent  on 


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ANDALUSItfi. 


ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


198 


one  side,  aa  if  makmg  an  approach  to  the  spiral  fonn.  It  has  been 
placed  in  Bereral  orders,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  its  true  situation 
is  with  the  lung-breathing  moUusoa.  They  are  found  in  Europe, 
America^  and  the  West  Indies,  attached  to  stones  and  plants,  and  they 
will  live  a  considerable  time  out  of  the  water.  They  are  easily  known 
finom  the  Sypkonarug,  which  are  the  only  shells  they  can  be  oonPoundod 
with,  by  Uieir  being  sinistral,  rery  thin,  and  covered  with  a  haiiy 
periostraca. 
ANDALUSITE,  a  Mineral  consisting  of 

Silica 89-09 

Almnina. 58*66 

Protoxide  of  Manganese  ....  0*58 

lime 0*21 

Water 0*99 

99-88 
It  occmiB  dystaOised ;  its  primary  form  being  a  right  rhombic  prism. 
It  has  an  uneven  conchoidal  fracture.  Its  colour  varies  from  a  flesh- 
red  to  a  brownish  and  grayish-red.  It  has  a  vitreous  lustre.  It 
occurs  both  transparent  and  opaque.  The  specific  gravity  is  8*104. 
This  mineral  is  found  in  Spain,  France,  and  North  America.  The 
above  malvsis  is  from  an  American  specimen. 

ANEMONE  (iamiftAyn)  is  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Jtanuneulaeecg.  It  consists  of  lowly  herbs,  usually  perennials, 
with  white,  or  purple,  or  scarlet,  or  even  yellow  blossoms,  in  which 
there  is  no  distinct  calyx,  and  which  are  succeeded  by  a  cluster  of 
grains,  each  terminated  by  a  long  silky  featheiy  taiL  As  the  species 
generally  grow  on  open  plains  or  in  high  exposed  situations,  their 
feathery  grains  produce  a  singular  shining  appearance  when  waved  by 
the  breeze,  whence  their  name,  and  which  literally  signifies  Wind- 
flower,  their  English  appellation. 

The  Anemones  possess,  in  conmion  with  other  Rammctdacea,  an 
acrid  property.  The  leaves  of  A.  pviaatilla  will  raise  blisters  on  the 
skin ;  if  chewed,  they  produce  irritation  of  the  throat  and  tongue ;  and 
their  roots;,  as  well  as  those  of  j4.  pratensis,  a  nearly  related  species, 
produce  nausea  and  vomiting  if  administered  in  very  small  doses,  on 
which  account  they  have  been  strongly  recommended  by  some  medical 
men  in  various  complainta  The  following  are  the  most  remarkable 
species: — 

1.  A.  pnUatiUot  or  Pasque  Flower,  grows  wild  upon  exposed  downs 
in  various  parts  of  England,  as  on  the  Qogmagog  Hills  near  Cambridge, 
the  heath  at  Newmarket,  and  on  open  chalky  pastures.  It  has  large 
ptuple  flowers  and  finely-cut  hairy  leaves. 

2.  A.  nemorota,  the  Wood  Anemone,  is  found  abundantly  in  woods 
an  over  England,  covering  the  ground  with  its  neat  white  flowers 
under  the  shelter  of  bushes  as  early  as  March  and  ApriL  It  is  a 
perennial  plant  with  knobby  roots,  and  a  short  stem  having  one 
or  two  smooth,  bright-green,  deeply-cut  leaves.  It  is  poisonous  to 
cattle. 

8.  A.  pawmvna,  the  Peacock  Anemone,  a  native  of  the  vineyards  in 
Provence,  about  Nice,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe.  This 
is  not  very  uncommon  in  gardens,  where  it  is  u«!ually,  but  improperly, 
named  A.  sUUaia,  It  is  known  by  its  scarlet  or  scarlet  and  white 
flowers,  which  are  usually  double,  and  have  their  divisions  very  sharp- 
pointed.    It  is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  the  cultivated  species. 

4.  ii.  coronariOf  the  Common  Garden  Anemone.  Found  in  a  wild 
state  in  moist  meadows  in  the  south  of  France,  Italy,  and  Ghreece,  and 
different  parts  of  Asia  Minor ;  Dr.  Russell  speaks  of  it  as  abundant 
near  Aleppo.  In  these  places  it  is  seen  only  in  a  single  state,  but  even 
then  sporting  into  a  variety  of  colours,  the  principal  of  which  are  white, 
tcariet,  and  purple  in  different  shades. 

5.  A.  tUdksta  is  a  native  of  various  parts  of  Germany,  France,  and 
the  Levant^  and  is  also  often  seen  in  our  gardens,  where  it  is  oilled 
A.  kortama.  It  differs  from  the  last  in  having  smaller  and  narrower 
petals,  very  rarely  double  flowers,  a  greater  tendency  to  purple  in  their 
colours,  and  much  broader  leaves.  It  is  not  so  liable  to  vary  as  the 
last  species. 

ANEMONIES,  SEA.    [AcnwiADiB.] 

ANGEL-FISH.    [Squalida.] 

ANGEXICA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
UmiMlifarce.  It  comprehends  several  species,  the  principal  part  of 
which  are  to  be  met  with  in  botanic  gardens ;  and  one  that  was  formerly 
very  much  cultivated  as  an  esculent  plant.  This,  the  Angelica  arehan- 
gdieOf  or  Arehangdiea  offieinalitf  is  a  native  of  the  banks  of  rivers  and 
of  wet  ditdies  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  Europe ;  in  this  country  it 
grows  abundantly  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames  below  Woolwich,  and 
in  several  other  places.  It  is  a  biennial  plant,  with  a  laige  fleshy 
aromatic  root,  blackish  externally,  but  white  within;  and  a  stout 
farrowed  branched  stem  as  high  as  a  man.  Its  leaves  are  of  a  dear 
bright  green,  shining,  and  divided  into  a  very  large  number  of  heart- 
Ihi4)ed  finely-serrated  lobes.  The  flowers  are  white,  and  disposed  in 
rcmiui  very  compact  umbels;  they  are  succeeded  by  large  broad- 
'winged  grains  of  a  pale  yellowish-brown  colour.  Each  partial  umbel 
u  surrounded  at  its  hose  by  7  or  8  pointed  undivided  bracta 

For  the  sake  of  its  agreeable  aromatic  odour,  this  plant  is  much 
cuHivated  on  the  Continent.  Its  blanched  stems,  candied  with  sugar, 
form  a  veiy  agreeable  sweetmeat,  possessing  tonic  and  stomachic 

^oalitiea.   Its  roots  contain  a  pimgent>  aromatic,  stimulating  principle. 


A  Yery  common  wild  species,  the  Angelica  tyhestrit,  or  Wild  Angelica, 
which  is  found  all  over  tiie  meadows  near  the  Thames  above  London, 
possesses  similar  properties. 


Atigeliea  arehangeliea^  a  diminlahed  dgure. 

1.  A  partial  umbel  of  the  natural  sIkc.  2.  A  separate  flower. 

8.  The  back  of  one  of  the  partial  umbels,  showing  the  bracts. 

ANGLARITE,  a  name  for  the  native  blue  phosphate  of  iron. 
[Iron.] 

ANGLESITE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  name  for  the  native  sulphate  of  lead. 

ANHYDRITE,  the  Mineialogical  name  for  the  native  anhydrous 
sulphate  of  lime.  It  is  foimd  at  Halle  in  the  Tyrol,  Bex  in  Switzerland, 
and  in  the  Salt-Mines  of  Upper  Austria  and  Sahsbuig.  A  specimen 
from  Sulz  yielded — 

Sulphuric  acid  .  ....    56 

Lime 42 

Silica .      2 

It  occurs  both  massive  and  cr3rstallised.  The  crystals  have  the  form 
of  a  right  rhombic  prism.  The  cleavage  is  veiy  distinct,  and  parallel 
to  the  terminal  planes  and  their  two  diagonals,  indistinct  pazvUel  to 
the  lateral  planes.  The  fracture  is  uneven.  The  colour  is  white,  bluish, 
violet,  or  reddish.  The  streak  is  grayish-white.  The  lustre  is  vitreous 
and  pearly  on  the  cleavage  surfaces.  It  is  transparent  and  translucent. 
It  has  a  double  refraction.  The  specific  gravity  is  from  2*5  to  2*9.  Its 
hardness  8*0  to  8*5.  The  massive  varieties  are  amorphous,  nodular,  or 
reniform. 

ANIMAL  FLOWERS.    [Actiwiadjb.] 

ANIMAL  HEAT.    [Hsat,  Animal.] 

ANIMAL  KINGDOM.  All  natural  objects  are  referred  by  naturalists 
to  three  great  divisions,  called  the  Kingdoms  of  Nature,  These  are 
respectively  called  after  tiie  objects  they  include,  the  Mineral  Kingdom, 
Vegetable  Kingdom,  and  Anim4d  Kingdom.  Although  at  first  sight 
nothing  would  appear  easier  than  defi^iing  these  great  groups,  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  afford  an  easy  means  of  <&tinction,  it  is  nevertheless 
one  of  considerable  difficulty.  The  difficulty,  however,  does  not  lie  in 
the  typical  object  of  each  kingdom,  as  a  rock,  an  oak-tree,  and  a  man, 
but  in  applying  the  definition  to  those  objects  which  lie  as  it  were  on 
the  limits  of  each  kingdom.  The  line  is  perhaps  better  drawn  between 
minerals,  and  plants  and  animals,  than  iM^tween  the  latter  two.  It  is 
usual  to  speak  of  minerals  as  forming  the  Inorganic  Kingdom  or 
portion  of  Nature,  whilst  plants  and  animals  constitute  the  Organic 
Kingdom,  The  great  distinctive  character  of  the  Organic  Kingdom,  is 
the  fact  of  their  parts  originating  in  and  being  formed  out  of  cells 
which  give  to  them  many  characters  by  which  they  are  distinguishe4 


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ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


ANIMAL  IQNGDOM. 


20C 


from  minerals.  Thus  they  are  nnsymmetrioal,  whilst  mineralfl  are 
symmetrical ;  they  grow  irregularly,  whikt  minerals  increase  in  definite 
crystalline  forms.  Each  portion  of  a  mineral,  however  small,  consists  of 
the  same  elements,  whilst  any  part  of  a  plant  or  animal  may  be  differently 
composed  to  another  part  The  line  in  fisust  is  nowhere  difficult  to  be 
drawn,  where  the  presence  or  absence  of  cells  can  be  determined. 

^  The  djstmotions  between  animals  and  plants  present  greater 
difficulties,  and  perhaps  no  mere  structural  or  formal  difference  can 
be  found.  Looked  at  from  one  point  of  view,  plants  and  animals  form 
a  great  oiganio  unity,  connected  together  by  their  common  modes  of 
cellular  growth  and  Actions ;  and  when  thus  regarded,  there  seems 
to  be  no  necessity  for  drawing  an  absolute  Une  of  distinction  between 
one  and  the  other.  Naturalists  have  however  regarded  them  as  distinct, 
and  the  study  of  the  two  classes  of  objects  have  constituted  the  sciences 
of  Botany  and  Zoology.  Rude  definitions  of  various  kinds  have  been 
laid  down  to  g^de  the  systematist  in  his  classification  of  the  objects 
belonging  to  each.  Aristotle  was  one  of  the  first  who  sought  a 
distinction,  and  in  stating  that  an  animal  possessed  a  mouth  whilst  a 
plant  had  no  such  omn,  he  gave  perhaps  the  simplest  and  most 
generally  applicable  de&iition  th^t  ezists.  But  Aristotle  had  not  the 
microscope  to  direct  his  inquiries,  and  by  the  aid  of  this  instrument 
beings  can  be  made  apparent  to  which  other  distinctions  must  be 
^)plied  before  they  can  be  arranged  in  one  kingdom  or  another. 
I^ofessor  KoUiker  describes  an  animalcule,  the  Aetinophryt  acl  of 
Ehrenben;  ('Microscopical  Journal,'  Noe.  L  and  iL),  in  which,  though 
no  mouth  is  found,  the  function  of  digestion  is  carried  on  by  an 
indentation  of  its  skhi,  temporarily  formed  for  that  purpose.  Linnseus, 
with  no  better  success,  gave  the  following  definition :  "  Minerals  grow, 
plants  grow  and  live,  animals  grow,  live,  and  feeL"  To  apply  this 
definition,  we  must  define  life  and  feeling,  and  this  cannot  be  done  in 
such  a  way  as  to  effect  the  object  of  the  naturalist.  Cuvier  thought 
the  possession  of  a  stomach  a  sufficient  distinction  for  the  animal 
kingdom,  but  the  nature  of  a  ftomach  must  first  be  understood,  and 
here  we  have  no  absolute  structural  character  to  guide  us.  It  was  at 
one  time  a  favourite  distinction  that  animals  have  the  power  of  motion, 
and  that  plants  are  fixed,  but  we  know  now  that  many  plants  move, 
whilst  many  Anitwala  are  fixed.  One  of  the  most  recent  and  philoso- 
phical of  physiological  writers  says :  **  A  plant  is  an  oi^ganised  being, 
whose  vital  powers  are  directed  solely  to  the  performance  of  formative 
operations,  by  which  its  fabric  is  not  merely  built  up  in  the  first 
instance,  but  is  continually  receiving  additions  during  the  term  of  its 
existence;  and  any  movements  wludh  it  may  exhibit  are  destined 
solely  for  the  furtherance  of  these  opemtions,  and  must  be  regarded  as 
originating  in  physical  or  vital  f oroea.  On  the  other  hand  an  animal 
is  an  organised  being,  whose  vital  powers  are  not  merely  directed  to 
the  construction  and  maintenance  of  its  corporeal  fi&bric,  but  are  also 
subservient  to  the  operations  of  the  conscious  mind,  which  involve  a 
continual  disintegration  of  the  structures  that  minister  to  them ;  on 
the  repair  of  which,  rather  than  on  the  extension  of  the  fiibric,  after  it 
has  attained  its  full  development,  the  formative  eneigy  is  chiefly 
expended ;  and  of  the  movements  which  it  may  exhibit,  though  a 
part  are  still  to  be  regarded  as  directly  dep^icient  (like  those  of 
plants)  on  causes  inherent  in  its  material  oiiganisation,  there  is  another 
party  small  though  it  may  often  be,  in  which  the  consciousness  and 
spontaneity  of  the  individual  are  necessarily  conoezned,  and  which 
must  therefore  be  distinguished  as  originating  'm.  psychical  causes." 
(Carpenter,  'Principles  of  Physiology.*) 

In  this  way  the  naturslist  and  physiologist  have  tried  to  contend 
with  the  diffieull^.  Within  the  last  few  years  chemistry  has  invaded 
the  domain  of  the  anatomist,  and  supplied  him  with  materials  for 
determining  the  problem  of  the  difference  of  animal  and  vegetable  life. 
The  substances  found  in  animals  and  plants  are  found  in  a  great 
measure  to  be  formed  of  four  dementi^  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
and  nitrogen.  At  one  time  nitrogen  was  supposed  to  <^ifff.|>giiif»h 
animal  from  vegetable  subBtance&  It  is  now  known,  not  only  that 
plants  contain  nitrogen,  but  that  they  supply  this  and  the  three  other 
elements  to  the  animal  system.  It  is  foimd  that  these  four  elements 
are  alwavs  present  in  the  protopUum  nueleut,  cy(oblatt,  or  primordial 
iUriele,  from  which  the  ceUs  of  all  plants  and  animals  are  firat  formed. 
Bo  that  they  are  universally  necessary  in  plants  and  animals,  and  have 
hence  been  called  Organie  Elements,  Three  compounds  of  three  of 
these  elements^  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  called  cellulose, 
sugar,  and  starch,  were  at  one  time  thought  to  be  peculiar  to  plants. 
It  Is  now  known  that  cellulose  is  present  in  many  animals,  and  that 
sugar  is  veiy  generally  present  in  certain  animal  textures  and  fluid& 
Starch  yet  remains  to  be  found  in  the  animal  kingdom,  and  its 
presence  in  doubtful  structures  is  still  regarded  as  evidence  of  their 
Teeetable  nature. 

It  is  clear  however  that  no  single  character  is  sufficient  to  mark  the 
line  between  these  two  kingdoms,  and  that  Uie  collective  functions 
peiformed  by  animals  and  plants,  accordingly  as  they  are  more  or  less 
prominent  in  organised  beings,  guide  the  opinions  of  naturalists. 
The  structural  characters  of  1^i(»l  animals  are  so  evidently  different 
tram  the  coiresponding  forms  of  plants,  that  we  need  not  dwell  on 
them  here;  but  a  view  of  the  functions  which  i»iiTna.la  and  plants 
perform  dependently  on  one  another,  will  give  the  best  possible  notion 
of  their  antagonistic  nature.  One  of  the  great  functions  performed 
by.  the  animal  kingdom  is  that  of  Jleepiralion,    During  this  process 


the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  is  brought  in  contact  with  carbon  ia 
the  blood  of  the  animal,  and  the  result  is  a  union  of  the  carbon  and 
oxygen,  and  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  being 
constantly  thrown  off  from  the  structure  of  the  animal— from  the 
whole  surface  of  the  body  in  the  lowest  animals,  fr^m  the  gills  of  those 
that  live  in  water,  and  from,  the  lungs  of  those  that  live  in  air.  It 
thus  consumes  oxygen  and  gives  off  carbonic  acid.  The  great  function 
of  plants  is  antagonistic  to  this.  They  take  from  the  air  carbonic  acid 
gas;  it  is  a  part  of  their  food.  In  the  tissues  of  the  plant  the 
carbonic  add  is  decomposed.  Its  elements  are  separated ;  the  carbon 
is  retained  in  the  plan^  and  the  oxygen  is  set  free.  It  thus  consumes 
carbonic  acid  ana  gives  off  oxygen.  As  far  as  we  at  present  know 
there  are  no  exceptions  to  this  law.  On  tracing  the  supply  of  the 
carbon  which  is  contained  in  the  animal  system,  and  which  combines 
with  the  oxygen,  we  find  that  it  is  derived  by  the  animal  from  the 
plants  The  food  of  the  whole  animal  kingdom  is  derived  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom;  and  the  other  three  elements,  as  well  as  the 
carbon,  which  are  found  in  the  animal,  are  thus  obtained.  The 
animal,  in  like  manner,  throws  off  its  nitrogen  in  the  forai  of 
excretions,  more  especially  those  of  the  kidneys^  which,  on  deoom- 
posing,  yield  ammonia,  a  compound  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen ;  and  it 
is  from  this  substance  that  plants  |»incipally  derive  their  nitrogen. 
Thus,  whilst  the  animal  derives  the  constituent  of  its  body  from  the 
vegetable  kingdon^  the  plant  derives  its  elements  from  the  nuneiai 
kingdoDo.  The  animal  takes  up  starch,  sugar,  and  protein,  from  the 
plant,  but  the  plant  takes  up  carbonic  add  and  ammonia  in  their 
mineral  form.  The  tissues  of  the  plant  are  engaged  in  converting 
mineral  into  organic  substances,  wlulst  the  tissues  of  the  animal  are 
engaged  in  converting  oxiganic  substanoes  into  mineraL 

In  their  relation  to  the  great  physical  forces,  heat  lind  light,  we  see 
the  same  antagonism  between  plants  and  i^T^imnlff.  Light  and  heat  are 
essential  to  the  growth  of  plants.  The  productions  found  in  their 
tissues  are  but  the  expression  of  the  amount  of  heat  and  lif^t  they 
have  as  it  were  appropriated.  Many  of  the  substances  thus  formed 
are  taken  into  the  system  of  n-nimA^la  as  food;  and  whilst  in  the  system 
of  the  animal,  the  heat  and  the  light  are  again  set  free  in  the  form  of 
the  peculiar  vital  animal  forces. 

It  is  then  by  regarding  the  Animal  and  Vegetable  worlds  as  exhibiting 
a  combination  of  antagonistic  and  dependent  forces  in  the  great  circle 
of  nature,  that  we  shidl  best  form  an  idea  of  the  real  differences  that 
exist  between  these  two  kingdoms  of  nature.  Having  said  this  much 
with  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  we  shall  now 
proceed  to  consider  some  of  the  methods  which  Eave  been  employed 
by  naturalists  to  arrange  the  various  members  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed into  groups,  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  the  relation  of  one 
animal  to  another,  and  of  facilitating  the  study  of  the  whole. 

In  a  crude  shape,  soology,  or  the  arrangement  of  animals,  must  have 
been  one  of  the  eariiest  sdenoes  that  forced  itself  upon  the  attention 
of  the  human  mind.  The  very  necessity  for  finding  names  for  the 
more  obvious  divisions  of  living  beings  must  soon  have  produced  a 
daasification  into  the  natural  groups  of  Quadrupeds,  Bii^  Fishes, 
and  Insects;  and  certain  subordinate  sections,  as,  for  instance,  the 
distinction  between  herbivorous  and  carnivorous  beasts^  granivorous 
and  carnivorous  birds,  harmless  and  poisonous  reptiles,  must  have 
followed  as  a  matter  of  course. 

We  have  in  the  Bible,  and  in  the  engraven  and  pictorial  Egyptian 
records,  the  earliest  evidence  of  the  attention  which  had  been  paid  to 
Natural  History  in  general  The  'navy  of  Tarshish'  contributed  to 
the  wisdom  of  him  who  not  only  "  sps^e  of  the  trees,  frtim  the  cedar 
of  Lebanon  even  unto  the  hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the  wall,"  but 
"also  of  beasts,  and  of  fowl,  and  of  creeping  things,  and  of  fishes" 
(1  Kings  iv.  10) ;  to  say  nothing  of  numerous  other  passages  showing 
the  progress  that  zoological  knowledge  had  already  made. 

The  Egyptian  records  bear  testimony  to  a  familiarity  not  only  with 
the  forms  of  a  multitude  of  wild  animft-la^  but  with  their  habits  and 
geographical  distribution. 

Although  it  must  be  admitted  that  Herodotus  was  behind  the 
sdence  of  his  day  in  physical  knowledge,  he  who,  despising  the 
sneers  of  the  half-learned  at  his  wondeifuT  stories,  will  bring  to  the 
perusal  of  his  works  a  fafr  share  of  sdontific  acquirement^  will  find 
many  instances  of  zoological  information  which  have  been  taken  for 
the  mere  tales  of  this  excellent  traveller  and  historian,  but  which 
modem  investigation  has  confirmed.  But  it  is  to  Aristotle,  justly 
termed  the  f&ther  of  natural  history,  that  we  owe  the  first  dawnings 
of  system  founded  on  the  only  sure  basis — ^the  organisation  or  physio- 
logical character  of  animals. 

AristoUe's  method  was  founded  on  a  division  of  oigana,  which  may 
be  arranged,  firsts  with  reference  to  natural  groups  (kotA  y4ifos  or  kot' 
cZSor),  Birds  or  Fishes,  for  instance,  which  depend  on  a  similar  structure 
of  parts ;  secondly,  according  to  their  excess  and  defect  (koO*  ^c^xV 
icol  IXAcif  If'),  as,  for  example,  a  division  of  Birds  into  those  with  long 
bills  and  those  with  short  bills ;  those  having  crests  and  those  having 
none;  thirdly,  according  to  their  analogies  (iror'  iafakoyltuf) ;  take,  for 
instance,  the  comparison  of  a  hoof  witii  a  daw,  the  wing  of  a  bird 
with  the  fore-foot  of  a  quadruped,  a  feather  with  a  scale ;  and,  fourthly, 
according  to  their  situation  {narh  Oiaiv) ;  take,  for  example,  animals 
which  have  pectoral  mammae :  man,  apes,  and  dephants;  and  animalfl 
which  have  abdominal  nfm-mmff* ;  dog^s  and  cats. 


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ANDfAL  KINGDOM. 


ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


20S 


The  -writen  who  sucoeeded  Aristotle,  and  mostly  copied  from  his 
ample  stores  were :  JEHan,  Pliny,  Athexueus,  Albertus  Magnus,  Belon, 
(leaner,  Aldrovandus,  and  Johnston.  Although  some  of  them  recorded 
new  facts  they  did  nothing  to  supply  any  fiuther  arrangement  of  the 
animal  kingdom. 

To  our  countryman  Ray  we  are  principally  indebted  for  the  first 
clear  zoological  method.  Tha/b  great  natundist,  for  originality  and 
oomprehensire  philosophical  discernment,  niay,  without  hesitation, 
be  placed  next  after  Aristotle  himself. 

The  brilliant  style  of  Buffon  fixed  the  attention  of  the  civilised 
world  upon  the  subject  which  his  eloquence  at  once  rendered  capti- 
vating. A  more  severe  writer  might  have  done  greater  things  for 
natural  histoiy  as  a  science,  but  Bufibn  at  once  secured  a  willing 
audience,  and  made  all  Ehirope  his  dass.  To  him  above  all  others 
may  be  conceded  ti^e  merit  of  malring  the  subject  decidedly  popular 
at  once  and  for  ever.    The  way  was  thus  prepared  for  Linnaeus. 

In  the  last  edition  of  the  *  Systema  Natuns,'  revised  by  its  great 
author,  the  Animal  Kingdom  is  thus  arranged : — 
Heart  bilocular,  with  two  auricles.  J  Yi viparoua MeunmaUiL 

Blood  warm,  red. 
Heart  unilocular,  with  one  auricle. 

Blood  cold,  red. 
Heart  unilocular,  with  one  auricle. 

Circulating   fluid    {aaniet)   cold, 

white. 


[Oviparous. Birds. 

r  Arbitrary  lungs....  AmpkUnet, 
I  External  gills Fitkea. 

I  With  antennsa InseeU, 

I  With  tentacula....  Vermes, 


L  MaimmtdicL 

Heart  bilocular,  with  two  auricles.  Blood  warm,  red.  Lungs 
respiring  reciprocally.  Jaws  incumbent,  covered :  teeth  inserted  in 
most  Penis  mtrans  viviparas,  lactiferas.  Senses :  Tongue,  Nostrils, 
Eyes,  fiarsy  Papilla.  Covering :  Hairs,  very  sparing  in  the  aquatics. 
Props  (Fulcra) :  Four  feet,  except  in  tiiose  which  are  meretv  aquatic, 
in  which  the  posterior  feet  are  conjoined  in  the  fin  of  the  taiL  A  tail 
inmost 

IL  Birds, 

Heart  bilocular,  with  two  auridea  Blood  warm,  red.  Lungs 
respiring  reciprocally.  Jaws  incumbent^  naked,  exserted,  toothless. 
Penis  subintrans  absque  scroto  oviparas  crusta  calcarea.  Senses: 
Touguei,  Nostrils,  Eves,  Ears  without  auricles.  Covering:  Incum- 
bent imbricated  feathers.  Props :  Two  feet>  two  wings.  Rump  heart- 
shaped. 

IIL  Am^^Sfna. 

Heart  unilocular,  with  one  auride.  Blood  cold,  red.  Lungs 
breathing  arbitrarily.  Jaws  incumbent.  Penes  bini  Eggs  generally 
membranaceous.  Senses:  Tongue^  Nostrils,  Eyes,  Ears.  Covering: 
CutaceouOy  naked.    Props  :  Various,  nuU  in  some. 

IV.  Fishes, 

Heart  onilooular,  with  one  auride.  Blood  cold,  red.  Gills  external, 
compressed.  Jaws  incumbent.  Penes  niillL  Eggs  without  albumen. 
Senses:  Tongue,  Nostrils (?),  Eyes  (not  ears).  Covering:  Imbricated 
BcalesL    Props :  Natatorial  fins. 

V.  Insects, 

Heart  tinilocular.  Sanies  cold.  Spirades,  lateral  body  pores. 
Jaws  lateral  Penes  intrantes.  Senses:  Tongue,  Eyes,  Antenna 
on  a  head  without  a  brain  (neither  ears  nor  nostrils).  Covering : 
Cataphraota,  sustaining  an  osseous  cutis.  Props:  Feet^  Wings  m 
some. 

VI.  VerfMS, 

Heart  unilocular,  with  one  ventricle.  Sanies  cold.  Spirades 
obscure.  Jaws  mi:dtifarious.  Penes  varii  Hermaphroditis  Andro- 
gynis.  Senses:  Tentacles  (no  head,  hardly  eyes,  neither  ears  nor 
nostrils.)  Covering:  Calcareous,  or  null  except  spine&  Props: 
Neither  feet  nor  fins. 

This  table  oondudes  with  the  following  summary,  which  will  be 
best  given  in  the  original  form : — 

"  Vivarium  Naturse  sic  alit  Yi  plicis  forms  Animalia. 

"ifamma^iapilosa,  in  Terragndiuntur,  loquentia.  iivM  plumosse, 
in  aere  volitant^  cantantesi  Amphibia  tunioata^  in  calore,  serpunt, 
aibilantia.  Pities  squamati,  in  aqua  natant>  popyzantes.  Jnsecta 
oataphraota,  in  siooo  exsiliunt,  tmnitantia.  Vennes  exooriati,  in 
humido  paniduntur,  obmutescentes." 

It  is  impossible  to  enter  into  the  details  of  the  arrangement  of 
Linneus,  without  being  struck  with  the  comprehensive  views  of  the 
author,  when  the  imperfect  light  that  existed  at  the  time  is  considered. 

The  subject  was  now  taken  up  by  able  hands ;  and  Pallas,  especially 
in  his  anatomy  of  the  Olires,  made  a  great  advance  in  Comparative 
Anatomy.  Among  the  most  active  and  enlightened  labourers  in  this 
department^  our  own  John  Hunter  stands  pre-eminent  in  England  and 
Blumenbach  in  Germany. 

Bat  the  time  was  now  come  when  a  new  light  was  to  arise ;  and 
George  Ouvier,  guided  hv  his  dissections,  became  the  great  leader  of 
his  day.  The  'Anatonue  Compart,'  the  'Ossemens  Fossiles,'  and, 
ihially,  the  *  R^gne  Animal,'  were  the  results  of  his  acute  and  compre- 
hensive demonsteations.  In  his  hands  Comparative  Anatomy  became 
s  new  power  among  the  dynamics  of  natural  histoiy,  and  by  its  aid  he 
rebuilt  the  extinct  fossil  forms  that  before  his  time  lav  scattered  over 
the  face  of  our  earth  in  wild  and  apparentiy  inextricable  disorder. 

Well  does  this  extraordinary  man  enunciate  the  valuable  truth,  that 


since  Natural  History  has  taken  Nature  for  the  basis  of  its  distri- 
butions, its  relationship  with  Anatomy  ha^  become  more  intimate. 
"  One  of  these  sdences,"  aays  he,'" cannot  take  a  single  step  without 
the  other  profitiug  by  it.  The  approximatipns  which  the  first 
establishes  often  indicate  to  the  other  the  researches  that  ought  to  be 
made."  And  again,  with  equal  truth  he  declares,  that  "  the  natural 
history  of  an  animal  is  tiie  knowledge  of  the  whole  animal  Its 
internal  structure  is  to  it  as  much  as  its  external  form,  and  perhaps 
more." 

That  Cuvier  practised  what  he  preached  is  evident  from  his  own 
record  of  his  mode  of  proceeding  in  constructing  his  system  : — 

"  I  examined,"  says  he,  "  one  by  one,  all  the  roedes  whidi  I  could 
procure;  I  associated  those  which  did  not  diner  from  each  other, 
except  in  size,  colour,  or  the  number  of  some  parts  of  little  importance, 
and  on  these  materials  founded  what  I  have  called  a  sub-genus. 

"  Whenever  I  could,  I  dissected  at  least  one  spedes  of  eadi  sub- 
genus; and  if  those  to  which  the  scalpd  could  not  be  applied  be 
excepted,  there  exist  in  my  book  very  few  groups  of  this  degree,  of  the 
organs  of  which  I  cannot  produce  at  least  some  considerable  portion." 

As  in  this  work  tiie  various  artides  on  the  Animal  Kingdom  will 
be  generally  given  subordinate  to  the  great  divisions  indicated  by 
Cuvier,  we  have  added  in  the  following  page  his  arrangement  in  a 
tabular  form. 

The  following  are  the  distinguishing  characters  of  the  great  divisions 
of  this^arrangement : — 

Vertebrate  Aniftials  (Animalia  vertebraicL) — They  have  all  red  blood, 
a  muscular  heart,  a  mouth  furnished  with  two  jaws  placed  one  either 
before  or  above  the  other,  distinct  organs  of  sight,  hearing,  smell,  and 
taste,  situated  in  the  cavities  of  the  face ;  never  more  than  four  limbs, 
the  sexes  always  separated,  and  a  very  similar  distribution  of  the 
medullary  masses  and  of  the  prindpal  brandies  of  the  nervous  system. 
On  examining  each  of  the  purts  of  this  great  series  of  animals  more 
dosdy,  there  may  always  be  detected  some  analogy  even  in  those 
spedes  which  are  most  remote  from  one  another;  and  the  gradations 
of  one  single  plan  may  be  traced  from  man  to  the  last  of  fishes. 

In  the  second  form  there  is  no  skeleton,  the  musdes  are  attached 
only  to  the  skio,  which  constitutes  a  soft  contractile  envelope,  in 
which  in  many  species  are  formed  stony  plates  called  shells,  the  pro- 
duction and  position  of  which  are  analogous  to  that  of  the  mucous 
body ;  the  nervous  system  is  contained  within  this  general  envelope 
together  with  the  viscera,  and  is  composed  of  several  scattered 
masses,  connected  by  nervous  filaments,  and  of  which  the  prindpal 
placed  over  the  oesophagus  bears  the  name  of  brain.  Of  the  four 
senses,  the  organs  of  those  of  taste  and  vision  only  can  be  distinguished, 
the  latter  of  which  are  even  frequentiy  wanting.  A  single  family 
alone  presents  organs  of  hearing.  There  is  alwavs,  however,  a  complete 
system  of  circulation,  and  pfurticular  otgans  for  respiration.  Those 
of  digestion  and  of  the  secretions  are  littie  less  complicated  than  in 
the  vertebrated  ^tnimiLlg.  We  will  distinguish  the  animals  of  this 
second  form  by  the  appellation  of 

Mollusc<niS  Animals  {Animalia  MoUmca.) — ^Although  the  general 
plan  of  their  organisation  is  not  so  miifonn,  as  regards  the  external 
configuration  of  the  parts  as  that  of  the  vertebrates,  there  is  always  an 
equal  degree  of  resemblance  between  them  in  the  essential  structure 
and  the  nmctions. 

The  third  form  is  that  observed  in  insects,  worms,  &&  Their 
nervous  svstem  consists  of  two  long  cords  running  longitudinally 
through  the  abdomen,  dilated  at  intervals  into  knots  or  ganglions. 
The  first  of  these  knots  placed  over  the  oesophagus,  and  called  brain, 
is  scarody  any  larger  than  those  which  are  along  the  abdomen,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  fileonents  that  endrde  the  oesophagus  like 
a  collar.  The  envelope  of  their  trunk  is  divided  by  transverse  folds 
into  a  certain  number  of  rings,  of  which  the  teguments  are  sometimes 
hard,  sometimes  soft,  but  to  the  interior  of  which  the  muscles  are 
always  attached.  The  trunk  often  beurs  on  its  sides  articulated  limba^ 
but  IS  frequently  unfrunished  with  them.  We  will  bestow  on  these 
animals  the  term 

Articulate  Animals  (AnimaUa  Arti€tUata.)--lt  is  among  these  that 
the  passage  is  observed  from  the  circulation  in  closed  vessels  to  nutri- 
tion by  imbibition,  and  the  corresponding  transition  from  respiration 
in  circumscribed  organs  to  that  efiected  by  trachea  or  air-vessels  dis- 
tributed through  the  body.  The  organs  of  taste  and  vision  are  the 
most  distinct  in  them,  a  single  family  alone  presenting  that  of  hearing. 
Their  jaws,  ^en  they  have  any,  are  always  lateral 

Lastiy,  the  fourth  form,  which  embraces  all  those  animals  known 
under  the  name  of  Zoophytes,  may  be  designated 

Radiate  Animals  (Animalia  £adiat€k.)--bi  all  the  preceding,  the 
organs  of  sense  and  motion  are  arranged  symmetrically  on  the  two 
sides  of  an  axis.  There  is  a  posterior  and  an  anterior  dissimilar  face. 
In  this  last  division,  they  are  disposed  as  rays  round  a  centre ;  and  this 
is  the  case  even  when  they  consist  of  but  two  series,  for  then  the  two 
faces  are  alike.  They  approximate  to  the  homogeneity  of  plants,  having 
no  very  distinct  nervous  system,  nor  organs  of  particular  senses  :^  there 
can  scarcely  be  perceived  in  some  of  them  the  vestiges  of  a  drcula* 
tion ;  their  respiratory  organs  are  almost  always  on  the  surface  of  the 
body ;  the  greater  number  have  only  a  sac  wiwout  issue  for  the  whole 
intestine ;  and  the  lowest  families  present  only  a  sort  of  homogeneous 


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ANIKAL  KINaDOE. 


ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


»4 


THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM  ABRANOED  ACCORDINQ  TO  THE  8T8TEM  OF  CUVIER. 


f 


i 

83 


CX.A0S  T. 

MAMMALIA, 

inolndlng  Eight  Orden. 


Clam  IT. 

AVE8, 

Indading  8U  Orden. 


Clam  III. 

KEPTILA, 

Including  Four  Orden. 


f 


Malfteopterjgil. 


iz 


I 


{ 


|7J^  <  Bnaehte fixed. 

Clam  I. 
CEPHALOPODA^ 
baring  One  Order. 

Clam  IT. 

PTEROPODA, 

luring  One  Order. 


Clam  III. 

GASTEROPODA, 

incinding  Nine  Orden 


Clam  IV. 

ACEPHALA, 

induding  Two  Orden. 

Clam  V. 
BRACHIOPODA, 
baring  One  Order 

Class  VI. 
CIRRHOPODA, 
baring  One  Order. 

Clam  I. 

ANNELIDA, 

inelnding  ThrM  Orden. 

ilio 

Section  II.  ( 

EntomoBtrAcIa,  . 

dirided  into  Two  Orden.      j^ 

Clam  III.  f 

ARACHNIDA,  ■< 

Induding  Two  Orden.  (. 


Compound  eyes 

placed  on  pedicles  ' 

and  moreable. 

Eyes  sessila  and 
immoreable. 


Clam  IV. 

IN8KCTA, 

Indndlng  Twelre  Orden. 


Class  T. 

ECHINODERMA, 

including  Two  Orders. 

Clam  II. 

INTE8TINA, 

including  Two  Orden. 

Clam  III. 

ACALEPHA, 

including  Two  Orden. 

Clam  IV. 

POLYPI, 

induding  Thn^  Orden. 

Clasi  V. 

INFUSORIA, 

induding  Two  Orden 


OBDvn      I. 

II.  Quadnimana 

III.  Carnlrora 

IV.  Rodentia 
V.  Edentate 

VI.  Pachrdermato 
VII.  Rumlnantia 
VIII.  Cetacea 

I.  Rapaoes 
II.  PaaserM 

III.  Scausores 

IV.  GallittB 
V.  Gnlla 

VI.  PalmipedM 

I.  Cbelonia 
II.  Bauria 

III.  Ophidia 

IV.  Batraebia 

I.  Aeantbopterygii 

II.  Abdominales. 

III.  8nb-bnebiaU 

IV.  ApodM 

V.  Lopbobruiehll 
VI.  Pleetognatbi 

VII.  SfcuriouM 

VIII.  SeladiU 
IX.  Cjdoetoml 


Man. 

Chimpansee. 

HjMia. 

Rat. 

AnnadiUo. 

Hog. 

Cow. 

Wbale. 

Hawk. 

Swallow. 

Woodpecker. 

Cock. 

Heron. 

Duck. 

TortoiM. 
Lisard. 
Snake. 
Frog. 

Sword-Fiih. 

Salmon. 

Whiting. 

Eel. 

HlppeeaspQC 
8uD-Fish. 


Raj. 
Lunprej. 


I.  Cepbalopoda  NautOna. 


I.  Pteropoda 

I.  Pulmonla 
II.  Nudibrandila 

III.  Inferobranebta 

IV.  TectlbranchU 
V.  Heteropoda 

VI.  PeettnibrancMa 
VII.  Tubnlibranohia 
VIII.  Scotlbnnchia 
IX.  Cyc^branchia 

I.  TMtseoa 
II.  AcephaU 

I.  Bncbipoda 


I.  CIrrbopoda 

I.  Tubloola 
II.  Doraibrancbto 
III.  Abranchia 


I.  Deeapoda 
II.  Btomapoda 

III.  Amphlpoda 

IV.  Lnmodlpoda 
V.  iMpoda 


VI.  Branebiopoda 
VII.  Pcecilopoda 

I.  Pulmonato 
II.  Traehearla 

L  MyrUpoda 
II.  Tbysanonra 

III.  Parasite 

IV.  SttCtoria 
V.  Coleopten 

VI.  Orthoptera 
VIL  Hemiptera 
VIII.  Neuroptera 
IX.  Hymenoptera 
X.  Lepidoptera 
XI.  Rhipiptera 
XII.  Diptera 

T.  Pedicellate 
II.  Eehinodenna 

I.  Cariteria 
II.  Parencbyma 


Clio  anstralii. 

Snail. 

Qlaocna. 

LInguella. 

Bunacella. 

Carinaria. 

Wbelk. 

Vermettts. 

The  Sea-Ear. 

Chiton. 

Oyster. 
AMddia. 

Lingnla  Anatina. 


Bamade. 

Ampbitrita. 
AmphinomsB. 


Gebia  slellata. 
Phylloeoma. 

Gammarus. 
Wbale- Loom. 
Antlocra. 


Bnncblpns  (Canoer  stagnalis)? 
Dichelestinm. 

Fhrrnns.    (Spider.) 
Pbalanginm.     . 

Centipede. 

Velret  Spring-Tall. 


Flea. 

Beetle. 

Grawbopper. 

Aphis. 

AntrLion. 

Ichneumon-Fly. 

Moth. 

Xenos. 

Gnat 

8ter>Fisb. 
Sipunculua. 

Cerebntnla.    (FtUria.) 
Planaria  eomuto. 


T.  Acalepha  (simple)  Mednsa. 
II.  Hydroetatiea  DIphyee. 


{ 


I.  Actinia 
II.  Gelatlnon 
III.  Conllina 

T.  Rotifen 
II.  Homogenea 


Green  Actlnlt. 

Cristatella. 

Coral. 

Wheel  Animalcule. 
Globe  Animalcule. 


pulp  endowed  with  motion  and  Benai- 
bility.  Sinoe  the  time  of  Cavier  con- 
aiderable  adranceB  have  been  made, 
especiallj  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
lower  forms  of  invertebrate  »^niiintt]a^ 
and  many  of  his  orden  have  been 
broken  up  and  considerably  modified. 

At  the  time  that  Curier  was  working 
at  his  arrangement,  and  almost  oon- 
temponmeoosly  wilii  a  similar  move- 
ment in  botany,  some  of  the  more 
imaginatiTe  and  philosophic  minds 
began  to  peroeive  analogies  in  oigans 
and  parts  of  the  animal  frame,  which 
previously  had  only  been  regarded 
under  their  distinct  or  individual  rela- 
tions. The  close  connection  between 
the  brilliant  generalisations  of  this 
nature  which  first  made  comparative 
anatomists  acquainted  with  the  bones 
of  the  cranium  and  the  essential  re- 
semblanceS)  or  homologies,  as  they 
are  termed,  of  the  component  elements 
of  a  vertebra  under  their  varied  forms, 
for  the  special  purposes  of  the  indi- 
vidual, is  too  dosely  connected  with 
similar  researches  after  resemblance 
and  analogies  in  zoology  to  be  omitted 
in  the  present  sketch  of  the  history 
of  that  science.  Qdthe,  the  founder 
of  morphology,  or  the  doctrine  of 
organic  analogies  in  plants,  also  made 
the  first  step  in  the  advancement  of 
similar,  or,  as  they  have  been  termed, 
transcendental  views,  in  the  anatomy 
of  animals.  The  poet's  discovery  c^ 
the  intermaxillary  bones  in  man,  the 
first  fruits  of  this  essentially  syntheti- 
cal mode  of  studying  organised  beings, 
has  been  succeeded  by  many  similar 
brilliant  appreciations  of  true  analogies 
by  his  successors  Oken  and  Geofifboy, 
and  the  disciples  of  their  school,  which 
have  more  than  compensated  for  the 
less  substantial  results  of  exuberant 
imaginations,  which  have  too  often  had 
the  effect  of  deterring  the  sober  student 
of  nature  from  digesting  the  worka  of 
authors  from  which  valuable  informa- 
tion is  to  be  obtained. 

Qermany  and  the  Netherlands  have 
reason  to  be  proud  of  the  names  of 
Uliger,  Temminck,  Wagler,  lichten- 
stein,  and  BiippelL 

In  our  own  country  and  time,  the 
Quinary  System  has  been  brought 
forward  and  applied  by  one  of  our 
most  accomplished  Eoologists  in  his 
'  HorsB  Entomologicse,'  'Annulosa 
Javanica,'  his  '  Remarks  on  the  Com- 
parative Anatomy  of  certain  Birds  of 
Cuba,'  in  the  16th  voL  of  the  <  Trana- 
aotions  of  the  Limuaan  Socie^,*  and 
his  '  Illustrations  of  the  Annulosa  of 
South  Afrioa,'  forming  part  iiL  of  Ih>. 
Andrew  Smith's  valuable '  Illustrationa 
of  the  Zoology  of  South  Africa.' 

Mr.  MacLeay  brought  to  bear  on 
this  subject  a  comprehensive  know- 
ledge of  natural  history,  much  learning; 
and  the  dose  astute  reasoning  of  a 
mind  of  no  ordinary  powers.  The 
system  has  been  applied  in  this  country, 
by  Mr.  Vigors,  to  the  Birds,  and  by  Mr. 
Bennett,  to  the  Mammalia  and  Fishes. 
With  certain  modifications  it  has  been 
applied,  by  Mr.  Swainson,  to  the  Animal 
Kingdom  generally,  who,  in  his  ar- 
rangement in  the  several  volumes  of 
the  '  Cabinet  Cyclopedia'  written  by 
him,  has  however  left  out  Man.  On 
the  continent  the  Quinary  System  has 
never  found  favour,  and  it  has  now  few 
if  any  followers  in  this  country. 

The  sciences  of  Zoology  and  Com- 
parative Anatomy  have  been  studied 
in  England,  since  the  time  of  Cuvier, 
with    great    assiduity   and 


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AKIMALCULEa 


ANNELIDA- 


200 


Amongst  the  most  Bttoceflsfiil  cultiTaton  of  these  sciences  is  Professor 
Owen,  who,  in  his  com-ses  of  lectures  as  Hunteiian  professor  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and  in  his  published  works,  has  done  much 
£or  their  advancement.  ]^  his  application  of  comparatiye  anatomy 
to  the  explanation  of  the  structure  of  extinct  animals,  he  has  been 
scarcely  less  successful  than  Cuvier,  as  his  works  on  'Fossil  Mammals,' 
*  Birds  and  Reptiles  of  Great  Britain,'  and  his  papers  on  the  '  Dinomis,' 
-the  'Mylodon/  and  'Olyptodon'  testify.  He  has  also  successfully 
applied  the  principles  of  the  transcendental  anatomists  to  the  eluci- 
dation of  the  structure  of  the  vertebrate  skeleton  in  his  work  on  the 
'Homologies  of  the  Skeleton  of  the  Vertebrata.'  Added  to  his  great 
powers  of  generalisation,  he  possesees  great  industry,  and  his  lecture 
on  '  Comparative  Anatomy,'  his  'Odontography,'  and  midtitudinous 
papers,  bear  witness  that  there  is  scarcely  any  department  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  animal  kingdom,  that  does  not  beiu*  the  marks  of 
his  geniua  Dr.  J.  E.  Qray,  as^hesd  of  the  Zoological  department  of 
the  British  Museum,  has  contributed  hugely  to  our  knowledge  of 
ftnimftl  forms.  His  papers  in  the  Magawnee  and  Transactions  of  scien- 
tific societies  amount  to  nearly  500  separate  contributions.  The 
"Works  of  Gotdd  have  contributed  greatly  to  our  recent  knowledge 
of  bird&  Edward  Forbes  has  most  industriously  laboured  at  the 
Marine  Zoology  of  the  British  Islands,  and  his  works'  on  the  '  Star- 
Fishes;'  the  'Naked-Eyed  Jelly-Fishes,'  and  the  'Mollusca  of  Great 
Britain,'  have  contributed  greatly  to  extend  our  knowledge  of  these 
families ;  whilst  his  researches  on  the  distribution  of  marine  animals 
in  depth,  have  given  a  new  direction  to  geological  inquiries.  To 
Professor  Bell,  Mr.  Yarrell,  Dr.  Johnston,  and  Dr.  Biurd,  zoology 
m  greatly  indebted  for  their  works  on  the  'Mammalia^'  'Birds,' 
'Reptiles,'  'Fishes,'  and  'Crustacea,' of  the  British  Islands.  The 
natural  history  catalogues  of  the  British  Museum  contain  descriptions 
of  many  new  species,  especially  that  devoted  to  the  various  forms 
of  Zoophytes,  and  which  has  been  undertaken  by  Mr.  Busk.  One  of  the 
greatest  contributions  ever  made  to  our  knowledge  of  sheUs,  has  been 
the  collection  made  by  Mr.  Ctmiing,  who  is  now  resident  in  London. 
We  ought  also  to  mention  the  labours  of  Mr.  Darwin  on  the  family 
of  Cirripedes,  the  Sea-Acorns,  and  Barnacles.  The  voyages  of  Belcher, 
Stanley,  Kellert,  Ross,  Fitzroy,  and  others  have  added  greatly  to  the 
number  of  animal  forms. 

The  '  Marine  Vivarium,'  recently  formed  at  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
Regent's  Park,  London,  will  afford  great  assistance  in  the  study  of  the 
organisation  and  habits  of  fishes  and  of  marine  invertebrate  animals. 
Here  may  be  seen,  through  the  walls  of  glass  tanks,  in  miniature 
oceans  of  sea-water,  the  daily  life  of  lobsters,  crabs,  and  shrimps 
{Crustctcea)y  of  sea-urchins  (EchmidcB),  of  star-fishes  (Attmaa,  Stelr 
irridiant),  of  the  beautiful  sea^nemones,  or  animal-flowers  {AcHnida), 
of  sea-mice  (Annelida)  and  sea-eggSi  of  barnacles  and  sea-aooms 
{Cimpeda),  and  many  others. 

(Those  who  would  study  the  subject  of  the  general  arrangement  of 
the  Animal  Kingdom,  are  referred  to  the  following  works : — Cuvier, 
JUgne  Animal;  Owen,  Lectures  on  Comparative  Anatomy;  Grant 
Comparativt  Anatomy  ;  Patterson,  Zoology  for  Schools;  Rymer  Jones, 
OntUnet  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  ;  Milne-Edwards,  Slemene  de  Zoologie; 
Carpenter,  PrtneipUt  of  Physiology.)    [See  Suppucmsht.] 

ANIMAliCULES,  in  Zoology,  is  the  name  which  has  been  applied 
to  small  *m'mftla  of  various  classes,  which  cannot  be  distinctly  seen 
without  the  use  of  a  microscope,  as  the  minute  radiate  animal  of  the 
coral,  the  worms  found  in  paste,  vinegar,  and  vegetable  infusions,  or 
the  smaller  Crustacea  found  in  poolsi,  as  the  Monoctdi,    [InrcBOBiA ; 

POLTOASTRIOA  ;   RoTIFEBA.] 

ANKERITE,  a.  mineral  found  at  Salzburg,  in  the  Alps,  and  other 
parts  of  the  world,  consisting  of  the  carbonates  of  lime,  magnesia,  iron, 
and  mauganese  in  the  following  proportions: — Carbonate  of  Lime,  51*11 ; 
Carbonate  of  My^Aiii<>^  25*7 ;  Carbonate  of  Iron,  20*0 ;  Carbonate  of 
Manganese,  8*0.  It  occurs  cxystalliBec^  and  its  primary  form  is  a 
rhomboid.  The  cleavage  is  parallel  to  the  primary  planes.  The 
•olour  is  white  or  yellow,  or  brownish. 

ANNEOLiIDA  (Cuvier),  an  extensive  division  or  class  of  animals, 
established  by  modem  naturalists  partly  at  the  expense  of  Linnsus's 
heterogeneous  class  of  Worms  {Vermes),  It  was  Baron  Cuvier  who 
in  1802  first  proposed  to  distinguish  iheAnndida  as  a  class,  chiefly 
on  account  of  -their  blood  being  of  a  red  colour,  as  in  the  leech,  and 
circulating  by  means  of  a  double  system  of  complicated  blood-vessels. 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  anmulus,  a  ring,  because 
the  animals  arranged  under  this  division  always  have  their  bodies 
formed  of  a  great  number  of  small  rings,  as  in  the  earth-worm.  Their 
external  covering,  or  skin,  is  soft  and  pliable ;  and  their  bodies,  having 
uo  bony  skeleton,  are  soft,  and  in  general  more  or  less  of  a  cylindrical 
form. 

The  AnneUda  are  for  the  most  part  oviparous,  but  the  leeches  and 
earth-wonns  deposit  what  are  termed  capsules,  or  membranous 
cocoons,  containing  many  embryo  young. 

There  is  little  variety  in  their  mode  of  life.  Some  live  in  fresh  and 
others^  in  salt  water ;  and  others,  like  the  Hair-Worm  (jSordius),  are 
amphibious.  Some  species  construct  tubes  in  the  interior  of  stones, 
vr  in  shells,  which  tney  perforate,  or  in  madrepores.  Some  species 
Again  form  calcareous  cases,  or  cement  around  them  various  foreign 
substances,  particularly  sand.  The  sedentary  species  are  timid,  and 
when  taken  from  their  retreats  can  neither  escape  nor  defend  tiiem- 


selves.  The  Errantia,  on  the  other  hand,  are  frequently  very  nimble, 
and  can  defend  themselves  well  by  means  of  their  bristies. 

Although  manifestly  a  low  group  of  the  Articulate  sub-kingdom  to 
which  they  belong,  Cuvier  was  so  led  away  by  the  importemce  he 
attached  to  their  possessing  red  blood,  that  in  his  latest  edition  of  the 
'  B^e  Animal '  he  placed  them  at  the  head  of  the  Articulate  series, 
above  the  Crustacea,  the  Arachnida,  and  the  Insects.  A  very  cursory 
examination  would  suffice  to  show  that  the  Annelida  represent  the 
caterpillar  or  larval  condition  of  the  insects,  and  could  hardly  be 
regarded  as  higher  in  organisation  than  the  perfected  insect. 

The  body  of  the  Annelide  is  long  and  soft,  and  divided  into  a 
nimiber  of  segments  which  agree  in  having  the  same  form  and  nearly 
the  same  size  throughout.  In  the  lower  forms,  the  first  segment  is 
not  modified  sufficiently  to  demand  the  name  of  a  head ;  but  in  the 
higher  forms  it  assumes  the  character  of  a  head^  and  has  organs 
adapted  to  the  performance  of  cephalic  functions. 

In  the  most  imperfect  Aimelides  the  organs  of  motion  are  suctorial 
disks  such  as  are  seen  in  the  Trematode  worms  amongst  the  Eniozoa. 
As  we  ascend,  hairs  or  hooks  project  from  the  lateral  segments,  as  in 
the  Earth-Worm.  In  others,  bundles  of  hairs  on  each  side  take  the 
place  of  locomotive  members,  as  in  Aphrodita,  These  bristles  or 
bimdles.of  hairs  act  as  their  weapons  of  attack  and  defence,  and  they 
are  generally  sharp  or  barbed  to  assist  in  that  office. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  Annelidos  presents  a  great  advance  on 
that  of  the  class  immediately  below  them,  the  White-Blooded  Parasitic 
Worms.  It  embraces  a  double  central  cord  or  chain  of  small  ganglia 
passing  from  one  end  of  the  body  to  the  other.  Most  of  the  species 
are  provided  with  ocelei  or  fixed  eyes,  and  the  cephalic  segment  is 
furnished  with  soft  cylindrical  tentacles  which  have  been  called 
'  antennse.'  These  are  undoubtedly  oi^gans  of  touch,  but  they  difier 
structurally  from  the  antennae  of  insects  in  the  absence  of  joints.  The 
mouth  is  seated  at  the  lower  surface  of  the  head,  and  in  some  species 
there  is  also  a  trunk  or  probosds  which  the  creature  has  the  power 
of  pulling  in  at  will,  and  lateral-curved  homy  jaws.  The  alimentary 
canal  is  generally  straight ;  in  some  species  quite  simple,  in  others 
having  lateral  pouches.  The  anal  orifice  is  situated  above  and  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  body.  The  blood  varies  in  its  degree  of  redness, 
being  sometimes  very  pale,  at  other  times  of  a  greenish  hue.  It  has 
no  visible  corpuscles,  molecules,  or  cells  whatever.  There  is  no  dis- 
tinction into  venous  and  arteriaL  The  circulating  system  is  very 
simple,  consisting  of  a  dorsal  and  ventral  vessel  with  lateral  branches 
passing  to  the  tegumentary  system,  the  peritoneal  and  branchial 
systems.  In  the  dorsal  trunk  the  blood  flows  from  the  tail  towards 
the  head,  and  in  the  ventral  trunk  from  the  head  towards  the  taiL 

The  respiratory  system  is  in  some  of  the  Annelides  adapted  for 
obtaining  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  in  the  rest  through  the  medium 
of  water.  The  branchial  oi^gans  or  gills  by  which  the  blood  is  aerated 
in  the  water  are  situated  externally,  and  vary  much  in  position. 

These  are  the  general  features  in  the  anatomical  structure  of  the 
Annelides.  They  exhibit  great  variety  in  their  passage  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest  forms.  They  are  divided  by  Milne-Edwards, 
who,  after  Cuvier,  has  given  this  family  most  attention,  into  four 
orders : — 

1.  The  Dorsibranchialoi  or  Brrantes,  including  the  SearCentipedes 
and  Sea-Mice. 

2.  The  TubicolcB,  which  include  those  that  live  in  tubes,  as  the 
Serpula, 

S.  The  Taricoke,  inhabiting  the  earth,  including  the  Common  Earth- 
Worm. 

4.  The  Suctorice,  with  suctorial  disks,  as  the  Leech. 

The  order  DorsibranchiatcB  is  named  from  the  attachment  of  the 
respiratory  organs  to  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  body,  along  the  whole 
or  the  grukter  portion  of  the  length.  All  the  species  belonging  to  it 
are  aquatic  and  worm-like.  They  are  active  m  their  crawling,  and 
swim  with  facility.  On  account  of  this  last  &culty  Milne-Edwards 
has  called  them  Erramtes,  to  disting^uish  them  from  the  next  fietmily, 
which  are  characterised  by  opposite  habits.  Their  head  is  distinct 
from  their  trunk.  They  are  fdniished  with  two  pairs  of  rudimentary 
eyes.  The  body  is  sometimes  very  long,  as  in  the  case  of  the  tropical 
Nereids.  [Nkreib.]  It  hajs  however  in  the  Sea-Mice  considerable 
breadth.  This  genus,  the  Aphrodita' of  Linnaeus,  may  be  taken  as  the 
type  of  the  order. 

Cuvier  remarks  that  this  genus  is  easily  recognised  among  the 
Dorsibranchiate  Annelides  by  the  two  longitudinal  rows  of  wide  mem- 
branous scales  which  cover  the  back,  and  under  which  are  hidden  their 
branchiae,  in  the  form  of  small  fleshy  crests.  Their  body  is  generally 
flattened  in  form,  and  shorter  and  wider  than  it  is  in  the  other 
Annelides.  Their  very  thick  and  muscular  oesophagus  is  capable  of 
being  extruded  like  a  proboscis.  They  have  an  imequal  intestine, 
furnished  on  each  side  with  a  great  number  of  branched  caeca,  the 
extremities  of  which  go  to  fix  themselves  between  the  bundles  of 
biistleB  that  serve  for  feet 

Savigny's  Halithcecs  consist  of  those  which  have  three  tentades,  and 
between  them  a  very  small  crest ;  they  are  without  jaws. 

Example,  Halilhcea  aculeata  (Aphrodita  acuteaUt,  Linn.),  the  Sea- 
Mouse. 

This  is  a  very  beautiful  animal,  and  most  superbly  coloured.  It  is 
oval,  6  or  8  inches  long,  and  2  or  3  iuchos  wide.    The  scales  of  the  baQ^ 


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are  ooyered  and  hidden  by  a  kind  of  flocky  down,  like  tow,  which 
springs  upon  tiie  sides,  and  from  which  issue  groups  of  strong  spines, 
tnat  pierce,  in  part,  the  flocky  covering,  and  bundles  of  flexuous 
bristles,  glittering  like  gold,  and  changing  into  all  the  colours  of  the 
rainbow.  Cuvler  says,  and  without  exaggeration,  that  they  do  not 
yield  in  beauty  either  to  the  plumage  of*  the  humming-birds  or  to  the 
most  brilliant  precious  stones.  Lower  down  is  a  tubercle,  out  of  which 
come  spines,  in  three  groups,  and  of  three  different  sizes,  and  finally 
a  fleshy  cone.  There  are  40  of  these  tubercles  on  each  side,  and 
between  the  first  two  are  two  small  fleshy  tentacles.  There  are  15 
pairs  of  scales,  which  are  wide  and  sometimes  pufied  up,  on  the  back, 
and  15  small  branchial  crests  on  each  side. 


Prickly  Sea^ouse  {Aphrodita  aeuUata), 
a,  Tentral  view  ;  h,  dorsal  and  lateral  view. 

Some  of  the  Halithaem  {HaUthStM  Hermionet,  Say.)  have  no  flocky 
down  upon  the  back,  and  such  is  Aphrod/Ua  ffyatrix  (genus  ffermione, 
De  Blainv.). 

The  genus  PolynSe,  Sav.  {Eumolpe,  Oken),  is  another  subdivision. 
This  genus  has  flocky  covering  on  the  back ;  the  tentacles  are  5  in 
number,  and  their  proboscis  is  furnished  with  homy  and  strong  jaws. 
PolynOe  Uevis  is  an  example. 

Then  there  are  the  genera  SigoLum  and  Aeoites  of  Messrs.  Audouin 
and  Milne-Edwards. 

The  first  of  these  is  more  elongated  in  form  than  the  other 
AphrodUa  ;  it  has  cirrhi  on  all  the  feet.    Such  is  Sigalion  MathtUUg, 

The  second  has  cirrhi,  which  alternate  with  the  elytra  (as  the  two 
rows  of  membranous  scales  which  cover  the  back  are  somewhat  oddly 
called,  the  term  being  already  applied  to  the  homy  external  wings  of 
coleopterous  insects),  in  great  length ;  their  jaws  are  stronger  and 
better  toothed.  There  is  a  large  species  at  the  Antilles  which  inhabits 
a  sheath  or  pipe  of  the  oonaistenoe  of  leather. 

Here  Cuvier  places  his  ChcBtopieruSf  which  has  a  mouth  devoid  of 
jaws  and  proboscis,  furnished  above  with  a  lip,  to  which  are  attached 
two  very  small  tentacula.  Then  comes  a  disk  with  nine  pairs  of  feet, 
then  a  pair  of  long  bristly  bundles,  like  two  wings.  The  branchiae,  in 
the  form  of  plates,  are  attached  rather  below  than  above,  and  are 
placed  along  the  middle  of  the  body. 

Example,  ChcBtoptenu  pergamentaceut.  This  is  8  or  10  inches  long, 
and  inhabits  a  pipe  of  the  substance  of  parchment,  in  the  seas  of  the 
West  India  Islands. 

The  nervous  system  is  more  highly  developed  in  the  Dorsibranchiate 
Annelides  than  in  the  other  orders.  It  consists  of  a  double  chain  of 
ganglia,  but  the  latter  are  larger  generally,  and  the  cephalic  more  fully 
developed,  to  accord  with  their  organs  of  special  sense.  There  are 
also  observable  nerves  and  ganglia  destined  to  supply  the  digestive 
and  respiratory  organs. 

Although  the  JDonibrcmchiata  are  so  highly  developed,  they  never- 
theless many  of  them  retain  the  power  of  regenerating  portions  of 
their  body  which  may  be  broken  off;  and  in  certain  species  which 
divide  spontaneously  a  whole  animal  is  formed  from  parts  that  are 
separated.  In  this  respect  they  are  related  to  the  lower  vermiform 
animals  included  in  the  ErUozoa.    [Ein?ozoA.] 

The  TubicoloB  are  characterised  by  having  their  branchise  in  the 
form  of  plumes,  or  of  small  arborisations,  attached  to  the  head  or  on 
the  anterior  part  of  the  body ;  and  nearly  all  inhabit  tubes. 

Of  those  which  inhabit  tubes,  some  form  a  calcareous  homogeneous 
one,  resulting  probably  from  their  transudation,  like  the  shells  of  the 


mollusca,  but  they  do  not  adhere  to  it  by  means  of  musdes ;  others 
construct  a  tube  by  agglutinating  grains  of  sand,  fragments  of  shells, 
or  particles  of  sand,  by  means  of  a  membrane  whidi  they  doubtless 
secrete  also;  there  are  others  again  whose  tube  is  entirely 
membranous  or  homy.    ('  R^gne  Animal') 

To  the  first  category  belongs  the  genus  Serpvla.  The  species  of 
this  genus  are  the  Tuyaux  de  Mer  of  the  Frendi,  and  their  twisting 
calcareous  tubes  cover  stones,  shells,  and  other  submarine  bodies.  The 
section  of  these  tubes  is  sometimes  roimd  and  sometimes  angular, 
according  to  the  Q>ecies. 

Cuvier  describes  the  animal  as  having  a  body  composed  of  a  great 
number  of  segments ;  its  anterior  part  enlarged  into  a  disk,  armed  on 
each  side  with  many  bimdles  of  stiff  bristle-like  appendages,  and  on 
each  side  of  the  mouth  a  plume  of  branchisB  in  the  fonn  of  a  fan, 
ordinarilv  tinted  with  vivid  colours.  At  the  base  of  each  plume  is  a 
fleshy  filament;  and  one  of  the  two,  that  to  the  right  or  left 
indifferently,  is  always  prolonged  and  dilated  at  its  extremity  into  a 
disk  of  different  configuration,  which  serves  as  an  operculum,  and 
closes  the  aperture  of  the  tube  when  the  animal  retires  within  it 
Cuvier  further  observes  that  as  the  most  common  species  haa  tlus 
disk  in  the  form  of  a  funnel,  some  naturalists  have  mistaken  it  for  a 
proboscis  ;  but  it  is  not  pieixsed ;  and  the  other  species  have  it  more 
or  less  of  a  club-shape. 

The  number  of  species  of  SerpuLa  (Lam.),  admitted  into  the  last 
edition  of  '  Animaux  sans  V ert^bres,'  is  60  recent  and  fossil ;  and 
M.  Milne-Edwards  adds  many  more  at  the  end  of  the  genus ;  but  he 
observes  that  very  little  is  known  of  the  specific  differences  presented 
by  these  animals,  and  that  many  of  the  living  and  all  of  the  fossil 
species  are  characterised  in  a  very  doubtful  manner.  The  fossils  are 
said  to  be  found  in  the  Tertiary,  Green-Sand,  Chalk  (environs  of 
Miinster  and  Maastricht),  Lias,  and  Oolite  beds,  &a  Mr.  Lea 
describes  a  species,  Serpvla  omat<i,  from  the  Tertiary  of  Alabama 
(Claibome  Beds). 

Dr.  Fitton  records  14  named  species  and  two  uncertain  species  from 
the  strata  below  the  chalk,  ranging  from  the  Upper  Green-Sand  to  the 
Kimmeridge  Clay. 

Sir  Roderick  Murchison  notices  Serpulitet  and  Spirorbia  in  the 
Silurian  rocks,  Serpulitet  longitdmut  in  the  upper  Ludlow  Rock,  and 
Spirorbis  tenmt  in  the  lower  Ludlow  Rock,  and  in  the  Wenlock 
Limestone.  He  also  records  the  presence  of  Serpula  {Serpula 
omphaloldes,  Goldl)  in  the  Devonian  Rocks  of  Russia. 

Example,  SerptUa  corUortupliceUa,  The  tubes  of  this  Serpula  are 
round,  twisted,  and  about  three  Unes  in  diameter.  Its  operculum  is 
funnel-shaped,  and  its  branchisD  are  often  of  a  beautiful  rod,  or 
variegated  with  yellow  and  violet  It  quickly  covers  vases,  bottles,  or 
other  objects  thrown  into  l^e  sea. 

LoeaiUy, — The  Mediterranean  and  European  Seas. 


Serpula  contortupfteata. 

In  other  species,  as  for  instance  of  the  genus  Galeolctria,  Lam.,  the 
operculum  is  flat  and  beset  with  points. 

Cuvier  notices  another  species  from  the  Antilles  {Serputa  giganita, 
Pallas),  which  lives  among  the  madi-epores,  and  whose  tube  is  often 
surrounded  by  their  masses.  Its  brancnise  ar^  rolled  into  a  spiral  form 
when  they  re-enter;  audits  operculum  Ib  armed  with  two  small 
branched  horns,  like  the  antlers  of  a  stag.  This  species  is  the  TerdteUa 
bicomis,  'Abbild.  BerL  Schr.'  ix.iiL  4;   Actinia,  or  Animal  Flower, 


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Home,  *  Lect  on  Comp.  Anat'  ii  pL  1.  Upon  this  spiral  rolling  up 
of  the  branchise  Savigny  establii^ed  his  subdivision  of  Cymotpvre 
Serpul<B,  firom  which  M.  de  Blainville  afterwards  established  a  genus. 

The  genus  Spirwlns,  Lam.,  consists  of  those  SerpidcBvrhoee  branchial 
filaments  are  much  less  numerous,  only  three  or  four  on  each  side ; 
their  tube  is  rolled  up  into  a  tolerably  regular  spiral,  and  they  are 
ordinarily  very  smalL 

Sahdla. — ^The  species  of  this  genus  have  the  same  body  and  the 
same  fan-shaped  branchise  as  the  SerpuUe ;  but  their  two  fleshy 
filaments  adhering  to  the  branchise  each  terminate  in  a  point,  and  do 
not  form  an  operculum ;  they  are  even  sometimes  absent  The  tube 
of  the  SabdUe  appears,  most  frequently,  to  be  composed  of  grains  of 
sand,  of  day,  or  very  fine  mud,  and  is  rarely  calcareous.  The  known 
species  are  rather  large,  and  Cuvier  notices  their  branchial  plumes  as 
being  of  admirable  delicacy  and  brilliancy. 

Example,  SabeUa  protvla,  Cuv.  (Protula  Eudolpkii,  Risso).  This 
beautiful  and  large  species,  with  a  calcareous  tube  like  that  of  the 
Serpula,  has  the  branchiae  of  a  rich  orang& 

TerebeUa. — The  species  like  the  greater  part  of  the  SdbeUce,  inhabit 
a  fisuititious  tube ;  but  it  is  composed  of  grains  of  sand  and  fragments 
of  shells  ;  their  body,  moreover,  has  much  fewer  rings,  and  their  head 
is  dififerently  ornamented.  Niunerous  filiform  tentades,  susceptible 
of  much  extension,  surroimd  their  mouth,  and  on  their  ne(^  are 
arborescent  branchise,  not  fan-shaped. 

Example,  TerebeUa  conchilega. 

AmphUrite. — ^Cuvier  remarks  that  the  spedes  of  this  genus  are 
eaaOy  known  by  straw-like  processes  ranged  in  a  pectinated  form,  or 
in  that  of  a  crown,  in  one  or  more  rows,  where  they  probably  serve 
for  defence,  or  perhaps  as  means  of  creeping  or  collecting  the  materials 
for  their  tube.  Around  the  mouth  are  very  nimierous  tentacles,  and 
on  the  commencement  of  the  back  on  each  side  are  branchise  in  the 
form  of  a  comb. 

Cuvier's  genus  AmphitrUe  comprehends  the  Peclinarice  of  Lamarck, 
the  AmphictHes  of  Savigny,  the  Ckrytodovis  of  Oken,  the  Cistenet  of 
Leach,  the  SaheUariai  of  Lamarck,  the  JlermeUea  of  Savigny,  and  the 
genus  Pheruta  of  De  Blainville. 

Siphostoma  (Otto). — The  species  of  this  genus,  which  Cuvier  suspects 
should  be  referred  to  this  order,  have  on  each  articulation  above  a 
bundle  of  fine  bristles ;  below,  a  simple  bristle ;  and,  at  the  anterior 
extremity,  two  packets  of  strong  and  golden-coloured  bristles.  Under 
these  bristles  is  the  mouth,  preceded  by  a  sucker  surrounded  by  many 
soft  filaments,  which  Cuvier  thinks  may  be  brandiise,  and  accompanied 
by  two  fleshy  tentacles.  The  knotted  medullary  cord  may  be  seen 
through  the  skin  of  the  belly.  The  S^hoitOTnata  live  burrowed  in 
the  sand. 

Examples,  Siphattoma  diplochaitoa,  Oken;  &  uncinaia  Aud.  et 
Edw.  <  Littoral  de  France,  AnneL'  pL  ix.,  f.  1. 

The  dose  connection  between  the  ThibicoUe  and  the  J)ornbrancki<U<B 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the  young  of  these  orders  pass  through 
precisdy  the  same  stage  before  arriving  at  maturity.  It  is  only  during 
the  last  stages  of  change  that  the  embryoes  of  TubicolcB  manifest  their 
ultimate  destination  by  the  unequal  devdopment  of  certain  of  Uieir 
segments,  some  of  which  become  almost  abortive,  whilst  others  are 
disproportionatdy  developed. 

The  TerricolcB  have  a  cylindrical  body  tapering  at  both  ends.  The 
segments  of  their  bodies  are  not  well  marked,  and  the  head  is  not 
distinct  from  the  trunk.  They  have  neither  eyes,  mandibles,  cirrhi, 
nor  tuberculous  feet  This  oi-der  includes  two  prindpal  groups,  one 
of  which  only  is  terrestrial,  whilst  the  other  is  aquatia  To  the 
former  belong  the  Common  Earth-^yorm  (Lumbi'iciu  terrestrU),  whilst  in 
the  latter  is  induded  the  Lob  or  Lug-Worm  (Arenicola),  As  the 
Earth-Worm  is  so  well-known  we  ah^  refer  to  its  structure  and 
habits  to  illustrate  the  order. 

Cuvier  remarks  that  the  Lumbrici  ought  to  be  subdivided;  and 
Savigny  has,  in  effect,  subdivided  the  Earth-Worms  into  the  genera 
£nterion,  Hypogaswi,  and  Clitellio.  Messrs.  Audouin  and  Milne-Edwards 
distinguish  also  the  genus  Trophonia, 

Of  these  Enterum  has  upon  each  ring  four  pairs  of  small  bristle-like 
processes,  dght  in  alL 

CliUUio  is  stated  to  have  two  bristle-like  processes  only  on  each  ring. 

SypogcBon  has,  besides  the  other  bristle-like  processes,  one  on  the 
back  of  each  ring.    (This  form  is  noticed  aa  being  American  onlv.) 

Tropktmia  has  on  each  ring  four  bundles  of  short  bristle-like 
processes,  and  at  the  anterior  extremity  a  great  number  of  long  and 
brilliant  bristle-Hke  processes  which  surround  the  mouth. 

Savigny  described  upwards  of  twen^  spedes,  which  he  considers 
to  be  distinct,  and  to  have  been  conrounded  previously  imder  the 
name  of  Lambricm  terrettria.  M.  Morren,  in  his  '  Treatise  on  the 
Natural  History  and  Anatomy  of  the  Lwmbricw  terrestrU,*  appears  to 
be  doubtful  with  regard  to  the  number  of  species  described  by 
Savigny  and  others,  and  inclines  to  the  opinion  that  they  are  merdy 
varieties.  M.  Milne-Edwards  (edit  of  Lamarck's  'Animaux  sans 
Yert^bres,'  18SB,)  condders  the  characters  on  which  Savigny  relied  as 
distinctions  for  dividing  the  group  into  the  three  genera  as  of  little 
importance. 

Externally  the  Earth- Worm  {Lumibricus  terrettru,  Linnseus)  presents 
a  body  composed  of  numerous  narrow  rings  closely  approximated  to 
each  other ;  at  about  one-third  of  their  \en^  may  be  seen^  particularly 

NAT.  BJBT.  DIY.  VOL.  I. 


at  the  season  of  reproduction  the  clitellum,  which  becomes  at  that 
time  a  highly  important  agent  The  colour  of  l^e  body  is  reddish  or 
bluish,  and  of  a  shining  aspect,  and  the  animal  has  the  power  of 
secreting  a  viscous  substance,  which  forms  a  sort  of  protecting  sheath 
to  its  body,  and  greatly  facilitates  its  progress  through  the  earth. 
The  animal  is  eyelesai,  and  unprovided  with  either  tentacle,  branchise, 
or  cirrhi 

JiespircUory  Sytttm. — The  generally  received  opinion  is  that  the 
blood  of  the  Earth-Worm  is  aerated  by  means  of  lateral  series  of 
small  pyriform  vesicles,  analogous  to  the  breathing  sacs  of  the  Leech, 
and  opening  externally  by  very  minute  pores. 

JHgesiive  SytienL^The  mouth  consists  of  two  lips  without  tentades 
or  armature  of  any  description ;  but  the  upper  lip  is  elongated  and 
proboeddiform.  The  oesophagus,  which  is  a  wide  membranous  canal, 
is  continued  straight  down  for  half  an  inch,  and  ends'in  a  dilated  bag 
or  reservoir,  to  which  succeeds  a  muscular  stomach  or  gizzard,  disposed 
in  the  form  of  a  ring.  The  intestine  is  constricted  at  each  segment  of 
the  animal  by  a  series  of  ligaments  or  partitions,  connecting  it  to  the 
parietes  of  the  body,  and  swells  out  the  intermediate  spaces,  when 
distended  by  the  partides  of  earth. 

Nervous  System. — The  nervous  system  of  the  Earth-Worm  consists 
of  a  double  row  of  small  ganglions  dose  to  each  other. 

OenercUive  System. — Allotriandrous,  or  with  male  organs  so  disposed  as 
to  fecundate  the  ova  of  a  different  individual.  (Owen.)  It  has  been 
doubted  whether  these  animals  are  oviparous,  ovoviviparous,  or  vivipa- 
rous. The  fact  is,  that  after  fecundation  by  another  individual,  the  ova, 
which  are  contained  in  the  ovary,  are  set  free  in  the  cavity  of  the 
body  by  the  bursting  of  the  ovary,  and  are  gradually  propelled  to  a 
cavity  near  the  anus.  In  this  spot  they  undergo  the  usual  changes, 
and  they  may  or  may  not  emerge  from  the  parent  before  the  egg- 
membrane  is  broken. 

Organs  of  Progression. — ^Earth-Worms  creep  at  a  good  pace  by  means 
of  muscular  contraction  and  dilatation  acting  on  the  rings,  which  carry 
on  their  under-dde  the  bristle-like  processes  above  mentioned :  these 
last  operate  as  feet  The  power  of  elongation  is  condderable,  and  the 
anterior  part  of  the  animal  acts  as  a  sort  of  awl  in  penetrating  the 
earth. 

Habits,  Jsc. — ^The  Earth-Worm,  as  far  as  relates  to  its  appearance 
above  the  surface  of  the  groimd,  may  be  considered  almost  a  nocturnal 
animal.  In  the  night-season  and  at  early  morning  hundreds  may  be 
seen,  though  not  one,  imless  they  are  disturbed  either  by  moving  the 
ground  or  pouring  liquids  into  their  holes,  is  to  be  found  moving  about 
in  the  day.  The  power  of  reproducing  parts  after  mutilation  is  very 
great  in  this  animal  and  the  whole  of  the  order. 

Utility  to  Man. — The  worm-casts,  which  so  much  annoy  the  gardener 
by  deforming  his  smooth-shaven  lawns,  are  of  no  small  importance  to 
the  agriculturist ;  and  this  despised  creature  is  not  only  of  great 
service  in  loosening  the  earth  and  rendering  it  permeable  by  air  and 
water,  but  is  also  a  most  active  and  powerfiil  agent  in  adding  to  the 
depth  of  the  soil,  and  in  covering  comparatively  barren  tracts  with  a 
superficial  layer  of  vegetable  mould.  In  a  paper  '  On  the  Formation 
of  Mould,'  read  before  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  by  Charles 
Darwin,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  the  author  commenced  by  remarking  on  two  of 
the  most  striking  characters  by  which  the  superficial  layer  of  earth, 
or,  as  it  is  conunonly  called,  vegetable  mould,  is  distinguished.  These 
are,  its  nearly  homogeneous  nature,  although  overlying  different  kinds 
of  subsoil,  and  the  uniform  fineness  of  its  particles.  The  latter  fact 
may  be  wdl  observed  in  any  gravelly  country,  where,  although  in  a 
ploughed  field,  a  large  proportion  of  the  soil  consists  of  small  stones, 
vet  in  old  pasture-land  not  a  single  pebble  will  be  found  within  some 
mches  of  the  surface.  The  author's  attention  was  called  to  this  subject 
by  Mr.  Wedgwood,  of  Maer  Hall,  in  Staffordshire,  who  showed  him 
several  fidda^  some  of  which,  a  few  years  before,  had  been  covered  with 
lime,  and  others  with  burnt  marl  and  cinders.  These  substances,  in 
evexy  case,  are  now  buried  to  the  depth  of  some  inches  beneath  the 
turf.  Three  fidds  were  examined  with  care :  the  first  consisted  of 
good  pasture-land,  which  had  been  limed,  without  having  been  ploughed, 
about  124  years  before ;  the  turf  was  about  half  an  inch  thick ;  and 
24  inches  beneath  it  was  a  layer  or  row  of  small  aggregated  lumps  of 
the  lime,  forming,  at  an  equal  depth,  a  well-marked  wlute  line.  The 
soil  beneath  this  was  of  a  gravelly  nature,  and  differed  very  consider- 
ably from  the  movdd  nearer  the  surface.  About  three  years  since 
cinders  were  likewise  spread  on  this  field :  these  are  now  buried  at  the 
depth  of  an  inch,  forming  a  line  of  black  spots  paralld  to  and  above 
the  white  layer  of  lime.  Some  other  cinders,  which  had  been  scattered 
in  another  part  of  the  same  fidd,  were  either  still  lying  on  the  surfiuie 
or  entangled  in  the  roots  of  the  grass.  The  second  field  examined  was 
remarkable  only  from  the  cinders  being  now  buried  in  a  layer,  nearly 
an  inch  thick,  8  inches  beneath  the  surface.  This  layer  was  in  parts 
so  continuous,  that  the  superficial  mould  was  only  attached  to  the 
subsoil  of  red  day  by  the  longer  roots  of  the  grass. 

The  history  of  the  third  field  is  more  com)>lete.  Previously  to 
15  years  since  it  was  waste  land ;  but  at  that  time  it  was  drained, 
harrowed,  ploughed,  and  well  covered  with  burnt  marl  and  cinders. 
It  has  not  since  been  disturbed,  and  now  supports  a  tolerably  good 
posture.  The  section  here  was  turf  half  an  mch,  mould  21  inches,  a 
Uyer  1  \  inch  thick,  composed  of  fragments  of  burnt  marl  (conspicuous 
firom  their  bright  red  colour,  and  some  of  considerable  siae,  namely, 


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ANNELIDA. 


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1  inoL  by  i  an  inch  broad,  and  a  \  inch  thick),  of  cinders,  and  a  few  quartz 
pebbles  mingled  with  earth ;  lastly,  about  il  inches  beneath  the  surface 
was  the  original  black  peaty  soiL  Thus  beneath  a  layer  (nearly 
4  inches  thick)  of  fine  particles  of  earth,  mixed  with  some  vegetable 
matter,  those  substances  now  occurred,  which,  15  years  before,  had 
been  spread  on  the  surface.  Mr.  Darwin  stated  that  the  appearance  in 
all  cases  was  as  if  the  fragments  had,  as  the  farmers  believe,  worked 
themselves  down.  It  does  not  however  appear  at  all  possible  that 
either  the  powdered  lime  or  the  fragments  of  burnt  marl  and  the 
pebbles  could  sink  through  compact  earth  to  some  inches  beneath  the 
surface,  and  still  remain  in  a  continuous  layer;  nor  is  it  probable  that 
the  decay  of  the  grass,  although  adding  to  the  surface  some  of  the 
constituent  parts  of  the  mould,  should  separate  in  so  short  a  time  the 
fine  from  the  coarse  earth,  and  accumulate  the  former  on  those  objects 
which  so  lately  were  strewed  on  the  surface.  Mr.  Darwin  also  remarked 
that  near  towns,  in  fields  which  did  not  appear  to  have  been  ploughed, 
he  had  often  been  surprised  by  finding  pieces  of  pottery  and  bones 
some  inches  below  the  turf.  On  the  mountains  of  Chile  he  had  been 
perplexed  by  noticing  marine  shells,  covered  by  earth,  in  situations 
where  rain  could  not  have  washed  it  on  theuL 

The  explanation  of  these  circumstances,  which  occurred  to  Mr. 
Wedgwood,  although  it  may  at  first  appear  trivial,  the  author  does 
not  doubt  is  the  correct  one,  namely,  that  the  whole  is  due  to  the 
digestive  process  by  which  the  Common  Earth-Worm  is  supported. 
On  carefiilly  examining  between  the  blades  of  grass  in  the  fields 
above  described,  the  author  found  that  there  was  scarcely  a  space  of 
two  inches  square  without  a  little  heap  of  the  cylindrical  castings  of 
worma  It  is  well  known  that  worms  swallow  earthy  matter,  and 
that,  having  separated  the  serviceable  portion,  they  eject  at  the  mouth 
of  their  burrows  the  remainder  in  little  intestine-shaped  heaps.  The 
worm  ia  unable  to  swallow  coarse  particles ;  and  as  it  would  naturally 
avoid  pure  lime,  the  fine  earth  lying  beneath  either  the  cinders  and 
burnt  marl,  or  the  powdered  lime,  would,  by  a  slow  process,  be 
removed  and  thrown  up  to  the  surface.  This  supposition  is  not 
imaginary,  for  in  the  field  in  which  cinders  had  been  spread  out  only 
half  a  year  before,  Mr.  Darwin  actually  saw  the  castings  of  the  worms 
heaped  on  the  smaller  fragments.  Nor  is  the  agency  so  trivial  as  it 
at  &ni  might  be  thought,  ti^e  great  number  of  Earth-Worms  (as  every 
one  must  be  aware  who  has  ever  dug  in  a  grass-field)  making  up  for 
the  insignificant  quantity  of  work  which  each  performs. 

On  the  above  hypothesis,  the  great  advantage  of  old  pasture-land, 
whioh  farmers  are  always  particularly  imwilling  to  break  up,  is 
explained ;  for  tiie  worms  must  require  a  considerable  length  of  time 
to  prepare  a  thick  stratum  of  mould,  by  thoroughly  mingling  the 
original  constituent  parts  of  the  soil,  as  well  as  the  manures  aidded  by 
man.  In  the  peaty  field,  in  15  years,  about  3  4  inches  had  been  well 
digested.  It  is  probable  however  that  the  process  is  continued, 
though  at  a  slow  rate,  to  a  much  greater  depth ;  for  as  often  as  a 
worm  is  compelled  by  dry  weather  or  any  other  cause  to  descend 
deep,  it  must  bring  to  the  surfiEtce,  when  it  empties  the  contents  of  its 
body,  a  few  particles  of  earth.  The  author  concluded  by  remarking, 
that  it  is  probable  that  eveiy  particle  of  earth  in  old  pasture-land  has 
passed  through  the  intestines  of  worms,  and  hence  that  in  some 
senses  the  term  'animal  mould'  would  be  more  appropriate  than 
'v^etable  mould.'  The  agriculturist^  in  ploughing  the  ground, 
follows  a  method  strictly  natural ;  and  he  only  imitates  in  a  rude 
manner,  without  being  able  either  to  bury  pebbles  or  to  sift  the  fine 
from  the  coarse  soil,  the  work  which  Nature  is  daily  performing  by  the 
agency  of  the  Earth- Worm. 

The  most  common  species  of  Arenvcola  is  the  A.  PUcatorumf  or 
Lug- Worm,  which  is  oommonly  employed  on  the  coasts  of  this 
country  as  a  bait  by  fishermen. 

The  genus  Nats,  of  Linnsdus,  includes  a  number  of  small  Annelides, 
not  well  made  out  They  live  in  holes  which  they  perforate  in  the 
mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  from  which  they  protrude  the  upper 
portion  of  their  body,  which  they  are  incessantly  moving. 

The  Suctoria  are  characterised  by  ihe  body  of  the  animals  being 
destitute  of  bristles  for  locomotion,  completely  apodous,  without  soft 
appendages,  and  furnished  with  a  prehensile  cavity  in  the  form  of  a 
Bucker  at  each  extremity.  The  head  is  not  distinct,  but  generally 
provided  with  eyes  and  jaws. 

The  principal  family  of  this  order  is  the  BirudinidcB,  which  compre- 
hends not  only  the  Leeches  properly  so  called,  which  live  by  sucking 
the  blood  of  various  animahi,  but  also  includes  many  other  worms 
which  derive  their  nourishment  in  a  totally  different  way,  and  present 
corresponding  differences  in  organisation.  The  affinities  between  the 
leeches  and  some  of  the  Setiferous  Annelidans,  as  various  species  of 
Na-eis,  Lwmbricm,  Planaria,  &a,  are  so  close  that  they  hardly  admit  of 
being  arranged  in  separate  orders,  and  others  of  the  Leech  tribe  may 
even  be  confounded  with  some  species  of  Lemeoe  or  Epkoa. 

The  ancients  appear  to  have  only  known  the  most  common  species 
of  Leeches.  Aristotle  makes  no  mention  of  them,  and  tiiey  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  used  in  medicine  in  the  time  of  Hippocrates. 
Plmy  describes  them  very  clearly  under  the  name  of  Hiruiinei  and 
Sanguituga,  and  distinguishes  two  species.  The  Sea-Leech  is  dis- 
tinctly mentioned  by  Belon,  Bondelet,  and  by  all  the  writers  on 
natural  history  since  the  revival  of  letters.  More  recently  Linnseus 
inoreMcd  our  knowledge  of  the  number  of  species,  ofwhioh  ho  desoriboB 


eight  in  the  12th  edition  of  the  '  Systema  Natune.'  Midler  afterwards 
discovered  five  or  six  others,  so  that  Qmelin,  in  his  edition  of  the 
'  Systema  Naturae,'  enumerated  fourteen  species.  Since  then,  Shaw, 
Leach,  Dutrochet,  Savigny,  Milne-Edwards,  and  others,  have  found 
many  more,  and  the  introduction  of  new  zoological  methods  has  caused 
a  necessity  for  arranging  these  various  species  in  different  genera,  of 
which  we  shall  enumerate  some  of  those  which  are  best  known. 

The  True  Leeches  are  all  destitute  of  branchi»  or  special  oigans  of 
respiration ;  and  this  fimction  has  been  supposed  to  be  effected  by 
means  of  the  skin  generally,  but  M.  Milne-Edwards  has  recently 
stated  (as  was  before  observed  by  Cuvier)  that  "there  exists  in  these 
Anndidce  a  series  of  small  membranous  sacs,  each  of  which  commu- 
nicates externally  by  a  minute  orifice  situated  on  the  ventral  aspect 
of  the  body:  these  sacs  derive  from,  the  numerous  vessels  which 
ramify  upon  their  parietes  a  considerable  quantity  of  blood ;  water 
penetrates  into  these  organs,  and  seems  to  subserve  a  true  respiratory 
purpose."  But  though  the  species  of  the  family  Himdinida  are  not 
provided  with  distinct  branchise,  these  organs  are  found  in  a  genus 
which  is  generally  associated  with  the  True  Leeches,  and  which  we 
shall  place  first  in  the  following  list  of  genera  : — 

1.  Branchdlion,  Savigny,  BranchiobdeUa,  De  Blainville,  PolydorUy 
Oken.  These  names  have  been  given  to  a  worm  closely  resembling 
a  leech  in  external  structure  (it  being  furnished  with  two  suckers), 
which  is  found  parasitic  on  the  Toroedo  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
other  seas.  The  Hirvdo  hranchiaia,  Menzies,  a  species  observed  on 
the  tortoise  which  is  found  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  has  also  been  placed 
in  this  genus,  though  Cuvier  says  that  it  ought  not  to  be  associated 
with  it 

Hirvdinidos  proper. 

Section  I. — Anterior  Sucker  teparcUed  from  the  Body  by  a  dittinct 

StranguUUion  or  Neck. 

2.  Albione,  Sav.,  PorUohdeUct,  Leach  and  Blain.,  characterised  by 
the  body  being  bristled  over  with  tubercles.  Species  all  marine; 
seven  have  been  enumerated  ;  two  of  them  are  very  common  in  our 
seas  : — 1,  Albione  verrucot<i,  Hirudo  muricata,  Linnseus ;  2,  Ponto- 
bdella  apinulosci.  Leach  :  both  of  these  worms  attach  themselves  to  fish, 
particularly  skates;  and  the  latter  species  is  commonly  known  to 
fishermen  by  the  name  of  the  Skate-Sucker. 

8.  HcBmochariSf  Sav. ;  Jchthyohdellaf  Blain.  In  this  genus  there  are 
eight  eyes,  the  body  is  narrow,  and  the  jaws  scarcely  visible.  The 
only  known  species  is  the  ffcemocharis  Ptacium,  Hirudo  Piscium,  Linn., 
which  lives  in  fresh  waters,  where  it  attaches  itself  to  fish,  particularly 
Cyprini. 

Section  II. — Anterior  Sucker  very  dightly  separcUed  from  the  Body. 

4.  Oeobdellay  Blain.,  Trochetia,  Dutrochet,  is  distinguished  by  having 
an  enlargement  round  the  orifices  of  the  genital  organs.  We  only 
know  one  small  species  of  this  genus,  the  OeohdeUa  Trochetiiy  which 
inhabits  our  waters,  and  which  frequently  comes  on  land  to  pursue  the 
Lumbrici,  or  Earth- Worms. 

5.  Pseudobdella,  Blain.,  has  the  mouth  merely  provided  with  folds 
of  skin,  and  is  destitute  of  teeth.  Only  one  species  is  well  known,  the 
PteudobdeUa  nigrct,  Hirudo  rUgra^  Linn.,  the  Common  Black  licech. 

6.  Hcemopis,  Sav.,  Hypobdelki,  Blain.,  has  the  mouth  furnished  with 
a  few  obtuse  teeth.  Three  species  are  enumerated ;  the  best  known 
is  the  Hcemopit  tanguisorbaf  Sav.,  Hirudo  sanguitugaf  Linn.,  the  Common 
Horse-Leech,  which  is  much  larger  than  the  Medicinai  Leech,  and  wholly 
of  a  greenish-black  colour.  The  Horse-Leech  has  been  reported  to  inflict 
dangerous  wounds  by  some  observers,  while  others  say  that  it  never 
attacks  vertebrate  animals.  M.  De  Blainville  thinks  that  this  discre- 
pancy has  arisen  from  this  species  having  been  confounded  with  the 
foregoing,  the  Black  Leech,  which  cannot  penetrate  the  skin  of  vertebrate 
animals  for  want  of  teeth.  Both  these  leeches  greedily  attack  the 
common  earth-worm. 

7.  Sanguifuga,  Sav.,  Jalrobddla,  Blain.  The  anterior  sucker  has  its 
upper  lip  divided  into  several  segments.  Its  aperture  is  transverse, 
and  it  contains  three  jaws,  each  of  which  is  armed  on  its  edge  with 
two  ranges  of  very  fine  teeth,  which  enable  these  leeches  to  penetrate 
through  the  skin  without  rnakiug  any  dangerous  wound.  This  genus 
contains  the  true  Medicinal  Leeches,  eight  species  of  which  have  been 
enumerated :  the  most  common  is  the  Sanguisuga  mediciiuUis,  Hirudo 
medicinalis,  Linn.,  which  is  a  native  of  all  our  stagnant  fresh  waters. 

8.  Bdella,  Sav.,  has  eight  eyes  and  is  destitute  of  teeth  :  one  sx)ecies 
is  found  in  the  Nile — the  Bdella  NUotica. 

9.  NephdiSj  Sav.,  ErpobdeUa,  Blain.,  has  eight  eyes,  and  the  mouth 
is  furnished  internally  with  only  three  folds  of  sidn.  Several  species 
of  this  genus  are  enumerated ;  the  most  common  is  the  Ncphelii 
testUaia,  Sav.,  Hirudo  vulgaris,  Linn.  This  species  has  often  been 
confoimded  with  the  medicinal  and  other  leeches;  it  is  commonly 
foimd  in  fresh  waters,  and,  like  all  the  other  species  of  this  genus,  never 
leaves  the  water,  and  is  injured  by  the  contact  of  the  air ;  so  that  if 
taken  out  of  the  water  it  quickly  dies. 

Section  III. — Anterior  Sucker  wanting. 

10.  Cleptina,  Sav.,  Olosaopora,  Johnson,  Gloasobddla,  Blain.  This 
genus  has  a  widened  body  and  only  a  posterior  sucker;  the  mouth  is 
in  the  form  of  a  proboscis.  Cuvier  thinks  it  doubtful  whether  the 
species  of  this  genus  should  be  arranged  with  the  Leech  Family ;  they 


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ANONACE.E. 


214 


coDsiKt  of  little  worms  which  never  leave  the  water,  and  live  fixed  to 
the  stem  of  aquatic  plants,  from  which  they  perhaps  derive  their 
nourishment :  they  never  swim,  but  crawl  along. 

Besides  the  genera  which  we  have  enumerated,  several  parasitic 
worms,  which  Uve  always  fixed  to  the  same  part  of  some  animal,  have 
been  enumerated  among  the  Bimdinida?,  and  have  been  arranged 
by  Blainville  in  the  genus  Epibdella.  He  also  places  several  other 
species,  which  are  without  distinct  articulations,  in  the  genus  Mala- 
cobdtlla.  There  still  remain  several  doubtful  species  of  Leech,  and 
some  have  been  confounded  with  true  PlanaricB,  which  differ  from 
Leeches  in  having  no  sucker  at  either  end.    [See  Sufplembnt.] 

To  this  order  also  is  referred  the  genus  Gordiua  of  Linnaeus,  but 
recent  researches  have  rendered  it 
highly  probable  that  their  relations  are 
rather  with  the  Eniozoa.  [Entozoa.] 
(Williams,  Report  of  the  Structure  of 
Annelida,  'Brit  Ass.  Trans.,'  1851; 
Owen,  Lectures  on  Comparative  Ana- 
tomy ;  Cuvier,  JUgne  A  nimal ;  Carp)en- 
ter,  PrincipleM  of  Phytiology ;  Milne- 
Edwards,  EUmens  de  Zoologie.) 

ANOA,  a  species  of  Ruminating 
Animals,  so  very  imperfectly  known, 
that  zoologists  are  undetermined 
whether  to  cdliBider  it  as  an  antelope 
or  a  species  of  buffalo.  This  uncer- 
tainty arises  from  the  fact,  that  though 
the  animal  has  been  noticed  for  many 
years,  only  a  few  fragments  of  skulls 
and  horns  have  been  hitherto  brought 
to  Europe,  and  even  these  too  im- 
perfect to  acquaint  us  with  the 
zoological  characters  of  the  animal. 
Judging,  however,  from  these  mate- 
rials, ttie  Anoa  would  really  appear 

to  be  a  species  in  many  respects  inter-  Horns  of  Anoa, 

mediate  between  the  bufialoes   and 

antelopes,  as  at  present  defined ;  agreeing  with  the  former  in  the  form 
of  its  horns,  and  wiUi  the  latter  in  their  position. 

ANOLIS  {AnoliuSf  Cuvier),  a  genus  of  Saurian  Reptiles,  belonging 
to  that  section  of  the  Iguanias  which  Cuvier  distinguishes  by  having 
teeth  in  the  palate  of  the  mouth  as  well  as  in  the  maxillary  bones. 
They  are  readily  distiuguished  from  the  Iguaifias,  properly  so  called, 
the  Basilisks,  and  other  genera  of  this  division,  by  the  peculiar  form 
of  the  antepenultimate  ph^anx  of  the  toes,  which  is  flattened  beneath, 
and  furnished  with  a  kind  of  pad  or  cushion,  grooved  or  striated  trans- 
versely, and  serving  to  make  the  animals  adhere  more  firmly  to  those 
substances  which  they  grasp  in  walking.  In  this  particular  point  of 
their  structure  the  Anolis  approach  the  G^koes,  but  it  does  not 
enable  them  to  exercise  the  singular  power  of  walking  with  the  legs 
uppermost,  like  flies  on  a  ceiling,  which  some  of  these  reptiles  possesa 
The  toes,  however,  are  much  longer  and  better  separated  thaji  those 
of  the  Geckoes,  and  the  claws,  instead  of  being  short  and  flattened, 
are  long,  crooked,  and  sharp-pointed.  The  body  and  tail  are  long  and 
slender,  as  are  also  the  legs,  particularly  those  behind,  which  are 
rather  longer  than  the  fore-legs.  Each  foot  has  five  toes.  The  whole 
body  and  tail,  both  above  and  below,  are  covered  irregularly  with 
Bnudl  round  scales,  which  give  the  skin  a  granulated  appearance  like 
that  of  a  fine  shagreen. 

The  Anolis  are  entirely  an  American  genus,  and  seem,  in  many 
respects,  to  supply  in  the  New  Woild  the  place  which  the  Chameleons 
occupy  in  the  Old.  The  colours  of  their  skins  change  with  the  same  or 
even  greater  rapidity,  especially  on  the  loose  skin  of  the  throat,  which 
is  constantly  distended  when  these  animals  are  actuated  by  strong 
passions,  eitner  of  fear,  anger,  or  love,  and  in  this  state  they  assume  an 
endless  succession  of  ever-varying  hues.  They  differ  from  the  Chame- 
leons, however,  in  their  more  slender  and  graceful  proportions,  and  in 
the  great  activity  of  their  movements,  displaying  all  the  restlessness 
and  celerity  of  tne  common  green  lizard  of  Europe.  They  frequent 
woody  and  stony  situations  indifferently,  climb  and  leap  with  such 
swiftness  and  facility  that  their  motion  has  been  compared  to  the  flight 
of  a  bird ;  and,  when  overheated  or  fatigued  by  their  exertions,  will 
stop,  open  their  mouths,  and  pant  like  a  tired  dog.  They  are  extremely 
timid  and  harmless,  and  feed  for  the  most  part  upon  flies  and  other  smaU 
insects.  There  are  two  small  sub-genera,  <Ustingmshed  from  one  another 
by  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  carinated  crest  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  tail  The  first  of  these  divisions,  comprehending  those  which 
have  this  crest,  consists  of  a  number  of  species  definitely  characterised 
by  M.  Cuvier,  but  formerbr  confounded  under  the  denominations  of 
Lacerta  principalU  and  Lacerta  biTnacvlata,  The  principal  species 
Me  the  following : — 

1.  Anoliui  velifer,  of  Baron  Cuvier,  is  of  a  beautiful  dark  ashy-blue 
coloiur,  and  perhaps  the  lai^B;est  of  the  whole  genus,  the  body  measuring 
a  foot  in  length,  and  the  tsSl  being  about  a  foot  and  a  half.  The  crest 
extends  along  the  top  of  the  tail  for  half  its  length  from  the  origin,  and 
is  supported  by  from  12  to  15  rays.  The  loose  skin  beneath  the  throat 
extends  fr^m  ike  chin  even  to  the  belly,  and  when  not  distended  forms 
a  longitudixud  fold  along   the  whole  under-flur£ace  of  the  animaL 


The  food,  from  the  observation  of  Baron  Cuvier,  would  appear,  at  least 
occasionally,  to  consist  of  berries  and  other  vegetable  substances.  It 
inhabits  Jamaica  and  the  Antilles  generally,  preferring  the  woods  to 
the  open  coimtry,  and  lodging  in  decayed  trees  or  small  crevices  in  the 


AnoHus  velifer, 

groimd,  where  the  female  likewise  deposits  her  eggs.  It  is  incessantly 
in  motion,  and  when  pleased  fr^uently  emits  a  low  but  acute  chirp ; 
though  harmless  and  extremely  timid,  it  possesses  a  considerabfe  share 
of  curiosity,  and  allows  itself  to  be  readily  caught  in  little  rush  snares, 
which  children  in  the  West  Indies  amuse  themselves  by  placing  in  its 
haunts,  alluring  it  from  its  concealment  by  imitating  its  voice. 

2.  Anoliua  bimaculaia,  of  Sparrmann,  is  little  more  than  half  the  size 
of  the  former  species,  but  willi  the  same  general  form  and  habits,  and 
with  a  similar  crest  upon  the  first  half  of  the  tail.  The  general  colour 
is  a  greenish  blue,  clear  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  neck,  but  mixed 
with  -dark  brown  on  the  body,  tail,  and  extremities,  and  marked  with 
numerous  small  black  spots  on  the  head  and  sides,  and  two  large  ones 
on  the  shoulders,  frx>m  which  it  derives  its  specific  name.  It  is  found 
in  North  America,  from  Pennsylvania  to  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  in  the  Antilles. 

The  second  subdivision  of  the  genus  Anolitu  consists  of  i 
without  a  carinated  crest  on  the  tail,  but  in  no  other  respect  < 
from  those  already  described.    Of  tibese  the  principal  are  : — 

8.  Anolwu  eqtustritf  of  Merrem,  of  which  tiie  tail,  more  flattened 
on  the  sides  than  in  the  following  sx>ecie8,  still  retains  a  slight  indi- 


AnoUus  eqneStru, 

cation  of  the  crest  which  distinguishes  those  of  the  former  division. 
The  body  of  this  species  measures  about  a  foot  in  length,  and  the  tail 
is  nearly  a  foot  and  a  half. 

4.  Anolius  Cepedii,  of  Merrem,  is  a  pretty  little  species,  found 
likewise  in  the  Antilles,  about  half  the  size  of  the  last,  of  a  green 
colour,  with  a  short  muzzle  spotted  with  brown,  an^  except  in 
the  absence  of  the  crest  on  the  tail,  very  similar  to  the  Anoliiu 
bimaculoUa, 

5.  Anolius  lineatus,  of  Daudin,  resembles  the  last  species  in  its  pure 
bright  green  colour,  but  it  is  rather  laiger,  and  is  marked  along  each 
flank  with  two  parallel  lines  of  oblong  bkck  spots,  the  upper  of  which 
passes  over  the  arms  and  thighs,  and  the  under  between  the  shoulders 
and  hips.    It  inhabits  different  parta  of  South  America* 

6.  Anolitu  huUaris,  of  Merrem,  fiLrst  described  bv  Catesby  in  his 
'  Natural  History  of  Carolina,'  imder  the  name  of  the  Green  Lizardi 
is  a  very  beautiful  species,  of  a  greenish  gold  colour,  particularly  dis^ 
tinguished  by  a  black  band  on  the  temples,  and  the  elongated  and 
flattened  form  of  its  muzzle. 

ANONA'CEiE,  Anonadt,  the  Cuttard-Apple-Tribe,  a  natural  order 
of  plants  consisting  of  tropical  or  subtropical  trees  and  bushes,  that 
usually  abound  in  a  powerful  aromatic  secreUoni  which  renden 


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ANONACE^. 


ANOPLOTHERIUM. 


the  flowers  of  some  highly  fragrant,  the  leaves  of  others  a  grateful 
perfume,  and  the  dried  fruits  of  many  so  highly  aromatic  as  to  vie 
with  the  spioes  of  commerce ;  among  these  last  is  the  Ethiopian 
Pepper  of  the  shops,  which  is  yielded  by  the  fruit  of  Uvaria  itromcUica. 
Of  others  of  this  order,  the  fruit  is  succulent  and  abounds  in  a  delicate 
juice,  which  renders  it  a  pleasant  article  of  food.  Under  the  name  of 
Sour  Sop,  Sweet  Sop,  and  Custard- Apple,  many  kinds  are  cultivated 
in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  FiniJly,  the  bark  of  some 
separates  readily  into  fibres  which  make  excellent  cordage:  a  large 
tree  called  in  Brazil  Pindaiba,  and  by  botanists  Xylopia  serieeoy  is 
advantageously  employed  for  this  purpose. 

The  natural  order  Anonacta:  is  Imown  from  all  other  Dicotyledonous 
orders  by  its  flowers  having  the  calyx  and  sepals  arranged  in  threes, 
a  number  of  carpella  occupying  the  centre,  as  in  a  ranunculus,  and  by 
the  curious  circumstance  of  their  albumen,  which  here  constitutes  the 
bulk  of  the  seed,  being  what  ia  called  ruminated,  that  is,  perforated  in 
all  directions  by  twisting  and  crossing  passages,  like  the  nutmeg. 

The  Sweet  Sop  (Anon/a  squamosa)  is  often  only  a  small  bush,  growing 
in  all  the  West  India  Islimds,  where  it  bears  a  greenish  fniit  covered 
with  scales,  and  having  the  appearance  of  a  young  pine-cone.  Its  skin 
is  half  an  inch  thick,  and  contains  an  abundance  of  thick,  sweet, 
luscious  pulp.  In  many  parts  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  it  is  a 
favourite  fruit 


for  light  turnery,  and  its  fruit  is  good  for  the  dessert 
A,  paltutris  is  used  for  making  corks  in  Brazil 


The  root  ol 


Fruit  of  Sour  Sop  {Airr.a  viuricata). 


9  *-  O         U 

Street  Sop  {Anona  squamosa), 
1,  A  caljz  opened,  the  petals  having  fallen  awaj,  showing  the  arrangement 
of  the  stamens  and  carpels  in  the  inside  of  the  flower ;  2,  a  stamen ;  3,  a  seed ; 
4,  the  same  cut  in  half,  to  show  the  mminated  albumen  ;  5,  the  embryo ;  6,  a 
ripe  fmit,  much  less  than  the  natural  sixe  (the  projections  on  its  surface  are 
the  points  of  the  carpella  which  grow  together  into  one  fleshy  mass,  as  in  the 
raspberry) ;  7,  a  view  of  the  same  fruit  out  in  half. 

The  Custard- Apple  (Afuma  reiicvlata)  is  an  inferior  kind,  resembling 
the  foregoins;  but  forming  a  larger  tree,  and  having  a  much  larger 
dark-brown  miit,  the  surface  of  which  is  netted  all  over.  The  bulb 
is  yellowish  or  reddish,  and  of  about  the  consistence  of  custard. 

The  Sour  Sop  {Anona  mnriccUa)  forms  in  the  West  Indies  a 
picturesque  small  tree,  resembling  a  laige  bay-tree.  The  flowers  are 
yellow,  and  have  an  unpleasant  odour.  The  fruit  is  often  as  heavy  as 
2  lb.,  or  even  3  lb. ;  it  is  covered  all  over  with  weak  prickles ;  its  skin 
is  yellowish-green,  and  very  thin ;  its  pulp  is  more  like  pith,  is  as 
white  as  milk,  and  is  sweet  mixed  with  a  most  agreeable  acid. 

The  Cherimoyer  {Anona  Chenmolia),  is  easily  known  from  the 
preceding  by  its  leaves  not  being  shining  and  bright  green,  but  hoary, 
with  short  down,  and  verv  blunt  It  forms  a  small  tree  about  12  or 
14  feet  high,  and  is  exoeedmgly  valued  in  Peru,  wherd  it  is  cultivated 
on  account  of  the  excellence  of  its  fruit  The  flowers  are  very  fra- 
grant. The  fruit  heart-shaped,  grayish-brown  or  black,  when  ripe,  with 
a  scaly  rind ;  it  is  white,  sweety  and  rich. 

A,  sylvaiica  is  called  AraHcu  do  Mate  in  Brajdl.    Its  wood  is  used 


Sour  Sop  {Anona  muricata)^ 

ANOPLOTHE'RIUM  (from  &  privative,  Zw\oy,  and  Oifp,  that  is, » 
beast  without  ofiensive  arms  or  tusks),  in  Fossil  Zoology,  a  genus  of 
extinct  Pachydermatous  Quadrupeds,  discovered  and  charactcsrised  by 
Baron  Cuvier.  The  bones  of  these  singular  inhabitants  of  a  former 
world,  occur  in  great  quantities,  mixed  with  those  of  the  PalcBOtheritm, 
another  extinct  genus  of  the  same  order,  likewise  described  by  V- 
Cuvier,  in  the  gypsum-strata  or  plaster-quarries  in  the  neighbourhood  of 


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ANOPLOTHERIUM. 


ANT. 


ai8 


Paris,  and  thev  aro  occasionally,  though  more  rarely,  met  with  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Orleans  and  C^enoa.  Remains  also  of  this  genus 
hare  been  found  in  the  fresh-water  deposits  at  the  Seafield  quarries  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight 

The  first  character  m  which  the  Anoplotherta  differ  essentially  from 
all  other  Pachydermata,  whether  extinct  or  recent^  is  found  in  the 
number  and  arrangement  of  their  teeth,  which  consist  of  6  incisors, 
2  Gftnines,  and  14  molars  in  each  jaw,  making  in  the  whole  44  teeth. 
These,  as  in  the  human  subject,  are  arranged  in  a  continued  and 
uninterrupted  series,  without  any  vacancies  between  the  molars  or 
incisors  and  the  canines,  a  circumstance  peculiar  to  this  genus  of 
animals  among  ihe  Pachydermata,  and  which,  besides  man,  it  shares 
only  with  the  qhrews  and  hedgehogs — Mammalia  in  all  other  respects 
widely  different.  The  canines  moreover  are  perfectly  similtur  in 
form  and  appearance  to  the  incisors,  and  might  easily  be  mistaken  for 
lateral  teetn  of  this  description,  did  not  their  situation  in  the  jaw, 
beyond  the  maxillary  suture,  prove  their  real  nature.  The  four 
posterior  molars  resemble  those  of  the  Rhinoceros  and  Palscotheria ; 
that  is  to  sav,  they  are  quadrangular  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  marked  in 
the  lower  with  a  double  or  triple  crescent  of  enamel,  which  penetrates 
their  substance  and  shows  itself  on  the  crowns  in  the  form  of  salient 
ridges. 

This  'formation  of  the  oigans  of  mastication,  intimately  connected 
as  these  oigans  necessarily  are  with  the  food  and  alimentary  canal, 
demonstrate  most  ilnequivocally  that  these  animals  fed  upon  vegetable 
substances,  and  that,  in  all  probability,  they  differed  but  little  in  this 
respect  from  the  Tapirs  and  Rhinoceroses  at  present  existing. 

The  second  important  character  of  the  Anoplotheria  which  must 
have  exercised  a  very  decided  influence  upon  their  habits,  arises  firom 
the  conformation  of  the  extremities.  These,  as  in  Ruminating  Animals, 
were  terminated  by  two  toes,  enveloped  in  small  hoofs,  sometimes 
without  accessory  or  false  hoofs  behind,  as  in  the  Camels  and  Llamas, 
sometimes  with  one  or  even  two  small  lateral  toes  of  this  description, 
as  in  the  Peccaries ;  but  the  bones  of  the  metacarpus  and  metatarsus 
respectively  corresponding  to  these  two  toes  were  not  united  into  a 
single  canon,  as  they  invariably  are  among  the  Ruminantia,  and  this 
is  in  reality  the  principal  difference  between  the  extremities  of  the 
latter  AnimRla  and  those  of  the  Anoplotheria,  The  structure  of  the 
carpus  and  tarsus  is  precisely  the  same  in  both  genera ;  the  scaphoid 
and  cuboid  bones,  wnich  are  soldered  together  into  a  single  piece  in 
all  the  other  Ruminantia,  being  separate  in  the  Camels  and  Llamasy 
as  they  invariably  are  in  the  Anoplotheria  and  other  Pachydermata. 
These  analogies  prove  that  the  Anophtherium,  which  its  teeth  have 
already  shown  to  have  been  essentially  a  Pachydermatous  quadruped, 
approached  in  many  of  its  characters  to  the  Ruminantia  of  l^e  existing 
creation,  partaking  on  the  one  hand  of  the  characters  of  the  Camels 
and  Llamas,  and  on  the  other  of  those  of  the  Rhinoceroses  and 
Peccaries.  In  the  less  prominent  details  of  organisation  however,  the 
different  species  of  Anoplotheria  present  peculiarities  which  have 
induced  Biron  Cuvier  to  distribute  them  in  three  sub-genenL  In  all, 
the  prolongation  of  the  nasal  bones  deai'ly  shows  that  the  Anoplotheria 
were  not  furnished  with  trunks  like  the  Elephants,  Tapirs,  and 
Palaeotheria ;  and  their  head  altogether,  judging  from  the  form  of  the 
skull,  appears  to  be  intermediato  between  that  of  the  Horse  and  that 
of  the  Camel  The  first  subdivision  comprehends  those  species  which 
M.  Cuvier  calls — 

Anoplotheria  proper.  They  are  disting^uished  by  having  all  the 
lower  molars  marked  by  double  or  triple  crescents  in  a  longitudinal 
direction,  without  salient  tubercles ;  and  by  a  third  or  supernumerary 
hoof  on  ike  fore-feet  This  division  comprehends  two  species,  differing 
from  one  another  principally  in  point  of  size,  the  one  {A.  commwne) 


Anophtherium  eommwu. 


being  about  the  size  of  the  ass,  and  the  other  (A,  tecundaritm)  about 
that  of  the  hqg.  Both  these  species  have  been  found  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight  These  animals  were  low  on  the  limbs^  probably  like  the 
Tapirs,  but  their  k>ng  and  powerful  tail,  equallmg  the  body  itself  in 
length,  made  them  still  more  essentially  aquatic  animala  The  great 
nse  of  their  members,  the  depressed  and  heavy  proportions  of  their 
Wies,  and  their  long  tails  compressed  horizontally  at  the  base,  must 
nave  given  them  much  of  the  extomal  form  of  ue  ottor;  but  they 
i«sorted  to  the  lakes  and  marshes  of  the  antediluvian  world,  not  for 
^  puipose  of  preying  upon  other  animals,  but  in  search  of  aquatic 


plants,  whilst  the  depressed  form  of  their  tails  shows  that  they  must 
have  swum  and  plunged  with  as  much  ease  and  facility  as  either  the 
Tapir  or  Hippopotamus.  Like  these  animals  their  ears  were  probably 
short  and  erect,  and  their  bodies  sparingly  covered  with  hair,  as  in  aU 
the  existing  Pachydermata.  • 

The  sub-genus  Xiphodon  differs  from  that  just  described  in  having 
the  inferior  molars  tuberculous,  and  being  without  the  additional  or 
false  hoof  on  the  fore  feet  It  contains  but  a  single  species  (A .  ffracile), 
which,  judging  from  the  length  and  smallness  of  its  limbs,  and  the 
elevation  of  the  tarsus,  must  have  presented  in  every  respect  a  complete 
contrast  to  the  A.  commune,  exhibiting  the  light  form  and  graceful 
proportions  of  the  gazelle.  Its  course  must  necessarily  have  been 
rapid,  and  probably  unembarrassed  by  a  long  toil ;  and,  instead  of 
resorting  habitually  to  the  rivers  and  ponds,  Uke  the  former  species, 
it  must  have  been  confined  to  the  dry  land,  and,  probably  like  the 
gazelles  and  antelope.^,  fed  upon  dry  aromatic  herbs,  and  was  pro- 
vided with  long  moveable  ears  to  warn  it  of  the  approach  of  danger. 


Anophtherium  ffracile. 

The  third  subgenus,  DichoUunet,  contains  three  species,  all  esta- 
blished from  the  observation  of  detached  bones,  and  of  the  actual 
forma  of  which  it  is  consequently  impossible  to  give  a  correct  idea. 
They  differed  from  the  species  contained  in  the  two  former  subdivisions, 
principally  by  having  a  small  additional  or  false  hoof  both  on  the 
fore-  and  hind-feet ;  and  this  character  is  so  well  marked  in  all  the 
sub-genera  of  M.  Cuvier,  that,  besides  other  considerations,  it  would 
suffice,  among  existing  animals,  to  distinguish  three  separate  genera, 
and  perhaps  should  do  so  in  the  present  instance.  The  Diehdbunee 
were  aU  of  small  stature:  the  laxgest  of  the  three  known  species 
(A,  leporinum)  was  about  the  size  of  a  hare;  the  other  two 
(A,  murinum  and  A,  oUiquum)  about  that  of  the  guinea-pig,  were 
in  all  probability  the  smallest  of  hoofed  quadrupeds.  M.  Cuvier 
supposes  them  to  have  been  the  hares  and  rabbits  of  the  preadamite 
world,  but  their  whole  structure  seems  to  approximate  them  more 
oorrectiy  to  the  musks  of  the  present  time,  and  they  probably  differed 
little  from  these  animals  either  in  form  or  habita.  Another  species  of 
this  genus  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Pratt>  in  the  Eocene  depoeito  at 
Binstead  in  the  Isle  of  Wigfat»  and  has  becu  described  by  Professor 
Owen  under  the  name  of  D,  cervinunL 

(  Cuvier,  Ouemene  Fosrilet ;  Owen,  British  Fouil  Mamm^tl^) 

ANOPLURA,  afiimily  of  Insects,  including  the  Aptera  of  Linnaeus, 
and  the  various  fonns  of  PedietUtu  [Pediculus]  and  Parasitic 
Insects  of  other  authors.  The  researches  which  were  commenced  on 
this  funily  by  Dr.  Leach  have  been  carried  on  by  Mr.  Denny,  and 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  vast  number  of  new  forms.  The  result 
is  that  it  has  been  foimd  that  every  animal  is  infested  with,  or,  for 
some  wise  purpose  is  accompanied  by,  one  or  more  creatures 
belonging  to  this  family,  having  a  peculiar  form  in  each  species. 
Nearly  500  different  forms  of  these  curious  insecisy  all  formed  on 
the  type  of  the  common  human  louse,  have  been  described  by 
Mr.  Denny,  in  the  catalogue  of  the  specimens  which  at  present  exist 
in  the  British  Museum.  In  most  oases  but  one  spedee  of  the  parasite 
exist  on  one  species  of  animal,  but  there  are  instances,  as  in  the  eagles 
and  golla,  in  which  a  species  of  the  bird  is  attacked  by  five  species 
of  AnoplvTo,  The  best  series  of  illustrations  of  these  insecto  which  exist 
are  contained  in  Denny's  '  Anoplura  Britannica,'  published  in  1B42. 

ANORTHITE,  a  mineral  found  at  Monte  Somma,  uid,  according 
to  the  analysis  of  Rose,  containing : — 

Silica 44*9 

Aliitnma 84*46 

Lime 15*68 

Magnesia 5*25 

Oxide  of  Iron 0*74 

It  occurs  crystallised,  and  has  the  primary  form  of  a  doubly 
oblique  prism.  The  colour  and  streak  are  white.  The  lustre  is 
vitreous,  inclining  to  pearly  on  the  deavage  surfitces.  It  is  translucent 
and  transparent.    The  specific  gravity  is  2*65. 

ANSER,  the  Qoose^  a  genus  of  birds  which  M.  Brisson  separated 
from  the  genus  Anat  of  Linnnus.  Brisson  has  been  followed  in  this 
by  Baron  Cuvier,  Yieillot)  Lesson,  Drapiez,  and  Fleming ;  while 
Latham  adheres  to  Linnreius  and  Temminok  confines  Amer  to  a 
section  of  Amu,  [Dt70K&] 
ANT  {Formica),  a  well-known  genus  of  insects,  which  has  attracted 


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attention  from  the  earliest  ages,  on  account  of  the  singular  economy 
and  extraordinary  industry  manifested  by  the  different  species.  In 
the  present  article  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  a  brief  bat  methodical 
outline  of  their  natural  history.  In  tracing  the  history  of  most  insects, 
it  is  best^  peihaps,  to  begin  with  the  ^ggs;  but  in  the  case  of  the  ant, 
the  laying  and  hatching  of  the  eggs  could  not  be  well  understood 
without  an  acquaintance  with  their  wngnlaj'  manner  of  pairing,  with 
which,  therefore,  we  shall  begin. 

Pa4rmg  of  Antt. — It  may  be  necessary  to  premise  here,  that,  aunilar 
to  bees,  a  community  of  ants,  whaterer  the  species  may  be,  consists  of 
males,  which  have  always  four  wings ;  of  females,  much  larger  in  size 
than  the  males,  which  only  possess  wings  during  the  pairing  season ; 
and  of  a  sort  of  barren  ieznales,  which  have  been  variously  termed 
neuters,  workers,  or  nurse-ants,  and  which,  so  fiu*  as  we  know,  have 
never  been  observed  to  have  wings  in  any  stage  of  their  existence. 

If  an  ant-hill  be  examined  any  time  after  midsummer  up  to  the 
close  of  autumn,  there  may  be  seen,  mixed  with  the  wingless  workers, 
a  number  of  both  males  and  females  furnished  with  white  glistening 
wings.  These  however  are  neither  kings  nor  queens  in  the  state,  at 
least  so  far  as  freedom  of  action  is  concerned,  for  they  aro  not  allowed 
to  move  without  a  guard  of  workers  to  prevent  their  leaving  the 
boundaries,  and  if  one  straggles  away  unawares,  it  is  for  the  most  part 
dragged  back  by  the  vigilant  sentinels,  three  or  four  of  whom  may,  in 
such  cases,  be  seen  hauling  along  a  single  deserter  by  the  wings  and 
limbs.  The  workers,  so  far  from  ever  facilitating  the  exit,  much  less 
the  departure  of  the  winged  ones,  more  particularly  the  females,  guard 
them  most  assiduously  in  order  to  prevent  it ;  and  are  only  forced  to 
acquiesce  in  it  when  uie  winged  ones  become  too  numerous  either  to 
be  guarded  or  fed.  There  seems  indeed  to  be  a  uniform  disposition 
in  ^e  winged  ones  to  desert  their  native  colony  :  and  as  they  never 
return  after  pairing,  it  would  soon  become  depopulated  in  the  absence 
of  females.  The  actual  pairing  does  not  seem  to  take  place  within  the 
ant-hill,  and  we  have  observed  scouts  posted  all  around,  ready  to 
discover  and  carry  back  to  the  colony  as  many  fertile  females  as  they 
could  meet  with.  Nay,  we  are  quite  certain  tiiat  whole  colonies  have 
been  thus  dispersed  ;  and  when  they  did  not  find  fertile  females  near 
their  encampment,  they  have  gone  farther  and  fiirther  till  they  found 
them,  and,  if  they  had  gene  very  far,  never  returned,  but  commenced 
a  number  of  new  estabBshments,  according  to  their  convenience.  It 
is  probable  that,  soon  after  pairing,  the  males  die,  as  do  the  males  of 
bees  and  other  insects ;  for,  as  the  workers  never  bring  any  of  them 
back,  nor  take  any  notice  of  them  after  leaving  the  ant-hill,  they  must 
perish,  being  entirely  defenceless,  and  destitute  both  of  a  sting  and 
of  mandibles  to  provide  for  their  subsistence.  The  subsequent  proceed- 
ings of  the  females  are  very  different,  and  of  curious  interest.  It  was 
supposed  by  the  ancients  that  all  ants,  at  a  certain  age,  acquired  wings; 
but  it  was  reserved  for  the  younger  Huber,  in  particular,  hj  means  of 
his  artificial  formicaries,  to  trace  the  development  of  the  wmgs  in  the 
female  from  the  first  commencement,  till  he  saw  them  stripped  off  and 
laid  aside  like  cast  clothes. 

This  curious  process,  which  was  first  hinted  at  by  Gould  in  his 
interesting  accoimt  of  '  English  Ants,'  we  have  repeatedly  witnessed 
— ^the  females  extending  their  wings,  bringing  them  over  their  heads, 
crossing  them  in  every  direction,  and  throwing  them  from  side  to  side, 
till  at  length  they  are  disjointed  from  the  body  and  fall  off 

FotmdcUion  of  Colonies. — Some  of  the  females  are,  after  pairing, 
usually  captured  by  the  working  ants,  and  conducted  back  to  the 
•pereat  community;  and  others  are  laid  hold  of  by  straggling  parties 
of  from  two  to  a  dozen  workers,  who  do  not  return  to  the  parent 
community,  but  commence  small  colonies  on  their  own  account.  This 
explains  the  common  occurrence  of  a  great  number  of  small  colonies 
being  formed  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  each  other,  while  sometimes 
the  parent  community  is  thereby  quite  broken  up,  and  the  hill  deserted 
This  happens  frequently  in  the  case  of  the  Red  Ant  {Myrmiea  rubra) 
and  the  Ash-Colo\ired  Ant  {Formica  fu8ca)f  both  very  common  species 
in  fields  and  gardens.  In  the  case  of  the  Yellow  Ant  {P,  flavfiC)  agidn, 
and  the  Wood-Ant  (F.  rvfa),  this  rarely  occurs,  the  parent  community 
often  remaining  in  the  same  spot  for  years  together. 

When  a  female,  after  pairing,  does  not  chance  to  fall  in  with  any 
scouting  parties  of  workers,  she  proceeds  without  their  assistance  to 
found  a  colony  herself  in  the  same  manner  as  is  always  done  by  the 
females  of  the  social  wasps  and  humble-bees  every  spring.  We  have 
repeatedly  verified  this  &ct,  both  by  confining  a  single  female  after 
pairing,  and  witnessing  her  proceedings,  and  by  discovering  in  the 
fields  single  females  occupied  in  laying  tne  foundations  of  a  future  city 
for  their  progeny.  We  have  met  with  these  single  females  when  they 
have  just  begun  to  form  the  first  cell  for  the  reception  of  their  eggs ; 
when  the  eggs  have  just  been  laid ;  when  the  eggs  have  been  hatched ; 
and  also  when  a  few  workers  had  been  reared  to  assist  in  the  common 
labours. 

Ck>ntrary  to  what  takes  place  in  most  insects,  the  eggs  of  ants  are 
not,  when  laid,  glued  to  any  fixed  place,  but  are  found  in  parcels  of 
half  a  dozen  or  more  loosely  attached,  so  that  they  can  be  removed  at 
pleasure  during  the  hatching.  It  has  been  shown  in  the  '  Penny 
Magazine'  (vol.  i.,  p.  60),  by  a  series  of  minute  observations,  that  the 
female  earwig  moves  her  eggs  with  the  utmost  care  from  a  place  which 
■he  judges  too  dry,  to  one  which  is  sufficiently  moist ;  and  m  the  same 
way  the  female  ant,  when  she  founds  a  colonf  without  assistance,  or 


the  nurae-ants  in  a  community,  change  the  situation  of  the  eggs 
according  to  the  state  of  the  weather  or  of  the  day  and  night— a 
circumstance  fiivt  observed  by  Dr.  King  in  the  reign  of  King  Chariea  XL 
Heat  being  indispensable  to  their  sucoesaful  hatching,  the  eggs  are 
carefully  placed  during  the  day  near  the  surface  of  the  ant-hill,  bat 
so  sheltered  from  the  direct  influence  of  the  sun  as  to  prevent  the  too 
rapid  evaporation  of  their  moisture.  During  the  m^U  or  in  oold 
weather,  we  eggs  ure  not  placed  eo  high,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
heat  which  they  naturally  possesa  The  attention  to  the  state  of 
temperature  occupies  much  of  the  assiduity  of  the  female  and  tlie 
nurse^mts. 

When  the  eggs  are  at  length  hatched  (and  during  this  process  we 
have  already  seen  that  they  enlarge  in  size),  the  young  grubs  are 
similarly  treated  with  respect  to  temperature,  but  greater  care  is  now 
taken  to  preserve  them  from  too  great  heat,  which  might  prove  more 
iiijurious  than  before  hatching. 

The  grubs  are  fed  by  the  nurse-ants  when  any  of  these  are  in  the 
colony,  and  by  the  mother  when  she  is  alone,  by  a  liquid  disgorged 
from  the  stomach,  as  is  done  in  a  similar  way  by  wasps, 'humble-bees, 
pigeons,  and  canary  birds.  It  consequently  requires  no  little  industry 
on  the  part  of  a  solitary  female  to  procure  for  herself  sufficient  food 
to  supply  nutriment  for  a  brood  of  perhaps  a  dozen  or  twenty  gnibn, 
which  are  insatiably  voracioua 

When  the  grubs  are  full  grown  they  spin  for  themselves  cocoons  of 
a  membranous  texture,  and  of  a  brownish-white  colour,  not  unlike 
barleycorns  in  appearance,  and  indeed  mistaken  for  these  by  early 
observers — a  mistake  whidi  led  to  the  unfounded  notion  that  ants 
store  up  com  for  winter  provision,  though,  from  their  always  beconung 
torpid  in  the  winter,  they  could  have  no  need  of  this*;  and  even  were 
this  not  so,  they  never  feed  on  com,  and  would  probably  starve  rather 
than  taste  it  The  authority  of  Scripture,  which  has  been  supposed 
to  countenance  the  popular  notion,  is  shown  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  ^uris, 
Messrs.  KIrby  and  Spence,  and  others,  to  have  no  foundation  in  the 
sacred  text. 

The  cocoons  are  treated  precisely  like  the  eggs  and  the  gmbs  with 
regard  to  exposure  to  heat;  and  the  anxiety  of  the  nurse-ants  to 
shelter  them  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  is  taken  advantage  of  on 
the  Continent  to  collect  the  cocoons  (popularly  and  erroneously  called 
ants' -eggs)  in  quantity  as  food  for  nightingales  and  larks.  The  coooona 
of  the  Wood- Ant  are  the  only  species  chosen ;  and  in  most  of  the  towns 
in  Germany  one  or  more  individuals  make  a  living  during  summer  by 
the  business. 

In  the  case  of  moths,  ichneumons,  and  other  insects  which  spin 
themselves  up  in  cocoons,  the  included  insect,  when  the  time  of  its 
change  arrives,  is  enabled  to  make  its  own  way  through  the  envelope; 
but  though  it  would  appear,  from  some  observations  made  by 
Swammerdam,  that  ants  may,  when  forced  thereto,  effect  their  own 
disengagement  this  is  not  the  usual  process.  It  is  the  nurse-ants 
that  cut  a  passage  for  them  with  their  mandibles,  as  was  first  minutely 
described  oy  Bauron  de  Qeer  and  the  younger  Huber. 

Labours  of  the  Working  Ants. — ^We  have  already  seen  that  workers 
or  nurse-ants  have  to  labour  assiduously  in  placing  the  ^gs,  the  grubs, 
and  the  cocoons  in  due  degrees  of  temperature ;  tiutt  they  have  to  feed 
the  grubs  by  a  liquid  di^rged  from  the  stomach,  and  have  to  dis- 
engage the  insect  at  its  period  of  change  from  the  envelope  of  the 
cocoon.  They  have  also  to  perform  the  task  of  forming  streets, 
galleries,  and  chambers  for  the  habitation  and  protection  of  the 
colony,  and  they  exhibit  in  the  work  such  perseverance  and  skill  as 
must  excite  the  admiration  of  every  observer.  Many  of  their  processes, 
indeed,  it  is  not  a  little  difficult  to  account  for  and  explain,  though 
these  have  been  very  carefully  investigated,  particularly  by  the  younger 
Huber,  in  whose  work,  and  in  the '  Library  of  EntertcJning  Knowledge 
— ^Insect  Architecture '  (p.  254  et  seq.),  may  be  foimd  copious  details  of 
the  mining,  masonry,  and  carpentry  of  varioiis  species.  We  shall  here 
give  an  instance  of  each  of  those  operations. 

Mining. — There  is  an  interesting  species  called  the  Sang^uinary  Ant 
{F.  sanguinaria,  Latreille),  reported  to  have  been  seen  near  London, 
but  which  is  certainly  very  rare,  if  it  is  found  in  England.  In  the 
summer  of  1882  we  discovered  several  colonies  of  this  ant  on  the  brow 
of  the  heath  above  Godesberg,  on  the  Rhine ;  and  being  desirous  of 
taking  a  number  of  them  alive  to  England  for  the  purpose  of  observing 
their  singular  maimers,  we  waited  till  the  beginning  of  October,  when 
they  had  ceased  to  work,  and  had  retired  for  the  winter  to  their 
galleries  underground  After  uncovering  the  thick  coping  of  dry 
heath-twigs  and  grass-stems  which  was  placed  over  the  subterranean 
city  of  the  colony  so  as  to  defend  it  from  rain  and  cold,  we  found 
several  covert-ways  dug  into  the  clay,  wide  enough  to  allow  two  or 
three  ants  to  walk  abreast;  but  not  an  individual  now  n!iade  its 
appearance,  though  some  weeks  previously  we  had  observed  thousands 
in  all  the  bustle  of  industiy ;  and  we  began  to  fear  the  whole  had 
migrated  elsewhere.  Being  anxious,  however,  to  see  the  interior  struc- 
ture, we  dug  in  the  direction  of  the  covert-ways  to  the  depth  of  about 
six  or  nine  inches,  when  we  came  upon  a  number  of  chambers  com- 
municating with  each  other  by  galleries,  and  from  an  inch  to  two  or 
three  inches  in  extent,  in  each  of  which  a  number  of  ants  were  lying 
along  the  floor  in  a  half  torpid  state,  being  so  sluggish  that  they  could 
not  be  brought  to  run  with  their  usual  agility  even  when  irritated 

The  point  which  we  wish  to  call  attention  to  here  is,  that  the  whole 


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of  the  apartmentB  which  we  laid  open,  amounting  to  a  dozen  or  more 
—and  there  were  probably  as  many  more  to  which  we  did  not  pene- 
trate—must  haye  been  dug  out  of  the  solid  clay  by  the  jaws  {foaitdwula) 
of  these  little  miners.  We  deemed  it  singular  imt  we  could  see  none 
of  the  rubbish  lying  about,  which  must  have  been  cleared  away  from 
the  interior;  and  we  can  only  account  for  this  by  supposing  the 
colony  long  established,  and  the  rubbish  battered  into  the  grass  by 
the  weather. 

In  other  instances  of  mining,  such  as  in  the  case  of  the  Turf-Ant 
(K  catpihAm),  the  clay  taken  from  the  interior  is  built  up  on  the 
outside,  using  the  herbage  for  buttresses  to  support  the  walls  thus 
formed.  In  the  case  of  the  Sanguinary  Ants,  however,  we  observed 
nothing  of  this  kind,  and  do  not  think  they  ever  employ  any  exterior 
masoniy. 

Matowry, — The  most  common  of  our  English  ants  which  employ 
masonty  is  the  Tellow  Ant  (P.  fiavtC),  whose  hills  are  so  usually  fdimd 
built  up  in  old  pastures,  a  foot  or  more  in  height,  and  from  6  inches 
to  2  feet  in  diameter.  For  the  materials  of  their  building  they  are 
wholly  indebted  to  the  soil  below,  which  they  quarry  out  with  great 
assiduity ;  but  as  they  have  no  means  of  tempering  the  day  when  it 
is  dry,  they  are  always  forced  to  execute  their  principal  works  in 
rainy  weather.  "I  was,"  says  Dr.  J.  R.  Johnson,  "in  the  habit  of 
visiting,  almost  daily,  for  a  month,  an  extensive  nest  of  Red  Ants,  of 
which  a  laz^e  flat  stone  formed  the  roof.  During  my  visits  for  the 
first  three  weeks,  scarcely  a  drop  of  rain  had  faUen,  and  the  nest 
Beemed  considerably  injured  by  the  continual  falling  in  of  loose  earth, 
which  these  little  creatures  with  amazing  industry  removed,  whenever 
it  happened  any  of  the  avenues  were  blocked  up.  No  attempt  was 
ever  made  towiurds  reparation ;  but  what  was  my  surprise,  on  visiting 
my  little  inenda  after  a  two  days'  heavy  rain,  to  find  that  the  repairs 
were  ahready  completed,  and  that  the  upper  surface  of  their  habitation 
presented  as  smooth  a  surface  as  if  a  trowel  had  been  passed  over  it ; 
yet  all  their  work  they  had  industriously  effected  by  kneading  with 
the  rain-water  the  loose  earth  into  a  sort  of  paste.  From  the  nest 
being  situated  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  heath,  where  there  could 
be  no  supply  of  water,  and  from  its  remaining  uiurepaired  during 
the  dry  weather,  it  amounts  to  a  full  conviction  that  ants  employ 
no  other  cement  than  water  in  the  construction  of  their  varied 
habitations. 

"I  have  often  been  surprised  at  the  ingenuity  of  these  little 
czeatores,  in  availing  themselves  of  contiguous  blades  of  grass,  stalks 
of  com,  ftc,  when  ^ey  wish  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  their  abode. 
As  these  are  usually  met  with  in  the  erect  position,  they  are  admirably 
calculated  for  pillars ;  they  therefore  coat  them  over  with  a  fine  paste 
of  earth^  giving  them,  by  additional  layers,  the  solidity  they  judge 
necessary  for  tlie  work  on  which  they  are  engaged ;  they  then  leave 
them  to  be  consolidated  by  the  wind,  and  afterwards  spring  a  number 
of  arches,  from  pillar  to  pillar,  and  thus  form  an  extensive  saloon. 
Should  they  be  at  any  time  in  want  of  small  apartments,  they  have 
only  to  prepture  a  quantity  of  moistened  earth,  and  by  placing  this 
between  the  pillArs,  and  carrying  it  up  to  the  roof,  leaving  here  and  there 
an  aperture  for  entrance^  their  object  is  completely  attained." 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  greater  part  of  these  masonic  labours  are 
performed  during  the  iiight,  or  at  least  in  gloomy  weather. 

Carpentry. — The  coping  which  we  have  already  described  as  placed 
over  the  subterranean  abode  of  the  Sanguinary  Ants,  and  which  is 
Btill  more  remarkable  in  the  colonies  of  the  Wood- Ant  (P,  rufa), 
camiot  be  referred  to  any  sort  of  carpentry,  for  the  small  sticks  and 
BtrawB  of  which  it  is  composed  are  not  cut  into  fitting  lengths,  but 
collected  in  the  vicinity  of  the  hill  and  laid  on  it  after  the  manner  of 
thatch.  The  term  carpentry,  however,  will  apply  most  justly  to  those 
species  which  form  excavations  in  the  interior  of  trees,  of  which  the 
following  is  an  instance  observed  in  1832. 

We  had  brought  into  our  garden  in  the  beginning  of  June,  a  large 
piece  of  a  willow  tree,  which  had  been  very  curiou^y  worked  out  by 
the  species  usually  called  the  Emmet  (P,  fvliginoiaf  Latreille).  The 
tree  indeed  from  which  it  had  been  taken,  appeared  to  have  been 
destroyed  in  a  great  measure  from  the  extensive  excavations  of  these 
little  carpenters.  Yet  the  portion  of  the  tree  alluded  to  seemed  to  be 
singularly  strong,  when  the  great  number  of  the  cells  and  their 
peculiar  structure  was  taken  into  consideration.  The  walls  of  these 
cells  were  literally  as  thin  as  writing-paper,  though  not  quite  so  smooth 
and  even,  and  they  were  seldom  quite  parallel,  but  arranged,  some 
perpendicularly,  and  others  slanting  in  various  directions,  worked  out, 
It  would  appear,  upon  no  previous  design,  but  beginning  at  any  given 
point,  and  only  limited  in  extent  by  the  worker  discovering  his 
approach  to  one  adjacent.  The  tact  with  which  they  chisel  away  the 
wood  with  their  jaws,  so  as  to  come  so  near  the  next  cell  without 
actoaUy  cutting  into  it,  cannot  well  be  accoimted  for  on  any  of  the. 
common  principles  of  human  mechanism.  It  cannot  be  the  result  of 
vision,  from  the  workerout  looking  along  the  level  of  the  plane,'  as 
one  of  our  carpenters  would  do,  and  thence  working  so  as  not  to  cut 
through  it ;  for  the  wall  has,  in  most  instances,  though  not  in  all,  no 
five  edge  along  which  such  a  level  could  be  taken  by  &e  eye.  Hearing 
might  assist  them  however,  supposing  workers  to  be  engaged  in 
chisriling  on  each  side  of  Uie  partition,  but  it  would  appear  to  be 
more  from  touch,  or  rather  that  modification  of  it  danominated 
tact,  which   enables  them  to  feel,  aa  it  were,   when   they  have 


nearly  penetrated  the  wall,  and  which  consequently  warns  them  to 
stop. 

It  is  not  a  little  remarkable,  that  all  the  wood  which  is  worked  out 
by  these  ants  is  tinged  of  a  black  colour,  giving  aU  their  streets  and 
lanes  somewhat  the  appearance  of  having  suffered  from  fire  or  of  being 
smoked.  M.  Huber  the  younger  did  not  succeed  in  ascertaining  the 
cause  of  this  black  colour.  We  should  conjecture  it  to  arise  from 
iron  contained  in  the  saliva  of  the  ants  acting  on  the  gallic  add  of  the 
wood,  in  a  similar  way  as  the  same  wood  becomes  black  when  cut 
with  a  knife.  The  fine  glossy  black  of  the  ants  themselves  may 
originate  from  the  same  chemical  principle,  and  this  is  rendered  more 
probable  from  the  excavations  made  by  other  species,  such  as  the 
Dusky  Ant  ( P,  fuaca,  Latreille),  not  being  tinged  With  this  black 
colour.  Neither  are  the  excavations  of  the  latter  so  regular  in  the 
form  of  the  cells ;  and  the  delicately  thin  partitions  do  not  occur. 
We  have  seen  several  colonies  of  the  Tellow  Ant  (P,  jlava,  Latreille) 
established  in  trees,  though  their  usual  habits  lead  them  to  prefer  a 
hedge-bank,  the  dry  ridge  of  a  field,  or  a  small  knoll  on  a  common. 
In  none  of  these  however  had  the  workers  much  trouble  in  making 
their  excavations,  the  trees  being  in  every  instance  far  gone  with  the 
dry  rot^  and  the  chambers  were  consequently  as  easy  to  construct  as 
in  a  knoll  of  sand.  In  the  instance  of  tiie  Black  Carpenter-Ant 
( P.  fuliginoaa ),  on  the  other  hand,  the  wood  of  the  tree  selected  for 
their  colony  is  always  hard  and  tough,  the  easiness  of  working  it  being 
apparently  considered  a  disadvantage  rather  than  a  recommendation. 
We  have  usually  seen  these  colonies,  therefore,  in  growing  trees,  the 
oak  seeming  to  be  preferred  to  all  others ;  the  honeycomb-like  work 
does  not  seem  to  stop  the  vegetation,  the  tree  continuing  to  put  forth 
leaves  and  shoots  as  before  it  was  excavated  for  the  use  of  the 
colony.  In  the  instance  which  gives  rise  to  these  remarks,  the  willow 
tree  was  indeed  dilapidated  and  shorn  of  its  leaves  and  branches,  yet 
was  it  untouched  with  dry  rot>  and  the  wood  was  hard  and  tough. 

Pood  of  Ants, — Some  species  of  ants  are  carnivorous  and  will  eat 
insects,  fruits,  and  almost  anything  eaten  by  other  animals ;  but  honey 
is  the  most  universal  favourite  among  all  the  species,  particularly  the 
excretion  of  the  various  species  of  Aphides;,  called  Honey-Dew.  It  is 
on  this  account  that>  wherever  Aphides  abound,  we  are  always  certain 
to  meet  with  ants  carefully  attending  their  motions  and  greedily 
drinking  the  honey-dew,  which  becomess  so  injurious  to  plants  when  it 
increases  in  quantity  so  as  to  obstruct  the  pores  of  the  leaves.  It  is 
stated  by  Huber  and  some  other  authors,  that  during  winter  the  ants 
imprison  some  Aphides  in  their  cells,  or,  at  all  events,  take  advantage 
of  individuals  of  the  Grass  Aphis  ( Aphis  graminvm )  in  the  vicinity 
of  their  hills  to  obtain  honey-dew.  We  strongly  suspect  there  must 
be  some  fallacy  in  this  statement ;  for  among  numerous  colonies  which 
we  have  carefolly  examined  during  winter,  we  always  found  the 
whole  population  torpid  or  nearly  so,  and  not  fhdined  to  touch  even 
honey  when  we  offered  it  to  them.  In  the  case  of  the  Sanguinary 
Ants  in  Germany  already  mentioned,  we  have  seen  that  they  had 
become  torpid  as  early  as  October,  when  the  weather  was  still  fine  and 
far  from  bemg  oold.  We  are  therefore  of  opinion  that  the  statement 
will  be  found  as  void  of  accurate  foundation  as  that  which  represents 
ants  as  stQidng  up  com  for  the  winter. 

MigrcUiona. — We  have  already  seen,  under  the  head  of  pairing,  one 
principle  in  operation  for  spreading  around  a  parent  ant-hUl  a  number 
of  young  colonies.  This  indeed  may  be  considered  the  main  principle 
of  migration;  but  besides  this,  the  whole  of  a  populous  ant-hill 
which  ihas  been  established  for  several  years  will,  frt>m  some  cause 
beyond  our  means  of  tracing,  though  most  probably  on  account  of 
more  convenient  forage,  at  once  desert  their  homes  and  march  to  a 
new  station.  Among  the  Yellow  Ants,  the  Emmets,  and  the  Wood 
Ants  or  Pismires,  tins  is  by  no  means  common ;  but  it  is  an  every- 
day occurrence  among  the  Red  Ants,  the  Aah-Coloured  Ants,  the  Turf- 
Ants,  and  others  whose  colonies  never  become  very  populous,  and 
are  consequently  both  more  easily  moved  and  more  eesily  provided 
with  lodging. 

<' Immense  swarms  of  ants,"  to  use  the  words  of  Dr.  Roget,^' are 
occasionally  met  with,  and  some  have  been  recorded  of  such  prodigious 
density  and  magnitude  as  to  darken  the  air  like  a  thick  doud,  and  to 
cover  the  ground  to  a  considerable  extent  where  they  settled."  Mr. 
Qleditsch  describes,  in  the  '  History  of  the  Berlin  Ao^emy,'  for  1749, 
shoals  of  a  small  black  ant  which  appeared  in  Germany,  and  formed 
high  colimuis  in  the  air,  risiiig  to  a  vast  height,  and  agitated  with  a 
curious  intestine  motion,  somewhat  resembling  the  aurora  borealis. 
A  similar  flight  of  ants  is  spoken  of  by  Kr.  Acolutte,  a  clergyman*of 
Breslau,  which  resembled  columns  of  smoke,  and  which  fell  on  the 
churches  and  the  tops  of  the  houses,  where  the  ants  could  be  gathered 
b^  handfuhL  In  the  German  '  Ephemerides,'  Dr.  Charles  .Rayger 
gives  an  account  of  a  huge  swann  which  crossed  over  the  town* of 
Posen,  and  was  directing  its  course  towards  the  Danube.  The  whole 
town  was  strewed  with  ants,  so  that  it  was  impossible  to  walk  without 
trampling  on  80  or  40  at  every  step.  And  Mr.  Dorthes,  in  the  '  Journal 
de  Physique'  for  1790,  relates  the  appearance  of  a  similar  phenomenon 
at  Montpellier.  Hie  shoals  moved  about  in  different  directions, 
having  a  mngHlay  intestine  motion  in  each  column,  and  also  a  general 
motion  of  rotation.  About  sunset  all  fell  to  the  ground,  and,  on 
<w|Mnming  the  AutVi  they  were  found  to  belong  to  the  Pormica  n^/iu 
of  Linnnua. 


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ANT-BEAR. 


ANT-EATER 


Warn  and  Expeditumt  to  capture  Slavet. — In  the  Mune  way  as  the 
bees  and  the  wasps  of  different  hires  manifest  inveterate  hostility 
when  they  meet^  ants  also  of  the  same  or  of  different  species  assail 
one  another  when  they  meet  during  their  foraging  exoursionsL  Besides 
the  individual  skinxushes  which  thence  occasionally  arise,  pitched 
battles  are  sometimes  fought  between  the  whole  or  nearly  the  whole 
force  of  populous  adjacent  colonies.  We  have  never  ourselves  witnessed 
any  very  extensives  battles  of  this  kind,  such  as  Huber  describes,  in 
which  thousands  of  combatants  were  engaged,  but  we  have  seen  as 
many  as  50  of  the  Wood- Ants  fighting  most  pertinaciously  within  the 
area  of  a  few  inches  on  what  were  supposed  to  be  the  boundaries  of 
their  several  territories.  Their  bite  is  so  sharp,  and  the  acrid  add 
which  they  infuse  is  so  deleterious,  that  many  are  thus  disabled  or 
killed  outright  Huber  witnessed  on  such  occasions  very  extensive 
cama^ 

Besides  these  skirmishes  and  battles  which  occur  among  all  the 
species,  there  are  whole  communities  of  wamor-ants,  as  was  first 
discovered  by  Huber,  whose  history  is  so  extraordinary  as  almost  to 
exceed  beliefl  The  details  indeed  have  hitherto  been  credited  chiefly, 
if  not  solely,  on  the  well-known  veracity  of  Huber;  but  in  the  autumn 
of  1832  we  had  an  opportunity  of  verifying  them  both  in  the  Black 
Forest  and  in  Switzerland,  with  respect  to  the  species  which  he  terms 
the  Amazon  Ant  (JP.  rufetcem,  Latreille),  and  on  the  Rhine  with 
respect  to  the  Sanguinary  Ant. 

Both  of  these  species  make  war  on  the  ants  of  a  different  species 
from  themselves,  particularly  the  Dusky  Ant  (F.  futea),  not  for  the 
purpose  merely  of  gratifying  a  propensity  to  oombat,  but  to  make 
slaves  of  the  vanquished  to  do  the  drudgery  of  the  conquerors  at 
home.  The  manner  in  which  they  proceed  in  this  aflbir  manifests, 
BO  Dbut  as  we  can  judge,  deep  design,  such  as  might  be  ascribed  to  the 
counsels  of  a  cunning  diplomatist  They  do  not  capture  the  adult  ants 
and  carry  them  into  slavery,  but  make  booty  of  the  eggs  and  cocoons, 
which,  after  the  contest  is  decided — and  the  warriors  are  always 
conquerors-  are  carried  off  to  the  Amazonian  citadel,  and  being 
hatdied  there,  the  poor  slaves  are  most  probably  not  aware  but  that 
it  is  their  native  colony.  Huber  repeatedly  witnessed  such  expeditions 
for  the  purpose  of  capturing  slaves;  but  though  we  were  not  so 
fortunate,  we  witnessed,  in  a  great  number  of  instances,  the  slaves  at 
work  for  their  warlike  captors. 

The  Amazons  have  not  hitherto  been  found  in  Britain,  and  we 
were  unsuccessful  in  our  attempt  to  bring  over  from  the  Black  Forest 
a  nest  of  live  ones  with  their  slaves  which  we  had  placed  in  a  box  for 
the  purpose. 

ANT-BEAR,  the  name  commonly  given  to  the  MyrtMCophaga  jvbaia 
by  the  English  at  Demerara.    [Amt-Eatsb.] 

ANT-EATER  {Myiyneeophaga^  Linnseus),  a  genus  of  Edentaiay  dis- 
tinguished by  their  total  want  of  teeth  and  their  hairy  covering.  The 
latter  circumstance  separates  them  from  the  Pangolins  (if ontf ),  or  Scaly 
Ant-Eaters  of  Africa  and  Asia,  which  they  resemble  closely  in  other 
respects,  as  weU  in  their  general  anatomy  as  in  their  food  and  habits. 
These  two  genera  form  a  small  but  very  distinct  family  of  Cuvier's 
order  EdeiUaitck,  differing  from  the  common  animals  comprised  in  that 
wingiiUr  group,  as  well  as  frt)m  all  other  known  mammalia,  by  their 
entire  deprivation  of  the  organs  of  mastication,  and  acquiring  an  addi- 
tional interest  by  the  light  which  their  osteological  oonformation  throws 
upon  tibe  structure  and  organisation  of  the  Megatherivm,  MegaUmyx, 
and  Mylodon^  those  extraordinary  animals  whose  fossil  remains  have 
attracted  so  much  of  the  attention,  not  only  of  the  professed  naturalist, 
but  likewise  of  the  public  at  lax^  The  osteology  of  the  skulls  and 
trunks  of  these  extinct  animals  presents  the  closest  analogies  with  that 
of  the  corresponding  parts  in  the  Sloths ;  so  the  whole  construction 
of  their  extremities  appears  to  have  been  formed  after  the  same  model 
as  that  of  Uie  corresponding  organs  of  the  Ant-Eaters.  The  head  of 
these  latter  animals,  indeed,  is  altogether  different  from  that  of  the 
Sloths  :  not  onlv  does  it  want  the  organs  of  mastication,  of  which  they 
are  deficient  only  in  the  incisors,  but  the  bones  of  the  fiice,  which  in 
them  are  short  and  roimd  like  those  of  apes  and  monkeys,  are 
prolonged  in  the  Ant-Eaters,  particularly  in  the  Great  Ant-Eater  (M, 
iubata),  te  double  the  lengtii  of  tiie  skulL  This  singular  oonformation 
arises  from  the  form  of  the  maxillary  or  jaw-bones,  and  those  of  the 
nose,  which  form  together  a  kind  of  long  tube,  very  small  in  proportion 
te  ite  length,  and  almost  cylindrical  This  prolongation  of  the  muzzle 
is  not  carried  te  so  great  an  extent  in  either  of  £e  other  two  known 
species  of  Ant-Eaters ;  but  even  there  the  construction  here  described 
differs  only  in  degree,  and  presents,  on  a  more  contracted  scale,  all 
the  characteristics  of  iJie  Myrmeeophaga  jvhata. 

It  is  in  the  construction  of  the  anterior  extremities  however  that 
these  animals  offer  the  greatest  singularities,  and  become  most 
important  in  their  relations  to  the  fossil  species.  The  phalanges  or 
jointe  of  the  toes,  particularly  the  last,  which  bear  the  daws,  are 
formed  in  such  a  manner  as  te  permit  them  te  be  bent  inwards  only, 
as  in  the  Sloths ;  and  for  this  purpose  they  are  provided  with  very 
powerful  ligaments,  which  keep  them,  in  a  state  of  repose,  bent  in 
along  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  never  permit  the  hand  to  be  completdy 
opened,  but  only  half  extended,  as  we  sometimes  see  in  gouty  or 
rheumatic  people.  The  toes  themselves  axe  of  verv  unequal  size,  and 
even  differ  in  number  in  different  spedes.  The  Qreat  Ant-Bear  and 
Tamandua  have  four   on  the  anterior  and  five  on  the  posterior 


extremities,  whilst  the  smallest  spedes,  called,  from  thatdrcumstanoe, 
M,  didactyla,  has  only  two  on  the  fore  feet  and  four  on  the  hind.  The 
toes  themselves,  as  in  the  Sloths,  are  united  dosely  together  as  far  u 
the  daws,  and  are  consequently  incapable  of  any  separate  or  individaal 
motion,  but  the  disadvantages  arising  from  this  circumstance  are 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  increased  strength  which  it 
produces,  and  the  consequent  adaptation  of  the  oigan  te  the  pectdiar 
purposes  of  these  animals'  economy.  The  claws  are  all  large  and 
powerful,  especially  that  of  the  middle  toe,  of  which  the  dimensions 
are  quite  enormous.  Nor  do  the  Ant-Eaters,  in  waUdng,  tread  flatly 
upon  the  sole  of  the  foot  like  the  generality  of  mammalia :  on  the 
oontranr,  they  rest  entirely  upon  ite  outer  edge,  which  is  provided 
with  a  large  callous  pad  for  that  purpose,  whilst  their  toes  bong  bent 
inwards  along  the  palms,  the  sharp  points  of  their  powerful  claws  are 
preserved  from  being  injured  by  the  friction  of  the  hard  ground  In 
other  respecte  the  Ant-EJaters  are  remarkable  for  their  long  cylindrical 
tengues,  covered  with  a  glutinous  saliva,  by  means  of  which  thev 
entrap  and  devour  the  insecte  upon  which  they  live,  and  from  whi(^ 
they  derive  their  names,  both  among  naturaliste  and  common 
observers  —  Myrmecophaga  literally  signifying  Ant-Eater.  This 
tengue  is  protractile,  and  capable  of  being  extended  te  a  sur- 
prising distance  beyond  the  snout ;  it  is  nearly  twice  the  length 
of  the  whole  head  and  muzzle  together,  and  when  not  extended 
is  kept  doubled  up  in  the  mouth  with  the  point  directed  back- 
wards. The  eyes  are  particularly  small,  the  ears  short  and  round, 
the  legs  robust  and  amazingly  powerful,  but  so  unfavourably 
formed  for  locomotion,  that  the  pace  of  these  animals  is  almost  as  tardy 
as  that  of  the  sloths  themsdves,  their  greatest  exertions  not  enabling 
them  te  surpass  the  ordinary  walk  of  a  man.  The  tail  is  always  long: 
in  the  great  spedes  lax  and  thickly  covered  with  very  long  flowing  haur, 
in  the  other  two,  strongly  prehensQe,  and  naked  imdemeath.  These 
spedes  consequently  dimb  trees  and  reside  prindpally  among  their 
branches,  feeding  upon  the  wild  bees  and  termites  which  inhabit  the 
same  situations.  The  Qreat  Ant-Bear,  on  the  contrazy,  never  quits 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  confines  its  depredations  entire^  to  the 
numerous  species  of  large  ante  which  inhabit  ite  native  regions,  and 
famish  him  at  all  times  with  an  abundant  and  easily-procured  nutri- 
ment The  whole  genus  is  confined  te  South  America,  and  contains 
three  distinct  and  well-defined  spedes. 

1.  The  Qreat  Ant-Eater  (M,  jubata,  Linn.),  called  Tamandua  by  the 
Portuguese,  and  Ant-Bear  by  the  English  and  Spaniards,  is  a  laige 
animal  which  measures,  when  fiill  grown,  four  feet  and  a  half  from 
the  extremity  of  the  snout  te  the  origin  of  the  tail  The  tail  itself 
is  8  feet  8  inches  in  length,  reckoning  to  the  extremity  of  the 
hair,  or  measured  only  along  the  stump,  2  feet  4  inches ;  the  head, 
184  iiiches  frtim  the  snout  te  the  base  of  the  ear,  and  104  inches  to 
the  anterior  angle  of  the  eye ;  ite  drcumference  immediately  before 
the  eyes,  where  it  is  the  thickest,  is  14  inches,  but  from  this  part  it 
gradually  diminishes  te  the  end  of  the  muzzle,  where  it  measures 
only  5i  inches.  The  height  of  the  animal  at  the  shoulder  is  3 
feet  8  inches,  and  at  the  croup  cnly  2  feet  10  inches,  because,  being 


Great  Ant-Eater  {U.Jubata), 
perfectly  plantigrade,  it  necessarily  stands  lower  on  the  hind  legs  than 
CMfore,  as  may  be  observed  in  the  common  bear,  the  badger,  and  other 
spedes  which  partake  of  the  plantigrade  formation  of  the  extremities. 
The  ear  is  short  and  round,  being  an  inch  and  a  quarter  broad  at  the 
base,  and  only  an  inch  in  length ;  the  eye  is  remarkably  small,  deeply 
sunk  in  the  head,  and  with  a  naked  eyelid ;  the  head  and  snout  •> 
already  observed,  are  prolonged  te  a  remarkable  degree ;  they  are  in 
form  almost  cylindrical,  and  end  in  a  small  truncated  mufzle,  having 


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ANT-EATER. 


ant-eater. 


216 


the  nostrils  and  mouth  placed  at  its  extreme  end ;  the  latter  is  so 
small  that  its  whole  width  scarcely  exceeds  an  inch,  and  the  jaws  are 
of  equal  length.  The  tongpie  is  almost  cylindrical,  fleshy,  extremely 
flexible,  and  capable  of  being  protruded  to  the  distance  of  16  or  18 
inches.  The  toes  of  the  anterior  extremities,  four  in  nimiber,  are  of 
nnequal  length,  the  innermost  being  the  smallest  and  weakest  of  all ; 
the  second  measures  24  inches  in  length,  and  is  provided  with  a 
powerful  crooked  claw  nearly  2  inches  long,  sharp-pointed,  and  tren- 
chant on  its  under  surface ;  the  third,  which  is  the  largest  of  all,  has 
a  similar  claw  2^  inches  in  length ;  and  the  fourth,  or  exterior  toe, 
is  provided  with  a  smaller  and  weaker  claw,  like  that  of  the  innermost. 
All  these  claws,  when  in  a  state  of  repose,  are  kept  bent  inwards,  and 
only  extended,  or  rather  half-extended  (for  the  animal  cannot  open 
the  fingers  farther),  when  used  for  defence,  or  for  breaking  through 
the  hard  external  crust  of  the  ant-hills. 

The  prevailing  colour  on  the  head,  face,  and  cheeks  of  the  Ant-6ear 
is  a  mixture  of  gray  and  brown ;  that  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body 
and  tail  is  a  deep  brown,  mixed  with  •silvery-white.  A  broad  black 
band,  bordered  on  each  side  with  a  similar  one  of  a  white  or  light 
grayish-brown  colour,  commences  on  the  chest,  and  passes  obliquely 
over  each  shoulder,  diminishing  gradually  as  it  approaches  the  loins, 
where  it  ends  in  a  point.  The  sides,  arms,  and  thifehs  are  silvery-gray, 
with  a  slight  mixture  of  brown,  marked  with  two  deep  black  spots, 
one  on  the  carpus,  and  the  other  on  the  toes ;  the  hind-1^^  are  almost 
perfectly  black,  and  the  breast  and  belly  of  a  deep  brown,  almost 
equally  obscure. 

The  habits  of  the  Great  Ant-Bear  are  slothful  and  solitary ;  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  is  consumed  in  sleeping,  notwithstanding  which 
he  is  never  fat,  and  rarely  even  in  good  condition.  When  about  to 
sleep,  he  lies  upon  one  side,  conceals  his  long  snout  in  the  fur  of  the 
breast,  locks  the  hind  and  fore  daws  into  one  another,  so  as  to  cover  the 
head  and  belly,  and  tumslhis  long  bushy  tail  over  the  whole  body  in 
Biich  a  manner  as  to  protect- it  from  the  too  powerful  rays  of  the  sun. 
The  female  bears  but  a  single  yoimg  one  at  a  birth,  which  attaches 
itself  to  her  back,  and  is  carried  about  with  her  wherever  she  goes, 
rarely  quitting  her,  even  for  a  year  after  it  has  acquired  sufficient 
strength  to  walk  and  provide  for  itself.  This  improlific  constitution, 
and  the  tardy  growth  of  the  young,  account  for  the  comparative 
rarity  of  these  animals,  which  are  said  to  be  seldom  seen,  even  in 
their  native  regions.  The  female  has  only  two  mammae,  situated  on 
the  breast,  like  those  of  apes,  monkeys,  and  bats. 

In  its  natural  state  the  Ant-Bear  lives  excliisively  upon  ants,  to 
procure  which  it  opens  their  hills  with  its  powerful  crooked  claws, 
and  at  the  moment  that  the  insects,  according  to  their  nature,  flock 
from  all  quarters  to  defend  their  dwellings,  draws  over  them  his  long 
flexible  tongue,  covered  with  glutinous  saliva,  to  which  they  conse- 
quently adhere ;  and  so  quickly  does  he  repeat  this  operation,  that 
we  are  assured  he  will  thus  project  his  tongue  and  draw  it  in  again 
covered  with  insects  twice  in  a  second.  He  never  actually  introduces 
it  into  the  holes  or  breaches  which  he  makes  in  the  hills  themselves, 
but  only  draws  it  lightly  over  the  swarms  of  insects  which  issue  forth 
alarmed  by  his  attack.  ''It  seems  almost  incredible,"  says  Azara, 
"  that  so  robust  and  powerful  an  animal  can  procure  sufficient  suste- 
nance from  ants  alone ;  but  this  circumstance  has  nothing  strange  in 
it  for  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  tropical  parts  of  America, 
and  who  have  seen  the  enormous  multitudes  of  these  insects,  which 
swarm  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  to  that  degree  that  their  hills  often 
almost  touch  one  another  for  miles  together."  The  same  author 
informs  us,  that  domestic  Ant-Bears  were  occasionally  kept  by  different 
persons  in  Paraguay,  and  that  they  had  even  been  sent  ative  to  Spain, 
being  fed  upon  brcsad  and  milk,  mixed  with  morsels  of  flesh  minced 
very  smalL  Like  all  animals  which  live  upon  insects,  they  are  capable 
of  sustaining  a  total  deprivation  of  nourishment  for  an  almost 
incredible  time. 

The  Great  Ant-Bear  is  foimd  in  all  the  warm  and  tropical  parts  of 
South  America,  from  Colombia  to  Paraguay,  and  from  the  shores  of 
the  Atlantic  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes.  His  favourite  resorts  are  the 
low  swampy  savannahs,  along  the  banks  of  rivers  and  stagnant  ponds, 
also  frequenting  the  humid  forests,  but  never  climbing  treee^  as  falsely 
reported  by  Buffon,  on  the  authority  of  Laborde.  His  pace  is  slow, 
heavy,  and  vacillating ;  his  head  is  carried  low,  as  if  he  smelled  the 
ground  at  every  step,  whilst  his  long  shaggy  tail,  drooping  behind 
him,  sweeps  the  groimd  on  either  side,  and  readily  indicates  his  path 
to  the  himter ;  though,  when  hard  pressed,  he  increases  his  pace  to  a 
kind  of  slow  gallop,  yet  his  greatest  velocity  never  half  equals  the 
ordinary  running  of  a  man.  So  great  is  his  stupidity,  that  those  who 
encounter  him  in  the  woods  or  plains  may  drive  him  before  them 
by  merely  pushing  him  with  a  stick,  so  long  at  least  as  he  is  not 
compelled  to  proceed  beyond  a  moderate  gallop ;  but  if  pressed  too 
hard,  or  urged  to  extremity,  he  tiums  obstinate,  sits  up  on  his  hind- 
quarters like  a  bear,  and  defends  himself  with  his  powerful  claws. 
Like  Ihat  animal,  his  usual  and  indeed  only  mode  of  assault  is  by 
seizing  his  adversary  with  his  fore-paws,  wrapping  his  arms  roimd 
him,  and  endeavouring  by  this  means  to  squeeze  him  to  death  His 
great  strength  and  powerful  muscles  would  easily  enable  him  to 
accomplish  his  purpose  in  this  respect,  even  against  the  largest 
<tnimAl«  of  his  native  forests,  were  it  but  guided  by  ordinary  intelli- 
gence, or  accompanied  with  a  common  degree  of  activity.    But  in 

HAT.  HIST.  DIV.  YOL.  L 


these  qualities  there  are  few  animals  indeed  which  do  not  greatly 
surpass  the  Ant-Bear ;  so  that  the  different  stories  handed  down  by 
writers  on  natural  history  from  one  another,  and  copied,  without 
question,  into  the  histories  and  descriptions  of  this  animal,  may  be 
regarded  as  pure  fictions.  For  this  statement  we  have  the  express 
authority  of  Don  Felix  d' Azara,  an  excellent  observer  and  credible 
writer,  from  whose  *  Natural  History  of  the  Quadrupeds  of  Paraguay ' 
we  have  derived  the  greater  portion  of  the  preceding  accoimt  of  the 
habits  and  economy  of  this  extraordinary  ftnimal.  The  flesh  of  the 
Ant-Eater  is  esteemed  a  delicacy  by  the  Indians  and  negro  slaves,  and, 
though  black,  and  of  a  strong  musky  flavour,  is  sometimes  even  met 
with  at  the  tables  of  Europeans. 

2.  The  Tamandua  (M.  Tamandua,  Cuvier),  is  an  animal  much  inferior 
to  the  Great  Ant-Beai*  in  point  of  size,  being  scarcely  so  lai^  as  a 
good-sized  cat,  whilst  the  other  exceeds  the  largest  greyhound  in 
length,  though,  from  the  shortness  of  its  legs,  it  is  much  inferior  in 
height.  The  head  of  the  Tamandua  is  not  so  disproportionately  long 
and  small  as  that  of  the  Great  Ant-Bear.      It  is  however  of  the  same 

general  cylindrical  form,  and  equally  truncated  at  the  extremity, 
aving  the  nostrils  and  mouth  situated  in  the  same  position,  and 
equally  minute,  when  compared  with  the  size  of  the  animaL  Its 
whole  length,  froiii  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the 
ear,  is  5  inches,  and  to  the  anterior  angle  of  the  eye,  3  inches ;  the 
body,  from  the  muzzle  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  measures  2  feet 
2  inches,  the  tail  itself  being  1  foot  44  inches  more ;  the  height  at  the 
shoulder  is  1  foot  3  inches,  and  at  the  croup  an  inch  lower ;  the  length 
of  the  ear  is  1^  inch,  its  greatest  breadth  an  inch,  and  the  greatest 
circiunference  of  the  head — that,  namely,  taken  immediately  in  front 
of  the  ears — 8^  inche&  The  conformation  of  the  extremities,  and  the 
number  of  the  toes  both  before  and  behind,  are  in  every  respect  the 
same  as  in  the  Great  Ant-Eater ;  but  the  Tamandua  differs  from  this 
animal  particularly  in  the  prehensile  power  of  its  tail,  which  makes  it 
essentially  an  arboreal  quadruped,  and  altogether  changes  the  most 
striking  traits  of  its  habits  and  economy.  The  hair  over  the  entire 
body  also  is  of  a  very  different  texture ;  instead  of  being  long,  harsh,  and 
shaggy,  as  in  the  Great  Ant-Bear,  it  is  short,  shining,  and  of  a 
consistence  something  between  the  qualities  of  silk  and  wool ;  standing 
out  from  the  body  like  the  latter,  and  of  the  same  uniform  length  in 
every  part  The  colours  of  this  species,  however,  are  by  no  means  so 
uniform  and  invariable  as  those  of  the  species  already  described ;  on 
the  contrary,  they'  differ  more  in  the  Tamandua,  according  to  the 
individual,  than  perhaps  in  any  other  known  aidmal  in  a  state  of 
nature.  Accordingly  many  eminent  naturalists  are  disposed  to 
consider  them  as  forming  distinct  species,  rather  than  mere  varieties 
of  the  same ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that,  when  we  come  to  be 
better  acquainted  with  this  animal  in  its  native  woods,  their  opinion 
may  be  at  least  partly  confirmed. 


Tamandua  {M.  Tamandua), 

The  eyes  of  the  Tamandua  are  minute ;  the  ears  small  and  round ; 
the  body  long  and  cylindrical ;  the  legs  short  and  robust ;  the  tail 
round  and  attenuated,  covered  with  very  short  hair  throughout  its 
greater  part^  but  naked  underneath  towards  the  point,  and  strongly 
prehensile.  There  are  several  varieties  of  the  Tamandua,  chiefly 
distinguished  by  differences  of  colour. 

The  Tamandua  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  thick  primeval  forests  of 
tropiod  America;  it  is  never  found  on  the  ground,  but  resides 
exclusively 'in  trees,  where  it  lives  upon  termites,  honey,  and  even, 
according  to  the  report  of  Azara,  bees,  which  in  those  countries  form 
their  hives  among  uie  loftiest  branches  of  the  forest^  and,  having  no 
sting,  are  more  readily  despoiled  of  their  honey  than  their  congeners 
of  our  own  climate.  When  about  to  sleep  it  hides  its  muzzle  in  the 
fur  of  its  breast,  falls  on  its  belly,  and  letting  its  fore-feet  hang 
down  on  each  side,  wraps  the  whole  tightly  round  with  itrf  tail.  The 
female,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Great  Ant-Eater,  has  but  two  pectoral 
mammse,  and  produces  but  a  single  cub  at  a  birth,  which  she  carries 
about  with  her,  on  her  shoulders,  for  the  first  three  or  four  months. 
The  young  are  at  first  exceedingly  deformed  and  ugly,  and  of  a 
uniform  straw-colour. 


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ANf-EATER. 


ANTENNiE. 


This  animal  has  a  strong  disagreeable  odour,  which  is  so  powerful 
that  it  may  be  perceiyed  at  a  yery  great  distance,  particularly  when  the 
animal  is  irritated.  Tamandua  is  the  name  by  which  it  is  known  to 
the  Portuguese  of  Brazil;  the  French  call  it  Fourmillier  and  the 
English  the  Little  Ant-Bear. 

8.  The  Little  or  Two-Toed  Ant-Eater  (M,  didactylOy  Linn.)  is  easily 
distinguished  from  the  other  two  species,  not  only  by  ita  size,  which 
does  not  exceed  that  of  the  common  European  squirrel,  but  likewise 
by  the  number  of  its  toes,  four  on  the  posterior  and  only  two  on  the 
anterior  extremities.  The  form  and  general  proportions  of  its  body 
resemble  those  of  the  Tamandua,  only  on  a  yery  reduced  scale.  Its 
whole  length,  from  the  snout  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  is  but  6  inches, 
that  of  the  head  not  quite  2  inches,  and  of  the  tail  7^  inches.  This 
oigan  is  consequently  rather  longer  than  the  body ;  it  is  thick  at  the 
root,  and  coyered  with  short  fur,  but  tapers  suddenly  towards  the 
point,  where  it  is  naked  and  strongly  prehensile.  The  muzzle  is  not 
■o  long,  in  proportion,  as  in  the  otiier  two  species ;  the  tongue  also  is 
shorter,  and  has  a  flatter  form ;  the  mouth  opens  farther  back  in  the 
jaws,  and  has  a  much  laiger  gape,  the  eye  being  situated  dose  to  its 
posterior  angle ;  the  ears  are  short,  rather  drooping,  and  concealed 
among  the  long  fur  which  coyers  the  head  and  dieeks ;  the  legs  are 
short  and  stout,  and  the  hair  yery  fine  and  soft  to  the  touch,  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  length  on  the  body,  but  much  shorter  on  the 
head,  l^gs,  and  taiL  The  general  colour  is  that  of  straw,  more  or  less 
tinged  with  maroon  on  the  dioulders,  and  particularly  along  the 
median  line  of  the  back,  which  usually  exhibits  a  deep  line  of  this 
shade.  This  species  is  said  to  haye  four  mammse,  two  pectoral,  as  in 
those  already  described,  and  two  others  on  the  abdomen.  It  is 
reported,  neyertheless,  to  haye  but  a  single  cub  at  a  birth,  which  it 
conceals  in  the  hollow  of  some  decayed  tree.  The  natiye  countries  of 
the  Little  Ant-Eater  are  Guyana  and  Brazil,  beyond  which  it  appears 
not  to  extend  farther  towards  the  south,  smce  Azara  is  not  only 
unacquainted  with  it,  but  imagines  from  Bufifou's  and  Daubenton's 
descriptions  that  it  must  be  the  yoimgof  his  Tamandua.  The  habits 
and  manners  of  this  little  animal  are  thus  described  by  Yon  Sack,  in 
his  *  Narratiye  of  a  Voyage  to  Surinam' : — 


Little  Ant-Enfrr  (.V.  (lidartijht). 

**  I  haye  had,"  says  he,  "  two  Little  Ant-Eaters  or  Fourmilliers, 
which  were  not  larger  than  a  squirrel :  one  was  of  a  bright  yellow 
colour,  with  a  brown  stripe  on  the  back  ;  the  other  was  a  sUyery-gray 
and  darker  on  the  back ;  the  hair  of  each  was  yery  soft  and  silky,  a 
little  crisped ;  the  head  was  small  and  round,  the  nose  long,  gradually 
bending  downwards  to  a  point ;  it  had  no  teeth,  but  a  yery  long  round 
tongue;  the  eyes  were  yery  small,  roimd,  and  black;  Uie  legs  rather 
short ;  the  fore-feet  had  only  two  claws  on  each,  the  exterior  being 
much  laiger  and  stronger  than  the  interior,  which  exactly  filled  the 
curye  or  hollow  of  the  lai^e  one ;  the  hind-feet  had  four  claws  of  a 
moderate  size ;  the  tail  was  prehensile,  longer  than  the  body,  thick  at 
the  base  and  tapering  to  the  end,  which,  for  some  inches  on  the  imder 
side,  was  bare.  This  little  animal  in  Surinam  is  called  Kissing-Hand, 
as  the  inhabitants  pretend  that  it  will  neyer  eat,  at  least  when  caught, 
but  that  it  only  licks  its  paws,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  bear;  that 
all  trials  to  miUce  it  eat  haye  proyed  in  yain,  and  that  it  soon  dies  in 
confinement.  When  I  got  the  first,  I  sent  to  the  forest  for  a  nest  of 
ants,  and,  during  the  interim,  I  put  into  its  cage  some  eggs,  honey, 
milk,  and  meat ;  but  it  refused  to  touch  any  of  them.  At  length  the 
ants'  nest  arriycxl,  but  the  animal  did  not  pay  the  slightest  attention 
to  it  either.  By  the  shape  of  its  fore-paws,  which  resemble  nippers, 
and  di£fer  y^iy  much  from  those  of  all  the  other  different  species  of 
ant-eaters,  I  thought  that  this  little  creature  might  perhaps  liye  on  the 
nymphs  of  wasps,  &c ;  I  therefore  brought  it  a  wasps'  nest,  and  then 
it  pulled  out  with  its  nippers  the  nymphse  from  the  nest,  and  began  to 
eat  them  with  the  greatest  eagerness,  sitting  in  the  posture  of  a  squirrel 
I  showed  this  phenomenon  to  many  of  the  inhabitants,  who  all  assured 
me  that  it  was  the  first  time  they  had  eyer  known  that  species  of 
animal  to  take  any  nourishment.  The  ants  with  which  I  tried  it  were 
the  laige  white  termites,  upon  which  fowls  are  fed  here. 

"  As  the  natural  history  of  this  pretty  little  animal  \b  not  much 


known,  I  thought  of  trying  if  they  would  breed  in  a  cage ;  but  when 
I  returned  from  my  excursion  into  the  coimtry,  I  foimd  them  both 
dead,  perhaps  occasioned  by  the  trouble  giyen  to  procure  the  wasps* 
nests  for  them,  though  they  are  here  yery  plentiful :  wherefore  I  c&u 
giye  no  further  description  of  them  than  that  they  slept  all  the  day 
long  curled  together,  and  fastened  by  their  prehensile  tails  to  one  of 
the  perches  of  the  cage.  When  touched  they  erected  themselyes  on 
their  hind-1^^,  and  struck  with  the  fore-paws  at  the  object  which 
disturbed  them,  like  the  hammer  of  a  clock  striking  the  bell,  with 
both  paws  at  the  same  time,  and  with  a  great  deal  of  strength.  They 
neyer  attempted  to  run  away,  but  were  always  ready  for  defence,  when 
attacked.  As  soon  as  eyening  came  they  awoke,  and  with  the  greatest 
actiyity  walked  on  the  wire  of  the  cage,  thou^  they  neyer  jumped,  nor 
did  I  eyer  hear  their  yoice." 

ANTAGONIST  MUSCLE  (from  &rr2,  against,  and  irym¥i(oiim^  to 
striye),  a  muscle  the  action  of  which  is  opposed  to  that  of  some  oUier 
muscle.  Muscles  are  the  instruments  by  which,  in  the  animal  body, 
motion  is  effected.  The  object  of  each  muscle  lb  to  produce  some 
specific  motion.  Among  the  yarious  motions  which  are  needed  in  the 
animal  economy,  it  necessarily  happens  that  some  are  directly  opposite 
to  others,  and  the  muscles  which  accomplish  these  directly  opposite 
moyements  are  said  to  be  with  relation  to  each  other  Antagonists. 

ANTELOPR    [Antilopea] 

ANTENNiE,  horn-like  members  placed  on  the  head,  and  peculiar 
to  Insects  and  Crustaceous  Animals.  Their  functions  are  not  well 
understood,  and  haye  giyen  rise  to  seyeral  different  opinions  among 
naturalists.  The  term  is  derived  from  the  Latin  ant€y  *  before.'  In  insects 
they  are  uniformly  two  in  number ;  but  in  crabs  and  lobet^s  there  are 
more  than  two.  They  are  connected  with  the  head,  always  near  the  eyes, 
by  means  of  a  ball  (oMut)  and  socket  {torulut).  They  are  composed  of 
minute  cylinders  or  rings  successiyely  added  to  each  other,  to  the  number 
of  30  in  some  butterflies,  and  thus  forming  a  tube  which  incloses  nerves 
for  sensation,  muscles  for  moving,  as  well  as  air-pipes  and  cells. 

The  form  of  the  antennsd  is  exceedingly  various,  some  being  simple 
and  some  feathered,  clubbed,  comb-shaped,  in  endless  diversity.  In 
moths,  the  female  is  distinguished  from  the  male  by  the  an^^ni^y*  being 
more  simple.  In  some  moths  and  beetles  the  antennae  are  very  long 
compared  with  the  length  of  the  body,  whereas  in  the  house-fly,  and 
some  other  two-winged  flies,  they  are  very  short.  Their  length  does 
not  depend  on  the  number  of  joints,  for  they  may  be  long  when 
composed  of  only  three  or  four  piepes,  and  short  when  composed  of 
ten  or  more  pieces. 

With  respect  to  the  functions  of  the  antennae,  it  is  the  most  com- 
mon opinion,  sanctioned  by  such  authorities  as  Linnaeus  and  Bergmann, 
that  they  are  organs  of  touch,  and  are  on  that  accoimt  often  termed 
feelers ;  "  but,"  as  M.  Straus-Diirckheim  justly  remarks,  "  this  con- 
jecture is  founded  upon  facts  imperfectly  investigated,  if  not  altogether 
false.  I  have  made  numerous  researches  on  this  subject^  and  I  have 
never  been  able  to  satisfy  myself  that  insects  examine  objects  by 
feeling  them  with  their  antennae.  On  the  contrary,  I  have  rarely 
observed  these  animals  touch  anything  with  these  organs,  and  when 
this  did  happen,  it  appeared  to  be  only  by  accident,  and  not  at  all 
from  design.  Many  insects,  besides,  have  their  antennae  so  short,  that 
they  would  be  obliged  to  stand  erect  upon  their  heads  in  order  to  come 
at  the  bodies  which  they  might  thus  wish  to  explore,  and  for  this 
their  feet  are  certainly  much  better  adapted 

"  Since,"  continues  M.  Straus-Diirckheim,  "  almost  all  Articulated 
Animals  possessing  a  solid  skin  (peau)  have  antennae,  which  are  furnished 


yrith  nerves  of  an  extraordinary  thickness  in  proportion  to  their  own 
size,  there  cannot  remain  a  doubt  that  they  are  organs  of  some  sense, 
and  that  too  a  very  acute  one. 

"  I  have  said  that  insects  are  proved,  by  observation,  to  be  furnished 
with  an  organ  of  hearing.  The  solidity  of  the  envelope  of  antennae 
renders  these  organs  well  adapted  to  imdei^o  the  same  vibrations  as  the 
air,  in  ihe  same  manner  as  the  strings  of  an  ^Eolian  harp  vibrate  and 
emit  yarious  sounds  according  as  they  are  differently  struck  by  the  air. 
In  this  view,  however,  we  might  infer  that  nature  would  have  made 
antennae  in  the  form  of  rods,  consisting  of  a  single  piece,  in  order  that 
they  might  be  more  susceptible  of  vibrations ;  but  it  ought  to  be 
considered,  that  these  organs  would,  by  such  a  conformation,  have 
been  much  exposed  to  breaking,  while,  in  consequence  of  their  jointed 
form,  they  have  the  advantage  of  regiilating  the  degree  of  vibration 
at  pleasure,  as  may  indeed  be  observed  when  insects  listen  with  atten- 
tion ;  I  mean,  that  the  joints  of  the  antennae  perform  the  same  functions 
as  the  chain  of  small  bones  in  the  chamber  of  the  human  ear,  inasmuch 
as  they  form  a  similar  chain,  and  transmit  the  vibrations  of  the  air  to 
the  auditory  pulp." 

Professor  Bonsdorff  of  Abo  in  Finland,  and  other  naturalists,  though 
opposed  to  the  views  of  Linnaeus  and  Beigmann,  have  adopted  the 
same  opinion,  and  regard  the  antennae  as  organs  of  hearing. 

There  is  one  other  subject  connected  with  the  antennae  which  requires 
notice.  The  younger  Huber  has  attributed  to  ants  the  use  of  certain 
signs  made  with  these  organs,  which  he  terms  '  antennal  language,' 
understood  not  only  among  ants  themselves,  but  also  among  the 
aphides,  on  which  they  depend  for  the  excretion  popularly  termed 
honey-dew.  The  motions  of  the  antennae,  however,  to  which  he  refers 
in  proof  of  his  views,  do  not,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  authorise  ua  to 
<;onclude-  that  they  are  used  in  the  way  of  language,  any  more  thun 


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ANTENNULARIA. 


ANTHROPHYLLITK 


230 


to  theorise  in  the  same  way  upon  the  bills  of  nestling  birds  which  are 
opened  to  receive  food,  or  their  wings  which  are  opened  and  vibrated 
rapidly  while  they  receive  it.  That  there  is  nothing  peculiar  in  this 
alleged  antennal  language,  so  far  as  the  aphides  are  concerned,  any  one 
who  chooses  may  prove  by  taking  a  pin  or  a  camel-hair  pencil  and 
gently  touching  the  aphis,  when  it  will  eject  the  honey-dew  as  readily 
as  in  consequence  of  being  touched  with  the  antennas  of  an  ant  This 
we  deem  to  be  quite  fatal  to  M.  Ruber's  conclusions. 

{Ifuect  Miscellanies,  voL  iv.,  in  the  Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge,) 
AKTENNTJLABIA,  a  genus  of  Sertularian  Zoophytes.     [Sebtu- 

ULBIiJ)A] 

A'NTHEMIS  is  the  genus  of  plants  which  includes  the  useful 
herb  Chamomile.  It  .belongs  to  the  order  Compositce,  and  is  distin- 
guished by  having  the  scales  uiat  surround  its  flower-heads  membranous 
at  the  border,  like  those  of  a  Chrysanthemum^  from  which  genus  it,  in 
fact,  differs  chiefly  in  the  receptacle  of  the  flowers  being  furnished  with 
little  chafiy  projections. 

Anthemis  nobUis,  or  Chamomile,  is  frequent  in  a  wild  state  on  many 
of  the  commons  near  London,  where  it  adds  a  peculiar  richness  of 
colour  and  fragrance  to  the  turf.  It  is  a  dwarf  plant,  with  finely-cut 
leaves ;  its  flower-heads  are  white  in  the  ray,  but  deep  yellow  in  the 
disk.  All  the  parts  are  intensely  bitter,  but  especially  the  little  yellow 
flowers  of  the  disk :  for  this  reason  the  wild  blossoms  are  far  more 
efficacious  than  those  of  the  cultivated  sort,  in  which  there  is  scarcely 
any  disi,  the  flowers  of  the  ray  having  almost  entirely  usurped  their 
place.  Besides  the  bitter  principle  for  which  Chamomile  is  so  cele- 
brated, it  has  been  found  by  chemists  to  contain  camphor  and  tannin, 
and  also  a  volatile  oil  of  a  beautiful  blue  colour. 

There  is  another  wild  plant,  called  Anihemis  Cottday  or  Mayweed, 
which  must  not  be  confoimded  with  Chamomile,  to  which  it  bears  great 
resemblance :  it  may  be  distinguished  by  its  being  an  erect  branching 
plant,  with  an  exceedingly  disagreeable  and  powerful  odour. 

Anthemis  tinctoria  is  used  in  France  by  the  dyers  for  the  sake  of  a 
brilliant  yellow  tint,  which  is  obtained  from  it. 

ANTHER,  in  Botany,  the  upper  part  of  the  stamen  which  contains 
tlie  pollen-ceOs,  the  function  of  which  is  to  aid  in  the  development  of 
the  embryo  in  the  ovule.    [Stamen.] 

ANTElERIDIA,  in  Botany,  organs  found  in  many  of  the  tribes  of 
Cryptogamic  or  Flowerless  Hants.  They  have  been  observed  in  the 
Characese,  Horse-Tails,  Ferns,  Mosses,  and  Algso,  and  are  supposed  to 
represent  the  anthers  in  Phuierogamio  or  Flowering  Plants.  In  the 
oula  of  which  they  are  composed  certain  nioving  filaments  are  observed, 
which  have  received  the  name  of  Phytozoa  or  Spermaiozoids.  Many 
of  these  phytozoa  move  by  cilia  attached  to  their  surface.  For  the 
nature  of  their  functions,  development,  and  forms,  see  Repboduo- 
TICK,  Vbqetable. 

ANTHOLI'THES  (Brongniart).  Some  Fossil  Plants  thus  designated 
occur  in  the  Coal-formations  of  Shropshire  and  Northumberland. 

ANTHCPHYLLUM  (Schweigger),  a  Fossil  genm  otMadrephyllicea. 
[Madbephtllkea.] 

ANTHCySIDERITE,  in  Mineralogy,  an  impure  silicate  of  iron. 

ANTHOSPE'RMEiB  (from  Atfeos,  flower,  and  (nr^pfia,  seed),  a  tribe 
of  plants  resembling  Anthospermum  (the  Amber-Tree),  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Cinchonacece,  It  consists  of  the  genera  Coprosma, 
PhvUis,  Galopina,  A  mbraria,  and  A  nthospermum.  They  possess  dioecious 
or  nermaphrodite  flowers ;  a  rotate  corolla ;  styles  separating  to  the 
base,  ending  in  an  elongated  hispid  or  plumose  stigma ;  the  fruit  con- 
aists  of  2  indehiscent  1-seeded  mericarps,  or  nuts  ;  the  albumen  of  the 
seed  is  fleshy.  The  species  are  small  herbs  or  shrubs,  with  opposite 
or  verticillate  leaves,  and  small  1-3-toothed  stipules,  which  are  adnate 
to  both  sides  of  the  petioles. 

None  of  the  species  are  used  in  the  arts  or  medicine ;  the  tribe  is 
however  interesting  as  forming  a  link  between  the  opposite-leaved 
Oinch<macecB  and  ti^e  verticillate  Jiubiacece,  Although  most  of  the 
AnthospermecBh&ye  opposite  leaves,  yet  several  species  of  Anthospermum 
itself,  as  A.  Bergiainum  and  A.  JSthiopicum,  have  their  leaves  subver- 
tidllate.  In  Phyllis  the  leaves  occur  in  ^horls  of  three  or  four. 
This  genus  has  but  a  single  species,  known  by  the  common  name 
of  Bastard  Hare's-Ear.  It  may  be  cultivated,  with  other  species  of 
the  tribe,  in  a  mixture  of  loam,  peat,  and  sand. 

ANTHOXA'NTHUM,  a  genus  of  Grasses,  one  species  of  which  {A, 
odorcUum)  is  well  known  to  farmers  under  the  name  of  the  Sweet 
Vernal  Grass.  It  is  a  small  annual  plant,  bearing  its  flowers  in  short 
heads,  which  are  not  very  compac^  and  broader  at  the  bottom  than 
the  top.  The  flowerets  of  which  it  is  composed  are  a  pale  yellowish- 
green;  each  consists  of  two  sharp-point^  smooth  glumes,  within 
which  are  two  other  dark-brown  hairy  palese,  each  having  an  awn  at 
its  back ;  the  stamens  are  only  two  in  number.  This  grass  is  of  little 
importance  for  its  nutritive  qualities,  but  it  is  much  esteemed  for  the 
sweet  smell  of  its  leaves,  which  causes  much  of  the  well-known 
panoe  of  new-mown  hay. 

f'NTHRACITE,  a  black,  light,  mineral  substauoe,  regembling 
wosd;  90  named  from  Mpa^  charooal.  It  is  also  called  BUndOoal, 
hficaoie  it  bums  without  flame ;  and  QUnoe-Ooal,  from  the  Qerma^ 
wofd  glam  (lustre),  because  it  has  often  a  shiuing  surface  like  graphite 
or  M»rklmiii^  m  it  is  improperly  called,  the  substance  <^  whioh  penoiU 
•re  iBadOb  9od  to  which  it  is  vezy  oloiiely  allied  in  composition,  Ja 
MMse  qrfftMM  of  minaralogy  itli    dividod  into  lUMaive,  Mij,  ifid 


columnar  anthracite;   but  these  are   mere  accidental  varieties  of 
structure,  and  are  aU  of  the  same  chemical  composition,  when  the 


Sweet  Vernal  Grass  {Anthoxanthum  odoratum) . 
o,  a  flower-head  magnified.  5,  a  floweret  more  magnified, 

pure  anthracite  is  separated  firom  the  matrix,  or  from  the  foreign 
matter  with  which  it  is  mechanically  mixed.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
about  1400,  water  being  1000;  it  is  slowly  combustible,  but  without 
flame,  and  contains  from  70  to  90  per  cent  of  carbon.  Naphtha  may 
be  considered  as  one  extremity  of  the  mineral  carbonaceous  sub- 
stances, and  anthracite  as  the  other ;  and  firom  the  highly-inflammable 
fluid  naphtha  we  have  numerous  varieties  of  mineral  tar,  or  petroleum, 
bitumen,  a^haltum,  cannel-coal,  caking-coal,  slaty-coa^  &c.,  all  dimi- 
nishing in  inflammability,  until  at  last  we  come  to  the  blind-coal,  or 
anthracite.  If  asphaltum,  or  indurated  mineral  pitch,  be  subjected  to 
distillation,  at  a  certain  stage  of  the  process,  when  it  has  lost  a  part 
of  the  bitumen  which  it  contains,  it  resembles  caking  Newcastle  coal ; 
continuing  the  distillation,  it  passes  into  a  substance  which  is  identical 
with  anthracite,  both  in  appearance  and  composition.  The  following 
is  an  analysis  of  Welsh  anthracite  : — 

Carbon 92-56 

Hydrogen 888 

Oxygen  and  Nitrogen       ....  2*58 

Ash 1-68 


10000 
It  is  undoubtedly  of  vegetable  origin  in  common  with  all  coaL 
[Co^l;  CoalPlantsJ 

ANTHRACOTHE'RIUM  (Cuvier),  a  FossU  genus  of  Pachyderm 
Mammals,  of  which  many  species  occur  in  Tertiaiy  deposits,  especially 
in  the  G^yps^ous  and  Lignitic  strata  of  Paris  and  Tuscany. 

ANTHRI'SCUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
UmbellifercB  and  the  tribe  Scandicvnea.  It  is  known  by  possessing 
little  or  no  calyx,  with  heart-shaped  petals  bent  down  at  the  point ;  a 
fruit  narrowed  below  the  short  beak,  and  without  any  ridges.  The 
beak  has  flve  ridges. 

A,  sylvestris,  Wild  Chervil,  is  known  by  its  terminal  stalked  umbels, 
and  its  linear  glabrous  fruit  with  a  short  beak.  It  is  a  common  weed 
in  hedges  and  banks  throughout  Europe. 

A.  Cerefoliwn  {Scandix  Cerrfoliwn),  the  Gkuxlen  Chervil,  is  probably 
an  escape  from  cultivation  in  England.  It  is  pommon  0ootigh  in  wwte 
places.    [BOANSIX.! 

A,  wlgaris  has  the  umbels  lateral  tad  stuJked,  and  an  orate  hisplil 
point.  The  leaves  are  slightly  hairy.  It  is  common  in  tha  WMrt9 
places  of  Great  Britain.    (Babiagton's  Mwmtl  ^  BriM^  JSMofUf.) 

ANTHROPQYLLITS,  a  minem],  conteiningt  aooording  te  mi 
analysis  \tj  Gmelin  \-r- 

Silica fitf 

Firotozide  of  Iron .IB 

ICagnasia      .....••        fit 

Pkotozido  of  HaagaaesA 4 

Lima    ....,.•>  % 

Alnmina % 


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ANTHROPOLITEP. 


ANTILOPEiE. 


It  occurs  in  cryBtalline  masses  with  a  fibrous  columnar  structure. 
The  cleavage  is  parallel  to  the  lateral  planes  of  a  rhombic  prism  and 
to  both  its  diagonals.  The  colour  varies  from  a  brown  to  a  yellowish- 
brown.  It  has  a  white  streak  and  an  imeven  fracture.  The  specific 
gravity  is  from  3*0  to  3*3.  The  lustre  is  pearly,  and  inclining  to 
metallic.  It  is  translucent  and  transparent  on  the  edges.  It  is  found 
at  Kongsbei^  and  Modum  in  Norway,  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
other  placea 

ANTHROTOLITES,  the  name  given  to  Human  Fossil  Remains. 
Although  at  one  time  it  was  thought  that  human  remains  were  often 
found  fossilised,  the  investigations  of  modem  anatomists  have  shown 
that  in  most  of  these  cases  the  supposition  has  been  false.  Daubenton 
first  demonstrated  that  some  bones  which  had  long  been  regarded  in 
Paris  as  the  remains  of  a  gigantic  human  being  belonged  to  a  lower 
tiibe  of  beings.  The  researches  of  Cuvier  gave  a  clue  by  which  all 
cases  might  be  tested,  and  most  of  the  earlier  instances  brought 
forward  have  been  referred  to  their  correct  types. 

Human  fossil  bones  have,  however,  been  discovered  in  the  Belgian 
bone-caverns,  with  bears,  rodents,  &c.,  and  are  figured  by  Dr.  Schmerling, 
in  his  interesting  work  on  the  bones  foimd  in  a  cavern  near  Li^ge. 

Dr.  Buckland  (* Bridgewater  Treatise')  remarks  that  frequent  dis- 
coveries have  been  made  of  himian  bones  and  rude  works  of  art  in 
natural  caverns,  sometimes  inclosed  in  stalactite,  at  other  times  in 
beds  of  earthy  materials,  which  are  interspersed  with  bones  of  extinct 
species  of  quadrupeds.  These  cases,  he  thinks,  may  be  explained  by 
the  common  practice  of  mankind  in  all  ages  to  bury  their  d^id  in  such 
convenient  repositories.  "  The  accidental  circumstance,"  continues 
Dr.  Buckland,  **  that  many  caverns  contained  the  bones  of  extinct 
species  of  other  animals,  dispersed  through  the  same  soil  in  which 
human  bodies  may,  at  any  subsequent  period,  have  been  buried,  affords 
no  proof  of  the  time  when  these  remains  of  men  were  introduced. 
Many  of  the  caverns  have  been  inhabited  by  savage  tribes,  who,  for 
convenience  of  occupation,  have  repeatedly  disturbed  portions  of  soil 
in  which  their  predecessors  may  have  been  buried.  Such  disturbances 
will  explain  the  occasional  admixture  of  fragments  of  human  skeletons 
and  the  bones  of  modem  quadrupeds  with  those  of  extinct  species 
introduced  at  more  early  periods  and  by  natural  causes.  Several 
accounts  have  been  published  within  the  last  few  years  of  human 
remains  discovered  in  the  caverns  of  France  and  in  the  province  of 
Li^ge,  which  are  described  as  being  of  the  same  antiquity  with  the 
bones  of  hyaenas  and  other  extinct  quadrupeds  that  accompany  them. 
Most  of  these  may  probably  admit  of  explanation  by  reference  to  the 
causes  just  enumerated.  In  the  case  of  caverns  which  form  the 
channels  of  subterranean  rivers,  or  which  are  subject  to  occasional 
inimdations,  another  cause  of  the  admixture  of  human  bones  with  the 
remains  of  animals  of  more  ancient  date  may  be  found  in  the  movements 
occasioned  by  running  water." 

The  same  learned  author  observes  that  the  most  remarkable  and 
only  recorded  case  of  human  skeletons  imbedded  in  a  solid  limestone 
rock  is  that  on  the  shore  of  Ouadaloupe,  adding  that  there  is  however 
no  reason  to  consider  these  bones  to  be  of  high  antiquity,  as  the  rock 
in  which  they  occur  is  of  very  recent  formation,  and  is  composed  of 
agglutinated  fragments  of  shells  and  corals  which  inhabit  the  adjacent 
water.  Such  kmd  of  stone  is  frequently  formed  in  a  few  years  from 
sand-banks  composed  of  similar  materials,  on  the  shores  of  tropical 
seas.  (*  Bridgewater  Treatise,*  vol.  i)  One  of  these  skeletons,  described 
by  Mr.  Konig  (*PhiL  Trans.,' 1814)  is  in  the  British  MuseimL  See 
further  as  to  the  rock  in  which  the  skeletons  are  imbedded, '  Ldnn. 
Trans.,'  1818,  voL  xiL 

Dr.  Lund  published,  some  years  ago,  the  discovery  of  human 
remains  with  those  of  Megatherium,  &c. ;  and  he  was  of  opinion 
that  the  former  were  of  the  same  epoch  as  those  of  the  latter.  The 
cranium  had  the  peculiar  shape  which  distinguishes  the  ancient 
Peravian.    [See  SuFPLEMEirr.] 

ANTHUS  (Bechstein),  the  Pipit,  a  genus  of  birds  separated  by  Dr. 
Bechstein  from  the  Linnean  g^nus  AtaucUif  a  separation  followed  by 
Temminck,  Cuvier,  Lesson,  and  Selby,  and  justly ;  for  though  the 
Pipits  have  a  long  hind  claW,  and  are  usually  coloured,  like  the 
larks,  their  bill  is  more  slender,  in  consequence  of  which  they 
never,  like  them,  feed  on  grain.  In  the  form  of  the  head,  in  the 
movement  of  the  tail,  and  their  mode  of  life,  they  resemble  the  Wag- 
tails (MotaciUa)  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  the  Blue-Breast 
{Sylvia  Suecica), 

Adhering,  then,  to  the  distinction  of  Bechstein,  we  characterise  the 
Pipits  by  the  bill  being  straight,  slender,  somewhat  awl-shaped  towards 
the  point,  having  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible  keeled,  the  tips  lightly 
bent  downwards,  and  notched.  The  nostrils,  situated  at  the  sides  of 
the  base  of  the  bill,  are  oval,  and  partly  concealed  by  a  membrane : 
feet,  with  the  shank  (tamui)  generally  exceeding  the  middle  toe  in 
length ;  toes,  three  before  and  one  behind,  and  with  the  outer  toe 
adhering  to  the  middle  one  as  far  as  the  first  joint ;  the  hind  claw 
rather  long.  The  wings  have  the  first  quill  very  short;  the  third 
and  fourth  the  longest  in  each  wing. 

A.  pratentis,  the  Meadow-Pipit,  known  also  by  the  names  Titlark, 
Titling,  Common  Titlark,  and  Moss-Cheeper,  is  a  common  British 
bird,  occurring  on  the  coasts  as  well  as  the  interior  of  the  coimtry, 
and  frequenting  wet  meadows,  moors,  commons,  and  pasture-land. 
It  usually  buildi  its  nest  on  a  grassy  bank  or  beside  a  tufb  or  tur£ 


It  is  to  this  species  that  the  young  of  the  cuckoo  are  most  finequentlv 
consigned. 

A.  arhoreiUf  the  Tree-Pipit,  Meadow-Lark,  or  Short-Heeled  Field- 
Lark,  is  a  larger  bird  than  the  last  It  is  only  a  summer  viidtani 
in  the  British  Islands,  arriving  at  the  end  of  April,  and  departing  in 
September.  Its  song  is  superior  to  that  of  the  last.  It  frequentlj 
p^Yshes  on  trees.    It  builds  its  nest  on  the  ground. 

A.  obtcurtu,  Dusky  or  Shore-Pipit,  Rock-Pipit,  Rock-Lark,  Sea-Lark, 
Dusky  Lark,  is  larger  than  the  last  species,  has  duller  tints,  and  is 
entirely  confined  to  the  sea-shore. 

A,  Spinolettck,  Red-Breasted  Pipit,  has  been  observed  by  Mr. 
Macgillivray  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh. 

A.  Jtichardif  Richard's  Pipit,  was  first  described  an  a  British 
species  by  Mr.  Vigors.     (Macgillivray,  British  Birds.) 

ANTIARIS  is  the  botanical  name  of  the  half-fabulous  Upaa-Tree, 
of  which  so  many  idle  stories  were  propagated  some  years  since  by 
travellers.  It  was  said  to  be  a  large  tree,  growing  in  the  island  of 
Ja\ui,  in  the  midst  of  a  desert  caused  by  its  own  pestiferous  qualities; 
its  exhalations  were  reported  to  be  so  imwholesome,  that  not  only 
did  they  cause  death  to  all  animals  which  approached  the  tree,  but 
even  destroyed  vegetation  for  a  considerable  distance  round  it ;  and, 
finally,  the  juice  which  flowed  firom  its  stem,  when  wounded,  was 
said  to  be  the  most  deadly  of  poisons.  To  approach  the  Upas-Tree, 
even  for  the  momentary  purpose  of  wounding  its  stem  and  carrying 
away  the  juice,  was  stated  to  be  so  dangerous,  that  none  but  criminala 
under  sentence  of  death  could  be  found  to  undertake  the  task.  As 
is  usual  in  such  cases,  this  fable  is  founded  upon  certain  natural 
phenomena  which  occur  in  Java.  There  is  such  a  tree  as  the  Upas, 
and  its  juice,  if  mixed  with  the  blood  in  the  body  of  any  animal,  is 
speedily  fatal ;  and  there  is  also  a  tract  of  land  in  the  same  island  on 
which  neither  animal  nor  plant  can  exist.  But  the  two  circumstances 
have  no  relation  to  each  other :  the  poisoned  tract  is  a  small  valley 
completely  surrounded  by  a  steep  embankment,  like  the  crater  of  a 
volcano,  and  is  continually  emitting  from  its  surface  carbonic  acid 
gas,  which  is  alike  fatal  to  animals  and  plants ;  on  the  other  hand, 
the  pnoisonous  Upas-Tree  is  not  an  inhabitant  of  the  valley,  for  nothing 
can  live  there,  but  it  flourishes  in  the  woods,  in  the  midst  of  otiier 
trees  which  are  unharmed  by  its  vicinity. 

The  Upas  is  a  species  of  the  genus  AntiariSf  which  belongs  to  the 
natural  order  Artocarpea,  a  group  of  plants  all  of  which  abound  in  a 
milky  juice,  and  many  of  which  are  poisonous.  (Abtocarpejb.)  A. 
toxicaria  is  the  true  Upas.  It  is  not  unlike  A.  macnyphylla,  which 
has  been  found  on  the  north  coast  of  Australia. 


TS^< 


■T  If- 


Aniiaris  macrophylla. 
1,  A  head  of  male  flowers  in  the  iDTolucrum ;  2,  the  same  divided  perpendi- 
cularly;   3,  a  couple  of  the  male  flowers;    4,  pistil;    5,   the  same  divided 
perpendicularly ;  6,  a  fruit. 

ANTICLI'NAL,  a  term  in  Geology  which  expresses  the  fact  that, 
from  a  given  line,  the  strata  dip  in  opposite  directions. 

ANTIGORITE,  in  Mineralogv,  a  sUicate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  a 
variety  of  Bronzite.    [Bronzite.] 

.  ANTlLOPEiE,  in  Zoology,  a  family  of  Ruminating  Mammals, 
belonging  to  the  Hollow-Homed  group,  and  distinguii£ed  by  the 
following  characters.  The  horns  conical,  bent  back,  cylindriood,  or 
compressed,  and  ringed  at  the  base.  The  luiee  (or  wrist)  in  the  middle 
of  the  fore-leg.  The  occipital  plane  of  the  skull  forms  an  obtuse 
angle  with  the  frontal  plane.    Core  of  the  horns  thin,  consisting  of 


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ANTILOPE^. 


ANTILOPE^. 


231 


denae  bone,  often  with  a  dear  sinus  at  the  base  within.    Teats  two 
or  four.    Feet-pits  in  hind-feet  and  generally  also  in  the  fore  ones. 

Perhaps  the  most  general  character  belonging  to  the  Antelopes 
consists  in  the  form  of  the  horns  being  round  and  annulated,  or  at 
least  never  exhibiting  the  prominent  angles  and  ridges  which  diHtinguish 
those  of  the  Sheep  and  Gk>ats.  In  their  particular  forms  and  curvatures, 
however,  they  vary  in  almost  every  different  species,  as  among  domestic 
sheep  they  do  even  in  different  varieties  of  the  same  species.  Some- 
times they  form  a  single  bend  forwards  or  backwards,  sometimes  they 
are  what  is  oonmionly  called  lyrated,  or  bent  first  backwards  and 
then  point  forwards,  in  such  a  manner  as,  when  opposed  to  one 
another,  to  assume  the  figure  of  an  ancient  Ivre,  the  brachia  or  sides 
of  which  instrument  were  frequently  made  of  the  horns  of  the  Doreat 
or  Common  Qazelle,  aa  appears  from  the  engravings  of  antique  gems 
still  preserved.  In  many  of  the  smaller  species  the  bony  core,  or 
process  of  the  os  frontis  which  is  inserted  into  the  hollow  sheath  of 
the  horn  itself,  is  almost  solid,  or  at  least  the  osseous  substance  of  it 
Ib  penetrated  only  by  very  minute  pores. 

The  possession  of  'lachrymal  sinuses,'  or  as  they  are  vernacularly 
called  with  reference  to  the  stag  and  fallow-deer, '  tear-pits,'  is  another 
cirouxnstance  which  distinguishes  the  greater  number  of  the  Antelopes, 
but  which,  like  all  their  other  characters,  is  far  from  being  generaL 
Hany  zoologists  suppose  these  organs  to  communicate  with  the 
nostrils,  so  as  to  enable  the  animals  to  breathe  freely  during  their  long 
and  rapid  flights  when  pursued  or  frightened.  Some  even  suppose 
them  to  be  subservient  to  the  sense  of  smell,  and  to  serve  for 
detecting  the  noxious  qualities  of  the  numerous  poisonous  plants 
which  grow  in  the  deserts,  or  spring  up  among  the  rank  vegetation 
of  tropical  climatea  It  is  certainly  true  that  all  these  animalB  possess 
a  most  delicate  sense  of  smell,  and  that  no  known  quadrupeds  can 
surpass,  and  very  few  equal  them  in  the  course.  It  has  been  supposed 
that  these  oigans  are  used  when  the  animal  drinks.  The  anatomy  of 
the  parts  dranonstrates  that  no  internal  communication  exists  between 
the  lachrymal  sinus  and  the  nose,  or  indeed  any  other  organ.  The 
sinus  itself  is  simply  composed  of  a  sac  or  fold  of  the  skin,  of 
greater  or  less  extent  according  to  the  species,  but  always  capable 
of  being  opened  or  shut  at  the  will  of  the  animal,  and  famished  at 
the  bottom  with  a  gland  which  secretes  an  oily  viscous  substance  of 
the  colour  and  consistence  of  ear-wax,  but  which  hardens  and  turns 
black  upon  exposure  to  the  air.  The  precise  function  of  these  oigans 
is  uncertain ;  all  that  we  know  with  certainty  at  present  is,  that  many 
of  the  Antelopes  which  are  most  commonly  brought  to  Europe  and 
preserved  in  menageries,  such  as  the  common  Indian  Antelope  and 
the  Qaselle,  make  continual  use  of  this  oxgan  when  any  strange  sub- 
stance is  presented  to  their  notice,  particularly  if  it  be  odoi^erous, 
and  appear  to  derive  great  pleasure  from  protruding  the  lachrymal 
sinus  and  rubbing  its  interior  surface  against  the  odorous  body. 

It  has  been  already  hinted  that  the  Antelopes  are  not  the  only 
ruminants  which  possess  suborbital  sinuses :  in  fact,  these  organs  are 
more  universally  found  in  the  deer  kind  than  in  the  present  fomilv ; 
but^  on  the  other  hand,  as  these  are  the  only  animals  belonging  to  the 
hollow-homed  family  which  exhibit  this  character,  it  thus  becomes 
sufficiently  appropriate,  and,  as  far  as  it  goes,  serves  readily  to  dis- 
tinguish the  Aiitelopee  from  the  Goats  and  Sheep,  with  which  they  are 
most  liable  to  be  confounded.  In  this  respect^  as  well  as  in  the 
absence  of  horns  in  the  females  of  many  species,  they  form  an  inter- 
mediate link  between  the  rest  of  the  hoUow-homed  ruminants  and 
the  cervine  or  solid-homed  family  :  so  nearly  indeed  do  some  species 
of  Antelopes  approach  to  the  deer  kind  in  general,  and  so  perfectly 
similar  are  they  in  all  their  most  prominent  and  essential  characters,  the 
horns  alone  excepted,  that  it  is  often  next  to  impossible  to  distinguish 
the  hornless  females  of  the  one  genus  from  those  of  the  other. 

Besides  the  suborbital  sinus,  a  few  species  of  Antelopes  possess  a 
different  gland,  which  runs  lengthwise  between  it  and  the  mouth,  in 
a  direction  for  the  most  part  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  chaffron  or 
face  and  nose,  and  secretes  a  dark  oily  substance;  it  is,  however, 
entirely  external,  and  has  no  internal  opening  like  the  lachrymal 
sinus,  nor  are  its  uses  better  known  than  those  of  that  oi*gan.  The 
former  fact^  if  it  can  be  relied  upon,  proves  at  least  that  it  is  a  sepa- 
rate organ,  and  not  a  mere  modification  of  the  lachrymal  sinus ;  and, 
consequently,  it  may  be  fairly  presumed  that  its  function,  whatever 
it  may  he,  is  likewise  different  Another  character,  but  much  more 
generally  found  to  distinguish  the  Antelopes  than  even  the  suborbital 
sinus  itself^  is  derived  from  the  inguinal  pores,  which  are  sacs  or  deep 
folds  of  the  skin,  situated  in  the  groin,  opening  inwards,  and  secreting 
a  glutinous  substance  similar  to  that  of  the  gltmds  already  mentioned. 
In  the  form  of  the  upper  lip,  an  important  character  among  animals 
which  seek  their  food  on  the  ground,  and  in  which  the  lips  and 
tongue  constitute  the  only  organs  of  touch  and  prehension,  the 
Antelopes  are  as  variable  and  inconstant  as  in  the  other  characters 
already  described.  In  some  species  it  forms  a  broad  naked  muzzle, 
as  in  the  ox ;  in  others  it  is  hairy  and  attenuated,  like  that  of  the 
goat;  and  finally,  it  sometimes  assumes  an  intermediate  form,  and 
presents  a  modification  of  both  these  characters.  The  females  are 
furnished  with  either  two  or  four  teats,  forming  a  small  udder; 
they  usuallv  bring  forth  but  one  at  a  birth,  in  a  few  instances  two, 
and  the  period  of  gestation  differs  flrom  five  to  eight  months  according 
to  the  species. 


The  hair  of  the  Antelopes  is  generally  short  and  smooth,  and  of  an 
equal  length  over  every  part  of  the  body ;  some  however  have  manes 
along  the  neck  and  on  the  shoulders,  composed  of  long  bristly  hair, 
either  growing  upright  or  reversed  towards  the  head  as  in  the  Oryx ; 
and  a  very  few  species,  like  the  Onu,  are  furnished  with  a  beard  on 
the  chin  and  throat.  The  ears  are  commonly  long,  narrow,  and 
pointed,  smooth  on  the  outside,  and  filled  internally  with  long  white 
hair  growing  in  five  longitudinal  lines,  with  four  naked  black  spaces 
between,  and  forming  Qxe  appearance  which,  in  describing  these 
animals,  is  usually  denominated  ttriaUd.  The  tails  are  generally 
shorty  round,  and  tufted  at  the  extremity,  and  many  species  are 
furnished  with  little  tufts  of  long  black  hair,  called  scojxe,  or  knee- 
brushes,  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  anterior  canons,  immediately 
below  the  carpal  joint. 

Generally  speaking,  the  Antelopes  are  gregarious,  and  unite  in  large 
herds,  either  permanently  or  at  particular  seasons  of  the  year,  but 
only  for  the  purpose  of  migrating  in  search  of  more  abundant  and 
grateful  pastun^ ;  some  species,  however,  reside  in  pairs  or  small 
families,  consisting  of  an  old  male  and  one  or  more  females,  with  the 
young  of  the  two  foregoing  seasons.  They  are  always  extremely 
cautious  in  guarding  against  surprise,  placing  sentinels  in  various 
directions  about  their  feeding  ground,  to  warn  them  of  the  approach 
of  danger  whilst  grazing  or  reposing ;  and  their  vision  and  sense  of 
smell  are  so  acute,  that  it  is  only  by  using  the  greatest  caution  and 
circumspection  that  the  hunter  can  bring  them  within  range  of  the 
gun.  The  names  by  which  the  animals  themselves  are  distinguished 
in  all  languages,  ancient  as  well  as  modem,  have  a  direct  reference  to 
this  quickness  of  sight,  and  to  the  brilliancy  of  the  large  black  eyes 
which  form  so  conspicuous  a  feature  in  the  Antelopes.  Thus  the 
word  Dorcoi  (dopxAs),  the  Greek  and  Roman  name  of  the  Gazelle,  or 
common  Barbery  Antelope,  is  derived  from  the  verb  94pKofuu,  *  to  see.' 
The  common  English  word  Antelope,  which  zoologists  have  adopted 
as  the  generic  name  of  the  group,  is  a  comipt  form  of  the  term 
fitfOoXtn^f  emploved  by  Eustathius  to  designate  an  animal  of  this  genus^ 
and  literally  signifying  'bri^t  eyes;'  and,  according  to  the  learned 
Bochart,  Tabithaf  the  name  of  the  disciple  raised  to  life  at  Joppa^  is 
derived  from  TVe^,  the  Hebrew  name  of  the  common  Gazelle,  and 
alludes  likewise  to  the  beauty  of  her  eyes.  Among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  also,  as  we  learn  from  Agathias,  and  others.  Dor  ecu,  Dorcalit, 
and  JDamaliB,  all  names  of  different  Antelopes,  were  common  names 
of  women  likewise,  bestowed  without  doubt  on  account  of  the  remark- 
able beauty  of  their  eyes ;  and  Prosper  Alpinus,  and  more  recent 
travellers,  inform  us  that  Aine  el  Czazel,  *  You  have  the  eyes  of  an 
antelope,'  is  the  greatest  compliment  which  at  the  present  day  an 
oriental  admirer  can  pay  to  his  mistress. 

The  Bushmen  of  the  Cape  often  destroy  vast  numbers  of  the  antelopes 
with  which  their  country  abounds,  by  poisoning  the  springs  and  reser- 
voirs to  which  they  are  known  to  resort^  nor  is  the  flesh  ever  known 
to  be  injured  by  uiis  mode  of  slaughter ;  they  also  shoot  them  with 
poisoned  arrows,  but  in  this  case  the  parts  immediately  around  the 
wound  must  be  cut  out  before  the  rest  of  the  body  imbibes  the  poison, 
which  would  otherwise  penetrate  it^  and  render  it  imfit  for  food. 

Africa  may  be  considered  as  the  head-quarters  of  the  Antelopes. 
Australia  and  Madagascar  are,  as  far  as  we  at  present  know,  com- 
pletely destitute  of  Antelopes,  as  indeed  they  appear  to  be  of  all 
indigenous  ruminants.  The  precise  nature  of  the  habitat  frequented 
by  tibese  animals  has  nothing  of  a  uniform  character,  but>  as  might 
naturally  be  expected  from  the  different  modifications  of  organic 
structure  observable  throughout  the  genus,  differs  acoording  to  the 
particular  species.  Some  frequent  the  dry  sandy  deserts,  and  feed 
upon  the  stunted  acacias  and  bulbous  plants  which  spring  up  even  in 
the  most  arid  situations,  where  the  stony  nature  of  the  ground  gives  a 
certain  degree  of  adherence  to  the  soil ;  some  prefer  the  open  stony 
plains,  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia  and  karroos  of  Southern  Africa, 
where  the  grass,  though  parched,  is  still  sufficient  for  their  sub- 
sistence; some  again  inhabit  the  steep  rocky  mountains,  and  leap 
from  cliff  to  cliff  with  the  ease  and  security  of  a  wild  goat»  whilst 
others  are  found  only  in  the  thick  and  almost  impenetrable  forests  of 
tropical  countries. 

Although  what  are  popularly  called  Antelopes  were  at  one  time  all 
referred  to  the  genus  AntUope^  their  number  has  so  greatly  increased 
as  to  render  it  necessary  to  distribute  the  various  species  under  di^erent 
genera.  As  by  far  the  most  extensive  and  available  collection  of  these 
animals  for  the  British  student  is  contained  in  the  British  Museum,  we 
shall  follow  in  this  article  the  arrangement  given  of  these  animals  by 
Dr.  J.  K  Gray  in  the  '  Catalogue  of  the  Specimens  of  Mammalia'  in  that 
collection,  published  in  1852. 

The  family  Aniilopea  ia  divided  into  two  great  divisions,  the  AfUe^ 
lope$  of  the  Fields,  and  the  Antelcpa  of  the  Desert.  These  divisions 
are  recognised  bv  a  peculiarity  of  the  nostrils,  easily  perceived.  In 
the  Antelopes  of  the  Fields  the  nostrils  are  bald  or  free  fh>m  hairs, 
whilst  in  the  Antelopes  of  the  Desert  these  organs  are  bearded  within 
or  covered  with  bristles.  There  are  other  distinctions,  but  these  are 
the  most  obvious,  and  readily  recognised 

AlVTBLOPXB  OF  THE  FIELDS. 

These  are  again  divided  i&to  three  groups : — 

1.  I%e  Tnte  ArUelopee,  which  have  a  light  elegant  body;  alendet 


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ANTILOPE^ 


ANTILOPEiE. 


limba;  small  hoofg;  a  short  or  moderate  tail,  covered  with  elongated 
hairs  i^  the  base;  lyrate  or  oooical  horns,  placed  over  the  eyebrows. 

2.  The  Cervine  Antelopes  approaching  the  deer  in  character.  They 
have  rather  a  heavy  large  body;  strong  slender  limbs;  a  long  tail, 
cylindrical  at  the  base,  with  the  hair  longer  at  the  end,  often 
forming  a  compressed  ridge.  The  muffle  is  like  that  of  the  Cervine 
Buminanta. 

3.  The  GodU-like  Anidopes,  which  have  a  heavy  body;  strong  legs; 
lai|^e  hoofs  and  false  hoo&;  very  short  tail,  flat  and  hairy  above; 
]:ecurved  conical  horns. 

1.  Tinie  Antelopes. 
Saiga. 
The  horns  are  short,  strong,  lyrate,  annulated,  and  of  a  white  colour ; 
the  nose  is  compressed,  very  high,  rounded,  the  nostrils  very  close 
together;  the  crumen  distinct;  the  fur  soft;  the  skull  has  the  nose- 
opening  very  large,  and  extended  back  over  the  eyes. 

1.  Saiga  Tartarica  (Antilope  Colus,  H.  Smith),  the  Saiga  and  Colus, 
is  the  only  species  of  True  Antelope  which  inhabits  any  part  of  Europe. 
The  size  of  the  Saiga  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  fallow  deer,  me 
length  being  four  feet;  but  the  form  of  the  body  more  nearly 
resembles  that  of  the  sheep,  being  round  and  heavy,  mth  a  large 
head  and  short  slender  limbs,  and  the  whole  proportions  of  the  animal 
want  the  usual  grace  and  elegance  which  conmionly  characterise  the 
antelope  tribes.  The  nose  is  large,  swollen,  and  cartilaginous,  like 
that  of  the  elk ;  it  is  marked  above  by  deep  transverse  furrows  or 
wrinkles,  and,  from  its  great  size  and  protuberance,  compels  the 
animal  to  go  backwards  whilBt  feeding.  The  nostrils  are  laige  and 
open ;  the  ears  of  a  moderate  size ;  the  tail  from  three  to  four  inches  in 
length;  and  the  lachrymal  sinuses  much  smaller  than  in  .the  Indian 
Antelope.  The  hair  is  imiformly  long  and  flowing  over  the  whole 
body,  of  a  grayish  yellow  colour  in  summer,  and  grayish  white  in 
winter  on  uie  upper  parts,  and  white  beneath  at  all  seasons;  the 
knees  are  furnished  with  small  brushes.  The  horns  of  the  male  are 
longer  than  the  head,  they  are  semi-transparent  and  of  a  light  yellow 
colour,  which  causes  them  to  be  much  sought  after  by  the  Russians 
and  Chinese  for  the  purpose  of  making  combs,  lanterns,  and  other 
articles  of  domestic  economy ;  their  form  is  intermediate  between  that 
of  the  spiral-homed  and  lyrated  groups,  being  distinctly  twisted  upon 
their  axis,  though  without  exhibiting  the  complete  spiral  threads 
which  characterise  the  horns  of  the  Indian  Antelope. 

The  Saiga  is  mentioned  by  Strabo  (vii,  312.  ed.  Casaub.)  under 
the  name  of  colus  {k6\o$).  The  Polish  name  of  the  animal,  SulaJs, 
appears  to  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  name  in  Strabo.  The  Tartars 
oaU  it  Ahkak  and  the  Turks  Akim,  which  come  so  near  to  the  Hebrew 
vrord Akko,  translated  'wild  goat'  in  our  English  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, that  we  cannot  help  suspecting  that  the  sacred  writers  allud«l 
to  this  animal  In  autunm  the  Saigas  unite  into  lazge  flocks,  com- 
posed sometimes  of  many  thousand  individuals,  and  migrate  southward 
m  search  of  a  milder  climate  and  more  abimdant  pasturage ;  they 
return  northward  in  small  families  about  the  conmLoncement  or  middle 
of  spring,  and  generally  keep  about  the  vicinity  of  lakes  and  rivers, 
as  they  drink  a  great  deal,  and,  as  we  are  credibly  assured,  by  sucking 
the  water  through  their  large  open  nostrils.  This  last  fact  is  also 
stated  by  Strabo.  They  like  to  feed  upon  acrid,  saline,  and  aromatic 
plants,  and  grow  very  fat  during  the  summer  season ;  but  their  flesh 
acquires  a  disagreeable  taste  from  the  nature  of  their  food,  and  must 
be  allowed  to  cool  after  cooking  before  it  is  fit  to  be  eaten.  The 
females  are  gravid  about  six  months,  from  the  end  of  November  to 
the  end  of  May ;  they  drop  their  kids  soon  after  they  return  north- 
ward in  the  spring,  and  commonly  produce  one,  rarely  two,  at  a  birth. 
They  inhabit  the  open  steppes  and  deserts  from  the  Danube  to  the 
Irtish  eastward,  and  as  far  north  as  54"*  of  N.  latitude ;  and  are 
found  in  Poland,  Moldavia,  about  the  Caucasus,  and  the  Caspian  Sea, 
in  Siberia,  and  in  Northern  Persia.  Their  eye-sight  is  said  to  be 
defective  from  the  reflection  of  the  dry  arid  plains  upon  which  they 
mostly  reiiide ;  and,  though  amazingly  swift  for  a  short  distance,  they 
are  soon  exhausted,  and  easily  run  down.  They  are  hunted  principally 
for  the  sake  of  their  horns  and  skins,  the  latter  of  which,  particularly 
those  of  the  kids,  are  much  valued  for  the  manufacture  of  gloves. 
The  himters  muEt  always  take  care  to  approach  them  against  the 
wind,  as  their  sense  of  smell  is  remarkably  acute.  With  all  these 
precautions  it  is  often  impossible  to  get  witliin  shot  of  these  animals, 
as,  like  many  other  gregarious  species  of  antelope,  they  take  care, 
whilst  feeding  or  reposing,  to  place  sentinels  in  different  directions 
round  their  encampment  to  warn  them  of  the  approach  of  danger. 
Pamtholops. 

The  horns  are  elongate,  lyrate ;  tiie  nose  (of  the  males  ?)  has  a 
dilated  pouch  on  each  side ;  the  crumen  is  distinct ;  the  hair  dose, 
erect,  and  spreading ;  the  nose-opening  in  the  skull  is  large. 

2.  Pantholops  Bodgsonii  {Antilope  Hodgsoni,  Abel),  Uie  Chiru,  is 
believed  to  be  the  Unicom  of  the  Bhotias,  and  supposed  by  Colonel 
Smith  to  be  the  animal  which  iElian  describes  imder  the  name  of 
Kemas,  (see  also  Homer,  'Iliad,'  x.  861.)  an  opinion  founded  upon 
very  sUght  and  not  easily  tenable  grounds.  The  whole  length  of  this 
animal,  from  the  muz^e  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  is  about  5  feet,  its 
height  3  feet ;  the  tail  is  8  inohes  long ;  the  head,  from  the  nose  to 
the  root  of  the  horns,  9  inches;  the  ears  4  iwiim,  «nd  the  )ioms 
measured  along  the  curves,  upwai^  of  %  feet  The  horns  grpw  upright 


from  the  skull,  are  strongly  compressed  on  the  sides,  bent  slightly 
backwards  at  first,  and  afterwards  point  gradually  forwards,  thus 
assuming  a  lyrate  form,  but  less  stonily  marked  thsoi  in  the  common 
gazelle ;  they  are  surrounded,  to  within  6  inches  of  the  points,  with 
&om  15  to  20  annuli,  forming  prominent  knobs  in  front,  but  more 
obscure  on  the  sides  and  rear ;  the  last  6  inches  are  smooth  and 
round,  and  the  points  rather  attenuated.  The  legs  are  long  and 
slender ;  but  the  symmetry  of  the  head  is  destroyed  by  two  large 
fleshy  tumours  about  half  the  size  of  a  hen*s  egg,  which  grow  dose  to 
the  outer  margins  of  the  nostrils,  as  well  as  by  a  profusion  of  brisUy 
hair  which  surroimds  the  mouth  and  nose.  The  body  is  furnished 
with  two  different  kinds  of  hair,  a  long  external  coat  of  the  usual 
quality,  and  a  short  interior  one  of  fine  dose  wooL  The  prevalent 
colour  of  the  latter  is  uniform  grayish  blue,  and  the  outer  coat  is 
likewise  of  the  same  colour  at  the  base,  but  it  is  tipped  with  reddish 
fawn,  and  thus  gives  the  whole  of  the  upper  parts  a  tawny  hue, 
through  which  the  lower  tinge  is  but  &intly  visible.  The  belly  and 
interior  of  the  limbs  are  white,  the  nose  and  face  black,  and  a  dork 
brown  band  passes  down  the  front  of  each  leg. 

*The  Chiru,  according  to  the  information  obtained  by  Mr.  Hodgson, 
inhabits  the  elevated  plains  of  Tibet^  but  never  approaches  the 
mountains,  and  is  altogether  unknown  on  the  Indian  side  of  ^  the  great 
Himalayan  chain.  It  is  gregarious,  residing  in  herds 'of  many 
hundreds  on  the  open  plains,  extremely  shy  and  difficult  to  approach^ 
posting  sentinels  in  all  directions  where  the  herd  feeds  or  reposes,  and 
flying  with  astonishing  velodty  on  the  first  alarm,  or  intimation  of 
danger.  When  brought  to  bay,  however,  the  males  defend  themselves 
with  courage,  and  in  confinement  are  sometimes  mischievous, .  and 
should  be  tdways  approached  with  a  considerable  degree  of  caution. 
They  are  very  jealous  and  pugnacious,  and  in  their  contests  often 
breaik  off  one  of  their  long  horns — hence  the  belief  in  their  being 
Unicorns.  Like  most  oth^  Ruminants,  they  are  extremely  fond  of 
salt,  and  during  the  summer  months  unite  in  large  herds  to  visit  the 
beds  of  this  mineral,  which  abound  throughout  Tibet,  advancing 
under  the  guidance  of  an  experienced  leader,  and  as  usual  posting 
sentinels  to  prevent  surprise^ 

Procapra, 

The  horns  are  lyrate,  strong,  and  black ;  the  tail  is  tapering;  the 
nose  simple,  as  in  Uie  sheep ;  the  muffle  and  crumen  absent ;  the  feet 
with  small  feet-pits ;  the  post-comeal  sinus  large ;  no  inguinal  pores; 
the  hair  dongated,  especially  above  the  head  and  neck ;  the  knees  not 
tufted ;  the  females  are  hornless ;  the  teats  two ;  the  male  has  rather 
a  large  nose-hole ;  no  suborbital  pitf),  but  very  large  slits ;  the  inter- 
maxHlary  bones  short 

3.  Procapra  gtUtwosa  {Antilope  gutturosa,  Pallas),  the  Dzeren,  the 
Hoang  Yang,  Whang  Yang,  or  Yellow  Goat  of  the  Chinese,  is  nearly 
H  feet  in  length,  and  2  feet  6  inches  high  at  the  shoulder ;  the  body 
also  is  large  and  corpulent,  and  the  legs  shorter  than  is  common  to  the 
Antelopes  in  general ;  the  horns  are  black,  lyrated,  and  marked  to  within 
a  short  distance  of  their  points  with  prominent  transverse  rings;  the 
suborbital  sinuses  are  small ;  the  larynx  large  and  salient^  forming; 
particularly  in  the  old  bucks,  a  prominent  lump  on  the  throat ;  upon 
the  prepuoe  of  the  same  sex  there  is  likewise  situated  a  bag  about  the 
size  of  a  hen's  egg,  which  contains  a  waxy  substance  similar  to  that 
produced  in  the  analogous  organ  of  the  musk  animal,  but  without  any 
kind  of  odour ;  the  tail  is  short,  and  the  knees  furnished  with  small 
bunches  of  hair,  but  scarcely  sufficiently  long  and  distinct  to  merit 
the  name  of  brushes ;  the  summer  coat  is  of  a  grayish  fiawn-oolour 
above,  and  white  beneath ;  that  of  winter  almost  entirdy  white,  being 
tinged  but  slightly  with  a  grayish  yellow  shade  on  the  back  and  sides. 
The  females  resemble  the  males  in  colour,  but  are  rather  of  smaller 
size,  and  without  horns ;  they  want  the  sac  on  the  abdomen,  and  have 
two  teats. 

The  Dzerens  inhabit  the  dry  arid  deserts  of  Central  Asia,  Tibet 
China,  and  Southern  Siberia,  particularly  the  great  desert  of  Gobi; 
and  prefer  the  most  sandy  and  stony  pliuns,  feeding  upon  such  scanty 
herbage  as  these  localities  supply,  and  avoiding  water,  to  which  they 
appear  to  entertain  a  marked  aversion.  They  are  remarkably  swift, 
take  prodigious  leaps,  and  when  fri^tened  will  occasionally  pass  over 
20  or  25  feet  at  a  single  bound  In  spring  and  smnmer  they  form  small 
families  which  live  apart  from  one  another,  but  in  the  beginning  of 
winter  they  tmite  into  large  flocks,  always  under  the  gmdance  of  an 
experienced  old  buck.  They  never  run,  even  when  pursued,  in  a  confused 
crowd,  but  form  single  files,  and  follow  dosdy  in  the  footsteps  of  their 
leader.  They  rarely  emit  any  voice.  When  taken  they  are  eamly  tamed, 
and  appear  to  have  rather  a  predilection  for  the  domestic  state,  often 
mixing  with  flocks  of  sheep,  and  approaching  human  habitations  during 
the  severity  of  the  winter  season.  Their  fledi  is  tender  and  well  tasted, 
and  they  are  a  favourite  object  of  chase  with  the  Moguls  and  Tartars. 
The  gestation  of  the  females  continues  from  Deoember  till  the  middle 
of  June,  and  they  produce  but  a  single  kid  at  a  birth,  whidi  grows 
slowly,  and  is  long  in  arriving  at  maturity.  During  the  first  year  the 
young  males  have  neither  horns  nor  apy  appearance  of  the  pro- 
tuberance on  the  throat  from  which  the  specific  qame  qf  gutfrnrosaJB 
derived ;  but  these  origans  are  gradually  moip9  and  more  davdoped  in 
proportion  as  the  ammal  advances  in  age,  tiU  at  Iftst,  ia  Ttfy  ^^ 
animals,  the  laryngal  protuberanoe  attains  the  dimfi^doiui  of  5  inefaes 
in  length  by  3  inches  in  breadth,  and  assumes  the  app^wnnofl  of  a 


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ANTILOPEiE. 


large  and  deformed  goitre.  The  females  differ  from  the  males  by  the 
abeenoe  of  this  protuberance  as  well  as  by  the  want  of  horns.  Qmelin 
denies  the  antipathy  to  water  which  Messerschmid  attributes  to  this 
BpecieSy  and  affirms  that  when  pursued  the  Dzerens  do  not  hesitate 
to  throw  themselves  into  the  first  river  they  meet  with,  and  that  they 
swim  remarkably  well  The  physical  nature  of  the  arid  sandy  plains 
which  they  frequent,  in  preference  to  all  other  situations,  may  pro- 
bably have  given  rise  to  this  presumed  antipathy  to  an  element  which 
ihey  seldom  encounter,  as  well  as  to  the  marked  antipathy  to  woody 
localitieB  likewise  attributed  to  them,  trees  and  rivers  bemg  equally 
unknown  in  the  indigenous  habitats  of  these  animals. 

4.  Procapra  picticoAtdOy  the  Ragoa,  or  Gba,  is  an  animal  described 
by  Mr.  Hodgson  as  an  inhabitant  of  Tibet.  It  has  brown  hair  with 
rufous  tips;  the  inside  of  the  ears  and  limbs  white ;  and  tail  black.  It 
is  perhaps  the  last  species  in  its  summer  coat. 

OaeeUck 
The  horns  black,  strong,  lyrate ;  the  face  conical,  tapering ;  the  nose 
IB  simple ;  the  females  have  smaller  horns ;  the  fur  is  short,  close- 
pressed;    the    skull    has    a 
suborbital     fissure,     and     a 
moderate  or  very  slight  fossa 
suddenly   pressed   in  before 
the  orbit. 

5.  OazeUa  Dorcas  {Antilope 
Dorcat,  Pallas),  the  Gkizelle, 
the  Algazel,  the  Corinne,  is 
3  feet  6  inches  in  length,  1 
foot  94  inches  high  at  the 
shoulder,  and  1  foot  IO4 
inches  at  the  croup;  the 
head  is  6  inches  long,  the 
horns  9 4,  the  ears  4|,  and 
the  tail,  with  its  terminating 
tufl,  8  inches.  The  horns 
of  the  old  male  are  sur- 
rounded by  13  or  14  promi- 
nent rings,  complete  and 
close  togeUier  at  the  base, 
more  distant,  oblique,  and 
interrupted  behind,  towards 
the  points,  the  last  inch  or 
inch  and  a  half  alone  being 
smooth  and  free  from  annuli ; 
they  rise  almost  immediately 

above  the  orbits,  are  black.  Group  of 

almost   cylindrical,    at    first 

bent  gentiy  backwards^  and  finally  forwards ;  in  the  females  they  ai^e 
much  smaller,  seldom  exceeding  the  ears  in  length,  surrounded  at 
the  base  with  a  few  obscure  wnnkles,  smooth  and  polished  through- 
out the  rest  of  their  extent,  straight  to  near  the  tips,  and  pointing 
inwards.  This  is  the  character  of  the  Corinne  of  Buffon,  which 
is  now  considered  by  the  best  zoologists  to  be  nothing  more  than 
the  female  of  this  species,  and  not  itself  a  distinct  species,  as 
was  formerly  supposed.    The  ears  of  the  Qazelle  are  long,  narrow, 


siderably  longer,  and  the  whole  form  lighter  and  more  elegant ;  the 
face  and  cheeks  are  reddish  fawn-colour,  aiid  the  nose  has  a  broad 
mark  of  a  dark-brown  colour,  approaching  to  black ;  on  each  side  of 
the  face,  passing  over  the  eyes  from  the  horns  down  to  the  nose,  there 
is  a  broad  white  stripe,  and  beneath  this,  from  the  anterior  canthus 
of  the  eye,  a  narrower  dark  stripe,  parallel  to  it  and  separating  it  from 
the  fawn-colour  of  the  cheeks ;  ^e  hind  part  of  the  head,  the  back 
of  the  ears,  neck,  shoulders,  back,  sides,  and  croup,  are  fulvous,  of 
different  shades  according  to  the  age  of  the  individual ;  all  the  under 
parts  are  wliite,  and  this  colour  is  separated  from  the  fulvous  of  the 
sides  by  a  broad  dark-brown  longitudinal  band  on  the  flanks;  the 
knees  are  furnished  with  brushes  of  dark  hair,  and  the  ears  are  filled 
internally  with  long  white  hair  arranged  in  three  longitudinal  striae. 

The  Oazelle  is  found  in  Egypt,  Bu-bary,  and  some  say  also  in  Asia 
Minor ;  but  it  is  very  questionable  whether  the  animal  of  the  Levant 
does  not  really  belong  to  a  different  species.  It  lives  in  large  troops 
upon  the  borders  of  the  Tell,  or  cultivated  country,  and  the  Sahara, 
or  desert.  When  pursued  it  flies  to  some  distance,  then  stops  to  gaze  a 

moment  at  the  hunters,  and 
again  renews  its  flight.  The 
flock,  when  attacked  collect- 
ively, disperse  in  all  directions, 
but  soon  unite;  and  when 
brought  to  bay  defend  them- 
selves with  coiirage  and  obeti- 
nacv,  uniting  in  a  close  circle, 
with  the  females  and  fawns 
in  the  centre,  and  presenting 
their  horns  at  all  points  to 
their  enemies;  yet,  notwith- 
standing their  courage,  they 
are  the  common  prey  of  the 
lion  and  panther,  and  are 
hunted  with  great  perseve- 
rance by  the  Arabs  and  Be- 
duins  of  the  desert  When 
taken  young,  they  are  easily 
domesticated,  and  soon  be- 
come familiar.  This  animal 
is  frequently  cut  upon  the 
monuments  of  Egypt  and 
Nubia. 

The  Kevel  of  Buflfon,  the 
Flat-Homed  Antelope  of  Pen- 
Gazelles,  nant,  the  AntUope  KeveUa  of 

Pallas,  have  been  described 
from  young  specimens  of.  this  species.  The  Ariel  {A  ntilope  AmbteOf 
Hemprich,  A.  Cuvieri  of  Ogil1;>y,  and  A,  leptoceroa  of  F.  Cuvier),  seems 
to  be  a  variety  only. 


The  Gazelle  [Gatella  Dor  eat), 

and  pointed;  the  eyes  large,  mild,  and  black;  and  the  tail  round, 
furnished  on  its  upper  surface  only  with  an  upright  ridge  of  stiff *black 
hair,  and  termina1»d  by  a  little  tuft  of  the  same  colour ;  the  size  of 
the  body  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  roebuck,  but  the  legs  are  con- 


Ariel  Oazelle  {Antilope  Arahica). 

6.  Q,  Isabdla,  the  Isabella  Gazelle,  has  been  separated  by  Dr.  J.  E. 
Gray  rom  the  last  species.     He  remarks  that  it  may  be  easily  known 


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ANTILOPEite. 


from  the  foregoine  by  the  eoftneiw  and  fineness  of  the  skin,  and  the 
lower  side-streak  being  of  the  same  colour  as  the  bock,  and  by  having 
no  dark  edge  to  the  anal  disk.   It  is  a  native  of  Egypt  and  Kordofiftn. 

7.  Q,  tubffuttwroia  {ArUilop€  subffuttvrosa,  Guldenstadt),  the  Ahu 
and  Jairou^  is  of  a  pale  brown  colour,  the  upper  part  of  the  sides  with  a 
broad  rather  paler  streak,  the  facenrtreak  indistinct ;  the  lower  part 
of  the  sides,  belly,  hinder  side  of  fore  and  front  side  of  hinder  limbs, 
and  anal  disk,  white ;  the  streak  on  the  haunches  dark  brown;  the  end 
of  the  tail  black.  It  inhabits  all  the  central  parts  of  Asia,  Persia, 
Daiiria,  the  country  around  Lake  Baikal,  and  from  the  eastern  limits 
of  Great  Bucharia  to  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont.  It  associates  with 
its  own  species  in  extensive  flocks,  frequents  the  open  imcovered 
plains  and  naked  hills  of  moderate  elevation,  and  feeds  principally 
upon  the  Abnnfhium  PorUicum,  The  flesh  is  much  esteemed,  and  of 
an  agreeable  taste. 

8.  0.  SoRmmeringii  {AntUape  Sommeringiif  Cretzschmar),  the 
AbyRsinian    Mohr     dLscovered    by    Cretzschmar    in    Abyssinia,    is 


high  at  the  shoulder,  and  2  feet  8  inches  at  the  croup ;  the  length  of 
the  head  from  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  horn  is  7  inches ;  that  of 
the  horn  94  inches  on  the  curve,  and  74  in  a  straight  line  ;  and  that 
of  the  tail  7  inches  without  the  terminal  tuft  The  hair  of  the  body 
is  sleek  and  of  moderate  length ;  on  the  head  and  face  it  is  very  short 
and  close,  except  about  the  root  of  the  horns,  where  it  is  slightly 
tufbeds  the  hair  of  the  limbs  is  also  short,  except  the  tufts  below  the 
knees,  which  are  long,  and  consist  of  a  mixture  of  dark  brown  and 
grey  hairs.    The  horns  are  thick  at  the  base,  and  annulated  with  11 


The  Abyssinian  Mohr  ((?.  Scemmeni.i/il), 

considerably  larger  than  the  species  of  Oazella  hitherto  described. 
The  horns  are  irregularly  lyrated,  bending  boldly  outwards  towards 
the  points,  and  then  suddenly  turning  inwards  towards  one  another, 
with  a  very  sharp  and  well-defined  ciirve;  annulated  with  15 
or  16  prominent  and  complete  rings,  which  reach  from  the  base 
to  the  inward  cmrature  within  about  2^  inches  of  the  points. 
The  colour  of  all  the  upper  parts  of  the  body,  the  neck,  shoulders, 
back,  croup,  sides  and  outward  faces  of  the  fore  arms  and  thighs, 
is  a  beautiful  clear  Isabel  or  yellowish-dun,  the  hair  being 
extremely  short,  and  appearing  almost  as  if  it  had  been  clipped 
or  shorn.  It  does  not  lie  close  and  smooth  upon  the  hide,  nor 
does  it  all  follow  the  same  direction,  as  in  the  generality  of  animals, 
but  is  disposed  in  innumerable  small  waves,  pointing  in  dificrent 
directions  as  if  it  had  been  regularly  shaded  and  parted  on  each  side, 
and  appearing  glossy  or  glazed  along  their  ridges  with  a  shining  dun 
shade,  more  or  less  intense  according  to  the  light  in  which  it  is 
observed.  All  the  under  parte  of  the  body  are  of  the  most  pure  and 
brilliant  white,  and  a  large  disk  of  the  same  colour  surrounds  the  tail, 
and  passes  over  the  rump  and  croup.  The  white  of  the  belly  also  is 
separated  frt>m  the  yellowish  dun  of  the  sides,  immediately,  without 
being  shaded  off.  The  tail  is  small  and  slender,  nearly  naked  at  the 
root,  and  furnished  at  the  extremity  with  a  tuft  of  mixed  brown  and 
^y  hairs.  The  outsides  of  the  legs  are  very  pale  fawn-colour,  the 
msides  white,  and  the  knee-brushes  white  and  fawn  mixed.  The  ears 
are  pretty  long  and  brown,  with  a  narrow  black  border  surrounding 
their  outer  edge.  The  face  is  dark  brown  in  some  specimens,  and 
pure  black  in  others,  uniform  towards  the  end  of  the  nose,  but 
curiously  mixed  with  wavy  red  on  the  forehead ;  on  each  side  of  this 
a  broad  white  band  passes  from  the  root  of  the  horns  over  the  eyes  to 
the  nose,  and  there  is  an  indication  of  a  small  black  one  from  the 
anterior  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  comer  of  the  mouth,  separating  this 
white  band  from  the  cheeks  and  sides  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  are 
uniform  fawn-colour.  The  horns  of  the  female  have  nearly  the  same 
curvature  as  those  of  the  male,  and  are  fully  as  long,  but  they  are 
much  more  slender,  and  have  not  such  prominent  annuli.  This  is  the 
only  external  difierence  observable  between  the  sexes.  This  antelope 
frequents  hills  of  moderate  ascent  and  elevation  in  the  eastern  pro- 
vinces of  Abyssinia,  and  is  said  to  live  in  pairs,  and  not  to  unite  mto 
lai^ge  flocks  like  the  Gazelle  and  Revel. 

9.  0.  Mohr  {Antilope  Mhorr,  Bennett),  the  Mohr  or  Mhorr,  is  4  feet 
2  inches  long  from  the  nose  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  2  feet  6  inches 


The  Mohr  {O,  Mohr), 

or  12  prominent  and  complete  rings,  which  occupy  about  two-thirda 
of  their  entire  length ;  they  are  round,  smooth,  and  attenuated  towards 
the  tips,  which  point  directly  forwards,  and  are  but  moderately  sharp. 
The  ears  are  narrow,  erect,  and  pointed ;  the  eyes  large,  dark,  and 
lively ;  and  the  tail  long,  naked  at  the  base,  and  furnished  at  the 
extremity  with  a  tuft  of  long  black  hair.    The  colour  of  aU  the 
upper  parts  of  the  bodyv  of  the  neck,  back,  shoulders,  sides,  fore-arma 
and  thighs,  as  well  as  of  the  whole  throat  except  a  square  spot  on  the 
laiynx,  is  a  deep  brownish-red ;  and  a  narrow  stnpe  of  the  same  colour 
is  continued  down  the  outer  face  of  the  legs,  both  anterior  and 
posterior,  from  the  shoulders  and  thighs  respectively  to  the  hoofs  and 
pasterns :  the  belly,  buttocks,  posterior  face  of  the  thighs  and  inner 
face  of  the  extremities  are  pure  white,  as  well  as  the  spot  on  the 
larynx  above  referred  to ;  and  this  colour,  after  spreading  round  the 
entire  region  of  the  tail,  is  continued  forwards  on  the  hip  in  a  poioted 
stripe  on  each  side,  about  half  way  between  the  croup  and  the  knee- 
joint,  and  reaching  nearly  over  the  whole  hip.     It  contrasts  strongly- 
with  the  surrounding  colour,  and  has  a  very  singular  effect     There 
is  no  dark  band  on  the  flanks,  the  light  colours  of  the  under  parts 
being  abruptly  separated  from  the  darker  shade  above  without  any 
blending  or  intermediate  colour.   The  head  and  cheeks  are  light  fitwn- 
colour,  intermixed,  in  front  of  the  horns,  with  dark  brown  and  gray 
hairs,  and  marked  below  the  opening  of  the  suborbital  sinuses  with  a 
small  dark  spot,  representing  the  black  band  which  passes  in  some 
other  species  of  the  last  division  frx>m  the  anterior  canthus  of  the  eye  to 
the  comer  of  the  mouth  :  the  whole  line  of  the  nose  and  chaffron  are 
likewise  dark  brown,  mixed  with  gray  in  old  specimens,  and  the  back 
of  the  ears  is  fawn-coloured,  tipped  with  black. 

It  is  a  native  of  Western  Africa.  The  species  is  not  found  in  the 
empire  of  ICarocco,  but  individuals  are  occasionally  brought  from  the 
opposite  confines  of  the  desert ;  the  animal  is  much  sought  after  by 
the  Arabs  on  account  of  producing  the  bezoar-stones  so  highly  valued 
in  eastern  medicine.  These  stones  are  commonly  called  in  Marocco, 
Baid-el-Mhorr,  or  Mhorr's  Eggs. 

The  Nanguer  {Antilope  damctf  Pallas)  was  originally  described  and 
figured  by  Buffon  from  materials  brought  by  Adanson  frx>m  Senegal ; 
since  that  time  the  animal  has  not  been  seen  by  any  naturalist^  and 
as  the  description  of  Buffon  is  imperfect,  doubt  may  be  entertained 
whether  it  be  not  in  reality  the  young  of  the  Mohr. 

10.  0.  rvficollis  (AfUUope  ruJicolliSf  H.  Smith),  the  Andra,  is  a 
beautiful  species  of  Eastern  Africa,  discovered  on  the  barren  wastes 
of  Nubia  by  Biippel,  and  in  Senaar  and  Dongola  by  Hemprich  and 
Ehrenbeig.  The  whole  length  of  this  species  is  5  feet  4  inches,  its 
height  at  the  shoulder  S  feet ;  the  length  of  the  head  is  8  inches,  that 
of  the  horns  124  inches,  and  that  of  the  tail  9  inches.  The  horns  are 
precisely  similar  to  those  of  the  Mohr  already  described,  as  are  like- 
wise the  general  form  and  proportions  of  the  body.  This  species  is 
gregarious,  and  resides  in  flocks  on  the  desert  between  Nubia,  Dongola, 
and  Eordofan. 

11.  (7.  ruffronSf  the  Korin,  is  of  a  bay-brown  colour,  the  sides  abov« 


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paler,  with  a  broad  dark  atreak  below ;  the  chest,  belly,  inside  of  the 
legs,  back  edge  of  tarsus,  and  underside  of  feet  and  anal-disk,  white ; 
the  fjEUM  bright  bay,  with  a  broad  white  side-streak.  Dr.^Ghray  says, 
"  The  Kevel  figured  by  M.  F.  Cuvier  well  represents  this  species. 
The  Corine  of  the  same  author,  also  from  Senegal,  well  represents  the 
young  animaL"  The  Corine  and  Kevel  of  Buffon  belong  to  Q,  Dorcas. 
Tragopi 

Has  shorty  black,  lyrate  horns ;  a  tapering  face ;  ovine  nose ;  no  muffle 
or  cnunen ;  the  fur  short,  pressed  down ;  the  sides  without  any  dark 
streak ;  the  knees  tufted ;  the  feet  with  large  feet-pits ;  the  ing^uinal 
pits  distinot.    The  female  has  slender  horns  and  two  teats. 

12.  TragopsBennetUi  {AnUlope  quadrieomis,  Blainville),  the  Chikara, 
Ravine-Deer,  Gbat  Antelope,  Kalsiepie,  or  Black-Tail,  is  of  a  bay-brown 
colour,  and  has  the  end  of  the  nose  and  tail  black ;  the  face  streaked ; 
chest,  belly,  and  inside  of  limbs,  white ;  the  feet  are  black  or  brown. 

The  Kalsiepie,  or  Black-Tail,  so  called  by  the  Mahrattas  on  account 
of  the  deep  black  colour  of  the  tail,  and  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  the  Qoat  Antelope  by  the  Europeans,  is  found  on  the  rocky  hills  of 
the  Deocan,  and,  accorcUng  to  the  report  of  Colonel  Sykee,  differs  &om 
many  other  antelopes  in  not  being  gregarious,  there  being  rarely  more 
than  three  or  four  found  together  in  the  same  company,  and  not 
un&equently  a  solitary  individual. 

Antidorcas 

Has  lyrate,  short,  black  horns ;  a  tapering  face ;  a  simple  nose ;  the 
crumen  moderate,  distinct.  On  the  back  it  has  an  extensive  white 
fold  or  streak ;  the  hair  is  pressed  dose ;  the  knees  are  not  tufted. 
The  female  has  small  horns,  but  the  number  of  its  teats  are  not  known. 

18.  ii.  Euchore  {Antilope  Euchorty  Forster),  the  Tsebe,  or  Spring-Boc, 
Prong-Boc,  or  Showy  Ooat,  is  perhaps  the  most  graceful  in  its  pro- 
portions, and  beautinilly  varied  in  its  colours,  of  all  the  antelope  tribe. 
Imagination  cannot  conceive  a  quadruped  more  light  and  airy  in  form, 
more  delicate  in  its  proportions,  or  whose  movements  are  executed 
with  more  natural  ease  and  grace,  than  the  Spring-Boc,  or,  as  the 
English  colonists  now  imiversally  denominate  it,  Spring-Buck.  In 
point  of  size  it  is  nearly  a  third  lazger  than  the  Dorcas.  The  horns  of 
the  Spring-Buck  are  rather  irregularly  lyrated,  like  those  of  the  species 
last  described ;  they  are  round,  black,  annulated  very  regularly  till 
within  a  short  distance  of  the  points,  spreading  first  backwards  and 
widely  outwards,  and  finally  turning  inwards,  and  with  an  almost 
imperceptible  twist  on  their  own  axis  backwards.  The  hair  is  long  on 
the  upper  parts  of  the  body,  particularly  on  the  back  and  croup,  but 
smooth,  sleek,  and  shining :  it  is  of  a  beautiful  light  cinnamon-colour 
on  the  shoulders,  neck,  back,  sides,  and  thighs ;  and  of  a  pure  snowy 
white  on  the  breast,  belly,  and  inner  sides  of  the  limbs,  these  two 
colours  being  separated  on  the  flanks  by  a  broad  longitudinal  band  of 
a  deep  vinous-red  colour,  larger  and  more  distinct  than  in  any  other 
species  of  Antelope.  The  whole  head,  face,  cheeks,  and  chin  are  white, 
with  a  broad  brown  band  on  each  side  from  the  eyes  to  the  comers  of 
the  mouth,  and  a  mark  of  the  same  colour  on  the  centre  of  the  face, 
commencing  in  a  narrow  point  on  the  muzzle,  and  enlarging  as  it 
proceeds  upwards  till  it  joins  the  reddish  fawn-colour  of  the  body  on 
the  crown  of  the  head.  The  eyes  are  large,  lively,  and  of  a  brown 
colour ;  the  ears  long,  small,  and  cylindrical  at  the  root,  then  widening 
in  the  middle,  and  ending  in  an  attenuated  point.  The  neck  is  long, 
slender,  and  slightly  compressed  on  the  sides ;  the  hoofs  are  small, 
black,  and  triangular ;  the  legs  remarkably  long  and  slender ;  and  the 
tail  small,  round,  and  naked,  except  a  ridge  of  stiff  black  hair  which 
fringes  it  along  the  upper  surface,  and  forms  a  small  tuft  at  the 
extremity.  But  the  most  remarkable  and  distinctive  character  of  this 
species  consists  in  two  longitudinal  foldings  or  duplications  of  the  skin 
on  the  croup,  which  commence  above  the  loins,  or  about  the  middle 
of  the  back,  and  run  in  a  straight  line  from  thence  to  the  tail  The 
interior  of  these  folds  is  lined  with  long  hair  of  9  or  10  inches  in  length, 
and  of  the  most  brilliant  and  snowy  whiteness ;  they  are  likewise 
under  the  complete  command  of  the  animal's  volition,  and  are  opened 
and  shut  at  pleasure.  When  closed,  which  they  always  are  when  the 
animal  is  at  rest,  their  lips  form  a  narrow  line  along  the  top  of  the 
loins  and  croup,  which,  bemg  covered  by  the  long  cinnamon-red  hair 
of  the  back  and  hips,  is  scarcely  distinguishable,  or  only  as  a  narrow 
white  streak;  but  when  the  animal  leaps  or  runs,  these  folds  are 
expanded,  and  form  a  broad  circular  mark  of  the  purest  white,  which 
extends  over  the  whole  croup  and  hips,  and  produces  a  most  remark- 
able and  pleasing  effect. 

The  Spring-Buck  is  so  called  from  its  remarkable  habit  of  jumping 
almost  perpendicularly  upwards,  apparently  without  any  other  motive 
than  for  its  own  amusements  It  resides,  in  almost  innumerable  flocks, 
on  the  dry  arid  plains  and  karroos  of  the  interior  of  South  Africa, 
seldom  i^proaching  the  inhabited  districts  of  the  colony,  unless  in 
seasons  of  peculiar  drought,  when  the  pools  and  pastures  of  the 
interior  are  dried  and  burnt  up  by  the  excessive  heat,  and  these 
animals  are  compelled  to  migrate  in  search  of  a  more  abundant 
supply.  On  these  occasions  they  are  said  to  unite  into  flocks  which 
often  consist  of  from  10,000  to  50,000  individuals,  spreading  over  the 
face  of  the  whole  country  like  a  swarm  of  locusts,  devouring  every 
vegetable  substance  that  they  meet  with,  and  scarcely  deviating  from 
their  direct  path  to  avoid  the  men  and  dogs  which  endeavour  to  turn 
them  into  another  direction.  These  vast  flocks,  according  to  Mr.  R. 
O.  Gumming,  will  continue  streaming  along  in  an  unbroken  compact 

KAT.  HMT.  DIV.  VOL.  I. 


phalanx  for  two  or  mo're  hours.  This  migration  is  called  at  the  Cape 
a  Trak  Bokken.  So  great  are  their  numbers  in  these  migrations  that 
those  which  happen  to  get  into  the  rear  of  the  troop  are  lean  and  half- 
starved  before  the  migration  is  concluded,  from  the  advanced  ranks 
cropping  the  scanty  pastures  almost  bare,  and  thus  leaving  them 
nearly  destitute  of  food ;  but  when  the  journey  is  concluded,  and  the 
taoop  begins  to  retrace  its  steps  northward,  tiiose  which  formed  the 
van  during  the  advance  are  necessarily  in  tiie  rear  returning,  soon  lose 
their  plump  condition,  and  are  in  their  turn  subjected  to  want  and 
starvation.  During  these  migrations  they  are  closely  followed  by  lions, 
panthers,  hysenas,  and  wUd  dogs,  which  destroy  great  numbers  of 
them.  There  is  perhaps  no  object  in  nature  finer  than  a  flock  of  these 
beautiful  antelopes  enlivening  the  dreary  brown  karroos  of  South 
Africa  with  their  graceful  motions;  now  leaping  perpendicularly 
upwards  to  the  height  of  six  or  seven  feet,  displaying  at  the  same 
time  the  snowy-white  marks  on  their  croups,  and  anon  flying  over  the 
desert  with  the  speed  of  a  whirlwind.  It  is  only  when  disturbed  or 
otherwise  excited  that  they  make  those  extraordinary  springs  from 
which  they  have  derived  their  name ;  nor  do  they  ever  display  the 
white  mark  on  their  rump  except  on  these  occasions.  They  are  said 
to  be  particularly  affected  by  the  change  of  the  weather,  and  are 
observed  to  leap  more  than  usual  before  the  setting  in  of  the  south 
wind,  which,  at  the  Cape  of  Gbod  Hope,  generally  betokens  stormy 
weather,  and  is  always  violent  and  tempestuous.  When  taken  young, 
the  Spring-Buck  is  easily  tamed,  and  soon  displays  all  the  petulance 
and  familiarity  of  the  Common  Goaty  butting  at  every  stranger  that 
approaches  it,  and  warding  off  stones  or  other  objects  thrown  at  it 
with  its  horns. 

jEpyceros 

Has  black  lyrate  horns,  elongate,  wide-spreading,  curved  outwards 
from  the  base,  then  backwards  and  upwards  at  the  tip ;  the  face  taper- 
ing ;  the  nose  simple ;  no  tear-bag ;  the  knees  not  tufted ;  the  feet  wi^ 
a  tuft  of  black  haur  near  the  pasterns ;  the  female  has  two  teats. 

14.  jE.  melampua  (ArUUope  melampus,  Lichtenstein),  the  Pallah,  or 
Rooye-Buck,  the  Betjuan  of  the  Kaffirs,  is  a  magnificent  species  oi 
South  Africa,  discovered  by  Professor  Lichtenstein  during  his  travels 
in  KafEraria,  and  since  foimd  in  the  Betchuana  country  oti  the  elevated 
plains  of  Latakoo,  by  Trutell,  Somerville,  and  Burchell.  It  is 
upwards  of  4^  feet  in  length  from  the  nose  to  the  origin  of  the  tail, 
and  3  feet  high  at  the  shoulder ;  the  horns  have  an  irregular  lyrate 
tendency,  bending  first  forwards  and  very  much  outwards,  then  with 
a  laige  circular  sweep  inwards,  and  finally  pointing  forward  again, 
approaching  within  three  inches  of  one  another  at  the  tips,  after  being 
nearly  a  foot  distant  in  the  middle :  they  are  about  20  inches  long 
in  adult  animals,  and  surrounded  for  two-thirds  of  their  length  with 
irregular  rings,  often  splitting  into  two,  and  forming  prominent  knobs 
on  the  front  of  the  honi,  but  frequently  obliterated,  and  always  less 
strongly  marked  on  the  sides,  which  are  slightly  compressed.  In  the 
beautiful  drawing  of  this  animal  given  in  Daniel's  '  African  Scenery,' 
the  horns  are  represented  with  an  imnatural  angular  bend,  which  has 
misled  many  describers,  and  caused  even  Colonel  Smith  to  describe 
them  as  forming  an  obtuse  angular  bend,  though  he  has  himself  given 
an  accurate  drawing  of  the  pair  which  we  have  here  described,  and 


The  Pallah  {JB.  melamput), 

which  certainly  exhibit  no  appearance  of  the  sudden  angle  attributed 
to  them ;  which  probably  arose  from  the  particular  position  in  which 
Mr.  Daniel's  figure  was  drawn.  The  horns  for  a  thini  of  their  length 
towards  the  points  are  black,  smooth,  and  polished.  The  head,  back, 
flanks,  and  outer  surface  of  the  legs  and  tail  are  of  a  deep  rufous 
oolour ;  the  lips,  eye-brows,  interior  of  the  ears,  breast,  belly,  interior 


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of  the  thighs  and  arms,  and  the  region  below  the  tail,  white ;  the 
back  is  marked  longitudinally  by  a  band  of  deep  whinitig  black,  which 
divides  on  the  croup,  and  passes  down  along  each  hip  in  the  form  of 
a  crescent^  separating  the  pure  white  of  the  buttocks  and  interior  of 
the  thighs  from  the  general  rufous  colour  of  the  upper  parts ;  the 
outside  of  the  knee  and  heel  are  likewise  marked  by  brilliant  black 
spots,  which  contrast  strongly  with  the  general  rust-colour  of  the 
extremities,  and  from  wh^  the  animal  derives  its  specific  name  of 
mdampus.  The  ears  are  T^y  long,  particularly  in  the  females,  which 
ore  without  horns,  and  of  a  smaller  size  than  the  males,  but  similar 
in  other  xespects ;  the  ears  are  covered  on  the  outside  with  short  red 
hair,  bordered  and  tipped  with  black,  and  the  knees  are  without 
brushes.  We  are  as  yet  very  imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  char 
racters  of  this  magnificent  species  of  antelope,  so  that  it  is  not  without 
considerable  doubt,  and  only  on  the  authority  of  Colonel  Smith,  that 
we  venture  to  include  it  in  the  present  group. 

The  Pallah  inhabits  Kaffraria  and  the  country  of  the  Bachapins  or 
Betchuanas,  never  descending  farther  south  than  the  Eoosges  valley 
in  the  one  <Urection  and  the  Kamhanni  Mountains  in  the  other.  They 
reside  on  the  open  plains  in  fEimilies  of  six  or  eight  individuals,  run 
with  amazing  swiftness,  and  occasionally  leap  like  the  Spring-Buck, 
which,  according  to  Mr.  Burchell,  they  much  resemble  in  their  general 
habits  and  manners.  They  are  extremely  numerous  on  the  elevated 
plains  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Latakoo,  and  constitute  a  favourite 
object  of  the  chase  with  the  natives,  as  their  flesh,  though  deficient  in 
fat,  is  well-tasted  and  wholesome.  Pallah  or  Pkaala  is  the  Bachapin 
name  of  the  animal ;  but  the  mixed  Hottentots,  who  travel  into  that 
country  from  the  Cape,  distinguish  it  by  the  Dutch  term  Booye-Boc  or 
Red-Buck,  on  accoimt  of  the  prevailing  colour  of  its  hair. 

Aniilope 

Has  elongate,  subspiral,  erect,  divei^ging  horns;  a  tapering  face;  a 
simple  nose;  a  large  crumen ;  the  male  with  a  small  suborbital  fissure, 
and  a  very  lai^e  suborbital  pit;  the  tubercles  and  median  grooves  of 
the  basi-ocoipital  bone  well  developed. 

16,  A.  Bezoartica  {A,  cervica/pra,  Pallas),  the  Sasin,  or  Common 
Antelope,  is  remarkable  for  the  form  and  beau^  of  its  horns,  which 
compose  a  spiral  of  two  or  more  turns,  according  to  the  age  of  the 
aninaaL    This  beautiful  animal  is,  when  full  grown,  about  4  feet  in 


The  Sasin,  or  Common  Antelope  {A,  oervieapra), 

length,  and  2  4  feet  high  at  the  shoulder ;  the  head,  measured  from  the 
nose  to  the  root  of  the  horn,  is  7  inches  long,  the  ears  54  inches,  and 
the  tail,  without  the  hair,  6  inches.  The  legs  are  long  and  delicate; 
the  body  round,  but  lights  and  well  formed;  the  head  small;  the  eye 
lai^,  lively,  and  expressive;  the' ears  long  and  cylindrical,  the  subor- 
bital sinus  particularly  developed,  and  in  continual  motion ;  and  the 
horns  forming  a  complete  spiral  of  two  or  three  turns,  wrinkled  at  the 
base,  distinctly  annu&ted  in  the  middle,  and  smooth  for  a  couple  of 
inches  next  the  points.  The  females,  and  young  males  for  the  first  three 
years  of  their  age,  are  of  a  uniform  tawny-brown  on  all  the  upper  parts 
of  the  body,  with  a  light  silvery  band  passing  longitudinally  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  hips,  about  six  inches  below  the  spine,  on  either  side ; 
the  breast,  belly,  and  interior  of  Uie  fore  arms  and  thighs  are  white; 
as  is  likewise  Uie  under  surface  of  the  tail,  which  is  rather  broad, 
and  furnished  with  a  small  tuft  of  black  hairs  at  the  extremity. 
After  their  third  year,  the  males  begin  to  assume  the  adult  colours  of 
their  sex,  and  gradually  darken  on  all  the  upper  parts  of  the  body, 
till  they  finally  become  almost  entirely  black  above  and  white  beneath; 
the  nose,  lip^  and  a  laige  oii^cle  roimd  each  eye  being  likewise  white, 
but  the  li^t  bands  of  the  sides  completely  obliterated.  The  hair  is 
uniformly  short  and  close  over  the  whole  head,  body,  and  extremities. 


except  on  the  knees,  which  are  furnished  with  tufts  of  loQg  bristki, 
forming  small  knee-brushes. 

The  Sa«ins  are  so  swift  that  it  is  useless  to  slip  greyhounds  aii» 
them;  as,  unless  taken  by  surprise,  which  their  extreme  precaution 
seldom  allows,  it  is  impossible  to  overtake  them,  and  exjMrience  hu 
convinced  the  Indian  sportsmen  that  the  dogs  are  more  likely  to  be 
injured  in  the  chase  than  the  game.  The  bounds  also  which  these 
animals  occasionally  take,  eitl^  for  their  own  amusement  or  over 
the  long  grass  when  pursued,  are  said  to  be  almost  incoDceiv»ble. 
Captain  Williamson,  in  his  splendid  woHl  on  the  'Wild  Sports  of  the 
East,'  assures  us  that  he  has  seen  an  old  buck  Antelope  lead  a  herd 
of  females  over  a  net  at  least  11  feet  high,  and  thai  they  frequentlj 
vault  to  the  height  of  12  or  13  feet»  and  pass  over  10  or  12  yaidfl  at  a 
single  bound.  They  reside  on  the  open  plains  of  India,  where  thej 
can  see  to  a  great  distance  in  every  direction,  live  in  laige  families  of 
from  5  or  10  to  50  or  60  grown  females  to  a  single  male,  and  when 
they  feed,  or  lie  down  to  ruminate,  detach  a  number  of  the  yonpg 
bucks  to  a  distance  of  200  or  800  yards  on  eveiy  side  to  watch  orer 
the  conmion  safety.  Nothing  escapes  the  notice  of  these  carefiil 
sentinels ;  every  bush  or  tuft  of  grass  that  might  be  suspected  to 
conceal  an  enemy  is  strictly  and  attentively  examined,  and  on  the 
first  alarm  the  whole  herd  betakes  itself  to  flight,  following  closely  in 
the  footsteps  of  the  old  buck,  and  is  soon  beyond  the  reach  of  pursuit. 
The  venison  is  dry  and  unsavoury,  and  being  held  in  small  esteem, 
consequently  holds  out  no  inducement  either  to  the  occasional  sports- 
man or  to  the  professional  Indian  hunter.  The  species  extends  over 
every  part  of  India,  from  the  borders  of  Persia  to  the  most  eastern 
parts  of  which  Europeans  have  any  distinct  knowledge.  It  is  found 
on  rocky  open  plains,  avoids  woody  localities  and  the  thick  cover  of 
the  forest ;  nor  is  there  any  certainty  of  its  existing  beyond  the  limits 
of  India,  though  many  zoologists,  from  Ray  to  Hamilton  Smith,  are  of 
opinion  that  it  likewise  inhabits  some  parts  of  Africa.  ^  The  fakirs  and 
dervishes  polish  the  horns,  and  form  them  into  a  kind  of  ofienave 
arms  by  uniting  them  at  the  base ;  these  they  wear  at  their  girdles 
instead  of  swords  and  daggers,  which  their  vows  and  religious  character 
prevent  them  from  using.. 

Tetracenu 

Has  the  muffle  large ;  the  crumen  large,  longitudinal ;  four  horps 
the  front  pair  very  shorty  placed  over  the  orbits,  the  hindmost,  which 
are  conical  and  straight  on  the  back  edge  of  frontal  bone.  The  akull 
is  like  that  of  CephalGphu,  with  the  nasal  bones  not  expanded.  The 
suborbital  foasa  laiTje,  shallow,  occupying  nearly  the  whole  of  the  cheek 
It  has  no  knee^tufts;  and  the  females  are  homlefls. 

16.  T,  quadricomU  {AntUope  quadricornis,  Blainville),  the  Choa- 
singha,  is  about  2  feet  9  inches  in  length  from  the  muzzle  to  the  root 
of  the  tail ;  the  tail  itself  is  6  inches  long,  and  the  height  at  the 
shoidder  about  1  foot  8  or  9  inches.  The  superior  or  common  horns 
are  about  8  inches  long,  smooth,  black,  pointed,  erect,  and  moderately 
divergent,  bending  very  slightly  forwards,  and  without  the  least 
indication  of  annulL  The  spurious  or  additional  pair  of  horns  are 
placed  in  front  of  these,  immediately  between  the  orbits,  and  consist 
of  diort,  erect,  blimt  stimips,  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
length,  14  inch  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  of  the  same  smooth 
and  black  appearance  as  the  real  horns.  The  head  is  74  inches  long,  the 
ears  4]  inches,  erect  and  pointed ;  the  general  colour  of  the  upper 
parts  is  imiform  bright  bay,  and  that  of  the  \mder  parts  silvery  white, 
more  or  less  mixed  with  sandy-coloured  hairs ;  the  lips  are  bordered 
with  black.  The  females  differ  from  the  males  by  the  absence  of 
horns,  and  likewise  by  being  of  a  lighter  colour,  which  character  is 
conspicuous  at  a  very  early  age,  and  continues  throughout  life. 

This  species,  as  well  as  ^agopt,  called  Chikara  by  the  Hindoos, 
is  common  in  all  the  wooded  parts  of  India,  particularly  in  Bengal, 
Bahar,  and  Orissa ;  it  is  monogamous,  and  Uves  in  pairs  in  the  forests 
and  thick  jungle,  being  exceedingly  wild  and  active,  and  rarely 
suffering  a  state  of  coidinement  inuess  taken  youxig.  During  the 
rutting  season  the  male  becomes  particularly  mischievous,  and  it  is 
then  dangerous  to  approach  him,  as  he  butts  at  everything  within  his 
reach »  the  female  produces  two  young  at  a  birth,  but  the  period  of 
gestation  has  not  been  recorded.  Baron  Cuvier  supposes,  and 
apparently  with  reason,  that  the  ancients  were  acquainted  with  this 
species,  and  that  the  Four-Homed  Oryx  of  uElian  refers  to  the 
modem  Chikara. 

17.  T.  lodetf  the  Rusty-Red  Chousingha,  is  an  Indian  species 
described  by  B.  H.  Hodgson,  Esq. 

18.  T.  paccervit,  the  Full-Homed  Chousingha,  is  another  Indian 
species. 

19.  T.  sulqitadricomututf  the  Jungliburka,  is  distinguished  by  its 
front  pair  of  horns  being  rudimentary  and  tubercular.  It  is  a  natire 
of  Bombay,  and  there  are  four  specimens,  two  male  and  two  female, 
in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum. 

Calotragus 
Has  the  muffle  lai^ ;  the  crumen  arched,  transverse ;  the  homa 
subulate,  elongate,  erect ;  the  hoofs  triangular,  flattish  beneath,  acute 
in  frt)nt ;  the  false  hoofs  small  or  none  ;  the  crown  of  the  head 
smooth ;  the  tail  very  short ;  the  ears  elongate ;  the  knees  not  tufted; 
the  females  hornless ;  the  teats  four. 

20.  C,  eampettrit  {AntUope  TVagulm,  Lichtenstein),  the  Stein-Boc 
is  one  of  the  most  graceful  and  olegant  of  the  antelope  tribe.    Ita 


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legB  are  longer  and  smaller  in  proportion  to  its  bulk  than  in  any  other 
species ;  its  body  is  compact  and  well  made ;  its  head  small,  pointed, 
and  ^ding  in  a  well-formed  naked  muzzle,  and  its  tail  reduced  to  a 
mere  tubercle,  scarcely  perceptible  among  the  long  hair  of  the  croup 
and  buttocks.  The  whole  length,  from  the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the 
tail,  is  about  8  feet  4'or  5  inches  ;  that  of  the  head,  from  the  muzzle 
to  the  base  of  the  horns,  i  inches,  and  from  the  same  point  to  the 
root  of  the  ear  6  inches,  the  tail  being  14  inch  long,  and  the  horns 

4  iQche&  The  height  at  the  shoulder  is  1  foot  7  inches,  and  at  the 
croup  1  foot  9  inches.  The  colouring  of  this  species  is  altogether 
peculiar,  and  alone  sufficient  to  distinguish  it  from  tdl  other  ruminants. 
In  general,  it  is  a  reddish  fawn-colour  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body ; 
but  this  seems  to  be  glazed  or  as  it  were  overlaid  on  the  shoulders, 
back,  sides,  and  hips,  with  a  light  dun  or  silvery-brown  hue,  arising 
from  the  hairs  in  these  situations  being  tipped  with  that  colour ;  the 
noee  and  legs  are  dark  brown,  the  br^st,  belly,  and  interior  of  the 
fore  arms  and  thighs  white ;  the  hair  of  the  forehead  is  long  and  of  a 
deep  red  colour,  and  a  remarkable  black  line  passes  from  the  root  of 
each  horn  backwards,  uniting  between  the  ears,  and  forming  an  obtuse 
angle  equally  as  conspicuous  in  the  hornless  females  as  in  die  homed 
males,  and  affording  an  excellent  criterion  by  which  to  distinguish 
the  species.  The  horns  of  the  male  are  small  and  roimd,  furnished 
at  the  roots  with  a  few  faintly  marked  wrinkles ;  but  smooth  and 
polished  throughout  the  greater  part  of  their  length,  and  ending  in 
extremely  sharp  points,  aunost  imperceptibly  bending  forwards.  The 
ears  are  extremelv  large  for  the  size  of  the  animal,  being  nearly  half 
as  long  again  as  the  horns,  and  broad  in  proportion.  But  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  character  of  the  species,  and  certainly  that  which 
most  definitely  distinguishes  it  from  all  the  other  ruminants  with 
which  it  is  at  all  likely  to  be  confounded,  though  it  has  hitherto 
escaped  the  notice  of  observers,  is  the  total  absence  of  spurious  hoofs, 
both  on  the  fore  and  hind  feet,  a  character  which  exists  also  in  the 
Prong-Buck,  and  which,  as  &r  as  we  are  aware,  no  other  ruminating 
animals  of  the  hollow-homed  family  possess. 

The  Stein-Boc  resides  in  pairs  on  the  stony  plains  and  mountain 
valleys  of  South  Africa,  not  however  frequenting  very  elevated  or 
rocky  localities,  as  its  colonial  name  of  Stein-Boc,  or  Stone-Buck,  would 
fieem  to  imply.  On  the  contrary,  it  prefers  the  dry  open  flats,  covered 
here  and  tnere,  it  is  true,  with  l&ige  rocks  and  boulder  stones,  but 
likewise  interspersed  with  clumps  of  stunted  bushes  and  underwood, 
which  furnish  it  with  oover.  This  is  the  general  character  of  the 
South  African  plains  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cape  Town,  as  well  as 
of  the  gorges  of  the  moderate  hills  and  mountains,  and  it  is  in  such 
situations  that  the  Stein-Boc  is  most  commonly  found.  This  animal 
is,  moreover,  remarkably  shy  and  timid,  runs  with  extraordinary 
swiftness,  and  when  pursued  will  frequently  bound  over  a  space  of 
12  or  15  feet  at  a  single  leap.  When  closely  pressed,  and  without  any 
further  means  or  power  of  escape,  it  will  hide  its  head  in  the  first 
hole  or  comer  it  happens  to  meet  with,  and  thus  patiently  resign  itself 
to  its  fate..  Thougn  it  cannot  be  called  a  rare  animal  at  the  Cape,  it 
is  nowhere  particularly  common,  being  muchi  hunted  on  account  of 
the  delicacy  of  its  flesh,  which  frimishes  excellent  venison,  and  great 
numbers  of  the  young  being  destroyed  by  eagles  and  other  birds  of 
prey.  Colonel  Smith  has  described  the  young  of  the  Stein-Boc  as  a 
different  species,  by  the  name  of  A,  rufetcena  ;  and  the  A.  pcdlida,  or 
A.  pedioiragut,  of  Afzelius,  appears  to  differ  in  no  respect  from  the 
adult  of  the  present  animal,  the  really  distinctive  characters  of  which 
have  been  hitherto  very  imperfectly  reported. 

21.  C.  mdanotit  (ArOihpe  tnelanatu,  Lichtenstein),  the  Grys-Boc 
is  a  species  closely  allied  to  the  Stein-Boc,  but  rather  lower  on  the 
legs  and  more  heavily  made.  The  whole  length  of  the  body  is  nearly 
3  feety  that  of  the  head,  from  the  muzzle  to  between  the  ears, 
6  inches ;  the  height  at  tiie  shoulder  is  1  foot  6|  inches,  and  at  the 
croup  1  foot  7i  inches ;  the  horns  are  2}  inches  long,  and  the  ears 

5  incnes.  The  head,  as  in  the  Stein-Boc,  contracts  suddenly  before 
the  eyes,  and  ends  in  a  pointed  muzzle ;  the  horns  are  situated  imme- 
diately above  the  orbits,  straight,  upright,  pointed,  and*  shining,  with 
two  or  three  small  anntdi  at  the  roots ;  the  ears  are  long,  wide,  and 
open ;  and  the  tail,  almost  tuberculous,  is  concealed  among  the  long 
hair  which  passes  backwards  over  the  hips.  The  hair  of  the  body 
is  uni-ivrBally  long,  particularly  on  the  hmd  quarters ;  on  the  head 
and  extremities  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  remarkably  short.  All  the 
upper  parts  are  of  a  deep  crimson  red  colour,  thinly  but  regularly 
intermixed  with  long  coarse  hairs  of  the  purest  white,  giving  the 
whole  animal  a  hoary  appearance,  expressed  by  its  colonial  name  of 
Qrys-Boc,  or  Qray-Buck,  and  forming  altogether  a  character  not  easily 
mistaken.  The  inferior  parts  are  uniform  light  sandy-brown  or  red, 
the  head  and  extremities  fawn-colour;  the  muzzle,  the  openings  of 
the  lachrymal  sinuses,  and  an  obscure  circle  about  the  eyes,  as  well  as 
a  mark  upon  the  occiput  of  some  specimens,  are  black,  as  are  likewise 
the  backs  of  the  ears,  which  are  nearly  naked,  vnth  a  few  very  short 
gray  hairs  thinly  scattered  over  them. 

The  habits  of  the  Grys-Boc  are  in  most  respects  similar  to  those  of 
ihe  Stein-Boc  It  lives  in  pairs  upon  the  plains,  never  unites  into 
troops  or  flocks,  and  conceals  itself  in  clumps  of  underwood,  whence 
it  is  not  ea^y  driven,  Iving  close  like  a  hare  in  her  form,  and  seldom 
moving  till  almost  titxlden  on.  It  is  common  in  most  parts  of  the 
colony  at  the  Cape,  and  being  less  swift  than  the  Stein-Boc  is  more 


easily  captured.  Its  venison  is  much  esteemed,  though,  like  the 
generality  of  antelopes,  destitute  of  fat. 
Scopophonu 
Has  the  muffle  small  and  bald ;  tear-bag  (crumen)  transverse ;  the 
horns  subulate,  elongate,  acute,  and  slightly  recurved  at  the  tips ;  the 
knees  largely  tufted ;  the  inguinal  pores  distinct  and  bearded ;  the  ears 
of  moderate  size,  with  a  naked  spot  on  the  outside  of  their  base ;  the 
hoofs  triangular,  and  false  hoofs  distinct. 

22.  8.  Ourehi  {AntUope  tcoparia^  Schreber),  the  Ourebi,  called 
Bleek-Boc,  or  Pale-Buck,  by  the  Dutch  colonists  at  the  Cape,  according 
to  Professor  Lichtenstein,  is  a  much  smaller  species  than  the  Nyl- 
Ghau,  and  differs  from  all  the  other  species  of  tne  present  section  by 
the  large  brushes  which,  in  common  with  many  other  antelopes,  it 
has  upon  the  upper  end  of  the  canons,  immediately  below  the  Knees, 
and  from  which  it  was  called  by  Schreber  A.  Mcoparia.  It  measures 
8  feet  8  inches  in  length  from  the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  the 
length  of  the  latter  is  8^  inches,  that  of  the  head  is  74  inches  from  the 
muzzle  to  the  root  of  the  horn ;  of  the  horns  themselves  51  inches ; 
and  of  the  ears  8}  inches.  The  height  at  the  shoulder  ui  1  foot 
10  inches,  at  the  croup  nearly  2  feet,  and  the  size  of  the  animal,  as 
well  as  its  general  form  and  propoztions,  are  nearly  those  of  the 
Roebuck,  only  that  the  head  is  longer  and  more  slender.  The  horns 
are  awl-shaped,  sharp,  slender,  nearly  straight,  and  bending  almost 
imperceptibly  to  the  front ;  they  are  surrounded  at  the  base  with  a 
few  obscure  wrinkles,  succeeded  by  five  or  six  well-defined  rings,  but 
are  smooth  and  black  throughout  the  greater  part  of  their  length,  and 
end  in  vpry  sharp  points.  The  general  colour  of  the  upper  parts  is  a 
uniformly  pale  yellowish-brown,  darker  in  some  individuals  than  in 
others ;  all  the'  under  parts,  as  well  as  the  chin,  lips,  and  a  longitudinal 
streak  over  the  eyes  in  the  form  of  eyebrows,  are  white,  and  this 
colour  likewise  spreads  over  the  posterior  sur&ce  of  the  hips.  The 
tail  is  covered  with  long  bushy  hair  of  a  jet  black  colour,  forming  a 
marked  and  prominent  contrast  with  the  white  of  the  buttocks ;  the 
ears  are  edged  with  a  narrow  border  of  dark  brown,  and  inmiediately 
beneath  their  opening  at  the  root  there  is  a  remarkable  bald  or  naked 
spot  of  an  oval  form  on  each  side  of  the  head. 

The  Ourebi  inhabits  the  open  plains  of  South  Africa,  and  without 
being  positively  gregarious,  is  fond  of  the  society  of  its  own  species. 
It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  eastern  districts  of  the  Cape  Colony  towards 
Kafiraria ;  and  its  flesh,  though  dry  and  destitute  of  fat,  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  best  venisons  of  the  country.  Great  numbers  of  these 
animals  are  found  on  the  plains  about  Zwartkops  Bay.  When  feeding 
they  straggle  confusedly  over  the  plain,  and  appear  to  be  in  company 
rather  accidentally  than  by  intention;  when  alarmed  also  they  do 
not  fly  together,  but  each  runs  off  by  itself  in  whatever  direction  it 
thinks  most  secure  from  danger  for  the  moment. 

23.  S,  moTUamis  {ArUUope  montana,  Riippell),  the  Gibari,  is  very 
like  the  former,  but  is  of  a  gray-brown  colour,  and  the  temporal  spot 
much  larger,  deeper,  more  distinct  and  bald,  botii  when  alive  and  in 
the  skin.  It  was  found  in  Abyssinia  by  Riippell,  and  tiie  late  Earl  of 
Derby  received  a  specimen  from  Gambia. 

Oreotragtu 
Has  the  muffle  large ;  the  crumen  arched  and  transverse ;  the  horns 
subulate,  elongated;  the  hoofs  squarish,  high,  compressed,  much  con- 
tracted, concave  beneath ;  the  false  hoofs  large,  blunt ;  the  crown  of 
the  head  smooth;  the  tail  very  short;  the  hair  thick,  goat-like, 
spread  out.    The  female  is  hornless,  and  has  two  teats. 

24.  0.  SdUcUrix  {Antilope  Oreotrcigttt,  Forster),  the  Eainsi  or 
Elippspringer,  is  an  Antelope  which  inhabits  the  most  barren  and 
inaccessible  mountains  of  the  Cape,  and  appears  to  supply  in  South 
Africa  the  place  of  the  Chamois  and  Ibex.  The  entire  length  of  this 
animal,  from  the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  is  8  feet  2  inches,  its 
height  21  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and  about  an  inch  more  at  the 
croup ;  the  horns  are  8  4  inches  long,  the  ears  H  inches,  and  the  tail  8 
inches.  The  head  is  short  and  small,  compressed  on  the  sides,  and  sud- 
denly contracted  immediately  in  front  of  the  orbits,  ending  in  a  small, 
round,  naked,  black  muzzle;  the  lachrymal  sinuses  open  by  a 
moderately-sized  circular  aperture ;  the  horns  of  the  male  are  per- 
fectly straight  and  smooth  throughout  the  greater  part  of  their 
len^h,  having  three  or  four  small  but  distinct  annuli  surrounding 
their  roots ;  the  ears  are  large,  open,  and  rounded  at  the  points ;  the 
eyes  large  and  dark;  and  the  tail  appearing  extemally  only  by  a 
brush  of  hair  which  clothes  it  There  are  neither  inguinal  pores  nor 
knee-brushes,  but  in  place  of  the  latter  the  knees  of  some  specimens 
exhibit  a  naked  callous  patch,  probably  occasioned  by  rubbing  against 
the  rocks.  The  general  colour  of  the  animal  on  aU  the  upper  parts 
of  the  body  is  a  lively  and  pleasing  mixture  of  yellow  and  green, 
resulting  from  each  hair  being  individually  surrounded  by  alternate 
rings  of  these  two  colours ;  the  under  parts  of  the  body  are  light 
sandy-red,  tinged  with  yellow  :  the  interior  of  the  ears  is  filled  with 
long  white  hair,  a  narrow  black  border  surrounds  their  edges,  and  the 
eyes  are  encircled  by  ike  same  colour.  The  hair  of  the  body  is  long, 
padded,  and  stands  perpendicularly  out  from  the  hide ;  that  of  the 
head  and  extremities  is  shorter,  and  lies  in  the  usual  direction;  in 
quality  the  latter  also  resembles  the  hair  of  common  animals,  but  the 
texture  of  the  hair  which  covers  all  the  upper  surface  of  the  body  and 
neck  is  altogether  peculiar,  being  similar  to  that  of  the  Prong-Buck 
already  described.    It  is  round  and  hollow  internally,  and  so  fragile 


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thaii  it  breaks  with  the  slightest  touch,  crushing  like  straw  when 
pressed  between  the  fingers,  and  so  deficient  in  elasticity  that  it  never 
regains  its  original  form.  The  tail  is  covered  with  a  small  bush  of 
hair  of  the  same  description,  but  so  short  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible 
among  the  long  hair  of  the  hips.  The  legs  are  more  robust  than 
in  most  other  species  of  Antelope ;  and  the  hoofs,  instead  of  being 
pointed  and  flat  beneath,  are  peHecUy  round  and  cylindrical,  being 
worn  only  at  the  tips,  upon  which  alone  the  animal  treads.  This 
peculiarity  of  structure  in  the  hoof,  and  the  nged  form  of  the  postem- 
joints,  which  are  perfectly  stiff,  and  in  a  straight  line  with  the  canons, 
account  for  the  amazing  agility  which  the  Klippspringer  displays  in 
bounding  among  the  most  dangerous  rocks  and  precipices. 

The  peculiar  habitat  of  this  species  makes  it  impossible  to  hunt  it 
with  dogs,  but  it  is  easily  shot  as  it  exposes  itself  upon  the  naked 
rocks ;  and  great  numbers  of  the  young  are  destroyed  by  eagles  and 
.  other  birds  of  prey  which  inhabit  the  same  localities.  In  consequence 
of  this  the  animal  is  by  no  means  common,  and  ia  becoming  every 
day  more  scarce  in  situations  where  it  most  abounded  formerly.  The 
excellence  of  its  venison  and  the  value  of  its  hair,  which  is  held  in 
great  estimation  for  stuffing  saddles  and  mattresses,  hold  out  a 
powerful  inducement  to  its  destruction. 
Netotra,giu 

Has  the  muffle  large  and  bald ;  the  crumen  large,  deep,  and  arched ; 
the  face  and  forehead  not  crested ;  the  ears  la^e ;  the  horns  nearly 
straight,  elongated,  strong,  many-ringed,  inctmibent,  nearly  parallel 
in  the  direction  of  the  facud  line ;  no  false  hoofs ;  the  tail  very  short; 
the  females  hornless. 

25.  N.  moschatus  is  the  only  species.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
island  of  Zanzibar.  It  was  first  described  by  Yon  Duben.  Iklale 
and  female  specimens  exist  in  the  Stockholm  Museum. 

Neotrcigua 
Has  no  muffle ;   the  nose  ovine ;  tibe  nostrils  dose  together ;  the 
crumen  roundish ;  the  horns  short,  conical,  and  recumboat ;  the  tail 
very  short ;  the  crown  crested ;  feniales  honilees. 

26.  N.  Saltiana  (AntUope  Saltiana,  Blamville),  the  Madoqua.  This 
is  perhaps  the  smallest  of  all  homed  animitla^  being  scarcely  the  size 
of  a  good  English  hare.  It  measures  2  feet  in  length  from  the  nose 
to  the  root  of  the  tail,  and  about  14  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder, 
the  height  at  the  croup  being  about  an  inch  more.  The  length  of  the 
head  from  the  nose  to  the  ear  is  5  inches,  that  of  the  horns  3 
inches;  the  ears  are  2}  inches  long,  and  the  tail  1^  Inch.  The  horns 
of  the  male  are  situated  in  the  plane  of  the  forehead ;  they  are  very 
sharD-pointed,  almost  insensibly  bent  outwards  and  forwards,  provided 
on  the  inner  anterior  margin  with  a  prominent  sharp  ridge,  which 
runs  from  the  base  to  within  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  l^e  points,  and 
annulated  for  about  two-thirds  of  iheir  length  from  i^e  roots.  The 
females  are  without  horns,  but  have,  in  common  with  the  males,  a 
tuft  of  long  stiff  hair  standing  upright  from  the  crown  of  the  head, 
and  forming  a  small  crest,  particularly  remarkable  in  the  females, 
from  their  not  being  furnished  with  horns ;  the  hair  on  all  other  parts 
of  the  body  is  short,  close,  and  smooth,  except  on  the  hind  side  of 
the  hips  and  thighs,  where  it  is  rather  longer,  and  radiates  outwards 
and  round  the  tail,  its  pure  white  colour  contrasting  agreeably  with 
the  colours  of  the  croup  and  thighs ;  the  face,  forehead,  and  legs,  as 
well  as  the  tuft  of  long  hair  between  the  horns,  are  of  a  bright  and 
deep  red,  as  are  likewise  the  backs  of  the  ears ;  the  neck,  shoulders, 
flanks,  rump,  and  outsides  of  the  thighs,  are  of  a  dear  gray  colour. 


The  Madoqtia  (JNT.  Saltiana), 

like  that  of  the  American  gray  squirrels,  each  hair  being  annulated 
with  alternate  rings  of  black  and  white ;  the  back,  from  the  shoulders 
to  the  nunp,  is  a  deep  reddish-brown  ;  and  the  breast,  belly,  interior 
of  the  fore  ftrms  and  thighs,  and  hinder  surface  of  the  hips,  of  the 


most  pure  unmixed  white,  forming  altogether  a  variety,  deainees, 
and  brilliancy  of  colouring  rardy  met  with  among  quadrupeds.  Th£ 
tail  is  very  shorty  being  in  fact  little  more  than  a  mere  stump ;  ^ 
ears  are  round  and  nearly  the  length  of  the  horns ;  the  hoofs  snudl, 
well-formed,  and,  like  the  horns,  of  a  deep  blade  colour ;  the  forehead 
is  perfectly  flat,  and  the  head  is  compressed  suddenly  bdow  the  eyes, 
and  tapers  to  a  small  and  attenuated  snout;  the  legs  are  long  in 
proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  so  small  that  they  scaioeij 
equal  the  little  finger  in  thickness. 

The  Madoqua  is  found  in  all  parts  of  Abyssinia,  where  it  vm 
originally  noticed  by  Bruce,  who  discovered  it  in  the  oountiy  about 
the  sources  of  the  Abai,  or  eastern  branch  of  the  Nile.  Mr.  Sah 
afterwards  procured  specimens  in  the  motmtains  of  Tigr^  and  seat 
the  horns  and  legs  to  the  British  Museum,  where  they  were  obaerred 
by  De  Blainville,  and  described  imder  the  specific  name  of  AutUcfc 
SaUiana,  in  compliment  to  the  distinguished  traveller  who  proeared 
theuL  More  recently  complete  specimens  have  been  brought  to 
Europe  by  Riippell,  and  Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg;  and  the  spedm 
has  been  well  described  and  beautifully  figured  botn  by  these  tnTel- 
lers  and  in  the  'Darstellung  Neuer  oder  Wenig-Bekaunter  Saugetkiere' 
of  Professor  Lichtenstein.  Little  ia  known  regarding  the  habiti  of 
this  spedes.  It  is  said  to  live  in  pairs  in  mountainous  districts ;  aod 
Pearce  informs  us  that  many  of  the  Abyssinians  object  to-  eat  its  fleih, 
from  a  superstitious  belief  of  its  being  often  found  in  the  sodetj  ol 
monkeys  and  baboons. 

CephcUopkut 

Has  a  large  muffle ;  the  tear-bag  absent,  but  it  is  replaced  by  a 
naked  glandular  line  formed  of  two  series  of  pores  on  the  side  of  Uie 
cheek;  the  crown  crested,  forming  a  tuft  between  the  horns;  the 
horns  shorty  conical,  placed  fiur  back  on  the  hinder  edge  of  the 
frontal  bone,  and  inclined  backwards.  This  genus  contains  sevenl 
species. 

27.  (7.  qtiodriscopa  (^ArUilope  quadriteopa,  Hamilton  Smith),  the 
Four-Tufted  Antdope,  is  known  only  from  Colond  Smith's  descziptioii 
and  figure  of  a  male  specimen  formerly  exhibited  at  Exeter  ChaDge. 
The  individual  from  which  Colond  Smith's  description  was  taken 
was  brought  from  Senegal 

28.  C.  Grimmia  {AnUlope  Grimmia,  Desmarest),  the  Impoon,  Duyker, 
or  Duyker-Boc,  is  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour,  and  grayish  in  winter. 
The  hair  is  yellowish,  with  black  tipa  The  forehead  yellowiah-bay; 
the  inside  of  the  ears,  chin,  throat,  abdomen, .  indde  of  fore  and 
hind  legs,  and  under  side  of  tail,  white ;  the  feet^  streak  on  the  no« 
and  up  the  legs,  and  upper  part  of  the  tail,  black ;  the  ears  dong&t^i, 
nearly  as  long  as  the  head,  acute ;  the  horns  blade,  elongated, sl^er; 
the  base  rugose,  subangular  in  front ;  the  skull  small  and  shorts 

The  Duyker-Boc,  or  Diving-Gk>aty  so  called  by  the  Daxch  of  South 
Africa  from  its  habit  of  plunging  under  the  bushes  in  its  passage 
through  the  woods,  instead  of  leaping  over  them  like  the  generality 
of  other  Antdopes,  is  a  oommon  animal  in  Kaffiraria  and  in  all  paits 
of  the  Cape  Colony  which  abound  in  forest  and  underwood,  from  the 
cover  of  which  it  sddqm  ventures,  unless  occasionally  at  night  to 
steal  into  a  neighbouring  garden.  It  is  found  alone  or  in  pain, 
makes  its  way  readily  among  the  thickets  and  low  buahes,  and  when 
pursued  will  from  time  to  time  stand  up  on  its  hind  legs  to  look 
round  it,  then  dive  under  the  branches  to  reappear  again  at  some 
distance ;  and  thus  altematdy  continuing  its  flight,  and  standing  up  at 
intervak  to  watch  the  motions  of  its  pursuers.  The  peculiar  natore 
of  the  humour  secreted  by  the  maxillary  glands  of  this  animal  hai 
given  origin  to  a  common  saying  among  the  Dutch  colonists,  that  it 
carries  the  gall-bladder  imder  the  eyes.  This  spedee  is  most  probaUy 
the  animal  of  which  the  female  was  long  since  impeifectiy  described 
by  Qrimm,  and  which  has  been  admitted  into  syrtematic  catdogues 
under  the  name  of  AntUope  Cfrimmia.  The  A,  PlaUmt  of  Colonel 
Smith  likewise  appears  to  be  identical  with,  or  at  most  a  casiul 
variety  of  the  Duyker-Boc,  the  characters  upon  whidi  the  sepantioD 
is  made  being  by  no  means  constant^  and  some  of  them  even  of 
doubtful  authentidty.  The  Capita  tylvestris  (Africana  of  Orimm),  ia 
probably  this  species.  Fitomha  or  PhikUomba  appears  to  be  the 
Kaffrarian  name  for  all  the  Bush  Antelopes  or  spedes  of  Ctpkalopi 

29.  O.  Oampbellia  (AfUilope  Campbdlice,  Gray),  the  Black-Faced 
Philantomba.  This  species  diflers  from  the  Duyxer  bv  being  jnnch 
darker  and  more  distinctly  grisled  or  dotted,  and  the  undo  side 
being  much  whiter.  It  is  posdble  that  it  is  only  a  variety  of  that 
spedes. 

80.  a  BurchdUi  (AntUope  Burc^dLii,  Smith),  Burchell's  Buah-Boc. 
This  species  is  easily  known  from  the  two  former  by  its  daiker  colour, 
and  by  the  under  ddes  and  indde  of  the  legs  beins  nearly  of  the 
same  colour  as  the  back,  and  not  white ;  and  ako  by  me  shortness  of 
the  intermaxiUaxy  bones,  and  the  width  of  the  nose-hole.  It  inhabits 
the  districts  more  or  less  covered  with  imderwood  in  Eaffirland,  and 
the  country  north  of  the  Orange  River.  When  interrupted  or  puiwied 
by  dogs,  it  springs  with  considerable  activity  over  such  bushes  as 
may  stand  in  its  course,  and  endeavours  to  plunge  into  the  closest 
budies  for  concealment. 

81.  C.  Mado^pM  (AntUope  Madoqua,  Riippell),  the  Abyssinian  Bush* 
Gk>at^  is  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour,  dightly  punctulated  with 
black;  the  neck  is  yellowish,  the  limbs  blacker;  the  fiacestreak  and 
feet  black;  the  hair  rather  close-pressed,  reddiah-gray  at  the  base; 


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Tipper  part  polished,  yeUow-brown,  with  dark  tips;  the  forehead  is 
reddish.  This  species  inhabits  Abyssinia^  and  is  the  Madoqua  of 
Bruce. 

32.  (7.  eartmaiut  {Sylvieapra  coronata,  Sundevall),  the  Red-Crowned 
Bush-Buck,  is  a  species  found  in  Western  Afnca,  and  is  very  distinct 
from  the  last^  its  colour  being,  lighter,  and  the  fur  less  rigid  and 
dose-pressed. 

33.  C.  9tflvicvUrix  {AntUope  $ylvicuUrix,  Afzelius),  the  White-Backed 
Bush-Buck,  the  Bush-Goat,  and  Bush-Antelope,  is  about  5  feet  in 
length  from  the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  8  feet  high  at  the 
shoulder,  and  8  feet  2  inches  at  the  croup :  the  head,  measured  from 
the  muole  to  the  base  of  the  horns,  is  upwards  of  10  inches  long, 
the  horns  and  ears  each  4  inches,  and  the  tail  with  the  hair  half  a 
foot  The  circumference  of  the  horns  at  the  base  is  8  inches,  and 
their  distance  at  the  points  5  inches;  they  grow  entirely  in  the 
direction  of  the  forehead ;  are  pointed,  black,  shining,  nearly  straight^ 
with  a  slight  inclination  backwards,  and  diverging  gradually  towards 
the  points.  For  about  half  an  inch  from  the  base  they  are  finely 
marked  with  a  munber  of  small  transverse  strise,  then  covered  for 
about  an  inch  with  little  depressions  and  inequalities,  and  smooth 
from  thenoe  to  the  points.  The  ears  are  situated  rather  close  to  the 
horns ;-  they  are  about  the  same  length  as  these  organs,  bread,  open, 
rounded  at  the  top,  and  nearly  nak^ ;  the  eye-lids  are  bordered  with 
thick  black  lashes;  the  tail  is  bushy  and  pendent;  the  buttocks  nearly 
naked;  the  limbs  short  and  slender;  the  knees  unprovided  wiu 
brushes ;  and  the  female  furnished  with  two  teats.  The  hair  is  in 
general  remarkably  short,  sleek,  and  shining,  of  a  deep  brown  colour, 
rather  paler  on  the  neck  and  flanks,  mixed  with  gray  on  the  thighs, 
almost  yellow  on  the  throat,  dim  on  the  cheeks  and  sides  of  the  jaws, 
dear  brown  on  the  face,  nose,  and  backs  of  the  ears,  and  chestnut- 
brown  on  the  legs  and  feet.  A  tuft  of  long  hair  surroimds  the  base  of 
the  horns,  and  along  the  middle  of  the  back  is  a  longitudinal  line 
of  silver^  gray  whicd^  expands  upon  the  croup,  and  is  provided  with 
hair  considerably  longer  than  that  on  the  rest  of  the  body.  The 
tail  is  black,  covered  with  moderately  long  hair,  and  without  a 
terminal  tuft 

The  proportions  of  this  species  are  heavy  and  ungainly,  and  bear  a 
considerable  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Hog-Deer  of  India.  The  legs 
are  short  and  slender,  and  appear  disproportioned  to  the  size  of  the 
body,  which  is  large  and  heavy ;  the  helstd,  too,  is  thick  and  dumsy, 
though  much  attenuated  towajrds  the  muzzle;  the  neck  short  and 
thick;  the  croup  depressed;  and  the  back  very  much  arched.  This 
■pedes  inhabits  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  about  Sierra  Leone,  and 
the  sources  of  the  Pongas  and  Quia  rivers.  It  frequents  the 
^ckets  and  underwood  of  the  upland  plains  and  moderate  mountain 
declivities,  keeping  close  to  the  cover  during  the'  day-time,  and 
quitting  it  only  at  early  dawn  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  in  the 
neighbouring  meadows.  It  is  at  this  time  that  it  is  pursued  by  the 
hunters,  who  station  themselves  on  the  margin  of  the  woods,  and 
shoot  it  as  it  comes  out  to  graze.  It  is  a  slow  heavy  ruimer,  as  might 
be  antidpated  from  the  size  and  corpulent  make  of  its  body,  and 
tiie  shortness  of  its  legs.  It  affords  excellent  venison,  and  is  much 
sought  after  on  that  account.  It  has  long  maxillary  glands,  but  no 
appearance  of  lachrymal  sinuses. 

84.  C.  OgWrii  (Aniilope  Ogilbif,  Waterhouse),  the  Bhusk-Striped 
Bush-Buck,  is  of  a  pale  bay-brown  colour,  with  a  deep  black  dorsal 
s^ieak,  pale  beneath ;  the  crown  and  haimches  brighter  bay ;  the 
neck,  withers,  and  side  of  the  dorsal  line  varied  with  deep  brown 
hairs ;  the  streak  up  the  fore  legs,  upper  part  of  hock,  feet  above  the 
hoofi^  and  end  of  the  tail,  black.  The  horns  are  short,  thick,  conical, 
very  rugose  on  the  inner  front  edge  of  the  base.  This  spedes  is  a 
native  of  Fernando  Po,  and  was  named  bv  Mr.  Waterhouse  after  Mr. 
Ogilby,  the  late  secretary  of  the  Zoological  Society,  and  the  author  of 
the  artide  *  Antelope '  in  the  *  Penny  C^clopsedia.' 

85.  C.  hadnu,  the  Bay  Bush-Buck,  is  very  like  the  last  species,  but 
is  of  a  darker  bay  colour;  the  legs  are  blackish ;  and  the  neck  bright 
bay,  and  not  blacldsh-bay  as  in  (7.  OgUbiL  It  is  a  native  of  Sierra 
Leone. 

36.  C.  dcntUis,  the  Bay  Bu8h-Gk)at>  is  of  a  dark-bay  colour,  with 
shoulders  and  legs  darker.  The  hair  is  brown,  a  few  hairs  on  the 
h&undies  tipped  with  white ;  the  crown  and  nape,  and  a  broad  dorsal 
stripe,  black;  a  spot  over  fOLch  eye,  the  lips,  sides  of  chin,  front  of 
cheat,  imder  side  of  tail,  and  inside  of  the  thighs,  pale  brown.  It  is  a 
native  of  Sierra  Leone. 

87.  C.  niger,ihe  Black  Bush-Buck,  is  a  native  of  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
distinguished  by  its  sooty-black  colour. 

88.  a  Nat4denns  {AniUope  Naialentit,  A.  Smith),  the  Natal  Bush- 
Buck,  or  Rhoode-Boc,  is  of  a  bright  red-bay  colour,  and  has  short 
conical  horns.  It  inhabits  the  forests  about  Port  Natal  and  the 
country  to  the  eastward,  living  in  the  thick  brushwood  which  fills  up 
the  intervals  of  the  larger  trees.  It  feeds  on  grass,  the  young  shoots 
of  trees,  and  Uie  delicate  twigs  of  smaller  shrubs.  It  occupies  the 
same  position  at  Natal  that  the  little  Blue  Antelope  does  at 
the  Cape. 

89.  C.ruJUatus  {AfUilope  GWmmiOy  H.  Smith),  the  Coquetoon,  is  of 
a  deep  reddish-bay  colour ;  the  legs,  nape,  streak  on  the  nose  to  the 
crown,  and  broad  streak  on  back,  blackish-gray ;  the  ears  blackish ; 
the  crest  and  upper  part  of  tail  black ;  the  cheeks  rather  paler ;  the 


inside  of  ears  whitish ;  the  horns  conical,  rather  elongated,  obscurely 
annulated,  and  slightly  recurved.  This  is  the  Qrimme  of  Buffon  and 
F.  Cuvier.     It  is  a  native  of  Western  Africa. 

40.  C.  Maxwellii  {ArUilope  Maxwellii,  H.  Smith,)  the  Ouevei,  is  of 
a  gray-brown  or  sooty-black  colour.  It  has  a  rather  rigid  fur,  and  the 
abdomen  and  front  of  the  thighs  white.  It  is  the  Guevei  of  Buffon, 
the  Royal  Antelope  and  Pigmy  Antelope  of  Pennant  and  ^law.  It  is 
a  native  of  Senegal  and  Ghunbia. 

41.  C.  pygmofaj  (AntUope  perpusillaf  H.  Smith),  the  Noumetzi,  Cape 
Guevei,  or  Kleene-Boc,  is  about  1  foot  high  at  the  shoulder ;  the  horns 
l{  inch  long  in  the  mide,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  the  female,  and 
the  tail  about  24  inches.  The  horns  are  small,  erect,  black,  slightly 
inclined  backwards  and  towards  one  another  at  the  points,  and  very 
sharp,  with  seven  or  eight  minute  annuli  at  the  base ;  the  ears  about 
the  same  length  as  the  horns,  perfectly  round  at  the  tips,  and  nearly 


Klcenc-Boc  [A.  perpunlUt), 

naked  within  ;  the  head  is  long  and  pointed  ;  the  maxillary  glands 
not  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  face,  but  nearly  in  the  same  line  with 
the  greater  axis  of  the  orbits,  or  rather  in  lines  parallel  to  them ;  the 
forehead  and  nose  are  brown,  bordered  on  each  side  by  a  narrow  line 
of  a  sandy-red  colour  passing  from  the  root  of  the  horns  down  to  the 
muzzle ;  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  are  of  a  uniform  dark  slaty- 
brown  colour ;  all  the  inferior  parts,  including  the  region  under  the 
chin,  the  breast,  belly,  interior  of  the  fore  arms  and  thighs,  and  under- 
surface  of  the  tail,  ashy-gray,  inclining  to  white  in  some  specimens, 
particularly  m  young  individuals ;  the  legs  are  reddish-brown ;  and  the 
hoofs  small,  narrow,  and  pointed. 

This  species,  called  by  the  Dutch  colonists  of  the  Cape  Eleene-Boc. 
Rleene  Blauw-Boc,  Blauw-Bokje,  all  signifyinglittle  Gk)at  or  Little  Blue 
Goaty  inhabits  South  Africa,  and  lives  singly  or  in  pairs  among  the 
bushes.  It  is  extremely  active,  and  of  a  mild  and  timid  disposition ; 
but  from  the  nature  of  the  thick  bushes  in  which  it  resides  is  not 
often  seen  even  in  those  diertiricts  where  it  abounds  most  plentifully. 
It  is  said  to  exhibit  considerable  sagacity  in  duding  pursuit,  and 
when  domesticated  soon  becomes  familiar,  and  learns  to  distingiush 
those  about  it,  and  to  answer  to  its  name.  This  species  is  also  the 
A,  (xertUea  of  Colonel  Smith  and  the  A.  pygjncea  of  M.  Desmarest,  who 
confounds  it  with  the  last  species. 

42.  0.  mdanorheuty  the  Black-Rumped  Guevei,  is  of  a  gray  colour, 
with  the  rump  and  upper  part  of  the  back  of  a  black  colour.  It  is  a 
native  of  Fernando  Po. 

43.  C.  punctulattu,  the  Grided  Guevei,  is  a  native  of  Sierra  Leone, 
and  is  of  a  dark  fulvous-brown  colour. 

44.  C.  Whitfieldii,  the  White-Footed  Guevei,  is  of  a  yellowish  ash 
colour ;  the  streak  over,  the  eyes,  cheeks,  throat,  belly,  indde  of  the 
limbs,  and  ring  round  the  feet  above  the  hoofs,  ashy  white.  It  is  a 
native  of  Western  Africa. 

Nanotragui 
Has  very  short  conical  horns ;  smfd^  roimded  ears ;  slender  legs ;  a 
subpectinate  tail,  and  small  triangular  hoofs. 

45.  N.  perpugillua  (Capra  perputillOf  Linnseus),  the  Royal  Antelopei, 
the  Guinea  Musk,  and  Pigmy  Musk,  is  a  native  of  Guinea.  It  is  of  a 
fulvous  colour,  and  has  tiie  throaty  belly,  edge  of  the  thigh,  and  tip 
of  its  tail,  white. 

Pelea 
Has  conical,  erect^  scaroely  diverging  horns,  bent  forward  at  the 
tips ;  the  face  narrow  and  elongated ;  the  nose  swollen ;  the  muffle 
lai^ge,  extended  far  behind  the  nostrils;  the  fur  soft  and  woolly;  the 
hoofs  and  false  hoofii  rather  large ;  the  ingiiinal  pores  distinct ;  the 
teats  four. 

46.  P.  capreola  (AntUope  capreolut,  Liditenstein),  the  Reh-Boo 


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or  Peele,  ia  nearly  6  feet  in  length,  and  2i  feet  high  at  the  ahoulder; 
the  head  is  6  inches  long  from  the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the 
homB ;  the  ears  and  tail,  without  the  hair,  about  the  same  length ; 
and  the  horns  of  the  old  male  from  9  to  12  inches.  The  head  is 
long,  and  tapers  gradually  to  the  muzzle,  which  is  small,  round, 
and  of  a  black  colour ;  the  horns  are  perfectly  smooth  and  without 
any  appearance  of  wrinkles  or  annuli  for  the  two-thirds  of  their 
length  next  the  points,  but  exhibit  a  few  obscure  wrinkles  at  the 
base ;  they  are  remarkably  slender,  long,  straight,  parallel,  and  so 
■harp  at  the  points  that  the  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  use  them  in 
place  of  needles  and  bodkins ;  the  ears  also  are  long,  very  broad  at 
the  base,  and  attenuated  towards  the  points ;  the  tail  long  and  bushy ; 
the  hair,  or  rather  fur,  is  of  a  woolly  quality,  and  of  a  uniform  ash 
colour  on  the  neck,  shoulders,  sides,  croup,  and  thighs,  and  white  or 
light  gray  on  the  breast,  belly,  and  inner  side  of  the  arms  and  thighs. 
In  yoimg  individuals  it  is  beautifully  frizzled  or  curled  into  distinct 
locks,  and  its  colour  is  much  clearer  than  in  the  adults,  which  have  it 
straight,  loose,  and  often  tinged  with  a  sandy-brown  hue  on  the  upper 
parts  of  the  body.  The  hair  of  the  legs  in  the  young  animal  is  like- 
wise long  and  curly  like  that  of  a  yoimg  lamb,  but  in  aged  specimens 
the  legs  are  covered  with  short  close  hair  of  the  common  quality,  and 
frequently  with  more  or  less  of  a  dark  brown  colour.  The  hair  of  the 
head,  face,  and  cheeks  is  always  short,  crisp,  and  close ;  it  is  brown 
on  the  nose,  light  fawn  on  the  forehead  and  cheeks,  and  white  about 
the  margins  of  the  lips  and  underneath  the  chin ;  the  tail  is  slaty- 
gray  above,  and  white  below,  and  at  the  tip ;  and  there  is  a  con- 
spicuous black  spot  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth  on  each  side.  The 
hairs  individually  are  obscurely  annulated  with  alternate  rings  of  a 
gray  and  light  rufous-brown  colour,  the  latter  becoming  more  con- 
spicuous as  the  animal  advances  in  age,  and  communicating  to  the 
gpeneral  colour  of  the  fur  the  light  rufous  shade  already  mentioned. 

The  Reh-Boc  or  Rhee-Boc  is  of  a  lighter  and  more  graceful  form 
than  the  generality  of  the  other  antelopes  included  in  the  present 
section.  The  body  is  long  and  small,  the  neck  particularly  so,  and 
the  legs  slender  and  well-proportioned.  Its  pace,  consequently,  is 
proportionally  swift;  it  runs  with  great  velocity,  keeping  close  to 
the  ground,  and  moving  by  long  strides,  and  with  a  motion  so  rapid 
and  uniform  that  it  seems  to  glide  rather  than  run.  The  Reh-Bocs 
live  in  small  families  of  five  or  six  individuals,  consisting  of  an  adult 
male  and  three  or  four  females  with  their  young.  The  males  are 
pugnacious,  and  compel  the  young  of  their  own  sex  to  separate  them- 
selves from  the  family  as  soon  as  they  become  adult  Their  general 
residence  is  on  the  sides  of  moderate  hills,  among  stimted  trees  and 
\mderwood,  or  in  the  rocky  glens  and  mountain-passes,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  little  pools  of  water  which  remain  after  the  winter-torrents 
have  ceased  to  flow.  Wherever  such  situations  are  found,  the 
Rhee-Boc  is  not  an  imconmion  animal  in  South  Africa.  Its  flesh  is  dry 
and  insipid,  and  esteemed  less  than  that  of  any  other  of  the  numerous 
Cape  Antelopes.  The  female  produces  but  one  at  a  birth,  which 
grows  rapidly,  and,  if  caught  at  an  early  period,  is  readily  domesti- 
cated. 

EUotragus 

Has  the  horns  conical,  thick,  diverging,  bent  back  and  then  bent 
forwards  at  the  tip ;  the  face  broad ;  Uie  muffle  rather  lai^e  ;  the  fur 
harsh,  and  that  of  the  back  more  or  less  whorled ;  the  hoofs  and  false 
hoofiB  rather  large ;  the  inguinal  pores  distinct ;  four  teats. 

47.  £.  anmdiruiceus  {AntUope  BUotrag^m,  Schreber),  the  Inghalla 
Riet-Boc,  or  Reed-Buck,  so  called  from  its  habit  of  frequenting 
the  reedy  banks  and  beds  of  dry  water-courses,  is  4^  feet  in 
length,  and  2  feet  9  or  10  inches  high  at  the  shoulder.  The  head 
is  10  inches  long  from  the  muzzle  to  the  base  of  the  horns ;  the  horns 
104  inches  in  a  straight  line,  and  18  inches  along  the  curves,  and  the 
tail  11  inches.  The  horns  are  round,  annulated  at  the  base,  with 
prominent  sharp  rings  and  beautifully  striated  between,  smooth  and 
sharp  at  the  points,  and  curved  forwards  with  a  bold  and  regular 
sweep,  so  as  to  form  almost  the  segment  of  a  circle.  The  ears  are 
long  and  pointed,  fllled  internally  with  a  profusion  of  whitish  hair, 
and  beneath  them,  on  each  side  of  the  head,  there  is  a  remarkable 
bald  spot  of  an  oval  form  and  shining  black  colour,  which  is  very 
characteristic  of  the  species,  and  readily  distinguishes  it  from  all  the 
other  antelopes  with  which  it  is  likely  to  be  confounded.  The  hair 
over  every  part  of  the  neck  and  body  is  long  and  rough,  of  a  uniform 
dull  ashy-gray  colour,  sometimes  tinged  wiUi  red  on  the  upper  parts, 
and  silvery-gray  on  the  throat,  breast>  belly,  and  interior  of  the  fore 
arms  and  thighs.  The  tail  is  long  and  remarkably  bushy,  being 
covered  with  a  profusion  of  long  woolly  hair,  for  the  most  part  of  a 
white  JOT  gray  colour,  with  a  narrow  brown  line  running  down  the 
middle  of  the  upper  side.  The  females  are  in  all  respects  similar  to 
the  males,  excepting  that  they  are  without  hoitis,  and  of  rather 
smaller  stature. 

The  Riet-Boc  is  not  found  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Cape, 
but  farther  in  the  interior  of  the  country  it  is  by  no  means  uncom- 
mon, living  in  pairs  or  small  famOies,  and,  as  already  observed, 
frequenting  the  reeds  and  rushy  banks  of  mountain-streams  which 
flow  only  during  the  winter  season,  and  are  dried  up  by  the  summer 
heats.  Sometimes  also  it  is  foimd  in  woods  along  the  banks  of  rivers, 
but  always  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water ;  and  a  variety,  if  not  a  dis- 
tinct species,  is  even  said  to  inhabit  the  plains.    This  is  of  a  veiy  deep 


reddish  fawn-colour,  and  has  been  described  by  Afzelius  and  Hamilton 
Smith  as  a  distinct  species  under  the  denomination  of  A.  fulwhrufula. 
Excepting  in  the  redder  shade  of  its  colour,  however,  and  ^e  nams 
of  Jtoo<U  Rhee-Boc,  or  Red  Roe-Buok,  by  which  it  is  said  to  be  distin- 
guished among  the  Dutch  colonists  at  the  Cape,  it  does  not  appear  to 


Rietboc  {E,  antniinaeens). 

differ  materially  from  the  common  variety,  and  the  slight  shades  of 
variation  which  it  does  present,  are  most  probably  the  effects  of  its 
difference  of  habitat  and  other  accidental  circumstances.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  A.  JtahdlinOf  or  Cream-Coloured  Antelope  of  these 
authors,  which  does  not  appear  to  present  any  characters  sufficiently 
marked  or  peculiar  to  be  considered  as  indicative  of  a  specific  dis- 
tinction. 

48.  B.  reduneut  (ArUilope  redunea,  Pallas),  the  Wonto,  or  Nagor, 
known  only  from  the  description  of  Adanson  and  the  figure  o.'  Bufibn, 
is  a  species  so  nearly  resembling  the  Riet-Boc  that  some  naturalists 
have  not  hesitated  to  unite  them.  It  is  4  feet  long  from  Ihe  muzzle 
to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  2  feet  4  inches  high  at  the  shoulder,  and 
2  feet  6  indies  at  the  croup ;  the  head  is  9  inches  long,  the  horns  5^ 
inches,  and  the  ears  5  inches.  The  horns  have  one  or  two  annuli  at 
the  base,  but  are  smooth  and  shining  throughout  the  remainder  of 
their  length ;  they  are  erect^  parallel,  and  almost  straight  till  within 
a  short  distance  of  the  points,  where  they  curve  forwards.  The 
colour  was  uniform  fawn  or  pale  red,  without  any  white  about  the 
breast  or  belly,  and  the  hair  was  long,  rough,  and  undulating,  and  did 
not  lie  smooth  or  close  to  the  body— characters  which  all  tend  to 
approximate  the  animal  to  the  Riet-Boc,  and  more  particularly  to 
the  variety  which  is  said  to  inhabit  the  plains.  It  is  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Goree,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 

Dr.  J.  E.  Qray  refers  the  Bohor  {AntUope  Bohor,  Riippell)  as  a 
variety  to  this  species.  He  says,  "  When  in  Frankfort  I  observed 
that  the  male  AntUope  Bohor  from  Abyssinia  was  rather  lai^ger  than 
the  male  of  A.  redtmca  from  Senegal,  in  the  same  collection,  and  the 
horns  more  slender;  the  female  was  darker  and  browner  than  the 
male :  both  sexes  have  more  black  in  the  carpus  and  tarsus  than  the 
specimen  of  A.  redunca  in  the  same  museum. 

The  genus  Raphicerus,  of  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith,  appears  to  be  a 
very  doubtful  ona  Dr.  J.  R  Grav  says  t^t  the  author  formed  it 
"  from  two  pairs  of  horns  on  part  of  the  frontal  bones  in  the  College  of 
Sui^geons,  which  he  called  Raphiceru*  <icuticomu  and  B.  aubukUa.*' 
The  figures  are  not  sufficient  to  identify  the  species,  and  we  now 
know  that  the  horns  differ  greatly  in  individuals  of  the  same  species, 
and  during  the  growth  of  the  same  specimen.  R.  ctcviicomu  may  be 
the  horns  of  the  Duyker-Boc  {Cephaloput  Grimmiq). 
2.     Cervine  Antelopee. 

These  Antelopes  have  rather  a  heavy  body ;  an  elongated  tail,  with 
short  hair  at  the  base,  and  a  tuft  of  longer  hair  at  the  tip ;  the  horns 
elongated  and  generally  of  a  large  size. 
Adenota 

Has  a  cervine  muffle,  cordate,  and  moderate ;  the  nose  hairy  between 
and  over  the  nostrils;  the  horns  sublyrate,  ringed,  when  young 
recurved ;  no  tear-bag,  or  covered  by  a  tuft  of  hair ;  the  hair  of  the 
back  whorled,  and  the  hair  of  dorsal-line  and  back  of  head  reversed; 
the  tail  elongated  and  hairy. 

The  only  species  of  this  genus  is  very  like  the  species  of  Bleotraffutf 
but  has  a  smaller  and  more  cervine  muzzle  and  lyrated  horns.  It 
differs  from  the  next  genus  in  the  form  of  the  tail  and  absence  of  the 
mane,  and  from  it  and  Bleotragtu  in  having  a  tuft  of  hair  in  front  of 
the  orbit. 

49.  A,Kob{AntUope  adenota,  H. Smith),  the  .£quitoon,  or  Kob,  is  of 


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a  pale  brown  colour.  The  end  of  the  nose,  the  inside  of  the  ears,  the 
chest,  belly,  and  inside  of  the  legs  and  thighs,  tip  of  tail,  and  end- 
baud  above  the  hoofs  are  white ;  the  front  of  the  fore  and  hind  legs, 
and  the  end  of  ears  and  tail,  black ;  the  hair  of  dorsal-line  reversed, 
with  a  whorl  on  the  shoulder  and  loins.     There  has  been  a  good  deal 


JEquitoon  {Adenota  Kob), 

of  confusion  about  this  species.  The  figure  that  we  have  given  was 
referred  by  Bfr.  Ogilby,  in  the  *  Penny  Qrclopsodia,*  to  a  new  species 
which  he  named  ArUilope  Koba.  His  description  of  the  animal, 
however,  refers  to  the  Antilope  Sing-Sing  of  Bennett,  the  Kohus  Sing- 
Sing  of  the  British  Museum  Catalogue.  On  this  species  Dr.  Qray 
makes  the  following  observations  : — 

''A  fine  pair  has  been  at  Knowsley  some  years.  Thinking  them 
new  I  described  them  as  A.  anntUipes.  Mr.  Ogilby  has  called  it  the 
Kagor ;  but  it  is  scarcely  the  Nagor  of  Bufibn.  An  adult  male  noticed 
by  Mr.  Ogilby  as  the  Eob  is  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Zoological 
Society.  Its  horns,  like  the  male  at  Knowsley,  are  much  worn  down. 
They  whistle  like  a  stag.  Buffon  ('Hist  Nat.,'  12—219,  267,  t.  82, 
pL)  figures  a  skull  with  horns  brought  from  Senegal,  by  Adanson, 
under  the  name  of  Kob,  which  is  also  called  the  Petit  Vache  Brunt. 
Erxleben  gave  this  figure  the  name  of  A.  Koh,  and  Pennant  called  it 
the  Oambian  Antelope  (*  Syn.*  I  39). 

"The  figure  somewhat  resembles  the  head  of  a  half-grown  male  of 
this  species,  but  the  horns  are  longer  and  have  more  rings  than  the 
specimen  in  the  British  Museum ;  but  I  am  inclined  to  agree  with 
Mr.  Ogilby  in  believing  that  it  was  intended  for  this  species.  In  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes  they  called  the  Sing-Sing  the  Kob  of  Senegal.  This 
may  be  a  mistake  for  the  Koba.  I  may  remark  that  the  horns  of  the 
Koba,  in  the  same  plata  of  Buffon,  are  represented  with  more  rings 
than  are  mentioned  m  the  description. 

"Colonel  Hamilton  Smith  describes  two  figures,  a  male  and  female 
specimen,  which  were  alive  in  Exeter  Change ;  and  figures  the  male 
and  its  skull  and  horns  under  the  name  of  A.  adenotOy  which  well 
agrees  with  this  species,  and  has  the  peculiar  distribution  of  its  hair 
—hence  its  name  :  but  he  says,  '  It  has  a  lon^  open  suborbitcd  slit, 
and  small  black  brushes  on  the  knees ;  *  but  this  I  suspect  must  be  a 
mistake,  as  he  himself  observes  that  no  lachrymal  cavity  was  found  in 
the  skulL  He  might  have  mistaken  the  tuft  of  hair  for  the  gland,  at 
the  distance  at  which  he  saw  the  specimens. 

"  He  also  (*  G.  A.  K'  iv.  221)  described  a  specimen  which  was 
in  Exeter  Change,  which  he  regarded  as  the  Gambian  Antelope  of 
Pennant,  and  calls  it  A.  forfex.  His  characters  agree  in  most  particu- 
lars with  this  species,  but  he  says,  it  had  '  a  long  lachrymal  sinus,  and 
had  small  brufihes  on  the  knees.'  If  there  was  not  some  mistake  in 
transcribing  these  descriptions,  both  these  animals  should  be  Gazelku, 
but  I  have  never  seen  any  which  agreed  with  them. 

"  The  young  male  in  the  British  Museum  shows  the  development 
of  the  horns  of  these  aninuds.  The  upper  rings  of  the  growing  horn 
&Us  off  in  large  thick  flakes  as  the  horn  increases  in  size  beneath  : 
this  explains  how  the  extent  of  the  smooth  tapering  part  of  the 
horns  increases  in  length  as  the  horn  grows ;  and  how  the  number  of 
rings  are  found  to  be  nearly  the  same  in  the  various  ages  and  different 
individuals  of  the  various  species.  Mr.  Whitfield  informs  me  that 
the  scrotum  is  rarely  developed  or  dependent  externally  in  different 
kinds  of  antelopes  before  they  have  completed  their  first  year." 

50.  A.  LecMe,  the  Lech^e.  This  animal  is  nearly  as  large  as  the 
Water-Buck.  It  is  of  a  pale-brown  colour.  The  orbit  and  lower  part 
rf  the  body  is  whitish ;  the  front  of  the  legs  is  dark  brown ;  the 
horns  are  elongate  and  strongly  knotted  in  front ;  the  withers  have  a 
■mail  roundish  whorl  of  hair.  It  is  a  native  of  South  Africa  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Zouga,  lat  21°.  There  is  a  male  specimen  in  the 
British  Musetun. 


Kohus 
Has  the  horns  elongated,  sublyrate,  bent  back,  and  then  forward  at 
the  tip ;  the  muffle  cervine ;  no  tear-bag  or  inguinal  pores ;  the  hair 
rough  and  elongated ;  the  neck  covered  with  longer  divei^ging  and 
drooping  hair ;  the  tail  rather  elongated,  depressed,  hairy  on  the  sides 
and  below.     The  females  are  hornless  and  have  four  teats. 

61.  Kohus  ellipsiprymwus  {Antilope  eUiptiprymiM,  Ogilby),  the 
Photomok,  or  Water-Buck.  The  following  is  Mr.  Ogilb/s  description 
of  this  animal  in  the  '  Penny  Cyclopsedia :' — The  whole  length  of  the 
animal  from  the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the  tail  was  7  feet  S^  inches; 
its  height  at  the  shoulder  nearly  4  feety  and  to  the  top  of  Uie  horn 
upwards  of  7  feet ;  the  horns  measured  30  inches  upon  the  curves, 
the  ears  were  upwards  of  8  inches  long,  and  the  tail,  with  its  terminal 
tuft,  1  foot  9  inches.  The  horns  are  very  thick  and  heavy ;  they 
spread  widely  outwards,  are  nearly  straight  for  the  first  half  of  their 
length,  and  then  turn  forwards  with  a  gradual  and  uniform  curvature. 
They  are  surrounded  with  24  prominent  annuli,  forming  lai^ge  knobs 
in  front  and  deeply  striated  between,  but  nearly  obliterated  behind ; 
the  last  six  inches  are  smooth,  and  the  points  blunt.  Next  to  the 
character  of  the  horns,  this  species  is  most  readily  to  be  distinguished 
by  a  ribbon  of  pure  white,  which  passes  over  the  croup  and  down 
each  hip,  uniting  between  the  thighs,  and  forming  a  perfect  ellipse, 
having  the  root  of  the  tail  in  one  of  its  foci,  and  contrasting  most 
singularly  with  the  dark  rusty  iron-gray  of  the  surrounding  parts.  It 
is  to  this  mark,  which  is  so  peculiarly  characteristic  of  the  species, 
that  the  name  of  EUipdprijmnus  refers.  This  animal  is  a  native  of 
South  Africa,  from  whence  it  was  originally  brought  by  Mr.  Steed- 
man  and  exhibited  with  other  specimens  of  South  African  animals 
in  the  Colosseum,  Regent's  Park.  It  has  got  the  name  of  Water- 
Buck  from  its  habit>  when  alarmed,  of  rushing  into  and  crossing 
very  rapid  rivers.  It  lives  in  small  herds  on  the  banks  of  rivers, 
and  has  not  been  known  to  occur  south  of  26**.  The  flesh  is  not 
regarded  as  good  for  food,  as  it  has  a  rank  pungent  smell,  and 
disagreeable  taste. 

52.  K.  Sing-Sing  (Antilope  Koba,  Ogilby),  the  Sing-Sing.  This  species 
differs  in  the  tints  of  its  colouring  as  well  as  the  length  of  its  hair  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year.  The  following  are  tiie  characters  of 
the  species.  The  colour  is  reddish  or  yellowish-gray  brown,  rather 
grayer  on  the  shoulders ;  the  nose,  lips,  hinder-parts  of  the  thighs, 
under  the  neck  from  the  ears  to  the  gullet,  a  streak  over  the  eye,  and 
ring  above  the  hoois  and  fahse  hoofs,  white ;  the  bellv  and  1^^  end 
of  tail  and  legs^  from  shoulder  to  hock,  black.  The  females  aro 
grayer  and  have  the  belly  and  upper  part  of  the  legs  paler. 

This  animal  is  called  Sing-Sing  by  all  the  negroes.  They  do  not 
think  that  their  flocks  will  be  healthy  or  fruitfid  unless  they  haye  a 
Sing-Sing  with  them,  just  as  a  fancy  is  entertained  by  some  persons 
in  England  for  having  a  goat  in  a  stable.  The  English  on  the 
Gambia  call  it  a  Jackass-Deer  from  its  appearance,  and  it  is  called 
Koba  and  Elassimause  by  the  negroes  at  Macarthy's  Island.  Its  flesh 
is  strong,  and  not  pleasant  eating.  As  far  as  can  be  judged  by 
recollection  and  description,  the  adult  specimen  at  Knowsley,  the 
young  male  and  adult  female  in  the  British  Museum,  the  male  and 
female  at  Frankfort,  and  the  adult  male  in  the  Paris  menageries,  are 
the  same  species. 

Buffon  figured  ('Hist.  Nat,*  210,  267,  xii.  t  32,  f.  2,)  under  the  name 
Koba,  a  pair  of  horns  which  were  in  the  library  of  St.  Victor  at 
Paris.  He  described  them  as  larger  and  more  curved  above  than 
those  of  the  Kob,  18  inches  long,  and  5  inches  in  circumference  at  the 
base ;  and  he  refers  them  to  an  animal  which  Adanson  says  is  called  Koba 
in  Senegal  and  the  Great  Brown  Cow  by  the  French  colonists.  Pallas 
refers  iJ^ese  horns  to  A .  Pygargat  and  the  figures  and  description  agree 
in  many  particulars  with  the  horns  of  that  species,  but  they  are  rather 
longer  and  have  more  rings.  Pennant  ('  Syn.  Mam.'  38)  gave  the  name 
of  Senegal  Antelope  to  Buffon's  short  account  and  figure,  but  has 
added  to  it  the  description  and  figure  of  the  head  of  a  skin  which 
came  from  Amsterdam,  and  appears  to  be  ^.  Caama  of  South  Africa. 
Guvier  (*  Diet.  Sci.  Nat.'  ii  235,)  only  translated  Pennant's  name  to 
A,  SenegcUentiB,  Erxleben  ('  Syn.'  293)  and  Zimmermann  ('  ZooL'  345) 
have  translated  Pennant's  description  of  his  skin  from  Amsterdam  of 
A.  Caamat  and  called  it  A.  Kobet,  referring  to  Buffon's  description  and 
Daubenton's  figure.  Fischer,  Hamilton  Smith,  and  M.  Sundevall 
regard  the  Koba  of  Buffon  the  same  as  the  Korrigum  of  Denham  and 
Clapperton ;  but  the  horns  of  that  species  are  considerably  lai^ger  and 
much  thicker  at  the  base  than  those  described  by  Daubenton,  and  the 
annulations  of  the  horns  are  higher  and  more  regular.  It  should  be 
remarked  that  Buffon  describes  his  horns  as  having  11  or  12  rings, 
but  figures  them  as  having  17  or  18.  Mr.  Ogilby  ('  Penny  Cyclopaedia ' 
and  'Proceedings  of  Zoological  Society')  considers  Buffon's  Koba  to  be 
the  Sing-Sing,  from  the  length  of  the  horns,  and  in  the  number, 
disposition,  and  form  of  the  rings.  His  figure  more  nearly  agrees  with 
the  horns  of  that  species  than  of  that  of  the  A.  Pygarga,  to  which 
Pallas  first  referred  it ;  but  the  horns,  according  to  Dr.  Gray,  are  repre- 
sented much  more  lyrated  than  any  horns  of  the  Sing-Sing ;  indeed, 
iiot  one  of  the  specimens  which  had  come  under  his  observation 
had  had  any  inclination  to  assume  that  form ;  but  as  this  is  the  only 
West-African  species  which  in  any  way  agrees  with  Buffon's  figure, 
perhaps  it  is  best  to  adopt  Mr.  Ogilb/s  suggestion.  The  name  of 
Koba  or  Kob  appears  to  be  oommon   to  many  speoiee.      Schinc 


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ANTILOPE^ 


ANTILOPEiE. 


erroneously  oonsiderB    Datnalii  SenegaUmU  (Antilope  adenota  and 
A.forfeXf  EL  Smith),  as  synonyms  of  this  species.    (Gray,  'British 
Museum  Catalogue/  Mammalia,  Part  III.,  p.  101. 
^gocerua 

Has  conical,  elongate,  recurved,  rather  compressed,  ringed  horns, 
arising  immediately  above  the  orbits ;  the  nape  with  a  linear,  erect, 
reversed  mane ;  the  tear-bag  covered  with  a  tuft  of  hair.  The  female 
is  I  omed,  and  has  two  teats. 

53.  j£.  Uuaypheeus  {Antilope  leuccphceat  Pallas),  the  Etaac  or  Blauw- 
Boc  is  6  feet  in  length,  and  3  feet  7  inches  high  at  the  shoulder ;  the 


The  Blauw-Boc  {JE.  leueophfcxu). 

head  is  9  inches  long  from  the  muzzle  to  the  base  of  the  horns ;  these  are 
2  feet  2  inches,  measured  along  the  curves ;  the  length  of  the  ears  is 
8  inches ;  and  that  of  the  tail,  with  its  terminating  tufb,  1  foot.  The 
horns  are  round,  uniformly  curved  backwards,  and  marked  with  from 
20  to  80  prominent  and  complete  rings,  the  last  six  inches  being  smooth, 
and  the  points  very  fine  and  sharp.  The  hide  of  this  animal  is  perfectly 
black,  and  it  is  this  colour  reflected  through  the  ashy-gray  hair  that 
communicates  the  dark-blue  shade  which  has  given  rise  to  the  name 
of  Blauw-Boc,  or  Blue-Buck,  by  which  it  has  long  been  known  among 
the  Dutch  at  the  Cape  of  Gk>od  Hope. 

The  Blauw-Boc  lives  in  pairs  or  small  families  of  five  or  six  individuals 
on  the  open  plains  of  South  Africa,  north  of  the  Kurrichan&  It  is 
dangerous  when  wounded,  and  during  the  rutting  season  in  particular 
is  said  to  attack  indiscriminately  every  animal  that  comes  in  its  way. 
It  is  exceedingly  swifL    The  flesh  is  eaten,  but  is  not  pleasant. 

Antilope  barbcUaf  H.  Smith,  the  Takhaitze,  beautifully  figured  by  Mr. 
Daniell  in  the  'African  Scenery,'  is  a  variety  of  this  species,  and 
diflTers  from  the  Blauw-Boc  by  its  long  flowing  mane,  copious  beard, 
and  superior  size.  This  animal  inhabits  the  country  in  the  vicinity 
of  Latakoo,  and  is  c^ed  Takhaitze  by  the  Betchuanas.  It  is  said 
to  be  so  wild  and  ferocious  that  the  natives  are  afraid  to  attack  it 
openly  with  the  assagai,  or  spear,  as  they  do  other  game,  but  take  it 
generally  in  pitfalls  covered  over  with  sticks  and  earth.  It  is 
commonly  found  in  pairs  upon  the  open  plains,  but  when  dis- 
turbed makes  for  the  wooded  heights,  which  are  thickly  covered 
with  the  common  mimosa,  upon  which  both  this  animal  and  the 
Girafie  delight  to  feed.  The  name  Takhaitze  signifies  a  fierce  or 
wicked  beast,  and  expresses  the  dread  with  which  the  resolution  and 
prowess  of  this  powerful  animal  inspire  the  Betchuanas,  who  seldom 
venture  to  approach  it  openly. 

A.  equina  of  Qeoffroy  is  also  a  variety  of  this  species. 

Another  probable  variety  is  the  Dacoi,  or  White-Mouth  of  the 
Mandingos,  the  Kob  or  Koba  of  the  Joliffs,  the  Yache  Brune  of 
the  French  in  Senegal  Mr.  Whitfield,  who  has  brought  several  pairs 
of  horns  of  this  animal  to  England,  says  that  the  flesh  is  very  good 
to  eat. 

64».  jE.  nigtr,  the  Black-Buck,  is  black,  with  the  face  white,  having  a 
dark  streak.  The  female  and  young  are  brown.  This  species  is 
known  from  the  description  and  specimens  of  Captain  Harris,  and  also 
specimens  in  M  Sundevall's  collection. 

Oryx 

Has  elongate  subulate  horns,  ringed  at  the  base,  straight  or 
slightly  arched,  placed  on  a  line  with  the  face;  the  neck  maned 
above  and  below;  a  subcervine  nose,  the  nose  only  mai^gining  the 
nostrils ;  the  hoofs  narrow  in  fronts  and  false  hoofs  large. 

65.  0.  Qaz^la  (Anlilape  Oryx,  Pallas),  the  Kookaam  or  Gems-Boc 
This  is  the  Oryx  of  Cuvier,  the  Papan  of  Buflbn,  and  the  Egyptian 
Antelope  of  Pennant.  It  is  a  heavy  stout  animal,  about  5  feet  in 
length,  and  8  feet  2  inches  high  at  the  shoulder ;  the  length  of  the 


horns  is  from  2  feet  to  2^,  that  of  the  ears  7  inches,  and  that  of  the 
tail  13  or  14  inches.  The  horns  are  almost  perfectly  straight,  very  little 
divergent,  and  situated  in  the  plane  of  the  forehead;  they  aro 


Gcms-Boc  {(hyz  Gazella), 

obscurely  annulated  for  half  their  length,  black,  and  blunt  in  the  male, 
but  very  sharp-pointed  in  the  female.  The  ears  are  large  and  pointed, 
and  the  tail  pretty  uniformly  covered  with  long  black  hair,  forming  » 
1  arge  switch.  The  general  colour  of  the  body  is  dark  rusty-iron  gray  on 
the  upper  parts,  and  white  on  the  imder,  the  two  being  sepasated  on  the 
flanks  by  a  broad  longitudinal  band  of  dark  brown  or  black ;  and  the 
hair  of  tiie  back  and  neck  reversed.  The  head  is  white,  and  \a  marked 
with  two  transverse  bands  of  deep  black,  rising  from  the  root  of  the  horns 
and  passing  down  the  face,  then  encircling  the  eye,  and  uniting  under 
the  lower  jaw  with  those  of  the  opposite  side.  PYom  this  point  a  black 
band  passes  down  the  throat  upon  the  chest,  where  it  divides  into 
foiu:,  one  pair  of  which  pass  along  the  flanks  and  divide  the  colours 
of  the  upper  and  under  parts  of  the  body,  the  other  pair  encircles 
the  fore  arms ;  the  thighs  are  likewise  black,  whilst  all  ihe  rest  of 
the  limbs  is  white,  except  a  black  mark  on  the  canons.  On  the  upper 
surface,  the  black  line  passes  down  the  neck  and  back,  and  expands 
into  a  broad  disk  on  the  rump.  These  colours  are  all  boldly  separated 
from  one  another,  and  the  harshness  of  their  contrast  produces  a  very 
singular  efiect  upon  the  appearance  of  this  animal. 

The  Oryx  inhabits  the  karroos  of  South  Africa.  It  is  never  found 
in  the  woods,  but  keeps  on  the  open  plains,  and  lives  in  pairs  or 
small  £euQuliee  of  four  or  five  individuals.  It  is  extremely  daiigerous 
to  approach  when  wotmded,  if  not  completely  disabled,  making 
vigorous  use  of  its  long  powerful  horns,  and  it  is  said  being  not 
unfrequently  the  first  to  commence  the  assault  We  are  even  araiued 
that  the  lion  himself  is  afraid  to  attack  this  powerful  and  courageous 
ft-nimul^  and  that  sometimes  when,  pressed  by  famine,  he  has  ventured 
to  do  so,  he  has  been  beaten  off  with  disgrace,  or  even  paid  for  his 
temerity  with  his  life.  Captain  Cunmiing  b&jb  that  it  eats  the  bulb  of 
the  Water-Root,  a  Liliaceous  plant 

56.  0,  Beita  (Antilopt  Beita,  Riippell),  the  Beisa.  Two  spedmens 
of  this  species  exist  in  the  Fnmkfort  Museum,  obtained  in  Abyssinia. 
They  differ  from  the  last  species  in  having  no  bunch  on  the  throat ; 
the  mane  of  the  nape  is  small  and  indistinct,  and  they  have  no  dark 
mark  on  the  rump. 

57.  0.  Lmcoryx  (AiUiU)pe  Leucoryx,  Pallas),  the  Oryx.  This  species, 
also  referred  to  in  various  writers  imder  the  names  of  the  Milk- 
white  Antelope,  the  White  Antelope,  and  the  Algazel,  is  known  to 
the  Arabs  by  the  name  of  Abu-hard,  Jachmur,  and  Tazmur,  and  to 
the  Persians  as  El-Walrugh-el-Bukras.  It  is  perhaps  the  most 
celebrated  of  all  the  Antelope  genus,  being  the  species  which  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to  the  fabulous  Unicom  of  the 
ancients.  It  is  indeed,  properly  speaking,  the  Oryx  of  ancient  writers, 
but  many  modem  authors  have  followed  the  example  of  Pallas 
in  bestowing  that  name  upon  the  Oryx  QatdLa  of  Southern  Africa, 
with  which  it  is  impossible  that  the  ancients  could  have  been 
acquainted,  whilst  the  present  species  has  received  the  name  of 
LeucoryXf  from  an  epithet  bestowed  upon  it  by  iElian  on  account  of 
its  white  colour.  The  horns  are  at  first  directed  in  the  plane  of  the 
forehead,  and  have  a  single  gradual  and  moderate  curvature  throughout 
their  whole  course,  forming,  as  it  were,  the  segments  of  a  very  large 
circle ;  they  are  small  in  proportion  to  their  great  length,  annulated 
about  half  way  up,  gradually  attenuated,  and  very  sharp  at  the 
points.  The  ears  are  long,  erect,  and  pointed ;  and  the  tail  is  terminated 
by  a  very  copiously  furnished  tuft  of  long  hair  of  a  mixed  black  and 
g^y  colour,  which  reaches  below  the  hocks.  The  hair  on  the  head, 
body,  and  extremities,  is  universally  short,  and  lies  smoothly  along 
the  hide,  except  upon  the  ridge  of  the  back,  where  it  is  rather  longer, 
and  reversed,  or  turned  towards  the  head  in  a  direction  contrary  to 
that  on  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  and  forming  a  short  reversed 
mane  from  the  middle  of  the  back  to  the  occiput    The  head  is 


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ANTILOPE^. 


268 


white,  with  a  brown  mark  descending  perpendicularly  from  each  orbit, 
and  expanding  over  the  cheek,  and  a  similar  stripe  passing  down  the 
centre  of  the  hce  from  the  horns  to  the  muzzle;  the  whole  neck 


i 


The  Oryx  (Oryx  leucoryx). 

.'ilso,  on  the  throat  as  well  as  on  the  upper  part>  is  of  a  uniform  rusty 
brown  colour,  but,  with  these  exceptions,  all  the  rest  of  the  body,  as 
well  as  the  legs  and  tail,  are  milk-white. 

This  species  is  frequently  represented  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt 
and  Nubia,  and  particularly  in  the  inner  chamber  of  the  great  pyramid 
at  Memphis,  where  a  whole  group  of  these  animals  is  represented, 
some  being  driyen  or  pushed  forwards,  and  others  led  by  the  horns 
or  by  a  cord  about  the  neck,  apparently  by  way  of  tribute  from  some 
subject  or  conquered  nation.  With  one  exception  these  representa- 
tions are  invariably  in  profile,  so  that  only  one  horn  is  seen.  The 
present  species  is  gregaiious,  and  lives  in  laige  herds  in  Senaar, 
Nubia,  and  Senegal,  feeding  principally  upon  different  species  of 
acacias. 

Our  engraving  of  this  species  is  copied  from  one  of  M.  F.  Cuvier, 
who  supposed  it  belonged  to  a  different  species  from  the  present,  and 
referred  it  to  theArUilope  Oaeella  of  Pallas  and  the  Algazd  of  Prosper 
Alpinus,  both  of  which  we  now  believe  to  be  identical  with  (hyx 
Leucoryx. 

Addax 

Has  slender,  elongated,  ringed,  slightly  spirally-twisted  horns, 
sloping  nearly  in  a  line  with  the  face ;  the  forehead  with  long  hair ; 
the  neck  with  a  slight  gular  mane  ;  the  nose  hairy,  ovine ;  the  hoofs 
semicircular,  thin-edged ;  the  tear-bag  marked  with  a  tuft  of  hair. 

58.  A.  fKuamaculatut  (AntUope  Addax,  Lichtenstein),  the  Addax. 


Addax  {Addax  nas<maculaius). 

The  Addas  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  under  the  name  of  Sirepticeroty 
which,  says  he,  the  Africans  call  Addax  (or  it  may  be  Addas,  for  the 
accusative  addacem  is  the  word  used  in  the  passage  referred  to,  and 

KAT.  HIST.  DIV.  VOL.  I. 


it  may  be  derived  from  either  of  these  forma  in  the  nominative). 
From  the  time  of  Pliny  the  only  information  which  we  had  about 
this  animal  till  a  very  recent  period  was  derived  from  a  figure  and 
description  of  the  skull  and  horns  sent  by  our  celebrated  countryman 
Caius  to  his  friend  Qesner,  and  inserted  in  the  great  work  of  that 
early  naturalist :  the  travellers,  Riippell,  Hempricn,  and  Ehrenbei^, 
re-discovered  this  species,  and  what  is  singular  enough,  under  the 
ancient  African  name  ascribed  to  it  by  Pliny,  the  Arabs  still  denomi- 
nating it  Akasch,  Akas,  or  Addas,  with  the  addition  of  the  syllable 
Abu  (father),  which  they  bestow  upon  many  other  animals,  aa  Abu- 
Hannis  (Father  John)  for  the  Ibis,  &c. 

The  length  of  the  full-grown  Addax  is  6  feet  from  the  muzzle  to 
the  root  of  the  tail,  and  its  height  at  the  e^oulder  3  feet ;  the  horns, 
measured  along  the  curves,  are  8  feet  long,  the  ears  6  inches,  and  the 
tail,  with  its  teraunating  tuft,  1  foot.  The  animal  is  therefore  about 
the  size  of  a  large  ass,  of  which  it  has  likewise  much  of  the  make  and 
proportions,  the  heavy  head,  thick  neck  and  legs,  and  switch  tail 
The  horns  are  round,  rather  slender  in  proportion  to  their  length, 
twisted  outwards  and  describing  two  turns  of  a  wide  spiral,  aunulated 
to  within  five  or  six  inches  of  the  points,  which  are  smooth  and  sharp ; 
the  form  of  the  horns  of  the  female  does  not  differ  from  that  of  tiie 
male,  but  in  the  young  they  are  almost  straight.  The  ears  are  pretty 
long  and  proportionidly  broader  than  in  most  of  the  smaller  ante- 
lopes ;  the  taH  reaches  almost  to  the  hock,  and  is  terminated  by  a 
switch  of  long,  coarse,  gray  hair.  The  whole  head  and  neck,  both 
above  and  below,  are  of  a  deep  reddish-brown  colour,  except  a 
transverse  mark  of  pure  white  across  the  lower  part  of  the  forehead, 
between  the  orbits,  which  expands  on  the  cheeks  and  half  surrounds 
the  eyes ;  a  patch  of  black  curly  hair  surrounds  the  root  of  the  horns, 
and  there  is  a  scanty  beard  of  Uie  same  colour  on  the  larynx ;  all  the 
rest  of  the  animal,  including  the  entire  body  from  the  neck  backwards, 
as  well  as  the  legs  and  tul,  are  grayish-white ;  the  hoofs  are  black, 
and  remarkably  broad,  to  enable  ike  animal  to  pass  more  easily  over 
the  fine  and  loose  sands  of  the  deserts  in  which  it  resides. 

These  animals  live  in  pairs  on  the  sandy  deserts  of  Central  Africa 
and  appear  to  extend  over  the  greater  part  of  the  continent. 
Hemprich  and  Ehrenbei^  found  them  in  Dongola;  and  a  pair  of 
horns  were  brought  from  Bomou  by  Denham  and  Clapperton,  and 
deposited  in  the  British  Musetmi. 

8.    OocUlike  Antdopes. 

These  Antelopes  have  a  heavy  body ;  strong  legs ;  the  hoofs  and 
false  hoofs  large ;  the  tail  very  short,  flal^  and  hairy  above ;  the  horns 
conical  and  recurved. 

Capricomis 

Has  short,  strong,  conical,  inclined,  recurved  horns,  arising  behind 
the  orbit ;  the  nose  cervine ;  the  muffle  moderate ;  the  tear-bag  and 
interdigital  pores  laige. 

59.  C.  Swrnatrentu  (Antilope  SvmcUrensis,  Desmarest),  the  Cambing 
Outan,  or  Sumatran  Antelope,  first  noticed  by  "Mr.  Marsden  in  his 


The  Cambing  Outan  {C,  Sumairentis), 

'  History  of  Sumatra,'  is  about  4^  feet  in  length,  and  2  feet  8  inches 
high  at  the  shoulder.  The  horns  are  6  inches  long,  veiy  thick  at  the 
base  and  much  attenuated,  slightlv  and  uniformly  curved  backwards. 
The  muzzle  is  distinct  and  well  formed ;  the  lachrymal  sinuses  open 
by  a  small  circular  aperture,  and  between  them  and  the  muzzle,  on 
each  side,  is  a  long  linear  space,  nearly  two  inches  in  length  by  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  broad,  naked,  and  covered  with  a  soft  black 
integument,  which  represents  the  maxillary  gland,  and  secretes  a 
particular  humour.  The  ears  and  tail  are  of  moderate  length,  the 
hoofs  very  large,  the  limbs  short  and  stout,  and  the  whole  form  of  the 
animal  robust  and  powerful    The  body  is  thickly  covered  with  a  coat 

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of  long  hair,  of  a  dark-brown  colour,  almost  black,  excepting  along 
the  nape  of  the  neck,  on  the  ahouldera,  and  inside  the  ears,  where  it 
is  white,  and  under  the  lower  jaw,  which  is  of  a  deep  straw-colour. 
The  white  hairs  of  the  neck  and  shoulders  are  much  longer  than  on 
other  parts  of  the  body,  and  form  a  kind  of  flowing  mane ;  the  hair 
on  the  head  and  limbs,  on  the  contrary.  Is  much  shorter  than  else- 
where, the  knees  are  wiUiout  brushes,  and  the  toil,  which  is  rather 
shorter  than  the  ears,  is  covered  throughout  its  whole  extent  with  hair 
of  moderate  and  equal  length,  and  of  the  same  dark-brown  colour  as 
that  on  the  body. 

The  Cambing  Outan,  or  Wild  Qoat,  bo  called  by  the  Malays, 
inhabits  the  hilly  forests  of  Sumatra,  and  is  described  by  Mr.  Marsden 
as  being  of  o  wild  character,  extremely  active  and  sure-footed,  with 
much  of  the  habits  and  character  of  the  Common  Qoat  and  Ibex,  of 
which  it  has  the  roving  fSsarless  eye  and  bold  undaunted  bearing. 

60.  a  Bubalina  (C.  Thar,  Ogilby),  the  Thaar,  Thar,  Serow,  or  Imo, 
is  of  a  gray,  brown,  blackish  washed  colour,  with  the  crown  and  dorsal 
streak  black ;  the  nose,  chin,  inside  of  ears,  lower  part  of  mane  and 
legs  below  the  hocks,  whitish.  It  is  a  native  of  Nepaul,  and  is  princi- 
pally known  by  the  drawings  and  specimens  presented  by  B.  H. 
Hodgson,  Esq.,  to  the  British  Museum. 

The  Thar  inhabits  the  central  region  of  Nepaul,  at  an  equal  distance 
from  the  snows  of  the  Himalajran  range  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
sultry  heats  of  the  low  plains  of  India  on  the  other.  It  is  the  most 
common  of  all  the  wild  ruminants  which  are  found  in  that  country, 
'  and  its  chase  is  the  favourite  exercise  and  amusement  of  the  hill 
tribes.  Its  flesh  is  indeed  coarse,  but  there  is  plenty  of  it — and  these 
rude  people  are  easily  satisfied  on  the  score  of  quality,  provided  the 
quantity  be  sufficient.  Its  habits  are  wild  and  solitaiy ;  it  is  seldom 
K>und  in  herds,  however  small;  the  grown  males  especially  live 
apart  in  the  mountains,  and  never  seek  the  society  of  their  species 
except  during  the  rutting  season.  As  might  be  supposed  from  its 
heavy  make  and  short  stout  limbs,  it  is  a  slow  runner,  and  is  soon 
brought  to  bay ;  but  it  leaps  well,  and  makes  its  way  over  broken 
ground  with  greater  ease  than  in  open  level  situations.  It  is  foimd 
from  the  eastern  confines  of  Nepaul  to  the  banks  of  the  SuUege,  but 
abounds  especially  towards  the  east.  The  Thars  differ  from  the 
Antelopes  in  being  stout  clambering  animals,  but  they  are  not  allied 
to  the  Ox-Tribe. 

61.  (7.  critpa,  the  Japanese  Qoat- Antelope,  has  a  harsh  crisp  brown 
or  brownish  fur,  with  whitish  sides,  white  cheeks,  and  legs  black-brown. 
It  is  a  native  of  Japan. 

NeTnorhedua 
Has  short,  conical,  inclined,  recurved  horns,  arising  from  behind  the 
orbits ;  the  nose  ovine,  hairy ;  the  fur  short 

62.  iV.  OortU  {AtUilope  GorcUf  Hardwicke),  the  Choral,  is  of  a  gray- 
brown  coloiu:,  minutely  dotted  with  black ;  cheeks,  chin,  and  upper 
part  of  throat,  white. 

The  Qoral  was  first  described  by  General  Hardwicke  in  the  '  Lin- 
mean  Transactions.' 

This  animal  inhabits  the  kingdom  of  Nepaul,  and  lives  in  laige 
herds  upon  the  elevated  plains  which  crown  the  lower  ridges  of 
the  Hixnalayan  Mountains.  It  is  wild  and  fleets  and  when  pursued 
flies  to  the  rocky  hills,  where  it  easily  escapes  the  hunter,  and  is 
indeed  rarely  taken  except  by  stratagem.  Its  flesh' is  considered 
excellent  venison.  It  is  entirely  confined  to  the  cold  upper  regions  of 
Nepaul,  and  is  incapable  of  bearing  the  sultry  heat  of  the  plains  of 
Hindustan. 

Mazama 

Has  small,  conical,  round,  nearly  erect  horns,  slightly  inclined  back- 
wards, and  recurved  at  the  tip,  ringed  at  the  base ;  the  nose  ovine, 
hairy ;  the  fur  double,  the  outer  very  long,  hairy,  and  dependent, 
the  under  short  and  woolly. 

63.  M.  Amerieanat  the  Mazame,  or  8pring£uck.  The  colour  of  this 
creature  is  white ;  the  horns  and  edge  of  the  nostrils  black.  It  is  the 
Mountain  Sheep- Antelope  of  Bennett,  the  Rocky^Mountain  Sheep  of 
Jameson.     It  inhabits  the  Rooky  Molmtains  of  North  America. 

Hupicapra 

Has  elongate  slender  round  horns,  nearly  erect  from  above  the 
orbit,  and  suddenly  hooked  backward  at  the  tip;  the  nose  ovine, 
hairy ;  the  frir  soft. 

si.  R  Tragui  {AtUilope  Ru/picapra,  Pallas),  the  Chamois  or  Qems. 
It  is  the  only  animal  of  western  Europe  that  partakes  in  any  degree 
of  the  characters  of  the  Antelopes.  The  horns  are  seldom  more  than 
6  or  7  inches  long,  and  are  nearly  parallel  throughout  their  whole 
extent.  The  entire  length  of  the  body  is  about  S  feet  3  inches,  that 
of  the  head  to  the  root  of  the  horns  6  inches,  that  of  the  ears  4 
inches,  of  the  tail  3^  inches,  a<id  the  height  at  the  shoulders  rather 
better  than  2  feet.  The  whole  body  is  covered  with  long  hair,  hanging 
down  over  the  sides,  of  a  deep-brown  colour  in  winter  and  brownish 
fawn-colour  in  summer,  being  in  spring  slightly  mixed  with  gray :  the 
head  is  of  a  very  pale  yellow  or  straw-colour,  with  a  dark-brown  band 
on  each  side  passing  from  the  root  of  the  ears  to  the  comers  of  the 
mouth,  and  encircling  the  eyes  and  base  of  the  horns ;  the  tail  is  short 
and  black,  and  the  edges  of  the  hips  and  interior  of  the  thighs  and 
ears  alone  white.  The  face  is  straight,  as  in  the  goat ;  the  ears  small, 
erect,  and  pointed ;  and  the  chin  without  a  beard.  In  old  individuals, 
particularly  during  the  severe  colds  of  winter,  the  cheeks,  chin,  and 


throat  turn  white,  and  the  breast  and  belly  are  at  all  times  of  a  light 
silvery  brown  or  yellow.  Underneath  the  external  covering  there  is 
a  short  thick  coat  of  fine  wool,  which  lies  close  to  the  skin,  and  pro- 
tects the  animal  from  the  rigours  of  the  cold  mountain  regions  which 
it  inhabits.  The  colours  of  both  sexes  are  the  same,  but  the  females 
are  rather  smaller  than  the  males,  and  have  horns  less  abruptly  hooked 
backwards.  They  go  five  months  with  young,  and  kid  in  March  or 
April,  producing  one  or  very  rarely  two  at  a  birth,  which  they  suckle 
till  the  October  following.  The  young  are  at  first  of  a  imiform  deep 
yellowish-brown,  with  the  lower  jaw,  sides  of  the  head  and  throat, 
white ;  and  the  same  dark  bands  through  the  eyes  as  in  the  adults 
only  not  extending  so  far  back  on  the  head. 


The  Chamois  {Rupicapra  Tragut). 

The  Chamois,  like  the  Ibex,  inhabits  the  loftiest  chains  of  the 
primitive  mountain  ridges,  and  displays  all  the  vivacity,  restlessness, 
and  agility  of  the  common  goat  It  is  extremely  impatient  of  heat, 
and  during  stmimer  is  only  to  be  found  on  the  tops  of  the  highest 
mountains,  or  in  deep  glens  where  the  snow  lies  throughout  the 
year -J  in  winter,  however,  it  descends  to  the  lower  ridges,  and  it  is 
then  only  that  the  hunters  can  pursue  it  with  any  hope  of  success. 
Its  senses  of  sight  and  smell  are  remarkably  acute ;  it  scents  a.  man 
at  a  very  great  distance,  and  displays  the  greatest  restlessness  and 
alarm  till  it  obtains  a  sight  of  the  object  of  its  terror,  leaping 
upon  the  highest  rocks  at  hand  in  order  to  command  a  more  exten- 
sive prospect,  and  uttering  a  suppressed  whistle  or  hissing  sound, 
being  all  the  time  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  agitation ;  but  no  sooner 
does  he  appear  in  sight  than  it  flies  with  the  utmoErt  speed,  scaling 
rocks  which  few  other  animals  could  attempt,  and,  if  not  intercepted 
by  stratagem,  soon  leaves  its  pursuers  fiu*  behind.  The  tisual  and 
most  successful  mode  of  hunting  the  Chamois  is  therefore  for  a  party 
of  hunters  to  unite,  and  surround  some  mountain-glen  which  they 
are  previously  known  to  frequent  for  the  purpose  of  lying  on  the 
fresh  snow  during  the  day-time;  towards  this  point  the  hunters 
advance  simultaneously,  when  the  animals,  of  course  scenting  those 
which  come  down  the  wind,  retire  in  an  opposite  direction  and  are 
intercepted  by  another  party.  The  food  of  Uie  Chamois  consists  of 
mountain  herbs,  flowers,  and  the  tender  shoots  of  trees  and  shrubs ; 
it  seldom  drinks.  Nothing  can  be  more  admirable  than  the  agility 
with  which  it  ascends  and  descends  rocks  apparently  perpendicular. 
It  does  not  descend  at  a  single  bound  nor  in  a  vertical  direction,  but 
by  projecting  itself  obliquely  or  diagonally  forwards,  striking  the 
face  of  the  rock  three  or  four  times  with  its  feet  for  the  purpose  of 
renewing  its  force,  or  directing  it  more  steadil^^  the  point  it  aims 
at ;  and  in  this  manner  it  will  descend  a  rock  ahnost  perpendicular  of 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  in  height,  without  the  smallest  projection  upon 
which  to  rest  its  feet.  This  animal  is  extremely  partial  to  salt^  and 
many  stones  are  met  with  in  the  Alps  hollowed  by  the  oontinua] 
licking  of  the  Chamois  on  account  of  the  saltpetre  with  which  they 
aboimd.  The  species  is  found  in  all  the  high  mountain-chains  of 
Europe  and  western  Asia,  in  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the  Carpathian 
and  Grecian  mountains,  the  chains  of  Caucasus  and  Taurus,  and 
perhaps  in  other  situations. 

AiUiloeapra 

Has  erect  horns  arising  directly  over  the  orbit,  and  ending  in  a 
conical  recurved  tip  ;  the  nose  ovine,  hairy ;  the  fur  very  dose ;  the 
hairs  stiff,  coarse,  flattened,  wavy ;  the  tail  very  short. 

66.  A.  Americana  (AnlUope  furcifery  H.  Smith),  the  Cabrit^  or  Prong- 
Horn,  called  Cabree  by  the  Canadian  Y oyageura,  and  The  G<>at  by  the 
Fur-Traders.  This  animal  measures  4  feet  4  inches  from  the  nose  to 
the  root  of  the  tail ;  its  height  is  3  feet  at  the  shoulder,  and  the  same 


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at  the  croup ;  the  ears  are  upwards  of  6  inches  long,  and  the  tail 
about  4  i  inches.  The  horns  rise  perpendicularly  from  the  skull,  imme- 
diately above  the  orbits;   they  spread  outwards,  and  are  perfectly 


The  Prong.Hom  {A,  Americana.) 

straight  till  within  2  or  3  inches  of  the  points,  where  they  curve 
suddenly  backwards  and  inwards,  forming  a  small  hook,  like  those  of 
the  Chamois.  The  prong  is  situated  upon  their  anterior  fskce,  and  in 
adult  animals  about  half-way  up  from  the  root ;  below  it  the  horns 
are  strongly  compressed,  rough  and  scabrous  or  pearly,  like  the 
antlers  of  deer ;  above  it  they  are  round,  black,  and  policed.  The 
pron^  itself  is  also  very  much  compressed  ;  it  is  little  more  than  an 
inch  m  length,  and  points  forwards,  upwfurds,  and  a  little  outwards. 
The  ears  are  long,  narrow,  and  pointed ;  the  tail  short  and  bushy ; 
the  eye  laige  and  lively ;  the  limbs  long  and  slender;  and  the  whole 
form  and  appearance  of  the  animal  peculiarly  graceful  and  elegant. 
The  head,  ears,  and  legs  are  covered  with  short  dose  hair  of  the 
common  description,  but  that  of  the  body  is  long  and  padded,  and  of 
a  texture  altogether  different  from  that  of  other  animals.  It  is 
tubular  or  hollow  within  like  the  feather  of  a  bird,  but  so  brittle  and 
devoid  of  elasticity  that  it  snaps  with  the  smallest  effort^  and,  when 
pressed  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  crushes  like  a  reed  and  never 
regains  its  original  form.  It  stands  directly  out  at  right  angles  to  the 
hide,  is  about  2  inches  lon^  on  the  back,  sides,  and  buttocks,  but  from 
the  ears  half-way  down  the  neck  it  exceeds  6  inches  in  length,  and 
forms  an  erect  mane,  equally  conspicuous  in  both  sexes.  On  the  nape 
of  the  neck,  shoulders,  hackf  and  hips,  it  is  of  a  uniform  fawn-colour 
for  half  an  inch  at  the  point>  and  light-blue  with  a  tinge  of  rose- 
colour  at  the  root ;  on  the  sides,  chesty  and  belly,  the  latter  colour 
prevails  at  the  root,  and  the  point  is  of  a  pure  and  shining  white. 
The  extremities  are  uniform  light  fawn-colour  throughout^  except  on 
the  interior  of  the  fore  arms  and  thighs,  which  are  whitei  A  broad 
disk  of  pure  white  also  surroimds  the  tail,  and  passes  over  the  croup, 
and  the  throat  is  likewise  marked  with  two  tnmsverse  bands  of  the 
same  colour.  This  is  the  winter  dress  of  the  animal ;  but  Dr.  Richard- 
son, who  has  well  described  it  in  his  'Fauna  BoreaU-Americana^' 
informs  us  that  in  summer  when  the  new  coat  appears,  it  has  at  first 
the  ordinary  texture  and  appearance  of  common  hair,  and  that  it  only 
assumes  the  appearances  here  described  on  the  approach  of  the  cold 
season. 

The  Prong-Horn  inhabits  all  the  western  parts  of  North  America 
from  the  58**  of  north  latitude  to  the  plains  of  Mexico  and  California, 
that  is,  presoming  this  species  to  be  the  Mazama  of  Hernandez  :  it  is 
particularly  numerous  on  the  banks  of  the  southern  branch  of  the 
Saskatchewan,  and  on  the  upper  plains  of  the  Columbia  River,  and  a 
small  herd  annually  visits  the  neighbourhood  of  the  station  called  Carl- 
ton House,  where  some  even  linger  throughout  the  winter.  They  are 
gregarious,  frequent  the  open  phuns  and  hills  of  moderate  height,  never 
inhabit  closely-wooded  districts,  and  migrate  from  noith  to  south 
according  to  the  season.  When  the  ground  is  dear,  their  speed  sur- 
passes that  of  most  other  animals,  but  a  good  horse  easily  outstrips 
them  tStar  a  slight  fall  of  snow.  They  are  extremdy  curious,  and  the 
Indians,  and  even  the  wolves,  as  we  are  informed  by  Dr.  €k>dman, 
know  how  to  take  advantage  of  their  curiosity  to  get  within  reach  of 
them,  by  crouching  down,  and  moving  forwards  or  stopping  alter* 
Dately.  The  antelopes  wheel  round  and  round  the  object  of  their 
attention,  decreasing  thdr  distance  at  every  turn,  till  at  last  they 
approadi  suffioienUy  near  to  be  shot  or  captinred.  This  habit 
reoden  tliem  an  .easy  prey,  but  as  their  flesh  is  not  much  esteemed 


by  the  Indians,  they  are  only  hunted  in  times  of  scarcity.  Tho 
females  produce  one  lud,  and  occasionally  two  kids,  early  in  the  month 
of  June. 

IL  Antelopes  of  the  Desebt. 

In  this  section  the  animals  have  a  broad  nose  with  the  -nostrils 
subvalvular,  and  lined  with  bristles  within.  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  divides 
these  into  two  groups,  the  Equine  ArUdopes,  and  the  Bovine  Antelopet. 

1.  Eqtkine  AfUdopea, 

These  Antelopes  have  a  broad,  depressed,  spongy,  bristly  muzzle, 
with  large  nostnls,  covered  with  a  large  spongy  valve. 
Connochetea 

Has  the  horns  bent  down,  and  outwards  on  the  sides,  broad  at  the 
base,  bent  up  at  the  tip ;  the  nose  broad,  dilated,  spongy,  bristly ; 
the  nostrils  laxge,  operculated ;  the  tail  elongate,  bushy,  hairy  from 
the  base ;  the  hoo&  compressed  in  front ;  tiie  intermaxillary  bones 
elongated ;  the  nose-hole  rather  large ;  ihe  frontal  bone  much  produced 
behind.    The  female  has  four  teats. 

66.  C.  Onu  (AntUope  OnUf  Qmelin),  the  Qnu  or  Kokoon,  is  about  the 
size  of  a  well-grown  ass.     The  neck,  body,  and  tail  precisely  resemble 


The  Gnu  (C.  ffnu), 

those  of  a  small  horse,  and  the  pace  also,  which  is  a  spedes  of  light 
gallop,  is  so  perfectly  similar,  that  a  herd  of  Gnus,  when  seen  at  a 
distance  flying  over  the  plains  of  South  Africa,  might  be  readily 
mistaken  for  a  troop  of  the  wild  zebras  or  quaggas  which  inhabit  the 
same  localities,  if  their  dark  and  unifonn  colour  did  not  distinguish 
them. 

The  Gnus  live  in  extensive  herds  on  the  karroos  of  South  Africa ; 
they  are  natiurally  wild  and  difficult  to  approach,  and  when  wounded 
will  turn  upon  the  hunter  and  pursue  him  in  turn,  dropping  on  their 
knees  before  maldng  an  attack,  and  then  darting  forwards  with 
amazing  force  and  vdodty.  When  first  alarmed  they  oommenoe  by 
flinging  up  tiieir  heels  and  capering  like  a  restive  horse,  tossing  their 
hoards  ana  tails,  and  butting  at  the  mole-hills  or  other  olgeote,  but 
immediately  after  takmg  to  flight,  and  traversing  the  desert  with  a 
speed  whidi  soon  carries  them  beyond  the  reach  of  danger.  They  do 
not  run  in  a  confused  crowd  like  sheep  or  oxen,  but  in  angle  file 
following  a  leader,  and  have  a  pleasing  appearance  as  they  skim 
over  the  levd  plain&  They  are  said  to  be  subject  to  a  cutaneous 
eruption  at  particular  seasons  of  the  year,  which  they  sometimes 
communicate  to  domestic  cattle,  and  which  invariably  ends  in 
death. 

The  Kokoon  (A.  fattrtna,  Burchell),  is  identical  with  the  oommon 
Gnu,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  specimen  named  Kokoon  by  CoL  H.  Smith, 
in  the  collection  of  the  London  Missionaiy  Society. 

67.  C.  Gorgon  {CaiobHepat  Oorgon,  H.  Smith),  the  Goigon,  or  Brindled 
Gnu,  has  a  convex  smooth  face,  covered  with  hair  lying  towards^  the 
nose ;  the  chest  not  maned.  ■  It  is  of  a  black  colour,  varied,  and  striped 
with  gray.  It  is  the  Bastard  Wilde  Beest  of  the  Dutch  at  the  Cape. 
It  lives  to  the  north  of  the  Nu  Gareep,  or  Black  River,  and  though 
herds  feed  on  its  banks,  yet  itns  not  known  to  cross  it.  It  occurs  on 
the  large  plains  north  of  the  Orange  River,  and  when  alarmed  each  herd 
decamps  in  long  regular  files.  The  flesh  is  good  to  eat,  and  is  muoh 
sought  after.  The  Betchuanas  use  the  skins  for  their  cloaks  and 
mantles. 

2.  Bovine  Antdopet. 

These  Antdopes  have  the  nose  moderately  broad,  with  a  moderate 
or  small  bald  moist  muffle ;  the  horns  high  on  the  frontal  ridge ;  the 
grinders  rather  small,  without  supplemental  lobes ;  the  central  cutting- 
teeth  enlarged  at  the  end. 


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AeUiaphuB, 

Has  the  horns  Ijr&te  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  rather  produced 
frontal  bones,  thick  at  the  base,  and  suddenly  curved  at  a  nearly  right 
angle ;  nose  moderately  broad,  cervine ;  muffle  moderate,  bald,  moist; 
tear-bag  covered  with  a  tuft  of  hair.    The  female  has  two  teats. 

68.  A,  Bubalit  (AtUUope  Bubalis,  Pallas),  the  Bubale,  or  Bekker- 
el-Wash,  is  about  the  size  of  the  larvest  stag,  and  la  particularly 
remarkable  for  the  great  length  of  its  head,  and  its  narrow,  flat,  and 
straight  forehead  and  face. 


the  Mandingoes.  This  species  was  formerly  regarded  by  Dr.  J.  K 
Qray  as  the  Koba  of  Buffon,  but  he  believes  now  that  this  animal  is 
referable  to  the  next  speciee. 

72.  D.  PygargcL,  the  Nunni,  or  Bonte-Boc,  is  of  a  simple  red  colour ; 
the  outer  side  of  the  limbs  darker ;  the  streak  between  the  homa, 
fieuie,  and  rump  above  the  taU,  white ;  the  temple  and  upper  port  of 
throat  whitish ;  the  legs  whitish,  upper  and  lower  part  brown,  varied. 
The  female  has  the  throat  and  under  part  of  the  body  white.  The 
terms  Kob  and  Koba  are  applied  to  various  kinds  of  antelopes  by  the 
negroes,  and  this  is  the  species  to  which  Dr.  Qray  believes  the  homa 
of  the  animal  belong  whicn  accompany  his  description  of  the  Koha. 

73.  2>.  albifnmif  the  Bless-Boc,  is  described  by  Burchea  "  A  half- 
grown  specimen,"  says  Dr.  Qray,  "  of  this  spocies,  when  compared 


The  B«kker  el-Waah  (Alcelaphxu  Bubalis). 
This  animal  called  Bekker-el-WMh.  or  Wild  Ox,  by  the  Arabs,  is 
common  in  every  part  of  northern  Africa,  living  in  numerous  herds 
on  the  confines  of  the  Tell  or  cultivated  parts,  and  the  Sahara  or 
Desert,  and  also,  according  to  Captain  Lyon,  upon  the  mountains 
south  of  Tripoli.  Barbary  seems  to  be  the  chief  habitat  of  the  species, 
but  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  few  individuals  find  their  way  across 
the  Desert  to  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  where,  however,  they  are  seldom 
seen,  and,  as  it  is  said,  only  when  they  stray  from  their  native  habitat. 
At  the  same  time  it  Lb  to  be  observed,  that  its  representation  occurs 
among  the  hieroglyphics  of  the  temples  of  Upper  Egypt.  Dr.  Shaw 
informs  us  that  the  Bubale  ia  naturally  of  a  familiar  disposition, 
that  the  young  calves  frequently  mix  with  domestic  cattle,  and  soon 
learn  to  attach  themselves  to  the  herd  without  attempting  to  escape 
afterwards.  They  fight  like  the  common  bull,  by  lowering  the  head, 
and  striking  suddenly  upwards  with  the  horns,  which  are  formidable 
weapons  either  for  attack  or  defence. 

69.  A.  Caama  (Aniilope  Caam^  Cuvier),  the  Lecama,  or  Harte- 
Beest.  It  is  of  a  gray-brown  colour ;  the  dorsal  line,  streak  on  face, 
outer  side  of  limbs,  black ;  a  large  triangular  spot  on  the  haunches 
whitish.  It  inhabits  the  plains  of  South  Afnca,  and  is  the  most 
common  of  all  the  laige  antelopes  in  that  country.  It  resides  in  lazge 
herds,  and  is  a  favourite  object  of  pursuit  with  the  natives  and 
colonists.  Its  pace,  when  at  fuU  speed,  redembles  a  heavy  gallop,  but 
IS  tolerably  quick  notwithstanding ;  and  the  animal  has  a  habit  of 
frequently  stopping  to  gaze  at  its  pursuers  when  it  has  got  to  any 
distance  a-head  of  them.  Its  manners  are  sufficiently  mild  and  tract- 
able, but  when  put  upon  its  defence  it  makes  good  use  of  its  powerful 
horns,  dropping  on  its  knees  before  charging,  and  after  advancing  some 
distance  in  this  position,  darting  suddenly  forwards  with  great  force 
against  its  adversary.  The  flesh  is  rather  dry,  but  of  a  fine  grain, 
more  nearly  resembling  the  beef  of  the  ox  than  that  of  any  other 
antelope,  except  perhaps  the  Eland,  and  it  has  a  high  game  flavom* 
which  makes  it  universally  esteemed.  The  female  produces  but  a 
single  calf,  which  she  brings  forth  in  September  or  April,  and  which, 
if  taken  yoxmg,  is  easily  domesticated. 

Damalit 
Has  diveiging,  sub-cylindrical,  lyrate  horns ;  the  nose  moderately 
broad,  cervine,  with  a  small  bald  moist  muffle  between  and  below  the 
nostrils ;  an  exposed  tear-bag.     The  female  has  two  teats. 

70.  D.  lunatug  {AntUope  Ivnata^  Burchell),  the  Sassaby,  or  Bastard 
Harte-Beest,  is  of  a  rufous  glaticous  colour,  with  the  outer  sides  of  the 
limbs  dark.  It  inhabits  the  south  of  Africa,  between  Latikoo  and  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn.  It  lives  in  herds  of  six  or  ten,  in  the  flat  or 
wooded  districts.  The  flesh  is  esteemed.  When  not  disturbed  it  is 
confiding  and  curious,  but  when  hunted  it  becomes  vigilant  and  shy. 

71.  2>.  SenegaUnsU,  the  Korrigum,  is  of  a  reddish-gray  colour ;  the 
front  of  the  face,  from  nose  to  occiput,  a  small  spot  behind  the  eyes, 
a  small  streak  above  the  angle  of  the  mouth,  streak  on  outside  of 
limbs  above  the  knees,  and  tuft  of  the  tail,  black.  This  animal  is  a 
native  of  West  Africa,  on  the  Qambia  River  and  Macarthy's  Island. 
It  is  cadled  Tonga  or  Yongah  by  the  Joliflfs,  and  Tan-Rong   by 


BleMuUoo  {D,  alb'\firon»), 

with  a  similar  specimen  of  D.  Pygarga  in  the  Enme  paddock,  was 
darker,  with  a  pale  spot  between  the  horns,  separated  by  a  dark  spot 
from  the  white  on  the  face ;  the  temple  was  white,  with  a  white  spot ; 
the  legs  had  a  brown  stripe  down  the  outer  side  of  the  fronts  and  the 
throat  and  rump  brown,  the  latter  without  any  white  spot." 

74.  D.  Zebra,  the  Doria.  The  skins,  without  head  and  feet,  are  alone 
known  of  this  animal  The  specific  name  is  commemorative  of  Mrs. 
Ogilby,  whose  Christian  name  was  Doria.  In  the  '  Catalogue  of  the 
Zoological  Society,'  it  is  called  the  Qilded  Antelope.  It  is  a  native  of 
West  Africa.  The  skins  are  of  a  bright  golden-brown  colour,  with 
several  black  cross-bands,  narrowing  at  the  end. 

We  might  here  close  our  notice  of  the  fiunily  of  Antelopes,  as  we 
have  come  to  the  end  of  the  species  in  a  scientific  point  of  view.  But 
popularly  there  is  another  group  of  Ruminants,  which  are  known  under 
the  name  of  Antelopes,  and  which  were  referred  to  the  article 
*  Antelope/  in  the  *  Penny  Cyclopaedia.'  This  group  is  not  large, 
but  comprises  some  very  interesting  forms  of  the  family  of  Ruminating 
Animals.  It  is  called  Strfpticera,  from  the  peculiar  form  of  the  horns. 
Strtpticenx, 

Horns  subspiral,  inclined  backwards ;  the  tear-bag  distinct ;  the 
nostrils  nearly  together  in  front ;  the  forehead  flat ;  the  males  not 
bearded  on  the  chin ;  the  fur  white,  banded  or  spotted ;  the  females 
have  four  teats  and  a  small  udder.  These  animals  are  distin^ishcd 
among  the  Hollow-Homed  Bovine  Ruminants,  by  being  marked  with 
white  stripes  and  spots.  M.  Agassiz  has  observed  that  the  horns  of 
the  Strqmcerce  and  the  Sheep  are  twisted  in  contrary  directions. 
Bfr.  OgUby  has  observed  that  the  right  horn  of  the  l^epneerof  is 
twisted  in  the  same  direction  as  the  left  horn  of  the  Sheep,  and  vice 
vend.  There  are  four  genera  of  this  family  which  may  be  thus 
divided  : — 

L  Limbs  equal     (Natives  of  Africa.) 

a.  Nose  cervine.     Neck,  with  a  Unear  mane. 

1.  Strepsiceros.  Horns  spiral,  keeled 

2.  Oreat.    Horns  stnught,  with  a  spiral  keeL 

b.  Nose  bovine.     Neck,  wiii  long  hair. 

3.  Tragdaphut,     Horns  subtriangular,  subspiraL 
IL  Hinder  legs  short     (Natives  of  Asia.) 

4.  Portax.     Horns  shorty  subtriangular. 

75.  Strepiicerot  Kudu  {AtUilope  StrepnceroSf  Pallas),  the  Eechlongole 
or  Koodoo,  is  a  magnificent  animal  of  South  Africa,  and  one  of 
the  largest  of  Antelopes,  measuring  upwards  of  8  feet  in  length, 
and  being  4  feet  high  at  the  shoulder.  The  horns  of  the  male  are 
particularly  magnificent ;  they  are  nearly  4  feet  long,  and  beautifiUly 
twisted  into  a  wide-sweeping  spiral  of  2^  turns,  surrounded  by  a 
prominent  wreath  which  follows  all  their  windings,  and  is  gradually 
obliterated  towards  the  points,  which  are  rather  blunt  and  directed 


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outwaida.  They  are  thick  at  the  base,  and  marked  for  some  distance 
up  with  irregpihir  wrinkles,  but  not  annulated,  dark-brown  at  the 
bottom,  black  in  the  middle,  and  the  extreme  points  whiter    They 


The  Koodoo  {Ulrepsicervs  Kudu). 

spread  boldly  and  widely  outwards,  and  are  usually  carried  couched 
on  each  side  of  the  back,  on  account  of  their  great  weight  The 
whole  make  of  this  animal  is  heavy ;  the  head  large  and  ten^inated 
by  a  broad  muzzle ;  the  ears  broad  and  slouching ;  the  limbs  thick 
and  robust ;  and  the  whole  external  appearance  more  nearly  resembling 
that  of  an  ox  than  of  an  antelope.  The  ground-colour  of  the  back 
and  sides  is  a  light  fallow-brown,  with  a  narrow  white  ribbon  along 
the  spine,  and  8  or  10  similar  bands  descending  from  the  back,  and 
passing  obliquely  down  the  sides  and  hips ;  the  belly  and  under  parts 
are  pale  silvery  brown.  On  the  neck  and  withers  is  a  thin  spare 
mane  of  a  brown  colour,  and  the  chin,  throat,  and  breast  are  furnished 
with  similar  long  hairs,  forming  a  species  of  beard.  The  cheeks  are 
marked  vrith  two  or  three  round  wMte  spots,  and  a  narrow  gray  line 
passes  from  the  anterior  angle  of  the  eye  down  towards  the  muzzle. 
The  tail  is  moderately  long,  and  equally  covered  with  short  hair. 

This  magnificent  animal  inhabits  the  woody  parts  of  KafiEraria, 
principally  along  the  banks  of  rivers,  to  which  it  readily  takes  when 
pursued,  and  swims  wclL  It  lives  in  small  families  of  four  or  five 
individuals.  When  taken  young  they  are  readily  domesticated,  and 
show  no  inclination  to  regain  their  original  freedom.  The  females 
produce  one  young  at  a  time.  The  large  antelope  called  Aggergeen  by 
Pearce,  in  his  account  of  his  *  Residence  in  Abyssinia,'  has  been  sup- 
posed, but  with  little  probability,  to  be  the  same  as  the  Koodoo  of 
South  Africa. 

76.  Oreas  Cannae  (Antilope  Orecu,  Pallas,)  the  Impoofoo,  Eland,  Cape 


The  Eland  {0.  Cantta), 
Elk,  Canna,  or  Bastard  Eland,  is  considerably  the  largest  of  all  the 
Antelopes,  being  the  size  of  a  good  horse,  and  measuring  8  feet 
2  inches  in  length,  and  full  5  feet  in  height  at  the  shoulder.  The 
horns  of  the  nude  are  1^  foot  in  length,  very  thick  and  heavy,  almost 
Btaight  till  within  3  inches  of  the  tips,  where  they  bend  outwards. 


attenuated  at  the  points,  and  surrounded  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  their  length  with  a  thick  spiral  wreath,  which  passes  twice 
completely  round  them,  and  finishes  by  becoming  indistinct  near  the 
points.  Those  of  the  females  are  longer  and  smaller,  and  the  spiral 
wreath  is,  in  some  specimens  at  least,  scarcely  to  be  seen.  The  head 
is  long  and  pointed,  the  ears  are  large,  the  neck  thick,  compressed  on 
the  sides,  as  in  the  ox,  and  furnished  undenjeath  with  a  loose  hanging 
skin  or  dewlap,  fringed  along  the  margin  with  a  border  of  long  hair. 
There  is  likewise  a  large  protuberance  of  the  size  of  a  man's  fist  on 
the  larynx ;  and  it  was  probably  from  thib  organ,  which  is  likewise 
found  in  the  Elk  of  Europe,  that  the  animal  derived  the  name  of 
Eland,  by  which  it  is  universaUy  known  at  the  Cape.  From  the 
centre  of  the  forehead  to  the  root  of  the  tail  runs  a  short  erect  mane 
of  dark  brown  hair,  which  is  reversed  on  the  neck,  but  directed 
backwards  in  the  usual  manner  along  the  spine  of  the  bacL  The 
length  of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  interscapular  vertebree  produces 
a  considerable  and  sufficiently  remarkable  elevation  of  the  shoulders ; 
but  there  is  no  actual  himip,  as  in  the  Camel  or  Indian  Ox,  th&ugh  at 
first  sight  such  a  formation  might  be  supposed  to  exist.  The  tail  is 
upwards  of  2  feet  long,  and  terminated  by  a  tuft  of  long  black  hair. 
.The  colour  of  the  body  is  uniform  reddish-fawn  on  the  upper  parts, 
and  white  on  the  under ;  the  head  and  neck  ashy-gray,  but  in  some  indi- 
viduals the  latter  colour  extends  over  all  the  upper  parts  of  the  body. 

The  Eland  is  a  large  heavy  animal,  which,  when  full  grown,  weighs 
from  7  to  9  cwts.  and,  contrary  to  the  usual  rule  observed  among 
Antelopes,  is  commonly  extremely  fat  Its  flesh  is  consequently  more 
piized  tnajn  that  of  any  other  wild  animal  of  South  Africa,  and  the 
large  muscles  of  the  thighs,  in  particular,  are  held  in  the  highest 
estimation  when  dried  and  cured,  under  which  form  they  are 
denominated  thigh-tongues.  The  character  of  this  animal  is  very 
mild,  and  as  it  were  predisposed  to  domestication ;  it  is  gregarious, 
and  lives  in  large  herds  upon  the  open  plains  and  low  hills,  the  old 
males  generally  residing  apart  Elands  were  formerly  very  common 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Cape  Town,  but  were  so  much 
hunted,  that  they  have  long  since  ceased  to  fluent  the  inhabited 
districts,  and  are  now  rarely  met  with  except  in  the  more  distant  and 
retired  parts  of  the  colony.  Being  generally  very  fat  and  pursy,  they 
do  not  run  well,  and  are  soon  fatigued ;  it  is  even  said  that  when  hard 
run  a  red  oily  perspiration  has  been  known  to  ooze  out  from  the  pores 
of  their  skin,  and  that  they  occasionallv  drop  down  from  plethora. 
Like  most  other  animals  when  hunted,  they  always  run  against  the 
wind.  As  the  carcass  is  weighty  and  consequently  difficult  to 
transport,  the  great  object  of  the  hunters,  in  the  chase  of  the  Eland, 
is  to  turn  their  game  in  such  a  direction  as  to  drive  it  close  to  their 
own  residence  before  killing  it ;  and  in  fact  the  Cape  farmers,  from 
long  practice  and  intimate  knowledge  of  the  animal's  habits,  very 
frequently  succeed  in  accomplishing  this  masterpiece  of  South  African 
field-sports.  They  are  so  gentle  that  a  man  on  horseback  may 
penetrate  into  the  very  middle  of  a  herd,  without  alarming  them,  and 
pick  out  ihe  fattest  and  best-conditioned,  and  as  the  old  bulls  are 
conmionly  chosen  on  account  of  their  greater  size  and  weight,  it 
not.  unfrequently  happens  that  the  herd  is  left  altogether  without  a 
male.  There  are  several  very  fine  specimens  of  this  animal  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  presented  by  the  late  Earl  of  Derby. 

Mr.  Livingstone  savs  of  this  animal — "  Our  party  was  well  supplied 
with  Eland  flesh  durmg  our  passe^e  through  the  desert ;  and  it  being 
superior  to  beef,  and  the  animal  as  large  as  an  ox,  it  seems  strange  it 
has  not  yet  been  introduced  into  Englsmd." 

77.  0.  DerbiantUf  the  Gingi  Jonga,  is  a  species  found  in  Western 
Africa  on  the  river  Cassaman.  It  is  of  a  pale  reddish-brown  colour, 
with  the  front  of  the  face,  the  neck,  the  front  part  of  the  under-side, 
a  spot  on  the  front  and  upper  part  of  the  fore  leg,  and  the  dorsal 
streak,  dark  black. 

Tragelaphtu 

Has  horns  conical,  tapering,  with  only  one  spiral  turn ;  tear-bag 

distinct ;  neck  and  throat  with  longer  hair ;  nape  and  back  with  a 

more  or  less  distinct  mane;    legs  slender;    hoofs  and  false  hoofs 

small;  females  hornless.  \     v    -d      j 

78.  Tragelaphut  Ewrycenu  {Antilope  Ewycerus,  Ogilby),  the  Broad- 
Homed  Antelope,  has  the  head  pale-brown ;  a  broad  band  before  the 
eyes,  and  two  large  spots  on  cheeks,  chin,  and  front  of  upper-lip, 
white.  The  horns  are  elongated,  thick,  scarcely  bent  forward  at  the 
tip ;  the  throat  covered  with  long  black  hairs ;  the  specimens  of  this 
species  have  come  from  the  Bight  of  Biafra. 

79.  T.  Angani,  the  Inyala,  a  native  of  Natal,  is  distinguished 
from  the  last  species  by  the  slendemess  of  its  horns,  the  smaller  size 
of  its  head,  and  the  dark  colour  and  small  size  of  the  bands  and  spots 
on  the  head. 

80.  T.  8cripta{A  rUilope  icripta,  Pallas),  the  Guib,  measures  4^  feet  from 
the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  its  height  at  the  shoulder  is  2  feet 
6  inches,  and  at  the  croup  2  feet  8  inches ;  the  horns  are  8  inches  long, 
the  ears  6,  and  the  tail  6  inches.  The  horns  are  straight,  a  little  com- 
pressed and  twisted  spirally  upon  their  axis,  with  two  wreaths  passing 
round  them  strongly  marked  at  bottom,  but  obliterated  within  an  inch 
or  two  of  the  points.  The  general  colour  is  a  reddish-fawn  marked  vdth 
white  lines  and  spota  The  head  is  unmixed  fawn-colour  with  a  dark 
mai-k  on  the  forehead  and  face,  white  spots  in  front  and  beneath  each 
eye,  and  another  on  the  cheek,  at  some  distance  beneath  the  opening 


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ANTILOPEiB. 


of  the  ear ;  the  sidos  of  the  upper  lip  and  the  whole  space  under  the 
chin  are  likewise  white.  The  neck  is  unmixed  fawn,  deep  above  and 
lighter  beneath,  with  a  white  mark  on  the  breast :  the  body  likewise 
is  deep  fawn-colour,  with  a  dorsal  line  of  white  and  black  hair  inter- 
mixed, and  rather  longer  than  those  on  the  rest  of  the  body.  From 
this  dorsal  line  originate  8  or  1 0  narrow  transyerse  ribbons  of  pure  white, 
which  pass  obliquely  down  over  the  ribs  and  hips,  and  are  crossed  on  the 
sides  and  flanks  by  one  or  sometimes  two  longitudinal  bands  of  the 
same  colour,  running  from  the  shoulder  to  the  hips  on  each  side,  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  dorsal  line.  All  these  markings  are  constant 
in  the  species,  and  equally  common  to  both  sexes  :  they  are  at  reg^ular 
distances  from  one  another,  and,  as  Buffon  has  observed,  present  the 
appearance  of  a  set  of  small  harness.  A  few  small  roimd  white  spots 
are  frequently  also  scattered  over  the  hips  and  thighs,  as  in  the  Bosch- 
Boc,  and  the  interior  of  the  fore  arms,  thighs,  and  legs  are  likewise  of 
this  colour,  but  the  breast,  belly,  and  under  parts  of  the  body  in 
general  are  uniform  fulvous  brown. 

The'Guib  inhabits  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  from  Sierra  Leone  to  the 
banks  of  the  Senegal,  from  the  latter  of  which  localities  it  was  first 
brought  to  Europe  by  Adanson  the  naturalist.  It  is  said  to  associate 
with  its  own  species,  and  to  form  extensive  herds,  which  reside  equally 
in  the  forests  and  on  the  open  plains,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of 
Podor  and  Gk>ree,  where  these  animals  are  very  numerous.  Quib  is 
their  name  in  the  Jolifif  language.  The  colours  are  sometimes  subject 
to  a  slight  variation  as  far  as  regards  the  number  of  longitudinal  and 
transverse  bands  on  the  sides.  Colonel  Smith  has  considered  this 
difference  specific,  and  has  bestowed  the  name  of  A.  pkaUnUa  upon 
the  variety  with  a  single  longitudinal  line  on  the  flanks,  retaining  the 
original  name  of  A.  tcripta  for  the  variety  which  is  marked  with  two 
of  these  lines.  This  distinction,  to  say  the  least  of  it>  is  extremely 
doubtful,  and  the  difference  upon  which  it  is  founded  is  in  all  proba- 
bility merely  accidental. 

81.  T.  DectUa,  the  Decula,  is  of  a  gray-brown  colour.  The  back 
has  three  or  four  indistinct  cross-bands ;  an  arched  streak  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  side,  a  few  spots  forming  an  arch  on  the  haunches ;  dorsal 
line,  streak  on  nose,  and  front  of  fore  legs,  blackish.  It  was  originally 
described  by  Riippell,  and  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia. 

82.  T.  sylvatica  {AtUilope  tyhxUica,  Sparrmann),  the  Bosch-Boc, 
measures  about  4  feet  from  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  and  is 
2  feet  6  inches  high  at  the  shoulder.  The  horns  are  nearly  1  foot  in 
length,  thick  at  the  base  and  gradually  attenuated,  but  ending  in 
rather  blunt  points ;  they  are  twisted  on  their  own  axis,  but  do  not 
form  the  wide-spreading  spiral  curves  so  remarkable  in  those  of  the 
Koodoo  :  from  the  base,  however,  two  sharp  prominent  wreaths,  one 
on  the  outer  and  the  other  on  the  inner  surface,  wind  spirally  round 
them  for  the  first  two-thirds  of  their  length,  and  are  gradually 
obliterated  towards  the  points,  which  are  smooth  and  polished.  The 
ears  are  laiige  and  rounded  at  the  tops ;  the  limbs  robust  but  clean 
and  well-formed;  the  tail  of  moderate  length,  and  similar  to  that 
of  the  common  Fallow-Deer.  The  male  and  female  are  of  different 
colours ;  the  ground-colour  of  the  nude  is  a  dark  sepia-brown  above, 
and  white  beneath,  the  head  and  cheeks  being  light  and  sandy-red, 
and  the  extremities  fulvous ;  that  of  the  female  reddish-£Etwn  above 
and  white  beneath.  Two  pure  white  bands  cross  the  throaty  one  at 
the  junction  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  the  other  at  the  union  of  the 
neck  with  the  chest ;  the  lips  and  chin  are  also  white ;  round  white 
spots  mark  the  cheeks,  and  sometimes  the  nose  in  front  of  the  eyes ; 
similar  spots  are  dispersed  irregularly  over  the  hips  and  thighs, 
to  the  amount  of  a  dossen  or  more  on  each  side,  sometimes  even 
forming  interrupted  lines.  The  hair  is  of  moderate  length,  but  it  is 
smooth  and  lies  close  to  the  body ;  the  backs  of  the  ears  are  covered 
with  short  brown  hair ;  the  tail  is  black  above  and  white  underneath, 
and  the  pastern  joints  are  marked  behind  with  two  oblong  spots  of 
the  same  colour.  In  very  old  males  the  legs  become  almost  uniformly 
gray,  and  at  all  ages  there  is  a  white  line  running  down  their  inner 
surface  even  to  the  very  hoof.  All  these  marks  are  equally  found  in 
the  females,  but  not  being  so  prominently  contrasted,  on  account  of 
the  lighter  groimd-colour  of  this  sex,  they  are  not  so  conspicuous  as 
in  the  males.  There  is  frequently  also  a  narrow  white  list  along  the 
back,  but  this  is  not  a  constant  character  in  either  sex,  and  is,  for  the 
most  part,  wanting  in  the  female&  The  young  males  are  of  the  same 
colour  as  the  adults,  but  rather  lighter,  and  the  white  spots  on  the 
hips  and  thighs  more  faintly  marked. 

The  Bosch-Boc,  or  Bush-Goat^  as  its  colonial  name  implies,  resides  in 
the  woods,  which  it  never  quits  but  during  the  bright  moonlight 
nights,  or  early  in  the  morning,  when  it  comes  out  to  graze  on  the 
border  of  the  forest,  or  to  zoake  incursions  into  the  neighbouring 
gardens  and  corn-fields.  Its  voice  resembles  the  barking  of  a  dog, 
and  its  deceitful  tone  sometimes  leads  the  benighted  traveller  into  the 
most  remote  and  lonely  depths  of  the  forest,  in  the  vain  search  after 
some  human  habitation,  which  he  is  all  the  time  leaving  behind  him. 
It  is  a  slow  runner,  and  easily  caught  when  surprised  in  an  open 
situation,  but  it  keeps  close  to  -Uie  woods,  through  which  it  penetrates 
with  great  ease,  nmning  with  the  horns  couched  backwards  along  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  to  prevent  them  from  impeding  its  course  by  striking 
against  the  branches,  and  having  the  neck  and  throat  frequently 
denuded  by  rubbing  against  the  underwood,  as  it  forces  its  passage 
through  the  thick  covers.    The  species  is  monogamous,  the  male  and 


female  being  always  found  either  alone,  or  accompanied  by  one  or  twu 
kids,  but  never  by  adult  individuals.  It  is  common  enough  in 
Kafifraria,  and  in  such  parts  of  the  Cape  Colony  as  have  sufficient 
forest  to  afford  it  a  secure  asylum ;  its  flesh  makes  good  venison,  that 
of  the  breast  being  particularly  esteemed. 

83.  Portax  Tragocamdua  {ArUUope  pictct,  Pallas),  the  Nil-Ghau  or 
Nyl-Ghau,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  Antelopes  known, 
being  upwards  of  4  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  inhabits  various  parts  of 
India,  whence  it  has  often  been  brought  to  England,  where  it  hves 
and  breeds,  and  is  not  an  uncommon  ammaL  The  face  of  tins  species 
is  long  and  narrow ;  the  muzzle  large  and  naked ;  the  horns  about  7 
inches  long,  small,  round,  and  black,  rather  distant  at  the  base,  nearly 
parallel  throughout  their  whole  length,  pointed  and  slightly  curved 
forwards ;  they  are  perfectly  smooth  and  without  annuli,  but  rather 
triangular  at  the  base,  and  gradually  rounded  and  attenuated  towards 
the  points.  The  lachrymal  sinuses  are  large ;  the  ears  7  inches  in 
length,  broad  and  rounded  like  those  of  an  ox ;  the  neck  deep  and 
compressed  like  that  of  the  horse,  not  round  and  cylindrical  a;:  in  the 


llie  Nil^hau  {Fortax  TragooamelvM), 
Stag  and  most  other  Antelopes ;  and  the  tail  broad,  equally  covered 
with  hair  on  the  sides  and  at  the  root,  but  terminated  by  a  long  black 
tuft,  and  descending  to  the  houghs.  The  legs  are  sxnall  and  well- 
formed,  the  anterior  rather  longer  than  the  posterior ;  and  the  spinous 
processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebro  so  much  elevated  between  the 
shoulders  as  to  give  the  animal  the  appearance  of  having  a  small 
hump.  When  at  rest,  the  feet  are  gathered  close  under  the  body,  and 
the  tail  turned  in  between  the  hind  legs.  The  hair  is  uniformly  short 
and  close  upon  every  part  of  the  head,  body,  and  limbs,  excepting 
along  the  top  of  the  neck  and  on  the  shoulders,  where  it  is  long,  stiff, 
and  uprighl^  forming  a  thin  erect  mane  which  extends  from  between 
the  ears  half-way  down  the  back,  and  on  the  middle  of  the  throat, 
where  there  is  a  species  of  beard  composed  of  stiff  bristly  hair.  The 
general  colour  is  a  uniform  slaty-blue  on  the  upper  parts  in  the  male, 
and  tawny-red  in  the  female ;  on  the  \mder  parts  uniform  white  in  both 
sexes.  The  limbs  and  face  are  almost  brown,  and  the  lips,  chin,  and 
under  surface  of  the  tail,  white.  There  is  a  large  white  sf>ot  on  the 
throat,  and  two  smaller  ones  on  the  cheeks  under  the  lachrymal 
sinuses ;  the  pastern  joints  are  marked  in  front  with  one  spot>  and  in 
rear  with  two  conspicuous  spots  of  the  same  colour,  which  contrast 
strongly  with  the  dark  brown  of  the  surrounding  parts,  and  have 
suggested  the  specific  name  of  Antilope  picta  which  was  given  by 
Pallas  to  this  animal. 

The  Nyl-Qhau  resides  in  the  dense  foi^ets  of  India,  whence  it  occa- 
sionally makes  excursions  very  early  in  the  morning  or  during  the 
night,  to  feed  upon  the  corn-fields  of  the  ruitives  which  happen  to  be 
situated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  jungle.  It  is  a  vicious  animM,  of  very 
uncertain  temper,  and  as  it  is  both  powerful  and  resolute;,  and  fre- 
quently turns  upon  its  pursuers,  it  is  seldom  made  an  object  of  chase 
except  by  the  native  princes,  who  employ  elephants  for  this  purpose, 
or  inclose  the  game  in  nets.  The  usual  method  which  the  shDiarrees, 
or  professional  himters,  employ  for  its  capture  is  to  shoot  it  from  an 
elevated  platform  when  it  comes  out  at  night  or  early  in  the  morning 
to  feed  on  the  confines  of  the  jungle ;  this  being  likewise  their  mode 
of  destroying  tigers,  wild  boars,  and  other  beasts  which  they  dare  not 
attack  openly.  Even  in  confinement,  and  when  domesticated  from 
birth,  the  violent  and  changeable  temper  of  the  Nyl-Ghau  cannot  be 
trusted.  Previous  to  making  an  attack,  it  drops  upon  the  fore- 
knees,  advancing  in  this  position  till  within  a  proper  distance,  then 
darting  suddenly  forwards  with  the  velocity  of  an  arrow,  and  with  a 
force  which  no  ordinary  animal  can  withstand.    Yet^  notwithstanding 


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APR 


870 


its  vigour  aad  resolution,  it  ia  the  most  common  prey  of  the  tiger, 
which  the  shikarreee  often  destroy  in  the  very  act  of  derouring  the 
mangled  remama  of  this  animal ;  for,  when  these  are  discovered,  the 
hunters  always  erect  their  platforms  in  a  convenient  situation  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  carcass,  knowing  by  experience  that  the  tiger 
is  sure  to  return  on  the  following  night  to  glut  himself  at  leisure  with 
the  produce  of  his  previous  chase.  The  Nyl-Qhau  has  often  bred  in 
confinement,  both  in  this  country  and  in  India,  The  period  of  gestar 
tion  lasts  eight  months,  and  two  young  are  most  commonly  pro- 
duced at  a  birth.  At  first  the  young  males  are  of  the  same  reddish- 
brown  colour  as  the  females,  and  only  assume  the  g^yish-blue  shade 
proper  to  their  sex  on  arriving  at  maturity :  their  growth  is,  however, 
rapid,  and  they  attain  their  adult  size  in  the  second  or  third  year  of 
their  age. 

ANTIMONOPHYLLITE.    [Antimony.] 

AJ^TIMONY,  a  silver-white  metal,  slightly  blue,  and  with  a  very 
brilUant  lustre.  Its  hardness  is  as  great  as  that  of  gold.  It  has  a 
■pecifio  gravity  of  6*7 — 6*8.  It  does  not  combine  with  oxygen  at  the 
ordinary  temperattire  of  the  atmosphere,  but  is  fused  at  a  temperature 
a  little  below  red-heat,  and  bums  very  vividly.  It  is  a  compact 
brittle  metal,  and  is  sometimes  foimd  pure  in  nature,  but  never 
abundantly.  It  occurs  mixed  with  lead,  silver,  arsenic,  and  other 
metals,  but  its  most  important  ore,  and  that  from  which  it  is 
obtained  for  ooxomercial  and  medicinal  purposes,  is  the  sulphuret. 
It  enters  into  composition  with  other  metals  in  several  alloys  used 
in  the  art&  Type  Metal  is  composed  of  one-fomih  to  one-twelfth  of 
antimony,  the  rest  being  lead,  tm,  bismuth,  and  copp^.  ffard  Pewter 
is  made  of  12  parts  of  tin  and  1  of  antimony  ;  Britannia  Metal  of 
antimony,  tin,  bismuth,  and  copper.  The  markets  are  supplied  with 
the  ores  of  antimony  from  Hungaiy,  England,  France,  and  lately 
from  Borneo.  The  following  are  some  of  the  forms  in  which 
antimony  occurs  as  a  mineral : — 

Native  Antimony,  with  a  little  silver.  Stihnile  is^  an  antimoniate  of 
antimony,  the  oxide  of  antimony  acting  as  an  add.  There  are  two 
oxides  or  adds  of  antimony,  both  of  which  are  found  native,  and  are 
called  Antimonie  Acid  and  Antimonious  Acid.  White  Antimony  is  a 
aeaquioxide  of  antimony.  Aniimonophyllite  is  an  impure  oxide  of 
antimony.  Oray  Antimony  is  a  compound  of  three  of  sidphur  and  one 
of  antimonv.  It  occurs  in  masses  or  veins  in  Metamorphio  and 
Igneous  rocxs.  It  fuses  rapidly  in  the  flame  of  a  candle.  It  is  often 
seen  in  long  prismatic  or  acicmar  crystals  with  strong  vertical  strise. 
Zinkenite  is  a  sulphuret  of  antimony  and  lead,  containing  45  per  cent, 
of  antimony.  Ptagionite  is  the  same,  but  contains  only  38  per  cent, 
of  antimony.  Feather  Ore  is  the  same,  with  81  per  cent.  BotUangerite 
the  same,  with  25  j^  per  cent.  Jamesonite  ia  a  sulphuret  of  antimony, 
with  iron  and  bismuth,  containing  35  per  cent,  of  antimony.  Bed 
Antimony  is  also  called  Kermes  Mineral  and  Antimony  Blende,  and  is  a 
mixture  of  the  sulphuret  and  oxide  of  antimony,  containing  75  per 
cent,  of  the  latter.  Antimoniate  of  Lead  contams  31  per  cent,  of 
antimony.  Artenical  Antimony  contains  62  per  cent,  of  arsenic  and 
37  per  cent  of  antimony.  Berfhierite  or  Hardingerite  is  a  sulphuret 
of  antimony  and  iron.  The  following  are  sulphurete  of  antimony  and 
lead  i—StdnmamiHe,  Killbrickenite,  Kobellite,  WhUe  Silver,  Oeokronite, 
and  BouUmgerite. 

( Ansted,  Elem^entary  Churu  of  Mineralogy,  &c.) 

ANTIRBHrNUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Scrophvlariaeece,  This  genus  is  the  type  of  a  section  of  the 
order  to  which  also  the  genera  LinaritLf  AnarrhiMim,  Mavrandia, 
Galvena,  Lophoapermwrnf  and  Bhodoehiton  belong.  It  is  characterised 
by  a  5-parted  o\>IiquB  calyx ;  a  personate  corolla,  gibbous  at  the  base, 
but  with  no  distinct  spur ;  the  lobes  of  the  upper  lip  erect^  those  of 
the  lower  spreading,  S^fid,  with  the  middle  segment  smallest^  and  a 
bearded  palate  which  doses  the  mouth ;  the  capsule  2-celled,  opening 
by  two  or  three  pores  at  the  top ;  seeds  oblong,  minute,  with  black 
testa.  The  spedes  are  annual  or  perennial,  rarely  shrubby.  The 
leaves  are  feather-veined,  and  entire,  opposite  below,  and  usually 
alternate  abovisL  Two  of  the  spedee  are  indigenous  to  Great  Britain. 
All  of  them  produce  showy  flowers,  and  are  much  cultivated  in 
gardens.    Their  medicinal  properties  are  not  very  active. 

A.  maJHM,  Great  or  Common  Snapdragon,  has  lanceolate,  oppodte 
or  alternate  glabrous  leaves,  racemose  flowers,  ovate  obtuse  sepals, 
much  shorter  than  the  corolla,  and  the  upper  lip  bifid.  Tlus  plant 
attains  a  hdght  of  one  or  two  feet,  and  has  piU7>lish-red  or  white 
flowers.  It  is  found  in  Great  Britain  on  old  walls  and  chalk  diffb, 
especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  a 
naturalised  plant,  being  truly  indigenous  in  the  south  of  Europe  and 
the  north  of  Africa.  In  gardens  a  variety  is  often  seen  with  double 
flowera.    The  leaves  are  bitter  and  slightly  stimulant. 

A.  Oro>ntium,  Orontium  Snapdragon,  or  Calves*  Snout,  has  linear- 
lanceolate  oppodte  or  alternate  leaves ;  the  flowers  loosely  spiked, 
distant ;  the  sepals  linear  and  longer  than  the  corolla  This  plant 
appears  to  be  tndy  indigenous  in  England  and  Ireland,  where  it  occurs 
in  dry  sandy  and  gravelly  soils.  It  is  also  a  native  throughout 
Europe,  in  the  islaads  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  north  of  Africa. 
It  has  been  found  in  Virginia,  but  it  has  been  probably  introduced. 
Its  leaves  as  well  as  those  of  other  spedes  have  been  used  as  cataplasms 
in  indolent  tumors. 

Don  enumerates  twelve  other  spedes,  many  of  which  have  been 


introduced  into  our  gardens.  They  are  pretty  border-flowers,  and 
adapted  for  rock-work.  They  are  easily  cultivated;  the  perennial 
species  may  be  increased  by  cuttings,  and  the  annual  raised  by  seeds. 
The  spedes  from  subtropical  districts  will  however  require  a  frame 
or  the  greenhouse  in  the  winter. 

(Babington,  Mat¥Ml  of  Britith  Botany;  Don,  Gardener* t  Dictionary.) 
ANTBIMOLITE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  hydrous  silicate  of  alumina,  with 
lime  and  potash.  According  to  Dr.  Thomson  it  occurs  in  stalactitical- 
looking  masses  about  the  length  and  thickness  of  a  finger,  adhering  to 
the  summit  of  cavities  in  an  amygdaloidal  rock.  In  tiie  centre  of 
each  stalactite  is  a  crystal  of  calcareous  spar,'or  a  fibrous-looking 
round  mass,  pretty  long,  and  having  a  foliated  structure  and  a  brown 
colour,  consisting  of  cslcareous  spar.  Colour  chalk-whitei  Texture 
fine  sUky  fibrous.  The  fibres  diverging  from  the  central  nudeus. 
Opaque.    Dull.    Hardness  8'75.    Specific  gravi^  2*0964. 

When  heated  it  loses  water  and  hydrochloric  add.  Before  the 
blowpipe  it  softens  into  an  enamd,  and  with  phosphate  of  soda  gives 
very  slowly  a  transparent  colomrlesa  glass.  It  gelatinises  in  hydro- 
chloric add. 

Foimd  on  the  seaHshore  at  Bongore,  about  four  miles  from  the 
Giants'  Causeway,  on  the  north  coast  of  the  county  of  Antrim. 
Analysis  by  Dr.  Thomson  : — 

Silica 48*470 

Alumina 30*260 

Lime 7*500 

Potash 4*100 

Protoxide  of  Iron 01 90 

Chlorine 0*098 

Water 15*820 


100-938 

ACUTA,  from  a  Greek  word,  iapr^.  The  aorta  is  the  great  vessel 
from  which  all  the  arteries  of  the  body  which  carry  red  blood  derive 
their  origin.  It  arises  from  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  left  ventricle 
of  the  heart.  Its  origin  is  directly  oppodte  the  lower  mazgin  of  the 
cartilage  of  the  third  rib  on  the  right  side  of  the  chest  From  this 
point  it  ascends  behind  the  pulmonary  artery,  still  inclining  a  little 
to  the  right  dde  of  the  chest  It  continues  to  ascend  as  far  as  the 
top  of  the  second  vertebra  of  the  back.  All  this  part  of  Uie  vessel  is 
called  the  Aorta  Ateendens,  When  it  reaches  as  high  as  the  lower 
margin  of  the  first  rib,  it  bends  obliqudy  backwards  towards  the  body 
of  the  third  vertebra  of  the  back.  This  part  of  the  vessel  is  called 
the  Curvature  or  the  Transverse  Arch  of  the  Aorta.  From  the  third 
vertebra  of  the  back,  where  its  arch  terminates,  it  proceeds  in  a 
straight  course  downwards  through  the  chest,  immediately  in  front  of 
the  spinal  column,  and  towards  the  left  dde  of  it  Through  an 
opening  formed  for  it  in  the  diaphragm  it  passes  from  the  chest  into 
the  abdomen.  All  this  part  of  the  vessel,  namely  that  extending 
between  the  termination  of  the  arch  and  the  diaphragm  is  denominated 
the  Descending  or  the  Straight  Portion  of  the  Thoradc  Aorta.  Having 
passed  through  the  diaphragm  into  the  abdomen,  it  is  called  the 
Abdominal  Aorta.  It  continues  to  descend  along  the  front  of  the  spine 
a  little  obliquely,  until  it  reaches  the  fourth  vertebra  of  the  loins  : 
here  it  divides  into  tw<f  biftnches  of  equal  size,  and  may  be  said  to 
terminate,  for  it  now  loses  the  name  of  aorta ;  the  two  great  branches 
into  which  it  divides  being  denominated  the  Common  Iliac  Arteries. 
[Heart.] 

A'PATITE,  a  mineral  substance  crystallised  in  1  ho  regular  six-dded 
prism,  usually  terminated  by  a  truncated  six-sided  pyi-amid.  It  occurs 
varioiidy  modified  by  the  removal  of  its  lateral  sides  and  angles.  Its 
spedfic  gravity  varies  from  3*25  to  3*5.  It  is  scratched  by  felspar, 
but  scratches  fluor-spar.  In  colour  it  passes  from  white  through 
various  shades  of  yellow  to  green  and  blue,  and  some  specimens  possess 
a  red  tint  It  is  usually  tranducent,  but  rarely  transparent  From 
the  analysis  of  G.  Rose,  Apatite  appears  to  be  a  compound  of  phosphate 
of  lime  with  fluoride  of  caldum,  in  which  the  fluorine  is  more  or  less 
replaced  by  its  isomorphous  element,  chlorine. 

This  mineral  principally  occurs  in  the  Primitive  rocks,  and  is  found 
in  the  tin-veins  of  St  Midiael's  Mounts  Cornwall,  and  also  in  those  of 
Bohemia  and  Saxony.  It  has  also  been  observed  in  a  massive  mineral 
called  phosphorite,  which  appears  to  possess  a  similar  chemical  con- 
stitution, and  has  been  found  abunduitly  in  beds  alternating  with 
limestone  and  quartz,  near  Logrosan,  in  Estremadura  in  Spain.  Since 
the  practice  of  applying  phosphate  of  lime  to  the  boU  has  come  into 
use,  it  was  proposed  to  employ  tlus  mineral ;  but  it  does  not  ftpp^ 
that  any  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  which  is  now  used  in  artinciai 
manures  is  obtained  fh>m  this  source.  The  phosphate  of  lime  thus 
employed  seems  to  owe  its  origin  to  an  oiganic  cause.    [CoPROLiTBa.] 

APE  is  sometimes  employed  in  Zoology  to  express  a  genus  of 
Quadrumanous  Mammals,  which  closely  approadies  to  the  human 
spedes  in  anatomical  structure,  and  is  justly  regarded  as  the  connect- 
log  link  between  man  and  the  lower  MiiTnala  The  word  ape  seems  to 
be  of  doubtful  origin  :  in  German  it  is  Affe,  from  which  the  verb  affen 
appears  to  have  come.  This  is  perhaps  more  probable  than  to  suppose 
that  affe  comes  from  iiffen.  The  name  exists,  with  very  slight  varia- 
tion, in  all  the  modem  languages  of  Teutonic  origin;  as  Ape  in 
English,  Affe  in  German,  A  op  in  Dutch,  &c  These  dso  are  the  only 
European  languages  which  possess  original  appropriate  names  to 


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APE. 


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distiziguiBh  these  animalH  from  monkeyB  in  general  Our  own  language 
is  even  more  copious  than  others  in  terms  for  distinguishing  the 
different  characters  of  this  class  of  animals ;  thus  we  say  that  on  Ape 
is  a  monkey  without  a  tail,  and  a  Baboon  a  monkey  with  a  short  tail, 
reserving  the  term  Monkey  more  particularly  for  thoae  species  which 
have  very  long  tails ;  and  though  our  early  writers  use  these  three 
words  indiscriminately  as  synonymes,  and  apply  them  indifferently  to 
the  same  animal,  yet  the  significations  here  given  have  generally  pre- 
vailed since  the  time  of  Ray,  and  are  now  almost  exclusively  adopted. 
It  must  be  confessed  however  that  these  significations  are  extremely 
vague,  and  certainly  do  not  express  the  zoological  relations  which 
subsist  between  the  different  sections  of  this  group  of  animals. 

According  to  its  modem  zoological  definition,  the  genus  Ape,  or 
PitheetUf  comprises  those  quadrumanous  mammals  which  have  the 
teeth  of  the  same  nimiber  and  form  as  in  man,  and  which  possess 
neither  tails  nor  cheek  pouches.  This  definition,  whilst^  on  ijie  one 
hand,  it  excludes  certain  tailless  baboons  and  monkeys,  comprehends, 
on  the  other,  the  three  sub-genera  of  Orangs,  Chimpanzees,  and  Gib- 
bons.    Nor  are  these  the  only  characters  which  the  Apes  share  in 


The  Chimpanzee, 
common.  They,  of  all  other  animals,  approach  most  nearly  to  the 
human  species  in  organisation,  although  their  points  of  inferiority  are 
more  numerous  than  at  first  sight  appear.  The  arms  are  so  long  as 
almost  to  touch  the  ground  when  the  animals  stand  erect  on  their 
hind  legs  ;  but  the  legs  themselves  are  scarcely  one-third  of  the  entire 
height  The  legs  moreover  are  not  in  the  same  line  with  the  thighs ; 
the  knees  are  turned  outwards,  and  the  feet  are  articulated  at  the 
ankle  in  such  a  manner  that  their  sole^  turn  inwards  so  as  to  face 
or  be  opposed  to  one  another.  By  these  means  the  Apes  are  enabled 
to  embrace  or  grasp  the  trunks  and  branches  of  trees  with  much 
greater  force  thim  if  their  members  were  constructed  like  our  own. 
They  thus  become  essentially  sylvan  or  arboreal  animals,  and  never 
voluntarily  abandon  the  forests,  where  they  find  at  once  the  most 
congenial  food  and  the  most  perfect  security. 

Their  whole  oi^nisation  peculiarly  adapts  the  Apes  to  these  habits. 
Besides  the  conformation  of  the  extremities  just  noticed,  the  fingers 
and  toes  are  long,  flexible,  and  deeply  separated  from  one  another, 
and  the  thumb,  or  interior  finger,  is  completely  oppoeeable  to  the  other 
four,  as  well  on  the  posterior  as  on  the  anterior  extremities  :  thus, 
their  feet  and  hands  are  equally  formed  for  prehension.  They  are 
not  Quadrupeds,  as  Buffon  has  justly  observed,  but  Quadnimana ;  not 
four-footed  but  essentially  four-handed  animals.  One  part  of  their 
oi^anisation  renders  them  intermediate  between  the  bats  and  ordinary 
mammals ;  another  makes  them  the  connecting  link  between  man  and 


the  inferior  animals.  The  great  length  of  the  fingers  and  anterior 
extremities,  compared  with  those  behind,  are  precisely  what  we  observe 
among  winged  mammals,  only  that  the  fingers  are  not  connected  by 
a  flying  membrane;  and  their  economy  and  habitat  equally  corre- 
spond with  this  intermediate  structure.  They  are  neither  confined 
to  the  surface  of  the  earth  like  the  generality  of  mammals,  nor  do 
they  possess  the  power  of  elevating  themselves  into  the  air,  like  the 
bats;  but  they  choose  a  middle  habitat^  the  forests,  where  they 
habitually  reside,  and  where  they  move  about  w-ith  an  ease  and 
velocity  which  can  only  be  compared  to  actual  flight.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  compelled  by  circumstances  to  traverse  any  part  of  the 
earth's  surface,  their  pace,  properly  speaking,  is  neitiier  that  of  a 
biped  nor  of  a  quadruped ;  they  do  not  walk  upright  like  a  man,  nor 
yet  do  they  walk  upon  all-fours  like  the  lower  animals.  The  great 
length  of  their  arms  prevents  them  from  adopting  either  of  these 
modes  of  progression  in  its  simple  form,  but  they  avail  themselves  of 
this  very  circumstance  in  another  manner.  Their  long  arms  serve 
them  instead  of  crutches,  and  their  pace  is  precisely  that  of  a  lame 
man  who  walks  with  the  assistance  of  these  instruments.    From  the 


Orang-Outan. 

oblique  articulation  of  the  posterior  extremities,  they  rest  only  on  the 
outer  edge  of  the  foot,  but  the  wavering  equilibrium  thus  occaaioned 
is  secured  by  the  long  fore-arms,  which  can  easily  touch  the  ground 
in  all  directions ;  and,  when  an  advance  is  to  be  made,  it  is  accom- 
plished by  resting  the  weight  of  the  body  upon  the  half-closed  fists, 
and  then  swinging  the  hinder  extremities  forward,  precisely  like  a 
man  on  crutches.  In  their  native  forests  the  extreme  length  of  their 
fore-arms  is  turned  to  the  greatest  advantage  :  here  it  acts  upon  the 
principle  of  the  rope-dancer's  balancing-pole,  and  completely  secures 
their  equilibrium  even  with  the  most  precarious  footing.  Thus  it  is 
that  travellers  have  seen  the  Apes  poised  at  the  very  extremity  of  the 
slender  trunks  of  the  bamboo,  waving  their  long  arms  from  aide  to 
side  with  the  most  graceful  and  easy  motions. 

Another  circumstance  in  the  structure  of  the  Apes,  in  which  they 
differ  from  most  other  Quadrumana,  has  considerable  influence  upon 
their  habits ;  this  is  the  entire  want  of  a  tail  Though  the  presence 
of  this  organ  does  not  always  indicate  a  corresponding  fimction,  and 
though  its  absence  is  not  confined  to  this  group  of  quadrmnanous 
animals,  yet  a  long  tail  would  seriously  embarrass  the  nearly  erect 
motion  of  the  real  Apes  ;  whilst  its  use  is  in  other  respects  superseded 
by  the  length  of  the  fore-arms,  which  supply  its  place  in  adjusting 
the  proper  balance  of  the  body,  the  only  function  which  the  tail  pei^ 
forms  in  the  common  monkeys.    But  another  character  of  still  greater 


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importance  diBtinguishes  the  real  Apes  firom  the  rest  of  the  Qaadru- 
mana,  namely,  the  want  of  cheek-pouches.  These  are  sacs  or  cayi- 
ties  in  the  cheeks,  which  open  inside  the  mouth  between  the  cheek 
and  the  lower  jaw,  and  senre  to  hold  any  extra  provision  which  the 
animal  may  not  at  the  moment  require.  The  SemnopUheci  alone,  of 
all  the  other  monkeys  of  the  old  world,  resemble  the  Apes  in  this 
respecty  and  hence  arise  some  of  the  most  striking  resemblances  which 
the  characters  and  habits  of  these  two  genera  presentw  In  other 
reepects  they  are  sufficiently  distinguished  from  one  another  by  the 
long  tails  of  the  Semnopitheci,  not  to  mention  their  extremities  of 
nearly  equal  length,  and  the  peculiar  structure  of  their  stomachs  and 
teeth.  Another  character,  which  is  common  to  all  the  other  known 
Quadrumana  of  the  old  continents,  is  found  in  some  species  only  of 
the  real  Apes,  and  is  absent  in  others  :  this  is  the  possession  of  Callosi- 
ii^,  which  are  naked  callous  parts  of  the  buttocks,  upon  which  these 
animals  sit  when  &tigued  by  the  violent  and  rapid  movements  which 
they  habitually  execute.  Illiger  and  some  other  zoologists  have  con- 
sidered this  circumstance  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  the 
separation  of  the  Ajies  into  two  distinct  genera,  the  one  characterised  by 
the  absence  of  callosities,  the  other  by  the  presence  of  them ;  but  it  is 
to  be  observed,  that,  even  where  these  organs  do  exist  in  the  Apes,  it  ia 
always  in  a  rudimentary  form ;  they  are  never  developed  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  influence  the  habits  of  the  animals,  and  are  consequently 
unfit  to  be  considered  as  generic  charactera  In  other  respects, 
except  in  these  diminutive  callosities,  the  Gibbons  do  not  differ  from 
the  Orangs  and  Chimpanzees ;  they  have  the  same  system  of  dentition, 
the  same  oigans  of  sense,  and  the  same  singular  modification  of  the 
locomotive  organs ;  their  manner  of  life  also  is  precisely  the  same  ; 
both  -equally  take  up  their  habitation  in  the  thickest  and  most  soli- 
tary forests ;  they  inhabit  the  same  countries,  and  live  upon  the  same 
food. 

The  teeth  of  the  Apes,  as  indeed  of  all  the  other  monkeys  of  the 
old  world,  are  of  the  same  number  as  in  man ;  nor,  as  far  as  the 
incisors  and  molars  are  concerned,  do  they  present  any  difierence  in 
form ;  but  in  the  adult  animals,  and  more  especially  in  the  old  males, 
the  canines  are  developed  in  the  same  relative  proportion  as  in  the 
Camivora ;  the  tusks  of  the  full-grown  Orang-Outan  are  at  least  as 
large  as  those  of  the  lion,  and  are  most  formidable  weapons.  Unfor- 
tunately we  know  but  little  of  the  manners  of  these  Aninmla  in  their 
adult  state;  but  this  circumstance  gives  us  strong  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  extreme  gentleness  and  placidity  observed  in  the  young 
individuals  usually  brought  into  Europe  do  not  always  oontinue  to 
characterise  them  in  their  native  dimates,  but  that  their  disposition 
alters  in  proportion  to  the  development  of  their  muscular  force,  and 
that  in  their  adult  state  they  are  as  formidable  and  mischievous  as 
the  Baboons  themselves. 

The  oharacters  and  habits  of  the  Apes  present  differences  which  will 
be  noticed  in  speaking  of  the  several  species.  As  far  however  as  their 
general  manners  have  been  observed,  they  appear  to  be  of  a  grave 
and  gentle  disposition,  totally  free  from  that  petulance  and  mi^shie- 
Tous  curiosily  which  so  strongly  characterise  the  monkejrs,  properly 
so  called,  are  very  affectionate  towards  those  who  treat  them  kindly, 
solemn  and  deliberate  in  all  their  actions,  extremely  circumspect  and 
intelligent,  seldom  moved  to  violent  passion,  but  peevish  and  fretful 
when  crossed  or  disappointed.  They  never  walk  on  two  legs  except 
when  they  have  occasion  to  use  the  fore  hands  in  carrying  something. 
Kearly  or  altogether  deprived  of  calloBities,  they  do  not  repose  in  the 
manner  of  ordinary  monkeys^  on  their  hams,  but  stretch  themselves 
on  their  sides,  like  human  beings,  and  support  their  heads  upon  their 
bands,  or  by  some  other  means  supply  the  use  of  a  pillow. 

For  an  account  of  the  most  remarkable  Apes  see  Chimpanzee, 
Obaso-Outait,  and  Qibbox.  For  an  arrangement  of  the  species  and 
their  relation  to  other  Monkeys  see  Simiajdjb,  and  Quadrumana. 
APEREA,  a  species  of  Wild  QuinearPig.  [Htstricidjb.] 
APETAL^,  Plants  without  Petals,  constitute  one  of  the  divisions 
in  Jussieu's  arrangement  of  plants  according  to  a  natural  system. 
They  comprehend  all  genera  which  are  Dicotyledonous  or  Exogenous, 
and  which  have  a  calyx  without  corolla.  By  some  they  are  called 
Monochlamydeous.  Ae  character  by  which  these  plants  are  defined 
is  as  constant  as  any  of  those  which  botanists  employ  for  subordinate 
divisions,  but  it  must  not  be  considered  absolute ;  for  not  only  are 
many  of  the  genera  which,  in  consequence  of  their  natural  affinities, 
are  included  among  Apetalous  Plants  provided  with  rudimentaiy 
petals,  but  it  occasionally  happens  that  in  orders  otherwise  constantly 
furnished  with  a  eorollek,  particular  genera  occur  in  which  no  petals 
are  produced ;  a  verv  remarkable  instance  of  which  is  to  be  met  with 
in  the  pretty  little  shore-plant  found  on  most  of  the  sandy  beaches  of 
this  country,  and  called  Glatue  maritima.  This  species  is  very  nearly 
related  to  tiie  Primrose,  and  certainly  belongs  to  the  same  natural 
order  as  that  plant,  but  it  has  no  corolla;  in  place  of  which  the 
border  of  the  calyx  becomes  coloured,  and  it  therefore  apparently 
belongs  to  the  apetalous  division,  although,  in  reality,  it  fonns  an 
exception  to  the  character  of  monopetalous  plants. 

APHANESITE,  a  mineral  consisting  of  arsenic  acid  and  oxide  of 
copper,  with  water. 

APMERESE,  a  mineral  oonwHting  of  phosphoric  acid  and  oxide  of 
copper,  and  water. 
APHIS,  the  Plant-Louae,  or  Pueeron,  an  extensive  genua  of  insects 

HAT.  HIST.  DIV.  VOL.  I. 


belonging  to  the  order  ffomoptera.  They  are  interesting  to  naturalists 
on  account  of  their  very  peculiar  economy,  and  no  less  so  to  gardeners 
and  farmers,  on  whose  crops  many  species  cooamit  most  destructive 
depredations.  As  instances  of  the  latter  we  may  refer  to  the  Hop- 
Fly  (A.HvmnH),  and  the  Bean-Dolphin  (A.  FoIkb),  whilst  all  our  garden 
flowers,  such  as  the  Rose,  the  China-Aster,  the  Chrysanthemum,  and 
others,  suffer  from  their  attacks.  During  the  summer  of  1833,  the 
cabbage  and  turnip  crops  in  Kent  were  much  injured  and  often 
destroyed  by  countless  swarms  of  A,  Brcuaiece, 

These  insects  aro  characterised  by  a  soft  oval  body,  a  small  head, 
entire  and  semi-globular  eyes,  antemue  of  seven  joints  longer  than  the 
body,  often  setaceous,  sometimes  thidcened  towards  the  top,  the  two 
joints  at  the  base  very  short,  the  next  very  long  and  oylindrinaL  The 
beak  {haustdkm)  arises  from  the  under  {Mirt  of  the  head  between  the 
foro  legs,  and  descends  almost  perpendicularly.  The  wings,  when 
developed,  are  four  in  number,  but  some  naturalists  represent  the 
upper  wings  rather  as  wing-cases  {dytra),  from  their  difference  of 
texture.  The  legs  are  very  long  and  slender,  in  consequence  of  which 
they  walk  awkwardly. 

At  the  extremily  of  the  abdomen  most  species  are  furnished  with  a 
pair  of  projecting  tubes,  through  which  they  eject  a  sweet  viscid  fluid, 
well  known  under  the  name  of  honey-dew,  erroneously  supposed  to  be 
an  exudation  from  the  leaves  on  whidi  it  is  found.  It  is  also  said  that 
the  Aphides  feed  on  this,  which  is  impossible  from  the  structuro  of 
their  moutha    Ants  however  and  bees  are  very  fond  of  it. 

In  sketching  the  history  of  these  singular  insects,  it  will  be  most 
convenient  to  begin  it  at  the  close  of  autumn,  when  many  of  the 
species,  such  as  A.  QueretUf  A.  Ro»a,  &c.,  are  numerous,  some  winged 
and  some  without  wings,  of  both  sexes,  so  that  while  the  first  may 
fly  to  a  distance,  the  second  are  confined  to  their  native  plant  or  its 
vicinity. 

After  pairing,  the  mother  Aphis  deposits  what  have  been  by  some 
naturalists  termed  ^ggs,  in  a  place  suitable  for  their  passing  the 
winter;  but  different  places  are  chosen  by  different  species.  Some 
choose  the  oak,  and  place  the  ^gggs  on  an  exposed  twig  high  on  the 
tree,  others  in  the  sheltered  crevices  of  bark,  or  even  under  ground. 
Bonnet  seems  to  be  of  opinion  that  the  Aphides  are  always  viviparous 
and  never  lay  ^ggs,  what  are  commonly  called  eggs  produced  in 
autumn  being  a  sort  of  cocoon,  consisting  of  the  young  Aphis 
inclosed  in  an  envelope.  From  our  own  observations  on  those  of 
the  oak,  we  are  convinced  that  this  is  the  fact ;  but  we  cannot  affirm, 
upon  negative  evidence,  that  none  of  the  species  lay  real  eggs. 

The  cocoons  or  ^jgs,  whichever  tiiey  may  be,  remain  torpid  during 
the  winter  (the  parents  having  died  after  producing  them),  and  are 
called  into  life  with  the  return  of  genial  weather  in  tiie  spring.  The 
number  of  insects  produced  must  of  course  correspond  to  tiie  number 
of  oocoons  or  eggs  laid  the  preceding  autumn,  but  being  all  ushered 
into  active  life  at  the  same  time,  their  simultaneous  appearance  has 
led  to  the  popular  but  erroneous  notion,  that  they  are  generated  by 
the  air.  Bhghting  weather,  as  it  is  termed,  is  also  accused  of  spreading 
the  destructive  swarms  over  hop-grounds  or  bean-fields,  but  their  rapid 
increase  is  wholly  caused  by  their  wonderful  powers  of  multiplying. 

All  the  Aphides,  it  has  been  well  ascertained,  which  appear  in  spring 
are  exclusively  females,  no  males  being  found  till  the  autunm ;  and 
these  females  are  endowed  with  a  fecundity  almost  incredible.  M. 
Latreille  says  that  one  female  during  the  summer  months  will  produce 
about  25  a  day,  and  M.  Reaumur  calcxilated  that  one  Aphis  may  be  the 
progenitor,  during  its  life,  of  the  enormous  number  of  5,904,900,000 
descendants.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  young  female  Aphides  pro- 
duced during  summer  to  pair  with  a  mide,  which  indeed  would  be 
impossible,  as  no  males  are  then  to  be  foimd ;  yet  these  females  go  on 
producing  each  their  25  a  day  of  living  young  ones,  all  of  which  become 
m  a  short  time  as  fertile  as  their  parent. 

The  following  calculation  of  tiie  fecundity  of  a  species  of  Aphis 
from  Professor  Owen's  lectures  on  'Comparative  Anatomy,'  will  afford 
some  explanation  of  the  extraordinary  numbers  in  which  these 
creatures  sometimes  occur.  "The  Aphit  lanigera  produces  each 
year  10  viviparous  broods,  and  one  which  is  oviparous,  and  each 
generation  averages  100  individuals : — 

Ist  generation 1    Aphis  produces 

2d  „         100    one  hundred 

8d  „  10,000    ten  thousand 

4th        „         1,000,000    one  million 

5th        „         100,000,000    one  hundred  millions 

6th         „  ....     10,000,000,000    ten  billions 

7th        „         ...     1,000,000,000,000    one  trillion 
8th        „         .    .     100,000,000,000,000    one  hundred  trillions 
9th         „  .     10,000,000,000,000,000    ten  quatrillions 

10th         „  1,000,000,000,000,000,000    one  quintillion. 

If  the  oviparous  generation  be  added  to  this  you  will  have  a  thirty 
times  greater  result." 

The  female  Aphides  thus  produced  must  be  regarded  as  larvsD,  but 
they  present  a  more  developed  condition  than  the  larvs  of  Coleoptera 
and  Lepidoptera.  The  compound  eyes  are  developed  on  the  head,  and 
the  antennsB  have  acquired  their  mature  form  and  proportions ;  the 
six  thoracic  legs  have  attained  their  due  growth  and  development. 
The  only  change  which  these  fertile  larva  afterwards  undergo  is 
increase  of  size,  and  development  of  the  reproductive  tissues.    In  the 


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APHRITE. 


APTERYX. 


27< 


last  generation,  which,  aooording  to  the  speciee  of  AphiB,  in  the 
aeventh,  ninth,  or  eleventh,  the  power  which  tney  posseae  of  producing 
individuals  like  themselves  ceases.  In  the  last  generation  wings  are 
acquired,  and  male  insects  also  with  wings  appear.  It  ib  these  insects 
wMch  produce  eggs,  and  deposit  tiiem  where,  under  the  gemal  influences 
of  the  sun,  they  are  hatched,  and  thus  produce  the  multitudes  which 
make  the  attacks  of  these  creatures  so  remarkable. 

The  number  of  species  of  Aphis  is  veiy  laiga  In  tho  'List  of 
Specimens  of  Homopterous  Insects'  in  the  collection  of  the  British 
Museum,  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Francis  Walker,  826  species  of  this  genus 
are  described.  Almost  every  species  of  plant  gives  support  to  a 
different  species  of  Aphis,  each  of  which  has  been  described  with  very 
great  accuracy  in  the  list  above  mentioned. 

The  effects  of  the  attacks  of  these  insects  is  sometimes  of  national 
importance.  In  the  year  1802  the  hop-duty  fell  from  100,0002.  to 
14,000^.,  on  account  of  the  great  increase  of  the  Aphis.  -  When  the 
Aphis  has  been  absent  the  duty  has  risen  as  high  as  500,0002. 
The  Aphis  Bomb  is  most  destructive  to  the  beautiful  plant  on  which 
it  is  constantly  found.  Apple-trees  and  pear-trees  are  attacked  with  a 
species  which  injures  greatly  their  produce.  In  most  cases  these 
insects  are  green,  but  a  black  species  attacks  the  bean;  whole  acres 
of  these  plants  will  be  suddenly  covered  by  these  insects.  Their 
attacks  on  all  plants  seem  regulated  by  the  health  of  the  plant.  If 
atmospheric  conditions  occur  which  render  plants  unhealthy,  then  the 
Aphis  makes  its  appearance.  If  these  cease,  the  Aphis  then  disappean 
also,  and  one  crop  of  plants  will  be  attacked  several  times  in  the 
same  year.  The  Aphides  have  their  natural  enemies.  The  larvse  of 
the  Lady-Bird  ((7occtn«2to),the  Syrphui  or  Bee-like  Fly,  the  ffemerobiua 
perlOf  and  several  species  of  IchneumonidUB,  devour  with  great  avidity 
several  species  of  Aphis. 

The  chief  remedy  for  the  destruction  of  the  Aphis  is  tobacco. 
Where  plants  can  be  brought  together  under  cover  they  may  be  easily 
exposed  to  tobacco  fames,  but  in  the  open  air  this  is  not  so  easily 
efibcted.  In  this  case  the  beet  plan  is  to  apply  the  tobacco  in 
water.  The  affected  branches  or  parts  of  plants  may  be  syringed 
with  the  infusion,  and  afterwards  washed  with  pure  water.    [See  Sdp.] 

APHRITE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  crystalline  variety  of  carbonate  of 
lime. 

APHRODITA,  a  genus  of  Dorsibranchiate  Annelides.  It  is  easily 
known  from  the '  rest  of  the  order  by  two  longitudinal  ranges  of 
broad  membranous  scales  covering  the  back,  and  under  whidi  the 
gills  lie  concealed  in  form  of  little  fleshy  crests.  The  body  is 
generally  flattened,  and  shorter  and  broader  than*  in  other  Annelides. 
[Annelid  A-J 

APIOCRINI'TES  (Miller),  a  Fossil  genus  of  Crinoidea^  found  in  the 
Oolitic  formations  and  in  the  Chalk. 

ATIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  UmbdlifercB. 
The  only  species  of  this  genus  of  any  importance  is  the  Common 
Celery  {Apium  graveoleru)..  This  valuable  vegetable  is  found  naturally 
in  the  ditches  of  almost  every  part  of  Europe.  It  is  even  met  with  in 
the  Falkland  Islands,  where,  if  it  was  originally  carried  thither, 
it  has  naturalised  itself.  In  this  country  it  is  very  common  in  many 
places,  as  for  instance  in  the  ditches  near  SandwicfaL 

It  LB  a  remarkable  fact  that  this  plant,  which  is  so  sweet  and 
wholesome  when  cultivated,  is  altogether  acrid  and  unfit  for  food 
when  wild.  It  is  by  some  supposed  that  the  difference  between  the 
quality  of  the  two  states  is  owing  to  so  large  a  part  of  the  stem  and 
leaves  of  the  cultivated  species  being  hidden  from  the  action  of  light 
by  the  soil  which  is  heaped  up  about  it,  and  being  in  consequence 
unable  to  generate  in  much  abundance  the  peculiar  principle  on  which 
the  acridity  depends.  Whatever  may  be  the  value  of  this  explanation, 
it  evidently  does  not  apply  to  the  variety  called  Celeriac,  in  which  the 
sweetness  and  wholesome  character  of  ciUtivated  celery  are  maintained, 
although  the  leaves  are  not  at  all  deprived  of  the  full  influence  of 
Kght    [Cblert,  in  Arts  and  So.  Drv.J 

APOCYNA'CEi£,  Dogbanes,  a  natural  order  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  Monopetalous  subdivision  of  the  Exogenous  class.  Among  these 
they  are  known  by  their  flowera  being  perfectly  symmetrical,  the 
segments  of  the  corolla  all  twisted  one  way,  like  a  Catherine-Wheel, 
five  distinct  stamens,  a  superior  ovarium  which  when  ripening 
divides  into  two  parts  that  diverge  from  each  other  at  right  angles, 
and  by  their  stems  yielding,  when  wounded,  a  copious  milk.  The 
milk  is  generally  poisonous,  and  that  quality  is  general  in  the  order, 
which  abounds  in  plants  the  action  of  whose  juices  upon  the  human 
body  is  more  or  less  violent.  Among  these,  the  Tanghin  poison  of' 
Madagascar  rTANQHiNiA]  and  Nttx  vomica  [Strtchnos]  are  remarkable 
instances.  But  some  of  the  species  are  not  unwholesome ;  as  the 
Hya-Hya,  or  Milk-Tree  of  Demerara,  and  the  Cream-Fruit  of  Sierra 
Leone.  Caoutchouc  is  gelded  in  abundance  by  Vahea  gummifera, 
Urceola  datdeOf  and  WtUughbeia  eduUB.  Several  other  species  yield 
medicinal  agents,  but  they  are  not  much  employed  in  the  European 
practice  of  medicine.  Considering,  however,  the  great  prevalence  of 
poisonous  qualities  in  the  order,  drugs  obtained  from  any  of  its 
species  shomd  be  administered  with  very  great  caution,  until  it  has 
TOen  ascertained  that  they  may  be  employed  without  danger.  The 
order  ApocywiceaB  is  only  distinguiBhable  from  AtcUpiadacece  by  the 
stamens  being  distinct  from  the  pistil,  and  by  the  pollen  not  being 
contained  in  litHe  waxy  bags. 


A'PODES,  in  Zoology,  an  order  of  Fishes,  including,  according  to 
the  Linnsean  system,  all  those  which  want  the  ventral  fins,  but 
restricted  by  Baron  Cuvier  to  those  which,  besides  possessing  this 
character,  are  likewise  Malaoopterygioua.  In  the  latter  sense,  the 
Apodal  fishes  compose  a  small  natural  £unily,  almost  restricted  to  the 
great  genus  Muttma,  and  of  which  the  Common  Eel  offers  a  good 
and  familiar  example. 

APOPHTLLITE,  a  crystallised  mineral,  whose  fundamental  form 
is  the  square  prism,  fig.  I.  Its  most  general  modification  is  obtained 
by  supposing  the  angles  of  fig.  1  cut  off,  so  as  to  give  rise  to  a  plane 
triangular  surfiaoe,  as  is  seen  at  a  in  fiyg.  2 ;  these  £m»b  a,  from  the 
plane  cutting  deeper  into  the  original  crystal  till  they  intersect  each 
other,  frequently  lose  their  triangular  form,  and  of  course,  at  the 
same  time,  the  face  P  again  becomes  a  square,  and  the  prism  will  be 
terminated  by  the  form  seen  in  fig.  3.  On  account  of  these  modifications, 
Apophyllite  sometimes  assumes  the  form  in  fig.  4. 


r^  ' 

/ 

L 

L 

/ 

y 

Fig.  I. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  S. 


Fig.  4 


The  inclination  of  P  on  a  is  120^  5' 
„  L  on  a  is  128'  20' 

„  a  on  a  is  104**  18' 

The  structure  of  this  mineral  is  lamellar,  and  admits  of  cleavage  iu 
directions  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  regular  prism,  but  most  readily 
in  the  perpendicular  to  its  axis.  Its  colour  is  white  or  gray,  some- 
times tinged  green  or  red.  It  possesses  various  degrees  of  transparency, 
and  occura  even  opaque.  In  hardness  it  approaches  nearly  to  Apatite ; 
and  its  density  varies  frvm  2*3  to  2*5.  Before  the  blow-pipe  it  forms 
a  white  glass.     Its  chemical  constitution  is  stated  as  follows : — 

8  {Ca  +  SSi)  +  {K  +  6Si)  +  16  Aq 
and  the  nuneral  is  therefore  an  hydrated  siHcate  of  potash  and  lim& 

Apophyllite  has  been  found  in  the  mines  of  magnetic  iron-ore  of 
Sweden  and  Norway ;  in  the  lead-mines  of  the  Harz  Mountains ;  also 
in  the  cavities  of  several  basaltic  rocks,  at  Marienberg  in  Bohemia; 
at  Fossa  in  the  Tyrol ;  in  the  Isle  of  Skye,  &a  In  the  basalts  it  is 
usually  accompanied  by  Analcime  and  StiUrite, 

This  mineral  is  sometimes  called  TetsdiU,    Albin  is  a  white  variety. 

APOTHE'CIA  (from  the  Qreek  Ato^vq,  a  case,  a  repository),  in 
Botany,  a  name  given  to  some  of  the  organs  of  reproduction  in  Crypto- 
gamia.  In  Lichens  the  reproductive  matter  appears  on  the  surface  of  its 
frond  or  thallus  in  two  forms.  First,  in  the  form  of  little  coloured  cups 
or  lines  with  a  hard  disk  surrounded  by  a  rim,  and  containing  tubes 
filled  with  spomles ;  and  secondly,  in  the  form  of  little  heaps  of 
pulverulent  matter,  which  are  scattered  over  the  surfSace  of  the 
thallus.  These  last  are  called  Saredia  ;  the  first,  ApotheeitL  These 
orf^ans  form  the  principal  means  of  distinguishing  the  various  forms 
of  lichens,  and  consequently  it  has  been  found  convenient  to  indicate 
minor  points  in  their  structure  by  other  names.  Thus  the  Apothecium, 
which  in  English  is  called  a  Shield,  has  various  names  according  to  it^ 
form :  SctUeUwn^  is  a  shield  with  an  elevated  rim ;  Pelia,  aflat  shield ; 
Tubereuiumf  a  convex  shield ;  Triea  or  Oyroma,  a  furrowed  shield ; 
lAreUoy  a  linear  shield ;  <?2oM«t,  a  round  deciduous  shield ;  PiUdinm^ 
an  orbicular  hemisphericaal  shield.  The  parts  of  the  Apothecium  or 
Shield  have  also  obtained  distinct  names :  thus  PeritAeetiMn  is  the 
inside  of  tiie  shield,  in  which  the  sporules  are  immersed ;  HypoUueium 
is  the  substance  that  surrounds  or  overlies  the  perithecium ;  NitcUut 
IB  the  disk  of  the  shield,  which  contains  the  sporules  and  their  cases; 
and  A$ei  are  the  tubes  in  which  the  sporules  are  contained. 

Apothecia  is  also  the  name  given  to  the  cases  in  which  the  organs 
of  reproduction  of  many  of  the  Algm  are  contained.  The  reproductive 
granules  contained  in  the  Apothecia  of  both  Lichens  and  Alg»  are 
called  by  some  writen  G<mgyU. 

APSENDE'SIA  (Lam.),  a  genus  of  Fossil  Polypiaria,  frx>m  the 
great  Oolite  near  Bath. 

APTERTX,  a  genus  of  Struthious  Birds,  inhabiting  Australia  and 
the  islands  of  New  Zealand.  It  was  first  described  by  Dr.  Shaw,  who 
r^iarded  it  as  an  extinct  form  of  bird.  It  evidently  belongs  to  a 
group  of  birds  that  were  destined  to  live  on  the  earth,  only  as  long  as 
they  were  free  from  the  attacks  of  carnivorous  enemies  endowed  with 
mater  powers  of  motion  than  themselvos.  Kumbera  of  wingless 
birds,  not  belonging  to  ihe  Struthious  division,  as  the  Dodo  and 
Solitaire,  seem  lureMly  to  have  beoome  eztinot;  whilst  the  smaller 


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AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


278 


congeners  of  the  Dinomis  are  suffering  in  like  manner.  The  Apteryx 
is  not  however  extinct,  as  many  stuffed  specimens  exist  in  the 
museums  of  England ;  and,  at  the  present  moment  (June,  1868),  there 
is  a  living  specimen  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  Regent's 
Park.  Of  idl  birds  at  present  known  the  Apteryx  appears  to  have  the 
wings  the  most  reduced  to  their  simplest  rudiments.  Its  general  form 
is  that  of  the  Pengxun,  and  in  size  it  is  seldom  quite  so  big  as  our 
common  goose.  The  beak  is  very  long  and  slender,  marked  on 
each  side  with  a  longitudinal  groove,  and  covered  with  a  membrane 
at  its  base.  It  differs  from  other  birds  in  the  completeness  of  its 
diaphragm,  and  in  the  absence  of  abdominal  air^^Us.  The  bones  are 
not  hollow,  as  is  mostly  the  case  in  birds ;  the  sternum  is  very  small, 
and  the  ribs  are  extraordinarily  broad ;  the  feathers  have  no  accessory 
plume,  and  their  shafts  are  prolonged  beyond  the  back ;  the  feet  have 
a  short  and  elevated  hind-toe,  of  which  the  claw  alone  is  externally 
visible. 

The  native  name  of  this  bird  is  Kitoi-Kiwi,  given  it  on  account  of 
rla  peculiar  cry.  It  is  a  nocturnal  bird,  and  preys  on  snails,  insects, 
and  worms.  Whilst  at  rest  it  has  the  singular  habit  of  resting  on  the 
tip  of  its  bill,  which  is  its  most  characteristic  position. 


Apteryx  {A.  australis). 

It  runs  with  considerable  rapidity,  and  when  hunted  by  dogs  it 
makes  a  hole  in  the  earth  for  the  purpose  of  concealment,  or  it  retires 
into  the  natural  cavities  of  the  rocks.  When  attacked  it  defends  itself 
with  considerable  vigour.  The  natives  hunt  it  for  the  sake  of  its  skin, 
which  is  used  by  the  chiefs  for  their  dresses,  and  on  this  account  it  is 
highly  valued. 

A'PTYCHUS  (Von  Meyer),  one  of  the  generic  names  of  a  singular 
Fossil,  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  a  Conchiferous  Mollusk,  or  the 
opercular  shell  of  a  Cephalopod.  Its  other  names  are  I^onellitet, 
IchthyotioffoniUet,  and  I^paditeM.  The  species  belong  to  the  Ammoni- 
tiferous  strata,  and  specimens  sometimes  occur  (as  at  Solenhofen)  in 
the  last  chamber  of  the  Ammonites.     The  structure  is  fibrous. 

AQUATIC  ANIMALS.  The  element  in  which  animals  habitually 
reside,  or  to  which  thoy  occasionally  resort  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
curing food  or  seeking  shelter,  is  so  intimately  connected  with,  and 
bears  so  obvious  a  relation  to,  not  only  their  manners  and  economy, 
but  likewise  their  outward  forms  and  internal  structure,  that  it  is  not 
surprising  that  those  who  first  turned  their  attention  to  the  study  of 
zoology,  and  sought  to  introduce  the  principles  of  classification  into 
the  animal  kingdom,  should  have  been  so  forcibly  struck  with  its 
importance  as  to  have  made  it  the  primary  basis  of  their  system. 
"Animals,"  says  Aristotle  ('Hist.'  b.  i.  a  1),  *'may  be  distributed  into 
different  classes  according  to  their  manner  of  living,  their  actions, 
their  character,  and  their  parts.  ....  Considered  according  to  their 
manner  of  living,  their  actions,  and  their  character,  they  are  divided 
into  terrestrial  and  aquatic  The  aquatic  are  divided  into  two  classes; 
the  one,  as  is  the  case  with  many  fishes,  pass  their  whole  life  in  the 
water,  breathe  that  element,  and  find  their  food  in  it ;  nor  do  they 
ever  leave  it :  the  others  obtain  their  food  in  the  water,  and  even 
habitually  reside  in  it^  but  they  do  not  breathe  it ;  they  breathe  air, 
and  bring  forth  their  young  on  dry  land.  Among  these  latter  some 
aro  provided,  with  feet  and  walk  upon  dry  land,  others  have  wings 
and  fly,  and  others,  like  the  water-serpent,  have  no  feet.  .... 
Aquatic  animals  inhabit  seas,  lakes,  marshes,  and  rivers."  These 
principles  of  dasaifioation,  in  which  the  habits  of  animals  take  prece- 
dence of  those  modifications  in  their  organic  conformation  which 
produce  these  very  habits,  have  long  since  ceased  to  be  adopted  by 
scientific  naturalists;  notwithstanding  which  there  is  perhaps  no 
inquiry  which  can  engage  the  attention  of  the  zoologist  more  fruitful 
in  extensive  views  and  interesting  results  than  the  consideration  of 
the  organic  structure  of  animals  in  relation  to  the  element  in  which 
nature  has  ordained  them  to  live. 

Those  animals  which  reside  entirely  in  the  water,  and  seek  their 


food  and  niurture  their  young  in  that  element,  have  their  organisation, 
even  to  the  most  minute  circumstance,  rigidly  adapted  to  these  pur- 
poses. The  extremities  by  which  progressive  motion  is  performed  in 
the  acts  of  walking  and  flying  would  be  a  serious  impediment  to  the 
movements  of  animals  residing  in  an  element  of  the  same  specific 
gravity  as  their  own  bodies:  these  organs  accordingly  are  either 
entirely  wanting,  or  are  reduced  to  mere  rudiments,  which  serve 
indeed  to  keep  the  body  steady  and  preserve  its  equilibrium,  but  are 
entirely  useless  in  assisting  its  progression.  Such  are  the  fins  of  fishes, 
and  the  flippers,  as  they  are  called,  of  the  Whala  The  real  organ  of 
progression  in  both  cases  is  the  body  itself,  which  is  prolonged  and 
attenuated  towards  the  tail,  compressed  on  the  sides,  and  provided 
with  extremely  powerful  muscles,  with  which,  by  alternately  striking 
the  water  on  either  side,  the  animal  propels  itself  forward  with  a  force 
and  velocity  unexampled  in  any  oth^r  class  of  animated  beings.  It  is 
upon  thb  principle  Uiat  a  boat  is  urged  forward  by  means  of  a  single 
oar  in  the  stem.  The  great  majority  of  these  animals  not  only  reside 
habitually  in  the  water,  and  seek  their  food  there,  but  likewise  breathe 
that  element,  and  are  consequently  furnished  with  an  appropriate 
apparatus  for  extracting  the  oxygen  gas  from  its  general  mass.  These 
tribes  may  reside  at  any  deptii  of  the  ocean  and  for  any  length  of 
time ;  they  are  not  under  the  necessity  of  coming  frequently  to  the 
surface  for  the  purpose  of  breathing,  and  their  organisation  is  modified 
accordingly.  Instead  of  having  the  tail  broad  horizontally,  it  is  broad 
in  a  vertical  direction,  which  enables  them  to  turn  with  astonishing 
rapidity,  and  is  no  impediment^  but  rather  an  assistant  to  their 
forward  movements.  But  the  case  is  different  in  the  Whales 
and  alUed  animals,  which,  though  residing  entirely  in  the  water, 
breathe  air  by  means  of  lungs  like  ordinary  Mammalia,  and  are 
consequently  obliged  to  come  continually  to  the  surface.  For  this 
purpose  they  are  provided  with  a  powerful  cartilaginous  tail  flattened 
horizontally,  by  moving  which  upwards  or  downwards  as  the  occasion 
requires,  tiiey  ascend  to  or  descend  from  the  greatest  depths  of 
the  ocean  with  almost  incredible  speed.  Fishes,  though  capable  of 
proceeding  straight  forwards,  or  of  turning  with  great  rapidity,  are 
comparatively  slow  in  changing  their  depths ;  and  if  they  breathed 
air,  they  would  frequently  be  suffocated  before  they  could  arrive  at 
the  surface,  from  the  vertical  position  of  the  tail  not  being  adapted  to 
propel  them  in  a  vertical  direction.  But  by  a  simple  change,  merely 
by  the  direction  of  the  tail  being  altered  from  the  vertical  to  the 
horizontal  position,  the  object  of  natiuv  is  accomplished,  and  the  air- 
breathing  Cetaceous  Animals  are  adapted  to  all  the  circumstances  of 
an  aquatic  life.  Another  beautiful  adaptation  is  observed  in  the 
position  of  the  manmue,  for  the  Cetacea,  like  warm-blooded  quadru- 
peds, suckle  their  young ;  these  are  situated  upon  the  breast,  and 
when  the  yoimg  animal  requires  to  suck,  the  mother  stands,  as  it 
were,  upiight  in  the  water,  with  her  head  and  shoulders  elevated 
above  the  surface,  supporting  herself  by  means  of  her  flippers,  or 
fore  paws.  In  this  position  she  is  enabled  to  supply  her  cub  with 
the  food  which  nature  has  provided,  and  which  she  could  not  have 
accomplished  had  the  mammas  been  placed  in  any  other  position. 

There  is  another  extensive  tribe  of  aquatic  animals,  which  are 
provided  with  perfect  articulated  members,  sometimes  indeed  supplied 
with  fringes  which  convert  them  into  a  swimming  apparatus,  but 
always  adapted  to  enable  the  animals  to  walk  or  crawl  along  the 
bottom.  Such  is  the  case  with  all  the  Crustaceous  tribes — the  crabs, 
lobsters,  prawns,  &c. ;  and  these  animals,  as  is  well  known,  can  walk 
on  dry  laiid  with  the  same  ease  as  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean.  When 
they  swim,  it  is  by  means  of  the  tail,  which  is  always  constructed  for 
that  special  purpose,  and  is  laige  and  powerful. 

Nor  is  the  modification  of  structure  less  striking  when  we  examine 
those  land-animals  which  breathe  air,  and  resort  only  occasionally  to 
the  water.  As  they  are  intermediate  in  habits,  so  are  they  likewise 
intermediate  in  structure  between  these  two  extremes ;  and  the  degree 
in  which  their  oiganisation  is  modified,  when  compared  with  either 
of  the  two  types,  is  exactly  proportioned  to  the  difference  of  their 
habits  and  economy.  All  Mammals  and  Reptiles,  for  instance,  which 
seek  their  food  in  fresh-water  rivers  and  lakes,  partake  more  of 
terrestrial  than  of  aquatic  habits.  The  extent  of  water  with  which 
they  are  conversant  is,  in  this  case,  very  small  when  compared  to 
the  extent  of  land,  and  their  oiganisation  differs  but  slightly  from 
that  of  ordinary  land  animals ;  their  extremities  are  perfectly  developed, 
and  of  the  ordinary  form,  the  principal  difference  being  that  their 
toes  are  united  by  an  expanded  web  or  membrane,  which  gives  the 
paw  a  broad  oar-like  form,  and  thus  converts  it  into  a  convenient 
instrument  of  swimming,  at  the  same  time  that  it  scarcely  interferes 
with  the  most  perfect  freedom  of  walking  and  running  on  land.  Of 
this  nature  are  the  extremities  of  all  the  vertebrated  terrestrial 
animals  which  seek  their  food  in  fresh  water,  the  otters,  beavers,  &c. 
among  mammals;  the  whole  order  of  Natatores,  comprising  the  ducks, 
swans,  pelicans,  gulls,  auks,  pufi&ns,  ftc.  among  the  birds;  and  the 
crocodiles,  alligators,  fresh-water  tortoises,  and  frogs,  among  the 
reptiles.  All  diese  animals  are,  properly  speaking,  web-footed,  and 
their  aquatic  habits  are  less  prominent  and  powerful  than  their 
terrestrial ;  their  organs  of  motion  in  feet  are  but  little  different  frt)m 
those  of  common  terresbial  animals.  In  those  which  frequent  the 
salt-water,  on  the  contrary,  the  aq\iatic  habits  greatly  predominate 
oyer  the  terrestrial:  they  live  less  on  land  than  in  water  and  the 


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AQUATIC  PLANTS. 


AQUAVIVAMUM. 


Btructure  of  their  extremitiM  approximatefl  more  to  that  of  purely 
aquatic  than  of  terrestrial  animalk  Their  legs  are  short,  and  inserted, 
or  as  it  were  buried,  in  the  common  integuments  of  the  body,  as  far 
as  the  elbows  and  knees  respectively,  leaving  apparent  only  a  short 
fin-like  paw,  which  is  unadapted  to  terrestrial  progression,  exactly 
in  proportion  to  its  fitness  as  an  organ  of  swimming.  Their  progress 
on  land  is  consequently  slow  and  difficult ;  they  creep  rather  than 
walk,  dragging  the  body  along  the  ground,  and  leaving  a  broad  mark 
behind  them.  Few  species  possess  even  this  limited  power  of  terrestrial 
motion ;  thosa  which  do  however  have  the  structure  of  the  extremities 
a  little  less  approximated  to  the  form  of  fins  than  the  purely  oceanic 
species.  The  seals  and  walruses,  for  instance,  have  the  bones  of  the 
paws  and  feet  similar  to  those  of  ordinary  land-quadrupeds,  only 
much  shorter  and  more  flattened,  and  the  hind  legs  are  tiiruwn 
backwards  in  the  same  direction  as  the  tail.  Still  they  are  enabled 
to  use  the  extremities  in  a  certain  degree  for  walking  or  creeping 
on  dry  land  ;  but  the  numerous  tribes  of  cetaceous  animals,  which  can 
execute  no  kind  of  motion  whatever  out  of  the  water,  have  the  bones 
of  the  anterior  extremities  flattened  and  connected  together  like  the 
stones  of  a  mosaic  pavement,  whilst  the  posterior  members  are  entirely 
wanting.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  sea-tortoises,  or,  as  they  are 
more  properly  called,  turtles,  when  compared  with  those  which 
frequent  fresh-water  ponds  and  rivers ;  the  foim  of  their  extremities 
approximates  more  nearly  to  that  of  fins  than  of  feet,  and  their 
aquatic  habits  constantly  predominate  over  their  terrestriaL 

Thus  it  is  that  the  peculiar  form  of  the  extreniities  not  only 
indicates  the  degree  in  which  an  animal  is  aquatic,  but  even  the 
nature  of  the  element  which  it  frequents.  If  it  inhabits  fresh-water 
ponds  and  rivers,  its  feet  are  simply  webbed  between  the  toes,  but  in 
other  respects  perfectly  developed,  and  its  terrestrial  habits  predominate 
over  its  aquatic ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  inhabits  the  salt  water,  its 
feet  are  flattened  into  the  form  of  fins,  the  hind  legs  are  thrown 
backwards  into  the  plane  of  the  body,  and  the  aquatic  habits  greatly 
predominate  over  the  terrestriaL  The  first  are,  properly  speaking, 
web-footedf  the  second  finrfooted, 

AQUATIC  PLANTS,  or  WATER  PLANTS,  are  those  plants 
which  live  entirely  in  water,  or  which  require  a  preponderating  quantity 
of  water  as  the  medium  of  their  existence  The  families  of  plaiits,  like 
the  families  of  animals  tiiat  live  in  the  water,  are  found  to  belong  to 
all  classes  into  which  the  whole  have  been  divided,  although  those 
belonging  to  the  lower  classes  are  by  far  the  most  prevalent.  Many 
of  the  families  of  plants  having  the  highest  oi^ganisation  have  members 
belonging  to  them  which  are  inhabitants  of  the  water :  of  this  the 
RamunciSAtt  aquaiilit  ia  an  example  in  the  natural  order  RanunciUaeecB, 
All  the  species  of  the  orders  Nymphceacete,  CaUUrichacetB,  Ceraio- 
pJiylUtcecBn  and  PodottemacecB,  belonging  to  the  class  Exogens,  grow  in 
water.  Among  Endogens,  the  orders  Butomacecey  Naiadacea  or 
Fhmalet,  Pittiftcece^  AlimiacecB,  &c.  consist  entirely  of  water-plants; 
whilst  one  of  the  largest  of  the  few  families  into  which  Cryptogamic 
Plants  are  divided,  the  Algaiy  consists  almost  entirely  of  plants  which 
live  in  the  water. 

For  the  purpose  of  studying  the  distribution  of  the  v^etable 
kingdom,  water-plants  are  distributed  into  several  groups.  One  of 
the  first  divisions  that  suggests  itself  in  the  study  of  their  forms  is 
derived  from  the  composition  of  the  waters  in  which  they  grow. 
Thus  we  have  those  which  grow  in  the  saline  waters  of  the  ocean,  and 
those  which  grow  in  the  fresh  waters  inland.  Most  of  the  plants 
which  grow  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  or  float  in  its  waters  belong 
to  the  family  of  Alga.  [ALOiE.]  There  are  however  many  plants 
not  belonging  to  this  order  which  require  the  influence  of  salt-water 
on  the  soil  on  which  they  grow  for  their  production.  Thus  species 
of  the  genera  SalsolOf  AnabatiSf  SalicomiOy  and  Glaux  will  not  grow 
but  where  they  can  feel  the  influence  of  salt-water:  hence  they  nave 
been  called  PlanUe  Salirue.  These  plants  are  found  not  only  where 
the  sea  washes,  but  wherever  salt  springs  find  their  way  to  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  There  is  another  group  of  plants  which  have  their 
existence  determined  by  saline  waters,  but  ore  always  found  near  the 
sea  or  on  the  banks  of  rivers  to  which  the  sea  has  access.  Such  are 
species  of  Chenopodivm,  Hdiotropiitm,  Vitex,  Eryngiunif  Samolus,  and 
the  Mangrove  (Rhiaophora).  These  are  cidled  PlantoB  LUioralu,  sen 
Mariiimce, 

The  largest  proportion  of  Fresh- Water  Plants  belong  also  to  the 
natural  order  Algce,  although  by  for  the  most  conspicuous  specimens 
belong  to  the  tribes  of  Exogenous  and  Endogenous  planta  As  the 
sea  claims  nearly  all  the  species  of  the  genus  Fucua  and  its  allies,  so 
the  fresh-water  claims  the  majority  of  the  species  of  the  old  genus 
Conferva  and  its  allies. 

AqwUic  PlanUf  in  Horticulture,  ore  those  which  naturally  grow 
in  deep  water,  and  are  carefully  dutinguished  by  the  cultivator  from 
marsh-plants.  The  management  of  them,  when  they  are  hardy,  is  of 
the  simplest  kind,  nothing  being  necessary  beyond  planting  them  in 
boxes  with  holes  in  the  sides,  and  sinking  tiiem  8  or  4  feet  below 
the  surface  of  a  pond,  so  that  the  boxes  lie  upon  or  among  the  mud 
at  the  bottom. 

But  for  those  which  demand  the  protection  of  the  stove  or  green- 
house, some  additional  precautions  are  requisite.  If  left  to  them- 
selves in  such  situationB,  the  uniformity  of  temperature  is  such  as  to 
deprive  ^hem  in  some  measure  of  the  repose  that  they  naturally 


I  receive  from  the  alternation  of  seasons ;  kept  constantly  in  a  growing 
I  state,  their  excitability  is  gradually  destroyed,  and  death'  ensues  as 
a  matter  of  course.  The  plants  which  demand  special  treatment 
are  chiefly  those  which  belong  to  the  natural  order  Nympkaeaeeoe, 
[Water-Lilt.]  The  most  beautiful  of  these  is  the  Victoria  regia. 
Various  methods  have  been  recommended ;  but  they  all  depend  for 
their  success  upon  keeping  in  view  the  principle  of  periodical  rest  and 
rapid  growth  under  a  high  temperature,  with  but  little  air  during  the 
season  of  vegetation.  .^^^^  %. . 

AQUAY IVARIUM,  a  term  proposed  to  be  applied  to  arrangements 
which  contemplate  the  exhibition  of  living  aqiiatic  specimens  of 
animals  inhabiting  either  fresh  or  salt  water.  Although  it  has  been 
known  from  the  earliest  times  that  animals  living  in  water  may  be 
kept  in  small  glass  vessels  for  exhibition  by  the  daily  supply  of 
fresh-water,  the  disooveries  of  modem  chemistry  have  pointed  out 
how  animals  may  be  kept  living  in  only  limited  quantities  of  water 
which  never  demand  renewing.  The  possibility  of  aooomplishmg 
this  depends  on  the  absolute  balance  in  nature  which  exists  between 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  [Anuial  Kiitqdom.]  The  one 
set  of  these  beings  are  for  ever  engaged  in  giving  off  whs^  the  other 
requires,  and  in  taking  up  what  the  other  rejects.  It  is  thus  that  the 
carbonic  acid  which  is  constantly  being  thrown  off  the  tissues  of 
animals  is  taken  up  by  plants,  and  thus  prevented  from  contaminating 
the  atmosphere ;  whilst  the  plant  is  constantly  engaged  in  giving  off 
oxygen  gas,  and  supplying  tiie  atmosphere  with  this  element  of  its 
composition  which  is  necessary  to  the  life  of  animals.  The  relations 
which  are  thus  found  to  exist  on  the  large  scale  of  the  whole  surface 
of  the  earth,  are  found  also  to  occur  in  a  jar  of  water.  If  an  animal 
is  placed  in  pure  water  it  quickly  exhausts  the  oxygen  it  contains, 
and  gives  out  into  it  carbonic  acid  gas ;  the  consequence  is,  that  it  is 
quickly  poisoned  unless  fresh  water  with  oxygen  is  supplied.  But  if 
we  place  with  the  animal  some  plant  that  Uvea  in  water,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  carbonic  acid  given  out  by  the  animal  will  be  taken 
up  by  the  plants  and  that  it  will  give  out  oxygen  in  its  placeu  Thus 
the  water  becomes  cleared  of  its  injurious  compound,  and  the  needed 
element,  oxygen,  is  supplied.  This  is  ideally  what  takes  place  in  every 
pond  and  pool  where  the  water  is  fresh,  and  all  that  is  required  to 
make  the  inhabitants  of  the  pond  visible  is  to  put  the  whole  pond, 
plant,  and  animals  into  a  glass-case.  Such  a  plan  has  been  tried  with 
great  success,  and  we  propose  to  call  the  apparatus  in  which  it  is 
effected  an  AquavivariunL 

The  first  experiments  w^ere  made  with  fresh-water,  and  we  believe 
the  public  is  indebted  for  one  of  the  earliest  accounts  of  such  an 
arrangement  to  Mr.  Waiington,  chemist  to  the  Apothecaries'  Company. 
He  found  out,  however,  that  it  was  not  sufficient  to  have  simply  any 
kind  of  plants  and  animals ;  but  that,  in  order  to  maintain  the  balance 
correctly,  it  was  necessary  that  certain  animals  which  lived  on  decom- 
posing vegetable  matter  ^ould  be  present.  At  certain  seasons  of  the 
year  the  tendency  to  decomposition  in  the  water-plants  becomes  so 
decided  that  the  water  would  be  rendered  impure  if  this  decomposition 
was  not  arrested.  The  cure  for  this  was  found  in  the  addition  of 
fresh-water  Mollusca  to  the  jars  containing  such  fish  as  the  gold-carp 
and  stickleback  and  such  plants  as  the  VaUiMwria  apiraUs,  CaUitriche,  • 
kc  The  best  kind  of  snails  for  this  purpose  are  the  various  species 
of  PUmorbtM,  Not  only  is  it  necessary  that  this  latter  precaution  be 
taken  to  ensure  the  success  of  the  experiment,  but  it  is  of  importance 
to  guard  against  the  preponderance  of  animal  life.  Although  in 
most  cases  it  appears  that  there  cannot  be  too  many  plants  for  the 
health  of  the  animal  as  long  as  they  grow  healthily  and  do  not 
decompose,  yet  it  often  happens  that  the  excess  of  animals  over 
plants  in  a  given  space  will  destroy  the  balance,  and  lead  to  the 
destruction  of  life.  We  are  not  aware  that  any  precise  experiments 
with  regard  to  the  quantity  of  water  and  the  number  of  plants  and 
animals  have  been  yet  performed.  We  can  however  state  as  a  £act^ 
that  a  gold-fish  has  lived  for  nearly  twelve  months  in  about  two  gallons 
of  water  with  several  flourishing  plants  of  VcUlisneria  tpiralit.  It  is 
probable  that  a  smaller  quantity  of  water  would  have  served  equally 
welL 

Amongst  the  fresh-water  plants  adapted  for  growing  in  such  jars 
or  tanks  as  we  have  mentioned,  are  the  VaUianeria  apiralia,  various 
species  of  Chora,  Anaeharia  AlatTuutrum,  StrcUiotea  Aloidea,  CaUiiricke 
auJtumnalia,  C.  vemalia,  Myriophyllum  apicaiwn,  and  JRitnuncidua 
aquatilia.  Such  jars  afford  a  good  opportunity  for  cultivating 
the  various  species  of  fresh-water  Confervse,  which  all  assist  in 
keeping  the  water  pure.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  these  is  the 
Mi^rodictyon  utriculatvm,  which  may  be  easily  propagated  in  tiiis 
manner. 

Although  these  results  have  been  known  for  many  years,  it  is  only 
recently  that  any  attempts  have  been  made  to  carry  out  the  same  plan 
with  regard  to  marine  animals  and  plants  in  sea-water.  The  only  plan 
adopted  of  keeping  the  Marine  Invertebrate  Animals  was  the  laborious 
one  of  supplying  them  every  day  with  water  from  the  sea.  For 
upwards  of  thirty  years  Sir  John  Dalyell  carried  on  his  observations 
on  sea-animals  in  the  city  of  Edinbuiigh  upon  this  system.  It  was 
however  known  generally  amongst  naturalists,  that  by  exposing  sea- 
water  to  the  action  of  the  air  by  pouring  it  from  one  vessel  into 
another,  it  became  perfectly  purified.  In  this  way  many  persons 
succeeded  in  maintaining  alive,  in  the  heart  of  Loudon,  Actinut,  Star- 


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AQUAVIVABIUM. 


AQUIFOLIACE^. 


Fishes,  and  other  low  forms  of  marine  animal  life.  It  was  however 
left  for  Mr.  Warington  to  demonstrate  what  others  had  often  theorised 
on,  and  that  was,  that  marine  plants  purified  sea-water  just  as 
fresh-water  plants  purified  fresh-water.  That  the  same  idea  had 
occurred  to  others  is  proved  by  Mr.  W.  Thomson's  communications 
to  the  'Annals  of  Natural  Histoiy'  (May  1858),  and  Mr.  Qosse's 
account  of  Marine  Vivaria  in  his  'Naturalist's  Rambles  on  the 
Devonshire  Coast'  The  difficulties,  however,  are  greater  in  main- 
taining the  balance  between  the  plants  and  animals  in  sea-water  than 
infre^  This  ariBes  from  the  more  sluggish  life,  both  of  marine  plants 
and  tt^nifniLla,  and  the  greater  amount  of  disoxganised  matter  which  they 
throw  from  their  surfaces.  By  care  in  the  selection  of  sea-weedii, 
avoiding  those  which  are  large  and  throw  o£f  much  matter  from  their 
Burface,  and  not  overcrowding  the  water  with  animal  life,  jars  or 
tanks  containing  searanimals  and  sea-plants  can  be  easily  managed. 
Mr.  Warington  recommends  green  sea-weeds,  such  as  the  species  of 
PorpkyrOf  ia  Mr.  Gosse  speaks  fiavourably  of  Chondrus  erUpuSf  Iridaa 
edulis^Bud^eDdeueriai.  Injarsortankscontainingthese  plants  various 
forms  of  sea-animals  have  been  successfully  kept  for  many  months. 

The  greatest  experiment  of  this  kind  which  has  hitherto  been 
attempted  is  in  a  lai^e  glass-building  that  has  been  erected  in  the 
gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  Regent's  Park  It  was  opened  to 
the  public  in  May,  1853.  This  buildmg  contains  an  area  of  60  feet 
by  25  feet.  The  sides  of  this  parallelogram  are  bounded  by  ponds 
of  plate-glass,  each  being  about  6  feet  in  length  and  2  feet  6  inches  in 
depth.  They  are  placed  at  a  height  of  about  3  feet  from  the  ground, 
so  that  each  diviition  presents  as  it  were  a  submarine  picture  *  on  the 
line,'  and  may  be  approached  so  closely  that  the  minutest  animals 
not  microscopic,  may  be  watched  with  the  most  perfect  success, 
under  circumstances  which  differ  as  little  as  possible  from  those  of 
nature.  The  whole  of  these  tanks  are  supplied  with  gravel,  sand, 
rocks,  and  sea-weeds,  so  as  to  imitate  the  rock-pools  left  on  tiie  sea- 
shore by  a  receding  tide,  which  indeed  they  may  be  said  to  represent ; 
but  with  this  great  advantage  to  the  observer,  that  instead  of  looking 
vertically  into  a  cavity  in  which  the  light  becomes  less  and  leas  in 
proportion  to  the  depth,  he  has  here  the  means  of  examining  each 
animal  in  its  turn,  under  an  effect  which  is  not  only  most  delightful 
in  itself^  but  which,  the  water  being  seen  in  section  through  perfectly 
transparent  walla,  afford  the  best  possible  position  for  investigating 
the  structure  and  functions  of  the  living  beings  contained  in  it. 

At  present  the  water  in  the  ponds  or  tanlu  in  this  establishment 
has  not  been  left  to  the  purifying  influence  of  the  plants  which  are 
placed  in  them ;  a  certain  quantity  of  water  being  supplied  to  the 
freah-water  tanks  every  day,  whilst  the  salt-water  is  gradually  drawn 
off  and  supplied  again  by  dropping,  so  as  to  effect  aeration  by  means 
of  tubes  above  the  tanks.  This  however  is  only  precautionary,  at 
the  commencement  of  an  experiment  on  so  hu^e  a  s^e. 

The  tanks  contain  fresh-water  animals  and  marine  animals.  The  fresh- 
water tanks  present  all  the  more  common  species  of  British  Fishes,  as  the 
Pike,  Tench,  Perch,  Roach,  Rudd,  Cai-p,  Eel,  Stickleback,  Minnow, 
Gudgeon,  &c.  Some  of  the  lazger  forms  of  fresh-water  Crustacea,  as  the 
Crawfish,  have  also  been  introduced  With  these  are  placed  a  large 
variety  of  the  fresh- water  Mollusca,  belonging  to  the  genera  Limnea, 
Planvrbit,  Anodon,  Unto,  &c  These  tanks  have  been  occupied  since 
Christmas,  1852,  with  scarcely  any  loss. 

The  marine  tanks  are  those  which  will  undoubtedly  always  form  the 
meet  attractive  featiue  in  an  Aquavivarium,  as  we  are  less  conversant 
with  the  habits  of  these  creatures  of  the  mighty  deep,  than  with 
thoee  of  our  ponds  and  rivers.  In  the  establishment  in  Regent's  Park 
all  the  classes  of  the  Invertebrate  Animals  are  represented  as  well  as 
the  fish  among  the  Vertebrate. 

Amongst  the  Radiate  Animals  none  are  more  remarkable  for  i^eir 
power  of  resisting  destruction  than  the  ActmiadceftJid  all  experimenters 
agree  that  they  are  amongst  the  animals  which  may  be  most  success- 
fully kept  in  tiie  Aquavivarium.  All  the  more  common  British  species 
are  now  to  be  seen  in  the  Regent's  Park,  and  some  of  remarkable 
size  and  beauty.  The  Sertularian  Zoophytes  and  the  Polyzoa  are  also 
there,  but  their  animal  inhabitants  are  too  minute  to  be  seen  with  the 
naked  eye.  Specimens  of  the  EchinodermcUa,  inclr^^g  several  forms 
of  Star-Fishes  {Asteriat),  the  Sun-Star,  the  common  Sea-Egg,  and  a 
species  of  ffoloihvria,  which  have  lived  for  some  weeks,  prove  that 
undoubtedly  these  beautiful  forms  of  animal  life  will  live  in  confine- 
ment, and  lead  to  the  hope  that  some  of  the  rarer  sorts  from  tropical 
oceans  may  find  their  way  to  our  collections. 

As  was  to  be  expected,  the  MoUusca  thrive.  In  the  sea  they  play 
the  same  part  as  in  the  fresh-water  :  they  are  the  scavengers  of  the 
ocean.  The  Pinna,  the  Oyster,  the  Pecten,  the  Cockle,  amongst 
bivalves ;  and  the  Whelk,  the  Periwinkle,  with  many  other  univalves, 
have  demonstrated  how  large  a  field  of  observation  is  in  store  for 
those  who  study  the  MoUusca.  Several  species  of  those  gems  of  the 
ocean,  the  Nudibranchiate  MoUusca,  whose  forms  and  colours  are 
only  known  to  us  through  the  great  work  of  Alder  and  Hancock,  have 
been  succeasfuUy  kept  alive;  whilst  the  red  leaves  of  the  species 
of  Rhodymenia  have  been  starred^  with  their  eggs.  Various  forms  of 
Aacidian  MoUusca  have  lived,  and  complete  the  evidence  that  this 
great  group  of  animals  may  be  watched  in  their  living  habits  as  easily 
as  their  shells  may  be  examined  in  a  cabinet. 

The  ArticiUata  are  represented  in  these  tanks  by  species  of  Lobster, 


Crab,  Shrimp,  and  Prawn.  Though  many  of  these  are  inhabitants  of 
the  deep  ocean,  and  only  reward  the  labours  of  the  dredger,  yet  they 
Uve  perfectly  weU  in  the  shaUow  lodgings  provided  for  tiiem  by  the 
Zoological  Society.  These  facts  demonstrate  that  amongst  the  Inver- 
tebrate tribes  there  are  none  whose  habits  may  not  be  studied  in  the 
AquavivariuuL 

As  yet  the  evidence  is  not  complete  with  regard  to  marine  fish. 
The  only  species  at  present  tried  in  Regent's  Park  have  been  the 
smaller  species  that  frequent  the  rocky  pools  of  our  coasts.  Amongst 
others,  the  Cork- Wing  {Cfrenilabrua  Comubicut),  the  Fifteen-Spiued 
Stickleback,  the  Long-Spined  Cottus,  two  species  of  Blenny,  and  a 
Qoby,  testify  how  far  this  portion  of  the  coUection  may  be  extended. 

As  far  as  exp^iment  has  gone,  the  success  of  the  Aquavivarium  is 
complete ;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  suppose  that  the  time  wiU 
speedily  arrive  when  in  every  exhibition  of  animal  life  glass-tanks  wiU 
be  fitted  up  for  the  purpose  of  iUustrating  the  habits  of  marine  and  fresh- 
water animals.  As  there  are  scarcely  any  limits  to  the  size  of  which 
vessels  made  with  square  plates  of  glass  can  be  constructed,  we  may 
hope  to  see  sporting  in  our  zoological  collections  some  of  the  monsters 
of  the  deep  of  whose  actions  and  life  we  know  absolutely  nothings 
and  of  whose  forms  we  only  judge  by  the  shapeless  masses  which 
their  skins  present  when  stuffed,  or  their  carcasses  when  bottled  in 
spirits  of  win& 

Before  concluding  this  article,  we  would  caU  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  principles  on  which  the  Aquavivarium  is  constructed  are 
also  adapted  to  faciUtate  the  removal  from  place  to  place  of  marine 
and  fresh-water  animals.  These  tanks  may  be  easily  fitted  up  on 
board  ships,  and,  with  a  little  attention  from  day  to  day,  many  of 
those  creatures  which  are  only  known  to  the  naturaUst  by  its  ^eleton 
or  its  name,  might  be  secured,  and  brought  into  our  living  museums. 

{Athenofum,  May  28, 1853 ;  AnnaU  of  Natural  History,  May,  1858; 
QoBse,  A  NatwralitCB  RambUs  on  the  Devonsfiire  Coast ;  Dalyell, 
BemarleabU  Anifnals  of  Scotland.) 

AQUIFOLIA'CE^  (from  aqua,  water,  Bsxd  folium,  leaf),  ffoUy- 
Worts,  a  natural  order  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Polycarpous  group  of 
Polypetalous  Exogens.  The  species  consist  of  trees  or  shrubs,  with 
alternate  or  opposite  coriaceous  leaves.  The  fiowers  are  small, 
axiUary,  soUtary,  or  fascicled  The  sepals  4-6,  imbricated  in  sostiva- 
tion  ;  the  corolla  i-  or  5-parted,  hypogynous,  imbricated  in  aestivation ; 
the  stamens  inserted  into  the  corolla  alternate  with  its  segments, 
filaments  erect,  anthers  kdnate ;  no  disk  :  the  ovary  fieshy,  superior, 
somewhat  truncate,  with  from  2  to  6  cells ;  ovules  soUtary,  pendulous 
from  a  cup-shaped  funiculus;  stigma  subsessile,  lobed;  the  fruit 
fleshy,  indehiscent,  with  from  2  to  6  stones;  the  seed  suspended, 
nearly  seesUe,  with  large  fleshy  albumen,  and  a  smaU  2-lobed  embryo 
lying  next  the  hilum,  with  minute  cotyledons  and  superior  radide. 
(Lindley.) 

This  order,  which  is  named  after  the  Ilex  aqutfolium,  the  Common 
HoUy  [Ilkx],  was  included  by  Juasieu  in  RhamrMceas.  It  has  however 
been  well  Characterised  by  Brongniart,  in  his  memoir  upon  Rhamueous 
Plants,  under  the  name  llicinecs. 

This  order  differs  from  Cclastracea,  in  which  it  is  often  included  as 
a  section,  in  the  form  of  its  calyx  and  corolla,  in  the  insertion  of  the 
stamens,  and  in  the  structure  of  the  ovary  and  fr^t.  It  agrees  closely 
with  Ebenacece,  from  which,  according  to  Brongniart,  it  only  differs  in 
possessing  hermaphrodite  flowers,  and  stamens  equal  in  number  to  the 
segments  of  the  corolla. 

This  order  has  but  one  representative  in  Eurojpe,  the  Common  HoUy 
(Ilex  aquifoliwn).  The  great  bulk  of  the  species  are  found  in  North 
and  South  America ;  some  are  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  useful  plants  of  this  order  are  foimd  in  the  genera  lUx, 
Myginda,  and  Prinos.  Ilex  is  remarkable  for  yielding  in  one  of  its 
species,  /.  Paraguensis,  the  alkaloid  T/ieine,  the  same  principle  that  is 
found  in  the  Tfiea  Chinensis,    [Tba,  Pabaouat  ;  Ilex.] 

Myginda  was  named  after  fVancls  von  Mygind,  a  German  botanist 
M,  uragoga  is  a  native  of  South  America,  near  Carthagena.  It  has 
smaU  dark  shining  red  flowers,  and  bears  a  red  soft  fruit  about  the 
size  of  a  pea.  It  is  caUed  by  the  Spaniards  Yerva  de  Maravedi,  and  a 
decoction  of  the  root  is  used  as  a  diuretic.  M.  Gongonha,  a  native  of 
Brazil,  in  the  provinces  of  St  Paul  and  Minas  Geraes,  has  also  the 
reputation  of  being  a  powerful  diuretic,  and  its  roots  are  used  in 
infusion  or  decoction  by  the  natives. 

Prinos  (from  the  Greek  for  the  hoUy,  vplvos),  Winterberry. 

P.  verticiUatvs,  Whorled  Winterberry,  is  a  native  of  North  America, 
from  Canada  to  Virginia,  in  sandy  wet  woods,  and  on  the  borders  of 
swamps.  The  flowers  are  white,  and  the  berries  are  of  a  crimson  red 
The  bark  is  bitter,  and  has  been  substituted  for  Cinchona  Bark  in  the 
treatment  of  fever.  It  is  said  to  act  as  an  antiseptic,  and  is  used  in 
America  as  an  appUcation  to  gangrenous  sores,  and  also  in  infusion  or 
decoction,  as  a  lotion  in  cutaneous  disorders. 

P.  glaber  is  a  low  handsome  shrub,  with  white  flowers  and  a  black 
fruit ;  hence,  in  Jersey,  it  is  called  Ink-Berries.  It  is  a  native  of 
North  America,  from  Canada  to  Florida.  Its  leaves  are  said  to  be  a 
good  substitute  for  those  of  the  Paraguay-Tea  Plant,  and  are  used  for 
making  tea. 

There  are  several  other  species  of  Prinos,  some  of  which  are  hardy, 
and  well  adapted  for  shrubberies.  They  wiU  thrive  in  most  light 
soils,  but  do  best  in  peat    They  may  be  propagated  by  laying  down 


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AQUILA. 


ARACHNID  A. 


the  Bhoots  or  by  seeds.  The  stoye  species  should  be  grown  in  a 
mixture  of  locun  and  peat,  and  cuttings  will  root  freely  in  sand,  under 
a  hand-glass.  Most  of  the  species  of  Aquifoliaceous  Plants  maybe 
cultivated  in  the  some  manner. 

(Don,  Oardencr' a  Dictionary;  B\imeit,  (hUlinei  of  Botany  ;  Lindley, 
Natvral  Syitem.) 

AQUILA,  the  generic  name  of  the  Eagles.    (Falconid Ji.) 

AQUILARIA.    [Aquilariacbj!.] 

AQUILARIA'CEiE,  Aquilariads,  a  small  natural  order  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  Incomplete  Exogeus.  The  species  are  trees  with 
smooth  branches  and  a  tough  bark.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  entire, 
seated  on  short  stalks  without  stipules,  and  when  full-grown  are 
smooth  and  shiny,  with  very  fine  veins  runniug  together  into  a  mar- 
ginal vein  just  within  the  mai^n.  The  calyx  is  turbuiate  or  tubular, 
hmb  5-cleft,  segments  spreading,  persistent,  with  an  imbricated 
estivation,  the  orifice  furnished  with  5-  or  10-bearded  scales  (mett^ 
morphosed  stamens).  The  stamens  are  5  or  10  in  number ;  when  5, 
they  are  opposite  the  segments  of  the  calyx ;  the  filaments  are  short 
or  absent,  smooth^  inserted  into  the  orifice  of  the  calyx  a  little  lower 
down  than  the  scales,  except  in  cases  where  they  are  united  to  the 
tube  of  the  calyx ;  the  anthers  are  narrow,  oblong,  attached  by  their 
back  below  the  middle,  2-celled,  opening  intem^y  and  lengthwise ; 
the  ovary  is  superior,  sessile  or  stipitate,  downy,  compressed,  1 -celled, 
having  internally,  upon  each  flattened  side,  a  linear  prominent  placenta 
resembling  a  dissepiment,  hence  spuriously  2-ceUed,  with  a  veir 
narrow  putition ;  ovul6s  two,  of  which  one  is  suspended  firom  each 
placenta,  tapering  downwards ;  the  style  is  either  absent  or  conical 
and  thread-shaped ;  the  stigma  is  simple  and  large ;  the  fruit  is  a' 
capsule,  pear-shaped,  compressed,  sessile  or  stipitate,  1-celled,  2-valved, 
the  valves  bearing  in  the  middle  the  placentse,  which  almost  touch 
each  other.  One  seod  is  mostly  borne  on  each  placenta  (one  is  some- 
times abortive) ;  the  seed  rises  up  by  aid  of  a  funiculus,  originating 
near  the  apex  of  the  placenta,  and  is  furnished  with  a  tail-like  aril, 
which  descends  straight  from  the  hilum  to  the  bottom  of  the  capsule ; 
the  radicle  is  strrdght  and  superior,  the  albumen  is  absent,  and  the 
cotyledons  thick,  fleshy,  and  hemispherical. 

This  onler,  which  consists  at  present  of  only  three  genera,  was 
constituted  by  Robert  Brown,  who  regarded  it  as  having  so  dose  an 
aifinity  with  VhaiUetacecB  as  to  see  no  objection  to  making  it  a  section 
of  that  order.  He  also  pointed  out  its  relation  to  Thymdacece,  in 
which  he  is  followed  by  Lindley,  who  says,  "  Aqutlariace<B  chiefly 
differ  from  TkymeUKta  in  their  dehiscent  fruit,  and  probably  also  in 
the  direction  of  their  radicle.  In  both  orders  the  ovary  is  superior 
and  1-oelled;  both  have  similar  scile-like  bodies  at  the  orifice  of  the 
calyx,  and  no  petals;  both  suspended  ovules,  a  single  style,  and 
capitate  stigma."  De  OandoUe  places  the  order  between  Chailletacecs 
and  TerehintacecB, 

All  the  species  of  AquHariaceas  are  natives  of  the  East  Indies. 

The  three  genera  of  this  order  are  A  quilariaj  Ophioapermum,  and 
Gyrinops.  Of  the  last  two  little  is  known.  One  species  of  each  has 
been  described    There  are  three  species  of  Aquilari<L 

A.  Malaccensis,  the  Bois  (TAigUf  or  Eagle-Wood,  is  a  native  of 
Malacca,  and  produces  a  whitish-yellow  wood.  This  is  the  A.  ovata 
of  some  botanists.  A.  Agattochum  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
where  it  is  called  Ugoor,  or  Ugooroo,  by  the  natives,  and  Lignum- 
Aloes,  or  Aloe-Wood,  by  the  Europeans.  The  wood  has  a  fine  scent, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  the  Oalambac,  or  Agallochum,  of  the  ancients. 

A.  iecundaria  is  another  species  which  also  yields  a  scented  wood, 
and  has  been  known  in  the  Materia  Medica,  and  used  in  perfumery, 
imderthe  names  of  Agallochum,  Lignum- Aloes,  and  Aloe-Wood.  In  a 
healthy  state  this  wood  is  said  to  be  white  and  inodorous ;  but  it  is 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  disease,  which  causes  the  secretion  of  a 
resinous  matter,  and  the  wood  then  becomes  coloured,  and  gives  out 
a  powerful  scent  This  secretion  resembles  camphor  in  many  of  its 
properties,  and  has  a  bitter  flavour:  hence  the  name  Aloe-Wood.  In 
medicine  it  is  recommended  in  the  same  diseases  as  the  fetid  resins 
and  volatile  oils,  and  does  not  seem  to  possess  peculiar  properties ;  so 
that  it  is  not  used  as  a  medicine  in  Europ&  The  Cochin-Chinese  are 
said  to  make  their  paper  from  the  bark  of  this  or  some  kindred  species 
of  Aquilaria.  These  trees  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Aloexylon 
AgaUochum,  or  Aloe-Wood,  which  is  a  tree  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  LeguminoacBf  and  which  also  yields  a  scented  wood  used  by  the 
Chinese  in  medicine  and  perfumery. 

(Don,  Gardmet^t  IHctwnary ;  Lindley,  Natural  System;  Royle, 
Illustratiom.) 

AQUILE'QIA,  literally  the  Water-Gatherer,  because  the  leaves 
collect  water  in  their  hollow,  is  a  small  genus  of  plants,  commonly 
called  Columbines,  belonging  to  the  order  JianunculacecBf  of  which 
several  species  are  cultivated  in  gardens.  They  are  known  from 
Acowitum,  to  which  they  are  the  most  nearly  related,  by  the  leaves  of 
the  calyx  being  all  of  the  same  form  and  size,  and  by  the  petals 
having  each  a  long  curved  horn  or  spur  at  the  base.  All  the  species 
are  handsome  perennials,  easily  propagated  by  dividing  the  crown  of 
their  roots :  the  commonest,  hence  named  A.  vutgariif  is  found  in 
woods  and  thickets  in  this  and  all  other  parts  of  Europe ;  it  has  pro- 
duced many  varieties,  differing  in  the  colour  of  the  flowers,  and  in 
the  multipUcation  of  the  petaU,  for  the  sake  of  which  it  is  commonly 
cultivated.    The  other  species  are  found  either  in  the  north  of  Asia, 


or  in  North  America.  They  are  all  acrid  plants,  but  much  inferior 
to  Aconite  in  their  medicinal  properties ;  hence  little  attention  has  been 
given  to  them. 

A'RACHIS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  LegwM- 
noao!.  One  species,  A.  hypogcea,  is  called  the  Earth-Nut.  The  circum- 
stance by  which  the  Arachu  hypogcBa  is  particularly  remariLable  is  the 
manner  in  which  its  fruit  is  produced.  Instead  of  hanging  down  from 
among  the  leaves  in  the  mangier  of  other  plants,  this  conceals  itself  in 
the  earth,  in  which  it  is  deeply  buried  at  the  period  when  it  beoomei 
ripe,  a  phenomenon  which  happens  thus : — The  young  fruit,  instead 
of  being  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  calyx,  as  in  other  kinds  of  pulse, 
is  found  at  the  bottom  and  in  the  inside  of  a  long  slender  tube,  which 
looks  like  a  flower-stalk.  When  the  flower  has  withered,  and  the  young 
firoit  is  fertilised,  nothing  but  the  bottom  of  this  tube  with  its  contentB 
remains.  At  this  period  a  small  point  projects  from  the  summit  of  the 
young  fruit,  and  gradually  elongates,  curving  downwards  towards  the 
earth.  At  the  same  time  the  stalk  of  the  fruit  lengthens,  until  the 
small  point  strikes  the  earth,  into  which  the  now  h<Jf-grown  fruit  is 
speedily  forced,  and  where  it  finaDy  ripens  in  what  would  seem  a  most 
unnatural  position.  When  mature,  it  is  a  pale-yellow  wrinkled  oblong 
pod,  often  contracted  in  the  middle,  and  containing  two  or  three  seedB 
the  size  of  a  hazel-nut  These  are  considered  a  valuable  article  of  food 
in  Africa  and  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia  and  America.  In  flavour  the 
nuts  are  as  sweet  as  an  almond ;  and  they  yield,  when  pressed,  an  oil 
in  no  respect  inferior  to  that  of  olives. 

The  plant  will  only  grow  in  a  light  sandy  soil,  in  which  its  pods  can 
readily  be  buried,  and  it  requires  a  climate  as  hot  at  least  as  that  of 
the  south  of  France.  Its  stems  grow  from  one  to  two  feet  high ;  its 
leaves  are  composed  of  four  broad  and  blunt  leaflets  ;  and  its  flowen 
are  small  and  of  a  pale  yellow  colour. 

ARA'CHNIDA,  a  class  of  animals  including  Spiders,  Mites,  and 
Scorpions,  all  ranked  by  Linnseus  under  Insects,  but  which  are  very 
properly  sei>arated  from  them,  on  account  of  external  form,  structure, 
and  habits.  The  separation  was  first  made,  we  believe,  by  Fabridus, 
who,  looking  chiefly  to  the  structure  of  the  month,  characterised  the 
greater  number  of  the  animals  now  ranked  under  Araehmdot,  by  the 
jaws  (inaxiUa)  being  homy  and  furnished  with  a  claw  (nnogtUa).  U. 
Lamarck  afterwards  made  the  Arachnida  a  distinct  class ;  but.  we  owe 
to  M.  LatreiUe  and  Dr.  Leach  the  establishment  of  characters  more 
precise,  and  extending  to  a  greater  number  of  genera.  Much  has  been 
done  in  perfecting  the  knowledge  of  their  structure,  manners,  and 
numerous  species  by  Clerck,  De  Oeer,  Walckenaer,  Treviranus,  Leon 
Dufour,  Harold,  Straus-Diirckheim,  Blackwall,  and  others.  We  shall 
condense  into  as  short  a  compass  as  we  can  the  most  important  points 
investigated  by  these  naturalists. 

The  Arachnida  {Aeera,  Yirey)  differ  from  Insects  in  having  no 
antennas ;  in  the  eyes  being  in  most  species  8,  and,  even  when  only 
two  in  number,  never  being  placed  lateittlly  on  the  head ;  in  the  legs 
being  usually  8,  though  in  some  species  6,  and  in  others  10 ;  and  in 
their  respiratory  apparatus  consisting  of  radiated  tracheae,  communi- 
cating with  a  sort  of  giUs  inclosed  in  pouches  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
abdomen. 

The  skin  or  crust  of  the  Arachnida  is  in  general  more  leathery  than 
homy ;  but  whether  it  be  soft,  as  in  most  sx>ecies,  or  hard,  as  in  a  few, 
it  performs  a  similar  office  to  the  bones  of  larger  animals  in  giving 
support  to  the  soft  parts  and  attachment  to  muscles,  the  1^  being 
joined  upon  and  radiating  from  a  common  breast-plate  {sternum) 
externally;  while,  according  to  Straus-Diirckheim,  there  is  also  an 
internal  breast-plate  of  a  gristly  texture  («»  sternum  cartilagineux 
intSrieur)  in  form  of  a  horse-shoe,  the  two  ends  of  which  are  directed 
forwards. 

The  greater  number  of  the  Arachnida  are  carnivorous,  and  are 
furnish^  with  appropriate  organs  for  their  predatory  life.  Some 
parasitic  species,  such  as  the  minute  Parasite  Mites  {L^i,  De  Oeer), 
which  we  have  observed  infesting  numerous  species  of  insects,  from 
the  largest  butterflies  to  the  smallest  gnats,  are  furnished  with  a 
sucker,  in  some  respects  constructed  like  Qiat  of  the  Gadfly  {Tabanus). 
In  other  species,  there  may  be  distinguished  a  pair  of  upper  jaws 

SMndibvia),  a  pair  of  under  jaws  (moztUa),  carrying  jointed  feelers 
alpi),  and  between  them  a  sort  of  tongue  formed  by  a  projection 
from  the  breast  At  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  is  placed  a  piece  of 
a  homy  texture,  which  Savigny,  LatreiUe,  and  Audouin  term  the 
pharynx,  forming  the  entrance  into  the  gullet  The  gullet,  together 
with  a  bulging  on  the  fore  part  of  it,  termed  the  stomach,  as  well  as 
the  intestines,  run  in  a  straight  line  from  the  pharynx  to  the  vent 
Near  the  upper  portion  of  the  gullet  are  found  salivary  vessels,  whose 
exterior  aperture  is  in  the  first  joint  of  the  upper  jaws.  The  saliva 
secreted  by  these  vessels  appears  to  be  poisonous.  Lower  down  are 
the  biliary  vessels,  which  resemble  those  of  insects. 

In  the  greater  number  of  Arachnida  there  is  a  complete  and  very 
distinct  circulatory  system.  The  heart,  which  differs  materially 
from  the  dorsal  vessel  by  some  termed  the  heart  in  insects,  occu- 
pies the  abdomen,  and  its  pulsations  may  be  distinguished  externally. 
It  is  a  thick  longitudinal  vessel,  giving  origin  to  a  certain  number  of 
arteries,  and  receiving  veins  by  which  the  blood  returns  from  the 
respiratory  oi^ans  in  other  parts  of  the  body. 

The  respiratoiy  organs  have  two  striking  peculiarities,  upon  which 
M.  Latreil^  founded  his  two  great  divisions  ot  Arachnida. 


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ARACHNIDA. 


ARALIACEJS. 


286 


The  divinon  fumifihed  with  lur-pipes,  similar  to  those  of  insects, 
comprises  Harvest-  or  Shepherd-Spiders  (Phalangia),  Mites,  and 
several  other  genera.  "The  presence  of  air-pipes  (trachSes)"  says 
M.  Latreille,  "  excludes  all  complete  circtdation,  that  is,  the  distribu- 
tion of  blood  to  different  parts,  and  its  return  from  the  respiratory 
organs  to  the  heart" 

The  other  division  of  the  class  comprises  the  numerous  species  of 
Spiders,  and  the  Scorpions,  which  M.  Straus-Diirckheim  and  Leon 
Ihifour  place  first  Their  respiratory  apparatus  conslBts  of  small 
cavities  formed  by  the  union  of  a  great  number  of  triangular  white 
lamina  of  extreme  thinness.  The  number  of  these  is  usually  two, 
but  in  some  species  there  are  four,  and  in  others  eight  The  external 
a|>ertures  of  these,  termed  spiracles,  and,  as  M.  Latreille  well  remarks, 
objectionably  itigmata,  are  transverse  chinks,  corresponding  in  number 
with  the  pulmonaiy  pouches. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  Arachnida  is  ganglionic,  consisting  of 
nerve-knots  (ganglia).  In  man  and  the  larger  animals,  a  ganghon  is 
composed  of  two  substances  similar  to  the  cortical  and  medulls^  sub- 
stances of  the  brain,  and  differs  from  nerves  in  being  firmer  in  texture, 
and  covered  with  a  membrane  of  closer  tissue.  In  the  Arachnida 
these  nerve-knots  are  more  concentrated,  if  the  term  may  be  used, 
than  in  Insects,  and  they  are  uniform  in  composition,  rather  than  a 
chain  of  ganglions  equally  separated.  Thus,  in  the  Harvest-Spiders 
(Phalangia)  tibere  are  a  pair  of  nerve-knots  in  front  of  the  gullet,  and 
at  the  back  of  the  gullet  a  medullary  mass,  apparently  consisting  of 
three  ranges  of  nerve-knots  imited. 

We  know  nothing  of  the  organ  of  hearing  in  Arachnida,  though  it 
is  certain  enough  that  they  do  hear.  Their  ^es  are  aU  simple,  not 
composite,  like  those  of  many  insects.  "  Tne  eyes  of  spiders  and 
scorpions,"  sajrs  Swammerdam,  "  are  externally  formed  exactly  in 
the  same  manner,  and  are  smooth,  glittering,  and  without  divisions ; 
and  are  as  much  diroersed  as  those  that  are  disposed  at  random 
over  the  body.  The  Wolf-Spider,  which  catches  its  prey  by  leaping 
on  it,  has  its  eyes  plaoed  in  the  same  manner."  In  the  greater 
number  of  Spiders  they  are  8  in  number,  but  in  some  6  (Dysdera  and 
Segalria),  and  in  others  2  (Phalangium).  The  arrangement  of  the 
eyes,  when  more  than  two,  varies  considerably  in  thed&ferent  genera, 
and  is  taken  advantage  of  in  arranging  them  systematically,  on  the 
principle  first  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Lister,  and  improved  upon  by 
LatreUle,  Leach,  and  Walckenaer.  Figures  of  various  arrangements 
of  the  eyes  in  spiders  may  be  seen  in  '  Insect  Miscellanies,'  pp.  125, 
126,  after  Audoum.     (*  Lib.  of  Ent  Knowledge.') 

With  regard  to  the  sexes,  male  spiders  are  always  much  smaller 
than  the  females,  being  often  not  more  than  one-fourth  the  size.  The 
feelers  (palpi),  also,  in  the  male  are  furnished  with  oigans  at  the  tip, 
which  are  of  various  forms,  but  usually  bulging,  whereas  the  feelers 
in  the  female  gradually  taper  to  a  point 

Looking  at  the  size  of  the  femiale  spider,  and  the  eggs  which  she 
lays,  it  appears  almost  incomprehensible  how  they  could  be  contained 
in  BO  small  a  body.  But,  by  observing  them  more  closely,  it  may  be 
discovered  that  they  have  not^  like  the  eggs  of  birds,  a  hard  shell, 
but^  on  the  contrary,  are  soft  and  compressible.  Accordingly,  before 
they  are  laid,  they  lie  ia  the  egg-bag  (ovarium)  within  the  spider's 
body,  squeezed  tt^ether  in  a  flat  manner ;  and  only  come  into  a 
globular  form  after  they  are  laid,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  equal 
pressure  of  the  air  on  every  side,  in  the  same  way  as  we  see  dew-drops 
and  globules  of  quicksilver  formed  from  the  same  cause. 

The  eggs  of  spiders,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  are  in  most  cases, 
tiiongh  not  always,  placed  in  a  roundish  ball;  and,  as  there  is 
nothing  in  nature  without  some  good  reason,  if  we  can  discover  it^ 
we  may  infer  that  this  form  is  designed  to  economise  the  materials 
of  the  silken  web  which  the  mother  spins  around  them  by  way  of 
protection.  Whether  we  are  right  or  not  in  this  conjecture,  there 
can  be  no  question  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  ball  is  shaped,  as 
the  writer  has  often  observed  the  process.  The  mother  spider,  in 
such  cases,  uses  her  own  body  as  a  gauge  to  measure  her  work,  in 
the  same  way  as  a  bird  uses  its  body  to  gauge  the  size  and  form  of 
its  nest  The  spider  first  spreads  a  thin  coating  of  silk  as  a  founda- 
tion, taking  care  to  have  this  circular  by  turning  round  its  body 
during  the  process.  It  then,  in  the  same  manner,  spins  a  raised 
border  round  this  till  it  takes  ike  form  of  a  cup,  and  at  this  stage  of  the 
work  it  begins  to  lay  its  eggs  in  the  cup,  not  only  filling  it  with  these 
up  to  the  brim,  but  piling  them  up  above  it  int^  a  rounded  heap  as 
high  as  the  cup  is  deep.  Here,  then,  is  a  cup  full  of  eggs,  the  imder 
half  covered  and  protected  by  the  silken  sides  of  the  cup,  but  the 
upper  still  bare,  and  exposed  to  the  air  and  the  cold.  It  is  now  the 
spider^s  task  to  cover  these,  and  the  process  is  similar  to  the  pre- 
ceding, that  is,  she  weaves  a  thick  web  of  silk  all  round  them,  and, 


inclosed  in  a  ball  much  laiger  than  the  body  of  the  spider  that  con- 


instead  of  a  cup-shaped  nest  like  some  birds,  the  whole  eggs  are 

tball  mu 
stnicted  it 

There  is  a  singular  mechanism  for  the  purpose  of  placing  the  eggs 
in  the  proper  position.  The  eggs,  different  from  what  takes  place  in 
birds,  are  excluded  from  a  cavity  just  behind  the  breast  Here  there 
is  an  organ  placed  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  hook  or  a  bent  spatula, 
which  the  spider  can  move  in  such  a  manner  as  to  direct  every  indi- 
vidual egg  which  it  lays  to  the  exact  spot  in  the  nest-cup  where  it 
wishes  it  to  be  plaoed.    The  sense  of  touch  in  this  organ  must  of 


course  be  very  acute,  as  by  touch  it  must  be  wholly  guided ;  for  its 
eyes,  though  eight  in  number,  and  very  piercing,  are  situated  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  head,  and  cannot  be  brought  within  sight  of  the 
nest 

The  hatching  of  the  eggs  of  one  species  (Epdra  diadema)  has  been 
traced  with  great  minuteness,  and  the  successive  evolution  of  the 
embryo  figured  with  great  skill,  by  M.  Herold  of  Marburg. 

M.  Latreille,  whose  method  has  been  generally  followed  both,  in 
Britain  and  on  the  Continent^  arranges  the  Arachnida  into  two  orders, 
as  foUows : — 


Class. 


fPulmonary  sacs  for  respiration ;  six  to  1 


Orders. 

J      twelve  6ceUi    .        .^      .        .        ' } J^««"*o»«Ha. 
I  Tracheso  for  respiration:  not  morel  «»     *      •     . 
L    than  four  ocelU       .        .        .        .}«-«<*«»^ 
The  first  order  is  divided  into  two  families : — 


Arachkida 


Arachnida 
Pvlmonaria, 


Families. 


Aranddce. 


pPedipatpi. 


Palpi   simple,   pediform;    mandibles' 
armed  with  a  moveable  and  per- 
forated claw,  emitting  a  poisonous 
liquid;   abdomen  inarticulate,  ter- 
minated by  spinnerrls    . 
Palpi  produced,  cheliform,  or  shaped' 
like  pincers ;  mandibles  with  a  move- 
able   digit;     abdomen    articulate, 
I.     without  spinnerets . 
The  Araneidce  include  our  common  Spiders.     [Araneid-B.! 
The  Pedipalpi  include  the  Scorpions  and  their  allies.    [Scorpio- 
nida] 

The  second  order,  Trachearia,  includes  very  various  fomwi,  as  the 
Pycnogonums  and  the  Mites.    [Trachearia  ;  Acarid^] 

AKALI  A'CE^,  IvyworU,  are  a  small  natural  order  of  plants,  nearly 
related  to  the  Umbdltferas,  from  which  they  are  solely  kno¥m  by  their 
young  fruit  consisting  of  more  parts  than  two.  The  species  of  this 
order,  which  includes  the  Ivy  [Hbdera],  are  frequently  shrubby,  and 
not  uncommonly  furnished  with  powerful  hara  prickles;  but  they 
are  often  also  herbaceous  and  unarmed,  like  umbelliferous  plants 
themselves.  As  an  illustration  of  tiie  order,  the  American  Ginseng 
(Panax  quinqurfolium)  may  be  taken. 


Ginseng  (Panax  quinpiefoluim), 
1.  A  barren  flower.  2.  A  fertile  flower.  S.  Ovarium  and  styles. 

4.  Fruit  cut  in  half,  with  the  seeds  projecting. 

5.  A  section  of  a  seed,  showing  its  minute  embrjo. 

This  plant,  which  is  nearly  related  to  the  celebrated  stimidating 
drug  called  Ginseng  by  the  Chinese  [Panax],  is  found  occasionally 
on  the  mountains  of  America,  from  Canada  to  the  Carolinas.  It  was 
long  since  introduced  into  our  gardens,  but  it  is  now  seldom  seen. 


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ARANEID^ 


ARANEIDiE. 


This  natural  order  seems  to  possess  litUe  or  no  sensible  properties,  for 
the  singular  invigorating  power  ascribed  to  Ginseng  by  the  Chinese  is 
considered  to  be  apocryphal. 

Many  of  the  species  of  Aralia,  on  account  of  their  aromatic  pro- 
perties, are  employed  in  medicine.  An  aromatic  gum-resin  comes  from 
A.  rocemofa,  A.  hispida,  and  A.  spinota.  A.  metUdnalis  is  diaphoretic, 
and  its  shoots  are  employed  in  North  America  as  a  substitute  for 
Sarsaparilla.  A.  edulis  is  employed  in  China  as  a  sudorific,  and  its 
young  shoots  are  eaten.  The  roots  of  Gtmnera  scabra,  or  Panke,  is 
used  by  tanners  on  account  of  the  tannin  it  contains.  Mr.  Darwin 
found  it  on  the  sandstone-clifi*s  of  Chiloe,  where  it  resembles  rhubarb 
on  a  gigantic  scale.  One  of  the  leaves  measured  nearly  eight  feet  in 
diameter. 

ARANEIDiE,  the  first  family  of  the  first  order  of  the  class 
Arachnida.  [Arachnid a.]  They  are  also  called  Spinning  Arachnida, 
from  their  peculiar  habit  of  producing  long  filamentous  cords  with 
which  they  form  their  nests  and  webs.  It  is  to  this  family  that  the 
term  Spider  is  more  especially  applied ;  and  scientifically  it  embraces 
all  those  creatures  which  are  commonly  called  Spiders.  All  these  are 
embraced  under  the  old  Linnsean  genus  Aranea,  Externally  this 
family  is  distinguished  by  the  following  characters: — The  palpi 

resemble  small  feet  without  a 
claw  at  the  tip,  terminated  at 
most  in  the  females  by  a  small 
hook,  but  in  the  males  support- 
ing various  appendages,  more 
'  or  less  complicated,  connected 

with  the  function  of  reproduc- 
tion in  this  family.     The  frontal 
claws  are  terminated  by  a  mov- 
able hook  whioh  curves  down- 
wards, and  has  on  its  under-side 
a  little  slit  for  the  emission  of 
a    poisonous    fluid    which    is 
secreted  in  a  gland  of  the  pre- 
ceding joint.     The  maxillae  are 
never  more  than  two  in  number ; 
Spinnerets  of  a  Spider,  magnified.         ^^  tongue  is  of  a  single  piece, 
always  external,  and  situated  between  the  maxillae,  and  more  or  less 
square,  triangular,  or  semicircular.     The  thorax  has  upon  it  a  V-like 
impression  indicating  the  region  of  the  head ;   it  consists  of  a  single 

piece,  to  which  is  at- 
tached behind  a  mov- 
able and  soft  abdomen. 
This  part  of  the  body 
is  furnished  with  four 
i  or  six  nipples,  fleshy 
at  the  tips,  round  or 
conical,  jointed,  placed 
close  together,  and 
^~-      ,  .  .^  .  pierced  at  the    extre- 

Cluwed  foot  of  a  Spider,  magnified.  ^^  ^^^^  ^  immense 

number  of  minute  orifices  for  the  discharge  of  silken  threads,  which 
are  produced  from  matter  formed  in  internal  reservoirs.  These  are 
called  S])innerets.     The  legs  vary  in  length,  but  are  composed  of  seven 

joints,  of  which  the  first  two  form 

the  haunch,  the  next  the  femur, 

the  fourth  and  the  fifth  the  tibiro, 

^    and  the  two  others  the  tarsus. 

W    The  last  is  ordinarily  terminated 

^     by  two  claws,  generally  toothed 

beneath,  and  by  a  third  smaller 

1 1     daw  which  is  not  toothed. 

^       The  most  remarkable  function 

1^   performed  by  the  A  raneidcB  is  that 

|\   of  producing  silken  threads  by 

means  of  the  spinnerets  above 

described    and    figured.      From 

each  one  of  the  minute  orifices 

of  the  spinneret  there  exude  as 

many  little  drops   of   a  liquid, 

whidi,  becoming  dry  the  moment 

it  comes  in  contact  with  the  air, 

forms  so  many  delicate  threads. 

Immediately  after  the  filaments 

have   passed   out   of   the   pores 

of  the  spinneret  they  unite  first  together  and  then  with  those  of  the 

neighbouring  spinnerets  to  form  a  common  thread ;  so  that  the  thread 

of  the  spider,  when  it  suspends  itself  from  any  object,  is  composed  of 

an  immense  number  of  minute  filaments,  amounting  even  to  many 

thousands,  each  of  which  is  of  such  extreme  tenuity  that  the  naked  eve 

cannot  detect  them  till  they  are  formed  into  a  common  thread.     The 

spinnerets  of  the  same  spider  differ  in  structure,  and  Lyonnet  has 

shown  that  one  set  of  spinnerets  is  employed  in  producing  threads 

which  are  glutinous,  whilst  another  set  produces  threads  which  are 

smooth.    This  may  be  seen  by  throwing  a  little  dust  on  a  spider's  web, 

such  as  that  of  Epeira  diadeni<i,  when  it  will  be  found  that  it  adheres 

to  the  threads  which  are  spirally  disposed,  but  not  to  those  that  radiate 


from  the  oentro  to  the  droumferenoe. 
be  stronger  than  the  spiral  ones. 


These  last  are  also  fonnd  to 


Single  thread  of  a  Spider,  magnified. 


Oardeu-Spider  suspended  by  a  thread. 

The  spinnerets  are  in  connection  with  an  internal  apparatus  which 
secretes  the  mlitter  they  tiius  elaborate.    This  apparatus  consists  of 


Geometric  Net  of  Epeira  Diadema. 


a  number  of  intestine-like  canals  which  are  united  together,  and  tut 
both  in  number  and  extent  according  to  the  spedes  in  which  they  occur. 
These  canals  empty  themselves  into  tubes  which  open  into  the  spinnerrti^ 
from  whence  the  thread  is  extruded. 

It  is  by  means  of  these  threads  that  spiders  construct  the  vanou> 
webs  which  they  throw  from  one  object  to  another,  for  the  purpose  of 
entrapping  their  prey.  It  is  said  that  some  of  the  hunger  species  con- 
struct webs  in  which  even  small  birds,  such  as  the  humming-bird,  are 
caught  and  made  subservient  to  the  wants  of  the  spider.  No  sooner  £< 
an  insect  or  other  small  animal  ensnared  than  the  spider,  placed  in  the 
centre  of  its  net,  or  in  a  cell  built  at  its  side  for  the  purpose  of  watching. 
darts  forth,  and  uses  all  its  efibrts  to  inflict  upon  it  wounds  into  whi«^ 
it  pours  the  venom  contained  in  its  frontal  claws.  When  the  creature 
thus  caught  offers  too  great  a  resistance,  so  that  the  spider  becomes 
endangered,  he  retires  for  a  time  from  the  contest  to  renew  his  strength, 
leaving  his  victim  secure  in  his  meshes,  and  gradually  getting  exhausted 
frt>m  the  attempts  it  makes  to  escape.  When  the  spider  returns  he 
frequently  twists  the  web  round  and  round  the  body  of  his  victim, 
and  then  either  at  once  commences  to  make  a  meal  of  him,  or  wait« 
till  his  appetite  suggests  the  proper  time  for  feeding. 

Although  Spiders  are  not  provided  with  wings,  and  are  consequentlT 
incapable  of  flight,  they  have  a  power  of  ballooning  with  their  silken 
threads,  by  means  of  which  they  can  make  distant  journeys  through 
the  atmosphere.  These  aerial  excursions,  which  appear  to  restdt  from 
an  instinctive  desire  to  seek  some  more  favourable  spot  for  the 
gratification  of  their  appetite  or  other  cause,  are  undertaken  trheo 
the  weather  is  bright  and  serene,  especially  in  the  autumn,  both  by 


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ABANEIBJS. 


AKAUCARIA. 


adult  and  immattire  individcuJa  of  many  memea,  and  are  effected  in  the 
following  way : — ^They  first  mount  to  the  Bummlt  of  an  object^  and 
then  raise  themselyeB  still  higher  by  straightening  their  limbs ;  the 
abdomen  is  then  elevated  into  an  almost  pexpendioular  position,  and 
they  emit  firom  their  spinnerets  a  small  quantity  of  viscid  fluid,  whidi 
is  drawn  into  fine  lines  by  the  ascending  current  of  air  firom  the 
heated  ground.  Against  these  lines  the  current  of  air  from  below 
keeps  impinging  till  the  animalH,  finding  themselves  acted  on  with 
sufficient  force,  quit  their  hold  of  the  earth  and  mount  into  the 
air.  It  has  been  sometimes  stated  that  spiders  can  forcibly  propel 
or  dart  out  Unes  firom  their  roinnerets ;  but  when  placed  on  twigs  set 
upright  in  glass  vessels,  with  perpendicular  sides,  all  their  efforts  to 
escape  are  unavailing. 

The  webs  named  gosaamer  are  composed  of  lines  spun  by  spiders, 
which,  on  being  brought  into  contact  by  the  action  of  a  gentle  air, 
adhere  together,  till  by  continual  additions  they  are  accumulated 
into  irregular  white  flakes  and  masses  of  considerable  extent. 

The  poisonous  effects  of  the  wounds  of  spiders  are  produced  by 
means  of  the  mandibles,  or  firontal  claws,  which  are  each  armed  with 
a  moveable  and  extremely  sharp  unguis,  near  to  the  point  of  which  is 
a  minute  orifice,  whence  there  is  poured  out  a  drop  of  poison  into 
the  wound.  This  orifice,  which  is  veiy  difficult  to  detect,  com- 
municates with  a  canal  in  the  interior  of  the  mandible ;  this  canal 
proceeds  from  a  gland  situated  in  the  interspace  of  the  moscles  of  the 


thorax.  The  gland  consists  of  a  vesicle  having  internally  a  number 
of  spiral  filaments,  which  are  connected  together  by  a  membrane  in 
the  form  of  a  bag.  Although  dreadful  stories  are  related  of  the  effects 
of  the  bites  of  spiders  on  tiie  human  body,  it  appeals  from  experi- 
ments  made  by  Mr.  Blackwall  on  British  Spiders,  that  none  of  tnese 
have  the  power  of  producing  any  ill  effects  on  human  beings.  There 
is  still  wanting  good  evidence  on  which  to  rest  a  chaige  of  poisoning 
man  by  biting  Mm,  even  against  the  larger  forms  of  spiders,  whi<£ 
inhabit  tropical  dixnates. 

A  curious  feature  in  the  histoxy  of  spiders  is  the  power  they  possess 
of  reproducing  their  limbs  after  they  have  been  broken  off  This 
power,  however,  is  not  confined  to  spiders,  as  we  find  it  in  the 
Onutacea  [Crustacea],  and  even  in  the  vertebrate  animals  amongst  the 
Amphibici.  [Amphibia.]  In  the  case  of  the  spiders,  it  is  never  a  part 
of  a  limb  which  is  r^roduced,  but  if  a  part  of  a  leg  is  removed,  it 
proceeds  to  throw  off  the  remainder,  and  after  the  next  moult  the 
missing  member  reappears. 

The  species  of  the  family  ArcmeidcB  are  very  numerous,  and  have 
been  arranged  by  naturalists  under  several  genera.  They  have  been 
investigated  with  great  care  by  M.  Waloken&er,  who  has  made  them 
the  special  study  of  his  life,  and  has  drawn  up  a  natural  arrangement  of 
them  according  to  their  structure  and  habits  of  life.  A  synopsis  of. 
this  arrangement  we  subjoin,  as  by  a  lit^e  study  it  wiU  furmsh  an 
insight  into  the  surprisingly  varied  habits  of  this  family : — 


TABLE  OF  THE  SUBDIVISION  OF  THE  ABANEIDJE,  OB  ABACHNIDA  FILOSA,  INTO  GENERA. 
Oenera, 


MmndMea  ar. 
ticttlatcdho. 
risontaUy; 
rnoTing  ver- 
ttoaUy. 


^  I  i^«»  aggregated. 


1/ 


MandHUeB  ar. 
tieolated 
TcrtlflaU  J  or 


I  Bjf»  segregated. 

JS^  anterior. 

Bffe9       anterior 
and  lateral. 


JBya 
and 


anterior 
lateral, 

very    unequal 

in  alM. 


eUned  plane 
moring  la* 
terally. 


ne;  )  « 


Eyet      anterior, 
almost    equal  << 
in  size. 


Mygale. 
Oletera. 
Filistata. 
Hissulena. 
Sphodros. 
DTsdera. 
Segestria. 
TTptiotes. 
Omosites. 
Soytode. 
LycoBiiB. 
Dolomedes. 
Storena. 
Cteniu. 
Hersllia. 
^  Sphacus. 
Dolophenes. 
Myrmecia. 
Ereens. 
Platifcelnm. 
Attoa. 
Delena. 
Thomisoa. 
Selenops. 
Eripns. 
Philodromu. 
Sparassns. 
Cla«te«. 
Clnbiona. 
Draaaoa. 
Clotho. 
Emyo. 
Latrodectoa. 
Pholcna. 
Artema. 
Tegenaria. 
Laeheflls. 
Agelena. 
Nyasna. 
Epelra. 
Tetragnatta. 
Xnoboma. 
Zoaia. 
Lynyphia. 
Epiflina. 
Theridion. 


>  LaxmbxiooiaM,  hiding  in  holes  and  fissures. 


TuBzoouB,  inclosing  themaelvea  in  sUken  tabes. 
CsLLULxoouB,  Sheltering  themaelvea  in  small  oella. 


>  CvBaoan,  running  swifUy  to  cateh  their  prey. 


SALTATOBsa,  leapbig  and  springing  vith  agQity  to 
selae  their  prey. 


LATxaioaADJB,  walking  and  running  sideways  or 
backwards;  oeeaaionally  throwing  out  threads  to< 
entrap  their  prey. 


Ninmi^,  going  abroad,  but  making  a  web  for  their 
neata,  whence  iaaae  threads  to  entrap  their  prey. 

FiLrnEL^  going  abroad,  bat  spreading  long  threada  ^ 
of  silk  aboat  the  places  where  they  prowl  in  order 
to  entrap  their  prey. 


VMontstf  incessantly 
ronning  or  leaping 
about  the  vicinity  of 
their  abode  to  chaae 
and  catch  their  prey. 


Voffontet,  wandering 
abroad  and  inces- 
santly  spying  out  for 
prey;  no  fixed  resi- 
dence except  at  the 
period  of  oviposition. 

JSrranUt,  prowling  about 
the  neighbourhood  of 
their  nesta,  or  near 
the  threada  which 
they  throw  out,  to 
catch  their  prey. 


Sedmtit,  spinning  large 
webs  to  entrap  their 
prey,  lying  in  wait  tn 
the  middle  or  at  the 
side. 


TAFXTSLJi,  spinning  great  webs  of  a  close  texture 
like  hammonks,  and  dwelling  therdbi  to  catch 
their  prey. 

OaBrrxut,  spreading  abroad  weba  of  a  regular  and 
open  texture,  either  orbicular  or  spiral,  and  re- 
in  the  middle  or  on  one  side  to  catch 
their  prey. 
BaTtTBi.jB,  spinning  weba  of  an  open  meshwork  and 
of  an  irregular  form,  and  remaining  In  the  middle 
or  on  one  side  to  cateh  their  prey. 

^  yatanttt,  swimming  in 
water  and  there 
spreading  their  fll*. 
ments  to  entrap  tiieir 
prey, 

{OsfdcpcBdia  ofAnaiamy  and  Physiology,  article  *Arachnida;*  Bhickwall,  in  IUp<yrt  of  Brititk  AMtoeiation,  1844 ;  Owen's  Zecturtt 
on  Comparative  Anatomy;  Cuvier's  Bigne  Animal;  Imeet  ArckiUetwre,  in  Library  of  BrUertaining  Knowledge,) 


Argyroneta. 


AQxnTzLJB,  spreading  filaments  in  the  water  to  entrap  ^ 
their  prey. 


TerrettrUt  liv- 
on  land  or 
in  holes  in 
the  ground. 


Aqtiatiem,  Uv- 
ing  in  water. 


ARAUCA^IA,  in  Botany,  is  the  name  of  a  singular  genus  of 
gigantic  Firs,  found  scattered  over  the  southern  hemisphere.  It  is 
known  from  all  the  other  firs  by  its  stiff  broad  leaves,  by  a  long  leafy 
appendage  with  which  the  scales  of  its  cones  are  terminated,  and  bv 
its  anthers  having  many  cells.  The  following  species  are  those  which 
are  best  known: — 

Arauearia  excdta,  commonly  called  the  K^orfolk  Island  Pine,  is 
found  not  only  in  the  spot  after  which  it  has  been  named,  but  also  in 
several  other  pkoes  m  the  South  Seas,  as  m  New  Caledonia,  Botany 
Island,  Isle  of  Pines,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  east  coast  of 
Australia.  It  is  described  as  a  most  majestic  tree,  growing  to  the 
height  of  firom  160  to  228  feet^  with  a  circumference  sometimes  of 
more  than  80  feet    Its  trunk  rises  erect^  and  is  sparingly  covered 

HAT.  mn.  DZY.  TOL.  L 


with  long  drooping  naked  branches,  towards  the  extremities  of  which 
the  leaves  are  clustered ;  these  latter,  when  the  plant  is  young,  are 
long,  narrow,  curved,  sharp-pointed,  and  spreading,  but  when  the  tree 
is  old  they  have  a  diorter  and  broader  figure,  and  are  pressed  close 
to  the  branches ;  old  and  young  trees  are  consequently  so  different  that 
they  have  the  appearance  of  distinct  species.  The  bark  abounds  in 
turpentine ;  the  wood,  which  is  destitute  of  that  substance,  is  wliite^ 
tough,  and  close-grained.  It  was  once  expected  that  this  tree  would 
have  been  valuable  for  its  timber,  and  that  it  would  have  afforded 
spars  for  the  navy  of  great  size ;  but  it  has  been  found  on  trial  to  be 
too  heavy,  and  so  imsound  that  Captain  Himter  could  only  find  7 
trees  fit  for  use  out  of  84  that  he  caused  to  be  felled.  Its  wood  ia, 
however,  useful  for  carpenters'  indoor  work.    Several  specimens  of 

u 


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ARAUCARITES. 


ARDEA. 


this  tree  exist  in  the  coUeotiozM  of  this  ooontrj.  Unfortuiiately  it 
will  not  live  in  the  open  air  in  the  winter,  and  its  growth  is  so  rapid 
as  to  render  it  yery  soon  too  lai^  for  the  loftiest  greenhooses.    A 


Norfblk  Uland  Pine  {AraueoHa  gxeeka), 

supposed  species,  called  the  Moreton  Bay  Pine  (AraueoHa  Ou/mUng- 
ham%)f  is  scarcely  disting^uishable  from  this.  It  is  a  highly  interesting 
fact,  that  a  plant  very  nearly  the  same  as  this  Araucaria  exeeUa 
certainly  once  mw  in  Qreat  Britain.  Remains  of  it  have  been  found 
in  the  Lias  of  Dorsetshire,  and  have  been  figured  in  the  Fossil  Flora, 
under  the  name  of  Araucaria  jprimceva, 

Ara/uearia  Dombeyi,  or,  as  it  is  more  commonly  called,  A.  imbrieata, 
is  a  noble  si)eoie8,  ixihabiting  the  mountains  of  the  Araucanian  Indians 
in  South  America,  whence  the  name  of  the  genus  derives  its  origin. 
This  species  has  its  branches  closely  covered  with  broad,  lance-shaped, 
very  rigid  and  pungent  dark-green  leaves ;  it  produces  its  branches  in 
circles  around  its  erect  stem ;  and  when  old  it  acquires  an  appearance 
not  very  unlike  that  of  the  Norfolk  Island  Pine,  only  it  is  mvLoL  less 
graoefuL  Its  wood  is  said  to  be  durable,  and  it  yields  a  great  quantity 
of  main.  Many  specimens  are  now  growing  in  England,  and  aeem  to 
bear  our  winters  welL 

Araucaria  BratiUentii  is  extremely  like  the  last,  but  tl^  leaves  are 
longer,  weaker,  and  less  densely  imbricated;  and  it  is  knuch  more 
impatient  of  cold.  It  is  found  wild  in  the  southern  provinces  of 
Braza 

ARAUCARITES  (Presl),  a  genus  of  Fossil  Plants  found  in  the  Lias 
of  Lyme  Regis. 

A^RBUTuS,  a  genus  of  evergreen  shrubs,  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Erieaeece.  It  is  characterised  by  its  fruit  beiog  a  berry, 
containing  many  seeds.  The  most  remarkable  species  is  the  Arbutut 
of  Virgil,  now  called  A,  Unedo,  or  the  Strawberry-Tree,  from  the 
resemblance  borne  by  its  berries  to  that  well-known  fruit  It  is  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe  and  the  Levant.  In  our  gardens  it 
proves  a  hardy  eveigreen-tree,  sometimes  as  much  as  18  or  20  feet 
high,  bearing  its  greenish-yellow  bloasoms  in  October  and  November, 
and  its  bright  yeUow  and  red  berries,  which  are  studded  with  little 
projections,  in  November  and  the  succeeding  months.  The  most 
mteresting  specimens  in  this  country  are  at  the  lake  of  Killamey, 
where  they  form  groves  of  great  beauty.  The  plant  can  scarcely 
however  be  oonsidered  indigenous  to  Ireland  on  this  account  Its 
berries  are  hardly  eatable :  taken  in  too  great  quantities  they  are 
apt  to  produce  stupefaction ;  nevertheless  a  wine,  said  to  be  pleasant 
enough,  is  prepared  from  them  in  Corsica. 

A.  Andraehne,  the  Oriental  Arbutus,  is  superior  to  the  last  in  beauty 
both  of  leaves  and  flowers,  but  it  is  much  more  tender,  and  does  not 


bear  fruit  in  Ghreat  Britain.  It  is  readily  known  by  its  broader  and 
less  serrated  leaves,  and  by  its  bark  peeling  off  so  as  to  leave  the  stem 
always  smooUi  and  of  a  dear  bright  cinnamon-brown.  It  is  a  natiye 
of  the  Levant 

A.  hybrida.  Mule  Arbutus,  is  apparently  a  hybrid  between  the  last 
two,  agreeing  with  A.  Untdo  in  the  general  aspect  of  its  foliage,  which 
is  however  larger  and  more  handsome,  and  with  A.  And^aclvn€  m 
flowers  and  in  Uie  deciduous  bark.  It  is  hardy,  and  very  ornamental, 
but  it  does  not  bear  berries  in  Qreat  Britain. 

A,  procera,  a  native  of  California,  exists  in  the  gardens  of  this 
country.  A.  putcronata,  from  the  Straits  of  Magalhaens,  is  a  hardy 
evergreen  bush,  with  small,  very  dark,  jpointed  and  eerrated 
leaves,  among  which  hang  numbers  of  soUtaiy  white  blosaoma 
[Abotostaphtlos.] 

ARCHER  FISH  {ToxoteSf  Cuvier),  a  genus  of  Acanthopterygioaa 
Fishes,  belonging  to  the  family  SquamipcMUBf  or  those  which  an 
distinguished  by  having  not  only  the  soft  parts,  but  often  the  very 
nnnes  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  covered  with  scales  like  the  rest  of 
the  body,  and  not  always  very  easily  distinguishable  from  it  Though 
the  single  species  upon  which  this  genus  is  founded  had  been  long 
known  to  naturalists,  and  described  under  the  various  namea  of 
Searut  Sehloueri,  Sciima  jacuUUrix,  Labrug  §affittariut,  snd  Colvt 
chaiareut,  by  the  different  writers  on  Ichthyology,  yet  it  was  left  for 
Baron  Cuvier  to  point  out  its  appropriate  generic  charactera,  and  to 
distinguish  it  definitely  from  the  different  groups  with  whidi  it  had 
been  previously  confounded.  These  characters  are  found  in  the  ahoit 
and  compressed  form  of  the  body;  in  the  dorsal  fin  being. situated 
very  £ar  t>ack,  provided  with  very  strong  spines,  and  like  the  anal, 
which  is  placed  very  nearly  opposite  to  it,  covered  on  its  soft  parts 
with  large  tough  scales ;  in  the  short  depressed  shape  of  the  muzzle; 
and  in  the  length  of  the  under  jaw,  which  oonsideraDly  surpaasea  the 
upper,  and  entails  upon  the  animal  the  singular  habit  from  which  it 
has  derived  the  name  of  the  Archer.  The  giUs  have  Bix.brBodxio8tegOTiB 
rays ;  the  teeth  are  small,  sharp,  and  dispersed  over  the  jaws,  tongue, 
and  palate ;  the  stomach  is  short  and  broad,  the  air-bladder  large,  and 
the  pylorus  provided  with  twelve  coecal  appendices.  The  only  biown 
species  is — 

The  Toxatet  JacuUUor  of  Cuvier,  which  is  found  in  Java  and 
Sumatra,  and  has  been  long  celebrated  for  the  singular  instinct  which 
it  displays  ^in  catching  fiies  and  other  insects  which  are  its  prey. 
Comparatively  speaking,  there  are  very  few  species,  among  Ihe 
numerous  class  of  fishes,  distinguished  by  superiority  of  instinct  or 
address ;  but  the  very  rarity  of  their  occurrence  makes  the  partial 
instances  which  are  occasionally  met  with  still  more  remarkable,  and 
among  these  the  means  which  the  Archer  and  a  species  of  C^€^od<m 
{O.  rattratui)  employ  for  procuring  food  are  entitled  to  especial 
notice.  The  tubular  form  of  the  mouth  in  these  ftnimula  permits 
them  to  squirt  or  project  smallquantities  of  water  to  some  distanoe, 
and  with  considerable  force.  When,  therefore,  the  Archer  perceives  a 
fly  or  other  insect  resting  on  the  leaves  of  the  aquatic  plants  winck 
overhang  or  swim  on  the  surface  of  the  stream,  it  projects,  or  as  it 
were  shoots  a  single  drop,  not  directly  towards  the  insect,  but 
obliquely  upwards,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  strike  it  in  falling,  thus 
preventing  it  from  perceiving  its  danger  and  escaping  in  time.  With 
such  accuracy  is  the  aim  taken,  that  though  frequently  projected  to 
the  height  of  four  or  five  feet,  the  drop  seldom  fails  to  hit  ihe  mark 
and  precipitate  the  insect  into  the  water,  where  it  is,  of  course,  within 
reach  of  the  Archer.  The  fish  itself  is  of  a  yellowish  colour,  marked 
on  the  back  with  five  brown  spots. 

ARCTIC  FOX,  in  Zoology,  a  small  species  of  Fox  (Conu  lagoput), 
celebrated  for  the  beauty  and  fineness  of  its  fiu*,  which  has  long  been 
considered  a  valuable  artide  of  commerce.  The  colour  of  the  fur,  as 
is  the  case  with  all  animalB  which  inhabit  very  high  latitudes,  varies 
according  to  the  season,  being  slaty  blue  in  sunmier,  and  pure  white 
in  winter.  It  is  in  the  latter  state  that  the  fur  is  most  esteemed,  not 
only  on  account  of  its  colour,  but  likewise  because  it  is  of  a  closer 
and  finer  quality  than  at  any  other  time.  The  soles  of  the  feet  also 
are  at  all  seasons  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  fur,  like  those  of  the 
conmion  hare,  which  defends  them  from  the  severity  of  the  snow, 
and  is  a  character  likewise  conmion  to  most  other  northern  ATiimulK- 
[Fox.] 

ARCTOSTATHYLOS,  or  Bear-Berry,  is  a  genus  of  plants  till  lately 
considered  the  same  as  Arbutut,  from  which  it  is  essentially  dis- 
tinguished by  its  berries  containing  only  from  one  to  five,  instead 
of  a  great  many  seeds.  The  common  Bear-Berry  {A.  Uva  Urn),  is 
found  wild  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  England  and  Scotland,  and 
generally  over  the  whole  of  the  north  of  Europe.  It  is  a  trailing 
shrubby  plant,  with  leathery  dark-green  entire  leaves,  which  are 
broadest  at  their  upper  end.  The  flowers  are  white,  tinged  with  pink, 
small,  and  in  dusters.  The  berries  are  small  and  red,  like  those  of 
the  hawthorn.  The  whole  plant  is  so  astringent  that  it  has  been 
employed  by  the  tanner  with  success,  and  also  in  dyeing  a  grayish 
black  oulour ;  it  is  no  doubt  the  same  property  which  has  made  it 
celebrated  for  its  efficacy  in  gravel  complaints,  and  in  diseases  of  the 
urinary  organs.  When  cultivated  it  requires  to  be  grown  in  peat 
earth. 

ARDEA  (Vieillot),  the  Heron,  a  genus  of  birds  under  which  Limueus 
comprehended  the  Cranes  and  several  other  divisions  now  formed 


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ARDEA. 


ARDEA. 


into  distinot  eenera  by  modem  naturalists.  M.  Vieillot  followed 
Bxiffon  in  making  four  divisions  of  the  Herons ;  but  Temminck,  who 
has  paid  peculiar  attention  to  these  birds»  arranges  tliem  under  one 
genus  and  two  sections.  The  genus  Arckct,  as  Umited  hj  Vieillot^ 
is  thus  characterised : — 

Bill  strong,  straight^  or  slightly  curved,  compressed,  acuminated, 
Bharp,  in  most  species  finely  toothed ;  the  upper  mandible  somewhat 
chaxmeled,  and  usually  notched  towards  the  tip ;  nostrils  on  the  side, 
almost  at  the  base,  slit  lengthwise  in  the  groove,  and  half  shut  by  a 
membrane ;  eyes  with  a  naked  circle  aroimd  them  extending  to  the 
bill ;  legs  long,  slender,  and  either  half-naked  or  feathered  down  to 
the  shank  (tarsus) ;  the  middle  fore  toe  united  to  the  outer  one  by 
a  short  membrane ;  the  hind  toe  articulated  interiorly,  and  upon  the 
same  level  as  the  others ;  the  second  and  third  quill-feathers  of  the 
wings  the  longest 

Herons. 
H.  Temminck  thus  defines  the  Herons  properly  so  called : — Bill 
much  longer  than  the  head,  as  large  as  it  is  hig^  or  laiger,  at  the 
base;  upper  mandible  nearly  straight;  a  great  portion  of  the  tibia 
naked.    Food,  fish  principally. 


Bill  of  Common  Heron 


It  will  only  be  necessary  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  leading  foims  of 
this  group.  We  proceed  therefore  to  illustrate  M.  Temmmck's  first 
Bectiun  of  the  true  Herons  by  the  Common  Heron,  which  most  authors 
consider  as  the  type. 

The  Common  Heron  is,  in  the  opinion  of  Belon  and  some  others, 
the  *Epvii6s  of  Aristotle,  but    we  do   not  consider    this  as  cer- 
tain: the  term  'Ep€»ii6s  is  doubtless  applied  by  Aristotle  to  the 
form  ('Histb  Anim.*,  viiL,  8),  but  what  spedee  is  meant  by  him 
is  not  so  dear.     But  the   , 
bird  is,  without  doubt>  the 
^rdea  of  the  Romans.    It  is 
the  Beecapeaee,  Airone,  Oca- 
CicogTut,  and  Sgana,  of  the 
modem  Italians;  the  Oaina 
of  tile   Spaniards;    Beyger 
and  Bheier  of  the  (Jemians ; 
Himn  of  the  French ;  .Oryr 
gldt  of  the  andant  British ; 
and    Common     Heron,     or 
Heronthaw,  of  the  modem 
Britiah. 

Detcriptioru   —   Plumage 
bluiah-ttdi;  middle  toe,  l£e  1    J 

nail  induded,  much  shorter  | 

than  the  tarsus. 

Male  and  Female  after  the  // 

Third    Tear. — Long    loose 

Waok      feathers      on    the  /^ 

bock  of  the  head;   similar  -^J^ 

feathers    or    plumes    of   a  ^^'^JHf 

lustrous  white  depend  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  neck ; 
the  equally  elongated  and 
subulate  scapulars  are  of  a  '  — 

•ilvcry-aalL    Forehead,  neck.  Common  Heron  {Ardea  cinerea), 

middle  of  the  belly,  border  of  the  wings  and  thighs,  pure  white ;  oodput, 
aides  of  the  breast^  and  flanks,  deep  black.  On  the  fit)nt  of  the  neck 
are  large  longitudinal  black  and  ash  spots.  Back  and  wings  yery  pure 
bluiah-ash;  bill  deep  ydlow;  iris  yellow;  naked  skin  of  the  eye 
bluiah-purple ;  feet  brown,  but  of  a  lively  red  towards  the  feathered 
part  Length  8  feet  and  upwards.  In  this  state  M.  Temminck,  whose 
description  we  have  given,  states  the  bird  to  be  the  Ardea  cinerea 
(male)of  Latham  ('Index') ;  Ardea  major  of  Gmdin;  LeHironHuj^ 
of  Buffon;  Hiron  commw^  of  Gerard;  Common  Heron  (male)  of 
Utham  ('  Syn.'),  Pennant  ( '  Brit  ZooL'),  and  Albin ;  Aehgrau^  Bheier 
of  Meyer  and  others ;  and  Sgarza  eenermo  of  the  'Stor.  degL  Ucc.' 

Young  up  to  the  Age  of  Three  rears:— No  crest,  or  at  most  the 
plumes  composing  it  very  short;  no  long  loose  feathers  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck,  nor  above  the  wings ;  forehead  and  top  of  the  head 
aah-colour ;  throat  white ;  neck  dear  ash,  with  numerous  spots  of  a 
deeper  colour  than  the  ground ;  back  and  wings  bluish-ash,  mingled 
^th  brown  and  whitish ;  breast  marked  with  longitudinal  spots ; 
upper  mandible  of  the  bill  blackish-brown,  with  yeUowish  spots; 
lower  mandible  yellow ;  iris  yellow ;  skin  roimd  the  eyes  greenish- 
yeuow ;  feet  blackish-ash,  but  yellowish  towards  the  feathered  part 


In  this  state  M.  Temminck  considers  the  bird  to  be  the  Ardea  cinerea 
^male)  of  Latham;  Ardea  Bhenana  of  Sander;  Le  Hiron,  of 
Bufifon ;  Common  Heron  (female)  of  Latham  ;  Sgana  mofMio,  of  the 
'  Stor.  degL  Ucc.' ;  and  De  Blaamoe  Beiger  (being  the  young  in  the  first 
year)  of  Sepp. 

The  edge  of  the  bill  is  serrated  near  the  point,  and  the  nail  of  the 
middle  toe  pectinated,  as  in  the  Herons  generally. 

Variety. — Nearly  perfectly  white.  A  variety  of  this  description  is 
figured  by  Frisch  (t  204) ;  but  it  is  very  rare. 

Habits,  Food,  BeproducHon,  Ac. — The  solitary  habits  of  the  Common 
Heron,  excepting  at  the  season  of  reproduction,  are  wdl  known.  At 
that  period  they  congregate  at  their  breeding  stations,  or  heronries, 
for  which  the  loftiest  trees  are  generally  chosen.  Pennant  says  that 
at  Cressi  Hall,  near  Gosberton,  in  Lincolnshire,  he  counted  more  than 
eighty  nests  in  one  tree.  Montagu  notices  a  heronry  on  a  small  island 
in  a  lake  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  whereon  there  was  only  one  scrabby 
oak.  This  being  too  small  to  contain  all  the  nests,  the  herons,  n^er 
than  abandon  their  sodety  and  a  favourite  station,  had  many  of  them 
placed  their  nests  on  the  ground.  In  the  south  and  west  of  England 
the  heronries  in  Windsor  Great  Park  in  Berkshire,  at  Brockley  in 
Somersetshire,  and  at  Powderham  Castle  in  Devonshire,  are  worthy  of 
notice.  The  nest  is  built  of  sticks,  and  is  laige  and  fiat  It  is  lined 
with  wool  or  other  soft  materials,  and  on  this  lining  are  deposited 
four  or  five  bluish-green  lustreless  eggs.  The  young  are  less  pre- 
possessing in  appearance  than  nestlings  in  general,  but  few.of  which 
are  pleasant  to  look  upon,  and  they  remain  m  the  nest  for  five  or  six 
weeks,  during  which  time  the  old  birds  imceasii\gly  supply  them  with 
fish,  &c  There  are  sometimes  deadly  feuds  between  the  herons  and 
the  rooks,  originating  in  a  dispute  for  the  possesuon  of  the  nest-trees. 
Dr.  Heyshanrs  account  of  one  of  these  battles  at  Dallam  Tower, 
in  Westmorland,  originating  in  the  felling  of  the  fine  old  oaks 
occupied  by  the  herons,  and  their  consequent  attempt  upon  the  grove 
in  the  t^'nure  of  the  rooks,  is  well  worth  perusaL  The  herons  had 
the  best  of  the  fray  for  two  suceessive  seasons,  and  at  length  a  sort 
of  peace  was  patched  up  between  the  combatants ;  the  rooks  and  the 
herons  severally  setting  up  their  nests  on  a  particular  part  of  the  now 
only  remaining  grove,  and  leaving  the  other  moiety  to  the  opposite 
faction. 

Buffon  draws  largely  upon  his  imagination  for  a  picture  of 
wretchedness,  and  then  maxes  the  heron  a  personification  of  it,  with 
as  much  foundation  as  characterises  most  of  his  fancies  of  this 
description.  When  on  its  fishing  station,  the  bird  stands  immoveable 
as  a  stump,  with  the  neck  bent  and  between  the  shoulders,  watching 
for  the  passing  fish,  which  it  unerringly  spears  with  its  sharp  bilL 
But  besides  fiw  and  reptiles,  such  as  frogs,  newts,  &c.,  mice,  young 
water-rats,  and  even  young  water-fowl,  are  occasionally  devoui«d  by 
it  Mr.  Selby,  in  his  excdlent '  Illustrations  of  British  Omithology,' 
gives,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Neill,  of  Canonmills,  near  Edinbuigh, 
two  interesting  anecdotes  in  illustration  of  the  habits  of  this  bird  in 
a  state  of  half-domestication.  *'  The  Common  Heron  (a  male),"  says 
Mr.  Neill,  "  which  was  winged  on  Coldingham  Muir  in  autumn,  1821, 
when  a  young  bird,  and  given  to  me  in  1822  by  Mr.  John  Wilson,  of 
the  CoUege,  has  since  resided  in  my  garden  at  Canonmills,  and  is  now 
so  tame  that  he  often  follows  me,  expecting  a  piece  of  cheese,  which 
he  relishes.  Four  years  ago  Mr.  Allan,  of  Lauriston,  sent  me  a  young 
female  which  had  been  taken  during  a  severe  storm.  She  soon  asso- 
ciated with  the  older  bird.  In  summer,  1828,  she  laid  three  or  four 
eggs  (I  am  not  sure  which)  on  the  top  of  a  wall  next  to  the  mill-pond. 
She  then  laid  one  or  two  on  the  flower-border  below  the  wall,  and 
close  by  the  box-edging  :  here  some  eggs  were  broken  by  the  birds 
suddenly  starting  off  when  alarmed  by  strangers  walking  in  the 
garden.  We  supplied  their  place  by  some  bantam  eggs^  and  only  one 
heron  egg  at  last  remained.  Alas  I  the  poor  hen,  having  strayed  to 
the  maigin  of  the  mill-pond,  was  shot  by  some  thoughtlees  young 
man  with  a  fowling-piece.  The  cock  continued  to  sit  for  sevend 
entire  days  after  the  death  of  the  hen,  but  at  last  tired.  He  used  to 
sit  when  she  went  off  for  food.  During  the  whole  time  of  pairing 
the  cock  was  very  bold,  raising  his  feathers  and  snapping  his  bill 
whenever  any  one  approached. 

Mr.  Neill  further  adds  a  fact,  showing  that  the  bird  can  swim  upon 
occasion.  "  A  laige  old  willow-tree,"  vnrites  Mr.  Neill  in  continuation, 
"  had  fallen  down  into  the  pond,  and  at  the  extremity,  which  is  partly 
sunk  in  the  sludge,  and  continues  to  vegetate,  water-hens  breed.  The 
old  cock  heron  swims  out  to  the  nest,  and  takes  the  young,  if  he  can. 
He  has  to  swim  10  or  12  feet,  where  the  water  is  between  2  and  8  feet 
deep.  His  motion  through  IJie  water  is  slow,  but  his  carriage  stately. 
I  have  seen  him  fell  a  rat  by  one  blow  on  the  back  of  the  head,  when 
the  rat  was  munching  at  his  dish  of  fish." 

Geographical  JDietrihution. — Very  extensive,  and  embracing  the 
greater  part  of  the  Old  World.  (Selby.)  It  is  permanent  ia  England. 
Dr.  Latham  says,  "  In  England  and  the  milder  dimAies  this  spedee 
of  heron  is  stationary,  migratoij  in  the  colder,  according  to  the 
season ;  is  rarely  seen  far  north.  Inhabits  Africa  and  Asia  in  general, 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Calcutta,  and  other  parts  of  India,  and  is 
found  in  America  from  Carolina  to  New  York."  With  regard  to  the 
American  locality.  Dr.  Latham  appears  to  have  taken  the  Great  Heron 
{Ardea  Herodias,  Linnseus),  for  the  Common  Heron,  which  last  is 
not  mentioned  by  any  of  &e  ornithologists  who  have  made  the  birds 


Digitized  by 


Google 


IM 


ARDWICK  LIMESTONE. 


ARENlCOLA. 


of  America  their  study,  as  an  inhabitant  of  the  New  World.  Dr. 
Von  Siebold  mentions  this  our  European  species  among  the  birds 
which  he  observed  in  Japan. 

UtUitv  to  Man. — In  days  of  old,  when  the  Heron  was  a  principal 
feature  m  the  noble  sport  of  hawking,  and  when  the  destruction  of  its 
eggs  was  visited  with  a  penalty  of  twenty  shillings,  it  seems  to  have 
held  as  high  a  place  at  the  tables  of  the  great  as  it  did  in  the  field. 
Thus,  at  the  '  intronazation '  of  George  Nevill,  archbishop  of  York,  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  we  find  in  the  bill  of  fare  400  Heronshawes 
and  200  Feasauntes  (pheasants) ;  and  it  seems,  at  one  period,  to  have 
been  valued  as  *  a  dish  at  the  same  price  as  liie  latter  bird,  for  from 
the  prices  in  the  household-book  of  the  fifth  earl  of  Northumberland, 
we  find  Hearonsewys  (herons)  marked  at  twelve  pence,  and  pheasants 
at  the  same  rate  to  a  penny.  At  a  marriage-feast  in  Heniy  YIIL's 
time,  we  find  Heronsews  noted  at  the  same  price,  and  at  another 
marriage-feast  in  the  same  vear  two  dozen  Heronsues  marked  at 
twenty-four  shillings.  In  the  first  of  these  records  no  mention  is 
made  of  pheasants,  but  in  the  second  they  appear  at  that  earlier  time 
to  have  been  rather  more  highly  valued  than  herons,  for  eighteen 
pheasants  are  priced  at  twenty-four  shillings,  the  amount  placed 
against  the  two  dozen  herons.  And  in  the  charges  of  Sir  John 
Nevile  of  Chete  (the  knight  in  whose  family  the  marriages  above 
alluded  to  took  place),  at  Lammas  assizes,  in  the  20th  year  of  the 
reign  of  king  Heniy  YIIL,  the  pheasants  appear  to  have  cost  some- 
what more  than  the  Heronsews,  thirty  of  vmich  are  priced  at  thirty 
shillings,  while  twelve  pheassnts  cost  twenly  shillings.  The  heron- 
plume,  made  up  of  the  fine  large  depending  feathers,  especially  those 
above  the  wings,  was  highly  valued. 

In  the  present  day  the  bird  seems  to  have  simk  into  comparative 
insignificance.  Mr.  Selby  however  considers  that  "  the  low  estimation 
in  which  the  flesh  of  the  Heron  is  now  held  would  seem  to  be  in  a 
great  degree  the  effect  of  prejudice,  or  the  fiashion  of  taste,  as  under 
proper  treatment  and  good  cookery  the  Heron,  when  fat  and  in  fine 
condition,  is  but  little  inferior  to  some  of  our  most  approved  wild-fowL" 

The  wdl-known  adage  expressive  of  ignorance,  "He  does  not  know 
a  hawk  from  a  hand-saw,"  is  a  corruption  of  "  He  does  not  know  a 
hawk  from  a  heronshaw." 

Temminck's  second  section  of  Herons  consists  of  the  Bitterns, 
including  the  Night  Herons.     [Bittern  ;  Ntoticobaz.] 

ARDWICK  LIMESTONE,  a  Calcareous  Bed,  or  series  of  beds, 
containing  shells  and  fish-remains,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Coal 
Formations  of  Manchester  and  Lebetwood.  There  is  a  coal-bed  above 
it  at  Manchester. 

ARE'CA,  a  genus  of  Palms  containing  two  species,  both  remarkable 
for  the  purposes  to  which  they  are  applied.  Areca  is  distinguished 
by  a  double  membranous  sheath  in  which  its  bunches  of  flowers  are 


Betel-Nut  Palm  iAreea  C^teehu), 


contained,  by  its  female  corollas  containing  the  rudiments  of  stameiu^ 
its  calyx  being  divided  into  three  parts  or  leaves,  and  its  firuit  being 
a  beny  or  drupe,  wi^  a  fibrous  rind  inclosing  one  seed  only.    The 


leaves  of  all  the  species  are  pinnated,  with  their  stalks  ndled  up 
cylindricaUy  at  the  base. 

Areca  CcUechU,  Betel-Nut  Palm,  is  described  by  Dr.  Boxboigh  as 
being  the  most  beautiful  palm  in  India,  with  a  remaikably  stnidbt 
trunk,  often  from  40  to  60  feet  high,  and  in  general  about  20  mam 
in  circumference,  equally  thick  in  every  part,  and  smooth.  The 
leaflets  are  from  3  to  84  feet  long,  and  widest  at  the  point,  whea» 
they  also  are  ragged.  It  is  cultivated  all  over  India  for  the  sake  of 
its  nuts,  which  are  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  of  a  reddiah-yellow 
when  ripe,  and  with  a  firm  fibrous  rind  about  half  an  inch  thic^  It 
is  this  nut  which,  under  the  name  of  Pinang  or  Betel-Nut^  ii  bo 
universally  chewed  in  the  East  Indies.  It  has  an  austere  and  astringent 
flavour,  dependent  uoon  the  tannin  it  contains,  and  is  not  eatible 
alone ;  but  mixed  with  lime,  which  no  doubt  destroys  its  acidity,  and 
with  the  leaf  of  the  Betel-Pepper  it  becomes  milder  and  pleaaani 
The  mixture  is  however  still  so  hot  and  acrid  as  to  be  unfit  for  the 
use  of  any  but  persons  accustomed  to  it.  It  is  said  to  be  aromatic  and 
stomachic,  and  also  to  produce  intoxication  in  beginners ;  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  aU  these  qualities  are  not  to  be  asoribed  rather  to 
the  Betel-Pepper  leaf  than  to  the  nut  of  the  Palm.  It,  or  rather  the 
mixture  of  the  three  substances,  stains  the  saliva  and  teeth  of  a  deep 
red  colour.  It  is  to  the  stems  of  Areca  Catechu  that  the  common 
black  pepper  vine  is  usually  trained  on  the  coast  of  Malabar.   (Roxb.) 

Areca  oUraeea,  the  Cabbage  Palm,  is  the  only  other  species  that  it 
is  necessary  for  us  to  notice.  The  name  of  this  plant  is  familiar  to 
most  persons  from  the  often  repeated  fact  that  a  tree  of  the  growth 
of  half  a  century  is  sometimes  cut  down  for  the  sake  of  the  angle 
bud  which  terminates  it,  and  which  is  called  the  cabbage. 

The  species  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  mountainous  parts 
of  Jamaica  and  other  West  India  islands,  growing  to  the  height  of 
from  100  to  200  feet^  with  a  trunk  not  more  than  6  or  7  inches  in 
diameter.  This  gives  it  an  extremely  graceful  appearance,  espedaUy 
as  the  leaves  grow  from  the  top  only,  in  a  kind  of  tuft  or  plume,  to  the 
len^^  of  16  feet ;  these  leaves  are  divided  in  a  pinnated  manner,  and 
then?  divisions  are  deep  green,  and  several  feet  long.  The  unexpanded 
leaves  are  arranged  so  closely  one  over  the  other  as  to  obstruct  all 
access  of  light,  which  causes  them  to  be  of  a  very  tender  and  delicate 
nature.  It  is  this  which  forms  the  cabbage,  which  is  considered  a 
great  delicacy,  either  raw  or  boiled.  The  nuts,  which  are  about  the 
size  of  a  filbert  and  covered  with  a  yellowish  skin,  are  produced  in 
great  abundance  upon  a  very  long  and  branched  spadix ;  the  kernel 
is  white  and  sweet. 

ARENG,  a  genus  of  Palms,  the  only  species  of  which  produces 
Sago  and  Palm- Wine.  Areng  saceharifera,  is  described  as  a  plant  of 
an  ugly  appearance,  having  a  trunk  20  or  80  feet  high^  covered  almost 
entirely  with  coarse  black  fibres  resembling  horse-hair.  The  leaves 
are  from  15  to  25  feet  long,  and  pinnated ;  their  leaflets,  which  are 
from  8  to  5  feet  long;  widen  gradually  to  the  point,  where  they  are 
ragged  and  prickly,  in  consequence  of  the  projection  of  tiieir  hard 
veins  beyond  the  margin ;  above  they  are  of  a  deep  ahinmg  green,  but 
on  their  xmder  surface  they  are  firmly  coated  with  ash-coloured  mealy 
matter.  The  stalks  of  these  leaves  have  intermixed  with  their  coarse 
hair  stiff  bristles  as  thick  as  porcupine's  quills.  Each  bunch  of  fiowers 
is  from  6  to  10  feet  long,  and  when  covered  with  fruit  is  as  much  as  a 
man  can  carry.  The  berries  are  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour,  about 
the  size  of  a  medlar,  and  extremely  acrid ;  each  contains  three  seeds. 

This  palm  is  found  in  all  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  in 
moist  and  shady  ravines  through  which  rivulets  find  a  course ;  it  is 
much  used  for  the  sake  of  its  sap^  which  flows  in  great  abundance 
from  the  wounded  branches  of  the  infloreeoenoe  about  the  time  when 
the  firxdt  is  forming.  A  bamboo  bottle  is  tied  to  the  extremity  of  an 
amputated  branch,  and  removed  twice  a  day,  morning  and  evening. 
A  single  tree  wiU  yield  a  large  quantity  of  tins  fluid,  which  when 
flrst  drawn  from  the  tree  is  transparent,  with  the  taste  and  colour  of 
new  wine;  after  a  short  time  it  beoomes  turbid  and  milky,  and 
acquires  a  slight  degree  of  acidity.  When  fit  for  drinking  it  is  of  a 
yellowish  colour,  with  a  powerful  odour  and  a  good  deal  of  astrin- 
gency.  Strangers  do  not  for  some  time  become  accustomed  to  it  It 
is  exceedingly  intoxicating ;  but,  if  drunk  in  moderation,  is  said  to  be 
stomachic  and  wholesome. 

Besides  yielding  wine,  the  coarse  fibres  of  the  stem  and  leaf-stalks 
are  manufiEtctured  into  powerful  cables,  and  the  trunk  contains  a  great 
quantity  of  nutritious  meal-like  sago.  Dr.  Roxbui^  mentions  that 
150 lbs.  of  that  substance  were  obtained  from  one  tree  felled  in  the 
botanic  garden  at  Calcutta. 

(Roxburgh's  Flora  Indica,  voL  iiL  p.  627;  Rumphius'  fferharinm 
Amboinerue,  voL  i    The  former  calls  this  Palm  Saguinu  JRumphU.) 

ARENlCOLA,  a  genus  of  Annelidous  Animals,  referred  by  Curier 
to  the  Dorsibranchiate  group  on  account  of  their  external  gills.  The 
general  structure  and  habits  of  the  genus  determine  most  naturalists 
in  placing  it  with  the  Terricolous  Amielids.  [Annelida.]  The  gills 
are  brandied,  and  placed  upon  the  rings  of  tiie  middle  part  of  the 
body  only.  The  mouth  is  fleshy,  more  or  less  dilatable,  but  there 
are  no  discernible  teeth,  tentacles,  or  eyes.  The  posterior  extremity 
of  the  body  has  not  only  no  gills,  but  is  devoid  of  the  silky  bristles 
which  are  found  on  every  other  part. 

A.  Pucatorum,  the  Lob  or  Lug- Worm,  is  the  most  common  species. 
It  is  found  very  abundantly  in  the  sand  of  the  sea-shore,  where  its 


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AREOLAR  TISSUE. 


ARGULUS. 


habits  afford  a  close  reeemblanoe  to  those  of  the  earth-worm  away  from 
the  shore.  It  ia  bigger  than  the  earth-worm,  aometimes  being  found 
nearly  a  foot  in  length.  It  ia  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  when  touched 
throws  out  a  quantity  of  a  yellow  fluid  which  stains  the  hand.  It  is 
employed  by  fishermen  as  bait  for  various  kinds  of  sea-fish. 

AREOLAR  TISSUE.  The  nature  of  this  tissue  will  be  best  under- 
stood if  we  first  describe  Fibrous  Tistue,  of  which  it  may  be  regarded  as 
a  modification.  Fibrous  Tisstie  is  now  usually  considered  under  two 
heads,  namely,  as  the  white  and  the  yellow  tissue.  White  Fibrous  Tissue 
occurs  in  ligaments,  tendons,  and  membranes  requiring  great  strength. 
On  carefully  dissecting  away  the  areolar  tissue  with  which  it  is  asso- 
ciated, it  seems,  when  ezammed  under  the  microscope,  to  consist  of 
extremely  delicate  fibrillse  running  parallel  to  one  another,  and  taking 
an  undulating  course.  There  is  however  reason  to  believe^  it  does 
not  in  reality  consist  of  a  bundle  of  fibrilla),  but  that  it  is  simply  a 
mass  with  longitudinal  parallel  streaks,  and  which  has  a  tendency  to 
split  up  in  a  longitudinal  direction.     (Fig.  2,  a.) 

Tdiiw  Fibrous  Tissue  differs  in  many  essential  points  from  the  pre- 
ceding form.  It  is  remarkably  elastic,  is  of  a  yellow  colour,  and  is 
arranged  in  bimdles  or  fibres,  invested  by  a  thin  sheath  of  areolar 
tissue.  In  man  we  find  it  extended  between  the  laminso  of  the  ver- 
tebrae, in  several  other  ligaments,  and  in  the  transversalis  fiiscia  of  the 
abdomen.  It  forms  the  ligamentum  nuchse  of  animals.  Examined 
under  the  microscope  it  is  seen  to  consist  of  fibres  varying  in  diameter 
from  the  5000th  to  the  10,000th  of  an  inch.  They  bifurcate,  or  even 
diride  into  three,  and  freely  anastomose  with  each  other. 
Fig.  1. 


Tellov  Fnnroaa  Tisaae  showing  the  curly  and  branched  disposition  of  its  flbrUlsB. 

ArtoiUur  Tissue  is  dispersed  over  almost  every  portion  of  the  body, 
being  the  substance  most  commonly  (but  incorrectly)  termed  Odbdar 
TistiH,  The  foUowing  are  the  microscopic  characters  of  this  tissue, 
as  described  by  Bowman  and  Todd  : — "  When  a  fragment  is  examined 
it  presents  an  inextricable  interlacement  of  tortuous  and  wavy  threads, 
intersecting  one  another  in  every  possible  direction.  They  are  of  two 
kinds.  The  first  are  chiefly  in  the  form  of  bands  of  very  unequal 
thickness,  and  inelastic.  Numerous  streaks  are  visible  in  them,  not 
usually  parallel  with  the  border,  though  taking  a  general  longitudinal 
direction.  These  streaks,  like  the  bands  themselves,  have  a  wavy 
appearance,  but  can  be  rendered  straight  by  being  stretched.  The 
stnaks  seen  have  more  the  marks  of  longitudinal  creasing  than  a 
true  separation  into  threads ;  for  it  is  impossible  to  tear  up  the  band 
into  filaments  of  determinate  size,  although  it  manifests  a  decided 
tendency  to  tear  lengthways.  The  larger  of  these  bands  are  often  as 
wide  as  the  500th  of  an  inch ;  the  smaller  can  only  be  detected  with 
high  powers.    These  are  the  white  fibrous  element.    The  others  are 


The  two  elemettts  of  Areolar  Tissue  in  their  natural  relations  to  one  another. 
«,  the  white  flbroos  element,  with  celUnnclel,  j,  sparingly  visible  In  It ;  6,  the 
VXiaw  ftbroos  element,  showing  the  branching  or  anastomosing  character  of  Its 
ftbrilUe;  e,  flbrlUfe  of  the  yellow  element,  far  finer  than  the  rest,  but  having  a 
rimilar  eorly  character ;  cf,  nucleated  cell-nuolel,  often  seen  apparently  loose. 

long,  single,  elastic,  branched  filaments,  with  a  dark  decided  border, 
«nd  disposed  to  curl  when  not  put  on  the  stretch.  They  interlace 
with  the  oUiers,  but  appear  to  have  no  continuity  of  substance  with 


them.    They  are  most  commonly  about  the  8000th  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.     These  form  the  yellow  fibrous  element. 

These  two  tissues  may  be  most  easily  diBcriminated  by  the  addition 
of  a  drop  of  dilute  acetic  acid,  which  at  once  swells  up  the  former 
and  renders  it  transparent,  whilst  it  produces  no  change  m  the  latter. 
It  thus  brings  into  view 
corpuscles  of  an  oval  shape, 
which  are  probably  tiie 
nuclei  of  the  cells  from 
which  the  bands  have  been 
originally  produced.  Oval 
corpuscles  {Jig.  2,  (Q,  either 
altogether  isolated  or  hav- 
ing very  delicate  prolonga- 
tions with  the  adjacent 
threads,  are  sometimes 
noticed.  They  seem  to 
be  either  advancing  or 
receding  stages  of  the 
tissue. 

In  fig.  3,  which  repre- 
sents the  Areolar  Tissue 
from  beneath  the  skin  of  a 

five-months  fostus,  we  can  perceive  the  cells  elongating  into  fibres. 
In  a  chemical  point  of  view  the  leading  difference  between  the 
white  and  yellow  tissues  is,  that  the  former  is  acted  on  by  acetic  acid 
in  the  manner  described,  and  yields  a  considerable  amount  of  gelatine 
in  boUing ;  while  the  latter  resists  the  action  of  acetic  acid,  and  yields 
littie  or  no  gelatine. 

ARFVEDSONITE,  a  mineral  belonging  to  the  Hornblende  Series. 
The  cleavage  is  parallel  to  the  lateral  planes  and  both  the  diagonals 
of  a  rhombic  prism.  The  colour  black ;  fracture  uneven ;  hanlness 
6*0 ;  lustre  vitreous  and  opaque ;  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  8*4  to 
8*5.  It  is  found  in  Norway  and  Greenland.  Acoormng  to  analysis 
by  Dr.  Thomson  it  contains — 

Silica 50-508 

Peroxide  of  Iron 85'144 

Sesqui-oxide  of  Manganese         .        .        .      8*920 

Alumina 2*488 

Lime 1*560 

Water 0*960 

ARGALI,  in  Zoology,  the  name  of  a  species  of  Wild  Sheep  (Ovis 
Ammon)  found    on    the    mountains  of   Siberia    and  Kamtchatka. 

[OVBJS.] 

ARGEMO'NE,  a  small  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
PapavercLcecBf  of  which  three  species  are  ctQtivated  in  this  coimtry  as 
ornamental  plants.  They  are  all  natives  of  Mexico,  and  are  charac- 
terised by  having  six  petals  and  three  sepab,  a  veiy  unusual  number 
of  parts  in  the  natural  order  to  which  this  genus  belongs.  Their 
leaves  are  prickly,  and  generally  marked  with  whitish  or  pale  bluii^- 
green  veins ;  the  flowers  are  white  or  yellow.  The  commonest  species  is 
A.  Mexicana,  from  the  seeds  of  which  iLe  Mexicans  obtain  an  oil  very 
useful  to  painters;  the  handsomest  is  A.  grandifiorcb^  the  flowers  of 
which  are  pure  white,  and  as  much  as  three  inches  in  diameter. 
They  are  all  hardy,  and  will  thrive  in  almost  any  soil  or  situation. 
Their  seeds  should  be  sown  in  a  hot-bed,  and  the  young  plants  treated 
as  half-tender  annuals. 

ARGENTINE,  in  Mineralogy,  a  white  laminated  variety  of  crys- 
tallised calcareous  spar  containing  a  littie  silica.    [Calcabbous  Sfab.] 

ARGES  (Goldfiiss)  is  the  Paradoxides  bimucroncUus  of  Murchison. 

ARGULUS,  a  genus  of  Entomostracous  Crust(tcea,  belonging  to  the 
section  Poseilopoda,  There  is  but  one  species  of  this  genus,  the 
A.  foliaceus.  This  littie  creature  is  not  unknown  to  fishermen,  as  it 
is  frequentiy  found  parasitic  upon  various  kinds  of  fish.  It  was  first 
described  by  Baker  in  his  '  Employment  for  the  Microscope,'  in  1758, 
under  the  name  of  'The  Louse  of  the  Cu:p  and  Banstickle  or 
Prickleback.'  It  is  about  the  tenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  is 
almost  as  broad  as  it  is  long.  The  head  is  In  the  form  of  a  circular- 
shaped  shield.  The  antennse  are  shorty  thick,  and  two-jointed.  Instead 
of  a  second  pair  of  foot^aws  it  has  a  pair  of  circular  or  disk-shaped 
suckerai,  by  means  of  which  it  attaches  itself  to  the  animals  on  which 
it  is  parasitia  These  suckers  are  admirably  constructed  for  their 
use.  Four  musdes  are  attached  to  the  base  of  each  of  these  oxgans, 
and  extend  up  by  the  sides.  By  this  arrangement  the  creature  can 
make  use  of  these  organs,  by  exhausting  the  air  in  the  same  way  as  in 
cupping-glasses,  to  fasten  itself,  and  also  by  relaxing  the  muscles,  to 
widk,  when  it  wishes  to  change  its  position.  These  littie  creatures 
are  nearly  transparent^  or  of  a  slightly  greenish  hue,  so  that  its 
internal  organisation  can  be  readily  seen  by  means  of  the  microeoope 
by  transmitted  light  The  body  is  marked  on  both  sides  by  a  serfes 
of  ramifications  of  a  dark  colour.  The  female  is  larger  than  the  male, 
and  is  distinguished,  in  addition  to  the  ovary,  by  a  black  mark  on  each, 
lobe  of  the  abdomen. 

The  Ai^gulus  is  found  upon  various  fresh-water  fishes.  It  is  most 
frequently  met  with  near  London  on  tiie  Stickleback,  but  it  has  been 
noticed  as  occurring  on  the  Carp,  the  Roach,  the  Trout,  the  Pike,  the 
Rudd,  and  even  upon  the  tadpole  of  the  common  Frog.  It  seems  to 
abound  especially  when  fish  are  in  ill  health. 


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ARIETES. 


ARMADILLO. 


90O 


Although  mostly  found  upon  fish  it  frequently  leares  them,  and 
swims  freely  about  in  the  water.  Fish  have  an  instinctive  knowledge 
of  these  creatures  as  their  enemy,  and  it  is  amusing  to  watch  in  a 
basin  of  water  the  efforts  which  the  stickleback  will  make  to  avoid 
its  minute  persecutor ;  but  the  efforts  of  the  fish  are  in  vain,  for  it  is 
opposed  to  a  creature  which  has  the  power  of  darting  through  water 
with  such  rapidi^  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  follow  it  with  the 
naked  eye.  The  females  deposit  their  eggs  from  400  to  1 500  in  number 
on  stones  or  other  solid  bodies.  They  are  laid  side  by  side  in  rows  and 
glued  together.  They  are  hatched  in  about  85  days,  and  the  young 
resemble  their  parents  to  a  greater  extent  than  is  Uie  case  with  many 
of  the  forms  of  Bntomostraca.  The  best  account,  with  figures  and 
anatomy,  of  this  parasite,  is  given  in  Dr.  Baird's  '  History  of  the 
British  Elntomostraca,'  published  by  the  Ray  Society.  Mr.  Tarrell 
has  given  a  figure  of  it  in  the  second  volume  of  his  '  British  Fishes.' 

ARIETES.    [Amhoitites.] 

ARILLUS,  in  Botany,  is  a  fleshy  expansion  either  of  the  umbilical 
cord  by  which  seeds  are  attached  to  the  placenta,  or  of  the  placenta 
itself.  It  is  never  formed  till  after  the  fertilisation  of  the  seed,  and 
is  only  met  with  in  a  few  plants ;  its  use  is  entirely  unknown.  The 
most  remarkable  instance  of  the  Arillus  among  species  of  common 
occurrence  is  in  the  Spindle-Tree  (Ewmymua  Etbropceut),  in  which  it  is 
the  fleshy  red  covering  of  the  seed  that  renders  that  plant  so 
ornamental  in  the  autumn  and  beginning  of  winter.  Another 
familiar  case  is  the  mace  of  the  nutmeg';  this  substance  is,  when 
fresh,  a  crimson  lacerated  covering  of  Uie  nut,  which  acquires  its 
pale-brown  colour  in  consequence  of  the  preparation  it  undei^goes  in 
being  dried  and  prepared  for  market  Before  the  term  was  thus 
•oourately  defined,  it  was  applied  to  a  variety  of  parts  of  exceedingly 
different  natures. 

ARISTOLOCHIA'CE^,  Birtkwortt,  consist  of  a  small  nimiber  of 
genera  which  principally  inhabit  the  hotter  parts  of  the  world.  They 
are  in  many  cases  useid  medicinally  on  account  of  their  tonic  and 
stimulating  properties ;  and  some  of  them  are  reputed  remedies  for 
the  bite  of  venomous  serpents.  The  distinguishing  characters  of  the 
order  reside  in  the  flowers,  which  have  no  corolla,  and  are  constantly 
divided  into  three  segments ;  the  number  of  the  cells  of  the  fruit  is 
also  three  or  six,  and  the  stamens  agree  in  the  same  ternary  character ; 
the  fruit  is  always  adherent  to  the  calyx,  or,  as  botanists  say,  inferior. 
Notwithstanding  the  accordance  which  thus  exists  between  Ariato- 
lochiacece  and  Monocotyledonous  Plants  in  the  ternary  number  of  the 


ArittoloehuB. 

1,  A  branch  of  Aristoloehia  Sipho  ;  2,  one  of  its  flowers  cut  len^wise,  show. 

inff  the  Btamens  lying  in  its  bottom ;  S,  a  cloBter  of  stamens ;  4,  a  seed-Tessel ; 

5,  the  same  cat  acrow  to  show  its  six  cells ;  6,  a  seed ;  7,  a  seed  cut  through  to 

•how  the  minute  embryo  lying  in  the  albumen ;  8,  an  embryo  much  magnified. 

parts  of  their  flowers,  their  structure  is  otherwise  truly  Dicotyledonous. 
The  arrangement  of  the  woody  matter  of  which  their  stem  is  composed 
is  in  longitudinal  plates,  surrounding  a  central  pith,  and  surrounded 
by  baik ;  but  what  is  veiy  curious,  these  plates  are  not  placed  in 
concentric  circles  like  most  other  exogenous  plants,  but  continue  to 
increase  uniformly  and  uninterruptedly  as  long  as  the  plant  grows. 


[ExooKKS.]  The  leaves  are  veined  like  those  of  exogenous  plants,  and 
the  embryo  of  the  seed  has  two  lobes. 

The  most  common  plants  of  this  singular  order  are  the  different 
species  of  Atarumt  or^  as  the  gardeners  call  them,  Asarabacca, — ^little 
stemless  plants  with  dingy-brown  flowers  hidden  among  the  leaves. 
This  colour,  which  is  far  from  common  in  plants,  appears  characteristie 
of  the  whole  order,  for  even  in  those  species  which  have  yellow 
flowen,  a  brown  stain  seems  to  be  mixed  with  the  colour  so  as  to 
change  it,  or  brown  spots  are  scattered  over  the  surface.  The  moat 
remarkable  species  of  the  genus  Aritt6l4>chia  are  those  which,  in  many 
of  the  tropical  parts  of  America,  excite  the  wonder  of  travellers  by 
the  gigantic  size  or  grotesque  appearance  of  the  flowers,  such  as 
A.  ctfmbifer<iy  the  border  of  whose  calyx  resembles  one  of  the  lappets 
of  a  Norman  woman*s  cap,  and  measures  7  or  8  inches  in  length, 
A.  eordifiora,  and  A.  gigantect,  the  flowers  of  which  are  from  15  to 
16  inches  across,  and  are  large  enough  to  form  bonnets  for  the  native 
children. 

The  properties  of  this  order  are  generally  tonic  and  stimulating. 
Many  of  the  species,  as  their  common  name  implies,  have  had 
properties  attributed  to  them  which  they  are  now  known  not  to 
possess ;  at  the  same  time  some  of  them  are  emetic  and  others 
purgative,  and  they  contain  undoubtedly  plants  which  might  be  used 
with  advantage  in  medicine.  Only  one  has  been  much  used,  the 
Arittolochia  Serpentaria,    [Aribtolochia,  in  Arts  and  Sc.  Diy.I 

ARKTIZITE,  one  of  the  names  for  the  group  of  minerals  induded 
under  SeapolUe.    [Soafolite.] 

ARBfADILLO  {Dasypus,  Linnseus),  a  genus  of  the  daas  Mammalia 
belonging  to  the  order  EdetUcUa,  and  forming,  vrith  the  allied  genera 
Chlamy^^onu  and  Orpcteroputf  a  small  but  very  distinct  family 
intermediate  between  the  Sloths  and  Ant-Eaters,  and  characterised  by 
the  possession  of  molar  teeth  only.  The  Sloths  [Bbadtpub]  have  not 
only  the  ordinary  molar  teeth  of  common  quadrupeds,  bat  arc 
likewise  provided  with  large  and  powerfal  canines ;  though,  as  far  as 
we  know  anything  of  their  economy,  they  appear  to  be  a  purely 
herbivorous  family,  and  to  be  even  incapacitated  by  other  details  of 
their  oi^gamsation  for  the  capture  or  destruction  of  a  living  prey ; 
whilst  the  Ant-Eaters  [Ant-Eatbb]  are  not  only  deprived  of  canine 
but  likewise  of  molar  teeth,  consequently  are  without  teeth  of  any 
description,  and  thus  form  Uie  only  family  of  the  order  EdaUata  that 
literally  answers  to  the  name  and  definition.  Nor  are  these  the  only 
distinctions  which  subsist  between  the  three  families  of  edentulous 
mammals  which  we  have  here  indicated.  Others  are  pointed  out  in 
the  articles  just  referred  to,  and  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention,  in 
addition,  that  the  Ant-Eaters  differ  from  the  other  two  families  by  the 
want  of  clavicles  (a  most  important  and  influential  element  in  the 
anatomical  structure  of  all  vertebrated  animals),  and  the  Armadilloa, 
the  more  immediate  subject  of  our  present  consideration,  by  the 
peculiar  nature  of  their  external  covering,  kistead  of  hair,  the 
armadillos  are  covered  with  a  species  of  hard  bony  crust,  forming 
three  bucklers  on  the  head,  shoulders,  and  rump,  respectively,  the  two 
latter  being  connected  by  a  number  of  transverse  moveable  bands, 
very  similar  in  form  and  appearance  to  the  plate  armour  of  the 
middle  ages,  from  which  indeed  these  animals  have  acquired  the 
name  of  Armadillos — a  name  of  Spanish  origin,  which  has  been 
adopted  by  English  writera  These  bucklers  likewise  hang  down  on 
each  side,  so  as  to  form  an  effectual  protection  to  the  belly,  and 
partially  to  cover  the  legs  and  feet ;  whilst  the  pliancy  produced  by 
the  moveable  bands  interposed  between  the  bucklers  of  the  rump  and 
shoulders,  and  which  are  themselves  connected  by  the  soft  pliant  skin 
of  the  animal,  permits  the  most  varied  and  rapid  motions.  The 
bucklers  themselves,  as  well  as  these  connecting  moveable  bands,  are 
composed  of  numerous  small  polygonal  plates,  placed  contiguous  to 
one  another  like  the  stones  of  a  mosaic  pavement,  but  without  any 
actual  articulation,  and  they  are  incapable  of  separate  motion.  The 
whole  thus  forms  a  kind  of  shelly  buckler  not  uidike  that  of  a  lobster ; 
and  though  incapable  of  actual  motion,  yet  the  thinness  of  the.  shell, 
and,  during  life,  the  pliancy  occasioned  by  the  animal  oil  which 
penetrates  it,  allow  it  to  yield  to  a  certain  degree,  and  thus  to 
accommodate  itself  in  some  measure  to  the  motions  of  the  body.  But 
t^e  great  and  prindpid  motions,  as  already  observed,  are  entirely  due 
to  the  moveable  transverse  bands,  interposed  between  the  two 
principal  bucklers  of  the  body,  and  which  vary  in  number  according 
to  the  species,  and  even  within  certain  limits  according  to  the  age, 
sex,  or  individual  These  are  situated  immediately  above  the  loins, 
or  in  the  region  to  which  all  the  prindpal  motions  of  the  animal 
economy  have  been  assigned ;  the  bucklers  of  the  head  and  shoulders 
are  entirely  disunited,  and  have  none  of  these  moveable  bands 
interposed  between;  but  that  of  the  head  projects  considerably 
backwards,  and  affords  complete  protection  to  the  neck,  which  is 
indeed  so  short  as  to  be  barely  distingmshable. 

The  throat,  breast,  belly,  and  thighs  of  the  armadillo  are  naked,  or 
covered  with  a  thick  granulated  skin,  thinly  famished  with  warts  or 
tubercles,  which  give  origin  to  a  few  coarse  bristly  hairs.  The  com- 
missures of  the  moveable  bands  on  the  loins  are  likewise  provided  with 
a  number  of  long  hairs ;  but  with  this  exception  the  body  is  covered 
only  by  its  peculiar  shell  The  tail  is  straight,  round,  thick,  and 
pointed ;  it  is  adapted  at  the  root  to  a  notch  or  cavity  in  the  posterior 
edge  of  the  buckler  of  the  croup,  and,  with  the  exception  of  one 


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spedei,  IB  univenmlly  ooTered  with  bony  ringfl,  formed,  like  the  rings 
of  the  bucklers,  of  namerous  small  pieces  connected  together,  but 
capable  of  a  certain  degree  of  motion,  and  thus  admitting  of  conside- 
rable flexibility  in  the  tail  itself.  The  head  of  the  armadillos  is 
flat  and  terminated  by  a  pointed  muzzle,  which  assists  them,  like  the 
snout  of  the  hog  ana  mole,  to  turn  up  the  earth  in  search  of  roots 
and  worms.  Their  ears  are  erect  and  pointed,  and  their  eyes  very 
small  They  have  flat  corpulent  bodies ;  and  their  legs  are  so  dis- 
proportionately thick  and  short  that  they  barely  serve  to  elevate  the 
body  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Their  toes,  idso,  of  whidi 
there  are  either  four  or  five  on  the  anterior  and  invariably  five  on  the 
posterior  extremities,  are  remarkably  short ;  but  they  are  furnished 
with  extremely  long  powerful  claws,  slightly  curved,  and  in  every 
respect  well  adapted  for  digging  or  burrowing.  So  rapid  indeed  are 
the  armadillos  at  this  operation  that  they  eamly  bury  themselves  to 
any  depth  b^ond  the  reach  of  their  pursuers.  They  can  only  be 
forced  from  their  subterranean  retreat  by  directing  smoke  or  water 
into  their  burrows.  Their  strength  and  the  tenacity  of  their  hold  are 
80  great^  that  they  have  been  known  to  leave  their  tails  in  the  hands 
of  the  hunter  rather  than  permit  themselves  to  be  drawn  forth.  Yet 
notwithstanding  the  shortness  of  their  legs  and  the  heavy  corpulent 
make  of  their  bodies,  the  armadillos  run  with  a  velocity  which  could 
not  be  anticipated  from  their  general  appearance.  Most  of  the  species 
will  easily  outstrip  a  man.  ^eir  ordinary  burrows  most  commonly 
ran  for  three  or  four  feet  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  to  the  plane 
of  the  horizon,  then  make  a  sudden  bend,  and  terminate  at  the  distance 
of  eight  or  ten  feet  from  the  mouth.  Here  for  the  most  part  they 
conceal  themselves  during  the  daytime,  for  the  greater  number  of  the 
n>eciee  are  nocturnal,  and  never  move  abroad  whilst  the  sun  is  above 
the  horizon.  This  rule  however  admits  of  some  exceptions — a  few 
species  being  found  abroad  at  all  times  indifferently ;  and  it  has  been 
remarked  that  these  are  neither  so  swift  nor  so  timid  as  the  nocturnal 
species. 

The  teeth  of  the  armadillos  are  all  of  a  simple  cylindrical  form, 
and  stand  apart  firom  one  another  like  those  of  the  generality  of 
Cetacea  and  Reptiles.  They  vary  in  number  from  7  or  8  to  17  or 
18  on  each  side  of  each  jaw;  and  are  so  arranged  that  when  the 
mouth  is  closed  the  upper  teeih  fit  into  the  interstices  of  the  under, 
and  these  into  the  interstices  of  the  upper  teeth  alternately.  The 
animals  never  attempt  to  bite,  nor  has  nature  given  them  any  other 
means  of  defence  thim  the  ease  and  rapidity  with  which  they  avoid 
danger  by  burrowing.  Their  food  consists  principally  of  fallen  fruits, 
roots,  and  worms;  but  they  do  not  reject  carrion,  and  have  been 
known  to  penetrate  into  human  graves  when  not  properly  protected 
by  stones  or  brick-work.  Azara  informs  us  that  ants  are  never  found 
in  the  districts  inhabited  bv  the  armadillos,  and  that  these  animals 
break  into  the  ant-hills  and  aevour  the  insects  as  greedily  as  the  true 
Ant-Eaters.  The  ordinary  food  of  the  armadillos  consists  chiefly  of 
the  roots  of  the  mnndioc,  of  potatoes,  maize,  and  other  similar  sub- 
stances of  a  vegetable  nature ;  though,  as  already  observed,  without 
rejecting  animid  substances  naturally  soft  or  so  far  decomposed  as  to 
be  eattly  torn  without  the  help  of  canine  teethe  They  are  also  very 
destructive  to  the  eggs  and  young  of  such  birds  as  build  their  nests 
on  the  ground,  and  greedily  devour  worms^  frogs,  small  lizards,  and, 
Azara  says,  even  vipers.  Tbe  chief  animal  food  of  tiie  armadillos, 
however,  is  derived  from  the  immense  herds  of  wild  cattle  which  cover 
the  plains  and  savannahs  of  ever^  part  of  South  America.  These  are 
rarely  slaughtered  but  for  the  sake  of  the  hide  and  tallow ;  and  as  the 
carcasses  are  left  to  rot  on  the  pampas  or  plains,  the  smell  soon 
attracts  vast  crowds  of  carnivorous  animals  of  various  species,  and 
among  others  great  numbers  of  armadillos,  which  greedily  devour  the 
half-putrid  flesh,  and  soon  become  extremely  fat  and  corpulent.  In 
this  condition,  notwithstanding  the  filthy  nature  of  their  food,  their 
flesh  is  esteemed  a  great  delicacy  both  by  the  native  Indiuis  and  by 
the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  of  America.  The  animal  is  roasted  in 
its  shell,  and  considered  one  of  the  greatest  dainties  which  the 
country  produces. 

The  armadillos  see  but  indifferently,  particularly  in  bright  sunshiny 
weather ;  but  their  sense  of  hearing  is  extremely  acute,  and  amply 
compensates  for  any  imperfection  of  sight.  When  alarmed  by  any 
mmsual  or  strange  sound  they  prick  up  their  ears,  stop  for  a  moment 
to  satisfy  themselves  of  its  distance  and  direction,  then  commence  a 
precipitate  retreat  to  their  burrow,  or,  if  that  be  too  remote,  begin  to 
construct  a  new  one.  Smell  is,  however,  by  £sr  the  most  acute  of  their 
•enaea.  Azara  tellB  a  singular  story,  which  strikingly  illustrates  the 
intensity  of  this  sense  in  the  armaaillos,  as  well  as  the  unerring  cer- 
tainty with  which,  by  a  kind  of  intuitive  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  engineering,  they  are  enabled  to  direct  their  subterraneous  course 
to  any  iMurticular  point  "My  friend  Nos^da,"  says  he,  "having 
Arranged  a  trap  for  the  purpose  of  taking  Chibigouzous,  and  having 
placed  in  it  by  way  of  bait  a  cock,  with  a  small  quantity  of  maize  to 
support  him,  it  so  happened  that  a  few  grains  of  the  maize  fell 
through  between  the  boards  which  formed  the  bottom  of  the  trap. 
An  armadillo  arrived  during  the  night,  and  wishing  to  get  at  the 
maize  thus  accidentally  spilt,  opened  a  trench  or  burrow  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  trap,  and  without  deviating  a  hair^s  breadth  from  the 
straight  line  of  his  direction,  pushed  it  on  to  the  veiy  spot  where  the 
grain  had  fidlen,  and  possessed  himself  of  the  booty.'*^ 


It  is  generally  believed  that  the  female  armadillo  brinp  forth  but 
once  during  tiie  year,  but  she  produces  at  a  birth  firequenUy  six,  eight, 
or  even  ten  young  ones ;  yet  she  has  never  more  thui  four  teats,  and, 
according  to  the  report  of  M.  Azara,  the  most  accurate  and  extensive 
observer  who  has  written  upon  the  history  of  these  animals,  in  spme 
species  only  two— an  anomaly  with  respect  to  the  number  of  young 
and  tiie  number  of  teats  which  appears  to  contradict  the  general  rule 
observable  among  other  mammals.  Azara  indeed  supposes  that  some 
of  the  young  die  for  want  of  proper  nourishment,  and  that  the  mother 
only  rears  those  for  which  she  has  a  sufficient  supply  of  milk.  This 
is  however  improbable,  as  we  find  it  a  general  rule  that  only  the 
number  of  young  are  produced  at  a  time  that  can  be  sucoes«fully 
reared. 

The  tropical  and  temperate  regions  of  South  America  are  the 
original  and  proper  habitat  of  all  the  known  species  of  Armadillos. 
Hie  armadillos  are  active  hardy  animals,  and  thrive  and  breed 
rapidly  with  a  moderate  portion  of  care  in  most  temperate  countries. 
Suc^  of  the  species  as  prefer  a  vegetable  food,  and  whose  flesh  is 
consequently  the  most  palatable  and  wholesome,  might  even  be 
domesticated  wiUx  advantage,  and  bred  in  warrens,  like  rabbits.  In 
their  native  climates,  however,  they  still  aboimd  in  such  incredible 
numbers  that  the  inhabitants  will  not  be  at  the  trouble  of  rearing 
what  they  can  so  readily  procure  to  any  required  amoimt.  When 
therefore  the  natives  of  Brazil  or  Buenos  Ayres  maintain  the 
armadillo  as  a  domestic  ^^nimn.!^  it  is  more  for  curiosity  than  for 
profit.  The  woods  and  pampas  supply  the  wild  animal  in  inex- 
haustible abundance.  They  are  most  usually  taken  in  traps  during 
the  night;  or,  when  found  in  open  day  at  any  distance  from  their 
burrows,  are  pursued  by  small  dogs,  which  intercept  their  retreat  till 
the  hunter  has  time  to  secure  them.  One  species  only  when  thus 
attacked  has  the  faculty  of  rolling  itself  up  into  a  roimd  ball  like  a 
hedge-hog,  but  they  are  generally  timid  and  extremely  helpless,  and 
none  ever  attempt  to  defend  UiemMves  either  by  using  their  teeth 
or  daws. 

In  arranging  the  Armadillos,  Baron  Cuvier,  for  the  facility  of 
definition,  has  divided  them  into  five  small  groups. 

I.  The  Cachieameif  which  have  4  toes  on  the  anterior  and  5  on 
the  posterior  extremities,  7  teeth  only  on  each  side  both  of  the  upper 
and  lower  jaw,  a  pointed  muzzle,  and  a  long  tail,  surrounded  by  a 
succession  of  osseous  rings,  each  of  which  is  composed  of  a  number  of 
polygonal  plates  arranged  in  numerous  series.  The  two  middle  daws 
are  excessively  large  and  of  equal  length ;  the  lateral,  particularly  the 
internal,  which  represents  the  thumb,  are  much  shorter,  but  all  are 
powerful,  trenchant,  and  wdl  fitted  for  bun'owing.  To  this  division 
belongs — 

1.  JkaypuM  Peba  (Desmareet),  the  Peba,  called  Tatouhou,  or  Black 
Tatu,  by  the  Quaranis,  is  extremely  common  in  Paraguay,  though  it  does 
not  extend  to  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres.    This  species  is  well  figured 


The  Peba  {Ikuypui  Peba), 

in  the  original  edition  of  Buffon's  *  Histoire  Naturelle,'  and  detoribed 
hv  Daubenton  under  the  name  6f  Ociehicamef  which  according  to 
Qumilla  is  the  generic  name  of  the  Armadillos  among  the  Indians 
on  the  banks  of  tiie  Orinoco.  Azara  calls  it  the  Black  Armadillo,  f^:om 
its  Guarani  name ;  and  it  has  been  admitted  into  the  generality  of 
zoological  catalogues  under  the  somewhat  ambiguous  appellationt  of 
Datyput  novetncinctui,  D.  oetocinetutf  and  2>.  9eptemeincht9, — ^three 
different  species  being  thus  foimed  from  the  same  animal,  undar 
the  erroneous  supposition  that  the  number  of  moveable  bands 
between  the  bucklers  of  the  shoulders  and  croup  was  inyaxiaUe  In 
the  same  speoieB. 

The  length  of  the  Peba,  from  the  snout  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  is 
about  16  inches,  that  of  the  tail  14  indhM,  and  its  droomfiBmoe  at 


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its  base  6  inchoB.  The  bead  is  small,  long,  and  strmight;  the  nose 
extremely  elongated,  taper,  and  terminated  by  a  sort  of  small  muzzle 
something  resembling  the' snout  of  a  hog;  ttie  mouth  is  large;  the 
eyes  small,  and  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  head ;  the  ears  long,  and 
plaoed  close  together;  the  tail  long  and  attenuated;  the  legs  short; 
and  the  feet  small  The  buckler  of  the  shoulders  extends  in  front 
oyer  the  whole  neck,  and  towards  the  rear  as  far  as  the  back,  descending 
on  each  side  to  the  dbows.  It  is  composed  of  small  pieces  adhering  to 
one  another,  and  dispoeed  in  numerous  parallel  concentric  rings,  having 
the  concavity  towards  the  front,  the  first  ring  embracing  the  neck  of 
the  animal  The  buckler  of  tibe  croup  extends  from  the  back  to  the 
origin  of  the  tail,  and  descends  on  each  side  to  the  knees.  It  is  com- 
posed, as  in  the  former  case,  of  small  pieces  arranged  in  a  great  number 
of  parallel  concentric  rings,  passing  transrersely  over  the  hips,  but  having 
their  concavity  turned  in  tne  opposite  direction  from  that  of  the  rings 
on  the  shoulder,  or  in  such  a  manner  that  the  last  embraces  the  root  of 
the  tail  When  viewed  externally,  the  little  pieces  composing  tliese 
bucklers  have  the  appearance  of  irregular  tubercles,  but  when  examined 
on  the  under  side  of  the  buckler  they  are  found  to  be  hexagons  almost 
as  regular  as  those  of  the  cells  of  bees,  and  fitted  as  precisely  to  one 
another.  Between  the  bucklers  of  the  shoulders  and  croup  are  inter- 
posed a  variable  number  of  transverse  moveable  bands  marked  with 
zig-zag  lines  forming  very  acute  angles,  and  in  some  degree  gliding  over 
one  another  according  to  the  different  motions  of  the  animal  Out  of  14 
individuals  examined  by  Azara,  there  were  two  with  6  of  these  moveable 
bands,  one  with  7,  seven  with  8,  and  four  wiUi  9 ;  and  it  was  observed  that 
the  fiill-^wn  ones  always  had  the  greatest  number  of  bands,  which 
renders  it  extremely  probable  that  new  bands  are  detached  from  the 
bucklers  as  th^  are  required  by  the  increasing  growth  of  the  animal 
The  buckler  of  the  heaid  desoends  from  the  ears  to  the  muzzle,  and 
covers  each  cheek  as  lar  down  as  the  orbits;  and  there  are  small 
detached  scales  interspersed  in  various  situations  over  the  throat,  the 
under-jaw,  the  legs,  and  feet,  and  even  on  the  outer  side  of  the  ears. 
The  tail  is  extremely  long  and  taper :  it  is  composed  of  a  great 
number  of  osseous  rings  forming  a  long  tubular  case,  and  connected 
like  the  Joints  of  a  cane.  The  Peba,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called  in 
Brazil,  Tatu-Peba,  has  32  teeUi,  8  on  each  side  both  of  the  upper  and 
under  jaws.  It  inhabits  Quyana,  Brazil,  and  Paraguay,  is  a  timid 
nocturnal  animal,  tolerably  swiit-footed,  and  very  expert  in  burrowing. 
It  is  never  found  in  the  woods,  but  delights  in  the  open  plains  and 
cultivated  fields,  and  is  much  hunted  by  the  inhabitants  on  acoount 
of  the  delicacy  of  its  flesh,  which,  when  roasted  in  the  shell,  is  £st  and 
well  tasted;  it  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  a  sucking-pig. 

2.  D.  hybridui  (Desmarest),  the  Mule  Armadillo,  caUed  Mlwuriqua, 
or  Mule  Tatu,  by  the  Guaranis,  in  allusion  to  its  long  upright  ears, 
differs  from  the  last  species  principally  by  its  smaller  size,  and  the 
comparative  shortness  and  smallness  of  its  tail  The  length  from  the 
nose  to  the  origin  of  the  tail  is  stated  by  Azara  to  be  only  11}  inches; 
the  tail  itself  is  6}  inches  long,  and  3  inches  in  circumference  at  the 
root ;  whence  it  appears  that  the  tail  of  the  present  species  is  only 
half  the  length  of  the  body,  whilst  in  the  Tatu-Peba  its  dimensions 
are  very  nearly  equal  The  legs  of  the  present  spedes  are  also  rather 
shorter  than  those  of  the  Peba,  the  body  is  broader  and  less  covered 
with  hair  on  the  under  surfaoei,  and  the  moveable  bands  generally 
fewer  in  number,  and  capable  of  being  separated  to  a  greater  distance 
from  one  another.  Their  number  generally  varies  from  5  to  7,  without 
distinction  of  sex,  but  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  former  number  is 
only  foimd  in  very  young  animalB ;  and  altogether  the  small  size  and 
general  external  resemblance  of  the  two  species  make  it  sometimes 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  adult  M'bouriqua  and  the  young 
Peba,  especially  i[  great  attention  be  not  paid  to  the  comparative 
length  of  the  biKiy  and  tail,  which  forms  the  only  certain  criterion. 
This  species  inhabits  the  open  uncovered  countiy,  like  the  former, 
but  extends  much  farther  south,  and  is  common  on  the  pampas  of 
Buenos  Ayre>> 

8.  JD.  Verdadeiro,  the  Tatu  Yerdadeiro,  is  a  species  very  similar  in 
size  and  proportions  to  the  Mule  Armadillo ;  but  the  point  of  its  tail 
is  terminated  by  a  homy  case  of  a  single  piece ;  the  moveable  bands 
are  broader,  and  the  plates  of  the  croup-buckler  are  of  considerably 
laiger  size.  We  know  very  little  more  about  this  species  than  Uie 
few  characters  here  reported.  It  inhabits  the  woods  of  Brazil,  resides 
in  burrows,  and  is  found  abroad  at  all  hours  during  the  day-time. 
Koeter  is  the  only  traveller  who  mentions  this  animal,  but  Baron 
Cuvier  had  an  opportunity  of  establishing  its  roecific  distinctions  by 
the  examination  of  some  specimens  brought  to  France  by  M.  Auguste 
de  St.  Hilaire. 

XL  The  second  subdivision  which  Baron  Cuvier  establishes  among 
the  Armadillos,  and  which  he  calls  Aparas,  is  characterised  by  having 
the  claws  and  teeth  in  all  respects  similar  to  those  of  the  preceding; 
save  that  the  number  of  the  latter  amounts  to  nine  or  ten  on  eaS 
side  both  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws ;  but  the  animals  of  the  present 
group  are  immediately  distinguishable  from  all  others  of  the  genus  by 
the  tacultY  which  they  possess  of  completely  rolling  themselvee  up 
like  a  hedgehog  into  a  round  ball,  in  which  situation  they  may  he 
tumbled  alwut,  or  even,  it  is  said,  thrown  over  predpioes,  without 
receiving  any  material  iiguiy.    Thiure  is  but  a  single  known  species. 

4.  JD.  Apar  (Desmarest),  and  J),  tridnetug  (LinnsBus),  the  Mataoo, 
odJed  also  Bolha,  or  the  little  ball,  from  its  faculty  of  aasinning  a . 


spherical  form,  is  nearly  15  inches  long  from  the  nose  to  the  origin  of 
tne  tail ;  the  head  is  3  inches  long,  and  the  tail  not  quite  24  inchea 
The  head  is  oblong  and  of  a  pyramidal  form ;  the  muzzle  pointed ; 


The  Mataoo  (D.  Apar). 

the  ears  short  and  nearly  round ;  and  the  legs  and  daws  oomparativelT 
smaller  and  weaker  than  in  the  other  sped^ ;  the  tail  also  is  mud 
shorter,  and  does  not  taper  so  much ;  it  is  fiattened  at  the  root,  and 
covered  above  with  a  roug^  granular  crust.  The  small  pieces  which 
compose  the  -bucklers  and  moveable  bands  are  themsdves  of  very 
irregular  figures,  and  disposed  in  a  more  confused  manner  than  in 
other  spedes,  bearing  no  distant  resemblance  to  a  number  of  small 
rouffh  fragments  of  stones  thrown  at  random  over  the  surface.  The 
buckler  of  the  shoxilderB  forms  a  prominent  angle  on  each  dde  which 
advances  forwards  over  the  cheek ;  it  is  compoeed  of  9  or  10  parallel 
bands  of  small  plates,  of  a  polygonal  figure,  except  those  of  the  laii 
row,  which,  like  the  plates  of  the  moveable  bands,  form  irregular 
paralldograms.  The  buckler  of  the  croup  is  composed  of  1 3  tranavene 
rows  of  small  plates,  similar  to  those  of  the  shoulders,  and  between 
the  two  bucklers  are  interposed  three  moveable  bands  only ;  a  number 
by  whidi  the  Mataco  is  reiadily  distinguishable  from  all  other  anna- 
dillos,  though  it  is  probable  that  it  may  vary  in  a  small  degree,  as  it 
is  found  to  do  in  other  cases.  Its  usual  resource,  and  oiUy  defence 
when  frightened  or  surprised,  is  to  roU  itself  up ;  for  it  does  not  con- 
struct burrows  like  the  Tatu-Peba,  nor  does  it  possess  suffident  speed 
to  escape  by  flight  It  is  found  in  Brazil,  Paraguay,  and  Buenos 
Ayree,  but  is  nowhere  very  common. 

III.  The  Bncoubertg,  or  third  division  of  Baron  Cuvier,  have  5  toes 
on  the  fore  feet,  and  9  or  10  teeth  throughout,  but  they  are  prindpally 
distinguished  by  having  2  teeth  in  the  intermaxillary  bones  of  the 
upper  jaw,  representing,  as  it  were,  the  incisor  teeUi  of  ordinary 
mammals,  and  thus  forming  an  exception,  not  only  to  the  other 
Armadillos,  but  even  to  the  order  of  Edentata,  which  are  prindpally 
characterised  by  their  want  of  teeth  of  thi^  description. 

5.  D.  Encoubert  (Desmarest),  D,  texcinctut  (Linnsus),  the  Poyou,  or 
Tellow-Footed  Annadillo  (for  thus  Azara  interprets  the  name),  mea- 


The  Pojou  {D.  Eneombtrt), 

■ores  about  16  inches  fh)m  the  nose  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  which  is 
itself  about  half  the  length  of  the  body.    The  head  is  laige,  flat,  and 


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ARlfADILLO. 


ARMADILLO. 


aotf 


nearly  triangular,  the  face  shorty  the  muzzle  obttue,  the  ears  erect  and  of 
moderate  size,  and  the  eve  small  The  number  of  moyeable  bands 
Tariee  from  7  to  8,  aocormng  to  the  indiyidual ;  the  tail  is  surrounded 
at  the  base  with  three  or  four  bony  rings,  but  throughout  the  reet  of  its 
length  it  is  merely  covered  with  regular  tuberculous  scales ;  the  inter- 
stices of  the  moveable  bands  give  origin  to  a  great  number  of  long 
bristly  gray  hairs,  and  the  female  is  provided  with  only  two  pectoral 
mammae.  But  independently  of  all  other  considerations,  the  Tatu- 
Poyou  is  easily  distmguished  from  all  the  other  armadillos  by  the 
unusual  flatness  and  broadness  of  its  body,  and  the  consequent  com- 
parative shortness  of  its  legs.  It  is  very  common  in  Paraguay,  and 
burrows  in  the  ground  with  an  almost  incredible  agility.  Its  strength 
and  activity  are  very  remarkable ;  and  notwithstanding  the  shortness 
of  its  legs,  it  runs  so  swift  that  few  men  can  outstrip  it.  It  is  of  a 
restless  unquiet  character,  bold,  curious,  and  intrepid.  When  any 
noise  is  made  at  the  entrance  of  its  burrow,  or  when  otherwise  tor- 
mented, it  grunts  like  a  young  pig,  and  comes  forth  without  fear  to 
investigate  the  cause;  yet  when  actually  attacked  it  is  incapable  of 
making  any  sort  of  defence,  and  can  only  save  itself  by  retreating  to 
the  bottom  of  its  hole,  or  burrowing  to  a  still  greater  depth.  The 
Poyou  feeds  much  upon  carrion,  and  for  this  reason  its  fLeah,  though 
fat,  is  never  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of  European  origin,  though  we 
Indians  make  no  distinction  in  this  respect  between  it  and  the  other 
armadillos.  When  it  stops  or  rests,  it  has  a  custom  of  squatting  dose 
to  the  ground  like  a  hare  in  her  form,  and  in  this  situation  the  great 
breadth  of  the  body  is  remarkably  apparent^  being  nearly  three  times 
its  height 

6.  J).  viUonu  (Desmarest),  the  Haiiy  Armadillo,  measures  14  inches 
in  length  from  the  nose  to  the  origin  of  the  tail ;  the  head  is  nearly  4 
inches  in  length,  the  ear  two-thirds  of  an  inch,  and  the  tail  5  inches.  In 
form  and  appearance  this  species  bears  a  very  strong  resemblance  to  that 
last  described,  but  it  is  of  smaller  size,  and  is  comparatively  better 
covered  with  hair,  a  circumstance  from  which  it  derives  the  name  by 
which  it  is  most  usually  distinguished.  The  head  is  triangular,  the 
muzzle  pointed,  the  ears  laige,  elliptical,  and  inclined  outwards,  and 
the  number  of  moveable  bands  varies  from  6  to  7  according  to  the 
individuaL  The  border  of  the  bucklers,  as  well  ^  the  lower  side  of 
the  moveable  bands,  is  indented  in  a  remarkable  manner,  and  forms 
sharp  angular  points,  which  serve  to  approximate  the  present  species 
to  the  following,  not  less  than  to  distinguish  it  from  all  the  oUier 
known  armadillos.  There  are  eight  tee&  on  each  side,  both  above 
and  below.  Numerous  long  flexible  brown  hairs  spring  from  every 
part  of  the  body,  but  more  especially  from  the  sides  and  belly,  and 
even  cover  the  first  half  of  the  tail.  The  female,  as  in  the  Poyou, 
has  only  two  pectoral  mammse. 

This  species  does  not  inhabit  Paraguay,  nor,  as  far  as  we  ai'e  at 
present  aware,  any  other  part  north  of  the  Rio  Plata,  but  it  is  found 
at  eveiy  step  on  ike  pampas  or  plains  of  Buenos  Ayres,  south  of  that 
river.  ''In  an  expeidition,"  says  Azara,  "which  I  made  into  the 
Interior,  between  the  parallels  of  35"  and  36"  south  latitude,  I  met 
with  vast  multitudes  of  this  species  of  armadillo,  so  that  there  was 
scarcely  an  individual  of  the  party  who  did  not  each  day  capture  one 
or  two  at  least ;  for,  imlike  the  Poyou,  which  moves  abroad  only 
during  the  night,  this  animal  is  to  be  found  ^t  all  times,  and  tipon 
being  alarmed  promptly  conceals  itself,  if  not  mtercepted.  In  March 
and  April,  when  I  saw  them,  they  were  so  extremely  fat  that  their 
flesh  Btufeited  and  palled  the  appetite ;  notwithstanding  which  the 
pioneers  and  soldiers  ate  them  roaisted,  and  preferred  them  to  beef  and 
veal."  "The  hairy  armadillo,"  continues  M.  Azara,  "like  others  of 
the  genus,  has  undoubtedly  a  very  acute  sense  of  smell,  since  it  scents 
the  carcasses  of  dead  horses  from  a  great  distance,  and  runs  to  devour 
them ;  but  as  it  is  unable  to  penetrate  the  hide,  it  burrows  under  the 
body  till  it  finds  a  place  which  the  moisture  of  the  soil  has  already 
began  to  render  putrid  Here  it  makes  an  entrance  with  its  claws, 
and  eats  its  way  into  the  interior,  where  it  continues  feasting  on  the 
putrid  flesh,  till  nothing  remains  but  the  hide  and  bones,  and  so 
perfectly  do  these  preserve  their  position,  that  it  is  impossible,  from  a 
mere  external  view  to  anticipate  the  operations  which  the  armadillos 
have  been  cairying  on  within."  The  same  author  observes  further, 
that  this  species  never  constructs  burrows  to  reside  in,  that  it  avoids 
low  damp  situations,  and  is  only  found  on  the  dry  upland  plains. 

7.  D.  minuttu  (Desmarest),  the  Pichiy,  measures  only  10  inches  in 
length  from  the  snout  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  which  is  itself  44  inches 
long ;  the  head  is  2  inches  and  8  lines  long,  2  inches  broad  across 
the  orbits,  and  the  ears  are  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  very 
sharp-pointed.  The  frontal  buckler  is  composed  of  irregular  plates, 
the  eyes  being  small  and  nearly  concealed  under  its  margin ;  there 
are  no  plates  on  the  temples,  but  their  place  seems  to  be  supplied  by 
a  pencil  of  stiff  brown  hairs ;  the  neck  is  extremely  short,  and  fur- 
nished above  with  a  row  of  minute  s(»deB;  the  shoulder-buckler 
presents  nothing  remarkable,  but  that  of  the  croup  is  deeply  indeoited 
along  the  edges,  and  the  moveable  bands,  to  the  number  of  six  or 
■eren,  aooording  to  the  age  of  the  individual,  are  composed  of  rectan- 
gular plates,  bordered  on  each  side  by  compressed  scales,  lunated  and 
pointing  backwards.  Each  scale  is  more  or  less  distinctly  marked 
with  two  longitudinal  linear  depressions,  which  divide  it  into  three 
parts,  of  which  the  middle  is  plain  and  of  an  oblong,  figure,  but  the 
lateral  are,  as  it  wew,  divided  mto  six  or  eight  tubercles.    The  claws 

KAT.  HIBT.  DIY.  VOL.  L 


are  but  moderately  developed,  the  tail  is  covered  with  strong  scales 
disposed  in  rings,  and  the  interstices  of  the  scales  and  bands  are 
frimished  with  a  considerable  quantity  of  hair,  tiiough  less  abund- 
antlv  and  not  so  long  as  in  the  last  species. 

The  Pichiy  inhabits  the  pampas  to  the  south  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  extends  from  36°  of  latitude  southward  to  the  confines  of  Pata- 
gonia. It  inhabits  burrows,  to  which  however  it  does  not  confine 
itself  during  the  day,  like  some  other  species.  Its  fledi  is  said  to  be 
remarkably  tender  and  well  tasted.  Two  individuals  of  this  species 
which  had  been  brought  from  Port  Desire,  on  the  east  coast  of  Pata- 
gonia, lived  for  some  time  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  at  Paris,  and 
would  doubtless  bear  even  the  rigour  of  our  more  northern  climate 
without  injury  or  inconvenience.  ^ 

lY.  The  KaboMoui  have  likewise  five  toes,  both  on  the  anterior 
and  posterior  extremities,  but  those  of  the  fore  feet  are  disposed 
obliquely,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  thumb  and  index  are  small,  the 
middle  and  fourth  toes  armed  with  tremendously  large  trenchant 
daws,  and  the  fifth  very  small.  This  construction  gives  them  the 
means  of  burrowing  with  extraordinary  facility,  and  of  clinging  to 
the  ground  with  such  determination  and  obstinacy  that  it  is  with  the 
utmost  difficulty  they  can  be  taken  from  it.  They  have  nine  or  ten 
teeth  throughout. 

8.  2>.  TcUowiy  (Desmarest),  the  fatouay,  or  Wounded  Armadillo,  is  so 
called  by  the  Indians  in  allusion  to  its  tail,  which  is  naked,  or  as  it 
were  rudelv  deprived  of  the  crust  or  bony  tube  which  covers  this 
ot^gan  in  all  the  other  species.  The  whole  lengUi  of  the  Tatouay,  as 
given  by  Azara,  is  26i  inches,  from  which  if  we  subtract  74  inches  for 
the  length  of  the  tail,  it  leaves  1  foot  7  inches  for  that  of  the  body. 


The  Tatouay  (D.  Tatouay), 

The  tail  is  round,  pointed  and  naked,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
small  round  scales  or  crusts  on  the  under  sur&ce  of  the  third  ring  nearest 
to  the  extremity,  which  frequently  trails  along  the  ground  when  the 
animal  vralks ;  the  rest  is  covered  with  soft  brown  fur,  interspersed 
with  a*  few  stiff  short  hairs  on  the  superior  surface.  The  head  is 
longer,  narrower,  and  more  attenuated  than  that  of  the  Poyou,  though 
considerably  less  so  than  in  the  Peba  and  Mule  Armadillo ;  there  are 
8  molars  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  7  on  each  side  of  the  lower 
jaw ;  the  ears  are  unusually  laijge,  beirife  nearly  2  inches  long,  and  in 
figure  forming  a  segment  of  a  circle ;  the  body  is  round :  the  claws  of 
the  fore  feet,  particularly  that  of  the  middle  toe,  are  excessively  large ; 
and  the  female  is  provided  with  only  two  pectoral  mammse.  The 
bucklers  of  the  croup  and  shoulders  are  composed  of  10  and  7  rows 
of  scales  respectively,  each  bo&Lq  forming  an  oblong  rectangle,  those  of 
the  coccia  being  the  largest  of  all;  the  moveable  bands  are  18  in 
number,  composed  of  scales  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  bucklers, 
and  of  a  nearly  square  figure.  The  habits  of  this  species  are  altogether 
unknown.  It  inhabits  Guyana  and  Brazil,  and  is  rarely  found  south 
as  far  ais  Paraguay. 

y.  The  PriodonteSf  or  last  subdivision  of  the  Armadillos,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  unequal  toes  and  enormous  daws  of  the  Kabassous, 
have  from  22  to  24  small  teeth  throughout,  on  each  side  of  the  jaws, 
making  in  all  from  88  to  96  teeth — a  greater  number  than  is  found  in 
any  other  mammaL  This  group  contains  but  a  single  spedes  at 
present  known,  namdy — 

9.  D.  gigat  (Ouvier),  the  Great  Armadillo,  which  is  nearly  8  feet 
3  inches  in  length,  from  the  nose  to  the  origin  of  the  tail ;  the  head  is 
74  inches  long,  the  ears  1}  inch,  and  the  taU  1  foot  5  inches.  Its 
superior  size  is  alone  sufficient  to  distinguish  this  spedes  from  all  the 
other  known  armadillos,  but  it  possesses  numerous  other  characters  not 
less  remarkable.  Its  head  is  proportionably  smaller  than  in  the  other 
spedes,  the  fordiead  is  more  protuberant,  and  the  fSace  fr^m  the  eyet 
downwards  assumes  a  tubular  cylindrical  form,  like  that  of  the  Peba; 


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ARMATI. 


ABOHA. 


801 


the  Mrs  are  of  a  moderate  aise,  pointed,  and  habitually  cronehed 
backwards ;  the  bucklers  of  the  shoulders  and  croup  are  composed  of 
9  and  18  rows  of  plates  respectirely,  and  separated  by  moyeable  bands 


Great  Armadillo  (D.  ffigat] . 

to  the  number  of  12  or  13,  formed  of  rectangular  scales,  about  half 
an  inch  square.  The  tail  is  remarkably  thick  at  the  root,  being 
upwards  of  10  inches  in  circumference :  it  is  gradually  attenuated 
towards  the  tip,  covered  with  plates  disposed  in  rings  at  the  base,  and 
forming  spiral  or  crescent-shaped  lines  throughout  the  rest  of  its 
length.  The  claws  are  remarkably  large  and  powerful,  but  in  their 
relative  form  and  dimensions  differ  little  from  those  of  the  Tatouay 
already  described. 

This  species  inhabits  Brazil  and  the  northern  parts  of  Paraguay. 
It  is  never  found  in  the  open  country,  but  keeps  close  to  the  great 
forests,  and  burrows  with  surprising  facili^.  Those  who  are 
employed  in  collecting  the  Jesuit's  Bark  fi:equently  meet  with  it  in  tiie 
woods,  and  report  that  when  any  of  their  companions  happen  to  die 
at  a  distance  from  the  settlements,  they  are  obliged  to  surround  the 
body  with  a  double  row  of  stout  planks,  to  prevent  it  from  being 
scratched  up  and  devoured  by  the  Great  Armadillo. 

The  remains  of  Armadillos  have  been  found  in  the  Tertiary  Strata, 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  OlyptotUm  of  Owen.  [Qltptodon.] 

ARMATI.    [Ammonitbs.] 

ARNI,  the  native  Indian  name  of  the  Wild  Buffalo.    [Boyidje.] 

ARNI'CA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Compo- 
aitcB,  the  tribe  Venwniacea,  the  sub-tribe  Senecionea,  and  the  division 
Eutenecionem,  It  has  a  cylindrical  involucre,  with  equal  2-rowed 
scales ;  the  flowers  of  the  disk  hermaphrodite,  tubular ;  the  limb 
5-toothed;  the  stigmas  thickened  above,  and  terminated  with  a  conical 
pubescent  apex ;  the  flowers  of  the  ray  female,  bearing  degenerated 
stamens,  or  witii  only  the  rudiments  of  an  anther ;  the  achenium 
^vinged  and  striated ;  the  receptacle  naked ;  the  pappus  hairy.  One 
species  of  this  genus  grows  in  Europe,  the  A,  morUana,  and  is  known 
by  the  common  name  of  Leopaid's-Bane.  It  has  oblong-obovate 
nearly  entire  6-nerved  radical  leaves,  a  few-flowered  stem,  with  villose 
or  glandulose  pubescent  peduncles  and  involucres.  This  plant  is  not 
foimd  in  the  British  Isles,  but  is  abundant  in  the  meadows  and  forests 
of  mountainous  districts  in  the  middle  and  north  of  Europe,  and  also 
on  tiie  Alps.    It  blossoms  in  June  and  July. 

This  plant  was  at  one  time  admitted  into  all  the  British  Pharmaco- 
poeias, but  at  the  present  time  is  only  retained  in  the  Dublin.  It  docH 
not  appear  ever  to  have  been  much  used  in  this  country,  and  perhaps 
never  sufficiently  to  refute  or  confirm  the  strong  recommendations  of 
it  by  G^nnan  writers.  In  Germany  all  parts  of  the  plant  are  used, 
the  flowers,  leaves,  and  root.  The  whole  plant,  but  especially  the 
root,  possesses  a  peculiar  aromatic  but  not  pleasant  odour,  and  a 
nauseoiis  taste,  lie  plant  has  been  examined  by  various  chemists, 
and  in  every  part  there  has  been  found  an  acrid  resin  and  a  volatCe  oil 
In  combination  with  these  Chevallier  and  Lassaigne  found  in  the 
flowers  an  acrid  bitter  principle,  which  they  have  called  Amidne,  and 
the  root  contains  a  conaiderable  quantity  of  tannin.  In  large  doees  it 
produces  inflammation  of  the  alimentaiy  canal,  and  coma.  In  small 
doses  it  acts  as  a  general  stimulant,  increasing  the  pulsations  of  the 
heart,  and  acting  as  a  diaphoretic  and  diuretic.  It  is  used  in  Germany 
in  cases  of  low  fever,  also  in  nervous  diseases,  in  amenorrhcea  and 
adynamic  diseases  generally.  The  root  by  means  of  its  tannin  acts  as 
a  tonic  on  the  system.  The  root  is  given  in  powder  in  the  dose  of 
about  10  grains,  three  times  a  day,  or  in  incision.  The  flowers  are 
used  in  infusion,  in  the  proportion  of  1  drachm  of  the  flowers  to 
80  of  boiling  water,  of  whidi  2  ounces  may  be  given  at  a  dose. 
In  making  this  infusion  care  should  be  taken  that  the  pappus  be 
prevented  from  getting  into  it,  by  means  of  straining  through  a  linen 
bag.^  The  German  Fharmacopcsias  contain  several  preparations  of 
Arnica,   amongst  othen  a  tincture,   an  extract^  an  essence  ef  the 


flowers,  and  a  vinogar  {Aedwn  Armca).  Amongst  homosopaihic 
practitioners  the  tincture  is  applied  to  wounds  and  bnuses^  and  other 
external  uses,  and  infinitesimal  doses  of  this  substance  are  rsoom- 
mended,  according  to  their  practice,  in  many  severe  diBrmm. 

(Bisohoff,  MedicinuchrPharmaceutudu  BoUtmk^  1844;  ChrisiiBon'f 

AROIDEiEfOr  ARACEiE,  Aradt^  an  order  of  Monocotyledonoua 
Plants,  which  approach  Dicotyledons  in  the  fonn  and  veining  of  their 
leaves,  but  agree  with  the  former  in  everything  else  of  importance. 
They  are  readily  known  by  their  flowers  being  placed  very  doeelv  upon 
a  cylindrical  or  lengthened  axis,  called  technically  a  spadix  (Jtg.  2), 
which  is  itself  inclosed  in  a  leaf  of  a  peculiar  figure,  the  edges  of  whidi 
are  curved  inwards  till  they  meet,  forming  a  sort  of  hollow  sheath, 
which  botanists  name  spathe  {fig,  1). 

The  fruit  is  generallv  a  cluster  of  little  berries,  each  of  which  con- 
tains a  small  number  of  seeds.  The  flowers  themselves  are  extraoely 
variable  in  structure ;  sometimes  having  neither  calyx  nor  corolla,  and 
sometimes  possessing  both  those  parts;  sometimes  furnished  with 
anthers  opening  in  a  singular  manner  by  little  lobes,  or  having  anthers 
of  the  commonest  construction.  Many  of  the  species  grow  upon  the 
trunks  of  trees,  clinging  to  them  in  tropical  countries  like  ivy ;  a  very 
few  are  found  in  Europe,  and  those  are  always  little  stemlees  herbs ; 
a  small  number  are  small  erect  shrubs.  They  are  all  acrid  in  a  high 
degree,  some  of  them  so  mtich  so  as  to  be  dangerous  poisons,  as  for 
example  the  Duml>Gane  of  the  West  Indies,  which  paralpes  the 
mouth  if  only  chewed.  Nevertheless  this  acrid  principle  is  so  lar 
removed  by  roasting  or  boiling,  that  the  underground  stems  may  in 
some  cases  be  used  as  food.  The  Colocasia  of  the  tropics,  and  some 
other  species,  are  common  articles  of  food  among  the  negroes ;  but 
they  are  said  not  to  agree  very  well  with  Europeans.  In  this  country 
only  one  kind  of  Aroideous  plants  the  Arwm  maevlatfim,  is  found  wUd. . 


Arum  macxUatum. 
1,  A  spathe  with  the  point  of  the  spadix  seen  within  it ;  2,  the  spadix  sept- 
rated;  S,  the  ripe  ftroit;  4,  an  oTarium;  5,  the  same  cut  perpendicalarly ; 
6,  one  of  the  little  f^nit  cut  perpendicolaxly ;  7,  a  seed. 

The  root  of  that  species  which  is  vulgariy  named  the  Cuckoo  Phit,  and 
its  spadixes  Lords  and  Ladies,  is  eatable  when  properly  prepared,  just 
as  those  which  have  alreadv  been  mentioned.  What  is  called  Port- 
land Sago  is  prepared  from  it  The  spadixes  of  some  spedes  give  out 
a  fetid  smelL  The  emanations  of  Arwn  DracimctiJM  when  in  flower 
produce  dizziness,  headache,  and  vomiting. 

ABO'MA  is  the  supposed  principle  of  odour  in  plants,  fonneriy 
called  by  Boerhaave  SptrUut  Rector.  This  quality  generally  reaides  in 
the  essential  oil ;  but  there  are  some  vegetables  that  have  a  strong 
odour  which  yield  but  little  or  no  essential  oil,  as  the  jasmine  and 
the  violet ;  or  when  an  oil  in  small  quantity  is  procured  from  them 
it  has  not  the  powerful  smell  which,  considering  the  sm^lneaa  of  its 
proportion  compared  with  the  fragrance  of  the  plants,  it  might  be 
expected  to  possess.  As  plants  exhale  their  odour  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  and  communicate  it  to  water  at  a  lower  temperature  than 


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ARRAGONITE. 


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tluit  at  which  it  could  be  distilled,  it  has  been  imagined  that  Bome 
principle  of  a  more  subtile  nature  exists  in  which  the  odour  resides, 
and  that  it  is  this  which  imparts  smell  to  the  olL  In  &ot,  however, 
the  property  of  odour  belongs  to  proximate  Tegetable  principles  of 
different  kinds,  in  which  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  toe  existence 
of  any  common  principle ;  essential  oil  is  unquestionably  the  most 
usual  cause  of  its  production,  and  it  is  capable  of  being  volatilised  in 
small  quantity  at  a  low  temperature,  and  thus  difEused  through  the 
atmoronere  or  communicated  to  water. 

ARONIA,  the  Linnsean  name  for  a  species  of  plants  of  the  genus 
MefpiUu,  the  Mupihu  AmeUmchier,  or  MetpUua  vulgaris,  [Amelan- 
CBiXR ;  MESPiLua.] 

ARQUERITO,  a  native  amalgam,  consisting  of  six  parts  of  silver 
and  one  of  quickrilver.  It  has  been  regarded  as  native  silver.  It  is 
malleable,  and  is  worked  with  great  success  in  the  mines  of  Arqueros 
in  Chila 

ARRACA'CHA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
l/mbdUferee,  which  comprehends  a  species  of  as  much  importance  in 
the  tropical  parts  of  America  as  the  parsnip  and  carrot  are  in  Europe. 
This  plant,  the  Arraewha  escvletUa  of  botanists,  is  cultivated  in  great 
quantities  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Santa  F^  de  Bogota,  in  the  cooler 
districts  among  the  moimtains,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  state  of 
Colombia,  where  it  is  called  Arracacha.  It  resembles  the  common 
henilock  in  appearance,  but  the  leaves  are  much  broader,  the  stems 
are  not  spotted,  and  the  flowers  are  of  a  dingy  purple  colour ;  it  is 
also  of  smaller  stature. 

The  root  is  of  the  same  nature  as  the  tuber  of  a  potato,  only  it  is 
forked,  or  divided  into  several  lobes,  each  of  which  is  about  the  size 
of  a  large  carrot.  These  when  fit  for  eating  are  boiled  like  the 
potato,  and  become  of  a  firm  but  tender  consistence,  not  at  all  mealy, 
and  have  a  flavour  intermediate  between  a  chestnut  and  a  parsnip.  It 
appears  that  an  immense  produce  of  Arracacha  is  obtained  in  the 
South  American  provinces,  where  it  has  long  been  as  much  the  staple 
nutriment  of  the  population  as  the  potato  or  the  yam  in  other  places ; 


perfect  its  tubers.  It  is  therefore  only  cultivated  now  in  botanical 
collections.    (Hooker,  Botanical  Magasine,  tab.  8092.) 

ARRAGOnITE,  Pritmatie  Carbonate  of  Ume,  called  by  Mohs  the 
Prismatic  Lime-Haloide.  It  is  a  mineral  substance  consisting  of 
carbonic  acid  and  lime,  admitting  of  cleavage  in  planes  parallel  to  the 
£BU)es  of  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  116''  5  and  68°  55 ,  which  may 
therefore  be  considered  as  its  fundamental  form  (fig.  1).  The  most 
general  modifications  which  occur  consist  either  in  the  removal  of  the 
four  acute  angles  at  A  by  planes  a  intersecting  each  other  in  the 
short  diagonal  B  B,  and  inclined  to  each  other  at  an  angle  of  lOS**  18', 
by  which  the  face  P  being  entirely  removed,  the  form  of  JC^.  2  is  pro- 
duced ;  or  the  change  may  be  effected  by  the  truncation  of  the  acute 
lateral  edges  of  the  prism  by  planes  parakUel  to  the  axis  of  the  ciystsl, 
and  therefore  inclined  to  the  faces  L,  at  121'*  57^  giving  rise  to  the 
form  seen  in  fig,  8.  These  modified  forms  usually  present  themselves 
in  twin  crystals,  in  which  the  i^ort  diagonals  of  the  prism  B  B  are 
placed  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  when  only  two  crystals  are 
present,  thus  producing  a  very  simple  cross.  It  is  usual  however  that 
three  of  the  crystals  of  fig.  8  cross  each  other,  producing  a  ciystal  of 
the  appearance  of  ^^.  4,  which  at  first  sight  may  be  mistaken  for  an 
hexagonal  prism,  but  on  a  doaer  inspection  it  will  be  found  that  what 
appeared  to  be  a  single  face  is  really  composed  of  two  planes,  making 
a  re-entrant  angle. 

The  intersections  of  the  individual  crystals  with  each  other  are 
visible  both  in  the  lateral  and  terminal  faces,  and  are  indicated  in 
fig,  4  by  the  dotted  lines.  These  crystals  have  been  found  abundantiy 
in  a  ferruginous  clay  in  Aragon  in  Spain,  where  they  occur  accom- 
panied by  a  sulphate  of  lime.  From  this  circumstance  the  mineral 
has  derived  its  name.  It  has  also  been  found  very  beautifully  crystal- 
lised in  a  vein  of  a  massive  variety  of  the  same  mineral  traversing 
basalt  at  Bilin  in  Bohemia.  (Mohs.)  Fine  specimens  have  been  found 
at  the  following  places  in  England  : — ^in  the  Dufton  lead-mines ;  in  a 
cavern  of  Qrauwacke,  near  Merridge,  Somersetshire ;  and  also  in 
several  parts  of  Devonshire,  &c.  In  an  old  coal-mine  six  miles  south- 
B  B 


Fig.  2. 


Ffg.  8. 


Fig.  4. 


The  ArraeMha  {Arracacha  ucuUnta), 
1,  A  barren  flower ;  2,  a  fertile  flower ;  S,  a  stamen ;  4,  a  petal ; 
i,  a  ripe  Aruit ;  6,  the  tame  cut  across. 
and  as  it  will  only  thrive  in  the  colder  districts,  it  was  once  expected 
to  fonn  an  important  agricultural  plant  in  Europe.    It  has  however 
been  found  upon  trial  unable  to  accommodate  itself  to  our  uncertain 
olimAt0,  and  to  perish  as  soon  as  the  cold  nights  and  damp  weather 
of  autumn  approach,  witiiout  having  been  able  during  the  summer  to 


west  of  Cockfield,  Durham,  it  is  remarkable  as  occurring  depending 
from  a  roof  of  clay-slate,  and  accompanied  by  tubular  calcareous 
stalactites.  (Phillipa)  Varieties  of  this  mineral  are  also  common  in 
beds  of  iron-ore  in  the  mines  of  Eisenerz  in  Styria,  and  in  several 
other  iron-mines  of  Hungary,  of  Transylvania,  &c,  consisting  of 
numerous  fibrous  crystals,  of  a  satin-like  lustre,  radiating  from  a 
centre,  and  to  these  the  name  of  Flot  Perri  has  been  applied. 

In  a  chemical  and  crystallographical  point  of  view  ArragcnUt^  is 
peculiariy  interesting,  as  presenting  to  us  carbonate  of  lime  differing 
in  its  system  of  crystallisation  from  that  of  the  common  Calc-Spar, 
and  thus  affording  us  an  instance  of  the  influence  of  any  difference  in 
the  aggiegation  of  matter  in  changing  its  physical  properties,  as  will 
be  seen  by  comparing  this  substance  with  the  rhombohedraJ  Calc-Spwr, 
with  which  it  agrees  in  chemical  constitution.  In  the  scale  of  Mohs 
its  hardness  varies  from  8*5  to  4,  while  that  of  Calc-Spar  is  8.  The 
specific  gravity  of  ' 

Airagoniteis 2981 

Calo^par 2721 

They  act  also  differentiy  on  Ught,  the  index  of  ordinary  refraction  of 

Arragonite  bemg 1'698 

CaloSpar I'Sl^  ^ 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  account  for  these  differences  by  con- 
sidering  them  the  effects  of  small  quantities  of  carbonate  of  strontia, 
which  Professor  Stromeyer  first  discovered  to  be  contained  in  many 
specimens  of  ArragoniU  ;  but  the  conclusion  is  unfounded,  as  wiU  be 
seen  by  the  results  of  two  analyses  given  by  Stromeyer : — 

''  First.  Second. 

Carbonate  of  Lime  .  .  95-2966  .  .  992922 
Carbonate  of  Strontia  .  .  05090  .  .  41048 
Wat4ir 01544     .        .      05992 


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ARTEMISIA. 


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wliere  tlie  carbonate  of  strontia  is  in  small  and  varying  proportion, 
and  must  therefore  be  considered  as  an  accidental  impurity. 

ARSENIC  and  ARSENICAL  MINERALS.  Anenio  is  found  pure 
•  and  combined  with  other  substances,  both  as  an  acid  and  a  base. 
Those  minerals  in  which  arsenic  acts  the  part  of  the  electro-nogative 
element  or  as  an  acid  may  be  oonsidered  as  forming  a  mineralogical 
family  or  class,  according  to  the  chemical  arrangement  of  Berzelius. 
This  family  comprehends  four  genera,  a  tabular  yiew  of  the  principal 
species  of  eadi  of  whidi  is  here  given  : — 

First  genus. 
Species.    Metallic  or  native  arsenia 

Second  genus  (metallic  arseniurets). 
First  ipeoieB.    Octahedral  cobalt  pyrites :  speiskobalt  of  the  Qensans. 
Seopnd  species.    Hezahedral  cobalt  pyrites :  kobaltglanz. 
Third  species.    Copper  nickel:  arsenuret  of  nickel:  prismatic  nickel 

pyrites. 
Fourth  species.    ArBenical  silver :  octahedral  antimony  of  Jameson  : 
nlberspeisglanz  of  Hausnuum :  antimonial  silver  of  Phillips. 
Fifth  species.    Arsenuret  of  bismuth. 
Sixth  species.    Azotomous  arsenical  pyrites  (Mobs). 
Seventh speciea.  Prismaticaisenical pyrites (Mohs);  if iiptclre^ (Phillips): 
anenikkies. 
Thirdgenus. 
Species.    White  arsenic,  or  arsenious  add. 

Fourth  genus  (compounds  of  arsenic  acid). 
First  roedea.    PkarmacoUte :  arseniate  of  lime. 
Second  spedes.    Cobalt  bloom. 
Third  spedes.    Nickel  ochre. 

Fourth  spedes.  ScorodUe:  martial  arseniate  of  copper  from  CoxnwalL 
Fifth  spedes.    OlivmUe :  of  this  there  are  two  spedes,  the  one  crystal- 
lised in  the  rights  the  other  in  the  oblique,  prismatic  systeuL 
Sixth  spedes.     Buchlare  Mica  (Mohs) :  rhombohedral  arseniate  of 

copper  (Phillips) :  kupferglimmer. 
Seventh  spedes.    Cube  ore :  hexahedral  Liriconite :  arseniate  of  iron. 
Eighth  spedes.    lUiombohedral  lead  spar. 

In  addition  to  the  minerals  daased  in  the  above  genera,  several 
other  substances  contain  arsenic,  acting,  however,  as  the  electro- 
podtive  element  or  base :  of  these  there  are  but  two  particularly 
worthy  of  attention,  namdv,  OrpimeiU  and  Realgar,  both  of  which  are 
solphurets  of  arsenic  in  definite  but  different  proportions.  OrpimaU 
(A  2,  S  8)  is  the  yellow  sulphuret  of  arsenia  It  is  rarely  ciystalline, 
and  contdns  61  per  cent  of  arsenia  It  is  obtained  from  Hungary, 
Turkey,  China,  and  South  and  North  America.  It  is  made  use  of  as 
the  basis  of  the  pigment  called  King's  Yellow.  lUalgar  (As  S)  is  the 
red  sulphuret  of  arsenia  It  is  found  in  oblique  prisms  or  maadve. 
It  comes  chiefly  from  Tranin^lvania  and  Hungary,  with  tellurium  and 
gold ;  it  is  also  found  in  China.  It  contains  70  per  cent  of  ar^nic, 
and  IS  used  in  making  fireworks. 

The  geological  podtion  of  Arsenical  Minerals  is  confined  to 
primitive  dirtricts,  where  they  occur  in  metalliferous  veins,  usually 
associated  with  metallic  sulphurets,  to  which  the  arseniurets  have 
condderable  analogy.  The  only  genus  which  has  been  found  in  any 
quantity  is  the  second,  the  most  abundant  spedes  of  which  are  the 
arseniurets  of  cobalt,  nickd,  and  iron,  which  are  found  both  in  veins 
and  beds.  The  fourth  genus  appears  to  owe  its  origin  to  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere  on  the  arseniurets ;  they  occur  frequently  in  union 
with  the  phosphates,  with  which  they  are  isomorphous;  conse- 
quently the  phosphoric  add  is  frequently  more  or  less  replaced  by  the 
arsenic,  or  the  reverse. 

The  Arsenic  contained  in  any  mineral  may  in  general  be  readily 
detected  by  th^  blow-pipe,  owing  to  the  characteristic  odour  of  the 
vapour  of  metallic  arsenia  In  performing  this  operation  it  is 
necessary  to  be  careful  to  submit  ihe  mineral  to  the  interior  or  de- 
oxidising flame,  or  in  order  to  insure  the  reduction  of  the  metal  more 
completely  it  is  advisable  to  add  a  small  quantity  of  the  powder  of 
cham>aL  This  reduction  to  the  metallic  state  is  essential,  for  it  is  the 
vapour,  not  of  the  white  arsenic,  but  only  of  the  metallic  arsenic,  which 
possesses  the  peculiar  smell  of  garlia  If  the  mineral  be,  fit>m  its 
colour,  suspected  to  be  orpiment  or  realgar,  it  must  be  mixed  with  a 
small  quantity  of  black  flux  in  a  glass  matrass,  and  heated  in  the  flame 
of  a  spirit-lamp,  by  which  the  arsenic*  will  be  liberated,  and  a  sul- 
phuret of  potasdum  formed. 

Native  Arsenic  is  usually  found  in  veins,  accompanied  by  sulphur 
and  sulphurets ;  it  occurs  maadve,  also  in  reticulated  and  stalactitic 
shapes,  and  of  a  curved  lamellar  compodtion,  exceedingly  like  the 
layers  of  an  onion.  When  frvotured  the  new  surfiuse  presents  a 
metallic  lustre  and  a  tan  white  colour,  which  however  soon  tarnishes, 
becoming  a  very  dark  gray.  It  is  brittle,  has  the  specific  gravity 
5*766,  and  its  hardness  is  8*5. 

According  to  Mohs  it  is  frequently  met  with  in  the  mines  of 
Annabeig^  Sdmeeberg,  Maiienbeig,  and  Freibenr  in  Saxony;  at 
Joaehimsthal  in  Bohemia^  at  Andreasberg  in  the  Hers,  in  the  Black 
Forest,  in  Alsace,  at  Allemont  in  Dauphiny,  at  Kongsbei|^  in  Norway, 
at  Kapoik  in  Transylvania^  and  in  beds  at  Orawitza  in  the  Bannat  of 
Temeswar. 

The  second  genus  presents  us  with  a  very  valuable  series  of  minerals, 
owing  to  propose  of  the  metals  with  which  the  arsenic  is  combined. 
[CoBA.LT  Orbs;  Coppkb  Obis.]    The  arsenical  diver,  which  con- 


stitutes the  fourth  species,  has  not  been  suffidentiy  investigatad. 
Professor  Hausmann  condders  it  as  a  more  or  lass  intimate  mixture  of 
prismatic  arsenical  pyrites  with  antimonial  silver,  a  compound  according 
to  Klaproth  of  16  to  24  parts  of  antimony  and  84  to  76  of  silver.  The 
same  diemist  states  96  parts  of  arsenical  silver  to  contain  of 

Arsenic 85*00 

Antimony 4*00 

SUver 12-75 

Iron 45-25 

Many  mineralodsts,  on  the  other  hand,  consider  the  antimomal  and 
the  arsenical  silver  varieties  of  the  same  species.  The  first  of  these 
occurs  in  crystals  and  in  granular  masses ;  the  latter  possesses  a  curved 
lamellar  compodtion  of  thin  ciystalline  plates.  They  both  readily 
tarnish,  and  assume  a  dark  gray  colour.  The  specific  gravity  hu 
been  stated  by  Hauy  at  9*446,  bv  Klaproth  at  9*82.  The  antimonial 
dver  is  found  in  veins  at  Altwolfach  in  Fiirstenberg,  and  at  Andieae- 
berg  in  the  Harz;  the  arsenical  in  various  mines  in  the  Ears,  at 
Guadalcanal  in  Spain,  and  also  in  Herland  mine,  Cornwall,  tc  It  ii 
scarcely  necessary  to  mention  that  this  mineral,  when  found  in 
sufficient  quantity,  is  highly  valuable  for  metallurgic  purposes. 

Axotomoua  Anenical  Pyritei  is  a  compound  of  arsenic  and  ircnif 
occurring  in  beds  of  prismatic  iron,  and  also  in  primitive  mountains, 
accompanied  by  cobalt  and  nickd,  at  Schladning  in  Stytia.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  7*228. 

Primaitic  Artenieal  Pjfritea,  described  by  some  mineralogiBts  under 
the  name  of  Mispickd,  is  composed,  according  to  the  analysis  of 
Stromeyer,  of 

Iron 86*04 

Arsenic 42*88 

Sulphur 2108 

This  mineral  possesses  a  tin-white  colour  and  a  metallic  lustra 
The  specific  gravity  is  6*127,  and  its  hardness  6.  It  occurs  maasiTe, 
and  also  crystallised  in  the  system  of  the  right  rhombic  prism; 
crystals  are  seen  in  many  modifications  of  this  system ;  they  admit 
of  deavage  in  planes  parallel  to  the  faces  of  a  prism  whose  angles  are 
111**  12'  and  68"  48',  which  may  therefore  be  conddered  as  the 
fundamental  fonn. 

This  mineral  is  found  commonly  in  most  of  the  localities  of  aisenioal 
minerals,  associated  with  ores  of  silver,  lead,  and  tin,  both  in  veins 
and  beds.  It  is  a  product  of  almost  every  mine  in  Cornwall,  as  well 
as  those  of  Saxony,  &c  Some  specimens  contain  silver,  of  which  the 
principal  are  found  at  Braunsdorf  near  Freiberg,  in  veins  of  quartz, 
traversing  mica-slate. 

While  Anenie,  whidi  constitutes  the  third  genus,  is  foimd  crystd^ 
Used  in  octahedrons,  and  also  in  botiyoidal  and  stalactitic  forms, 
frequently  pulverulent.  It  occurs  in  metallic  veins,  and  probably  is 
the  product  of  the  decomposition  of  other  minerals  The  lustre  is 
vitreous,  and  colour  white,  with  a  slight  degree  of  transparency.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  8*698.  It  is  readily  recognised  by  its  behaviour 
before  the  blow-pipe  :  if  alone,  bsiog  volatilised ;  if  on  charcoal,  being 
volatilised  with  the  production  of  the  garlic  odour. 

ARTEMI'SIA,  an  extendve  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Oompo$U<s,  and  remarkable  for  the  intense  bitterness  of 
many  of  its  spedes.  It  is  easily  recognised  by  the  multitude  of  fine 
divisions  into  which  its  leaves  are  usually  separated,  and  the  numerous 
clusters  of  small,  round,  drooping,  greenish-yellow,  or  browmah  flower- 
heads,  with  which  its  branches  are  loaded.  The  flowerets  are  all 
tubular,  but  those  in  the  circumference  of  each  head  are  very 
imperfect 

A.  Abnnihium,  Wormwood,  is  met  vrith  frequently  in  waste  phoes 
all  over  Europe  and  the  northern  parts  of  Asia.  Ita  leaves  have  a 
sil^  or  hoary  aspect,  in  consequence  of  a  thick  covering  of  exceedingly 
delicate  hairs,  and  they  are  deeply  lobed.  The  flower-heads  are  very 
numerous,  and  of  a  light  buff  colour.  Wormwood  is  celebrated  for 
its  intensdy  bitter,  tonic,  and  stimulating  qualities^  which  have  caused 
it  to  be  an  ingredient  in  various  medi(^ial  preparations,  and  even  in 
the  preparation  of  liqueurs.  It  derives  ^its  name  from  its  use  in 
destroying  worms  in  children.  A.  pontica  has  also  the  same 
properties. 

A.  Draetmcultii,  Tarragon,  is  a  Siberian  spedes,  the  stems  of 
which  grow  2  or  S  feet  high,  are  perfectly  smooth,  and  of  a  bright 
green.  Its  leaves  are  undivided,  very  narrow,  smooth,  and  rawer 
succulent;  when  bruised  they  emit  a  stimidating  odour,  and  if 
chewed  produce  a  peculiarly  pungent  moisture  in  the  mouth,  which  is 
so  generally  conddered  agreeable  that  the  leaves  are  employed  as  a 
pickle,  and  as  an  ingredient  in  some  kinds  of  vinegar.  The  flower- 
heads  are  small,  round,  and  smooth,  and  contain  seven  or  eight 
flowereta 

A.  MutdUna  has  properties  intermediate  between  Wormwood  and 
Tarragon :  from  it  and  A.  apicala  the  bitter  aromatic  liqueur  called 
Crdmo  d' Absinthe  is  prepared. 

A.  Abrotonwtif  Southernwood,  an  odoriferous  herb  found  all  over 
the  south  of  Europe  from  Portu^  to  the  Dardanelles,  and  thenoe 
through  Palestine,  Persia,  and  the  middle  of  Asia  into  China,  is 
frequently  seen  in  old-fashioned  gardens  where  it  was  cultivated  for 
its  peculiar  aromatic  scent.  It  is  a  hoary  plant,  becoming  in  warm 
countries  a  shrub,  and  even  with  us  acquiring  a  woody  stem  after  a 
few  years ;  its  branches  bear  loose  panicles  of  nodding  yellow  flower* 


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ARTICULATA. 


S14 


heads,  which  are  externally  gray  with  down ;  the  leayea  belonging  to 
the  panidea  are  much  longer  and  narrower  than  those  of  the  Htem. 

A.  aeetieOf  a  Persian  species,  is  said  to  have  a  strong  odonr  of  vinegar. 

A.  Chinauia  yields  the  material  from  which  moxas  are  made  tiiat 
are  burned  npon  the  human  body  as  a  cautery  in  cases  of  gout  and 
rheumatism. 

A,  maderaapatana  and  A.  Indica  are  used  by  the  Indian  doctors. 
The  flower-heads  of  A.  Sieberi,  Lerckeana^  Ckmitra,  and  paueifiora 
constitute  the  drugs  called  Semen  contra,  or  Setnen  Cina,  which  are 
Txsed  as  yermifuges.  The  same  part  of  A,  Vahliana  yields  the  Persian 
IVormseed,  or  Semen  Cfince  Levanticum ;  and  that  of  A.  ccendeteenSf 
the  Semen  Seriphii,  or  Barbotinei  A.  eamphorcUa  and  A.  OaUica  are 
iised  in  France  also  as  anthelmintics  under  the  name  of  Sangueri^  or 
Sanguerite. 

ARTERY,  firom  the  Greek  iprnpia,  signifying  an  air-yeasel,  because 
the  andents,  ignorant  of  the  circulation,  and  finding  the  arteries 
always  empty  after  death,  supposed  they  were  tubes  oontaining  air. 
Why  alter  death  the  arteries  are  empty  and  the  blood  accumulated  in 
the  veins  will  be  explained  hereafter.  By  the  term  Artery  is  meant 
a  yeasei  which  conveys  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  different  parts  of 
the  body :  a  Vein,  on  the  contraiy,  is  a  vessel  which  conveys  blood 
from  the  different  parts  of  the  body  to  the  heart  [Ciboulation  or 
THE  Blood.]  All  the  arteries  of  the  system  proceed  from  two  great 
trunks  immediately  connected  with  the  cavities  of  the  heart,  namely, 
the  Pulmonary  Artery,  which  arises  from  the  right  ventricle,  and  the 
Aorta,  which  springs  from  the  left  ventricle.    [Aorta  ;  Heabt.] 

The  arterial  system  is  arborescent,  that  is,  the  branches  which  spring 
from  the  aorta  successively  increase  in  number  and  diminish  in  size  as 
they  proceed  frx>m  the  heart  towards  their  ultimate  terminations  in  the 
system.  Each  trunk  commonly  ends  by  dividing  into  two  or  more 
branches,  the  combined  area  of  which  is  always  greater  than  that  of 
the  trunk  frx>m  which  they  spring.  The  capadty  of  the  branches  ia 
estimated  to  exceed  that  of  tne  trunks  in  the  proportion  of  one  and  a 
half  to  one.  The  arterial  trunk  always  dividing  into  branches,  and 
the  larger  branches  into  branches  more  and  more  minute,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  blood  in  the  arterial  system  is  always  flowing  from  laiger  into 
smaller  tubea 

The  arteries  are  of  a  yellowish-white  colour,  loose  and  flocculent  on 
their  external  surface,  but  their  internal  surface  is  smooth  and  poHshed. 
They  are  composed  of  three  distinct  membranes,  which  are. super- 
imposed one  upon  the  other,  and  which  are  ultimately  united  by 
delicate  cellular  tissu&  Each  of  these  membranes  is  called  a  tunic, 
or  coat,  and  each  possesses  a  peculiar  structure,  and  performs  a 
separate  function  in  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

1.  The  internal  tunic  consists  of  a  membrane,  colourless,  transparent, 
and  thin,  yet  so  firm  and  strong  that  it  is  supposed  to  resist  more  than 
any  of  the  others  the  bursting  of  the  artery  by  the  current  of  the 
blood ;  for  if,  in  a  living  animal,  the  other  coats  be  entirely  removed, 
this  alone  is  found  capable  of  sustaining  the  impetus  of  the  circulation, 
and  ofpreventing  rupture  from  the  dictation  of  the  artery. 

2.  The  middle  tumo,  called  also  the  fibrous  and  the  muscular,  is  com- 
posed of  yellowish  fibres  [Areolar  Tissue],  which  pass  in  an  oblique 
direction  around  the  calibre  of  the  vessel,  forming  segments  of  cirdee 
which  are  so  joined  as  to  produce  complete  rings.  In  the  laiger 
trunks,  several  layers  of  these  fibres  can  be  raised  in  succession  by 
the  forceps,  so  that  this  coat  is  of  considerable  thickness,  and  it  is 
proportional^  thicker  in  the  small  branches  than  in  the  laige  trunks. 
This  coat  is  firm,  solid,  and  highly  elastic.  It  is  the  main  tunic  by 
which  the  artery  resists  dilatation  in  the  transverse  direction,  whi<£ 
it  does  so  effectually  that  when  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart  propels 
a  freeh  current  of  blood  into  the  aorta  littie  or  no  dilatation  of  the 
veasel  is  perceptible.  The  characteristic  property  of  the  fibrous  coat 
is  contractility.  If  it  be  mechanically  irritated,  or  if  a  chemical 
stimulant,  sudi  as  ardent  spirit  or  ammonia,  be  applied  to  it,  the 
vessel  contracts  fordbly  upon  its  contents.  This  contractile  power, 
which  properly  belongs  to  the  muscular  fibre,  induced  anatomists  to 
believe  that  the  fibrous  tunic  consists  of  muscular  fibres ;  but  careful 
examination  has  shown  that  its  organisation  possesses  nothing  in 
common  with  that  of  the  muscular  tissue,  while  chemical  analysis 
has  demonstrated  that  it  contains  no  fibrin,  which  is  the  basis  of 
muscle. 

S.  The  external  tunic,  called  also  the  cellular,  consists  of  small 
whitish  fibres,  very  dense  and  tough,  interlaced  together  in  every 
direction.  It  is  much  thicker  in  the  lazge  trunks  than  in  the  small 
branches,  the  reverse  of  the  fibrous  coat.  Its  outer  surface  is  covered 
by  a  loose  and  flocculent  cellular  substance,  which  connects  the  artery 
with  the  surrounding  parts,  and  particularly  with  the  sheath  of  the 
vessel  Its  firmness  and  resistance  are  so  great  that  it  is  not  divided 
however  firmly  a  ligature  may  be  placed  around  the  artery ;  and  its 
elastidty,  espedally  in  the  longitudinal  direction,  is  so  remarkable 
that  it  has  been  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  elastic  coat. 

Arteries  are  themsdves  abundantiy  supplied  with  arteries,  consti- 
tuting their  nutrient  vessels,  and  caJled  Vaaa  Vatomm ;  but  these 
nutrient  vessels  of  the  artery  form  but  few  anastomoses,  that  is,  but 
few  communications  with  any  other  arteries. 

The  prindpal  nerves  of  arteries  are  derived  from  the  ganglionic  or 
the  organic  system,  but  with  these  are  mingled  branches  derived  from 
the  sentient  or  the  animal  system.    [Nbrys.]    Accordingly,  under 


ordinary  droomstanoes,  arteries  cany  on  their  functions  independenUy 
of  any  influence  derived  frt>m  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  but  they  are 
capable  of  being  affected  by  agents  applied  to  those  organs. 

Among  the  physical  properties  of  arteries,  the  most  important  are 
their  extensibility  and  their  elastidty.  Their  extensibility  is  diiefly 
in  the  direction  of  their  length. 

After  an  artery  has  been  extended,  dther  lengthwise  or  transversdy, 
it  suddenly  retracts  on  itself  when  the  extending  force  is  removed. 
If  the  finger  be  fordbly  introduced  into  the  section  of  a  large  artery, 
the  sides  of  the  vessel  re-act  on  the  finger,  and  proportionally  compress 
it  If  an  artery  be  divided  in  the  dead  body,  though  emptied  of  its 
contents,  it  maintiainB  its  cylindrical  form,  and  preserves  its  capadty 
unimpaired.  The  elastic  property  on  which  these  phenomena  depend 
is  common  to  all  the  coats,  but  it  is  greatest  in  the  external  tunic,  and 
least  in  the  intenuil  tunic,  and  it  is  also  much  greater  in  the  large 
trunks  than  in  the  small  branche& 

The  most  important  vital  property  of  the  artery  is  its  contractility, 
that  is,  its  power  of  diminishing  its  capacity,  or  approximating  its 
parietes,  and  thus  proportionally  acting  upon  its  contents.  Even  the 
large  trunks  possess  this  property  in  some  degree;  but  it  reddes 
chiefly  in  the  ultimate  dividons  of  the  arterial  branches,  that  is,  the 
capillary  vessela    [Capillart  Vessels.] 

ARTHRO'PTERUS,  a  Fossil  Fish  frx}m  the  Lias  near  Bristol 
(Agassiz.) 

ARTICULA'TA,  oTAHicviatedAnimaU,toTm^<b  third  great  section 
of  the  animal  kingdom,  according  to  the  arrangement  of  Cuvier. 
They  are  so  called. because  the  different  portions  of  their  body  are 
composed  of  moveable  pieces  articulated  (jointed)  to  each  other. 
They  differ  from  the  liollusca  in  generally  possessing  a  flexible 
skeleton,  and  from  Vertebrated  Animals  by  the  skeleton  being 
external,  while  that  of  the  vertebrated  is  internal  Though  presenting 
condderable  diverdty  of  character  among  themselves,  they  are 
generally  provided  with  a  skin,  which  is  either  soft  (as  in  the  leech), 
or  homy  and  crustaoeons  (as  in  the  crab  and  craw-fish).  Certain 
families  are  destitute  of  feet,  but  the  greater  number  are  provided 
with  tiiese  members,  which,  when  present,  are  never  fewer  than  six* 
The  connection  of  the  joints  of  the  members  is  so  close  as  to  permit 
only  a  very  limited  range  of  motion  to  each ;  which  is,  however, 
compensated  by  the  greater  number  of  pieces  which  constitute  each 
member  or  limb. 

The  animals  of  this  dividon  have  the  trunk  of  the  body  for  the 
most  part  long  and  cylindrical,  and  divided  transversely  into  segments. 
In  the  lowest  forms  of  these  animals  the  segments  are  perfectiy 
simple,  but  as  we  ascend  we  observe  that  gradually  the  segments 
develop  lateral  organs  which  are  of  very  various  kinds,  according  to 
the  character  of  the  animal.  In  many  of  the  Atmdida  and  Myriapoda 
legs  are  produced  on  a  large  number  of  the  segments,  whilst  in  the 
Chruetaeea  and  Arachnida  we  find  these  reduced  in  number  to  8  or 
10,  and  in  tiie  Insects  to  6.  Where  the  object  is  lightening  the  body 
there  the  segments  are  reduced  in  number  and  size,  as  in  tiio  insects 
and  the  crabs,  in  the  Annelides  as  the  earth-worm  and  lug-worm,  we 
have  instances  of  a  great  extendon  of  the  number  of  these  segments. 
In  fact,  in  the  same  manner  as  we  can  reduce  the  varied  bones  of  the 
vertebrate  endoskdeton  to  the  type  of  the  vertebra,  so  may  we 
reduce  the  varied  forms  of  the  invertebrate  articulate  exoskeleton 
to  the  typical  form  of  the  segment.  It  results  from  this  that  the 
parts  of  thdr  skdeton  or  external  organs  are  symmetrical  The 
animals  of  this  class  are  active ;  hence  their  skeletons  are  light  and 
thin.  The  muscles  or  organs  of  motion  are  attached  to  the  interior 
of  the  skeleton ;  but  as  this  is  hard  and  unyidding,  it  is  necessary  for 
it  to  undergo  a  process  of  exuviation,  which  occurs  in  all  the  articulate 
dasses.  This  process  of  exuviation  goes  on  through  all  stages  of  life 
in  these  animals.  The  material  out  of  which  the  skdeton  is  formed 
in  the  minority  of  cases  is  the  phosphate  of  lime,  the  same  material 
as  enters  into  the  bones  of  the  vertebrate  classes.  In  the  MoUusca,  in 
which  the  skeleton  is  hard,  solid,  and  unchangeable,  the  carbomite  of 
lime  is  the  material  employed. 

The  muscular  system  is  more  fully  developed  amongst  the  AriicuUUa 
than  in  eitiier  the  Radiate  or  Molluscous  tribes  of  the  Invertebrate 
classes.  This  corresponds  to  their  greater  activity.  Perhaps  in  pro- 
portion to  their  size  there  are  no  animals  that  exhibit  so  great  au 
amount  of  muscular  power  as  the  Artieulatct.  Throughout  the 
ftninniLl  kingdom  we  find  that  the  muscular  force  corresponds  with  the 
amount  of  respiratory  action  and  the ,  devdopment  of  animal  heat, 
and  in  various  forms  of  articulate  animals  this  is  remarkably 
exemplified. 

The  point  in  which  there  exists  the  greatest  degree  of  accordance 
or  resemblance  among  Articulated  Animals  is  the  nervous  system. 
Thdr  brain  is  extremely  small,  and  two  nervous  cords,  surrounding 
the  oesophagus  or  gullet,  and  continued  along  the  abdomen,  unite 
here  and  there  into  knots,  or  ganglia :  in  some  Ontstcteea  it  is  still 
more  simple,  consisting  merely  of  two  knots,  one  placed  at  the  head,' 
the  other  in  the  thorax,  united  by  dender  threads.  The  organs  of 
sense  are  very  imperfectiy  devdoped,  and  in  some  cases  are  dtogether 
wanting,  except  the  organ  of  signt  No  organ  of  smell  has  yet  been 
discovered,  unless  the  antennse  of  insects  be  considered  sudi.  The 
eye  presents  condderable  diverdty  of  structure,  being  sometimes  one 
and  single,  or  three  united  in  a  triangle ;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases. 


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ARTICULATION. 


ARTOCARPACKfi. 


311 


it  is  eompoeed  of  a  oonsidenble  number  of  little  plates,  or  ftoettes 
(as  in  the  fly),  each  of  which  receives  a  branch  from  the  optic  nerve. 
Such  eyes  are  <»lled  Compound  Eyes,  whilst  the  Single  Eyes,  which 
exist  sometimee  in  conjunction  with  the  compound  eyes  in  the  same 
individual,  are  called  Oedli.  The  eye  as  an  organ  of  sense  is  first 
distinctly  devdoped  in  the  Articulate  Animals,  as  many  of  the  organs 
which  have  been  indicated  as  eyes  in  the  Radiate  Animals  have 
probably  no  relation  to  the  function  of  vision.  Some  anatomists  have 
describeid  organs  of  hearing  in  the  insects,  whilst  others  regard  the 
antennsB  as  destined  for  the  performance  of  this  function. 

The  digestive  apparatus  of  the  Artictdata  is  for  the  most  part  in 
accordance  with  their  carnivorous  habits.  Where  animal  flesh  is  eaten 
there  digestion  is  a  less  complicated  process  than  where  vegetable  food 
is  principally  pajrtaken  oil  The  mouth  is  generally  provided  with 
masticatory  organs,  which  move  laterally  and  are  provided  with  palpi. 
Hard  parte  su^rvient  also  to  the  function  of  preparing  the  fo<>i  for 
digestion,  are  also  found  in  the  intestinal  cavity.  The  mucous 
membrane  which  covers  &e  alimentary  passages  is  of  the  simplest 
kind,  whilst  those  glands  which  contribute  to  the  digestive  functions 
in  the  higher  animals,  as  the  salivary  and  pancreatic  glands  and 
the  liver,  are  either  not  present  or  exist  only  in  the  most 
elemental^  form. 

The  elongated  form  of  the  Artieulaia  impresses  this  character  on 
their  droulating  as  well  as  digestive  apparatus.  In  most  of  the 
surticulate  tribes  the  blood  moves  forwards  in  one  or  more  large, 
dorsal,  pulsating,  arterial  vessels.  Side  branches  from  these  arteries  are 
l^ven  of^  and  terminate  in  various  trunks  which  convey  the  blood 
backwards  to  the  dorsal  vessel  The  blood  is  more  highly  organised, 
has  a  deeper  colour,  containing  a  larger  quantity  of  corpuscles  and  fibrin 
than  in  either  the  Radiate  orMolluscous  classes. 

The  respiration  is  'effected  either  by  branchisB,  as  in  those  which 
habitually  live  in  water,  such  as  the  Oruitaceot,  or  by  trache»,  or 
air-tubes  formed  of  three  parts,  one  membrane  internal  and  one 
membrane  external,  both  of  which  are  cellular;  and  a  sort  of 
cartilaginous  elastic  tube,  rolled  spirally,  and  placed  between  the  two 
membranes.  These  tracheo  receive  air  by  certain  lateral  openings 
termed  Stigmata.  More  rarely  there  exist  cellular  cavities  analogous 
to  lungs.  In  all  instances  the  respiratory  oigans  are  perfectly 
aymmetricaL 

The  following  are  the  fSeonilies  of  animals  which  are  referred  to  the 
Articulate  Type  : — 

•  1.  EnJUnoaf  including  various  forms  of  animals  that  inhabit  the 
organs  of  higher  anim^    [Entozoa.] 

2.  Rotifera,  or  Wheel  Animalcules,  minute  creatures  scarcely  visible 
to  die  naked  eye,  veiy  abundant  in  all  waters,  and  formerly  classed 
with  the  Infusoria.    [Rotifeba.] 

8.  Aimdida,  or  Annulose  Animals,  including  the  Leeches,  Worms, 
tmd  Sea-Mice,  mostly  inhabiting  water.    [Akitblida.'] 

4.  Myriapoda,  of  which  the  Galley-Worm  (lulut)  and  the  Centipede 
may  be  taken  as  types,  and  which  occupy  an  intermediate  position 
between  the  highest  and  lowest  forms  of  the  class.  [Mtbiapoda.] 

5.  Inseeta,  in  which  the  locomotive  power  of  the  class  is  most  fiilly 
developed,  neariy  all  possessing  wings  for  flight.    [Insscta.] 

6.  drust<ieea,  the  insects  of  the  ocean,  which  breathe  by  gills  instead 
of  tradie®,  and  include  the  well-known  forms  of  Lobstm^  Crabs,  and 
Shrimps.    [Cbustacba.] 

7.  Oirrktpedia,  the  Barnacles  and  Sea-Acorns.  They  were  formerly 
referred  to  the  MoUusca,  but  their  structure,  habits,  and  economy 
pbuM  them  amourist  the  Articulata.    [Cibbhipedia.] 

8.  J  rocAmuia,  including  Spiders,  Scorpions,  and  Mites.  They  are 
distiugmshed  from  insects  by  possessing  eight  logs.  Their  instincts 
and  intelligence  place  them  at  the  head  of  this  class  as  well  as  then* 
structure.    [Abaohnida.] 

(Grant,  Outlineg  of  Com/parcUive  Anatomy;  Owen,  Lectwm  on 
(hmparativt  Anatomy;  Jones,  Animal  Kingdom;  Cydopasdia  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology ;  Carpenter,  PrineipUt  of  Phyridogy.) 

ARTICULATION,  the  term  bv  which  anatoimsts  express  the  union 
of  the  different  bones  of  Uie  ueleton.  The  jimction  of  any  two 
bones,  however  firmly  or  loosely  connected,  or  in  whatever  mode  the 
union  may  be  effected,  Ib  designated  by  the  name  of  Articulation. 
Commonly  two  substances  are  employed  as  the  media  by  wliich  the 
connection  is  established,  namely  a  firm  and  strong  membranous 
tissue  termed  ligament  [LioamentJ,  which  may  be  considered  as  the 
band  by  which  the  bones  are  tied  together,  and  a  peculiar  substance 
termed  cartilage  or  gristle  [Cabtilaob],  which  is  often  interposed 
between  the  sur&oes  of  hhe  bones  to  be  united,  and  which  besides 
^serving  as  the  bond  of  union,  accomplishes  other  purposes. 

Of  fdl  the  parts  of  the  animal  fabric,  there  is  none  in  which 
mechamsm  is  more  clearly  or  beautifully  shown  than  in  the  connections 
of  the  bones  with  each  other,  and  more  especially  in  the  structure  of 
joints. 

The  objects  to  be  obtained  in  the  economy  by  the  union  of  the 
several  bones  of  the  body  are  various  and  even  opposite,  requiring 
almost  every  conceivable  variety  in  the  mode  of  tneir  connection. 
And  such  variety  actually  exists ;  but  still  these  varieties  admit  of 
daasification,  and  they  may  all  be  arranged  under  three  heads, 
namely,  those  which  foAa  Immoveable,  Moveable,  and  Mixed 
▲rtloidations. 


1.  One  object  to  be  accomplished  by  the  union  of  bones  ii,  to  form 
a  secure  situation  for  tender  and  delicate  structures.  AoconUnglytiie 
bones  are  often  so  disposed  as  to  inclose  cavities  in  which  the  orguu 
that  need  protection  are  placed ;  such,  for  example,  is  the  cavity  of 
the  head  which  inclosea  the  delicate  substance  of  the  bnin ;  the 
cavity  of  the  spinal  column,  which  incloses  the  no  less  delicate 
substohce  called  the  spinal  marro ^ ;  and  the  cavities  of  the  chest  and 
abdomen,  which  indoae  soft  and  tender  oxgans,  on  the  secority  of 
which  life  depends.  Bones  forming  cavities  of  tlds  dass  are  genenlly 
so  firmly  umted  that  they  admit  either  of  no  motion  whatcTer,  or 
only  of  a  very  slight  degree  of  it>  the  union  being  effected  sometimeB 
by  the  apposition  of  the  surfiu>es  of  strong  and  fiat  bones ;  at  other 
tunes  by  the  formation  of  numerous  prominences  and  depresaiona 
which  mutually  receive  each  other :  examples  of  both  these  modes  of 
union  are  found  in  the  articulation  of  the  bones  of  the  head  and 
fiaoe.  The  finnness  of  the  union  is  sometimes  increased  by  alteniate 
indentations  and  projections,  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw,  formed  on  the 
surfiboes  of  bones,  the  surface  of  the  one  bone  being  precisely 
adapted  to  that  of  the  other;  by  this  mechanism  the  bones  become 
finnly  impacted,  and  deficiency  in  extent  of  contact  is  compensated 
by  what  may  be  truly  called  (and  it  is  an  admirable  example)  dove- 
tailing. Suture  is  the  term  given  to  this  mode  of  union,  and  the  bones 
of  the  cranium  are  nicely  adjusted  and  firmly  united  to  each  other  in 
this  manner.  At  other  times  a  ridge  is  formed  in  one  bone  which  is 
received  into  a  groove  fissured  in  another.  The  bony  part  of  the 
septum  which  divides  the  nostrils  affords  a  specimen  of  this  mode  of 
union,  while  the  teeth  are  secured  in  their  sockete  (that  is,  a  conical 
surface  is  firmly  impacted  in  a  cavity)  very  much  as  a  nail  is  fixed  in 
aboard. 

2.  The  Moveable  Articulations  are  those  in  which  the  bones  are  in 
contact,  but  not  continuous  with  each  other ;  such,  for  example,  is 
the  union  of  the  arm  with  the  shoulder,  the  fore  arm  with  the  arm, 
the  wrist  with  the  hand,  the  lower  jaw  with  the  head,  the  head  with 
the  trunk,  and  so  on.  In  these  cases  the  articulating  surfaces  are 
mutually  adapted  to  each  other,  in  general  one  being  convex  and  the 
other  concave,  and  the  bones  are  maintained  in  their  situation  by  the 
firm  and  strong  membranes  termed  ligaments.  Sometimes  the  union 
is  assisted  by  the  muscles  which  surround  tiie  joint,  as  is  strikingly 
exemplified  in  the  shoulderjoint,  in  which  the  head  of  the  humerus 
is  kept  in  contact  with  the  cavity  which  receives  it,  partly  without 
doubt  by  ligamentous  substance,  but  partly  also  hr  the  surrounding 
musdes.  This  is  proved  by  the  effect  of  disease;  for  if  by  paraljais, 
or  any  other  cause,  the  neighbouring  muscles  become  very  much 
weakened,  dislocation  of  the  joint  readily  takes  place.  Both  the 
strength  of  the  joint  and  the  range  of  its  motion  depend  mainly  on 
the  extent  of  its  articulating  surface,  and  on  the  arrangement  of  the 
ligamentous  substance  by  which  the  bones  are  held  in  their  situations. 
The  extent  of  contact,  and  the  strength  and  adjustment  of  the  uniting 
band,  are  different  in  every  different  joint,  the  diversity  being  regulated 
in  every  case  by  the  kind  and  degree  of  motion  which  it  is  intended  Ih&t 
the  joint  should  exercise. 

8.  The  Mixed  form  of  Articulation  resembles  the  Immoveable,  in 
having  the  bones  connected  by  an  intermediate  substance  (cartilage), 
and  the  Moveable  in  admitting  some  degree  of  motion  between  the 
surfecea  The  articulations  between  the  several  bones  that  foim  the 
spinal  column  afford  examples  of  this  mode  of  union.  There  are 
numerous  modifications  of  tnese  several  kinds  of  articulation,  which 
are  described  with  great  minutenessdn  anatomical  books,  and  most  of 
which  are  distinguished  by  specific  names. 

ARTI'SIA  (Presl),  a  Fossil  FUnt  from  the  Coal  Formation.  At 
present  the  opinion  prevails  that  this  is  an  internal  portion  of  another 
plant,  and  not  a  palm-stem  as  once  coinectured. 

ARTOCARFA'OE^,  Artoearpadt,  the  Bread-Fruit  Tribe,  a  natural 
order  of  plants  nearly  related  to  UrticaeecB  (the  Nettle  Tribe),  from 
which  it  is  BO  difficult  to  separate  them  by  any  predse  character  that 
there  are  many  who  consider  them  nothing  more  than  a  section  of 
Urticacece. 

Whether  a  distinct  order  or  a  section  only  of  Urtieaeea,  the 
Arioearpaceoe  are  known  by  having  flowers  with  a  very  imperfectly 
formed  calyx,  no  corolla,  leaves  with  conspicuous  stipules,  a  rough 
foliage,  and  an  acrid  milky  juice,  which  oft^  contains  Caoutchouc,  or 
India  Rubber,  in  abundance;  the  flowers  are  collected  into  round 
heads,  and  the  ovules  are  suspended  singly  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
solitary  cavity  of  the  ovarium.  They  are  distingiushed  firom  the 
Urtieacea!  by  me  position  of  their  ovules,  the  manner  in  which  their 
flowers  are  arranged,  and  by  their  yielding  a  milky  juice ;  the  juice  of 
Urtieacea  being  watery. 

The  roecies  are  all  found  in  the  wanner  parts  of  the  worlc^  and 
many  of  them  are  natives  of  the  tropics  only.  Their  nulk,  which  is 
always  acrid,  readers  some  of  them  intensely  poisonous,  as  the  Upas 
Tree  of  Java  [Antiabis],  and  certain  Indian  species  of  Fig  [Fxcrs] ; 
nevertheless,  if  the  milk  is  naturally  absent  from  any  particular  part 
of  an  Artocarpad  that  part  becomes  eatable  and  even  wholesome. 
Thus  the  fruit  of  the  cultivated  fig,  up  to  a  short  period  before  its 
maturity,  remains  milky,  and  at  that  time  it  would  prove  exceedingly 
unwholesome;  but  when  ripe  the  milk  disappears,  is  replaced  by  sugar, 
and  the  fhiit  becomes,  as  we  all  know,  extremely  wndesoma  The 
same  explanation  is  probably  applicable  to  the  case  of  the  Brend- 


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ARTOCARPUS. 


ASARUM. 


S18 


Fruit)  which  forms  an  article  of  food  with  the  South  Sea  IslaiiderB. 

[ABTOGARrUS.] 

A  spedes  of  it  n<iartf  produces  sacbs,  hence  it  is  called  Sack-Tree.  The 
following  is  the  process  by  which  these  sacks  are  obtained.  **  A  branch 
is  cat  oorreeponding  to  the  length  and  diameter  of  the  sack  wanted. 
It  is  soaked  a  little,  and  then  b^ten  with  dubs  till  the  fibre  separates 
from  the  wood.  This  done,  the  sack  formed  of  the  bark  is  turned 
inside  out,  and  puHed  down  till  the  wood  is  sawed,  with  the  exception 
of  a  small  piece  left  to  form  the  bottom  of  the  sacL"  These  sacks 
are  in  general  use  in  the  West  Indies,  and  specimens  may  be  seen  in 
the  Museum  of  the  Gardens  at  Kew.  The  Water- Vine  {Phytocrene) 
belongs  to  this  order,  Uie  sap  and  porous  wood  of  which  when  cut 
cliachaffges  a  quantity  of  pure  water,  which  is  drunk  by  the  natives  of 
the  province  of  Martaban,  where  it  grows.  The  seeds  of  many  of  the 
epeoM  are  eaten  in  the  countries  where  they  grow. 

To  those  unacquainted  with  botany  it  may  appear  strange  that  the 
Nettle  and  the  Fig  are  both  arranged  in  the  same  order.  If,  however, 
we  investigate  Uie  matter  carefully,  we  shall  find  that  in  the  structure 
of  the  stem,  leaves,  stipules,  calyx,  stcunens,  and  fruit,  these  two 
plants  are  so  like  each  other  that  it  is  impossible  to  discover  more 
than  one  solitary  essential  character,  namely  that  of  the  position  of 
the  young  seeds,  by  which  they  can  be  distmguished ;  and  that  the 
differences  which  meet  the  unpractised  eye  are  entirely  connected 
with  the  sijBe  and  manner  in  which  the  flowers  are  arranged 

ARTOCARPUS,  the  Bread-Fruit,  is  the  genus  which  has  given  its 
name  to  the  natural  order  Artocarpacece,  It  consists  of  trees  having 
stems  of  very  condderable  size ;  large  leaves,  which  are  exceedingly 
rough  with  little  points ;  stipules  like  those  of  the  fig ;  and  monoo- 
cious  flowers,  of  which  the  stamen-bearing  ones  are  disposed  in  long 
duVshaped  spikes  (Jig.  A  8),  and  the  pistil-bearing  ones  in  round 
heads  (Jg,  A  2),  which  become  the  fruii^  and  often  arrive  at  a  very 
condderable  size  (Jig.  A  4). 

A  Bread-Fruit  is  a  fig  (Ficus)  turned  inside  out,  and  mudi  larger  in 
all  its  parts ;  that  is  to  say,  the  flowers  which  form  the  Bread-Fruit 
and  Fig  grow  in  both  cases  upon  a  fleshy  receptacle ;  but  in  the  former 
the  receptacle  is  solid,  and  bears  its  flowers  externally,  while  in  the 
latter  it  is  hollow,  and  bears  its  flowers  internally. 

The  stamen-bearing  flowers  of  Artocarpus  (Jigt.  B,  C)  consist  of  a 
tubular  calyx  containing  a  single  stamen ;  the  pistil-bearing  flowers 


Bread-Fruit  {Artoearpu*  incisa), 
A,  a  shoot  very  rnneb  less  than  the  nataral  size  with  stamen-bearing  flowers 
S ;  pistiUbearing  flowers  3 ;  fruit  4  ;  and  iU  stipdes  1:  B,  a  stamen-bearing 
flower ;  C,  the  Mune  opened ;  D,  three  pistil-bearing  flowers,  slioed  open  at  the 
bottom  to  show  the  ovaries ;  E,  a  portion  of  the  fruit  showing  the  nuU  in  the 
inside. 

(Jig.  D)  consfst  of  two  or  three  fleshy  sepals  grown  closely  together 
and  meeting  at  the  points,  between  which  passes  a  long  slender  sj^le 
^th  two  stimas,  which  are  hairy  and  cxirved  downwards.  The 
•rary  in  Mnipl<»,  and  contains  but  one  ovul*.     At  a  very  early  period 


the  flowen  grow  firmly  together  into  a  solid  fleshy  mass,  whidi  finally 
becomes  the  fruit  The  seeds  are  huge  nut-like  bodies,  which  lie 
beneath  the  rind  of  the  fruits 

Many  spedes  are  known,  some  of  which,  as  Artocarpus  ChapUuhoL 
and  hirmUa,  are  large  trees,  and  yield  valuable  timber  in  the  forests 
of  Bengal  and  Malabar.  The  spedes,  however,  best  known  are  those 
which  yield  the  Bread-Fruit  and  the  Jack. 

A.  tncifa(the  Bread-Fruit)  Ib  a  native  of  the  South  Sea  Islands 
and  of  many  parts  of  tiie  Indian  Archipelago;  it  inhabits  only 
such  places  as  are  both  hot  and  damp.  Dr.  Roxbuigh  complains  that 
the  wmters  of  Bengal  are  much  too  cold  for  it.  In  the  South  Sea 
Idands  it  forms  a  moderate^ized  tree,  rarely  exceeding  40  feet  in 
height,  with  leaves  deeply  divided  into  sharp  lobes,  and  sometimes  as 
much  as  8  feet  long.  The  fruit  is  green  and  of  condderable  size, 
equalling  a  melon  of  the  laiger  kind  in  dimensions,  and  is  of  many 
different  forms  :  one  variety  produces  it  free  from  all  spines  on  the 
surface  or  from  seeds  internally ;  this  is  the  best  sort :  others  ai^ 
split  into  deep  lobes,  or  covered  all  over  with  the  sharp-pointed  flf«hy 
tops  of  the  calyxes.  The  nuts,  when  roasted,  are  said  to  be  as  excel- 
lent as  the  best  chestnuts ;  but  it  is  prindpally  for  the  fleshy  receptacle 
that  it  is  valued.  When  roasted  it  becomes  soft,  tender,  and  white, 
resembling  the  crumb  of  a  loaf ;  but  it  must  be  eaten  new,  or  it 
becomes  hard  and  choky.  Others  compare  the  flavour  to  that  of  a 
roasted  potata  What  we  have  tasted  has  been  in  thin  slices  which 
had  been  thoroughly  dried,  and  it  was  very  like  a  piece  of  dried 
biscuit.  In  '  Avon's  Voyages '  it  is  said  to  be  ddidous  when  ripe, 
and  when  mixed  with  lime-juice  or  orange-juice  to  have  a  grateful 
tart  flavour,  not  unlike  apple-sauce. 

It  forms  so  important  a  part  of  the  support  of  the  South-Sea 
Idanders  that  it  was  introduced  by  the  British  Government  into  the 
West  Indies,  where  it  is  still  cultivated,  and  whence  it  has  been  carried 
to  the  continent  of  America.  It  was  to  obtain  this  plant  that  the 
unfortunate  expedition  of  Captain  Bligh  was  fitted  out.  It  does  not 
appear,  however,  equal  to  the  plantain  as  an  article  of  human  food. 

A.  wtegrifolia,  the  Jack,  is  also  a  native  of  the  islands  of 
the  Indian  Ardiipdagoi  and  is  in  its  general  appearance  like  the 
Bread-IVuit,  but  its  leaves  are  totally  destitute  of  all  laceration,  and 
its  fruit,  which  is  very  prickly,  weighs  60  or  70  lbs.  This  latter  is 
yellow,  and  constitutes  the  prindpel  part  of  the  diet  of  the  natives  in 
some  parts  of  India ;  but  it  is  said  to  have  an  offendve  odour,  and  to 
be  little  esteemed  by  Europeans :  all,  however,  concur  in  attesting 
the  excellence  of  the  nuts  when  roasted 

Like  all  other  Artocarpads  this  tree  exudes  a  great  quantity  of  a 
viscid  milky  juice,  from  which  the  best  bird-lime  of  India  is  prepared. 

(Botanical  Magazine,  vol.  il) 

ARUM.      [ABOIDEiB.] 

ARUNDO,  a  genus  of  Grasses,  possessing  the  following  characters : — 
Spikelets,  each  containing  from  two  to  five  flowerets,  which  are  distant 
from  each  other,  arranged  in  two  ranks,  hermaphrodite,  the  uppermost 
being  withered ;  glumes  two,  sharp-pointed,  channeled,  and  keeled, 
nearly  equal,  membranous,  as  long  as  the  flowerets,  and  at  some 
distance  from  each  other ;  palesB  two,  membranous ;  the  lowermost 
Hlit  at  the  end,  with  a  very  short  beard  between  the  sides  of  the  slit, 
covered  externally,  especially  at  the  lower  end  and  rachis,  with  very 
long  silky  hairs.  The  spedes  attain  a  condderable  size,  sometimes 
acquiring  a  woody  stem,  and  are  found  in  many  climates. 

Anmao  Donax,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  the  Caucasus, 
Egypt,  and  Siberia,  is  one  of  the  laigest  grasses  that  we  have  in  culti- 
vation ;  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  it  in  rich  soil  9  or  10  feet  high, 
^Yith  leaves  as  broad  and  as  long  as  the  blade  of  a  small  sword.  A 
beautifully  variegated  variety  is  usually  seen  in  gardens. 

Arundo  arenaria,  the  Sea-Reed,  or  Marrum-Grass,  a  dwarf  plant 
which  pierces  the  sand-banks  on  the  shores  of  the  north  of  Europe 
with  its  tough  subterranean  stems,  and  which  thus  converts  them  into 
living  barriers  against  the  inroads  of  the  ocean,  differs  a  little  from 
the  exact  character  of  Arundo,  and  is  called  by  modem  botanists 
Ammophila  anmdinacea.  It  is  a  very  rigid  plant,  with  bluish  rolled- 
up  leaves,  and  a  stem  2  or  8  feet  high,  terminated  by  a  dense  tuft 
of  flowers. 

The  Common  Reed  was  formerly  referred  to  the  genus  Arundo  :  it 
is  now  placed  under  Phragmitet.    [Phbaoiotes.] 

A'SAFHUS  (Brongniart),  a  very  extendve  genus  of  Fossil  Onulacea 
(TriLobUet),  most  abundant  in  the  lower  Pda30zoic  Strata.  Ataphut 
Buchii  marks  the  Cambrian  or  Lower  Silurian,  as  A.  caudatfu  is  fre- 
quent in  the  Upper  Siliuian  Beds. 

ASA'RUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Aris- 
tolochiaeetg,  distinguished  by  having  the  cdyx  bdl-shaped  and  8- 
lobed ;  the  stamens  placed  upon  the  ovarium,  the  anthers  adnate  to 
the  middle  of  the  fiuonents,  the  style  shorty  stigma  stellate,  and  6- 
lobed ;  the  fruit  capsular  and  6-celled  The  A.  Europcewn  is  known 
by  having  two  obtuse  kidney-shaped  leaves  on  each  stem.  It  is  a 
perennial  plant,  found  in  woods  m  different  parts  of  Britain.  ^  The 
root,  which  is  employed  under  the  name  of  Asarabacca,^  contains  a 
camphor-like  prindple,  and  a  bitter  prindple  called  Asarin,  which  is 
combined  with  galUc  add.  To  these  it  is  mdebted  for  its  action  on 
the  human  system.  Taken  into  the  stomach  in  a  state  of  very  fine 
powder,  it  causes  vomiting;  in  coarser  powder,  it  generally  purges. 
It  was  formerly  employed  as  an  emetic  instead  of  ipecacuanha ;  but, 


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A8BESTUS. 


ASCLEPIAS. 


from  the  violenoe  of  its  effects,  it  is  now  properly  laid  aside  in  medical 
practice :  it  is  still  however  used  in  veterinary  medicine,  to  vomit  and 
purge.  The  fine  powder  applied  to  the  nostrils  causes  sneezing,  and 
a  flow  of  mucus  from  the  membrane  which  lines  those  parts.  It  is 
therefore  extensively  employed  as  an  errhine,  and -is  the  basis  or  chief 
ingredient  of  many  cephalic  snu£f».  It  is  used  in  chronic  inflamma- 
tions and  some  other  diseases  of  the  eye,  and  in  headaches.  Where 
these  last  arise  from  disorders  of  the  digestive  function,  such  means 
can  be  of  no  avail :  where  they  are  connected  with  congestion  or 
fullness  of  the  vessels  of  the  head,  the  increased  dischai^ge  from  the 
Schneiderian  membrane  may  give  temporary  relief  in  the  same  way 
as  a  few  drops  of  blood  flowing  spontaneously  from  the  nose,  or 
obtained  by  puncturing  the  membrane.  When  taken  into  the  stomach 
in  considerable  quantity,  it  acts  as  a  poison. 

ASBESTUS  must  be  considered,  in  Mineralogy,  rather  as  a  term 
implying  a  peculiar  form  sometimes  assumed  by  several  minerals,  than 
as  a  name  denoting  a  particular  species  ;  it  is  in  fact  applied  to  varie- 
ties of  the  Amphibolic  Minerals,  such  as  Actinolite,  Tremoliief  &c., 
which  occur  in  long  capillary  crystals,  placed  side  by  side  in  parallel 
position,  and  thus  giving  rise  to  a  fibrous  mass.  As  might  be  expected, 
the  above  conditions  are  fulfilled  in  various  degrees,  and  there  are 
accordingly  various  kinds  of  Asbestus.  Those  varieties,  the  fibres  of 
which  are  very  delicate  and  regularly  arranged,  are  called  AmxanUivs,  a 
Greek  term  signifying  unpolluted,  unstained.  The  individual  crystals 
are  here  readily  separated  from  each  other,  are  veiy  flexible  and 
elastic,  and  have  a  white  or  greenish  colour  with  a  fine  silky  lustre. 
Though  a  single  fibre  is  readily  fused  into  a  white  enamel,  in  mass  it 
is  capable  of  resisting  the  ordinary  flame,  so  that  when  woven  it  pro- 
duces a  fire-proof  doth,  and  hence  the  name  from  the  Greek  Hur^cros, 
in  the  sense  of  indestructible.  The  most  beautiful  specimens  have 
been  fotmd  in  the  Tarentaise  in  Savoy ;  but  Corsica  must  be  consi- 
dered as  its  principal  locality,  from  its  great  abundance.  It  is  also 
found  in  Cornwall,  at  St.  Keveme  ;  likewise  in  several  parts  of  Scot- 
land. It  occurs  also  in  the  United  States  of  America,  where  it  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  wick  for  an  oil-lamp. 

Those  varieties  in  which  the  crystals  are  coarser,  with  scarcely  any 
flexibility,  are  called  Common  Asbestus.  It  is  generally  of  a  dull 
green,  and  sometimes  a  pearly  lustre,  and  readily  fuses  before  the 
blow-pipe  flame.  It  occurs  more  frequently  than  amianthus,  and  is 
usually  foimd  in  veins  traversing  serpentine. 

There  are  three  other  varieties,  known  by  the  names  of  Mountain 
Leather,  Moimtain  Wood,  and  Mountain  Cork,  which  differ  from  the 
Common  Asbestus  by  the  fibres  interlacing  each  other.  The  two  first 
have  received  their  names  from  their  appearance ;  the  third  from  its 
extreme  lightness,  and  from  its  swimming  in  water.  They  have  been 
found  in  Scotland. 

ASCARIDES.    [EWTOZOA.] 

ASCI'DIA,  a  genus  of  Molluscous  Animals  belonging  to  Cuvier^s 
order  of  Acephcice  without  Shells.  Savigny  has  considered  these 
animals  sufficiently  important  to  constitute  a  class  under  the  name  of 
Atcedies  (Atcidia) ;  while  Lamarck  has  also  formed  them  with  others 
into  a  class  under  the  name  of  Twiiciert  {TuniccUa).    [Tunicata.] 

ASCLEPIADA'CEJS,  Atdepiads,  a  natural  oider  of  Exogenous 
Plants,  known  from  all  others  by  the  single  character  of  its  grains  of 
pollen  adhering  together  withm  a  sort  of  bag  which  occupies  the 
whole  of  the  inside  of  each  cell  of  the  anther ;  and  when  it  falls  out 
sticks  to  glands  of  a  peculiar  character  occupying  the  angles  of  the 
stigma.  Independently  of  this  drciunstance  the  anther  and  stigma 
adhere  firmly  together,  and  the  fruit  is  a  very  curious  body,  consisting 
of  two  carpels,  which,  when  young,  are  parallel  to  eadi  other,  and 
united  at  the  point;  but  when  ripe  are  both  on  the  same  plane,  point- 
ing in  different  directions,  and  shedding  a  large  quantity  of  seed,  the 
ends  of  which  terminate  in  long  down. 

The  most  important  and  typical  genus  of  this  order  is  Atclepicu. 
It  consists  of  shrubs  or  herbaceous  plants,  abounding  in  an  acrid  and 
usually  milky  juice,  and  found  in  their  greatest  abimdance  in  tropical 
countries,  but  rarely  in  cold  latitudes.  At  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
they  form  a  singular  stunted  deformed  vegetation,  in  the  form  of  tne 
leafless  succulent  stapelias,  the  flowers  of  which  are  among  the  most 
fetid  productions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  A  great  many  species 
of  Atclepuu  inhabit  North  America,  and  for  their  beauty  are  fre- 
quently cultivated  in  Europe,  especially  the  orange-coloured  Atclepias 
tvherosa.  Their  roots  are  acrid  and  stimulating,  and  usually  emetic. 
Their  flowers  have  curious  homed  processes  ^ded  to  the  corolla. 

[ASCLEFIAS.] 

The  roots  of  the  whole  order  appear  to  be  acrid  and  stimulating, 
and  some  of  them,  as  Tylophora  <utkmatica  and  Secamone  emetica  are 
employed  as  emetics.  The  Cow-Plant  of  Ceylon,  or  Kiriaghuna 
Plant  {Gymnema  lactiferum),  yields  a  milk  which  the  Cingalese  make 
use  of  as  food.  Species  of  Cynanchum  act  as  pux^gatives.  The  leaves 
of  Solenatemma  Argd  are  used  in  Egypt  for  adulterating  senna. 
Several  species  yield  caoutchouc,  whilst  others  afford  indigo. 

(Lindley,  Vegetable  Kingdom,) 

ASCLE'PLAS,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of  the  natural  order 
Ati^^piadacece.  Many  of  the  species  possess  powerful  medicinal 
qualities,  and  hence  the  name  of  the  genus  from  ^sculapius 
(Asclepias),  the  god  of  medicine.  The  genus  is  characterised  by 
possessing  a  reflexed  5-parted  corolla ;  a  6-leaved  corona  seated  on  the 


Atclepku  Ss/riaea, 
1,  A  flowering  Bboot;  2,  a  single  flower  magnified;  8,  the  same  ceen  from 
aboTe;  the  centre  is  oooupied  bj  a  broad  cashionJike  ttigma ;  4,  theaathen 
much  magnified,  a,  one  of  the  homed  processes  of  the  corolla ;  5,  the  same 
eat  vertioallj,  and  less  magnified,  o,  one  of  the  homed  processes ;  6,  poUen 
masses,  a,  the  gland ;  7,  one  half  of  a  ripe  fhiit ;  8,  a  transverse  Tiev  of  its 
inside  near  the  point,  showing  how  the  seeds  are  arranged;  9,  seed;  10, 
the  same  cut  across;  11,  the  same  cut  Tertically,  showing  the  embryo;  12, 
the  embryo  separate. 


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ASELLUS. 


ASPHALTUM. 


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upper  part  of  the  tube  of  the  filamenta ;  the  leaflets  oucullate,  having 
a  horn-formed  process  protruding  from  the  bottom;  the  anthers  termi- 
nated by  a  membrane ;  pollen  masses  compressed,  fixed  by  the  tapering 
tops,  pendulous;  the  stigma  depressed ;  the  follicles  smooth ;  the  seeds 
coarse.  Most  of  the  species  are  North  American  herbs,  with  opposite, 
alternate,  or  yerticOlate  leaves. 

A.  Syriaca,  Sjiiua.  SwaUow-Wort,  has  simple  stems  with  lanceolate 
oblong  or  oval  leaves,  gradually  acute,  and  tomentose  beneath;  drooping 
imibels.  Lamarck  states  that  the  native  coimtry  of  this  plant  is  Syria 
and  Egypt  The  nectaries  or  leaflets  of  the  corona,  like  some  other 
species  of  Aidepiat,  act  as  fly-traps.  The  sap  of  this  plant  is  white, 
and  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  caoutchouc.  It  has  been 
recommended  as  an  expectorant.  The  seeds  are  covered  with  down, 
which  it  was  at  one  time  proposed  to  spin  into  textures  for  wearing 


apparel ;  it  is,  however,  more  adapted  for  stufi&ng  mjetttresses  and 
pillows. 

A^  Ckurcutavica,  Bastard   Ipecacuanha,  has  a  simple  stem,  with 

J         oblong-lanoeolate  glabrous   leaves   tapering  at  both  ends;    umbels 

I         erect,  solitaxy,  lateral     It  is  a  native  of  Curagoa,  Essequibo,  Cumana, 

'         and  Trinidad.    Its  roots  are  frequently  sent  to  England  as  ipecacuanha. 

The  juice  in  the  West  Indies  is  reputed  to  be  anthelmintic  and  styptic. 

The  root  dried  and  powdered  acts  as  an  emetic,  but  not  so  efficaciously 

^        as  the  root  of  the  true  Ipecacuanha  (Chepaelia  Ipeeacwmha).  The  roots 

of  A.  prolifera  are  also  emetic. 

A.  tuberittBf  Tuberous  Swallow-Wort,  has  suberect  stems,  veiy  hairy, 
and  branched  at  top;  scattered  oblong-lanceolate  hairy  leaves;  umbels 
disposed  in  a  terminal  sub-corvmb.  It  is  a  native  of  North  America, 
in  stony  places  and  sandy  fields.  The  roots  are  fsuned  for  diaphoretic 
properties,  and  in  Virginia  it  is  used  for  thiis  purpose  in  inflammatory 
diseases,  more  particularly  in  pleuritis  and  dysentery.  The  A .  decumhens 
of  some  authors  is  probably  only  a  variety  of  this  species,  and  has  the 
same  properties. 

Many  other  species  of  this  genus  are  used  as  medicines  in  the 
countries  where  they  grow.  The  buds  of  A.  stipitacea  are  eaten  by 
the  shepherds  of  Arabia  after  the  manner  of  asparagus  in  this  country. 
The  whole  plant  of  A.  aphylla  may  be  eaten.  A.  gigcuUea,  an  East 
Indian  species,  is  very  poisonous.  It  kills  cattle  wluch  eat  it,  but  it 
is  used  in  EUndoo  medicine  in  typhus  fever.  The  milky  sap  of  A, 
lactifera  is  quite  innocuous,  and  is  drunk  in  India  as  a  wholesome 
food;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  milk  of  A.  hmifiwra  and  A, 
\  procera  is  acrid  and  irritating.  The  juice  of  A.  Icmi/lora  is  used  with 
butter  and  lard  as  an  ointment  for  itch,  and  that  of  A .  procera  is  applied 
f  to  hides  for  removing  the  hair  before  tanning.  The  A.  cuihmcUica  and 
A.  vincetoxicum  have  both  active  properties,  and  are  now  included  under 
the  genus  Oynanchym,    [Ctnanchum.] 

Many  of  the  species  of  AtcUpiaa  are  handsome  border-flowers,  and 
worthy  of  cultivation.  They  thrive  well  in  peat-earth,  or  a  light  rich 
mi  of  any  kind.  They  may  be  propagated  by  dividing  the  root  in 
the  spring,  or  by  sowing  the  seed.  Many  of  the  species  will  require 
protection  at  the  roots  during  severe  winters.  The  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical species  require  the  ordinary  treatment  of  other  stove  and 
greenhouse  plant& 

ASE'LLtrS,  a  genus  of  Malacopteiygious  Fishes,  to  which  WOlughby 
referred  the  Whiting-Pout,  and  Ling.  They  are  now  referred  respectively 
to  the  genera  Morrhua  and  Lota. 

ASH.    [Fraxinus.] 

ASP,  a  name  commonly  given  to  several  species  of  venomous  serpents. 
By  naturalists  the  term  is  confined  to  the  Vipera  aspi%,  which  is  an 
mhabitant  of  the  European  Alps.  The  asp  which  is  historically 
interesting  from  having  been  employed  by  Cleopatra  as  the  instrument 
of  her  own  destruction,  is  supposed  to  be  the  Cerastes  ffatsdquistii.  The 
Asp  {aavh)  is  often  mentioned  both  by  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  From 
various  circumstances,  however,  and  particularly  from  the  description 
of  Pliny  ('  Nat.  Hist.'  viiL  85.),  it  is  evident  tiiat  the  most  common 
and  celebrated  is  the  species  to  which  the  modem  Arabs  give  the 
name  of  El  Haje,  or  Haje  Nascher.  This  animal  measures  from  8  to 
5  feet  in  length :  it  is  of  a  dark  green  colour,  marked  obliquely  with 
bands  of  brown ;  the  scales  of  the  neck,  back,  and  upper  suiface  of  the 
tail  are  slightly  carinated,  and  tiie  tail  is  about  one-fourth  part  the 
length  of  the  whole  body.  The  Haje  is  closely  allied  to  the  Cobra 
Capello,  or  Spectacled  Snake  of  India,  the  chief  apparent  difierence 
being  its  want  of  the  singular  yellow  mark  on  the  back  of  the  neck, 
from  which  the  latter  species  derives  its  name.  In  other  respects 
these  two  serpents  are  nearly  of  the  same  size;  they  are  equally 
venomous,  and  both  have  the  power  of  swelling  out  the  neck  when 
irritated,  and  raising  themselves  upright  upon  their  tails  to  dart  by  a 
tmgle  bound  upon  their  enemies. 

The  poison  of  the  Asp  is  of  the  most  deadly  nature.  Pliny,  in  the 
passage  above  referred  to,  gives  the  following  account  of  this  celebrated 
serpent : — "The  neck  of  the  asp  is  capable  of  distension,  and  the  only 
remedy  against  its  bite  is  the  immediate  amputation  of  the  wounded 
part  This  animal,  otherwise  so  much  to  be  dreaded,  has  a  sentiment, 
or  rather  a  kind  of  afiection,  truly  wonderful  It  never  lives  alone,  the 
male  and  female  being  constantly  found  together,  and  if  one  happens 
to  be  killed,  the  other  seeks  with  the  utmost  fury  to  avenge  its  death. 
It  knows  and  selects  the  destroyer  from  among  crowds ;  it  follows  him 
to  great  distances,  surmounts  every  obstacle,  and  can  only  be  deprived 
»f  its  revenge  by  the  most  speedy  flight,  or  the  intervention  of  some 

>AT.  HIST.  DrV.  VOI.L 


rapid  river.  It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  nature  has  been  more  pro- 
digal of  evils  or  remedies.  For  instance,  she  has  bestowed  upon  this 
reptile,  so  terrible  from  the  deadly  e£fecte  of  its  poisoij^  so  indifferent 


a  vision,  its  eyes  being  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  head  so  as  to  prevent 
it  from  seeing  straight  before  it,  that  it  is  frequently  trodden  under 
foot  before  it  is  aware  of  its  danger."  Forskal,  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
who  has  written  on  the  iMaimala  of  Egypt,  informs  us  that  the  jugglers 
of  Grand  Cairo  have  the  art  of  taming  the  Haje,  as  those  of  Inma  do 
the  <x)bra  capello,  and  teaching  it  to  dance  for  the  amusement  of  the 
populace;  taking  care,  however,  to  deprive  it  of  its  poison  fangs^ 
though  even  then  they  avoid  its  bite  when  irritated.  The  habit  which 
this  serpent  has  of  erecting  itself  when  approached,  made  the  ancient 
Egyptians  imagine  that  it  guarded  the  places  which  it  inhabitied.  They 
made  it  the  emblem  of  the  divinity  whom  they  supposed  to  protect  the 
world;  and  accordingly  they  have  represented  it  on  their  temples 
sculptured  on  each  side  of  a  globe. 

ASPAHAGUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
IMiacem,  It  is  comprised  by  some  botanists  under  the  order  Aapho- 
ddetB.  The  species  eaten  under  the  name  of  Asparagus  is  the  A. 
officmalia.  [Aspabaqub,  in  Abts  aitd  So.  Drv.)  There  are  a  great 
number  of  species,  natives  of  Asia  and  Africa,  which  are  cultivated 
in  our  gardens  rather  as  matter  of  botanical  interest  than  on  account 
of  their  beauty  or  utility.  The  roots  of  A .  racemota  and  A,  adteaident 
are  employed  medicinally  in  the  North  of  India. 

ASPEN.    [PopuLUS.] 

ASPEROI'LLUM,  a  genus  of  Tubicoloua  MoUuica,  furnished  with 
a  bivalve  shell  incrusted  as  it  were  in  a  tubular  testaceous  sheath. 
This  tubular  sheath  gradually  lessens  in  diameter  to  the  aperture 
which  is  farthest  from  the  incorporated  bivalve.  The  end  nearest  to 
the  bivalve  is  dilated  into  a  concave  disk,  with  a  central  fissure,  and 
perforated  with  minute  but  raised  holes.  The  disk  is  bordered  by  a 
tubular  frilL  There  are  but  few  species,  and  of  these  AtperffiUwm 
Javanum,  known  to  collectors  as  the  Watering-Pot^  is  the  most 
common. 

ASPEHULA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
BubiaeecB  or  Oaliacece,  The  genus  is  known  by  its  funnel-shaped 
coroUa,  and  by  the  fruit  being  dry  and  not  crowned  with  the  Ihnb 
of  the  calyx. 

A.  odaratOf  the  Woodru£^  has  its  leaves  six  or  ei^t  in  a  wfaori,  with 
perfectly  white  flowers.  It  occurs  in  woods,  and  is  found  throughout 
Europe.  It  is  abundant  in  some  parts  of  England.  The  whole  plant 
is  remarkable  for  its  fragrance  when  dried. 

A.  Oynanchicha  has  its  leaves  four  in  a  whorl,  and  flowers  of  a  lilac 
colour.  It  is  found  on  dry  banks  and  hills  in  limestone  districts.  It 
is  common  in  Great  Britain,  where  it  is  called  Quinsy- Wort  on  account 
of  its  supposed  value  as  a  remedy  in  sore  throat.  It  is  slightly 
astringent  Two  other  species^  A,  arventii  and  A,  tanruMS  ^^^ 
doubtful  natives,  but  found  wild  now  in  England. 

(Babington's  Manual  of  BrUith  Botamy.) 

ASPHA'LTUM  (a  Greek  word,  (Ur^oXrof,  of  unknown  etymology), 
frequently  known  by  the  name  of  Slaggy  or  Compact  Mineral  Pitch, 
is  one  of  the  varieties  of  Bitumen  arising  from  the  decomposition  of 
vegetable  matter.  It  occurs  massive,  of  a  dark  brown  or  black  colour, 
with  a  conchoidal  fhusture  and  a  resinous  lustra  It  is  opaque,  and 
exceedingly  brittle  at  a  low  temperature,  but  softens  and  fuses  by  the 

•'  T 


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ASPHODELE^ 


ASProiUM. 


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application  of  heat ;  in  denaitj  it  varies  from  that  of  water  to  1*6.  It 
may  be  reoognised  by  the  following  charaoten :  -  It  is  insoluble  in 
aloohol,  but  soluble  in  about  five  times  its  weight  of  naphtha^  with 
which  it  foims  a  good  and  useful  varnish ;  its  combustion  is  rapid 
and  brilliant,  with  the  production  of  the  bitimiinous  odour. 

It  is  found  in  most  countries,  but  most  abundantly  on  the  shores 
or  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  at  Hit^  above  Babylon,  on 
the  Euphrates ;  near  the  Tigris :  in  Trinidad  in  the  West  Indies  it 
Ells  a  basin  of  three  nulee  in  circumference,  and  of  unknown  depth. 
There  Ib  a  pitdi-spring  in  Zante  which  is  known  to  have  been  at  work 
for  above  2000  years.  (Herod,  iv.  195).  It  is  also  found  in  limestone 
at  Bleibeig  in  Carinthia ;  in  beds  of  sandstone  in  Albania,  and  in  veins 
in  the  Harz  in  Germany;  in  Derbyshire,  Shropshire,  and  several 
other  places.  It  is  the  principal  colouring  matter  of  the  dark  indu- 
rated marl,  or  shale,  which  is  found  in  coal  districts. 

ASPHODE'LEiG,  or  the  Asphodel  Tribe,  are  Monocotyledonous 
Plants,  which,  although  they  form  a  very  natural  assemblage  alone, 
are  now  placed  by  Lindley  as  a  subdivision  of  the  order  IdliacecB, 
They  are  for  the  most  part  easily  recognised,  although  hi  certain 
species  and  genera  they  approach  other  orders  so  closely  as  to  be 
distinguished  only  with  great  difficulty.  They  all  have  regidar  flowers 
with  3  sepals,  and  3  petols  of  nearly  equal  size  and  colour,  6  (very 
seldom  8)  stamens,  and  a  superior  3-celled  ovary,  with  only  1  style. 
Their  fruit  is  either  dry  or  succulent,  and  their  seeds  have  a  brittle 
coat. 

Asphoddece  are  known  from  Juncerp,  or  the  Rush  Tribe,  by  their 
larger  and  more  coloured  flowers,  and  by  the  hardness  of  the  coat  of 
their  seeds ;  from  LiHacecBf  or  the  Lily  Tribe,  by  the  smallness  of  their 
flowers,  and  the  hard  coat  of  the  seeds ;  and  from  MdatUhaeece,  or 
the  Colchioum  Tribe,  by  their  single  style,  and  by  their  anthers  being 
turned  towards  the  ovaiy.  They  may  be  formed  into  two  subdiviBion& 

The  first,  or  the  AUiaceoua  subdivision,  in  which  there  is  no  true 
stem,  and  which  consists  entirely  of  bulbous  species,  the  roots  being 
emitted  and  perishing  annuaUy.  To  this  belong  the  Onion,  Qarlic,  and 
their  allies,  together  with  the  Hyacinth,  Squill,  and  Star  of  Bethlehem 
{OmUhogidum),    A  great  quantity  of  species  are  favourites  with  the 


Star  of  Bethlehem  {OmiiKogdlum  fimbriatum). 


1,  A  flower  seen  from  within;  3,  the  same  riewed  firom  without;  8,  the 
stamena  and  orary ;  4,  two  atamena  apart ;  5,  an  orary ;  6,  Uie  same  cut  per- 
pendicolarly ;  7,  the  same  cat  horizontally. 

horticulturists  on  account  of  their  early  appearance  in  the  spring  and 
their  easy  cultivation. 

The  second  subdivision,  consisting  of  the  true  Asphodels  [Aspho- 
DELUs]  and  those  which  resemble  them,  have  no  bulbs,  but  m  their 
stead  dusters  of  fleshy  roots  such  as  we  find  in  the  Asparagus,  which 
belongs  to  this  subdivuiion ;  the  stems  of  these  are  frequently  woody, 
but  in  that  case  tib.ey  are  branched :  Draccena,  or  the  Qum-Dragon 
Tree,  is  a  most  remarkable  instance  of  this,  it  having  almost  the 
appearance  of  a  Dicotyledon  when  deprived  of  foliage.  This  sub- 
division also  contains  Aloes,  with  their  thick  fleshy  leaves  and  forked 
items.    [Alok.] 

ASPHODELUS,  a  genus  of  plants  the  type  of  the  natural  order 
AiphodelecB.  It  oomprehends  some  handsome  nard^  perennial  plants, 
with  fleshy  finger-like  roots,  and  upright  undivided  annual  stems 
ooversd  with  long  leaves ;  they  are  among  the  most  highly  developed 
of  the  Monocotyledonous  pleats  of  nortixem  countries.  The  most 
remarkable  species  are  the  following : — 

A,  ItUeut,  the  common  Yellow  Asphodel,  Ib  a  beautiful  perennial, 


very  often  seen  in  cottage-gardens  or  on  the  outskirts  of  shrubberies. 
It  grows  wild  in  Barbai^,  Sicily,  Dalmatian  the  Peloponnesos,  and 
even  spreads  into  the  Crimea.  Its  stems  are  from  2  to  8  feet  hig^ 
never  branched,  and  covered  all  over  with  long  narrow  bluish-green 
leaves,  which  have  veiy  broad  sheathing  bases.  The  flowers  are 
handsome,  deep  yellow,  with  a  green  streak  on  the  outside  of  eadi 
petal    The  fruit  oonsists  of  red  pulpy  berries. 

Very  nearly  related  to  this  are  A,  capiUaria,  which  diflers  chiefly 
in  its  very  narrow  leaves,  shorter  bracts,  and  extremely  narrow 
divisions  of  the  flower;  and  A,  Sibirietu,  figured  in  the  '  Botanical 
Register,'  plate  1507,  which  is  principiJly  known  by  its  dwmrfer 
stature,  earlier  and  paler  flowers,  more  glaucous  leaves,  and  shorter 
bracts. 

A,  albuit  or  the  White  Asphodel,  found  all  over  the  southern 
provinces  of  Europe  and  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  is  aa 
frequently  seen  as  the  first,  and  in  similar  situations.  Its  flowers  are 
white  with  a  reddish  streak  on  the  outside  of  each  petal,  and  are 
disposed  in  branched  clusters.  A,  ramonu  of  many  gardens  s^eniB 
merely  a  branched  state  of  this  species,  and  several  other  r^nited 
species  with  white  flowers  are  also  in  all  probability  not  distinct 

ASPIDIAHIA  (Presl).  Several  species  of  the  Lepidodendru  of 
Sternberg  are  thus  named.    They  are  from  the  Coal  Formation. 

ASPI'DIUM,  a  genus  of  Ferns,  and  one  under  which  many  species 
were  arranged  by  older  botanists,  which  are  now  placed  under  new 
genera.  [Poltpodiacejs.]  One  of  the  most  remarkable  spedea  of 
this  genus  is  the  Atpidium  Baromez,  or  Tartarian  Lamb,  whic^  hari 
been  referred  by  Mr.  Smith  to  the  genus  Cibotium,  This  plant,  from 
its  peculiar  colour  and  form,  was  at  one  time  really  supposed  to  be  a 
kind  of  vegetable  animal,  as  the  following  account  from  Strays,  an 
old  traveller,  proves  : — "On  the  western  side  of  the  Volga,"  he  say?, 
"  there  is  an  devated  salt  plain  of  vast  extent,  but  wholly  uncultivated 
and  uninhabited.  On  this  plain,  which  furnishes  all  the  neighbouring 
countries  with  salt,  grows  the  Boranez  or  Bomitsch.  This  wonderful 
plant  has  Uie  shape  and  appearance  of  [a  lamb,  with  feet,  head,  and 
tail  distinctly  formed.  Boranez,  in  the  language  of  Musoovy,  signifies 
a  litUe  lamb,  and  a  similar  name  is  given  to  this  plant.  Its  atin  u 
covered  with  veiy  white  down  as  soft  as  silk.  The  Tartars  and 
Muscovites  esteem  it  highly,  and  preserve  it  with  great  cars  in  their 
houses,  whore  I  have  seen  many  such  lambs.  The  sailor  who  ^ve  me 
one  of  these  precious  plants  found  it  in  a  wood,  and  I  had  its  akin 
made  into  an  under-waistooat  I  learned  at  Astracan,  frx)m  those  who 
were  best  acquainted  with  the  subject,  that  the  lamb  grows  upon  a 
stalk  about  three  feet  high ;  that  we  part  by  which  it  is  sustained  is 
a  kind  of  navel,  and  that  it  turns  itself  round,  and  bends  do¥ni  to  the 
herbage  which  serves  for  its  food.  They  also  ftaid  it  dries  up  and 
pines  away  when  the  grass  fails."  Struys  adds  many  other  wonderfdl 
things  about  this  plant.  His  statement  is  however  substantially 
correct  The  rhizoma  of  the  A,  Baromez  presents  a  rude  resemblance 
to  an  animal  It  is  covered  with  a  silky  down,  and  when  cut  into  has 
a  soft  inside  with  a  reddish  flesh-coloured  appearance,  suflicient  to 
account  for  the  origin  of  the  fables  with  regard  to  its  animal  nature. 
Is  is  not  improbable  that  this  fern  dries  up  when  the  grass  does,  but 
of  course  the  one  has  no  dependence  on  the  other.  The  Baromez 
possesses  the  astringent  property  which  is  common  to  all  ferns; 
hence  it  has  been  used  as  a  sl^tia 

Aapidium  FUix-M<u  (now  Laatrcea  FUix-Maa),  the  Male  Fern,  is  a 
native  of  Great  Britain,  and  is  admitted  into  the  British  Pharmaco- 
poeias on  account  of  its  anthelmintic  properties.  It  has  bipinnate 
nx)nds,  obtuse  and  serrated  pinnules,  the  sori  near  the  central  nerve, 
the  lateral  nerves  forked.  It  is  abimdant  throughout  Europe,  and 
grows  in  stonv  places  on  the  skirts  of  woods,  in  open  plantations  and 
roadsides.  The  part  used  in  medicine  is  the  root,  or  rather  the  root- 
stock.  Tlus  part  of  the  plant  is  collected  for  medicinal  purposes 
between  the  end  of  May  and  the  middle  of  September.  It  will  not 
keep  wcJl,  and  should  be  renewed  at  least  every  two  years.  It  ha4 
often  been  chemically  analysed,  and  is  found  to  contain — 

Jjigniyi   .,..,..,      45 

Starch      ........  10 

Uncxystallisable  Sugar 10 

Gum 10 

Fixed  Oil 7 

Resm 4 

Salts,  Volatile  OU 14 

100 
The  ancients  used  this  plant  as  a  vermifuge,  but  it  was  neariy  given 
up  by  modem  practitionera  of  medicine  when  Peschier  pointed  out 
the  conditions  in  which  he  had  found  it  efficacious  in  expelling  tape- 
worm. The  best  mode  of  admimstering  it  Ib  as  an  ethenal  tincture ; 
the  ether  seems  to  dissolve  the  resinous  oil  on  which  the  active  pro- 
perties of  the  plant  depend.  The  dose  of  the  root  according  to 
Peschier  is  about  one  drachm. 

A,  dUcUcUum  {Ixattrcea  dilatala),  a  British  fern,  is  often  confounded 
with  the  last  for  medicinal  purposes.  It  has  sub-tripinnate  finonds ; 
oblong,  blunt,  indso-pinnatifid  lobes ;  spinose,  mucronate  segments ; 
a  deciduous  unfringed  indudum.  This  is  a  common  feni,  but  lees 
generally  diffused  than  the  last 
A,  FUix-Fcemwa  {Athyrium  FUix-Fcemna),  Lady-Fem,  has  a  lancco* 


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ASPIDOPHORUS. 


Asa 


8241 


late  piimata  frond ;  pinnffi  linear,  acute,  regularly  pinnate;  pinnules 
linear^blong,  quite  distinct,  deeply  serrate  or  pinnatifid;  segments 
with  2  or  8  teetii.  This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  ^British 
ferna  The  root  is  sometimes  gathered  for  that  of  the  Male  Fem.  It  has 
''  a  short  perpendicular  root-stock,  black  externally,  with  black  root- 
fibres;  and  the  tufts  or  bases  of  the  leaf-stalks,  which  compose  the 
greater  part  of  it,  form  a  very  acute  angle  with  its  axis,  whHe  those 
of  the  Male  Shield-Fern  extend  outwards  at  a  more  open  angle." 
(ChristiaQin.) 

(Burnett^  (hitUnei  of  Botany  ;  Babington,  Manual  of  British  Botany  ; 
Chriatison,  Ditpematory.) 

ASPIDOPHOHUS,  a  genus  of  Acanthopteiygious  Fishes.  One 
species,  the  A,  EuroptBut  is  foimd  on  the  coasts  of  England  and 
Scotland.  It  is  known  by  the  names  of  the  Armed  Bullhead,  the 
^ogge,  the  Lyrie,  Sea-Poacher,  Pluck,  and  Noble.  It  is  a  small  fish 
seldom  exceeding  6  inches  in  length.    (Yarrell,  British  Fishes.) 

ASPIDORHY^NCHUS,  a  genus  of  FossU  Ganoid  Fishes,  from  the 
Lias  and  Oolite  of  England.    (Agaswir..) 

ASPIDU'RA.  A  fossil  species  of  Ophiuroid  Echinoderms  is  thus 
named  by  Agaasiz.    From  the  Lias  of  Yorkshire. 

ASPLE'NIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of 
FenuL  [PoLTPODiACKS.]  It  has  elongated  straight  sori,  with  an 
indusium  opening  towards  the  central  nerve  or  midrib.  The  species 
of  this  genus  are  known  by  the  name  of  Spleenworts.  Several  of  them 
are  oonmion  in  Great  Britain. 

A.  lanceokUutn,  of  fiudson,  has  lanceolate  doubly  pinnate  fronds; 
the  pinnules  ovate  and  deeply  and  sharply  toothed,  or  lobed ;  the 
sori  short,  nearly  margins!  It  is  a  native  of  England  and  Wales,  on 
rocks  and  waUs,  but  its  distribution  is  very  local  It  is  also  a  native 
of  France,  but  its  European  habitats  are  few. 

A.  Adiantum^igrvm,  Black  Spleenwort^  has  triangular  attenuated 
fronds,  twice  or  thrice  pinnate,  the  pinnie  and  pinnules  triangular, 
sharply  toothed ;  sori  elongated,  central  This  plant  is  a  native  of 
Europe,  and  is  abundantly  distributed  throughout  the  United 
Kingdom,  where  it  occurs  on  rocks,  walls,  ruins,  and  hedge-rows. 
This  is  one  of  the  ferns  formerly  much  used  in  medicine,  and  is  stated 
by  Ray  to  be  efficacious  in  cough,  asthma,  pleuritis,  jaundice,  stone, 
gravel,  and  other  diseasea  It  has  not  however  any  reputation 
amongst  modem  practitioners  of  medicine. 

A.  But4Mnur€tria,  Wall-Rue,  has  b)pinnate  fronds,  the  pinntdes 
rhomboid  wedge-shaped,  notched  or  toothed  at  the  end ;  the  indusium 
lagged.  This  fern  is  very  common  on  rocks  and  old  walls  in  Great 
Britain  and  throughout  Europe,  and  is  also  a  native  of  North 
America  It  was  at  one  time  used  as  a  remedy  in  coughs  and 
astbmas,  obstructions  of  the  liver,  and  in  cutaneous  diseases ;  but  has 
now  £ftllen  into  disuse. 

A.  TrichomaneSf  Conmion  Spleenwort^  has  pinnate  linear  fronds ; 
roundish  ovate,  crenate,  stalked  pinnsa ;  the  nerves  forked  below  the 
sort  It  is  very  conmion  througbout  Great  Britain  on  rocks,  walls, 
churches,  ruins,  bridges,  and  hedg^erows.  It  is  a  native  also  of 
Europe,  AirictL,  and  the  United  States.  This  fern  has  been  also  used 
in  medicine,  and  for  the  same  diseases  as  the  previous  species,  but  it 
has  fallen  now  entirely  into  disuse. 

The  other  British  species  of  ArpUnifum  are  A,  aUtmifoHvm^  A, 
sepUntruyndU,  A,  mariwwn^  A.  vvride. 

These  and  other  fems  may  be  easily  cultivated  by  placing  them  in 
situations  resembling  their  natural  habitats.  They  require  a  pure 
atmosphere,  plenty  of  space,  and  natunJ  shade,  with  a  due  supply  of 
water.  They  may  be  planted  on  decayed  wood,  in  holes  of  rocks  and 
brick,  with  almoii  any  soil  One  of  uie  most  elmnt  modes  of  culti- 
vating them  is  by  means  of  inverted  jars,  under  which  they  will  thrive 
in  any  sandy  or  light  soil 

(Babington,  MamuU;  Newman,  History  of  British  Fems;  Ward, 
Growth  of  Plants  in  Glazed  Cases.) 

ASPREIX),  a  genus  of  Abdominal  Malacopterygious  Fishes,  charac- 
terised by  the  horizontal  flatness  of  the  heaa,  and  the  enlargement  of 
the  anterior  part  of  the  trunk,  arising  from  an  unusual  development 
of  the  bones  of  the  shoulder.  They  are  further  distinguished  firom 
the  Silwres  of  Limueus  (from  which  extensive  genus,  indeed,  they  were 
originally  separated  by  that  great  naturalist  himself)  by  the  propor- 
tional length  of  the  tail ;  by  having  the  eyes  placed  in  the  upper 
surface  of  the  head,  and  the  intermaxillary  bones  concealed  beneath 
the  ethmoid,  directed  backwards,  and  furxushed  with  teeth  only  along 
their  posterior  margin ;  and  finally,  they,  are  remarkable  as  b^ng  the 
only  known  fish,  not  being  cartilaginous,  which  have  not  moveable 
opercular  the  bones  of  which  these  oigans  are  composed  being 
soldered  on  either  side  to  the  l^nipanum  and  pi'e-operculum.  The 
opening  of  the  gills  is  consequentlj|r  mrmed  by  a  single  slit  in  the  skin 
immediately  behind  the  posterior  side  of  the  head;  and  their 
membrane  is  composed  of  nx  branchiostegous  rays.  The  lower  jaw  is 
transverse,  and  the  upper  projects  considerably  beyond  it,  and  forms 
a  small  attenuated  mukde.  There  is  but  a  single  dorsal  fin,  which 
is  of  small  extent,  and  situated  on  the  fore-part  of  the  body :  the  anal 
fin  on  the  contrary  is  very  large,  and  occupies  the  entire  length  of  the 
tail  This  genus  contains  but  very  few  species,  the  principal  of  which, 
the  Sikunbs  Asprtdo  of  linnnus,  inhabits  the  rivers  and  lakes  of 
North  America. 

ASSy  a  well-known  and  useful  domestic  animal,  whose  good  qualities 


are  too  frequently  undervalued,  from  being  contrasted  with  those  of 
the  horse,  without  considering  the  different  nature  of  the  treatment 
which  these  two  quadrupeds  receive — ^the  care  and  attention  bestowed 
upon  developing  the  form  and  cultivating  the  spirit  of  the  one,  and 
the  neglect  and  ill  ussge  to  which  the  other  is  so  generally  subjected. 
Buffon  has  well  observed  that  the  ass  is  despised  and  neglected  only 
because  we  possess  a  more  noble  and  powerful  animal  in  the  horse ; 
and  that  if  the  horse  were  unknown,  the  care  and  attention  which  is 
lavished  upon  him,  being  transferred  to  his  now  neglected  and 
despised  rival,  would  have  increased  the  size  and  developed  the  mental 
qualities  of  the  ass  to  an  extent  which  it  would  be  difficult  to 
anticipate,  but  which  eastern  travellers  who  have  observed  both 
animals  in  their  native  dimates,  and  among  nations  by  whom  they  ar<» 
equally  valued  and  the  good  qualities  of  each  justly  appreciated, 
assure  us  to  be  the  fact.  Indeed,  the  character  and  habits  of  these 
two  quadrupeds  are  directly  opposed  in  iJmost  every  respect.  The 
horse  is  proud,  fiery,  and  impetuous,  nice  in  his  tastes,  and  delicate  in 
constitution ;  like  a  pampered  menial  he  is  subject  to  many  diseases, 
and  acquires  artificisi  wants  and  habits  which  are  unknown  in  a  state 
of  nature.  The  ass  on  the  contrary  is  humble,  patient,  and  contented 
with  scanty  and  coarse  fare  which  other  cattle  reject ;  he  bears  with 

Satience  and  fortitude  the  most  cruel  and  oppressive  treatment ;  yet 
e  is  more  susceptible  of  strong  attachment  than  the  horse,  has 
apparently  more  prudence  and  reflection,  and  is  capable  of  a  degree  of 
education  which  would  not  be  anticipated  from  the  forlorn  and 
dejected  appearance  which  coarse  food  and  harsh  treatment  have 
rendered  habitual  to  him.  In  Persia,  Arabia,  and  other  eastern  coun- 
tries however  the  ass  is  a  very  different  animal  from  what  he  is  in 
Western  Europe.  There,  instead  of  being  neglected  and  despised, 
half-starved,  and  treated  with  cruelty,  care  is  taken  to  cultivate  the 
breed  by  crossing  the  finest  specimens ;  even  the  Wild  Ass  is  procured 
for  this  purpose,  the  pedig^«es  of  the  different  races  are  carefully 
recorded,  and  the  size,  strength,  and  symmetry  of  the  ass  so  much 
improved  that  he  is  rendered  equal  to  tiie  horse  for  most  purposes, 
and  in  some  cases  even  his  superior.  **  The  asses  of  Arabia,"  says 
Chardin,  "are  perhaps  the  handsomest  animals  in  the  worid ;  their 
coat  is  smooth  and  clean ;  they  carry  the  head  elevated,  and  have  fine 
and  well-formed  legs,  which  they  throw  out  gracefully  in  walking  or 
galloping.  They  are  used  only  for  the  saddle,  and  are  imported  in 
vast  numbers  into  Persia,  where  they  are  frequently  sold  for  400  livres; 
and  being  taught  a  kind  of  easy  ambling  pace,  are  richly  caparisoned, 
and  used  only  by  the  rich  and  luxurious  nobles." 

The  ass  is  properly  speaking  a  mountain  animal;  his  hoofs  are 
long;  and  furnished  with  extremely  sharp  rims,  leaving  a  hollow  in 


I'lmn^ 


WUd  Abs. 


the  centre,  by  which  means  he  is  enabled  to  tread  with  more  security 


on  the  slippery  and   precipitous   sides   of  hills  and  craggy  pla 
The  hoof  of  the  horse  on  the  contrary  is  round  and  nearly  flat 


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ASSAPANa 


ASTACUa 


328 


andemeath,  and  wo  acconllDgly  find  that  he  ia  moat  serviceable  in  level 
oountriei ;  and  indeed  experience  has  long  since  taught  ua  that  he  ia 
altogether  unfitted  for  croaaing  rooky  and  steep  mountaina.  Aa 
however  the  more  diminutive  size  of  the  aaa  rendered  him  compara- 
tively lesa  important  as  a  beast  of  burden,  the  ingenuity  of  mankind 
early  devised  a  means  of  remedying  this  defect^  by  crossing  the  horse 
and  ass,  and  thus  procuring  an  intermediate  animal,  uniti^  the  aiae 
and  strength,  of  the  one  with  the  patience,  intelligence,  and  sure- 
footedness  of  the  other. 

The  Wild  Ass,  called  Eoulan  by  the  Persians,  is  still  common  in 
many  parts  of  Central  Asia^  It  stands  much  higher  on  its  limbs,  than 
the  common  ass,  its  logs  are  longer  and  more  slender,  and  it  is 
altogether  a  more  graceful  and  symmetrical  animaL  The  mane  is 
oompoaed  of  short  erect  hair  of  a  dusky  ooloiv  and  rather  a  woolly 
texture;  the  colour  of  the  body  is  a  uniform  silvery  gray,  with  a 
broad  coifee-ooloured  stripe  extending  down  the  back  from  ^e  mane 
to  the  tail,  and  crossed  on  the  shoulder  by  a  transverse  band,  as  in  the 
domestic  variety.  The  Koulan  inhabits  the  parts  of  Central  Asia 
from  48*  N.  laJL  to  the  northern  confines  of  India.  They  migrate 
from  north  to  south  according  to  the  season.  In  summer  they  are 
commonly  found  about  Lake  Aral,  but  in  autumn  tiiey  collect  in 
vast  troojps  under  the  oonduct  of  a  regular  leader,  and  proceed 
towards  the  south,  arriving  at  Cuteh  and  Guxerat  in  October  or 
November,  and  retunung  northward  again  in  the  middle  of  spring. 
The  Penians  and  Tartan  hold  the  flesh  of  the  Koulan  in  high  esteem, 
and  hunt  it  in  preference  to  all  other  descriptions  of  game.  Olearius 
assures  us  that  he  saw  no  fewer  than  thirty-two  wild  asses  slain  in  one 
day  by  the  Shah  of  Persia  and  his  court>  the  bodies  of  which  were 
sent  to  the  royal  kitchens  at  Ispahan ;  and  we  know  fix>m  Martial  thai 
the  epicures  of  Rome  held  the  flesh  of  the  Onager,  or  Wild  Ass,  in  the 
same  estimation  aa  we  do  veniBon  ( '  Epig.'  xiii.  97 ). 

From  a  passage  in  Pliny  (lib.  viiL  c.  44)  it  would  appear  that  the 
Onager  inhabited  Africa^  and  that  the  most  delicate  and  best  flavoured 
lalisiones^  or  £ht  foals,  were  brought  from  that  continent  to  the  Boman 
markets.  Leo  Africanus  repeats  the  same  story  of  wild  asses  being 
found  in  Africa,  but  no  traveller  has  since  met  with  them,  and,  so  far 
aawe  at' present  know,  the  species  is  confined  to  Asia.  It  has  even 
retired  from  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  where  it  was  formerly  found. 


ASS AP ANS,  the  name  of  a  species  of  Flying  Squirrels. 

ASTACOLITES,  in  2^ology,  one  of  the  names  given  by  ancient 
geologists  to  the  fossil  remains  of  the  Long-Tailed  or  Lobster-like 
Crustaceans.  ' 

A'STACUS  (Leach,  Desmarest),  a  genus  of  Long-Tailed  Crustaoeous 
Animals,  including  the  common  Lobster.  It  was  formed  by  Gronovius 
from  the  genus  GoiMser  of  Linneus  and  of  ancient  authors,  which  also 
comprised  the  Short-TaUed  Crustaoeous  Decapods,  with  the  exception 
of  Bippa,  Fabridus  broke  it  down  into  the  genera  PagunUf  Oalathea, 
and  SeyUaruM;  leaving  Astacut  to  represent  a  certain  number  of 
Crustaceans,  from  which  he  afterwards,  having  the  advantage  of 
DaldorfTs  labours,  separated  the  genera PaZtn«rtw,  PaJUtmon,  Al^heut, 
Penetu,  and  Orangan,  Our  countryman  Leach,  in  adopting  the  genus 
as  left  in  its  last  shape  by  Fabridus,  separates  from  it  the  genus 
Nephropi,  of  which  there  is  only  one  species  recorded,  the  Norway 
Lobster  (Nephropt  Norveffieut).  Desmarest  adopts  the  views  of  Leach, 
and  the  genus  Attacut  is  now  reduced  to  very  few  species. 

Of  these  species  the  most  interesting,  from,  their  commercial  value 
as  food,  are  the  common  Lobster  (AttacuB  marinvjt)  and  the  Craw-Fish 
{AaUicu*  fiuvicAUU.) 

The  Lobster  is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  on  the  rocky  coasts 
of  tliis  kin^om,  in  clear  water  of  no  veiy  great  depth,  at  the  time  of 
depositing  its  e^;gs,  about  the  middle  of  summer.  Pennant  mentions 
the  great  quantities  supplied  to  the  London  markets,  in  his  time,  from 
the  Orkneys  and  the  eastern  coasts  of  Scotland ;  and  states  the  nimiber 
annually  brought  in  well-boats  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Montrose 
alone  at  60,000  or  70,000.  But  almost  incredible  as  the  consumption 
of  this  species  is,  nature  has  provided  for  its  security  by  the  most 
profuse  fecundity.  Doctor  Baster  says  that  he  counted  12,444  eggs 
under  the  tail  of  one  female  lobster,  besides  those  that  remained  in 
;the  body  unprotruded. 

Lobsters  are  very  voracious,  and  the  fishery  for  them  is  carried  on 
sometimes  by  means  of  traps,  or  'pots'  (as  they  are  called  in  some 
places),  made  of  twigs,  baited  with  garbage,  lowered  into  the  sea  and 
marked  by  a  buoy  ,*  sometimes  by  nets  baited  with  the  same  materials ; 
and  in  some  countries,  by  torch-light^  with  the  aid  of  a  wooden 
instrument,  which  acts  like  a  forceps  or  a  pair  of  tongs. 

One  of  the  best  narratives  of  the  habits  of  the  lobster  extant,  is  to 
be  found  in  the  following  letter  from  Mr.  Travis,  of  Scarborough,  to 
Mr.  Pennant,  dated  on  the  25th  October,  1768  :— 

"  We  have  vast  numbers  of  fine  lobsters  on  the  rocks  near  our  coast. 
The  laige  ones  are  in  general  in  their  best  season  from  the  middle  of 
October  till  the  beginning  of  May.  Many  of  the  small  ones,  and  some 
few  of  the  larger  sort>  are  good  all  the  summer.  If  they  be  44  inches 
long,  or  upwards,  firom  the  tip  of  the  head  to  the  end  of  the  back 
shell,  they  are  called  sizeable  lobsters.  If  only  4  inches,  they  are 
esteemed  half  size ;  and  when  sold,  two  of  them  are  reckoned  for  one 
of  sisa  If  thev  be  under  4  inches,  they  are  called  Pawka^  and  are 
notaaleableto  tne  carriers,  thougli  in  reaUty  they  are  in  the  summer 


months  superior  to  the  large  ones  in  goodness.  The  pinoera  of  one 
of  the  lobster's  large  claws  are  fumiahed  with. knobs,  and  those  of  the 
other  claw  are  always  serrated.  With  the  former  it  keeps  firm  hold 
of  the  stalks  of  submarine  plants,  and  with  the  latter  it  cuts  and  minoeB 
its  food  very  dexterously.  The  knobbed,  or  numb  daw,  as  the  fisher 
men  call  it,  is  sometimes  on  the  right  side,  and  sometimes  on  the  left, 
indifierentiy.  It  is  more  dangerous  to  be  seised  by  them  with  the 
cutting  daw  than  the  other ;  but,  in  either  case,  the  quickest  way  to 
get  disengaged  from  the  creature  is  to  pluck  ofif  its  daw.  It  leemB 
peculiar  to  the  lobster  and  crab  when  their  daws  are  pulled  off  thst 
they  will  grow  again,  but  never  so  lazge  as  at  first 

"  The  femi^e  or  hen  lobster  does  not  cast  her  shdl  the  same  year 
that  she  deposits  her  ova,  or  in  the  oommon  phrase,  is '  in  betry.'  When 
the  ova  first  appear  under  her  tail,  they  are  very  small  and  extremely 
black ;  but  they  become,  in  succession,  almost  as  large  as  ripe  elder 
berries  before  they  are  deposited,  and  turn  of  a  dark-brown  colour, 
especially  towards  the  end  of  the  time  of  her  depositing  tiiem.  They 
continue  full  and  depositing  the  ova  in  constant  succession,  as  long  as 
any  of  that  bUck  substance  can  be  found  in  their  body,  which  when 
boiled  turns  of  a  beautiful  red  colour,  and  is  called  their  CoraL  Hen- 
lobsters  are  found  in  berry  at  all  times  of  the  year,  but  diiefly  in 
winter.  It  is  a  common  mistake,  that  a  berried  hen  is  always  in 
perfection  for  the  tabla  When  her  berries  appear  large  and  brownish, 
she  will  alwaya  be  found  exhausted,  watery,  and  poor.  Though  the 
ova  be  cast  at  all  times  of  the  year,  they  seem  only  to  come  to  life 
during  the  warm  summer  months  of  July  and  August  Great  numben 
of  them  may  then  be  found,  imder  the  appearance  of  tadpoles,  swim- 
ming about  the  littie  pools  left  by  the  tides  among  the  rocks,  sad 
many  ahio  under  their  proper  form,  from  half  an  inch  to  four  inches 
in  length. 

"  In  casting  their  shells,  it  is  hard  to  conceive  how  the  lobster  is 
able  to  draw  the  fish  of  their  large  daws  outy  leaving  the  shells  entire 
and  attached  to  the  shell  of  their  body ;  in  which  state  they  are 
constantly  found.  The  fishermen  say  the  lobster  pines  before  castings 
till  the  fish  in  its  large  claw  is  no  thicker  than  the  quiU  of  a  gooee, 
which  enables  it  to  draw  its  piarts  through  the  joints  and  narrow 
passage  near  the  trunk.  The  new  shell  is  quite  membranous  at  first, 
but  hardens  by  degrees.  Lobsters  only  grow  in  size  while  their  shells 
are  in  their  soft  state.  They  are  chosen  for  the  table  by  their  being 
heavy  in  proportion  to  their  size,  and  by  the  hardness  of  their  sheik 
on  their  sides,  which  when  in  j)erfection  will  not  yidd  to  moderate 
pressure.  Baniades  and  other  small  shell-fish  adhering  to  them  are 
esteemed  certain  marks  of  superior  goodness.  Coek-lobsters  are  in 
general  better  than  the  hens  in  winter;  they  are  distinguiahed  by 
tiie  narrowness  of  their  tails,  and  by  their  having  a  strong  spine 
upon  the  centre  of  each  of  the  transverse  processes  beneath  the  tail 
which  support  the  four  middle  plates  of  their  tails.  The  fish  of  a 
lobster's  claw  is  more  tender,  delicate,  and  easy  of  digestion,  than 
that  of  the  tail  Lobsters  are  not  taken  hero  in  pots,  as  is  usual 
where  the  water  is  deeper  and  more  still  than  it  is  upon  oiu-  coasi 
Our  fishermen  use  a  bag-net  fixed  to  an  iron  hoop,  about  2  feet  in 
diameter,  and  suspended  by  three  lines  like  a  scale.  The  bait  is 
commonly  fish-guts  tied  to  Uie  bottom  and  middle  of  the  net  They 
can  take  none  in  the  daytime,  except  when  the  water  is  thick  and 
opaque :  they  are  commonly  caught  in  the  night ;  but  even  then  it  ia 
not  possible  to  take  any  when  the  sea  has  that  luminous  appearance 
which  is  supposed  to  proceed  frt>m  the  Nereis  noctUuea.  In  summer, 
the  lobsters  are  found  near  the  shore,  and  thence  to  about  6  fathoms 
depth  of  water;  in  winter,  they  are  sddom  taken  in  less  than  12  or 
16  fathoms.  Like  other  insects  [crustaceans]  iher  are  much  more 
active  and  alert  in  warm  weather  than  in  cold.  In  the  water  they 
can  run  nimbly  upon  their  legs  or  small  daws,  and  if  alanned  can 
spring  tail  foremost  to  a  surprising  distance,  as  svrift  as  a  bird  can 
fly.  The  fishermen  can  see  them  pass  about  80  feet,  and  by  the 
swiftness  of  their  motion,  suppose  they  may  go  much  farther.  Athencfus 
remarks  this  ciroumstance,  and  says  tiiat  the  incurvated  lobsters 
will  spring  with  the  activity  of  dolphins.  Their  eyejs  are  raised  upon 
moveable  bases,  which  enables  them  to  see  readily  every  way.  When 
frightened  they  will  spring  from  a  considerable  distance  to  their  hold 
in  the  rock ;  and,  what  ia  not  less  surprising  than  true,  will  throw 
themselves  into  their  hold  in  that  manner  through  an  entrance  barely 
suffident  for  their  bodies  to  pass,  as  is  frequently  seen  by  the  people 
who  endeavour  to  take  them  at  Filev  Bridge.  In  frosty  weather,  if 
any  happen  to  be  foimdnear  the  shore,  they  are  quite  torpid  and 
benumbed.  A  sizeable  lobster  is  commonly  from  one  pound  to  two 
in  weight  There  was  one  taken  here  this  summer  which  vreighed 
above  four  pounds,  and  the  fishermen  say  they  have  seen  some  which 
were  of  six  poimds,  but  these  are  very  rare." 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  lobater  changes  its  shell  annually ;  but 
the  mode  in  which  this  operation  ia  performed  is  not  satisfactorily 
known.  Some  suppose  that  the  old  shdl  is  thrown  off,  and  that  the 
animal  retires  to  some  luriring  place  to  avoid  the  voracity  of  his 
crust-dad  fellows,  till  his  new  covering  acquires  suffident  hardness ; 
others  contend  that  the  process  is  one  of  absorption,  and  these  ask, 
in  proof  of  their  views  of  the  case,  what  becomes  of  the  old  shells 
if  there  is  a  true  ecdysis  or  moult^  for  that  the  sea^soast  at  the 
moulting  period  would  be  strewed  with  them  ?  The  most  probable 
conjecture  is,  that  the  shell  doughs  ofif  piecemeal  as  it  does  in  the 


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ASTARTE. 


ASTR^EA. 


330 


crawfish.  Lobsters,  in  common  -with  most  of  the  Cnistaccans,  have 
the  power  of  reproduction  to  a  great  extent.  If  a  claw  bo  torn  off,  it 
is  renewed;  and  if  it  be  injured,  the  animal  will  sometimes  throw 
it  off  hj  an  effort  It  seems  that  any  violent  shock  to  the  nervous 
system  will  cause  this  act  If  a  lobster  be  thrown  into  boiling  water, 
it  will  generally  throw  off  its  large  claws  on  the  instant;  and  the 
same  effect  has  been  produced  by  plunging  the  animal,  when  in  full 
life,  into  spirit.  Pennant  goes  so  far  as  to  make  them  out  to  be  very 
nervous  subjects  indeed.  "  Lobsters,"  says  he,  **  fear  thunder,  and 
are  apt  to  cast  their  claws  on  a  loud  clap.  I  am  told  they  will  do 
the  same  on  firing  a  great  gun ;  and  thett  when  men-of-war  meet  a 
lobster-boat,  a  jocular  threat  is  ujBed,  that  if  the  master  does  not  sell 
them  good  lobsters  they  will  salute  him." 

That  the  lobster  was  well  known  to  the  ancients  appears  from  the 
reference  in  Mr.'  Travis's  letter,  and  from  many  other  evidences.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  add  that,  under  the  name  of  iurreuchs,  Aristotle,  in 
tlie  second  chapter  of  the  fourth  book  of  his  '  History  of  Animals,' 
gives  a  most  faithful  and  elaborate  account  of  the  species  which  is  still 
an  inhabitant  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Aitaeut  Jluvia/ilis,  the  Crawfish,  is  to  be  found  in  the  fresh  waters 
of  Europe  and  the  north  of  Asia.  It  thrives  best  in  rivers,  where 
in  holes  in  the  banks  and  under  stones  it  lies  in  wait  for  the  small 
molluscous  animals,  little  fishes,  the  larv8B  of  insects,  and  decomposing 
animal  substances,  which  form  its  prey.  Desmarest  says  that  it  will 
live  for  upwards  of  20  years,  and  that  it  becomes  large  in  proportion 
to  its  age ;  that  towards  the  end  of  sprine  it  casts  off  the  pieces 
which  form  its  shell,  and  some  days  after  becomes  covered  with  a 
crust  as  solid  as  the  former  one,  but  larger,  sometimes  by  as  much  as 
one-fifth.  The  eggs,  which  are  excluded  about  two  months  after 
impregnation,  are  collected  under  the  lower  part  of  the  body  or  tail, 
aa  it  is  popularly  called,  after  the  manner  of  the  hen-lobster.  From 
these  proceed  the  young  crawfishes,  which  are  very  small  and  soft, 
but  which  bear  an  exact  resemblance  to  the  parent,  under  whose  tail 
they  are  nursed  for  several  days. 

The  crawfish  is  taken  either  b^  nets  or  by  bundles  of  thorns  in 
which  flesh  in  a  state  of  decomposition  is  placed.  It  is  also  taken  by 
iuserting  the  hand  into  the  hole  which  it  mhabits ;  and  at  night  it  is 
caught  by  means  of  lighted  torches.    [Crustacka.] 

ASTA'RTE,  a  genus  of  Conchiferous  Molluaca,  with  two  muscular 
impressions  and  a  simple  mantle-Une.  The  hinge  has  two  divaricated 
teeth  in  the  right-hand  valve;  in  the  other,  one  distinct  and  one 
obsolete  tooth,  and  the  rudiment  of  a  lateral  tooth.  The  ligament  is 
external 

The  species  consist  of  some  of  the  Veneres  of  Montagu,  one  of 
which  is  a  OrasnruL  (Lam.)  Some  of  them  are  English  shells,  and 
they  are  generally  found  on  the  sandy  mud  of  coasts  at  a  depth  which 
ranges  from  near  the  surface  to  ten  fathoms. 

The  Crag,  the  Green-Sand,  and  some  of  the  old  foasiliferous  beds 
afford  many  species. 

A'STER,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  ChmpotUce, 
and  comprishending  a  great  multitude  of  species  scattered  over  all 
parts  of  the  world,  especially  North  America  and  Australia.  Many 
of  them  are  handsome  herbaceous  plants,  others  are  small-leaved 
shrubs,  and  the  remainder  are  mere  weeds.  (Nees  von  Esenbeck,  *  G^era 
et  Species  Astoroarum.') 

Although  the  number  of  species  of  this  genus  is  very  great,  none 
of  them  are  of  any  use  to  man.  A  large  number  are  cultivated, 
and  wc  are  indebted  to  their  very  handsome  flowers  for  some  of  the 
greatebt  ornaments  of  our  gardens  at  the  latter  end  of  summer. 
One  of  the  species^  AtUr  Tripolivm,  is  a  British  plant.  It  is  very 
common  in  muddy  salt  marshes.  It  has  a  stem  from  I  to  2  feet  high, 
which  is  erect,  hollow,  leafy,  and  many-flowered.  The  flowers  are 
yellow  in  the  disk  and  lilac  in  the  circumference.  Sometimes  the 
latter  are  wanting. 

ASTERACAlfTHUS,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Pkcoid  Fishes,  includmg 
five  British  species,  from  the  Oolitic  and  Lias  Formations.   (Agassiz.) 

ASTERI'AD^,  a  fiunUy  of  the  order  Echinodermata  including  the 
true  Star-Fishes.  This  family  is  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the 
order  by  the  body  being  more  or  less  lobed,  and  the  lobes  channeled 
beneath  for  cirrhi,  which  act  as  suckers  and  are  the  organs  of  motion. 
Professor  K  Forbes  in  his  'History  of  British  Star-Fishes'  has 
arranged  the  British  species  of  this  family  imder  four  heads  : — 

1.  The  UratterUg,  Stellate  Star-Fishes  with  rounded  arms  and  four 
ranges  of  suckers  in  each  avenue.  Of  this  family  there  is  only  one 
genus  Urtuter,  inhabiting  the  British  coasts.  Of  this  there  are  four 
vpeciea — U.glacialu,  U.  rvhent,  U,  violacea  and  U,  hUpicUk 

2.  The  Solatterice,  also  stellate  (sometimes  multi-radiate),  with 
rounded  arms,  but  only  two  ranges  of  suckers  in  each  avenue.  To 
this  tribe  belong  the  genera  Cfribdla  and  Solatter  of  which  C,  ocuUUOf 
C.  roteOf  &.  endecOf  and  S.  pappota  inhabit  the  British  coasts. 

8.  Ooniastmicef  which  are  pentagonal  and  have  two  ranges  of  suckers. 
The  British  genera  of  this  tribe  are  AMlerina,  PcUmipet,  and  GonioMter. 
The  species  are  A.  gibbosa,  P,  membranaceuMf  0,  Temjpletoni,  and  G. 
equettrtM, 

4.  Atierics,  Stellate  Star-Fishes  with  the  upper  surfeuie  of  the  body 
flat  It  includes  the  British  genera  Atterioi  and  Luidia,  Each  of 
these  have  one  species^  A,  omrcmHaea  and  L,  froffUiitima.    [EoHiiro- 

DERKATA.] 


Asteriaa  tessetata, 

ASTEHIAS  (Lam.),  a  genus  of  Radiated  Animak  widely  diffused 
over  the  seas.  The  Linnsean  genus  comprises  every  form  of  radiation 
which  appears  in  the  tribe,  but  the  genus  Atterioi  of  Lamarck 
includes  only  the  Star-Fishes  properly  so  called.  These  are  divided 
into  two  sections,  'the  Scutellated  Star-Fishes,'  and  'the  Radiated  Star- 
Fishea.'  The  former  have  an  angular  body,  the  lobes  or  rays  of  which 
are  short,  their  length  not  exceeding  the  diameter  of  the  disk :  the 
latter  have  a  body  furnished  with  elongated  rays,  whose  length  far 
exceeds  the  diameter  of  the  disk.  The  foUowing  is  a  general  description 
of  the  animals  to  which  the  name  Atteriat  has  been  applied : — 

Each  ray  is  furnished  with  a  longitudinal  furrow  on  its  lower  side, 
and  itna  furrow  is  pierced  laterally  with  small  holes,  through  which 
pass  the  feet  or  tentacula,  which  are  membranous,  cylindncsl,  and 
each  of  them  terminated  with  a  little  disk,  which  performs  the  office 
of  a  cupping-glass,  somewhat  in  the  same  manner  as  the  acetabula  or 
suckers  of  the  cuttle-fishes.  By  elongating  or  shortening  these 
numerous  little  organs,  and  by  fixing  them  by  means  of  their  terminal 
disks,  the  progressive  motions  of  the  Star-Fish  are  regulated.  The 
rest  of  the  lower  surface  is  furnished  with  small  moveable  spines, 
which  also  assLBt  progression.  The  whole  surface  is  also  pierced  by 
pores,  through  which  pass  tubes  much  smaller  than  the  feet,  serving 
probably  to  absorb  the  water,  and  to  introduce  it  into  the  general 
cavity,  for  the  purposes  of  a  kind  of  respiration.  A  laige  stomach 
lies  dose  to  the  mouth ;  and  two  ramified  caeca,  each  suspended  to  a 
kind  of  mesentery,  are  given  off  to  each  ray,  which  lb  also  furnished 
with  two  ovaries,  by  means  of  which  the  animals  are  supposed  to 
reproduce  their  species  without  the  aid  of  a  second  individual  A  fine 
cord,  which  surrounds  the  mouth  and  sends  a  branch  to  each  arm,  is 
considered  as  the  development  of  their  nervous  system.   [Abtebiadjc  ; 

ECHINODERICATA.] 

ASTERI'NA,  a  genus  of  Star-Fishes,  including  the  smallest  of  the 
British  species,  A.  ffibbo$a  of  Pennant  The  Gibbous  Starlet  has  a 
5-sided  btxly,  which  is  thick  and  covered  above  and  below  with 
short  spines  ;  the  avenues  are  bordered  by  a  single  row  of  spines,  and 
the  suckers  are  in  two  rows.  De  Blainville  makes  out  of  this  species 
two,  which  he  caUs  Atterioi  miniUa  and  A,  pvlcheUa,  A.  gibbosa  is 
found  very  generally  around  the  British  Islands,  and  also  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  on  all  the  shores  of  Europe. 

ASTEROID  A,  a  group  of  Zoophytes,  belonging  to  the  Anthotoa 
or  Polypifera,    [Polypifera.] 

ASTEROPHYLLI'TJES  mrongniart),  a  genus  of  Fossil  Plants  con- 
taining many  species ;  from  the  Coal  Formations  of  Europe  and  America. 

ASTEROPTY'CHIUS,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Placoid  Fishes,  from  the 
Mountain  Limestone  of  Ireland.     (Agassiz.) 

ASTRiEA,  a  genus  of  Radiate  Animals  belonging  to  the  family 


Astrttn  rotuloia. 
Polt/pifera.     The  species   are  found   sometimes  incrusting  marioe 


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ASTRAGALUS. 


ATELES. 


3S2 


bodies,  Bomeiimes  collected  in  a  hemlBpherical  or  globular  mass, 
which  is  occasionally  lobated.  The  upper  surface  is  covered  with 
orbicular  or  subangular  starry  disks,  which  are  lamellar  and  sessile. 
Each  disk  is  the  seat  of  .a  polype,  with  a  single  row  of  numerous 
arms,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  mouth.  Lamarck  divides  these 
corals  into  two  sections  :  the  first,  consisting  of  species  whose  starry 
disks  are  separated  from  each  other,  leaving  interstices  between 
them ;  and  the  second,  of  species  whose  starry  disks  are  contiguous. 
Of  the  first  section,  A.  rotulota,  an  inhabitant  of  the  West  Indian 
seas,  is  an  example ;  of  the  second,  A.  favota,  common  in  the  seas  of 
the  East  Indies  affbnls  a  good  illustration.   The  species  are  numerous. 


Astma  favota. 

ASTRA'QALUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Legvmwotcs.  It  has  the  calyx  5-toothed ;  the  keel  of  the  flower 
obtuse ;  the  stamens  diadelphous ;  the  legume  bilocular  or  half- 
bilocular,  from  the  upper  suture  being  bent  in  so  much.  Tho  species 
are  shrubs  or  under-shrubs. 

A,  hypoghtti*,  the  Purple  Milk-Vetch,  is  a  native  of  Europe  in 
graveUy  and  chalky  places. 

A.  glyq/phyllotf  Liquorice- Vetch,  is  another  British  species.     It  has 
a  sweetish  taste  in  its  leaves,  but  they  are  not  pleasant,  and  cattle  do 
»  not  eat  it. 

A,  veruB,  Qoat's-Thom,  is  the  plant  which  is  said  to  yield  Gum 
Tragacanth.  It  is  a  smnll  bush  with  pinnated  gray  leaves,  terminated 
by  a  spiny  midrib  and  naif-covering  clusters  of  axillary  pale  yellow 
flowers.  It  grows  in  the  Levant.  The  gum  is  a  natural  exudation 
from  the  pl^t  Many  other  species  of  Astragalug,  as  A.  Creticut, 
A.  gwnmifeTf  A,  aristcUus,  and^.  atrobilifera,  are  now  known  to  yield 
this  substance.  The  species  of  Astragalus  are  very  numerous,  and 
above  250  have  been  described  by  botanists.  Many  of  them  are  culti- 
vated, most  of  them  being  hardy  plants,  but  they  are  not  remarkable 
for  their  beauty. 

ASTRAKANI'TE,  a  variety  of  native  sulphate  of  magnesia  (Epsom 
Salts),  which  is  called  EpsomUe, 

ASTROCA'RYUM,  a  genus  of  Palms  found  in  small  groups,  or  in 
single  specimens,  in  the  tropical  parts  of  America,  of  middling  stature, 
and  of  a  very  singular  appearance  on  account  of  tho  spines  with  which 
they  are  armed.  Their  stems  are  covered  all  over,  except  at  the 
places  where  the  leaves  are  set  on,  with  stiff  and  very  niunerous 
prickles.  The  leaves  are  pinnated.  The  fruit  resembles  cocoa-nuts. 
These  plants  are  found  exclusively  in  South  America,  where  several 
species  were  collected  by  Dr.  Von  Martins,  the  great  illustrator  of  the 
Palm  Tribe.  Among  the  more  remarkable  are  Astrocarywn  murimuri, 
a  common  inhabitant  of  swampyplaces  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Para, 
where  it  is  called  Murumurd.  The  flesh  of  the  fruit  resembles  the 
melon  in  flavour  and  the  musk  in  odour,  and  is  considered  a  great 
delicacy  by  the  Americans.  We  give  a  figure  of  it  in  -the  next  column, 
but  so  much  reduced  that  the  armature  of  the  stem  cannot  be  shown. 
The  leaves  are  foimd  to  form  an  excellent  thtitch. 

Another  species,  A.  airif  has  very  hard  wood,  which  is  much  used 
for  bows  and  similar  purposes,  where  hardness  and  toughness  are 
required. 

The  fibres  of  the  leaves  of  il.  Tt^iwna  are  greatly  valued  for  fishing- 
nets.     (Martins,  Palms,  p.  69,  &c.) 

ASTROCRINI'TES  (Austin),  a  genus  of  Fossil  Crmoidea,  from  the 
Mountain  Limestone  of  Yorkshire. 

ASTROLO'MA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Epacridacece,  One  species,  the  A,  hvmifusa,  yields  the  Tasmanian 
Cranberry.  The  fruit  is  of  a  green  or  whitish  colour,  sometimes 
slightly  red,  of  the  size  of  a  black  currant,  and  consisting  of  a  viscid 
apple-flavoured  pulp,  inclosing  a  laige  seed.  It  grows  singly  on  the 
tnuling  stems  of  the  plant  The  flowers  are  of  a  beautiful  scarlet. 
(Lindley,  Vegetable  Ki/ngdom,) 


ASTROPECTEN,  a  genus  of  Star-Fishes,  including  the  AsUria^ 
aurantiaca  of  MUller  and  others,  which  is  called  Astrapecten  irregulant 

[ECHIHODERMATA.] 


Aatrocfu-yum  murimttri, 

ASTROPHY'TON,  a  genus  of  Star-Fishes,  remarkable  for  tbe 
branched  character  of  its  rajrs.  One  species,  the  A.  scnteUvm,  is 
British.  It  is  however  a  rare  animal ;  and  although  occasionally  found 
in  other  places,  is  most  commonly  caught  off  the  Shetlands :  hence 
it  is  called  the  Shetland  Aiigus.     (Forbes,  British  Star-Fiskes.) 

ASTUR,  a  genus  of  Hawks  formed  by  Bechstein,  and  chancteriaed 
by  a  short  beak  bent  downwards  from  the  base  and  convex  above, 
with  somewhat  oval  nostrils.  The  feet  are  rather  short,  and  the 
toes  (of  which  the  exterior  are  united  at  the  base  by  a  membrane) 
are  long. 

Numerous  species  of  this  genus  are  diffused  over  all  parts  of  the 
world;  but  Europe  only  contains  one,  Astw  pcUumbariuSf  the  Gos- 
hawk, so  highly  prized  by  the  falconers  of  old,  and  funous  for  its 
flights  at  cranes,  geese,  pheasants,  and  partridges.    PFalcoiodje.] 

ATACAMI'TE  (Chloride  of  Copper,  Muriate  of  Copper).  It  occurs 
massive,  pulverulent,  and  crystallised.  Its  primary  form  is  a  right 
rhombic  prism.  The  colour  is  green,  of  various  shades,  but  chiefly 
emerald  green.  The  streak  is  lighter.  The  fracture  uneven.  Hardness 
3*0  to  3*5.  Lustre  vitreous.  Transparent  to  opaque.  Specific  gravity 
4*4.  It  is  found  at  Remolenos  in  Chili ;  tho  pulverulent  variety  at 
Atacama  in  Peru.  The  massive  variety  is  reniform,  with  a  fibrous 
structure.    The  analysis  by  Proust  is  as  follows  : — 

Muriatic  Acid 10*6 

Oxide  of  Copper 76*6 

Water  128 

100-0 
ATELES,  a  genus  of  Sapa^ous,  or  American  Monkeys,  called  also 
Spider  Monkeys,  formed  by  M.  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire,  and  presenting 
numerous  and  remarkable  modifications  of  organic  structure,  which 
readily  distinguish  them  from  all  other  groups  of  Qnadrvma/Mi.  The 
most  prominent  characters  of  the  genus  consist  in  their  long,  attenu- 
ated, and  powerfully  prehensile  tails ;  fore  hands  either  entirely  deprived 
of  thumbs,  or  having  only  a  very  small  rudiment  of  that  organ ;  and 
their  dental  system,  which,  like  that  of  all  the  American  Quadrumanes, 
consists  of  two  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw  (one  on  each  side)  more  than 
are  foun<^  either  in  man  or  in  the  kindred  genera  of  the  Old  Worid. 
The  first  and  last  of  these  modifications  are  common  to  the  Aides  and 
other  American  genera ;  the  second  is  shared  with  them  only  by  the 
Cohbif  a  small  African  genus,  consisting  only  of  two  species,  neither  of 
which  has  been  observed  by  any  zoologist  since  the  aays  of  Pennant^ 
and  with  whose  other  characters  we  are  very  imperfectly  acquainted. 
The  A  teles  are  fruther  distinguished  by  their  small  round  heads,  corpu- 
lent bodies,  and  remarkably  long  slender  limbs,  which  characteristicB 
giving  these  am'malB  much  of  the  general  appearance  of  a  spider,  hare 


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procured  for  them  the  appellation  of  Spider-Monkeys,  by  'which  they 
are  commonly  known.  Like  the  other  Q^adnlmana  of  the  New  World, 
they  are  destitute  of  cheek-pouches  and  callosities — characters  which 
approximate  them  in  some  measure  to  the  real  Apes.  The  skull  of  the 
AteUa  is  rounder  and  the  brain  larger  than  in  the  common  monkeys ; 
the  forehead  also  is  more  derated,  and  the  muzzle  less  prominent. 
The  eyes  are  widely  separated  from  one  another  by  the  Imse  of  the 
nose ;  the  nostrils  open  laterally,  and  are  separated  by  a  thick  carti- 
laginous partition ;  the  ear  only  differs  from  that  of  man  in  having  no 
inferior  lobe ;  the  mouth  is  small,  the  lips  thin  and  extensible,  and  the 
hair  generally  long,  coarse,  and  of  a  glossy  appearance. 

But  they  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  organs  of  locomotion.  The 
anterior  extremities,  in  particular,  are  by  their  length  and  the  slender- 
neflB  of  their  form  out  of  all  proportion  with  the  other  parts ;  they  ai*e 
in  general,  as  above  observed,  destitute  of  thumbs ;  or  if  some  .species 
are  provided  with  this  organ,  it  is  only  in  a  rudimentary  form,  and 
eoDfiiBts  merely  of  a  flat  naO,  or  at  most  of  a  single  joint.  On  the 
posterior  extranities,  on  the  contrary,  the  thumb  is  largely  developed, 
placed  far  back  towards  the  heel,  and  is  completely  opposeable  to  the 
lingers.  But  these  animals  possess,  in  their  long  and  muscular  tail, 
an  organ  of  prehension  much  more  powerful  than  the  other  extre- 
mities ;  it  executes  in  fact  all  the  functions  of  a  fifth  limb,  though 
probably,  on  aocoimt  of  its  distance  from  the  seat  of  sensation,  it  is  not 
endowed  with  a  very  delicate  sense  of  touch.  For  six  or  seven  inches 
from  the  point  it  is  naked  and  callous  on  the  under  surface ;  and  it  is 
by  this  portion  that  the  animal  hangs  suspended  from  the  branches, 
or  swings  itself  from  tree  *x>  tree  with  an  ease  and  velocity  almobt 
incredible. 

Their  entire  oiganiaation  is  adapted  exclusively  to  an  arboreal  life ; 
on  the  earth  nothing  can  be  more  awkward  and  embarrassed  than 
their  motions.  They  trail  themselves  along  with  a  slow  and  vacillating 
gait,  sometimes  using  their  long  fore-arms  as  crutches,  and  resting  upon 
their  half-closed  fists  whilst  they  project  the  body  and  hind  lega  forwa^rd ; 
at  other  times  walking  in  a  crouching  position  on  the  hind  legs  only, 
balanced  by  the  long  arms  and  tail,  which  are  elevated  in  fr^nt  and 
rear  respectively,  and  always  ready  to  take  advantage  of  any  object  by 
which  to  avail  themselves  of  their  natural  powers  of  progression. 
But  in  proportion  to  their  embarrassment  on  a  plain  surface  is  their 
dexterity  and  agility  among  the  trees  of  their  native  foresta  Here 
they  live  in  numerous  troops,  mutually  support  one  another  in  danger, 
beat  and  expel  the  lees  favourably  organised  Salus  from  the  vicinity  of 
their  cantonments,  and  exercise  a  perfect  tyranny  over  all  the  other 
arboreal  mammals  of  their  neighbourhood.  Though  leaves  and  wild 
fruits  compose  the  principal  part  of  their  food,  yet  they  do  not  reject 
flesh,  but  hunt  after  insects  and  the  eggs  and  young  of  birds,  and  are 
even  said  to  adopt  the  stratagem  of  fishing  for  crabs  with  their  long 
tails.  They  are  exceedingly  intelligent,  easilv  domesticated,  and  soon 
become  strongly  attached  to  those  who  treat  them  kindly :  they  exhibit 
none  of  the  petulance  and  insatiable  curiosity  of  the  common  monkeys ; 
their  character,  on  the  contrary,  is  grave,  and  approaches  even  to 
melancholy  :  but  if  their  passions  are  less  violent,  and  more  difficult 
to  excite,  their  affections  are  infinitely  stronger ;  and  if  they  are  without 
the  amusing  tricks  of  the  monkeys,  so  likewise  are  they  without  their 
fickleness  and  mischief. 

Dampier  relates,  that  when  a  troop  of  Atelea  have  occasion  to  pass 
any  of  the  larger  rivers  of  South  America,  they  select  a  situation  in 
which  the  trees  are  highest  and  project  farthest  over  the  stream ;  then 
mounting  to  the  topmost  branches,  they  form  a  long  chain  by  grasping 
one  another^s  tails  successively.  This  chain  being  allowed  to  hang 
freely  at  the  lower  end,  whilst  it  is  suspended  from  the  top,  is 
put  in  motion,  and  successively  swung  backwards  and  forwards  till  it 
acquires  an  impetus  sufficient  to  carry  it  over  to  the  opposite  bank. 
^Vhen  this  is  accomplished,  the  animal  at  the  lower  end  catches  the 
first  branch  w<hich  comes  within  his  reach,  and  moimts  to  the  highest, 
where  as  soon  as  he  is  firmly  attached,  the  other  end  of  the  chain  is 
permitted  to  swing,  and  thus  the  whole  troop  are  passed  over.  The 
AteleSf  as  well  indeed  as  all  the  other  American  Quadrumanes,  are 
esteemed  as  an  artide  of  food  by  the  native  Indians ;  and  even  Euro- 
peans, whom  curiosity  or  necessity  has  induced  to  taste  it,  report  their 
flesh  to  be  white,  juicy,  and  agreeable.  The  only  thing  disgusting 
about  it  is  a  strong  resemblance  which  the  whole  body,  and  particularly 
the  head  and  hands,  bear  to  those  of  a  yoimg  infant.  Nor  is  it  without 
being  strongly  disposed  to  question  the  nature  of  the  act^  that  Euro- 
pean sportsmen,  unaccustomed  to  shooting  monkeys,  witness  for  the 
first  time  the  dying  struggles  of  these  animals.  Without  uttering  a 
complaint^  they  silently  watch  the  blood  as  it  flows  from  the  wound, 
from  time  to  time  turning  their  eyes  upon  the  sportsman  with  an 
expression  of  reproach  which  cannot  be  misinterpreted :  some  travellers 
even  go  so  far  as  to  assert  that  the  companions  of  the  wounded  individual 
^fnJl  not  only  assist  him  to  climb  beyond  the  reach  of  further  danger, 
but  will  even  chew  leaves  and  apply  them  to  the  woimd  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stopping  the  hemorrhage.  The  following  spedes  of  A  teles  have 
been  distinguished  and  characterised  by  naturdists  and  travellers  : — 

I.  A.  pantBCus  (QeoS.),  the  Quata,  or  as  the  French  write  it  Coaita, 
is  a  huge  spedes,  covered  with  long  coarse  hair  of  a  glossy  black 
colour;  the  beUy  is  protuberant,  the  head  small  and  round,  the 
limbs  long  and  dender,  the  fore  hands  entirely  deprived  of  thumbs, 
the  taU  robust  and  powerful,  the  eyes  and  cheeks  deeply  sunk,  and 


the  face  copper-colour.  On  the  back  and  outddes  of  the  limbs  the 
hair  is  very  long  and  thick,  but  the  belly  and  groins  are  nearly  naked, 
and  the  mammsB  of  the  femdes  are  placed  in  the  armpits.     The  hair 


The  Quata  {Aleles  pantsctu). 
of  the  head  is  directed  forwards,  and  the  ears,  concealed  beneath  it, 
differ  from  those  of  the  human  species  only  in  having  no  inferior  lobe. 
This  species  is  very  common  in  the  woods  of  Surinam  and  Brazil.  It 
is  active  and  intelligent,  and  unites  considerable  prudence  and  pene- 
tration to  great  gentleness  of  disposition.  They  go  in  large  companies, 
and  when  they  meet  with  a  man  or  any  animal  which  is  strange  to 
them,  come  down  to  the  lower  branches  of  the  trees  to  examine  them, 
and  having  satisfied  their  curiosity,  begin  to  pelt  them  with  sticks,  and 
endeavour  to  frighten  them  away.  They  cannot  leap,  but  exhibit  the 
most  surprising  agility  in  swinging  from  tree  to  tree.  Acosta,  in  his 
'  History  of  the  West  Indies,'  relates  the  following  anecdote  of  a 
Quata  which  belonged  to  the  Governor  of  Carthagena  : — ''  They  sent 
him,"  says  he,  "  to  the  tavern  for  wine,  putting  the  pot  in  one  hand 
and  the  money  in  the  other ;  they  could  not  posdbly  get  the  money 
out  of  his  hand  before  his  pot  was  full  of  wine.  If  any  children  met 
him  in  the  street  and  threw  stones  at  him,  he  would  set  his  pot  down 
and  cast  stones  against  the  children,  till  he  had  assured  his  way,  then 
would  he  return  to  carry  home  his  pot.  And  what  is  more,  although 
he  was  a  good  bibber  of  wine,  yet  he  would  never  touch  it  till  leave 
was  given  him-'* 

2.  A.  marginaim  (Geoff),  theChuva,  closely  resembles  the  Quata  in 
phvdognomy,  dze,  and  proportions.  The  quality  and  colour  of  the 
hair  are  also  the  same  in  both,  except  that  the  face  of  the,Chuva  is 
surrounded  with  a  rim  of  white,  which  on  the  forehead  pturticularly 
is  broad,  and  directed  upwards,  so  as  to  encounter  the  ndr  of  the 
ocdput  and  form  a  low  crest  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  hair  of  the 
fore-arm  is  directed  partially  towards  the  elbow ;  like  that  of  the  body 
it  is  long  and  coarse,  and  though  perfectly  black,  has  not  the  glossy 
appearance  of  the  Quata's  covering.  The  face  is  nearly  nake<{  and 
tan-coloured ;  the  palms  of  the  hands,  soles  of  the  fee^  and  callous 
part  of  the  tail  are  violet-black,  and  the  whole  skin  beneath  the  hair 
appears  to  be  of  the  same  hue.  The  dispodtion  and  manners  differ  in 
no  respect  from  those  of  the  Quata. 

3.  A,  ater  (F.  Cuvier),  the  Cayou,  is  considered  by  Messrs.  Gkoffroy  and 
Desmarest  as  a  variety  of  the  Quata ;  but  F.  Cuvier,  from  observa- 
tions which  he  made  upon  the  living  animd,  has  recognised  and 
described  it  as  a  distinct  spedes.  It  must  however  be  confessed  that 
it  approaches  so  nearly  to  the  Quata  as  to  render  further  observations 
necessary  to  determine  the  question  of  their  specific  difference.  The 
size,  form,  and  colour  are  the  same  in  both,  and  the  only  marked 
distinction  reported  by  M.  Cuvier  consists  in  the  colour  of  the  face, 
which  is  black  in  the  Cayou  and  copper-coloured  in  the  Quata.  "  The 
hair,"  says  M.  Cuvier,  "  is  long,  and  of  a  harsh  silky  quality.  It  is 
rather  shorter  on  the  head  and  tail  than  on  the  rest  of  the  body, 
where  it  falls  backwards  in  the  ordinary  way,  but  on  the  head  it  is 
directed  forwards,  and  falls  over  the  face." 

4.  A,  BelzebvJb  ((^eoff.),  the  Marimonda,  has  the  top  of  the  head, 
the  back,  ddes,  and  externd  surface  of  tho  extremities  black,  and  all 
the  imder  parts,  the  cheeks,  throat,  breast^  belly,  inside  of  the  limbs, 
and  under  surface  of  the  tail  for  its  first  hdf,  white,  with  a  slight 
shade  of  yellow.  The  naked  parts  are  violet-black,  except  immediately 
about  the  eyes,  which  are  surrounded  hy  a  flesh-coloured  drcle. 
This  species,  according  to  Humboldt,  replaces  the  conunon  Quata  in 
Spanish  Guyana,  where  it  is  extremely  common,  and  is  eaten  by  the 


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Indiana.  "  It  is,"  Bays  this  celebrated  traveller, ''  an  animal  very  alow 
in  its  movements,  and  of  a  gentle,  melancholy,  and  timid  character ; 
if  it  occasionally  bites,  it  does  so  only  in  its  fits  of  terror.  The  Mari- 
mondas  unite  in  great  companies  and  form  the  most  grotesque  groups 


Old  World.  Except  in  the  total  want  of  the  thumb  on  the  anterior 
extremitiea,  the  A,  ^roc^nok^ec  approaches  very  neazly  to  the  foUqwiog 
species,  and  appears  indeed  to  be  intermediate  between  it  and  tb 
common  Quata. 

7.  A,  hypoxanlkut  (Kuhl),  the  Mono,  or  Miriki,  inhabits  the  {(mti 
in  the  interior  of  Braail,  and,  as  has  just  been  observed,  approscbes 


The  Manmonda  {Ateies  lielzcbttb). 

All  their  attitudes  announce  the  extremity  of  sloth.  I  have  frequently 
seen  them,  when  exposed  to  the  heat  of  a  tropical  sun,  throw  their 
heads  backwards,  turn  their  eyes  upwards,  bend  their  arms  over  their 
backs,  and  remain  motionless  in  this  extraordinary  position  for  many 
hours  together."  The  young  of  this  species  appear  to  have  the  upper 
parts  of  the  body  mixed  slightly  with  gray,  but  this  mixture  gradually 
disappears  as  it  grows  towards  maturity,  till  the  adult  animal  presents 
the  uniform  black  above  and  white  below,  as  already  described. 

5.  A,  mdanocheir^  Geoff.,  with  the  native  Indian  name  of  which 
we  are  unacquainted,  is  also  a  distinct  species.  The  head,  members, 
and  tail  are  black  or  dark  brown  on  the  superior  surface ;  the  internal 
face  of  the  arms  and  fore-arms  as  far  as  the  wrists,  and  of  the  thighs 
and  legs,  the  under  surface  of  the  tail,  the  throat,  breast,  belly,  and 
sides  of  the  hips,  are  white  or  silvery  gray;  the  shoulders  are 
yellowish  gray,  and  the  remainder  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  body,  as 
well  as  the  whiskers,  are  pure  gray ;  the  four  hands  and  the  naked 
part  of  the  tail  are  black,  as  are  also  the  face,  the  cheeks,  and  the  under 
half  of  the  nose ;  but  round  the  mouth  and  eyes  the  fvsx  is  flesh- 
coloured.  The  hair  is  imiformly  of  a  silky  quality  :  that  on  the  black 
and  white  parts  is  of  the  same  colour  throughout^  but  on  the  gray 
parte  it  is  annulated  with  alternate  rings  of  black  and  white.  This 
species,  as  well  as  all  those  hitherto  described,  is  entirely  deprived 
of  the  fore  thumb,  and  does  not  even  exhibit  a  rudiment  of  that 
organ.  Only  a  single  individual  has  been  observed  alive ;  its  manners 
are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Atdea  in  general,  but  its  habitat  has  not 
been  definitely  determined. 

6.  A.  ArachnoldeSy  or  the  Brown  Quata,  as  it  is  called  by  Baron 
Cuvier,  partakes  in  fact  very  much  of  the  characters  and  appearance 
of  the  common  Quata,  £rom  which  it  is  principally  distinguished  by 
its  uniform  reddish-brown  colour.  This  species  when  full  grown 
measures  rather  more  than  2  feet  in  length ;  the  tail  is  about  2  inches 
longer  than  the  body ;  the  fore  legs  are  1  foot  9  inches  long,  the  hind 
legs  1  foot  8  inches,  and  the  hands  6  inches.  The  hair  is  shorty  fine, 
and  soft,  and  that  of  the  forehead  is  directed  backwards,  contraiy  to 
what  is  usually  observed  in  the  other  Ateles ;  the  back  and  upper 
parts  of  the  body  are,  generally  speaking,  well  covered  with  hair,  but 
the  breast,  belly,  and  groins  are  nearly  naked,  or  at  least  sparingly 
covered  with  scattered  hairs,  of  a  longer  and  coarser  quality  than 
those  on  other  parts ;  the  root  of  the  tail  is  rather  thick  and  bushy, 
but  it  is  graduidly  attenuated  towards  the  point,  and  for  the  last  ten 
inches  naked  underneath.  The  general  colour  is  uniform  chestnut- 
brown,  the  first  of  these  colours  becoming  clearer  and  more  intense 
upon  tfto  head,  and  more  especially  round  the  eyes ;  the  forehwwi  is 
bordered  by  a  circle  of  stiff  coarse  black  hairs,  beneath  which  a 
semicircle  of  light  silvery  gray  passes  over  the  eyes  in  the  form  of 
brows,  and  becomes  gradu^y  more  and  more  obscure,  till  it  is  finally 
l'>8t  in  the  uniform  reddish-brown  of  the  temples.  The  face  is  naked 
and  flesh-coloured,  the  under  parts  of  the  body  of  a  silvery  gray 
slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  with  the  exception  of  the  abdomen,  which, 
as  weU  as  tiie  inner  surface  of  the  thighs,  and  the  naked  stripe 
underneath  the  tail,  are  of  a  bright  red  colour.  The  manners  and 
habits  of  this  species  are  unknown  in  its  native  forests.  Those  which 
have  been  observed  in  a  state  of  confinement  exhibited  all  the 
gentleness  and  listless  apathy  of  character  which  distinguish  the  A  teles 
from  the  common  monkeys  of  South  America,  as  eminently  as  they 
do  the  Qibl^ns  of  the  Indian  isles  from  the  other  Quadrumanes  of  the 


The  Mono  {Aielea  hj/poxanthtu). 
very  nearly  to  the  A.  Arachnoidal  as  well  in  the  colour  of  its  far  as 
in  the  general  form  and  proportions  of  its  body  and  members; 
but  it  is  readily  distinguished  from  that  species  as  well  as  from  all  the 
other  AteUa  hitherto  described,  by  the  presence  of  a  small  rudimentair 
thumb  on  the  fore  hands.  The  face  also  is  more  imiformly  cortred 
with  hair  than  in  the  generality  of  the  other  species,  being  naked  odI; 
about  the  region  of  the  eyes ;  the  hairs  which  compose  the  eyebrows 
are  long,  black,  and  directed  upwards  :  the  cheeks,  lips,  nose,  and  a 
narrow  line  descending;  from  the  forehead,  are  covered  with  abort  bairs 
of  a  pale  yellowish-white  colour ;  the  chin  also  is  furnished  ^itb  abort 
hair  of  the  same  colour  and  quality,  but  intermixed  with  thinly 
scattered  long  black  hairs,  forming  a  species  of  beard,  and  extending 
over  the  upper  lip  in  the  form  of  thin  moustaches.  The  ears  are 
small  and  nearly  concealed  by  the  hair  of  the  head,  which  though  n<3t 
veiy  long  is  thickly  furnished,  and  of  a  pale  gray  colour  eligbtlj 
tinged  with  yellow.  The  whole  body  and  members  are  of  a  uniform 
grayish-fuwn  colour,  only  differing  in  the  greater  degree  of  intensity 
which  distinguishes  the  back  and  upper  parts  from  those  beneath,  and 
in  the  lighter  gray  tinge  which  predominates  on  the  extremities.  The 
backs  of  the  fingers  are  hairy  down  to  the  very  nails,  and  there  ii  a 
rudiment  of  .a  thumb  on  the  fore  hands,  covered  with  a  short 
compressed  nail. 

The  Mono  was  discovered  by  Prince  Maximilian  of  Neuwied,  during 
his  travels  in  Brazil.  It  is  the  lai^gest  species  of  the  Quadrumanea 
which  inhabit  the  part  of  the  country  through  which  that  acientific 
traveller  passed,  and  though  sufiiciently  common  in  particular  distnct^ 
appears  to  have  upon  the  whole  but  a  very  limited  geographical  range 
Its  hide  is  said  to  be  more  impervious  to  moisture  than  any  oth^ 
description  of  fur  known  in  that  part  of  the  world,  and  for  thin 
reason  the  Brazilian  sportsmen  have  cases  of  the  skin  of  the  Mono 
made  to  protect  the  locks  of  their  g^uns  from  the  rain. 

8.  A,  subpentacUtctylut  (Geoffrey),  the  Chameck,  the  last  apeciea  of 
the  genus  distinctly  known  at  present,  resembles  the  Mono  in  baring 
a  small  rudimentaiy  thumb  on  the  anterior  extremities,  but  it  is 
without  a  nail,  and  in  other  respects  the  two  ^nimnla  are  sufficiently 
distinguished  bv  their  difference  of  colour  and  habitat  The  Cbameck 
indeed  approaches  more  nearly  in  external  form  and  appearance  to  the 
Quata  than  to  any  other  of  its  congeners,  being  furnished  with  a 
similar  coat  of  long  dense  hair,  of  an  intense  and  imifonn  blade 
colour ;  but  it  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  that  species  by  the 
presence  of  the  rudimentary  thumb  on  the  anterior  memhera,  as  weU 
as  by  its  size,  which  considerably  exceeds  that  of  the  Quata.  It  has  a 
protuberant  muzzle,  and  its  lips,  like  those  of  the  Quata,  are  capable 
of  prolongation;  the  forehead  is  high;  the  faoe^  cheeks,  eaifl>  and  chin, 


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ATHANAS. 


ATROPA. 


are  naked  and  of  a  brown  colour,  with  a  few  long  black  bain  thinly 
scattered  over  them ;  the  hair  of  the  head  is  long;  matted,  and 
directed  forwards  over  the  forehead,  that  of  the  body  and  members 
very  long  and  thick ;  the  fingers,  bol^  upon  the  anterior  and  posterior 
extremities,  are  long,  slender,  and  nearly  naked ;  the  tail  is  considerably 
longer  than  the  body,  very  thick  and  covered  at  the  base  with  close 
shaggy  hair,  but  attenuated  towards  the  point,  where  it  is  more 
sparingly  furnished  with  shorter  hair,  and  entirely  naked  underneath. 

This  species  inhabits  Guyana  and  some  of  the  neighbouring  provinces 
of  Brazil  Von  Sack,  in  his  *  Voyage  to  Surinam,'  gives  the  following 
account  of  its  manners  imder  the  name  of  Quata,  with  which  species 
its  general  appearance  probably  causes  it  to  be  frequently  confounded. 
**  The  Quata,"  says  this  author,  "  is  of  a  very  docile  disposition,  and 
capable  of  being  quite  domesticated.  I  have  seen  a  pair  of  them  at  a 
ffentleman's  house  at  Paramaribo  which  were  left  quite  at  liberty. 
When  the  female  negroes  were  employed  at  their  needlework,  they 
used  to  come  and  sit  amongst  them,  and  play  with  a  piece  of  paper, 
and  afterwards  go  out  to  gambol  upon  the  trees,  but  never  went  over 
to  the  neighbouring  gardens ;  and  they  knew  well  the  usual  hour  of 
dinner  at  their  mastei^s,  when  they  would  come  to  the  gallery,  look 
in  at  the  windows,  though  without  attempting  to  enter  into  the  room, 
being  aware  that  this  was  a  liberty  not  allowed  them ;  they  therefore 
patiently  waited  for  their  dinner  on  the  outside." 

ATHANAS  (Leach),  a  genus  of  the  Long-Tailed  Onutaeea,  bearing 
much  resemblance  to  Lytmata  (Risso),  from  which  it  di£fers  in  havixijg 
the  first  pair  of  feet  of  larger  size  than  the  rest,  while  the  second  pair 
of  Lytmaia  are  the  largest.  It  is  small  in  size,  and  has  been  taken  on 
the  south  coast  of  England  and  on  the  shores  of  France. 

ATLANTA,  a  genus  of  the  ffeteropodous  MoUmca  of  Lamarek, 
which  Cuvier  places  next  to  Oarin<xria.  The  animal  is  very  small, 
and  the  shell  very  delicate. 
Lamanon  thought  that  he 
had  discovered  in  one  of 
these  e^ells  the  original  t>f 
the  fossil  Ammonites,  or 
Comua  Amwumit,  which 
however  must  have  be- 
longed to  the  class  of 
Cephalopodous  Mollusks, 
or  cuttle-Uke  animals. 
Atlanta  inhabits  the  Indian 
seas.    [Gasteropoda.] 

Lesueurdescribes  another  ^ 
marine  genus,  Atlas,  which  ^ 
must  not   be   confounded 
with  the  above.    Atlas  has 

no  shell ;  and  Cuvier  con-        Atlanta  PeronU.  a,  natural  8ir.o. 

fesses  his  inability  to  class  it^ ''  so  confused,"  says  he, ''  is  the  descrip- 
tion." De  Blainville  thinks  that  it  belongs  to  the  same  family  as 
Gasteroptera,  and  places  it  accordingly  under  Akera,  though  he  con- 
fesses that  it  is  not  entirely  known. 

ATLAS,  the  first  vertebra  of  the  neck,  so  named  because  it  sustains 
the  globe  of  the  head.  It  differs  in  several  important  cireumstances 
from  all  the  other  vertebns  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
spinal  oolimm,  because  it  has  distinct  and  peculiar  offices  to  perform. 
It  has  to  support  the  head,  and  to  allow  it  the  power  of  exercising  two 
different  kinds  of  motion,  namely,  a  motion  forwards  and  backwards, 
or  that  of  flexion  and  extension ;  and  a  rotatory  motion,  or  the  power 
of  describing  a  certain  portion  of  a  circle,  as  it  does  when  it  turns  from 
side  to  side.  These  motions  are  accomplished  by  the  peculiar  mode 
in  which  the  head  is  connected  to  the  atlas,  and  the  atlas  to  the 
second  vertebra  of  the  neck,  the  Verttbra  dmtaJta^  or  Axis.  The  head 
is  so  united  with  the  atlas  as  to  form  a  perfect  hinge-joint^  that  is,  a 
joint  which  admits  of  flexion  and  extension,  or  a  motion  forwards  and 
backwards.  The  second  vertebra,  the  dentata,  forming  a  pivot  on 
which  the  atlas  turns,  and  therefore  called  axis,  is  united  with  the 
atlas  in  such  a  maimer  as  to  constitute  a  perfect  rotation-joint^  or  a 
joint  which  admits  of  a  rotatory  motion.  The  head  being  firmly  con- 
nected with  the  atlas  and  carried  round  with  it  whenever  the  latter 
tarns  upon  its  axis,  it  is  plain  that  by  the  combination  of  the  two 
joints,  namely,  the  hinge-joint  and  the  rotation-joint,  the  head  can  be 
moved  in  every  direction — forwards,  backwards,  and  frt>m  side  to  side. 
In  the  construction  of  these  joints  such  is  the  perfection  of  the 
mechanism  that  these  combined  motions  are  attained  to  the  utmost 
extent,  and  are  performed  with  the  greatest  ease.  The  connection  of 
the  different  parts  with  each  other  forms  a  union  'of  amazing 
strength  and  security,  and  at  the  same  time  certain  organs  of  extreme 
delicacy  and  of  vital  importance  are  effectually  guarded  from  ii^ury. 
[Spifnal  Column,  under  Skeliton.] 

A'TRIPLEX,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
ChenopodiaeecB  and  the  tribe  Atriplicecs,  It  has  monoecious  rarely 
perfect  flowers,  the  perigone  of  two  more  or  less  connected  parts,  two 
stigmas,  a  fr-ee  membranous  pericarp,  a  crustaceous  testa ;  tiie  seed  is 
vertical,  attached  by  a  lateral  hilum,  either  near  the  base  or  by  means 
of  an  elongated  funiculus  in  the  middle  of  the  side ;  the  radicle  basal ; 
the  stamens  five,  continuous.  Most  of  the  species  of  this  genus  are 
insignificant  weeds,  and  are  sometimes  troublesome  pests  m  corn-fields. 
Bnbingt'jn,  in  his  '  Manual  of  British  Botany,'  enumerates  ten  species 

JTAT.  HI8T.  DIV.  VOL.  L 


as  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain.  The  most  common  forms  of  the  genus 
on  cultivated  lands  are  A.  angustifolia,  A.  erecta,  and  A.  patukt.  Mr. 
Babington  has  described  a  new  species,  which  is  also  found  not 
unconmionly  in  the  United  Kingdom.  This  is  A .  ddtoidea  (Babington)  : 
it  has  an  erect  stem  with  ascending  branches;  opposite  leaves,  all 
hastate-triangular,  with  two  descending  lobes  unequally  dentate  or 
sinuate-dentate ;  the  perigone  of  the  fruit  ovate-triangular,  dentate, 
tunicated  on  the  back,  rather  longer  than  the  fruit,  collected  into  a 
many-flowered,  branched,  dense  panicle;  seeds  smooth,  shining. 
A.  roseoy  A,  ktciniata,  A.  UttoraUs,  are  frequent  plants  on  the  sea-shore. 
A.prastrata  is  a  coast  plant,  but  is  rare  in  Great  Britain,  and  Babington 
suspects  that  it  may  be  a  maritime  form  of  A.  patula, 

A'TROPA,  a  genus  of  Dicotyledonous  Plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  SolanacecB,  and  consi sting  for  the  most  part  of  poisonous 
species.  It  is  distinguished  from  otiber  genera  of  the  same  natural 
order  by  its  regular  bell-shaped  corolla,  its  5-parted  permanent 
calyx,  which  never  acquires  a  bladdery  appearance,  and  by  its  succu- 
lent fruit. 

Atropa  BeUadonna,  Deadly  Nightshade,  or  Dwale,  is  found  not 
unfrequenUy  in  thickets  and  hedges  in  this  country.    The  whole 


Deadly  Nightshade  {Atropa  Belladonna). 
1,  A  corolla  cat  open,  showing  the  position  of  the  stamens ;  2,  the  calyx, 
with  the  pistil ;  3,  a  berry  eat  in  half 'to  show  iU  two  cells,  in  each  of  which 
are  several  seeds. 

plant  is  of  a  lightish  green  colour,  except  the  flowers,  which  are  large 
and  of  a  dingy  brownish  purple,  and  tiie  berries,  which  are  of  the 
rich  deep  bl^^  of  black  cherries.  The  root  is  perermial,  the  stem 
grows  about  2  feet  high,  and  the  leaves  are  acute,  with  an  oblong 
figure,  tapering  to  each  end.  The  flowers  are  bell-shaped,  laiger  than 
those  of  the  harebell,  and  placed  singly  in  the  bosom  of  the  leaves. 
The  border  of  the  corolla  is  cut  into  5  equal  lobes ;  there  are  5  stamens, 
a  tapering  pistil  with  2  cells,  and  many  seeds  in  the  ovary,  a  long 
slender  style,  and  a  flattened  stigma  slightiy  divided  into  two  lobes. 
The  odour  of  the  whole  plant  is  nauseous  and  oppressive,  as  if  to  warn 
us  of  its  venomous  nature.  It  is  in  the  leaves,  root,  and  berries  that 
the  poison  resides,  and  particularly  in  the  berries,  which  from  their 
resemblance  to  cherries  have  often  been  eaten  by  children  with  fatal 
consequences.  The  active  property  of  Belladorma,  though,  most  com- 
monly remarked  in  the  friiit^  exists  also  in  the  leaves,  and  especially 
in  tiie  roots,  both  of  which  have  the  same  acrid  narcotic  property. 
They  have  nevertheless  been  frequentiy  employed  medidsiall^,  and 
extract  of  Belladonna  u  one  of  the  most  energetic  preparations  m  the 
modem  Materia  Medica. 

Atropa  Mamdragora,  or  Mandrake,  is  another  species  still  more 
venomous  and  dangerous  than  the  last.  It  is  found  in  manv  parts  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  particularly  in  the  Grecian  i^ands,  where  it  is 
common.  Its  root  is  a  lai^  dark-coloured  fleshy  mass,  often  divided 
into  two  or  three  forks,  which  have  be«n  fancied  to  resemble  a  human 
body ;  this  circimistance,  and  its  well-known  poisonous  qualities^  gave 

I 


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ATRYPA. 


ATYA. 


sio 


it  in  the  days  of  popular  ignorance  and  credulity  the  reputation  of 
oeing  endowed  with  animal  feelings ;  the  roota  were  said  to  ehriek 
when  torn  from  the  earth,  and  it  was  accounted  dangerous  to  disturb 
them. 


Mandrake  {Atropa  Mandragora), 

This  remarkablo  plant  has  no  apparent  stem,  but  its  long  hairy 
sharp-x>ointed  leaves  lise  from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  form  a 
deep  green  tuft,  from  the  midst  of  which  the  flowers  rise  on  slender 
stalks  about  two  inches  long.  Their  corolla  is  of  a  whitish  colour, 
stained  with  veins  of  dingy  purple ;  the  fruit  is  pale  orange-coloured, 
and  about  as  large  as  a  sparrow's  egg.  The  smell  of  the  whole 
plant  is  very  fetid. 

Atropa  phytaloideSf  a  plant  called  Alkekengi  in  gardens,  where  it 
is  often  cultivated  as  a  hardy  annual,  belongs  now  to  the  genus 
Nicandra. 

ATRYPA  (Dalman),  a  subdivision  of  the  great  genus  Terehratvloj 
chiefly  (if  not  entirely)  confined  to  a  fossil  state,  and  to  the  Palaeozoic 
Strata.  Many  of  the  Spiriferas  of  Sowerby  (as  S.  glabra^  S.  fimbriaia) 
and  some  of  the  TercbrcUiUce  of  the  same  author  (as  T.  pugnut),  have 
been  referred  to  this  genus.     T.  psUtacea  is  the  recent  analogue. 

ATT  ALE' A,  a  genus  of  Palms,  found  chiefly  in  the  tropical  parts 
of  America,  where  it  occupies  the  richest  soil  and  the  hottest  forests, 
rarely  ascending  the  sides  of  mountains,  or  spreading  from  the  woods 
into  the  open  coimtry.  It  extends,  according  to  Yon  Mortius,  as  far 
south  as  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  It  belongs  to  the  same  division  of 
the  natural  order  PcUmaceoe  as  the  cocoa-nut»  from  which  as  well  m 
from  all  its  immediate  allies,  except  Areng  [Arenq],  it  is  distinguished 
by  its  nut  containing  three  cells  and  three  seeds.  It  is  described  by 
Von  Martius  as  consLsting  of  lofty  or  middle-sized  or  even  occasionally 
stcmless  species,  with  a  thickish  trunk,  the  wood  of  which  is  soft  and 
of  a  reddish-brown  colour ;  it  is  irregularly  marked  externally  with 
scars,  and  is  terminated  by  laige  pinnated  leaves,  the  stalks  of  which 
are  broad,  and  the  segments  smoothish,  rather  thick,  plaited,  and 
neat-looking.  The  bunches  of  fruit  are  simply  branched,  but  are 
often  of  a  vast  size,  and  hang  down  from  the  bosoms  of  the 
leaves,  covered  with  brownish  nuts,  the  seeds  of  which  are  eatable. 
Several  species  are  known,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  are  the  two 
following : — 

AttaUa  funifera,  called  by  the  natives  Piacaba,  is  found  in  the 
native  for^its  of  the  maritime  provinces  of  Brazil,  where  it  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  gifts  which  the  bountiful  hand  of  nature  has  conferred 
on  man.  The  best  cordage  in  South  America  for  naval  purposes  is 
manufactured  from  the  fibres  of  the  leaf-stalks  and  other  parts;  such 
ropes  are  of  great  strength,  and  are  extremely  durable  in  salt  water  : 
no  other  cables  are  employed  in  a  great  part  of  the  Brazilian  navy. 
Hus  species  does  not  grow  more  t^m  from  20  to  80  feet  high ;  its 
nuts,  which  are  about  as  large  as  an  ostrich's  egg,  have  a  hard  shell 
like  that  of  the  cocoa-nut. 

AttaUa  compta,  another  species,  is  equally  useful,  but  for  different 
purposes.  This  plant,  the  Pindova  of  the  old  writers  on  Brazil,  and 
the  Jndajk  of  the  modem  Portuguese,  forms  delightful  groves  in  the 
interior  of  the  country,  growing  from  20  to  50  feet  clear  of  its  branch- 
like leaves ;  the  latter  are  from  15  to  20  feet  long,  and  about  8  feet  wide. 
The  fruit  is  the  sixe  of  a  goose's  egg,  and  contains  an  eatable  kernel, 


of  which  the  negroea  are  fond.    Its  leaTea  form  an  exoeUent  thatdi, 
and  are  woven  into  hata  mats,  and  baskets. 


Attalea  compta. 

AttaUa  tpeciota  is  the  plant  which,  in  the  provinces  of  Maranlu3 
and  Para,  furnishes  the  nuts  which  the  Brazilians  bum  for  the  purpoee 
of  smoking-  the  juice  of  Siphonia  eUutica,  or  Indian  Rubber,  until  it 
becomes  bUck. 

A'TYA,  a  genus  of  Crustaceous  Animals,  thus  characterised  by 
Leach : — 

Antennso,  interior,  furnished  with  two  bristles,  inserted  in  the  same 
horizontal  line ;  exterior,  inserted  below  the  interior,  about  the  length 
of  the  body,  furnished  at  the  base  with  a  great  scale  which  is 
unidentate,  or  one-toothed,  externally. 

Pedipalpi  external,  the  last  joint  shbrtest ;  flagrum  elongated. 

Feet :  the  two  anterior  pairs  equal,  penultimate  joint  shortest ;  last 
joint  divided ;  lacinia)  equal,  furnished  at  the  apex  with  long  cilia ; 
third  pair  huge,  unequal,  furnished  with  a  very  short  nau;  two 
posterior  pairs  furnished  with  a  moderate-sized  naiL 

Tail,  with  the  exterior  lamella  bipartite. 


Atya 

"It  forms,"  says  Leadi,  ''a  peculiar  subdivisioa  of  the  Shrimp 
Family,  and  one  species  only  is  known." 


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ATYLUS. 


AUGITE. 


84J 


A'TYLUS^  ft  genuB  of  Crustaoeoiu  Anlmak,  tbiu  chaFacterised  by 
Leach: — 

Antennsd  oompoeed  of  four  joints,  the  last  of  which  is  formed  of 
Beveral  minute  artioulationB :  upper  ones  rather  shortest,  with  the 
second  joint  longer  than  the 
third ;  under  ones  with  the 
aeoond  joint  rather  shorter 
than  the  third. 

Eyes  alightly  promxnenty 
inserted  on  a  process  be- 
tween the  tipper  and  lower 
antwuiw. 

L^gp  fourteen;  first  and 
second  pair  furnished  with  ,    , 

a  smaU  oompressed  hand,  ^'y'"*  carmaiM*. 

which  has  a  moveable  thumb;  the  other  pairs  having  only  a  simple 
claw. 

Tail,  on  each  side,  with  a  triple  series  of  double  styles ;  upper  part 
on  each  side  anned  with  a  small  spine  or  style. 

Body  (including  the  head)  composed  of  twelve  joints.  Example — 
Atylua  carineUUB  {Qammanu  earinattu,  Fabr.). 

AUCHE'NIA,  a  genus  of  Ruminating  Mammalia.     [Llama.] 

AU'CUBA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Comacece,  Only  one  species  is  known.  It  is  a  Japanese  plant,  com- 
monly cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  this  country  as  a  hardy  evergreen 
shrub,  remarkable  for  its  shining  pale-green  leaves  motUed  with 
yellow,  hence  sometimes  called  Variegated  La^reL  It  is  described  by 
Thunbeig  as  growing  to  the  height  of  a  man  or  higher,  and  as  com- 
mon in  various  places  in  Japan,  both  wild  and  eultivated.  Its  fruit, 
which  it  bears  in  March,  is  a  red  berry,  about  the  size  of  that  of  a 
laurel,  and  containing  a  single  stone^  with  a  bitter  nauseous  kemeL 
This  plant  is  dicecious,  and  in  this  country  we  have  only  the  pistilli- 
ferous  flowers.  The  plant,  however,  which  is  cultivated  in  this  country 
is  only  a  variety :  in  its  natural  state  it  is  said  to  have  brownish-green 
leaves  without  any  blotdies. 

AUQITK  The  minerals  to  which  this  name  has  been  applied 
present  us  with  some  of  the  most  interesting  and  at  the  same  time 
most  difficult  investigations  that  can  &11  under  the  notice  of  the  mine- 
ralogist and  diemist^  and  have  frequently  occupied  the  attention  of 
the  most  eminent  men  in  both  sdenoes.  Nor  are  these  bodies 
unworthy  of  such  attention ;  for  not  only  would  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  their  constitution,  and  the  relation  which  they  bear  to  other  mine- 
rals, particularly  to  the  genus  HorwUende,  tend  muchtothep^ection 
of  the  mineralogical  inrstem ;  but,  owing  to  their  frequent  occurrence 
in  nature,  and  from  their  forming  one  of  the  principal  ingredients  in 
many  porphyritic  and  trap  rocks,  such  as  the  Syenite,  DiaUage,  and 
Schorl-Ro«ks,  Qreenstone,  &c,  they  form  a  class  of  bodies  of  the 
highest  importance  to  the  geologist.  A  due  regard  to  the  circum- 
stances which  are  favouraU^  to  the  formation  of  one  or  other  of  the 
species,  to  the  ezdusion  of  the  rest,  would  be  likely  to  afford  a  safe 
guide  in  many  geological  inquiries  into  the  character  and  formation 
of  rocks  of  igneous  origin.  Werner  was  the  first  to  divide  a  large 
class  of  minerals  bccurriDg  commonly  in  basalt,  lavas,  and  other 
volcanic  rocks,  into  two  species,  to  which  he  applied  the  names  of 
Augite  and  HtlnUiUfnde.  This  division  was  founded  on  the  difference 
existing  between  the  crystallised  forms  and  structure,  which,  according 
to  the  experience  up  to  that  time,  were  never  associated  with  each 


AugUe,  m  Pyroxene, 

ng.i. 


JlombUndtf  or  Amphihele, 
Fig.  2. 


Inclination  of  M  on  M  is 

87'»    C 

ladlaaUon  of  M  on  M  is  124''  31' 

Monr 

188»  33' 

Mono: 

117*44' 

Mont 

186' 27' 

P  onM 

lOa"*  18' 

tone 

120°  57' 

M 

9 

Pen  — 

104'  57' 

-  on  r 

106=*  6' 

M 

s 

r  on  r 
r      H 

148''  25' 

-on  — 

104*  57' 

r      M 

9    H 

Bj  -,  — ,  is  mesat  the  edge  formed  hy  the  intersection  of  the  faces  «  and  «, 
9   U  M  and  M,  fto. 

other.    The  same  division  was  shortly  after  adopted  by  Haiiy,  who 
applied  to  them  the  names  of  Pyroxene  and  Am^ibole,  and  gave  the 


measurements,  determining  the  oblique  rhombic  prisms,  with  thei? 
most  general  modifications  characteristic  of  either  species,  which 
however  we  have  modified  by  the  later  measurements  of  Rose, 
Mitscherlich,  and  Eupffer. 

Professor  Mohs,  however,  together  with  Professor  Jameson  of 
Edinburgh,  has  used  the  term  Augite  to  denote  the  eighth  genus  of 
their  respective  systems,  which  consists  of  the  four  species  designated 
as  follows : — 

First  species.  The  ObUque-Edged  Augite,  corresponding  with  the 
Augite  of  Werner,  and  Pyroxene  of  Haiiy. 

Second  species.  The  Straight-Edged  Augite,  corresponding  to. 
Hornblende  and  Amphibde, 

Third  species.  Pritmatoidal  Augite,  containing  as  sub-species  the 
minerals  Sj^idote  or  Zoiaite. 

Fourth  species.    Prismatic  Augite;  Tabular  Spar  or  Wottaatonite. 

Berzelius,  on  the  contrary,  viewing  the  subject  in  a  chemical  point 
of  view,  has  been  induced  to  use  the  term  Augite  or  Pyroxene,  Horn* 
blende  or  Amphibole,  in  the  same  signification  as  employed  by  Werner 
and  HaUy.  According  to  him,  the  Augites  are  composed  of  one  equi- 
valent of  the  bisilicate  of  lime  unit^  with  one  equivalent  of  the 
biailicate  of  magnesia. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  this  genus  formed  by  the  removal  of 
the  magnesia  or  lime,  which  are  replaced  either  by  one  or  both  of  the 
isomorphous  substances — the  protoxide  of  iron,  and  protoxide  of 
manganese.    Of  these  the  following  are  the  principal : — 

1.  JHopeide,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  type  of  the  Augite 
Genus,  is  readily  recognised  by  the  form  of  its  crystal  given  in  fig.  1, 
and  by  the  direction  of  its  four  cleavage  planes,  the  most  perfect 
corresponding  with  the  faces  M,  those  in  ike  direction  of  r  and  I  being 
lees  easily  obtained ;  and  by  its  pale-green  or  grayish-white  colour, 
and  vitreous  lustre.  Its  hardness  is  6'6,  and  its  specific  gravity  is 
8*299.  Alone  before  the  blowpipe  it  melts  into  a  colourless  semi- 
transparent  glass ;  with  borax,  very  readily  into  a  transparent  glasa 
It  consists  chiefly  of  silica,  lime,  and  magnesia,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
following  analysis  of  a  variety  from  Tammare  by  Bonsdorff : — 


Silica     . 

.    54-83 

Protoxide  of  Iron 

.      0-99 

Lime 

.    .    24-76 

Aliin^JTia-    .          .          • 

.      0-28 

Magnesia 

.    18-55 

Loss  by  heating    . 

.  •  0-32 

99-73 
Several  varieties,  little  differing  from  the  above,  ure  called  Bachalite 
and  FoMoMe,  names  indicative  of  their  locality. 

2.  Hedenbergite  consists  chiefly  of  silica,  lime,  and  protoxide  of  iron, 
as  may  be  seen  by  the  following  analysis  by  G.  Rose  of  a  variety  from 
Lunabeig : — 

Silica 49-01 

Lime 20*87 

Protoxide  of  Iron       ' 26*08 

Protoxide  of  Manganese  with  Magnesia  .        .    .      2'98 

98*94 
It  is  of  a  dark-green  colour,  sometimes  nearly  black. 

S.  Sahlite,  those  varieties  in  which  the  magnesia  is  only  in  part 
replaced  by  protoxide  of  iron,  and  which  may  be  regarded  as  consist- 
ing of  one  equivalent  of  Hedenbergite  united  with  two  of  JHopeide. 
A  variety  is  called  MalakotUk.  ('Anwendung  der  Lothrohrs,'  by 
Berseliua) 

4.  DiaUage.  The  difference  in  the  analysis  by  Eohler  of  two  speci- 
mens, the  first  from  Tuscany,  the  second  from  Ulthenthal  in  the 
Tyrol,  were  as  follows : — 

Snica 58*20  56*81 

Lune 1908  219 

Magnesia 14*91  29*67 

Protoxide  of  Iron     .        .        .    .      8*67  8*46 

Protoxide  of  Manganese  .      0.88  0*61 

Alumina 2*47  2*07 

Water 1-77  0-21 


100*48  100*02 

This  variety  is  characterised  by  its  mothei^of-pearl  lustre,  and  by 
its  possessing  the  most  perfect  cleavage  in  the  direction  of  the  diagonal 
of  the  prism.  It  is  seldom  foimd  in  ^rfect  cryatals.  Its  most  general 
colour  is  a  bronze  yellow. 

5.  Sypereihene,  which  is  very  similar  in  its  general  appearances  and 
characters  to  DiaUage,  is  a  biailicate  of  iron  and  magnesia.  Both  of 
the  last-mentioned  varieties  may  be  distinguished  from  the  former,  as 
well  as  fix>m  each  other,  by  means  of  the  blowpipe,  and  by  attending 
to  the  following  characters  as  stated  by  Berzelius : — 

DiaUage  alone  in  a  matrass  decrepitates,  becomes  of  a  lighter  colour, 
and  gives  off  a  little  water. 

On  charcoal  it  is  with  difficulty  melted  on  the  edges  into  a  gray 
scoria. 

With  borax  it  is  with  difficulty  fused  into  a  clear  glass,  somewhat 
coloured  by  the  protoxide  of  iron. 

It  is  decomposed  by  the  phosphate  of  soda  and  ammonia,  with  the 
development  of  the  siUca. 

Myperethene,  on  the  contrary,  when  heatod  alone  in  the  matrass, 
deorepitatee  slightly,  gives  out  a  little  water,  but  does  not  change  it0 


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AUOITE. 


AUK. 


SM 


i^paaFance ;  while  on  charcoal  it  readily  fomiB  a  green  opaque  glaaa, 
as  is  also  the  case  when  heated  with  borax. 

The  salt  of  phosphorua  does  not  apparently  decompoae  it,  but  the 
mineral  at  first  ^becomes  rounded  on  the  edges,  and  may  at  length  be 
entirely  ftued. 

The  structure  also  deaerres  particular  attention,  the  deayage-planes 
Sn  Mypertihaie  being  perfect,  both  in  the  direction  of  the  fitoes  r 
and  M,  the  latter  of  which  are  obtained  in  Diallage  with  veiy  great 
difficulty. 

We  have  now  described  the  Tarious  spedes  generally  considered  as 
comprehended  within  the  genus  Augite  or  Pyroxene ;  but  Professor 
Gustaye  Rose  has  endeavoured  to  prove  the  necessity  of  uniting  Augite 
and  MomUende  {Pyroxene  and  Amphibole)  into  one  genus.  His  argu- 
ments for*  this  union  are  the  following :— He  first  shows  that  the  two 
prisms  of  AugUe  and  JSomJblendef  however  different  in  appearance, 
admit  of  being  derived  the  one  from  the  other,  according  to  the  laws 
observed  to  connect  the  ciTBtallographic  forms  of  varieties  of  the  same 

genus  in  other 
minerals.  To  show 
this,  let  the  accom- 
panying parallelo- 
gram, whose  semi- 
diagonals  are  a  and 
hf  represent  the 
horizontal  section 
of  the  prism  of 
Augite;  since  the 
whole  angle  of  this 
prismatAis87''6', 
h  is  the  tangent  of 
an  angle  of  43'  83' ; 
if  this  tangent  be  doubled,  the  corresponding  angle  will  be  found  to 
be  62*  16'  26",  the  double  giving  124*  80'  50 ',  an  angle  agreeing  most 
doeely  with  124*  SI',  the  angle  obtained  by  Hitscherlich  in  a  spedes 
of  Hornblende  when  measured  by  WoUaston's  reflecting  goniometer. 
The  larger  parallelogram,  therefore,  formed  by  doubling  the  diagonal  6, 
is  the  horiaontal  section  of  the  prism  of  Hornblende, 

A  similar  rdation  is  also  a^roximately  true  for  the  inclination  of 
the  faces  e  in  Augite  and  r  in  Hornblende;  for  if  the  angle  120**  67'  of 


by  Rose. 

His  argument  drawn  from  the  chemical  constitution  of  these 
minerals  is  by  no  means  so  satis&ctory;  for  though  in  HorMende  we 
find  a  series  of  bisilicates  of  the  same  bases,  and  as  it  were  running 
parallel  with  those  already  described  as  Augitee,  the  circumstance 
observed  by  Bonsdor£^  that  all  the  varieties  of  Hornblende  contain 
fluorine,  while  Oustave  Rose  has  been  unable  to  detect  that  dement 
in  Augite,  weakens  the  connection  between  these  minerals,  and  renders 
the  detennination  of  what  part  the  fluorine  acts  in  their  constitution 
a  most  desirable  object.  Our  ignorance  on  this  point,  however,  and 
the  difficulty  of  determining  what  is  the  action  of  the  alumina,  which 
occurs  in  oondderable  quantity  in  some  HornblendeBf  prevent  us  from 
forming  any  opinion  from  the  results  of  chemical  analysis. 

The  observations  of  Rose,  however,  on  the  Qreenstone  of  the 
Uralian  Mountains,  tend  to  prove  the  existence  of  that  connection 
between  the  forms  of  Augite  end  Hornblende  which  is  essential  to 
their  constituting  one  genus,  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner  than  any 
remark  hitherto  made.  He  discovered  in  a  soft  grayish  Qreenstone, 
near  the  village  of  Mostowaja,  which  is  dtuated  north  of  Katharinen- 
Durg,  and  on  the  road  to  Newiansk,  and  also  at  the  gold-washings  of 
CavdUnski,  near  Miask,  in  a  Gtreenstone  somewhat  hiuder  and  duker 
than  the  former,  imbedded  crsrstals,  having  the  form  of  Augite,  but 
not  its  cleavage  planes,  these  last  being  found  to  coincide  with  those 
of  Hornblende.  This  mineral  was  therefore  either  Hornblende  in  the 
form  of  Augite,  or  Augite  with  the  cleavage  planes  of  Hornblende, 

At  the  \111age  of  Muldakajewsk,  near  l£ask,  he  discovered  still 
more  interesting  crystals  embedded  in  a  Qreenstone  similar  to  that 
last  described.  They  were  abundant,  and  possessed  the  form  of  A  ugite : 
the  smaller  crystals  had  cleavage-planes  paralld  to  the  mdes  of  the 
prism  of  HonMende,  and  were  similar  in  tiieir  appearance  and  colour 
to  those  obtained  from  CavellinskL  The  larger  crystals,  however, 
possessed  a  kernel  of  a  grass-green  colour,  and  of  a  lighter  tint  and 
greater  lustre  than  the  exterior.  This  kernel  differed  from  the  darker 
exterior  portion  of  the  crystal,  the  latter  giving  the  deavage  of 
Hornblende,  while  the  former  presented  those  of  Augite,  with  faces 
suffidently  bright  and  perfect  to  admit  of  measurement  by  the  reflect- 
ing goniometer. 

The  observations  of  Mitscherlich  and  Berthier  on  the  formation  of 
Augite  as  an  artifidal  product,  are  so  interesting  in  themselves  and 
throw  so  much  light  on  the  nature  of  Augite  in  general,  and  on  those 
aystals  we  have  just  described,  for  which  Rose  proposes  the  name  of 
UralUe,  that«we  cannot  omit  to  notice  them  in  this  places  Mitscher- 
lidi  has  observed  that  at  many  foundries  in  Sweden  and  Qermany  the 
Bcorias  possessed  the  form,  structure,  and  chemical  composition  of  certain 
minerals  found  in  nature.  From  this  source  he  has  obtained  upwards 
of  forty  varieties;  and  among  these  specimens  possessing  the  form 


and  structure  of  Augite  are  fluently  found,  whereas  HonMendt  has 
never  been  discovered.  Quided  by  tnese  observations,  a  mixtoie  of 
silica,  lime,  and  magnesia,  in  the  proportion  indicated  by  the  fonnula 
of  Dioptidei  given  bdow,  was  submitted  to  fusion  in  the  porcebin-oTeDg 
of  Sevres,  near  Paris.  On  examination,  the  mass  was  found  to  have 
been  completely  fbsed:  it  possessed  deavage-planes  coirespondiDg 
with  those  of  Augite,  and- a  hollow  formed  in  the  centre  from  the  con- 
traction in  cooling  contained  crystals  of  the  form  of  Jig,  1.  By  these 
prooesses  they  failed  in  obtaining  aystals  either  of  the  form  or  stnio- 
ture  of  Homilende, 

Professor  Q.  Rose,  in  accounting  for  this  production  of  i«^  to 
the  exclusion  of  Hornblende,  was  led  to  consider  that  it  was  not  the 
absence  of  the  fluorine,  or  any  error  in  the  pxx>portion  of  the  elements, 
which  prevented  the  production  of  Hornblende,  but  that  it  was  the 
effect  of  the  rapid  cobling.  This  he  fully  confirmed  by  the  following 
experiments : — ^A  li^t-groen  varietv  of  Hornblende,  the  StraJdttem  of 
the  Qermans,  from  Zillerthal  in  tne  Tyrol,  was  submitted  in  a  plati- 
num crudble  to  the  heat  of  a  porcdain  oven.  It  was  completelj 
fused,  and  in  cooling  had  formed  fibrous  tufts  of  dark  crystals,  which 
however  admitted  of  measurement  by  WoUaston's  goniomet^,  when 
the  angles  were  found  to  correspond  with  those  of  ^«^^  A  specimen 
of  Diopeide,  of  the  same  locality,  was  also  fused ;  it  cooled  into  a  dark 
mass,  but  regained  its  former  structure. 

We  may  therefore  consider  it  to  be  demonstrated  that  ii^  is 
formed  whenever  the  process  of  cooling,  and  consequently  of  cryatsl- 
lisation,  is  n^iid;  and  Hornblende,  whai  it  is  conducted  more  slowly. 
Many  circumstances  confirm  this  view:  the  £^rafiy(«s  of  Rose  appear 
to  be  its  natural  consequence ;  for  aa  by  the  laws  of  calorie  we  know 
that  the  quantity  of  heat  lost  during  equal  portions  of  time  varies 
with  the  temperature,  the  exterior  portions  of  the  crystd  from  this 
cause  alone  must  have  ciystallised  under  a  more  gradual  loss  of  heat 
than  the  interior,  while  at  the  same  time  the  temperature  wodd  he 
maintained  by  the  specific  heat  given  out  by  the  parts  first  consolidated. 
The  general  localities  of  AugiU  and  HoniUnde,  and  the  minerals  with 
which  they  are  found  associated,  afford  another  argument  in  fiivonr 
of  this  suppodtion ;  for  Hornblende  is  usually  met  with  in  Syenite, 
Trachyte,  and  Lava,  accompanied  by  Quarts,  Fekpar,  Albite,  &&,— 
minerals  which  deddedly  require  a  dow  process  of  cooling  for  their 
formation ;  on  the  contiaiy,  Augite  occurs  in  Basalt  and  Lava  with 
Olivine,  which  Hitsdierlich  has  re»pognised  in  the  scorise  of  various 
foundries,  and  which  is  therefore  formed  by  a  process  of  rapid  cooling. 
We  are  thus  able  to  account  for  H.  von  Buch's  remark  in  his  obserra- 
tions  on  volcanoes,  that  those  Lavas  which  contain  Fdspar  have 
Hornblende,  but  no  Augite, 

Induced  by  these  circumstances  Rose,  in  a  tabular  view  of  the 
minerals  which  he  has  added  to  his  '  Elements  of  Ciystallogr^^hy/ 
published  at  Berlin  in  18S8,  has  united  into  one  genus  tiie  foHowing 
spedes. 

1.  Diopeide    .    .    .    .  Ca  ai»  -H  Mg  *Si«. 

%8Miie CaSi^.*.^lsi«. 

8.  Hedenbergite  .    .    .  Ca  SP  -4-  Fe  Si>. 

4.  BasdUic  Augite     . .  Ca,  Mg,  Fe,  Al,  Si 

5.  Rot?ibraun8temerz    ,  Mn  Si'. 

6.  Acmite 8  Na  Si>  -h  2  Fek^ 

7.  DiaOage    .    .    .    .MgSi»  +  ^}s?. 

8.  Bromite Mg  Si'. 

9.  Hypertthene   .    .    .  Mg  Si'  -H  Fe  Si». 

10.  Uralite 

11.  Tremolite   .    .    .    .  Ca  Si»  +  8  Mg  Si« 

12.  AntophyUite.    .    . .  Fe  Si^  -i-  9  Mg  Si'. 

U.  Slrahlstein.    .    .    .  Ca,  Mg,  Fe,  i^  Si 

14.  Basaltic  Hornblende  Ca,  Mg,  Fe,  Al,  Si 
AUK,  the  common  name  for  certain  sea-bu^  of  the  family  Alcada, 
including  species  of  the  sub-genera  Alc€t,  Fratercula,  Mergulut,  and 
Phalerie, 

Alca,  [Alca.] 
The  true  Auks,  though  they  are  strictly  oceanic  birda,  scarcdy  ever 
leaving  the  water  eoccept  for  the  purposes  of  reproduction,  will  some- 
times proceed  swiftly  though  awkwardly  on  foot  when  pursued  on 
land.  They  breed  in  laige  companies,  in  caverns  and  rocky  dil^ 
layixig  only  one  disproportionately  large  egg.  Their  food,  which  they 
obtain  by  diving  (an  operation  in  which  they  are  materially  assiated 
by  their  wings  aa  well  aa  by  their  feet),  consists  of  smaU  fiahea, 
crustaceans,  and  other  marine  ft^nimftia  ^e  young  are  said  to  be  fed 
from  the  crops  of  their  parents,  not  only  before  they  are  able  to  leave 
the  place  of  their  birth,  but  also  for  some  time  afterwards. 

The  genus  Alca,  aa  it  is  reduced  by  modem  ornithologists,  indudes 
but  two  spedea  The  first  of  these,  the  Qreat  Auk  {Alca  trnpennu, 
Linnaeus),  is  remarkable  for  the  imperfect  devdopment  of  its  winga 
It  seldom  leaves  the  Arctic  Cirde  and  the  regions  bordering  on  %  vA 


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345 


AUR 


AUK. 


S4t 


is  a  rape  visitant  to  tbe  British  Islea  Dr.  Fleming  however  gives  an 
account  of  one  taken  alive  at  St.  Kilda,  where  they  are  sometimes 
known  to  breed,  which,  even  with  a  long  and  heavy  cord  tied  to  its 


Great  Auk  {A/ca  impennia). 

leg,  swam  under  water  with  extraordinaiy  speed.  The  power  of 
the  apparently  useless  wings  as  organs  of  progression  was  still  more 
strongly  shown  in  the  Qreat  Auk  chased  ineflfectually  by  Mr.  Bullock 
during  his  tour  to  the  Northern  Isles ;  for  the  four  oars  of  the  bird 
are  said  to  have  left  the  six-oared  boat  of  his  pursuers  iar  behind. 
According  to  the  same  authority,  only  a  single  pair  had  been  Imown 
to  breed  in  Papa  Westra  for  several  years.  Newfoundland  is  recorded 
aa  one  of  their  breeding  places,  and  Pennant  relates  that  the  Esqui- 
maux who  frequented  the  island  made  clothing  of  their  skins.  In  the 
ocean  that  washes  the  Faroe  Isles,  Iceland,  and  Qreenland,  where 
they  dwell  in  great  numbers,  they  may  be  frequently  seen  on  the 
floating  ice ;  but  Pennant  says  that  they  are  observed  never  to  wander 
beyond  soimdings,  and  that  seamen  (urect  their  measures  according 
to  their  appearance.  * 

The  food  of  the  Qreat  Auk  consists  principally  of  fish ;  and  the 
Lump-Fish  (Cyclopterua  Iwmpud)  is  said  to  be  its  favourite  morsel. 

The  length  of  the  bird  is  somewhat  under  three  feet.  The  winter 
plumage,  which  begins  to  appear  in  autumn,  leaves  the  cheeks,  throat, 
fore  part  and  sides  of  the  neck  white.  In  spring  the  summer-change 
begins  to  take  place,  and  confines  the  white  on  the  head  to  a  large 
patch,  which  extends  in  front  and  around  the  eyes ;  the  rest  of  the 
nead,  the  neck,  and  upper  plumage  is  of  a  deep  black.  There  is  a 
specimen  of  the  bird  in  its  summer  dress  in  the  British  Museiun.  The 
Qreat  Auk  breeds  in  June  and  July,  laying  one  egg,  about  the  sise  of 
a  swan's,  of  a  whitish-yellow,  marked  with  numerous  lines  and  spots 
of  black,  which  have  been  supposed  to  bear  some  resemblance  to 
Chinese  characters. 

In  the  Black-Billed  Auk,  Bazor-Bill,  or  Murre  (Alca  iorda,  Linnseus), 
the  development  of  the  wings  is  carried  to  the  usual  extent  necessary  for 
the  purposes  of  flight,  though  the  bird  uses  them  with  great  effect  as 
oars  when  swimming  under  water. 

The  northern  hemisphere,  where  they  are  widely  diffused,  is  the 
region  allotted  to  these  birds ;  but  it  is  in  the  higher  latitudes  that 
they  swann.  In  England,  the  Needles  and  other  adjacent  precipitous 
cli£Bi  have  a  fair  share  of  them ;  and  here,  as  in  other  places,  the 
'  dreadful  trade '  of  taking  their  eggs,  which  are  esteemed  a  delicacy  for 
salads  especially,  is  carried  on.  In  Ray's  ed.  of  Willughby  the  habits 
of  the  Bazor-Bill  are  thus  described : — "  It  lays,  sits,  and  breeds  up 
its  young  on  the  ledges  of  the  craggy  diffs  and  steep  rocks  by  the 
seashores  that  are  broken  and  divided  into  many  as  it  were  stairs  or 
shelves,  together  with  the  Coulter-Nebs  and  Guillemots.  The  Manksmen 
are  wont  to  compare  these  rocks,  with  the  birds  sitting  upon  them  in 
breeding-time,  to  an  apothecary's  shop— the  ledges  of  the  rooks 
resembling  the  shelves,  and  the  birds  the  pot&  About  the  Isle  of 
Man  are  veiy  high  cliffs  broken  in  this  manner  into  many  ledges  one 
above  another  from  top  to  bottom.  They  are  wont  to  let  down  men 
by  ropes  from,  the  tops  of  the  cliffii,  to  take  away  the  eggs  and  young 
ones.  They  take  also  the  birds  themselves  when  they  are  sitting  upon 
their  eggs,  with  snares  fastened  to  the  ends  of  long  poles,  and  put 
about  the  necks  of  the  birds.  They  build  no  nests,  but  lay  Uieir  eggs 
upon  the  bare  rocks." 

On  the  coast  of  Labrador  they  abound,  and  the  thousands  of  birds 
there  killed  for  the  take  of  the  breast-feathers  which  are  very  warm 


and  elastic,  and  the  quantities  of  eggs  there  collected,  amoimt  to  almost 
incredible  numbers. 

The  summer  and  winter  dress  of  the  Razor-BiU,  though  different. 


r.tt/.u|--Bill  (Aim  luiftii). 

do  not  vary  so  remarkably  as  the  plumage  of  many  other  birds.  In 
the  summer  dress,  the  white  streak  whid^  goes  to  the  bill  from  the 
eyes  becomes  very  pure ;  and  the  cheeks,  ^ux>at,  and  upper  part  of 
the  front  of  the  neck  are  of  a  deep  black,  shaded  with  reddish.  In 
winter  the  throat  and  fore  part  of  the  neck  are  white. 

The  young  of  the  year  is  by  the  best  authorities  supposed  to  be  the 
Alca  Pica  of  Qmelin. 

The  Razor-Bill  is  little  more  than  15  inches  long.  The  egg  (for  they 
lay  but  one)  is  very  lai:ge  in  proportion  to  the  bird,  being  about  the 
size  of  that  of  a  turkey,  but  of  a  longer  shape,  pointed  towards  the 
smaUer  end,  white  or  sometimes  yeUowish,  blotched,  and  streaked 
with  dark  brown,  chiefly  towards  the  lai^r  end. 

Fraiercula, 
Leaving  the  true  Auks  we  come  to  the  genus  Fraiercvla,  Briss. 
(MornMfi,  lUiger),  of  which  the  Labrador  Auk,  Common  Puffin,  or 


Common  Fuffin  {Fratereuia  Aretiea). 

Coulter-Neb  (Fraiercula  Arctica,   Mormon  fraiercula^  Temm.,  Alca 
Arctica,  Linn.),  may  be  taken  as  an  example. 

Selby  jgives  the  following  account  of  the  habits  of  this  bird,  and  is 
corroborated  by  others  who  have  written  on  the  subject : — "  Although 
the  Puffin  is  found  in  very  high  latitudes,  and  its  distribution  through 
the  Arctic  Circle  is  extensive,  it  is  onl^  known  to  us  as  a  summer 
visitant,  and  that  from  the  south,  makmg  its  first  appearance  in  the 
vicinity  of  its  breeding  stations  about  the  middle  of  April,  and  regu- 
larly departing  between  the  10th  and  20th  of  August  for  the  southern 
coasts  of  France,  Spain,  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  passes 
the  remainder  of  the  year.  It  breeds  in  great  numbers  upon  Priest- 
holm  Island,  off  the  coast  of  Anglesey,  on  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  most 
of  the  islands  indeed  of  the  English  and  Scottish  coasts.  Many  resort 
to  the  Faroe  Islands,  selecting  such  as  are  covered  with  a  stratum  of 
vegetable  mould ;  and  here  they  dig  their  own  burrows,  from  there 
not  being  any  rabbits  to  dispossess  upon  the  pcu-ticular  iilets  they 
frequent.  They  commence  this  operation  about  the  first  week  in  May, 
and  t^e  hole  is  generally  excavated  to  the  depth  of  three  feet^  often 


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in  a  ourying  direction,  and  occasionally  with  two  entrances.  When 
engaged  in  digging,  which  is  principally  performed  by  the  males,  they 
are  sometimes  so  intent  upon  their  work  as  to  admit  of  being  taken 
by  hand,  and  the  same  may  also  be  done  during  incubation.  At  this 
period  I  have  frequently  obtained  specimens  by  thrusting  my  arm  into 
the  biuTow,  though  at  the  risk  of  reoeiving  a  severe  bite  from  the 
powerful  and  sharp-edged  bill  of  the  old  bird.  At  the  farther  end  of 
this  hole  the  single  egg  is  deposited,  which  in  size  nearly  equals  that 
of  a  pullet^  and,  as  Pennant  observes,  varies  in  form ;  in  some  instances 
one  end  being  acute,  and  in  others  both  equally  obtuse.  Its  colour 
when  first  laid  is  white,  but  it  soon  becomes  soiled  and  dirty  from  its 
immediate  contact  with  the  earth,  no  materials  being  collected  for  a 
nest  at  the  end  of  the  burrow.  The  young  are  hatched  after  a  month's 
incubation,  and  are  then  covered  with  a  long  blackish  down  above, 
which  gnulually  gives  place  to  the  feathered  plumage ;  so  that  at  the 
end  of  a  month  or  five  weeks  they  are  able  to  quit  the  burrow,  and 
follow  their  parents  to  the  open  sea.  Soon  after  this  time,  or  about 
the  second  week  in  August,  the  whole  leave  our  coasts,  oommcucing 
their  equatorial  migration.  At  an  early  age  the  bill  of  this  bird  is 
small  and  narrow,  scarcely  exceeding  that  of  the  young  Razor-Bill  at 
the  same  period  of  life  ;  and  not  till  after  the  second  year  does  this 
member  acquire  its  full  development,  both  as  to  depth,  colour,  and  its 
transverse  furrows." 

In  rocky  places  (Dover  cliffs  for  instance)  they  deposit  their  single 
egg,  as  Montagu  observes,  in  the  holes  and  crevices.  The  length  of 
the  bird  is  about  12  inches.  The  half  of  the  bUl  nearest  the  head  is 
bluish ;  the  rest  red.  The  comers  of  the  mouth  are  puckered  into  a 
kind  of  star.  The  legs  and  feet  are  orange.  The  plumage  is  black 
and  white,  with  the  exception  of  the  cheeks  and  chin,  which  are 
sometimes  gray.  The  young  pickled  with  spices  are  by  some  con- 
sidered dainties ;  they  are  also  occasionally  potted  in  the  north. 

Sprats  are  supposed  to  be  the  principal  food  of  the  PufiBn,  but  there 
ia  little  doubt  that  other  fishes  and  crustaceans  are  acceptable  to  the 
bird. 

Mergultu, 

The  Little  Auk,  Common  Rotche,  or  Sea-Dove  (Mergulus  mdano- 
leueos  of  Ray,  Uria  Alle  of  Temminok,  and  AUa  AUe,  Liniueus),  is  an 
example  of  the  genus  Mergviut  of  our  coimtryman  Ray. 


Little  Aak  (ITn-^tu  meJanoleueog). 

The  Little  Auk  braves  the  inclemency  of  very  high  latitudes,  and 
oongregates  in  great  flocks  far  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  The  inhospit- 
able coasts  of  Greenland  and  Spitsbergen  are  the  dwelling-places  of 
these  birds,  and  thousands  have  been  seen  at  Melville  Island.  In 
those  dreary  regions  they  are  said  to  watch  the  motion  of  the  ice,  and 
when  it  is  broken  up  by  storms  down  they  come  in  legions,  crowding 
into  every  fissure  to  banquet  on  the  crustaceans  and  other  marine 
animals  which  there  lie  at  their  mercy.  It  can  hardly  be  called  an 
occasional  visitant  to  this  country,  for  those  which  have  appeared  here 
have  been  evidently  exhausted  birds,  buffeted  by  storms  and  dri\*en 
hj  contrary  vrinds  far  from  the  spot  congenial  to  their  habits.  The 
Little  Auk  is  between  9  and  10  inches  in  length  ;  the  bill  is  black,  and 
the  legs  inclining  to  brown  ;  "the  plumage  is  black  and  white,  and  in 
winter  the  front  of  the  neck,  which  is  black  in  summer,  becomes 
whitish :  the  change  takes  place  in  the  autumn. 

The  bird  lays  only  one  egg  of  a  pale  bluish-green,  on  the  most 
inaooessible  ledges  of  the  precipices  which  overhimg  the  ocean. 

Phaleris. 

The  Perroquet  Auk  {PhalertM  paittacvla,  Temminck,  Alca  ptiUacvla, 
Pallas),  may  be  taken  as  an  illustration. 

Ramt.chatka  and  other  northern  regions  shelter  these  birds  in 
abundance.  They  swim  and  dive  adimrablv.  Stories  are  told  to 
prove  their  unsuspicious  character;  and  it  is  said  that  the  natives 
place  a  dress  with  liu:ge  sleeree  near  their  holes  and  burrows,  into 


which  the  artless  birds,  miHt4Jring  the  sleeres  aforesaid  for  their  own 
retreats,  creep  and  are  taken. 

About  midsummer  they  lay  one  large  egg  nearly  of  the  sise  qf  a 
hen's,  with  brown  or  dusky  spots  on  a  whitish  or  yellowish  ground. 

The  Perroquet  Auk  is  about  11  inches  in  length.    From  behind  the 


Perroquet  Auk  [Phalerit  pnttacida), 
eye  a  tuft  of  white  feathers,  which  hang  on  either  side  of  the  neci[, 
shoots  forth.  The  head,  neck,  and  upper  parts  are  black,  blending 
into  ash-colour  on  the  fore  part  of  the  neck ;  the  under  parts  from  the 
breast  are  white ;  the  legs  are  yellowish.  In  the  old  bird  the  bill  ia 
red,  while  the  young  one  has  it  of  a  yellowish  or  dusky  colour. 

(Yarrell,  BritUK  Birds.)    [See  SappLEMnrr.] 
•  AIJ'LOLEPIS,  a  genus  of  FossQ  Cycloid  Fishes,  from  the  Chalk  of 
Sussex  and  Kent.     (Agassiz.) 

AULOTORA  (Goldfuss),  a  genus  of  Fossil  Polypiaria,  from  the 
Silurian  Strata. 

AURANTIA'CEiE,  Citron  Worts,  or  the  Orange  Tribe,  are  Dicoty- 
ledonous  Polypetalous  Plants,  with  dark-green  jointed  leaves,  filled 


Common  Orangro  {Cilrut  Auranlium). 
1,  A  flower  with  iU  calyx,  corolla,  sUmens,  and  style ;  2,  a  portion  of  the 
stamens  ;  3,  an  ovary  cut  through  transyersely ;  4,  a  fruit  cut  through  in  the 
same  direction. 

with  fragrant  ossential  oil  collected  in  little  transparent  dots,  and  a 
superior  ovaiy  changing  to  a  succulent  berry,  the  rind  of  which  is 


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AURELIA. 


AVERRHOA. 


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alao  filled  with  finigrant  esflential  oil.  No  natonl  order  can  well  be 
mora  stricUj  defined  tlian  the  Orange  Tribe,  and  none  have  properties 
more  uniform  and  definite.  It  conaiatB  of  treea  or  shrubs  foond 
ezdnsiYel^  in  the  temperate  or  tropical  parts  of  the  Old  World,  and 
unknown  m  a  wild  state  in  America.  Their  flowers  are  usually  odori- 
ferousy  and  their  fruits  subacid ;  the  rind  has  some  shade  of  yellow. 
They  principally  differ  from  each  other  in  the  number  and  proportion 
or  arrangement  of  their  stamens,  in  the  number  of  cells  or  seeds  in 
^e  fruit,  and  in  the  texture  of  the  rind  of  the  fruit,  which  does  not 
always  pull  off  as  in  the  orange,  the  lemon,  the  citron,  and  their 
congeners,  but  is  frequently  a  mere  skin  indosiog  the  pulp.  [Citrus.] 
The  natural  order  which  is  most  nearly  allied  to  the  Orange  Tribe  is 
that  called  XantkoxylacecBf  into  which  the  oranges  pass  by  their 
climbing  genus,  Lavanga,  and  which  differ  principally  in  having  a 
hard  dry  mdt  which  splits  into  several  carpels. 

The  Orange,  Lemon,  Lime,  Shaddock,  Pompelmoose,  Forbidden 
Fruit,  and  Citron,  are  the  produce  of  this  order.  The  Wampa,  a  fruit 
hig^y  esteemed  in  China  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  is  produced 
by  Cookia  punctate^.  The  fr>uit  of  Qlyeotmia  cUrifolia  is  delicious ; 
that  of  Triphtuia  is  very  agreeable.  The  jSgle  Marmdoa  ia  used 
in  medicine :  a  perfume  is  prepared  from  the  rind  of  the  fruit,  which 
itself  is  delicious  to  the  tajste,  and  acts  as  a  laxative  medicine.  The 
leaves  of  Feronia  eUphaiUwm  have  a  very  agreeable  smell  Orange 
flowers  yield  a  delicious  odour,  and  the  oils  of  Bei^mot  and  Lemon 
are  obtained  from  the  rind  of  the  fruit  of  species  of  Citrus. 

(Lindley,  Vegetable  Kingdom.) 

AURE'LIA,  in  Entomology,  a  name  given  to  that  state  of  an  insect 
which  is  between  the  caterpiUar  and  its  final  transformation,  and  is 
conmionly  called  a  Chrysalis  or  Pupa.  The  term  Aurelia  was  first 
i4>pUed  by  the  Romans,  and  that  of  Chrysalis  by  the  Greeks,  to 
certain  butterfly  pupra  which  have  a  golden  colour.  In  England, 
those  of  the  Peacock-Butterfly  ( Vanessa  Id)  and  the  small  Tortoise- 
Shell  Butterfly  ( Vcmessa  Unices)  are  beautiful  examples,  and  may  be 
seen  in  abundance  hanging  to  the  common  stinging  nettles  about  the 
latter  end  of  the  month  of  June.     [Pupa.] 

AURICHA'LCITE,  a  carbonate  of  Copper  and  Zinc.  It  occurs 
amorphous,  sometimes  granular,  or  in  radiating  masses.  Tho  colour 
is  green.  It  is  slightly  transparent.  Hardness  but  slight.  It  is 
found  at  Loktewsk  in  tho  AltaL     The  analysis  by  Bottger  gives — 

Oxide  of  Copper 28  19 

Oxide  of  Zmc 4584 

Carbonic  Acid 16*06 

Water 991 

100 

AURI'CULA,  the  name  given  to  a  oommonly-culiivated  species  of 
the  genus  Primvla.     [Primula.] 

AURFCULA,  a  genus  of  Phytophagous  or  Plant-Eating  Trachdi- 
podout  MoUuaea,  whose  organs  of  respiration  are  formed  for  breathing 
air.  Cuvier  observes,  that  the  species  of  this  genus  differ  from  all  the 
Pulmoniferous  Aquatic  MoUusks  which  precede  them  in  his  system,  in 
having  the  columella  or  pillar  of  the  shell  marked  by  large  plaits. 
The  species  of  Awrictda  appear  to  live  in  the  neighbourhood  of  rivers, 
lakes,  or  morasses,  and  their  respiratory  system,  though  formed  for 
breathing  air,  is  so  framed  as  to  enable  them  to  sustain  any  vicissitudes 
to  which  sudi  a  locality  might  render  them  liable.  AurictUa  Midce 
(Lam.),  Voluta  Auris  Midce  (Linn.),  the  Midas's  Ear  of  collectors,  is  a 
good  example  of  the  genus. 


Midas's  Ear  {Auricula  MitUe), 

It  is  said  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  East  Indies.  Lamarck  also 
names  the  Moluccas  as  its  locality. 

The  following  is  the  generic  character : — Shell  somewhat  oval,  or 
ovate-oblong;  aperture  longitudinal,  narrowed  above,  and  with  the 
base  entire;  pillar  with  one  or  more  plaits ;  outer  lip  either  reflected 
or  simple  ana  acute. 

The  true  AuricvlcB  are  the  inhabitants  of  warm  climates.  There  is 
one  in  the  south  of  France,  near  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
{Auricula  mfoiotis  of  Drapamaud),  but  it  is  a  small  species. 

AUROTELLINITE,  a  mineral  containing  Gold  combined  with 
Tellurium.    

AUST  CLIFF.  In  the  Bone-Bed  of  this  famous  locality,  usually 
classed  with  tho  Lias  Formation,  occur  a  few  organic  remains  which 


appear  to  belong  also  to  the  Eeuper  deposits.  This  has  been  thought 
a  sufficient  reason  for  removing  these  beds  out  of  the  Lias.  But  if 
we  regard  their  mineralogical  and  geological  relations,  this  displacement 
will  hardly  be  allowed. 

AUTOMALITE.    [Gahnite.] 

AUTOMOLITE,  a  variety  of  Spinel  [Spinel]  containing  84  per 
cent,  of  oxide  of  zinc.  It  is  mfusible  alone,  and  nearly  so  with  borax. 
It  occurs  in  granite  tit  Haddam,  in  Connecticut,  together  with  Beryl, 
Chrysoberyl,  Qamet,  &c ;  also  near  Falun  in  Sweden,  in  Talcose  Slate. 

AUTONCMEA  (Risso),  agenus  of  Long-Tailed  Decapodous  Crustacea, 
founded  on  AtUonamea  Olivii,  which  ia  a  littie  more  than  an  inch  in 
length,  and  bears  great  resemblance  in  form  to  Nika  and  Alpheus, 
Autonomea  lives  solitarily  in  sea-weed,  &c,  and  the  female  produces 
red  ^gs,  which  she  carries  with  her  about  the  middle  of  summer.  It 
is  foimd  in  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

AVANTURPNE,  a  variety  of  Quartz,  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy 
with  which  it  reflects  light,  the  effect  being  in  general  produced  by 
fine  points  of  Mica  imbedded  within  the  crystalline  mass.  From  this 
circumstance  it  is  sometimes  used  in  jewellery,  but  is  of  littie  value. 

AYE'NA,  the  botanical  name  of  the  genus  to  which  the  cultivated 
Oat  belongs.  As  understood  by  Linnasus  and  the  writers  of  his 
school,  it  comprehended  many  very  distinct  forms  of  Grasses,  as  well 
as  the  common  cultivated  kmds ;  but  by  other  botanists  it  is  moro 
correctly,  limited  to  the  species  that  yield  com,  and  to  such  as  are 
closely  idlied  to  theuL  They  are  known  by  their  lax  panicles,  their 
two  loose  membranous  glumes,  and  by  the  small  number  of  their 
florets,  each  of  which  has  one  of  its  husks  or  palete  armed  with  a  strong 
twisted  beard  or  awn.  The  grain  is  generally,  but  not  xmiformly, 
closely  invested  vrith  the  hardened  husk. 

The  Common  Oat  {Avena  sativa),  is  that  which  is  most  generally 
cultivated  for  the  use  of  man.  Like  most  other  oom-plants  its  native 
country  is  unknown;  it  cannot  however  be  supposed  to  be  the 
offspring  of  cultivation  or  of  chance,  but  is  more  likely  to  be  an 
inhabitant  of  some  of  the  northern  provinces  of  Asia  to  which 
Europeans  have  little  access.    [Oat,  in  Abts  and  So.  Drv.] 

The  Tartarian  Oat  is  considered  a  distinct  species,  on  account  of  its 
more  compact  and  one-sided  panicle,  and  of  both  its  florets  having  a 
beard;  it  is  however  doubtful  whether  it  can  be  regarded  as  anything 
more  than  a  variety  of  A.  sativcL  Botanists  call  it  A.  orientalis,  but 
its  native  country  seems  as  uncertain  as  that  of  the  last. 

The  Naked  Oat  (^1.  nuda),  so  called  because  its  grain  is  loose  in  the 
husk,  is  found  wild  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  by  some  is  thought 
to  be  a  mere  degeneration  of  ihe  Common  Oat  It  is  common  in 
Austria,  where  it  is  cultivated  for  its  grain,  which  is  however  small, 
and  not  much  esteemed. 

The  Chinese  Oat  {A.  Chinensis),  is  another  species,  the  grain  of  which 
is  loose  in  the  husk.  It  is  said  to  have  been  procured  by  the  Russians 
from  the  north  of  China  along  with  their  tea.  This  species  is  the 
most  productive  of  all  the  known  kinds,  every  flower  producing  from 
three  to  five  grains,  which  are  large  and  of  excellent  quality.  It  is 
however  said  to  be  difficult  to  harvest  on  accoimt  of  the  grains  not 
adhering  to  the  husks,  but  being  very  easily  shaken  out. 

Besides  the  species  cultivated  for  the  com  which  they  yield,  thero 
is  another  that  deserves  to  be  noticed  on  account  of  its  remarkable 
hygrometrical  action.  This  plant,  the  Animal  Oat  of  gardeners,  the 
A.  sterUis  of  systematic  writers,  is  something  like  the  Common  Oat 
when  young;  but  when  ripe  its  grains  are  inclosed  in  hard  hairy 
brown  husks,  from  the  back  of  which  rises  a  stout  bent  and  twisted 
awn.  Usually  two  such  husks  grow  together,  and  separate  fi'om  the 
stalk  by  a  deep  oblique  scar.  Taking  the  scar  for  the  head  of  an 
insect,  tiie  husks  with  their  long  stiff  brown  hairs  resemble  its  body, 
and  the  two  bent  awns  represent  its  legs.  In  this  state  fishermen  use 
a  smaller  but  nearly  allied  species,  called  Havers  (A.fatua)  instead  of 
artificial  flies  for  catching  trout  When  the  Animal  Oat  is  ripe  it  falls 
out  of  its  glumes,  and  in  warm  dry  weather  may  be  seen  rolling  and 
turning  about  on  its  long  ungainly  legs,  as  they  twist  up  in  conse- 
quence of  their  hygrometrical  quality.  It  necessarily  advances  as  it 
turns  over,  because  the  long  stiff  hairs  upon  its  body  catch  against 
every  littie  projecting  point  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  prevent  its 
retreat  Nothing  can  be  more  curious  than  to  see  the  path  of  a 
garden-walk  covered  with  these  things  tumbling  and  sprawling  about 
in  different  directions,  until  their  awns  are  so  twisted  that  they 
can  twist  no  further.  They  then  remain  quiet  till  the  dews  fall,  or 
they  are  moistened  by  a  shower,  when  they  rapidly  untwist  and  run 
about  with  renewed  activity,  as  if  anxious  to  get  out  of  the  wet 

AVENS.    [Geum.] 

AVEHRHOA,  a  genua  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Oxalidacece,  It  consists  of  two  species,  bol£  of  which  form  small 
trees  in  the  East  Indies.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  leaves,  which 
are  pinnated,  possessing  in  a  slight  degree  the  kind  of  irritability 
found  in  the  sensitive  plant,  and  for  their  fleshy  oval  fruits  with  five 
thick  longitudinal  wings.  From  the  otiier  genus  of  OxalidacecB  they 
are  known  by  this  character,  independentiy  of  all  others. 

In  the  Carambola  (A.  carambola)  the  leaves  are  smooth,  the 
flowers  of  a  violet-purple,  and  the  fruit  about  the  size  of  a  goose's 
egg ;  it  is  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  and  is  said  to  be  agreeably  acid 
in  the  East  Indies.  It  was  expected  that  it  would  prove  worth  culti- 
vating in  the  hothouse  for  tiie  dessert,  but  it  proves  upon  trial  to 


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AVES. 


be  insipid,  and  nmoh  inferior  to  the  common  fruit  of  the  European 
marketa. 

The  other  species,  called  the  Beimbing  (A,  hilimbi),  has  downy 
leayes,  and  fruit  resembling  a  small  cucumber.  The  fruit  is  intensely 
acid,  and  cannot  be  eaten  raw.  It  is  pickled  or  candied,  or  a  syrup  is 
obtained  from  it  by  boiling  with  sugar,  and  its  juice  is  found  an 
excellent  agent  for  removing  iron-moulds  or  other  spots  from  linen. 
To  the  Malays  it  answers  the  same  purposes  as  the  citron,  the  goose- 
berry, the  caper,  and  the  cucumber  of  Europe. 

AVES.    [BiBDS.] 

AVES  ( Fossil ).  Fossil  Birds  have  been  recognised  by  bones  and 
foot-prints  in  the  Red-Sandstone  of  Connecticut  ( Hitchcock ),  in  the 
WefJden  of  Sussex  ( Mantell ),  in  the  Chalk  of  Maidstone  ( Owen ),  in 
the  Tertiary  Beds  of  England  and  France  ( Cuvier ),  in  the  bone-caves 
of  Kirkdale  (Buckland),  and  in  many  late  deposits.  From  New 
Zealand  comes  the  Dinomis  of  Owen,     f  Dinornis.] 

AVICE'NNIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Myoporaeea.  The  calyx  is  5-parted,  persistent,  the  segments  erect, 
subovate,  obtuse,  concave ;  the  corolla  monopetalous,  2-lipped,  upper 
lip  square,  emarginate,  flat,  lower  bifid,  with  ovate,  equal,  flat  divisions, 
tube  bell-shaped,  short ;  the  stamens  4,  didynamous ;  ovary  2-celled  ; 
style,  subulate,  erect,  length  of  stamens ;  the  stigma  bifid,  acute,  the 
lower  division  bent  down ;  the  seed  single,  large,  albuminous.  The 
species  are  natives  of  Australia  and  America. 

A.  tomerUota,  White  Mang^ve,  has  cordate  ovate  leaves,  tomentose 
beneath.  It  puts  forth  twigs  from  the  stem,  resembling  those  of  the 
common  mangrove.  The  bark  is  foimd  to  contain  tannin,  and  is  used 
in  Rio  Janeiro  for  tanning. 

A.  retinifera  is  a  native  of  New  Zealand,  and  is  said  by  Forster  to 
yield  a  green  resinous  substance  that  Ib  eaten  by  the  New  Zealanders 
as  food.  It  Ib  remai^ble  also  for  its  clusters  of  large  flowers.  A. 
nitida  is  a  native  of  Martinique. 

(Burnett,  OtUline$  ;  Lindley,  Natwral  Syttem.) 

AVI'CULA,  a  genus  of  Marine  CoTichifera,  or  Bivalves  with  unequal 
valves,  in  which  Sowerby,  with  much  show  of  reason,  includes  the 
genus  MdcagHnay  also  formed  by  Liamarok.  The  shell  in  both  is 
foliaceous  externally ;  and  internally,  of  a  brilliant  pearly  lustre.  The 
left-hand  valve  is  contracted  and  notched  posteriorly ;  and  so  is  the 
right,  but  very  slightly.  Through  this  sinus  passes  the  byssus,  by 
which  they  are  moored  to  rocks  and  other  marine  bodies.  The 
ligamental  area  is  marginal,  and  broadest  in  the  centra ;  and  thera  is 
generally  a  small  tooth  in  each  valve  near  the  umbones.  This  is 
most  conspicuous,  generally  speaking,  in  Avicrda  (LaoL),  but  is  not 
always  found,  while  it  is  often  present  in  Lamarck's  MeUagrince, 
though  it  is  sometimes  absent  The  muscular  impression  is  nearly 
central,  somewhat  orbicular,  and  large. 

Avi(^Ua,  then,  as  characterised  by  Sowerby,  will  comprise  two 
sections ;  the  first  including  those  species  which  have  their  base,  or 
hinge-line,  considerably  prolonged ;  the  second  embracing  those  which 
ara  without  that  prolongation — in  other  words,  the  Mdeagnna. 
Both  sections  ara  the  inhabitants  of  warm  climates.  Avicula 
macroptera  may  be  taken  as  an  eiuunple  of  the  first  section. 


Avicula  macroptera. 

Avicula  margaritifera  {Mdeagrina  mowgaritiferOj  Lam.,  Mytilut 
margaritiferut,  Linn.),  conmionly  known  as  the  Pearl-Oyster,  the 
source  whence  the  most  precious  pearls  ara  derived,  will  afibrd  an 
illustration  of  the  second  section. 

The  shell  itself  is  imported  in  great  quantities,  for  the  manufactura 
of' the  nacre,  or  motherK>f-pearl,  into  buttons,  knife-handles,  paper- 
knives,  &0.';  but  its  great  oommeraial  value  rests  on  the  pearls  which 
it  contains.  For  these  beautiful  productions,  which  may  be  considered 
as  extravasated  nacre,  thero  ara  fisheries  in  both  hemispheres.  The 
pearl  of  great  price,  however,  is  found  in  the  East,  whera  the  principal 
fisheries,  at  Ceylon,  Cape  Comorin,  and  in  the  Persian  Qulf,ara  earned 


AVOCET.  851 

on  by  means  of  divers.    Captain  Perdval,  in  his  '  Account  of  Ceybn,' 
has  given  the  best  description  of  the  pearl-fishery  there.    [Shxll.] 


Pearl-Oyster  {Atfieula  margaritifera). 
The  flgve  represenU  a  young  individual.    The  shell  grows  to  a  large  sise, 
and  then  the  delicate  foliations  disappcsar. 

ATOCET,  the  common  name  of  the  Btcwrvirottra  Avocetia.  U 
belongs  to  the  order  of  GraUatores,  or  Waders,  and  the  family 
Scvlopacida, 


The  Avocet  (IUcurviro$tra  Avocetta). 

The  genus  Jtteurvirostra  includes  other  species  besides  the  Avocei 
The  muddy  shores  of  the  ocean  and  the  banks  of  scstuaries  are  their 
favourite  haunts,  whera  they  feed  on  aquatic  <tnim«LlR^  guch  as  the 
smaller  oonchifers  and  mollusks,  and  the  spawn  of  fishes.  They  are 
deep  waders,  but  do  not  seem  to  be  adepts  at  swimming.  The  Avocet 
is  the  only.  European  species,  and  has  been  long  remarked  for  the 
singularity  of  the  shape  of  the  bilL  **  Thera  needs  no  great  pains  be 
taken,  or  time  spent  m  exactly  describing  this  bird,"  says  Kay  in  his 
edition  of  Willughby,  "  for  the  singular  bill  rafiected  upwards  is 
sufficient  alone  to  churacterise  and  distinguish  it  from  all  other  birds 
we  have  hitherto  seen  or  heard  o£"  It  is  widely  diffused  through  the 
temperate  climates  of  Europe.  Siberia,  the  shores  of  the  Caspian, 
and  the  salt-lakee  of  Tartary,  ara  also  stated  to  be  plentifully  supplied 
with  these  birds,  and  it  is  said  to  be  met  with  in  Egypt  and  other 
parts  of  Africa.  In  England  they  wera  formerly  found  on  the  eastern 
coast  below  the  Humber,  and  in  Bomney  Marah,  but  recently  they 
have  become  mudi  more  scarce.  Mr.  Yarrell  says  that  some  years 
ago  *'  mora  than  twenty  specimens  wera  received  at  Leadenhall  Market 
for  sale  within  one  month ;  but  now  scarcely  an  example  appears  once 
in  a  year." 

Pennant  well  describes  the  Avocet's  bill  as  "verv  thin,  flexible,  and 
of  a  substance  like  whalebone."    Buffon  makea  it  toe  subject  of  one  of 


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AWLWORT. 


AXIS. 


his  lunentationB  upon  the  eiron  of  nature  and  her  niggard  diflpodtion 
in  providing  for  some  of  the  leaa  favoured  of  the  animal  creation. 
But  in  truth  no  organ  could,  have  berai  devised  more  admirably 
adapted  for  the  function  which  it  haa  to  perform  than  the  bill  of  the 
Avooet^  as  he  who  has  seen  the  bird  scooping;  probing,  or  apparently 
patting  and  beating  the  water  and  soft  mud*with  it»  while  the 
mandibles  aotas  a  strainer  and  retain  the  prey,  wiU  readily  acknowledge. 
The  Avocet  frequently  wades  up  to  the  breast^  and  its  long  legs  are 
well  formed  for  this  purpose ;  for  they  are  compressed  latenlly,  and 
present  but  a  thin  edge,  so  as  to  offer  hardly  any  resistance  to  the 
medium  through  which  they  have  to  make  their  progreesL  Though 
the  feet  are  pahnated,  they  appear  to  be  adapted  not  for  swimming; 
but  for  supporting  the  bird  upon  the  ooze,  after  tiie  maimer  of  the  mud- 
boards  used  by  fowlers,  and  figured  by  Colonel  Hawker ;  this  office  the 
feet  of  the  Avocet  execute  in  perfection.  Montagu  says,  "We 
remember  one  of  this  species  being  wounded  in  the  wing;  and  floating 
with  the  tide  for  near  a  mile,  when  it  was  taken  up  alive  without  ever 
attempting  to  swim ;  so  that  the  palmated  feet  seem  only  intended  to 
support  it  on  the  mud.*' 

The  nests  of  the  Avocet,  which  are  very  inartificial,  are  generally 
formed  in  the  spring,  in  marine  marshes,  where  the  driest  point  is 
selected.  They  breed  in  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire  and  Norfolk.  The 
eggs  are  greenish,  spotted  with*  brown  or  black.  When  disturbed 
Boon  after  the  young  are  hatched,  they  fly  round  and  round,  repeating 
their  peculiar  cry  'twittwit'  incessantly,  and  are  said  to  feign 
lameness  like  the  lapwing,  to  decoy  the  intruder  away. 

AWLWORT.      [SUBULABIA.] 

AWK,  or  ARI^STA,  in  Botany,  the  beard  of  gnsses,  is  a  rigid 
bristle,  often  hairy,  and  frequently  twisted,  proceeding  from  the  back 
of  some  of  the  envelopes  of  the  flower.  It  is  oft^  employed  for 
systematic  puipoees  in  consequence  of  the  number  of  modifications  to 
which  it  is  subject  It  appears  to  be  one  of  the  veins  or  ribs  of  the 
envelopes,  unusually  lengthened,  and  separated  from  the  cellular 
substance  to  which  it  belongs. 

AXE-STONE,  a  silicate  of  alumina  and  magnesia.  It  is  a  hard 
tough  stone,  of  a  greenish  colour.  Also  called  Jade,  Nephrite,  and 
Ceraunite, 

AXIIjLA,  in  Botany,  is  the  angle  formed  by  the  separation  of  a  leaf 
from  its  stem ;  hence  the  term  '  axillary '  is  applied  to  anything  which 
grows  from  that  angle.  It  is  at  this  point  that  buds  appear,  whether 
they  are  to  be  developed  as  branches  or  as  flowers ;  and  it  is  a  remark- 
able circumstance  that  they  never  appear  anywhere  else  except  when 
they  are  adventitious  and  unconformable  to  the  usual  order  of  growth. 
For  this  reason  the  position  of  buds  upon  a  branch  will  show  in 
what  position  the  leaves  have  grown,  notwithstanding  the  leaves 
themselves  may  have  fidlen  off,  and  the  soars  whence  they  fall  have 
disappeared. 

The  axilUe  of  all  leaves  contain  rudiments  of  a  bud  in  a  greater  or 
leas  degree  of  perfection,  and  are  capable,  under  favourable  circum- 
stances, of  bringing  it  to  full  development.  Gardeners  sometimes 
profit  by  a  knowledge  of  this  law,  to  propagate  plants  in  which,  from 
the  dose  manner  in  which  the  leaves  are  arranged  upon  the  stem,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  increase  them  by  the  ordinary  modes.  Thus 
a  hyacinth  Dulb  is  a  short  branch  With  rudimentary  leaves,  called 
scales,  growing  closely  over  all  its  surface ;  and  consequently  at  the 
axilla  <^  each  rudimentary  leaf  there  exists  a  bud  either  latent  or 
mamfeet  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  two  or  three  oidy  of  those 
buds  develop  near  the  outside  of  the  bulb,  in  the  form  of  cloves,  or 
young  bulbs ;  but  if  at  the  time  the  bulb  is  just  banning  to  ^w, 
the  central  shoot  is  destro^ed^  either  by  cutting  it  across  or  seanng  it 
with  a  hot  iron,  the  nutritive  matter  which  was  laid  up  in  a  bulb,  not 
being  expended  upon  producing  flowers  and  leaves,  will  be  diverted 
into  other  channels,  and  exercising  its  vital  force  upon  the  axillary 
buds,  will  cause  them  to  develop  in  great  numbers ;  and  thus  the 
hyadnth  will  be  increased  with  rapidity,  instead  of  by  the  slow  pro- 
duction of  two  or  three  cloves  yearly. 

Although  buds,  or  bulbs,  which  is  the  same  thing;  are  universally 
axillary  to  leaves,  and  indeed  to  every  part  which  is  theoretically  a 
modification  of  a  leaf,  yet  one  leaf  cannot  be  axillaiy  to  another  leaf, 
although  it  may  seem  so  in  consequence  of  the  inciment  development 
of  an  axillaiT  branch  to  whose  system  it  belongs.  Thus  in  pine-trees, 
the  clustered  needle-shaped  leaves  seem  to  be  axiUaiy  to  the  withering 
rudimentaxT  leaf  that  grows  round  their  base ;  but  in  reality  ea£ 
duster  of  leaves  is  a  small  branch  without  perceptible  axis,  as  is 
proved  by  .the  Cedar  of  Lebanon,  where  the  axis  sometimes  lengthens 
and  sometimes  does  not 

AXINITE.      This  mineral   usually  occurs   crystaUiied  in   flat 
prismatic  crystals,  with  very  sharp 
^dges,  from  which  it  has  received 
its  name.     The  fundamental  form  >^  /         ^ 

is  a  double  oblique  prism,  from 
which  Neumann  has  obtained  the 
following  angles : — 

M  on  T  =  13«*  24'  and  W  36'       /  /  m 

P  on  H  »  184°  48'  and  45**  12" 

P  on  T  «  116'  89'  and  60'  21' 

It  is  imperfectly  deavable  in  the  direction  of  the  faces  P  and  M.  Its 
colour  is  dove-brown,  sometimes  inclining  to  plum-blue ;  sometimes 

VAT.  BZ8T.  SIY.  YOL.  L 


transparanty  at  other  times  only  translucent  on  the  edges ;  its  lustre  is 
vitreous.  The  specific  gravity  of  a  crystallised  variety  from  Cornwall 
is  stated  bv  Mobs  to  be  8*271,  and  its  hardness  6'5  to  7. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  readily  fuses  with  intumescence  into  a  dark- 
green  glass,  which  in  the  oxidiiung  flame  becomes  black  on  account  of 
the  presence  of  super-oxide  of  manganese.  With  borax  the  glass  is 
either  green  from  iron,  or  of  an  amethyst  tint  from  manganese,  accord- 
ing as  it  has  been  exposed  to  the  interior  or  exterior  flame  of  the 
blowpipe.  By  frising  it  with  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  fluor-spar,  the 
presence  of  boraoic  acid  may  be  detected.  The  following  is  an  analysis 
by  Wionnann  of  a  variety  from  Tresebuig,  Harz : — 

Silica 4600 

Alumina 19*00 

Lime 12*50 

Peroxide  of  Iron 12*25 

Peroxide  of  Manganese 9*00 

Magnesia 0*25 

BoradcAdd 200 


100-00 
Beraelius,  however,  has  marked  the  iron  and  manganese  as  protoxides. 

This  mineral  is  not  very  abundant ;  it  is  found  at  Thum  in  Saxony, 
whence  it  is  sometimes  called  Thumerstona  It  occurs  at  BotaUack, 
near  the  Land's  End,  Cornwall,  both  crystallised  and  forming  a  rock 
with  Tounnaline  and  Garnet 

AXI'NUS  (Sowerby),  a  genus  of  Fossil  Cimchiferck,  of  which  some 
spedes  occur  in  the  Magnesian  Limestone,  and  one  in  the  London 
C^y.  To  those  which  are  found  in  the  Magnesian  and  other  Palaeo- 
zoic Limestones  Mr.  Eling  applies  the  title  of  Schiaodve, 

AXICrriMA.      [ACALSPHiB.] 

AXIS,  in  Anatomy,  the  second  vertebra  of  the  neck,  on  which  the 
Atlas,  the  first  vertebra,  moves.    [Atlas.1 

AXIS,  in  Botany,  a  term  that  ia  appHea  to  the  root  and  stem  of  the 
whole  i^ant.  The  result  of  placing  the  seed  of  a  plant  in  a  place  fitted 
for  its  growth  is  the  development  of  the  embryo.  The  plumule 
ascends  into  the  air,  whilst  the  radicle  descends  towards  the  earth. 
The  former  is  said  to  be  the  ascending  axis  of  the  plant,  the  latter  the 
descending  axis.  It  is  around  these  axes  of  growth  that  all  other 
parts  of  the  plant  are  arranged.  Those  which  are  found  upon  the 
ascending  axis,  or  stem,  are  cdlectively  termed  the  appendages  of  the 
axis,  and  individually  constitute  the  scales,  leaves,  bracts,  flowers, 
sexes^  fruity  and  modifications  of  those  parts  of  the  plant ;  all  these 
parts  are  in  connection  with  the  vascular  system  of  the  axis,  and 
must  not  be  confounded  with  mere  expansions  of  the  epidermis  and 
the  like,  such  as  ramenta»  thorns,  &c.j  which  have  no  real  connection 
with  the  axis. 

The  cause  of  the  direction  taken  by  the  ascending  and  descending 
axes  of  plants  has  been  variously  explained.  This  is  evidently  a  com- 
plicated question,  and  one  which  involves  the  great  mass  of  facts  in 
the  orgamsation  of  plants,  and  probably  animals,  which  determine 
their  peculiar  forms,  habits,  and  movements.  Dutrochet  says — **  The 
downward  direction  of  the  roots  may  appear  easy  of  explanation :  it 
may  be  said  ihat»  like  all  other  bodies,  they  have  a  tendency  towards 
the  centre  of  the  earth,  in  consequence  of  the  known  laws  of  gravity 
(as  is  the  opinion  of  Knight  in  '  PhU.  Trans.'  for  1806) ;  but  on  what 
prindple  then  is  to  be  explained  the  upward  tendency  of  the  stem, 
which  as  in  diiect  oppodtion  to  those  laws  ?  And  here  lies  the  diffi- 
culty. Dodart  is  the  first  who  appears  to  have  paid  attention  to  this 
circumstance ;  he  pretends  to  explain  the  turning  backward  of  seeds 
sown  in  an  inverted  position  by  the  following  hypothesis: — He 
assumed  that  the  root  is  composed  of  parts  that  contract  by  humidity ; 
and  that  the  stem^  on  the  contrary,  contracts  by  dryness.  For  this 
reason,  according  to  him,  it  ought  to  happen  that  when  a  seed  is  sown 
in  an  inverted  podtion,  the  radicle  will  turn  back  towards  the  earth, 
which  la  the  seat  of  humidity ;  and  that  the  plumule,  on  the  contrary, 
turns  to  the  sliy,  or  rather  atmosphere,  a  drier  medium  than  the 
earth.  The  experiments  of  Du  Hamel  are  well  known,  in  which  he 
attempted  to  force  a  radide  upwards  and  a  plumule  downwards  by 
indoaing  them  in  tubes  which  prevented  the  turning  back  of  these 
parts.  It  was  found  that  as  the  radicle  and  plumule  could  not  take 
their  natural  direction,  they  became  twisted  spirally.  These  experi- 
ments, while  they  prove  that  the  oppodte  tendendes  of  the  radicle 
and  the  plumule  cannot  be  sltered,  still  leave  us  in  ignorance  of  the 
cause  of  such  tendencies."  The  well-known  fiict  of  the  stems  of  plants 
seeking  the  light  when  confined  in  dark  places,  has  led  De  Candolle 
and  ower  observers  to  attribute  the  tendency  of  the  stem  to  an  upward 
growth  to  the  influence  of  light  Another  well-known  fact,  tnat  of 
the  tendency  of  the  roots  of  pluits  to  grow  towards  water  or  moisture, 
might  have  suggested  water  as  a  cause  of  the  tendency  of  the  root  to 
grow  downwards.  Observing  that  the  ascending  axis  of  plants  is 
always  coloured,  and  that  the  descending  axis  is  white,  Dutrochet 
suspected  that  the  action  of  light  on  the  coloured  parts  of  the  plant 
was  the  cause  of  its  growing  upwards.  He  found  by  experiments  on 
the  MirdbUii  Jcdapa  and  other  plants,  that  although  roots  have  in 
general  no  tendency  towards  the  light,  yet  such  a  dispodtion  does 
become  manifest  provided  the  terminal  shoot  of  a  root  becomes 
dightly  green,  as  occadonaUy  happens.  He  found  that  the  ends  of 
the  roots  of  MirabUit  Jalapa  became  occadonaUy  coloured,  and  on 

2  ▲ 


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plfi^Tig  the  pLanU  in  damp  mo8B,  he  found  theM  roote  had  a  tendenoj 
to  oome  to  the  surfkoe  towards  the  light  Not  only  is  this  the  caae, 
but  the  oolourless  stems  of  such  plants  as  SaffiUaria  tagittifolia  are 
known  to  assume  the  directions  of  roots.  In  this  plant  "  shoots  are 
produced  from  the  axillso  of  all  the  radical  leayes  which  grow  at  the 
bottom  of  the  water.  These  shoots  haye  their  points  directed  towards 
the  sky,  like  those  of  aU  vegetebles.  The  young  stems  which  are 
produced  by  these  shoots  are  entirely  colourless,  like  roots;  and 
mstead  of  taking  a  direction  towards  the  sky,  as  coloured  stems  would 
do,  they  lead  downwards,  pointing  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth. 
This  subterranean  stem  next  takes  a  horisontal  course,  and  does  not 
assume  any  tendency  towards  the  sl^  until  the  points  become  ffreen." 

(Meyen,  Pjlanam-Phytiol^^ ;  Lmdley,  Introduction  to  Botany; 
Dutcochet^  Ann,  det  Seienca  NcUvrelUt,  xxix.,  1883.) 

AXIS,  a  species  of  Indian  Deer.  The  word  is  also  used  generically 
to  denote  a  small  group  or  sub-genus  of  solid-homed  ruminants,  pre- 
soiting  the  same  characters  and  inhabiting  the  same  climate  as  the 
Common  Axis.    [Cebyidjb.] 

A'XIUS,  a  genus  of  Long-Tailed  Decapodous  Onutacea,  founded  by 
Leach  on  Axiui  stirhynchuSf  which  is  about  8  inches  or  84  inches  in 
length,  and  rarely  found  on  our  coasts.  It  has  been  taken  near  Sid- 
mouth  and  Plymouth.  Desmarest,  with  much  reason,  considers  this 
genus  entirely  artificial ;  and  thinks  that  it  ought  not  to  be  separated 
from  CaUianatta.     [Callianassa.] 

AXOLCyTL  {Oyrinm,  Hernandez  and  Shaw),  a  genus  of  Amphibia 
belonging  to  a  group  called  Perennibranchiate,  as  thev  retain  their 
gills  throughout  life.  They  are  distinguished  from  other  genera  of 
the  same  family  by  haying  four  feet  farniBhed  with  four  toes  before 
and  fiye  behind.  This  group  contains  the  genera — Axolotet,  Jifeno- 
branchw,  Proteut,  and  Sirenus;  and  comprises  animals  which  possess 
at  the  same  time  both  lungs  and  gills,  and  which  are  consequently 
organised  to  liye  either  on  luid  or  in  water.    [Amphibia.] 

Tlie  Axolotl  was  the  earliest  obseryed  of  these  remarkable  aniinals. 
At  the  period  of  the  Mexican  conquest  the  Spaniards  found  this  animal 
in  great  abundance  in  the  lake  which  surrounded  the  city  of  Mexico,  to 
the  inhabitants  of  which  capital  it  then  furnished,  as  it  still  continues 
to  furnish  to  their  successors,  an  agreeable  and  much-esteemed  article 
of  food.    Hernandez,  who  seems  to  be  the  first  writer  who  actually 
described  the  Axolotl,  expressly  mentions  it  haying  been  thus  used 
by  the  ancient  Mexicans ;  and  adds  that  the  flesh  was  considered  as 
an  aphrodisiac,  that  it  was  wholesome  and  agreeable,  and  tasted  not 
unlike  eel      Succeeding   authors,   without  taking    the    trouble    of 
obserying  for  themselyes,  were  content  to  copy  what  Hernandez  had 
said  before ;  but  distorting  his  short  desciiption  by  absurd  comments 
of  their  own,  and  adding  the  figures  of  ftir  difTerent  species,  the  whole 
subject  became  at  length  inyolyed  in  such  inextricable  confusion  that 
finally  aU  memory  of  the  Axolotl  was  lost,  or  the  animal  itself  con- 
sidered as  a  fictitious  being.    The  late  Dr.  Shaw  howeyer,  who  receiyed 
a  specimen  of  the  animal  direct  from  Mexico,  recognised  in  it  the 
Axolotl  of  Hernandez,  as  is  proyed  by  his  haying  used  the  generic 
term  Cfyrinut  in  his  account  of  it  published  in  the  '  Naturalist's  Mis- 
cellany,' which  had  been  originally  applied  to  it  by  its  first  deacribcr, 
though  Baron  Cuyier  seems  disposed  to  depriye  the  British  naturalist 
of  tUs  credit,  and  to  ascribe  the  sole  honour  of  re-discoyering  the 
Axolotl  to  Baron  Humboldt    It  is  indeed  true  that  Dr.  Shaw  subse- 
quently described  the  same  animal  in  the  third  yolume  of  his  'General 
Zoology'  imder  the  yery  different  name  of  Siren  pitci/ormii ;  but  this 
only  proyes  that  he  considered  it,  as  Baron   Cuyier  was  himself 
afterwards  inclined  to  do,  not  as  a  perfect  animal,  nor  in  fact  as  the 
type  of  a  new  genus,  but  rather  as  the  immature  state  of  some  species 
Mionging  to  a  genus  already  known.      To  Baron  Cuyier  himself 
howeyer  we  are  indebted  for  the  complete  description  and  elucidation 
of  the   form  and  organic  structure  of  this  curious  reptile.    Two 
specimens  brought  by  M.  Humboldt  from  Mexico  were  submitted  to 
the  examination  of  the  French  naturalist,  whose  researches  on  the 
subject  of  their  anatomy,  compared  with  Uiat  of  the  kindred  genera, 
are  recorded  in  his  'Recherches  sur  les  Reptiles  Douteux,'  inserted 
in  the  zoological  part  of  Messrs.  Humboldt  and  Bonpland's  Trayels. 
A  detailed  examination  of  all  the  Batrachian  Reptiles,  and  more  parti- 
cularly a  careful  inyestigation  into  their  anatomical  structure  during 
the  tadpole  state,  and  the  gradual  change  which  they  undergo  in 
passing  from  this  state  to  their  matiue  and  perfect  form,  led  Baron 
Cuyier  to  establish  as  an  unquestionable  fact  that  certain  of  these 
animals  retain  both  lungs  and  gills  throughout  the  entire  period  of 
their  existence ;  but  whilst  he  ui^esitatingly  announced  this  fact  with 
regard  to  the  Siren  and  Ftoteus,  he  was  disposed  to  consider  the 
Axolotl  as  the  tadpole  of  some  of  the  larger  species  of  American 
•alamanders — an  error  induced  as  well  by  ikte  general  similarity  which 
these  animals  bear  to  one  another  as  by  the  immature  age  of  the 
■pedmens  of  the  Axolotl  which  were  submitted  to  his  obseryation. 
Succeeding  naturalists  adopted  M.  Cuyier's  yiews  upon  this  subject ; 
but  that  great  zoologist  himself  subsequently  altered  his  original 
opinion,  and  candidly  confesses  in  the  second  edition  of  the  '  Rigne 
Animal '  that  the  concurrent  testimony  of  all  original  obsenrers  oyer- 
balanoes  the  mere  deductions  of  the  physiologist^  howeyer  plausible 
or  apparently  well  founded. 

Tne  generic  characters  of  the  genus  Axototl,  Cuyier  {Axolotet,  Owen, 
CfyHmUf  Hernandez),  in  addition  to  those  aboye  mentioned,  consist 


in  haying  the  gills  formed  of  three  long  ramified  or  branch-like  prch 
eesaes  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  four  toes  on  the  anterior  extremities 
and  fiye  on  the  posterior,  and  teeth  in  the  yomer  as  well  as  in  both 
jaws.  The  tail  is  compressed  on  the  sides  like  that  of  the  common 
Water-Newt  {Salamandrapalmata),  and  surroimded  both  on  the  upper 
and  under  surfaces  by  a  thin  erect  membranous  fin,  which  is  prolonged 
upon  the  back,  but  becomes  gradually  narrower  as  it  approaches  the 
shoulders,  between  which  it  finally  ceases.  The  head  is  broad  and 
flat ;  the  nose  blunt ;  the  eyes  situated  near  the  muzzle ;  the  tail 
neariv  as  long  as  the  body ;  and  the  toes  unconnected  by  intermediate 
membranes.  The  singular  form  of  the  gills  will  be  beet  understood 
from  the  accompanying  figure,  which  represents  the  under  jaw  and 
throat  of  the  animal  as  seen  from  beneatL 


Axolotl  [Oyrinm  eduiit,  Hernandes). 

The  Axolotl  of  the  Mexicans  {Oyrintu  edidit,  Hernandez),  when 
full  grown,  measures  about  8  or  9  inches  in  length  ;  its  groimd  colour 
is  a  uniform  deep  brown,  thickly  mottled  both  on  the  upper  and  under 
surfaces  of  the  head  and  body  as  well  as  on  the  limbs,  tail,  and  dorsal 
and  caudal  fins,  with  numerous  small  round  black  spots.  The  head 
and  body  are  larger  and  broader  than  in  the  genendity  of  reptiles, 
and  but  for  the  long  tail  which  terminates  the  latter  the  whole  animal 
might  be  not  inaptly  compared  in  form  to  a  large  frog ;  the  gills  are 
prolonged  into  three  principal  processes,  with  numerous  smaller 
ramifications  from  the  sides  of  each,  the  whole  being  as  long  as  the 
fore  legs,  and  resembling  three  small  branches ;  the  legs  are  short, 
though  fully  deyeloped;  and -the  toes  are  long,  slender,  separate,  and 
without  claws.  The  communications  which  open  from  the  gills  into 
the  mouth  are  four  in  number,  and  of  a  size  considerably  larger  than 
those  of  the  kindred  genera ;  they  are  coyered  externally  by  a  spedes 
of  operculum  formed  by  a  fold  in  the  skin  of  the  head. 

Tne  Axolotl  is  yery  common  in  the  lake  of  Mexico,  and,  according 
to  Baron  Humboldt,  likewise  inhabits  the  cold  waters  of  mountain- 
lakes  at  much  greater  eleyation  aboye  the  leyel  of  the  sea  than  the 
plains  surrounding  that  dty.  It  is  commonly  sold  in  the  markets  of 
Mexico,  and  esteemed  a  luxuiy  by  the  inhabitants.  It  is  dressed 
after  the  manner  of  stewed  eels,  and  seryed  up  with  a  rich  and 
stimulating  sauce. 

Professor  Owen  has  described  a  second  species  under  the  name  of 
Axolotet  mactUata,  which  also  is  an  inhabitant  of  Mexico. 

AYE-AYE.    [Cheibomtb.] 

AYMESTRY  LIMESTONE,  one  of  the  calcareous  bands  in  the 
Upper  Silurian  series  which  has  been  produced  by  coral  and  shell 
accumulations  amidst  the  masses  of  aigiUaceous  sedilments.  It  is  not 
traceable  b^ond  the  districts  of  Ludlow,  Abberley,  Malyem,  Wool- 
hope,  May  Hill,  and  Usk.  It  is  partially  characterised  by  Penlamenu 
Knightii. 

AZA'LEA,  in  Botany,  is  the  name  of  a  genus  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Ericacea,  and  consisting  of  shrubs  remarkable  for  the 
beauty  and  fragrance  of  their  flowers ;  on  which  account  they  are 
yery  generally  cultiyated  in  Europe^  By  some  botanists  the  genus  is 
esteemed  the  same  as  Bhododendron^  in  which  it  is  accordingly  sunk; 
and  it  must  be  confessed  that  it  is  difficult  to  point  out  any  positive 
character  except  the  thin  and  generally  deciduous  leaves  by  which 
Atalea  can  be  distinguished  from  Bhodoaendron, 

The  forms  of  Azalea  may  be  reduced  to  four  principal  heads,  to  one 


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or  other  of  whioh  all  the  species  are  referrible — ^namely,  1,  those  with 
glatinoTU  flowers  and  short  stamens ;  2,  those  with  glutinous  flowers 
and  stamens  much  loz^g;er  than  the  ooroUa ;  8,  those  with  flowers  that 
are  scarcely  at  all  glutinous,  and  stamens  much  longer  than  the  ooroUa; 
sad  4,  those  with  flowers  that  are  scarcely  at  all  glutmous,  and  short 
stamens. 

Section  L — FUwers  covered  viih  numeroua  glutinous  hain.    Stammu 
littU  ornotataU  longer  than  the  tube  of  the  corolla, 

1.  Asalea  vwccweK  Linn.  (A,  odorata,  vUteUa,  fitaa,  lueida  of  various 
authors).  Leaves  shining,  green  on  both  sides,  fHngedatthe  edge.  A 
native  of  swamps,  copses,  and  wet  and  shady  woods,  throughout  the 
United  States  of  North  America,  from  Canada  to  Qeoi^gia.  It  is  a  shrub 
from  8  to  8  feet  high,  with  the  young  branches  covered  with  numerous 
stiffish  brown  hairs.  The  leaves  are  bright  green,  shining,  and  smooth 
on  the  upper  side;  paler  but  not  at  all  glaucous  on  the  under  side.  The 
ilowers  are  deliciously  ftragrant,  usually  white  or  nearly  bo,  with  a 
long  narrow  tube,  and  a  contracted  limb  with  narrow  sharp-pointed 
divisions ;  they  are  covered  all  over  externally  with  glutinous  brownish- 
purple  glands.  The  stamens  are  not  so  long  as  the  segments  of  the 
corolla,  bat  longer  than  its  tube.  It  is  one  of  the  most  common 
species  and  the  most  fragrant 

2.  AMoUa  glauoa,  Lamarck.  Leaves  dull  green,  somewhat  wrinkled 
and  wavy  at  the  edge,  glaucous  on  the  under  side,  fringed  at  the  edge. 
Found  in  dayey  swamps  in  the  middle  states  of  North  America,  where 
it  flowers  ra&er  earlier  than  the  last  In  a  wild  state  it  is  a  much 
rarer  plants  and  does  not  grow  so  tall ;  its  white  flowers  appear  in  the 
utmost  profusion,  and  are  very  like  those  of  A.  vifcoM,  but  the  stamens 
are  a  little  longer.    In  the  nurseries  it  is  called  A.  ffiecoea  Jlorihwida, 

Section  IL — Flowere  covered  with  numerous  glutinous  hairs.    Stamens 
much  longer  than  the  corolla, 

3.  Azalea  mtid<tj  Pursh.  Branches  with  very  few  hairs.  Leaves 
smaU,  rather  leathery,  shining,  and  smooth  on  both  sides.  Found  in 
deep  mossy  swamps  on  the  mountains  of  North  America,  from  the 
state  of  New  York  to  Viiginia,  flowering  in  June  and  July.  The  leaves 
of  diis  plant>  which  appear  a  little  earUer  than  ih.e  flowers,  are  dark- 
green,  shining,  and  smaller  than  in  any  other  species :  the  only  parts 
which  are  hidry  are  the  midrib  and  the  maigin.  The  flowers  are 
whiter  with  a  red  tinge,  and  glutinous ;  their  tube  is  a  litUe  longer 
than  the  segments ;  the  calyx  is  very  short ;  the  stamens  are  longer 
Uian  the  corolla.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  to  be  met  with  in 
cultivation. 

4.  Asalea  hispida,  Pursh.  Branches  clothed  with  numerous  stiffish 
hairSb  Leaves  long-lanceolate,  covered  with  bloom  on  both  sides, 
hairy  on  the  upper  surface,  and  smooth  on  the  lower.  A  native  of  the 
borders  of  lakes;  and  on  the  highest  part  of  the  Blue  Ridge  in  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania^  flowering  in  July  and  August.  An  upright 
shrub,  growing  10  or  15  feet  hign,  with  a  bluish  tmpect,  by  which  it 
may  be  recognised  at  a  distance. 

5.  Asalea  pontica,  Linn.  Leaves  large,  not  shining,  puckered, 
reflexed  and  wavy  at  the  edge,  green  and  slightly  hairy  on  both  sur- 
faces. Flowers  yellow,  long-stalked,  covered  with  long  hairs  and 
glutinous  glands.  Common  in  the  Crimea^  the  Caucasus,  and  the 
eastern  parts  of  Poland,  rendering  the  whole  country  a  brilliant  giurden 
with  its  golden  fragrant  flowers  during  the  month  of  May.  Alwough 
found  on  the  mountains,  it  is  by  no  means  an  alpine  piant>  but  dis- 
appears in  the  higher  regions  of  the  air,  where  the  Pontic  Khododendron 
takes  its  place.  Its  flowers  abound  in  a  fluid  nectar,  which  is  said  to 
render  poisonous  the  hon^  collected  by  the  bees  at  the  time  of  its 
blooming.  It  is  readily  known  by  its  large  yellow  corolla  from  sJl 
the  American  species :  in  the  gardens  it  deviates  to  a  pale  straw  colour, 
which  is  called  white  by  collectors. 

Section  IIL — Flowers  with  scarcely  any  glutinous  hairs.    Stamens 
much  longer  than  the  coroUa, 

6.  Asaiea  peridymena,  Persoon  (A,  mtdiJUtra,  Willd. ;  peridy- 
menoides,  Michaux ;  coednea,  spedosa,  rubra,  rutilans,  catmea,  eUba, 
papilionaeeet,  paHUa,  polyandra,  of  the  Qardens).  Leaves  flat,  nearly 
nnirlens,  except  the  midrib,  which  is  bristly.  Tube  of  the  corolla 
much  longer  than  the  limb,  whidh  is  white.  Found  wild  on  the  sides 
of  hills,  in  woods  all  over  North  America,  where  it  is  called  Upright 
Honeysuckle — a  name  which  it  well  merits  for  its  fragrance  and 
bean^.  It  is  a  smaller  plant  than  A»  viseosa,  rarely  exceeding  the 
height  of  a  man,  and  being  generally  much  shorter,  and  excee&ij^y 
branched.  By  botanists  it  was  formerly  distinguished  by  its  flowers 
appearing  before  its  leaves,  whence  it  was  oaUed  A,  nudijiora  ;  but  as 
this  is  an  uncertain  droumstance,  the  name  we  have  adopted  from 
Penoon  deserves  the  preference.    Its  leaves  are  bright  green,  and 


AZURITE.  868 

nearly  smooth  on  the  upper  side,  flat»  and  by  no  means  puckered  or 
wavy ;  their  under  side  and  the  branches  are  dightly  downy,  and  their 
maigin  covered  with  stiff  hairs. 

7.  Atalea  eaneseens,  Hichaux  {A.  hiedlor,  Pursh^.  Leaves  hoaiy, 
especially  beneath,  where  they  are  also  downy ;  their  midrib  without 
any  stiff  hairs.  Tube  of  the  corolla  of  about  the  length  of  the  limb, 
which  is  white.  On  barren  sandy  lulls,  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
United  States^  on  the  banks  of  rivers  in  South  Carolina^  and  on  the 
mountains  of  Viiginia,  this  spedes  grows  wild ;  it  resembles  A,  peridy' 
mena  very  much,  but  is  a  tenderer  plant>  and  has  the  same  gray 
appearance  which  renders  A.  glauoa  so  conspicuous  an  object  Its 
flowers  are  small  and  white,  with  a  deep  rosy-red  tube ;  they  appear 
the  earliest  of  the  American  species. 

8.  Asalea  calendulaeea,  Micnaux.  Leaves  convex,  shining,  bright 
green,  slightly  hairy  on  both  sides,  reflexed  and  wavy  at  the  edge ; 
their  midrib  without  stiff  hairs.  Tube  of  the  corolla  not  longer  than 
the  broad  orange-coloured  or  scarlet  limb.  A  native  of  moist  places 
in  the  southern  states  of  North  America ;  sometimes  inhabitizig  tiie 
banks  of  rivers,  but  more  frequently  adorning  the  mountains  with  a 
garment  of  living  scarlet 

9.  Azalea  arhorescens,  Pursh.  Leaves  covered  on  the  under  side  by 
a  glaucous  bloom,  and  smooth  on  both  sides.  Tube  of  corolla  longer 
than  the  segments.  Calyx  with  leafy  divisions.  The  only  botanist 
who  has  described  this  remarkable  plant  is  Pursh,  who  says  it  grows 
on  rivulets  near  the  Blue  Ridge  in  Pennsylvania,  flowering  from  May 
to  July.  He  speaks  of  it  thus : — **  This  beautiful  species  has,  to  my 
knowledge,  not  vet  been  introduced  into  the  gardens.  I  have  only 
seen  it  in  its  native  place,  and  in  the  garden  of  Mr.  John  Bertram,  near 
Philadelphia.  It  rises  from  10  to  20  feet  high,  and  forms,  with  its 
elegant  foliage  and  laige  abundant  rose-coloured  flowers,  the  finest 
ornamental  shrub  I  know.  The  flowers  are  not  so  much  pubescent  aa 
the  rest  of  the  species  ;  the  scales  of  the  flower-buds  are  large^ 
yellowish-brown,  surrounded  with  a  fringed  white  border." 

Section  IV. — Flowers  entirely  desMute  of  giMiimaus  hairs.    Stamens 
short.    OoroUa  helldiaped. 

10.  Azalea  Sinensis  {A.  pontica;  A,  Sinensis,  'Botanical  Register,* 
plate  1258).  Leaves  downy  on  both  sides,  sharp-pointed,  gUucous 
beneath,  reflexed  and  wavy  at  the  edges,  flowers  covered  extemallv 
only  with  a  fine  silkiness ;  their  tube  much  shorter  than  the  bell- 
shaped  limb,  the  divisions  of  which  are  acute.  Introduced  from  China 
by  the  late  Mr.  W.  Wells,  of  Redleaf,  about  the  year  1826,  and  supposed 
to  be  a  native  of  that  country.  Its  leaves  are  verv  like  those  of  Azalea 
pontica,  except  that  they  are  glaucous  underneath,  and  its  flowers  are 
of  a  bright  dear  ochry  yellow ;  it  is  even  supposed  to  be  a  mere 
variety  of  that  spedes.  Its  bell-shaped  corolla,  however,  without  any 
glandular  or  other  conspicuous  hairs  on  the  outside,  and  with  scarody 
any  tube,  distinguishes  it  sufficiently.  The  segments  of  the  ooroUa  are 
broadly  ovate^  dightly  wavy,  and  the  upper  one  is  distinctly  dotted  in 
the  maimer  of  a  riiododendron. 

11.  Azalea  Indica,  Linnaeus.  Leaves  obovate,  flat,  green  on  both 
sides,  and  very  abimdantlydothed  with  stiffish  brown  hairs.  Flowers 
<}uite  smooth  externally ;  their  tube  much  shorter  than  the  bell-shaped 
limb,  the  divisions  of  whidi  are  rounded.  Calyx  small  and  very 
hispid ;  stamens  flve.  This  and  the  following  are  the  most  beautiful 
plants  which  exist  in  the  rich  flora  of  China,  where  they  fSw  exceed 
in  splendour  of  appearance  the  camelliss,  moutans,  chryranthemuma, 
and  roses  of  that  fevoured  dimate.  This  forms  a  bush  varying  in 
height  from  two  to  six  feet,  with  the  branches  usuallv  drooping,  and 
covered  when  young  with  rigid  brown  hairs.  The  leaves  are  deep 
green,  flat,  and  half  eveigreen,  usually  tinged  with  brown,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  many  brown  hairs  with  which  they  are  dothed.  The 
flowers  are  large  and  showy,  and  gaily  marked  with  briUiant  colours. 
The  calyx  is  very  small,  axid  dosely  covered  with  stiff  hairs.  There 
are  many  varieties,  of  which  the  Brick  Red,  the  Double  Purple,  and 
the  Variegated  are  the  prindpeL 

12.  AzeSea  ledifdia.  Hooker.  Leaves  obovate,  flat,  evergreen,  green 
on  both  ddes,  and  clothed  with  brown  hairs.  Flowers  quite  smooth 
externally ;  their  tube  much  shorter  than  the  bell-shaped  limb,  the 
divisions  of  which  are  dilated  and  wavy.  Calyx  with  leafy  acute 
sepals ;  stamens  ten.  A  native  of  China,  and  less  impatient  of  cold 
than  the  last,  from  which  it  chiefly  diflfors  in  its  leafy  calyx,  eveigreen 
leas  rusty  shhiing  leaves,  laiger  floweni,  and  more  numerous  stamens. 
There  are  two  varieties  in  the  gardens,  the  White  and  the  Royal 


Purple,  or  Phcsnicea. 
A'ZUl 


'ZURITE,  a  term  used  by  Phillips  to  denote  LasulUe,  under  whidi 
name  this  mineral  is  most  generally  described  by  mineralogists 
riiASTTLiTX.]  It  is  different  from  Asure-Stone,  by  whidi  name  Lapis 
Lazuli,  the  Ultramarine  of  painters,  is  sometimes  known. 


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BABIANA. 


BABOON. 


800 


B 


BABIA'NA,  &  genus  of  plantfl  belongiiig  to  the  nAtnral  order 
IridaceoB,  It  derivee  its  singular  name  from  Babianer,  which 
the  Dutch  colonists  ciJl  these  plants,  because  their  round  subtorrsnean 
stems  are  greedily  eaten  by  baboons.  It  differs  from  OUadAclug  in 
its  round  leather<x>ated  seeds,  and  in  the  flowers  having  the  tube  of 
Ixia,  and  ffom  Ixia  in  their  haying  the  irregular  limb  of  Qladiolut. 
Fourteen  or  fifteen  species  are  known,  among  which  are  some  of  the 
handsomest  of  the  Cape  Bulbous  Plants,  as  they  are  oonmionly  though 
incorrectly  called.  Of  these  all  have  narrow,  plaited,  sword-shaped 
leaves,  rising  from  a  cormus  which  is  covered  with  rigid,  netted, 
brown  scales ;  this  part,  which  is  sometimes  called  the  bulb,  some- 
times the  root,  but  which  Ib  in  reality  a  short  undexground  stem,  is 
propagated  by  one  or  mora  young  buds  near  its  point,  which  shoot  up 
at  the  season  of  growth,  feed  upon  the  old  cormus  till  they  have  sucked 
it  quite  dry,  and  by  that  time  become  new  oormi  themselves  elevated 
upon  the  point  of  the  original  one.  In  this  way  the  undeivround 
oormi  gradually  rise  towards  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  afford  an 
instance  of  vegetable  progression  which  by  some  has  been  adduced  as 
extremely  remarkable,  but  which  is  in  £iict,  if  the  phenomenon  be 
rightly  considered,  precisely  analogous  to  the  progression  of  the  stem 
of  a  tree  into  the  air  by  the  formation  of  fresh  branches  year  after  year. 

The  flowers  of  Babiana  are  yellow,  purple,  and  even  scarlet,  of 
considerable  size,  and  extremely  handsome.  They  are  produced  in 
perfection,  provided  the  plants  are  so  cultivated  as  to  be  exposed 
abundantly  to  air,  light,  warmth,  and  moisture,  when  in  a  state  of 
growth,  and  preserved  cool  and  dry  while  in  a  state  of  repose.  It  is 
in  the  plains  of  the  Cape  of  Gk>od  Hope  that  these  plants  are  found, 
where  l^ey  are  exposed  for  two  or  three  months,  at  the  most^  to  rain  ; 
and  where,  during  the  remainder  of  the  year,  they  are  buried  beneath 
a  soil  so  dry  that  even  succulent  plants  themselves  can  scarcely  con- 
trive to  exist  upon  it. 

Bahiana  ttUphureeiy  one  of  the  commonest  species,  grows  about  a 
foot  high,  with  oblong,  plaited,  haiiy  leaves,  and  a  one-sided  spike  of 


BabiatM  ntlphurea, 
A,  a  diminished  flgnre  of  the  flowering  spike ;  B,  one  of  the  cormi,  showing 
how  they  gradually  ascend  by  rising  annually  upon  the  remains  of  oormi  of 
former  years. 

four  or  five  flowers.  The  latter  are  about  two  inches  long,  of  a  pale 
sulphur-yellow,  with  a  short  sky-blue  tube  and  eye ;  the  segments 
are  oblong,  slightly  wavy,  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  spreading  nearly 
equally  round  three  short  erect  stamens.  The  style  and  stigma  are 
sky-blue ;  the  latter  very  narrow  and  channeled. 

BABINGTONI'TE,  a  mineral  which  occurs  crystallised.  Its  primary 
form  is  a  doubly  oblique  prism  ;  the  colour  is  black  or  greenish-black ; 


the  fracture  uneven;  .hardness,  6*5  to  6'0;  lustre,  vitreouB;  it  is 
fidntly  translucent ;  the  specific  gravity  is  3*5.  It  has  been  found  at 
Arendal  in  Norway,  the  Shetland  Isles,  and  in  the  United  States  at 
Charles-town,  Massachusetts.  The  following  is  the  analyns  by  Arppe 
of  a  specimen  from  Arendal : — 

Silica 5i'i 

Protoxide  of  Iron     .......    SI'S 

Lime 19-6 

Magnesia 2*2 

Protoxide  of  Manganese 1*8 

Alumina 0*3 

Volatile  matter 0*9 

BABIBOU'SSA  is  sometimes  called  the  Homed  Hog  by  traT^Uen, 
fix>m  the  great  length  and  curved  form  of  its  upper  tusks,  which  pierce 
through  the  upper  lip  and  grow  upwards  and  backwards  like  the 
horns  of  the  Rwninantia.  It  is  a  species  of  wild  hog  which  inhabits 
the  woods  of  Java,  Celebes,  and  others  of  the  laiiger  Sunda  Isles. 
From  its  more  slender  proportions  and  longer  limbs,  compared  vnth 
other  species  of  the  same  genus,  this  animal  has  been  likewise  called 
the  Stag-Boar,  and  was  not  altogether  unknown  to  the  ancients ;  at 
least  it  seems  probable  that  it  is  tiie  Sua  telracerot  of  ^li^n  (lib.  xviii, 
cap.  10),  and  Ib  plainly  referred  to  by  Pliny  (lib.  viii.,  cap.  52).  [Suidjl] 
BABOON  {Oynocephalut,  Ouvier),  a  genus  of  Quadrimana,  or  Four- 
Handed  Mammals,  which  forms  the  last  link  in  the  chain  that  unites 
the  Simiada,  properly  so  called,  with  the  lower  animals.  The  zoolo- 
gical or  technical  name  of  this  genus,  CynocephaluM,  is  from  a  Greek 
word  used  by  Aristotle  and  other  ancient  writers  to  designate  the 
common  species  of  Bgypt  and  Arabia,  the  C.  Hamadryat  of  modem 
writers,  and  is  plainly  derived  frt>m  tiie  marked  resemblanoe  which 
the  head  and  face  of  these  animals  bear  to  those  of  a  dog,  and  which, 
in  truth,^  constitutes  the  most  distinctive  character  of  the  genus.  The 
origin  of  the  common  name  Baboon  is  a  subject  of  greater  doubt. 
Skmner  and  other  British  etymologists  are  content  with  deriving  it 
from  our  vernacular  word  Babe,  without  considering  that  the  German 
Pavian,  the  Dutch  Baviaan,  the  French  Babouin,  and  the  Italian 
Babbuino,  are  manifestly  but  so  many  difierent  modes  of  writing  tiie 
same  term.  A  more  probable  origin  of  aU  these  terms-  appears  to  be 
the  Italian  Babbuino,  frt>m  which  is  likewise  derived,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  Aldrovandus,  the  vulgar  Latin  word  Papio,  applied  by  the 
writers  of  the  16th  and  16th  centuries  to  these  animals,  and  which  is 
itself  a  diminutive  of  the  common  Italian  wordBabbo,  which  answers 
to  our  Papa. 

Though  the  Baboons  differ  widely  from  the  other  groups  of  quadni- 
manouB  animals,  and  may  be  readily  distinguished  at  sight  even  by 
those  who  are  not  much  in  the  habit  of  observing  them,  yet  it  has 
been  found  not  a  little  difficult  to  form  such  a  simple  definition  of  the 
genus  as  will  comprehend  all  the  species  properly  belonging  to  it,  and 
also  distinguish  them  from  those  which  appertain  to  the  proximate 
genera,  Maeacm  and  Cercopithecui.  The  most  marked  and  prominent 
of  the  characters  which  more  inunediately  distinguish  the  Baboons 
from  the  other  SimiadtE  consists  in  the  great  prolongation  of  the  face 
and  jaws,  and  in  the  truncated  form  of  the  muzzle,  which  gives  the 
whole  head  a  dose  resemblance  to  that  of  a  laige  dog,  and  from  which, 
as  already  observed,  the  Greeks  and  Romans  very  appropriately  deno- 
minated them  OynocqthaU,  or  Dog-Headed  Monkeys.  In  the  ordinaiy 
QttCMirufiiana,  which  have  the  head  and  face  round,  as  in  the  human 
species,  the  nose  is  flat»  and  the  nostrils  situated  about  half-way 
between  the  mouth  and  the  eyes,  the  whole  bearing  no  nnf»t 
resemblanoe  to  that  of  a  man  who  has  lost  the  greater  part  of  his 
nose :  but  in  the  Baboons  this  organ  is  prolonged  uniformly  with  the 
jaws ;  it  even  surpasses  the  lips  a  little  in  length,  and  the  nostrils 
open  at  the  end  of  it  exactly  as  in  the  dog.  Here  there  is  a  marked 
difierenoe  in  form  and  development  from  what  we  observe  in  the  Apes 
and  other  higher  groups  of  QuadrwnancL  The  great  length  of  the 
face  detracts  from  tiie  size  of  the  skull ;  the  organs  of  mastication  are 
strongly  developed  to  the  prejudice  of  the  brain  and  intellectual  func- 
tions ;  the  facial  angle,  which  has  been  generally  regarded  as  a  pretty 
accurate  measure  of  the  mental  capacity,  is  reduced  to  80%  whilst  it 
is  never  less  than  45**  in  the  Monkeys,  and  among  the  Apes  amomits 
even  to  60"  or  Ofi"* ;  and  the  character  of  the  Baboons,  as  might  be 
readily  suspected  from  these  indications,  is  less  docile  and  intSligent 
than  that  of  the  kindred  genera.  To  the  same  prolongation  of  the 
face,  and  preponderance  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  head,  is  to  be 
attributed,  at  least  in  a  great  measure,  the  fact  that  the  Baboons  lees 
frequently  assume  an  erect  posture  thim  any  of  the  other  Q»adrMmana, 
and  are  less  capable  of  maintaining  it  for  any  length  of  tima  The 
weight  of  the  long  nose,  to  which  the  small  size  of  the  skull  forms  but 
a  very  inefficient  counterbalance,  fatigues  the  muscles  of  the  neck, 
and  constanthr  tends  to  make  the  animal  seek  for  support  upon  all 
fours,  as  may  be  observed  in  a  dog  or  a  bear;  and  in  fact  the  Baboons 
are  but  very  little  superior  to  these  animals  in  the  facility  with  which 
they  maintain  themselves  in  an  uprighj  posture. 


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BABOON. 


BABOON. 


362 


In  their  native  motmismB  the  ordinary  food  of  the  Baboons  is 
benioB  and  bulbous  roots,  but  in  the  yioinity  of  human  habitations 
tiiey  make  incursions  into  the  cultivated  fields  and  gardens,  and 
destroj  a  still  greater  quantity  of  grain  and  firuits  than  they  cany 
away  with  them.  In  w^-inhabited  countries  where  they  are  likely 
to  meet  with  reaistanoe,  their  predatory  incursions  are  usually  made 
during  the  night,  and  .traveUers  assure  us  that^  taught  by  experience 
of  the  risks  to  which  .they  expose  themselves  during  such  expeditions, 
ihsj  place  sentinels  upon  the  surrounding  trees  and  heights  to  give 
them  timely  warning  of  the  approach  of  danger ;  but  in  wilder  and 
more  solitary  districts,  where  the  thinness  of  the  population  and  the 
want  of  fire«nns  place  them  on  some  degree  of  equalling  with  the 
inhabitants,  they  make  their  forays  in  the  open  day,  and  dispute  with 
the  husbandman  the  fruits  of  his  labour.  "  I  have  myself,"  says 
Pearoe,  in  his  '  Life  and  Adventures  in  Abyssinia,'  "  seen  an  assembly 
of  hage  monkejs  (haboonsl  drive  the  keepers  from  the  fields  of  grain, 
m  spite  of  their  uings  and  stones,  till  several  people  went  from  the 
yfOa^  to  their  assistance,  and  even  then  they  only  retired  slowly, 
•eexng  that  the  men  had  no  guns."  Some  travellers  even  assert  that 
if  the  troop  happens  to  be  surprised  in  the  act  of  pillaging,  the  senti- 
nels pay  with  their  lives  for  their  n^lect  of  the  general  safety ;  but 
howeyer  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  individuals  are  frequency  met 
with  which  exhibit  marks  of  iU-usage  from  their  companions,  and 
which  even  sometimes  appear  to  have  been  expelled  from  their 
lodety.  Others  assure  us  that  the  troop  sometimes  forms  a  long 
chun  extending  from  the  vicinity  of  their  ordinary  habitation  to  the 
guden  or  field  which  they  happen  to  be  engaged  in  plundering,  and 
that  the  produce  of  their  theft  is  pitched  from  hand  to  hand  till  it 
reaches  its  destination  in  the  mountains.  By  this  means  they  are 
enabled  to  cany  off  a  much  larger  booty  than  if  every  individual 
laboured  for  his  own  peculiar  benefit;  but  notwithstanding  this 
attention  to  the  general  interest,  each  takes  care  before  retiring  to 
iill  hiB  cheek-pouches  with  the  most  choice  fruits  or  grains  which  he 
can  proourei,  and  also,  if  not  likely  to  be  pursued,  to  carry  off 
quantities  in  his  handk  After  these  expeditions  the  whole  troop 
retiie  to  the  mountains  to  enjoy  their  booty.  They  likewise  search 
with  avidity  for  the  nests  of  birds,  and  suck  the  eggs ;  but  if  there  be 
young,  they  kill  them  and  destroy  the  nest ;  as,  notwithstanding  the 
evident  approximation  of  their  organisation  and  appetites  to  carni- 
vorous animals,  they  are  never  known  to  touch  a  living  prey  in  a  state 
of  nature,  and  even  in  captivity  will  eat  no  flesh  but  what  has  been 
thoroug^y  boiled  or  roasted.  In  this  state  we  have  seen  various 
baboons  enjoy  their  mutton-bone  and  pick  it  with  apparent  satisfiao- 
tion;  but  it  was  evidently  an  acquired  habit^  like  that  of  drinking 
porter  and  smoking  tobeicoo,  which  they  had  been  taught  by  the 
example  of  their  keepers. 

Of  all  the  Qmuirumana  the  Baboons  are  the  most  frightfully  ugly. 
Thdr  small  eyes  deeply  sunk  beneath  huge  projecting  eyebrows,  their 
low  contracted  forehead,  and  the  very  diminutive  size  of  their  cranium 
complred  with  the  enormous  development  of  the  face  and  jaws,  give 
tiiem  a  fierce  and  malicious  look,  which  is  still  further  heightened  by 
their  robust  and  powerful  make,  and  by  the  appearance  of  the  enormous 
teeth  which  they  do  not  fail  to  displav  upon  tiie  slightest  provocation. 
The  fierceness  and  brutality  of  their  cnantcter  and  manners  conespond 
with  the  expression  of  their  physiognomy.  These  characters  are  most 
strongly  di4>lAyod  by  the  males ;  but  it  is  more  especially  when,  in 
addition  to  their  ordinary  disposition,  they  are  agitated  by  the  passion 
of  love  or  jealousy  that  their  natural  habitudes  carry  them  to  the 
most  furious  and  brutal  exoess.  In  captivity  they  are  thrown  into  the 
greatest  agitation  at  the  appearance  of  young  females.  It  is  a  common 
practice  among  itinerant  showmen  to  excite  the  natural  jealousy  of 
their  baboons  by  caressing  or  offering  to  kiss  the  young  females  who 
resort  to  their  exhibitions,  and  the  sight  never  fails  to  excite  in  these 
aninuds  a  degree  of  rage  bordering  upon  frenzy.  On  one  occasion  a 
laige  baboon  of  the  species  which  ii^abits  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
{CJi»octphalu8  pcreariui)  escaped  from  his  place  of  confinement  in  the 
'  Jardin  des  Flantea '  at  Paris,  and  far  from  showing  any  disposition 
to  return  to  his  cage,  severely  wounded  two  or  throe  of  the  Keepers 
who  attempted  to  recapture  him.  After  many  ineffectual  attempts 
to  induce  lum  to  return  quietiy,  they  at  length  hit  upon  a  plan  which 
was  suooessfni  There  was  a  sinall  grated  window  at  the  back  part  of 
his  den,  at  which  one  of  the  keepers  appeared  in  company  with  the 
dau^ter  of  the  superintendent^  whom  h^  appeared  to  kiss  and  caress 
within  view  of  the  animal.  No  sooner  did  the  baboon  witness  this 
familiarity  than  he  flew  into  the  cage  writh  the  greatest  fury,  and 
endeavoured  to  unfasten  the  grating  of  the  window  which  separated 
him  fi[om  the  object  of  his  jealousy.  Whilst  employed  in  this  vain 
attempt  the  keepers  took  the  opportunity  of  fastening  the  door  and 
securing  him  onoe  more  in  his  place  of  confinement  Nor  is  this  a 
solitary  instance  of  the  influence  whidi  women  can  exert  over  the 
passions  of  these  savage  animals :  generally  untractable  and  incorrigible 
whilst  under  the  management  of  men,  it  usually  happens  that  baboons 
are  most  effectually  tamed  and  led  to  even  more  than  ordinary 
obedience  in  the  hands  of  women,  whose  attentions  they  even  appear 
to  repay  with  gratitude  and  affection.  Travellers  sometimes  speak 
of  the  danger  which  women  run  who  reside  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
situations  which  these  animals  inhabit,  and  affirm  that  the  negresses 
on  the  coast  of  Guinea  are  occasionally  kidnapped  by  the  baboons, 


and  carried  off  to  their  fastnesses :  we  are  even  assured  that  certain 
of  these  women  have  lived  among  the  baboons  for  many  years,  and 
that  they  were  prevented  firom  escaping  by  being  shut  up  in  caves  in 
the  mountains,  where  however  they  were  plentifully  fed,  and  in  other 
respects  treated  writh  great  kindness.  It  is  to  be  observed  however 
that  tiiese  accounts  rest  upon  authority  which  is  by  no  means  unex- 
ceptionable. Credible  and  well-informed  modem  travellers  do  not 
rekte  them,  and  even  their  older  and  more  credulous  predecessors 
give  them  only  firom  hearsay. 

In  addition  to  the  mental  and  physical  characters  already  mentioned, 
the  Baboons,  besides  the  great  development  of  their  canine  teeth,  are 
distinguished  by  having  a  fifth  tubercule  upon  the  posterior  molar  of 
the  under  jaw,  in  which  respect  they  differ  from  the  Apes  and 
Cercopithecif  and  resemble  the  Macaci  and  Semnopiiheci.  They  are 
furnished  with  laige  callosities  and  capacious  cheek  pouches,  and 
their  tails,  always  shorter  than  those  of  the  Macacks  and  Monkeys, 
are  carried  erect  at  the  root>  and  then  hang  pendant  perpendicidarly, 
like  that  of  a  horse  which  has  not  been  truncated.  Those  species 
which  have  very  short  tails  carry  them  upright  and  erect  The  bones 
of  their  cheeks  also  are  protuberant  and  form  large  swellings  on  each 
side  of  the  nose ;  and  though  this  character  is  more  strongly  marked 
in  the  Mandrill  and  Drill  than  in  the  other  species,  yet  aU  exhibit  it 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree.  It  is  only  since  the  labours  of  Messrs. 
Geofih>y  and  F.  Cuvier  have  developed  the  true  generic  characters  of 
the  different  groups  which  compose  the  family  of  Q^adrumanckj  that 
we  have  become  acquainted  with  the  geographio&l  distribution  of  these 
animals,  and  the  habitats  of  the  different  genera.  We  have  thus 
learned  that  the  Q^adrumana  of  the  African  continent  are  as  distinct 
from  those  of  Asia  in  their  zoological  characters  as  they  are  in  the 
localities  which  they  inhabit ;  in  fact,  among  upwards  of  fifty  species 
of  Simiada  belonging  to  the  Old  World  there  are  only  two  known 
instances  of  an  Asiatic  genus  occurring  in  Africa,  or  of  an  African 
genus  occurring  in  Asia.  One  of  these  instances  is  even  doubtful, 
since  the  animal  to  which  it  refers,  the  Common  Magot  or  Barbary 
Ape,  though  generally  considered  as  a  Macack,  is  in  r^ty  an  inter- 
mediate species  between  that  genus  and  the  Baboons,  which  it  resembles 
equally  in  its  habitat  as  it  does  in  its  powerful  and  muscular  frame, 
and  in  its  general  habits  and  character,  and  from  which  it  only  differs 
in  the  comparative  shortness  of  its  &ce  and  the  less  truncated  form  of 
its  nose.  These,  to  be  sure,  are  very  essential  characters  in  the  true 
Baboons;  but  in  all  departments  of  zoology  we  find  intermediate 
species,  which  partake  as  it  were  equally  of  the  characteristic  forms 
and  oiiganisation  of  two  or  even  three  conterminous  genera,  and 
which  it  is  often  impossible  to  include  in  either  without  a  considerable 
relaxation  in  the  strict  import  of  their  respective  definitions.  The 
other  instance  to  which  we  have  alluded  regards  a  real  species  of 
Baboon,  the  Oynocephahu  Mamadryas  of  authors,  which  is  found  in 
Asia  and  Africa,  and  which  forms  the  only  indisputable  instance  of 
any  quadrumanous  animal  being  common  to  both  these  continents. 
In  other  respects  the  Baboons  are  a  strictly  African  genus.  They 
inhabit  all  the  great  mountain  ranges  of  that  continent^  frt)m  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  are 
capable  of  supporting  a  much  lower  degree  of  temperature  than  any 
of  the  other  Q^adrwncma,  The  lofty  mountains  of  Samen  in  Abys- 
sinia, and  the  bleak  and  desolate  range  of  the  Sneeuwbexigen  in  South 
Africa,  are  both  tenanted  by  numerous  troops  of  these  animals,  which 
appear  to  prefer  the  more  rigorous  climate  of  these  elevated  regions 
to  the  hot  and  sultry  forests  of  the  lower  plains.  Fischer  eniunerates 
eleven  different  species  of  baboons,  but  it  is  evident  that  some  of  those 
which  he  describes  are  the  females  or  young  of  other  species ;  and  in 
fact  the  most  judicious  naturalists,  those  who  describe  from  their  own 
original  observations,  do  not  reckon  more  than  five  or  six.  The 
following  are  very  distinctiy  marked,  and  have  been  universally 
admitted: —  ^ 

1.  (7.  poroariui  rOesmarest),  the  Chadma.  The  colour  of  this  species 
is  a  uniform  dark  nrown,  almost  black,  mixed  throughout  with  a  dark 
green  shade^  deepest  on  the  head  and  along  the  ridge  of  the  back,  and 
paler  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  shoulders  and  on  the  fianks.  The 
hair  over  the  whole  body  is  long  and  shaggy,  more  particularly  on 
the  neck  and  shoulders  of  the  males,  where  it  forms  a  distinct  mane ; 
each  hair  is  of  a  light  grav  colour  for  some  distance  from  the  root, 
and  afterwards  anntdated  throughout  its  entire  length,  with  distinct 
rings  alternately  black  and  dark  green,  sometimes  wou|^  but  rarely 
intermixed  with  a  few  of  a  lighter  and  yellovrish  shade.  The  green 
predominates  on  the  head  more  than  on  other  peats ;  the  face  and 
ears  are  naked,  as  are  likewise  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the 
feet ;  the  interior  surfaces  of  the  arms  and  thighs  are  but  thinly 
covered  with  hair,  which  is  long  and  of  a  uniform  dark-brown  colour ; 
the  hair  on  the  toes  is  short,  bristiy,  and  uniformly  black ;  the  neck 
and  shoulders  of  the  male  are  furmshed  with  a  mane  of  long  shaggy  hair, 
which  is  wanting  in  the  fsmales  and  young ;  and  the  cheeks  of  both  sexes 
have  small  whiskers  directed  bacd^vTards,  and  of  a  grayish  colour. 
The  tail  is  rather  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  body,  and  is  termi- 
nated by  a  tuft  of  long  black  hair;  the  skin  of  the  hands,  face,  and 
ears,  is  of  a  very  dark  violet-blue  colour,  with  a  paler  rin^  surroundipg 
each  eye ;  the  whole  of  the  upper  eyelids  are  white,  as  m  the  Mansa- 
bey  {uercopitheeut  fidiffinotui) ;  the  nose  projects  a  littie  beyond  the 
upper  lip,  the  nostrils  are  separated  by  a  small  depression  or  rut»  as 


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in  the  dog  and  other  carnivorous  animals,  and  the  oallositieB  are  less 
strongly  marked  than  in  most  other  species  of  this  genus.  In  the 
adult  animal  the  muzzle  is  extremely  prolonged  in  comparison  with 
the  skull,  which  is  proportionately  contracted  and  flattened :  the 
young  on  the  contrary  have  the  region  of  the  brain  much  larger  in 


The  Chacma  {C.  porearius), 

proportion  to  the  length  of  the  face,  the  head  considerably  rounder, 
and  in  form  resembling  that  of  the  adult  Monkeys  {CercopUheei). 

The  Chacma,  so  called  from  the  Hottentot  word  TChackamma, 
the  aboriginal  name  of  this  baboon  in  South  Africa,  is  one  of  the 
largest  species  of  the  present  genus,  and  when  full  grown  is  equal  in 
size,  and  much  superior  in  strength,  to  a  common  English  mastiff. 
This  animal  inhabits  the  mountains  throughout  the  colony  of  the 
Cape  of  Qood  Hope,  and  associates  in  families  more  or  less  numerous. 
They  are  still  found  on  the  Table  Mountain  above  Cape  Town,  though 
they  do  not  exist  in  such  numbers  as  they  appear  to  have  done 
formerly.  Still  however  they  pay  occasional  visits  to  the  gardens  at 
the  base  of  the  mountains,  and  with  such  skill  and  caution,  that  even 
the  most  watchful  dogs,  as  we  are  assured  by  Professor  Lichtenstein, 
cannot  always  prevent  them.  "Although,"  he  remarks,  "Kolbe 
somewhat  exaggerates  the  regular  and  concerted  manner  in  which 
their  robberies  are  carried  on,  yet  it  is  very  true  that  they  go  in  large 
companies  upon  their  marauding  parties,  to  support  each  other  recip- 
rocally, and  carry  off  their  plunder  m  greater  security."  Their  common 
food  consists  of  the  bulbous  roots  of  different  plants,  particularly  of 
the  Babiana  [Babiana]  ;  these  they  dig  up  with  their  fingers,  and 
peel  them  with  their  teeth,  and  heaps  of  the  parings  are  frequently 
seen  near  the  large  stones  upon  which  the  baboons  delight  to  sit  and 
look  round  them.  In  ascending  the  kloofs  or  passes  in  Ihe  mountains 
of  South  Africa,  which  are  frequently  steep,  narrow,  and  dangerous, 
travellers  often  disturb  troops  of  these  animals  which  have  been 
sunning  themselves  on  t^e  rocks :  if  not  attacked  they  scamper  up 
the  sides  of  the  mountains  yelling  and  screaming ;  but  if  fired  at  and 
woimded,  they  no  sooner  get  beyond  the  range  of  the  g^un  than  they 
commence  rolling  and  throwing  down  stones,  and  otherwise  resenting 
the  injuxy.  A  full-grown  Chacma  is  more  than  a  match  for  two 
good  dogs,  and  though  there  is  no  animal  which  hounds  pursue  with 
so  much  fury,  yet  the  boers  of  the  interior  would  rather  set  their 
dogs  upon  a  Hon  or  panther  than  upon  one  of  these  baboons. 

2.  0.  Hamctdryaa  (LinnsBus),  the  Derrias,  the  most  celebrated  of 
all  the  Baboons,  and  probably  the  only  species  of  this  ffenus  known 
to  the  ancients,  inhabits  the  mountains  of  Arabia  and  Almsinia,  and 
grows  to  the  size  of  a  laige  pointer,  measuring  upwards  of  4  feet 
when  standing  erect,  and  2^  feet  in  a  sitting  posture.  The  face  of 
this  species  k  extremely  elongated,  naked,  and  of  a  dirty  flesh-colour, 
with  a  lighter  ring  surrounding  the  ejres ;  the  nostrils,  as  in  the  dog, 
are  separated  by  a  slight  furrow ;  the  head,  neck,  shoulders,  and  all 
the  fore  part  of  the  body  as  far  as  the  loins,  are  covered  with  long 
shaggy  hair ;  that  on  the  hips,  thighs,  and  legs,  is  shorty  and  contrasted 
with  the  former  has  ^e  appearance  of  having  been  dipped,  so  that 
the  whole  animal  bears  no  unapt  resemblance  to  a  French  poodle. 
The  hair  of  the  occiput  and  neck  is  upwards  of  a  foot  in  lengtn,  and 
forms  a  long  mane  which  falls  back  over  the  shoulders,  and  at  a 
distance  looks  something  like  a  fall  short  doak.  The  whiskers  are 
broad  and  directed  backwards  so  as  to  conceal  the  ears ;  their  colour, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  head,  mane,  and  fore  part  of  the  body,  is  a 
mixtture  of  light  gray  and  cinereous,  each  hair  being  marked  with 
numerous  alternate  rings  of  these  two  colours ;  the  short  hair  of  the 
hips,  thighs,  and  extremities  is  of  a  uniform  dnereous  brown  colour, 
rather  lifter  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the  thighs  than  on  the  other 


parts ;  a  dark-brown  line  passes  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  the 
hands  are  almost  jet  black,  and  the  feet  are  rusty  brown.  The  tail  ii 
about  half  the  length  of  the  body,  and  is  carried  drooping  as  in  other 
baboons;  it  is  terminated  by  a  brown  tuft  of  long  hair;  the 
callosities  are  large  and  of  a  dark  flesh-colour;  the  palms  of  the 
hands  and  soles  of  the  feet  dark-brown.  The  female  when  full  grown 
is  equal  to  the  male  in  point  of  tSz»y  but  differs  considerably  in  the 
length  and  colour  of  the  hair.  This  sex  wants  the  mane  which 
ornaments  the  neck  of  the  male,  and  is  covered  over  the  whole  bodj 
with  short  hair  of  equal  length,  and  of  a  imiform  deep  olive-brown 
colour,  slightly  mixed  with  green.  The  throat  and  breast  -are  bat 
sparingly  covered  with  hair,  and  the  dun  on  these  parts,  as  well  as  on 
the  face,  hands,  and  callosities,  is  of  a  deep  tan-colour.  Hemprich 
and  Ehrenberg  in  their '  Symbols  Phydcss'  compare  the  female  Derrias 
to  a  bear,  whilst  the  copious  mane  which  adorns  the  fore  quarters  of 
the  male  gives  to  that  sex  much  of  the  external  form  and  appearance 
of  a  small  lion.  The  young  of  both  sexes  resemble  the  fenuJe,  and 
the^  large  whiskers  and  manes  of  the  males  only  begin  to  make 
their  appearance  when  the  animals  arrive  at  their  fiill  growth  and 
mature  age,  that  is,  when  they  have  completed  their  second  dentition. 
At  this  period  they  undergo  as  great  a  change  in  their  mental 
propensities  as  in  their  physical  appearance.  While  young  they  are 
gentle,  docile,  and  playful,  but  as  soon  as  they  have  acquired  their  full 
devdopment,  they  become  sulky,  malicious,  and  morose. 

This  species  inhabits  Arabia  and  Abyssinia,  but  is  not  found  either 
in  Egypt  or  Nubia,  though  its  figure  is  often  sculptured  on  the  andent 
monuments  of  both  these  countries.  Hemprich  and  Ehrenberg  found 
large  troops  of  them  in  Wadi  Kanun  and  in  the  mountains  near  the 
dty  of  Oumfud  in  the  country  of  the  Wahabees,  as  well  as  in  the 
mountains  above  Arkeeko  on  the  Red  Sea ;  and  we  learn  from  Sdt 
and  Pearce  that  they  are  extremely  common  upon  all  the  high  lands  in 
Tigrd.  The  travellers  above-mentioned  found  troops  of  100  and  upwards 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Eilet,  in  the  chain  of  the  Taranta.  These 
were  usually  composed  of  ten  or  twelve  adult  males,  and  about 
twenty  adult  females ;  the  remainder  of  the  troop  was  maide  up  of  the 
young  of  the  four  or  five  preceding  years.  When  seen  at  a  distance 
approaching  a  small  stream  for  the  purpose  of  quenching  their  thint» 
they  bore  a  dose  resemblance  to  a  flock  of  wild  hogs ;  and  it  was 
observed  that  the  young  ones  always  led  the  van,  and  that  the  old 
males  brought  up  the  rear,  probably  for  the  purpooe  of  having  the 
whole  family  continually  under  their  immediate  observation.  The 
Arabic  name  of  thisanimal  is  Robah  or  Bobba ;  the  Abyssinians  call  it 
Derrias,  according  to  Pearce's  orthography,  or  Earrai,  according  to  the 
spelling  of  Hemprich. 

The  name  of  this  spedes  in  the  andent  Ethiomc  or  Geez,  the 
learned  language  of  the  Abyssinians,  is  Tot  or  Tota.  The  figure  of  this 
animal  in  a  sitting  posture  is  common  upon  the  ancient  monuments  of 
Egypt  and  Nubia ;  small  metal  images  of  it  have  been  dug  up  among 
the  ruins  of  Memphis  and  Hermopolis,  and  mummies  containing  the 
embalmed  body  of  the  animal  are  still  found  among  the  cata6omba 
Strabo  indeed  (p.  812),  in  mentioning  Hermopolis  as  tiie  centre  of 
the  adoration  paid  to  the  CynocephcduM,  says  l^tthe  Babylonians  in 
the  vicinity  of  Memphis  paid  divine  honours  to  the  Ckb%t:  yet 
though  the  geographer  makes  use  of  very  different  names,  and  though 
these  in  reality  apply  to  very  different  animals,  there  is  good  reason 
to  believe  that  they  both  refer  in  the  present  instance  to  the  same 
species ;  no  quadrumanous  animal  is  ever  found  represented  upon  the 
sacred  monuments  of  andent  Egypt  except  the  Baboon  nor  have  the 
imi^ges  of  any  other  spedes  ever  been  dug  up  in  seardiing  for 
antiquities.  One  or  two  instances,  indeed,  occur  in  the  representations 
of  profane  subjects,  such  as  the  procesdon  of  a  returning  conqueror, 
in  which  Monkeys  (  Cercopitheci )  are  introduced,  as  for  instance  the 
painting  discovered  at  Thebes  by  the  late  Mr.  Salt  and  represented 
by  Minutola  ( tab.  xii.,  fig.  9 ),  in  which  a  monkey  is  represented  riding 
on  the  neck  of  a  camdeopard;  but  this  was  manifestly  intended 
merely  to  fix  the  locality  of  the  country  or  people  whose  subjection 
the  triumph  was  meant  to  commemorate,  and  by  no  means  indicates  a 
partidpation  in  the  divine  honours  which  were  paid  to  the  baboon. 
Ndther  does  the  female  ever  appear  to  be  represented  as  an  object  of 
worship ;  all  the  figures  and  images  seem  to  be  those  of  males,  as  ii 
proved  by  the  mane  which  covers  the  neck  and  shoulders,  and  which 
gives  a  fullness  to  the  fore  part  of  the  body  in  this  sex  which  is 
wanting  in  the  other.  ^ 

S.  C.  papio  ( Desmarest ),  the  Common  Baboon,  is  of  a  uniform 
yellowish-brown  colour,  slightly  shaded  with  sandy  or  light  red  upon 
the  head,  shoulders,  body,  and  extremities ;  the  whiskers  alone  are  of 
a  light  fawn-oolour ;  the  face,  ears,  and  hands  are  naked  and  entirely 
black,  the  upper  eyelids  white  and  also  naked,  and  the  tail  about 
half  the  length  of  the  body,  but  not  terminated  by  the  tuft  whidi 
distinguishes  it  in  the  last  two  spedes.  The  hair  of  the  occiput  and 
neck  is  rather  longer  than  that  on  the  neck  and  shoulders,  but  is 
neither  so  long  nor  so  thick  as  to  give  it  any  resemblance  to  the  mane 
of  the  Chacma  or  Derrias ;  ndther  is  the  face  of  the  present  spedes 
so  much  prolonged  as  in  these  two  animals;  the  nose  however  is 
advanced  rather  beyond  the  extremity  of  the  lips,  and  has  the  nostiilB 
opening  as  in  the  other  baboons ;  the  dieeks  are  condderaUy  swollen 
unmediately  bdow  the  eyes,  after  which  the  breadth  of  the  ftoe 
contracts  suddenly,  giving  the  munle  or  noM  the  appearance  of 


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hBTUig  been  broken  in  that  situation  bj  a  heavy  blow.  The  whiskers 
are  not  so  thickly  furnished  as  in  the  species  abready  described ;  they 
are  however  equally  directed  backwards,  but  do  not  conceal  the  ears, 
which  are  black,  naked,  and  lees  regularly  oval  than  in  man  and  the 
generality  of  the  SimioB.  The  under  parts  of  the  body,  the  breast^ 
belly,  abdomen,  and  inner  face  of  the  arms  and  thighs,  are  very 
sparingly  fumished  with  long  hairs  of  a  uniform  brown  colour.  The 
females  and  young  differ  in  no  other  respect  from  the  adult  males, 
except  in  being  of  a  lighter  and  more  active  make. 

This  species  inhabits  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  is  that  most 
commmonly  aeeii  about  the  streets,  and  in  menageries  and  museums. 
In  youth  it  is  gentle,  curious,  gluttonous,  and  incessantly  in  motion, 
Hinadring  its  lii>s  quickly,  and  chattering  when  it  wishes  to  beg  oontri- 
bations  from  its  visitors,  and  screaming  loudly  when  refused  or 
tantalised.  Ab  it  grows  older  however  it  ceases  to  be  familiar,  and 
aasumes  all  the  morose  look  and  repulsive  manners  which  characterise 
the  baboons  in  general  The  specimen  observed  by  Buffon  was  fall 
grown,  and  exhibited  all  the  ferocity  of  disposition  and  intractability 
of  nature  common  to  the  rest  of  its  kind.  **  It  was  not,"  says  he, 
''altogether  hideous,  and  yet  it  excited  horror.  It  appeared  to  be 
continually  in  a  state  of  savage  ferocity,  grinding  its  teeth,  perpetually 
restleasi,  and  agitated  by  unprovoked  fury.  It  was  obliged  to  be  kept 
shut  up  in  an  iron  cage,  of  which  it  shook  the  bars  so  powerfully 
with  its  hands  as  to  inspire  the  spectators  with  apprehension.  It  was 
a  stout-built  animal,  whose  nervous  limbs  and  compressed  form 
indicated  great  force  and  agility ;  and  though  the  length  and  thickness 
of  its  sha^^y  coat  made  it  appear  to  be  much  larger  than  it  was  in 
reality,  it  was  nevertheless  so  strong  and  active  that  it  might  have 
readily  worsted  the  attacks  of  several  unarmed  men." 

i.  6.  Momcn  and  C.  Maimon  (  Linnaeus ),  the  3£andiill,  is  the  largest 
of  the  whole  genus,  and  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  all  the 
other  baboons  by  the  enormous  protuberance  of  its  cheeks,  and  the 
bright  and  variegated  colours  which  mark  them,  as  well  as  by  its  short 
opright  tail     The  full-grown  Mandrill  measures  above  5  feet  when 


The  Mandrill  {O.  Mormon  aad  O.  Maimon). 

standing  upright ;  the  limbs  are  short  and  powerful,  the  body  thick 
and  extremely  robust,  the  head  large  and  almost  destitute  of  forehead, 
the  eye-brows  remarkably  prominent,  the  eyes  small  and  deeply  sunk 
in  the  head,  the  cheek-bones  swollen  to  an  enormous  size,  and  forming 
projections  on  each  side  of  the  nose  as  large  as  a  man's  fist,  marked 
transvenely  with  numerous  alternate  ribs  of  light  blue,  scarlet,  and 
deep  purple ;  the  tail  not  more  than  a  couple  of  inches  in  length,  and 
generally  carried  erect ;  the  callositieB  large,  naked,  and  of  a  blood- 
red  colour.  The  general  colour  of  the  hair  is  a  light  olive  brown 
above,  and  silvery  gray  beneath,  and  the  chin  is  fumished  underneath 
with  a  small  pointed  yellow  beard.  The  hair  of  the  forehead  and 
temples  is  directed  upwards  so  as  to  meet  in  a  point  on  the  crown, 
which  gives  the  head  a  triangular  appearance ;  the  ears  are  naked, 
Angular  at  their  superior  and  posterior  borders,  and  of  a  bluish  black 
colour ;  and  the  muzzle  and  lips  are  large,  swollen,  and  protuberant. 
The  former  is  surrounded  above  with  an  elevated  rim  or  border,  and 
tnmcated  like  the  snout  of  a  hog — a  character  which  we  have  observed 
in  no  other  baboon,  and  which  leads  us  to  susx>ect  that  the  Mandrill  is 
the  species  that  Aristotle  incidentally  mentions  by  the  name  Choero- 
^***ci«f  (xoipowf^icof),  (*  Hist  Anim.,'  lib.  iL  cap.  2),  and  which  may 
have  been  brought  into  Er^)^  ^^  Gh-eece  by  the  merchants  who  kept 
up  a  regular  intercourse  oetween  Egypt  and  the  countries  of  the 
interior.  There  are  other  considerations  which  give  a  strong  degree 
of  •probability  to  this  conjecture.  The  short,  indeed  almost  tuber- 
culous, tall  of  the  Mandrill,  for  instance,  would  have  led  Aristotle  to 
compare  it  with  the  ape  or  PithectLt  («(^icoi),  rather  than  with  the 
other  Simiada,  all  of  which  have  tails  of  considerable  length ;  and  the 
tnmcated  form  of  the  snout  would  readily  suggest  its  similarity  to  the 
^  (X«^0*     ^®  <"^  aware  that  the  ChceropUheGtu  of  the  Greek 


philosopher  has  been  generally  identified  with  the  Common  Baboon  or 
the  Derrias ;  but  neither  of  these  species  possesses  any  character  which 
justifies  that  supposition;  and  oesides,  the  Derrias  is  indisputably 
allowed  to  be  the  species  designated  by  the  much  more  appropriate 
name  of  Oynocephalut  (m/roKc^oXos).  Nor  does  the  Mandnll  differ 
much  in  its  general  form  and  appearance  from  the  Pithecut  of  Aristotle, 
which  was  the  common  Magot  or  Barbary  Ape  {Afaeactu  inuu») :  there 
is  no  very  great  difference  in  the  size  of  these  animals,  their  oolour  is 
very  nearly  the  same,  both  are  equally  remarkable  for  the  powerful 
make  of  their  bodies,  and  the  sinewy  character  of  their  short  stout 
limbs ;  and  in  fttct  the  only  striking  difference  which  exists  between 
them  is  the  prolonged,  truncated,  swinish  snout  of  the  one,  and  the 
roimd  head  and  short  &uce  of  the  otlier.  Thus  we  can  very  satisfac- 
torily aoooimt  for  both  members  of  the  compound  name  employed  by 
Aristotle ;  nor  can  an  objection  be  fairly  taken  to  the  approximation 
which  we  have  here  made  of  his  Chiropithecua  to  the  Mandrill  of 
Guinea^  on  account  of  the  extremely  limited  knowledge  which  the 
ancient  Greeks  possessed  of  the  western  coasts  of  Africa ;  since  we 
know  that  they  were  well  acquainted  with  other  ftnimftla  from  the 
same  or  even  a  more  remote  locality ;  such,  for  instance,  as  the  Gnu 
(AniUope  Onu),  which  is  clearly  the  C(Uoblep<u  of  ancient  writers,  and 
the  Pecasse  or  buffiBLlo  of  the  Gold  Coast. 

The  females  and  young  Mandrills  differ  from  the  adult  males  in  the 
shorter  and  leas  protuberant  form  of  the  muzzle,  which  is  moreover  of 
a  imiform  blue  colour ;  the  cheek-bones  have  little  or  no  elevation 
above  the  general  plane  of  the  face,  nor  are  they  marked  with  the 
longitudinal  furrows  which  give  the  other  sex  so  singular  an  appear- 
ance ;  at  least  they  are  far  from  being  so  prominently  developed.  It 
is  only  indeed  when  they  have  completed  their  second  dentitaon  that 
these  characters  are  fully  displayed  in  the  males,  and  that  the  extremity 
of  the  muBzle  assumes  that  bright  red  hue  by  which  it  is  so  remarkably 
distinguished. 

The  Mandrill  is  often  mentioned  by  travellers,  and  bears  the  diffe- 
rent names  of  Smitten,  Choras,  Boggo,  Barris,  &o.,  according  to  the 
language  or  dialect  of  the  tribes  in  whose  territories  it  has  been  observed. 
Those  which  have  been  observed  in  a  domestic  state  are  generally 
remarked  to  have  had  a  strong  taste  for  spirituous  and  fermented 
liquors.  A  remarkably  fine  individual,  which  was  long  kept  at  Exeter 
Change,  and  afterwards  at  the  Surrey  Zoological  Gardens,  drank  his 
pot  of  porter  daily,  and  evidently  enjoyed  it.  In  a  state  of  nature  his 
great  strength  and  malicious  cnaracter  render  the  Mandrill  a  truly 
formidable  animal.  As  they  generally  march  in  large  bands,  they 
prove  more  than  a  match  for  any  other  mhabitants  of  the  forests,  and 
are  even  said  to  attack  and  drive  the  elephants  away  from  the  districts 
in  which  they  have  fixed  their  residence.  The  inhabitants  of  those 
countries  themselves  are  afhud  to  pass  through  the  woods  unless  in 
lai^  oomponies  and  well  armed ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  Mandrills 
will  even  watch  their  opportunity  when  the  men  are  in  the  fields,  to 
plunder  the  negro  villages  of  everything  eatable,  and  sometimes  attempt 
to  carry  off  the  women  into  the  woods. 

5.  C.  leucophceus  (F.  Cuvier),  the  Drill,  is  a  species  only  recently 
admitted  by  the  most  iudioious  modem  naturalists,  though  long  sinqe 


The  Drill  {O.  IweopJuBUi). 
described  by  Pennant^  and  after  him  by  various  other  writers.  It  is 
likewise  a  native  of  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  like  the  Mandrill  is  dis- 
tinguished by  a  short  erect  stumpy  tail,  scarcely  two  inches  in  length, 
and  covered  with  short  bristly  hair.  The  cheeks  are  not  so  protu- 
berant as  in  that  species,  neither  are  they  marked  with  the  same 
variety  of  colours ;  and  the  size  and  power  of  the  ^n^"-!  are  much 
inferior.  The  ooloiirs  of  the  body  bear  some  resemblance  to  those  of 
the  Mandrill,  but  they  are  more  mixed  with  green  on  the  upper  parts, 
and  are  of  a  lighter  or  more  silvery  hue  beneath.  The  head,  back, 
sides,  outer  surface  of  the  limbs,  a  band  at  the  base  of  the  neck,  and 
the  backs  of  the  fore  hands,  are  fumished  with  very  long  fine  hair,  of 
a  light-brown  colour  at  the  root,  and  from  thence  to  the  point  marked 


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BACCA. 


BADGER 


with  alteniaU  rings  of  black  and  yellow,  the  two  last  colours  alone 
appearing  externally,  and  by  their  mixture  giving  rise  to  the  greenish 
shade  that  predominates  over  all  the  upper  parts  of  the  head  and  body. 
The  under  parts  of  the  body  are  equally  covered  with  long  fine  hair, 
but  of  a  uniform  light-brown  or  silvery-gray  colour,  and  more  spcuingly 
furnished  than  on  the  back  and  sides;  the  whiskers  are  thin  and 
directed  backwards ;  there  is  a  small  orange-coloured  beard  on  the 
chin ;  the  hair  on  the  temples  is  directed  upwards,  and  meeting  from 
both  sides  forms  a  pointed  ridge  or  crest  on  the  crown  of  the  head ; 
and  the  tail,  short  as  it  is,  is  terminated  by  a  small  brush.  The  face 
and  ears  are  naked,  and  of  a  glossy  black  colour  like  polished  ebony; 
the  cheek-bones  form  prominent  elevations  on  each  side  of  the  nose^ 
as  in  the  Mandrill,  only  not  nearly  so  laige ;  neither  are  they  marked 
wiih  tibe  same  series  of  alternate  ridges  and  furrows,  nor  with  the 
brilliant  and  varied  colours  which  render  that  species  so  remarkable ; 
tiie  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet  are  also  naked  in  the 
Drill,  and  of  a  deep  copper-colour ;  the  colour  of  the  skin,  when  seen 
beneath  the  hair,  is  uniform  dark-blue,  and  that  of  the  naked  callosities 
bright-red.  The  female  differs  from  the  male  by  her  smaller  sise, 
shorter  head,  and  much  paler  colour;  and  the  young  males  exhibit 
the  same  characters  up  to  the  time  of  their  second  dentition. 

The  Wood-Baboon,  uie  Cinereous  Baboon,  and  the  Yellow  Baboon  of 
Pennant^  are  all  manifestly  referrible  to  this  species,  and  differ  onlv 
from  the  difference  of  the  age  and  sex  of  the  specimens  from  which 
he  took  his  description.  The  habits  and  manners  of  the  Drill  have 
not  been  observed  in  a  state  of  nature,  nor  do  we  find  the  animal 
itself  indicated  in  the  works  of  any  of  the  travellers  which  we  have 
consulted.  In  its  native  country  it  is  probably  confounded  with  the 
MandriU,  at  least  by  casual  and  passing  observers,  but  it  is  frequently 
brought  into  this  country,  and  is  well  known  as  a  menagerie-animaL 
Its  habits  in  confinement  do  not  appear  to  difier  in  any  material 
respect  frx)m  those  of  its  congeners. 

BA'CCA,  the  technical  name  by  which  botanists  distinguish  the 
fruit  commonly  called  a  Berry.  "While  however  the  "Rngliah  word  is 
familiarly  applied  to  all  soft  frrdts,  of  whatever  construction  internally, 
it  is  strictly  speaking  made  use  of  to  designate  those  fruits  only  which 
have  a  thm  skin,  are  pulpy  inteniallv,  and  have  several  seeds  finally 
lying  loose  in  the  pulpy  mass;  warn  are  the  gooseberry,  currant^ 
grape,  fridt  of  the  potato,  kc  When  a  fruit  has  only  a  fleshy  rind, 
without  any  internal  pulpiness,  as  is  the  case  with  the  capsicum, 
it  is  not  called  a  Beiry,  but  a  Berried  Capsule.  It  will  be  seen 
that  this  definition  excludes  the  berries  of  the  hawthorn,  the  rasp- 
berry, the  orange,  the  rose,  fta  [Poms;  ETiSRio;  Hespsbidium; 
Ctnabbhodok.] 

BA'CCHA,  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Diptera 
and  family  Syrphida.  The  species  of  &is  genus  of  two-winged  flies 
are  peculiar  in  having  the  two  basal  joints  of  the  abdomen  remarkably 
long  and  slender,  with  the  remaining  joints  depressed,  and  suddenly 
increased  hi  breadth.  They  are  generally  of  a  black  or  bronze  colour, 
with  yellow  spots  or  markings.  They  are  met  with  near  London,  and 
fj^uent  flowers. 

BACILLA'RIA,  alargefamily  of  Infusorial  Animalcules,  constituted 
by  Ehrenberg,  who  includes  in  it  upwards  of  80  genera.  The  silicious 
shields  of  these  animalcules  are  amongst  the  most  numerous  of  the 
forms  of  Microzoaria  in  the  Cretaceous,  Tertiary,  and  Supei^cial 
Deposits.  Xcmthidia  occur  in  the  Chalk  and  its  included  nodules  of 
flint:  OaUlondlcBf  Naviculce,  Actmocydi,  Cotcinoditci,  Chmphonema, 
and  other  genera,  abound  in  the  white  Tertiary  Marls  of  Greece,  Italy, 
Bohemia,  England,  and  North  America.  The  Silicious  Beds  of  Bohemia 
(Polierschiefer),  which  are  14  feet  in  thickness,  contain  innumerable 
shields  of  Navicuke,  and  probably  few  of  the  superficial  lacustrine 
deposits  of  Europe  are  wholly  devoid  of  these  exuviie.  [Diatomacsa] 

BA'CTBIS,  a  genus  of  Palms,  consisting  of  a  considerable  number 
of  spedes,  found  about  rivers  and  in  maruiy  places  in  America  within 
the  tropics,  especially  near  the  Line.  Their  trunk  is  usually  of 
moderate  height,  or  even  dwarfish,  never  exceeding  20  feet ;  sometimes 
having  the  stout  tree-like  aspect  of  palms  in  general,  but  often 
more  resembling  reeds.  They  often  grow  in  dense  patches,  forming 
impassable  thickets,  on  account  of  the  numerous,  long,  hard,  black 
spines  with  which  the  stem  is  protected.  The  wood  is  generally 
hjBird  and  black  towards  the  outside,  but  pale  yellow  internally,  with 
black  fibres.  The  leaves  usually  grow  all  over  &e  surface  of  the  sten^ 
instead  of  being  confined  to  the  summit  only.  They  have  extremely 
spiny  stalks,  and  are  either  pinnated  after  the  manner  of  the  date-palm, 
or  merely  consist  of  two  broad,  sharp,  diverging,  plaited  lobes.  The 
fruit  is  small,  soft,  with  a  subacid  rather  fibrous  pulp  inclosed  in  a 
bluish-black  rind,  and  affords  a  grateful  frxut  to  small  birds. 

Baetrii  aecmthocarpa,  a  species  which  grows  12  or  15  feet  high  in 
the  primaeval  woods  about  Bahia,  forming  patches  SO  feet  in  circum- 
ference, and  having  elegant  pinnated  leaves  6  or  8  feet  long,  with  stout 
spines  on  their  stcJks,  yields  an  extremely  tough  thread,  frt>m  which 
the  natives,  who  call  it  Tucum,  manufacture  strong  nets.  Its  drupes 
are  of  a  kind  of  vermilion-red,  bristling  with  shortblack  prickles. 

Martins  mentions  17  other  species. 

BACULI'TES,  a  genus  of  Lamarck's  Polythalamous  or  Many- 
Chambered  Cephalopods,  belonging  to  the  family  of  AmmonUtt. 
Bactditet,  which  was  first  discovered  by  Faigas  de  St  Fond  in  the 
limestone  of  Maeetricht,  is  only  known  in  a  fossil  state,  and  is  com- 


paratively abundant  in  the  limestone  of  Valognes,  in  Normandy. 
The  sh^  is  straight,  more  or  lees  compressed,  conical,  or  ralher 
tapering  to  a  point,  and  very  much  elongated.    The  chambers  aro 


W 


Bactru  acanthoearpa. 

sinuous^  and  pierced  by  a  max^ginal  siphon,  and  the  last  chamber  u 
several  inches  in  length.  Bctculiiet  vertd>ralitf  Montfort,  affords  a 
good  example  of  the  genus.    [Ammonites.] 


BaeuHUt  verUiralit, 
a,  b,  Portions  of  BaeuliUs  verUbralii  ;  e,  a  detached  piece  of  the  same. 

BADGER  (MeU$,  Cuvier),  a  genus  of  Plantigrade  Carnivorous 
Mammals  included  by  Linnaus  among  the  Bears,  but,  as  well  as  the 
Gluttons,  Racoons,  Coatis,  &c.,  very  properly  separated  from  that 
group  by  succeeding  naturalists. 

This  genus,  as  definitely  characterised  by  modem  zoologists,  is 
distinguished  by  a  system  of  dentition  which  is  in  many  respects 
analogous  to  that  of  the  Moufettee  (MephUu),  a  genus  of  Obmtvora, 
which  indeed  is  scarcely  to  be  recognised  as  dmering  from  the  badgers 
except  in  the  plantigrade  or  rather  semi-plantigrade  formation  of 
their  extremities.  There  is  nothing  remarkable  either  in  the  sise  or 
number  of  the  incisor  or  canine  teeth ;  the  grinders  however  are  in 
some  respects  peculiar,  and  it  is  this  part  of  the  dentition  which 
principally  distmguishes  the  Badgers.  There  are  4  false  molars  in 
the  upper  and  8  in  the  under  jaw,  2  and  4  on  each  side  respectively, 
followed  by  a  camassier  and  a  single  tuberculous  tooth  of  large 
dimensions.  The  whole  system  is  better  adapted  for  masticating  and 
bruising  vegetable  substances  than  for  cutting  and  tearing  raw  flesh ; 


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BADGER. 


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and  in  fact  the  Badgers  are  much  leas  camirorouB  than  any  other 
animal  of  the  order  to  which  they  belong,  except  perhaps  the  bears. 
The  quality  of  the  food  is  in  all  cases  necessarily  dependent  upon  the 
nature  of  the  dentition.  The  principal  character  of  the  feet  in  the 
badgers  conosts  in  their  having  fire  toes  both  before  and  behind, 
short,  strong;  deeply  buried  in  the  flesh,  and  furnished  with  powerful 
compressed  claws,  admirably  calculated  for  burrowing  or  turning  up 
the  earth  in  search  of  roots.  The  1^  are  short  and  muscular ;  the 
body  broad,  flat^  and  compact ;  the  h^id  more  or  less  prolonged ;  the 
Buout  pointed ;  the  ears  small,  and  the  tail  short  Beneatii  the  anus 
there  is  an  aperture  of  considerable  size  which  opens  transrersely, 
and  exudes  from  its  inner  surface  a  greasy  or  oleaginous  matter  of 
Tery  offensiye  odour.  The  same  formation  is  observed  in  many  other 
genera  of  carnivorous  mammals,  though  the  qualities  of  tiie  substance 
Becreted  differ  according  to  the  species.  In  the  Civets  and  Qenetsi,  for 
instance,  its  smell  is  so  pleasing  as  to  entitle  it  to  the  rank  of  a 
perfume ;  whilst  in  the  Moufettes,  on  the  contrary,  its  odovr  is  so 
extremely  fetid  as  to  have  acquired  for  them  above  all  other  linimala 
the  generic  name  of  MepkUu,  or  Stinkards. 

The  Badgers  sleep  all  day  at  the  bottom  of  their  burrows,  and  move 
about  during  the  night  in  search  of  food.  They  are  fluently  accused 
of  destroying  rabbits,  game,  and  even  young  lambs  ,*  but  roots  and 
fallen  fruits  appear  to  constitute  the  chi^  part  of  their  food,  and  they 
certainly  exhibit  a  more  marked  taste  for  vegetable  than  for  animal 
food,  at  least  when  kept  in  confinement.  With  the  poweiM  claws  of 
their  fore  feet  they  construct  a  deep  and  commodious  burrow, 
generally  in  a  sandy  or  light  gravelly  soil;  this  has  but  a  single 
entrance  from  without,  but  it  afterwards  divides  into  different 
chambers,  and  terminates  in  a  round  apartment  at  the  bottom,  whidi 
is  well  lined  with  diy  grass  and  hay.  The  habits  of  the  badgers  are 
extremely  solitary ;  they  are  never  found  in  company  even  with  the 
females  of  their  own  species,  and  as  they  sleep  all  day  rolled  up  in 
their  bed  of  warm  hay  at  the  bottom  of  their  holes,  they  are  always 
fat  and  in  good  condition :  their  flesh  is  relished  in  many  places  as  an 
article  of  food.  They  carefully  remove  everything  of  an  offensive 
nature  from  their  earths,  never  deposit  their  excrements  in  the  vici- 
nity of  their  habitations,  and  are  even  said  to  abandon  them  if  acci- 
dentally or  intentionally  polluted  by  any  other  creature.  In  its 
geographical  distribution  the  genus  extends  throughout  the  whole  of 
Europe,  Northern  and  Central  Asia,  and  North  America :  we  have  no 
aooounte  of  its  extending  into  Africa  or  South  America,  in  the  former 
of  which  continents  it  appears  to  be  represented  by  the  Battel  (Chdo 
mdl\vcr<if  Desmarest),  and  in  the  latter  by  various  species  of  Moufettes 
(MephUit),  Australia  possesses  no  species  of  mammal  belonging  to 
the  Plantigrade  Family,  at  least  none  has  been  hitherto  discovered  in 
that  country ;  and  in  the  Eastern  Peninsula  and  Isles  of  India  the 
place  of  the  Badger  is  supplied  by  the  Telagon  (Mydaws  mdicept, 
F.  Cuvier). 

The  number  of  species  which  zoologists  admit  into  the  genus  Mdes 
is  very  limited  indeed.  All  writers,  without  exception,  have  followed 
F.  Cuviet's  example  in  excluding  the  Indian  Badger,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  it  the  type  of  a  new  genus,  though  for  what  reason  it 
would  be  difficult  to  say,  since  the  dental  system  of  this  animal  has 
never  been  properly  described,  and  in  all  its  other  characters  it  differ^ 
in  no  respect  from  the  Conmion  Badger.  Many  again  are  disposed 
to  ooiuddar  the  American  Badger  as  only  a  simple  variety  of  the 
European :  so  that  according  to  these  authors  the  genus  includes 
only  a  single  species.  The  observations  of  Sir  John  Richardson  how- 
evur  have  placed  the  distinctness  of  the  American  animal  beyond 
a  doubt;  and  so  long  as  we  have  no  definite  obeervations  to  con- 
tradict the  appoximation,  we  shall  continue  to  associate  the  Indian 
speciea  with  the  genus  to  which  its  known  characters  so  nearly  assi- 
milate it. 

1.  Jf  .  vulgaris  (Desmarest),  the  Common  Badger,  is  about  the  size  of 
a  middling  dog,  but  stands  much  lower  on  the  legs,  and  has  a  broader 
and  flatter  body.  The  head  is  long  and  pointed,  the  ears  almost  con- 
cealed in  the  hair  of  the  head,  and  the  tail  so  short  that  it  scarcely 
reaches  to  the  middle  of  the  hind  legs ;  the  hide  is  amazingly  thick 
and  tough ;  the  hair  uniformly  long  and  coarse  over  the  whole  body, 
and  trailing  along  the  ground  on  each  side  as  the  animal  walks.  The 
Badger  and  its  congeners  offer  a  strange  intermixture  of  colours,  which 
is  seen  in  no  other  mammal,  except  those  of  the  genera  Oulo  and 
MepkUig,  which,  as  already  remarked,  approximate  so  nearly  to  it  in 
many  other  respects :  in  general  the  dai^er  shades  are  found  to  pre- 
dominate upon  the  back  and  upper  parts  of  the  body,  and  the  lighter 
below;  but  in  the  animals  above-mentioned  this  general  rule  is 
reversed,  and  it  is  the  light  shades  which  occupy  the  back  and 
shoulders,  whilst  the  dark  ones  are  spread  over  the  breast  and  abdo- 
i.  The  head  of  the  Badger  for  instance  is  white,  except  the 
on  beneath  the  chin,  which  is  black,  and  two  bands  of  the  same 
lur,  which  rise  on  each  side  a  little  behind  the  comers  of  the 
mouth,  and  after  passing  backwards  and  enveloping  the  eye  and  ear 
terminate  at  tiie  junction  of  the  head  and  neck.  The  hairs  of  the 
upper  port  of  the  body,  considered  separately,  are  of  three  different 
colours,  yellowish-white  at  the  bottom,  black  in  the  middle,  and  ashy- 
gray  at  we  point ;  the  last  colour  alone  however  appears  externally, 
and  gives  the  uxdfoim  sandy-gray  shade  which  oovers  all  the  xn>per 
parts  of  the  body  :  the  tail  is  furnished  with  long  coarse  hair  of  the 

■AT.  HIST.  WV.  VOL,  I 


same  colour  and  quality,  and  the  throaty  breast^  belly,  And  limbs  are 
covered  with  shorter  hair  of  a  uniform  deep  blacL 

Though  the  Badger  is  found  throughout  all  tiie  northern  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia»  it  is  rather  a  scarce  animal  everywhere.  Its  food  is 
chiefly  roots,  fruits,  insects,  and  frogs,  but  it  likewise  destroys  the 
eggs  and  young  of  partridges  and  other  birds  which  build  on  the 
ground,  and  attacks  the  nests  of  the  wild  bees,  which  it  robs  with 
imponity,  as  the  length  of  its  hair  and  the  thickness  of  its  hide  render 
it  insensible  to  the  sting  of  the  bee.  It  chooses  the  most  solitary 
woods  for  its  residence,  is  quiet  and  inoffensive  in  its  manners,  but 
when  attacked  defends  itself  with  a  courage  pnd  resolution  which  few 
dogs  of  double  its  own  size  and  weight  can  overcome.  It  bites 
angrily,  and  holds  on  with  great  tenaoity,  which  it  is  enabled  to  do 
the  more  easily  from  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  articulation  or 
hinge  that  connects  its  under  jaw  with  the  skull,  and  whi<^  consists 
of  a  transverse  condyle  completely  locked  into  a  bony  cavity  of  the 
cranium.  The  Badger  is  not  mentioned  by  Aristotle,  and  possibly 
may  not  be  found  in  Greece,  as  the  ancient  language  of  that  country 
has  not  even  a  name  for  it,  and  as  it  is  less  common  in  the  southern 
than  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe.  PUny  however  notices  it  under 
the  name  of  Mdit  (viiL  38),  and  various  other  Roman  authors  have 
spoken  of  it.  More  recent  writers  also  use  Taxtu^  pexhaps  derived, 
]ike  other  Roman  names  of  northern  animals,  from  the  German 
language,  in  which  the  Badger  is  called  Zacht  or  J>ack8 ;  in  Dutch 
Dot.  The  female  brings  forth  her  young  in  the  early  part  of  spring, 
to  the  number  of  three,  four,  or  five ;  she  continues  to  suckle  Uiem 
carefully  for  the  first  five  or  six  weeks,  and  afterwards  accustoms 
them  gradually  to  shift  for  themselves.  When  taken  young  tiiey  are 
easily  tamed,  and  become  as  familiar  and  playful  as  puppies ;  they 
soon  leam  to  distinguish  their  master,  and  show  their  attacnment  1^ 
following  or  fawning  upon  those  who  feed  them;  the  old  however  are 
always  indocile,  and  continue  solitary  and  distrustful  under  the  most 
gentle  treatment. 

llie  Badger  is  hunted  in  some  parts  of  the  country  during  the 
bright  moonlight  nights,  when  he  goes  abroad  in  search  of  food.  The 
hide,  when  properly  dressed,  makes  the  best  pistol  furniture;  the 
hair  is  valuable  for  making  brushes  to  soften  the  shades  in  painting; 
and  the  hind-quarters,  when  salted  and  smoked,  make  excellent  hams. 
This  kind  of  food  indeed  is  not  so  universally  esteemed  in  our  own 
country  as  in  China,  where  Bell  informs  us  that  he  saw  dozens  of 
Badgers  at  a  time  hanging  in  the  meat-markets  of  Pekin ;  but  there 
is  no  reason  why  it  should  be  inferior  to  the  flesh  of  the  bear,  which 
is  imiversally  esteemed  by  all  who  have  tasted  it 

2.  M.  Labradorica  (Sabine),  the  American  Badger,  measures,  when 
full  grown,  about  two  feet  and  a  half  from  the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the 
tail,  which  is  six  inches  more.  Its  snout  is  less  attenuated  than  that 
of  the  European  species,  though  its  head  is  equally  long ;  its  ears  are 
short  and  round,  the  claws  of  its  fore  feet  much  longer  in  proportion 
than  those  of  Uie  common  s^>ecies,  its  tail  comparatively  shorter,  its 
fur  of  a  quality  altogether  different,  its  colours  also  very  different, 
and  its  appetites  more  decidedly  carnivorous ;  the  head  and  extremi- 
ties alone  are  covered  with  short  coarse  hair ;  all  the  other  parts  of 
the  body  are  famished  with  remarkably  soft,  fine,  silky  for,  upwards 
of  four  inches  in  length,  and  differing  only  in  being  raUier  more 
sparingly  supplied  on  the  under  than  on  the  upper  parts. 

The  American  Badger  is  called  Brairo  and  Simeur  by  the  Canadians, 
Mistonusk  and  Awawteekseoo,  or  the  Digging  Animal,  bv  the  Crees,  and 
Chocartoosh  by  the  Pawnee  Indians.  Its  fonn  and  habits  have  been 
weU  described  by  Sir  John  Richardson  in  his  admirable  'Fauna 
Boreali-Americana.' 

"  The  Mela  Labradorica,"  says  Sir  John,  "  frequents  the  sandy  plains 
or  prairies  which  skirt  the  Rocky  Mountains  as  far  north  as  the  banks 
of  the  Peace  River,  and  sources  of  the  River  of  the  Mountains,  in  lat 
68**.  It  aboimds  on  the  plains  watered  by  the  Missouri,  but  its  exact 
southern  range  has  not,  as  far  as  I  know,  been  defined  by  any  traveller. 
The  sandy  prairies  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Carlton  House,  on  the 
banks  of  Uie  Saskatchewan,  and  also  on  the  Red  River  that  flows  into 
Lake  Winipeg,  are  perforated  by  innumerable  badger-holes,  which  are 
a  great  annoyance  to  horsemen,  particularly  when  the  ground  is  covered 
with  snow.  These  holes  are  partly  dug  by  the  badgers  for  habitations^ 
but  the  greater  number  of  them  are  merely  enlargements  of  the  bur- 
rows of  the  Acdomys  HwtdU  and  Bichardaonii,  which  the  badgers  dig 
up  and  prey  upon.  Whilst  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  the 
badger  rarely  or  never  comes  from  its  hole ;  and  I  suppose  that  in 
that  climate  it  passes  the  winter,  from  the  beginning  of  November 
till  April,  in  a  toroid  state.  Indeed,  aa  it  obtains  the  small  animals 
upon  which  it  feeds  by  surprising  them  in  their  burrows,  it  has  little 
chance  of  digging  them  out  at  a  time  when  the  ground  is  frozen  into 
a  solid  rock.  Idke  the  bears,  the  badgers  do  not  lose  much  flesh 
during  their  long  hybernation,  for  on  coming  abroad  in  the  spring 
they  are  observed  to  be  very  fat  As  they  pair  however  at  that 
season  they  soon  become  lean.  The  badger  is  a  slow  and  timid 
anxmaJ,  talang  to  the  first  earth  it  meets  with  when  pursued ;  and 
as  it  makes  its  wa^  through  the  sandy  soil  with  the  rapidity  of  a 
mole,  it  soon  places  itself  out  of  the  reach  of  dan^.  The  strength 
of  its  fore  feet  and  daws  is  so  great^  that  one  which  had  insinuated 
only  its  head  and  shoulders  into  a  hole  resisted  the  utmost  efforts  of 
two  stout  young  men,  who  endeavoured  to  drag  it  out  by  the  bind 

2b 


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BADISTER. 


^ALAmrnja. 


n 


le§^  and  tail,  until  one  of  them  fired  the  contents  of  his  fowling-piece 
into  its  body.  Early  in  the  spring  however,  when  they  first  begin  to 
stir  abroad,  they  may  be  easily  caught  by  pouring  water  into  their 
boles ;  for  the  ground  being  frozen  at  tiiat  period,  the  water  does  not 
escape  through  the  sand,  but  soon  fills  the  hole,  and  its  tenant  is 
obliged  to  come  out.  The  American  Badger  appears  to  be  a  more 
carnivorous  animal  than  the  European  one.  A  female  which  I  killed 
had  a  small  marmot^  nearly  entire,  together  with  some  field  mice,  in 
its  stomach.  It  had  also  been  eating  some  vegetable  matters."  As 
to  the  southern  limit  of  the  geographical  range  of  the  species,  at 
least  in  one  direction,  it  is  known  to  inhabit  Mexico,  as  appears 
from  the  detailed  and  correct  description  of  Fernandez,  who 
calls  it  by  the  native  name  of  Ilaooyotl  or  Coyotlhumuli ;  and  a  very 
fine  skin  was  some  time  ago  sent  from  California  to  the  Zoological 
Society. 

8.  M.  eoUaritf  the  Indian  Badger,  called  Bhalloo-Soor,  or  Bear-Pig, 
by  the  Hindoos,  is  about  the  size  of  the  Common  Badger,  but  stands 


Indian  Badger  {MeU$  eollarU). 

higher  upon  its  legs,  and  is  at  once  distinguished  by  its  attenuated 
muzzle  ending  in  a  truncated  snout,  like  that  of  the  common  hog, 
and  by  its  small  and  nearly  naked  taU.  The  whole  height  of  tfaSs 
animal  is  about  20  inches,  and  the  length  of  its  tail  9  mches.  It 
has  the  body  and  limbs  of  a  bear,  with  the  snout>  eyes,  and  tail  of 
a  hog.  Its  ears  are  shorty  completely  covered  with  hair,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  slight  border  of  white. 

The  individuals,  a  male  and  female,  observed  in  the  menagerie 
of  the  Governor-general  at  Barrackpoor  by  the  French  naturalist 
Duvancel,  who  furnished  Mons.  F.  Cuvier  with  the  materials  for  his 
description,  were  remarkably  shy  and  wild.  The  female  however  was 
less  lavage  than  the  male,  and  showed  a  certain  degree  of  intelligence, 
which  gave  reason  to  believe  that,  if  taken  young,  this  animal  might 
be  easily  domesticated.  They  passed  the  greater  part  of  the  day 
buried  beneath  the  straw  of  their  den  in  deep  sleep.  All  their  move- 
ments were  remarkably  slow.  Though  they  did  not  altogether  refuse 
animal  food,  yet  they  exhibited  a  marked  predilection  for  bread, 
fhiits,  and  other  substances  of  a  vegetable  nature.  When  irritated 
they  uttered  a  peculiar  kind  of  grunting  noise,  and  bristled  up  the 
hair  of  their  back ;  if  still  further  tormented,  they  would  nuse  them- 
selves upon  their  hind  legs  like  a  bear,  and  appeared,  like  that  animal, 
to  poflsem  a  power  in  their  arms  and  claws  not  less  formidable  than 
their  teeth.  This  is  confirmed  by  Mr.  Johnson  in  his  '  Sketches  of 
Indian  Field  Sports.'  "Badgers  in  India,"  says  he,  "are  marked 
exactly  like  those  in  England,  but  they  are  laiger  and  taller,  are 
exceedingly  fierce,  and  will  attack  a  number  of  dogs.  I  have  seen 
dogs  tiiat  would  attack  a  hysna  or  wolf  afraid  to  encounter  them. 
They  are  scarce,  but  occasionally  to  be  met  with  among  the  hills.  In 
their  nature  they  resemble  the  bear." 

BADI'STER,  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  order  CoUoptera, 
and  tunilj  ffarpalidcB,  This  genus,  together  with  the  genera  Trmor- 
phvi,  LictmUf  ltemhu$t  and  DiccduM,  form  a  conspicuous  group  among 
the  Cvumiwira  of  the  Beetle  Tribe.     [Licnnis.] 

BAfiTIS,  a  genus  of  Insects  of  the  order  Neuroptera,  and  family 
BphemeridcB,  This  is  one  of  the  four  genera  of  the  British  family 
of  May-Flies.  The  generic  characters  are  taken  from  the  number 
of  wings,  and  the  setae,  or  hair-like  appendages  to  the  abdomen. 
The  genus  JBpJiemera  has  four  wings  and  throe  setae;  BaStia  has 
four  wings  and  two  setae;  Brachycereua  has  two  wings  and  three 
setae ;  and  Cloion  has  two  wings  and  two  setae.  These  setae  are  of 
great  use  to  the  little  animal  in  steering  its  way  through  the  air 
whilst  performing  that  beautifully  undulating  fiight  which  all  must 
have  observed.  It  is  to  the  first  of  these  genera  {Ephemera)  that  the 
common  May-Fly  belongs. 

BAGO'US,  a  genus  of  Insects  belonring  to  the  order  CoUop- 
tera,  and  family  Ourculionidce,  The  litUe  Beetles  composing  this 
genus  are  all  of  a  mud-colour,  and  feed  upon  aquatic  plants,  probably 
both  in  the  larva  and  imago  states.  There  are  six  or  eight  species 
found  in  England. 

BAGSHOT  SAND.  One  of  the  lower  memben  of  the  Tertaarr 
Group  of  England  is  thus  designated. 

BAIKALITE,  a  light-green  variety  of  Augite,  deriving  its  name 


from  its  locality,  the  mouth  of  the  river  Sljumank%  which  &B1  mto 
LakeBaikaL    [Auoite.] 

BALA  LIMESTONE,  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  Calcanom 
Deposits  which  have  b^en  examined  by  Professor  Sedgwi^  in  tb 
midst  of  the  Schistose  Rocks  of  North  Wales.  There  are  two  ba&di 
of  this  rook,  exhibited  on  the  west  of  the  Berwyn  Mountains  and  od 
the  east  of  Bala  Lake.  Two  miles  north-east  of  Bala  the  limeito&e 
and  the  schistose  rocks  in  which  it  lies  may  be  well  seen,  and 
numerous  fossils  may  be  gathered  at  this  and  at  many  other  pointt  in 
the  vicinity  of  Bala,  on  both  sides  of  the  lake.  Professor  Sedgwid 
has  satisfied  geologists  of  the  true  position  of  these  rocks  witii  refi^ 
enoe  to  the  slates  of  the  Berwyn  range,  and  the  flags  and  elates  of 
Llangollen.     The  series  is  in  two  parts,  thus : — 

Upper  Part  Flags  and  schistose  beds  of  Llangollen,  with  upper 
Silurian  fossils. 

Lower  Part  Schistose  beds  with  limestone  bands,  the  lowest  of 
which  occur  at  Bala,  and  yield  lower  Silurian  fossils. 

This  is  the  view  of  Professor  Sedgwick,  and  the  Bala  and  Llandeilo 
limestones  are  thus  nearly  coevaL 

BAL^'NA  (from  the  Greek  «<£Axuj/a),  the  Latin  name  of  tiie  Com- 
mon or  Greenland  Whale,  and  adopted  by  naturalists  as  a  gtnienc 
term,  to  comprehend  all  the  other  species  which  agree  with  it  in  thdr 
zoological  characters.     [Cstaoea.] 

BAL^ENO'PTERA.  This  term  was  invented  by  Lac^pMe,  to 
denote  those  whales  which  are  distinguished  by  having  an  adipose  fin 
on  the  back,  whence  they  are  called  Finners  by  sailors,  and  which  he 
proposed  to  separate  from  the  other  BakewB  for  the  purpose  of  fonn- 
ing  them  into  a  distinct  genus.  The  character  however  upon  whkh 
he  proposed  to  make  this  separation  is  utterly  void  of  importaoce, 
and  exercises  no  assignable  influence  upon  the  habits  and  economr  c<f 
animal  life.  His  division  is  consequently  vicious,  and  cannot  b« 
admitted  into  a  natural  or  philosophical  system  of  mammalogy,  it 
least  for  any  other  purpose  than  as  a  matter  of  simple  oonrenieooe. 
The  word  itself  is  compounded  of  the  terms  balana^  a  whale,  md 
mipoVf  a  wing  or  fin. 

BALANI'NUS,  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  order  Oiof- 
tera,  and  family  Cwculionidcc  The  species  of  this  genus  are  all 
remarkable  for  possessing  a  long  slender  rostrum  or  snout,  which  is 
furnished  at  the  tip  with  a  minute  pair  of  sharp  horizontal  jaws :  thii 
instrument  is  used  by  the  animal  in  depositing  its  egga,  which  are 
generally  placed  in  the  kernel  of  some  frmt 

Balaninut  Nucum,  the  Nut-Weevil,  deposits  its  eggs  in  both  the 
common  nut  and  the  filbert^  having  bored  a  hole  for  that  pnipoie 


/ 


T^ttUWeevil  {Bahtnmtt*  JVtioan). 
1,  The  tip  of  the  rostrum  magnified,  showing  the  Jawa,  a  a;  2,  side  riev d 
the  same ;  8,  the  larva  ;  4,  the  pupa.     The  larva,  pupa,  and  perfect  InKct,  ire 
each  represented  rather  larger  than  the  natural  aise. 

while  the  nut  is  young  and  tender.  When  about  to  perfonn  this 
operation,  the  little  animal  may  be  seen  travelling  over  the  not,  and 
feeling  with  its  antennse  to  discover  a  convenient  situation,  in  teleci* 
ing  which  it  shows  great  care.  The  root  being  determined  on,  it  cats 
a  hole  with  the  jaws  at  the  top  of  the  snout  until  it  readiea  the 
kernel ;  in  this  hole  the  egg  is  deposited,  which  in  a  short  time  » 
hatched  and  becomes  a  maggot  or  larva.  The  nut  being  bat  alightly 
izgured  contiifues  to  grow  and  ripen,  while  the  larva  feeds  upon  it« 
kernel  In  course  of  time  this  larva  gnaws  a  hole  in  the  shall, 
through  which  it  makes  its  escape^  and  immediately  buirows  into  tb« 
ground,  where  it  assumes  the  pupa  state,  from  which,  in  the  foUowi^g 


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BALANOPHORACKfi. 


BALAS  RUBY. 


>74 


Bmumer,  the  perfect  inBect  proceeds.  The  preceding  figure  repreeenta 
a  nut  which  has  been  pierced  by  the  larva. 

BalaninuB  Glandium,  another  species  of  the  same  genus,  attacks 
the  aoom  in  the  same  manner  as  the  one  above  mentioned  does  the  nut 

BALANOPHORA'CEuE,  Oynomoriunu,  a  natural  order  of  Parasi- 
tical Plants  belonging  to  the  sub-class  JlhitanthecB,  They  grow  upon 
the  roots  of  woody  plants,  in  tropical  coimtrieB,  rooting  into  their 
wood,  from  which  they  draw  their  nutriment^  as  the  mistletoe  from 
the  branches  of  the  thorn.  None  of  the  species  have  fully-formed 
leaves ;  but,  in  lieu  of  them,  closely-packed  fleshy  scales  clothe  their 
stems  and  guard  their  flowers  in  their  infancy.  Succulent  in  texture, 
dingy  in  colour,  and  often  springing  from  a  brown  and  shapeless  root- 
stock,  JBalanophoracecB  remind  the  observer  of  Fungi  more  than  of 
flowering  plants :  and  in  tact  they  appear  intermediate  in  nature 
between  the  two.  If  they  have  flowers  and  sexes,  both  are  of  the 
simplest  kind;  and  their  ovules,  instead  of  changing  to  seeds,  like 
those  of  other  flowering  plants,  become,  according  to  Endlicher,  bags 
of  spores,  like  those  of  true  flowerless  plants.  Even  their  woody 
system  is  of  the  most  imperfect  kind,  for  it  is  either  entirely,  or  almost 
entirely,  destitute  of  spiral  vessels.  It  is  probable  that  numerous 
genera  and  species  of  this  singular  order  still  remain  undiscovered  in 
the  depths  of  tropical  forests,  where  they  lurk  among  the  herbage,  and 
are  not  likely  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  mere  flower-gatnering 
traveller.  All  the  species,  with  the  exception  of  one  found  in  Malta, 
are  natives  of  the  tropics.  The  species  have  had  a  reputation  as 
styptics.  The  Cynomorium  coccinewniy  or  Pungta  Melttenm,  has  been 
employed  for  this  purpose.  Various  species  of  HeUma  have  had  a 
similar  reputation.  Poppig  says  the  Chnbrophyton  is  eaten  in  Peru. 
The  species  of  Sarcophyte  have  an  atrocious  o^our. 


Bakmophoraeem, 

0,  A  head  of  flowers  cut  through  vertically ;  »,  a  highly-msgnifled  view  of  a 

portion  of  the  receptacle  with  two  fertUe  flowers ;  0,  a  male  flower  in  the  midst 

of  some  fertile  ones ;  d,  an  ovary ;  «,  a  ripe  ftroit ;  /,  a  transverse  section  of 

the  same ;  f  ,  a  vertical  section  of  the  same ;  h,  a  Jointed  hair  of  the  receptacle. 

BALA'NTIA,  ftom  fiaXivriov,  a  bag  or  pouch,  the  generic  name 
which  tbe  German  naturalist  lUiger  gave  to  the  animals  commonly 
called  PKaUmgen  {Phakmgitta) :  tbe  latter  name  he  reserves  for  the 
PtUmritti  (Petavrut)  of  other  zoologists.     [Marsupiata.] 

BA'LANUS,  a  genus  of  Sessile  Cirrhipeds  or  Barnacles,  formed  by 
Bruguik^B  from  some  species  of  the  genus  Lepat,  Linn.  Balanui  offers 
a  great  variety  of  form ;  but  the  shell  will  be  found  to  consist  of  six 
valves,  four  of  which  are  comparatively  large,  coalescing  at  the  sides, 
and  forming  iJtogether  a  rude  hollow  cone,  whose  aperture  is  closed 
by  an  opezcolum  of  four  valves  (between  tiie  two  foremost  of  which 
iwie  the  jointed  feather-like  tentacula),  and  its  base  by  a  testaceous 
plate. 

The  genua  is  most  widely  difihised,  and  abounds  upon  almost  all 
bodies,  whether  fixed  or  moveable,  that  offer  an  opportunity  for  it  to 


attach  itself  to  them,  and  are  immersed  in  the  sea.  On  rocks  left  dry 
at  low  water,  on  ships,  on  timber,  whether  floating  or  at  rest^  on  lobstei^i 
and  other  crustaceans,  on  the  shells  of  conchifers  and  moUuaks,  colonies 
of  Balani  are  to  be  found. 

BcdoMU  Piittactu  {Lepa$  PtiUaeus,  Molina)  is  described  by  Captain 
P.  P.  King,  R.N.,  in  his  '  Description  of  the  Cirrhipeda,  Conchifera, 
and  MoUusca,  in  a  Collection  formed  by  the  Officers  of  H.M.S.  Adven- 
ture and  Beagle,  employed  between  the  years  1826  and  1830  in 
surveying  the  Southern  Coasts  of  South  America,  including  the  Straits 
of  Magalhaens  and  the  Coast  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.' 


a,  Balanut  Prittaet$$,  aboot  one- fourth  of  the  natural  su«. 

b.  The  opercular  valves,  natural  size. 

'*  This  cirrhiped,"  writes  Captain  King, ''  which  at  Concepcion  de 
Chile  is  frequently  of  a  larger  size  than  54  inches  long  and  84  inches 
in  diameter,  forms  a  very  common  and  highly-esteemed  food  of  the 
natives,  by  whom  it  is  called  Pico,  from  the  acuminated  processes  of 
the  two  posterior  opercular  valves.  The  anterior  and  posterior  oper- 
cular valves,  when  in  contact,  present  some  resemblance  to  a  parrot's 
beak,  whence  Molina's  name.  It  is  also  foimd  very  abundantly  at 
Valdivia  and  at  Calbuco,  near  the  north  of  the  island  of  Chiloe.  It 
occurs  in  laige  bimches,  and  presents  somewhat  of  a  cactus-like  appear- 
ance. The  parent  is  covered  by  its  progeny,  so  that  large  branches 
are  found  composed  of  from  50  to  100  distmct  individuals,  each  of 
which  becomes  in  its  turn  the  foimdation  of  another  colony.  One 
specimen,  in  the  possession  of  my  friend  W.  J.  Broderip,  Esq^comnsts 
of  a  numerous  group  based  on  two  large  individuals.  They  are 
collected  by  being  chopped  off  with  a  hatchet.  At  Concepcion,  where 
they  are  found  of  larger  size  than  to  the  southward,  they  are  principally 
procured  at  the  island  of  Quiriquina,  which  lies  across  the  entrance  of 
the  bay;  whence  they  are  exported  in  laige  quantities  to  Valparaiso 
and  Santiago  de  Chile,  whero  they  aro  considered  as  a  great  delicacy; 
and  indeed  with  some  justice,  for  the  flesh  equals  in  richness  and 
delicacy  that  of  the  crab,  which,  when  boiled  and  eaten  cold,  it  very 
much  resembles." 

The  spined  and  smooth  varieties  of  Balanut  Montaguif  Sowerby 
(AeoMta  ifofUtLffui,  Leach),  afford  examples  of  those  species  which  live 
in  sponges. 


a,  BaUmu$  Moniagvi, 

h.  Variety  without  spines,  and  with  a  flat  btse. 

Fossil  Bidani  have  been  found  in  the  later  deposits,  and  species  are 
recorded  from  the  beds  at  Piacenza,  Bordeaux,  Paris,  Essex,  &o. 
[C1BBHIFEDA.I 

BALAS  RUBY,  a  term  used  by  lapidaries  to  designate  the  rose-red 
varieties  of  Spind.    [Spinel.]    It  should  be  carefully  distinguished 


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BALBUSARDUS  HALI^TUS. 


BALSAMODENDRON. 


from  OriaUal  Ruby  (the  Sapphir^,  a  gem  of  muoh  greater  rarity  and 
value.    [Adamantinb  Spar.] 

BALBUSARDUS  UALIiETUS,  a  name  for  the  Bald  Buzzard  or 
Osprey.     [FALCX)NiDiB;  Ospret.] 

BALD  BUZ2^RDy  one  of  the  English  names  for  the  Osprey  or 
Fishing  Eagle,  Uie  Faleo  HtUicBttu  of  LinnsBus,  Pandion  Halicetut 
of  Savignv.    [FALOONiDiB ;  Ospret.] 

BALIO^TICHUa  A  fossil  plant  in  the  Laminated  Lithographic 
Limestone  of  Pappenheim,  is  named  Baiiottichui  amatut  by  Sternberg. 

BALISTES,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  order  Pleetognaih^ 
and  fiimily  ScUrodermet  of  Cuvier.  These  groups  are  intermediate  in 
point  of  structure  between  the  coomion  or  osseous  tribes  and  the  car- 
tilaginous tribes ;  for  though  the  skeleton  is  in  reality  of  a  fibrous  or 
bony  texture,  it  ossifies  very  slowly,  and  is  never  entirely  complete ; 
the  ribs  ia  particular  usually  remain  imperfect  throughout  the  whole 
period  of  tne  auimars  life.  The  maxillary  and  intermaxillary  bones, 
again,  form  but  a  simple  piece,  distinguished  only  by  a  slight  suture 
or  furrow  at  the  point  of  junction,  and  the  palatal  arch  is  soldered 
firmly  to  the  skull,  and  consequently  devoid  of  individual  motion. 
The  opercula  and  gUl-rays  are  concealed  beneath  the  skin,  which  gave 
origin  to  an  opinion,  at  one  time  common  even  among  professed 
naturalists,  tliat  these  fishes  wanted  the  branchial  apparatus  altogether. 

The  BalitleM  are  particularly  distinguished  by  the  vertical  compres- 
sion of  the  body,  by  having  eight  teeth  arranged  in  a  single  row  in 
each  jaw,  and  a  scaly  or  granulated  skin.  They  have  two  dorsals ;  the 
first  composed  of  numerous  powerful  spines,  articulated  to  a  peculiar 
bone,  itself  articulated  to  the  skull,  and  furnished  with  a  longitudinal 
furrow  for  the  reception  of  the  spines,  which  can  be  erected  or 
depressed  at  the  will  of  the  animal ;  the  second  large,  soft,  or  without 
spmee,  and  placed  opposite  to  an  anal  fin  of  similar  structure.  Like 
other  genera  of  the  same  order,  the  BaUstes  have  no  ventral  fins ; 
notwithstanding  which,  however,  their  skeleton  is  furnished  ¥dth  a 
complete  pelvis,  suspended  fix>m  the  bones  of  the  shoulder.  The 
intestinal  canal  is  large,  but  without  cseca,  and  the  air-bladder  of 
considerable  size.  These  fish  abound  in  aU  the  seas  of  the  torrid  zone, 
where  they  swim  on  tiie  sui*face  of  the  water,  particularly  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  rocky  coasts  and  coral  reefs,  feeding  with  avidity 
upon  the  polypi  of  the  i-eefs,  and  shining  with  the  most  brilliant  and 
varied  colours.  Their  fiesh  is  at  all  times  very  indifferent  food,  and 
is  said  to  be  actually  poisonous  during  the  period  that  the  coral-wonns 
are  in  season.  The  species  are  very  numerous.  They  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  rhomboidal  form  of  their  large  and  hard  scales, 
which  are  disposed  in  regular  rows,  not  overlapping  one  another  as  in 
the  generality  of  fishes,  but  merely  touching  at  their  edges,  and  thus 
giving  the  whole  body  the  appearance  of  being  divided  into  so  many 
regular  compartments.  Though,  as  already  observed,  they  have  no 
TfuX  abdominal  fins,  yet  a  few  isolated  spines  are  often  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  pelvis,  which  have  been  generally  considered  as  repre- 
senting these  oi^gans ;  and  the  greater  number  have  the  sides  of  the 
tail  armed  with  one  or  more  rows  of  strong  spines  curved  forwards. 

«.  BA'LLOTA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
LahuU<Bt  and  the  tribe  Siackydea,  It  has  the  anthers  approximating 
in  pairs,  the  cells  divei^ng,  bursting  longitudinally.  The  upper  lip 
of  the  oorolla  is  erect,  concave,  the  lower  three-lobed,  the  middle  lobe 
cordate.  The  calyx  is  funnel-shaped,  with  five  eqiial  teeth.  There 
are  two  British  species  of  this  g^us,  B.  foetida  and  B,  ruderalis, 
B.  fcaida  is  the  most  common  plant,  and  goes  by  the  name  of  Hore- 
hound.  TheWhiteHorehoimd  is  the  if  arfti6iiMi»tn«^are.  [Marbubium.] 
.BALM.    [MiLisaA.] 


BALSAM.      [IMPATIENS.] 

*BALSAMI'FLU^,  Lu^Udambart,  a  natural  order  of  plants  con- 
sisting of  only  one  genus,  Li^(uidambar,  first  indicated  by  Theodore 
Nees  von  Esenbeck,  defined  by  Dr.  Blume  in  his  '  Flora  Jav»,'  and 
adopted  by  Lindley  in  his  '  Vegetable  Kingdom'  under  the  name  of 
AUingiaeea.  It  is  intermediate  between  the  Willow  and  Plane  Tribes, 
from  the  former  of  which  it  diff'ers  in  having  a  2-ceUed  fruit  and  down- 
less  seed,  and  from  the  latter  in  having  numerous  seeds.  It  consiBte 
of  lofty  trees,  flowing  vdth  balsamic  juice,  bearing  the  flowers  in  small 
scaly  heads,  vdthout  either  calvx  or  corolla,  and  having  tiie  stamens 
in  one  kind  of  head  and  the  pistils  in  another.  The  different  species 
yield  the  resinous  fragrant  substance  called  Liquid  Storax,  which  is  so 
much  prized  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  East.  [Liquidambab  ;  Storax, 
in  Abtb  and  Sa  Dnr.] 

BALSA'MIKA,  one  of  the  two  genera  of  which  the  natural  order 
BaltamvMcea  consists.  It  differs  from  ImpaHens  in  having  all  its 
anthers  2-celled,  its  stigmas  distinct^  and  the  valves  of  its  fruits  curling 
inwards  when  bursting.  There  are  numerous  species,  seve^  of  which 
have  very  himdsome  flowers.  They  are  chiefly  found  in  the  damper 
MTts  of  the  East  Indies ;  but  the  only  one  that  is  much  known  in 
Europe  is  the  common  Garden  Balsam  {Balsamina  hortentU),  which 
in  its  double  state  has  been  an  object  of  cultivation  since  the  earliest 
records  of  modem  horticulture.  This  plants  which  is  supposed  to  be 
found  wild  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Silhet^  in  the  form  of  what 
botanists  call  B<dtamina  tripetala,  is  one  of  those  species  which  not 
only  has  a  tendency  to  vary  with  double  flowers,  but  has  also  the 
power  of  continuing  to  produce  them  when  renewed  from  seeds.  On 
this  account  it  particularly  deserves  the  attention  of  the  cultivator, 
especially  as  it  may  be  brought  by  art  to  a  state  of  beauty  equalled  by 


few  plants.  All  that  is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  fine  T^lafttTJp^  {^^ 
first  to  save  the  seed  with  great  care  from  the  finest  and  moat  doable 
fiowers  only,  throwing  away  all  whole-coloured  and  single  blossomB ; 
and  secondly,  to  cultivate  the  plants  with  a  due  regard  to  ^  natural 
habits  of  the  species.  A  native  of  the  hot  damp  shady  woods  of 
Silhet^  it  is  incapable  of  bearing  much  drought  or  bright  sunshine.  It 
should  therefore  be  raised  in  a  hot-bed,  treated  with  great  care  as  a 
tender  annual,  grown  in  rich  soil,  sheltered  from  excessive  sunliglit, 
and  kept  constantly  in  a  damp  atmosphere,  but  freely  and  fully  venti- 
lated. It  should  not  however  be  stimulated  into  extremely  rapid 
growth  until  the  plants  have  become  stout  bushes  and  the  flowers  have 
grown  to  the  size  of  small  peas.  At  that  time  the  plants  shotild  have 
all  the  heat  and  moisture  they  can  bear,  and  the  most  brilliant  flowen 
the  plant  is  capable  of  producing  will  be  the  result.  In  the  latter 
stage  of  growth  great  care  is  still  to  be  taken  to  expoee  the  plants  fully 
to  air. 

BALSAMINA'CE^,  a  small  natural  order  of  plants  belongiDg  to 
the  Gynobasic  group  of  Dicotyledons,  and  principally  distinguished 
from  Geraniacece  by  their  many-seeded  fruit  and  unsymmetrical  flowen. 
They  are  succulent  herbs,  most  abundant  in  hot  countries,  with  simple 
opposite  or  alternate  leaves,  and  showy  flowers^  with  a  spiur  to  their 
calyx.  They  have  no  sensible  properties  of  importance,  but  are  the 
ornament  of  the  damp  or  swampy  places  in  which  they  grow  wild 
The  order  is  remarkable  for  the  elastic  force  with  which  the  valves  of 
its  fruit  contract  and  reject  the  seeds. 


Impatimu  Noli-tangere, 
a,  a  calyx  magnified,  with  one  of  the  petals  ;  ft,  the  fh>nt  of  aa  anther ;  e,  the 
back  of  the  aame ;  d,  an  ovary  eat  across ;  e,  the  ripe  fruit ;  /,  the  same  in  the 
act  of  bursting  and  scattering  its  seeds ;  p,  a  seed ;  A,  the  same  eat  transversely. 

BALSAMODE'NDRON,  a  genus  of  oriental  trees  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Amyridcicecef  and  remarkable  for  their  powerftil  balsamic 
juice.  They  have  small  green  axillary  dioecious  flowers,  a  minute 
4-toothed  persistent  calyx,  four  narrow  inflected  petals,  eight  stamens 
inserted  below  an  annular  disk,  from  which  eight  little  excrescences 
arise  alternating  with  the  stamens,  and  a  small  oval  drupe  with  four 
sutures,  and  either  one  or  two  cells,  in  each  of  which  is  lodged  a  single 
seed.  The  leaves  are  pinnated,  with  one  or  two  pairs  of  leaflets,  and 
an  odd  one. 

B.  OpobcUtamumf  the  Balessan  of  Bruce,  has  a  trunk  from  six  to  eig^t 
feet  hi^  furnished  with  a  number  of  slender  branches  ending  in  a 
sharp  spine.  The  leaves  consist  of  from  five  to  seven  sessile^,  obovate, 
entire,  and  shining  leaflets,  within  which  are  placed  the  small  flowers, 
which  grow  in  pairs  on  short  slender  stalks,  and  are  succeeded  by 
small  oval  plums.    From  this  is  distinguished  the 

B.  GUeadmse,  supposed  to  be  the  fiaXtrdfiav  itpBpop  of  Theophrastus, 
which  is  described  as  a  middle-sized  tree,  with  the  leaflets  growing  in 
threes,  and  the  flowers  singly.  But  it  is  probable  that,  as  these  balsam- 
trees  are  foimd  in  the  same  places,  and  produce  the  same  substance, 
they  are  in  &ct  nothing  but  varieties  of  the  same  speciea  They  both 
produce  three  different  substances :  1,  Balm  of  Mecca,  or  Balm  of 


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BALTIMORITR 


BAM6USA. 


878 


Bttltamodendron  Myrrha, 


Qileftd,  or  Opoba]mmum ;  2,  Xylobalaamum ;  and  3»  CarpobalBamum ; 
the  fint  obtained  from  the  trunk  of  the  bakmn-trees  by  aimple  inci- 
sion ;  the  seoond  by  boiling  the  branches  and  skimming  ofif  we  resin 
as  it  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  water ;  and  the  thud  by  simple 
pressure  of  the  frxiit  They  are  no  longer  met  with,  even  in  gardens, 
about  Gilead  in  Palestine. 

B.  Myrrha  is  a  small  scrubby  tree  found  in  Arabia  Felix,  near 
Gison,  Bcattered  among  species  of  Acacia,  Euphorbia,  and  Moringa, 
Both  its  wood  and  barii  have  a  strong 
and  remarkable  odour.  The  branches 
are  stiff,  short,  and  spiny ;  the  leaves 
composed  of  three  oboTate  unequal 
leaflets,  with  distinct  orenatnres,  and 
the  fruit  a  narrow,  oval,  furrowed 
plum,  surrounded  at  the  base  by  the 
persistent  calyx. 

B.  KaiofhiE  £Bwer  spines,  and  downy 
and  more  distinctly  serrated  leaves. 
Its  wood,  which  is  red  and  resinous,  is 
a  common  article  of  sale  in  Egypt 

Whatever  maybe  the  product  of  the 
last  spepies,  which  Forskal  states  to 
produce  the  myrrh  of  commerce,  it  is 
now  certain  that  this  'substance  is 
yielded  by  Balsamodendron  Myrrhat, 
which  Ehrenberg  found  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Nubia  and  Arabia,  bearing  a 
substance  identical  with  the  myrrh  of 
the  shops.  It  is  therefore  no  longer 
to  be  doubted  that  the  suggestion  of 
Bruce^  that  it  is  the  produce  of  a  kind 
of  Mimosa — a  most  improbable  circum- 
stance, by  the  way — originated  in  some 
incorrect  observation. 

B,  Zeylanieum  is  mentioned  as  a 
fifth  species,  producing  oriental  Elemi, 
which  is  veiy  different  from  theAmeri- 
cankind;  but  of  this  too  little  is  known 
to  enable  us  to  do  more  than  advert 
to  its  existence. 

Myrrh,  a  natural  g^m-resin,  the  source  of  which  was  long  doubtful, 
was  observed  l^  Ehrenbeig  to  exude  from  the  bark  of  the  above- 
mentioned  species  of  balm,  much  in  the  same  way  as  gum  tragacanth 
exudes  fiY>m  the  Attragalv*  vents.  It  is  at  first  soft,  oily,  and  of  a 
yellowish-white  colour,  tiien  acquires  the  consistence  of  butter,  and  by 
exposure  to  the  air  becomes  harder,  and  changes  to  a  reddOsh  hue. 
As  met  with  in  commerce  it  is  of  two  kinds,  that  which  i^  called 
Myrrh  in  Tears,  and  that  called  Myrrh  in  Sorts. 

Dr.  Von  Maitius  mentions  a  White  Myrrh,  which  has  a  very  bitter 
taste  like  colocynth,  and  an  external  appearance  like  ammoniacum ; 
it  is  probably  ammoniacum  treated  with  tinctmre  of  colocynth. 
Another  false  myrrh  may  be  distinguished  by  its  transparency  and 
less  bitter  taste.   JBalbavb  ;  Myrrh,  in  Arts  and  So.  Div.] 

BALTIMORITE,  a  mineral  which  is  a  variety  of  Serpentme,  and  is 
composed  of  longitudinal  fibres  adhering  to  each  other.  It  has  a 
silky  lustre,  is  opaque,  but  in  thin  pieces  translucent  on  the  edges.  Its 
hardness  is  less  than  that  of  calcareous  spar.  It  is  found  at  Baltimore, 
United  State&    The  following  is  the  analysis  by  Dr.  Thompson : — 

Silica 40-96 

Magnesia S4*70 

Protoxide  of  Iron 10'05 

Alumina 1-60 

Water 12-60 

BAMBU'SA,  the  Bamhoo,  a  genus  of  Grasses,  weU  known  for  its 
great  economical  importance,  but  consisting  of  species  which  are  very 
imperfectly  underrtood  by  botanists.  It  is  remarkable  in  structure, 
among  other  things,  for  having  only  one  st^le,  which  is  more  or  less 
deeply  two-  or  three-parted,  three  minute  scales  at  the  base  of  its  ovary, 
and  six  stamens. 

It  is  doubtftil  whethw  nature  has  conferred  upon  the  inhabitants  of 
hot  countries  any  boon  more  valuable  than  the  Bamboo,  unless  it  be 
the  CooosrNut ;  to  such  a  multitude  of  uaefbl  purposes  are  its  light, 
strong,  and  graceful  stems  appUcabla  These  are  universally  pu£ed 
forth  by  a  strong,  jointed,  subterranean,  creeping  rootstock,  which  is 
the  true  trunk  of  the  Bamboo,  the  shoots  being  the  branches.  The 
latter  are  hard  externally  and  coated  with  flint ;  in  the  inside  they 
are  hollow,  except  at  the  nodes,  where  strong  partitions  stretch  across 
the  inside,  and  cut  off  the  interior  into  a  number  of  doeed-np  cylin- 
ders. In  the  cavity  of  these  oyUnders  water  is  sometimes  secreted, 
or,  less  eommonly,  an  opaque  white  substance,  becoming  opaline  when 
wetted,  consisting  of  a  flinty  secretion,  of  whidi  the  plant  divests 
itself,  called  Tabasheer,  concemiBg  the  optical  properties  of  whidi 
Sir  David  Brewster  has  made  some  curious  discoveries. 

In  their  manner  of  growth  they  exhibit  a  beautiful  example  of  a 
contrivaaoe  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  grow  into  the  dense  tufts 
which  they  usually  foim.  When  full-grown  a  bamboo  is  a  straight  rod, 
bearing  a  number  of  stiff  branches,  which  shoot  at  nearly  right  angles 
from  the  main  stem ;  and  it  ia  difficult  to  conceive  by  what  arrange* 


ment  such  a  stem  elevates  itself  through  the  dense  mass  of  rigid 
branches  which  cross  each  other  in  every  direction.  This  is  however 
contrived  by  nature  in  a  very  simple  manner.  The  young  shoot  of  a 
bamboo,  whatever  its  lenjgth  may  be,  when  it  is  first  produced,  is  a 
perfectly  simple  sucker,  lUce  a  shoot  of  asparagus,  but  having  a  sharp 
point,  and  in  this  state  it  pierces  readily  the  dense  overhsnging 
branches ;  it  is  only  when  it  has  arrived  at  its  full  length  and  has 
penetrated  through  all  obstacles,  that  it  begins  to  form  its  lateral 
shoots ;  and  these,  which  are  emitted  horizontally,  readily  inteipose 
themselves  between  the  horizontal  laterals  of  the  bamboo  stems  among 
which  they  grow.  In  the  words  of  Dr.  Roxbux^gh,  the  shoots,  on 
their  first  I4>p!earance,  resemble  a  large  straight  elephant's  tusk  invested 
in  stout  leathery  sheaths. 

The  purposes  to  which  different  species  of  Bamboo  are  applied  are 
BO  numerous  that  it  woiild  be  difficult  to  point  out  an  object  in  which 
strength  and  elasticity  ieire  requisite,  and  for  which  lightness  is  no 
objection,  to  which  the  stems  are  not  adapted  in  the  countries  where 
they  grow.  The  young  shoots  of  some  species  are  cut  when  tender, 
and  eaten  like  asparagus.  The  full-grown  stems,  while  green,  form 
elegant  cases,  exhiding  a  perpetual  moisture,  and  capable  of  transport- 
ing fresh  fiowers  for  hundreds  of  miles :  when  ripe  and  hard  they  are 
converted  into  bows,  arrows,  and  quivers,  lance-shafts,  the  masts  of 
vessels,  bed-posts,  walking-sticks,  the  poles  of  palanquins,  the  floors 
and  supporters  of  rustic  bridges,  and  a  variety  of  similar  purposes. 
In  a  growing  state  the  spiny  kmds  are  formed  into  stockades,  which 
are  impenetrable  to  any  but  regular  infiuitiy,  aided  by  artillery.*  "By  • 
notching  their  sides  the  Malays  make  wonderfully  light  scaling-ladders, 
which  can  be  conveyed  with  facility  where  heavier  machines  could 
not  be  transported.  Bruised  and  crushed  in  water,  the  leaves  and 
stems  form  Chinese  paper,  the  finer  qualities  of  which  are  only  improved 
by  a  mixture  of  raw  cotton  and  by  more  careful  pounding.  The  leaves 
of  a  small  species  are  the  materiid  used  by  the  Chinese  for  the  lining 
of  their  tea^hests.  Cut  into  lengths  and  the  partitions  knocked  out^ 
they  form  durable  water-pipes,  or  by  a  little  contrivance  are  made  into 
excellent  cases  for  holding  rolls  of  paper.  Slit  into  strips  they  afford 
a  most  durable  material  for  weaving  into  mats,  baskets,  window-blinds, 
and  even  the  sails  of  boats.  Finally,  the  larger  and  thicker  truncheons 
are  exquisitely  carved  by  the  Chinese  into  beautiful  ornaments.  It  is 
however  more  especially  for  building  purposes  that  the  bamboo  is 
important.  According  to  Marsden,  in  Sumatra  the  frame-work  of  the 
houses  of  the  natives  is  chiefly  composed  of  this  material  In  the 
floorings,  whole  stems,  four  or  five  inches  in  diameter,  are  laid  dose  to 
each  other,  and  across  these  stems  laths  of  split  bamboo  about  an  inch 
wide  are  fastened  down  with  filaments  of  the  rattan-cane.  Tlie  sides 
of  the  houses  are  closed  in  with  the  bamboo  opened,  and  rendered  fiat 
by  splitting  or  notching  the  circular  joints  on  the  outside,  chipping 
away  the  corresponding  divisions  within,  and  laying  it  in  the  sun  to 
dry,  pressed  down  with  weights.  Whole  bamboos  often  form  the 
upright  timbers,  and  the  house  is  generally  roofed  in  with  a  thatch  of 
narrow  split  bamboos,  six  feet  long,  placed  in  regular  layers,  each 
reaching  within  two  feet  of  the  extremity  of  that  bcmeath  it>  by  which 
a  treble  covering  is  formed.  Another  and  most  ingenious  roof  is  also 
formed  by  cutting  large  straight  bamboos  of  sufficient  length  to  reach 
from  the  ridge  to  the  eaves,  then  splitting  them  exactly  in  two,  knock- 
ing out  tibe  partitions,  and  arranging  them  in  close  order  with  the 
hdlow  or  inner  sides  uppermost ;  after  which  a  second  layer,  with  the 
outer  or  convex  sides  up,  is  placed  upon  the  other  in  such  a  manner 
that  each  of  the  convex  pieces  falls  into  the  two  contiguous  concave 
pieces,  covering  their  edges ;  the  latter  serving  as  gutters  to  cany  off 
the  rain  that  falls  upon  &.e  upper  or  convex  layer. 

The  different  species  of  BanUnua  may  be  oonveniently  distributed 
in  three  sections. 

I.  Anatic  Bamboos,  with  the  Flovjcrt  either  tn  Spikes  or  Panicles. 

1.  B.  arundinacea,  Boxburgh.  Spiny.  Leaves  very  narrow,  covered 
with  asperities  on  the  margin  and  upper  surface.  (Called  Bans 
in  Bengal.)  Common  in  ridi,  moist  soil,  among  the  mountains  of 
India.  The  stems  grow  in  dusters,  frv>m  10  to  100,  from  the  same 
root-stock,  and  are  straight  for  18  or  20  feet  When  in  flower  it  is 
usually  destitute  of  leaves,  and  as  the  extremity  of  every  ramification 
is  covered  with  blossom,  the  whole  tree  seems  one  entire  immense 
panide.    Its  seeds  are  used  as  rice.    Tabasheer  is  found  in  its  joints. 

2.  B,  strieta,  Boxb.  Somewhat  spiny.  Flowers  in  extremely 
compact  whorls.  Said  to  be  a  smaller  species  than  the  last :  it  grows 
in  a  drier  situation,  has  a  much  smaller  cavity,  and  is  very  straight 
Its  great  strength,  solidity,  and  straightness  render  it  much  fitter  for 
many  uses,    ^om  this  the  shafts  of  lances  are  made  in  India. 

8.  jB*.  vulgaris,  WendL  Not  spiny ;  leaves  very  narrow,  covered  at 
the  edge  and  on  the  upper  mr&^oe  with  asperities.  Found  in  the 
East  Indies,  whence  it  is  thought  to  have  been  carried  to  the  West 
Its  stems  are  firom  20  to  80  feet  long,  and  as  thick  as  a  child's  arm. 

4.  B.  spinosa,  Boxb.  Strongly  armed  with  both  single  and  com- 
pound spines ;  leaves  very  narrow,  rardy  more  than  six  inches  lonf  . 
{Behor  Bans,  in  Bengal)  Common  about  Calcutta,  and  in  the  south 
of  India,  forming  an  impenetrable  jungle ;  also  often  cultivated  round 
Indian  villages.  It  has  a  smaller  hollow  than  most  of  the  others,  and 
is  consequently  stronger  thsn  many  of  them.  Dr.  Roxburgh  describes 
it  as  rising  in  such  dense  tufts  as  to  appear  Uke  a  single  trunk  at  some 


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BAMBUSA. 


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difltanoe ;  and  by  help  of  their  spiny  branches  ao  bound  together  that 
it  is  a  most  arduous  task  to  out  down  an  old  dump  of  them.  The 
stems  are  from  80  to  50  feet  long. 

6.  B,  TuldOf  Roxb.  Not  spiny ;  leaves  broad,  rounded  or  heart- 
shaped  at  the  base.  (Tulda  Bans  in  Bengal;  Peka  Bant  of  the 
Hindoos.)  Common  all  over  Bengal.  Its  growth  is  so  rapid  that  the 
stems,  which  are  sometimes  as  much  as  70  feet  long  and  12  inches  in 
dronmference,  rise  to  their  full  height  in  about  30  .days.  Before  their 
lateral  shoots  are  formed,  they  are  described  as  resembling  fishing-rods 
of  immense  size.  The  young  thick  shoots,  when  about  two  feet  high, 
are  tender,  and  form  an  excellent  pickl&  It  is  chiefly  used  for 
scaffolding  and  for  covering  the  houses  of  the  natives ;  it  is  found  to 
last  much  longer  if  steeped  in  water  some  time  before  being  used.  Of 
this  species  Dr.  Roxburgh  mentions  several  varieties.  Jowa  Bans  is  a 
larger  variety,  with  longer  and  thicker  joints;  BatirU  Bans  has  a 
]aiiger  cavity,  and  is  chiefly  used  to  make  baskets.  Behoor  Bans  is  of 
a  small  size,  very  solid  and  strong,  much  bent  to  one  side,  and  armed 
with  numerous  strong  thorns.  A  staff  of  it  is  placed  in  the  hand 
of  every  young  Brahxmn  when  invested  with  the  sacerdotal  robe.  It 
is  probably  a  distinct  species. 

6.  B,  BcUcooa,  Roxb.  Not  spiny ;  leaves  narrow,  heart-shaped  at 
the  base.  (Balcoo  Bans  in  Bengal)  A  native  of  Bengal,  and  even 
more  gigantic  than  the  last.  It  is  reckoned  by  the  workers  in  bamboo 
the  very  best  for  building  purposes.  Previously  to  being  used,  it  is 
immersed  in  water  for  a  considerable  time.  Two  varieties  are  distin- 
guished :  Dhodi  Bakoo,  the  larger,  and  Balcoo  Bans,  which  is  smaller 
and  stronger,  with  a  leas  cavity. 

7.  B.  BlumeanOf  Schultes.  Armed  with  triple  recurved  spines : 
leaves  very  narrow,  quite  smooth,  suddenly  tapering  into  a  short  stalk. 
A  native  of  Java.     Stems  about  as  thick  as  a  child's  ann. 

8.  B,  agrestis,  Poir.  Stems  crooked,  at  the  lower  part  very  spiny ; 
leaves  narrow,  small,  smooth.  On  mountains,  and  in  dry  and  desert 
places  in  all  China  and  Cochin  China ;  it  is  common  also  in  various 
islands  in  the  Malay  Archipelago.  Its  crooked  sometimes  creeping 
stems  and  rugged  aspect  distinguish  it  The  trunk  is  a  foot  thick, 
and  the  joints  (we  presume  near  the  base)  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  and 
often  nearly  solid. 

9.  B,  Thmiarsii,  Kunth.  Stems  very  much  branched.  Found  wild 
in  Madagascar,  where  however  it  is  not  believed  to  be  indigenous. 

10.  B.  mitiSf  Poir.  Stems  perfectly  unarmed ;  leaves  very  narrow, 
and  clasping  the  stems  at  their  base.  Cultivated  in  the  fields  and 
hedges  of  Cochin  China,  and  found  wild  in  Amboyna,  where  several 
supposed  varieties  exist  Its  stems  grow  SO  feet  long,  and  are  said  by 
Rumphius  to  be  the  strongest  of  all  the  species,  although  its  sides  are 
thin.    It  is  sometimes  as  ^ck  as  a  man's  leg. 

11.  B.  maximOf  Poir.  Stems  very  straight^  branching  only  near  the 
sunmiit)  and  densely  covered  with  spines.  The  most  gigantic  of  all 
the  species,  from  80  to  100  feet  high,  and  sometimes  as  thick  as 
a  man's  body.  Its  wood  is  however  very  thin.  It  is  found  wild 
in  Cambodia,  Bally,  Java,  and  various  islands  of  the  Malayan 
Archipelago. 

12.  B.  aspera,  Schultes.  Stems  covered  all  over  with  a  sort  of 
white  mealy  down.  Found  at  the  foot  of  mountains  in  Amboyna, 
with  stems  from  60  to  70  feet  high,  and  as  thick  as  a  man's  thigh. 
It  does  not  branch,  but  emits  little  hard  spine-like  roots  at  its  nodes. 

18.  B,  opus,  Schultes.  Leaves  very  large,  taper-pointed,  and  gra- 
dually narrowing  to  the  base,  extremely  scabrous  at  the  edge.  Aiio- 
ther  gigantic  species,  vdth  the  dimensions  of  the  hast,  growing  on 
Mount  Salak,  in  Java. 

14.  B.  BUung,  Schultes.  Leaves  ver^  laige,  taper-pointed,  narrowed 
at  the  base  into  a  sort  of  bristly  reiry  short  stalk,  very  scabrous  at  the 
edge  and  on  the  upper  surface.  Foimd  in  Java  with  the  last,  and 
remarkable  for  its  extremely  broad  and  scabrous  leaves.  Its  dimensions 
are  not  stated. 

15.  B,  nigra,  Loddiges.  Not  spiny.  Stems  slender,  swelled  at  the 
nodes,  dark-brown,  and  polished,  not  more  than  a  man's  height 
Leaves  narrow,  very  smooth,  rounded  and  narrowed  at  the  base  into 
a  short  stalk ;  ligule  with  long  stiff  fringes.  A  native  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Canton,  where  its  beautiful  slender  stems  are  cut  for  tiie 
handles  of  parasols,  walking-sticks,  fta  It  is  by  far  the  most  patient 
of  cold,  having  been  living  for  several  years  without  protection  in  a 
morass  in  the  garden  of  ^  the  London  Horticultural  Society,  and  is  no 
doubt  capable  of  being  aoclimat^^d  in  the  south-west  of  England  or  on 
the  west  coast  of  Ireland. 

16.  B,  arisUUa,  Loddiges.  Stems  slender,  smoothf  not  spiny. 
L^kves  very  smooth,  narrowed  gradually  at  the  base  into  a  short 
stalk;  with  downv  fringed  sheatha  Ligules  divided  into  very  long 
coarse  fringes.  Nodes  mealy  when  young.  Native  of  the  East 
Indies.    A  very  elegant  species,  related  to  the  last 

17.  B.  nana,  Roxb.  A  native  of  China.  It  makes  most  beautifhl 
dose  hedges. 

18.  B.  pvbescens,  Loddiges.  Not  spiny.  Toung  shoots,  leaf-«heaths, 
and  leaves  on  the  under  side,  covered  with  wort  down.  A  very 
remarkable  species,  obtained  by  the  English  from  the  collections  of 
France.  Its  native  country  is  unknown.  The  stems  are  80  feet  long; 
and  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter. 

19.  B,  striatck,  Loddigea^  Not  spiny.  Stems  slender,  polished, 
yellow  with  green  stripes.    Leaves  narrow,  rather  glaucous  on  the 


under  side,  tanering  into  a  short  stalk  at  the  base,  quite  smooth, 
except  a  few  snort  black  hairs  on  the  sheaths.  A  native  of  Chint. 
Often  cultivated  in  the  hot-houses  of  England  on  account  of  its 
beautiful  variegated  stems.    Ghx>w8  about  20  feet  high. 

20.  B,  glauca,  Loddiges.  Not  spiny.  Stems  very  slender,  pala 
green.  Leaves  very  sinall,  not  downy,  taper-pointed,  almost  heart- 
shaped  at  the  base,  covered  on  the  under  surface  with  veiy  dose 
bright  glaucous  bloom.  Leaves  scarcely  above  an  inch  long,  and  not 
more  tlum  two  lines  broad.  A  native  of  India»  whence  it  was  piocund 
by  the  Messrs.  Loddiges.  A  very  remarkable  spedes,  not  growing 
above  2  feet  high,  with  entangled  branches. 

IL  Asiatic  Bamboos,  with  the  Flowers  not  Pamded,  InUinsiMpU 
Terminal  Whorted  Spikes. 

21.  B.  verticUlata,  Willd.  Leaf-sheaths  covered  vnth  stinging  haliB. 
Stems  whitish.  Fifteen  or  sixteen  feet  high,  and  when  ^ill-grown  of 
a  pale  colour,  which  becomes  nearly  white  in  drying.  The  hairs  of 
the  leaves  occasion  so  much  itching,  that  this  kind  is  troublesome  to 
collect  It  is  the  Ldeba  aU>a  of  Rumphius,  who  says  the  edges  of 
its  leaves  are  so  sharp  as  to  wound  the  gatherers.  It  is  found  in 
Amboyna. 

22.  B,  atra.  Leaf '«talks  covered  with  stinging  hairs.  Stems  black 
and  shining.  Very  like  the  last^  and  found  also  in  Amboynx  It 
chiefly  differs  in  the  colour  of  the  stems.  It  is  the  Ldeha  nigra  of 
Rumphius. 

23.  B.  prava.  Leaves  very  large,  stiff,  and  broad,  extremely  hispid 
with  stinging  hairs.  The  most  oonmion  in  Amboyna,  forming  laige 
woods,  which  come  down  to  the  coast  It  flourishes  equally  in  dry  and 
moist  situations,  and  is  readily  known  from  the  oUiers  of  this  section 
by  its  very  large  leaves,  which  are  as  much  as  18  inches  long  and 
8  or  4  inches  broad. 

2i.  B.  pieta.  Joints  very  long,  variegated  with  white  and  green. 
Leaves  narrow  and  not  very  hauy.  Common  in  Cerama,  Eelanga, 
Celebes,  and  some  other  Malayan  ieJands.  Its  joints  are  as  much  as 
4  feet  long  and  about  2  inches  thick :  the  wood  is  thin,  and  it  is  con- 
sequently used  principally  for  light  walking-sticks;  it  is  however 
extremely  strong. 

25.  B.  Amahvssana,  Joints  short  Leaves  with  stinging  hairs  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  stem,  but  smooth*  near  the  ground.  Leaa 
straight,  and  more  short-jointed  than  any  of  the  preceding  species  of 
this  section.     Its  wood  is  very  thick.     In  Amboyna  and  Manipa. 

26.  B.  mvJUipUx,  Lour.  Stems  long-jointed,  not  spiny.  LeaveB 
stingless,  narrow,  and  clasping  the  stems  at  their  base.  Cultivated  in 
the  north  of  Cochin  China  for  hedges.  Its  leaves  are  very  narrow, 
and  of  a  brownish-green.  The  stems  are  about  12  feet  long  and  an 
inch  thick. 

27.  B.  tabacaria,  Poir.  Stems  slender,  very  straight^  of  nearly 
equal  thickness,  branched ;  with  very  long  rough  joints.  Wild  in  the 
black  and  argillaceous  soil  of  Amboyna,  Manipa^  and  Java,  in  the 
plains  and  moister  parts  of  the  mountains.  Its  stems  are  nearly 
solid,  and  excessively  tough  and  hard.  The  joints  are  8  or  4  feet 
long,  and  not  thicker  than  Uie  little  finger.  When  polished  they  make 
the  finest  pipe-sticks.  The  outside  is  so  haixl,  that  it  emita  sparks  of 
fire  when  struck  by  the  hatchet  The  species  runs  very  much  at  the 
root 

III.  American  Bainboot, 

28.  B.  Ouadua,  Humb.  Leaves  very  narrow,  covered  with  asperities 
at  the  edge  and  on  the  undeinnirface.  Found  in  warm  and  temperate 
places,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Cordilleras  of  New  Granada  and 
Quito,  growing  like  a  tree  SO  or  40  feet  high,  with  a  knotted,  ahiniog 
trunk  16  inches  in  diameter.  The  leaves,  which  are  6  or  7  inches 
long,  are  not  more  than  6  lines  broad. 

29.  B.  latifoUa,  Humb.  Leaves  narrow,  but  oblong;  extremely 
smooth.  About  25  feet  high,  drooping  at  the  point,  with  shining 
joints  2  feet  long  and  about  4  inches  thick.  The  leaves  are  the  same 
length  as  in  the  last,  but  thrice  as  broad.  It  is  found  in  the  damp 
shady  woods  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Caasiquiare  in  tropicd 
America. 

80.  B,  Tagoara,  Nees.  Leaves  oblong-lanceolate,  rounded  at  the 
base,  and  then  narrowed  into  a  very  riiort  stalk.  Stems  20  to  SO  feet 
long,  and  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter,  with  joints  from  6  to  18  inches 
long;  the  leaves  are  9  or  10  indies  long  and  full  2  inches  wide. 
Found  by  Yon  Martins  in  woods  1800  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the 
mountain  called  Serra  do  Mar,  towards  Quarantinqueta,  in  the 
province  of  8t  Paul's,  Brazil 

81.  B.  pmrvifiora,  SchuHesL  An  obscure  n>ecies,  fcmnd  on  the 
mountains  of  Peru,  in  Huanoco,  by  Hsanke.  The  stem  is  said  to  be 
branched,  and  the  leaves  lano»«haiped,  taper-pointed,  with  a  scabrous 


lere  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  other  species  of  this  carious 

genus  are  to  be  found  in  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia  and  America.  It 
is  also  not  improbable  that  some  of  the  foregoing  may  be  repetitions 
Travellen  who  have  opportunities  of  procuring  wild  specimens  of 
bamboos  should  dry  a  small  branch  with  the  leaves,  and  if  possible 
the  flowers,  and  should,  at  the  same  time,  put  by  a  portion  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  stem,  6  or  7  feet  long^  marked  so  as  to  correspond 
with  the  dried  specimen. 


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BAMLTTE. 


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(Roxburgh,  Flora  Indices,  voL  IL ;  RtiinpliiuB»  Mo'barvum  Afnbai- 
ntntt,  YoL  iv. ;  Romer  and  Scfaultes,  Syttema  VegetdbiUwn,  voL  vii) 

BAMLITE,  a  mineral  of  a  white  or  grayish-white  colour.  It  is 
columnar ;  has  a  hardne8Ss6  and  specific  grayitys:2*98.  It  ocean  in 
Norway,  and  consists  of — 

Silica 59*6 

Alumina 42*0 

Peroxide  of  Iron 1*0 

BANCHUS,  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  order  Hymenoptera. 

BAND-FISH.    [Cepola.] 

BANDICOOT  {Peramdes,  QeoS.  St  Hilaire),  a  genus  of  Marsupial 
Mammals,  which  appears  to  occupy,  in  Australia,  the  situation  which 
the  Shrews,  Tenrecs^  and  other  Ihaectivora  fill  in  th^  Old  World. 

The  species  of  Penunelet  called  Bandicoots  by  the  colonists  (a  name 
which  properly  belongs  to  the  Qreat  Rat  of  India^  Mui  giganUtu,  but 
which,  from  a  vague  resemblance  in  size  and  appearance,  the  early 
colonists  of  Sydney  applied  to  the  animals  at  present  imder  con- 
sideration), though  they  agree  in  the  most  prominent  characters  of 
their  dentition  with  some  of  the  Maraupiatay  and  in  the  form  of  their 
extremitiee  and  the  number  of  their  toes  with  others,  yet  difier 
essentially  from  all  in  their  habits  and  economy.  [Marsupiata.]  In 
the  number,  form,  and  arrangement  of  their  canine  and  molar  teeth 
they  agree  in  all  respects  with  the  Opossums  of  America  and  the 
Dasyures  of  Australia ;  that  is  to  say,  that  they  have  2  canines  and 
14  molars  in  each  jaw ;  but  they  differ  widely  in  the  number  of  their 
incisors,  and  in  this  respect  offer  a  unique  combination  which  is  found 
in  no  other  known  genus  of  mammals.  Of  the  incisor  teeth  there  are 
10  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  only  6  in  the  lower;  and  the  external  on 
each  side,  particularly  in  the  upper  jaw,  is  insulated,  and  stands  apart 
both  from  the  canine  and  from  the  other  incisors ;  it  is  likewise  much 
larger  than  the  intermediate  incisors,  and  its  form  is  that  of  an 
ordinary  canine  tooth,  of  which  indeed  it  appears  to  exercise  all  the 
functions. 

The  hind  legs  are  considerably  longer  than  the  fore,  and  the  number 
and  form  of  th»  toes  are  in  all  respects  similar  to  those  of  the 
kangaroos.  It  was  this  similarity  that  induced  M.  Qeoffiroy  St  Hihdre 
to  suppose  that  the  pace  of  the  Bandicoots  also  resembled  that  of  the 
kangaroos.  This,  howeyer,  is  far  from  being  the  case.  The  dispro- 
portion between  their  anterior  and  posterior  extremities  is  by  no 
means  so  great  as  to  compel  the  Bandicoots  to  hop  upon  the  hind  legs 
onljy  like  the  kangaroos,  though  it  is  certainly  sufficiently  so  to 
prevent  them  from  walking  like  ordinary  quadrupeds.  Their  actual 
pace  resembles  that  of  the  hare,  and  consists  of  a  succession  of  leaps 
from  the  hind  to  the  fore  feet,  but  it  is  not  very  rapid,  nor  can  they 
maintain  it  for  any  great  length  of  time.  On  the  fore  feet  there  are 
five  toes,  of  which  the  three  middle  are  long  and  stout,  but  the  lateral 
ones  are  so  short  that  they  do  not  touch  the  ground,  and  are  conse- 
quently useless  in  walking,  though  they  may  be  of  great  service  in 
burrowing.  The  hind  feet  have  but  four  toes  each,  and  of  these  the 
third  is  the  largest  of  all,  whilst  the  two  internal  are  united  \mder  the 
same  skin,  and  appear  externally  like  a  single  toe  armed  with  two 
claws. 

This  is  precisely  the  arrangement  and  form  which  we  find  in  the 
kangaroos ;  but  the  feet  of  ti^e  Bandicoots  differ,  in  being  provided 
with  broad  powerful  daws,  which  enable  them  to  burrow  with 
astonishing  facility,  and  to  scratch  up  the  groimd  in  search  of  roota 
They  likewise  differ  from  the  kangaroos  in  having  a  small  fleshy 
tubercle,  in  lieu  of  a  thumb,  upon  the  hind  feet,  and  in  having  the 
last  or  ungual  phalange  of  all  tiie  toes  divided  in  fh>nt  by  a  small 
incision,  as  in  the  pangolins  and  ant-eaters,  a  structure  which  gives  a 
much  firmer  attachment  to  the  claw,  and  vastly  increases  their  power 
of  burrowiog.  In  other  respects  the  Bandicoots  are  chiefly 
characterised  by  their  long  attenuated  muzzles,  short  upright  ears, 
lengtiiened  bodies,  and  moderate  rat-like  tails,  which  are  not  prehensile, 
as  is  the  case  with  many  genera  of  this  order,  nor  have  these  animals 
the  power  of  ascending  trees.  With  rqgard  to  the  period  of  gestation, 
the  number  of  young,  and  the  mode  of  their  introduction  into  the 
abdominal  poudi,  it  is  only  known  that  they  resemble  the  other 
marsupials  in  the  premature  production  of  their  young,  and  in 
nourishing  them  for  some  time  afterwards  in  the  abdominal  pouch  of 
the  mother,  and  that  this  pouch  contains  the  mammary  organs  for 
that  purpose. 

Three  or  four  of  the  species  are  well  made  out^  but  with  regard  to 
the  rest  there  is  still  some  doubt. 

1.  P.  namUa  (Qeo£  St.  Hilaire),  the  Long-Nosed  Bandicoot^ 
measures  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length  from  the  extremity  of  the 
muzzle  to  the  origin  of  the  tail ;  the  head  is  4  inches  long,  the  tail 
6  inches,  the  hind  legs  also  6  indies,  and  the  fore  legs  only  3  inches. 
The  ears  are  erectf  pointed,  and  covered  with  short  hair ;  the  eyes  are 
particularly  small ;  the  nose  remarkably  long,  pointed,  and  naked  at 
the  extremity ;  and  the  tail  attenuated,  and,  though  better  covered 
with  hair,  bearing  some  resemblance  to  that  of  a  laige  rat.  ^  This 
organ  is  not  used  by  the  Bandicoot  to  support  the  body  in  a  sitting 
posture,  l&e  that  of  the  kangaroo,  as  has  be^  imagined  by  M.  Geoffix>y 
St.  Hilaire,  to  whom  we  owe  the  first  description  of  this  spedes  as 
well  as  the  eetahliahment  of  the  present  genus ;  ndther  are  the  pro- 
gressiTe  movements  of  these  animals  similar  to  tiiose  of  the  kangaroos, 
•a  the  same  eminent  soologist  conceived,  from  the  form  and  propor- 


tions of  the  extremities,  that  they  might  be.  The  pace  of  the 
Bandicoot  as  already  observed  resembles  that  of  our  hares  and 
rabbits,  which  certainly  approximates  more  nearly  to  the  saltigrade 


Long.No8cd  Bandicoot  {P.  naauta). 

pace  of  the  kangaroos,  gerboas,  and  helamys,  than  any  other  kind 
of  locomotion  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  So  far  M.  Geoffh)y*s 
conjecture  was  well  founded,  and  he  has  certainly  good  reason  in  his 
observation  that  analogous  structures  rarely  deceive  us  in  reasoning 
upon  their  fimctions.  The  external  coat  of  the  Long-Nosed  Bandicoot 
is  composed  of  coarse  bristly  hair,  in  colour  very  neariy  resembling 
that  of  the  common  Rat  (Mua  decwnanus)^  except  that  it  is  of  a  more 
sandy  shade  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body,  and  of  a  more  dear 
silvery  white  beneath  ;  under  this  long  outer  hair  there  is  an  interior 
coat  of  soft  ash-coloured  wool  or  fur,  which  protects  the  animal  from 
the  cold  and  variations  of  temperature,  for  it  appears  to  be  an  iohabi-  ^ 
tant  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Australia,  principally  if  not 
exclusively.  The  tail  is  of  a  rather  darker  colour  tiian  the  body,  tfnd 
the  whole  animal,  except  in  the  great  length  and  pointed  form  of  the 
nose,  has  much  the  appearance  of  an  ovei-grown  rat.  The  form  and 
characters  of  its  teeth  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  it  fed  upon 
insects  and  other  similar  animal  substances.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  human  habitations  they  frequently  enter  into  the  granaries,  and 
do  as  much  mischief  to  the  com  as  the  rats  and  mice  of  our  own 
coimtry. 

2.  P.  ohetula  (Geoff),  the  Blunt-Nosed  Bandicoot,  first  described  by 
Dr.  Shaw  under  the  names  of  the  Porcupine  Opossum  and  Diddphyi 
obestUa,  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  last  spedes  by  the  shortness 
and  bluntness  of  its  snout  and  by  the  broad  roimd  form  of  its  ears. 
The  arrangement  of  the  teeth  also  differs  in  some  degree  from  that  of 
the  Long-Nosed  Bandicoot  The  external  incisors  are  more  nearly 
in  contact  with  the  canines  and  central  ii^cisors  on  each  side  of  them ; 
the  molars  immediately  succeeding  the  canines,  and  answering  to  the 
false  molars  of  the  camivora,  are  contiguous  to  one  another  and  of  a 
triangular  form ;  and  the  posterior  molars  are  more  flattened  on  the 
crowns.  This  latter  character  would  seem  to  intimate  that  the 
present  species  was  more  purely  herbivorous  than  the  last,  and  future 
observation  may  probably  confirm  this  conjecture.  The  colour  and 
quality  of  the  hair  and  fur  are  the  same  as  in  the  Long-Nosed 
Bandicoot 

3.  P.  Gtmnii  is  a  native  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  where  it  is  very 
generally  difiUsed.  It  lives  prindpally  on  bulbs,  but  also  eats  insects. 
P.  lagotis,  of  Reid,  is  of  a  gray  colour,  and  as  large  as  an  opossum. 
It  has  been  described  by  Professor  Owen  under  the  generic  name 
Phalacomyt.    [Marsupiata.] 

BA'NKSIA,  an  Australian  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Proteacea.  It  was  named  in  compliment  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 
It  consists  of  bushes  or  less  frequently  of  small  trees,  with  their 
branches  growing  in  an  umbellate  manner.  The  leaves  are  hard  and 
dry,^  and  in  young  plants  always  cut  at  the  edges,  but  in  old  specimens 
undivided.  They  have  a  duU  green  colour  on  their  upper  side,  and 
are  usually  white,  or  very  pale  green,  on  the  lower.  The  flowers  are 
long,  narrow,  tubular,  coloured  calyxes,  without  corolla,  and  with 
only  four  stamens  lodged  in  their  concave  points.  They  are  collected 
into  oblong  heads,  often  consisting  of  600  or  more,  closdy  arranged, 
and  do  not  fall  off  when  the  blooming  is  over,  but  wither,  become 
brown,  and  adhere  to  the  axis  of  the  head.  Very  few  of  them  are 
fertile;  the  greater  part  are  altogether  abortive,  and  form  a  sort  of 
coarse  flbrous  covering  to  the  singular  2-valved  fruit,  which  is  thick 
and  woody,  contains  two  black-winged  seeds,  and  when  it  sheds  them 
opens  like  an  oyster,  or  any  other  bivalve  shell 

These  plants  are  found  in  sandy  forest-land,  or  on  rocks,  over  the 
whole  known  continent  of  Australia,  but  diiefly  beyond  tiie  tropic. 
They  are  caUed  by  the  colonists  Honeysuckle  Trees,  and  are  considered 
in  New  South  Wales  as  evidence  of  bad  land ;  but  in  the  Swan  Rivsr 


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BANSTICKLE. 


BARR 


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colony  they  occupy  the  most  fertile  tracts.  Many  epecies  are  no  w 
cultivated  in  the  conBervatories  of  Europe,  where  they  are  ma  ;h 
esteemed  for  their  handsome  foliage  and  singular  heads  of  flower «. 


I 


Sanksitu. 
The  plant  in  the  foreground  is  the  Bed  Banksia  of  King  George's  Sound,  and 
the  other  the  Telhw  Banksia  of  the  Golf  of  Carpentaria,  fh>m  sketches  made 
on  the  spot. 

None  of  them  appear  to  be  of  much  value  for  timber,  although  they 
make  good  fire-wood.  B.  compar  and  B.  $errata  (which  last  is  said  to 
grow  80  feet  high,  with  a  stem  measuring  a  foot  and  a  half  in 
diameter)  are  the  laigest  species  which  have  been  mentioned  by 
travellers  on  the  east  coast.  On  the  west  coast>  in  Swan  River  colony, 
B,  grandis  reaches  50  feet  in  height,  with  a  trunk  2^  feet  in  diameter. 
A  considerable  quantity  of 'honey  is  secreted  by  their  flowers,  and 
collected  by  the  natives  of  King  George's  Sound,  who  are  extremely 
fond  of  it 

BANSTICKLE.      [aASTEBOBTEUS.] 

BANXRING,  the  Sumatran  name  of  a  small  arboreal  animal, 
discovered  by  the  late  Sir  Stamford  RafiSee,  which  is  intermediate  in 
its  nature  and  habits  between  the  Shrews  and  Squirrels.     [Tupaia.] 

BAOBAB.     [Adansonia.] 

BAPTA,  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  order  Lepidoptera  and 
family  Qeometridcp.  The  species  of  this  genus  are  among  the  thin- 
bodied  day-flying  Moths.  Mr.  Stephens,  in  his  'Illustrations  of 
British  Entomology,'  confines  this  genus  to  two  species  :  Bapta  bimor 
culata,  White  Pinion-Spotted  Bapta,  which  is  of  a  beautiful  white 
colour,  and  has  two  brown  spots  on  the  front  edge  of  each  of  the 
anterior  wings;  and  Bapta  punctata,  Clouded-Silver-Bapta.  This 
differs  from  the  first  principally  in  having  the  tips  of  the  anterior 
wings  clouded  with  brown.  Both  species  are  occasionally  met  with 
in  woods  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London. 

BARB,  the  name  of  a  noble  breed  of  horses  reared  by  the  Moors 
of  Barbaty  and  Marocco,  and  introduced  into  Spain  during  their 
dominion  in  that  country,  where  however  it  has  been  suffered  to 
degenerate  greatly  since  their  expulsion.  The  noble  race  of  Barbary 
Qorses  which  we  commonly  call  Barbs  are  of  rare  occurrence  even  in 
their  own  country,  where  the  tyranny  of  the  governors  holds  out  no 
inducement  to  private  individuals  to  rear  an  animal  of  which  they 
may  be  deprived  without  scruple  or  compensation  by  the  first  man  in 
power  who  happens  to  fancy  it.  It  is  only  among  the  wild  nomadic 
tribes  of  the  desert,  whose  roving  habits  and  inhospitable  country 
place  them  beyond  the  control  of  the  ordinary  powers  of  the  state, 
that  this  breed  exists  in  perfection.  The  common  horse  of  Barbary 
is  a  very  inferior  animal,  which,  if  originally  derived  from  the  same 
source  as  the  noble  race  of  Barbs,  has  greatly  degenerated.  In  the 
beauty  and  symmetry  of  their  forms  however  even  the  latter  are  far 
from  excelling  :  their  valuable  qualities — and  in  these  they  are  perhaps 
imequalled  by  any  other  breed  in  existence — are,  unrivalled  spe^ 
surprising  bottom,  abstinence,  patience  and  endurance  under  f&tigue, 
and  gentleness  of  temper.  Their  points  would  not  please  the  critical 
eye  of  a  member  of  the  Jockey  Club :  the  head  is  laige  and  clumsy ; 
the  neck  short  and  thick;  the  chest  broad  and  powerfiu;  yet  the  body 
and  legs  are  so  long  and  slender  as  to  resemble  those  of  a  greyhound. 


and  form  a  perfect  contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  animaL  Bat  the  Moon 
do  not  regard  the  external  appearance  of  their  horses  so  much  as  their 
temper,  speed,  and  capability  to  endure  f&tigue;  and  the  animals 
which  possess  these  valuable  qualities  are  cherished  with  all  the 
kindness  and  attention  that  are  bestowed  on  children.  Their  mode 
of  treatment  is  very  different  from  that  practised  in  Europe.  They 
are  very  early  accustomed  to  the  saddle,  are  mounted  at  two  years 
old,  and  have  their  manes  and  taUs  cropped  till  the  age  of  six,  under 
the  supposition  that  it  adds  to  their  strength  and  bottom.  After  this 
period  uiey  are  never  dressed,  nor  are  their  manes  and  tails  combed ; 
if  dirty  they  are  washed  in  the  next  stream,  and  some  are  even  said 
to  be  offended  by  Europeans  patting  their  horses  with  the  palm  of  the 
hand,  from  an  apprehension  of  its  injuring  their  coat.  They  are  never 
castrated,  nor  have  the  Moon  the  bad  taste  to  seek  to  improve  upon 
nature  by  cropping  the  ears  and  tails  of  their  horses,  as  is  practised 
by  some  nations ;  'a  Mussulman  will  neither  mutilate  nor  sell  the  skin 
of  'the  beast  of  the  prophet,'  the  noblest  of  animals.  The  horses 
alone  are  used  for  the  saddle,  the  mares  being  kept  for  breeding, 
except  among  some  of  the  predatory  tribes  of  the  Desert^  who  find 
that  the  neighing  of  the  horses  is  apt  to  betray  their  approach,  and 
give  notice  of  their  coming  to  the  caravans  wluch  are  the  objects  of 
their  attack.  Walking  and  galloping  are  the  only  paces  which  these 
ajiimalw  are  allowed  to  practise ;  and  it  is  even  considered  vulgar  to 
trot  or  canter.  Generally  spesking,  the  Moors  avoid  giving  their 
horses  violent  exercise,  or  overheating  them,  except  upon  extraor- 
dinary occasions ;  and  among  the  Desert  tribes  it  is  only  in  thdr 
cavalry  exercises,  such  as  throwing  the  lance,  Ac.,  that  their  speed  is 
at  aU  put  forth.  On  these  occasions  however  they  are  not  spared, 
and  it  is  surprising  with  what  rapidity  and  precision  they  perform 
the  different  evolutions.  These  indeed  are  not  so  complicated  as  the 
tactics  of  more  civilised  nations,  but  they  are  mudrmore  severe  upon 
the  cattle,  and  would  soon  break  down  the  best  of  our  European 
breeds.  The  great  exercise  of  the  Moorish  cavaliy  consists  in 
galloping  their  horses  at  the  veiy  height  of  their  speed  for  the 
distance  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  then  making  them  stop 
suddenly  short,  while  the  rider  delivers  his  spear  or  fires  his  musket; 
and  of  this  amusement  the  people  are  so  excessively  fond,  that  they 
frequently  continue  it  for  hours  together  without  a  moment's  inter- 
mission to  breathe  or  change  their  horses.  Tet  notwithstanding  such 
violent  exeroises,  veiy  litUe  care  is  afterwards  taken  of  the  horses ; 
still  they  are  said  to  be  long-lived  and  remarkably  free  from  diseaawi 
Such  distempers  as  farcy  and  glanders  are  unlmown;  spavin  and 
mullender  are  of  very  rare  occurrence. 

The  Moors  never  make  hay,  but  feed  their  horses  upon  chopped 
straw  and  barley,  which  they  eat  out  of  a  nose-bag  put  over  their 
heads,  as  is  the  custom  in  England ;  in  spring  they  are  chiefly  fed 
upon  grass.  In  the  stables  there  are  no  mangers,  but  the  hoiiBes  are 
fastened  by  means  of  two  iron  pins  driven  into  the  ground,  one  before 
and  the  other  behind,  to  which  the  fore  and  hind  legs  are  respectively 
fastened  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  the  animal  from  moving  more 
than  a  foot  either  backwards  or  forwards :  their  collar  is  also  made 
fast  to  the  front  pin,  which  is  provided  with  a  ring  for  that  purpose, 
and  they  eat  their  provender  off  the  ground.  Formeriy  it  was  the 
practice  for  the  Moors,  in  shoeing  their  horses,  to  cut  off  the  front 
part  of  the  hoof ;  a  flat  shoe  of  a  triangular  shape  was  then  put  on, 
with  one  of  the  sides  in  fronts  and  the  other  two  nearly  meeting  in  an 
acute  angle  behind  the  frog :  but  this  unnatural  mode  of  disfiguring 
these  noble  animals  was  put  an  end  to  about  the  year  1700,  by  an 
order  of  the  Emperor  Muley  Ishmael,  who  commanded  thai  thence- 
forth all  his  subjects  should  upon  pain  of  death,  shoe  their  horses 
with  round  shoes.  The  Berbers  and  Kabyles,  the  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country  between  the  Sahara  and  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  who  are  now  for  the  most  part  confined  to  the 
mountainous  and  most  inaccessible  districts  of  North  Africa,  never 
shoe  their  horses  at  all ;  yet  so  hardy  are  these  animals,  and  so  much 
tougher  are  their  hoofs  than  those  of  our  own  horses,  that  Windus, 
who  in  tiie  beginning  of  the  last  century  accompanied  a  Britash 
embassy  to  the  court  of  the  emperor  of  Marocco,  and  who  has  left  an 
interesting  acooimt  of  his  journey,  assures  us  tiiat  he  saw  one  of  them 
which  had  travelled  50  miles  wi&out  resting,  and  that  though  he  had 
been  twice  during  the  journey  obliged  to  cross  a  mountain  full  of 
rocks,  yet  it  was  not  perceived  that  he  had  the  least  crack  in  his  hoof, 
nor  any  apparent  iigury  of  his  feet 

There  is  a  particular  breed  of  the  noble  Barbs,  called  Sk*r%bah 
Et^reeh  (literallv  Wind^ucker),  or  the  Desert  Horse,  which  is  only 
found  among  the  tribes  of  the  Sahara,  and  which,  when  transported 
beyond  the  sands  of  the  Desert,  soon  languishes  and  dies.  The  fleet- 
ness,  temperance,  and  endurance  of  this  animal,  if  we  are  to  believe 
half  the  stories  related  bv  traveUers,  almost  surpass  the  bounds  of 
credibility.  '*  When  thou  shalt  meet  a  sh'rubah  er'reeh,"  says  a  Moorish 
proverb,  "  and  sav  to  his  rider,  '  Salam  Alikum,'  before  he  can  answer 
'Alikum  Salam,'  he  will  be  far  from  thee,  for  his  speed  is  like  the 
whirlwind."  By  the  assistance  of  this  animal,  or  of  the  Heirie,  or 
Desert-Camel,  the  Arab  can  upon  an  emergency  cross  the  Sahara  in 
a  short  time.  The  Sh'rubah  Er'reeh,  however,  is  neither  so  useful 
nor  so  economical  an  animal  as  the  desert-camel ;  it  is  true  that  his 
speed  is  greater,  but  he  is  neither  so  abstemious  nor  so  enduring. 
The  Heine  will  travel  for  16  or  20  successive  days,  and  requires  but 


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BARBAKEA. 


BARBETa 


a  handful  of  dried  dates  in  the  morning,  and  a  supply  of  water  every 
third  day ;  upon  an  extraordinary  emergency  he  can  even  travel  for 
kLx  or  seven  days  withodv  this  important  element ;  but  the  desert- 
horse  must  have  a  feed  of  camel's  nulk  once  a  day,  and  for  this  purpose 
iher^  must  be  a  oouple  of  female  camels  wherever  he  goes.  Camel's 
milk  is  his  only  sustenance ;  and  indeed  it  would  be  difficult  to  find 
him  any  other  in  the  parched  and  arid  deserts  which  he  inhabits ;  he 
does  not  like  wheat,  hay,  straw,  or  any  ocher  kind  of  food,  and  if  forced 
to  live  upon  these  substances,  soon  loses  all  his  valuable  qualities.  In 
his  native  countxy  the  desert-horse  is  principally  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  hunting  the  ostrich  and  gazelle,  at  which  sports  he  is 
amazingly  expert,  nor  is  there  any  other  being  that  can  equal  these 
jiniTTitt^lg  in  speed.  When  brought  to  Marocco,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case,  these  horses  soon  decline  under  the  change  of  food  and  climate. 
"  Alkaid  Omar  ben  Daudy,"  says  Jackson  in  his  '  Account  of  the  Empire 
of  Marocco,'  "when  governor  of  Mogodor,  had  two  Saharawan  horses 
in  his  stables ;  but  fioding  it  inconvenient  to  feed  them  constantly 
upon  camel's  milk,  he  resolved  to  tiy  them  on  the  lumal  food  given  to 
Barbary  horses.  He  accordingly  had  their  food  gradually  changed, 
and  in  a  short  time  fed  them  altogether  with  barley,  and  occasion- 
ally with  wheat  and  straw ;  they  grew  fat,  and  looked  better  than 
before,  but  they  lost  their  speed,  and  soon  afterwards  died,  as 
if  nature  had  designed  them  to  be  appropriated  solely  to  that 
district  whose  arid  and  extensive  plains  render  their  use  essentially 
necessary." 

BARBA^EIEA  (from  a  former  name,  Herb  St.  Barbara),  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cruciferce.  It  has  a  terete 
H-edged  pod,  the  valves  convex,  with  a  prominent  longitudinal  nerve  ; 
the  stigma  capitate,  the  seeds  in  a  single  row.  Barharea  belongs  to 
the  first  sub-order  of  CrudfercRj  SiliquoacBf  which  possess  a  linear  or 
linear-lanceolate  pod  opening  by  two  valves.  The  species  of  Barbarea 
are  perennial  herbs,  with  fibrous  roots  and  erect  stems.  The  flowers 
are  yellow,  arranged  in  racemes ;  the  pedicles  without  bracts. 

B.  mUgariif  Common  Yellow  Bocket,  Common  Winter  Cress,  Herb 
Stw  Barbara,  has  the  lower  leaves  lyrate,  upper  pair  of  lobes  as  broad 
as  the  lai^  roundish  subcordate  terminal  lobe,  the  uppermost  leaf 
undivided,  toothed;  young  pods  obliquely  erect;  seeds  scarcely  longer 
than  broad.  It  is  a  native,  in  damp  moist  places,  of  Qreat  Britain, 
and  throughout  Europe ;  also  of  North  America.  This  plant  has  a 
bitter  nauseous  taste,  and  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  a  spring  salad. 
In  Sweden  the  leaves  are  boiled  and  eaten.  It  is  often  cultivated  in 
gardens,  especially  a  double  variety,  which  forms  a  handsome  border- 
plantw 

B.  pnjBcox,  Early  Winter  Cress,  has  the  lower  leaves  lyrate,  upper 
pair  of  lobes  as  broad  as  the  roundish  subcordate  terminal  lobe,  upper- 
most leaf  pinnatifid,  with  linear  oblong  entire  lobes.  It  is  a  native  of 
France  and  Great  I^tain ;  abundant  in  North  America.  It  is  called 
in  Germany  Amerikanischer  Kraut ;  in  French,  Cresson  d' Am^que ; 
in  England,  American  Cress,  Black  American  Cress,  French  Cress,  and 
Belle-Isle  Cress.  It  is  used  as  a  salad,  and  is  more  bitter  than  the 
common  Water-Cress.  It  can  be  raised  for  eating  all  the  year  round. 
In  cultivating,  it  should  be  grown  from  seeds,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce 
of  wiiich  will  serve  for  sowing  10  feet  of  drilL 

B.  arauUa  and  B,  atricta  are  two  species  described  by  Babington, 
and  lately  added  to  the  British  Flora.  A  few  others  are  found  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe  and  America.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Double  Tellow  Rocket,  none  of  the  species  are  worth  cultivating  as 
ornamental.  This  plant  may  be  propagated  by  cuttings^  suckers,  or 
dividing  the  plants  at  the  root. 

(Don,  0€uraenei^§  Dictionary  ;  Babington,  ManwiL) 

BARBEL  {B<»rbut,  Cuvier),  a  genus  of  Abdominal  Malacopterygious 
Fishes,  belonging  to  the  Carp  Family  (Cpprinidaf),  and  distinguished 
by  the  shortness  of  their  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  by  a  strong  spine,  which 
replaces  the  second  or  third  ray  of  the  dorsal,  by  four  betsuxls  or  fleshy 
tentacnla,  which  grow  from  the  lipe,  two  at  the  nose,  and  the  other 
two  at  the  comers  of  the  mouth,  and  by  having  but  three  branchios- 
tegous  rays.  Like  the  great  minority  of  the  abdominal  soft-finned 
fidbes,  the  Blvbels  are  a  freshwater  genus,  and  certainly  among  the 
least  carnivorous  of  the  whole  class.  They  feed  almost  entirely  upon 
aquatic  plants  and  roots,  to  obtain  which  they  bore  into  the  bulks  of 
the  ponds  and  rivers  in  which  they  reside,  using  their  snout  for  that 
purpose  like  a  hog. 

Barbu$  vutgarii,  the  Common  Barbel,  sometimes  measures  S  feet  in 
length,  andweig^firom  15  to  18  pounds.  The  section  of  its  body 
forms  an  elongated  ellipse ;  its  scales  are  small,  its  head  smooth,  its 
eyes  lai^e  and  contiguous  to  the  nostrils,  apd  the  lateral  line  straight 
and  nearly  parallel  to  the  back.  Its  pectoral  fins  are  of  a  pale  brown 
colour,  its  ventral  and  anal  tipped  with  yellow ;  the  tail  is  slightly 
bifurcated,  and  of  a  deep  purple,  and  the  general  colour  of  the  scales 
is  pale  gold,  edged  with  black  on  the  back  and  sidee^  and  silvery-white 
on  the  belly.  The  dorsal  fin  is  armed  with  a  strong  serrated  spine, 
with  which  it  scmietimes  inflicts  dangerous  wounds  on  the  hands  of 
the  fishermen,  and  does  considerable  damage  to  their  nets.  The  barbel 
is  found  only  in  deep  and  still  ponds,  and  ia  sluggish  rivers  which  have 
little  or  no  current  In  the  hot  sununer  months  the  barbels  abandon 
for  a  time  the  deep  pools  and  ponds  which  had  protected  them  from 
the  severe  winter  frosts,  and  make  excursions  into  the  shallower  parts 
of  th<)  stream  in  search  of  food.    Their  habits  are  noctiunal,  and  they 

MAX.  BIBZ.  DIY.  YOU  L 


are  fond  of  the  society  of  their  own  species,  being  generally  found 
together  in  large  companies.  Their  fiesh  is  extremely  coarse  and 
unsavoury,  and  their  roe  in  particular  is  said  to  produce  vomiting. 


Common  Barbel  {Barhu$  wigarit), 

purging,  and  slight  swellings  in  those  who  incautiously  eat  it.  The 
barbel  is  a  very  common  fish  in. the  Thames,  where  it  is  tsken  rather 
on  account  of  the  sport  for  the  angler  than  the  goodness  of  the  fish. 

The  Binny,  or  Barbel  of  the  Nile,  \&  so  like  the  Common  Barbel  of 
our  European  rivers,  that  it  might  readily  be  mistaken  at  first  sight 
for  that  fish ;  but  a  little  observation  will  show  that  it  Lb  proportionfdly 
shorter  and  thicker,  its  back  more  arched,  and  it  is  particularly  distin- 
guished by  having  the  first  three  rays  of  the  dorsal  fin  so  closely  united 
as  to  have  the  appearance  of  almost  forming  but  one  single  spine. 
The  Binny  is  very  common  in  the  Nile ;  it  grows  to  a  large  size,  some- 
times weighing,  according  to  Bruce's  statement,  upwards  of  70  pounds, 
and  is  described  as  being  a  firm,  delicate,  and  well-flavoured  flsh.  The 
traveller  just  mentioned  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  methods 
which  the  Egyptians  employ  for  the  capture  of  the  Bmny,  and  for 
preserving  it  alive  tilT  they  require  to  dress  it,  or  have  an  opportunity 
of  disposing  of  it  Having  kneaded  together  a  quantity  of  oil,  day, 
flour,  and  honey,  with  some  chopped  straw  or  other  similar  material 
to  unite  the  d^erent  parts  of  the  composition,  the  whole  is  formed 
into  a  mass,  in  size  and  appearance  resembling  a  Cheshire  cheese, 
round  the  sides  of  which,  in  different  parts,  are  stuck  small  pieces 
of  dates  saturated  in  honey.  Seven  or  eight  stout  hooks,  each 
having  a  separate  line  of  strong  whip-cord,  and  baited  with  a  date 
steeped  in  honey,  are  concealed  in  the  centre  of  the  cake.  The  fisher- 
man then,  bestriding  his  inflated  goatskin,  paddles  himself  and  hii 
burden  out  into  the  middle  and  deepest  part  of  the  stream,  where, 
having  sunk  the  whole  mass,  he  carries  the  cords  attached  to  the  hooks 
on  shore,  and  fastens  each  of  them  separately  to  the  branch  of  a  paJm 
stuck  finnly  into  the  ground,  and  having  a  small  bell  suspended  from 
the  top  of  it  He  then  goes  off  about  his  work,  which,  upon  such 
occasions,  is  always  contiguous  to  the  river,  and  within  hearing  of  t&e 
bells.  In  a  short  time  the  action  of  the  water  begins  to  dissolve  the 
mass  of  paste  at  the  bottom  of  the  river,  and  the  small  pieces  of  dates 
getting  detached  from  it  float  down  the  river,  and  are  greedily  caught 
and  devoured  by  the  Binnies.  These  naturally  ascend  the  stream  in 
the  direction  from  which  they  perceive  their  favourite  food  to  proceed, 
and  having  arrived  at  the  mass  of  composition,  begin,  as  is  their 
custom,  to  root  and  bore  into  it,  till  they  at  length  arrive  at  the  dates 
inside,  which  they  ravenously  swallow,  and  are  of  course  caught  by 
the  hook  concealed  within.  In  its  struggles  to  escape  the  Esh  neces- 
sarily pulls  the  line  and  the  palm  branch  to  which  it  is  made  fast  on 
shore,  when  the  ringing  of  the  bell  gives  notice  to  the  fisherman. 

"  The  fisherman,"  says  Bruce,  **  runs  immediately  to  the  bell,  and 
finding  thereby  the  particular  line,  hauls  his  prisoner  in«  but  does  not 
kill  him  :  the  hook  being  large,  it  generally  catches  him  by  the  upper 
jaw,  which  is  considerably  longer  l£an  the  under.  He  then  pulls  nim 
out  of  the  water,  and  puts  a  strong  iron  ring  through  his  jaw,  ties  a 
few  yards  of  cord  to  it,  and  returning  the  fish  to  the  river,  fastens  him 
to  the  shore  :  so  he  does  with  the  rest,  for  very  rarely  is  there  a  single 
hook  empty.  Those  who  want  fish  at  Gii*g^,  a  large  town  opposite, 
or  at  Achmim  itself,  come  thither  as  to  a  fish-market,  and  every  man 
takes  the  quantity  he  wants,  buying  them  alive.  Fish  when  dead  do 
not  keep  in  Egypt,  which  makes  tiiat  precaution  necessary.  We 
bought  two,  which  fully  dined  our  whole  boat's  crew ;  the  fisherman 
had  10  or  12  of  them  fastened  to  the  shore,  all  of  which  he  pulled  out 
and  showed  us." 

BARBERRY.    [Berbbbis.] 

BARBERRY-BLIGHT.    [iciDiUM.] 

BARBETS,  the  English  name  for  a  family  of  birds  of  the  order 
Scantorea,  or  Climbers ;  Les  Barbus  of  the  French,  and  the  genus  Bucco 
of  Brisson  and  LinnsBus.  They  are  distinguidied  by  their  large  oom<»l 
beak,  which  appears  swollen,  as  it  were,  or  puffed  out  at  the  sides  of 
its  base,  and  is  bearded  (whence  their  name)  with  five  tufts  Of  stifif 
bristles  directed  forwards.  One  of  these  tufts  is  behind  each  nostril, 
one  on  either  side  of  the  lower  mandible,  and  the  fifth  is  under  tiie 
symphysis. 

Their  short  wings  and  heavy  proportions  do  not  admit  of  swift 
flight ;  and  their  prey  consLsts  of  insects  and  young  birds,  which  they 
surprise,  and  also  of  fhiits.    Their  nests  are  generally  built  in  the 

20 


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BARBETa 


The  Barbets  are  divided  into  the  three  following 


holes  of  trees, 
sub-genera : 

Sub-genoB  Pogonitu, 
Poganiat  (lUiger)  is  fdmiBhed  with  one  or  two  strong  teeth  on  each 
side  of  the  npper  mandible,  and  the  beard  is  veiy  strong.  Africa  and 
the  Indies  are  the  places  where  they  are  found,  according  to  Cuvier, 
who  says  tiiat  the  species  of  this  sub-genus  feed  more  on  fruits  than 
any  of  the  others.  Pogonias  hirautiu  (Swainson),  an  African  species, 
is  a  good  example. 


BARCKHAUSIA. 


S8I 


Puff-Birds,  as  they  are  called,  give  them,  as  CuTier  obeerrss,  an  air  of 
stupidity,  which  their  melancholy  and  solitary  habits  do  not  losaeD. 
They  are  said  to  feed  entirely  on  insects,  and  all  the  recorded  spedes 
are  American.  In  Paraguay,  according  to  Azara,  they  are  ajled 
Chacurus.    Temminck  affixes  the  name  C<tpUo  to  this  sub-genua. 

TanuUia  macrorhynchot  (Swainson),  which  that  author  obtuned  from 
southern  Brazil,  and  which  he  is  disposed  to  consider  a  yariety  of  the 


Pogcniaa  hirstttus. 

Sub-genus  Bucco, 
Bueeo  (CuTier),  Ctvpiio  (Yieillot),  embraces  the  true  Barbets,  which 
hare  the  conical  bill  slightly  compressed  and  a  little  elevated  in  the 
middle.  Their  plumage  is,  generally  speaking,  gay ;  and  they  are  to 
be  found  both  in  Africa  and  Asia.  During  the  breeding  season  they 
go  in  pairs,  but  congregate  in  small  flocks  during  the  remainder  of 
the  year.  The  Buff-Faced  Barbet  (Bucco  Lathamt}  affords  an  example 
of  the  true  Barbets. 


Boff-Fsoed  Barbet  {Buoeo  Lathami), 

Tffctnhfrm  refers  to  a  specimen  in  the  British  Museomi  and  says  that 
its  native  place  is  uncertain. 

Sub-gentw  TamaHa, 

Tamaiia  (Cuvier),  the  name  by  which  one  of  these  birds  is  known 

in  Brazil  according  to  Harcgrave,  comprises  those  spedes  which  have 

the  bill  a  little  more  elongated  and  compressed,  and  slightly  curved 

at  the  extremity.    The  great  head,  short  tail,  and  large  Dill  of  these 


Tamatia  mOtirmrhynchot. 

greater  Pied  Barbet  of  Latham,  will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  chaneter 
of  these  birds. 

Swainson  gives  the  following  interesting  account  of  their  habits  :— 
''  There  is  something  very  grotesque  in  the  appearance  of  all  the  Puff- 
Birds,  and  their  habits  in  a  state  of  nature  are  no  less  singular.  Thej 
frequent  open  cultivated  spots  near  habitations,  always  perching  on 
the  withered  branches  of  a  low  tree,  where  they  will  sit  nearly  motioD- 
less  for  hours,  unless  indeed  they  descry  some  luckless  insect  psBsiog 
near  them,  at  which  they  immediately  dart,  returning  again  to  the 
identical  twig  they  had  just  left,  and  which  they  will  sometimes 
frequent  for  months.  At  such  times  the  disproportionate  size  of  the 
head  is  rendered  more  conspicuous  by  the  bird  raising  its  feathers  so 
as  to  appear  not  unlike  a  puff-ball ;  hence  the  general  name  they  have 
receiv^  from  the  English  residents  in  Brazil,  of  which  vast  county 
all  the  species,  I  believe,  are  natives.  When  frightened,  this  form  is 
suddenly  changed  by  the  feathers  lyixig  quite  flat  They  are  very 
confiding,  and  will  often  take  their  station  within  a  few  yurds  of  the 
window.  The  two  sexes  are  generally  near  each  other,  and  often  on 
the  same  tree." 

The  length  of  this  species  is  about  eight  inches.  Plumage  black 
and  white,  except  the  belly  and  vent,  which  are  tinged  with  bu£ 

BARBUS.    [Babbbl.] 

BARCKHAUSIA,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Componta,  the  tribe  Cichoracete,  and  the  sub-tribe 
Lactucece,  It  has  many -flowered  heads,  a  double  involucre,  the  inner 
of  one  row,  the  outer  of  short  lax  scales ;  the  fruits  4-comered,  all  (or 
the  inner  ones  only)  gradually  contracted  into  a  long  beak.  This 
genus  has  several  European  species,  two  of  which  only  are  natives  of 
Great  Britain.  The  flowers  are  yellow  or  pale  purple.  Some  of  the 
species  are  cultivated  in  gardens,  where  they  form  a  pretty  and  easily 
cultivable  border-plant.     The  British  species  are — B,  taraxadfolia, 


with  rough  runcinate-pinnatifld  leaves,  erect  heads,  bristly  and  downy 
involucre  covering  half  the  pappus,  its  outer  scales  ovate-lanceolate 
with  a  membranous  margin,  herbaceous  bracts,  the  fruits  sll  equally 
beaked.  B,  falida,  with  hairy  runcinate-pinnatifid  leaves,  nodding 
unopened  heads,  hairy  and  downy  involucre  as  long  as  the  pappus,  its 
outer  scales  lanceolate,  acute,  downy;  the  margmal  fruits  slightly 
beaked,  shorter  than  the  involucre,  central  ones  with  long  beaks 
equalling  it.  The  first  species  has  a  stem  one  or  two  feet  high,  yellow 
flowers,  purple  beneath,  and  is  found  in  limestone  districta  The 
second  has  a  stem  from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  height,  with  yellow 
flowera    It  grows  in  chalky  places  in  England,  but  is  a  rare  plant 

B,  idOiOt  a  German  species,  has  been  lately  found  in  several  du- 
tricts  of  Great  Britain,  but  it  appears  most  probable  that  this  specie* 


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BARIDinS. 


BABK. 


MO 


has  been  introduced  by  means  of  clover  and  other  seeds  used  for 
agricultund  purposes. 

(Koch,  Flora  Oermanica;  Babington,  Manual  of  Briltsh  Botany  ; 
Phytoloffittf  Tol  L) 

BARI DIUS,  a  genus  of  Insects  of  the  order  CoUoptera  and  family 
Ourculionid(B,  These  are  cylindrical  little  beetles  which  feed  upon 
aquatic  plants.  They  are  generally  of  a  black  colour,  and  more  or 
leas  covered  with  a  whitish  down. 

BAKIS,  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  order  CoUoptera 
snd  fiunily  OurculionicUB.  The  epecies  of  this  genus  feed  upon  the 
dead  parts  of  trees.  One  of  the  species,  Bari$  lignariut,  feeds  upon 
the  ehn  tree,  both  in  the  larva  state  and  that  of  the  perfect  insect. 
When  the  little  beetle  is  about  to  lay  its  eggs  it  genendly  selects  the 
interior  of  a  hollow  tree  for  that  purpose,  and  bores  a  hole  with  its 
short  snout  in  the  dead  wood  where  it  is  still  tolerably  sound ;  this 
being  accomplished  it  enters  the  hole,  hinder  part  firsts  deposits  its 
eggs,  and  dies :  the  hole  being  only  just  the  size  of  its  cylindrical  body, 
it  thus  forms  a  protection  for  its  young  by  stopping  the  hole  so  that 
no  other  insect  can  enter.  It  is  not  Imown  that  it  ever  attacks  any 
other  wood  but  that  part  where  the  sap  hss  ceased  to  flow,  and  conse- 
quently the  tree  can  receive  no  injury  from  this  little  weeviL 

BARI'TA,  the  name  given  by  Cuvier  to  a  genus  of  Birds  which  he 
places  among  the  Shrikes,  but  which  Vigors  considers  to  belong  to  the 
family  of  Crows. 

The  following  are  the  characters  of  Barita : — Bill  hard,  long,  and 
strong,  convex  above,  slightly  hooked  at  the  extremity,  near  which 
both  mandibles  are  notdied ;  nostrils  lateral,  and  longitudinal  near 
the  base ;  legs  stout ;  outer  toe  joined  to  the  middle  one  as  far  as  the 
first  joint ;  inner  toe  entirely  free ;  hind  toe  elongated ;  claws  strong 
and  curved. 

Barita  Tibieeny  the  Piping  Crow,  common  in  New  South  Wales, 
where  Quoy  and  Qaimard,  the  able  naturalists  attached  to  Freycinet's 
Expedition,  saw  numbers  of  them  on  the  Blue  Mountains,  living  gre- 
gariously in  small  troops,  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  genus. 


ripiug  Crow  {Burita  Tiliccu). 

The  bird  brought  home  by  Freydnet  reached  France  alive,  and  by 
its  good-natured  and  amusing  manners  became  a  great  favourite  while 
on  ship-board.  It  was  a  skmul  mimic,  and  clucked  and  cackled  like 
a  hen  ;  but  its  imitation  of  a  young  cook  was  complete.  It  had  been 
trained  to  whistle  airs  at  Port  Jackson,  and  some  of  these  it  appeared 
to  forget,  but  recollected  them  on  being  prompted. 

BABE^  in  Vegetable  Physiology,  is  the  external  coating  of  the  stem 
and  branches  of  plants,  ensheathing  the  wood.  In  woody  Exogent  it 
separates  spontaneously  from  the  wood  in  spring  and  summer,  and  in 
herbaceous  plants  of  the  same  dass  it  may  be  easily  removed  with  a 
little  care ;  but  in  Endogetu  and  Acrogent  it  is  so  continuous  with  the 
central  put  of  the  stem  tiiat  it  can  never  be  divided  except  hj 
violence,  and  by  lacerating  the  tissue  which  lies  immediately  below 
it.  This  difference  arises  from  the  manner  in  which  the  plants  of 
these  three  great  natural  classes  respectively  grow.  Exogens  add 
annually  new  matter  to  the  inside  of  their  bark  and  the  outside  of 
their  wood,  which  renders  it  necessary  that  a  spontaneous  separation 
of  wood  and  bark  should  take  place  in  order  to  make  room  for  the 
newly-generated  substance ;  but  Endogens,  which  grow  by  addition  to 
their  centre^,  and  Acrogens,  by  elongation  of  their  point,  require  no 
saoh  separation.    [Exoojnrs ;  Endooeks  ;  Aobooens.] 

BaA  may  be  ooosidered  to  originate  thus : — Whem  a  plant  \a  in  the 


state  of  embryo,  that  part  which  finally  develops  into  a  stem  and 
root>  or,  as  botanists  say,  into  the  axis  of  growtii,  is  something  like 
two  cones  applied  to  each  other  by  their  bases,  but  it  will  simplify 
our  ideas  if  we  consider  it  as  a  cylinder.  In  a  dormant  state  it  con- 
sists of  nothing  but  cellular  substance ;  but  in  Exogens,  as  soon  as  the 
cotyledons,  or  seed-leaves,  are  roused  into  growth,  woody  matter  is 
generated  in  the  form  of  a  number  of  little  bundles,  which  are 
arranged  in  a  circle  (a  a)  about,  half 
way  from  the  centre  to  the  circum- 
ference, thus  forming  a  sort  of  hollow 
cylinder  within  the  first.  The  cylinder 
so  commenced  cuts  off  the  cellular  sub- 
stance into  two  parts :  one  central  (&), 
which  finally  becomes  pith,  and  the  | 
other  external  (c),  which  becomes  bark ; 
the  two  maintaining  their  connection  ^ 
by  means  of  the  passsges  {d  d)  between 
the  woody  bundles  (a  a).  These  pas- 
sages ultimately  become  the  medullary 
processes.  The  direction  thus  given  in 
the  beginning  to  the  several  parts  in  the 
interior  of  an  exogenous  stem  is  never  afterwards  departed  from,  bat 
all  the  additions  which  are  subsequently  made  are  moulded,  as  it 
were,  upon  this  original  form.  The  woody  bundles  (a  a)  increase  in 
size  by  growing  outwards,  and  consequently  the  medullary  processes 
are  extended ;  the  bark  continues  to  grow  and  give  way  to  the  pressure 
of  the  wood  from  within,  till  at  last  a  yearns  increase  has  been  accom- 
plished. Up  to  this  time  no  separation  between  the  wood  and  the 
txirk  has  taken  place ;  but  in  a  second  year,  as  it  is  necessaxr  for  the 
new'  matter  to  be  added  to  the  outside  of  the  wood  and  to  uie  iaside 
of  the  bark  (at  d  d),  a  spontaneous  separation  of  the  two  takes  place 
over  the  whole  surface  of  the  wood,  Ihe  medullary  processes  softening, 
stretching,  and  growing  externally,  in  order  to  admit  of  such  a  sepa- 
ration. But  Endogens  and  Acrogens  always  retain  their  bark  in  the 
same  connection  with  the  wood  as  it  is  in  Exogens  at  the  end  of  the 
first  year,  there  being  no  necessity  for  a  separation  between  the  two 
in  order  to  admit  of  subsequent  growth. 

In  its  anatomical  structure  bark  consists  of  a  mass  of  cellular  tissue 
pierced  longitudinally  by  woody  matter,  which  is  composed  entirely  of 
woody  tubw  without  any  trace  of  vessels,  but  which  is  sometimes 
accompanied  by  long  fistular  cavities,  in  which  resinous,  or  milky,  or 
juicy,  or  other  secretions  are  lodged. 

In  the  first  year  of  its  existence  bark  is  a  cylinder,  the  woody 
matter  of  which  is  a  continuation  of  that  of  Ihe  wood  itself.  In 
Endogens  and  Acrogens  it  undexgoes  no  material  increase  or  alteration 
subsequently,  unless  it  be  that  the  parts  are  increased  in  quantity 
without  shifting  their  position.  But  in  Exogens,  in  consequence  of 
their  wood  being  annually  augmented  by  external  additions,  as  before 
stated,  the  bark  undergoes  annual  changes.  Corresponding  with  the 
annual  additions  to  the  wood  are  annual  addilions  to  the  inside  of  the 
bark,  consisting  of  a  cellular  layer  overspreading  the  whole  of  the 
inside,  and  then  a  layer  of  woody  matter,  which  answers  to  the  spaces 
of  wood-  included  between  the  medullary  processes.  These  aimuai 
additions,  which  are  called  the  liber  (whence  books  which  were  written 
upon  such  layers,  properly  prepared,  were  called  libri),  must  therefore 
be  exactly  the  same  in  number  as  the  annual  layers  of  wood,  and 
would  be  arranged  with  equal  regularity  if  the  bark  were  not  affected 
by  any  disturbing  cause.  But  in  consequence  of  the  wood's  perpetual 
increase  in  diameter  there  is  an  incessant  lateral  strain  upon  the 
liber,  so  that  after  the  first  year  there  is  little  trace  of  regularity  to  be 
discovered  in  the  structure  of  the  bark.  It  soon  becomes  a  mere 
confused  mass  of  woody  tubes  and  cellular  tissue,  in  which  all  trace 
of  annual  concentric  formation  has  disappeared.  The  manner  in 
which  it  was  originally  generated  is  however  said  to  be  detected  in 
some  plants  by  the  facility  with  which  the  bark  will  peel  into^  layer 
after  layer ;  but  it  mav  be  doubted  whether  this  phenomenon  is  not 
more  connected  with  the  original  arrangement  of  the  tissue  of  which 
the  bark  is  composed  than  with  the  annual  formations.  These  layers 
are  sometimes  so  numerous  that  as  many  as  150  have  been  separated 
on  a  single  tree. 

When  the  bark  of  an  Exogenous  tree  is  examined,  it  will  be  found 
to  consist  of  four  parts  or  layers,  which  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  can 
bo  made  out  in  every  tree.  These  layers  have  been  technically  called 
the  Bpidermit,  the  Epiphknm,  the  Mesophknm,  and  the  Endophlceum, 
The  Epidermis  is  but  a  continuation  of  that  layer  of  condensed 
cellular  tissue  which  is  found  on  the  external  surface  of  every  part  or 
oi^gan  of  the  plant.  It  varies  in  thickness  as  well  as  compactness  in 
almost  every  tree.  It  is  frequently  split  up  by  the  growth  of  the 
layers  which  lie  beneath  it,  and  with  the  next  layer  is  separated  fh>m 
the  stem  in  large  pieces,  as  is  the  case  in  the  common  Birch  {Beiula 
alba).  Like  the  epidermis  on  the  leaves,  it  possesses  stomates,  which 
in  the  case  of  plants,  as  the  Cactacea,  seem  to  possess  the  power  of 
performing  the  functions  of  the  same  organs  on  the  lea£  The  em- 
dermis  is  variously  coloured  as  well  as  affected  by  the  colour  of  the 
layer  immediately  beneath  it 

The  Epiphlanim  is  the  outermost  layer  of  bark ;  it  is  composed  of 
cellular  tissue,  and  when  cut  through  presents  imder  the  microscope 
a  tabular  appearance  indicative  of  pressure  above  and  below.    This 


Digitized  by 


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{991 


BARLEKUl 


BASALT. 


-layer  is  very  Tariable  in  its  development  SometimeB  it  grows  to  a 
very  remarkable  extent^  as  is  seen  in  the  Cork  Oak  {Quercua  Suher), 
in  which  the  layer  of  the  bark  used  for  making  corkB,  k4i»,  is  the 
endophlsenm.  On  this  account  it  has  been  called  the  Suberous  Layer. 
It  occurs  in  other  plants  besidee  the  Querctu  Svher,  and  constitutes  a 
very  pretty  variety  of  the  conmion  elm,  in  which,  in  consequence  of 
the  growth  of  the  suberous  layer,  the  stem  becomes  quite  altered  in 
ohanioter. 

The  MtiopKLoeum  lies  immediately  beneath  the  epiphlaeum ;  it  con- 
sists of  a  layer  of  polyhedral  cellular  tissue,  and  in  the  cells  of  which 
it  is  composed  the  colouring  matter  of  the  bark  is  deposited.  It  is  in 
these  cells  that  chlorophyle  is  deposited  in  the  stems  of  most  young 
plants,  which  give  to  them  their  green  and  fresh  wpearance.  Even  when 
the  epidezmis  has  assimied  another  colour  the  epiphlaeum  often  appears 
quite  green,  as  is  the  case  in  tiie  common  Klder  (Samhucua  nigra). 

The  mesophlseum,  with  the  epiphlaeum  above  it,  is  often  split  bv 
the  growth  of  the  endophlaeum  beneath,  giving  to  trees  the  rough 
bh)ken  surface  which  they  often  present  The  mesophlaeum  and 
epiphlsBum  are  occasionally  thrown  off  from  the  same  cause  as  the  epi- 
dermis. The  under  layers  grow  rapidly,  and  the  union  between  them 
and  the  upper  layers  being  maintained  by  no  oxganic  matter,  the  latter 
.is  thrown  oft  This  takes  place  in  the  Plane  (PZotaniu),  in  which  large 
masses  of  the  epiphlaeum  are  constantly  flaking  off  New  cellular  layers 
in  this  case  are  formed  below,  and  it  is  supposed  that  this  process  ex- 
plains the  reason  of  the  tolerance  which  the  planes  exhibit  of  a  London 
atmosphere.  In  other  trees  the  function  of  the  bark  is  interfered  with 
by  the  nartides  of  carbon  and  perhaps  gases  affecting  the  function  of 
the  barx,  whUst  the  plane,  constantly  renewing  the  outer  layers  of 
its  bark,  is  not  liable  to  this  interruption.  Whether  this  explanation 
be  the  true  one  or  not  ^^  ^  certainly  very  remarkable,  tliat  of  all  trees 
the  plane  flourishes  beet  in  the  squares  of  the  metropolis. 

The  Endophlcewnt  or  Liber,  is  we  inner  layer  of  the  bark,  and  con- 
sists of  woody  fibre  as  well  as  cells,  that  is,  of  vascular  as  well  as 
cellular  tissue.  The  vascular  tissue  grows  here  in  the  form  of  bundles, 
as  it  does  in  the  wood  itsell  Its  fibrous  character  is  made  manifest 
during  the  growth  of  many  trees.  In  the  vine  it  is  thrown  off  with 
the  layers  above  it  by  the  growth  of  the  wood  underneath.  In  the 
Lace-Bark  Tree  (Lagetta  Lintearia),  the  growth  of  the  wood  beneath 
the  bark  causes  such  an  arrangement  of  the  fibres  that  they  are  separated 
from  one  another,  but  making  junctions  where  they  cross,  they  form 
a  natural  kind  of  net-work,  which  has  been  employed  as  a  substitute 
for  artificial  net-work  in  the  construction  of  ornamental  clothing. 
The  liber  of  the  bark  of  plants  is  much  less  dense  than  the  wood ; 
hence,  where  pliable  matenals  are  required,  it  is  often  made  use  of,  as 
in  the  construction  of  mats  from  the  bark  of  a  species  of  7\2ta,  and  the 
use  of  the  bark  of  various  trees  in  different  parts  of  the  world  as  a 
substitute  for  cordage. 

The  bark  is  nouriwed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  wood  of  the  tree, 
by  sap  carried  into  the  stem  from  the  roots  below.  The  cellular  and 
vascular  tissue  of  which  it  is  composed,  as  long  as  they  live,  are 
capable  of  producing  new  cells,  by  which  a  new  and  increasing  growth 
is  ever  supplied. 

(Schleiden,  PrineipUa  of  Scientific  Botany;  Lindley,  Introduction  to 
Botany;  Balfour,  Manual  of  Botany,) 

BARLEHIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
AeanthaeetBf  and  characterised  by  the  spiny  processes  of  its  bracts, 
the  laige  size  of  the  upper  and  lower  sepals,  and  its  funnel-shaped 
corolla,  which  is  often  so  twisted  that  tiie  upper  segment  becomes 
lowest  The  species  are  natives  of  various  parts  of  tiie  East  Indies. 
A  few  of  them  nave  been  introduced  to  our  gardens,  of  which  Barleria 
lupviina,  with  its  large  bracts  resembling  hops,  and  B.  Prionitis,  a  com- 
mon swamp-plant  in  Java,  are  the  most  remarkable.  They  all  require 
to  be  cultivated  in  a  hot-house,  and  are  propagated  readily  by  cuttinxs. 

BARLEY.    [HoRDEUM.] 

BABOLITE,  ai^onym  of  Witherite,  the  native  carbonate  of  Baiytes. 
[Babttes.] 

BAHOmETZ,  a  singular  vegetable  production,  of  which,  under  the 
name  of  Scythian  Lamb,  many  fabulous  stories  are  told.  It  was  said, 
among  other  things,  to  be  part  animal,  part  v^etable,  and  to  have  the 
power  of  devouring  all  other  plants  in  its  vicinity.  It  is  in  reality 
nothing  but  the  prostrate  hairy  stem  of  a  fern  called  Aapidittm  Baro- 
mettf  which,  from  its  procumbent  position  and  shaggy  appearance, 
looks  something  like  a  crouching  animal,  just  as  the  haizy  tawny  end 
of  the  Trichomanes  CanarienHt  looks  like  a  hare's  foot>  whence  its 
English  name  of  Hare's  Foot  Fern.    [Aspidium.] 

BABREN  FLOWERS,  in  Botany,  are  either  those  which  bear  onlv 
stamens  without  a  pistil,  or  which  have  neither  stamens  nor  pistil 
Flowers  of  the  former  description  are  very  common :  those  of  the 
latter  kind  are  chiefly  found  in  Grasses  and  Sedges,  where  they  oft«i 
consist  of  nothing  more  than  a  deformed  scale. 

BARRIS,  a  name  given  on  the  coast  of  Guinea  to  two  very  different 
animals,  the  Chimpanzee  or  African  Ape  {Pithecui  Troglodytes),  and 
the  Mandrill  (Oynocephalue  Mormon),  a  large  and  formidable  species  of 
baboon.    [Ape;  Baboon;  Chimpanzee.] 

^  BARSO  WITE,  a  mineral  occurring  in  massive  and  in  granular  dis- 
tinct concretions.  Its  colour  is  snow-white ;  fracture  splintery  or 
imperfectly  foliated;  hardness  5*5;  lustre  of  the  compact  varieties 
dull ;  of  the  granular,  feebly  pearly ;  translucent  on  the  edges.    The 


specific  gravity  is  2'740.    It  occurs  at  Barsowakoj,  in  the  Ural  ICoun- 
tains.    It  has  the  following  composition  : — 

Silica 49-08 

Alumina 82*76 

Lime 18*16 

BARTSIA  (in  honour  of  John  Bartsch,  M.D.,  a  friend  of  Linnseug), 
a  genus  of  pUmts  belonging  to  vhe  natural  order  ScrophnlanaeecB.  It 
has  a  bell-snaped  4-fid  calyx,  a  tubular  ringent  corolla,  a  pointed  many- 
seeded  capsule,  the  seeds  compressed  at  the  hilum,  with  winged  ribs 
on  the  back.  There  is  but  one  British  species,  the  B,  alpina,  which 
has  ovate,  opposite,  blimtly-serrate,  slightly-dasping  leaves.  It  is  a 
rare  plant,  and  only  found  in  alpine  pastures.  The  B.  Odontita  of 
Smith's  'English  Flora'  is  now  referred  to  the  genus  BuphratiOjU 
B.  Odontites,  [Euphrasia.]  B.  alpina  is  foimd  in  subalpine  regions 
throughout  Europe. 

B,  maxima  has  a  branched  stem,  opposite  lower  leaves,  altemate 
superior  ones,  oblong,  bluntiy  and  coarsely  toothed;  lower  lip  of 
corolla  longer  than  tiie  upper  one,  seg^nents  of  the  lower  lip  obtaae, 
equal  in  size.  It  is  a  native  of  Candia,  and  attains  a  height  of  one 
and  a  half  or  two  feet.  B,  I^ixago  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  B,  acuminata  is  found  in  America.  B,  viteota  of  Smith  is 
now  Trixago  vieeota.  It  has  opposite  leaves,  the  upper  ones  alternate, 
ovate-lanceolate,  sessile,  acutely  serrate.  The  genus  Trixago  ^en 
from  Bartsia  in  its  seeds  being  slightly  angular,  very  minutely  crenato- 
ribbed,  with  a  basal  hilum.  Babington  and  Koch  both  adopt  the  genu 
Trixago,  but  the  latter  refers  B.  viacosa  of  Smith  to  the  genus  Ev^rana. 

(Don,  Gardener^ M  JHctionary  ;  Koch,  Flora  Qermamca;  Babington, 
ManuaL) 

BARTTES,  or  BARYTA,  the  Oxide  of  Bcurium,  The  Oxide  of 
Barium  is  found  in  the  earth  in  combination  with  adds,  principBlly 
the  sulphuric  and  carbonic. 

Native  Sutpkate  of  Barytes,  known  by  the  name  of  Eea»y  jS^,'also 
ffepcUUe  and  Bologna  Spar,  presents  itself  in  various  forms,  as  cryBtal- 
line,  fibrous,  saocharoid,  compact,  and  earthv.  The  crystals  are  usually 
tabular,  in  modified  rhombic  and  rectangular  prisma.  Its  degree  of 
hardness  is  from  S  to  S*5,  and  the  speofic  gravity  from  4*3  to  4'7. 
Some  varieties  are  fetid  when  rubbed.  It  is  composed  of  sulphuric 
acid  84,  and  barytes  66.  It  decrepitates  before  the  blowpipe,  and 
fuses  with  difficulty.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  heavy  qiedfic  gravity 
from  CeUstine  and  Arragonite,  and  firom  the  various  carbonates  by  not 
effervescing  with  acids,  ffeavy  Spair  is  often  aasodated  with  the  ores 
of  other  metals. 

This  substance  is  much  used  in  the  art&  It  is  ground  up  and  used 
as  white  paint,  and  also  for  adulterating  white  lead.  Mixed  with 
equal  parts  of  white  lead,  it  is  sometimes  called  Venice  White;  and 
another  variety,  witii  twice  its  weight  of  barytes,  is  called  HanUmrgk 
White  ;  and  another,  one-third  white  lead,  is  called  Dutch  White.  The 
barytes  in  these  mixtures  seems  to  prevent  the  white  lead  from  being 
tarnished  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  they  are  therefore  preferred 
for  some  kinds  of  painting.  The  variety  called  Bologna  Spar  le  highly 
phosphorescent  after  calcination.  Allomorphite  is  a  synonym  of 
Heavy  Spar,  Cawk  is  a  massive  variety.  J)reelite  is  a  sulphate  of 
baxytes  and  lime. 

Native  Carbonate  of  Barytee,  Witherite,  BarolUe,  is  remarkable  for  its 
high  specific  gravity,  being  4*8.  It  is  prismatic,  and  occurs  generally 
in  6-sided  prisms,  or  modified  rhombic  prisms,  very  imperfectly 
cleavable.  it  is  also  found  in  globular  botryoidal  slutpeB,  showing  a 
prismatic  structure.  It  is  brittie,  and  decrepitates  before  the  blow- 
pipe, fusing  easily  into  a  transparent  globule,  which  becomes  opaque  on 
cooling.  It  effervesces  with  nitric  add,  and  is  composed  of  baryta, 
77*6,  and  carbonic  acid,  22*4.  It  is  found  chiefly  at  Alston  Moor  in 
Ciunberland,  and  Anglezarke  in  Lancashire,  and  also  in  Styria. 

Witherite  is  a  poisonous  mineral,  and  is  used  for  killing  rats.  It  is 
also  employed  in  pyrotechny  for  TnaUng  the  nitrate  which  gives  a 
yellow  colour,  and  it  is  used  as  a  water-colour.  Baryto-Calcite  and 
Brondite  are  varieties,  the  former  from  Alston  Moor  in  Cumberland, 
the  latter  from  Bromley  HilL  They  consist  of  the  carbonate  of  lime 
and  baryta.  Sulphato-Cas'honate  of  Barytes  is  a  variety  containing  the 
sulphate  of  barytes. 

(Dana,  Manual  of  Mineralogy,) 

BARYTO-CALCITE.    [Babttim.] 

BARTTO-CELESTINE,  a  sulphate  of  Barytes  and  Strontia 
[Stbontia,  see  Surp.] 

BAHYT0-8TR0NTIANITE,a  carbonate  of  Barytes  and  Strontia. 
[Strontia.  see  Sufp.] 

BASALT,  a  hard  dark-coloured  rock  of  igneous  origin.  The 
chemical  composition  is  variable,  as  appears  firom  different  analyses, 
two  of  which,  by  Beudant  and  Phillips^  are  as  follows : — 


Beadant. 

Phillipa. 

BeauUen. 

Dlfferenoe. 

Silica      .                .    59*5 

44-50 

.        15*00 

AliimiTm.     ,          ,     .     11*5 

16*76 

5*25 

Lime      ...      1*8 

9*50 

8-20 

Magnesia    .        .    .      0*0 
Soda       ...      5-9 

2-26 
2*60 

2-25 
8*80 

Potash                .    .      1-6 

0*00 

1*60 

Oxide  of  Iron.        .    20*2 

20-00 

0-20 

Oxide  of  Manganese      0*0 

0-12 

0-12 

Digitized  by  V^:iO( 

)Qle 

m 


BASALT. 


BASALT. 


SM 


True  Uasalt  has  been  regarded  as  composed  of  Augite,  Fekpar,  aud 
oxide  of  iroD  ;  but  this  definition  is  fiur  too  limited  for  either  theoreti- 
cal or  practical  purposes,  unless  the  constituent  minerals  be  considered 
of  variable  chemical  compositions,  as  appears  to  be  the  case.  Since 
Augite  and  Hornblende  may,  from  the  researches  of  Rose,  be  regarded 
as  ^e  same  mineral,  it  follows  that  a  yerv  fine-grained  Greenstone, 
containing  a  considerable  perK^ntage  of  oxide  of  iron,  can,  even  under 
this  definition,  be  considered  a  true  Basalt.  There  can  indeed  be  little 
doubt  that  the  same  igneous  rock  has  been  termed  Greenstone  when 
the  grains  of  Felspar  and  Hornblende  were  sufficiently  distinct,  which, 
when  exceedingly  fine-grained,  has  been  named  Basalt  Basalt  can 
only  be  considered  as  one  variety  of  that  mass  of  melted  rock  which 
has  been  ejected  at  various  periods  from  beneath  the  crust  of  the 
globe,  and  to  which  various  names  have  been  assigned,  according  to 
the  characters  which  circumstances  have  impressed  upon  different 
portions  of  it 

Like  others  of  the  same  class,  Basalt  occasionally  passes  into  many^ 
rocks  which  have  been  in  a  state  of  fusion  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  subsequently  ejected.  Dr.  Hibbert  notices  a  passage  of 
Basalt  into  Granite  in  the  Shetland  Islands.  (Brewster's  '  Edinbuigh 
Journal  of  Science,'  voL  L  p.  107.)  When  however  we  view  the  mass 
of  igneous  rocks  generally,  it  appears  that  Basalts  are  the  products  of 
comparativdy  late  geological  epochs.  We  may  therefore  infer  that 
during  the  earlier  states  of  our  planet,  conditions  were  not  fiivourable 
to  their  production,  or  at  least  to  their  propulsion  to  the  surface ; 
though  probably  some  varieties  of  Hornblende  Rock,  particularly  when 
impregnated  with  much  oxide  of  iron,  do  not  differ  materially  from 
fiasalt  in  their  chemical  contents.  The  mode  of  occurrence  of  these 
rocks  and  of  Basalts  is  however  very  different. 

Basalt  is  a  rock  of  very  extensive  occurrence  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  is  very  frequently  detected  in  the  vicinity  of  volcanoes, 
both  extinct  and  active.  The  greatest  mass  of  Basalt  yet  observed  is 
that  noticed  by  Colonel  Sykes  in  the  Deccan,  constitutinji:  the  surface 
of  many  thousand  square  miles  of  that  part  of  India.  This  immense 
mass  of  Basalt  is  either  massive,  prismatic,  or  globular,  occurs  in  hori- 
zontal beds,  and  is  traversed  by  d^kes  [DtkeJ  of  Basalt,  which  some- 
times cross  each  other.  There  is  no  trace  of  any  crater  in  this 
basaltic  region;  and  indeed  this  is  the  case  with  numerous  other 
districts  of  Basalt,  whence  it  has  been  inferred  that  such  tabular  masses 
have  not  been  ejected  from  a  conical  vent  similar  to  those  of  volcanoes, 
but  that  the  Basalt  of  which  they  are  formed  rose  through  cracks  and 
fissures  while  in  a  highly  liquid  state,  spreading  out  in  sheets  of 
melted  matter  over  the  adjacent  rocks. 

As  Basalt  ]%  frequently  columnar,  it  is  a  rock  which  has  excited 
much  popular  attention,  and 
travellers  have  been  some- 
times induced  to  describe 
rocks  as  basaltic  merely  be- 
cause they  were  colmnnar, 
which  however  is  a  character 
that  this  rock  possesses  in 
common  with  many  others  of 
igneous  origin.  When  Basalt 
occurs  in  horizontal  tabular 
maKses,  and  is  columnar,  the 
columns  are  generally  perpen- 
dicular, as  in  the  annexed 
figure.  When  Basalt  forms 
the  substance  of  a  perpendi- 
cular dyke,  cutting  through 
other  rocks,  and  is  columnar, 
the  columns  are  usually  hori-  „ 
contal,  in  the  manner  repre-  ^ 
Rented  beneath,  a  beiug  the 
basaltic  dyke,  and  &  5  the  rocks 
through  which  the  dyke  passes. 
Basaltic  columns  are  some- 
times also  curved,  and  of  this 
mode  cf  occurrence  there  is  a 
beautiful  example  in  the  island 
ofStaffa. 

When  basaltic  columns  are  jointed,  and  exposed  to  the  dejtructivis 
action  of  breakers  on  a  coast,  they  often  present  the  appearance  of 
■ome  great  rnined 
work  of  art  Such 
deceptive  appear- 
ances are  however 
not  confined  to, 
coasts,  for  in  some 
countries,  and  es- 
pecially in  India, 
masses  of  Basalt 
rise  suddenly  from 
the  plains,  and  the 
broken  columns, 
nhooting  upwards,  may  readily  at  a  distance  be  mistaken  for 
bmkUngB.  When  viewed  from  above,  the  heads  of  a  number  of 
iMsaltic  columns,  it  Tinbroken,  appear  like  a  pavement  composed 


of  numerous  polygonal  pieces  of  stone  fitted  into  each  other,  as  in  the 
following  figure. 

According  to  Mr.  Gregory  Watt  the 
columnar  structure  of  Basalt  is  due  to 
the  pressure  of  numerous  spheres  or 
spheroids  on  each  other  during  the  cool> 
ing  of  the  rock,  such  spheres  or  sphe- 
roids being  produced  in  planes  of  refri- 
geration or  absorption.  This  author  £ 
took  seven  cwts.  of  an  amorphous  Basalt  I 
named  Rowley  Rag,  kept  it  in  fusion 

for  more  than  six  hours,  and  cooled  it  so  gradually  that  eight  days 
elapsed  before  it  was  taken  from  the  fuinace.  The  shape  of  the  mass 
was  uneven,  and  while  the  thinner  portion  was,  in  consequence  of 
more  rapid  cooling,  vitreous,  the  thicker  was  stony,  the  one  state 
passing  into  the  other.  It  was  observed  that  numerous  spheroids  had 
been  formed,  sometimes  two  inches  in  diameter.  They  were  radiated 
with  distinct  fibres,  the  latter  also  forming  concentric  coats  when 
circumstances  were  favourable  to  such  an  arrangement  When  the 
temperature  had  been  sufficiently  continued,  the  centres  of  the 
spheroids  became  compact  before  they  attained  the  diameter  of  half 
an  inch.  When  "  two  spheroids  came  into  contact  no  penetration 
ensued,  but  the  two  bodies  became  mutually  compressed  and  sepa- 
rated by  a  plane,  well  defined,  and  invested  with  a  rusty  colour,"  and 
when  several  met  they  formed  prisms. 

The  following  are  Mr.  Gregory  Watt's  inferences  from  these  facts  :— 
"  In  a  stratum  composed  of  an  indefinite  number  in  superficial  extent^ 
but  only  one  in  height,  of  impenetrable  spheroids,  with  nearly  equi- 
distant centres,  if  their  peripheries  should  come  in  contact  in  the  same 
plane,  it  seems  obvious  that  their  mutual  action  would  form  them  into 
hexagons ;  and  if  these  were  resisted  below,  and  there  vna  no  opposing 
cause  above  them,  it  seems  equally  dear  that  they  would  extend  their 
dimensions  upwards,  and  thus  form  hexagonal  prisms,  whose  length 
might  be  indefinitely  greater  than  their  diameters.  The  farther  the 
extremities  of  the  radii  were  removed  from  the  centre,  the  greater 
would  be  their  approach  to  parallelism ;  and  the  structure  would  bo 
finally  propagated  by  nearly  parallel  fibres,  still  keeping  within  the 
limits  of  the  hexagonal  prism  with  which  their  incipient  formation 
commenced  ;  and  the  prisms  might  thus  shoot  to  an  indefinite  length 
into  the  undisturbed  central  mass  of  the  fiuid,  till  their  structure 
was  deranged  by  the  superior  influence  of  a  counteracting  cause." 
('  Observations  on  Basalt,  &c  ; '  '  PhiL  Trans.,'  1804.) 

According  to  this. theory,  which  is  certainly  the  best  hitherto 
framed  to  account  for  the  colunmar  structure  of  Basalt,  the  irregu- 
larity of  the   prisms  would 
obviously  depend  upon  the  un- 
equal distances  of  the  centres 
^      " '  of  the  spheroids,  and  the  con- 

sequent unequal  pressure ;  and 
it  is  further  inferred  that  the 
joints   sometimes   observable 
in  basaltic  columns  correspond 
with    the    concentric    coats 
noticed  above.     Two  of  the 
most  beautiful   examples    of 
columnar  Basalt  hitherto  dis- 
covered are  found  in  the  British 
l8land8,oneformingthe  Giant's 
Causeway,  on  the  north  coast 
of   Ireland,    and   the    other 
at  Stafia,  among  the  Hebrides. 
The  largest  columns  yet  ob- 
served are  found  at  Fairhead 
at  the  former  place,  where, 
according    to    the    accurate 
measurement  of  some  by  the 
Ordnance  Trigonometrical  Sur- 
vey of  Ireland,  they  are  817 
feet  in  height^  the  sides  of 
these  enormous  prisms  occa- 
sionally measuring  5  feet 
Some  non-colimmar  Basalts  present  no  trace  of  any  particular 
arrangement  of  parts,  while  othera  show  a  globular  structure,  so  that 
when  the  rock  becomes  more  decomposed  it  has  the  appearance  of 
numerous  bomb^ells  and  cannon-baUs  cemented  together  by  a  ferru- 
ginous substance.    This  globular  structure  is  sometimes  also  apparent 
when  the  decomposition  of  the  rock  has  not  been  considerable,  being 
well  exhibited  in  the  concentric  arrangement  of  coats  of  Basalt  round 
centres  at  variable  distances  from  each  other. 

Other  Basalts  are  amygdaloidal,  containing  a  varietv  of  substances, 
such  as  Agates,  Onyxes,  and  other  minerals,  which  nave  been  infil- 
trated into  cavities  formed  by  bubbles  of  gas  or  vapour  while  the  rock 
was  in  a  state  of  fusion.  As  these  bubbles  have  sometimes  been 
lengthened  by  the  flow  of  the  rock  before  it  finally  cooled,  the  infil- 
trated contents  filling  such  lengthened  cavities  have  the  appearance  of 
almonds  sticking  in  the  mass  of  the  rock,  whence  the  name  amygda- 
loid. When,  as  sometimes  occurs,  a  great  tabular  mass  of  Basalt  is 
composed  of  superimposed  beds,  some  columnar,  some  amorphous, 


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BASANITR 


BASSIA. 


•ad  others  amygdaloidal,  these  characters  are  sufficient  to  authorise  a 
ooDclusion  that  the  whole  mass  has  not  heen  produced  at  one  upburst 
of  Basalt^  but  that  there  were  several  flows  of  melted  matter  to  which 
different  conditions  gave  different  characters ;  the  amygdaloidal  struc- 
ture particularly  pointing  to  the  absence  of  very  considerable  pressure 
upon  the  Basalt  so  characterised,  before  it  became  solid. 

BASANITE,  a  variety  of  Jasper. 

BASICERINE,  a  hydro-fluonde  of  Cerium. 

BASIL.    (Calamtiitha.) 

BA'SILISK  (BatUucus,  Daudin),  a  genus  of  Saurian  Reptiles, 
belonging  to  the'Iguanian  Family.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the 
Basilisk  of  modem  Erpetology  is  a  very  different  animal  from  the 
~  Basiliak  (ficurtklffKos)  or  Royal  Serpent  of  antiquity,  the  Tiepha  or 
Ttiphoni  of  the  Hebrews,  which  is  translated  Cockatrice  in  our  English 
version  of  the  Scriptures,  and  which  was  formerly  the  subject  of  so 
many  fabulous  narrations.     [Cockatricb.] 

The  Basilisks  are  distinguished  from  other  genera  of  the  Iguaaian 
Reptiles  by  the  absence  of  the  lax  and  dilatable  skin  under  the 
throat,  by  the  want  of  thigh  pores,  and  still  more  particularly  by  the 
elevated  crest  or  fin  which,  like  the  dorsals  of  some  fishes,  runs  along 
the  whole  length  of  the  back  and  tail,  and  is  supported  by  the  spinous 
processes  of  the  dorsal  and  caudal  vertebne.  To  the  occiput  is 
attached  a  membranous  bag,  which  the  Basilisk  has  the  power  of 
distending  with  air,  or  emptying,  as  its  occasions  require,  and  which 
appears  to  supply  in  this  genus  the  absence  of  the  dilatable  skin  on 
the  throat,  with  which  nature  has  furnished  the  guanas,  either  as  a 
reservoir  to  contain  a  quantity  of  fresh  air  to  supply  their  necessities 
while  diving,  or  by  enlaiging  their  magnitude  without  adding  to  their 
weight,  to  assist  them  in  the  actions  of  swimming  and  in  keeping  the 
head  above  water,  or  perhaps  for  both  these  purposes.  In  the  parti- 
cular case  of  the  Basilisks,  their  aquatic  habits  are  still  more  power- 
fiUly  increased  by  the  vertical  fin  of  the  back,  which,  like  that  on 
the  tail,  is  capable  of  being  erected  or  depressed  at  the  will  of  the 
animal,  and  consequently,  whilst  it  does  not  impede  its  motions  on 
the  dry  land,  greatly  facilitates  its  power  of  swimming  and  mcving 
about  in  the  water.  In  short,  these  animals  may  be  said  to  carry 
about  with  them  a  portable  swimming  apparatus,  which  is  of  the 
utmost  service  to  them  as  aquatic  animals,  without  encumbering 
them  at  other  times, — a  beautiful  provision  of  nature  to  supply  the 
deficiency  of  palmated  or  webbed  feet,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  ail  other 
palmated  animals,  would  have  reduced  the  progression  of  the  Basilisks 
on  land  to  a  slow  and  awkward  gait,  and  rendered  it  altogether 
impossible  for  them  to  ascend  trees  or  move  securely  among  their 
branches.  Yet  their  whole  organic  structure,  the  length  of  their 
limbe,  and  the  division  and  flexibility  of  their  toes,  all  announce  the 
rapidi^  of  movement  and  arboreal  habits  of  these  animals,  in  which 
are  united,  by  the  most  simple  means,  functions  and  habits  the  most 
directly  opposed  to  one  another.  The  genus  Ophryeua  of  authors 
exhibits  much  of  the  same  structure,  though  perhaps  not  quite  so 
strongly  developed,  nor  is  it  easy  to  conceive  any  just  grounds  for 
separating  these  animals  from  the  Basilisks.  Two  species  only  are 
usually  referred  to  this  genus. 

1.  B.  mitratui  (Daudin),  the  Hooded  Basilisk,  measures  7  or  8  inches 
from  the  nose  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  which  is  itself  nearly  twice  as 


Hooded  Basilisk  (27.  mitraiu$). 

long  again,  being  19  or  20  inches  in  length.  This  animal  is  easily 
recognised  by  the  generic  characters  already  described,  and  more 
especially  by  the  bag  or  hood  of  the  occiput,  which  may  be  said  to 
be  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  it,  since  it  is  but  slightly  indicated  in  the 
other  species ;  this  bag,  when  distended  with  air,  is  about  the  size  of 
a  pullet's  egg.  The  general  colour  is  a  mixture  of  vinous  and  sandy 
brown,  slightly  marbled  on  the  back  and  sides  with  different  shades  of 
blue,  and  silvery-white  on  the  belly.  Transverse  bands  of  a  deep- 
brown  colour,  but  broken  and  irregular,  pass  down  the  sides  from  the 
dorsal  fin  to  the  flanks ;  two  small  whitidi  bands  pass  over  the  eyes 
and  firom  the  comers  of  the  mouth,  and  are  prolonged  upon  the  sides 
of  the  neck ;  and  the  tail  is  so  remarkably  attenuated  towards  the 
extremity,  as  to  show  the  articulations  of  the  vertebrse  beneath.  This 
spedes  iiJiabits  Guyana  and  the  tropical  parts  of  South  America 
generally.  Its  habits  have  been  sufflcientiy  noticed  in  speaking  of  the 
goneral  characters  of  the  genus. 


2.  B,  AmhoinentU  (Dandin),  the  Crested  "RiMriliA  a  large  specHB, 
upwards  of  8  feet  in  length,  is  of  a  green  colour,  marked  with  white 
lines  on  the  head  and  neck,  brown  on  the  bade  and  tail,  and  sQveiy- 
white  on  the  beUy,  irregularly  dotted  with  numerous  white  points. 
This  species,  as  its  scientific  name  imports,  is  an  inhabitant  of 
Amboyna  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  generally.  It 
keeps  in  the  vicinity  of  rivers  and  fresh-water  poids,  where  it  loves  to 
bask  on  the  branches  of  the  trees  which  overhang  the  stream.  Ob 
the  first  appearance  of  danger  it  drops  into  the  water,  and  conceals 
itself  beneath  some  rook  or  stone,  whence  it  may  be  taken  with  Hie 
naked  hand,  or  with  a  noose,  for  it  is  a  stupid  and  timid  animal  It 
is  caught  for  the  sake  of  its  fiesh,  which  is  white  and  as  tender  as 
chicken ;  in  taste  it  is  said  to  resemble  venison.  The  female  deposits 
her  eggs  in  the  sand,  and  leaves  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  sun,  psyiag 
no  attention  afterwards  to  her  young  progeny. 

BASILOSAURUS,  the  generic  title  proposed  bv  Dr.  Harlan  for  a 
large  fossil  animal,  of  which  the  remains  were  collected  in  Tertiaiy 
Strata  on  the  river  Washita  in  Louisiana.  The  JMiimiJ  was  probablj 
70  feet  long.  Professor  Owen  has  referred  it  to  the  Cetaceans,  under 
the  title  of  Zeuglodon  Cetoida. 

BASIN.  In  Geology,  depressions  of  the  strata  occasioned  by 
synclinal  dips  are  thus  designated,  espedally  such  as  are  on  a  large 
scal&  Thus  the  Tertiaiy  Basins  of  London,  Hampshire,  and  Paris, 
resting  on  Chalk ;  the  Coal-Basm  of  South  Wales,  resting  on  Old  Red- 
Sandstone  ;  and,  in  a  larger  sense,  the  European  Basins  between  the 
Ural,  the  Scandinavian  chains,  and  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  &e.  Some  of 
tliese  Basins  are  due  to  the  original  circumstances  of  deposition ;  ethos 
have  acquired  their  configuration  from  elevations  and  depressions  of 
particular  geographical  areas. 

BASSE,  a  Fish.    [Labraz.] 

BA'SSIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natonl  order 
SapotaceoB,  It  has  a  calyx  of  four  or  five  leaves,  a  monopetalous 
fleshy  corolla,  with  its  border  generally  8-parted,  and  a  great  number 
of  stamens.  The  ovary  terminates  in  a  long  taper  style,  and  contaiBs 
from  six  to  eight  1-seeded  cells.  The  fruit  has  a  pulpy  rind,  wi^ 
not  more  than  three  or  four  cells,  the  remainder  being  abortive. 

The  species  are  found  in  the  East  Indies  and  in  Africa,  where  they 
are  of  great  economical  importance  on  account  of  tiie  abundance 
of  a  sweet  buttery  substance  which  is  yielded  by  their  seeds  when 
boiled. 

B,  butyraccOf  the  Indian  Butter-Tree,  the  Fulwa,  or  Phulwa»rTrec, 
is  found  vrild  on  the  Almora  hills  in  India,  where  it  grows  to  a 


Indian  Butter-Tree  (Bassia  butyracea). 

considerable  size,  its  trunk  sometimes  measuring  50  feet  in  hei^t,  and 
5  or  6  feet  in  circumference.  It  has  broad,  oval,  long-staiked  leaver 
from  6  to  12  inches  long,  smooth  on  their  upper  surface^  hairy  on 
their  under.  The  flowers,  which  are  laige  and  pale-ydlow,  bang  down 
near  the  tips  of  the  branches,  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  tad 
generally  grow  three  together.    They  are  succeeded  by  smooth.  palp7 


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BATATAa 


896 


fruits,  about  as  lai^ge  as  a  pigeon's  egg,  usually  containing  two  or  three 
roundish  light-brovm  seeds.  From  these  is  produced  a  fat-like 
substance,  which  is  a  kind  of  vegetable  butter,  concerning  which  we 
find  the  following  information  in  the  'Asiatic  Researches,'  by  Dr. 
Rozbuxgh : — '*  On  opening  the  shell  of  the  seed  or  nut,  whidi  is  of  a 
fine  chestnut  colour,  smooth  and  biittle,  the  kemd  appears  of  the 
size  and  shape  of  a  blanched  almond.  The  kernels  are  bruised  on  a 
smooth  stone,  to  the  consistency  of  cream,  or  of  a  fine  pulpy  matter, 
which  is  then  put  into  a  doth  bag,  with  a  moderate  weight  laid  on, 
and  left  to  stand  till  the  oil  or  fftt  is  expressed,  which  becomes 
immediately  of  the  consistency  of  hog's-lard,  and  is  of  a  delicate 
white  colour.  Ita  uses  are  in  medicine,  being  highly  esteemed  in 
rheumatism  and  contractions  of  the  limbs.  It  is  also  much  valued, 
and  used  by  natives  of  rank  as  an  unction,  for  which  purpose  it  is 
generally  mixed  with  an  tUr  (aromatic  oil)  of  some  kind.  Except  the 
fruit,  which  is  not  much  esteemed,  no  other  part  of  the  tree  is  used. 
After  the  oil  has  been  expressed,  the  dregs  are  employed  by  the  poor 
as  food.  This  Phulwara  Butter  will  keep  many  months  hx  India 
without  acquiring  any  bad  colour,  taste,  or  smell,  and  might  no  doubt 
be  substituted  advantageously  for  animal  butter.  The  timber  is  of 
no  value,  being  nearly  as  light  as  that  of  the  Semul,  or  Cotton-Tree 
{BonUxix  keptapkyllum).'* 

B.  longifoUay  the  Indian  Oil-Tree,  is  a  large  tree,  a  good  deal  like  the 
last,  but  its  leaves  are  narrower,  and  its  flowers  much  more  fleshy. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  peninsula  of  India,  and  is  found  in  plantations 
along  the  southern  coast  of  Coromandel,  where  it  is  called  the  Illupie- 
Tree,  Its  fruit  is  yellowish,  and  yields  by  pressure  a  valuable  oil, 
which  is  used  by  the  poorer  natives  of  India  for  their  lamps,  for  soap,  and, 
imrtytad  of  better  oil,  for  cookery.  The  flowers  also  are  roasted  and  eaten 
by  the  Indian  peasants,  or  bruised  and  boiled  to  a  jelly,  and  made  into 
small  balls,  which  are  sold  or  exchanged  for  fish,  rice,  and  various 
sorts  of  small  grain.  The  wood  is  as  hard  and  durable  as  teak,  so  that 
this  is  one  of  the  most  generally  useful  trees  found  on  the  continent 
of  India. 

£.  kuifolia,  the  Mahwa,  Madhaco,  or  Madhooka-Tree,  has  oblong 
leaves,  and  a  corolla  with  a  very  protuberant  tube.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  mountainous  parts  of  the  Circars  and  of  Bengal,  where  it  forms  a 
middling-sized  tree.  Its  wood  is  hard  and  strong,  and  proper  for  the 
naves  of  wheels ;  its  flowers  are  eaten  raw  by  the  natives  and  by 
jackals,  and  they  yield  by  distillation  a  strong  intoxicating  spirit. 
From  their  seeds  a  considerable  quantity  of  greenish-yellow  oil  is 
obtained,  which  is  found  useful  for  the  supply  of  lamps ;  it  is, 
however,  inferior  to  that  of  the  last  species.  It  is  curious  that  this 
oil  stains  linen  or  woollen  cloth  as  animal  oil  does,  while  the  fi&tty 
nibstanoe  of  the  B,  hUyracea  possesses  no  such  property,  but  when 
rubbed  on  doth  leaves  no  trace  behind. 

A  fourth  spedes  has  been  named  B.  Parhii  and  is  beUeved  to  be 
the  Shea-Tree,  or  African  Butter-Plant,  which  is  so  very  important  an 
artide  of  African  internal  commerce ;  and  which  it  would  apparently 
be  extremely  desirable  to  introduce  into  the  West  Indies  and  Bengal, 
as  a  new  source  of  internal  wealth.  This  is  the  plant  which  is 
frequently  spoken  of  by  Park  in  his  '  Travels  in  Africa' : — 

"  The  people  were  everywhere  employed  in  collecting  the  fruit  of 
the  shea-trees,  frY>m  which  they  prepare  a  vegetable  butter,  mentioned 
in  the  former  part  of  this  work.  These  trees  grow  in  great  abundance 
an  over  this  part  of  Bambarra.  They  are  not  planted  by  the  natives, 
but  are  found  growing  naturally  in  the  woods ;  and  in  clearing  wood- 
land for  cultivation,  every  tree  is  cut  down  but  the  shea.  The  tree 
itself  vezj  much  resembles  the  American  oak,  and  the  fruit,  from  the 
kernel  of  which,  first  dried  in  the  sun,  the  butter  is.  prepared  by 
boiling  the  kernel  in*  water,  has  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a 
Spanish  olive.  The  kernel  is  envdoped  in  a  sweet  pulp,  under  a  thin 
green  rind ;  and  the  butter  produced  from  it,  besides  the  advantage 
of  its  keeping  the  whole  year  without  salt,  is  whiter,  firmer,  and  to 
my  palate  of  a  richer  flavour  than  the  best  butter  I  ever  tasted  made 
of  cow's  milk.  The  growth  and  preparation  of  this  commodity  seem 
to  be  amongst  the  first  objects  of  African  industry  in  this  and  the 
neighbouring  states,  and  it  constitutes  a  main  artide  of  their  inland 
commerce." 

Duncan  has  also  given  an  account  of  this  tree,  and  expressed  his 
oonvietion  that  it  might  become  an  important  article  of  conmierce 
between  Europe  and  i&ca,  as  it  is  available  for  all  the  uses  for  which 
the  hard  oils  are  used  in  the  arts  and  manufactures. 

BASSUS,  a  genus  of  Insects,  bdonging  to  the  order  HymmopUra, 
and  the  fiunily  iraconidcB,  These  are  four-winged  flies,  with  long  and 
narrow  bodies.    They  frequent  the  flowers  of  mnbelliferous  plants. 

BAT.    [Cheiboftera.] 

BATAllA,  lyAnra's  name  for  the  Bush-Shrikes,  forming  the 
genus  ThoMwiophUuM  of  Vieillot.-  Mr.  Swainson  considers  the  ^ical 
group  to  consist  of  the  spedes  with  long  tails ;  and  of  this  dividon, 
TkamMopkUuM  Vigonii  (Such),  Vamga  Mtriata  (Quoy  and  Oaimard), 
may  be  taken  as  an  illustration. 

Dr.  Such  states  this  to  be  the  largest  species  yet  known,  and  gives 
18  inches  as  the  length  of  the  body.  The  bill  is  black,  and  very  much 
oompreaaed.  In  the  male  (whidi  is  the  sex  here  figured)  the  back, 
wings,  and  tail  are  black,  broadly  banded  with  fulvous,  and  the  imder 
part  of  the  body  is  a  dirty  whitish-brown.  On  the  head  is  a  rufous 
crest  whieh  is  blackish  at  the  apex.    In  the  female  the  bands  are 


whitish  and  the  crest  blackish,  and  the  under  part  of  the  body  ash* 
colour. 


77iamHophilus  Vigoraii, 

Thamnophilua  ncevius,  the  Spotted  Shrike  of  Latham,  is  an  example 
of  the  round  and  comparatively  short-tailed  division. 


Spotted  Shrike  (Thamnophilus  nwviu$). 

Leach  thus  describes  it  from  a  specimen  in  the  British  Museum  :  — 
''Black;  back  and  bellv  ash-coloured ;  the  former  anteriorly  spotted 
with  white ;  quills  of  the  wings  externally,  and  the  tips  of  those  of 
the  tail,  white ;  under  part  of  the  body  ouBh-colour,  of  which  colour 
the  back  partakes  in  a  condderable  degree." 

BATATAS,  the  Malayan  name  of  a  Convolvulaceous  plant,  the  root 
much  eaten  in  the  south  of  Europe  before  the  cultivation  of  the 
potato,  which  both  became  a  substitute  for  it^  and  appropriated  iU 
name.  It  has  generally  been  oonddered  a  species  of  ConvolviUus; 
but  Profe^r  Choisy  in  his  recent  dasdfication  has  erected  it  and  a 
few  others  into  a  peculiar  genus,  distinguished  by  having  an  ovary 
with  four  cdls,  in  each  of  which  there  is  only  one  seed. 

The  only  spedes  of  any  general  interest  is  the  Bataiat  edtdit,  the 
OonvohuluM  BattUoi  of  authors,  the  Sweet  Potato.  This  plant,  origi- 
nally found  wild  in  the  Malayan  archipelago,  has  been  gntdually  dis- 
persed over  all  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world,  where  it  is  still  an  object 
of  culture  for  the  sake  of  its  roots,  which,  when  roasted  or  boiled,  are 
mealy,  fwwt,  and  wholesome,  but  slightly  Iwfttivo.    It  is  a  perennial 


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BATOLITES. 


BEACHES,  RAISED. 


4(4 


pknt,  with  long  creeping  siemB,  leares  variouBl^  lobed  and  angled, 
and  pale  purple  flowers  about  an  inch  long.  It  u  impatient  of  cold, 
and  oonaequently  unfit  for  cultiyation  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 


Sweet  PoUto  {Batatas  edulU), 

world ;  but  it  is  a  productive  agricultural  plant  in  many  warm 
countries.  It  is  partially  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Spain  and  of 
France,  whence  its  roots  are  sent  to  the  markets  of  Madrid  and  Paris, 
where  they  are  held  as  a  delicacy.  They  however  have  the  great  fault 
of  keeping  badly,  being  very  apt  to  become  mouldy  and  to  decay, 
unless  extraordinary  pains  are  taken  to  preserve  them  dry.  They 
are  sometimes  raised  in  the  hothouses  of  the  curious  in  this  country. 
B,  Jalapa  has  none  of  the  properties  of  the  plant  after  which  it  is 
named.    rCoNVOLyuLACE&J 

BATOLI'TES,  a  genus  of  FossU  Shells  established  by  Montfort^  and 
placed  by  him  among  his  CoquUUt  UnivcUva  Cloiaonniea,  Montfort 
states  that  these  sheUs  acquire  a  very  great  length,  and  that  they 
constitute  masses  of  rock  in  the  High  Alps.       [Bibostbiteb  ;   Hip- 

PUBITES.] 

BATRA'CHIA,  FOSSIL.  The  number  of  Fossil  Reptilia  referrible 
to  this  division  is  gradually  enlarging,  thou^  still  very  smalL  To 
the  Anourous  Batrachians  we  must,  with  Jager  and  Professor  Owen, 
refer  the  Labyrinthodons  of  the  New  Red-Sandstone  Series  of 
Warwickshire  and  Wirtemberg  (which  include  the  Cheirotheria 
whose  foot-prints  ornament  the  Ked-Sandstones  of  England  and 
Germany) ;  while  tiie  tertiary  fossil  of  Oenin^n  (which  Scheuchzer 
imagined  to  be  a  human  skeleton)  is  determmed  by  Cuvier  to  be 
analogous  to  the  Newt  of  Europe  and  the  Menopoma  of  North 
America.  Remains  of  Frogs  and  Salamanders  occur  in  the  Tertiary 
Brown  Coal-Beds  of  the  Rhine  Vallev.     [AmfhibiaJ 

BATRACHITE,  a  mineral,  which  is  a  variety  of  (Hwine, 

BATRACHOSPERMEiB,  a  tribe  of  plants  referred  by  some  writers 
to  the  order  FucacecB,  It  Ib  regarded  by  Harvey  as  an  aberrant  group 
of  Ohloroapennece  leading  through  Edoearpacea  to  Mekmotperme<E. 
[Algjb.]  The  species  have  a  polysiphonous  firond  compoeed  of  a 
primary  thread,  surrounded  by  parallel  accessory  ones.  Tne  vesicles 
are  terminal  or  lateral  and  clustered. 

The  principal  genus  of  this  family  is  Batrachoipermum,  which  have 
got  this  name  from  Bdrpaxos,  a  frog,  and  rwipfAo,  a  seed,  on  account 
of  their  gelatinous  fronds  giving  them  the  appearance  of  the  ova  of 
the  Amphibia.  The  species  are  flexible,  and  have  a  gelatinous  cha- 
racter. The  surfiftce  is  covered  with  innumerable  little  hairs,  looking 
like  oilia,  which  give  them  a  very  beautiful  appearance  under  the 
microscope.  They  mostly  inhabit  pure  and.  ruiming  waters  where  the 
force  of  the  stream  is  not  considerable.    On  removing  them  from  the 


water  the  hairs,  which  are  expanded  whilst  immersed,  coUapBe,  aod 
they  appear  like  masses  of  jelly  without  any  traces  of  ommiaation. 

8evei«l  species  of  this  genus  have  been  described  by  Dr.  Hauall  u 
inhabiting  streams  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London.  B.  nmiUfome 
is  figured  in  Lindle/s  '  Vegetoble  Kingdom,'  p.  20 ;  and  B^au^  hai 
figured  some  of  his  new  species  in  his  '  British  Fresh-Water  Algc' 
BATRACHOSPERMUM.  [Batrachospebm&b.] 
BATTUS,  the  generic  title  proposed  by  Dalman  to  replace  the  name 
Aanottut  which  Brongniart  gave  to  some  minute  trilobate  Ontgtaeea 
which  occur  in  the  SUurian  Limestones  of  Norway,  Wales,  &c. 

BAUHI'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Leguminotte,  Linnseus  applied  the  name  very  happily  to  commemo- 
rate the  merits  of  the  two  Bauhins,  for  the  genus  is  remaikable  for  its 
leaves  being  generally  divided  into  two  twin  lobea 

The  species  are  usually  twining  plants,  found  in  the  woods  of  hot 
countries,  and  often  stretching  from  tree  to  tree  like  living  cables, 

forming  with  other  plants 
an  almost  insormoantable 
obstacle  to  the  trayeller 
who  would  penetrate  the 
recesses  of  a  tropical  foreit 
Some  of  them  however  aie 
small  trees,  as  for  example 
B.pomUa^  which  in  Jamaica 
is  called  Mountain  Ebony, 
because  its  wood  is  sheathed 
with  black.  Their  flowen 
are  often  very  beautiful, 
for  which  reason  they  have 
long  been  cultivated  in  the 
hot-houses  of  Europe ;  but 
they  are  too  impatient  of 
the  wretched  treatment 
they  usually  receive  in 
stoves  to  flourish  and  pro- 
duce their  noble  blossoms.  So  long  as  these  plants  are  cramped  in 
earthem  pots  we  must  not  hope  to  see  in  Europe  those  noble  flowen 
which  are  described  by  the  travellers  who  have  visited  the  foreata  of 
America  and  India. 

The  bark. of  B.  raeenvota  and  parv^flora  has  been  employed  in 
making  ropes.  A  brownish-coloured  gum  is  said  by  Roxbui^h  to  be 
yielded  by  B.  retusa.  A  gum  is  also  collected  from  B.  emarginata  m 
the  Deyra  Doon,  which  is  called  Sem-ke-gond.  The  flowers  and  buds 
of  B.  tomentota  are  dried,  and  used  in  India  as  remedies  in  dysenteiy. 
Their  astringency  is  probably  due  to  the  presence  of  tannin,  and  one 
species,  B,  variegaiOf  has  a  su£Scient  quantity  of  this  substance  in  iti 
bark  to  render  it  useful  in  tanning.  The  leaves  of  various  Bauhiniaa 
are  used  in  Brazil  under  the  names  of  Unha  de  Boy,  or  Ox-Hoof,  as 
demulcent  remedies. 

BDE'LLIUM,  commonly  called  a  gum,  but  in  realiU  a  gum-reein, 
the  origin  of  which  has  been  a  subject  of  doubt.  It  would  appear  that 
there  are  several  kinds  of  Bdellium,  the  source  of  two  of  which  seems 
now  to  be  ascertained ;  the  others  are  matters  of  controversy.  The 
Bdellium  of  the  ancients,  said  by  Pliny  (xii.  9)  to  be  brought  from 
Bactria  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  still  comes  from  Asia.  The  BdeUium 
of  Africa  is  yielded  by  the  Balaamodendron  Afriecumm*  Dr.  Royle 
says  that  Indian  Bdellium  is  produced  by  a  species  of  Battamodendfimj 
called  by  Dr.  Roxburgh  Amyrit  Commiphora  (*FL  Ind'  il,  p.  244), 
AmyrU  AgaUocha  (*  Calcutta  Catalogue,'  p.  28),  the  native  name  of 
which  is  GoopL  (Royle,  *  Illustrations  of  the  Flora  of  the  Hima- 
layah,*  part  vl,  p.  176.)  The  opinion  of  its  being  obtained  from  a 
palm,  either  the  Lontarui  domettica  (Gaertn.)  or  the  BorauufifMl^' 
formiSf  is  very  improbable.  This  substance  occurs  in  masses  of 
variable  size  and  shape,  sometimes  as  large  as  a  walnut^  in  oblong  or 
angular  pieces  of  a  yellow,  red,  or  brownish  colour.  The  dewesi 
pieces  are  transparent;  the  odour  is  weak  and  pecidiar;  the  taste 
bitter,  balsamic,  and  resembling  myrrh  or  Venice  turpentine.  It  is 
tolerably  brittle  atO^e  ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  but 
with  a  slight  increase  of  heat  the  finer  kinds  may  be  kneaded  between 
the  fingers.    Its  specific  gravity  is  1*371. 

Resembling  myrrh  in  appearanoe,  it  also  resembles  it  in  its  effects 
upon  the  human  system,  and  is  often  fraudulently  substituted  for 
it;  it  is  however  weaker,  while  it  is  more  disagreeable  and  acnd 
[BALSAMODENDROir.]  It  wsa  formerly  used  in  many  oompounds  and 
plasters,  such  as  Diachylon.  It  is  now  disused  in  Britain ;  but  is  to  be 
found  intermixed  with  gum-Arabia 

The  Sicilian  Bdellium  is  produced  by  the  Jknteut  HiipatMiu 
(Decand.),  the  D.  gummifer  of  Lamarck,  or  perhaps  the  J),  g^f^*^ 
(Linn.),  acoordmg  to  Bocoone  (*  Museo  di  Piante  Rare  della  Sidlia,  Ac, 
touL  XX.),  which  grows  on  the  islands  and  shores  of  the  Mediterran^ 
The  Eg^tian  Bdellium  is  conjectured  to  be  produced  by  the  Bo- 
nutut  fiSMUiformia  (Linn.),  the  Chamigropt  Avmaif,  or  the  Hypka^ 
cueiphera  (Pers.)  .    . 

The  Bdellium  mentioned  in  the  second  chapter  of  GenesiB  is 
obviously  a  mineral,  and  has  no  reference  to  the  substances  above 
mentioned. 

BEACHES,  RAISED,  a  term  introduced  into  modem  Geolo^  w 
characterise  a  very  numerous  dass  of  gravelly,  sandy,  and  sheuy 


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401 


BEAD-TREE. 


BEAR. 


401 


depoettB,  which  have  been  onoe  parte  of  the  eearbed,  and  have  been 
raised  to  constitute  dry  land  in  very  modem  geological  periods.  It  ia 
scarcely  poeaible  to  assign  exactly  the  limits  of  these  formations,  even 
by  the  aid  of  the  organic  remains  which  they  contain ;  for  while  some 
raised  beaches  contain  only  species  now  living  in  the  adjoining  sea, 
others  include  one  or  more  extinct  species,  and  thus  conduct  by  insen- 
sible  gradations  from  the  almost  modem  shell-beds  of  the  raised 
shores  of  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  and  the  variously  elevated  shell- 
socumulations  of  Uddewalla  and  other  points  of  Sweden,  to  the  still 
richer  and  more  ancient  (though  still  to  be  called  Newer  Pleiocene) 
deposits  of  Sicily.  The  term  Pleistocene  (meaning '  most  recent')  which 
has  come  into  use,  meets  this  difficulty  but  feebly,  and  in  fact  only 
draws  an  arbitraiy  or  epochal  line,  inst^td  of  the  soft  gradations  of 
long  periods  which  really  appear  in  nature.  Nearly  all  the  British, 
Irish,  and  European  shores  furnish  examples  in  abundance :  as  the 
shores  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  the  coasts  of  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire, 
the  coasts  of  Cornwall  and  Devon,  of  Wexford,  Normandy,  Sweden, 
and  the  Mediterranean. 

BEAD-TREK     [Meua.] 

BEAQLE,  a  small  well-proportioned  hound,  slow  but  sure,  having 
an  excellent  nose  and  most  enduring  diligence,  formerly  much  in 
fashion  for  hunting  the  hare,  but  now  comparatively  neglected,  its 

flace  being  occupied,  where  hare-himting  is  patronised,  by  the  Harrier. 
Habbteb.] 


^ 


The  Beagle. 

These  were  the  little  hounds  so  much  prized  by  '  the  good  old 
Engliah  gentleman;'  for  at  a  trifling  expense,  and  greatlv  to  the 
del^ht  of  the  neighbouring  rustics  who  followed  on  foot,  he  could 
keep  his  ten  or  eleven  couple,  not  more  than  so  many  inches  high 
individually,  and,  mounted  on  his  easy  pad,  would  generally  make 
certain  of  killing  his  hare,  though  it  fx^uently  cost  him  two  or 
three  hours  to  perform  the  feat  During  this  protracted  chase  he 
had  ample  leisure  for  enjoying  the  sight  of  his  admirably-matched 
pack  running  so  well  together  that  '  they  might  have  been  covered 
with  a  sheet,'  and  for  gratiipying  his  ears  with  their  tuneable  cry. 

The  hare  distanced  them  immeasurably  at  first,  and  in  the  course 
of  the  run  she  might  be  observed  to  sit  and  listen  '  sad  on  some  little 
eminence,'  but 

**  In  loader  peals,  the  loaded  winds 

Broagfat  on  the  gathering  storm  " — 
and  after  exhausting  all  her  speed,  shifts,  and  doublings,  she  almost 
always  fell  a  victim  to  their  persevering  and  destructive  instinct. 

A  well-bred  beagle  of  the  proper  size,  which  should  not  exceed  that 
above  mentioned,  is  a  very  pretty  and  symmetrical  variety.  This 
symmetry  (the  term  is  used  in  relation  to  the  purposes  for  which  the 
dog  is  employed)  was  the  result  of  much  care  among  amateurs,  who 
spared  no  efforts  to  bring  it  to  what  they  considered  the  standard  of 
perfection. 

Some  prided  themselves  on  the  diminutive  but  still  effective  size  of 
their  packs.  Daniel  and  others  have  not  forgotten  to  commemorate 
Colonel  Hardy's  '  cry  of  beagles.'  They  amounted  to  tai  or  eleven 
couple,  and  were  always  carried  to  and  from  the  field  in  a  pair  of 
panniers  upon  a  horse's  back.  Small  as  they  were,  they  rarely  failed, 
though  they  could  never  get  near  enough  to  press  ike  hare  in  the  early 
part  of  the  run,  to  stick  to  her  and  worry  her  to  death  at  last 

Such  diminutive  hoirnds  are  sometimes  called  Lap-Dog  Beagles  and 
Rabbit  Beagles. 

The  fairy  pack  above  alluded  to  had  a  little  bam  for  their  kennel, 
where  also  their  panniers  were  kept.  The  door  was  one  night  broken 
open,  and  every  nound,  panniers  and  all,  stolen ;  nor  could  the  dis- 
consolate owner  ever  discover  either  the  tiiieves  or  their  booty. 

BEAM-TREE.    [Ptbub.] 

BEAN.    JFaba;  Phasbglus;  Doliohob;  Viciba] 

BEAN-OOOSE.    [Ducks.] 

BEAR,  the  English  name  for  a  family  of  Plantigrade  Mammalia, 
forming  a  natural  group,  with  six  incisor  teeth  and  two  canine  teeth 
in  each  jaw,  twelve  mouurs  in  the  upper  and  fourteen  in  the  lower  jaw ; 
pentadactyle  or  five-toed  feet,  armed  with  strong  claws ;  and  a  wort 

SAT.  HIHT.  DIV.  VOL.  I. 


taiL  The  Bears  exhibit  but  a  comparatively  small  carnivorous  de- 
velopment ;  for  notwithstanding  their  strength,  their  dentition,  par- 
ticularly in  the  form  of  the  crowns  of  their  molar  teeth,  indicates  a 
propensity  bordering  on  the  firugivorous  exclusively.  Aristotle  well 
knew  this,  and  thus  described  the  habits  of  the  Bear  ( '  Nat  Hist.,' 
viii  5) : — **  But  the  bear  is  an  omnivorous  animal,  and  by  the  supple- 
ness of  its  body  climbs  trees  and  eats  the  fruits  and  also  legumes.  It 
also  devours  honey,  having  first  broken  up  the  hives ;  crabs  too  and 
ants  it  eats,  and  also  preys  upon  flesh."  Aristotle  then  describes  how 
the  animal  attacks  the  stag,  the  boar,  and  even  the  bull. 

The  ranger  in  the  '  Tour  on  the  Prairies '  notices  the  honey-seeking 
propensity  in  language  which,  though  not  quite  classical,  is  truly 
nomadic : — "  The  bear  is  the  knowingest  varmint  for  finding  out  a 
bee-tree  in  the  world  They  '11  gnaw  for  a  day  together  at  the  trunk, 
till  they  make  a  hole  big  enough  to  get  in  their  paws,  and  then  they'll 
haul  out  honey,  bees,  and  all."  And  indeed  it  appears  that  although 
they  are  omnivorous,  th^  for  the  most  part  rarely  devour  flesh  unless 
pressed  by  necessity.  Their  claws  too,  though  formidable  weapons, 
are  not  retractile,  and  are  more  calculated  for  digging  and  climbing 
than  for  tearing  prey.  It  is  their  general  characteristic  to  lay  them- 
selves up  in  caves  or  hollows  for  the  winter,  which  they  pass  in  a 
dormant  state,  and  without  taking  food  The  female  produces  her 
young  at  this  season. 

European  Bear  a, 

Unut  Arctoi  {Linn.),  the  Brown  Bear,  "Apicros  of  Aristotle,  the  Ourt 
of  the  French,  Orto  of  the  Italians,  Bar  of  the  (Germans,  Bj5m  of  the 
Swedes.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  only  species  certainly  known 
to  Linnaeus ;  and  though  zoologists  are  not  without  their  suspicions 
as  to  some  of  the  species  since  recorded,  the  number  of  those  which 
can  no  longer  be  considered  doubtful  will  prove  how  much  this  depart- 
ment of  Natural  History  has  been  enriched  since  his  time.  The  Brown 
Bear  is  widely  difilised  The  mountainous  districts  of  Europe,  from 
very  high  latitudes  (Arctic  Circle)  in  the  north,  to  the  Alps  and 
Pyrenees  in  the  south ;  Siberia,  Kamtchatka,  and  even  Japan,  to  the 
eastward,  and  a  portion  of  the  northern  regions  of  America,  form  the 
range  of  its  geographical  distribution.  Africa  and  the  Moluccas  have 
been  added ;  but  it  is  far  from  improbable  that  these  localities  have 
been  assigned  to  it  by  travellers  who  have  taken  some  other  species 
for  it 

To  the  Kamtchatkans  this  Bear  seems  to  give  the  necessaries  and 
even  the  comforts  of  life.  The  skin,  we  are  told,  forms  their  beds  and 
their  coverlets,  bonnets  for  their  heads,  gloves  for  their  hands,  and 
collars  for  their  dogs ;  while  an  overall  made  of  it,  and  drawn  over 
the  soles  of  their  shoes,  prevents  them  from  slipping  on  the  ica  The 
flesh  and  fat  are  their  dainties.  Of  the  intestines  they  make  masks 
or  covers  for  their  fiEtces,  to  protect  them  from  the  glare  of  the  stm  in 
the  spring,  and  use  them  as  a  substitute  for  glass,  by  extending  them 
over  their  windowa  Even  the  shoulder-blades  are  said  to  be  put  in 
requisition  for  cutting  grass. 

The  Laplanders  hold  it  in  great  veneration,  and,  according  to  Leems, 
called  it  the  Dog  of  (}od;  for  it  appears  that  among  the  Norwegians 
there  had  long  been  a  proverb,  that  it  had  the  strength  of  ten  men 
and  the  sense  of  twelve.  They  never,  says  the  same  author,  presume  to 
call  it  by  its  proper  name  of  Quouzhja,  lest  it  should  revenge  the 
insult  on  their  flocks ;  but  make  mention  of  it  as  Moedda-Aigja,  or 
the  Old  Man  with  a  Fur-Cloak  ('  senem  cum  mastruc& '). 

The  Brown  Bear  is  a  soUtaiy  animal  Its  retreat  during  the  period 
of  hybernation  is  the  natural  hollow  of  a  tree,  or  some  cavern ;  and 
if  these  are  not  to  be  found  the  animal  constructs  a  habitation  for 
itself,  sometimes  by  digging,  sometimes  by  forming  a  rude  kind  of 
hut  or  den  with  branches  of  trees,  lined  with  moss.  Here  it  retires 
when  fat  with  the  summer's  food,  and  remains  dormant,  without 
taking  any  sustenance,  till  the  ensuing  spring.  Cuvier  makes  the 
period  of  gestation  about  seven  months,  stating  that  they  couple  in 
June,  and  that  the  birth  takes  place  in  January ;  and  the  same  number 
of  months  is  assigned  in  the  artide  in  the  old  French  '  Encydop^e^' 
taken  from  observations  of  the  bears  kept  at  Berne.  The  cubs  when 
first  bom  are  not  much  larger  than  puppies.  They  are  long-lived, 
for  it  appears  that  one  of  the  Berne  bears  had  been  confined  there 
81  years ;  and  another,  bom  there,  is  spoken  of  at  the  age  of  47  in 
the  menagerie  at  Paris.  They  are^excellent  swimmers,  notwithstand- 
ing their  uncouth  appearance.  Mr.  Lloyd,  in  his  '  Field  Sports  of  the 
North  of  Europe,'  gives  a  very  interesting  account  of  the  habits  of 
this  species,  and  of  his  adventures  in  hunting  it 

That  the  Brown  Bear  was  at  one  time  common  in  the  British 
Islands  there  can  be  no  doubt  The  Caledonian  bears  (another  name 
for  BritiBh  with  the  Romans)  were  imported  to  make  sport  for  the 
Roman  people,  to  whom  the  excitement  of  witnessing  the  suffering  of 
man  and  beast  in  its  most  distressing  shape  seems  to  have  been  but 
too  welcome.  From  the  well-known  lines  of  Martial,  descriptive  of 
the  dreadful  punishment  of  the  malefiaotor  Laureolus,  it  appears  that 
they  were  sometimes  used  as  instruments  of  torture : — 
Nnda  Galedonio  sic  peotora  pnsbait  vrto, 
Non  falsi  pendens  in  cruce  Laureolos.* 

Ray  quotes  authority  for  the  Brown  Bear  having  been  one  of  the 

•  We  are  quite  aware  that  some  oommenUtors  are  of  opinion  that  Martial  i« 
here  speaking  of  a  mimic  scene,  and  that  the  verses  which  fbUow  those  shore 

2d 


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BEAR. 


BEAR. 


Wdflh  beaito  of  chaae,  and  Pennant  adduces  the  plaoes  which  retained 
the  name  of  Pennaiih.  or  the  Beards  Head,  as  evidenoe  that  it  existed 
in  that  principality.  In  the  '  History  of  the  Gordons '  it  is  stated 
that  one  of  tha^familyi  so  late  as  the  year  1057,  was  directed  by  the 
Iring  to  cany  three  beats'  heads  on  his  banner,  as  a  reward  for  his 
ralour  in  sUying  a  fierce  bear  in  Scotland. 

For  many  yean  it  has  been  swept  away  from  our  islands  so  com- 
pletely that  we  find  it  imported  for  baiting,  a  sport  in  which  our 
nobility,  as  well  as  the  commonalty,  of  the  olden  time — nay,  even 
n^ty  itself-— delighted.  A  bear-bait  was  one  of  the  recreations 
offered  to  Elizabeth  at  Keoilworth,  and  in  the  Eaii  of  Northumber- 
land's *  Household  Book'  we  read  of  20t.  for  his  bear-ward : — "  Item. 
My  loide  usith  and  aocustomyth  to  gyie  yerly  when  his  lordshippe  is 
at  home  to  his  bar-ward,  when  ho  comyth  to  my  lorde  in  Cristmas 
with  his  lordahippe's  beeets,  for  makynge  of  hia  lordshippe  pastime, 
the  said  xij  days,  xxs."  In  Southwark  there  was  a  regular  bear- 
garden, that  disputed  popularity  with  the  Globe  and  the  Swan 
theatres  on  the  same  side  of  the  water.  Now  however,  so  much  do 
tastes  alter  (in  this  instance  certainly  for  the  better),  such  barbarous 
sports  are  banished  from  the  metropolis.  (Stat  8  Wm.  IV.  cap.  19, 
sec.  29.) 

The  firm  support  afforded  by  the  well-developed  sole  of  the  foot 
enables  the  Bears  to  rear  themselves  with  comparative  facility  on  their 
hind  feet,  and  this  has  been  taken  advantage  of  to  teach  fhe  animal 
to  dance  in  an  erect  position.  The  discipline  put  in  force  to  produce 
this  accomplishment  is  said  to  be  so  severe  that  it  is  never  foigotten. 

Baron  Cuvier,  in  his  *  Oasemens  Fossiles,'  distinguished  the  Black 
Bear  of  Europe  under  the  title  of  Urstu  niger  EuropceuSy  observing 
that  the  frontal  bone  was  flattened,  and  that  the  well-marked  depres- 
sions and  ridges  of  the  skull,  for  the  reception  of  the  strong  muscles 
of  the  lower  jaw,  were  evidence  of  its  being  more  decidedly  carnivorous 
than  the  Brown  Bear;  but  in  the  last  edition  of  his  '  R^e  Animal' 
he  confesses  his  doubts  about  the  data  on  which  he  had  come  to  this 
conclusion,  and  it  is  probably  a  variety  only.  The  usual  size  of  the 
Brown  Bear  is  about  4  feet  in  length  by  about  24  feet  in  height  The 
daws  are  2  inches  long,  very  much  curved  and  nearly  equal 


Common  Brown  Bear  {Urtut  Arctot). 

F,  Cuvier  has  figured  the  bear  of  the  Pyrenees  and  of  the  Asturias, 
whose  fur  in  its  youth  is  of  a  yellowish  white  colour.  The  hair  of  the 
feet  is  an  intense  black.  This  is  most  probably  only  a  variety,  though 
perhaps  a  distinct  one,  of  Urtut  Arctot.  The  Barren-Ground  Bear  of 
America  Sir  John  Richardson  is  inclined  to  believe  now  is  a  variety 
of  this,  and  not  of  the  next  species,  as  he  at  one  time  was  inclined 

to  ^jhiTilr, 

American  Bean. 

27.  Americamti,  American  Black  Bear,  or  Musquaw. — ^Pallas  first 
described  this  species  (the  Sass  of  the  Chippewayan  Indians  and  the 
Musquaw  of  the  Crees),  whose  general  proportions  are  smaller  than 
those  of  U.  Arctot.  The  head  of  the  American  Black  Bear  is  narrower, 
the  ears  more  distant,  and  the  muzzle  more  prominent,  and  it  wants 
the  depression  above  the  eyes.  The  fur  is  composed  of  soft  smooth 
hairs,  which  are  of  a  glossy  black  for  the  greater  part  of  their  length, 
instead  of  possessing  the  shaggy  and  woolly  character  of  the  compa- 
ratively grizzled  fur  of  the  Brown  Bear,  except  on  the  muzzle,  which 
is  clothed  with  short  thick-set  hairs,  brown  on  the  upper  part  and 
paler  on  the  side.  The  tail  is  apparent!  v  more  promment,  and  the 
sharper  and  more  curved  olaws  are  nearly  hidden  m  the  hair. 

quoted  are  not  gwiaine ;  but  the  expression  *  non  flilsA  oraoe '  is  pretty  strong ; 
and  if  the  rest  of  the  verses  are  allowed  to  be  Martial's,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
be  here  dsseribes  a  real  spectacle.  Whichever  be  the  troth,  the  horrible  nae 
to  which  these  bears  were  oocasionaUj  pnt  in  the  arena  is  but  too  evident 


The  BUok  Bear  inhabits  eveiy  wooded  district  of  the  ATnerictn 
continent  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  finom  Carolina  to  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  It  still  occurs,  though  not  very  often,  in 
the  Blue  Ric^,  in  Vixginia.  Its  southern  boundary  is  placed  at  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  Man  has  however  gradually  driven  it  from  its 
haunts  to  make  way  for  his  works,  and  has  compelied  it  to  tske  refuge 
in  the  mountains  and  the  iwitnAnnA  inland  forests.  In  Canada  it  is 
still  abundant,  and  it  is  tolerably  numerous  on  the  western  coast  is 
far  as  Califomia. 


Black  Bear  {Vhut  Aateriemmu), 

It  is  smaller  than  the  other  American  bears,  the  total  length  of  an 
adult  seldom  exceeding  five  feet  Its  favourite  food  appears  to  be 
berries  of  various  kinds,  but  when  these  are  not  to  be  procured  it 
preys  upon  roots,  insects,  fish,  eggs,  and  such  birds  or  quadrupeds  as 
it  can  surprise.  It  does  not  eat  animal  food  from  choice,  for  when 
it  has  abundance  of  its  favourite  vegetable  diet  it  will  pass  the  carcass 
of  a  deer  without  touching  it  It  Li  raUier  a  timid  animal,  and  will 
seldom  face  a  man  unless  it  is  wounded,  or  has  its  retreat  cut  off,  or 
is  urged  by  affection  to  defend  its  young.  This  bear  when  resident 
in  the  fiir  countries  almost  invariablynybemates,  and  about  lOOC 
skins  are  annually  procured  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  from  Black 
Bears  destroyed  in  their  winter  retreats.  It  generally  selects  a  spot 
for  its  den  under  a  fallen  tree,  and,  having  scratched  away  a  portion 
of  the  soil,  retires  to  it  at  the  commencement  of  a  snow-storm,  when 
the  snow  soon  fumishes  it  with  a  close  warm  covering.  Its  breath 
makes  a  small  opening  in  the  den,  and  the  quantity  of  hoar  frost 
which  occasionally  gathers  round  the  aperture  serves  to  betray  its 
retreat  to  the  hunter.  In  more  southern  districts,  where  the  timber 
is  of  a  larger  size,  bean  often  inciter  themselves  in  hollow  trees.  The 
Indians  remark  that  a  bear  never  retires  to  its  den  for  the  winter 
imtil  it  has  acquired  a  thick  coat  of  fat;  and  it  is  remarkable  that 
when  it  comes  abroad  in  the  spring  it  is  equally  fat,  though  in  a  few 
days  thereafter  it  becomes  very  lean.  The  period  of  the  retreat  of  the 
bean  is  generally  about  the  time  when  the  snow  begins  to  lie  on  the 
ground,  and  they  do  not  come  abroad  again  until  the  greater  part  of 
the  snow  is  gone.  At  both  these  periods  they  can  procure  many 
kinds  of  berries  in  considerable  abundance.  In  latitude  65"  their 
winter  repose  lasts  from  the  beginning  of  October  to  the  first  or  second 
week  of  May ;  but  on  the  nortiiem  shores  of  Lake  Huron  the  period 
is  from  two  to  three  months  shorter.  In  very  severa  winters  great 
numben  of  bears  have  been  observed  to  enter  Uie  United  States  from 
the  northward.  It  is  not  however  true  that  the  Black  Bears  generally 
abandon  the  northern  districts  on  the  approach  of  winter,  as  has  been 
asserted,  the  quantity  of  bear-skins  procured  during  that  season  in  all 
parts  of  the  fur-countries  being  a  sufficient  proof  to  the  contrary.  The 
females  bring  forth  about  the  middle  of  January ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  period  of  their  gestation  is  about  15  or  16  weeks,  but  it  has 
not  been  precisely  ascertained.  The  number  of  cubs  varies  from  one 
to  five,  probably  with  the  age  of  the  mother,  and  they  begin  to  bear 
long  before  they  attain  tl^eir  full  size. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  period  of  gestation  attributed  to  the 
Brown  Bear  is  seven  months.  Cuvier  says  that  they  couple  in  June, 
and  produce  their  young  in  January.  Sixteen  weeks  is  tne  probable 
time  allotted  to  the  American  Black  Bear  for  the  same  purpose  by  Sir 
John  Richardson,  from  whom  we  give  the  above  account,  and  who 
had  the  best  opportunities  of  collecting  evidence  on  the  subject  The 
bean  kept  in  the  fosse  at  Berne  frimished  the  proof  of  gestation  for 
seven  months ;  but  it  is  so  characteristic  of  the  lamily  for  the  females 
to  conceal  themselves,  that  in  a  state  of  nature  little  evidenoe  to  bo 
depended  on  for  its  accuracy  can  be  obtained.  **  No  man,"  according 
to  Brickell,  "either  Christian  or  Indian,  ever  killed  a  she-bear  with 
young  ;•'  and  Sir  John  Richardson's  numerous  inquiries  among  the 
Indians  of  Hudson's  Bay  ended  in  the  discovery  of  only  one  hunter 
who  had  killed  a  pregnant  bear. 


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The  Talue  attached  to  the  skin  of  the  Black  Bear— a  Talue  yeiy 
much  decreaaed,  for  the  skin  that  once  fetched  from  20  to  40  guineas 
is  now  hardly  worth  more  than  from  20  to  60  ahiUinga — and  the  high 
esteem  in  which  the  Indians  held  their  flesh,  caused  great  havoc 
among  them.  The  importation  into  England  in  1788  amounted  to 
10,500  skins,  and  ascended  gradually  to  25,000  in  1808,  sinoe  which 
tone  there  appears  to  have  been  a  considerable  decline,  as  in  a  table 
of  exports  and  imports  of  skins  in  Great  Britain,  published  in  the 
Catalogae  of  the  Great  Exhibition  (vol  ii,  p.  529),  the  number  of 
bear-ekins  is  9500;  of  these  8000  are  sgain  exported,  so  that  the 
consumption  in  Great  Britain  is  only  1500  annually.  It  is  nevertheless 
used  for  military  purposes  in  this  country,  as  for  caps,  pistol-holsters, 
rugs,  &c    It  is  hence  called  often  the  Army  Bear. 

The  Black  Bear  is  re^^arded  with  much  superstition  by  the  Indians. 
The  foDowing  account  is  given  by  Mr.  A.  Heniy  : — "  In  the  course  of 
the  month  of  January  I  happened  to  observe  that  the  trunk  of  a  very 
laige  pine-tree  was  much  torn  by  the  claws  of  a  bear,  made  both  in 
going  up  and  down.  On  further  examination  I  saw  that  there  was  a 
large  opening  in  the  upper  part,  near  which  the  smaller  branches  were 
broken.  From  these  marks,  and  from  the  additional  drcumstanoe 
thst  there  were  no  tracks  in  the  snow,  there  was  reason  to  believe  that 
a  bear  lay  concealed  in  the  tree.  On  returning  to  the  lodge  I  commu- 
nicated my  discovery ;  and  it  was  agreed  that  all  the  family  should 
go  together  in  the  morning  to  asaLst  in  cutting  down  the  tree,  the 
girtii  of  which  was  not  less  than  three  fathoms.  The  women  at  first 
opposed  the  undertaking,  because  our  axes  being  only  of  a  poimd  and 
a  half  weight  were  not  well  adapted  to  so  heavy  a  labour;,  but  the 
hope  of  finding  a  large  bear,  and  obtaining  from  its  fat  a  great  quantity 
of  oil,  an  article  at  the  time  much  wanted,  at  len^  prevailed. 
Accordingly  in  the  morning  we  surrounded  tiie  tree,  both  men  and 
women,  as  many  at  a  time  as  oould  conveniently  work  at  it ;  and  there 
we  toiled  like  beavers  till  the  sun  went  down.  This  day's  work  carried 
us  about  half-way  through  the  trunk,  and  the  next  morning  we  renewed 
the  attack,  continuing  it  till  about  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  when 
the  tree  fell  to  the  ground.  For  a  few  minutes  everything  remained 
quiet,  and  I  feared  that  all  our  expectations  would  be  disappointed ; 
but  as  I  advanced  to  the  opening  there  came  out,  to  the  great  satis- 
faction  of  all  our  party,  a  bear  of  extraordinary  size,  which  I  shot. 
The  bear  being  dead  all  my  assistants  approached,  and  all,  but  parti- 
cularhr  my  old  mother  (as  I  was  wont  to  call  her),  took  the  head  in 
their  hands,  stroking  and  kissing  it  several  times ;  begging  a  thousand 
pardons  for  taking  away  her  life ;  calling  her  their  relation  and  grand- 
mother ;  and  requesting  her  not  to  lay  the  fault  upon  them,  since  it 
was  truly  an  Englishman  that  had  put  her  to  death.  This  ceremony 
was  not  of  long  duration,  and  if  it  was  I  that  killed  their  grandmother 
they  were  not  themselves  behindhand  in  what  remained  to  be  per- 
formed. The  skin  being  taken  off,  we  found  the  fat  in  several  places 
six  inches  deep.  This  being  divided  into  two  parts  loaded  two  per- 
sons, and  the  flesh-parts  were  as  much  as  four  persons  could  carry. 
In  all,  the  carcass  must  have  exceeded  five  hundred-weight.  As  soon 
as  we  reached  the  lodge  the  bear's  head  was  adorned  with  all  the 
trinkets  in  the  possession  of  the  family,  such  as  silver  arm-bands,  and 
wrist-bands,  and  belts  of  wampum,  and  then  laid  upon  a  scaffold  set 
up  for  its  reception  within  the  lodge.  Near  the  nose  was  placed  a 
Itfge  quantity  of  tobacco.  The  next  morning  no  sooner  appeared 
than  preparations  were  made  for  a  feast  to  the  manes.  The  lodge 
was  cleaned  and  swept,  and  the  head  of  the  bear  lifted  up,  and  a  new 
Stroud  blanket  which  had  never  been  used  before  spread  under  it. 
The  pipes  were  now  lit,  and  Wawatam  blew  tobacco-smoke  into  the 
nostnls  of  the  bear,  telling  me  to  do  the  same,  and  thus  appease  the 
anger  of  Uie  bear  on  account  of  my  having  killed  her.  I  endeavoured 
to  persuade  my  benefactor  and  friendly  adviser  that  she  no  longer  had 
any  life,  and  assured  him  that  I  was  under  no  apprehension  from  her 
di^leasure;  but  the  first  proposition  obtained  no  credit,  and  the 
second  gave  but  little  satisfaction.  At  length  the  feast  being  ready, 
Wawatam  made  a  speech  resembling  in  many  respects  his  address  to 
the  manes  of  his  relations  and  departed  companions ;  but  having  this 
peculiarity,  that  he  here  deplored  the  necessity  under  which  men 
laboured  thus  to  destroy  their  friends.  He  represented  however  that 
the  misfortune  was  tmavoidable,  since  vnthout  doing  so  they  could 
by  no  means  subsist.  The  speech  ended,  we  all  ate  heartily  of  the 
bear's  flesh ;  and  even  the  head  itself  after  remaining  three  days  on 
the  scaffold,  was  put  into  the  kettle." 

The  Cimuunon  JBear  is  a  variety  of  this  species.  There  is  a  specimen 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  which  was  presented  in  1829, 
BO  that  he  is  now  at  least  24  years  old.  His  mate  cued  in  1849.  The 
Yellow  Bear  of  Carolina,  and  the  Ours  Gulaire  {Unus  gulcuii  of 
Qeoffroy),  with  a  white  throaty  are  also  varieties. 

U.  omatut  (F.  Cuvier),  the  Spectacled  Bear,  inhabits  the  Cordilleras 
of  the  Andes  in  Chile.  Its  fur  is  smooth,  shining,  and  black,  vnth  the 
following  exceptions : — Its  short  muzzle  is  of  a  dirty  yellow  or  buff 
colour,  and  there  are  two  semicircular  marks  of  the  same  hue,  remind- 
ing the  observer  of  a  pair  of  spectacles,  above  the  eyes ;  the  under 
parts  of  the  throat  and  neck  and  the  upper  part  of  the  breast  are 
whitiBh. 

U,  ferox  {Danit  ferox,  Gray),  the  Grizzle  Bear  of  UmfreviUe, 
Grisly  Bear  of  Mackenzie,  Grizzly  Bear  of  Warden,  Urnu  einereut 
of  Desmaresty  Umu  horrHnlit  of  Say,  Meesheh  Musquaw  or  Meechee 


Musquaw  of  the  Cree  Indians,  and  Urau  ferox  (Lewis  and  Clarke, 
who  first  accurately  described  the  animal,  calling  it  often  the  White 
Bear),  is  nearly  double  the  size  of  the  BUck  Besor.    Cuvier  however, 


Spectacled  Bear  {Ursu9  omattu). 

in  spite  of  its  size,  regarded  it  as  a  variety  of  U.  Aretoi,  Lewis  and 
Clarxe  give  the  measurement  of  one  as  9  feet  from  the  nose  to  the 
tail,  and  state  that  they  had  seen  one  of  lai^ger  dimensions.  Eight 
hundred  pounds  is  reported  to  be  the  weight  to  which  it  attains. 
The  length  of  the  fore  foot  in  one  of  those  measured  by  the 
traveDers  above  quoted  is  given  as  exceeding  9  inches,  that  of  the 


Grisly  Bear  {Urstu  ferox). 

hind  foot  at  11}  without  the  talons^  and  the  breadth  7  inches.  The 
claws  of  the  fore  feet,  which  are  a  good  deal  longer  and  less  curved 
than  those  of  the  hind  feet,  measured  in  another  individual  more  than 
6  inches.  This  part  of  its  organisation  is  well  adapted  for  diggings 
but  not  for  climbing,  and  the  Mlult  Grisly  Bear  is  said  not  to  ascend 
treea.  The  muzzle  is  lengthened,  narrowed,  and  flattened,  and  the 
canine  teeth  are  highly  developed,  exhibiting  a  great  increase  of  size 
and  power.  The  tiul  is  very  small,  and  so  entirely  lost  in  the  hair 
which  covers  the  buttocks,  that  it  is  a  standing  joke  among  the 
Indian  hunters,  as  Sir  John  Richardson  observes,  when  they  have 
killed  a  Grisly  Bear,  to  desire  any  one  unacquainted  with  the  animal 
to  take  hold  of  its  taU.  The  fur,  or  rather  hair  is  abundant,  long,  and 
varying  through  most  of  the  intermediate  gradations  between  gr^ 
and  blackish  brown,  which  last  is  prevalent  and  more  or  less  griz^eo. 
On  the  muzzle  it  is  pale  and  shorty  on  the  legs  it  is  darker  and  coarser. 
The  eyes  are  small  and  rather  sunk  in  the  head. 

Unwieldy  as  this  animal  appears,  it  is  capable  of  great  rapidity  of 
motion,  and  its  strength  is  overpowering.  The  bison  contends  in  vain 
with  the  Grisly  Bear.  The  conqueror  drags  the  enormoiis  carcass 
(weighing  about  1000  lbs.)  to  a  chosen  place,  digs  a  pit  for  its  recep- 
tion, and  repairs  to  it  till  the  exhausted  store  compels  him  to  renew 
Uie  chasa  And  yet  he  will  be  satisfied  with  fruits  and  roots ;  and  on 
his  diet  depends  the  aggravated  or  mitigated  ferocity  of  his  disposi- 
tion.  This  animal  is  very  tenacious  of  life.  The  long  daws  are  strong 


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BEAR. 


into  necklaces,  and  highly  prised  by  the  IndiaoB  as  trophies  of  their 
prowess. 

The  following  account  of  the  habits  of  the  Qrisly  Bear  is  given  by 
Sir  John  Richardson : — "  A  party  of  royagers  who  had  been  employed 
all  day  in  tracking  a  canoe  up  the  Saskatchewan  had  seated  themselTes 
in  the  twilight  by  a  fire,  and  were  busy  in  preparing  their  supper, 
when  a  large  grisly  bear  sprang  over  the  canoe  that  was  tilted  behind 
them,  and  seiaing  one  of  the  party  by  the  shoulder  carried  him  o£El 
The  rest  fled  in  terror,  with  the  exception  of  a  metif  named  Bourasso, 
who,  grasping  his  gun,  followed  the  bear  as  it  was  retreating  leisurely 
with  its  prey.  He  cidled  to  his  unfortimate  comrade  that  he  was 
afraid  or  hitting  him  if  he  fired  at  the  bear,  but  the  latter  entreated 
him  to  fire  immediately,  without  hesitation,  as  the  bear  was  squeezing 
him  to  death.  On  this  he  took  a  deliberate  aim,  and  discharged  his 
piece  into  the  body  of  the  bear,  who  instantly  dropped  its  prey  to 
pursue  Bourasso.  He  escaped  with  difficulty,  and  the  bear  ultimately 
retreated  to  a  thicket,  where  it  was  supposed  to  have  died ;  but  the 
curiosity  of  the  party  not  being  a  match  for  their  fears  the  fact  of  its 
decease  was  not  ascertained.  The  man  who  was  rescued  had  his  arm 
fractured,  and  was  otherwise  severely  bitten,  but  finally  recovered.  I 
have  seen  Bourasso,  and  can  add  that  the  accoimt  which  he  gives  is 
fully  credited  by  the  traders  resident  in  that  part  of  the  countiy, 
who  are  best  qualified  to  judge  of  its  truth  from  their  knowledge  of 
the  parties.  I  have  been  told  that  there  is  a  man  now  living  in  the 
neignbourhood  of  Edmonton-house  who  was  attacked  by  a  grisly  bear, 
which  sprang  out  of  a  thicket,  and  with  one  stroke  of  its  paw  com- 
pletely scalped  him,  laying  Iwre  the  skull,  and  bringing  the  skin  of 
the  forehe«l  down  over  the  eyes.  Assistance  coming  up,  the  bear 
made  off  without  doing  him  further  injurv,  but  the  scalp  not  being 
replaced  the  poor  man  has  lost  his  sii'ht,  although  he  thinks  his  eyes 
are  uninjured.  Mr.  Drummond,  in  nis  excursions  over  the  Rocky 
Mountains^  had  frequent  opportunities  of  observing  the  manners  of 
the  grisly  beura,  and  it  often  happened  that  in  turning  the  point  of  a 
rock  or  sharp  angle  of  a  valley  he  came  suddenly  upon  one  or  more  of 
them.  On  such  occasions  they  reared  on  their  hind  1^,  and  made  a 
loud  noise  like  a  person  breathing  quick,  but  much  harsher.  He  kept 
his  ground,  without  attempting  to  molest  them ;  and  they  on  their 
party  after  attentively  regaxding  him  for  some  time,  generally  wheeled 
round  and  galloped  off;  though,  from  their  known  disposition,  there 
is  little  doubt  but  he  would  have  been  torn  in  pieces  had  he  lost  his 
presence  of  mind  and  attempted  to  fly.  When  he  discovered  them 
from  a  distance  he  generally  frightened  them  away  by  beating  on  a 
large  tin-box  in  which  he  carried  his  specimens  of  plants.  He  never 
saw  more  than  four  together,  and  two  of  these  he  supposes  to  have 
been  cubs ;  he  more  often  met  them  singly,  or  in  pairs.  He  was  only 
once  attacked,  and  then  by  a  female,  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  her 
cubs  to  escape.  His  gun  on  this  occasion  missed  fire,  but  he  kept 
her  at  bay  with  the  stock  of  it  until  some  gentlemen  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  with  whom  he  was  travelling  at  the  time,  came  up  and 
drove  her  off.  In  the  latter  end  of  June,  1826,  he  observed  a  male 
caressing  a  female,  and  soon  afterwards  they  both  came  towards  him, 
but  whether  accidentally  or  for  the  purpose  of  attacking  him  he  was 
uncertain.  He  ascended  a  tree,  and  as  the  female  drew  near  fired  at 
and  mortally  wounded  her.  She  uttered  a  few  loud  screams,  which 
threw  the  male  into  a  furious  rage,  and  he  reared  up  against  the  trunk 
of  Uie  tree  in  which  Mr.  Drummond  was  seated,  but  never  attempted 
to  ascend  it.  The  female  in  the  meanwhile  retiring  to  a  short  distance, 
lay  down,  and  as  the  male  was  proceeding  to  join  her  Mr..  Drummond 
shot  him  also.  From  the  size  of  their  teeth  and  claws  he  judged 
them  to  be  about  four  years  old.  The  cubs  of  a  grisly  bear  can  clmib 
trees,  but  when  the  animal  is  fully  grown  it  is  unable  to  do  so,  as  the 
Indians  report,  from  the  form  of  its  claws." 

Hie  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  plains  to  the  eastward  of  them, 
particularly,  according  to  Mr.  Drummond,  the  districts  which  are 
interspersed  with  open  prairies  and  grassy  hills,  are  the  chief  haimts 
of  the  Grisly  Bears.  To  the  north  Uiey  have  been  observed  as  £Eir  as 
61*  of  latitude,  and  it  is  supposed  that  they  are  to  be  foimd  still 
farther.  To  the  south  it  is  said  that  they  extend  as  fi&r  as  Mexico. 
There  are  three  voung  specimens  of  this  animal  at  present  (1858)  in 
the  Gardens  of  ihe  Zoological  Society,  Regent's  Park. 

Atiaiic  Bean, 

Urtui  coUaru  (F.  Cuvier),  the  Siberian  Bear,  approaches  closely  to 
the  Brown  Bear  {Urttu  Aretot),  and  is  at  best  a  doubtfid  species. 
The  hair  in  quality  and  colour  is  much  the  same  with  that  of  the 
Brown  Bear,  with  the  distinction  of  a  laxge  white  collar  which  passes 
over  the  upper  part  of  the  back  and  the  shoulders,  and  is  completed 
upon  the  breast 

U,  I%ibetanui  (Hdarctoi  TUbtiamm),  the  Tibet  Bear.— M.  Duvaucel 
discovered  this  species  in  the  mountains  of  Sylhet,  and  Dr.  Wallich 
found  it  in  those  of  NepauL  The  Tibet  Bear  has  the  neck  remarkably 
thick,  and  the  head  fiattened,  the  forehead  and  muzzle  forming  almost 
a  straight  line.  The  ears  are  of  a  large  size.  Its  clumsy  limbs  support 
a  compact  body,  and  the  claws  are  comparatively  weeJL  Its  general 
colour  is  black ;  but  the  lower  lip  is  white,  and  there  is  a  large  mark 
of  the  same  colour,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  the  letter  T,  supposing 
the  stem  of  the  letter  to  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  breast,  and 
the  forks  to  pass  up  in  front  of  the  shoulders.    In  bulk  it  is  about 


BEAR.  m 

intermediate  between  the  Sloth  Bear  (ProehUM  Uhiatm)  ud^ 
Malayan  Bear  {Uram  MalayoMu).  Mr.  Bennett,  in  his  'Tow 
Menagerie,'  gives  a  figure  and  description  of  one  which  wu  brooght 


Siberian  Bear  {Urtut  eottaria), 

from  Sumatra,  and  could  not  be  prevailed  on  to  touch  fiesh  either  nv 
or  cooked,  bread  and  fruits  fonmng  his  only  food.  In  his  dispostkn 
he  was  moderatelv  tame,  and  particularly  fond  of  play. 

U.  habdlinutf  Lsabella-coloured  Bear. — ^Dr.  Honfield  first  described 
this  species  from  a  skin  forwarded  from  the  mountains  of  KeptoL 
The  skull  had  been  removed,  but  the  front  teeth  in  both  jawi  and  the 
claws  remained. 


Tibet  Bear  {Unua  Thibetamu). 

"  Our  animal,"  says  Dr.  Horsfield,  "is  of  a  habit  decidedly difRsrent 
from  that  of  several  species  of  Urtut  fh>m  the  same  part  of  the  world. 
which  have  been  recently  added  to  the  systematic  catalogues,  Dsxnelj, 
the  Unut  TkibetanMt,  the  Unut  labitUut,  and  the  Unm  Malajf«»^ 
All  these  have  a  jet-black  fur,  a  semilunar  mark  of  a  white  colour  od 
the  breast,  and  other  peculiarities  affording  types  of  sub-genera,  among 
which  Prochihu  and  JSdarctot  have  been  de&ied.  Our  animal,  on  the 
contrary,  appears  to  resemble  the  European  bcArs  in  its  structure,  as 
far  at  least  as  can  be  determined  from  the  parts  which  have  been 
preserved  in  the  specimen.  Among  these,  the  claws  afford  the  best 
means  of  comparison;  they  are  small,  obtuse,  and  straight,  while 
those  of  the  Anatic  bears  above  mentioned  are  lai^ge,  strongly  eurred, 
acute,  and  fitted  for  climbing."  A  living  specimen  of  this  spedea  is 
now  to  be  seen  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  Regent's  Park.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  whole  Himalayan  range,  and  is  so  light-coloured  as  to  hsTe 
led  to  the  supposition  that  it  was  another  form  of  the  White  Bear. 

Ur8u»  SyriactUf  the  Syrian  Bear. — The  she-bears  which  came  out 
of  the  wckhI,  "and  tare  forty  and  two"  of  the  mockers  of  Eliaha 
(2  Kings  u.  23,  et  seq.),  are  probably  the  first  bears  on  record.  Theet 
bears  of  Syria  may  be  occasionally  traced  in  subsequent  histoiy. 
Thus  Matthew  Pans,  in  his  'England,'  relates  how  Godfrey  pux 
Godefridus),  as  he  was  riding  for  recreation  in  a  neighbouring  wood 
during  the  siege  of  Antiooh  {Antiochiam  Mmorem),  saw  a  poor 


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BEAR. 


BEAR. 


Btnmger,  who  was  loaded  with  a  bundle  of  dry  wood,  flying  from  an 
enraged  bear,  whereupon  Qodtrej  gallantly  went  to  the  rescue,  and 
the  bear  turning  upon  him  he  was  iinhorsed,  the  horse  being  wounded 
by  the  bear,  and  fought  on  foot,  when,  after  a  severe  struggle,  in 
which  he  reoeivedamost  dangerous  wound  (*'  Tulnus  fere  letiferum"), 
he  buried  his  sword  up  to  the  hUt  in  his  savage  adversary,  and  killed 
him.  The  historian,  in  continuation,  relates  the  great  joy  of  the 
army  at  QodBney's  recovery.  ('Hist,  of  England,'  torn,  ii  p.  84,  folio, 
London,  1640.) 


Syrian  Bear  {Urstts  Syriactu), 

The  Syrian  Bear  frequently  preys  on  animals,  but  for  the  most  part 
feeds  on  vegetables.  The  fields  of  Cicer  arieiintu  (a  kind  of  chick-pea), 
and  other  crops  near  the  snowy  region,  are  often  laid  waste  by  it. 

The  skin  is  sometimes  fulvous  brown,  and,  as  has  been  stated, 
sometimes  fulvous  white,-  varied  with  fulvous  spots.  These  changes 
are  supposed  to  have  been  occasioned  by  the  abrasion  of  the  long  hsar, 
whereby  the  woolly  fiir  beneath  and  that  of  the  head  become  exposed. 
Two  veiy  fine  specimens  of  this  species,  a  male  and  female,  are  living 
m  the  Zoologicfd  Qardens,  Regent's  Park. 

U.  labiaius  {MdwnLS  Lybius,  Meyer),  Labiated  Bear  or  Sloth  Bear. 
Phis  uncouth  animal,  on  its  arrival  in  Europe  about  sixty  years  ago. 


Sloth  Bear  {Urms  laliatus). 

▼as  taken  for  a  Sloth  and  obtained  the  name  of  Bradypus  pentadactyhu 
and  Urtinui,  Five-Fingered  Sloth,  Sloth  Bear,  or  Ursine  Sloth.  By 
the  two  last  names  it  was  formerly  shown  in  menag^es;  and 
Bewick  gave  an  excellent  portrait  of  it  in  his  '  Quadrupeds,'  as  "  an 
animal  which  has  hitherto  escaped  the  attention  of  naturalists." 
Heyer  called  it  a  Mdanut ;  and  Fischer  a  Chondrorkywhut.  It  is 
the  Bradyput  wtHmu  of  Shaw  (though  it  bears  no  relation  to  the  true 
sloths  either  in  structure  or  habits);  the  Unut  labi<Uu$  of  De 
Blainville ;  and  the  Uriut  hngirostris  of  Tiedemann ;  the  Ours 
Pareiseux  and  Ours  Jongleur  of  the  IVench.  The  short  limbs,  the 
depressed  air  of  the  head,  surmounted  by  the  hillock  of  a  back,  and 


the  whole  contour  of  the  apparently  unwieldy  mass,  give  the  idea  of 
ileformity,  and  make  it  a  favourite  with  the  Indian  mountebanks  or 
jxigglers,  who  rely  much  on  the  attraction  of  its  ugliness. 

The  cartilage  of  the  nose  is  capable  of  extension,  and  the  lips  of 
considerable  protrusion,  as  may  be  seen  if  the  spectator  hold  a  morsel 
of  fruit  or  biscuit  at  a  proper  distance  for  exciting  the  animal  to  exert 
this  faculty.  The  muzzle  is  elongated,  and,  with  the  ends  of  the 
feet,  is  wlutish  or  yellowish.  The  forehead  rises  almost  abruptly 
from  the  muzzle.  The  fur,  with  the  exceptions  above  noticed  and 
that  next  mentioned,  is  deep  black,  with  here  and  there  some  brown 
spots,  and  is  rather  long,  particularly  round  the  head  in  old  indi- 
viduals. Upon  the  under  side  of  the  neck  and  breast  is  a  white  mark 
resembling  the  letters  Y  or  T.  In  bulk  it  is  about  the  size  of  the 
Brown  Bear. 

The  food  of  this  species  in  a  state  of  nature  is  said  to  consist  of 
fruits,  honey,  and  the  white  ants,  which  are  so  destructive.  It 
inhabits  the  mountainous  parts  of  India,  where  its  retreat  is  stated 
to  be  in  some  cavern.  Major  (now  Colonel)  Sykes  noticed  it  in 
Dukhim  (Deccan). 

In  captivity  it  appears  to  be  mild,  but  melancholy.  A  pair  were 
kept  for  some  time  in  the  garden  of  the  Zoological  Society.  They 
lived  very  sociably,  and  oft^  lay  huddled  together,  uttering  a  kind 
of  rattling  but  low  whine,  or  purring,  which  was  continuous  and 
monotonous,  but  not  entirely  unmusical :  indeed,  by  more  than  one 
who  heard  it,  it  was  termed  their  song.  The  paw  was  g^erally  at 
the  mouth  when  they  made  this  noise.  A  living  specimen  is  still  to 
be  seen  in  the  Zoological  Gardens. 

U.  Malayanutf  Raffles  (Hdcurctoa  Malayanut,  Horsfield),  the 
Malayan  Bear,  the  Bruang  of  the  Malays,  is  jet-black,  with  the 
muzzle  of  a  yellowish  tint,  and  has  a  semilunar  white  mark  upon 
the  breast.  Dr.  Horsfield  observes,  that  the  lai^gest  prepi^red 
specimen  which  he  had  examined  measured  4  feet  6  inches  along  the 
back. 


Malayan  Sun-Bear  (l/ViiM — Jlelarctot—Malayanwi), 

The  sagacity  of  the  Malayan  Bear  is  said  to  be  great,  and  its  liking 
for  delicacies  extreme.  The  honey  of  the  indigenous  bees  of  its 
native  forests  is  supposed  to  be  a  favourite  food ;  and  certainly  the 
extreme  length  of  the  tongue  is  well  adapted  for  feeding  on  it 
Vegetables  form  the  chief  diet  of  this  bear,  and  it  is  said  to  be 
attracted  to  the  vicinity  of  man  by  its  fondness  for  the  young  shoots 
of  the  cocoa-nut 'trees,  to  which  it  is  veiy  injurious;  indeed  Sir 
Stamford  Raffles  found  those  of  the  deserted  villages  in  the  Paasumah 
district  of  Sumatra  destroyed  by  it.  It  has  not  unfrequently  been 
taken  and  domesticated. 

In  confinement  it  is  mild  and  sagacious.  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  thus 
describee  the  manners  of  one  which  appears  to  have  been  desenredly 
a  great  favourite : — 

"  When  taken  young,"  he  says,  "they  become  very  tame.  One  lived 
for  two  years  in  my  possession.  He  was  brought  up  in  the  nursery 
with  the  children ;  and,  when  admitted  to  my  table,  as  was  frequently 
the  case,  gavei  a  proof  of  his  taste  by  refusing  to  eat  any  fruit  but 
mangosteens,  or  to  drink  any  wine  but  champagne.  The  only  time  I 
ever  knew  him  to  be  out  of  humour  was  on  an  occasion  when  no 
champagne  was  forthcoming.  It  was  naturally  of  an  afifeotionate 
disposition,  and  it  was  never  found  necessary  to  chain  or  chastise  him. 
It  was  usual  for  this  bear,  the  cat,  the  dog,  and  a  small  blue  moimtain 
bird  or  lory  of  New  Holland,  to  mess  together,  and  eat  out  of  the 
same  dish.  His  favourite  playfellow  was  the  dog,  whose  teasing  and 
woirying  was  always  borne  and  returned  with  the  utmost  good 
humour  and  playfulness.  As  he  grew  up  he  became  a  very  powerful 
animal,  and  in  his  rambles  in  the  garden  he  would  lay  hold  of  the 
laigest  plantains,  the  stems  of  which  he  could  scarcely  embraoe,  and 
tear  them  up  by  the  roots." 


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There  are  Bereral  tpecimeDB  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Sodetj, 
BegenVs  Park. 

U.  Bury^pilut  (ffdarctot  BwytpUut  of  Horsfield),  the  Bomean  Bear, 
differs  from  the  MaUjan  Bear  principally  in  haying  a  large  orange- 
ooloured  patch,  deeply  notched  at  its  upper  part,  upon  the  chest    In 


Bomean  Bear  {UrMus — Helarclos — £uijnpUus). 

sise  it  is  supposed  to  be  rather  less  than  the  last.  The  individual 
,  which  was  exhibited  in  the  Tower  of  London,  and  from  which  Dr. 
Horsfield  wrote  his  description,  measured  along  Uie  back  from  muz«le 
to  tail  8  feet  9  inchea  It  was  obtained  in  Borneo  when  veiy  young, 
and  during  the  voyage  was  the  constant  associate  of  a  monkey  and 
-  other  animals.  In  confinement  its  manners  greatly  resembled  those 
of  the  Malayan  Bear.  Its  habifcs  in  a  state  of  nature  do  not  appear  to 
be  known,  but  are  most  probably  similar  to  those  of  the  Malayan 
species.  Dr.  Horefield,  speaking  of  its  habits  in  captivity,  says — 
"The  ffelarctos  readily  distinguishes  the  keeper,  and  evinces  an 
attachment  to  hiuL  On  his  approach  it  employs  all  its  efforts  to 
obtain  food,  socoDding  them  by  emitting  a  coarse  but  not  unpleasant 
whining  sound.  This  it  continues  while  it  consumes  its  food,  alter- 
nately with  a  low  gruntmg  noise ;  but  if  teased,  at  this  time,  it 
suddenly  raises  its  voice  and  emits  at  intervals  harsh  and  grating 
sounds.  Our  animal  is  excessively  voracious,  and  appears  to  be 
disposed  to  eat  almost  without  cessation.  When  in  a  good  humour, 
it  often  amuses  the  spectators  in  a  different  manner.  Calmly  seated 
in  its  apartment,  it  expands  the  jaws,  and  protrudes  its  long  and 
slender  tongue  as  abore  described.  It  displays  on  many  occasions  not 
only  much  gentleness  of  disposition,  but  likewise  a  considerable 
degree  of  sagacity.  It  appears  conscious  of  the  kind  treatment  it 
receives  from  its  keeper.  On  seeing  him  it  often  places  itself  in  a 
variety  of  attitudes  to  court  his  attention  and  caresses,*  extending  its 
nose  and  anterior  feet,  or  suddenly  turning  round  exposing  the  back, 
and  waiting  for  several  minutes  in  this  attitude  with  the  head  placed 
on  the  ground.  It  delights  in  being  patted  and  rubbed,  and  even 
allows  strangers  to  do  so;  but  it  violently  resents  abuse  and  ill 
treatment,  and  having  been  irritated,  refuses  to  be  courted  while  the 
offending  person  remains  in  sight." 

The  individual  whose  manners  are  here  described  fell  a  victim  to 
its  voracity.  During  the  hot  weather  of  the  summer  of  1828  it  over- 
gorged  itsialf  one  morning,  and  died  within  ten  minutes  after  the 
meal    Its  skin  is  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the  Zoological  Society. 

African  Bears. 

The  existence  of  bean  in  Africa  has  been  more  than  doubted. 
Even  Cuvier,  who  saw  the  weak  points  of  the  negative  evidence  on 
this  subject^  says,  ''the  existence  of  bears  in  Africa  is  not  so 
indiq>utable." 

Pliny  (viiL  86)  observes,  that  it  was  recorded  in  the  Annals  that 
Domitins  ^nobarbos,  the  curule  .£dile,  in  the  consulship  of  M.  Piso 
and  M.  Messala  (b.c.  62)  exhibited  a  hundred  Numidian  Bears,  and  as 
many  .Ethiopian  hunters  in  the  circus,  and  adds  his  wonder  that  the 
bears  should  have  been  called  Numidian,  as  it  was  evident  that  no 
bears  were  produced  in  Africa.  In  the  57th  chapter  of  the  same 
book  he  makes  the  broad  assertion  that  in  Africa  there  are  neither 
boars,  nor  stags,  nor  eoats,  nor  bears. 

«*  Prosper  Alpinns/'  says  Cuvier,  "attribates  beam  to  "Egypt,  bat 


which  were  assuredly  no  bears  at  all,  for  he  states  that  they  u«  of 
the  sise  of  a  sheep,  and  of  a  white  colour.  Never  did  one  of  the 
naturalists  of  our  expedition  see  there  any  true  bean."  Brace  mjt 
positively,  that  there  is  no  bear  in  any  part  of  Afrios. 

The  inclination  of  Cuvier^s  mind,  seems  to  have  been  agaiDst  the 
existence  of  bean  in  Africa ;  and  yet  the  record  of  the  annalist  quoted 
by  Pliny,  and  the  numerous  passages  concerning  Lybian  Bears  in 
Herodotus,  Virgil,  Juvenal,  Martial,  and  others,  make  a*  strong  cue 
for  their  existence. 

It  was  reserved  for  Ehrenberg  to  solve  these  doubts  m  great 
measure.  Writing  on  this  subject,  he  says — "  Moreover,  we  ourselTes 
have  seen  in  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  and  therefore  in  Africa 
itself,  an  animal  most  like  to  a  bear  (nay,  why  had  I  not  said— a 
bear  f)  and  hunted  it  repeatedly,  but  in  vain.  It  is  called  by  the 
natives  Karrai.*'  He  then  goes  on  to  state,  that  he  can  giye  to  those 
who  are  interested  in  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  bear,  true 
tidings  of  a  blackish  plantigrade  wild  beast  most  like  unto  a  bou*,  in 
the  mountains  of  Abvssinia,  though  neither  Bruce  nor  Salt  make 
mention  of  it ;  and  that,  according  to  the  description  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, the  mountains  of  Arabia  Felix  are  inhabited  by  a  similar  or 
the  same  blackish  bear,  said  to  be  remarkable  for  its  lengthened 
muzzle.  He  adds,  "Fonkal  moreover  has  brought  tidings  of  an 
indigenous  Arabian  bear." 

Marine  Bear, 
U.  maritimutf  Linn.  {Thalarctoi  ffuuritiMUi,  Gray),'*  the  Polar  Bear, 
or  Ice  Bear. — ^Martens  was  one  of  the  first  who  distiDgmshed  this 


Polar  Dear  ( Urtus — Thaiaretos — mariiitnu*) . 

species  from  actual  observation.  The  Brown  Bear,  as  has  been  stated, 
appean  to  have  been  the  only  species  known  to  Linnseus.  It  is  not 
indeed  till  his  10th  edition  that  he  shows  any  suspicion  that  the  Polar 
Bear  was  distinct ;  and  in  his  last  he  only  ventures  to  say,  in  a  notice 
appended  to  the  description  of  Urnu  Arctot,  "Ursus  tnaritmut 
albus  major  arcticus.  Martens,  i^ptteft.  78.  t.  o.  £  c.  forte  distincta 
species  est,  nobis  non  visa,  capite  longiore,  collo  angustiore." 

The  habits,  and  many  parts  of  its  organisation  adapted  to  those 
habits,  of  the  Polar  or  Sea  Bear,  I'Ours  Polaire  of  the  French,  Urm 
maritimu*  of  Endeben,  Ursut  marinut  of  Pallas,  Unut  albut  of  Bris8on| 
Tkalarctot  tnarUiimu  of  Gray,  according  to  the  testimony  of  all 
zoologists,  have  confirmed  the  accuracy  of  Martens. 

An  inhabitant  of  the  dreary  regions  which  surround  the  Nw^ 
Pole  with  eternal  frost,  and  of  those  coasts  which  are  rarely  free 
from  ice,  the  Polar  Bear  is  alifiost  entirely  carnivorous,  in  a  state  of 
nature.  Animals  of  the  land  and  of  the  sea,  birds  and  their  eggs, 
the  dead  and  the  living,  are  alike  devoured.  An  admirable  gwinunor 
and  diver,  and  of  great  strength,  ho  chases  the  seal  with  success,  and 
is  said  to  attack  the  walrus  itself.  Cartwright  relates  an  anecdote  m 
proof  of  his  agility  in  the  water.  He  saw  a  Polar  Bear  dive  after  a 
salmon,  and  the  bear  dived  with  success,  for  he  killed  his  fish.  Capt^ 
Lyon  gives  the  following  account  of  its  hunting  the  seal :— "  The  bear 
on  seeing  his  intended  prey,  gets  quietly  into  the  water,  and  swims 
until  to  leeward  of  him,  fcom  whence,  by  frequent  short  dives  he 
silently  makes  his  approaches,  and  so  arranges  his  distance,  that  at 
the  last  dive  he  comes  to  the  spot  where  the  seal  is  lying.  If  the  poor 
animal  attempts  to  escape  by  rolling  into  the  water,  he  frUs  mto  the 
bear's  clutches;  if  on  the  contrary  he  lies  still,  his  destroyer  makes  a 
powerful  spring,  kills  him  on  the  ice,  and  devours  him  atleisora 
The  same  author  informs  us  that  ibia  bear  not  only  swims  witn 
rapidity,  but  is  capable  of  making  long  springs  in  the  water.  Sabine 
states  that  he  saw  one  about  midway  between  the  north  and  soutn 
shores  of  Barrow's  Straits,  which  are  40  miles  apart,  though  there  was 
no  ice  in  sight  to  which  he  could  resort  for  rest. 

The  floating  carcasses  of  whales  and  other  marine  animals  fom  a 
ooooderable  part  of  its  food,  and  the  smell  of  the  burning  kreng  olten 


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brings  it  to  the  whale  shipe.  Sir  John  RiohardBon  aaya,  that  it  does 
not  disdain,  in  the  absence  of  other  food,  to  seek  the  shore  in  quest 
of  berries  and  roota  The  Polar  Bear  moves  faster  on  firm  ground 
than  might  be  supposed  from  his  appearance.  Captain  Lyon  describes 
its  pace  when  at  full  speed,  as  ''  a  kind  of  shuffle,  as  quick  as  the 
Bharp  gallop  of  a  horse." 

This  species  is  of  a  more  lengthened  form  than  that  of  the  others, 
the  head  is  yerj  much  elongated  and  flattened,  the  ears  and  mouth 
oomparatively  small,  the  neck  very  long  and  thick,  and  the  sole  of  the 
foot  veiy  lai^  The  fur  is  silvery-white  tinged  with  yellow,  dose 
short  and  even  on  the  head,  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the  back ;  long 
fine  and  inclined  to  be  woolly  on  the  hinder  parts,  legs,  and  belly. 
The  sole  of  the  foot  exhibits  a  beautifU  instance  of  adaptation  of 
means  to  an  end,  for  it  is  almost  entirely  covered  with  long  hair, 
affording  the  animal  a  firm  footing  on  the  ice.  The  daws  are  black, 
not  much  curved,  thick  and  short.  Captain  Lyon's  crew  found  none 
of  the  terrible  effects  (skin  peeling  off,  &c.,  &c.)  from  eating  the  flesh, 
ascribed  to  it  by  some  of  the  earUer  voyagers. 

The  accounts  given  of  the  siss,  strength,  and  ferocity  of  this  animal 
by  the  early  navigators  are  appalling ;  but  the  accuracy  of  modem 
investigation  has  diissipated  a  gcMxl  d«J  of  the  awe  with  which  it  was 
regarded,  and  has  gone  far  to  prove,  that  the  excited  imagination  of 
•ome  of  the  narrators  has  led  them  beyond  the  truth. 

The  gallant  adventurers  who  conducted  the  modem  northern 
expeditions  penetrated  hx  beyond  the  points  formerly  reached,  and 
had  opportunities  of  observing  numbers  of  Polar  Bears.  The  greatest 
length  from  nose  to  tail,  recorded  by  Captain  Phipps,  is  7  feet 
1  inch,  the  weight  of  the  beast  being  610  pounds.  Sir  John  Ross 
records  the  measurement  of  7  feet  10  inches,  and  the  weight  of 
1 160  pounds ;  and  Captain  Lyon  states,  that  one  which  was  unusually 
large  measured  8  feet  7^  inches,  and  weighed  1600  pounds.  The 
greater  number  of  full  grown  individuals  are  spoken  of  as  far  inferior 
to  these  in  dimensions  and  weight 

Two  very  fine  specimens  are  at  present  living  in  the  gardens  of 
the  Zool<^cal  Society,  Regent's  Park. 

Pennant  states  that  Polar  Bears  are  frequent  on  all  the  Asiatic 
coasts  of  the  Frozen  Ocean,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Obi  eastward, 
and  that  they  abound  in  Nova  Zembla,  Cherry  Island,  Spitsbergen, 
Greenland,  Labrador,  and  the  coasts  of  Baffin's  and  Hudson's  bays, 
but  that  they  are  unknown  on  the  shores  of  the  White  Sea.  Sir 
Edward  Parry  saw  them  within  Barrow's  Sti*ait8  as  far  as  Melville 
Island ;  and,  dtuing  his  daring  boat-voyage,  beyond  82**  N.  lat.  Sir 
John  Richardson  says,  that  the  limit  of  their  incursions  southward 
on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bc^  and  of  Labrador,  may  be  stated  to  be 
about  the  55th  panUleL  Sir  John  Franklin  learnt  from  the  Esquimaux 
to  the  westwai^  of  Mackenzie  River,  that  they  occasionally,  though 
rarely,  visited  that  coast  Captain  Beechey  did  not  meet  with  any  in 
his  voyage  to  Icy  Cape. 

As  the  Polar  Bear  resides  prindpally  on  the  fields  of  ice,  he  is 
frequentlv  drifted  far  from  ^e  luid.  "In  this  way,"  says  Sir 
John  RichardMU,  "they  are  often  carried  from  the  coast  of  Greenland 
to  Iceland,  where  they  commit  such  ravages  on  the  flocks  that  the 
inhabitants  rise  in  a  body  to  destroy  them."    * 

The  Esquimaux  account  of  the  hybernation  of  this  spedes  is  thus 
related  by  Ci^tain  Lyon : — 

"At  the  commencement  of  winter  the  pregnant  she-bears  are  very 
fat,  and  always  solitarv.  VThen  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  sets  in,  the 
anhnal  seeks  some  hollow  place  in  which  she  can  lie  down,  and  then 
remains  quiet  while  the  snow  covers  her.  Sometimes  she  will  wait 
until  a  quantity  of  snow  has  fallen,  and  then  digs  herself  a  cave :  at 
all  events,  it  seems  necessary  that  she  should  be  covered  by  and  lie 
amongst  snow.  She  now  goes  to  sleep,  and  does  not  wake  until  the 
^ring  sun  is  prettv  high,  when  she  brings  forth  her  two  cubs.  The 
cave,  by  this  tune,  has  become  much  larger,  by  the  e£foct  of  the  animal's 
warmth  and  breath,  so  that  the  cubs  have  room  enough  to  move, 
and  they  acquire  considerable  strength  by  continunllv  sucking.  The 
dam  at  length  becomes  so  thin  and  weak,  that  it  is  with  great  difficulty 
she  extricates  herself,  when  the  sun  is  powerful  enough  to  throw  a 
strong  glara  through  the  snow  which  roofs  the  den.  The  Esquimaux 
affirm,  that  during  this  long  confinement  the  bear  has  no  evacuations, 
and  is  herself  the  means  of  preventing  them  by  stopping  all  the 
natural  passages  with  moss,  grass,  or  earth.  The  natives  find  and 
kill  the  bears  during  their  confinement  by  means  of  dogs,  which  scent 
them  through  the  snow,  and  begin  scratching  and  howling  yerv 
eagerly.  As  it  would  be  unsafo  to  make  a  large  opening,  a  long  trench 
is  cut,  of  sufficient  width  to  enable  a  man  to  look  down,  and  see 
where  the  bear's  head  lies,  and  he  then  selects  a  mortal  part  into 
which  he  thrusts  his  spear.  The  old  one  being  killed,  the  hole  is 
broken  open,  and  the  young  cubs  may  be  taken  out  by  hand,  as, 
having  tasted  no  blood,  and  never  having  been  at  liberty,  they  are 
then  very  harmless  and  quiet.  Females  which  are  not  pregnant  roam 
throughout  the  whole  winter  in  the  same  manner  as  the  sajBles.  The 
oouplmg  time  is  in  May." 

That  part  of  these  accounts  which  relates  to  the  non-hybemation 
of  some  of  these  bears  is  corroborated  by  Sir  Edward  Parry,  who 
saw  them  roaming  in  the  course  of  the  two  winters  which  he  passed 
on  the  coast  of  Melville  Peninsula. 

That  the  Polar  Bear  will  subsist  on  vegetable  diet  was  proved  in 


the  case  of  two  which  lived  and  throve  for  yesn  in  the  Fretich 
menagerie  without  being  allowed  to  touch  animal  food.  The  indi- 
vidual kept  in  the  Tower  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IIL  seems  to  have 
been  indulged  in  diet  and  recreation  more  congenial  to  its  habits,  for 
there  are  two  of  the  king's  writs  extant  in  <moice  Latin,  directing 
the  sherifEs  of  London  to  furnish  four-pence  a  day  for  ''our  white 
bear  in  our  Tower  of  London,  and  his  keeper,"  and  to  provide  a 
muzzle  and  iron-chain  to  hold  him  when  out  of  the  water,  and  a  long 
and  strong  rope  to  hold  him  when  he  is  fishing  in  the  Thames. 
(Madox,  'Exchequer  Writs.') 

FoM  JBeart. 

The  fossil  remains  of  these  animals,  when  first  found,  ministered, 
as  might  have  been  expected  from  the  spirit  of  the  sge,  to  the  specu- 
lations of  the  lovers  of  the  marvellous,  and  figured  in  the  medical 
prescriptions  of  the  lime.  The  caverns  of  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Harz  were  ransacked  for  them ;  and  their  supposed  virtue  as  medidnes, 
under  the  title  of  fossil  Unicorns'  Bones,  procured  a  ready  sale.  In 
the  'Protogeea'  of  Leibnitz,  there  is  a  figure  of  one  of  these  fossil 
unicorns,  the  product  of  an  imagination  suffidently  lively. 

But  it  was  not  till  the  year  1672,  as  Cuvier  observes,  that  any 
notice,  truly  osteological,  appeared  on  the  subject^  when  Hayn  gave 
some  representations  of  their  bones  brought  from  a  cave  of  the 
Carpathians,  as  those  of  dragons;  and,  bv  way  of  helping  the  evidence, 
informed  his  readers  that  there  were  still  to  be  found  in  Transylvania 
dragons  alive  and  fiying. 

These  were  the  remains  of  the  extinct  Bear  of  the  Caves  (Unu* 
9peUeta)f  an  animal  which  must  have  been  the  lai^gest  species  of  the 
genus.  Rosenmiiller,  in  1794  and  1795,  gave  the  figure  of  a  cranium 
from  Ghulenreuth;  and  John  Hunter,  in  the  'Philosophical  Trans- 
actions' (1794),  described  the  bones  found  there ;  and  the  Maigrave  of 
Anspach  the  caves. 

Blumenbach  distinguished  the  skulls  found  in  the  caverns  as  those 
of  two  distinct  spedes,  and  gave  them  severally  the  names  of  Urtut 
tpdoeuB  and  Urw»  arctMeua,  which  Cuvier  adopted,  expressing 
however  his  opinion  that  they  were  only  varieties  of  the  same 
spedes.  Goldfruas  described  a  spedes  as  U.  priicui  from  the  same 
remains. 

The  prindpal  caverns  in  which  these  remains  have  been  found  are 
those  of  Scharzfeld  and  Baumann,  the  latter  of  which  owes  its  name 
(Baumann's  Hohle)  to  a  wretched  miner,  who  in  1670  lured  by  the 
hope  of  finding  ore  sought  its  recesses.  There  he  wandered,  alone 
and  in  darkness,  three  days  and  three  nights.  At  length  he  found 
his  way  out,  but  in  so  exhausted  a  condition,  that  he  only  returned 
to  the  light  of  day  to  die. 

The  caverns  of  the  Carpathians  supplied  the  dragons'  bones 
above  mentioned. 

In  Franconia,  near  Muggendorf,  the  caves  are  numerous,  and  abound 
in  bones.  Here  are  the  caverns  of  Gailenreuth,  Rabenstein,  Kiih- 
loch,  &a 

The  south-west  border  of  the  Thuringerwald  has  those  of  Glficks- 
brunn  and  Leibenstein,  near  Meinungen,  and  Westphalia  those  of 
Kliitexhohle  and  Sundwick. 

In  England  the'  remains  of  Bears  have  been  found  in  the  laigest 
numbers  in  Kenf  s  Hole,  near  Torquay.  They  have  also  been  found 
in  Tertiary  depodts  at  Grays  in  Essex,  Bacton  in  Norfolk,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Severn  near  Tewkesbury,  the  Manea  Fen  in  Cambridge- 
shire, atNewboum  in  Suffolk,  and  in  other  places.  Professor  Owen,  in 
his  'History  of  British  Fossil  Mammals,'  refers  these  remains  to  U. 
Ardotf  U.  pritcnt,  and  U.  tpeUnu,  He  doubts  the  existence  of  the 
fossil  spedes  U.  arctoideu*  and  U.  planut.  Dr.  Buckland  ('  Reliquia 
Dilurianse')  thus  describes  the  scene  in  the  cavern  of  Kiihlodi : — **  It 
is  literally  true^  that  in  this  single  cavem  (the  size  and  proportions 
of  which  are  nearly  equal  to  those  of  the  interior  of  a  laige  church) 
there  are  hundreds  of  cart-loads  of  black  animal  dust,  entirdv 
covering  the  whole  fioor,  to  a  depth  which,  if  we  multiply  this  depth 
by  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  cavem,  will  be  found  to  exceed 
5000  cubic  feet.  The  whole  of  this  mass  has  been  again  and  again 
dug  over  in  seardi  of  teeth  and  bones,  which  it  still  contains 
abundantly,  though  in  broken  fragments.  The  state  of  these  is  vexy 
different  from  that  of  the  bones  we  find  in  any  of  the  other  caverns, 
being  of  a  black,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  dark  umber-colour 
throughout,  and  many  of  them  readily  crumbling  under  the  finger 
into  a  soft  dark  powder,  resembling  mummy  powder,  and  being  of  the 
same  nature  wiUi  the  black  ea^Srth  in  which  they  are  imbedded. 
The  quantity  of  animal  matter  accumulated  on  this  floor  is  the 
most  surprising  and  the  only  thing  of  the  kind  I  ever  witnessed ; 
and  many  hundred,  I  may  saythousand,  individuals  must  have 
contributed  their  remains  to  make  up  this  appalling  mass  of  the  dust 
of  death.  It  seems,  in  great  part,  to  be  derived  fh>m  comminuted 
and  pulverised  bone ;  for  the  fleshy  parts  of  animal  bodies  produce, 
by  meir  decompodtion,  so  small  a  quantity  of  permanent  earthy 
redduum,  that  we  must  seek  for  the  origin  of  this  mass  principally 
in  decayed  bones.  The  cave  is  so  dry,  that  the  black  earth  lies  in 
the  state  of  loose  powder,  and  rises  in  dust  under  the  feet :  it  also 
retains  so  large  a  proportion  of  its  original  animal  matter,  that  it  is 
occadonally  used  by  the  peasants  as  an  enriching  manure  for  the 
ac|jaoe&t  meadows."    The  following  is  added  by  I>r.  Buckland  in  a 


Digitized  by 


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4X9 


BEAR-BERRY. 


BEAVER. 


a 


c 


note : — **  I  have  fUted,  that  the  total  quantity  of  animal  matter 
that  Ilea  within  this  cavern  cannot  be  computed  at  less  than  5000 
cubic  feet.  Now,  allowing  two  cubic  feet  of  dust  and  bonee  for  each 
individual  animal,  we  ehidl  have  in  this  single  vault  the  remains  of 
at  least  2500  bears,  a  number  which  may  have  been  supplied  in  the 
space  of  1000  years,  by  a  mortality  at  the  rate  of  2^  per  annum." 

The  remains  of  Urntt  tpetcBOi  have  been  found  near  Steyer,  in 
''Jpper  Austria.  Necker  de  Saussure  found  them  also  in  the  clefts  of 
the  rocks  containing  iron  ore  at  ELropp,  in  Carniola. 

The  remains  of  bears  have  been  detected  generally  in  the. ossiferous 
caverns  of  the  south  of  France.  The  bones  found  in  the  lai^gest 
proportion  at  the  Orotte  d'Echenoz,  on  the  south  of  Yesoul,  by  M. 
Thirria,  and  examined  by  Cuvier,  were  those  of  Urtm  tpelcnu.  Bones 
of  bears  have  been  also  found  in  the  osseous  breccia  at  Pisa,  Nice,  kc 

Urtua  tpdaut  (Blumenbach),  Great  Cavern  Bear.  The  skull  of  this 
extinct  species  is  considerably  raised  above  the  root  of  the  nose,  so 
that  the  forehead,  which  presents  two  convex  elevations,  is  a  good 
deal  curved.  Its  size  is  about  one-fifth  laiger  than  the  largest  of 
those  of  the  Brown  Bear  {Unua  Arctoa),  or  of  the  Polar  BeBr. 

U.  pritctu  (Gbldfuss),  has  a  smaller  skull,  and  differs  less  from  the 
crania  of  living  bears  than  that  of  the  preceding  species. 

We  ought  not  perhaps  to  conclude  this  article  without  referring  to 
those  hybrids  which  were  supposed  to  be  the  offspring  engendered 

between  a  dog  and  a  bear. 
Even  at  the  present  day 
there  is  an  inclination  to 
believe  in  the  existence  of 
such  animals,  but  we  need 
hardly  observe  that  it  is 
extremely  improbable,  to 
use  no  stronger  term,  that 
two  animals  differing  so 
widely  in  their  dentition 
and  general  structure,  in 
the  periods  of  gestation 
and  in  their  habit^  should 
produce  a  mule.  An  ac- 
r  count  of  such  a  creature 
_ ,.  is  given  in  the  *  Histoires 

Prodigieuses  extraictes  de 
plusieurs  Fameux  Auteurs,  Qrecs  et  Latins,  sacrez  et  prophanes, 
divis^  en  Cinq  Tomes,  le  Premier  par  P.  Boaistuau,  Tome  Premier, 
Paris,  1582.'  A  drawing  of  the  a.tiitt]i^]  is  also  given,  of  which  we 
present  a  copy. 

This  animal  the  author  states  he  saw  in  England  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  but  the  probability  is  that  the  author  was  deceived  by  the 
English  bear-wards  and  dog-fighters  of  Elizabeth's  time,  and  that 
some  dog,  selected  for  its  bear-like  appearance  in  certain  points,  an 
appearance  aided  by  cropping  the  ears  and  tail,  and  other  skilful  arti- 
fices, was  palmed  upon  hun  and  upon  others  as  a  hybrid  engendered 
between  a  dog  and  a  bear.    [See  Scpplemimt.I 
BEAR-BERRT.    [ABcrosTAPHTLoaJ 
BEAR'S  FOOT.    [Hellbbobub.] 
BEARDIK    [GoBiTis.] 

BEAUMONTI'TE,  a  mineral,  a  hydrous  crenatp-silicate  of  Copper, 
containing  15*8  per  cent,  of  crenic  acid.  It  is  of  a  bluish-green  to 
greenish-white  colour,  and  pulverulent  when  dry.  It  is  found  at 
Chessy,  dep.  of  RhAno,  in  France.     ( Dana,  Manual  of  Mineralogy.) 

BEAYEk,  the  Kaglish  name  for  the  genus  Castor  (Cuvier),  one  of 
the  order  of  rodent  or  gnawing  animals  (Rodentia,  Cuvier,  Gliree,  Lin- 
nseus),  with  2  incisors,  or  cutting  teeth,  and  8  molars  in  each  jaw, 
20  in  all;  and  particularly  distinguished  from  all  ihe  rest  of  that 
order  by  a  broad  horizontally-flattened  tail,  which  is  nearly  ovii,  and 
covered  with  scales.  There  are  five  toes  on  each  of  the  feet,  but  those 
of  the  hinder  ones  only  are  webbed,  the  webs  extending  beyond  the 
roots  of  the  nails.  The  second  toe  of  these  last  is  furnished  with  a 
double  nail,  or  rather  with  two,  one  like  those  of  the  other  toes,  and 
another  beneath  it^  situated  obliquely  with  a  sharp  edge  directed 
downwards.  There  is  also,  as  Sir  John  Richardson  observes,  a  less 
perfect  double  nail  on  the  inner  toe  of  the  hind  feet. 

The  incisor  teeth  of  the  Beaver  are  broad,  flattened,  and  protected 
anteriorly  by  a  coat  of  very  hard  orange-coloured  enamel,  the  rest  of 
the  tooth  being  of  a  comparatively  soft  substance,  whereby  a  cutting 
chisel-like  edge  is  obtained ;  and  indeed,  no  edge  tool,  with  all  its 
combinations  of  hard^  and  soft  metal,  could  answer  the  purpose  better. 
In  fact,  the  beaver^s  incisor  tooth  is  fashioned  much  upon  the  same 
principle  as  that  followed  by  the  tool-maker,  who  forms  a  cutting 
instrument  by  a  skilful  adaptation  of  hard  and  soft  materials  till  he 
produces  a  good  edge. 

But  the  natural  instrument  has  one  great  advantage  over  the 
artificial  tool ;  for  the  former  is  so  organised  that  as  fast  as  it  is  worn 
away  by  use  a  reproduction  and  protrusion  from  the  base  takes  place, 
and  thus  the  two  pairs  of  chisel-teeth  working  opposite  to  each  other 
are  always  kept  in  good  repair,  with  their  edges  at  the  proper  cutting 
angle.  When  injury  or  disease  destroys  one  of  these  incisors,  its 
a^Ugonist,  meeting  with  no  check  to  resist  the  protrusion  from 
behmd,  is  pushed  forward  into  a  monstrous  elongation.    So  hard  is 


the  enamel,  and  so  good  a  cutting  instrument  is  the  incisor  tooth  di 
the  Beaver,  that  when  fixed  in  a  wooden  handle,  it  was,  acoordini  to 
Sir  John  Richardson,  used  by  the  Northern  Indians  to  cat  bone,  and 
fashion  their  horn-tipped  spears,  &a,  till  it  was  superseded  by  the 
introduction  of  iron,  when  the  beaver-tooth  was  supplanted  by  the 
English  file. 

The  power  of  these  natural  tools  is  well  described  by  Lewis  and 
Clarke,  who  saw  their  effects  on  the  banks  of  the  Miaeouri.  "T\» 
ravages  of  the  beaver,"  say  they,  "  are  very  apparent ;  in  one  pUce  the 
timber  was  entirely  penetrated  for  a  space  of  three  acres  in  front  on 
the  river,  and  one  in  depth,  and  great  part  of  it  removed,  although 
the  trees  were  in  large  quantities,  and  some  of  them  as  thick  is  the 
body  of  a  man." 

Sir  John  Richardson  thus  speaks  of  this  part  of  their  opentiooi:- 
**  When  the  beaver  cuts  down  a  tree  it  gnaws  it  all  round,  cutting  it 
however  somewhat  higher  on  the  one  side  than  the  other,  by  which 
the  direction  of  its  faU  is  determined.  The  stump  is  conical,  and  oi 
such  a  height  as  a  beaver  sitting  on  his  hind  quarters  could  makei  The 
largest  tree  I  observed  cut  down  by  them,  was  about  the  thickneH  of 
a  man's  thigh  (that  is  6  or  7  inches  in  diameter),  but  Mr.  Graham  an 
that  he  has  seen  them  cut  down  a  tree  wMch  was  10  inchtt  in 
diameter."    Beavers  have  no  canine  teeth. 

Castor  Fiber  of  Linnaeus  {Castor  Americanus  of  F.  Cuvier),  the 
American  Beaver,  is  the  aoimal  of  whose  mgacity,  and  even  ndal 


American  Bearer  (Castor  Fiber). 
polity,  such  wonderful  tales  have  been  told.    The  beet  account  of  ^ia 
animal  is  that  given  by  Heame  : — 

"The  beaver,"  he  says,  "being  so  plentiful,  the  attention  of  my 
companions  was  chiefly  engaged  on  them,  as  they  not  only  furnished 
delicious  food,  but  their  skins  proved  a  valuable  acquisition,  being  a 
principal  article  of  trade,  as  well  as  a  serviceable  one  for  clothing. 
The  situation  of  the  beaver-houses  is  various.  Where  the  beaven  aw 
numerous  they  are  found  to  inhabit  lakes,  ponds,  and  rivers,  as  well 
as  those  narrow  creeks  which  connect  the  numerous  lakes  with  which 
this  country  abounds ;  but  the  two  latter  are  generally  chosen  by  then 
when  the  depth  of  water  and  other  circumstances  are  suitable,  as  they 
have  then  tiie  advantage  of  a  current  to  convey  wood  and  other 
necessaries  to  their  habitations,  and  because,  in  general,  they  aie  more 
difficult  to  be  taken  than  those  that  are  buUt  in  standing  water. 
They  always  choose  those  parts  that  have  such  a  depth  of  water  aa 
will  resist  the  frost  in  winter,  and  prevent  it  from  freezing  to  the 
bottouL  The  beavers  that  build  their  houses  in  small  riiers  or  creeks, 
in  which  water  is  liable  to  be  drained  off  when  the  back  supplies  are 
dried  up  by  the  frosty  are  wonderfully  taught  by  instinct  to  provide 
against  that  evil  by  making  a  dam  quite  across  the  riv^,  at  a 
convenient  distance  from  their  houses.  The  beaveivdams  differ  in 
shape  according  to  the  nature  of  the  place  in  which  they  are  boiH. 
If  the  water  in  the  river  or  creek  have  but  littie  motion  the  dam  is 
almost  straight ;  but  when  the  current  is  more  rapid  it  is  always  made 
with  a  considerable  curve,  convex  towards  the  stream.  The  matenali 
made  use  of  are  drift-wood,  green  willows,  birch,  and  poplarS)  if  they 
can  be  got ;  also  mud  and  stones  intermixed  in  such  a  manner  aa  mast 
evidently  contribute  to  the  strength  of  the  dam ;  but  there  is  no  other 
order  or  method  observed  in  tiie  dams,  except  that  of  the  work  being 
carried  on  with  a  r^^ar  sweep,  and  all  the  parts  being  made  of  equal 
strength.  In  places  which  have  been  long  frequented  by  bearos 
undisturbed,  their  dams,  by  frequent  repairing;  become  a  solid  bank, 
capable  of  resisting  a  great  force  both  of  water  and  ioe ;  and  as  the 
willow,  poplar,  ana  birch  generally  take  root  and  ahoot  up,  they  us 
degrees  form  a  kind  of  regular  planted  hedge,  which  I  have  seen  m 
some  places  so  tall  that  birds  have  built  their  nests  among  the 
branches. 


Digitized  by 


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417 


BEAVER 


BEAVER. 


"The  beayer-houses  are  built  of  the  same  materialB  as  their  dams, 
and  are  always  proportioned  in  size  to  the  number  of  inhabitants, 
which  seldom  exceeds  four  old  and  six  or  eight  young  ones ;  though  by 
chance  I  have  seen  above  double  the  number.  Instead  of  order  or 
regulation  being  observed  in  rearing  their  houses,  they  are  of  a  much 
ruder  structure  than  their  dams ;  for,  notwithstanding  the  sagacity  of 
these  animals,  it  has  .never  been  observed  that  they  aim  at  any  other 
convenience  in  their  houses  than  to  have  a  dry  place  to  lie  on ;  and 
there  they  usually  eat  their  victiials,  which  they  occasionally  take  out 
of  the  water.  It  frequently  happens  that  some  of  the  large  houses 
are  found  to  have  one  or  more  partitions,  if  they  deserve  that  appel- 
lation, but  it  is  no  more  thana  part  of  the  main  building  lefb  by  the 
sagacity  of  the  beaver  to  support  the  roofl  On  such  occasions  it  is 
common  for  those  different  apartments,  as  some  are  pleased  to  call 
them,  to  have  no  communication  with  each  other  but  by  water;  so 
that  in  fiict,  they  may  be  called  double  or  treble  houses,  rather  than 
different  apartments  of  the  same  house.  I  have  seen  a  laige  beaver- 
house  built  in  a  small  island  that  had  near  a  dozen  apartments  under 
:>ne  roof;  and,  two  or  three  of  these  only  excepted,  none  of  them  had 
any  communication  with  each  other  but  by  water.  As  there  were 
beavers  enough  to  inhabit  each  apartment,  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  each  fiftnuly  knew  their  own,  and  always  entered  at  their  own 
doors,  without  any  further  connection  with  their  neighbours  than  a 
fricncUy  intercourse,  and  to  join  their  united  labours  in  erecting  their 
separate  habitations,  and  building  their  dams  where  required. 
Travellers  who. assert  that  the  beavers  have  two  doors  to  their  houses, 
one  on  the  land  side  and  the  other  next  the  water,  seem  to  be  less 
acquainted  with  these  animals  than  others  who  assign  them  an  elegant 
suite  of  apartments.  Such  a  construction  would  render  their  houses 
of  no  use,  either  to  protect  them  from  their  enemies,  or  guard  them 
against  the  extreme  cold  of  ^'winter. 

"  So  far  are  the  beavers  from  driving  stakes  into  the  ground  when 
building  their  houses,  that  they  lay  most  of  the  wood  crosswise,  and 
nearly  horizontal,  and  without  any  other  order  than  that  of  leaving 
a  hollow  or  cavity  in  the  middle.  When  any  unnecessary  branches 
project  inward  they  cut  them  off  with  their  teeth,  and  throw  them  in 
among  the  rest,  to  prevent  the  mud  from  falling  through  the  roo£ 
It  is  a  mistaken  notion  that  the  wood-work  is  first  completed  and  then 
plastered;  for  the  whole  of  their  houses,  as  well  as  tneir  dams,  are, 
from  the  foundation,  one  mass  of  mud  and  wood  mixed  with  stones, 
if  they  can  be  procured.  The  mud  is  always  taken  from  the  edge  of 
the  bank,  or  the  bottom  of  the  creek  or  pond  near  the  door  of  the 
house ;  and  though  their  fore  paws  are  so  small,  yet  it  is  held  dose  up 
between  them  under  their  throat:  thus  they  carry  both  mud  and 
stones,  while  they  always  drag  the  wood  with  their  teeth.  All  their 
work  is  executed  in  the  night,  and  they  are  so  expeditious  that  in  the 
course  of  one  night  I  have  known  them  to  have  collected  as  much  as 
amounted  to  some  thousands  of  their  little  handsfuL  It  is  a  great 
piece  of  policy  in  these  animals  to  cover  the  outside  of  their  houses 
every  fall  with  fresh  mud,  and  as  late  as  possible  in  the  autumn,  even 
when  the  frost  becomes  pretty  severe,  as  by  this  means  it  soon  freezes 
as  hard  as  a  stone,  and  prevents  their  common  enemy,  the  wolverene, 
from  disturbing  them  during  the  winter;  and  as  they  are  frequently 
seen  to  walk  over  their  work,  and  sometimes  to  give  a  flap  with  their 
tail,  particularly  when  plunging  into  the  water,  this  has  without 
doubt  given  rise  to  the  vulgar  opinion  that  they  use  their  tails  as  a 
trowel,  with  which  they  plaster  their  houses ;  whereas  that  flapping  of 
the  tail  is  no  more  .than  a  custom  which  they  always  preserve,  even 
when  they  become  tame  and  domestic,  and  more  particularly  so  when 
they  are  startled. 

'*  Their  food  consists  of  a  large  root,  something  resembling  a  cabbage- 
stalk,  which  grows  at  the  bottom  of  the  lakes  and  rivers.  [Nuphco' 
luiea,  aooordmg  to  Sir  J.  Richardson,  the  common  yellow  water-lily.] 
They  also  eat  the  bask  of  trees,  particularly  those  of  the  poplar, 
birch,  and  willow ;  but  the  ice  preventing  them  from  getting  to  the 
land  in  the  winter,  they  have  not  any  barks  to  feed  on  in  that  season, 
except  that  of  such  sticks  as  they  cut  down  in  summer,  and  throw 
into  the  water  opposite  the  doors  of  their  houses ;  and  as  they 
generally  eat  a  great  deal,  the  roots  above  mentioned  constitute  a 
principal  part  of  their  food  during  the  winter.  In  summer  they  vary 
their  diet  by  eating  various  kinds  of  herbage,  and  such  berries  as 
grow  near  their  haunts  during  that  season.  When  the  ice  breaks  up 
in  the  spring  the  beavers  always  leave  their  houses,  and  rove  about 
until  a  utUe  before  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  when  they  return  again  to 
their  old  habitations,  and  lay  in  their  winter-stock  of  wood.  They 
seldom  begin  to  repair  their  houses  till  the  frost  commences,  and  never 
finish  the  outer  coat  till  the  cold  is  pretty  severe,  as  hath  been  already 
mentioned.  When  they  erect  a  new  habitation  they  begin  felling  the 
wood  early  in  the  summer,  but  seldom  begin  to  build  until  the  middle 
or  latter  end  of  August,  and  never  complet-e  it  till  the  cold  weather 
be  set  in. 

"  Penons  who  attempt  to  take  beaver  in  winter  should  be  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  their  manner  of  life,  otherwise  they  will  have  endless 
trouble  to  eflfoct  their  piupose,  because  they  have  always  a  number  of 
holes  in  tiie  banks,  which  serve  them  as  places  of  retreat  when  any 
injtuy  is  offered  to  their  houses,  and  in  general  it  is  in  those  holes  that 
tbejare  taken.  When  the  beavers  which  are  situated  in  a  Onall 
riTcr  or  cieek  are  to  be  takeD,  the  Indians  sometimes  find  it  neoessary 


to  stake  the  river  across,  to  prevent  them  from  passing ;  after  which 
they  endeavour  to  find  out  tJl  their  holes  or  places  of  retreat  in  the 
baiJca  This  requires  much  practice  and  experience  to  accomplish,  and 
is  performed  in  the  following  manner : — Every  man  being  furnished 
with  an  ice-chisel,  lashes  it  to  the  end  of  a  small  staff  about  four  or 
five  feet  long ;  he  then  walks  along  the  edge  of  the  banks,  and  keeps 
knocking  his  chisel  against  the  ice.  Those  who  are  acquainted  with 
that  kind  of  work  well  know  by*the  sound  of  the  ice  when  they  are 
opposite  to  any  of  the  beavers'  holes  or  vaults.  As  soon  as  they 
suspect  any,  they  cut  a  hole  through  the  ice  big  enought  to  admit  an 
old  beaver,  and  in  this  manner  proceed  till  they  have  found  out  all 
their  places  of  retreat^  or  at  least  as  many  of  them  as  possible.  While 
the  principal  men  are  thus  employed,  some  of  the  understrappers  and 
the  women  are  busy  in  breaking  open  the  house,  which  at  times  is  no 
eafify  task,  for  I  have  frequently  known  these  houses  to  be  5  or  6  feet 
thick,  and  one  in  particular  was  more  than  8  feet  thick  in  the  crown. 
When  the  beavers  find  that  their  habitations  are  invaded,  they  fly  to  their 
holes  in  the  banks  for  shelter ;  and  on  being  perceived  by  the  Indians, 
which  is  easily  done  by  attending  to  the  motion  of  the  water,  they 
block  up  the  entrance  with  stakes  of  wood,  and  then  haul  the  beaver 
out  of  its  hole,  either  by  hand,  if  they  can  reach  it,  or  with  a  laige 
hook  made  for  that  pturpose,  which  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  long 
stick.  In  this  kind  of  hunting,  eveiy  man  has  the  sole  right  to  all 
the  beavers  caught  by  him  in  the  holes  or  vaults;  and  as  this  is  a 
constant  rule,  each  person  takes  care  to  mark  such  as  he  discovers  by 
sticking  up  a  branch  of  a  tree,  by  which  he  may  know  thenL  All  that 
are  caught  in  the  house  are  the  property  of  the  person  who  finds  it. 
The  beaver  is  an  animal  which  cannot  keep  under  water  long  at  a 
time,  so  that  when  their  houses  are  broken  open,  and  all  their  places  of 
retreat  discovered,  they  have  but  one  choice  left>  as  it  may  be  called, 
either  to  be  taken  in  their  house  or  their  vaults ;  in  general  they  prefer 
the  latter,  for  where  there  is  one  beaver  caught  in  the  house,  many 
thousands  are  taken  in  the  vaults  in  the  banka  Sometimes  they  are 
caught  in  nets,  and  in  summer  very  frequently  in  traps. 

"  In  respect  to  the  beavers  dunging  in  their  houses,  as  some  persons 
assert^  it  is  quite  wrong,  as  they  always  plunge  into  water  to  do  it^ 
I  am  the  better  enabled  to  make  this  assertion  from  having  kept 
several  of  them  tUl  they  became  so  domesticated  as  to  answer  to  their 
name,  and  follow  those  to  whom  they  were  accustomed  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  dog  would  do,  and  they  were  as  much  pleased  at  being 
fondled  as  any  animal  I  ever  saw.  In  cold  weather  they  were  kept  in 
my  own  sitting-room,  where' they  were  the  constant  companions  of  the 
Indian  women  and  children,  and  were  so  fond  of  their  company  that 
when  the  Indians  were  absent  for  any  considerable  time,  the  beaver 
discovered  great  signs  of  uneasiness,  and  on  their  return  showed  equal 
marks  of  pleasure  by  fondling  on  them,  crawling  into  their  laps,  lying 
on  their  backs,  sitting  erect  lue  a  squiirel,  and  behaving  like  children 
who  see  their  parents  but  seldom.  In  general  during  the  winter  they 
lived  on  the  same  food  as  the  women  did,  and  were  remarkably  fond 
of  rice  and  plum-pudding ;  they  would  eat  patridges  and  fresh  venison 
yeiy  freely,  but  I  never  tried  them  with  fish,  though  I  have  heard  they 
will  at  times  prey  on  them.  In  fact  there  are  few  graminivorous 
animals  that  may  not  be  brought  to  be  carnivorous." 

Mr.  Broderip,  in  his  'Note-Book  of  a  Naturalist,*  p.  1,  gives  ac 
interesting  account  of  the  manners  and  habits  of  a  pet  Beaver  during 
its  captivily.  It  manifested  the  same  instincts,  though  exercised 
upon  very  different  materials,  as  those  described  so  graphically  in  ^o 
above  passage  from  Heame. 

Little  need  be  said  of  the  value  of  the  frir  of  the  Beaver  in  commerce, 
a  value  greatiy  heightened  by  the  proclamation  of  Charles  I.  in  16S8, 
expressly  prohibitmg  the  use  of  any  materials  except  beaverHstuff  or 
beaver'Wool  in  the  manufacture  of  hats,  and  forbidding  the  making  of 
the  hats  called  'demi-castors,'  unless  for  exportation.  Tms  prodamation 
was  an  almost  exterminating  death-warrant  to  the  poor  bcAvers.  They 
were  speedily  swept  away  from  the  more  southern  colonies,  and  the 
traffic  became  for  the  most  part  confined  to  Canada  and  Hudson's  Bay. 
The  havoc  made  amongst  them,  even  at  that  period,  may  be  imagined 
by  an  inspection  of  the  imports  of  1743.  In  that  year  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  offered  for  sale  26,750  beaver-skins,  and  in  the  same 
year  127,080  were  imported  into  Rochelle.  These,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, are  only  the  l^gal  returns,  making  no  allowance  for  smuggling. 
In  1788  upwards  of  170,000  were  exported  from  Canada,  and  in  1808 
126,927  were  sent  from  Quebec  alone  to  this  country.  The  value  of 
these  last  has  heem  estimated  at  118,9942.  Is.  dd,  sterling,  at  an  average 
of  ISa,  9d  for  each  skin.  These  nimibers,  as  might  be  expected, 
could  not  be  kept  up  without  almost  total  extermination ;  and  we 
find,  accordingly,  that  in  1827  the  importation  into  London  from  a 
fur  country  of  more  than  four  times  the  extent  of  that  which  was 
occupied  in  1743  was  but  little  beyond  50,000.  At  the  present  time 
(1858)  about  60,000  beaver-skins  are  annually  imported  into  this 
country,  of  which  12,000  are  again  exported.  Many  other  materials 
are  now  employed  for  making  hats. 

The  Beaver,  although  some  have  considered  it  another  species,  is 
an  inhabitant  of  Europe.  The  earliest  notice  of  the  European  Beaver 
(Kdtrrttp)  is  in  Herodotus  (book  iv.  c  109),  who  describes  it  as  inhabit- 
ing a  large  li^e  in  the  country  of  the  BucUni,  a  nation  whom  he  places 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Upper  Don  (iv.  21).  He  says  that  the  skm  was 
used  for  clothing.    Aristotle  (book  viiL  c.  5)  mentions  the  European 

2  M 


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BEAYBR. 


BeaTer  under  the  name  of  itiarttpf  but  only  mentions  it ;  while  Pliny  I 
(yiii  80,  and  xxxii  8,  fta)  well  deBoribee  it^  and  is  diffuae  on  the  | 
subject  of  the  celebrated  Gastoreom,  so  much  valued  as  a  medicine 
among  the  ancients,  and  which  long  held  a  high  place  in  the  Materia 
Medica  of  the  modems,  causing  the  penecution  of  this  unfortunate 
animal  before  its  fur  became  an  object  of  traffia  Pliny  points  out 
the  frauds  of  dealers,  but  shows  that  he  did  not  know  what  the 
oostoreum  reslly  was.  "  Castorea  testes  eorum,"  writes  Pliny  (book 
xzxiL  c.  8),  and  the  ancients  inform  us  that  the  animal  used  to  bite 
off  the  part  when  hunted,  well  knowing  that  with  the  possession  of 
the  desired  castorea  the  persecution  would  cease.  This  however  is 
untrue,  as  it  would  be  utterly  impossible  for  the  animal  to  do  so  if  it 
wished.  Cuvier  gives  the  following  account  of  the  oigans  which 
secrete  this  substance : — **  De  grosses  poches  glanduleuses  qui  abou* 
tissent  k  leur  prepuce  produissent  une  pommade  d'une  odeur  forte, 
employ^  en  m^cine  sous  le  nom  de  oastoreum."  Sir  John 
Bichardson  thus  speaks  of  this  substance :  "  I  have  not  had  an 
opportunity  of  dissecting  a  beaver,  but  I  was  informed  by  the  hunters 
that  both  males  and  feniales  are  furnished  with  one  pair  of  little  bsgs 
containing  castoreiun,  and  also  with  a  second  pair  of  smaller  ones 
betwixt  Uie  former  and  the  anus,  which  are  filled  with  a  white  fatty 
matter,  of  the  consistence  of  butter  and  exhaling  a  strong  odour. 
This  latter  substance  is  not  an  article  of  trade ;  but  the  Indians  occa- 
sionally eat  it)  and  also  mingle  a  little  with  their  tobacco  when  they 
smoke.  I  did  not  learn  the  purpose  that  this  secretion  is  destined  to 
serve  in  the  economy  of  the  animal ;  but  from  Uie  circumstance  of 
small  ponds  when  inhabited  by  beavera  being  tainted  with  its  peculiar 
odour,  it  seems  probable  that  it  affords  a  dressing  to  Uie  fur  of  these 
aquatic  animalp.  The  castoreum  in  its  recent  state  has  an  orange- 
colour,  which  deepens  as  it  dries  into  bright  reddish-brown.  During 
the  drying,  which  is  allowed  to  go  on  in  the  shade,  a  gummy  matter 
exudes  tfajrough  the  sack,  which  the  Indians  delight  in  eating.  The 
noale  and  female  castoreum  is  of  the  same  value,  ten  pairs  of  bags  of 
either  kind  being  reckoned  to  an  Indian  as  equal  to  one  beaver-skin. 
The  castoreum  is  never  adulterated  in  the  Fur  Comitries." 

The  same  traveller  says  that  the  call  of  the  beaver  in  the  pairing 
season  is  a  kind  of  groan,  and  gives  the  following  as  the  dimensions 
of  a  full-grown  beaver  killed  at  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  now  .in  the 
museum  of  the  Zoological  Society : — 

Inches.      Lines. 

Length  of  head  and  body        ....        40  0 

„        head  alone         .....  7  8 

„        tail,  scaly  part        ....        11  6 

Distanoefbom  tip  of  nose  to  anterior  part  of  eye  2  10 

Distance  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  orbit 

to  anterior  part  of  the  ear       .  .    .  2  5 

He  also  gives  the  following  account  of  the  flesh,  which,  as  much  has 
been  said  of  its  delicacy  as  food,  is  interesting : — "The  flesh  of  the 
beaver  is  much  prized  by  the  Indians  and  Canadian  Voyageurs,  especi- 
ally when  it  is  roasted  in  the  skin,  after  the  hair  has  been  singed  off. 
In  some  districts  it  requires  all  the  influence  of  the  fur  trader  to 
restrain  the  hunters  from  sacrificing  a  considerable  quantity  of  beaver 
far  every  year  to  secure  the  enjoyment  of  this  luxury ;  and  Indians 
of  note  have  generally  one  or  two  feasts  in  the  season,  wherein  a 
roasted  beaver  is  the  prime  dish.  It  resembles  pork  in  its  flavotir, 
but  the  lean  is  dark-coloured,  the  fat  oily,  and  it  requires  a  strong 
stomach  to  sustain  a  full  meal  of  it.  The  taU,  which  is  considered  a 
great  luxury,  consists  of  a  gristly  kind  of  fat>  as  rich  but  not  so 
nauseating  as  the  fat  of  the  body. 

Pennant  says  that  the  geographical  range  of  the  American  Beaver 
commences  in  latitude  60"*  or  about  the  River  of  Seals,  in  Hudson's 
Bay,  and  terminates  in  latitude  80*"  in  Louisiana;  but  Say  places 
their  limit  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  about  seven 
degrees  farther  to  the  northward  of  Pennant's  southern  boundary. 
Richardson  observes  that  their  most  northern  point  is  probably  on 
the  banks  of  the  Mackenzie  (the  largest  American  river  that  falls  into 
the  Polar  Sea,  and  the  best  wooded,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  alluvial 
soil  by  which  it  is  bordered),  as  high  as  674"  or  68"  N.  lat ;  and  that 
they  extend  east  and  west  from  one  side  of  the  continent  to  the  other, 
with  the  exception  of  the  barren  districts.  He  further  states  that 
they  are  pretty  numerous  to  the  northward  of  Fort  Franklin,  and 
that,  from  the  swampy  and  impracticable  nature  of  the  country,  they 
are  not  likely  to  be  soon  eradicated  there. 

The  following  varieties  of  the  American  Beaver  have  been  noticed : — 

Var.  o.  C.  P.  nigrciy  the  Black  Beaver. 

Var.  0.  O.  F.  varia,  the  Spotted  Beaver.  They  have  a  large  white 
spot  on  their  breasts. 

Var.  7.  0,  F,  albct,  the  "White  Beaver.    This  variety  is  an  albino. 

The  Little  Beaver  is  the  C(utor  Zibethicus  of  Linnsaus,  Fiber 
ZtbetMctu  of  Cuvier,  Ondatra  of  Lao^kle,  the  Musk-Rat  of  Canada, 
and  Musijuash  of  the  Cree  Indians.    [Musquash.] 

F.  Cuvier  has  pointed  out  some  slight  differences  in  the  skulls  of 
the  European  and  American  beavers  which  he  had  examined  for  the 
purpose  of,  showing  that  they  are  distinct  Baron  Cuvier,  in  the  last 
edition  of  his  'Regno  Animal,'  expresses  his  uncertainty,  notwith- 
standing scrupulous  comparison,  whether  the  beavers  which  live  in 
burrows  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhdne,  the  Diuiube,  the  "Weser,  and 
other  rivers,  are  especially  different  from  those  of  America,  or  whether 


BEAVER.  43C 

their  vicinity  to  man  is  the  cause  that  hinders  them  from  building. 
He  does  not  appear  to  have  been  aware  of  the  colony  described  by 
M.  de  Meyerinc^  in  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Berlin  Katoral  History 
Society'  for  1829,  as  having  been  settled  for  more  than  a  oentary  on 
the  small  river  Nuthe,  a  short  distance  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Elbe  in  a  lonely  canton  of  the  Magdeburg  district  This  litUe  asso- 
ciation, it  appears,  amounted  in  1822  to  15  or  20  indiriduals  only ; 
but  they  Were  co-operative  and  industrious  beyond  what  might  have 
been  expected  from  their  numbera  Burrows  of  thirty  or  forty  paces 
in  lengtn  on  a  level  with  the  river,  having  one  opening  beneath  the 
surface  and  another  on  land ;  huts  eight  or  ten  feet  hi^  formed  of 
branches  and  trunks  of  trees  laid  irregularly  and  covered  with  earth ; 
and  a  dyke  of  the  same  materials,  so  well  wrought  that  it  raised  tk 
water  more  than  a  foot^  were  the  results  of  the  persevering  and 
ingenious  labours  of  the  little  band. 

The  American  Beaver  near  the  settlements  at  the  present  day  is 
sad  and  solitary  like  the  European  Beaver;  his  works  have  been 
swept  away,  his  associations  broken  up,  and  he  burrows  in  the  same 
manner.  Such  beavers  are  called  Terriers.  Pennant  indeed  mentiona 
them  as  a  variety  which  wants  either  the  sagacily  or  the  industry  of 
others ;  but  he  is  much  nearer  the  truth  when  he  says,  in  the  same 
paragraph,  "  Beavers  which  escape  the  destruction  of  a  community 
are  supposed  often  to  become  Terriera"  They  are  also  called  Old 
Bachelora 

The  following  anecdote,  related  by  Qeoffroj  St  HHaire  in  tiie 
12th  volume  of  the  '  M<Smoires  du  Museum  aHistoire  Naturelle,' 
shows  that  the  European  Beaver  has  the  same  sagacity  as  its  tnna- 
atlantic  brethreiL  One  of  these  beavers  from  the  ]^6ne  was  confined 
in  the  Paris  menagerie.  Fresh  branches  were  regularly  put  into  hi? 
cage,  together  with  his  food,  consisting  of  l^^umes,  fruits,  &c.,  to 
amuse  him  during  the  night,  and  minister  to  his  gnawing  propensity. 
He  had  only  litter  to  shidd  him  from  the  frosty  and  the  door  of  hL 
cage  closed  badly.  One  bitter  winter-night  it  snowed,  and  the  snov 
had  collected  in  one  comer.  These  were  all  his  materials,  and  the 
poor  beaver  disposed  of  them  to  secure  himself  from  the  nipping  air. 
The  branches  he  interwove  between  the  bars  of  his  cage,  precisely  as 
a  basket-maker  would  have  done.  In  the  intervals  he  placed  his 
litter,  his  canots,  his  apples,  his  all,  fashioning  each  with  his  teeth  so 
as  to  fit  them  to  the  spaces  to  be  filled.  To  stop  the  interstioes  he 
covered  the  whole  with  snow,  which  froze  in  the  nighty  and  in  the 
morning  it  was  found  that  he  had  thus  built  a  wall  which  occupied 
two-thirds  of  the  doorway. 

That  the  Beaver  was  formerly  an  inhabitant  of  the  British  Islands 
there  is  no  doubt  Qiraldus  Cambrensis  gives  a  short  account  of 
their  manners  in  Wales ;  but,  even  in  his  time  (he  travelled  there  in 
1188),  they  were  only  found  on  the  river  Teify.  "Two  or  three 
waters  in  Uiat  principality,"  says  Pennant^  "  still  bear  the  name  oi 
Llyn  yr  Afango,  or  tne  Beaver  Lake.  *  *  *  I  have  seen  two  of 
their  supposed  haunts;  one  in  the  stream  that  runs  through  Nant 
Francon,  the  other  in  the  river  Conwy,  a  few  miles  above  Llanrwet ; 
and  both  places,  in  all  probability,  had  formerly  been  crossed  by 
beaverdams.  But  we  imagine  they  must  have  been  very  scarce  even 
in  earlier  times.  By  the  laws  of  Howelda  the  price  of  a  bearer's 
skin  was  fixed  at  120  pence — a  great  sum  in  those  days." 

The  Beaver  also  appears  to  have  existed  in  Scotland.  Boethiu;; 
enumerates  the  Beavers,  '  fibri,'  among  the  animals  which  abounded 
in  and  about  Loch  Ness,  and  whose  nirs  were  in  request  for  expor- 
tation towards  the  end  of  the  15th  century.  Dr.  Walker,  in  his 
'  Mammalia  Scotica,'  states,  on  the  authority  of  Giraldus,  that  Beaveiv 
formerly  existed  in  Scotland.  Tradition  refei's  the  name  and  arms  of 
the  town  of  Beverlev  in  Yorkshire  to  the  fact  of  Beavers  having 
abounded  in  the  neighbouring  river  Hull.  (Owen,  'British  Fossil 
Mammals.') 

Fossil  Beavers. 

M.  Gothelf  de  Fischer  was  the  first  to  announce  the  existence  of  the 
remains  of  an  extinct  animal  allied  to  the  Beaver.  These  remains, 
consisting  of  a  fossil  cranium,  were  discovered  on  the  sandy  borders 
of  the  Sea  of  Ajsof.  Cuvier  admitted  the  specific  distinctness  of  this 
animal,  and  adopted  the  name  Castor  trogwUherium,  Professor  Owen, 
in  his  history  of '  British  Fossil  Mammals,'  describes  the  structure  of 
the  teeth  in  this  animal  from  a  specimen  in  the  oollection  of  John 
Hunter  in  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England,  which  was  found 
in  Walker's  Clifl^  Norfolk,  and  from  a  specimen  in  the  possession  of 
Sir  Charles  Lyell  foimd  in  the  Norwich  Crag  at  Cromer.  From  an 
examination  of  these  specimens  Professor  Owen  was  enabled  to  add 
considerably  to  the  details  of  our  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  this 
animal  On  this  ground  he  proposes  to  constitute  for  this  species  a 
new  subgenus,  and  to  call  it  Trogontherium  Owrieri,  From  the  cha- 
racter of  the  remains  of  the  Trogontherium,  Professor  Owen  concludes 
that  it  must  have  been  much  larger  than  the  European  Beaver.  That 
the  European  Beaver  is  distinct  and  not  the  degenerate  descendant 
of  the  great  Trogontherium,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  remains  of 
beavers  in  no  respect  differing  either  in  size  or  in  anatomical  cha- 
racters from  the  Castor  Fiber  of  the  present  day  co-existed  with  the 
TrogOTUJieriiMn. 

Remains  of  the  Common  B>eavcr  have  been  discovered  by  Mr.  Green,  in 
company  with  the  extinct  Mammoth,  in  the  lacustrine  formations  at 


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Bacton.  Remains  of  the  Beaver  have  also  been  found  in  the  olifb  at 
Mundedej,  and  in  the  oyster-bed  at  Happisburg  in  Norfolk ;  also  in 
Uie  fluTio-marine  crag  at  Thorpe  in  Suffolk,  and  from  a  formation 
earlier  still  in  the  fluyio-marine  crag  at  Sisewell  Qiq)  near  Southwold, 
SuffoIL  M.  Fischer  also  reoeived  the  remains  of  another  Beaver  with 
those  of  Troffontharium  from  near  the  lake  of  Rostoff,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  JaroBslow,  and  which  he  called  Trogontherium  Wemeri,  but 
which  Cuvier  recognised  as  the  remains  of  the  Ck>mmon  Beaver. 

BECCAFI'CO,  the  Italian  name  for  Btccafigo,  or  Fig-Eater;  Bee- 
jigHe  of  the  French ;  FicediUa  of  the  Romans ;  and  SmcoaI^  of  the 
Gneks.  Prince  Boni^arte,  in  his  '  Speochio  Comparativo/  observes 
that  this  name  is  applied  to  different  birds  of  the  genus  Sylvia  (Sylvan 
Warblers),  whenever  they  are  fat,  and  in  a  good  state  for  the  table. 
They  are  gen^ratlly  fruit-eaters  in  the  season ;  but  the  true  Beccqfico, 
with  its  'came  squisita,'  is,  according  to  the  Prince,  the  Sylvia  hor- 
trntis  of  Bechstein.    [Sylvia.] 

BECHBRA,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Plants  proposed  by  Count  Stember]^. 
Beckara  Charafat^kis  occvirs  in  the  strata  of  Coalbrookdale.  In  this 
genus  Stembeig  included  the  Gyrogonitei,  or  fossil  Chora  of  the 
Tertiary  Strata  of  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

BECKER,  or  Braize,  a  Fish.     [Pagbus.] 

BEDSTRAW.    [Galium.] 

BEE,  the  name  common  to  all  the  species  of  a  very  numerous 
tibe  of  Insects  of  the  order  ffymenoptera. 

In  England  alone  about  250  species  have  been  discovered.     Eirby, 
in  his  beautiful  monograph,  'Apum  Angliss,'  divides  them  into  two 
great  groups — Apis  and  MeliUa,  which  differ  principally  in  the  pro- 
boscis.   In  Apis  the  tongue  (Jig.  3,  c), 
or  central   part  of  the  proboscis,  is  ^ 

generally  long,  and  the  proboscis  itself 
has  two  joints,  one  near  the  base,  and 
another  about  the  middle ;  that  at  the 
base  directing  it  outwards,  and  that  in 
the  middle  directing  it  inwards :  when 
folded,  the  apex  of  the  tongue  points  \ 
backwards.      In  MdUta   the    tongue 
IJg.  1,  a)  is  shorty  and  the  proboscis 
has  but  one  fold,  which  is  near  the 
base ;  and  when  folded  the  apex  of  the 
tongue  points  forwards.     These  two 
groups  are  also  subdivided  by  Eirby,  J 
andthe character  of  each  subdivision ,1 
is  given  in  detail ;    but  he  did  not  1 
think  proper  to  give  names  to  these  ^ 
smaller  groups.    It  has  however  since 
been  thought  necessary  to  consider  the 
smaller  groups  as  genera;  and  hence 
they  have  all  been  named,  the  greater  . 
portion  of  them  by  LatreiUe.    When  | 
the  smaller  groups  were   considered  | 
genera,  the  gnater  ones  became  £ami-  ^ 
lies,  and  are  named  Apida  and  Andrew 
Mb  by  Dr.  Leach. 

The  species  of  AndircBwida,  which 
are  very  abundant  during  the  spring     pig.  i.-.The  uMler  side  of  the 
months,  frequent  grassy  banks;  the  Head  of  one  of  the  Andrwnida 
males  are  generally  seen  flying  about  {MtlUtu^    Eirby),   showing    tho 
hedgea    The  females  usually  construct  proboscis,    a,  the  tongue, 
their  nests  underground;  for  which 

pupose  they  generally  select  a  bank  in  a  southern  aspect :  some 
species  choose  sandy  situations,  while  others  prefer  a  heavier  boiL 
The  female  having  fixed  upon  a  convenient  spot,  excavates  a  cylm- 
drical  hole,  from  five  or  six  inches  to  a  foot  in  depth,  and  only  just 
large  enough  to  allow  her  to  enter;  at  the  bottom  it  is  slightly 
increased  in  width,  and  rendered  smooth  by  being  hned  with  a 
glntmous  substanca  The  labour  of  forming  these  cells  is  consider- 
able, for  the  soil  is  removed  grain  by  grain,  and  deposited  round  the 
entrance  of  the  hole,  so  that  a  litUe  hillock  is  formed.  The  cell 
bcmg  completed,  her  next  object  is  to  furnish  it  with  poUen ;  this  is 
coUected  from  flowers,  and  carried  on  the  tibiae  of  the  hmder  l^s, 
which  are  thickly  furnished  with  tolerably  long  hair,  among  which 
the  pollen  is  carried  untQ  she  arrives  at  the  ceR  When  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  poUen  is  coUeoted,  and  made  into  a  kind  of  paste  by  the 
addition  of  a  portion  of  honey,  it  is  formed  into  a  little  ball,  lu  which 
an  egg  is  deposited;  the  mouth  of  the  cell  is  then  carefully  closed,  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  other  insects.  The  egg  soon  hatches,  and 
becomes  a  Uara,  which  feeds  upon  the  poUen  until  it  is  all  consumed; 
the  larva  then  turns  to  a  pupa,  and  the  pupa  to  the  perfect  insect. 
It  is  remarkable  that  the  Androsnida  seldom  make  their  appearance 
after  the  spring  months  and  early  part  of  the  summer,  although  ^e 
eggi  laid  at^at  time  have  undergone  all  their  metamorphoses  (m 
many  instances)  by  the  autumn.  The  newly-disclosed  insect  remains 
all  the  intermediate  time  in  a  torpid  state.  We  beheve  that  the 
species  only  live  one  year,  for  in  the  autunm  we  have  found  many  of 
them  on  the  ground  dead,  and  the  inner  part  of  their  body  devoui-ed  : 
this  is  probably  done  by  a  spider  which  is  found  in  the  same  situations. 
The  habits  of  the  species  of  ApidoR  are  more  variable  :  many  exca- 
vate their  cells  in  wood ;  some,  like  the  cuckoo,  make  use  of  the  neste 


of  other  species ;  others  again  do  not  excavate  cells,  but  make  use  of 
any  hole  already  formed,  or  of  some  other  situation  convenient  for 
that  purpose.  Of  this  last  description  a  species  of  the  genus  Anthi 
dium  has  afforded  a  remarkable  instance.  This  bee  is  nearly  the 
size  of  the  Hive-Bee,  but  is  broader  in  proportion,  and  is  easily 
distinguished  frx)m  all  the  hitherto-discovered  British  species,  by 
having  a  series  of  bright  yellow  spots  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen. 
A  feinale  of  this  species  has  been  known  to  build  her  nest  in  the  lock 
of  a  garden  gata  The  nest  consists  of  a  number  of  cells  formed  of 
down  ooUeoted  from  the  Anemone  syhestris,  and  probably  from  other 
wooDy-leaved  plants,  scraped  off  by  the  bee  with  its  jaws. 

The  flight  of  this  insect  is  exceedingly  swift ;  but  when  it  has  dis- 
covered a  flower  on  which  it  intends  to  settle  (generally  that  of  the 
blind  nettle),  it  stops  suddenly,  poises  itself  in  the  air  for  a  few 
seconds,  and  then  darts  upon  the  flower,  dislodging  any  bee  which 
may  have  settled  upon  it  before. 

Bometimee  it  appears  more  anxious  to  dislodge  other  bees,  and  to 
prevent  their  gauiering  honey,  than  to  collect  for  itself,  for  it  flies 
about  from  flower  to  flower,  and  pounces  upon  all  it  meets  with. 

Anthophora  retuta  is  another  bee,  which  in  its  flight  very  much 
resembles  the  one  just  described.  This  bee  is  considerably  larger 
than  the  Hive-Bee :  the  male  is  brown,  sometimes  inclining  to  an 
ochre  colour,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  three  long  tufts  of  hair  which 
are  attached  to  the  middle  leg,  two  of  them  to  the  tip  of  the  iabm 
(that  on  the  posterior  part  bemg  very  long),  and  another  to  the  tip  of 
the  tarsus.  The  female  of  this  species  is  so  much  unlike  the  male, 
that  it  has  been  thought  by  many  to  be  a  distinct  species.  It  is 
entirely  black,  except  the  outer  side  of  the  hinder  tibiae,  which  is 
covered  with  red  haus :  it  is  without  the  tufts  on  the  intermediate 
leg.  This  species  constructs  its  cells  in  the  sides  of  banks,  generally 
choosing  those  which  are  perpendicular. 

It  is  to  this  same  family  that  the  Hive-Bee  belongs,  to  the  history 
and  economy  of  which  we  shall  confine  ourselves. 

ThQ  Apis  meUificOy  Hive-Bee,  or  Honey-Bee,  has  for  many  ages  justly 
claimed  the  attention  and  study  of  naturalists.  Among  the  earliest 
of  its  observers  may  be  enumerated  Aristotie  and  Virgil ;  also  Aristo- 
machus  of  Soli  in  Cilicia,  and  PluliBCUB  the  Thasian.  Aristomaohns, 
we  are  told  by  Pliny,  attended  solely  to  bees  for  fifty-eight  years ;  and 
Philiscus,  it  is  said,  spent  the  whole  of  his  time  in  forests,  investigating 
their  habits.  (Plin.  xi  9.)  Both  these  observers  wrote  on  the  Bee. 
In  modem  times  the  labours  of  Swammerdam,  R^umur,  Bonnet^ 
Schiraoh,  Thorley,  Hunter,  Huber,  and  others,  have  added  greatiy  to 
our  knowledge  of  this  interesting  spedes. 


Fig.  2. — ^The  three  descriptions  of  Bees  of  a  Hive. 

a,  the  Male  or  Drone ;  &,  ttie  Neuter  or  Worker ;  <?,  the  Female  or  Qaecn. 

The  lines  denote  the  natxiral  length  of  each. 

The  Honey-Bee  always  lives  in  society  with  many  of  its  own  speoies. 
In  its  natural  state  it  generally  constructs  its  nest  m  hollow  trees ; 


Digitized  by 


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423 


BEE. 


but  throughout  Europe  it  is  now  rather  a  rare  ooouirenoe  to  find  it 
otherwise  than  domesticated. 

Each  Bodetj  or  swarm  is  composed  of  three  descriptions  of  Bees — 
the  Male^  or  Drone;  the  Neuter,  or  Worker;  and  the  Female,  or  Queen. 

The  Drone,  or  Male  Bee,  in  general  form,  is  almost  cYlindrical,  the 
separation  between  the  thorax  and  abdomen  being  much  lees  distinct 
than  in  the  females  or  neuters.  The  head  is  la^e,  rather  narrower 
than  the  thorax :  the  eyes  are  veiy  large,  and  meet  at  the  vertex  of 
the  head,  but  divide  as  they  approach  the  forehead;  dose  to  the 
point  of  separation  there  are  three  stemmata.  The  antenna  are 
13-jointed.  The  thorax  is  thickly  covered  above  and  beneath  with 
short  pale  brown  hairs  resembling  velvet.  The  length  of  the  abdomen 
is  scarcely  greater  than  is  its  breadth,  and  it  is  terminated  obtusely : 
it  has  only  foiur  segments  visible  fix>m  the  upper  side,  the  anal  seg- 
ments being  hidden  beneath  the  others.  The  bual  and  apical  segments 
are  each  thickly  covered  with  pale  hairs.  The  colour  of  the  abdomen 
is  black  above,  having  the  edge  of  each  segment  of  a  light  brown 
colour;  the  underside  of  the  body  is  also  pala.  The  legs  are  black; 
the  inner  side  of  the  hinder  legs  is  covered  with  pale  down.  All  the 
daws  are  divided,  the  inner  part  being  nearly  equal  in  length  to  the 
outer  part.  The  wings  are  large,  and  rather  longer  than  &e  body ; 
the  anterior  wings  are  rather  acute  at  the  apex. 

The  Drone  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  queen  and 
workers  by  its  greater  breadth,  large  eyes  (which  meet  at  the  top  of 
the  head),  and  the  abdomen  having  only  four  segments  visible  from 
the  upper  side.  The  wings  are  much  longer  in  proportion  than  those 
of  the  worker  or  the  queen,  for  in  this  sex  they  reach  beyond  the 
extremity  of  the  abdomen. 

The  number  of  drones  in  a  hive  is  remarkably  irregular,  varying 
from  600  or  700  to  2000 ;  but  the  proportion  is  not  regulated  by  the 
number  of  bees  contained  in  the  hive^,  for  a  small  swarm  will  some- 
times possess  as  many  drones  as  a  large  one. 

The  time  required  to  complete  the  metamorphosis  of  the  drone  is 
as  follows.  In  three  days  after  the  deposition  of  the  egg  the  larva 
inakes  its  appearance  :  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  day  from  this 
time,  the  larva,  having  then  arrived  at  its  full  growth,  spins  its  cocoon, 
a  silken  substance  with  which  it  lines  the  interior  of  its  cell :  this  is 
accomplished  in  about  a  day  and  a  hal£  It  then  turns  to  the  pupa, 
and  ultimately  to  the  perfect  insect,  having  been  aboiit  24  days  from 
the  laying  of  i^e  egg  to  the  coming  forth  in  the  winged  state. 

The  Neuter,  or  Worker,  is  of  a  dark-brown  colour,  approaching  to 
black ;  the  head  and  thorax  resemble  thoae  of  ike  female,  but  the 
head  has  black  hair  on  the  vertex.  The  abdomen  is  conical,  and 
composed  of  six  distinct  segments :  the  basal  one  is  thickly  covered 
with  hair,  the  other  segments  are  sparingly  clothed.  The  legs  are 
black :  the  plantse  of  the  hinder  legs  are  transversely  striated  on  the 
inner  side.  The  wings  when  dosed  nearly  reach  to  the  apex  of  the 
abdomen. 

In  about  four  days  after  the  egg  of  the  Worker  has  been  deposited 
the  larva  is  hatched,  and  in  five  or  six  days  more  (according  to  the 
weather)  it  is  full  grown ;  it  is  then  sealed  up  in  its  cell  by  the  nurse 
bees  with  a  covering  of  farina  mixed  with  wax.  As  soon  as  the  larva 
is  inclosed  it  spins  its  cocoon,  which  operation  requires  about  86 
hours :  it  then  turns  to  the  pupa,  and  in  about  eight  days  more  to  the 
perfect  insect ;  having  been  21  days  in  existence,  that  is,  from  the 
time  the  egg  was  laid  until  the  insect  has  attained  its  perfect  state. 
The  numbers  of  workers  in  a  well-stocked  hive  is  about  15,000  or 
20,000.  The  occupation  of  these  bees  is  to  collect  honey,  pollen,  and 
propolis ;  to  build  the  combs,  and  to  attend  upon  the  young. 


Fig.  3. — a,  the  proboscis  of  the  Hive-Bee  ;  e,  the  tongae ;  h,  the  hinder  leg 
of  the  Worker.Bee ;  d,  the  part  on  which  the  pollen  is  carried. 

Honey  is  collected  by  means  of  the  proboscis.  To  a  common 
observer  this  instrument  appears  to  be  a  tingle  tube,  through  which 
it  is  thought  the  honey  is  conveyed  to  the  stomach  by  suction ;  but  if 


BEE.  4M 

we  examine  the  proboscis  through  a  lens  of  very  moderate  power,  we 
find  that  it  is  composed  of  five  very  distinct  parts,  a  central  stalk  and 
four  lateral  ones,  two  on  each  side.  The  central  part  is  that  which  ia 
prindpally  used  in  collecting  honey :  this  part  is  not  perforated,  but 
18  a  flat  cartilaginous  substance,  and  is  used  as  a  tongue  in  lapping  up 
the  honey,  which  is  then  conveyed  to  the  pharynx,  and  is  afterwards 
disgorged  into  the  cells  of  the  comb,  part  being  used  for  the  porpoie 
of  feeding  the  young,  and  the  remainder  stored  up  for  the  winter's 
consumption. 

PcUen  is  collected  frvm  the  anthers  of  flowers,  and  is  carried  on  the 
outer  surface  of  the  tibisB,  or  middle  joint  of  the  hinder  leg :  this  part 
of  the  leg  is  very  broad ;  on  one  side  it  is  concave,  and  fnmidied  with 
a  series  of  strong  curved  hairs  on  its  margins,  forming  a  natural 
basket  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  used.  Thin 
substance  mixed  with  honey  forms  tke  food  of  the  lanre,  for  which 
purpose  alone  it  is  collected. 

In  many  instances  it  is  onl^  by  the  bees  travdling  from  flower  to 
flower  that  the  pollen  or  farma  is  carried  from  the  male  to  the 
female  flowers,  without  which  they  would  not  fructify.  One  species 
of  bee  would  not  be  sufficient  to  fructify  all  the  various  sorts  of 
flowers,  were  the  bees  of  that  spedes  ever  so  numerous,  for  it  requires 
species  of  different  sizes  and  different  constructions.  "  M.  Sprengel 
found,  that  not  only  are  insects  indispensable  in  fructifying  different 
spedes  of  Irit,  but  that  some  of  them,  as  /.  Xi^iwn,  require  the 
agency  of  the  larger  humble  bees,  which  alone  are  strong  enough  to 
foroe  their  way  beneath  the  stile  flag ;  and  hence,  as  these  insects  are 
not  so  common  as  many  others,  this  Iris  is  often  barren,  or  bears 
imperfect  seeds." 

PropoUs  is  a  resinous  unctuous  substance,  of  a  reddish  colour,  and 
is  collected  from  the  buds  of  trees  :  it  is  not  only  used  in  lining  the 
cells  of  a  new  comb,  but  it  is  sometimes  kneaded  with  wax  and  used 
in  rebuilding  weak  parte.  It  ia  also  used  in  stopping  all  the  crevices 
in  the  interior  of  a  hive.  The  workers  whidi  arrive  laden  with  this 
substance  are  relieved  of  their  burden  by  others ;  these  in  their  turn 
distribute  it  among  many,  who  employ  it  for  the  purposes  above 
mentioned. 

Nature  has  provided  checks  to  prevent  the  too  n4>id  increase  of  the 
various  spedes  of  insects.  Among  those  of  the  Hive-Bee,  the  hornet 
and  wasp,  and  two  or  three  spedes  of  moths,  commit  great  devasta- 
tion. Wasps  frequently  take  possession  of  a  hive,  and  after  destroy- 
ing, or  causing  their  weaker  neighbours  to  desert  the  hive,  consume 
all  the  honey  it  contains,  and  sometimes  even  construct  their  own 
nests  in  the  hive.  Achtrowtia  <Uropos,  the  Sphinx,  or  the  Death's- 
Head  Hawk-Moth,  which  is  almost  as  laigo  as  our  common  bat, 
sometimes  makes  its  way  into  hives,  and  consumes  mudi  of  the  beeif 
stores.  This  insect  has  the  power  of  emitting  a  peculiar  sound,  not 
unlike  that  of  the  queen-bee :  this  sound  ia  supposed  to  have  the 
same  effect  (that  of  rendering  the  workers  motionless)  as  that  emitted 
by  the  queen. 

Two  other  moths  commit  great  devastation  in  hives :  these  are 
small  spedes  {OcUleria  alvearia,  and  Q,  meioneUa — ^the  Honey-Moth, 
and  the  Honeycomb-Moth,  which,  in  spite  of  the  guards  constantly 
kept  at  the  entrance  of  hives,  gain  admittance,  and  deposit  their  oggs 
in  the  combs.  The  larvae  hatched  frt>m  these  eggs  form  passages 
through  the  comb  in  all  directions,  spinning  a  s^en  tube  as  they 
proceed,  which  it  appears  is  too  strongior  the  bees  to  destrov,  and  of 
course  tiiey  cannot  sting  the  larvsd.  Theee  larvae  generally  oolige  the 
bees  to  desert  the  hive  after  a  short  time. 

In  attending  upon  the  young  the  labour  of  the  workers  appears  to 
be  divided  :  a  certain  number  always  remain  brooding  over  the  cells 
and  feeding  them,  while  others  are  employed  in  collecting  honey.  It 
is  these  last  that  are  the  prindpal  secreters  of  wax,  and  are  called 
Wax- Workers  :  the  former  are  called  Nurse-Bees. 

The  Queen-Bee  is  of  a  dark-brown  colour :  the  head  is  thickly  for* 
nished  with  ydlow  hairs,  except  on  the  forehead,  where  the  hair  is 
nearly  black ;  on  the  vertex  there  are  three  small  convex  simple  eyes, 
or  stemmata.  The  antennae  are  yellow  beneath  and  brown  above,  and 
composed  of  twelve  joints,  the  basil  joint  is  more  than  one-tiiird  of 
the  whole  leng^,  the  remaining  joints  are  bent  forwards,  and  at  M 
angle  with  the  first.  The  thorax  is  covered  with  pale-brown  hairs. 
The  abdomen  is  the  shape  of  an  elongated  cone,  and  nearly  smooth, 
exhibiting  six  distinct  segments  above :  the  under  dde  of  the  body 
and  the  base  of  each  segment  above  are  of  a  paler  colour  than  the 
remaining  parts.  The  legs  are  of  a  brownish  yellow :  the  femora  and 
tibiae  of  the  anterior  legs  and  the  base  of  the  femora  of  the  posterior 
legs  are  brown.  All  the  claws  of  the  tand  are  divided,  the  inner  divi- 
sion being  much  shorter  than  the  outer  one.  The  wings  are  short  and 
small  in  proportion,  scarcdy  reaching  more  than  half  the  length  of 
the  abdomen. 

This  sex  is  furnished  with  a  bent  sting ;  in  the  neuter  the  sting  is 
straight ;  the  male  has  no  sting.  The  Queen-Bee  resembles  the  worker 
in  the  shape  of  the  head  and  thorax ;  but  the  great  length  of  tiie 
abdomen  and  the  paler  colour  of  the  legs  and  antennae^  are  its  chief 
distinguishing  characteristics.  There  is  but  one  queen  in  a  hive,  who 
is  treated  witii  the  greatest  attention  by  all  the  otiier  bees.  It  might 
be  wondered  how  they  can  distinguish  the  queen  from  any  other  bee, 
the  interior  of  the  hive  being  quite  dark :  in  this  the  antenns  are 
their  sole  guide,  for  if  the  workers  be  prevented  toudiing  her  oocar 


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Bionally  with  the  antennsa  they  proceed  as  if  she  were  lost.  This  has 
heen  satisfactorily  proved  by  some  ingenious  experiments  by  Huber. 
If  by  accident  the  Queen  be  killed,  or  if  she  die,  her  dead  body  is  still 
treated  with  attention,  and  for  a  time  even  preferred  to  any  other 
queen. 

The  Queen  being  accidentally  or  intentionally  removed  from  a  hive, 
her  absence  is  soon  discovered  and  great  disorder  follows ;  but  this  Ib 
only  temporary,  for  in  a  few  hours  preparation  is  made  to  replace  her 
Ices.  The  lanrsd  of  neuters  from  two  to  three  days  old  are  selected 
for  Uiis  purpose:  the  cells  containing  them  are  each  enlaiged  by 
sacrificing  three  adjoining  cells,  and  in  this  space  the  workers  build  a 
cylindrioil  tube  which  surrounds  the  young  larvsd,  which  are  then 
supplied  with  the  same  food  as  that  given  to  the  ordinary  royid  larvae, 
and  which  is  more  pungent  than  that  given  to  common  larvse.  In 
about  three  days'  time  a  perpendicular  tube  is  constructed  and  joined 
to  the  mouth  of  the  cell  just  described ;  into  this  the  larva  gradually 
makes  its  way,  moving  ia  a  spiral  direction.  It  then  remains  two 
days  in  a  perpendicular  position,  the  head  being  downwards,  after 
which  it  turns  to  the  pupa  and  then  to  a  queen.  As  several  hatch 
nearly  at  the  same  time,  the  strongest  stings  the  others  to  death,  and 
becomes  ruler  of  the  hive.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  worker- 
bees  are  imperfect  females,  requiring  only  a  slight  difference  of  treat- 
ment in  the  larva  state  to  become  queens  or  fertile  females. 

If  the  Queen  be  removed  from  a  nive,  and  a  stranger  be  immediately 
introduced,  she  is  surrounded  and  kept  prisoner  until  she  dies  of 
hunger ;  for  the  woxkers  never  sting  a  Queen.  If)  however,  18  hours 
have  eh^Mcd  since  the  loss  of  the  former  queen,  the  stranger  is 
better  received,  for  although  she  is  at  first  surrounded,  she  is  ultimately 
set  at  liberty,  and  treated  with  all  the  usual  attention ;  but  if  24  hours 
hnve  clasped  before  the  strange  queen  be  introduced,  she  is  at  once 
admitted  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  hive. 

While  the  Queen  remains  ia  a  hive,  the  introduction  of  a  strange 
queen  will  occasion  a  disturbance,  somewhat  similar  to  that  which 
takes  place  when  two  or  three  young  queens  escape  frx>m  their  cells  at 
the  same  time :  both  the  stranger  and  the  reigning  queen  are  sur^ 
rounded  by  the  workers,  and  the  escape  of  either  being  tiius  prevented, 
they  are  soon  brought  into  contact.  A  battie  ensues,  which  ends  in  the 
death  of  one  of  them,  and  the  other  then  becomes  ruler  of  the  hive. 

The  sole  occupation  of  the  Queen  is  to  lay  eggs  in  the  various  cells 
prepared  by  the  workers  for  that  purpose,  for  she  takes  no  care  of  the 
young  herself.  Until  she  Ib  about  eleven  months  old,  the  egga  laid 
are  nearly  all  such  as  will  turn  to  workers,  but  at  the  completion  of 
that  period,  which  most  frequentiy  happens  in  the  spring  time,  the 
queen  commences  the  great  laying  of  the  egga  of  males ;  at  this  time 
the  queen  will  lay  from  2000  to  8000  ^;gs,  sometimes  from  40  to  50 
a  day  being  laid  during  the  months  of  l£^^  and  April.  There  is  also 
anothcF  laying  of  the  eggB  of  males  in  the  autumn,  but  this  is  not  so 
considerable.  In  the  interval,  the  eggs  of  workers  are  almost  exclu- 
sively laid. 

There  seems  to  be  a  relation  between  the  laying  of  the  eggs  of  males 
and  the  construction  of  royal  cells,  for  the  workers  always  commence 
the  oonstmotion  of  the  latter  at  the  time  that  the  female  is  laying  the 
eggs  that  are  to  turn  to  drones. 

The  royal  cells  are  very  different  from  those  of  the  male  or  worker, 
and  are  generally  suspended  jaom  the  edges  or  sides  of  the  comb : 
their  number  varies 
from  two  or  three  to 
twenty,  thou|^  the 
latter  ia  a  very  un- 
usual number.  In 
form  they  are  very 

much    like    a  pear,  J  \ 

having   the   thickest  ■  i 

end    joined    to    the  I  j 

comb,  the  other  end,  I  / 

at   which    part    the  1  ' 

mouth  or  entrance  of 
the  cell  is  situated, 
hanging  downwards. 

In  these  cells  the 
queen    deposits    the 

egsn  of  future  queens,  „,  ,  „^  ^  .  «  „  ,^  , 
2  intervals  of  at  W  ^^'  ^'"^^^  *^*'^''"  ^"'  "'  ^^"^  ^^^'^  ^'  the  same, 
a  day,  and  always  during  the  period  of  laying  the  eggs  of  males. 
When  the  Queen  is  about  to  lay,  she  thrusts  her  head  into  a  cell 
to  ascertain  its  fitness ;  she  then  inserts  her  abdomen,  and  in  a  few 
seconds  withdraws  it,  leaving  an  egg  at  the  bottom  of  the  cell  fixed 
in  an  upright  position  by  a  riutinous  substance  at  one  of  its  ends. 

The  egK  is  about  one^w^fth  of  an  inch  long,  and  of  a  cylindrical 
form,  w^  rounded  ends.  When  the  larva  emerges  from  the  egg,  it  is 
immediately  supplied  with  food  by  the  nurse-bees.  This  larva  may  be 
seen  lying  in  a  curved  position  at  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  where  it  con- 
tinues to  grow  until  it  has  completely  filled  up  the  space ;  when  it  is 
fall  grown  it  lies  horizontally  with  its  head  towaixLB  the  entrance. 
The  food  g^ven  to  the  larva  Lb  a  mixture  of  fiuina,  honey,  and  water, 
which  is  converted  into  a  whitish  jellv  by  elaboration  in  tiie  stomachs 
of  the  nurse-bees :  the  proportions  of  farina  and  honey  vary  according 
to  the  age  of  the  young,  and  we  believe  that  the  food  is  not  given 


directly  to  the  larva,  but  disgoiged  into  the  ceU,  so  that  the  insect  up 
surrounded  with  it  But  when  the  larva  is  nearly  full  grown,  its  food 
is  sweeter  (probably  containing  a  greater  proportion  of  honey),  and 
Ib  applied  by  the  nurse-bees  directiy  to  its  mouth,  somewhat  in  the 
manner  of  a  bird  feeding  its  young. 


J 


Fig.  5. — a,  the  Egg ;  h,  the  Larra ;  c,  the  Papa  of  the  Worker-Bee ;  and 
d,  the  head  of  the  Larva  magnified. 

The  drone  and  worker-bees  are  of  a  grayish  colour  when  they  first 
leave  their  cells,  and  several  days  elapse  before  they  are  strong  enough 
to  fiy ;  but  the  queen  is  kept  prisoner  in  her  cell  for  some  time  after 
she  has  assumed  the  imago  state.  The  reasons  for  this  imprisonment 
we  shall  presentiy  show. 

When  the  larvso  in  the  queens'  cells  are  about  to  change  into  pup» 
the  old  queen  begins  to  exhibit  signs  of  agitation — running  carelessly 
over  the  cells,  occasionally  thrusting  her  abdomen  into  some  of  them 
as  if  about  to  lay,  but  withdrawing  without  having  done  so,  or 
perhaps  laying  them  on  the  side  of  the  cell  instead  of  at  the  bottom. 
She  is  no  longer  surrounded  by  her  usual  circle  of  attendants,  and 
her  agitation  being  communicated  to  all  she  passes,  at  length  a  general 
confusion  is  created,  till  at  last  the  greater  portion  of  the  bees  rush 
out  of  the  hive  with  that  queen  at  their  head.  It  is  thus  that  the 
first  swarm  quits  the  hive,  and  it  is  invariably  conducted  by  the  old 
queen. 

At  any  other  time  the  queen  would  have  been  unable  to  fly,  the 
great  number  of  eggs  contained  in  her  abdomen  rendering  her  too 
heavy ;  this  however  Ib  sufficiently  reduced  after  the  great  laying  just 
described  to  enable  her  to  fiy  with  ease. 

An  unerring  instinct  obligee  the  Queen  to  leave  the  hive  at  this 
time,  for  two  sovereign  never  can  co-exist  in  the  same  community ; 
and  had  she  not  left  it  the  young  queens  (now  just  about  to  qtdt  their 
cells)  would  inevitably  have  been  killed  oy  her.  Let  us  now  observe 
what  is  gomg  on  in  the  hive  which  has  just  been  deserted  by  its 
queen.  It  would  seem  as  if  it  were  too  much  reduced  by  the  departure 
of  the  swarm,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  tiiat  this  event  never 
occurs  except  in  the  middle  of  the  day  and  during  veiy  fine  sunny 
weather,  when  a  large  portion  of  the  bees  are  abroad  gathering  honey 
and  pollen ;  and  if  the  nive  contain  a  numerous  colony,  these  on  their 
return,  together  with  those  which  have  not  been  disturbed  during 
the  gener^  confusion,  and  a  considerable  number  of  young  brood 
continually  hatching,  form  a  sufficient  stock,  and  perhaps  even  enough 
to  send  off  another  swarm. 

In  two  or  three  days*  time  from  the  leaving  of  the  first  swarm 
perfect  order  is  restored  in  the  hive,  and  the  nurse-bees  continue  to 
attend  upon  the  young,  carefully  watching  the  queens'  cells,  and 
working  at  the  outsides  by  removing  the  wax  from  the  surface.  It 
is  said  that  the  wax  is  removed  in  order  to  facilitate  the  exit  of  the 
young  queen ;  but  although  the  removal  of  it  may  thus  be  of  service, 
we  are  not  inclined  to  think  it  is  done  for  that  purpose. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  royal  cells  at  intervals  of  at  least  a  day, 
and  it  consequentiy  follows  that  the  completion  and  closing  of  these 
cells  must  lake  place  at  different  times :  we  say  completion,  for  at 
the  time  the  queen  lays  the  eggs  the  cells  are  only  half  formed,  and 
resemble  the  cup  of  an  acorn.  When  the  cells  have  been  closed  about 
seven  days  the  yoimg  queen  cuts  away  with  her  jaws  the  part  of  the 
silken  covering  at  the  mouth  of  the  cell,  and  if  permitted  would  make 
her  escape  ;  but  the  bees  guarding  the  cells  solder  the  covering  vdth 
some  particles  of  wax,  and  keep  her  prisoner  about  two  days,  in  which 
time  me  obtains  sufficient  strength  to  be  able  to  fiy  immediately  on 
quitting  her  prison.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  by  what  means  the  bees 
guarding  the  royal  cells  can  judge  of  the  fitness  of  the  inclosed  female 
for  liberation.  The  most  probable  conjecture  is,  that  they  judge  by 
the  quality  of  the  sound  emitted  by  the  prisoner  at  this  time.  This 
sound  consists  of  a  number  of  monotonous  notes  so  rapidly  repeated 
as  almost  to  appear  one  continuous  sound.  The  sound  is  produced 
by  the  vibration  of  tiie  wings,  and  probably  becomes  shaiper  and  more 
audible  as  the  bee  acquires  strength. 

The  young  queen  upon  being  liberated  immediately  approaches  the 
remaining  royal  cells,  and  would  destroy  their  contents  by  tearing 
them  open  and  mortally  woimding  her  rivals  with  her  sting ;  but  this 
is  not  permitted,  for  so  long  as  there  is  a  sufficient  number  of  guards 
they  bite  and  drive  her  away.  She  has  the  power  however  of  arresting 
tins  ill-treatment  for  awhile  by  emitting  a  peculiar  soimd,  which  has 
such  an  effect  on  the  sentinels  that  they  remain  motionless ;  and  she 
sometimes  takes  advantage  of  this  to  make  an  attack  upon  the  royal 
cells.  But  as  the  sound  ceases  when  she  moves  the  charm  Ib  dissolved, 
her  guards  recover  their  power,  and  she  Ib  again  driven  back. 

After  a  time  the  young  queen,  owing  to  her  strong  desire  to  attack 
the  royal  cells  and  the  constant  repulses  she  meets  with,  becomes 
extvemely  agitated,  and  by  running  quickly  over  the  cells  and  group* 


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of  workers  oommunicateB  Uer  disorder  to  a  great  portion  of  the  bees,  ; 
80  that  a  Urge  number  quit  the  hive  and  cluster  about  the  outside, 
and  after  a  short  time  the  voung  queen  leaves  the  hive  with  a  swarm. 
Thus  it  is  that  the  second  swarm  is  thrown  off.    It  seldom  happens 
that  a  hive  sends  off  more  than  two  or  three  swarms ;  after  which,  { 
unless  the  hive  be  an  extremely  populous  one,  there  are  so  few  bees  i 
left  that  there  is  not  a  sufficient  number  to  keep  proper  guard  over 
the  royal  cells.    The  young  queens  consequently  make  thdir  escape, 
two  or  three  at  a  time,  in  which  case  a  contest  takes  place  between 
them,  and  the  strongest  remains  queen  of  the  hive,  after  destroying 
all  the  royal  larvee  and  pup»  that  remain. 

But  if  the  hive  be  an  unusually  populous  one  there  may  be  four  or 
five  swarms  sent  off,  all  accompanied  by  the  same  circumstances  as 
those  just  related.  In  case  a  hi^e  is  poorly  stocked  at  the  time  of  the 
great  laying  of  male  eggs  no  royal  cells  are  built,  and  consequently  no 
swarms  leave.  After  the  swarming  a  general  massacre  of  the  drones 
takes  place :  these  defenceless  individuals  (for  the  male  has  no  sting) 
are  stung  to  death  by  the  neuters. 

When  a  swarm  quits  a  hive  it  usually  clusters  on  a  tree  or  bush  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  if  it  be  not  hived  it  will  shortly  leave  this 
situation,  and  take  possession  of  an  old  tree  or  part  of  an  old  buildincr. 
It  is  said  that  bees  send  out  scouts  before  leaving  the  hive  to  search 
for  a  convenient  situation  for  their  new  abode,  and  that  they  may  be 
seen  going  badkvnekrds  and  forwards  to  the  spot  fixed  upon  some  HtUe 
time  before  the  swarm  departs.  The  clustering  of  the  swarm  probably 
proceeds  from  a  desire  in  the  bees  to  be  congregated  together  prior 
to  their  last  flight.  As  soon  as  the  bees  have  taken  poaaeasion  of  a 
new  abode,  or  have  been  hived,  they  commence  building  the  comb. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  first  swarm  is  always  conducted  by  an 
old  queen,  and  the  following  swarms  by  the  yoimg  queens  as  they  are 
sucoessivdy  hatched.  The  latter  are  in  a  virgin  state,  but  not  so  the 
former,  nor  do  these  require  farther  intercourse  with  the  male.  About 
two  or  three  days  after  quitting  her  cell,  and  the  fifth  day  of  her 
existence  in  the  win^^  state,  the  young  queen  quits  the  hive,  and 
after  reconnoitring  its  exterior  and  making  herself  acquainted  with  its 
situation  by  flying  from  it  and  returning  several  times,  she  then  soars 
high  in  the  air,  forming  spiral  circles  as  she  ascends.  This  ascent  is 
generally  preceded  by  a  flight  of  drones,  and  it  is  at  this  time  (whilst 
on  the  wing)  that  the  sexual  intercourse  takes  place.  The  queen  is 
never  observed  to  quit  the  hive  but  at  this  time,  and  hence  it  is  sup- 
posed that  this  one  intercourse  is  sufficient  to  fertilise  all  the  eggs 
she  may  ever  lay.  Huber  decidedly  ascertained  that  it  was  sufficient 
for  two  years.  We  think  it  very  improbable  that  a  queen  would  live 
much  beyond  that  time.  In  about  46  hours  after  the  intercourse 
with  the  male  has  taken  place,  at  which  time  a  part  of  the  comb  would 
be  constructed  in  the  new  hive,  the  queen  commences  laying  her  eggs ; 
those  first  deposited  being  such  as  will  turn  to  workers,  as  before 
described. 

l%e  Conttruction  of  the  Comb, — In  the  'Introduction  to  British 
Entomology '  by  Kirby  and  Spence,  after  referring  to  the  various 
accounts  of  ancient  and  modem  writers  on  this  subject,  it  is  observed, 
"  StiU  the  construction  of  tiie  comb  of  the  bee-hive  is  a  miracle  which 
overwhelms  our  faculties."  John  Hunter,  who  was  the  first  to  discover 
the  true  origin  of  wax,  imagined  that  the  waxen  scales  (which  we 
shall  hereafter  mention)  bore  some  proportion  to  the  different  parts 
of  the  cells  in  the  formation  of  which  they  were  used,  and  thus  fm> 
nished  a  guide  to  their  construction.  Some  naturalists  have  conjec- 
tured that  the  antennse,  mandibles,  and  other  parts  of  the  body  were 
used  to  measure  the  work,  and  firam  this  they  have  endeavoured  to 
account  for  the  accuracy  of  their  proceedings.  The  latter  coxnecture 
appears  incompatible  with  instinct,  while  the  well-authenticated  mode 
of  proceeding  in  the  construction  of  the  comb  throws  great  doubt  on 
the  former. 

Upon  examination  of  various  combs,  the  partitions  between  all  the 
ordinary  cells  (both  at  the  sides  and  bottoms)  are  found  to  be  exactly 
the  same  in  thickness,  and  the  cells  hexagonal  with  angular  bottoms. 
Exceptions  to  this  general  rule  are  occasionally  found,  and  it  is  by 
observing  these  exceptions  with  attention — ^by  observing  the  various 
modifications  of  the  work  under  extraordinary  circumstances,  that 
some  idea  of  the  principles  which  guide  the  bee  in  its  operations  may 
be  formed.  The  royal  cell  is  a  remarkable  exception ;  its  form  we 
have  alreac^  described.  In  the  oi*iginal  construction  of  this  cell,  a 
profusion  of  material  is  always  disposed  of,  particularly  at  the 
junction  of  the  cell  with  the  comb.  The  extra  quantity  of  wax  in 
this  part,  and  on  the  surface  of  the  cell  (which  is  also  unusually 
thick)  is,  however,  soon  reduced  by  numerous  circular  excavations, 
the  depth  of  which  varies  according  to  that  of  the  wax,  and  in  the 
mass  nearest  the  comb  they  actually  become  cells,  though  in  most 
instances  unfit  for  use.  These  cells  are  invariably  cylindrical,  with 
concave  bottoms,  except  they  come  in  contact  with  oUiers,  in  which 
case  the  wax  is  always  removed  from  the  interstices  thus  formed, 
either  at  the  aides  or  at  the  bottoms ;  and  the  partitions  are  thus 
reduced  to  the  same  thickness  as  those  between  the  cells  constructed 
m  the  ordinary  way.  Hence  we  frequently  find,  in  these  parts,  cells 
with  one  side  circular  and  the  other  angular ;  the  situation  of  the 
angles  being  invariably  determined  by  the  poBition  of  those  cells  with 
wmch  they  are  in  contact. 

To  work  in  circles  or  segments  of  circles  appeal's  most  compatible 


Fig.  6. 


with  animal  mechanism  acted  upon  by  instinct^  for  we  oburve  ih&i 
the  works  of  almost  all  insects  (perhaps  we  may  say  almost  all  aoimalft) 
proceed  in  circles  or  segments  of  cirdes.  The  cells  of  almost  all  the 
various  species  of  bees  are  of  this  oonstrueticMi,  and  we  find  thatt 
under  peculiar  circumstances,  those  of  the  hive-bee  are  so  likewise,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  queen's  cell,  and  in  some  of  those  cells  dose  to  it, 
and  sometimes  in  otiier  parts  of  the  comb,  in  cases  where  an  accideat 
has  been  repaired. 
If  some  hive-bees  could  be  made  to  work  in  a  large  solid  maaa  of 
wax,  the  first  cell  formed  would  moat 
probably  be  cylindrical,  with  a  hollow 
circular  bottom ;  this  would  also  be 
the  form  of  the  following  cells  unleu 
they  came  in  contact  with  each  other ; 
and,  in  this  case^  supposiDg  the  cir- 
cumferences of  three  cylinders  were  to 
touch,  the  bees  working  in  each  of 
these  cylinders  would  cut  away  the  was 
at  a,  a,  0,  {fig,  6).  But  supposing  the 
wax  block  were  excavated  on  one  of 
its  sides,  into  the  greatest  number  of 
equal-sized  oylin<kn  that  it  would 
admit  of,  it  would  then  follow  that 
each  cyUnder  would  be  suirounded 
by  six  others,  this  being  the  only  number  of  equal-sized  circles  which 
may  be  placed  round  one  of  the  same  magnitude ;  by  the  same  role 
of  removing  the  wax  from  the  interstioeB,  each  of  these  cylinders 
would  become  hexagons.    Again,  tap- 

.••'"■*-.        ,'•' '■'._      posing  this  block  to  be  a  flat  masB  of 

'v   *'  '\  equal  thickness  in  all  parts  (the  ordi- 

\  nary  thiekneas  of  a  comb),  this  block 
i  being    cut  into    cylinders   of  equal 
/  diameter  on  both  addea^  abd  the  base 
of  each  cylinder  being  exactly  over 
parts  of  three  opposing  ones  (as  repre- 
sented in  fig.  7),  when  the  wax  is  cut 
away  at  the  interstices,  as  at  the  Bides, 
it  follows  that  the  bottoms  of  the 
cells  will  be  each  composed  of  three 
*-..___..'''  equal rhombu»-Bhaped pieces.   Hence 

^'  y  we  have  cells  exsictly  like  those  of 

^'    '  the  hive-bee,  but  not  constructed  in 

the  ordinary  way,  though  upon  such  principles  as  analogy  points 
out  (a  circular  form  being  the  basis  of  the  work),  and  in  such  a  wav 
as  we  have  observed,  they  do  occasionally  proceed.  If  we  allow  that 
the  basis  of  the  work  of  the  hive-bee  be  circular,  the  royal  cell  forms 
no  exception  to  the  general  rule,  so  far  as  the  principle  of  its  con- 
struction is  concerned. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  construction  of  the  comb  in  its  usual  way 
of  proceeding : — 

The  first  operation  is  the  formation  of  wax ;  this  is  not,  as  many 
have  supposed,  the  farina  collected  from  flowers,  but  is  secreted  by  the 
insect  at  the  time  of  building  the  combs.  For  this  purpose  the  wax- 
workers  suspend  themselves  in  festoons  from  the  top  of  the  hire. 
Those  which  first  reach  the  top  fix  tiiemselves  by  the  daws  of  the 
forelegs  to  the  roof,  and  are  followed  by  others  which  attach  them- 
selves to  them,  until  an  inverted  cone  or  festoon  of  bees  is  formed, 
each  end  of  which  is  attached  to  the  roof  of  the  hive.  Before  the 
commencement  of  the  new  oomb^  the  interior  of  a  hive  prosents  a 
series  of  festoons  of  this  description,  intersecting  each  other  in  aU 
directions,  the  beee  remaining  in  perfect  repoiBe. 

At  this  tkne  the  wax  is  secreted  and  mues  ita  appearance  in  little 
scales  which  exude  between  Idhe  segments  on  the  under  side  of  the 
abdomen,  eight  scales  being  visible  in  eac^  bee.  Thu9  wax  being 
secreted,  one  of  the  bees  commences  the  oomb;  having  detached 
itself  from  the  festoon,  it  makes  its  way  to  the  roof  of  the  hive,  and 
after  clearing  a  space  by  driving  away  the  other  bees,  it  detaches  one 
of  the  scales  from  the  abdomen  bv  means  of  its  hinder  legs :  this  is 
then  conveyed  by  the  fore  legs  to  tke  mouth,  where  it  is  masticatec^ 
and  impregnated  with  a  frothy  liquid  by  the  tongue,  in  which  process 
it  obtains  a  Whiteness  and  opacity  which  it  did  not  before  poaseaS' 
The  particles  of  wax  are  then  applied  to  the  roof  of  the  hive. 
Another  scale  undergoes  the  same  process,  and  is  attached  to  the  first 
The  bee  thus  continues  labouring  until  all  its  scales  are  disposed  of; 
it  then  quits  its  situation  and  is  followed  by  another  bee,  which 
proceeds  with  its  scales  in  the  work  already  begun,  depositing  the  wax 
in  a  straight  line  with  the  former  deposition.  The  same  operation  a 
performed  by  many  other  bees,  until  a  oonsider^le  block  is  deposited. 
This  block  is  generally  about  five  or  six  lines  long  (a  line  is  equal  to 
one-twelfth  of  an  inch),  the  height  two  lines,  and  the  thickness 
half  a  line ;  and  it  is  upon  this  that  the  formation  of  the  cells 
commences. 

We  have  seen  that  the  foundation  of  the  block  is  the  work  of  one 
bee,  so  likewise  is  the  commencement  of  the  cdls; — the  former  is  tje 
work  of  what  is  called  the  wax-workers,  which,  we  are  informed  by 
Huber,  do  not  possess  the  power  of  sculpturing  the  ceUs ;— the  celJfl 
are  mode  by  the  sculpturer-bees,  who  are  smaller  than  the  waz-workera 
No  sooner  is  the  block  large  enough  to  admit  a  scnlptuxer-bee  betwMB 


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IM  BEE 

the  wax-workers,  than  the  excavation  commenceB.  There  Beems  to  be 
an  instinctive  desire  to  perform  the  work  of  excavation  wherever 
there  is  room,  even  though  there  may  not  be  sufficient  to  form  a 
perfect  cell ;  for  we  never  observe  a  solid  piece  of  wax  in  any  part  of 
a  comb.  On  the  contraiy,  if  by  any  accident  there  has  been  space 
unoccupied  by  cells,  we  find  that  the  wax  has  been  excavated  at  that 
part  as  much  as  was  practicable. 

The  bee,  impelled  by  instinct  to  deposit  wax  and  to  excavate,  and 
also  guidcKl  by  an  acute  sense  of  feeling  in  the  antennas  (probably 
through  the  elasticity  of  the  wax)  as  to  tho  degree  to  which  the 
excavation  should  proceed,  forms  the  comb ;  and  in  so  doing  it  seems 
to  act,  not  from  choice,  but  from  a  necessity  imposed  upon  it  by  two 
antagonist  principles, — one  causing  it  to  deposit  and  excavate  wax,  and 
the  other  acting  through  the  antenmc,  and  limiting  the  degree  of 
excavation. 

It  is  to  this  desire  for  performing  the  work  of  excavation  that  we 
attribute  the  small  excavations  about  the  royal  cells,  which  are  said  to 
be  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  exit  of  the  young  queen.  If  the 
wax  were  removed  for  that  purpose,  we  do  not  see  why  the  operation 
should  not  be  confined  to  that  part  through  which  she  makes  her 
escape.  On  the  other  hand,  if  from  the  wax  of  the  royal  cells  being 
thicker  than  it  is  in  other  parts  of  the  comb,  the  workers  are  induced  to 
make  excavations,  and  desist  only  upon  the  thickness  being  reduced  to 
that  of  the  ordinary  partitions,  it  follows  that  it  will  at  last  become 
uniformly  thin,  as  described  by  Huber ;  the  reason  here  given  differing 
from  Huber's,  but  we  think  more  in  accordance  with  the  habits  and 
economy  of  the  animaL 

■  In  forming  the  cells,  a  hollow  is  first  excavated  on  one  side  of  the 
wax-blocks ;  this  excavation  is  rather  less  than  the  width  of  a  cell, 
and  is  immediately  followed  by  two  of  a  similar  description  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  block.  The  particles  of  wax  removed  in  excava- 
tion are  kneaded  by  the  jaws  of  the  bee  and  deposited  on  the  edges  of 
the  intended  cells;  the  two  latter  excavations  (6,  h^fig^  12)  are  neces- 
sarily on  each  side  of  the  first  (o^  fig.  12),  though  close  to  it  In 
placing  the  two  last-mentioned  cells,  the  bees  avoid  the  opposite  part 
on  accoimt  of  the  thinness  of  the  wax,  and  the  size  of  the  wax-block 
will  not  admit  of  their  being  remote  from  the  first. 


BEE. 


480 


1-Iff.  8. 


Fig.  9. 


\m7-  "T 


Fig.  10. 


"^^F 


Front.  Side.  Back  view. 

The  front,  side,  and  back  riewi  of  the  block  on  wbich 
the  fintt  excftTations  for  the  cells  are  made. 


Fig.  II. 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  11,  Front  view  magnified.     Fig.  12,  Transverse  section  through  the 

The  above  are  representations  of  the  block  and  its  excavations  at 
this  period.  Supposing  the  parts  at  which  the  circles  nearly  come  in 
contact  with  each  other  to  be  of  the  thickness  proper  for  the  partitions 
of  the  cells,  the  parts  marked  a  in  the  front  view  and  section  (JigB,  II 
and  12)  being  more  than  the  necessary  thickness,  the  bees  will  (accor- 
ding to  the  instinctive  principle  before  mentioned)  naturally  remove 
what  there  is  superfiuous,  thus  forming  an  angle,  determined  by  two 
intersecting  vertical  planes  at  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  inasmuch  as  at 
the  same  time  the  parts  marked  &,  in  the  back  view  and  section  (fig». 
10  and  12),  will  also  be  removed.  The  partition  between  these 
two  1a«t-mentioned  cells  thus  becomes  perpendicular  and  of  equal 
thicknean,  and  is  exactly  opposed  to  the  angle  at  the  bottom  of  the 
first  cell. 

By  this  time  the  necessary  secretion  of  wax  has  taken  place  in  all 
the  bees  composing  the  festoons^  and  they  are  all  anxious  to  dispose 
of  their  scales 
of  wax.  The 
flculpturer- 
bees  are  also 
active,  conse- 
quently more 
wax  is  added 
to  the  maigina 
of  the  ori^nal 
block,  and 
more  exca- 
vations      are  P*g- 18. 

formed.  Supposing  the  block  to  have  increased  to  double  its  original 
length  and  width,  there  would  then  be  room  for  parts  of  four  more 
exc&vtttioos,  on  the  side  on  which  the  first  was  made  (Jig,  18). 


The  same  operation  of  reducing  the  wax  in  the  thick  parts  marked 
c  having  taken  place,  the  sides  of  tho  first  oell  also  become  straight 
and  perpendicular,  and  by  reducing  tho  wax  at  the  parts  dU>  the 
proper  thickness  in  all  the  cells,  the  bottom  of  the  first  cell,  and 
upper  parts  of  the  two  cells  beneath,  in  the  diagram,  become  two- 
sided.  The  work  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  comb  being  in  the  same 
state  of  forwardness  (for  after  the  commencement  it  proceeds  equally 
at  rll  parts),  will  appear  thus — 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  14. 

In  the  above  figure  the  augles  at  the  bases  of  the  cells  are  cut  into 
the  partitions  of  the  opposing  cells,  and  hence  it  is  clearly  seen  that, 
from  the  position  of  those  cells,  the  perpendicular  partitions  of  the 
cells  on  this  side  must  be  longer  than  those  of  the  otuer,  and  that  the 
cells  themselves  must  have  three  quadrilateral  plates  for  their  bases. 

In  carrying  up  the  sides  of  the  cell,  tho  form  is  regulated  by  the 
intersection  of  the  surrounding  circles,  as  represented  in  fig.  15.  But 
the  circles  described  in  fig.  15,  parts 
of  which  are  shown  in  most  of  the 
other  figures,  represent  those  which  are 
inclosed  by  the  hexagons ;  whereas  we 
believe  the  natural  circumference  of  / 
each  cell  (supposing  it  to  be  cylindri- 
cal) is  that  by  which  the  hexagon  is 
inclosed  ;  hence  it  will  be  necessary  to 
imagine  the  circles  partly  intersecting 
each  other.  { 

It  has  now  been  demonstrated  that 
the  cells  of  the  first  tiers  on  each  side 
are  pentagonal ;  that  the  bases  of  those 
on  one  side  are  each  composed  of  two 
plates,  while  those  of  the  other  side 
are  each  composed  of  three  plates; 
and  that,  according  to  the  laws  laid  down,  they  could  not  have  been 
otherwise :  now  as  this  accords  with  all  the  accounts  given  of  the 
proceedings  in  the  construction  of  the  comb,  it  seems  to  prove  that 
the  laws  which  we  have  laid  down,  as  guiding  their  formation,  are 
correct. 

We  have  now  followed  the  progress  of  the  work  until  the  com- 
mencement of  the  second  tiers  of  cells :  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe 
the  formation  of  these  and  the  following  tiers.  It  is  shown  that^ 
according  to  certain  laws,  the  first  tiers  of  each  side  of  the  comb 
become  pentagonal,  and  according  to  the  same  laws  it  is  clear  that 
the  second  and  following  tiers  must  become  hexagonal ;  for  the  two 
sides  forming  the  lower  boundary  of  ^ach  cell  of  the  first  tier,  also 
form  the  upper  boundaries  (or  partitions)  of  two  cells  of  the  second 
tiers.  As  the  upper  part  of  the  first  tier  is  determined  by  the  roof  of 
the  hive  (represented  by  the  horizontal  line  in  diagram  13),  so  is  the 
upper  portion  of  the  cells  of  the  second  tier  determined  by  the  lower 
portion  of  those  of  the  first  tier ;  thus,  the  upper  portion  of  each  cell 
of  the  second  tiers  being  composed  of  two  planes  meeting  at  an  angle, 
and  the  work  continuing,  as  in  the  progress  of  the  first  tier,  four  more 
planes  will  be  constructed  to  form  the  lower  portion,  and  complete 
the  hexagon.  It  is  thus  that  all  the  ordinazy  cells  of  a  comb  are 
hexagonfd,  and  we  believe  it  is  clearly  shown  that  they  could  not  be 
otherwise,  according  to  the  mode  of  proceeding  in  their  construction. 
Their  form  depends  entirely  upon  the  commencement  of  the  work, 
which  necessarily  throws  t£e  cells  in  such  a  position  that  each  cell 
must  be  surrounded  by  six  others,  and  consequently  have  six  sides, 
each  side  being  the  common  partition  of  two  cells ;  and  so  long  as 
the  cells  are  of  equal  diameter  they  must  each  be  opposed  to  parts  of 
three  other  cells  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  comb,  in  such  a  way  that 
supposing  the  external  surface  of  the  bottom  of  each  cell  were  hemi- 
spherical (which  would  be  the  case  were  the  wax  not  removed  from 
the  interstices),  each  hemisphere  would  touch  three  others ;  but  the 
wax  being  removed  from  the  interstices  and  reduced  to  an  equal 
thickness  at  all  parts,  and  the  bases  of  the  sides  of  a  cell  net  bemg  all 
in  the  same  plane,  Uie  bottom  of  each  cell  is  thus  formed  into  l^ree 
equal  rhomboidal  pieces  in  three  different  planes,  the  three  angles  at 
their  junction  being  respectively  the  lowest  pajrts  or  the  farthest 
removed  from  the  mouth  of  the  celL 

In  working  the  cells,  the  wax  is  always  foimd  a  little  thicker  on  t^e 


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481 


BEE. 


BEE-EATER. 


4SI 


edges,  thus  giving  additional  strength  to  them.  It  has  been  asserted 
that  this  extra  thickness  is  added  upon  the  completion  of  the  cells ; 
but  as  we  have  never  observed  a  ceU,  even  though  in  a  state  of  pro- 
gress, without  it,  we  think  the  more  probable  conjecture  is,  that  tiie 
bees,  in  working  the  sides  of  the  cells,  desist  upon  arriving  near  the 
top,  and  thus  leave  that  part  thick,  as  it  is  found  to  be. 

The  ordinary  cells  of  a  comb  are  of  two  siises ;  those  designed  for 
the  male  larvsB  being  rather  larger  than  those  of  the  ordinary  sixe  in 
which  the^  neuter  lorvsB  are  reared.  The  width  of  the  former  cells  is 
about  8}  lines,  and  that  of  the  latter  2|.  A  comb  is  always  commenced 
with  the  small-sized  cells.  Hence,  when  the  larger  cells  are  con- 
structed, instead  of  being  opposed  to  three  others  they  encroach  upon 
a  fourth,  and  their  bases  are  consequently  composed  of  four  plates 
instead  of  three :  at  first  a  minute  lozenge-shaped  piece  is  visible  at 
the  top  of  the  basal  part  (Jg,  16,  a) ;  this  gradually  increases  in  size 
as  the  one  on  the  opposite  side  decreases  (Jig.  16,  6). 

When  the  ftill  size  of  the  cell  is  attained,  the  top  and  bottom  pieces 
{fig.  16,  c,  c)  are  equal;  but  as  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  of  the  larger 
cells  is  formed,  the  lower  lozenge  gradually  decreases,  while  the  upper 
one  {fig.  16,  e,  e)  increases  in  size  until  there  are  but  three  plates  again 
visible  {fig.  16,  d,  d). 


Fig.  10. 


It  is  almost  always  found  that  the  excavations  for  cells,  formed  by 
different  insects,  in  whatever  situations  they  may  be,  aro  exactly  pro- 
portioned to  their  size.  Hence  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  account 
for  the  enlargement  of  the  cells  of  the  bees,  as  just  described.  We 
will  however  venture  an  opinion^  in  hopes  of  calling  attention  to  the 
subject. 

In  the  former  part  of  this  account  it  has  been  stated  that  no  sooner 
is  a  portion  of  the  comb  finished  than  the  queen  deposits  eggs  in  the 
various  cells,  and  that  the  cells  first  formed  are  always  those  of  the 
smaller  size,  which  are  excavated  by  what  are  termed  the  sculpturer- 
bees,  or  nurses,  which  are  less  than  the  wax-workers. 

We  imagine  that  when  the  eggs  hatch,  the  small  bees,  or  nurses, 
are  more  particularly  engaged  in  attending  upon  the  young ;  and  that 
the  lai^e-sized  workers  then  conmience  the  excavation  of  the  cells 
themselves,  and  thus  make  cells  of  a  larger  diuneter  than  those  made 
by  the  nurses. 

Huber  states  that  the  description  of  bees  called  wax-workers  have 
not  the  power  of  sculpturing  the  cells ;  but  at  the  same  time  he  owns 
that  he  was  unable  to  follow  the  proceedings  in  the  construction  of  a 
comb  for  any  considerable  time  after  the  commencement.  During  the 
time  of  his  observations,  however,  he  invariably  found  that  the  smaller 
bees  were  the  sculpturers. 

The  interior  of  a  hive  consists  of  a  number  of  combs  arranged  per- 
pendicularlv ;  these  are  fixed  to  the  roof  of  the  hive,  and  are  parallel 
to  each  other,  the  space  between  them  being  about  half  an  inch. 
When  the  first  comb  has  advanced  in  size,  so  as  to  consist  of  two  or 
three  rows  of  cells,  two  other  combs  am  conmienced,  one  on  each  side 
of  it,  the  work  proceeding  as  in  the  first ;  these  again  are  followed  in 
their  turn  by  two  others.  As  the  comb  advances  in  size  it  assumes  a 
form  nearly  circular,  and  is  still  joined  to  the  roof  of  the  hive  only ; 
the  work  proceeds  by  adding  wax  to  the  margin  of  the  comb  exactly 
at  the  junction  of  the  opposing  cells,  and  thu  is  no  sooner  deposited 
than  it  is  cut  away  and  worked  mto  cells.  These  cells  are  not  equiJly 
deep  throughout  ike  comb,  but  their  depth  gradually  decreases  as  they 
approach  the  maigin :  a  comb  in  its  progress  has  the  form  of  a  double 
convex  lens. 

The  form  of  the  comb,  as  above  described,  is  that  of  a  new  one ; 
but  in  the  honey-storing  season  the  sides  of  the  comb  are  joined  to 
those  of  the  hive,  to  give  strength  to  hold  the  additional  weight ;  the 
cells  are  also  lengthened,  so  that  the  surface  of  the  comb  then  becomes 
even.  The  cells  are  not  quite  horizontal,  the  orifice  being  generally 
a  little  higher  than  the  base,  most  conmionly  four  or  five  degrees,  but 
sometimes  considerably  more.  When  a  comb  is  first  completed,  it  is 
of  a  dull  white  colour  and  of  a  weak  substance ;  it  isf  however  soon 
strengthened  by  adding  propolis  to  the  maigin  of  the  cells,  and  lining 
their  interior  with  threads  of  the  same  matmaL 

The  cells  of  a  comb  are  used  for  the  purposes  of  storing  up  honey 
for  the  winter,  and  in  them  the  larvsQ  are  reared.  Pollen,  or  bee-bread, 
is  also  stored  up  in  some  of  the  cells.  Many  larvae  may  be  reared  in 
the  same  cell,  and  as  each  spins  a  cocoon  or  web  on  its  sides  which  is 
never  cleared  out>  it  thus  becomes  at  last  too  contracted  to  contain 
larvee ;  it  is  then  used  for  one  or  both  of  the  other  purposes  above 
mentioned.  When  a  hive  is  well  stored  with  combs  having  empty 
cells,  the  workers  disgorge  the  honey  into  these  receptacles ;  but  in 
Mse  ceUs  are  wanted  they  retain  the  honey,  and  wax  is  secreted  for 
the  purpose  of  building  more  combs. 

Honey  is  never  consumed  but  in  cases  of  the  greatest  neoesnty ;  but 
iS  soon  as  a  cellis  filled  it  is  sealed  up  with  a  waxen  covering 


During  the  progress  of  a  comb  in  building,  the  slightest  intermpiion 

is  likely  to  alter  its  form ;  and  as  the  space  between  each  is  always 

kept  exactly  the  same,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  whole  of  the 

I  combs  are  affected  by  any  accident  happening  to  one.    Fig.  17  illiu- 

trates  an  instance  of  this  sort,  which  we  have  seen — 


Fig.  17. 


Fig.  18. 


but  it  also  frequently  happens  that  an  interruption  in  one  comb  ii 
corrected  in  those  that  foUow.  A  curious  instance  of  this  nature  we 
have  iJso  observed  (Jig.  18). 

In  both  these  instances  the  form  of  the  comb  was  affected  by  a 
stidc  being  placed  across  the  middle  of  the  hive,  to  enable  the  owner 
(as  we  believe)  to  remove  the  hive  with  less  danger  of  the  combs  giving 
way. 

The  latter  case  is  so  ingenious  that  at  first  it  appears  more  like  an 
operation  of  reason  than  instinct :  it  is  nevertheless  to  be  accounted 
for  upon  the  instinctive  principles  with  which  these  aninuds  worL 
The  course  of  the  first  comb  being  altered,  the  two  adjoining  ones 
would  naturally  follow  its  line ;  but  if  those  next  beyond  them  on  each 
side  were  in  a  state  of  forwardness,  the  workers  would  be  obliged  to 
discontinue  the  two  former,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  to  avoid  coming 
in  contact  with  the  two  latter ;  for  it  appears  to  be  a  law  in  the  con- 
struction of  new  combs  that  a  certain  space  shoiMd  be  always  left  at 
the  margins  ss  well  as  between  them. 

In  addition  to  the  construction  of  the  comb,  the  bees  when  in 
danger  of  attacks  from  their  enemies  barricade  themselves.  Sometimes 
the  entrance  of  the  hive  is  nearly  blocked  up  with  wax  and  propolis, 
and  at  others  a  wall  of  that  substance  is  constructed  just  behind  that 
part ;  this  wall  is  perforated  with  holes  only  just  huge  enough  to 
admit  of  the  egress  and  ingress  of  the  bees  themselves.  The  fortifica- 
tions are  occasionally  much  more  ingenious  and  complicated.  Weak 
hives  are  sometimes  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  strange  bees,  and  in 
such  cases  fortifications  would  be  constructed ;  but  it  is  more  particu- 
larly to  prevent  the  ravages  of  the  Acherontia  cUropot  that  this  care  is 
taken.  As  this  moth  only  makes  its  appearance  in  the  autunm,  these 
fortifications  are  removed  in  the  spring,  a  time  when  they  would  be 
of  the  greatest  inconvenience,  as  the  hive  is  then  extremely  populous. 
Huber  states  that  *'the  entrances  formed  in  1804  were  destroyed  in 
the  spring  of  1805.  The  Sphinx  {Acherontia  atropoi)  did  not  appear 
that  year  ;  but  it  returned  in  great  numbers  in  the  autumn  of  1807. 
By  speedily  barricading  themselves,  the  bees  prevented  their  threat- 
ened ravages ;  but  before  the  departure  of  swarms  in  May,  1808,  they 
demolished  l^e  fortifications,  whose  narrow  passage  prohibited  free 
egress  to  the  multitude." 

The  principal  authors  who  have  written  upon  the  habits  of  bees  are 
as  follows :— Aristotle,  History  of  Animals,  book  v.;  Pliny,  Natural 
History,  book  xL  ;  Swanmierdam ;  a  translation  into  EngUah,  torn 
the  Dutch  and  Latin  original  edition  of  his  work,  has  been  made  by 
Thomas  Floyd,  entitled.  The  Booh  of  Nature,  or  tfie  History  of  Insects; 
R^umur,  in  the  fifth  volume  of  his  M^moires  pour  servir  d  VHistoire 
des  Insectes,  1784-42;  Schirach,  Histoire  NaturdU  de  la  Beine  des 
AheilUs,  1771;  Riem,  Contanplation  de  la  Nature;  Bonnet,  torn,  v., 
4to  ed,  and  tom.  x.,  8vo. ;  John  Hunter,  Philosophical  Trcmsactions  for 
1792 ;  Thorley,  Female  Monarchy :  being  an  Inquiry  into  the  Nature^ 
Order,  and  Cfovemment  of  Bees  ;  Wildman,  A  Compiete  Guide  for  the 
Management  of  Bees,  1819 ;  Huber,  NouveUes  Observations  twr  ks 
AheiUes :  a  translation  into  English  of  this  work  was  published  in  the 
year  1821,  entitied.  New  Observations  on  the  Natural  History  of 
Bees;  Edward  Sevan,  M.D.,  The  Honey-Bee,  Us  Natural  History, 
Physiology,  and  Management,  1827 ;  Kirby  and  Spence,  Introdnctm 
to  Entomology  ;  T.  Rymer  Jones,  Natural  History  of  Animals,  vol.  a ; 
Insect  Architecture,  in  Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge, 

BEE-EATER,  the  vernacular  name  for  a  species  of  bird  belongmg 
to  the  genus  Merops,  Linn.,  one  of  the  familv  Meropidte,  and  of  the 
Syndactylous  Tribe,  which  have  the  external  toe  nearly  m  long  ss 
the  middle  one,  and  both  joined  together  up  to  the  penultmiate 
articulation.  ^^ 

The  birds  of  this  genus  take  their  prey,  consisting  of  wasps,  bees, 
Ac.,  like  the  swallows,  while  on  the  wing ;  and,  as  Cuvier  obeerves, 
it  is  remarkable  that  they  are  not  stung  by  theno.  The  species 
are  numerous,  and  many  are  figured  by  LevaiUant  Their  ^^J^ 
formed  in  the  banks  of  rivers,  where  they  dig  deep  holes ;  and  th^ 
geographical  distribution  is  over  the  wanner  regions  of  the  on 


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484 


oontinaaty  Java,  ko.,  and  Australia  (Paramatta),  none  of  the  genua 
having  been  found  in  America,  where  their  place  appears  to  be 
supplied  by  the  Motmots  (PrionUeSf  Uliger).  Their  brilliant  plumes, 
of  colours  which  change  according  to  exposure  to  light,  the  prevalent 
hues  being  azures  and  greens,  remind  the  observer  of  the  kingfisher^s 
gorgeous  dress.  A  familiar  example  of  the  genus  occurs  in  Uie  bird 
whose  English  name  is  at  the  head  of  this  article — the  Qu^pier 
vulgaire  of  the  French,  the  Mangia-Api  and  Lupo  d'Api  of  the 
Italians,  the  M4po^  of  the  Greeks,  and  Meropt  Apiaicr  of  Lina»ua 


Bee-Eater  {Meropt  ApiatUr), 

In  the  south  of  Europe  it  is  frequent  in  the  summer.  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  Italy,  the  south  of  France,  and  Germany  possess  it,  and 
on  the  southern  border  of  Bussia  it  is  numerous.  It  is  found  in 
Turkey  and  in  the  Grecian  Islands,  and  in  autumn  migrates  towards 
Egypt.  It  breeds  in  holes  in  the  banks  of  the  Don  and  the  Volga, 
laying  from  five  to  seven  white  oggs  in  a  nest  coniposed  of  moss,  ac 
Hsseelquist  says  that  it  is  found  in  the  plains  of  Galilee,  and  thEit  it 
is  called  Varuar  by  the  Arabs ;  and  Temminck,  that  the  individuals 
found  at  the  Cape  of  GkK>d  Hope  differ  in  nothing  from  those  killed  in 
Europe.  Bay,  in  his  edition  of  WiUughby,  observes,  "It  is  not 
unfrequent  in  the  Campagn  of  Bome :  for  that  we  saw  it  there  to 
be  sold  in  the  market  more  than  once.  It  is  not  foimd  in  England 
that  we  know  of.  Bellonius  writes  that  it  is  so  common  in  Candy 
that  it  is  seen  everywhere  in  that  island.  Aristotle  tells  us  i^t  it 
feeds  upon  bees,  whom  all  other  writers  of  the  history  of  animals  do 
therein  follow.  But  it  feeds  not  only  upon  bees,  but  also  upon 
CicadaSy  beetles,  and  other  insects.  Tea,  as  Bellonius  relates,  upon 
the  seeds  of  the  nipplewort^  bastard  parsley,  turnip,  &a,  not  abstaining 
from  wheat  and  other  grain.  From  its  exact  agreement  in  the  shape 
and  make  of  its  body,  bill,  and  feet  with  the  kingfisher,  we  suspect 
that  it  likewise  prejrs  upon  fish. 

''Bellonius,  in  the  first  book  of  his  observations,  writes  thus 
concerning  the  Meropi,  Flying  in  the  air  it  catches  and  preys  upon 
bees,  as  swallows  do  upon  files.  It  flies  not  singly  but  in  flocks,  and 
especially  by  the  side  of  those  mountains  where  the  true  thyme  grows. 
Its  Foice  is  heard  alar  off,  idmost  like  the  whistling  of  a  man.  Its 
singular  deganoe  invites  the  Candy  bojrs  to  hunt  for  it  with  Oicadce, 
as  they  do  also  for  those  greater  swallows  called  Swifts,  after  this 
manner : — ^Bending  a  pin  like  a  hook,  and  tying  it  by  the  head  to  the 
end  of  a  thread,  they  thrust  it  through  a  Vicaaa  (as  bo^  bait  a  hook 
with  a  fly),  holding  the  other  end  of  the  thread  in  their  hand.  The 
Cicada  so  iGsistened  flies^  nevertheless,  m  the  air,  which  the  Meropa 
spying,  flies  after  it  with  all  her  force,  and  catching  it,  swallows  pin 
and  all,  wherewith  she  is  caught" 

The  passage  in  Aristotle,  mentioning  the  Meropi  as  one  of  the 
enemies  most  destructive  to  bees,  is  in  the  40Ui  chapter  of  the  9th 
book  of  his  'History  of  Animals ;'^and. there  are  others  in  the  Ist 
chapter  of  his  6th  book,  and  in  tie*  13th  chapter  of  his  9th,  wherein 
he  notices  the  peculiarity  of  its  making  its  nest  in  holes  in  the 
earth. 

The  spedes^  although  not  common,  may  be  considered  as  an  occa- 
sional vudtant  to  this  country.  The  first  record  of  its  appearance  is 
in  the  third  volume  of  Uie  '  TransactioDS  of  the  Jiinnsean  Sooiety/ 

VAT.  mux.  pnr  you  l 


team  which  it  i^pears  that  on  "July  2, 1794,  the  president  communi- 
cated an  account  of  Meropi  AptoiteTf  the  Bee-Eater,  having  been  shot 
(for  the  first  time  in  Great  Britam)  near  Mattishall,  in  the  county  of 
Norfblk,  by  the  Bev.  Mr.  George  Smith.  The  identical  specimen  was 
exhibited  by  permission  of  Mr.  Thomas  Talbot,  of  Wymondham.  A 
fiight  of  about  twenty  was  seen  in  June,  and  the  same  flight  probably 
(much  diminished  in  number)  was  observed  passing  over  the  same 
spot  in  October  following."  Since  then  four  or  five  specimens  have 
been  recorded  to  have  been  shot  in  the  counties  of  Suffolk  and 
Norfolk,  one  in  Dorsetshire,  three  in  Devonshire,  one  in  Cornwall 
and  one  in  Ireland.    (Yarrell,  Briiish  Birdi.) 

BEECH.    [Fagub.] 

BEK8HA,  a  genus  of  Grasses  nearly  allied  to  BcmUnua,  with  which  . 
it  is  actually  combined  by  some  botanists,  but  from  whidi  it  differs, 
according  to  the  concurrent  testimony  of  all  authors,  in  the  other- 
wise in<^odible  circumstance  of  its  seeds  being  inclosed  in  a  fleshy 
pericarp. 

Two  species  are  known,  both  of  which  have  the  aspect  of  the  spine- 
less bamboos.  Of  these  Beeaha  baccifera  is  found  on  the  mountains 
of  Chittagong  in  India,  where  it  is  called  Pagu  TuUa,  growing  in  dry 
places  on  the  sides  of  hills,  where  the  upper  str&tum  of  soil  is  sandy. 
According  to  Boxburgh's  '  Flora  Indica,'  the  circumference  of  the 
steins  near  the  base  is  12  or  18  inches,  and  their  height  from  50  to  70 
feet — "beautifully  erect,  and  without  the  least  flexure  or  inequality 
of  surface ;  bare  of  branches,  except  near  the  extremity.  It  perishes 
after  yidding  its  fruit.  It  yields  more  or  less  Tabasheer,  of  a  silicious 
crystallisation ;  sometimes  it  is  said  the  cavity  between  the  joints  is 
nearly  tilled  with  this,  which  the  people  cbXL  Choona,  or  Lime." 
('Flora. Indica,*  ii  197.) 

Beeiha  Fax  is  a  smaller  species,  not  above  18  feet  high.  It  is  found 
in  Amboyna  and  other  parts  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  where  it  is 
applied  to  many  useful  purposes.  It  is  the  Artmdarbor  cratium  of 
Bumphius's  '  Herbarium  of  Amboyna.' 

BEET.    [Beta.] 

BEETLR  This  term  has  frequently  been  used  as  the  name  oom- 
tikon  to  the  species  of  the  faimly  Scardbceida,  but  it  is  more  commonly 
and  properly  used  to  designate  those  insects  which  are  covered  by  a 
strong  homy  substance,  the  abdominal  part  of  the  body  being  pro- 
tected by  two  sheaths  under  which  the  wings  are  folded.  Hence  the 
term  is  imionymous  with  CoUoptera,    [Coleoftera.] 

BEGONIA.    [BEOONiAOEiB.] 

BEGK)NIA'C£!^,  Begoniadif  a  natural  order  of  Exogens,  consisting 
of  three  genera,  Begoina,  Bupelalum,  and  IHplocUnivm.  The  species  are 
159,  and  are  found  exclusively  in  the  dampest  parts  of  the  tropics  in  both 
the  New  and  Old  World,  particularly  in  Asia  and  America.  Thev  have 
perfectly  unisexual  flowers,  with  a  superior  calyx,  generally  coloured 
pink,  consisting  in  the  sterile  flowers  of  from  2  to  4  pieces,  and  in  the 
fertile  flowers  of  from  5  to  8  piecea    The  stamens  are  nun^erous ;  the 


^■ii»  \^i/ 


BepoiUaeem, 
1,  A  sterile  flower ;  3,  a  fertile  one ;  3,  the  same  in  boi ;  4,  the  haULgrown 
ovary  and  stigmat ;  5,  fruit ;  6,  the  same  cat  through  horUontally ;  7,  aeeds 
the  natural  aise ;  8,  one  iced  magnified ;  9,  the  same  out  through  to  show  the 
embryo  in  its  ])a|i|ral  poeition  in  the  albumen ;  10,  an  embryo  separate. 

style  simple ;  the  stigmas  three,  often  forked,  and  having  a  wavy  or 
twisted  appearance.  These  latter  originate  trom  a  3-comered  8-oelled 
ovary  containing  a  multitude  of  little  seeds,  which  changes  to  a  thin- 
sided  capsole  with  8  extremely  unequal  wings.    The  leaves  are  alwayi 

3  J 


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486  BELKHNITELLA* 

more  or  leaa  unequal-Bided,  «nd  have  highly-deTeloped  memfaranooB 
gtipules  at  their  base. 

It  18  very  difficult  to  tay  with  what  other  natural  order  this  has 
most  affinity.  By  Link  it  has  been  stationed  near  UwhdlifenB,  a  most 
unintelligible  aasociation.  Jussieu,  attracted  by  its  highly-developed 
stipuloB,  and  apparently  apetalous  flowers,  together  with  the  acid 
flavour  which  is  so  prevalent  in  the  order,  suspected  its  near  alliance 
with  Pclyg<in(ic«a :  while  Lindley,  with  a  greater  degree  of  pro- 
bability, now  makes  it  constitute  a  member  of  the  Cucurbital 
alliance  of  his  Epigynous  subclass  of  Exogens  with  polypetalous 
flowers. 

All  the  species  of  the  genus,  Begonia,  of  which  the  order  principally 
consists  have  irregular  fleshy  leaves,  often  richly  coloured  with 
crimson,  succulent  stems,  and  neat-looking  pink  flowers  growing  in 
few-flowered  panicles.  Most  of  the  species  at  present  described  may 
be  procured  in  a  living  state  in  the  gardens  of  Europe. 

The  roots  of  the  various  species  of  Begonia  are  astringent  and 
slightly  bitter.  B,  AfcUabarica  and  B,  tuberoea,  with  others,  are  used 
as  potiierbs  in  the  countries  where  they  grow.  EndUcher  says  that 
some  of  the  Mexican  species  are  drastic  purgatives. 

BELEMNITEIjLA.  The  group  of  BelemniUe  which  occurs  in  the 
Chalk  Formation,  and  which  is  marked  on  the  anterior  and  ventral 
face  by  a  long  narrow  flssure,  is  thus  named  generically  by  D'Orbigny. 
To  this  group  belong  A  wMkcronaiua,  B.  granuUttue,  B,  mctmmiUatut, 
&a,  in  Europe,  and  B,  Americantu  in  the  United  States,  if  this  last 
be  really  distinct  from  B.  mucronattte. 

BELEMNITES  (from  the  Greek  ^x^yamv,  a  dart  or  arrow),  Pfeil- 
stein  and  Donnerstein  of  the  Qermans,  Pierre  de  Foudre  of  the  French, 
a  genus  of  extinct  CepkcUopocUme  MoQ/ueca,  whose  conical  remains 
were  for  a  long  time  utterly  misunderstood.  Before  the  geological 
history  of  this  extinct  marine  animal  was  well  made  out,  few  natural 
productions  ministered  more  laigely  to  tha  superstitious  feelings  of 
man.  The  ancients,  it  was  said,  had  a  legend  that  they  came  from 
the  lynx,  and  called  them  Lapides  Lyncis  and  Lyncuria.  They  were 
also,  from  being  found  on  Mount  Ida,  and  from  their  supposed 
resemblance  to  those  oigans,  called  Idsei  Dactyli,  or  Petrified  Fingers. 
This  idea  was  too  much  in  unison  with  the  gloomy  imagination  of  the 
northern  nations  to  be  lost :  we  accordingly  find  the  term  Devil's 
Fingers  bestowed  on  them,  and  not  unfrequently  that  of  Spectre- 
Candles. 

Afterwards  came  the  age  of  Thunder-Stones  and  Picks,  when 
this  fossil  was  alleged  to  be  the  produce  of  electricity,  and  was 
called  by  the  learned  Lapia  fidminane.  They  were  also  called 
Arrow-Heads. 

Subsequently,  and  at  the  period  when  organic  remains  were  almost 
universally  regarded  as  lunu  naturcB,  formed  by  the  plastic  power  of 
the  earth,  the  Belemnite  was  considered,  even  by  those  who  had 
adopted  more  correct  opinions  upon  the  subject  of  many  fossil  shells, 
to  be  strictly  mineral, — ^to  be  &  stalactite  or  a  crystal ;  and  by  some 
who  found  it  in  the  sandy  parts  of  Prussia,  where  amber  also  occurs, 
it  was  supposed  to  be  that  substance  petrified. 

At  length  it  b^gan  to  be  granted  that  the  Belemnite  was  of  organic 
animal  origin,  and  the  conical  cavity  at  its  broader  end  caused  it  to 
be  looked  upon  as  the  tooth  of  some  unknown  creature ;  while  some 
pronounced  it  to  be  a  spine,  like  those  of  an  EchintUf  and  others  gave 
way  to  various  conjectures  not  worth  recording.  Then  arrived  the 
dawn  of  Yon  Tressau,  Klein,  Breynius,  Da  Costa,  Brander,  and  Plot, 
who  allowed  the  fossil  to  be  of  testaceous  origin,  but  knew  nothing 
of  its  relative  position.  At  last,  the  increasing  light  of  science  placed 
the  Belemnite  in  a  comparatively  clear  point  of  view. 

A  substance  with  which  fable  had  been  so  bu^y  was  not  likely  to 
have  been  overlooked  in  the  old  Materia  Medioa :  we  accordingly  find 
that  it  was  administered  in  a  powdered  state  as  a  remedy  for  the 
night-mare,  and  for  the  stone.  Dr.  Woodward  states,  that  in  Olouces- 
tershire  the  powder  was  blown  into  the  eyes  of  horses  affected  with 
watery  humours ;  and  in  Prussia  it  is  said  to  have  been  used  when 
pulverised  in  dressing  wounds. 

The  true  place  of  Uie  Belemnite  is  among  the  CephalopodcL  Cuvier 
and  Lamarck  had  arrived,  at  this  conclusion,  and  they  also  believed 
that  it  wtfs  an  internal  shell.  It  forms  the  flrst  genus  of  the  flrst 
fiBtmily  {OrthoeercUa)  of  Lamarck's  first  division  of  the  C^halopoda, 
namely,  the  Polythalamous,  or  Many-Chambered,  division. 

Miller,  in  a  paper  in  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Qeological  Sodety,' 
gives  the  following  as  the  generic  character : — 

"  A  cephalopodous  (?)  molluscous  ammal,  provided  with  a  fibrous 
spathose  conical  shell,  divided  bv  transverse  concave  septa  into  sepa- 
rate oell£^  or  chambers  connected  by  a  siphuncle ;  and  inserted  into  a 
laminar,  solid,  fibrous,  spathose,  subcorneal  or  fusiform  body  extend- 
ing beyond  it,  and  forming  a  protecting  guard  or  sheath." 


BeUmnitet  oanalieulaUu, 

Since  IGllei^s  paper  was  written  many  important  facts  have  been 
added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  BelemniteB. 


BELLEROPHOK.  m 

In  addition  to  the  oiroumstanoes  attending  the  discovery  at  Solen- 
hofen  of  some  traces  of  the  general  form  of  the  animal,  of  whicli  the 
remains  ordinarily  found  are  a  part,  and  of  the  ink-bag  and  homy 
laminso  at  Lyme  and  Whitby,  an  almost  complete  restoration  of  the 
Belemnite  animal  was  made  from  specimens  laid  open  in  the  eattmg 
of  the  Great  Western  Railway,  near  Chippenham  in  Wiltshire.  The 
Oxford  Clay  here  excavated  afforded  to  Mr.  Pratt  and  the  late  Marquis 
of  Northfljnpton  admirable  specimens  of  the  phragmaoones  and 
laminar  plates,  outlines  of  some  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  body  and 
arms,  and  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  hooked  appendagas  of 
the  arms.  Indeed  one  of  Mr.  Pnttt's  specimens  reveals  the  place  and 
size  of  the  eyes,  the  funnel  or  breathizig-tube,  the  tendinous  parts  ol 
the  mantle,  and  the  lateral  fins,  the  ink-bladder,  and  ink-duoi  (Owen, 
'  Hunterian  Lectures,'  1843.)  Professor  Owen,  to  whom  the  finest 
specimens  of  these  discoveries  were  submitted,  has  found  a  strong 
resemblance  between  the  fossil  animal  and  the  group  of  .recent 
Sepioid  Animals  called  Onychoteuthis,  on  whose  arms  are  not  the  usual 
cusps,  but  slender  homy.hooks.  The  arms,  eight  in  number,  were 
equal,  slender,  and  furmshed  with  hooks  through  all  their  length, 
alternating  in  a  double  row.  The  fins  i^pear  round,  and  a  little 
behind  the  middle  of  the  body,  as  in  SepiUa;  the  caudal  extremity 
pointed,  inclosing  the  fibrous  guard,  the  anterior  extremity  of  the 
laminar  plate,  under  which  the  ink-W  is  placed,  nearly  transrerse, 
and  not  eurched  so  as  from  analogy  with  the  sepiosteum  might  hare 
been  expected.  The  Belemnitic  Animal — a  dibranohiate  eight-armed 
Cuttle — ^must  in  some  instances,  to  judge  from  specimens  of  the 
fibrous  conical  extremity,  have  reached  (aims  included)  four  or  more 
feet  in  length,  and  its  figure  appears  favourable  for  swift  motion.  In 
the  Lias  deposits  whole  shoals  of  some  of  the  spedes  appear  to  have 
perished  together,'  and  there  are  found  about  the  cones  many  indica- 
tions of  the  presence  of  animal  substances. 

The  geological  distribution  of  the  Belemnites  has  been  largely 
examined.  In  1885  Professor  Phillips  presented  to  the  British 
Association  at  Dublin  a  full  account  of  the  structures  and  mode  of 
occurrence  of  the  British  species :  assigning  names  and  characters  to 
the  principal  groups  which  occur  in  the  Cretaceous,  Upper  Oolitii^ 
Lower  Oolitic,  and  Liassic  Strata.  M.  d'Orbigny  also  published 
results  perfectly  accordant,  derived  from  a  full  investigation,  especially 
of  the  species  occuiing  in  France.  It  thus  appears  that  in  the  first 
place  Belemnites  are  confined  as  a  group  to  the  Meeozoic  Strata ;  that 
many  species  allied  to  the  B.  compreuwe  of  Volts,  B.  paiectMotsi 
of  De  Blainville,  and  B,  paxiUoeua  of  Schlottheim,  belong  to  the  Lias ; 
that  others  allied  to  B.  eUiptieue  of  Miller,  B.  quinquetuleatvi  of 
De  Blainville,  B.  AdUntii  of  Volte,  belong  to  the  Lower  Oolite  series; 
that  others  allied  to  B.  ndcatu$  of  Miller,  B,  AUdorfentie  of  Schlott- 
heim, abound  in  the  period  of  the  Oxford  Clay ;  while  B.  wucronatutt 
B,  ^^ladratua,  B.  Listen,  B.  attenucUus,  and  others  now  ranked  as 
BelemniteUa  by  D'Orbigny,  characterise  the  Cretaceous  Strata.  The 
investigations  entered  into  on  this  subject  are  yet  incompletely  pub- 
lished ;  but  the  reader  may  refer  with  advantage  to  the  Treatises  of 
De  Blainville  and  Volts,  to  Buckland's  Bridgewater  Treatise,  D'Orbigny's 
PalcBontologie  Framboise,  and  to  Owen's  HwOerian  Lectures,  Rgurea 
illustrating  several  points  will  be  found  in  Mantell's  Medals  of  Oeotton, 
voL  ii  

BELL-FLOWER.    [Campakula;  Spboulabia;  Wahlbhbbboia.] 

BELLADO'NNA,  the  Deadly  Nightshade,  a  violently  poisonous 
wild  plant.    [AtropaJ 

BELLADO'NNA  LILY  (Uterally  Fair-Lady  LUy),  a  spedes  of 
AmaaryUiSi  so  called  on  account  of  its  beauty  and  delicate  blushing 
flowers.  It  is  found  wild  at  the  Cape  of  Gk>od  Hope,  has  become 
naturalised  in  the  ditches  of  Madeira,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
gardens  of  England,  where  it  lives  for  many  years  without  shelter,  if 
planted  on  a  sunny-  border  well  protected  from  wei  in  winter.  Its 
stems  are  about  18  mdhes  high,  of  a  rich  puipliah  green,  with  a  dense 
violet  bloom  spread  over  them.  The  flowers  grow  in  a  cluster  at  the 
top  of  the  stem,  are  of  a  funnel  shape,  with  six  divisions  earring 
bskckwards  at  the  points,  and  not  less  than  three  inches  long ;  their 
colour  is  a  rich  but  not  deep  rose,  which  varies  in  intensity  in  difierent 
varieties.  They  appear  in  August  and  September,  without  their 
leaves,  and  give  an  extrem^y  rich  and  very  exotio  appearance  to  the 
borders  in  which  they  appear.  The  bulbs  may  be  procured  in  any 
quantity  from  Madeira. 

BELLE  DE  NUIT,  a  name  given  by  the  French  to  various  kinds 
of  Bind-Weeds.  In  tropical  countries  these  plants  occur  in  great 
abundance,  expanding  their  large  fragrant  and  delicate  flowen  of 
white,  or  blue,  or  lilac,  in  sucdi  magnificence  that  they  may  well  be 
called  the  *  glory  of  the  night.'  The  spedes  to  whioh  the  name  u 
more  particularly  applied  is  what  botanists  call  Ipomaa,  or  Cfalonye- 
tion  Bona  Nox,  whose  white  flowers  have  a  diameter  of  five  or  six 
inches^  and  open  at  sunset  in  the  woods  of  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
droopmg  at  daylight. 

BELLEHOPHON,  a  Fossil  Shell,  the  anunal  of  which  is  unknc^ 
Denys  de  Montfort  established  the^enus,  but  he  placed  it  among  the 
Polythalamous,  or  Chambered,  Sheila  De  France  cut  in  half  the  Teiy 
specimen  which  belonged  to  De  Montfort,  and  thus  proved  that  it 
was  unilocidflf,  like  ArgonaMba,  It  is  rich  in  species^  which  occsr 
exclusively  in  the  Palaeozoic  Formations,  as  the  Silurian  ^^^ 
Devonian  Bocks^  and  Mountain  Limestone.    It  has  been  general^ 


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^LLtS. 


B^LVISUGE^. 


referred  to  the  Cephalopodci,  and  conaidered  analogous  to  Argonauta, 
lyOrbigny  has  however  given  reasons  for  ranking  it  with  the  Httero- 
podout  MoUtuca,  and  compares  it  with  Carinaria, 


BeUeroplum  hhtlcut. 

BELLIS  (from  bdlus,  pretty),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Compatita,  and  to  De  CandoUe's  suborder  Coryinhtfeng, 
tribe  Astoroidea,  subtribe  Atterineaf  division  AsterecBf  and  subdivision 
Bdlidea.  It  has  a  receptacle  wiUiout  scales,  flowers  of  the  raj 
Ugulate,  pistilliferous  in  one  row,  those  of  the  disk  hermaphrodite 
tubular,  the  involucre  composed  of  two  rows  of  equal  obtuse  sodes, 
the  receptacle  conical,  the  fruit  compressed  without  pappus.  De 
Candolle  enumerates  five  species  belonging  to  this  genua  (hie  of 
them,  the  B.  perenniSf  is  the  Conmion  Daisy,  and  is  a  native  of  Great 
Britain  and  throughout  Europe.  It  has  obovate-spathulate  single- 
ribbed  crenate-dentate  leaves.  It  is  an  exceedingly  common  plant  on 
banks  and  in  pastures  in  Europe.  It  blossoms  nearlv  all  the  vear 
roimd,  and  is  constantly  found  with  opened  flowers  from  March  to 
October.  It  is  subject  m  its  wild  state  to  varieties ;  sometimes  all  the 
florets  are  found  ligulate,  more  rarely  they  are  all  tubular.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  the  Conmion  Daisy  cultivated  in  gardens.  There 
is  a  double  variety  called  Laige-Double,  another  Double-Quilled,  and  a 
proliferous  variely  known  bv  the  name  of  Hen-and-ChidLens.  These 
varieties  assume  various  colours  frt)m  deep  red  to  pink  and  white. 
Thev  are  easily  cultivated,  and  form  pretty  plants  for  edges  and 
borders,  and  continue  in  blossom  a  long  time. 

B.  sylvettrU  and  B,  annua  are  natives  of  Europe,  but  are  not 
Bultivated. 

The  genus  BeUium  closely  resembles  BeUis ;  it  differs  however  in 
possessing  a  pappus  surrounding  its  fruits.    The  species  are  found  in 
the^south  of  Europe,  and  appear  like  small  species  of  Bellia. 
'on,  Manwd;  Loudon,  Oyclopcedia  qf  PUmU.) 


BELLIUM.    [Bbllb.] 

BELLOWS-Fl&H.    [Centrisoub.] 

BELO'KE,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  family  Esocidoi  of  the 
Abdominal  MalacopUrygii,  It  has  a  head  and  body  greatlv  elongated, 
the  latter  covered  with  minute  scales ;  both  jaws  very  mucn  produced, 
straight^  narrow,  and  pointed,  and  armed  with  numerous  small  teeth ; 
the  dorsal  fin  placed  over  the  anal  fin.  The  species  are  remarkable 
for  the  green  colour  of  their  bones. 

One  species,  the  BeUme  vulgarii,  is  common  on  the  British  coast 
It  is  known  W  various  names,  but  more  especially  that  of  Qa]>Fish. 
It  was  placed  oy  Linnseus  in  the  genus  iSiox,  and  being  an  inhabitant 
of  the  sea,  it  got  the  name  of  Sea-rike.  From  the  fact  of  its  leaving 
the  deep  water  in  spring  to  deposit  its  ova  near  the  shora  in  the 
months  of  April  and  May,  and  thus  preceding  the  mackerel  in  their 
annual  visit  to  shallow  water  for  the  same  purpose,  it  has  received 
the  name  of  Mackerel-Ghiide.  Its  other  Tgngiiith  names  according  to 
Tarrell  are  Qreenbone,  Horn-Fish,  Long-Nose,  Gorebill,  and  Sea-Needle. 
The  usual  length  of  this  fish  is  about  24  inches.  It  has  elongated 
jaws,  beset  wiUi  numerous  minute  teeth.  The  eye  is  laige.  The  body 
is  uniform  in  depth  to  the  anal  fin,  thence  tapering  to  the  tail  The 
dorsal  and  anal  fins  begin  and  end  nearly  on  the  same  plane.  The 
ventral  fins  are  smalL  The  tail  is  forked ;  the  external  long  rays  are 
nearly  as  long  again  as  those  of  the  centre.  The  upper  part  of  the 
head  and  back  is  of  a  dark  greenish  blue ;  the  sides  and  belly  are 
silvery  white ;  the  pectoral,  ventral,  and  anal  fins  white.  This  fish  is 
taken  off  the  coast  of  Berwick  during  the  Mackerel  season,  and  Dr. 
Johnston  says  it  is  not  unfr^uently  called  a  Sword-Fiah.  It  is 
taken  also  on  the  Devonshire  and  Cornish  coasts.  The  fish  are 
brought  into  the  London  markets  in  the  spring,  and  eaten  in 
considerable  quantities.  The  fiesh  has  the  flavour  of  mackerel,  but 
it  is  drier.  Great  numbers  are  said  to  be  caught  off  the  coast  of 
Holland,  but  they  are  only  used  there  as  bait.  Mr.  Couch  says  of 
the  Gar-Fish,  that  it  "swims  near  the  surfiitce  at  all  distances  from 
land,  and  is  seen  not  unfrequently  to  spring  out  of  its  element;  its 
vivacity  being  such  that  it  will  for  a  long  time  play  about  a  floating 
straw,  and  leap  over  it  many. times  in  succession.  When  it  has  taken 
the  hook  it  mounts  to  the  surface,  often  before  the  fisherman  has  felt 
Uie  bite ;  and  then  with  its  slender  body  half  out  of  the  water,  it 
strugglee  with  the  most  violent  contortions  to  wrench  the  hook  from 
its  jaws.  It  emits  a  strong  smell  when  newly  taken."  In  the  Ionian 
Islands,  aooording  to  Mr.  Tonna,  it  is  oau^t  by  attaching  several 
lines  with  floats  to  a  raft  In  this  waj  a  large  number  are  taken  in  a 
toy  short  time.  Specimens  of  this  fish  have  been  exhibited  in  the 
Aquavivarium  of  tne  Zoological  Society,  in  the  Gardens,  Regent^s 
Park. 

There  are  several  other  species,  some  of  which  are  said  to  attain  a 


length  of  8  feet,  and  to  bite  very  severely.  Their  flesh  generally  ii 
wholesome.    (Tarrell,  Brituik  Fithea;  Cuvier,  Eigne  Animal) 

BELONO'STOMUS,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Fishes  established  by  Agassiz. 
The  British  spedes  occur  in  the  Lias,  Oolite,  and  Chalk;  the  foreign 
in  the  Oolite  of  Pappenheim. 

BELOTTERA,  a  genus  of  FossQ  MoJhuca,  established  by  Deehayes 
and  described  by  De  Blainville  as  an  animal  entirely  unknown, 
containing  in  the  back  part  of  its  muscular  envelope  a  symme- 
trical calcareous  or  bony  shell  formed  of  a  thick  solid  summit 
very  much  loaded^  behind,  and  a  front  tube  more  or  less  complete, 
the  cavity  of  which  is  conical  and  annular,  the  iJiell  or  bone 
having  wing-shaped  appendages  without  any  anterior  shield-like 
prolongation. 

Do  Blainville  divides  the  genus  into  two  sections.  The  first 
consists  of  spedes  whose  wing-shaped  appendages  are  united  below 
the  summit,  and  whose  cavity  is  somewluit  in  the  shape  of  a  scuttie 
(hotU),    Of  this  section  Beloptera  sepioidea  is  given  as  an  example. 


Side  view. 


End  view. 
Beloptera  tepioidea. 


Tutcmol  cftritf. 


The  second  indudes  species  whose  wing-shaped  appendages  are 
distinct,  and  whose  cavity  is  completely  conical  with  traces  of 
chamb^  and  of  a  siphon.  Of  this 
division  Beloptera  bdemnoidea  is 
given  as  an  illustration. 

De  Blainville  observes  that  this  j 
genus  ought  to  be  placed  at  the  end  J 
of  the  S^iadcB,  or  Cutties ;  and  that  I 
the  first  of  the  species  is  evidently  1 
very  much  allied  to  the  bones  of  ^ 
those  animals,  while  the  second 
approaches  the  Belemnites, 

After    all,    the    probability    is, 
that    tiiese    bodies    are    only   por-  Beloptera  belemnoidca. 

tions    of   the   bones    of    some    of 

the  Cuttie-Fishes ;  and  this  appears  to  have  been  the  opinion  of 
Cuvier. 

If  a  perfect  bone  of  the  common  spedes  of  our  coasts  be  dosdy 
examined,  a  structure  very  analogous  to  the  conical  circularly-grooved 
cavity  of  Beloptera,  although  in  a  more  expanded  form,  will  be 
observed.  These  fossils  have  been  found  in  the  London  Clay,  and 
other  beds  above  the  Chalk. 

Volts,  in  his  Memoir  on  Bdemnites,  makes  Beloptera  tepioidea  a 
distinct  geaus  tmder  the  name  of  Bdoeqna, 

BELOTTERA  Pe  Blainville),  the  shelly  portion  of  a  Fossil  Cepha- 
lopod,  intermediate  between  Bdemnitet  and  Sepia,  It  occurs  in  the 
Frendi  Tertiary  Strata,  and  includes  B.  CWieH,  B,  compreua,  and 
B,  Bdemnitoidea  (De  Blainv.).  Mr.  Morris  adds  B,  anomala  and 
B,  longirottnim,  from  the  English  Tertiaries. 

BELOSETIA  (Voltz).  In  this  genus  M.  Yoltz  ranks  two  of  the 
spedes  (B,  Ou/vieri  and  B.  compretsa)  which  form  part  of  the  Bd(^tera 
of  De  Blainville. 

BELVISIA'CEJB:,  NapoUon-Wortt,  a  small  natural  order  of  plants, 
comprehending  only  two  genera.  One  of  these  was  discovered  in 
the  kingdom  of  Owue,  by  Palisot  de  Beauvois,  who  called  it  NapoUona 
in  honour  of  Napoleon  I.  It  was  subsequently  named  Bdvisia  after 
its  discoverer.  It  has  been  figured  under  tne  name  of  Napoleona 
imperialis  in  the  '  Flora  of  Oware  and  Benin,'  where  we  find  the  only 
account  of  it.  It  wss  discovered  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town 
of  Oware,  growing  to  the  height  of  seven  or  dght  feet,  and  loaded  with 
large  broad  bright-blue  flowers,  sitting  dose  upon  the  branches.  They 
are  remarkable  for  having  a  superior  calyx  of  five  pieces,  together 
with  a  double  monopetalous  corolla,  of  which  the  outer  forms  a  fiat 
crenellated  disk,  and  the  interior  is  divided  into  a  great  number  of 
regular  narrow  s^^ments.  The  stamens  are  only  five,  or  rather 
perhaps  ten,  united  by  pairs  into  five  parcels,  resembling  so  many 
petals.  The  stigxna  is  peltate  with  five  angjles,  and  covers  over  the 
anthers.  The  fruit  is  said  to  be  a  beny,  witii  a  single  cell,  containing 
a  pared  of  seeds  lying  in  pulp.  From  such  an  aeoount  it  will  he 
evident  to  the  botani<»J  reaoer  that  this  must  be  one  of  the  greatest 
curiomties  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Pidisot  de  Beauvois,  its  discoverer,  considered  it  the  type  of  a  new 
natural  order  allied  to  the  Gourds;  Brown,  we  believe,  suspects  its 
relation  to  the  Pasdon-Flowers ;  Lhidley  originally  stationed  it  near 
S^vracecB ;  in  his  '  Nixus,'  he  |>laoed  it  near  the  Campanulas,  but  in  his 
'Vegetable  Kingdom'  places  it  between  Mytiacea  and  BhitophoraeetB, 
The  other  genus  bdoQging  to  this  order  is  AtUromikot,  which  is  said 


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BERBERIDACEJE. 


440 


by  Deufontainefl  to  be  a  Brazilian  genus,  but  this  ia  doubtAiL 
order  has  only  four  species. 


This 


1,  Calyx  Tlewed  from  above ;  3,  the  same  In  profile ;  8,  the  outer  oorolla ; 
4,  the  inner  oorolla;  6,  the  itamens  seen  from  abore;  6,  one  of  the  stamena 
■eparate ;  7,  an  orary  out  through. 

BE'LYTA,  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  order  ffymenoptera, 
and  family  Proctotrvpidce,  The  species  of  this  genus  are  minute 
foui^winged  flies,  haying  the  antennn  li-  or  15-jointed,  filiform  in  the 
malesy  and  thickened  towards  their  extremity  in  the  females.  They 
frequent  sandy  situations. 

BEICBEX,  a  genus  of  Hymenopterous  Insects,  forming  the  type 
of  the  family  Bembicidc^  of  Leach.  The  chief  generic  characters  are 
as  follows: — Palpi  very  short;  maxillary  palpi  4-jointed;  labial 
2-jointed;  mandibles  with  a  single  tooth  internally;  the  anterior 
wings  have  three  submarginal  cells  (the  third  extending  to  the  apex 
of  the  marginal),  and  two  recurrent  nervnres  both  springing  from 
the  second  submarginal;  labium  and  mandibles  prolonged  into  a 
rostrum,  or  beak;  body  smooth,  nearly  conical,  but  rather  £it  beneath 
— in  the  male  frequently  furnished  with  two  or  more  spines  at  the 
apex.  Legs,  in  tne  female  spinose,  anterior  tarsi  strongly  ciliated, 
^nds  genus  connects  Monedida  with  PhilaofUhm.  The  species  are 
peculiar  to  hot  climates,  and,  in  some  instances,  very  much  resemble 
wasps,  both  in  size  and  colour.  The  female  forms  oblique  cylindrical 
burrowd  in  sandy  banks,  with  a  cell  at  the  end  of  each.  Her  next 
object  id  to  collect  flies,  such  as  the  species  of  SyrphidcB  and  Mutctda, 
as  food  for  her  yoimg.  In  the  excursions  made  for  this  purpose,  she 
is  exceedingly  rapid  in  her  motions,  and  produces  a  loud  buzz  in 
flying.  Having  furmshed  a  cell  with  five  or  six  flies,  she  deposits  a 
single  ^g  in  i^  and  after  having  carefullyclosed  its  mouth,  proceeds 
in  the  same  manner  with  another  celL  When  hatched  from  the  egg, 
the  larva  devours  these  flies,  and  changes  into  the  pupa  state,  and 
shortly  after  to  the  perfect  insect.  Although  these  mseots  are  not 
strictly  social,  as  the  bees  and  wasps,  yet  generally  the  burrows  of 
many  of  the  same  species  are  formed  in  the  inmiediate  neighbourhood 
of  each  other. 

Upon  leaving  her  burrow,  the  female  takes  great  precaution  to 
secure  its  entrance  frt>m  her  enemies,  by  stopping  the  mouth  with 
sand.  No  precaution,  however,  is  sufficient  to  protect  it  frojn  the 
intrusion  of  its  parasites.  Among  others,  the  beautiful  Panorpes 
camea  is  enabled,  by  the  spined  structure  of  its  legs,  to  make  its 
way  through  the  sand-protected  entrance — which  it  takes  the 
opportimit^  of  doing  during  the  absence  of  the  female  Benibex, 
£jitering  with  the  tail  foremost,  it  deposits  an  egg,  which  hatches  in 


the  following  spring.    The  larva  of  the  Bemhex  then  becomes  food  for 
that  of  the  Panorpet, 

BEMBIDIIDJB:,  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging  to 
the  division  Cfeodephaga  of  M'Leay.  They  an  ininute  camivorons 
Beetles,  which  generally  frequent  damp  situations,  such  as  the  maiginB 
of  rivers,  ponds,  and  ditches.  They  are  usually  of  a  bright  blue  or 
green  metallic  colour,  having  two  or  four  pale  yellow  spots  on  the 
elytra.  It  is  doubtful  whether  thjs  £unily  can  hold  the  same  rank  in 
the  Qeodephaga  as  those  of  the  OarabidcB,  ffarpalicUE,  kc :  the  speciee, 
however,  may  be  easily  distinguished  by  the  minute  terminal  joint 
to  the  palpL  The  characters  of  the  several  genera  contained  in  this 
group  are  as  follows : — 

A.  Body  depressed  and  linear. 

a.  Antenn»  with  the  third  and  fourth  joints 

equal Xysuunuik 

b.  Antennse  with  the  fourth  joint  longer  than 

the  third       .        .        .     -   .        .  .     COUnnm, 

B.  Body  rather  ovate. 

a.  Thorax  transverse,  not  truncate,  heart-shaped : 

a.  Postoriorly  rounded : 

1.  Whole Taehyt. 

2.  Emaiginate       ....  •     .    PhUocUm. 

b.  Posterioriy  acute  ...  .     Oeyt. 

b.  Thorax  truncated,  heart-shaped : 

a.  The    posterior    angles    very    acute     and 
prominent : 

1.  Antennee  with  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 

joints  long Peril)*!*!. 

2.  Antennae  with  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 

joints  short NolaphMi, 

h.    The  posterior  angles  slightly  acute-deflexed : 

1.  Eyes  moderate : 

*Thorax  rather  remote  from  the  abdomen 

at  the  base Zopha. 

**Thorax  closely  united  to  the  abdomen  .     Tetchypu. 

2.  Eyes  large Bembidmn 


IX)  cri  m 


m 


1,  Head  of  one  of  the  SemhidUdte,  showing  the  form  of  the  Palpi— «,  the 
terminal  joint ;  2,  Thorax  of  7b«Ay« ;  S,  Thorax  of  PKUoethut ;  4,  Thorax  of 
Oqfs  :  5,  Thorax  of  Peryphut ;  6,  Thorax  of  Lopka  ;  7,  Thorax  of  Tackuput, , 

BEN-NUTS,  the  fruit  of  MfoHnga  pterygotperma,  from  which 
Ben-Oil,  much  used  in  perfumery,  is  obtained.     [Morinoa.] 

BENCAODEDEOa    [Abutilon.] 

BENINCASA,  a  genus  of  plants  named  by  Savi,  in  honour  of 
Coimt  Benincasa,  an  Italian  nobleman.  It  belongs  to  the  order 
Cucwrbitacea,  and  has  but  one  species,  B.  ccrtfera.  The  fruit  is 
described  as  covered  with  hairs  and  a  glaucous  bloom.  It  grows  in 
the  East  Indies.  Lindley,  in  the  '  Vegetable  Kingdom,'  calls  it  the 
White  Qourd,  and  says  it  is  identical  with  Oucurhita  pepo.  Ainslie 
says  that  in  the  East  it  is  presented  at  every  native  marriage  feast, 
and  is  supposed  to  ensure  prosperity  to  the  married  pair. 

BENT  GRASS.  The  species  of  Agrostii  have  this  name.  [Agrostib.] 

BENTI'VI,  or  BIENTITEO,  the  Brazilian  name  fbr  the  Tyrannnt 
tulphwaHu  of  Vieillot    [Shrikes.] 

BENZOIN,  the  name  of  a  resin  yielded  by  a  species  of  Styrax. 
^TTBAZ.]  Benzoic  Acid  is  procured  from  this  substance.  The  word 
Bemsoin  has  also  been  given  by  Hayne  to  the  plant  whic&  yields  the 
resin. 

BERAUNITE,  the  name  of  a  phosphate  of  the  peroxide  of  Iron 
which  has  a  hyacinl^-red  colour,  becoming  darker  on  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere.    (Dana,  Mineralogy.) 

BE&BERIDA'CE^,  Berberide,  the  Barberry  Tribe,  a  natond  order 


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BERBERJ& 


of  plants  belonging  to  the  olass  of*  Exogena  or  Dicotyledons.  It 
is  readily  known  by  three  characters: — 1,  Its  anthers  open  by 
reflexed  yalyes ;  that  ia  to  say,  the  face  of  each  cell  of  the  anther  peels 
off  except  at  the  point,  where  it  adheres  as  if  it  were  hinged  there. 
2,  Its  stamens  are  opposite  the  petals.  8,  Its  flowers  are  iisuaUy 
formed  upon  a  ternary  plan,  there  being  three  or  six  sepals,  and  a  like 
nmnber  of  petals  and  or  stamens.  This  last  character  is  more  liable 
to  exception  than  the  two  others.  The  remarkable  structure  of  the 
apther  is  found  in  no  European  plants  exccDt  Berberidacece  and  the 
Laurel  Tribe  [LAURACEiS]  ;  and  as  the  latter  has  neither  petals  nor  a 
ternary  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  flower,  it  can  never  be  mistaken 
for  these.  The  relations  of  this  order  are  with  FtmariacecB,  VitacecB,  and 
Bamuncvlacea,  The  present  order  consists  of  bushes  or  herbs,  extremely 
dissimilar  to  each  other  in  appearance,  inhabiting  the  cooler  parts  of 
the  world,  being  unknown  in  the  tropics  except  on  the  tops  of  lofty 
mountains.  They  are  not  met  with  in  Africa  or  the  South  Sea  Islands. 
Their  juice  usualfy  stains  yellow,  and  their  bark  or  stems  if  not  woody 
are  hitter  and  flhghtly  astringent.  The  bitter  leaves  of  Epimedwm 
alpinum  are  said  to  be  sudorific  The  seeds  of  Caulophylhm  Thalic- 
troides  have  been  employed  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  The  leaves  of 
Bwgardia  chrytagonum  are  eaten  in  the  East  like  sorrel.  The  tubers 
of  R  Bawwolfii  are  eaten  in  Persia.  Leontice  Zeonlopetalum  contains 
in  its  roots  a  sufficient  quantity  of  alkali  to  render  it  a  substitute  for 
soap  in  Aleppo. 


Common  Barberry  {BerherU  vulgaris), 
I,  An  expanded  flower ;  2,  the  calyx  without  the  petals ;  3,  a  petal,  with 
t  stamen  in  front  of  it ;  4,  a  stamen  by  itself,  with  the  valves  of  its  anther 
reflexed ;  5,  an  ovary  cut  throngh,  showing  the  position  of  the  ovules ;  6,  a 
ripe  seed ;  7,  a  section  of  the  latter,  showing  that  the  embryo  lies  in  albumen ; 
8,  an  embryo  separated  from  the  seed. 

BE'RBEBISy  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  JBer^ 
heridaeeoy  among  which  it  is  immediately  Imown  by  its  shrubby  habit, 
herried  fruity  and  the  presence  of  glands  upon  its  petals.  It  is  also 
remarkable  for  the  irritability  of  its  stamens,  whidi,  when  the  filament 
is  touched  on  the  inside  with  the  point  of  a  pin  or  any  other  hard 
instrument^  bend  forward  towards  the  pistil,  touch  the  stigma  with 
the  anther,  remain  curved  for  a  short  time,  and  then  partially  recover 
their  erect  position  :  this  is  beet  seen  in  warm  diy  weather.  After 
heavy  rain  the  phenomenon  can  scarcely  be  observed,  owing,  in  all 
probability  to  the  springs  of  the  filaments  having  been  already  set  in 
motion  by  the  ^»»hmQ  of  the  rain  upon  them,  or  to  the  flowers  having 
been  forcibly  struck  against  each  other.  This  irritability  of  the  fila- 
ment is  affected  di£forently  by  different  noxious  substance&  It  has 
been  found  by  Messrs.  Macaire  and  Marcet^  that  if  you  poison  a  Bar- 
berry with  any  corrosive  agent,  such  as  arsenic  or  oorrosiye  sublimate, 
the  filaments  become  rigid  and  brittle,  and  lose  their  irritability; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  poisoning  be  effected  by  any  narcotic, 
such  as  prussic  add,  opium,  or  belladonna^  the  irritability  is  destroyed 
by  the  filaments  becoming  so  relaxed  and  flaccid  that  they  can  be 
Mflilybent  in  any  direction.  This  property  is  also  lost  under  the 
influence  of  the  vapour  of  ether  and  chloroform.  This  motion  seems 
to  depend  on  the  tame  property  which  gives  to  the  free  cells  of  the 
lower  plants  to  great  A  power  of  motion. 


BEBBERia  4ii 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  interesting  both  for  their  utility  and 
beauty.  The  value  of  Uie  bark  and  root  of  the  Common  Barberry  for 
dyeing  leather  and  linen  of  a  yellow  colour  Ib  well  known.  Dr.  Royle 
has  shown  that  this  property  exists  in  tlie  species  of  India,  especiaUy 
in  Berberu  arittaia  ;  and  it  has  been  ascertained  by  Vauquelin  that  a 
plant  found  on  the  Nilgherries  of  Hindustan  (B.  tinctoria)  is  inferior  to 
few  woods  for  dyeing  yellow.  The  acid  qualily  of  the  fruit  has  rendered 
all  the  species  more  or  less  esteemed ;  that  of  J?.  aristcUa  andB.  Nepalensis 
is  dried  by  the  mountaineers  of  India  as  raisins,  and  sent  to  the  plains 
for  sale.  The  bitterness  and  astringency  of  the  bark  has  caused  them 
to  be  received  into  the  list  of  useful  medicinal  plants ;  and  it  has 
been  ascertained  by  Dr.  Royle  that  the  A^kiou  ly^ucSy  (Lycium  Indi- 
cum)  of  Dioscorides,  concerning  which  so  much  doubt  has  always 
existed,  was  an  Indian  species  of  Barberry  now  called  Berberii  Lyciwn, 
(Royle's  '  Illustrations  of  the  Botany  of  the  Himalayan  Mountains,'  &c. 
p.  68.) 

The  species  of  Berberis  are  obviously  divided  into  two  great  groups, 
of  which  the  first  has  undivided  leaves  like  the  Common  Barberry, 
and  the  others  are  pinnated,  after  the  manner  of  the  leaf  of  an  ash- 
tree.  Botanists  call  the  latter  Mahonias.  Ash-Barberry  may  be  token 
as  their  Kngliah  designation. 

Section  L  Leaves  simjde, — Trub  Babbbrbibs. 
1.  Leaves  thirif  deciduous ;  Flowers  solitary, 
B.  StbirieOf  Siberian  Barberry. — Leaves  obovate,  obtuse^,  deeply  and 
irregularly  toothed ;  flowers  solitary,  shorter  than  the  leaves ;  spines 
deeply  divided  into  from  three  to  seven  shining  partitions.  A  small 
shrub  found  on  exposed  rocks  on  the  hills  and  lower  mountains  of 
Altaic  Siberia,  where  it  is  very  common.  The  berries  are,  according 
to  Pallas,  obovate,  and  of  a  red  colour.  This  species  does  not  thrive 
in  England,  but  is  always  a  scrubby  bush  of  inelegant  appeai'ance. 

2.  Leaves  thin,  mostly  deciduous  ;  lowers  in  racemes, 
B,  Oreticaf  Candian  Barberry. — Spines  in  three  or  more  divisions ; 
leaves  small,  obovate,  acute,  nearly  free  from  toothings ;  flowers  in 
very  short  compact  racemes.  Not  uncommon  on  the  mountains  of 
Candia  and  Greece,  whence  it  has  been  brought  to  our  gardens.  It  is 
a  dwarf  scrubby  biish,  looking  like  a  starved  specimen  of  the  Common 
Barberry.  Its  berries  are  said  to  be  black,  ovate,  2-seeded,  and  austere 
rather  than  acid. 

B.  vulgaris,  Common  Barberry. — Spines  in  three  deep  divisions; 
leaves  obovate,  with  fine  spiny  toothings ;  flowers  in  drooping  racemes, 
which  are  longer  than  the  leiaves.  This  common  species  appears  to 
inhabit  equally  the  north  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  in  woods  and 
thickets,  especially  in  limestone  countries.  De  CandoUe  remarks  that 
it  extends  in  Europe  from  Candia  to  Chiistiania,  and  that  while  in 
northern  latitudes  it  is  a  valley  plant,  it  becomes  in  the  south  exclu- 
sively a  mountaineer,  climbing  so  high  on  Mount  JBtna  as  to  be  the 
most  alpine  of  the  shrubs  of  the  sterile  belt  of  that  mountain  at  the 
height  of  7500  feet  Like  all  such  plants  it  has  in  the  course  of  ages 
formed  numerous  varieties ;  these  are  however  chiefly  confined  to  the 
fruit,  there  being  a  great  similarity  in  the  foliage  of  all  except  one. 

This  species  is  usually  a  bush  from  four  to  six  feet  high ;  but  in 
Italy  it  oecomes  as  large  as  a  plum-tree,  living  a  couple  of  centuries 
or  more.  The  wood  is  hard  but  brittle,  and  is  chiefly  employed  by 
the  dyers  for  staining  yellow.  The  acid  qualities  of  this  fruit  render 
it  unfit  to  eat  raw,  but  it  makes  one  of  the  most  delicious  of  preserves. 
B,  Canadensis,  Canadian  Barberry. — Spines  divided  into  three  eqiial 
lobes;  branches  covered  with  little  elevated  points;  leaves  oblong, 
distantly  and  coarsely  toothed ;  flowers  in  corymbose  racemes,  nodding. 
Found  m  the  northern  states  of  North  America.  It  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  same  as  Berberis  vulgaris,  because  the  specimens  called  B, 
Canadensis  both  in  gardens  and  herbaria  certainly  are  so ;  but  this, 
tiie  true  plant  of  Miller  and  others,  appears  to  differ  from  the  oommon 
species  in  the  characters  here  assigned  to  it;  its  leaves  are  moreover 
of  a  thicker  texture. 

B.  a'otcegvna,  Hawthorn  Barberry. — Spines  simple ;  leaves  oblong, 
strongly  netted,  with  a  straggling  serrature  here  and  there ;  flowers 
in  dense^  drooping,  many-flowered  racemes,  which  are  scarcely  longer 
than  the  leaves.  Described  by  De  Candolle  from  specimens  collected 
in  Asia  Minor. 

B.  Iberica,  Iberian  Barberry. — Spines  often  simple,  but  sometimes 
3-cleft ;  leaves  nearly  undivided ;  flowers  in  loose  nearly  erect  racemes, 
much  longer  than  the  leaves.  A  native  of  SpaiiL  The  berries  are 
dark  purple. 

B,  Sinensis,  Chinese  Barberry. — Spines  8-parted  or  none;  leaves 
lanceolate,  very  acute,  much  netted,  entire,  or  regularly  toothed; 
flowers  numerous,  in  drooping  racemes,  which  are  not  much  longer 
than  the  leaves.    A  native  of  the  north  of  India  and  of  China. 

8.  Leaves  leathery,  evergreen  ;  Flowers  solitary,  or  in  dusters. 

B,  WaUichiana  Wallich's  Barberry.— Spmes  long,  slender,  8-parted; 
leaves  oblong,  lanceolate,  deep*green,  sharp-pointed,  flnely  serrated ; 
flowers -very  numerous,  in  clusters  shorter  tnan  the  leaves.  A  native 
of  Nepaul,  and  apparently  of  the  higher  part  of  the  country.  B,  atro- 
viridis  is  another  name  for  this  species. 

B,  dulcis,  Sweet-Fruited  Barberry. — Spines  long,  slender,  simply 
or  8-parted;  leayee  obovate,  obtuse,  with  or  without  a  bristly  pcunt^ 


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BEBIS. 


quite  entire,  giauooua  on  the  under  side ;  flowers  aoUtaxy,  on  dender 
Btalkfl,  twice  as  long  as  the  leaves.  A  native  of  the  south-weetem  part 
of  South  America,  from  the  Strait  of  Magalhaens  to  Yaldivia,  where 
it  forms  a  small  evei^green  bush.  Its  fruit  is  round,  black,  about  as 
large  as  a  pea ;  it  is  said  to  be  sweet  and  well  suited  for  making  tarts 
or  preserving. 

B,  heierophyUa,  Various-Leaved  Barberry. — Spines  strong,  3-parted ; 
leaves  obovate,  lanceolate,  acute,  either  entire  or  with  from  three  to 
five  spiny  teeth,  very  deep  green ;  flowers  solitary,  on  stalks  about 
twice  as  long  as  the  leaves.  An  inelegant  bush  about  three  feet  high, 
bare  of  leaves,  and  having  nothing  but  its  rarity  to  reoonmiend  it ;  it 
is  a  native  of  the  Strait  of  Magalhaans ;  in  the  gardens  it  is  usually 
called  £,  ilietfolia ;  there  is  a  flgure  of  it  in  Hooker's  '  Exotic  Flora,' 
voL  L,  1 14. 

B.  Emparifolia,  Crowberry-Lef.ved  Barberry. — Spines  slender,  long, 
in  three  or  five  deep  divisions ;  1/Aves  linear,  with  a  spiny  point,  rolled 
back  at  the  edge,  collected  in  bundles  in  the  axils  of  the  spines ;  flowers 
solitary,  growing  on  stalks  about  as  long  as  the  leaves.  A  very  curious 
and  pretty  plant,  .foxmd  wild  from  the  Cordilleras  of  Chui  to  the 
southern  pomt  of  the  American  continent,  over  Uie  whole  of  which 
country  it  appears  to  be  very  common.  In  general  aspect  it  is  much 
more  like  a  Heath  than  a  Barberry. 

Besides  these  species  there  are  several  of  great  beauty  as  eveigreen 
shrubs  in  South  America. 

4.  Leaves  U<Uheiy,  evergreen  ;  Flowers  %n  racemes. 

B,  Jtoribwida,  Many-Flowered  Barberry. — Spines  very  stifl^  and 
3-parted;  leaves  oblong  or  oblong-lanceolate,  nearly  entire  or  toothed 
in  various  degrees,  sometimes  very  deeply  and  coanely  veined ;  flowers 
in  long  loose  slender  racemes.  Apparently  extremely  common  in  the 
whole  of  the  north  of  India,  where  it  forms  a  tall  bush,  varying  con- 
siderably in  the  size  and  form  of  the  leaves,  and  in  the  degree  in 
which  they  are  toothed,  but  always  well  marked  by  its  slender,  pen- 
dulous, or  erect  racemes  of  flowers,  which  are  much  longer  than  the 
leaves,  and  in  no  degree  coiymbosa  It  is  to  be  found  occasionally  in 
the  more  choice  collections  of  this  countiy.  Out  of  accidental  varia- 
tions in  its  mode  of  leafing  and  flowering,  the  spurious  species  called 
B.  affinis  and  B,  cenUophylla  have  been  constituted. 

B,  Asiatica,  Raisin  Barbeny. — Spines  small  and  weak,  simple  or 
3-parted ;  leaves  oblong  or  obovate,  acute,  somewhat  gkuoous  beneath, 
either  entire  or  coarsely  or  even  flnelv  toothed ;  flowers  in  short  com- 
pact racemes  not  longer  than  the  leaves.  Found  in  Nepaul  and 
Kumaon  very  abundantly,  forming  a  tall  bush  with  the  habit  of  the 
common  European  Barbeny.  The  fruit  is  round,  covered  over  with 
a  thick  bloom,  and  has  altogether  the  appearance  of  tiie  flnest  raising 
It  is  produced  abundantly  in  this  climate,  where  the  plant  is  now  not 
very  uncommon.  The  veiy  short  racemes  are  the  principal  distinction 
of  this  species  when  in  flower. 

B,  dealbata,  Whitened  Barbeny.  —  Spines  scarcely  any;  leaves 
roimdish,  coarsely-toothed,  rather  glaucous,  white  beneath  ;  racemes 
very  short  and  compact,  pendulous.  A  native  of  Mexico.  It  is  a  tidl 
slender  evergreen  bush,  with  deep-brown  branches  and  scarcely  any 
spines.  The  leaves  are  sometimes  wedge-shaped  and  3-toothed,  but 
more  fre(juentiy  nearly  round,  with  two  or  three  spiny  teeth  on  each 
side.  It  IS  sometimes  called  in  the  gardens  by  mistake  B,  glauea, 
which  is  a  different  species. 

B,  aristaia,  Bristie-Leaved  Barberry. — Spines  3-parted,  simple,  or 
wanting;  leaves  obovate,  acute,  shimng  on  both  sides,  with  a  few 
bristie-pointed  teeth  on  either  edge;  racemes  always  more  or  lees 
compound  and  corvmboee.  A  native  of  the  mountains  of  Hindustan, 
extending  from  the  Himalayas  down  the  Nilgherry  Hills  as  far  as 
Adam's  Peak  in  Ceylon.  It  is  a  hardy  sub-evergreen  bush  in  the 
gardens. 

Section  IL  Leaves  pinnated  ;  aU  evergreen, — ^Abh-Babbsbbib. 

B,  fasciculariSf  Califomian  Ash-Barberry. — Leaflets  ovate,  flnely- 
toothed,  not  shining;  flowers  in  short  compact  clusters;  stem  tidl 
and  woody.  Found  in  the  moutainous  parts  of  California  and  Mexico. 
A  very  hiuidsome  eveigreen  shrub,  with  pinnated  leaves  which  are  by 
no  means  shining,  and  of  a  paler  green  than  several  of  the  others. 

Mahonia  diversifoUa  of  the  gudens  seems  to  be  the  same  as  this ; 
and  the  story  of  its  having  been  brought  from  Monte  Video  is  probably 
not  true. 

B,  AqwfoUwnf  Holly-Leaved  Ash-Barberry. — ^Leaflets  ovate-lanceo- 
late, flat,  deeply  and  regularly  toothed,  remarkably  shining ;  flowers 
in  long  narrow  racemes ;  stem  tall  and  woody.  A  native  of  North- 
West  America  from  California  to  Nootka  Sound,  growing  in  woods, 
where  it  forms  a  rich  and  thick  iinderwood.  Its  foliage  is  of  a  rich 
deep  shining  green,  becoming  purple  in  the  winter ;  it  bears  fruit  in 
some  abundance,  which  consiBts  of  clusters  of  roxmdish  black  berries, 
having  their  surface  covered  with  a  rich  violet  bloom.  They  have  no 
merit  as  fruit,  but  would  probably  be  greedily  sought  by  game,  for 
the  protection  of  which  in  coverts  this  species  seems  weU  adapted,  if 
it  could  only  be  obtained  in  sufi&cient  quantity.  The  difficulty  of 
propagating  it  has  hitherto  made  it  a  scarce  plant;  but  seeds  might 
be  easily,  obtained  from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  settiements  in 
l^orth-West  America.  It  most  resembles  B.  fascicularis,  from  which 
its  large  shining  leaves  at  once  distinguish  it ;  and  it  is  perfectly  hardy, 


which  that  species  is  not :  flowers  in  Mav  and  June.  It  has  been  figured 
in  the  '  Botanical  Register,'  voL  xviL,  plate  1425. 

B,  repens,  Creeping  Ash-Barbeny. — ^Leaflets  few,  somewhat  glauoooii 
especially  on  the  under  side,  oblong;  when  old  rounded  at  the  point, 
with  shallow  toothings ;  flowers  in  crowded  compound  erect  racemes; 
stem  very  dwarf;  runs  at  the  rool  Found  wild  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  of  North  America,  and  perfectly  hardy  in  our 
gardens.  Its  stems  do  not  grow  above  six  or  nine  indies  high,  and 
are  loaded  with  a  profusion  of  rich  yellow  flowers,  which  constitute 
the  principal  beauty  of  the  species.  Its  fr^t  is  unknown.  A  good 
figure  of  it  has  been  published  in  the  '  Botanical  Register,'  vol  xiv., 
plate  1176.  Nothing  can  be  more  unlike  B.  AquifolMtm  than  this  ia, 
although  the  two  have  occasionally  been  most  unaccountably  con- 
founded. 

B.  ghtmacea,  Long-Leaved  Ash-Barberty.— Leaflets  numerous,  ovate- 
lanceolate,  coarsely  toothed,  of  a  dull  glaucous  green ;  flowers  in  long 
narrow  erect  racemes ;  stem  very  dwarf;  s^es  of  the  leaf  and 
flower-buds  stiff  and  glumaceous.  A  native  of  North-West  America, 
growing  in  shady  grassy  places  in  woods.  The  stein  of  this  species 
does  not  grow  more  than  six  or  eight  inches  high,  and  is  in  &ct 
shorter  than  its  leaves^  which  consist  of  about  six  pairs  with  an  odd 
one^  and  are  jointed  at  every  pair  of  leaflets  in  the  manner  of  a  bamboo 
stem.  The  fruit  is  roundish  and  insipid,  of  a  flne  glaucous  purple. 
This  is  less  rare  than  B,  Aqiiifolium,  and  is  an  ol]ject  of  curiosity 
more  than  of  utility.  It  loves  to  grow  in  a  shaded  American  border, 
where  it  is  protected  from  the  fiercer  rays  of  the  sun.  It  is  figured  in 
the  'Botanical  Register,'  voL  xviL,  plate  1426.    BeHteris  or  Mafumia 


is  another  name  for  this  species. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  the  following  ^>ecies : — Berheris  Let 
chenaMitii  (the  B,  Acanthifolia  of  some),  a  fine  pinnated  plant  with 
round  blacx  fruity  foimd  on  the  Nilgheriy  Mountains  of  India  at  the 
elevation  of  8000  feet.  Berberis  Nepalensis,  a  native  of  the  mountains 
of  the  north  of  India,  where,  according  to  Dr.  Royle,  it  grows  twelve 
feet  high  in  shady  places,  at  5000  and  6000  feet  of  elevation  :  this  is 
a  noble  species,  and  ought  to  be  obtained  from  India  at  any  cost,  as  it 
would  in  all  probability  succeed  in  this  climate.  Berberis  tragacan-  \ 
thoides,  with  not  more  than  one  or  two  pairs  of  leaflets,  found  along 
the  banks  of  the  river  Kur,  near  Tiflis ;  and  BeHteris  earaganafdia^ 
a  Chinese  plant  very  like  the  last :  both  the  latter  have  the  points  of 
the  leaves  hardened  into  spines. 

BERCHEMIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
RhamnaeetE,  Two  species  ^.vo2u6tft«  and  ^.Itneato  are  used  in  medidne. 

BERENQELITE,  a  mineral  resin  from  South  America^  soluble  in 
alcohol  j 

BERENICE.    [Acalbfhjl]  I 

BERENI'CEA,  a  oelluliferous  Coralline  Fossil,  of  which  B.  dUitnaM 
is  an  example,  in  the  Oolite  of  Wilts* 

BERQAMOT.    [Citbu&] 

BERQERA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Aurantiaeece,  B.  AOmgU  possesses  stomadbdc  and  tonic  propecties,  sod 
an  infusion  of  the  leaves  is  used  against  vomiting;  The  green  leaves 
are  used  raw  in  dysentery ;  the  bsjrk  and  roots  are  stimulant 

BERGIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
JNaiinaeeOf  and  named  by  Linnaeus  in  honour  of  Peter  Jonas  Beigini^ 
Professor  of  Natural  History  at  Stockholm.  It  has  a  5-parted  calyi, 
9  petals,  10  stamens,  6  styles,  approximate  capsules^  5-oelled,  and 
5-valved.  The  spedee  are  insignificant  weeds  inhabiting  moist  places. 
B.  Ammanoides,  according  to  Dr.  Wright,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  East 
Indies  snd  bears  the  limool  name  of  Neer-mel-neripoo,  or  Water- 
Firei  Dr.  Lindley  calls  attention  to  this  name  as  resembling  our 
Water-Pepper,  a  name  given  to  the  BUuine,  the  type  of  the  order  to 
which  Lindley  has  referrod  Bergia.  Two  other  species  are  natives  of 
the  Cape  and  one  of  Java.  (Lindley,  Vegetable  Kingdom ;  Don, 
Diehlemgdeous  PUmts.) 

BERGKALE,  in  Geology^  the  German  term  for  our  Mountain 
Limestone. 

BERGMEHL  (Mountain  Meal),  a  name  given  in  Sweden  to  an  earth 
whidi  the  inhabitants  of  the  distaricts  where  it  occurs  have  firom  time 
immemorial  regarded  as  nutritious.  It  occurs  in  Sweden  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Letnaggsjohn  near  Umea  and  mixed  with  flour  this 
subetance  has  in  times  of  scarcity  been  used  for  bread.  It  was 
examined  by  Ehrenberg,  who  found  it  to  contain  the  remains  of 
several  species  of  Diatomacece.  He  considered  this  fact  would 
account  for  its  nutritious  properties.  The  vegetable  matter  howerer 
oontained  in  the  silidous  frustules  of  these  minute  plants  must  be 
exceedingly  small,  and  further  evidence  would  be  required  to 
demonstrate  that  this  substance  really  contributed  to  the  support  of 
those  who  ate  it  The  occurrence  of  the  Dtotomocece^  owing  to  the 
indestructible  nature  of  their  frustules  or  skeletons,  is  very  oommon. 

[DlATOVAO&fi.] 

BERGTLT,  the  name  of  a  Fish,  also  called  the  Norway  Haddock, 
the  Sebastes  Norvegicus  of  Cuvier.    [Sbbabtb.] 

BEHIS,  a  genus  of  Dipterous  Insects,  of  the  family  Xylop^affida. 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  small  metallic-ooloored  mes,  which 
frequent  the  leaves  of  plants.  Their  larvsd  feed  on  putrescent  wood. 
The  generic  characters  are  as  follows : — ^Body  narrow ;  palpi  minute, 
the  third  joint  thickened  a  little  at  the  extremity ;  the  two  first  joints 
of  the  antenniB  equal,  third  elongate  subulate;  eyes  pubescent;  the 


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BEBEELEYA. 


BBRNICLE  GOOSE. 


44S 


BcuteUnm  with  i,  6,  or  8  points ;  abdomen  with  7  distinct  segments ; 
the  first  joint  of  the  posterior  tarsi  iucrassate  in  the  male;  tiie 
wings  have  four  posterior  cells,  and  sometimes  the  indication  of  a 
fifth 

The  ova  of  one  of  the  species  of  this  genus  (Berit  clcwipes)  are  said 
to  be  ejected  from  the  OTipositor  in  the  form  of  a  little  chain,  about 
an  inch  long,  consisting  of  a  single  series  of  oval  eggs,  which  are  glued 
to  each  other  in  an  oblique  position.  Most  probably  the  eggs  of  the 
other  species  are  ejected  in  the  same  manner. 

BERKELEYA,  a  genus  of  Diatomacea,  named  by  Greville  in 
honour  of  the  Rev.  IdL  J.  Berkeley,  distinguished  for  his  researches 
in  cryptogamic  botany.  It  belongs  to  the  suborder  NavicidecB,  and  is 
characterised  by  haying  linear  firustules  included  within  tubular  sub- 
membranaceous  filaments,  which  are  free  at  one  extremity,  but  have 
the  other  immersed  in  a  gelatinous  tubercle.  '  B.  fragilis  is  found 
parasitic  on  Zostera  marinct,  and  some  of  the  smaller  marine  Algce  on 
the  British  coasts.  £,  Adriatica  has  been  found  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Adriatic  at  Trieste. 

BERNICLE  GOOSE  or  CLAKIS,  the  vernacular  name  for  the 
Bernida  of  Ray,  Aruer  Bemicla  of  Fleming ;  the  Bemide,  BemacU 
Goote,  and  Barnacle  Ooote  of  authors.  This  bird  affords  an  instance 
of  tiie  credulity  with  which  those  who  in  their  generation  were . 
held  wise  and  learned,  accepted  the  most  absurd  traditions,  and 
handed  them  down  to  posterity  with  the  additional  weight  of  their 
Ruthority.  A  cirrhiped,  a  marine  testaceous  animal,  the  Pentelasmis 
anatifera  of  Leach,  AntUifa  Icevia  of  Bruguidre,  Lep<u  anaiifera  of 
Limueus,  the  Duck  Barnacle  of  collectors,  was  long  asserted  to  be 
the  parent  of  the  Bemide  Goose;  This  conmion  shell  is  fixed  to  a 
long  fieshy  pedunde,  and  is  frequently  found  attached  to  floating 
tinH>er  and  even  sea-weed.  The  tentacula,  which  proceed  from  the 
anterior  opening  of  the  valves,  have  an  appearance  that  recalls  to  the 
mind  of  a  casual  inaccurate  observer  the  recollection  of  a  feather,  and 
hence,  in  all  probability,  the  fable  took  its  origin.  "  Some/'  writes 
NutUdl,  "  even  described  these  supposed  embryos  as  fruits,  in  whose 
stracture  already  appeared  the  Uneaments  of  a  fowl,  and  which,  being 
forthwith  dropped  into  the  sea,  turned  directly  into  birds.  Munster, 
Saxo  Orammaticus,  and  Scaliger  even,  asserted  this  absurdity.  Fiilgosus 
affirmed  that  the  trees  which  bore  these  wonderful  fruits  resembled 
willows,  producing  at  the  ends  of  their  branches  small  swelled  balls 
containing  the  embryo  of  a  duck,  suspended  by  the  bill,  which  when 
ripe  fell  off  into  the  sea  and  took  wing.  Bishop  Leslie,  Torquemada, 
Odericus,  the  Bishop  Olaus  Magnus,  and  a  learned  cardinal,  all  attested 
to  the  truth  of  their  monstrous  generation.  Hence  the  bird  has  been 
called  the  Tree  Goose,  and  one  of  the  Orkneys,  the  scene  of  the  prodigy, 
has  received  the  appellation  of  Pomona." 

Not  to  weary  the  reader  with  names,  and  some  of  great  reputation 
might  be  added,  we  will  proceed  to  trace  the  fable  as  told  by  Gerard, 
merely  adding  by  the  way,  that  one  of  the  other  worthies  is  recorded 
to  have  opened  100  of  the  goose-bearing  shells,  and  to  have  found  in 
all  of  them  the  rudiments  of  the  bird  completely  formed.  Gerard, 
then,  as  if  determined  that  no  sceptic  should  have  the  slightest 
ground  whereon  to  rest  a  doubt^  thus  gives  his  evidence  in  his 
'Herbal*:— 

"  But  what  our  eyes  have  seene  and  hands  have  touched  we  shall 
declare.  There  is  a  small  island  in  Lancashire,  called  the  Pile  of 
Foulden,  wherein  are  found  the  broken  pieces  of  old  and  bruised  ships, 
some  whereof  have  been  cast  thither  by  shipwracke,  and  also  the 
tnmks  and  bodies  with  the  branches  of  old  and  rotten  trees,  cast  up 
there  likewise ;  whereon  is  found  a  certaine  spimie,  or  froth,  thai  in 
time  breedeth  unto  certaine  shells,  in  shape  like  those  of  the  muskle, 
bat  iharper  pointed,  and  of  a  whitish  colour ;  wherein  is  contained  a 
thing  in  form  like  a  lace  of  silke  finely  woven  as  it  were  together  of 
a  whitiah  colour ;  one  end  whereof  is  fastened  unto  the  inside  of  the 
shell,  even  as  the  fidi  of  oisters  and  muskles  are ;  the  other  end  is 
made  fiuA  unto  the  belly  of  a  rude  masse  or  lumpe,  which  in  time 
commeth  to  the  shape  and  form  of  a  bird ;  when  it  is  perfectly  formed 
the  ahellgapeth  open,  and  the  first  thing  that  appeareth  is  the  foresaid 
lace  or  string ;  next  come  the  legs  of  Uie  bird  hanging  out,  and  as  it 
groweth  greater  it  openeth  the  shell  by  d^^rees,  till  at  length  it  is  all 
come  foiih  and  hangeth  only  by  the  bUl ;  in  short  space  after  it 
commeth  to  fiill  maturitie,  and  falleth  into  the  sea,  where  it  gathereth 
feathers,  and  groweth  to  a  fowle  bigger  than  a  mallard  and  lesser  than 
a  goose,  having  blacke  legs  and  bill  or  beake,  and  feathers  blacke  and 
white,  apotted  in  such  manner  as  is  our  ma^-pie,  called  in  some  places 
a  pie-annet>  which  the  people  of  Ltmcaslure  call  by  no  other  name 
^  a  tree-goose ;  which  place  aforesaid,  and  all  those  parts  adjoining, 
do  80  much  abound  therewith,  that  one  of  the  best  is  bought  for 
three-pence.  For  the  trutii  hereof,  if  any  doubt,  may  it  please  them 
^reptire  unto  me,  and  I  shall  satisfie  them  by  the  testimonie  of  good 
witneBsea"  This  edifying  deposition  is  illustrated  by  a  cut  of  the 
goose  and  of  its  parent  shell. 

Now,  after  tins,  can  we  wonder  at  the  melancholy  catalogue  of 
human  beings  who  have  expiated  the  supposed  crime  of  witchoraft  at 
the  stake  on  the  testimony  of  their  deluded  and  deludizig  prosecutors  ? 
Here  is  a  man  of  learning  and  of  considerable  accuracy  in  many  points, 
Ihe  autiior  of  a  valuable  work  containing  much  information,  who 

Svely  and  deliberately,  on  the  authority  of  two  of  the  most  acute  of 
Mnaei^  asserts  a  downright  falsehood  and  courts  investigation.   He 


may  moreover  be  acquitted  of  any  intention  to  deceive ;  but  his  mind 
was  filled  with  previous  assertions  and  preconceived  opinions,  and  his 
exdted  imagination,  like  that  of  the  majority  of  the  witnesses  against 
the  unfortunate  witches,  gave  a  colour  and  a  form  to  all  he  saw  and  felt. 

Gerard  published  this  cdebrated  romance  in  1636.  If  we  now  turn 
to  Ray's  edition  of  Willughby,  published  in  1678,  we  shall  see  what  a 
progress  had  been  made  towards  truth,  even  in  that  short  space  of 
time.  "  What  is  reported  concerning  the  rise  and  original  of  these 
birds,  to  wit,  that  they  are  bred  of  rotten  wood ;  for  instance,  of  the 
masts,  ribs,  and  planks  of  broken  ships,  half  putrified  and  corrupted, 
or  of  certain  palms  of  trees  [the  catkins  of  the  willow]  falling  into  the 
sea;  or  lasUy,  of  a  kind  of  sea-shells,  the  figures  whereof  Lobel, 
Gerard,  and  others  have  set  forth,  may  be  seen  in  Aldrovand,  Sen- 
nertus  in  his  '  Hypomnemata,'  Michad  Meyerus,  who  hath  written  an 
entire  book  concerning  the  tree-fowl,  and  many  others.  But  that  all 
these  stories  are  false  and  fabulous  I  am  confidently  persuaded. 
Neither  do  these  want  sufficient  arguments  to  induce  the  lovers  of 
truth  to  be  of  our  opinion,  and  to  convince  the  gainsayers.  For  in 
the  whole  genus  of  birds  (excepting  the  phoenix,  whose  reputed 
original  is  without  doubt  fiabulous)  there  is  not  any  one  example  of 
equivocal  or  spontaneous  generation.  Among  other  animals  indeed, 
the  lesser  and  more  imperfect,  as  for  example  many  insects  and  frogs, 
are  commonly  thought  either  to  be  of  spontaneous  original,  or  to  come 
of  different  seeds  and  principles.  But  the  greater  animals  and  perfect 
in  their  kinds,  such  as  is  among  birds  the  goose,  no  philosopher  would 
ever  admit  to  be  in  this  manner  produced.  Secondly,  those  shells  in 
which  they  affirm  these  birds  to  be  bred,  and  to  come  forth  by  a 
strange  metamorphosis,  do  most  certainly  contain  an  animal  of  their 
own  kind,  and  not  transmutable  into  any  other  thing,  concerning 
which  the  reader  may  please  to  consult  that  curious  naturalist  Fabius 
Columna.  These  sheila  we  ourselves  have  seen,  once  at  Venice, 
growing  in  great  abimdance  to  the  keel  of  an  old  ship ;  a  second  time 
in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  growing  to  the  back  of  a  tortoise  we  took 
between  Sicily  and  Malta.  Columna  makes  the  shell-fish  to  be  a  kind 
of  Balanm  marinua.  Thirdly,  that  these  geese  do  lay  eggs  after  the 
manner  of  other  birds,  sit  on  them  and  hatch  their  young,  the 
Hollanders  in  their  northern  voyages  affirm  themselves  to  have  found 
by  experience." 

Here  we  see  the  clouds  that  had  obscured  the  subject  nearly  deared 
away,  though  there  is  still  a  little  lingering  error  in  the  tadt  admission 
of  the  spontaneous  generation  of  the  frogs  and  insects. 

It  is  no  small  praise  to  Bdon  and  some  others  that,  even  in  their 
early  time,  they  treated  this  fable  of  the  duck-bearing  tree  with  con- 
tempt. There  has  been  much  confusion  in  the  nomenclature  of  this 
bird.  Linnseus  considered  it  as  the  male  of  Anser  eiT/thropua  (White- 
fVonted  Wild-Goose),  and  treated  Anser  Brenta  (the  Brent-Goose),  and 
A.  Bemicla  as  synonyms.  Succeeding  writers  continued  the  mistake 
till  Temminck  and  Bechstein,  instead  of  restoring  the  name  given  to 
it  by  the  older  ornithologists,  called  it  Anser  Uucopsis,  but  did  not 
refer  the  specific  name  Erytkroptu  to  the  Anas  albifront  of  Gmelin  and 
Latham. 


Bernicle-Goose  {Anser  Berniela), 
Dr.  Fleming,  in  his  '  History  of  British  Animals,'  set  this  right,  and 
has  properly  described  the  Bemide-Goose  as  Anser  Bemicla^  and  the 
White-Fronted  Wild-Goose  as  Anser  erythropus. 


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BEROK 


BERYL. 


418 


The  summer  lutmita  of  the  Bemiole  reach  high  into  northern  lati- 
lades.  Iceland,  Spitzbeigen,  Greenland,  Lapland,  the  north  of  Ruasia 
and  of  Asia,  and  Hudaon's  Bay,  are  recorded  as  its  breeding  places. 
Sir  John  Richardson  notes  it  as  accidental  on  the  Saskatchewan 
{5^"  54'  N.  lat.)  as  a  passenger  in  spring  and  autumn,  and  gives  the 
southern  states  of  the  North  American  Union  as  its  winter  quarters. 
It  visits  Britain  in  the  autumn,  appearing  in  great  numbers  on  the 
north-western  coasts,  and  in  the  norUi  of  Ireland.  On  the  eastern  and 
southern  shores  of  Britain  it  is  comparatively  rare,  and  the  Brent- 
Qoose  occupies  its  place. 

The  weight  of  a  Bemide  is  about  five  pounds,  the  length  rather  more 
than  two  feet,  and  the  breadth  about  four  and  a  half  with  the  wings 
spread.  The  bill,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  is  black,  with  a 
reddish  etreak  on  each  side,  and  between  it  and  the  eyes  is  a  small 
black  streak.  Irides  brown ;  head  (to  the  crown),  cheeks,  and  throat 
white ;  the  rest  of  the  head,  neck,  and  shoulders  black.  Upper  part 
of  the  plumage  marbled  with  blue,  gray,  black,  and  white ;  belly  and 
tail  coverts  white ;  tail  black ;  flanks  ashy  gray ;  legs  and  feet  dusky. 

The  eye-streak  is  much  broader  in  the  young  of  the  year  than  in 
the  adult ;  the  xmder  parts  are  not  of  so  pure  a  white,  and  the  upper 
plumage  is  darker. 

The  flesh  is  excellent. 

BEHOE,  a  genus  of  marine  animals  established  by  Miiller, 
belonging  to  the  CUiograde  Acalepha.  Some  of  the  species,  as 
the  common  B.  PileaSy  are  now  referred  to  Oydippe.  The  species, 
which  are  gelatinous,  transparent,  and  either  oval  or  globular,  float  in 
the  ocean,  where  they  are  widely  diffused.  Lamarck  says  that  they 
are  very  phosphoric,  and  that  they  shine  at  night  like  lamps  suspended 
in  the  sea,  their  brilliancy  becoming  vivid  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity 
of  their  motions.  Their  breathing  is  carried  on  by  means  of  cilia, 
which  extend  longitudinally  and  at  equal  distances  along  the  sui-face 
from  the  mouth  to  the  inferior  opening.  Fabricius  observed  minute 
crustaceans  in  the  digestive  organs,  and  that  when  one  of  these 
animals  was  broken  to  pieces  those  pieces  still  continued  to  live  and 
swim  about  by  the  action  of  the  cilia,  which  was  still  continued.  The 
Beroes  have  a  rotatory  motion,  and  Bosc  observed  that  they  also  had 
another,  produced  by  an  alternate  contraction  and  dilatation. 

Messrs.  Audouin  and  Milne  Edwards  have  given  a  description  of 
the  organisation  of  the  globular  Beroe  {Beroe  PiUusy  Lam. ;  Plcwro- 
brachia  of  Fleming ;  Bucharit  of  Pdron  and  of  De  Blainville),  and  Dr. 
Qrant,  in  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Zoological  Society,'  has  given  an 
account  of  its  structure.  Cuvicr  mentions  it  as  being  common  in  the 
north — ^where  it  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  aliments  of  the  whale 
(BdUBna) — and  in  the  channel  on  the  French  coast.  It  is  found  very 
commonly  on  the  British  coasts.  Dr.  Grant  foimd  it  in  the  harbour 
of  Sheemess,  in  which  latter  locality  he  says  "  the  boatmen,  who 
seemed  to  be  familiar  with  it  imder  the  name  of  the  spawn  of  the  sea- 
Qgg  (Echinus),  which,  it  somewhat  resembles  in  its  globular  and  ribbed 
form,  assured  me  that  often  in  hot  and  calm  weather  the  water 
swarms  with  the  little  medusae  in  such  numbers  as  to  cover  the  sur- 
face in  all  this  part  of  the  sestuary  of  the  Thames.  The  animal  has  a 
regular  oval  form,  with  its  longest  diameter  from  the  mouth  to  the 
anus,  about  six  lines,  and  its  breadth  about  four  lines.  The  general 
texture  of  the  body  is  ql^te  transparent  and  colourless."    [Aoalkpha] 

BERO'SUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging  to  the  family 
ffydrophUidce  (Leach).  These  beetles  inhabit  ponds,  in  which  they 
may  often  be  seen  swimming  in  an  inverted  position.  They  most 
probably  feed  upon  vegetable  substances.  The  common  colouring  of 
the  species  is  dusky  yellow  varied  with  markings  of  a  black  or  dark 
metaUic  bronze  hue;  their  form  is  nearly  ovtJ,  and  the  principal 
generic  characters  are,  eyes  prominent,  clypeus  entire,  antennse  nine-  (?) 
jointed,  thorax  narrower  than  the  elytra. 

BERRY,  in  Botany,  a  term  confined  to  such  soft  and  succulent 
fruits  as  have  their  seeds  lying  loosely  among  pulp.  The  gooseberry, 
the  currant^  and  the  grape  are  therefore  genuine  berries ;  but  plums, 
'  rose-heps,  haws,  &a,  in  which  the  seeds  do  not  lie  among  the  pulp, 
are  excluded  from  the  definition,  although  they  are  all  comprehended 
under  the  same  name  in  common  languafe.    [Fbuitb.] 

BERTHELLA,  a  genus  established  by  De  Blainville  for  a  Marine 

.  Mollusk,  found  though  rarely  on  the  British  coasts.    It  is  the  Pleuro- 

hrancJvus  plumula  of  Montague,  and  is  thus  defined  by  De  Blainville : — 

Body  oval,  sufficiently  protuberant  (&of?i&^)  above,  and  reciurved  below, 

when  in  a  state  of  repose,  so  as  completely  to  hide  the  head  and  the 


Berihella  poro$a, 
a,  side  view ;  &,  view  of  back,  to  show  internal  shell. 

foot^  which  last  is  large  and  oval,  but  much  less  than  the  mantle. 
There  is  a  kind  of  veil  at  the  anterior  border  of  the  head,  prolonged 
on  each  aide  into  a  sort  of  appendage  cleft  laterally.    The  two  tenta- 


culiform  occipital  auricules  are  deft'  and  striated  within  at  their 
termination,  and  approach  each  other  very  nearly  at  their  base,  which 
is  thinned  out  as  it  were.  The  eyes  are  sessile,  placed  upon  the 
posterior  root  of  the  tentacula.  There  is  but  one  pectiniform  branchia, 
which  is  lateral,  attached  anteriorly,  and  in  great  measure  bee 
behind.  The  organs  of  generation  terminate  in  one  large  tubercle, 
situated  before  the  root  of  the  branchia ;  the  shell  is  internal,  very 
delicate,  and  oval,  with  a  summit  hardly  to  be  distinguished.  Forbes 
and  Hanley,  in  the  '  History  of  British  Mollusca,'  pUce  it  in  tiie 
family  Pleurobranchidee  of  the  Vcuteropoda.  Although  seldom  taken 
it  appears  to  have  a  wide  range.  It  has  been  foimd  at  Exmontb, 
Guernsey,  Salcombe  Bay,  Milford  Haven,  Isle  of  Man,  Sound  of  Skye, 
Scarborough,  coast  of  Northumberland,  and  Malbay  on  the  west 
coast  of  Ireland. 

BERTHIERITE.    [AirmfONT.] 

BERTHOLLE'TIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  LecythidacecBf  and  named  after  Berthollet  the  celebrated  chemist 
The  only  species  is  a  tree  of  lai^  dimensions,  and  forms  vast  forests 
on  the  banks  of  the  Oronooo.  Its  stem  averages  100  feet  in  height 
and  two  feet  in  diameter,  not  branching  till  near  the  top,  whence  its 
boughs  hang  down  in  a  graceful  manner.  Its  leaves  are  undivided, 
arranged  altemately  upon  the  branches,  about  two  feet  long  and  five  or 
six  indies  wide,  of  a  brilliant  green.  Its  flowers  are  yellowish  white,  with 
a  calyx  having  a  dedduous  border  divided  into  two  pieces,  a  corolla  of 
6  unequal  petals  joined  together  at  the  base,  and  a  very  great  ntunber 
of  white  stamens  joined  into  a  thick  fleshy  ring.  The  fmit  is  figured 
and  described  by  Humboldt  as  a  spherical  case  as  big  as  a  man's  bead, 
with  four  cells,  in  each  of  which  are  six  or  eight  nuts ;  its  shell  is  ragged 
and  fiuTOwed,  and  covered  with  a  rind  of  a  green  colour.  The  nuts 
are  irregpilarly  triangular  bodies,  having  a  lutfd  shell,  which  is  very 
much  wrinkled,  and  which  is  fixed  to  a  central  placenta  by  their  lower 
end ;  their  seed,  as  is  well  known,  is  a  firm  oily  almond  of  a  pure 
white  colour.  They  are  sold  in  the  shops  of  London  under  the  name 
of  Brazil  Nuta 

"  The  Portuguese  of  Para,"  says  Humboldt,  "  have  for  a  long  time 
driven  a  great  trade  with  the  nuts  of  this  tree,  which  the  natives  call 
luvia  and  the  Spaniards  Almendron ;  they  send  caigoes  to  French 
Guyana,  whence  they  are  shipped  for  England  and  Lisbon.  The 
kernels  yield  a  hirge  quantity  of  oil  well  suited  for  lamps."  The  same 
traveller  describes  himself  and  his  companion  Bonpland  as  having 
found  these  nuts  a  great  luxury  when  they  were  following  the  conne 
of  the  Oronoco.  For  three  months  they  had  lived  upon  bad  choco- 
late, rice  boiled  in  water,  always  without  butter,  and  generally  without 
salt,  when  they  met  with  a  store  of  Bertholletia  nuts.  It  was  in  the 
course  of  June,  and  the  Indians  had  just  gathered  in  their  harvest  of 
them.  The  kernels  were  found  delidous  when  fresh,  but  unfortunately 
they  are  apt  to  become  rancid  on  account  of  the  great  quantity  of  ofl 
which  they  contain. 


Fruit  and  Seeds  of  Bertholletia  ezoeha. 

BERYL,  a  mmeral,  among  the  varieties  of  which  are  found  two  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  costly  gems  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
namely,  the  Emerald  and  the  Preciout  Beryl 

They  belong  to  the  rhombohedral  system  of  cxyBtallisation,  'I'^y 
occurring  in  regular  hexagonal  prisms  which  occur  variously  modified, 
sometimes  by  the  truncation  of  the  lateral  edges  of  the  prism,  at  cms 
times  by  the  simple  truncation  of  the  terminal  edges;  but  the  pnsm 
is  sometimes  terminated  in  a  much  more  complicated  niapner,  of 
whidi  a  remaikable  instance  has  presented  itself  in  a  crystal  in  the 
possession  of  Professor  Naumann  of  Freiberg,  who  has  ^'^^^'^^^JJ 
them  the  faces  of  no  lees  than  six  other  forma  of  the  rhombohsOT 
system.    Its  general  aspect  is  always  that  of  a  hexagonal  pnsm,  vm 


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M0  BEBTL. 

when  the  terminal  edges  are  modified  there  will  generally  be  found  a 
plane  inclined  to  the  lateral  planes  of  the  prism  under  an  angle  of 
119"  68'. 

The  crystals  admit  of  deayage  in  the  four  directions  parallel  to  the 
faces  of  tiie  regular  prism,  that  parallel  to  the  terminal  plane  being 
perfect^  the  others  imperfect  and  more  difficult  to  be  obtained.  The 
fracture  is  oonohoidal  and  uneven;  the  lustre  is  Titreous,  and  it 
posseoBes  Tarious  degrees  of  transparenqy.  According  to  Mohs  the 
bardnees  varies  from  7'5  to  8,  the  specific  gravity  from  2*678  to  2*782. 
The  following  are  its  chemical  characters  bdTore  Ute  blow-pipe,  as  stated 
by  Berzelius. 

Alone  it  is  not  easily  acted  upon,  but  when  thin  fragments  are  for 
a  long  time  submitted  to  a  powof  ul  flame  the  edges  become  rounded, 
and  a  colourless  vesicular  scoria  is  produced.  The  transparent  varieties 
become  milky. 

With  borax  it  forms  a  dear  and  generally  colourless  glass,  which 
effect  is  also  produced  by  sodiL  With  the  phosphor  salt  it  is  with 
difficultv  dissolved  without  the  formation  of  a  silidous  skdeton. 

Of  this  mineral  we  pomess  several  analyses,  of  which  the  following 
ore  three :  the  first  being  an  Emerald  from  Peru,  by  Kla|>roth ;  the 
second  a  Beryl  from  Siberia,  by  the  Rame  chemist;  and  tne  third  a 
Beryl  from  Broddbo,  near  Fahlun,  in  Sweden : — 

Beryl.  Beryl. 

Emerald.  Siberia.  Broddbo. 

SUica 68*50  66*45  68*35 

Alumina 15*75  16*75  17*60 

Gludna 12*50  15*50  18*18 

Oxide  of  Iron     .    .      .      I'OO  0*60  0*72 

Oxide  of  Columbium     .      0*00  0*00  0*27 

Oxide  of  Chromium       .      0*80  000  0*00 

Lime 0*25  000  000 

This  species  contains  several  varieties,,  of  which  the  two  Imown 
among  lapidaries  under  the  name  of  Emerald  and  Aquamarine,  or 
Precious  Beryl,  are  the  most  worthy  of  attention.  These  varieties, 
though  distinguished  by  some  mineralogists  as  forming  distinct 
spedes,  differ  however  only  in  colour,  the  term  Emerald  being  applied 
to  those  possessing  the  peculiar  rich  deep  green  so  well  known  as  the 
emerald-green,  while  all  the  other  varieties  are  comprehended  imder 
the  name  of  Beryl ;  those  which  are  clear,  transparent^  and  possess  a 
good  colour,  present  various  shades  of  sky-blue  or  mountain-green, 
being  the  Aquamarine  or  Predous  BeryL  The  colour  of  the  Emerald 
IB  attributed  to  the  small  quantity  of  green  oxide  of  chromium  which 
has  been  found  in  the  spedmens  from  Peru ;  while  l^e  varieties  m  the 
tints  of  Beryl  may  be  considered  to  be  produced  by  admixtures  of 
the  oxides  of  iron,  the  yellow  being  the  colour  of  the  peroxides  of 
iron,  and  the  mountain-green  and  the  various  shades  of  blue  being  the 
effect  of  varying  quantities  of  the  protoxide,  to  the  presence  of  which 
the  conunon  bottle-glass  owes  its  tmt. 

The  following  localitiee  produce  the  finest  Emeralds : — The  mines  in 
the  Timca  Valley,  dtuated  in  the  mountains  between  New  Oranada 
and  Popayan,  and  not  £ur  from  the  town  of  Santa  F^  de  Bogota, 
where,  according  to  Humboldt^  they  are  found  in  veins  traversing  day- 
slate,  hornblende-date^  and  granite ;  the  Heubach  Valley,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Piiugau,  Salsbuig;  where  they  occur  imbedded  m  mioa«late, 
and  are  inferior  in  colour  to  those  from  Peru ;  varieties  have  also  been 
latdy  found  in  some  old  mines  in  Mount  Zabarah,  in  Upper  Egypt, 
ficom  which  spot  the  andents  are  supposed  to  have  derived  thdr 
emeralds. 

The  varieties  known  by  the  name  of  Beryl  are  found  prindpally  in 
Siberia  and  Bradl :  in  the  former  coimtry  it  occurs  in  the  granite 
district  of  Nertschinsk  and  also  in  the  Uralian  and  Altai  Mountains, 
sometimes  in  very  large  crystals,  prisms  having  been  found  upwards 
of  a  foot  in  length.  In  the  gramtic  mountains  of  Odon  Tohdon,  in 
Baiiiia,  three  Yearv  interesting  mines  occur  at  different  devations  in 
the  mountain;  m  the  lowest  are  found,  irreg^arly  disseminated 
through  a  maas  of  semi-decomposed  granite  mixed  with  ferruginous 

Sand  nodules  of  Wolfrtmi,  prismatic  crystals  of  Beryl  of  a  sreenish- 
)w  colour,  rarelv  exceeding  one  indi  in  length.  Some  hundred 
feet  higher  occurs  the  second  mine  in  a  vein  of  micaceous  day,  from 
which  the  most  valuable  crystals  are  obtained ;  their  colour  is  of  a 
pdo  but  pure  green,  and  Uieir  size  frequently  condderable.  The 
third  mine  is  situated  in  a  vdn  of  white  indurated  day  on  the  summit 
of  a  mountain ;  in  tins  mine  the  varieties  are  usually  of  apde  greenish- 
blue,  but  sometimes  they  are  found  of  a  pure  but  pale  sky-blue.  They 
are  here  remarkably  transparent.  Imbedded  cxystals  and  masdve 
>'arieties  are  also  found  at  Limoges,  in  France ;  near  Zwiesd,  on  the 
Rabenstein,  in  Bavaria;  at  Fimbo  and  Broddbo,  near  Fahlun,  in 
Sweden ;  and  likewise  in  some  of  the  tin-mines  in  Saxonv  and  Bohemia. 

An  enormous  spedmen  is  also  described  in  Silliman  s  '  Journal '  as 
having  been  fouM  at  Acworth  in  Kew  Hampshire,  United  States. 
Its  djmendons  are  stated  to  be  4  feet  in  length  and  5(  inches  across 
the  lateral  planes,  and  the  wdght  to  be  288  pounds. 

Specimens  of  Beryl  have  also  been  found  in  several  of  the  primary 
disteicts  of  Ireland ;  those  from  the  granite  of  the  Moume  Mountains, 
ui  the  county  of  Down,  are  the  finest  In  this  locality  they  are  asso- 
ciated with  topas,  black  quartz,  felspar,  and  mica.  In  Scotland  it  is 
found  in  the  granite  at  Rubieslaw  quarry,  near  Aberdeen,  and  also  in 
broken  pieces  in  the  sand  of  the  rivers  of  that  county. 

SAT.  BUT.  DIY.  VOL.  I. 


BETA. 


4W 


The  value  of  the  Emerald  depends  not  only  on  its  size,  colour,  and 
brilliancy,  but  also  on  its  being  free  from  flaws^  by  which  this  gem  is 
frequently  greatly  deteriorated  in  the  eye  of  the  jeweller.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  rate  at  which  varieties  of  a  fine  colour  and  free  from  fissures 
may  be  procured,  as  stated  by  Beu<hint : — 

A  stone  of  5  grs.  from  100  to  120  francs. 
„         8        „        240  francsL 

15        „      1500      „ 
„       24        „      2400      „ 

BE^TX,  a  genus  of  Fishes  of  the  order  Acanthopterygii,  and 
bdonging  to  a  little  group  of  the  family  Percidte,  in  which  the  species 
possess  more  than  seven  branchial  rays,  whereas  all  the  other  genera 
induded  in  the  first  dividon  of  this  order  (in  which  diviuon  the 
cheeks  are  not  defended  by  indurated  plates)  possess  seven  or  less. 

Cuvier,  in  his  'R^gne  Animal,'  mentions  three  other  genera 
belonging  to  this  group :  namdy,  Moheeninm,  Myriprittii,  and 
Traehichthyt. 

The  other  characters  of  Beryx  are  as  follows  : — ^Ventral  fins,  with 
one  spine  and  ten  soft  rays ;  the  back  furnished  with  but  one  slightly- 
extended  fin,  and  some  indistinct  small  spines  on  its  anterior  edge. 

Several  spedes  are  fossil  £.  omaiua  occurs  in  the  Chalk  of  Sussex. 
Mantdl  figured  it,  under  the  title  of  Zeus  LewenemiSf  in  the  '  Qeology 
of  Sussex.     Two  other  spedes  occur  in  the  British  Chalk. 

BESHAN,  a  name  given  to  the  Balm  of  Mecca,  the  produce  of 
BaUamodendron  OpobaUamum.    [Balbamodendbon.] 

BE'TA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cfhmopo- 
diaceoBy  among  which  it  is  known  by  its  having  large  succulent  roots, 
and  a  green  calyx  united  halfway  to  a  hard  rugged  nut.  The  spedes 
are  found  in  Europe,  the  north  of  Africa,  and  the  western  parts  of 
Ada;  four  are  cultivated  as  esculents,  the  others  are  mere  weeds. 

B,  vtdgariSf  Common  Beet,  is  said  to  be  found  in  a  wild  state  along 
the  whole  of  the  sea-coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  £gypt ;  it  is 
however  chiefly  known  as  a  plant  cultivated  in  gardens,  for  its  carrot-like 
sweet  and  tender  roots.  Several  sorts  are  mentioned  by  writers  on 
gardening,  varying  in  the  size,  form,  colour,  and  sweetness  of  thdr 
roots  :  01  these  however  two  are  much  more  worth  cultivating  than 
the  others,  namdy,  the  small  red  variety  and  the  Ions  yellow  variety ; 
they  are  the  most  delicate,  the  sweetest^  and  have  we  richest  colour 
when  served  at  table. 

B.  aUianma,  Mangd  Wurzd,  is  a  much  larger  and  coarser  plant 
than  the  Common  Beet,  from  whidi  it  is  prindpally  known  by  its 
roots  being  marked  internally  with  zones  of  red  and  pink  or  white. 
Its  native  country  is  unknown ;  by  some  it  is  reckoned  a  mere  variety 
of  the  Common  Beet,  but  this  is  scarcely  probable,  conddering  that  it 
is  permanently  reproduced  from  seed ;  others  state  that  it  is  a  hybrid 
between  the  Common  and  Chard  Beet,  our  third  sort,  of  which  however 
there  is  ndther  proof  nor  probability.  Mangd  Wurzel  is  an  object  of 
extendve  cultivation  for  feeding  oatUe;  its  leaves  afford  a  very 
nutritious  food  for  all  kinds  of  live  stock,  and  the  rootis^  from  their 
extreme  sweetness,  are  by  many  farmers  conddered  the  most  valuable 
of  all  the  agricultural  plants  upon  which  cattle  are  fed  in  winter. 
Independentiy  of  their  use  for  cattle,  Mangd  Wurzel  roots  have  been 
extendvely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  They  are  still 
employed  in  franco  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar :  and  an  attempt 
has  lately  been  made  in  Irdand  to  use  them  for  the  same  purpose. 
For  this,  the  common  red  and  white  Mangel  Wurzd  will  perhi4>s  be 
found  best  suited  in  this  country,  in  consequence  of  its  hardiness,  and 
the  great  weight  per  acre  which  it  will  afford ;  but  the  Frendi  have 
preferred  a  perfectly  white  kind,  which  is  said  to  exceed  the  former 
in  nutritive  properties,  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one ;  they  also 
grow  a  sort  with  white  roots  and  a  purple  crown,  and  another  white 
within,  and  yellow  on  the  outside.  The  yellow  Field-Beet,  which  has 
been  a  good  deal  cultivated  in  this  coizntry,  is  apparentl;^  a  variety  of 
B.  vuigaritf  and  is  too  unproductive  in  most  dtuations  to  bear 
comparison  with  the  others. 

B,  cydcL,  Chard  Beet,  is  inferior  to  the  two  last  in  the  size  of  its 
roots,  but  is  remarkable  for  the  thickness  of  the  ribs  of  its  leaves, 
which  are  white,  yellow,  green,  orange  coloured,  or  deep  crimson,  in 
different  varieties.  It  is  cultivated  like  the  Common  Beet,  but  the 
leaves  onl^  are  used  in  soups,  or  their  ribs  are  cut  out  and  stewed 
like  sea-kaiL  They  have  however  an  earthy  taste,  which  is  not  in  the 
power  of  cookery  wholly  to  remove,  on  which  account  they  are  little 
esteemed.  The  French  call  this  spedes  Poir^  h  Cardes.  It  is  add 
to  have  been  introduced  to  France  from  Portugal;  but  its  native 
station  is  unknown. 

B,  marUima,  Sea-Beet,  unlike  the  three  last,  is  a  prostrate  plant, 
with  numerous  entangled  branches  and  a  tough  woody  root.  It  is 
found  abundantly  on  many  parts  of  the  southern  coast  of  England, 
and  is  a  conmion  European  shore-plant,  preferring  a  chalky  soU  Its 
leaves  are  small,  ovate,  deep  green,  creneUed,  rvther  sharp-pointed, 
flat,  succulent,  and  placed  on  long  stalks.  Its  flowers  are  green  and 
aiTanged  in  spikes,  each  being  subtended  by  a  small  leaf^  brack  It 
is  a  perennial,  and  one  of  the  most  valuable  plants  known  for  spinach ; 
its  leaves  when  dressed  are  extremely  delicate  and  well-flavoured,  and 
easily  reduced  into  that  pulpy  substance  which  constitutes  the  great 
merit  of  good  spinach.  It  thrives  in  a  garden  without  any  sort  of 
care,  and  is  rather  a  handsome  plant  when  growing  among  rubbish, 
for  its  leaves  are  a  particularly  rich  green,  and  not  liable  to  be  scorched 

2  0 


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BETEL. 


BETULA. 


tfz 


by  the  bud,  or  to  bo  injured  much  by  inaeoti.  It  is  inereaaed  by 
seeds,  which  it  yields  in  i^undanoe.    [Beet,   in  Ams  avd  So.  Dit.] 

BETEL,  the  leaf  of  an  intoxicating  kind  of  pepper.    [Fifxb.] 

BETEL-NUT  PALM.    [Abtoa.] 

BETHY'LUSy  a  genus  formed  by  CuTier,  and  plmoed  by  him  under 
his  second  order  of  Birds  {Lu  Pattereamx),  in  the  first  tribe  (Denti- 
rottret),  and  in  the  first  fiunily  (Lamiada).  He  sajrs  that  there  is  but 
one  species  known  {Lamma  Leveriantu  of  Shaw,  Laniui  picatut  of 
Latham),  and  that  the  Ore«t  Shrike  {Laniut  corvimu  of  Shaw)  approaches 
it,  though  L.  corvifMwhas  the  bill  more  compressed. 

VieiUot  has  changed  the  generic  name  to  Oitsopiit  and  Illiger  makes 
it  a  Tangeura. 

The  genus  is  thus  characterised  by  "Vleillot : — ^Bill  short,  robust, 
swollen,  a  little  compressed  towards  the  end ;  upper  mandible  notched 
and  cunred  at  the  point :  gape  ciliated ;  the  third  and  fourth  qtiills 
longest ;  outer  toes  united  at  their  base. 

Le  VaiUant  has  figured  this  bird  (plate  60)  under  the  name  of  Pie 
Pie-Oreiche.  White  and  black  are  the  only  colours  of  its  plumage, 
distributed  like  those  of  the  magpie  which  it  is  said  to  resemble  in 
miniature  in  Guyana  and  Braril,  where  it  is  a  native. 

BETHT^US,  a  genus  of  Hymenopterous  Insects  of  the  fkmil^ 
ProetotrwpidcB,  Its  principal  distlnctiye  characters  are— antennse  gem- 
culated,  IS-jointed  in  both  sexes;  the  head  is  depressed  and  the 
prothorax  yery  elongate  and  almost  triangular.  The  wings  have  only 
one  laige  marginal  cell,  not  closed;  abdomen  conical;  legs  shor^ 
feinora  thick. 

These  little  four-winged  flies,  which  are  remarkable  for  their  large 
depressed  heads,  are  not  Yery  unlike  ants  in  their  appearance,  and  are 
found  in  flowers  and  sometimes  on  the  leaves  of  shrubs,  to  which  they 
resort  in  search  of  small  caterpillars,  which  they  store  up  in  cells  to 
nourish  their  future  progeny.  The  principal  haunts  of  tiieee  insects 
are  dry  sandy  situations. 

BETONICA.    [Bbtowt.] 

BETONT,  the  common  name  of  the  Stachy$  Betaniea  [Staghtb], 
which  was  formerly  described  under  the  name  of  Betoniea  oJBlcinalis. 

BE'TULA,  a  genus  of  trees  or  shrubs,  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
BehUaeecB,  It  is  characterised  by  its  flowers  growing  in  catkins,  the 
sodes  of  which  are  thin  and  three-lobed,  and  by  the  scales  subtending 
three  flat  fruits,  each  furnished  with  two  styles,  and  expanded  into  a 
thin  wing  on  either  side ;  these  fruits  are  what  are  vu^^ularly  called 
birch-se^s.  The  species  are,  with  one  exception,  foimd  beyond  the 
tropic  in  the  northern  hemisphere;  the  species  of  the  southern 
hemisphere  is  a  little  evergreen  plant  called  B,  antarctica,  of  which 
little  is  recorded  except  that  it  inhabits  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

The  more  remarkable  species  of  this  genus  may  be  conveniently 
disposed  according  to  their  prevailing  geographical  distribution. 

Buropean  Birchei. 

B.  alba,  the  Common  Birch.  Branches  erect^  when  young  covered 
with  a  short  dose  down  never  smooth,  and  warted ;  leaves  with  a 
somewhat  rhomboidal  form,  ovate,  generally  doubly  serrated,  with 
downy  footstalks,  acute,  but  not  tapering  to  the  point ;  catkins  pen- 
dulous. A  native  of  Europe  from  the  most  northern  to  the  most 
southern  countries^  in  the  latter  however  not  appearing  except  on 
mountains  at  a  considerable  elevation ;  on  ^tna  it  does  not  occur 
below  4762  feet  above  the  sea,  according  to  Philippi  It  is  also  found 
eastward  in  Asia,  aa  fitr  at  least  as  the  Altai  Mountains.  Although 
this  species  is  not  much  valued  for  its  timber,  it  is  extremely  usenil 
for  many  other  purposes.  Russia  skins  are  said  to  be  tanned  with  the 
empyreumatic  oil  of  its  bark,  from  which  the  peculiar  odour  of  such 
leather  is  derived.  Cordage  is  obtaiaed  from  it  by  the  Laplanders, 
who  also  prepare  a  red  dye  from  it ;  the  young  shoots  serve  to  nourish 
their  cattle,  and  vinegar  is  obtained  frt>m  the  fermented  sap.  The 
inhabitants  of  Flnlana  use  the  leaves  for  tea,  and  both  in  Lapland  and 
Greenland  strips  of  the  young  and  tender  baik  are  used  as  food.  From 
the  timber  are  manufactured  hoops,  yokes  for  cattle,  bowls,  wooden 
spoons,  and  other  articles  in  which  lightness  without  much  durability 
is  sufficient ;  baskets  and  hurdles  are  often  made  of  parts  of  its  shoots ; 
and  from  its  rising  sap,  extracted  by  means  of  openings  cut  into  its 
alburnum  in  the  spring,  and  fermented,  a  kind  of  wine  is  obtained 
which  is  of  an  agreeable  quality,  but  will  not  keep.  During  the  siege 
of  Hambuig  by  the  Russians  in  1814,  almost  all  tne  birch-trees  of  the 
neighbourhood  were  destroyed  by  the  Bashkirs  and  other  barbarian 
soldiers  in  the  Russian  service,  by  being  tapped  for  their  juice. 

The  Birch  naturally  grows  in  poor  sandy  soil,  on  whidi  it  thrives 
fully  aa  well  as  in  that  of  a  more  fertile  kind.  It  is  said  to  attain 
sometimes  the  height  of  70  feet^  with  a  diameter  of  2  feet ;  in  England 
it  does  not  acquire  such  considerable  dimensions.  As  it  approaches 
both  its  northern  and  southern  limits  it  gradually  decreases  in  size, 
conformably  to  the  laws  which  regulate  vegetable  development.  Its 
bark  is  said  to  be  fvrj  durable. 

B.  penchda,  the  Weeping  Birch.  Branches  drooping,  when  young 
perfectly  smooth,  and  marked  with  little  pearly  specks ;  leaves  wiS 
a  somewhat  rhomboidal  form,  ovate,  either  doubly  or  sizifi^y  serrated, 
acute,  but  not  tapering  to  the  point,  sometimes  slightly  hairy ;  catkins 
pendulous.  Very  oommon  in  difibrent  parts  of  Europe,  along  with 
the  last,  in  the  properties  of  which  it  appears  to  participate^  and  with 
which  it  is  often  improperly  oonfoiuded    It  differs  from  the  Common 


Birch  not  only  in  its  weeping  habit,  but  also  in  its  young  shoots  being 
quite  smooth,  bright  chestnut  brown  when  ripe,  and  then  covered 
with  little  white  warts.  The  Betula  pinUiea  of  the  nurseries  is  a 
slight  variety,  with  a  few  straggling  hain  on  the  leaves  and  leafiBtalka, 
and  a  less  drooping  l:abit. 


Common  Bircb  {Betula  atta), 
I,  The  insida  of  a  barren  scale,  with  the  anthers  attached ;  3,  inside  of  • 
fertile  scale,  with  the  oraties  attached ;  8,  an  ovary  eat  through  perpendiea. 
larly ;  4,  inside  of  a  scale,  with  three  ripe  fruits ;  6,  a  ripe  fhiit  of  the  natonl 
slse ;  6,  the  same  magnified ;  7,  a  transverse  section,  and  8,  a  perpendicular 
section  of  the  same ;  9,  a  ripe  seed ;  10,  an  embryo. 

B,  pube$een$,  the  Downy  Birch.  Branches  eraot^  covered  all  over 
with  very  dose  down;  leaves  heart-shaped,  ovate,  taper^inted, 
doubly  and  sharply  serrated,  very  downy.  A  smaller  speaes  than  the 
first,  found  in  tne  bogs  of  Qermany :  a  variety  of  it  is  called  Betuta 
wrticifolia  in  gardens. 

B,  nana,  the  Dwarf  Birch.  Leaves  orbicular,  crenated,  with  stron^j 
marked  veins  on  the  under  side;  catkins  upright.  A  small  biuh, 
found  in  Lapland  and  the  mountainous  -pirta  of  other  northern 
countries ;  it  even  stretches  across  the  whole  continent  of  Asia  as  far 
as  Unalasohka.  To  the  people  of  the  south  this  plant  has  no  value, 
but  to  the  Laplanden  it  affords  a  large  part  of  their  fuel ;  and  its 
winged  fruits  are  reported  to  be  the  favourite  food  of  the  ptarmigan. 
The  place  of  this  is  occupied  in  America  by  a  specieB  caUed  BifUa 
glandvlot(L 

A$iaiie  Birdket, 

B.  Bhoj^paUra,  Indian  Paper  Birch.  Leaves  oblongs  acute,  with  nearly 
simple  serratures,  somewhat  heart^haped  at  the  base ;  their  stalks, 
veins,  and  twigs  hairy ;  ripe  catkins;,  erect,  cylindrical,  oblong;  bracts 
smooth,  woody,  two-parted,  blunt^  much  longer  than  the  fruit,  which 
has  narrow  wings.  A  tree  found  on  the  Alps  of  Qurwal  and  Kumaon, 
where  it  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Wallich,  who  infonuB  vm  that  its  thin 
delicate  bark  furnishes  the  masses  of  flexible  laminated  matter,  of 
which  great  quantities  are  brought  down  into  the  plains  of  India  for 
linmg  Uie  tubes  of  hookahs.  The  Sanscrit  name  of  the  substance  is 
Booija.  (Wall.  *  Plant  A&  Rar.,'  voL  ii.  p.  7.)  The  bark  of  this  speaee 
is  of  a  pale  cinnamon  colour.    It  is  nearly  allied  to  B,  papyraeta. 

B.  acuminata,  the  Tapering-Leaved  Birch.  Leaves  ovate,  lanceolate, 
somewhat  simply  serrated,  taper-pointed,  smooth,  dotted  beneath, 
leafrtalks  and  twigs  quite  smooth ;  ripe  catkins,  very  long,  pendulous, 
cylindrical,  crowded ;  their  rachis  and  the  bracts,  which  are  auiided 
at  the  base,  downy.  Found  on  many  of  the  mountains  of  Ni^ul, 
and  in  the  great  valley  of  that  counti^,  following  the  course  of  nvera 

B.  nitida.  Shining  Birch. 

B,  epUndnutachpa,  Cylindrical  Spiked  Birofa.  These  two  last  speciee 
are  found  in  Kumaon. 

B.  populifdlia,  the  Poplar-Leaved  or  White  American  Birch.  Ostkina 
penduouB :  branches  perfectly  hairless,  drooping,  very  much  coYort-d 


Digitized  by 


Google 


BETI7LA. 


BiaNONIA, 


with  reainooB  warts;  leaves  triangular,  tapeivpointed, doubly-toothed, 
on  \oi^  weak  stalks.  This  species  is  more  an  object  of  ornament  than 
of  utility.  It  rarely  grows  more  than  20  or  25  feet  high,  except  in 
Tery  rich  soils,  when  it  is  said  to  become  somewhat  taller.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  northern  parts  of  North  America,  fix>m  the  lower  parts 
of  New  York,  New  Jeraey,  and  Pennsylvania,  to  Canada.  MicKauz 
says  that  its  bark  cannot  be  divided  into  thin  plates  like  that  of  the 
Paper-Birch  or  conmion  European  species.  It  is  very  like  the  Euro- 
X>ean  B,  pmdula^  from  which  the  characters  we  have  assigned  it  are 
sufficient  to  distinguish  it. 

B,  nigra  (Arwftro,  Michaux;  B,  lannlotaf  A.  Mich.),  the  Red  Birch. 
Branches  covered  closely  with  a  short  thick  down,  which  they  do  not 
lose  till  the  second  year;  leaves  angularly  rhomboidal,  very  deeply 
doubly  serrated,  acute,  with  the  axils  and  veins  of  the  underside  of 
the  leaf  downy;  stipules  nairow-ovate,  membranous,  smooth,  soon 
dropping  off  A  native  of  the  borders  of  rivers,  where  it  grows 
associated  with  planes,  maples,  and  willows,  in  the  southern  provinces 
of  the  United  States,  delighting  as  much  in  heat,  according  to  Michaux, 
as  many  other  species  do  in  cold,  and  therefore  the  best  adapted  for 
planting  in  the  southern  parte  of  Europe.  It  is  a  handsome  species, 
growing  as  much  as  70  feet  high,  and  from  2  to  3  feet  thick,  and  is 
remarkable  for  its  bark  not  being  white  and  shining,  but  brown,  dotted 
with  white,  and  slightly  wrinkled.  The  limbs  of  the  tree  are  laiige, 
and  the  branches  terminate  in  long  flexible  pendtdous  twigs.  Cask 
hoops  are  manu&etured  from  its  shoots  when  about  an  inch  in 
diameter;  and  all  the  brooms  used  in  the  streets  of  Philadelphia, 
which  are  &r  better  than  those  of  Europe,  are  prepared  from  its  tough 
and  elastic  twigs.    In  this  counlry  it  is  generally  called  B,  angtUakk 

B,  excdta  (B.  hOea,  Mich.),  the  Tellow  Birch.  Catkins  erect,  short, 
thick,  nearly  sessile ;  branches  exceedingly  downy  when  young;  leaves 
rhomboidal,  acute  without  any  tapering,  finely  and  regularly  serrated, 
or  nearly  entire;  on  very  downy  stalks ;,  stipules  large  and  membra* 
nous.  Found  chiefly  in  the  coldest  parts  of  North  America  along  with 
the  Paper^Birch ;  south  of  the  Hudson  River  it  becomes  rare.  Michaux 
states  that  it  is  principally  in  good  alluvial  soil  that  it  thrives,  in 
company  with  black  and  hemlock  spruces  and  ashes;  its  greatest 
height  is  from  60  to  70  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  something  more  than 
2  feet  It  is  said  to  be  a  handsome  tree,  with  a  straight  trunk,  often 
clear  of  branches  as  far  as  80  or  40  feet  from  the  ground.  It  is 
remarkable  for  the  bright  golden  yellow  of  its  bark,  which  shines  as 
if  it  had  been  varnished.  It  is  most  like  B,  nigra,  from  which  its 
thicker  and  more  hairy  catkins  and  simply  serrat^  leaves  distinguish 
it,  independently  of  other  characters. 

B,  papyraeea,  the  Paper  or  Canoe-Birch.  Catkins  thick,  pendulous, 
on  long  stalks ;  branches  generaUy  more  or  lees  downy  when  young, 
sometimes  hairy;  leaves  ovate,  occasionally  heart-shaped,  regularly  or 
irregularly  serrated,  smooth  or  downy.  This,  the  most  valuable  of  all 
the  spedes  of  Birch,  is  a  native  of  North  America,  where  it  grows  in 
great  quantities,  not  extending  beyond  73**  to  the  north  nor  48"  to  the 
south,  aooordii^  to  Michaux.  The  slopes  of  hills  and  valleys,  where 
the  soil  is  of  good  quality,  are  said  to  be  its  fnvourite  stations :  in  such 
places  it  often  acquires  we  height  of  70  feel 

Its  wood  is  sometimes  used  in  North  America  for  cabinet  makers' 
work ;  but  it  is  not  of  much  value  for  exposure  to  the  weather,  as  it 
soon  decays  if  subjected  alternately  to  damp  and  dryness.  Its  bark  is 
the  part  which  is  the  most  esteemed ;  this  part  is  said  to  be  so 
durable  that  old  fallen  trees  are  stated  to  be  frequentiy  found  with 
their  form  so  well  preserved  that  one  would  think  them  perfectiy 
sound,  but  upon  examining  them  it  is  found  that  the  whole  of  the 
wood  is  rotted  away,  and  nothing  is  left  but  tiie  sound  and  solid  case 
of  bark.  This  part  is  used  for  a  number  of  useful  purposes ;  log- 
houses  are  sometimes  thatched  with  it ;  littie  boxes,  cases,  &c,  and 
even  hats  are  manufkotured  from  it ;  but  its  great  value  is  for  making 
canoes.  For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  pieces  sufficientiy  large  for 
sach  a  purpose,  we  are  informed  by  Michaux  that  the  largest  and 
nmoothest-barked  trees  are  selected.  In  the  spring  two  droular 
inciaions  at  the  distance  of  several  feet  are  made^  and  a  longitudinal 
incision  on  each  side ;  then  by  introducing  a  wedge  of  wood  between  the 
trunk  and  bark,  the  latter  is  easily  detached.  With  threads  prepared 
from  the  fibrous  roots  of  the  White  Spruce-Fir  {Abiet  alba),  the  pieces 
of  bark  are  sown  together,  over  a  lignt  frame-work  of  wood,  and  the 
seams  are  caulked  with  the  resin  of  the  Balm  of  Qilead  Fir.  Canoes 
of  this  sort  are  so  li^t  as  to  be  easily  transported  on  the  shoulders  of 
men.  It  is  said  that  one  capable  of  carrying  four  persons  and  their 
bandage  only  weighs  from  40  to  50  pounds. 

B.  lenta  {B  carpinifolia,  A.  Mich.),  the  Soft,  Black,  or  Cherry-Birch. 
Catkins  short,  erect;  branches  quite  smootii;  leaves  thin,  cordate, 
oblong,  tapering  to  a  poinl^  simply  or  doubly  serrated,  downy  when 
young,  smooth  afterwards;  stipules  very  huge  and  membranous. 
Nona  of  the  American  birdies  produce  timber  so  valuable  as  this ; 
whence  one  of  its  American  names  is  Mountain  Mahogany.  Its  wood 
is  hajd,  dose-grained,  and  of  a  reddish  brown ;  it  is  imported  into 
thia  country  in  considerable  quantity,  under  the  name  of  American 
birch,  for  forming  the  slides  of  dining-tables,  and  for  sunilar  purposes. 
It  M  abundant  in  the  midland  states,  as  in  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
and  Pennsylvania^  but  more  to  the  south  it  only  appears  on  the 
Bununits  of  the  Alleghanies.  Deep  rich  soil  is  what  it  prefers ;  and 
when  it  attains  its  greatest  dimensions,  which  are  as  muck  as  70  fDCt 


of  height,' and  8  feet  of  diameter,'  it  is  a  hamlBcmie  tree,  budding 
remarkably  early  in  the  spring,  when  its  leaves  are  covered  wi^h  a 
short  thick  coat  of  down ;  this  disappears  later  in  the  season,  and 
leaves  them  of  a  bright  and  lively  green.  It  grows  with  unusual 
rapidity.  It  is  rarely  seen  in  this  cotmtiy,  although  it  is  perhaps  one 
of  the  best  suited  to  our  climate.  The  thinness  of  its  kavee, 
combined  with  their  oblong  figure,  distinguishes  this  from  all  the 
other  spedes. 

BETuLA'CEj£,  Birchvorttf  the  Birch  Tribe,  a  natural  order  of 
Apetalous  Dicotyledonous  plants.  It  was  formerly  comprehended, 
along  with  other  groups,  in  what  were  called  AmentaeecB,  because  it 
bears  its  flowers  in  amenta,  or  catkiiis;  but  it  is  distinguished  from  all 
those  which  agree  with  it  in  this  particular,  by  its  flat,  one^eeded, 
two-celled,  membranous  fruit,  and  pendulous  ovules.  All  the  spedes 
are  dther  trees  or  shrubs,  with  the  fertile  flowers  in  one  catkin  and 
the  barren  in  another,  and  they  have  in  general  the  main  lateral 
veins  of  their  leaves  running  straight  from  me  midrib  to  the  margiii, 
without  curving  inwards.  They  are  found  in  the  colder  parts  of  the 
worid,  or  in  mountainous  regions  in  hot  countries.  The  only  genera 
bdonging  to  this  order  are  AImu  and  BehiUk  [Alvub;  Bbtuul] 
Lindley  places  the  order  between  Myrieaeta  and  AUvngiacetB, 

BEUDANTITE,  a  black  mineral,  with  a  rednous  lustre  and  rhom* 
bohedral  crystals.  It  contains  oxides  of  lead  and  iron.  It  is  found 
at  Horhausen  on  the  Rhine. 

BEWICK'S  SWAN,  the  OygnM  BewiehL    [OjQtmxM.] 

BIAPHO'LIUS  (Leach),  a  genus  of  Bivalve  Shells,  indistinojj^ 
known,  and  which  Rang  consklers  to  be  identical  witii  the  genus 
BiaUUa  of  Daudin.    [Ptloridia.] 

BIB,  a  Fish.    [Mobbhua.] 

BI'DENS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Oompo- 
gita,  the  suborder  CorynUnferatt  tribe  Smeeionidea,  subtribe  ffeUan* 
thea,  dividon  BidaUiSkce.  It  has  monogamous  discoidal  heads, 
sometimes  radiant ;  the  florets  of  the  ray  neuter  ligulaie,  of  the  disk, 
hermaphrodite,  tubular;  the  receptade  flat;  the  involucre  of  two 
rows,  the  outer  row  spreading ;  the  branchea  of  the  style  surmounted 
by  short  cones ;  the  fruit  compressed,  angular,  rough  at  the  edges, 
the  angles  terminating  in  2-5  stiff  retrorsely  hispid  bristies.  The 
genus  has  been  named  Bidem  from  the  two  bristies  which  most  fre- 
quentiy surmount  the  teeth.  A  great  number  of  spedes  bdonging  to 
this  genus  have  been  described,  but  they  are  generally  inconspicuous 
weeds. .  They  have  been  found  in  Europe  and  Nortii  and  South 
America.  Two  are  natives  of  Great  Britam  in'  marshy  and  watery 
phMses,  B.  lipartiita  and  B.  eemua.  The  latter  is  the  Cereoptii  Bidmt 
of  Liimffius.    (Babington,  MomwjH  ;  Lindley,  Na^tural  System.) 

BIQBONE  LICE,  a  place  in  Kentucky  (ITnited  States),  where  great 
numbers  of  fossil  mainmalia  occur  in  a  dark-coloured  mardiy  soil, 
covered  by  gravd  and  resting  on  blue  clay.  The  bones  of  iUphoM 
primigenmi  and  Mastodon  maximna  are  very  numerous.  With  them 
lie  bones  of  MagaUmyz  Jffferaonii,  Bob  hombifront.  Boa  PaUatii,  and 
OerwuAmericamu,  (SUogerB,  On  American  Qeohgy ;  British  AatociaUon 
Bieportafor  18840 

BIQBNERI'NA,  DOrbigny's  name  for  a  genus  of  ForamMiifera, 
which  he  originally  described  as  minute  Cephalopods.  There  are  two 
subgenera ;  tiie  first  consisting  of  the  Bigenerina  properly  so  called, 
with  a  central  opening,  and  the  other  of  the  QtmmuUMB  (D'Orbigny) 
with  a  marginal  opening.    [Fo&AKiNiriBA,  we  Supplimiht.] 

BIQNO'NIA,  a  genus  ofplants  named  bv  Toumefort  after  the  Abb^ 
Bignon,  librarian  to  Louis  XI V.  It  forms  tne  type  of  the  monopetalous 
order  of  Exogens,  Bignoniacea.  It  has  a  campanulate  6-toothed  rardy 
entire  calyx ;  the  corolla  with  a  diort  tube,  a  campanulate  throaty 
and  a  6-lobed  bilabiate  limb ;  the  stamens  four,  didynamous^  with  the 
rudiments  of  a  fifth ;  lobes  of  the  anther  divaricate ;  stigma  bilamd- 
lated ;  capsule  siliqui-formed,  2-cdled,  with  the  dissepiment  parallel 
wHh  the  vdves ;  the  seeds  in  two  rows,  imbricate,  transverse,  with 
membranous  wings.  Nearly  100  spedes  of  this  genus  of  degant  plants 
have  been  described.  They  are  usually  climbing  shrubs  furmdied 
with  tendrils,  having  oppodte,  single,  coigugate,  temate,  piimate,  or 
digitate  leaves.  The  flowers  are  mostly  in  terminal  or  axillary  pani- 
dee.  The  corollas  are  trumpet-shaped,  and  are  coloured  varioudy, 
white,  yellow,  orange,  purple,  violet,  or  rose. 

All  the  spedes  of  this  genus  are  splendid  plants  while  in  blossom, 
and  deserve  a  place  in  every  coUection.  Most  of  them  are  dimben^ 
and  adapted  for  training  up  rafters  and  pillars,  but  they  only  grow 
fredy  in  stoves.  A  mixture  of  loam  and  peat  is  best  adapted  for  their 
growth,  and  cuttings  will  strike  readily  under  a  hand-glads  in  heat, 
dther  in  mould  or  sand.  The  spedes  known  by  the  name  of  this 
genus  which  is  most  abundant  in  our  gardens  is  the  Bignonia  radictms. 
This  and  some  other  spedes  of  Bignonia  are  now  referred  to  the 
genera  Spathodea  [Spatsodsa]  and  Teeoma  [Tbcoxa].  It  is  one  of 
the  few  species  capable  of  living  in  the  open  air  against  a  wall  in  this 
coimtiy. 

B.  aquinoxidlis  has  square  glabrous  brandies,  glabrous  corrugate 
leaves,  oblong  lanceolate  leaflets,  siniple  axillary  tendrils,  2-flowered 
peduncles,  terminal  ones  racemose,  foUides  linear.  It  is  a  native  of 
Quyana.  It  is  applied  by  the  negroes  to  swellings  of  the  feet^  with 
whidi  they  are  troubled. 

B.  Uucoxylon  is  a  tree,  and  has  quinate  leaves ;  ovate-lsaoeolats^ 
aoomlnate^  glabrous  leaflets;  terminal,  solitary,  or  twin  flowerai   This 


Digitized  by 


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BIQNOKIAGB^ 


BILK. 


plant  ia  a  native  of  Janudoa,  on  the  baokf  of  nrtm.  It  IiM  white 
flowers,  not  unlike  those  of  Daiura  Stramonnkm,  which  oome  out 
before  the  leaves.  The  wood  is  of  a  green  or  yellow  colour,  and  is 
sometimes  brought  into  the  market  under  the  name  of  ebony.  It  is 
said  to  be  an  antidote  to  the  poison  of  ManchineeL 

B.  Chiea  is  a  climbing  plant,  and  has  abruptly-bipinnate  leaves; 
conjugate  elliptioovate,  acuminate,  deeply-cordate,  glabrous  leaflets ; 
axillary  pendulous  panicles.  It  grows  on  the  banks  of  khe  Orinoco. 
A  red  matter  is  extracted  from  its  wood  by  the  Indians,  with  which 
they  paint  their  bodies.  It  is  called  Chioa,  and  has  been  used  in  this 
country  as  a  dye. 

£.  aUiaeea  has  tetragonal  branches,  conjugate  leaves,  coriaceous  ellip- 
tic leaflets,  simple  tendrils,  axillary  6-flowered  peduncles,  a  5-toothed 
calyx.  It  is  a  native  of  Guyana  and  the  West  Indies.  It  has  Urge 
white  flowers,  and  is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  species  by  its 
peculiar  garlic  odour ;  hence  the  French  name  Liane  k  T  AiL 

(Don,  Qardena^a  JHeUonary;  De  CandoUe,  Prodromut;  Burnett's 
OuUmeM;  Oydopcedia  of  Plants.) 

BIQNONIA'CE-fi,  Bignoniadi,  the  Bignonia  Tribe,  are  Monopeta- 
lous  Dicotyledonous  plants,  with  irregular  flowers,  a  pod-like  fruit, 
winged  seeds  without  albumen,  and  usually  a  climbing  habit.  They 
are  mostly  idirubs,  inhabiting  the  hotter  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America,  and  unknown  in  Europe  except  in  a  cultivated  state ;  some 
of  them  are  trees  of  conaiderablo  size.  They  generally  are  remarkable 
for  the  large  size  and  rich  or  delicate  colouring  of  their  trumpet-shaped 
flashers.  No  sensible  properties  of  much  importance  have  been  recog- 
nised among  them.  Several  are  valuable  for  their  timber,  which  pos- 
seesee  extreme  hardness.  According  to  Lindley  the  number  of  genera 
in  this  order  is  44,  and  the  species  460.  They  are  allied  to  GesneraeecB 
toid  Cfreseentiaeea.  [Biohonia;  Eoobemooabpus  ;  Catalpa;  Tbooma; 
Jacaranda.] 


Bignoniaeem — Bignonia  lecti/hra. 
1,  A  corolla  slit  open ;  2,  a  eup-shaped  disk,  out  of  which  the  ortrj  often 
grows,  togrether  -with  the  style  and  stigma ;  3,  a  young  orary ;  4,  a  ripe  pod ; 
5,  a  seed ;  6,  an  embryo  extracted  from  the  integuments  of  the  seed. 

BIKH,  or  BISH,  is  the  name  given  amongst  the  Hindoos  to  a  most 
powerful  and  destructive  vegetable  poison.  Dr.  Wallich  refers  the 
plant  to  the  AconUumferox,  [Acx>iriTniL]  It  is  also  called  Yish,  Viaha^ 
or  Atavisha. 

BILBERRY,  a  beny-bearing  shrub,  found  on  the  moors  of  most 
countries  in  Europe.    [Vacoinium.] 

BILE,  an  animal  fluid  of  a  greenish  colour,  viscid  consistence, 
and  bitter  taste. 

The  organ  bv  which  the  bile  is  secreted  is  the  liver.  The  liver  is 
distuiguished  by  two  peculiarities :  first,  it  is  the  laigest  gland  in  the 
body ;  and  secondly,  it  is  provided  with  two  distinct  sets  of  veina 
The  v«ins  that  receive  ^e  blood  from  the  viscera  of  the  abdomen, 
^hat  U  frt>m  the  organs  more  immediately  concerned  in  the  process  of 


digestion,  unite  together  into  a  large  trunk  named  the  venaportn.  Dnt 
vein  penetrates  into  the  substance  of  the  liver,  and  ramifies  throngi: 
it  in  the  manner  of  an  artery ;  at  the  same  time  the  liver  reoeiyei 
a  large  quantity  of  arterial  blood  by  the  hepatic  artery.  [Livxb.]  The 
ultimate  brandies  of  the  vena  portte  tenninate  partly  in  a  set  of 
vessels  termed  the  hepatic  ducts,  which  contain  the  bile,  and  parUy 
in  a  set  of  vessels  termed  the  hepatic  veins,  by  which  a  lurge  portion 
of  the  blood  of-  the  vena  portte  is  transmitted  by  the  ordinary  course 
of  the  circulation  into  the  vena  cava,  the  great  vein  that  returns  the 
blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
[Circulation  of  thx  Blood.] 

This  arrangement  is  peculiar.  There  is  no  other  g^d  in  the 
body  in  which  the  disposition  of  the  blood-ressels  is  at  aU  analogous: 
there  is  no  other  instance  in  which  a  vein  is  sent  to  a  gland  sad 
distributed  to  it  in  the  manner  of  an  artery.  This  peeuharity  has 
naturally  led  physiologists  to  infer  that  the  vein  in  this  case  perfonns 
the  ordinary  functions  of  an  artery ;  that  it  carries  on  the  prooesi 
of  secretion,  and  eliminates  its  product,  the  bile,  out  of  venoas 
blood. 

But  whatever  doubts  physiologists  may  entertain  by  which  of  the 
two  great  vessels  of  the  livor  the  bile  is  secreted,  the  consent  is 
universal  that  the  Uver  is  the  gland  by  which  this  fluid  is  formed. 
When  duly  elaborated  in  this  oi^gim,  the  bile  is  received  from  the 
secreting  vessels  by  exceedingly  minute  tubes,  the  union  of  which 
constitutes  the  excretory  duct  of  the  gland,  which  is  termed  the 
hepatic  duct  The  hepatic  duct  passing  on  towards  the  duodenum, 
which,  physiologically  considered,  is  a  second  stomach  [DuoDiinTM], 
communicates  with  a  small  membranous  cyst  or  bag,  called  the  gall- 
bladder, a  reservoir  for  the  bile.  The  duct  of  the  gall-bladder,  called 
the  cystic  duct,  unites  with  the  hepatic  duct,  and  both  together  form 
a  single  tube,  termed  the  choledoch  duct,  which  pieroes  the  duodenum. 
Thus  the  hepatic  duct,  canring  the  Inle  away  m>m  the  liver,  either 
conveys  it  mto  the  gall-bladder  by  means  of  the  cystic  duct,  or 
transmits  it  immediatdy  into  the  duodenum  by  means  of  the  chole- 
doch duct  The  bile  which  flows  immediately  into  the  duodenum  is 
called  the  hepatic  bile ;  that  which  is  contained  in  the  gall-bladder  is 
called  the  cystic  bile.  There  is  a  striking  difference  in  the  external 
characters  of  the  two,  cystic  bile  being  of  a  much  deeper  colour,  and 
much  more  viscid,  pungent,  and  bitter  than  hepatic  bile ;  but  the 
difference  in  their  chemical  properties,  if  there  be  any,  has  not  be^ 
ascertained :  hepatic  bile,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  collecting  it 
in  sufficient  quantity,  has  not  been  analysed,  while  some  portion  of 
bile  is  generally  found  in  the  gall-bladder  after  death. 

From  actual  experiment  it  would  appear  that  the  secretion  of  bile 
is  continually  going  on  in  the  living  aratem.  In  whatever  drcum* 
stances  an  animal  ia  placed — if  the  orinoe  of  the  choledoch  dud  be 
laid  bare— the  bile  is  always  seen  to  be  flowing  drop  by  drop  into  the 
intestine.  It  is  observed  to  flow  much  faster  during  the  process  of 
digestion  than  when  the  stomach  is  empty ;  and  l^ere  is  reason  to 
believe  that,  during  the  digestive  process,  the  hepatic  bile  is  secreted 
in  much  laiger  quantity  than  when  the  stomach  is  empty,  and  that 
it  is  then  conveyed  directly  into  the  duodenum.  The  gall-bladder 
fills  when  the  stomach  is  empty,  and  when  the  stomach  is  full  tiie 
gall-bladder  becomes  comparatively  empty.  The  gall-bladder,  however, 
ia  seldom  if  ever  completely  emptied.  Vomituig  contributes  more 
perhaps  than  any  other  action  of  the  system  to  the  expulsion  of  its 
contents.  Magendie  states  that  he  has  often  found  it  completely 
empty  in  animals  that  died  from  the  effeota  of  an  emetic  poison. 

The  phyaical  charactera  of  the  bile  are  as  follows : — In  colour  it  is 
always  a  deep  brown,  but  when  seen  in  thin  layers  it  has  a  brownish- 
yellow  tint  It  is  very  fluid,  being  viscid  only  in  new-born  infants. 
The  specific  gravity  varies  from  1.032  to  1.040.  On  examining  with 
the  microscope  bile  from  the  gall-bladder,  with  which  of  course  a  ce^ 
tain  amount  of  mucus  is  mixed,  there  are  observed : — 1,  Transparent 
or  grayish  round  vesicles,  about  the  700th  of  a  line  in  diameter ;  thej 
disappear  on  the  addition  of  alcohol  or  ether,  and  are  remoTed  by 
filtration.  2,  Conical  yellow  bodies,  about  the  140th  of  a  line  in 
length,  and  about  the  300th  or  400th  of  a  line  in  breadth,  apparently 
devoid  of  nuclei;  these  are  epithelial  cells  from  the  gall-bladder. 
8,  Here  and  there  irregular  dark  granules,  which  disappear  on  the 
addition  of  a  solution  of  potai^  apparently  pigment  cells.  4,  Occa- 
sionally minute  crystals  of  cholesterin,  occurring  aa  colourless  rhombic 
tablets. 

Chemically  the  bile  is  composed  of  several  elements  which  have  a 
tendency  to  arrange  themselves  during  chemical  analysis  in  very 
various  forms.  Not  only  are  the  four  orgaiuc  elements,  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen  present,  but  also  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  and  iron.  The  union  of  the  oi^gazuo 
elements  in  different  proportions  will  account  for  the  various  sub- 
stances such  as  picromel,  bilin,  choleic  acid,  colic  acid,  taurine,  &c, 
which  chemists  have  described  in  their  analyaes  of  biles.  According 
to  Dr.  Kemp  the  organic  portion  of  ox-bile  may  be  represented  by  the 
formula  48  carbon,  42  hydrogen,  13  oxygen,  and  1  nitrogen.  The 
following  analyses  of  ox-bile  and  human  bile,  by  Thenard  and 
Berzelius,  will  scire  to  show  the  nature  of  bile  aa  well  as  the  pro- 
gress of  chemical  inquiry  on  this  subject  when  contrasted  with  more 
recent  analyses.  According  to  Thenard  the  composition  of  bile  is  as 
follows : — 


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457 


BILE, 


BIMANA. 


489 


Ox-BiU. 

Water 700 

Picromel  and  Resin 84*8 

Yellow  matter i'5 

Soda 4 

Phosphate  of  Soda 2 

Muriate  of  Soda 3*2 

Sulphate  of  Soda 0*8 

Phosphate  of  Lime 1*2 

Oxide  of  Iron a  trace. 


800*0 
ffuman  Bile, 

Water 1000 

Yellow  insoluble  matter 2  to  10 

Albumen 42 

Resin 41 

Soda 5*6 

Salts  the  same  as  in  Ox-Bile        ....  4*5 

According  to  Berzelius,  the  following  is  the  composition  of  Human 
Bile:— 

Water 908*4 

Picromel 80 

Albumen 8 

Soda 4*1 

Phosphate  of  Lime 0*1 

Common  Salt 8*4 

Phosphate  of  Soda  with  some  lame         .        .  1*0 

1000-0 
It  will  be  seen  from  these  analyses  that  the  chief  part  of  the  organic 
elements  was  found  in  the  form  of  picromeL  It  was  in  the  year  1888 
that  Demar^y  announced  that  bile  consisted  essentially  of  an  organic 
acid  combined  with  soda.  He  termed  the  add  choleic,  and  obta^ed 
it  in  the  following  manner :  bile,  firom  which  the  mucus  had  been 
precipitated  by  alcohol,  was  evaporated  on  the  water-bath,  and  10 
parts  of  the  dried  residue  were  diasolved  in  100  parts  of  water,  to  which 
10  parts  of  hydro-diloric  add  had  been  added.  Allowing  evaporation 
at  a  moderate  temperature  to  proceed,  it  was  obeerred  that  a  darii:  green 
oil  collected  on  the  surface,  while  at  the  same  time  the  fluid  became 
turbid.  On  remoying  the  oil  and  allowing  the  fluid  to  rest  for  some 
time,  it  gradually  became  dear,  with  the  predpitation  of  a  green 
deposit.  This  dark  green  bitter  precipitate  is  Demar^ay's  choldo  add, 
and  is  regarded  by  him  as  constituting  nine-tenths  of  tike  solid  consti- 
tuents of  the  bila  It  is  still  mixed  with  maigaric  acid,  cholesterin, 
pigment,  Ac.  After  their  removal  it  forms  a  yeUow  spongy  matter, 
which  rapidly  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  is  very  bitter, 
slightiy  soluble  in  ether,  soluble  in  water,  and  very  soluble  in  alcohoL 
The  choleate  of  soda,  obtained  by  adding  an  alcoholic  solution  of  soda 
to  an  alcoholic  solution  of  choleic  acid,  and  then  passing  a  current  of 
carbonic  add  through  it  to  remove  the  excess  of  soda,  possesses  all 
the  characters  of  bile ;  it  yidds  on  evaporation  a  brown  resinous  mass, 
and  is  soluble  in  water  and  in  aloohoL    • 

When  oholdc  add  is  boiled  with  hydrochloric  add  it  yidds 
ammonia,  taurine,  and  cfaoloidic  add ;  the  latter  being  insoluble  is 
deponted.  The  formuls  usually  assigned  to  choleic  acid,  taurine, 
and  choloidio  add  di£fer  only  slightly  from  the  formula  given  above 
for  the  oisanic  portion  of  ox-bil& 

But  it  has  bieen  recently  shown  by  Redtenbadier  that  taurine 
contains  as  much  as  25  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 

As  an  instance  of  modem  chemical  analysis  we  give  the  two  follow- 
ing analyses.  The  bile  in  these  cases  was  obtained  from  healthy  men, 
killed  by  severe  acddents : — 

1.  2. 

Water 86*00  85*92 

Solid  constituents     .        .    .        1400  1408 

Choleate  of  Soda  .  .        10*22  914 

Cholesterin       ....  016  0*26 

Haicparin  and  Olein  0*82  0*92 

Mucus 2*66  2*98 

Chlofide  of  Sodium  .  0*25  0*20 

Tribanc  Phosphate  of  Soda  .  0*20  0*25 

Baaio  Phosphate  of  Lime      )  ^^.jg  ^gg 

M  *t  Magnesia ) 

Sulphate  of  Iron       .        .    .  002  004 

Peroxide  of  Iron  .  traces  traces 

Platner  succeeded  in  obtaining  dioleic  add  and  dioleate  of  soda  in  a 
ctystaUised  form.  Sugar  has  also  been  reoentiy  demonstrated  to 
exist  in  the  faHe.  Gmehn  and  Stredrar  have  also  obtained  from  dried 
hUe  an  add  which  they  call  dioldc,  and  other  substances  have  been 
procured  from  the  bile  of  lower  animajft 

One  of  the  usee  which  the  bile  serves  in  the  economy  is  to  produce 
a  specific  ehsoge  upon  the  aliment  in  a  certain  stage  of  the  digestive 
procasa  The  first  change  which  the  food  undergoes  after  it  has  been 
swallowed  is  the  redaction  of  it  by  the  stomach  into  a  fluid  mass, 
the  appearance  of  which  varies  condderably  according  to  tiie  nature 
of  the  food.  This  fluid  mass  is  termed  chyme^  which  when  aooumu- 
lated  ui  aoertain  qusjutify  is  sent  from  the  stomayoh  into  the  duodenum. 


In'  the  duodenum  the  food  undergoes  a  further  change,  and  is  con 
verted  firom  chyme  into  the  substance  called  chyle.  These  two  fluids 
are  distinguished  from  eadi  other  by  spedfic  characters.  [Diobbtiov.] 
That  the  bile  is  tiie  main  agent  in  producing  the  change  by  which 
chyme  is  converted  into  diyle  is  proved  by  a  decisive  experiment 
porformed  by  Sir  B.  Brodie. 

This  phydologist  applied  a  ligature  around  the  choledodi  duet  of 
an  aniinal  so  as  completely  to  prevent  the  bile  from  entering  the 
duodenum,  and  then  noted  the  affects  produced  on  the  digestion  of 
the  food  immediatdy  before  and  immediiately  after  the  operation.  The 
experiment  was  repeated  several  times,  and  the  result  was  uniform. 
The  production  of  the  chyme  in  the  stomach  took  place  as  usual,  but 
the  conversion  of  the  chyme  into  chyle  was  immediatdy  and  com- 
pletdy  interrupted.  Not  the  smallest  trace  of  diyle  was  perceptible 
dther  in  the  duodenum  or  in  the  vessels  which  take  up  the  chyle  when 
formed,  namely,  the  lacteals. 

It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  after  the  bile  had  perfonned  this 
function  that  its  compounds  were  thrown  off  from  the  flystem  by  the 
Isowels.  But  that  the  bile  is  not  merely  an  excremeritltlous  fluid, 
intended  to  remove  effete  matter  from  the  blood,  but  a  secretion 
essential  to  the  animal  economy,  was  rendered  almost  certain  by  the 
experiments  of  Berzeliua,  Theyer,  and  Schloeser,  which  Showed  that 
the  human  fsoooB  contained  much  too  small  a  quantity  of  a  substance 
resembling  bile,  to  justify  the  idea  that  it  was  evacuated  in  this  manner. 
A  further  proof  that  the  bile  is  absorbed  and  not  excreted  is  afforded 
by  an  examination,  made  by  Enderlin,  of  the  ash  yielded  by  the 
contents  of  the  difi^erent  portions  of  the  intestinal  canal  of  a  hare. 
He  found  that  the  ash  from  the  contents  of  the  duodenum  alone 
effervesced  on  the  addition  of  an  acid,  thus  showing  that  the  choleate 
of  soda  (which  yidds  the  carbonate  on  incineration)  is  absorbed 
before  reaching  the  jejunum.  Sdiwann  also  established  this  opinion 
beyond  a  doubly  by  a  series  of  wdl-devised  experiments  on  dogs.  He 
tied  the  ductus  choledochus,  and  at  the  same  time  formed  a  fistulous 
opening  in  the  gall-bladder,  by  which  the  bile  escaped  externally. 
His  most  important  oondusions  are — Ist^  that  when  the  bile  does  not 
get  into  the  bowd  its  absence  is  generally  perceptible  in  dogs  about 
the  third  day  by  a  marked  diminution  in  weight;  and,  2nd,  that 
unless  the  diannel  for  the  conveyance  of  bile  to  the  duodenum  is  re- 
established, symptoms  of  defident  nutrition,  wasting,  debility,  ftc, 
ensue,  and  death  is  the  ultimate  consequence. 

Upon  this  ground  it  was  suggested  by  Liebig  that  probably  sll  the 
carbonaceous  substances  of  the  food  were  converted  into  bile  before 
bdng  again  taken  up  into  the  circulation  and  converted  into  carbonic 
add  for  the  supply  of  animal  heat  It  is  however  certain  that  a 
portion  of  the  bile,  in  the  form  of  colouring  matter,  passes  ofT  through 
the  intestines,  and  also  that  in  certain  disonoofl  it  is  thrown  off  in 
condderable  quantities  with  the  contents  of  the  bowds.  It  can  also 
be  shown  that  the  quantity  of  biliary  matter  formed  in  the  Uver  does 
not  contain  more  than  one-sixth  or  one-eighth  of  the  qusntity  of 
carbon  that  is  thrown  off  from  the  limgs  in  the  form  of  carbonic  add. 

(Simon,  Animal  Chemutry;  Lehmann,  Pkynoloaieal  Chemittrp ; 
Carpenter,  Mamud  of  Physiology;  Gregory,  Himi-Book  of  Organic 
Chmdstry;  Cydopcsdia  of  Anatomfy  and  Pkytiologyf  artide  * BHU* ; 
Liebig,  Animal  Chemittry.) 

BILIMBI,  the  Malayi^  name  of  the  add  firuit  of  a  spedes  of 
Averrhoa,    [Aveiirhoa.[ 

BILLARDIE'RA,  a  genus  of  plants  named  after  Jean  Jacques 
Julien  Labillardi^re,  a  French  botanist^  who  visited  Syria,  and 
afterwards  Australia,  in  D'Entrecasteaux's  Expedition,  and  wrote 
the  '  Nov99  Hollandiss  Plantarum  Specimen,'  in  two  vols.,  4to.  The 
genus  belongs  to  the  natural  order  PiiUaporacm,  and  has  a  calvx  of 
five  acuminate  sepals,  five  petals  with  approximate  claws,  whi<j^  are 
convoluted  at  their  edges,  forming  a  campanulate  flower ;  an  ellipitical 
berry  terminated  by  a  sl^le.  The  spedes  are  called  Apple-Berries ; 
and  Qeorge  Don  enumerates  eight  Ther  are  dimbmg  shrubs, 
natives  of  Australia  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  The  fruit  wldch  they 
bear  jb  eatabl& 

B,  Umgifiora  has  dimbing  branches,  the  younger  ones  scarody 
pubescent;  the  leaves  lanceolate,  entire;  the  pedides  l-flowered, 
glabrous,  one  half  shorter  than  the  flower ;  the  berries  almost  globose, 
torose,  glabrous.^  This  plant  is  "a  fiut  grower  and  abundant  flowerer ; 
and  when  in  fruit  its  fine  blue  berries  make  a  handsome  appearance." 
(Loudon.) 

The  other  spedes  are  desirable  shrubs  for  the  conservatory.  They 
thrive  wdl  when  planted  ia  an  equal  mixture  of  loam  and  peat 
Cuttings  will  readily  root  in  sand  under  a  bdl-glasa.  They  may  be 
also  rajsed  from  seed,  which  they  produce  in  abundance. 

(fiyciopadia  of  PUmU;  G.  Don,  Qwrdma^t  BictioTuuy,) 

BILLBERGIA,  a  genus  of  plants  bdonging  to  the  natural  order 
•BrooM^uicas,  named  after  Billbezg,  a  Swedish  botanist  Several  speciea 
are  cultivated  in  our  stoves.  They  are  all  natives  of  South  America. 
One  of  the  spedes,  B,  UnetoriOf  yidds  a  colouring  matter,  whidi  ia 
used  for  dyeing  in  Mexico. 

BILLT-BITER,  a  local  name  for  the  Blue  Tit    [Parus.] 

BILOCULI'NA  (D'Orbigny),  the  name  of  a  genus  of  Poraminifera, 
Les  Milioles  of  Ferrussaa 

BIMANA,  the  first  order  of  the  dass  MammaUaf  which  includes 
the  single  genus  and  spedes  J^omo  sopisnt-^Man.    [Man  ] 


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BIBDSL 


460 


BIND-WKKD.    [ComroLvuLUB.] 

BINNY.    rBABBiL.] 

BINCyCULuS,  Qeoff.,  Leaeh,  a  geniu  of  Entoinortrmooiu  OrutUtcea ; 
Ajmty  Scop.,  CuY.,  Latr. ;  LimtUut,  MiUl.,  Lam. ;  Afonoadui,  Liim., 
Fabr.    Of  these  names  Apua  is  that  now  generally  adopted.    The 

species  of  this  genus  are  gregarious,  and 

occur  often  in  innumerable  quantities. 
Sometimes  whole  swarms  are  swept  away 
by  violent  winds,  and  have  been  seen  to 
faJI  like  rain.  The  spring  and  the  com- 
mencement of  summer  are  the  seasons 
when  they  are  most  commonly  found ;  and 
they  often  appear  suddenly  in  sreat 
numbers  in  accidental  rain-water  puddles 
where  they  never  have  been  before  seen, 
as  well  as  in  ponds.  The  generic  name 
Binoeidut  appears  to  be  unnecessary,  and 
that  given  by  Scopoli  should  be  restored : 
the  true  Ltmuli  form  a  marine  genus^ 
making  a  natural  group  of  different  form 
and  habits.  Linntsus's  genus  M<mocului 
comprehends  Aput,  Z4fnulut,  and  other 
crustaceans.  The  species  figured  is  Aput 
prodmetut,  Latreille  (Lepidumu  produdut, 
Leach;  Monoeuhu  Aputtlann.).   Only  one 

rdes  occurs  in  England,  A,  eancriformia 
Shield-Shrimp.  It  is  about  24  inches 
long,  and  H  inch  in  diameter;  it  is  of  a 
brownish-yellow  colour,  clouded  with 
marks  of  a  deeper  hue.  The  segments  of 
the  abdomen  are  each  studded  over  with 
numerous  short  stout  hooked  spines  of  a 
ApH9  prodvehu,  dark  brown  oolour;  while  the  long  caudal 

appendages  are  furnished  with  numerous 
short  hairs,  or  setso.  It  is  a  rare  creature,  and  only  a  few  localities  for 
it  have  been  recorded.  [Ehtomostraoa.]  (Baurd's  JSutvry  of  the 
Britiih  BtUomotlraea,) 

BIPAPILLAHIA,  a  genus  of  Marine  Molluscs  esUblished  by 
Lamarck  upon  a  species  figured  and  described  in  the  manuscript 
notes  of  Peron. 

BIPES,  a  genus  of  Reptiles  belonging  to  the  order  Saura,  or  Lizards. 
Cuvier  dissected  one  of  the  species  Bipe$  lepidcpodut  of  Lac^pWe), 
and  found  that,  though  its  posterior  and  only  apparent  pair  of  feet 
had  the  external  form  of  two  oblong  and  scaly  plates  or  processes, 
the  integument  covered  a  femur  (thigh-bone),  a  tibia  and  fibula  (leg- 
bones^,  and  four  metatarsal,  or  finger-bcnies,  but  no  phalanges 
(termmal  finger-bones).  He  also  states  that  one  of  the  lungs  is  less 
by  on&-half  than  the  other. 

This  genus  is  an  example  of  one  of  those  gradations  by  which 
nature  glides  from  one  type  of  form  into  another,  and  is  a  linlr 
between  the  Saurians  (lizards)  and  the  Ophidians  (serpents). 

The  £ipe$  Upidopodui  of  Lac^pMe  is  now  referred  to  the  genus 
PygopuMf  of  which  the  following  characters  are  given :  scales  of  the 
back  keeled ;  preanal  pores  numerous ;  the  hinder  limbs  elongated  ; 
the  pupil  circular. 


former  bv  its  auditory  apertures,  and  by  the  hollow  tubercles  new 
the  anus.^'        It  is  a  native  of  Australia. 

Dr.  €h:ay  has  descdbed  a  second  species  of  Pygopu*  as  P.  iqua- 
mieept, 

Bipes  as  an  English  word  is  applied  to  the  Anguia  hipe$  of  LinnsoB, 
the  Scdotei  hipe$  of  Gray.  It  belongs  to  the  order  of  Tiizards,  and  is 
a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope. 

BIPHORES,  a  division  of  the  sheU-leas  Acephalous  MoOmko, 
according  to  the  arrangement  adopted  in  the  'R^ne  Animal'  of 
Cuvier.    It  includes  the  genera  Saipa  and  Thalia.    [Tuv ioata.] 

BIRCH-TREE.    [Betxtla.] 

BIRD-CHERRT,  one  of  our  native  wild  fruits.    TCerisus.] 

BIRD-LIME,  a  glutinous  vegetable  produoty  also  called  Bitdot 
and  related  to  Caoutchoua  It  is  obtainml  principally  from  the  inner 
bark  of  the  holly,  frt>m  the  berries  of  the  mistietoe,  and  also  other 
plants.  It  is  prepared  from  the  holly  baric  by  bruising,  long  boiling 
m  water,  and  fermentation ;  the  mass  is  again  boiled  in  water,  and 
evaporated  to  a  .proper  consistence.  In  different  countries  various 
processes  are  employed. 

Water  does  not  dissolve  bird-lime,  but  separates  frx>m  it  some 
mucilage  and  extractive  matter,  and  a  littie  acetic  add.  The  alkalies 
dissolve  it,  and  so  doea  sulphuric  ether  very  perfectiy.  Dilute  acids 
soften  it,  and  dissolve  a  portion ;  ooncentn^ed  sulphuric  acid  blackens 
and  carbonises  it,  while  nitric  add  renders  it  yellow,  converting  a  part 
of  it  into  oxalic  and  malic  adds,  and  separates  resin  and  wax ;  chlorine 
bleaches  and  hardens  it ;  alcohol  dissolves  some  resin  and  acetic  add 
When  heated,  bird-lime  melts,  swells,  takes  fire,  and  bums  rapidly, 

It  is  probable  that  this  substance  results  from  the  decompodtion  of 
the  cellulose  of  the  cells  of  the  plant  from  which  it  is  obtained.  It  is 
well  known  that  in  nearly  all  decompodtions  of  cellulose,  carbon 
remains  in  excess,  and  this  agrees  with  the  compodtion  of  visdn, 
which  contains,  aooording  to  Maoure  Prmsep,  Carbon  75*6,  Hydrogen 
9-2,  Om;en  15*2.    (Schldden,  Prmeiple$  of  Botany,) 

BIRD-PEPPER.    [Capbicuil] 

BIRiyS-FOOT  SEA-STAR.    [Paucipw.] 

BIRD'S-FOOT  TREFOIL.    [ORNiTHOPua] 

BIRiyS-NEST.    [NBomA.] 

BIRD'S-NEST,  YlELLOW.    [Mohotbopa.] 

BIRDS,  in  Latin  Aves,  in  Greek  "Opyi^ff  (whence  Omiiholoffy),  a 
daas  of  Yertebrated,  Oviparous,  Feathered  Bipeds,  generally  formed 
for  fli^l  We  say  generally,  because,  tiiough  their  mechaxusm  is  in 
its  most  perfect  devdopment  designed  for  enabling  them  to  support 
their  bodies  in  the  air  and  to  make  progress  in  that  medium,  it  is  also 
calculated  for  motion  on  the  ground  and  for  perdiing  on  trees.  Some 
families  indeed  are  framed  entirdy  for  moving  on  the  ground,  and 
others  for  that  motion  and  for  wnftlriwg  their  way  both  on  the  surCaoe 
of  the  water  and  even  for  a  short  period  below  it,  without  the  power 
in  either  case  of  raising  themsdves  into  the  air. 

Skdeton, 
Skull  (Cranium).  The  first  peculiarity  whidi  strikes  an  observer, 
when  comparing  the  skulls  of  birds  with  those  of  mammifers,  is  the 
absence  of  sutures  in  the  former,  the  proper  cranial  bones  being 
consolidated  into  one  piece.  The  skull  of  birds  is  articulated  to  that 
part  of  the  vertebral  column  called  the  neck  by  a  single  condyle  or 


Pygopm  Upidopodu$* 


Lac^pMe  describes  the  body  and  tail  of  P.  Upidopothta  ss  being 
nearly  cylindrical,  very  dender,  and  a  littie  like  those  serpents  called 
by  the  IVench  Orvets,  of  which  our'oonmion  Blind- Worm  or  Slow- Worm 
{Anguu  fragilit,  Linn»u8)  \b  an  example ;  and  which,  though  without 
limbs,  have  some  of  the  rudiments  of  such  members  in  the  skdeton. 
The  upper  part  of  the  head  of  P.  lepidopodut  is  covered  by  seven 
large  scale-plates  disposed  around  an  eighth,  which  is  a  little  larger 
thim  the  others.  Each  eye  is  surrounded  bv  small  scaly  globules. 
The  gap^  is  suffidentiy  large,  and  the  teeth  are  equal  and  smalL 
The  fiat  long  tongue  is  without  a  notch.  The  auditory  orifice  is  near 
the  commissure  of  the  lips.  The  scales  which  cover  the  upper  part 
of  the  body  are  lozenge-like,  striated,  and  small,  especially  those 
which  cover  the  most  elevated  part  of  the  bade ;  but  the  scdes 
of  the  imder  x>art  of  the  beUy  and  the  tail  are  hexagond  and  smooth, 
and  those  of  the  two  middle  longitudind  ranks  are  lai^ger  than  those 
of  the  lateral  ranks.  At  each  extremity  of  the  curve  formed  by 
these  tuberdes  is  to  be  seen  a  foot,  in  which  no  finger  is  to  be  distin- 
guished externally,  and  which  is  surroimded  by  very  small  scdes 
on  its  lower  part,  and  by  scdes  a  degree  lees  small  on  its  upper 
sur&oe.  The  colour  is  greenish,  varied  with  some  very  small  black 
blotches. 

"This  reptile,"  says  Lac^pMe,  "like  the  other  spedes  of  jEUpef, 
ranks  between  the  oviparous  quadrupeds  and  the  serpents;  it  is 
tfdated  to  the  latter  by  its  generd  form,  aa  well  as  by  the  figure, 
proportion,  and  distribution  of  the  oodee,  while  it  approaches  the 


joint,  which  is  dtnated  at  the  front  mai:gin  of  the  great  oodpitd 
opening  (foramen  magnum),  through  which,  the  brain,  becoming 
elongated  as  it  were  into  the  spind  cord,  descends  into  the  vertebral 
colunm.  It  is  this  beautifrd  adaptation  of  structure  to  the  wants  of 
the  animd  that  gives  such  a  freedom  of  motion  to  the  head,  espedaUy 
in  a  horizontd  direction.  Take  for  example  the  Wryneck  (Twnx 
torquila),  which,  as  those  who  have  surprised  the  bird  on  the  neet 
wiU  readily  admits  can  writhe  her  head  roimd  so  ss  to  look  the 
intruder  in  the  face,  hisdng  all  the  while  like  a  snake;  by  this 
'terrible  show'  many  a  bii^nesting  novice  is  fri^tened  away. 
Perfect  repose  in  a  bird  seems  hardly  to  be  ei^oyed  without  turning 
back  the  head  and  nestling  the  beak  between  the  wings ;  this  attitude 
the  articulation  above  mentioned  enaliles  the  bird  to  command  with 
the  least  posdble  effort 

The  orbits  are  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  skull,  to  which  last 
the  lower  jaw  is  joined  by  a  somewhat  square  bone  (os  quadratnm) 
not  far  fix>m  the  ear.  A  small  bone  rests  on  the  square  bone  at  one 
end,  while  the  other  end  comes  against  the  pdate.  When  therefore 
the  square  bone  is  brou^^t  forward  by  depressing  the  lower  jaw,  and 
also  bjr  musdes  adapted  to  the  purpose,  the  small  bone  presses  up 
against  the  pdate,  and  this  raises  the  upper  jaw,  which  contraiy  to  the 
rule  in  the  structure  of  mammifers  is  in  birds,  with  but  few  exceptions, 
thus  gifted  with  motion. 

Botii  jaws  are  completdy  destitute  of  true  teeth,  the  want  of  whidi 
is,  as  we  ehall  presemtiy  see,  amply  compensated.     The  upper  jaw  is 


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either  fonned  of  one  piece  distinct  fix>m  the  skull  and  articulated  with 
it,  as  in  the  parrots ;  or  it  is  connected  with  it  by  means  of  yielding 
elastic  bony  plates,  as  in  most  other  birds.  These  elastic  plates 
admirably  protect  the  bill  (the  upper  part  of  which  may  be  considered 
as  an  elongation  of  the  intermaxillary  bones)  and  the  skull  from  the 
shocks  of  the  former  organ  when  used  in  pecking  violently  against 
hard  substances. 

In  a  few  instances  the  upper  jaw  is  entirely  immoyable.  Blumen- 
bach  gives  the  Rhinoceros  Bird  and  the  Cock  of  the  Wood  {Tetrao 
Uroffollut)  as  instances. 

Bone$  of  the  Neck  and  T^runk. — ^The  upper  limbs,  or,  to  speak  more 
correctly,  the  anterior  extremities  of  birds  are  calculated  for  flight, 
and  entirely  useless  as  prehensile  oigans,  because  the  bird  depends 
principally  upon  its  bill  to  gather  its  food.  To  give  a  greater  freedom 
of  action  to  this  organ,  it  was  necessary,  as  the  bones  of  the  back  have 
hardly  any  motion  (tJie  dorsal  vertebrsd  being  often  anchylosed  or 
immovably  fixed  by  a  continuation  of  bony  secretion),  that  the  neck 
should  be  long  and  flexible;  and  eminently  flexible  it  is.  In  the 
mammifers  the  number  of  cervical  vertebrae  (neck-bones)  is  seven; 
the  Cameleopard  (Giraffe)  has  no  more,  and  the  Elephant  and  Whale 
have  no  lees.  Cuvier  indeed  gives  the  Sloth  nine.  Professor  Thomas 
Bell  however  has  satisfactorily  made  out  that  the  additional  two  are 
bones  of  the  back,  not  of  the  neck.  But,  in  Birds,  nature  has  made 
up  for  the  deficiency  of  motion  in  the  back  (a  deficiency  absolutely 
neceesary  to  the  comfortable  existence  of  the  animal,  inasmuch  as  the 
back  is  Uie  point  of  support  to  the  wings)  by  the  free  grant  of  cervical 
vertebrae,  according  to  the  wants  which  the  peculiar  habits  of  parti- 
cular birds  require.  Thus  the  Raven  has  12  neck-bones,  the  Domestic 
Cock  13,  the  Ostrich  18,  the  Stork  19,  and  the  Swan  28,  the  largest 
number  it  is  believed  yet  detected,  while  the  smallest  amounts  to  10. 
The  articulation  is  so  contrived  as  to  produce  the  greatest  mobility, 
and  that  the  contrivance  is  complete  is  proved  by  the  ability  of  a  bird 
to  touch  every  point  of  its  body  with  its  bill. 


The  vertebra  of  the  back  are  from  7  to  11  in  number.  Thei«  are 
no  true  lumbar  yertebne,  for  the^  are  consolidated  into  one  piece  with 
the  pelvifl  (op  innominatum)  which  is  elongated,  broad,  and  simple ; 
and  does  not  unite  below,  as  in  mammifers,  to  form  what  is  called  the 
symphynB  pnbiB^  but  has  the  lateral  portions  distinct  from  each  other. 
This  is  the  general  rule.  The  pelvis  of  the  ostrich  forms  an  exception ; 
for  it  18  joined  below  like  that  of  most  quadrupeds.  In  most  of  the 
quadrupeds  the  romp-bone  (os  ooocygis)  is  prolonged  into  a  tnie- 
jointed  taiL  In  birds  it  never  is,  but  is  very  short,  although  it  supports 
the  large  tail-feathers  (reetrices). 

Ten  pairs  of  ribs  are  said  to  form  tjie  maximum  among  birds ;  these, 
the  true  ribs,  arejoined  to  the  breast-bone  (sternum)  by  snuJl  inter- 
vening bonea  The  fiidBe  ribs  (those  which  do  not  readi  the  breast- 
bone) have  a  forward  direction.    There  is  a  peculiar  flat  process 


Skeleton  of  Sparrow  Hawk. 
A,  Cranium  or  Sknll.  B,  Cenrical  Tertebras. 

C,  The  dotted  lines  indicate  the  extent  of  the  anchylosed  vertebra  of  the  bacA. 

D,  The  eandal  rertebrsD ;  the  letter  is  placed  on  the  ploughshare,  or  nimp-boao. 
£,  Bibs.  F,  Stemom,  or  breast-bone.  G,  Farcula,  or  merry*thoiaght. 
H  H,  asTlcnlar,  or  ooracoid-bone,  )  p^„^    ^^  sidesman. 

H»,  Scapnla,  or  shoulder-blade,       j  "«™*"b  "*'  mwxauuu 

I,  Hnmems,  or  bone  of  the  arm. 

K,  Ulna,     i  Bones  of  the  fore-«nn :  on  the  nlna  is  the  place  of  insertion  of 

L,  Badins,  /  the  secondary  quills. 

M,  Metacaipal  bones,  part  of  the  hand  which  carries  the  primary  quills. 

N,  Phalanges  of  the  fingers. 

O,  Ilium,      \ 

P,  Pubis,      I  Bones  of  the  pelris. . 

Q,  Ischium,  ) 

R,  Femur,  or  thigh-bone.  o  o,  Patella,  or  knee-pan. 

8,  Tibia  and  fibula,  or  leg-bones  consolidated.     T,  T,  Os  calois,  or  heeUbone. 

T  y.  Metatarsal,  or  shank-bones.  W  W,  Toes. 


Wing-bones  in  detail. 
O,  Outline  of  part  of  Aironla ;  H*,  outline  of  part  of  seapnla ;  I,  humerus,  or 
bone  of  the  arm;  E,  ulna;  L,  radius — ^bones  of  the  fore-arm ;  on  the  ulna  are 
the  marks  of  Insertion  of  the  seeondary  quUls;  *  *,  oarpal  bones,  or  wrist ; 
Bf  M,  metacarpal  bones ;  M*,  thumb ;  N  N  N,  phalanges  of  the  fingers. 


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directed  upwards  and  backwards  attached  to  the  middle  pain  of  the 
trae  ribs. 

The  breast-bone  (sternum),  a  part  of  the  greatest  conie^uenoe,  being 
the  point  of  attachment  for  the  most  poweorful  of  the  muscles  which 
set  the  wings  in  action,  is  composed  of  five  pieces  strongly  joined 
together,  and  prolonged  below  into  a  crest  (crista)  for  that  purpose. 
The  greater  or  less  development  of  this  crest  or  keel,  and  the  greater 
or  less  ossification  of  the  component  parts  of  the  breast-bone,  depend 
upon  the  wants  of  the  bird.  Those  birds  whose  flight  is  strongest  and 
most  continuous  haye  the  crest  very  large,  and  the  breast-bone  pieces 
yery  firmly  cemented  together,  as  any  one  may  see  who  will  examine 
the  breast-bone  of  a  hawk,  or  eagle,  or  that  of  a  humming-bird ;  while 
in  the  ostrich  and  cassowary  this  crest  is  entirely  absent^  and  the 
breast-bone  presents  a  uniformly  arched  suifSiuse,  somewhat  like  that 
of  a  Highlandei^s  target 

In  the  crane  and  in  the  male  wild-swan  there  is  a  cayity  in  the 
anterior  part  of  the  breast-bone  for  the  reception  of  the  involuted 
wind-pipe  (trachea).  The  connection  of  the  wings  with  the  trunk  is 
managed  by  means  of  the  two  clavicles,  and  of  that  peculiar  fork-like 
elastic  bone  commonly  called  the  merry-thought  (furcula).  This 
apparatus  operates  as  an  antagonist  power  to  the  action  which  would 
bring  the  wings  together  in  flighty  did  not  these  bmies,  especially  the 
merry-thought,  keep  the  shoulders  asunder.  The  greater  or  less 
development  of  this  bone  depends  on  the  exigencies  of  each  particular 
case.  In  birds  whose  flight  is  long  and  rapid  it  is  strong,  with  the 
branches  widely  arched  and  carried  forwards  on  the  body ;  in  birds 
which  do  not  fly  at  all,  in  the  ostrich,  cassowary,  and  emu,  for  instance, 
the  bone  becomes  a  mere  rudiment.  "In  the  ostrich,"  as  Macartney 
observes,  "  the  two  branches  are  very  short,  and  never  united,  but 
anchylosed  with  the  scapula  (shoulder-blade)  and  clavicle  (collar-bone). 
In  the  cassowary  there  are  merely  two  little  procoBses  from  the  side 
of  the  clavicle  which  are  the  rudunents  of  the  branches  of  the  fork. 
In  the  emu  there  are  two  very  small  thin  bones  attached  to  the  ante* 
nor  edge  of  the  dorsal  ends  of  the  davicles  by  ligaments ;  they  are 
directed  upwards  towards  the  neck,  where  they  are  fastened  to  each 
other  by  means  of  a  ligament,  and  have  no  connection  whatever  with 
the  stemuuL" 

The  wing-bones  are  the  homologues  or  representatives  of  the  arms 
'^r  upper  extremities  of  man  and  of  the  monkeya  The  following  are 
the  bones  composing  the  wing  of  a  bird  : — The  arm  (os  humeri) ;  the 
fore-arm,  consisting  of  two  bones  (ulna  and  radius) ;  the  wrist  (carpus), 
formed  by  two  bones ;  the  metacarpus,  also  made  up  of  two  bones ;  a 
thumb,  or  rather  the  rudiment  of  one,  there  being  but  a  single  bone ; 
and  two  fingers,  the  finger  next  the  thumb  consisting  of  two  portions, 
and  the  other  only  of  one.  To  this  hand  are  attached  the  primaries, 
or  greater  quill-feathers ;  the  secondaries  are  affixed  to  the  rore-arms ; 
and  the  arm  supports  feathers  of  inferior  strength  and  development^ 
called  tertiaries  and  scapularsi  The  bone  which  represents  the  thumb 
gives  rise  to  the  bastard  quills,  and  along  the  base  of  the  quills  are 
ranged  the  largest  of  those  feathers  which  are  denominated  wing- 
ooverta  Such  is  the  structure  of  the  '  sail-broad  vans '  vdiich  wafb  the 
condor  over  the  Andes. 

JB<me$  of  the  Lower  or  Posterior  Extremities* — These  consist  of  a 
thigh-bone  (femur) ;  leg-bones  (tibia  and  fibula),  for  there  are  two, 
though  the  fibula  is  very  small,  and  becomes  anchylosed  to  the  tibia  ; 
one  metatarsal  bone  (at  the  lower  end  of  which  there  are  as  many 
processes  as  there  are  toes,  each  process  furnished  with  a  pulley  for 
moving  its  corresponding  toe) ;  anid  the  toes.  Of  these,  three  generally 
are  directed  forwards  and  one  backwardsL  This  back  toe,  or  great  toe, 
is  wanting  in  some  birds.  In  the  swallows  it  is  directed  forvrards ;  in 
the  climbing  birds  the  outer  toe  as  well  as  the  ba<^  toe  are  directed 
backwards.  The  number  of  joints  is  generally  progreesiye ;  tiie  back 
toe  has  2,  the  next  3,  the  middle  toe  4,  and  the  outer  toe  5  joints. 

"The  stork,  and  some  others  of  Xh»  QraUa  (Waders),"  says 
Macartney,  "which  sleep  standing  on  one  foot,  possess  a  curious 
mechanism  for  preserving  the  1^  in  a  state  of  extension,  without 
any  or  at  least  with  little  muscular  eifori  There  arises  from  the 
fore  part  of  the  head  of  the  metatarsal  bone  a  round  eminence,  which 
passes  up  between  the  pr^ections  of  the  pulley,  on  the  anterior  part 
of  the  end  of  the  tibiiL  This  eminence  affords  a  sufficient  degree  of 
resistance  to  the  flexion  of  the  leg  to  counteract  the  effect  of  the 
oscillations  of  the  body,  and  would  prove  an  insurmountable  obstruc- 
tion to  the  motion  of  the  joint  if  there  were  not  a  socket  within  the 
upper  part  of  the  pulley  of  the  tibia  to  receive  it  when  the  leg  is  in 
the  bent  position.  The  lower  edge  of  the  Socket  is  prominent  and 
sharp,  and  presents  a  sort  of  barrier  to  the  admission  of  the  eminence 
that  requires  a  voluntary  muscular  exertion  of  the  bird  to  overcome, 
which  being  accomplished,  it  slips  in  with  some  force  like  the  end  of 
a  dislocated  bone." 

Musdes  of  Motion  and  External  Integwnente, 
**  The  musdes,"  writes  Blumenbadi,  "  in  this  class  are  distinguished 
by  possessing  a  comparatively  weak  irritable  power,  which  is  soon  lost 
after  death;  and* by  their  tendons  becoming  ossified  as  the  animal 
grows  old,  particuhurly  in  the  extremities,  but  sometimes  also  in  the 
trunk." 

The  pectoral  muscles,  as  we  might  expect  from  the  form  of  the 
sternum,  exhibit^  generally  speaking,  the  greatest  development    They 


are  three  in  number,  taking  their  rise  chiefly  from  the  ample  breart- 
bone^  and  all  being  brought  to  bear  on  the  head  of  the  arm  humerus). 
Of  these,  the  first  or  great  pectoral  is  said,  as  a  general  proposition, 
to  weigh  more  than  all  the  other  muscles  put  together.  Bising  from 
the  keel  or  crest  of  the  breast-bone,  the  merry-thoughl^  axul  last  ribs, 
it  is  inserted  in  that  rough  linear  elevation  which  may  be  observed  on 
the  bone  of  the  arm  of  most  birds.  This  bone  it  strongly  depresses, 
and  so  produoes  the  rapid  and  powerful  motions  of  the  wing,  which, 
acting  on  the  surronndmg  air,  carries  the  bird  forward  in  its  flight 
As  an  antagonist  to  the  great  pectoral  musde,  the  middle  pectoral, 
which  lies  under  it,  and  whose  office  it  is  to  elevate  the  wing,  puts 
forth  its  tendon  over  the  point  where  the  merry-thought  is  joined  to 
the  clavicle  and  shoulder-blade.  This  point  of  junction  acts  as  a 
pulley  for  the  tendon  which  is  inserted  in  the  upper  part  of  the  bone 
of  the  arm ;  and  by  this  contrivance  the  elevating  power  is  situated 
on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body.  The  third  or  small  pectoral,  aids 
the  great  pectoral  in  depressing  the  wing.  Thus  some  birds  are 
enabled  to  dart  away  with  the  rapidity  of  an  arrow,  while  others  soar 
to  a  height  invisible  to  the  gaze  of  man. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  pelvis  is  prolonged  backwards  to  a 
considerable  extent.  This  formation  funushes  room  for  the  attadi- 
ment  of  the  musdos  which  set  the  posterior  extremities  in  motion, 
and  enables  them  to  perform  the  functions  of  walking,  hopping, 
swimming,  .climbing,  and  perching.  To  this  end  there  are  a  set  of , 
muscles  which  go  from  the  pelvis  to  the  toes.  One  of  the  flexor  or' 
bending  tendons  given  off  from  a  muscle  which  comes  from  the  bone 
of  the  pubis  runs  in  front  of  the  knee,  and  all  the  flexors  go  behind 
the  heel,  so  that  the  mere  weight  of  the  bird  will  bend  the  toes.  Any 
one  may  satisfy  himself  that  this  operation  is  purely  mechanical,  and 
not  the  result  of  muscular  action,  by  TnaUng  the  experiment  on  a 
dead  bird ;  when  he  will  find  that  the  fiexion  of  the  knee  and  heel 
will  at  once  bend  the  toes.  This  admirable  contrivance,  useful  as  it 
generally  is,  shows  itself  in  the  most  striking  manner  when  brought 
to  bear  on  the  limbs  of  those  birds  which  roost  in  trees.  When  all 
the  voluntary  powers  are  suspended,  such  a  bird  enjoys  the  most 
profound  repose,  and  the  most  secure  position  on  its  perch,  without 
an  effort 

The  integuments  of  birds  are  oomposed  of  the  same  parts  as  those 
of  the  manrmifers,  with  the  addition  of  feathers,  the  peculiar  covering 
common  to  the  whole  class.  The  beak  is  covued  with  horn,  and  at 
its  base,  as  in  the  birds  of  prey,  there  is  a  fleshy  part  called  the  cere. 
The  lower  extremities  are  protected  above  by  a  scaly  skin,  and  the 
bottom  of  the  foot  and  toes  by  a  callous  modification  of  the  same 
integument  Some^  the  turkey  for  instance,  are  furnished  with  hair 
in  certain  situations.  The  feathers  vary  infinitely.  When  a  bird  has 
just  left  the  egg  its  covering  is  a  downy  kind  of  hair,  several  little 
bundles  taking  their  rise  from  one  common  bulbw  This  is  the  origin 
of  the  future  feather.  A  dark  cylinder  soon  makes  its  appearance, 
from  the  upper  extremity  of  which  the  sprouting  feather  emeiges, 
while  the  lower  extremity  receives  the  blood-vessels  which  supply  the 
vascular  nourishing  pulp  of  the  barrel  When  this  pulp  has  per- 
formed its  office,  and  the  stalk  and  other  parts  of  the  feather  are  fully 
developed,  it  shrivels  up  into  the  well-known  substance  which  evoy 
one  finds  in  a  quill  when  he  cuts  it  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  pen. 
The  details  of  the  development  of  the  feathers  are  highly  interesting, 
and  have  been  described  at  length  by  F.  Cuvier  in  the  '  M^moires  da 
Museum,'  torn.  xiiL,  and  also  in  the  article  '  Aves '  in  the  '  Cyclopaedia 
of  Anatomy  and  Physiology.' 

The  care  which  nature  takes  for  the  development  of  that  particular 
part  of  the  plumage  first  which  the  wants  of  the  particular  bird 
demand  is  remarkable.  A  young  partridge  runs  off  as  soon  as  it  is 
hatched  to  pick  up  the  pupe  of  the  ant^  which  the  parent  bird 
scratches  up  for  it  Some  time  eUpses  before  it  is  necessary  that  it 
should  fly ;  we  accordingly  find  that  the  body  fh>m  the  moment  of  its 
birth  is  protected  with  a  dose-set  downy  corering,  while  all  the 
strength  is  thrown  into  the  thighs,  legs,  bill,  and  neck.  The  wings 
are  graduallr  devdoped  afterwwrds.  A  young  thrush  or  a  yoimg 
blackbird  is  hatched  nearly  naked,  and  while  its  body  presents  only  a 
few  scattered  bunches  of  weak  downy  hair-like  feathers,  great  progress 
may  be  observed  in  the  formation  of  the  <}uills  and  other  wing-feathers ; 
because  from  the  habits  of  the  bird  it  u  necessary  that  it  should  be 
able  to  fly  as  soon  as  it  leayes  the  nest 

As  a  general  rule  the  plumage  of  the  cock  bird  far  exceeds  in  bril- 
liancy that  of  the  hen ;  and  in  all  such  cases  the  young  at  first  put 
on  the  more  sombre  garb  of  the  mother.  When  the  cock  and  hen  are 
without  much  difference  in  this  respect^  the  young  have  a  particular 
distinguishing  plumage  of  their  own. 

Birds  moult  or  shed  their  feathers.  The  summer  drees  in  many 
spedes  varies  from  that  of  the  winter. 

The  mode  in  which  the  plumage  changes  is  wdl  described  in  the 
'Transactions  of  tiie  Zoological  Sodety^by  Tarrell;  and  the  same 
able  zoologist  has  shown  in  the  '  Philosophical  Transactions,'  and  in 
tiie  '  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Sodety,'  that  the  putting  forth  of 
the  plumage  of  the  male  bird  is  not  confined  to  the  female  past  the 
age  of  reproduction  (so  many  well-known  instances  of  wluch  are 
given  by  Dr.  Butter,  John  Hunter,  and  others),  but  that  the  garb  of 
the  cock  is  assumed  by  those  hen  birds  which  from  malformation^  or 
disease  are  rendered  unable  to  assist  in  the  continuation  of  the  species. 


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The  following  three  modes  hy  which  changes  in  the  appearance  of  the 
plumage  of  birds  are  produced  have  been  pointed  out  by  Yarrell : — 
1,  By  the  feather  itself  becoming  altered  in  colour.  2,  By  the  bird's 
obtaining  a  certain  portion  of  new  feathers  without  shedding  any  of 
the  old  ones.  8,  Sy  an  entire  or  partial  moult,  in  which  the  old 
feathers  are  thrown  off  and  new  ones  produced  in  their  places.  The 
first  two  of  these  changes  are  obseryed  generally  in  the  spring,  indi- 
cating the  approach  of  the  breeding  season ;  the  thiid  is  usually 
partial  in  the  spring,  and  entire  in  the  autumn.  The  subjoined  out  is 
explanatory  of  the  situation  of  the  principal  parts  of  the  plumage, 
particularly  those  most  conducive  to  flight. 


A  A,  Primaiiet ;  B  B,  tertlals ;  C  C,  lesser  coverts ;  D  D,  greater  eoverts ; 
R  £,  iMstard  wing;  F  F,  seapalAm;  O,  upper  tail-coverts ;  H,  nnder  tail- 
coverts  ;  I,  tail-feathers. 

That  the  skin  and  integuments  of  birds  perform  the  office  of 
emonotoiy  organs  appears  not  only  by  their  moulting,  but  also  by 
the  quantity  of  mealy  dust  separated  from  the  skin  in  many  birds. 
The  cockatoo,  for  instance,  discharges  a  quantity  of  white  mealy  dust 
from  ita  skin,  particularly  at  pairing  time,  according  to  Blumenbach ; 
and  Bruce,  in  the  appendix  to  his  '  Travels,'  gives  an  account  of  his 
ahooting  a  large  besfded  eagle,  which,  on  bis  taking  it  in  his  hands, 
covered  him  with  a  powder  which  was  yellow  on  the  breast,  where 
the  feathers  were  of  that  colour,  and  brown  on  the  back,  where  the 
plumage  was  of  the  same  hue.  A  heron  too  which  he  shot  is 
described  as  having  a  great  quantity  of  blue  powder  on  the  breast 
and  back. 

The  glands  which  secrete  the  oB  used  by  birds  in  preening  and 
dressing  their  plumage  are  situated  on  the  upper  part  of  the  taiL 
Water-birds  necessarily  require  a  larger  portion  of  this  protecting 
fluid,  and  accordingly  we  find  the  glands  largest  in  that  race. 
Reaumur  observes,  that  in  that  variety  of  the  conmion  fowl  which 
has  no  tail  {Oallua  eemuUUw)  these  glands  are  absent 
Digestive  Organs, 

The  bill  has  a  homy  covering  which  in  some  degree  answers  the 
purpose  of  teeth,  and  indeed  it  is  in  many  instances  notched  so  as  to 
represent  them.  The  form  of  this  important  organ  varies  greatly, 
but  with  evidence  of  the  most  perfect  design  in  eadi  varied  instance, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  necessary  food.  Thus  in  birds  of  prey 
it  well  executes  the  office  of  a  dissecting-knife ;  in  seed-eating  birds  it 
forma  a  pair  of  seed-crabkers  for  extricating  the  kernel  from  the  husk 
which  envelops  it ;  in  the  swallows  and  goatsuckers  it  is  a  fly-trap ; 
in  the  swans,  geese,  and  ducks  it  is  a  flattened  strainer,  weU  ftirnished 
with  nerves  in  the  inside  for  the  detection  of  the  food  remaining  after 
the  water  is  strained  by  that  particular  operation  which  every  one 
most  have  observed  a  common  duck  perform  with  its  bill  in  muddy 
water.  In  the  storks  and  herons  we  find  it  a  flsh-epear;  and  in  the 
snipes  and  their  allies  it  becomes  a  sensitive  probe,  admirably  adapted 
for  penetrating  boggy  ground,  and  giving  notice  of  the  presence  of  the 
latent  worm  or  animacule.  The  food  is  transmitted  firom  the  bill 
through  the  oesophagus  into  the  stomach,  which  is  composed  of  three 
parts,  namely,  the  crop,  which  is  a  dilatation  of  the  oesophagus,  and 
lies  just  before  the  breast-bone ;  the  membranous  stomach  (ventiioule 
suocenturi^  of  the  French) ;  and  the  gizzard.  The  first  of  these  is 
furnished  with  many  mucous  and  salivary  glands ;  in  the  next  (and 
the  struoture  of  this  may  be  best  observed  m  the  gallinaceous  birds) 
tiiere  are  ft  number  of  glandular  bodies  which  pour  out  a  copious 
secretion  to  mingle  with  tiie  food  as  it  is  ground  down  by  the  powerful 
gizzard,  which  reaches  its  highest  development  in  graminivorous  birds. 
This  mill  is  rendered  still  more  effective  by  the  swallowing  of  small 
hard  stones  by  those  birds  with  their  food,  a  practice  which  is  clearly 
instinctive,  and  carried  sometimes  to  a  great  extent.  In  the  museum 
of  the  College  of  Surgeons  (London)  is  a  large  glass  bottie  entirely  filled 
with  pebbles,  ftc.  taken  from  the  stomach  ^  an  ostrich.    The  well- 

XAT.  HXBT.  DIY.  YOL.  L 


known  experiments  of  convrring  bullets  beset  with  needles  and  even 
lancets  into  the  stomachs  of  gmminivorous  birds,  witji  the  efiRBot  of 
the  total  destruction  of  those  sharp  instruments  in  a  short  period, 
need  only  be  referred  to  here ;  but  as  Felix  Plater's  observations  have 
not  attained  quite  so  much  celebrity  we  diall  shortiy  mention  them. 
He  found  that  an  onvz  swallowed  by  a  hen  was  diminished  one^ourth 
in  four  days,  and  that  a.louis-d'or  lost  in  this  way  sixteen  grains  of 
its  wei^t 

In  such  birds  as  nourish  their  young  from  the  crop  the  glands  swell 
very  much  at  the  hatching  season,  and  secrete  a  greater  quantity  of 
fluid  than  usuaL  In  the  pigeon,  which  thus  feeds  its  young,  thm  Is 
a  spherical  bag  formed  on  each  side  of  the  oesophagus,  a  specimen  of 
wbich  may  be  seen  in  the  museum  of  the  College  of  Sui^geonsL  It  is 
not  improbable  that  the  banter  about  'pigeon's  mi]k'  took  its  rise 
from  this  part  of  the  economy  of  the  bird. 

In  those  birds  which  feed  on  flesh,  flsh,  or  worms,  and  which  oon- 
sequentiy  do  not  require  so  powerful  an  apparatus,  the  muades  of  the 
gisosard  are  reduced  to  an  extreme  weakness,  and  that  organ  appears 
to  make  only  a  part  of  the  same  membranous  bag  with  tiie  ventncule 
sucoenturi^. 

The  food  being  thus  reduced  into  a  sort  of  chyme  passes  through 
the  remainder  of  the  intestinal  canal,  where  all  the  nutritious  parts 
are  taken  into  the  system,  and  the  remainder  is  at  length  expell^  by 
the  cloaca,  where  tiie  urinary  ducts  terminate  and  the  organs  of 
generation  are  situated.  It  may  be  worth  mentioning  that  tiie  liver 
becomes  much  larger  in  domesticated  birds  than  in  wild  ones  (a  pro- 
pensity which  can  be  increased  hv  artificial  means,  as  the  gourmand 
who  revels  in  his  'foies  gras'  well  knows),  and  that  the  gall-bladder  is 
entirely  wanting  in  some  birds,  the  parrot  and  pigeon  for  instance. 
Hence  no  doubt  the  saying,  "  He  has  no  more  gall  than  a  pigeon." 
The  pancreas  (sweet-bread)  is  of  considerable  size  in  birds,  but  the 
spleen  is  small 

Organs  of  Circulaium,  JUspiratum,  and  Voice, 
The  heart  in  this  class  is  of  peculiar  structure.  Instead  of  the 
membranous  valve  which  is  present  in  both  ventricles  of  the  heart  of 
mammifers,  and  in  the  left  ventricle  in  birds,  the  right  ventricle  of 
the  heart  in  the  latter  is  famished  with  a  strong  muscle  which  assists 
in  driving  the  blood  with  greater  impetuosity  from  the  right  side  of 
the  heart  into  the  lungs ;  a  stmoture  rendered  necessary  from  the 
want  of  expansion  of  the  lungs  in  breathing  consequent  upon  their 
connection  with  the  numerous  air-cells.  I^e  lungs  are  small  and 
fiattened,  and  adhere  to  the  back  of  the  chest  in  the  intervals  of  the 
ribs,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  abdomen  as  well  as  of  the  chest 
is  occupied  bv  membranous  air-cells  with  which  the  lungs  conmiunicate 
by  considerable  apertures.  In  addition  to  these,  a  great  portion  of 
the  skeleton  in  most  birds  becomes  a  receptacle  for  air.  Instead  of 
marrow  the  larger  cylindrical  bones  contain  air,  and  form  large  tubee^ 
interrupted  only  towards  the  ends  by  transverse  bony  fibres.  The 
broad  bones  present  internally  a  reticulated  bony  texture,  pervaded 
by  the  same  fiuid,  communicated  from  the  lungs  by  small  air-cells. 
The  enormous  bills  of  the  toucan  and  of  the  hombill  are  supplied 
wiUi  air  from  the  same  quarter. 

The  effect  of  this  stracture  in  lijghtening  the  body  of  the  bird,  and 
facilitating  its  motions  whether  in  flying,  swimming,  or  running  is 
obvious.  Where  the  demand  is  greatest  (as  in  birds  of  the  hi^^eet 
and  most  rapid  flight)  the  supply  is  largest  Thus,  in  the  eagle,  we 
find  the  bony  cells  of  great  size  and  very  numerous.  The  section  of 
a  head  of  the  Hombill  (Buceros  JUUnoeeros),  here  represented,  will 
convey  some  idea  of  the  structure  of  these  air-cells. 


The  organs  of  the  voioe  hi  bhds  bear  a  strildng  resembUmoe  to 
certain  musical  wind-instruments.  The  larynx  is  double,  or  rather 
made  up  of  two  parts :  one,  the  proper  rima  glottidis,  situated  at  tiie 
upper  end  of  tho  windpipe ;  and  the  second,  the  bronchial,  or  lower 
larynx,  which  contains  a  second  rima  glottidis,  furnished  with  tense 
membranes  that  perform  in  many  birds  (and  especially  in  ^<>f^_]|^^^ 

areaqi    -   -       .        ,  _._ -x  _ 

while  the  upper  rima,  ] 
utterance  to  the  note. 

The  length  of  the  windpipe  and  the  structure  of  the  lower  laiynx 

2  n 


uurmuva  uuiki/ pvnuiriu  ux  luiuijr  hjiaaub  \muu.  w»|»^»\»«»mj  *«  -«— »w  —■■■■»" 

aquatic)  the  same  part  as  a  reed  does  in  a  clarionet  or  hautboy, 
le  the  upper  rima,  like  the  ventage  or  hole  of  the  instrument,  gives 


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vary  much  in  difforent  speoies  and  eyen  in  the  sexes,  particularly 
among  the  water-birds.  In  the  domotrtdc  or  dumb  swan  the  windpipe 
is  straight ;  in  the  male  wild  swan  the  windpipe  is  convoluted  in  the 
hollow  of  the  breast-bone,  like  the  tube  of  a  French  hom. 

The  following  are  the  conclusions  of  M.  Jacquemin  from  his  obeerya- 
tions  on  the  respiration  of  birds.  After  observing  that  the  air  enters 
not  only  into  the  lungs  and  about  the  parietes  of  the  chest,  but  that 
it  also  penetrates  by  certain  openings  (foramina)  into  eight  pneumatic 
bags  or  air<iells,  occupying  a  considerable  portion  of  the  pectoro- 
abdominal  cavity,  and  tiience  into  the  upper  and  lower  extremities, 
he  concludes : — 1st,  That  the  pneumatic  bags  are  so  situated  as  to  be 
ready  conductors  of  the  air  into  the  more  solid  parts  of  the  body ; 
and  that  the  air,  by  surrounding  the  most  weighty  viscera,  may  sup- 
port the  bird  in  flight,  and  contribute  to  the  £unlity  of  its  motions 
when  so  employed.  2nd,  That  the  quantity  of  air  thus  introduced 
penetrates  the  most  internal  recesses  of  their  bodies,  tending  to  dry 
the  marrow  in  the  bones  and  a  portion  of  the  fluids ;  a  diminution  of 
specific  gravity  is  the  result,  the  true  cause  of  which  has  been,  in 
lus  opinion,  vainly  sought  in  the  quantity  alone  of  permeating  air. 
8rd,  That  in  birds  the  oxidation  of  tne  nourishing  juices  is  not  entirely 
effected  in  the  lungs,  but  is  much  promoted  also  in  the  pneumatic 
bags  above  mentioned,  for  their  contained  air  operates  through  the 
membranes  upon  the  blood-vessels  and  lymphatics  in  contact  with 
them ;  a  more  complete  and  speedy  oxidation  is  the  result.  4th,  That 
not  only  the  skeleton,  but  all  the  viscera  are  much  more  penneable 
by  air  in  birds  than  in  any  of  the  other  vertebrated  animalfl.  6th,  That 
the  air-reservoirs  are  not  always  symmetrical,  their  shape  and  extent 
depending  entirely  upon  the  form  and  situation  of  the  organs  among 
which  they  occur ;  but  the  supply  is  so  modified  that  the  total  quantity 
received  into  the  pneumatic  bags  on  the  right  side  of  the  body  is  equal 
to  that  which  enters  into  those  on  the  left ;  and  indeed  wiUiout  the 
maintenance  of  this  condition  the  act  of  fiying  would  be  impossible, 
and  that  of  walking  difficult  6th,  That  no  portion  of  a  bird's  struc- 
ture is  impervious  to  air ;  it  reaches  even  the  last  joints  (phalanges) 
of  the  wings  and  feet,  and  the  last  caudal  vertebnc,  or  rump-bones. 
The  quill  of  the  feathers  is  not  excepted,  as  has  been  sometimes 
asserted.  7th,  That  the  air  within  the  head  has  a  separate  circulation, 
and  does  not  directly  commimicate  with  the  air-pipes  of  the  rest  of 
the  body.  8th,  That  in  no  instance  does  the  air  come  into  direct 
contact  with  the  viscera  or  nourishing  juices,  but  invariably  through 
the  medium  of  a  membrane,  however  fine  and  transparent.  9th,  Tlmt 
the  volume  of  air  which  birds  can  thus  introduce  into  their  bodies, 
and  the  force  with  which  they  can  expel  it,  offer  the  only  explanation 
how  so  small  a  creature  as  a  singing-bird  (the  nightingale,  for  example) 
is  able  to  utter  notes  so  powerful,  and  without  any  apparent  fatigue 
to  warble  so  long  and  so  musically. 

The  organs  of  resi»ratlon  in  birds,  as  well  as  their  sexual  ozgans, 
are,  according  to  Purkinje  and  Valentin,  supplied  with  cilia  on  their 
sui&ce. 

Brain,  Nervom  Sygtem,  and  Senset. 

The  brain  of  birds  possesses  the  same  characters  which  are  to  be 
found  in  other  oviparous  vertebrated  A-wimAla^  but  its  proportional 
voliune  is  its  distinguishing  peculiarity ;  and  tiiis  volume  often  sur- 
passes the  development  of  ^t  oigan  in  mammif ers.  Indeed,  in  some 
birds,  and  more  particularly  in  some  of  the  songsters,  the  brain  has 
been  saift  to  exceed  that  of  man  when  considered  in  reference  to  the 
size  of  the  head  and  of  the  whole  body.  The  following  scale  has  been 
given  as  an  example  of  the  size  of  the  brain  in  relation  to  that  of  the 
body  .---Eagle,  l-260th  of  the  body;  sparrow,  l-25th;  chaffinch, 
l-27th  ;  redbreast,  l-d2nd ;  blackbird,  l-68th ;  canarybird,  l-14th ; 
cock,  l-25th ;  duck,  l-257th ;  goose,  l-360th.  In  man  the  brain  forms 
from  l-22nd  to  l-38rd  of  the  body;  in  some  apes,  l-22nd;  in  the 
elephant,  l-500th ;  in  the  horse,  l-400th ;  in  the  dog,  l-161st :  and  in 
the  cat,  l-94th. 

The  size  of  the  brain  in  birds  arises  principally  from  tubercles 
analogous  to  the  corpora  striata  of  mammifers,  and  not  fr^m  the 
hemispheres,  which  are  small,  smooth,  and  without  convolutions. 
The  cerebelltmi  is  laige,  almotst  without  lateral  lobes,  and  formed 

Erincipally  by  the  venniform  process.    Several  parts  found  in  the 
rain  of  mammifers  are  absent  in  birds^  and  among  these  are  the 
corpus  callosum  and  pons  Varolii 

Of  the  five  senses,  sight,  smell,  and  hearing  are  most  acute 
inbird& 

Sight. — ^We  have  seen  that  the  bony  orbits  are  of  great  magnitude, 
and  the  oigans  of  sight  which  are  contained  therein  are  proportionately 
large.  In  the  birds  of  prey  the  orbits  have  the  shape  of  a  "  chalice," 
says  Blimienbach,  "or  cup  used  in  the  commumon  service.  The 
comeiS  which  is  very  convex,  forms  the  bottom  of  the  cup,  and  the 
posterior  segment  of  the  sclerotica  resembles  its  cover.  This  peculiar 
form  arises  from  the  curvatiure  and  length  of  the  bony  plates,  which, 
as  in  all  other  birds,  occupy  the  fr^nt  of  the  sclerotica,  lying  dose 
together  and  overlapping  each  other.  These  bony  plates  form  in 
general  a  fiat  or  slightly  convex  ring ;  being  long  and  curved  in  the 
Acdpitrea  (Hawks)  they  form  a  concave  ring,  which  gives  the  whole 
eyeball  the  above-mentioned  form."  By  means  of  tluis  ring  the  eye 
becomes  a  kind  of  self-adyusting  telescope,  so  as  to  take  in  both  near 
and  very  distant  objects. 
A  representation  of  the  sderotio  plates,  forming  the  bony  ring  in 


the  eye  of  the  Penguin  {Aptenodyta),  is  here  given.  They  remind 
us  forcibly  of  the  eye-plates  in  some  of  the  reptiles,  particularly  of 
those  belonging  to  the  eyes  of  the  Enaliosaurians,  or  foeoil  marine 

lizards.     The  penguin  has  to 

adjust  its  eye  for  vision  botii 

k     on  land  and  under  water.    This 

/  k   contrivance  must  greatly  aasiflt 

fl  m  the  adjustment  neoessaiy  for 

I  ■  seeing  clearly  in  such  different 

1  W  media. 

1  r         The  crystalline  humour  is 

flat  in  birds ;  and  the  vitreous 

hiunour  is  very  small     The 

Sclerotic  Plates  of  Penguin  {AptmodyUs),   colour  of  the    iris  varies  in 

different  species,  and  in  many 
cases  is  veiy  brilliant.  The  marsupium,  which  arises  in  the  back 
of  the  eye,  and  the  use  of  which  is  not  very  clearly  ascertained, 
is  a  peculiarity  in  the  ^e  of  birda  They  have  three  eye-lids,  two  of 
which,  the  upper  and  lower,  are  closed  in  most  of  the  race  by  the 
elevation  of  the  lower  one,  as  may  be  frequently  seen  in  our  domestic 
poultry.  The  owl,  the  goat-sucker,  and  a  few  others,  have  the  power 
of  depressing  the  upper  eye-lid.  Of  these  birds  the  upper  oily  is 
furnished  with  eye-lashes  generally;  the  ostrich,  secretary  vulture, 
some  parrots,  and  a  few  other  birds,  have  them  in  both  lids.  But 
the  third  eye-lid,  or  nictitating  membrane,  forms  the  most  curious 
apparatua  When  at  rest,  this,  which  is  a  thin  semi-transparent  fold 
of  the  tunica  ooigunctiva,  lies  in  the  inner  comer  of  the  eye,  with 
its  loose  edge  nearly  vertical  By  the  combined  action  of  two  muscles 
which  are  attached  towards  the  back  of  the  sclerotica,  it  is  capable  of 
being  drawn  out  so  as  to  cover  the  whole  front  of  the  eve-^  like 
a  curtain,  and  its  own  elasticity  restores  it  to  the  comer  m  which  it 
rested.  This,  it  is  said,  enables  the  eagle  to  look  at  the  sun.  The 
peculiar  movements  of  this  organ  may  be  seen  amongst  the  fine 
collection  of  eagles  at  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  in  the 
Regent's  Park. 

Hearing. — ^This  sense  appears  to  be  sufficiently  acute  in  birds,  tiiough 
(with  the  exception  of  the  night-birds,  the  owls  in  particular)  they 
have  no  external  cartilaginous  ear;  and  the  peculiar  valve,  partlv 
muscular,  partly  membranous,  placed  at  the  auditory  opening  even 
in  those  birds,  has  none  of  the  development  whidi  generally  marks 
the  concha  of  mammifers.  The  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  oompara* 
tively  loosely  barbed  feathers,  however,  round  the  aperture  (meatus 
auditorius)  compensates  for  it;  and  this  arrangement  may  be  weD 
seen  in  the  rapacious  birds.  The  membrane  of  the  dram  (membnna 
tympani)  is  convex  extemallv,  and  the  drums  of  both  ears  are 
connected  by  the  air<»lls  of  the  skulL  There  is  neither  malleus  nor 
stapes,  and  their  place  is  supplied  by  a  sin^e  auditory  bone  (ossi- 
culum auditus)  which  connects  the  membranes  of  the  drum  with  the 
fbnestra  ovalis.  The  Eustachian  tubes  terminate  in  a  sort  of  oonmion 
aperture  on  the  concavity  of  the  palate.  The  labyrinth  is  without  a 
cochlea ;  instead  of  which  there  is  a  short,  blunt^  hollow  bony  process 
obHqueljr  directed  backwards  from  the  vestibule,  and  divided  into 
two  portions,  one  of  which  ends  at  the  fenestra  rotunda. 

SmdL-^TinB  sense  in  the  majority  of  birds  seems  to  be  highly 
developed.  The  olfactory  nerve  is  given  off  frotn.  the  foremost  part 
of  the  troiA  lobe  of  the  bnui),  whence  it  passes  along  a  canal  to  the 
nose,  and  is  ramified  on  the  pituitary  membrane,  which  is  spread 
over  two  or  three  pairs  of  bony  or  cartilaginous  conch®  narium.  The 
nostrils  terminate  in  different  parts  of  the  upper  mandible  in 
different  genera;  and,  according  as  these  apertures  are  smaller  or 
larger,  or  more  or  less  covered  by  membranes,  cartilages,  feathera,  or 
other  integuments,  the  sense  is  probably  more  or  less  acute.  But  no 
bird  is  without  nostrils,  though  Bunon  asserts  that  several  are 
unprovided  with  them:  the  puffin  indeed  and  some  others  have 
them  so  small,  and  placed  so  closely  on  the  margin  of  the  mandible, 
that  they  are  not  easily  detected. 

This^  sense  was  supposed  to  have  reached  its  highest  point  of 
perfection  in  the  vultures  and  other  carrion-birds.  Poets  and  philo- 
sophers have  dwelt  on  the  '  delight '  with  which  they — 

** snulTd  the  smell 

Of  mortal  change  on  earth  •  . 
Sagacious  of  the  quarry  ftrom  afEur." 
But,  according  to  the  experiments  of  Audubon  (and  they  were  made 
with  a  species  which  has  obtained  a  reputation  for  great  sagacity  in 
this  way),  the  nostrils  do  not  seem  to  have  been  of  the  least  assist- 
ance to  the  birds  in  directing  them  to  their  prey;  while  the  eye, 
even  when  the  birds  were  far  above  human  sight,  appears  to  have 
been  infallible.  This  conclusion  has  been  indeed  disputed :  but  the 
facts  stated  by  Audubon  are  very  strong. 

Taste. — Though  all  birds  possess  a  tongue,  it  is  probable  that  bui 
few  find  enjoyment  in  the  organ  as  ministering  to  their  taste,  and 
in  those  it  is  soft,  thick,  and  coypred  with  papilla).  Some  of  the 
birds  of  prey,  some  of  the  swimmers,  and  the  parrots  generally,  have 
such  a  tongue,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  tiiese  taste  food  of  a 
soft  or  fiuid  nature,  and  select  that  which  they  like  best  But  in 
general  the  tongue  is  homy  and  stiff,  and  appears  unsuited  to  convey 
such  impressions,  though  as  an  organ  for  taking  food  it  becomes  of 
the  hignest  importance.    In  the  humming-birds  and  other  honey- 


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suckers  it  is  a  tabular  pump,  and  in  the  woodpedkera  it  is  an  insect 
spear.  In  both  cases  it  can  be  protruded  and  retracted  at  pleasure ; 
and  the  simple  but  beautiful  machinery  by  which  this  act  of  yolition 
is  peifoimed  is  adapted  with  the  most  masterly  fitness  to  the  motion 
required.  Upon  examining  the  tongue  of  the  common  green  wood- 
pecker, we  shall  find  that,  instead  of  being  very  long,  as  it  is 
erroneoudy  supposed  to  bc^  it  is  reaUv  yery  short,  sharp-pointed,  and 
homy,  with  barbs  at  its  suies.  Behmd  this  lies  the  aingular  tcnigue- 
bone  (oe  hyoides),  slender,  and  with  two  very  long  legs  or  appendages 
(crura).  This  is  made  up  of  fiye  parte,  consisting  of  a  single  portion 
and  two  pairs  of  oarti- 
lagee.    Let  us  suppose 

the  tongue  to  be  at  rest^  <  \ 

and    than    the    single  | 

piece  lies  in  a  fleshy  I 

sheath,  capable  of  great  ' 

extension.  To  this 
piece  the  first  pair  of 
cartilages,    which    are 

situated    at    the  sides  Os  Hyoides  of  Woodpecker, 

of  the  neck,  are  joined,  while  the  second  pair,  springing  from 
these,  run  under  the  integuments  completely  oyer  &e  skull,  and, 
adyancing  forward,  conyeige  in  a  kind  of  grooye,  terminating 
generally  in  the  right  side  of  the  upper  jaw.  This  second  pair, 
by  their  ^ilasticity,  become  the  springs  which  set  the  whole  in 
motion.  When  the  organ  is  to  be  protruded,  the  anterior  pieces  are 
drawn  together,  and  enter  the  extended  sheath  of  tiie  single  piece : 
the  tongue  is  thus  elongated  as  it  were,  and  the  bird  can  thzrist  it 
far  forth. 

5r(mch. — Aa  applied  to  external  objectethis  sense  must  be,'  generally 
speaking,  yery  obtuse  in  birds.  Feathers,  homy  beaks,  uid  scaly 
skin,  do  not  offiar  a  safciBfactory  medium  for  conyeying  impressions  by 
contact  But  in  those  birds  which  search  for  their  food  in  mud 
(ducks,  for  instance),  where  neither  sight  nor  smeU  can  be  of  much 
ayail,  the  bill  is  coyered  with  a  skin  abundantly  supplied  with 
sensation  by  neryes  from  all  the  three  branches  of  the  fifth  pair, 
in  order  that  they  may  successfdlly  feel  about  for  their  hidden 
Bustenanoa 

JUprodmeU(m  and  MtgraHon, 

The  continuation  of  the  spades  is  carried  on  by  eggs,  which  are  laid 
in  a  nest  more  or  less  artificial  according  as  the  nesthng  is  more  or 
less  capable  of  gathering  ite  own  food  at  the  time  of  ite  exclusion  from 
the  ^gg.  Of  those  birds  whose  young  possess  this  capability  in  the 
highest  degree,  the  male  is  for  the  most  part  polygamous,  and  does 
not  pair;  but  among  those  whose  young  depend  for  some  time  on  the 
parents  for  their  sustenance,  one  male  confines  his  attentions  to  one 
female,  aa  long  at  least  as  the  seasons  of  loye,  incubation,  and  parental 
anxiety  endure.  To  the  first  and  second  of  these  seasons  we,  in  great 
measure,  owe  that  outpouring  of  melody  which  renders  our  groyes 
and  gardens  so  musical  in  spring. 

**  There  is  eyery  reason,"  writes  Montagu,  "  to  belieye  it  is  necessary 
there  should  be  natiye  notes  peculiar  to  each  species,  or  the  sexes 
might  haye  some  difGlculty  in  disooyering  each  other,  the  species  be 
intermixed,  and  a  yariety  of  mules  produced ;  for  we  cannot  suppose 
birds  discriminate  colours  by  which  they  know  their  specie^  because 
some  distinct  species  are  so  exactly  alike  that  a  mixture  might  take 
place.  The  mides  of  song-birds,  and  many  others,  do  not  in  general 
search  for  the  female ;  buty  on  the  contaraiy,  their  business  in  the 
spring  is  to  perch  on  some  conspicuous  spot,  breathing  out  their  full 
and  amorous  notes,  which  by  instinct  the  female  knows,  and  repurs 
to  the  spot  to  choose  her  mate.  This  is  particularly  yerified  with 
respect  to  the  summer  birds  of  passage.  Tha  nightingale  and  most  of 
ite  genus,  although  timid  and  shy  to  a  great  d^gree^  mount  aloft  to 
pour  fortii  their  amorous  strains  incessantly,  each  secmingLy  yieing  in 
their  loye-laboured  song  before  the  females  arriye.  No  sooner  do  they 
make  their  appearance  than  dreadful  battles  ensue,  and  their  notra 
are  considerably  changed ;  sometimes  their  song  is  hurried  Ihrou^ 
without  the  usual  grace  and  el^ance,  at  other  times  modulated  into 
a  soothing  melo^.  The  first  we  conceiye  to  be  a  proyocation  to 
bi^tle  on  the  n^t  of  another  male ;  the  last  an  amorous  cadence,  a 
courting  address.  This  yariety  of  song  laste  no  longer  than  till  the 
female  is  fixed  in  her  dioice,  which  is  in  general  in  a  few  days  after 
her  arriyal ;  and  if  the  season  is  fftyourable  she  soon  begins  the  task 
allotted  to  her  sex." 

We  entirely  agree  with  the  writer  of  this  animated  passage  that 
^  Tis  loye  creates  their  melody,"  and  that  the  ear  is  a  principal  guide 
to  the  hen-bird  in  her  choice  of  a  mate ;  but  we  cannot  entirely  exdude 
the  eye  when  we  remember  what  pains  haye  been  taken  in  most  in- 
stances to  distinguish  the  sexes  by  the  colour  of  their  feathered  garb, 
and  eyen  in  many  instances  to  prepare  a  nuptial  dress  ('plumage  de 
ndces'  of  the  French)  for  the  male,  which  fades  when  the  season  of 
loye  has  passed  away. 

We  'must  not  dwell  here  upon  the  wonders  of  birds'-nests,  thoir 
adminicle  structure  as  places  of  comfort  and  concealment,  and  the 
exquisite  workmanship  of  some  of  them — ^that  of  the  goldfinch,  for 
instance.  In  those  snug  receptades  the  em  are  deposited  and  hatched. 
Then  the  old  birds  fed  all  the  parent  within  them,  and  entirdy  forget 
their  own  safety  and  wante  in  protecting  and  pzoyiding  for  their  help- 


less nesUinn.  This-parental  loye  changes  tlie  timid  st  once  to  the 
braye ;  for  birds  of  prey,  cate,  dogs,  and  sometimes  eyoi  man,  when 
he  approaches  the  sanctuary,  are  attacked  and  followed  with  aagrr 
cries.  For  some  time  after  quitting  the  nest  tins  care  continueB,  till 
the  nestling  is  able  to  proyide  for  it8el£  Then  the  whole  scene 
dianges.  The  young  bud  still  lingers  about  the  old  one,  and 
approaches  it  when  it  finds  a  worm  or  insect,  expectant  of  the  morsel 
At  first  the  youzig  bird  is  unheeded  and  treated  coldly ;  but  if  it  does 
not  take  this  hint,  and  perseyeres  in  ite  soUcitetions,  the  parent, 
which  but  a  few  days  before  would  haye  brayed  a  hawk  or  a  cat  in 
ite  defence,  and  woiUd  haye  been  content  to  sufibr  hunger  rather  than 
haye  seen  it  without  food,  giyes  it  a  buffet^  and  thus  compels  it  to 
rely  on  ite  own  resources. 

Few  phenomena  haye  attracted  more  attention  than  the  migration 
of  birds.  That  some  of  our  delicate  songsters,  with  no  great  power  of 
wing,  should  cross  the  seas  periodically,  returning,  as  &ey  imdoubt- 
edly  do,  to  those  spote  which  they  haye  before  haunted,  and  whidi 
are  associated  in  their  memories  with  the  pleasing  cares  of  former 
years,  exdtes  our  admiration,  if  not  our  astonidiment.  As  regularly 
as  the  seasons,  of  which  many  of  them  are  the  harbingers,  do  these  little 
trayellers  yisit  us,  and  as  regularly  do  they  take^thdr  departure.  The 
immediate  cause  of  migration  is  no  doubt  to  be  found  in  temperature 
and  food,  particularly  that  which  is  adapted  for  the  sustenance  of  the 
young;  and  the  instinct  of  the  bird  accordingly  leads  it  £rom  one 
climate  to  another. 

SystemaJtic  Arromgement  and  Natural  Hutcry, 

Birds  appear  to  haye  been  objecte  of  interest  from  the  earliest 
periods.  In  oomparatiyely  later  times  we  find  tiiem  mineling  in  the 
superstitions  of  Greece  and  Bome ;  and  it  is  eyident  that  their  history 
and  habite  were  feuniliar  not  only  to  the  husbandman  and  the  augur, 
but  to  the  great  mass  of  the  people.  Without  such  a  £ftmiliarity  on 
the  part  of  the  Athenians,  Aristophanes  would  hardly  haye  yentured 
on  introducing  his  audience  to  Nc^AaicoKicvyta  (see  his  play  entitled 
'"Opyidts,' '  The  Birds ' ) ;  nor  would  other  poets,  Grecian  and  Boman, 
so  often  haye  referred  to  these  animals  as  well-known  harbingers  of 
certain  times  and  seasons.  But  it  remained  for  Aristotle^  and  tJ^er 
him  Pliny,  to  take  up  the  subject  philosophically.  The  former,  in  his 
'  History  of  Animals/  has  distinguished  tiie  spedes,  and  recorded  the 
habite  of  birds  with  the  accuracy  and  power  which  distinguished  that 
great  obseryer ;  the  latter,  in  the  tenth  book  of  his  '  Natiual  History* 
has  displayed  much  learning  but  not  a  great  deal  of  originality. 

In  modem  literature  the  first  writer  of  note  on  this  subject  is  Pierre 
Belon,  who  in  1555  arranged  these  animals  according  to  their  habite 
and  .their  haunts.  In  his  system  the  rapadous  birds  form  the  first 
diyision,  the  waders  the  second,  the  swimmers  the  third,  and  the  birds 
which  nestle  in  trees  or  on  the  ground,  the  fourth.  He  was  an  able 
zoologist  and  aoourato  obseryer,  and  has  pointed  out  the  comparatiye 
anatomy  of  birds  with  reference  to  that  of  man  especially. 

The  third  part  of  Conrad  Gksner^s  '  History  of  Animals,'  published 
in  1555,  consiste  of  his  treatise  on  birds,  where  he  has  with  some  labour 
collected  their  yarious  national  names,  and  referred  to  the  writers  who 
had  noticed  the  subject. 

In  1599  Aldroyandus  of  Bologna  published  his  '  Ornithology.'  Pur- 
suing the  plan  of  Belon,  he  arranged  the  birds  according  to  thSr  haunte 
and  their  food,  adding  many  new  descriptions. 

These  three  works  are  all  illustrated  with  woodcuts. 

In  1657  Johnston  published  his  *  Natural  History,'  a  kind  of '  Reper- 
torium  Zoologioum,  wherein  all  that  had  been  done  before  his  time 
was  condensed,  and  where  eyery  monstrous  zoological  fable  was  pe]> 
petuated,  eyen  in  the  copper-plates,  which  ministered  to  the  appetites 
of  those  who  loyed  to  see  what  mermen  and  mermaids  were  like,  and 
d^ghted  in  the  sight  of  "  hydras  and  chimeras  dire." 

We  now  approach  a  period  wherein  the  reign  of  System  commenced ; 
and  we  owe  one  of  the  first  natural  arrangements^  if  not  the  first,  to 
Frauds  WiUughby,  an  English  gentleman,  whose  '  System  of  Orni- 
thology '  was  edited  by  our  cdebrated  countryman  Bay  in  1678,  after 
the  author's  death.  It  is  a  work  of  yery  great  merit.  The  general 
diyisions  are  two,  '  Land-Birds^'  and  '  Water-Birds.'  The  land-birds 
are  further  diyided  into  those  which  haye  a  crooked  beak  and  crooked 
talons,  and  those  whidi  haye  those  parte  nearly  straight. 

The  water-birds  are  arranged  in  three  sections.  The  first  consiste 
of  waders,  and  those  which  haunt  watery  places ;  the  second  of  those 
that  are  of  a ''  middle  nature,  between  swimmers  and  waders,  or  rather 
that  partake  of  both  kinds,  some  whereof  are  doyen-footed  and  yet 
swim ;  others  whole-footed,  but  yet  yery  long-legged,  like  the  waders ; " 
the  tldrd  is  formed  by  the  palnuited  birds,  or  swimmers. 

The  same  friendly  office  that  was  performed  for  WiUughby  by  Bay, 
Dr.  Derham  executed  for  the  latter,  whose  'Synopsis  Methodica 
Ayium,'  a  posthumous  work,  but  entirdy  completed  by  the  author 
before  his  death,  was  published  by  the  Doctor  in  1718.  In  this  Synop- 
sis Ray  carried  out  and  further  improyed  Willughby's  system.  Upon 
the  works  of  these  English  naturalisto  rested  m  great  measure  the 
zoologi<»l  system  of  LimisQus. 

The  first  sketch  of  the  Swedish  naturalist's  'Systema  Naturo' 
appeared  in  folio,  at  Leyden,  in  1785.  It  consisted  of  twdye  pages, 
and  was,  as  Linxueus  himself  says,  **  Conspectus  tantum  operis  et  quasi 
mappa  geogsaphioa."    £%ht  sabseqaflct  editionai  in  various  forms, 


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with  gradually  increanng  information,  were  publiahed  in  variotu 
plaoee,  and  in  1758  the  ninth  edition  ^''long^  auctiua  fiMtum  a  me 
^)flo/'  Bays  the  author)  was  sent  forth  m  8to.  In  this  edition  the 
birda  are  arranged  under  the  same  '  orders'  as  they  are  in  the  twelfth 
and  last  edition,  which  appeared  in  1766.  The  thirteenth  edition  was 
not  the  author^B,  but  Qmelin's. 

The  following  are  the  orders  of  linnflBus's  daas  Avet : — 

1.  Aeeipitrts.    Birds  of  Prey,  properly  so  called. 

2.  Pica.    Woodpeckers,  Crows,  Humming-Birds,  Eingfishen,  fta 

8.  Antera.  Swimmers. 

4.  Oralla.  Waders. 

5.  OdUince.  Qallinaoeous  Birds  (Partridge  and  Domestic  Fowl,  for 
instance). 

6.  Pasterei,    Sparrows,  Pinches,  Thrushes,  Doyes,  Swallows,  &c  &c. 
These  orders,  some  of  which  are  not  very  natural,  include  with  thdr 

subdiTirions  78  genera. 

In  1760  appeared  the  system  of  Brisson,  which  diyides  birds  into 
two  great  sections.  The  first,  consisting  of  those  whose  toes  are 
depriyed  of  membranes ;  the  second,  of  those  whose  toes  are  furnished 
with  membranes  through  their  whole  length. 

There  are  many  subdivisions,  under  which  are  arranged  26  orders, 
indUding  116  genera.  This  able  ornithologist  owes  much  of  his 
celebrity  to  the  minute  accuracy  of  his  specific  descriptions. 

In  1770  Bufibn  published  the  first  part  of  his  work  relating  to  birds. 
It  is  marked  by  we  same  eloquent  animated  style  which  adorns  the 
rest  of  his '  Natural  Histoiy ; '  but  much  cannot  be  said  for  its  arrange- 
ment, nor  for  the  justice  of  some  of  its  conclusions. 

Schsoffer,  in  his  '  Elementa  Omithologica,'  which  was  given  to  the 
public  in  1744,  divides  birds  into  two  great  families,  NudipedeB  and 


Scopoli  (1777),  in  hia  'Introduction  to  Natural  History,'  divides 
them  also  into  two  families ;  but  he  takes  his  distinction  from  the 
arrangement  of  the  scaly  skin  on  the  legs ;  the  first  division  or  JUtipedea 
consisting  of  those  the  sldn  of  whose  legs  is  marked  by  small  polygonal 
scales ;  the  second,  ScKtipedes,  of  those  the  front  of  whose  legs  is 
covered  with  segments  or  unequal  rings  with  lateral  longitudinal 
furrow& 

In  1781  our  countryman  Tjatham  published  his  general  synopsis, 
and  in  1787  and  in  1801  his  two  supplements  appeared.  In  1790  his 
'Index  Omithologicus,'  in  two  volumes  quarto,  being  an  abridgment 
of  his  more  extended  work,  was  given  to  the  public  Separating,  like 
Wniughby  and  Bay,  the  birds  mto  two  grand  division^  land-birds 
and  water-birds,  he  arranges  them  under  the  following  orders,  which 
include  101  genera : — 

Land-Birds.  Water-Birda. 

1.  Aeeipitret.  7.  OraUa. 

2.  Pica,  8.  PinntUipedea. 
8.  Paueret.  9.  PaimipedeB, 

4.  Ookmba. 

5.  ChXUna, 

6.  StrtUhitmeB. 

In  1799  M.  de  Lac^pMe  published  his  method,  arranging  180  genera 
under  89  orders. 

In  1806  Dum^ril,  in  his  'Zoologie  Analytique/  divided  birds  into 
dx  orders. 

The  following  is  Blumenbach's  axraogement : — 

Land-Birds.  Water-Birda. 

1.  Accipitra,  8.  OraUa. 

2.  Leviroitra.  9.  Amerei. 
8.  Pici. 

4.  Coraeea. 

5.  Paneret, 

6.  OaUina* 

7.  I^ruthumei, 

In  1810  Meyer,  in  the  '  Almanach  des  Oiseaux  de  TAUemagne,  par 
Messrs.  Meyer  et  Wolff,'  arranged  them  under  11  orders. 

In  1811  niiger  divided  them  into  seven  orders,  including  41  families. 

Then  came  Cuvier,  who  in  his  *  Hhgat  Animal '  (1817)  published  the 
following  method : — 

1.  AecipUret,  4.  QaUincB, 

2.  Pouaeret,  6.  QraUa. 

8.  Scamorta  (Climbers).  6.  PaXmipedea. 

Vieillot,  whose  work  is  dated  in  1816,  though  it  did  not  appear  till 
1817,  distributes  buds  into  the  following  five  orders  : — 

1.  Accipitna,  4.  ChraUatorea, 

2.  Sjfivicola.  5.  NaicUorea. 
8.  UaUinacek 

Temminck's  arrangement  (1815-20)  consists  of  the  following  16 
orders : — 

1.  Hapcicea,  9.  Pigeona. 

2.  Omnivorea,  10.  QaUinacia, 
8.  InaecUvarti,  11.  Alectoridea 
4»  Oranivorea.                             12.  Oovretira. 
6,  Zyffodaetylea.  18.  OraOea. 

6.  Aniaodactylea,  14.  Pinnatipideai 

7.  Alcyona,  15.  PcUmtpidea^ 

8.  CMidona.  16.  Inertea, 


In  1825  Nicholas  Aylward  Vigors  (following  out  the  prineiple 
adopted  by  William  Sharp  Mljeay,  in  his  'Horn  Entomologies,' 
a  work  of  great  learning  and  deep  reasoning)  proposed  his  amaze- 
ment of  birds  aooording  to  their  natural  affinities.  "  I  diMOTcnd," 
says  the  author  in  his  paper  in  the  14th  volume  of  the '  TtbiiuoUoiis 
of  the  Linnean  Sociefy,  "as  I  advanced,  that  the  laiger  or  primaiy 
groups  were  connected  by  an  uninterrupted  chain  of  affinities ;  that 
this  series  or  chain  returned  into  itself;  and  that  the  groups  of  which 
it  was  composed  preserved  in  their  rogukr  succession  an  analogy  to 
the  corresponding  groups  or  orders  of  the  contiguous  classes  of  soology. 
I  equally  detected  the  existence  of  the  same  principle  in  moat  of  the 
subordinate  subdivisiona^  even  down  to  the  minutest^  to  a  degree  at 
least  sufficiently  extensive  to  afford  grounds  for  asserting  its  general 
prevalence." 
Thus,  if  his  five  orders 

Inaeaaorea, 
Baptorea,  Ayes.  Saaorea, 

Nataiorfa,  OraUatorea, 

be  arranged  ro\md  a  conmion  centre,  the  author  conceives  that  they 
would  be  found  to  be  mutoally  connected  together,  and  that  the  phm 
which  holds  good  in  the  genenJ  division  will  be  found  to  be  oonfimed 
on  examining  the  subdivisions. 

The  second  order  Inaeaaorea,  for  instance^  he  divides  into  fire 
tribes: — 

Coniroalreaf 
J)entiro9trea,  Inbbssobbb.  Scanawta, 

Fiaairoatrea,  Tenuiroatrea, 

in  which  he  finds  a  similar  connection,  as  he  also  does  m  the  fire 
£Eimilies  into  which  he  further  separates  each  tribe. 
In  the  same  year  M.  Latreille  published  his  method  as  follows  :— 
Beetlon  1,  Lee  Terreetret.  Bection  3,  Lee  Aqnatiques. 

1.  Bapaoes.  6.  EchaaBier& 

2.  Passereaux.  7.  PalmipMes. 
8.  Giimpeurs. 

4.  Passevigalles. 

5.  Qallinao^ 

These  orders  include  252  genera. 

The  method  proposed  by  M.  de  Blainville  in  1815, 1821,  and  1822, 
and  developed  by  his  pupil,  M.  Lherminier,  in  1827,  is  founded  entirely 
on  anatomical  details,  and  principally  upon  the  compaiatiye  develop- 
ment of  the  sternum. 

In  1828  M.  Lesson  published  his  '  Projet,'  wherein  he  commenon 
with  the  two  great  divisions  'Terrestrial'  and  'Aquatic,'  and  dis- 
tributes the  bii^  into  nine  orders,  founded  on  the  form  of  the  toes, 
wings,  and  beak.  The  ninth  order  consists  of  '  Paradoxauz,'  to 
which  he  refers  the  Omithorhynchus. 

Li  1881,  Mr.  Swainson,  rejecting  the  quinariaa  theory  above  aOuded 
to,  which  he  had  adopted  in  the  ^ear  1824,  proposed  ^  the  second 
part  of  the  '  Fbmia  Boreali-Americana'  oontainmg  the  birds)  a  new 
arrangement^  which  he  framed  according  to  the  dogma  that  "the 
primaay  divisions  of  eveir  natural  group,  of  whatever  extent  or  yalae, 
are  thi«e^  each  of  which  forms  its  own  circle." 

No  one  can  read  over  the  preceding  compendium,  which  only 
embraces  the  more  prominent  systems,  without  peroeiying  that  the 
great  aim  of  modem  science  has  been  to  produce  the  best  nattinl 
arrangement.  No  sooner  has  one  method  boon  advanced  and  con- 
sidered, than  doubts  have  arisen,  and  another  and  another  8ii]l  suc- 
ceeds. Cuvier  expressed  his  dissent  from  all  the  systems  which  he 
had  seen ;  and  it  is  no  doubt  as  true  now  as  when  he  expressed  his 
conviction  that  the  true  arrangement  is  yet  to  be  sought  for. 

To  give  a  list  of  all  the  writers  on  the  Natural  Histoiy  of  Birds 
would  be  quite  out  of  place  in  a  work  of  this  description ;  we  must 
therefore  conclude  this  article  with  the  following  enumeration  of  some 
of  the  most  celel»ated  authors  in  this  department. 

The  ornithology  of  America  and  the  West  Indies  has  been  given  by 
Hernandez  Mar(^;rave,  De  Asara,  Sloane,  Oatesby,  Vieillot^  ITilson, 
Spix,  C.  L.  Bonaparte  (Prince  of  Canino),  Audubon,  Richardson, 
Swainson,  and  Kuttall. 

That  of  Britain  by  Pennant^  Lewin,  White,  Bewick,  Montagu, 
Donovan,  Selby,  Mudie,  Tarrell,  Mac^iillivray,  W.  Thompson,  Meyer, 
and  others. 

That  of  Europe  by  Temminck ;  that  of  Germany  by  Meyer  and 
Wolff;  and  C.  L.  Bonaparte  that  of  Italy.  Gould's  '  Birds  of  Europe 
illustrate  the  ornithology  of  the  Continent  and  British  Islanda.  His 
other  works  on  the  Birds  of  Australia,  the  Humming-Birds,  the 
Toucans,  and  various  monographs,  are  amongst  the  most  splendid 
contributions  to  the  science  of  Natural  History. 

Le  Yaillant  has  illustrated  the  birds  of  A&ica  and  other  countriea 

The  following  names  of  some  of  those  who  have  also  distingnished 
themselves  as  general  authors  or  particular  illustrators  will  readily 
occur  to  the  student  who  enters  upon  this  branch  of  Natural  HiBtoiT  :--- 
Albin,  Audebert)  Audubon,  Bansband,  Bechstein,  Bennett,  Bljth, 
Brisson,  Brunnich,  Buffon,  Buhle,  Cuvier,  Daudin,  Desmarest,  Edwsrd^ 
Fleming,  Foster,  Prisch,  Gerardin,  Gould,  Gray,  Gunther,  Hardwickc, 
Herbert,  Houttuyn,  Hunter,  Illiger,  Jardine,  Jenner,  Leach,  I^ear, 
Lesson,  Macartney,  M'Leay,  Markwick,  Meyer,  Naumann,  Nilsjon, 
Nozeman,  Rennie,  Rfippell,  Sabine,  Savigny,  Selby,  Sepp,  SchiBflWi 
Shaw,  Sheppard*  Slaney,  Sonnini,  Spix,  Stephens,  H.  E.  Strickland 


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Swainflon,  Sweet,  Syme,  Vieillot^  Yigon,  Wagler,  Watertoo,  Whxtear, 
N.  Wood,  TarrelL 

Fotail  Birds, 

Although  the  remaiDB  of  birda  in  a  foaailiaed  condition  are  not 
numeroua,  yet  zecent  diaooreriea  haye  given  aa  interest  to  them  not 
less  than  to  that  of  any  other  clasa  of  animaln.  Sir  Charles  LyeJl,  in 
his  'Principles  of  Geology,'  says  that  "the  imbedding  of  the  remains  of 
birds  in  new  strata  must  be  of  yeiy  rare  ocouztenoe,  for  their  powers 
of  flight  insure  them  against  perishing  by  numerous  casualties  to 
which  quadrupeds  are  exposed  during  floods ;  and  if  they  chance  to 
be  drowned,  or  to  die  when  swimming  on  the  water,  it  will  scaroely 
cTer  hi^pen  that  they  will  be  submeiged  so  as  to  become  presenred 
in  sedimentary  deposits.  In  consequence  of  the  hollow  tubular 
structure  of  their  bones,  and  the  quantity  of  their  feathers,  they  are 
extremely  light  in  proportion  to  their  yolume,  so  that  when  first 
killed  they  do  not  sink  to  the  bottom  like  quadrupeds,  but  float  on 
the  suifaoe  until  the  carcass  either  rots  away  or  is  devoured  by 
predaceous  animals."    Nevertheless  remains  of  birds  have  been  foimd. 

The  earliest  indications  of  the  existence  of  birds  are  certain  foot- 
tracks  discovered  by  Professor  Hitchcock^  of  Amherst,  in  the  Triassic 
or  New  Red  Argillaceous  Sandstones  of  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut 
River.  These  foot-prints  occur  in  considerable  nimibers  in  the  district 
mentioned,  and  have  been  described  by  geolofljists  under  the  name  of 
OmithiehmieB.  A  slab  on  which  these  remarlable  markings  are  to  be 
seen  is  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum.  They  evidently 
belong  to  birds  of  a  large  size,  but  unfortunately  none  of  the  remains 
of  the  creatures  to  which  they  belong  have  yet  been  discovered.  Sir 
Charles  Lyell  has  recently  examin^  the  district  in  which  these 
impressions  occur,  and  agrees  with  Professor  Hitchcock  in  regarding 
them  as  the  production  of  the  feet  of  birds. 

Some  remains  found  by  Dr.  Mantell  in  the  Wealden  Strata  of  Tilgate 
Forest,  were  supposed  b^  Baron  Cuvier  and  Professor  Owen  to  belong 
to  a  species  of  wading  bird,  but  subsequent  investigations  have  shown 
that  these  specimens  were  portions  of  the  skeleton  of  a  species  of 
PterodactyL  A  microscopic  examination  however  by  Mr.  Bowerbank 
and  ProfMsor  Quekett  of  specimens  since  discovered  by  Dr.  ManteU, 
has  led  these  gentlemen  to  conclude  that  they  belong  to  birds,  leading 
to  the  inference  that  these  animals  did  exist  at  me  period  of  the 
deposit  of  the  Wealden  Beds. 

In  the  'British Fossil  Mammals  and  Birds'  Professor  Owen  Uas 
described  the  remains  of  a  gigantic  bird  obtained  by  the  Earl  of 
F.nTiiaHll«i  firom  the  Chalk  near  Maidstone.  The  portion  described  is 
regarded  by  Professor  Owen  as  the  shaft  of  the  humerus,  and  he 
concludes  that  it  belonged  to  a  bird  closely  allied  to  the  Albatross  of 
the  present  day.    He  luis  named  it  Oimoliamii  IHomedem, 

As  we  approach  nearer  the  historic  period  of  the  earth's  aurfaca,  the 
remaina  of  the  bones  of  birds  become  more  decisive  and  more 
numefXYUs.  In  most  of  the  ancient  Tertiary  Strata  remains  of  several 
genera  of  birds  occur.  In  the  Sevalik  hills  of  India  the^  are 
associated  with  the  remains  of  several  species  of  proboscidiform 
AniTna-lw.  In  the  basin  of  Paris  they  have^een  found  m  coigunotion 
with  the  bones  of  the  PdUeotherium,  &o,  in  the  Tertiary  deposits  of 
Auvetgne  they  have  also  been  found,  and  the  ossifi^rous  caverns  of 
ihe  continent  of  Europe  and  of  Great  Britain  have  presented  the  bones 
of  numerous  species  of  animals  now  living,  with  here  and  there  an 
extinct  species.  These  remains  however  have  been  sufficiently  scarce 
to  be  greatly  prized  by  the  collectors  of  fossils. 

In  the  year  1889  Professor  Owen  received  from  Mr.  Rule  a  specimen 
of  the  femur  of  a  gigantic  bird,  allied  to  the  ostrich  and  other 
struthious  birds  now  m  existence.  To  the  bird  to  which  this  bone 
belonged  Professor  Owen  gave  the  name  of  Dinomit,  [Dinobnis.] 
This  specimen  was  obtained  from  New  Zealand,  and  quickly 

followed  by  a  laige  collection  of  the  bones  of  other  extinct  birds, 
made  by  Mr.  WaKer  Mantell  of  Wellington,  son  of  ihe  late  Dr. 
Gideon  ManteU.  In  this  collection,  not  only  were  there  the  bones 
of  IHnomis,  ppnfirming  all  the  anticipations  which  had  been  formed 
by  IVofeesor  Owen  of  Uiis  gigantic  bird,  but  also  the  remaios  of 
several  other  species  of  DinamU,  and  other  genera.  The  character  of 
some  of  these  remains^  and  their  having  been  found  in  fire-heaps  in 
conjunction  with  human  bones,  and  allusions  in  the  traditions  and 
songs  cf  the  natives,  lead  to  the  undoubted  conclusion  that  within  the 
historic  period  the  JDinorwk,  under  the  name  of  'Moa,'  was  known  to 
the  Maoris,  the  native  inhabitants  of  New  Zealand.  Amongst  the 
remains  is  that  of  a  genus  called  Notomis;  and  during  his  excursions 
into  the  interior  for  £e  pun>ose  of  ascertaining  if  any  of  these  birds 
still  existed.  Mr.  W.  Mantell  had  the  good  fortune  to  capture  a  living 
specimen.  {NovoEHra,  «ee  Suff.]  It  has  been  described  and  figured  by 
Mr.  Gould  m  his  '  Birds  of  Australia,'  and  an  engraving  is  also  given 
by  the  late  Dr.  Mantell  in  his  popular  work  descrii>tive  of  the  oxganio 
remains  of  the  British  Museum,  entitled  '  PetrifSsctions  and  their 
Teaohingai' 

From  these  facts  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  long  befo]^e  New 
Zealand  was  inhabited  by  man  it  was  densely  peopled  by  colossal 
ftrathious  Inrds,  of  which  the  Apterwf  [Aftebtz],  BrackypUrifx 
rBBAOHTTTBBTX],  and  Notomit  are  but  the  degenerate  representatives. 
It  is  probable  also  that  New  Zealand,  together  with  Chatham  Island, 
Norfi^  Lda&d,  and  others^  sie  but  the  mountain-tops  of  a  continent^ 
which  was  probably  covered  with  these  creatures,  prsaenting  a  remark- 


able feature  in  the  histoiy  of  the  earth's  sur&oe,  and  affording  inter- 
esting matter  for  speculation  with  regard  to  the  progression  of  ozganised 
life  upon  the  globe. 

The  history  of  the  New  Zealand  birds  is  also  one  of  spedal  interest  in 
connection  with  a  group  of  birds,  some  of  which  also,  as  the  J>odo  and 
SolUcure  [Dodo],  have  existed  within  the  historic  period,  but  are.  now 
no  longer  to  be  found,  and  which  had  their  principal  seat  of  existence 
in  the  Mauritius.    [See  SupfleicektJ 

(Ansted,  OeoUgy  ;  Owen,  British  Fossil  MammaU  emd  Birds  ;  Owen, 
TransacHims  of  the  Zoologieal  Society,  1839,  1844, 1846,  1848, 1850; 
Colenso,  Atmtds  of  Natural  History  ;  Mantell,  Pebrtfaelums  and  their 
Teachinffs  ;  Strickland  and  Melville,  The  Dodo  and  its  Kindred,) 

BIRDS'  NESTS,  EDIBLE.    [AloaJ 

BIRDS  OF  PARADISE.  With  no  &mily  of  birds  has  fiction  been 
more  busy  than  with  the  Birds  of  Paradise.  FK>m  one  &bulist  to 
another  came  the  tradition  (losing  nothing,  as  is  usual  with  traditions, 
in  its  descent),  that  these  "gay  creatures  of  the  element"  passed  their 
whole  existence  in  sailing  in  the  air,  where  all  the  functions  of  life 
were  carried  on,  even  to  the  production  of  their  eggs  and  young.  The 
dew  and  the  vapoturs  were  said  to  be  their  only  food,  nor  were  they 
ever  supposed  to  touch  the  earth  till  the  moment  of  their  death,  never 
taking  rest  except  by  suspending  themselves  from  the  branches  of  trees 
by  the  ahafbs  of  the  two  elongated  feathers  which  form  a  characteristic 
of  this  beautiful  raoe.  The  appellations  of  Lufit-Yogel,  Paradyss- 
Yogel,  Passaros  de  Sol,  Birds  of  Paradise,  and  God's  Birds  (to  say 
no&ing  of  Phoenix,  a  name  which  was  applied  to  one  of  them),  kept 
up  the  delusion  that  originated  in  the  craft  of  the  iahabitants  of  the 
eastern  countries  where  they  are  found ;  for  the  ziatives  scarcely  ever 
produced  a  skin  in  former  times  from  which  they  had  not  carefully 
extirpated  the  feet  Nor  was  it  only  the  extreme  elegance  and  rich- 
ness of  their  feathers  that  caused  these  birds  to  be  sought  as  the 
plume  for  the  turbans  of  oriental  chiefis;  for  he  who  wore  that  plume, 
relying  implicitly  on  the  romantic  accounts  of  the  life  and  habits  of 
the  bird,  and  impressed  with'  its  sacred  names,  believed  that  he  bore  a 
charmed  life,  and  that  he  should  be  invulnerable  even  where  the  fight 
raged  most  furiously. 

In  vain  did  honest  Pigafetta,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
who  introduced  these  birds  to  the  notice  of  Europeans,  represent  them 
as  being  furnished  with  legs ;  in  vain  was  the  same  truth  attested  by 
Marcgravei,  John  de  Laet^  Clusius,  Worming  and  Bontius  (the  last  of 
whom  observes  on  their  crooked  daws,  and  even  asserts  that  they 
devour  little  birds,  such  as  greenfinches),  and  referred  to  by  Hemandea. 
A  fairy  tale  was  not  to  be  so  put  down.  Aldrovandus  himself  was 
deceived  by  the  birds  brought  over  in  the  mutQated  state  above 
described,  and  Joined  in  the  cry  against  poor  I^gafetta,  chaiging  him 
with  falsehood.  Johnston,  in  1657,  writes  thus  oracularly  of  the  Birds 
of  Paradise : — "  It  is  peculiar  to  them  all  to  be  without  feet  (although 
Aristotle  asserts  that  no  bird  is  without  feet^  and  Pigafetta  assigns  to 
them  feet  a  hand  breadth  in  length) ;"  and  this  he  declares  after  Clusius 
had  reftited  the  absurdity,  and  haa  stated  that  they  had  been  brought 
to  HoUand  (where  Johnston's  book  was  printed)  with  their  feet  on ;  and 
after  the  publication  of  Tradesoant's  Catalogue,  wherein  are  mentioned 
among  the  '  whole  birds'  of  his  museimi  "Birds  of  Paradise,  or  Manu- 
codia£^  whereof  are  divers  sorts,  some  with,  some  wiUiout  legg&"  And 
yet  this  same  Johnston  has  no  mercy  on  that  part  of  the  fiable  which 
asserts  that  they  live  on  dew,  are  perpetually  flying,  and  that  their  eggs 
are  hatched  in  a  natural  cavity  on  the  back  of  &e  male.  "  Of  a  verity," 
says  the  aage,  "they  must  necessarily  require  rest,  and  are  with  ease 
suspended  to  the  branches  of  trees  by  those  threads  in  their  tails." 

Willughby  and  Ray  treat  these  nonsensioal  stories  as  they  deserve^ 
and  as  was  to  be  expected  from  their  reputation  as  observers. 

The  high  value  set  upon  these  birds  awakened  the  cupidity  and  the 
firaud  of  the  Chinese,  who  made  up  from  parrots,  parakeets,  and  others, 
artificial  Buds  of  Paradise,  so  dumsily  however  that  it  is  difKcult  to 
suppose  that  Seba,  who  figures  three  of  them  in  the  60th  plate  of  his 
first  volume,  could  have  been  taken  in  by  the  manifest  imposition. 
But  there  is  nothing  in  the  text  to  show  that  his  suspicion  was  even 
excited;  and  this  is  the  more  extraordinary,  as  he  figures  two  of  the 
real  species  (plate  88  and  plate  68)  with  sufldent  accuracy. 

Limueus,  who  has  commemorated  the  fable  of  the  wamt  of  feet  in 
these  birds  by  bestowiog  upon  the  spedes  most  extendvdy  known  the 
name  of '  apoda,'  because^  as  he  observes,  '*  the  older  naturalists  called 
it  footless,"  says  that  the  food  of  this  spedes  consists  of  the  largest 
butterfliee. 

In  the  last  edition  of  the '  Systema  Naturse'  LumsBus  gives  but  two 
species  of  the  Birds  of  Paradise^,  to  which  he  applies  the  generic  name^ 
Paradisea,  These  two  spedes  are  Paradisea  a^p^oda  and  Paradisea 
regia.  In  Gmdin's  edition  the  number  of  spedes  is  increased  to  eighty 
but  one  of  them  is  the  Paradise-Qrakle. 

OmithologiBts  seem  to  sgree  in  placing  these  birds  either  among  the 
Crows  {Oorvida)  or  in  their  immediate  neighbourhood ;  and  this,  from 
the  form  of  their  beak  and  legs,  and  fh>m  their  habits,  to  which  we 
shall  presently  allude,  appears  to  be  their  proper  place. 

Yieillot  has  divided  the  Linnnan  genus  Paradisea  into  the  following 
genera: — 

Poro^to.— Beak  furnished  with  short  feathers  to  just  beyond  the 
middle,  slender,  compressed  laterally,  notched  and  curved  at  the  tip; 
hypochondrialplumea  long^  broad,  and  loose. 


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BIRDS  OF  PARADISE. 


476 


Of  thii  geniifl,  Parotia  9ex9daoea  (Paraditea  aurea  of  QmeUn,  Panh 
ditea  mxtttaeta  of  Latham,  the  Sifilet  of  Buffon)  is  an  AT^np^.  Th« 
figure  repreeents  a  male. 


The  Sifllet  {Pturotia  iexittacea), 

XopAormo.— Beak  furnished  with  elongated  feathers  to  just  beyond 
the  middle,  narrow  above,  slender,  strai^t,  notched,  and  bent  at  the 
tip ;  feathers  of  the  neck  long  and  disposed  in  a  wing-form.  Of  this 
genus,  Lophonna  tvperha  {Paraditea  wfierba  of  Latham,  Le  Superbe 
of  Boffon)  is  an  example. 


The  Superb  [Lophorina  tuperba), 

OmcMwitncf. — Beak  furnished  at  the  base  with  small  feathers  directed 
forwards,  slender,  conyex  aboye,  a  little  compressed  at  the  sides,  finely 
jagged  and  bent  towards  the  tip ;  hypochondiial  feathers  broad,  elon- 
gated, and  truncated. 

Of  this  genus,  Oineiwnunu  regins  (ParadUea  regia  of  LinnsBus,  Eing- 
Bird  of  Paradise  of  Petiver,  who  has  this  note — '''Brought  from  the 
Molucca  Islands,  and  rarely  to  be  seen  here  but  in  the  cabinets  of  the 
most  curious,  as  with  Dr.  Sloan,  and  in  the  repository  of  the  Royal 
Society" — and  Le  Manucode  of  Bufibn)  is  given  as  an  example.  The  figure 
represents  a  male. 

Somalia, — ^Bc«k  robust,  convex  above,  furnished  at  the  base  with 
velvet  feathers,  straight^  compressed  laterally,  jagged  towards  the  tip ; 
hvpochondrial  feathers  very  long,  flexible,  decomposed,  or  cerviod 
plumes  moderate  and  stift  Of  this  there  are  two  sections,  the  type 
being  Poradma  magtUfiea  of  Ti«tham  (Le  Magmfique  of  Buflbn). 

But  porhaps  the  most  elegant  of  all  these  buds  is  that  which  is  best 
known  and  most  often  seen,  the  Great  Emerald,  Le  grand  ^meraude  of 
the  French  (ParadUea  apoda  of  LinnsBus). 

The  cuts,  which  are  taken  from  Levaillant^  may  convey  some  very 
faint  idea  of  the  forms  of  these  birds,  whose  beau^  beggars  all  des- 
cription. Even  the  magnificent  works  of  Levaillant  and  Vieillot^ 
splendid  as  they  are,  cannot  represent  the  vivid  and  changtng  tints  of 


the  originals,  though  the  former  had  the  advantage  of  the  pencil  a 
Barraband,  whose  drawings  have  all  the  life  and  truth  of  portniin 
To  these  works,  and  such  as  these,  and  to  our  museums,  those  who 
wish  to  have  a  distinct  notion  of  what  nature  can  produoe  in  fonn  sod 
brilliancy  of  plumage  must  repair.  They  are  all  inhabitantB  of  New 
Ckunea. 


King^Bird  of  PsrsdiM  {dncitmrnms  refku). 
One  of  the  best  aooounts  we  have  of  the  living  habits  of  these  Urds 
is  given  by  M.  Lesson,  who,  though  he  deeply  laments  his  short  stay  it 
New  Guinea  (only  18  days),  appears  to  nave  made  the  best  use  of 
his  1* 


Faraditea  magnifica, 

**  The  Birds  of  Pftradise,"  says  M.  Lesson,  ''or  at  least  the  Emerald 
(Pairaditea  apoda,  Linn.),  the  only  species  concerning  which  we  posBeBS 
authentic  intelligenoe,  live  in  troops  in  the  vast  forests  of  the  oountiy 
of  the  Papuans,  a  group  of  islands  situated  under  the  equator,  and 
which  is  oomposed  of  the  islands  Arou,  Wagiou,  and  the  great  island 
called  New  Guinea.  They  are  birds  of  passage^  changing  their  gusrtcw 
according  to  the  monsoons.  The  females  congregate  m  troops,  assemble 
upon  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees  in  tiie  forests,  and  all  ay  together 
to  oall  the  males.  These  last  are  always  alone  in  the  midst  of  s(»De 
fifteen  females,  which  compose  their  seras^o,  after  the  manner  of 
thegallinaoeousbiNb." 

IL  Lesson  then  gives  the  following  extract  finom  his  journal,  wnttoi 
on  the  spot.  After  observing  that  the  Birds  of  Paradise,  with  the 
exception  of  two  species,  were  brought  to  the  corvette,  La  CoqmlJe, 
by  the  P^)uaas,  and  that  the  quantity  afforded  reason  for  suj^oong 
that  these  birds,  so  esteemed  in  Europe,  were  singularly  multiphed  m 
those  countries^  he  thus  continues: — 


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BIRDS  OF  PARADISE. 


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**  The  Manuoode  *  presented  itaelf  twice  in  our  ahooting  exonraionB, 
and  we  killed  the  xnale  and  female.  Thia  apedea  woidd  aeem  to  be 
monogajnouBy  or  peihapa  it  ia  only  aeparated  into  paira  at  the  period 


The  Great  Emerald  {Paraditea  apoda),  mas. 


FaradUea  apoda,  fern. 

of  hying;  In  the  wooda  thia  bird  haa  no  brilliam^ ;  ita  fine-coloured 
plumage  ia  not  diacoyered,  and  the  tints  of  the  female  are  dulL  It 
lores  to  take  ita  atation  on  the  teak-treea  (Arbrea  de  Teck),  whoae 
ample  fbUage  dudtera  ity  and  whose  small  fruit  fonns  ita  nourishment. 

*  OtHcimmurMt  rwgitu,  YleiUoL  Manueodiata  or  Monueodewata  is  an  appeU 
UtkmeoirBMm  to  all  the  Birds  of  Paradise,  and  is  said  to  signify  at  the  Moluooas 
*  The  Bird  of  God.' 


Ita  iridea  are  brown,  and  the  feet  are  of  a  delicate  azure.  The 
Pi^uans  call  it  Say& 

**  Soon  after  our  arrival  on  this  land  of  promise  (New  Guinea)  for 
the  naturalist^  I  was  on  a  shooting  excursion.  Scareely  had  I  walked 
Bome  hundred  paces  in  those  ancient  forests,  the  daughtera  of  time, 
whose  sombre  depth  was  perhapa  the  most  magnificent  and  atatdj 
aight  that  I  had  ever  aeen,  when  a  Bird  of  Paradise  strubk  mj  riew : 
it  flew  gracefully  and  in  undulations ;  the  feathers  of  its  aidea  formed 
an  elegant  and  aerial  plume,  which  without  exaggeration  bore  no 
remote  resemblance  to  a  brilliant  meteor.  Surprised,  astounded, 
enjoying  an  inexpressible  gratification,  I  devoured  this  splendid  bird 
with  my  eyes;  but  my  emotion  was  so  great  that  I  foigotto  ahoot 
at  it,  and  did  not  recollect  that  I  had  a  gun  in  my  hand  till  it  was 
far  away. 

"  One  can  scarcely  have  a  just  idea  of  the  Paradise-Birds  from  the 
skins  which  the  Papuans  sell  to  the  Malays,  and  which  come  to  ua  in 
Europe.  These  people  formerly  hunted  tiie  birds  to  decorate  the 
turbuis  of  their  chien.  They  call  them  Mamb^ore  in  their  tonffue, 
and  kill  them  during  the  night  by  climbing  the  treea  where  they 
perch,  and  shooting  them  with  arrows  made  for  the  purpose,  and  very 
short,  which  they  make  with  the  stem  (rachis)  of  the  leaves  of  a  palm 
(latanier).  The  campongs  or  villages  of  Mappia  and  of  Emberbakdne 
are  celebrated  for  the  quantity  of  birds  which  they  prepare,  and  all 
the  art  of  their  inhabitants  ia  directed  to  taking  off  the  feet,  skinning^ 
thrusting  a  little  stick  through  the  body,  and  drying  it  in  the  amoke. 
Some  more  adroit,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Chinese  merohanta,  dry 
them  with  their  feet  on.  The  price  of  a  Bird  of  Paradise  among  the 
Papuans  of  the  coast  is  a  piastre  at  least  We  killed,  during  our  stay 
at  New  Guinea,  a  score  of  these  birds;,  which  I  prepared  for  the  most 
part 

"  The  Emerald  when  alive  is  of  the  size  of  a  common  jay,  its  beak 
and  its  feet  are  bluish ;  the  iridea  are  of  a  brilliant  yellow ;  its  motions 
are  lively  and  agile ;  and  in  general  it  never  perches  except  upon  the 
summit  of  the  most  lofty  trees.  When  it  descends,  it  is  for  the 
purpose  of  eating  the  fruits  of  the  lesser  trees,  or  when  the  sun  in 
full  power  com{Mls  it  to  seek  the  sbada  It  has  a  fancy  for  certain 
trees,  and  makes  the  neighbourhood  re-echo  with  its  piercing  voice. 
The  cry  became  fatal,  b^use  it  indicated  to  us  the  movements  of 
the  bird.  We  were  on  the  watch  for  it,  and  it  was  thus  that  we  came 
to  kill  these  birds ;  for  when  a  male  Bird  of  Paradise  has  perched, 
and  hears  a  rustling  in  the  silence  of  the  forest,  he  is  silent,  and  does 
not  move.  His  call  is  '  voike,  voike,  voike,  voiko,'  strongly  articulated. 
The  cry  of  the  female  is  the  same,  but  she  raises  it  mudii  more  feeblv. 
The  latter,  deprived  of  the  brilliant  plumage  of  the  male,  is  dad  m 
sombre  attire.  We  met  with  them,  assembled  in  scores,  on  every 
tree,  while  the  males,  always  solitary,  appeared  but  rarely. 

**  It  is  at  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  that  the  Bird  of  Paradise 
goes  to  seek  its  food.  In  the  middle  of  the  day  it  remains  hidden 
\mder  the  ample  foliage  of  the  teak-tree,  and  comea  not  forth.  He 
seems  to  dread  the  acorching  rays  of  the  sun,  and  to  be  unwilling  to 
expose  himself  to  the  attacks  of  a  rival    .... 

"In  order  to  shoot  Birds  of  Paradise,  travellers  who  visit  New 
Guinea  should  remember  that  it  is  necessary  to  leave  the  ship  early  in 
the  morning,  to  arrive  at  the  foot  of  a  teak-tree  or  fig-tree,  which 
these  birds  frequent  for  the  sake  of  their  fruit — (our  stay  was  from 
the  26th  of  July  to  the  9th  of  August)— before  half-past  four,  and  to 
remain  motionless  till  some  of  the  males,  urged  by  hun^r,  light  upon 
the  branches  within  range.  It  is  indispensably  requisite  to  have  a 
gun  which  will  carry  very  for  with  effect,  and  that  the  grains  of  shot 
Siould  be  large ;  for  it  is  very  difficult  to  kill  an  Emerald  outright, 
and  if  he  be  only  wounded  it  is  very  seldom  that  he  is  not  lost 
in  thickets  so  dense  that  there  is  no  finding  the  way  without  a 
compass. 

"  The  little  Emerald  Paradise-Bird  feeds,  without  doubt,  on  many 
substances,  in  a  state  of  liberty.  I  can  affirm  that  it  lives  on  the 
seeds  of  the  teak-tree,  and  on  a  fruit  called  Amihou,  of  a  rosy  white, 
insipid  and  mucilaginous,  of  the  size  of  a  small  European  fig^  and 
which  belongs  to  a  tree  of  the  genus  Fictu," 

M.  Lesson  then  goes  on  to  state  that  he  saw  two  Birds  of  Paradise 
which  had  been  kept  in  a  cage  for  more  than  six  months  by  the  prin- 
cipal Chinese  merchant  at  Ambovna.  They  were  always  in  motion, 
and  were  fed  with  boiled  rice,  but  they  had  a  special  fondness  for 
Cockroaches  (EUataX, 

Bennett,  in  his  '  Wanderings,'  gives  the  following  account  of  a  Bird 
of  Paradise  (Paradiua  apoda)  which  he  found  in  Mr.  Beale's  aviary 
at  Macao,  where  it  had  been  confined  nine  years,  exhibiting  no 
appearance  of  age : — 

''  This  elegant  creature  has  a  lights  playftil,  and  gracefrd  manner, 
with  an  arui  and  impudent  look ;  dances  about  when  a  visitor 
approaches  the  cage,  and  seems  delighted  at  being  made  an  object  of 
admiration ;  its  notes  are  very  peculiar,  resembling  the  cawing  of  the 
raven,  but  its  tonea  are  by  &r  more  varied.  During  four  months  of 
the  year,  from  May  to  August,  it  moults.  It  washes  itself  regularly 
twice  daily,  and  after  having  performed  its  ablutions  throws  ita 
delicate  feathers  up  nearly  over  tne  head,  the  (juills  of  which  feathers 
have  a  peculiar  structure,  so  aa  to  enable  the  bud  to  effect  this  object 
Its  food  during  confinement  is  boiled  rice,  mixed  up  with  soft  ^gg, 
together  with  phintains^  and  living  insects  of  the  grasahopper  tE0Mb* 


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BIRDS  OF  PARABISK 


Bmaua 


480 


these  maeoU  when  thrown  to  him  the  bird  contriyee  to  catch  in  ite 
beek  with  great  celerity.  It  will  eat  inaeots  in  a  liying  state,  but  will 
not  touch  tibem  when  dead. 

''I  obsenred  the  bird  previous  to  eating  a  grasshopper,  giyeu  him 
in  an  entire  or  mutilated  state,  place  the  insect  upon  the  perch,  keep 
it  firmly  fixed  with  the  daws,  and  divesting  it  of  the  legs,  wings,  &c., 
devour  it^  with  the  head  always  placed  first  The  servant  who 
attends  upon  him  to  clean  the  cage^  give  him  food,  ftc.,  stripe  off  the 
legs,  wings,  ke*  of  the  insects  when  ^ve,  giving  them  to  the  bird  as 
fast  as  he  can  devour  theuL  It  rarely  alights  upon  the  ground,  and 
so  proud  is  the  creature  of  its  elegant  dress  that  it  never  permits  a 
soil  to  remain  upon  it,  and  it  may  frequently  be  seen  spreading  out 
its  ^ngs  and  feathers,  and  regarding  its  splendid  self  in  eveiy 
direction,  to  observe  whether  the  whole  of  its  plumage  is  in  an 
unsullied  condition.  It  does  not  suffer  from  the  cold  weather  during 
the  winter  season  at  Macao,  though  exposing  the  elegant  biid  to  the 
bleak  northerly  wind  is  always  very  particularly  avoided.  Mr.  Beale 
is  very  desirous  of  procuring  a  Uving  female,  to  endeavour  if 
possible  to  breed  them  in  his  aviary. 

"The  sounds  uttered  by  this  bird  are  vety  peculiar;  that  which 
appears  to  be  a  note  of  congratulation  resembles  somewhat  the 
cawing  of  a  raven,  but  changes  to  a  varied  scale  of  musical  gradations, 
as  '  he,  hi,  ho,  haw,'  repeated  rapidly  and  frequently,  as  lively  and 
playAilly  he  hops  round  and  along  his  perch,  descending  to  tiie 
second  perch  to  be  admired,  and  to  congratulate  the  strancier  who  has 
made  a  visit  to  inspect  hhn;  he  frequently  raises  his  voice,  sending 
forth  notes  of  such  power  as  to  be  heard  at  a  long  distance,  and  as  it 
could  scarcely  be  supposed  so  delicate  a  bird  could  utter;  these  notes 
are  'whock,  whock,  whock,  whock,'  uttwed  in  a  barking  tone,  l^e 
last  being  given  in  a  low  tone  as  a  conclusion. 

''A  drawing  of  the  bird  of  the  natural  size  was  made  by  a  Chinese 
artist  The  bird  advanced  steadfastly  towards  the  picture,  uttering  at 
the  same  time  its  cawing  congratulatory  notes ;  it  did  not  appear 
excited  by  rage,  but  pecked  gently  at  the  representation,  jumping 
about  the  perch,  knocking  its  mandibles  togeuier  with  a  clattering 
noise,  and  cleaning  them  against  the  perch,  as  if  welcoming  the 
arrival  of  a  companion.  Aftoir  ike  trial  of  the  picture  a  looking-glass 
was  brought^  to  see  what  effect  it  would  produce  upon  the  bixd,  and 
the  result  was  nearly  the  same ;  he  regarded  the  reflection  of  himself 
most  steadfastly  in  the  mirror,  never  quitting  it  during  the  time  it 
remained  before  him.  When  the  glass  was  removed  to  the  lower 
fr*om  the  upper  perch  he  instantly  followed,  but  would  not  descend 
upon  the  floor  of  the  cage  when  it  was  placed  so  low. 

"  One  of  the  best  opportunities  of  seeinff  this  eiplendid  bird  in  all 
its  beauty  of  action,  as  well  as  display  of  plumage,  is  early  in  the 
morning,  when  he  makes  his  toilet;  the  beautiful  sub-alar  plumage  is 
then  thrown  out,  and  cleaned  from  any  spot  that  may  sully  its  purity 
by  being  passed  gently  through  the  bill;  the  short  chocolate<x>loured 
wings  are  extended  to  the  utmost,  and  he  keeps  them  in  a  steady 
flapping  motion,  as  if  in  imitation  of  tiieir  use  in  flighty  at  the  same 
time  raising  up  the  delicate  long  feathers  over  the  back,  which  are 
spread  in  a  chaste  and  elegant  manner,  floating  like  films  in  the  ambient 
air. 

'*  1  never  yet  beheld  a  soil  on  its  feathers.  After  expanding  the 
wings  it  would  bring  them  together  so  as  to  conceal  the  head,  then 
bending  it  gracefully  it  would  inspect  the  state  of  its  plumage  under- 
neath, This  action  it  repeats  in  quick  succession,  uttering  at  the  time 
its  croaking  notes ;  it  then  pecks  and  cleans  its  plumage  in  every  part 
within  reach,  and  throwing  out  the  elegant  and  delicate  tuft  of  feathers 
underneath  the  wings,  seemingly  with  much  care,  and  with  not  a  little 
pride,  they  are  cleaned  in  succession,  if  required,  by  throwing  them 
abroad,  elevating  them,  and  passing  them  in  succession  through  the 
bill  Then  turnmg  its  back  to  the  spectator,  the  actions  above  men- 
tioned are  repeated  but  not  in  so  careful  a  manner;  elevating  its  tail 
and  long  shaft-featiiers,  it  raises  the  delicate  plumage  of  a  similar 
character  to  the  sub^lar,  forming  a  beautiful  dorsal  crest,  and,  throwing 
its  feathers  up  with  much  grace,  appears  ajs  proud  as  a  lady  dressed  in 
her  full  ball-dress.  Having  completed  the  toilet,  he  utters  the  usual 
cawing  notes,  at  the  same  time  looking  archly  at  the  spectators,  as  if 
ready  to  receive  fJl  the  admiration  that  it  considers  its  elegant  form 
and  display  of  plumage  demands ;  it  then  takes  exercise  by  hopping, 
in  a  rapid  but  gracefm  manner,  from  one  end  of  the  upper  perch  to 
the  other,  and  descends  suddexdy  upon  the  second  perch,  dose  to  the 
bars  of  the  cage,  looking  out  for  the  grasshoppers  which  it  is  accus- 
tomed to  receive  at  this  time.    ..... 

**  His  prehensile  power  in  the  feet  is  very  strong,  and,  still  retaining 
his  hold,  the  bird  will  turn  himself  round  upon  the  perdu  He  delights 
to  be  sheltered  from  the  elare  of  the  sun,  as  that  luminary  is  a  great 
source  of  annoyance  to  him,  if  permitted  to  dart  its  fervent  rays 
directly  upon  the  cage.  The  iris  frequently  expanding  and  contract- 
ing adds  to  the  arch  look  of  this  animated  bird,  as  he  throws  the 
h^ul  on  one  side  to  glance  at  visitors,  uttering  tiie  cawing  notes  or 
barking  aloud.  ....  Having  concluded,  ne  jumps  down  to  the 
lower  perch  in  search  of  donations  of  living  grasshoppers. 

"  The  bird  is  not  at  all  ravenous  in  its  habits  of  feeding,  but  it  eats 
rice  leisurely,  almost  grain  by  grain.  Should  any  of  the  insects  thrown 
into  his  cage  fall  upon  the  floor,  he  will  not  descend  to  them,  appearing 
to  be  fearful  that  in  so  doing  he  should  soil  his  delicate  plumage ;  he 


therefore  seldom  or  ever  descends,  except  to  perform  his  ablutiona  in 
the  pan  of  water  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  cage  expressly  for  his 
use." 

BIRQUS,  a  genus  of  Long-Tailed  CfruttaeeOf  approaching  the  Hermit- 
Crabs  {Pagurutj  established  by  Leach.  The  following  are  the  leading 
oharaoters : — ^Middle  antennas  having  their  second  articulation  crested 
or  tufted ;  feet  of  the  first  pair  of  legs  unequal,  terminated  by 
pincers  or  knob-daws ;  feet  of  the  second  and  third  pair  terminated 
simply,  in  other  words,  by  a  single  nail ;  fourth  pair  smaller  and 
didactylous,  or  terminated  by  two  fingers,  one  moveable ;  fifth  pair 
rudimentary,  very  small,  but  didactylous;  carapace  somewhat  in  the 
form  of  a  reversed  heart,  with  the  apex  pomting  forwards ;  post- 
abdomen  or  tail  orbicular,  orustaoeous  above,  ^e  plates  being  sub- 
anntdar,  or  rudiments  of  rings. 

There  are  two  spedes  recorded,  and  of  these  Birgut  Loire,  Leach, 
Pagumu  Latro,  Fabr.  and  Lam.,  Cancer  Latro,  Linn.,  Cancer  eruinenatMtf 
Bors-Erabbe  (Purse-Grab)  of  Rumphius,  is  the  largest  Its  rostrum 
is  terminated  by  a  single  point  The  pincers  are  zed,  the  left  being 
much  hunger  than  tiie  rights  and  both  deeply  toothed  The  feet  of  the 
next  three  pairs  are  toothed  on  the  edges,  and  marked  with  undulated 
streaks,  tt  is  a  native  of  Amboyna  and  other  neighbouring  iakndii, 
where  it  is  said  to  inhabit  the  fissures  of  rocks  by  day,  and  to  come 
forth  at  nig^t  to  seek  its  food  on  the  beach.  Mr.  Cuming  found  it 
sufficiently  abundant  in  Lord  Hood's  Island  in  the  Pacific,  bat  there 
the  Purse-Crabs  dwelt  at  the  roots  of  trees,  and  not  in  holes  in  the 
rocks.  When  he  met  them  in  his  road,  they  set  themselves  up  in  a 
threatening  attitude  and  then  retreated  backwards,  making  both  &t 
first  and  afterwards  a  great  snapping  with  their  pincers.  There 
appears  to  be  a  tradition  among  the  natives  that  it  climbs  Cocoa-Nat 
Trees  {Cocat  nucifera)  in  the  night  to  get  the  cocoaruuts.  Linneus, 
Herbst,  and  Cuvier  repeat  this  story,  which,  as  Owen  observes,  u 
confiimed  in  a  degree  by  Quoy  and  Gaixnard,  who  rdate  iiai 
individuals  of  this  spedes  were  fed  by  them  for  many  months  on 
cocoa-nuts  alone;  and  still  more  amply  by  the  obseirations  com- 
municated to  him  by  Mr.  Cuming,  who  states  that  these  Pone-Craba 
climb  the  Pandamu  odorcUiaaimua,  a  kind  of  palm,  for  the  purpose  of 
feeding  on  the  small  nut  that  grows  thereon,  and  that  he  saw  them  in 
the  tree. 

Linnteus  gives  the  Antilles  as  the  locality  of  this  Purse-Crab,  as  well 
as  Amboyna,  upon  the  authority  of  Rochefort>  but  this  has  arisen 
from  a  misunderstanding  of  the  text  of  Bochefort 

In  the  following  passage  Rochefort  refers  to  some  of  the  Laud- 
Crabs  of  the  Antiliee,  and  not  to  the  genus  Birgu» : — 

"  What  is  the  more  worthy  of  note  relating  to  these  crabs  is,  that 
once  a  year,  namdy,  after  they  are  returned  from  their  journey  to  the 
sea,  they  hide  themsdves  entirely  in  the  earth  for  some  six  weeks,  so 
that  not  one  appeara  During  &ia  time  they  diange  their  skin,  or 
crust,  and  renew  themselves  altogether.  Thsj  place  the  earth  at  this 
season  so  dexteroudy  at  the  entrance  of  their  holes,  that  one  cannot 
percdve  the  opening.  This  they  do  that  they  may  not  be  expoeed  to 
the  air.  For  when  they  thus  throw  adde  their  old  garb,  the  whole  of 
their  body  is  as  it  were  naked,  being  only  ooverod  by  a  thin  and 
delicate  skin,  which  thickens  and  hardens  by  degrees  into  a  crust  as 
solid  as  that  which  they  have  left  Monsieur  du  Montel  reports  that 
he  caused  people  to  dig  on  purpose  in  those  places  where  there  was 
any  appearance  of  their  lying  hid,  and  having  met  with  some  of  them, 
that  he  foimd  that  they  were  enveloped  as  it  were  in  the  leaves  of 
trees,  which  without  doubt  served  them  for  nourishment  and  for  a 
nest  during  this  retreat ;  but  they  were  so  languid  and  so  incapable 
of  supporting  the  fresh  air,  that  they  seemed  half  dead,  though  in 
other  respects  they  were  fat  and  vexy  delicate  food.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  Ides  call  them  at  this  period  Purse-Crabs,  and  esteem  them 
much.  He  saw  quite  close  to  them  their  old  covering,  that  is  to  my, 
their  shdl,  which  appeared  as  entire  as  if  the  animal  had  been  9tUl 
within.  What  is  wonderful  is,  that  though  he  employed  veiy  good 
eyes,  he  could  scarcely  observe  the  opening  or  slit  whence  the  body  of 
the  animal  had  come  forth  and  had  disen^«ed  itself  from  this  prison. 
Nevertheless,  after  having  taken  great  care  he  remarked  in  the  empty 
shells  a  small  separation  near  the  tail,  by  which  the  crabs  had  extricated 
themselves." 

Then  follows  the  most  approved  way  of  dreosing  these  Land-Crabs 
for  the  table,  a  mode  which  is  still  in  practice  with  little  variation  in 
the  West  Indies  at  the  present  day. 

In  a  manuscript  entitied  '  M^moires  en  Forme  de  Dictionnaire 
contenant  I'Histoire  Naturelle  notamment  de  Cacao,  Tlndigo,  le  Sucre, 

et  le  Tabao,  Par  M. ,  Inspecteur  pour  la  Compagnie  de  Chan- 

demagor,'  tiiere  is  a  very  frdl  account  of  the  Land-Crabs  (Tourloturoux) 
of  the  Antilles,  and  the  writer  of  the  manuscript^  speaking  of  tiieir 
condition  after  they  have  thrown  off  their  old  crusts,  says,  "  If  they 
take  the  crabs  then,  they  find  them  covered  only  with  a  dight  red 
skin,  tender  and  delicate  as  moistened  parchment ;  the  crabs  are  then 
much  more  delicious  than  they  are  at  any  other  season ;  they  call  them 
at  that  period  Purse-Crabs"  (tom.  ii  p.  526).  The  manuscript  ia 
without  date,  but  was  written  after  the  publication  of  Labat's  works, 
which  the  writer  quotes. 

Bvrgut  Latro,  which  grows  to  a  large  size,  is  said  to  be  excellent 
food  when  properiy  prepared.  It  was  a  favourite  diet  with  the  natives 
of  Lord  Hood  s  Island,  but  Mr.  Cuming  did  not  taste  it 


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BIKOSTBITBIS. 


BISON. 


483 


There  are  BpecimefDs  in  the  British  Museum.     Thero  is  only  one 
spedee  of  this  genus. 


Purae-Crab  {Birfm  Lairo.) 

BIROSTRITES,  a  genus  of  Fossil  MoUusca  named  by  Lamarck. 
He  has  placed  it  under  his  family  Hudittes,  a  fiamily  which,  as  Mr.  Q. 
Bowerby  observes,  might  be  struck  out ;  for  there  can  be  hardly  any 
doubt  that  Lamarck  has  misconceived  or  misplaced  the  genera  of 
which  it  is  composed.  G.  Sowerby,  from  an  examination  of  the  oast 
of  the  inside  of  the  shell,  expresses  his  conviction  that  Birottrites 
ought  to  be  placed  next  to  Diceraa,  or  at  least  in  the  same  fsunily  with 
Chama  and  hieeras,  inasmuch  as  it  accords  very  nearly  with  those 
shells  in  its  internal  characters.  Rang  has  placed  the  genera  BatoUtea, 
Baphcmistea,  and  AmpUxuty  near  to  this  genus. 

The  following  is  Lamarck's  description  of  this  singular  fossil : — Shell 
composed  of  two  pieces  or  valves,  which  do  not  unite  by  the  edges  of 
their  base,  one  enveloping  the  other,  and  the  dorsal  disc  of  each  being 
elevated  into  a  nearly  straight  cone  dightly  arched  within.  These 
horn-shaped  valves  are  unequal,  and  diveige  obliquely  under  the  form 
of  a  very  open  Y.  It  seems  as  if  one  valve  came  out  of  the  base  of 
the  other,  and  it  is  always  the  shortest  that  is  enveloped.  Bvrostrittt 
uugquUobui  is  the  only  species  which  Lamarck  records. 

BIRTHWORTa    [ARiBTOLOomAOSA.] 

BISH.    [Bulb,] 

BISMO£^,  a  name  given  in  the  Orkneys  to  the  15-spined  Stickle- 
back   rGLAaixBOfiTsns.] 

BISMtJTH,  a  metal  that  was  unknown  to  the  ancients.  It  was 
referred  to  by  Agricola  in  his  work  on  mining  in  1529,  and  was  subse- 
quently described  by  Stahl  and  Dufay. 

The  minerals  in  which  this  metal  constitutes  the  principal  ingredient 
are  comparatively  few  in  number ;  and  of  these  only  two  species  are  of 
any  importance  in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  namely,  the  native 
bismuth,  and  its  sulphurets.  The  general  characters  of  these 
minerals  are  the  following.  Before  the  blow-pipe  they  are  readily 
fbsed  and  reduced  to  a  metallic  state,  the  reg^us  itself  gradually 
subUming  if  the  flame  be  continued,  leaving  on  the  charcoal  an 
orange-ydlow  areola,  which  however  may  readily  be  made  to  disappear 
in  the  deoxidising  flame.  When  the  metallic  regulus  is  fused  m  an 
open  glass  tube,  a  yellowish-white  sublimate  is  obtained,  and  the 
rq[ulus  itself  becomes  covered  by  the  fased  oxide,  which  while  hot  is 
of^  a  dark  brown  colour  but  assumes  a  yellow  tint  on  cooling.  These 
minorala  are  all  of  them  soluble  in  strong  nitric  aoid,  the  solution 
rielding  a  white  precipitate  on  being  dropped  into  water.  They  are 
known  and  described  by  mineralogists  under  the  following  names  : — 
Native  or  Octahedral  Biemuthf  BitmiUh-Ochre,  Priematic  Biamuthr 
Olanee,  Needle-Ore  or  Acicular  Bitmuth-Olance,  called  by  Phillips 
PUmbihOupriferout  Svlpkuret  of  Bim/tUh,  TeUurbwnuth,  formerly 
known  by  the  name  of  Mclybdam  Silver. 

Natine  or  Octahedral  BiemUh  is  sometimes  found  crystallised :  the 
observed  forms  are  the  octahedron,  the  tetrahedron,  and  combinations 
»f  the  latter  with  the  dodecahedron,  which  produce  the  shape  seen 
in  the  accompanying  figora 

The  hceB  msfked  o  belong  to  the  tetrahedron  and  those  marked 
with  d  to  the  rhombic  dodecahedron.  The  edge  between  the  faces  o 
is  therefore  70''  32^,  between  the  faces  d  120%  and  in  the  edges  of  com- 
bination between  o  and  d  144*  44'.    These  crystals  are  generally  very 

iTAT.  mar.  dit.  vol.  l 


.^^. 


miperfect,  and  the  fiEU>es  rough  and  uneven ;  they  possess  a  perfect 

cleavage  paraUel  to  the  faces  of  the  octahedron.    The  hardness  varies 

from  2  to  2*6,  the  specific  gravity  from  96  to 

9*8.     The  crystals    are   opaque,  possess  the 

metallic  lustre,  and  the  fresh  fracture  presents 

a   reddish    silver  white;  but  the  sufaoe  is 

usually  tarnished,  owing  to  partial  oxidation, 

and  presents  a  variegated  appearance  of  gray, 

red,  and  blue  colours.    They  may  be  considered 

as  presenting  us  with  the  metal  Bismuth  in 

a  pure  stat^  the  only  foreign  matter  being 

tnooB  of  arsenic.    The  occurrence  of  crystals  is 

somewhat  rare,  this  mineral  being  usually  found  in  feathery  and 

arboresoent  forms,  and  also  in  dentiform  concretions  in  veins,  traversing 

gneiss,  mica,  and  clay-slates,  where  it  is  usually  accompanied  by  ores 

of  silver,  cobalt,  nickel,  and  iron.    It  is  found  at  St.  Colomb  and 

Botallack  mines  in  Cornwall,  and  at  Ciistle-OaxTOck  in  Cumberland,  but 

in  much  greater  abimdance  in  the  mines  of  Saxony  and  Bohemia,  at 

Johann-Geoigenstadt^    Annabeig,    Altenbexg,    Schneebeig,    and    at 

Joachimsthal,  from  whence  the  greater  portion  of  the  Bismuth  of 

commerce  is  obtained.    It  is  also  found  at  Beiber  in  Hainan,  at 

Loling   in  Carinthia,    and   in   the  Sophia  mine  at  Wittichen   in 

Fiirstenbeig. 

The  Biitnuth'Ochre  is  a  rare  mineral,  which  occurs  massive  and 
disseminated.  It  is  of  a  straw-yellow,  passing  sometimes  into  a  light 
yellowish  gray.  Its  specific  gravily  is  4*86,  and  its  chemical 
constitution — 

Bismuth        ......    89'87 

Oxygen 10-18 

It  usually  contains  small  quantities  of  arsenic  and  oxide  of  iron  as 
impurities.  Its  known  localities  are  St.  Agnes,  Cornwall ;  Schneeberg 
and  Johann-Qeorgenstadt^  in  Saxony ;  and  Joachimsthal,  in  Bohemia. 

BitmvUh-QUmce,  Biemtaite,  a  Carbonate  of  Bismuth,  occurs  in  four- 
sided  prisms  of  unknown  dimensions,  but  it  is  stated  by  Phillips  to 
have  angles  about  91'*  and  89*.  It  is  further  characterised  by  its 
metallic  lustre,  and  lead-gray  approaching  steel-gray  colour,  and  ftom 
its  possessing  a  perfect  cleavage  in  tllb  direction  of  the  short  diagonal, 
and  one  less  perfect  in  the  direction  of  the  base.  According  to  Mohs 
the  hardness  is  between  2  and  2*5,  and  the  specific  gravity  6*549.  It 
also  occurs  massive  of  a  granular  composition,  or  columnar,  the 
individuals  being  long  and  straight^  and  aggregated  in  various 
directions.  According  to  the  analysis  of  H.  Rose  of  a  specimen  from 
Reddarhyttan,  it  is  thus  composed  : — 

Sulphur        .        .        .    18-49    .        .        .    18*72 
Bismuth  ....    81*51    .    .       .    .    80*98 

Before  the  blow-pipe  sulphur  is  first  driven  off,  which  is  followed 
by  a  sublimate  having  the  odour  of  tellurium,  and  afterwards 
the  characters  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  other  minerals  of 
Bismuth. 

BxamuthrBlende  is  a  Silicate  of  Bismuth. 

Other  minerals  in  which  Bismuth  occurs  are  Needle-Ore  and  TtUmt' 
hiemuth.  Needle-Ore  is  also  called  Acicular  Biatnuth.  It  is  a 
sulphuret  of  bismuth,  lead,  and  copper,  containing  a  trace  of  gold. 
It  comes  frem  Siberia.  Tcllurbismuth,  or  Tetradymite,  is  composed  of 
tellurium  and  bismuth.  It  has  a  foliated  structure,  and  a  pale  steel- 
gray  colour.      It  comes  from  Schenmitz,  and  also  frem  BraziL 

(Dana,  Mineralogy,) 

BISON,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  Ruminant  Ammnlff  belonging  to 
the  fiunily  Bovidce,  The  genus  Biaon  comprehends  two  living  spedea, 
one  of  them  European,  now  become  very  scarce  and  verging  towards 
extinction ;  the  other  American,  and,  notwithstanding  the  advances 
of  man,  still  multitudinous. 

European  Biaon, 

As  much  difference  of  opinion  has  prevailed  with  regard  to  the 
historical  records  and  true  characters  of  the  first  or  European  species 
of  Bison,  we  shall  quote  a  few  of  the  synonyms  of  this  animal  as 
given  in  the  Catalogue  of  the  Specimens  of  Mammalia,  in  the  British 
Museiun,  by  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray. 

The  Bison  Aurochs,  or  European  Bison,  is  the  Boa  Biaon  of 
Linnasus;  Biaon  Bonaaaus,  Dr.  J.  K  Gray;  Boa  Urua,  Boddaert;  Boa 
Biaon  At^rocha,  Lesson;  Boa  Tauma  Urua,  Gmelin;  Boa  Bonaaaua, 
Brisson ;  Biaon  Europcetu,  Owen ;  Boa  Biaon  aeu  Bonaaaua,  Wagner ; 
Biaon  Jul>€Uua,  Pliny;  Biaon,  (leaner,  Aldrovandus,  and  Gilibert; 
Urtu,  Csesar;  Aurocha,  Cuvier,  Buffon,  and  Desmoulins;  Bonaaua, 
Pliny,  Gksner,  Klein,  Buffon,  and  Ray.  It  is  also  i^e  Urochs, 
Auer-Ochse  or  Auer-Ochs,  Wald-Ochse,  Wilder  Odis,  Berg-Ochs, 
Buckel-Ochs,  Afrikanischer  Wilder  Ochs,  Preussische  und  Lithanischo 
Auer-Ochs,  Zurb,  and  Ifanistier,  of  various  German  writers.  To  these 
various  synonyms  we  may  now  add  that  of  Biaon  priacua  of  Owen, 
as  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  bones  of  the  Great  Fossil  Aurochs 
belong  to  the  same  species  as  those  now  living  In  the  forests  of 
Lithuania. 

The  difficulty  of  identifying  this  animal  has  arisen  from,  the  fact, 
that  besides  the  Bison  there  existed  at  one  time  in  Europe  and  in 
Great  Britain  a  wild  ox  {Boa  primigeniva),  whose  remains  are  numerous, 
but  which  has  undoubtedly  become  quite  extinct  Peimant^  in  his 
'British  Zoology,'  after  stating  his  belief  that  the  ancient  wild  cattle 


2  I 


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484 


of  our  island  were  the  Bkontes  jubati  of  Pliny,  thus  continues : — 
**  The  Urufl  of  the  Hercynian  forest,  described  by  Csesar,  book  vi, 
was  of  this  kind,  the  same  which  is  called  by  the  modem  Qennans 
Aurochs,  that  is.  Bos  tylvettriM,"  Now  let  us  look  at  Cesar's  description. 
"  These  Uri  arc  little  inferior  to  elephants  in  sixe,  but  are  bulls  in 
their  nature,  colour,  and  figure.  Qreat  is  their  strength  and  great 
their  swiftness,  nor  do  they  spare  man  or  beast  when  thej  haye 
caught  sight  of  them.  These,  when  trapped  in  pitfalls,  the  hunters 
diligently  kill.  The  youths  exerdsing  themselyes  by  this  sort  of 
hunting  are  hardened  by  the  toil ;  and  those  among  them  who  haye 
killed  most,  bringing  with  them  the  horns  as  testimonials,  acquire 
great  praise.  But  tiiese  Uri  cannot  be  habituated  to  man  or  made 
tractable,  not  eyen  when  yoimg.  The  great  sice  of  the  horns,  as  well 
as  the  form  and  quality  of  them,  diflfers  much  from  the  honis  of  our 
oxen.  These,  when  carefully  selected,  they  ring  round  the  edge  with 
silyer  and  use  them  for  drinJung-cups  at  their  ample  feasts."  Though 
there  are  parts  of  this  description  applicable  to  tne  European  Bison, 
there  is  one  striking  character  whicn  forbids  us  to  conclude  that 
Csesar^s  Urut  was  identical  with  it.  A  glance  at  the  European  Bison 
will  conyinoe  us  that  it  neyer  could  haye  afforded  the  horns  whose 
amplitude  Csosar  celebrates.  In  the  '  Archieolog^'  yoL  iii  p.  15,  it 
is  stated  that  the  Borstal  horn  is  supposed  to  hietye  belonged  to  the 
Bison  or  Bu£Ealo.  That  it  might  haye  belonged  to  a  BuffiJo  is  not 
impossible,  but  that  it  did  not  belong  to  a  Bison  is  sufficiently  clear 
from  the  following  description :  '^  It  is  2  feet  4  inches  long  on  the 
conyex  bend,  and  28  inches  on  the  concaye.  The  inside  at  we  large 
end  is  8  inches  diameter,  being  perforated  there  so  as  to  leaye  the 
thickness  only  of  half  an  inch  for  about  8  inches  deep ;  but  farther  in 
it  is  thicker,  being  not  so  much  or  so  neatly  perforated."  This  horn 
was  no  doubt  supplied  by  the  Great  Fossil  Ox,  the  Bo9  prvnigeitiviu. 
Horns  were  anciently  used  amongst  us  in  the  conyeyanoe  of 
inheritances ;  of  which  we  haye  examples  in  the  Borstal  horn,  and 
the  Pusey  horn.  These  probably  belonged  to  the  Qreat  Fossil  Ox. 
That  the  common  Ox  could  not  be  descended  from  the  Bison  as  has 
been  conjectured  by  some,  is  proyed  by  the  fact  that  the  Aurochs  or 
European  Bison  has  14  pairs  of  ribs,  while  the  Ox  has  but  18,  and 
that  the  legs  of  the  Aurochs  are  more  slender  and  longer  than  those 
of  the  Ox  and  true  Buffalo.  The  European  Bison,  moreoyer,  has  but 
fiye  lumbar  yertebrse,  while  the  other  oxen,  with  the  exception  of 
the  American  Bison,  which  has  only  four  according  to  Cuyier,  possess 
six.     [BOVID-B.] 

**  The  front  of  the  common  Ox,"  says  Cuyier,  "  is  flattened,  and 
eyen  in  a  small  degree  concaye ;  that  of  the  Aurochs  is  rounded  into 
conyexity  (bomb^),  though  rather  less  thim  that  of  the  Buffido.    It  is 

.  square  in  the  Ox,  its  height 
being  nearly  equal  toitsbreadth, 
taking  for  its  base  an  imaginary 
line  between  the  orbits.  In  the 
Aurochs,  with  the  same  mode 
of  measurement,  it  is  much 
broader  than  it  is  high,  in  the 
proportion  of  three  to  one. 
The  horns  are  attached  in  the 
Ox  to  the  extremities  of  the 
most  eleyated  salient  line  of 
the  head,  that,  namely,  which 
separates  the  occiput  from  the 
front ;  in  the  Aurochs  this  line 
is  two  inches  farther  back  than 
the  root  of  the  horns.  The 
plane  of  the  occiput  makes  a 
sharp  angle  with  the  frx>nt  in 
the  Ox ;  this  angle  is  obtuse  in 
Skull  of  European  Bison,  front  view.      the  Aurochs ;  and  lastly,  this 

quadrangular  plane  of  the 
occiput^  as  it  is  in  the  Ox, 
represents  a  half  circle  in  the 
Aurochs." 

The  figures  here  giyen  were 
taken  from  the  skull  of  the 
European  Bison  or  Aurochs  in 
the  museum  at  Paris.  This 
must  haye  been  a  young  animal, 
as  will  be  seen  from  comparing 
the  representation  of  its  skull 
with  that  of  the  following  speci- 
men. 

There  is  now  no  doubt 
that  the  BUon  jvhaiuB  of  Pliny 
(book  yiiL  c  15,  and  xxyiiL  a 
10),  which  he  seems  to  dis- 
tinguish frt>m  the  Unts,  was 
the  European  Bison  or  Aurochs ; 
i»w.flu  «f  ♦!,-.  ....4.  Mid  though  in  the  15th  chapter 

Profile  of  the  same.  ^^  ^^^  8t£book  he  mentions  the 

tradition  of  a  wild  beast  in  Pseonia  called  a  Borumu,  after  he  has 
dismissed  his  BisonUt  jubcUi,  and  with  eyery  appearance  of  a  conclu- 
iion  on  his  part  that  the  Bonatm  and  Biton  were  not  identical 


his  own  description,  when  compared  with  that  of  Aristotle,  will 
leaye  little  doubt  that  the  Biton  jubatui  and  Bonatut  of  PUny  and 
others,  the  B6vaff<rot  or  B6vairos  of  Aristotle  (for  the  word  is  written 
both  ways),  and  the  Bivoty  of  Oppian,  were  no  other  than  the  Eoropesn 
Bison. 


Skull  of  old  Eoropean  Bison,  front  view. 


Profile  of  the  same. 


European  Bison  {Bison  JSuropmu). 

Cuyier,  in  his  '  Ossemens  Fossiles,'  states  it  to  be  his  opinion  that 
this  animal,  the  largest  or  at  least  the  most  massiye  of  all  existing 
quadrupeds  after  the  rhinoceros,  is  a  distinct  species  which  man  has 
neyer  subdued.    Following  out  this  subject  with  his  usual  indofftoy 


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BISON. 


BISON. 


4SI 


and  ability,  that  great  naturaliat  goes  on  to  state  that  if  Europe 
poMe«ed  a  Urut,  a  Thur  of  the  Poles,  different  from  the  Bison  or  tne 
Aurochs  of  the  (Germans,  it  is  only  in  its  remains  that  this  species 
can  be  traced.  Snch  remains  are  found  in  the  skalls  of  a  species  of 
Ox  different  from  the  Aurochs,  in  the  superficial  beds  of  certain  dis- 
tricta  This  Chmer  was  of  opinion  must  haye  been  the  true  Urns  of 
the  aocients,  the  original  of  our  domestic  Ox,  the  stock  perhaps  whence 
our  wild  cattle  descended.  Professor  Owen,  in  his  'British  FossQ 
Mammals,'  has  fully  established  the  distinction  between  the  Aurochs 
and  the  Qreat  Fossil  Ox,  the  Urui  of  the  andents,  but  he  has  shown 
that  it  is  impossible  that  any  of  our  forms  of  oxen  or  wild  cattle 
should  have  been  descended  from  this  species  which  is  now  extinct. 
[Boyidjl]  The  hecui  giyen  below  is  figured  by  Cuvier  as  of  doubtful 
character,  but  if  compared  with  the  skull  of  the  Aurochs  there  can  be 
little  doubt  of  its  identity. 


Sknll  of  ■opposed  FomU  Aorodha,  front  view. 


Profile  of  the  same. 


The  remains  of  the  Aurochs  have  been  found  abundantly  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  been  described  by  Fai^as,  Cuvier,  and 
H.  von  Meyer.  Some  of  these  carry  the  antiquity  of  this  animal  as 
far  back  as  the  period  of  the  extinct  pachyderms  of  the  newer  Pliocene 
deposits.  On  comparing  these  with  recent  specimens  of  the  Aurochs 
from  the  Lithuanian  forests,  they  are  found  to  be  generally  of  lai^r 
siie,  to  have  longer  and  somewhat  less  bent  horns,  but  they  present 
no  satisfactoiT  specific  distinction. 

That  the  Aurochs  existed  formerly  in  Qreat  Britain  is  attested 
from  the  discovery  of  remains  of  the  cranium  and  horn-cores  from 
various  newer  Tertiary  Fresh-Water  deposits,  especially  in  the  counties 
of  Kent  and  Essex  along  the  borders  of  the  Thames.  In  the  hall  of 
the  Qeologioal  Society  of  London  is  a  cranium  witb  horn-cores, 
obtained  by  Mr.  Warburton  from  the  Fresh-Water  Tertiary  deposits 
of  Walton  in  Essex.  A  broken  skull  was  also  discovered  by  Mr.  H. 
£.  Strickland,  in  the  Fresh-Water  Drift  at  Cropthome,  Worcestershire. 
Professor  Phillips,  in  his  'Qeology  of  Yorkshire,'  records  the 
discovery  of  the  skull  with  the  cores  of  the  horns  and  the  teeth  at 
Beilbecks,  in  Yorkshire.  It  was  accompanied  with  the  remains  of 
fresh-water  MoUuaca  and  of  the  Mammoth,  Rhinoceros,  a  species  of 
Felit,  a  liuge  Horse,  a  large  Deer,  Wolf,  &a  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  the  entire  skeleton  of  the  same  individual  has  not  hitherto  been 
discovered,  in  order  that  a  comparison  of  the  number  of  ribs  between 
this  elder  Bison,  and  the  European  and  American  Bisons  of  the  present 
day  might  be  made. 

The  European  Bison,  as  found  at  the  present  day,  has  a  very  broad 
head  and  arched  forehead.  The  eyes  are  large  and  dark ;  the  hair  on 
the  forehead  is  long  and  wavy,  and  under  the  chin  and  breast  it  forms 
a  kind  of  beard.  In  tiie  wmter  the  wholo  of  the  neck,  hump,  and 
shoulders  are  covered  with  a  long  dusky-brown  hair,  intermmgled 
with  a  soft  fiir.  The  long  hair  is  cast  in  the  summer  and  renewed  in 
the  winter.  The  tail  is  of  moderate  length,  covered  with  hair,  and  is 
terminated  in  a  large  tufL  The  females  are  not  so  lai^ge  as  the  males, 
and  have  not  so  much  hair  on  their  bodies. 

The  districts  in  which  this  J^nin^Al  jb  now  found  living  are  compara- 
tively limited,  as  it  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  forests  of  Lithuania, 
Moldavia,  Wallachia,  and  some  parts  of  the  Caucasus.  These  animals 
have  never  been  domesticated,  but  herds  of  them  are  protected  in 
certain  localities  in  the  forest  of  Bialowieza  in  Lithuania,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia.  There  are  twelve  herds  thus 
kept,  each  herd  being  under  the  superintendence  of  one  herdsman. 
The  estimated  number  of  all  the  herds  is  800.  They  feed  on  man 
and  brushwood,  and  the  bsjrk  of  young  trees,  especudly  the  wmow, 
poplar,  ash,  and  birch.  They  do  not  attain  their  fiHll  stature  till  their 
sixth  year.  They  are  very  diy,  and  can  only  be  approached  from  the 
leeward,  as  their  smell  is  exceedingly  acute.  When  accidentally 
fallen  in  with  they  become  furious,  and  passionately  assail  the  intruder. 
^^ffhm  taken  young  they  become  accustomed  to  their  keeper,  but  the 
Approach  of  oUier  persons  excites  their  anger.  Two  young  specimens 
were  presented  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  by  the  Emperor 
of  Russia.    Although  it  had  been  stated  that  the  Aurochs  had  a 


natural  enmity  to  domestic  cattie,  and  that  the  young  obstinately 
refiised  to  be  suckled  by  the  domestic  oow,  the  calves  sent  by  the 
Emperor  were  suckled  by. a  cow  in  the  Regent's  Park  Gardens,  an^ 
becune  very  speedily  attached  to  tiieir  foster-mother.   These  creatures 
unfortunately  died  a  few  months  after  they  had  been  brought  to  this 
country.    A  very  fine  specimen  was  presented  to  the  BritLui  Museum 
by  tiie  Emperor  of  Russia,  which  is  now  to  be  seen  stuffed  in  the  col- 
lection.   Tne  dimensions  of  this  animal  are  as  follows  : — 

Ft.   In. 
Length  fW>m  the  nose  to  the  insertion  of  the  tail  .    0    10 
Height  at  the  withers        .        .        .        .        ..56 

Height  at  the  rump       .        .        .        .        .        .    4     11 

Length  of  head .18 

Length  of  tail        . 8      0 

American  BUon. 
We  have  seen  that  the  European  Bison  has  fourteen  pairs  of  ribs, 
while  the  conmion  Ox  has  but  thirteen.  The  specific  difference  of  the 
American  Bison  is  marked  by  its  having  fifteen  ribs  on  each  side. 
Thus,  in  the  Bisons,  the  supplementary  ribs  spring  from  the  anterior 
lumbar  vertebrae,  or  rather  from  vertebrae  which  are  lumbar  as  far  as 
regards  their  situation,  but  dorsal  when  considered  in  relation  to  their 
functions.  The  contour  of  the  skull  has  much  in  conmion  with  that 
of  the  Ehiropean  species,  but  its  development,  and  indeed  that  of  the 
whole  frame,  is  much  inferior  in  the  female.  Beneath  is  represented 
the  skull  of  a  young  female  American  Bison, — 


Skull  of  young  female  American 
Bison,  Aront  ylew. 


Proaie  of  the 
same. 


and  we  shall  at  once  see  how  tame  and  weak  its  chiselling  is  whan 
compared  with  that  of  the  old  male. 

\ 


Skull  of  old  male  American  Bison,  firont  riew. 


Profile  of  the  same. 


The  American  Bison  has  many  points  of  similarity  with  the  Aurocha. 
In  both  we  have  the  huge  head  and  the  lengthened  spinal  procetses 
of  the  dorsal  vertebrw  for  the  attachment  of  the  brawny  musdee  that 
support  and  wield  it.  In  both  we  have  the  conical  hump  between 
the  shoulders  in  consequence,  and  the  shaggy  mane  in  all  seasons ; 
and  each  presents  a  model  of  brute  force,  formed  to  push  and  throw 
down.  ,       .  ,     . 

This  is  the  Taurus  Mexieanus  of  Hemandes,  who  gives  a  woodcut 
of  the  beast,  but  not  a  good  one ;  the  Taureau  Sauvage  of  Hennepu^ 
who  also  gives  a  figure  of  it,  not  better  than  that  of  Hemande^  and 
probably  a  copy  from  it ;  the  Buffalo  of  Lawson,  Catesby,  &a,  of  the 
Hudson^s  Bay  traders,  and  of  the  Anglo-Amerioans  generaUy;  the 
Bison  of  Ray  and  Pennant;  Bot  AmerieaiMU  of  Gmelin;  Ajnencan 
Wild  Ox  or  Bison  of  Warden;  Peeoheek  of  the  Algonqum  Indiana; 
Moostoosh  of  the  Crees;  and  Adgiddah  of  the  Chippewayans,  aocordmg 
to  Sir  John  Richardson.  ,  ,    .,  ^ 

Pennant  says,  "  In  America  these  animals  are  found  in  the  oountnei 


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BISON. 


600  miles  we>t  of  Hudson's  Bay ;  this  is  their  most  northern  residenoe. 
From  thenoe  thej  are  met  witb  in  great  droves  as  low  as  Cibole 
(on  the  authority  of  Purohas)  in  lat  38%  a  little  north  of  California^ 
and  also  in  the  proTince  of  Mivera  in  New  Mexico.    The  species 


Amerioan  Biaon  {BUon  Amwrieamu),  Females.    A  BuU  inthe  diatance. 


Amerioan  Biaon  {Bi90H  .JiaHaamia),  a  Boll. 

instantly  ceases  south  of  those  countries.  They  inhabit  Canada  to  the 
west  of  the  lakes ;  and  in  greater  abundance  in  the  rich  savannahs 
which  border  the  river  Mississippi  and  the  great  rivers  which  fall  into 
it  from  the  west,  in  Upper  Louisiana.  There  they  are  seen  in 
herds  innumerable,  promiscuously  with  multitudes  of  stags  and  deer 
during  morning  and  evening;  retiring  in  the  sultry  heats  into  the 
shade  of  tall  reeds  which  border  the  riven  of  America." 

Joseph  Sabine,  in  the  Appendix  to  '  Franklin's  Narrative/  says  that 
they  are  abundant  in  all  parts  of  North  America,  wherever  the  pro- 
gress of  cultivation  has  not  interfered  with  their  range,  and  that  Uiey 
are  extremely  numerous  on  the  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan  River. 
They  are  also  found,  he  observes,  though  less  plentifully,  in  the  woods 
as  far  north  as  Great  Slave  Lake.  The  most  northern  situation  in 
which  they  were  observed  by  Sir  John  Franklin's  party  was  Slave 
Pointy  on  the  north  side  of  the  lake.  In  the  same  work  it  is  stated 
that  the  natives  say  that  the  Wood  Buffaloes,  as  they  are  called,  are 
laiger  than  those  of  the  plains,  but  the  difference  is  not  material. 

Sir  John  Richardson,  in  his  '  Fauna  Boreali- Americana,'  gives  the 
following  compendious  history  of  the  geographical  range  of  the 
American  Bison : — "At  the  period  when  Europeans  began  to  form 
settlements  in  North  America,  this  animal  was  occasionaiUy  met  with 
on  the  Atlantic  coast ;  but  even  then  it  appears  to  have  been  rare  to 
the  eastward  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  for  Lawson  has  thought 
it  to  be  a  fact  worth  recording,  that  two  were  killed  in  one  season  on 
Cape  Fear  River.  As  early  as  the  first  discovery  of  Canada,  it  was 
unknown  in  that  oountry,  and  no  mention  of  it  whatever  occurs  in 


BISON.  48B 

the  '  Voyages  du  Sieur  de  Champlain  Xaintongeois,'  nor  in  the '  Nora 
Fran9ia  of  De  Monts,  who  obtained  the  first  monopoly  of  the  far- 
trade.  Theodat)  whose  '  History  of  Canada '  was  published  in  1636, 
merely  says  that  he  was  informed  that  buUs  existed  in  the  remote 
western  countries.  Warden  mentions  that  at  no  very  distant  date 
herds  of  them  existed  in  the  western  parts  of  PennsylYUUSt  sod  that 
as  late  as  the  year  1766  they  were  pretty  numerous  in  Kentucky;  but 
they  have  gradually  retired  before  the  white  population,  and  are  now, 
he  says,  rarely  seen  to  the  south  of  the  Ohio,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Mississippi  They  still  exist,  however,  in  vast  numbers  in  Louisiana, 
roaming  in  countless  herds  over  the  prairies  that  are  watered  by  the 
Arkansas,  Platte,  Missouri,  and  upper  branches  of  the  Saskatchewan 
and  Peace  rivers.  Great  Slave  Lake,  in  lat.  60",  was  at  one  time  the 
northern  boimdary  of  their  range  ;  but  of  late  years,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  the  natives,  they  have  taken  possession  of  the  flat  lime* 
stone  district  of  Slave  Point,  on  the  north  side  of  that  lake,  and  hare 
wandered  to  the  vicinity  of  Qreat  Marten  Lake,  in  lat.  63**  or  64°.  As 
far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  the  limestone  and  sandstone 
formations  lying  between  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  ridge  and  the 
lower  eastern  chain  of  primitive  rocks,  are  the  only  districts  in  the 
fur  countries  that  are  frequented  by  the  bison.  In  these  comparatively 
level  tracts  there  is  much  prairie  land,  on  which  they  find  good  grass 
in  the  summer,  and  also  many  n;^arshes  ovei^grown  with  bulnishesand 
carices,*  which  supply  them  with  winter  food.  Salt-springs  and  lakes 
also  abound  on  the  confines  of  the  limestone,  and  there  are  seTeral 
well-known  salt-licks  where  bisons  are  sure  to  be  found  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year.  They  do  not  frequent  any  of  the  districts  formed  of 
primitive  rocks,  and  the  limits  of  their  range  to  the  eastward,  within 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  territories,  may  be  nearly  correctly  marked 
on  the  map  by  a  line  commencing  in  long.  97**  on  the  Red  River,  which 
flows  into  the  south  end  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  crossing  the  Saskatchewan 
to  the  westward  of  Basquiau  Hill,  and  running  from  thence  by  the 
Athapescow  to  the  east  end  of  Qreat  Slave  Lake.  Their  migrations  to 
the  westward  were  formerly  limited  by  the  Rocky  Mountain  range, 
and  they  are  still  unknown  in  New  Caledonia  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific  to  the  north  of  the  Columbia  River,  but  of  late  years  they  have 
found  out  a  passage  across  the  mountains,  near  the  sources  of  the 
Saskatchewan,  and  their  numbers  to  the  westward  are  said  to  be 
annually  increasing.  In  1806,  when  Lewis  and  Clarke  crossed  the 
mountains  at  the  head  of  the  Missouri,  bison-skins  were  an  important 
article  of  traffic  between  the  inhabitants  on  the  east  side  and  the 
natives  to  the  westward.  Farther  to  the  southward,  in  New  Mexico 
and  California,  the  bison  appears  to  be  numerous  on  both  sides  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  chain." 

The  districts  of  America  which  these  animals  inhabit  are  described 
very  graphically  in  Washington  Irving's  *  Tour  on  the  Prairies.* 

The  American  male  Bison,  when  at  its  full  size,  is  said  to  weigh 
2000  lbs.,  though  12  or  14  cwt.  is  considered  a  good  weight  in  the  fur 
countiies.  Sir  John  Richardson  gives  8^  feet  as  its  length,  exclusive 
of  the  tail,  which  is  20  inches,  and  upwards  of  6  feet  as  its  height  at 
the  fore  quarters.  The  head  is  very  large,  and  carried  low ;  the  eyes 
tire  small,  black,  and  piercing ;  the  horns  are  short,  small,  sharp,  set 
fiu-  apart,  for  the  forehead  is  very  broad,  and  directed  outwards  and 
backwards,  so  as  to  be  nearly  erect^  with  a  slight  curve  towards  the 
outward-pointing  tips.  The  hump  is  not  a  mere  lump  of  fatty  secre- 
tion, like  that  of  the  sebu,  but  consists,  exclusive  of  a  deposit  of  fat 
which  varies  much  in  quantity,  of  the  strong  muscles  attached  to  the 
highly-developed  spinous  processes  of  the  last  cervical  and  first  dorsal 
vertebrae,  forming  fit  machinery  for  the  support  and  movement  of 
the  enormous  head.  The  chest  is  broad,  and  Uie  legs  are  strong ;  the 
hind  parts  are  narrow,  and  have  a  comparativelv  weak  appearance. 
The  tail  is  clothed  with  short  fur-like  hair,  with  a  long,  straight, 
coarse,  blackish-brown  tuft  at  the  end.  In  winter  the  whole  body  in 
covered  with  long  shagged  hair,  whidi  in  summer  falls  o£^  leaving 
the  blackish  wrinkled  skin  exposed,  except  on  the  forehead,  hump, 
fore  quarters,  imder-jaw,  and  throa^  where  the  hair  is  veir  long  and 
shaggy,  and  mixed  with  much  wooL  Catesby  observes  uat  on  the 
forehead  of  a  buU  the  hair  is  a  foot  long,  thick,  and  frixded,  and  of  a 
dusky  black  colour ;  that  the  length  of  this  hair  hanging  over  their 
eyes  impedes  their  fiight,  and  is  f^uentlv  the  cause  of  their 
destruction ;  but  that  this  obstruction  of  sight  is  in  some  measure 
supplied  by  their  good  noses,  which  are  no  stkiall  safeguanl  to  them. 
A  bull,  says  he,  in  summer,  with  his  body  bare  and  his  head  mu£9ed 
with  long  hair,  makes  a  very  formidable  appearance.  In  smnmer  the 
general  colour  of  the  hair  is  between  dark-umber  and  liver-brown,  and 
lustrous.  The  tips  of  the  hair  as  it  lengiJiens  in  winter  are  paler, 
and  before  it  is  died  in  summer  mudi  of  it  becomes  of  a  pale  dull 
yellowish-brown.  In  the  female  the  head  is  smaller,  and  the  hair  on 
the  fore  parts  is  not  so  long  as  it  is  in  the  mala 

Congregating  in  vast  herds,  these  animals  are  said  to  cover  the 
wide-extended  savannahs  of  the  more  southern  districts  of  the  north 
for  miles  in  extent  "  Such  was  the  multitude,"  say  Lewis  and  Clarke, 
speaking  of  an  assemblage  of  Bisons  as  they  crossed  the  water,  ''that 
although  the  river,  including  an  island  over  which  they  passed,  was  a 
mile  in  length,  the  herd  stretched  as  thick  as  they  could  swim  com- 
pletely from  one  side  to  the  other."  The-same  travellers,  speaking  of 
•  Oarex  is  the  name  of  a  genua  of  Ojfperaectt^  a  family  of  planta  nearly  alHed 
to  the  Orasaes. 


Digitized  by 


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480 


BISON. 


BISON. 


another  of  these  grand  spectacles,  say — "  If  it  be  not  impossible  to 
calculate  the  moving  multitude  wluch  darkened  the  whole  plains,  we 
are  oonvinced  ihat  20,000  would  be  no  exaggerated  number."  Catesby, 
after  stating  that  they  range  in  droves,  feeding  on  the  open  savannahs 
morning  and  evening,  says  that  in  the  sultiy  time  of  the  day  they 
retire  to  shady  rivulets  and  streams  of  clear  water  gliding  through 
thickets  of  tail  canes.  Dr.  James  had  an  opportunity  of  observing 
them  on  such  oocasions,  and  he  thus  describes  their  march : — **  In  the 
middle  of  the  day  countless  thousands  of  them  were  seen  coming  in 
from  eveiy  quarter  to  the  stagnant  pools ;"  and  in  another  place  he 
says  that  their  paths  are  as  frequent  and  almost  as  conspicuous  as 
the  roads  in  the  most  populous  parts  of  the  United  States. 

The  Bisons,  in  truth,  are  a  wandering  race,  the  motives  of  their 
restlessness  being  either  disturbance  by  hunters  or  change  of  pasture. 
After  the  fire  has  cleared  the  prairie  of  all  the  old  herbage,  the  deli- 
cately tender  grass  which  springs  up  in  the  room  of  the  old  wiry 
bents  that  fed  the  flame  offers  the  most  grateful  food  to  the  migratory 
Bisons:  such  spots  are  well  known  to  the  hunter  as  pomts  of 
attraction  to  these  animals.  In  the  winter,  when  the  snow  lies  deep 
over  the  vegetation,  they  scrape  it  away  with  their  feet  to  get  at  the 
grass. 

Fierce  and  terrible  are  the  fights  among  the  bulls  in  the  rutting 
season,  and  perilous  la  the  condition  of  the  man  who  then  approaches 
them.  For  the  greatest  part  of  the  year  the  bulls  and  cows  live  in 
separate  herds,  but  at  all  seasons,  according  to  Sir  John  Richardson, 
one  or  two  old  buUs  generally  accompany  a  large  herd  of  cows. 

These  powerful  beasts  are  in  general  shy,  and  fly  from  the  face  of 
man  till  they  are  wounded ;  the^r  then  become  furious,  and  pursue 
their  enemy  with  the  most  vindictive  spirit,  as  we  shall  presently  seo ; 
but  we  must  first  say  a  word  or  two  on  some  of  the  different  modes 
of  hunting  them.  Du  Pratz  and  Charlevoix  give  several  particulars 
of  the  chMe  of  these  animals  by  the  Indians.  If  the  rifle  be  used  the 
hunter  ijb  careful  to  go  against  the  wind,  for  the  sense  of  smelling  is 
so  exquisite  in  the  Bison  that  it  wiU  otherwise  get  scent  of  him,  and 
precipitately  retire.  If  he  gets  within  rifle-distance  he  is  carefUl  so  to 
take  his  aim  that  the  beast  may  drop  at  once,  and  not  be  irritated  by 
an  ineffectual  wound. 

But  the  great  himting  is,  or  rather  was,  somewhat  after  the  caanner 
of  the  Scottish  'tinoheL'  A  great  number  of  men  divide  uad  form  a 
vast  square.  Each  band  sets  fire  to  the  dry  grass  of  the  savannah 
where  the  herds  are  feeding.  When  the  affirighted  beasts  perceive  the 
fire  approaching  on  all  sides  they  retire  in  confusion  to  the  centre  of 
the  square,  where  the  bands  close  upon  them  and  kill  them,  as  they 
are  huddled  together  in  heaps,  without  hazard :  1500  or  2000  beeves 
have  been  given  as  the  produce  of  such  an  expedition. 

Sir  John  Franklin,  in  his  account  of  his  tirst  voyage,  gives  us  the 
following  information.  After  stating  that  the  Stone  Indians  are  so 
expert  with  the  bow  and  arrow  that  they  can  strike  a  very  small  object 
at  a  considerable  distance,  and  shoot  with  sufficient  force  to  pierce 
through  the  body  of  a  buffiilo  when  near,  he  thus  describes  a  buflalo 
or  bison  pound  : — 

**  The  buffalo-pound  was  a  fenced  circular  space  of  about  100  yards 
in  diameter ;  the  entrance  was  banked  up  with  snow  to  a  sufficient 
height  to  prevent  the  retreat  of  the  animals  that  once  have  entered. 
For  about  a  mile  on  each  side  of  the  road  leading  to  the  pound,  stakes 
were  driven  into  \h»  grotmd  at  nearly  equal  distances  of  about  20 
yards ;  these  were  intended  to  represent  men,  and  to  deter  the  animals 
from  attempting  to  break  out  on  either  side.  Within  50  or  60  yards 
from  the  pound  branches  of  trees  were  placed  between  these  stakes  to 
screen  the  Indians,  who  lie  down  behind  them  to  await  the  approach 
of  the  buffido.  The  principal  dexterity  in  this  species  of  chase  is 
shown  by  the  horsemen,  who  have  to  manceuvre  round  the  herd  in 
the  plains  so  as  to  urge  them  to  enter  the  roadway,  which  is  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  broad.  When  this  has  been  accomplished  they  raise 
loud  shouts,  and,  pressing  close  upon  the  animals,  so  terrify  them  that 
they  rush  heedlessly  forward  towards  the  snare.  When  they  have 
advanced  as  far  as  the  men  who  are  lying  in  ambush,  thev  also  rise, 
and  increase  the  consternation  by  violent  shouting  and  firing  g^ns. 
The  afl&ighted  beasts  having  no  alternative  run  directly  to  the  pound, 
where  they  are  quickly  diispatched  either  with  an  arrow  or  gun. 
There  was  a  tr^  in  the  centre  of  the  pound  on  which  the  In<£an8 
had  hung  strips  of  buffido  flesh  and  pieces  of  cloth,  as  tributary  or 
grateful  ofbrings  to  the  Qreat  Master  of  life ;  and  we  were  told  that 
they  oGcasionallv  place  a  man  in  the  tree  to  sing  to  the  presiding 
roirit  as  the  bumJoes  are  advancing,  who  must  keep  his  station  imtU 
the  whole  tiiat  have  entered  are  killed." 

The  same  author  further  proceeds  as  follows : — "  Other  modes  of 
killing  the  bufBilo  are  praotiMd  by  the  Indians  with  success ;  of  these, 
the  hunting  them  on  horseback  requires  most  dexterity.  An  expert 
hunter,  when  well  mounted,  dashes  at  the  herd,  and  chooses  an  indi- 
vidual which  he  endeavoun  to  separate  from  the  rest.  If  he  succeeds 
he  contrives  to  keep  him  apart  by  the  proper  management  of  his 
hoTse,  though  going  at  fuU  speed.  Whenever  he  can  get  sufficiently 
near  for  a  boll  to  penetrate  the  beast's  hide  he  fires,  and  seldom  fiEuls 
of  bringing  the  animal  down ;  though  of  course  he  cannot  rest  the 
piece  against  the  shoulder  nor  take  a  deliberate  aim.  On  this  service 
the  hunter  is  often  exposed  to  considerable  danger  firom  the  &11  of  his 
horse  in  the  numerous  holes  which  the  badgers  make  in  these  plains, 


and  also  from  the  rage  of  the  bufhlo,  which,  when  closely  pressed^ 
often  turns  suddenly,  and,  rushing  furiously  on  the  horse,  frequently 
succeeds  in  woimdmg  it  or  dismounting  the  rider.  Whenever  tiie 
animal  shows  this  disposition,  which  the  experienced  hunter  will 
readily  perceive,  he  immediately  pulls  up  his  horse,  and  goes  off  in 
another  direction."  The  reader  will  find  some  animated  descriptions 
of  such  encounters  in  '  The  Tour  on  the  Prairies,'  before  alluded  to. 
A  great  deal  of  interesting  matter  on  the  habits  of  these  «»^imft1a  ^inll 
also  be  found  in  Catlin's  '  Letters  and  Notes  on  the  North  American 
Indians.' 

"  When  the  buffaloes  are  on  their  guard,"  as  Sir  John  Franklin 
observes,  "horses  cannot  be  used  in  approaching  them;  but  the 
htmter  dismounts  at  some  distance,  and  crawls  in  the  snow  towards 
the  herd,  pushing  his  gun  before  him.  If  the  buf&loes  happen  to 
look  towards  him,  he  stops,  and  keeps  quite  motionless,  until  their 
eyes  are  turned  in  another  direction ;  by  this  cautious  proceeding  a 
skilful  person  will  get  so  near  as  to  be  able  to  kill  two  or  three  out  of 
the  herd.  It  will  easily  be  imagined  this  service  cannot  be  very 
agreeable  when  the  thermometer  stands  80°  or  40^  below  zero,  as 
sometimes  happens  in  this  country." 

This  chase  of  the  bison  is  not  unattended  with  danger,  "  for,"  says 
Catesby,  "  when  wounded  they  are  very  furious,  which  cautions  the 
Indians  how  they  attack  them  in  open  savannahs,  where  no  trees  are 
to  screen  them  firom  their  fuiy.  Their  hoofs,  more  than  their  horns, 
are  their  offensive  weapons,  and  whatever  opposes  them  is  in  no  small 
danger  of  being  trampled  into  the  earth." 

Sir  John  Richardson,  in  his  '  Fauna  Boreali- Americana/  observes 
that  "the  bisons  are  less  wary  when  they  are  assembled  together  in 
numbers,  and  that  they  will  then  often  blindly  follow  their  leaden, 
regardless  of,  or  trampling  down,  the  hunters  posted  in  their  way." 
He  further  states  that^  though  the  gait  of  these  animals  may  appear 
heavy  and  awkward,  Uiey  will  have  no  great  difficulty  in  overtaking 
the  fleetest  runner,  and  gives  the  following  account  of  the  determined 
violence  with  whidi  a  wounded  Bison  assails  its  enemy  : — "  While  I 
resided  at  Corlton-House,"  writes  Sir  John  Richardson,  ''  an  accident 
of  this  kind  occurred.  Mr.  Finnan  M'Donald,  one  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company's  clerks,  was  descending  the  Saskatchewan  in  a  boat^ 
and  one  evening,  having  pitched  his  tent  for  the  night,  he  went  out 
in  the  dusk  to  look  for  game.  It  had  become  nearly  dEirk  when  he 
fired  at  a  bison  bull,  which  was  galloping  over  a  small  eminence,  and 
as  he  was  hastening  forward  to  see  if  his  shot  had  taken  effect,  the 
wounded  beast  made  a  rush  at  him.  He  had  the  presence  of  nund  to 
seize  the  animal  by  the  long  hair  on  its  forehead  as  it  struck  him  on 
the  side  with  its  horn,  and,  being  a  remarkably  tall  and  powerful  man, 
a  struggle  ensued,  which  continued  until  his  wrist  was  severely 
sprained,  and  his  arm  was  rendered  powerless ;  he  then  fell,  and  after 
receiving  two  or  three  blows  became  senseless.  Shortly  afterwards 
he  was  found  by  his  companions  lying  bathed  in  blood,  being  gored  in 
several  places,  and  the  bison  was  couched  beside  him,  apparently 
waiting  to  renew  the  attack  had  he  shown  any  signs  of  life.  Mr. 
M*Donald  recovered  from  the  immediate  effects  of  the  in^'uries  he 
received,  but  died  a  few  months  afterwards.  Many  other  instances 
might  be  mentioned  of  the  tenaciousness  with  wmch  this  animal 
pursues  its  revenge ;  and  I  have  been  told  of  a  hunter  having  been 
detained  for  many  hours  in  a  tree  by  an  old  bull  which  had  taken  its 
post  below  to  watch  him.  When  it  contends  with  a  dog,  it  strikes 
violent^  with  its  fore  feet^  and  in  that  way  proves  more  t£an  a  match 
for  an  English  bull-dog." 

The  same  writer  says  that  the  fiftvourite  Indian  method  of  killing 
the  Bison  Ib  by  riding  up  to  the  fattest  of  the  herd  on  horseback,  and 
shootinjg  it  with  an  arrow ;  and  he  speaks  of  the  imposing  spectacle 
which  is  afforded  when  a  lai^e  party  of  huntera  are  engaged  in  this 
way  on  an  extensive  plain,  and  of  the  skill  and  agility  displayed  by 
the  young  men  on  such  occasions.  The  horses,  it  appears,  seem  to 
enjoy  the  sport  as  much  as  their  riders,  and  are  very  active  in  eluding 
the  shock  of  the  animal  should  it  turn  on  its  purauer.  It  should  be 
remembered,  on  such  occasions,  that  when  tiie  Bison  runs  it  leans 
very  much  first  to  one  side  for  a  short  time,  and  then  to  the  other, 
and  so  on  alternately.  This  accoimt  is  confirmed  by  Catlin  in  the 
work  above  quoted. 

Sir  John  Richardson  also  confirms  Sir  John  Franklyn  in  the  assertion 
that  the  mo3it  generally  practised  plan  of  shooting  the  Bisons  is  by 
crawling  towards  them  from  the  leeward,  and  that  in  favourable  places 
great  numbere  are  taken  iu  pounds. 

Though  the  risk  of  the  chase  be  considerable  the  reward  is  great ; 
for  there  are  few  animals  that  minister  more  largely  to  the  wants  and 
even  to  the  comforts  of  man  than  the  American  Bison.  The  horns 
are  converted  into  powder-fiasks ;  the  hide,  which,  according  to 
Catesby,  is  too  heavy  for  the  strongest  man  to  lift  from  the  ground, 
is  very  valuable,  and  is  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  Purchas 
relates  that  in  old  times  the  Indians  made  the  best  ot  targets^  of  it ; 
and  Catesby  says  that  they  make  their  winter  moccassins  of  it  also, 
but  that,  being  too  heavy  for  clothing,  it  is  not  often  put  to  that  use. 
Sir  John  Richardson  informs  us  that  the  wool  has  been  manufactured 
in  England  into  a  remarkably  fine  and  beautiful  cloth ;  and  that  in 
the  colony  of  Osnaboyna,  on  the  Red  River,  a  warm  and  durable  ooanw 
cloth  is  formed  of  it.  Catlin  says  that "  tiiere  are  by  a  fair  calculation 
more  than  800,000  Indians  who  are  now  subsisting  on  the  flesh  of  the 


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BITTERN. 


buffaloea,  and  bj  these  ftniTnAlw  Bupplied  with  all  the  luxuries  of  lilb 
which  th^  desire,  as  they  know  of  none  others." 

"The  flesh  of  a  bison  in  good  condition,"  says  the  author  last 
quoted,  "  is  very  juicy  and  weU-flavoured,  much  resembling  that  of 
well-fed  bee£"  Others  describe  it  as  bearing  the  same  relation  to 
common  beef  that  Yenison  bears  to  mutton.  The  tongue^,  when  well 
cured,  is  said  to  surpass  that  of  the  common  ox  as  a  relish.  All 
concur  in  the  praises  of  the  delicious  hump,  rich,  savoury,  and  tender. 
This  is  the  fleshy  part  that  covers  the  long  spinous  processes  of  the 
anterior  dorsal  vertebno,  and  is  called  '  bos  *  by  the  Caxiadian  voyagers, 
and  'wig'  by  the  Orkney  men  in  the  service  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  according  to  Sur  John  Richardson,  who  says  that  much  of 
the  pemmican  used  by  the  voyagers  attached  to  the  fiir  companies  is 
made  of  bison  meat,  procured  at  their  posts  on  the  Red  River  and 
Saskatchewan :  he  adds,  that  one  bison  cow  in  good  condition 
furnishes  dried  meat  and  fat  enough  to  make  a  bag  of  pemmican 
weighing  90  lbs. 

The  taA  buUs  yield  a  great  quantity  of  tallow;  and  Du  Pratz 
records  that  150  lbs.  have  been  procured  from  a  single  beast. 
Pennant  says  that  these  over-fed  animals  usually  become  the  prey 
of  wolves,  for,  by  reason  of  their  great  unwieldiness,  they  cannot 
keep  up  with  the  herd;  and,  on  the  authority  of  Du  Pratz,  gives 
the  following  account  of  their  sagacity  in  defending  themselves 
against  the  attacks  of  their  fierce  persecutors  : — "  When  they  scent  the 
approach  of  a  drove  of  those  ravenous  creatures,  the  herd  fliugs  itself 
iuto  the  form  of  a  circle :  the  weakest  keep  in  the  middle,  the 
fitrongest  are  ranged  on  the  outside,  presenting  to  the  enemy  an 
impenetrable  front  of  horns :  should  they  be  taken  by  surprise,  and 
have  recourse  to  flight,  numbers  of  the  fattest  or  the  weakest  are  sure 
to  perish."  Sir  John  Richardson  however,  speaking  of  the  numerous 
wolves  on  the  sandy  plains  which,  lying  to  Uie  eastward  of  the  Rocky 
Mountainsi,  extend  from  the  sources  of  the  Peace  and  Saskatchewan 
rivers  towards  the  Missouri,  says  that  there  bands  of  them  hang  on 
the  skirts  of  the  buffalo  herds,  and  prey  upon  the  sick  and  straggling 
calves,  but  that  they  do  not»  under  ordinary  circumstances,  venture 
to  attack  the  full-grown  animaL  As  a  proof  of  this,  he  adds,  that  the 
hunters  informed  him  that  they  often  saw  wolves  walking  through  a 
herd  of  bulls  without  exciting  the  least  alarm,  and  that  the  marksmen, 
when  they  crawl  towards  a  bison  for  the  purpose  of  shooting  it,  occa- 
sionally  wear  a  cap  with  two  ears  in  imitation  of  the  head  of  a  wolf, 
knowing  from  experience  that  they  will  be  suffered  to  approach  nearer 
in  that  guise. 

The  Grisly  Bear  is  one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the 
American  Bison;  and  the  strongest  bull  goes  down  before  l^i"^ 
[Bkae.] 

The  Indian  is  too  wild  in  his  habits  to  submit  to  the  fetters  which 
an  attempt  to  domesticate  animals  would  impose  upon  his  liberty ;  a 
child  of  tne  wilderness,  he  depends  on  his  bow  or  lus  rifle  for  his  sub- 
sistence, and  wanders  free.  It  is  not  therefore  surprising  that  no 
attempt  should  have  been  made  by  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  to 
reduce  the  Bison  to  obedience.  Catesby  however  says  that  these 
animals  have  been  known  to  breed  with  tame  cattle  that  were  become 
wild,  but  that  the  calves  being  so  too  were  neglected,  "  and  though," 
he  continues,  "it  is  the  general  opinion  that  if  reclaiming  these 
animals  were  not  impracticable  (of  which  no  trial  has  been  made),  to 
mix  the  breed  with  tame  cattle  would  much  improve  the  breed,  yet 
nobody  has  had  the  curiosity  nor  have  given  themselves  any  trouble 
about  iV  Pennant  states  tliat  the  experiment  has  been  made,  and 
that  it  has  failed,  for  he  thus  writes  in  his  'Arctic  Zoology:' — 
**  Attempts  have  been  made  to  tame  and  domesticate  tiie  wild  bison, 
by  catching  the  calves  and  bringing  them  up  with  the  common  kind,  in 
hopes  of  improving  the  breed.  It  has  not  yet  been  found  to  answer : 
notwithstanding  tney  had  the  appearance  for  a  time  of  having  lost 
their  savage  nature,  yet  they  always  grew  impatient  of  restraint^  and, 
by  reason  of  their  great  strength,  would  break  down  the  strongest 
indosure^  and  entice  the  tame  cattle  into  the  corn-fields.  They  have 
been  known  to  engender  together  and  to  breed ;  but  I  cannot  learn 
whether  the  species  was  meliorated  by  the  intercourse." 

A  very  fine  American  Bison  bull  was  shown  some  years  agO  in  this 
countiyas  the  '  Bonassus,'  and  under  that  name  found  its  way  into  the 
epilogue  of  the  Westminster  Play  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  day. 
It  was  afterwards  purchased  by  the  Zoological  Society  of  London ; 
but  it  had  been  enfeebled  by  confinement  and  disease,  and  died  soon 
after  the  Society  became  possessed  of  it.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
supplied  its  place  by  presenting  a  young  cow  in  1829,  wmch  is  still 
alive  in  the  Qardens,  Regent's  Park  (July,  1853.) 

(Owen,  Britiih  Foatil  MommdU  and  Birdi  ;  Yasey,  DdvaeatiofM  of 
the  Ox-Tribe;  Cuvier,  Oeaemene FoeeOee ;  AuYnnie,Popuiarffietoryof 
Mammalia  ;  ProceedingM  of  Zoological  Society,)    [Set  Supplbmbht.] 

BrSTON,  a  genus  of  Moths,  belonging  to  the  fiumily  QwiMtrtdce. 
The  principal  distinguishing  characters  of  this  genus  are  as  follows : — 
Palpi  short  and  three-jointed;  antenna  rather  long,  and  distinctly 
pectinated  in  the  males,  each  joint  being  furnished  with  a  ciliated 
branchy  and  these  branches  longest  on  the  central  joints  (in  the  females 
these  Inrandies  are  wanting,  or  nearly  so) ;  body  tnick ;  wings  present 
in  both  sexesy  not  very  thicldy  ooverad  with  soiles,  and  hence  slightly 
trmnsparent^  especially  in  the  females.  The  larva  has  ten  l^gs,  and  is 
elongate,  cylindrioal,  and  tuberculated,  and  has  the  head  more  or  less 


notched  in  fh>nt ;  it  assumes  the  pupa  state  underground  at  the  xooti 
of  trees. 

There  appears  to  be  an  analogical  resemblance  between  these  moths 
and  the  NotodorUidce,  their  larvsa  showing  that  they  are  not  other- 
wise allied.  The  imago  state  of  the  species  however  may  be  dia- 
tinguisbed  by  the  different  texture  of  the  wings^  and  stmcture  of  the 
anteniuB. 

Three  species  of  this  genus  have  been  discovered  in  this  ooontiT  :— 
Bitton  prodronuaria,  the  Oak-Beauty;  B.  belulmriue,  the  Pepper-Hoth; 
and  B,  Airtarncf,  the  Brindled  Beauty.  The  first  of  these  has  the 
antenna  bipectinated  to  the  apex,  and  the  last  two  have  the  antemse 
simple  at  the  apex  in  the  males. 

A  prodromaria  has  the  wings  of  an  aah-colonr,  or  approaching  to 
white,  finely  sprinkled  with  black :  each  of  the  upper  wings  has  two 
transverse  bent  fasciss  of  a  brown  colour,  more  or  less  maigined  irith 
black,  and  the  under  wings  have  one  fBuscia  of  the  same  descriptioiL 
When  the  wings  are  expanded  it  measures  from  an  inch  and  a  half  to 
two  inches  in  width. 

The  caterpillar  feeds  upon  the  oak,  poplar,  &c.  The  moth  is  rue, 
but  is  found  in  the  month  of  March  in  tne  trunks  of  oak  iarees  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  London,  and  elsewhere. 

B.  betularitu  has  received  the  name  of  Pepper-Moth  from  its  beiiig 
of  a  white  colour,  and,  as  it  were,  peppered  with  black  ahnoit 
xmiformly  over  the  wings. 

This  moth  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  last,  and  is  not  unoomm<fii 
in  the  month  of  June  in  woods  near  London,  and  iu  other  parts.  In 
caterpillar  feeds  upon  the  oak,  willow,  poplar,  elm,  &,c 

B.  hiriariue  is  of  a  brown  colour,  dotted  with  gray,  with  three  or 
four  transverse  black  bent  lines  on  each  wing,  and  a  whitish  fiwoa 
near  the  hinder  margia  It  is  common  among  poplar  and  lime-trres 
and  is  about  an  inch  and  three-quarters  in  expanse.  In  the  femaica 
the  wings  have  a  greenish  hue. 

BISTORT.     rPOLYOONUM.] 

BITTER-BLAIN.    (Tandellia.J 

BITTER-CRESS.    [Cabdamine.] 

BITTER-SPAR,  a  name  given  to  Magnesian  Limestone.  [Dolomite.] 

BITTER-SWEET.    [Solanum.] 

BITTER-WOOD.    [Xylopia.1 

BITTERK,  Botoivnu  (Brisson),  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the 
family  of  Herons,  or  ArdtlidcR.  The  following  are  the  chsractan 
which  principally  distinguish  the  Bitterns  from  the  rest  of  the 
family : — ^Bill  strong,  about  as  long  as  the  head,  compressed,  and 
higher  than  it  is  broad ;  mandibles  equal  in  length,  the  umier  bong 
rather  the  deepest,  and  slightly  curved  from  the  base  to  the  point; 
edges  of  both  maxidibles  somewhat  incurved,  vexy  sharp,  and  finely 
serrated  toward  the  point.  Logs,  as  compared  with  those  of  othen 
of  the  family,  rather  snort.  Kedc  also  comparatively  shorty  covered 
on  its  sides  and  front  with  long  loose  feathers  which  can  be  erected  at 
pleasure,  and  on  the  back  (of  the  neck)  with  down,  the  long  loose 
feathers  of  the  side  meeting  behind,  and  covering  the  downy  part  in 
certain  attitudes,  as,  for  example,  when  the  bird  passes  throng^  the 
reeds  and  rushes. 

The  Bitterns  comprehended  under  the  Prince  of  Canine's  subgoDua 
Botavrut  are  widely  diffused,  but  being  solitary  birds,  haunting  wooded 
swamps  or  reedv  marshes,  where  they  generally  lie  hid  all  day,  and 
coming  forth  to  feed  at  nighty  they  are  seldom  seen.  There  are  several 
species  of  this  subgenus,  and  of  these  the  Night  Heron  or  Qoa* 
Bird  {Ardea  NycUcorax^  Linnaeus,  Nyctieorax  Buropaue,  Stephens)  k 
found  both  in  tiie  Old  and  New  World.    [Ntcticoraz.] 

As  an  example  of  the  subgenus,  the  Common  l^ttem  or  IKtioor 
(BoUmnu  i8SfeUaru,.Steph.,  Ardea  SteUaris,  Linn.,  Ucodlo  Lepra  and 
Trombutto  of  the  Italians,  Rohrtrommel  of  the  Qermans,  and  Boter 
of  the  French)  may  be  taken.  The  provincial  Kngliwh  names  of  Mxre- 
Drum,  Bull  of  the  Bog^  &a,  will  occur  to  many  of  our  readen  as  beJog 
indicative,  in  common  with  some  of  the  foreign  ones,  of  the  beUowing 
or  drumming  noise  for  which  the  bird  is  so  famous.  This  deep  soke 
of  the  '  hollow-sounding  bittern '  is  exerted  on  the  ground  as  the 
breeding  season,  about  I'ebruaiy  or  March.  As  the  day  deeUnai  h» 
leaves  his  haunt,  and  rising  spirally  soars  to  a  great  hea^t  in  the 
twilight.  Willughb^  says  that  it  performs  this  last-mantioined  feat  in 
the  autumn,  "making  a  "i^pilw  kind  of  noise  nothing  like  to 
lowing."  Bewick  says  that  it  soars  as  above  described  when  it  changes 
its  haunts.  Ordinarily  it  flies  heavilv,  like  the  heron,  uttering  fnn 
time  to  time  a  resounding  cry,  not  bellowing ;  and  then  WiUn^il?} 
who  well  describes  the  bellowing  noise  of  the  breeding-season, 
supposes  it  to  be  the  night-raven,  at  whose  '  deadly  voioe'  the  snpf- 
stitious  wayfarer  of  the  night  turned  pale  and  trembled.  "  lUs, 
without doubt^"  writes  Willug^by,  "is  that  bird  our  common  peopl* 
call  the  night-raven,  and  have  such  a  dread  oi,  imagining  its  07 
portends  no  less  than  their  death  or  the  deatii  of  some  of  their  near 
relatiozui;  for  it  flies  in  the  nighty  answers  their  description  of  bein^ 
like  a  flagging  collar,  and  hath  such  a  Idnd  of  hooping  ay  aa  tb«|r 
talk  of"  Others,  with  much  reason,  consider  the  Qua-Bird  abortt 
mentioned  (which  utters  a  loud  and  most  disagreeable  noise  iHiHe  oik. 
the  wing,  conveying  the  idea  of  the  agonies  of  a  person  attempting  to 
vomit),  to  be  the  true  night-raven. 

The  food  of  the  Bittern  consists  for  the  moat  part>  as  might  be 
suspected  from  its  haunts,  of  aquatic  «^"^"»*ia.    Pennant  laja  tha* 


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BITUMEN. 


frogs  are  its  prindpal  food,  adding,  "not  that  it  rejects  fish,  for  small 
trouta  hAve  been  taken  out  of  its  stomach." 

The  rude  nest  of  the  Bittern  is  generally  formed  of  reeds,  sticks, 
&C.,  on  some  'tump/  to  use  Montagu's  expression,  in  a  reedy  marsh 
or  well-clothed  ro&y  moor,  and  contains  four  or  five  pale  green  eggs. 
The  time  of  incubation  is  about  twenty-six  days. 

In  the  palmy  days  of  falconry  the  Bittern  afforded  the  best  of  spori 
We  find  it  mentioned  m  the  'flights  to  the  field,  called  great  flints.' 
"  There  is  yet,**  saya  Turbervile,  '*  another  kinde  of  flight  to  the  fielde, 
which  is  called  the  great  flight,  as  to  the  cranes,  wild  geese,  bustard, 
birde  of  Paradise,  bittors,  shovelars,  hearons,  and  many  other  such 
like."  Accordingly  we  find  it  protected  by  the  severe  penalties  of 
the  Stat.  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  11,  confirmed  by  stat.  8  and  4  Edw.  YL  a  7. 
One  yearns  imprisonment,  and  a  forfeiture  of  eightpence  for  each  egg, 
was  the  punishment  awarded  to  those  who  destroyed  or  took  away 
the  eggs  of  the  'bittour.'  When  the  hawk  had  'bound  with'  the 
bittern  and  brought  it  down,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  folconer  to  make 
in  apace  to  rescue  her,  by  plimging  the  bill  of  the  bittern  into  the 
ground,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  hawk;  for  when  wounded  the 
bittern  is  not  daunted,  but  lies  watching  his  opportunity  to  dart  his 
spear-like  bill  at  his  enemy  as  soon  as  he  comes  within  his  reach,  and 
as  he  generally  aims  at  the  eye,  he  should  be  approached  with  the 
greatest  caution.  The  modem  sportsman  should  beat  for  these  birds 
with  pointers  or  very  dose-hunting  spaniels ;  for  they  are  moved  with 
as  mudx  dif&culty  as  a  jack-snipe,  and,  like  that  bird,  will  often  lie  till 
tiiey  are  almost  trodden  on,  rather  than  take  wing. 

The  Bittern  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  it  is  the  'Aorcpfor  (^EptoBiSs),  of  Aristotie.  ('  Hist 
Anim.'  book  ix.  c.  xviii.)  In  the  same  chapter  its  sluggishness  and 
the  &ble  of  its  origin  m>m  slaves  metamorphosed  into  birds  are 
mentioned.  Aristotie  observes  further  that  the  ^i(  especially  strikes 
at  the  eyes ;  and  in  the  edition  of  Belon  (1557), '  enrichy  de  quatrains,' 
we  fijid  the  following  verse  below  the  figure  of  the  '  butor : ' — 

**  £n  tm  Bator  Pholx,  pour  ml  paresse 
Fat  par  les  dieux  changii  dlTinement. 
Un  paresseux  aussi  commonement 

Est  dit  Bator,  pour  son  peu  d'alcgresM.*' 

The  flesh  of  the  Bittern  was  formerly  in  high  esteem  (in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIIL  it  was  valued  at  a  shilling),  nor  is  it  despised  in  the 
present  day ;  when  well  fed,  its  flavour  somewhat  resembles  that  of 
the  hare,  nor  is  it  rank  and  fishy,  like  that  of  some  of  its  congeners. 
The  long  claw  of  the  hind  toe  is  much  prized  as  a  tooth-pick,  and  in 
the  olden  time  it  was  thought  to  have  the  property  of  preserving  the 
teeth. 

A  paragraph  in  the  last  edition  of  Pennant,  signed  J.  L.,  written 
probably  by  Latham,  states  that  this  bird  "  is  said  to  inhabit  the 
greater  part  of  Afirica ;  and  is  certainly  found  on  the  coast  of  Barbary, 


Common  Bittern  {Botaurus  itellaris), 

at  the  Gape  of  Good  Hope,  and  also  in  India  and  Ghina."  Selby 
observes  that  its  geographicad  distribution  "  seems  confined  to  Europe, 
extending  nearly  to  um  confines  of  Asia ; "  but  it  was  in  the  collection 
formed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Trebisond  by  Keith  E.  Abbott^  Esq., 


and  presented  to  the  Zoological  Society  by  that  gentieman.  Golonel 
Svkes  notes  it  as  rare  in  Dukkun  (Deocan),  and  Mr.  Gould  as  inha- 
biting the  three  continents  of  the  Old  World.  In  Ein^^d  indosure 
and  drainage  have  made  the  Bittern  a  very  scarce  bird,  and  its  capture 
is  no  longer  an  ordinary  event. 

In  size  the  Common  Bittern  is  less  than  the  Common  Heron,  being 
about  24  feet  in  lengUi.  The  bill  is  about  4  inches  long,  brown  above, 
greenish  below;  irides  yellow;  feathers  on  the  crown  black,  shot  with 
green,  those  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  neck,  and  breast  long  and 
loose;  general  colour  of  the  plumage  dull  pale  yellow,  variegated 
with  spots  and  bars  of  block ;  tail  short ;  legs  moderate,  pale-green ; 
toes  and  claws  long  and  slender,  middle  daw  serrated  on  the  inner 
edge,  most  probably  to  aid  it  in  securing  its  slippery  prey. 

B.  mintUus,  the  Littie  Bittern,  is  also  a  sunmier  inhabitant  of  Great 
Britain,  and  is  the  smallest  British  example  of  the  family  to  which  it 
belongs.  It  is  a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  the  south- 
western parts  of  Asia,  and  probably  of  Africa  generally.  It  has  been 
killed  as  far  north  as  Sweden.  It  is  found  occasionally  in  Germany, 
and  is  not  xmcommon  in  Holland,  and  occurs  in  France,  Provence, 
and  Italy. 

B.  lentiginotui,  the  American  Bittern,  is  not  quite  so  large  as  the 
Common  Bittern.  It  is  a  common  bird  in  America  from  Hudson's 
Bay  to  Carolina.  It  has  different  names  in  the  various  states,  such  as 
Indian  Billet,  Indian  Hen,  and  Dunkadoo.  In  its  habits  and  voice  it 
is  very  like  the  Common  Bittern.  It  has  been  shot  several  times  in 
Great  Britain ;  first  at  Piddleton,  in  Dorsetshire,  in  1804,  and  since 
then  in  several  other  parts  of  the  country. 

(Yarrell,  BritUh  Birds  ;  Thompson,  Bii^ds  of  Ireland,) 

BITU'MEN,  a  Latin  word  used  by  Tacitus,  Pliny,  and  other  Boman 
writers.  A  considerable  number  of  combustible  mineral  substances 
are  sometimes  arranged  under  the  head  of  Bitmnens ;  but  their  pro- 
perties vary  greatiy  in  some  respects,  as,  for  example,  with  regard  to 
solidity,  fluicUty,  and  colour.  The  term  Bitumen  is  however  usually 
applied  to  two  varieties,  namelv,  Atphaltwn  [Asphaltum],  and  a  softer 
kind  called  Elattic  Bitumenf  which  we  shall  now  describe. 

Elastic  Bitumen,  sometimes  called  Fossil  Caoutchouc,  is  a  rare 
mineral  product,  whidi  has  hitherto  been  found  in  three  places  only : 
Ist,  in  the  Odin  mine,  near  Castieton  in  Derbyshire,  in  a  Seconda]7 
Limestone,  accompanied  bv  asphaltum,  calcareous  spar,  fluor,  blende, 
galena,  and  pyrites ;  2nd,  m  a  coal-mine  of  Montrdais,  a  few  leagues 
from  Angers  in  France,  it  occurs  among  quartz  and  calcareous  crystals, 
in  the  veins  of  grit  of  the  Coal  Formation ;  Srd,  in  a  coal-mine  near 
South  Bury  in  Massachussets,  United  States. 

Elastic  Bitumen  possesses  the  following  characters : — It  is  brown,  or 
blackish  brown,  and  translucent  in  small  portions;  it  is  soft  and 
elastic  like  caoutchouc^  but  sometimes  it  is  as  hard  as  leather :  it  has 
the  property,  like  caoutchouc,  of  effacing  pencil-marks.  Its  density 
varies  from  0*9058  to  1*283.  It  fuses  readily,  and  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture it  takes  fire  and  bums  with  a  sooty  flune :  it  sometimes  leaves 
one-fifth  of  its  weight  of  ashes,  composed  chiefly  of  silica  and  per* 
oxide  of  iron.  If  the  Derbyshire  Elastic  Bitumen  be  subjected  to 
distillation,  it  yields  addulous  water  and  volatile  oil,  resembling  that 
of  naphtha  in  smell :  the  oil  is  neither  add  nor  alkaline,  slightiy 
soluble  in  alcohol,  but  readily  so  in  ether;  after  the  distillation  of  the 
water  and  oil,  a  brown  visdd  mass  remains  in  the  retort,  which  is 
insoluble  in  water  or  alcohol,  but  is  dissolved  by  ether  and  by  potash. 
If  the  distillation  be  longer  continued,  an  empyreumatic  oil  resembling 
that  of  amber  is  obtained,  and  a  black  shining  coal  remains. 

When  the  Elastic  Bitumen  of  Montrelais  is  similarly  treated,  there 
is  obtained  a  yellow  bitter  fetid  oil,  which  is  lighter  than  water  and 
insoluble  in  alcohol,  but  it  dissolves  in  the  alkalies. 

Elastic  Bitumen  sweUs  when  put  into  oil  of  turpentine  or  of  petro- 
leum ;  ether  and  oil  of  turpentine  when  boiling  extract  a  kind  of  soft 
resin  from  the  English  and  French  bitumen,  and  tiua  remains  after  the 
evaporation  of  the  solvent :  this  resin  is  of  a  brownish^ellow  colour, 
is  bitter  and  inelastic ;  its  weight  is  nearly  half  that  of  the  bitumen 
employed. 

It  is  but  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  readily  in  potash ;  it  is 
inflammable,  and  bums  with  a  smell  of  petroleum ;  that  portion  of 
the  bitumen  which  is  insoluble  in  the  ether  and  oil  of  turpentine,  is  a 
grayish  dry  mass,  resembling  paper;  it  bums  with  difficulty,  and 
carbonises ;  potash  dissolves  only  a  part  of  it  If  after  separating 
these  two  prindples  they  are  mixed  together,  the  bitumen  does  not 
regain  its  elasticity. 

Concentrated  sulphuric  add  does  not  act  upon  Elastic  Bitumen ; 
but  when  long  boiled  with  nitric  add  it  yidds  resin,  tannin,  and  a 
littie  nitroperic  add.  According  to  the  analysis  of  M.  Henry,  jun., 
the  Elastic  Bitumen  consists  of 


Carbon 
Hydrogen 
Nitrogen 
Oxygen    . 


English. 
52*250    . 

7-496    . 

0-154    . 
40*100    . 

French. 

.    58-260 

.      4-890 

0-104 

.    86-746 

100*000  100*000 

Beneelius  remariLB  that  the  diffiBrsnoe  in  the  quantity  of  hydrogen  in 
these  specimens  is  so  oonsiden^le,  that  it  is  suxpridng  their  propertisf 
are  not  more  disnmikr.    [Naphtha.] 


Digitized  by 


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495 


BIVALVE. 


fiLACK-CAP. 


496 


BIVALVE,  a  name  applied  to  thoee  forms  of  Shell-Fish  whioh  have 
two  shells  or  valves  in  contradistinction  to  those  which  have  one  sbell, 
and  which  are  called  (TiMoafoe.  [MoLLnscA.]  Before  the  structure  of  the 
Invertebrate  Animals  was  as  well  known  as  it  is  at  tiie  present  day,  the 
Barnacles  and  Sea  Acorns,  which  have  several  external  valves  or  shells, 
were  referred  to  the  MoUuteck,  under  the  name  of  MvJUvoalva, 

BIXA,  a  West  Indian  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  ti^e  natural  order 
Flacourtiaceoe.  It  produces  the  substance  called  Amotto.  The  only 
species  of  any  general  interest  in  the  genus  is  the  Bixa  Orellana,  a 
native  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  but  now  extremely  common  in 
the  Weft  Indies,  where  it  is  cultivated  in  rich  moist  soil  by  the  sides 
of  rivers. 


JBixa  (Jrellana, 
1 ,  A  flower  seen  from  beneath ;  2,  a  petal ;  S,  an  ovary  with  style  and  stigma ; 
4,  a  seed  cat  vertically,  showing  the  embryo ;  5,  a  ripe  fruit. 

This  plant  forms  a  small  tree  with  deep-green  shining  heart-shaped 
leaves,  and  clusters  of  purplish  flowers,  which  are  succeeded  by  capsules 
of  a  heart-shaped  form,  covered  with  stiffish  bristles,  and  opening 
into  two  valves  which  contain,  attached  to  their  middle,  a  number  of 
seeds  covered  with  a  soft,  sticky,  vermilion-coloured  rind.  It  is  the 
latter  which  furnishes  the  arnotto  of  commerce.  According  to  F<$e, 
this  substance  is  obtained  by  heaping  up  the  seeds  in  water  for  several 
weeks  or  months,  and  afterwards  pressing  them,  when  the  colouring 
matter  separates  and  is  afterwards  precipitated  ia  the  water.  Or  the 
pulp  is  separated  by  washing  and  maceration,  and  the  colouring  matter 
precipitated  by  the  aid  of  an  acid,  and  caught  upon  fine  sieves.  Inde- 
pendently of  the  use  of  amotto  for  staining  cheese  and  butter,  the 
Indians  paint  their  persons  with  it,  and  thus,  it  is  said,  destroy  the 
subcutaneous  vermin  with  which  they  are  infested.  It  acts  as  a 
purgative  taken  internally ;  but  its  reputed  powers  as  an  antidote  to 
the  poison  of  the  cassava  are  imaginary. 

BIXINE^,  a  natural  order  of  plants  named  after  the  genus  Bixck 
The  genus  Bixa  and  its  allies  are  now  placed  in  the  natural  order 
Flacovrtiacca'.    [Flacourtiacb^.] 

BLACKBERRY.     [Rubus.] 

BLACKBIRD,  the  English  name  for  the  well-known  native  songster, 
Mervla  vulgaris  of  Ray,  Turdus  Merula  of  Linnaeus,  the  Schwarz- 
Drossel  and  Schwarze-Amsel  of  the  Germans,  Merle  of  the  French, 
Herla  and  Merlo  of  the  Italians,  and  KSrrwpos  or  Kiacrvtpos  of  the 
ancient  Greeks. 

The  Blackbird  is  too  well  known  to  require  a  description,  but  a 
word  or  two  on  the  subject  of  its  habits  may  not  be  misplaced.  There 
are  not  wanting  those  who  praise  the  song-thrush  at  the  expense  of 
the  blackbird,  alleging  thaty  though  the  former  commits  depi-edation 
In  our  fruit-gardens  in  summer,  it  makes  amends  by  On  destruction  of 


the  shell-enails  (Hdix  atpena  and  If.  nemoralia) ;  whereas  the  blackbird 
is  a  most  notorious  fruit-eater,  without  any  such  redeeming  quality. 
That  the  thrush  does  this  service  is  most  true,  but  it  is  not  less  true 
that  the  blackbird  is  particularly  fond  of  the  sheU-snails,  whidi  it 
devours  in  the  same  way  as  the  thrush.  In  truth,  small  slugs  and 
shell-snails,  to  use  the  expression  of  a  garden  labourer,  form  "the 
chief  of  its  living,"  while  the  thrush  is  equally  fond  of  fniit  in  the 
seasoii ;  but  the  plumage  of  the  thrush  is  in  its  favour,  and  it  is  often 
pecking  away  at  the  fruit  without  being  seen.  When  disturbed  it 
glides  away  without  noise ;  but  the  blackbird's  sharp  cry  of  alam  as 
it  escapes  generally  strikes  the  ear,  if  its  black  coat  and  yellow  bill 
have  not  arrested  the  eye.  Thus  much  in  justice  to  the  blackbirdi, 
for  we  know  of  instances  where  a  war  of  extermination  has  been  waged 
against  them  while  tlie  thrushes  have  b^en  held  sacred. 

Eariy  in  the  spring  the  Blackbird  begins  to  build  its  nest.  A 
thick-set  hedge-row,  an  insulated  dose  bush,  a  low  ivied  tree,  are  all 
favourite  places.  Moss,  small  sticks,  root-fibres,  are  the  materiala, 
with  an  internal  coat  of  mud-plaster,  over  which  is  a  lining  of  fine 
dry  grass.  Four  or  five  eggs  of  a  bluish-green,  variegated  wiSi  darker 
markings,  are  here  deposited.  Aristotle  (book  v.  c.  18)  observes  that 
it  lays  twice,  and  Buffon  says  that  the  first  deposit  ranges  from  fire 
to  six  eggSy  but  the  second  only  from  four  to  five.  The  early  seuon 
at  which  it  begins  to  lay  is  often  so  cold  as  to  destroy  ^e  first  brood; 
moreover,  the  leafless  state  of  the  hedge  or  bush  at  that  period  makes 
the  np^  an  easy  prey  to  the  school-boy. 

The  Blackbird  is  in  general  shy,  but  there  are  exceptions  to  the 
remark,  as  is  proved  by  the  foUowing  statement.  In  the  spring 
of  1834  a  pair  of  blackbirds  built  then:  nest  in  a  faggot-pile  cloae 
to  the  door  of  a  kitchen-garden  in  the  parish  of  Sunbuiy, 
Middlesex,  where  the  garden-labourers  were  passing  all  day  long 
wheeling  manure  into  the  garden,  &a  The  nest  was  built  among 
some  dead  thorns,  there  piled  up,  so  low  that  the  passer-by  could  look 
into  it»  and  was  very  mudi  exposed ;  but  the  parents,  notwithstanding 
the  curiosity  of  spectators,  In^ught  up  their  nestlinga  This  was  a 
late  brood ;  and  as  many  early  nests  had  been  taken  in  the  neigh- 
bouring hedge-rows,  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  birds,  disappointed 
of  their  first  brood,  might  have  been  driven  to  choose  a  spot  nearer 
the  house  for  security. 

Albinos  sometimes  occur  among  these  birds.  Several  instances  are 
recorded :  the  following  is  from  *  Loudon's  Magazine'  (No.  48,  p.  596)  - 
"  In  1829  a  blackbird  s  nest,  containing  four  or  five  young  ones,  was 
found  at  Rougham,  near  Buiy  St.  Edmunds,  Suffolk  One  of  the 
youxijg  ones  differed  in  colour  materially  frt>m  the  rest  Its  eyes  were 
red,  its  bill  was  yellow  (which  is  not  usual  in  very  young  blackbirdg). 
The  nest  was  not  taken  till  the  young  were  fully  fledged.  On  attempt- 
ing to  capture  them,  two  or  three  made  their  escape ;  the  white  one 
was  safely  caught  The  red-eyed  bird  afterwards  became  nearly  or 
wholly  white,  and  it  still  retains  this  colour."  In  the  British  Museum 
there  is  a  female  of  a  dusky  white  or  cream-colour  with  Yorkshire  for 
its  locality.    Other  instances  are  recorded. 

Bechstein,  in  his  work  on  Cage-Birds,  says,  **  The  white  variety  is 
very  well  known ;  there  is  besides  Uie  stjnoaked,  the  black  with  a 
white  head,  and  the  pearl-gray."  The  same  author  gives  the  following 
account  of  the  musical  properties  of  the  Blackbird  in  confinement  :— 
"  Its  voice  is  so  strong  and  clear  that  in  a  city  it  may  be  heard  from 
one  end  of  a  long  street  to  the  other.  Its  memory  is  so  good  that  it 
retains  without  mixing  them  several  airs  at  once,  and  it  will  even 
repeat  little  sentencea  It  is  a  great  favourite  with  the  lovers  of  a 
plaintive,  clear,  and  musical  song,  and  may  in  these  respects  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  bullfinch,  whose  voice  is  softer,  more  flute-like,  but  also 
more  melancholy.  The  price  of  these  two  birds,  if  well  taught^  is 
about  the  same." 

Twrdus  torquatus  is  called  the  Ring-Blackbird.    [Tordus.] 
RLACE-BONNET,    one    of  the  names   of   the  Reed  Bunting. 

[ElEBSRIZA.1 

BLACK-CAP,  the  common  English  name  for  the  Black-Cap  WaiUer, 
Der  Monch  of  the  Germans,  Fauvette  h,  T6te  Noire  of  the  French, 
Caponera  Qentile  of  tlie  Italians,  Atricapilla  of  Aldrovandus,  Ovrrnca 
cUricapiUa  of  Brisson,  MotaciUa  atricapiUa  and  MotaciUa  moieAt/a 
of  Gmelin  (the  latter  being  the  female),  Sylvia  atricapilla  of  Latham 
and  of  Bechstein,  and  Ourruca  atricapiUa  of  Qould  ('Birds  of 
Europe ').    . 

"Of  aU  the  birds,"  says  Sweety  "that  reside  in  or  visit  the  British 
Islands  there  is  none  that  can  come  up  to  the  present  for  song  except 
the  nightingale,  and  by  some  persons  it  is  more  admired  than  even 
that  bird.  Its  arrival  in  this  country  is  generally  about  the  first  we« 
in  April,  and  the  earliest  that  I  ever  saw  was  on  the  26th  of  March. 
They  leave  us  again  about  the  end  of  September,  sometimes  a  strag- 
gling one  may  be  seen  at  the  beginning  of  October;  the  latest  I  ever 
saw  in  a  wild  state  was  on  the  15th  of  that  month.  When  it  first 
arrives  in  this  country  its  chief  food  is  the  early  ripened  hemes  of 
the  ivy,  and  where  those  are  there  the  blac^-caps  are  first  to  be  heard 
singing  their  melodious  and  varied  song.  By  the  time  the  ivy-bernes 
are  over  the  little  green  larvro  of  the  small  moths  will  be  gemng 
plentiful,  rolled  up  in  the  young  shoots  and  leaves ;  this  then  is  their 
chief  food  until  the  strawberries  and  cherries  become  ripe ;  after  that 
there  is  no  want  of  firuit  or  berries  till  their  return,  and  there  is  no 
sort  of  fruit  or  berry  that  is  eatable  or  wholesome  that  they  will 


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497 


BLACK-CAP. 


BLACK-COCK. 


refose.    After  they  have  cleared  the  elder-berries  in  autumn  they 
immediately  leave  ua." 

Nor  la  Sweet  singular  in  his  eulogy.    All  agree  in  praising  its 
melody.    In  Norfolk  and  in  other  places  in  Great  Britain  it  is  (^dled 


Black-Cap  {Curruea  atricapilla),  male. 

the  Mock  Nightingale,  and  indeed,  like  the  nightingale,  it  continues 
itB  Bong  far  into  the  night.  Bechstein,  -who  has  paid  so  much  attention 
to  the  song  of  birds,  says  that  it  rivals  the  nightingale,  and  that  many 
persons  even  give  it  the  preferenca  "  If,"  adds  that  author,  "  it  has 
lees  volume,  strength,  and  expression,  it  is  more  pure,  easy,  and  flute- 
like in  its  tones,  and  its  song  is  perhaps  more  varied,  smooth,  and 
delicate." 

This  fruit-eating  warbler  is  one  of  the  PictdvlcB  so  much  prized 
under  the  name  of  Beccafico,  though,  as  Bechstein  well  observes,  every 
taste  but  that  of  the  palate  must  be  destroyed  if  this  charming  bird 
18  caught  for  the  table.  [Beccafico.J  Its  fondness  for  ivy-berries 
seems  to  have  been  noticed  in  Italy,  where  it  is  permanent,  and  thence 
probably  is  derived  one  of  its  Italian  names,  Caponera  d'Edera.  The 
difference  of  plumage  in  the  males  and  females,  and  in  the  yoimg 
birds,  which  resemble  the  females,  may  possibly  throw  some  light  on 
the  opinion  which  Willughby  thus  mentions : — "  The  andents  report," 
writes Willughby,  "that  the  black-caps {AtricapUUE)  in  the  beginning 
of  autunm  are  changed  into  Ficedulse  and  Beccaficos  by  the  mutation 
of  their  voice  and  colour ;  from  whom,  tilll  be  assured  by  experience, 
I  must  crave  leave  to  dissent." 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Willughby  had  in  his  mind  that 
passage  in  the  49th  chapter  of  the  9th  book  of  Aristotle  where  the 
latter,  speaking  of  the  changes  of  birds,  states  that  the  Beccaficos 
(2McaXl8«$)  and  the  Black-Caps  {M9\aryK6pv(f>oi)  are  changed  into  each 
other.  Indeed  Willughby  tiius  heads  his  chapter  on  the  Black-Cap  : — 
"The  Black-Cap :  Atricapilla  aeu  Fictdvla,  Aldrov. ;  called  by  the 
Greeks  JmaJCit  et  McAryivcfpt^f ;  by  the  Italians  Capo  Negro."  The 
passage  in  Aristotle  may  be  thus  freely  translated : — 

"  And  in  like  manner  beccaficos  and  black-caps,  for  these  too  are 
changed  into  each  other.  The  bird  is  a  beccafico  at  the  commence- 
ment of  autumn  and  a  black-cap  at  the  decline  of  that  season,  and  the 
only  difference  is  in  their  plumage  and  their  voice.  That  they  are 
the  same  birds  may  be  seenby  observing  them  beforo  the  change  is 
complete,  and  when  they  are  neither  one  nor  the  other." 

PHny  too  appears  to  have  had  this  passage  in  his  view,  though  he 
does  not  aclmowledge  it^  when  he  wrote  (lib.  x.  cap.  29) : — "  Alia 
ntio  fioedulis.  Nam  formam  simul  coloremque  mutant.  Hoc  nomen 
Don  nisi  autumno  habent,  postea  melancoryphi  vocantur." 

Belon  (ed.  1555,  folio)  makes  the  Bullfinch  the  SvKoXb  and  Mt \ay- 
K^pv^f  of  the  Greeks,  and  Beccafighi  of  the  Italians,  naming  it  also 
AtncajpUla;  but  in  a  subsequent  edition,  'enrichy  de  Quatrains' 
^■mall  4to.  1557),  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  names,  identifying  it 
u  a Pieedula,  as  well  as  the  name  Atricapilla,  are  omitted;  and  the 
ftird  appears  with  the  provincial  synonyms  of  the  Bollfinoh.  In  other 
instances,  in  that  of  the  rerj  next  bbd  for  example,  the  Greek  and 
Lfttin  names  given  in  the  folio  edition  aro  retained. 

Upon  the  whole,  thero  is  reason  for  coming  to  the  conclusion  that 
onr  Black-Cap  is  the  bird  alluded  to  by  Aristotle.  Ray  seems  to  have 
heen  of  this  opinion,  for  he  thus  records  it  in  his  '  SynopsLs' : — "  Atri- 
copilla  rive  Jfieedula,  Aldrov. ;  SufcoXli  et  McXcryic^v^f,  GrsDcis ;  the 
Black-Cap." 

It  occurs  frequently  in  the  greater  portion  of  Europe,  through  the 
northern  and  eastern  parts  of  which  it  is  widely  difiHued.  Temminck 
says  that  it  is  rare  beyond  the  Apennines  and  I^renees.  C.  Bonapcote 
notes  it  as  permanent  and  common  near  Rome.  It  visits  the  southern 
eoasts  of  England,  from  Sussex  to  the  Land's  End.    It  visits  Wales, 

lai.  HIST.  DIY.  VOU  L 


and  has  been  taken  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  It  visits  also  Suffolk  and 
Norfolk,  and  the  northern  counties  of  England.  It  is  a  summer  visitor 
in  Deimiark,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Lapland. 

The  male  Black-Cap  is  nearly  6  inches  in  length,  and  about  4}  drachms 
in  weight  Upper  part  of  tiie  head  black ;  back  of  the  neck  ashy 
brown ;  upper  parts  of  the  body  gray,  with  a  greenish  tinge ;  quilu 
and  tail  dusky,  edged  with  duU  green ;  breast  and  belly  light  ash« 
colour ;  legs  and  feet  bluish-gray,  or  lead-colour ;  bill  brown ;  iridet 
dark  hazeL 

The  female  is  of  larger  size ;  the  crown  of  the  head  is  of  an  umber- 
brown  or  rust-colour;  and  the  plumage  generally  is  darker,  and  more 
inclining  to  greenish  than  it  is  in  the  miue. 

The  plumage  of  the  young  when  they  leave  the  nest  resembles  that 
of  the  female. 

Gardens,  orchards,  and  thick  hedges  are  the  favourite  haxmts  of  the 
Black-Cap ;  and  there,  among  brambles  and  nettles,  or  in  some  low 
bush,  its  nest  is  built^  Dry  stalks  of  goose-gprass  and  a  little  wool, 
lined  with  fibrous  roots,  and  frequently  with  a  few  long  hairs,  with 
now  and  then  a  little  moss  on  the  outside,  form  the  structuro.  Four  or 
five,  sometimes  six  eggs  of  a  reddish-brown,  weighing  about  35  grains, 
mottled  with  a  darker  colour,  and  sometimes  dotted  with  a  few  ashy 
specks,  are  then  deposited.  Pennant  speaks  of  a  nest  which  he  dis- 
covered in  a  spruce  fir.  Temminck  mentions  the  hawthorn-bush  as 
the  most  frequent  place. 

The  Black-Cap  m  a  state  of  naturo  is  with  difficulty  seen  when 
singing,  at  which  time  it  seems  to  take  pains  to  seorote  itselfl  White 
however,  who  saw  it  in  this  act,  says  that  while  warbling  the  throat 
is  wonderfully  distended. 

In  captivity  it  seems  to  be  a  great  fiavourite  not  onlv  from  its  song 
but  from  its  attractive  qualities.  Even  in  a  state  of  nature  it  is  a 
mocking  bird,  and  when  caged  it  soon  learns  the  notes  of  the  night- 
ingale and  canary.    The  female  is  also,  but  in  a  limited  degree,  a 


Bechstein  roeaks  of  the  striking  affection  which  it  shows  for  its 
nustress : — ''  It  utters  a  particular  sound,  a  moro  tender  note  to 
weloome  her ;  at  her  approach  he  darts  against  the  wires  of  his  cage, 
and  by  a  continued  fluttering,  accompanied  with  little  cries,  he  seems 
to  express  his  eagerness  and  gratitude.  A  young  male,  which  I  had 
put  in  the  hot-hoMA<|or  the  winter,  was  accustomed  to  receive  from 
my  hand  every  tiniel  entered  a  me«J-worm  ;  this  took  place  so  regu- 
larly, that  immediately  on  my  arrival  he  placed  himself  near  the  liUle 
jar  where  I  kept  the  meal-worms.  If  I  pretended  not  to  notice  this 
signal,  he  would  take  flight,  and,  pa«ng  dose  under  my  nose,  imme- 
diately resume  his  post ;  and  this  he  repeated,  sometimes  even  striking 
me  with  his  wing,  till  I  satisfied  his  wishes  and  impatience." 

BLACK-COCK,  one  of  tJie  English  names  for  the  Heath-Cock,  the 
male  of  the  Black  Game  or  Black  Grouse;  the  Birk-Hahn  of  the 
Germans;  Coq  de  Bruy^re  it  Queue  Fourchue,  Coq  de  Bois,  and  Faisan 
Bruyant  (Belon),  of  the  French ;  Gallo  di  Monte,  Gallo  Cedrone,  Gallo 
Selvatico,  Gallo  Alpestre,  Fasan  Negro,  and  Fasiano  Alpestre  of  the 
Italians;  Orrfugl  of  the  Norwegians;  Tetrao  teu  Urogalhu  minor  of 
Willughby  and  Ray ;  Tetrao  tetrix  of  LinntQus ;  and  Lyrurue  tetrix 
of  Swainson.  The  female  is  called  a  Gray  Hen,  and  the  yomig  are 
named  Poults,*  a  term  which  is  applied  to  the  Black  Game  generally 
on  the  borders  of  Hampshire  and  Dorsetshire. 

This  noble  bird,  whose  plumage  when  in  full  beauty  has  defied  all 
pencils  save  that  of  Edwin  Landseer,  the  only  painter  who  has  given 
a  true  idea  of  it,  is  now  the  largest  of  its  race  in  the  British  Islands, 
of  whose  fauna  it  is  one  of  the  principal  ornaments.  It  is,  says  Tem- 
minck, more  widely  diffused  over  the  central  parts  of  Europe  than  the 
Capercailzie  {Tttrao  UroffaUas,  Pennant);  or  the  Rakkelhto  (Tetrao 
mediuSf  Meyer).  In  Germany,  France,  and  Holland  it  is  tolerably 
plentiful:  in  the  northern  countries,  such  as  Denmark,  Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Russia  it  abounds. 

Of  the  southern  counties  of  England,  Hampshire,  Dorsetshire, 
Somersetshire,  and  Devonshire  possess  it,  and  now  and  then  it  is  seen 
in  the  heathy  parts  of  Sussex  and  Surrey.  In  the  New  Forest^  and 
the  wild  heaths  on  the  bordera  of  Hampshire  and  Dorsetshire,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Wimbome,  it  is  perhaps  more  common  than  it  is 
anywhere  else  in  the  south.  The  Quantocks,  and  some  other  uncul- 
tivated tracts  in  Somersetshire,  and  Dartmoor  and  Sedgemoor  in 
Devonshire  are  its  head-quarters  in  those  counties;  but  it  is  com- 
paratively rare. 

Staffoidshire  has  it  sparingly,  and  Northumberland  plentiftally. 

In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  the  Black-Cock  is  abundant^  and  it  is 
found  in  some  of  the  Hebrides.  In  North  Wales  it  occurs  sparingly, 
where  it  is  strictly  preserved. 

The  following  account  of  the  haunts  and  habits  of  the  Blaok-Cock 
is  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Selby : —  .     .  v  v 

"  The  bases  of  the  hills  in  heathy  and  mountainous  districts,  which 
are  covered  with  a  natural  growth  of  birch,  alder,  and  willow,  and 
intersected  by  morasses  clothed  with  long  and  coarse  herbage,  as  weU 
as  the  deep  and  wooded  glens  so  frequently  occurring  in  extensive 
wastes,  are  the  situations  beet  suited  to  the  habits  of  these  birds,  and 

«  This  is  an  old  name  for  the  Black  Game.  Thus  Tarbevile  (1611)  writea, 
"  If  your  goshawk*  be  onoe  a  good  partridgcr,  beware  that  you  let  her  not  Am 
the  pout  or  the  feasant." 

2  K 


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499 


BLACK-COCK. 


BLACK-COCK. 


6M 


most  fayourable  to  their  increaBe.  During  the  monthB  of  autumn  and 
wtn^cr  the  males  aasociate,  and  Hto  in  flocks,  but  separate  in  March  or 
April ;  and,  being  polygamous,  each  individual  chooses  some  particular 
station,  from  whence  he  drives  all  intruders,  and  for  the  possession  of 
which,  when  they  are  numerous,  desperate  contests  often  take  place. 
At  this  station  he  continues  every  morning  during  the  pairing  season 
(beginning  at  day-break)  to  repeat  his  call  of  invitation  to  £e  other 


rally  in  the  midst  of  a  high  tuft  of  heath."    This  Tetriz,  then,  which 
the  Athenians  odled  Ourax,  was  not  improbably  our  Black-CocL 

Pliny's  description  (cap.  xxiL  lib.  x.) — "  Decet  tetraonas  buub  nitor 
absolutaque  nigritia,  in  superciliis  cocci  rubor" — looks  very  like  our 
bird,  though  the  passage  occurs  in  his  chapter  on  Geeie,  and  so  it 
struck  Belon.  The  tetraones  mentioned  in  company  with  the  peacocb, 
guinea-fowls,  and  pheasants,  in  chap,  xii  of  Suetonius  (in  *  Calig.')  were 
probably  the  same. 


B^^. 


Blaek.Oo.ck  {Tetrao  tetrix). 

sex,  displaying  a  variety  of  attitudes,  not  unlike  those  of  a  turkey- 
cock,  accompanied  by  a  crowing  note,  and  one  similar  to  the  noise 
made  by  the  whetting  of  a  scythe.  At  this  season  his  plumage 
extiibits  the  richest  glosses,  and  the  red  skin  of  his  eyebrows  assumes 
a  superior  intensity  of  colour.  With  the  cause  that  urged  their  tem- 
porary separation  their  animosity  ceaaes,  and  the  male  birds  again 
associate  and  live  harmoniously  together.  The  female  deposits  her 
eggs  in  May ;  they  are  from  six  to  ten  in  number,  of  a  yellowish-gray 
colour,  blotched  with  reddish-brown.  The  nest  is  of  most  artless  con- 
struction, being  composed  of  a  few  dried  stems  of  grass  placed  on  the 
ground,  under  the  shelter  of  a  tall  tuft  or  low  bush,  and  generally  in 
marshy  spots  where  long  and  coarse  grasses  abound.  The  young  of  both 
sexes  at  first  resemble  each  other,  and  their  plumage  is  that  of  the  hen, 
with  whom  they  continue  till  the  autumnal  moult  takes  place;  at  this 
time  the  males  acquire  the  garb  of  the  adult  bird,  and  quitting  their 
female  parent  join  the  societies  of  their  own  sex.  The  food  of  the  black 
grouse,  during  the  summer,  chiefly  consists  of  the  seeds  of  some 
species  of  J  uncus,  the  tender  shoots  of  heath  and  insects.  In  autumn  the 
Crowberry  or  Crawcrook  (Empetrum  nigrum),  the  Cranberry  ( Vaccinium 
oxycoccos),  the  Whortleberry  (  Vaccinium  Viiis  Idcea),  and  the  Trailing 
Arbutus  (ArctOita/phylot  Uva  Urn),  afford  it  a  plentiful  subsistence. 
In  winter,  and  during  severe  and  snowy  weather,  it  eats  the  tops  and 
buds  of  tiie  birch  and  alder,  as  well  as  the  embryo  shoots  of  the  fir 
tribe,  which  it  is  well  enabled  to  obtain,  as  it  is  capable  of  perching 
unon  trees  without  difficulty.  At  this  season  of  the  year,  in  situations 
where  arable  land  is  interspersed  with  the  wild  tracts  it  inhabits, 
descending  into  the  stubble  grounds,  it  feeds  on  grain." 

LinnsQUs  says  that  the  young  are  brought  up  upon  gnats. 

That  the  Black-Cock  was  known  to  the  ancients  there  is  little  doubt. 
Aristotle,  in  the  first  chapter  of  his  6th  book,  where  he  is  speaking 
of  the  nidification  of  birds,  says  that  "  Those  which  are  not  strong  of 
flight,  such  as  partridges  and  quails,  do  not  lay  in  nests  (properly  so 
called)  but  on  the  ground,  merely  collecting  together  matenals  (uXi^i^) : 
so  also  do  the  larks  {K6pv9ts)  and  the  tetrix."  At  the  end  of  the 
chapter  he  says,  '*  But  the  Tetrix,  which  the  Athenians  call  Ourax, 
neither  makes  its  nest  upon  the  bare  ground  nor  yet  upon  trees,  but 
upon  low  plants  {M  rois  x^^M^^&l^^^^  ^vrois)  :"  answering  to  Tem- 
minck's  description — ''niche  dans  les  bruy^res  ou  dans  les  buissons:" 
to  Selby'a — "  imder  the  shelter  of  a  tall  tuft  or  low  bush,  generally 
where  long  and  coarse  grasses  abound:"  and  to  Qraves's — "on  any 
diy  grass  or  heath,  without  any  appearance  of  a  nest,  but  most  gene- 


Gray  Hen  {Tetrao  tetrix),  female. 

The  flesh  of  the  Black  Qrouse  is  much  esteemed.  The  different 
colour  of  the  flesh  of  the  pectoral  muscles  must  have  struck  every 
one.  The  internal  layer,  which  is  remarkably  white,  is  esteemed  the 
most  delicate  portion.  Belon  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  three  pec- 
toral muscles  have  three  different  flavours :  the  first  that  of  beef,  the 
next  that  of  partridge,  and  the  third  that  of  pheasant. 

Male. — Weight  of  a  fine  specimen  about  4  pounds ;  bill  dusky  black; 
irides  hazel ;  head,  neck,  breast,  back,  and  rump  glossy  black,  shot 
with  steel-blue  and  purple ;  eye-brows  naked,  granulated,  and  of  a 
bright  vermilion  red ;  belly,  wing-coverts,  and  tail  pitch  black ; 
secondaries  tipped  with  pure  white,  and  formine  with  the  neighbom^ 
ing  coverts  a  band  across  each  wing ;  under  tau-coverts  pure  white; 
legs  furnished  with  hair-like  feathers  of  a  dark-brown,  speckled  with 
gray ;  toes  pectinated ;  tail  black — ^the  exterior  feathers  bend  outwards, 
and  are  much  longer  than  those  in  the  middle  :  this  arrangement  gives 
the  singular  curvature  and  forked  shape  to  the  tail  which  distinguishes 
the  bird. 

Ftmalt, — Weight  about  2  pounds ;  general  colour  ferruginous,  barred 
and  mottled  with  black  above,  paler  below,  with  dusky  and  brown  bars ; 
under  tail-coverts  white,  streaked  with  black;  tail  orange-brown, 
speckled  with  black,  showing  a  slight  disposition  to  be  forked,  tipped 
with  grayish  white. 

No  person  is  permitted  to  kill,  destroy,  cany,  sell,  buy,  or  have  in 
his  possession,  any  Heath-Fowl,  commonly  called  Black  Game,  between 
the  1 0th  of  December  and  20th  of  August  The  limitation  in  the  New 
Forest,  Somerset,  and  Devon  is  greater,  being  from  the  lOth  of 
December  to  the  1st  of  September. 

Several  well-authenticated  instances  have  occurred  of  hybrids  bred 
between  the  Conmion  Pheasant  and  the  Gray  Hen.  White,  in  his 
*  History  of  Selbome,'  gives  an  account  of  a  bird,  of  which  the  Hon. 
and  Rev.  W.  Herbert  says,  m  a  note  to  White's  *  Selbome,*  1888,  "I 
saw  this  curious  bird  stuffed  in  the  collection  of  the  Earl  of  Egremont 
at  Petworth,  and  I  have  not  the  slightest  hesitation  in  pronouncing 
that  it  was  a  mule,  between  the  black  cock  and  the  common  pheanni 
I  did  not  entertain  the  slightest  doubt  on  tiie  subject :  Mr.  Alarkwick's 
suggestion  that  the  bird  may  be  an  old  pea-hen  is  very  weak.  He 
might  as  well  have  said  an  ostrich.  Neither  in  sife,  shape,  nor  colour 
had  the  bird  the  least  affinity  to  a  pea-fowL    I  can  also  most  poai* 


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^1 


BLACK  FISH. 


BLADDER. 


6Dd 


tively  assert  that  this  bird  was  not,  as  suggested  in  a  note  (p.  343),  a 
hen  pheasant  with  the  feathers  of  a  cock.  Such  birds  are  well  known 
to  me,  and  it  noways  resembled  them.  To  Mr.  White's  description  of 
the  bird  above,  where  he  says  that  the  back,  wing-feathers,  and  tail 
were  somewhat  like  the  upper  parts  of  a  hen  partridge,  I  scratched 
out  at  the  time  the  words  '  somewhat  like,'  and  wrote  in  the  margin 
'  much  browner  than,*  and  with  that  correction  I  believe  Mr.  White's 
description  to  be  quite  correct." 

Notwithstanding  Mr.  Herbert's  opinion,  Mr.  Yarrell  has  stated  his 
conviction  that  the  hybrid  grouse  of  Wliite's  '  Natural  History  of 
Selbome '  to  be  a  yoimg  Black-Cock  having  nearly  completed  his  first 
moult. 

Of  imdoubted  cases  of  hybrids  arising  from  a  mixture  with  the  Gray 
Hen,  the  following  are  related. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Zoological  Society  on  the  24th  of  June,  1834, 
Mr.  Sabine  called  the  attention  of  the  meeting  to  a  specimen  of  a 
hybrid  bird  between  the  Common  Pheasant  {Pkasianus  Colchicus, 
Linn.)  and  the  Gray  Hen  (Tetrao  tdrix,  Linn.),  which  was  exhibited. 
Its  legs  were  partially  feathered;  it  bore  on  the  shoulder  a' white 
spot ;  and  its  middle  tail-feathers  were  lengthened.  Mr.  Sabine  stated 
his  intention  of  entering  at  some  length  into  the  history  of  hybrid  and 
cross  animals  in  connection  with  his  description  of  this  bird,  which 
was  bred  in  Cornwall.     This  bird  was  a  male. 

On  the  12th  of  May,  1835,  at  a  meeting  of  the  same  society  was 
read  '  Some  Aocoimt  of  a  Hybrid  Bird  between  the  Cock  Pheasant 
(Pkaaianus  C6Ukicu$y  Linn.)  and  Gray  Hen  (Tetrao  tetriXf  Linn.),  by 
Thomas  C.  Eyton,  Esq.*  This  paper  was  illustrated  by  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  preserved  skin  of  the  bird,  and  also  of  a  drawing  made 
from  it. 

The  subjoined  table  shows  some  comparative  measurements  between 
the  hybrid  bird  in  question  (the  Cock  Pheasant)  and  the  Gray  Hen : — 


Lcn^h  of  the  tarsus 

L«ngth  of  the  middle  toe  ...  : 
Expansion  of  the  wings  .  .  .  . 
Lcn^h  of  the  middle  tail-feathers  .  .  . 
Length  of  the  intestinal  canal  from  vent ) 

to  gizzard f 

Length  Arom  the  vent  to  the  c»ca  .  .  . 
Length  of  the  cseca 


Gray  Hen 

nybiid 

Bird, 

female. 

Male 
Pheasant. 

Ft.   In. 
0     2^ 
0     2Va 
2     0 
0     4 

Ft.   In. 
0     2? 
0     2\ 
2     2" 
0     7J 

Ft.   In. 

lit 

4     2 

3     5i 

4     0 

0     6 
2     0 

D     6i 
2     0 

0     4| 
0     Bh 

The  late  Mr.  W.  Thompson,  of  Belfast,  has  also  described  a  hybrid 
of  this  kind  that  was  shot  in  Wigtonshire  ( 'Mag.  Zool.  and  Bot.'  vol.  i.). 
Mr.  Tarrell,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  '  British  Birds/  has  also 
recorded  other  instances. 

BLACK  FISH.    [Centrolophds.] 

BLACK  JACK,  the  name  given  by  miners  to  the  Sulphiiret  of  Zinc. 
[Ziya] 

BLACK-THORN.    [PBUinis.] 

BLADDER^  or  Venca  Urinaria,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
G  all-Bladder,  is  a  musculo-membranous  bag  or  pouch,  which  serves  as 
a  temporary  reservoir  for  the  urine ;  it  communicates  with  the  kid- 
neys by  means  of  the  ureters,  and  opens  externally  by  means  of  t]ie 
urethra. 

The  urinary  apparatus  is  confined  to  the  red<blooded  classes  of 
animals,  all  of  which  have  kidneys,  whilst  some  orders  and  genera 
have  no  urinary  bladder.  In  quadrupeds  the  bladder  is  of  a  pyriform 
shape,  and  is  completely  surroimded  by  the  peritonaeum  or  serous 
lining  of  the  abdomen ;  and.it  may  be  taken  as  a  general  rule  that  it 
is  smaller,  stronger,  and  more  muscular  in  carnivorous  than  in  grami- 
nivorous animals ;  in  the  latter  it  is  almost  membranous,  and  in  some 
of  them  is  particularly  laige. 

In  the  whole  class  of  birds  there  is  no  urinary  bladder,  and  the 
ureters  open  into  the  cloaca,  a  musculo-membranous  bag,  which  takes 
the  place  of  the  rectum,  bladder,  and  uterus,  and  serves  as  a  reservoir 
for  ihe  solid  excrements,  the  urine,  and  eggs.  The  urine  in  these 
animals  dilutee  the  faeces,  and  deposits  the  carbonate  of  lime  which 
constitutes  the  basis  of  the  shell.  The  urinary  bladder  exists  in  seve- 
ral genera  and  species  of  fishes. 

In  the  human  subject  the  urinary  bladder  is  placed  in  the  pelvis 
or  basin  immediately  behind  the  symphysis  pubis,  and  before  the 
rectum,  or  terminal  portion  of  the  intestines,  in  the  male;  but 
it  is  separated  from  it  in  the  female  by  the  uterus  and  vagina. 
Its  form  and  relations  vary  according  to  the  age  of  the  individual 
In  infancy  it  is  of  a  pyriform  shape,  and  is  contained  almost 
entirely  in  the  abdomen,  thus  resembling  its  permanent' condition  in 
quadrupeds.  At  this  period  it  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of 
three  portions;  the  narrow  tiering  part,  or  neck,  the  upper  rounded 
portion,  or  fundus  (sometimes  called  summit),  and  the  intermediate 
portion,  or  body ;  but  as  the  pelvis  expands  the  bladder  gradually 
subsides  into  i^  and  undergoes  a  remarkable  change  of  form.  Thus, 
in  the  adult  its  figure  is  that  of  a  short  oval,  compressed  at  the  fore 
iohI  back  part ;  its  lower  surface  ftnlisides  on  the  rectum,  and  expand- 


ing forms  what  is  termed  by  anatomists  the  has  fond  of  the  bladder. 
This  change  of  form  is  dependent  not  only  upon  the  enlaigement  of 
the  cavity  in  which  the  bladder  is  contained,  but  also  upon  the  weigh! 
of  the  fluid  which  it  habitually  sustains,  and  thus  in  advanced  age  it 
is  more  deeply  sunk  in  the  pelvis  than  in  the  middle  periods  of  life. 
In  the  female  its  transverse  diameter  is  greater  than  m  the  male,  in 
consequence  of  ^he  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the   pelvis  being 
encroached  upon  by  the  uterus.     Its  capacity  varies  in  tke  different 
periods  of  life ;  and  as  a  general  rule  it  may  be  said  to  increase  in 
proportion  as  the  individual  advances  in  years,  and  to  be  greater  in 
females  than  in  males.  Its  capacity  is  modified  ia  different  individuals 
by  their  habits  and  the  natural 
exercise  of  its  functions.      It  is 
more     particularly    changed    by 
disease;  thus,  from  the  effects  of 
long-continued  irritation  it  may  be 
reduced  to  such  a  state  that  it 
will  not  contain  more  than  a  few 
drops  of  urine ;  and,  on  the  con- 
trary,  when  from  any    cause  its 
contents  cannot  be  duly  evacuated, 
it  may  be  distended  so  as  to  con- 
tain many  quarts  of  urine,   and 
occupy  a  large  proportion  of  the 
abdomen.     Its  ordinary  capacity 
may  be  estimated  at  a  pint  and  a 
half. 

The  neck  or  constricted  portion 
of  the  bladder  is  compared  to  a 
truncated  cone,  longer  at  the 
sides  and  below  than  above.  In 
infancy,  owing  to  the  position  of 
the     bladder,     its     direction     is  , 


Fig.  1. — The  Ureter*,  running  ft-om 

the  kidneys  to  the  hlodder. 
a,  Aorta ;    &,   hifurcation ;    c,  abdo. 

oblique;   for  a  ..unnar  .^on  it  jlTn^m" Jd"^t  f^ 'bUdd^! 


M  horizontal  in  the  «dult;  ilff,«„te„i,f.Ui^,j'.. 
differs  m  structure  from  the  rest 
of  the  oi^an.  The  neck,  which  is  formed  of  a  somewhat  fibrous 
whitish  substance,  is  the  connecting  medium  between  the  bladder 
and  the  urethra.  Its  posterior  part  rests  on  the  rectum ;  its  anterior 
is  surrounded,  at  least  below  and  at  the  sides,  by  tiie  prostate  gland, 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  mole,  and  is  composed  of  an  aggregation 
of  mucous  follicles,  disposed  so  as  to  form  three  lobes,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  and  one  below  called  the  middle  lobe, 
which  forms  a  slight  projection  into  the  opening  of  the  urethra. 

The  bladder,  like  tbe  other  hollow  viscera,  is  composed  of  three 
layers,  or  coats,  united  to  each  other  by  cellular  tissue ;  these  coats  are 
the  peritonaeal  or  serous,  the  muscular,  and  the  mucous.  The 
peritonaeal  coat  has  been  already  described  as  investing  only  a  portion 
of  the  oigan ;  it  U  united  to  the  muscular  coat  by  cellular  tissue, 
which  is  extended  over  the  whole  of  the  latter,  being  however  thinner 
imder  the  peritonaeal  coat  than  elsewhere.  The  muscular  coat  has 
been  described  by  some  anatomists  as  a  distinct  muscle  under  the 
name  of  detrusor  urinse  ;  it  is  composed  of  pale  ffbres  interlacing  in 
all  directions.  Three  distinct  layers  have  been  described,  but  it  is 
sufficient  for  all  useful  purposes  to  say,  that  the  superficial  fibres  are 
directed  in  the  course  of  the  axis  of  the  bladder;  that  at  the  sides 
they  are  more  and  more  oblique ;  and  that  the  more  internal  fibres 
assume  a  circular  direction  as  they  approach  the  neck  of  the  bladder, 
so  that  some  anatomists  have  described  them  in  this  part  as  a  distinct 
muscle,  imder  the  name  of  sphincter  vesicjc.  This  reticidated 
structure  of  the  muscular  coat  enables  the  bladder  to  contract  so 
perfectly  as  to  expel  every  drop  of  its  contents. 

When  the  bladder  is  much  distended,  the  muscular  coat  becomes 
attenuated  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  it  from 
cellular  tissue.  Sometiuies  its  fibres  become  so  much  enlarged  from 
the  effects  of  long-continued  irritation  and  overaction  of  the  oigan, 
that  they  form  projecting  lines  or  columns  under  the  mucous  coat; 
this  appearance  of  the  bladder  is  dessignated  by  the  French  Vessie  k 
Colonnes.  The  mucoud  membrane  is  occasionally  protruded  between 
these  columns,  forming  sacs,  or  pouches,  in  which  urinary  calculi  ars 
sometimes  lodged ;  these  calculi  are  then  said  to  be  encysted  or 
sacculated.  The  muscular  coat  is  united  to  the  third,  last,  or  muoous 
coat  by  a  distinct  layer  of  cellular  tissue,  to  which  the  term  nervous 
or  vascular  coat  is  sometimes  improperly  applied.  The  mucous  coat, 
or  lining  of  the  bladder,  belongs  to  that  division  of  the  mucous 
membranes  denominated  genito-urinary ;  it  not  only  lines  the  bladder, 
but  is  prolonged  upwards  along  the  ureters  into  the  kidneys,  and 
downwards  along  the  urethra ;  it  is  of  a  pale  rose-colour,  is  smooth 
when  the  bladder  is  distended,  and  corrugated  when  it  is  empty ;  it 
secretes  a  viscid  fluid  termed  mucus,  which  protects  it  from  the 
acrimony  of  the  fluid  with  which  it  is  constantly  in  contact.  Three 
openings  are  seen  in  it ;  two  situated  posteriorly,  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  from  each  other,  which  are  the  openings  of  the  ureters,  and  one 
anteriorly,  which  is  the  opening  of  the  urethra.  Extending  from 
the  openings  of  the  ureters  to  that  of  the  lu^thra  are  observeid  twp 
prominent  lines,  which  are  formed  by  muscular  fibres  elevating  tbs 
mucous  coat ;  these  lines  form  the  sides  of  a  triangle,  the  base  of 
which  is  an  imaginary  line  drawn  between  the  openings  of  the  ureterrj 


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BLADDER. 


BLAMIDJE. 


M 


the  apex  is  at  the  urethra.  The  space  thus  marked  out  is  denomi- 
nated the  trigone  vesioale ;  it  is  paler  than  the  rest  of  the  internal 
surface  of  the  bladder,  is  possessed  of  peculiar  sensibility,  and  is 
smooth  in  the  contracted  as  well  as  in  the  distended  condition  of  the 
bladder. 

The  two  prominent  lines  which  form  the  sides  of  the  trigone 
yesicale,  according  to  Sir  C.  BeU,  are  distinct  muscl^  the  muscles  of 
the  ureters.  They  have  their  fixed  point  or  origin  at  that  prominence 
or  tubercle  existing  at  the  inferior  surface  of  the  urethra,  which  has 
been  already  described  as  formed  by  the  middle  lobe  of  the  prostate, 
their  insertion  or  moveable  point  being  at  the  opening  of  the  iu*eters. 
Their  use  is  to  assist  in  the  contractions  of  the  bladder,  to  support 
and  dose  the  mouths  of  the  ureters,  and  to  preserve  the  obliquity  of 
these  canals  by  drawing  them  down  during  the  contractions  of  the 
bladder.  The  tubercle  whence  these  muscles  are  supposed  to  take 
their  origin  is  termed  the  luette  or  uvula  vesicse ;  but  these  terms 
are  more  particularly  applicable  to  it  when  enlarged  and  diseased.  It 
then  forms  a  prominent  tumour  at  the  orifice  of  the  urethra,  acts 
the  part  of  a  valve,  and  becomes  a  troublesome  cause  of  retention  of 
urine. 

The  arteries  of  the  bladder  are  derived  from  the  internal  iliac  and 
its  branches;  its  veins  empty  themselves  into  the  internal  iliac  vein ; 

these  vessels  are  most  abun- 
dant about  its  neck  and  bas 
fond.  The  lymphatics  fol- 
low the  course  of  these  ves- 
sels. The  nerves  are  of  two 
^  kinds,  the  one  derived  from 

the  sacral  plexus  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  system,  the 
nerves  of  animal  life;  the 
other  derived  from  the 
hypogastric  plexus  of  the 
sympathetic,  the  nerves  of 
organic  life. 

The  direction  of  the  blad- 
der is  oblique,  being  inclined 
somewhat  forwards  and  up- 
wards. In  proportion  to 
the  degree  of  distension  the 
f       i  fi  f  obliquity    is    increased,     in 

^  consequence    of    the    neck 

Fig.  a.^Sido  view  of  the  Bladder  of  an       being  fixed.     It  is  retained 
adult  male.  j^  ^^  position  by  two  lateral 

a,  Pubea ;  h,  sacmm ;  «,  recti  muscles ;  ligaments,  one  on  each  side, 
d  d,  rectum;  #    bladder;  /,  vas  deferens;  ^*^  anterior    ligament; 

g    ureter;   *,  vedcul.  seminaU. ;   <,  prostate  ^^  kterS     ligam^ts     ar^ 
gland ;  j,  urethra ;    kkk,  perltonsDum,   re-        ,  "»w«~     ^^rzi     r      • 
fleeted  fhmi  rectum  upon  bladder,  thence  upon  Pfolo^K^^P?*  ""^  *^«   ^««<^ 
the  recti  muscles.  ihaca,  which  passmg  down 

into  the  pelvis  assumes  the 
name  of  fiuKda  pelvica,  and  becomes  identified  with  the  prostate  gland 
and  side  of  the  bladder.  The  anterior  ligament  is  double,  and  itisformed 
by  the  fascia  transversalis,  which  passing  down  behind  the  symphysis 
pubis  is  reflected  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  prostate  gland ;  from 
the  point  of  reflection  two  strong  fasciculi  of  fibres  pass  to  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  bladder.  These  ligaments  are  sometimes  called  the 
proper  ligaments  of  the  bladder  to  distinguish  themfrY>m  certain  folds 
of  the  peritonseum,  sometimes  called  false  ligaments.  As  the  bladder 
is  peculiarly  interesting  in  a  surgical  point  of  view,  anatomists  have 
endeavoured  to  describe  it  precisely,  and  with  this  view  they  have 
divided  it  into  six  regions  or  surfaces — an  anterior,  a  posterior,  two 
lateral,  a  superior,  and  an  inferior. 

The  anterior  surface,  in  the  collapsed  state  of  the  organ,  lies  behind 
the  symphysis  pubis,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  loose  cellular 
tissue;  when  distended,  the  bladder  rises,  and  its  anterior  surface 
comes  in  relation,  or  in  contact^  with  the  recti  muscles  of  the  abdomen. 
The  posterior  surface  is  covered  by  the  peritonseum,  which  in  the 
male  is  reflected  upon  it  from  the  rectum,  in  the  female  from  the 
uterus  and  vagina ;  it  is  then  reflected  from  the  sides  of  the  bladder 
to  the  iliac  fossse ;  at  the  points  of  reflection  it  forms  folds,  one  on 
each  side  and  two  posteriorly ;  these  have  been  improperly  described 
as  ligaments,  for  instead  of  confining  the  bladder  they  serve  rather  as 
provisions  to  facilitate  its  expansion. 

The  lateral  regions  are  partially  covered  by  the  peritonseum ;  running 
along  them  we  find  the  umbilical  arteries,  or  their  remains,  in  both 
sexes,  and  the  vasa  deferentia  in  the  male.  The  superior  region,  or 
fundus,  is  partiaUy  covered  by  the  peritonseum,  which  is  reflected 
thence  on  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  recti  muscles ;  it  has  a  fibro\is 
cord  attached  to  it  termed  the  urachus,  which  lies  between  the 
peritoneum  and  the  recti  muscles,  and  being  accompanied  by  the 
remaina  of  the  umbilical  arteries  extends  to  the  umbilicus,  where  it 
becomes  identified  with  the  abdominal  aponeuroses.  This  fibrous  cord 
appears  to  be  useful  in  retaining  the  bladder  in  its  situation,  for  never 
in  the  human  subject^  except  in  certain  cases  of  malformation,  which 
are  very  rare,  does  it  present  the  form  of  a  canal,  such  as  it  is  found 
to  be  in  the  young  of  certain  quadrupeds,  in  which  it  is  the  medium 
of  commimication  between  the  bladder  and  a  bag,  or  sac  termed  the 
fJlantoid. 


The  secretion  of  the  urine  is  performed  by  the  kidneys  [Eidnet]  ; 
it  is  constantly  going  on,  and  does  not  exhibit  those  alternations  of 
action  and  repose  observable  in  the  other  secretions. 

The  urine,  being  secreted,  dribbles  along  the  ureters,  and  its 
descent  is  probably  aided  by  the  contractility  of  these  tubes  and  the 
impulse  of  the  neighbouring  arteries.  It  drops  into  the  bladder  and 
gradually  distends  it,  but  it  is  prevented  from  regoigitating 
into  the  ureters  in  consequence  of  these  tubes  taking  an  oblique 
course  between  the  muscular  and  mucous  coats  before  they  perforate 
the  latter.  As  the  mine  acciuiulates,  these  tubes  are  more  and  more 
compressed,  and  the  obstacle  to  reguigitation  is  increased ;  but  the 
column  of  urine  descending  along  the  tu'eters,  being  higher  than 
that  contained  in  the  bladder,  is  not  prevented  from  entering 
into  it. 

When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  urine  is  accumulated  in  the  bladder, 
vaiying  according  to  the  degree  of  irritability  of  the  organ,  a  general 
uneasy^  sensation  is  produced,  and  a  more  particular  one  referred  to 
the  trigone  vesicale  :  the  diaphragm  and  abdominal  muscles  are  called 
into  action,  the  resistance  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder  is  overcome  (the 
sphincter,  if  we  admit  its  existence,  relaxes),  the  muscular  fibres  of 
the  bladder  contract,  and  are  able  without  further  assistance  to 
evacuate  every  drop  of  its  contents. 
BLADDER-CATCHFLY.    [SiLiaTE.] 
BLADDER-GREEN.    [Rhamnus.] 
BLADDER-NUT.    [Staphtlea.] 
BLADDER-SENNA.  JColutea.] 
BLADDERWORT.    [Utricularia.] 

BLAKEA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Mekutomacece,  named  by -Dr.  Patrick  Browne  in  honour  of  Martin 
Blake.  The  species  are  trees  or  shrubs  with  large  showy  red  flowers. 
The  calyx  is  girded  with  from  four  to  six  broi^  scales ;  the  corolla 
with  six  petals ;  the  fruit  a  6-celled  beny,  crowned  with  the  calyx. 
The  leaves  have  from  three  to  five  nerves.  B.  quinqueMrvis,  Aublet^ 
B.  tripUnervUf  Linnaeus,  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  Guyana,  and  Tri- 
nidad. It  produces  a  large  yellow  berry,  which  is  eaten  in  the 
countries  where  it  grows.  B.  parasitica  is  a  native  of  Guyana  and 
Maranham,  having  red  flowers.  It  is  a  climbing  shrubby  plant,  rooting 
itself  in  other  trees.  It  yields  a  colouring  matter  employed  for  dyeing 
red. 

BLAPS  (Fabricius),  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  order 
Coleoptercif  of  the  section  ffeteromera,  and  family  Melasotna  (Latreille). 
The  principal  generic  characters  are  : — Antennae  with  the  two  basal 
joints  short,  their  breadth  equalling  their  length;  the  third  joint  long, 
exceeding  that  of  the  two  following  together ;  the  three  following 
joints  are  longer  than  broad ;  the  remaining  joints  nearly  round, 
excepting  the  terminal  one,  which  is  round  at  the  base  and  acuminated 
towards  its  extremity;  maxillary  palpi  with  the  terminal  joint 
flattened,  and  when  viewed  from  above  or  below  somewhat 
hatchet-shaped;  thorax  broad,  sides  rounded,  posterior  maigin 
straight :  abdomen  oblong-ovate,  exceeding  the  thorax  in  width :  elytn 
generally  soldered  together,  incurved  so  as  to  embrace  the  sides  of  the 
abdomen,  more  or  less  acuminated  towards  the  apex,  and  prolonged  to 
a  point  at  the  apex. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  tolerably  abimdant,  and  frequent 
dark  damp    situations,   such  as  the  caverns  in  rocks,  &c.     In  this 

country  there  are  only  two  well- 
authenticated  species,  Blapt  ohtvsa 
and  B.  mortisaga :  the  latter  is  very 
common  in  our  kitchens  and  celkiB 
(in  company  with  the  cockroach) ; 
the  former  is  much  less  abundant 
It  is  occasionally  found  with  K 
moriisaga. 

Both  species  are  of  an  obscure 
black    colour,     and    about   three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  length.  As  B. 
b  ^  mortisaga  is  a  well-known  common 

species,  we   will    merely    mention 
the  characters,   distioguishing  the 
rarer  one  from  it.    The  first  striking 
difference  is  the  superior  breadth  in 
B.  obtuta;  the  antennse  are  shorter, 
the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  joints  are 
o,  Blapt  ohtitsOf  rather  above  the  scarcely  longer  than  broad  (while 
natural  size;    6,  an  antenna   of  the  j^  j.  ^^rtwa^a  their  length  is  nearly 
same  magnified.  double  the  breadth)  :   the  thorax 

has  its  hinder  angles  rounded  (in  mortiaaga  they  are  acute)  :  the  legs 
are  much  shorter  in  proportion,  and  the  elytra  are  distinctly  punctured 
Baker  relates  that  he  kept  a  Darkling  Beetle  (B.  mortwaga)  three 
years  without  food. 

(Kirby  and  Spence,  Introduction  to  Entomology.) 
BLA'TTIDJE,  a  family  of  Insects  of  the  order  Orthoptera.— 
Distinguishing  characters :  tarsi  6-jointed,  the  under  wings  folded 
longitudinally  only,  head  hidden  by  the  thorax;  body  oval  or  rounded, 
and  depressed;  antennse  long  and  thread-like,  and  composed  of  a 
great  number  of  very  minute  joints ;  palpi  long;  thorax  lai^go^  slightly 
convex,  generally  broader  than  long,  and  as  it  were  a  shield,  covering 
the  head  and  base  of  the  wing-cases,  which  latter  are  of  a  parchment- 


! 
1/ 


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BLAUW-BOC. 


BLENKIUS. 


son 


like  nature,  aud  ramified  with  nervefl;  oue  elytron  laps  over  the 
other ;  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  abdomen  is  furnished  with  two 
conical  articulated  appendages ;  logs  furnished  with  spines. 

The  BkUtidcB  are  extremely  active  voracious  insects,  some  species 
apparently  eating  almost  anything  that  comes  in  their  way.  Mr. 
Stephens  eniuneastes  seveii  species  indigenous  to  this  country,  and 
four  that  are  not  strictly  so;  among  the  last  mentioned,  the  well- 
known  and  troublesome  Cockroach  {Blatta  orierUalit)  may  be  enume- 
rated. It  is  said  to  have  come  originally  from  Asia,  but  on  this  point 
there  is  some  little  doubt ;  the  nocturnal  habits  and  ravages  of  this 
species  are  too  well  known  to  need  description.  The  xnale  in  its 
mature  state  has  wings  extending  only  half  the  length  of  the  body ; 
the  female  has  only  rudimentary  wings ;  her  eggs,  which  are  about 
16  in  number,  are  deposited  inclosed  in  an  oblong,  nearly  cylindrical, 
but  slightly  compressed  case,  with  an  elevated  serrated  edge  on  one 
side  :  this  at  first  is  of  a  whitish  colour,  but  after  a  little  time  becomes 
brown  and  of  a  firm  nature ;  the  female  carries  this  case  about  with 
her  at  first,  fixed  to  the  abdomen  by  a  gum-like  substance.  From  this 
asylum  the  young  make  their  escape  by  emitting  a  fluid  which  softens 
a  part  of  the  case. 

The  species  of  this  family  have  been  divided  into  two  genera  by 
Latreille ;  Matta  and  Kakerlae  (a  named  used  for  the  Maitce  by  the 
American  colonists),  the  latter  division  including  those  species  in  which 
the  females  are  apterous  (of  which  the  B.  arientalit  forms  a  type), 
and  the  former  those  in  which  both  sexes  possess  vdngs. 

The  number  of  exotic  species  of  this  tribe  is  very  great ;  the 
indigenous  species  of  this  country  are — B.  Oernumica,  paUens,  penpir 
ciUmris,  Panzeri,  nigripes,  Iwida,  patUcUiy  and  Lapponica.  Most  of 
these  are  comparatively  small,  and  are  found  in  woods;  the  last- 
mentioned  species  is  said  to  swarm  in  the  huts  of  the  Laplanders, 
where  it  commits  great  havoc,  and  in  conjunction  with  Silpha 
Lappcnica  has  been  known  to  devour  their  whole  supply  of  dried 
fish  in  a  single  day. 

(Kirby  and  Spenoe,  Introdtiction  to  British  Entomology  ;  Stephenson, 
lUuttrationa  of  British  Entomology.) 

BLAUW-BOC,  or  BLUE  BUCK.    [Antilopea] 

BLAZING-STAR    [Helonias.] 

BLECHNUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of 
Ferns  and  the  tribe  AdiasUaria^  It  has  its  thecsa  in  a  continuous 
line  parallel  to  the  midrib  upon  the  transverse  anastomosing  veins, 
and  covered  by  a  continuous  scarious  indusiiun.  There  is  but  one 
British  species  of  this  gen\is,  the  B,  horeale,  Hard  Fern.  It  has 
barren  pectinate-pinnatifid  fronds,  with  broadly  linear  rather  obtuse 
pinna},  fertile  frond  pinnate,  pinnso  linear  acute.  This  plant  is 
exceedingly  common  in  Qreat  Britain,  and  is  found  almost  everywhere 
in  woods,  on  commons,  heaths,  and  all  uncultivated  ground  It  occurs 
in  every  European  list  of  plants,  and  has  been  foimd  in  Northern 
Africa  and  North  America.  It  is  the  Lomaria  Spicant  of  Desveux, 
who  is  followed  by  Mr.  Newman,  in  his  *  History  of  British  Ferns.* 
Linnffius  described  it  as  an  Osmwnda,  The  roots  of  this  fern  are 
black,  tough,  and  wiry ;  the  rhizoma  tufted  and  hairy.  The  other 
species  of  Blechnwn  are  inhabitants  of  South  America,  Australia,  dnd 
the  C^pe  of  Good  Hope.  They  are  frequently  cultivated  in  collections 
of  Ferns.     (Babington,  McmucU  ;  Newman,  Jaistory  of  British  Ferns.) 

BLE'DIUS,  a  genus  of  Insects  of  the  order  Coleoptera  and  family 
StenidcB,  AntemuQ  with  the  basal  joint  very  long,  the  remaining 
joints  bent  at  an  angle  with  the  first;  maxillary  palpi  with  the 
second  and  third  joints  lai^ge,  terminal  one  slender;  mandibles 
armed  with  a  tooth  internally  towards  the  apex ;  body  elongate  and 
cylindri(»l;  head  furnished  with  two  tubercles  or  spines;  thorax 
armed  with  a  horn  in  the  males ;  logs  shorty  the  four  anterior  tibise 
broad  and  flat>  having  munerous  spines  on  the  external  part ;  tarsi 
four-jointed. 

The  BUdH  appear  to  be  peculiar  to  the  searcoast,  where  they 
barrow  in  the  wet  clay  or  sand  near  pools  of  water,  by  means  of  the 
spined  anterior  tibiae  above  described.  They  are  gregarious  in  their 
habits.  Three  species  have  been  discovered  in  this  country,  all 
of  which  are  of  a  black  coloiu*,  with  the  wing-cases  more  or  less  red. 

BUdius  tricomiSf  in  the  male  sex,  has  two  short  horns  on  the 
head,  and  one  long  smooth  horn  proceeding  horizontally  from  the 
front  of  Uie  thorax.    L«igth  about  8-12ths  of  an  inch. 

B.  Taurus,  in  the  male,  has  two  long  and  slender  horns  on  the 
head ;  the  thoracic  horn  is  pubescent  at  the  apex ;  about  the  same 
tdze  as  the  last. 

B.  Ruddii  has  short  acute  horns  on  the  head,  and  the  thoracic 
horn  pubescent  at  the  apex ;  it  is  rather  less  than  the  two  foregoing 
eipecies. 

BLEHUS,  a  genus  of  Insects  of  the  order  Coleoptera  and  family 
Ifarpalidce.  K^A  almost  as  large  as  the  thorax,  the  portion  joining 
the  anterior  part  of  the  eyes  distinctly  elevated;  antennsa  very 
long;  palpi  with  the  terminal  joint  somewhat  conical  and  rather 
acute ;  labium  sUghtly  notched  in  front;  thorax  considerably  narrowed 
posteriorly ;  body  elongate  and  rather  depressed ;  wings  ample ;  the 
joints  of  the  anterior  tarsi  of  the  male  dilated. 

About  six  British  species  of  this  genus  have  been  discovered,  the 
largest  of  whid^  does  not  exceed  8-12ths  of  an  inch.  All  the  species 
ore  of  a  pale-yellow  or  ochre  colour,  having  more  or  less  of  a  bluish 
•hade  on   the  disc  of  the  elytra,  excepting  B.    consputus,  which 


although  generally  placed  in  this  genus  we  do  not  consider  as  strictiy 
belonging  to  it.  B.  Jasciatus,  wluoh  may  be  considered  the  type  of 
the  genus,  is  rather  more  than  2-12ths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a 
pale  ochre-colour,  with  a  blue-black  fascia  crossing  the  elytra.  This 
beautiful  littie  species  has  been  foimd  near  London,  and  in  various 
other  parts ;  but,  like  all  the  species  of  this  genus^  is  rather  scarce. 

BLENDE,  a  name  particuLurly  given  to  Zinc-Blende,  but  most 
commonly  used  by  mineralogists  as  denoting  an  order  which  in  the 
system  of  Professor  Jameson, of  Edinburgh  contains  the  following 
genera : — Manganese-Blende,  Zinc-Blende  or  Garnet-Blende,  Antimony- 
Blende,  Ruby-Blende.  The  word  is  probably  derived  from  a  German 
verb  (used  only  in  combinations)  signifying  to  mix :  the  term  'blende' 
signifies  a  mineral  which  contains  no  ore — in  fact  a  pseudo-galena. 
[Znra] 

BLE'NNIUS,  Blennies  (French,  Baveuses),  a  genus  of  Fishes  of  the 
section  AcarUhopterygU  and  family  Gobioida  (Gk)bies).  Both  the  Greek 
and  the  French  names  have  been  applied  to  this  genus  frx)m  the  mucous 
matter  with  which  the  bodies  of  these  fishes  are  covered.  They 
may  be  easily  distinguished  by  their  having  the  ventral  fin  placed 
before  the  pectoral,  and  containing  genersJly  but  two  rays.  The 
head  is  short  and  rounded ;  teeth  long  and  slender,  and  placed  in  a 
single  row ;  body  long,  compressed,  smooth,  and  posseasing  only  one 
dorsal  fin,  which  extends  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  back ;  they 
have  no  air-bladder. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  small,  live  in  shoals,  but  not  in  great 
numbers.  They  are  very  active  and  tenacious  of  life,  and  frequent 
rocky  coasts,  where  they  may  often  be  found  in  the  pools  of  water 
left  by  the  tide,  hiding  themselves  among  the  weeds  and  in  the 
crevices  of  the  rocks. 

The  genus  Bknnius  of  LinnsBus,  in  Cuvier^s  'Rdgne  Animal,'  is 
divided  into  the  following  subgenera :  Myxodes,  Salarias,  Clinus, 
Cirrhibarba,  Marcmoides,  OpistognathuSf  and  Zoarcus,  At  present  we 
confine  ourselves  to  the  Blennies,  properly  so  called,  of  which, 
according  to  Mr.  Yarrell,  we  have  five  species  frequenting  our  coasts. 
The  first,  B.  Montagui,  Montagu's,  or  Diminutive,  Blenny,  is  generally 
of  an  olive-green  above,  spotted  with  pale-blue  shaded  to  white; 
belly  white,  pectoral  fizis  spotted  with  orange.  The  head,  viewed 
laterally,  forms  an  obtuse  angle  in  front,  and  is  furnished  with  a 
transverse  conic  or  angular  fimbriated  crest  The  dorsal  fin  has 
30  rays,  pectoral  12,  ventral  2,  anal  (which  extends  from  the  vent  to 
the  taU)  18,  and  the  caudal  (which  is  rounded)  14.  It  is  found  on 
the  south  coast  of  Devon. 

B.  ocellaris,  the  Ocellated  Blenny,  or  Butterfly-Fish,  is  scarcely  three 
inches  long,  the  head  is  rounded,  the  part  anterior  to  the  eyes  very 
short,  and  above  the  eyes  two  slender  fimbriated  appendages  are 


Butterfly- t'lsh  {liUnniut  ocellaris). 

situated ;  body  elongate ;  dorsal  fin  extending  from  the  back  part  of 
the  head  to  the  tail,  and  consists  of  26  ravs,  of  which  the  first  is  con- 
siderably longer  than  the  rest,  the  nine  following  diminish  in  length  to 
the  eleventh,  which  is  shortest,  the  twelfth  nearly  double  the  length 
of  the  last,  from  this  the  remaining  rays  gradually  increase  in  length 
to  about  half-way,  and  then  decrease  towards  the  tail ;  a  large  dark- 
brown  spot  extends  from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  ray.  The  pectoral 
fins  have  each  12  rays,  ventral  2,  anal  17,  and  caudal  11.  The  body 
is  of  a  pale-brown  colour,  varied  with  patches  of  a  deeper  hue ;  the 
pectoral  and  ventral  fins  are  darker  than  the  others.  This  spedes 
frequents  the  coast  of  Devonshire  and  elsewhere,  but  is  not  common. 

B.  gcUtorugine,  the  Gattoruginous  Blenny,  is  about  five  or  six  inohei 
in  length ;  it  is  elongate,  rather  robust  anteriorly,  the  forehead  slopes 
considerably  from  the  posterior  part  to  the  anterior;  the  head  is 
grooved  between  the  eyes,  and  furnished  with  two  branched  mem- 
branes situated  just  above  the  eyelids ;  the  dorsal  fin  extends  from  the 
back  part  of  the  head  to  the  tail,  the  central  part  is  very  slightly  nar- 
rower than  the  rest.  The  fins  and  body  are  of  a  dark  reddliah-brown 
colour,  the  belly  and  hinder  portion  of  the  former  is  of  a  paler  browD. 
The  dorsal  fin  has  33  rays,  the  pectoral  fins  are  broad  and  rounded, 
and  have  each  14,  the  ventral  fin  2,  and  the  anal  23  rays ;  the  tali  is 
slightiy  roimded,  and  has  11  rays.  It  has  been  found  in  Foole 
Harbour  and  other  parts.     Not  common. 

B,  pholis,  the  Shanny.  In  this  species  all  the  rays  of  the  dorsal  fin 
are  nearly  of  equal  length,  except  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  (which  are 
short) ;  the  number  of  these  rays  is  31,  pectoral  13,  ventral  2,  anal  19, 
caudal  1 1 ;  the  colour  is  very  variable,  but  consists  of  shades  of  brown. 


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B.  phoUs  may  howoTer  be  readily  distinguished  from  auy  of  the  kuown 
British  speciee  by  the  absence  of  the  appendages  on  the  head. 

B,  TarrdUi,  the  Crested  or  Yarrell's  Blenny.  This  species  may  be 
known  by  its  elongated  even  ihape,  the  nnifSrm  length  of  the  rays  of 
the  dorsal  fin,  the  form  of  the  tail  (which  has  the  external  rays 
shortest^  the  othen  increasing  in  lengfth  to  the  middle,  thus  being 
somewhat  lanceolate  in  shape),  and  the  four  appendages  of  the  head 
which  are  all  fimbriated.  Two  of  these  appendages  are  placed  one 
oyer  each  eye,  and  connected  by  a  transverse  fold  of  skm ;  behind 
these  are  placed  the  other  pair,  which  are  of  a  laiger  sise.  The  fin 
rays  are,  dorsal  51,  pectoral  14,  ventral  8,  anal  86,  and  caudal  16. 

This  species  was  formerly  confounded  with  B.  podmicomtu  and 
B.  gakrUa,  but  Valenciennes  has  pointed  out  its  distinctive  characters 
and  named  it  after  the  distinguisned  British  icthyologist  whose  name 
it  now  bears.  A  specimen  of  this  very  rare  British  fidb  was  exhibited 
amongst  the  earliest  specimens  in  the  Aquavivarium  in  the  Regent's 
Park,  and  is  BtUl  alive  (July,  1868).  Many  other  species  of  Blenny 
have  been  exhibited  in  the  tanks  of  the  establishments  All  the  species 
are  remarkable  for  the  facility  with  which  they  use  the  ventral  fins 
for  enabling  them  to  cling  to  and  move  about  upon  the  rocks  and 
stones  by  which  they  are  surrounded. 

BLETHARIS,  agenus  of  Aconthopterygious  Fishes,  which  according 
to  Cuvier  belongs  to  the  seventh  family  of  that  tribe,  called  Scombe- 
roide$.  They  may  be  distinguished  by  their  having  long  filaments  to 
their  second  dorsal,  and  to  their  anal  fin  rays ;  ventnds  much  prolonged, 
the  spines  of  the  first  hardly  piercing  me  skin;  body  elevated,  the 
profile  with  the  ordinary  degree  of  curvature. 

BLETSIAS,  a  genus  of  Acanthoptexygious  Fishes,  belongmg  to  the 
section  having  hanl  cheeks.  Of  this  genus  but  one  species,  BUlonu,  is 
known,  which  belongs  to  the  Aleutiaa  Islands.  Generic  characters : 
head  compressed,  cheeks  mailed,  fleshy  barbels  under  the  lower  jaw, 
gills  with  five  rays ;  one  dorsal  fin  divided  into  three  unequal  lobes; 
ventral  fin  very  small. 

BLESS-BOC.    [AiraiLOPKA] 

BLETHI'SA  (Bbnelli),  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  order 
OoUoptercB,  by  some  authors  associated  with  the  family  ffarp<Uid<ej 
and  by  others  with  the  EUxphridcB,  The  former  is  probably  more 
correct^  as  doubts  may  be  entertained  that  the  latter  fionily  is  a 
natural  one.  Head  lai^,  eyes  slightly  prominent^  mandibles 
obscurely  toothed;  palpi  with  the  two  tenninal  joints  of  equal 
length,  tiie  terminal  rather  ovate,  truncated  at  the  apex ;  mentum 
emarginate  anteriorly,  the  emargination  with  an  obscuris  bifid  lobe; 
antennso  short,  the  tbree  basal  and  base  of  the  fourth  joints  naked ; 
thorax  rather  shorty  rounded  at  the  sides;  dytra  elongated,  very 
convex  and  impressed  with  numerous  small  excavations;  anterior 
tarsi  of  the  male  with  four  slightly-dilated  joints. 

Of  this  beautiful  genus  but  one  species  has  been  found  in  this 
country,  BUthisa  muUiptmctata ;  and  apparently  only  two  others  are 
yet  known  on  the  continent.  The  species  just  named  frequents 
marshy  situations,  and  is  often  found  crawling  upon  willow-trees ;  it 
is  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  of  a  rich  bronze  or  brassy  hue,  by 
which  characters,  combined  with  the  numerous  indented  points  on 
the  elytra,  it  may  easily  be  distinguidied. 

BLETIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Orchidaeeas. 
The  corms  of  Bldia  verectmda  are  said  by  Dr.  P.  Browne  to  have  a 
bitterish  flavour,  and  when  dry  to  be  used  with  advantage  as  a  stomachia 

BLETTING.  All  ripe  fruits  after  they  have  been  kept  for  some 
time  begin  to  decompose,  and  the  spots  formed  on  the  fruit  during 
this  process  have  been  called  by  Professor  Lindley  '  Blets.'  During 
the  whole  time  of  the  growth  of  the  fruits  of  plants  various  important 
chemical  chacges  go  on  in  their  tissues,  eai^ecially  whilst  ripening. 
These  changes  have  been  examined  with  great  care  by  Beranl.  At 
first  the  flesh  of  most  fruits  con-iists  of  fibrous  or  cellidar  tissue, 
which  is  mostly  composed  of  lignine.  The  liquid  of  fruits  is  sap, 
which  exists  between  the  cells  in  the  intercellular  passages.  This 
liquid,  besides  a  great  quantity  of  water,  contains  sugar,  gum,  malic 
Acid,  malate  of  lime,  colouring  matter,  a  peculiar  vegeto-animal 
substance  (protein),  and  an  aromatic  secretion  proper  to  each  fruit. 
In  such  fruits  as  the  grape  there  is  tartrate  of  potash  and  lime ;  in 
the  lemon  and  the  gooseberry,  citric  acid.  As  the  process  of  ripening 
goes  on,  the  quantity  of  water  diminishes,  and  the  sugar  increases. 
This  sugar  is  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  lignine,  and  is  either  in  a 
concrete  state,  as  in  the  grape,  fig,  and  peach,  or  fiuid,  as  in  most 
fniit».  It  is  after  this  period  that  Bletting  comes  on,  and  changes 
take  place  in  the  fruit  which  render  it  unfit  for  the  ordinary  uses  of 
man.  Bletting  is  attended  with  the  formation  of  carbonic  add,  the 
nitrogenised  substance  enters  into  a  state  of  putrefaction,  and  the 
sugar  undergoes  fermentation.  These  processes  are  imdeigone  most 
rapidly  when  the  fruit  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  fruits  in  which  these  changes  have  been  most 
accurately  observed  are  the  pear  and  the  apple.  A  jargonelle  pear 
was  foimd  to  have  sustained  a  loss  of  its  constituents  in  the  following 
proportion : — 

Ripe.  Bletted. 

Lignme     .        .        .  219        .        .        .  1*85 

Sugar        .        .  11-62        ...  877 

Water  .  8888        .        .        .        6278 

-  ''t  acquired  rather  more  malic  add,  gum,  and  nitrogenised  matter. 


The  fact  has  been  observed  by  Dr.  Hassall  that  in  all  bletted  fniiti 
there  exists  a  low  form  of  Fungus,  which  he  considers  the  cause  of  thf 
decay.  He  found,  on  inoculating  sound  fruits,  even  while  growing 
on  the  tree,  that  he  could  produce  immediately  the  process  of  decay, 
and  wherever  this  was  indicated  by  bletting,  there  he  discovered  the 
fibres  of  the  fungus  with  the  microscope.  This  appearance  of  the 
fungus  however  is  only  in  accordance  with  what  we  know  of  the 
habits  of  fVmgi,  whose  sporules,  being  everywhere  diffused  through 
the  air,  immediately  spring  up  where  a  fitting  nidus  is  found  for  their 
growth  We  find  that  as  soon  as  a  fruit  becomes  ripe  its  constituenta 
commence  union  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  forming  carbonic  acid 
gas,  and  it  is  during  this  state  of  their  elements  that  the  fungus  finds 
a  soil  ready  for  its  development. 

Whichever  view  be  taken  of  the  rotting  of  fruits,  their  preservation 
must  be  conducted  on  the  same  principle,  for  what  will  exclude 
oxygen  will  exdude  the  sporules  of  fungi.  As  a  simple  process  it  has 
been  recommended  to  place  at  the  bottom  of  a  bottle  a  paste  formed 
of  lime,  sulphate  of  iron,  and  water,  and  then  to  introduce  the  fhiii, 
which  has  been  pulled  a  few  days  before  ripening.  The  fruits  should 
be  kept  from  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  and  as  much  as  possible  from 
each  other,  and  the  bottle  should  be  closed  by  a  cork  and  cement 
In  this  vray  peaches,  prunes,  and  apricots  may  be  kept  from  20  days 
to  a  month ;  pears  and  apples  for  three  months.  Dr.  Haasall  recom- 
mends that  fruits  should  be  washed  over  with  a  composition  oonsistiDg 
of  water  one  pound,  shell-lac  and  borax  two  ounces 

(Lindley,  Introduction  to  Botany;  Hassall,  Transaetiont  of  Micnr 
tcopUxU  Society f  vol  L) 

BLI'GHIA,  a  genus  of  plants  named  after  Captain  William  Bligh, 
R.N.,  master  of  the  Boun^  in  the  celebrated  mutiny,  belongs  to  the 
natural  order  Sapindacece.  It  has  a  6-parted  calyx,  5  petids,  a  veiy 
short  style,  8  stigmas,  and  a  solitary  seed  with  a  very  large  arUlua 
Only  one  spedes  of  this  genus  has  been  described,  the  B  tapida, 
Akee-Tree.  It  is  a  native  of  Guinea,  from  whence  it  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  It  is  a  tree  attainisg 
a  height  of  80  or  40  feet.  It  has  pubescent  leaves,  with  three  or  foar 
pairs  of  ovate-lanoeolate  veined  leaflets.  The  fruit  of  this  tree  is  a 
berry  of  a  reddish  or  yellowish  colour,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg. 
The  aril  of  the  seed  is  pulpy,  and  of  a  grateful  subacid  flavour,  and  is 
eaten  in  Africa  and  the  West  Indies.  This  tree  does  not  produce 
flowers  in  thii  oountry.  It  may  however  be  easily  cultivated.  It 
grows  well  in  a  mixture  of  loam  and  peat.  Cuttings  will  strike  iu 
sand  under  a  hand-glass.  They  should  not  be  deprived  of  any  of 
their  leaves.     (Loudon,  Encyclopasdia  of  Plants.) 

BLIND-WORM,  the  English  name  for  a  spedes  of  Reptile  belonging 
to  the  fEonil^  of  Angtndaf  Les  Orvets  of  the  French,  and  the  genus 
Anguia  of  Limueus.  It  is  also  called  in  England  Slow-Worm.  The 
Blind-Worm  {Anguisfragilit\  is  common  throughout  Europe.  Ita 
length  varies  from  about  11  inches  to  somewhat  more  than  a  foot, 
and  instances  have  been  given  of  its  attaining  more  than  double  that 
length.  The  eyes  are  small  (whence  one  of  its  names),  and  the  irides 
are  red.  The  head  is  small,  the  teeth 
are  minute  and  numerous,  the  neck  is 
slender,  and  thence  the  body  enlarges, 
continuing  of  equal  bulk  to  the  tip  of 
the  tail,  which  ends  bluntly,  and  is  as 
long  as  the  trunk,  or  body  part  .The 
scales  are  very  smooth,  shining,  of  a 
silvered  yellow  on  the  upper  parts, 
and  dusky  beneath;  tbe  sides  are  of  a  somewhat  reddish  cast. 
Down  the  back  extend  three  black  lines,  which  clumge  with  age  mto 
different  series  of  black  specks,  and  at  length  disappear.  The 
general  colour  of  the  back  may  be  described  as  cinereous,  with 
somewhat  of  a  metallic  lustre,  and  marked  with  very  fine  lines  of 
minute  black  specks.  The  dusky  belly  and  the  reddish  sides  are 
marked  like  the  back. 

The  Blind-Worm  feeds  on  earth-worms,  insects,  kc ;  and  the  slow- 
ness of  its  motion  has  obtained  for  it  another  of  its  names.  Though 
perfectly  innocuous,  it  has  the  character  of  possessing  the  most  deadly 
venom,  and  is  persecuted  accordingly.  Pennant  quotes  Dr.  Borlase  as 
assisting  this  idle  and  groundless  notion,  by  mentioning  a  variety  of 
this  serpent  with  a  pointed  tail,  and  adding  tiiat  he  had  been  infonued 
that  a  man  lost  his  life  by  the  bite  of  one  in  Oxfordshire.  Now,  if 
the  serpent  that  bit  the  man  in  Oxfordshire  had  a  pointed  tail,  it 
could  not  have  been  a  blind-worm ;  and  if  the  story  of  the  death  be 
true,  he  most  probably  lost  his  life  by  the  bite  of  a  black  or  duaky 
viper,  as  Pennant  suggests.  [Viper.]  The  coxmtry  people  still  hold 
this  harmless  reptile  iu  utter  abhorrence,  and  wage  an  exterminating 
war  against  it :  but  the  reader  may  be  assured  that  the  '  blind-worm's 
sting '  exists  only.in  imagination.  The  animal  is  very  brittle.  •  Laurenti 
and'others  assert  that  when  captured  it  throws  itself  into  such  rigidity 
that  it  sometimes  breaks  in  two.  A  smart  blow  with  a  switch  diirides 
it;  and  from  this  fragility  Linnasus  gave  it  the  specific  name  which  it 
still  retains.  Cuvier  is  of  opinion  that  the  Anguia  eryx  of  Linnaeus  is 
oidy  a  young  blind-wonn,  which  has  the  dorsal  lines  well  marked,  and 
that  the  Anguis  divicus,  which  Daudin*  makes  an  Sryx,  is  nothing 
more  than  an  old  blind-worm  with  a  truncated  taiL  The  Blind-Worm, 
or  Slow-Worm,  of  the  old  English  authors  is  the  Long  Cripple  of  the 
Cornish,  according  to  Borlase,  Ormsla  and  KopparOrm  of  the '  FauiA 


Head  of  Blind-Worm. 


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BLINDa 


BLOOD. 


510 


SjiedcA,'  L'Onret  of  Lac^pMe,  Blind  Sohleiohe  of  the  Qennanfl,  AnguU 
fragilit  of  LinxuBiia.  It  Drings  forth  its  young  alive,  and  it  is  said 
twice.a  year,  in  the  seasonB  of  spring  and  autumn. 

The  general  opinion  is  (and  we  think  it  well  founded)  that  the 
Blind- Worm  is  the  CcBeilia  of  the  Latins,  and  the  T^\«^  and  Tv^\tttos 
of  the  ancient  Qfeeks,  names  given  in  allusion  to  its  supposed  Uind- 
neas,  and  that  it  was  sometimes  called  Ku^ias  on  account  of  its  assumed 
deafness.  Belon  considers  it  to  be  the  serpent  <»lled  Tephloti,  Tephliti, 
and  Tephlini  by  the  modem  Qreeks.  Columella  ('  De  Re  Bustled,' 
6.  &  17),  following  the  opinion  of  its  deleterious  nature,  says  that  its 
poison  is  &tal  to  oxen,  and  that  the  cure  is  the  fles^  of  storks, 
because  they  devour  this  serpent  Upon  the  principle,  we  suppose, 
of  counteracting  one  poison  by  the  application  of  anotner,  a  Theriaoa, 
or  poison-antidote,  made  from  the  harmless  Blind-Worms  {OacUiis)  and 
the  theriacal  water  was  used  as  a  sudorific  against  the  pestilence. 
Mx:.  Bell  says  this  creature  is  kept  alive  with  difficulty  in  confinement. 
It  feeds  on  worms,  insects,  slugs,  &a  Its  habMs  are  exceedingly  gentle 
and  inoffensive,  and  even  should  it  attempt  to  bite  when  irritated  it 
is  incapable  of  producing  injury.    (Bell,  British  JUptUea,) 

BLINDS,  a  name  given  in  Devonshire  and  Cornwall  to  the  Whiting 

Pout      [MOBRHUA.] 

BLITUM  (from  $\irov),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  C^enopodiaeece.  It  has  no  corolla,  a  trifid  calyx,  a  pistil  with  2 
styles,  a  single  seed  immersed  in  its  berried  calyx.  Two  species  of 
this  genus  are  known  by  the  name  of  Strawberry  Blite— ^.  ecipUcUum 
and  B.  virgatum.  The  former  has  its  flowers  in  terminal  spikes ;  the 
latter  has  its  heads  lateral  and  scattered.  Some  writers  nave  made 
the  B.  virgcAnm  only  a  variety  of  the  first,  but  its  axillary  flowers  are 
constant.  After  flowering,  the  calyx  of  these  two  species  swells  out^ 
and  presents  the  size,  colour,  and  appearance  of  the  common  wood- 
strawberry.  It  is  succulent^  stains  the  hands,  and  was  formerly  used 
for  colouring  puddings.  The  taste  is  insipid.  These  plants  are  not 
•latives  of  Great  Britain,  but  are  common  on  way-sides  and  in  culti- 
vated groimds  in  the  south  of  Europ&  The  species  of  Chenopodiwn 
are  closely  allied  to  those  of  BlUum ;  and  Meyer,  Reichenbach,  and 
Koch  have  referred  the  European  species  of  Chenopodivm  with 
vertical  seeds  to  the  genus  Blitum.  These  are  the  C.  rubrum,  C. 
Bonus  SeivrievbSf  and  u  glawswa^  of  Babington's  '  3£anual  of  British 
Botany,' — all  three  of  which  are  Linnsean  species. 

( Koch,  Flora  Oermaniea  ;  Loudon,  Sncydopcedia  of  Plants ; 
Babington,  Manual.) 

BLOOD,  the  animal  fluid  by  which  the  tissues  of  the  body  arc 
nourished,  and  which  is  contained  in  the  tubes  called  from  their  office 
Blood-Vesaela 

On  first  flowing  from  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  contained  the  blood 
is  a  thick,  visdd,  and  tenacious  fluid.  In  all  the  more  highly- 
organised  animals  it  is  of  a  red  colour:  but  redness  is  not  one  of  its 
essential  properties.  In  several  tribes  of  animals  which  possess  true  and 
proper  blood,  this  fluid  is  not  of  a  red  colour,  and  there  is  no  animal 
whose  blood  is  visibly  red  in  all  the  parts  of  the  body.  The  blood  of 
the  insect  is  colourless  and  transparent;  that  of  the  reptile  is  of  a 
yellowish  colour;  in  the  main  part  of  the  body  of  the  fish,  that  is,  in 
the  whole  of  its  muscular  system,  the  blood  is  without  colour ;  hence 
the  whiteness  of  the  general  substance  of  the  body  of  the  fish :  but 
in  the  more  important  organs,  and  especially  in  those  which  constitute 
the  circle  of  nutrition,  called  the  omtns  of  oi^ganic  life,  the  blood  is 
of  a  red  colour,  as  in  the  heart,  the  branchin  or  gills,  and  so  on.  In 
the  bird  the  blood  is  of  a  deep  red ;  but  it  is  the  deepest  of  aU  in  the 
mammalia.  In  some  species  of  mammalia  it  is  deeper  than  in  others; 
in  the  hare,  for  example,  it  is  much  deeper  than  in  the  rabbit  It  is 
deeper  in  some  varieties  of  the  same  n>ecies  than  in  others,  and  more 
especially  in  different  varieties  of  the  human  family. 

In  man  and  all  the  higher  animals  the  body  contains  two  kinds  of 
blood,  each  of  which  is  distinguished  by  a  striking  difference  of 
colour.  Each  kind  of  blood  is  contained  in  its  own  peculiar  set 
of  vessels :  the  one  in  the  vessel  called  a  vein,  hence  ciJled  venous 
blood;  the  other  in  the  vessel  called  an  arteiy,  arterial  blood.  Venous 
blood  is  of  a  dark  or  Modenft-red  colour;  arterial  blood  is  of  a  bright 
scarlet  colour.  Venous  differs  from  arterial  blood  in  its  most  essential 
properties  no  less  than  in  its  colour:  venous  blood  is  incapable  of 
nourishing  the  body  and  of  stimulating  the  organs;  arterial  blood  is 
the  proper  nutrient  and  stimulant  of  t£e  system. 

The  specific  gravity  of  human  blood  (water  being  1000)  may  be 
stated  to  be  about  1055  or  1056,  from  which  standard  it  is  capable  of 
increasing  to  1120,  and  of  sinking  to  1026,  this  being  the  extreme 
range  of  variation  hitherto  observed.  Venous  is  heavier  than  arterial 
blood,  the  former  being  conmionly  estimated  at  1052,  and  the  latter 
at  1049.  The  higher  the  organisation  of  the  blood  the  g^^'eater  is  its 
specific  gravity :  hence  the  specific  gravity  of  the  blood  of  the  higher 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  lower  animals. 

There  is  a  remarkable  difference  in  different  classes  of  animals  in 
the  temperature  of  the  blood.  In  some  it  is  only  a  degree  or  two 
above  that  of  the  surrounding  medium.  Creatures  with  blood  of  this 
low  temperature  are  called  cold-blooded,  in  contradistinction  to  warm- 
blooded animals,  whose  temperatiure  is  maintained  under  whatever 
variety  of  circnmstanoet  they  may  be  placed  considerably  above  that 
of  the  surrounding:  air. 

The  following  table  of  the  temperature  of  the  blood  of  different 


animals,  is  compiled  f^m  the  researches  of  Tiedemann  and  Budolphi 
on  this  subject 

Animal.  Degrees  of  Fahrenheit. 

Qreat  Titmouse 111*25 

Swallow 111-25 

Ducks  and  Geese         .        .        .         106  to  111 

Common  Hen 102  to  109 

Species  of  Eagles,  Hawks,  &e.    .     .     104  to  109 

Kgeon 106  to  109 

Gull    .        • 100 

Bat         . 106 

Squirrel 105 

Ox  ........     104 

Ape    ...  ....     103 

Dog 101 

Cat 98  to  103 

Elephant        .        .  ....      99 

Horse 98*24 

Man 98 

Arterial  is  wanner  by  one  degree  than  venous  blood. 

Disease  is  capable  of  effecting  a  considerable  change  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  blood.  In  almost  every  case  of  fever  the  temperature  of 
the  blood  differs  from  the  natural  standai*d.  In  the  cold  fit  of 
intermittent  fever  (ague)  it  sometimes  sinks  as  low  as  94** ;  in  some 
types  of  continued  fever  it  rises  as  high  as  102°.  In  cholera  it  sinks 
to  90**.  In  infiammation  of  moderate  severity  it  exceeds  the  natural 
standard  by  4  degrees ;  in  intense  inflammation  it  is  capable  of  rising 
above  it  as  high  as  7  degrees. 

The  blood,  whilst  circulating  in  the  body  is  composed  of  two  parts, 
a  liquid  and  a  solid.  The  liquid  is  called  liquor  sanguinfR,  and  the 
solid,  on  account  of  its  celluliur  character,  blood-globules  or  corpuscles. 
When  blood  is  allowed  to  stand,  after  it  is  taken  from  the  body,  it 
separates  into  two  distinct  parts,  a  solid  mass,  and  a  fluid  matter  in 
which  the  solid  mass  swims.  The  solid  portion  of  the  blood,  which 
includes  the  blood-corpuscles  and  a  portion  of  the  liquor  sanguinis 
called  the  fibrin,  is  termed  the  Clot,  or  the  Crassamentum ;  the  fiuid 
portion  is  called  the  Serum ;  and  the  process  by  which  the  separation 
takes  place  is  denominated  Coagulation. 

The  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  blood  by  which  this  separa- 
tion into  a  solid  and  fluid  portion  is  effected  commences  directly  the 
blood  leaves  the  blood-vessel  In  about  eight  or  nine  minutes  after 
blood  is  drawn  from  a  living  animal  it  begins  to  thicken,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  quarter  of  an  hour  the  dot  begins  to  form,  and  the 
serum  exudes.  This  process  arises  from  the  fiiict  that  the  fibrin  is 
not  dissolved,  only  suspended  in  the  blood,  and  when  allowed  to 
stand  it  separates,  sinking  in  the  liquid  blood,  and  canying  with  it 
the  blood-corpuscles.  When  the  latter  separate  from  the  fibrin, 
which  they  do  tmder  various  circumstances,  forming  a  layer  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  clot,  the  upper  part  of  the  clot>  whidi  is  of  a 
yellow  or  buff  ooloiu*,  is  called  thebuff^  coat 

The  Coagulation  of  the  Blood  is  not  simply  a  separation  of  the 
fibrin  from  the  serum  of  the  blood,  dependent  on  physical  causes,  as 
is  evident  from  the  manner  in  which  it  is  hastened  or  delayed  by 
external  causes.  Hiis  maybe  stated  without  the  necessity  of  making 
any  inferences  from  the  phenomena  presented.  Temperature  exerts 
an  infiuence,  as  cold  delays  coagulation,  whilst  moderate  heat  hastens 
its  occurrence.  Exposure  to  ^e  atmosphere  facilitates  this  process^ 
as  also  contact  with  foreign  bodies ;  but  the  exdusion  of  air  delavs  it 
The  cessation  of  active  motion  whilst  the  blood  is  in  the  body 
hastens  coagulation,  but  movement  also  gives  a  tendency  to  it  out  of 
the  body.  A  mixture  of  half  the  bulk  of  the  blood  with  water 
increases  the  coagulative  tendency,  but  increased  dilution  diminishes 
it.  States  of  we  system  affbct  it  Faintness  is  favourable  to 
coagulation,  but  excitement  and  suffocation  retard  it  Cosgulation  is 
quicker  in  arterial  than  in  venous  blood.  Foreign  substances  generally 
hasten  it^  but  slkalies  delay  it 

The  Clot  or  Crassamentum  separates  into  two  portions — a  substance 
of  a  yellowish-white  colour  forming  the  top  of  the  clot,  and  a  red 
mass  always  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  clot  When  the  yellowish 
substance  forming  the  top  of  the  clot  is  completely  separated  fr^m 
the  red  mass  it  is  found  to  be  a  solid  of  considerable  consistence,  soft, 
firm,  elastic,  and  tenacious,  or  gluey.  Its  distinctive  character  is 
derived  from  the  disposition  manifested  by  its  component  particles  to 
arrange  themselves  mto  minute  threads  or  fibres ;  these  threads  or 
fibres  are  often  so  disposed  as  to  form  a  complete  net-work.  In  its 
general  aspect  as  well  as  in  its  chemical  relations  this  substance  bears 
a  striking  resemblance  to  pure  muscular  fibre ;  that  ia,  to  muscular 
fibre  deprived  of  its  envdoping  membrane  and  of  its  colouring  matter. 
Several  names  have  been  ^ven  to  this  substance — ^gluten,  ooagulaUe 
lymph,  fibre  of  the  blood,  and  fibrin ;  the  latter  is  the  name  commonly 
appropriated  to  it  Of  all  the  constituents  of  the  blood  Fibrin  is  by 
far  the  most  important  Whatever  other  constituent  may  be  absent, 
this  in  all  animals  which  possess  blood  is  invariably  present  The 
main  part  of  all  the  solid  structures  of  the  body  is  composed  of  it ;  it 
forms  the  basis  of  musde,  and  in  the  lower  animals,  in  which  distinct 
muscular  fibres  cannot  be  traced,  it  probably  performs  the  function 
of  muscle.    This  substance  or  some  modification  of  it  is  also  found  in 


Digitized  by 


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511 


BLOOD. 


BLOOD. 


plants,  and  w«m8  to  be  the  chemical  compotuid  with  which  the  active 
functions  of  life  are  connected. 

The  second  constituent  of  the  Clot»  the  red  matteri  being  heavier 
than  the  fibrin,  gradually  subsides  to  the  lower  surface,  where  it  is 
always  found  forming  the  bottom  of  the  dot.  The  proportion  of  this 
red  matter  to  the  fibrin  differs  in  different  classes  of  animals,  and  even 
in  the  same  animal  at  different  times.  The  greater  the  energy  and 
activity  of  Uie  animal  the  larger  is  the  proportion  of  the  red  matter, 
and  it  is  also  generaUy  laige  in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the 
animal  temperature. 

When  a  drop  of  blood  is  placed  under  the  microscope  it  is  found  to 
consist  of  the  liauor  sangumis  and  a  number  of  globules  or  cells.  It 
is  these  latter  wmch  constitute  the  red  matter  of  the  blood.  When 
careAilly  examined  these  cells  are  found  to  be  of  two  kinds — the  one 
white  or  colourless,  the  other  red.  The  former  except  in  states  of 
disease  are  far  less  in  number  than  the  latter,  and  are  found  to  be 
identical  with  cells  which  are  found  in  the  lymph  and  chyle.  Hence 
they  are  sometimes  called  lymph-  or  chyle-corpuscles.  These  white 
corpuscles  have  only  of  late  years  attracted  much  attention,  though 
they  had  been  described  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Hewson.  In  man 
and  the  mammalia  they  are  often  larger  than  the  red  corpuscles ;  they 
may  be  recognised  by  their  granular  appearance,  their  peculiar 
contour,  and  the  irregular  shading  of  their  figure.    {Pig9.  4  and  5.) 


Blood.Corpnscles. 
1,  Red  corpuscles  of  human  blood,  exhibiting  their  flattened  surfaces  ;  2,  the 
same,  adherent  by  their  flattened  surfaces  so  as  to  form  rolls  ;  S,  red  corpuscles 
of  (Tog's  blood  ;  4,  colourless  corpuscles  of  human  blood  ;  5,  the  some,  enlarged 
by  the  imbibition  of  water. 

They  are  also  to  be  distinguished  from  the  red  corpuscles  by  their 
different  actions  towards  chemical  re-agents ;  they  are  not  attacked  by 
water,  but  remain  in  it  for  a  long  time  without  apparent  change ;  they 
are  not  rendered  transparent  and  dissolved  by  acetic  acid ;  they  only 
become  more  decidedly  granular  under  its  action,  and  a  kind  of 
nucleus  is  developed  in  their  centre.  As  they  are  in  all  respects 
similar  to  those  of  lymph  and  chyle,  and  as  they  have  the  same 
chemical  relations,  they  have  been  regarded  by  many  as  the  corpuscles 
of  the  lymph  mingled  with  the  blood  (Hewson,  MiUler) ;  others  have 
viewed  them  as  globules  of  coagulated  fibrin  (Mandl,  Weber) ;  and 
others  again  with  more  proroiety  as  blood-corpuscles  in  progress  of 
solution  or  disintegration  (Wharton  Jones,  Hughes  Bennett).  They 
may  be  seen  in  the  capillary  system  of  living  animals  (in  transparent 
structures,  as  for  instance  in  the  frog's  foot)  swimming  with  the  ordi- 
nary blood  corpuscles,  but  not  so  much  moving  rapidly  in  the  great 
current  of  the  blood  as  progressing  in  close  contact  with  the  walls  of 
the  vessels  in  a  slower  stream.  They  are  not  elastic  like  the  ordinary 
corpuscles,  and  seem  to  stick  to  each  other.  The  exact  functions  of 
these  corpuscles  are  still  unknown,  but  there  are  many  facte  which 
seem  to  mdicate  that  there  is  a  decided  relation  between  them  and 
between  the  nutritive  or  organic  life  of  the  tiBsues. 

In  addition  to  these  cells,  which  as  we  have  said  are  comparatively 
rare,  an  immense  number  of  what  are  termed  *  red  corpuscles,'  but 
which  usually  present  a  yellow  appearance,  are  present  in  the  red 
matter.  The  blood  of  numerous  animals  has  been  submitted  to 
microscopic  examination  by  Nasse,  Wagner,  Quiliver,  and  other 
observers,  and  in  general  it  is  found  that  these  red  particles  have  a 
circular  form  in  all  animals  constituting  the  class  Mammalia.  A 
remarkable  exception  to  this  rule  has  been  shown  by  Mandl  to  occur 
in  the  corpuscles  of  the  camel  tribe.  The  mean  long  diameter  of  the 
blood-corpuscles  of  the  Dromedary  he  found  to  be  the  8254th  of  an 
inch,  while  the  mean  short  diameter  was  only  the  5921st  of  the  same 
standard.  In  the  Paco  {Auchenia  paco)  and  Guanaco  (Auchmia  glama) 
the  blood-corpuscles  scarcely  differed  in  form  and  size  from  those  of 
the  dromedary,  whilst  in  the  Vicufia  they  were  slightly  smaller.  In 
structure  and  magnitude  however  these  oval  corpuBcles  of  the  Camelidce 
belong  entirely  to  the  mammiferous  type ;  they  hajire  no  perceptible 


nadeus  like  those  of  birds,  and  they  are  not  much  more  than  half 
the  sise  of  even  the  smallest  that  liave  been  observed  in  birds  or 
reptiles. 

The  difference  of  size  in  the  corpuscles  of  different  mammalia  is 
worthy  of  notice.  The  average  diameter  of  those  of  man,  according 
to  Mr.  GtiUiver,  is  the  8300th  of  an  inch ;  but  the  average  diameter 
of  those  of  the  elephant,  according  to  the  same  observer,  is  as  much 
as  the  2745th  of  an  inch  (which  were  the  largest  he  observed  amongst 
the  mammalia),  whilst  those  of  the  Napu  musk-deer  were  no  more 
than  the  12,825th,  and  some  were  as  small  as  the  16,000th  of  an  indi 
in  diameter.  There  is  also  an  exception  to  the  general  statement  that 
the  corpuscles  of  fishes  are  oval ;  in  one  class,  namely  the  Cyclo^imi^ 
or  Lamprey  Tribe,  they  are  circular.  The  largest  red  corpuscles  hitherto 
observed  are  amongst  the  reptile?  known  as  the  Siren  and  the  Proteus, 
which  are  so  large  as  even  to  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye  as  very  minute 
specks. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  red  corpuscles  go  through  the  same 
course  as  other  cells.  We  have  imdoubted  evidence  of  their  rapid 
regeneration  in  cases  where  much  blood  has  been  lost^  and  of  the 
peculiar  power  which  chalybeate  medicines  have  in  forwarding  their 
production.  The  precise  method  in  which  they  are  developed  is 
however  not  exactly  known. 

With  respect  to  the  chemical  composition  of  the  blood-oorpusdes, 
the  walls  are  formed  of  a  substance  which  has  been  odled  globulin, 
and  which  is  imdoubtedly  a  protein  compound.  The  red  colour  is 
due  to  a  pigment  which  has  received  the  name  of  Hsematin,  and  is 
inclosed  in  the  vesicles  of  globulin.  It  has  been  generally  assumed 
that  this  substance  exists  in  two  distinct  states  in  arterial  and  venous 
blood,  having  in  the  former  an  excess  of  oxygen  and  in  the  latter  an 
excess  of  carbon  or  carbonic  acid.  Mulder  has  however  shown  that 
its  elementary  composition  is  the  same  whether  obtained  from  arterial 
or  venous  blood,  and  that  it  may  be  represented  by  the  formula 
C^^H,,  N3  Oq  Fe ;  the  following  being  the  analyses  from  which  he 
deduced  it : — 


Carbon 
Hydrogen 
Nitrogen 
Oxygen    . 
Iron 


1 
66-49 

5-80 
10-54 
1101 

6-66 


2 

65-91 

5-27 


6-58 


8 
66-20 

5-44 
10-46 
1115 

6-75 


4 
65-78 

5-28 
10-57 
11-97 

6-45 


5 
65-90 

5-27 
10-61 


Aceordin^to 

the  formnla. 

65-84 

5-87 

10-40 

1176 

6-64 


1,  2,  and  8  were  arterial,  and  4  venous  ox-blood ;  5  was  the  mixed 
blood  of  a  sheep. 

It  may  be  shown  by  conclusive  experiments  that  the  red  colour  ia 
not  dependent  on  the  iron,  for  that  constituent  may  be  removed  from 
the  hsDmatin  without  materially  altering  its  tint,  idthough  it  is  very 
firmly  combined  with  the  four  oiganic  elements.  The  condition  in 
which  the  iron  exists  in  hsematin — whether  as  an  oxide,  a  carbonate, 
a  carburet^  or  in  the  metallic  state — ^has  long  been  disputed.  Accord- 
ing to  Liebig  the  iron  of  the  hsmatin  is  the  most  essential  constituent 
of  the  blood  in  relation  to  the  respiratory  process:  The  following  is 
his  view  of  the  theoiy  of  respiration  : —  "  During  the  passage  of  the 
venous  blood  through  the  limgs,  the  globules  change  colour,  and  oxy- 
gen is  absorbed  from  the  atmosphere.  Further,  for  every  volume  of 
oxygen  absorbed,  an  equal  volume  of  carbonic  add  is  in  most  cases 
given  out  The  red  globules  contain  a  compound  of  iron,  and  no  other 
constituent  of  the  body  contains  iron.  Whatever  changes  the  other 
constituents  of  the  blood  undergo  in  the  limgs,  this  much  is  certain, 
that  the  globules  of  venous  blood  experience  a  change  of  colour,  and 
that  this  change  depends  on  the  action  of  oxygen.  jN'ow  we  observe 
that  the  globules  of  arterial  blood  retain  their  colour  in  the  larger 
vessels,  and  lose  it  only  during  their  passage  through  the  capillaries. 
All  those  constituents  of  venous  blood  which  are  capable  of  combining 
with  oxygen  take  up  a  corresponding  quantity  of  it  in  the  lungs. 
Experiments  made  with  arterial  serum  have  shown  that  when  in  con- 
tact with  oxygen  it  does  not  diminish  the  volmne  of  that  gas.  Venous 
blood  in  contact  with  oxygen  is  reddened,  while  oxygen  is  absorbed, 
and  a  corresponding  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  is  fonuML  It  is  evident 
that  the  change  of  colour  in  the  venous  globules  depends  on  the  com- 
bination of  some  one  of  these  elements  with  oxygen ;  and  that  this 
absorption  of  oxygen  is  attended  with  the  separation  of  a  certain 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  carbonic  acid  is  not  separated 
from  the  serum ;  for  the  serum  does  not  possess  the  property  when  in 
contact  with  oxygen  of  giving  off  carbonic  acid.  On  the  contrary, 
when  separated  from  the  globules  it  absorbs  from  half  its  voltmie  to 
an  equal  volume  of  carbonic  acid,  and  at  ordinary  temperatures  is  not 
saturated  with  that  gas.  Arterial  blood,  when  drawn  from  the  body, 
is  soon  altered ;  its  florid  colour  becomes  dark  red.  The  florid  blood, 
which  owes  its  colour  to  the  globules,  becomes  dark  by  the  action  of 
carbonic  acid,  and  this  chance  of  colour  affects  the  globules,  for  florid 
blood  absorbs  a  number  of  gases  which  do  not  dissolve  in  the  fluid 
part  of  the  blood  when  separated  from  the  globules.  It  is  evident 
therefore  that  the  globules  have  the  power  of  combinufig  with  gases. 
The  globules  of  the  blood  change  their  colour  in  different  gasee ;  and 
this  change  may  be  owing  either  to  a  combination  or  to  a  decompo- 
sition. Sulphuretted  hydrogen  turns  them  blackish-green,  and  finally 
black ;  and  the  original  red  colour  cannot  in  this  case  be  restored  by 
contact  with  oxygen.      Here  a  decomposition  has  obviously  taken 


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place.  The  globulM  dftrfcaned  by  carbonio  add  become  again  florid  in 
oxygen,  with  diflengagement  of  oarbonic  acid.  The  same  thing  takes 
plaoe  in  nitrous  oxide.  It  is  clear  that  they  have  here  undezgone  no 
docompoaition,  and  consequently  thev  possess  Uie  power  of  combining 
with  gases,  while  the  compound  tnev  form  witli  carbonic  acid  is 
destroyed  hv  oxygen.  When  left  to  themselyes  out  of  the  body,  the 
compound  fomied  with  oxygen  again  becomes  dark,  but  does  not 
reoover  its  florid  colour  a  second  time  by  the  action  of  oxygen.  The 
globules  of  the  blood  contain  a  compound  of  iron.  From  the  neve]> 
failing  presence  of  iron  in  red  blood,  we  must  condnde  that  it  is  unques- 
tionably necessary  to  animal  life ;  and  since  physiology  has  proved 
that  the  globides  take  no  share  in  the  process  of  nutrition,  it  cannot 
be  doubted  that  th^  play  a  part  in  the  process  of  respiration.  The 
compound  of  iron  in  the  globules  has  the  characters  of  an  oxidised 
compound,  for  it  is  decomposed  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  exactly  in 
the  same  way  as  the  oxides  or  other  analogous  compounds  of  iron. 
By  means  of  diluted  mineral  adds,  peroxide  (sesqui-oxide)  of  iron 
may  be  extracted  at  the  ordinary  temperature  from  the  Ireeh  or  dried 
red  colouring  matter  of  the  blood.  The  characters  of  the  compounds 
of  iron  may  perhaps  assist  us  to  explain  the  diare  whidi  that  metal 
takes  in  the  respiratory  process.  "Ko  other  metal  can  be  compared 
with  iron  for  the  remarkable  properties  of  its  compounds.  The  com- 
pounds of  protoxide  of  iron  possess  the  property  of  depriTing  other 
oxidised  compounds  of  oxygen ;  while  the  compounds  of  peroxide  of 
iron  under  other  circumstances  give  us  oxygen  with  the  utmost 
iacility.  Hydrated  peroxide  of  iron,  in  contact  with  organic  matters 
destitute  of  sulphur,  is  converted  into  carbonate  of  the  protoxida 
Carbonate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  in  contact  with  water  and  oxygen,  is 
decomposed ;  all  the  carbonic  acid  is  given  ofi*,  and  by  absorption  of 
oxygen  it  passes  into  the  hydrated  peroxide,  which  may  again  be 
converted  into  a  compound  of  the  protoxide.  Not  onl^  the  oxides  of 
iron  but  also  the  cyanides  of  that  metal  exhibit  similar  properties. 
Prussian  blue  oonteuns  iron  in  combination  with  all  the  organic  de- 
ments of  the  body ;  hydrogen  and  oxygen  (water),  carbon  and  nitrogen 
(cyanogen).  When  it  is  exposed  to  ught>  cyanogen  is  given  off,  ana  it 
becomes  white ;  in  the  dark  it  attracts  oxygen,  and  recovers  its  blue 
colour.  All  these  observations  taken  together  lead  to  the  opinion  that 
the  globules  of  arterial  blood  contain  a  compound  of  iron  saturated 
with  oxygen,  which  in  the  living  blood  loses  its  oxygen  during  its 
I^aasage  through  the  capillaries.  The  same  thing  occurs  when  it  is 
separated  from  the  body  and  begins  to  undergo  decomposition.  The 
compound,  rich  in  oxygen,  passes  therefore,  by  the  loss  of  oxygen, 
i«to  one  far  less  charged  with  that  dement.  One  of  the  products  of 
oxidation  formed  in  this  process  is  oarbonic  add.  The  compound  of 
iron  in  the  venous  blood  possesses  the  property  of  combining  with 
carbonic  add ;  and  it  is  obvious  that  the  globules  of  the  arterial  olood, 
after  losing  a  part  of  thdr  oxygen,  will,  if  they  meet  with  carbonic 
acid,  oomlnne  with  that  substance.  When  they  reach  the  lungs  they 
will  again  take  up  the  oxygen  they  have  lost ;  for  every  volume  of 
oxygen  absorbed,  a  corresponding  volume  of  carbonic  add  will  be 
separated ;  they  will  return  to  their  former  state,  that  is,  they  will 
again  acquire  the  power  of  giving  off  oxygen.  For  every  volume  of 
oxygen  which  the  globules  can  give  off,  there  will  be  formed  (as  car- 
bonic add  contains  its  own  volume  of  oxygen  without  condensation) 
neither  mora  nor  less  than  an  equal  volume  of  carbonic  acid.  For 
every  volume  of  oxygen  which  the  globules  are  capable  of  absorbing, 
no  more  carbonic  add  can  posdblv  be  separated  than  that  volume  of 
oxygen  can  produce.  When  carbonate  of  protoxide  of  iron  by  the 
absorption  of  oxygen  passes  into  the  hydrated  peroxide,  there  are 
given  off,  for  every  volume  of  oxygen  necessary  to  the  change  from 
protoxide  to  peroxide  of  iron,  four  volumes  of  carbonic  add  gaa.  But 
from  the  one  volume  of  oxygen  only  one  volume  of  carbonio  add  gas 
can  be  produced.  And  the  absorption  of  one  volume  of  oxygen  can 
only  cause  directly  the  separation  of  an  equal  volume  of  oarbonic 
acid;  consequently  the  substance  or  compound  whidi  has  lost  its 
oxygen  during  the  passage  of  arterial  into  venous  blood,,  must  have 
been  capable  of  absorbing  or  combining  with  oarbonic  add ;  and  we 
find,  in  point  of  fact,  that  the  living  blood  is  never  in  any  state  satu- 
rated with  carbonio  acid ;  that  it  is  capable  of  taking  up  an  additional 
quantity  without  an^  apparent  disturbance  of  the  fimotions  of  the 
^obules.  Thus,  for  mstsnce^  after  drinking  effervescing  wines,  beer, 
or  mineral  waters^  more  carbonic  add  must  necessarily  be  expired 
than  at  other  times.  In  all  oases  where  the  oxyp;en  of  the  arterial 
globules  has  been  partly  expended  otherwise  than  m  the  formation  of 
carbonic  add,  the  amount  of  this  latter  gas  ejcpired  will  correspond 
exactly  with  that  which  has  been  formed^  less  however  will  be  given 
ont  aner  the  use  of  fat  and  of  still  wmes  than  after  champagna 
According  to  the  views  now  developed,  the  slobules  of  arterial  blood 
in  their  passage  through  the  capillaries  yield  oxygen  to  certain  con- 
stituents of  the  body.  A  small  portion  of  this  oxygen  serves  to  pro- 
duce the  change  of  matter,  and  determines  the  separation  of  living 
ports,  and  their  conversion  into  lifeless  compounds,  as  wdl  as  the 
formation  of  iha  secretions  and  excretions.  The  p^sater  part,  however, 
of  the  oxygen  is  employed  m  converting  into  oxidised  compounds  the 
newly-formed  substances  which  no  longer  form  part  of  the  living 
tissues.  In  their  return  towards  the  heart,  the  globules  which  have 
tost  their  oxygen  combine  with  carbonic  add,  producing  venous 
blood;  and  when  they  reach  the  lungs  an  exdiange  takes  place  between 

MAX.  BJST,  DIY.  YOL.  L 


this  carbonic  add  and  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere.  The  organic 
compound  of  iron,  which  exists  in  venous  blood,  recovers  in  the  lungs 
the  oxygen  it  has  lost,  and  in  consequence  of  this  absorption  of  oxygen 
the  carbonic  add  in  combination  with  it  is  separated." 

Mulder  is  strongly  opposed  to  this  theory ;  he  denies  that  the  iron 
takes  any  essential  part  in  the  respiratory  process;  and  he  refers  the 
process  entirdv  to  the  oxidation  of  the  protein-compoimds.  He 
alleges  the  following  grounds  against  the  probability  of  the  correct- 
ness of  Liebig's  views : — 

1.  The  iron  is  so  intimatdy  connected  with  the  other  dements  of 
hffimatin,  that  it  cannot  be  removed  even  by  long  digestion  of  this 
constituent  in  dilute  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  add.  If  these  re-agents 
cannot  effect  its  oxidation,  it  is  highly  improbable  that  it  should  be 
oxidised  in  the  lungs.  Ile^)ecting  Liebig's  assertion  that  dilute  add>i 
remove  iron  from  dried  blood,  Mulder  proves  that  this  fact  is  value- 
less in  relation  to  his  theory,  because  odier  constituents  of  the  blood 
beddes  the  hsunatin  contain  this  metal,  apparently  in  an  oxidised 
state. 

2.  If,  as  Liebig  asserts,  pero3dde  of  iron  exists  in  arterial  blood, 
and  carbonate  of  protoxide  of  iron  in  venous  blood,  almost  any  dilute 
add  would  be  capable  of  removing  it.  But  this  is  not  the  case. 
Hssmatin  properly  prepareii  may  be  digested  with  dilute  hydrochloric 
or  sulphuric  add  for  many  days  without  the  least  diminution  in  the 
quantity  of  the  iron.  From  hsematin  treated  in  this  manner  Mulder 
obtained  by  combustion  9*49  per  cent,  of  peroxide  of  iron,  which  is 
the  constant  quantity  always  left  after  the  combustion  of  well- 
prepared  hsematin. 

8.  The  probability  that  the  iron  exists  in  a  metallic  state  is  strongly 
supported  by  the  observation  that  hydrogen  is  evolved  when  a  dot  of 
blood  is  digested  in  sulphuric  add,  and  water  is  added.  Mulder 
suggests  that  it  occurs  as  an  int^gnd  constituent  of  haematin  in  just 
the  same  manner  that  iodine  occurs  in  sponge,  sulphur  in  oystin,  or 
arsenic  in  the  caoodyl  series. 

4.  The  amount  of  haamatin  in  the  whole  mass  of  the  blood  is  far 
too  incondderable  to  carry  a  due  supply  of  oxygen  to  the  whole 
system. 

Having  thus  shown  the  prindpal  objections  to  which  Liebig's 
cdebrated  theory  is  open,  we  shall  endeavour  brieflv  to  explain  ike 
rival  theory  of  Mulder.  It  is  a  wdl-known  tact,  that  the  protein- 
compounds  are  capable  of  undeigoing  oxidation  when  in  contact  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  air.  When  a  protein-compound  becomes  oxidised, 
it  assumes  a  plastic  character,  that  is  to  say,  it  has  a  tendency  to 
become  solid  and  to  adhere  to  solid  substances.  It  has  been  already 
stated  that  the  blood-corpuscles  are  cells,  of  which  the  wall  consists 
of  a  protein-compound  named  globulin.  When  a  respiration  is  per- 
formed, the  exterior  layer  of  such  of  the  corpuscles  as  are  exposed  in 
the  lungs  to  the  action  of  the  air,  becomes  converted  into  oxidised 
protein,  it  becomes  whitish  and  leas  transparent  This  is  the  state  in 
which  the  corpusdes  exist  in  arterial  blood  As  they  reach  the 
capillary  system,  this  white  exterior  layer  is  employed  in  the  change 
of  material  of  the  hodj,  and  is  in  that  way  consumed  Having  lost  this 
white  layer,  they  again  become  transparent.  The  dark  colouring 
substance  in  the  corpusdes  of  arterial  blood,  shiniug  through  a  white 
layer,  must  necessarily  api>ear  of  a  bright  red  tint,  as  may  be  shown 
by  pouring  dark  red  blood  into  a  vessd  of  nulky  glass. 

The  fluid  part  of  the  blood  called  the  Serum  is  a  transparent  fluid, 
of  a  light  straw-colour  tinged  with  green.  The  proportion  of  it  to  the 
solid  part  of  the  blood,  or  Clot,  differs  in  different  species  of  animals. 
There  is  a  strict  relation  between  its  relative  proportion  and  the 
strength  and  ferodty,  or  weakness  and  gentleness  of  the  animal  It 
is  small  in  proportion  to  the  power  and  fierceness  of  the  animal,  and 
large  in  proportion  to  its  weakness  and  timidity :  thus  it  is  small  in 
the  carnivorous  animals,  and  large  in  the  hare,  sheep,  and  so  on. 

S^um  has  an  adhedve  consistence .  and  a  saline  taste.  Its 
diaracteristic  property  is  that  of  coagulating  by  heat  and  by  the 
application  of  certain  chemical  agents.  At  the  temperature  of 
160°  it  is  converted  into  a  white  opaque  solid  substance,  exactly 
resembUng  the  white  of  egg  when  hardened  by  boiling,  being  in  fact 
perfectlv  pure  albumen.  Serum  contains  a  quantity  of  uncombined 
alkali,  for  it  converts  the  vegetable  colours  to  green,  and  it  holds  in 
solution  various  earthy  and  neutral  salts.  According  to  M.  Le  Canu, 
who  has  ZDAde  the  most  recent  chemical  analysis  of  serum,  1000  parts 

Jl_Ll-*J.t«L 

Water 906*00 

Albumen 78*00 

Animal  Matter  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol    .        .  1*69 

Albumen  combined  with  Soda 2*10 

Grystallisable  Fatty  Matter 1*20 

Oily  Matter 1*00 

Hydrochlorate  of  Soda  and  Potash  ....  6*00 
Suboarbonate  and  Phosphate  of  Soda  and  Sulphate 

of  Potash 210 

Phosphate  of  Lime,  Magnesia,  and  Iron,  with  Sub- 
carbonate  of  Lime  and  Magnesia         .        .        *  "91 
Loss 1-00 

1000*00 
If  A  m^an  of  cosgulatcd  ScTum  bc  cut  into  small  pieces  and  placed  in 

2  L 


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the  month  of  a  fuxmel,  a  thin  flmd  draixu  from  it,  which  ii  oalled 
Serofdty,  and  which  constitiitefl  the  gravy  of  meat  drened  for  the 
table. 

According  to  H.  Le  Canu  the  relatiYe  proportionB  of  the  oonsti- 
taente  of  Human  Blood  to  each  other,  as  thej  ezirt  in  most 
indiyidualB,  is  as  followH,  thi^  table  being  the  mean  of  two  analyiMs : — 
1000  parts  of  Human  Blood  contain — 

Water 78887 

Fibrin 2'83 

Albumen 67*25 

Colouring  Matters 126'81 

Fatty  Katten  in  Ysrious  states         ....        5*16 
Various  undefined  Animal  ICatten  and  Salts       .    .      15*08 


lOOO'OO 

The  relative  proportion  of  the  dififbrent  constituents  of  the  blood  is 
constantly  varying.  Thus  the  quantity  of  water,  aooording  to  H.  Le 
Canu,  is  capable  of  varying  in  1000  jMurts  from  858*185,  the  maTimnm, 
to  778*625,  the  minimum.  In  the  male  the  medium  quantity  is 
791*944,  in  the  female  821*764 :  the  watery  proportion  also  varies 
with  the  temperament.  Li  the  lymphatic  temperament,  in  the  male 
it  is  880*566,  in  the  female  808*716 ;  while  in  tiie  sanguineous  it  is, 
in  the  male  786*584,  and  in  the  female  it  is  798*007. 

The  proportion  of  albumen  contained  in  1000  parts  of  blood  is 
capable  of  varying  from  78*270,  the  maximum,  to  57*890,  the  mini- 
mum. The  quantity  of  fibrin  varies  from  1*860  to  7*286,  the  medium 
of  twenty-two  experiments  being  4 '298.  It  appeared  to  be  the 
greatest  m  the  young  or  middle  aged  of  the  sanguineous  tempera- 
ment and  in  the  inflammatory  state;  and  least  in  the  lymphatic 
constitution,  the  aged,  and  -wose  suffering  under  congestion  and 
htemorrhage. 

The  proportion  of  the  red  particles  varies  more  remarkably  than 
that  of  any  other  constituent  of  the  blood.  In  sound  health  the 
maximum  was  found  to  be  in  1000  parts  of  blood  148*450,  and  the 
minimum  68*349 ;  the  medium  108*399.  In  the  male,  the  medium 
quantity  is  132*150,  in  the  female  99*169.  It  varies  considerably 
with  the  temperament.  In  the  lymphatic  temperament^  the  medium 
quantity  was  found  to  be,  in  the  male  117*667,  in  the  female  116*800 ; 
in  the  sanguineous  temperament,  in  the  male  136*497,  in  the  female 
126*174.  According  to  this  statement  there  are  contained  in  1000 
parts  of  blood,  in  a  sanguineous  temperament,  19*830  more  red 
particles  than  in  the  lymphatic  temperament.  Both  spontaneous 
hsemorrhage  and  the  artificial  abstraction  of  blood  from  the  body 
diminish  the  relative  proportion  of  the  red  particles  tax  beyond  that 
of  any  of  the  other  constituents  of  the  blood  This  is  found  on 
exammation  of  the  blood  in  the  female  after  an  excessive  loss  of 
blood;  and  on  examining  portions  of  blood  taken  from  the  same  body 
after  certain  intervals,  it  was  found  that  a  first  bleeding  fumit^ed  in 
1000  parts  of  blood,  792*897  of  water,  70*210  of  albumen,  9*163  of 
soluble  salts  and  extraneous  matter,  and  127*78  of  red  particles ;  but 
a  third  bleeding  a  few  days  afterwards  in  the  same  patient,  a  female, 
gave  884*058  of  water,  71*111  of  albumen,  7*829  of  soluble  salts  and 
extraneous  matter,  and  87*510  of  red  particles. 

According  to  fmalyses  more  recent  than  those  of  Le  Canu,  the 
following  are  the  ingredients  which  are  found  to  be  present  in  healthy 
blood: — 

1.  Water. 
rPibrin. 

2.  Protein-       J  Albumen. 
Compounds  I  Globulin. 

(^Binoxide  and  Tritoxide  of  Protein. 
8.    Colouring    J  Hsematin. 
Matters    \  Hsemapheein. 

ICholesterin. 
Serolin. 
Red  and  white  Solid  Fats  containing  Phosphorus. 
Margaric  Acid. 
Oleic  Add. 
Iron. 

r  Albuminate  of  Soda  (?). 
Phosphates  of  Lime,  Magnesia,  and  Soda. 
I  Sulphate  of  Potash. 

Carbonates  of  Lime,  Magnesia,  and  Soda  (?). 
Chlorides  of  Sodiimi  and  Potassium. 
.Lactate  of  Soda  (?). 
I  Oleate  and  Maigarate  of  Soda  (Q. 

Oxygen. 
J  Nitrogen. 
(  Carbonic  Acid. 
Urea — a  trace. 
Sugar — a  trace  (?). 
It  will  be  observed  that  there  are  notes  of  inteirogation  to  several 
of  the  salts :  the  presence  of  these  constituents  is  denied  by  Enderlin 
and  Liebig^s  school  generally.     Their  objection  is  founded  on  the 
circumstance,  that  if  these  salts  were  exposed  to  a  red  heat,  they 
would  become  converted  into  carbonates;  and  that  the  ash  obtained 
from  the  incineration  of  blood,  if  examined  directly  after  the 
tion,  does  not  contain  those  salts.    As  these  experiments  have 


4.    Fats. 


6.    Salts. 


7.    Oasoa 

8. 
9. 


performed  under  Liebig^s  personal  observation,  and  have  been 
published  in  his  'Journal,^  and  as  fmrther  they  apply  equally  to  almost 
all  ^e  other  fluids  of  the  animal  body,  we  shall  give  the  leading 
grounds  on  which  the  presence  of  alkidine  carbonates  in  the  ash  ii 
disproved,  and  its  alkalinity  is  otherwise  accounted  for : — 

1.  The  ash  does  not  effervesce  on  the  addition  of  an  acid. 

2.  Hot  water  poured  over  the  ash  becomes  alkaline;  it  holds  in 
solution  alkaline  phosphates  and  sulphates,  chloride  of  sodium,  and 
sometimes  chloride  of  potassium,  but  no  other  salts. 

a.  On  the  addition  of  a  neutral  solution  of  nitrate  of  mlver  to  ihiB 
fluid,  there  is  a  yellow  precipitate  which  is  partly  soluble  in  nitric 
add;  a  portion  however  consisting  of  chloride  of  silver  remams 
undissolved.  The  addition  of  nitric  add  causes  no  effervescence. 
On  neutralising  the  add  filtrate  with  ammonia,  a  yellow  precipitate 
of  tribadc  phosphate  of  silver  (8  A  g  O,  P.  OJ  is  thrown  down. 

b.  On  treating  the  aqueous  solution  of  the  ash  with  a  solution  of 
chloride  of  caldum,  there  is  a  copious  gelatinous  precipitate  of  phos- 
phate of  lime  (8  C  a  0,  P,  O.)  which  dissolves  in  nitric  add  without 
effervescence.  On  treating  uiis  add  solution  with  nitrate  of  silver, 
and  neutralising  vrith  ammonia,  the  tribasic  phosphate  of  silver  i> 
predpitated  as  before.  The  addition  of  the  chloride  of  caldum  neu- 
tralises the  previously  alkaline  fluid.  From  1,  we  see  that  the 
alkaline  reaction  is  not  due  to  the  presence  of  adkaline  carbonates; 
and  2  shows  it  is  not  dependent  on  the  presence  of  tree  potash  or 
soda,  for  otherwise  the  fluid  would  not  be  neutralised  by  the  chloride 
of  calcium.  Hence  the  albumen  in  the  blood  cannot  exist  as  a  soda 
compound  (albuminate  of  soda) ;  neither  can  there  be  alkaline  lactatea, 
acetates,  nor  &tty-add  salts  in  \hat  fluid.  On  the  above  grounds 
Enderlin  conceives  that  we  an  justified  in  Mwimmg  thai  the  alkaline 
reaction  of  the  ash  is  dependent  on  the  presence  of  tribasic  phosphate 
of  soda  (8  K  a  0,  P,  O,) ;  and  as  this  is  the  only  salt  that  remains 
tribasic  at  a  red  heat^  he  concludes  that  the  alludinity  of  the  blood. 
as  wdl  as  of  the  aah,  is  dependent  on  it.  The  manner  in  which  he 
accounts  for  the  occurrence  of  carbonates  in  the  analyses  of  other 
diemists  is  very  plausible.  On  exposing  the  tribadc  phoephate  of 
soda  to  the  atmosphere^  it  becomes  converted  into  2  N  a  O,  H  C, 
P,  0«,  and  N  a  O,  Cf  0„  or  phosphate  of  soda^  in  which  one  atom  of 
the  base  is  replaced  by  an  atom  of  water  and  carbonate  of  soda. 

This  question  regarding  the  salts  actually  occurring  in  the  blood  is 
however  fur  from  settled,  Ludwig  having  podtively  denied  Enderlin's 
statements.  (I^^s  'Report  on  the  Progress  of  Chemistry,'  in 
Banking's  *  Half-Yearly  Abstract  of  the  Medical  Sdences,'  vcL  ill, 
1846.) 

OeneraJly  speaking  it  is  only  requimte  in  the  analysis  of  the 
blood,  to  determine  a  few  of  the  most  important  constituents;  as,  for 
instance,  the  water,  fibrin,  blood-corpusdes  (globulin  and  hsmatin), 
and  the  solid  reddue  of  the  serum  (uie  organic  portion  and  the  salts). 
For  this  pur}>oee  we  may  adopt  tho  following  simple  plan  lately 
published  by  Figuier.  It  is  based  on  the  fact  made  known  many  years 
ago  by  Berzelius,  that  after  the  addition  of  a  solution  of  a  neutral 
salt  to  defibrinated  blood,  the  globules  do  not  (as  before)  pass  through 
filtering  paper.  On  the  addition  of  two  parts  of  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  soda  of  specific  gravity  1.180  to  one  of  blood,  Figuier  found  that  the 
whole  of  the  corpusdes  remained  on  the  surface  of  the  filter.  The 
following  are  the  steps  'of  his  analysis : — The  fibrin  is  removed  by 
stirring,  dried,  and  weighed;  the  weight  of  the  corpusdes  is 
ascertained  by  the  method  indicated,  and  that  of  the  dbumen  by 
coagulating  by  means  of  heat  the  filtered  solution.  The  proportion 
of  vrater  is  known  by  evaporating  a  small  known  weight  of  the  blood. 
The  filter  containing  the  corpusdes  should  be  dipped  in  boiling  water, 
which  removes  any  sulphate  of  soda  that  may  be  present,  and  at  the 
same  time  renders  the  corpuscles  insoluble.  Separate  and  frequently 
difficult  processes  are  requidte  to  detect  those  ingredients  which  occur 
in  small  quantity  or  only  in  morbid  conditions. 

Witii  regard  to  the  distinctions  between  Arterial  and  Venous  Blood, 
we  have  already  noticed  the  circumstance  that  the  external  envelope  of 
the  blood-corpusdes  becomes  converted  during  the  act  of  respiration 
into  oxidised  protein,  and  that  the  bright-red  colour  of  arterial  blood 
is  owing  in  part  to  the  modifying  infiuence  of  the  white  investing 
membrane.  But  there  is  yet  ano&er  mode  in  which  it  acta  The 
bufiy  coat^  whidi  is  the  name  given  to  the  superimposed  layer  of 
fibrin  in  the  dot,  is  frequently  observed  on  the  upper  part  of  the  dot 
in  inflammatory  diseases  as  being  very  apt  to  curl  up  and  become 
concave.  Kow  this  bufiy  coat  comnsts,  for  the  most  part^  of  the 
oxides  of  protein — of  the  very  same  matter  with  which  the  blood* 
corpusdes  become  invested.  For  this  reason  the  form  assumed  by 
the  two  laminsB  on  both  ddes  of  the  little  flat  body — the  corpuscle- 
must  resemble  that  of  the  bu£^  coat  The  tendency  to  contract  and 
become  bi-concave  is  so  strong,  that  the  central  portion  of  the  crusl 
becomes  entirdy  depressed.  In  this  form  the  corpusdes  reflect  a 
great  deal  more  light  than  when,  in  consequence  of  the  removal  of 
the  buffy  coat  in  the  capillaries,  tiiey  have  a  less  bi-concave  form. 

From  four  analyses  of  the  blood  of  horses,  Simon  deduces  the 
following  rule  regarding  the  chemical  differences  of  arterial  and  venous 
blood : — "Arterial  contains  leas  solid  reddue  generally  than  venous 
blood ;  it  contams  lees  fat^  less  albumen,  less  hsematin,  less  extractive 
matter  and  salts,  than  venous  blood,  llie  blood-corpusdes  of  arterial 
blood  contain  less  oclouxng  matter  than  those  of  Tonous  blood." 


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BLOOD-HOnin). 


BLOOD-HOUKD. 


«U 


The  arterial  blood  mm  taken  from  the  oarotidii^  and  tho  Tenoiifl  from 
thejugolan. 

In  a  medical  point  of  yiew  the  CGmpoaition  of  Tenons  blood  ia  the 
most  interesting,  beoaose  it  is  from  the  Teins  that  blood  is  almost 
always  taken  in  disease,  and  becanse  yenons  blood  can  natoially 
only  be  compared  with  Tenons  blood  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
Uining  aaj  deriations  that  maj  occur.  The  following  table  repre- 
Bents  the  mean  composition  of  human  renous  blood  without  refeiwioe 
to  sex : — 

Water 795278 

Solid  Constituents 204*022 

Fibrin 2104 

R* 2-846 

Albumen 76'660 

Globulin 103*022 

TTaifwuifciT^ 6*200 

Extractive  Matters  and  Salts  .    .      12*012 

100  parti  of  blood-corpuscles  contain  5*7  of  hsematan. 
Hence  the  blood  contuns  about  20  per  centb  of  so^  oonstitnents, 
mudi  more  than  0*2  per  cent,  of  fibrin,  and  about  an  equal  quantity 
of  &t;  the  blood-corpuscles  considerably  exceed  the  albumen  in 
quantity,  and  contain  about  5  or  6  per  cent,  of  colouring  matter. 

The  blood  undergoes  Tarious  modifications  in  different  forms  of 
diseafle.  The  extent  of  these  variations  is  obvious  from  the 
following  table,  drawn  up  from  Simon's  'Animal  Chemistry,'  vol  i, 
p.  246. 

The  Water  may  vaiy  from  . 

The  Solid  Residue   „      . 

The  Fibrin  „ 

The  Fat  „ 

The  Albumen  „ 

The  Globulin  „      . 

The  Ha&matin  „ 

The  Extractive  Matters  and  Salts 
The  following  synopsis  wiU  give  an  idea  of  the  distribution  of  the 
constituents  of  the  blood. 

Water 790*87>k 

Albumen 67*80 

Oxygen  •    .    •    .'^ 

Kitiiogen  .... 

Carbonic  Acid.    . 

Extractive  Matter 

Fatty  Matter  .    . 

Salts 

Colouring  Matter 

Fibrin 2*961 

Hsematin  .      2*27 1  ^.^^  ««w««-«i--  i  oiy-on  r  Clot      180*85 

Globulin  .  125*68  /  ^^***^  ^^'^^^^^  127  00  J 


915*0  to  725*0 

275*0  to 

85*0 

10*8  toatraoe. 

4*8  to 

0*7 

181*0  to 

55-1 

106*6  to 

80*8 

8-7  to 

1*4 

16-5  to 

7*6 

10*98  I 


Serum  869*15 


1000*00  1000*00 

It  wiQ  be  seen  from  the  previous  account  that  the  blood  is  one  of 
ihe  most  important  constituents  of  the  body.  It  is  in  fkct  the  prime 
Boorce  of  Uf  e;,  and  is  the  great  medium  through  which  the  constituents 
of  the  body  pass  in  their  way  from  the  vegetable  and  mineral  kingdoms 
to  become  part  and  parcel  of  the  tissues  of  the  body.  The  food  is 
taken  up  from  the  intestines  [Food]  by  the  lacteels,  and  is  converted 
into  blood  before  it  is  appropriated  in  the  tissues  of  the  body.  The 
correspondence  between  the  flesh  or  tissues  of  the  body  and  the  blood 
may  be  seen  in  the  following  statement  of  the  ultimate  composition  of 
the  two. 


Carbon 
Hydrogen 
Nitrogen    . 
Oxygen 
Ash 


Flesh. 

Blood. 

51*86 

51*96 

7*58 

7*25 

1508 

15*07 

21*80 

21*80 

4-28 

4*42 

The  blood  is  not  only  the  source  whence  the  tissues  are  supplied 
with  the  fresh  materials  for  their  growth,  but  it  is  the  means  by 
which  effete  matters  are  thrown  off  from  the  system.  The  con- 
stituents of  the  bile,  the  urine,  the  perspiration,  the  expired  air  from 
the  lon^  are  all  found  in  the  blood,  and  separated  from  it  by  the 
liyer,  kidneys,  skin,  and  lungs.  The  changes  involved  in  the  formation 
of  these  excretions  are  some  of  them  important-  to  life,  as  that  of 
carbonic  add  gas  during  respiration  [Rssna^TiOK],  which  is  attended 
with  the  development  of  animal  heat. 

Any  interruption  or  impediment  to  the  performance  of  the  functions 
of  the  blood  ia  attended  with  disease.  Tlus  has  long  been  suspected, 
but  it  is  only  sinoe  the  employment  of  the  microscope  and  chemical 
analysiB  that  an^  advance  naa  been  made  in  studying  the  relation  of 
abnormal  conditions  of  the  blood  to  particular  diiiieasee  of  the  body. 

(Hunter,  On  the  Blood  ;  Sharpey,  Quain's  Anatomyt  voL  i. ;  Simon, 
Animal  C^Umittry,  transkted  bvDay;  Milne-Edwards,  article  'JSlood/ 
'^  Ojfdopcedia  of  Anatomy  and  PhynoHogy ;  Lehmann,  Phjuidlogieal 
(^enittry,  translated  by  Day;  LieUg,  Animal  Chemittry;  Carpenter, 
BwmanPhwioloay)'     [&•  SuPftDmra.] 

BLOOD-HOUND,  the  name  of  a  hound  celebrated  for  its  exquisite 
>oent  and  unwearied  perseverance,  qualities  which  were  taken  advan- 
tage 0^  by  training  it  not  only  to  the  pursuit  of  game,  but  to  the 


chase  of  man.  A  true  Blood-Hound  (and  the  pure  blood  is  rare) 
stands  about  28  inches  in  hei^t^  muscular,  compact,  and  strong; 
the  foirehead  is  broad,  and  the  face  narrow  towards  the  muzzle ;  the 
nostrils  are  wide  and  well  developed;  the  ears  are  large,  pendulous, 
and  broad  at  the  base ;  the  aspect  is  serene  and  sagacious ;  the  tail  is 
long,  with  an  upward  curve  when  in  pursuit^  at  which  time  the 
hound  opens  with  a  voice  deep  and  sonorous,  that  may  be  heard 
down  the  wind  for  a  very  long  difftfinoft. 

The  colour  of  the  t^e  breed  is  stated  to  be  almost  invariably  a 
reddish-tan,  darkening .  gradually  towards  the  upper  parts  till  it 
becomes  mixed  with  blade  on  the  back;  the  lower  parts,  limbs,  and 
tail  being  of  a  lighter  shade,  and  the  muzzle  tawny.  Pennant  adds, 
''a  black  spot  over  each  eye,"  but  the  blood*hounds  in  ihe  possession 
of  Thomas  Astle,  Esq.  (and  they  were  said  to  have  been  of  the 
original  blood)  had  not  these  marksw  Some^  but  such  instances  were 
not  common,  had  a  little  white  about  them,  such  as  a  star  in  the 
face,  fta  The  better  opinion  is,  that  the  original  stock  was  a  mixture 
of  tibie  deep-mouthed  southern  hound,  and  the  powerfiol  old  Tgngliai* 
stag-hound. 

Gervase  ICarkham,  in  his  '  Kaison  Rustique,'  speaking  of  hounds, 
says : — "  The  baae-ooloured  ones  have  the  second  pUuse  for  goodnesse, 
and  are  of  great  courage,  ventring  far,  and  of  a  qidoke  scent,  finding 

out  vezT  well  the  tumes  and  windings they  runne  surely, 

and  with  great  boldnesse,  commonly  loving  the  stagge  more  than  any 
other  beast,  but  they  make  no  account  of  hares.  It  is  true,  that 
they  be  more  head-strong  and  harde  to  reolaime  than  the  white,  and 
put  men  to  more  peine  and  travaill  about  the  same.  The  best  of  the 
tallow  sort  of  dogges  are  those  which  are  of  a  brighter  haire,  drawing 
more  unto  the  colour  of  red.  and  having  therewithall  a  white  spot 
in  the  forehead,  or  in  the  necke,  in  like  manner  those  whibh  are  all 
fallow :  but  such  as  incline  to  a  light  yellow  colour,  being  graie  or 
blacke  spotted,  are  nothing  worth :  such  as  axe  trussed  up  and  have 
dewdawes,  are  good  to  make  bloud-hounds." 

Our  ancestors  soon  discovered  the  infallibility  of  the  Blood-Hound 
intradng  any  animal,  living  or  dead,  to  its  resting  place.  To  tram 
it  the  young  dog  aoooompanied  Iry  a  staunch  old  hound  was  led  to 
the  spot  whence  a  deer  or  other  o^n^-m**^!  had  been  taken  on  for  a  T«il« 
or  two ;  the  hounds  were  then  laid  on  anck  encouraged,  and  after 
hunting  this  '  drag'  successfuUr,  were  rewarded  with  a  portion  of 
the  venison  which  composed  it.  The  next  step  was  to  take  the 
young  dog^  with  his  seasoned  tutor,  to  a  spot  whence  a  man  whose 
shoes  had  been  rubbed  with  the  blood  of  a  deer  had  started  on  a 
drouit  of  two  or  three  miles:  during  his  progress  the  rnnxy  was 
instructed  to  renew  the  blood  firom  tune  to  time,  to  keep  the  scent 
well  alive.  His  circuit  was  gradually  enlarged  at  eadi  succeeding 
lesson,  and  the  young  hound,  thus  entered  and  trained,  became  at 
last  fully  equal  to  hunt  by  itself,  either  for  the  purposes  of  wood- 
craft, war,  or  'following  gear,'  as  the  pursuit  after  the  property 
plundered  in  a  border  foray  was  termed.  Indeed,  the  name  of  this 
variety  of  Obnu  domeatiew,  to  which  Linnseus  implied  the  name  of 
mgtix,  cannot  be  mentioned  without  calling  up  visions  of  feudal 
onrtles  with  their  train  of  knights  and  warders^  and  all  the  stirring 
events  of  those  old  times  when  the  best  tenure  was  that  of  the 
strong  hand. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  gives  a  striking  reality  to  the  scene,  when  he 
makes  the  moss-trooper,  William  of  Deloraine,  who  had  "baffled 
Percy's  best  blood-hounds,"  allude  to  the  pleasure  of  the  ohace, 
though  he  himself  was  the  object  of  pursuit,  in  pronouncing  his 
eulogy  over  Richard  Musgrave. 

In  the  same  '  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel'  there  is  one  of  the  best 
poetical  descriptions  of  the  blood-hound  in  action,  if  not  the  beet;  for 
though  Somerville's  lines  may  enter  more  into  detail,  they  want  the  vivid 
animation  of  the  images  brought  absolutely  under  the  eye  by  the 
power  of  Scott,  where  the  "noble  chil^"  the  heir  of  Branksome,  is 
left  alone  in  his  terror. 

^  Indeed  this  feudal  dog  is  frequently  introduced  by  our  poet,  from. 
his  ballads,  where  Smaylho'me  s  Lady  gay,  wooing  the  Phantom 
Knight  to  come  to  her  bower,  in  the  '  Eve  of  St.  John,'  tells  the 
spectre  that  she  will  "  chain  the  blood-hound,"  down  to  that  grand 
moonlight  scene  in  the  '  Legend  of  Montrose,*  where  Dalgetty  and 
Ranald  of  the  Mist  are  traced  to  their  wood-girt  retreat  after  their 
escape  from  Aigyle's  dungeons. 

The  pursuit  of  border  forayers  was  called  the  'hot-trod.'  The 
'harried'  party  and  his  friends  followed  the  marauders  with  blood- 
hound and  bugle-horn,  and  if  his  dog  could  trace  the  scent  into  tiie 
opposite  kingdom  he  was  entitled  to  pursue  them  thither. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  states  that  the  breed  was  kept  up  by  tiie  Bucdeuch 
figtmily  on  their  border  estates  till  within  tibe  18th  century,  and 
records  the  following  narrative : — "  A  person  was  alive  in  the  memory 
of  man  who  remembered  a  blood-hound  being  kept  at  Eldinhope,  in 
Ettricke  Forest,  for  whose  maintenance  the  tenant  had  an  allowance 
of  meaL  At  that  time  the  sheep  were  always  watched  at  niffht. 
Upon  one  occasion,  when  the  duty  had  fallen  upon  the  narrator,  wen 
a  lad,  he  became  exhausted  with  fatigue,  and  fell  asleep  upon  a  bank, 
near  sun-rising.  Suddenly  he  was  awakened  by  the  tread  of  horses, 
and  saw  Ave  men  wdl  mounted  and  armed  ride  briskly  over  the  edge 
of  the  hilL  They  stopped  and  looked  at  the  fiock ;  but  the  day 
was  too  far  broken  to  adodt  the  chanoe  of  their  canying  any  of 


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BLOOD-HOUITD. 


BLOOD-HOUND. 


.500 


fcfaem  ofil  One  of  them,  in  spite,  leaped  from  his  hone,  and  oomJxig 
to  the  Bfaepherd  seiaed  him  by  the  belt  he  wore  round  hiii  wiist  j  and 
setting  his  foot  upon  his  body  pulled  it  till  it  broke,  and  oamed  it 
away  with  him.  They  rode  o£f  at  the  gallop ;  and  the  shepherd 
^ving  the  alarm,  the  blood-hound  was  turned  looee,  and  the  people 
m  the  neighbourhood  alarmed.  The  marauden,  however,  escaped, 
notwithstanding  a  sharp  pursuit  This  circumstance  serves  to  show 
how  very  long  the  license  of  the  Borderers  continued  in  some  degree 
to  manifest  itselt" 

This,  perhaps,  is  the  last  instance  of  an  attempted  'Border  foray' 
on  record.  The  times  were  changed.  The  nobles  had  ceased  to 
pride  themselves  on  their  ignoiunce  of  all  the  arts  save  the  art  of 
war,  and  to  make  it  matter  of  thanksgiving  that  they  knew  not  how 
io  use  the  pen.  Civilisation  advanced  as  learning  was  diffused,  till 
the  law  of  the  strongest  no  longer  prevailed  against  the  law  of  the 
land.  The  Blood-Hound,  from  the  nobler  pursuit  of  heroes  and 
knights,  'minions  of  the  moon,'  who  swept  away  the  cattle  and  goods 
of  whole  districts,  marking  the  extent  of  their  'raid'  by  aU  the 
horrors  of  fire  and  sword,  sank  to  the  tracker  of  the  deer-stealer  and 
petty  felon.  About  a  centurv  and  a  quarter  ago,  when  deer-stealing 
was  a  conmion  crime,  the  park-keepers  relied  upon  their  blood-hounds 
principally  for  detecting  the  thief;  add  so  adroit  were  these  dogs, 
that  when  one  of  them  was  fairly  laid  on,  the  escape  of  the  criminal 
was  with  good  reason  considered  to  be  all  but  impossible.  Even 
now  the  breed  still  lingers  about  some  of  the  great  deer-parks ;  and 
many  of  our  readers  will  remember  the  noble  specimen  at  Richmond 
Park,  bearing  the  name  of  Procter,  and  the  admirable  study  of  his 
head  engraved  by  T.  Landseer  from  a  painting  by  his  brother  Edwin. 
Another  of  this  race  has  been  perpehiated  by  Sir  Edwin  Landseer. 
It  belonged  to  Jacob  Bell,  Esq.,  and  wss  killed  by  jumping  out  of  a 
window,  and  its  accidental  death  is  perpetuated  by  the  artist  having 
drawn  it  after  death  as  though  sleeping. 

This  noble  variety  is  now  only  kept  as  an  object  of  curiosity  and 
ornament;  for  its  services  have  long  since  been  superseded  by  the 
justice's  warrant  and  the  police-officer.  We  find  it,  indeed,  recorded 
about  50  years  ago,  that  "  the  Thrapston  association  for  the  prevention 
of  felons  in  Northamptonshire  have  provided  and  trained  a  blood- 
hotmd  for  the  detection  of  sheep-etealers.  To  demonstrate  the 
unerring  infallibility  of  this  animal  a  day  was  appointed  for  public 
trial ;  the  person  he  was  intended  to  hunt  started,  in  the  presence  of 
a  great  concourse  of  people,  about  10  o'clock  in  the  forenoon,  and  at 
11  o'clock  the  hound  was  laid  on.  After  a  chase  of  an  hour  and  a 
half,  notwithstanding  a  very  indifferent  scent^  the  hound  ran  up  to 
a  tree  in  which  he  wss  secreted,  at  the  distance  of  15  milee  from 
the  place  of  starting,  to  the  admiration  and  perfect  satis&ction  of  the 
very  great  number  assembled  upon  the  occasion."  But  this  may  be 
considered  more  in  the  light  of  a  proceeding  'in  terrorem'  than 
anything  else. 

Strong  and  hardy  as  the  Blood-Hound  seems  to  be,  it  is  unable, 
apparently,  to  encounter  a  low  temperature.  Mr.  Lloyd,  in  his 
'  field  Sports,'  relates  that  one  presented  to  him  by  Mr.  Otway  Cave 
was  entirely  paralysed  by  the  piercing  cold  of  the  northern  legions 
which  were  the  scene  of  his  exploits. 


English  Blood-Hound. 

ChibanBlood-ffowid. — The  reputation  which  this  variety  has  obtained 
for  sagacity  and  fierceness,  and  the  share  that  the  terror  of  its  name 
had  in  extinguishing  the  last  Maroon  war  in  Jamaica,  render  it  an 
object  of  some  interest.  In  1783  these  Maroons  had  become  very 
troublesome,  and  the  Assembly,  among  other  plans  for  suppressing 
them,  appointed  garrisons,  from  whose  barracks  excursions  were  from 
time  to  time  made  against  the  insoigento.    **  Eveiy  banack,"  says 


Brym  Bdwiidn^  ^waa  alao  fanished  with  a  pack  of  do^  provided 
by  the  churchwardens  of  the  respective  panshes,  it  bemg  foreseen 
that  these  animals  would  prove  extremely  senrioeable,  not  only  in 
goazding  against  suiprises  in  the  ni^t  but  in  tracking  the  enemy."  The 
tbnsome  war  went  on  however,  till  at  last  articles  of  pacification  with 
the  Maroons  of  Trelawney  town  were  concluded  on  toe  Ist  of  March, 
1788.  This  alliance  continued,  not  without  frequent  complaints  of 
the  conduct  of  the  Maroons^  till  Julr,  1795,  when  two  of  these  people 
from  Trelawney  town,  having  been  found  g^ty  by  a  jury  of  stealing 
some  pigs,  were  sentenced  to  receive  thirty-nine  hwhes  each,  and  the 
sentence  was  executed.  On  their  return  to  Trelawney  town  their 
account  drove  the  Maroons  into  open  revolt^  and  a  bloody  and  success- 
ful war  was  waged  by  these  savages  against  the  whol^  force  that  the 
government  could  direct  against  them. 

At  last  the  Assembly,  in  the  month  of  September,  remembering  the 
expedient  of  employing  dogs  previous  to  the  treaty  of  1788,  reeolTed 
to  send  to  the  island  of  Cuba  for  100  blood-hoondla,  and  to  engage  a 
sufficient  number  of  Spanish  huntsmen  to  direct  their  oparatioos. 
The  employment,  according  to  Edwards,  to  which  these  dogs  are 
generally  put  by  the  Spaniards  is  the  pursuit  of  wild  bullocks,  which 
they  slaughter  for  the  hides ;  and  the  great  use  of  the  dogs  is  to  drive 
the  cattle  frxmi  such  heights  and  recesses  in  the  mountainous  parts  of 
the  countiy  as  are  least  accessible  to  the  hunters.  This  determination 
of  the  Assembly  was  not  made  without  some  opposition.  After  much 
diMSUssion  it  was  determined  to  send  for  the  dogs^  and  at  last  after 
several  delays  the  comnussioner,  who  had  been  dispatched  to  the 
Havanna,  arrived  at  Mont^go  Bay  on  the  14th  of  December  with  forty 
chasseurs,  or  Spanish  hunters^  chiefly  people  of  colour,  and  about 
100  Spanish  dogs. 

Dallas,  in  his  '  History  of  the  Maroons,'  gives  the  following  account 
of  the  fint  appearance  of  these  dogs  before  the  commander-in-chief: 
— "Anxious  to  review  the  chasseurs,  Qeneral  Wfdpole  left  head- 
quarters the  morning  after  they  were  landed  before  day-break,  and 
arrived  in  a  post-chaise  at  Seven  Rivers,  accompanied  by  Colonel 
Skinner,  whom  he  appointed  to  conduct  the  intended  attacL  Notice 
of  his  coming  having  preceded  him,  a  parade  of  the  chasseurs  was 
ordered ;  and  thev  were  taken  to  a  distance  from  the  house,  in  order 
to  be  advanced  when  the  general  alighted.  On  his  arrival  the  commis- 
sioner having  paid  his  respects  was  desired  to  parade  them.  The 
Spaniards  soon  appeared  at  the  end  of  a  gentle  acclivity,  drawn  out 
in  a  line  containing  upwards  of  fbrty  men,  with  their  dogs  in  frx>Dt 
immuissled,  and  held  oy  cotton  ropes.  On  receiving  the  command 
*  fire,'  they  discharged  their  fusils  and  advanced  as  upon  a  real  attacL 
This  was  intended  to  ascertain  what  effect  would  be  produced  on  the 
dogs  if  engaged  under  a  fire  of  the  Maroons.  The  volley  vrasno  sooner 
discharged  than  the  dogs  rushed  forward  with  the  greatest  fury,  amid 
the  shouts  of  the  Spaniards,  who  were  dragged  on  by  them  with  irre- 
sistible force.  Some  of  the  dogs  maddened  bv  the  shout  of  attack, 
while  held  back  by  the  ropes,  seized  on  the  stocks  of  the  guns  in  the 
hands  of  their  keepers  and  tore  pieces  out  of  theuL  Their  impetuosity 
was  so  great  that  they  were  with  difficulty  stopped  before  they  reached 
the  general,  who  found  it  necessary  to  get  expeditiously  into  the  chaise 
from  which  he  had  ali^ted ;  and  if  the  most  strenuous  exertions  had 
not  been  made  to  stop  them,  they  would  most  certainly  have  seized 
upon  his  horses." 

This  scene  was  well  got  up,  and  it  had  its  effect  Qeneral  Walpole 
was  ordered  to  advance  on  the  14th  of  January  following,  with  his 
Spanish  dogs  in  the  rear.  Their  fame  however  had  reached  the  Maroons, 
and  the  general  had  penetrated  but  a  short  way  into  the  woods  when 
a  supplication  for  mercy  was  brought  from  the  enemy,  and  260  of 
them  soon  afterwards  surrendered  on  no  other  condition  than  a 
promise  of  their  lives. 

It  is  stated  that  these  dogs  when  properly  trained  will  not  kill  or 
harm  the  pursued  unless  they  are  resisted.  '*  On  reaching  a  fugitive 
thev  bark  at  him  till  he  stops,  and  then  couch  near  him,  terrifying  him 
with  a  ferocious  growling  if  he  stirs.  They  then  bark  at  intervab  to 
give  notice  to  the  chasseurs,  till  they  come  up  and  secure  their 
prisoner." 

^  Dallas  however,  who  had  his  information  from  the  commissioner 
himself,  William  Dawes  Quarrell,  to  whom  his  work  is  dedicated,  gives 
a  description  and  representation  of  one  of  these  Spanish  chasseurs  wiih 
his  dogs ;  and  he  relates  the  following  instances  of  the  strength  and 
determined  ferocity  of  the  latter : — 

**  The  party  had  scarcely  erected  their  huts  when  the  barking  of  a 
dog  was  heard  near  them.  They  got  immediately  under  arms,  aiid 
proceeding  in  the  direction  of  the  sound  diaooverod  a  negro  endeavour- 
ing to  ma]|:e  his  escape.  One  of  the  Spanish  dogs  was  sent  after  him 
On  coming  up  the  negro  cut  him  twice  with  his  muschety*  on  which 
the  dog  seised  him  by  the  nape  of  the  neck  and  secured  him.  Ho 
proved  to  be  a  runaway — said  that  he  and  two  other  negroes  had 
deserted  the  Maroons  a  tew  days  before,  and  that  the  party  was  at  a 
great  distance  from  the  town,  but  that  he  would  conduct  them  to  it 
by  noon  next  day." 

In  the  next  anecdote  recorded  by  Dallas  the  attack  was  fatal  both 

*  A  long  Btraif  ht  mutchet,  or  ooutaaa,  longer  than  a  drBgooa*B  tvord,  ind 
twioa  as  thick,  aomethiiif  like  a  flat  iron  bar  sharpened  at  tbe  hnver  end,  of 
which  about  eighteen  inches  are  as  aharp  as  a  raaor.  The  point  is  not  oalika 
the  old  Bcman  sword.    Such  is  Dallas's  desoriptioa  of  tiM  < 


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BLOODHOUND. 


BLOOD-VESSELa 


to  the  unhappy  object  of  it  and  to  the  dog : — **  One  of  the  dogs  that 
iutd  been  unmuzzled  to  dxink  when  there  was  not  the  leait  apprehen- 
sion of  any  misohief,  went  up  to  an  old  woman  who  was  sitting  attending 
to  a  pot  in  which  she  was  preparing  a  mess.  The  dog  smelled  at  it 
and  was  troublesome ;  this  proyoked  her ;  she  took  up  a  stick  and 


OhaMear  irith  Cuban  Blood-HoondB. 
began  to  beat  him,  on  which  he  seized  on  her  throat,  which  he  would 
not  let  go  till  his  head  was  sererad  from  his  body  by  his  master.    The 
windpipe  of  the  woman  being  much  torn,  she  could  not  be  saved." 

A  dog  and  a  bitch,  said  to  be  of  the  true  Cuban  Blood-Hound  breed, 
were  some  Tears  ago  brought  to  this  country,  where  soon  after  their 
arrival  the  bitch  littered  ten  pups,  one  of  them  deformed.  The  figure 
here  given  is  firom  one  of  these  pups,  which  had  not  attained  its  full 
growth.  They  are  shorter  on  their  legs  than  the  English  yariety ;  the 
muzzle  IB  shorter,  and  the  animal  is  altogether  smaller,  with  less  of  the 
hound  about  it  than  the  English  Blood-Hound  has ;  the  height  is  about 


Cuban  Blood-Hound. 


two  feet ;  the  colour  generally  tawny,  with  black  about  the  muzzle;,  or 
bnndled  like  some  of  the  Ban-Dogs.  They  show  great  attachment, 
and  are  yery  gentle  tOl  seriously  provoked,  and  then  their  ferocity  is 
alarming. 

In  Cuba  the  common  employment  of  these  dogs  was  to  trayerse  the 


coimtry  in  pursuit  of  murderers  and  other  felons,  and  an  extraordinary 
proof  of  their  activity  is  recorded  by  DaJlas,  who  states  that  the  event 
occurred  about  a  month  before  the  arrival  of  the  commissioner  at  the 
Havanna.  Adeet  from  Jamaica,  imder  convoy  to  Great  Britain,  passing 
through  the  Qulf  of  Mexico,  beat  up  on  the  north  side  of  Cuba.  One 
of  the  ships,  manned  with  foreigners,  chiefly  renegade  Spaniards,  being 
a  dull  sailer,  and  consequently  lagging  astern,  standing  in  with  the  land 
at  night,  was  run  on  shore,  the  captain,  officers,  and  the  few  British 
hands  on  board  murdered,  and  the  vessel  plundered  by  the  Spanish 
renegadoes.  The  part  of  the  coast  on  which  the  ship  was  stranded 
being  wild  and  unS^quented,  the  assassins  retired  with  their  booty  to 
the  moimtalns,  intending  to  penetrate  through  the  woods  to  some 
remote  settlements  on  the  south  side,  where  they  hoped  to  secure 
themselves  and  elude  all  pursuit.  Early  intelligence  of  the  crime 
however  had  been  conveyed  to  the  Havanna,  and  the  assassins  wore 
pursued  by  a  detachment  of  twelve  of  the  Chasseurs  del  Re^  with 
their  dogs.  In  a  few  days  the  criminals  were  all  brought  m  and 
executed,  not  one  of  them  being  in  the  least  hurt  by  the  dogs  when 
captured. 

African  Blood-Hound. — On  his  return  from  Africa  the  late  Colonel 
Denham,  then  major,  presented  two  dogs  and  a  bitch  of  this  variety 
to  the  royal  menagene  in  the  Tower,  which,  under  the  care  of  the 
keeper,  Mr.  Cops,  then  contained  a  very  choice  collection  of  animals, 


Arnc.iu  Ulood-lluuiul. 

recorded  in  that  interesting  publication  '  The  Tower  Menagerie, 
London,  8vo,  1829.  The  Major  informed  Mr.  Cops  that  with  them 
he  hunted  the  guseiUe^  and  that  they  displayed  great  cunning,  fre- 
quently quitting  the  circuitous  line  of  scent  for  the  purpose  of  cutting 
off  a  double,  and  recovering  the  scent  again  with  ease.  Thev  would 
hit  off  and  follow  a  scent  after  a  lapse  of  two  hoiun  from  the  time 
when  the  animal  had  been  on  the  spot>  and  this  delicacy  of  nose  had 
not  escaped  observation,  for  they  were  applied  to  nearly  the  same 
purposes  as  the  other  varieties  here  mentioned,  and  were  commonly 
employed  in  Africa  to  trace  a  flying  enemy  to  his  retreat.  It  is  well 
remarked  in  the  work  last  above  mentioned  that  for  synmietry  and 
action  they  were  perfect  models,  and  a  regret  is  expressed  that  in 
consequence  of  their  not  having  shown  any  disposition  to  perpetuate 
their  race,  though  they  had  at  the  time  of  making  the  observation  been 
three  years  in  England,  there  appeared  to  be  no  chance  of  crossing  our 
pointers  with  this  breed.  We  agree  with  the  writer  in  thinking  that 
this  blood  so  introduced  would  bis  a  very  valuable  acquisition.  It  was 
remarked  that  of  the  three  in  the  Tower  the  males  were  very  mild, 
but  the  female  was  of  a  very  savage  disposition. 
.  BLOODSTONE,  also  called  ffeliotrope,  is  a  deep  green  stone— a 
jaspery  variety  of  Quartz.  It  has  obtained  its  name  from  being  spotted 
with  red  so  as  to  resemble  drops  of  blood.  In  addition  to  silica  it 
contains  oxide  of  iron  and  day,  which  are  mechanically  introduced^ 
and  in  this  way  the  red  spots  are  produced.  In  the  royal  collection 
at  Paris  there  is  a  bust  of  Christ  in  this  stone,  so  managed  that  the 
red  spots  represent  drops  of  blood.    (Dana,  Mineralogy,) 

BLOOD-VESSELS.  The  blood  from  which  the  tissues  of  the  body 
obtain  the  material  of  their  nourishment  is  conveyed  fh>m  one  pari 
of  the  body  to  another  by  means  of  branched  tubes  which  are  named 
Blood-Vessels.  It  is  carried  along  these  vessels  by  the  impulse  given 
by  the  action  of  the  Heart  [Heart.]  The  vessels  which  carry  the 
blood  fh>m  the  heart  are  called  Arteries.  [Abtebt.]  Those  which 
return  the  blood  to  the  heart  are  named  Veins.  [Vsni.]  Whilst  a 
very  generally  difiused  network  of  Blood-Vessels  exist,  connecting  th« 
arteries  and  veins,  which  are  called  Capillaries.    [Cafillabt  Vi88KL&] 

The  Blood-Vessels,  whatever  may  be  their  ultimate  destination,  seem 
to  originate  in  the  same  manner.  Observations  on  this  subject  have 
been  made  by  Schwann  and  Eolliker  in  Germany,  and  by  Professor 
Paget  in  thie  ooontry.  The  obeervations  of  the  two  former  were  made 


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BLUE-BIBD. 


BLUE-BREAST. 


SM 


on  the  deyelopment  of  the  TeseeU  in  the  germinal  membrane  of  the 
9as,  and  on  the  capillary  blood-yessels  of  the  tail  of  the  larva  of  a  frog, 
lou^  Facet's  observations  were  made  on  the  tissues  of  the  festal  sheep. 
Accordmg  to  these  observers  it  appears  that  these  vessels  originate 
from  nucleated  cells  similar  to  those  which  at  first  constitute  the 
diffarent  parts  of  the  embryo.  The  cell-wall  or  external  envelope  of 
these  cells  shoots  out  into  slender  pointed  processes,  such  as  is  seen 
in  the  forms  of  stellate  vegetable  tissue.  The  projections  from  neigh- 
bouriug  odls  encounter  each  other,  and  becommg  oiganiodly  united, 
the  intervening  walls  between  the  two  projections  are  absorbed,  and 
thus  a  continuous  tube  is  produced.  In  cases  where  new  vessels  are 
produced  in  the  neighbourhood  of  old  ones,  the  stellate  cells  are  formed 
in  the  new  part»  and  projections  are  formed  in  the  old  capillary  vessels 
which  unite  with  the  new  ones,  and  thus  the  circulation  is  re-esta- 
blished. The  projections  when  first  united  are  solid  and  very  slender, 
but  eventually  the  intervening  substance  disappears  and  the  vessels 
attain  a  uniform  calibra  In  growing  parts  where  the  web  of  vessels 
is  kept  up,  new  ones  are  constantly,  being  added  by  the  development 
of  stellate  cells  in  the  interstices  of  the  previous  web.  Whilst  the 
capillaries  early  attain  the  development  at  which  thev  remain,  those 
vessels  which  are  to  become  arteries  or  veins  on  either  side  of  the 
capillary  vessels  go  on  increamn^  in  size  till  they  acquire  the  special 
membranes  or  coats  which  distmguish  these  parts  of  the  circulating 
systeuL  This  explanation  seems  however  only  applicable  to  ihe  smaller 
veins  and  arteries,  as  the  observations  of  Kolliker  would  seem  to  thow 
that  the  larger  Blood-Vessels  may  take  their  origin  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  heart,  in  which  oigan  there  is  first  an  agglomeration  of  ceUs, 
the  interior  ones  of  which  become  soft,  and  at  last  disappear,  whilst 
the  outside  ones  become  firmer  and  constitute  the  outer  waUs.  On 
this  subject  further  observations  are  vnmting. 

(Sharpey,  Quain's  BUmenU  of  Anatomy ;  Schwann,  Mierotcopieal 
Jlesearehet  into  the  Accordance  in  the  Structure  and  Growth  cf  AnimdU 
and  Plante,  translated  by  H.  Smith ;  Kolliker,  ffandbuch  der  Qewehe- 
lehre  der  Mentchen;  Paget^  Supplement  to  MUUer^e  Phytioloffy,  by 
Baley  and  Kirkes.) 

BLUE-BIRD,  the  American  name  for  the  Motacilla  tiaUe  of  Linnseus, 
Sylvia  tialit  of  Wilson,  Saxicola  eialit  of  Bonaparte,  Ampdii  nalii  of 
Nuttall,  and  Erythaca  (Sialia)  WiUonii  of  Swainson. 


laive  beetles  and  other  CoUoptera,  frequently  of  spiders,  and  sometinMs 
of  iniits  and  seeds. 

The  nest  is  built  in  holes  in  trees  and  similar  situatioDs.  The  bird 
is  very  prolific,  for  though  the  Qggs,  which  are  of  a  pale-blue  colour, 
seldom  exceed  six,  and  are  more  frequently  five  in  number,  two  and 
sometimes  three  broods  are  produced  in  a  season. 

Its  song  is  cheerful,  continuing  with  little  interruption  frx)m  March 
to  October,  but  is  most  frequently  heard  in  the  serene  days  of  the 
spring. 

With  regard  to  its  geographical  distribution,  Catesby  says :— "These 
birds  are  common  in  most  parts  of  North  America,  for  I  have  seeo 
them  in  Carolina,  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  the  Bermuda  Islsnds." 
Wilson  gives  the  United  States,  the  Bahamas,  Mexico,  Bradl,  and 
Guyana,  as  its  localities.  About  November  it  takes  its  departui« 
from  the  United  States. 

The  whole  upper  part  of  the  bird,  which  is  about  7i  inches  loDg,  is  of 
a  rich  sky-blue  shot  with  purple ;  the  bill  and  legs  aro  black ;  shafts  of  the 
wing  and  tail  feathers  black ;  throat,  neck,  breast,  and  sides,  partisUy 
imder  the  wings,  reddish  chestnut;  vnngs dusky-black  at  the  tips; 
belly  and  vent  white.  The  female  is  duller  in  its  colours.  It  is  said 
to  be  much  infested  with  tape-worms. 

BLUE-BOTTLE.    [Cbntaurba.] 

BLUE-BREAST,  one  of  the  EngUah  names  for  thlA  pretty  bird, 
which,  as  Bechstein  observes,  may  be  considered  as  the  Imt  between 
the  Redstart  and  Conmion  Wagtail,  having  strong  points  of  resem- 
blance to  both.  It  is  also  called  Blue-Throated  Robin  and  Blue-Thioated 
Redstart.  It  is  the  Qorge-Bleue  of  the  French,  the  Blaukehlein  of  the 
Germans,  Petto  Turchino  of  the  Italians,  the  Cycmecula  of  Brisson, 
Motacilla  Suecica  of  LiDnaus,  Sylvia  cyanecula  of  Meyer,  the  Blue- 
Throated  Warbler  and  Sylvia  Suecica  of  Latham,  Phanicena  Suecica 
of  Gould,  Ficedula  Suecica  of  EytoxL 


i»Jv5-Dird  {Motacilla  sialit). 

Like  our  red-breast  this  liftrl4iiger  of  spring  to  the  Americans  "  is 
known  to  almost  every  child,  and  shows,"  says  Wilson,  "  as  much 
confidence  in  man  by  associating  with  him  in  summer,  as  the  other  by 
his  familiarity  in  winter. 

"  So  early  as  the  middle  of  February,  if  the  weather  be  open,  he 
usually  makes  his  appearance  about  his  old  haimts,  the  bam,  orchard, 
and  fence-posts.  Storms  and  deep  snows  sometimes  succeeding,  he 
disappears  for  a  time ;  but  about  tiie  middle  of  March  is  again  seen 
accompanied  by  his  mate  visiting  the  box  in  the  garden  or  the  hole  in 
the  old  apple-tree,  the  cradle  of  some  generations  of  his  ancestors." 
.  .  .  .  "  When  he  first  begins  his  amours,"  says  a  curious  and 
correct  observer,  "  it  is  pleasing  to  behold  his  courtship,  his  solicitude 
to  please  and  to  secure  the  favour  of  his  beloved  female.  He  uses  the 
tenderest  expressions,  sits  close  by  her,  caresses  and  sings  to  her  his 
most  endearing  warblings.  When  seated  together  if  he  espies  an  insect 
delicious  to  her  taste  he  takes  it  up,  files  with  it  to  her,  spreads  his 
wing  over  her,  and  puts  it  in  her  mouth." 

The  food  of  the  Blue-Bird  consists  principally  of  insects,  partioularly 


Blue-Breost  {MotaeUla  Suecica). 

According  to  Temminck  the  Blue-Breast  is  found  in  the  same  coun- 
tries which  are  inhabited  by  the  Red-Breast,  and  particularly  on  the 
borders  of  forests,  but  is  more  rare  in  France  and  Holland  than  the 
latter  bird.  Bonaparte  notes  it  as  accidental  and  very  rare  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Rome,  and  as  only  appearing  in  severe  winters.  In 
England  it  is  very  rarely  seerL  Yarrell  in  his  '  British  Birds*  reeordB 
four  instances  of  its  having  been  shot  in  England. 

The  food  of  the  Blue-Breast,  4u;cordrDg  to  Tenmunck,  consists  of 
files,  the  larvse  of  insects,  and  worms.  Bechstein  says  that  it  also  eats 
elder-berries.  It  is  one  of  those  unfortunate  birds  which  is  called  by 
some  a  Beocafico.  The  nest  is  said  to  be  built  in  bushes  and  in  the 
holes  of  trees.    The  eggs,  of  a  greenish-blue,  are  six  in  number. 

The  following  is  Bechstein's  accurate  description  of  the  male  :— 
."  Its  length  is  54  inches,  of  which  the  tail  occupies  2^  inches.  The 
beak  is  sharp  and  blackish,  yellow  at  the  angles ;  the  iris  is  Ixrown ; 
the  shanks  are  14  lines  high,  of  a  reddish-brown,  and  the  toes  blackish ; 
the  head,  the  back,  and  the  wing-coverts  are  ashy-brown,  mottled  with 
a  darker  tint ;  a  reddish-white  Ime  passes  above  the  eyes ;  the  cheeks 
are  dark-brown,  spotted  with  rust-red  and  edged  at  the  side  inth  deep 
ash-gray ;  a  brilliant  sky-blue  covers  the  throat  and  hiJf-way  down  the 
breast;  this  is  set  off  by  a  spot  of  the  most  <l<i««ling  white,  the  size  of 
a  pea,  placed  predselv  over  the  laiynz,  which  enlarging  and  dimininh 
ing  successively  by  the  movement  of  this  part  wb^n  the  bird  sings 
pi^oduoes  the  most  beautiful  effect  The  blue  passes  into  a  black  band, 
and  the  latter  into  a  fine  orange ;  the  belly  is  dusky-white,  yellowish 
towards  the  vent ;  the  thighs  and  sides  are  reddish ;  the  quill-feathers 
dark-brown;  the  tail-feathers  red  at  the  base,  and  half  the  summit 


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BOBOLINK. 


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black;  the  two  intermediate  ones  are  entirely  dark-brown.  Some 
males  bare  two  little  white  spots  on  the  throat,  some  even  haye  three 
while  others  have  none ;  these  latter  are  probably  very  old,  for  I  have 
observed  that  as  the  bird  grows  older  the  blue  deepens  andtJie  orange 
band  becomes  almost  maroon." 

The  female  resembles  the  male  in  the  upper  parts.  On  each  side  of 
the  neck  is  a  blackish  longitudinal  streak  passing  on  the  upper  parts 
of  the  breast  into  a  lai^  blackish  space  tinged  with  ash-colour.  On 
the  middle  of  the  neck  is  a  great  spot  of  pure  white.  Flanks  clouded 
with  olive,  the  rest  of  the  lower  parts  white.  The  very  old  females 
have  the  throat  sometimes  of  a  very  bright  blue.  This  is  probably 
a  sign  that  they  have  done  laying,  and  are  putting  on  the  plumage  of 
the  male.  Bechstein  says  uiat  the  females  when  young  are  of  a 
celestial  blue  tint  on  the  sides  of  the  throat,  which  deepens  with  age 
and  forms  the  two  longitudinal  lines. 

The  young,  according  to  Temminck,  are  brown  spotted  with  white, 
and  have  all  a  large  white  space  upon  the  throat.  "  Its  song,"  says 
Bechstein,  "  is  very  agreeable ;  it  sounds  like  two  voices  at  once ;  one 
deep,  resembling  the  gentle  humming  of  a  violin  string,  the  other  the 
soft  sound  of  a  flute." 

BLUMENBA'CHIUM,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Alcyonoid  Polypiaria, 
proposed  by  Dr.  Konig. 

BLYSMuS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cype- 
raceiE.  The  glumes  are  fertile,  the  outermost  the  largest  and  cmp^ ; 
bristles  three  to  six ;  style  not  thickened  at  the  base,  persistent,  but 

})lano-convez,  tipped  with  the  undilated  base  of  the  style ;  the  spike- 
ets  bracteated,  alternate,  forming  a  close  distichous  compoundHerminal 
sp^e.  Two  species  of  this  inconspicuous  genus  are  found  in  Qreat 
Britain.  B,  eompressus  is  found  in  boggy  pastures  in  England  and 
Scotland.  B,  rufut  inhabits  marshes  near  the  sea  on  the  northern 
and  western  coasts.    (Babington,  Manual.) 

BOA,  a  name  applied  to  various  forms  of  large  Snakes.  The  species 
to  which  this  name  has  been  given  are  mostly  included  in  the  ramily 
Boidce,     rBoro^] 

BOAR-FISH.    [Capros.1 

BOAHMIA,  a  genus  of  Moths  of  the  family  Geometrida,  All  the 
species  of  this  genus  are  of  an  ashy  colour,  or  white  minutely  dotted 
with  brown,  and  adorned  with  several  fascia)  of  a  deeper  colour ;  the 
antennffi  of  the  males,  instead  of  being  pectinated,  a  character  common 
in  the  Geometrida,  are  pilose ;  palpi  short,  clothed  with  short  scales, 
three-jointed,  the  two  basal  joints  of  equal  length,  the  terminal  joint 
concealed ;  antennsd  simple  in  the  females ;  thorax  small,  velvety ; 
wings,  when  at  rest,  placed  horizontally ;  body  slender  in  the  males, 
in  the  females  shorter  and  more  robust. 

Mr.  Stephens,  in  his  '  Illustrations  of  British  Entomology,'  enume- 
rates seven  species  of  this  genus,  most  of  which  are  foimd  in  woods  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  London. 

BOAT-BILL,  the  English  name  for  the  genus  Cochleariua  of  Brisson, 
CaruTOfna  of  Linmeus,  Les  Savacous  of  the  French. 

This  genus  of  the  tzxaS^j  Ardelidce  (Heron-like  Birds)  would  approach 
quite  closely,  as  Cuvier  observes,  to  the  herons  [Abdba]  in  regard  to 
their  bill  and  the  kind  of  food  which  it  indicates,  were  it  not  for  the 
extraordinary  form  of  that  organ,  which  is  nevertheless,  when  closely 
observed,  the  bill  of  a  heron  or  a  bittern  very  much  flattened  out. 
This  bill  is  of  an  oval  form,  longer  than  the  head,  very  much  depressed, 
and  not  unlike  the  bowls  of  two  spoons  placed  one  upon  the  other, 
with  the  rims  in  contact.  The  mandibles  are  strong,  with  sharp  edges, 
and  dilated  towards  the  middle.  The  upper  mandible  is  carinated, 
and  hooked  at  its  point,  which  has  a  small  tooth  or  notch  on  each  side 
of  it.  The  lower  mandible  is  flatter  than  the  upper,  straight,  mem- 
branous in  the  centre,  and  terminated  by  a  sharp  point.  The  nostrils 
are  oblique,  longitudinal,  and  closed. 

The  first  quill  is  short ;  the  five  next  are  the  longest.  The  feet  are 
furnished  with  foxir  toes,  all  long,  and  almost  without  membranes. 

Though  TOologists  have  described  more  than  one  species,  it  appears 
that  they  may  be  referred  to  the  only  species  yet  known,  CocUeariut 
fuscus  of  Brisson,  Cancroma  cocfdearia  of  LinnaBus,  Le  Savacou  of 
Bufibn,  the  differences  on  which  Cancroma  cancrophaga  (Linnscus,  &c.) 
is  founded  not  being  allowed  to  be  specific.  Leach,  in  his  '  S^oological 
Miscellany,'  figures  and  describes  tne  common  Boat-Bill  under  tiie 
title  of  Cancroma  vulgaris,  but  assigns  no  reason  for  altering  the 
spedfio  name  given  by  Linnseus. 

The  common  Boat-cill  is  about  the  size  of  a  domestic  hen.  In  the 
male,  the  forehead  and  upper  parts  of  the  neck  and  breast  are  dirty 
white;  the  back  and  lower  part  of  the  belly  rusty-reddish ;  the  bill  is 
black,  and  the  legs  and  feet  are  brown.  From  the  head  depends  a 
long  crest  of  black  feathers,  falling  backwards.  The  female  has  the 
top  of  the  head  black,  without  the  elongated  crest ;  the  back  and  the 
belly  rusty-reddish ;  the  wings  gray ;  the  forehead  and  rest  of  the 
plumage  white ;  and  the  bill,  legs,  and  feet,  brown. 

"  This  species,"  says  Latluun,  in  his  *  Synopsis,'  **  for  I  refer  all  that 
has  1>een  treated  of  above  to  one  only,  inhabits  Cayenne,  Guyana,  and 
Brazil,  and  chiefly  frequents  such  parts  as  are  near  the  water.  In 
ffuch  places  it  perches  on  the  trees  which  hang  over  the  streams,  and, 
like  the  kingfisher,  drops  down  on  the  fish  which  swim  beneath.  It 
has  been  thought  to  live  on  crabs  likewise,  whence  the  Limuean  name ; 
but  this  is  not  dear,  though  it  cannot  be  denied ;  yet  wo  are  certain 
Jiat  fish  is  the  most  common,  if  not  the  only  food." 


Lesson  ('  Manuel ')  says,  "  The  Boat-Bill  perches  on  trees  by  the 
nde  of  rivers,  where  it  lives  on  fish,  and  not  on  crabs,  as  its  name 
indicates ;"  and  speaks  of  it  as  inhabiting  the  inimdated  savannahs  of 
South  America,  and  as  being  especially  common  in  Quyana. 


Boat-Bill  {CoHcrotna  cochlearia),  male. 

Leach  ('Zoological  Miscellany')  says  that  it  inhabits  Southern 
America,  and  feeds  on  fishes,  vermet,  and  eruttaeea,  in  quest  of  which 
it  is  oonttnually  traversing  the  borders  of  the  sea. 

Cuvier  ('  R^gne  Animal ')  says  that  it  inhabits  the  warm  and  moist 
parts  of  South  America,  and  perches  on  trees  by  the  side  of  rivers, 
whence  it  precipitates  itself  on  the  fish  which  afford  its  ordinary 
nourishment. 

BOB-0-LINK,  or  BOB-LINE,  the  usual  name  by  which  the  Rice- 
Bird,  or  Reed-Burd— the  Skunk-Bird,  Seecawk-Petheesew  of  the  Cree 


Bob-o-Link  {Doliehoftyx  oriayvoru$)» 

Indians,  the  Rioe-Bunting  of  Pennant  and  of  Wilson,  Rioe-Troopial 
of  authors,  Jffortvlanui  Carolinentii  of  Catesby,  EmbcrvBa  orieyvora  ef 
linnseus,  Icterit  agripennit  of  Bonaparte,  Dolichonfx  orisfVpnis  of 
Swainsoft— 18  known  hi  the  United  States. 


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Gateeby,  WilBon,  Audubon,  and  Nuttall  give  the  moit  complete 
MoountB  of  this  well-known  bird : — "  The  whole  continent  of  Amenca," 
■ays  the  latter,  **  from  Labrador  to  Mexico  and  the  great  Antilles,  are 
the  occasional  residence  of  tlus  truly  migratory  species.  About  the 
middle  of  March,  or  beginning  of  Apnl,  the  cheerful  Bobnv-Link  makes 
hlB  appearance  in  the  southern  extremity  of  the  United  States,  becom- 
ing g^^dually  arrayed  in  his  nuptial  liyery,  and  accompanied  by  troops 
of  hlB  companions,  who  often  precede  the  arrival  of  their  more  tardy 
mates."  (Bartram's  < Travels,' p.  295,  edit.  Lend.)  "Their wintering 
resort  appears  to  be  rather  the  West  Indies  than  the  tropical  conti- 
nent, as  their  migrations  are  observed  to  take  place  genenlly  to  the 
east  of  Louisiana,  where  their  visits  are  rare  and  irregular."  (Audu- 
bon's *  Ornithological  Biographj^,'  vol  i.  p.  288.)  At  this  season  also 
they  make  their  approaches  chiefly«by  night,  obeying  as  it  were  more 
distinctly  the  mandates  of  an  overruling  instinct,  which  prompts  than 
to  seek  out  their  natal  regions ;  while  in  autumn  their  progress,  by 
day  onlj,  is  alone  instigated  by  the  natural  quest  of  food.  About  the 
1st  of  May  the  meadows  of  Massachusetts  begm  to  re^dio  their  lively 
ditty.  At  this  season  in  wet  places,  and  by  newly-ploughed  fieldi^ 
they  destroy  many  insects  and  their  larvn ;  but  while  on  their  way 
through  the  souuiem  states  they  cannot  resiBt  the  temptation  of 
feeding  on  the  early  wheat  and  tender  barley.  According  to  their 
BuocesB  in  this  way  parties  often  delay  their  final  northern  movement 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  May,  so  that  they  appear  to  be  in  no  haste  to 
arrive  at  their  destination  at  any  exact  period.  The  principal  busuiess 
of  their  lives  however,  the  rearing  of  their  young,  does  not  take  place 
until  they  have  left  the  parallel  of  the  40th  degree.  In  the  savaimahs 
of  Ohio  and  Michigan,  and  the  cool  grassy  meadows  of  New  Toric, 
Canada,  and  New  England,  they  fix  &eir  abode,  and  obtain  a  sufii- 
ciency  of  food  throughout  the  summer  without  molesting  the  harvest 
of  the  farmer  until  the  ripening  of  the  latest  crops  of  oats  and  barley, 
when  in  their  autumnal  and  changed  dress,  hardly  known  now  as  Uie 
same  spedes,  they  sometimes  show  their  taste  for  plunder,  and  flock 
together  like  the  greedy  and  predatory  blackbirds. 

The  song  of  the  male  generally  ceases  about  the  first  week  in  July, 
and  about  the  same  time  his  variegated  dress,  which  fix>m  a  resem- 
blance in  its  colours  to  that  of  the  quadruped  obtained  for  it  the 
name  of  'Skunk-Bird '  among  the  Cree  Indians,  is  exchanged  for  the 
sombre  hues  of  the  plumage  of  the  female.  The  author  alx^ve  quoted 
thus  describes  the  autumnal  migration : — 

«  About  the  middle  of  August^  in  congregating  numbers,  divested 
already  of  all  selective  attachment,  vast  foraging  parties  enter  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  on  their  way  to  the  south.  Here  along  the 
shores  of  the  large  rivers,  lined.with  floating  fields  of  the  Wild  Bice 
(Zizania),  they  find  an  abundant  means  of  subsistence  during  their 
short  stay ;  and  as  their  flesh,  now  &t,  is  little  inferior  to  that  of  the 
European  ortolan,  the  reed-  or  rice-birds,  as  they  axe  then  called  in 
their  sparrow  dress,  form  a  favourite  sport  for  gunners  of  all  descrip- 
tions, who  turn  out  on  the  occasion  and  commit  prodigious  havoc 
among  the  almost  silent  and  greedy  roosting  throng.  The  maricets 
are  then  filled  with  this  delicious  game,  and  the  pursuit^  both  for 
success  and  amusement  along  the  picturesque  and  reedy  shores  of  the 
Delaware  and  other  rivers,  is  second  to  none  but  that  of  rail-diooting. 
As  soon  as  the  cool  nights  of  October  commence,  and  as  the  wild  rice- 
crops  begin  to  fail,  the  reed-birds  take  their  departure  from  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  Jersey,  and  in  their  further  progress  through  the 
southern  states  they  swarm  in  the  rice-fields ;  amd  before  the  crop  is 
gathered  they  have  already  made  their  appearance  in  the  islands  of 
Cuba  and  Jamaica,  where  they  also  feed  on  the  seeds  of  the  Guinea 
Grass  (iSSt)f|^A«tm),  becoming  so  fat  as  to  deserve  the  name  of '  Butter- 
Birds,'  and  are  in  high  esteem  for  the  table." 

Catesby,  under  the  name  of  Caroline  Ortolan,  gives  the  following 
interesting  account  of  the  Rice-Bird,  from  which  it  appears  that  the 
damage  done  to  the  farmer  by  this  comparatively  weidL  agent  is  very 
great:— 

**  In  the  beginning  of  September,  while  the  grain  of  rice  is  yet  soft 
and  milky,  innumerable  flights  of  these  birds  arrive  firom  some  remote 
parts  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1724  an  inhabitant 
near  Ashley  River  had  forty  acres  of  rice  so  devoured  bv  them  that  he 
was  in  doubt  whether  what  they  had  left  was  worth  the  expense  of 
gathering  in.  Th^  are  esteemed  in  Carolina  the  greatest  delicacy  of 
all  other  birds.  When  they  first  arrive  thev  are  lean,  but  in  a  few 
days  become  so  excessively  fat  that  they  flv  sluggishly  and  with  diffi- 
culty, and  when  shot  frequently  burst  with  thefall.  They  continue 
about  three  weeks,  and  retire  by  the  time  the  rice  first  begins  to 
harden.  There  is  something  so  singular  and  extraordinary  in  this 
bird  that  I  cannot  pass  it  over  without  notice.  In  September,  when 
they  arrive  in  infinite  swarms  to  devour  the  rice,  they  sre  all  hens, 
not  being  accompanied  with  any  cock.  Observing  them  to  be  all 
feathered  olike^  I  imagined  they  were  young  of  both  sexes  not  per- 
fected in  their  colours ;  but  by  opening  some  scores  prepared  for  the 
spit  I  found  them  to  be  all  females,  and  that  I  might  leave  no  room' 
for  doubt  repeated  the  search  often  on  many  of  them,  but  could  never 
find  a  cock  at  that  time  of  the  jear.  Early  in  the  spring  both  cocks 
and  hens  make  a  transient  visit  together,  at  which  time  I  made  the 
Uke  search  as  before,  and  both  sexes  were  plainly  distinguishable. 
....  In  September,  1725,  lying  upon  the  deck  of  a  sloop  in  a  bay  at 
AndroB  Island,  I  and  the  company  with  me  heard  three  nights  suo- 


BOG. 


ivelv  flints  of  these  birds  (their  note  being  plainly  distinguiahable 
from  otner^  passing  over  our  heads  northeriy,  which  is  their  dinci 
way  firom  Cuba  to  Carolina;  from  which  I  conceive,  after  partaking 
of  the  earlier  crop  of  rice  at  Cub%  they  travel  over  sea  to  Carolina  for 
the  same  intent^  the  rice  there  being  at  that  time  fit  for  them." 

Sir  John  Richardson  says  that  ^e  54th  parallel,  which  it  readies 
in  June,  appears  to  be  the  most  northern  limit  of  the  Bob-o-Link,  sod 
gives  a  description  of  a  male  in  its  nuptial  dress,  which  was  kiUed  on 
the  Saskatchewan  in  that  month  in  the  year  1827. 

Swainaon  places  it  as  a  genus  of  his  third  sub-family,  Agdma^ 
in  the  third  or  aberrant  group  of  his  Siwmida, 

Grsssy  meadows  are  the  spots  usually  selected  by  the  bird  for  its 
nest,  which  is  made  on  the  ground,  generally  in  some  slighfly 
depressed  spot,  of  withered  grass»  so  carelessly  bedded  together  as 
scarcely  to  be  distinguishable  firom  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  field. 
Here  five  or  six  eggs  of  purplish-white,  blotched  all  over  with  puzpM, 
and  spotted  with  brown  round  the  larger  end,  are  laid. 

The  length  of  the  Bob-o-Iink  is  about  7i  inches.  The  male  m  his 
nuptial  dI^^ss  has  the  head,  fore  part  of  tiie  back,  shoulders,  winn, 
tail,  and  the  whole  of  the  under  plumage  black,  going  off  in^e 
middle  of  the  back  to  grayish ;  scwuliuv,  rump,  and  upper  tail- 
coverts  white ;  there  is  a  large  patch  or  ochreous  yeUow  on  the  nape 
and  bade  of  Uie  neck ;  bill  bluiah-blaok,  which  m  the  female,  young 
male,  and  adult  male  in  his  autumnal  dress,  is  pale  fiesh-oolour;  the 
feathers  of  the  tail  are  sharp  at  the  end  like  a  woodpecker's;  legs 
brown. 

The  female,  whose  plumage  the  adult  male  assumes  after  the 
breeding  season,  has  the  back  streaked  with  brownish-black,  not  unlike 
that  of  a  lark,  according  to  Catesby,  and  the  whole  under  parts  (tf  a 
dirty  yellow.    The  young  males  resemble  the  females. 

BODENITE,  an  ore  of  Cerium  resembling  Orihitc  It  is  found  at 
Boden  in  Saxony. 

BCEHKERIA,  a  g^nus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natoral  order 
Urticacece,  The  species  were  formerly  comprehended  under  the  genus 
Uriiea.  One  of  the  species  B,  nivea,  formerly  Utiiea  ntreo,  ii  the 
Rheea  of  Asam,  and  yields  fibres  of  remarkable  fineness  and  tenacity. 
It  appears  &om  the  investigations  of  Dr.  Falconer,  that  the  plant 
which  yields  the  celebrated  grass-cloth  of  China  is  identical  with  the 
Asam  plant.  Several  specimens  of  these  fibres  manufactured  into 
light  articles  of  dress  were  exhibited  in  the  Indian  collection  at  the 
Great  Exhibition  of  1851.  The  B,  nivea  is  a  herbaceous  plants  with 
broad  ovate  leaves  which  are  downy  and  white  beneath,  hence  its 
specific  name.    It  bears  no  sting. 

BOERHAAYIA,  a  genus  of  plants  named  after  the  celebrated 
Boerhaave,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Nyetoffinacect.  The  species 
of  Boerliaavia  have  generally  emetic  and  purgative  properties,  and 
have  been  employed  medicinally  both  by  the  natives  of  Peru  and  the 
East  Indies,  where  the  species  grow.  B.  inberoaa  ia  stated  by  Lindlcy 
to  be  the  Yerba  de  la  Purgacion  of  Peru,  and  that  it  is  employed  as  a 
culinary  v^etable.  The  root  of  B.  dectmbeM  is  called  Hog-Meai  in 
Jamaica,  and  on  accoimt  of  its  emetic  properties  it  is  sometimes  called 
Ipecacuanha  in  Guyana.  Sir  Robert  Schomburgk  states  that  it  is 
astringent,  and  is  useful  in  dysentery.  B,  decumbent  and  £.  hinuta 
are  also  said  to  possess  meidicinal  properties.  (Lindley,  VegOahU 
Kingdom.) 

BOG.  The  name  of  Bog  has  been  given  indiscriminately  to  veiy 
difierent  kinds  of  substances.  In  all  cases  the  expression  Bignifies 
an  earthy  substance  wanting  in  firmness  or  consistency,  which  state 
seems  to  arise  generally  (perhaps  not  always)  from  the  presence  of  t 
superabundant  supply  of  moisture  having  no  natural  outlet  or  drain. 

In  some  cases,  where  springs  of  water,  or  the  drainage  from  an 
extensive  area,  are  pent  up  near  the  surface  of  the  soil,  they  simply 
render  it  soft  or  boggy,  and  in  this  state  the  land  ia  perhaps  more 
properly  called  a  Quagmire.  A  second  state  of  bog  is  where,  in 
adcution  to  the  condition  just  described,  a  formation  of  vegetable 
matter  is  induced,  which  dying  and  being  reproduced  on  the  aui&oe 
assumes  the  state  of  a  spongy  mass  of  sufficient  consistence  to  bear  a 
considerable  weight.  Bogs  of  this  description  are  numerous  and 
extensive  in  Irekmd,  where  they  are  valuable  from  the  use  made  of 
the  solid  vegetable  matter,  both  as  fuel  and  as  a  principal  ingredient 
in  composts  for  manures.  Where  the  turf  has  been  cut  away  for  thoe 
purposes,  several  bogs  have  been  reclaimed  by  draining;  uul  ^^ 
subsoil  is  then  readily  brought  into  cultivation.  Bogs  also  occur  ui 
all  parts  of  Great  Britain  where  the  form  of  the  surface  and  the 
nature  of  the  euth  favour  the  general  condition  under  which  bog  u 
formed.  Thus  there  are  bogs  on  the  high  granitic  plateau  of 
C(»nwall,  on  the  road  from  Launoeston  to  Bodmin ;  and  in  the  lazge 
granitic  mass,  of  which  Brown  Willy  is  the  centre,  thebottoma  of  the 
valleys  are  covered  with  bogs,  the  lower  part  of  which  is  consolidated 
into  peat.  Although  peat-moss  always  springs  from  some  moist  spo^ 
it  wiU  grow  and  spread  over  sound  ground,  and  if  not  stopped  by 
some  natural  or  artificial  impediment,  such  as  a  wall,  would  overrun 
whole  districts.  In  this  case.it  absorbs  any  moisture  which  reaches  it, 
and  retains  it  like  a  sponge. 

The  depth  of  a  bog  depends  on  the  level  of  the  surroonding 
grounds.  It  cannot  rise  much  higher  than  the  lowest  outiet  for  the 
water.  Where  there  is  no  immediate  ouUet  the  bog  increases,  un^ 
the  evaporation  is  equal  to  the  supply  of  the  springs  and  rain^  or  tui 


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BOG. 


H  rifles  to  a  lerel  with  its  lowest  boimdaiy,  where  it  beoomes  the 
flotiroe  of  a  stream  or  river,  and  fonna  a  lake.  The  mud  beipg 
dopoBLted  at  the  bottom,  gradually  becomes  a  true  peat,  or  is  quite 
reduced  to  its  eleme&tsj^  earths.  In  this  case  it  may  beoomea 
stratum  of  rioh  alluvial  soil,  which  some  convulsion  of  nature  may 
lay  dry  for  the  benefit  of  future  ages.  From  this  circumstance  has 
arisen  the  great  advantage  of  draLiing  bogs,  to  which  the  attention 
of  agriculturists  and  men  of  science  has  often  been  profitably 
directed. 

The  bogs  of  Ireland  are  estimated  in  the  whole  to  exceed  in  extent 
2,800,000  KngUsh  acres.  The  greater  port  of  these  bogs  may  be  oon- 
udered  as  fozming  one  connected  mass.  If  a  line  were  drawn  firom 
WicUow-Head  on  the  east  coast,  to  Gkdway,  and  another  line  from 
Howth-Head,  lUso  on  the  east  coast,  to  Sligo,  the  Efpaoe  included 
between  those  lines,  which  would  occupy  about  one-fourth  part  of  the 
entire  superficial  extent  of  Ireland,  would  contain  about  six-sevenths 
of  the  bogs  in  the  island,  exclusive  of  mere  mountain-bogs,  and  bogs 
of  no  groKter  extent  than  800  English  acres.  This  district  resembles 
in  form  a  broad  belt  drawn  from  east  to  west  acroas  the  centre  of 
Ireland,  having  its  narrowest  end  nearest  to  Dublin,  and  gradually 
extending  its  breadth  as  it  approaches  the  western  ocean.  This  great 
division  is  traversed  by  the  river  Shannoof  from  north  to  south,  which 
thus  divides  the  great  system  of  bogs  into  two  parts.  Of  these,  the 
division  to  the  west  of  the  river  contains  more  than  double  the  extent 
of  bogs  in  the  eastern  division,  so  that  if  we  suppose  the  whole  of  the 
bogs  of  Ireland  (exclcusive  of  mere  mountain-bogs,  and  of  bogs  of  less 
extent  than  800  acres)  to  be  divided  into  tweni^  IMrts,  twelve  of  these 
parte  will  be  found  in  the  western  division,  and  five  parteinthe  eastern 
division  of  the  district  already  described,  while  of  the  remaining 
three  parts,  two  are  to  the  south  and  one  to  the  north  of  that 
district. 

The  smaller  bogs,  excluded  firom  the  foregoing  computation,  are 
vexy  numerous  in  some  parts.  In  the  single  county  of  Cavan  there 
are  above  90  bogB,  not  one  of  which  exceeds  800  E^lish  acres,  but 
which  coUectiv^y  contain  about  17,600  English  acres,  without  taking 
into  the  account  many  bogs  the  extent  of  which  is  from  five  to  twenty 
acres  each. 

Most  of  the  bogs  which  lie  to  the  eastward  of  the  Shannon  and 
which  occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  the  King's  County  and  the 
County  of  Kildare,  are  generaUy  known  by  the  name  of  the  Bog  of 
Allen.  It  must  not  however  be  supposed  wat  this  name  is  applied  to 
any  one  gpneat  morass ;  on  the  contrary,  the  boga  to  which  it  is  applied 
are  perfectly  distinct  fh>m  each  other,  often  separated  l^  high  ridges 
of  dry  ootmtry,  and  inclining  towards  difierent  rivers  as  their  natural 
directions  for  drainage. 

The  surface  of  the  land  rises  very  qidckly  from  the  Bog  of  Allen  on 
all  sides,  particularly  to  the  north-west,  where  it  is  composed  to  a  con- 
siderable depth  of  mnestone  gravel,  forming  very  abrupt  hiUs.  In 
places  where  the  jGatoe  of  the  hills  has  been  opened  the  mass  is  found 
to  be  composed  of  rounded  limestone,  vazying  in  aao  from  two  feet  in 
diameter  to  less  than  one  inch ;  the  largest  pieces  are  not  so  much 
rounded  as  the  smaU,  and  frequently  ti^eir  sharp  angles  are  merely 
rubbed  o£  They  are  usually  penetrated  by  contemporaneous  veins 
of  Lydian  stone,  varying  in  colour  from  black  to  light  gray.  The 
colour  of  the  limestone  is  usually  light  smoke-gray,  rarely  bluiflh-black ; 
when  it  is  bluish-black  the  fracture  is  large  conchoidal;  ^t  of  the 
gray  is  uneven,  approaching  to  earthy.  The  Lydian  stone  when  unat- 
tached to  the  limestone  has  usually  a  tendency  to  a  rhomboidal  form, 
sometimes  cubical ;  the  edges  are  more  or  less  rounded ;  the  longitudi- 
nal firacture  is  even,  the  cross  fracture  is  conchoidal. 

The  Grand  Canal  from  Dublin  to  Shannon  Harbour  passes  through 
a  considerable  part  of  the  great  bog-district  of  Ireland.  In  forming 
this  canal  it  was  neoessaiy  to  make  considerable  embankments,  the 
surface-water  of  the  canal  being  generally  on  a  higher  level  than  the 
surface  of  the  inmiediately  adjoining  bogs.  Where  this  was  not  the 
case  advantage  was  taken  of  the  circumstance  to  conduct  the  drainage 
of  the  bogs  into  trenches  for  the  supply  of  the  canaL 

The  b<^  situated  to  the  south  of  the  great  belt  in  the  centre  of 
Ireland  occur  in  Tipperary,  Kilkenny,  Clare,  and  Queen's  County ; 
those  to  the  north  of  that  b^  occur  in  Antrim,  Down,  Armagh,  Tyrone, 
and  Londondeny. 

It  appeared  firam  the  examination  of  the  surveyors  appointed  by 
parliament  in  1810  to  investigate  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  bogs  in 
Ireland,  that  they  consist  of  "  a  mass  of  the  peculiar  substance  culed 
peat,  of  the  average  thickness  of  twenty-five  feet^  nowhere  less  than 
twelve  nor  found  to  exceed  forty-two— this  substance  varying  mate- 
rially in  its  appearances  and  properties  in  proportion  to  the  depth  at 
which  it  lies.  The  upper  surmoe  is  covered  with  moss  of  various 
speciesy  and  to  the  depth  of  about  ten  feet  is  composed  of  a  mass  of 
the  fibres  of  .similar  vegetables  in  dififorent  stages  of  decomposition, 
proportioned  to  their  depth  fh>m  the  surfitoe,  generally  however  too 
open  in  their  texture  to  be  applied  to  the  purposes  of  fuel ;  below  this 
gmenHj  lies  a  light  blackiidi-brown  tur^  containing  the  fibres  of  moss, 
Btin  visible  thoi^  not  pexfect^  and  extending  to  a  farther  depth  of 
perhaps  ten  feet  under  this.  At  a  greater  depth  the  fibres  of  vege- 
table matter  cease  to  be  visible,  the  colour  of  the  turf  becomes  blacker 
and  the  substance  much  more  compact,  its  properties  as  fdel  more 
lalu&ble,  and  gradually  increasing  in  the  degree  of  blackness  and  com- 

VAX.  BBC  nXV.  TOL.  L 


paotness  proportionate  to  its  depth;  near  the  bottom  of  the  bog 
it  forms  a  black  mass,  which  when  dry  has  a  strong  reeembUcce 
to  pitch  or  bituminous  coal,  having  a  conchoidal  fracture  in  every 
direction,  with  a  black  shining  lus£e,  and  susceptible  of  receiving  a 
considerable  polish." 

The  Burfieuje  of  Irish  bogs  is  not  in  general  level ;  indeed  it  is  most 
commonly  uneven,  sometimes  sweUing  into  hills  and  divided  by  val- 
leys^ thus  affording  great  facilities  for  drainage.  If  one  of  the  bogs  of 
Inland  which  have  been  described  occur  on  low  ground,  a  £etot  which 
seemed  to  strengthen  the  opinion  of  their  having  always  originated 
from  the  decay  of  forests.  This  theory  of  the  original  formation  of 
bogs  was  at  one  time  vexy  generally  adopted,  but  iShe  result  of  more 
recent  investigations  shows  that  it  cannot  be  supported.  That  some 
bogs  may  have  been  formed  in  this  manner  is  not  denied.  It  is  stated 
in  the  *  Philosophical  Transactions,'  No.  275,  that  "  the  Bomans  under 
Ostorius,  having  slain  many  Britons,  drove  the  rest  into  the  forest  of 
Hatfield  (in  Yorkshire),  .which  at  that  time  overspread  all  the  low 
country ;  and  the  conqueror  taking  advantage  of  a  strong  south-west 
wind,  set  fire  to  the  pitch-trees  of  which  the  forest  was  chiefly  com- 
posed, and  when  the  greater  part  of  the  trees  were  thus  destroyed,  tha 
Soman  soldiers  and  captive  Britons  out  down  the  remainder,  except  a 
fewlarge  ones,  which  were  left  growing  as  remembrancers  of  the  destruo* 
tion  of  the  rest.  These  single  trees  did  not  long  withstand  tiie  action 
of  the  winds,  but  falling  into  the  rivers  interoepted  their  currents, 
and  caused  the  waters  to  rise  and  flood  the  whole  flat  country ;  hence 
the  oiigin  of  the  mosses  and  mooiy  b<»8  which  were  afterwards 
formed  iheHce."  This  moorland  near  Hameld,  seven  miles  north-east 
from  Doncaster,  and  about  Thome,  is  now  a  boggy  peat  covered  with 
heathy  several  feet  higher  than  the  adjoining  land,  and  vecy  wet; 
whence  it  has  been  aptly  compared  to  a  sponge  full  of  water.  The 
Thome  waste  with  some  adjacent  tracts  and  the  Hatfield  Hoor  contain 
about  12,000  acres. 

Undemeath  the'  peat  in  many  places  the  layers  of  trees  are  found 
which  serve  to  confirm  this  theory  of  the  origin  of  these  bogs.  Some 
of  them  give  indications  of  having  been  felled  by  human  agency. 

In  the  '  Ordnance  Surv^  of  the  County  of  Londonderry,'  presented 
bv  Lord  Mulgrave  to  the  British  Association  during  its  meeting 
(Aug.  1885)  in  Dublin,  are  some  remarks  on  the  subject  which  are 
deserving  of  attention : — 

"In  ihe  production  of  hog,  JSjphaffMim  [Sphoffnum  paltutre]  is 
allowed  on  aU  hands  to  have  been  a  princ^Ml  agent,  and  superabund- 
ant moisture  the  inducing  cause.  To  account  for  such  moisture  various 
opinions  have  been  advanced,  more  especially  that  of  the  destraotion 
of  lar^e  fbrests,  which  by  obstructing  in  their  &11  the  usual  channels 
of  dnonege,  were  supposed  to  have  caused  an  accumulation  of  water. 
That  opinion  however  cannot  be  supported ;  for  as  Mr.  Aher  remarks 
in  the  *  Bog  Reports/  such  trees  as  are  found  have  generally  six  or 
seven  feet  of  compact  peat  under  their  roots^  which  are  found  standing 
as  they  grew,  evidently  proving  the  formation  of  peat  to  have  been 
previous  to  the  growth  of  the  trees,  a  fact  which  in  relation  to  firs  may 
be  verified  in  probably  every  bog  in  this  parish,  turf  from  three  to 
five  feet  thick  underlymff  the  lowest  layer  of  such  trees.  This  fact  is 
indeed  so  strongly  ma»ed  in  the  bog  which  on  the  Donegal  side 
bounds  the  road  to  Huff,  that  the  turfoutten  having  arrived  at  the 
last  depth  of  turf,  find  timber  no  longer,  though  formeriy  it  was 
abundant,  as  is  proved  by  their  own  testimony,  from  experience,  and 
by  the  few  scattered  stumps  which  still  remain  resting  on  the  present 
surfaee.  Not  so  however  with  oaks,  as  their  stumps  are  commonly 
found  resting  on  the  gravel  at  the  base,  or  on  the  sides  of  the  small 
hillocks  of  gravd  and  sand  which  so  often  stud  the  surfaces  of  bogs, 
and  have  by  Mr.  Aher  been  ap^*  called  islands.  He  further  adds  that 
in  the  counties  of  Tipperary,  Kilkenny,  &c.  they  are  popularly  called 
Derries  (signifying  'a  place  of  oaks '),  a  name  deserving  attention  whe- 
ther viewed  as  expressive  of  the  «-g4afcing  fiaot  or  as  resulting  firom  a 
lingering  traditionaiy  remembrance  of  their  former  condition,  when, 
qrowned  with  oaks,  they  were  distinguishable  from  the  dense  forest 
of  firs  alrirfcing  the  marshy  plains  around  them.  The  strong  resem- 
blance to  andent  water-courses  of  the  valleys  and  basins  which  now 
contain  bogs,  and  the  occurrence  of  mari  and  sheUs  at  the  bottoms  of 
many,  naturally  suggest  the  idea  of  shaUow  lakes,  a  view  of  the  subject 
adopted  in  the. '.Bog  Reports '  by  Messrs.  Nimmo  and  Griffiths.  Such 
lakte  may  have  originated  in  the  natural  inequalities  of  the  ground,  or 
.been  formed. by  the  choking.up  of  diannela  of  drainage  by  heaps  of 
day  and  gravel,  or  they  may  have  been  reduced  to  the  necessary  state 
of  shallowneBS  by  the  gradual  wearing  away  of  obstacles  which  had 
dammed  up  and  retained  their  waters  at  a  higher  level" 

The  probable  process  of 'the  formation  of  bog  in  such  cases  is  thus 
explained  in  the '  Ordnance  Surv^ : ' — "  A  shidlow  pool  induced  and 
fftTOured  the  vegetation  of  aquatic  plants,  which  gradually  crept  in 
from  the  borders  towards  the  deeper  centre.  Mud  accumulated  round 
their  root  and  stalks,  and  a  spongy  semi-fluid  mass  was  thus  fomed, 
well  fitted  for  the  growth  of  moss,  which  now,  espedally  Sphagmm^ 
began  to  luxuriate.  This,  absorbing  a  large  quantity  of  water  and 
continuing  to  shoot  out  new  plants  above  whfle  the  old  were  decaying^ 
rotting,  and  compressing  into  a  solid  substance  bdow,  gradually 
replaced  the  water  by  a  mass  of  vegetable  matter.  In  tins  manner 
the  marsh  might  be  filled  up,  while  the  central  or  moister  portion 
oontanuing  to  excite  a  more  rapid  growth  of  the  moss,  it  would  be 
^  2  K 


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gradually  ndaed  above  tbe  edges  until  the  whole  suifaoe  had  attained 
an  elevation  sufficient  to  dischuge  the  sur£Eice-water  bj  existing  chan- 
nels of  drainage,  and  calculated  by  its  slope  to  facilitate  their  passage, 
when  a  limit  would  be  in  some  degree  set  to  its  further  increase." 

Aooording  to  the  personal  observations  of  Mr.  Qriffiths,  made  during 
many  yean,  the  growth  of  turf  in  these  bogs  is  very  rapid,  amounttog 
sometunes  to  two  inches  in  depth  in  one  year  :  this  however  is  stated 
to  be  an  excessive  growth  under  peculiarly  favourable  drcumstanoes. 

The  roots  whidi  were  attached  to  the  ground  decay,  and  the  whole 
of  the  surfSace  becomes  a  floating  mass  of  long  interiaced  fibres 
which  when  taken  out  has  been  significantlv  called  in  Ireland  '  Old 
Wives'  Tow.'  The  black  mass  of  the  bog  is  a  mud  almost  entirely 
Ibrmed  of  decomposed  vegetable  fibres,  but  not  of  sufficient  specific 
gravity  to  sink  to  the  bottom ;  thus  producing  that  semi-liquid  state 
which  distinguishes  a  quaking  bog  from  a  peat-moss.  The  vegetation 
which  continues  on  the  surface  and  at  some  depth  below  has  the 
appearance  of  a  fine  green  turf.  In  many  oases  the  roots  are  so  matted 
together  and  so  strong  as  to  form  a  web  capable  of  bearing  the  gentle 
and  light  tread  of  a  man  accustomed  to  walk  over  bogs,  bending  and 
waving  under  him  without  breaking ;  and  while  a  person  unsk^fully 
attempting  to  walk  upon  it  -would  in&llibly  break  through  and  be 
plunged  in  the  bog  like  a  venturous  skater  on  unsound  ice,  the  prac- 
tisod  '  bog-trotter  witii  proper  precautions  passes  over  them  in  safety. 
This  has  often  been  of  considerable  advantage  in  war  or  in  the  pursuit 
of  illegal  employments.  The  fugitive  escapes  over  his  native  bogs 
where  the  pursuer  cannot  venture  to  follow,  or  if  he  does  he  generaUy 
pays  the  penalty  of  his  ignorance  or  rashness  by  sinking  in  them. 
Many  examples  of  this  were  witnessed  in  Ireland  during  the  last  rebel- 
lion/ and  many  bodies  have  been  found  in  bogs  years  after,  preserved 
from  decay  and  tanned  in  a  manner  by  the  astringent  principle  which 
is  always  found  where  vegetable  fibre  has  been  decomposed  under 
water. 

When  bogs  become  consolidated  or  compressed  they  are  called 
Peat-Moflses.  The  consolidation  here  mentioned  must  be  earned  to 
a  considerable  extent  before  the  soil  is  capable  of  sustaining  such  a 
growth  of  timber  as  it  is  seen  to  have  fkrequentl^  borne. 

An  extensive  tract  of  peat-moss  (Chat-Moss)  in  the  county  of  Lan- 
caster attracted  public  attention  some  years  ago,  from  the  drcumstance 
of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway  having  been  carried  through 
it.  The  lengtii  of  Chat-Moss  is  about  6  miles,  its  greatest  breadth 
about  3  miles,  and  its  depth  varies  from  10  to  upwards  of  SO  feet^  the 
whole  of  which  is  pure  vegetable  matter  throughout^  without  the 
slightest  mixtiire  of  sand,  gravel,  or  other  material.  On  the  surfiioe 
it  is  light  and  fibrous,  but  it  becomes  more  dense  below.  At  a  con- 
siderable depth  it  is  found  to  be  black,  compact^  and  heavy,  and  in 
some  respects  resembles  coal :  it  is  in  fact  exactly  similar  to  the 
composition  of  the  bogs  of  Ireland,  as  already  described. 

The  Moss  is  bounded  on  all  sides  by  ridges  of  rolled  stones  mixed 
with  clay,  which  prevent  the  immediate  ducharge  of  its  waters.  It 
is  probable  that  this  bar,  by  interrupting  the  course  of  the  waters, 
originally  caused  the  growth  of  Chat-Moss.  This  moss  presents  at  its 
edges  nearly  an  upright  face ;  the  spongy  surfSsuM  of  the  moss  being 
elevated  at  a  very  short  distance  frvm  the  edge  from  10  to  20  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  immediately  adjoining  land.  The  immediate 
substratum  to  the  bog  is  a  bed  of  silidous  sand,  which  varies  from 
one  to  five  feet  in  thickness,  below  which  is  a  bed  of  bluish  and  some- 
times reddish  clay  marl  of  excellent  quality.  This  marl  varies  in 
thickness  very  considerably;  in  some  parts  it  is  not  more  than  three 
fbet,  in  others  its  depth  has  not  been  ascertained ;  below  the  marl  Ib 
a  bed  of  sandstone-gravel  of  unknown  thickness.  It  is  this  bed  of 
gravel  which  extends  beyond  the  edge  of  the  bog^  and  prevents  the 
direct  discharge  of  the  waters  from  we  flat  country  to  the  north  into 
the  river  IrwelL  (See  Camden's  remarks  on  this  Moss,  in  his  *  Britan- 
nia,' voL  ii  p.  966,  Gibson's  edition.) 

About  1797  the  late  Mr.  Roscoe  of  Liverpool  b^gan  to  improve 
Trafford-Moe^  a  tract  of  800  acres,  lying  2  miles  east  of  Chat-Moss, 
which  operation  was  so  successful  as  to  encourage  him  to  proceed 
with  the  improvement  of  Chat-Moss,  the  most  extensive  lowland  bog 
in  England,  including  7000  acres.  After  making  a  great  variety  of 
experiments  Mr.  Roscoe  gave  it  as  his  decided  opinion  "  that  the  best 
method  of  improving  moss4and  is  that  of  the  application  of  a  calca- 
reous substance,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  convert  the  moss  into  a  soD, 
and  by  the  occasional  use  of  animal  or  other  extraneous  manures, 
such  as  the  oourse  of  cultivation  and  the  nature  of  the  crops  may  be 
found  to  require." 

In  June  1833  an  ancient  wooden  house  was  discovered  in  Drum- 
kelin  Bog,  in  the  coimty  of  Doneg^  in  Ireland.  The  framework  of 
the  house  was  very  firmly  put  together,  without  any  iron ;  the  roof 
was  flat  and  made  of  thick  oak  plsmks.  The  house  was  12  feet  square 
and  9  feet  high :  it  consisted  of  two  floors  one  above  the  other,  each 
about  4  feet  high ;  one  side  of  the  house  was  entirely  open.  The 
whole  stood  on  a  thick  layer  of  sand  spread  on  the  bog,  which  con- 
tinues to  the  depth  of  15  feet  below  the  foundation  of  the  house.  On 
the  same  level  as  the  foundation  of  the  house  stumps  of  oak  trees 
^ere  found  standing,  just  sach  as  had  supplied  the  timber  of  the 
house ;  and  beneath  aU  this  there  are  still  15  feet  of  peat. 

Bogs  not  imfrequently  burst  out  and  suddenly  cover  large  tracta 
This  phenomenon  happened  in  1885  in  Ireland,  on  a  part  of  liord 


O'Neill's  estate,  on  the  BaUymena  road,  in  the  neic^bouihood  of 
Bandalstown.  On  the  19th  September  an  individual  near  the  ground 
was  surprised  by  hearing  a  rumbUng  noise  as  if  under  the  earth,  and 
immediately  after  a  portion  of  the  bog  moved  forward  a  few  perches, 
when  it  exhibited  a  broken  rugged  appearance,  with  a  soft  peaiy 
substance  boiling  up  through  the  chinks.  It  rexnained  in  this  state 
until  tiie  22nd,  when  it  again  moved  suddenly  forward,  covering  corn- 
fields, potato-fields,  turf-staoks,  hay-ricks,  fta  The  noise  made  by  its 
burst  was  so  loud  as  to  ahum  the  inhabitants  adjoining,  who  on 
perceiving  the  fiow  of  the  bog  immediately  fled.  It  directed  its 
course  towards  the  river  Maine  which  lay  below  it ;  and  so  great  Vras 
its  force  that  the  moving  mass  was  carried  a  considerable  way  across 
the  river.  Owing  to  the  heavy  rain  which  had  fallen  for  some  time 
previously,  the  river  forced  its  channel  through  the  matter  deposited 
in  its  bed,  and  considerable  damage  was  thus  obviated  which  would 
otherwise  have  occurred  from  the  forcing  back  of  the  waters. 

The  Irish  Amelioration  Society,  the  British  and  Irish  PeatCompanj, 
and  other  associations,  have  of  late  years  been  engaged  in  convnting 
turf  and  peat  into  charcoal  and  other  products.  Charcoal  from  turf 
and  peat  to  a  considerable  amount  has  already  been  made  in  Ireland. 
There  are  two  methods  of  carbonising  the  turf  or  peat,  either  to 
subject  it  to  heat  in  close  Vessels,  by  which  the  other  products  are 
saved  as  well  as  the  carbon,  or  to  pile  it  in  heaps  and  apply  heat,  in  the 
same  manner  as  for  wood-charcoaL  The  heating  in  dose  vessels  is 
expensive,  and  there  is  not  sufficient  compensation  in  the  distilled 
products.  The  acetic  acid  and  the  tar  are  generally  small  in  quantity 
and  the  gases  are  defldent  in  illuminating  power :  hence  the  charcoal 
is  the  only  product  of  much  value.  The  charcoal  obtained  is  from 
80  to  40  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  dry  turf.  The  more  eoononiical 
mode  of  piling  up  the  turf  in  heaps  has  hitherto  been  found  prefe^ 
able.  The  soda  are  regularly  arranged,  and  laid  as  close  as  possible; 
they  are  better  for  being  large,  say  15  inches  long,  6  inches  broad,  and 
5  inches  deep.  The  heaps  are  built  hemispherioally,  and  are  smaller 
than  those  of  wood.  The  mass  is  allowed  to  heat  more  than  is  necessary 
for  wood,  and  the  process  is  very  carefully  attended  to,  on  account  of  the 
great  combustibility  of  .the  materiaL  Tlie  quantity  of  charcoal  obtained 
by  this  method  is  from  25-  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  dry  turf. 
The  charcoal  so  obtained  is  very  light  and  very  inflammable,  and 
possesses  nearly  the  volume  of  the  turf.  It  usually  burns  with  a 
slight  flame,  as  the  volatile  matters  are  not  entirely  expelled. 
A  specimen  subjected  to  analysis  gave  the  following  result  :— 

Carbcm 89*90 

Hydrogen 1*70 

Oxygen  and  Nitrogen    .                         .      4'20 
Ashes 4-20 


100-00 

For  many  industrial  purposes  chsrooal  so  prepared  is  too  lights  but 
compressed  turf  oonverted  into  charcoal  may  attain  a  density  he 
superior  to  wood-charcoal,  and  even  equal  to  that  of  the  best  coke 
obtained  from  ooaL 

It  is  of  peculiar  importance  in  the  preparation  of  charcoal  from 
turf  that  the  material  selected  should  be  as  free  as  possible  from 
impurities.  Surfaoe-turf  generally  contains  lesa  than  10  per  cent  of 
ash,  whilst  that  of  the  dense  turf  of  the  lower  strata  sometimes 
contains  from  20  to  80  per  cent,  a  quantity  which  renders  it  unfit 
for  most  practical  purposes. 

BOG-IBON-OBE,  a  loose  earthy  ore  of  iron,  oonsisting  of  Peroxide 
of  Iron  and  water.  It  is  of  a  brownish-black  colour,  and  occurs  in 
low  boggy  grounds. 

BOG-MANaANESE,  a  native  hydrated  Peroxide  of  Manganese; 
also  called  Wad, 

BOQMABUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes,  to  which  the  Yaagmaer,  or  Deal- 
Fish  is  referred  by  Schneider  under  the  specific  title  of  J?.  Idamdicw, 
[Tbachtptbrub.] 

BOQ-MTRTLE.    [Mtrioa.] 

BOHEMIAN  CHATTERER    [Bombyoilla.] 

BOHEMIAN  WAX-WING.    [Bombyoilla.] 

BOIDiE,  the  fourth  family  of  the  second  order  (Opkidia)  of  Reptila. 
This  family  is  known  by  the  following  technical  characters :— The 
ventral  shields  narrow  (except  in  BUyeria),  transverse,  band-like,  often 
six-sided ;  the  hinder  limbs  developed  under  the  skin,  formed  of 
several  bones  and  ending  in  an  exserted  homy  spine,  placed  one  on 
each  side  of  the  vent ;  the  tail  short,  generally  prehoiale;  the  pupil 
oblong,  erect  (except  in  TcrtHx). 

The  species  live  in  marshy  places.  Fixing  themselves  by  the  tail  to 
some  aquatic  tree,  they  allow  themselves  to  float,  and  thus  entrap  their 
prey.  They  are  without  venom,  the  absence  of  which  is  amply  com- 
pensated by  immense  muscular  power,  enabling  some  of  the  species 
to  kill  laige  animals  by  oonstriction,  preparatory  to  swidlowiog  them 
whole. 

There  are  few  fables  which  have  not  some  truth  for  their  origio, 
The  voyages  of  Sinbad  have  beoome  proverbial;  but  the  stories  of 
the  monstrous  serpents  in  the  valley  of  diamonds,  and  of  the  "serpent 
of  surprising  length  and  thickness,  whose  scales  made  a  rostiingas  he 
wound  himself  along,"  that  swallowed  up  two  of  hist  companions, 
probably  had  their  foundation  in  tradition^  of  the  size  and  strength 
of  a  family  of  serpents  belonging  to  the  Old  World,  but  nearly  allied 


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03  Bom^ 

in  their  oxganisaiioii  and  habits  to  those  which  we  are  about  to 
consider. 

Of  the  same  race  probably  were  the  monsters  to  which  the  following 
allusions  are  made  by  andent  writers : — 

Aristotle  (book  viiL  c.  28)  writes  of  Libyan  ser|>ents  of  enormous 
size,  and  relates  that  certain  yoyagers  to  that  coast  were  pursued  by 
Bome  of  them  so  laige  that  they  overset  one  of  the  triremes.  The 
two  monstrous  snakes  sent  by  Juno  to  strangle  the  infant  Hercules  in 
his  cradle,  described  by  Theocritus  in  his  24th  Idyll,  exhibit  some  of 
the  peculiarities  of  these  reptiles.  The  way  in  which  Theocritus 
represents  them  to  have  rolled  their  folds  around  the  boy,  and  relaxed 
them  when  dying  in  his  grasp,  indicates  the  habit  of  a  constricting 
serpent  Yiigil's  Laoooon,  and  the  unrivalled  marble  group,  which 
the  poet*s  description  most  probably  called  into  existence,  owe  their 
origin  undoubtedly  to  the  stories  current  of  constricting  serpents. 
Valerius  Maximus  (book  i.  c.  8,  s.  19),  quoting  Livy,  gives  a  relation 
of  the  alarm  into  which  the  Romans  under  Regulus  were  thrown  by 
an  enormous  snake,  which  had  its  lair  on  the  banks  of  the  Bagradas 
or  Magradas  (Mejextla),  near  Utica.  It  is  said  to  have  swallowed  many 
of  the  soldiers,  to  have  killed  others  in  its  folds,  and  to  have  kept  the 
army  from  the  river ;  till  at  length,  being  invulnerable  by  ordinaiy 
weapons,  it  was  destroyed  by  heavy  stones  slung  from  the  military 
engines  used  in  sieges.  But  according  to  the  historian  its  persecution 
of  the  army  did  not  cease  with  its  death ;  for  the  waters  were  polluted 
with  its  gore,  and  the  air  with  the  steams  from  its  corrupted  carcass, 
to  such  a  degree  that  the  Romans  were  obliged  to  move  their  camp, 
taking  with  them  however  the  skin,  120  feet  in  length,  which  was  sent 
to  Rome.  Gellius,  Orosius,  Florus,  Silius  ItaUcus,  and  Zonaras,  make 
mention  of  the  same  serpent  nearly  to  the  same  effect.  Pliny  (viiL  14, 
'  De  Serpentibus  MftTimia  et  Bois ')  says  that  Megasthenes  writes  that 
serpents  grow  to  such  a  size  in  India  that  they  swallowed  entire  stags 
and  bulls.  (See  also  Nearchus,  quoted  by  Arrian,  '  Indie.'  15.)  He 
speaks  too  of  the  Bagradian  serpent  above  mentioned  as  matter  of 
notoriety,  observing  that  it  was  120  feet  long,  and  that  its  skin  and 
jaws  were  preserved  in  a  temple  at  Rome  till  the  time  of  the  Numan- 
tine  war :  and  he  adds,  that  tiie  serpents  called  Boas  in  Italy  confirm 


BOlD.fi.  CM 

my  paper  would  fail  me  before  I  enumerated  them  all;  nevertheless 
I  must  say  something  about  the  great  ones,  which  sometimes  exceed 
86  feet  in  length,  and  are  of  such  capacity  of  throat  and  stomach  that 
they  swallow  entire  boais."  He  then  speaks  of  the  great  power  of 
distention  in  the  jaws,  adding,  **  To  connrm  this  there  are  those  alive 
who  partook  with  Qeneral  Peter  Both  of  a  recentlv  swallowed  hog, 
cut  out  of  the  belly  of  a  serpent  of  this  kind.  They  are  not  veno- 
mous, but  they  strangle  by  powerfully  applying  their  folds  around  the 
body  of  a  man  or  other  animal"  Mr.  M'Leod,  in  his  interesting 
*  Voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  Aloeste,'  p.  812,  gives  the  following  account : — 

"  It  may  here  be  mentioned  that  during  a  captivity  of  some  months 
at  Whidah,  in  the  kingdom  of  Dahomey,  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  the 
author  of  this  narrative  had  opportunities  of  observing  snakes  more 
than  double  the  size  of  this  one  just  described ;  but  he  cannot  venture 
to  say  whether  or  not  they  were  of  the  same  species,  though  he  has 
no  doubt  of  their  being  of  the  genus  Boa.  They  killed  their  prey 
however  precisely  in  a  similar  manner,  and  from  their  superior  oulk 
were  capable  of  swallowing  animals  much  larger  than  goats  or  sheep. 
Governor  Abson,  who  had  for  37  years  resided  at  Fort  William  (one 
of  the  African  Company's  settlements  there),  described  some  desperate 
struggles  which  he  had  either  seen,  or  had  come  to  his  knowledge, 
between  the  snakes  and  wild  beasts  as  wellas  the  smaller  cattle,  in 
which  the  former  were  always  victorious.  A  negro  herdsman  belong- 
ing to  Mr.  Abson  (who  afterwards  limped  for  many  years  about  the 
fort)  had  been  seized  by  one  of  these  monsters  by  the  thigh,  but  from 
his  situation  in  a  wood  the  serpent,  in  attempting  to  throw  himself 
around  him,  got  entangled  with  a  tree;  and  the  man  being  thus 
preserved  from  a  state  of  compression  which  would  instantly  have 
rendered  him  qu.iie  powerless,  had  presence  of  mind  enough  to  cut 
with  a  large  knife  which  he  carried  about  with  him  deep  gashes  in  the 
neck  and  throat  of  his  antagonist,  there^  killinjg  him,  and  disengaging 
himself  from  his  frightful  situation.  He  never  afterwards  however 
recovered  the  use  of  that  limb,  which  had  sustained  considerable 
injury  from  his  fangs  and  the  mere  force  of  his  jaws."  All  these 
gigantic  serpents  were  most  probably  the  Pythons  of  modem  nomen- 
clature. 


Skeleton  of  Boa  Gmttrictor, 


this,  for  that  they  grow  to  such  a  size  that  in  the  belly  of  one  killed 
on  the  Vatican  Hill  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  an  entire  infant  was  found. 
Saetonios  (in '  Octav.'  48)  mentions  the  exhibition  of  a  serpent  50  cubits 
in  length  in  front  of  the  oomitium.  But  without  multiplying  instances 
from  -^gliftw  and  others,  we  will  now  oome  to  more  modem  accounts. 
Bontios  (y.  28}  says,  "  The  Indian  serpents  are  so  multitudinous  that 


According  to  Plinjr  the  name  Boa  was  given  to  these  serpents 
because  they  were  said  to  be  at  first  nourished  by  the  milk  of  cows, 
and  Johnston  and  others  observe  that  they  derived  the  name  not  so 
much  from  their  power  of  swallowing  oxen  as  from  a  story  current  in 
old  times  of  their  following  the  herds  and  sucking  their  udders.  Boa 
is  also  stated  by  some  to  be  the  Brazilian  name  for  a  serpents 


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BOID^ 


BOTDM. 


53S 


Before  entering  apon  the  subdiyuions  of  this  family  we  will  examine 
Bome  of  the  most  remarkable  points  in  the  Btruoture  and  organisation 
<kihe  BoidcB, 

On  looking  at  the  accompanying  representation  of  the  skeleton  of  a 
Boa  Conttrietor,  drawn  from  the  beautiful  preparation  in  the  British 
Museum,  we  first  observe  the  strong  close^et  teeth,  of  which  there 
is  a  double  row  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw;  all  pointing  backwards, 
and  giving  the  serpent  the  finnest  nold  of  its  struggling  victim, 
which  is  &US  deprived  of  the  power  of  withdrawing  itself  when  once 
locked  within  tJie  deadly  ja>vs.  Serpents  do  not  masticate.  The  prey 
is  swallowed  whole,  and  to  assist  deglutition  their  under  jaw  consists 
of  two  bones  easily  separable  at  the  symphysis,  or  point  of  junction, 
while  the  bone  similar  to  the  os  quadratum  in  birds,  by  the  inter- 
vention of  which  it  is  fitted  to  the  cranium,  further  fiiciUtates  the  act. 
The  upper  jaw  moreover  is  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  considerable 
motion. 

We  next  observe  the  spine,  formed  for  the  most  extensive  mobility, 
and  the  multitude  oC  ribs  constructed  as  organs  of  rapid  progression, 
when  joined  to  the  belly-scales,  or  scuta,  with  which  the  whole  inferior 
surface  of  the  body  may  be  said  to  be  shod.  "  When  the  snake," 
writes  Sir  Everard  Home,  "  begins  to  put  itself  in  motion,  the  ribs  of 
the  opposite  sides  are  drawn  apart  firom  each  other,  and  the  small 
cartilaj^s  at  the  end  of  them  are  bent  upon  the  upper  surfaces  of  the 
abdominal  scuta  on  which  the  ends  of  the  ribs  rest,  and  as  the  ribs 
move  in  pairs  the  scutum  under  each  pair  is  carried  along  with  it. 
This  scutum  by  its  posterior  edge  lays  hold  of  the  ground,  and 
becomes  a  fixed  point  from  whence  to  set  out  anew.  TMs  motion  is 
beautifully  seen  when  a  snake  is  climbing  over  an  an^le  to  get  upon  a 
flat  surface.  When  the  animal  is  moving  it  alters  its  shape  from  a 
circular  or  oval'  form  to  something  approadfung  to  a  triangle,  of  which 
the  surface  on  the  ground  forms  the  base.  The  coluber  and  boa 
having  laige  abdominal  scuta,  which  may  be  considered  as  hoofis  or 
shoes,  are  tiie  best  fitted  for  this  kind  of  progressive  motion."  ('  Lec- 
tures on  Comparative  Anatomy,'  voL  L) 

Sir  Everaid,  in  the  same  lecture,  speaking  of  the  ribs  as  oigans  of 
locomotion,  says  : — *'  An  observation  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks  during  the 
exhibition  of  a  coluber  of  unusual  size  first  led  to  this  discovery. 
While  it  was  moving  briskly  along  the  carpet  he  said  he  thought  he 
saw  i^e  ribs  come  forward  in  succession  like  the  feet  of  a  caterpillar. 
This  remark  led  me  to  examine  the  animal's  motion  with  more 
accuracy,  and  on  putting  the  hand  under  its  belly  while  the  snake 
was  in  the  act  of  passing  over  the  palm  the  ends  of  the  ribs  were 
distinctly  felt  pressing  upon  the  sur&ce  in  regular  succession,  so  as  to 
leave  no  doubt  of  the  ribs  forming  so  many  pairs  of  levers  by  which 
the  animal  moves  its  body  from  place  to  place."  The  merit  however 
of  this  discovery  is  due  to  the  sharp-sighted  Tyson,  who  was  the  first 
to  observe  the  locomotive  power  of  the  ribs  of  the  Boa. 

Sir  Everard  Home  informs  us  by  what  additional  mechanism  this 
faculty  is  effected  The  ribs,  he  observes,  are  not  articulated  in  snakes 
between  the  vertebrss,  but  each  vertebra  has  a  rib  attached  to  it  by 
two  slightly  concave  surfaces  that  move  upon  a  convex  protuberance 
on  the  side  of  the  vertebra,  by  which  means  the  extent  of  motion  is 
unusually  great ;  and  the  lower  end  of  each  vertebra  having  a  globular 
form  fitted  to  a  concavity  in  the  upper  end  of  the  vertebra  below  it> 
they  move  readily  on  one  another  in  all  directions.  The  muscles 
which  bring  the  ribs  forward,  according  to  Sir  Everard,  consist  of  five 
sets— one  from  the  transverse  process  of  each  vertebra  to  the  rib 
immediately  behind  it,  which  rib  ia  attached  to  the  next  vertebra. 
The  next  set  goes  from  the  rib  a  little  way  fr^m  the  spine,  just  beyond 
where  the  former  terminates ;  it  passes  over  two  ribs,  sending  a  slip 
to  each,  and  is  inserted  into  the  tiiird  :  there  is  a  slip  also  connecting 
it  with  the  next  muscle  in  succession.  Under  this  is  the  third  set, 
which  arises  from  the  posterior  side  of  each  rib,  passes  over  two  ribs, 
sending  a  lateral  slip  to  the  next  muscle,  and  is  inserted  into  the  third 
rib  behind  it.  The  fourth  set  passes  fr^m  one  rib  over  the  next,  and 
is  inserted  into  the  second  rib.  The  fifth  set  goes  from  rib  to  rib. 
On  the  inside  of  the  chest  there  is  a  strong  set  of  muscles  attached  to 
the  anterior  surface  of  each  vertebra,  and  passing  obliquely  forwards 
over  four  ribs  to  be  inserted  into  the  fifth,  nearly  at  the  middle  part 
between  the  two  extremities.  From  this  part  of  each  rib  a  strong 
flat  muscle  comes  forward  on  each  side  before  the  visoera,  forming 
the  abdominal  musdes,  and  uniting  in  a  beautiful  middle  tendon,  so 
that  the  lower  half  of  each  rib  which  is  beyond  the  origin  of  this 
muscle,  and  which  is  only  laterally  connected  to  it  by  loose  cellular 
membrane,  is  external  to  the  belly  of  the  animal,  and  is  used  for  the 
purpose  of  progressive  motion ;  while  that  half  of  each  rib  next  the 
spine,  as  far  as  the  lungs  extend,  is  employed  in  respiration.  At  the 
termination  of  each  rib  is  a  small  cartilage  in  shape  corresponding  to 
the  rib,  only  tapering  to  the  point.  Those  of  the  opposite  ribs  have 
no  connection,  and  when  the  ribs  are  drawn  outwards  by  the  muscles, 
they  are  separated  to  some  distance,  and  rest  through  their  whole 
length  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  abdominal  scuta,  to  which  they  are 
connected  by  a  set  of  short  muscles ;  they  have  also  a  connection  with 
the  cartilages  of  the  neighbouring  ribs  by  a  set  of  short  straight 
muscles.  These  observations  apply  to  snakes  in  general,  but  the 
musdes  have  been  examined  in  a  Boa  Constrictor  3  feet  9  inches  long 
preserved  in  the  Hunterian  Museum.  In  all  «T\flkftfi^  adds  the  author, 
the  ribs  are  continued  to  the  anus,  but  the  lungs  seldom  occupy  more 


than  one  half  of  the  extent  of  the  cavity  covered  by  the  ribs.  Con* 
sequentlv  these  lower  ribs  can  only  be  employed  for  the  paipose  of 
progressive  motion,  and  therefore  correspond  in  that  respect  with 
the  ribs  in  the  Draco  volant  superadded  to  form  the  wings. 

The  su^oined  cut,  copied  from  that  given  as  an  illustration  by  Sir 
Everard  Home,  will  explain  the  articulating  surfaces  of  the  vertebra 
and  ribs ;  and  on  the  under  surface  of  the  former  will  be  seen  the 
protuberance  for  the  attachment  of  the  musdes  which  are  employed 
in  crushing  the  animals  round  which  the  snake  entwines  itselt 


A 


The  out  exhibits  two  vertebrae,  and  portions  of  two  ribs  of  a  so- 
called  Boa  Constrictor,  drawn  from  a  skeleton  sent  from  the  East  Indies 
by  the  late  Sir  William  Jones,  and  deposited  in  the  Hunterian  Maaeam. 
The  letters,  a,  a,  point  to  the  protuberance  on  the  imder  surface  for 
the  attachment  of  the  constricting  musdes,  according  to  Sir  Eveiard 
Home. 

Though  the  term  Boa  Constrictor  is  used  throughout  by  Sir  Evenird 
Home  in  his  lecture,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  serpent  sent 
frx)m  India  by  Sir  WiUiam  Jones  was  a  Python.  The  small  specimen 
frx)m  which  the  description  of  the  oigans  employed  in  progressiTe 
motion  was  taken  may  have  been  a  boa.  But  whetiier  boa  or  python, 
it  would  have  had  the  hooks  or  spurs  near  the  vent^  and  the  bones  and 
musdes  bdonglng  to  these  spurs,  which  are  of  no  small  consequence 
in  tiie  organisation  of  a  boa  or  a  python,  rudiments  of  limbs  tnough 
they  be ;  these  appear  to  have  escaped  Sir  Everard  Home's  obserration, 
occupied  as  he  was  in  following  out  the  mechanism  of  progreaaiTc 
motion. 

No  one  can  read  of  the  habits  of  these  reptiles  in  a  state  of  natore 
without  perceiving  the  advantage  which  they  gain  when  holding  on  by 
their  tails  on  a  tree,  their  heads  and  bodies  in  ambush,  and  half 
floatiuK  on  some  sedgy  river,  they  surprise  the  thirsty  animal  that 
seeks  the  stream.  These  hooks  help  the  serpent  to  TTiitintAin  a  fixed 
point ;  they  become  a  fulcrum  which  gives  a  double  power  to  his 


energies.  Dr.  Mayer  detected  these  rudiments  of  limb^  and  has  ^ 
explained  their  anatomy.  He  says  that  the  spur  or  nail  on  each  ode 
of  the  vent  in  the  Boa  Constrictor  and  other  spedes  of  the  genus  is  a 
true  nail,  in  the  cavity  of  which  is  a  littie  demi-cartilaginous  bone,  w 
ungual  phalanx,  articulated  with  another  bone  much  stronger  which 


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'n  concealed  under  the  skin.  This  second  l>one  of  the  rndiment  of  a 
foot  in  the  Bo€B  has  an  external  thick  condyle,  with  which  the  ungual 
phalanx  is  articulated,  as  abovo  stated ;  it  presents,  besides  a  smaller 
internal  apophysis,  which  places  it  in  connection  with  the  other  bones 
of  Uie  skeleton.  These  bones  are  the  ap^ndages  of  a  tibia,  or  leg- 
bone,  tiie  foim  and  reUtive  position  of  which  will  be  imderstood  by  a 
referance  to  the  subjoined  cuts,  copied  firom  Dr.  Mayer^s  '  Memoir/ 
('Trans.  Soc.  NaL  Curios./  translated  in  'Annalesdes  Sciences'  for 
1826.) 

The  prerious  figure  represents  the  tail  of  a  Boa  Conttridor; 
a,  the  vent ;  b,  the  hook  or  spur  of  the  left  side ;  e,  the  subcutaneous 
muade ;  e^  ribs  and  intercosied  muscles ;  e,  transverse  muscle  of  the 
abdomen ;  /,  bone  of  the  leg  enveloped  in  its  muscles  ;  g,  abductor 
muscle  of  the  foot;  h,  adductor  muscle  of  the  foot.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  scuta,  or  shields',  of  one  entire  piece  under  the  tail, 
characteristic  of  the  true  Boas,  will  be  here  observed.  In  the  Pythons 
the  shields  beneath  the  tail  are  ranged  in  pairs. 

We  here  have  a  representation  of  the  osteology  of  this  rudimen- 
tary limb,  taken  from  the  same  author.  Fig.  1  represents  the  left 
posterior  limb  of  the  Boa 

ScytaUf  seen  anteriorly:  _,  _. 

0,  tibia,  or  leg-bone;  6, Fig.  3   K  "»• 

external  bone  of  the 
tanus;  e,  internal  bone 
of  the  tarsus;  d,  bone 
of  the  metatarsus  ^th 
its  apophysia;  e,  nail  or 
hook. 

Fig,  2  represents  the 
same  limb,  seen  pos- 
terioriy. 

Doctors  Hopkinson 
and  PSnooast  have  given 
in  the  'Transactions  of 
the  American  Philoso^ 
phical  Soeiety,'  held  at 
FhOadelphiay  for  promoting  useful  knowledge  (voL  v.  new  series, 
part  i),  an  interesting  account  of  the  visceral  anatomy  of  the  Python 
(Cuvier),  described  l^  Daudin  as  the  Boa  reticvlaia.  And  here  it  may 
be  as  weU  to  remark  that  the  difibrences  between  the  Boas  and  the 
Pythons  are  so  small,  that  the  accounts  given  of  the  constricting 
powera  and  even  of  tiie  principal  anatomical  details  of  the  one,  may 
be  taken  as  iBustrative  of  the  same  points  in  the  history  of  the  other. 

Perhaps  the  best  way  of  illustrating  the  habits  of  these  creatures 
in  seizing  and  killing  thehr  prey  is  to  relate  some  of  the  incidents 
with  which  books  of  travels  abound. 

Mr.  Hliood,  in  his  'Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Alceste,'  gives  the  following 
painfully  vivid  accoimt  of  a  serpent,  a  native  of  Borneo,  16  feet  long, 
and  of  about  18  inches  in  circumference,  which  was  on  board.  There 
were  originally  two;  but  one,  to  use  Mr.  M'Leod's  expression, 
"sprawled  overboard  and  was  drowned." 

"  During  his  stay  atRyswick,"  says  Mr.  Mlieod,  speaking  of  the 
smvivor,  "  he  is  said  to  have  been  usually  entertained  with  a  goat  for 
dimier,  onoe  in  every  three  or  four  weeks,  with  occasionally  a  duck  or 
a  fowl  by  way  of  a  dessert  The  live-stock  for  his  use  during  the 
passage,  consisting  of  six  goats  of  the  ordinaxy  size,  were  sent  with  him 
on  boaand,  Ave  being  considered  as  a  fair  allowance  for  as  many  months. 

"At  an  early  period  of  the  voyage  we  had  on  exhibition  of  his 
talent  in  the  way  of  eating,  which  was  publicly  performed  on  the 
qnarterdeek,  upon  which  his  crib  stood.  The  sliding  part  being 
opened,  one  of  the  g^ts  was  thrust  in,  and  the  door  of  the  cage  was 
■nui  The  poor  goat^  as  if  instantly  aware  of  all  the  horrors  of  its 
perilous  situation,  immediately  began  to  utter  the  most  piercing  and 
distressing  cries,  butting  instinctively  at  the  same  time,  with  its  head 
towards  mo  serpent^  in  self-defence. 

I' The  snake,  which  at  first  appeared  scarcely  to  notice  the  poor 
aniinal,  soon  began  to  stir  a  little,  and  turning  his  head  in  the  direction 
of  the  goat^  he  at  length  fixed  a  deadly  and  malignant  eye  on  the 
tremblmg  victim,  whose  agony  and  terror  seemed  to  increase ;  for 
previous  to  the  snake  seisong  his  prey,  it  shook  in  every  limb,  but  still 
continuing  its  unavailing  show  of  attack,  by  butting  at  the  serpent^ 
which  now  became  sufficiently  animated  to  prepare  for  the  banquet 
The  first  operation  was  that  of  darting  out  his  forked  tongue,  and  at 
the  same  tune  rearing  a  little  his  h^ ;  then  suddenly  seizing  the 
goat  by  the  fore-leg  with  his  fangs,  and  throwing  it  down,  it  was 
encircled  in  an  instant  in  his  horrid  folds.  So  qmck  indeed  and  so 
instantaneous  was  the  act^  that  it  was  impossible  for  the  eye  to  foUow 
^erapid  convolution  of  his  elongated  body.  It  was  not  a  regular 
screw-like  turn  that  was  formed,  but  resembling  rather  a  knot»  one 
part  of  the  body  overlaying  the  other,  as  if  to  add  weight  to  the 
muscular  pressure,  the  more  efiectually  to  crush  the  object  During 
this  time  he  continued  to  grasp  with  his  fongs,  though  it  appeared  an 
mmecessaiy  precaution,  that  part  of  the  animal  which  he  had  first 
•eized.  He  then  slowly  and  cautiously  unfolded  himself,  till  the  goat 
fdl  dead  from  his  monstrous  embrace,  when  he  began  to  prepare 
himself  for  swaUowiog  it  Placing  his  mouth  in  front  of  the  dead 
animal,  he  commenced  by  lubricatmg  with  his  saliva  that  part  of  the 
goa^  aad  then  taking  its  muzzle  into  bis  mouth,  which  had,  and 


BOIDJB.  sn 

indeed  always  has,  the  appearanoe  of  a  raw  lacerated  wound,  he  sucked 
it  in,  as  fiir  as  the  horns  would  allow.  These  protuberances  opposed 
some  little  difficulty,  not  so  much  from  their  extent  as  from  their 
points ;  however  they  also  in  a  very  short  time  disappeared,  that  is  to 
say,  externally ;  but  their  progress  was  still  to  be  traced  very  distinctly 
on  the  outside,  threatening  every  moment  to  protrude  through  the 
skin.  The  victim  had  now  descended  as  far  as  t^e  shoulders ;  and  it 
was  an  astonishing  sight  to  observe  the  extraordinary  action  of  the 
snake's  muscles  when  stretched  to  such  an  unnatural  extent — an 
extent  which  must  have  utterly  destroyed  all  muscular  power  in  any 
animal  that  was  not  like  himself  endowed  with  very  peculiar  faculties 
of  expansion  and  action  at  the  same  time.  When  his  head  and  nec^ 
had  no  other  appearance  than  that  of  a  serpent's  skin  stuffed  almost 
to  bursting,  stul  the  workings  of  the  musdes  were  evident ;  and  his 
power  of  suction,  as  it  is  erroneously  called,  unabated ;  it  was  in  fact 
the  effect  of  a  contractile  muscular  power,  assisted  by  two  rows  of 
strong  hooked  teeth.  With  all  this  he  must  be  so  formed  as  to  be 
able  to  suspend  for  a  time  his  respiration ;  for  it  is  impossible  to 
conceive  that  the  process  of  breathing  could  be  carried  on  while  the 
mouth  and  throat  were  so  completely  stuffed  and  expanded  by  the 
body  of  the  goat,  and  the  lungs  themselves  (admitting  the  trachea  to 
be  ever  so  hard)  compressed  as  they  must  have  been  by  its  passage 
downwards.- 

"The  whole  operation  of  completely  gorging  the  goat  occupied 
about  two  hours  and  twenty  minutes,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the 
tumefaction  was  confined  to  the  middle  part  of  the  body,  or  stomach, 
the  superior  parts,  which  had  been  so  much  distended,  having 
resumed  their  natural  dimensions.  He  now  coiled  himself  up  again, 
and  lay  quietly  in  his  usual  torpid  state  for  about  three  weeks  or  a 
month,  when  Ids  last  meal  appearing  to  be  completely  digested  and 
dissolved,  he  was  presented  with  another  goat,  which  he  killed  and 
devoured  with  equal-  facility.  It  would  appear  that  almost  all  he 
swallows  is  converted  into  nutrition,  for  a  small  quantity  of  calcareous 
matter  (and  that  perhaps  not  a  tentii  part  of  the  bones  of  the  anibud), 
with  occasionally  some  of  the  hairs,  seemed  to  compose  his  general 
feces.    .... 

"  It  vras  remarked,  especially  by  the  officers  of  the  watch,  who  had 
better  opportunities  of  noticing  this  circumstance,  that  the  goats  had 
always  a  great  horror  of  the  serpent,  and  evidentiy  avoided  that  side 
of  tbie  deck  on  which  his  cage  stood."    (P.  805.) 

Mr.  Broderip,  in  the  second  volume  of  the  '  Zoological  Journal,' 
after  referring  to  Mr.  M'Leod's  interesting  narrative,  of  the  correctness 
of  which,  as  fiir  as  it  goes,  he  says  he  has  not  a  single  doubt,  and 
observing  that  two  points  in  that  description  struck  him  forcibly,  the 
one  as  being  contra:^  to  the  probable  structure  of  the  animal,  and  the 
other  as  being  contraiy  to  Mr.  Broderip's  observations,  proceeds  to 
^ve  the  following  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  serpent  takes 
its  prey  in  this  country. 

Mr.  Broderip  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  one  of  these  creatures 
when  kept  in-  the  Tower.  The  keeper  says  Mr.  Broderip  "  sent  to 
inform  me  that  one  of  these  reptiles  had  just  cast  his  skin,  at  whidi 
period  they,  in  common  with  other  serpents,  are  moat  active  and  eager 
for  prey.  Accordingly  I  repaired  with  some  friends  to  the  Tower, 
where  we  found  a  spacious  cage,  the  floor  of  which  consisted  of  a  tin 
case  covered  with  red  baize  and  filled  with  warm  water,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce a  proper  temperature.  There  was  the  snake,  'poaitis  novus 
exuviiB,'  gracefully  examining  the  height  and  extent  of  his  prison  as 
he  raised,  without  any  apparent  effort,  his  towering  head  to  the  roof 
and  upper  parts  of  it,  full  of  life,  and  brandishing  his  tongue. 

"  A  large  buck  rabbit  was  introduced  into  the  cage.  The  snake  was 
down  and  motionless  in  a  moment  There  he  lay  Hke  a  log  without 
one  symptom  of  life,  save  that  which  glared  in  the  small  bright  eye 
twinkling  in  his  depressed  head.  T^e  rabbit  appeared  to  take  no 
notice  of  him,  but  presently  began  to  walk  about  the  cage.  I^e 
snake  suddenly,  but  almost  imperceptibly,  turned  his  head  according 
to  the  rabbifs  movements,  as  £^  to  keep  tiie  object  within  the  range  of 
his  eye.  At  length  the  rabbit,  totally  unconscious  of  his  situation, 
approached  the  ambushed  head.  The  snake  dashed  at  him  like 
lightning.  There  was  a  blow — a  scream — and  instantiy  the  victim 
was  locked  in  the  coils  of  the  serpent  This  was  done  almost  too 
rapidly  for  the  eve  to  foUow :  at  one  instant  the  snake  was  motion- 
less ;  in  the  next  he  was  one  congeries  of  coils  round  his  prey.  He 
had  seized  the  rabbit  by  the  neck  just  under  the  ear,  and  was  evidently 
exerting  the  strongest  pressure  round  the  thorax  ef  the  quadruped ; 
thereby  preventing  the  expansion  of  the  chest,  and  at  the  same  time 
depriving  the  anterior  extremities  of  motion.  The  rabbit  never  cried 
after  the  first  seizure ;  he  lay  with  his  hind  legs  stretched  out,  still 
breathing  with  difficulty,  as  could  be  seen  by  the  motion  of  his  flanks. 
Presentiy  he  made  one  desperate  stru^le  with  his  hind  le^ ;  but  the 
snake  cautiously  applied  another  coil  with  such  dexterity  as  com- 
pletely to  manade  the  lower  extremities,  and,  in  about  eight  minutes, 
the  rabbit  was  quite  dead.  The  snake  then  gradually  and  carefully 
uncoiled  himself,  ancL  finding  that  his  victim  moved  not,  opened  his 
mouth,  let  go  his.  hold,  and  placed  his  head  opposite  to  the  fore  part 
of  the  rabbit  The  boa  generally,  I  have  observed,  begins  with  the 
head ;  but  in  this  instance  the  serpent,  having  begun  with  the  fore 
legs,  was  longer  in  gozging  his  prey  than  usual,  and  in  consequence  of 
the  difficulty  presented  by  the  awkward  position  of  the  rabbity  the 


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8Sd 


dOIDJB. 


BOIDiB. 


MC 


dilatation  and  secretion  of  lubricatixig  mucuA  were  exoeuirei  The 
serpent  first  got  the  fore  legs  into  his  mouth ;  he  then  coiled  himself 
round  the  rabbit,  and  appeared  to  draw  out  the  dead  body  throu^^ 
his  folds;  he  then  began  to  dilate  his  jaws,  and  holdiog  the  rabbit 
firmly  in  a  coil  as  a  point  of  resistance,  appeared  to  ezercifle  at 
interrals  the  whole  of  lus  anterior  muscles  in  protruding  his  stretched 
jaws  and  lubricated  mouth  and  throat  at  first  against  and  soon  after 
fpradually  upon  and  over  hia  prey.  The  curious  mechanism  in  the 
laws  of  serpents  which  enables  them  to  swallow  bodies  so  dipropor- 
tioned  to  their  apparent  bulk  is  too  well  known  to  need  description ; 
but  it  may  be  as  well  to  state  that  the  symphysis  of  the  under  jaw 
wafi  separated  in  this  case,  and  in  others  which  I  have  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  observing.  When  the  prey  was  completely  ingulphed,  the 
serpent  lay  for  a  few  moments  with  his  dislocated  jaws  still  dropping 
with  the  mucus  which  had  lubricated  the  parts,  and  at  this  time  he 
looked  quite  sufficiently  disgusting.  He  then  stretched  out  his  neck, 
and  at  the  same  moment  the  muscles  seemed  to  push  the  prey  further 
downwards.  After  a  few  efforts  to  replace  the  parts,  me  jaws 
appeared  much  the  same  as  they  did  previous  to  the  monstrous  repast 

"I  now  proceed  to  the  first  of  the  two  points  above  alluded  to,  and 
have  to  state  my  opinion  that  the  Boa  Conttrictor  does  respire  'when 
his  head  and  neck  have  no  other  appearance  than  that  of  a  serpent's 
skin  stuffed  almost  to  bursting ; '  and  I  think  that,  upon  a  more  close 
examination,  the  same  phenomenon  would  have  been  observable  in 
the  serpent  shipped  at  Batavia.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  dissec- 
tion of'that  serpent  appears  to  have  been  confined  to  the  stomach ;  at 
least  nothing  is  said  of  any  other  part  of  the  animal.  I  have  never 
had  an  opportimity  of  dissecting  the  pulmonary  system  of  a  boa,  or 
of  Mitisfying  myself  as  to  the  structure  of  the  extremely  long  trachea, 
which  must  be  very  firm  to  resist  such  an  immense  pressure ;  but  I 
believe,  from  a  near  and  accurate  inspection,  in  company  with  others, 
that  respiration  goes  on  during  the  period  of  the  greatest  dilatation. 
While  these  serpents  are  in  the  act  of  constringing  or  swallowing  their 
prejr,  they  appear  to  be  so  entirely  pervaded  by  the  JSp<|<s  [appetite] 
which  then  governs  them,  that  I  am  convinced  they  would  simer  them- 
selves to  be  cut  in  pieces  before  they  would  relinquish  their  victim. 
I  have  assisted  in  taking  them  up,  and  removing  them  with  their  prey 
in  their  coils,  without  their  appearing  to  be  in  the  least  disturbed  by  the 
motion,  excepting  that,  if  alter  the  victim  is  no  more  and  the  couBtric- 
tion  is  somewhat  relaxed,  an  artificial  motion  be  given  to  the  dead 
body,  they  instantly  renew  the  constriction.  When  thus  employed 
they  may  be  approached  closely  and  with  perfect  securii^  for  the 
reason  above  stated,  and  I  have  uniformly  found  that  i^e  laiynx  is, 
during  the  operation  of  swallowing,  protruded  sometimes  as  much  as 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  beyond  the  edge  of  the  dilated  lower  jaw.  I 
have  seen,  in  company  with  others,  the  valves  of  the  glottis  open  and 
shut,  and  the  dead  rabbit's  fur  immediately  before  the  aperture 
stirred,  apparently  by  the  serpent's  breath,  when  his  jaws  and  throat 
were  stuffed  and  stretched  to  excess.  In  the  case  above  mentioned, 
where  the  prey  was  taken  very  awkwardly,  and  the  dilatation  was 
consequently  much  greater  thim  usual,  I  saw.this  wonderful  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  the  exigencies  of  the  animal  much  more  clearly  than 
I  had  ever  seen  it  before. 

"  With  regard  to  the  next  point,  it  is  more  difficult  to  accoimt  for 
the  variance  between  the  agony  of  antipathy  shown  by  the  goat  as 
described  by  Mr.  M'Leod,  and  the  indifference  which  I  have  uniformly 
observed  in  the  full  grown  fowls  and  rabbits  presented  to  these 
serpents  for  prey.  Immediately  after  our  boa  had  swallowed  his  first 
rabbit,  a  second  was  introduced ;  but  the  serpent  now  exhibited  a 
veiy  different  appearance.  The  left  side  of  his  lower  jaw  was  hardly 
in  its  place,  and  he  moved  about  the  cage  instead  of  lying  in  .wait  as 
on  the  former  occasion.  As  for  the  rabbit,  after  he  had  been  incarce- 
rated a  little  while,  he  treated  the  snake  with  the  utmost  contempt, 
biting  it  when  in  his  way,  and  moving  it  aside  with  his  head.  The 
snake,  not  having  his  tackle  in  order,  for  his  jaw  was  not  yet  quite 
right,  appeared  anxious  to  avoid  the  rabbit,  which  at  last  stumbled 
upon  the  snake's  head  in  his  walks,  and  began  to  treat  it  so  roughly, 
that  the  rabbit  was  withdrawn  for  fear  of  his  ii^uring  the  snake. 
This  treatment  of  the  enake  by  the  rabbit  did  not  appear  to  be  the 
effect  of  anger  or  hatred,  but  to  be  adopted  merely  as  a  mode  of 
removing  something,  which  he  did  not  appear  to  understand,  out  of 
his  way.  I  have  seen  many  rabbits  and  fowls  presented  to  different 
si)ecimenB  of  boa  for  prey,  and  I  never  saw  the  least  symptom  of 
uneasiness  either  in  the  birds  or  quadrupeds.  They  appear  at  first  to 
take  no  notice  of  the  serpent,  large  as  it  is,  and  when  they  do  discover 
it  they  do  not  start,  but  seem  to  treat  it  with  the  greatest  indifference. 
I  remember  one  evening  going  up  into  the  room  where  one  of  these 
snakes  was  kept  at  Exeter  'Change,  and  seeing  the  hen  which  was 
destined  for  the  prey  of  the  boa,  very  comfortably  at  roost  upon  the 
serpent.  The  keeper  took  the  hen  in  his  hands  and  held  it  opposite 
to  the  head  of  the  snake,  without  succeeding  in  inducing  him  to  take 
the  bird,  which,  when  let  out  of  the  keeper's  hands  again,  settled 
herself  down  upon  the  serpent  for  the  night' 

"  The  only  solution  which  I  can  offer  of  the  difference  between 
Mr.  MliCod's  description  and  my  experience,  is  one  which  I  do  not 
propose  as  absolutely  satisfactory,  but  which  may  nevertheless  be 
found  to  approach  the  truth.  The  goats  put  on  board  at  Batavia  for 
the  serpent,  which  it  appears  was  brought  from  Borneo,  were  in  all 


probability  natives  of  Java»  and  ii  so,  th^  would,  according  to  the 
wonderful  instinct  which  nature  has  implanted  in  animals  for  their 
preservation,  be  likely  to  have  a  violent  antipathy  to  laige  serpeotB, 
such  as  those  which  there  lurk  for  their  prey.  The  great  Python  is  a 
native  of  Java,  and  if  these  goats  were  wild,  or  originally  firom  the 
wild  stock  of  the  island,  their  instinctive  horror  at  the  si^t  of  the 
destroyer  may  be  thus  accounted  for.  But  our  domestic  fowls  and 
rabbits  (the  stock  of  the  latter  most  pobably  indigenous,  and  that  of 
the  former  of  such  remote  importation,  and  so  much  changed  bj 
descent,  as  to  be  almost  on  the  same  footing),  having  no  such  natural 
enemy  as  a  huge  serpent,  against  which  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  be 
on  t^eir  guard,  are  entirely  without  this  instinct,  although  it  is  stroi^ 
enough  in  the  case  of  their  ordinary  enemies,  such  as  hawks,  dogs,  and 
cats ;  and  they  consequently  view  the  boa  which  is  about  to  dash  at 
them  with  Uie  same  indifference  as  if  he  were  a  log  of  wood." 

We  now  proceed  to  give  an  account  of  the  genera  and  specieB  of  th? 
family  BoidcCf  and  in  doing  this  we  shall  follow  the  arrangemeDt  of 
Dr.  J.  K  Qray  in  the  Cat^ogue  of  the  specimens  of  Snakes  ia  the 
British  Museum. 

I.  TaU  prehentUe,  itrong  ;  Head  distinet ;  MvaU  truncated, 

<L  Subcaudal  plate  two-rowed ;  intermaxillary  or  incisive  teeth 

distinct ;  superciliary  bone  distinct 

*  Crown  of  head  with  small  shield-like  plates. 

1.  Morelia,  Upper  and  lower  labinl  shields  deeply  pitted ;  muzzle 
with  symmetrical  shields.  There  are  two  species  of  this  genus,  one 
with,  the  vertical  plate  indistinct^  the  other  with  the  same  plate 
distinct : — 

M.  spUoles  (Cohiber  argui,  Idnnseus,  Coluiber  BpUoiea,  Lao^p^e),  the 
Diamond-Snake.  This  species  has  Uie  vertical  plates  indistinct  It 
is  of  a  bluish-black  colour,  very  irregularly  yellow,  spotted,  a  spot  od 
the  centre  of  each  scale,  forming  a  group  of  five  or  six  together  or  a 
kind  of  tied  blotch ;  occiput  wiUi  an  angular  band.  It  is  a  native  of 
Australia. 

if.  variegaici,  the  Carpet-Snaka  Vertical  plates  distinet  It  is 
whitish,  with  numerous  irregular  black-edged  olive  cross-bands,  with 
irr^ular  serrated  and  torn  edges ;  head  oUve,  varied  with  two  or  three 
white  spots  in  the  centre  of  the  crown,  and  a  broad  short  band  behiztd 
each  eye.  Several  specimens  of  this  species  are  in  the  British  MuBeam, 
brought  from  Port  Essington,  Swan  River,  and  other  parts  of  Aus- 
tralia. 

**  Crown  of  head  shielded  to  behind  the  eyes. 

2.  PyOwiL  Upper  and  lower  labial  shields  deeply  pitted ;  muzzld 
and  forehead  with  symmetrical  shields ;  nostrils  verticaL 

There  are  two  species  of  this  genus  which  have  been  referred  to  by 
many  writers  as  varieties  of  Boa  Conttrictor.  They  are  distingoiBhed 
by  placing  their  em  in  a  group  and  covering  them  with  their  body. 
TluB  statement,  wmch  was  made  by  Mr.  Beimett,  and  afterrrardB  con- 
firmed by  M.  Lamare  Picquot,  has  been  doubted,  but  its  truthfulness 
has  been  confirmed  by  the  proceedings  of  a  python  in  the  Qarden  of 
Plants  at  Paris. 

P.  reticvkUus,  the  Ular  Sawad,  is  distinguished  from  the  next  species 
by  the  four  front  upper  labial  plates  being  pitted ;  the  frontal  plate 
simple ;  the  head  has  a  narrow  longitudinal  brown  stripe.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  species  of  the  whole  fiunily,  its  whole  body  being 
covered  with  a  gay  lacing  of  gold  and  black.  It  is  a  native  of  Bin- 
dustan,  Ceylon,  and  Borneo.  Several  specimens  are  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  a  living  specimen  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society,  Hegent's  Park.  It  is  said  to  increase  till  it  is  more  than  thir^ 
feet  in  length  and  stout  in  proportion.  The  powers  of  such  a  gigantic 
reptile  must  be  enormous,  and  it  is  stated  that  this  serpent  is  shle  to 
manage  a  buffalo.  Nor  are  there  wanting  horrible  instances  of  msn 
himself  having  fallen  a  prey  to  these  monsters  in  modem  timea  The 
story  goes  that  a  Malay  prow  was  anchored  for  the  night  under  the 
island  of  Celebes.  One  of  the  crew  had  gone  on  shore  to  search  for 
betel-nut,  and  is  supposed  to  have  fallen  asleep  upon  the  beach  from 
weariness  on  lus  return.  In  the  dead  of  the  night  his  companions  on 
board  were  roused  by  dreadful  screams:  they  immediately  went 
ashore,  but  they  came  too  late;  the  cries  had  ceased,  and  the  wretched 
man  had  breatiied  his  last  in  the  folds  of  an  enormous  serpent^  which 
they  killed.  They  cut  off  the  head  of  the  snake  and  carried  it,  toge- 
ther with  the  lifeless  body  of  their  comrade,  to  the  vessel  The  right 
wrist  of  the  corpse  bore  the  marks  of  the  serpent's  teeth,  and  the  dis- 
figured body  showed  that  the  man  had  been  crushed  by  the  constnc- 
tion  of  the  reptile  round  the  head,  neck,  breast,  and  thigh.  The  picture 
by  Daniell,  representing  a  man  seized  by  one  of  these  monsters,  will 
be  familiar  to  m^y  of  our  readers. 

P.  molwnia  (CoUtber  molurus,  linnaeTis,  P,  Javcmieus,  Kuhl,  r. 
Ti^/ris,  Daudin),  the  Rook-Snake,  is  one  of  the  species  of  this  &xnJy 
often  called  by  the  name  Boa  Constrictor.  It  is  characterised  bj 
having  the  two  pairs  of  front  upper  and  three  hinder  lower  labial 
shields  pitted,  with  the  frontal  plate  double.  The  structure  of  the 
head  and  jaws  of  this  species  is  seen  in  the  annexed  cuts,  which  wlU 
illustrate  generally  these  points  in  the  anatomy  of  the  family.  In  the 
Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  are  several  beautiful  preparationfl 
of  the  structtire  of  this  gigantic  snake.  Four  living  examples  are  now 
in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  Regent's  Fark.  Thisapecwi 
is  a  native  of  Hindustan,  Java,  and  other  parts  of  Asia. 


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541 


BOIDiE. 


BOIDJE. 


542 


Head  of  Python  molunUf  seen  from  abo  o. 


Head  of  the  same, 
a,  upper  part  of  the  head,  eeen  f^om  below ;  6,  the  skull,  seen  in  profile. 

3.  fforiuUa.  Upper  and  lower  labial  shielda  deeply  pitted ;  muzzle 
and  forehead  with  Bymmetrical  shields ;  nostrils  lateraL  There  are 
three  species  natiTes  of  AMca : — 

H.  NcUalemia  {Python  Nataleniis,  Andrew  Smith),  the  Natal  Rock- 
Snake.  It  has  two  pairs  of  front  upper  labial  shields  pitted,  with  two 
or  three  supra-ocular  shields. 

Dr.  Andrew  Smith,  in  his  *  Illustrations  of  South  Africa  *  gives  a 
rerr  beautiful  fig^e  of  Python  Natalefms ;  and  he  states  that  this 
snake,  or  at  least  one  resembling  it  in  size,  was  formerly  an  inhabitant 
of  the  districts  now  within  the  Cape  Colony,  and  that  the  traditions 
of  the  older  Hottentots  abound  with  instances  of  its  miraculous 
powers.  "At  present,"  he  says,  "  it  is  not  to  be  found  within  hundreds 
of  miles  of  the  boundaries  of  the  colony,  and  few  specimens  have  been 
obtained  nearer  than  Port  Natal."  He  informs  us  that  it  occasionally 
attains  a  very  large  size,  and  according  to  the  natives,  individuals 
have  been  seen  whose  circumference  was  equal  to  that  of  the  body  of 
a  stout  man.  Dr.  Smith  himself  saw  a  skin  which  measured  twenty-five  • 
feet,  though  a  portion  of  the  tail  part  was  deficient.  "  It  feeds,"  he  says, 
"  upon  quadrupeds,  and  for  some  days  after  swallowing  fodd  it  remains 
in  a  torpid  state,  and  may  then  be  easily  destroyed.  The  South 
Africans  however  seldom  avail  themselves  of  ridding  themselves  ot  a 
reptile  they  view  with  horror,  as  they  believe  that  it  has  a  certain 


influence  over  their  destinies;  and  affirm  that  no  person  bait  eve? 
been  known  to  maltreat  it  without  sooner  or  later  paying  for  his 
audacity." 


Rock-Snake  (Python  moluriu). 

H,  Sebce  {Colvher  Sebce,  Qmelin,  Python  hivittattu,  Kuhl),  the 
Guinea  Bock-Snake  and  Fetish  Snake,  closely  resembles  the  last  in 
many  points  of  structure.  It  is  a  native  of  western  Africa,  and  speci- 
mens in  the  BritiBh  Museum  have  been  obtained  from  Ashantee, 
Gambia,  and  the  Gold  Coast.  There  is  a  living  specimen  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  estimated  to  weigh  one  hundred- 
weight 

n,  regia  {Boa  regia,  Shaw,  Python  regiut,  Bumeril),  the  Royal 
Rock-Snake,  distinguished  from  the  last  two  by  the  four  pairs  of 
front  upper  labials  being  pitted,  the  supra-ocular  plate  single,  the 
lower  labial  shields  broad,  four.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  Gambia,  in 
western  A&ica.  It  is  of  a  black  colour,  marked  on  the  middle  of  the 
back  with  a  series  of  oblong  longitudinal  white  spots ;  the  sides  with  a 
series  of  very  large  white  spots,  with  one  or  two  oblong  black  spots  on 
their  upper  part ;  the  head  black,  with  a  streak  over  the  nostrils  and 
the  top  of  the  eyes,  another  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  eye ;  the  lips, 
chin,  and  beneath  white. 

4.  Idoiii,  Upper  and  lower  labial  shields  pitted ;  muzzle  and  spaoe 
between  the  eyes  shielded  This  genus  indudes  various  species  of 
Python  of  otiier  authors.    Dr.  Gray  describes  four : — 

Z.  cmethyttinutf  the  Liasis ;  an  inhabitant  of  New  Ireland. 

L.  Macklotii,  Macklot's  Liasis,  an  inhabitant  of  Timor  and  Samao, 
Neither  of  these  is  in  the  British  Museum. 

X.  ChUdrenii,  Children's  Liasis,  an  inhabitant  of  North- Western 
Austndia.  One  specimen  in  the  British  Museimi  is  from  Port 
Essington. 

Z.  olivaceckf  the  Lisalia,  also  a  native  of  Australia.  Specimens  have 
been  brought  from  Port  Essington  and  Sir  Charles  Hardy^s  Island. 

5.  Nardoa.  Lower  labial  shields  pitted  ;  crown  with  eleven  symmet- 
rical shields.  Of  this  genus  there  are  two  species,  N,  SchUyelii,  the 
Nardoa  of  New  Ireland,  and  iV.  GUbertii,  Gilbert's  Nardoa,  a  native 
of  North  Australia. 

b.  Subcaudal  plates  entire,  one-rowed;    intermaxillary  or 

incisive  teeth  none ;  supra-orbital  bone  none. 

*  Scales  smooth ;  labial  shields  pitted. 

6.  EpiercUes.  Forehead  with  symmetrical  shields;  crown  scaly. 
The  species  are  natives  of  America  and  the  West  Indies. 

JR  angfdifer,  the  Pale-Headed  Epicrates,  is  a  native  of  Hayti 

£*  Cenehia  {Boa  Cenchria,  JAxauaoB,  Euntctes  Aboma,  Cuvier)i  the 


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BOID^ 


BOIDJB. 


5U 


AbouuL  It  18  one  of  the  largest  of  the  family,  and  sometimes  attains 
a  gigantic  size.  It  is  of  a  yellowish  colour,  with  a  row  of  laige 
brown  rings  running  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  and  variable  spots 


7.  Xiphoioma.    Forehead  and  crown  scaly ;  moiile  wHh  ngahr 
shields;  labiiJ  plates  short  and  all  pitted.    There  is  bat  ondipeoa 


Natal  BodcAiake  [HorttOia  NatdUntU) 


Head  of  Sarhiia  Natalett»U. 

on  the  sides.  These  are  generally  dark,  often  containing  a  whitish 
semi-lunar  mark.  This  species,  according  to  Seba,  who  describes  it  as 
Mexican,  is  the  Temacuilcahuillia  (or  TamacuiUa  Huilia,  as  Seba 
writes  the  word)  described  by  Hemandes.  This  species  haunts  the 
marshy  places  of  the  warm  parts  of  South  America ;  there,  adhering 
by  the  tail  to  some  aquatic  tree,  they  suffer  the  anterior  part  of  the 
body  to  float  upon  the  water,  and  patiently  wait  to  seise  upon  the 
quadrupeds  which  come  to  drink. 

K  maurut,  the  Brown  Aboma  of  Gray,  is  of  a  brown  colour,  and  is 
a  natiye  oC  Y  eneauela 


Aboma  {JEpieraUt  Otnehria), 
of  this  genus,  X.  eaninum  (Boa  canina,  Linnaeus,  X  Ararawhcp 


Green  Boa  (XipkoiowM  mmmmi). 


Head  of  Xiphoioma  eaninum, 

Spix),  the  Bojobi,  or  Green  Boa.    It  is  a  native  of  America.   Jl  >' 
greenish,  with  white  irregular  loogish  spots  somewhat  an&Uianv 


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545 


BOID^ 


BOIDM. 


548 


diBposed.  This  is  the  Boa  viridU  of  Boddaert,  the  Boa  thaUutma  of 
Laurent!,  the  Bojobi  of  the  BrazilianB,  the  Tetrauohoatl  Tleoa  (a 
Mexican  name)  according  to  Seba,  and  the  Cobra  Verde  of  the 
Portugueae,  who  relate  that  these  serpents  sometimes  remain  in  the 
hoosee,  doing  no  harm  till  irritated,  when 
ihey  at  last  bite  and  inflict  a  wound  full  of 
danger,  not  from  injected  poison,  for  the 
serpent  has  none,  but  on  account  of  the 
injury  sustained  by  the  nerves  from  the  very 
sharp,  slender,  and  long  teeth.  Qreat  in- 
flammation follows,  and  the  symptoms  are 
aggravated  by  terror,  so  that  a  gangrene  is 
the  conseq^ience  unless  the  proper  remedies 
are  applied.  In  the  absence  of  these,  certain 
death  is  said  to  be  the  consequence  of  a 
severe  bite  from  this  serpent.  The  imme-  A  portion  of  the  under 
diate  cause  of  death  is  not  stated  by  Seba,  P*rt  ^  ^1»«  ^  <»'  »/»*«- 
but  from  the  long  and  penetrating  teeth  of  f«^  eaninum  Aowlng  the 
tte  Bojobi  it  maybe  presumed  to  be  o^en  S::*''^^^'':^  ^e 
tetanus  or  locked  jaw.  Seba  says  that  this  ^^^^g^ 
species  varies  in  size,  adding  that  the  spe- 
cimen from  which  his  figure  was  taken  was  more  than  two  cubits  in 
length.  Cuvier  is  of  opinion  that  the  Boa  hipnale  is  only  a  young 
Bojobi  or  Boa  eanina. 

living  specimens  of  this  isnake  are  in  the  Qardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society,  Regent's  Park. 

8.  UoraUuB.  Forehead  and  crown  scaly ;  muzzle  with  regular  shields; 
labial  shields  short,  hinder  ones  pitted.    There  is  but  one  species : — 

C.  horiulaiMit,  the  CencoatL  It  is  most  extensively  distributed  in 
South  America,  and  amongst  the  specimens  in  the  British  Museum 
several  varieties  can  be  distinctly  observed.  This  snake,  which  is  the 
Colvhcr  hofiulaniu  and  Boa  hortulana  of  Ldnnseus,  has  been  extensively 
observed,  and  has  numerous  synonyms. 

9.  Sanzmia,  Forehead  and  crown  scaly ;  muzzle  with  reg^ular  shields ; 
labial  shields  elongate  prismatic. 

S.  MadoffOiearieimtf  the  Sanzin  of  Madagascar,  is  the  only  species, 
and  of  this  a  specimen  exists  in  the  Museum  at  Paris ;  there  is  none  in 
the  British  Museum. 

10.  Ciiftia,  Forehead  and  crown  scaly ;  muzzle  with  regular  shields ; 
labial  shields  broad,  low.  Br.  Qray  remarks  of  this  genus  thM  it 
may  be  the  same  as  Catarea,  "  but  the  scales  in  the  dry  specimens  are 
not  keeled ;  and  the  front  upper  labial  shields  appear  to  be  pitted, 
and  the  tail  is  short" 

C.futea,  a  native  of  India,  is  the  only  species. 

**  Scales  smooth ;  labial  shields  smooth,  not  pitted. 

11.  Bock  Crown  covered  with  scales ;  nostrils  lateral,  between  two 
plates.  There  are  four  species  of  Boa,  all  of  which  have  been  described 
as  the  Soa  Conttrictor,  and  it  is  always  difl&cult  to  identify  the 
particular  species  of  snake  referred  to  by  travellers,  on  account  of  the 
loose  manner  in  which  the  name  is  generally  employed. 

B.  Congtrictor  of  Linnaus  (the  Boa  Corutrictrtx  of  Schneider,  Oon- 
ttrictor/ormosiuimui  of  Laurenti),  the  Boiguaou,  is  characterised  by  the 
scaly  circle  of  the  orbit  being  separated  from  the  upper  labial  plates 
by  one  or  two  series  of  scales.  It  is  also  distinguished  by  a  large 
chain  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  composed  alteniat«[y 
of  great  blackish  stains  or  spots  irregularly  hexagonal,  and  of  pale 
oval  stains  or  spots  notched  or  jagged  at  either  end,  the  whole  forming 
a  very  elegant  pattern.  Shaw,  in  his  lectures,  mentions  a  skin  of 
this  species  measuring  85  feet,  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  and 
adds,  that  it  is  probable  that  many  ages  ago  much  larger  specimens 
might  have  occurred  than  any  at  present  to  be  found,  the  increased 
population  and  cultivation  of  most  countries  having  tended  more  and 
more  to  lessen  the  number  of  such  imiTwaU  The  locality  of  this 
species^  acoording  to  the  best  authorities,  is  confijaed  to  the  New 
World.  Daudin,  indeed,  believed  that  it  was  found  in  the  ancient 
continent,  bat  without  sufficient  grounds  for  his  opinion.  Le 
Vaillant  and  Humboldt  brought  it  from  Qnyana,  and  the  Ftince  de 
Wied  found  it  in  Brazil  Cuvier  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  there 
aie  no  true  boas  of  laige  size  in  the  Old  World.  All  the  specimens 
in  the  British  Museum  are  from  tropical  America. 

linnsBua,  quoting  Dahlbeig,  says  that  the  Boa  Conttrietor  was 
worshipped  l^  the  Americans. 

"Snake-worship,"  says  Dr.  Sonth^,  in  his  notetf  to  Madoo,  "was 
common  in  America."  (Bema  Dies,  p.  8, 7, 125.)  The  idol  deeoribed, 
vii  p.  25,  somewhat  resembles  what  the  Spaniards  found  at  Cam- 
peche,  which  is  thus  described  by  the  oldest  historian  of  the 
discoveries: — "Our  men  were  oonducted  to  a  broade  orosse-way, 
standing  on  the  side  of  the  towne.  Here  they  show  them  a  square 
stage  or  pnlpit  foure  steppes  high,  partly  of  olammy  bitumen,  and 
partly  of  small  stones,  whereto  the  image  of  a  man  cut  in  marble 
was  joyned,  two  foure-footed  unknown  beastes  fastening  upon  him, 
which,  like  madde  dogges,  seemed  they  would  tear  the  marble  man's 
guts  out  of  his  belly.  And  b^  the  image  stood  a  serpent^  besmeared 
(Jl  with  goare  bloud,  devounng  a  marble  lion,  whidi  serpent^  com- 
pacted of  bitumen  and  small  stones  inooiporated  together,  was  seven 
and  fortie  feete  in  length,  and  as  thicke  as  a  great  oxe.  Next  unto 
H  vrere  three  rafters  or  stakes  fSastened  to  the  grounde,  which  three 

VAT.  HOrX.  DIT.  TOL  Z 


others  crossed  under-propped  with  stones ;  in  which  place  they  pumsh 
malefactors  condemned,  for  proof  whereof  they  saw  innumerable 
broken  arrowes,  all  bloudie,  scattered  on  the  grounde,  and  the  bones  of 
the  dead  cast  into  an  inclosed  courte  neere  unto  it." — Pietro  Martdre. 
This  serpent  appears  to  have  been  the  Tlicoatl  and  Temacuilcahuilia 
of  the  Mexicans.  ''  It  derives  its  name,"  says  Hernandez,  "  from  its 
strength,  for  Temacuilcahuilia  i%  'fighting  with  five  men ; '  it  attadcs 
those  it  meets,  and  overpowers  them  with  such  force  that  if  it  once 
coils  itself  round  their  necks  it  strangles  and  kills  them,  unless  it 
bursts  itself  by  the  violence  of  its  own  efforts ;"  and  he  goes  on  to 
state  how  its  attack  is  avoided  by  the  man  opposing  a  tree  or  other 
object  to  its  constriction,  so  that  while  the  serpent  fancies  that  it  is 
compressing  the  man  it  may  be  torn  asunder  by  its  own  act,  and  so 
die.  The  same  author  states  that  he  had  seen  serpents  as  thick  as  a 
man's  thigh,  which  had  been  taken  when  young  by  the  Indians,  and 
tamed,  and  how  they  were  provided  with  a  caek  strewn  with  litter, 
in  the  place  of  a  cavern,  where  they  lived,  and  were  for  the  most  part 
quiescent  except  at  meal  times,  when  they  came  forth,  and  amicably 
climbed  about  the  couch  or  shoulders  of  their  master,  who  placidly 
bore  the  serpent-embrace  (amplexus)  of  the  terrific  animal ;  or  how, 
lying  ooiled  up  in  folds,  and  equalling  a  laige  wheel  in  size,  they 
harmlessly  received  the  food  offered  to  them.  In  the  descripldon  ot 
the  Temacuilcahuilia  we  have,  allowing  for  some  exaggerations,  the 
predatoiy  habits  of  an  enormous  Boa ;  and  in  the  relation  of  the 
manners  of  the  tamed  constricting  serpents  which  follows  it,  we  find 
an  engine  which  might  be  and  no  doubt  was  turned  to  account  by 
the  ancient  Mexican  priests. 


Soa  Cotutrictor. 

Specimens  of  this  and  the  following  speoies  are  living  in  ths 
Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  Regent's  rark. 

B,  diviniloqua  {Contirictor  dwinUoquutf  Laurenti),  the  Iiamanda, 
is  an  inhabitant  of  Santa  Lucia,  and  the  specimen  in  the  possession 
of  the  Zoological  Society  appears  to  be  the  only  one  in  Europe. 

B.  Impet^Uor,  the  Emperor  Boa,  is  a  native  of  Mexico  and 
Honduras. 

B.  Equet,  the  Chevalier  Boa,  is  an  inhabitant  of  Peru. 

12.  PdophUeut.  Crown  covered  with  irregular  plates;  nostrils  lateral, 
between  two  scales. 

P,  MadagoBoarentii,  the  Pelophile,  a  native  of  Madagascar,  is  the 
only  species. 

18.  Etmectti,  Crown  covered  with  irregular  shields ;  nostrOs  vertical, 
between  three  plates. 

R  murinui  {Boa  Scytale  and  Boa  mt^nna,  Limueus,  Boa  aquoHoa, 
Prince  MaTimilian,  Boa  gigat,  Latreille,  Boa  Anaconda  and  Boa 
Aboma,  Daudin),  the  Anaoonda.    It  is  a  native  of  tropical  America. 

Mr.  Bennett  observes  in  the  '  Tower  Menagerie'  that  the  name  of 
Anaoonda,  like  that  of  Boa  Conttridor,  has  been  populariy  applied  to 
an  the  larger  and  more  powerftil  snakes.    He  adds  that  the  word 

2  V 


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5i7 


BOIDJS. 


BomA 


618 


appears  to  be  of  Ceylonese  origin,  and  applies  it  to  the  Python 
Tigris. 

This  species  is  brownish,  with  a  double  series  of  roundish  black 
blotches  all  down  the  back ;  the  lateral  spots  annular  and  ocellated, 
the  disks  being  white,  surrounded  by  blackish  rings.  The  trivial 
name  murinut  was  given  to  it  from  its  being  said  to  lie  in  wait  for 


Anaconda  {£imect€S  murinus), 

mioe ;  and  Seba  has  given  a  representation  of  it  about  to  dart  upon  ah 
American  mouse,  which  he  says  is  its  usual  food.  Such  'small  deer' 
may  be  the  prey  of  this  species  when  very  young,  but  it  grows  to  a 
size  equalling  that  of  Boa  Constrictor  and  EpiercUet  Cenchria.  We 
think  it  very  probable  that  this  is  the  Culebra  de  -A^ua  of  the 
Yenesuelans.  The  other  provincial  name,  El  Trasa  Yenado,  or 
'  Deer-Swallower,'  indicates  the  prey  of  the  serpent  when  of  mature 
age.  LinuBdUB  says  of  his  Boa  SeytaU,  "  Constringit  et  d^glutit  capras, 
oves,"  &a  (It  constricts  and  swallows  goats,  sheep,  ftc.) 

The  following  description  of  a  species,  of  which  a  specimen  was 
forwarded  to  &e  United  Service  Museum,  was  given  by  Sir  Robert 
Kor  Porter : — '*  It  is  not  venomous,  nor  known  to  ii^ure  man  (at  least 
not  in  this  part  of  the  Kew  World) ;  however  the  natives  of  the  plains 
stand  in  great  fear  of  it,  never  bathing  in  waters  where  it  is  known 
to  exist  Its  common  haunt,  or  rather  domicile,  is  invariably  near 
lakes,  swamps,  and  rivers ;  likewise  close  to  wet  ravines  produced  by 
inundations  of  the  periodical  rains ;  hence,  from  its  aquatic  habits, 
its  first  appellation.  Fish  and  those  animals  which  repair  there  to 
drink  are  the  objects  of  its  prey.  The  creature  lurks  watchfully 
under  cover  of  the  water,  and  whilst  the  unsuspecting  animal'  is 
drinking  suddenly  makes  a  dash  at  its  nose,  and  with  a  grip  of  its 
back-reclining  double  range  of  teeth  never  fiEuls  to  secure  the  terrified 
besMt  beyond  the  power  of  escape.  In  an  instant  the  sluggish  waters 
are  in  turbulence  and  foam,  the  whole  form  of  the  Cmebra  is  in 
motion,  its  huge  and  rapid  ceilings  soon  encircle  the  struggling  victim, 
and  but  a  short  moment  elapses  ere  every  bone  is  broken  in  the  body 
of  the  expiriug  prey.  On  its  ceasing  to  exist  the  fleshy  tongue  of  the 
reptile  is  protruded  (taking  a  long  and  thinnish  form),  passing  over 
the  whole  of  the  lifeless  beast,  leaving  on  it  a  sort  of  glutinous  saliva 
that  greatly  facilitates  the  act  of  deglutition,  whidi  it  performs  gra- 
dually by  gulping  it  down  through  itn  extended  jaws— a  power  of 
extension  of  them  it  possesses  to  so  frightful  and  extraonlinaiy  a 
degree  as  not  to  be  beheved  when  looking  at  the  comparative  small- 
ness  of  the  mouth  and  throat  in  their  tranquil  state.  After  having 
completely  devoured  or  rather  hidden  its  prey  in  the  way  described  it 
becomes  poweriess  as  to  motion,  and  remains  in  an  iJmost  torpid  state 
for  some  days,  or  until  nature  silently  digests  the  swallowed  animal 
The  snake  now  sent  was  killed  with  lances  when  just  regarding  its 
powers  of  action. 


"  The  flesh  of  this  serpent  is  white,  and  abundant  in  fat  The 
people  of  the  plains  never  eat  it,  but  make  use  of  the  fat  as  a  remedy 
for  rheumatic  pains,  ruptures,  strains,  kc  When  these  creatiires  are 
young  the  colours  on  the  skin  are  very  bright,  and  gradually  loaethoir 
brUliiincy  with  age." 

There  is  generally  in  these  descriptions  an  account  of  the  fletby 
tongue  of  the  reptile,  and  of  its  application  to  the  dead  animal  for 
the  purpose  of  covering  it  with  saliva,  previous  to  the  operation  of 
swaUowmg  it  A  glance  at  the  tongue  of  a  Boa  or  a  Python  will 
convince  the  observer  that  few  worse  instruments  for  such  a  purpoie 
could  have  been  contrived.  The  delusion  is  kept  up  by  the  mode  in 
which  these  serpents  are  sometimes  preserved  in  muBeums,  where 
they  may  be  occasionally  seen  with  fine  artificial,  thick,  flediy,  Te^ 
milion  tongues  in  the  place  of  the*small  dark-coloured  extensile  oi;gaos 
with  which  nature  has  furnished  them.  We  have  frequently  watched 
constricting  serpents  while  taking  their  prey,  and  it  is  almoist  super- 
fluous to  add  that  they  never  covered  the  victim  with  saliva  from  the 
tongue  before  deglutition.  When  the  prey  is  dead  and  the  serpent  ii 
about  to  swallow  it,  the  tongue  of  the  destroyer  is  frequently  thnut 
forth  and  vibrated,  as  if  indicatory  of  the  desire  for  food ;  but  the 
mucus  is  not  poured  out  till  it  is  required  to  lubricate  the  dilated  jaws 
and  throat  for  the  disproportioned  feast. 

14.  Chilabothrtu.  Crown  covered  with  regular  shields;  nostrik 
lateral,  between  three  scales. 

C.  inomatua,  the  Yellow  Snake,  ia  a  natiye  of  Jamaica.  The  head  and 
front  part  of  the  body  olive ;  temple  with  a  narrow  black  streak ; 
back  with  small  scattered  black  oblique  cross  lines ;  hinder  part  of  the 
body  black,  with  olive  spots.  A  livmg  specimen  is  in  the  Qardene  of 
the  Zoological  Society. 

***  Scales  keeled ;  lateral  shields  not  pitted ;  nostrils  between 
two  plates. 

15.  UngalioL,  Head  covered  with  symmetrical  shields.  The  species 
are  natives  of  tropical  America. 

U.  mdanura,  Black-Tailed  Ungalia,  has  been  found  in  Cuba. 
U,  maculata,  the  Pardaline  Ungalia,  is  found  in  Cuba  and  Jamaica. 
••••  Scales  keeled  ;   lateral  shields  not  pitted ;  nostriLi  a 
single  plate. 

1 6.  Bnygrut,  Head  covered  with  small  irregular  shields ;  nostrils  in  a 
single  plate.  There  are  two  species,  inhabitants  of  the  Ariatic  islands 
•  £.  earinatutf  the  Candoia.     It  has  been  found  in  Kew  Quinea. 

E.  Bibroni,  Bibron's  Enygrus.  A  specimen  exists  in  the  Museum 
atParia 

17.  Casarea,  Head  scaly ;  muzsle  covered  with  symmetrical 
shields ;  nostrils  in  a  single  plate  (?).    One  species, 

C.  Duttumierif  the  Casarea,  is  found  in  the  Isle  Ronde  near  Kauritiui. 

18.  Bolyerxa,  Head  covered  with  symmetrical  shields ;  nostrils  in 
a  single  plate. 

B.  mtiticarinata,  the  Bolyeria»  is  the  only  spedee.  It  is  a  satire  of 
Port  Jackson,  Australia. 

IL  Tail  very  short,  dighUy  or  not  prehensile;  Head  indistinctf  ihort. 
a.  Head  covered  with  scales;  pupil  oblong;  scales  convex; 
subcftudal  shield  one-rowed ;  intermaxillaiy  teeth 
none;  supraK>rbital  bone  none. 

19.  Ousoria,  Muisle  rounded  ;  ventral  and  subcaadal  plates 
narrow ;  scales  ovate,  of  bod  v  and  tail  smooth. 

O.  eUgans,  the  Cusoria,  is  the  only  species.    Inhabits  Aflghanistan. 

20.  Oongylophis.  Muzde  wedge-shaped ;  jaws  equal ;  head  with 
small  keeled  scales;  scales  of  back  keeled ;  bodj  fusiform. 

O,  eonica  {Boa  comco,  Schneider;  B.  ornata,  baudin;  Er^  Bengal- 
ensis  and  ScytaU  coronata,  Guerin),  the  Padain  Cootoo.  It  is  a  natiye 
of  Hindustan. 

21.  Eryx,  Muzde  wedge-shaped;  upper  jaw  largest;  head  with 
small  scales;  scales  of  back  smooth,  of  hmder  part  of  body  keeled . 

E.  Jaculus  {Tortrix  Eryx,  Anguis  Jaculus,  A.  eolubrina,  Linneus ; 
A,  cerastes,  Hasselquist,  Eryx  Ddta,  Qeoffroy),  the  Eryx.  This 
speeies,  known  by  its  distinct  gular  groove  and  two  pairs  of  f^ntals, 
has  been  foimd  in  £Sgypt,  Coif  u,  Xanthus,  Naxos,  Greece,  and  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

R  Thebaiious,  the  Shielded  Eryx,  has  no  gular  groove,  and  one  pair 
of  frontals.     It  is  a  native  of  Egypt  and  the  Noru  of  Africa. 

22.  Clotkonia,  Muscle  wedge-shi^)ed;  upper  jaw  laigest;  scales 
smooth. 

a  JohmUBoaJohnii,  RiLppell,  Eryx  Joknii,  Dumeril,  Tortrix  Eryx* 
Sohlegel,  Amphitbcenek,  'Pennv  Cyclopssdia^'  fig,),  the  ClothoDii»  if 
the  only  species  belonging  to  this  genus. 

This  species  is  of  a  reddish  brown  colour,  and  is  a  native  of 
Hindustan. 

h.  Head  shielded;  pupil  round. 

28.  Oj^Androphis.  KostrOs  in  a  single  shield ;  eyes  surrounded  hy 
shields ;  intermaxillary  teeth  none.    7^  genus  has  three  speciea 

C.  mdanota,  the  Black-Backed  Pamboo.  It  has  a  triangular  trun- 
cated tail  The  muzzle  is  black,  the  end  of  tail  white;  the  belly 
black  and  white  banded ;  the  tail  longer  than  the  hea4.  It  is  a  natire 
of  Celebes. 

O,  rvfa,  the  Schilaj  Pamboo,  with  a  conical  tail  and  broad  muz^a 
It  is  blaok  or  reddish,  often  white-ringed ;  head  and  tip  of  tail  black; 


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BOIS  DE  COLOPHANR 


BOLETOBIUS. 


Celebea 


J)7^^^^i^!^^''^T^  plate     It  i8  a  native  of  Pemmg.  '  ground  nnder  the  mass,  in  which  they  deposit  their  ^ggs  enveloped 
n!i.2!?^  describes  two  varieties,  one  from  Borneo,  another  from    in  a  baU  of  the  excrement.  "«"^  ^ggs  enveiopea 

There  are  about  sixteen  species  known :  their  most  common  colour 
is  brown  or  yellowish,  and  sometimes  black.  In  this  country  but  two 
species  have  occurred,  B.  mobilicomia  and  £.  testaeeua,  B.  mobUicomis 
is  of  a  pitchy  black  colour,  and  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long ;  the 
^^  ^  *1^®  °^*le  sex  has  a  recurved  horn ;  antenna  with  the  club 
red ;  thorax  punctured,  and  furnished  with  four  tooth-like  projections 
on  the  fore  part;  elytra  striated;  legs  and  body  inclining  to  a  red 
colour. 

B,  Uttacem  is  entirely  of  an  ochre  colour ;  head  with  two  tubercles  ; 
thorax  sparingly  punctured ;  elytra  with  punctured  stria.  About  the 
same  size  as  the  last,  of  which  by  some  it  is  supposed  to  be  a  variety. 
Both  of  these  species  are  very  rare. 

BOLDOA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Monimiaeea,  B,  fragram  is  the  Boldu  of  Chill  It  produces  an 
aromatic  succulent  fruit  which  is  eaten  by  tiie  natives.  The  wood  is 
veiyfragrant,  and  makes  a  charcoal  which  is  preferred  by  the  smiths 
of  Chili  to  that  from  any  other  wood.  The  leaves  are  also  very  fragrant 
The  bark  is  employed  in  tanning.    (Lindley,  Vegetable  Kw^gdom.) 

BOLE,  a  hydrous  silicate  of  Alumina,  which  occurs  as  an  earthy 
mineral  in  amorphous  masses  in  various  countries,  as  in  Armenia, 
Saxony,  in  Tuscany,  at  Sienna,  in  Ireland,  and  in  ScotUnd  in  the  Isle 
of  Skye. 

The  colour  of  Bole  is  various,  either  yellow,  brown,  red  brownish, 
or  pitch-black.  It  is  dull,  has  a  greasy  feel,  and  adheres  to  the 
tongue.  Its  fracture  is  conchoidal,  yields  to  the  nail,  and  the  streak 
is  shining.  When  put  into  water  it  readily  absorbs  i^  emits  bubbles 
of  air,  and  falls  to  pieces.  The  Armenian  Bole,  according  to  Wiegleb, 
consists  of 

Silica 53-18 

Alumina 22*67 

Iron 1100 

Loss 8*20 


Padaln  Oootoo  {GongylophU  eoniea). 
0.  maculaia  (Tortrix  mactdata,  Schlegel ;  Angvd$  ie$telata,  A,  deru- 
patOf  Laurenti),  the  Miguel,    has  a  conical  tail  and  narrow  musszle. 
It  IB  red  or  brown,  netted  with  black ;  beneath  whitish.    It  inhabits 
Ceykn. 


Clothonia  {Chthonia  Johnu), 

24.  ChariiuL  KoetrUs  between  two  shields;  eyes  stUTOunded  by 
small  scales. 

C.  Bottce  (Tortrix  Bottce,  Blainville),  the  Charina,  is  the  only  spedes. 
It  ia  (^  a  pale  yellow  colour,  with  back  and  tail  darker.  It  is  found 
in  California. 

25.  Tortrix.  Nostrils  between  two  sh^ds ;  eyes  in  a  single  shield ; 
mtennaxillaxy  teeth  distinct 

T.  Scytale  {Angms  ScytaU,  Linnseus,  A,  altera  Shaw,  Tortrix  coral- 
IwKtt,  Oppell),  the  Coral  Snake.    It  is  a  native  of  tropical  America. 

BOIS  bE  COLOPHANE.    puRSBBA.] 

BOLBO'CERUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  feonily 
Ckotrmpida  {Scairabmu  of  Linnseus).  The  species  of  this  genus  are 
i'<einarkable  for  their  short  compact  form,  above  appearing  almost 
BphericaL  The  male  is  armed  with  an  erect  horn  springing  from  tiie 
hendf  the  female  has  merel v  a  tubercle  in  the  same  part ;  uie  thorax 
iuu  frequently  four  small  horns,  or  tooUi-like  processes,  arranged  in 
a  transverse  line  on  the  anterior  part ;  the  antenna  are  deven-jointed, 
^e  three  terminal  joints  form  a  compact  round  knob,  the  middle  joint 
being  almost  inclosed  by  the  other  two ;  one  mandible  is  armed  inter- 
xi&ny  with  two  teeth,  the  other  is  simple;  the  antorior  portion  of  the 
mentum  is  entire ;  the  elytra  are  striated. 

These  insects  Hve  upon  dung,  tad  ezoavftte  cylindzioal  holes  la  the 


mv     r  .  ^^^'^ 

The  Lemnian  Bole,  called  also  Lemnian  Earth,  was  andentiy  an  article 
of  Materia  Medica,  and  kept  by  apothecaries  in  small  pieces  under  the 
name  of  Terra  Sigillata :  these  were  impressed  on  one  side  with  the 
figure  of  a  goat)  &a  According  to  Plmy  it  was  also  used  as  red 
pigment  / 

Elaproth  found  the  composition  of  this  Bole  to  be 

Silica 66 

Alumina 14*5 

Oxide  of  Iron 6 

Soda 8*5 

Water 8*5 

A  trace  of  Lime  and  Magnesia 

98-5 
The  only  Bole  at  present  used  is  as  a  coarse  red  pigment,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  calcined  and  levigated,  and  vended  in  Germany  imder 
the  name  of  Berlin  and  English  Red. 

These  earths  were  formerly  employed  as  astringent^  absorbent,  and 
tonic  medicines.  They  might  be  dightiy  servioeable  as  absorbents, 
in  the  same  way  as  putty  powder  is  used  in  the  present  day,  when 
sprinkled  over  excoriations  of  the  skin.  Any  tonic  power  which  they 
possessed  was  due  to  the  oxide  of  iron,  which  is  now  administered  in 
a  purer  state.  These  once  celebrated  articles  have  fallen  into  merited 
disuse  :  they  are  still  however  employed  in  the  East,  and  occasionally 
as  veterinary  medicines  in  Europe,  where  eartiis  of  a  similar  kind  are 
found  abundantiy  among  volcanic,  basaltic,  and  the  older  calcareous 
rooks,  and  are  <»lled  after  the  dyifferent  ooimtries  in  which  they  are 
found.  Those  which  have  less  colour  are  called  Bolfut  alba,  are  pro- 
cured in  Bohemia,  Salzburg,  &a,  and  consist  of  lithomaige,  which  is 
fonned  of  silica  and  alumina  with  water,  and  a  littie  oxide  of  iron. 
These  substances  are  extensively  employed  to  adulterate  articles  of 
food,  as  anchovies;  cocoa,  and  other  things  having  naturally  a  red 
colour.  The  Bole  Armenian  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Lapis 
Armenius,  which  is  a  native  carbonate  of  copper.  The  Terra  Lemnia 
is  sometimes  employed  to  signify  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  of  the  Adan$onia 
digitata,  the  Baobab,  or  Monkey-Bread,  which  is  used  as  an  astringent 
for  the  cure  of  dysentery  by  the  inhabitants  of  Senegal 

BOLETO'BIUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
Brachdftra  (M*Leay),  and  family  Tachyporida  {Staphylinui  of  older 
authors.)  Qeneric  Characten : — Head  long  and  pointed  anterioriy; 
antennsd  with  the  basal  joint  rather  long  and  slender;  the  three  next 
joints  slender,  and  nearly  of  equal  length,  the  remaining  joints 
gradually  increasing  in  width  to  the  last,  inclusive;  palpi  rather  long 
and  slender ;  thorax  narrower  before  than  behind,  the  hinder  angles 
rounded ;  elytra  smooth,  or  indistinctiy  striated ;  body  long,  widest 
at  the  base,  and  taperinp;  to  a  point  at  the  apex ;  logs  moden^  tibiae 
spinose,  the  four  posterior  with  long  spines  at  their  apices. 

The  species  of  this  genus  reside  in  BoUti  and  other  species  of 
l^mgi,  in  which  they  occur  in  the  greatest  abundance,  particularly 
when  in  a  state  of  decay.  They  are  all  exceedingly  active,  and  their 
smooth  slender  bodies  and  pointed  heads  render  it  an  easy  task  for 
them  to  thread  their  way  with  rapidity  through  the  putrescent  Fwngi 


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ni 


BOLETUa 


BOLTEKIA. 


6a 


B,  IwntUut  (Linnaus)  Ib  one  of  the  most  beautifal  and  largest  species 
of  the  genus,  and  is  not  uncommon.  It  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
long.  The  head  is  black ;  the  antenna  haye  the  tnree  basal  joints 
yellow,  the  remaining  black,  with  Uie  exception  of  the  terminal  joints 
which  is  yellow ;  the  thorax  and  legs  are  yellow ;  the  wing-cases  are 
of  a  blue-black  colour,  witii  an  oblique  yellow  spot  on  the  shoulders ; 
the  body  is  yellow,  with  the  apex  blacL 

About  eighteen  species  of  this  genus  haye  been  found  in  this 
country,  almost  all  of  which  are  yaried  with  yellow  and  black. 
Many  ha^e  the  wing-cases  yellow,  with  two  black  spots,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  apex ;  some  haye  also  the  region  of  the  soutidlum  black. 

(Stephens,  lUuttrcUions  of  Britith  Entomology.) 

BOLETUS,  an  extensiye  genus  of  Fungi,  consisting,  according  to 
the  old  botanists,  of  leathery  masses,  which  are  sometimes  of  consider- 
able thickness,  and  haying  the  spores  lodged  in  tubes  which  occupy 
the  same  situation  as  the  plates  in  the  gills  (or  hymenium)  of  the 
common  mushroom.  Fries,  the  great  modem  describer  of  Fungi, 
defines  the  genus  thus : — Hymenium  formed  of  a  peculiar  substance, 
altogether  distinct  from  the  cap,  entirely  composed  of  tubes  imited 
into  a  porous  layer ;  these  tubes  are  undiyided,  separable  from  each 
other,  long,  cylindrical,  or  angular,  open  from  end  to  end,  and  bear 
asci  (spore-cases)  on  their  inside ;  asci  cylindrical,  with  small  roundish 
spores ;  the  stalk  is  central,  and  of^^en  netted ;  the  cap  is  fleshy,  soft^ 
spread  out  into  a  hemispherical  form  ;  yeil  present  in  many  of  them. 
He  includes  within  his  definition  but  a  small  number  of  the  old  BoUti, 
referring  the  principal  part  to  Polyponu,  which  is  especially  charac- 
terised by  haying  the  tubes  of  its  hymenium  inseparable  from  the  cap, 
which  is  more  leathery,  and  usually  without  a  stalk. 


f^ 


BoUUu  tuUut. 

The  true  BoUti  are  generally  found  growing  on  the  ground  in  woods 
cad  meadows,  especially  in  pine  woods :  the  Polypori  are  commonly 
met  with  on  trees,  espeoally  pollards.  Of  the  former,  seyeral  species 
are  eatable,  as  B.  edulit,  B.  icaber,  B,  tubtomentotut,  and  B,  gran^latus  ; 
others  are  acrid  and  dangerous.  Of  these  Dr.  Badham,  who  has 
written  on  the  Esculent  Funguses  of  England,  reconunends  only 
B,  eduli*  and  B.  acaber. 

B.  edulit,  the  Edible  Boletus,  has  the  following  characters  :~Pileus 
or  cap  from  six  to  seven  inches  across,  smooth,  with  a  thick  maigin 
yarying  in  colour  from  light  brown  or  bronze  to  bay,  dark  brown,  or 
Uack,  or  a  mixture  of  all  these  colours ;  the  epidermis  firmly  adhe- 
rent to  the  flesh,  which  is  fine,  and  except  the  part  in  immediate 
contact  with  the  skin,  white ;  the  under  surfiftce  of  the  cap  nearly  flat, 
often  presenting  a  circular  pit  or  depression  round  the  stalk ;  the 
tubes  at  first  white,  then  yellow,  lastly  of  an  oliye  or  yellow  green 
tint,  in  the  earlier  stage  of  their  growth  closed ;  afterwards  as  the  cap 
expands  stopped  up  with  a  waxy-looking  material  of  a  dirty  pearl- 
oolour ;  stem  yarying  much  in  shape  at  different  periods  of  the  growth 
of  the  Boletus,  always  thick  and  solid,  at  first  white  but  soon  nhiMigiTig 
to  fawn-colour,  beautifully  netted  with  reticulationsL  As  the  period 
of  the  ripening  of  the  spores  adyances  the  under  part  of  the  cap 
swells,  the  waxy  matter  is  absorbed,  the  tubes  present  deep  and 
rounded  orifices  to  the  eye,  and  emit  an  ochreous  green  dust,  which 
consists  of  spondee.  After  this  the  whole  fungus  becomes  flaccid, 
the  tubes  turn  to  a  dirty  green,  and  decomposition  rapidly  proceeds. 


'  This  Boletus  grows  in  woods  consisting  of  pines,  osks,  or  cbestnais; 
it  is  most  abundant  in  autumn,  but  occurs  in  spring  and  lummer. 
Dr.  Badham  says  of  other  Fungi  likely  to  be  comfounded  with  it  :— 
!  "  The  B.  ecutaneut,  which  bears  some  little  resemblance  to  it^  is  at  onoe 
distinguished  by  haying  a  cottony  fibrillose  stem  without  reticulations, 
a  downy  cap,  and  dirty  yellow  dust :  neither  can  it  be  confounded 
with  the  B,  aubtomentoaut  or  B,  luridug,  because  in  addition  to  many 
other  points  of  difference,  both  these  change  colour  on  being  eat  or 
bruised."  As  an  article  of  diet,  Dr.  Badham  says  "  It  imparts  a  re'iiih 
alike  to  the  homely  hash  and  the  dainty  ragout^  and  maybe  truly nid 
to  improye  eyeiy  dish  of  which  it  is  a  constituent" 

B.  acaber  has  a  cap  from  three  to  seyen  inches  across  the  snr&oe, 
which  becomes  yiseid  when  moist  and  is  inyariably  downy.  There  we 
two  yarieties,  in  one  of  which  the  pileus  is  of  a  beautiful  deep  orange 
hue  and  the  stem  blacL  In  the  other  the  pileus  is  gray  and  the  item 
covered  with  orange  scales.  The  flesh  is  tiiick  and  flabby,  of  a  dingy 
white,  not  greatly  changeable  in  young  specimens,  but  deepening  in 
colour  when  old.     It  is  not  so  agreeable  as  the  last  species. 

B.  officinaliaf  supposed  to  haye  been  the  'Ayapuchy  of  Dioeooridee,  is 
an  old-fashioned  medicine  remarkable  for  the  extreme  acridity  of  its 
powder;  it  acts  as  a  powerful  purgatiye,  but  is  never  employed  at  the 
present  day. 

B.  igniariuaf  when  dried  and  sliced,  furnishes  the  German  Tinder, 
or  Amadou,  a  leathery  substance  sold  in  the  tobacoonistB'  ahopa 
[Amadou.] 

B,  deatructor  is  one  of  the  many  speciee  of  Fungi  the  rarages  of 
which  are  too  well  known  under  the  name  of  Dry  Rot  Their  deBtroo- 
tiye  qualities  are  not  howeyer  caused  by  the  fructification,  or  the  part 
which  we  commonly  consider  the  fungus  itself  but  by  the  ramifica- 
tions through  the  substance  of  the  wood  of  what  botanists  call  the 
Thallus  and  gardeners  the  Spawn  of  such  plants,  which  is  in  effect 
their  stem  and  root  in  a  mixed  state.  Other  species  of  Fungi  produce 
<by  rot    [Mkrulixts.] 

BOLITOTHAOUS  (Fabridus),  EUd/ona  of  Latreille,  Leach,  and 
Millard,  and  Opatrwn  of  some  other  authors,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous 
Insects  of  the  section  Heteromeia  and  family  Tenebrionidos,  The  prin- 
cipal generic  characters  are  as  follows : — Head  short,  partially  hidden 
by  the  thorax,  in  the  males  sometimes  armed  with  a  horn  or  tubercle; 
antenna  yery  short  and  thick,  the  three  or  four  apical  joints  much 
broader  than  the  rest ;  maxillary  palpi  rather  large  and  distinct,  the 
terminal  joint  truncated,  its  lengUi  equalling  that  of  the  two  preceding 
ioints ;  labial  palpi  small ;  thorax  coarsely  punctured  or  rugose,  the 
lateral  margins  more  or  less  toothed ;  elytra  deeply  striated ;  legs 
short  and  thick,  the  anterior  tibise  compressed. 

There  are  about  six  species  of  this  genus  known :  they  live  in  SoMt, 
and  are  of  a  small  size,  a  short  ovate  form,  and  their  prevailing  colours 
are  brown-blacL  In  tiiis  country  but  one  species  has  as  yet  been  dis- 
coyered,  B,  Agarieola  or  Aganeicola,  It  is  of  a  brown  colour,  and 
about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  long.  It  is  rather  local,  but  where  it  does 
occtir  it  is  found  in  tolerable  abundance. 

BOLOGNA  SPAR,  a  yariety  of  Sulphate  of  Barytea    [Babtto.] 

BOLSOVEB  STONE.  The  yeUow  Umestone  of  Bolsover  in  Derby- 
shire is  used  in  the  construction  of  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament  It 
was  selected  for  its  durability,  strength,  fitness  for  ornamental  wuiiL, 
and  colour.  It  is  a  combination  of  carbonate  of  magnesia  with  ca^ 
bonate  of  lime  [Dolomite]  in  small  granular  crystals,  without  the 
slightest  trace  of  organisation,  flinty  nodules,  or  other  blemishea  It 
has  been  subjected  to  various  and  seyere  mechanical  pressures,  chemi- 
cal re-agents,  &c.,  and  has  sustained  them  with  credit ;  but  it  is  yet  to 
be  seen  whether  it  can  withstand  the  atmosphere  of  London,  which 
has  destroyed  the  Bath  and  Portland  Oolites.  Many  other  public 
buildings  in  England  haye  been  built  wiUi  stone  from  the  same  forma- 
tion, which  is  cfldled  Magnesian  Limestone. 

BOLTE'NIA,  a  sul^nus  of  Aaeidida,  a  faniily  of  the  group  Tuni- 
eata,  which,  according  to  W.  S.  M'Leay,  are  the  animals  that  connect 
the  Acrita,  or  lowest  primary  division  of  the  animal  Idngdom,  with 
the  Molluaca,  from  which  he  observes  they  difier  in  the  followiug 
points  :  firsts  in  having  an  external  covering  consisting  of  an  envelope 
distinctly  organised  and  provided  with  two  apertures,  of  which  one  is 
branchiad,  the  other  anal ;  secondly,  in  their  mantle  forming  an  inte^ 
nal  tunic  corresponding  to  the  outer  covering  or  test,  and  provided 
like  it  with  two  openings ;  and  thirdly,  in  haying  branchik  which 
occupy  all  or  at  least  part  of  the  membranous  cavity  formed  hy  the 
intenial  sides  of  the  mantle.  From  the  Acrii^  the  Tunicata  (or  Mettro- 
branchiata,  as  De  Blainyille  calls  them)  differ  in  having  distinct 
nervous  and  generatiye  systems,  while  their  intestinal  canal  is  pro- 
vided with  two  openings,  both  intemaL  [Tqnicata.] 
.  The  following  is  the  generic  character  of  BoUenia  (Savigny)  ts 
reformed  by  M'Leay :— Body  with  a  coriaceous  test,  supported  from 
the  summit  by  a  long  pedide,  and  having  both  orifices  lateral  and 
defb  into  four  rays.  Branchial  pouch  divided  into  longitudinal  folds, 
surmounted  by  a  circle  of  compound  tentacula,  and  having  the  reti- 
culation of  its  respiratory  tissue  simple;  abdomen  lateral;  ovaiy 
multiple. 

There  are  three  spedes  recorded,  namdy,  R  ovifem,  B.  fruir 
formia,  and  B,  rentformia. 

The  following  is  M'Leay's  character  and  description  of  S.  ren** 
/offfiai  {Aacidia  gMftfera,  Sabine,  A,  davata,  Fabndus) :— Obscure 


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BOLTONITE. 


BOMBUa 


ui 


roughiah ;  bod^  suVienifoim,  the  orifices  being  somewhat  prominent; 
peduncle  termmal ;  envelope  sub-pellucidy  whitish ;  mantle  or  tunic 
very  thin,  provided  with  transverse  circular  narrow  musdes,  which 
cut  each  other  veiy  obliquely;   tentacula  about  ten  or  twelve  in 
number,  yexy  unequal,  davate,  with  Uie  clava  plumiform,  or  beau- 
tifully divided  into  a  number  of 
regular  laciniso ;  branchial  pouch 
marked  with  about  fifteen  or  six- 
teen large  folds,  and  having  the 
net-work    simple    and   regular; 
dorsal   sulcus    haying  the   two 

lateral  filaments  winged  and  the  i 

inteimediate  simple ;  oesophagus  I 

descending  vertiodly  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  body,  as  suspended, 
and  there  meeting  an  aaoending 
OToidal  stomach  without  any  ap- 
parent internal  folioli ;  intestine  ^ 
with    an    oblong,    longitudinal, 
open  loop^  which  is  prolonged  to 
the  pedicle ;  rectum  narrow,  sub- 
conical,    and   ascending    nearly 
parallel  to  the  oesophagus,  only 
higher ;   anus  having  a  scolloped    . 
maigin;  liver  coating  the  stomach 
behind  the  right  ovary,  and  run- 
ning from  the  lower  end  of  the     ^.-f"^' 
body,  as  suspended,  about  half    &^ 
way  up ;  it  is  divided  into  several   "^^^    '■ 

granulated  globe^  some  of  which    ^,,,^^  reniformis,  from  a  prcsenred 
are    separated  from  the  others,  specimen. 

S^!ri^5^!?Z;^*fe^^      P'  ^^'^ '  C,  branchial  orifice  of  enre- 
owies  two,  elongate,  lobate,  situ-        i        ^  ^^  ^^,^  ^,  ^^1 

ated  on  each  side  of  the  body,  >-  '     '  *' 

and  directed  towards  the  anal  orifice ;  right  ovary  straight,  daviform, 

lying  dose  within  the  loop  of  the  intestine ;  left  ovajy  larger  and  less 

lobate,  but  undulated  and  extending  downwards  behind  the  branchial 

vein. 

Mlioay  gives  the  northern  seas  of  America  as  the  locality  of  the 
animal.  Captain  J.  C.  Ross  says  that  a  single  specimen  was  dredged 
up  frx>m  a  depth  of  seventy  fathoms  near  Elizabeth  Harbour.  He 
obeerves  that  he  can  add  nothing  to  li'Leay^s  admirable  description 
except  that  the  colour  of  the  body  is  a  very  light  brown ;  that  of  the 
pedicle  darker. 

The  sphere  wherein  this  Asddian  moves  must  necessarily  be  veiy 
contracted.  Anchored  by  its  pedicle,  the  length  of  its  moorings  fixes 
the  limit  of  its  motions,  which  are  most  probably  confined  to  the 
oecillations  arising  from  the  agitation  of  the  wavea  Both  the  body 
and  pedide,  as  M'Leay  observes,  are  soabrose,  or  covered  with  a  rough 
surface,  which  is  formed  by  exceedingly  diort  coarse  hairs.  The 
original  colour  he  could  not  ascertain ;  but  in  spirits  it  was  cinereous, 
or  dirty  white,  which,  he  adds,  may  possibly  be  the  true  colour  of  the 
animal,  as  it  is  not  unfrequently  that  of  the  other  Atcididcg.  M'Leay^s 
specimen  was  brought  home  from  Winter  Island  by  W.  N.  Griffiths, 
Esq.,  while  under  the  command  of  Captain  (now  Sir  Edward)  Parry. 

BOLTONITE,  a  native  anhydrous  Silicate  of  Magnesia.  It  occurs 
massive  with  a  granular  structure,  or  in  yellowidi  or  blmsh-gray 
grains.  The  deavage  is  in  one  direction ;  the  lustre  vitreous ;  trans- 
parent to  translucentb  It  is  found  disseminated  through  limestone  in 
the  United  States  of  America,  at  Bolton,  Boxborough,  and  Nittleton, 
Massachusetts ;  and  Ridgefidd  and  Reading,  Connecticut 

BOMBA'CEJS,  a  group  of  plants  conmdered  by  some  a  distinct 
natural  order,  by  others  as  a  mere  section  of  Sierculiace<B,  They  are 
usually  laige  trees,  with  broad  deep-green  leaves,  and  flowers  of  con- 
siderable size.  Technically  they  di^  frt>m  Malvacea  in  having  two 
oella  to  their  anthers  which  are  often  doubled  down  upon  themselves, 
in  their  calyx  opening  in  an  irregular  rather  than  a  valvate  manner, 
and  in  their  stamens  being  usually  oollected  into  five  parcels.  Their 
anthers  are  often  described  as  having  only  one  cell ;  but  this  is  an 
inaccurate  mode  of  speaking  of  them,  inasmuch  as  they  are  formed 
upon  the  common' tWo^celled  type,  and  merdy  have  the  cells  united  at 
the  point  of  the  oonnectiva 

Tlds  group  contains  some  of  the  most  majestic  and  beautiful  trees 
that  are  known,  but  notiiing  of  much  medical  or  economical  import- 
ance is  furnished  by  them.  Their  wood  is  light  and  spongy;  the 
long  cottony  substance  foiuid  within  their  fruit,  and  which  has  gained 
for  some  of  them  the  name  of  Cotton-Trees,  is  too  short  in  the  staple 
to  be  manufactured  into  linen ;  and  ^e  sli^tly  add  or  mucilaginous 
qualities  that  occur  in  the  group  are  altogether  inferior  to  those  of 
many  Malvaeea.  The  Baobab  Tree  is  one  of  them.  [ADAireoifiA.] 
It  is  remarkable  for  the  excessive  thickness  of  its  trunk  as  compared 
with  its  height^  and  this  is  a  character  of  oommon  occurrence.  Seve- 
ral American  species  spread  enormoudy  near  the  ground,  fonning 
huge  buttresses  with  the  an^^es  of  their  trunks.  This  is  especially 
the  case  with  the  genus  BHodendnm,  which  is  moreover  often  defended 
by  verv*  large  conical  prickles,  which  do  not  fall  off  till  they  are  exfo- 
liated Dv  tlie  gradual  distension  of  the  trunk.  Among  these  plants  is 
a  smpilar  instance  of  a  flower  resembling  the  paw  of  some  aaimsL 


[CHXiBOSTEMOir.]    No  bombaoeous  plants  are  found  far  beyond  the 
tropics. 

BOMBAX  (from  fi6fji$v(^f  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of  the  natural 
order  BombacecB.  It  has  a  naked,  campanulate,  xmequally  2-5-lobed 
or  truncatdy  5*toothed  calyx ;  five  petals  joined  together,  and  some- 
what connected  at  the  base  with  the  column  of  the  stamens ;  nume- 
rous stamens,  monadelphous  at  the  base,  but  free  at  the  apex ;  the 
anthers  inserted  at  the  middle,  kidney-shaped  or  oblong,  opeuing 
above  by  a  transverse  chink ;  the  capsules  laige,  5-celled,  5-valved, 
woody;  cells  many-seeded;  albuminous  seeds  surrounded  by  silky 
cotton.  The  spedes  of  this  genus  are  laige  trees  with  a  soft  spongy 
wood,  which  is  freqi;ently  used  for  making  canoes.  They  are  natives 
of  South  America  and  the  East  Indies. 

B.  Ceibaf  Common  Silk-Cotton  Tree,  has  a  prickly  tnmk,  palmate 
leaves  with  five  leaflets,  turbinate  fruit  concave  at  the  apex.  This 
plant  is  a  very  large  tree,  and  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America.  Some  of  the  older  travellers  gave  extravagant  accoimts  of 
its  height;  it  is  however  frequently  seen  reaching  above  100  feet. 
The  down,  which  is  contained  in  the  seed-vessel,  is  very  soft,  but  is 
too  short  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  doth.  It  is  made  into 
hats  and  bonnets,  and  used  for  stuffing  chairs  and  pillows  by  the  poor 
people  in  the  districts  in  which  it  grows.  It  is  not  made  into  beds,  as 
it  is  reputed  imwholesome  to  Ue  upon.  The  trunks  of  the  largest  are 
made  into  canoes,  and  some  of  these  will  carry  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
hogsheads  of  sugar.  Columbus  in  his  first  voyage  to  America  speaks 
of  having  seen  a  canoe  made  of  this  tree  in  Cuba,  which  contained  150 
mei^  When  the  stem  decays  it  becomes  the  prey  of  the  larva  of  the 
Macaca  Beetle,  which  when  gutted  and  fried  is  esteemed  as  a  great  • 
delicacy  in  the  districts  where  it  occurs. 

B,  pubeacens  has  an  unarmed  trunk,  the  lower  leaves  quinate,  the 
upper  ones  temate ;  the  leaflets  obovate,  elliptical,  emarginate,  coria- 
ceous, smooth,  or  covered  with  black  dots  of  stellate  pili  beneath ; 
the  pedides  inflated  and  hollow  under  the  flower,  and  as  well  as  the 
calyxes  covered  with  black  dots  of  stellate  tomentum;  the  petals 
tomentose,  three  times  longer  than  the  calyx,  with  a  smooth  ovary. 
This  plant  reaches  from  20  to  30  feet  in  height  It  is  a  native 
of  Brazil,  in  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  where  the  tree  is  called 
Embirussu.  The  bark  is  very  tough,  and  is  used  for  making  ropes. 
The  other  spedes  of  Bombax,  of  whidi  from  fourteen  to  twenty  have 
been  described,  possess  the  same  general  qualities  as  the  two  species 
described.  The  wool  of  the  pods  of  the  B.  MalahaHcum  is  used  in 
India  to  stuff  pillows  and  beds.  B.  insiffne  is  a  native  of  the  Birman 
Elmpire,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  laige  red  very  showy  flowers.  All 
the  species  grow  best  in  a  rich  loamy  soil.  Cuttings  not  too  ripe, 
when  taken  off  at  a  joint,  will  root  fredy  in  sand  imder  a  hand-glass  in 
a  moist  heat  The  best  mode  of  propagating  them  is  from  seeds 
brought  from  the  places  of  their  nattual  growth.  None  of  the  species 
seem  to  have  flowered  in  stoves,  but  ^is  arises  probably  from  the 
want  of  height 

(Burnett^  OtUUnea;  Loudon,  Enepdopcedia  of  FlcmU;  O.  Don, 
Qardenei's  DicHonary.) 

BO'MBUS,  the  generic  name  of  those  Insects  commonly  called 
Humble-Bees :  this  latter  name  was  derived  (Messrs.  Eirby  and 
Spence  conjecture)  from  the  German  Hummer-  or  Hummd-Biene,  a 
name  probably  given  to  these  insects  frH>m  the  humming  sound  which 
they  emit  The  Bombi  belong  to  the  order  Hymenoptera  and  family 
ApidoBf  and  as  regards  the  English  species  are  by  for  the  largest  of 
the  tribe.  They  may  be  distinguished  bv  the  following  characters : — 
Body  thickly  covered  with  hair ;  head  with  a  longitudmal  groove  and 
an  indentation  extending  across  from  the  upper  part  of  the  eyes ;  in 
this  indentation  the  three  stemmata  are  placed,  being  arranged  nearly 
in  a  straight  line ;  and  it  is  from  the  central  stemmatum  that  the 
longitudinal  groove  has  its  origin,  whence  it  extends  downwards; 
antennsd  with  twdve  joints ;  labrum  with  its  surface  uneven ;  man- 
dibles with  several  longitudinal  grooves  on  the  upper  side;  posterior 
tibiffi  compressed,  smooth,  maigined  with  strong  recurved  hairs,  and 
armed  with  spines  at  the  apex. 

The  above  are  the  pecidiarities  of  the  females.  In  the  males  the 
antennas  are  thirteen-jointed  and  considerably  longer  than  those  of 
the  other  sex ;  the  hinder  tibise  want  the  corbicula ;  the  mandibles 
are  bidentate  at  the  apex  and  each  furnished  with  a  tuft  of  curved 
hairs ;  they  differ  likewise  in  possessiDg  no  sting  and  in  the  structure 
of  their  daws,  but  these  two  last  characters  are  common  to  the  whole 
tribe  of  Apid(B, 

The  neuter  bees  resemble  the  females  in  every  respect  excepting 
size ;  in  this  they  are  inferior  to  the  males,  which  latter  are  rather 
less  than  the  females. 

Eirby,  in  his  monograph  on  the  bees  of  this  country,  enumerates 
87  spedes  as  bdonging  to  his-  section  *  *  *  a  2  : '  this  section, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  spedes  [PBTTHEans],  now  oonstitutes  the 
genus  of  which  this  article  treats. 

The  prevailing  colours  of  the  spedes  are  yellow,  red,  and  black : 
and  as  these  colours  are  disposed  with  a  certain  degree  of  uniformily, 
we  have  arranged  the  following,  which  form  the  prindpal  part  of  the 
British  species,  under  three  hei^  namdy,  those  which  have  the  apex  of 
the  body  more  or  less  red,  those  which  have  that  part  white,  and 
those  in  which  the  ground-colour  of  the  body  is  yellow  or  buff:  by 
this  arrangement  mudi  repetition  in  the  descriptions  is  avoided. 


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Section  L    Apex  of  the  Body  red. 

B,  lapidariut  (female),  black.  The  male  ia  rather  lon|f  and  narrow; 
head  and  anterior  and  posterior  portions  of  the  thorax  yellow. 

This  species,  well  known  by  the  name  Red-Tailed  Bee,  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  commonest  of  the  genus ;  the  females  are  to  be  seen  in 
the  spring  and  summer  months;  in  the  autumn,  when  the  males 
make  their  appearance,  they  are  less  common. 

B,  jRaiellut  (female).  Smaller  and  shorter  in  proportion  than  the 
last,  from  which  it  may  moreover  be  distinguiahea  by  having  red  hair 
on  the  hinder  tibise. 

B,  DerhamelUUf  colour  ashy-brown.  Thorax  and  abdomen  each  with 
a  black  fascia.    Most  probably  the  male  of  the  last  described. 

B,  eubinterruptuB  (female),  black.  Anterior  portion  of  the  thorax 
yellow;  abdomen  with  a  subinterrupted  fascia  of  the  same  colour 
towards  the  base. 

B,  PraJtorum,  black.    Anterior  portion  of  the  thorax  yellow. 

B.  Burrdlamu  (male),  yellow.  Thorax  with  the  central  portion 
black;  abdomen  with  a  black  fascia  near  the  middle. 

B.  CuUumanue  (male).  Like  the  laat^  but  the  fascia  of  the  abdomen 
is  very  narrow,  occupying  only  one  segment. 

B.  DonovaniUut  (female),  black.  Thorax  with  the  anterior  portion 
yellow ;  abdomen  with  the  basal  portion  yellow.  In  the  male  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  thorax  is  obscurely  coloured. 

,  Section  IL    Apex  of  the  Abdomen  white. 

B,  Urrettrie. — This  is  the  laigest  and  most  common  of  the  yellow 
and  black  Humble-Bees.  It  has  the  anterior  mazgin  of  the  thorax 
and  the  segment  next  the  basal  one  of  the  abdomen  of  a  yellow  or 
buff  colour ;  the  rest  of  the  body  is  black,  with  the  exception  of  the 
apex,  which  is  sometimes  of  a  dirty  yellow  colour  and  at  others  white. 

The  neuters  of  all  the  species  are  very  variable  in  size,  but  in  this 
there  appears  to  be  the  greatest  extreme ;  we  have  specimens  which 
are  scarcely  as  large  as  the  common  hive-bee. 

B.  ffortorumf  black.  Thorax  witii  the  anterior  and  posterior 
portions  yellow ;  abdomen  with  the  base  yellow ;  rather  less  than  the 
preceding  species. 

B.  Tunstallanue  (female),  black.  Thorax  with  the  anterior  and 
posterior  maigins  narrowly  edged  with  yellow. 

The  insect  described  by  Kirby  under  the  name  of  LairaUeUa 
has  lately  been  discovered  by  Mr.  Pickering  to  be  the  male  of  this 
species.  It  is  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  with  the  central  portion  of 
the  thorax  and  two  indistinct  £Et8ci»  towards  the  base  of  the  abdomen 
black. 

B.  JondLut  (male),  yellow.  Thorax  and  abdomen  each  with  a 
black  fascia. 

B.  lucorwM  (male),  yellow.  Thorax  with  the  central  portion  black ; 
abdomen  with  the  two  basal  segments  yellow,  and  the  two  following 
black,  the  remainder  whitei 

Section  III.    Qroumd-OoUiwr  of  the  Body  ydUno  or  buff. 

B.  Muecorum,  yellow.    Thorax  orange. 

B,  fioraliSf  yellow.  Abdomen  with  a  black  spot  on  each  side  of 
the  second  s^gment^  the  three  following  segments  with  their  bases 
black. 

B.  BedkwUheUru,  pale  buff  colonr.  Thorax  and  apex  of  the 
abdomen  reddish  yellow,  the  latter  with  a  black  fascia  in  the  middle. 

B.  CvTtieeUue.  Like  the  last>  but  the  abdomen  is  black,  with  the 
base  of  reddish-yellow. 

B.  Foeterdku.  Thorax  buff  coloured,  with  the  anterior  part 
blackish;  abdomen  with  three  obscure  black  fascial. 

(ObservatioxL — ^We  have  reason  to  believe  the  last  four  to  be  varieties 
of  the  same  species.) 

B.  Syharum,  yellowish-white.  Thorax  with  a  bladk  fascia ;  abdomen 
with  two  black  fasciss ;  the  apex  red  interspersed  with  white. 

B.  fragrant,  bright  yellow.    Thorax  with  a  black  fascia. 

Of  the  above  species,  B.  terreetrie  and  Lapidariue  are  the  largest 
B.  froffrane,  Twnetallamu,  and  ffortorwn,  are  the  next  in  size.  All 
the  rest  of  the  species  are  nearly  of  a  size,  with  the  exception  of 
B.  Praiorum. 

The  habits  and  economy  of  these  insects  are  not  lees  interesting 
than  other  members  of  the  order  Hymenoptera, 

In  the  autumnal  months,  when  the  cold  weather  begins  to  be  felt, 
and  the  various  honey-yielding  flowers  disappear,  the  male  and  neuter 
Humble-Bees  die,  havmg  performed  their  allotted  task,  which  as  fox 
as  we  can  discover,  appears  to  be  that  of  fecundating  certain  plants, 
by  conveying  the  noUen  firom  the  male  to  the  female  flowers :  a  task 
which  is  unavoidaoly  accomplished  by  their  visiting  different  flowers 
for  the  purpoee  of  collecting  honey  and  poUen  to  rear  their  young. 
Some  female  Humble-Bees  also  die,  whereas  others  (probably  those 
only  which  had  been  reared  in  the  previous  summer)  seek  a  con- 
venient spot  in  which  they  may  pass  the  winter  as  little  exposed  to 
the  cold  as  possible ;  sometimes  in  rotten  wood  of  old  pollard  trees^ 
and  sometimes  in  moss,  or  among  dead  leaves,  or  in  fact  in  almost  any 
situation  which  wHl  afibrd  the  desired  protection.  Here  they  remain 
in  a  torpid  state  and  without  f eod.  The  warmth  of  the  spring  causes 
these  females  again  to  make  their  appearance,  and  having  been 
impregnated  the  previous  autumn,  wey  seek  a  convenient  spot 
wherein  they  may  conttrooi  their  nesti.    Qraasy  bonks  are  the  looali« 


ties  most  firequentiy  chosen  for  this  purpose,  but  various  situatioiM, 
and  even  a  difference  of  soil  apparently,  are  selected  by  the  different 
species  of  Humble-Bees;  for  we  obsrave  certain  species  sboundiDg 
more  in  one  situation  than  another,  and  that  in  places  distant  from 
each  other  but  similar  in  character.  The  nests  are  sometimes  built 
upon  the  ground,  but  most  generally  they  are  in  a  hole  excavated  by 
the  bee.  These  excavations  vary  in  depth  and  fonn,  even  though 
made  by  the  same  species  of  bee.  In  their  construction  the  animal 
uses  its  jaws  to  dislodge  the  particles  of  earth,  which  are  then,  by 
means  of  the  anterior  pair  of  legs,  passed  backwards  to  tiie  hinder 
pair,  which  perform  the  same  office :  but  as  the  bunrow  becomeB 
deeper,  the  whole  body  of  the  bee  is  used  to  eject  the  graina  of  boiL 
In  saying  that  the  Humble-Bees  form  the  burrows  in  tiie  ground  in 
which  we  find  them,  we  speak  upon  the  authority  of  R^umur,  for 
although  we  have  fk«quentiy  observed  the  female  bee  oommeaoe 
removing  particles  of  earth,  apparently  with  intent  to  make  such  ao 
excavation,  upon  returning  to  the  same  spots  after  a  sufficient  interval 
of  time,  the  work  was  always  abandoned.  Huber,  who  paid  much 
attention  to  these  insects,  says,  "  I  have  not  discovered  in  what  manner 
they  excavate  the  holes  which  lead  to  their  nests,  nor  do  I  know  bow 
they  form  the  vaults  in  which  they  are  nlaoed,  neither  am  I  aware 
whether  they  always  construct  these  vaults  themselves,  or  whether 
they  do  not  sometimes  avail  themselves  of  the  holes  made  by  molea 
or  other  animals."  Upon  consulting  some  other  authora,  these 
points  appear  to  be  treated  of  in  too  vague  a  manner.  When  a  amall 
cylindrical  but  generally  tortuous  gallery  is  formed,  it  is  terminated 
by  an  arched  chamber  of  considerable  extent,  and  it  is  in  this  cham- 
ber that  the  nest  is  constructed.  Those  species  which  do  not  burrow 
in  the  ground  choose  a  situation  in  which  the  herbage  is  soffidently 
thick  to  afford  shelter,  and  there  form  on  the  8ur£aoe  of  the  ground 
an  arched  chamber  of  moes  thickly  matted  together.  In  what  manner 
the  female  first  commences  the  interior  arrangement  of  her  nest,  and 
how  she  brings  up  her  yotmg  whilst  in  her  s^itaiy  state,  Huber  and 
some  of  the  earlier  authors  did  not  ascertain,  we  are  indebted  to 
M.  le  Comte  Saint-Faigeau  for  this  portion  of  the  present  hiatoiy. 
This  author  informs  us  that  having  collected  a  quanti^  of  potten  and 
honey,  these  substances  are  formed  by  the  feniale  humble-bee  into  a 
ball,  in  which  the  eggs  are  deposited,  so  that  when  the  egga  axe 
hatched  the  larva  are  surrounded  by  the  substance,  which  eerves 
them  both  for  food  and  protection.  The  balls  geDerally  contain 
numerous  eggs,  and  oonsequently  when  these  are  hatched  numeroua 
larvae.  Reaumur  found  them  to  vaiy  from  three  to  thirty.  Each 
larva  feeding  upon  the  food  nearest  to  it,  the  original  crust  of  their 
enclosure  becomes  thin,  and  the  parent  insect  then  takes  care  to  add 
fresh  alimentary  paste  to  the  weakest  parts.  When  the  larvae  are 
full  grown  each  one  incloses  itself  in  a  mlken  cocoon  of  an  oval  fonn 
and  placed  always  in  a  perpendicular  position.  A  certain  number  of 
neuters^  or  workers,  having  undeigone  their  flinal  transformation,  the 
nest  is  enlarged,  and  an  inner  coating  <^  wax  is  attached  to  it,  and 
in  those  nests  which  are  constructed  with  moss  the  particles  of  wax 
are  so  amalgamated  with  it  that  a  portion  'of  the  moss  cannot  be 
removed  witiiout  injuring  the  interior  more  or  less.  Wax  is  idso 
used  by  the  workers  in  the  construction  of  little  cells  for  the  reception 
of  honey.  Each  species  of  Humble-Bee  makes  tiiese  cdds,  aa  Huber 
informs  us,  in  a  different  manner ;  some  construct  them  on  the  top  of 
the  cocoons,  and  of  a  half  oval  form ;  others  build 'them  of  an  cgS* 
shape,  with  the  apex  truncated.  In  some  again  they  resemble  the 
firsts  but  have  a  ring  of  wax  within  the  top^  The  next  variety  is 
almost  a  perfect  oval,  having  but  a  small  opening  at  the  apex. 
Lastiy,  these  Humble-Bees  show,  says  Huber,  "that  they  are  not 
inferior  to  the  hive-bee  in  the  art  of  economy.  Between  four  honey- 
pots  there  would  necessarily  be  a  vacant  space;  but  this  ia  occupied 
by  a  fifth  reservoir,  which  is  not  of  the  same  form  as  those  by  which 
it  is  surrounded,  but  sometimes  approaches  to  a  square,"  &a  Aa  an 
instance  of  the  intelligence  of  these  bees,  Huber  relates  that  when  a 
bee  is  prevented  from  obtaining  the  honey  at  the  bottom  of  ths 
flower  by  the  tube  of  the  corolla  being  too  nairow  and  deep,  ^cy 
drill  a  hole  witii  their  proboscis  through  the  calyx  and  corolhi  right 
into  the  tube,  and  in  this  manner  tap  the  vessel  containing  the  liquid 
of  which  they  are  so  fond. 

The  male  Humble-Bees  are  not  reared  tiH  late  in  the  season,  and 
do  not  appear  in  any  abundance  tiU  the  autumn.  As  in  the  case  of 
the  hive-bee  therefore,  they  take  no  pait  in  the  duties  of  rearing  the 
young,  which  it  appears  are  almost  entirely  under  the  protection  of 
the  neuters  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched. 

When  the  nest  is  tolerably  well  peopled,  it  presents  a  mass  of  oy:^ 
cocoons  spun  by  the  larvae  as  before  described ;  interspersed  with 
which  there  are  numerous  masses  of  an  irregular  but  generally  some- 
what rounded  form,  and  of  a  brown  colour :  some  of  the  laxgeat  are 
about  the  sise  of  a  small  walnut  Each  of  these  masses  indoaei 
either  eggs  or  Uurvee,  and  is  composed  ctf  pollen  mixed  with  hon^. 
To  these  must  be  added  the  little  honey-pots  which  are  irregularly 
intenroersed  with  the  cocoons. 

BOMBT'CIDiE,  a  family  of  Insects  of  the  order  L^jridopienh 
belonging  to  the  section  Lepidoptera  noeUuma  of  Latreille^  or  Kotha. 

The  principal  characteristics  of  this  family  are— their  poasBSfling  oiuy 
rudimentary    mazilUe,   remarkably  small  palf^   and  bipeotioated 


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BOMBYCILLA. 


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Some  of  the  speoies  fly  very  rapidly,  and  make  their  appearance  in 
the  day-time  as  well  as  in  the  evening.  The  caterpillars  of  most  of 
the  species  are  hairy  (some  produce  great  irritation  to  the  hand  when 
touched),  and  assume  the  pupa  state  in  a  cocoon  spun  for  its  protection. 
The  pupa  is  simple. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  family  is  the  Bombffx  Mori,  well 
known  as  the  moth  to  which  the  Silkworm  turns.  This  species  which 
was  originally  from  China  is  of  a  white  or  cream  colour,  with  a  brown 
fucia  and  two  or  more  waved  lines  of  a  deeper  colour  crossing  the 
upper  wings.  In  this  coimtry  the  eggs  of  this  moth  hatch  early  in 
Hay ;  the  caterpillar  or  silkworm  is  at  first  of  a  dark  colour,  but  soon 
hecomee  light,  and  in  its  tints  much  resembles  the  perfect  insect,  a 
circumstance  common  in  caterpillars.  Its  proper  food  is  the  mulberry, 
though  it  will  likewise  eat  the  lettuce  and  some  few  other  plants ;  on 
the  latter  however  it  does  not  thrive  equally  well,  and  the  silk  yielded 
is  of  a  poor  quality. 


4 


a  and  b,  Botni^  Mori  ;  0,  the  eggs ;  d,  the  pnpa ;  0,  silkworm  or  caterpillar. 

The  Silkworm  is  about  eight  weeks  in  anivmg  at  maturity,  during 
which  period  it  changes  its  skin  four  or  five  times.  When  tthout  to 
cast  its  skin  it  ceases  to  eai,  raises  the  fore  part  of  the  body  slightly, 
and  remains  in  perfect  repose.  In  this  state  it  is  necessary  that  it 
should  continue  for  some  little  time,  in  order  that  the  new  skin,  which 
is  at  this  time  forming,  may  become  sufficiently  mature  to  enable  the 
caterpillar  to  burst  through  the  old  on&  This  operation,  which  is 
apparently  one  of  considerable  difficulty,  is  performed  thus : — the 
f6re  part  of  the  old  skin  is  burst ;  the  silkworm  then  by  continually 
writhing  its  body  (but  not  moving  from  the  spot)  contrives  to  thrust 
the  skin  back  to  the  tail,  and  ultimately  to  disengage  itself  altogether; 
this  Isst  part  of  the  operation  however  is  the  most  difficult,  since  it 
is  no  uncommon  occurence  for  them  to  die  from  not  being  able  to 
disengage  the  last  segment  of^e  body  from  the  old  akin. 

Those  who  have  reared  silkworms  must  have  observed  how  large 
the  head  is  in  proportion  to  the  body  in  those  which  have  just  changed 
their  skins;  tlus  circumstance  is  worthy  of  observation,  for  in  it  will 
be  found  a  meet  beautiful  contrivance. 

When  the  larva  of  an  insect  has  just  changed  its  skin,  every  part  is 
soft,  and  in  many  eases  (such  as  caterpillars)  the  greater  portion  of 
the  body  still  remains  in  tliis  flexible  state ;  but  the  skin  of  the  head  and 
some  few  other  parts  in  all  instances  soon  become  hardened,  after  which 
it  never  growa,  The  same  happens  with  those  larvsd  which  have  the 
body  in  a  great  measure  covered  with  hard  plates^  which  circumstance 
leaves  no  parts  to  enlaiige  but  such  as  are  flexible.  In  the  instance  of 
a  caterpillar  the  bodv  increases  in  size  rapidly  after  change  of  skin, 
but  the  head  it  will  be  observed  does  not  enlai^e,  and  although  the 
body  may  have  increased  very  much  it  does  not  appear  that  the  skin 
baa  grown ;  it  seems  only  to  be  stretched  with  the  mcrease  of  size  of 
the  inner  parts.  In  the  case  of  those  larvsB  which  have  the  body 
cohered  with  hard  plates,  it  is  the  skin  between  the  plates  that  stretches 
to  allow  of  growth  in  the  inner  parts,  so  that  just  before  changing  skin 
a  lithe  plates  are  considerably  separated. 

From  the  above  we  conclude  that  the  external  covering  of  insects 
does  not  grow  at  all,  except  at  the  time  of  repose  previous  to  the 
casting  off  the  old  skm,  after  which  operation  the  head  and  those  parts 
-wrbich  §o<m  become  hard  are  sufficiently  grown  to  last  until  the  next 
change ;  and  also  that  the  soft  parts  of  the  external  covering  will 
bear  stretching  to  a  certain  extent  and  no  further  when  it  becomes 
r  that  they  should  change  that  covering  tog  a  larger  one. 


With  respect  to  the  silkworm  and  other  caterpillars,  an  unobserving 
person  would  not  readily  understand  how  the  head,  which  is  much 
fairer  than  the  one  the  case  of  which  has  just  been  cast  off,  can  have  come 
out  of  it ;  but  if  the  silkworm  be  examined  just  before  it  is  about  to 
change  its  skin,  it  will  be  seen  that  such  is  not  exactly  the  qase,  for 
part  of  the  new  head  may  be  seen  thrust  out  behind  the  old  one,  so 
that  the  fore  part  only  is  inclosed  by  the  latter. 

'When  full  grown  the  silkworm  commences  spinning  its  web  in  some 
convenient  spot,  and  as  it  does  not  change  the  position  of  the  hinder 
portion  of  its  body  much,  but  continues  drawing  its  thread  from 
various  points  and  attaching  it  to  others,  it  follows  that  after  a  tim^ 
its  body  beo<Hnes  in  a  great  measure  inclosed  by  the  thread.  The 
work  is  then  continued  from  one  thread  to  another,  the  ailkwom) 
moving  its  head  and  spinning  in  a  zipag  way,  bending  the  fore  part 
of  the  body  back  to  spin  in  all  directions  within  reach,  and  shifting 
the  body  only  to  cover  wi^  silk  the  part  which  was  beneath  it.  As 
the  silkworm  spins  its  web  by  thus  bending  the  fore  part  of  the  body 
back,  and  moves  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  in  such  a  way  only  as  • 
to  enable  it  to  reach  the  jGeffiher  back  with  the  fore  part^  it  follows 
that  it  incloses  itself  in  a  cocoon  much  shorter  than  its  own  body,  for 
soon  after  the  beginning  the  whole  is  continued  with  the  body  in  a 
bent  position.  From  the  foregoing  account  it  appears  that  with  the 
most  simple  instinctive  principles  all  the  ends  necessary  are  gained. 
If  the  silkworm  were  gifted  with  a  desire  for  shifting  its  position 
much  at  the  beginning  of  the  work  it  could  never  inclose  itself  in  a 
cocoon ;  but  by  its  mode  of  proceeding,  as  above  explained,  it  indoses 
itself  in  a  cocoon  which  only  consumes  as  much  silk  as  is  necessary 
to  hold  the  chrysalis. 

During  the  time  of  spinning  the  cocoon  the  silkworm  decreases  in 
length  very  considerably,  and  after  it  is  completed,  it  is  not  half  its 
original  length ;  at  this  time  it  becomes  quite  torpid,  soon  changes  its 
skin,  and  appears  in  the  form  of  a  chrysfJis.  The  time  required  to 
complete  the  cocoon  is  about  five  days.  In  the  chrysalis  state  the 
anixnal  remains  from  a  fortnight  to  three  weeks ;  it  then  bursts  its 
case  and  comes  forth  in  the  imago  state,  the  moth  having  previously 
dissolved  a  portion  of  the  cocoon  by  means  of  a  fluid  which  it 
ejects. 

The  moth  is  short-lived ;  the  female,  in  many  instances,  dies  almost 
immediately  after  she  has  laid  her  eggs ;  the  xnale  survives  her  but  a 
short  time. 

The  silkworms,  which  are  most  extensively  reared  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  silk  [Silk,  in  Abts  and  Sa  Div.],  are  liable  to  many 
diseases,  and  none  have  been  more  destructive  than  that  called 
muscardine.  This  disease  attacks  the  caterpillar  when  about  to  enter 
the  chrysalis  state.  It  is  always  attended  with  the  development 
within  the  body  of  a  minute  fungus  closely  resembling  our  common 
mould.  It  is  probable  the  fungus  onl^  attacks  those  worms  which 
are  predisposed  to  diBease,  but  in  certam  seasons  this  fungus  has  been 
so  extensively  developed  as  to  lead  to  the  supposition  that  it  produces 
the  disease  iteelt  It  Ib  very  certain  that,  when  this  fungus  is 
prevailing  and  its  spores  are  introduced  into  the  body  of  the  silk- 
worm, it  becomes  rapidly  diseased  and  dies.  The  fungus  spreads 
internally  before  the  death  of  the  worm  and  afterwards  it  shoots 
forth  from  the  surface  of  the  skin.  The  chrysalis  and  moth  will  have 
the  disease  if  inoculated  with  the  fungus,  but  it  only  occurs  sponta- 
neously on  the  caterpillar.    [See  Sufplbmemt.] 

BOMBYCILLA,  a  genus  of  Tooth-Billed  Birds  (Deniirottrea).  Cuvier 
places  the  genus  among  the  Dentiroetral  genera  of  his  second  order 
Fatsereaux;  Latreille  idso  arranges  it  under  that  order,  but  does  not 
allow  it  to  belong  to  the  DetUirottretf  and  classes  it  among  his  first 
family,  that  of  the  Broad-Billed  Birds  {Latiro9tra).  Temminck,  con- 
sidering it  to  be  an  omnivorous  bird,  finds  a  place  for  it  under  the 
name  of  Bombycivora,  in  his  second  order  Ommvorea.  Yieillof  s 
second  order  {Sylvicoiai)  contains  two  tribes;  and  in  the  sixteenth 
family  {Baecivari)  of  the  second  tribe  (Aniaodactyli),  the  genus  in 
question  will  be  loimd.  Vigors  places  it  in  the  second  tribe  DeiUi- 
roatre$  of  his  second  order,  Inteuorea,  or  Perching  Birds ;  and  after  some 
hesitation,  and  expressing  his  doubt  whether  its  natural  situation  is 
not  in  the  family  MerwUda,  is  inclined  to  arrange  it  provisionally 
among  the  Pipridas,  his  last  family  of  DerUinfttrea.  Bonaparte  makes 
it  a  genus  of  his  family  SericcUi.  Swainson,  in  the  '  Fauna  Boreali- 
Americana,'  arranges  it  imder  his  BombycilUntBf  a  subfekmily  belonging 
to  the  abeirant  group  of  his  Ampelidce,  or  Fruit-Eaters ;  but  in  giving 
his  table  of  Ampdidea,  he  expresses  considerable  doubts  on  the  true 
nature  of  the  aberrant  divisions.  Limueus  at  one  time  made  it  a 
Butcher-Bird  (Lanhu),  and  afterwards  an  Afnpelia.  Brisson  dassed  it 
among  the  Thrushes  (Turdus),  and  Illiger  among  the  Crows  (Corvut). 
The  birds  of  this  genus  are  known  by  the  FJnglish  names  of  Wax- 
Wings  or  Waxen-Chatterers;  and  the  following  are  the  principal 
generic  characters  according  to  Temminck  :^  Bill  short»  straight, 
elevated;  upper  mandible  curved  towards  its  extremi^,  with  a 
strongly  marked  tooth ;  nostrils  basal,  ovoid,  open,  hidden  by  strong 
hairs  directed  forwards ;  feet,  with  three  toes  before  and  one  behind, 
the  exterior  toe  connected  (soudtf)  with  the  middle  one;  wings 
moderate,  the  first  and  second  quills  longest 

Only  three  species  have  been  recorded.  The  first  has  a  wide 
geographical  range;  the  second  i«  confined  to  Kcrth  America;  and 
the  thud  is  Oriental 


Digitized  by 


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BOMBTCILLA. 


BOMBYCILLA. 


B,  fforruUi,  Emopean  Wax-Wing  or  Chatterer.  This  elegaat  spedes, 
which  is  also  known  by  the  EngUdi  names  of  the  Bohemian  Chatterer, 
Bohemisn  Waz-Wmg  and  Silk-Tail,  is  Le  Jaseur  de  Bohdme  (BufTon, 
&&),  Grand  Jaseur  (Temminok),  and  Gteay  de  Bohdme  of  the  Froidi; 
Garrulo  di  Boemia  of  the  Italians ;  Bothlichgrauer  Seidensohwants 
(Meyer),  Europaischer  Seidensehwans,  and  Qemeine  Seidensdiwanx 
(Bechstein)  of  the  Qermans ;  GamduM  Bohemieui  of  Qesner ;  Bomby- 
cilia  of  Sohwenck. ;  Ampdit  of  Aldrovand. ;  BombifeiUa  Bohemica  of 
BrisBon;  Ampdia  gaimUut  of  Linnsns;  Bombyeipkora  gamda  of 
Brehm ;  Bombyciphora  poUoccelia  of  Meyer ;  B<mbyewara  ffomUa 
of  Temminck ;  and  BomhycUla  gamda  of  Yieillot. 

In  addition  to  the  nomenclature  above  given,  the  bird  is  said  to 
be  named  by  the  Italians  in  some  localities  Becoo-Frisone,  in  others, 
(Jalletto  del  Bosco ;  and  by  the  bird-catchers  of  Bologna,  Uccello  del 
Mondo  Novo ;  by  the  Germans,  Zinzerelle,  Wipstertz,  Schnee- Vogel 
and  Schnee-Leschke,  and  by  those  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Niirn- 
berg,  Beemexle  and  Behemle ;  by  the  Swedes,  S^den-Swantz ;  and  by 
the  Bohemians,  Brkoslaw. 

That  the  Bohemian  Chatterer  was  known  to  the  aneients  there  can 
be  little  doubt;  but  a  ^reat  deal  of  obscurity  prevails  as  to  the 
names  by  which  it  was  distinguished.  Some  have  taken  it  to  be  the 
Incendiaria  Avia  of  Pliny  (book  z.  c.  13),  the  inauspicious  bird,  on 
account  of  whose  appearance  Rome  more  than  once  underwent 
lustration,  but  more  especially  in  the  consulship  of  L.  Cassius  and 
C.  Marius,  when  the  apparition  of  a  great  owl  {Bttbo)  was  added  to 
the  horrors  of  the  year.  Others  have  supposed  that  it  was  the  bird 
of  the  Hercynian  forest  (book  z.  c.  47),  whose  feathers  shone  in  the 
night  like  fire.  Aldrovandus,  who  collected  the  opinions  on  this 
point,  has  taken  some  pams  to  show  that  it  could  be  neither  the  one 
nor  the  other.  The  worthy  Italian  gravely  assures  his  readers  that  its 
feathers  do  not  shine  in  the  night ;  fsr  he  savs  he  kept  one  alive  for 
three  months,  and  observed  it  at  all  hours  (**  quAvis  noctis  horft  con- 
templatus  sum  " ). 

It  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  this  bird  was  the  Ti^dpaXos  of 
Aristotle  ('  Hist  Anim.,'  book  iz.  c  16). 

The  geographical  range  of  the  Bohemian  Chatterer  is  eztensive, 
comprehending  a  great  portion  of  the  arctic  world  It  appears  gene- 
rally in  flocks,  and  a  fatality  was  at  one  time  believed  to  accompany 
their  movements.  Thus  Aldrovandus  observes  that  laige  flights  of 
them  appeared  in  February,  1580,  when  Charles  V.  was  crowned  at 
Bologpua;  and  again  in  1651,  when  they  spread  through  the  duchies  of 
Modena,  Piaoenza,  and  other  Italian  districts,  carefully  avoiding  that 
of  Ferrara,  which  was  afterwards  convulsed  by  an  earthquake.  In 
1552,  according  to  Qesner,  they  visited  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  near 
Mentz,  in  such  myriads  that  they  darkened  the  air.  In  1571  troops 
of  them  were  seen  flying  about  the  north  of  Italy,  in  the  monl^  of 
December,  when  the  Ferrarese  earthquake,  according  to  Aldrovandus, 
took  place^  and  the  rivers  overflowed  their  banks. 

Keeker,  in  his  Memoir  on  the  Birds  of  Geneva,  observes  that  from 
the  beginning  of  this  century  only  two  considerable  flights  have 
been  observed  in  that  canton,  one  in  January,  1807,  and  the  other 
in  1814|  when  they  were  very  numerous,  and  having  spent  the  winter 
there,  took  their  departure  in  March.  In  the  first  of  those  yearn  they 
were  scattered  over  a  considerable  part  of  Europe,  and  early  in 
January  were  seen  near  Edinburgh.  Savi  observes  that  they  are 
not  seen  in  Tuscany  ezcept  in  very  severe  winters,  and  that  the 
years  1806  and  1807  were  remarkable  for  the  number  of  them 
whidi  entered  Piedmont^  especially  the  valleys  of  Lanzo  and  Suza. 

It  has  been  said  that  it  is  always  raze  in  France,  and  that  of  late 
years  it  has  become  scarce  in  Italy  and  Qermany;  but  Bechstein 
observes  that  in  moderate  seasons  it  is  found  in  great  flights  in  the 
skirts  of  the  foresto  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Germany  and 
Bohemia,  and  that  it  is  to  be  seen  in  Thuringia  only  in  the  winter  : 
if  the  season  be  mild  in  vexy  small  numbers,  the  greater  portion 
remaining  in  the  north;  if  the  weather  be  severe,  it  advances  farther 
south. 

The  Bohemian  Chatterer  must  be  considered  only  as  an  oocaaional 
visitant  to  the  British  Islands,  though  Pennant  says  that  they  appear 
only  by  accident  in  South  Britain,  but  that  about  Edinbuigh  they 
come  annually  in  February,  and  feed  on  the  berries  of  the  mountain- 
ash  ;  adding  that  they  also  appear  as  far  south  as  Northumberland, 
and  like  the  fieldfare  make  the  benies  of  the  white  thorn  their  food : 
he  records  the  death  of  one  which  was  killed  at  Garthmeilio  in  Den- 
bighshire in  a  fir-tree  during  the  severe  froBt  of  December,  1788. 
Latham,  in  a  note  to  this  statement,  says  that  the  late  Mr.  Tunstall 
informed  him  that  in  the  winter  of  1787  many  flodu  were  seen  aU 
over  the  county  of  York,  and  that  towards  the  spring  a  flock  of  between 
twenty  and  tlurty  were  observed  within  two  miles  of  Wydifi'e,  his 
place  of  residence.  Bewick  states  that  in  the  years  1790, 1791,  and 
1803  several  of  them  were  taken  in  Northumberland  and  Durham  as 
early  as  the  month  of  November.  Selby  says  that  in  the  winter  of 
1810  laxge  flocks  were  dispersed  through  various  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
and  that  from  that  period  it  does  not  seem  to  have  visited  our  island 
till  the  month  of  February,  1822,  when  a  few  came  under  his  inspeo* 
don,  and  several  were  again  obsMved  during  the  severe  storm  in  the 
tnnter  of  1823.  Montagu  says  that  he  received  it  out  of  StaSbrdshire, 
and  that  he  has  known  others  killed  in  the  more  southern  oonntieB 
in  the  autmnn  and  winter.    In  Mr.  Rennie's  edition  of  the  '  Onutho- 


logical  Diotionaxy '  (1838)  it  appears  that  one  had  been  shot  in  the 
park  of  Lord  Boringdon  at  Saltram  in  Devonshire,  and  that  not  \m 
than  twenty  had  been  killed  in  the  counties  of  Suffolk  and  Norfolk 
during  the  three  preoeding  winters.  Graves  says  that  about  Christmas, 
1808,  a  number  were  shot  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Camberwell,  from 
one  of  which,  being  but  slightly  wounded,  his  figuxe  was  taken.  In 
*  Loudon's  Magaone  *  it  is  stated  that  a  fine  specimen  was  shot  near 
Coventiy  in  December,  1880,  where  it  appeared  to  associate  wiA 
starlings^  and  that  during  the  same  month  of  the  same  year  six  vera 
killed  in  the  vicinity  of  Ipswich.  The  late  Mr.  W.  Thompson  reoortb 
various  instances  of  the  occurrence  of  this  bird  in  Ireland.  In  the 
British  Islands  it  more  frequently  occurs  in  the  north  than  the  south, 
and  Mr.  YarreU  states  that  "the  winters  of  1787,  1788,  1789, 
1790,1791,  1803,  1810,1820,1822,1828,  1880,  1831, 1834,  and  1885, 
are  partioiUaily  recorded  as  having  afforded  opportunities  of  obtaining 
specimens  in  some  one  or  other  of  various  northern  localitiee.*' 

Although  called  the  Bohemian  Wax-Wing,  it  is  not  more  common  in 
Bohemia  than  England.  In  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  the 
European  continent  it  is  only  an  occasional  visitor. 

In  northern  Russia  and  the  extreme  north  of  Norway,  aooording  to 
C.  Xi.  Bonaparte,  they  are  seen  in  great  numben  every  winter,  bemg 
observed  there  earlier  than  in  temperate  countries.  In  norUiem  Asia 
and  eastern  Europe  their  migrations  are  tolerably  regidar.  Very 
numerous  flocks  pass  through  Scania  in  November,  and  are  again  seen 
on  their  return  in  the  spring. 

But  the  species  is  not  confined  to  Europe  and  Asia.  "  By  a  singolsr 
coincidance^"  says  the  Prince  of  Canino,  "  whilst  we  were  prodaiming 
this  spedes  as  American,  it  was  received  by  Tenuninck  from  Japan, 
together  with  a  new  spedes,  the  third  known  of  the  genua."  He  nya 
that  his  best  specimen  was  shot  on  the  20th  of  Maroh,  1825,  on  the 
Athabasca  River,  near  the  Rocky  Mountains ;  and  observes  that  the 
species  appears  to  be  spread  widely,  as  he  had  been  credibly  informed 
by  hunters  that  "cedar-buds  df  a  huge  kind"  had  been  shot  alittle 
beyond  the  Mississippi ;  adding  that  he  is  at  a  loss  to  conceiTe  why 
it  should  never  have  been  observed  on  this  side  of  tiie  last-mentioned 
river.  Mr.  Drunmiond  in  the  spring  of  1826  saw  it  near  the  aouroes 
of  the  Athabasca,  and  Sir  John  Richardson  observed  it  in  the  same 
season  at  Oreat  Bear  Lake  in  lat.  65*,  where  a  male,  of  which  be  gives 
a  description,  was  shot  on  the  24th  of  Mav  of  that  year.  He  also  nys 
that  he  observed  a  lazge  flock  of  at  least  three  or  four  hundrad  on  the 
banks  of  the  Saskatchewan,  at  Carlton  Houae,  early  in  Hay,  1827. 
They  alighted  in  a  grove  of  poplars,  settling  idl  on  one  or  two  trees, 
and  makmg  a  loud  twittering  noise.  They  stayed  only  about  an  hour 
in  the  morning,  and  were  too  shy  to  idlow  him  to  approadi  within 
gunshot 

The  district  where  these  birds  breed  is  unknown.  Bechstein  says 
that  it  does  not  build  in  Qennany  when  wild,  but  within  the  Arctic 
Cirde. 

Bonaparte  gives  a  very  amiable  diaiacter  of  the  European  Wax-Wing 
in  a  state  of  nature,  attributing  to  them  a  particidar  sentiment  of 
benevolence,  even  independent  of  redprocal  sexual  attraction. 
''  Not  only,"  says  the  Prince,  "do  the  male  and  female  caress  and  feed 
each  other,  but  the  same  proofii  of  mutual  kindness  have  been 
observed  between  individual  of  the  same  sex."  Speaking  of  their 
habits  he  says,  "They  always  alight  on  trees^  hopping  awkwardly  on 
the  ground  Their  flight  is  very  rapid :  when  taking  wing  they  utter 
a  note  resembling  the  syllableB  d,  d,  ri,  but  are  generally  silent  not- 
withstanding the  name  that  has  been  given  them."  Bechstein  says. 
"  When  wild  we  see  it  in  the  spring  eating,  like  thrushes,  all  sorts  of 
flies  and  other  insects ;  in  autunm  and  winter,  different  kinds  of 
berries;  and  in  time  of  need,  l^e  buds  and  sprouts  of  the  beech, 
maple,  and  various  fruit-ta^ees."  Willughby  states  that  it  feeds  upon 
fruit,  especially  grapes,  of  which  it  is  very  greedy.  "Wherefore  it 
seems  to  me,"  he  adds,  "  not  without  reason,  to  be  called  by  that  name 
Ampdis,"  Bonaparte  makes  their  food  to  oonsist  of  different  kinds 
of  juicy  berries,  or  of  insects,  observing  that  they  are  fond  of  the 
berries  of  the  mountain-ash  and  Pkytdaeca,  and  that  they  are 
extremely  greedy  of  grapes,  and  also,  thou^  in  a  less  degree,  of 
juniper-  and  laurel-berries,  apples,  currants,  figs,  and  other  finiitB. 
He  adds  that  they  drink  often,  dipping  their  bills  repeatedly. 

In  captivity  its  qualities  do  not  appear  to  be  very  attractive, 
according  to  Bechstein,  who  says  that  nothing  but  its  beauty  and 
soardty  can  render  the  poesesdon  of  it  desirable,  for  that  it  is  a  stnpid 
and  lasy  bird.  Indeed  he  draws  such  a  picture  of  its  greediness  and 
dirty  habits,  that,  if  it  be  not  overdiarged,  few  we  should  think  would 
wish  to  have  it  as  an  inmate.  Leaving  out  tiie  motre  unpleasant  parts  of 
his  description,  we  take  the  following  extaraet  from  his  'Cage  Birds' : 
— "During  the  ten  or  twdve  yean  Uiat  it  can  exist  in  confinement, 
and  on  very  meagre  food,  it  does  nothing  but  eat  and  repose  for 
digestion.  If  hunger  induces  it  to  move,  its  step  is  awkward,  and  its 
jumps  so  dumsy  as  to  be  disagreeable  to  the  eye.  Its  song  eonsi^ 
only  of  weak  and  uncertain  whistlings  a  little  resembling  the  thrash, 
but  not  BO  loud.  While  singing  it  moves  the  crest,  but  hardly  moves 
the  throat  If  this  warbling  is  somewhat  unmumoal  it  has  the  merit 
of  continuing  throughout  every  season  of  the  year.  When  snm 
which  happens  sometimes  near  the  oommca  feeding-trough,  it  knMCB 
very  violently  with  its  beak.  It  is  eadly  tamed."  The  same  author 
says,  that  in  confinement  the  two  univenwl  pastes  appear  delicades  to 


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it;  and  it  la  even  satisfied  with  bran  steeped  in  water.  It  swallows 
everyttiing  voracionsly,  and  refuses  nothing  eatable,  such  as  potatoes, 
cabbage,  salad,  fruit  of  all  sorts,  and  especially  white  bread.  It  likes 
to  bathe,  or  rather  to  sprinkle  itself  with  water,  for  it  does  not  wet 
iteelf  so  much  as  other  birds. 

It  is  taken  in  nooses,  to  which  berries  are  fixed,  which  for  this 
purpose,  says  the  author  last  quoted,  "  should  always  be  kept  in  store 
till  February.  It  appears  to  be  frightened  at  nothing,  for  it  flies  into 
nets  and  traps,  though  it  sees  its  companions  caught^  and  lumging  and 
uttering  cries  of  distress  and  fear." 

Length  about  eight  inches ;  the  size  altogether  approaching  that  of 
a  starling. 

Mak,  Bill  strong;  black,  except  at  the  bcue^  where  the  colour 
inclines  to  a  yellowish-white;  nostrils  hidden  under  small  black 
feathera  Irides  purplish-red*  Chin  and  throat  velvety  black,  as  is 
alao  the  streak  (in  the  midst  of  which  is  the  eye)  passing  from  the 
bill  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  head.  Forehead  reddish-biown.  Head 
feathers  Iouk,  silky,  forming  a  reclining  crest  approaching  to  reddish- 
chestnut,  which  the  bird  con  erect  or  depress  at  pleasure.  Upper 
parts  purjdish-red,  or  vinaceous-brown  dadied  with  ash-colour,  the 
rump  liffhtest.  Breast  and  belly  pale  purplish-ash,  tinged  with  pale 
brownish-red.  Vent  and  under  tail-coverts  orange-brown  inclining  to 
reddish-orange.  Greater  wing-coverts  black,  tipped  with  white. 
Lesser  wing-coverts  of  a  shade  darker  than  the  general  tmt  of  the 
upper  plumage.  Primaries  black,  with  a  bright  yellow  spot  near  the 
white  tipjB  of  their  outer  webe.  Montagu  says  that  the  three  first  are 
tipped  with  white,  and  the  others  with  yellow  on  their  outer  margins. 
Secondaries  gray,  tipped  with  white  on  the  outer  web,  and  seven  or 
eight  of  them  terminated  with  small  flattish,  ova^  homy  appendages, 
of  the  colour  of  red  sealing-wax.  Sometimes  there  are  not  more  than 
5  or  6  of  these  wax-like  tips,  and  in  Montagu's  specimen  there  were 

5  on  one  side  and  6  on  the  other.    Qravee  nves  the  number  at  from 

6  to  9  (Bechstein  at  from  6  to  9),  and  mentions  the  specimen  in  Mr. 
Haworth's  coUection,  which  had  some  on  the  tail,  which  is  black 
tipped  with  yellow,  and  dashed  with  aah-colour  at  the  base.  Shanks, 
toes,  and  daws,  black. 


European  Waz.Wing  {BombyeUla  garruta),  male. 

PenutU,  (Generally  similar  to  the  male;  but  the  yellow  on  the 
wings  and  tail  is  not  so  bright^  nor  are  the  wax-like  appendages  so 
laige  or  so  numerous. 

The  flesh  of  this  species  is  said  to  be  delicate  food. 

B.  Carolinenaiif  the  American  Wax- Wing,  or  Cedar-Bird^  was 
considered  by  some  of  the  older  naturalists  to  be  identical  with  the 
European  species,  from  which  it  had  degenerated. 

This  species  is  the  Ampdis  gamdus,  var.  fi,  of  the  'Systema 
NatursQ ' ;  Qamdim  CaroUnentit,  le  Jaseur  de  Caroline,  the  Chatterer 
of  Catesby ;  Twrdus  gctmdua  CaroUnentis  of  Klein ;  Coquantotot  df 
Hernandez ;  Avis  Americana  critUUa,  Xomotl  dicta  of  Seba ;  Chatterer 
of  Carolina  of  Edwards ;  Cedar-Bird,  AmpdiM  Americana,  of  Wilson ; 
Hecollet  of  the  Canadiian  Yoyageurs;  BomhyciUa  CciroliMame  of 
Brisson,  Bonapcurte,  Audubon,  and  others.  It  is  said  to  be  found  in  the 
^s-hole  extent  between  Mexico  and  Canada,  and  parties  are  said 
3ocasionally  to  roam  as  far  south  as  the  forests  of  Ghiyana.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  a  resident  during  the  whole  year,  the  northern  and 
middle  states  being  its  more  usual  quarters  in  the  summer,  and  the 
Eouthem  in  the  winter  season.  It  is  stated  that  the  bird  has  been 
found  on  the  north-west  coast  of  America,  but  its  northern  boundary 

HAZ.  HX9I.  DIY.  YOU  I> 


appeara  to  fkU  short  of  that  of -BomiyciKa^oAcmwo.  Saysawitnear 
the  Wimupeg  River,  in  lat.  50^  and  Sir  John  Richardson  states  his 
behef  that  it  has  not  been  hitherto  observed  to  the  northward  of  the 
64th  paralleL  He  says  that  Mr.  Drummond  saw  several  small 
flocks  on  the  south  branch  of  the  Saskatchewan  on  the  27th  June  and 
gives  a  description  of  a  male  killed  there  in  lat.  62i**  on  that  day, 
1827.  He  adds  that  it  frequents  the  northern  shores  of  Lake  Huron 
and  of  Lake  Superior  in  summer. 

The  Cedar-Birds  utter  a  feeble  lisping  sound,  and  fly,  says  Wilson, 
"m  compact  bodies  of  from  twenty  to  fifty;  and  usually  alight  so 
close  together  on  the  same  tree,  that  one  half  are  frequently  shot 
down  at  a  time.  In  the  months  of  July  and  August  they  collect 
together  in  flocks,  and  retire  to  the  hilly  parts  of  the  state,  the  Blue 
Mountains,  and  other  collateral  ridges  of  the  Alleghany,  to  enjoy  the 
fruit  of  the  Vacci^iimn,  idiginoawm.  Whortleberries,  which  grow  there 
in  great  abundance,  whole  mountains  for  many  miles  beiog  almost 
entirely  covered  with  them ;  and  where  in  the  month  of  August  I 
have  myself  found  the  cedar-birds  numerous.  In  October  they 
descend  to  the  lower  cultivated  parts  of  the  country,  to  feed  on  the 
berries  of  the  sour  gum  and  red  cedar,  of  which  last  they  are  immo- 
derately fond ;  and  thirty  or  forty  may  sometimes  be  seen  fluttering 
among  the  branches  of  one  small  cedar-tree,  plucking  off  the 
berries.  ....  In  the  fall  and  beginning  of  summer,  when  they 
become  very  £at>  they  are  in  considerable  esteem  for  the  table ;  and 
great  numbers  are  brought  to  the  market  of  Philadelphia,  where  they 
are  sold  at  from  twelve  to  twenty-five  cents  per  dozen.  During  the 
whole  winter  and  spring  they  are  occaaionallv  seen ;  and  about  the 
25th  of  May  appear  in  numerous  parties,  mMng  great  havoc  among 
the  early  cherries,  selecting  the  best  and  ripest  of  the  fruit."  Audubon 
says  that  they  reach  Louisiana  about  the  beginning  of  November,  and 
retire  towards  the  middle  districts  in  the  beginning  of  March.  **  The 
holly,"  writes  the  author  last  quoted,  "the  vines,  the  persimon,  the 
pride  of  China,  and  various  other  trees,  supply  them  with  plenty  of 
berries  and  fruits,  on  which  they  fatten,  and  become  so  tender  and 
juicy  as  to  be  sought  by  every  epicure  for  the  table.  I  have  known  an 
instance  of  a  basketful  of  these  little  birds  having  been  forwarded  to 
New  Orleans  as  a  Christmas  present."  And  delicious  these  ftiiit- 
eating  birds  (for  such  is  their  general  diet,  albeit  they  are  said  to  be 
excellent  fly-catchers)  undoubtedly  are;  though  Hernandez,  who 
met  with  them  near  Tetzcuco  (apud  Tetzcoquenses),  says  that  neither 
in  their  song  nor  in  the  flavour  of  their  flesh  are  they  better  than 
other  small  birds  ("neque  est  cantu  aut  nutrimentd  cseteris  aviculis 
commendatior  "  ).  Their  appetite  is  extraordinary :  "  They  goige  ^em- 
selves,"  observes  Audubon,  "to  such  excess,  as  sometimes  to  be 
unable  to  fly,  and  suffer  themselves  to  be  taken  by  the  hand.  Indeed 
I  have  seen  some  which,  although  woxmded  ana  confined  in  a  cage, 
have  eaten  of  apples  until  suffocation  deprived  them  of  life  in  the 
course  of  a  few  days.  When  opened  afterwards  they  were  foimd  to 
be  goi^ged  to  the  mouth." 

Notwithstanding  this  greediness  they  are,  according  to  some  writers, 
remarkable  for  their  social  and  kindly  disposition  in  a  state  of  nature. 
Nuttall,  on  the  authority  of  an  eye-witness,  states  that  one  among  a 
row  of  these  birds  seated  upon  a  branch,  darted  after  an  insect,  and 
offered  it  to  his  associate  when  caught,  who  very  dicdnterestedly  passed 
it  to  the  next,  and  each  delicately  declining  the  offer,  the  morsel  went 
backwards  and  forwards  before  it  was  appropriated. 

After  fattening  on  the  fruits  of  May  and  early  Jime  they  begin  to 
turn  their  attention  to  the  continuation  of  their  species,  and  com- 
mence about  the  10th  or  12th  of  the  latter  month  building  a  nest 
lai^  in  proportion  to  the  bird,  sometimes  in  their  favourite  cedar- 
tree  {Jtmiperus  Virginiana,  Willd.),  but  more  frequently  in  the 
orchards,  generally  choosing  a  forked  or  horizontal  branch  of  an  apple- 
tree,  some  ten  or  twelve  feet  frt)m  the  ground.  Outwardly  and  at 
the  bottom  is  laid  a  mass  of  coarse  dry  stalks  of  grass ;  the  inside  is 
lined  entirely  with  very  fine  stalks  of  the  same  material  The  eggs  . 
are  three  or  four,  of  a  dingy  bluish-white,  thick  at  the  great  end,  taper- 
ing suddenly,  and  becoming  very  narrow  at  the  other,  marked  with 
small  roundish  spots  of  black  of  various  sizes  and  shades ;  and  the 
great  end  is  of  a  pale  dull  purple  tinge,  marked  likewise  with  touches 
of  various  shades  of  purple  and  black.  About  the  last  week  in  June 
the  young  are  hatdied,  and  are  at  first  fed  on  insects  and  their  larrss, 
but  as  they  advance  in  growth  on  berries  of  various  kinds. 

The  following  is  Nuttall's  account  of  the  manners  of  this  bird  in 
captivity : — 

"  A  young  bird  from  one  of  the  nests  described  in  the  hemlock  was 
thrown  upon  my  protection,  having  been  by  some  means  ejected  frY)m 
his  cradle.  In  this  critical  situation  however  he  had  been  well  fed  or 
rather  gorged  with  berries,  and  was  merely  scratched  by  the  fall  he 
had  received.  Fed  on  cherries  and  mulberries  he  was  soon  well 
fledged,  while  his  mate  in  the  ne^t  was  suffered  to  perish  by  the  forget- 
fulness  of  his  natural  protectors.  Coeval  with  the  growth  of  his 
wing-feathers  were  already  seen  the  remarkable  red  waxen  append- 
ages, showing  that  their  appearance  indicates  no  particular  age  or 
sex ;  many  birds,  in  fact,  being  without  these  ornaments  during  their 
whole  lives.  I  soon  foimd  my  interesting  prot^gd  impatient  of  the 
cage,  and  extremely  voracious,  gozging  himself  to  the  very  mouth 
with  the  soft  fruits  on  which  he  was  often  fed.  The  throat,  in  fact, 
like  a  craw  admits  of  distension,  and  the  contents  are  only  gradually 

2  o 


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passed  off  into  the  stomach.  I  now  suffered  the  bird  to  fly  at  large, 
and  for  several  days  he  descended  from  the  trees  in  which  he  perched 
to  my  arm  for  food ;  but  the  moment  he  was  satisfied  he  avoided  the 
cage,  and  appeared  by  his  restlessness  unable  to  survive  the  loss  of 
liberty.  He  now  came  seldomer  to  me,  and  finally  joined  the  lisping 
muBter-cry  of '  tse,  tze,  ts^,'  and  was  enticed  away  after  two  or  three 
attempts  by  his  more  attractive  and  suitable  associates.  When  young, 
nature  provided  him  with  a  loud  impatient  voice,  and  '  t^-did,  t^-did, 
kal-t^-did '  (often  also  the  clamorous  cry  of  the  young  Baltimore)  was 
his  deafening  and  almost  incessant  call  for  food.  Another  young  bird 
of  the  first  brood,  probably  neglected,  cried  so  loud  and  plaintively  to 
a  male  Baltimore  bred  in  the  same  tree,  that  he  commenced  feeding 
it.  Mr.  Winship  of  Brighton  informs  me  that  one  of  the  young  Cedar- 
Birds  which  frequented  the  front  of  his  house  in  quest  of  honeysuckle- 
berries,  at  lengtn  on  receiving  food,  probablv  also  abandoned  by  his 
roving  parents,  threw  hims^  wholly  on  his  protection.  At  laige 
day  and  night,  he  still  regularly  attended  the  dessert  of  the  dinner- 
table  for  his  portion  of  fruit,  and  remained  steadfast  in  his  attachment 
to  Mr.  Winship  till  killed  by  an  accident^  being  unfortunately  trodden 
under  foot" 


American  Waz-Wing  {B&mbpeilla  Cbrolinmiit),  male. 

The  following  is  Wilson's  description :—"  Length  seven  inches, 
extent  eleven  inches ;  head,  neck,  breast^  upper  part  of  the  back  and 
wing-coverts,  a  dark  fewn  colour,  darkest  on  the  back  and  brightest 
on  the  front ;  head  ornamented  with  a  high,  pointed,  almost  upright 
crest ;  line  fi^om  the  nostril  over  the  eye  to  ttie  hind  head  velvety 
black,  bordered  above  with  a  fine  line  of  white,  and  another  line  of 
white  passes  from  the  lower  mandible ;  chin  black,  gradually  bright- 
ening mto  fawn-colour,  the  feathers  tiiere  lying  extremely  close ;  bill 
black,  upper  mandible  nearly  triangular  at  tiie  base,  without  bristles, 
short,  roundinff  at  the  point,  where  it  is  deeply  notdied;  the  lower 
scolloped  at  the  tip,  and  turning  up ;  tongue  as  in  the  rest  of  the 
genus,  broad,  thin,  carldlaginous^  and  lacerated  st  the  end;  belly 
yellow ;  vent  white ;  wings  deep  skte,  except  the  two  secondaries 
next  the  body,  whose  exterior  vanes  are  of  a  &wn-oolour,  and  interior 
ones  white,  forming  two  whitish  strips  there,  which  are  very  con- 
spicuous ;  rump  and  tail-coverts  pale  light  blue ;  tail  the  same,  gradu- 
ally deepening  mto  bUck,  and  tipped  for  half  an  inch  with  rich  yellow. 
Six  or  seven  and  sometimes  the  whole  nine  secondary  feathera  of  the 
wings  are  ornamented  at  the  tips  with  small  red  oblong  appendages, 
resembling  red  sealing-wax ;  these  appear  to  be  a  prolongation  of  the 
shafts,  and  to  be  intended  for  preserving  the  ends  and  consequently 
the  vanes  of  the  quills  from  being  broken  and  worn  away  by  the 
almost  continual  fluttering  of  the  bird  among  the  thick  branches  of 
the  cedar.  The  feathers  of  those  birds  which  are  without  these 
appendages  are  uniformly  found  ragged  on  the  edges,  but  smooth  and 
perfect  in  those  on  whom  the  marks  are  full  and  numerous.  These 
singular  marks  have  been  considered  as  belonging  to  the  male  alone, 
from  tiie  oiroumstance  perhaps  of  finding  femidebirds  without  them. 
They  are  however  common  to  both  male  and  female.  Six  of  the  latter 


are  now  Iving  before  me,  each  with  laige  and  numeroos  dusters  of 
effgs,  aad  having  the  waxen  i^ppendages  in  tull  perfection.  The  young 
birds  do  not  receive  them  until  the  second  fall,  when  in  moultiog 
time  thev  may  be  seen  fully  formed,  as  the  feather  is  developed  from 
its  sheatL  I  have  once  or  twice  found  a  solitary  one  on  the  extremity 
of  one  of  the  tail-feather&  The  eye  is  of  a  dark  blood-coloor ;  the 
legs  and  claws  black ;  the  inside  of  uie  mouth  orange ;  gi^  wide ;  and 
the  gullet  capable  of  such  distension  as  often  to  contain  twelve  or  fifteen 
cedar-berries,  and  serving  as  a  kind  of  craw  to  prepare  tiiem  for 
digestion.  The  chief  difference  in  the  plumage  of  the  msle  and  female 
ooniists  in  the  dulneas  of  the  tints  of  the  latter,  the  inferior  appear 
ance  of  the  crest^  and  the  narrowness  of  the  yellow  bar  at  the  tip  of 
the  tail" 

B.  phanieoptercbf  the  Asiatic  Wax-Wing.  The  discovery  of  the  Bed- 
Winged  Chatterer,  or  J^>ane8e  Wax-Wing,  is  one  of  the  fruits  of  Dr. 
Siebold's  scientific  mission  to  Japan  by  the  government  of  the  Ket}le^ 
lands.  In  size  it  bean  a  greater  resemblance  to  the  Cedar-Bird  than 
to  the  Bohemian  Wax-Wing,  but  differs  frx>m  both  in  the  nakedness 
of  the  nostrils  (which  are  not  hidden  by  the  small  feathers  of  the  front, 
like  the  nostrils  of  the  other  two  species  of  this  small  but  natural 
group),  in  the  length  of  the  crest,  and  the  beautiful  black  plumes  with 
whidi  it  is  ornamented,  and  by  the  entire  absence  of  tiie  wax-like 
appendages  that  tip  the  secondaries  of  its  congeners. 

The  length  of  the  Japanese  Wax-Wing  is  six  inches  and  six  lines. 
The  base  of  the  bill  is  bordered  bj  a  blade  band,  which  passes  to  the 
back  of  the  head,  surrounding  the  eye  in  its  way,  and  terminates  in 
the  lower  crest-feathers,  whidh  are  of  the  same  oolour  throughout; 
the  chin  and  throat  are  black;  the  crest  is  long,  oomposed  above  of 
feathers  of  an  ashy-reddish  oolour  with  an  inferior  layer  of  the  black 
plumes  already  alluded  to ;  the  breast,  upper  parts,  and  wing-coyerti 
are  of  a  brownish-ash,  and  a  red  band  tokverses  the  wing  about  the 
middle  of  it;  all  the  quills  are  of  an  a^y-black,  the  greater  qniUs 
terminated  with  black  and  tipped  with  white ;  the  tail  is  of  an  ashv- 
black,  tipped  with  vivid  red ;  the  middle  of  the  belly  is  of  a  whitish- 
yellow  ;  and  the  lower  tail-coverts  chestnut ;  shanks  and  feet  black. 


AsiaUc  Waz-Wing  {BmhyeiUa  pXmUeoptera)^  male. 

The  spedeB  is  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  NangasakL 
Temminck,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  the  bird, 
which  is  described  and  figured  in  his  '  Planches  Colorizes,'  says  that 
there  is  a  specimen  in  the  galleries  of  the  museum  of  the  Pays-Bas, 
and  another  in  the  collection  of  M.  Blomho^  the  resident  at  Japan; 
and  he  observes  that  the  absence  of  the  nostril-plumes  furnishes  a 
proof,  also  afforded  in  the  genera  Oorw*  and  Qairryla,  in  contradic- 
tion to  the  opinion  of  those  systematists  who  would  separate  the 
omnivorous  birds  with  covered  nostrils  troui  those  which  have  those 
oigans  smooth  or  naked,  and  divide  them  into  distinct  groups.  He 
also  considers  the  proper  position  of  the  genus  to  be  near  the  Pirolkt 
(Kitta),  and  the  JtoUet  (Oolarit  of  Cuvier,  Eury$tomut  of  Vieillot). 

BOMBY'LIDiE,  a  family  of  Insects  of  the  order  JHptera, 
distinguished  chiefly  by  having  a  long  probosds.  The  body  is  short 
and  very  hairv.  Antennn  moderate,  four-jointed,  the  basal  joint  longi 
second  very  short,  third  longest^  the  apical  joint  minute  and  tspeiiiv 


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m 


B0MB7X. 


BOlTASIA. 


(M 


lo  a  fine  point     The  1^  are  long  and  very  Blander.    Winga  hori- 
sontaL 

The  speoiea  of  ihia  tribe  are  all  remarkable  for  their  great  swiftnees 
of  flight ;  two  BpedeB  of  the  genus  BombyUua  axe  not  uncommon  in 
open  |>artB  of  wooda^  frequenting  smmy  banks^  where  they  may  be 
seen,  m  the  month  of  April,  hovering  over  flowers,  from  whioh  they 
mp  tiie  sweets  by  means  of  their  long  proboaois,  which  enables  them 
to  do  this  without  settling  on  the  flowers. 

^  At  one  time  they  wOl  he  seen  apparently  quite  'motionless  in  the 
air— for  their  wings  vibrate  so  rapidly  that  they  cannot  be  discerned — 
a  moment  after  they  will  mi^e  their 
appearance  at  a  few  yards'  distance, 
having  darted  frxmi  one  spot  to  the  other 
with  such  rapidity  that  tiie  eye  cannot 
follow  them.  In  their  flight  'Uiey  emit  a 
humming  sound. 

The  two  species  here  spoken  of  are  B, 
major  and  B,  mednu  ;  they  are  about  one- 
third  of  an  inch  long  and  of  a  brown 
colour ;  the  former  has  the  anterior  part 
of  its   wings   clouded  with    an    opaque  Sambflim  medHn, 

brown    colour,  and   the   posterior   part 
transparent — the  latter  has  the  wings  adorned  with  numeroua  brown 
spots,  and  their  anterior  portion  but  slightly  clouded. 

Mr.  Stephens  enumerates  seven  species  of  this  genus  as  indigenous 
to  this  country ;  they  are  sometimes  called  Humble-Bee  Flies. 
BOHBYX.    [BoMBTOiD&l 

BONA'SIA,  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  TOraonidig  (Qrouse 
Family).     It  is  thus  characterised  by  C.  L.  Bonaparte : — 

Lower  portion  of  the  tarsus  or  shank  and  the  toes  naked ;  tail  long 
and  rounded ;  the  head  adorned  with  a  crest,  and  the  sides  of  the 
neck  with  a  m£  The  plumage  of  the  female  nearly  the  same  as  that 
of  thenude,  and  varying  but  little  throughout  the  year. 

Swaioson  retains  the  Linnsean  name  for  the  bird,  and  makes 
Tdrao  the  typical  group  of  the  subgenera  into  which  he  divides  the 
genus,  expreasing  however  considerable  doubt  on  the  value  of  the 
types. 

The  Ruffed  Grouse  {Boruuia  UmbeUm  of  Bonaparte;  Tetrao 
UmbeUut  and  Tdrao  togatua  of  Linnaeus ;  Tek-ao  UmbtUuB  of  Linnsaus 
and  Swainson)  is  the  Shoulder-Knot  Qrouse  of  TA».]iftip  ;  the  Ruffed 
Heathoock  or  Qrouse  of  Edwards ;  La  Gelinote  Hup^  de  Pensavanie 
of  Brisson ;  La  Grosse  Gelinotte  de  Canada  and  Le  Coq  de  Bruyke  It 
Fraiae  of  Buffon ;  the  Pheasant  of  the  Pennsylvanians,  and  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  southern  States ;  the  White  Flesher  and  Pheasant 
of  the  Anglo-Americans  generally. 

Audubon  says  that  to  the  west  of  the  AUeghanies,  and  on  those 
mountains,  the  term  Pheasant  is  generally  used  to  dodgnate  the  bird, 
and  that  the  same  appellation  is  employed  in  the  middle  States  to  the 
east  of  the  mountains,  till  the  State  of  Connecticut  is  entered,  where 
the  name  of  Partridge  prevails.  Lawson  uses  the  term  Pheasant 
"The  pheasant  of  Carolina  differs  some  small  matter  from  the 
Engliah  pheasant,  being  not  so  big,  and  having  some  difference  in 
feather ;  yet  he  is  not  any  wise  inferior  in  delicacy,  but  is  as  good 
meat  or  rather  finer.  He  haunts  the  back-woods,  and  Ib  seldom  found 
near  the  inhabitants."  T^lson  calls  it  throughout  Pheasant,  except  in 
one  place,  where  he  terms  it  the  Pheasant  or  Partridge  of  aew 
Engknd.' 

Aocording  to  the  author  last  quoted,  this  bird  is  known  in  almost 
eveiy  quarter  of  the  United  States ;  is  oonmion  at  Moose  Fort,  on 
Hudson's  Bay,  in  lat  51"* ;  frequent  in  the  upper  part  of  Georgia,  and 
very  abundant  in  Kentucky  and  Indiana.  In  the  lower  parts  of 
Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  according  to  the  same  authority,  it  is 
veiy  seldom  observed,  but  on  advancing  inland  to  the  mountains  it 
again  makes  its  appearance ;  and  though  it  is  occasionally  met  with  in 
the  lower  parts  of  New  Jersey,  its  occurrence  there  is  considered  to 
be  owing  to  the  more  northerly  situation  of  the  country ;  for  even 
here  they  are  far  lesa  numerous  than  among  the  mountains. 

Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke  found  it  in  crosaing  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains which  divide  the  basin  of  the  Columbia  from  that  of  the 
Mississippi,  more  than  8000  miles  by  their  measurement  from  the 
mouth  of  the  latter  river.  Sir  John  Richardson  aays  that  it  exists  as 
far  north  as  the  56th  parallel,  and  that  it  is  very  plentiful  on  the 
banks  of  the  Saskatchewan ;  adding  in  a  note,  that  Mr.  Drummond 
procured  specimens  at  the  sources  of  the  Peace  River,  in  the  vall^s 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  do  not  differ  from  those  killed  on  the 
Saskatchewan.  The  limit  of  its  southern  range  has  been  stated  to  be 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Audubon  found  these  birds  most  numerous  in 
the  States  of  Pennsylvania  and  new  York,  and  says  that  they  are  to 
be  met  with  as  you  travel  towards  the  south,  through  the  whole  of 
Tennessee  and  we  Choctaw  territory  ;  but  that  as  you  approach  the 
city  of  Natchoz  they  disappear ;  nor  had  he  ever  heard  of  one  of  these 
hirda  having  been  seen  in  the  State  of  Louisiana. 

*^  The  maimers  of  the  pheasant^"  says,  Wilson,  ''are  solitary ;  they 
are  seldom  found  in  coveys  of  more  than  four  or  five  together,  and 
more  usually  in  pairs  or  singly.  They  leave  their  sequestered  haunts 
in  the  woods  early  in  the  morning,  and  seek  the  path  or  road  to  pick 
np  gravel,  axkd  g^ean  among  the  dippings  of  the  horses.  In  travelling 
among  tlie  moostains  that  bound  Susquehanna,  I  was  always  able  to 


furnish  myself  with  an  abundant  supply  of  these  birds  every  mommg 
without  leaving  the  path.  If  the  weather  be  foggy  or  lowering,  they 
are  sure  to  be  seen  m  such  situations.  They  generally  move  along 
with  great  statelineas,  with  their  broad  fan-like  tail  spread  out." 

Audubon  states  that,  although  they  are  attached  to  the  craggy  sides 
of  mountains  and  hills,  and  rocky  borders  of  small  streams  thickly 
mantied  with  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs,  they  at  times  remove  to  the 
lowlands,  and  even  enter  the  thickest  cane-brakes,  where  they  some- 
times breed,  and  where  he  shot  some,  and  heard  them  drumming  when 
there  were  no  hiUs  nearer  than  15  or  20  miles.  The  lower  parts  of 
the  State  of  Indiana,  and  also  those  of  Kentucky,  were  amongst 
the  places  where  he  so  discovered  them.  The  following  is  his 
account  of  their  autumnal  migrations,  which  he  seems  to  have  first 
observed: — 

"  The  ruffed  grouse  although  a  constant  resident  in  the  districts 
which  it  frequents,  performs  partial  sorties  at  the  approach  of  autumn. 
These  are  not  e|^ual  in  extent  to  the  peregrinations  of  the  wild  turkey, 
our  Uttle  partridge,  or  the  pinnated  grouse,  but  are  sufficientiy  so 
to  become  observable  during  the  seasons  when  certain  portions  of  the 
mountainous  districts  which  they  inhabit  become  less  abundantiy 
supplied  with  food  than  others.  These  partial  movings  might  not  be 
noticed,  were  not  the  birds  obliged  to  fly  across  rivers  &[  great  bmdth, 
as  whilst  in  the  mountain  lands  their  groups  are  as  numerous  astiiose 
which  attempt  these  migrations ;  but  on  the  north-west  banks  of  the 
Ohio  and  Susquehanna- rivers,  no  one  who  pays  the  least  attention  to 
the  manners  and  habits  of  our  birds  can  fail  to  observe  them.  The 
grouse  approach  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  in  parties  of  eight  or  ten,  now 
and  then  of  twelve  or  fifteen,  and  on  arriving  there  linger  in  the  woods 
dose  by  for  a  week  or  a  fortnight,  as  if  fearful  of  encoimtering  the 
danger  to  be  incurred  in  crossing  the  stream.  This  usually  happens 
in  the  beginning  of  October,  when  these  birds  are  in  the  very  best 
order  for  the  table,  and  at  this  period  great  numbers  of  them  are 
killed.  If  started  from  the  grotmd,  with  or  without  the  assistance  of 
a  dog^  they  immediately  alight  on  the  nearest  trees,  and  are  easily  shot 
At  length  however  they  resolve  upon  crossing  tiie  river;  and  this 
they  accomplish  with  so  much  ease  that  I  never  saw  any  of  them 
drop  into  the  water.  Not  more  than  two  or  three  days  elapse  after 
they  have  reached  the  opposite  shore,  when  they  at  once  proceed  to 
the  interior  of  the  forests  in  search  of  places  congenial  to  the  general 
character  of  their  habits.  They  now  resume  their  ordinary  manner 
of  living,  which  they  continue  until  the  approach  of  spring,  when  the 
males,  as  if  leading  the  way,  proceed  singly  towards  the  country  from 
which  they  had  retreated.  The  females  follow  in  small  parties  of 
three  or  fdur.  In  the  month  of  October,  1820,  I  observed  a  larger 
ntmiber  of  ruffed  grouse  migrating  thus  from  the  states  of  Ohio, 
nUnois,  and  Indiana  into  Kentucky,  than  I  had  ever  before  remarked. 
During  the  short  period  of  their  lingering  along  the  north-west  shore 
of  the  Ohio  that  season,  a  great  number  of  them  was  killed,  and 
they  were  sold  in  the  Cincinnati  market  for  so  small  a  sum  as  12i 
cents  each." 

Wilson  says  that  the  Ruffed  Grouse  is  in  the  best  order  for  the  table 
in  September  and  October.  At  this  season  they  feed  chiefly  on 
whOTtleberries,  and  the  little  red  aromatic  Partridge-Berries  {Oaul- 
theria  proomnhent),  the  last  of  which  give  their  flesh  a  peculiarly 
delicate  flavour.  With  the  former  the  mountains  are  literally  covered 
from  August  to  November ;  and  these  constitute  at  that  season  the 

SBater  part  of  their  food.  During  the  deep  snows  of  winter  they 
ve  recourse  to  the  buds  of  alder,  and  the  tender  buds  of  the  laurel 
(Kaltthia),  He  frequentiy  found  their  crops  distended  with  a  huge 
handful  of  these  latter  alone;  and  addi^  that  it  has  been  confidentiy 
asserted,  that  after  having  fed  for  some  time  on  the  laurel-buds,  their 
flesh  becomes  highly  dangerous  to  eat  of,  partaking  of  the  poisonous 
qualities  of  the  plant  The  same  has  been  asserted  of  the  flesh  of  the 
deer,  when  in  severe  weather  and  deep  snows  they  subsist  on  the 
leaves  and  bark  of  the  laurel.  "  Though,"  continues  Wilson,  "  I  have 
myself  eat  freely  of  the  flesh  of  the  pheasant  after  emptying  it  of  large 
quantities  of  laurel  buds,  without  experiencing  any  bad  consequences, 
yet  from  the  respectability  of  those,  some  of  them  eminent  phyriodans, 
who  have  particularised  cases  in  which  it  has  proved  deleterious,  and 
even  fatal,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  in  certain  cases  where  this 
kind  of  food  has  been  long  continued,  and  the  birds  allowed  to  remain 
undrawn  for  several  days,  until  the  contents  of  the  crop  and  stomach 
have  had  time  to  difluse  themselves  through  the  flesh,  as  is  too  often 
the  case,  it  may  be  unwholesome  and  dangerous.  Great  numbers  of 
theae  Urds  are  brought  to  our  markets  at  all  times  during  faU  and 
winter,  some  of  whidi  are  brought  from  a  distance  of  more  than  a 
hundred  miles,  and  have  been  probably  dead  a  week  or  two,  impicked 
and  undrawn,  before  they  are  purchased  for  the  table.  ReguLEktions 
prohibiting  ihem  from  being  brought  to  market  unless  picked  and 
drawn  would  very  probably  be  a  sufficient  security  from  aU  danger. 
At  these  indement  seasons  however  they  are  generally  lean  and  dry, 
and  indeed  at  all  times  their  flesh  is  £Eur  mferior  to  that  of  the  quul 
or  of  the  pinnated  grouse.  They  are  usually  sold  in  Philadelphia 
market  at  fh>m  thr^uarters  of  a  dollar  to  a  dollar  and  a  quarter  a 
pair,  and  sometimes  higher." 

Audubon  observes  that  they  are  brought  to  the  market  in  great 
numbers  during  the  winter  months,  and  sell  at  firom  75  cents  to  a 
dollar  a^pieoe  in  the  eastern  cities.    At  Pittsburg  he  bought  them 


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BONASIA. 


BONASIA. 


some  vean  ago  at  12^  cents  the  pair.  Nuttall  BaySy  when  he  wrote, 
that  they  were  greatly  thinned  throughout  the  more  populous  parts 
of  the  Union,  and  that  they  sold  in  Philadelphia  and  New  York  at 
from  75  cents  to  a  dollar  a-piece. 

The  food  of  the  Buffed  Qrouse  consists  commonly  in  the  spring  and 
fall,  according  to  the  author  last  quoted,  of  the  buds  of  trees,  the 
catkins  of  the  hazel  and  alder,  even  fern-buds,  acorns,  and  seeds  of 
various  kinds,  among  which  he  detected  the  capsules,  including  the 
seeds,  of  the  common  small  Canadian  Cistus  (HdiamihemwnC),  At 
times  he  has  seen  the  crop  almost  entirely  filled  with  the  buds  of 
the  apple-tree,  each  connected  with  a  portion  of  the  twig,  the  wood 
of  which  appears  to  remain  a  good  while  imdSgested ;  cinquefoil  and 
strawberry  leaves,  buds  of  we  Azaleas  and  of  the  broad-leaved 
Kalmia,  with  the  fietvourite  Partridge-Berries  (Qa/uUheria  pracwnbent), 
Ivy-Bexries  (Oitruthederaeefi),  and  gravel  pebbles,  are  also  some  of  the 
many  articles  which  form  the  winter  fare  of  the  bird.  In  summer 
they  seem  often  to  prefer  berries  of  various  kinds,  particularly  dew- 
berries, strawberries,  grapes,  and  whortleberries. 

We  will  now  lay  before  the  reader  the  modes  of  capturing  the  bird. 
The  following  is  Wilson's  accoimt : — 

**  The  pheasant  generally  springs  within  a  few  yards,  with  a  loud 
whirring  noise,  and  flies  with  great  vigour  through  the  woods  beyond 
reach  of  view,  beforo  it  alights.  With  a  good  dog  however  they  are 
easily  found ;  and  at  some  times  exhibit  a  singular  degree  of  infatua- 
tion, by  looking  down  from  the  branches  when  they  sit  on  the  dog 
below,  who,  the  more  noise  he  keeps  up,  seems  the  moro  to  confuse 
and  stupify  them,  so  that  they  ma^  be  uiot  down  one  bv  one  till  the 
whole  are  killed,  without  attemptmg  to  fly  offl  In  sucm  cases  those 
on  the  lower  limbs  must  be  taken  first,  for  should  the  upper  ones  be 
first  killed,  in  their  fall  they  alarm  those  below,  who  immediately  fly 
o£  In  deep  snows  they  are  usually  taken  in  traps,  commonly  dead 
traps,  supported  by  a  figuro  4  trigger.  At  this  season  when  suddenly 
alarmed,  they  frequently  dive  into  the  snow,  particularly  when  it  is 
newly  fiJlen,  and  coming  out  at  a  considerable  distance,  again  take 
wing.  They  are  pretty  hard  to  kill,  and  will  often  carry  off  a  large 
load  to  the  distance  of  two  hundred  yards  and  drop'  down  dead. 
Sometimes  in  the  depth  of  winter  they  approach  the  Ikrm-house  and 
lurk  near  the  bam,  or  about  the  garden.  They  have  also  been  often 
taken  young  and  tamed,  so  as  to  associate  with  fowls ;  and  their  eggs 
have  frequently  been  hatched  under  the  common  hen;  bat  these 
rarely  survive  until  *full  grown.  They  are  exceedingly-  fondof  tiie 
seeds  of  grapes ;  occasionally  eat  ants,  chestnuts,  blackberries,  and 
various  vegetebles.  Fonnerly  they  wero  numerous  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Philadelphia ;  but  as  the  woods  wero  cleared  and  popu- 
lation increased  they  retreated  to  the  interior.  At  present  (1812) 
there  aro  vexy  few  to  be  foimd  within  several  miles  of  the  city,  and 
those  only  singly,  in  the  most  solitary  and  retired  woody  recesses." 

Audubon  demes  that  they  are  ever  so  easily  shot  as  sticted  above. 

The  pairing  time  of  these  birds  is  mariced  by  a  curious  and  sonorous 
act  on  the  part  of  the  male.  Most  of  the  grouse  family  gesticulate  con- 
siderably at  this  period,  and  some  produce  very  peculiar  vocal  noises ; 
but  the  Ruffed  Grouse  inakes  the  woods  echo  with  the  vibrations  of  his 
wingL    The  following  is  Audubon's  account  of  this  fact:  — 

"Early  in  April  Qua  ruffBd  grouse  begins  to  drum  immediately 
after  dawn,  and  again  towards  the  dose  of  the  day.  As  the  season 
advances,  the  drumming  is  repeated  moro  frequently  at  all  hours  of 
the  day ;  and  where  these  birds  are  abundant  this  curious  sound  is 
heard  from  all  parts  of  the  woods  in  whidi  they  reside.  The  drum- 
ming is  performed  in  the  following  manner : — ThB  male  bird,  standing 
erect  on  a  prostrate  decayed  trunk,  raises  the  feathere  of  its  body  in 
the  manner  of  a  turkey-co<^  draws  its  head  towards  its  tail,  erecting 
the  feathers  of  the  latter  at  the  same  time,  and  raising  its  rudff  around 
the  neck,  suffers  its  wings  to  droop,  and  struts  about  on  the  log.  A 
few  moments  elapse,  when  the  biiti  draws  the  whole  of  its  feathers 
close  to  its  body,  and  stretching  itself  out,  beats  its  sides  with  its 
wings,  in  the  manner  of  the  domestic  cock,  but  more  loudly,  and  with 
such  rapidity  of  motion  after  a  few  of  the  first  strokes,  as  to  cause  a 
tremor  m  the  air  not  unlike  the  rumbling  of  distant  thunder.  In 
perfectly  calm  weather  it  may  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  two  hundred 
yards,  but  miffht  be  supposed  to  proceed  from  a  much  greater  distance. 
The  female,  which  never  drums,  flies  directly  to  the  place  where  the 
Boale  is  thus  engaged,  and  on  approaching  him,  opens  her  wings  before 
him,  balances  her  body  to  the  right  and  left,  and  then  receives  his 
caresses.*  ...  I  have  shot  many  a  flne  cock*  by  imitating  the 
sound  of  its  own  wings  striking  against  the  body,  which  I  did  by 
beating  a  large  inflated  bullock's  bladder  with  a  stick,  keeping  up  as 
much  as  possible  the  same  time  as  that  in  which  the  bird  beats.  At 
the  sound  produced  by  the  bladder  uid  the  stick,  the  male  grouse, 
inflamed  with  jealousy,  has  flown  directly  towards  me^  when  being 
prepared  I  have  easily  G^ot  it" 

The  pairing  time  in  April  is  succeeded  by  the  nidification  in  the 
early  part  of  May.  The  root  of  a  bush,  the  side  of  a  fallen  log,  or 
some  other  sheltered  nook  in  the  thickest  part  of  the  woods,  is 
selected  by  the  hen,  and  there  die  forms  a  rudty  uest  of  withered 
leaveft  and  grass  on  the  ground.  The  eggs,  from  nine  to  fifteen  in 
number,  are  of  a  unif oxm  duU  yellowidi  colour,  or  brownish-white, 
and  are  nearly  as  large  as  those  of  a  pullet.  Aj  soon  as  the  young 
are  oat  of  the  shell  they  begin  to  ran  aboat^  and  are  conducted  by 


the  mother,  clucking  as  she  goes,  very  much  like  the  domeitic  bo. 
Like  her  too  at  night  and  in  bad  weather  die  covers  her  yom^ 
ones  beneath  her  wings,  and  in  a  wedc  or  ten  days  they  begin  to  tiy 
their  powers  of  flight.  Her  manoeuvres  to  decoy  the  intmder  from 
^e  spot  where  her  young  aro  concealed,  by  counterfeiting  UmoMi 
and  by  mimicry  of  distress,  aro  well  known. 

The  Buffed  Grouse  is  surroimded  by  enemies.  In  addition  to  the 
common  persecutor,  man,  the  different  species  of  hawks  are  on  the 
watch  for  these  birds,  and  particularly  Uie  red-tailed  hawk  and  the 
Stanley  hawk,  according  to  Audubon.  The  former  of  these  h&vb, 
silently  perohed  on  the  tops  of  trees,  seizes  his  opportimity  and  djuhtt 
irresiBtibly  down  upon  tnem;  the  latter  gliding  rapidly  through  the 
woods  pounces  upon  them  beforo  they  are  aware  of  their  danger. 
Among  the  quadrupeds,  pole-cats,  weasels,  racoons,  oposBumB,  and 
foxes,  aro  said  by  the  same  author  to  be  destructive  foes  to  them. 

The  following  is  Sir  John  Bichardson's  description  of  a  male  kiM 
on  the  4th  of  May,  on  the  Saskatchewan  plains : — 

''  Back,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  chestnut-brown,  mottkd  and 
finely  undulated  with  blackish-brown ;  the  broad  tips  and  a  oordifoni 
central  mark  on  each  feather  pale-gray.  Back  of  the  neck,  scapiilan, 
and  wing-coverts  having  the  same  coloun ;  but  the  gray  tips  Terr 
narrow,  the  blackish-brown  in  large  blotches,  and  instead  of  oeDfa^ 
mar^,  stripes  along  the  shafts- of  orange-brown  and  browniab-wfaite. 
Top  and  ddes  of  the  head,  the  tertiaries,  and  outer  edges  of  the 
secondaries,  mottled  with  the  same.  Eye  stripe  from  the  nofirils 
whitish.  Shoulder-tufts  vdvet-bladc,  glossed  with  daik-gneo. 
Quills  liver-brown,  the  outer  webs  barred  near  the  base  and  mottidd 
towards  the  tips  with  cream-yellow.  Tail  gray,  findy  undolated,  tad 
also  crossed  by  about  nine  narrow  ban  and  a  broad  subterminaloot 
of  blackish-brown.  Throat  and  breast  yellowish-brown,  belly  a&d 
vent  brownish-white ;  are  remotely  barred^  but  most  broadly  oo  tht 
ddes  of  the  belly,  with  bladdsh-brown,  which  also  forma  a  band 
across  the  upper  part  of  the  breast  between  the  rufb.  Inner  wing- 
coverts  and  axillaries  dove-brown,  barred  and  tipped  with  wfaik 
Bills  and  nails  dai^L  horn-colour.  A  male  killed  at  the  same  time  with 
the  preceding,  and  of  equal  dimenmons,  diows  more  of  the  diesbut 
or  orange-brown  in  its  plumage,  and  the  ground  colour  of  its  taQ  is 
yellowidi-brown,  the  extreme  tips  and  a  bur  next  the  broad  snbter- 
minal  dark  one  being  gray.  Females  have  leas  of  the  blackiah-brown 
colour ;  the  shoulder-tufts  are  orange-brown  instead  of  black ;  aod 
the  subterminal  bar  on  the  tail  is  chestnut-coloured.  In  young  tirds 
orange-brown  is  the  prevailing  tint  of  colour.  They  have  a  short 
orest   on  the  top  of  the  head :  a  fringed  comb  over  the  eye  is 


EofiRsd  Orooac  {Bonana  Umhellus),  male. 
the   male.    Shoulder  tufts  consisting  of  dK>ut  fifteen  fiunhap^ 
feathflcs.    Fourth  quill  the  longest^  slightly  mnw^^^ing  the  third  aw 
fifth.    Tail  fan^ahaped,  of  eighteen  feathers,  the  con'^id  pur  »«• 


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BONASSUS; 


BONB. 


Qum  balf  aa  inch  longer  than  the- outer  ones ;  the  individual  feathers 
Dearly  square  at  the  end.  Tarsas  feathered  more  than  halfway  down 
anteriorfy,  and  about  half  an  inch  lower  posteriorly.  All  the  toes 
strongly  pectinatedi" 

The  dimensions  on  an  ayerage  may  be  taken  as  18  inches  in  length, 
and  23  or  24  indues  in  extent 

Sir  John  Biohardson  states,  that  after  a  careful  comparison  of  the 
Bpedmens  of  Mr.  Douglas's  2Wao  Sabini^  deposited  in  tiie  Edinbxugh 
Mosenm,  they  appeared  to  differ  in  no  respect  from  the  young  of 
Tetrao  UmbMu»  (Bonatia),  and  that  the  charaoters  by  which  Mr. 
Douglas  difltingiiiRhflH  his  bird  are  equally  applicable  to  the  latter. 

Douglaa  also  found  in  the  valleys  of  the  Bocky  Mountaios,  64t*  N. 
lai,  and  a  few  miles  northward,  near  the  sources  of  Peace  River,  a 
bird  which  he  regarded  as  a  variety  of  £,  UmbeUtu. 

BONASSUS.    [BiBON.] 

BONE,  the  oigan  which  in  higher  animals  forms  the  basis  of  the 
fabric  of  the  body.  Many  of  the  creatures  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  the  animal  scalcj,  composed  of  soft  gelatinous  matter,  and 
buoyant  in  water,  need  no  solid  support;  but  all  animals  that 
poBseas  BoM  organs,  and  whose  body  rests  upon  particular  points, 
mmt  have  some  substance  of  a  dense  and  inflexible  nature  to  afford 
to  their  various  tissues  and  structures  the  requisite  resistance  and 
support  The  substances  that  serve  this  purpose  are  various,  but  '^le 
most  common  are  the  salts  of  lime,  sometimes  the  carbonate,  some- 
times the  phosphate,  and  at  other  times  both  combined  in  different 
proportiooa  Carbonate  of  lime  constitutes  the  solid  basis  of  many 
of  the  compound  zoophytes  and  the  corals.  It  also  constitutes  the 
principal  part  of  the  fabric  of  the  shells  of  MoBuaca.  It  is  found 
also  in  the  external  skeleton  of  the  Onutacea,  as  the  crabs  and  lobsters, 
but  in  this  instance  the  phosphate  of  lime  is  also  present^  and 
predominatea  It  is  in  the  skeletons, of  the  Vertebrate  animals  that  we 
find  the  phosphate  of  lime  greatly  preponderating.  This  is 
characteristic  of  bone. 

When  an  animal  possesses  bone  as  the  solid  support  of  its  fabric 
it  indicates  a  high  degree  in  the  scale  of  oiganisation.  Bone  ia  an 
elaborate  structure  found  in  no  class  below  the  VertebrcUa.  Even  the 
lowest  order  of  this,  which  is  the  highest  class  of  animals,  is  wholly 
destitute  of  it ;  for  it  is  not  found  in  large  tribes  of  fishes,  the  sharl^ 
the  sturgeon,  the  ray,  &o.  In  these  the  lesshighly-oiganised  substance 
called  cartilage  is  substituted,  and  accordingly  these  fishes  are  caUed 
cartilaginous  in  oontradistinction  to  the  osseous;  and  in  all  classes  below 
the  cartiLaginous  fishes  the  dense  and  inflexible  substance  which  sus- 
tains the  soft  parts  of  the  body,  and  which  affords  points  of  resistance 
for  the  action  of  those  parts,  oonsistB  either  of  shells  or  of  some 
modification,  and  not  of  true  organised  bone. 

In  general  the  structure  which  performs  the  office  of  bone  in  the 
lower  animals  is  plaoed  on  the  exterior  of  the  body,  and  often  indeed 
forms  its  external  envelope;  true  bone,  on  the  contrary,  is  alwa^ 
plaoed  in  the  interior.  Even  when  it  approaches  the  sui^ce  bone  is 
always  covered  by  some  soft  part,  as  musde^  membrane,  skin,  ftc. 
Crast^  shell,  horn — the  substanoes  which  form  the  skeleton  of  the 
inferior  animals — are  thus  eztemal,  the  soft  parts  being  internal;  but 
in  the  hiig^er  animals  the  skeleton  is  always  internal,  and  the  soft  parts, 
which  are  sustained  by  it  and  which  re-act  upon  it,  are  external 

The  office  of  bone  in  the  animal  economy  is  chiefly  mechanical,  and 
the  mechanioal  purposes  to  which  it  is  subservient  require  that  it 
should  be  of  different  sizes  and  forms.  In  the  human  skeleton  there 
are  commonly  eniunerated  260  different  bones»  which  present  every 
variety  of  sixe  and  figure.  But  all  these  varieties  may  be  reduced  to 
three  daases :  the  long  and  round,  as  the  bones  of  the  upper  and  lower 
extremities ;  the  broad  and  flat>  as  the  bones  of  the  skuU ;  or  the  short 
ud  square,  as  the  separate  bones  that  compose  the  vertebral  column. 
The  long  bones  are  adapted  for  motion,  the  flat  for  protection,  and  ihe 
square  for  motion  combined  with  strength.  Accordingly  the  long 
bonesi,  which  are  adapted  to  communicate  a  free  range  of  motion,  are 
moulded  into  lengthened  cylinders,  and  form  so  many  levers,  consti- 
tuting organs  of  locomotion  exquisitely  oonstmoted  and  combined  for 
the  accomplishment  of  their  offioe,  as  is  seen  in  the  fin  of  the  fish,  in 
Uie  wing  of  tiie  bird,  and  in  the  limb  of  the  quadruped.  In  the 
employment  of  the  flat  bones  for  the  covering  of  some  of  the  more 
tender  and  delicate  organs,  aa  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  the  form  of 
these  bones  is  such  as  to  add  to  their  strength,  as  is  manifest  in  the 
vaulted  roof  of  the  skull ;  while  in  the  construction  of  the  vertebral 
column,  composed  of  the  short  and  square  bones,  which  are  so  adjusted 
aa  to  afford  a  limited  range  of  motion  with  a  great  degree  of  strength, 
many  and  opposite  purposes  are  effected. 

The  structure,  disposition,  and  oonnection  of  the  individual  bones 
aooomplish  in  the  most  perfect  manner  the  following  mechanical 
uses  :~1.  By  their  hardness  and  firmness  they  afford  a  support  to  the 
Boft  partSy  forming  pillars  to  which  the  more  delicate  and  flexible 
organs  are  attached,  and  kept  in  their  relative  positions.  2.  By  i^e 
same  properties  of  hardness  and  firmness  they  defend  the  soft  and 
tender  orgKOB,  by  forming  solid  and  strong  cases  in  which  such  organs 
are  lodged  and  protected ;  as  the  case  formed  by  the  bones  of  the 
cranium  for  the  lodgment  and  protection  of  the  brain ;  by  ^e  bones 
of  the  vertebral  column  for  the  lodgment  and  protection  of  the  spinal 
ttitd  ;  and  by  the  bones  of  the  thorax  for  the  lodgment  and  protection 
of  the  lungi^  the  hearty  and  the  great  vesaaU  connected  with  it   8.  By 


affording  fixed  points  for  the  action  of  the  muades,  and  by  assisting 
in  the  formation  of  joints,  they  aid  and  are  indeed  indispensable 
adjuncts  to  the  muscles  in  aocompUshing  the  function  of  locomotioiL 

Bone  is  a  complex  organ,  and  the  arrangement  and  combination  of 
its  constituent  p«rts  are  highly  curious.  It  is  composed  essentially  of 
two  distinct  substances,  an  animal  and  an  earthy  matter.  The  animal 
matter  is  composed  of  gelatine ;  the  earthy  matter  consists  principally 
of  phosphoric  acid  combined  with  lime,  fonning  phosphate  of  lime. 

Tins  structure  of  bone  is  rendered  manifest  by  subjecting  it  to 
certain  chemical  processes.  If  a  bone  be  placed  in  a  charcoal  fire,  and 
the  heat  be  gradually  raised  to  whiteness,  it  appears  on  cooling  aa 
white  as  chalk ;  it  is  extremely  brittie ;  it  has  loist  very  much  of  its 
weight  yet  its  bulk  and  shape  are  liUle  changed.  In  this  case  the 
membranous  matter  is  wholly  consumed  by  the  fire,  while  the  earth 
is  left  unaltered.  Over  the  sur&ce  of  a  bone  so  treated  are  visible  a 
number  of  minute  crevices,  the  spaces  which  were  filled  in  the  natural 
state  of  the  bone  with  the  animal  matter ;  and  on  breaking  the  bone 
across,  the  sijae  and  shape  of  the  cavities  which  contained  tJ^e  marrow 
become  manifest  If  on  the  other  hand  the  same  bone  be  plaoed  in 
an  acid  sufficiently  diluted  to  prevent  its  injuring  the  animal  mem- 
brane, and  yet  strong  enough  to  dissolve  the  phoephate  of  lime — ^if 
for  this  purpose  it  be  macerated  in  diluted  nitric  or  hydrochloric  add 
— every  particle  of  the  phoephate  of  lime  may  be  removed,  and  the 
animal  matter  alone  will  remain  perfectly  uninjured  and  unaltered. 
Accordingly  the  remaining  substance  retains  tiie  exact  figure  and 
dimensions  of  the  originckl  bone,  but  it  has  lost  all  its  other  mechanical 
properties.  It  is  so  soft  and  flexible  that  if  either  of  the  long  bones 
of  the  human  arm — that,  for  example,  called  the  radius — ^be  treated  in 
this  manner,  it  can  vrith  the  utmost  ease  be  tied  in  a  knot  By  the 
first  prooess  the  earth  is  obtained,  deprived  of  its  animal  constituent ; 
by  the  second,  the  membranous  matter  firee  f^m  the  earth.  In  the 
bone  both  are  combined ;  in  every  constituent  atom  of  it  there  is  an 
earthy  in  intimate  combination  with  an  animal  matter.  The  first 
gives  it  hardness,  the  second  tenacity;  and  thus  by  the  intimate 
combination  of  these  elements  two  qualities  which  in  unorganised 
matter  are  scarcely  compatible  are  combined.  By  increasing  tiie  pro- 
portion of  phosphate  of  lime  any  degree  of  hardness  can  be  obtained : 
the  bony  portions  of  the  ear,  the  bony  portions  of  the  teeth,  for 
example,  are  as  hard  as  marble,  or  even  flint ;  but  substances  so  hard 
would  not  do  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  bone,  because  they  would 
be  brittie  in  proportion  to  their  hanlness,  and  would  be  productive  of 
fatal  mischi^  wnenever  they  were  subject  to  any  sudden  and  violent 
concussion. 

In  certain  diseased  states  of  the  human  system  the  earthy  matter 
preponderates  in  the  whole  osseous  system,  and  in  this  condition  per- 
sons are  liable  to  fracture  their  bones  by  the  slightest  accident  On 
the  other  hand,  the  earthy  matter  is  sometimes  deficient ;  then  the 
bones  give  way  and  beoome  bent>  and  ultimately  the  body  becomes  an 
immoveable  mass.  ' 

Bones  not  only  difibr  so  much  from  one  another  in  their  comparative 
hardness  acoordmg  to  the  office  which  each  has  to  serve  that  no  two 
bones  possess  the  same  degree  of  rigidity,  but  no  bone  is  equally  hard 
in  its  entire  substance.  When  a  section  of  a  bone  is  made  in  such  a 
maimer  as  to  show  its  structure  throughout,  it  is  seen  to  consist  of  two 
varietLes,  a  hard  or  compact  and  an  alveolap  or  spongy  substance. 
In  general  the  compact  forms  the  external  and  the  apongy  the  internal 
portion  of  the  bone ;  the  compactest  part  of  the  bone  forms  a  com- 
pletely solid  body,  exhibitijig  scarcely  any  visible  arrangement,  without 
apparent  fibres  and  iftminm  j  but  towards  the  inner  part  of  the  bone 
the  substance  becomes  less  and  less  dense,  until  at  length  it  presents 
the  appearance  of  ininute  and  delicate  fibres,  which  intersect  each 
other  in  every  direction,  fonning  the  cells  termed  cancelli  (lattice- 
work). The  transition  from  the  compact  to  the  spongy  or  cancellated 
part  is  not  marked  bv  any  distinct  boundary ;  the  one  passes  into 
the  otiier  by  insensible  degrees,  showing  that  there  is  no  essential 
difference  bertween  them ;  and  indeed  the  evidence  is  complete  that, 
although  in  the  densest  part  of  the  bone  there  is  scarcely  any  trace  of 
specific  organisation,  it  is  made  up  of  fibres  and  plates  perfectly 
similar  to  those  of  the  spongy  or  cancellated  part,  differing  from  it 
prindipiJly  in  its  greater  degree  of  condensation.  Often  in  the  centre 
of  the  bone  there  is  scarcely  any  even  of  the  spongy  matter,  but  a 
hollow  space  ia  left>  which  is  filled  up  with  a  series  of  membranous 
cells  in  whidi  the  substance  called  marrow  is  lodged. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  fibres  in  different  bones,  so  as  to  adapt 
them  to  the  specific  offices  they  have  to  serve,  there  is  exquisite 
mechanisuL  Where  the  principal  object  is  either  extensive  protection, 
or  the  provision  of  broad  surfiaces  for  the  attachment  of  muscles,  the 
osseous  fibres  are  so  disposed  as  to  form  fiattened  plates,  as  in  the 
bones  of  the  skuU.  When  on  the  other  hand  a  sy^^m  of  levers  is 
wanted,  as  in  the  limbs  which  have  to  sustain  tiie  weight  of  the 
trunk,  and  to  confer  extensive  powers  of  locomotion,  the  bones  are 
modelled  into  lengthened  cylinders,  generally  somewhat  expanded  at 
the  extremities  for  greater  convenience  of  mutual  ooimectiozL  The 
shank  or  body  of  this  hoUow  cylinder  consists  principally  of  compact 
with  but  little  spongy  matter,  while  the  extremity  or. head  of  it  is 
principally  composed  <d  spongy  matter,  with  only  a  thin  crustof  compact 
substanca  The  principal  mechanical  property  required  in  every 
cyUndxical  lever  is  rigidity,  and  more  espedally  the  power  of  resisting 


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«n 


BOKB. 


BOT^ 


671 


foroM  applied  tniunrenelj,  that  ia,  tending  to  break  the  cylinder 
aoroeB ;  it  has  been  often  stated  that  a  given  quantily  of  materialB 
could  not  poonblj  have  been  dispofled  in  a  manner  better  oalcnlated 
for  such  resistance  than  those  in  the  form  of  a  tube  or  hollow 
cylinder.  The  hollow  stems  of  vQgetables  derire  their  chief  strength 
from  possessing  this  form.  Bones  also  are  rendered  both  lighter 
and  stronger  by  being  made  hollow  than  if  the  cnrlinder  had  been 
solid ;  and  as  it  is  in  the  middle  of  the  shaft  that  the  strain  ia 
greatest^  so  it  is  here  that  the  cavity  is  largest  and  the  resistance  most 
eflfoctuaL 

Bone  has  been  recently  submitted  to  rigid  chemical  analysis,  and 
the  result  is  that  in  healthy  bone  about  two-thirds,  or  66'7  per  cent., 
consist  of  saline  or  earthy  matters,  and  88*3  per  cent.,  or  one-third, 
of  animal  matter.  The  bones  of  children  contain  more  animal  matter, 
and  of  aged  persons  more  earth.  Different  bones  also  in  the  same 
skeleton  contain  different  proportions  of  these  constituents.  Thus, 
according  to  Dr.  O.  0.  Rees,  the  bones  of  the  head  and  the  limbs 
contain  more  earth  than  those  of  the  trunk.  The  following  are  two 
ultimate  analyses  of  bone  from  Dr.  Sharpey's  Introduction  to  '  Quain's 
Anatomy  :'  the  one  is  by  Bersselius,  the  other  by  Mr.  Middleton  of 
University  College : — 

Bensclias,    Middleton. 

Animal  Matter 83'80  88*43 

Phosphate  of  Lime 51*04  51*11 

Gkrbonate  of  Lime     .  .    11*80  10*31 

Fluoride  of  Galdum 2*00  1*99 

Magnesia,  wholly  or  partially  in  the  state  1    « .^ «  t.an 

^a^hosphati        ...        .        .}  ^^^  ^^^ 

Soda  and  Chloride  of  Sodium  .    .      1*20  1*68 

The  phosphate  of  lime  in  bones  is  peculiar,  and  is  known  amongst 

chemists  as  the  'bone-earth  phosphate.'      It  is  what  is  called  a 

tribasic  phosphate,  consisting  of  8  equivalents  of  lime,  8  of  phosphoric 

add,  and  10  of  water,    fluoride  of  oaldum  is  found  in  laiger 

quantities  in  fossil  than  in  recent  bonee ;  and  such  is  its  abundance 

in  some  fossils,  as  those  brought  from  the  Sevalik  Hills,  in  India,  by 

Dr.  Falconer,  that  we  must  have  recourse  to  the  supposition  of  a 

substitution  of  this  substance  for  phosphate  of  lime,  in  order  to 

account  for  its  presence. 

We  have  referred  to  the  statement  that  the  bones  of  the  limbs 
contain  more  earth  than  the  trunk.  The  following  analysis  by 
Lehmann  shows  that  the  bones  of  the  arms  and  legs  have  a  different 
compostion : — 

Humenis.  Femur. 
Phosphate  of  Lime  and  Fluoride  of  Caldum  56*61  58*98 
Carbonate  of  Lime       ....  9*20        9*28 

Phosphate  of  lUgnesia 1*08        1*09 

Chloride  of  Sodium       .....      0*87        0*40 

Soda 1*86        1*04 

Organic  Matter 81*52      28*61 

When  examined  under  the  microscope,  sections  of  the  different 
bones  present  very  different  appearances,  not  at  first  easily  reconciled 
with  a  common  mode  of  origm  or  growlh.  The  result  of  a  dose 
investigation,  however,  shows  that  the  osseous  tissue  like  all  other 
parts  of  the  body  originates  in  cells.    This  fSaot  is  not  easily  traced. 


Fig.  1. — ^TraniTerae  Section  of  the  dense  portion  of  the  Femur. 
0,  Havenian  Canals;  5,  conoentrio  laminn;  c,  laminas  of  oonneotion ;  d,  cor- 
poscles  with  their  system  of  tubes.    The  parts  marked  a,  h,  and  d,  constitute 
an  Haversian  system. 

and  we  shall  first  speak  here  of  the  appearances  presented  on  a 
minute  examination  of  Hie  texture  of  the  bone. 
Tlie  canals  whid^  are  everywhere  found  traversiDg  variouily  the 


substance  of  bone,  and  giving  passue  to  the  blood-venels  for  thf 
nourishment  of  the  tifsue,  are  caJled  Haversian  Canals,  a  name  give^ 
them  in  consequence  of  Clopton  Havers  having  been  the  first  who 
gave  a  fuU  account  of  them.  The  parietes  of  these  canals  have  a 
laminated  arrangement  The  lamin»  themselves  are  numerous  and 
placed  concentrically ;  the  internal  lamina,  that  which  is  in  imme- 
diate contact  with  the  vessel  or  vessels,  being  the  most  distincUj 
marked,  and  eadi  succeeding  one  having  a  less  distinct  outline 

Beddes  the  concentric  lamii^e,  there  are  others  which  surround 
the  exterior  of  the  bone,  and  may  be  known  as  the  superficial  lanmuBL 
In  connection  with  both  the  conoentrio  and  superficial  lamins  are  a 
third  set>  which  cannot  belong  to  either  of  Uie  other  orders,  but 
which  are  placed  between  them,  and  form  the  bond  of  union  between 
each  system. 

Much  has  been  latdy  written  on  tha  bone-corpuscles.  These  are 
small  cells  of  oval  form  placed  between  the  laminae,  and  having 
numerous  distinct  tubes  running  from  them  in  almost  every  direction. 
They  have  been  sometimes  compared  to  a  spider  with  many  lega 
The  corpuscles,  or  as  they  are  occadonaUy  called  the  caldgerooB 
cells,  have  a  definite  relation  to  the  Haversian  Canals  and  to  each 
other. 

The  Haversian  Canals,  the  Osseous  Laminae,  and  the  Bone-Corpusdes 
are  therefore  the  leading  points  to  be  mentioned  in  treating  of  the 
structure  of  the  bone.  Upon  a  doser  view,  however,  it  will  be  seen 
that  it  is  only  the  laminae  which  are  bone ;  the  canals  and  corpuscles 
are  spaces  existing  in  bone,  and  are  not  really  necessary  to  the 
existence  of  osseous  tissue,  though  they  are  requisite  where  the 
amount  of  substance  is  appreciable  to  the  unaided  senses. 

Of  the  Stibttance  ofBontf  or  ffyalUic  Sfibttanee, — The  substance  of 
bone  has  been  conddered,  with  but  one  or  two  exceptions,  as  homo- 
geneous, and  without  appredable  structure.  If  it  be  examined  how- 
ever under  advantageous  drcumstances,  with  high  magnifying  powen» 
there  wUl  be  no  difficulty  in  detecting  a  very  definite  though  delicate 
structure.  A  very  small  portion  of  a  thin  plate  of  bone  should  be 
taken  for  the  purpose  of  examination :  sudi  may  be  found  in  the 
ethmoid  bone  of  small  animals,  as  of  the  rat.  If  the  piece  is  properly 
chosen  it  will  be  foimd  to  contain  no  Haversian  Canals  nor  ooxpusdes, 
but  wUl  be  extremely  thin  and  transparent.  A  piece  of  this  undwill 
present  a  delicate  granular  aspect  with  the 
surfiace  nodulated.  This  granular  appearance 
proceeds  from  the  substance  of  the  bone  being 
composed  of  minute  irregulariy  spherical 
granules.  This  structure  may  be  traced  with- 
out much  difficulty  in  any  specimen  of  bone, 
although  it  varies  much  in  distinctness  in 
diffierent  specimens.  The  object  should  be 
placed  between  two  slips  of  g^lass  with  a  little 
plain  water  for  examination.  A  delicate 
spiculum  from  the  point  where  ossification 
is  going  on  illustrates  the  granular  tissue  ex- 
ce^ingly  wcdL  The  granules  may  be  obtained 
Fig.  2.~XJltimato  os.  separated  from  each  other,  so  that  each  indi- 
■•~*  J^*^  obtained  ^^^^  j^j  y^  examined  independently  of  the 
bydep^ring  bone  of  ito  ^^^^  When  seen  in  this  manner  tiieyexhibH 
animal  matter.  ^   tolerably  regular  character,  bdng  mostiy 

spherical,  though  a  few  have  an  oval  form.  In  a  few  specimens  the 
oval  form  predominates. 

Of  the  Lamina. — The  form  assumed  by  the  osseous  tissue  is  that  of 
laminae,  and  these  laminae  have  a  definite  arrangement^  so  much  so 
that  three  distinct  systems  are  recognised,  namdy,  laminae  of  the 
Haversian  Canals ;  secondly,  the  laminae  which  connect  the  HaveniaD 
systems ;  and,  thirdly,  the  laminae  which  form  the  surfiaoe  of  the  bone, 
and  inclose  the  two  previous  orders.  The  laminae  of  the  Haversiao 
Canals  have  a  concentric  arrangement,  and  when  divided  transversely 
present  a  series  of  more  or  less  distinct  and  perfect  rixigs.  They  vary 
very  much  in  number,  but  the  most  common  amount  is  ten  or  twetve. 
Of  these,  the  internal  lamina,  that  which  forms  the  parieties  of  the 
Haverdan  Canal,  is  most  distinctly  marked,  while  each  succeeding  one 
as  we  proceed  outwards  becomes  less  distinct  Connecting  these 
Haversian  systems  is  a  second  series  of  laminae,  without  wluch  the 
fonner  would  exist  but  as  a  bundle  of  loose  tubes  (Jig.  1,  c).  In  this 
substance  we  find  the  laminated  arrangement  less  distinct,  hr  less 
regular,  and  the  laminae  individually  subject  to  great  irregularity  of 
thickness.  They  are  generally  more  transparent  than  either  the 
Haversian  or  external  system.  The  last  dividon  consists  of  those 
laminae  which  surround  the  exterior  of  the  bone.  These  have  greater 
individual  extent^  but  are  the  least  numerous.  They  are  continuons 
with  the  laminae  of  the  Haversian  system  whenever  the  latter  arrive 
at  the  sur&ce  of  the  bone;  the  external  laminae  in  this  case  being 
continuous  with  the  inner  laminae  of  the  Haverdan  systeuL 

The  effect  of  madder  upon  the  osseous  system,  when  given  to  an 
animal  with  its  food,  may  here  be  noticed,  since  the  colour  is  imparted 
to  the  laminae.  By  introducing  madder  into  the  stomach,  a  deep  red 
tinge  is  very  soon  observed :  in  a  pigeon  the  bones  were  renaerad 
brilliantly  red  in  24  hours.  A  similar  effect  was  produced  on  a  voung 
pig  in  three  weeks.  On  making  sections  of  bone  so  afiected,  the 
colour  is  found  to  be  present  in  tiie  external  laminae  of  the  bone,  and 
in  theinner  laminae  of  the  Haverdan  system,  thereby  proving  that  the 


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action  of  oolouring  takes  place  upon  those  surfaces  which  lie  in  contact 
with  vessels. 

Cf  the  Sa»er$ian  CkmaU. — These  canals  must  be  considered  in  rela- 
tion to  their  number,  their  sizoi  and  the  parts  which  they  contain. 
The  number  of  canals  in  a  given  space  varies  perhaps  a  litUe,  but  this 
yariation  wiU  be  regulated  in  some  degree  by  we  situation  of  the  bone, 
but  more  especially  by  its  age.  Thus  the  transverse  section  of  the 
femur  of  a  human  foetus  of  seven  months  will  present  many  more 
canals  than  a  section  of  equal  measurement  from  the  femur  of  an 
adults  The  size  of  the  Haversian  Canals  takes  a  considerable  range, 
▼arying  from  the  800th  to  tiie  600th  of  an  inch.  The  Haversian 
Canals  undoubtedly  give  passage  to  blood-vessels,  this  being  their 
principal  if  not  only  purpose. 

The  Chrpuadee  or  OdU  of  Bone  cannot  be  described  as  having  any 
definite  unnurying  shape  or  size.  The  general  form  is  a  compressed 
oval,  though  not  unf{«quently  they  are  drcular.  Again,  they  an 
Bometamee  almost  triangular  in  their  outline,  while  in  other  instances 
they  approach  a  linear  shape.  These  are  the  most  common  varieties 
of  outlme  to  which  the  bone-cells  are  subject,  as  they  occur  in  the 
bones  of  man  and  the  higher  animala    In  the  four  great  dasses  of 


Fig.  S.— The  Forms  araaraed  by  the  Bone-Cells  in  ICan. 


Ffg.  44~-YarioQS  Forms  of  Bone-GeUs  in  the  Bone  of  the  Boa  Chnstrietor, 

.'wfmalBj  namely,  Tnammalia»  birds,  reptileB,  and  fishes,  it  has  been 
shown  by  FrofSeaor  Quekett  that  there  are  certain  characters  connected 
with  these  cells  by  which  a  bone  of  one  class  of  animals  may  be 
distinguished  from  that  of  another,  and  that  the  sise  of  these  cells 
bean  a  direct  relative  proportion  to  that  of  the  blood-ooipusdee.  He 
has  shown  that  they  are  smallest  in  birds,  a  little  larger  in  mammals, 
and  laxigest  of  all  in  the  reptiles  ;  while  in  fishes  they  are  altogether 
unlike  those  in  the  proceeding  classes.  The  importance  of  this  obser- 
vation in  relation  to  fossil  osteologv  is  obvious.  Connected  with  the 
cells  are  numerous  delicate  branchmg  tubes,  called  canaliouli,  which 
are  slightly  dilated  as  they  enter  the  cells.  The  number  arising  from 
each  cell  does  not  allow  of  any  very  definite  enumeration,  since  no 
two  cells  will  be  found  possessed  of  a  like  number  of  branchinff  tubes. 
The  gemeral  annmgement  of  the  tubes  is  radiate  as  regards  the  cells 
which  form  their  common  centre.  The  connections  are  so  numerous 
between  the  tubes  and  between  the  cells  through  the  tubes,  that  a 
fiuid  introduced  into  one  ceU  in  a  bone,  may  enter  every  other  cell  in 
that  bone.  The  cells  are  situated  between  the  laminm,  or  on  their 
surface;  but  where  concentric  lamin»  occur,  as  in  the  Haversian 
i^rstem,  the  oeUa  are  placed  in  drcular  Unes  between  the  laminsB,  each 
Ime  of  cellB  having  the  Haversian  Canal  as  an  exit  common  to  it  and 
the  oonneeting  laminae.  When  the  canals  for  vessels  are  in  great 
abundance,  the  bone-cells  are  more  rarely  met  with ;  indeed  in  some 
cases  they  are  almost  entirely  absent.  When  the  cells  are  seen  by 
transmitted  lighty  particularly  in  a  transverse  section  of  bone,  they 
aire  frequently  opaque.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  bone-ceUs  peorform 
the  function  of  circulation. 

Farmali<m  of  JBone. — The  commencement  of  the  growth  of  bone  is 
generally  nreceded  by  the  formation  of  a  cartilaginous  matter  which 
occupies  toe  place  afterwards  taken  by  bone.  From  this  circumstance 
it  has  been  supposed  that  bone  is  formed  from  the  ossification  of  cartilu;e. 
This  however  is  not  the  case,  as  it  is  found  that  although  ossification 
takes  place  in  the  first  instance  in  cartilage,  the  bony  matter  thus 
formed  has  not  a  permanent  character.  The  formation  of  bone  always 
takes  place  in  the  first  instance  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
blood-vessels  in  canals  excavated  in  the  cartilaginous  substance, 
.ind  the  spots  where  these  canals  are  formed  are  coEdled  centres  of  ossi- 
fication. There  is  usually  one  of  these  in  the  centre  of  a  long  bone 
And  one  at  eaeh  eiu^  uid  frequently  another  for  any  considerable 


process  or  projection,  such  as  the  trochanter  in  the  femur  of  the 
human  body.  Up  to  the  time  that  the  bone  Ib  fuUy  formed  these 
centres  are  only  connected  by  cartilage,  and  this  arrangement  serves 
the  obvious  purpose  of  allowing  the  increase  of  the  whole  bone  by 
means  of  cartilage  until  the  time  comes  when  no  further  incresse  of 
si^  is  needed.  ^  In  the  early  conditions  of  the  i^eleton  of  the  vertebrate 
animals  there  is  a  much  closer  correspondence  in  this  respect  than  is 
subsequentiy  seen ;  for  according  to  the  habits  of  the  anixnal  the 
whole  of  the  cartilage  is  converted  into  bone,  or  by  its  absorption  and 
disap]pearanoe  separate  bones  are  formed.  It  is  upon  this  fact  that 
the  science  of  transcendental  anatomy  rests,  in  which  the  whole  of  the 
modifications  of  the  vertebrate  skeleton  are  referred  to  departures 
from  a  type  which  is  found  generally  to  exist  in  the  embryo  condition 
of  the  whole  class.  Thus  it  is  found,  from  an  extensive  comparison, 
that  the  regular  number  of  distinct  bones  in  the  wrist  (carpus)  and 
instep  (tarsus)  Ib  ten,  but  in  the  human  wrist  the  number  is  reduced 
to  eight  and  in  the  instep  to  seven,  whilst  the  reduction  is  still  greater 
in  the  hoofed  mammalia.    [Skeleton.] 

The  structure  of  the  temporary  cartilage  of  bone  is  precisely  the 
same  as  permanent  cartilage.  The  first  ctJcareous  deposit  is  made  in 
the  space  between  the  proper'  ceUs  of  the  cartilage.  These  cells 
subsequentiy  disappear  leaving  large  open  areoln  having  no  very 
definite  form.  In  these  areouB  there  is  subsequentiy  deposited  a 
fiuid  blastema  containing  cells,  and  through  the  agency  of  this 
blastema  the  Haversian  canals  and  canoelli  appear  to  l>e  formed, 
whilst  the  interspersed  ceUs  are  changed  into  the  bone-cells  and  their 
projecting  canaliouli  Although  in  most  instances  the  formation  of 
bone  is  preceded  by  that  of  cartilage^  yet  this  is  not  universally  the 
case,  as  we  see  bone  formed  in  the  substance  of  the  tissues,  as  for 
instance  the  fibrous  membrane.  This  is  seen-  in  the  development  of 
the  bones  of  the  roof  of  the  skull,  and  also  in  the  growth  of  bones 
subsequentiy  to  their  first  development  by  tiie  progressive  calo^ca- 
tion  of  the  inner  layers  of  the  periosteum,  or  fibrous  covering  of  tiie 
bones. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  central  cavities  of  some  of  the  larger 
bones  are  filled  with  the  substance  called  marrow,  an  oilv  matter 
contained  in  a  series  of  membranous  cells,  which,  like  tiiose  m  whidi 
the  fat  is  deposited  do  not  communicate  with  each  other.  Even  the 
pores  and  cancelli  of  bone  also  contain  a  kind  of  oUy  matter,  which 
IS  supposed  to  differ  from  marrow  only  in  poosessing  a  greater  degree 
of  fluidity.  This  oily  matter  is  deposited  in  longitudinal  caniBls, 
which  pass  through  the  solid  substance  of  the  bone,  together  with  its 
nutrient  vessels.  The  use  of  the  marrow,  and  of  the  modification  of 
it  which  constitutes  the  oily  matter,  is  not  well  understood.  Without 
doubt  it  serves  the  same  general  use  in  the  economy  as  the  other  oily 
secretions.    [Adipose  Tjasna.] 

All  bones  are  covered  by  a  membrane,  named,  on  account  of  its 
affording  them  an  external  envelope,  Periosteum.  The  outer  surface  of 
this  enveloping  membrane  is  connected  to  the  surrounding  parts  by 
cellular  tissue,  but  its  inner  surf^e  is  firmly  aaherent  to  the  substance 
of  the  bone.  This  adhesion  is  effooted  by  innumerable  fibres  or 
threads,  which  on  examination  are  found  to  consist  of  blood-vesseh. 
The  periosteum  is  in  fact  the  membrane  on  which  the  nutrient 
arteries  of  the  bone  rest,  divide,  and  ramify*  in  order  to  enter  the 
osseous  substance.  These  threads  are  much  more  numerous  in  the 
child  than  in  the  adult ;  and  accordingly  the  adhesion  of  the  perios- 
teum to  the  bone  is  much  firmer  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter,  as 
the  quantity  of  blood  distributed  to  the  bone  is  greater.  Moreover, 
in  general  the  itmer  surface  of  bones  is  also  Imed  by  a  fine  and 
delicate  membrane^  commonly  termed  the  internal  periosteum,  the 
continuation  of  which  forms  the  membranous  bags  in  which  the 
marrow  is  contained. 

(Roget,  Animal  and  VegetdbU  Phytiology;  Southwood  Smith, 
PhUoiophy  of  Health;  Simon,  Animal  ChemiOry ;  Sharpey,  Qica«n< 
Anatomy;  Cfyclopcsdia  of  Anatomy  and  Phynology,  articles  *  Bene,' 
'  Osaeoue  Tuiue* ;  Todd  and  Bowman,  PhysMoffieal  Anatomy; 
Carpenter,  Prinoiplee  of  Phytiologv,  Ckneral  and  Oomparatwe; 
Tomes  and  De  Morgan,  Structure  of  Bene,  Phil,  Trane,  j  Quekett^ 
Lectwree  on  Mialology) 

BONE-BEDS.  Accumulations  of  the  bones  of  extinct  animals,  move 
especially  of  fish  and  Saurian  reptiles,  are  not  imcommon  in  various 
strata,  and  have  had  this  name  given  them  by  geologists.  They  gene- 
rally occur  at  the  termination  of  one  formation  and  the  commencement 
of  another.  These  Bone-Beds  are  local,  and  are  not  in  any  case  very 
extensive.  The  thickest  and  most  widely-distributed  is  that  of  the 
Lias,  which  seems  to  mark  the  commencement  of  the  New  Red-Sand- 
stone epoch.    The  most  remarkable  Bone-Beds  are  the  following : — 

Bone-Bed  at  the  base  of  the  Lower  Qreensand  at  its  junction  with 
the  Wealden ;  at  the  base  of  the  Inferior  Oolite,  at  its  junction  with 
the  Lias ;  at  the  base  of  the  Lias,  at  its  junction  with  the  New  Bed- 
Marl  ;  at  the  base  of  the  Mountain  Limestone,  at  its  junction  with  the 
Old  Bed-Sandstone ;  at  the  base  of  the  Old  Bed-Sandstone,  at  its  juno- 
tion  with  the  Ludlow  Bock  of  the  Silurian  System. 

(Brodie,  On  the  Baement-Beds  of  the  Inferior  OoliU ;  Proe.  Choi  Soe.) 

BONE-DOG,  a  name  given  in  Sussex  to  the  picked  Dog-Fish  (^ma- 
thias  vtUgarte,  Bisso).    ^ualida] 

BONE'LLIA,  a  genus  of  Bchinodermata,  formed  bv  Rolando,  and 
placed  by  Cuvier  in  the  tenth  order  of  his  first  dass  ox  Zoophytes^  the 


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Echinoderms  {EchinodertMUom  JtacKaria)  of  Lamarck.  Thia  tenth 
order  oonsiBts  of  the  Footless  Echinodermfl^  and  BoneUia  forms  its 
sixth  genua.  Cuvier  says  that  BoneUia  has  an  oval  body  and  a  pro- 
boscis formed  of  a  folded  fleshy  plate  (lame)  susceptible  of  great 
elongation  and  fbrked  at  its  extremity.  The  vent  is  at  the  opposite  end 
of  the  body ;  the  intestine  is  veiy  long,  being  folded  several  times,  and 
near  the  vent  are  two  ramified  organs  for  the  parpose  of  respiration. 
The  eggs  are  contamed  in  an  oblong  sac  which  has  its  opening  near  the 
base  of  the  proboscis. 

The  animal  is  described  as  living  deep  in  the  sand,  and  projecting 
its  proboscis  till  it  arrives  at  the  water  when  it  is  high,  or  till  it 
reaches  ^e  air  when  the  water  is  low. 

The  cut  represents  BoneUia  viridia,  which  is  found  in  the  Mediter- 


BONOAB,  a  name  given  to  the  Bock-Snake  of  the  East  Indies. 
[Boida] 

BONGARDIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Berheridaeece,    [Berberidacxa] 

BONITO,  the  name  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  family  SemJbrida. 
They  resemble  the  Tunny.  The  Bonito  is  toe  Thynmia  pelamys,  Cuv. ; 
the  Belted  Bonito,  Pelamya  Sar^a,  Cuv.;  the  Plain  Bonito,  AuxU 
vulgaris,  Cuv.    [Scombridji.] 

BONPLAKDIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Rwtaeece,  The  only  speoiBe  described,  B.  tnfcliaicif  yields  the  Angos- 
tura Bark.    The  genus  is  now  referred  to  QaUpcML    [Gaupaa.] 

BONSDORFITE,  a  mineral  belonging  to  the  group  of  doable 
hydrous  Silicates  of  Alumina,  to  which  the  term  Zeotiiei  has  bem 
applied.  The  following  is  the  analysis  of  this  mineral  by  B<msdor^ 
after  whom  it  is  named : — 

Silica       . 45*06 

Alumina 80*06 

Magnesia,  with  a  trace  of  Manganece       .    .      9*00 

Protoxide  of  Iron 6*80 

Water 10*60 


100*00 
It  occurs  crystallised  in  regular  six-sided  prisms,  the  lateral  edges  of 
the  prism  being  usually  replaced  by  so  many  planes  that  the  prism 
appears  almost  cylindnoaL  The  cross  fracturo  is  oonchoidaL  The 
texturo  foliated,  the  foliations^  being  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the 
prism.  The  colour  is  a  greenish-brown  or  dark  olive-green.  Lustro 
of  the  faces  like  that  of  talc,  of  the  cross  fracturo  waxy.  Opaque 
in  thick  plates,  translucent  in  thin  plates.  This  mineral  is  found  in 
a  red  granite,  at  Birkopsokem  near  Abo  in  Finland. 

BONUS  HENRI'C  U  S,  a  kind  of  weed,  formerly  supposed  to  poasess 
medicinal  properties.    [Chenopodiuil] 
BOOBT,  the  English  name  for  a  genus  of  Pdeoanida  {Diftporw  of 


Illiger,  Morut  of  Vieillot,  Les  Fous  of  the  French),  separated  with 
good  reason  from  the  true  Pelicans  by  Brisson  under  the  name  of 
Sula. 

The  term  Booby  is  moro  particularly  applied  by  navigators  to  that 
species  (Sula  fuaca  of  Brisson)  which  inhabits  the  desolate  islandB 
and  coasts  whero  the  dimate  is  warm  or  even  temperate  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  the  globe.  The  apparent  stupidi^  of  the  Boobies 
is  proverbial ;  calmly  waiting  to  be  knocked  on  the  head  as  they  sit 
on  shore,  or  perdiing  on  the  yard  of  a  ship  till  the  sailor  climbs  to 
their  resting-place  and  takes  them  off  with  his  hand,  they  fall  an  easy 
proy  to  the  most  artless  bird-catcher.  Even  Byroi^'s  shipwrecked 
wretches,  though 

"  Stagnant  on  the  sea 

They  Uy  like  eareases," 

'' caught  two  boobies  and  a  noddy;"  and  the  incident  aotaally  did 
occur  in  Blip's  celebrated  boat-voyage,  oonsequent  on  the  mutiny  on 
board  the  Bounty,  when  he  and  his  boat's  crew  were  in  a  most 
deplorable  state. 

"Monday,  the  26th,"  says  Bligh,  "  at  noon,  some  noddies  owne  bo 
near  to  us  that  one  of  them  was  caught  by  hand.  ...  In  the 
evening,  several  boobies  flying  very  near  to  us,  we  had  tlie  good 
fortuneto  catoh  one  of  them.  ...  I  directed  the  bird  to  be  Hlled 
for  supper,  and  the  blood  to  be  given  to  three  of  the  people  who  were 
the  most  distressed  for  want  of  food.  The  body,  with  the  entrails, 
beak,  and  feet,  I  divided  into  eighteen  shares.  .  .  .  Tiiesdav,  the 
26th.  In  the  morning  we  caught  another  bool^,  so  that  Prondenoe 
appeared  to  be  relieving  our  wants  in  an  extraordinary  manner.  The 
people  wero  overjoyed  at  the  addition  to  their  dinner,  which  was 
distoibuted  in  the  same  manner  as  on  the  preceding  evening,  giving 
the  Uood  to  those  who  were  the  most  in  want  of  food." 

Dampier  says  that  in  the  Alcrane  Islands  (Alacranee),  on  the  coast 
of  Yucatan,  the  crowds  of  these  birds  were  so  great  that  he  could  not 
pass  their  haunts  without  being  incommoded  by  theic  peddng.  He 
observed  that  they  wero  ranged  in  pair^  and  oonjectared  that  they 
were  male  and  female.  He  succeeded  in  making  some  fly  away  1^ 
the  blows  he  bestowed  on  them,  but  the  greater  part  remained  in 
spite  of  his  efforts  to  compel  them  to  take  flight  De  Gennea,  in  his 
voyage  to  the  Straits  of  Magalhaens,  says  that  in  the  Island  of 
Ascension  there  were  such  quantities  of  Boobies  that  the  sailors 
killed  five  or  six  at  a  time  with  one  blow  of  a  stick.  The  Y icomte  de 
Querhoent  says  that  the  French  soldiers  killed  an  iTnTnanwft  quantity 
at  this  same  idand,  and  that  their  loud  cries  when  disturbed  at  nighi 
were  quite  overpowering. 

This  apparent  exception  to  the  general  rule  of  self-preserving 
instinct  is  so  remarkable,  that  we  are  led  to  look  for  some  cause,  and 
perhaps  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  structure  of  the  animal;  for 
according  to  many  writers  whose  veracity  cannot  be  questioned,  the 
Boobies  stay  to  be  taken  and  killed  after  they  have  become  fiurtilmr 
with  the  effect  produced  by  the  blows  or  shot  of  their  persecutors. 
In  the  case  of  most  other  animals,  whidi,  from  not  Imowing  his 
power,  have  suffered  man  to  approach  them  to  tiieir  dEst7ucti<»i, 
alarm  has  been  soon  taken,  the  idea  of  danger  has  been  apeedily 
associated  with  his  appearance^  and  safety  has  beeoi  sou^t  in  fli^t ; 
but  the  wings  of  the  Boobv  are  so  long  and  its  legs  so  ahori^  that 
when  once  at  rest  on  level  ground  the  bird  has  great  difficulty  in 
bringing  the  foimer  into  action,  and  when  so  surprised  it  has  no 
resource  but  to  put  on  a  show  of  resiBtance  with  its  beak,  which  is  to 
be  sure  generally  despised  by  the  aggressor. 

In  the  cases  recorded  by  Bligh  the  birds  were  probably  fidagued  by 
wandering  too  far  from  the  rocky  shores,  whidi  are  their  oixlinaiy 
haunts.  There  they  are  generally  to  be  seen  constantly  on  the  wing 
over  the  waves  which  beat  at  the  foot  of  the  crags,  intent  on  fishing. 
Though  BO  well  furmshed  with  oars,  they  are  said  to  swim  but  seldom, 
and  never  to  dive.  Their  mode  of  taking  their  prey  is  by  ^^aa^ing 
down  from  on  high  with  unerring  aim  upon  those  fiishes  which  fr^ 
quent  the  surface,  and  instantly  rising  again  into  the  air.  They  walk 
with  difficulty,  and  when  at  rest  on  land  their  attitude  is  neariy 
vertical,  and  they  lean  on  the  stiff  feathers  of  the  tail,  like  the 
cormorants,  as  a  tnird  point  of  support  The  ledges  of  rocks  or  difi 
covered  with  herbage  are  the  places  generally  selected  for  the  nest^ 
and  there  in  great  companies  they  lay  their  cgga^  eadi  hen  bird  depo- 
siting firom  two  to  three.  The  young  birds  for  some  days  after  their 
exclusion  are  covered  with  a  down,  so  long  and  thidc  that  they 
resemble  powder-puffs  made  of  swan's  down. 

The  Boobies  seldom  wander  more  than  twenty  leagues  from  land, 
to  which  they  usually  return  every  evenings  and  their  appeannce  is 
considered  by  mariners  as  a  sure  token  of  their  vicinity  to  some 
island  or  coast 

The  colour  of  the  Sulafiuea,  or  Brown  Booby,  ia  blackiah-browii,  or 
ashv-brown  above  and  whitish  beneath ;  the  primaries  are  black,  and 
the  naked  skin  about  the  fiaoe  is  reddish;  the  orbits  and  base  of  the 
bill  are  yellow,  and  the  point  of  the  bill  ib  brown ;  the  legs  are  of  a 
straw  colour. 

In  length  the  Brown  Booby  is  about  2  feet  5  inches,  the  bill 
measuring  H  inches  or  th^vabout^  and  the  tail  10  inches :  the  yoong 
birds  are  spotted  with  white  and  brown. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  open  the  pages  of  the  old  voyagen  who 
have  fallen  in  witn  these  Boobies  witlu>at  finding  Bome  eoteztaiiunff 


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077 


BOOBY, 


BORAGINACE^ 


678 


Acooants  of  the  oonstant  peneoation  to  which  the  latter  are  Bubjeoted 
by  Ihe  Frigatee  or  Han-of-War  Birds.  LesBon  indeed  doubts  this. 
He  wjE,  "The  boobies  haye  been  so  named  because  it  has  been 
supposed  that  the  frigates  compelled  them  to  disgoige  the  fish  which 
they  had  taken ;  but  this  appears  to  us  to  be  erroneous.  The  boobv 
is  warlike,  he  liyes  fearlessly  near  the  fiigate,  and  swallows  the  fish 
which  he  has  captured  in  peace."  Buffon,  Cuvier,  and  Temminck,  on 
the  contrary,  evidently  give  credence  to  the  narratiyes  of  the  Frigate- 
peneontion,  and  indeed  it  is  difficult  to  belieye  that  so  many  eye- 
I  should  be  mistaken. 


Brown  Booby  {Suia  fUsea), 

Feoill^  fl^ys,  "  I  haye  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  frigates  giye 
chase  to  the  boobies.  When  they  return  in  bands  towards  eyening 
from  their  fishingy  the  frigates  are  in  waiting,  and  dashing  upon  them 
compel  them  all  to  cry  for  succour,  as  it  wotc,  and,  in  crying,  to  dis- 
gorge some  of  the  fish  ly hich  they  are  carrying  to  their  young  ones. 
ThjiM  do  the  frigates  profit  by  the  fishing  of  the  boobies,  whidb  they 
then  leaye  to  pursue  their  route."  Leguat  in  his  yoyage  thus  writes : 
—**  The  boobies  come  to  repose  at  night  upon  the  Island  Bodrigues, 
and  the  frrigates,  which  are  large  birds,  so  (»lled  from  their  lightness 
and  speed  m  saOing  through  the  air,  wait  for  the  boobies  eyery  eyening 
on  the  tops  of  the  trees.  They  rise  on  the  approach  of  the  latter  yery 
hi^  in  the  air  and  dash  down  upon  them  like  a  frdcon  on  his  prev, 
not  to  kill  ^m  but  to  make  them  disgorge.  The  booby,  struck  m 
this  manner  by  the  frigate,  giyes  up  his  fish,  which  the  frigate  catches 
in  the  air.  The  booby  often  shrieks  and  shows  lus  unwillingness  to 
abandon  his  prey,  but  the  frigate  mocks  at  his  cries»  and  rising  dashes 
down  upon  him  anew  till  he  has  compelled  the  booby  to  obey." 
William  Dampier  obeezres  that  he  remarked  that  the  man-of-war 
birdi  and  the  boobies  always  left  sentinels  near  their  young  ones, 
especially  while  the  old  birds  were  gone  to  sea  on  their  fishing  expe- 
ditions ;  and  that  there  were  a  great  number  of  sick  or  crippled  man- 
of-war  birds  which  appeared  to  be  no  longer  in  a  state  to  go  out  for 
proyision.  They  dwelt  not  with  the  rest  of  their  species,  and  whether 
they  were  excluded  frrom  their  society  or  had  separated  themselyes 
voluntarily,  they  were  dispersed  in  yarious  places  waiting  apparently 
for  an  opportunity  of  pillage.  He  adds  that  one  day  he  saw  more 
than  twenty  on  one  of  the  islands  (the  Alcranee),  which  from  time  to 
time  made  sorties  to  procure  booty.  The  man-of-war  bird  that  sur- 
prised a  young  booby  without  its  guard  gaye  it  a  great  peck  upon  the 
iMsk  to  make  it  disgorge  (which  it  instantly  did)  a  fish  or  two  as  big 
as  one's  wrist^  -whi<m  the  old  man-of-war  bird  quickly  swallowed.  He 
farther  speaks  of  the  persecution  of  the  parent  boobies  by  the  able- 
bodied  frigates,  and  says  that  he  himself  saw  a  frigate  fly  right  against 
a  booby,  and  with  one  blow  of  its  bill  make  the  booby  giye  up  a  fish 
just  swaJlowed,  upon  which  the  frigate  darted  with  such  celerity  that 
he  seixed  it  before  it  reached  the  water.  Catesby  and  others  menti<m 
similar  anoounters.  Nuttall  says,  "  The  boobies  haye  a  domestic 
enemy  more  steady,  though  lees  sanguine  in  his  persecutions,  than 
man ;  this  is  the  frigate  pelican  or  man-of-war  bird,  who  with  a  keen 
eye  desor^g  his  humble  yassal  at  a  distance,  pursues  him  without 
intunnission,  and  obliges  him  by  blows  with  its  wings  and  bill  to 
surrender  hJs  finny  prey,  which  the  pirate  instantly  seizes  and  swallows. 
....    The  booby  utten  a  loud  cry,  something  in  sound  betwixt 

JIAl  BUT.  DZY.  YOL.  L 


that  of  the  rayen  and  the  goose ;  and  this  quailing  is  heard  more 
particularly  when  they  are  pursued  by  the  frigate,  or,  when  assembled 
together,  they  happen  to  be  seised  by  any  sudden  panic." 

Their  nests,  according  to  Dampier,  are  built  in  trees  in  the  Isle  of 
Ayes,  though  they  haye  been  obseryed  in  other  places  to  nestle  on 
the  ground.  They  always  associate  in  numbers  in  the  same  spot,  and 
lay  one  or  two  eggs.  The  young  are  coyered  with  a  yery  soft  and 
white  down.  Nuttall  says  that  they  abound  on  rocky  islets  off  the 
coast  of  Cayenne  and  along  the  shores  of  New  Spain  and  Caracas,  as 
weU  as  in  Brazil  and  on  the  Bahamas,  where  they  are  said  to  breed 
almost  eyery  month  in  the  year.  In  summer,  he  adds,  they  are  net 
uncommon  on  the  coasts  of  the  Southern  States  of  North  America. 
The  flesh  he  describes  as  black  and  unsayoury. 

Otherspecies  of  Stda  are  also  called  Boobies.    [Sula.] 

BO'OPS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  of  the  order  AearUkopUiygii,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Cuyier^s  arrangement,  belonging  to  the  fourth  fiunily  of  that 
tribe  called  Spcuru/ida  or  Sparida. 

This  genus  is  chiefly  characterised  by  the  speoieB  possessing  tren« 
chant  teeth ;  the  mouth  is  small  and  not  protraistile.  The  species  are 
generally  of  brilliant  colouring.    Most  of  them  occur  in  the  Mediter- 


Boopi  salpa  {Sparut  taipa  of  Linnaeus)  is  of  an  oblong-oyate  form. 
The  ground  colour  of  its  body  is  bluish,  on  which  are  seyeral  longi- 
tudinal yellow  stripes. 

BOOTTIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Hydro- 
charidacece,  the  species  of  which  are  eaten  as  pot-herbsL 

BORACITE.    [BoROW.] 

BORAGE.    [BoRAOO.] 

BORAQINA^CEjE,  Borage- WorU,  the  Borage  Tribe,  a  natural  order 
of  regular-flowered  Monopetalous  Dicotyledons,  which  are  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  all  others  by  haying  their  oyary  deeply  divided  into 
four  lobes^  from  the  middle  of  which  arises  a  single  style.  They  are 
moreover  characteriBed  by  their  flowers  being  arranged  in  a  gyrate 


Long. Wort  {Pulmonaria  angwtifolia). 
1,  A  oorolla ;  S,  the  same  eat  open ;  S,  the  tube  of  the  same ;  4,  the  base  of 
the  same  with  the  OTsry  and  its  four  lobes;  5,  ananther;  6,osLlyz;  7,  aseottoB 
of  the  oatyx,  showing  the  foor-lobed  fruit ;  B,  a  ripe  ealyx ;  9,  an  achenium. 

manner  before  they  expand.  The  Common  Borage  is  often  taken  as 
the  type  of  this  order,  and  in  fact  represents  not  only  its  peculiaritiea 
of  structure,  but  sensible  properties ;  for  all  the  known  species  agree 
in  having  an  insipid  juice,  and  theb  snx&oe  covered  over  with  stiff 
white  hairs,  idiich  communicate  a  peculiar  asperity  to  the  skin,  whence 
these  plants  were  formerly  called  Asperifolia,  or  'roufh-leaved.*  Ju 
the  structure  of  their  ovary  these  plimts  are  doeely  allied  with 
LamiacePf,    Their  regular  flowers  and  the  abswice  of  volatile  oil  in 

%9 


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m 


BORAQO. 


BORKIA. 


their  leayes,  and  five  BtamenB,  at  onoe  distingaiah  them.  They  alao 
resemble  Nolanaeeoe,  but  from  theee  they  are  distinguished  by  their 
gyrate  inflorescence.  The  species  are  principally  natives  of  the  tem- 
perate coimtries  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  properties  of  this 
order  are  not  aotire.  Nevertheless  sevwal  have  been  used  in  medicine ; 
one  species  yields  alkanet^  and  many  of  them  are  cultivated.  It  con- 
tains 63  genera  and  about  600  species.  [Anohuba  ;  Eohium  ;  Pulmo- 
habia;  SmHHAioiARiA ;  Lithobpebmum  ;  Mtosotib;  Sthfhttuic; 
BoRAQo;  Ctvoolossuil] 

BORA^QO,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of  the  natural  order  Borct- 
ginacea,  and  placed  in  the  tribe  AnehmetB.  This  tribe  is  distinguished 
by  possessing  four  nuts  affixed  to  an  hypogynous  disk,  with  an  exca- 
vated ^Mtoe  surrounded  by  a  tumid  nng  at  their  base.  The  genus 
Borago  has  a  calyx  with  five  deep  segments ;  a  rotate  corolla  with  | 
the  tube  very  shorty  the  throat  with  wort  erect  emarginate  scales ; 
exserted  stamens,  the  filaments  bifid,  the  inner  fork  bearing  the  anther ; 
the  anthers  linear,  lanceolate,  connivent  in  the  form  of  a  cone.  All  the 
species  are  rough  pliuits,  with  fiisiform  roots,  oblong  or  lanceolate 
leaves,  and  blue  panicled  drooping  flowers. 

B.  officinalia,  Common  Borage,  has  the  lower  leaves  obovate,  obtuse, 
attenuated  below ;  the  segments  of  the  corolla  ovate,  acute,  flat, 
spreading.  The  flowers  are  blue,  and  the  whole  plant  is  hispid,  with 
tubercled  hairs.  This  plant  appears  to  be  originally  a  native  of  Aleppo, 
but  is  now  naturalised  in  most  countries  of  Europe.  In  Great  Britain 
it  is  not  uncommon  on  rubbish  and  in  waste  places.  Borage  had 
formerly  a  great  reputation  as  a  cordial  Its  virtues  in  this  respect 
must  have  been  overrated,  as  in  conmion  with  the  whole  family  to 
which  it  belongs  it  possesses  no  very  active  properties.  The  tissues 
contain  gum,  and  on  this  accoimt  it  may  be  used  as  a  demulcent.  It 
also  possesses  nitrate  of  potash,  as  well  as  other  plants  of  the  order, 
whicn  renders  it  slightly  febrifuge.  Withering  says  the  young  tender 
leaves  may  be  used  as  salads  or  as  a  pot-herb.  Three  other  species 
are  described :  B,  erauifolia,  a  native  of  Persia;  B.  Umgifoliii,  from 
Kumidia ;  and  B,  lax\/lora,  a  native  of  Corsica.  They  are  all  plants 
of  the  easiest  culture.  They  may  be  always  propagated  by  seed, 
which  should  be  sown  in  the  open  ground.  They  form  pretty  border- 
flowers. 

(Babington,  Manual  of  Britiih  Botany ;  Q.  Don,  Cfardena^$  Die- 
tiona/ry.) 

BOBA'SSUS,  agenus  of  Palms,  called  Tala  m  Sanscrit  and  Palmyra 
by  the  English,  in  imitation  of  the  Portuguese,  who  name  it  Palmeira 
Brava.  It  is  defined  by  Roxburgh  as  having  dioscious  hexandrous 
flowers ;  the  calyx  and  corolla  in  the  males  consisting  each  of  three 
distinct  pieces,  and  in  the  females  of  from  eight  to  twelve  in  a  confused 
state ;  and  the  ovary  of  three  cells,  changing  to  a  three-seeded  drup& 
There  is  but  one  species  according  to  writers  on  Indian  botany ;  but 
it  is  not  certain  that  more  tiian  one  distinct  palm  is  not  confounded 
under  the  conmion  name  of  Palmyra. 

Boraum  JlahdUformii  is  the  onl^  speeies.  This  plant  ffnin  all  over 
India,  both  on  the  continent  and  in  the  islands,  where  it  is  esteemed 
of  the  greatest  use  on  account  of  the  vinous  sap  and  the  sugar  which 
are  extracted  from  it.  Its  trunk  is  from  25  to  40  feet  high  when  full 
grown,  and  is  perceptibly  thicker  at  the  base  than  at  the  summit.  The 
leaves  are  fEuo^haped,  about  4  feet  long,  and  placed  upon  staJka  ef  about 
the  same  length,  which  are  spiny  at  their  edges ;  each  leaf  is  divided 
into  from  70  to  80  rays,  which  are  ragged  at  the  end,  and  the  largest 
of  which  are  placed  in  the  centre.  Thefruit  is  about  as  big  as  a  child's 
head,  three-cornered,  with  the  angles  rounded  off^  and  a  little  furrowed. 
It  consists  of  a  thick,  fibrous,  rawer  succulent,  yellowish-brown  rind, 
containing  three  seeds  the  size  of  a  goose-egg.  When  young  the  shell 
of  the  seed  is  so  soft  that  it  may  be  readily  pierced  by  the  finger,  and 
the  pulpy  matter  which  it  then  contains  is  cool  and  sweet  and  refresh- 
ing ;  but  when  ripe  all  this  changes  to  a  hard  bluish  albumen,  which 
is  insipid  and  uneatable.  The  outer  wood  of  the  stem  when  old 
becomes  very  hard  and  brown,  and  although  scarcely  to  bo  cut 
transversely,  nevertheless  divides  freely  in  a  longitudinal  direction : 
it  is  capajble  of  taking  a  fine  polish,  and  is  fluently  made  use  of  for 
bows.  The  young  wood  in  the  centre  is  white,  sort»  and  worthless. 
"  This  magnificent  palm,"  says  Sir  William  Jones,  "  is  justly  con- 
sidered the  king  of  its  order,  which  the  Hindoos  call  'trina  druma,'  or 
grass-trees.  Van  Rheede  mentions  the  bluish,  gelatinous,  pellucid 
substance  of  the  young  seeda^  which  in  the  hot  season  is  cooling  and 
rather  agreeable  to  the  taste ;  but  the  liquor  extracted  from  the  tree 
is  the  most  seducing  and  pernicious  of  intoxicating  juices.  When 
just  drawn  it  is  as  pleasant  as  Pouhon  water  fr^esh  from  the  spring, 
and  almost  equal  to  the  best  mild  champagne.  From  this  liquor, 
according  to  Rheede,  sugar  is  extracted;  and  it  would  be  happy 
for  these  provinces  if  it  were  always  applied  to  so  innocent  a 
purpose." 

Tne  mode  of  obtaining  the  wp  of  this  palm  is  stated  by  Rumf  to 
be  by  crushing  the  young  inflorescence  and  amputating  the  upper 
half;  the  lower  is  then  tied  to  a  leafstalk,  and  has  a  vessel  usually  of 
bamboo  attached  to  its  end.  The  vessel  gradually  fills  with  sap,  and 
is  removed  every  morning ;  when  replaced  a  fresh  slice  is  cut  from  the 
wounded  end  of  the  infioresoence — an  operation  which  is  repeated 
daily  until  the  whole  of  the  raceme  is  sliced  away.  In  procuring  the 
■ugw  exactly  the  same  process  is  followed,  but  the  inaide  of  the 
receiver  is  i>owdered  with  limei,  which  prevcoxts  fiarmentation  taking 


place :  the  juice  is  afterwards  boiled  down  and  finally  dried  Ifj 
exposure  to  smoke  in  little  baskets.  , 


Palmyra  {Bora$tu$  Jtdbell^anmit). 
1,  A  male  apadiz ;  3,  a  female  spadix,  infloraseence  with  the  ^athea  at  iti 
baae ;  S,  tha  baek  of  a  mala  flower ;  4,  the  fhmt  of  the  aame ;  5,  a  female 
flower;  6,  tha  aame  atripped  of  ita  aoalea  and  ahowing  barren  atamena  e&Tclopiiif 
theorary. 

BORAX.    [BoROif.] 

BCRBORuS  (Ipharoeera  of  Latreille),  a  genus  of  Bipterous  or 
Two-Winged  Flies,  of  the  family  Muacida,  Its  chief  characters  exist 
in  the  posterior  thighs,  which  are  much  compressed,  and  the  two 
basal  iomts  of  the  posterior  tarsi,  which  are  considerably  laiger  than 
the  following.  The  head  is  concave  in  frtmt  and  reflexed  towards  the 
mouth :  the  antenna  diverge,  and  are  sometimes  almost  as  long  as  the 
fore  part  of  the  head.  The  second  cell  of  the  posterior  extremity  of 
the  wing  (the  last  of  the  two  which  occupy  the  middle  of  its  length) 
is  closed  before  it  reaches  the  margin. 

These  litUe  flies  are  found  in  marshy  places,  and  on  putrid  sub- 
stances, but  more  particularly  dung-heaps,  in  which  probably  their 
larvBB  reside ;  they  are  always  abundant  about  cucumber  fitunea,  and 
are  of  a  brownish  colour;  most  of  the  speoiee  when  expanded  would 
scarcely  measure  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 

BORECOLE,  a  variety  of  Brasiica  oUraeta,  also  called  Sprouts. 
[Brasbioaokjl] 

BORER,  a  name  for  the  worm-like  fish,  known  also  by  the  name  of 
the  Myxine,  the  (Mutinous  Hag,  and  Blind  Fish.    [Mtzinb.] 

BCREUS  (Latreille),  a  genus  of  Insects  of  the  order  NewnjAera, 
and  family  Panorpidte.  This  genus,  of  which  only  one  spedee  is 
known  {B.  Ayemo^u),  is  not  only  remiffkable  for  its  structure,  but  from 
the  curious  circumstance  of  its  having  been  found  in  the  winter  monihs 
only,  and  is  said  even  to  have  been  seen  on  the  Alps  running  about  on 
the  snow  :  its  most  common  abode  however  appears  to  be  in  moss.  ^ 

B,  hyemaUt  is  about  one  quarter  of  an  inch  long  and  of  a  greenish 
colour,  with  the  legs  indining  to  red ;  and,  unlike  tiie  rest  of  its  trib^ 
the  female  possesses  no  wings,  and  those  of  the  male  are  only  rudimen- 
tary. The  antennse  are  long  and  thread-like,  the  parts  of  the  mouth 
are  produced  into  a  kind  of  proboscis ;  the  abdomen  of  the  feinale  is 
finished  with  a  large  ovipooitor.  It  is  rather  a  scarce  isBect  in  this 
country. 

BORNIA,  a  genus  of  Foasil  Plants  teom  the  Coal  FormaiicD, 
Including  Bomia  eqwiteHformiif  which  Imdley  xmnks  in  AiUropkyUUm 
('FossrFlora,'t.l24). 


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sn 


BORON. 


BOSWELLIA, 


S8i 


BORON.  HineralB  ooxitainioig  Boron  or  any  of  its  compounds  aa 
an  essential  component  port  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  and 
only  foimd  in  a  few  spote ;  it  may  be  therefore  considered  as  one  of 
the  least  predominating  of  the  elements.  It  is  the  basis  of  Sassoline, 
or  native  boracic  acid ;  Borax,  or  borate  of  soda ;  Boracite,  or  borate 
of  magnesia ;  DatholUe,  or  borate  and  silicate  of  lime ;  and  BotryolUe, 

It  also  enters  as  boracic  acid  into  the  composition  of  Axinite  and 
Tourmalin^  but  only  in  small  quantity,  most  analyses  giving  between 
two  and  three  per  cent,  of  the  acid  in  the  former  mineFal,  and  between 
four  and  five  per  cent  in  the  latter. 

The  presence  of  Boron  in  any  mineral  may  be  readily  detected  with 
the  blow-pipe,  owing  to  the  beautiful  green  tint  communicated  to  the 
flame  by  the  boracic  add.  The  facility  with  which  the  tint  is 
obtained  depends  on  the  element  with  which  the  boracic  acid  is 
combined ;  in  every  instance  however  it  may  be  detected  by  the 
following  process : — ^Let  a  flux,  composed  of  4  J  parts  of  bisulphate  of 
potash  and  one  of  finely-powdered  fluor-spar,  oe  well  mixed  witib 
about  an  wqual  quantity  of  the  assay,  which  must  then  be  formed 
into  a  paste  by  the  addition  of  a  little  moisture.  A  small  quantity  of 
this  being  taken  up  on  the  extremity  of  a  platinum  wire  must  first  be 
dried,  and  then  exposed  to  a  high  temperature  until  it  is  fused,  being 
held  within  but  near  the  extremity  of  the  blue  flame.  When  the 
mass  is  fused  it  appears  for  a  few  moments  enveloped  in  a  pure  green 
flame,  which  soon  disappears,  and  cannot  be  again  produced.  The 
theory  of  the  changes  is  this  : — The  fluorine  of  the  flux  being  set  free 
by  the  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  unites  with  the  boron  of  the  assay, 
forming  the  fluoboracio  acid,  which  at  the  moment  of  its  volatilisation 
communicates  the  green  tint  to  the  flame.  This  process  is,  however, 
only  necessary  for  the  detection  of  the  boracic  acid  in  axinite  and 
tourmaline,  as  the  flame  is  permanently  coloured  b^r  sassoline, 
boracite,  datholite,  and  botiyoUte ;  and  the  same  efiect  is  produced 
by  moistening  the  glass  of  boron  with  sulphuric  acid  and  again 
fusing  it. 

The  native  boracic  acid  is  found  aa  a  deposit  in  several  of  the 
lagunes  of  Tuscany,  and  also  in  considerable  abundance  in  the  hot 
springs  near  Sasso  in  the  same  country,  whence  it  has  been  called 
Sasaoline.  It  occurs  in  the  form  of  thin  scaly  particles,  or  crysttdllne 
grains  either  loose  or  aggregated  in  the  form  of  a  crust  These 
crystalline  grains  are  hydrated  boracic  acid,  the  constitution  of  whidi 
may  be  expressed  by  the  formula — 

Boron  1 ;  Oxygen  6 ;  Water  6, 
as  g^ven  by  Beraselius,  100  parts  of  sassoline  being  composed  of  boracic 
acid  56*37,  water  48'68 :  their  specific  gravity  is  1'48.    The  lustre  is 
pearly,  and  the  colour  is  grayish  or  yellowish-white :  they  are  slightly 
translucent 

It  loses  its  water  of  crystallisation  and  fuses  at  a  very  low  tempera- 
ture, forming  a  glassy  globule,  which  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity, 
and  becomes  resinously  electric  on  friction.  It  has  also  been  found 
more  reoentlv  by  Dr.  Holland  to  be  a  deposit  of  the  solfatara  within 
the  crater  of  Volcano,  one  of  the  Lipari  Isles,  being  an  exhalation  of 
the  funiarolesy  around  the  edges  of  which  it  forms  thin  filaments  or 
cakes  on  the  surface  of  the  sulphur. 

Borax,  or  borate  of  soda,  is  principally  employed  in  the  arts  as  a 
flux  in  several  metalluiigical  processes,  and  is  very  advantageously 
used  in  the  process  of  soldering  metals.  To  Uie  chemist  it  is  an 
invaluable  re-agent  in  experimenting  with  the  blow-pipe. 

Borax  is  soluble  in  twelve  times  its  weight  of  cold  and  twice  its 
weight  of  boiling  water,  from  which  it  may 
be  readily  obtained  in  very  perfect  crystals  of 
the  oblique  prismatic  system.  The  more  usual 
form  of  these  is  represented  in  the  accom- 
panying figure,  where  the  faces  r  are  the 
rertical  prism,  the  angles  of  which  are,  accord- 
ing to  the  measurements  of  PhiHips,  86^  80' 
and  93*  80^,  the  acuter  edge  of  which  is 
truncated  by  M,  the  obtuser  by  T,  while  P 
is  the  inclined  terminal  plane,  and  makes 
with  U  an  angle  of  106**  80';  0  are  the  faces  of  a  hemi-octohedron. 

The  following  are  the  measurements  given  by  Phillips  :— 


r  onr 

Ponr 

Honr 

PonM 

PonO 

OonO 


86*  80' 
101'  80' 
188'  20' 
106°  80' 
189'*  16' 
122*  84' 


It  IS  rery  common  to  find  the  edges  between  0  and  r  tnmcated. 
The  specific  gravity  varies  fix>m  1'5  to  1'7 ;  the  hardness  from  2  to 
2'5.    When  coloured  it  is  of  a  light  yellowish-green :  the  fracture  is 
conchoidal  and  of  a  resinous  lustre. 
The  chemical  composition  as  given  by  Berzelius  is — 

BoradcAcid 86*52 

Sod* 16-87 

Water 4711  ^ 

BoraeiU  is  in  many  respects  one  of  the  most  interesting  bodies  of 
the  inoi^gaoic  kingdom.  It  was  first  described  by  Lasius  in  1787 
under  the  name  of  cubic  quartz,  and  was  found  in  the  gypsum  rocks 
— ur  Lune'buig  in  Brunswick,  wnere  it  occurs  in  small  crystals,  which 
)  perfectly  developed  on  every  side  and  imoedded  in  the  gypsum. 


The  crystals  usually  present  a  combination  of  the  cube^  dodecahednniy 
and  the  two  hemi-octohedrons,  in  which  combinations  sometimes  the 
one  sometimes  the  other  form  predominates.  The  locality  was  for 
some  time  the  only  spot  where  boracite  was  found,  until  the  crystals 
were  discovered  in  a  gypsum  rock  called  Segebei^g  in  Holstein,  at  the 
foot  of  which  is  situated  a  small  village  of  the  same  name.  The  crystals 
of  the  Boracite  of  this  spot  possess  the  same  characters  as  those  of 
Liineburg,  and  add  considerable  interest  to  the  verv  peculiar  rock  in 
which  they  are  found,  which  is  itself  a  very  remarkable  object  from 
its  abrupt  elevation  over  the  sandy  plain  of  Holstein.  It  is  described 
in  the  '  Geognostisohen  Aufsiitzen  *  of  Stefiens,  who  considers  it  to  be 
of  the  same  formation  as  the  gypsum  of  the  Paris  basin. 

Boracite  has  been  analysed  by  Stromeyer,  who  found  it  to  be  com- 
posed of  boracic  acid  67,  magnesia  83.  The  specific  gravity  is  2*9 ;  it 
is  transparent,  but  also  frequently  opaque ;  the  hardness  is  6*5  to  7 ;  it 
is  brittle,  and  has  a  conchoidal  fracture.  The  lustre  is  yitreous^ 
inclining  to  adamantine.  The  colour  is  usually  a  yellowish  or  greenish 
gray. 

It  fuses  easily  before  the  blowpipe,  at  first  with  much  foam,  and 
then  forms  a  glass  globule,  which  oiystallises  on  cooling,  so  that  the 
surface  is  covered  with  fine  acicular  points.  When  just  so  much  soda 
is  added  as  will  form  with  it  a  clear  glass,  it  will  then  crystallise  as 
perfectly  as  the  phosphate  of  lead. 

BORRERA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of 
Lichens,  named  by  Acharius  in  honour  of  WiQiam  Borrer,  F.L.S.,  who 
has  very  success^iUy  cultivated  Cryptogamio  Botany,  especially  that 
of  Qreat  Britain.  One  species  B.  fwfiiracea  has  the  reputation  of 
being  astringent  and  febrifuge.  A  genus  of  Cinchonaceous  plants  has 
also  been  named  after  Mr.  Borrer.     [Bor&ebia.] 

BORRERIA,  a  genus  of  plants  named  in  honour  of  William  Borrer, 
F.L.S.^  It  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Cinchonaceoi,  and  has  the 
following  characters : — Calyx  with  an  ovate  tube,  and  a  pennanent 
limb  which  is  parted  into  2-4  teeth;  corolla  salvei>shaped  or  funnel- 
shaped,  4-lobed;  stamens  4,  exsected  or  indosed;  stigma -bifid  or 
un(uyided;  capsule  crowned  by  the  limb  of  the  calyx,  2-oelled, 
opening  from  the  apex  at  the  dissepiment  when  mature,  but  without 
any  dissepiment ;  cocca  or  nuts  1-seeded,  opening  by  a  longitadinal 
chmk  insida  The  species,  which  are  verv  numerous,  are  most  of 
them  herbs  or  underahrubs,  and  are  neady  all  natives  of  tropical 
America. 

B,  ferruginea,  has  a  herbaceous,  hard,  erect,  branched  stem; 
tetragonal  hairy  branches ;  oblong,  acute,  obliquely  8-4-nerved  leaves, 
scabrous  above  and  pale  beneath,  and  scabrous  on  the  nerves  from 
hairs;  bristles  of  the  stipules  the  length  of  the  sheath;  whorls  of 
flowers  globose,  terminal,  and  axillary ;  capsule  downy,  crowned  by 
the  four  subulate  teeth  of  the  calyx.  This  plant  is  a  native  of  Brazil 
in  elevated  pastures  in  the  provinces  of  Minas  Geraes  and  St  Paul 
The  plant  is  called  Poaya,  and  Poaya  da  Haya  at  Cape  Frio.  This  is 
one  of  the  plants  which  yield  a  bastard  ipecacuanha.  The  roots  are 
of  a  brown  colour,  and  when  taken  produce  sickness  and  vomiting. 

B.  Poaya  is  glabrous,  and  has  a  herbaceous  simple  tetragonal 
stem ;  sessile  oblong-elliptic  acute  leaves,  obliquely  6-nerved  on  both 
sides  of  the  midrib ;  the  stipules  deft  into  many  long  bristles ;  whorls 
of  flowers  capitate,  sessile,  few,  axillary,  and  a  laxger  terminal  one; 
lobes  of  calyx  4,  lanceolate  linear  acute,  longer  than  the  ovarium ; 
corolla  smooth;  anthers  exserted.  A  native  of  Brazil  in  devated 
pastures.  It  has  blue  flowers.  The  roots  are  white,  and  produce 
sickness  when  taken,  and  are  consequentlv  frequently  substituted  for 
ipecacuanha.  The  leaves  when  chewed  have  a  sweet  taste  at  firsts 
and  afterwards  an  acid  one;  a  decoction  of  them  is  sometimea 
employed  in  the  cure  of  colia  Upwards  of  80  aipeoies  of  this  genus 
have  been  described,  of  which  only  the  above  two  appear  to  be  used 
by  man.  They  may  be  cultivated  in  this  countrv  in  greenhousea  A 
light  soil  suits  them  best,  and  cuttings  of  the  shrubby  pieces  readily 
strike  root  under  a  hand-glass  in  heat  The  herbaceous  spedas 
require  the  same  treatment  as  other  tender  ^nn^ii^liy, 

(Don,  Qardena't  Dictionary,) 

BOS.    [BoviDJB.] 

BO'STRICHIJS  (Latreille),  a  genus  of  Insects  bdonging  to  the 
order  CoUoptm^Of  of  the  fainily  Aylophagu  Qeneric  characters : — 
Body  oblong,  cylindrical,  or  nearly  so;  head  rounded,  capable  of 
being  retracted  within  the  thorax  as  fur  as  the  eyes ;  eyes  dostinotly 
projecting ;  antenna  ten-jointed,  short,  the  three  terminal  joints  large 
and  distinct,  twice  as  broad  as  the  remainder ;  the  five  following  joints 
small  and  close  together ;  the  two  remaining,  or  two  basal  joints, 
slightly  thickened ;  palpi  tolerably  distinct,  about  equal  in  length  to 
the  mandibles,  short,  and  three-jointed ;  thorax  convex  above,  the 
anterior  part  humped ;  legs  rather  short,  tard  four-jointed,  simple. 
The  insects  of  this  tribe  are  found  on  old  trees,  upon  which  their 
larvss  feed,  and  in  so  doing  tliey  generally  construct  their  burrows 
under  the  bark. 

Bostrichut  capucintu  (a  rare  spedes  in  this  country)  is  about  half  an 
inch  long ;  the  head,  antenn»,  Uiorax,  and  legs  are  Uack ;  the  rest  of 
the  body  is  red 

BOSWE'LLIA,  a  genus  of  balsamic  plants  bdooging  to  tha 
natural  older  AmyridacecB.  One  of  the  spedes  is  believed  by  Cde- 
brooke  to  be  the  Aifiayot  of  Theophrastus,  and  the  Hiurta  viiya  of 
the  Romans.     ('  Asiatic  Researches,'  vol.  ix.) 


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BOfANt. 


194 


It  appean  that  the  gum-resin  called  olibanum  ia  the  firankinoeiiBe 
that  was  lued  by  the  andenta  in  their  religiona  oeremoniei.  LinnsBna 
waa  of  opinion  that  it  was  yielded  by  the  Lyoian  jumper ;  but  that 
plant  is  a  native  of  the  aouth  of  France  as  well  aa  of  the  Levant,  and 
the  boiinistsof  that  country  deny  that  any  such  substance  is  produced 
by  their  juniper.  The  Greeks  obtained  their  frankincense  from 
Arabia.  The  Arabians  call  olibanum  both  LubiCn  and  Cundur ;  but 
as  benzoin  is  most  used  at  the  present  day  for  religious  purposes,  the 
Mohammedan  writers  of  India  on  Materia  Medica  apply  only  the  term 
Cundur  to  olibanum.  This  Cundur  has  been  ascertained  by  Messrs. 
Colebrooke,  Hunter,  and  Roxburgh  to  be  yielded  by  BotweUia 
thurifera  or  A  semMta,  It  is  a  large  timber-tree  found  in  the  moun- 
tainous parts  of  India,  yielding  a  most  fragrant  resin  from  wounds 
made  in  the  bark.  Its  leaves  are  pinnate,  and  consist  of  about  ten 
pairs  of  hairy  serrated  oblong  Icnflets,  each  of  which  is  from  an  inch 
to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  The  flowers  are  pale  pink,  small, 
and  numerous.  The  calyx  is  5-lobed,  the  corolla  of  5  downy  petals, 
the  disk  a  fleshy  crenelled  cup,  and  the  stamens  10,  alternately 
shorter.  The  fruit  is  a  S-sided,  S-valved,  S-celled  capsule,  containing 
a  BiDgle-winged  pendulous  seed  in  each  cell 

From  this  Roxburgh  distinguishes  as  a  different  species  BotwtOia 
glabrcky  a  plant  also  yielding  a  resin  which  is  used  for  incense  and  as 
pitch  in  some  parts  of  India*  It  differs  from  the  last  in  having  no 
hairs  on  its  leaves,  in  its  leaflets  being  often  toothless,  and  in  its 
flowers  being  panided. 

A  substance  analogous  to  olibanum,  and  used  in  a  similar  way  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  is  procured  from  several  different  trees, 
such  as,  in  America,  the  Croton  nitma  (Schwartz),  C.  thurifer  (Kunth), 
C.  adipatui  (Kunth) :  in  Columbia,  BatUieria  nervifoUa  (KunUi)  yields 
the  American  frankincense ;  the  ArnkfrU  {Idea  Taeomahaca,  Ktmth) 
wmhnmaea  (Linn.),  yields  also  the  resin  ooumier,  likewise  called 
American  frankincense. 

Ldetia  aipttala  (Jacq.)  also  yields  a  substance  similar  to  frank- 
incense. 

Olibanum  occurs  in  commerce  of  two  kinds,  the  Arabian  and  East 
Indian.  The  former  kind  is  now  seldom  met  with,  and  its  origin  is  a 
subject  of  doubt;  the  latter  is  obtained  from  the  tree  above  described, 
and  to  it  we  limit  our  remarks.  There  are  two  varieties  or  degrees  of 
fineness  of  it,  the  best  called  '  olibanum  electrum,'  or  *  in  grams,'  some- 
times called  'thus  mamus'  or  'thus  masculum' :  the  other  is  termed 
'  olibanum  commune,'  or '  in  sortis,'  also '  f cemineum.'  The  first  occurs 
in  pieces  varying  from  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut  to  that  of  a  walnut,  or 
larger,  which  are  roundish  or  irregular  in  shape,  of  a  light  yellowiah 
colour,  varying  to  red  or  brown  in  some  pieces,  opaque  or  semi- 
transparent,  the  outside  often  covered  with  a  white  powder,  and  upon 
being  pounded  the  whole  becomes  a  white  powder.  It  is  very 
friable,  and  breaks  with  a  dull,  sometimes  even,  sometimes  splinteiy 
firacture. 

The  second  sort  is  generally  in  larger  pieces,  mostly  of  a  dirty-gray 
OF  fawn-colour,  and  intermingled  with  pieces  of  wood  and  other 
impurities. 

BOTANY  ia  that  branch  of  sdenoe  which  comprehends  all  that 
relatea  to  the  Vegetable  Kingdom.  The  term  Botany  is  derived 
from,  the  Greek,  in  which  /3ot£^  signifies  any  kind  of  grass  or  herb, 
and  fiarayucn  the  art  which  teaches  the  nature  of  plants  and  herbs. 
The  structure  of  plants,  their  mode  of  growth,  their  habits  of  life, 
their  mutual  relanons,  t^eir  uses  to  man  or  the  danger  that  results 
ftt>m  their  employment^  the  station  they  occupy  in  the  scale  of 
the  creation,  and  many  other  similar  considerations,  form  each  an 
extensive  field  of  inquiry  which  botany  combines  into  one  connected 
whole. 

Although  the  limits  of  the  science  of  Botany  can  be  easily  defined 
to  be  the  structure  and  functions  of  plants,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  define 
the  nature  of  a  plant  It  is  true  that  with  regard  to  the  great  mass 
of  organic  forms  which  belong  to  the  vegetable  kingdom  uiere  is  no 
difficulty  in  at  once  assigning  them  their  position,  but  there  are  a 
very  laige  number  of  organised  bodies  that  stand  in  such  intimate 
relations  with  the  animU  kingdom  as.  to  create  a  perpetual  difficulty 
with  regard  to  their  real  nature.  At  the  time  when  it  was  considered 
a  sufficient  distinction  between  pUnts  and  animals  that  the  former 
were  fixed  and  the  latter  had  the  power  of  locomotion,  huge  orders 
of  beings  which  are  now  classed  wiui  plants  were  regarded  as  animals. 
To  some  of  these  it  may  be  interesting  to  draw  attention,  as  it  is 
amongst  them  that  the  naturalist  is  enabled  to  observe  in  its  simplest 
forms  the  true  nature  of  the  functions  of  vegetable  structure.  It  was 
in  the  laige  order  Algcf  [Aloa],  to  which  belong  the  various  forms  of 
searweeds,  and  the  lowest  orders  of  plants  inhabiting  fresh-water, 
that  those  functions  were  first  observed  that  were  supposed  to  be 
peculiar  to  animals.  Amongst  the  OscUlatoricB  it  was  found  that  a 
number  had  a  distinct  power  of  self-movement,  so  that  as  far  as  these 
were  concerned  it  became  evident  that  locomotion  would  not 
distinguish  plants  from  animals.  Many  of  the  early  observers  with 
the  microscope  had  also  seen  that  the  spores  or  cells  that  represented 
seeds  in  the  higher  plants  had  the  power  of  motion.  In  order  to 
distinguish  between  these  movements  and  those  possessed  by  the  ova 
of  animals,  it  was  supposed  that  the  latter  had  cilia  whilst  the  former 
had  not.  linger  and  Thuret  however,  in  1848,  both  announced  the 
faet  that  the  spores  of  many  AlgcB  possess  vibratile  cilia,  not  to  be 


distinguished  from  those  on  animal  bodies.  This  important  diacovsry 
has  been  followed  by  a  very  rigid  examination  of  the  various  oxganiBsd 
bodies  admitted  by  Ehrenberg  into  the  daas  of  Animalcules,  in  his 
*  Infusionsthierchen,'  on  account  of  their  locomotion  by  meaxia  of  cilia. 
The  consequence  has  been  that  large  numbers  of  the  Jt^futoria  of 
Ehrenberg  are  now  regarded  as  plants.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  these  is  the  Volvox  globator,  or  Globe  Animalcule,  which,  although 
endowed  with  cilia  and  possessing  the  most  active  powers  of  motion, 
has  through  the  recent  researches  of  Professor  WiUiamson  and  Mr. 
Busk  been  shown  to  be  an  undoubted  plant.  Not  only  does  the 
history  of  its  development  and  its  mode  of  reproduction  bear  out  this 
conclusion,  but  also  tiie  presence  of  starch,  detected  by  Mr.  Buak  during 
the  growth  of  the  young  VUwyx  {*  Microscopical  Transaetiona,'  vol.  L 
New  Series).  The  placing  this  form  in  tae  vegetable  kingdom  ii 
important,  as  a  large  number  of  the  forms  placed  by  Ehrenberg  near 
Vdvox  must  now  be  regarded  also  as  planta.  This  serves  to  remoTs 
the  anomaly  which  has  sometimes  been  insisted  on,  that  the  lower 
animals  perform  the  functions  of  the  higher  plants,  that  ia,  take  up 
carbonic  acid  and  throw  out  oxygen.  The  fact  is,  these  lower  animals 
are  plants.    [Animal  KmoDOH.] 

Ehrenberg  also  describes  and  figures  the  families  of  DiaUmacea 
and  Deamidea  in  his  Infutoria,  They  have  the  power  of  movement 
but  are  destitute  of  cilia.  The  DemnidtoB  contain  chlorophyle,  aie 
developed  similar  to  the  Alga,  and  the  fact  of  their  conjugating 
after  the  manner  of  the  Zygnamata  amongst  the  Algce,  first  obeerred 
bv  Mr.  Thwaites,  has  led  naturalists  to  place  tbem  amongst  planta 
Mr.  Ralfs,  whose  work  on  the  '  British  DesmidesB '  is  one  of  the  best 
on  the  subject^  states  that  he  has  found  starch  universally  present 
amongst  them.  The  Diatonuuxce  are  not  so  decidedly  vegetable  ia 
their  nature.  Lindley  in  his  '  Vegetable  Kingdom,'  however,  admits 
J)iaiomac(gf  and  regards  Detmu^  as  a  sub-kingdom.  The  presence  of  a 
shell  or  frustule  of  silica,  sometimes  very  complicated  in  its  structurs^ 
has  led  Schleiden  to  reject  the  Diatotnaeea  as  plants,  whilst  Kiitzing 
admits  some  and  rejects  others.  Their  general  resemblance  to 
Dewmidece  has  given  them  their  position  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Sponges  {Spongiada),  which  were  plaoed 
amongst  anim^lR  on  account  of  &e  active  motile  habits  of  their  ova, 
seem^  to  be  destined  to  classification  again  with  plants  when  motility 
no  longer  became  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  two  kingdoms. 
There  are,  however,  other  points  of  structure  which  still  induce  the 
zoologist  to  lay  claim  to  the  sponges.  The  corallines  (OoraUina) 
which  were  formerly  classed  with  the  sponges,  fizst  aa  plants,  then  aa 
animals,  are  now  again  placed  with  the  CeramiaeeaB  amongst  the  sea- 
weeds, and  have  a  decided  relation  to  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

From  these  fiusts  it  is  very  evident  that  no  mere  technical  definition 
will  enable  the  naturalist  to  separate  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms,  and  that  it  is  only  by  obserying  the  structure  and 
functions  of  organic  beings  through  tiie  whole  course  of  their  existence 
that  we  can  hope  to  assign  them  their  right  position  as  plants  or 


In  determining  the  sphere  of  Botanv  by  the  inquiiy  into  the  nature 
of  the  plant,  it  will  at  once  be  seen  that  the  study  of  planta  cannot 
be  successfully  prosecuted  without  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  aniTnale 
Again,  the  chemical  elements  of  which  plants  and  animals  are  formed, 
exert  a  great  influence  through  their  peculiar  properties  on  the  life 
of  these  beings.  These  must  be  always  taken  into  consideration  in 
speaking  of  the  structure  of  a  plant  or  the  functions  it  performs. 
Hence  we  see  that  Botany  is  but  the  part  of  a  great  series  of  facts 
in  which  the  inoiganic  elements,  the  oalls  of  plants,  and  the  cells  of 
animals,  are  constantiy  taking  a  part 

In  order  to  study  Botany  therefore  successfully,  the  first  knowledge 
that  is  necessary  is  that  of  the  properties  of  the  elements*  which  enter 
into  the  composition  of  plants  and  animals.  These  are  more  espe- 
cially four,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  which  on  account 
of  their  universal  presence  in  plants  and  animals  have  been  called 
oi^panic  or  necessary  elements.  In  addition  to  these  are  found  twelve  or 
thirteen  other  elements,  which  not  being  universally  present  may  be 
called  occasional  or  inoiganic  elements.  Sulphur,  phosphorus,  calcium, 
potassium,  sodium,  iron,  magnesium,  iodine,  and  bromine,  are  the 
most  conspicuous  of  these  elements.  The  organic  elements  enter 
into  various  compounds  which  are  found  in  plants,  as  sugar,  starch, 
cellulose,  protein,  chlorophyle,  gums,  reainsy  alkaloids,  adds^  Ac; 
whose  properties  should  be  studied  in  order  that  their  presence  mav 
be  readily  recognised  in  the  dissection  of  planta.  In  order  to  acoomplim 
this,  re-agents  must  be  employed,  as  iodine,  potaasa,  sulphuric  add, 
iron,  and  many  others,  which  on  being  applied  to  the  parts  of  plants 
reveal  by  their  action  the  nature  of  the  vegetable  compounda 

One  of  the  most  important  aids  to  the  study  of  the  straetnre  of 
plants,  and  by  which  the  great  recent  progress  in  physiology  has 
been  made,  is  the  microscope.  The  textures  of  plants  as  well  as 
^nimi^la  take  their  origin  in  cells  so  minute  that  they  cannot  be  seen 
by  the  naked  eye.  It  ia  in  and  around  these  cells  that  the  active 
functions  of  every  part  of  an  animid  or  plant  are  going  on ;  and  it  is 
only  as  the  botanist  gets  to  know  the  nature  oi  the  changes  which 
the  vegetable  elements  and  their  compounds  undergo  in  the  oella^  of 
plants,  that  he  can  comprehend  the  general  laws  of  vegetable  li^ 
Not  only  is  it  necessary  to  the  botanist  to  study  these  lain  by  the 
aid  of  the  microscope,  but  the  general  physiologist  and  student  of  tiM 


Digitized  by 


Google 


685  BOTAKY. 

fimctioiiB  of  the  hmnui  body  will  find  it  necesBary  to  begin  hiB 
inqoirin  by  the  study  of  the  nature  of  vegetable  celk.  It  waa  by 
following  up  the  reeearchea  made  by  Schleiden  on  vegetable  ceUs, 
that  Schwann  waa  enabled  to  demonstrate  the  oellular  straotuie  of 
the  animal  body,  and  thus  to  initiate  a  new  era  in  physiology.  It  is 
still  in  the  plant  that  the  simplest  oondition  of  the  cell  is  observed. 
It  is  also  in  the  plant  that  the  greatest  chemical  activity  of  the  cell 
exists.  The  food  of  animals,  and  that  which  constitutes  tiie  subatance 
of  the  tissues  of  animals,  are  all  formed  in  the  interior  of  the  cells  of 
plants.  It  is  the  cell  of  the  plant  which  appropriates  the  carbonic 
acid  of  the  atmosphere,  and  throws  back  again  into  it  oxygen  gas ; 
on  the  one  hand  depriving  it  of  an  agent  destructive  to  animiJ  life, 
and  on  the  other  supplymg  the  agent  by  which  alone  animal  life 
could  be  carried  on.  It  is  also  in  the  vegetable  cell  that  the  chemist 
most  seek  the  solution  of  some  of  the  most  diflScult  problems  of 
his  science.  The  chemist  cannot  convert  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia 
into  protein,  sugar,  starch,  &c. — ^prooeflses  which  are  going  on  in  every 
vegetable  cell;  he  must  therefore  regard  attentively  the  changes 
going  on  in  the  cells  of  plants,  if  he  would  manufacture  the  products 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom  independent  of  its  aid. 

Amongst  the  practical  arts  of  life  a  knowledge  of  Botany  is  impor- 
tant to  many.  Agriculture  and'  Horticulture  are  tiie  two  arts  with 
which  its  relation  is  the  most  obvious ;  for  although  a  considerable 
part  of  all  the  practices  in  each  of  them  grew  out  of  mere  experience, 
or  was  discovered  by  ohacoe,  yet  there  is  no  possibility  of  improving 
theoi  except  by  other  fortunate  accidents,  or  of  advancing  them  at  a 
moiv  rapid'  rate,  unless  by  the  application  of  vegetable  physiology. 
The  world,  especially  that  part  of  it  to  which  these  arts  belong,  is 
little  accustomed  to  trace  to  their  source  ^e  common  practices 
with  which  it  has  been  familiar  from  its  infancy ;  and  it  is  far  from 
suspecting  that  many  of  the  operations  which  are  intrusted  to  the 
most  ignorant  rustics  have  one  by  one  and  piecemeal  been  hit  upon 
during  the  careful  study  of  nature  by  philosophers  whose  names  it 
never  heard.  Gardening  and  Husbandry  may  be  defined  as  the  arts, 
firstly,  of  improving  the  quality  of  various  useful  plants,  and  secondlv, 
of  increasing  the  quantity  which  a  given  space  of  earth  is  capable 
of  producing. 

To  improve  the  quality  of  any  one  plant,  and  to  render  it  better 
adapted  to  the  uses  of  mankind  upon  scientific  principles^  is  a  very 
complicated  process,  and  is  to  be  effected  in  many  different  ways, 
all  of  which  require  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  tiie 
vital  actions  of  plants,  and  of  the  degree  in  which  they  are  affected 
by  either  external  or  internal  causes.  For  example,  a  particular  kind 
of  flax  produces  fibres  which  are  too  coarse  for  the  manufacturer ;  it 
is  impossible  to  know  how  those  delicate  elementary  tubes  are  to 
be  rendered  fine  without  being  aware  of  the  manner  in  which  vege- 
table tissue  is  affected  bv  light,  air,  and  earth.  The  flavour  of  some 
fruit  is  too  add ;  it  is  the  botanist  only  who  could  have  discovered 
how  to  increase  the  quantity  of  sac<marine  matter.  Potatoes  are 
sometimes  watery  and  unfit  for  food;  we  leam  from  vegetable 
physiology  that  this  is  often  caused  by  the  leaves  not  being  sufficiently 
exposed  to  solar  light>'  the  great  agent  in  causing  the  production  of 
vegetable  secretions.  The  leaves  of  the  tea  plant  are  harmless  and 
oply  alightly  stimulating  in  certain  latitudes ;  they  become  narcotic 
and  unwholesome  in  otiiers;  this  apparent  puszie  is  explained  by 
the  connection  that  exists  between  clunate  and  vegetation,  a  purely 
botanical  qnestion.  Certain  races  of  plants  may  enst,  of  which  one 
is  too  vigorous,  the  other  too  debilitated  for  the  purposes  of  the 
cultivator;  the  botanist  shows  how  an  intermediate  race  may  be 
created,  having  the  best  qualites  of  both. 

Certain  vegetable  productions  are  susceptible  of  being  produced  in 
particular  latitudes,  othars  are  not,  or  not  to  any  useful  purpose : 
for  instanoe^  in  Bngland,  on  account  of  the  want  of  the  necessary 
heat  at  the  period  of  ripening  the  grape,  the  vine  will  never  yield 
grapes  capable  of  making  such  wine  as  even  that  of  champagne,  nor 
will  tobacco  ever  acquire  that  peculiar  principle  which  gives  it  so 
great  a  value  in  tropioal  and  subtropical  oimates  when  grown  in  other 
countries;  and  yet  both  these  plants  flourish  in  the  soil  of  England. 
The  botaoiist  can  explain  the  cause  of  this,  and  thus  prevent  the 
commencement  of  speoulatiomi  which  can  never  end  except  in  loss 
and  disaj^pomtment.  . 

The  quantity  of  produce  which  may  be  procured  from  ft  given 
space  of  ground  varies  very  much  according  to  the  skill  of  the 
cultivator,  but  that  skill  is  in  reality  the  mere  application  of  the  rules 
of  vegetable  physiology  to  each  particular  case ;  an  appli<»ktion  that 
is  most  frequently  made  unoonsdoasly,  but  which  nevertheless  is 
made.  We  are  too  apt  to  overlook  causes  in  effects,  and  to  aacribe 
the  improvements  we  witness  to  a  mere  advance  in  art,  without 
considering  that  that  advance  must  have  had  a  cause,  and  that  the 
cause  can  only  be  the  working  of  some  master-hand  which  is  after- 
wards blindly  followed  by  the  community.  The  crops  of  orchard- 
fruit  are  doubled  and  trebled  in  many  places :  old  exhausted  races 
are  replaced  by  young,  vigorous^  ana  prolific  ones;  the  dder  and 
perry  fiMinar  winfeelihe  benefit  of  this,  but  he  will  forget  that  he 
owes  the  change  to  the  patient  akill  of  a  vagstable  physiologist  The 
produoe of  the potata  is  angmented  in  the  same  proportion;  twice 
at  least  the  ordinary  qoanti^  of  this  important  artiole  of  f oqd  may 
now  be  obtained  firom'evny  field.  The  peasant  will  feel  the  additional 


BOTANY. 


0M 


comfort  thus  difilised  sround  him,  but  he  wUl  never  have  heard  of 
the  name  of  Knight ;  nor  will  he  know,  after  a  few  years,  that  the 
produce  of  the  land  was  ever  smaller. 

Nor  is  it  alone  to  articles  of  food  that  this  scienoe  is  to  be  ^>plied. 
Next  in  importance  to  food  are  fire  and  shelter,  both  of  which  are 
mainly  furnished  by  timber.  The  laws  of  nature  which  regulate  the 
production  of  this  substance  are  among  the  most  curious  in  science : 
we  possess  the  most  absolute  control  over  them ;  we  hold  in  our  very 
hands  the  means  of  regulating  their  action ;  and  if  we  neglect  them,  as 
is  too  often  the  case,  it  is  not  scienoe  which  is  to  blame,  but  those 
who  undervalue  and  neglect  her.  Because  trees  will  grow  without 
assistance,  and  because  in  spite  of  neglect  and  ignorance  timber  is 
perpetually  renewing  itself  upoii  the  earth,  we  forget  that  either  its 
rate  of  production  may  be  accelerated  or  its  quality  improved. 
Instances  are  not  wanting  where  plantations  in  this  country  made  for 
particular  purposes  at  a  laige  expense  have  been  totally  ruined,  with 
reference  to  the  objects  of  those  who  planted  them,  from  ignorance  of 
the  simplest  laws  of  vegetable  physiology. 

Some  allusion  has  already  been  imlde  to  the  important  results 
which  arise  out  of  the  study  of  the  connection  between  vegetation  and 
climate.  The  quality  of  all  vegetable  productions  is  influenced  essen- 
tially by  external  causes ;  intensity  of  light,  atmospheric  pressure^ 
humidi^,  temperature,  and  seasons,  are  the  great  agents  which  modify 
the  tissue,  which  control  development,  and  which  regulate  the  forma- 
tion of  sensible  properties.  Various  combinations  of  these  and  other 
external  causes  are  what  constitute  diversities  of  climate,  and  it  is 
therefore  obvious  that  the  connection  between  the  latter  and  vegetation 
is  of  the  most  intimate  nature.  But  as  this  is  a  branch  of  the  scienoe 
of  comparatively  modem  origin  there  are  few  instances  of  its  appli- 
cation :  one  of  the  most  striking  was  the  declaration  of  Dr.  Royle,  that 
cotton  might  be  obtained  in  the  East  Indies  equal  to  the  finest  from 
America — a  prophecy  which  has  already  been  fulfilled,  in  consequence 
of  the  practical  adoption  of  plans  similar  to  those  which  he  theoreti- 
cally suggested.  Can  tea  be  cultivated  as  advantageously  elsewhere 
as  in  China  1  Here  is  a  single  question  of  immense  importance,  in- 
volving the  interests  of  millions  of  human  beings,  and  affecting  the 
pecuniary  interests  of  Qreat  Britain  aa  much  as  any  commercial 
problem  ever  did.  This  question  has  been  answered  by  the  botanist 
in  the  affirmative,  and  already  the  natives  of  the  East  Indies  are 
supplied  with  tea  from  the  Himalaya^  and  Asam  tea  may  be  bought 
in  the  shops  of  London. 

To  the  medical  man  the  studv  of  botany  is  of  the  highest  interest 
as  the  membera  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  yield  to  him  the  most 
important  means  of  his  art  It  is  only  as  the  properties  of  plants  are 
studied  that  new  agents  for  the  alleviation  of  disease  can  be  expected, 
or  that  substitutes  for  those  slready  in  use  can  be  employed. 

Thus  hr  we  have  more  especially  referred  to  the  study  of  vegetable 
physiology.  Systematic  Botany  bean  upon  practice  not  less  usN^Uy, 
but  in  a  diiibrent  way.  If  the  only  advantage  of  classifying  plants 
were  to  acquire  the  power  of  discovering  their  scientific  names,  even 
that  would  have  a  certain  kind  of  interot,  because  it  would  ensure  a 
uniformity  of  language  in  speaking  of  them ;  if  it  had  the  additional 
property  of  demonstratLog  the  gradual  connection  that  is  discoverable 
between  all  the  beings  in  the  organised  part  of  the  creation,  of  proving 
that  there  is  an  insensible  transition  firam  one  form  of  living  matter 
to  another  without  break  or  interruption,  and  of  explaining  in  a  dear 
and  intdligible  manner  the  nature  of  that  imiverssl  harmony  of 
which  philosophen  are  used  to  talk,  the  interest  and  importance  of 
botanical  daasifications  would  be  still  further  enhancecf ;  but  the 
practical  importance  of  them  would  atill  be  extremely  limited.  It  is 
only  when  we  look  to  the  coincidence  between  botanical  affinities  and 
sensible  properties,  and  to  the  external  indications  of  internal  qualities, 
that  we  perceive  the  great  features  of  its  utility  to  man.  If  the 
qualities  of  every  plant  required  to  be  ascertained  by  a  circuitous  and 
tedious  series  of  experiments,  no  life  could  be  long  enough  for  the 
task,  nor,  if  it  were,  could  any  memory  however  powerful  remember  so 
extensive  a  series  of  facts ;  and  if  under  such  circumstsnces  botanists 
whose  whole  life  is  occupied  in  the  study  should  be  unable  to  master 
the  difficulties,  systematic  botany  could  never  be  applied  at  all  to  any 
useful  purpose,  because  it  must  of  necessity  be  far  beyond  the 
acquirement  of  those  persons  who  would  be  most  likely  to  have  occa- 
sion to  employ  it  But  it  waa  long  since  suspected  that  plants  which 
agree  with  each  other  in  oiganisation  also  agree  in  the  aeoretions 
which  may  be  supposed  to  be  the  result  of  that  organisation.  Ion: 
nsBus,  in  his  dissertation  upon  the  properties  of  plsnts,  declares  that 
spedes  of  the  same^genus  possess  similar  virtuea,  that  those  of  the 
same  natoral  order  aito  near  each  other  in  properties,  and  that  those 
which  belong  to  the  same  natural  dass  have  also  some  relation  to 
each  other  in  their  sensible  properties.  This  doctrine  is  now  admitted 
on  all  hands  among  men  of  sdence  to  be  incontrovertible,  and  places 
the  practical  utility  of  systematic  botany  in  the  most  striking  light 
Instead  of  endless  experiments  leading  to  multitudes  of  incoogmous 
and  iaolated  facts,  the  whole  history  of  the  medidnal  or  economical 
uses  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  reduced  to  a  comparvtivdy  smaU 
number  of  general  laws;  and  a  student  instead  of  being  compelled  ta 
entangle  himsdf  in  a  nuun  of  speeifio  dJatineliiona,  is  onlr  obliged  in 
practloe  to  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  more  striUng  groups ; 
and  having  accomplished  this  he  is  enabled  to  jtidge  of  the  properttsa 


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B87 


BOTANY. 


BOTAKY. 


of  a  species  he  Kad  nerer  seen  before,  by  what  he  knows  of  some 
other  species  to  which  it  is  related.  Some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which 
this  power  of  judging  of  plants  2k  priori  is  practically  useful  may  be 
formed  firom  tnis — ^that  supposing  the  vegetable  kingdom  to  consist 
of  100,000  species  arranged  in  6000  or  7000  genera,  the  vast  mass  of 
characters  required  to  disting^h  them  will  be  collected  under  about 
800  heads,  a  knowledge  of  not  more  than  two-thirds  of  which  will  be 
required  for  the  purposes  of  the  general  observer.  Thus  the  oommon 
hedge-mallow  is  a  mucilaginous  inert  plant,  whose  woody  tissue  is  tough 
enough  to  be  manufactured  into  cordage;  it  has  certain  botani^ 
charfM^rs,  which  are  readily  observed  and  remembered ;  and  it  belongs 
to  a  group  of  plants  consisting  of  not  fewer  than  700  species.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  understand  the  structure  of  the  common  mallow  to 
recognise  all  the  remainder  of  the  group,  and  to  be  aware  of  their  uses 
and  properties ;  so  that  a  person  in  a  foreign  country  who  finds  a 
plant  agreeing  with  the  mallow  in  those  marks  by  which  the  MalvcusecB 
are  known,  although  lie  should  never  have  seen  or  heard  of  the  plant 
before,  would  immediately  recognise  it  to  be  mucilaginous  and  mett, 
and  would  expect  to  find  its  vegetable  fibre  tough  enough  to  be 
-  manufactured  into  cordage.  It  is  this  class  of  facts  which  alone  can 
lead  with  any  certainty  to  the  discovery  in  one  country  of  substitutes 
for  the  useful  plants  of  another ;  it  has  shown  the  similarity  between 
the  violet  roots  of  Europe  and  one  of  the  kinds  of  ipecacuanha  of 
South  America ;  that  the  astringency  of  the  aliun-root  of  the  United 
States  fibads  a  parallel  in  those  of  the  geraniums  of  England ;  that 
madder  has  its  representative  in  the  Isle  of  France,  cinchona  in  India, 
and  that  India-rubber  trees  exist  in  the  esst  as  well  as  in  the  west. 

The  artist  also  would  confer  an  advantage  on  his  art  by  the  study 
of  Botany.  It  is  on  account  of  the  utter  neglect  of  any  attention  to 
vegetable  forms  that  in  almost  all  objects  of  art  whm  plants  are 
introduced  they  are  ridiculously  wrong.  Not  only  are  tnese  mon- 
strous  caricatures  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  introduced  upon  our  waUa, 
carpets,  plates,  dishes,  saucers,  kc,  but  into  many  of  the  great  works 
of  art  Paintings  strictly  correct  in  regard  to  general  outline  and 
colour  are  filled  up  with  botanical  impossibilities.  The  plants  of 
tropical  clunates  are  found  flourishing  in  the  forests  of  Great  Britain, 
ana  an  Assyrian  monarch  is  surrounded  with  the  vegetation  of  the 
Kew  World.  Such  anomalies  could  not  exist  if  the  artist  studied  as 
attentively  the  structure  of  the  v^etable  kingdom  as  he  does  that  of 
the  human  body. 

The  study  of  Botany  may  be  divided  and  pursued  undar  the  fol- 
lowing heads : — 

1.  The  Chemistry  of  Plants,  including  a  knowledge  of  the  physical 
and  chemical  properties  of  the  elements  which  enter  into  the  compo- 
sition of  plants.    [Secbstions,  Yeqxtablb.] 

2.  The  Histology  of  Plants,  including  the  fiscts  connected  with  the 
origin  of  the  vegetable  cell,  the  various  functions  it  performs^  and  its 
lifb  in  connection  with  others  in  the  formation  of  otgans,  [Ckll^ 
YsoxTABLE ;  Tissues,  Ysgetable.] 

3.  The  Morphology  of  Plants,  embracing  the  history  of  the  origin 
and  growth  of  the  individual  oigans  of  plimts,  and  the  relation  of  all 
forms  of  oxgans  to  one  another,  and  the  laws  which  regulate  the 
changes  which  the  same  oigan  undergoes  in  the  same  and  in  different 
&milies  of  plants.    [Stamen  ;  Pistil  ;  Seed  ;  Flowsk;  Fbuit;  Ovule.] 

4.  The  Organology  of  PUmts,  including  the  general  phenomena  of 
the  entire  life  of  the  plant,  and  the  consideration  of  the  relations  which 
animals  bear  to  plants,  and  the  way  in  which  they  take  part  in  the  great 
changes  going  on  in  the  suriaoe  of  the  earth.    FStsm  ;  Root  ;  Lsav.] 

5.  Systematic  Botany,  embracing  the  principles  of  classification  and 
the  arrangement  of  plants  in  groups  according  to  their  relations  to 
each  other.  This  department  of  ootany  has  been  only  gradually 
developed.  Under  the  heads  of  Exoosns,  EifDOOBirs^  and  Acboqens 
will  be  found  in  this  work  the  subdivisions  proposed  l^  the  most 
recent  writers  on  systematic  botany.  In  order  however  to  facilitate 
the  student  in  discovering  the  order  to  which  any  plant  he  may 
possess  belongs,  we  give  here  an  analyslB  of  the  orders  contained  in 
the  Enqlibh  CTOLOFiEDiA  upon  the  plan  followed  by  Dr.  Lxndley  in 
his '  Ysgetable  Kingdom.' 

Claas,  EXOGENa 
Sub-Claas,  Poltfbtaljl    (Fetab  not  united). 
L  Stamens  more  than  20  (Polyandrous). 
A.  OvBiy  wholly  or  partiy  inferior 

a.  Stipules  present  « 

1.  Carpels   more   or   less  distinct  or  ^PomaoM, 

solitary \     (JRataeeiB.) 

2,  Cupels  combined 

Placentas  central 
Leaves  opposite 
Leaves  alternate 
Placentas  on  the  side    . 
h,  Stipxdes  absent 

1.  Caipels  more  or  leas  distinct    . 
%  C«(p^»  united 

Placentas  spread  about . 
Placentas  on  sides 

Petals  definite,  distinct    .        .     Loiuaeete, 


Petals  indefinite^  oonfused 
Placentas  in  the  oentro 
Leaves  dotted 

Ovary  1-oelled     . 

Ovary  more  than  1-oelled 
Leaves  dotless 

Petals  numerous 

Petals  few 

Petals  narrow 


CodooeoL 


Petals  round 


{Almgiaeea. 

styles  separate  PhUadd^pkatete. 

B.  Ovary  superior 

a.  Stipules  present 

1.  Carpels  more  or  less  distinct  or  solitary 

Stemens  hypogynous 

Carpel  solitary  ZeguminomL 

Oaipels  00       ...        .     Ma^noUacut, 

Stamens  perig^nous 

Styles  coming  from  apex  of  carpels 

Carpels  more  than  1 .         •     Soiocea, 
Styles  coming  £h)m  [base   of  1  c8krMa6<ri«i«wt 
carpels.        ....  j ^"•f*"**"'*''"*^ 

2.  Caipelsumted;  placentas  more  than  1 

Placentas  on  the  side  (parietal) 
Leaves  dotted,  dots  round 
Leaves  dotted,  dots  linear  and 
round,  mixed 
Placentas  in  the  oentre 
Calyx  imbricated 
Flowers  unisexual 
Flowers  hermaphrodite 
Ovary  I-ceued ;  sepals  2 
Ovary  2  or  more  celled 
Calyx  double   . 
Calyx  single 
Calyx  valvate 

Stamens      monadelphous ; 
anthers  2-celled 
Stamens  columnar  StereuliacetB, 

Stamens  not  columnar  .     Byttneriacw. 


Flae(mrtiaee(g, 


Stipkorbiaoea, 

Pofiniaeacea. 

CfUanaeta. 
Oitiaeece, 


Stamens      monadelphous ;  1  »^  , 

anthers  1-ceUed  .   r^**"** 

Stamens      monadelphous ; 
calyx  irregular 

Stamens  distinct 


V  JHpttraeeoB. 


5.  Stipules  absent 

1.  Carpelsmore  or  less  distinct  or  solitary 
Caipels  immersed  in  a  disk     . 
Carpels  not  immersed 


NeUtmbiaeeoe, 


iperigynous    . 
Stamens  hypogynous 
Embryo  in  a  vitellus 
Embryo  naked,  very  minute 
Seeds  with  an  aril 
Exarillate;  albumen  fleshy 
Flowers  heimaphrodite 
Flowers  unisexual 
Exarillate ;  albumen  rumi- 
nated   .... 
Embryo  nearly  as  long  as  seed 
Calyx  much  imbricated 
Fruit  a  legume 
Fruit  not  a  legume 
Seeds  smooth 
Seedshairy    . 
Calyx  littie  imbricated 
raiit  not  a  legume 
Fruit  a  legume 
2.  Carpels  united;  placentas  more  than  1 
Plaoentas  parietal,  in  lines 

Anthers  versatile ;  juioe  watery 

Aathen  innate ;  juice  milky   . 

Plaoentas  parietal,  spread  over  the 

lining  of  the  fruit 
Plaoentas^Mread  over  diasefMrnents 
Plaoentas  central 

Stigma  broad  and  petaloid      • 
Stigma  simple 

Ovaiy  1-oalled    .        • 
Ovary  msny^oeUed 

Calyx  much  imbricatedT 
Leaves  compound    . 


CabcmbacM. 
DOiemaeea. 

Sdtimmdraeta. 
>'An(maeece. 

ffppericaeeek 


AnaeardiaeuB, 


Ckupparidaomu 


\Plaeowiiacea, 


SkkobcUeuh 


Digitized  by 


Google 


BOTANY. 


BOTANY. 


Leaves  simple 

Petalsequal  to  tepalfl 


Chuiaeea. 


MaregraaHae$(B, 


Oittaoeok 


ManalMeeeB, 

Beg<miaeea, 

ShemnaoecB, 

Jthuophoraeeof. 
SamemdidaoefB, 


CucwrhUaceas. 
OrosiulacecB, 

Vmbelltferof. 
AraliacecB, 


Seeds  few 
Seeds    niune- ' 
roiiB;<9eUls 
flat     . 
Seeds    nume- ' 
roQs;  petals 
crumpled  . 
CUyx  little  or  not  at  all ' 
imbricated 

IL  Stamens  fewer  than  20  (Oligandrous). 
A  Omcj  wholly  or  partly  inferior 
A.  Stipules  present 
Placentas  parietal 
Placentas  in  the  centre 
Flowers  unisexual  . 
Flowers  hermaphrodite 
Stamens  opposite  petals 
Stamens  alternate  with  petals 
Leaves  opposite    . 
Leaves  altemate  . 
6.  Stipules  absent 
Placentas  parietal 
Flowers  unisexual  . 
Flowers  hermaphrodite  . 
Placentas  in  the  centre 

Flowers  in  umbels ;  styles  2  . 
Flowers  in  umbels ;  styles  8  . 
Flowers  not  in  umbels 
Caxpela  Bolitaxy 

Petals  strap-shaped;  stamens  \AlangiaeetB. 
distinct     .  ,  t     {Ny$9aeeos.) 

growing  on  tnem      .        .  J 
Petals  oblong;  leaves  hispid 
Cotyledons  convolute     . 
Ck>tyledons  flat   ■     . 
Petals  oblong ;  leaves  balsamic 
Carpela  divaricating 

Leaves  altemate :  herbs 
Leaves  opposite :  shrubs 
CSsrpels  parallel,  combined 

fcalyx  valvato;  petals  oppo-  \  j^,,^,,,^ceoB. 
site  stamens  .  j««»wn«ww. 

Calyx  valvate ;  petals  alter- 
nate with  stamens 
Albumen  none         • 
Albumen  copious    . 
Calyx  not  valvate 
Stamens  doubled 
Stamens  curved 
Leaves  dotted   . 
Leaves  not  dotted 
Parts  of  flower  4 
Ovules  ascending 
Ovules  pendulous 
Parts  of  flower  not 
4;  seeds  many 
Leafy    .        . 
Scalv     . 
Parts  of  flower  not 
4 ;  seeds  few 
E  Ovavy  ^diolly  superior 
a.  Leaves  stipulate 

1.  Carpels  distinct  or  solitary 

Anthers  with  recurved  valves 
Anthers  with  longitudinal  valves 

Stylefromthe  base  of  the  carpel    Chrysohakmaeees. 

2.  Cwpeb  wholly  combined 

Plaoentas  parietal 

Flowers  with  appendages  Poiiii/loracecB. 

Flowers  without  appendagea 

Leaves  with  round  and  ob- 1  o«-..,a.— 
long  transparent  dels   .  |««»y*««* 

Leaves  dot^es^  «*«**^  T  iVoMracw. 
when  young        •       .  /  ••'^^'••'^"''W' 


Comhraacea. 
ffalaraffaceat. 
AnaeardicteecB, 

Saxi/roffaeeeB. 
ffydrangeaoea. 


Onagraeea. 
Oornaeea. 

MdadamaeeeB. 

Myrtaeea. 


OnagraettB. 
H^HfragoMn, 


£$wuonwi$(B» 
Motwtrcpaceat, 

'  |>.9pimiaci0<s. 


Serbeiridaeete. 


Leaves    dotlesSy    straight  1 
when  young ;  fruit  cap-    >  VioUicetB. 
snlar      .... 
Leaves    dotless,    straight ' 
when      young;      fruit   » Moringaceat. 
siliquose        .        .        .J 
Plaoentas  central 
Styles  distinct 

Calyx  in  a  broken  whorl    .     Slaiinaeect, 
Calyx  in  a  complete  whorl 

Flowers  unisexual         .     JSuphorbiacea. 
Iilowers  hermaphrodite 

Petals  minute  lUecebraoea. 

Petals  laige;  stamens  ] 
perigynous;  leaves  ^OwMMocece: 
opposite  .  J 

Petals  large;  stamens  1 
perigynous;  leaves  \ Saxifragaeea, 
altemate  .  J 

Calyx  valvate  THiacea, 

Styles  more  or  less  oombined, 
gynobasio 


leaves 


(k^naeea. 


leaves 


"  f  ZpgophyUacecB, 


OeraniaeecB. 
Ozdlidaeecs. 


VochyaeecB, 


Gynobase  fleshy 
Gynobase      diy ; 

opposite  . 
Gynobase      diy; 
altemate 
Fruit  beaked 
Fruit  not  beaked  . 
Styles  more  or  less  oombined, 
not  gynobasio 
CfJyx  in  a  broken  whorl 
i^lowers  spurred    . 

Flowers  not  spurred,  naked  SapindaeetB, 
Calyx  in  a  complete  whorl 

Leaves  simple ;  sepals  2 .     PortulaeacecB, 
Calyx  valvate  or  open 

Stamens  columnar         .     StereuliaeecB, 
Stamens  not  columnar 
Stamens  opposite  petals 

Perigynous    .  ShamnacecB, 

Hypogvnous .        .      VitacecB, 
Stamens  altemate  with 
petals 
Anthers  porous      .     TUiaeecB. 

Antners  slit ;  petals  1 
undivided .        •  J 
Stipules  absent 
'    L  Carpels  distinct  or  solitary 

Anther-valves  recurved.  Berbtridacees. 

Anther-valves  longitudinal 

Fruit  a  legume;  radicle  next  ~ 

Tii^irm      ,  ,  ,  ,  , 

Fruit  a  legume;  radicle  away  ' 

from  hilum   . 
Fruit  not  leguminous 

Carpels  with  1  scale   .        .     Crauvlaeea. 
Carpels  with  two  scales      .     FroncoaeetB, 
Carpels  without  scales 
Albumen        abundant; 
embryo  minute 
Flowers  unisexual   .     LardktAaUKttam 
Flowers  hermaphrodite 

Embryo  in  vitellus  CahomhaeeoB, 
Embryo  naked 

Albumen  solid    JZcmtmeiitaeees. 
Albumen    ™-l^^^ 

Albumen  small  or  none 
Carpels  several 
Endoeed    .       • 
Naked        .        . 
Carpels  solitary 
Leaves  dotted    . 
-  Leaves  dotlees    . 
2,  Carpels  oembhied  Into  a  solid  pistQ 
Placentas  parietal 

St^mena  telradyiuanoiif  • 


VAmyridaceoB, 


yLeguminMim, 
[OotmaracetB^ 


Cdlyctmikaetat, 

AfllWptfmUKMCBi 

Amyridaeea, 
AnacatrdiacetB, 


Cfrucifm 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Ml 


BOTANY. 


BOTANY. 


Stamens  not  tetndynamotu 
Ilowen  with  stOTile  stameni 
Stamens  and  pistils  on 
distinct  flowers 
Pistil-flower  crowned     Pm^giaota, 

Stamens     and     pistils  1 

together;       placentce  [•J^Zaeowtiaoeas. 

lining  the  firuit  .        .  J 
Stamens     and     pistils  1 

together;  plaoentie  in  \MoltAahiaMot, 

rows  .       «  .J 

Flowers  withoat  sterile  stamens 
Disk 

stamens  i 
Disk   of  flower  lai^;  ' 

stamens  definite 
Diskof  flower  small  or  none 


of  flowOT  Urge;  1 01™,,,.^^^^^^ 
mens  indefinite     .  J  ^'^WP«»^»«'«»' 


Albumen  large 
Albmnen  sniall 
Calyx  6-leayed 
Calyx  tubular 
Placentas  coTering  dissepiments 
Placentas  central 
Styles  distinct 
Calyx  Talvate 
Calyx  in  a  broken  whorl 
Seeds  haiiy 


Popaveracea. 

Frankeniactm, 
Nymphaacea, 


ViviancLcecB. 
JUawmwriaoea* 

Seeds  smooth;  stamens  XrAnaMa. 
monadelphous,  or  free  J'*^'»«<'«^ 
Calyx  in  a  complete  whorl 

Carpels  with  a  scale  0r<U9¥lacea. 

Carpels  without  scales 

Carpels  divaiicating  .     Saxifnigacea, 
Carpelsnotdiyarioating  Caryoph}^lao§m, 
Styles  united,  gynobasio 

Stamens  arising  from  cftales       Simarvlbacecs, 
Stamens  not  aniBing  from  scales 

Styles  united,  not  gynobasio 
Calyx  in  a  broken  whorl 

rlowers  symmetrical    .     dutiaceas, 
flowers  unsymmetrical 
Flowers  regular 

Flowers  papilionaoeous  PdygalaeecB, 
Calyx  in  a  complete  whorl 
Carpels    4     or    more; 
antthers  porous 
Embryo  in  the  axis .     Bricaeecg. 
Embryo  at  the  base      PyrolacecB. 
Carpels    4     or    moro; 
anthers  slit 
Seeds  winged 

Leafy.       .  Oedrdacecs. 

Scaly.  ifono<ropac0CB. 

Seeds  wingless 
'  Stamens  united .     MtUacea. 
Stamens  free 

Leaves  dotted     A^tmHacecB. 
Leaves  dotlen 

Leafy       •     SrexiaeeoL 
Scaly  MonotropacetB. 

Caipels  fewer  than  4 

flowers  unisexual   .      ^npetraeecB. 
Flowershermaphrodite 

Sepals  2  .     P9H¥laeaoeau 

Sepals  above  2 
Stamens  hypo- 
gynous 

^Tamancaoea, 

Ovides 
ing        I 


OvnlM 
pandift- 

lOUS     . 

Stamens  peti- 
gynous 
Ovules  aa- 


fOifriOaen, 


^^^!^\Brmiac60L 
pended  ./ 

Galyx  valvate  or  open 

Anthers  porous    •  3SremMdrwom 

Anthers  slit 

Stameos      opposite  Ijm--,-™, 
petals    ...  J  '•■■■i""«"w«.n*- 

Stamens  alternate  to 
petals 
Leaves  pinnate  .     Afliyrida«M& 
Leaves     simple; " 
calyx  tubular; 
stamens  hypo- 
gynous 
Leaves     simple ; ' 

nous 


^ 
9 


Ofacoees. 


Sub-Classp  HovoFKALJL    (Petals  united  into  a  Tube). 


A.  Flowers  regular 
a.  8-  4-  54obed 


L  Ovary  superior. 


Leaves  dotted SMiacea, 

Leaves  dotlees 

Inflorescence  gyrate  Bi^raginaeuL 

Inflorescence  straight 

Corolla  plaited  in  aestivation  NoUtnaetes. 

Corolla  flat  in  estivation  .  StadehovnaeoB. 

h.  Ovary  not  lobed 

Carpels  4  or  5,  or  none 
Anthers  porous 

Seeds  winged     ....     Pyrolaoag. 
Seeds  wingless 

Anthers  biporous .  Brieaeea, 

Anthers  uniporous  .     Fpaeridaeece, 

Anthers  slit 

Stamens  opposite  petals 

Shrubs Myninaeea. 

Herbs Prmnlacea. 

Stamens  not  opposite  petals 
Seeds  numerous 

Carpels  distinct  Cfnmulaeea, 

Carpels  combined  .        .     Monotropaeta. 
Seeds  few 
*  Carpels  distinct  Awmaen, 

Caipels  combined 
Ovules  erect 

^Estivation  imbricate  Sapotaeea, 
Estivation  plicate     OtmvobnUaeeot, 
Ovules  pendulous 

Numberof  stamens  1  a^^jlh^^,^ 
sameaspetals   .  MWW»fl«* 
Numberofstamens  1  w^^^^ 
double  petals     . /^»«»««^ 
Carpels  usually  8 

Infloresoenoe  gyrate  •  MydnphyOacea. 

Inflorescence  straight 
Flowers  unisexual 
Flowers  hermaphrodite 
An  hypogynous  disk 
No  hypogynous  disk    .  JHapemiaoea, 

Carpels  2 
Stamens  2 

Corolla  valvate  ....      OUacecs, 
Corolla  imbricate  .     JanUmacea, 

Stamens  4 

Inflorescence  gyrate 

Fruit  1-celled  •       .     HydrofkjflUetm. 

Fruit  2H)aUed 

Style  bifid  .        .     Jghntiaeee, 

Style  diohotomous .       •     OMrdkuecb 
Inflorescence  straight 

Calyx  in  a  broken  whorl 

Leafy      •       .       .       .     OomwMUmcl 
.Scaly      ....     OMCtitactck 
Cajyx  in  a  complete  whod 
^Floifersi 
-       "10 


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511 


BOTANT. 


BOTANY. 


m 


Carpels  Q 

Anthers         and  1   ^    ,    .    , 

stigma  united  .  /  ^'<^^P*a^<^(e' 
Anthers         and 
stigma  separate 
CoroUaimbri-  ^  chuianaccct. 

CorolUvalYate    Loganiaeece, 
Corolla    oon-  1  -^ 
torted        .  ^Apocynaeea. 

Flowers  unsymmetrical 

Stipules  .        .     Zoganiaeeaf. 

No  stipules        .        .     StUbacecB, 
Carpel  single 
Stigma  simple 
Style  1 

Fruit  spuriously  2-celled      .     Plantaginacea:. 
Fruit  X-celled ;  seed  1  .  SaLvadoracece, 

Styles  6 PLwnbaginctceos. 

Stigma  indusiate     ....     Brwumiaeece. 
B.  Flowers  irr^ular 

a.  Ovary  i-lobed         ....        •  j^^*^'     ^^*'' 
h.  Ovary  undivided 

Carpel  solitary SdagvnactcB, 

Carpels  2 

Fruit  capsular  or  succulent 
Plac^tas  parietal 
Seeds  amygdaloid 

Fruttjrucoulent,    ^7-}^  Ore»centia^. 

Fruit  bony,  few-seeded  .     Pedaliacece. 
Seeds  not  amygdaloid 
Leafy 

Seeds  winged    .  .     Bignoniacea. 

Seeds  wingless  .  .      Gemeracece. 

Scaly  .        .  .      Orohanchacecg, 

Placentas  in  centre 

Albumen  large     .        .  .     Scrophulariacece. 
Albumen  none 

Seeds  winged  .        .  .     Bignoniaeea. 

Seeds  wingless         .  .     AcanthaeecB. 

Placentas  free,  central       .  .     LerUibulariacea, 
Fruit  nucamentaceouB,  2-celled 

Anthers  1-oelled         .        .  Sdaginacea. 

Anthers  2-celled         .  .     Stilbacea, 
Fruit  nucamentaceousy  4-celled 

Radicle  inferior  .        .  .      Verberuicece, 

Radicle  superior        .        .  .     Myoporacece, 

II.  Ovary  inferior. 

A.  Carpel  angle 

Anthers  united 

Ovule  pendulous    .....      Calyceracece. 

Ovule  erect Composito!. 

Anthers  firee 

Carpel  1 Dyptacea. 

Carpels  3,  2  abortive      ....      Valerianacccp. 

B.  Carpels  more  than  1 

Anthers  united Loheliaecce. 

Anthers  free 

Stamens  2 Ooiumdliacecp. 

Stamens  more  than  2 

Anthers  porous         ....      Vaccinicicae. 
Anthers  slit 
Stigma  naked 
Stamens  4, 5     .        .        .        .     CamparmlaeecB. 
Stamens  numerous  .        .        .     Bdvisiacece. 
Anthers  and  stigmas  united  .     Stylidiacea, 
Stigma  indusiate      .        .      Goodmiacece, 
Stigma  simple . 
Stipules        .        .        .     Cinehonaceot, 
Without  stipules 
Leaves  opposite 

Stem  square        .     GcUiacecB. 
Stem  round        «      Caprifoliwea. 

Sub-Class,  APETALis,  or  Incomfletje.    (Without  Petals,  sometimes 
without  Calyx.) 
I.  Without  a  Calyx  (Achlamydese). 
A.  Stipules  present 

Ovules  numeroos         .....     Bahamifiwx. 

Seeds  winged SalicaeecB, 

Seeds  comose 
Ovules  solitary  or  very  few 

Flowers  with  stamens  and  pistils 

Stamens  unilateiiil    ....      Chloranthacea* 
Stamens  whorled      ....     Saunwaeece. 

VAT.  HIST.  DIV.  VOL.  L 


Flowers  unisexual 

Carpel  solitary;  ovules  erect 
Carpel  solitaiy ;  ovules  pendidous 
Carpels  tricoccous  . 
B.  Stipules  absent 

Ovules  very  numerous 
Ovules  single  or  few 

Flowers  hermaphrodite 

Embryo  in  vitellus    .... 

Embryo  without  vitellus  . 
Flowers  unisexual 

Flowers  naked ;  carpel  single  . 
Flowers  naked ;  carpel  double . 
Flowers  covered;  anther-valves  re- 
curved  ....... 

Flowers  covered;  anther-valves  slit  . 


MyricaeeoL 
Platanaoea, 
EttpfiorbiaeecB, 

PodottemaouB, 


Piperacf€B. 
OUacete. 

Myricacece, 
CaUitrichacecB. 

^AtherospermaetCB. 

)      (CalyeafUhacea.) 
Monimiaeea. 


Myricacece, 


Jugiandaeeoe, 
Oucwhitac€(e. 


II.  Calyx  present  (Monochlamydae). 

A.  Ovary  inferior 

a.  Stipules  present 

Flowers  with  stamens  and  pistils  Arutoiochiweee. 

Flowers  unisexual ;  fruit  in  a  cup        .      Corylacece. 
Flowers  unisexual ;  fruit  naked 

Many-seeded Begoniacece. 

1-seeded Artocarpacea. 

K  Stipules  absent 

Plowers  unisexual,  in  catkins 
Leaves  simple,  alternate . 
Leaves  simple,  opposite  . 
Leaves  compoimd    . 
Flowers  unisexual,  not  in  catkins 
Seeds  in  apulp 
Seeds  dry 

Numerous Datiscticece, 

Solitary Hdwingiacea. 

Flowers  hermaphrodite 

Leaves  dotted         ....     Myrtacece. 
Leaves  not  dotted 

Ovary  3-  6-celled  .  Arittolochiacece. 

Ovary  1-celled 

^n^o^^^*"*'  cotyledons  j  Comhretaceo!, 
Embryo  straight;  cotyledons 
flat 
Albumen  absent  Haloragcuxce, 

Albumen  fleshy       .        .     Santalacea. 
Embryo  curved    .        .        .      CTienopodiacece, 

Ovary  more  than  1,  but  not  3 
or  6-celled 
Embryo  straight  .  Halorcigacea. 

Embryo  curved    .  TetragoniaceoB, 

B.  Ovazy  superior 

a.  Stipules  absent 

Flowers  hermaphrodite 

Sepals  2 Portvlacacea. 

Sepals  more  than  2    • 
Carpels  several,  united 

Placentas  parietal,  in  lines   . 
Placentas  parietal,  diffused  . 
Placentas  in  centre 
Ovules  few 

Calyx  short,  with  a  ' 

gynobase. 
Calyx  short,  no  gyno- 
base 
Embryo  curved    . 
Embryo  straight  . 
Calyx  tubular    . 
Ovules  numerous 

Carpels  2,  divaricating 
Carpels    not    divari- 
cating; stamens  hy- 
pogynous  . 
Leaves  opposite   . 
Leaves  alternate  . 
Carpels    not     divari- 
cating; stamens  pe- 
rigpous 
Fruit  licelled 
Fruit  many-celled 
Carpels     solitaiy    or 
separate 
Carpels  several     . 
Carpel  single 
Anther  -  valves  1  j 
recurved,  leafy  J 

2  Q 


PapaveracetB, 
Fla&mrtiacete, 


yRtUcKea, 


Phytdlcuieactct. 
CdoMtracea, 
PenoMcecB, 

SaxtfragaeecB. 


CaryophyllacecB, 
PodoBtemaeea, 


PrimiUttcea, 
LylhracUB. 

BanuncviaeeoB. 
[LauracecB. 


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m                                      BOTANY. 

BOTANY. 

m 

Anther  -  7filveB    recuired. 

I  Catijfthacecg, 

Carpel  solitary 

fioaly       .... 
Anther-valyes  slit 

^'t^fiuL^t**"'"  P^7"^^^^^  )8iiiogimc^. 

Fruit  alegume       .        * 

Cells  of  anthers  parallel  to  filameni 

Fruit  not  a  legume 

Embryo  stnught 

Albumen  present    . 

Calyx  long  or  tubular 

UrlicaceiB. 

Base  ha^ened 

No  albumen    . 

Afioearpacta, 

Tube  hardened 

Embryo  hooked 

Not  hardened 

Albumen  present 

Moraeta. 

Stamens  embedded 

inaepalfl    . 
Stamens  not  so 

\Proteacea. 

Albumen  none 

Sub-Class,  DiCTTOQEira  (Lindley). 

Ovnlea  erect 

SlaagnaeecB, 

Ovary  inferior 

JHotconacta. 

Oy\des  pendulous 

Ovaiy  superior 

Csrpels  distinct 

Fruit  indehis- 
cent  . 

\  Thymdaceoe. 

Carpels  unit^ 
Placentas  central 

Calyx  short 

Flowers  6-petalled      .... 

Snilacea. 

Leaves  with  scales  . 

Slaaffnaceee, 

Flowers  S-petalled      .... 

Triaiace(B. 

Leaves  dotted 

Placentas  below 

Soximryhiaeeet 

Leaves  smooth 

Placentas  on  the  sides      .... 

PkiUtiacea. 

Flowers  in  iavolucels  Polpg<macea. 
Flowers  naked 

Sub-Class,  G7MN0GBK8  (Lindley). 

Calyx  dry 

AmaraniacecB, 

Stemjointed 

QnOacea. 

Calyx  herbaceous                                   | 

Stem  continuous 

Stamens    hy- 
pogynous  . 

Leaves  pinnate 

Leaves  simple 

Cycadaeea. 

Stamens  peri- 
gynous 

Ovules  in  cones 

fPinacetg,  ICwi- 
1    /««.) 

Flowers  unisexual 

Ovules  solitary 

TaxaceoB, 

Carpels  several,  united 
Ovules  numerous 

Chus,  ENDOQENS. 

Ovules  few 

Nepenihaeece, 

L  Flowers  complete  (having  distinct  Floral  Envelopes). 

Leaves  alternate 

A.  Ovary  inferior 

Dotted    .... 

Xamthoxylacea. 

Flowers  gynandrous 

OrchidaetCB, 

Not  dotted     . 

Euphorbittcea. 

Flowers  not  gynandrous 

Carpel  solitary 

Calyx  tubular    .... 

Veins  of  leaves  diverging  from  the  midrib 

MyritHccKeoB. 

Anther  1,  with  1  ceU  . 

MaranUticea. 

Calyx  open 

Anther  1,  with  2  cells 

Carpels  seversl     . 

Anthers  5  or  6 

MvMoeea, 

Carpel  solitary 

Embryo  straight     . 

Casuarinacea. 

Veins  of  leaves  parallel  with  midribs 
Stamens  3 

Embryo  curved 

ChenopodiaoefB, 

Anthers  turned  outwards 
Anthers  turned  inwards 

IridaceoL 

h.  Stipules  present 

Stamens  6 

Flowers  hermaphrodite 

Leaves  flat 

Sepals  2 

PortvlacacecB, 

Fruit  8-celled ;  sepals  coroUa-like 

Sepals  more  than  2 

Radicle  remote  from  hilum 

ffypoxidaeea. 

Caroels  several,  united 
Stamens  hypogynous 

Radicle  next  hilum    . 

AmaryUidacctt, 

Fruit  S-celled ;  sepals  calycine 

Brfmdiacta, 

Placentas  parietal   . 

Flaeowiiacetg, 

Fruit  1-ceUed  .... 

Taccae^E. 

Placentas  central 

Leaves  equitant     .... 

Hamodoraeea. 

Calyx    valvate ;    sta- 

Stamens  more  than  6         .        .        . 

MydrwMrocta. 

mens  monadelphous 

B.  Ovary  superior 

Partly  sterile 

Byttneriacece, 

Sepals  (adyx-like  or  glumaceous 

All  fertile      . 

Sterculiacets, 

Carpels  separate,  more  or  less 

Placentas  diffused      .... 

Calyx   valvate ;     sta- 

\TiUactm. 

BtUotnaeea. 

mens  distinct  . 

Placentas  narrow       .... 

AlumacecB. 

Calyx  imbricated 
Fruit  beaked 

OeraniaeetB, 

Carpels  in  a  solid  pistil 

Petals  distinct  from  calyx 

Not  beaked.        . 

Malptghiofiea, 

Placentas  central 

wOWwIwilMiCWe. 

Stamens  perigynous 

Placentas  parietal 

Mayaeta, 

Placentas  parietal  . 

Pauifloraeetg. 

Petals  not  distinct  from  calyx 

Placentas  central 

Flowers  scattered 

Jtuneaeeeg. 

Leaves  opposite 

Ounoniacece, 

Flowers  spadicose        . 

OrotUiacteB, 

Leaves  alternate 

Sepals  oorolla-like 

Stamens  alternate 

>JRhamnaee(E. 

Carpels  more  or  leas  separate 

to  sepals    . 

SeedsoUtary 

Palnaeeoe, 

Calyx      mem- 
branous 

'  Ulmaccas, 

Seeds  numerous 

Anthers  turned  outwards   . 

Mdantkacta. 

Carpels  solitary  or  separate 

Anthers  turned  inwards 

Calyx  membranous 

lUeeebraeecB. 

Parts  of  flower  6    . 

Buiamaeea, 

Calyx  herbaceous 

Parts  of  flower  2    . 

PhUydraeea. 

Styles  basal     . 

Ohrysohalanacea, 

Petals  rolled  inwards 

Styles  terminal,  1  to  an  ovary 

Pontederaee(g, 

Fruit  a  legume  . 

Legwninoice. 

Petals  not  rolled  inwards 

Fruit  not  a  legume    . 

SanguUorbacem. 

Flowers  with  appendages    . 

GUlienaoM. 

Styles  terminal,  8  to  an  ovary 

Flowers  without  appendages 

LUiaeea. 

Stipules  ochreate. 
Stipules  simple    . 

Polygonaeece. 
Phytolaecacece, 

IL  Flowers  incomplete  (Floral  Envelopes  not  distinct). 

Flowers  unisexual 

A.  Flowers  in  glumes 

Carpels  several,  united 

Stems  hollow 

Oraminaeecf, 

Stems  soUd 

Aril  present 

Scepacece, 

Carpel  solitary ;  seed  erect    . 

Cyperacea, 

No  aril         .... 

BetvlaeecB. 

Carpel  solitary ;  seed  pendulous    . 

Eeitiacea, 

Seeds  numerous 

Carpels  several,  distinct 

Flowers  not  in  catkins 

EuphorUacea. 

Glumes  only 

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bOtANY. 


BOTANY. 


Cup  within  glnrnds  .... 
Carpela  seyeral,  combined 

Placentas  parietal     .... 
Placentas  central       .        .        .        . 
B.  Flowers,  or  with  a  few  Terticillate  leaves 
a.  Flowers  on  a  spadix 

Fruit  a  drupe 

Fruit  berried ;  leares  in  bud,  convolute 
Fruit  dry;  anthers  davate,  on  weak 
filaments  . 
h.  Flowers  not  on  a  spadix 

Aquatic,  with  pendulous  ovules 

Pollen  globose        .... 
Pollen  confervoid    .... 
Terrestrial;  ovules  erect     . 
Aquatic;  ovules  erect. 


£riQCaulacecB, 

Xyridacea, 
ButiaceoB, 


PandanaceoB, 
Aracece. 

'Typhaceof. 


NaiadacecB. 
ZosteraetcB* 
Juncaginacea, 
Pitiiacea. 


Sub-Class  Rhizogbns  (Rhizanths). 
Omles  indefinite 

Anthers  opening  by  slits      ....     Cytinacecs. 

Anthers  bursting  by  pores  ....     Raff^etiacem, 
Orules  solitary .     BdUmophoraeecB, 

Class,  ACROGENS. 
L  With  Stems. 
A  No  distinct  axis  of  growth 

Spores  without  slaters        ....     Bieciaeece. 
Spores  with  elaters 

Spore-case  with  valves  ....     Jungermanniaceo!. 
Spore-case  valveless       ....     MarcKantiacecg. 
B.  A  distinct  axis  of  growth 
Spores  with  elaters 

Spore-case  with  valves  ....     JungermanniacecB, 
Spore-csse  in  cones        ....     Equigetacea. 
Sporss  without  ebtters 
Spore-ease  on  fronds 

Kinged Potypodiacece, 

RinglesB Danaacea. 

Spore-case  on  edge  of  frond    .        •        •     OphiogU>uacece, 
Spore-case  in  an  involucre      .        .        •     MariiUacecR, 
Spore-case  naked 

Sessile  in  the  axil  of  frond        •  Lycopodiacece. 

Stalked 

„  ,  J  Andraacetg. 

^■1^«« 1     (Mvsci.) 

Without  valves   ....     Bryacea.  {Mnsci.) 

II.  Without  Stems. 
Mycelium  present 
Spores  m  fours 

Hymenium  naked |    ^{F^^' 

Hymenium  indoeed         ....     I/ycoperd^iCta* 
Spore-case  single 
Sporules  naked 

Thallus  obsoleto         ....      Uredinact€B. 

Thallus  floccodC Botrytacea, 

Sporules  inclosed 

In  asci ffdvdHaeeos, 

In  a  veil Mttayractce, 

Vyoeliam  absent 
Aquatic 

CryBtalline I>i<Uomacea!. 

Cellular  or  membranous 
Fresh-water  chiefly 

Multiplied  by  aoospores  .     Conftrvacta, 

Multiplied  by  spiral  nucules  .     Charaeea, 

Salt-water 

Multiplied  by  simple  spores  .        .     Fucaeea. 
Multiplied  by  totraspores     •        .      Ceramiacta, 
Terrestrial 

Spores  naked Graphidcuxa. 

Spores  in  asci 

Thallus  gelatinous      ....     CoOemacea. 
Thallus  pulverulent    ....     Parmeliaeece, 

It  will  be  seen  that  many  of  the  orders  are  repeated  in  this  analysis 
under  different  divisions ;  and  this  arises  from  the  fact  that  this 
aoalysiB  is  artificial,  and  only  expresses  the  general  characters  of  each 
order.  Beeidee  this,  in  the  strongest  orders,  exceptions  to  some  very 
geDenl  points  of  structure  fr«quentl v  occur.  Thus  we  have  apetalous 
■nd  irregular-flowered  plants  in  the  polypetalous  regular-flowered 
order  Ranwneulacea,  With  a  little  practice  such  an  analysis  as  the 
foregoing  wioi  enable  anv  one  acquainted  with  the  structure  of  plants 
to  refsr  any  particular  plant  to  its  right  order,  and  on  turning  to  the 
order  in  the  alphabetioJ  part  of  this  work  he  will  find  a  detailed 
sooouBt  of  its  structure  and  properties. 

Before  condading  this  general  artide  it  may  not  be  uninteresting 


just  to  glance  at  the  steps  by  which  the  Science  of  Botany,  more 
particularly  the  systematic  department,  has  attained  its  present 
position.  In  doing  this  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  a  mere  sketch 
of  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in  elucidating  the  great  prindplea 
of  Botany  by  which  its  rank  as  a  brandi  of  philosophy  is  to  be 
determined. 

It  is  obvious,  from  various  passages  in  the  most  andent  writers, 
that  the  art  of  distingmshing  certain  plants  having  medical  virtues 
was  taught  at  the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have  any  written  record ; 
and  that  the  cultivation  of  something  more  than  com  was  already 
understood  in  the  Homeric  days,  is  suffidentiy  attested  by  the 
references  to  the  vineyards  of  Laertes  and  the  g^udens  of  Alcinous, 
and  by  the  employment  assigned  to  Lycaon,  tiie  son  of  Priam,  of 
pruning  figs  in  his  father's  garden. 

The  earliest  tangible  evidence  that  we  possess  of  the  real  state  of 
knowledge  upon  this  subject  is  afforded  by  the  remains  of  the  writings 
of  Aristotie  and  his  school.  From  the  absurd  superstitions  of  the 
root-cutters  {rhigotomi)  of  this  period,  it  mig^t  be  imagined  that  at 
this  time  botany  was  far  from  having  any  real  tvrimt^«^t^  •  for  it  is  to 
them  that  we  have  to  trace  the  bdief  in  the  necessity  of  magical 
ceremonies  and  personal  purification  or  preparation  in  collecting  heite : 
some  sorts  they  tell  us  are  to  be  cut  against  the  wind,  others  after  the 
body  of  the  rhizotomist  has  been  well  oiled,  some  at  nighty  some  by 
day.  Alliaceous  food  was  a  necessary  preparation  for  procuring  this 
herb,  a  draught  of  wine  for  that^  and  so  on.  But  in  fact  at  this  veiy 
time  the  Peripatetic  philosophers  were  in  possession  of  a  considerable 
mass  of  correct  information  conoeming  tne  nature  of  vegetable  lifa^ 
mixed  up  indeed  with  much  that  was  fanciful  and  hypothetical,  but 
calculated  to  give  us  a  high  opinion  of  their  acuteness  and  of  the 
amount  of  positive  knowledge  upon  sudi  subjects  which  had  by  that 
time  been  collected.  It  is  by  this  school  that  botany  must  be  con- 
sidered to  have  been  first  formed  into  a  sdence.  Aristotie,  in  all 
probability,  was  its  founder ;  for  it  is  obvious,  from  the  remarks  upon 
plants  scattered  through  his  books  concerning  animals,  that  his 
knowledge  of  vegetable  physiology  was  for  his  day  of  a  most 
remarkable  kind.  But  as  the  books  immediately  concerning  plants 
ascribed  to  this  philosopher  are  undoubted  forgeries,  it  will  be  more 
convenient  to  take  the  works  of  Theophrastus  as  our  prindpal  guide 
to  a  determination  of  the  state  of  bc^any  at  the  ooxnmencement  of 
this— 

The  Pint  Era, — At  the  time  when  Theophrastus  succeeded  to  the 
the  chair  of  Aristotie  (b.c.  824)  no  idea  seems  to  have  existed  of 
classification!  nor  indeed  was  its  necessity  by  any  means  apparent,  for 
Theophrastus  does  not  appear  to  have  been  acquainted  with  above 
355  plants  in  alL  In  the  application  of  their  names,  even  to  these, 
there  was  so  much  uncertainty,  that  the  labours  of  commentators 
must  be  to  a  great  extent  bestowed  in  vain  in  endeavouring  to 
duddate  them :  for  instance,  Sprengel  asserts  tiiat  the  name  Aphake 
is  applied  indifferently  to  the  dandelion  and  to  a  kind  of  vetch 
{Lathyrue  opAoca),  and  Scorpios  to  a  spedes  of  broom,  to  Arnica 
Scorpioideif  and  to  a  kind  of  ranunculus.  But  while  Theophrastus 
was  thus  careless  in  his  denominations  of  species,  he  has  the  great 
credit  of  having  attended  accurately  to  differences  in  the  organs  of 
plants,  to  some  of  which  he  gave  new  and  special  names ;  the  form 
of  leaves,  their  margin,  the  manner  of  their  indentation,  and  the 
nature  of  the  leaf-stalk,  especially  attracted  his  attention.  He 
distinguished  naked-seeded  from  capsular  plants,  and  he  demonstrated 
the  a&ence  of  all  philosophical  distinction  between  trees,  shrubs,  and 
herbs,  for  he  saw  that  myrtie-trees  would  degenerate  into  shrubs,  and 
certain  oleraceous  plants  become  arborescent.  Cellular  tissue  is  spoken 
of  as  a  sort  of  fiesn  interposed  between  the  woody  tissue  or  vegetable 
fibre ;  and  even  spiral  vessels  appear  to  be  indicated  imder  the  name 
of  hfts  ;  leaves  are  oorrectiy  said  to  have  their  vdns  composed 
both  of  woody  tissue  and  spiral  vessels,  and  the  parallelism  of  the 
veins  of  grasses  is  particularly  pointed  out ;  palm-wood  is  shown  to 
b4  extremely  different  from  tmit  of  trees  with  concentric  lavers; 
bark  is  correctiy  divided  into  liber  and  cortical  integument,  and  the 
loss  of  the  former  is  said  to  be  usually  destructive  of  life.  The 
nutritive  properties  of  leaves  are  dearlv  pointed  out^  and  the  power 
which  both  surfaces  possess  of  absorbmff  atmospheric  nourishment. 
Some  notion  appears  to  have  existed  of  the  sexes  of  plants,  contrary 
to  the  opinion  of  Aristotle,  who  denied  them  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  In  particular  Theophrastus  speaks  of  the  necesdty  of 
bringing  the  male  dates  into  oontact  with  the  females,  a  fact  which 
had  been  stated  quite  as  clearly  by  Herodotus  (L 198)  100-years  before ; 
but  it  is  plain  that  he  had  no  correct  idea  upon  this  subject^  for  in 
another  place  he  compares  the  male  catkins  of  the  hacel  to  the  galls  of 
the  Kermes  oaL 

These  points  are  abundantiy  sufficient  to  show  that  among  the 
Peripatetics  a  considerable  amoimt  of  tolerably  exact  knowledge  of 
botany  really  existed,  and  that  a  solid  foundation  had  been  laid  for 
their  successors. 

And  in  fact  it  appears  that  the  impulse  they  gave  to  investigation 
did  for  some  considerable  time  afterwards  produce  a  perceptible  effect ; 
for  by  the  time  of  Pliny  it  is  evident  that  a  considerable  addition  had 
been  made  to  the  stock  of  botanical  knowledge.  It  is  true  that  it 
was  much  disfigured  by  the  poets,  who  then  as  now  appear  to  have 
had  only  a  smattering  of  the  sdence  of  their  day ;  but  it  is  incredible 


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<no 


that  they  should  have  been  able  to  glean  that  smattering  out  of  any 
other  field  than  a  very  rich  one.    For  example,  the  sexuality  of  plants, 
which  Aristotle  had  denied,  which  Theophraotus  had  adverted  to,  is 
spoken  of  in  positive  terms ;  grafting,  in  more  ways  than  one,  and 
even  budding,  are  spoken  of  in  language  which  is  remarkably  precise 
for  the  words  of  a  poet;   and  although  to  these  operations  were 
attributed  powers  which  they  did  not  possess,  yet  it  is  abundantly 
plain  that  the  processes  were  thoroughly  understood.     The 
*'  Angustus  in  Ipio 
Fit  nodo  Binos  ;  hue  alicna  ex  arbore  gcrmcn 
Incladnnt  adoque  docent  inolcsccre  libro," 
is  as  correct  a  description  of  the  operation  called  budding  as  any 
modem  could  give  in  so  many  words ;  and  it  is  impossible  tiiat  such 
an  operation  should  ever  have  been  devised  without  a  much  more 
large  and  accurate  knowledge  of  vegetable  physiology   than  it  is 
generally  believed  that  the  ancients  possessed. 

From  this  time  forward  all  inquiry  into  matters  of  science  began 
to  decline.  Under  the  later  Roman  emperors  science  became  gradually 
extinguished ;  imder  the  Byzantine  princes  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
have  been  preserved ;  and  the  little  attention  it  subsequently  received 
from  a  few  obscure  writers  rather  hastened  than  arrested  its 
downfall 

Upon  the  revival  of  science  in  Europe  the  writings  of  the  classical 
and  Arabian  herbalists  were  taken  as  the  text-books  of  the  schools, 
but  their  errors  were  multiplied  by  false  translations,  their  supersti- 
tions were  admitted  without  question ;  and  so  little  was  added  by  the 
monkish  authors,  that  between  the  time  of  £bn  Beithar,  who  flounshed 
in  the  13th  century,  and  the  year  1532,  when  the  *  Herbarum  Vivas 
Eicones'  of  Otho  Brunfels,  a  Bernese  physician,  made  their  appearance, 
scarcely  a  single  addition  had  been  znade  to  the  slender  stock  of 
knowledge  of  about  1400  species,  which  are  computed  by  Sprengel  to 
have  formed  the  total  amount  discovered  by  all  botanists,  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Arabian,  up  to  the  death  of  Abdallatif  of  Baghdad. 
Brunafels  describes  the  state  of  botany  as  being  in  his  day  most 
deplorable,  as  being  principally  in  the  hands  of  the  most  ignorant 
persons,  and  as  consisting  of  a  farrago  of  long  and  idle  commentaries, 
disfigured  **  by  myriads  of  barbarous,  obsolete,  and  ridiculous  names." 
He  deserves  to  be  mentioned  as  the  first  reformer  in  this  science,  and 
as  the  earliest  writer  who  earnestly  endeavoured  to  purify  the 
corrupted  streams  which  had  flowed  through  so  many  a^es  of  barbarism 
from  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  fountains.  His  example  was 
speedily  followed  by  Tragus,  Fuchsius,  Matthiolus,  and  others.  The 
knowledge  of  species  rapidly  augmented,  partly  by  the  examination 
of  indigenous  plants  and  partly  by  the  remarks  of  the  earlier 
travellers,  who  about  the  year  1460  began  to  turn  their  attention  to 
the  vegetable  kingdom ;  till  at  last  their  abxmdance  became  so  great 
as  to  call  for  the  assistance  of  compilers  capable  of  digesting  what  had 
already  begun  to  be  scattered  through  numberless  works.  The  first 
undertaking  of  the  kind  was  by  Conrad  Gesner,  a  native  of  Zurich, 
who  died  in  the  year  1565.  This  excellent  man  spent  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  in  collecting  materials  for  a  general  history  of  plants.  He 
is  stated  to  have  caused  above  1500  drawings  to  be  prepared  for  the 
illustration  of  his  undertaking,  but  unfortunately  he  died  before  his 
project  was  executed,  and  bis  materials  were  afterwards  dispersed. 
He  appears  however  to  have  brought  about  one  most  important 
change  in  science,  by  discovering  that  the  distinotions  and  true  nature 
of  plants  were  to  be  sought  in  their  organs  of  reproduction  rather 
than  in  those  of  nutrition.  This  was  assuredly  the  first  step  that 
had  been  taken  forward  in  the  science  since  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  is  abundant  evidence  of  the  great  superiority  of  Gesner 
over  all  those  who  had  preceded  him.  From  this  time  collections  of 
species  were  made  by  numerous  writers ;  our  countryman  Turner, 
Dodoens,  Lobel,  Clusius  CsBsalpinus,  and  the  Bauhins,  were  the  most 
distingulBhed  writers  between  the  years  1550  and  1600 ;  and  among 
them  the  number  of  known  species  was  so  exceedingly  increased, 
especially  by  the  discoveries  of  Clusius,  that  it  became  impossible  tb 
reduce  them  into  any  order  without  the  adoption  of  some  principle 
of  classification.  Hence  originated  the  first  attempts  at  systematical 
arrangement  with  which  commences 

The  Second  Ervk. — It  is  to  Matthew  Lobel,  a  Dutch  physician 
residing  in  England  in  the  time  of  Elisabeth,  iJiat  the  honour  is  to 
be  ascribed  of  having  been  the  first  to  strike  out  a  method  by  which 
plants  could  be  so  arranged,  that  those  which  are  most  alike  should 
be  placed  next  to  each  other,  or  in  other  words,  which  should  be  an 
expression  of  their  natural  rolations.  As  may  be  supposed  this  early 
attempt  at  the  discovery  of  a  natural  system  was  exceediugly  rude 
and  imperfect;  it  is  however  remarkable  for  having  comprehended 
several  combinations  which  are  recognised  at  the  present  day  :  Cuewr- 
bitacecB,  SteUcUa,  CframinecBf  LahiatOy  Boragvnea,  ZeguminotCB,  Filices, 
were  aJl  distinctly  indicated ;  and  it  may  be  added,  that  under  the 
name  of  A  tphodds  he  grouped  the  principal  part  of  modem  petaloid 
monocotyledons.  The  reasons  however  why  such  groups  wero  con- 
stitifted  were  not  then  susceptible  of  definition ;  the  true  principles 
of  classification  had  to  be  eUcited  by  the  long  and  patient  study  of 
succeeding  ages.  Among  the  foremost  to  ti^e  up  this  important 
subject  was  Caesalpinus,  a  Roman  physician  attached  to  the  court  of 
Pope  Sixtus  V.  This  naturalist  possessed  a  degree  of  insight  into 
the  science  far  beyond  that  of  his  nge,  and  is  memorable  for  the 


justness  with  which  he  appreciated  many  of  the  lees  obvious  dream- 
stances  which  his  predecessors  had  overlooked.  For  example,  he  was 
awaro  of  the  circulation  of  the  sap :  he  believed  that  its  ascent  from 
the  roots  was  caused  by  heat ;  he  knew  that  leaves«are  oortical  expan- 
sions traversed  by  veins  proceeding  in  part  from  the  liber ;  he  estimated 
the  pith  of  plants  at  its  tme  value,  and  seeds  he  compared  to  eggs,  in 
which  there  exists  a  vital  principle  without  life ;  but  he  denied  the 
existence  of  sexes  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Improving  upon  the 
views  of  Gesner,  he  showed  how  great  is  the  value  of  the  fructification 
in  systematic  botany ;  the  flower  he  said  was  nothing  but  the  wrapper 
of  the  fruit ;  the  essential  part  of  the  seed  he  considered  to  be  what 

'  ia  called  the  coroulum,  that  is,  the  double  cone  of  plumule  and  radicle 
which  connects  the  cotyledons.  In  general  his  views  of  vegetable 
physiology  were  much  more  just  than  those  of  his  predecessors,  and 
if  he  did  not  avoid  the  error  of  supposing  certain  plants  to  be  mere 

<  abortions  of  more  perfect  species,  as  many  grasses  of  com,  he  amply 
redeemed  his  fame  by  the  correction  of  other  mistakes.  From  diffe^ 
ences  in  the  fruit  and  the  seed  of  plants  he  formed  a  system  which, 
though  purely  artificial  and  never  much  employed,  had  the  merit  of 
calling  attention  strongly  to  the  existence  of  a  class  of  important 
characters  which  had  previously  been  either  overlooked  or  onder- 

I  valued. 

But  notwithstanding  the  attempts  thus  made  by  a  few  distinguished 

I  men  to  elevate  the  science  to  a  higher  station,  and  to  reduce  it  to  some 
general  principles,  it  still  continued  to  languish  and  to  remain  for  the 
most  part  in  the  hands  of  the  most  ignorant  pretenders,  and  in  no 

'  country  more  so  than  in  England.  We  find  upon  the  authority  of 
the  celebrated  Ray,  that  in  this  country  in  the  middle  of  the  17th 

;  century  it  was  in  the  most  lamentable  state.  At  that  time  the  standard 
book  of  English  botanists  was  a  publication  called  Gerarde*s  '  Herbal,' 
which  was,  as  Ray  tells  us,  the  production  of  a  man  almost  entirely 

'  ignorant  of  the  learned  languages,  in  which  nevertheless  all  books  on 
science  were  at  that  time  written.  The  principal  part  of  the  work  was 
pirated  from  the  *  Pemptadea '  of  Dodoens,  turned  into  English  by 
one  Priest,  and  in  order  to  conceal  the  plunder  the  arrangement  of 
Dodoens  was  exchanged  for  that  of  Lobel,  while  the  whole  was  made 

.up  with  the  wood-blocks  of  Tabemsemoutanus'B  *  Kniuterbucb/  often 
unskilfully  transposed  and  confoimded.    At  last  a  change  as  sudden  as 

I  it  was  important  was  produced  in  the  science  by  the  application  of  the 
microscope  to  botanical  purposes. 

The  2%ird  Era. — ^About  the  middle  of  the  17th  oentuiy  this  instru- 
ment was  first  employed  in  the  examination  of  the  elementary  oigans 
of  plants,  about  which  nothing  had  been  previously  learned  since  the 
time  of  TheophrastuB.  The  discovery  of  spiral  vessels  by  Henshaw 
in  1661,  the  examination  of  the  cellular  tissue  by  Hook  at  a  somewhat 
later  date,  at  once  excited  the  attention  of  observers  and  led  at  nearly 
the  same  time  to  the  appearance  of  two  works  upon  vegetable  anatomy, 
which  at  once  so  nearly  exhausted  the  subject  that  it  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  have  again  advanced  tiU  the  beginning  of  the  present  oentuiy. 
Grow  and  Malpighi,  the  writers  here  adverted  to,  but  more  especially 
the  former,  combined  with  rare  powers  of  observation  a  degree  of 
patience  which  few  men  have  ever  possessed.  They  each  examined 
the  anatomy  of  vegetation  in  its  minutest  details,  the  former  princi- 
pally in  the  abstract,  the  latter  more  comparatively  with  the  animal 
kingdom.  Various  forms  of  cellular  tissue,  intercellular  passages, 
spiral  vessels,  woody  tubes,  ducts,  the  nature  of  hairs,  the  true  struc- 
ture of  wood,  were  made  at  once  familiar  to  the  botanist ;  the  real 
nature  of  sexes  in  plants  was  demonstrated ;  and  it  is  quite  surprising 
to  look  back  on  those  days  from  the  present  high  ground  on  which 
botany  has  taken  its  stand,  and  to  see  how  little  the  views  of  Grew  at 
least  have  subsequently  required  correction.  From  him  physiological 
botany  properly  speaking  took  its  origin.  Clear  and  distinct  ideas  of 
the  true  causes  of  vegetable  phenomena  gradually  arose  out  of  a 
consideration  of  the  physical  properties  of  the  minute  parts  through 
whose  combined  action  they  are  brought  about ;  and  a  solid  founda- 
tion was  laid  for  the  theories  of  vegetation  which  subsequent  botanists 
have  propounded :  to  Grew  may  also  be  ascribed  the  honour  of  having 
first  pointed  out  the  important  difference  between  seeds  with  one 
cotyledon  and  those  with  two,  and  of  having  thus  been  the  discoverer 
of  the  two  great  natural  classes  into  which  the  flowering  part  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  is  now  divided.  Grew  however  was  no  systematist; 
it  was  reserved  for  another  Englishman  to  discover  the  true  principles 
of  classification,  and  thus  to  commence 

The  Fourth  Era. — John  Ray,  a  man  of  capacious  mind,  of  singular 
powers  of  observation  and  of  extensive  learning,  driven  from  his 
collegiate  employments  by  the  infamous  commands  of  a  profligate 
prince,  sought  consolation  in  the  study  of  natural  history,  to  which 
he  had  be^  attached  from  his  youth.  Botany  he  found  was  fast 
settling  back  into  the  chaos  of  tiie  middle  ages,  partly  beneath  the 
weight  of  undigested  materials,  but  more  from  the  want  of  some  fixed 
principles  by  which  the  knowledge  of  tiie  day  should  be  methodised. 
Profiting  by  the  discoveries  of  Grew  and  the  other  vegetable  anato- 
mists, to  which  he  added  a  great  store  of  original  observation,  he  in 
his  '  Historia  Plantamm,'  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared  in  1686, 
embodied  in  one  connected  series  all  the  facts  that  had  been  collected 
conoeming  the  stmcture  and  functions  of  plants :  to  tiiese  he  added 
an  exposition  of  what  he  considered  the  philosophy  of  classification, 
as  indicated  partly  by  human  reason  and  partly  by  experience;  and 


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BOTANY. 


BOTANY. 


an 


from  the  whole  he  deduced  a  daaaificatlou  which  is  unquestionably 
the  basis  of  that  which,  under  the  name  of  the  system  <  f  Jusaieu,  is 
everywhere  recognised  at  the  present  day.  For  proofs  of  this  we  refer 
to  the  memoir  of  Rat  in  the  Hist.,  Bioo.,  &c.  Divisiok.  We  will 
only  observe  here  that  he  separated  flowering  from  flowerless  plants; 
that  he  divided  the  former  into  monocotyledons  and  dicotyledons, 
and  that  imder  these  three  heads  he  arranged  a  considerable  number 
of  groups,  partly  his  own,  partly  taken  from  Lobel  and  others ;  which 
are  substantially  the  same  as  what  are  received  by  botanists  of  the 
present  day  under  the  name  of  natural  orders.  It  is  singular  enough 
that  the  merits  of  this  arrangement  of  John  Ray  should  have  been  so 
little  appreciated  by  his  contemporaries  and  immedia^  successors  as 
to  have  been  but  little  adopted ;  and  that  instead  of  endeavouring  to 
correct  its  errors  and  to  remove  its  imperfections,  botanists  occupied 
themselves  for  several  succeeding  years  in  attempts  at  discovering  other 
systems,  the  greater  part  of  which  were  abandoned  almost  as  soon  as 
they  were  made  known.  Rivinus,  Magnol,  Toumefort,  and  Linnaeus 
were  the  most  celebrated  of  these  writers ;  but  the  two  last  alone 
have  had  any  permanent  reputation.  Toumefort,  who  for  a  long  time 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  French  school  of  botany,  proposed  in  1694  a 
method  of  arrangement^  in  its  principles  entirely  artificial,  but  which 
in  some  cases  was  accidentally  in  accordance  with  natural  affinities. 
It  was  founded  chiefly  upon  differences  in  the  corolla,  without  the 
slightest  reference  to  physiological  peculiarities ;  and  is  now  forgotten, 
except  in  consequence  of  its  having  furnished  some  useful  ideas  to 
Jusflieu,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown. 

The  Fifth  Era. — LinnaBus  was  a  genius  of  a  different  and  a  higher 
order.  Educated  in  the  severe  school  of  adversity,  accustomed  from 
his  earliest  youth  to  estimate  higher  than  all  other  things  verbal  accu- 
racy and  a  logical  precision,  which  are  often  most  seductive  when  least 
applicable;  endowed  by  nature  with  a  most  brilliant  understanding, 
and  capable,  from  constitutional  strength,  of  any  fatigue  either  of 
mind  or  body,  this  extraordinary  man  was  destined  to  produce  a  revo- 
lution in  botany,  among  other  branches  of  natural  history,  which  in 
some  respects  advanced  and  in  others  retarded  its  progress  far  more 
than  the  acts  of  any  one  who  had  preceded  him.  He  found  the 
phraseology  bad,  and  he  improved  it ;  the  nomenclature  was  awkward 
and  inconvenient^  he  simplified  it ;  the  distinctions  of  genera  and 
species,  however  much  the  fbrmer  had  been  improved  by  Toumefort, 
were  vague  and  too  often  empirical — ^he  defined  them  with  an  appa- 
i-eut  rigour  which  the  world  thought  admirable,  but  which  nature 
spumed ;  he  found  the  classifications  of  his  day  so  vague  and  uncer- 
tain that  no  two  persons  were  agreed  as  to  their  value,  and  for  them 
he  substituted  a  scheme  of  the  most  specious  aspect  in  which  all 
things  seemed  as  clearly  circumscribed  by  rule  and  line  as  the  fields 
in  the  map  of  an  estate ;  he  fancied  he  had  gained  the  mastery  over 
nature,  that  he  had  discovered  a  mighty  spell  that  would  bind  her 
down  to  be  dissected  and  anatomised,  and  the  world  believed  him ; 
in  short,  he  seized  upon  all  the  wardrobe  of  creation,  and  his  followers 
never  doubted  that  the  bodiless  puppets  which  he  set  in  action  were 
really  the  divine  soul  and  essence  of  the  organic  world.  Such  was 
Linnaeus,  the  mighty  spirit  of  his  day.  Let  us  do  this  great  man 
that  justice  which  exaggeration  on  the  one  hand  and  detraction  on  the 
other  have  too  often  refused  to  him,  and  let  us  view  his  character 
Bol)erly  and  without  prejudice.  We  shall  then  admit  that  no  natu- 
ralist has  ever  been  his  superior ;  and  that  he  richly  merited  that  high 
station  in  science  which  he  held  for  so  many  years.  His  verbal  accu- 
racy, upon  which  his  fame  greatly  depends,  together  with  the  remark- 
able terseness  of  his  technical  language,  reduced  the  crude  matter  that 
was  stored  up  in  the  folios  of  his  predecessors  into  a  form  that  was 
accessible  to  all  men.  He  separated  with  singular  skill  the  important 
from  the  unimporiant  in  their  descriptions.  He  arranged  their  endless 
sjmonyms  with  a  patience  and  lucid  order  that  were  quite  inimitable. 
By  requiring  all  species  to  be  capable  of  a  rigorous  definition  not 
exceeding  twelve  words,  he  purified  botany  of  the  endless  varieties  of 
the  gardeners  and  herbalists ;  by  applying  the  same  strict  principles 
to  genera,  and  reducing  every  character  to  its  differential  terms,  he 
got  rid  of  all  the  cumbrous  descriptions  of  the  old  writers.  Finally, 
by  the  invention  of  an  artificial  system,  every  division  of  which  was 
defined  in  the  most  rigorous  manner,  he  was  able  so  to  classify  all  the 
materialfl  thus  purified  and  simplified  that  it  seemed  as  if  eveiy  one 
could  become  a  botanist  without  more  previous  study  than  would  be 
required  to  leam  how  to  discover  words  in  a  dictionary.  Add  to  all 
this  the  liveliness  of  his  imagination,  the  skill  with  which  he  applied 
his  botanical  knowledge  to  practical  objects,  and  the  ingenuity  he 
showed  in  turning  to  the  purposes  of  his  classification  the  newly- 
discovered  sexes  of  plants,  and  we  shall  at  once  comprehend  what  it 
was  that  exalted  Linnseus  so  far  above  his  contemporaries.  But  great 
as  the  impulse  undoubtedly  was  which  Linnaeus  gave  to  botany,  there 
were  vices  in  his  principles  which  although  overlooked  during  his  life 
have  subsequently  been  productive  of  infinite  evil.  There  is  no  such 
thing  as  a  rigorous  definition  in  natural  history ;  this  fact  Ray  had 
demonstrated  to  arise  out  of  the  very  nature  of  things ;  and  conse- 
quently the  short  phrases  by  which  species  and  genera  were  charac- 
terised by  Linnaeus  were  found  equally  applicable  to  many  other  plants 
besides  those  for  which  they  were  intended :  hence  arose  a  new  source 
of  confusion,  inferior  only  to  that  which  it  was  intended  to  correct. 
DiflTerantial  characters,  which  would  be  invaluable  if  we  had  all  nature 


.  before  us,  were  found  in  practice  to  lead  to  incessant  errors,  so  soon 

'  as  some  new  species  was  introduced  into  the  calculation :  they  also 

!  laboured  under  the  great  fault  of  conveying  no  idea  whatever  of  the 

general  nature  of  the  plants  to  which  they  related :  thus  the  Portu- 

'  guese  botanist  Loureiro,  who  attempted  to  determine  the  plants  of 

I  China  by  the  systematic  writing  of  Linneus,  fell  into  the  singular 

error  that  the  hydrangea  was  a  primrose.    With  r^^d  to  his  artificial 

cfystem  of  classification,  it  was  found  that  it  looked  better  in  the  closet 

than  in  the  field ;  that  the  neatness  and  accuracy  of  the  distinctions 

upon  which  it  was  divided  into  groups  existed  only  upon  paper,  and 

that  exceptions  without  end  encumbeied  it  at  every  turn.  This,  which 

is  perhaps  inseparable  from  all  systematic  arrangements,  would  not 

have  been  felt  as  so  great  an  evil  if  there  had  been  any  secondary 

characters  by  which  the  primary  ones  could  be  checked,  or  if  the 

system  had  really  led  with  all  its  difficulties  to  a  knowledge  of  things. 

But  it  was'  impossible  not  to  perceive  tiiat  it  led  in  rcNftlity  to  little 

more  than  a  knowledge  of  names,  and  that  it  could  be  looked  upon  as 

nothing  beyond  an  index  of  genera  and  species. 

The  maxims  however  of  Ray,  and  the  great  general  views  of  that 
illustrious  naturalist,  were  destined  not  to  fade  even  before  the 
meteoric  brilliancy  that  surrounded  the  throne  of  Linnseus.  A  French 
botanist,  Antoine  Laurent  de  Jussieu,  soon  entered  the  field  to  oppose 
the  latter.  In  the  year  1789,  just  eleven  years  after  the  death  of  Lin- 
nieuB,  he  produced  under  the  name  of '  Genera  Plantarum '  an  arrange- 
ment of  plants  according  to  their  natural  relations,  in  which  tiie 
principles  of  the  great  English  botanist  are  tacitly  admitted,  and  his 
fundamental  divisions  adopted,  in  combination,  in  part  with  those  of 
Toumefort,  in  part  with  those  which  had  been  proposed  by  Adanson 
in  lus  remarkable  work  on  the  '  Families  des  Plantes,'  and  the  rest 
with  what  are  peculiar  to  the  author  himself.  Jussieu  possessed  in  a 
happier  degree  than  any  man  that  has  succeeded  hun  the  art  of 
adapting  the  simplicity  and  accuracy  of  the  language  of  Linnseus  to 
the  exigencies  of  science,  without  encumbering  himself  with  its 
pedantry.  He  knew  the  impossibility  of  employing  any  single  charac- 
ters to  distinguish  objects  so  variable  in  their  nature  as  phmts ;  and 
he  clearly  saw  to  what  evils  aU  artificial  systems  must  of  necessity 
give  rise.  Without  pretending  then  to  the  conciseness  of  Linnseus  in 
forming  Ids  generic  characters,  he  rendered  them  as  brief  as  was  con- 
sistent with  deamess ;  without  peremptorily  excluding  all  distinctions 
not  derived  from  the  fructification,  he  nevertheless  made  the  latter 
'  the  essential  consideration ;  instead  of  defining  his  classes  and  orders 
I  by  a  few  artificial  marks,  he  formed  them  from  a  view  of  all  the  most 
'  essential  parts  of  structure ;  and  thus  he  collected  under  the  same 
divisions  all  those  plants  which  are  most  nearly  allied  to  each  other. 
Hence,  while  a  knowledge  of  one  plant  does  not  by  any  means  lead  to 
that  of  another  in  the  system  of  Linnseus,  it  leads  directiy  to  the 
knowledge  of  many  more  in  the  classification  of  Jussieu,  which  has 
accordingly  gained  the  name  of  the  '  Natural  System.'  This  at  once 
brought  the  science  back  to  a  healthy  state ;  it  demonstrated  the  pos- 
sibilty  of  reducing  the  characters  of  natural  groups  to  words,  contrary 
to  the  opinion  of  Linnseus,  who  found  that  task  altogether  beyond  his 
powers ;  it  did  away  with  the  necessity  of  artificial  arrangements,  and, « 
giving  a  death-blow  to  verbal  botany,  it  laid  the  foundation  of  that 
beautiful  but  still  imperfect  superstructure  which  has  been  erected 
by  the  labours  of  Brown,  De  Candolle,  Lindley,  and  others.  If  the 
system  of  Jussieu  were  not  a  return  to  that  of  Ray,  modified  only  and 
improved  by  modem  discoveries,  we  should  certunly  have  taken  this 
period  for  the  commencement  of 

The  Sixth  and  latest  Era  in  our  science.  But  it  was  reserved  for  a 
man  whose  fame  lies  chiefly  in  the  literary  world  to  effect  the  last 
great  revolution  that  the  ideas  of  botanists  have  undergone.  In  1790, 
one  year  j^t«r  the  appearance  of  Jussieu's  '  (3enera  Plantarum,'  the 
German  poet  Gothe  published  a  pamphlet  called  '  The  Metamorphosis 
of  Plants.'  At  that  time  the  various  organs  of  which  plants  consist 
had  been  pretty  well  ascertained,  the  distinctions  between  the  leaf, 
the  calyx,  the  corolla,  the  stamens,  and  the  pistil  were  in  a  great 
measure  understood,  and  the  botanists  were  not  a  few  who  fancied 
there  was  nothing  more  to  leam  about  them.  Nevertheless  even  in 
the  time  of  Theophrastus  a  notion  had  existed  that  certain  forms  of 
leaves  were  mere  modifications  of  others  that  appeared  very  different, 
as  the  angular  leaves  in  croton  of  the  round  cotyledons  or  seminal 
leaves  of  that  plant:  Linnseus  himself  had  entertained  the  opinion 
that  all  the  parts  of  a  flower  are  mere  modifications  of  leaves  whose 
period  of  development  is  anticipated  ('Prolepsis  Plantarum');  Ludwig 
in  1757,  and  more  especially  Wolff  in  1768,  had  stated  in  express 
terms  that  all  the  organs  of  plants  are  reducible  to  the  axis  and  its 
appendages,  of  the  latter  of  which  the  leaf  is  to  be  taken  as  the  uni- 
versal type.  But  the  theory  of  Linnssus  was  fanciful ;  Ludwig  was  a 
writer  of  too  little  authority  in  his  day  to  succeed  in  establiiuung  a 
doctrine  so  much  at  variance  with  received  opinions ;  and  the  theory 
of  Wolff  was  propounded  in  a  paper  upon  the  formation  of  the  intes- 
tines in  animals,  which  seems  attog^ether  to  have  escaped  the  observa- 
tion of  botanists.  Entirely  unacquainted  with  the  writings  of  the  two 
latter  naturalists,  but  aware  of  the  '  Prolepeis  Plantamm '  of  Liimseus, 
GK>the  took  up  this  important  theory,  and  demonstrated  that  all  those 
organs  to  which  so  many  different  names  were  applied,  and  which  in 
fifcct  have  so  many  dissimilar  functions  to  perform,  were  all  modificar 
tions  of  one  common  type — the  leaf;  that  the  bract  is  a  contracted 


Digitized  by 


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BOTANY. 


BOTANY. 


«M 


leaf,  tho  calyx  a  combination  of  seyenl,  the  corolla  a  union  of  sereral 
more  in  a  coloured  state,  the  atamena  contracted  and  coloured  leayes 
with  their  parenchyma  in  •a  state  of  disintegration,  and  the  pistil 
another  arrangement  of  leayes  rolled  up  and  combined  according  to 
certain  inyariable  laws. 

Although  at  first  Qothe's  yiews  were  disregarded,  they  were  gradu- 
ally adopted,  and  formed  the  basis  of  inquiries  in  that  department  of 
botany  called  the  Morphology  of  Plants.  To  no  one  is  the  science 
of  Botany  more  indebted,  from  his  early  adoption  of  the  generalisation 
of  Qothe,  than  Robert  Brown.  In  hu  '  Prodromus  of  the  Flora  of 
New  Holland,'  and  in  a  multitude  of  papers  in  the  *  Philosophical'  and 
'Limuean  Transactions,'  he  proyed  not  only  the  truth  of  Gothe's 
law  but  practically  demonstrated  its  importance:  It  was  neyer  with 
him  a  theory,  as  it  was  with  its  diacoyerer,  but  a  great  generalisation 
which  eyery  new  fact  in  the  yegetable  khigdom  seryed  to  confirm. 
Nor  did  he  apply  it  to  the  superficial  facts  of  the  structure  of  plants, 
but  working  with  the  microscope  he  applied  it  to  the  deyelopment  of 
the  tissues  of  plants,  and  in  eyery  department  of'botany  has  made  it  to 
bear  most  abundant  fruit    With  the  name  of  Brown  in  the  modem 


history  of  botany  we  must  also  aasociate  the  name  of  another  English- 
man—Dr.  lindley,  who,  by  his  extensiye  knowledge  of  yegcUble 
structures,  his  indefatigable  industiy,  and  poww  of  generslisation,  has 
contributed  yery  hugely  to  thfi  perfection  of  the  present  classification 
of  plants,  as  well  as  to  the  diffusion  of  sound  general  views  on  the 
subject  of  botany  and  its  practical  applications.  To  De  Candolle  aln 
in  recent  times  the  progress  ^of  botany  is  deeply  mdebted,  more  espe- 
cially for  his  laborious  '  Prodromus  of  the  Vegetable  Eongdom,'  in 
which  not  only  are  the  orders  described,  but  the  genera  and  spedea 
We  can  only  add  that  in  recent  times  the  science  of  Botany  has  bwn 
indebted  to  the  labours  of  the  following  amongst  other  obseryen  :— 
Schleiden,  Richard,  Brongniart^  Tulasne,  Unger,  Endlieher,  Schadit, 
Von  Mohl,  Bischoff,  Treyiranus,  Lehmann,  Suminaki,  Hoffmeister,  Sir 
W.  J.  Hooker,  J.  D.  Hooker,  Henfrey,  Bentham,  Walker  Aniott^ 
Wright^  WaUich,  Royle,  Balfour,  Babington,  Leighton,  Ifien,  J.  J. 
Bennett,  T.  Thomson,  Asa  Gray,  Henslow,  Beikeley. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  study  of  Botany  by  the  aid  of  this  work, 
we  giye  the  following  Glossary  of  the  terms  employed  when  descrilnDg 
the  parts  of  plants. 


A  GLOSSARY  07  THE  TECHNICAL  TERMS  MOST  COMMONLY  EMPLOYED  IN  BOTANY. 


Abnormal,  contrary  to  general  mlea. 
Aeeumbent,  lying  against  anything,  in 

distinction  to  lying  upon;   as  the 

cotyledons  of  some  eraciferons  plants. 
Aeeroie,  stiff  and  slender  and  sharp-' 

pointed,  as  the  leares  of  a  pine-tree. 
Aehemuntf  a  small,  hard,  one<4ecded 

fruit,  resembling  a  seed. 
Adeulate,  needle-shaped. 
Aeinaeiform,  scymitor^haped. 
Aeinui,  a  bunch  of  succulent  berries ; 

as  of  grapes. 
Acrogen,  a  plant  which  grows  at  its 

end    only,   without   increasing    in 

diameter ;  as  ferns,  and  all  flower. 

less  plants. 
AeuUate,  eoTcred  with  prickles. 
AeuUtu,  a  prickle. 
AeuminaU,  tapering  to  the  point,  but 

flat. 
Adnate,  growing  to  anything  by  the 

whole  length. 
Adventitunu,  appearing  accidentally. 
Aigticationf   the  arrangement  of  the 

parts  of  the  flower  before  they  expand. 
Alabattrtu,  a  flower-bnd. 
Albumen^  a  substance  interposed   in 

some  seeds  between  the  embryo  and 

the  seed  coats. 
^{6umtMi,  the  young  wood;  sap-wood. 
Amentum,  a  catkin ;   the  male  inflo. 

rescence  of  the  haael,  &e. 
Amplexieaul,  clasping  a  stem. 
Atuutomontiff,  the  growing  together 

of    two    parts   which    meet   from 

different  directions. 
Androus,  a  Greek  termination  ezprea. 

sive  of  the  male  sez. 
Af^fi^eietuotu,     doubled    abruptly    in 

sereral  different  directions. 
AnffiocarpouB,  having  seeds  inclosed  in 

a  pericarp. 
Annotimnu,  a  year  old. 
Anther,  the  case  containing  pollen. 
Apttalous,  haying  no  petals. 
Apiculate,  abruptly  pointed. 
Apoearpout,  where  the  carpels  are  dis- 
tinct from  each  other. 
Apcphyiit,  the  enlarged  base  of  the 

theca  of  some  mosses. 
Apothtemm,  the  shield,  or  mass  of  re- 
productive matter  of  a  lichen. 
Appmdieulate,  having  some  kind  of 

appendages. 
Arachnoid,  resembling  a  spider's  web. 
Artolate,  divided  into  little  spaces. 
Aril,  a  peculiar  wrapper  of  some  seeds ; 

as  the  mace  of  the  nutmeg. 
Ariata,  the  beard  or  awn  of  grasses. 
A$ei,  the  cases  in  which  the  spores  of 

lichens  are  inclosed. 
Aacidium,  a  hoUow  leaf  looking  like  a 

water  vessel;    as    the    pitcher   of 

Nepenthes. 
AtUnvated,  gradually  tapering  to  a 

point  without  becoming  flat. 
Awiculate,  having  two  lobes  (like  ears) 

at  the  base. 
Awn,    See  Aruta. 
Axil,  the  acute  angle  formed  by  the 

Junction  of   the  leaf,   ftc,    to  its 

axis. 
AxUlarp,  growing  in  an  axiU 


Axis,  the  root  and  stem  either  taken 
together  or  separately. 

Baccate,  fruit  covered  with  soft  flesh. 
Barbate,  covered  with  long  hairs  re- 

sembling  a  beard. 
Beard,  a  tuft  of  long  hairs. 
Bieor^ugate,  in  two  pairs,  placed  side 

by  side. 
Bidentate,  having  two  teeth. 
BifariouB,  arranged  in  two  rows. 
Bifid,  divided  into  two  shallow  lobes. 
Bifoliate,  having  two  leaflets. 
B^ureate,  twice  forked. 
Byugout,  in  two  pairs,  placed  end  to  end. 
Binate,  growing  in  pairs. 
Bipartite,  divided  into  two  deep  lobes. 
Bipinnate,  twice  pinnate. 
Biaerrate,  twice  serrate. 
Braehiate,  when  branches  stand  nearly 

at  right  angles  to  the  stem  tnm 

which  they  proceed. 
Bract,  the  leaf  or  leaflet  from  the  axil 

of  which  a  flower  grows. 
Bulb,  a  scaly,  underground  bud. 
Bulbotuber,  a  short,  roundish,  under. 

ground  stem  resembling  a  bulb. 

Oadueou$,  falling  off  sooner  or  later. 
Ckeeioue,  of  a  bluish-gray  colour. 
Omspitoae,  growing  in  tufta. 
Ottlear,   a  spur  or  horn;    aa  in  the 

nasturtium. 
Calcarate,  having  a  spur  or  horn. 
Oalyeulatfi,  having  a  whorl  of  bracts 

on  the  outside  of  a  calyx,  or  of  an 

involucre. 
Cttlffptra,  the  hood  of  a  moss. 
Oalfx,   the  external   envelope    of    a 

flower. 
Oambium,  a  viscid  secretion  formed  in 

the  spring  between  the  bark  and 

wood  of  Exogens. 
Campanulate,  bell-chaped. 
Canaliculate,  channeled. 
Oaneellate,    a    leaf  which  has  veins 

without  connecting  parenchyma. 
Capitate,  growing  In  a  head. 
Oapitulum,  a  collection  of  flowers  in  a 

head. 
Oapiule,  any  dry  maay-seeded  fhiit. 
Oarinate,  having  a  kind  of  kecL 
(kamoee,  fleshy. 
Carpel,  one  of  the  parts  of  a  compound 

pistil ;  a  single  leaf  rolled  up  into 

one  of  the  integers  of  a  pistil. 
Carunculate,  a  seed  having  ftmgous 

excrescences.growing  near  its  hUum. 
Caryopeit,  a  dry  one-seeded  fruit  re- 

sembling  a  seed,  but  with  no  dis- 
tinction between  the  seed-coat  and 

pericarp. 
Caudate,  prolonged  into  a  sort  of  talL 
Cauiine,  of  or  belonging  to  the  stem. 
Certntoue,  drooping. 
Ohalaui,  a  spot  on  a  seed  indicating 

the  place  where  the  nucleus  Is  united 

to  the  seminal  integuments. 
Ciliated,  fringed  with  hairs  like  an 

eyelash. 
Cinereout,  ash-coloured. 
dreinate,  rolled  inwards  from  the  point 

to  the  base. 


CircumtcietiU,  dividing  into  two  parts 
by  a  spontaneous  transverse  separa- 
tion. 

Cirrhoue,  terminating  in  a  tendril. 

Ciavate,  club-shaped. 

Otaw,  the  stalk  of  a  petal. 

dypeate,  resembling  a  round  buckler. 

Oochleate,  resembling  the  bowl  of  a 
spoon. 

Cbllu$n,  the  point  where  the  stem  and 
root  are  combined. 

(Mumella,  a  central  part  of  the  fruit  of 
a  moss,  round  which  the  spores  are 
deposited. 

Column,  the  combination  of  stamens 
and  style  in  Orchideous  and  other 
plants. 

Gmoee,  having  hairs  at  one  or  both 
ends,  if  speaking  of  seeds;  being 
terminated  by  coloured  empty 
bracts,  if  applied  to  inflorescences. 

Qmduplicate,  doubled  together. 

Cbf^fiuent,  growing  together  so  that  the 
line  of  Junction  is  lost  to  the  sight. 

Corrugate,  growing  in  pairs. 

Connate,  growing  together  so  that  the 
line  of  Junction  remains  perceptible. 

Connective,  the  fleshy  part  that  com- 
bines the  two  lobes  of  an  anther. 

Oonnivent,  converging,  aa  the  anther 
of  a  potato  blossom. 

Oonoidal,  approaching  a  conical  form. 

Oontinuoue,  proceeding  firom  something 
else  without  apparent  interruption. 

Cbntorted,  twisted  in  such  a  way  that 
all  the  parts  have  a  similar  direc- 
tion, as  the  segments  of  the  flower 
of  an  Oleander. 

Qmvolute,  rolled  together. 

Otreulum,  the  rudimentary  axis  which 
connects  the  cotyledons  of  the 
embryo. 

Cordate,  heart-shaped. 

Coriaceous,  of  a  leathery  texture. 

Cbrmus,  a  solid,  roundish,  underground 
stem ;  as  in  Crocus. 

Obmeous,  of  a  horny  texture. 

Obmiculate,  shaped  like  a  slender  horn. 

Corolla,  the  second  of  tho  two  enve- 
lopes  that  surround  the  stamens  and 
pistil. 

Cbrona,  a  combination  of  fertile  and 
barren  stamens  into  a  disk ;  as  In 
StapcUa. 

Corymbose,  when  the  branches  sur- 
rounding a  common  axis  are  shortest 
at  the  top  and  longest  at  the  bottom, 
'  so  as  to  form  a  level-topped  whole. 

Cbtta,  the  midrib  of  a  leaf. 

Cbtyledons,  the  leaves  of  the  embryo. 

Orateriform,  shaped  like  a  goblet. 

(kmelled  or  Crenated,  having  rounded 
notches  at  tho  edges. 

Crested,  having  some  tmusual  and 
striking  appendage  arising  from  the 
middle. 

Cruciate,  when  four  parts  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  resemble  the  arms  of  a 
Maltese  cross. 

(Meullaie,  hooded,  rolled  inwards  so  as 
to  conceal  anything  lying  within. 

(Mm,  the  straw  of 


Cupule,  the  cup  of  the  acorn,  the  hvk 
of  the  fllbert,  chestnut,  ftc. ;  apenu 
liar  combination  of  bracts. 

Ckapidate,  abruptly  rounded  off  irith  a 
projecting  point  in  the  middJc; 

(hitiele,  the  external  skin. 

Cyathiform,  eup-shaped,  more  ooa- 
tracted  at  theoriflee  than  eraterifora. 

Cymbiform,  having  the  fonn  of  a  boat 

Cyme,  an  inflorcaeenoe  having  s 
corymbose  form,  but  eonsisUBg  of 
repeatedly-branched  divisioDs. 

Cymose,  resembling  a  cyme  in  appear- 


l>eeandroms,  having  10  i 
Denduoms,  falling  ofL 
Declinate,  curved  downwards. 
Beeumbent,  lying  prostrate,  but  risiaf 


Deeurrenty  produced   downwards,  as 

the  base  of  a  leaf  down  the  stem. 
Decussate,  crossing  at  right  angles. 
Dehiscence,  the  act  of  opening  of  anther 

or  fruit. 
Deltoid,  having  the  fbm  of  a  triangle 

or  Greek  A. 
Dendroidal,  resembling  a  small  tne. 
DeiUate,  with  sharp-pointed  notebea 

and  intermediate  curves  instead  of 

re-entering  angles. 
Depauperated,  imperfectly  developed; 

looking  as  if  ill-formed  from  traal 

of  sufficient  nutriment. 
Depressed,  flattened  fhun  point  to  base. 
Diadelphous,  having  the  stamens  in 

two  parcela. 
Diandrous,  having  two  atamwis. 
Dichotomous,  repeatedly  dirided  lnt» 

two  branches. 
Dicotyledonous,  having  two  ootyledoitf. 
Didynamous,    having    two   pairs  of 

stamens  of  unequal  length. 
Didymous,  growing  in  pairs,  or  twins ; 

only  applied  to  solids  and  not  to  flat 

surfaces. 
Digitate,  flngered,  diverging  tram  a 

common  centre,  aa  the  fingers  ttem 

the  palm. 
Dimidiate,  half-formed,  or  halved,  or 

split  into  halves. 
Dieodous,    having    atanena    on    on* 

plant  and  pistils  on  another. 
Dipterous,  having  two  wings. 
Discoidal,  with  the  central  part  of  a 

flat    body    differently  coloored  or 

marked  from  the  mai^n. 
Disk,  a  fle»hy  circle  interpoaed  between 

the  stamena  and  pistlla. 
DissepimenU,  the  verUoal  partitktts  of 

a  compound  fruit. 
Diriichoms,  arranged  in  two  rovt. 
Dtvaricofting,  diverging  at  an  oMa«e 

angle. 
Dodeetmdrous,  having  12  stamens. 
Dolabr^urm,  hatchet-shaped. 
Drupe,  auch  a  tmlt  as  the  peach,  eoa* 

aUthigof  a  stem  surrounded  by  ilesby 

or  flbrons  matter. 
Ducts,    spiral  vesoda    that  will  not 

unroll. 
Dumose,  having  a  compact  bnshy  fona. 
Duramen,  the  heart-wood  of  timber. 


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BOTANY. 


BOTANY.  * 


600 


JMiMoie,   eowtnd  with   bard   aharp 

points. 
jaaterM^  litUe  spiraUy-twisted  hygro. 

matrioal  threads  that  disperse  the 

spores  of  Jungennannias. 
JKUmsniary  orgotu^  the  minate  parts 

of  which  the  texture  of  plants  is 

eompoeed. 
JSmaviiwmte,  haTiog  a  notch  at  the 

point. 
Smtbryo,  the  rudimentary  plant  before 

germination  oommenoes. 
Xndoearp^  the  hard  lining  of  some 

pericarps. 
S»dog«nt  a  plant  wliioh  increases  in 

diameter  by  addition  to  its  centre ; 

as  a  palm-tree. 
£n$heatidrou»,  haTing  0  stamens. 
Emsifinrmt  harlng  the  form  of  a  straight 

and  narrow  sword.biade. 
J^nearp,  the  external  layer   of  the 

pericarp. 
^^idermia,  the  skin  of  .a  plant,  in  the 

language  of  some  writers;  the  cor- 

tical  integument  according  to  others. 
Spiffjftumt,  growing  upon  the  top  of 

tlie  OTary,  or  seeming  to  do  so. 
Sfmtant,  when  leaTcs  are  so  arranged 

that  the  base  of  each  is  inclosed 

within  the  opposite  base  of   that 

which  is  next  below  it ;  as  in  Iris. 
£sti9aiUm.    Bee  JEttwatUm, 
Fntgtm,  a  plant  which  increases  in 

diameter  by  the  addition  of  new 

wood  to  the  outside  of  the  old  wood ; 

as  an  oak-tree. 

yarmaeemUf  mealy. 
roMdaied,  banded. 
Ta9ietilat0d,  collected  in  dosters. 
J'attiifiate,  when  the  branches  of  any 

plant  are  pressed  dose  to  the  main 

stem ;  as  in  the  Lombardy  poplar. 
J^lMment^  the  stalk  of  the  anther. 
Jittfonm,  slender  and    round  like  a 

thread. 
lUtular,  tabular  but  cloned  at  each 

end ;  as  the  leaf  of  an  onion. 
FlaMli/brm,  fan-shapcd. 
UofiM^brw^  resembling  the  thong  of 

a  whip. 
JTccHoss,  wavy. 
JtoeeoM,  ooTered  with  little  irregular 

patches  of  woolliness. 
JlorH^  a  little  flower. 
ItoaeuU,  ditto. 

I\aliaeeovaf  baring  the  colour  and  tex- 
ture of  a  common  green  leaf. 
Foliatum,  the  arrangement  of  young 

leaTcs  within  the  leaf-bud. 
IMlieU,  a  simple  fruit  opening  by  its 

rentral  sutore  only. 
Foramat,  the   passage    through    the 

integuments  of  an  orule  by  which 

impregnating  matter  is  introduced 

Into  the  nucleus. 
FonliOf  the  fertilising   principle   of 

pollen. 
Fnmd,  the  leaf  of  a  fern  or  of  a  palm. 
FHmi,  the  ftdl-grown  ripened  pistil. 
FUfadotu,  lasting  but  a  short  time. 
Jhmgoid,  resembling  a  ftmgus;   that 

ia,  irregular  in  form  and  fleshy  in 

textnre. 
iWMMnitM,  the  stalk  by  which  aome 

seeds  are  attached  to  the  placenta. 
JWsi/bnn,  apindle-shaped,   thickest  in 

the  middle,  and  tapering  to  each  end. 

GaJhuha,  a  small  cone  whose  scales  are 

all  consolidated  into  a  fleshy  ball ;  as 

in  Juniper. 
OcUa,  the  upper  Up  of  a  labiate  flower. 
OaMMlote,  knee-Jotnted,  when  a  stem 

bends  coddenly  in  its  middle. 
OtUoMc,  prominent,  projecting. 
QlahrouBf  haTing  no  hairs. 
OladiatSf  the  same  as  enaiform,  but 

broader  and  shorter. 
Gland,  I,  the  fknit  of  the  oak,  the 

hazel,  *e. ;  2,  an  eleration  of  the 

cuticle  which  usually  secretes  either 

aerid  or  resinoua  matter. 
Olcndulm;  oorered  with  glands  of  the 

scecmdkind. 
OlaveoM,  oorered  with  bloom  like  a 

plum. 


QloehidaU,  corend  with  hairs  which 
are  rigid  and  hooked  at  their  point. 

Olume,  one  of  the  bracts  of  grasses. 

Qymno»permou$,  having  seeds  which 
ripen  without  being  inclosed  in  a 
pericarp. 

Oynobiue,  an  elevated  part  of  the  grow- 
ing point  of  a  flower-bud,  rising 
between  the  carpels  and  throwing 
them  into  an  oblique  position. 

OjfraU,  same  as  CireinaU.  Also,  sur- 
rounded by  an  elastic  ring ;  as  the 
theca  of  ferns. 

Seutate,  having  the  form  of  a  halbert. 

head ;  that  is,  with  a  4anoe-8haped 

centre  crossed  at  the  base  by  two 

lobes  of  a  similar  form  standing  at 

right  angles  with  the  centre. 
Helmet,  the  hooded  upper  Up  of  some 

flowers. 
JlepUindrouif  having  7  stamens. 
RexandrouSf  having  6  stamens. 
Hilton,  the  scar  left  upon  a  seed  when 

it  is  separated  from  the  placenta. 
HtrnUe,  covered  with  harsh  long  hairs. 
Hymenium,  the  gills  of  a  mushroom ; 

that  part  in  Fungi  where  the  spores 

are  placed. 
Hjfpoorater^orm^nlret'iibAftA ;  having 

a  eyUndrioal  tube  and  a  flat  border 

spreading  away  f^m  it. 
Hypogynout,  aridng  from  immediately 

below  the  pistil. 

leosandrout,  having  20  or  more  perU 
gynous  stamens. 

Imbrieated,  overlapping,  as  tiles  over- 
Ue  each  other  on  the  roof  of  a 
house. 

Jnctimftm/,  lying  upon  anything. 

Indehi$eent^  not  opening  when  ripe. 

InduplieaU,  doubled  inwards. 

JhJtmtim,  Uie  membrane  that  overUes 
the  Bori  of  ferns. 

Inferior,  is  said  of  a  calyx  when  it  does 
not  adhere  to  the  ovary ;  Is  said  of 
an  ovary  when  it  does  adhere  to  the 
calyx. 

It^floregetnoe,  the  ooUection  of  flowers 
upon  a  plant. 

Infundibulifonn,  shaped  like  a  funneL 

limaU,  growing  upon  anything  by  one 
end. 

Innowdiom,  the  young  shoots  of  moeses. 

lutercellultMr,  that  which  lies  between 
the  cells  or  elementary  bladders  of 
plants. 

Intemods,  the  space  between  two  nodes. 

Jnterrupted,  when  variations  in  con. 
tinuity,  size,  or  development  alter- 
nately  occur  in  parts  which  are  some- 
times uniform ;  as  when  pinnated 
leaves  have  the  alternate  leaflets 
much  the  smallest,  and  when  dense 
spikes  are  here  and  there  broken  by 
the  extension  of  Intemodes. 

Involucre,  a  collec^on  of  bracta  placed 
in  a  whorl  on  the  outside  a  oalyx  or 
flower-head. 

Involute,  roUed  inwards. 

LiAeUum,  one  segment  of  a  corolla, 

which  is  lower  than  the  others,  and 

often  pendulous. 
Labiate,  divided  into  an  upper  and  a 

lower  Up ;  as  the  corolla  of  dead 

nettle. 
Lacunou,  having  numerous  large  deep 

depressions  or  excavations   on  its 

surface. 
Lamina,  the  blade  of  a  leaf. 
Lanceolate,  shaped  like  a  lance-head ; 

that  is,  oval,  tapering  to  both  extre- 

miUes. 
Lateral,  originating  firom  the  side  of 

anything.' 
Latex,  the  vital  fluid  of  vegetation. 
Xox,  not  compact  or  dense. 
Leaflet,  a  division  of  a  compound  leaf. 
Legume,  a  kind  of  fruit  Uke  the  pod  of 

a  pea. 
Lenticular,    small,  ^  depressed,     and 

doubly  convex. 
Lepidote,  covered  with  a  sort  of  scnr- 

flness. 
Leprout,  the  same. 


Liber,  the  newly-formed  inner  bark  of 
Ezogens. 

lAffuia,  a  membranous  expansion  from 
the  top  of  the  petiole  in  grasses. 

X«mA,  the  blade  or  expanded  part  of  a 
petal. 

Linear,  very  narrow,  with  the  two 
sides  nearly  parallel. 

Lip,  same  as  Labellum, 

Loeulicidal,  when  the  carpels  of  a  com- 
pound  firuit  dehisce  in  such  a  way 
that  the  ceUs  are  broken  through  at 
their  back. 

LoeuttOf  the  spikelet,  or  collection  of 
florets  of  a  grasa. 

Lomenium,  a  legume  which  is  inter- 
rupted between  the  seeds,  so  as  to 
separate  into  ntmierous  transverse 
portions. 

Lunate,  formed  like  a  crescent. 

Manicaie,  when  hairs  are  interwoven 
into  a  mass  that  can  be  easily  sepa. 
rated  from  the  surface. 

Marginal,  of  or  belonging  to  the  edge 
of  anything. 

Medullary,  of  or  belonging  to  the  pith. 

Mieropyle,  a  snuU  passage  through  the 
seed,  called  the  foramen  when  speak- 
ing of  the  ovule.     See  Foramen, 

Mitriform,  conical,  hollow,  open  at  the 
base,  and  either  entire  there  or  irre- 
gularly cut. 

Monadelphous,  with  the  stamens  united 
into  one  parcel. 

Monandroue,  with  one  stamen  only. 

Moniltform,  shaped  like  a  necklace. 

Monopetalout,  with  several  petals  united 
into  one  body  by  their  edges. 

Mueronate,  tipped  by  a  hard  point. 

Multifid,  divided  into  many  shallow 
lobes. 

Multipartite,  divided  into  many  deep 
lobes. 

Murieated,  covere<l  with  short,  broad, 
sharp-pointed  tubercles. 

Muriform,  resembling  the  bricks  in  the 
waU  of  a  house. 

yaoieular,  shaped  like  a  very  small 

boat. 
Nectary,  any  organ  that  secretes  honey. 
Hervee,  the  stronger  reins  of  a  leaf. 
Node,  the  part  of  a  stem  from  which  a 

normal  leaf.bud  arises. 
Normal,  according  to  general  rules. 
Nucleue,  the  central  part  of  an  ovule, 

or  a  seed. 
Nucule,  a  small  hard  seed-like  pericarp. 

Oblique,  larger  on  one  side  than  on  the 
other. 

Ochrea,  two  stipules  united  round  the 
stem  into  a  kind  of  sheath. 

Oetandroue,  having  8  stamens. 

Operculum,  the  Ud  of  the  theca  of  a 
moss. 

Ovary,  the  hoUow  part  of  a  pistil  con- 
taining the  ovulea. 

Ocate^  having  the  flgure  of  an  egg. 

Ontle,  a  rudimentary  seed. 

Folate,  the  lower  surflMe  of  the  throat 
of  a  labiate  corolla. 

Falea,  either  the  inner  bracts  of  the 
inflorescence  of  a  grass,  or  the  bracts 
upon  the  reeeptade  of  the  flower- 
head  of  a  Compodta. 

Faleaceoue,  covered  with  palen. 

FaUnate,  the  same  as  Digitate,  only  the 
dividons  more  shaUow  and  broader. 

Fandwiform,  oblong,  narrowing  to- 
wards the  base,  and  contracted  be- 
low the  middle. 

Faniele,  a  compound  raceme;  a  loose 
kind  of  inflorescence. 

Fapilionaceoue,  a  flower  consisting  of 
standard,  wings,  and  keel,  Uke  that 
of  a  pea. 

Fappue,  the  colyx  of  a  Composita ;  as 
of  a  dandeUon. 

Farenchyma,  the  pulp  that  connects  the 
veins  of  leaves. 

Parietal,  growing  from  the  lining  of 
anything. 

Fectinate,  divided  into  long,  close,  nar- 
row teeth  like  a  comb. 


FedaU,  palmate,  with  the  lateral  seg. 

ments  lengthened  and  lobed. 
Fedicel,  one  of  a   great  many  ped- 

uncles. 
Feduncle,  a  flower-etalk. 
Feltate,  attached  within  the  margin. 
Fentandroue,  having  5  stamens. 
Ferfoliate,  aurrounding  a  stem  by  the 

base,  which  grows  together  where 

the  margins  touch. 
Ferianth,  a  coUection  of  floral  enve- 

lopes,  among  which  the  calyx  cannot 

be  distinguished  ftrom  the  corolla, 

though  both  are  present. 
Feriearp,  the  shdl  of  a  fruit  of  any 

kind. 
Ferieheetium,  the  leaves  at  the  base  of 

the  stalk  of  the  fruit  of  a  moss. 
Ferigoue,  same  as  Ferianth, 
Ferigynoui,  growing  from  the  sides  of 

a  calyx. 
Ferieperm,  some  as  Albumen, 
Ferittome,  a  curious  set  of  processes 

surrounding  the  orifice  of  the  theca 

of  a  moss. 
Feronate,  laid  thickly  over  with  a  woolly 

substance  ending  In  a  sort  of  meal. 
Fereonate,  labiate,  with  the  palate  of 

the  lower  lip  pressing  against  the 

upper  lip. 
Fetal,  one  of  the  parts  of  a  corolla. 
Fetaloid,  resembling  a  petal  in  colour 

and  texture. 
Fetiolar,  of  or  belonging  to  the  petiole. 
Fetiole,  the  stalk  of  a  leaf. 
Fhyllodium,  a  petiole  transformed  into 

a  flat  leaf.Uke  body. 
Fileue,  the  cap  of  a  mushroom. 
FHoee,  covered  with  short  fine  hairs. 
Finnate,  divided  into  a  number  of  pairs 

of  leaflets  ;  bipinnate,  each  leaflet  is 

also  pinnate ;   tripinnate,  each  se- 
condary leaflet  pinnated  also. 
Finnatifid,  divided  In  a  pinnated  man- 
ner nearly  down  to  the  midrib. 
FistH,  the  combination  of  ovary,  style, 

and  stigma. 
Fith,  the  central  column  of  ceUular 

tissue  in  an  Exogen. 
Flacenta,  the  part  of  the  ovary  to  which 

the  ovules  are  attached. 
Flane,  quite  flat. 
Flumule,  the  rudiment  of  a  stem  in  the 

embryo. 
Fallen,  the  powder  contained  in  an 

anther. 
Follen'T\tbe*,  the  membranous  tubes 

emitted  by  poUen  after  they  fall  on 

the  stigma. 
Folyadelphout,  when  the  stamens  are 

combined  into  more  than  two  par- 
cels. 
Folyandrout,  when  there  are  more  than 

20  hypogynous  stamens. 
Polypetaloue,  when  the  petals  are  aU 

distinct. 
Fimte,  a  fhiit  like  that  of  the  apple, 

pear,  Ac. 
Frt^floreUion,  same  as  JEaiivation, 
Frickle,  same  as  Aculeut, 
Frimine,  the  external  integument  of 

the  ovule. 
Feeudobulb,  the   soUd   above-ground 

tuber  of  some  Orchidem. 
Fubeeeent,  covered  with  very  flne  soft 

down. 
Fulverulent,  covered  with  a  powdery 

appearance. 
Puiamen,  same  as  JSndocar^. 
Fyri/orm,  shaped  like  a  pear. 

Qaartine,  the  innermost  integument 

but  one  of  the  ovule. 
(Annate,  combined  in  flrea. 
(iuintine,  the  innennost  integvment  of 

the  ovale. 

BacemCf  an  infloreaoenee  like  that  of 

the  currant. 
Jtaehie,  the  axis  of  inflorescenca. 
Fadieal,  arising  fh>m  the  root. 
Jtadiele,  the  rudimentary  root  in  the 

embryo. 
Hantenta,  soft,  ragged,  chaff-like  haira 

growing  upon  the  petiole  of  fema. 
Saphe,  the  line  of  communication  be* 

ttrcrn  the  hilnm  and  chalasa. 


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BOTAirr. 


BOTRYLLIDiE. 


608 


Saphide;  aoiouUr  or  other  orystels 

scattered  among  yegetable  tiaaue. 
Benifomif  kidney-shaped. 
Beaupinaie,  inyerted,  so  that  the  part 

which  is  naturally  lowermoet  becomes 

uppermost. 
X*tieuUUed,  trayersed  by  Teins  haying 

the  appearance  of  network. 
JZ«<iiM,  blunt,  and  turned  inwards  more 

than  obtuse. 
i^Atsoiiui,  a  creeping  stem'  like  that  of 

Iris. 
JHngeni,  same  as  Fer$onate. 
HootStoek,  same  as  Shiaoma. 
MoatraU,  furnished  with  a  sort  of  beak. 
JUmtlaitt  haying  the  leayes  arranged  in 

little  rose-like  clusters. 
J2tMiitVia<M{,  pierced  by  numerous  per- 

forations  full  of  ehaify  matter  like 

a  nutmeg. 
Sumner,  the  prostrate  stem  of  such 

plants  as  the  strawberry. 

Sagiitaie,  resembling  the  head  of  an 

ancient  arrow. 
Samara^  a  kind  of  one-seeded  inde- 

hiscent  pericarp,  with  a  wing  at  one 

end. 
8ap-Wood,   the   newly   formed  wood, 

which  has  not  been  hardened  by  the 

deposit  of  secreted  matter. 
Sareoearpf  the  intermediate  fleshy  layer 

between  the  epicarp  and  endocarp. 
Seals,  an  abortiye  leaf. 
Seape,  the  flowering  stem  of  a  plant. 
Searious,  dry,  thin,  and  shriveUed. 
Serobioulate,  irregularly  pitted. 
Seutellum,  the  fructiiying  space  upon 

the  thallus  of  a  lichen. 
Seetmd,  arranged  or  turned  to  one  side. 
Seeundine,  the  second  integument  of 

the  oyule. 
SepaU,  the  leayes  of  the  calyx. 
Septa,  same  as  Dissepiment. 
Septieidal,  when  the  dissepiments  of  a 

fruit  are  diyided  into  two  plates  at 

the  period  of  dehiscence. 
Septifragal,  when  the  dissepiments  of 

a  fruit  are  broken    through  their 

middle  by  the  separation  of  the  back 

of  the  carpels  from  the  centre. 
Sericeous,  silky. 

Serrate,  toothed  like  the  edge  of  a  saw. 
SessUs,  seated  close    upon    anything, 

without  a  stalk. 
Setose,  covered  with  setae  or  bristles. 
Shield,  the  ftnctiflcation  of  lichens. 
Sigmoid,  bent  like  the  letter  8. 
SUiele,  a  short  two-yalyed  pod,  such 

as  is  found  in  garden  cress. 
SUique,  the  same  but  longer ;  as  in  the 

cabbage. 
Sinuate,  turning  in  and  out  in  an  irre. 

gular  manner. 
Sori,  the  fructification  of  ferns. 
Spadiceous,   resembling   a  spadix,   or 

bearing  that  kind  of  inflorescence. 
Stpadix,  the  inflorescence  of  an  arum ; 

an  axis  closely  covered  with  sessile 

flowers,  and  inclomd  in  a  spathe. 
Spathaceous,  inclosed  within  a  spathe, 

or  bearing  that  kind  cf  bract. 
Spathe,  a  large  coloured  bract  which 

incloses  a  spadix. 
Spatulate,  shaped  like  a  druggist's  spa- 

tula;    that  is,   long,   narrow,    and 

broadest  at  the  point. 
Spike,  an  inflorescence  in  which  the 

flowers     are     sessile     upon    their 

axis. 
Spikelet,  one  of  a  great  many  small 

spikes  collected  in  a  mass;   as  in 

grasses. 
Spine,  a  stiff,  sharp-pointed,  leafless 

branch. 
Spongiole,    or    Spongelet,  the    tender 

growing  tip  of  the  root. 
Spore,  or  Sporute,  the  reproductive  body 

of  flowerless  plants,  analogous  to  the 

seed  of  flowering  plants. 
Squarrose,   composed  of  parts  which 

diyerge  at  right  angles,  and  are  irre- 

gular  in  size  and  direction. 
Stamen,  the  fertilising  organ  of  aflower, 

consisting  of  filament  and  anther. 
Standard,  the  upper  single  petal  of  a 

papUionaeeous  flower. 


Stellate,  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 

stor. 
Stigma,  the  upper  end  of  the  style,  on 

which  the  pollen  falls. 
Stipe,  the  stalk  that  bears  the  head  of 

a  miuhroom  ;  also  the  stalk  of  the 

leaf  of  a  fern  ;  also  the  stalk  of  any. 

thing  except  of  a  leaf  or  a  flower. 
Stipulate,  furnished  with  stipules ;  ex- 

stipulate,  haying  no  stipules. 
Stipule,  the  scale  at  the  base  of  some 

leaf-stolks. 
Stomate,    a    minute  hole    in  a  leaf, 

through  which  respiration  is  sup- 

posed  to  be  carried  on  ;  a  breathing 

pore. 
Strigose,  covered  with    stiff  unequal 

hairs. 
Strophiolate,  haying  little  fungous  ex- 

cresoences  surrounding  the  hilum. 
Stupose,  having  a  tuft  of  hairs  in  the 

middle  or  at  the  end. 
StyU,  the  stalk  of  the  stigma. 
Subulate,  awl-shaped. 
Sjfncarpous,  haying  the  carpels  con. 

solidated. 

Terete,  taper. 

Temate,  united  in  threes. 

Testa,  the  skin  of  the  seed. 

Tetrddynamous,  having  6  stamens  in 
four  parcels ;  two  of  which  consist 
of  two  stamens,  and  two  of  one  each. 

Tetrandroiu,  having  4  stamens. 

Thallus,  the  leafy  part  of  a  lichen ;  the 
union  of  stem  and  leaf  in  those  and 
some  other  tribes  of  Imperfect  plants. 

Theca,  the  case  which  contains  the  spo- 
rules  of  flowerless  plants. 

Tomentose,  covered  with  short  close 
down. 

Toothed,  the  same  as  Dentate. 

Torulose,  alternately  contracted  and 
distended. 

Torus,  the  growing  point  of  a  flower  on 
which  the  carpels  are  placed. 

THandrous,  having  S  stamens. 

Trifarious,  arranged  In  three  rows. 

Trifid,  divided  into  three  lobes. 

Trifoliolate,  having  three  leaflets. 

Tripartite,  divided  into  three  deep  di- 
visions. 

Tripinnate,  when  each  leaflet  of  a  pin- 
nated leaf  is  pinnate ;  and  the  leaflets 
of  the  latter  are  pinnate  also. 

Tritemate,  when  each  leaflet  of  a  tcr- 
nate  leaf  is  temate ;  and  the  leaflets 
of  the  latter  are  temate  also. 

Truncate,  abruptly  cut  off. 

Tube,  the  part  of  a  flower  where  the 
bases  of  the  sepals,  petals,  or  stamens 
are  united. 

Tuber,  a  deformed,  fleshy  kind  of  un- 
derground  stem. 

Turbinate,  shaped  like  a  spinning  top. 

Umibel,  an  inflorescence  whose  branches 

all  radiate  from  one  common  point. 
Umbilieate,  having  a  depression  in  the 

middle. 
Umbonate,  having  a  boss  or  elevated 

point  in  the  middle. 
Undulated,  wavy. 
UnguicultUe,  ftimished  with  a  claw,  or 

short  stalk. 
Ureeolate,  shaped  like  a  pitcher. 
Utricle,  a  small  bladder. 

Vagina,  the  sheath  formed  by  the  con- 
volution of  a  flat  petiole  round  a 
stem. 

Vahe,  one  of  the  parts  into  which  any 
dehiscent  body  divides. 

Vascular,  containing  vessels ;  that  Is, 
spiral  vessels  or  ducts. 

Ventrioose,  inflated. 

Vernation,  the  manner  in  which  the 
young  leaves  are  arranged  in  their 
leaf-bud. 

Verrucose,  covered  with  warts. 

Versatile,  swinging  lightly  upon  a  sort 
of  pivot. 

VertidUate,  arranged  in  a  whorl. 

Vexillum,  same  as  Standard, 

rt2fo«f,eoyeredwith  long  soft  shaggy 
hair. 


Virgate,  having  long  slender  rod-like 

shoots. 
Vitellus,  a  fleshy  bag,  interposed  be- 

tween  the  embryo  and  albumen  in 

some  seeds. 


VUtale,  striped,  as  distinguished  from 

fkseiate,  or  banded. 
Whorl,  an  arrangement  ot  more  ksvei 

than  two  around  a  common  eentre 

upon  the  sanie  plane. 


BOTAURUS.    [Bittern.] 

BOTHRIOCEPHALUS.    [Entozoa.] 

BOTHTNOa)ERES,  a  genus  of  Coleopteroua  Inaeets  of  ^  family 
CurculicnidiB.  It  is  known  by  the  following  chanctezB :— Body 
oblong ;  rostrum  thick,  longer  tiban  the  head,  bent  downwards,  and 
having  a  longitudinal  elevated  line  above.  Antennse  geniculated, 
rather  short  and  thick,  twelve-jointed  ;  the  basal  joint  long,  thickened 
towards  the  apex ;  the  second  joint  short  and  stout ;  the  third  twice  as 
long  as  the  last ;  the  four  following  short;  the  eighth  rather  broader 
than  the  last;  Uie  remaining  or  terminal  joints  form  a  spindle-shaped 
club.  Thorax  narrower  before  than  behind,  the  base  with  an  impres- 
sion in  the  middle.  Elytra  oblong,  with  an  obtuse  tubercle  towards 
the  apex.    Legs  moderate ;  femora  simple. 

This  genus  apparently  links  the  genera  Cleoniu  and  lAxw 
together.  The  species  are  in  general  very  prettily  mottled,  the 
common  colours  being  black,  or  gray,  and  white.  In  this  coimtry 
but  one  species  has  yet  been  discovered,  and  of  that  only  two  or 
three  specimens  have  been  found:  it  is  about  half  an  inch' long  and 
of  a  white  colour,  having  the  central  part  of  the  thorax,  together 
with  a  fascia  and  four  spots  on  the  wing-cases,  black.  The  species 
here  described  is  the  Bothynoderei  albidut  {Ourculio  aUndm  of 
Fabriciua). 

BOTIA,  a  genus  proposed  by  Dr.  J.  K  Qray  for  the  Spined  Loche, 
or  Groundling,  usually  included  under  Cobitia,    [CoBrnBT] 

BOTRY'CHIUM,  a  genus  of  Ferns  belonging  to  the  suborder 
Osmwndaceoi  and  the  tribe  Ophioglosseaof  that  family.  It  has  distinct 
thecse  disposed  in  a  compound  spike  attached  to  a  pinnate  or  bipinnate 
frond.  There  is  only  one  species  a  native  of  Great  Britain,  the  B. 
Lunaria,  Common  Moonwort.  It  has  a  solitary  pinnate  frond,  with 
notched  or  crenate,  lunate  or  fannahaped  pinnse.  This  is  not  a 
very  conspicuous  fern,  but  has  been  observed  in  almost  every  part 
of  Great  Britain.  It  grows  on  dry  open  heaths,  elevated  pasiurea, 
and  waste  lands  which  are  generally  shunned  by  other  species  of 
ferns. 

In  former  times  the  ferns  had  a  great  reputation  in  medicine,  not  so 
much  on  account  of  their  obvious  as  their  supposed  virtuesi  The 
lunate-shape  of  the  pinnee  of  this  fern  gave  it  its  common  name,  and  was 
the  origin  of  much  of  the  superstitious  veneration  with  which  it  was 
regarded.  When  used  it  was  gathered  by  the  light  of  the  moon. 
Gerarde  says  : — **  It  is  singular  to  heal  green  and  fresh  wounda  It 
hath  been  used  among  l£e  alchymists  and  witches  to  do  wonders 
withall,  who  aay  that  it  will  loose  locks  and  make  them  to  fall  from 
the  feet  of  horses  that  grase  where  it  doth  grow,  and  hath  been  called 
of  them  Martagon,  whereas  in  truth  they  are  tdl  but  drowsy  dreasu 
and  illusions;  but  it  is  singular  for  wounds  as  aforesaid."  lis 
healing  powers  are  now  however  as  much  disregarded  as  its  magical 
ones. 

B.  Virffinicvm,  the  Rattlesnake  Fern,  is  a  native  of  North  America, 
and  is  the  largest  of  the  species.  It  is  called  Rattlesnake  Fem'from 
the  fact  of  its  growing  in  places  where  this  venomous  reptile  is  usually 
found.  The  other  species  of  JBotryckium  are  mostly  natives  of  North 
America.  (Loudon,  EncycLopasdiu  of  Plants;  Newman,  Bittory  qf 
British  Ferns). 

BOTRYLLIDiE,  a  tribe  of  Tunicated  MoUuica,  of  which  the  genus 
Botryllus  is  the  type.  The  species  are  not  uncommon  on  the  coasts 
of  Britain.  They  form  translucent  jelly-like  masses  of  various  hues, 
sometimes  uniform  in  tint  and  sometimes  beautifully  variegated,  and 
are  found  encrusting  the  surface  of  rocks  or  attached  to  the  fronds  of 
some  of  the  large  sea-weeds  that  grow  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  or  pot 
unfrequently  attached  to  the  other  forms  of  MoUusca.  On  exa.miniiig 
one  of  these  gelatinoiis  masses  closely  they  present  the  appearance  of 
stars,  having  a  central  point  and  numerous  radii  Unless  examined 
closely  they  present  little  signs  of  life,  but  when  a  magnifying  power 
is  applied  currents  of  water  are  seen  passing  to  and  from  small  apertures 
with  which  the  surface  is  covered.  Savigny,  the  illustrious  French 
naturalist,  was  the  first  observer  who  appr&ended  the  nature  of  these 
curious  beings,  and  gave  an  account  of  their  structure  in  his  celebrated 
'  M^moires  sur  les  Auimaux  sans  Yert^bres.'  Before  his  time  the 
BotryUidcs  had  been  confounded  with  the  Polypes,  and  r^arded  as 
analogous  to  Alcyonium.  The  earliest  figures  of  them  are  to  be  found 
in  tiie  'Philosophical  Transactions'  for  1757  by  Schloaser,  who  was  a 
correspondent  and  friend  of  John  Ellis.  The  latest  researches  upou 
these  creatures  are  those  of  Milne-Edwards  in  1839,  who  in  a  paper 
read  before  the  Institute  of  France  fully  confirmed  tiie  correctness  of 
SavignVs  views.  The  animals  of  this  tribe  have  been  divided  into 
several*  genera,  of  which  the  following  are  British  : — 

Aplidiwn,  Sav.  Gelatinous  or  cartilaginous,  with  no  central  cavity, 
but  a  distinct  circumscription.  Animals  8  to  25  in  number,  in  a 
single  row,  at  equal  distances  from  the  centre  of  their  common  axis. 
Three  species  are  given  by  Forbes  and  Hanley  in  the  'British 
Molluscs,'  but  with  the  statement  that  they  require  "careful  re> 
examination."  These  are  A.  Ficua,  Linn.;  A.faUax,  Johnston;  ^> 
nutans,  Johnston. 


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009 


BOTRYOGENE. 


BOTS. 


610 


Sidnyum,  Say.  The  mass  presents  the  appearance  of  a  number  of 
heads  of  Hadtepore  or  Cladooora,  each  formed  of  a  simple  cone  trun- 
cated and  starred  at  the  summit,  rising  from  a  common  encrusting 
base,  the  whole  being  grouped  closely  together.  There  is  but  one 
speciesy  S,  tftrbinatum,  which  occurs  abundantly  on  the  north  coast  of 
the  Isle  of  Itfan  and  other  parts  of  the  British  Islands. 

Polpi^wtunf  Say.  Mass  sessile,  gelatinous,  or  cartilaginous ;  poly- 
morphous, composed  of  more  or  less  multiplied  systems,  oonyex, 
radiated,  each  haying  a  central  cayity,  and  being  more  or  less 
distinctly  circumscribed.  Indiyiduals  10  to  150,  placed  at  unequal 
distances  from  a  common  centre.  P,  aurarUiwn,  Milne-Edwards, 
has  been  found  at  Cullercoats. 

Amowroueiumf  Milne-Edwarda  Mass  lobed  or  encrusting,  sessile  or 
pedunculated,  fleshy  or  cartilaginous,  composed  of  many  systems,  each 
having  a  central  cavity.  A.  pro^ferunif  M.  Edwards,  has  been  found 
in  Belfast  Bay.  A.  Nordmawni,  M.  Edwards,  and  A .  Arffot,  M.  Edwards, 
have  been  talcen  at  Falmouth  by  Mr.  Alder. 

Leptodinuniy  Milne-Edwards.  Mass  thin,  sessile,  encrusting,  poly- 
morphous, coriaceous  or  gelatinous,  composed  of  many  systems ; 
vents  opening  into  a  common  cloaca.  The  following  species  have 
been  taken  on  various  parts  of  the  British  coasts : — L.  maculoiwn^ 
L  atperwB^f  L.  awrevmit  L.  gelatinowm,  L.  Listarianum,  L.  punctatwu. 

Diatoma,  Gaertner.  Mass  sessile,  semicartilaginous,  polymorphous, 
composed  of  many  systems,  usually  circular.  Anal  and  branchial 
orifices  regularly  and  equally  6-rayed.  Two  species,  I>.  rubrvm  and 
D.  varudottimt  are  British. 

BotryUutf  Qaertner.  The  animals  are  grouped  in  single  stars,  and 
lie  horizontally  with  the  vent  far  from  the  branchial  •orifice.  The 
branchial  orifices  simple  and  arranged  around  a  common  cloaca. 
B.  Schlosseri,  Pallas.  This  is  the  species  figured  by  Sohloeser  in  the 
'Philosophical  Transactions.'  It  is  one  of  tibe  most  beautiful,  as  it  is 
one  of  the  most  common  species  of  the  family.  Living  specimens  of 
this  and  the  other  species  of  BotryUidcB  are  now  in  the  Aquavivarium 


■^^^■■■: 


i,  A  ffTOup  oTBotrglhu  Sehtoaen  upon  AMeidia  inte$tinatis  ;  6,  a  disk  ma^ifled. 

Df  the  Zoological  Society  in  the  Regent's  Park  Gardens.  The  other 
British  species  are  B,  polyqfcltu,  Savigny ;  B.  gemmetu,  Say. ;  B.  vio- 
laceus,  Milne-Edwards;  B.  Snwwagdut,  M.  Edwards;  B,  biviUatua, 
H.  Edwhrds. 

BotrifUoide$,  Milne-Edwarda  The  stars  formed  by  the  systems  of 
these  animals  are  irregular  and  ramifying.  The  bodies  are  placed 
vertically  and  the  two  orifices  approximate.  The  following  species  are 
British : — B.  I^eachii,  Sav. ;  B.  albiccu*^,  M.  Edwards ;  B,  roiifera, 
M.  Edwards ;  B.  rubrumy  M.  Edwards. 
(Forbes  and  Hapley,  History  of  British  MoUtuect.) 
BOTRYOGENE,  native  red  Sulphate  of  Iron.  It  occurs  crystallised, 
the  cfTstals  being  usually  aggregated  in  globular  reniform  and  botiy- 
i»itlal  masses.  The  primary  form  is  that  of  an  oblique  rhombic  prism. 
The  colour  is  deep  hyacinth-red  and  ochre-yellow  with  a  yellow 
streak.  The  hardness  is  from  2*25  to  2*6.  The  lustre  vitreous; 
translucent.  The  taste  slightly  astringent  The  specific  gravity 
2-039.    It  is  compoeed  of— 

Sulphuric  Acid 82*55 

Peroxide  of  Iron 23-86 

Protoxide  of  Iron 10*71 

Water 82-85 

It  is  foimd  in  the  great  copper-mine  of  Fahlun  in  Sweden. 

BOTRY'TIS,  one  of  the  obscure  parasitical  genera  of  Funffi,  to 
which  what  is  called  Mildew  ia  often  attributable.  The  plants  consist 
of  little  cells  adhering  end  to  end  ;  of  these  a  part  lies  prostrate  on 
the  surface  of  the  plimt  that  bears  them,  the  other  rises  erect  from 
th«*  surface  and  bears  a  collection  of  roundish  seed-cases  at  the  extre- 
^ity.  From  the  spores  contained  in  these  cases  the  plants  are  propa- 
guted,  and  seeing  that  their  size  is  so  microscopic  in  all  cases  as  to 
escape  our  vision  unaided  by  glasses,  and  that  what  seems  to  the 
aaked  eye  a  thin  brownish  wlute  patch  upon  a  leaf  is  in  reality  a 
ileose  forest  of  such  plants,  their  power  of  dissemination  must  be  very 
great.  They  attack  the  fibres  of  vegetable  fabrics,  such  as  linen  and 
cotton  when  placed  in  damp  places,  and  the  decayed  stems  of  various 

JTAT.  HI&I.  DIV.  YOL.  L 


plants,  decaying  apples,  pears,  grapes,  &c.  They  are  always  superficial, 
and  never  intestinal. 

BOTS  are  the  Larvae  or  Caterpillars  of  the  Gad-Fly,  belonging  to 
the  order  jDiptera  and  the  genus  (Estnu,  and  distinguished  by  this 
peculiarity,  that  they  pass  the  larval  state  of  their  existence  within 
some  living  animal,  and  feed  on  the  juices  or  substance  of  that  animal. 
There  are  numerous  species  of  them.  Every  quadruped  on  which 
they  prey  has  its  peculiar  fly.  The  notice  of  a  few  of  those  most 
commonly  known  will  suffice. 

The  (Estrus  EqtU,  or  Gad-Fly  of  the  Horse,  belongs  to  the  genus 
Oiuteropkiliu  of  some  entomolog^ists,  so  called  from  its  larvae  inhabiting 
the  stomach  of  that  animaL  It  is  distinguished  from  the  other  CEstri 
by  the  smoothness  of  the  thorax,  and  by  the  eyes  in  both  sexes  being 
equidistant  from  each  other,  not  quite  half  an  inch  in  length,  with 
gauze-like  yellow  and  brown  wings,  its  chest  of  a  rusty  colour 
approaching  to  a  brown  hue  on  the  sides  and  with  a  yellow  tinge 
posteriorly,  its  beUy  of  a  reddish-brown  superiorly  and  a  dirty  gray 
beneath,  with  its  extremity  almost  black.  The  whole  insect  is  thickly 
covered  with  down.  The  Gad-Fly  is  seen  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
smnmer  very  busy  about  horses:  this  is  the  impregnated  female 
depositing  her  eggs.  She  approaches  the  horse,  selects  some  part 
which  he  can  reach  with  his  tongue,  and  which  he  is  in  the  frequent 
habit  of  licking ;  she  balances  herself  for  a  moment,  and  then  suddenly 
darting  down,  deposits  an  egg  on  one  of  the  hairs,  which  adheres  by  a 
glutinous  substance  that  surrounds  it  She  continues  her  labour  with 
wonderful  perseverance  until  she  has  parted  with  fifty  or  a  hundred 
eggs,  and  then  having  exhausted  herself,  she  slowly  flies  away,  or 
drops  at  once  and  dies. 

If  a  horse  at  grass  is  carefully  examined  in  August,  some  hundreds 
of  these  minute  eggs  will  be  found  about  its  legs  and  the  back  part  of 
the  shoulder,  and  few  or  none  out  of  the  reach  of  his  tongue.  In  two 
or  three  days  these  eggs  are  sufficiently  matured  to  be  hatched. 
Possibly  the  horse  feels  a  little  incontenience  from  all  this  glutinous 
matter  sticking  about  and  stiffening  the  hair,  and  he  licks  the  part^ 
and  by  the  pressure  of  the  tongue,  and  the  mingled  influence  of  tho 
warmth  and  moisture  of  it,  the  ova  are  burst,  and  a  small  worm 
escapes  from  each.  It  clings  to  the  tongue,  and  is  thus  conveyed  into 
the  mouth ;  thence  it  is  either  carried  with  the  food  into  the  stomach, 
or,  impelled  by  instinct,  it  trayela  down  the  gullet,  being  too  small  to 
inconvenience  or  annoy  the  horse.  Thus  it  reaches  the  stomach,  and 
by  means  of  a  hook  on  eadi  side  of  its  mouth  affixes  itself  to  the 
cuticular  or  insensible  coat  of  that  viscus.  It  scoops  out  a  litUe  hole, 
into  which  its  muzzle  is  plunged,  and  there  it  remains  until  the  eariy 
part  of  the  summer  of  the  following  year,  feeding  on  the  mucous  or 
other  matter  which  the  coats  of  the  stomach  afford.  It  has  now 
become  an  inch  in  length  and  of  corresponding  bulk,  and  ready  to 
undeigo  its  change  of  form.  It  detaches  itself  from  the  cuticular 
coat  to  which  it  had  adhered,  and  plunges  into  the  food  which  the 
other  and  digestive  portion  of  the  stomach  contains ;  it  passes  with 
the  food  through  the  whole  length  of  the  intestines,  and  is  dischaiged 
with  the  dung.  Sometimes  it  is  not  perfectly  enveloped  in  the  fecal 
mass;  it  then  clings  to  the  sides  of  the  anus,  and  hangs  there  finnly 
until  there  is  a  soft  place  beneath  on  which  it  may  drop ;  it  then 
hastens  to  burrow  into  the  earth,  and,  if  it  has  escaped  the  birds  that 
are  eagerly  watching  for  it,  it  has  no  sooner  hollowed  for  itself  a 
convenient  habitation  than  a  shelly  covering  is  formed  around  it^  and 
it  appears  in  the  state  of  a  pupa  or  chrysalis. 

It  here  lies  torpid  for  a  few  weeks,  preparing  to  undei^o  its  last 
change.  It  assumes  the  form  of  a  perfect  fly ;  it  then  bursts  from  its 
prison,  rises  in  the  air,  and  seeks  ite  mate.  The  work  of  fecundation 
being  accompliahed,  the  male  immediately  dies :  the  female  lingera  a 
day  or  two  in  order  to  find  the  proper  deposit  for  her  eggs,  and  her 
short  life  also  terminates. 

It  is  in  the  larva  or  caterpillar  state  that  the  Bot  is  most  known. 
The  stomach  of  the  horse  sometimes  contains  an  almost  incredible 
number  of  them,  the  cuticular  portion  of  that  organ  being  in  a 
manner  covered  with  them.  In  a  few  instances  ^hey  have  been 
decidedly  injurious.  Having  mistaken  the  upper  part  of  the  windpipe 
for  their  residence,  and  fastening  themselves  on  the  edges  of  the 
opening  into  it^  have  produced  a  cough  which  no  medicine  could 
aUeviate,  and  which  increased  with  the  growth  of  the  Bot,  until  a 
degree  of  irritation  vras  excited  under  which  the  animal  sunk.  They 
have  also  traveUed  farther  than  the  stomach,  and  have  irritated  and 
choked  the  first  intestine,  and  thus  destroyed  the  horse ;  and,  even 
in  their  natural  habitation,  under  probably  some  diseased  state  of  the 
stomach  arising  from  other  causes,  they  have  perforated  it  and 
caused  death. 

These  however  are  rare  occurrences ;  they  are  exceptions  to  a 
general  rule.  The  plain  matter  of  fiact  is,  that  a  horse  that  hM  been 
turned  out  in  July  and  August,  and  therefore  almost  necessarily  has 
bots,  eigovs  just  as  good  health  as  another  that  has  been  stabled 
during  this  period.  He  is  in  as  good  condition,  and  as  fully  capable 
of  work  when  the  cuticular  coat  is  crowded  with  full-formed  bots  as 
he  is  at  any  other  time ;  and  his  health  is  unaffected  when  thsy  are 
passing  through  the  intestines  to  seek  a  new  habitation. 

A  smaller  species  of  Bot,  called  from  its  colour  the  Red-Bot»  is 
occasionally  found  in  ttie  stomach ;  but  the  fly  from  which  it  pro<^<eds 
has  never   been    accurately  described.     There  ia    no  ground    foi* 

S  B 


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611 


BOTS. 


BOUNCE* 


613 


the  aaseriioa  that  the  red-bot  ia  more  i^jurioua  than  the  com- 
mon bot. 

A  third  speeiee,  the  (Estrut  hemorrhoidalis,  or  Fundament-Bot,  ia 
better  known.  The  fly  ia  oonaiderablv  smaller  than  the  common 
(EttruM  BquL  It  is  of  a  brown  colour,  with  the  extremity  of  the  body 
rounded  and  yellow,  and  the  mouth  ia  fumiahed  with  exceedingly 
sharp  pincers.  This  fly  may  be  seen  darting  between  the  thighs  of 
the  horse  and  around  its  croup,  and  following  the  motions  of  the  tail 
until  the  animal  is  preparing  to  dung.  During  the  eracuation  of  the 
dung,  and  the  subsequent  protrusion  of  the  intestine,  it  darts  upon 
and  tears  the  gut  with  its  pincers,  and  deposits  an  egg  in  eyery 
wound.  The  horse  does  not  seem  to  sufifer  any  pain  during  this 
operation,  for  he  stands  passive ;  and  the  little  worm,  soon  produced 
from  the  egg,  establishes  its  abode  in  the  place  in  which  it  was 
deposited.  It  likewise  remains  its  stated  time  in  the  intestine,  and 
escapes  at  the  same  time  that  the  common  bot  does  from  the 
stomach.  These  bota  are  often  seen  within  theyerge  of  the  anus,  and 
occasionally  seem  to  be  productive  of  a  slight  degree  of  irritation. 
They  are  smaller  than  the  common  bot,  and  diBtinguished  from  the 
red-bot  by  their  colour.  An  injection  of  linseed-oil  will  generally 
dislodge  them. 

The  (Ettrua  Ovit,  or  Gad-Fly  of  the  Sheep,  is  a  more  formidable 
insect  It  is  smaller  than  the  Qktrut  of  the  Horse :  its  body  is  of  a 
dark-brown  colour,  spotted  with  white,  the  white  sometimes  so  much 
prevailing  as  to  give  a  grayish  hue  to  the  fly.  It  may  often  be  seen  in 
copses,  and  particularly  on  rails  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  copse. 
I£very  shepherd  ought  to  make  himself  acquainted  with  it^  for  it  may 
then  be  easily  crushed  and  destreyed.  It  prevails  moat  in  June  and 
July,  and  is  sometimes  an  intolerable  nuisance  in  woody  countries. 
If  only  one  of  them  appears  the  whole  flock  is  struck  with  terror ; 
and  if  there  is  any  place  in  the  field  devoid  of  pasture  the  sheep 
crowd  to  it,  turning  their  heads  towards  the  centre  of  the  group, 
with  their  muxzles  to  the  sand,  and  their  feet  in  continual  motion  in 
order  to  secure  themselves  from  the  attack  of  their  foe.  The  (Eitrat 
endeavours  to  get  at  the  inner  margin  of  the  nostril,  and,  darting 
upon  it  with  the  quickness  of  lightning,  deposits  her  egg.  The  warmth 
and  moisture  of  the  part  speedily  hatch  it,  and  the  little  worm 
escapes.  It  crawls  up  the  nostril,  it  threads  all  the  sinuosities  of  the 
passage,  and  finds  its  way  to  some  of  the  sinuses  connected  with  the 
nose.  The  irritation  which  it  occasions  as  it  travels  up  the  nose 
seems  to  be  exceedingly  great.  The  poor  animal  gallops  furiously 
about,  snorting  violently,  and  almost  maddened  by  the  annoyance. 
At  length  the  worm  reaches  some  of  the  convolutions  of  the  turbi- 
nated bones  of  the  nose,  or  the  antrum  or  cavity  of  the  upper  jaw, 
or  the  frontal  sinuses ;  it  fastens  itself  on  the  membrane  by  the  two 
hooks  with  which,  like  the  others,  it  is  provided,  and  there  it  remains 
until  April  or  May  in  the  succeeding  year. 

There  are  seldom  more  than  three  or  four  of  these  bote  in  each 
sheep ;  and  when  they  have  reached  their  appointed  home,  like  the 
bots  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  they  are  harmless.  Some  strange 
but  groxmdless  stories  have  been  told  of  gleet  from  the  nose, 
giddmess,  and  inflammation  of  the  brain  having  been  produced  by  them. 

The  larva  or  bot  remains  in  the  sinus  xmtil  it  has  fully  grown.  It 
then  detaches  itself  from  the  membrane,  creeps  out  the  same  way  by 
which  it  entered,  and  again  sadly  annoys  the  animal  for  a  little  while, 
the  sheep  making  the  most  violent  efforts  to  sneeze  it  out.  At  length 
the  grub  being  dropped,  burrows  in  the  earth,  becomes  an  oval  and 
motionless  chrysalis,  and  six  weeks  or  two  months  afterwards  it 
brea^  from  its  prison  a  perfect  fly.  The  work  of  propagation  being 
effected  the  male,  like  that  of  tiie  (Ettrua  Equi,  dies  ;  the  female 
lingers  on  a  littie  while  until  she  has  safely  deposited  her  ova.  She 
takes  no  food,  for  she  has  no  organs  to  receive  or  digest  it.  She 
accomplishes  her  task  and  expires. 

The  (Eitrus  Bovitf  or  Qad-FIy  of  the  Ox,  is  larger  than  either  of  the 
others.  Its  chest  is  dark-brown  with  a  vellow  patch  on  the  back, 
and  the  rounded  abdomen  has  alternate  rings  of  a  brown  and  orange 
colour.  The  fatty  and  cellular  substance  beneath  the  skin  of  the  ox 
is  the  residence  of  its  larvse.  The  fly  almost  uniformly  selects  a 
young  beai!t  in  good  condition,  and,  alighting  on  the  back  a  little  on 
one  side  of  the  spine,  it  punctures  tiie  skin  and  drops  one  of  its  eggs 
into  the  perforation,  and  with  it  probably  some  acrid  fluid  which 
causes  temporary  but  intense  pain.  The  ox  darts  away,  and  runs 
bellowing  over  the  field  with  his  head  protruded  and  his  tall  extended. 
His  companions  smarting  from  the  same  pain  or  dreading  a  similar 
attack  also  gallop  wildly  in  every  direction,  hastening  if  it  be  in  their 
power  to  some  pond  or  stream  where  their  enemy  in  afraid  to  follow 
them.  A  small  tumour — a  warble — presentiy  appears  on  the  back, 
which  being  carefully  examined  is  found  to  contain  a  littie  white 
worm.  This  worm  erows  and  assumes  a  daricer  colour,  and  becomes 
a  perfect  bot ;  and  there  it  remains  abundantly  nourished  by  the  fatty 
matter  around  it  until  the  following  June,  when  it  begins  to  eat  its 
way  through  the  wall  of  its  cell  Many  a  bird  aware  frOTi  the  uneasi- 
ness of  the  beast  of  what  is  going  forward  is  ready  to  seize  the  bot 
as  it  is  forcing  itself  through  the  aperture  which  it  has  made,  and  the 
cattle  too  instinctively  crowd  to  the  water  in  order  that  the  intruder 
may  fall  into  the  stream  and  thus  be  lost  In  one  of  these  ways  the 
great  majority  of  the  larvsB  perish,  but  a  few  reach  the  groxmd, 
speedily  burrow  into   it,   pass  through  their  chrysalis  state,  and 


reappear  in  August  in  their  last  and  perfect  form.  They  also  imm^ 
diately  set  to  work  to  secure  the  perpetuation  of  their  species, 
regardless  of  the  annoyance  to  the  animals  within  whose  frame  they 
find  a  refuge. 


1,  The  female  of  the  (Estrut  Equi  nearly  double  its  natural  tizc;  2,  the 
eggs,  also  magoifted,  deposited  on  and  adhering  to  the  hair ;  S,  Uie  bota,  one. 
half  of  their  natnral  sice,  adhering  by  their  tentacnla,  or  hooked  mouthi,  to 
the  cnticular  portion  of  the  itomaeh.  Some  of  them  are  sapposed  to  be  reeently 
detached,  and  the  exeavatiottB  whieh  they  had  made  in  the  cntieuUr  coat  m 
seen  ;  4,  the  fuU.i«rrown  bot  detached ;  5,  the  (Eatrtti  Oris,  or  Gad-Fly  of  tlie 
Sheep. 

The  farmer  does  not  pay  the  attention  which  he  ou^t  to  theee 
warbles.  It  is  true  that  the  cattie  when  the  tumour  has  once  formed 
do  not  appear  to  suffer  any  inconvenience  from  its  existence,  and  the 
farmer  is  accustomed  to  associate  with  the  appearance  of  a  few 
warbles  the  certainty  of  the  thriving  condition  of  the  beasts ;  hut  be 
forgets  the  pain  and  terror  which  the  animal  has  already  suffered  and 
that  which  it  has  yet  to  undei^o,  and  he  also  forgets  the  deterioratioQ 
of  the  hide.  The  hole  made  by  the  bot  in  its  escape  will  apparently 
close,  but  not  until  after  a  considerable  period  has  elapsed,  and  neTer 
with  a  substance  so  firm  and  durable  as  the  firsts  It  is  easy  to  destroy 
the  creature  in  its  celL  The  pressure  of  the  finger  and  thumb  will 
effect  it,  and  while  the  beast  will  escape  considerable  annoyance  the 
hide  will  not  be  damaged. 

The  goat  and  the  different  species  of  deer,  and  in  fact  almost  all 
animals,  have  their  peculiar  tormentors,  but  the  distinctions  and  habits 
of  these  varieties  of  the  (Ettrua  are  not  well  known. 
BOTTLE-GOURD.     [Laqknaria.] 
BOTTLE-HEAD.    [Delphisds.] 
BOTTLE-TIT.     [PARua] 

BOULANGERITE,  a  native  Sulphuret  of  Lead  and  Antimony.  It 
occurs  massive.  The  colour  is  bluish-gray.  The  fracture  exhibits  a 
crystalline  structure.  The  lustre  is  metallic.  Specific  gravity  5*97. 
It  is  foimd  at  Moli^res  in  France  and  at  Nertschinsk.  The  analysis 
of  the  ore  from  Moli^res  by  Boulanger  gives  the  following  :— 
Lead      ........    63.9 

Antimony .    25*5 

Sulphur 18-5 

Iron .1*2 

Copper  .        .        .        ,        .        .        .        .0*9 

100.0 
BOULDER-FORMATION,  in  Geology,  a   tiUe  which  has  been 
introduced  to  supplant  that  of  Diluvial  Deposits.     Till  is  an  equivalent 
term  employed  in  Scotland.     By  various  writers  these  aocumulatioDS 
are  ranked  m  the  ill-defined  class  of  Pleistocene  Deposits.    [Supp-] 

BOULDERa  Of  the  materials  of  which  superficial  deposits  of  the 
debris  of  ancient  rocks  are  composed  some  are  of  lai*ge  size,  and  have 
been  called  Boulders  or  Erratic  Blocks.  The  portions  of  smaller  siie 
are  called  Gravel  Boulders  are  generally  found  not  hi  from  the 
rocks  from  which  they  have  been  broken,  whilst  gravel  is  carried  to  a 
great  distance.  Instances  however  are  not  wanting  in  which  boulders 
have  been  transported  an  immense  distance.  They  have  been  traos- 
ported  from  Norway  and  Sweden  to  the  plains  of  Germany,  and  from 
the  mountains  of  Scotland  and  Cumberland  to  the  centre  and  south 
of  England.  So  large  are  some  of  these  boulders,  and  the  obstacles 
such  as  intervening  hills,  valleys,  and  seas  so  greats  that  the  mode  of 
their  transportation  can  be  accoimted  for  in  no  other  way  than  by 
supposing  that  they  have  been  floated  across  them  in  masses  of  ice, 
which  as  they  have  melted  have  dropped  them  in  the  places  where 
they  are  now  found  when  those  places  were  at  the  bottom  of  a  sea. 
The  lai^gest  boulders  seem  to  have  drifted  in  all  cases  from  northern 
and  southern  points  towards  the  warmer  districts  in  the  temperate 
and  tropical  parts  of  the  earth. 

BOUNCE,  a  name  given  to  the  large  spotted  Dog-ilsh  {Sq/0^ 
GcUulMa,  Cuvier).    [Squalidjb.] 


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BOURNONITE. 


BOVID.E. 


614 


BOURNONITE,  a  compound  of  the  sulphurotB  of  lead,  antimony, 
and  copper.  It  occuni  masaive  and  crystalliaed.  The  primary  form 
ifl  a  right  rhombic  prism.  The  cleavage  is  parallel  to  the  primary 
planes  and  to  both  the  diagonals  of  the  prism.  Colour,  steel  or 
blackish-gray;  streak  siniilar.  The  fracture  uneven,  oonchoidaL 
Hardness  2*5  to  8*0.  Lustre  mctallio.  Opaque.  Specific  gravity 
6-79  to  6-88.  It  is  found  in  Cornwall,  ClausthaO,  Pfaflfenberg,  Mexico, 
and  Peru.  The  following  analysis  of  the  mineral  from  Cornwall  is  bv 
Hatchott:— 

Sulphur       .  17-00 

Lead .    4262 

Antimony .    24*23 

Copper ;    12-80 

Iron 1-20 

97-85 
BOVID-fi,  a  fiunily  of  the  Ungulate  or  Hoofed  division  of  the 
Mammalia,  is  thus  characterised  by  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  in  the  *  Catalogue 
of  the  Mammalia  in  the  British  Museum' : — 

Two  middle  toes  separate ;  cutting  teeth  eight  below ;  upper  jaw 
callous ;  grinders  six  in  each  jaw.  fVontal  bones  produced,  generally 
bearing  horns,  especially  in  the  jiales.  Gullet  with  two  long  pouches 
just  before  the  stomach,  used  for  holding  and  soaking  the  food  before 
it  is  chewed.  Using  their  head  and  horns  in  defence. 
The  Bavida  include  the  following  tribes : — 

Bovma,  Cervina,  Giraffina,  Moachvna,  Oamdina. 

The  tribe  Bovina  is  again  divided  into  the  sub-tribes : — 

Bovea,  Strepncereat,  AfUUopea,  Caprea,  Ovece. 

In  this  article  the  species  of  the  sub-tribe  Bovea  which  includes 
our  common  Oxen  will  be  described.  The  Antilopeai  and  Strep^ieerea 
are  described  under  Antilofks,  and  the  other  sub-tribes  under  OvE^ 
and  Caprka. 

The  Sovtts  are  characterised  by  having  the  horns  smoothish,  spread 
out  on  the  sides,  cylindrical  or  depresaed  at  the  base,  situated  on  the 
frontal  ridge,  and  bent  laterally  outward  and  recurved  at  the  tips. 
The  nose  is  broad,  with  the  nostrils  on  the  side.  The  skull  has  no 
suborbital  pit  or  fissure;  the  cutting  teeth  are  nearly  equal-sized, 
and  slightly  shelving  outwards.  The  knee  (or  wrist)  is  below  the 
middle  of  the  fore  leg,  the  cannon  bone  being  shorter  than  the  fore- 
arm bone. 

Dr.  Gray  observes  that  the  genera  of  Bovtce  may  be  divided  into 
grroups  by  the  condition  of  the  muffle.  Thus  Bot,  BU>ot,  BUon, 
BttbaltUj  and  Anoa  have  a  naked  moist  muffle,  whilst  PoephaguSf 
Ovibot,  and  Budorcat  have  a  hairy  ovine  muzzle.  The  first  series  are 
charaoterised  in  their  habits  by  living  on  the  plains  of  warm  or 
temperate  regions,  whilst  the  last  are  inhabitants  of  mountainous 
and  snowy  regions. 

The  genera  Bot,  Bubaius,  Bihos,  and  Anoa  are  the  true  Oxen,  and 
are  distinguished  from  Biton  (tiie  Bisons)  by  having  tiieir  bodies 
covered  with  rather  sti£f  hair;  the  shoulder  proportioDate  to  the 
haunches,  and  the  cannon  bone  of  the  hind  and  fore  legs  of  equal 


Horns  cylindrical,  conical,  nearly  circular  at  the  base,  curved 
upwards  and  outwards,  far  apart  at  the  base,  on  the  sides  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  ridge  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  occipital  plane.  The 
fMoal  and  frontal  portion  of  the  skull  equaL  Dorsal  ridge  distinct, 
sometimes  produced  into  a  dorsal  hump. 

Boi  Taurtu,  the  BulL  The  forehead  is  flat;  the  withers  not 
hmnped. 

This  species  is  the  common  Ox,  which  is  so  widely  diflfused  over  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  of  whose  utility  to  man  we  have  very  early 
records.  Dr.  Gray  gives  upwards  of  forty  synonyms  for  this  species. 
It  is  the  Boi  Tawut  of  Pliny ;  Taurui  cattratua  of  Johnston ;  Vacca 
of  Geaner ;  Bot  domesticut  and  Bat  Taunt§  of  LinnsBus ;  the  Bull,  Ox, 
and  Common  Ox  of  Pennant  and  Shaw ;  the  Stier  and  Ochs  of  German 
writers ;  and  Bcsuf  of  the  French ;  it  is  the  White  Scotch  Bull,  the 
Bisontet  jvboH  of  Boethius ;  the  White  Urus  of  Colonel  H.  Smith ; 
the  Chillingham  Bull  of  Gray ;  the  Wild  or  White-Forest  Cow  and 
Bull  of  Low ;  the  Wild  Cattle  of  Bewick.  Varieties  of  this  species 
are  known  to  the  grazier  by  a  large  number  of  names  :  some  of  these 
are  generally  recognised,  and  have  characteristic  types,  as  the  Pem- 
broke Bull,  the  West  Highland  Bull,  the  Zetland  Cow,  the  Kerry 
Cow,  the  Aldemey  Cow,  the  Fifeshire  Cow,  Long-Homed  or  Lancashire 
Bull,  the  English  Short-Horn  Cattle,  the  Short-Horn  Ox,  the  Polled 
Suffolk  Cow,  the  Sussex  Ox,  the  Yorkshire  Cow.  Amongst  those 
recognised  of  foreign  rearing  we  may  mention  the  Holstein  or  Dutch 
Bull,  the  Polish  Bull,  the  Hungarian  Bull,  the  South  African  Long- 
Homed  Cattle,  Swiss  Cattle,  Alpine  Cattle,  the  Syrian  Ox,  Moldavian 
Cattle,  the  Italian  Campsgna  Bull,  Spanish  Bulls,  Egyptian  Cattle,  the 
Laut  of  Ainca->J9o«  hwrnilU  of  Frisch,  the  Galla  Ox — Bos  Tawnu 
Abymmieut  of  Gmelin,  the  Cattle  of  Peauby,  the  Cattle  of  Brazil,  the 
Cattle  of  Chili,  the  Nata  or  Niata  of  Buenos  Ayree,  and  the  Falkland 
Islands  Wild  Cattle. 

As  this  speeisi  mi^  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  tribe,  we  shall 
hflte  present  a  sketch  of  its  organisatioa. 


We  shall  first  speak  of  the  skeleton.  The  front  or  forehead 
is  wide  and  flattened ;  the  lacrymal  bone  is  enlai^ed  below,  and 
leaves  no  open  space  between  it  and  the  nasal  bone.  The  upper 
occipital  and  parietal  bones  unite  at  so  early  a  period  into  a 
single  bone,  that  the  calf  almost  at.  its  birUi  has  them  already  in 
the  confluent  state;  but  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  foetus  the 
two  parietal  and  the  two  interparietal  bones  are  distinguishable. 
The  occipital  suture  remains  strong  below  the  occipital  crest,  and 
so  differs  from  the  other  ruminants ;  and  the  frontal  suture  reaches 
up  to  this  crest,  thus  forming  the  principal  character  of  the  phy- 
siognomy of  the  Ox.  The  hole  analogous  to  the  sphaeno-palatine 
aperture  is  enormous,  and  is  hidden  in  the  simken  space  behind  the 
orbital  or  supermolar  prominence  of  the  maxillary  bone;  at  its 
superior  border  a  small  portion  onlv  of  the  vomer  is  perceptible. 
The  tympanic  cavities  terminate  in  long  sharp  points,  and  between 
them  the  basilary  bone  presents  two  strong  prominences.  The 
temporal  ala  of  the  anterior  sphenoid  bone,  which  in  the  antelopes 
and  stags  has  the  crest  but  slightly  projecting,  has  in  the  Oxen  a 
strong  and  sharp  projection. 


Teeth  of  Ox. 

The  rest  of  the  skeleton  is  much  like  that  of  the  other  fluminaniit, 
and  the  following  cuts  will  give  a  better  idea  than  words  of  the 
construction  of  the  extremities. 

The  anterior  angle  of  the  spine  of  the  scapula  is  prolonged  as  in 
the  camels  into  an  acromial  apophysis,  and  the  spinid  Wder  U 
rounded;  moreover  in  the  Ox  the  base  of  the  spine  towards  the 
neck  of  the  bone  is  blended  with  the  anterior  border.  In  the  pelvis 
of  the  Ruminants  generally  the  spinal  angle  of  the  ossa  ilii  is  wider 
and  placed  more  backwards  than  the  external  angle,  the  truncation 
of  which  is  oblique  and  nearly  continuous  to  the  anterior  border 
of  the  bone.  The  pelvis  of  the  Ox  may  thus  be  easily  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  horse,  which  has  its  spinal  angle  pointed  and  as 
forward  as  the  external  angle,  which  last  is  more  truncated,  so  as  to 
be  nearly  square.  The  ischium  of  the  Ox  moreover  is  much  more 
elevated  above  the  cotyloid  cavity,  the  ischial  tuberosity  is  truncated 
BO  as  to  present  three  angles,  and  the  posterior  edge  of  the  pelvis  forms 
a  well-marked  re-entering  angle,  whilsl  in  the  horse  the  same  part 
is  nearly  reoUlinear. 


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BOVIDiE. 


BOVIDiE. 


ei8 


The  following  table  of  the  number  of  YertebrsD  in  the  Bovea  is 
giren  in  Mr.  YBaefB  'Delineations  of  the  Ox-Tribe/  and  he  adds 
that  the  statements,  except  that  with  regard  to  the  Tak,  are  from 
his  own  observations: — 


I  Amerioan  Bison 

I  European  Bison   . 

I  Yak  .... 

Otydl  (Domestio) 

Qayil  (Asseel)  . 

OyaU 

Jungli  Gaa 

Italian  Buffalo 

Indian  Buflklo 

Buffalo  (in  Coll.  Surg.  Mus.) 

Qaur        .... 
,  Domestie  Ox        .        .        . 
!  Condore  Buffklo 
I  Manilla  Baffklo    . 

Pegasse    .... 

Amee 

Cape  Baflblo 

Zamouse      .... 

Banting   .... 

Zebu 

Galla  Ox  . 

Baekelej      .... 

Musk  Ox. 


47  I 
50  I 

62  I 


49 
50  j 
48  ' 
48 


The  organs  of  digestion  of  the  Ox  are  formed  on  the  same  type 
as  those  of  the  other  Ruminantia.  The  food  on  passing  down  the 
OBSophagus  enters  the  large  cavity  called  the  ingluvies,  or  patmch, 
where  it  remains  till  it  is  moistened  with  fluid  secreted  f]*om  the  walls 
of  this  bag.    Liquids  swallowed  by  the  animal  appear  to  be  directed 


lower  jaw  and  the  unarmed  front  of  the  upper  one,  and  the  muscles 
immediately  aiding  with  the  upward  jerk  to  separate  the  bite  from 
the  roots  on  which  it  was  growing.  In  a  state  of  domesticated  nature, 
that  is,  where  the  animal  roams  at  large  and  is  not  stall-fed  or  con- 
fined to  what  are  called  artificial  grasses,  or  to  artificial  food,  we  are 
told  in  '  The  Swedish  Pan '  ('  Amsen.  Acad.'  voL  iL)  that  oxen  eat  276 
plants  and  refuse  218 ;  that  heifers  waste  away  in  indosures  where 
the  Meadow-Sweet  {Spircea  Ulmaria)  grows  in  abundance  and'coveR 
the  ground  so  that  they  can  scarce  maJce  their  way  through  it :  "the 
country  people,"  says  the  author,  **  are  amaze^  and  imagine  that  the 
Meadow-Sweet  affonis  them  no  nourishment ;  whereas  the  goat  which 
is  bleating  on  the  other  side  of  the  hedge  is  not  suffered  to  go  in, 
though  he  longs  to  be  browsing  on  this  plant,  which  to  him  is  delicate 
and  nourishing  food."  The  leaves  of  the  Long-Leaved  Water-Hem- 
lock (Cicuta  viro$a)  are  fatal  to  oxen,  whilst  the  goat  feeds  heartily 
and  BiBifely  upon  it  Linnseus  found  that  this  plant  was  the  cause  of 
the  terrible  disease  that  raged  among  the  homed  cattle  at  Tomea. 
He  had  scarcely  left  the  boat  which  carried  him  over  the  river  to  the 
fatal  meadow  before  he  was  convinced.  The  cattle  it  appeared  died 
as  soon  as  they  left  off  their  winter  fodder  and  returned  to  grazing; 
the  disease  diminished  as  the  summer  came  on,  at  which  time  as  well 
as  in  the  autumn  few  died.  The  distemper  was  propagated  irrogukrlj 
and  not  by  contagion :  the  cows  were  driven  in  the  spring  to  t^e 
meadow  where  Linneus  landed  and  where  he  saw  plenty  of  the  Long- 
Leaved  Water-Hemlock,  and  there  they  died  swollen  and  in  oonvul- 
siona  In  other  places  the  plant  was  scarce.  ''  The  least  attentioo 
will  convince  us,"  says  Linnsous,  "  that  brutes  spurn  whatever  is 
hurtful  to  them,  and  distinguish  poisonous  plants  from  salutary  br 
natural  instinct ;  so  that  this  plant  is  not  eaten  by  them  in  the  summer 
and  autumn,  which  is  the  reason  that  in  those  seasons  so  few  cattle 
die,  namely,  only  such  as  either  accidentally  or  pressed  by  extreme 
hunger  eat  of  it.  But  when  they  are  let  into  the  pastures  in  spring 
partly  from,  their  greediness  after  fresh  herbs  and  partly  from  the 
emptiness  and  hunger  which  they  have  undergone  during  a  lom^ 
winter,  they  devour  every  gpreen  thing  which  comes  in  their  waj. 
It  happens  moreover  that  herbs  at  this  time  are  small  and  scaroefy 


Skeleton  of  a  Cow. 


a,  Fore-foot  of  Ox ;  J,  hind  foot  of  the 
same. 

into  a  second  cavity  called  the  reticulum,  or  honey-comb  stomach,  into 
which  also  the  food  passes  from  the  first  The  food  is  then  returned 
in  the  form  of  little  pellets  into  the  mouth,  where  it  is  again  masti- 
cated and  moistened  with  salivary  fluid.  It  once  more  passes  down 
the  oesophagus  into  a  third  cavity,  the  omasum,  called  the  *  many- 
plies,'  from  its  plicated  structure,  and  finally  passes  in  a  pulpy  state 
into  the  reed,  or  abomasum,  from  which  it  is  projected  into  the 
intestinea 

With  regard  to  their  food  Oxen  are  eminently  herbivorous,  for 
though  they  will  browse  upon  shrubs  and  trees,  grass  and  herbage  is 

t?  "**P^®'  ^^  ^^^  ***"*  watch  a  cow  grazing  wi^out  observing  how 
J>erfectly  the  whole  mechanism  works  together — ^the  tongue  sweeping 
m  a  wisp  of  herbage  into  the  vice  formed  by  the  cutting-teeth  of  the 


supply  food  in  sufficient  quantity.  They  are  besides  more  juicy,  &ra 
covered  witli  water,  and  smell  less  strong,  so  that  what  is  noxious  i^ 
not  easily  discerned  frx^m  what  is  wholesome.  I  observed  likewise 
that  the  radical  leaves  were  always  bitten,  the  others  not,  which  con- 
firms what  I  have  just  said.  I  saw  this  plant  in  an  adjoining  meadow 
mowed  along  with  grass  for  winter  fodder,  and  therefore  it  is  not 
wonderful  that  some  cattle  though  but  a  few  should  die  of  it  in  winter. 
After  I  left  Tomea  I  saw  no  more  of  this  plant  till  I  came  to  the  vast 
meadows  near  Limmingen,  where  it  appeared  along  the  ivMui ;  sn^ 
when  I  got  into  the  town  I  heard  the  same  complaints  as  at  Tomea 
of  the  annual  loss  of  cattle  with  the  same  cixxsumstanoes."  The  author 
of  the  '  Swedish  Pan'  also  observes  that  a  hungiy  stomach  will  odea 
drive  animals  to  feed  upon  plants  that  were  not  intended  for  them  by 


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vsAan.  But  whenever  ibis  has  happened  they,  if  they  escape,  become 
more  cautious  for  the  future,  and  acquire  a  certain  kind  of  experi- 
ence; and  he  instances  the  Monk's-Hood  (Aeonitum),  which  grows 
near  Fahluna,  and  is  generally  left  untouched  by  all  the  animals  that 
are  accustomed  to  these  places;  but  if  foreign  cattle  are  brought 
thither  and  meet  with  this  vegetable,  they  venture  to  take  too  liurge 
%  quantity  of  it,  and  are  killed.  He  adds  that  the  cattle  that  have 
been  reai>dd  in  the  plains  of  Schonen  and  Westragothia  commonly  fall 
bto  a  dysentery  when  they  come  into  the  woodland  parts,  because 
they  feed  upon  some  plants  which  the  cattle  used  to  those  places  have 
learaed  to  avoid.  Meadow-Saffron  {Coiehicvan  cMtumnale)  is  among 
the  plants  deleterious  to  oxen  if  tieUcen  in  any  laige  quantity,  and 
Hellebore  (HeUeborus)  is  also  said  to  be  poisonous  to  them.  Tew 
{Taxut  baceata)  is  fatal,  as  it  is  to  herbivorous  quadrupeds  generally, 
the  green  temptation  being  probably  too  strong  for  cattle  kept  on  short 
allowance.  Actions-at-law  in  this  country  have  not  been  uncommon 
against  a  defendant  for  not  keeping  up  boimds  or  hedges  whereby  the 
plaintiff's  cattle  strayed  into  places  where  yew-trees  grew,  fed  on  the 
branches,  and  so  died. 

The  period  of  gestation  of  the  cow  is  nine  months.  The  normal 
number  of  the  offspring  is  one,  though  there  are  not  uncommon 
inatanoes  of  the  cow  bringing  forth  twins,  and  rare  cases  of  her  pro- 
dacing  three  and  even  more  at  a  birth.  In  the  case  of  twins,  if  they 
be  male  and  female  apparently,  the  apparent  female  is  generally  barren, 
and  is  oalled  a  Free  Martin  (Taura  probably  of  Columella,  Varro,  and 
the  ancient  Romans). 

Mr.  Jesse  ('  Qleanings  of  Natural  History,'  1838)  states  that  if  the 
cow  has  twins,  one  of  them  a  male  and  the  other  a  female,  the  latter 
is  always  barren ;  but  this  is  an  error.  "  It  is  a  fact  known  and  I 
believe  almost  universally  understood,"  writes  John  Hunter  in  his 
'Account  of  the  Free  Martin,'  "that  when  a  cow  brings  forth  two 
calves,  and  one  of  them  a  bull-calf,  and  the  other  to  appearance  a  cow, 
^t  the  cx)w-calf  is  unfit  for  propagation,  but  the  bull-calf  grows  up 
into  a  very  proper  bulL  Such  a  cow-calf  is  called  in  this  country  a 
Free  Martin,  and  is  commonly  as  well  known  among  the  farmers  as 
either  cow  or  bulL  Although  it  will  appear  f^m  the  description  of 
this  animal  that  it  is  a  hermaphrodite  (being  in  no  respect  different 
from  other  hermaphrodites),  yet  I  shall  retain  the  term  free  martin  to 
distinguish  the  hermaphrodite  produced  in  this  way  from  those  which 
resemble  the  hermaphrodite  of  other  animals ;  for  I  know  that  in  black 
cattle  such  a  deviation  may  be  produced  without  the  circumstance  of 
twins,  and  even  where  there  are  twins,  the  one  a  male  the  other  a 
female,  they  may  both  have  the  organs  of  generation  perfectly 
formed." 

Professor  Owen  in  his  valuable  edition  of  Hunter^s  *  Observations' 
(1837)  adds  a  note  from  Loudon's  '  Magazine  of  Natural  History ;' 
which  states  that  Joseph  Holroyd,  Esq.,  of  Withers,  near  Leeds,  had 
a  cow  which  calved  twins,  a  bull-calf  and  a  cow-calf  As  popular 
opinion  was  against  the  cow-calf  breeding,  it  being  considered  a  Free 
Martin,  Mr.  Holroyd  was  determined  to  make  an  experiment  of  them, 
and  reared  them  together.  In  due  time  the  heifer  brought  forth  a 
bull-calf,  and  she  regularly  had  calves  for  six  or  seven  years  after- 
waida  Nor  are  there  wanting  other  cases  of  fertility  under  similar 
drcumstances. 

When  a  cow  has  twins  and  they  are  both  bull-calves  the  calves  are 
in  every  respect  perfect  bulls,  and  if  cow-calves  they  are  both  perfect 
cows. 

In  the  'Nouveau  Bulletin  des  Sciences'  is  given  an  account  of  a 
cow  which  produced  nine  calves  at  three  successive  births :  first,  four 
cow-calves,  in  1817 ;  second,  three,  two  of  them  females,  in  1818 ; 
third,  two  females,  in  1819.  With  the  exception  of  two  belonging  to 
the  first  birth  all  were  nursed  by  the  mother. 

The  origin  of  our  present  breeds  of  domestic  cattle  has  been  a  sub- 
ject of  much  difference  of  opinion,  arising  from  the  existence  of  certain 
cattle  in  an  apparently  wild  condition,  and  which  have  been  supposed 
to  be  desoend[ants  of  the  gigantic  Uma  described  by  Csasar  as  existing 
in  England  during  the  Roman  invasion.  The  existence  also  of  the 
remains  of  the  BIbou  {Bison  priicui)  [Bison]  in  the  Tertiary  Beds  of 
Great  Britain  have  also  served  to  confuse  this  question.  As  this  ques- 
tion is  not  yet  perhaps  generally  regarded  as  settled,  we  shall  give  the 
opinions  of  some  of  those  who  have  written  on  the  subject. 

Colonel  Hamilton  Smith,  who  appears  to  have  taken  considerable 
pains  in  investigating  the  history  of  the  RunUnaiUia  generally,  and  of 
the  Bovine  family  particularly,  places  the  fossil  species  {Boi  primi- 
genittSj  Bojanus  and  Owen)  under  £ot  (Taunu)  Urua,  considering  the 
wild  cattle  of  Chillingham  and  other  parks  as  the  white  variety. 

Mr.  Swainson,  in  his  *  Classification  of  Quadrupeds,'  observes  that 
all  writers  agree  that  the  lax^ge  skulls  of  oxen  found  in  the  more  recent 
formations  belonged  to  a  formidable  race  of  these  animals  which 
existed  in  Britain  in  a  wild  state ;  that  they  belonged  without  doubt 
to  the  species  named  Urut  by  Caesar  and  other  ancient  writers ;  and 
that  these  skulls  not  only  possess  a  specific  distinction,  but  exhibit  the 
type  of  a  form  essentially  different  from  that  of  the  Domestic  Ox. 
"  All  these  skulls,"  he  continues, ''  are  nearly  one-third  larger  than 
those  of  the  Boa  Tawrua  ;.  they  are  square  from  the  orbits  to  the  occi- 
pital crest,  and  somewhat  hollow  at  the  forohead.  The  horns,  placed 
at  the  side  of  the  above  crest,  show  a  peculiar  rise  from,  their  roots 
upwards;  then  bending  outwards,  and  then  forwards  and  inwards. 


No  domestic  races  show  this  turn ;  but  numerous  specimens  of  infe- 
rior sizes,  found  fossil  in  the  Cornish  mines,  have  this  shape,  and  the 
wild  bull  of  Scotland,  the  only  example  of  this  type  now  known  to 
exist,  retains  it  The  domestic  oxen,  on  the  contrary,  of  whatsoever 
country  or  breed  they  may  be,  have  the  square  concave  forehead,  with 
the  horns  rising  from  the  ends  of  the  frontal  ridge.  ...  It  appears 
then  that  the  ancient  27ru«,  or  Wild  Bull,  was  a  pffl*fectly  wild,  savage, 
and  untameable  animal.  Not  only  does  every  account  handed  down 
from  remote  antiquity  assiire  us  of  this,  but  it  is  even  verified  bv  the 
only  living  example  of  this  form  we  possess,  the  Boa  ScoticWf  still  pre- 
served in  one  or  two  of  the  northern  parks.  Although  domesticated 
so  far  as  to  live  within  such  precincts  without  absolute  unprovoked 
violence  to  its  keepers,  it  retains  essentially  all  the  savage  characters 
ascribed  to  the  more  powerful  species  mentioned  by  the  ancients. 
Like  that  also  it  possesses  when  at  a  mature  age  a  kind  of  mane  about 
two  inches  long,  and  its  throat  and  breast  are  covered  with  coarse  hair. 
These  characters,  which  are  never  found  in  the  domesticated  breeds 
of  oxen,  were  no  doubt  much  more  highly  developed  in  the  ancient 
Urua,  The  second  type  is  the  domestic  ox ;  the  external  characters 
of  which,  to  use  the  words  of  Colonel  Smith,  are  *  absolutely  the  same 
as  the  fossil  Urua,  and  the  wild  breeds  differ  only  in  the  flexure  of 
the  hom&'  But  though  these  two  types  come  so  near  each  other  in 
external  appearance,  nothing  can  be  more  different  than  their  moral 
character ;  the  Urua,  wild,  savage,  and  untameable,  remains  with  all 
these  propensities  unimpaired  and  undiminished  from  the  period  of 
its  first  creation  down  to  the  present  day.  The  other,  tame,  harmless, 
and  enduring,  has  voluntarily  submitted  to  the  service  of  man  from 
the  most  remote  antiquity,  and  seems  to  have  been  a  companion  of 
the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  earth." 

The  allusion  here  to  the  Boa  Scoticua,  the  name  for  the  Chillingham 
and  other  wild  cattle  of  this  country,  is  hardly  correct.  Mr.  Vasey,  a 
recent  observer,  says,  in  his  *  Ox-Tribe,'  that  they  do  not  exhibit  more 
wildneas  than  most  domesticated  animals  when  allowed  to  roam  without 
restraint;  and  that  their  young,  when  properly  reared,  are  as  docile 
as  those  of  the  ordinary  domestic  cattle.  Nor  do  they  possess  a  mane, 
as  has  been  frequently  asserted.  The  wild  cattle  breed  with  the 
domestic  cattle.  The  cow  goes  the  same  period  with  young.  They 
have  the  same  number  of  ribs,  and  even  their  white  colour  at  Chil- 
lingham is  the  result  of  the  destruction  by  order  of  the  owner  of  all 
Sotted  calves  that  are  produced.  The  following  account  is  given  ly 
r.  Culley,  in  Bewick,  and,  as  an  early  description  of  these  animals,  is 
interesting ;  but  it  is  evidently  highly  coloured,  and  has  misled  those 
who  have  relied  upon  it : — 

"  Their  colour  is  invariably  of  a  creamy  white,  muzzle  black ;  the 
whole  of  the  inside  of  the  ear,  and  about  one-third  of  the  outside, 
from  the  tips  downwards,  red ;  horns  white  with  black  tips,  very  fine 
and  bent  upwards ;  some  of  the  bulls  have  a  thin  upright  mane,  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  long.  At  the  first  appearance  of  any 
person  they  set  off  in  full  gallop,  and  at  the  distance  of  two  or  three 
hundred  yards  make  a  wheel  round,  and  come  boldly  up  again,  tossing 
their  heads  in  a  menacing  manner :  on  a  sudden  they  make  a  full  stop, 
at  the  distance  of  forty  or  fifty  yards,  looking  wildly  at  the  object  of 
their  surprise ;  but  upon  the  leeust  motion  being  made,  they  all  again 
turn  round  and  fly  off  with  equal  speed,  but  not  to  the  same  distance; 
forming  a  shorter  circle  and  again  returning  with  a  bolder  and  more 
threatening  aspect  than  before,  they  approach  much  nearer,  probably 
within  thirty  yards,  when  they  make  another  stand,  and  again  fly  off; 
this  they  do  several  times,  shortening  their  distance  and  advancing 
nearer  till  they  come  within  ten  yards,  when  most  people  think  it 
prudent  to  leave  them,  not  choosing  to  provoke  them  frirther ;  for 
there  is  little  doubt  but  in  two  or  three  turns  more  they  would  make 
an  attack.  The  mode  of  killing  them  was  perhaps  the  only  modem 
remains  of  the  grandeur  of  ancient  hunting.  On  notice  being  given 
that  a  wild  bull  would  be  killed  on  a  certain  day,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  neighbourhood  came  armed  with  guns,  &c.,  sometimes  to  the 
amount  of  a  hundred  horse,  and  four  or  five  hundred  foot,  who  stood 
upon  walls  or  got  into  trees,  while  the  horsemen  rode  off  the  bull  from 
the  rest  of  the  herd,  until  he  stood  at  bay,  when  a  marksman  dis- 
mounted and  shot  At  some  of  these  huntings  twenty  or  thirty  shots 
have  been  fired  before  he  was  subdued.  On  such  occasions  the  bleed- 
ing victim  grew  desperately  furious  from  the  smarting  of  his  wounds 
and  the  shouts  of  savage  joy  that  were  echoing  from  every  side ;  but 
from  the  number  of  accidents  that  happened  this  dangerous  mode  has 
been  little  practised  of  late  years,  the  park-keeper  alone  generally 
shooting  them  with  a  rifled  gun  at  one  shot  When  the  cows  calve 
they  hide  their  calves  for  a  week  or  ten  days  in  some  sequestered 
situation,  and  go  and  suckle  them  two  or  three  times  a  day.  If  any 
person  come  near  the  calves,  they  clap  their  heads  close  to  the  ground, 
and  lie  like  a  hare  in  form  to  hide  themselves  :  this  is  a  proof  of  their 
native  wildness,  and  is  corroborated  by  the  following  circumstance 
that  happened  to  the  writer  of  this  narrative,  who  found  a  hidden 
calf,  two  days  old,  very  lean  and  very  weak.  On  stroking  its  head  it 
got  up,  pawed  two  or  three  times  like  an  old  bull,  bellowed  very  loud, 
stepped  back  a  few  steps,  and  bolted  at  his  len  with  all  its  force ;  it 
then  began  to  paw  again,  bellowed,  stepped  back,  and  bolted  as  before ; 
but  knowing  its  intention,  and  stepping  aside,  it  missed  him,  fell,  and 
was  so  very  weak  that  it  could  not  rise,  though  it  made  several  efforts. 
But  it  had  done  enough,  the  whole  hAitl  were  alarmed,  and  coming  to 


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its  rescue  obliged  him  to  retire ;  for  the  dams  will  allow  no  person  to 
touch  their  aJyee  without  attacking  them  with  impetuous  ferocity. 
When  any  one  happens  to  be  wounded,  or  is  grown  weak  and  feeble 
through  age  or  sickness,  the  rest  of  the  herd  set  upon  it  and  gore  it 
to  death.  The  weight  of  the  oxen  is  generally  from  forty  to  fifty 
stones  the  four  quarters ;  the  cows  about  thirty.  The  beef  is  finely 
marbled  and  of  excellent  flavour.  Those  at  Burton-Constable  in  Uie 
county  of  York  were  all  destroyed  by  a  distemper  a  few  years  since. 
They  varied  slightly  from  those  at  Chillingham,  naving  black  ears  and 
muzzles,  and  the  tips  of  their  tails  of  the  same  colour :  they  were  also 
much  larger,  many  of  them  weighing  sixty  stones ;  probably  owing  to 
the  richness  of  the  pasturage  in  Holdemess,  but  generally  attributed 
to  the  difference  of  kind  between  those  with  black  and  with  red  ears, 
the  former  of  which  they  studiously  endeavour  to  preserve.  The 
breed  which  was  at  Drumlanrig  in  Scotland  had  also  black  ears." 

Mr.  Bell  ('British  Quadrupeds,'  1839— the  *  Ox'),  after  referring  to 
Qriffith's  ed.  of  Cuvier  for  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith's  interesting  and 
learned  dissertation  upon  the  mythology  and  ancient  history  of  the 
Ox,  says,  "Whether  the  ox  exist  now  or  has  existed  within  the 
range  of  sound  historical  testimony,  in  its  original  state,  or  whether, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  horse,  all  the  instances  of  the  occurrence  of  wild 
oxen  of  this  species  now  on  record  have  not  been  derived  from  the 
domestic  race,  fortuitously  escaped  firom  servitude  and  become  wild,  is 
a  question  which  it  is  difficult  if  not  impossible  satisfactorily  to  solve. 
The  ancient  accounts  of  the  Urutf  or  Wild  Ox,  declare  it  to  have  been 
an  animal  of  enormous  size  and  great  fierceness ;  and  the  horns  are 
described  as  being  large,  spreading,  and  acute.  In  this  country  and 
in  many  parts  of  the  Continent  have  occurred  numerous  fossil  bones 
of  oxen,  with  large  horns,  having  the  form  and  direction  of  those  of 
certain  breeds  ooJy  of  our  present  cattle,  particularly  of  such  as  are 
most  wild ;  as  for  instance  the  celebrated  wild  white  oxen  of  Craven, 
of  Chillingham  Park,  and  of  Scotland  (the  Bo$  Seoticu*  of  some  authors). 
I  cannot  but  consider  it  as  extremely  probable  that  these  fossil  remains 
belonged  to  the  original  wild  condition  of  our  domestio  ox,  an  opinion 
which  Cuvier  appears  to  have  entertained,  who  calls  the  skulls  *  Crftnes 
semblables  k  ceaux  d'un  bceuf  domeetique.'  They  are  found  only  in 
very  recent  deposits,  frequently  in  caverns  mingled  with  the  remains 
of  various  other  animals,  as  in  the  celebrated  cave  of  Kirkdale,  and  in 
different  parts  of  Cornwall  and  of  Devonshire.  I  have  several  teeth 
and  some  fragments  of  bones  from  Kent's  Hole,  in  the  latter  county, 
where  they  were  found  in  the  same  mass  with  the  remains  of  the 
elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  deer,  the  bear,  and  the  hyaena.  Cuvier 
however  considers  that  they  existed  after  the  destruction  of  the  latter 
■pedes.  It  has  indeed  been  attempted  to  prove  that  the  ancient 
remains  alluded  to,  together  with  the  CHiillingham  and  ScoUish  breed, 
belong  to  a  distinct  specific  ^^pe  from  the  common  domestic  ox ;  and 
some  modifications  of  structure  have  been  cited  in  proof  of  this  opinion. 
It  does  not  appear  to  me  however  that  these  modifications  are  of  suffi- 
cient value  to  constitute  specific  distinction,  as  they  appertain  only  to 
parts  which  are  veiy  variable  in  particular  breeds  of  the  domestic 
cattle ;  they  are,  some  slight  differences  in  the  form  and  direction  of 
the  horns,  and  tiie  existence  in  old  bulk  of  a  short  mdimentaiy  mane 
and  some  hair  upon  the  breast.  Now,  there  is  certainly  no  point  of 
sufficient  importance  to  form  a  specific  distinction,  even  were  the  form 
of  the  horns  less  variable  than  they  are  in  our  domestic  oxen.  We 
require  yet  a  series  of  well-authenticated  and  well-directed  experiments 
on  the  intermixture  of  the  Scottish  or  Chillingham  cattle  with  the 
domestic  breeds,  and  the  fertile  or  infertile  character  of  the  progeny ; 
which,  if  the  views  I  have  so  repeatedly  stated  be  correct,  would  at 
once  decide  the  question.  Even  Colonel  Smith  himself,  a  high  authority 
in  these  matters,  although  he  urges  the  si>ecific  distinction  of  the  two 
animals,  says,  *  The  character  of  the  domestic  oxen  is  absolutely  the 
same  as  the  fossil,  and  the  wild  breeds  differ  only  in  the  fiexure  of  the 
horns  and  external  appearance,  occasioned  by  the  variations  of  climate, 
food,  and  treatment.^  But,  it  may  be  asked,  do  variations  of  climate, 
food,  and  treatment  produce  specific  distinctions  ?  And  yet  this  dis- 
tinction is,  as  I  have  just  stated,  held  both  by  Colonel  Smith  and  Mr. 
Swainson.  Upon  the  whole  I  cannot  but  believe  that  the  fossil  bones 
belonged  to  the  original  stock  of  our  domestic  ox,  and  that  the  wild 
white  cattle  (the  £oi  Scotictu  and  Urtu  Seoticut  of  the  authors  just 
named)  approach  so  near  to  it  as  to  leave  it  a  matter  of  doubt,  not 
whether  they  all  belong  to  the  same  species,  but  whether  this  breed 
be  the  actual  remnant  of  that  original  stock,  or  the  descendants  of 
domesticated  individuals  which  have  resumed  in  a  great  degree  their 
wild  character  fr^m  having  ceased  through  many  generations  to  feel 
the  effects  of  human  domination." 

In  his  '  History  of  British  Fossil  Mammals/  speaking  of  the  Bos 
primigeniut,  Professor  Owen  says — 

"  Of  this  species  we  have  Uie  same  examples,  short  of  the  still 
preserved  living  animal,  as  of  the  bison ;  and  it  is  most  satisfactory 
to  find  such  proof  of  the  general  accuracy  of  the  brief  but  most 
interesting  indications  of  the  primitive  mammalian  fauna  of  those 
regions  of  Europe,  which  may  be  supposed  to  have  presented  to  the 
Roman  cohorts  the  same  aspect  as  America  did  to  Uie  first  colonists 
of  New  England. 

"  In  the  same  deposits  and  localities  which  have  yielded  remains 
of  the  Aurochs  (Buon  pritcut)  there  have  been  found  the  remains 
of  another  bovine  animal,  its  equal  or  superior  in  size,  but  differing 


from  the  Aurochs,  precisely  as  the  Roman  poets  and  historians  have 
indicated,  by  the  greater  length  of  its  horns. 

"The  persistent  bony  supports  or  cores  of  the  horns  likewise 
demonstrate  by  their  place  of  origin  and  curvature,  the  su>  'generio 
distinction  of  the  great  Urus  from  the  bison,  and  its  nearer  affinity  to 
the  domestic  ox ;  whence  we  may  infer  that  it  resembled  the  ox  in 
the  close  nature  of  its  hairy  covering,  which  would  make  the  ahaggy 
coat  and  the  mane  of  the  Aurochs  more  remarkable  by  compariaoD. 
It  is  much  to  be  regretted,  for  the  interests  of  zoology,  that  the  great 
Hercynian  Uri  have  been  less  favoured  than  their  contemporaiy 
Biaonte*  jubcUi  in  the  progress  of  human  civilisation,  and  that  no 
individuals  now  remain  f($  study  and  comparison  like  the  Aurocba 
of  Lithuania. 

'*  Mv  esteemed  friend  Professor  Bell,  who  has  written  the  'History 
of  Existing  British  Quadrupeds,'  is  disposed  to  believe  with  Cuvier 
and  most  other  naturalists,  that  our  domestic  cattle  are  the  degene- 
rative descendants  of  the  great  Urus.  But  it  seems  to  me  more 
probable  that  the  herds  of  the  newly  conquered  regions  would  be 
derived  from  the  already  domesticated  cattle  of  the  Roman  oolonista 
of  those  'boves  nostri,'  for  example,  by  comparison  with  wliich 
Caesar  endeavoured  to  convey  to  his  countrymen  an  idea  of  the 
stupendous  and  formidable  Uri  of  the  Hercynian  foresta.  The 
taming  of  such  a  species  would  be  much  more  difficult,.aad  hit 
certain  mode  of  supplying  the  exigencies  of  the  agriculturist,  than 
the  importation  of  the  breeds  of  oxen  already  domesticated  and  in 
use  by  the  founders  of  the  new  colonies.  And  that  the  latter  was 
the  chief  if  not  the  sole  source  of  the  ox  of  England,  when  ita 
soil  began  to  be  cultivated  under  the  Roman  sway,  is  strongly  indicated 
by  the  analogy  of  modem  colonies.  The  domestic  cattle,  for  example, 
of  the  Anglo-Americans  have  not  been  derived  from  tame  deecendanta 
of  the  original  wild  cattle  of  North  America;  there,  on  the  contrary, 
the  bison  is  fast  disappearing  before  the  advance  of  the  agricultunl 
settlers,  just  as  the  Aurochs  and  its  contemporary  the  Urus  have 
given  way  before  a  similar  progress  in  Europe. 

"  With  regard  to  the  great  Urus  I  believe  that  this  progreBS  has 
caused  its  utter  extirpation,  and  that  our  knowledge  of  it  is  now  limited 
to  deductions  from  its  fossil  or  semi-fossil  remains." 

There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  then  that  the  Fossil  Ox  {Bot 
primigeniMi)  is  entirely  extinct^  and  that  all  our  domestic  and  wild 
cattle  belong  to  Bos  Taurus, 


English  Bull  {Bot  Taunu)^  short-horned. 

B.  Indieus,  the  Zebu,  has  the  following  specific  charactera:— 
Forehead  convex ;  withers  with  a  more  or  less  large  fleshy  hump ; 
dewlap  deep,  waved ;  the  upper  part  of  the  rump  shelving  very 
much.  Amongst  scientific  writers  this  animal  has  had  many 
designations.  It  is  the  Bos  Indieus  of  Linnaeus,  the  Bos  domttticut 
of  Hodgson,  the  Bos  Tcmrus  Indieus  of  Fischer,  Bos  Zebu  of  J.  Brookea, 
Bos  Taurus  Zdm  of  Wagner.  Varieties  or  particular  breeds  have  alao 
obtained  a  number  of  distinct  appellations, — Little  Indian  Bu&lo, 
Indian  Bull,  Great  Indian  Ox,  Qun  Bullock,  Sacred  Bull,  Madras  Ox, 
Madhu  Qivi  Oxen,  Seringapatam  Oxen,  Two-Humped  Zebu,  Homleas 
Zebu,  Buchanan  Ox,  Nepaul  Ox,  and  Javanese  Cow. 

The  domesticated  Zebus  vary  much  in  their  size  and  the  direction 
of  their  horns,  but  are  generally  distinguished  by  a  fatty  elerated 
hump  below  the  neck  and  over  the  withers. 

The  horns  of  some  are  short  and  suberect  (Indian  Ox),  in  others 
comparatively  long  and  pointed  backwards,  with  an  inclination  to 
curve  inwards,  as  in  the  more  common  breeds  (Zebu).  The  ears  of 
some  are  of  ordinary  sise  and  position  (2iebu) ;  in  others  pendulous 
(Indian  Ox).  The  dewlap  is  more  or  less  developed,  in  some  very 
lai^^ly.  Their  colour  varies  from  a  light  ashy-gray  to  a  milk-white, 
and  their  size  from  the  stature  of  an  ordinary  bull  to  that  of  a  large 
mastiff.  Many  of  these  varieties  mi^  be  seen  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Zoological  Society  in  the  Regent's  Park.  The  limbs  of  all  are  deer 
like  and  elegant.  They  "are  spread,"  says  Mr.  Bennett,  "over  the 
whole  of  southern  Asia,  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
and  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  from  Abyssinia  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope." 

In  many  parts  of  India  the  Zebu  is  placed  under  the  saddle  or 
harnessed  to  a  carriage,  and  travels  at  an  easy  rate.-  It  must  have 
lost  much  of  its  fleetness,  if  the  more  ancient  writen  are  to  be 
credited ;  for  they  speak  of  50  or  60  miles  a  day  as  its  usual  pace. 


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whilflb  the  modermi  only  allow  it  20  or  30  miles.  The  beef  u  not 
bad,  but  is  neither  so  sweet  nor  so  good  as  that  of  the  common 
Ox,  the  hump  idways  excepted,  which  when  well  cooked  is  yery 
delicate. 

The  Zebus  bear  a  charmed  life  among  the  Hindoos,  who  venerate 
them  and  hold  their  slaughter  to  be  a  sin ;  though  they  do  not  object 
to  work  them.  There  are  however  some  particularly  sanctified  Zebus, 
who  lead  an  easy  life,  wandering  about  the  villages  at  their  ease,  and 
taking  their  pleasure  and  their  food  where  they  list,  if  not  prevented 
by  the  contributions  of  the  devout. 


inhabits  the  mai^ins  rather  than  the  interior  of  primaeval  forests. 
They  never  ascend  the  mountains,  and  adhere  like  the  rhinoceros  ti 
the  most  swampy  sites  of  the  district  they  inhabit  There  is  n) 
animal  upon  which  ages  of   domesticity  have  made  so  small  an 


Indian  Ox,  or  Zebu  {Bos  Indicus)  large  variety. 

They  may  be  seen  every  day  wandering  at  large  in  the  streets  of 
Calcutta  eatmg  rice,  grain,  and  flour  in  the  bazaar  ;  and  the  utmost  a 
native  does  when  he  sees  them  honouring  his  goods  too  much,  is 
to  urge  them  by  the  gentlest  hints  to  taste  some  of  the  good  things 
on  his  neighbour's  stalL  The  superstitious  regard  for  these  animtus 
accounts  for  the  use  of  cow-dung  in  the  representation  of  objects  on 
the  walls.  This  substance  is  also  collected  and  dried  and  used  for 
cooking  food,  apparently  with  a  religious  object  in  view,  as  it  is  used 
in  Calcutta  where  wood  is  in  abundance. 

Mr.  Bennett  in  his  work  on  the  '  (hardens  and  Menagerie  of  the 
Zoological  Society,'  has  expressed  an  opinion  that  the  Zebu  is  but  a 
variety  of  the  common  Ox,  but  Mr.  vasey  observes  that  the  number 
of  the  vertebrsB  and  the  period  of  gestation  both  differ  from  that  of 
the  Ox. 

B.  Jkmle,  the  Dante.  Face  rather  narrow;  forehead  very  flat, 
with  the  horns  on  the  side  of  the  high  occipital  ridge;  withers 
with  a  small  but  distinct  hump.  This  animal  is  not  so  well  known 
as  the  preceding.  It  is  the  Boa  deg<ms  et  parviu  Africanua  of  Belon ; 
Jwfenca  aylvtttrit  of  Alpinus,  Bos  Bubalua  Africanus  of  Brisson  ;  Salam 
Buffiilo,  Dwarf  Bull,  Egyptian  Zebu,  of  various  writers.  Long  in 
his  'Egypt'  says  that  this  animal  agrees  better  with  the  humped 
cattle  on  the  ancient  Egyptian  tombs  than  with  the  Zebus.  Mr. 
Whitfield  brought  a  pair  of  these  animals  to  England.  The  bull  is 
still  living  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society.  He  is  white, 
with  a  few  brown  specks  on  the  head.  The  female  is  yellow-brown, 
with  a  very  narrow  nead. 

Bubaltu.  Horns  depressed  or  subtrigonal  at  the  bdse,  inclining 
upwards  and  backwards,  conical,  and  bending  upwards  at  the  tip  on 
a  plane  rather  in  front  of  the  occipital  ridge ;  forehead  rather  trans- 
verse, convex,  shelving  before  and  behind;  the  intermaxillaries 
elongate,  extending  back,  and  between  the  nasal  and  cheek-bones; 
teats  in  a  cross  series,  the  outer  one  rather  before  the  others. 

B.  brachpcerus^  the  Zamouse,  or  Bush  Cow.  Forehead  flat ;  horns 
abort,  thick,  depressed  at  the  base ;  ears  very  large,  strongly  fringed 
on  the  edge,  and  with  two  diverging  strongly-fringed  lines  within ;  fur 
short,  close,  brown.  This  is  the  Bo$  B^alut  of  Children,  and  Boa 
Caffer  of  Ruppell.  This  animal,  according  to  Dr.  Gray,  who  has 
described  one  in  the  Surrey  Zoological  Gardens,  differs  from  the 
buffiulo  and  all  other  oxen  in  several  important  characters,  especially 
in  the  large  size  and  particular  bearding  of  the  ears,  and  in  being 
totally  deficient  of  any  dewlap.  It  also  differs  from  the  buffalo  in 
its  forehead  being  flatter,  and  quite  destitute  of  the  convex  form, 
which  is  BO  striking  in  all  the  varieties  of  that  animal. 

B.  Buffalua,  the  Buffalo.  Forehead  convex,  rounded ;  horns  large, 
flattened  at  the  base,  black  on  the  plane  of  the  face,  bent  down  and 
recurved  at  the  tip ;  ears  quite  half  the  length  of  tiie  head,  slightly 
ciliated ;  fur  rough,  irregmar,  bristly,  often  very  far  apart,  on  the 
face  before  the  eyes  two-rowed.  This  animal  is  the  Boa  Buhalua  of 
Brisson ;  the  Boa  Bubalia  of  Linnaeus ;  Buffle,  French ;  and  Biiffel, 
German.  A  variety  was  called  by  Shaw  Boa  AmeCf  which  is  the 
BubtUvs  A  ma  of  Hodgsoa 

Mr.  B.  H.  Hodgson,  who  has  by  his  labours  thrown  so  much  light 
upon  Indian  zoology,  says  of  the  Indian  Bufialoes  :  '*  The  Bhainsa,  or 
Tame  BuflEalo,  is  universal  in  India.     The  Ama,  or  Wild  Bufialo, 


skull  and  Ilorns  of  Uie  Arnee. 

impression  as  upon  the  Bufialo,  the  tame  being  still  most  clearly 
referrible  to  the  wild  ones  at  present  frequenting  all  the  great  swampy 
jungles  of  India.  In  the  wilderness  as  in  the  cow-house  there  is  a 
marked  distinction  between  the  long  {macrocerua)  and  curved-homed 
(apirocerrta)  buffaloes. 

**  The  Ama  ruts  in  autumn,  gestating  ten  months,  and  produces 
one  or  two  young  in  summer.  It  lives  in  large  herds,  but  in  the 
season  of  love  the  most  lusty  males  lead  off  and  appropriate  several 
females,  with  which  they  form  small  herds  for  the  time.  The  Wild 
BufiiUo  is  fully  one-third  larger  than  the  largest  tame  breeds,  measuring 
104  feet  from  snout  to  vent,  and  6  or  6^  feet  high  at  the  shoulders, 
and  is  of  such  power  and  vigour  as  by  his  chai^  frequently  to 
prostrate  a  well-sized  elephant.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  uniform 
shortness  of  the  tail,  which  does  not  extend  lower  than  the  hock,  for 
the  tufts  which  cover  the  forehead  and  knees,  and  lastly  for  the  great 
size  of  its  horns.  They  are  uniformly  in  high  condition,  so  unlike  the 
leanness  and  angularity  of  the  Domestic  Buffalo,  even  at  its  best." 

The  Buffalo  has  been  introduced  into  Italy,  where  it  is  made  very 
useful  as  a  beast  of  burden,  its  great  strength  giving  it  an  advantage 
over  horses  and  ordinary  oxen,  in  the  marshy  and  swampy  districts 
where  the  roads  are  frequently  two  or  three  feet  deep  with  mud.  A 
singular  fact  with  regard  to  them  is,  that  they  thrive  best  in  those 
districts  which  are  most  infected  with  malaria.  The  Manilla  Buffalo 
is  also  a  variety  of  this  species. 

B.  CafftT,  the  Cape  Buffalo.  Horns  black,  extremely  large,  and 
flattened  at  their  base,  where  they  cover  the  front,  having  a  direction 
from  within  outwards  and  downwards,  and  then  again  elevated  at 
their  point ;  ears  rather  pendant,  and  covered  by  the  horns ;  dewlap, 
large  and  pendant;  skin  with  harsh  hairs  an  inch  long  of  a  deep 
brown  or  black  colomr.    Size  great,  and  proportions  massive. 


Skull  of  Cape  BuiKUo  {Bubattu  O^f^). 

This  is  the  Boa  Caffer  of  Spamnann  and  other  naturalists.  Also 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Cape  Ox.     it  is  a  native  of  South  Africa. 

The  Cape  Bufialo  congregates  in  large  herds.  Thunberg  and  his 
compamons  came  suddenly  upon  a  mass  of  500  or  600,  which  were 


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gracing  in  a  plain  skirted  by  a  wood.  The  beasts  did  not  see  the 
intruders  till  they  came  within  three  hundred  paces,  when  the  whole 
herd  lifted  their  heads  and  stood  at  a  gaze.  After  a  while  the  buffaloes 
stooped  their  heads  again  to  feed,  and  six  of  the  party  (three  Euro- 
peans and  three  Hottentots),  who  carried  muskets  and  were  accom- 
panied by  others  armed  with  javelins,  marched  up  to  them  within  forty 
paces,  when  the  herd  again  lifted  their  heads  and  were  saluted  with 
a  volley,  which  instantaneously  dispersed  them,  leaving  their  wounded 
to  follow  as  they  could.  One  of  these,  an  old  bull,  made  the  travellers 
fly,  but  fell  before  he  reached  the  wood.  This  beast  was  very  thick 
in  the  body,  with  short  legs,  of  a  dai-k-gray  colour,  and  almost 
destitute  of  hairs.  But  if  a  herd  may  be  approached  thus  safely,  a 
■ingle  outlying  bull  or  a  wounded  one  appears  to  be  a  most  formidable 
antagonist.  The  author  last  quoted  was  botanising  in  a  wood  rather 
behind  his  companions,  when  Auge,  the  gardener  of  the  expedition 
who  went  first,  suddenly  encountered  a  lai^e  old  male  bufi&do,  which 
was  lying  down  quite  alone  in  a  spot  of  a  few  square  yards  free  from 
bushes.  No  sooner  did  the  beast  discover  the  poor  gardener  than  he 
rushed  upon  him  with  a  terrible  roar.  Auge  turned  his  horse  short 
round  benind  a  great  tree,  so  as  in  some  measure  to  get  out  of  the 
sight  of  the  bufialo,  which  now  charged  straight  towards  the  sergeant 
who  followed,  and  gored  his  horse  in  the  belly  so  terribly  that  it 
instantly  fell  on  its  back,  with  its  feet  turned  up  in  the  air  and  its 
entrails  hanging  out,  in  which  state  it  lived  almost  half  an  hour. 
In  the  meantime  the  gardener  and  sergeant  had  climbed  up  into  trees 
for  safety.  Thunberg  intent  upon  his  botanising,  and  with  his  ears 
filled  with  the  rustling  of  the  branches  in  the  narrow  pass  where  he 
was  against  his  saddle  and  baggage,  heard  nothing  of  ul  this,  though 
so  near.  But  the  buffalo  had  not  done  yet.  The  sergeant  had 
brought  two  horses  with  him  for  his  journey.  One  of  them,  as  we 
have  seen,  had  been  already  dispatched ;  the  other  now  stood  just  in 
the  way  of  the  bufifiELlo  as  he  was  going  out  of  the  wood.  As  soon  as 
the  infuriated  beast  saw  this  second  hors^  he  attacked  it  so  furiously 
that  he  not  only  drove  his  horns  into  the  horse's  breast  and  out 
again  through  the  very  saddle,  but  threw  it  to  the  groimd  with  such 
violence  that  it  instantly  expired,  and  all  the  bones  of  its  body  were 
broken.  Just  as  the  buffalo  was  thus  engaged  with  this  last  horse, 
Thunberg  came  up  to  the  opening  and  beheld  the  frightful  scene. 
The  wood  was  so  thick  that  he  had  neither  room  to  turn  his  horse 
round,  nor  to  get  on  one  side;  he  therefore  was  obliged  to  take 
refuge  upon  a  tree  into  which  he  climbed,  leaving  his  horse  to  its 
fate.  But  the  buffalo  had  satiated  his  rage,  or  did  not  distinctly  see 
the  new  object,  for  after  his  second  exploit  he  turned  suddenly  round 
and  went  off.  Thunberg  found  his  companions  half  dead  with  fear, 
indeed  the  gardener  was  so  affected  that  he  could  scarcely  speak  for 
some  days  after,  and  the  two  surviving  iiorses  were  discovered 
shivering  with  fear,  and  unable  to  make  their  escape.     (*  Travels.*) 


Cape  Buffalo  (.BtOtalM  Oaffcr). 

SpaiTinaun  ('  Voyage  to  the  Cape,'  vol  ii.)  gives  a  graphic  description 
of  the  shooting  of  one,  and  of  the  unconquerable  spirit  of  the  animal 
even  in  death.  We  can  only  find  room  for  the  final  act  of  the  tragedy. 
"  During  his  fall,  and  before  he  died,"  writes  Sparrmann,  "  he  bellowed 
in  a  most  stupendous  manner ;  and  this  death-song  of  his  inspired 
every  one  of  us  with  no  small  degree  of  joy  on  account  of  the  victory 
we  had  gained  :  and  so  thoroughly  steeled  frequentlv  is  the  human 
heart  against  the  sufferings  of  the  brute  creation,  that  we  hastened 
forward  in  order  to  enjoy  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  buffalo  struggle 
with  the  pangs  of  death.  I  happened  to  be  the  foremost  amongst 
them ;  but  thmk  it  impossible  ever  to  behold  anguish,  accompanied 
by  a  savage  fierceness,  painted  in  stronger  colours  than  they  were  in 
the  countenance  of  this  bu£falo.  I  was  within  ten  steps  of  him,  when 
he  perceived  me,  and,  bellowing,  raised  himself  suddenly  again  on  his 
legs.  I  have  had  reason  to  beUeve  since,  that  I  was  at  the  time  very 
much  frightened ;  for  before  I  could  well  take  my  aim  I  fired  off  my 
gun,  and  the  shot  missed  the  whole  of  his  huge  body,  and  only  hit  him  in 


the  hind  legs,  as  we  afterwards  discovered  by  the  sue  of  the  ball 
Immediately  upon  this  I  fled  away  like  lightning  in  order  to  look  oat 
for  some  tree  to  climb  up  into."  The  same  author  gives  the  follomag 
as  the  measurement  of  a  buffalo : — Length  8  feet,  height  5^  feet,  and 
the  fore  legs  24  feet  long :  the  larger  hoofs  5  inches  over.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  points  of  the  horns  he  states  to  be  frequently  5 
feet.  They  are  black,  and  the  surface,  to  within  about  a  third  part  of 
them,  measured  from  the  base,  is  very  rough  and  craggy.  A  very 
lively  account  of  a  buffalo-hunt  is  also  given  by  Bruce.  He  guesses 
the  weight  of  a  bull  that  he  assisted  in  killing  at  nearer  50  than 
40  stones.  The  homsi,  from  the  root,  following  the  line  of  their 
curve,  were  about  52  inches,  and  nearly  9  inches  where  thickest  in 
circumference. 

The  Cape  Buffalo  delights  in  wallowing  in  the  mire,  and  when 
heated  by  hunting  throws  himself  into  the  first  water  he  reaches. 

The  flesh  is  described  by  some  as  good  and  high  flavoured,  by 
others  as  ill-grained  and  coarse.  The  deference  in  these  accounts  is 
probably  to  be  traced  to  the  sex,  age,  and  condition  of  the  animala 
eaten.  The  rhinoceros-like  hide  is  much  sought  after  for  harness,  &c 
The  horns  of  the  domesticated  oxen  of  the  Cape  .grow  to  an 
enormous  size. 

Anock.  Horns  subtrigonal,  nearly  parallel,  round  at  the  tip,  depressed 
at  the  base,  and  slightly  keeled  on  the  inner  edge,  straight  nearly  on 
the  plane  of  the  face  on  the  hinder  edge  of  the  frontal  ridge. 
A.  depretsicomitf  the  Anoa.  Reddish-brown,  with  three  small  white 
spots  on  the  cheek.  2^e  black,  spot  on  cheek  white.  Female  and 
young  brownish-black.  This  animal  was  first  described  by  Colonel 
H.  Smith  from  a  head  and  horns  in  the  College  of  Surgeons.  [A50a.] 
He  regarded  it  as  an  antelope.  Since  then  Quoy  and  Oainuud  have 
figured  the  whole  animal,  and  a  specimen  exists  in  the  British  Museum. 
This  was  brought  from  Celebes. 

Bibot.  Horns  depressed  at  the  base,  directed  outwards,  posterior 
on  the  hinder  ridge  of  the  frt>ntalbone,  which  is  often  very  prominent, 
recurved  at  the  tips.  Withers  high,  keeled,  supported  by  tiie  spinous 
processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrse,  and  suddenly  lower  behind.  The 
intermaxillaries  are  short  and  triangular,  and  do  not  reach  to  the 
nasals.  There  are  three  species  which  Professor  Sundevsll  regards  as 
subvarietiee  of  a  variety  of  the  common  bulL  B.  frorUaliSf  the  Gay& 
It  is  the  Bot  frontalis  of  Lambert;  the  Bos  Crayet»  of  Colebrooke; 
Gkvaya,  Sansc. ;  Gkvai  or  QayiU,  Hind. ;  Gobaygoru,  Beng. ;  Oaujan- 
gall,  Pers. ;  Methana,  Mountaineers  (Cticis,  &c)  east  of  Silhet;  Shiil, 
Mountaineers  (CtHcis)  east  of  Chatgaon;  J'hongnua,  Mugs;  Nilnec, 
Blrmas ;  Gauvera,  Ceylon. 

It  is  nearly  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  English  bulL  It  has  short 
horns,  which  are  distant  at  their  bases,  and  rise  in  a  gentle  curve 
directly  out  and  up  :  a  transverse  section  near  the  base  is  ovate,  the 
thick  end  of  the  section  being  on  the  inside.  The  front  is  broad,  and 
crowned  with  a  tuft  of  lighter  coloured  long  curved  hair.  The  dewlap 
is  deep  and  pendant.  It  has  no  mane  nor  hump,  but  a  considerable 
!  elevation  over  the  withers.  The  tail  is  short,  the  body  covered  with 
a  tolerable  coat  of  straight  dark-brown  hair ;  on  the  belly  it  is  lighter 
coloured ;  and  the  legs  and  face  are  sometimes  white.  (Roxburgh.) 
Dr.  Buchanan  states  that  the  cry  of  the  Gayil  has  no  resemblance 
I  to  the  grunt  of  the  Indian  Ox ;  but  a  good  deal  resembles  that  of  the 
'  buffalo.  It  is  a  kind  of  lowing,  but  shriller,  and  not  near  so  loud  ha 
I  that  of  the  European  Ox.  To  this  the  Gay^l,  in  Dr.  Buchanan's 
opinion,  approaches  much  nearer  than  it  does  to  the  buffalo.  Mr. 
I  Macrae  states  that  the  Gkyifl  is  found  wild  in  the  range  of  mountains 
that  form  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  provinces  of  Aracan,  Chitta- 
gong,  Tippera,  and  Silhet  The  Cdcis,  or  Lunetas,  a  race  of  people 
inhabiting  the  hills  inunediately  to  the  eastward  of  Chittagong, 
have  herds  of  them  in  a  domesticated  state.  The  animal  is  calloi 
Gabay  in  the  Hindoo  'S^tra,'  but  seems  however  to  be  litUe 
known  beyond  the  limits  of  its  native  mountains,  except  to  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  provinces  above  mentioned.  The  same  author  informs 
us  that  the  Gay^  is  of  a  dull  heavy  appearance;  but  at  the  same 
time  of  a  form  that  indicates  much  strength  and  activity,  like  that  of 
the  wild  buffalo.  Its  disposition  is  gentle ;  even  in  the  vrild  state  on 
its  native  hills  it  is  not  considered  dangerous,  never  standing  the 
approach  of  man,  much  less  sustaining  his  attack.  The  CtUds  hunt 
the  wild  ones  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh.  The  Oayifl  is  a  forest 
animal,  and  prefers  the  tender  shoots  and  leaves  of  shrubs  to  grass ; 
it  never  wallows  in  mud  like  the  buffedo.  It  is  domesticated  by  the 
C6cis,  but  does  not  undei^o  any  labour.  The  cow  goes  11  (?)  month* 
with  young,  gives  but  little  milk,  and  does  not  yield  it  long ;  but  that 
little  is  remarkably  rich,  almost  equalling  cream,  which  it  resembles 
in  colour ;  the  Ciicis  however  do  not  make  any  use  of  the  milk,  but 
rear  the  Gav^s  entirelv  for  their  flesh  and  skins,  of  which  last,  or 
rather  their  hides,  they  form  their  shields.  These  domesticated  herds 
roam  at  laige  in  the  forests  near  their  village  during  the  day,  but 
return  of  their  own  accord  at  evening,  being  early  tMight  to  do  this 
by  being  fed  when  young  every  night  with  salt^  of  whid^  these  animals 
are  very  fond.  The  Hindoos,  in  the  province  of  Chittagong^  will  pot 
kill  ^is  Gaydl  (their  Gabay),  which  they  hold  in  equal  veneration 
with  the  cow,  but  they  hunt  and  kill  another  Gaydl  (Asl  Gayil  or 
Selol)  as  they  do  the  wild  buffala  The  form  of  the  animal,  and  the 
way  in  which  it  carries  its  head,  will  be  understood  from  the  following 
figure,  which  is  reduced  from  that  by  a  native  artist,  prefixed  to 


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Mr.  Colebrooke'B  paper  (' Aaaiao  ResearoheB,'  vol  viil),  to  which  we 
refior  the  reader  for  further  interestiiig  particular!. 


The  OayU  {Sibot  frimtaUi). 

Mr,  Bird  proved  that  the  Oayfl  will  breed  with  the  common  Indian 
bull.  He  brought  a  domesticated  female  Gayfl  from  Chittagong  to 
Dacca,  directed  a  common  bull  (of  the  breed  D^bw^,  a  Zebu  of  the 
common  kind  found  in  the  middle  districts  of  Bengal),  which  the 
female  received  upon  being  blinded  with  a  cloth  thrown  over  her  eyea 
The  offspring  was  a  cow  resembliug  mostly  the  Gayfl  mother;  and 
from  that  eow,  impregnated  by  a  bull  of  the  same  common  breed, 
another  cow  was  produced,  which  also  had  grown  up,  and  was  in  calf 
by  a  common  buU  when  Mr.  Bird  wrote  his  account  ('Asiatic 
Researches,'  voL  viil) 

Gteneral  Hardwicke  gives  a  figure  of  the  head  of  the  true  wild  Gkyfl, 
or  as  the  natives  term  it,  the  Asseel  Gayfl  (a  female),  from  the  south- 
east frontier  of  Bengal.  The  space  between  the  points  of  the  horns 
was  14  inchesw 


Head  of  tme  or  Asseel  Oaydl,  female  {Bibosfi-ontalis), 
of  Bengal  (from  Hardwicke). 


Soath-east  frontier 


The  Qyall  (Bot  frotU^it,  Lambert)  is  evidently  not  a  distinct 
species. 

Mr.  Lambert  observes  that  the  hair  of  the  hide  is  soft ;  thero  is  no 
crest ;  the  lower  lip  is  white  at  the  apex,  and  bristled  with  hairs. 
The  band  of  the  forehead,  including  the  bases  of  the  horns,  is  lead- 
colour  ;  the  horns  themselves  are  ^e.  Length  from  the  tip  of  the 
nose  to  the  end  of  the  tail  9  feet  2  inches ;  from  the  tip  of  the  hoof 
of  the  fore  foot  to  the  top  of  the  rising  of  the  back  4  feet  H  inches ; 
from  the  tip  of  the  hoof  of  the  hind  leg  to  the  highest  part  of  the 
niinp  44  feet 

Mr.  Harris,  in  his  letter  to  Mr.  Lambert,  after  identifying  his 
animal  with  Mr.  Lambert's  drawing,  writes  thus : — "  The  animal 
.  .  .  which  I  have  kept  and  reared  these  last  seven  years,  and 
know  by  the  name  of  the  Oyall,  is  a  native  of  the  hills  to  the  north- 
east and  east  of  the  Company's  province  of  Chittagong,  in  Bengal, 
inhabiting  that  range  of  hills  which  separates  it  from  the  country  of 
Aracan.  The  male  Qyall  is  like  our  bull  in  shape  and  appearance, 
but  I  conceive  not  quite  so  tall ;  is  of  a  blackish-brown  colour ;  the 
boms  short,  but  thick  and  strong  towards  the  base,  round  whidi  and 
across  the  frons  the  hair  is  bushy  and  of  a  dirty- white  colour;  the 
chest  and  forehead  are  broad  and  thick.  He  is  naturally  very  bold, 
and  will  defend  himself  against  any  of  the  beasts  of  prey.  The  female 
differs  little  in  appearance;  her  horns  are  not  quite  so  laige,  and  her 

|IAT.  msx.  DIV.  TOU  I. 


make  is  somewhat  more  slender ;  she  is  very  quiet,  is  used  for  all  the 
purposes  of  the  dairy,  as  also  (I  have  been  informed  by  the  natives) 
for  tilling  the  ground,  and  is  more  tractable  than  the  buffido.  The 
milk  which  these  cows  give  has  a  peculiar  richneas  in  it,  arising,  I 
should  conceive,  from  their  mode  of  feeding,  which  is  always  on  the 
young  shoots  and  branches  of  trees  in  preference  to  maa,  I  con- 
stantiy  nuule  it  a  practice  to  allow  them  to  range  abroad  amongst  the 
hills  and  jungles  at  Chittagong  during  the  day  to  browse,  akeeper 
attending  to  prevent  their  stisying  so  far  as  to  endanger  losing  them. 
They  do  not  thrive  in  any  part  of  Bengal  so  well  as  in  the  afore- 
mentioned province  and  in  tiie  adjoining  one,  Tipperah,  where  I 
believe  the  animal  is  also  to  be  found.  I  have  heard  of  one  instance 
of  a  female  Qyall  breeding  with  a  common  bull" 


Head  of  Oyall  {Bosfrontali»),    *  Linn.  Trans.' 

The  Jungly-Qau,  Boeuf  des  Jongles  of  M  Duvauoel,  Bo$  Sytketa 
of  F.  Cuvier,  is  not  a  distinct  species.  Dr.  Qray  says  that  Duvaucel's 
drawing  was  taken  from  a  hybrid  specimen  bred  between  a  domettio 
Qvall  and  a  Zebu.  It  was  never  alive  in  Paris,  nor  seen  alhre  bj 
IL  DuvauoeL 


Jonglj^aa  {Bo»  8ylhti«mm\  male. 

B,  QavmtM,  the  Qtoxxr  or  Qaur.  Hind  hoof  only  half  the  siae  of  the 
front  hoof  Colour  brown ;  legs  white.  This  is  the  Bo$  Oour,  Traill ; 
Bot  Cfaurtu,  CoL  Smith ;  Bot  aeuleatut,  Cuvier. 

Dr.  Traill  remarks  that  the  only  animal  which  appears  to  have 
afi^ty  with  the  Gk>ur  is  the  Bot  Gavceut  of  Colebrooke,  but  the  vety 
different  form  of  its  head,  the  presence  of  a  distinct  dewlap,  and  the 
general  habit  of  the  Qaijal  or  Qayal,  distinguish  it  from  the  Oour. 
Captain  Rogers  assured  Dr.  Traill  that  neither  the  descriptions  in 
Mr.  Colebrooke's  communication  nor  the  figure  of  the  Qay41  that 
accompanies  Ihem  had  any  greater  resemblance  to  the  Qour  than 
that  general  one  which  subsists  between  all  the  animals  of  this  genus. 

The  sise  of  the  animal  is  considerable.  Dr.  Traill  gives  the  dimen- 
sions of  one  not  full^  grown,  which  measured  from  tip  of  nose  to  end 
of  tail  11  feet  11}  mches ;  from  the  hoof  to  the  withers  6  feet 
11}  inches;  and  from  the  withers  to  the  sternum  8  feet  6  inches. 
"  The  limbs  have  more  of  the  form  of  the  deer  than  any  other  of  the 
bovine  genus." 

The  Qour,  according  to  Captain  Rogers,  occurs  in  several  mountain- 
ous parts  of  Central  India,  but  is  chiefly  found  in  Myn  Pftt  or  Mine 
Paut^  a  high  insulated  mountain  with  a  tabular  summit,  in  the 
province  of  Sergojah,  in  South  Bahar.  "  This  table-land  is  about 
86  miles  in  length  by  24  or  25  miles  in  medial  breadth,  and  rises 
above  the  neighbouring  plains  probably  2000  feet  The  sides  of  the 
mountain  slope  with  considerable  steepness,  and  are  furrowed  by 
streams  that  water  narrow  valleys,  the  verdant  banks  of  which  are 
the  favourite  haunts  of  Qours.  On  being  disturbed  they  retreat  into 
the  thick  jungles  of  saul-trees  which  cover  the  sides  of  the  whole 

2  ■ 


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range.  The  south-east  side  of  the  mountain  presents  an  extensiTe 
mural  precipice  from  20  to  40  feet  high.  The  nigged  slopes  at  its 
foot  are  covered  by  impenetrable  green  jimgle,  and  abound  with  dens 
formed  of  fallen  blocks  of  rock,  the  suitable  retreats  of  tigers,  bears, 
and  hyenas.  The  western  slopes  are  less  rugged,  but  the  soil  is 
parched,  and  the  forests  seem  withered  by  excess  of  heat.  The 
summit  of  the  mountain  presents  a  mixture  of  open  lawns  and  woods. 
There  were  once  twenty-five  villages  on  Myn  P&t,  but  these  have  been 
long  deserted,  on  account  of  the  number  and  ferocity  of  the  beasts  of 
prey.  On  this  mountain  however  the  Oour  maintains  his  seat  The 
ln(£ans  assert  that  even  the  tiger  has  no  chance  in  combat  with  the 
full-grown  Oour,  though  he  may  occasionally  succeed  in  carrying  ofif 
an  unprotected  calf.  The  Wild  BufiG&lo  abounds  in  the  plains  below 
the  mountains,  but  he  so  much  dreads  the  Oour,  according  to  the 
natives,  that  he  rarely  attempts  to  invade  its  haunts ;  and  the  nunting- 
party  only  met  wiUi  three  or  four  umas  on  the  moimtain.  The 
forests  which  shield  the  Oour  abound  however  with  Hog-Deer, 
Saumurs  (Sambur  Deer),  and  Porcupines."  Captain  Rogers,  who 
furnished  the  above  account^  hunted  the  Gk>ur  in  these  wild  and 
romantic  retreats,  and  the  a"iTn«^1,  it  appears,  when  hit  faces  his 
adversary,  ready  to  do  battle.  A  diort  beJlow,  imitated  best  by  the 
syllables  ugh-ugh,  was  the  only  cry  heard  from  the  Oour,  and  that 
not  until  after  it  had  been  wounded.  August  is  the  month  in  which 
the  calf  is  generally  dropped,  and  the  period  of  gestation  is  twelve 
months.  The  large  quantity  of  milk  given  by  the  cow  is  averred  to 
be  occasionally  so  ri(m  as  to  cause  the  calf  s  death.  The  first  year  the 
native  name  of  the  bull-calf  is  Purdrah;  the  cow-calf  is  called 
Par^eah ;  and  the  full-grown  cow  Ootirin.  The  Qours  herd  together 
in  parties  vaiying  firom  ten  to  twenty ;  they  browse  on  the  leaves  and 
tender  shoots  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  also  grase  on  the  banks  of  the 
streams.  In  the  cold  weather  the  saul-forests  are  their  places  of  con- 
cealment^ and  the  heats  bring  them  out  to  feed  in  the  green  lawns  and 
valleys.  Thev  do  not  it  seems  wallow  in  swamp  ana  mire  like  the 
Buffalo.  If  tne  natives  are  to  be  credited  the  Oour  will  not  brook 
captivity ;  even  if  taken  verjr  voung  the  mountain-calf  droops  and 
dies.  (' Edinbuigh  Philosophical  Jouxnal,'  voL  xL)  Mr.  Hodgson  says 
it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  rear  the  Gk>ur  in  confinement,  although 
attempts  are  oonstantlv  being  made  by  the  Court  of  NepauL 

Oeneral  Hardwicker  Zoological  Journal,'  voL  iii)  gives  a  figure  of  a 
pair  of  horns  of  the  "Bob  Ckmr,  or  wild  bull  of  the  mountainous  district 
of  lUmgurh,  and  table-land  of  Sirgoojahs,"  from  which  our  cut  is  taken. 
The  Oour  to  which  they  belonged  was  killed,  as  General  Hardwicke 
believed,  by  the  same  hunting-party  described  by  Captain  Rogers,  and 
they  were  presented  to  the  Oener^  by  the  principal  member  of  that 
party.  Major  Roughsedge.  These  horns  were  15  inches  between 
the  tips. 


Horns  of  Oonr  {Bm  Gmir),    Hardwioko. 

B,  Baniinff,  the  Banting,  or  Sumatran  Ox.  Colour  black,  distinct 
large  spot  on  rump,  and  legs  white.  This  is  the  Bot  Banting  of  Sir 
Btamford  Raffles,  Bot  Uue^prymnui  of  Quoy  and  Oaimard,  Bos  Son- 
^aicm  of  Miiller.  It  is  a  native  of  Java,  Borneo,  and  Bali.  There  is  a 
Rtufied  specimen  and  skeleton  in  the  Britdsh  Museum.  Vasey  in  his '  Ox- 
Tribe,'  has  given  a  figure,  and  observes  that  it  "  bears  some  lesemblanoe 
to  the  Oour,  but  in  the  skeleton  of  the  Ooiir  the  sacrum  consists  of  5 
vertebne  and  the  tail  of  19,  while  in  the  skeleton  of  the  Banting  the 
sacrum  consists  of  but  4  vertebra  and  the  tail  of  18." 

The  next  genus  is  BUonf  of  which  there  are  two  species,  one 
European,  the  other  American.     [BiflON.] 

Pbephagus.^  Horns  subcylindrical,  curved  outward  on  the  front  of 
the  occipital  ridge ;  nose  haiiy,  with  a  narrow  bald  muffle  between  the 
nostrils ;  hoofs  moderately  thick,  not  dilated  or  expanded  on  the 
outer  side,  square  and  straight  in  front ;  tail  moderate,  not  reaching 
to  the  hocks,  and  covered  with  long  hair ;  teats  four,  narrowing  behind. 
There  is  but  one  species,  P,  grtmrnena,  the  Yak,  or  Sarl^  It  is 
black;  the  back  and  tail  often  white.  It  is  the  Botgrwmient  of 
LinnsBus;  Bot  Poiphagut  of  Colonel  H.  Smith.  It  has  also  been 
called  the  OruntingOx,  the  Orunting  Bull,  Svora-Ooy,  and  Bubul. 
There  are  several  varieties,  called  the  Noble  Yak,  the  Plough  Yak,  the 
Ghainorik,  and  Wild  Yak.  The  following  notices  of  the  Yak  arc 
given  in  the  Catalogue  of  the  British  Museum : — 

"  The  Yaks  dislike  the  warmth  of  summer,  and  hide  themselves  in 
the  shade  and  water ;  they  swim  well ;  both  sexes  grunt  like  a  pig.  The 
calves  are  covered  with  rough  black  curled  hair,  like  a  curled  haired 
dog.   Wh«n  of  three  ino^ths  old  tli^y  obtain  the  long  hair  on  the  body 


and  tail  They  willingly  live  with  the  common  cows,  and  breed  with 
them.  The  long  white  hairs  of  the  tail  are  dyed  rdd  to  form  the 
tufts  of  hair  on  the  caps  of  the  Chinese.  (Pallas,  '  Act  Acad  Petrop.* 
1777,  260.) 

"  The  Yaks  used  for  the.plough  are  ugly  and  short-legged,  and  bold 
their  heads  very  low.  The  beautiful  long  silky  hair  hanging  from 
below  the  belly  is  almost  if  not  entirely  vnintmg  in  them,  no  lets 
than  the  bushy  tail,  which  their  avaricious  ownera  coinmonly  cut  off 
as  an  article  of  trade.  They  are  guided  by  the  nose.  (Hofimdster, 
'  Travels  in  Ceylon,'  &a,  441.) 

"  The  Yak-Ox  used  in  riding  is  an  infinitely  handsomer  animal  It  has 
a  stately  hump,  a  rich  silky  hanging  tail  nearly  reaching  the  gromHl, 
twisted  noms,  a  noble  beanng,  and  an  erect  head  (p.  441).  They  ut 
very  shy,  and  kick  with  their  hind  feet^  turning  their  head  round 
perpetually,  as  if  about  to  gore  their  ridere  (p.  448). 

**  Our  broad-footed  Yak-Ox  is  the  beast  with  the  thick  silky  white 
fringe  under  the  body,  and  the  bushy  tail,  both  of  which  sweep  the 
ground.  ....  As  the  stecrpness  increased,  these  poor  ammak 
began  to  moan,  or  rather  grunt^  in  the  most  melancholy  manner,  a&d 
this  unearthly  music  gradually  rose  to  such  a  violent  rattle,  that 
driven  rather  by  its  irksome  sound  than  by  the  discomfort  of  oor 
saddleless  seat,  we  dismounted  at  the  end  of  the  first  half-lioQr 
(p.  448)." 

The  Yak,  or  Chauri  Oau,  inhabits  all  the  loftiest  plateaus  of  high 
Asia,  between  the  Altai  and  the  Himalaya,  the  Belur  Tag,  and  the 
Peling  Mountains,  and  is  foxmd  tame  as  well  as  wild.  It  camiot  lire 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Himalaya  beyond  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  snow,  where  the  tribes  of  Cachars  on  the  juxta-nivean  r^ons  of  the 
sub-Himalayas  rear  large  herds  of  it,  and  cross-breed  with  tha 
oommon-ox.  They  rut  in  winter,  and  produce  voung  in  antamn. 
Coecum  simple,  not  sacked,  nor  banded,  four  inches  long ;  rihs  14 
or  15  pain ;  true  dorsal  ridge  confined  to  the  withen ;  dewlap  none. 
(Hodgson.) 

Ov5>os.  Horns  very  wide,  and  touching  each  other  at  their  hase, 
then  applied  to  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  having  the  points  enddeply 
turned  up ;  no  naked  muzsde,  and  no  furrow  on  the  upper  Hp ; 
chanfrein  narrow  at  the  end,  very  square,  resembling  that  of  tho 
sheep ;  eara  short;  limbs  robust;  tail  very  short 

0.  moschattu,  the  Musk  Ox.  Sise  of  Highland  cattle ;  hoins  broad  it 
orifin,  covering  the  brow  and  whole  crown  of  the  head,  and  toadiing 
each  other  throu^out  from  before  backwards.  As  each  honi  rises  from 
its  flatly  convex  base,  it  becomes  round  and  tapering,  curving  directly 
downwards  between  the  eye  and  the  ear,  until  it  reaches  the  angle  of 
the  mouth,  when  it  turns  upwards  in  the  segment  of  a  drde  to  abore 
the  level  ol  the  eye ;  for  haJf  its  length  it  is  dull,  white,  and  rough, 
and  beyond  smooth  and  shining ;  near  the  point  it  becomes  black 


Mask-Ox  {Ocibot  mosckatus). 
General  colour  of  the  hair  brown,  long,  matted,  and  rather  curled 
on  the  neck  and  between  the  shoulders,  where  it  is  rather  grizzled,  on 
the  back  and  hips  long  but  lying  smoothly ;  on  the  shoulders,  sides, 
and  thighs  it  is  so  long  as  to  hang  down  below  the  middle  of  the  Iff • 
There  is  on  the  centre  of  the  back  a  mark  of  a  soiled  browniah-white, 
called  by  Captain  Parry  the  saddle.  On  the  throat  and  chest  the 
hair  is  very  straight  and  long,  and  together  with  the  long  hair  on  the 


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BOVmiE. 


lower  jaw,  hangs  down  like  a  beard  and  dewlap.  The  short  tail  ia 
concealed  by  the  fur  of  the  hips.  There  ia  a  lai^e  quantity  of  fine 
browniah  aah-coloured  wool  or  down  among  the  hair  covering  the 
body.  The  iiair  on  the  legs  ia  short,  dull  brownish-white,  unmixed 
with  wool.  The  hoofs  are  longer  than  those  of  the  Caribou,  but  so 
aimilar  in  form  that  it  requires  .the  eye  of  a  practised  hunter  to 
distinguish  the  impressions.  In  the  cow,  which  is  smaller  than  the 
bull,  &e  horns  are  smaller,  and  their  bases,  instead  of  touching,  are 
separated  by  a  hairy  space.  The  hair  on  the  throat  and  chest  is  also 
shorter. 

This  is  the  Boeuf  Musqu^  of  Jeremie ;  Musk-Ox  of  Drage,  Dobbs, 
Ellis,  Pennant,  Heame,  and  Pairy ;  Bos  moschatus  of  Gmelin,  Sabine, 
and  Richardson  (Parry's  *  Second  Voyage ') ;  Mateeh  Moostoos  (Ugly 
Bison)  of  the  Cree  Indians ;  Adgiddah-yawseh  (Little  Bison)  of  the 
Chepewyans  and  Copper  Indians ;  and  Oomingmak  of  the  Esquimaux, 
llie  Barren  Lands  of  America  lying  to  the  northward  of  the  60th 
parallel  are  the  principal  habitations  of  the  Musk-Ox.  Tracks  were 
once  seen  by  Hearpe  within  a  few  miles  of  Fort  Churchill,  in  lat  59** ; 
and  he  saw  many  in  his  first  northern  journey,  in  about  lat  61°. 
Richardson  was  informed  that  they  do  not  now  come  so  far  to  Uie 
southward  even  on  the  Hudson's  Bay  shore ;  and  he  adds  that  farther 
to  the  westward  they  are  rarely  seen  in  any  numbers  lower  than 
lat  87°,  although,  from  portions  of  their  skulls  and  horns  which  are 
occasionally  found  near  the  northern  borders  of  the  Qreat  Slave  Lake, 
be  thinks  it  probable  that  they  ranged  at  no  very  distant  period  over 
the  whole  country  lying  between  tiiat  great  sheet  of  water  and  the 
Polar  Sea.  He  had  nut  heard  of  their  having  been  seen  on  the  banks 
of  Mackenzie's  River  to  the  southward  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  and  he 
states  that  they  do  not  oome  to  the  south-western  end  of  that  lake, 
althoogh  th^  existed  in  numbers  on  its  north-eastern  arm.  **  They 
range,  continues  he, ''  over  the  islands  which  lie  to  the  north  of  the 
American  continent^  so  far  as  Melville  Island,  in  lat  75%  but  they  do 
not,  like  the  rein-deer,  extend  to  Greenland,  Spitzbergen,  or  Lapland. 
From  Indian  information  we  learn  that  to  the  westward  of  the  Rocky 
MountainB  which  skirt  the  Mackenzie  there  is  an  extensive  tract  of 
barren  country,  which  is  also  inhabited  by  the  musk-ox  and  rein-deer. 
It  is  to  the  Russian  traders  that  we  must  look  for  information  on  this 
head;  but  it  is  probable  that,  owing  to  the  greater  mildness  of  the 
climate  to  the  westward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  musk-ox,  which 
affects  a  cold  barren  district^  where  grass  is  replaced  by  lichens,  does 
not  range  ao  tar  to  the  southward  on  the  Pacific  coast  as  it  does  on 
the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay.  It  is  not  known  in  New  Caledonia  nor 
on  the  banks  of  the  Columbia,  nor  is  it  found  on  the  Rocky  Mountain 
ridge  at  the  usual  crossing  places  near  the  sources  of  the  Peace,  Elk, 
and  Saskatchewan  rivers.  It  is  therefore  fair  to  conclude  that  the 
animal  described  by  Fathers  Marco  de  Ni9a  and  Gomara  as  an 
inhabitant  of  Kew  Mexico,  and  which  Pennant  refers  to  the  musk-ox, 
is  of  a  different  species.  The  musk-ox  has  not  crossed  over  to  the 
Asiatic  shore,  and  does  not  exist  in  Siberia,  although  fossil  skulls 
have  been  found  there  of  a  species  nearly  allied,  which  has  been 
enumerated  in  systematic  works  under  the  name  of  Ovibos  PaUcmtis, 
The  appearance  of  musk-oxen  on  Melville  Island  in  the  month  of  May, 
M  ascertained  on  Captain  Parry's  first  voyage,  is  interesting,  not 
merely  as  a  part  of  their  natural  history,  but  as  giving  us  reason  to 
infer  that  a  chain  of  islands  lies  between  Melville  Island  and  Cape 
Lyon,  or  that  Wollaston  and  Banks'  Lands  form  one  great  island, 
over  which  the  migrations  of  the  animals  must  have  been  performed. 
The  districts  inhabited  by  the  musk-ox  are  the  proper  lands  of  the 
Esquimaux ;  and  neither  the  northern  Indians  nor  the  Crees  have 
an  original  name  for  ity  both  terming  it  Bison  with  an  additional 
epithet" 

Sir.  John  Richardson,  who  had  the  best  opportunities  of  coming  at 
the  truth,  informs  us  that  the  country  frequented  by  the  Musk-Ox  is 
mostly  rocky,  and  destitute  of  wood,  except  on  the  banks  of  the  larger 
rivers,  which  are  more  or  less  thickly  clothed  with  spruce-trees. 
Their  food,  he  tells  us,  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Caribou,  grass  at  one 
season  and  lichens  at  another ;  and  the  contents  of  its  paunch  are 
eaten  by  the  natives  with  the  same  relish  as  that  with  which  they 
devour  the  '  nerrooks '  of  the  Caribou.  The  dung  is  voided  in  round 
pellets,  which  are  larger  than  those  which  oome  from  the  Caribou. 
The  animal  runsfast^  short  as  are  its  l^s,  and  hills  and  rocks  are  easily 
climbed  by  this  ox  of  the  northern  deserts.  One  pursued  bv  Richard- 
son's party  on  the  banks  of  the  Coppermine  River  scaled  a  lofty  sand- 
cliff  with  so  great  a  declivity  that  they  were  obliged  to  crawl  on  hands 
and  knees  to  follow  the  chase.  The  musk-oxen  assemble  in  herds  of 
from  twenty  to  thirty,  are  in  their  rut  about  the  end  of  August  and 
beginning  of  September,  and  bring  forth  one  calf  about  the  latter  end 
of  May  or  beginning  of  June.  Heame  accounts  for  the  few  bulls 
which  are  seen  by  supposing  that  they  kill  each  other  in  their  contests 
for  the  cows. 

Richardson  thus  graphically  describes  the  terror  of  a  huddled  herd : 
— "  If  the  hunters  keep  themselves  concealed  when  they  fire  upon  a 
herd  of  musk-oxen,  the  poor  ft^i^nft^lw  mistake  the  noise  for  thunder, 
and,  forming  themselves  into  a  group,  crowd  nearer  and  nearer 
together  aa  their  companions  fall  around  them;  but  should  they 
discover  their  enemies  by  sight,  or  bv  their  sense  of  smell,  which  is 
very  acute,  the  whole  herd  seek  for  aaiety  by  instant  flight  The  bulls 
however  are  Tory  irasdbLe^and  particularly  when  wounded,  will  often 


attack  the  hunter,  and  endanger  his  life  unless  he  possesses  both 
activity  and  presence  of  mind.  The  Esquimaux,  who  are  well  accus- 
tomed to  the  pursuit  of  this  animal,  sometimes  turn  its  irritable 
disposition  to  good  account ;  for  an  expert  hunter  having  proxpked  a 
bull  to  attack  him,  wheels  round  it  more  quickly  than  it  can  turn,  and 
by  repeated  stabs  in  the  belly  puts  an  end  to  its  life.** 

Mr.  Jeremicj,  who  first  brought  the  animal  into  notice,  carried  some  • 
of  its  wool  to  France,  where  some  stockings  were  made  of  it,  said  to 
have  been  equal  to  the  finest  silk.  Sir  John  Richardson  says  that  thia 
wool  resembles  that  of  the  Bison,  but  is  perhaps  finer,  and  would  in 
his  opinion  be  highly  useful  in  the  arts,  if  it  could  be  procured  in 
sufficient  quantity.  The  same  author  informs  us  that  when  the  animal 
is  fat  its  flesh  is  well  tasted,  and  resembles  that  of  the  Caribou,  but 
has  a  coarser  grain.  The  flesh  of  the  bulls  is  high  flavoured,  and 
both  bulls  and  cows  when  lean  smell  strongly  of  musk,  their  flesh  at 
the  same  time  being  very  dark  and  tough,  and  certainly  far  inferior  to 
that  of  any  other  ruminating  animal  in  North  America.  The  carcass 
of  a  Musk-Ox  weighs,  exdusiTe  of  the  offiJ,  about  three  hundred- 
weight, or  nearly  three  times  as  much  as  a  Barren-Cbound  Caribou, 
and  twice  as  much  as  one  of  ithe  Woodland  Caribou.  (Richardson^ 
'  Fauna  Boreali- Americana.') 

Budorcat.  Muzzle  haiiy,  with  a  small  naked  muffle  only  edguig 
the  nostrils ;  ears  narrow,  pointed.  The  for  consists  of  short,  harsh, 
adpressed  hair;  the  tail  is  short,  very  depressed,  and  haiiy,  like  the 
tail  of  a  goat;  the  head  is  huge  and  heavy;  thelipstaner,  and  are  dad 
with  hair  like  sheep;  the  horns  are  rotmd,  smooth,  lunate;  they  are 
nearly  in  contact  on  the  top  of  the  head;  their  direction  is  vertioally 
upward,  then  horizontally  outward,  or  to  the  sides^  and  then  almost  as 
horizontally  backward ;  itie  limbs  short  and  straight ;  the  hoofs  broad. 
The  only  spedee  of  this  genus  is  the  B,  taxicola,  the  Takin.  It  isthe 
NeTnorhadua  of  Turner.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Eastern  Himalaya. 
It  is  called  Takin  by  the  Mishmis,  and  Ken  by  the  Ehamtis.  There 
has  been  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  position  of  this 
animal,  but  we  have  followed  Dr.  J.  K  Gray  in  placmg  it  amongst 
the  Bovea. 

Fotnl  BoveoB, 
Remains  of  oxen  and  deer  occur  abundantly  in  the  Tertiary  Beds, 
with  extinct  spedee  of  exiating  genera  of  PttdtydermatOf  such  as  the 
elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus^  and  horsey,  the  extinct  genus 
Matiodonf  and  huge  Camivora,  as  the  tiger,  hysena,  and  bear. 
The  most  interesting  of  these  Lb  the  Bot  primigeiUut. 
Mr.  Woods,  in  a  paper  on  some  fossil  bones  foimd  in  Wiltshire,  says, 
"It  has  occadoned  some  speculation  among  zoologists  to  appropriate 
to  the  large  herbivorous  jmimalit,  of  which  these  ^ulls  and  scattered 
bones  are  now  the  only  vestiges,  their  proper  place  in  the  system  of 
nature.  Cuvier  however  has  fixed  their  characters,  and  has  declared 
them  to  resemble  the  skulls  of  the  present  oxen  so  closdy,  that  there 
can  be  little  doubt  of  their  having  belonged  to  the  stock  from  which 
the  latter  have  all  proceeded ;  these  having  however  degenerated  in 
size,  and  varied  from  them  and  from  each  other  in  minor  points,  owing 
to  differences  in  climate,  food,  and  other  causes  depending  upon 
domestication,  their  magnitude  is  at  least  one-third  greater  than  that 
of  the  largest  breed  of  modem  oxen,  and  their  horns  are  much  more 
maadve." 

We  have  seen  that  Professor  Owen  Lb  of  opinion  that  the  Bot  printi- 
genifu  is  a  distmct  spedes  from  the  Common  Ox.  That  it  is  distinct 
from  the  Bison  or  Aurochs  was  pointed  out  by  Bojanus,  at  the  same 
time  we  have  abundant  evidence  that  it  existed  in.  Gh:eat  Britain  with 
the  Aurochs,  with  the  bones  of  which  its  remains  are  found  constantly 
associated.  "The  characters  of  Bot  primigenius"  says  Prdfessor 
Owen,  "as  contrasted  with  the  Biion  priseua,  may  be  advantageoudy 
studied  in  the  magnificent  specimen  of  an  entire  akull,  from  near 
Athol  in  Perthdiire,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  concave  fore- 
head, with  its  slight  median  longitudinal  ridge ;  the  origin  of  the 
horns  at  the  extremities  of  the  sharp  ridge  which  divides  the  frontal 
from  the  occipital  regions;  the  acute  angle  at  which  these  two 
surfikces  of  the  cranium  meet  to  form  the  above  ridge,  dl  idontify 
this  specimen  with  the  Bot  primigeniut  described  by  Cuvier,  Bojanus, 
and  Fremery.  The  cores  of  the  horns  bend  at  first  dightly  backward 
and  upward,  then  downward  and  forward,  and  finally  inward  and 
upward,  describing  a  graceful  double  curvature ;  they  are  tuberculate 
at  the  base,  moderatdy  impressed  by  longitudinal  grooves,  and 
irregularly  perforated.  The  skull  is  one  yard  in  length,  and  the  span 
of  &e  horn-cores  is  3  feet  6  inches ;  but  other  British  spedmens  of 
the  Bot  primigmim  have  shown  superior  dimensions  of  the  bony 
supports  of  the  bonis.  The  breadth  of  the  forehead  between  the 
horns  is  lOJ  inches;  from  the  middle  of  the  occipitd  ridge  to  the  back 
part  of  the  orbit  it  measures  18  inches ;  the  length  of  the  series  of  the 
upper  molar  teeth  is  64  inches^  the  breadth  of  the  occipitd  condyles 
is  6  inches." 

The  difference  between  the  B.  primigeniut  and  the  domestic  ox  is 
seen  most  in  its  diminutive  size  and  the  comparative  shortness  as  well 
as  fineness  of  its  horns.  Specimens  of  B.  primigeniut  have  been  found 
by  Mr.  John  Brown  in  the  London  Clay  of  Clacton,  on  the  Essex  coast, 
by  Mr.  H.  Woods  in  the  bed  of  the  Avon,  by  Mr.  Wickham  Flower  in 
the  London  Clay  of  Heme  Bay,  and  in  many  other  phtces. 

In  addition  to  this  species  Professor  Owen  describes  another  fossil 
species  which  ho  has  named  B.  longtfront.    The  first  known  spedmnn  • 


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BOVISTA. 


fta 


a.F/ontTieir;  1^  i 


JBot  primigmiut, 
I  from  below ;  c,  seen  from  behind ;  d,  profile.  (CttTicr.) 


of  this  BpecieB  was  obtained  by  John  Hunter  from  a  bog  in  Ireland, 
and  was  described  by  Professor  Owen  as  a  distinct  spedea.  Other 
specimens  have  since  been  brought  to  light.  Dr.  Robert  Ball 
described,  in  the  '  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy/  for  1839, 
remains  of  this  species,  obtained  from  considerable  depths  in  bogs  in 
Westmeath,  Tyrone,  and  Longford.  Remains  of  it  nave  also  been 
found  in  Essex,  Middlesex,  Devonshire,  and  other  parts  of  England. 

Of  this  species  Professor  Owen  says,  **  It  has  been  remarked  in  a 
former  section  that  the  domesticated  descendants  of  a  primitiTe  wild 
race  of  cattle  were  more  likely  to  be  met  with  in  the  mountaina  tiian 
in  the  lowlands  of  Britain,  because  the  aborigines,  retaining  their 
ground  longest  in  the  mountain  fastnessea,  may  be  supposed  to  have 
driven  thither  such  domestic  cattle  as  they  possessed  before  the  foreign 
invasion,  and  which  we  may  presume  therefore  to  have  been  derired 
from  the  subjugation  of  a  native  species  of  Boi. 

"  In  this  field  of  coxgecture  the  most  probable  one  will  be  admitted 
to  be  that  which  points  to  the  Bo9  longifrona  as  the  spedea  which 
would  be  domesticated  by  the  aborigines  of  Britain  before  the  Roman 
invasion.  Had  the  Boi  prmigerdut  been  the  soiurce  we  might  have 
expected  the  Highland  and  Welsh  cattle  to  have  retained  some  of  the 
characteristics  of  their  great  progenitors,  and  to  have  been  distin- 
guished from  other  domestic  breeds  by  their  superior  size  and  the 
length  of  their  horns.  The  Kyloes  and  tiie  Runts  are,  on  the  contraty, 
remarkable  for  their  small  size,  and  are  characterised  either  by  short 
horns,  as  in  the  Boi  lonffifront,  or  by  the  entire  absence  of  these 
weapons." 

The  following  fossil  species  have  been  also  named : — Bot  troekoeenu 
^Hermann  von  Meyer),  sub-Apennine  beds ;  Buffle  Fossile  de  Sib^rie 
(Cuv.);  Boi  {Bison  f)  bombifrons  (Harlan),  Big-Bone-Lick,  North 
America ;  Bos  Pallasii  (Dekay),  Bos  moschatm  foMis  (?),  Bos  aaudicn- 
lotus  (?)  (Fischer),  Siberia  and  North  America ;  Bos  vdaunus  (Robert), 
Cuasac,  Haute  Loire. 

Abundant  remains  of  the  Ox  were  found  by  Captain  Cautley  in  the 
Sewalik  Mountains,  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  between 
the  Sutlej  and  the  Ganges,  partly  lying  on  the  slopes  among  the  mins 
of  fallen  cli£b,  and  partly  in  situ  in  the  sandstone,  in  company  with 
the  bones  of  mastodon,  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  hog, 
horse  (comparatively  scarce),  elk,  deer  (several  varieties) ;  Camivora, 
canine  and  feline  (comparatively  scarce);  crocodile,  gavial,  Enf/tt 
Trionyx,  and  fishes.  There  were  also  portions  of  undescribed 
Mammalici. 

BOVISTA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Fmgi 
This  name  was  given  it  by  Dillenius,  and  is  a  Latinised  version  of 
Bofist,  its  Qerman  name.  In  many  parts  of  England  its  oonmion 
name  ia  Bullfice,  and  some  writers  call  it  Bull  Puff-Ball.  The  genni 
Bovista  was  at  one  time  included  under  Lyeoperdon  [Ltcopbrdon], 
and  the  type  of  the  K'^o.'^  Bovista  gigantea,  was  called  by  Linnsoi 
Lycoperdon  Bovista.  The  present  Lycoperdon  Bovista  is  the  common 
or  Wolf  Pu£fBaU.  The  difierence  between  the  genera  is,  that  Lyco- 
perdon has  a  single  peridium,  while  Bovista  has  a  double  one. 

The  Bovista  gigantea,  Bull  Puff-Ball,  Frog's  Cheese,  and  Bullfice, 
la  interesting  on  account  of  the  enoimous  size  it  attains.  It  haa  the 
form  of  a  flattened  ball,  at  first  of  a  perfectly  white  colour.  Speci- 
mens have  been  gathered  measuring  as  much  as  9  feet  in  circumference. 
When  they  have  attained  their  full  size,  they  begin  to  change  colour ; 
the  external  peridium  cracks  and  peels  off,  the  inner  one  iJao  bunts 
at  the  apex.  The  interior  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  tissue,  which 
when  young  is  white  and  moist,  but  at  length  becomes  coloured  and 
dry,  and  on  being  pressed  emits  a  laige  quantity  of  powdery  matter, 
which  on  being  examined  is  found  to  consist  entirely  of  sporules. 
On  examining  the  mass  inside  it  is  found  to  consist  of  filaments 
which  are  mixed  with  sporules.  Burnett  says,  "It  is  probably 
the  smoke  that  arises  frem  these  fiingi  when  bum6d,  or  some 
of  their  allies,  the  Lycoperdons,  which  forms  the  secret  method 
advantageously  employed  by  some  persons  who  keep  bees,  in  order 
to  stupr^  the  insects  without  killing  them,  while  their  hives  ars 
being  robbed  of  all  their  honey."  Geraide  says,  "  The  common 
people  use  this  fungus  to  kill  or  smoulder  their  h&OB."  This  practice 
has  recently  led  to  a  curious  discovery.  Mr.  EL  B.  W.  Richardson, 
a  suigeon,  living  at  Mortlake,  struck  with  the  fact  of  its  stupif jing 
bees,  was  induced  to  try  its  effects  upon  other  animals  Cats  and 
dogs  having  been  submitted  to  the  action  of  smoke  from  the  burning 
fungus,  they 'Were  found  to  be  narcotised«in  the  same  manner  as  if 
under  the  influence  of  ether  or  chloroform.  A  dog  with  a  large 
tumour  of  the  abdomen  was  narcotised,  and  whiLit  under  its  influence 
the  tumour  was  removed,  the  animal  giving  no  sign  of  pain.  The 
narcotic  principle  seems  to  be  formed  during  the  process  of  combuatioD. 
Mr.  Richardson  found  that  it  was  capable  of  producing  the  death  of 
animals.  At  present  no  advantage  seems  to  be  gained  by  adminis- 
tering this  vapour  instead  of  ether  or  chloroform ;  at  the  same  time, 
it  is  an  interesting  fact  in  the  history  of  the  properties  of  plants.  It 
is  curious  that  this  fungus  is  stated  by  Dr.  Badham  to  be  amongst 
those  which  are  eatable.  He  says  however  that  "  no  fungus  requires 
to  be  eaten  so  soon  after  gathering  as  this,"  and  adds,  in  a  note,  thai 
he  has  been  informed  that  it  is  sometimes  served  on  state  occasions 
at  the  Freemasons'  Tavern.  The  best  way  of  cooking  it  is  "  to  cut  it 
into  slices,  and  fry  these  in  egg  and  bread  crumba."  In  Mr.  Richard- 
son's experiments  the  dried  fungus  was  employed.  An  Italian  specie^ 


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«33 


BOWERBANKIA. 


BRACHIOPODA. 


the  B.  furfuraeea,  which  grows  in  great  abundance  on  the  heaths  near 
Florenoe,  is  collected  and  sold  in  the  markets,  and,  according  to 
liicheli,  is  an  esteemed  article  of  food. 

(Bischoff,  MedicinischrPharmaceutuche  Botanxk;  Burnett,  Outliaies 
of  Botany:  Aa$oeiation  Medical  Jotumal,  No.  xxiL) 

BOWERBANKIA,  a  genus  of  Ascidioid  Polypes,  or  Polyzoa, 
belonging  to  the  fietmily  VeticulariadcR,  It  was  named  by  Dr.  Farre  in 
honour  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Bowerbank.  The  following  character  is  given  by 
Dr.  Johnston  in  his  'British  2iOophyte8:' — Polypidom  confervoid, 
matted  or  irregularly  branched ;  the  cells  sessile,  unilateral,  irregular; 
the  inflected  portion  with  a  spinous  or  filamentous  rim.  The  polypes 
ascidian,  with  ten  ciliated  tentacula,  and  a  strong  gizzard.  There  is 
but  one  British  species,  B,  imbricat€k  It  has  ovate  or  ovato-cylin- 
drical  cells,  which  are  irregularly  scattered  on  the  polypidom  in  dense 
clusters.  In  its  young  state  the  polypidom  Ib  creeping  and  matted ; 
but  as  it  arrives  at  maturity  it  becomes  arbuscular  and  erect  ^  From 
this  circumstance  several  names  have  been  given  to  this  species.  It 
is  found  growing  on  the  Ftiei  and  corallines  which  are  exposed  at 
low  water,  and  very  generally  distributed  on  the  British  coast.  It 
grows  in  profusion  on  the  chams  of  the  steam-ferries  at  Southampton 
and  Portsmouth.  (Johnston,  Britith  Zoophytes.) 
BOWSTRING-HEMP.    [Sansbviera.] 

BRACHE'LTTRA,  a  division  of  the  order  CoUopterct,  The  insects 
of  this  section  (which  answers  to  Linnieus's  genus  StaphylifMu)  may 
be  distinguished  by  the  elongate  form  of  the  body  and  the  shortness 
of  the  wing-cases,  which  in  most  instances  scarcely  cover  one-third  of 
the  length  of  the  abdomen :  their  mazilUe  are  furnished  with  only 
one  palpus.  The  apex  of  the  abdomen  is  provided  with  two  vesicles, 
which  can  be  protruded  at  the  will  of  the  animal 

The  habits  of  the  Brackdytra  are  very  various,  but  the  greater 
number  of  the  species  are  found  in  putrid  animal  or  vegetable 
substances,  upon  whidi  they  feed;  some  are  carnivorous.  The 
shortness  of  flie  wing-cases  probably  allows  of  a  greater  flexibility 
in  the  body. 

BRA'CHINUS,  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  order  Coleopttra 
and  the  section  TrwnecAipennet.  Generic  characters  : — Body  oblong ; 
head  and  thorax  comparatively  narrow,  the  latter  generally  somewhat 
of  a  truncated  heart-shape;  palpi  and  antennae  rather  thick,  the 
terminal  joint  of  the  former  is  slightiy  thicker  than  the  basal  joints, 
and  has  its  apex  truncated ;  mentum  emaiginate,  and  furnished  with 
a  small  tooth-like  process  in  the  middle. 

The  BriU^ini  possess  a  remarkable  power  of  violently  expelling 
from  the  anus  a  pungent  acrid  fluid,  which,  if  the  species  be  large, 
has  the  power  of  producing  a  discoloration  of  the  skin  similar  to  that 
caused  by  nitric  acid.  A  loud  report,  considering  the  size  of  the 
insect,  accompanies  the  expulsion  of  this  fluid,  which  being  discharged 
instantiy  evaporates. 

About  five  species  of  the  genus  .SraeAtnttf  have  been  found  in  this 
country,  of  which  B,  crepitant  is  the  most  common.  It  is  found  under 
stones,  and  occurs  plentifully  in  chalky  districts^  This  species  is 
rather  less  than  haSl  an  inch  long ;  the  head,  thorax,  and  legs  are  of 
a  yellowish-red  colour ;  the  wing-cases  are  greenish,  or  blue-black ; 
the  antennsD  are  radish,  with  the  third  and  fourth  joints  black. 
Many  of  the  species  of  Brachinut  resemble  the  above  in  colour.  The 
species  of  the  genus  Aptintu  (a  genus  very  closely  allied  and  differing 
chiefly  in  being  apterous)  are  generally  of  a  yellow  colour,  having 
four  black  spots  on  the  elytra ;  the  head  and  thorax  are  also  often 
more  or  lees  sufiused  with  black ;  they  are  likewise  of  a  larger  size 
for  the  most  part,  and  aboxmd  more  particularly  in  warm  dimatea 
BRACHIOBDELLA.    [Anneuda.] 

BRACHIONiEA,  a  family  of  animals  belonging  to  the  order  Bolifera, 
It  embraces  a  lai^  number  of  species  formeriy  included  under  the 
genus  Braehiomu.  It  is  distinguished  from  other  families  of  Botifera 
by  the  possession  of  two  rotatory  oi^gans,  and  a  lorica  or  shell.  The 
wheels,  or  rotatory  organs,  are  apparentiy  composed  of  five  parts,  three 
of  which  are  central,  and  two  lateral ;  the  latter  of  which  alone  form 
the  true  rotatoiy  organs,  the  others  being  only  dilated  frontal 
portions.  Some  have  two  setee  proceeding  from  the  rotatory  apparatus, 
as  in  Synchaiet,  The  jaws  are  supplied  with  teeth  and  four  muscles. 
They  are  supplied  with  biliary  glands  and  ovary,  male  organs,  and  a 
contractile  veside.  Ehrenberg  regards  a  red  spot  in  them  as  indica- 
tive of  the  presence  of  a  nervous  system. 

This  funhy  comprises  the  following  genera  i—Pterodina,  Anottrdla, 
Brackicmu,  LeptuieUa,  Euchlanit,  JMnocharit,  Salpina,  Colmdla, 
Butulus,  Polyarthrek 

Ehrenbeig  makes  seventeen  genera;  but  Dujardin  has  reduced 
the  number  to  ten,  on  acooimt  of  the  insignincant  characters  on 
which  Ehrenbeig's  genera  are  founded. 

Braehiomu  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  family,  and  B.  wrceolairia 
is  one  of  its  most  characteristic  spedes.  The  genus  Brwhionua  has 
a  single  eye  (d),  and  a  furcate  foot  or  tail  (^.  It  has  a  reddish 
colour,  the  shield  smooth,  with  six  short  spines  in  front ;  the  posterior 
extremity  rounded.  The  jaws  have  each  five  teeth.  Both  male  and 
fismale  organs  sre  present.  It  is  a  very  common  species  in  both  brackish 
and  fredi  waters.  Dujardin  says  he  has  oonstantiy  found  it  in  the 
cisterns  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  in  Paris,  and  especially  in  that  in 
which  the  aquatic  plants  grow.  A  few  years  ago  the  waters  of  the 
Serpentine,  in  Hyde  Park,  swarmed  with  this  species,  and  it  is  veiy 


oonstantiy  present  in  the  waters  supplied  to  the  cisterns  of  London 
for  drinking  purposes. 


Braehionut  urceolaru^  highly  magnified, 

a,  |U)tatory  cilia ;  h,  internal  branchial  organs ;  d^  eye ;  e,  pharynx  and  Jaws ; 

/,  atontach ;  g,  appendagei  of  stomach  ;  A,  ovary  ;  ^  tail. 

BRACHIONUS.     [BRACHiONiEA.] 

BRACHIOTODA,  or  Brachiopodous  MoUiuca,  Cuvier's  fifth  class 
of  MoUusks,  the  PalUobranchians  {PaUiobranchiata  of  De  Blainville), 
being  the  first  order  of  De  Blainville's  third  class  of  MoUusks 
(A  cephalophora). 

This  class,  tnough  comparatively  low  in  the  scale  of  creation,  is 
interesting  to  the  physiologist,  and  of  considerable  value  to  the 
geologist,  who  finds  in  the  fossil  forms  no  small  portion  of  those 
natui^  medals  which  indicate  the  history  of  the  stratification  of  our 
globe.  Comparatively  few  of  the  spedes  exist  in  the  seas  of  the 
present  day,  but  in  former  periods  of  the  earth's  surface  they  occupied 
the  position  now  taken  by  the  Lamellibranchiate  MoUtuca, 

Cuvier,  in  his  anatomy  of  Limgvla  anatina^  in  the  'Annales  du 
Museum,'  first  made  known  that  organisation  by  which  the  mantie, 
in  addition  to  its  office  of  secreting  the  shelly  defence  of  these 
bivalves,  is  made  subservient  to  the  circulating  system.  Instead  of 
the  branchi®  of  the  ordinary  bivalves  he  found  in  the  situation  usually 
occupied  by  them  two  fringed  and  spirally-disposed  arms,  and  that  the 
branchisd  presented  themselves  on  the  internal  surface  of  both  lobes 
of  the  mantie  in  oblique  paralld  lines.  He  further  found  that  these 
lobes  were  traversed  by  vessels  of  oonsfderable  size,  which  returned 
the  blood  from  the  oigans  of  respiration,  and  that  these  branchial 
veins  terminated  in  two  symmetrical  oystemic  hearts.  Here  was  a 
new  type  of  circulation,  and  to  the  mollusks  which  presented  these 
interesting  and  important  modifications  he  gave  the  name  at  the  head 
of  our  article,  significative  of  the  fringed  arms  which  in  this  class  took 
the  place  of  the  foot  or  organ  of  progression  in  the  cockle,  &c. 

Lamanon  and  Walsh  had  previously  taken  the  analogous  parts  of 
Terd>ratvla  for  branchise,  and  Pallas,  who  is  not  quoted  by  Cuvier, 
describes  the  arms  of  Terebratvla  with  minuteness  and  accuracy,  but 
considers  them  as  branchise,  and  compares  them  to  those  of  a  fisn. 

De  Blainville,  in  the  '  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  Naturelles,'  gives 
an  account  of  the  otganisation  of  Terebratula.  But  both  Cuvier  and 
De  Blainville  were  led  into  error  in  their  attempts  to  trace  out  some 
parts  of  the  organisation  of  Terebratula;  and  it  was  reserved  for 
Mr.  Owen,  in  his  acute,  accurate,  and  interesting  paper  'On  the 
Anatomy  of  the  Brachiopoda  of  Cuvier,  and  more  especially  of  the 
Genera  Terebratula  and  Orbicula^*  published  in  the  '  Transactions  of 
the  2k>ological  Society  of  London'  (vol.  L  p.  145),  and  derived  from 
the  dissection  of  spedmens  brought  to  this  coxmtry  by  Mr.  Cuming 
and  Captain  James  Ross,  R.N.,  fully  to  investigate  the  subject  so  as  to 
leave  littie  or  nothing  to  be  desired  upon  the  subject  of  the  anatomy 
of  Lingula  and  of  the  two  genera  last  named.  Our  limits  will  not 
permit  us  to  follow  the  learned  author  through  his  memoir,  the  whole 
of  which,  together  with  the  beautiful  illustrations  that  accompany  it, 
is  worthy  of  the  most  attentive  perusal  by  the  physiologist  and 
zoologist  The  following  general  remarks  from  rrofessor  Owen's 
paper  illustrate  his  views.  It  should  be  premised  that  the  Brachiopoda 
are  cxyptandrous. 

**  On  comparing  together,"  says  Mr.  Owen,  "  the  three  genera  of 
Brachiopoda  above  described,  we  find  that  although  Orbiculaf  in  the 
muscular  structure  of  its  arms  and  the  proportion  of  the  shdl  occu- 
pied by  its  viscera,  is  intermediate  to  Lingula  and  Terebratula,  yet 
that  in  the  structure  of  its  respiratory  organs,  its  simple  alimentary 
canal,  and  its  mode  of  attachment  to  foreign  bodies,  it  has  a  greater 
affinity  to  the  latter  genus.  The  modifications  that  can  be  traced  in 
the  organisation  of  these  genera  have  an  evident  reference  to  the 
dififerent  situations  which  they  occupy  in  the  watery  element 
Lingula,  living  more  commonly  near  the  surface,  and  sometimes 
where  it  would  be  left  exposed  by  the  retreating  tide,  were  it  not 
buried  in  the  sand  of  the  shore,  must  meet  with  a  greater  variety  and 
abundance  of  animal  nutriment  than  can  be  found  in  those  abysses  in 
which  Terebratula  is  destined  to  reside.  Hence  its  powers  of  prehen- 
sion are  greater,  and  Cuvier  suspects  it  may  enjoy  a  spedes  of  loco- 
motion ^m  the  superior  length  of  its  pedicle.  Thv  organisation  of 
its  mouth  and  stomach  indicates  however  that  it  is  coxmned  to  food 


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835 


BBAGHIOPODA. 


BRACHIOPODA- 


of  a  miAute  description ;  but  its  oonvoluted  intestine  shows  a  capacity 
for  extracting  a  quantity  of  nutriment  proportioned  to  its  superior 
activity  and  tiie  extent  of  its  soft  parts.  A  more  complex  and  obvious 
respiratory  apparatus  was  therefore  indispensable,  and  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  ihe  earlier  observers  failed  to  detect  a  corresponding 
oigsnisation  in  genera  destined  to  a  more  limited  sphere  of  action. 
The  respiration  indeed  as  well  as  the  nutrition  of  animals  living 
beneath  a  pressure  of  from  60  to  90  fathoms  of  sea  water,  are  subjects 
of  peculiar  interest^  and  prepare  the  mind  to  contemplate  with  less 
surprise  the  wonderful  complexity  exhibited  in  the  minutest  parts  of 
these  diminutive  creatures.  In  the  stillness  pervading  these  abysses 
they  can  only  maintain  existence  by  exciting  a  perpetual  current 
around  them  in  order  to  dissipate  the  water  alroady  loaded  with  their 
effete  particles,  and  bring  within  the  reach  of  their  prehensile  organs 
the  ammalcula  adapted  for  their  support  The  actions  of  TerebrcUtUa 
and  Orbieyla,  from  the  firm  attachment  of  their  shells  to  foreign  sub- 
stances, are  thus  confined  to  the  movements  of  their  brachial  and 
branchisl  filaments,  and  to  a  slight  divarication  or  sliding  motion  of 
their  protecting  vidves ;  and  the  simplicity  of  their  digestive  appa- 
ratus, the  correspondkig  simplicity  of  their  branchue,  and  the 
diminished  proportion  of  their  soft  to  their  hard  parts,  are  in  har- 
mony with  such  limited  powers.  The  soft  parts  in  both  genera  are 
however  remarkable  for  the  strong  and  unyielding  manner  in  which 
they  are  connected  together.  The  muscular  parts  are  in  great  pro- 
portion and  of  singular  complexity,  as  compared  with  ordinary 
bivalves;  and  the  tendinous  and  aponeurotic  parts  are  remarkable 
for  the  similarity  of  their  texture  and  appearance  to  those  of  the 
highest  classes.  By  mesns  of  all  this  strength  they  are  enabled  to 
porfoim  the  requisite  motions  of  the  valves  at  the  depths  in  which 
they  sre  met  with.  Terebraiulti,  which  is  more  remarkable  for  its 
habitat,  has  an  internal  skeleton  superadded  to  its  outward  defence, 
by  means  of  which  additional  support  is  afforded  to  the  shell,  a 
stronger  defence  to  the  viscera,  and  a  more  fixed  point  of  attachment 
to  the  brachial  drri. 

**  The  spiral  disposition  of  the  arms  is  common  to  the  whole  of  the 
brachiopodous  genera  whose  organisation  has  hitherto  been  examined; 
and  it  is  therefore  probable  that  in  that  remarkable  genus  iS^ptrt/er,  the 
entire  brachia  were  similarly  disposed,  and  that  the  internal  calcareous 
spiral  appendages  were  their  supports.  If,  indeed,  the  brachia  of 
Terebrattda  ptiUacea  had  been  so  obtained,  this  species  would  have 
presented  in  a  fossil  state  an  internal  structure  very  similar  to  that  of 
Spinfer, 

**  In  considering  the  affinities  of  the  Brachiopoda  to  the  other  orders 
of  MoUuKa,  I  shall  compare  them,  in  the  first  place,  with  the  Lamelli- 
branchiate  Bivalves,  to  which  they  present  the  most  obvious  relations 
in  the  nature  and  forms  of  their  oigans  of  defence.  To  these  they 
are  in  some  respects  superior.  The  labial  arms  are  more  complex 
prehensile  organs  than  the  corresponding  vascular  laminae  on  either 
side  of  the  mouth  of  the  LamellibranchicUa.  The  whole  muscular 
mtem  is  more  complex ;  and  the  opening  as  well  as  the  closing  of 
the  shell  beiug  r^^tod  by  muscular  action,  indicates  a  higher 
degree  of  organisation  than  where  the  antagonising  power  results 
f^m  a  property  of  the  cardinal  ligament,  which  is  independent  of 
vitality,  viz.  elasticity.  With  respect  however  to  the  respiratory 
organs,  the  modifications  which  these  have  presented  in  Orbicula  and 
TerebraitUa  show  the  Brachiopods  to  be  still  more  inferior  to  the 
LamellibranehicUa  than  was  to  be  inferred  from  the  structure  of  the 
branchis  in  Lingula  ;  and  notwithstanding  the  division  of  the  systemic 
heart,  I  consider  that  there  is  also  an  inferiority  in  the  vascular 
system.  Each  heart,  for  example,  in  the  BracfUopoda  is  as  simple  as 
in  Atcidia,  consisting  of  a  single  elongated  cavity,  and  not  composed 
of  a  distinct  auricle  and  ventricle,  as  in  the  ordinary  bivalves ;  for  in 
these,  even  when,  as  in  the  genus  Area,  the  ventricles  are  double,  the 
aurides  are  also  distinctly  two  in  number ;  and  in  the  other  genera, 
where  the  ventricle  is  single,  it  is  mostly  supplied  by  a  double 
auricle.  The  two  hearts  of  the  Brcichiopoda,  which  in  structure 
resemble  the  two  aurides  in  the  above  bivalves,  form  therefore  a 
complexity  or  superiority  of  organisation  more  apparent  than  real 
Havmg  been  thus  led  to  consider  the  circulating  as  well  as  respiratory 
systems  as  constructed  on  an  inferior  plan  to  that  which  pervades  the 
same  important  systems  in  the  Lamellibranchiate  Bivalves,  I  infer 
that  the  position  of  the  BracMopoda  in  the  natural  qrstem  is  inferior 
to  that  order  of  AcephaUk, 

« Among  the  relations  of  the  Brachiopoda  to  the  Tunicated 
AeepihalOf  and  more  especially  to  the  AtciduZf  we  may  first  notice  an 
almost  similar  position  of  the  extended  respiratory  membranes  in 
relation  to  the  mouth,  so  that  the  currents  containing  the  nutrient 
molecules  must  first  traverse  the  vascular  surface  of  that  membrane 
before  reaching  the  mouth ;  the  simple  condition,  also,  to  which  the 
branchiie  are  reduced  in  Orbicula  and  Ttrdfrat%ila  indicates  their  close 
affinity  to  the  AiddUs,  But  in  consequence  of  the  form  of  the 
respiratory  membranes  in  the  Brc^chiopMo,  which  is  so  opposite  to 
that  of  the  sacciform  branchise  of  the  A§MicB,  the  digestive  mtem 
derives  no  aosistanoe  from  that  part  as  a  receptacle  for  the  food,  and 
the  superaddition  of  prehensile  orsans  about  the  mouth  became  a 
necessary  consequence.  The  Brachiopoda  again  are  stationary,  like 
the  AseUUcB,  and  resemble  the  BoUcnicB  in  the  pedunculated  mode  of 
their  attachmant  to  foreign  bodies. 


"With  the  Cirripeda  their  relation  is  one  of  very  remote  analogy, 
their  generative,  nervous,  and  respiratory  organs  being  constructed  on 
a  difftdrent  type,  and  their  brachia  maxiifesting  no  trace  of  their  arti- 
culate structure.  In  all  essential  points  the  Brachiopoda  cloi^ly 
correspond  with  the  Acephalous  MoUutca,  and  we  consider  them  as 
being  intermediate  to  the  Lamellibranchiate  and  Tunicate  orden; 
not  however  possessing,  so  far  as  they  are  at  present  known,  a  distinc- 
tive character  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  their  being  regarded 
as  a  distinct  doss  of  MoUusks,  but  forming  a  separate  group  of  equal 
value  with  the  LameUibranchiata," 

The  structure  of  the  shells  of  the  Brachiopoda  has  been  atten- 
tively studied  by  Dr.  Carpenter,  and  the  results  of  hii  investigations 
have  been  published  in  his  '  Report  on  the  Microscopic  Structure  of 
Shells,'  made  to  the  British  Assodatioa 

The  following  is  De  Blainville's  airangement  of  the  Braehiopcda, 
slightly  modified : — 

Shell  SymmetricaL 

Tertbraiula  (Bmgui^res).  Anunal  depressed,  circnlsr  or  oval,  more 
or  less  doogated.  Bhdl  ddicate,  eqiulateral,  sabtriangdar,  inequi- 
valve,  one  of  the  valves  larger  and  more  zoundsd  (bomb^)  than  the 
other,  prolonged  backwards  into  a  sort  of  bed,  whidi  is  sometimes 
recurved  into  a  kind  of  hook-like  process,  and  pierced  at  its- extremity 
by  a  round  hole,  but  more  frequently  divided  into  a  fissure  more  or 
less  large  and  of  variable  form.  The  opposite  vdve  generslly  smaller, 
fiatter,  and  sometimes  operouliform.  Of  that  oomplicated  loop  or 
internal  support  to  which  the  arms  are  attached  we  shall  presently 
speak  at  large.  Hinge  on  the  border,  condvloid,  placed  on  a  straight 
Ime,  and  formed  by  the  two  oblique  articulating  aur&oes  of  the  one 
valve  placed  betweoi  the  corresponding  prtnections  of  the  other.  A 
sort  of  tendinous  ligament  comes  forth  man  the  hole  or  fisiura 
above  described,  by  which  the  animal  fixes  itself  to  submarine 
bodies. 

The  following  is  Mr.  Owen's  description  of  the  peculisr,  complex, 
and  extremely  delicate  testaceous  apparatus,  sometimes  called 'the 
cazriage-spring '  by  oolleotors,  attaoheci  to  the  internal  surface  of  the 
imperforate  valve : — 

"  The  prindpal  part  of  this  internal  skeleton,  as  it  may  be  termed, 
oonsiBts  of  a  slender,  flattened,  calcareous  loop,  the  extremities  of 
which  are  attached  to  the  lateral  elevated  ridgee  of  the  hinge;  the 
crura  of  the  loop  diverge,  but  sgain  approximate  to  each  otiier  as^ey 
advance  for  a  greater  or  less  distance  towards  Uie  oppodte  margin  of 
the  valve;  the  loop  then  suddenly  turns  towards  the  perforate  Tal?e, 
and  is  bent  back  upon  itself  for  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  different 
spedes.  When  the  loop  is  very  diort  and  narrow,  as  in  T.  rilreo, 
Brug.,  there  is  but  a  small  tendency  towards  a  reflected  portion ;  but 
where  the  loop  is  of  great  length  and  width,  as  in  T.  ChiUmitf  Brod., 
T.  dorsata,  Lam.,  and  T.  SowerbU,  King.,  the  reflected  portion  is  con- 
siderabl&  The  loop,  besides  being  ;fixed  by  its  origins  or  crora,  is 
commonly  attached  to  two  processes  going  off  at  right  angles  from  the 
rides,  or  formed  by  a  bifurcation  of  the  extremity,  of  a  central  process, 
whidi  is  oontinueid  forwards  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  fiom  the 
hinge;  but  it  is  sometimes  entirely  free,  except  at  its  origins,  as,  for 
example,  in  T.'vitrca.  This  reflected  loop,  forming  two  ardies  on 
either  side  the  mesial  plane,  towards  which  their  ooncarities  are 
directed,  I  have  figured  as  it  exists  in  T.  ChUamt  and  T.  SowerbiL 
It  is  represented  of  a  similarly  perfect  form  in  T.  daUata,  by  H.  De 
Blainville  in  his  '  Malacologie ;'  and  the  same  apparatus  in  T.  donaia 
is  very  wdl  figured  by  Chemnits,  by  Sowerby,  and  more  recently  by 
Q.  Fischer  de  Waldheim.  A  similar  form  is  also  figured  in  another 
spedes  of  Terebratula  by  Poll 

"  The  arches  of  the  loop  are  so  slender  that^  notwithstanding  their 
calcareous  nature,  they  possess  a  slight  degree  of  elastidty  and  yield 
a  little  to  pressure ;  but  for  the  same  reason  they  readily  break  if  the 
experiment  be  not  made  with  due  caution.  Hie  interspace  between 
£he  two  folds  of  the  calcareous  loop  is  filled  up  by  a  strong  but  exten- 
sile membrane,  which  binds  them  together,  and  forms  a  protecting 
wall  to  the  viscera :  the  space  between  the  bifurcated  process  in  T. 
ChiUniit  is  also  dmilarly  occupied  by  a  strong  aponeurosis.  In  this 
spedes  the  muscular  stem  of  eaioh  arm  is  atta^ed  to  the  outer  sides 
of  the  loop  and  the  intervening  membrana  They  oommence  at  the 
pointed  processes  at  the  origins  of  the  loop^  advance  along  the  lower 
portion,  turn  round  upon  the  upper  one,  and  sre  oontinued  dong  it  till 
they  reach  the  transverse  cormecting  bar,  where  they  advance  again  for 
wards,  and  terminate  by  making  a  half-spiral  twist  in  front  of  the 
mouth.  It  is  these  fr«e  extremities  which  form  the  third  arm  men- 
tioned by  Cuvier.  These  arms  are  dliate  on  their  outer  dde  for  their 
entire  length,  but  the  cilia  are  longer  and  much  finer  than  the  braohial 
fringes  of  Lingukt;  and  except  at  the  extreme  ends,  which  have  a 
slight  incurvation,  they  are  uniformly  straight  There  is  thus  an 
important  difference  between  Lvngvla  and  those  spedes  of  Terdroi/fda 
wmch  resemble  T,  Chilmtit  in  the  powers  of  motion  with  which  the 
arms  are  endowed;  sinoe^  from  tneir  attadmient  to  the  cdcareooa 
loop,  they  are  fixed,  and  cannot  be  unfolded  outwards  as  in  Xsn^do. 
Ovnng  to  this  mods  of  connection,  and  their  dliated  stmctura,  their 
true  nature  was  much  more  liable  to  be  mistaken  by  the  eariy  oboeir- 
ers^  though  it  H>pefzs  not  to  have  esoaped  the  dismmination  of  Un- 
nsuSy  who^  as  Cuvier  has  observed,  founded  his  chsracter  of  the  animal 


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BRACHIOPODA, 


BRACHIOPODA. 


of  Anomia  on  the  orgaiiifiation  of  one  of  the  jPsrebrattUce  which  he 
included  in  that  genus."  * 

The  recent  speoieB  are  ntunerouB  and  widely  di£Ri8ed,  and  the  genus 
appears  to  be  oapable  of  flo\irishing  in  extremely  warm  and  extremely 
cold  regions,  as  well  as  in  more  temperate  climates.  Thus  some  of 
the  species  have  been  found  in  the  Indian  seas  and  at  Java  {T.  Jlavea- 
eent,  Lam.,  for  example),  and  7.  ptittacea,  brought  home  from  the  late 
expedition  by  Captam  James  Boss,  R.N.,  was  fished  up  from  a  depth 
of  twen^-two  fathoms  near  Felix  Harbour,  in  lat.  70**  N.,  on  the  east 
Bide  of  BoothiiL  The  average  depth  at  which  Terd>ratuUt  has  been 
found  ranges  fh>m  ten  to  ninety  fathoms.  De  Blainville  has  thus 
gabdivided  the  species : — 

A.  Summit  of  the  laiger  Talve  pierced  with  a  round  hole,  well  defined. 

1.  Yalvee  triangnlar,  with  a  straight  anterior  border. 
Example,  Terebraiida  digona  (fossil). 


Terebraiula  digoiia, 

2.  Valves  rounded  at  their  anterior  border. 
Example,  TertbratiUa  globoaa  (recent). 


Terebratuta  globosa. 

8.  ValTes  raised  as  it  were,  or  hollowed  on  the  mesial  line. 
Examples,  TerebrcUtUa  ionguinect,  and  Terebratula  donata  (recent). 


5.  Trilobated  as  it  were  by  the  projection  of  the  mesial  part 
Example,  Terdtr<Ufda  cUcUa  (fossil). 


Tercbrtttuia  alat4», 

B.  The  heel  of  the  larger  valve  deeply  notched  up  to  the  border  of 
articulation ;  notch  or  fissure  rounded. 

1.  Valves  rounded  at  their  anterior  border. 
Example,  Ttrebratvla  rubra  (recent). 


Terebraiula  rubra. 


2.  Valves  sub-bUobated  by  the  depression  or  emaigination,  which  is 

apparent  at  the  anterior  border. 
Example,  Terebraiula  Caput  SerperUis  (recent). 


Terebratuta  O^put  Serpentu. 


C.  The  opening  of  the  heel  of  the  larger  valve,  marginal,  triangiHar, 
and  elongated. 

1.  Valves  rounded. 
Example,  Terebraiula  Lyra  (fossil). 


Terebraiula  dorsata.    Internal  views. 

Bilobatcd,  the  valves  striated  from  the  summit  to  the  circumfei  ciicc, 

and  deformed  as  it  were  at  the  junction  of  their  border. 
Example,  Terebraiula  deformis  (fossil). 


'^jwAratula  d^/brmi$. 


2'crd>ratula  Lyra,    a,  Front  view ;  b,  side  view. 

2.  The  valves  snb-bilobated. 
Example,  Terebraiula  canalifcra  (fossil). 


TereifTotula  canalifcra, 

8.  The  valves  rounded;  a  mesial  partition  (cloieon)  in  the  larger 
valve,  placed  between  two  in  the  smaller,  so  as  to  give  in  the  cast 
the  representation  of  five  distinct  pieces,  three  for  one  valve  and 
two  for  the  other. 

Qenus  Pentattera,  Sowerby. — FossiL 

D.  Opening  of  the  heel  marginal,  triangular,  but  much  lai^r  trans- 
vco^y  than  longitudinally.    Line  of  articulation  quite  straight. 

1.  The  small  valve  provided  in  its  mesial  portion  with  a  straight 
flattened  support,  bifurcated  at  its  free  extremity ;  a  partition 
{eUriton)  in  the  other  valve  penetrating  into  this  bifurcation. 
Genus  Strffffoeephalus^  Dcfrance.— FossiL 

Example,  8tryyo€ephalu»  huriinu 


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BRACHIOPODA. 


BRACHIOPODA. 


C40 


Strygoeephalm  Btartini, 

2.  The  lateral  parts  of  the  support  formed  of  a  yerj  fine  spiral  fila- 
ment, so  as  to  produce  two  hollow  somewhat  conical  masses  which 
nearly  fill  the  whole  of  the  shelL 

Qenus  Spirifer,  Sowerby. 

Example,  Spirtfer  triffonalit  (fossil). 


Intenul  Tiew  of  8pir{fer  trigonalia,  ihoiring  the  spiral  prooeiset. 

E.  The  upper  Talve  operculiform  or  very  flat,  system  of  support 
beginning  to  disappear. 

1.  Upper  valve  very  flat 
Qenus  Magat,  Sowerby. — FossiL 
Example,  Magog  pvmUva, 


MagMpumilui, 

2.  Upper  valve  very  much  excavated  above,  summit  of  the  lower 
valve  not  pierced,  and  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts  by  a 
well-developed  mesial  furrow. 
Qenus  Produeta,  Sowerby.— FossiL    (See  '  Min.  Con.,*  pL  820.) 

Example,  Producta  Martini. 


Frodueta  Jtartini, 

The  fossil  Tertbraltida  (properly  so  called)  are  extremely  numerous, 
and  assist  in  the  identification  of  strata  from  the  supracretaoeous 
iproup  to  some  of  the  lowest  formations  in  the  grauwacke  series,  both 
inclusive. 

As  neither  Peniastera,  StrygocephaltUf  Spirifer,  Maga»,  nor  Producta 
has  living  representatives,  ^ey  are  placed  here  from  the  structure 
of  their  shells,  which,  judging  from  analogy,  would  indicate  a  brachio- 
podous  construction  allied  to  TVre&ro^iaa.  Indeed  De  Blainville 
retains  that  name  throughout ;  but  we  think  the  differences  of  con- 
formation warrant  the  separation  of  the  fossils  above  distinguished,  as 
subgenera  of  the  Tertbratvlinas,  They  occur  principally  in  the  more 
ancient  fossiliferous  beds. 

Thecidea,  Defranoe  (Tkteidivm,  Sowerby).  De  Blainville  thus 
describes  tiie  genus : — "  Animal  entirely  unknown,  but  very  probably 
differing  but  little  from  that  of  Orhicula*  Shell  equilateral,  regular, 
very  inequivalve,  and  sufficiently  similar  to  the  Terebralvla  of  the 
latter  sections ;  one  valve  hollowed,  the  heel  or  hook  recurved,  entire, 
without  a  fissure  and  adhering ;  the  other  flat,  operculiform,  and  with* 
out  any  trace  of  the  internal  support. 

Hinge  longitudinal ;  articulation  by  two  distant  condyles,  as  in  the 
Ter^aiulcBf  with  a  large  mesial  tooth  in  the  flat  valve  fitting  between 
the  condyloid  teeth  of  the  concave  valve. 

Example,  Theeidvum  radiatvm. 

The  recent  species  above  mentioned  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  found  among  the  common  red  coral  of  the  •Tuscan  seas. 

The  fossil  spedes  are  tolerably  numerous,  and  Sowerby  says  that 
those  which  he  had  seen  appeared  to  belong  to  the  chalk,  and  were 
brought  from  Maastricht,  and  from  Ox^glandes  in  Normandy. 


0 


ThteidUm  radiatum^  viewed  from  abcre.    a,  ast  alie. 

lAngvla  (Brugi^res).  Shell  subequivalve,  equilateral,  depressed,  % 
little  elongated,  truncated  anteriorly  ;1he  summit  mesial  and  pofte- 
rior,  with  no  tnoe  of  a  ligament^  but  joined  at  the  extremity  to  along 
fibro-gelatinous  pedunde,  which  is  supposed  to  fix  it  vertically  to 
submarine  bodies ;  but  in  the  specimen  of  lAnMnda  AndAcardu  exa- 
mined by  Mr.  Owen,  there  was  no  trace  of  the  adhasion  of-any  foreign 
body  to  the  end  of  this  pedunde.    Muscular  impressions  multiple. 

Example,  Linguia  afuUin€L 


Littgula  anatina. 

The  recent  species  have  been  found  at  depths  ranging  from  the  sur- 
face to  seventeen  fathoms ;  and  specimens  have  been  taken  in  hard 
coarse  sand  from  four  to  six  indies  below  the  surface  of  the  sand. 

Lmgula  has  been  found  in  a  fossil  state  in  the  Inferior  Oolite  of 
Torkdiire,  in  the  Old  Red-Sandstone  f onnation,  and  in  other  old  fos- 
siliferous beds. 

Strophomena,  Rafinesque  (fossil).  Shell  regular,  equilateral,  sub- 
equividve ;  one  valve  flat,  the  other  slightly  excavated  :  articulation 
straight^  transverse,  with  a  small  projection  notched  or  dentelated 
transvendy.    No  trace  of  an  internal  support 

Example,  Strophomena  rugosa. 


Strophomena  mgosa.    Tiew  of  lower  aide. 

As  Strophomena  has  no  living  representatives,  at  least  none  yet  dis- 
covered, there  can  be  no  description  of  the  animal,  which  is,  howe%'er, 
judging  from  the  construction  of  the  shdl,  most  probably  brachiopodous. 

The  fossil  genera  Plagiottoma,  Dianchora,  and  Podopsit  are  placed 
by  De  Blainville  under  this  section.  [Plaqiostoma  ;  Diahchora  ; 
PoDOFBiB.]  We  do  not  however  think  that  there  is  such  pregnant 
evidence  of  a  true  and  entire  brachiopodous  organisation  as  to  warrant 
this  dedded  position  under  the  Brachiopods.  Indeed  De  Blainville 
himself  says  that  some  of  the  Plagiostomata  are  of  the  family  Terdfra- 
tula,  and  that  the  others  (he  instances  Plagiottoma  ManieUii)  sfe 
entirdy  different^  and  he  allows  that  these  last  ought  to  form  a  dis- 
tinct genus  of  the  family  of  Subostraceans^  Defrance  plsces  Pod4tptu 
among  the  oysters. 


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BRACHTCERUS. 


BRACHYPTERYX. 


Shell  Un^naimeirioa],  Irregular,  always  Adherent. 
Or^ieula  (Lamarck).   Shell  orbicular,  veiy  much  compressed ;  ine- 

Suilateral,  veiy  inequivalTe ;  the  lower  valre  veiy  delicate,  adhering ; 
tie  upper  TalTe  patelliform,  with  the  summit  more  or  leas  inclined 
towards  the  posterior  sida    Fissure  of  adhesion  in  the  lower  valre 
sobcentraL    Hinge  toothleos. 
Sxampls^  Ortieula  UmeUota. 


OrkmOa  tamMosa.    A  dngto  •pedmen,  dunriBg  the  eilia. 

The  recent  species  are  found  attached  to  stones,  shells,  sunken 
wrecks^  Aa,  and  have  been  found  at  depths  ranging  from  not  fur  below 
the  soi^hoe  to  seventeen  fathoms. 

Fossil  species  are  said  to  haye  been  found  in  the  Lower  Greensand 
of  Sussex,  in  the  Speeton  Clay  of  Yorkshire,  in  both  the  great  and  the 
inferior  Oolite^  in  tae  oarboniferoualimestons^  and  in  the  Ludlow  Rook 
below  the  Old  Red-Sandston& 

O.  K  Sowerby  has  satisfactorily  proved  that  Lamarck's  genus 
IHtcma  must  be  expunged,  it  having  been  formed  from  speoimena  of 
Orbicula  NorvegieOj  sent  by  Sowerby  to  Lamarck. 

CrwMa  (Retsius  and  others).  G.  B.  Sowerby,  who  has  done  so 
much  in  the  thirteenth  volume  of  the  '  Linnnan  Transactions '  to 
unravel  the  confusion  which  had  previously  been  created  by  authors, 
gives  the  following  generic  characters : — 

Shell  inequivalve,  t;enerally  equilateral,  rather  irregular,  orbicularly 
Bubquadrate,  and  flattiah ;  the  upper  valve  patelliform,  having  its 
umbo  or  vertex  rather  behind  the  centre ;  the  lower  valve  attached  by 
its  outside,  the  greater  part  of  it  being  generally  extended  over  the 
substance  to  which  it  adheres ;  and  in  this  respect  it  differs  greatly 
from  OrhicMla,  which  is  attached  by  means  of  a  ligament  which  passes 
through  a  fissure  in  the  centre  of  the  lower  valve.  There  are  four 
muscular  impressions  in  each  valve ;  of  those  in  the  upper  valve  two 
are  in  the  posterior  mai^  and  the  other  two  nearer  the  centre,  but 
not  always  veiy  near  to  each  other ;  of  those  in  the  lower  valve  two 
are  nearly  maiginal  and  rather  distant,  but  the  other  two  are  nearly 
central,  and  so  dose  together  that  they  appear  to  form  but  one :  they 
in  general  have  a  small  projection  between  them ;  and  the  whole  of 
the  muscular  impressions  in  the  lower  valve  are  frequently  lost  by 
decomposition  in  the  fossil  species,  so  as  to  appear  only  three  oblique 
perforations,  as  Lamarck  has  described  them. 

Example,  Omnia  penonata. 


Qramia  pefmnata.    1,  external  riew ;  2,  3,  internal  view. 

The  recent  species  (and  this  is  the  only  one  known)  is  found  adhering 
to  stones  and  shells  at  very  great  depths.  It  is  stated  in  the  '  Zoologi- 
cal Journal,'  by  the  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley,  that  a  specimen  of  Crania 
perganaia  was  taken  by  Captain  Yidal  at  the  depth  of  255  fathoms. 

There  are  seversl  fossil  species,  mostly  from  Idle  Chalk. 

The  species  of  Braekiopoda  in  the  British  sees  are  not  numerous. 
The  following  are  given  in  Forbes  and  Hanley's  '  History  of  British 
Hollusca/-^ 

Terebraiula  {ffypotk^rit)  ptiUaeea,  Undoubtedly  indigenous,  but 
ve^rare. 

TerebratiUa  CfapiU  SerpeiUii,  It  was  first  described  as  British  by 
Dr.  Fleming,  and  has  recently  been  dredged  up  in  oonsideraUa  num- 
bers  in  deep  water  on  various  parts  of  the  ooast 

Terebratnla  Cframmn,  But  one  specimen  of  this  has  been  obtained, 
which  is  now  in  the  possession  of  Dr.  Flezning. 

Terebratyla  (MtgaihyriM)  eitttHula.  This  spedes,  which  for  some 
time  was  only  known  as  a  Crag-FossQ,  has  been  taken  in  the  Isle  of 
Skye  and  in  the  deep-water  fishing-grounds  of  Zetland. 

Orattia  anamala.  This  species  has  been  taken  several  times  on 
various  parts  of  the  British  ooast    [iSlw  SaiTtiMBMT.] 

BR  ACHY'CERXJS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  'of  the  fbmHy 
OureuUomdiB  (induded  in  the  genus  OurcuUo  by  Liniueus).  Generic 
characters : — ^Rostrum  short ;  anteniuB  inserted  towards  the  apex  of  the 
rostrum,  shorty  9-jointed,  the  basal  joint  longest,  the  terminal  joint 
forming  a  Imob ;  tarsi  with  all  the  joints  entire,  and  without  pubes- 
cenoebeneath.  Hie  spedes  of  this  genus  sre  apterous,  and  generally 
very  rough.  They  appear  to  be  peculiar  to  the  south  of  Burope  and 
Africa,  and  live  upon  uie  ground. 

BRACHYPH  YliLUM,  a  genus  of  fossil  plants,  supposed  to  belong 

|IA7.  BUT.  PiV'  TQX*  J* 


to  the  Oowifera.  One  spedes,  R  mammiUare  of  Brongniart,  occurs  in 
the  csrbonaooous  beds  of  the  Bath  Oolite  Formation  on  the  Yorkshire 
ooast 

BRACHYPODI'NJE,  Swainson's  name  for  a  sub-family  of  Bii^ 
bdonging  to  the  MentUdce,  containing  Uie  following  genera,  or  rather 
sub-genera : — 

Brachyput,  Swainson,  thus  characterised  by  him : — Bill  short ; 
rictus  (gape)  bristled;  feet  small,  weak;  lateral  toes  equal;  hinder 
toe  as  long  as  the  tarsus.  Type,  Brachypm  ditpar,  Sw.  (Iktrdm 
ditpar,  Horsfidd). 

CMoroptit,  Jardine  and  Sdby.  Bill  more  lengthened;  the  tip 
much  hooked;  the  notch  forming  a  small  distinct  tooth;  rictus 
smooth;  feet  small;  lateral  toes  unequal;  the  hinder  toe  mther 
shorter  than  the  tarsus. 

ISra,  Horsfidd.  Bill  nearly  as  long  as  the  head,  letigthened,  conic ; 
rictus  smooth ;  tarsi  somewhat  lengthened,  the  anterior  scales  cUvided ; 
tail  even.    Type,  I6ra  tcapularii,  Horsfidd. 

Andropadut,  Swainson.  Bill  short;  the  upper  mandible  serrated 
near  the  tip;  neck  with  setaceous  hairs.  Type,  L'Importan,  Le 
Yaillant 

ffcnnatomit,  Swainson.  Bill  short;  rictus  bristled;  lateral  toes 
unequal;  hinder  toe  shorter  than  the  tarsus.  Types: — 1.  Chf^to- 
rrho€ui,  Le  Yaillant  2.  Tnrdua  hoenuurrhout  of  authors.  8.  Turdut 
himaeulattu  of  Horsfield.  4.  JBrythrotit  of  Swainson  (Zcmiw  Jo€Otfu 
of  LinnsBus). 

Mr.  Swainson  does  not  seem  to  have  been  aware  that  the  appellation 
Brachyput  had  previously  been  conferred  by  Fitzinger  on  a  sub-genus 
of  Savriang,  belonging  to  the  Chalcidei  of  Daudm,  and  it  should 
therefore  be  no  longer  used  to  distinguish  a  sub-genus  of  birds.  The 
term  at  the  head  of  this  artide,  which  Mr.  Swainson  has  applied  to 
the  sub-fiBtmily,  might  be  changed  with  advantage;  for  it  may  be 
liable  to  create  c<mfodon  when  unexplained  by  contexts,  and  leave 
the  reader  in  doubt  whether  a  sub-family  of  birds  or  reptiles  is 
intended. 

BRACHYPODIUM,  a  genus  of  Grasses  [GBAimrACBA]  bdonging 
to  the  tribe  Fut^^dnea  of  that  order.  It  has  unequal  many-flowered 
glumes ;  the  outer  pdea  rounded  on  the  back,  setigerous  at  the  sum- 
mit, lateral  nerves  slightly  conver^iing,  not  vanishing  upwards ;  the 
inner  palea  fringed  on  the  ribs  with  rigid  setss ;  the  styles  terminal. 
Two  of  the  spedes,  B.  tylwUieum  and  B,  piwnalum^  ace  British.  This 
genus  is  distmguished  from  Triiieum  (Wheat)  by  the  unequal  glumes 
alone.    (Babington,  MaiMtal  of  British  Botany.) 

BRACHYPTE'RES  (Short-Winged  Birds),  Cuvier^s  name  for  those 
birds  generslly  known  by  the  name  of  Divers.    [Ooltmbida] 

BRACHY'FTERYX,  a  senus  of  Birds  approaching  to  SaxieUa, 
thus  defined  by  Dr.  Horsfidd : — 

Bill  with  the  culmen  carinated  between  the  nostrils,  the  ndea 
being  fiattened,  and  rounded  towards  the  apex,  with  the  sides  convex ; 
edges  subinfleoted ;  wings  very  diort  and  obtuse :  tail  moderate  and 
rounded;  feet  etongated  and  weak;  the  tarn  dender;  the  toes  very 
deader,  and  the  daws  veiy  much  compressed;  hallux  or  hind  toe 
compaiativdy  large. 

Biraehypimyx  montana,  Horsfidd.  The  spedes  on  whidi  the  genua  is 
founded  has  the  following  characters :  — Wei^t  of  the  mde  five,  and 
of  the  female  six  drachms.  In  the  male,  the  head,  neck,  and  breast  - 
have  a  dark  indigo-blue  tint,  indininff  to  black,  with  a  grayish 
reflection  on  the  surfiMse^  variegated  with  lighter  and  darker  shades; 
on  the  throat  and  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  this  odour  passes  into 
gray ;  on  the  f ordiead  it  is  more  intense,  inclining  to  black.  Above 
the  eyes  is  an  oblong  white  nK>t  The  bade,  the  wings  above  the 
shoulders,  the  coverts  of  the  tail,  the  vent>  hypochondria^  and  thighs 
are  deep  chestnut-brown,  with  a  ferruginous  reflection.  The  wings 
underneath,  and  the  tail  at  the  extremity  and  underneath,  are  pure 
blaokish-brown ;  the  shafts  of  the  quill-  and  tail-feathers  are  black 
and  shining.  The  inner  vanes  of  the  quills  and  the  tail-feathers 
generally  have  a  very  deep  brown  colour.  The  exterior  vanes  of  the 
tail-feathers  are  sli^tly  tinted  with  the  fsrruginous  lustre  of  the 
upper  parts.  The  lower  parts  of  the  breast  and  abdomen  are  whitish. 
Tne  plumes  on  the  posterior  portion  of  the  body  are  veiy  thickly 
disposed;  the  vanes  consist  of  long,  ddicate,  silky, pendulous  lsminB» 
or  filaments,  forminff  a  lax  covering  about  the  lower  parts  of  the 
abdomen,  the  hypo^ondrifle,  and  the  root  of  the  taiL  The  iridea 
have  a  dark  hue.  The  bill  is  blade,  and  the  tarn  are  deep  brown. 
The  tint  of  the  daws  is  somewhat  lighter. 

In  the  femde^  the  dark  blue  tint>  whidi  In  the  male  covers  the  head 
and  neck,  extends  over  the  body  generally,  and  also  marks  the 
exterior  vanes  of  the  quilla.  The  interior  vanea  of  the  latter  and  the 
tail-feathers  are  dark  brown,  indining  to  blabk.  The  throat  and  neck 
underneath  have  a  dark  grayiditint.  The  abdomen  is  grayish-white. 
Over  the  eyes  it  has,  like  the  male,  a  white  spoty  and  the  bill  and 
tarn  also  sgree  with  that  The  covering  of  the  abdomeo,  vent^  and 
thighs  is  likewise  long,  ddicate,  silky,  and  pendulous. 

Dr.  Horsfidd  met  with  this  spedes  in  one  situation  onlv,  at  an 
elevation  of  about  7000  feet  above  the  levd  of  the  sea.  He  thinks  it 
probable  that  it  may  he  found  on  all  the  peaks  of  Java,  whidi  are 
covered  with  thick  forests,  accommodated  to  its  peculiir  habits.  The 
recurrence,  he  observes,  of  several  quadrupeds  mdA  birds,  at  a  certain 
deration,  is  as  regular  in  that  island  as  that  of  many  plants  and. 

2  1 


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tiO 


BRACHYPUa 


BRADYPUS. 


6tl 


insects.  Although  local  in  its  residenoe,  Dr.  Honfield  found  the 
bird  very  numerous  on  Mount  Prahu,  which,  he  says,  in  the  luxu- 
riance of  its  vegetation  and  gloomy  thickets,  is  probably  not  surpassed 


z^- 


r. 


.-/ 


Mountaineer  Warbler  {BrachypUryx  montana). 
The  upper  flgnre  represents  the  female ;  the  lower,  the  male. 

in  any  portion  of  the  globe.  In  his  daily  excursions  he  uniformly 
obsenred  and  oocasionaily  surprised  it  in  its  short  sallies  among  the 
openings  of  the  forest  It  was  chiefly  found  on  the  lowest  branches 
of  trees  or  on  the  ground.  As  the  shortness  of  its  wings  incapacitates 
it  for  elevated  or  distant  flights,  its  motions  are  low,  short,  and  made 
with  great  exertion.  It  lives  in  the  thickest  coverts,  feeding  on  the 
larvtB  of  insects,  worms,  &a,  and  there  it  forms  its  nest  on  the  ground. 
"It  utters,"  says  Dr.  Horsfield,  "almost  without  interruption,  a  varied 
song.  Its  common  note  is  a  quickly  reiterated  babbling,  resembling 
that  of  the  Cfurruca  garrula  of  Brisson,  and  other  birds  of  this  family : 
it  also  has  a  protracted  plaintive  note,  but  it  sometimes  rises  to 
higher  and  melodious  warUings,  which,  in  the  general  silence  of  these 
elevated  regions,  afford  an  inexpressible  sensation  of  delight  to  the 
mind  of  the  solitary  traveller." 

This  bird  is  the  Ketek  of  the  Javanese  and  Mountaineer  Warbler 
of  Latham. 

(Horsfield,  Zoologieal  Reteartheu  m  Jawi  tmd  the  neig?A<mrinff 
lelandt,  and  Tramadiont  of  the  Linnaan  Society,  voL  xilL) 

BRACHYPUS.    p&ACHTPODiNJS ;  Chaloideb.] 

BRACHTTELES,  a  genus  of  Quadrymana,  separated  from  AteUt 
by  Spix,  oir  account  (amonff  other  diffnenoes)  of  the  veiy  small 
development  of  the  thumb.    [Atblbb.] 

BRACKEN.    [PnBiB.1 

BRA'CON,  a  genus  of  Insects  of  the  order  ffymenoptera  and  family 
lehneumomdas.  The  insects  of  this  genus  are  remaikable  for  the 
hiatus  which  there  exists  between  the  mandiblee  and  the  dypeus. 
The  maTJllg  are  prolonged  inferiorly ;  the  second  cubital  cell  of  tlM 
wing  is  tplerably  large  and  square ;  the  ovipositor  is  long. 

BRACT,  the  last  leaf  or  set  of  leaves  that  intervenes  betwesQ  the 
true  leaves  and  the  calyx  of  a  plant.  When  the  time  arrives  for  a 
plant  to  fructify,  a  change  comes  over  its  constitution,  and  parts  are 
expanded,  whidi,  although  under  ordinary  circumstances  they  would 
have  beoome  leaves,  vet  at  this  peculiar  time  are  less  developed,  and 
appear- in  the  form  of  scales  or  half-formed  leaves.  Of  these  the  exter- 
nal are  braets,  the  next  combine  with  each  other  and  beoome  calyx, 
the  next  assume  the  form  of  petals,  and  so  on.  Therefore  whatever 
intervenes  between  the  true  leaves  and  the  calyx  is  bract 

BRADYPUS,  a  genus  of  Mammals  belonging  to  the  otdw  Edentata 
of  Cuvier,  and  tog^er  with  the  genus  Unam,  or  Ckokepue,  eompoaing 
a  small  fiunily  to  which  Cuvier  save  the  appellation  of  Tardigrada^ 
ftom.  the  peccuiar  conformation  of  their  extremities,  and  the  remark- 
able slovmess  of  their  pace.  Both  these  genera  were  formerly  included 
by  LioDMus  in  the  same  group,  under  the  common  name  of  Bradfpm, 


or  Sloth;  but  later  soologirts  have  separated  them,  on  aooountof 
certain  anomalies  in  their  oi^ganic  structure.  It  must  however  be 
confessed  that  the  two  genera  of  Sloths  are  closely  approximated  to 
one  another  in  many  essential  details  both  of  structure  and  economy; 
and  this  fact  is  the  more  remarkable  and  interesting  since  the  modifi- 
cations upon  which  their  generic  distinction  has  been  founded  are 
greater,  and,  as  we  might  naturally  presume,  more  inflaential,  than 
tiiose  which  frequently  characterise  two  different  families. 

The  order  Edenlata  comprises  a  number  of  genera,  perhaps  the 
'  most  singular  and  anomalous  among  Mammals,  differing  widely  from 
all  other  quadrupeds,  but  unfortanataly  possessing  so  few  natand 
affinities  or  relations  of  resemblance  Hpiong  tbemBehes,  that  the 
order  Edentata  is  sometimes  regarded  at  the  most  arbitrary  and  arti- 
ficial of  all  the  primary  groups  into  whidi  Cuvier  and  Qeo£&oy  have 
divided  the  Mammalia.  The  fiuaily  Tatdigrada,  or  Sloths,  are  more 
especially  deserving  of  attention,  as  mil  from  the  singularity  of  their 
physical  structure,  and  the  mistakes  which  have  hitherto  prevailed 
among  naturalists  concerning  the  habits  and  manners  of  these  lingakr 
animals,  as  on  acoount  of  the  relation  which  they  present  in  their 
offteological  details  to  the  Megatherium^,  the  most  curious  and  anoma- 
lous ot  extinct  animals  This  fSamily  is  distinguished  from  the  other 
Edentata  by  a  short  round  head,  and  the  presence  both  of  molar  and 
canine  teeth,  the  incisors  alone  being  deficient ;  but  above  all  by  the 
great  lengthi  and  singular  structure  of  their  arms,  which,  adapting 
them  to  a  mode  of  progression  altogether  peculiar  to  themselves,  and 
consequently  disqualifying  them  for  the  exercise  of  that  ipedes  of 
locomotion  common  to  ordinary  quadrupeds,  have  caused  them  to  be 
considered  as  the  most  miserable  and  unfortimate  of  beings,  imperfect 
monsters  of  creation,  equally  remarkable  for  their  disgusting  appear- 
ance and  helpless  condition. 


Sloth  (Bradyput  tridactyltu). 

To  enable  us  clearly  to  comprehend  the  nature  and  functions  of  these 
animals,  it  will  be  necessary  to  enter  into  a  short  deecription  of  parts  of 
their  osteological  structure.  The  view  here  given  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
Sloth  (Bradypua  tridactylm)  seems  to  indicate  a  distortion  of  certain 
narts  and  proportions  altogether  opposed  to  freedom  of  motion,  at 
least  of  that  kind  of  motion  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  ordinaiy 
quadrupeds.  The  arm  and  fore-arm  taken  together  are  nearly  twice 
as  long  as  the  1^  and  thigh,  so  that  if  the  animal  attempts  to  walk  on 
all-fours  it  is  obliged  to  tndl  itself  painfully  and  slowly  on  its  elbows, 
and  if  it  stands  upright  on  the  hind  legs  the  arms  are  so  long  that 
the  fore  fingers  touch  the  ground.  This  disproportion  between  the 
anterior  and  posterior  extremities,  obviously  deprives  these  animali 
of  the  power  of  moving  on  a  plain  surface  with  that  speed  which  is  00 
admirable  in  the  generality  of  quadrupeds ;  and  accordingly  we  are 
assured  by.  all  observers,  that  their  m(Kle  of  progression  under  these 
drcumstanoes  is  of  the  most  slow  and  painful  nature.  The  Sloths 
however  are  not  terrestrial  animals,  but  live  entirely  among  the  thi^L 
branches  of  trees  in  the  most  extensive  and  solitary  fox^sts.  This 
remarkable  disproportion  of  their  forearms  is  common  to  snother 
genus  of  arboreal  mammals,  the  real  apes,  in  which,  far  from  retarding 
their  motions,  this  peculiar  structure  is  of  the  most  essentia]  import- 
ance in  adding  to  their  agility.  But  the  Sloths  partake  of  none  of 
the  accessory  advanta^  which  the  Apes  possess.  They  have  no 
opposeable  thumb ;  their  fingers  are  short,  and  so  perfectly  rigid  that 
the  joints  ossify  at  a  very  earlv  period  of  the  animal's  life,  leaving 
them  totally  incapable  of  individual  motion,  whilst  they  are  at  the 
same  time  so  completely  enveloped  m  the  common  integuments  of 
the  hand  that  notoing  is  to  be  seen  externally  except  the  immeoM 


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BllADYPUa 


BRADYPUa 


610 


erookfld  olawi  wHh  which  they  are  provided.  The  wrist  and  ankle 
also  are  artionlatod  or  joined  to  the  fore-arm  and  leg  in  an  oblique 
direction ;  bo  that  the  palm  or  aole,  instead  of  being  directed  down- 
wards  towards  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  in  other  animals,  is 
turned  inwards  towards  the  body,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  it 
impossible  for  the  Sloth  to  place  the  sole  of  its  foot  straight  down 
npon  a  level  surface,  but  to  compel  it,  under  such  circumstances,  to 
rest  upon  the  external  edge  of  the  foot.  This  position  is  obviously 
bat  ill  adapted  for  ease  or  facility  of  motion.     But  there  is  still 


If  placed  upon  a  plain  surface,  the  Sloth  moves  with  difficulty  and 
only  by  seising  upon  the  little  asperities  which  he  finds  in  his  way, 
and  by  that  means  dragging  his  body  slowly  forwards,  just  as  we  may 
observe  a  bat  to  do  under  similar  circumstances.  But  this  is  a  situa- 
tion equally  foreign  to  the  habits  and  economy  both  of  the  Sloth  and 
of  the  oat ;  and  we  are  no  more  justified  in  judging  of  the  nature  of 
the  one  under  these  droumstances,  than  we  should  be  in  reasoning 
upon  the  habits  of  the  other.  The  Sloth  is  eminently  an  arboreal 
quadruped :  it  is  produced,  it  lives,  and  it  dies  in  the  trees ;  it  very 


aoother  singalarity  in  the  structure  of  the  foot  of  this  animal  which 
materiaUy  increases  its  difficulties  of  progression  on  a  plain  surface. 
This  arises  from  the  peculiar  form  of  the  huit  phalanx  or  joint  of  the 
fingers  and  toes,  that,  namely,  which  gives  msertion  to  the  claws, 
and  which  is  articulated  with  the  second  phalanx  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  permit  the  fingers  and  daws  to  be  strongly  bent  inwards  along 
the  palm  and  arm,  but  at  the  same  time  prevents  the  animal  from 
rainng  them  upwards  or  opening  the  hand  beyond  H  certain  position. 
ThiB  structure  is  exactly  the  reverse  of  what  we  observe  in  the  com- 
mon cat,  which  has  the  phalanxes  of  the  toes  formed  in  such  a 
maimer  as  to  keep  «the  claws  habituaJW  retracted  or  drawn  up,  so 
that  it  requires  a  considerable  degree  of  muscular  force  to  extend  or 
depress  them.      In  the  Sloths,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  naturally 
depressed  in  the  position  represented  in  the  figure  of  the  skeleton,  and 
the  muscular  force  is  exerted  to  expand  or  open  them.    The  claws 
themselves  are  of  a  size  altogetiier  enormous,  surpassing  the  entire 
foot  in  length.     They  are  so  sharp  and  crooked  that  they  readily 
eeize  upon  the  smallest  inequalitiee  in  the  bark  of  the  trees   and 
branches  among  which  the  animals  habitually  reside ;  and,  united  to 
the  great  muscular  strength  and  rigid  formation  of  the  extremities, 
funuah  the  most  powerful  weapons  of  defence.    Nor  are  the  form 
and  articulation  of  the  posterior  extremities  less  singular  than.those 
of  the  anterior.    The  formation  of  the  pelvis  alone  is  of  such  a  nature 
as  to  render  it  im- 
possible    for     the 
Sloths  to  walk  after 
the  manner  of  ordi- 
nary   quadrupeds; 
and   the    mode  in 
which     the      hind 
I^are  articulated 
with  the  pelvis,  to 
nae  the  expression 
of   Baron    Cuvier, 
seems    almost    ex- 
pressly arranged  for 
the  purpose  of  de- 
privmg  the  *"^^Tt«l 
of  tiie  use   of  its 
legs        altogether. 
"Ur  says  M.  Cu- 
Tier,  "we  consider 

Uie  Sloths   in  the  \ 

relation  which  thej- 
bear  to  other  am- 
Qials,  the  general 
laws  of  orgBoisation  at  present  existing  apply  so  Uttie  to  their  structure^ 
the  different  parts  of  their  body  seem  so  completely  contradictoxy 
of  those  laws  of  co-existence  which  we  have  fbund  established  in  the 
rest  of  the  ta^^mtA  kingdom,  that  we  might  be  almost  tempted  to 
consider  them  as  the  remains  of  a  former  order  of  things,  the  living 
reHcs  of  thatprecedent  nature  of  which  we  ore  obliced  to  seek  the  other 
rnhn  beneath  the  surfkee  of  the  earth,  and  that  they  escaped  by  some 
minde  the  catastrophe  which  destroyed  their  contemporary  spedes." 


Formation  of  the  Pelvis. 


rarely  voluntarily  descends  to  the  surfitoe  of  the  earih,  and  those 
therefore  who  observe  it  in  that  situation,  have  not  a  favourable 
opportunity  of  judging  of  its  nature  and  functions. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  valuable  observations  of  Mr.  Waterton, 
during  his  'Wanderings'  in  South  America,  for  a  final  and  satis- 
factory explanation  of  the  apparent  difficulties  and  inconsistendes 
in  the  structure  and  habits  of  the  Sloth.  **  The  sloth,*'  says  this 
traveller,  "in  its  wild  state,  spends  its  whole  life  in  the  trees,  and 
never  leaves  them  but  through  force  or  accident ;  and  what  is  more 
extraordinary,  not  upon  the  brandies  like  the  squirrel  and  monkey, 
but  under  them.  He  moves  suspended  firom  the  branch,  he  rests 
suspended  Arom  the  branch,  and  he  sleeps  suspended  from  the  branch. 
Hence  his  seemingly  bungled  composition  is  at  once  accounted  for ; 
and  in  lieu  of  the  sloth  leading  a  painful  life  and  entailing  a  melan- 
choly existence  upon  its  progeny,  it  is  but  fair  to  condude  that  it 
just  enjoys  life  as  much  as  any  other  animal,  and  that  its  extraordinary 
formation  and  singular  habits  are  but  further  proofs  to  engage  us  to 
admire  the  wondeiful  works  of  Omnipotence."  Nor  are  the  motions 
of  this  animal  so  slow  while  suspended  in  this  strange  position,  nor 
his  habitat  so  drcumscribed  as  naturalists  have  hitherto  imagined. 
"  The  Indians,"  continues  Mr.  Waterton,  "  have  a  saying  that  when 
the  wind  blows  the  sloths  begin  to  travel.  In  fact  during  calm 
weather  they  remain  tranquil,  probably  not  liking  to  ding  to  the 
brittie  extremities  of  the  branches,  lest  they  should  break  whilst  the 
animids  are  passing  fh>m  one  tree  to  another ;  but  as  soon  as  the 
wind  rises  the  branches  of  the  neighbouring  trees  become  interwoven, 
and  then  the  sloth  seizes  hold  of  them  and  pursues  his  journey  in 
safety.  He  travels  at  a  good  round  pace,  and  were  you  to  see  him,  as 
I  have  done,  passing  firom  tree  to  tree,  you  would  never  think  of 
calling  him  a  sloth."  Stedman,  in  his  '  History  of  Surinam,'  has  an 
engraving  of  a  Sloth  in  this  position,  which  we  have  copied,  as  illus- 


Mode  of  progression. 
tntting  its  singular  mode  of  progression.    A  spedmMi  of  OhnUtpfm 
didaetylMi,  the  Two-Toed  Slc^  is  now  living  in  the  OaidetiB  9i  Urn 
Zoological  Society,  Regent's  Park. 
Hie  conformation  of  the  extremities  k  not  the  on^  part  oi  kU 


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•ff 


BRADWUS. 


BHAm. 


618 


Miatomy  in  whiolx  the  Sloth  diiTen  from  otdinary  mammftla,  The 
number  and  form  of  the  bones  which  oompoee  the  trunk,  the  nature 
of  its  teeth,  and  the  conformation  of  its  stomach  and  intestines,  are 
all  peculiar.  The  stomach  is  divided  by  transverse  ligatures  into  four 
separate  compartments,  which  bear  a  distant  reeemblanoe  to  the  four 
stomachs  of  ruminating  animals :  they  do  not  however  exercise  the 
functions  of  these  oigans,  nor  do  the  Sloths  regurgitate  their  food,  or 
subject  it  to  a  second  process  of  mastication  Wlb  the  ox  and  the 
sheep.  The  intestines  slso  are  unusually  short  for  an  animal  which 
lives  entirely  upon  vegetable  substances,  scarcely  equalling  twice  the 
length  of  the  body,  whilst  those  of  ruminants  frequently  exceed  ten 
times  those  dimensions.  Their  simplicity  and  dinunutive  size  in  the 
Sloths  appear  to  be  compensated  by  the  superior  and  unusual  com- 
plication of  the  stomach, — which,  retaining  the  food  for  a  longer 
period  than  in  ordinary  non-ruminating  animalfl,  allows  it  to  be  more 
perfectly  macerated,  and  prepared  for  the  action  of  the  absorbent 
vessels  which  imbibe  its  nutritious  particles  in  its  passage  through 
the  intestines.  The  number  of  vertebras  in  the  necks  of  mammals  is 
generally  seven,  so  that  the  whales  and  dolphins,  which  have  scarcely 
any  nedc  at  all,  as  well  as  the  giraffe  and  camel,  which  have  it 
developed  in  a  most  unusual  degree,  are  all  found  to  agree  in  this 
particular,  however  widely  they  differ  in  other  respecte :  the  B. 
tridcKtylui  alone  forms  an  exception  to  this  otherwiM  universal  rule, 
in  having  nine  cervical  vertebras.  What  renders  this  circumstance 
still  more  surprising  is,  that  the  neck  of  the  Sloth  {B.  tridaetylut), 
notwithstanding  its  two  supernumerary  vertebrse,  is  far  from  long — 
being  on  the  contrary  much  too  short  for  its  long  fore  legs  if  it  were 
compelled  to  seek  its  food  on  the  ground  like  other  animals.  But 
this  defect  is  compensated,  as  well  by  the  nature  of  the  situation 
which  it  habitually  occupies^  suspended  from  the  horizontal  branches 
of  the  trees,  as  by  its  power  of  using  the  fore  paw  as  a  hand  in 
conveying  the  food  to  its  mouth,  which,  notwithstanding  the  rigidily 
of  its  members,  it  does  with  great  address  with  one  paw,  whilst  it 
clings  firmly  to  the  branches  by  means  of  the  other  three. 

The  dental  system  of  the  Sloths  is  the  most  simple  that  can  well  be 
conceived.  They  have  no  incisor  teeth,  but  canines  and  molars  only ; 
and  in  the  S.  <rtiac(y{tw  the  canines  are  diminutive,  and  in  all  respects 
very  similar  to  the  other  teeth.  The  molar  teeth  are  universally  eight 
in  the  upper  jaw  and  six  in  the  lower,  four  and  three  on  either  side 
respectively.  Their  oonstrucUon  is  most  simple,  consisting  merely  of 
a  cylinder  of  bone,  enveloped  in  enamel,  and  hollow  at  bo^  ends, — at 
the  upi>er  by  continual  detrition,  and  at  the  under  by  default  of  ossifi- 
cation. They  have  no  lamina  of  enamel  penetrating  the  body  of  the 
tooth,  as  in  other  herbivorous  animals,  which  renders  them  such 
effective  instruments  in  grinding  and  masticating  vegetable  substances. 
Hence  it  results,  that  iJie  mastication  of  the  Sloth  must  be  extremdy 
imperfect,  though  the  defect  of  dentition  is  probably  compensated  in 
some  degree  by  the  superior  complication  of  the  stomach. 

The  genera  irttdjfptu  and  OhoicBput,  together  with  the  extinct  fossil 
animals  which  have  been  called  Megatherium  and  MegalonyXj  and 
which,  with  the  form  and  ox^ganisation  of  a  sloth,  nearly  equalled  the 
elephant  in  size,  constitute  the  Cuvierian  fekmUy  TardigTrtida,  Besides 
the  difference  of  the  canine  teeth,  which  are  completely  developed  in 
ChoUgput  and  in  Bradypue,  of  the  same  form  and  subject  to  the  same 
detrition  as  the  molars,  these  two  genera  are  distinguished  from  one 
another  by  the  number  of  toes  on  the  fore  feet,  which  are  three  in  the 
Bretdyput  and  only  two  in  the  OhoUepue  ;  by  the  comparative  length 
of  the  fore-arms,  which  are  much  longer  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter ;  by  the  number  of  cervical  vertebra)  in  the  Bradypm,  as  already 
mentioned ;  by  the  equally  unusual  number  of  ribs  in  ChoUipu9,  which 
amount  to  no  fewer  than  forty-six,  the  greatest  number  Mtherto 
foimd  in  any  mammal,  the  species  of  Bradypua  having  but  thirty-two ; 
and  by  numerous  other  modifications  which  it  is  imneoessary  to 
enumerate. 

The  Sloths  are  known  to  bring  forth  and  suckle  their  young  like 
ordinary  quadrupeds.  For  this  purpose  they  have  two  mammas, 
which  are  situated  on  the  breast ;  and  the  young  Sloth,  frt>m  the 
moment  of  its  birth,  adheres  to  the  body  of  itsparent  till  it  acquires 
sufficient  size  and  strength  to  shift  for  itself  Tne  head  of  the  Sloth 
or  Ai  {B,  tridactyhu)  is  short,  the  face  small  and  round  like  that  of 
the  American  monkeys,  the  ears  concealed  in  the  long  hair  which  siu^- 
rounds  them,  the  eyes  small  and  deeply  sunk  in  the  head,  and  the  tail 
a  mere  rudiment.  This  species  is  found  only  in  the  most  gloomy  and 
retired  tropical  forests  of  South  America.  The  Indians  like  its  flesh, 
and  are  in  continual  pursuit  of  it. 

In  the  list  of  specimens  of  Mammalia  in  the  British  Museum  three 
spedes  of  Bradypvt  and  one  of  CholcBpui  are  given.  Several  varieties 
have  been  described. 

B,  tridaetylui,  the  Sloth  or  Ai  It  has  a  short  round  head,  furnished 
with  coarse  sha^  hair,  disposed  on  the  crown  in  verging  rays,  like  that 
of  the  human  species ;  the  face  is  of  a  yellowish  colour,  covered  with 
very  short  hair,  whilst  that  of  the  body  and  extremities  is  universally 
long  and  shaggy ;  the  eyes  are  encircled  by  a  brown  ring ;  the  hair  of  the 
body  varied  with  irregular  patches  of  dark  and  light  brown,  or  silvery 
white ;  between  the  shoulders  there  is  an  oval  patch  of  short  orange- 
eolound  hair,  of  a  finer  quality  than  that  found  on  other  parts  of  &e 
body,  and  divided  in  the  centre  by  a  longitudinal  black  stripe ;  the 
throat  and  breast  are  frequently  of  a  light  straw-colour.    The  texture 


of  the  hair  is  altogether  peculiar,  and  more  nearly  resembles  < 
or  grass  shrivelled  and  withered  by  the  sun,  than  the  hair  of  c 
quadrupeds.  It  is  coarse  and  flattened  at  the  extremi^,  but  as  i 
at  the  root  as  the  finest  spider^s  web ;  and  its  dry  and  withered  appear- 
ance forms  the  Ai's  principal  security  against  its  pursuers,  as  it  renden 
it  extremely  difficult  to  detect  it  whilst  at  rest  among  the  branches 
covered  witii  baik  and  moss  of  the  same  colour.  It  is  only  when  in 
motion  ihat  it  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  trunk  beneath 
which  it  hangs  suspended.  In  other  respects  different  individuals  of 
this  species  differ  considerably  from  one  another  in  the  shades  and 
disposition  of  their  colours,  and  in  the  intensity  of  the  mark  between 
the  shoulders ;  some  even  want  this  latter  mark  altogether,  others  are 
of  a  uniform  ash-colour  over  the  whole  body,  and  there  are  others 
still  which  have  the  hair  of  the  head  parted  in  Uie  centre,  and  hanging 
down  on  each  side ;  but  whether  these  constitute  distinct  species, 
or  mere  varieties  of  the  common  Ai,  is  a  point  hitherto  undetermined : 
the  cabinets  of  Europe  do  not  afford  sufficient  msteiials  for  an  exten- 
sive oomparison,  and  no  naturalist  has  ever  examined  the  Aia  with 
this  view  in  their  native  regions. 

B.  torquattit,  the  Gipakeiou,  is  a  very  distinct  species,  even  in  the 
bony  structure  of  its  cranium.  Its  face  is  naked,  and  of  a  black 
colour ;  the  hair  of  its  body  lees  flattened  and  withered-looking  thao 
in  the  common  species ;  the  forehead,  temples,  chin,  throat,  and  breast 
covered  with  reddish  or  rust-ooloured  hair,  slightly  frizzled ;  on  the 
crown  of  the  head  it  is  long  and  yellow,  and  on  the  rest  of  the  body 
pale  orange ;  but  the  most  distinguishhig  mark  of  the  species  is  a 
large  blaoc  collar  which  completely  surrounds  the  neck.  Beneath  thu 
outer  coat  there  is  an  inner  one  of  very  fine  fur,  which  is  of  a  dark 
brown  colour  on  the  collar,  but  g^radually  diminishfw  in  intenaitj 
towards  the  croup,  where  it  is  entirely  white. 

Both  these  species  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  treesj,  and  bring  forth 
but  a  single  young  one  at  a  birth.  When  in  motion  in  the  forests 
thev  emit  a  feeble  plaintive  ay,  resembling  the  word  '  Ai,'  and  which 
is  tne  origin  of  the  name  they  bear  among  the  Europeans  settled  is 
America.  Th^  are  extremely  retentive  of  life,  and  have  been  seen  to 
move  their  legs  and  exhibit  other  symptoms  of  vitality  a  frill  half- 
hour  after  being  deprived  of  the  heart  and  other  viscera. 

B.  gularis,  the  Tellow-Faced  Sloth,  is  supposed  by  some  to  he  a 
variety  of  B.  tridactyhu. 

BRAGANTIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Ariitolochiacea^  One  of  the  species,  B.  tomentaaa,  is  said  by  Dr. 
Horsfield  to  be. intensely  bitter,  and  to  be  used  as  a.  medicine 
in  Java. 

BRAIK,  a  soft  and  pulpy  organ,  which  in  man  occupies  the  cavity 
of  the  cranium,  and  forms  one  of  the  central  masses  of  the  nerroos 
system.  [Kbbtous  Stbtbic]  In  man  and  all  the  higher  animals  the 
nervous  system  consists  of  four  distinct  parts — the  white  threads 
called  Nerves,  knots  or  masses  of  nervous  matter  situated  along  the 
course  of  the  nerves  called  Qanglions,  a  long  cord  of  nervous  matter 
filling  the  cavity  of  the  vertebral  or  spinal  column  called  the  Spinal 
Cord,  and  a  luge  mass  of  nervous  matter  now  generally  considered 
as  a  continuation  and  expansion  of  the  spinal  cord  called  the  Brain. 
The  Spinal  Cord  and  Brain  constitute  the  two  central  masses  of  the 
nervous  system,  that  is^  the  immediate  seat  of  the  functLons  peculiar 
to  this  system. 

The  general  mass  of  nervous  matter  designated  under  the  common 
term  Brain,  together  with  its  membranes,  vessels,  and  nerves,  com- 
pletely fills  the  cavity  of  the  skulL  This  mass  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  the  Cerebrum,  or  brain  proper,  which  occupies  the  whole  of  the 
superior  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  cranium ;  the  Cerebellum,  much 
smaller  tnan  the  cerebrum,  wbenoe  its  name.  Little  Brain,  which 
occupies  the  lower  and  back  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  cranium ;  and 
the  Medulla  Oblongata,  by  much  the  smallest  portion  of  the  mass, 
situated  at  the  basis  of  the  cavity  beneath  the  cerebrum  and  cere- 
belluna.  The  medulla  oblongata  passes  out  of  the  cavity  of  the 
cranium  into  that  of  the  vertebral  canal  by  the  foramen  magnum  of 
the  occipital  bone,  being  continuous  with  and  forming  the  commence- 
ment of  the  spintd  cord. 

This  general  nervous  mass  is  closely  enveloped  in  three  distinct 
membranous  coverings,  two  of  which  have  been  called  'matrea,' 
from  the  fimdfiil  notion  that  they  give  rise  to  all  the  other  membraneR 
of  the  body.  The  external  covering  termed  Dura  Mater,  from  its 
being  of  a  firmer  texture  than  the  other  two  membranes,  indoaes 
the  brain  with  all  its  appendages,  and  lines  ihe  whole  internal  surface 
of  the  bones  of  the  cranium.  It  is  of  a  fibrous  texture,  the  com- 
ponent fibres  interlacing  each  other  in  every  possible  direction,  and 
forming  by  their  firmness  and  density  the  tnickest  and  strongest 
membrane  of  the  whole  body.  By  its  external  surCsoe  the  dura 
mater  adheres  everywhere  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  cranium,  just 
as  the  periosteum  adheres  to  other  bones.  When  torn  from  the 
cranium  this  surface  appears  somewhat  rough  and  irr^gulariy  spotted 
with  bloody  points,  which  are  the  lacerated  orifices  of  vessels  that  pass 
between  the  membrane  and  the  surrounding  bone&  These  venels 
tkte  much  more  numerous  in  the  young  than  in  the  adult,  and  are 
most  abundant  at  the  sutures  or  junctions  of  the  bones  that  compose 
the  skuU.  The  inner  surface  of  the  dura  mater,  which  is  shininff 
and  smooth,  is  lubricated  and  kept  in  a  state  of  moisture  by  a  fluid 
secreted  by  its  own  vessels.    This  membrane  performs  a  twofold 


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BRAIK. 


BRAIN, 


office ;  H  lappliM  the  place  of  the  periosteum  to  the  inner  surface  of 
the  bones  of  the  cnmium,  sustaining  their  nutrient  Teeeels ;  and  it 
serres  as  a  defence  to  the  brain,  and  a  support  to  the  di£ferent  masses 
into  which  it  is  divided. 

The  dura  mater  gives  off  several  elongations  or  productions  called 
processes,  which  descend  between  certain  portions  of  the  brain; 
the  most  remariuible  of  which  ia  tenned  the  superior  longitudinal 
process,  which  extends  from  the  fore  to  the  back  part  of  the  skull 
between  the  lateral  halves  of  the  cerebrum.  Narrow  in  front,  it 
becomes  gradually  broader  as  it  passes  backwards,  bearing,  as  has 
been  conceived,  some  resemblance  in  shi^  to  a  sickle  or  scythe, 
whence  the  common  name  of  it,  fiedz  oerebn. 

Where  the  falx  cerebri  terminates  behind,  there  proceeds  a  laige 
lateral  expansion  of  the  same  membrane,  extending  across  the  back 
part  of  Uie  skull  beneath  the  posterior  parts  of  the  cerebrum,  and 
forming  a  complete  floor  or  vault  over  the  cerebellum.  This  mem- 
branous expansion  is  called  tentorium,  the  obvious  use  of  which  U  to 
prevent  the  cerebrum  from  pressing  upon  the  cerebellum ;  while  from 
the  middle  of  the  tentorium  proceeds  another  membranous  expansion, 
which  descends  Ji>etween  the  lobes  of  the  cerebellum,  and  terminates 
insensibly  at  the  edge  of  the  foramen  magnum,  performing  for  the 
cerebellum  the  same  office  as  the  fiidx  performs  for  the  cerebrum : 
hence  it  is  called  fidx  oerebelli 

Moreover  the  component  fibres  of  the  dura  mater  in  certain  parts 
of  its  course  separate  into  layers,  which  are  so  disposed  as  to  leave 
spaces  between  them,  for  the  most  part  of  a  triangular  form.  These 
triangular  spaces,  which  are  commonly  termed  sinuses,  are  lined  by  a 
smooth  membrane  perfectly  analogous  to  that  which  lines  the  veins 
in  the  other  parts  of  the. body,  and  these  sinuses  perform  the  office 
of  veins,  returning  the  blood  from  all  the  parts  of  the  brain  to  the 
neck.  Nothing  analogous  to  this  structure  occurs  in  any  other  part 
of  the  venous  system.  In  almost  every  other  part  of  the  body  the 
pressure  of  surrounding  parts  is  a  most  important  aid  to  these 
vessels  in  enabling  them  to  cany  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood ; 
but  in  the  brain  the  venous  tubes  are  guarded  from  pressure,  the 
dense  dura  mater  being  for  this  purpose  stretched  so  tensely  over 
them  that  the  wei^t  of  the  surrounding  parts  is  completely  taken 
off  them. 

The  smooth  surface  of  the  brain  which  is  exposed  on  the  reflection 
of  the  duia  mater,  is  fonned  by  its  second  investing  membrane  which 
is  named  the  Tunica  Araclmoidea,  from  the  extreme  tenderness  and 
delieaoy  of  its  tissue,  which  gives  it  a  resemblance  to  a  spider^s  web. 
This  tlun  oolourless  and  transparent  membrane  is  spread  uniformly 
over  the  snrfiKse  of  the  brain,  covering  all  the  eminences  termed 
oonvolutions  (Jia.  L  2,  2),  but  not  insinuating  itself  between  any  of 
the  depressions  between  the  convolutions.  {Ftg,  tv.  7.)  On  account  of 
its  extreme  tenuity  and  ita»close  adhesion  to  the  membrane  beneath 
it,  it  cannot  be  easily  separated  from  the  latter;  but  there  are 
situations  at  the  basis  where  the  arachnoid  membrane^  as  it  passes 
between  opposite  parts  of  the  brain,  can  be  seen  distinct  from  the 
subjacent  tunia 

The  third  investing  membrane,  the  Pia  Mater,  derives  its  name 
like  the  former  from  the  tenderness  and  delicacy  of  its  tissue ;  but 
unlike  the  tunica  arachnoidea,  in  which  not  a  single  blood-vessel 
has  hitherto  been  described,  ihe  pia  mater  is  exceedingly  vascular. 
The  blood-vessels  with  which  every  part  of  this  delicate  membrane 
is  covered  are  the  nutrient  arteries  of  the  brain ;  before  they  pene- 
trate the  brain  these  vessels  divide,  subdivide,  and  ramify  to  an 
extreme  degree  of  minuteness  upon  the  external  surface  of  this 
membrane,  so  that  the  blood  does  not  enter  the  tender  cerebral 
substance  with  too  great  force.  When  a  portion  of  the  pia  mater  is 
gently  raised  from  the  brain,  these  blood-vessels  appear  as  exceedin^lv 
fine  delicate  threads,  which  on  account  of  the  elasticity  with  which 
they  are  endowed  are  capable  of  elongation  as  they  are  drawn  out  of 
the  cerebral  substsnce.  As  the  pia  mater  contains  and  supports  the 
nutrient  vessds  of  the  brain,  this  membrane  is  not  only  spread  as  a 
general  envelope  over  its  entire  surface,  but  it  penetrates  between  all 
its  convolutions,  and  lines  every  cavity  which  is  formed  in  it. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  large  portion  of  the  cerebral  mass, 
termed  the  cerebrum,  occupies  the  whole  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
cavity  of  the  orsnium.  Tne  cerebrum  is  divided  into  two  equal 
lateral  halves  termed  hemispheres  (fig.  i.  2,  2),  which  have  an  ovoid 
figure  somewhat  resembling  an  egg  cut  longitudinallv  into  two  equal 
parts.  The  hemispheres  are  separated  from  eadb  other  by  the 
membrane  already  described,  the  fiJx  cerebri  (Jig,  i  8) ;  and  their 
inner  sides  in  apposition  with  the  fidx  are  flattened,  while  their  upper 
and  outer  surfaces  are  convex,  being  accurately  adapted  to  the 
concavity  formed  by  the  inner  surface  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium. 

Each  hemisphere  is  subdivided  into  an  anterior,  a  middle,  and  a 
posterior  lobe,  but  it  is  only  on  the  under  surface  of  the  brain  that 
these  lobes  are  accurately  defined.  (Fig.  ii  1,  2,  3.)  The  anterior  and 
middle  lobes  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  deep  fissure  named 
the  fissura  sylvia  (fig.  IL  4),  which  extends  obliquely  backwards  from 
the  basis  to  a  oonsiderable  depth  between  the  convolutions ;  but  the 
middle  is  distinguished  from  the  posterior  lobe,  not  by  a  fissure  but 
by  a  superficial  excavation  on  the  under  surface  of  the  posterior  lobe. 
(rig.  iL  5.)  The  anterior  lobes  rest  upon  the  orbital  plates  of  the 
frontal  bone;  the  middle  lobes  are  lodged  in  the  temporal  fossss 


formed  by  the  sphenoid  and  temporal  bones,  while  the  posterior  lobes 
are  supported  upon  the  tentorium. 

The  whole  of  the  external  convex  surface  of  the  hemispheres  is 
divided  into  numerous  eminences  termed  convolutions,  whidi  run  in 


Fig.  I. — Upper  Surface  of  the  Brain. 
1,  Cat  edge  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium  ;  2,  superior  eonrex  surface  of  the 
two  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum,  with  their  convolutions ;  8,  separation  betwcea 
the  two  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum,  occupied  by  the  falx  cerebri. 


Fig.  II.— Base  of  the  Braia. 
1,  Anterior  lobes  of  the  oerebrom  ;  2,  middle  lobes  of  the  cerebrum  ;  8,  pos. 
terior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum ;  4,  fissure  separating  the  anterior  from  the  middle 
lobes,  named  the  fissura  sylvia;  6,  situation  of  the  superficial  exeaTatioa 
forming  the  boundary  between  the  middle  and  the  posterior  lobes ;  6,  the  twa 
kemlspheres  of  the  cerebellum,  composed  of  flattened  lamlnv  or  layers ;  7,  the 
medulla  oblongata,  which,  in  this  position  of  the  brain,  rests  upon  and  eorers 
the  vermiform  process ;  8,  corpora  pyramidalia ;  9,  eorpora  oUraria ;  10,  tuber 
annulare,  or  pons  varolii;  11,  deeussatkm  of  the  eorpora  pyramidalia; 
a,  h,  e,  d,  oerebral  nerves. 

different  directions,  and  are  of  different  sizes  and  lengths  in  different 
parts  of  the  hemisphere.  (Fig.  I  2,  2.)  The  depressions  or  fissures 
between  the  convolutions,  termed  olefbs,  or  sulci,  generally  penetrate 
the  consistence  of  the  brain  to  the  depth  of  about  an  inch  or  an 
inch  and  a  half.    (Fig.  iv.  7.)    The  greater  number  of  these  pursue  a 


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zigzftg  course,  but  some  run  longitudinallj,  others  obliquely ;  some 
oommunioate  with  each  other,  while  others  tenninate  separately  in 
the  substance  of  the  brain.    (Fig,  iv.  7.) 

The  nervous  matter  constituting  the  cerebrum  is  composed  of  two 
distinct  substances,  which  diSer  m>m  each  other  materially  both  in 
their  colour  and  condstence.  {^ig.  iv.  7.)  The  outer  substance  is 
sometimes  termed  cineriiiouBy  from  its  being  of  a  grayish-brown 
colour ;  at  other  times  cortical,  from  its  surrounding  &e  inner  part 
of  the  brain,  as  the  bark  the  inner  parts  of  the  tree ;  by  some  it 
is  also  called  glandular,  and  by  others  secretory,  from  the  supposition 
that  its  nature  is  that  of  a  gland,  and  that  it  secretes  a  peculiar 
fluid.  It  is  of  a  softer  oonsistence  than  the  inner  part,  and  leaves  by 
desiccation  a  smaller  quantity  of  solid  residuum.  It  is  composed 
almost  entirely  of  blood-vessels  connected  and  sustained  by  exceed- 
ingly fine  cellular  membrane.  Its  structure  is  uniform  throughout, 
presenting  no  appearance  whatever  of  a  fibrous  texture.  It  gives  to 
the  entire  surfiuM  of  the  cerebrum  an  external  coverhig^  generally 
about  the  tenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.    (Fig.  iv.  7.) 

The  inner  substance,  termed  white  or  meduUaiy  (fig.  iv.  7),  is  firmer 
in  oonsistence  and  larger  in  quantity  than  the  gray  matter ;  and  when 
an  incision  is  made  into  it>  its  suHkce  is  spotted  with  red  points,  the 
cut  orifioes  of  its  vessels,  which  vary  in  number  and  size  according  as 
they  may  be  more  or  less  distended  with  blood.  It  is  now  univernlly 
agreed  that  this  part  of  the  bndn  is  composed  of  fibres.  When 
examined  in  its  recent  and  most  perfect  state,  especially  after  it  has 
been  artifioially  hardened  and  oondensed  by  the  action  of  heat  or 
certain  chemical  substances,  if  it  be  carefullv  scraped  with  a  blunt 
instrument  these  fibres  become  perfectly  distmct  and  are  of  oonsider- 
able  magnitude,  with  furrows  between  them,  which  for  the  most  part 
are  placed  in  such  a  direction  as  to  conveige  towards  the  base  of  the 
brain.  (Fig.  iv.  6,  5, 4.)  The  fibres  do  not  merely  miite,  forming  what 
are- called  commissures,  but  they  actually  exoss  each  other  and  pass 
into  the  opposite  sides  of  the  body.  This  decussation  of  the  meduUaiy 
fibres  has  been  demonstrated  in  the  most  satis&otory  manner  by 
Drs.  Qall  and  Spunheim. 

The  cerebellum  is  situated  at  the  basis  of  the  cerebrum  towards 
its  posterior  part  (Fig.  iL  6,  6.)  Its  form  is  elliptical,  its  largest 
diameter  extending  transverselv  from  one  side  to  the  other.  (^.  il  6.) 
Like  the  cerebrum  it  is  divided  into  two  lateral  halves  or  hemispheres 
(Jig.  iL  6),  which  are  separated  by  the  fialx  cerebellL  In  the  centre  of 
its  upper  surface  there  is  a  distinct  prominence,  termed  the  vermiform 
process  (fg.  ii  7),  which  may  be  considered  as  the  fundamental  part 
of  the  organ,  because,  in  the  lower  animals,  whatever  other  parts  of 
the  cerebellum  are  absent^  this  is  Invariably  present,  aflfording  thus 
the  nucleus  or  rudiment  of  the  organ,  finom  which,  by  the  addition  of 
other  parts,  as  the  hemispheres  or  lateral  lobes,  &c.,  the  more  perfect 
organ  of  the  higher  animal  is  built  up. 

The  external  surface  of  the  oerebellum  is  divided  into  flattened 
strata  or  layers  (fig,  iL  6),  separated  by  fissures  which  correspond  to 
the  clefts  or  sulci  between  toe  convolutions.  The  pia  mater,  bearing 
the  nutrient  arteries  of  the  cerebellum,  passes  between  every  one  of 
theee  fissures;  while  the  tfrachaoid  membrane  is  simply  extended 
over  them.  If  a  vertical  section  be  made  through  either  heooisphere 
of  the  cerebellum,  a  thidc  mass  of  White  substance  is  seen  in  the 
centre,  which,  as  it  divides  ixlto  the  several  strata,  presents  an  arbor- 


Fig.  III.— Yertieal  Seetioa  of  tht  Brain. 
1,  BondlM  of  mednlUry  fibres  in  the  central  i»art  of  the  nervons  apparat&t ; 

2,  white  natter  forming  the  centre  of  the  fundamental  part  of  the  oerebelhun ; 

3,  veitical  eeetion  of  the  oerebeUom,  showing  the  arboreaeeot  arrangement  of 
ita  component  laminv,  and  forming  the  appearance  called  arbor  vits ;  4,  sitoa- 
tion  of  the  third  ventricle ;  6,  fibres  of  white  matter,  forming  the  eeptom 
lueidom,  the  medollary  layer  which  separatee  the  two  lateral  ventricles  tnm 
each  other ;  6,  fibres  of  white  matter,  forming  the  corpus  oalloeom,  immedi- 
ately beneath  which  are  situated  the  lateral  ventrioles ;  7,  convolutions  ef  the 
cerebrum. 

esoent  i^pearance  commonly  denominated  the  arbor  vitse^  (Fig,  iiL  8.) 
These  strata  diverge  towards  the  circumference  of  the  cerebellum, 
and  are  covered  externally  by  gray  substance.    (Fig.  iiL  8.) 

In  front  of  the  cerebellum  is  placed  a  large  mass  of  nervous  matter, 
forming  a  very  considerable  eminence,  conmionly  termed  the  tuber 


annulare,  or  the  pons  varoliL  (Fig.iLlO,)  The  external  BorCaoe  of  thii 
body  is  convex,  and  it  is  divided  into  two  lateral  halves  by  a  middle 
groove.  (Fig.  iL  10.)  It  is  joined  to  the  oerebrum  by  two  thick  white 
cords  named  the  crura  cerebri,  and  to  the  oerebellum  by  two  nmilv 
cords  named  the  crura  oerebelli.  The  crura  cerebri  are  continued 
(from  the  tuber)  outwards  and  forwards  to  the  under  and  middle 
part  of  each  hemisphere  of  the  cerebrum,  in  which  th^  are  lost  In 
like  manner  the  crura  oerebelli  are  continued  outwards  and  backwaidi 
into  the  hemispheres  of  the  cerebellum,  in  whidi  they  terminate. 

The  Medulla  Oblongata  is  that  portion  of  the  cercAnral  maas  wfaidi 
intervenes  between  ue  tuber  annulare  and  the  foramen  magnum 
{fig.  iL  7) :  beyond  the  foramen  magnum  it  takes  the  name  of  ipinil 
oonL  On  the  anterior  surface  of  tiie  medulla'  oblongata  there  are 
four  eminences  oontiguous  to  each  other.  (Fig.  iL  7.)  The  two  internal 
are  named  corpora  pyramidalia,  or  the  pyramids  (fig.  iL  8) ;  and  the 
two  external  uie  corpora  olivaria  (fig.  iL  9),  or  the  olivary  bodiea 

If  the  membranes  which  invest  the  medulla  oblongata  are  cuefully 
removed,  and  its  middle  groove  be  gently  drawn  asunder,  there  wUl 
be  discovered  four  or  five  bands  of  white  substance  ascending  obliquely 
from  one  side  of  the  medulla  to  the  other.  (Fig.  iL  11.)  T^eee  faandi 
on  eaoh  side  decussate,  some  of  them  passing  above  and  others  below 
those  of  the  other  side,  so  that  they  are  interwoven  like  plaited  straw. 
(Fig.  iL  11.)  These  bands  are  named  the  decussating  bands  of  tiie 
corpora  pyramidalia,  and  their  decussation  is  conceived  to  explain  the 
phenomenon  familiar  to  the  physician  and  surgeon,  that  when  injury 
IS  done  to  one  side  of  the  brain  a  consequent  distarbanoe  of  function 
is  manifested  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  nervous  mass  constituting  the  brain  is  strictly 
symmetrical,  that  is,  the  cliffarent  parts  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
so  arranged,  that,  if  the  organ  be  supposed  to  be  divided  into  two 
lateral  halves  by  a  plane  passing  perpendicularly  through  its  centre, 
the  parts  placed  on  each  aide  of  this  plane  have  a  perfect  oorrespondr 
enoe  with  each  other,  and  form  in  fact  reduplications  of  eadi  other. 
( Fig.  iL)  The  principal  parts  of  the  cerebral  mass  are  thus  double, 
but  they  are  all  united  on  the  median  line  with  their  felbws  of  the 
opposite  side.  This  union  is  effected  l^  medulJbtfy  bands  of  various 
sues  and  figures  which  pass  frt>m  one  to  another,  called  oommissurea. 
Thus  the  double  parts  of  the  cerebellum  are  united  by  means  of  the 
large  mass  of  cerebral  matter  already  spoken  of  under  the  name  of 
tuber  annulare,  or  pons  varoliL  (Fig.  iL  10.)  The  hemispheres  of  the 
cerebrum  are  united  chiefly  by  a  broad  expsmsion  of  medullary  matter, 
which  extends  transversely  across  frx>m  the  bottom  of  one  buniipheie 
to  that  of  the  opposite  side,  called  the  corpus  callosum,  or  the  great 
oonmiissure  of  the  brain.  (Fig.  iiL  6,  6.)  There  are  other  connecting 
bands  of  smaller  si«e  b^  which  minor  portions  of  the  cerebral  mass 
are  placed  in  commumcation,  into  a  description  of  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  enter  here. 

The  cerebral  parts  are  separated  from  one  another  at  certain  places, 
and  the  interval  form  cavities  which  are  termed  ventrides.  Of  these 
ventricles  there  are  commonly  enumerated  four,  all  of  which  are  in 
communication  with  each  other.  By  far  the  largest  of  these  are  the 
two  great  cavities  called  the  lateral  ventricles,  which  are  situated  in 
the  interior  of  the  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum.  Commencing  in  the 
fore  part  of  the  anterior  lobes,  theee  cavities  proceed  backwanis  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  each  other  through  the  middle  into  the  posterior 
lobes.  Their  figure  is  winding  and  exceedingly  irregular,  and  they 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  tender  mass  of  medullaiy  matter 
termed  the  septum  lucidum.  ( Fig.  iiL  6.)  They  are  lined  throu^ut 
by  a  fine  transparent  membrane,  which  secretes  a  fiuid  that  keeps 
them  moist,  gives  them  a  bright  polished  appearance,  and  prerenta 
them  from  uniting.  This  membrane  is  the  pia  mater,  which  is  con- 
tinued from  the  exterior  surface  of  the  brain  into  these  interior  caTiUee; 
and  some  anatomists  describe  the  arachnoid  membrane  as  accompany- 
ing the  pia  xnater  in  all  its  course  through  the  ventrides. 

The  middle  or  third  ventride  is  a  vertioal  fissure  between  the  two 
large  convex  eminences  called  the  thalami  optid  (fig.  iiL  4),  situated 
in  the  middle  and  back  part  of  the  lateral  ventricles.  The  fourth 
ventride,  called  also  ventricle  of  the  cerebellum,  is  a  cavity  of  con- 
siderable extent  situated  between  the  cerebrum,  the  tuber  annulare, 
and  the  medulla  oblongata. 

For  a  detailed  account  of  the  course  of  the  fibres  the  reader  m 
referred  to  the  work  of  Drs.  Oall  and  Spursheim,  entitled '  RedMCchei 
sur  le  Syst^e  Nerveuz  en  g^n^ral,  et  sur  celui  du  Cerveaa  en  p«i> 
ticulier,'  in  which  the  direction  of  the  cerebral  fibres  is  not  only 
minutely  and  exactly  described,  but  illustrated  l^  excellent  drawug 
as  large  as  the  objeotsi  The  course  of  the  fibres  that  compose  the 
pyramids  (/jr.  iL  8  and  J^.  iv.  1)  is  as  follows :— Immediately  before 
their  entrance  into  the  tuber  aimulare  the  pyramids  are  a  litUe  con- 
tracted. (Fig.  iL  8.)  As  soon  as  they  enter  this  mass  the  Py«™*^JIJJ 
divided  into  innumerable  bundles  of  fibres  (fig.  iv.  3),  which  are  covered 
by  a  thiok  layer  of  transverse  fibres  (fig.  iv.  2)  that  come  from  tht 
oerebellunL  (Fig.iy.Z.)  These  fibres  of  the  pyramids,  thus  incressed  in 
number,  ascend,  and  receive  at  every  point  of  their  course  fr^*^**?* 
sions,  until  at  their  exit  (from  the  tuber)  forward  and  outward  th^ 
form  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  crura  oerebri,  as  is  seen  »*/^-.}Vr 
Followed  in  their  course  forwards  ttom  fig.  iv.  8,  they  are  mamfertif 
increased  at  every  point  by  the  accession  of  infinite  numbers  o* 
fibres.  (Fig.  iv.  i.)  At  th«  point  (fig.  iv.  6)  the  fibres,  now  exoeedm^iy 


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numoEOiu,  maiiifestly  assumo  a  diveiging  coorae,  prooeeding  in  every 
direction  forwards,  upwwxia,  laterally,  andbackwarda  (Pig.  iv.  6,  6,  7.) 
At  length  tiie  radiating  fibres,  orosaing  and  interlacing  each  other  in 
all  directions,  form  an  expansion  or  tissue,  and,  being  folded  in 


Fig,  IV.— Courae  of  the  fibres  of  the  Brain. 
1,  £ntranee  of  the  anterior  pyramids  into  3,  the  tuber  annuhire,  or  pons 
rarolii  ;  3,  fibres  of  the  pyramidB  much  increased  as  they  iMue  from  the  tuber 
annulare ;  4,  5,  continued  increase  in  the  fibres  of  (he  pyramids  as  they  advance 
oiTlrards  towards  the  conrolutions ;  6,  divergence  of  the  fibres  of  the  pyramids; 
7,  oon volutions  of  the  oerebnun,  showing  their  depth,  their  gray  matter,  and 
the  sulci  between  them ;  8,  oerebellnm. 

varioua  ways  and  covered  with  gray  matter,  constitute  the  convolu- 
tiona.  (Pig.  iv.  5,  6,  7,  7.)  Thus  the  pyramids,  progressively  increased 
and  developed,  form  a  largo  portion  of  the  anterior  and  middle  lobes 
of  the  cerebrum.  If  the  corpora  olivaria  (fig.  ii  9)  were  traced  in  like 
manner,  they  would  be  found  to  form  the  posterior  lobes  of  the  cere- 
brum ;  and  the  origin  and  source  of  the  fibres  constituting  the  main 
bulk  of  the  cerebellum  can  be  demonstrated  with  the  same  deamess 
and  exactnesa 

Froxn  the  preceding  account  of  the  structure  of  the  brain,  which 
shows  it  to  be  an  exceedingly  complex  oigan,  it  might  have  been 
inferred  from  utalogy  that  it  would  receive  a  laige  supply  of  blood ; 
but  the  quantity  actually  sent  to  it  is  fiEur  greater  than  any  analogy 
could  have  led  us  to  sunpose.  Haller  made  a  calculation,  from  which 
he  concluded  that  one-fifth  of  all  the  blood  sent  out  of  the  left  ven- 
tricle of  the  heart  is  carried  to  the  head,  yet  the  weight  of  the  brain 
in  the  human  subject  is  not  more  than  one-fortieth  of  that  of  the 
whole  body.  Even  if  this  estimate,  which  is  ^erally  thought  too 
laiige,  be  reduced  to  one-tenth,  according  to  the  idea  of  Monro,  it  will 
BtiU  leave  a  very  great  over-proportion.  There  is  no  part  of  the 
structure  of  the  brain  more  curious  than  the  various  contrivances 
connected  with  the  circulation  through  the.head,  which  have  for  their 
object  the  prevention  of  this  prodigious  quantity  of  blood  firom  pro- 
ducing any  usurious  effects  upontiie  tender  oerebnd  substance^  whether 
by  its  preasure  or  by  its  unequal  distribution,  in  consequence  of  its 
stiagnating  m  the  vessels,  or  of  its  being  too  violently  propelled  against 
them.  Manv  conjectures  have  been  formed  respecting  the  object  of 
furnishing  this  organ  with  such  an  extraoidmary  quantity  of  blood, 
but  nothing  is  really  known  of  the  use  to  which  it  is  applied,  though 
it  maj  be  admitted,  to  give  a  degree  of  plausibility  to  the  opinion,  that 
the  brain  has  some  analogy  to  a  secreting  oxgan.  Without  doubt  one 
use  both  of  the  ventricles  and  the  oonvolutioiiB  is  to  afford  a  more 
extended  surfitce  by  which  the  blood-vessels  may  enter  the  cerebral 
substance  at  a  greater  number  of  points,  and  consequently  in  small 
quantity  at  any  one  point,  while  at  the  same  time  thev  are  more  firmly 
supported  in  their  passage  by  the  neater  quantity  of  investing  mem- 
brane with  which  they  are  supplied    [Nbbvoub  Stbtbm.] 

The  brain  of  the  vertebrate  animals  differs  considerablv  from  ihat 
of  man,  and  more  in  proportion  to  their  low  position  in  the  scale  of 
development.  The  most  obvious  distinction  between  the  brain  of 
man  and  that  of  the  other  mammalia  is  its  diminished  sise  in  most 
of  the  latter.  The  moment  the  skull-cap  is  raised,  the  difference 
between  the  full  rounded  appearance  of  the  former  and  the  com- 
premed  flattened  shape  of  the  latter  cannot  fail  to  be  observed.  -The 
convexity  of  the  middle  lobes  is  strangely  lessened,  and  the  posterior 
lobe  is  in  a  manner  lost  in  quadrupeds.  K  the  brain  is  now  removed 
from  the  cranial  cavity,  the  difference  in  oi:dk  between  that  of  man 
and  the  inferior  animals  is  strikingly  displayed.  The  brain  of  the  ox 
scarcely  weighs  a  pound :  the  average  weight  of  the  brahi  of  the 
human  being  is  more  thsn  2^  pounds. 

In  man  the  brain  is  supposed  to  constitute  about  l-85th  part  of 
the  weight  of  his  body.  In  the  dog,  averaging  the  different  breeds, 
it  is  l-12(Hh  part ;  in  the  horse  it  is  only  the  460th  party  in  the  sheep 
the  750th  jpart^  and  in  the  ox  the  800th  part 

As  an  illustration  of  the  greater  size  and  development  of  the  nerves 
of  sense  in  animals,  the  olfMrtoxr  one  may  be  selected.  In  man,  who 
haa  other  means  of  judgmg  oz  the  quautiea  of  his  food,  and  of  lor- 


rounding  objects,  than  by  the  sense  of  smell,  the  olfactory  nerve  is  not 
one-fourth  the  size  of  that  of  the  horse ;  in  the  ox,  which  is  not  so 
much  domesticated  as  the  horse,  and  oftener  sent  into  the  field  to 
shift  for  itself,  it  is  considerably  larger;  it  is  larger  still  in  the 
swine,  which  has  to  search  for  a  portion  of  its  food  buried  in  the  earth, 
or  deeply  immersed  in  refuse  or  filth ;  and  it  is  laigest  of  all  in  the 
dog,  whose  acuteness  of  scent  renders  him  so  useful  a  servant  to  man. 

The  different  development  of  the  medulla  oblongata  in  different 
animals  may  be  adduced  as  another  proof  of  the  admirable  adaptation 
of  each  to  the  situation  which  it  occupies  and  the  functions  i^hich  it 
discharges.  The  medulla  oblongata  is  the  prolongation  and  conden- 
sation of  the  medullary  matter  of  the  brain,  and  it  is  the  origin  of 
that  portion  of  the  spinal  cord  which  is  devoted  to  organic  life.  In 
the  human  being,  the  breadth  of  it  is  only  a  seventh  part  of  that  of 
the  brain ;  in  the  horse  and  the  ox,  it  is  nearly  a  third ;  and  in  the 
dog  it  is  more  than  a  half.  In. every  part  of  the  brain  of  the 
quadruped  the  medullary  portion  preponderates,  and  the  cineritious 
is  defideni, 

In  the  smaller  quadrupeds  the  comparative  size  of  the  brain 
approaches  nearer  to  that  of  the  human  being.  In  the  mouse  it  is  a 
48rd  part  of  the  weight  of  the  animal 

The  brain  of  the  larger  birds  agrees  with  that  of  the  mammalia  in 
the  smollness  of  its  bulk,  compared  with  the  development  of  the  same 
organ  in  the  human  being.  The  brain  of  the  eagle.is  not  more  than 
a  260th  part  of  the  weight  of  the  bird.  The  brain  of  the  ffoose  is  not 
more  than  a  360th  part  If  in  some  of  the  lesser  birds,  as  in  the 
chaffinch  and  the  redbreast^  it  approaches  to  the  proportionate  size  of 
that  of  the  human  being,  it  is,  as  in  the  smaller  quadrupeds,  on  account 
of  the  quantity  of  medullary  matter  required  for  the  origins  of  the 
nerves ;  and  the  cineritious  matter  forms  only  a  very  small  part  of  the 
brain.  The  brain  of  the  bird  has  no  convolutions  on  its  surface ;  no  cor- 
pora striata  in  the  ventricles ;  no  pons  varolii  between  the  brain  and  the 
spinal  cord ;  and  the  origins  of  the  optic  nerves  are  separate  from  the 
brain,  and  lie  behind  and  below  it      ^       ^  ^ 

In  fishes  the  brain  is  yet  more  diminished  in  proportionate  size. 
In  some  spedes  it  does  not  constitute  a  2000tii  part  of  the  bulk  of 
the  fish.  It  scarcely  half  fills  the  cramal  cavity,  but  is  surrounded 
l^  a  cellular  tissue  containing  a  transparent  semifluid  mass.  It 
singularly  varies  in  different  spedes.  It  consists  of  at  least  four  or 
more  rounded  eminences,  placed  in  pairs  opposite  to  each  other  and 
forming  two  parallel  lines ;  and  there  is  often  only  a  very  slight  con- 
nection between  these  lines,  or  the  eminenoes  of  which  either  of  them 
is  composed.  The  two  prindpal  hemispheres  of  the  brain  and  the 
optic  thalaml  are  always  present  The  olfactory  nerves  often  form  a 
third  pair  of  tubercles  anterior  to  these  and  the  cerebellum,  and  are 
always  found  posteriorly  on  the  mesian  line.  The  optic  nerves  usually 
cross  each  other  without  any  intermingling  of  medullaxy  matter.^  The 
cineritious  substance  is  found  in  an  exceedingly  small  proportion  in 
the  brain  of  fishes. 

There  is  no  brain  properly  speaking  in  the  Invertebraia.  In  the  worm, 
the  upper  ganglion  of  the  nervous  system,  which  represents  the  brain, 
is  placed  near  to,  or  may  be  said  to  be  perforated  by,  the  superior  por- 
tion of  the  owophagus,  and  thence  proceed  little  white  threads  or  cords, 
which  run  along  the  course  of  tne  digestive  canaL  In  insects  the 
upper  ganglion  usually  surroxmds  the  oesophagus,  and  a  ganglionic 
system  of  nerves  can  generally  be  traced  proceeding  from  it  In  the 
larvse  of  insects  the  brain  is  inclosed  in  a  homy  cavity.  The  spinal 
cord  proceeding  firom  it  pursues  its  course  through  the  whole  of  the 
abdomen,  presenting  evident  ganglia  at  different  points,  firom  which 
nerves  are  distribute ;  while  from  the  intermediate  spaces  are  given 
out  other  nerves  without  ganglia,  presenting  a  rude  but  satisfsctoxy 
sketdi  of  the  combined  systems  of  sensitive  and  motor  nerves  dis- 
covered by  modem  physiologists. 

(Quain,  EUmenU  of  Anatomy;  Grant,  (hUUnei  of  ComptwaUvt 
Anatomy;  Carpenter,  PrincipUa  of  Physiology.) 

BRAI^,  a  Fish.    [Paqbus.] 

BRAKES.    rPTBBiB.] 

BRAKES  ROCK,  the  vulgar  name  for  iheAUoionu  criiputf  a  plant 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  PolypodiaeecB.  AUotorui  islaiown  by  its 
nearly  circular  sori,  which  ane  at  length  confluent,  and  are  concealed 
by  the  reflexed  maigin  of  the  frond.  A.  critpui  has  a  slender  very 
brittie  stem,  which  attains  a  height  of  from  6  to  12  inches.  It  grows 
in  stony  places  on  mountains  throughout  Great  Britain. 

BRAHMA,  a  genus  of  Fishes  of  the  order  Acanthopterygii  and  fSunHy 
Squamipermei.  Dorsal,  anal,  and  ventral  fins  more  or  less  scaly ;  body 
much  compressed,  somewhat  ovate  when  viewed  laterally ;  the  head 
rather  obtusely  terminated ;  mouth  when  shut  almost  vertical ;  teeth 
slender,  placed  both  in  the  jaws  and  palatines ;  branchiostttfous  rays 
seven.  But  one  species  of  this  genus  is  known,  BramaPaiL  M.  Cuvier 
mentions  the  Mediterranean  as  the  chief  locality  for  this  fish,  but  at 
the  same  time  he  says  that  it  oceasionally  wanden  into  the  ocean. 
It  appears  however  tiiat  it  is  not  so  local  as  H.  Cuvier  supposes, 
nume^us  specimens  having  been  found  on  different  parts  of  our  own 
coasts. 

Brama  Rati  measures  firom  about  1  to  2  feet  in  length ;  it  is  of  a 
deep  blue  colour,  becoming  silveiy  towards  the  belly.  The  dorsal  fin 
has  84  rays  and  the  anal  80  rays.  The  tail  is  large  andforiced;  pectoral 
fins  rather  loog  and  narrow;  ventral  fins  smiul :  the  scales  extend  as 


Digitized  by 


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655 


BRAMBLE. 


BRANCHIOPODA. 


K» 


fyr  M  theJawB.    The  fleah  of  this  fish  is  said  to  have  an  exqulnta 
flavour.    (Taixell,  BrUith  Fitha.) 

BRAMBLE,  the  wild  bush  that  bears  blabkberriee,  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  RotaeetB.    [RuBus.] 

BRAMBLING.    [FBnraiLLiL] 

BRANCHIOTODA,  the  first  order  of  the  division  BiUomotlraea 
rEvTOMOSiRAOA],  of  the  class  Onuiaeea.  [Cbustaoxa.]  Dr.  Baird,  in 
his  '  Natural  Histoiy  of  the  British  Entomostraca,'  thus  characterises 
it: — Mouth  furnished  with  oigans  fitted  for  mastication;  branohitt 
many,  attached  to  the  feet ;  body  sometimes  naked,  but  most  frs- 
quentlv  having  an  envelope  in  form  of  a  buckler,  in  some  inclosing 
only  the  head  and  thorax,  in  others  the  whole  bodv ;  feet  vaiy  in 
number,  all  branchiferous ;  antennte  two-  or  four-jointed  and  genenlly 
ciliated ;  eyes  sometimes  two,  or  even  throe,  but  frequently  only  one, 
or  so  closely  approximated  as  to  appear  single.  Th^  are  all  fires  and 
inattaohed,  swimming  at  large  in  water.  This  division  of  the  BiUo- 
moitraca  includes  some  of  the  commonest  forms,  such  as  those  known 
under  the  name  of  MonocvUu  and  the  various  species  of  Dapknia, 
ihe  watei>fleas  of  popular  writers.  The  following  is  the  arrangement 
of  this  order  by  Latreille,  which  comprehends  the  Lophffropoda  of 
Baird  and  others : — 

Section  L 
Lophyropoda. 

Feet  never  more  than  six,  the  articulations  more  or  less  cylindrical 
or  conical,  and  never  entirely  lamelliform  or  foliaceous.  The  branchi» 
are  not  numerous ;  and  there  is  but  one  eye.  Many  have  the  mandibles 
furnished  with  a  palpus  or  feeler,  and  though  M.  Straus  attributea  this 
oiganisation  exclusively  to  the  genera  Cypris  and  Cytherina,  which 
compose  his  order  of  Ottrapoda,  the  elder  Jurine  and  M.  Ramdohr 
have  shown  that  it  is  also  characteristic  of  Cydopa,  The  autenn»  are 
almost  always  four  in  number,  and  serve  for  locomotion.  Three 
groups  are  arranged  under  this  section. 
Careinoida, 

Shell  more  or  less  ovoid,  not  folded  so  as  to  convey  the  idea  of  a 
bivalve,  but  leaving  the  lower  port  of  the  body  uncovered.  The 
antenna  never  in  the  fbrm  of  rainified  arms.  Feet  ten,  more  or  lees, 
cylindrical  or  setaceous.  Females  carrying  their  eggs  in  two  external 
bags  situated  at  the  base  of  their  tail  Some  of  this  division  have  two 
eyes,  but  the  genus  Oydopi  has  but  one. 
a.  Two  Eyes. 

Shell  entirely  covering  the  thorax.  Eyes  large  and  distinct 
AntenusB  intermediate,  terminated  by  two  bristle-like  appendages. 

Under  this  subdivision  Latreille  places  the  genera  Zoect,  Bosc ; 
Ntholia,  Leach ;  and  Oondylwrck,  Latreille. 

In  the  genus  Z<tea  we  have  an  interesting  example  of  the  necessity 
of  observing  i^nimA^ln  not  only  in  one  stage  but  through  the  whole 
period  of  their  existence.  The  Zoeapdagica  of  Bosc,  and  the  other 
species  of  the  same  genus,  are  now  known  to  be  transitionaiy  con- 
ditions of  the  higher  forms  of  Orutlacea,  We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  V. 
Thompson  of  Cork  for  first  having  shewn  this  with  regard  to  Zoea»  He 
observed  that  the  members  of  Zoea,  fix)m  being  natatory  and  deft, 
became  simple  and  adapted  to  crawling  only.  The  animal,  when 
perfected,  was  found  to  be  a  crab.  To  complete  his  proof  of  meta- 
morphosis among  the  Cruttaeea,  he  states  that  he  succeeded  in  hatching 
the  eggs  of  the  common  Crab  {Ckmcer  pa^urtu),  the  young  of  which 
were  found  to  be  similar  in  form  to  Zoea  Tawut;  and  he  thenoe 
concluded  that  the  crustaceous  decapods  generally  undergo  metamor- 
phosis, being  in  the  first  state  of  their  existence  essentiallv  natatory ; 
and  the  greater  number  of  them  becoming  afterwards  in  their  perfect 
state  incapable  of  swimming,  being  then  furnished  with  chels  (pincers), 
and  with  feet  almost  solely  adapted  for  crawling.  Mr.  Thompson 
states  that  with  regard  to  braohyurous  decapods  (crabs,  &a)  he  has 
ascertained  the  newly-hatched  animal  to  be  a  Zoea  in  the  following 
genera :  Cancer,  Oardnui,  Portvnus,  Eryphia,  Oegar- 
ciwu,  Thdphuio,  Pwnoiherei,  /nocAK*— eight  in  all ; 
and  that  in  the  Jfocroicra  (lobsters,  &c.)  he  has  asoer- 
tained  that  the  following  seven  genera  are  subject 
to  metamorphosis :  Fagtunu,  PoreeUana,  QaUUhea, 
Crangon,  PaUetnon,  Bomartu,  Attaeui,  The  an- 
nexed figitfe  of  Zoea  cla/vata  (Leach),  taken  by 
Mr.  Granch  in  the  unfortunate  expedition  to  the  ^»**  elavata. 
Congo  under  Captain  T\ickey  in  1816,  will  give  some  idea  of  the 
general  form  of  Zoea. 

As  an  example  of  this  division  of  Latreille  we  may  give  the  Nebalia 
hipes,  which  includes  the  two  species  N.  glabra  and  N.  cUiaia  of 
Lamarck.  This  creature  has  an  ovate  body  of  a  pale  yellow  colour, 
with  a  darker  longitudinal  line  along  each  side ;  antenna  long,  the 
inferior  pair  as  long  as  the  body,  and  setiferous ;  beak  of  carapace 
sharp-pointed  and  moveable ;  four  pairs  of  natatorial  feet  of  moderate 
length,  and  setiferous ;  caudal  appendages  rather  long,  and  furnished 
at  the  extremity  with  one  long  slender  seta  and  three  or  four  short 
seta,  not  plumose.  This  species  is  a  native  of  the  sea,  and  has  been 
found  on  the  coast  of  Devonshire,  on  the  coast  of  Ireland,  and  the 
Shetland  Isles. 

0.  One  Eye. 

Thorax  divided  into  many  segments.    The  anterior,  and  muoh  the 


laigest  segment,  presents  a  single  eye  only,  placed  in  the  middle  of 
the  f^ront  between  the  superior  antenna.  Cyckpt  (Miiller),  whidi  bai 
been  so  well  illustrated  by  the  acute  observations  of  the  dder  JxaJM 
and  of  Ramdohr,  is  the  only  genus  of  this  subdivision. 

The  body  of  the  species  of  Cydopt  is  more  or  less  approachmg  to 
oval,  soft  or  rather  g^tinoos,  and  is  divided  into  two  portiona,  the 
one  anterior,  consisting  of  the  head  and  thorax,  the  other  posterior, 
forming  what  is  commonly  called  the  tail.  The  segment  inunedistely 
preceding  the  sexual  organs,  and  which  in  the  femsles  carries  two 
supporting  appendages  in  the  form  of  little  feet  (fulcra,  Jorine),  may 
be  considered  as  ^e  first  segment  of  the  tail,  which  is  not  alwajB 
very  dearly  defined  or  strongly  distinguished  from  the  thorax,  and 
consists  of  six  segments  or  joints,  the  second  of  which  in  the  maleg  is 
provided  on  its  lower  side  with  two  articulated  appendages  of  varied 
form,  sometimes  simple,  sometimes  having  a  snosll  diviuon  at  the 
internal  edge,  and  constituting  entirely  or  in  part  the  organs  of 
generation.  In  the  other  sex  the  female  organ  is  placed  upon  the 
same  joint.  The  last  segment  terminates  in  two  points  forming  a 
fork,  and  more  or  less  bordered  with  delicate  beards  or  penniform 
fringes.  The  anterior  portion  of  the  body  is  divided  into  four  segments, 
of  which  the  first  and  by  for  the  largest  includes  the  head  and  a 
portion  of  the  thorax,  wUohare  thus  covered  by  one  scale  common  to 
both.  Here  are  situated  the  eye,  four  antenna,  two  mandibles  (internal 
mandibles  of  Jurine)  furnished  with  a  feeler  (which  is  either  simple 
or  divided  into  two  articulated  branches),  two  jaws  (the  external 
mandibles,  or  lip  with  little  beards,  of  Jurine),  and  four  feet,  divided 
each  into  two  cylindrical  stems,  fringed  with  hairs  or  bearded.  The 
anterior  pair  representing  the  second  pair  of  jaws  differ  a  little  from 
the  sucoeedinff  pair,  and  are  compared  by  Jurine  to  a  kind  of  hani 
Each  of  the  wree  succeeding  segments  serves  as  the  point  of  attach- 
ment to  a  pair  of  feet.  The  two  superior  antenna  are  longest 
setaceous,  simple,  and  formed  of  a  great  number  of  small  articulatjonp, 
They  fiuulitate  by  their  action  the  motion  of  the  body,  and  perfom 
very  nearly  the  office  of  feet  The  lower  antenna  (antennulee  of 
Jurine)  are  filiform,  oonsiBting  most  frequently  of  not  more  than  four 
joints,  and  are  sometimes  simple,  sometimes  forked.  Bv  their  rapid 
motion  they  produce  a  small  eddy  in  the  water.  In  the  males  the 
upper  antenna,  or  one  of  them  only,  as  in  Cydop$  Castor^  are  con- 
tracted in  parts,  and  exhibit  a  swelling  portion  which  is  followed  by  a 
hinge  joint.  By  means  of  these  organs,  or  of  one  of  them,  the  males  seize 
either  the  hind  feet  or  the  end  of  the  tail  of  their  females  during  the 
season  of  fecundation,  and  are  thus  often  found  attached.  On  each  side 
of  the  tail  of  the  females  is  an  oval  beg  filled  with  eggs  (external  oraiy 
of  Jurine),  adhering  by  a  veryfine  pedide  to  the  second  segment,  near  it) 
junction  with  the&la^l,  and  where  the  orifice  of  the  deferent  egg-canal 
may  be  seen.  The  pellide  which  forms  these  bags  is  only  a  continua- 
tion of  that  of  the  internal  ovary.  The  number  of  contained  eggs 
increases  with  age.  They  are  at  first  brown  or  obscure,  but  afterwards 
preeent  a  reddish  tinge  and  become  nearly  transparent^  without  how- 
ever increasing  in  size  when  the  young  are  about  to  come  forth  When 
isolated  or  detached,  up  to  a  certain  period  at  leasts  the  germ  periahes. 
A  single  fecundation  suffices  for  successive  generations,  and  tiie  same 
female  can  lay  eggs  ten  times  in  Uie  course  of  three  months,  so  that 
the  number  of  births  amounts  to  something  enormous.  Thus,  taking 
eight  ovipositions  and  allowing  forty  eggs  for  each^  it  has  been  calcu- 
lated that  one  female  Cyclops  may  be  the  progenitress  of  four  thousand 
five  hundred  millions.  The  time  the  foetus  remains  in  the  ovary  vanes 
from  two  to  ten  dxyn,  the  variation  depending  on  the  temperature  of 
the  seasons  and  on  oiher  circumstances.  . 

The  young  at  their  birth  have  only  four  feet,  and  their  body  a 
rounded  and  taillees.  In  this  state  they  are  the  genus  Anymont  of 
Mttller.  Some  time  afterwards  (in  about  fifteen  davs  in  the  montha  of 
February  or  March)  they  acquire  another  pair  of  feet ;  they  im  then 
the  genus  NaupHut  of  the  same  author.  After  their  first  moult  they 
assume  the  form  and  all  the  parts  which  characterise  the  adult  state, 
but  with  smaller  proportions :  tiieir  antenna  and  feet,  for  exampldi  are 
oomparatively  short  At  the  end  of  two  more  moults  they  are  fitfor 
the  reproduction  of  the  spedes.  The  greater  part  of  these  £fuo- 
moitr<tea  svrim  upon  their  backs,  darting  about  with  vivadty^^ 
possessing  the  power  of  moving  dther  backwards  or  forwards.  Tasa 
food  generally  consists  of  animal  matter  in  preference  to  vegetable; 
but  in  the  absence  of  the  former  they  feed  upon  substances  of  tbe 
latter  description,  and  it  is  said  that  the  fluid  in  which  they  Uve  never 
enters  their  stomachs.  The  alimentary  canal  extends  from  one 
extremity  of  the  body  to  the  other.  The  heart  (taking  Cydopt  Wor 
as  the  subject)  is  of  a  shape  approaching  to  oviJ,  and  situated  iimnc- 
diately  under  the  second  and  third  segment  of  the  body.  Ejcii  oi 
the  extremities  of  this  organ  gives  off  a  vessd,  the  one  gomg  to  tne 
head,  tlie  other  to  the  taiL  Immediately  bdow  is  another  an«"J«T 
organ,  giving  off  also  at  each  end  a  vessel  supposed  to  '^PJ^f^T. 
branchiocardiac  canals  observable  in  the  circulation  of  the  Decapoaoua 
OnutacecL  ,^ 

The  genus  Cyclopt  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  fresh  waters ;  and  we 
select  the  Common  Cyclops,  Cydope  wlgarit,  Leach;  ^f^f*"* 
quadricomU,  Linn.;  Cydope  qnadricomis,  Umer ;  Monocle  k  Queue 
Fourchue,  Qeoffroy,  as  an  example  of  the  spede& 


The 


body  of  the  Common  Cydops  has  a  somewhat  swollen  ap^ 
ad  U  formed  of  four  rings,  and  prolonged  to  about  one-tmra 


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BRANCHIOPODA. 


«68 


its  entire  kngth.  The  tail  ooiunsta  of  seven  rings.  The  posterior 
sntennsD  (antennules  of  Jurine)  are  tolerably  lai^e  and  composed  of 
four  joints,  the  anterior  antenn»  are  thrice  the  length  of  the  posterior. 

There  are  seyeral  varieties. 

Var.  a.  Reddish ;  eggs  brown,  forming  two  oblique  masses  near 
the  sides  of  the  taiL  Total  lengl^  eight-twelfttis  of  a  line.  This  is 
the  Mtmoeuku  quadricomit  rubent  of  Jurine. 

Yar.  b.  Whitish  or  gray,  somewhat  tinged  with  brown,  rather 
arger  than  the  preceding.  Egg-masses  greenish,  forming  nearly  a 
right  an^  with  the  tail  Total  length  the  same  as  the  precedmg. 
This  is  the  M,  9.  cUbidui  of  Jurine. 

Yar.  c  Ghreenish.  Direction  of  the  two  egg-masses  intermediate 
between  that  of  the  egg-masses  of  the  two  former.  Length  nine- 
twelfths  of  a  line.    M,  q.  viridis  of  Jurine. 


Cyclops  vuigariif  magnified. 
1,  Male  of  variety  a;  2,  female  of  the  same;  a  a,  aatenn*;  h  h,  eezaal 
orgvjia  of  the  male ;  e  e,  external  oTiparous  ponchee  of  the  female ;  d  d,  internal 
orarioe ;  8,  a  female  of  variety  0 ;  4,  a  young  individual  of  that  variety. 

Yar.  d.  Smoky  red.  General  form  nearly  oval.  Eggs  brown,  com- 
posing two  masses,  which  cover  a  g^^eat  portion  of  the  taiL  Length 
six-twelfths  of  a  line.     AT.  q.  fuscut  of  Jurine. 

Var. «.  Of  a  deeper  green  than  var.  c.  Eggs  obscure  green,  passmg 
a  little  into  rose-colour  when  hatching  is  near,  forming  two  masses 
attached  to  the  tail,  and  appearing  to  be  incorporate  with  it.  Length 
the  same  as  the  preceding,    if.  q.  pratinua  of  Jurine. 

Osfracoda,  Latreille ;  Otiropoda,  SimuB. 

The  shell  of  the  Ottracada  is  formed  of  two  pieces  or  valves  repre- 
senting those  of  a  conchiferous  moUusk  or  bivalve  shell,  but  homy, 
not  testaceooB.  Aa  in  the  bivalves,  the  two  pieces  are  united  by  a 
hinge,  and  when  the  animal  is  inactive  they  dose  upon  and  shut  in 
the  body  and  the  parts.  The  feet  are  ambulatory,  six  in  number,  uid 
none  are  terminated  by  a  digitated  swimming  organ,  nor  aooompanied 
by  a  branchial  lamina.  The  antenns  are  simple,  filiform,  or  setaceous. 
There  is  but  one  eye,  which  is  composite  and  sessile.  The.mandibles 
and  jawB  are  furnished  with  a  branchial  lamina,  and  the  eggs  are 
situated  on  the  back. 

In  this  division  Latreille  includes  the  genera  Oifthere,  MtUler(CAff*e- 
nno,  Lamarck)  and  Cyprit.  Cythere  has  one  eye;  three  pairs  offset; 
abdomen  short ;  the  mfcrior  or  pediform  antenna  fteiiahed  with  one 

VAT.  HIBT.  DIV.  VOL.  I. 


tolerably  long  curved  and  jointed  filament.  The  species  are  inhabit- 
ants of  the  sea.  Th^y  have  not  the  power  of  swinmiing,  but  sre  always 
walking  among  the  leaves  or  branches  of  the  Cor^ervas  and  Fuei, 
where  they  delight  to  dwell  When  shaken  out  of  their  hiding  places 
into  a  tumbler  or  bottle,  they  may  be  seen  to  fall  in  gyrations  to  the 
bottom,  without  ever  attempting  to  dart  through  the  fluid,  as  would 
be  the  case  with  the  species  of  Oypris.  Upon  reaching  the  bottom  they 
open  their  shells  and  creep  along  the  surface  of  the  glass ;  but  when 
touched  or  shaken  they  immediately  again  withdraw  themselves  within 
their  shell  and  remain  motionless.  Dr.  Baird,  whose  work  on  tibie 
British  species  contains  a  fund  of  information  on  the  habits  of  the 
minute  family  to  which  these  creatures  belong,  says  that  the  species 
"  are  undoubtedly  numerous,  and  the  labours  of  any  inquirer  after 
them  would  assuredly  be  rewarded  with  success."  '  He  has  described 
fifteen  species  as  inhabitants  of  the  British  coasts.  Several  of  the 
species  have  been  foimd  fossil. 

CyprU  has  two  pairs  of  feet,  one  pair  always  inclosed  within  the 
shell  The  two  antennso  are  terminated  by  a  pencil  of  fine  hairs. 
The  case  or  shell  is  suboval,  arched,  and  protuberant  on  the  back  or 
hinge  sidc^  and  nearly  straight  or  a  little  sinuous  or  kidney-shaped  on 
the  opposite  edge.  A  litUe  in  advance  of  the  hinge,  and  upon  the 
mesial  line,  is  tiie  single  large  blackish  round  eye.  The  antenna^ 
which  are  inserted  immediately  below,  are  shorter  than  the  body, 
setaceous,  composed  of  from  seven  to  eight  joints,  of  which  the  last  are 
the  shortest,  and  terminated  by  a  pencu  of  twelve  or  fifteen  fine  hairs, 
which  serve  as  swimming  oigana  The  mouth  is  composed  of  a  cari- 
nated  labrum ;  of  two  laige  toothed  mandibles,  each  fiumished  with 
a  feeler  of  three  joints,  to  the  first  of  which  a  sinall  branchial  lamina 
of  five  digitations  (interior  lip  of  Ramdohr)  is  attached,  and  of  two 
pairs  of  jaws ;  the  two  upper,  which  are  much  the  largest^  have  on 
their  internal  border  four  moveable  and  silky  appendages,  and  extern 
nally  a  laige  branchial  lamina  pectinated  on  its  anterior  edge ;  the 
second  are  fonned  of  two  joints,  with  a  shorty  ilearly  conical,  and 
jointless  feeler,  also  silky  at  the  end.  A  sort  of  compressed  sternum 
performs  the  office  of  a  lower  lip  (external  lip  of  Ramdohr).  The  feet 
nave  five  joints,  tiie  third  representing  the  thigh,  and  the  last  the 
tarsus ;  the  two  anterior  ones,  much  stronger  than  the  rest^  are  inserted 
below  the  antennn,  directed  forwards  with  stiff  hairs  on  long  hooka 
collected  into  a  bundle  at  the  extremity  of  the  two  last  joints :  the 
four  following  feet  are  without  these  appendages.  The  second  pair, 
situated  on  the  middle  of  the  under  side  of  the  body,  are  directed 
backwards,  curved,  and  terminated  by  a  long  strong  hook  bent  for- 
wards; the  two  last,  never  showing  themselves  beyond  the  shell, 
are  applied  to  the  sides  of  the  body  for  the  purpose  of  sustaining  the 
ovaries,  and  are  terminated  by  two  very  small  hooks.  There  is  no 
distinct  joint  observable  in  the  body,  which  terminates  posteriorly  in 
a  kind  of  tail,  whidi  is  soft  and  bent  upon  itself  underwards,  with 
two  conic  or  setaceous  filaments  fringed  with  three  silk^  hairs  or  hooks 
at  the  end,  and  directing  itself  backwards  so  as  to  project  beyond  the 
shelL  The  ovaries  form  two  large  vessels,  simple  and  conical,  situated 
upon  the  posterior  sides  of  the  body  under  the  shell,  and  opening,  one 
at  the  aide  of  the  other,  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  abdomen,  where 
the  canal  formed  by  fiie  taU  establishes  a  communication  between 
them.    The  eggs  are  spherical 

These  ftTiitna^la  swim  with  more  or  less  rapidity  in  the  still  fresh 
waters  or  gently-running  streams  which  they  inhabit^  in  proportion  as 
they  bring  into  action  i£e  filaments  of  the  antennse ;  sometimes  they 
only  show  one,  at  others  they  put  them  all  forth.  Latreille  thinks 
that  these  filaments  may  also  anist  in  respiration.  The  two  anterior 
feet  are  moved  with  tiie  same  rapidity  as  the  antennie  when  the 
mniniid  is  swimming ;  when  it  creeps  over  the  surface  of  the  water- 
plants,  the  progress  is  slow.  The  female  deposits  her  «ggs  in  a  mass, 
fixing  them  by  means  of  a  glutinous  substance  on  the  water-plants  or 
on  the  mud.  Anchored  by  her  second  pair  of  feet»  so  as  to  be  safe 
from  the  agitation  of  the  water,  she  is  occupied  about  two  hours  in 
this  operation,  the  produce  of  which,  in  the  largest  species,  amounts 
to  24  eggs.  Jurine  collected  some  of  these  at  the  time  of  their 
exelusion,  imd,  after  having  insulated  them,  obtained  another  generation 
without  the  intervention  of  the  male.  A  female  which  laid  her  eggs 
on  the  12th  of  April  changed  her  skin  six  times  between  that  day  and 
the  18th  of  May  following.  On  the  27th  of  the  last-nsmed  month 
she  laid  again,  and,  two  days  afterwazds,  made  a  second  deposit 
Jurine  concludes  that  the  number  of  moults  in  the  young  state 
corresponds  with  thp  gradual  development  of  the  individual 
Desmarest  considers  that  they  do  not  undergo  a  metamorphosis,  but 
that  they  present  on  their  exclusion  from  the  egg  the  form  which  they 
preserve  throughout  their  life.  Their  food  is  said  to  consist  of  dead 
animal  substances  and  of  Ctrnferviz,  In  summer,  when  the  heats  have 
dried  up  the  pools,  they  plunge  into  the  humid  mud,  and  there 
remain  m  an  apocryphal  kind  of  existence  till  the  rains  again  restore 
them  to  activity.  ■n^i.j 

The  recent  species  are  numerous ;  Jurine  described  21.  Dr.  Baird 
describes  15  species  as  British. 

The  hard  shells  of  OyprU  resist  deoompoeitian,  hence  many  are 

fossil  ,  ,•  .  • 

Cwri9  Faha,  Desmarest,  holds  a  plaoe  among  the  organic  ronaina 
of  the  Wealden  Rooks  of  England.  Dr.  Ktton  has  recorded  it  m  the 
Weald  CUiy  of  the  Isle  of  Wight^  Swanage  Bay,  ate.,  and  Dr.  Hantell 

^  2  u 


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BRANCmOPODA. 


iu  the  Ha9tings  Saudfl.  Besmarest  notes  the  species  as  fouud  iu  grout 
abundance  near  the  mountain  of  Qeiigovie,  in  the'  department  of  the 
Puy-de-D6me,  and  at  the  Balme-d'Allier,  between  Yichy-lea-Bains  and 
Cussao.     Their  gi-ent  fruitfulness  and  the  frequent  moults  noticed 


CSfftris  omata  (magnified). 
Shell  yellowish-green,  banded  with  green.     A,  side  riew ;  B,.  riew  looking 
apou  the  hinge.    The  hands  commence  behind  the  eye. 


Cypritfiuca  (magnified),  Straus. 
YalTea  brown,  kidney-shaped,  covered  with  fine  soattered  hairs.  Antennas 
with  fifteen  fine  bristles.  In  the  view  the  raWes  are  snpposed  to  be  removed, 
the  outline  a  a  showing  their  shape  and  their  relative  situation ;  5,  origin  of 
the  hinge  membrane ;  0,  eye  ;  d  d,  antennv  deprived  of  their  bristles ;  «,  feet 
of  the  first  pair ;  /,  of  the  second  pair ;  ^,  of  the  third  pair ;  A,  tail ;  i,  labrum  ; 
A,  mandible ;  /,  feeler ;  m,  Jaw  of  the  first  pair ;  n,  of  the  seoond  pair ; 
o,  branchia  or  gill ;  p  ;,  posterior  portion  of  the  left  ovary ;  r,  the  male  organ 
according  to  Straus. 

above  may  account  in  some  measure  for  the  quantities  of  their 
petrified  ezuvise.  Cyprit  has  also  been  found  in  the  Fresh- Water 
Limestone,  beneath  the  Mid-Lothian  Coal-Field,  at  Burdiehouse,  near 
Edinburgh,  and  in  other  districts. 

Cladocera,  Latreille ;  Daphnides,  Straus. — These  minute  creatures 
have  a  single  eye  .only,  and  are  protected  by  a  shell  doubled  as  it  were, 
but  without  any  hinge,  according  to  Jurine,  and  terminated  posteriorly 
in  a  point.  The  head,  which  is  covered  with  a  kind  of  beak-like 
armour,  projects  beyond  the  shell.  There  are  two  antennas,  generally 
large,  in  the  form  of  arms,  divided  into  two  or  three  branches  placed 
on  a  peduncle  fringed  with  filaments  always  projecting,  and  serving 
the  purpose  of  oars.  The  feet,  four  to  six  pairs,  terminated  by  a 
digitated  or  pectinated  swimming  organ,  and  furnished,  with  the 
exception  of  the  two  first,  with  a  branchial  lamina.  Their  eggs  are 
situated  on  the  back,  and  their  body  terminates  with  a  sort  of  tail 
with  two  delicate  hairs  or  filaments  at  the  end.  The  anterior  part  of 
the  body  is  somtimes  prolonged  into  the  form  of  a  beak,  sometimes 
into  a  shape  approaching  that  of  a  head  occupied  almost  entirely  by 
one  large  eye. 

Latreille  gives  the  following  sub-genera :  PolyphetMUf  MiiUer ; 
Daphnia,  MiUler ;  Lynceut^  Miiller  (CfnlodortUf  Leach).  This  division 
in  Baird's  'Entomostraca'  includes  the  following  families  and  genera. 


Daphnia, 
Boimina, 
Sida. 

Polpphemm, 

EwryctrcuB. 
Camptocercus, 
AUma. 
Peracantha, 


1.  DaphniadcB. 


2.  Polyphemidm, 
8.  Lynceidcg. 


Moina, 

Macrothrix, 

DaphneUa. 

Bvadne, 

Chydorut. 
Acroperus. 
PUuroxut, 


Of  these  DopAnta  is  thie  most  numerous  genus ;  and  though  the 
tpecles  are  so  extremely  small,  the  observations  of  naturalists^  and 
YHDre  especially  of  Schoeffer,  Ramdohr,  Straus   and  the  elder ^Jorine^ 


have  rendered  its  oi^ganisation  and  habits  extremely  well  known.  In 
the  species  of  Daphnia  one  junction  of  the  sexes  fooundates  the  ova 
for  many  successive  generations,  six  at  least;  their  moults  an 
very  frequent ;  they  lay  at  first  but  one  egg*  then  two  or  three,  and  so 
on  progressively  as  they  advance  in  life  tiU  their  number  amounts  to 
58  in  one  species  (Da/phma  magwi) ;  and  the  young  of  the  same 
deposit  are  generally  of  one  sex,  it  being  rare  to  find  two  or  time 
males  in  a  female  batch,  and  vice  versA.  As  the  winter  approaches 
their  moulta  and  oviposits  cease,  and  the  frost  is  supposed  to  destroy 
them,  leaving  however  the  ^ggs  unharmed,  which  the  genial  spring 
season  hatches  to  fill  the  pools  with  myriads  of  Da/phnia,  Then 
those  who  have  microscopes  will  find  ample  employment  for  them. 
Every  ditch,  every  pool,  every  garden  reservoir,  will  fumirii  the 
observer  with  Branchiopods. 

The  species  are  numerous.  The  most  common  is  the  Wate^Flea, 
Daphnia  pulex  of  Latreille,  Monoculut  pulex  of  Linnseua,  PuUx 
aqtuiticui  arboretcent  of  Swammerdam,  Le  Peiroquet  d*£au  of 
Gbofiroy.  Despised  as  this  minute  creature  may  be  by  those  who, 
like  the  orientaHsts,  consider  sise  as  absolutely  necessary  to  produce 
grand  ideas,  it  has  fixed  the  especial  attention  of  Swammerdam, 
Needham,  Leuwenhoek,  Schoaffer,  De  Qeer,  Straus,  and  above  all,  of 
Jurine,  who,  in  common  with  other  philosophers  of  great  name,  have 
found  as  much  interesting  information  regarding  the  development 
of  animal  life  in  the  admirable  organisation  of  these  animated  specki 
as  is  afforded  by  the  largest  vertebrated  animal     [D aphhia.] 

Section  IL 
PhyUopoda, 

Distinguished  by  the  number  of  feet,  and  by  the  lamella  or  folia- 
ceous  form  of  the  joints,  representing,  according  to  Latreille,  the 
Myriapodt  in  the  claisB  Inaeeta.  The  eyes  are  always  two  in  number, 
formed  of  a  sort  of  network,  and  sometimes  placed  on  pedicles ;  many 
have  besides  a  sing^  smooth  eye. 

Ceratophthalmck,  Latreille,  have  ten  pairs  of  feet  at  the  least,  and 
the  maximum  of  those  organs  in  this  group  is  said  to  be  22.  There 
is  no  vesicular  body  at  their  base,  and  the  anterior  feet  are  never  so 
long  as  the  others,  nor  are  they  ramified.  The  body  is  either  incloeed 
in  a  shell-case,  like  a  bivalve  shell,  or  naked,  the  thoracic  divisionB 
beiiig  each  furnished  with  a  pair  of  feet  The  eyes  are  sometimes 
sessue,  small,  and  placed  yery  nearly  together ;  sometimes,  and  indeed 
most  frequently,  they  are  mounted  on  the  extremity  of  two  moveable 
pedicles.  The  eggB  are  either  internal  or  external,  and  inclosed  in  a 
capsule. 

a. 

Eyes  sessile,  immoveable ;  body  incloeed  in  an  oval  case  like  a 
biveJve  shell ;  ovaries  always  internal 

The  sub-genus  Limnadia  of  Adolphe  Brongniart  is  an  example  of 
this  structure.  Limnctdia  Sermanni  (Adol.  Brongn.),  Daphnia  gi^  of 
Hermann,  occurs  in  great  numbers  in  the  little  pools  of  the  forest  of 
Fontainebleau,  and  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Brongniart*s  Memoir  in 
the  6th  vol  of  the  'M^moires  du  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle'  for 
its  descriptioiL 

Each  eye  situated  at  the  extremity  of  a  pedicle  on  both  sides  of  the 
head;  body  naked  and  annulated  throughout  its  length;  no 
enveloping  case  or  shell;  eggs  contained  in  an  elongated  capsule 
situatcKl  towards  the  base  of  the  tail,  or  at  the  posterior  extremity  of 
the  body  and  thorax  in  those  which  have  no  tau. 

1.  With  a  Tail 

To  this  subdivision  belongs  the  Brine-Shrimp  or  Brine-Worm, 
Artemia  or  Artemis  of  Leach,  Branchiput  of  Latreille,  and  Ckirocephahi 
of  Benedict  Prevost  and  Jurine.  We  are  now  arrived  at  that  develop- 
ment of  form  in  the  Branchiopods  where  the  numerous  legs  or  feet 
become  paddles  adapted  simultaneously  to  the  purposes  of  locomotion 
and  respiration. 

The  Brine-Worm  or  Brine-Shrimp,  Artemia  talina  of  Leaoh,  Canctr 
toHnut  of  LinnsBus,  Oammarut  talinuM  of  Fabricius,  Artemit  iolinut  of 
Leach,  Artamitui  saHniu  of  Lamarck,  when  full-grown,  is  about  half 
an  inch  in  length  and  very  transparent :  it  is  said  to  have  been  first 
discovered  in  the  salt-pans  at  Lymington  by  Dr.  Maty.  There  these 
animals  are  found  in  myriads,  in  rapid  and  continual  motion  in  the 
salterns,  which  are  the  open  tuiks  or  reservoirs  where  the  brine  i£ 
deposited  previous  to  boiling.  The  brine  attains  the  desired  strength 
by  evaporation  from  exposure  to  the  sun  and  air  in  about  a  fortnight. 
A  pint  contains  about  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  salt,  and  in  this 
concentrated  solution,  which,  as  Mr.  Rackett  observes,  instantly 
destroys  most  other  marine  animalH,  the  Brine-Shrimp  revels.  It  is 
further  said  that  these  Brlue-Woims  are  never  found  in  the  sun-pans 
where  the  brine  is  made  by  the  admission  of  sea-water  daring  the 
summer,  and  which  are  emptied  every  fortnight,  but  only  in  the  pits 
or  reservoirs  (clearers)  where  it  is  deposited  after  it  is  taken  out  of 
the  pans,  and  where  some  of  the  liquor  constantly  remains.  So 
persuaded  are  the  workmen  of  their  utility  in  clearing  the  liquor,  that 
they  are  accustomed  to  transport  a  few  of  the  worms  fW>m  another 
saltern  if  they  do  not  appear  at  their  own,  and  they  increase  greatly 
in  a  few  days.  Little  however  was  known  of  the  natural  history  of 
this  animal  till  Mr.  Thompson  published  his  interesting  observations 
in  the  6th  number  of  his  'Zoological  Researchee'  (1884).    He  hai 


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there  described  and  iUiutrated  the  gradual  devolopment  of  the 
embtyoy  and  the  metamorphoeee  which  it  undergoes  from  its  first 
production  until  it  arrives  at  a  peifect  or  adult  statoi  These,  he  says, 
will  be  found  to  correspond  wiUi  those  of  JBromchipfUy  Chirocephalfu, 
and  Apu»,  animalw  with  which  its  alliance  can  no  longer  be  doubtftd. 
Ariemia  bears  a  long  journey  very  welL  We  have  had  a  glass  jar 
full  of  them  in  their  native  brine  sent  to  London.  They  lived  a 
considerable  time  and  were  in  foil  life  and  activity,  affor<£ing  very 
satisfactory  opportunities  of  observing  their  habits  and  of  confirmmg 
the  statements  of  Mr.  Thompson.  They  are  constantly  gliding  vrith 
an  even  motion  in  the  dear  circumambient  fluid,  sometimes  on  their 
backs,  sometimes  on  their  sides,  sometimes  on  their  bellies,  and  seem 
to  move  with  equal  facility  in  evory  direction.  Their  transparency 
and  the  unwearied  undulating  motions  of  their  respiratory  paddles 
render  them  very  interesting  objects,  and  convey  a  deep  impression 
of  the  harmony  of  adaptation  of  members  to  two  such  apparently 
anomalous  ends  as  breathing  and  locomotion  at  the  same  moment. 

The  salt-pans  at  Lymington  and  some  salt  lakes  in  Siberia  appear 
to  be  the  only  locaJities  where  these  animals  have  been  hitherto 
detected. 

BrwadUimt  tiagnaU*  of  Milne-Edwards,  Oaneer  stagnalit  of  Linnssus, 
Oammanu  ttagniUu  of  Fabricius  and  Herbet,  Apua  pitciformis  of 
Bchoeffer,  who  found  it  in  a  ditch  by  the  road  which  leads  from 
Ratisbon  to  the  town  of  St.  Nicholas,  Oki/rocephaJhu  diaphanm  of 
Prerost,  belongs  to  this  division  of  Latrellle.  It  is  a  British  animal, 
and  is  especially  known  as  inhabiting  the  pools  on  the  road-side  of 
Blackheath  Common.    [Chirogsphalt7&] 


Branohipui  ttofftuOU. 
I,  Kale,  magnified ;  a  a,  oomporite  or  network  eyes ;  h  h,  aatenan ;  e  e,  mandi. 
boliform  boms  ;  d,  probowddiform  moveable  tentaoula,  roUedspiraUy;  »,  simple 
rudimentary  eye ;  //,  leaf-like  natatory  feet  or  oars ;  ^y  male  organs ;  A  A,  tall; 
4,  teiminatbig  filameats ;  3,  tro&t  view  of  the  head ;  8,  tail  of  the  female ; 
A^egf-poneh;  j;  ftmale  organ;  4,  a  yoang  J^wmAvw*  after  the  first  moolt. 

2.  Without  a  Tail. 
The  gemM  SvUmene,  Latreille^  belongs  to  thia  subjection.  The 
body  is  neaily  linear,  and  there  are  four  wort  antenna  almost  filif ormi 
of  which  the  two  smallest^  which  much  resemble  feelers,  are  placed  at 
the  anterior  extremity  of  the  head,  which  is  fuxniahed  with  two  eyes 
mounted  on  cylindrical  pedides.  The  branchial  paddles  are  11,  and 
immediately  b^nd  them  is  a  terminal  demi-globose  piece  in  place  of 
a  tail,  from  whence  issues  a  long  delicate  thread-like  process,  which 
may  perhaps  (according  to  LatrejJle)  be  an  oviduct.  £uUmene  tUbida, 
whose  body  is  for  the  most  part  white,  with  its  posterior  extremity 
black  (Artemia  Bulifnene,  Leach),  the  only  species  described  by 
Latieille,  was  found  in  the  Mediterranean  near  Nice. 

Aspidophora, 

Of  thie  last  division  of  the  Phyllopoda,  Latrellle  says  that  they  have 
60  pairs  of  feet,  all  furnished  near  their  base  with  a  large  oval  vesicle, 
the  two  anterior  feet^  which  are  much  the  largest^  resembling  antennie. 
A  large  shell  or  crust  covers  the  larger  portion  of  tlie  upper  part  of  the 
oody.  This  shell  is  free,  shield-shaped,  notched  posteriorly,  and 
bearing  anteriorly  on  a  circumscribed  space  three  simple  sessile  eyes,  of 
which  the  two  anterior  are  lai^gest  and  lunated.  There  are  two  bivalve 
ci^)8ulee  containingthe  eggs,  and  annexed  to  the  eleventh  pair  of  feet. 

Apu$  prodiuetu$  jBmocuLva]  is  an  example.  Mr.  Thompson  figures 
a  speciee,  Apu9  CfuOdingii,  from  the  West  Indies,  and  observes  that 
there  appear  to  be  two  European  species  confounded  imder  the 
QMcifio  name  caneiifomUa,  namely,  Schoeflfer's  and  Dr.  Leach's,  which 


most  resemble  Apui  Ouildingii,  and  that  described  by  Savigny,  in  whidi 
the  elongated  shield  entirely  covers  the  natatory  members. 

Mr.  Thompson  observes  that  there  is  a  considerable  approximation 
between  ArtemiB  and  certain  TrUobiteg  {Bueephalitkua,  &c.),  nor  can 
there  be  any  doubt  that  the  analogies  of  JSranchiput,  8eroli$,  and 
Lim/ulus  all  contribute  to  the  rUustration  of  that  most  ancient  race  of 
Crustaceans.    [Trilobitsb.]    (Burmeister,  On  the  Trilobitet.) 

BRANCHIO'STOMA,  the  name  given  by  Costa  to  the  most  anoma- 
lous of  all  living  fishes,  and  indeed  of  all  the  Verkbrata. 

This  extraordinary  animal  was  first  discovered  on  the  coasts  of 
Britain,  a  single  specimen  having  been  sent  to  Pallas  from  the  coast 
of  Cornwall  during  the  latter  part  of  the  last  centurr.  The  great 
naturalist  of  Russia  described  and  figured  it  in  his  '  SpicilQgia  £k>1o- 
gica'  under  the  name  of  Limax  laneeoUUui,  believing  it  to  be  a  mollusk, 
though  remarking  in  his  description  of  it  on  ihe  resemblance  of  some 
of  its  characters  to  those  of  a  fish.  It  seems  to  have  been  lost  sight 
of  for  more  than  half  a  century,  and  with  the  exception  of  a  brief 
reference  in  Stewart's  *  Elements  of  Natural  History'  we  find  no  notice 
of  it  in  any  synopsis  of  animals.  In  1834  it  was  re-discovered  by 
Costa  on  the  Neapolitan  shores,  who  described  it  in  the  '  Annuario 
Zoologico '  imder  the  name  of  Branchiottcma  lubriewm ;  and  some 
years  after  in  his  '  Fauna  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples'  gave  a  frdler 
account  of  it.  Costa  first  perceived  that  it  was  a  fish  and  not  an 
invertebrate  animal,  and  remarked  its  affinity  to  the  Cyclostomatinis 
fishes.  In  1836  Mr.  Tarrell  gave  an  accoimt  of  it  in  ms  '  History  of 
British  Fishes '  under  the  name  of  the  LaDcelet(il  mpAiodnct  Umceolatut), ' 
He  had  not  then  met  with  Costa's  account  of  it.  He  figured  and 
described  it  from  a  specimen  found  b^  Mr.  Couch  at  Polperro  in  Corn- 
wall, the  first  taken  in  that  locality  since  its  original  discovery  there. 
Mr.  TarreU  gave  the  first  correct  notice  of  the  chorda  dorsalis  and 
vertebral  coluipn.  About  the  same  time,  singularly  enough,  consider- 
ing how  long  it  had  escaped  notice  since  t£e  days  of  Pallas,  it  was 
taken  bv  several  naturalists  on  the  coasts  of  Sweden.  Lundevall  and 
Loven  found  it  in  Bohuslan  in  1834,  but  did  not  give  an  account  of 
it  tin  1841.  Betzius  had  it  from  the  same  locality,  and  published  a 
notice  of  it  in  the  'Berlin  Proceedings  for  November,'  1889,  in  which 
also  is  a  communication  on  the  same  subject  by  Professor  J.  Miiller. 
Rathke  gave  an  account  of  its  structure  in  1841.  In  the  same  year 
Mr.  J.  Gk)odsir  publidied  an  elaborate  memoir  on  its  anatomy  in  the 
'  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinbui^h'  for  1841,  being  the 
result  of  his  examination  of  two  examples  taken  in  the  Irish  Sea  by 
Professor  E.  Forbes  in  1837.  In  1842  a  most  valuable  memoir  on  this 
animal  was  read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Berlin  by  Professor  J. 
MiQler,  and  this  paper  beautifully  illustrated  appeared  m  the  volume 
of '  Transactions'  of  that  society  published  in  1844. 

Besides  the  instances  of  its  capture  above  mentioned  it  has  been 
since  taken  by  Mr.  MacAndrew  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  and 
b^  Professor  Edward  Forbes  in  the  iBgean  Sea,  and  by  those  gentle- 
men on  tiie  south  coast  of  England  in  1846. 

^e  great  interest  which  attaches  to  this  fish  depends  on  the 
strangeness  of  its  anatomical  characters,  the  unexampled  degradation 
of  its  organisation  among  the  Vtridfraiaf  and  the  link  which  it  forms 
between  the  highest  of  animals  and  some  of  the  lowest  A  verte- 
brated  animal  without  a  brain,  a  fish  with  the  respiratory  system  of  a 
mollusk,  and  the  circulatory  system  almost  of  an  Annelide,  presents  a 
combination  of  characters  which  must  excite  the  wonder  and  interest 
equally  of  the  phymologist  and  the  systematic  naturalist  Scarcely 
any  animal  yet  discoverod  is  so  likely  to  change  received  views  of  ^ 
dasBifioation  and  i^tive  order  of  chanetera  as  i£e.Lancelet  As  yet  ' 
however  it  has  attracted  but  little  attention  among  zoologists,  though 
the  physiologista  and  anatomists  have  fully  perceived  its  value.  For 
these  reasons  we  shall  give  a  fuU  account  of  what  is  now  known 
respecting  its  external  character,  structure,  and  habits. 

The  usual  size  of  the  Lanoelet  is  about  2  inches  in  length }  the 
height  to  the  length  being  as  1 :  10,  and  the  breadth  to  the  length  as 
i  :  10.  It  is  of  a  lanceolate  form  tapering  to  each  extremity,  and 
riband-lik&  Anteriorly  it  terminates  in  a  head  scarcely  distinguish- 
able from  the  body,  apparently  pointed,  but  when  exMoined  doselv 
seems  to  end  in  a  rounded  and  somewhat  spathulate  rostrum,  beneath 
which  is  the  mouth,  a  longitudinal  opening,  fringed  on  each  side  by  a 
row  of  long  filaments  which  can  close  in  and  clasp  alternately,  so  as 
to  protect  the  oral  opening.  Along  the  back  runs  a  continuous  fin, 
which  dilates  nitar  the  sharp  posterior  extremity  on  each  side  so  as  to 
form  a  sort  of  caudal  fin.  Near  the  tail  opens  the  vent,  in  front  of 
which  is  a  median  fin  continued  to  another  opening  situated  a  little 
behind  the  centre  of  the  body  (poms  abdoninalis),  and  serving  as  an 
outlet  for  the  genital  products.  Continued  from  this  forwards  nearly 
to  the  mouth  are  two  strong  lateral  folds,  mistaken  by  Pallas  for  the 
margins  of  a  ventral  disk,  and  hence  leading  him  to  consider  the 
animal  a  Qasteropodous  Mollusk.  The  entire  animal  is  translucent 
and  of  a  rilvery  whiteness,  its  sides  being  marked  by  the  indications 
of  the  lateral  ichthyic  muscles,  which  give  it  the  aspect  of  a  small 
sand-eeL  , 

Oiganisation.  Skeleton.— The  osseous  system  consists  of  a  chorda 
dorsalis  tapering  at  both  ends,  and,  strange  to  say,  not  presenting  the 
slightest  Teetige  of  a  cranium,  and  of  the  germs  of  superior  and 
inferior  inter-spinous  bones  and  fin-rays  in  the  most  rudimentaiy 
state.    The  chorda  dorsalis  is  composed  of  from  60  to  70  vertcbm 


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which  are  also  in  a  rudimentaiy  itate,  and  little  more  than  indicated. 
**  The  chorda  dorsalia,"  to  quote  Mr.  Qoodsir,  "is  formed  externally 
of  a  fibrous  sheath,  and  internally  of  an  immense  number  of  laminn, 
each  of  the  sixe  and  shape  of  a  section  of  the  column  at  the  plaoB 
where  it  is  situated.    When  any  portion  of  the  column  is  removed 


Fig.r 


r 
d 


Explanation  of  the  Fignret : — 

Flff.  1.  The  Laneelet,  a  little  larger  than  life,  a,  the  month ;  ft,  porne 
abdominalia;  c,  the  rent. 

Fig.  S.  View  of  the  animal  flrom  beneath,  a,  the  month ;  h,  poms  abdomi. 
nalia ;  e,  Tent :  d  d,  rentral  folds. 

Fig.  9.  The  neuro^keleton  of  the  Lanoelet,  oonaisting  of— «» the  ehorda 
dorsalia ;  >  6,  the  Tesioular  genna  of  the  dorsal  fin-rays ;  c,  those  of  the  anterior, 
and  d,  those  of  the  posterior  anal  fins  (from  Ooodsir). 

Fig.  4.  The  intestinal  system,  a,  the  branchial  sao ;  ft.  the  ODSophagos ; 
c,  greener  imd  wider  part  of  the  intestinal  canal ;  d,  c»cam ;  0,  narrower  and 
posterior  part  of  the  intestinal  canaL 

Fig.  5.  Anterior  extremity  of  the  body  of  a  yonng  animal  (from  Mailer). 
The  lateral  mnscles  are  omitted  in  order  to  show  more  clearly  the  other  parts, 
a,  chorda  dorsalis ;  6,  its  sheath ;  e,  rounded '  anterior  extreinity  of  the  body, 
terminating  in  the  dorsal  fin ;  d,  oellolar  dorsal  fln-rays ;  and  «,  their  oontents ; 
p,  si)inal  marrow ;  A,  eye ;  i,  labial  cartilages ;  A,  cirrhi  of  the  month ;  /,  a 
mnscle  of  the  labial  cartilages,  arising  firom  the  fHnged  fold  between  the  cavity 
of  the  mouth  and  branchial  carity ;  m,  wall  of  the  month ;  n,  finger.formed 
fifrnrrs  on  the  wall  of  the  month  (ciliated  organa) ;  o,  fringed  fold  between  the 
oral  and  branchial  carities ;  p,  heart-like  arch  of  the  aorta,  connecting  arch 
between  the  branchial  heart  and  aorta ;  9,  anterior  and  superior  part  of  the 
btanchial  sac,  in  which  the  branchial  slits  are  wanting ;  r  and  »,  branchial  ribs ; 
^branchial  slits ;  ti,  walls  of  the  belly. 

Fig.  6.  Transverse  section  of  the  body  (frtmi  MOller).  a,  chorda  dorsalis ; 
ft,  its  sheath  ;  0,  membranoos  layer  ;  d,  spinal  marrow,  and  /,  canal  above  it ; 
ff  and  A,  section  of  fln-rays ;  i,  lateral  mnscles ;  k,  intermuscular  ligament ; 
/,  branchial  sac ;  m,  ovarla ;  n,  wall  of  belly ;  o,  lateral  ventral  folds,  with  their 
canal. 

Fig.  7.  Tiew  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  frtmi  beneath,  a,  mouth ; 
ft,  cirrhi ;  0,  snout ;  d,  ventral  wall ;  /,  lateral  ventral  fold. 

Fig.  8.  View  of  the  underside  of  the  body  in  the  region  of  the  poms  abdond- 
Lslis.   a,  ovary ;  /,  lateral  ventral  folds  ;  ^,  poms  abdominalis. 

these  plates  may  be  pushed  out  from  the  tubular  sheath  like  a  pile 
of  coins.  They  have  no  great  adhesion  to  one  another,  are  of  the 
consistence  of  parchment,  and  appear  like  flattened  bladders,  as  if 
formed  of  two  tough  fibrous  metnbranes  pressed  together."  Besides 
the  skeleton  of  the  nervous  system  there  is  a  hyoid  apparatus  forming 


the  armature  of  the  mouth,  and  consisting  of  two  sets  of  17  artieo- 
lated  pieces,  from  each  of  which,  except  two,  a  ray  proceedi.  These 
rays  form  the  oral  airrhi  Miiller  takes  a  difBsrent  visw  of  thia 
structure,  maintaining  that  it  corresponds  neither  to  the  jaw-bone 
nor  to  the  hyoid  apparatus  in  other  animals,  but  is  analogoos  to  the 
cartilaginous  ring  of  the  mouth  of  the  lamprey  and  ihe  Myxinoid 
fishes,  a  system  peculiar  to  that  familv.  There  is  also  in  the  Lao* 
oel^  a  series  of  fine,  transparent,  cartilaginous,  hair-like  ribs,  70  to 
80  on  each  side,  forming  a  cage  for  the  proteotioii  of  the  branchiil 
cavity. 

Nervous  System. — ^The  spinal  cord  extends  the  n^ole  length  of 
the  spine,  but  is  not  quite  so  sharp  at  the  fore-end  as  behind.  It 
presents  no  trace  of  a  brain.  From  65  to  60  nerves  pass  off  from 
each  aide  of  it^  which  do  not  arise  by  double  roots.  The  details  of 
this  important  part  of  the  animal's  anatomy  are  folly  given  by  Mr. 
Qoodrir.  Miiller  and  Bathke  have  observed  the  existence  of  rodi* 
mentary  eyes,  consisting  of  a  small  black  spot  of  pigment,  but  not 
furnished  with  any  optical  apparatus.  No  traces  of  organs  of  BmeOing 
or  hearing  have  been  met  with. 

Vascular  System. — The  observations  of  Miiller  having  beea  made 
on  the  living  animal,  he  was  oiabled  to  pursue  this  part  of  hi 
oiganisation  further  than  the  other  observers.  Accordmg  to  him 
the  vascular  system  of  this  animal  corresponds  in  general  anange- 
ment  with  that  of  fishes,  differing  however  in  regard  to  the  hetrt 
from  that  of  all  other  vertebrate  animals,  and  diiq>laying  a  Btriking 
accordanoe  with  that  in  worms ;  for  the  hearts  in  the  Bmchiotkma 
are  not  only  more  divided  than  in  other  animals  of  its  claas,  but 
present  entirely  the  form  and  distribution  of  blood  vessels,  and  extend 
over  wide  spaces.    The  blood  is  white. 

The  Respiratory  System  is  constituted  by  the  anterior  extremhj 
of  the  intestbud  tube,  the  walls  of  which  are  clothed  with  ribratile 
cdlia,  and  protected  and  adapted  to  their  office  by  the  peculiar  cage- 
like  skeleton  already  mentioned,  which  is  further  strengthened  by 
transverse  cartilaginous  rods,  bertween  which  are  numerous  <defk% 
their  openings  protected  by  vibratile  cilia.  This  was  first  made 
known  l^  Miiller,  who  desmbed  also  a  curious  apparatus  of  finger 
shaped  wheel-organs  and  fringed  folds  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the 
branchial  cavity,  and  muring  the  commencement  of  the  cQitted 
portion  of  the  intestinal  canal  of  which  the  branchial  sac  forms  a  pari 
At  the  end  of  the  branchial  sac  is  the  poms  abdominalis,  an  opoung 
which  serves  equaUy  respiratory  and  genital  purposes. 

The  Digestive  System  consists  of  an  intestinal  canal  and  a  coBcam, 
both  of  which  are  ciliated.  The  latter  is  considered  by  Miiller  to  be 
a  liver,  but  the  office  of  a  liver  appears  to  be  performed  equally  by  the 
other  parts  of  the  intestines. 

The  Reproductive  System  is  imperfectly  known.  As  fur  aa  it  hai 
been  observed  it  appears  in  the  form  of  certain  bean-shaped  bodies 
attached  to  the  inner  surface  of  tbe  lining  of  the  abdomen  on  the  out- 
side of  the  branchial  canals.  MtiUer  distinguishes  the  two  sexes,  but 
this  part  of  the  histoxr  of  the  Laneelet  demands  further  inveetigatioiL 
It  is  not  impossible  that  the  two  membranous  folds  of  the  abdomen 
and  their  canals  may  be  connected  with  this  system,  and  serve  ma^ 
supial  purposes.  This  remark,  however,  we  merely  throw  ont  as  a 
so^pestion. 

The  Muscular  System  is  highly  symmetrical,  and  consiBts  of  a  series 
of  lateral  muscular  bundles  corresponding  in  number,  sise,  and  position 
to  the  vertebra  of  the  chorda  dorsalis,  and  bearing  a  general  resem- 
blance to  the  lateral  muscles  of  the  higher  fishes.  Miiller  classes  the 
muscles  of  the  Lancelot  under  the  heads  of— Ist,  lateral  muscles ;  2nd, 
abdominal  muscles ;  8rd,  muscles  of  the  oral  ring  and  tentacula;  4th, 
muscles  of  the  ring  between  the  oral  cavity  and  branchial  sac ;  and, 
6th,  muscles  of  the  branchial  i^paratus.  The  skin  is  thin,  tough, 
and  scaleless. 

Habits. — The  Lancelot  lives  in  sandy  ground  at  a  depth  of  between 
10  and  20  fathoms  water.  It  probably  buries  itself  in  the  nnd. 
When  taken  it  swims  rapidly  with  a  snake-like  motion,  but  after  t 
time  setties  down,  unless  disturbed,  lying  flat  on  its  side.  It  is  very 
tenacious  of  life.  We  have  had  it  for  three  hours  in  a  watch-glaai 
under  the  microscope,  at  the  end  of  which  time  when  disturbed  it 
seemed  as  lively  as  at  first  It  dislikes  the  light  It  bears  handling 
without  injury.  Its  food  was  found  by  Miiller  in  the  intestinal  canel 
of  some  of  the  specimens  he  examined :  it  consisted  of  infusorial 
animalctdn.  The  Laneelet  does  not  swallow  but  simply  imbibes  its 
food. 

General  Remarks.— " ^oncAiosfofna,"  says  Miiller,  "is  eridently 
a  vertebrated  animal  and  a  fish.  It  is  distinguished  from  all  other 
Veriebrata  l^  its  peculiar  circulatory  system,  and  by  the  absence  of  a 
distinction  between  the  brain  and  spiniu  marrow ;  from  all  other  fiahes 
by  the  extraordinaiy  number  of  branchial  ribs,  by  the  union  of  the 
branchial  and  ventral  cavities,  and  by  the  combination  of  the  rwP"*: 
tory  opening  with  the  ventral  opening.'*  MtQler  considers  it  connected 
with  tiie  Cydostomatous  fishes  through  the  peculiar  characters  of  ita 
chorda  dorsalis  and  the  absence  of  jaws,  but  as  inferior  to  thesi  in 
the  absence  of  a  distinct  brain  and  in  the  peculiarities  of  its  respira- 
tory system.  " The  JBranehiottoma"  he  concludes,  " ranks  next  the 
Cydostomatous  fishes,  but  not  among  them,  being  removed  from  them 
by  distinctions  which  are  greater  than  the  difitnrences  between  fishes 
and  naked  amphibia." 


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fekAKCtiiffi. 


BREAIC. 


"Vievred  as  an  entire  animal,"  writea  Mr.  Qoodairi  "the  Lancelot 
is  the  most  aberrant  in  the  yertebraie  sub-kingdom.  It  oonneota  the 
VerUbraia  not  only  to  the  Annulose  animals,  bat  also  through  the 
medium  of  oertaiu  symmetrical  Aaeidite  (the  genus  Pdonaia  of  Forbes 
and  Goodsir)  to  the  Mollusks.  We  have  only  to  suppose  the  Lancelot 
to  have  been  deyeloped  from  the  dorsal  aspect^  the  seat  of  its  respi- 
ration to  be  transferred  from  its  intestinal  tube  to  a  corresponding 
portion  of  its  skin,  and  ganglia  to  be  developed  at  the  points  of 
junction  of  one  or  more  of  its  anterior  spinal  nerves,  and  inferior 
branch  of  its  second  pair,  to  have  a  true  Annulose  animal,  with  its 
peculiar  circulation,  respiration,  generative  organs,  and  nervous 
Bjstem,  with  supra-CBSophageal  ganglia  and  dorsal  ganglionic  recur- 
rent nerve. 

Taking  all  we  know  of  the  structure  of  this  truly  wonderful  animal 
into  consideration,  we  are  inclined  to  regard  it  as  the  relic  of  some 
great  order  of  Fif^es,  which  in  their  organisation  brought  down  the 
Vertebrated  series  to  a  parallel  with  the  lower  forms  of  Molkuca,  and 
which  became  extinct  in  some  former  epoch  of  the  world's  geological 
histoiy,  and  from  the  unpreservable  character  of  their  bodies,  and  the 
absence  of  hard  parts,  left  "  not  a  wreck  behind."  The  more  we  know 
of  nature  the  more  are  we  convinced  that  there  are  no  isolated  organ- 
isma ;  that  beings  apparently  anomalous  are  members  of  orders  either 
partially  known  or  for  the  most  part  extinct  Of  all  anomalous  crea- 
tures the  jBronc^toj^oma  is  the  most  so,  and  it  is  much  more  consistent 
with  the  principles  of  scientific  zoology  to  admit  it  as  the  type  of  a 
distinct  order  among  fishes  than  to  attempt  to  place  it  among  defined 
groups.  The  strange  combination  of  chamcters  which  it  presents — a 
vertebrated  animal  without  a  brain,  having  the  respiratory  apparatus 
of  an  Ascidian  MoUusk,  and  a  ciliated  intestinal  cavity — ^ii  it  does 
not  almost  warrant  its  erection  into  the  type  of  a  class  by  itself,  cer- 
tainly la  sufficient,  and  more  than  sufficient,  to  constitute  it  the  type  of 
an  order  in  the  lowest  of  the  vertebrate  classes. 

BRANCHITE,  a  mineral  belonging  to  the  Besin  series,  and  fbund 
with  Coal. 

BRAND,  or  BURN,  a  disease  in  vegetables  by  which  their 
leaves  and  tender  bark  are  partially  destroyed  as  if  they  had  been 
burnt ;  hence  the  name  of  this  disease,  which  is  called  Brfdure  in 
French.  It  has  been  observed  that  after  the  leaves  have  been  wetted 
by  dews  or  gentle  raiiis  so  that  drops  adhere  to  them,  and  a  bright 
sunshine  has  succeeded,  every  spot  to  which  the  water  had  adhered 
lost  its  natural  colour,  aud  became  of  a  dark  or  yellow  hue ;  and  on 
closer  examination  it  was  found  that  the  organisation  had  been  partly 
destroyed,  and  that  these  spots  no  longer  possessed  the  power  inherent 
in  healthy  leaves  of  exhaling  the  water  which  circulates  through  them. 
When  this  disease  is  extensive,  and  attacks  the  bark  as  weU  as  the 
leaves,  it  frequently  causes  the  death  of  the  plant,  and  at  all  events 
enfeebles  its  growth  and  prevents  its  perfect  fhictification.  The  cause 
of  this,  like  that  of  most  diseases  which  are  common  to  plants,  has 
been  vulgarly  ascribed  to  some  unknown  atmospheric  influence ;  and 
various  guesses  have  been  made,  which  for  the  most  part  have  little  or 
no  foundation.  That  which  appeared  most  plausible  was,  that  the 
drops  of  water  being  apparently  globular,  collected  the  light  of  the 
tun  into  a  focus,  and  produced  a  sufficient  degree  of  concentration  of 
the  calorific  rays  to  bum  the  tender  substance  of  the  leaves.  A  little 
reflection  will  soon  convince  us  that  this  will  not  bear  examination. 
The  drops  which  adhere  to  the  leaves  and  the  bark  are  not  globes,  but 
at  best  flattened  hemispheres,  and  consequently  cannot  collect  the 
rays  of  the  sim  into  a  focus  on  the  surface  to  which  they  adhere ; 
b^des,  the  spots  are  as  laige  as  the  diameter  of  the  drops,  so  that  all 
the  surface  that  has  been  covered  with  water  is  injured ;  whereas  the 
focus  of  a  globe,  such  as  would  actually  bum  the  leaf,  must  be  very 
amall  in  proportion  to  the  lens  which  concentrated  the  rays.  It  is 
much  more  probable  that  the  effect  of  the  water  on  the  tender  epider- 
mis of  the  leaf  or  bark  to  which  it  adheres  is  similar  to  that  which  it 
has  on  vegetable  matter  infused  in  it ;  it  softens  and  dissolves  a  portion 
of  it^  especially  when  the  temperature  is  somewhat  raised,  and  destroys 
the  vitality.     (De  Candolle, « Physiologie  V^g^tale.) 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  principal  mischief  arises  from  a  sudden  change 
of  temperature  soon  arter  sunrise,  especially  when  there  has  been  a 
heavy  dew  or  hoar-frost  in  the  night ;  and  careful  gardeners  brush  off 
the  drops  from  their  delicate  plants  before  sunrise  to  ipiard  against 
the  Brand.  Every  drop  which  falls  on  the  leaves  of  tender  plants 
from  the  glass  which  covers  a  hotbed  in  •which  they  grow  produces  a 
disease  exactly  similar  to  that  which  we  have  been  describing ;  and 
although  the  vapour  of  fermenting  dung  has  a  pimgent  ammoniacal 
smell,  it  will  be  found  that  the  water  condensed  on  the  glass  is  nearly 
pure,  and  can  have  no  peculiar  corroding  effect.  It  acts  therefore 
simply  as  a  dissolvent,  and  by  stopping  the  evaporation,  which  is 
always  rapid  from  the  leaves  of  plants  in  a  hotbed,  produces  a  derange- 
ment in  their  functions,  and  ultimately  disease. 

BRANK-URSINE.    [Acanthus.] 

BRANT  AIL,  the  Redstart.    [Sylvtadj!.] 

BRA^SICA,  a  genus  of  Cruciferous  plants,  comprehending  among 
other  species  the  Cabbage,  Cauliflower,  Broccoli,  Borecole,  Rape,  Tur- 
nip, Colza,  and  the  like.  It  is  distinguished  from  other  Cruciferous 
genera  by  the  following  characters : — Its  seeds  contain  an  embryo,  the 
radicle  of  which  is  embraced  in  the  concavity  of  the  folded  cotyledons. 
Its  pod  is  long,  slender,  and  many-seeded.    The  seeds  are  spherical 


The  calyx  is  equal  at  the  base,  and  slightly  spreading ;  the  petals  are 
undivided ;  the  stamens  entire. 

B.  oUraeeOf  tiie  Wild  Cabbage,  is  met  with  in  abundance  upon  the 
clifb  of  many  parts  of  Europe ;  oonunonly  in  the  south  part  of  European 
Turkey  (especially  about  Mount  Athos),  on  the  coast  of  Kent  near  Dover, 
and  on  that  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  Cornwall,  Wales,  and  Yorkshire.  In 
other  places  it  forms  a  broad-leaved  glaucous  plant,  with  a  somewhat 
woody  stem,  having  but  slender  likeness  to  its  cultivated  progeny ;  and 
it  is  difficult  to  conceive  by  what  original  discovexy  the  species  was 
brought  under  the  influence  of  domestication  so  as  to  have  been  pre- 
pared for  the  numerous  changes  and  immt>vement8  it  had  to  undergo 
before  the  races  of  Cabbages,  Savoys,  JBorecoles,  Cauliflowers,  and 
Broccolis  could  have  been  produced. 

B.  campeaintf  the  Wild  Navew  or  Turnip,  has  its  leaves  lyrate, 
dentate,  somewhat  hispid ;  upper  leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  deeply 
cordate,  amplexicaul,  glabrous.  It  grows  by  the  sides  of  rivers,  bv 
ditches,  in  marshes,  and  the  borders  of  fields  in  many  parts  of  England. 
It  IS  believed  to  have  been  the  Foyto^s  of  Theophrastus.  lliis  is 
looked  upon  as  the  original  of  the  Swedish  Turnip,  whilst  a  variety, 
regarded  by  some  botanists  as  a  species,  with  a  caulescent  fleshy  root, 
csJled  B.  Bapa,  is  supposed  to  be  the  origin  of  the  Common  Turnip. 

B.  NapuB,  the  Rape,  Colsa,  or  Coleseed,  has  the  lower  leaves  lyrate, 
dentate,  glabrous ;  upper  leaves  oblong,  somewhat  narrowed  below, 
with  a  dilated  cordate  semi-amplexicaid  base.  It  is  difficult  to  find 
any  character  by  which  to  distinguish  this  plant  from  the  preceding. 
In  fact  some  botanists  regard  B.  Napua  as  nothing  more  than  m  variety 
of  B.  campettris. 

B.  monefuia  has  the  leaves  stalked,  all  deeply  pinnatifid ;  the  lobes 
oblong,  unequally  toothed,  those  of  the  upper  leaves  linear.  The 
stem  of  this  plant  is  prostrate,  and  the  flowers  yellow.  It  is  found 
<m  the  western  coasts  of  Great  Britain. 

BRASSICA'CEiE,  the  name  given  by  Dr.  Lindley  to  the  natural 
order  Orueiferte.    [CRUOirKBA] 

BRAUNITE,  a  native  Protoxide  of  Manganese,  containing  79  per 
cent,  of  Manganese.  It  is  a  dark  brownish-black,  with  a  sub-metsJlie 
lustre.  It  hss  a  hardness  from  6  to  6*5,  and  specific  gravity  4*8.  It  is 
found  in  Piedmont  and  Thuringia. 

BRATERA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Roioceof.  One  of  the  species,  B,  amthdmintiea,  jields  the  anthelmintic 
remedy  known  by  the  name  Cusso,  C^botz,  or  Eousso.  Although  its 
anthelmintic  virtues  have  been  long  known,  it  has  only  been  recently 
introduced  into  Europe.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia.  [Eousso, 
in  Arts  and  So.  Drv.  V 

BRAZIL-NUTa    TBerthollbtia.] 

BRAZIL-WOOD,  the  wood  of  OcBBolpinia  Branlientii,     [CsaAir 

PI»IA.] 

BREAD-FRUIT.    [Artooarpub.] 

BREAM,  a  name  given  more  especially  to  the  Carp-Bream,  but 
applied  to  several  other  kinds  of  fislL  It  is  more  especially  adopted 
to  designate  the  species  of  the  genus  Ahramis,  belonging  to  the 
division  of  Abdominal  McUaeopterygii  and  the  family  CyprinidtB.  The 
chief  distinguishing  characters  of  this  genus  consist  in  the  deep  and 
compressed  form  of  the  body ;  the  great  convexity  of  the  dorsal  and 
abdominal  Une ;  the  base  of  the  doi«al  fin  being  short,  placed  behind 
the  line  of  the  ventrals ;  the  long  anal  fin ;  and  the  absence  of  either 
strong  homy  rays  or  barbules. 

A .  Brama,  the  Bream  or  Carp-Bream,  may  be  known  by  its  yellowish-' 
white  colour,  which  becomes  yellowish-brown  by  age.  The  irides  are 
of  a  golden  yellow,  the  cheeks  and  gill-covers  ^ver-white ;  fins  light- 
coloiued,  the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins  tinged  with  red ;  the  dorsal, 
anal,  and  caudfd  fins  tinged  with  brown.  The  Bream  is  an  inhabitant 
of  many  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  continent  of  Europe  generally 
as  far  nortli  as  Norway  and  Sweden.  It  thrives  best  in  this  country 
in  large  pieces  of  vrater  or  in  the  deep  and  most  quiet  parts  of  rivers 
that  run  slowly.  It  occurs  near  London  in  the  Mole  and  the  Medway, 
also  in  the  Regent's  CanaL  Bloch  states  that  the  number  of  ova  in  the 
female  is  130,000.  The  fiesh  of  the  Bream  is  generally  considered 
insipid,  although,  on  account  of  the  sport  it  affords  the  angler,  it  is  a 
good  deal  sou^t  after. 

A.  hliecay  the  White  Bream  or  Bream-Flat,  differs  firom  the  Carp- 
Bream  of  the  same  size,  in  having  the  head  laxger  and  the  fieshy 
portion  of  the  tail  deeper.  The  number  of  the  rays  in  the 
pectoral  and  anal  fins  differs  considerably  from  those  of  the  Carp- 
Bream.  The  pectoral  fin  of  the  White  Bream  has  three  rays  and 
the  anal  fin  five  rays  less  in  number  than  the  Carp-Bream.  The 
general  colour  of  the  sides  is  silvery-bluish  white,  without  any  of  the 
yellow-golden  lustre  observable  in  the  last  speeie&  The  irides  silvery- 
white,  tinged  with  pink.  This  fish  has  never  been  taken  of  so  laige 
size  as  the  Cai^Bream.  It  has  been  described  by  Blocl^  who  says 
it  id  very  common  on  the  continents  It  is  also  found  in  most  of 
the  lakes  in  Sweden.  In  England  it  is  not  generaUy  known.  Mr. 
Jenyns  has  recorded  its  presence  in  the  Cam,  and  Dr.  Lankester  took 
it  in  large  numbers  in  a  piece  of  water  at  Campsall  near  Doncaster. 
Mr.  Lubbock  has  also  taken  it  near  Norwich.  It  varies  very  much  in 
its  characters,  but  is  undoubtedly  a  distinct  Bpedes. 

A,  Buggmhagii,  the  Pomeranian  Bream.  This  spedes  of  Bream  is 
at  once  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the  greater  thickness  of 
its  body,  by  the  scales  being  la^or  in  proportion  to  its  sioe,  the  anal 


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BRKATHINO-PORES. 


BROMELIACE^. 


fin  being  ahorter,  and  lumng  a  smaller  number  of  rays.  Bloch  reoorda 
it  as  beinff  oommon  in  Swedish  Pomerania.  It  ia  eyen  more  rare  in 
England  than  the  Uwt  species.     (Tairell,  BrUitk  Fishes.) 

BBEATHINCKPORES,  nucroocopio  apertures  in  the  cuticle  of 
plants.    [SffOHATn.] 

BKE'COIA,  an  Italian  word  literally  signifying;  "an  opening  or 
breaking  in  any  substance,"  is  employed  in  geology  to  designate  a  rock 
composed  of  angular  fragments  of  a  pre-existing  rock,  or  of  several 
pre-existing  rocks,  united  by  a  cement  of  mineral  matfcer  that  may 
▼ary  from  oompact  to  friable.     Thus,  as  in  the  annexed  diagram,  the 

fragments  (which  sre  shaded)  may 
be  composed  either  of  angular 
portions  of  quarts  rock,  or  any 
other  single  rock,  united  by  a 
cement  (which  is  dotted)  formed  of 
the  hard  siUoeous  substance  named 
chert»  or  any  other  hard  mineral 
substance ;  or  the  fragments  mav  be  ^tngiiliM'  portions  of  many  rocka^ 
such  as  a  mixture  of  pieces  of  Jate,  porphyries,  Umestones,  granites, 
or  others,  united  by  a  friable  sandstone  or  any  other  soft  mineral 
substance. 

The  term  Breoda  has  been  adopted  from  the  well-known  Breccia 
marble,  which  has  the  appearance  of  being  composed  of  fragments 
joined  together  by  carbonate  of  lime^  infiltrated  among  snch  fragments 
after  the  latter  were  produced  by  some  disrupting  foro& 

Breoo&Bs  inform  the  geologist  that  the  pra-odsting  portions  of  rocks 
included  in  them  have  not  been  exposed  to  considerable  friction, 
which  would  have  rounded  off  the  i^ngniMy  parts ;  as  has  happened  in 
the  case  of  pre-existing  pieces  of  rocks  included  in  conglomerates. 
[CoKGLOMBRATK.1  Hencc  the  geologist  may  expect  to  find  the  rocks, 
whence  the  angular  fragments  of  a  brecda  are  derived,  not  fiur  distant 
from  the  breccia  itself,  while  the  rounded  pebbles  contained  in  a 
Conglomerate  may  have  been  transplanted  from  considerable  distances. 
BREISLAKITE,  a  mineral  which  occurs  crystallised  in  delicate 
capillary  crystals  of  a  reddish-brown  or  chestnut-brown  colour,  bent 
and  grouped  like  wool  Its  fibres  are  flexibla  It  has  a  metallic  lustre. 
It  is  found  at  Vesuvius  and  Capo  di  Bove,  near  Rome,  forming  woolly 
coatings  in  the  cavities  of  lavas.  It  contains  silica^  alumina^  and  oxide 
of  iron. 

BRENTIDES,  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  belonging  to  the 
section  Bhynchophora  and  sub-section  SecUoomu,  Distinguishing 
characters : — Body  much  elongated ;  tarsi  with  the  penultimate  joints 
bilobed ;  antennae  filiform,  or  in  some  with  the  terminal  joint  formed 
into  a  dub ;  proboscis  projecting  horinmtally,  generally  long ;  in  the 
.male  longer  than  in  the  female ;  palpi  minute. 

The  insects  constituting  this  family  are  among  the  most  remarkable 
of  the  Beetie  Tribe,  and  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  tropical 
dimatee ;  only  one  spedes  has  yet  been  discovered  in  Europe.  But 
littie  is  known  of  their  habits,  except  that  they  are  generally  found 
crawling  on  trees,  or  imder  the  bark,  and 
sometimes  on  flowers.  The  most  common 
colouring  of  the  spedes  is  black,  or  brown, 
with  red  spots  and  markings. 

The  four  prindpal  genera  of  the  Brentida 
are  as  follows:  —  Brmtus,  Arrkmodet, 
Ulocenu,  and  Cydtu.  The  ^^us  BrtniMt  is 
chiefly  distinguished  by  having  the  antennas 
11-jointed,  dther  filiform  or  sometimes 
slightiy  enlaxged  towards  the  apex,  and  the 
body  linear. 

Brtniiu  TmtninckU  (Elilg),  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  spedes  of  the  tribe,  will 
give  an  idea  of  their  general  form.  It  is 
found  in  Java,  and  is  of  a  blackish  colour 
varied  with  red  markings,  and  has  deeply- 
striated  dytra. 
In  the  genus  Arrhenodes  the  rostrum  is 
{(KlOg).  i^o^  <^^  terminated  l>y  two  distinct 
mandibles,  which  are  straight  and  project 
considerably  in  the  malea  The  species  inhabit  North  America,  and 
one  is  found  in  Europe,  A,  Itaiica, 

Ulocerut  has  the  antennas  9-jointed;  the  last  of  which  forms  a 
olub. 

Cyclas  has  the  antennas  10-jointed ;  the  terminal  joint  forms  an  oval 
club ;  the  thorax  is  indented  in  the  middle,  and  the  abdomen  is  of  an 
oval  form. 
BRETT.    [Rhombus.] 

BREUNNERITE  is  a  native  Carbonate  of  Magnoua  and  Iron.  It 
occurs  crystallised.  Its  primary  form  is  an  obtuse  rhomboid-  The 
cleavage  perfect^  paralld  to  the  primary  planes.  Colour  yellow  of 
difiiarent  shades,  and  black ;  streak  white ;  fracture  flat  conchoidal ; 
hardness  4'0  to  4*5 ;  its  lustre  is  vitreous,  sometimes  inclining  to 
pearly ;  it  is  transparent  and  translucent.  Specific  gravity  3  0  to  8*2. 
Found  at  ZiUerthal  in  Salzburg  and  other  places  in  the  Tyrol  It  has 
been  analysed  by  Stromeyer  and  contains 

Carbonate  of  Magnesia S6'05 

Carbonate  of  Iron 18*82 

Carbonate  of  Manganese  •        .    .      0*69 


BREXIA'CK£,  Breariads,  the  Brexia  Tribe,  a  natural  oxdsr  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  polycarpous  group  of  Monopetalous  Exogens.  This 
order  was  constituted  by  Lindley  in  the  first  edition  of  hu  '  Natoial 
System  of  Plants.'  The  following  is  his  description  of  tiie  order  :— 
C«lyx  inferior,  small,  persistent,  5-parted,  aestivation  imbricated; 
petals  5,  hypogynous,  imbricated  in  asstivation ;  stamens  5,  hypogynoua, 
alternate  with  the  petals,  arising  from  a  narrow  cup,  which  is  toothed 
between  each  stamen ;  anthers  oval,  innate,  2-ceUed,  bursting  longi- 
tudinally, fleshy  at  the  apex ;  pollen  triangular,  cohering  by  means  of 
fine  threads ;  ovary  superior,  6-celled,  with  numerous  ovules  attached 
in  two  rows  to  placentse  in  the  axis ;  style  1,  continuous ;  stigma 
simple;  fruit  drupaceous,  5-celled,  many  seeded;  seeds  indefinite, 
attached  to  the  axis  with  a  double  integument,  the  inner  of  which  ii 
membranous;  no  albumen;  cotyledons  ovate,  obtuse;  radicle  cylin- 
drical, oentripetaL  The  spedes  are  trees  witii  nearly  single  trunks; 
the  leaves  are  coriaceous,  alternate,  simpla,  not  dotted,  with  deciduous 
minute  stipules ;  the  flowers  are  green,  in  axillary  umbdai,  surrounded 
by  bracts  on  the  outdde. 

Dr.  Lindley  remarks  that  the  habit  of  Brexia  is  that  of  some 
Myrtinaeea,  especially  of  Tkeopbratta,  from  whidi  it  diiEars  in  being 
polypetalous,  and  the  stamens  being  alternate  with  the  petals.  Its 
relations  are  also  strong  with  BhatimacetB  and  Cela^racea,  but  its 
stamens  are  hypogynous,  and  its  seeds  indefinite.  Some  resemUanoe 
to  AnaoardiacetB  may  be  seen  in  the  reduous  appearance  of  the  young 
shoots,  and  in  its  habit  It  agrees  with  PiUosporacece  in  its  hypog^ous 
definite  stamens^  its  polyspermous  frxdt,  and  alternate  undivided 
leaves.  There  are  three  spedes  of  Brexia,  all  of  them  degant  trees 
with  a  fine  foliage.  They  grow  well  in  a  mixture  of  turfy  loam  and 
peat;  and  cuttings  with  thdr  leaves  not  shortened  strike  readily  in 
sand  under  a  hand-glass  in  heat,  or  a  leaf  with  a  bud  attached  irill 
grow.  The  leaves  are  covered  with  a  resinous  matter  which  causes 
rain  to  run  off  them  immediatdy,  and  thus  induced  Du  Petit  Thouan 
to  give  these  plants  the  name  of  Brexia,  frt)m  Bpc^is,  which  signifies 
'a  wetting.'  In  gardens  they  are  commonly  called  Theophnstaa, 
but  they  difier  oondderably  from  that  genus.  All  the  spedes  of 
Brexia  are  natives  of  Madagascar.  The  other  genera  of  this  order  are 
Ixerba,  ArgophyUum,  and  Bouttea,    There  are  but  six  spedee  in  all 

(Loudon,  Encydc^padia  of  Plants;    lindley,    V^^able  Kingdm; 
Don,  Oardener's  Dictionary,) 
BRILL.    [PlboeonbotidaJ 
BRIMSTONE.    [Solfhub.] 
BRINE-SHRIMP.    [Bbakohiofodi  :  CmBOOJEPHALXT&l 

BRITTLEWORTSL    [Diatomacka] 

BRIZA,  a  genus  of  Qrasses  bdonging  to  the  tribe  Feit%cvnM, 
It  has  nearly  equal  broad  8-ribbed  glumes;  3-8  flowers,  densely 
imbricated  in  a  short  distichous  spikdet;  the  outer  palea  navi- 
cular, hearirshi^ed,  obtuse,  rounded  on  the  back,  unarmed;  the 
glumes  and  paleas  membranous  with  a  scarious  zoaigin;  tenninal 
styles.  Two  species  of  this  grsss  are  natives  of  Great  Britain,  the 
B.  mvMr  and  M.  tnc^or.  They  are  known  by  the  oommon  names  of 
Quaking-Giass  and  Maiden's-Hair.  Their  dense  dusters  of  flowen 
are  hung  upon  the  ends  of  a  very  deUcate  filamentous  peduncle, 
forming  an  degant  panide  which  shakes  with  the  slightest  breath  of 
air,  hence  the  name  Quaking-Grass.  Both  the  species  grow  in 
pastures,  but  do  not  yidd  much  nutriment  for  AniTnalu  which  feed 
upon  them.    (Babington,  Manual  of  Botany,) 

BROADBILL.    [DucKa] 

BROCCOLL    [Brassica.] 

BROCHANTITE,  a  native  hydrous  Sulphate  of  Copper.  It 
occurs  C£y8talli8ed,  and  has  for  its  primary  form  a  right  rhombic 
prism.  The  cleavage  is  obtained  with  difficulty  in  the  direction  of 
the  lateral  faces  of  the  primary  form.  The  colour  is  emerald-green : 
fracture  uneven ;  hardness  3*5  to  4*0 ;  lustre  vitreous ;  translucent, 
transparent  Specific  gravitv  8*78  to  8*87.  It  is  found  in  Sibeiia. 
The  following  analysis  is  by  Magnus : — 

Sulphuric  Add 17*43 

Oxide  of  Copper 66*93 

Oxide  of  Tin 811 

Oxide  of  Lead 1*04 

Water     .    . 11-91 

BROME-GRASS.    [Bbovub.] 

BROMELIA'CE^,  or  BROMELI^,  BromehooHs,  the  Pine-Apple 
Tribe,  a  natural  order  of  Endogenous  plants,  taking  its  name  from  the 
genus  to  which  the  pine-apple' was  once  inoorrectiy  referred  [AiiTAifikfiSA], 
and  consisting  of  herbaceous  plants,  remarkable  for  the  hardness  and 
dryness  of  their  gray  foliage.  They  occur  in  great  abundance  in  the 
tropical  parts  of  the  New  World,  or  in  such  extra-tropical  countries 
as,  owing  to  local  circumstances,  have  a  climate  of  a  tropical  nature. 
Sometimes  they  are  found  growing  on  the  earth  in  forests,  but  more 
commonly  they  spring  up  from  tiie  branches  of  trees,  round  which 
they  coil  their  simple  succulent  roots,  vegetating  upon  the  decayed 
matter  they  may  find  there,  and  absorbing  their  food  in  a  great 
measure  from  the  atmosphere.  Their  leaves  are  always^  packed 
together  so  very  dosely  at  the  base  as  to  form  a  kind  of  cup^  in  which 
water  collects;  so  that  the  travdler  who  ascends  the  trees  on  whidi 
they  grow,  if  he  upset  one  of  these  plants,  as  he  easily  may,  u 
unexpectedly  dduged  by  a  shower,  the  source  of  which  he  would  not 
have  suspected.     The  flowers  of  most  are  pretty,  and  of  some  ot 


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them  remarkably  handsome  and  sweetrsoented ;  bat  the  fruit  is 
in  no  case  of  any  value  except  in  the  genus  Antmaata,  BromeUaeem 
may  be  shortly  described  as  scurfy-leaved  hezandrous  endogens,  with 
distinct  calyx  and  corolla,  an  inferior  ovary,  and  seeds  whose  embiyo 
des  in  mealy  albumen.  They  are  known  from  AmaryUidacecB  by  the 
last  circumstanoe,  by  their  hard  scurfy  leaves,  and  epiphytal  habit; 
from  BvrmcuMMcecBf  by  their  leaves  not  being  equitant,  nor  their  fruit 
winged ;  and  from  TaeecuecB  by  all  their  habit»  and  their  fruit  being 
3-oelled,  with  central  placentas. 

The  green  fruit  of  tiie  wild  Pine-Apple,  as  weU  as  Bromdia 
Pmffmm  and  others,  are  used  as  anthelmhitios  and  diuretics  in  the 
West  Indies.  The  leaves  of  TiUcmdtia  usneoides  are  used  for  stufi&ng 
maUiiQusus.  A  gum  flows  from  the  spike  of  Pitya  lanuginoack  A  dye 
is  extracted  from  the  root  of  BiUbergia  tindoriii.  Muslin  has  been 
maniifactnred  from  the  fibres  of  the  common  Pine-Appla  Many 
species  are  cultivated  in  the  hot-houses  of  this  country,  the  most 
beautiful  of  which  belong  to  the  genera  Bromdia  and  Billbergia,  They 
all  grow  readily  in  decayed  tan.  No  species  has  been  yet  seen  wild 
in  any  part  of  the  Old  World.  The  order  contains  28  genera,  and 
170  species. 

BROMUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Oraminaeea,  and  the  tribe  Pesducete.  It  has  imequal  many-flowered 
herbaceous  glumes,  the  lower  being  1-nerved,  the  upper  8-  to  S-nerved. 
The  flowers  are  lanceolate,  compressed.  The  outer  palea  short, 
(usually)  founded  on  three  nerves  from  below  the  tip.  The  styles 
below  the  summit  of  the  fruit  lateral  The  sheaths  of  the  leaves 
divided  halfway  down. 

The  spedes  are  generally  known  under  the  name  of  Brome-Qrass. 
Four  of  the  species  are  common  in  Great  Britain. 

B.  ereehu  has  an  erect  stem  two  or  three  feet  high,  and  grows  on  dry 
sandy  and  chalky  soila  It  is  known  from  the  other  species  by  the 
outer  palea  being  indistinctly  7-nerved  and  one-third  longer  than  the 
smaller  glume. 

B.  asper  has  its  outer  palea  hairy  and  5-  to  7-ribbed,  with  the  leaves 
broad  and  hairy.  The  stem  reaches  a  height  of  four  or  five  feet.  It 
grows  in  damp  woods  and  thickets. 

B  gt€rilu  is  a  common  plant  in  waste  places,  and  is  known  by  its 
outer  palea  having  7  distinct  equidistant  ribs.  It  has  large  flat  broad 
pubesoent  leaves,  and  a  stem  from  one  to  two  feet  high.  It  grows  in 
waste  places. 

B,  diandnu  is  remarkable  for  its  erect  panicle.     It  is  a  rare  plant. 

Some  of  the  species,  as  B.  pwgans  and  B.  ccUharticugf  are  pui^ga- 
tive,  whilst  B,  moUtB  is  said  to  possess  poisonous  properties. 

(Babington,  MamuU  of  BritUh  Botany;  Lindley,  Vegetable 
Kingdom^ 

BRONQNTARTIN.    [Glaxtbbbitb.] 

BRONZITE,  a  native  Silicate  of  Magnesia.  It  occurs  in  massive 
aggregations  of  columnar  crystals.  The  cleavage  is  parallel  to  the 
latotJ  planes  and  both  diagonals  of  a  rhombic  prism.  Colour  brown, 
ash-gray,  or  dark-green,  streak  lighter;  fracture  uneven;  hardness 
between  4*0  and  5*0.  The  lustre  is  vitreous,  pseudo-metallic  on  the 
cleavage-planes ;  translucent  in  thin  lamina  ;  opaque  in  masa 
Spedfio  gravity  8*8.  It  is  found  in  Upper  Styria,  the  Harz,  in 
Bityreuth,  the  Tyrol,  and  the  Lizard  district  of  ComwalL 

BROOK-BEAN.    [Mentaitthsb.] 

BROOKITE,  a  native  Oxide  of  Titanium.  It  is  met  with  in  thin 
hair-brown  ciyBtals  attached  by  one  edga  Its  hardness  is  6'5  to  6. 
Its  crystals  are  secondaries  to  a  rhombic  prism.  It  is  found  in 
Daupluny,  and  on  Snowdon  in  Wales.  It  is  also  said  to  occur  in  the 
United  States  of  America. 

BROOM.    [Cttibub.] 

BROOM-RAPK    [Obobanohb.] 

BRORA  COAL.  Beds  of  very  poor  Coal,  lying  in  the  midst  of  the 
Oolitic  deposits  in  the  district  of  Brora  in  North  Scotland,  and  near 
Scarborough  in  Yorkshire,  are  thus  termed.  This  Coal  has  been 
conjectured  to  be  composed  principally  of  Equiseta, 

BRO'SCUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  belonging  to  the  section 
of  the  Caraind(Bt  called  Simplicimani  by  Latreille.  In  LatreiUe's 
work,  however,  this  genus  retains  the  name  of  Oephaloteg  (given  to  it 
by  Boneh^  troia  the  circumstance  of  the  species  possessing  an  unu- 
sually large  head),  which  has  been  expunged  by  many  naturalists 
owing  to  itB  having  been  previously  used  to  designate  a  genus  in  some 
other  branch  of  Natural  Histdry. 

The  insects  of  this  genus  are  remarkable  for  the  almost  total  absence 
of  the  indented  strice  on  the  elytra  generally  observed  in  the  insects 
of  the  tribe  to  which  they  belong,  and  for  the  large  and  strong  man- 
dibles, the  elongate  form  of  the  body,  and  the  somewhat  heart-shaped 
thorax,  which  is  much  attenuated  posteriorly. 

It  has  the  following  characters : — Palpi  with  all  their  joints  of  nearly 
equal  thickness,  the  terminal  joint  of  the  maxillary  palpi  rather  short 
and  truncated ;  the  antennae,  if  extended  backwards,  reaching  to  the 
base  of  the  thorax ;  mandibles  unidentate  internally ;  labrum  entire ; 
anterior  tarsi  of  the  males  with  the  three  basal  joints  dilated. 

The  species  are  generally  found  under  stones,  ana  often  accompa- 
nied by  fragments  of  numerous  other  insects  devoured  by  them. 
When  taken  in  the  hand  they  will  often  pretend  to  be  dead,  extend- 
ing their  limbe  stiffly,  and  it  is  then  with  difficulty  they  can  be  made 
to  move. 


Only  one  spedes  of  this  curious  genus  is  a  native  of  this  eoxmtry, 
Broseui  cephalotet.  It  is  of  a  duU-black  colour,  and  varies  from 
three-quarters  to  an  inch  in  length  :  its  form  is  elongate ;  the  head  ia 
nearly  equal  to  the  thorax  in  bulk ;  the  elytra  are  nearly  smooth,  the 
longitudinal  strisB  being  scarcely  discernible.  It  seems  to  be  confined 
to  the  sea-coast,  where  it  is  frequently  found  under  stones  or  rubbish. 

In  Stephens's  arrangement  of  British  Insects  this  genus  is  classed 
among  the  Harpaiida^  About  six  or  seven  exotic  species  have  been 
discovered. 

BRO'SIMUM,  a  genus  of  UrticacecB,  one  species  of  which  is 
believed  to  be  tiie  Cow-Tree,  or  Palo  de  Vacca  of  South  America. 
[Cow-Trbb.] 

BRO'SMIUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  section  Subbrachial 
Malacopterygii,  and  fisunily  Oadida,  Generic  characters : — Body  elon- 
gate, and  furnished  with  a  single  dorsal  fin  which  extends  from  near 
the  head  to  the  tail  -  the  and  fin  is  also  of  considerable  length,  and 
extends  from  the  vent  to  the  tail ;  ventral  fins  small  and  fleshy ;  chin 
furnished  with  .but  one  barbule.  This  genus  was  established  by 
Cuvier;  it  is  the  gentis  Oadua  of  Pennant  (' British  Zoology '),  and 
Brotmiw  of  Fleming  0  British  Animals'). 

But  one  n>ecies  of  Broimiui  has  been  found  on  our  coast,  and  that 
appears  to  be  confined  to  the  northern  parts ;  it  is  the  B.  vulgaris  of 
Cuvier,  commonly  called  the  Torsk,  and  in  the  Shetlands  the  Tusk 
and  the  Brismak ;  in  this  latter  locality  it  is  abundant,  and  forms 
when  barreled  or  dried  a  considerable  article  of  commerce.  In 
Yarrell's  'History  of  British  Fishes'  we  are  informed  that  this 
species  also  occurs  plentifully  in  "  Norway,  as  fftr  as  Finmark  of  the 
Faroe  Islands,  and  the  W.  and  S.  coast  of  Iceland,"  and  other  parts. 


The  Tortk  {Broamiua  vulgaris). 

The  following  is  Pennant's  description  of  this  fish  : — "  Length 
twenty  inches,  and  depth  four  and  a  half ;  head  small;  upper  jaw  a 
littie  longer  than  the  lower ;  both  jaws  frirniBhed  with  a  multitude  of 
small  teeth ;  on  the  chin  was  a  small  single  beard ;  from  the  head  to 
the  dorsal  fin  was  a  deep  furrow;  the  dorsal  fin  began  within  six  inches 
of  the  tip  of  the  nose,  and  extended  almost  to  the  tail ;  {tectoral  fins 
small  and  rounded ;  ventral  short,  thick,  and  fleshy,  ending  in  four 
drrhi;  the  belly  ftx>m  the  throat  grows  very  prominent;  anal  fin 
long,  and  reached  almost  dose  to  the  tail,  which  is  small  and  ciroular; 
colour  of  the  head  dusky ;  sides  and  back  yellow,  belly  white ;  edges 
of  the  dorsal,  anal,  and  caudal  fins  white,  the  other  parts  dusky ; 
pectoral  fins  brown."  When  eaten  fresh  it  is  rather  tough ;  henoe  it 
is  preferred  dried,  and  is  prepared  in  Hie  same  manner  as  ling  and 
cod.  Faber  says, ''  It  is  thrown  up  dead  in  incredible  numbers  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Faroe  Islands,  and  the  south  coast  of  Iceland,  after  a 
storm."    (Yanell,  British  Fishes,) 

BROSS^^LA.,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
EricacM,  The  fruit  of  B.  cocdnea,  like  that  of  fhvUheria  proeum- 
bens  and  Aretoiiaphylos  alpina,  is  succulent  and  gi'ateful  to  the  taste, 
and  sometimes  used  as  food. 

BRCTULA,  a  genus  of  Fishes,  of  the  order  Subbrachial  Malacop- 
teryaii  and  family  Oadidce,  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  dorsal  and 
anal  fins  being  united  with  the  caudal  and  forming  one  fin,  which 
terminates  in  a  point.  The  only  species  known  (B.  barbatvs  of 
Cuvier)  is  from  the  Antilles.    The  genus  is  closely  allied  to  Brosmius. 

BROUSSONETIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Urticacece  and  sub-oxder  Morea.  There  is  but  one  species,  B. 
papyrifera.  It  is  from  the  inner  bark  of  this  plant  that  the  Japanese 
and  the  Chinese  manufacture  a  kind  of  paper,  and  the  South  Sea 
Islanders  the  principal  part  of  their  clothmg.  It  forms  a  small  tree 
with  soft  brittle  woolly  branches,  and  1^^  hairy  rough  leavoi^ 
either  heart-shaped  and  undivided,  or  cut  into  deep  irregular  loboe. 
Some  of  the  individuals  are  sterile,  others  fridtfuL  The  flowers  of 
the  sterile  trees  grow  in  catkins,  which  fsdl  soon  after  their  anthers 
have  all  shed  their  pollen;  these  catkins  are  composed  of  little 
greenish-purple  membranous  calyxes,  each  seated  in  the  axil  of  a 
hairy  bract  and  containing  four  elastic  stamens.  The  flowers  of  the 
fruitful  trees  are  collected  into  round  green  heads,  and  consist  of  a 
calyx  like  that  of  the  sterile  tree,  with  a  small  simple  pistil  occupying 
its  centre,  and  having  a  long  dovm^  stigma.  The  heads  gradually 
push  forth  little  oblong  greenish  bodies ;  tiiese  are  the  ripening  frnit^ 
which  at  maturity  have  a  bright  scarlet  colour,  and  are  of  a  pulpy 
consistence,  with  a  sweetish  insipid  taste. 

B,  papyrifertt,  the  Paper  Mulberry,  is  not  tmcommon  in  the 
shrubberies  of  this  country,  where  it  proves  perfectly  hardy;  but  it 
is  liable  to  be  broken  bv  winds,  and  soon  becomes  an  unsi^tly  object 
Its  wood,  like  that  of  many  other  arborescent  Urtieacea,  is  soft, 
spongy,-  and  of  no  value.    In  the  tenacity  of  tiie  woody  tissue  of  itv 


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liber,  or  inner  baric,  it  also  ooxrespondB  with  the  general  character  of 
that  order.  It  is  fix)m  th&t  part  that  the  preparations  above  alluded 
to  have  been  obtained.  Sir  Jamea  Smith  gives  the  following  abridg- 
ment of  Kempfer'B  account  of  the  preparation  of  paper  from  its  bark 
by  the  Japanese : — "  For  this  purpose  the  branches  of  the  present 
year,  after  the  leaves  are  fallen,  in  December,  are  chosen,  and  being 
out  into  pieces  about  a  yard  long  are  boiled  till  the  bark  shrinks  and 
is  eauly  separable  from  the  w<xk1,  which  is  then  thrown  away.  The 
bark  being  dried  Ib  preserved  till  it  is  wanted.  In  order  to  make 
paper  it  is  soaked  for  three  or  four  hours  in  water,  after  which  the 
external  skin  and  the  green  internal  coat  are  scraped  off;  at  the  same 
time  the  stronger  and  firmer  pieces  are  selected,  the  produce  of  the 
youngest  shoots  being  of  an  ii^erior  quality.  If  any  very  old  portions 
present  themselves  they  are,  on  the  other  hand,  rejected  as  too  coarse^ 
All  knotty  parts  and  everything  which  might  impair  the  beau^  of 
the  paper  are  also  removed.  The  chosen  berk  is  boiled  in  a  lixivium 
till  its  downy  fibres  can  be  separated  by  a  touch  of  the  finger.  The 
pulp  so  produced  is  then  agitated  in  water  till  it  resembles  tufts  of 
tow.  If  not  sufficiently  boiled  the  paper  will  be  coarse  though  strong ; 
if  too  much,  it  will  be  white  indeed,  but  deficient  in  strength  and 
solidity.  Upon  the  various  degrees  and  modes  of  washing  the  pulp 
much  also  depends  as  to  the  quality  and  beauty  of  the  paper. 
Hudlage  obtamed  from  boiling  rice,  or  from  a  root  called  Ormi 
(Ksampf.,  474),  one  of  the  mallow  tribe,  is  afterwards  added  to  the 
pulp.  Tlie  paper  is  finished  much  after  the  European  mode,  except 
that  stalks  of  rushes  are  used  instead  of  brass  wires." 

BRU'CEA,  a  gentis  of  plants,  named  in  honour  of  James  Bruce  the 
celebrated  traveller  in  Abyssinia,  belonging  to  the  natiual  order 
Rutacect.  It  has  the  following  characters: — ^Flowers  monoscioua; 
calyx  4'parted ;  petals  4,  hardly  equal  the  length  of  the  calyx ;  sta- 
mens 4,  mserted  round  about  a  4-lobed  gland-like  central  body ;  the 
pistiliferous  flowers  with  four  abortive  stamens ;  ovaries  4,  seated  on 
a  4-lobed  receptacle,  each  terminated  by  a  single,  acute,  reflexed 
stigma;  fruit  a  drupe,  1-seeded.  The  species  are  shrubs,  with  im- 
equally  pinnated  leaves,  6  pairs  of  opposite,  entire,  or  serrated  leaflets, 
without  dots. 

B,  crnHdytenterica  (Brueea  ferruginea  of  L'Heritier),  Woodginoos, 
has  entire  leaflets  covered  with  rusty  villi  on  the  nerves  beneath ; 
racemes  simple,  spike-l&&  This  plant  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia,  and 
is  said  to  be  a  tome  and  astring^it,  and  to  act  favourably  in  dysentery. 
By  some  mistake  it  was  at  one  time  supposed  to  be  the  plant  whidi 
yielded  tiie  false  Angostura  Bazk  of  the  shops.  By  the  substitution 
of  the  False  Angostura  for  the  true  Angostura  Bark  [Qalipaa.]  ia,taX 
effects  have  been  known  to  follow.  At  the  time  that  the  false  Angos- 
tura Bark  was  supposed  to  be  the  produce  of  Brucia  ferruffinea  an 
alkaloid  was  discovered  in  it  which  had  been  called  on  that  account 
Btntcia.  It  appears  now  however  that  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  fiidae  Angostura  Bark  of  the  shops  is  a  species  of  Strychnoa,  On 
this  subject  Dr.  Christison,  in  the  last  edition  of  his  '  Dispensatory,' 
has  the  following  remarks : — **  The  Angostura  Bark  {CkUipaa  OutpaHa) 
of  this  country  is  seldom  adulterated ;  but  on  the  continent  a  most 
serious  fraud  has  been  often  practised  by  the  substitution  of  a  highly 
poisonous  bark  long  erroneously  conceived  to  be  that  of  the  Brueea 
ferruginea  or  anHdyeenlerica.  This  bark,  commonly  called  False 
Angostura,  presents  externally  a  dirty  grayish-yellow  ground  with 
numerous  irregular  spots  or  tubercles  of  a  lighter  gray  tint,  which 
appearances  are  in  the  larger  pieces  displaced  in  patdies,  or  entirely, 
by  a  uniform,  loose,  bright*  rusty-coloured  efflorescence.  The  speckled 
gray  pieces  alone  heex  some  resemblance  to  the  smaller  pieces  of  true 
Angostura,  but  are  easily  distinguished  by^  their  greater  thickness, 
their  far  more  intense  bittemeBl^  without  either  aroma  or  pungency, 
and  also,  as  the  Edinlnirgh  College  has  indicated,  by  the  transverse 
fracture  becoming  bright  red  when  touched  with  nitric  acid.  Another 
excellent  character  mentioned  by  the  college,  but  applicable  only 
where  rusty  specks  exist,  is,  that  such  spots  become  deep  bluish-green 
with  the  same  acid ;  which,  on  the  other  hand,  scarcely  affects  the 
true  bark.  Nitric  cuad  does  not  similarly  alter  the  spurious  bark 
where  it  is  quite  free  of  rusty  efflorescenca  Fatal  accidents  from  the 
substitution  of  the  spurious  for  the  true  bark  were  at  one  time  not 
uncommon  on  the  Continent,  and  in  Austria  they  were  so  frequent 
that  upon  one  occasion  the  government  ordered  the  whole  Angostura 
Bark  in  the  empire  to  be  destroyed.  This  adulteration  has  never  been 
publicly  noticed  in  Britain,  and  experienced  wholesale  and  retail 
dealers  whom  I  have  consulted  both  here  and  in  London  were  unaware 
of  its  existence.  A  few  weeks  ago  however  Dr.  Moore  NeUgan  of 
Dublin  informed  me,  that  on  inquiring  for  Anffostura  Bark  at  an 
extensive  and  respectable  drus  warehouse  in  that  city  he  got  the 
spurious  bark,  which  proved  to  have  been  part  of  a  considerable  stock 
kept  in  the  establishment  since  at  least  the  beginning  of  this  century, 
but  never  previously  displaced.  From  specimens  I  owe  to  the  kind- 
ness of  Dr.  Keligan  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  accuracy  of  his 
observation,  so  that  druggists  ought  to  be  aware  of  the  possible  risk 
even  in  this  country  of  so  serious  an  error." 

B,  SwauUrana  has  serrated  leaflets  villous  beneath,  the  racemes 
usually  compound^  the  petals  longer  than  the  calyx.  This  plant  is  a 
native  of  Sumatra,  the  Moluccas,  China,  and  Coohin-Chma.  The 
leaves  are  intensely  bitter,  and  possess  the  same  medicinal  properties 
as  the  former.  (Christiaon,  Diapeaeotory  ;  .Don,  Qardenet'e  Btctumarjf,) 


BRU'CHUS,  »genuB  of  Coleraterous  Insects  of  the  section  TOnmen 
and  family  Bkifnehophora.  It  has  the  following  characters :— Heid 
slightly  produced,  and  forming  a  short  and  broad  rostrum ;  kbnim 
distinot :  antenntd  11-jointed,  either  filiform,  serrated,  or  pectinated; 
eyes  emarginated;  thorax  narrower  before  than  behind,  anterioriy 
rounded,  posteriorly  furnished  with  a  lobe  near  the  scateUum;  elytn 
somewhat  oblong,  not  reaching  to  the  apex  of  the  abdomen ;  knook  of 
the  hinder  legs  thick  and  generally  dentated. 

The  female  Bruchi  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  yet  tender  germ  of 
variotis  leguminous  plants ;  the  seed  becoming  matured  is  devooied 
by  the  lar^  which  Uvea  entirely  within  the  seed,  where  it  tmdeiipMi 
its  metamorphosia.  The  holes  so  often  observed  in  peas  and  other 
seeds  of  a  similar  nature  are  those  formed  by  the  perfect  insect  to 
effect  its  escape ;  after  which  it  is  generally  found  in  fiowen. 

fVom  the  habits  of  these  insects  as  above  related  it  may  eaiDybe 
conceived  that  when  numerous  they  become  exceedingly  deBtruetiTc. 
In  Eirby  and  Spence's  '  Introduction  to  British  Entomology'  ve  an 
told  that  in  North  America  a  species — Bruchvt  Pwi— is  most  alarm- 
ingly destructive  to  peas,  "  its  ravages  being  at  one  time  so  tuuTersal 
as  to  put  an  end  in  some  places  to  the  cultivation  of  that  favoorite 
pulse."  This  insect  is  Isaa  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  lengtii,  of  a 
blackish  colour,  and  has  a  gray  spot  at  the  base  of  the  thorax  in  tiu 
middle,  and  several  spots  of  the  same  colour  on  the  elytra,  which  are 
striated.  The  four  basal  joints  of  the  antennae  and  the  anterior  tibia 
and  tarsi  are  red.  The  thorax  has  a  little  tooth  on  each  side,  and  the 
femora  are  also  dentate. 

B.  Piri  JB  a  native  of  our  own  country  (having  most  probably  bees 
introduced  in  the  seeds  of  the  pea),  but  fortunately  it  is  not  suffidentlj 
abundant  to  do  much  misChieL 

Two  other  species  of  Bruchnt  also  infest  the  pea,  B.  granariut  ud 
B.  pectinicomia :  the  latter  is  common  in  China  and  Barbaiy;  the 
former  is  a  native  of  this  country,  and  is  found  among  beans,  vetcha, 
and  other  seeds,  the  lobes  of  which  it  devours.  It  very  much  reeemblet 
B.  Piei,  but  is  rather  less. 

The  true  Bruchi  are  generally  of  small  size. 

BRUCITE.    [Maovebia.] 

BRUGMA0KT8IA.  Two  veiy  different  plants  have  been  called  by 
this  name,  one  a  Rhizanth  belonging  to  the  order  Baffietituair  the 
other  a  plant  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Solanaeea.  The  epecka 
of  the  latter  are  now  referred  to  Baiura,  D.  arhorea  is  the  BoTOchero 
of  the  Columbians,  and  is  known  in  our  gardens  under  the  name  of 
Brugmamia,  Like  the  rest  of  the  natural  order  Solanacta  ^  ii 
jiarcotic  in  a  high  degree.  "This  remarkable  plant  is  a  natiyeof 
elevated  and  cold  situations  in  the  provinces  of  Tarma,  lama, 
Huaro(^esi,  Canta,  and  Humalies,  where  it  grows  among  rubbish ;  it 
is  also  found  near  the  village  of  La  Cruz  and  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Mayo,  between  Almaquer  and  Paste  in  New  Qranada,  where  it  vu 
found  by  Humboldt  and  Bonpland  at  nearly  7000  feet  above  the  sea 
It  begins  to  flower  in  June  and  ceases  in  November.  By  the  Peru- 
vians it  JB  called  Floripondio  Encamado  and  Campanillas  Encamadaa; 
by  the  Columbians  Bovochevo.  Its  stature  varies  from  10  to  12  feet, 
the  stem  being  generally  undivided  and  terminated  by  a  roundish 
leafy  head.  The  flowers  are  either  a  bright  yellowish-oraoge  colour 
or  a  deep  orange-red :  we  believe  they  duinge  from  the  former  to  the 
latter.  They  are  succeeded  by  an  oblong,  smooth,  yellow,  pendulous 
capsule,  which  is  as  much  as  8  inches  long.  The  seeds,  like  those  of 
the  common  Stramonvumf  are  narcotic  in  a  high  degree.  Jn  the  Temple 
of  the  Sun  in  the  city  of  Sogamoaa  there  is  a  famous  oracle,  the  prie^ 
of  which  inspire  themselves  with  the  intoxicating  seeds  of  thia  plu^ 
just  as  the  Pythoness  at  Delphi  is  said  to  have  received  the  influeoce 
of  her  god  by  chewing  laurel  leaves  and  inhaling  a  gaseous  vapour. 
From  the  fruit  itself  &e  Columbians  prepare  a  drink  called  'Tonga. 
which  when  weak  is  merely  soporific,  but  drank  in  stronger  doeea 
produces  frenzy,  which  can  only  be  removed  by  administering  i^uD^ 
diate  draughts  of  cold  water."    ('  Botanical  Register.') 

In  cultivation  it  is  hardy  during  the  summer,  but  requires  the 
protection  of  a  greenhouse  in  winter. 

BRUNI'ACEiE,  Bruniade,  the  Brunia  Tribe,  a  small  natural  oider 
of  Exogens  belonging  to  the  albuminous  group,  and,  notwithstandiog 
the  different  habit,  nearly  allied  to  the  currant  tribe,  GrwnlariacfO- 
The  species  are  small  heath-like  shrubs,  with  minute  closely-imbn- 
cated  leaves,  and  small  flowers  collected  in  little  compact  heads.  Thcj 
have  a  superior  6-cleft  calyx,  5  petals,  5  perigynous  stamens,  and  a 
diooocous  or  indehiscent  2-  or  1-celled  fhiit,  crowned  by  the  persistent 
calyx.  The  seeds  are  solitaxy  or  in  pairs,  and  have  a  short  anL  All 
the  species  except  one  from  Madagascar  are  natives  of  the  Cape  of 
Qood  Hope.    They  are  of  no  known  use. 

BrwMoeeoB  differ  from  Grouvlariauiea  in  their  dry  fhiit  and  <*^^ 
placenta ;  from  EtoaUoniacece  in  the  very  small  number  of  their  seeds; 
XTomBhamiMcea  in  their  minute  embiyo ;  and  from  both  UmbtUifera 
and  AraliaeecB  in  their  flowers  not  being  in  umbels.  Their  relstioM 
are  with  Mamamelidacea,  Myrtacea,  SarUalaeeaf  and  Unbeilifffif' 
The  order  contains  15  genera  and  65  species. 

BRUNONIA'CEiE,  Brunoniads,  the  Brunonia  Tribe,  a  natural 
order  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Monopetalous  Ezogena  This  order 
was  defined  by  Robert  Brown,  and  has  for  its  type  a  genus  which  was 
named  after  him.  He  placed  it  as  a  section  of  the  natural  order 
Ooodenovia,  but  it  is  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  independent  order  by 


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673 


BRYACEA 


BUBO. 


674 


Professor  Lindlej.  It  has  an  inferior  calyx  in  5  diviaionB,  with  four 
bracia  at  the  base ;  a  monopetaloua  oorollay  ahnost  regular  5-parted 
inferior  withering ;  definite  hypogynouB  stamens,  alternate  wi&  the 
BQgments  of  the  corolla ;  the  anthers  collateral,  slightly  cohering ;  a 
l*celled  ovary,  with  a  single  erect  OTule ;  a  single  stigma  indos^  in 
a  2-yalyed  cup ;  a  membranous  fruit  (a  utricle)  inclosed  within  the 
indurated  tube  of  the  calyx ;  a  solitary  erect  seed  without  albumen ; 
the  embiyo  with  plano-convex  fleshy  cotyledonsy  and  a  minute  inferior 
ndide. 

Tlus  order  has  but  one  genus,  of  which  there  are  two  species.  They 
are  herbs,  natives  of  Aus^alia,  having  flowers  of  an  azure  blue,  which 
are  on  scapes,  collected  in  heads,  and  surrounded  by  enlarged  bracts. 
Although  placed  by  Brown  in  Ooodenovi<B,  Lindley  thinks  it  differs 
ctfentiidly  from  that  order  "  in  the  superior  1-celled  ovary  and  capitate 
flowers,  thus  approaching  some  species  of  D^acece,  but  differing  in 
the  want  of  an  involucel,  the  erect  ovule,  superior  ovary,  and  peculiar 
stigma."  It  agrees  with  Composite  in  inflorescence,  in  the  aestivation 
of  the  corolla,  in  the  remarkable  joint  or  change  of  texture  in  the  apex 
of  its  filaments,  and  in  the  structure  of  the  ovarium  and  seed.  Brown 
remarl^  that  "  in  the  opposite  parietes  of  the  ovarium  of  Brunonia 
two  nerves  or  vascular  cox^  are  observable,  whicb  are  continued  into 
the  style,  where  they  become  approximated  and  parallel  This  struc- 
ture, so  nearly  resembling  that  of  Compoaita,  seems  to  strengthen  the 
analogical  argument  in  favour  of  the  hypothesis  advanced  in  the  pre- 
sent paper  of  the  compound  nature  of  the  pistiUum  in  that  order,  and 
of  its  type  in  phicnog|amous  plants  generally ;  Brunonia  having  an 
obvious  and  near  afi&nity  to  Chodenovta,  in  the  greater  part  of  whose 
genera  the  ovarium  has  actually  two  cells,  with  one  or  an  indefinite 
number  of  ovula  in  each ;  while  in  a  few  genera  of  the  same  order,  as 
Dampierttf  JHatpatit,  and  certain  species  of  Sccevola,  it  is  equally 
reduced  to  one  cell  and  a  single  ovulum."  There  is  but  the  genus, 
Bnmonia,  with  two  species,  in  this  OI^(le^.  (R  Brown,  Linn.  Trans., 
xiL  132;  Lindley,  VeffetahU  Kingdom,  266.) 

BRYA'CEiE,  a  name  given  to  a  section  of  the  natural  order  of 
Mosses.    [Musci.] 

BRYA'XIS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging  to  the  family 
Ptdaphida,  which  by  some  authors  is  arranged  with  the  Brachdytra, 
but  according  to  Latreille  forms  the  third  family  of  the  section  Trimera. 
Technical  Characters : — Antennse  long,  f^m  the  third  to  the  terminal 
joint  gradually  increasing  in  size,  the  three  terminal  joints  forming  a 
large  knob ;  the  last  joint  much  larger  than  the  rest)  and  somewhat 
conical  in  shape ;  the  two  basal  joints  lai^e ;  maxillary  palpi  distinct ; 
the  apical  joints  robust ;  head  rather  large ;  thorax  rounded  at  the 
sides ;  elytra  very  broad,  and  covering  only  the  basal  half  of  the 
abdomen. 

The  species  of  this  and  allied  genera,  though  minute,  are  perhaps 
among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  CtUoptera.  In  the  short  wing-cases 
they  appear  to  evince  an  afi&nity  to  the  Braehdytra,  but  in  the  number 
of  joints  in  the  tarsi,  a  character  generally  considered  of  importance, 
they  differ ;  they  likewise  differ  from  that  tribe  in  having  the  terminal 
joints  of  the  antemue  immensely  large,  and  in  many  other  characters. 
They  are  generally  found  during  die  winter  and  early  part  of  the 
spring  in  moss.     Nine  or  ten  species  have  been  recorded  as  British. 

BRYCNIA.  The  Wild  Bryony  or  Red  Bryony  of  our  hedges, 
Bryonia  dioica,  is  a  plant  formerly  much  employed  in  rural  pharmacy, 
but  now  disused.  It  is  a  perennial  with  lai^e  fusiform  succulent 
roots,  which  have  a  repulsive  nauseous  odour.  From  these  there 
annually  springs  a  slender  pale-green  hairy  branching  stem,  which 
climbs  among  bushes  by  means  of  its  tendrils,  in  t^e  manner  of  a 
cucumber,  to  which  it  is  botanically  allied,  both  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Cucurhitacea;.  The  leaves  are  palmate,  and  rough  on 
both  sides,  with  callous  points.  The  stamens  and  pistils  are  on  dif- 
ferent flowers  on  different  plants.  The  flowers  in  which  the  stamens 
are  situated  are  larger  than  those  which  contain  the  pistils.  They  are 
whitish  with  pale-green  veins,  and  ike  pistiliferous  flowers  are  suc- 
ceeded by  little  red  berries  containing  a  very  few  seeds.  Its  principal 
use  was  on  account  of  the  powerful  drastic  properties  of  its  root, 
which  the  French  call  from  that  circumstance  Navet  du  Diable,  or 
I>evil's  Turnip.  It  is  excessively  bitter,  and  when  dried  pui^ges  in 
doses  of  30  or  40  grains.  Over-doses  are  extremely  dangerous,  and 
even  sometimes  fataL  Its  properties  are  apparently  owing  to  the 
presence  of  a  principle  called  bryonine,  analogous  to  cathartine,  which 
exists  in  about  the  proportion  of  2  per  cent,  of  the  root.  It  should 
be  gathered  in  the  autumn,  after  the  stem  has  turned  yellow ;  it  is  cut 
into  slices,  which  are  strung  upon  a  thread,  and  hung  in  the  air  to  dry. 
BRYONY,  BLACK.  [Tamus.] 
BRYONY,  RED.    [Bryonia.] 

BRYOPHY'LLUM,  a  genus  of  succulent  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  CraawulaceoSt  and  remarkable  for  the  singular  property 
possessed  by  its  leaves  of  budding  from  their  max^n.  These  leaves 
are  of  a  succulent  texture,  and  sometimes  pinnated;  thev  or  their 
leaflets  are  of  an  oblong  figure,  with  a  deeply-crenelled  border ;  when 
placed  in  a  damp  and  shady  warm  place  they  sprout  from  the  crenels 
and  form  young  plants — a  property  \mknown  in  the  same  degree  in 
any  other  vegetable  production.  Physiologists  however  consider  iJiat 
traces  of  a  similar  power,  exerdsed  in  another  way,  exist  in  all  plants 
in  their  carpellary  leaves,  from  whose  edges,  forming  placentae,  ovules, 
which  are  theoretically  young  buds,  are  constantly  produced. 

»AT.  HIST.  DIV.  VOL.  L 


The  only  species  is  Bryophyllvm  calycinum,  a  shrub  found  in  the 
Moluccas,  witn  panicles  of  large  pendulous  greenish-yellow  flowers. 
In  this  ooimtry  it  is  a  green-house  plant ;  but  is  apt  to  be  eaten 
by  mice. 

BRYOZOA,  a  name  proposed  by  Ehrenberg  for  those  Zoophytes  in 
which  a  higher  organisation  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  separate 
oriflces  for  the  mouth  and  anus.  The  same  naturalist  has  applied  the 
term  Anthoeoa  to  those  Polypes  in  which  the  mouth  and  vent  have  but 
one  orifice.  The  distinction  between  these  two  great  families  seems  to 
have  been  observed  by  Mr.  J.  V.  Thompson  previously  to  the  publica- 
tion of  Ehrenberg's  name,  hence  his  designation  for  this  family, 
Polyxoa,  is  mori»  generally  received.  Other  names  have  been  given  to 
this  interesting  family  of  Zoophytes.  Professor  Owen  calls  them 
Molluscan  Zoophytes,  on  account  of  their  structure  being  supposed  to 
ally  them  to  the  MoUusca.  For  the  same  reason  they  lutve  also  been 
called  Ascidioid  Polypes  (P.  Ascidioida).  Milne-Edwards  has  also  called 
them  Tunicated  Polypes  (Polypes  tuniciens).  Dr.  Farre  in  a  paper  in 
the  'Philosophical  Transactions,'  1837,  proposes  to  call  them 
CUiobrachiata,  in  reference  to  the  ciliated  character  of  their  tentacula. 
Mr.  Busk  in  his  Catalogue  of  the  Zoophytes  in  the  collection  of  the 
British  Museum,  adopts  Mr.  Thompson's  designation  of  Polyzoa  as 
prior  to  that  of  any  others.    [Poltzoa.] 

BR  YUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of  Mosses. 
It  has  a  terminal  footstalk;  double  peristome,  outer  one  of  16  teeth, 
inner  one  of  a  membrane  cut  into  16  equal  segments  /with  filiform 
processes  often  placed  between  them ;  the  calyptra  dmiidiate.  The 
species  of  this  genus  are  exceedingly  numerous.  They  are  found  in 
great  abundance  in  Great  Britain.  They  are  all  very 'small,  produce  a 
lai^e  number  of  capsules,  and  are  found  growing  in  wet  places.  They 
resemble  forests  of  larger  plants  in  miniature.  In  B.  palustrt  are 
found  terminal  capitulu:  bodies  which  resemble  what  are  called  the 
anthers  of  B.  Androgynum;  but  in  B.  palustre  they  are  considered 
gemmae,  and  arise  not  only  from  the  main  stems,  but  also  from  the 
innovations.    A  large  number  of  the  species  is  British.     [Muscl] 

(Loudon,  BncydopcBdia  of  Plants.) 

BUBO,  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  family  Strigidce,  separated 
by  Cuvier,  and  characterised  by  a  small  concha,  or  ear  aperture,  and  a 
fiaicial  disk,  less  perfect  than  in  the  sub-genus  Symium  (Chats-Huans  of 
the  French).  Two  tufts  or  feathered  horns  of  considerable  size  adorn 
the  head,  and  the  legs  are  feathered  dewn  to  the  toes. 

B.  maximus,  the  Great  Owl  or  Eagle-Owl ;  Strix  Bubo  of  Linnaeus ; 
Le  Hibou  Grand  Due  of  the  French  ;  Gufo,  Gufo  Grande,  and  Gufo 
Reale  of  the  Italians ;  Uhu,  Grosse  Qhreule  of  the  Germans ;  Uff  of 
the  'Fauna  Suecica; '  Buhu  of  tiie  Lower  Austrians. 


Great  Owl  {Bubo  maxinws). 

This,  the  largest  of  the  nocturnal  birds,  is,  there  can  be  little  doubt, 
the  B€as  of  Aristotle  {*  Hist.  Anim.'  vilL  c  3),  and  the  Bubo  funebris 
mentioned  by  Pliny  in  his  chapter  '  De  Inauspicatis  Avibus '  (lib.  x. 
c.  12  and  13),  on  account  of  whoift  advent  Rome  twice  underwent 

2  X 


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C75  BUBO. 

lustration.  Upon  one  of  these  occaaionB  the  bird  of  ill  omen  penetrated 
into  the  very  cella  of  the  Capitol. 

Temminok  says  l^t  it  inhabits  great  forests,  and  that  it  is  very 
common  in  Hungary,  Russia,  Qermany,  and  Switzerland,  lees  common 
in  France  and  England,  and  never  seen  in  Holland.  He  adds,  that  it 
is  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Willughby  obserres  that  about 
Bolo^a,  and  elsewhere  in  Italy,  it  is  frequent.  Bonaparte  notes  it  as 
rare  m  the  neighbourhood  of' Rome,  and  says  that  it  is  only  seen  in 
mountainous  situations.  It  is  said  to  extend  eastward  as  far  as 
Kamtchatka. 

Pennant  states  that  it  has  been  shot  in  Scotland,  and  in  Yorkshire, 
from  which  county  it  was  sent  to  Willughby.  Latham  adds  Kent  and 
Sussex  as  localities  where  it  has  been  found.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
seen  in  the  Orkneys ;  and  four  are  stated  to  have  occurred  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Donegal  in  Ireland.  The  Eagle-Owl  then  can  be 
only  considered  as  a  rare  visitant  to  our  islands. 

The  following  is  Temminck's  description : — Upper  part  of  the  body 
variegated  and  undulated  with  black  and  ochreous;  lower  parts 
ochreous,  with  longitudinal  black  dashes ;  throat  white ;  feet  covered 
to  the  nails  with  plumes  of  a  reddish-yellow ;  iris  bright  orange. 
Length  two  feet  The  female  is  larger  than  the  male ;  but  the  tints  of 
her  plumage  are  less  bright,  and  she  is  without  the  white  on  the 
throat  It  sometimes  varies  in  having  the  colours  less  lively  and  in 
being  of  inferior  dimensions. 

Its  food  consists  of  young  roes  and  fawns,  hares,  moles,  rats,  mice, 
winged  game,  frogs,  lizards,  and  beetles. 

It  builds  its  nest  in  the  hollows  of  rocks,  in  old  castles  and  other 
ruins,  where  the  female  lays  two  or  three,  but  rarely  four,  round 
white  eggs.    Latham  says  two, ''  the  size  of  those  of  a  hen." 

M.  Cronstedt>  who  resided  on  a  farm  in  Sudermania,  near  a 
moimtain,  had  an  opportunity  of  witnessing  the  devotion  of  these 
birds  to  their  yoimg,  and  their  care  in  supplying  them  with  food,  even 
imder  extraordinary  circumstances.  Two  fiagle-Owls  had  built  Uieir 
nest  on  the  mountain,  and  a  young  one  which  had  wandered  away 
was  taken  by  the  servants  and  confined  in  a  hen-coop.  The  next 
morning  there  was  a  dead  partridge  lying  dose  to  the  door  of  the 
coop.  Food  was  brought  to  the  same  place  for  fourteen  successive 
nights ;  this  generally  consisted  of  young  partridges  newly  killed,  but 
sometimes  a  Uttle  tainted.  Once  a  moor-fowl  was  brought  still  worm 
under  the  wings,  and  at  another  time  a  piece  of  lamb  in  a  putrid 
state.  M.  Cronstedt  sat  up  with  his  servant  many  nights  in  oixler  to 
observe  the  deposit  of  the  supply  if  possible,  but  in  vain.  It  was 
evident  however  to  M.  Cronstedt  that  the  parents  were  the  caterers, 
and  on  the  look-out,  for  on  the  very  night  when  M.  Cronstedt  and  his 
servant  ceased  to  watch,  the  usual  food  was  left  near  the  coop.  The 
supply  continued  frt>m  the  time  when  the  voung  owl  was  taken — in 
July— to  the  usual  time,  in  the  month  of  August,  when  these  birds 
leave  their  yoimg  to  their  own  exertions. 

Belon  gives  an  accoimt  of  the  use  which  falconers  made  of  this 
bird  to  entrap  the  kite.  They  tied  the  tail  of  a  fox  to  the  Eagle-Owl, 
and  let  him  fly.  This  spectacle  soon  excited  the  attention  of  the  kite, 
if  he  were  near,  and  he  continued  to  fly  near  the  owl,  not  endeavour- 
ing to  hurt  him,  but  apparently  intent  on  observing  his  odd  figure. 
While  so  employed  the  falconer  surprised  and  took  the  kite. 

There  are  specimens  in  the  Qardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  in  the 
Regent's  Park. 

Bubo  Virginianus,  the  Virginian  Horned-Owl  {Strtx  Virginiana  of 
Vieillott;  Due  de  Viiginie  of  Buffon;  Netowky-Omeesew  of  the 
Cree  Indians,  according  to  Mr.  Hutchins;  Otowack-Oho  of  the 
Crees  of  the  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan,  according  to  Sir  John 
Richardson). 

Pennant,  in  his  '  Arctic  Zoology,'  says  that  this  seems  to-be  a  variety 
of  the  eagle-owl,  although  he  notices  the  inferiority  in  size :  but  it  is 
a  very  distinct  species. 

It  is  not  improbable,  as  Sir  John  Richardson  observes,  that  this 
night-bird,  peculiar  to  America,  inhabits  that  continent  from  end  to 
end.  Cuvier  gives  his  opinion  that  the  Strix  MagcUanica  of  the 
'Planches  Enlumin^es'  aiffers  merely  in  having  browner  tints  of 
colour ;  and  Sir  John  Richardson  mentions  the  result  of  Mr.  Swain- 
son's  comparison  of  the  northern  specimens  with  those  of  the  table- 
land of  Mexico,  as  confirmatory  of  the  identity^  of  the  species ;  the 
only  difference  being  a  more  general  rufous  and  vivid  tint  of  plumage 
in  the  Mexican  spedmens.  Almost  every  part  of  the  United  States 
possesses  this  bii^,  and  it  is  found,  according  to  Richardson,  in  all  the 
Fur  Countries  where  the  timber  is  of  laige  size. 

We  have  seen  how  the  civilised  Romans  regarded  the  European 
bird;  and  it  is  curious  to  observe  how,  in  a  comparatively  savage 
state,  the  same  superstitious  feelings  were  connected  with  the  Ameri- 
can species.  *'  The  savages,"  says  Pennant,  quoting  Colden's  '  Six 
Indian  Nations,'  *'  have  their  birds  of  iU-omen  as  well  as  the  Romans. 
They  have  a  most  superstitious  terror  of  the  owl,  which  they  carry  so 
far  as  to  be  highly  displeased  at  any  one  who  mimics  its  hootings." 
LawBon,  evidently  speaking  of  these  birds,  says — **  They  make  a  fear- 
ful hallooing  in  the  ni^^t-time,  like  a  man,  whereby  they  often  make 
strangers  lose  their  way  in  the  woods."  Wilson  thus  describes  the 
haunts  and  habits  of  the  Virginian  Horned-Owl : — ''  His  favourite 
residence  is  in  the  daric  solitudes  of  deep  swamps,  covered  with  a 
growth  of  gigantic  timber ;  and  here,  as  soon  as  the  evening  draws  on, 


BUBO. 


676 


and  mankind  retire  to  rest^  he  sends  forth  such  sounds  as  seem  scarcely 
to  belong  to  this  world.  ....  Along  the  mountain  shores  of  the 
Ohio,  and  amidst  the  deep  forests  of  Indiana,  alone,  and  reposing  in 
the  woods,  this  ghostly  watchman  has  frequently  warned  me  of  the 
approach  of  morning,  and  amused  me  with  lus  mngiilAr  exdamaticnis, 
sometimes  sweeping  down  and  around  my  fire,  uttering  a  loud  and 
sudden  *  Wauffh  0 1  Waugh  O ! '  sufficient  to  have  alarmed  a  whole 
garrison.  He  has  other  nocturnal  solos,  one  of  which  very  strikingly 
resembles  the  half-suppressed  screams  of  a  person  suffocating  or 
throttled."  Wilson  treats  this  visitation  like  a  philosopher,  but,  after 
reading  his  description  and  that  of  Nuttall  {*  Ornithology  of  the  United 
States  |),  we  shall  cease  to  wonder  at  the  well-told  tale  in  the  '  Fauna 
Boreali- Americana,'  of  the  winter  night  of  agony  endured  by  a  party 
of  Scottish  Highlanders,  who,  according  to  Sir  John  Richardson,  had 
made  their  bivouac  in  the  recesses  of  a  Nortii  American  forest,  and 
inadvertently  fed  their  fire  with  a  part  of  an  Indian  tomb  which  had 
been  placed  in  the  seduded  spot  The  startling  notes  of  the  Virginian 
Horned-Owl  broke  upon  their  ear,  and  they  at  once  concluded  that  so 
unearthly  a  voice  must  be  the  moaning  of  the  spirit  of  the  departed, 
whose  repose  they  supposed  they  had  disturbed. 


Virginian  llornccl-Owl  {Bubo  Virglniamu). 

The  following  is  Sir  John  Richaixison's  description  of  the  plumage 
of  a  specimen,  26  inches  in  length  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  end 
of  the  tail,  killed  at  Fort  Chepewvan  : — 

''Bill  and  claws  pale  bluish-black.  Irides  bright  ydlow.  Facial 
circle  of  a  deep  black  immediately  round  the  orbit,  composed  of  white 
mixed  with  black  bristly  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  poste- 
riorly of  yellowish  brown  wiry  feathers,  tipped  with  black,  and  having 
black  shfUTts.  The  black  tips  foim  a  conspicuous  border  to  the  facial 
circle  posteriorly ;  but  tho  small  feathers  behind  the  auditory  opening 
differ  Uttle  in  colour  and  appcHurance  from  the  adjoining  plumage  of 
the  neck.  Egrets  composed  of  ten  or  twelve  da^  brown  feathers, 
spotted  at  the  base  of  their  outer  webs,  and  along  their  whole  inner 
ones,  with  yellowish  brown.  Forehead  and  crown  dark  blackish- 
brown,  finely  mottled  with  grayish-white,  and  partially  exhibiting  the 
yellowish-brown  base  of  the  plumage.  The  whole  dorsal  plumage  is 
yello wish-brown  for  more  than  half  the  length  of  each  feather  from  its 
base,  and  dark  liver-brown  upwards,  finely  barred  and  indented  with 
undulated  white  lines.  More  of  the  yellowish-brown  is  visible  on  the 
neck  and  between  the  shoulders  than  elsewhere.  The  primaries  pre- 
sent six  or  seven  bars  of  dark  umber  or  liver-brown,  alternating  with 
six  bars,  which  on  the  outer  webs  are  brownish-white,  finely  speckled 
with  dark-brown,  and  on  the  inner  webs  are  of  a  bright  buff-colour, 
sparingly  speckled  with  the  dark-brown  near  the  shafte.  Tbe  tips  of 
the  feathers  have  the  same  mottled  appearance  with  the  paler  bars  of 
the  outer  webs.      The  secondaries  and  tail-feathers   are  similariy 


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BUBON. 


BUD. 


878 


marked  to  the  primarieB,  but  show  more  white  on  their  outer  webs. 
There  are  six  liver-brown  bars  on  the  tail,  the  last  of  which  is  nearly 
an  inch  from  its  end.  Under-surface : — Chin  white,  succeeded  by  a 
belt  extending  from  ear  to  ear  of  liver-brown  feathers,  having  pale 
yellowish-brown  margins.  Behind  the  belt  Uiere  is  a  gorget-shaped 
mark  of  pure  white.  The  rest  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  is 
crossed  by  very  regular  transverse  bars  of  white,  alternating  with  bars 
of  equal  breadth  (three  lines)  of  liver-brown,  shaded  with  chocolate- 
brown.  The  yellowish-brown  base  of  the  plumage  is  likewise  partially 
visible :  there  is  a  white  mesial  line  on  the  breast^  and  when  the  long 
feathers  covering  the  abdomen  are  turned  aside,  a  good  deal  of  white 
appears  about  Uie  vent.  The  outside  thigh-feathers  are  yellowish- 
bx>wn,  with  distant  cross  bars  of  liver-brown ;  and  the  legs  and  feet 
are  brownish-white  with  brown  spots.  The  linings  of  the  wings  are 
white,  with  bars  of  liver-brown,  mai^ned  by  yellowish-brown.  The 
insides  of  the  primaries'are  bright  buff,  crossed  by  broad  bars  of  clove- 
brown.  On  the  under  surface-  of  the  secondaries  the  clove-brown  bars 
are  much  narrower.  The  under  tail-coverts  are  whitish,  with  distant 
bars  of  liver-brown.  The  under  siuf ace  of  the  tail  has  a  slight  tinge 
of  bufT-colour,  and  is  croased  by  mottled  bars  of  clove-brown." 

The  bird  preys,  according  to  Richajxlson,  on  the  American  hare, 
Hudson's  Bay  squirrel,  mice,  wood-grouse,  &c.,  and  builds  its  nest  of 
sticks  on  the  top  of  a  lofty  tree,  hatching  in  March.  The  young,  two 
or  three  in  number,  are  generally  fully  fledged  in  June.  The  eggs  are 
white. 

WUson  observes  that  it  has  been  known  to  prowl  about  the  farm- 
house and  cany  off  chickens  from  roost.  **  A  very  Luge  one,"  says 
that  author,  "  wing-broken,  while  on  a  foraging  excursion  of  this  kind, 
was  kept  about  the  house  for  several  days,  and  at  length  disappeared, 
no  one  knew  how.  Almost  every  day  after  this,  hens  and  chickens 
also  disappeared,  one  by  one,  in  an  unaccountable  manner,  till  in  eight 
or  ten  days  veiy  few  were  left  remaining.  The  fox,  the  minx,  and 
weasel  were  alternately  the  reputed  authors  of  this  mischief,  until  one 
morning  the  old  lady  herself  riarog  before  day  to  bake,  in  passing 
towards  the  oven  surpiised  her  late  prisoner  regaling  himself  on  the 
body  of  a  newly-killed  hen  !  The  thief  instantly  made  for  his  hole 
under  the  house,  from  which  the  enraged  matron  soon  dislodged  him 
with  the  brush-handlo,  and  without  mercy  dispatched  him.  In  this 
snug  retreat  were  found  the  greater  part  of  the  feathers,  and  many 
large  fr-agments  of  her  whole  family  of  chickens." 

There  are  specimens  in  the  Gkurdens  of  the  Zoological  Society  in  the 
Regent's  Park. 

BUBON.    [Galbakum.] 

BUCCINUm,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  Molluscous  animals,  to  which 
the  common  Whelk  belongs.  Forbes  and  Hanley  place  it  amongst 
the  Proaobranchiate  Oasieropodaf  and  the  tribe  MwieidcB,  The  fol- 
lowing are  its  characters : — Shell  ovate,  more  or  less  ventrioose, 
tuireted ;  surface  smooth  or  spirally  striated,  spirally  grooved  or  lon- 
gitudinally plicated,  invested  with  an  epidermis.  Aperture  ovate, 
emaiginate,  or  vezy  iJiortly  canalicula,ted  below ;  canal  wide,  truncated 
doraaSly,  more  or  less  tumid ;  columella  smooth,  inner  lip  expanded, 
outer  lip  usually  thin  and  smooth  within.  Operculum  corneous, 
oblong,  its  nucleus  lateral.  Animal  bulky ;  head  broad,  depressed, 
bearing  two  somewhat  flattened  tentaoula  set  well  aparty  their  tips 
subulate,  their  bases  thickened  for  half  their  lengths  oy  the  connate 
sustentacula,  which  bear  the  rather  small  eyes;  proboscis  ample; 
tongue  armed  with  teeth,  ranged  three  in  a  row,  the  axil  one  broad 
and  quadrate,  with  many  orenaitions,  th6  laterals  scythe-shaped,  with 
denticulated  bases.    Male  oigan  very  large,  sickle-shaped. 

Messrs.  Forbes  and  Hanley  say — "  We  retain  the  old  name  Bueciwwn 
oxiginally  applied  to  whelks  in  general,  for  that  group  of  shells  of' 
which  the  common  Bucdnum  ufukUwm  may  be  reguxlea  as  the  type. 
They  constitute  a  very  natural  assemblage,  though  one  of  no  great 
extent^  and  are  mainly  inhabitants  of  the  boreal  and  arctic  regions  of 
both  northern  and  southern  hemispheres.  The  relation  of  the  distri- 
bution of  this  form  of  mollusk  to  climate  is  strikingly  shown  when  we 
compare  such  a  shell  as  the  Bueeinwn  cycmeum  of  Greenland  with  the 
Buecinum  antarcticum  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  one  of  the  most  striking 
instances  that  can  be  cited  of  the  representation  of  species  by  similar 
species  in  regions  far  apart,  but  subject  to  similar  physical  conditions. 

"Several  zoologists  have  of  late  united  the  Buecinum  undcUum  and 
its  allies  with  Ftaut  antiqmu  and  similar  shells,  under  the  old  generic 
name  of  TrUoniwn,  originally  proposed  bv  Otho  Frederic  Miiller. 
Independent  of  tho  very  serious  objection  wliich  applied  to  this  name 
on  aocoixt  of  its  having  become  obsolete,  whilst  the  too  similar  word 
Triton  and  even  Tritonium  itself  were  used  in  the  meantime  for  a  very 
different  assemblage  of  Mwicidce,  and  one  presenting  good  natural 
marks  of  distinction,  we  are  inclined  still,  provisionaJly  at  leasts  to 
keep  up  the  distinction  between  the  Ftui  of  the  north  and  Buccinvm, 
since  shell,  animal,  and  operculum  present  marks  of  distinction,  which, 
though  in  the  end  they  may  prove  to  be  of  no  more  than  sectional 
value,  yet  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  deserve  to  be  con- 
sidered of  importanca  Unfortunately,  ihe  name  Bttceinvm  has  even 
of  very  late  years  been  applied  to  such  a  heterogeneous  assemblage  of 
sheila,  that  it  is  difficult  to  disentangle*  those  to  which  we  restrict  the 
names  from  a  number  of  very  different  forms  having  no  true  generic 
»ffiiMtv  with  them. 

''These  Mollusks  appear  to  have  commenced  their  existence  during 


the  later  Tertiary  epoch.  At  present  they  have  the  power  of  enduring 
very  variable  conditions  of  depth  and  locality,  though  the  geographic 
range  of  the  group  is  limited,  nowever  widely  may  extend  the  areas  of 
some  species.'' 

B.  wndaiwnti  (Linnsdus),  the  common  Whelk.  It  has  more  or  less 
coarse  spiral  striae,  and  usually  with  broad  longitudinal  folds;  the 
beak  short  Forbes  and  Hanley,  amongst  other  synonyms  for  this  vexy 
widely  distributed  species,  give  the  following : — B.  ttriatum.  Pennant ; 
B.  canalicviUUum  vulgare, IHt  Costa;  B.  Borinanwm,  Chemnitz ;  B.  cari- 
naituii,  Turton ;  B.  <iewminatwn,  Broderip ;  B.  Anglicawum,  Fleming ; 
B.  Ldbradarefue,  Reeve ;  B.  imperiaU,  Reeve ;  B,  pyramiddle,  Reeve ; 
B,  tenerum  (fossil),  Sowerby ;  Triionum  wniUUum,  Miiller ;  T,  Hum' 
phreysiamim,  Loven ;  Mwrtx  undaiuB,  Clark.  As  would  be  supposed 
frt>m  these  synonyms,  the  Whelk  is  one  of  the  most  variable  of  shells. 
It  is  also  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed.  It  is  found  on  almost 
every  British  shore,  varying  greatly  however  in  its  characters  according 
to  its  locality.  In  most  p^s  of  the  coimtiy  it  is  used  as  an  artide  of 
diet.  Qreat  numbers  are  to  be  seen  exposed  for  sale  in  London. 
The  process  of  cooking  consists  in  simply  boiling,  and  they  are  eaten 
with  vinegar  and  popper.  They  are  not  however  very  digestible. 
Dr.  Johnston  mentions  that  at  the  enthronisation  feast  of  William 
Warham,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  1504,  no  fewer  than  8000 
Whelks  were  supplied  at  five  shillings  for  a  thousand. 

''This  species,"  say  the  authors  of  the  'British  Mollusca,'  "first 
appeared  in  the  British  seas  during  the  age  of  the  coralline  crag,  and 
persisted  through  all  succeeding  epochs,  becoming  more  and  more 
abundant.  It  is  found  from  Tow-water  mark  to  as  deep  as  one 
hundred  fathoms.  It  has  a  wide  latitudinal  range,  now  extending 
throughout  the  Celtic,  Boreal,  and  Icy  Seas,  and  along  the  coast  of 
Boreal  America  from  Cape  Cod  to  Greenland.  According  to  Midden- 
dorff  it  finds  its  way  through  the  Siberian  seas  into  the  Sea  of  Ochotsk. 
This  great  range  in  time  and  space  accords  with  its  capacity  for 
variation  and  adaptation  to  circumstances.  During  the  Pleistocene 
epoch  it  had  found  its  way  into  the  Mediterranean,  and  occurs  fossil 
in  the  Sicilian  newer  Pliocene  beds,  but  is  now  extinct  in  that  region." 

B,  Dalei  (Sowerby)  has  a  polished  white  shell  without  folds ;  the 
body  half  as  long  as  the  spine.  It  is  the  Halia  Flemingiana  of  Mac- 
gillivray,  the  Tritonium  ovum  of  Middendorff  The  animal  belonging 
to  this  shell  is  unknown.  Messrs.  Forbes  and  Hanley  regard  this 
shell  as  British,  though  exceedingly  rare.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Icy  Seas,  and  ranges  from  Greenland  to  Behring^s  Strait. 

B.  Mumphreysianum  (Bennett).  This  species  is  faintly  variegated, 
almost  smooth,  without  folds,  the  body  longer  than  the  spine.  The 
animal  is  imknown,  and  the  shell  is  rare.  It  has  been  found  on  the 
British  coasts,  but  like  the  last  it  appears  to  be  an  arctic  species 
lingering  in  our  Fauna. 

B.  fueiforme  (Broderip)  has  an  oblon^^  subfusiform  shape,  is  of  a 
pure  white,  decussated  by  narrow  longitudinal  ribs  and  spiral  costellsd ; 
the  beak  rather  long,  recurved.  It  has  been  found  in  Ireland  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Cork  and  off  the  coast  of  Wexford.  It  is  a  ver^ 
rare  shelL 

BUCCO.    [Barbetb.] 

BUCEROS.    [HoBKBiLL.] 

BUCHOLZITE,  a  mineral  closely  allied  to  SiUimanite.  According 
to  Thomson  it  is  composed  of — 

SiUca .        46'4 

Alumina .        52'9 

A  specimen  from  Chester,  Pennsylvania,  gave  Erdmann — 

SiUca 401 

Alumina 58*9 

Protoxide  of  Manganese     .        .        .        .     (a  trace) 
It  is  found  at  Fassa,  in  the  Tyrol,  and  in  several  districts  in  the 
United  States. 

BUCIDA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Comhre- 
tcbcecs.  One  of  the  species,  B.  Bucerat,  yields  a  bark  which  is  used  in 
tanning. 

BUCK.    [Cervida] 

BUCK-BEAN.     [Mentanthes.] 

BUCK'S-HORN.    pHua.] 

BUCK-THORN.    [Rhamkus.] 

BUCK-WHEAT.     [Faoopyrum.] 

BUCKLANDIA,  a  fossil  plant  fr^m  the  Stonesfield  Oolite,  sup- 
posed to  belong  to  the  natural  order  LUiacecB. 

BUCKLANDITE,  a  mineral  containing  silica,  alumina,  lime, 
protoxide  of  iron,  protoxide  of  manganese,  and  water.  It  is  a  variety 
of  Epidote,  with  iron.     [Epidotb.] 

BUCKU.    [DiosMA.] 

BUD,  or  LEAF-BUD,  in  Vegetable  Physiology,  is  the  oiganised 
rudiment  of  a  branch.  Whatever  becomes  a  branch  is,  when  first 
oiganised,  a  bud;  but  it  does  not  therefore  follow  that  all  buds 
become  branches ;  on  the  contrary,  owing  to  many  disturbing  causes, 
buds  are  subject  to  transformations  and  deformities  which  mask 
their  real  nature. 

A  Leaf-Bud  is  constructed  thus: — In  its  centre  it  consists  of  a 
minute  conical  portion  of  delicate  cellular  tissue,  and  over  the  surface 
of  this  are  arranged  rudimontaty  leaves,  in  the  form  of  scales.  These 
scales  are  closelv  applied  to  each  other ;  those  on  the  outside  are  the 
largest  and  thickest,  and  the  most  interior  are  the  smallest  and  most 


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BUDDLEA. 


BUFOKITES. 


680 


delicate.  In  oold  countries  the  external  scalefl  are  often  covered  with 
hair,  or  a  resinous  yamish,  or  some  other  contrivance,  which  enaUes 
them  to  prevent  the  access  of  frost  to  the  young  and  tender  centre 
which  they  protect ;  but  in  warm  countries,  where  such  a  provision  is 
not  required,  they  are  green  and  smooth  and  much  less  numerous. 
The  cellular  centre  of  a  bud  is  the  seat  of  its  vital  activity ;  the  scales 
that  cover  it  are  the  parts  towards  the  development  of  which  its 
vital  eneigies  are  first  directed. 

A  Leaf-Bud  usually  originates  in  the  axil  of  a  leaf;  indeed  there 
are  no  leaves  in  the  axil  of  which  one  or  more  buds  are  not  found 
either  in  a  rudimentary  or  a  perfect  state.  Its  cellular  centre  com- 
municates witii  that  of  the  woody  centre  of  the  stem,  and  its  scales 
are  in  connection  with  the  bark  of  the  latter.  When  stems  have  the 
structure  of  Exogens,  the  bud  terminates  one  of  the  medullary 
processes;  in  Endogens  it  is  simply  in  communication  with  the 
cellular  matter  that  lies  between  the  bimdles  of  woody  tissue  in  such 
stems.  It  is  moreover  important  to  observe  that  this  is  true  not 
onlj  of  what  are  called  normal  buds,  that  is  to  say,  of  buds  which 
originate  in  the  axil  of  the  leafy  oigans,  but  also  of  adventitious  buds, 
or  such  AS  are  occasionally  developed  in  unusual  situations.  It  would 
seem  as  if,  under  favourable  circumstances,  buds  may  be  formed 
wherever  the  cellular  tissue  is  present ;  for  they  occur  not  only  at 
the  end  of  the  medullary  processes  of  the  root  and  stem  of  Exogens» 
but  on  the  margins  of  leaves,  as  in  Bryophyllum,  Malaxii  p€U'udo8a, 
and  many  others ;  and  occasionally  on  the  surfieM^e  of  leaves,  as  in  the 
case  of  an  Omithogalvm  published  by  Turpin,  and  not  very  uncom- 
monly in  ferns. 

A  Leaf -Bud  has  three  special  properties,  those  of  growth,  attraction, 
and  propagation.  In  warm  damp  weather,  under  the  influence  of 
light,  it  has  the  power  of  increasing  in  size,  of  developing  new  parts,, 
and  so  of  growing  into  whatever  body  it  may  be  eventucdly  destined 
for.  In  effecting  this  it  lengthens  by  the  addition  of  new  matter  to 
its  cellular  extremity,  and  it  increases  in  diameter  partly  by  a  lateral 
addition  to  the  same  kind  of  tissue,  and  partly  by  the  deposit  of 
woody  matter  emanating  from  the  bases  of  the  scales  or  leaves  which 
clothe  it.  As  soon  as  growth  commences  the  sap  which  a  bud  con- 
tains is  either  expended  in  fonmng  new  tissue  or  lost  by  evaporation. 
In  order  to  provide  for  such  loss  the  bud  attracts  the  sap  from  that 
part  of  the  stem  with  which  it  is  in  communication ;  that  part  so 
acted  upon  attracts  sap  in  its  turn  from  the  tissue  next  it,  and  so  a 
general  movement  towards  the  buds  is  established  as  far  as  the  roots, 
by  which  fresh  sap  is  absorbed  from  the  soiL  Thus  is  caused  the 
phenomenon  of  the  flow  of  the  sap.  Eveiy  leaf-bud  is  in  itself  a 
complete  body,  consisting  of  a  vital  centre  covered  by  nutritive  oigans 
or  hairs.  Although  it  is  \isually  called  into  life  while  attached  to  its 
parent  plant,  yet  it  is  capable  of  growing  as  a  separate  portion,  and  of 
producing  a  new  individual  in  all  respects  the  same  as  that  from 
which  it  was  divided ;  hence  it  is  a  propagating  oigan  as  much  as  a 
seed,  although  not  of  the  same  kind ;  and  advantage  has  been  taken 
of  this  for  horticultural  purposes.    [Budding,  in  Arts  awd  So.  Div.] 

In  general  a  bud  is  developed  into  a  branch,  but  that  power  is  inter- 
fered with  or  destroyed  by  several  causes.  This  must  be  evident  from 
the  following  consideration  independently  of  all  others.  Every  one 
knows  that  leaves  are  arranged  with  great  symmetry  upon  young 
branches ;  as  buds  are  axillary  to  leaves,  the  branches  they  produce 
ought  therefore  to  be  as  synunetrically  arranged  as  leaves ;  and  this 
we  see  does  not  happen.  We  may  accoimt  for  this  in  two  or  three 
ways  :  accidental  injuries  will  doubtless  destroy  some ;  from  want  of 
light  others  will  never  be  called  into  action ;  and  of  those  which  are 
originally  excited  to  growth  a  part  is  sJways  destroyed  by  the  superior 
▼Igour  (^neighbouring  buds,  which  attract  away  their  food  and  starve 
them.  There  is  moreover  in  many  plants  a  special  tendency  to  pro- 
duce their  leaf-buds  in  a  stunted  or  altered  state.  In  fir-trees  the  side- 
buds  push  forth  only  two  or  a  small  number  of  leaves,  and  never 
lengthen  at  all ;  in  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon  they  lengthen  a  little,  bear 
a  cluster  of  leaves  at  their  points,  and  resemble  short  spurs ;  in  the 
sloe,  the  whitethorn,  and  many  other  plants,  they  lengthen  more, 
produce  no  leaves  except  at  their  very  base,  and  grow  into  hard 
sharp-pointed  epines.  The  knobs  seen  on  beech  and  other  trees,  which 
have  been  <»lled  by  Dutrochet  embryo-buds  and  by  Dr.  Lankester 
abortive  branches,  take  their  origin  in  buds  which  are  not  normally 
developed.  The  bulbiUi  which  are  found  in  the  axils  of  many  Lilia- 
ceous plants  originate  in  the  bud.  Bulbs  ai'e  nothing  but  leaf-buds 
with  unusually  fleshy  scales,  and  with  the  power  of  separating  spon- 
taneously from  the  mother-plant ;  and  flower-buds  are  theoretically 
little  more  than  leaf-buds  wiUiout  the  power  of  lengthening,  but  with 
the  oigans  that  cover  them  in  a  special  state.  Hence  flowers  are 
modified  branches.  [Flower.]  Scbleiden  regards  the  ovule  as  a 
changed  bud;  hence  m  his  'Principles  of  Scientific  Botany'  he  calls 
this  oigan  the  seed-bud.    [Ovule.] 

BUDDLEA,  a  genus  of  plants  named  after  Adam  Buddie,  a  botanist 
of  the  time  of  Ray,  who  contributed  to  Ray's  *  Synopsis,'  and  whose 
Herbarium  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  BuddUa  belongs  to  the 
natural  order  Scrophvlanactas,  It  has  a  campanulate  5-toothed  calyx ; 
tubular  corolla  with  the  limb  4-5-cleft,  equal,  spreading ;  4-5  stamens 
nearly  equal,  indosed,  the  anthers  composed  of  two  parallel  distinct 
cells;  the  stigma  clavate,  2-lobed;  the  capsule  crustaceous  with  a 
dissepiment  fonned  from  the  uiflexed  edges  of  the  valves,  inserted  in 


the  thick  spongy  placenta ;  the  seeds  angular ;  testa  loose,  membra- 
nous ;  albumen  flc»hy.  The  species  are  shrubs,  with  mostly  quad- 
rangular branches^  opposite  leaves;  terminal,  capitate,  spicate  or 
panicled,  usually  orange-coloured  flowers. 

B.  globoaa  has  branches  clothed  with  hairy  tomentum  as  well  as  the 
under  sides  of  the  leaves ;  the  leaves  lanceolate,  acuminate,  petiolate, 
crenate ;  the  heads  terminal,  globose,  pedunculate.  This  plant,  now 
so  common  in  our  gardens,  is  a  native  of  ChilL 

B.  AmericoTM  has  brandilets  clothed  with  haiiy  tomentum ;  leaven 
ovate,  acuminate,  narrow  at  the  base,  crenate,  rather  pilose  above,  but 
clothed  with  a  yellowish  tomentum  beneath ;  spike  panicled;  flowers 
glomerate..  It  is  a  native  of  the  mountains  of  Peru  and  also  of  the 
West  Indies.  Browne  says  that  it  is  used  in  Jamaica  as  an  emollient 
Its  properties  however  are  not  active. 

There  are  about  60  species  of  BuddUn,  all  of  which  are  worth  cul- 
tivating on  account  of  their  showy  blossoms.  B.  Neemda,  a  native  of 
the  peninsula  of  India,  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  beautiful  pknts 
of  that  country.  B.  globota  will  bear,  with  a  little  care,  our  winters 
as  well  as  the  B,  tdltnfoUa.  All  the  flowers  are  sweet-scented.  They 
grow  best  in  a  light  rich  soil  Cuttings  will  strike  readily  in  mould 
imder  a  hand-glass.    Those  of  the  stove  species  require  heat. 

(Loudon,  BncyUtpoidia  o/HanU;  Q.  Don,  Qard^^B  Dictionary.) 

BUFFALO.    [BoviDAj 

BUFFALO,  AMERICAN.  \Biaoy.] 

BUFFO'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  named  in  honour  of  Buffon,  the 
celebrated  French  writer  on  natural  history.  This  genus  belongs  to 
the  natural  order  CaryopkyUacece  and  the  sub-order  AlsinetB.  The 
calyx  has  i  sepals;  the  petals  are  4,  entire;  stamens  4;  styles  2; 
capsules  compressed,  1 -celled,  2-yalved,  2-seeded.  The  species  are 
insignificant  slender  herbs,  resembling  the  species  of  Armaria. 
B.  annua  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  France,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
found  in  England  on  the  searcoast  of  Lincolnshire. 

BUFO,  a  genus  of  Reptiles  belonging  to  the  family  Bufonida,  and 
to  which  the  Common  Toad  belongs.  The  genus  is  thus  character 
used  : — ^Body  inflated ;  skin  warty ;  parotids  porous ;  hind  feet  of 
moderate  length,  toes  not  webbed ;  jaws  without  teeth ;  nose  rounded 
About  20  species  of  this  genus  have  been  enumerated  by  naturalists. 
Two  of  them  are  found  in  the  British  Islands. 

B.  vidgariSf  the  Common  Toad,  is  the  Bona  Bvfo  of  Linnsus,  the 
Crapaud  Commun  of  the  French.  Its  body  is  of  a  lurid  brownish- 
gray  colour,  spotted  over  with  reddish-brown  tubercles  :  the  body  ib 
much  inflated.  The  Toad  is  veiy  generally  distributed  over  the 
British  Islands,  and  from  its  dark  colour,  slow  movements,  and  iinpre- 
poeseasing  form,  has  acquired  very  general  dislike.  It  is  however 
perfectly  harmless,  and  seems  to  possess  an  amount  of  intelligence 
that  renders  it  capable  of  recognising  those  who  treat  it  kindly.  Mr. 
Bell  in  his  '  British  Reptiles '  says  : — ''  Th&t  toads  may  be  rendered 
very  tame,  and  be  made  to  distinguish  those  who  feed  and  are  kind 
to  them,  there  are  abundant  facts  to  testify.  I  have  possessed  a  very 
large  one  which  would  sit  on  one  of  my  hands  and  eat  from  the  other ; 
and  the  stoiy  of  Mr.  Arscott's  toad  in  Devonshire,  related  in  Pen- 
nant's '  BritiuL  Zoology,'  is  too  well  known  to  need  repetition."  That 
they  may  be  handled  with  impunity,  and  are  incapable  of  producing 
any  injurious  influence,  we  know  from  having  repeatedly  seen  them 
made  the  domestic  pets  of  the  children  of  a  naturalist 

Bn  ccUamitaf  Natter-Jack,  Walking  Toad,  Running  Toad;  Bufo 
Rubtta  of  Fleming,  Bufo  mephiiica  of  Shaw,  Bona  Bt/^ta  of  Tiuton. 
It  is  known  by  its  light  yellowish-brown  colour  clouded  with  dull 
olive,  but  more  especially  by  a  bright  yellow  line  along  the  middle  of 
the  back.  It  has  acquired  its  name  of  Walking  Toad  or  Running 
Toad  in  certain  parts,  from  its  never  hopping,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  common  toad  and  frog.  Its  colour  varies  very  much  according 
to  circumstances,  becoming  lighter  or  darker  in  the  course  of  a  few 
minutes. 

Pennant  was  the  first  to  record  this  animal  as  British,  and  although 
very  locally  distributed  it  occiuv  in  great  numbers  in  some  parts  of  Great 
Britain.  Mr.  Bell  says  it  is  common  on  Blackheath  and  at  Deptford.  It 
has  also  been  found  on  Putney  Common,  at  GkunUnga^  in  cSunbridge- 
shire,  at  Selboume  in  Hampshire,  and  Bawdsey  in  Sufiblk.  It  has  also 
been  found  in  Scotland.  The  form  and  appearance  of  this  animal  is 
less  repulsive  than  the  Conmion  Toad.  It  is  more  social,  and  is  gene- 
rally found  in  communities.  At  Bawdsey  they  are  found  on  the  Red 
Crag  clifBs  oveilooking  the  sea,  and  when  alarmed  hide  themselves  in 
holes  in  the  sand  which  they  make  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  con* 
cealment.  The  Natter-Jack  appears  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  Ireland. 
Mr.  Patterson  in  his  'Zoology  for  Schools'  says: — "The  Common 
Toad  is  there  unknown,  its  absence  being  accounted  for,  according  to 
popular  tradition  and  song,  by  the  malediction  of  St.  PatricL  The 
smaller  species,  the  Natter-Jack,  does  not  appear  however  to  have 
been  banished  with  the  rest  of  '  the  vanning'  as  it  is  found  in  three 
or  four  localities  in  the  County  Kerry  and  at  Ross  Bay,  Counlgr 
Cork." 

For  an  account  of  the  general  structure,  habits,  and  classification 
of  the  family  of  Toads,  see  Amphibia. 

BUFONITES,  the  term  commonly  applied,  previously  to  the 
investigations  of  M.  Agassiz,  to  the  roundiidi  teeth  of  fishes  frequent 
in  the  Oolitic  Strata.  They  belong  to  the  genera  Sphc^rodutf  GyroiiM, 
Pycnodut,  &c. 


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Bua 


BULlHUa 


BUG,  one  of  a  ntunerous  tribe  of  Insects  which  constitute  the  order 
IlanipUrOf  belonging  to  the  family  CimicidcB  (Leaoh),  and  genus 
CHmcx,    The  most  common  species  is  the  0.  lectuarwUf  the  Bed-Bug. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  Bed-Bug  was  not  known  in  England 
previous  to  the  great  fire  of  London  in  1666,  and  that  it  was  first 
imported  from  America  in  the  timber  brought  over  to  rebuild  that 
ci^.  Of  the  accuracy  of  this  statement  however  there  is  considerable 
doubt  It  appears  to  have  been  well  known  in  various  parts  of 
Europe  long  before  thai  time.  Its  shape,  colour,  and  the  offensive 
smell  which  it  emits  when  touched,  together  with  the  circumstance 
of  its  deriving  its  nutriment  from  blood  sucked  through  a  long  pointed 
proboscis,  which  when  not  in  use  lies  panHel  with  the  underside  of  the 
body,  are  circumstances  toa  well  known  to  need  particular  description. 
The  female  Bug  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  beginning  of  summer ;  they 
are  of  a  tolerable  size  compared  with  that  of  the  insect,  of  a  whitish 
colour,  and  each  fixed  to  a  small  hair-like  stalk,  which  when  the  egg 
is  first  deposited  is  apparently  of  a  glutinous  nature,  and  readily 
adheres  to  anything  which  it  touches.  The  places  generally  chosen 
m  which  to  deposit  the  eggs  are  the  crevices  of  bedsteads  and  other 
ftuniture,  or  the  walls  of  a  room.  In  about  three  weeks  it  is  said 
these  eggs  hatch,  and  the  young  bug  comes  forth— an  active  larva^  very 
closely  resembling  the  parent  insect  except  in  size.  The  larva  then 
undergoes  the  usual  transformation^  and  becomes  a  perfect  insect  in 
about  three  months. 

What  was  the  natural  habitat  of  this  insect>  which  differs  from 
most  of  its  tribe  in  having  no  wings,  is  difficult  to  sav.  The  species 
of  bugs  which  come  nearest  to  it  in  affinity  are  generally  found  under 
the  Vark  of  trees,  a  habitat  which  the  flat  form  of  our  insect  is  well 
adapted  for.  Pigeons,  swallows,  &c,  are  attacked  by  bugs  as  well  as 
man.  Various  means  have  been  proposed  for  destroying  these  insects, 
but  cleanlinesB  is  the  best.    [Cimioidjs.] 

BUGLOSa    [AncHUSA.] 

BUGLOSS  VIPERS.    [EcHiuii.] 

BUHRSTONE  is  a  quartz  rock  containing  cellulea  It  is  as  hard 
and  as  finn  as  a  quartz  crystal,  and  owes  its  peculiar  value  to  this 
quality,  and  the  cellules,  which  give  it  a  very  rough  surface.  Stones 
for  grinding  wheat  and  other  kinds  of  grain  are  formed  of  this  rock, 
and  those  which  are  most  valued  have  the  cavities  about  equal  in 
space  to  the  solid  parK  The  best  stones  for  this  purpose  come 
from  France,  and  are  obtained  from  the  Paris  basin  and  adjoining 
districts.  When  used  for  grindhig,  the  stones  are  out  into  wedge- 
shaped  parallelopipeds,  which  are  called  panes.  These  are  bound 
together  by  iron-hoops  into  millstones.  The  Paris  Buhrstone  is  a 
Tertiary  Formation.  A  Buhrstone  is  obtained  in  Ohio  in  America 
which  is  in  part  a  true  sandstone,  and  contains  fossils.  It  also  con- 
tains lime,  and  Mr.  Dana  suggests  that  the  removal  of  tiie  lime  by 
solution  may  have  given  it  its  cellular  character.  It  oyerlies  the  Coal 
Formation,  and  has  an  open  cellular  structure  where  quarried  for 
millstones.  The  quartz  rock  of  Washington  in  the  United  States  is 
in  some  parts  cellular,  and  miUces  good  mill8tone&  Buhrstone  also 
occurs  in  Georgia  near  the  Carolina  line,  and  in  Arkansas  near  the 
Cove  of  Wichitta.     (Dana,  Manual  of  Minercdogy.) 

BUKKUM-WOOD.    [C^alpinia.] 

BULB,  a  bud,  usually  formed  under  ground,  having  very  fleshy 
scales,  and  capable  of  separating  from  its  pai-ent  plant.  Occasion- 
allv  it  is  produced  upon  the  stem,  as  in  some  lilies,  when  it  is  called  a 
bolUIlus.  [Bud.]  Sometimes  the  scales  are  thick  and  narrow,  and 
arranged  separately  in  rows ;  the  bulb  is  then  called  scaly,  as  in  the  lily. 
In  the  onion  and  leek  the  scales  are  broad  and  membranous,  and  inclose 
each  other  in  a  concentric  manner ;  the  bulb  is  then  said  to  be  tunicated. 

BULIliULUS,  Leach's  name  for  a  genua  of  terrestrial  MoUusca, 
which  he  thus  defines : — Shell  univalve,  free,  conically  acuminated ; 
spire  elevated,  regular;  the  last  whorl  veiy  large;  mouth  entire, 
long;  pillar  smoo&,  simple ;  external  lip  thm ;  internal  lip  inflected 
towaitu  the  middle,  wil^  a  hollow  beneath.  To  this  generic  character 
the  Rev.  Lansdown  Guilding  observes  that  there  should  be  the  follow- 
ing  addition :  "  Tentacula  4,  the  two  upper  ones 
long,  with  terminal  eyes :  no  operculum."  The 
last-named  author  onserves  that  it  differs  from 
BwUfMu  in  the  delicacy  of  its  outer  lip.  It  is 
indeed  a  Bvlimtu  of  Lamarok.  The  shell  varies 
much  in  colour.    [Buumtjs.] 

Leach    observes   that  Bulimulut   trifcuciatus 
{BuUmut  Chtadalivpeniii,  Brug.),  a  very  common 
existing  West  Indian  species,  occurs  imbedded  Bulimuim  trifateiatut, 
in  the  same  limestone  which  incloses  the  fossil 
hiunan  skeleton  from  the  Grande  Terre  of  Guadaloupe,  now  in  the 
British  Museumu 

BULI^MUS,  the  name  of  a  very  extensive  genus  of  terrestrial  Pul- 
moniferoua  MoUumco.  Lamarck  arranges  it  under  his  Colimao^,  a 
family  of  Phytophagous  or  Plant-Eating  Trachelipods,  respiring  air  by 
means  of  lungs,  and  protected  by  a  spiral  shell  which  is  more  or  less 
elongated,  oval,  oblong,  or  turriculated,  with  an  entire  aperture  longer 
than  it  is  wide,  and  with  a  very  unequal  border,  which  is  reflected  in 
the  adult.  The  columella  is  smooth,  without  any  notch  or  truncation 
ftt  the  base,  but  with  an  inflexion  in  the  middle  at  its  point  of  junction 
with  that  part  of  the  peristome  which  it  contributes  to  fonn.  De 
BUinville  places  it  undet  the  Limacinect,  his  third  family  of  PiUmo' 


hould  be  the  follow- 


hranehiataf  whose  organs  of  respiration  are  retiform,  and  line  the  cavity 
situated  obliquely  from  left  to  right  upon  the  origin  of  the  back  of 
the  animal,  conununioating  with  the  ambient  air  by  means  of  a  small 
rounded  orifice  in  the  right  side  of  the  border  of  the  mantle.  Some 
of  the  species  were  placed  by  Linnssus  xmder  his  genera  Bulla  and 
Hdix.  Soopoli  and  Brugui^res  began  the  reform,  and  Lamarck  car- 
ried it  still  further.  But  before  -We  proceed,  it  mav  be  necessary  to 
saya  word  as  to  the  origin  of  the  term  used  to  designate  the  genus. 
"  We  constantly  hear,"  says  Broderip,  in  the  4th  volume  of  the  '  Zoo- 
logical Journal,'  "among  concholog^sts  the  question,  'what  is  the 
meaning  of  Bulimus  f '  The  author  of  the  article  entitled  *  Lamarck's 
Genera  of  Shells,'  in  the  15th  volume  of  the  'Journal  of  Science,'  thus 
derives  the  word  '  fioh\i/AOf — ^insatiable  hunger :  what  title  this  genus 
has  to  so  strange  a  name  we  know  not.'  It  mav  not  then  be  unac- 
ceptable to  give  a  plain  statement  of  the  origin  of  the  word.  Swainaon 
observes  (*  Zool.  Illust,'  voL  L,  '  BtUimtu  MeUutofMU*)  that  "  the  genus 
Bulimue  was  long  ago  formed  by  Scopoli,  out  of  the  heterogeneous 
mixture  of  shells  thrown  together  in  the  Linnsean  genus  Mdix."  Let 
us  now  turn  to  Scopoli's  account  of  the  source  whence  he  derived  the 
nam&  ''Proprium,"  says  Scopoli,  "itaque  ex  his  constituo,  et  duce 
celeberrimo  Adansonio  Bulimos  vooo,  ut  eo  facilius  adgnoscantur. 
Sohun  testam  nee  animal  inhabitans  vidi,  quod  diversum  esse  It  Limace 
affirmat  Adansonius."  ('  Delicite,'  kc,  p.  67.)  Now  Adanson  has  no 
such  genus  as  Bulimus,  but  he  has  such  a  genus  as  Bulinus.  At 
plate  1,  fig.  G  2,  in  his  *  Natural  History  of  Senegal,'  will  be  found 
<Le  Bulin,  Bulinus,'  but  the  letters  'n  and  'u'  are  so  confusedly 
engraven,  that  at  first  sight  the  word  looks  like  Bulimus.  In  the  text 
(p.  5),  the  word  is  printed  Bulinus  very  plainly ;  but  neither  Scopoli 
nor  any  of  his  successors  appear  to  have  noticed  it.  Till  the  time  of 
Lamarck,  who  confined  the  genus  (still  calling  it  Bulimus,  after  Sco- 
poli and  Brugui^res)  to  the  land-shells  with  a  reflected  lip,  which  now 
range  under  it,  many  land  and  fresh-water  shells  which  have  not  a 
reflected  lip,  such  as  AchixtincB,  Physae,  JAmncscB,  and  SttecinecB,  were 
also  congregated  under  the  name  of  Bulimus.  The  Bulinus  of  Adan- 
son was  a  fresh-water  shell,  apparently  a  Physa  or  Limntea," 

The  shell  is  never  orbicular,  as  in  the  Hdicea,  but  of  the  shape 
noticed  at  the  commencement  of  the  article.  The  last  whorl  is  always 
larger  than  the  penultimate,  and  indeed  as  a  general  rule  may  be  stated 
to  be  larger  than  all  the  others  put  together.  The  mouth  or  opening 
is  an  oval  oblong,  and  the  border  is  disunited.  The  adult  reflected 
lip  or  border  on  tiie  right  side  is  generally  very  thick,  but  this  reflec- 
tion is  sometimes  absent  The  animal  is  v«ry  like  that  of  Mdix  ;  De 
BlainviUe  says  entirely  so — "toute-Wait  semblable."  The  head  is 
furnished  with  four  tentacula  or  horns,  the  two  largest  of  which  are 
terminated  by  the  so-called  eyes.  There  is  no  true  operculum.  The 
geographical  distribution  of  the  genus  is  very  general,  and  there  is 
scarcely  a  part  of  the  world  where  the  form  does  not  occur.  The  great 
development  of  it  takes  place  in  the  warmer  climates,  where  some  of 
the  species  are  very  huge. 

The  species  are  multitudinous.  Mr.  Cuming  has  added  largely  to 
our  knowledge  of  those  of  South  America,  and  we  are  indebted  to  that 
gentleman  for  the  following  account  of  the  habits  of  Bulimus  rosaceus. 
In  the  dry  season  he  always  found  the  animals  adhering  to  the  imder 
side  of  stones,  generally  among  bushes,  and  close  at  the  edge  of  the 
seawshore,  within  reach  of  the  spray  at  times.  On  the  hills,  about  1000 
feet  above  the  sea^  they  were  observed  adhering  between  the  lower 
leaves  of  an  aloe-like  plants  on  the  honey  of  whose  flowers  the  Giant 
Humming-Bird  {Trochilus  gigas)  feeds.  The  natives  bum  down  clumps 
of  these  plants  for  the  sake  of  the  rings  at  the  bottom  of  the  footstalks 
of  the  leaves,  which  they  use  for  buovs  for  their  fishing-nets  and  for 
baking  the  coarse  earthenware  which  wey  make  on  the  hills,  because 
this  part  of  the  plant  when  ignited  throws  out  a  great  heat.  Between 
these  leaves  the  Bvlimi  lie  in  the  dry  season  in  a  torpid  stat&  In  the 
spring  (the  months  of  September  and  October)  they  burrow  in  the 
shady  places  at  the  roots  of  this  plant,  and  among  the  bushes  on  the 
sea-shore.  At  this  period  (the  spring)  th^  lay  their  eggs  in  the  earth, 
about  two  inches  below  the  surface.  Mr.  Cuming  never  saw  them 
crawlii^  about.  In  the  dry  season  they  were  evidently  hybemating, 
for  their  parchment-like  secretion,  which  operates  in  place  of  an  oper- 
culum to  seal  up  the  animal,  was  strongly  formed,  and  they  stuck  to 
the  stones  so  tenaciously  that  Mr.  Cummg  broke  many  of  them  in 
endeavouring  to  pull  themwff.  Chili  and  the  neighbourmg  coasts  of 
South  America  generally  were  the  localitieB  where  the  species  was 
taken.  Captain  Phillip  Parker  King,  R.N.,  has  the  following  notice  of 
the  power  of  the  anunal  to  exist  in  a  dormant  state  : — **  Soon  after 
the  return  of  the  expedition  (his  MajestT's  ships  Adventure  and 
Beagle—'  Survey,'  1826-80),  my  friend  Mr.  Broderip,  to  whose  inspec- 
tion Lieutenant  Graves  had  submitted  his  collection,  observing  symp- 
toms of  life  in  some  of  the  shells  of  this  species,  took  means  for  reviving 
the  inhabitants  from  their  dormant  state,  and  succeeded.  After  they 
had  protruded  their  bodies,  they  were  placed  upon  some  green  leaves 
(cabbage),  which  they  fastened  upon  and  ate  greedily.  These  animals 
had  been  in  this  state  for  seventeen  or  eighteen  months;  and  five 
months  subsequently  another  was  found  alive  in  my  collection,  so  that 
the  last  has  been  nearly  two  years  dormant.  These  sheUs  were  sent 
to  Mr.  Loddige's  nursery,  where  they  lived  for  eight  months  in  the 
palm-house,  when  they  unfortunately  died  within  a  few  days  of  each 
other.    Soon  after  the  shells  were  first  deposited  at  Mr.  Loddige'sy  on« 


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ka 


BULIMUS. 


BULIMUS. 


got  away  and  escaped  detection  for  several  months,  until  it  was  at  la.->t  discovered  in  a  atat^j  of  hyb-n*- 
nation :  it  was  removed  to  the  place  where  the  others. were  kept,  when  it  died  also.  The  upper 
surface  of  the  animal,  when  in  health,  is  variegated  with  ruddy  spots  and  streaks  on  an  aah-coloured 
ground."    The  only  process  used  for  revivifying  these  animals  was  placing  them  on  a  plate  near  a 


BuHmtu  hccmaitoma^  natural  size. 
o,  The  egg ;  &,  the  eggshell  broken,  sbowing  the  young  animal  with  its  shell  in  situ  ;  e,  the  shell  of  a  young  one 
Just  after  exclusion  fhmi  the  egg;  d,  the  shell  at  a  more  adranoed  age,  but  before  the  Up  is  reflected  ;  f,  the  adult 
shells.  The  specimens  figured  were  brought  fh>m  Trinidad.  It  is  found  in  the  brakes  of  St.  Vincent's  and  of  the 
Antilles  generallj.  The  young  shell  is  semitransparent,  but  becomes  opaque  as  it  advances  in  age.  The  adult  shell 
is  brown,  strongly  striated  or  wrinkled  longitudinally,  with  a  rose-coloured  mouth.    Epidermis  "brown. 


BuUmiu  roMoceuSf  natural  size. 
a,  an  adult,  with  the  animal  as  it  is  seen  when  in  motion ;  6,  a  young  shell  before  the  lip  is  reflected.  The  mouth  is 
represented  as  sealed  with  the  parchment-like  secretion,  which  serves  as  an  operculum  when  the  animal  is  hybernating ; 
0,  egg-shell  broken,  discovering  the  infant  shell ;  tf,  egg,  unbroken.  Figure  a  was  taken  from  one  of  the  specimens 
mentioned  above  when  living  in  this  country.  Adult  shell  roughish ;  apex  and  upper  whorls  of  a  rose  colour  in  fine 
specimens ;  the  other  whorls  brownish,  mottled  longitudinally  in  fine  specimens  with  dirty  white.  Suture  crenulated ; 
hp  white;  throat  brownish ;  epidermis  greenish. 

moderate  fire,  and  sprinkling  them  with  tepid  water.  Upon  their  restoration  they  eat  a  considerable 
part  of  the  parchment-like  seal  or  operculum.  They  lived  some  time  with  Mr.  Broderip  before  they 
were  sent  to  Messrs.  Loddiges.  These  animals  had  been  packed  up  in  a  box  and  enveloped  in  cotton 
from  the  time  of  their  capture  to  the  period  mentioned,  when  they  were  unpacked  by  Mr.  Broderip. 

The  Britdsh  species  of  this  genus  are  of  small  size  and  ordinary  a^ect.  The  following  are  enumerated 
by  Forbes  and  Hanley  in  the  '  British  Mollusca.' 

B.  aaUut  is  a  small  species,  turreted,  conical,  white  or  clear  brown,often  with  dark  markings ;  body 
whorl  comparatively  short  It  is  most  abundant  near  the  sea,  and  is  found  in  the  Channel  Islands, 
PonMtshire,  Devon,  Cornwall,  the  Isle  of  Man,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 


B.  LackhamentU  is  a  v\>xi  AvA\  iu 
Qreat  Britain.  It  is  abundant  in 
many  districts  of  Qermany,  France, 
and  Switzerland. 

B.  ohicurut  is  .of  a  yellowish-brown 
colour,  with  a  smooth  surface  and 
mouth  with  white  lips.  The  animal 
u  of  a  dark  colour.  It  is  found 
under  stones,  on  old  walls  and  ruins, 
and  on  trees  in  woods,  and  is  very 
widely  distributed  in  the  Britiaa 
Islands.  Forbes  and  Hanley  regard 
the  following  species  as  spurious  in 
the  British  Fauna:  — B,  Guada- 
louperuii,  B.  Goodallij  B.  decoOaltu, 
B.  pupa,  B.  Ouildingii,  B.  ventrieoiHt. 
The  distribution  of  the  Bfdimi  has 
been  treated  in  detail  by  Mr.  L 
Reeve. 

Fostil  Bvlimi, 
Deshayes,   in  his    tables  (LyelVs 

*  Principles  of  Geology,'  2nd  edition) 
enumerates  three  fossil  species  of 
Bulimi  in  the  Tertiaiy  Formation, 
one  of  which  is  known  to  him  from 
the  sub-Apennine  beds,  and  another 
finom  Paris;  but  he  does  not  give 
the  locality  of  the  third,  nor  does  he 
identify  any  of  the  foffiils  with  recent 
species.  De  la  Beche,  in  his  'Geo- 
logical Manual,'  under  the  bead  of 

*  Fossil  Shells,'  contained  in  the 
Supra-Cretaceous  rocks  of  Bordeaui 
and  Dax,  enumerated  by  M.  de 
Basterot,  has  the  following;  notice: 
''  BtUimut  ( r )  tereheUatus,  Lam.,  ana- 
logous to  the  existing  species, 
Qrignon,  Placentine,  Dax."  Xamarck 
('Animaux  sans  Vert^bres,*  vol.  vii. 
p.  534)  describes  the  shell  of  Bulimui 
terfbdlatui,  a  Grignon  fossil,  as  two 
centimeters  in  length,  and  observes 
on  the  singularity  of  its  mouth  or 
opening,  but  he  makes  no  allusion 
to  its  resemblance  to  any  existing 
species.  In  the  'Annales  du  Mu- 
seum,' he  places  it  among  the  Btdimiy 
with  doubt,  observing  that  it  may 
from  its  conformation  be  probably 
marine,  but  keeping  that  generic 
name  for  it,  because  it  approaches 
nearer  to  the  Bulimi  than  to  any  other 
known  genus.  In  the  seventh  volume 
of  his  'Animaux  sans  Vert^bres,' 
published  eighteen  years  afterwards, 
he  still  arranges  it  among  the  Bulimi, 
and  not  under  the  head  of  'doubtful 
Spedea.*  Thefifteen  species  described 
by  Lamarck  in  this  volume  are  all 
stated  to  befosadl,  and  only  the  last  five 
are  separated  as  'Esp^ces  doutenses.' 
Of  the  not-doubtful  species,  Bvlimui 
sextonui,  found  fossil  at  Villiers  and 
Grignon,  bears  a  great  resemblance, 
according  to  the  author,  to  BulimHt 
lubricuB;  but  he  observes  that  the 


4i 


PuHmus  luhrtcut, 

o,  natural  size ;  h,  magnified.  Inhabits 
Northern  Europe,  and  is  common  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris.  Shell  smoctb, 
shining,  of  a  horn  colour,  Icclininy  tJ 
fulvous;  transparent. 

opening  or  mouth  of  the  fossil  shell 
is  much  shorter  than  that  of  the 
recent,  and  that  the  summit  of  its 
spire  is  less  obtuse.  It  may  be 
doubted  whether  even  the  first 
ten  fossil  species  enumerated  by 
Lamarck     are     all     true    BiUimi. 


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BULI^ 


BULLFINCH. 


680 


De  Blainville  quotes  Defranoe  for  tbirty-seyen  fosail  speoieB. 
[Hbuoida] 

BULL.    [Bovida] 

BULLA.    [Bdllida] 

BULLACE,  the  English  name  of  a  kmd  of  Plum,  the  Prunus  insU 
Htia  of  botaniats.  It  is  probably  a  mere  variety  of  the  Sloe.  [Prunub.] 

BULLiEA.    [Bullida] 

BULLFINCHj  or  BULFINCH,  Latin  Pyrrhula,  French  Bouvreuil, 
the  name  of  a  genus  of  Birds  separated  by  Brisson  from  the  Grosbeaks, 
afterwards  again  incorporated  with  them,  and  since  by  Temminck  and 
others  again  arranged  under  Brisson's  name  Pyrrhula, 

The  following  is  Temminck's  generic  character : — 

Beak  short,  hard,  conico-oonvex,  thick,  swollen  (bomb^)  on  the  sides, 
compressed  at  the  point  and  towards  the  edge  *(ar6te)  which  advances 
upon  the  forehead ;  upper  mandible  always  curved ;  lower  mandible 
more  or  less  so.  Nostrils  basal,  lateral,  rounded,  most  frequently 
hidden  by  the  plumage  of  the  forehead.  Feet  with  the  tarsus  shorter 
than  the  middle  toe ;  the  front  toes  entirely  divided.  Wings  short, 
^e  three  first  quills  graduated  (dtag^es),  the  fourth  longest.  Tail 
ladier  long,  slightly  rounded  or  squared. 

The  place  generally  assigned  by  ornithologists  to  the  BtillfinoheB, 
between  the  Grosbeaks  and  the  Crossbills,  appears  to  be  their  proper 
position.  Their  food  consists  principally  of  seeds  and  kernels ;  and 
though  the  smaller  species  confine  ^emselves  for  the  most  part  to 
grain  or  seeds,  which  they  open,  rejecting  the  husk,  some  of  the  foreign 
gpecies,  as  Temminck  observes,  have  tiie  bill  excessively  large  and 
strong,  and  capable  of  fracturing  the  most  ligneous  seed-cases.  Cold 
and  temperate  climates,  adds  the  author  last  quoted,  appear  to  pro- 
duce the  greatest  number  of  species.  They  are  found  in  Europe  and 
America.  The  north  of  Asia  appears  to  be  equally  their  cradle,  but 
they  have  never  yet  been  observed  in  Australia,  and  but  few  have 
been  noticed  in  Africa,  while  South  America  produces  many.  All  the 
known  species  afe  subject  to  a  double  moult.  The  males  and  females 
differ,  and  can  be  easily  distinguished  in  all  stages  of  life.  The  young 
of  the  year  diflfer  but  little  from  the  old  birds,  and  only  till  their 
autumnal  moult. 

Of  the  European  species  the  Common  Bullfinch  may  be  taken  as  an 
example.  It  is  Le  Bouvreuil  and  Bouvreuil  Commun  of  the  French, 
according  to  Belon;  Fringuello  Marino,  Ciufolotto,  Suffuleno,  and 
Monachino,  of  the  Italians ;  Dom-Pape  of  the  Danes  and  Norwegians ; 
Dom-Herre  of  the  '  Fauna  Suecica ; '  Blutfinck,  Rothbrustiger,  and  Der 
Gimpel  of  the  Germans ;  De  Qoudvink  of  the  Netherlanders ;  Loxia 
Pyrrhda  of  Linnsaus,  and  Pyrrhida  vtUgaris  of  Brisson.  The  provin- 
cial names  are  Norsk-Pipe,  Coalhood,  Hoop,  Tony  Hoop,  Alp,  and 
Hope. 

Male.— Length  about  6}  inches,  two  inches  and  three-quarters  being 
taken  up  by  the  tail,  which  is  rather  forked,  and  of  a  lustrous  black, 
shot  as  it  were  with  iron  blue.  Bill  six  lines  in  length,  short,  thick, 
and  black.    Shanks  eight  lines  high,  and  black.    Iridee  of  a  chestnut 


Bullfinch  {Pi/rrJiula  vulgarh)^  male. 

colour.  Crown  of  the  head,  circle  round  the  bill,  and  upper  part  of 
the  throat,  of  the  same  hue  with  the  taiL  Nape,  back,  and  shoulders 
deep  gray,  or  rather  bluish-gray.  Cheeks,  neck,  breast,  belly  (to  the 
centre  of  it),  and  flanks,  red.  Rump  and  vent  white.  Greater  wing- 
coverts  tipped  and  margined  with  a  French  or  pinkish  white,  forming 
a  transverse  bar  across  the  wing.  .    '  •   - 


Female. — Somewhat  less  than  the  male,  and  of  a  reddish-gray  where 
he  is  red;  back  brownish-gray;  feet  brownish-black.  The  colours 
generally  less  bright  than  in  the  male. 

The  young  of  the  year  are  at  first  ash-colour,  with  wings  and  tail  of 
blackish-brown ;  afterwards  more  like  the  female  till  the  autumnal 
moult ;  but  the  young  males  may  always  be  known  by  the  greater 
tinge  of  red  about  the  breast. 

There  are  several  varieties : — 

1.  Black. — This  variety  may  be  produced  artificially  b^  feeding  the 
bird  entirely  on  hemp-seed,  in  which  case  a  change  of  diet  will  often 
produce  the  true  colours.  Beohstein  says  it  will  arise  from  being  kept 
when  young  in  a  totally  dark  place ;  and  that  females,  either  from 
age  or  from  the  diet  above  mentioned,  are  most  subject  to  it 

2.  White. — This  is  merely  an  albino  of  an  ashy  or  dusky  white,  or 
cream-colour :  the  parts  which  are  generally  black  are  more  shaded 
than  the  rest.  There  is  a  specimen  from  Middlesex  in  the  British 
Musemu. 

8.  Speckled  or  Variegated. — Spotted  with  black  and  white,  or  white 
and  ash-colour,  besides  the  natural  hues.  Selby  says  that  Captain 
Mitford  killed  one,  of  which  both  the  wings  were  white. 

4.  Bechstein  mentions  varieties  under  l£e  name  of  the  Large  Bull- 
finch, about  the  size  of  a  thrush,  and  the  Middling  or  Conmion  Bull- 
finch. He  treats  the  dwarf  variety,  which  is  said  to  be  not  so  large  as  a 
chafi&nch,  as  a  bird-catcher's  story ;  for  he  observes  that  this  difference 
of  size  occurs  in  all  kinds  of  birds,  and  says  he  has  had  opportunities 
every  year  of  seeing  hundreds  both  wild  and  tame,  and  adds,  that  he 
has  even  found  in  the  same  nest  some  as  small  as  redbreasts,  and 
others  as  large  as  a  crossbill. 

The  Bullfinch  will  produce  hybrid  young  with  the  Canary. 

The  native  song  of  this  common  but  pretty  bird  is  very  soft  and 
simple,  but  so  low  that  it  is  almost  inaudible.  Its  call  is  a  plaintive 
whistle,  and  when  feeding  it  utters  a  low  short  twitter.  It  has  how- 
ever acquired  great  celebrity  from  the  facility  with  which  it  learns  to 
whistle  musical  airs,  and  from  its  retentive  memory,  when  well 
educated  and  carefully  attended  to.  "  Those  which  are  to  be  taught^" 
says  Bechstein,  "  must  be  taken  from  the  nest  when  the  feathers  of 
the  toil  begin  to  grow,  and  must  be  fed  only  on  rape-seed  soaked  in 
water  and  mixed  with  white  bread ;  eggs  would  kill  them  or  make 
them  blind.  Their  plumage  is  then  of  a  dark  ash-colour,  with  the 
wings  and  tail  blackish-brown.  The  males  may  be  known  at  first  by 
their  reddish  breast ;  so  that  when  these  only  are  wished  to  be  reared 
they  may  be  chosen  in  the  nest,  for  the  females  are  not  so  beautiful, 
nor  so  easily  taught,  though  they  answer  the  purpose  of  call-birds  as 
well  as  the  male."  Mrs.  Charlotte  Smith  however  says  ('  Nat.  Hist,  of 
Birds ' )  that  she  had  a  nest  of  bullfinches  given  her,  of  which  only  one 
was  reared :  it  was  a  hen,  which  she  kept  only  because  she  had  reared 
it,  but  the  bii'd  hung  in  the  same  room  with  a  very  fine  Virginian 
nightingale,  whose  song  she  soon  acquired,  and  went  through  the 
same  notes  in  a  lower  and  softer  tone.  '*  Although  the  young,"  con- 
tinues Bechstein,  **•  do  not  warble  before  they  can  feed  themselves,  one 
need  not  wait  for  this  to  begin  their  instruction,  for  it  will  succeed 
better,  if  one  may  say  so,  when  infused' with  their  food ;  since  experi- 
ence proves  that  they  leam  those  airs  more  quickly  and  remember 
them  better  which  they  have  been  taught  just  after  eating.  It  has 
been  observed  several  times  that  these  birds,  like  the  parrots,  are 
never  more  attentive  than  during  digestion.  Nine  months  of  regular 
and  continued  instruction  are  necessary  before  the  bird  acquires  what 
amateurs  call  firmness ;  for  if  one  ceases  before  this  time,  they  murder 
the  air  by  suppressing  or  displacing  the  different  parts,  and  they  often 
forget  it  entirely  at  their  first  moulting.  In  general  it  is  a  good  thing 
to  separate  them  from  the  other  birds,  even  after  they  are  perfect, 
because,  owing  to  their  great  quickness  in  learning,  they  would  spoil 
the  air  entirely  by  introducing  wrong  passages ;  they  must  be  helped 
to  continue  the  song  when  they  stop,  and  the  lesson  must  always  be 
repeated  whilst  they  are  moulting,  otherwise  they  will  become  mere 
dmtterers,  which  would  be  doubly  vexatious  after  having  had  much 
trouble  in  teaching  them." 

A  single  air  with  a  short  prelude  is  generally  as  much  as  the  bird 
can  leam  and  remember ;  but  Bechstein,  who  asserts  this,  allows  that 
there  are  some  of  them  which  can  whistle  distinctly  three  different 
airs,  without  spoiling  or  confusing  them  in  the  least.  In  truth,  as  the 
same  author  observes,  there  are  different  degrees  of  capacity  among 
the  bullfinches  as  well  as  in  other  animals,  One  young  bullfinch, 
learns  with  ease  and  quickness,  another  with  difficulty  and  slowly ; 
the  former  will  repeat  without  hesitation  several  parts  of  i^  song ;  the 
latter  will  hardly  be  able  to  whistle  one  after  nine  months'  uninter- 
rupted teaching.  Those  birds  which  leam  with  most  difficulty  are 
said  to  remember  the  songs,  when  once 'learnt,  better  and  longer,  and 
rarely  forget  them  even  when  moulting.  To  these  attractive  qualities 
of  the  Bullfinch  must  be  added  its  obedience  and  capability  of  strong 
attachment,  which  it  shows  by  a  variety  of  little  endearing  actions ; 
and  it  has  been  known  even  to  repeat  words  with  an  accent  and  tone 
indicative  of  sensibility,  if,  as  Bechstein  observes,  one  could  believe  that 
it  understood  them.  Of  its  attachment  the  following  are  instances: — 
Buffon  asserts  that  tame  bullfinches  have  been  known  to  escape  from 
the  aviary,  and  live  at  liberty  in  the  woods  for  a  whole  year,  and  then 
to  recollect  the  beloved  voice  of  the  i>erBon  who  had  reared  them, 
returning  never  more  to  leave  her.    Others,  when  forced  to  leave 


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BULLFINCH. 


BULLFINCH. 


«) 


their  master,  are  said  to  have  died  of  grief.  Buffon's  story  of  the 
return  of  ihe  escaped  bullfinch  is  corroborated  by  the  amiable  qualities 
ascribed  to  it  by  Bechstein,  for  he  says  that,  among  other  feats,  it  may 
be  accustomed  to  go  and  returu,  provided  the  house  is  not  too  near  a 
wood. 

In  a  state  of  nature  the  BuMnch  feeds  on  pine  and  fir  seeds,  com, 
linseed,  millet^  rape,  and  nettle  seed,  Ul  sorts  of  berries,  and  the  buds 
of  most  trees,  among  which  those  of  the  oak,  beech,  pear,  plum, 
cherry,  and  gooseberry  are  favourites.  Bewick  says  that  in  the  spring 
it  frequents  gardens,  where  it  is  usefully  busy  in  destroying  the  worms 
which  are  lodged  in  the  buds.  Busy  it  is ;  but  we  are  compelled  to 
add  that  its  utility,  to  the  horticulturist  at  least,  is  no  longer  ques- 
tionable. In  its  devastation  it  may  now  and  then,  and  no  doubt  does 
find  a  worm  in  a  bud ;  but  its  object  is  tho  bud,  not  the  worm. 
'*  They  feed  most  willingly  upon  those  buds  of  trees  which  break  forth 
before,  indeed  are  pregnant  with,  the  leaves  and  flowers,  especially 
those  of  the  apple-tree,  pear-tree,  peach-tree,  and  other  gsrden  trees ; 
and  by  that  means  bring  no  small  detriment  to  the  gfuxleners,  who 
thererore  hate  and  destroy  them  as  a  great  pest  of  their  gardens, 
intercepting  their  hopes  of  fruit"  Such  is  WiUughby's  verdict.  "  I 
have  known,"  says  Selby,  "  a  pair  of  these  birds  to  strip  a  considerable- 
sized  plum-tree  of  evenr  bud  in  the  space  of  two  days.  These  buds 
are  not  swallowed  whole,  but  first  minutely  divided  by  the  tomia  of 
the  powerful  bilL"  "  Its  delight,"  observes  Mr.  Knapp  in  his  inter- 
esting and  lively  '  Journal  of  a  Naturahst,'  ''  is  in  the  embryo  blossoms 
wrapped  up  at  this  season  (spring)  in  the  bud  of  a  tree ;  and  it  is  very 
dainty  and  curious  in  its  choice  of  this  food,  seldom  feeding  upon  two 
kinds  at  the  same  time.  It  generally  commences  with  the  germs  of 
our  larger  and  most  early  gooseberry ;  and  the  bright  red  breasts  of 
four  or  five  cock  birds,  quieUy  feeding  on  the  leafless  bush,  are  a  very 
pretty  sight ;  but  the  consequences  are  ruinous  to  the  crop.  When 
the  cherry  buds  begin  to  come  forward,  they  quit  the  gooseberry,  and 
make  tremendous  havoc  with  these.  I  have  an  early  wall  cherry,  a  may- 
duke  by  reputation,  that  has  for  years  been  a  great  favourite  with  the 
bullfinch  family,  and  its  celebrity  seems  to  be  communicated  to  each 
successive  generation.  It  buds  profusely,  but  is  annually  so  stripped 
of  its  promise  by  these  feathered  rogues,  that  its  kind  might  almost 
be  doubted.  The  Orleans  and  green-gage  plums  next  form  a  treat, 
and  draw  their  attention  from  what  remains  of  the  cherry.  Having 
banqueted  here  a  while,  they  leave  our  gardens  entirely,  resorting  to 
the  fields  and  hedges,  where  the  sloe-bush  in  April  furnishes  them 
with  food." 

Bewick  says  it  builds  its  nest  in  bushes,  and  that  it  is  composed 
chiefly  of  moss, — ^Bechstein,  in  the  most  retired  part  of  a  wood,  or  in  a 
solitary  quickset  hedge,  adding  that  it  is  constructed,  with  little  skill, 
of  twigs,  which  are  covered  with  moss.  Graves  says  that  it  is  mostly 
found  in  the  thickest  part  of  a  black-  or  white-thorn  bush,  and  that  it 
is  composed  of  small  twigs  and  moss,  and  is  lined  with  soft  dry 
fibres.  Yarrell  says  the  nest  is  formed  of  small  twigs,  and  lined  with 
fibrous  roots,  the  materials  not  very  compactly  entwined  together, 
and  usually  placed  four  or  five  feet  above  the  ground  on  the  branch  of  a 
fir-tree,  or  in  a  thick  bush.  The  eggs  are  generally  four  or  five; 
Temminck  says  from  three  to  six,  but  in  this  country  the  number  is 
usually  four,  of  a  bluish  white,  speckled  and  streaked  with  purplish 
or  pale  orange-brown  at  the  large  end,  and  rather  obtuse.  The  young 
are  generally  hatched  in  May  or  the  beginning  of  June,  and  there  are 
frequently  two  broods  in  a  year.  The  time  of  incubation  is  fifteen 
days. 

The  species  is  widely  spread.  They  are  common  in  most  parts  of 
Northern  Europe,  extending  into  Russia  and  Siberia  :  in  the  south  of 
Europe  they  occur  only  as  birds  of  passage.  They  are  said  to  winter 
in  Italy.  Qesner  says  that  about  the  Alps  the  bird  is  called  Franguel 
Invemengk — ^that  is,  'Winter  Finch.*  Bonaparte  notes  it  as  "raro 
d'  invemo  awentizio"  near  Rome.  Thunberg  long  ago  said  that 
the  common  Bullfinch  was  found  in  Japan,  and  this  is  corroborated 
by  Dr.  de  Siebold,  for  it  was  one  of  the  European  species  which  he 
found  in  that  country.  The  bird  is  particularly  common  in  the 
mountainous  forests  of  Qermany :  and  it  is  from  Cologne  and  other 
spots, 

"  Where  Bhenos  strays  his  vines  among,*' 
that  the  market  for  Piping-Bullfinches  is  principally  supplied.    Bech- 
stein  mentions  that  there  are  schools  for  these  little  musicians  in  Hesse 
and  Fulda,  and  at  Waltershausen  near  Qotha.     With  us  the  bullfinch 
is  a  constant  resident. 

P.  Sj/noicfl,  the  Asiatic  Bullfinch.  The  adult  male  is  ornamented 
round  the  base  of  the  bill  with  a  circle  of  rich  red,  going  off  in  spots 
upon  the  cheeks.  The  front  is  covered  with  small  lustrous  white 
feathers,  of  a  silvery  white,  lightly  shaded  upon  the  borders  with  red ; 
all  the  lower  parts  of  the  body,  the  inferior  coverts  of  the  taU,  and 
the  rump,  are  of  a  brilliant  rose-colour,  or  clear  carmine ;  the  upper 
parts  are  ash-coloured,  lightly  tinged  with  rose  :  wings  and  tail  brown, 
with  ash-coloured  borders. 

The  female  is  brown,  of  a  light  brown  or  earth-colour  above,  with 
longitudinal  lines  of  deeper  brown  upon  each  feather.  The  lower 
parts  are  of  a  very  clear  brown  or  Isabella-colour,  with  longitudinal 
striae  of  a  somewhat  deeper  brown  upon  the  middle  of  the  feathers. 
The  tail  is  slightly  notched  at  the  end,  and  the  bill  and  feet  in  both 
■oxea  are  of  a  clear  brown.    Length  about  5  inches  and  6-8ths.    M. 


Hemprich  found  this  species  near  Mount  Sinai,  in  Arabia;  and  then 
are  specimens  in  the  museums  of  the  Netherlands  and  of  Beriin.  Tern* 
minck,  firom  whose  work  the  figures  and  description  are  taken,  thinVi 


Asiatic  Bullfinch  {ryrrhula  Synoica),  Upper  figure,  male;  lower  flgiiTc,  fenuk. 


Pyrrhula  Gigathinea.     Lower  figure,  male, 
it  possible  that  the  '  social  bullfinch '  may  be  found  some  day  u|  ^® 
islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  and  that  it  may  easily  paai  in  »^ 
migrations  the  arm  of  the  sea  between  Asia  and  those  islesL 


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BULLHEAD. 


BULLIDiE. 


69C 


Temminck  received  his  specimen  from  Professor  Lichtensteiu ;  and 
it  was  one  of  the  discoveries  of  the  travellers  sent  some  years  ago  by 
the  King  of  Prussia  into  Egypt  with  a  view  of  obtaining  objects  of 
natural  history. 

A  species  from  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  Pyrrkvla  erythrocephctla, 
figured  in  Mr.  Gould's  beautiful  work,  comes  near  to  the  common 
Bullfinch  of  Europe  except  in  the  form  of  the  tail,  which  is  decidedly 
forked,  while  in  tiie  European  it. is  nearly  even.  There  is  a  specimen 
of  Pyrrhula  erythrocephala  in  the  British  Museum,  and  another  in 
that  of  the  Zoological  Society. 

P.  Gigathinea.  This  species  is  characterised  by  a  very  tliick  bill,  and 
a  slighUy  notched  taiL  The  colours  of  the  sexes  do  not  vaiy  greatly. 
In  the  male  a  grayish  colour  tinted  with  bright-rose  covers  all  the 
lower  parts  of  the  body,  the  throat,  and  the  circle  round  the  bill ; 
this  tint  is  palest  on  the  throat  The  crown  of  the  head  is  pure  ash- 
colour,  and  an  ashy  brown  is  spread  over  the  nape,  the  back,  and 
the  wing-coverts.  A  faint  rose-colour  tinges  the  plumage  of  the  rump 
aadthe  edges  of  the  quills  and  tail-feathers,  all  of  whid^  are  bordered 
towards  the  end  with  whitish  upon  a  black  ground.  The  two  middle 
quills  are  the  shortest.  The  wings  reach  to  the  extremity  of  the 
tail-feathers ;  the  bill  is  of  a  fine  red.     Length  4  inches  6  lines. 

The  female  has  no  rosy  tint  except  on  the  edges  of  the  quills  and 
tail-feathers,  and  on  the  rump,  where  it  is  very  faint.  The  upper 
parts  are  of  an  Isabella-brown,  and  the  wings  edged  with  a  brighter 
tint  of  the  same.  The  circle  round  the  bill  and  the  throat  are  ash- 
coloured  ;  the  lower  parts  of  a  pure  Isabella-colour ;  and  the  middle 
of  the  belly  white.     Bill  same  aj9  in  the  male. 

This  bird  is  figured  in  the  great  French  work  on  Egypt  (plate  5, 
fig.  8),  and  was  sent  home  some  years  ago  by  the  German  travellers  to 
the  north  of  Africa.  It  inhabits  Egypt  and  Nubia.  There  are  specimens 
in  the  Berlin  museum,  and  in  those  of  the  Netherlands  and  of  Frankfort 

P.  cwureola.  Head,  cheeks,  back,  and  scapulars,  aahy-bluish ;  wings 
and  tail  darker,  but  all  the  feathers  of  those  parts  are  bordered  with 
ash-colour.  There  is  a  small  white  spot  on  the  wing,  formed  by  the 
white  towards  the  base  of  the  quills,  beginning  with  the  fourth  ;  the 
first  three  have  no  white.  AH  the  lower  parts  are  white,  with  the 
exception  of  the  flanks,  which  are  clouded  with  ash-colour.  Bill 
coral-red,  very  strong,  large,  and  as  it  were  swollen  (bombd).  Feet 
RRh-coloured.  Length  44  inches.  Inhabits  Brazil,  where  it  is  said  to 
be  common. 


Pyrrhula  einereola, 

BULLHEAD.     [Cottus.] 

BULLHEAD,  ARMED.     [Aspidophorus.] 

BU'LLIDiE,  a  family  of  Marine  MoUutca,  which  Lamarck  arranges 
ftznong  his  Gasteropods,  between  the  Calyptracians  on  one  side  and 
the  Laplyaians  on  the  other,  making  the  family  to  consist  of  the 
three  following  genera,  Acera  or  Akera,  BuUceaf  and  JBvUa.  Cuvier 
finds  a  situation  for  it  in  his  fourth  order  of  Gasteropods,  the  Tecti- 
branchians  (Monopleurobranchians  of  De  Blainville),  which  includee 

ITAT.  HIST.  DIV.  YOL.  1. 


both  Aplysia  and  Umbrdla,  De  Blainville  places  it  next  but  one  to 
his  Aplysians  (his  family  Patelloidea  intervening)  under  the  family 
Akera,  the  fourth  of  hia  third  order  Mon(ypleurohranckiata,  of  his 
second  sub-class  Paracephalophora  Monoica,  of  his  second  class  Pa/ra- 
cephalophorck, 

Forbes  and  Hanley  make  it  the  first  family  of  the  Gasteropoda 
opisthobranchiata.  They  observe  that  "  this  tribe  may  be  considered 
intermediate  between  the  two  great  sections  of  Gasteropoda,  The 
shells  of  its  mollusks  are  always  convolute  and  more  or  less  enveloped 
by  the  animal;  sometimes  entirely  invested,  more  rarely  absent 
Except  in  the  case  of  TomcUella  there  is  no  operculum.  The  head  of 
the  animal  is  in  the  form  of  a  single  or  lobed  disk,  and  its  lateral 
lobes  are  often  greatly  dev^oped,  so  as  in  many  species  to  serve  as 
swimming  organs.  The  foot  is  in  some  extremely  small,  in  others  a 
crawling  disk  of  considerable  dimensions.  There  are  more  than  150 
species  of  this  family  known.  They  inhabit  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  some  of  them  are  very  widely  diffused."  The  best  account  of 
the  family  that  has  yet  appeared  is  by  Mr.  Arthur  Adams  in  the 
'  Thesaurus  Condyliorum  *  of  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby,  Jun. 

The  following  are  illustrations  of  some  of  the  genera : — 

Acera,  Lamarck,  LohariOy  De  Blainville,  has  its  body  ov«d-oblong, 
sub-globular,  appearing  to  be  divided  into  four  parts :  one  anterior 
for  the  head  and  thorax, 
one  on  each  side  for  the 
natatory  appendages  or 
fins,  and  one  posterior 
for  the  viscera.  The 
anterior  fleshy  disk 
terminates  in  an  ap- 
proach to  a  point  near 
the  middle  of  the  body : 
the  branchisB  covered 
by  the  mantle  are  so 

posterior     that     they  "^F 

seem  to  be  almost  at  Loharia  eamota,  Cuv. 

the  extremity  of  the 

body,  and  below  them  would  be  the  analogous  situation  for  the  shell, 
of  which  there  is  not  even  a  rudimentary  trace. 

BuUcBct,  Lamarck  assigned  this  name  to  those  of  the  family  which 
have  the  shell  entirely  hidden  in  the  substance  of  the  mantle.  This 
shell  is  very  open  and  delicate,  and  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  more 
than  the  first  rudiment  of  the  rolled-up  form  which  is  in  BvUa  carried 
to  greater  perfection.  BuUaa  aptrta^  Lam.  (BvRaa  Planciana,  Lam., 
in  the  early  edition  of  the  '  Syst.  des  Anim.  sans  Vert.') ;  Amygdala 
marina  (Amande  de  Mer),  Plane ;  Bulla  aperta,  Lin. ;  BvHa  aptrta  and 


BuHica  {Bulla)  aperta. 
A,  view  of  the  back ;  B,  side  view,  the  right ;  C,  the  atune,  bat  the  ren- 
tral  fleshy  plate  separated  from  the  dorsal  to  show  the  parts  between;  D, 
view  of  the  under  side ;  a,  the  fleshy  plate  which  covers  the  anterior  part  of 
the  body  ;  b,  the  fleshy  plate  that  acts  as  a  foot ;  c,  the  part  which  contains  the 
shell ;  df  a  part  of  the  branchisB ;  e,  the  vent ;  /,  the  conunon  orifice  of  the 
testicle  and  ovidact ;  £,  shell  in  iu  natural  position ;  F,  view  of  the  under  or 
coacaTC  side. 

Loharia  quadriloha,  Gmelin,  which  is  found  in  almost  all  seas,  and 
is  very  common  on  the  shores  of  Great  Britain,  will  serve  for  an 
example.  The  animal  is  whitish,  more  Uian  an  inch  in  length,  and, 
as  Cuvier  observes,  the  fleshy  shield  formed  by  the  vestiges  of  the 
tentacula,  the  lateral  borders  of  the  foot,  and  the  mantle  occupied  by 
the  shell,  seem  to  divide  it  into  four  portions,  whence  Gmelin's  term 
quadriloba.  The  shell  is  delicate,  white,  semitransparent,  and  consists 
almost  entirely  of  aperture.  The  stomach  or  gizzard  is  armed  with 
three  very  thick  rhomboidal  bones  or  rather  shelly  pieces. 

2  Y 


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BULLIDJES. 


BULLIDiE. 


BiUkea  has  been  found  at  a  depth  ranging  from  near  the  surface  to 
12  fathoms.  M^.  W.  Clark  found  three  English  species,  two  of  them 
{BuUcea  catena  and  B.  punctata)  at  Exmouth  and  Torquay,  in  pools  at 
the  time  of  the  lowest  spring-tides ;  and  a  third  (Bttllcea  pruinosa)  bj 
dredging  off  Budleigh  Salterton.  The  depth  is  not  mentioned,  but 
it  is  probable  that  it  was  considerable,  for  the  author  sa^  that  it  is 
rare,  and  only  occasionally  to  be  procured  by  deep  dredgmg  seven  or 
eight  miles  from  the  shore.  The  first  of  Mr.  Clark's  species,  which 
is  Bulla  catena  of  Montagu,  had  a  testaceous  gizzard,  but  the  gizzards 
of  the  other  two  were  unfurnished  with  shelly  appendages.  (See 
Mr.  Clarke's  description,  '  ZooL  Joum.*  voL  iiL  p.  337).  Q.  Sowerby, 
when  speaking  of  the  use  of  the  shelly  species  and  their  powerful 
adductor  muscles,  states  that  the  animal  of  Bullaa  aperta  is  sometimes 
distorted  by  having  swallowed  entire  a  CorbtUa  nucleus,  which  is  a 
veiy  thick  and  strong  shell,  nearly  equal  in  size  to  itself. 

De  Blainville  says  of  this  genus  that  he  characterises  it  somewhat 
differently  from  Lunarck,  who  establishes  it,  and  who  only  places 
under  it  the  Aceraickt  whose  shell  is  internal;  but  as  De  Blainville 
considers  the  animal  to  be  of  the  first  consequence,  he  distinguishes 
under  the  name  of  Bulloea  those  species  which,  whether  their  shell 
be  external  or  internal,  have  the  foot  thickest  and  not  dilated  into 
natatory  appendages,  having,  in  fact^  habits  different  from  the  BvUce, 
according  to  hii*acceptation  of  the  term,  which  swim 
very  well  and  creep  very  badly.  He  divides  BuUcea 
into — 

1st.  Those  species  which  have  an  internal  shell 
very  incompletely  rolled  up  without  spire  or  colu- 
meUa,  and  selects  as  his  eaxmple  Bullosa  aperta^  the 
species  figured  in  the  preceding  page. 

2nd.  Those  species  whose  ahell  is  internal  and 
very  incompletely  rolled  up,  with  a  columella  and 
alveolar  spire  (spire  rentr^e),  and  gives  as  an  example 
BuUa  ampulla. 

3rd.  Species  whose  shell  is  internal,  the  lateral 
lobes  oirrhous  and  more  developed,  and  gives  as 
Feruiisac's  Bulhea,  ^  example  Ferussac's  BuUaea  (Quoy  et  Gaimard), 
here  figured  from  the  'Atlas  Zoologique'  of  the  voyage  of  the  Uranie. 
In  the  *  Additions  and  Corrections '  to  his  *  Malacologie,'  De  Blain- 
ville says,  that,  in  studying  more  attentively  the  species  of  these  two 
genera,  it  seems  to  him  t^t  the  greater  part  would  be  better  placed 
under  Bulla  than  under  BuUcea,  where  he  would  leave  only  the 
species  which  serves  for  the  type,  and  another  which  was  brought 
from  the  seas  of  Australia  by  Quoy  and  Gaimard.  He  then  proposes 
mi  entirely  new  arrangement  into  seven  groups  represented  by  the 
following  genera : — 1.  BuUina  (Bidline) 
of  Ferussac,  with  a  projecting  spire 
(example  Btdla  LajoiUcairiana,  Bast.) 
2.  Apluair€{^chxan.)  S.  Bulla.  A.  Atya 
(Montf.)  5.  The  form  represented  by 
BuUa  fragUu,  6.  Scaphander  (Montf.), 
which  is  BuUa  lignaria.  7.  BuUcea 
(Lam.). 

Sormetus.  Cuvier  observes  that  this 
form  approaches  very  closely  to  that  of 
his  BuUcece,  but  he  adds  that  he  does 
not  find  sufficient  certainty  in  the 
imperfect  materials  afforded  by  Adanson  to  enable  him  to  foimd 
either  a  genus  or  even  a  species  on  them.  De  Blainville  places  it  as 
a  genus  next  to  Lobai'ia ;  but  his  description  and  figure  are  taken 
from  Adanson,  and  he  is  obliged  to  add  that  it  is  established  upon  an 
animal  **  assez  incompl&tement  connu." 

Bulla.  Besides  the  true  Bullidce,  the  heterogeneous  Bulla  of  Linnaeus 
comprised  some  of  the  Physce  and  AchcUince,  and  of  the  Ovxda,  TereheUa, 
Pyrulce,  &c. :  in  shorty  ttie  genus  comprised  animals  of  entirely 
different  organisation.  Terrestrial  and  marine  testacea — the  former 
breathing  air  and  the  latter  respirmg  water — ^were  there  placed  side 
by  side.  Lamarck  retains  the  name  (and  Cuvier  seems  to  adopt  his 
arrangement)  for  the  species  whose  shell  covered  by  a  slight  epidermis 
is  sufficiently  large  to  afford  a  retreat  to  the  animal,  and  is  more 


Sonnchis  Adantonii. 


Bulla  fiagUts, 
A,  the  shell  showing  the  aperture ;  C,  a  view  of  the  spiral  end,  showing  the 
way  in  which  the  shell  is  rolled  np  ;  B,  the  animal. 

perfectly  rolled  up  than  the  shell  of  BuUasa.  Lamarck  describes  the 
shell  of  his  Bulla  as  completely  rolled  up  (enroul^),  showing  itself 
constantly  uncovered.  It  is,  generally  spealung,  only  partially  enveloped 
by  the  animal,  which  can  retreat  into  it  almost  entirely;  has  no  distinct 
columella  nor  any  true  spire,  unless  indeed  that  term  be  applicable 


to  the  apex  of  BuUa  fragilis,  which  we  now  proceed  to  describe.  lu 
shell  is  ovate-oblong,  very  thin  and  fragile,  of  a  horn  colour,  vith 
very  small  transverse  stri»,  and  the  apex  rises  into  the  rudiment  of 
a  proiecting  spire. 

It  IS  the  Akera  huUata  of  0.  F.  Miiller,  and  is  not  imcommon  on  tbe 
British  coasts.  We  now  proceed  to  give  an  example  of  thotc  gpedeg 
which,  while  they  have  a  little  more  solidity  than  Bvlla  fragilit,  are 
still  very  delicate  and  fragile  in  their  texture. 

B.  Velum.  The  shell  is  veiy  delicate,  of  a  very  light  hom-colour 
when  in  fine  condition,  with  a  snow-white  band  about  the  middle. 
bordered  on  each  side  with  a  broad  dark-brown  one ;  the  apex  a^I 
base  are  white,  both  boixlered  with  dark  brown  bands. 


Bulla  Velum. 

B.  ampuUcL  The  shell  is  ovate  and  subglobose,  beautifully  mottle*' 
with  white,  plum-colour,  and  reddish.  Instead  of  a  spire  there  is  xi 
umbilical  alveolus.  Lamarck  gives  as  a  locality  both  the  Indian  52I 
American  oceans ;  Deshayes,  the  European  ocean  and  the  Indian 


Bulla  ampulla. 

B.  lignaria  (Scaphander  Ugnariut)  is  a  common  species  on  ourcoasU 
It  has  a  testaceous  stomach  or  gizzard,  so  well  known  as  the  vchick 
of  Gioeni's  half  error,  half  fraud.  He  found  these  testaceous  giiard> 
and  elevated  them  immediately  to  the  rank  of  shells  *  sui  genens 
literally,  for  he  gave  the  genus  his  own  name,  and  imposed  upon 
many  :  he  went  so  far  as  to  describe  the  habits  of  his  pretended 
testaceous  animal.  Drapamaud  first  exposed  this  piece  of 
charlatan  erie. 

B.  Hydatcd,  Linnccus,  and  B.  Cranchii,  Leach,  are  foimd  in  the 
British  seas.  B.  media,  Philippi,  B.  columna,  Chiajc,  are  reconiedM 
British,  but  may  be  regarded  as  doubtful.  ^   . 

The  following  genera  of  BuUidce  are  found  in  Groat  Britain  :- 
Cylichna,  eight  species  [Cylichna]  ;  Ampkisphyra  hyaltna ;  TorAoidk 
faacicUa;  Akera  bullata  j  Bulla,  two  species  ;  Scaphander  HffMTVU; 
PhUine,  six  species.  * 

PoasU  BuUidce. 

Lamarck  enumerates  four  fossil  species,  all  of  them  from  Gngnon ; 
Q.  Sowerby  says  that  such  are  only  to  be  distinguished  in  the  Teriiiiy 
Beds  and  in  the  Greensand.  Deshayes  in  his  tables,  speaking  of 
tertiary  fossils  only,  gives  two  fossil  species  of  Bulla'a^  one  from  tne 
sub-Apennine  Beds,  and  one  from  Paris.  Of  BuUa  ho  enumerate 
twenty-three  fossil  in  the  Tertiary  Beds ;  and  of  these,  two  are  botb 
living  and  fossil,  namely,  B.  lignaria  and  B.  ampuUa.  The  ^yf^ 
places  in  Sicily,  in  the  sub-Apennine  Beds  (Italy),  and  the  EngUsn 
Crag  at  Bordeaux  and  Dax,  in  Touraine,  at  Turin,  Angers,  Pans,  ana 
Valognes ;  in  short,  in  the  beds  of  the  Pliocene,  Miocene,  and  Eocene 
periods  of  Lyell.  The  second,  Deshayes  quotes  as  occurring  m  beds 
of  the  Pliocene  period  only,  namely,  those  of  Sicily  and  ^J,^/" 
Apennine  Beds  (Italy).  In  his  edition  of  LamMXjk  (voL  ril,  1^^^'''.  f 
takes  no  notice  of  B.  ampulla  as  a  fossil,  but  notices  B.  striata  (wbicn 
he  observes  has  been  confoimded  with  B.  ampuUa)  as  a  fossil  sp«^ 
He  also  remarks  on  the  confusion  between  B.  iolida  and  B.  cyMrtc^ 
and  proposes  that  B.  solida  should  take  the  name  of  B.  cj/tindncc, 
that  the  B.  cylindrica  of  Biiigui^res,  living  in  the  Mediterranean  an 
European  seas,  should  be  called  B.  cyUndracea (Pennant's  name;;  an 


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BULLRUSH. 


BUPHAOA, 


Gasieroptera  lieckeli. 


that  the  fossil  Bulla  from  the  enyirons  of  Paris,  confoiinded  with  the 
latter,  should  be  named  B.  BruguQrei. 

De  BlainviUe  places  under  his  family  of  Acerata^  the  genus 
Gasteropta'a,  whose  tody  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  posterior  being 
globular  and  joined  by  a  peduncle  to 
the  anterior  portion,  which  is  small, 
but  enlaiged  on  each  side  into  a  con- 
siderable muscular  expansion  trans- 
Tenely  oval,  and  cut  or  hollowed  out 
in  the  middle,  both  above  and  below, 
rendering  the  expansion  bilobated,  as 
it  were,  and  an  organ  for  swimming, 
in  place  of  a  foot  for  creeping.  The  lateral  gill  is  uncovered ;  there 
is  no  shell.    Example,  0.  Meckdi,  from  the  Sicilian  seas. 

BULLRUSH  the  English  name  of  Ty:pha  IcUifcliamA  T.  anffustifolia, 
two  wild  marsh  plants  bearing  long  black  cylindrical  masses  of  flowers. 
The  name  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  Scirput  lacmtris,  a  tall  rushy- 
looking  plant  from  which  the  bottoms  of  chairs,  mats,  &c.,  are  oft^ 
manufactured.    [Ttpha;  SciBPua] 
BULLRUSHWORTS.     [TYPHACEiE.] 
BULL-TROUT.     [Salmo.] 
BULLY  or  BULLET-TREE.     [Mimusops.] 

BUMASTES,  a  genus  of  Trilohites  thus  named  by  Sir  R.  Murchison, 
includes  the  B.  Barrienm,  or  Barr  Trilobite,  which  occurs  in  the  Upper 
Silurian  Strata. 

BUMELIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
SapotacM.  Many  of  the  species  are  used  in  medicine.  B.  nigi'a  has 
a  bitter  and  astringent  bark,  which  is  used  in  fevers.  The  wood  is 
very  hard.  B.  retuaa  has  a  milky  fruit.  The  fruit  of  B.  lycioides  is 
austere,  with  some  sweetness,  and  is  said  to  be  useful  in  diarrhoea.  The 
flowers  of  B.  graveolens  have  a  heavy  unpleasant  odour.  (Lindley, 
VtgttahU  Kingdom.) 

BU'NIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
UnAtUifenBj  the  sub-order  Ortho9perm€<Bt  and  the  tribe  Amminece.  It 
has  an  obsolete  calyx  ;  obcordate  petals,  with  a  broad  obtiise  inflexed 
point;  an  oblong  fruit,  the  carpels  with  6  filiform  equal  ridges;  the 
interstices  v^ith*!  or  3  vittae ;  the  stylopodium  conical  The  species 
are  perennial  herbs  with  usually  tuberose  and  globose  roots,  square 
stems,  compound  leaves,  and  white  flowers. 

B.  jl«xtM8um,  the  Pig-Nut,  has  a  general  involucre  of  1-3  leaves,  par- 
tial more  numerous ;  fruit  oval,  narrowing  upwards,  crowned  with  the 
elongated  stylopodium  and  erect  styles,  interstices  with  3  vittse.  This 
species  is  the  B.  denvdatum  of  De  Candolle :  it  is  a  native  of  the 
west  and  south  of  Europe,  and  plentiful  in  Great  Britain.  It  has  a 
nearly  globular  root,  of  a  black  or  chestnut  colour  on  the  outside  and 
white  inside.  It  has  an  aromatic  sweet  taste,  and  is  frequently  dug 
up  and  eaten  by  children.  It  is  called  in  this  country  by  many  names, 
as  Earth-Nut,  Ar-Nut,  Kipper-Nut,  Hawk-Nut,  Jur-Nut,  Earth  Chest- 
nut, and  Ground-Nut.  The  synonyms  are  almost  as  numerous  in  the 
French  and  German  languages.  Pigs  are  very  fond  of  this  nut,  and 
get  fat  when  they  are  allowed  to  feed  on  them.  When  boiled  they 
are  a  pleasant  and  nutritious  food.  Roasted,  tiiey  are  j)referred  by 
some  people  to  chestnuts,  and  are  often  in  this  country  and  on  the 
Continent  added  to  soup  or  broth. 

B.  Bulhoca^anum  of  Linnaeus  is  a  different  species  from  the  latter, 
though  often  confounded  with  it.  Its  general  and  partial  involucres 
are  composed  of  numerous  leaves,  the  fniit  oblong,  crowned  with  the 
abort  stylopodium  and  reflexed  styles,  the  interstices  vnth  single  vittB9. 
This  plant  has  been  discovered  m  chalky  fields  in  Cambridgeshire 
and  Herts,  and  is  probably  more  generally  diflPiised.  George  Don 
enumerate  in  the  *  Gardener's  Dictionary '  sixteen  species  of  Bunium. 
(Babington,  Manual  of  Brit.  Bot.) 

BUNTER  SANDSTEIN,  the  lowest  arenaceous  member  of  the 
Triaaaic  system  of  strata,  aS  understood  in  Germany  (the  lowest  part  of 
our  Hesozoic  Series).    The  three  parts  are — 
Keuper  above,  marly. 
Muschelkalk  in  middle,  calcareous. 
Bunter  Sandstein  below,  arenaceous. 
This  classification  is  applicable  to  England  by  retrenching  the  middle 
term.     Sir  R.  Murchison  is  of  opinion  that  part  of  the  Bunter 
Sandstein  (Gr^s  Bigarr^  of  France)  belongs  to  the  Palaeozoic  Series, 
but  no  proof  of  this  is  yet  published. 

BUNTING  is  the  common  name  applied  to  a  number  of  small 
^irda  belonging  to  the  order  Inseasores  and  the  family  Emherizidce. 
The  Common  Bunting,  the  Yellow  Bunting,  the  Cirl  Bunting,  and 
the  Ortolan  Bunting,  all  British  birds,  are  species  of  the  genus 
-Emheriza  [Emberiza]  ;  whilst  the  Snow  Bunting  and  the  Lapland 
Bunting,  also  British,  are  referred  by  Yarrell  to  the  genus  Plectro- 
Vhanes.     [Pleotbophanes.] 

BUTALUS,  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the  order  Lepidoptera 
«nd  the  family  Geometridce.  It  has  the  following  characters  : — Palpi 
y&ry  short;  antenme  in  the  males  pectinated  on  each  side  to  the  apex, 
yi  the  females  simple ;  wings  erect  during  repose  j  the  anterior  wings 
^  the  males  having  a  protuberance  at  the  base;  larva  smooth,  and 
^fumiahed  with  ten  legs. 

B.  piniarius,  the  Bordered  White  Moth,  is  a  beautiful  moth,  which 
^hen  the  wings  are  expanded  measures  rather  more  than  an  inch  in 
width.    Its  wings  on  the  upper  side  are  of  a  dusky  brown  colour,  and 


adorned  with  numerous  pale  yellow  spots ;  and  beneath  clouded  with 
the  same  dusky  colour  and  having  two  brown  stripes.  The  caterpillar 
is  green,  with  a  white  longitu£nal  stripe  down  the  middle  of  the 
back,  and  four  other  stripes  of  a  yellowish  coloui*  placed  two  on  each 
side  of  this.  It  feeds  upon  the  Pinua  gylvestris  and  P.  ahies,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  which  species  of  firs  tiie  moth  is  not  imcommonly 
seen  flying  during  the  day-time. 

(Stephens,  lUusirations  of  British  Entomology.) 

BU'PHAGA  {Bvphagus,  Brisson),  a  genus  of  Birds,  whose  form  in 
some  points  resembles  that  of  the  MerulidcB  (Blackbirds),  while  its 
habits  approach  those  of  the  Stumidce  (Starlings) ;  but  the  form  not- 
withstanding presents  such  strong  points  of  difference  that  most 
ornithologists  agree  in  viewing  it  as  the  type  of  a  family,  BupJiagidce, 
of  which  at  present  it  is  the  only  genus.  The  following  is  Tenmiinck's 
generic  character: — Bill  strong,  lai^ge,  obtuse,  nearly  quadrangular; 
lower  mandible  stronger  than  the  upper ;  both  swollen  towards  the 
point.  Nostrils  bassd,  oval,  half  closed  by  a  vaulted  membrane. 
Feet  moderate;  shank  (tarsus)  longer  than  the  middle  toe;  tlu-ee 
toes  before,  one  behind,  the  lateral  toes  equal,  the  external  toe  con- 
joined at  the  base,  the  internal  one  divided;  claws  hooked,  compressed*. 
Wings  moderate;  the  first  quill  very  short,  the  second  nearly  the 
lengUi  of  the  third,  which  is  the  longest. 

The  species  live  principally  upon  those  parasitic  insects  the  larv» 
(maggots)  of  which  are  hatdied  imder  the  skin  of  some  of  the  larger 
ruminants  and  birds,  a  mode  of  life  which  is  followed  by  some  of  the 
Crows  {Corvidce)  and  the  Pastors.  The  quadrupeds  on  whom  the 
Bvphaga  waits  are  principally  those  of  the  ox-family,  the  antelopes, 
and  the  camels,  and  generally  the  other  ruminants  both  wild  and 
tame.  Fixed  on  the  backs  of  these  by  his  cramp-irons  of  claws  the 
Beef-Eater,  as  he  has  been  called  by  the  English,  and  Pique-Boeuf  by 
the  French,  digs  and  squeezes  out  with  his  foreoeps  of  a  beak  the 
larva  that  lies  festering  under  the  tough  hide  of  the  quadruped. 

Le  Vaillant  gives  the  following  account  of  the  habits  of  Buphaga 
Africanaj  which  is  distributed  through  Southern  Africa,  and  found 
also  at  Senegal : — The  bill  of  the  Pique-Boeuf  is  fashioned  as  a  pair  of 
solid  ]:^cers  to  facilitate  the  raising  up  out  of  the  hides  of  quadrupeds 
the  larvsB  of  the  gadflies,  which  are  there  deposited  and  nourished  : 
the  species  therefore  anxiously  seeks  out  the  herds  of  oxen,  of  buffa- 
loes, of  antelopes — of  all  the  quadrupeds,  in  short,  upon  which  these 
gadflies  deposit  their  eggs.  It  is  while  steadied  by  a  strong  gripe  of 
the  claws  in  the  tough  and  hairy  hide  of  these  animals  that  with 
strong  blows  of  the  bill  and  powerful  squeezes  of  the  skin  at  the  place 
where  the  bird  perceives  an  elevation  which  indicates  the  presence  of 
a  maggot,  he  extracts  it  with  effort  The  animals  accustomed  to  the 
treatment  bear  with  the  birds  complacently,  and  apparently  perceive 
the  service  which  they  render  to  them  in  freeing  them  from  these 
true  parasites,  which  live  at  the  expense  of  their  proper  substance. 
The  Pique-Boeufs  however  are  not  the  only  birds  that  perch  upon  the 
backs  of  quadrupeds  and  lai^ge  birds,  for  many  other  onmivorous 
species  have  the  same  habit ;  but  these  last  content  themselves  with 


'/>■ 


Beef-Eater  {Buphaga  erythrorhyncha),  male. 

only  taking  away  the  parasites  which  are  attached  to  the  skin  of  those 
animals,  not  having  in  their  bills  the  necessary  strength  for  extirpating 
the  larvse  which  are  lodged  beneath  it ;  an  offioe  which  the  Corvut 
alhicoUit  (Le  Corbivau)  executes  as  well  as  the  Pique-Bceufs. 


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BUPLEUR0M. 


BURSATELLA. 


The  Pique-BoDufs  are  generally  seen  in  company,  but  they  never 
fly  in  large  flocks.  Le  Vaillant  rarely  saw  more  than  six  or  eight  in 
the  same  herd  of  buffaloes  or  antelopes;  and  M.  Riippell  never 
observed  them  ei^cept  in  bands  consisting  but  of  few  individuals 
about  the  camels  of  his  caravan.  They  are  vexy  wild  and  di£Elcult  of 
approach,  so  that  there  is  no  chance  of  obtaining  either  the  one  or 
the  other  species,  except  by  hiding  behind  an  ox  or  a  camel  and 
driving  it  gently  in  the  manner  of  a  stalking  horse  towards  those 
beasts  on  whose  backs  the  birds  are  perched.  When  sufficiently  near 
the  fowler  shows  himself,  and  brings  them  down  while  on  the  wing. 
Besides  the  larvae  of  the  gadfly,  these  birds  eat  the  ticks  when  they 
are  Aill  of  blood,  and  all  sorts  of  insects  generally. 

B,  trythrorhyncJia  was  received  by  Temminck  some  years  since 
from  the  Cape  of  Gk>od  Hope,  whither  it  had  been  brought  with  a 
number  of  other  birds  from  Madagascar.  Temminck  says  it  is  dis- 
tinguished from  its  congener  by  a  smaller  and  less  powerful  bill,  by 
the  red  colour  of  that  organ  (whence  it  is  called  in  French  Pique- 
BoDuf,  Bec-Corail — Beef-Eater,  Coral-Bill) — ^by  the  more  sombre  tints 
of  its  upper  plumage,  and,  finally,  by  its  smaller  proportions.  The 
upper  parts,  head,  and  throat  in  the  adult  are  ash-brown,  glazed  as  it 
were  with  bluish ;  the  lower  parts  are  yellowish-rust  or  dark  Isabella- 
colour.  The  total  length  is  7  inches,  about  one-third  less  than 
B,  Africanaf  whose  bill  is  yellow,  and  whose  geographical  distribu- 
tion seems  to  lie  in  the  southern  districts  and  on  the  western  coasts — 
parts  of  the  countiy  to  which  Temminck  expresses  his  belief  that 
B,  eryihrorhyncha  does  not  penetrate.  Temminck,  from  whose  work 
our  figure  and  description  are  taken,  says  that  no  particulars  as  to 
the  structure  of  the  n^  its  position,  or  the  period  of  incubation,  are 
yet  known. 

BUPLEURUM  (from  fiovs,  ox,  and  irXcOpov,  side),  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  UmhellifercBy  the  sub-order  Ortho8perme(e, 
the  tribe  AmminecB.  It  has  an  obsolete  calyx ;  entire  roundish  petals, 
with  a  closely  involute  broad  retuse  point ;  the  fruit  subdidymous ; 
carpels  with  equal  winged  or  filiform  and  sharp  or  obsolete  ridges ; 
interstices  with  or  without  vittee;  stylopodium  depressed.  The 
species  are  quite  smooth,  herbs  or  shrubs.  The  leaves  are  rarely  cut, 
in  most  instances  being  quite  entire.  This  arises  from  their  possessing 
no  lamina ;  they  are  composed  entirely  of  the  petioles,  and  are  in  fact 
phyllodia.     The  flowers  are  yellow. 

There  are  about  fifty  species  of  BupleurtMi,  They  are  natives  of 
temperate  climates  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  and  are  known  by 
the  common  name  of  Hare's-Ear.  When  eaten  by  cattle  they  are 
supposed  to  injure  them  and  cause  distension  of  the  abdomen  ;  hence 
the  generic  name.  B,  rotundifolivm  is  the  Thorow-Wax  of  the  herba- 
lists. It  has  a  branched  stem,  with  oval  perfoliate  leaves,  and  the 
fhiit  with  striate  interstices.  It  was  supposed  to  possess  especial 
virtues  as  a  vulnerary,  but  there  is  no  question  now  that  wounds  are 
better  without  any  such  applications.  There  are  three  other  British 
species,  B.  tenuisHmvmf  B.  aristcUunif  and  B.falccUum.  The  species  are 
sometimes  cultivated  in  gardens.  The  annual  species  only  require  to 
be  sown  in  the  open  ground  early  in  the  spring.  The  perennial  may 
be  increased  by  dividing  their  roots ;  the  shrubby  by  cuttings. 

(Don.  Oard.  Diet.  ;  Babington,  Man.  of  Brit.  Bot.) 

BUPRE'STID^,  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
PcrUamera  and  subjection  Steimoxi  (Latreille).  The  section  Stemoxi 
is  composed  of  two  great  groups  or  families,  Bupreatidce  and  ElateridcB : 
the  species  of  the  former  group  are  distinguished  from  the  latter 
principally  in  having  the  tarsi  dilated  (the  penultimate  joints  of  which 
ai«  bilobed)  and  furnished  beneath  with  velvet-like  pellets;  the  thorax 
neai'ly  straight  behind,  and  the  mandibles  entire,  that  is,  without  any 
notches  internally  near  the  apex ;  and  likewise  in  having  the  terminal 
joints  of  the  palpi  cylindrical,  or  nearly  so. 

The  form  of  the  body  in  the  Buprestidoi  is  somewhat  ovate,  the 
apex  of  the  elytra  being  more  or  less  pointed,  and  the  base  of  the 
thorax  of  nearly  equal  width  with  that  of  the  elytra ;  the  head  is 
placed  almost  vertically,  and  is  deeply  inserted  into  the  thorax,  so 
that  the  eyes  nearly  come  in  contact  with  that  part 

In  splendour  of  colouring  this  family  of  insects  surpasses  all  others 
among  the  Beetle  Tribe,  the  Cetoniadce  x>erhaps  excepted.  Green 
appears  to  be  the  most  frequent  colour,  but  shades  of  blue,  red, 
golden  or  copper-like  hue  are  not  uncommon,  and  these  colours  are  in 
most  cases  brilliant,  or  as  it  were  burnished. 

The  Buprestidce  are  found  on  the  trunks  and  leaves  of  trees,  and 
likewise  on  flowers  (on  the  latter  more  particularly  the  smaller 
species),  and  when  touched,  or  frequently  even  when  approached, 
they  apply  their  legs  and  antennse  close  to  the  body,  and  allow  them- 
selves to  fall  to  the  ground,  a  means  of  escape  frequently  practised  by 
insects ;  they  crawl  slowly>  but  in  hot  sunny  weather  are  frequently 
on  the  wing,  and  fl^  rapidly. 

About  500  species  have  been  discovered  belonging  to  this  tribe, 
which  are  for  the  most  part  from  the  tropics.  In  this  country  about 
20  species  have  been  found  at  large,  of  these  however  several  have 
most  probably  been  imported  with  timber  in  which  their  larva)  feed. 

The  genus  BuprfstiSf  which  is  now  only  restricted  to  a  few  of  the 
species  of  this  family,  is  distinguished  principally  by  the  following 
cnaracters  : — Antenntfi  serrated  from  the  third  or  fourth  joint  to  the 
apex;  labnim  attenuated  and  slightly  emoigiuated  anteriorly;  scu- 
tellum  distinct ;  body  nearly  ovate. 


The  elytra  of  this  genus  have  been  foimd  fossil  at  Stonesfield. 

BUPRESTIS.     [BuPRESTiD^.] 

BURATITE,  a  mineral  consisting  of  a  Carbonate  of  Copper,  Zinc, 
and  Lime,  with  water.  It  occurs  in  bluish  radiating  needles.  It 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  3*2.  It  is  found  at  Chessy  in  France,  in  the 
Altai  Mountains,  and  Tuscany. 

BURDOCK,  the  common  name  for  the  species  of  Arctium^  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Compontcg.  This  genus 
is  distinguished  by  its  globose  involucre,  the  bracts  termmating  in 
hooked  points,  and  imbricated,  the  flat  receptacle  with  rigid  subulate 
scales ;  the  fruit  compressed,  oblong ;  the  pappus  short,  pilose,  and 
distinct.  Two  species  of  this  genus  are  common  in  Great  Britain. 
A.  majuSf  the  Greater  Burdock,  is  characterised  by  its  laige  subcorym- 
bose  heads  and  its  cordate  ovate  leaves,  the  lowermost  of  which  attain 
a  very  large  size.  A.  miniu,  the  Lesser  Burdock,  has  small  h&id-s 
which  are  racemose.  The  leaves  are  smaller  than  in  the  last  specit^ 
They  were  both  described  as  Arctium  Lappa  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith 

BURGEON,  or  BOURGEON,  an  obsolete  English  and  modem 
French  name  of  a  Leaf-Bud.    [Bud.] 

BURMANNIA'CEiE,  Burmanniads,  the  Burmannia  Tribe,  a 
natural  order  of  plants  belonging  to  Lindley's  group  of  Epigynoua 
Endogens.  It  was  first  constituted  by  Sprengel  as  a  separate  order, 
and  is  sometimes  made  a  section  of  AmaryUidacecp.  The  species  of 
plants  belonging  to  this  order  are  herbaceous,  with  tufted  radicle, 
acute  leaves,  or  none  at  all,  with  terminal  flowers,  which  are  sefsoJe 
upon  a  2-  or  3-branched  rachis,  or  solitary.  The  flowers  are  her- 
maphrodite ;  the  perianth  tubular,  superior,  coloured,  membFuiotif, 
with  6  teeth,  the  3  inner  ones  minute,  the  outer  laiger,  with  a  wing  or 
keel  at  the  back ;  the  stamens  8,  inserted  in  the  tube  opposite  the 
petals,  with  sessile  2-celled  anthers  opening  transversely  with  a 
fleshy  connective,  and  sometimes  3  sterile  stamens  alternate  with 
them  ;  the  ovary  inferior  or  3-celled,  mauy-seedod,  with  the  diijeepi- 
ments  alternate  with  the  wings  of  the  perianth  ;  the  style  single ;  the 
stigma  3-lobed,  petaloid  ;  the  capsules  covered  by  the  withered 
perianth,  or  3-celled,  bursting  irregularly;  the  seeds  being  numerous, 
minute,  striated  with  an  aril,  fleshy  albumen,  and  minute  embryo. 

The  genus  Burmannia,  on  which  this  order  has  been  founded,  i^ 
variously  assigned  by  difierent  botanists.  Jussieu  placed  it  in  Bnme- 
liactce,  Brown  in  Juncacecs,  Von  Martins  in  Ilydrocharacta^  Blunie 
places  it  between  Juncacece  and  Iridaceo',  Lindley  between  Apoat<uiaa:(r 
and  Orchidacecc,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  propriety  of  con- 
stituting it  a  distinct  order.  The  species  are  natives  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America.  The  genera  referred  to  this  order  are  Burmannia, 
Gonyanthes,  Gymyiosipfion,  Apteria,  Dictyostega,  CymbocarpOj  and 
Stenoptera.  There  are  about  30  species.  They  have  not  very  c"->nspi- 
cuous  properties ;  the  Apteria  tetacea  is  said  by  Nuttall  to  pos^se^s 
tonic  and  astringent  properties.  Burmannia  ccerulca  is  also  said  to 
have  a  flavour  very  similar  to  that  of  green  tea. 

{Lmdl&yy  Natural  System  ;  Burnett,  Outlines  of  Botany.) 

BURNET.     [Sanguisorba  ;  Poterium.] 

BUR-REED.     [Sparganium.] 

BURSA'RIA,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  Polygastric  animals,  with  a 
membranous  body,  short,  and  a  little  bent  upon  itself,  so  as  to  be 
concave  below  and  convex  above. 

Lamarck  places  Bursar ia  among  his  Infusona,  observing  tliat  th^'ir 
body  is  delicate  and  membranous,  and  remarkable  by  its  concave  funa 
on  one  side,  which  sometimes  puts  on  the  appearance  of  a  boat,  S'^me- 
times  of  a  purse.  Their  movements  are  not  lively,  and  it  is  said  that 
they  are  irregular,  so  that  when  they  describe  a  spiral  line  fronj  right 
to  left  and  raise  themselves  in  the  water  they  move  with  tolcniWe. 
swiftness;  but  when  they  return  or  descend  they  only  proc€e«i 
slowly,  a  difference  of  velocity  attributable  to  their  form.  They  are 
abundant  in  fresh  and  stagnant  watera,  and  sea-water.  There  are 
many  species ;  the  most  common  is  Bwrsaria  truncatella.  It  is  so 
large  as  to  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  is  found  in  ditch-water. 

According  to  Ehrenberg,  the  Bursari<e,  as  well  as  the  Loxoda,  the 
Tracfielkff  &c.,  have  an  intestinal  tube  furnished  with  cseca. 
appendages  which  open  anteriorly  at  the  inferior  surface  of  the  Wy, 
and  posteriorly  at  its  extremity.  The  mouth  is  without  cilia  or 
hook«i,  and  there  is  no. ciliary  circle  on  the  front.  The  BursarKe 
differ  besides  from  the  other  two  genera  by  the  form  of  the  uppt^r 
lip,  which  is  compressed,  subcariuated,  or  swollen,  and  not  contracttii. 
The  body  of  the  Bursaria  is  for  the  most  part  covered  with  cilia. 

Some  of  the  species  are  found  parasiticfJ  in  other  animals.  B.  cnto- 
zoon  and  B.  intestinalis,  and  others,  are  foimd  in  the  rectiun  of  the 
frog.  . 

BURSATELLA,  a  genus  of  Marine  MoUuMca  without  any  traces  ot 
a  shell,  placed  by  De  Blainville  imder  his  second  family  Aplytiaf:^  "i 
his  third  order,  MonopUurohranchiata,  of  his  Paracephaloiihorn 
monoica.  The  following  is  De  Blainville's  definition  of  the  genus, 
which,  in  his  arrangement,  comes  between  Bolabella  and  Notarchn. 
Rang  thinks  it  ought  to  belong  to  the  genus  Aplysia  : — 

Body  subglobular ;  below,  an  oval  space  circumscribed  by  uij^| 
lips,  indicating  the  foot;  above,  a  symmetrical  oval  opening  wit ii 
thick  lips,  formed  by  the  complete  junction  of  the  natatoi-y  appen(U4fe.| 
of  the  mantle,  and  communicating  with  a  cavity  in  which  ^'^r""'. 
one  very  large  free  gill  and  the  vent  The  tentacula  arc  four,  dividea 
and  ramified,  besides  two  buccal  appendages. 


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BURSERA. 


BUSTARD. 


696 


Example,  BurscUfUa  Ije€tckii,  which  De  Blainville  says  is  tho  only 
gpeciea  of  the  genus.     It  is  large,  and  a  native  of  the  East  Indian  seas. 


BursatcUa  Lcachii, 

BURSERA.  [BcRSEKACEJt.]  Bursera  panicidata  yields  the  Bois  de 
Colophane. 

BURSERA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  Exogenous  plants,  consisting 
of  balsamic,  resinous,  or  gummy  plants  with  pinnated  leaves  and  small 
hermaphrodite  or  unisexual  polypetalous  flowers,  with  a  superior 
ovary  seated  in  a  lai^e  circular  disk.  The  fruit  is  a  2-5-celled  drupe, 
with  its  rind  sometimes  splitting  into  valves.  It  was  formerly 
included^  among  other  orders,  in  the  Tcrd>intace(e  of  Jussieu,  but  it 
differs  from  Amyridacece  and  Anacardiaceoe  in  its  compound  fruit. 
Myrrh,  frankincense,  olibanum,  balsam  of  Acouchi,  gum  elemi,  balm 
of  Gilead,  and  opobalsamum,  or  balsam  of  Mecca,  are  all  products  of 
different  species  of  the  order.  In  his  '  Vegetable  Kingdom,'  Lindley 
includes  this  order  xm^ev  Amyridace(^.  [Amyridack^.]  It  forms  a 
section  of  that  order  called  Buraeridce. 

BUSH-BUCK.    [ANTiLOPEiE.] 

BUST  AMITE,  a  Mexican  Mineral  consisting  of  Silica,  Manganese, 
and  Lime.  It  occurs  in  spherical  and  reniform  masses.  It  has  a 
hardness  of  6  to  6*5,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  3 '2. 

BUSTARD,  the  English  name  of  a  Bird  belonging  to  tho  genus 
Otxi.  The  species  are  land-birds  whose  proper  position  in  the  orni- 
thological system  has  caused  some  embarrassment  to  zoologists. 
Temminck  places  the  genus  Otis  under  his  twelfth  order,  Curdorts 
(Runners),  observing  that  the  genera  StrutkiOf  Rhea,  and  Casiuarius 
ought  to  stand  at  the  head  of  that  order.  Cuvier  arranges  the 
Bustards  under  the  PressirostreSj  his  second  family  of  his  fifth  order 
{^hassiera, — Grallce,  Linn.)  of  birds,  between  the  Cassowaries  on  one 
side  and  (Edknemva  (Thick-Kneed  Bustard  or  Stone  Curlew)  on  the 
other.  Temminck  makes  Cursorius  immediately  succeed  it,  and 
observes  that  among  the  species  of  that  genus  the  passage  between 
Otii  and  CuraoiHus  may  be  possibly  found.  It  appears  that  the 
Bustards  partake  of  the  organisation  of  the  Struthious,  Gallinaceous, 
and  Wading  Birds  (ifichassiers,  -  GraUatores).  Rhea,  without  alluding 
to  the  Jhdo  on  the  3truthi^»Vi  side.  ttJdicnemus  on  that  of  the  Plovers, 
and  the  Turkey  on  the  snie  ot  the  Gallinaceous  birds,  makej^ear 
approaches  to  the  genus  under  consideration ;  while  the  9&iittma  of 
Briason  {Microdactylus  of  Geoffrey,  JHcholophiu  of  Illiger),  a  South 
American  form,  seems  te  be  one  of  its  nearest  representatives  on  the 
new  continent,  [^'artama.]  Vigors  places  the  genus  in  his  family 
^rmhionidce  (order  Rcuorea),  which  occupies  a  position  between  tho 
Cracidce  and  the  Teiraonidae,  while  it  approximates  to  the  Oruidce  and 
Charadriadce  in  the  order  Grallatorca ;  and,  taking  all  the  cii-cum- 
frtances  into  consideration,  this  seems  to  be  the  best  arrangement 
hitherto  proposed. 

The  Bustaurds  live  generally  in  open  countries,  preferring  plains  or 
^de-spreading  extensive  downs  dotted  with  low  bushes  and  under- 
wood— localities  which  give  them  an  opportunity  of  descrying  their 
fnemy  from  afar.  They  are  said  to  fly  but  rarely,  running  from 
danger  with  exceeding  swiftness,  and  using  their  wings  like  the 
ortriches  to  accelerate  their  course.  When  they  do  take  wing  their 
flight  is  low,  and  they  skim  along  the  ground  with  a  sufficiently"  rapid 
aud  sustained  flight  Their  food  consists  of  vegetables,  insects, 
worms,  grain,  and  seeds.  They  are  polygamous,  one  male  living  with 
many  females,  which,  after  fecundation,'iive  solitary.  Temminck  says 
that  it  would  seem  that  they  moult  twice  a  year,  and  that  the  males 
in  the  greatest  number  of  species  differ  from  the  females  in  having 
extraordinary  ornaments,  and  in  possessing  a  more  variegated 
plumage.  He  further  observes  that  the  young  males  wear  the  garb 
of  the  female  during  the  first  and  second  year,  and  adds  his  suspicion 
that  tho  males  in  winter  have  the  same  plumage  as  the  females. 
Cuvier  notices  their  massy  port  and  the  slightly  arched  and  vaulted 
upper  mandible  of  their  beak,  which,  with  the  little  webs  or  palma- 
tions  between  the  baa9S  of  their  toes,  recal  the  form  of  the  Gallinaceous 


birds ;  but  he  adds  that  the  nudity  of  the  lower  part  of  their  legs,  all 
their  anatomy,  and  even  the  flavour  of  their  flesh,  place  them  among 
the  OraUatorea,  and  that,  as  they  have  no  hind  toe,  their  smallest 
species  approach  nearly  to  the  Plovers. 

The  following  is  the  character  of  the  genus  : — 

Bill  of  the  length  of  the  head  or  e^orter,  straight,  conical,  com- 
pressed, or  lightly  depressed  at  the  base ;  point  of  the  upper  mandible 
a  little  arched  (vout^e.) 

Nostrils  oval,  open,  approximated,  distant  from  the  base. 

Feet  long,  naked  above  the  knee ;  three  front  toes  short,  united  at 
their  base,  bordered  by  membranes. 

Wings  moderate,  the  third  quill  longest  in  each  wing. 

They  are  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ;  but  not  in  America. 

0.  tarda,  the  Great  Bustard,  is  the  Otia  and  Avia  tarda  of  B<non 
and  others;  Ostarde,  Houtarde,  Outarde,  Bistarde  of  the  French; 
Starda  and  Starda  Commune  of  tho  Italians  ;  Der  Grosse  Trappe, 
Trapp,  Trappgans,  and  Ackentrapp  of  the  Germans ;  Abutarda  (Avia 
tarda)  of  the  Spaniards ;  and  Gustard  of  the  old  Scotch. 

From  passages  in  the  'History  of  Animals'  (ii.  17,  vi.  6),  there  can 
be  scarcely  a  doubt  that  our  Great  Bustard  is  Aristotle's  ^Cirls. 
Indeed  the  doubts  originated  in  a  misunderstood  passage  in  the 
thirty-third  chapter  of  his  ninth  book ;  and  it  is  clear  from  several 
authorities  that  the  bird  and  the  quality  of  its  flesh  were  well  known 
to  the  Greeks.  Pliny  evidently  alludes  to  these  birds  as  those  "quas 
Hispania  aves  tardas  appellat,  Grsecia  otidas "  ('  Nat  Hist.'  x.  22) ; 
though  he  blimders  about  the  flesh,  telling  an  absurd  story  of  its 
effects,  which  arises  from  his  confounding  the  irris  with  Aristotle's 
«T(Jy,  an  owl. 

The  following  is  the  description  of  this  bird  given  by  Mr.  Selby : — The 
male  has  the  bill  strong,  grayish-white ;  the  under  mandible  palest. 
Head,  nape  of  the  neck,  and  ear-coverts,  bluish-gray.  A  streak  of 
black  passes  along  tho  crown  of  the  head,  reaching  to  the  occiput 
Chin-feathers  and  moustaches  composed  of  long  wiry  feathers,  with 


Great  Eusturd  {Ctit  iard<^),  u  a'.c. 

the  barbe  disunited  and  short  Fore  part  of  the  neck  clothed  with  a 
naked  bluish-black  skin,  extending  upwards  toward  the  ear-coverts, 
and  covering  the  gular  pouch.  Sides  of  the  neck  white,  tinged  with 
gray ;  lower  part  of  the  neck  fine  reddish-orange.  At  the  sotting  on 
of  the  neck,  or  between  the  shoulders,  is  a  space  destittrte  of  feathers, 
but  covered  with  a  soft  gray  down.  Scapulars  buff-orange,  barred 
and  spotted  with  black.  Back,  rump,  and  tail-coverts,  reddish-orange, 
barred  and  variegated  with  black.  Greater  coverts  and  some  of  the 
secondaries  bluish-gmy,  passing  towards  the  tips  into  grayish- white. 
Quills  brownish-black,  with  their  shafts  white.  Tail-feathers  white 
at  their  bases,  passing  towards  the  middle  into  brownish-orange,  with 
one  or  two  black  bars ;  the  tips  often  white,  and,  when  the  feathers 


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are  spread  laterally,  forming  a  segment  of  a  circle.  Upper  part  of 
the  breast  reddish-orange ;  lower  part,  belly,  and  vent,  white.  Legs 
black,  covered  with  round  scales.  Iridee  reddish-brown.  The  pos- 
session of  a  gular  pouch  by  these  birds,  which  was  first  recorded  by 
Dr.  Douglass,  seems  to  be  a  mistake,  as  Mr.  Tarrell  in  dissecting  a 
male  bustard  has  failed  to  detect  this  oi^gan.  The  average  length  of 
a  male  is  8  feet  8  inches. 

The  female  has  the  head  and  forepart  of  the  neck  of  a  deeper  gray, 
and  without  the  moustaches.  Back  of  the  lower  part  of  the  neck 
reddish-orange.  The  other  parts  of  the  plumage  similar  to  t^t  of 
the  other  sex.     Size  seldom  more  than  one-third  of  that  of  the  male. 


Great  Bubiard  '^Otia  tarda),  female. 

The  young  at  a  month  old  are  covered  with  a  buff-coloured  down, 
barred  u]x>n  the  back,  wings,  and  sides  with  black. 

With  regard  to  its  distribution,  Selby  says,  "  It  is  foimd  in  some 
provinces  of  France  and  in  parts  of  Germany  and  Italy.  It  is  com- 
mon in  Russia  and  on  the  extensive  plains  of  Tartary.  Temminck 
states  that  it  inhabits  some  departments  of  France,  of  Italy,  and 
Oermany :  that  it  is  less  abundant  towards  the  north  than  in  the 
south ;  and  that  it  is  very  rarely  and  accidentally  found  in  Holland. 
Graves  relates  that  the  species  is  dispersed  over  the  southern  parts 
of  Europe,  and  the  more  temperate  parts  of  Africa,  and  is  very 
abimdant  in  some  parts  of  Spain  and  Portugal  In  our  own  islands 
the  increase  of  population  and  civilisation,  followed  by  greater 
demands  on  the  land,  and  consequently  by  an  extension  of  cultivated 
surface,  have  so  reduced  the  Bustards,  that  xmless  care  be  taken  to 
preserve  the  few  which  remain,  they  will  soon  be  numbered  among 
the  other  extinct  species  of  our  Fauna.  The  following  are  notices 
of  the  old  British  localities  of  these  noble  birds.  "  They  are  called," 
says  Willughby,  "  by  the  Scots  GuBtard<g,  as  Hector  Boethius  witnes- 
seth  in  these  words : — In  March,  a  province  of  Scotland,  are  birds 
bred,  called  in  the  vulgar  dialect  Outtardes,  the  colour  of  whose 
feathers  and  their  flesh  is  not  unlike  the  partridges,  but  the  bulk  of 
their  body  exceeds  the  swans."  The  editor  of  the  last  edition  of 
Pennant  states  that  in  Sir  Robert  Sibbald's  time,  they  were  found  in 
the  Mers,  but  that  he  believes  that  they  are  now  extinct  in  Scotland. 
Willughby  also  says  (1678),  "  On  Newmarket  and  Royston  Heaths, 
in  Cambridgeshire  and  Suffolk,  and  elsewhere,  in  wastes  and  plains 
they  are  found  with  us."  Ray  (1713)  thus  writes:— "In  campis 
spatiosis  circa  Novum  Mercatum  (Newmarket)  et  Royston,  oppida  in 
agro  Cantabrigiensi,  inque  planitie,  ut  audio,  Salisburiensi,  et  alibi  in 
vastis  et  apertis  locis,  invenitur."  In  Brookes's  'Ornithology'  (1761) 
the  following  passage  occurs  : — "  This  bmi  (the  bustard)  is  bred  in 
several  parts  of  Europe,  and  particularly  in  England,  especially  on 
Salisbury  Flam,  Newmarket  and  Royston  Heaths,  in  Cambridgeshire 
and  Suffolk ;  for  it  delights  in  lai^e  open  places.  The  flesh  is  in  high 
esteem,  and  perhaps  the  more  so  because  it  is  not  very  easy  to  come 
at."  Pennant  says,  "  These  birds  inhabit  most  of  the  open  countries 
of  the  south  and  east  parts  of  this  island  from  Dorsetshire  as  far  as 
the  Wolds  m  Yorkshire." 

The  editor  of  the  last  edition  (1812)  observes  that  "the  breed  is 


now  nearly  extirpated,  except  on  the  Downs  of  Wiltshire,  where  it  is 
also  very  scarce."  The  figure  of  the  male  bird  given  by  Grayes  ia 
said  to  have  been  drawn  from  one  taken  alive  on  Salisbury  Pl&ia  b 
1797.  Montagu  in  his  *  Dictionary '  (1802)  says  that  m  thw  locality  it 
had  become  very  rare  from  the  great  price  given  for  the  eggs  and 
young  to  hatch  and  rear  in  confinement.  In  his  '  Supplement'  (1813) 
he  states  that  not  one  had  been  seen  there  for  two  or  three  yean 
previous.  Graves  says  that,  in  the  spring  of  1814,  he  saw  fivebirdi 
on  the  extensive  plains  between  Thetford  and  Brandon,  in  Norfolk. 
from  which  neighbourhood  in  1819  he  received  a  single  e^^,  wbich 
had  been  found  in  a  large  warren.  In  the  autumn  of  1819,  he  add:, 
a  large  male  bird  which  had  been  surprised  by  a  dog  on  Nevmartet 
Heath,  was  sold  in  Leadenhall  Market  for  five  gmneas ;  and  b  ihi 
same  year,  he  continues,  a  female  was  captured  under  siniikr  cin-uiH' 
stances  on  one  of  the  moors  in  Yorkshire.  When  the  mania  for  i-cfi 
British  specimens  of  birds  was  prevalent,  the  bustards  suffered  c-n 
a  little.  We  know  a  collector  who,  about  the  year  1816,  had  niw 
dead  bustards  before  him  together:  they  came  finom  Norfolk  In 
1830  a  young  male  was  shot  on  Shelf ord  Common,  in  Cambridgeshire, 
and  in  1832  a  specimen  was  killed  at  Caxton  in  the  same  county.  In 
1843  one  was  shot  in  Cornwall  on  an  open  plain  between  Helston  and 
the  Lizard  Point.  It  is  very  certain,  fi*om  these  notices,  that  thid  bird 
is  becoming  every  day  more  rare  in  England,  and  will  probably  g<xA 
be  whoUy  absent  from  its  Fauna. 

With  regard  to  its  food  Willughby  says  that  the  Bustard  fecdi 
upon  com,  seeds  of  herbs,  colewort,  dandelion  leaves,  &c.  In  the 
stomach  of  one  which  he  dissected  he  foimd  a  great  quantity  of 
hemlock-seed,  with  three  or  four  grains  of  barley,  and  that  in  harvest 
time.  Brookes  states  that  they  feed  upon  frogs,  mice,  small  bbls. 
and  diflerent  kinds  of  insects.  Pennant  makes  their  food  to  consst 
of  com  and  other  vegetables,  and  those  large  earth-worms  tb&t 
appear  on  the  Downs  before  sun-rising  in  the  summer.  Montarn 
states  it  to  be  green  com,  the  tops  of  turnips,  and  various  oth-r 
vegetables,  as  well  as  worms ;  but  adds,  that  they  have  been  bow.. 
to  eat  frogB,  mice,  and  young  birds  of  the  smaller  kind,  which  tkv 
can  swallow  whole.  Turnip-tops  are  certainly  a  favourite  article  of 
diet  with  these  birds ;  and  we  believe  that  the  nine  bustards  ab-^ve 
mentioned  owed  their  fate  to  their  fondness  for  this  vegetable— beic? 
laid  in  wait  for  at  their  feeding-time.  Tnmminck  says  that  tbt'r 
nourishment  consists  very  much  of  insects  and  worms,  and  also  of 
grain  and  seeds. 

The  eggs  of  the  Bustard,  two  in  number  generally,  sometiiiit- 
three,  arc  laid  upon  the  bare  ground,  which  is  often  a  little  hollowed 
out  by  the  female  (occasionally,  says  Selby,  among  clover,  but  mon' 
frequently  in  corn-fields),  early  in  the  spring.  They  rather  excwii 
those  of  a  turkey  in  size,  and  their  colour  is  a  yellowish-briwc. 
inclining  to  oil-green,  with  slight  darker  variations.  Time  of  incu 
bation  four  weeks.  The  young  as  soon  as  hatched  follow  the  parent, 
but  are  incapable  of  flight  for  a  long  time. 

The  extreme  rapidity  of  their  running,  and  the  unwillingness  to 
rise  on  the  wing  exhibited  by  these  birds,  have  been  the  tiieme  of 
most  ornithologists.  We  have  also  many  accounts  of  their  beinjj 
coursed  with  dogs.  The  following  is  from  Brookes :— "  There  are 
also  bustards  in  France  which  frequent  large  open  plains,  particulaxlv 
near  Chalons,  where  in  the  winter  time  there  are  great  number?  of 
them  seen  together.  There  is  always  one  placed  as  a  sentinel,  at  some 
distance  from  the  flock,  which  gives  notice  to  the  rest  of  any  danger. 
They  raise  themselves  from  the  ground  with  great  diflBculty ;  for  they 
run  sometimes  a  good  way,  beating  their  wings  before  they  fly. 
They  take  them  with  a  hook  baited  with  an  apple  or  flesh  Som*^ 
times  fowlers  shoot  them  as  they  lie  concealed  behind  some  eminence. 
or  on  a  load  of  straw ;  others  take  them  with  greyhounds,  which 
often  catch  them  before  they  are  able  to  rise."  Selby,  who  has 
evidently  had  good  opportunities  of  observation,  thus  write*  in  hi« 
*  Illustrations  :—"  Although,  in  a  state  of  confinement,  the  bustard 
becomes  tolerably  tame  to  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  attending 
it,  yet  it  displays  at  all  times  considerable  ferocity  towards  strangers; 
and  all  attempts  to  continue  the  breed  in  that  state  have  been  without 
success.  With  respect  to  its  habits  in  the  wild  state,  it  is  so  shy  « 
seldom  to  be  approached  within  gun-shot ;  invariably  selecting  the 
centre  of  the  largest  inclosure,  where  it  walks  slowly  about,  or  stand* 
with  the  head  reposing  backwards  upon  the  bare  part  of  its  neck, 
and  frequently  with  one  leg  drawn  up.  Upon  being  disturbed.*) 
far  from  nmning  in  preference  to  flight  (as  has  been  often  descrilied|. 
it  rises  upon  the  wing  with  great  facility,  and  flies  with  much  strength 
and  swiftness,  usually  to  another  haunt,  which  will  sometimes  be  »t 
the  distance  of  six  or  seven  miles.  It  has  also  been  said  that  m 
former  days  when  the  species  was  of  common  occurrence,  it  wa.^  » 
practice  to  nm  the  young  birds  (before  they  were  able  to  fly)  with 
greyhounds.  So  far  from  this  possibility  existing  with  the  present 
remnant  of  the  breed,  the  young  birds  upon  being  alarmed  constantly 
squat  close  to  the  groimd,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  young  of  the 
lapwing,  golden  plover,  &c.,  and  in  that  position  are  frequently  taken 
by  hand;  indeed  this  is  even  the  habit  of  the  female  during 
incubation."  Selby's  remarks  on  its  powers  of  flying  are  corroborated 
by  the  'Booke  of  Falconrie  or  Hawking'  (1611),  where,  under  the 
head  of  '  Other  flights  to  the  fielde  called  great  flights,'  at  p.  83,  we 
find  it  thus  written  : — "  There  is  yet  another  kind  of  flight  to  the 


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fielde,  called  the  great  flight,  as  to  the  cranes,  wild  geese,  bustard, 
bird  of  paradise,  bittors,  shovelars,  hearons,  and  many  other  such 
like,  and  these  you  may  flee  from  the  fist,  which  is  properly  tearmed 
the  source.  Neverthelesse,  in  this  kind  of  hawking,  which  is  called 
the  Great  Flight,  the  falcons  or  other  hawkes  cannot  well  accomplish 
their  flight  at  the  cranes,  bustard,  or  such  like,  unlesse  they  have  the 
heipe  of  some  spaniell,  or  such  dogge,  wel  inured  and  taiight  for  that 
purpose  with  your  hawke.  Forasmuch  as  great  flights  require 
pleasant  ayde  and  assistance,  yea  and  that  with  great  diligence."  As 
an  article  of  food  the  flesh  of  the  bustard  is  held  in  great  estimation. 
It  is  dark  in  colour,  short  in  fibre,  but  sweet  and  well-flavoured. 

0.  tetrcuc,  the  Little  Bustard,  is  only  an  accidental  winter  visitor  in 
Great  Britain.  Specimens  have  been  killed  in  various  parts  of  our 
coast.  It  is  frequent  in  the  southern  and  south-western  parts  of 
Russia.  It  is  common  in  France,  and  also' found  in  Spain,  Provence, 
Sardinia,  Italy,  and  Sicily.  It  is  also  an  inhabitant  of  North  Africa, 
Turkey,  and  Greece. 

0.  nigricepa  is  a  native  of  Asia.  The  specimen  from  which  the 
figure  in  Mr.  Gk)uld*B  magnificent  work  (*  Century  of  Birds  from  the 
Himalaya  Moimtains ')  was  taken  was  brought  from  the  highlands  of 
the  Himalaya,  but  it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  that  locality.  Colonel 
Sykes  obeerved  it  in  the  wide  and  open  country  of  the  Mahrattas, 
where  it  lives  in  large  flocks,  and  where  it  is  considered  one  of  the 
greatest  delicacies  as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  indeed  so  abundant  in 
the  Deccan,  that  Colonel  Sykes  records,  in  the  *  Proceedings  of  the 
Zoological  Society,'  that  one  gentleman  shot  nearly  a  thousand. 

The  male  has  the  body  above  pale  bay,  lightly  undulated  with 
rufous-brown ;  neck,  a  few  spots  on  the  wings,  and  belly,  white ;  the 
head,  which  is  crested,  the  outer  wing-coverts,  the  quills,  and  tho 
large  mark  on  the  breast,  black;  irides  deep-brown;  bill  and  feet 
yellowish.    Length,  inclusive  of  tail,  564  inches  ;  tail,  134  inches. 


brown.     Quills  black.    Feet  yellowish-green.    Bill  brown,  yellow  at 
the  base.     Length  20  inches ;  height,  when  erect,  17  inches  6  lines. 

Le  Vaillant  discovered  this  species  in  the  interior  of  South  Africa, 
inhabiting  the  Kaffir  country  and  some  parts  of  the  colony  ,of  the 
Cape  of  Gk>od  Hope.  Temminck,  from  whom  the  description  and 
figure  are  taken,  says  that  he  is  ignorant  whether  the  female  difiers 
in  plumage  from  the  male,  of  which  latter  sex  were  the  two  indi- 
viduals he  had  seen.  There  are  specimens  in  the  museums  of  ParLs 
and  of  the  Netherlands. 


Otis  nlgriccpSf  male. 

The  female  resembles  the  male  in  plumage,  but  is  only  414  inches 
including  the  tail,  which  is  104  inches. 

The  eggs,  of  which  Colonel  Sykes  found  only  one  in  a  hole  in  the 
earth  on  the  open  plain  and  that  considerably  advanced  in  the  process 
of  incubation,  were  in  shape  a  perfect  oval,  and  in  colour  a  brown-olive, 
with  obscure  blotches  of  darker  brown-olive.  Length  3j^  inches, 
diameter  2/^  inches. 

0.  cantUicma  is  an  inhabitant  of  Africa.  The  summit  of  the  head 
is  marked  with  black  and  reddish  zig-zags,  straight  and  nearly  approxi- 
mated. Above  the  eyes  extends  a  large  whitish  baud,  punctured  as 
it  were  with  brown ;  plumes  near  the  ear-opening  of  a  clear  ruddy 
colour.  Under  the  neck  a  demi-circular  band  of  pure  white ;  and 
Ulow  another  twice  as  large,  of  deep  black.  Front  of  the  neck, 
breast,  and  all  the  other  lower  parts  of  a  lead-colour.  All  the  upper 
parts  of  the  body  of  a  reddish  or  yellowish  brown,  marked  with  black 
^^<?-Hig«  and  dots  very  nearly  together.  Lower  coverts  of  the  wings  and 
tail-feathers  unspotted,  ruddy.    End  of  the  tail  black,  tir.ged  with 


Otis  cwiulcsccns,  male. 

0.  Denkami,  the  African  Bustard  met  with  by  Major  Denham  neai* 
the  larger  towns,  did  not  occur  in  any  great  abundance.  It  frequented 
moist  places  where  the  herbage  was  pure  and  fresh,  and  where  it  was 
taken  in  snares  by  the  natives  for  food.  It  was  almost  invariably 
seen  singly,  Major  Denham  never  having  observed  a  pair  together 
more  than  once.  It  was  always  found  in  company  vrith  gazelles : 
whenever  a  bustard  was  observed  it  was  certain  that  the  gazelles  were 
not  far  distant.  Major  Denham  praises  its  large  and  brilliant  eye. 
The  Arabs  are  accustomed  to  compare  the  eyes  of  their  most  beautiful 
women  to  those  of  the  Oubara,  which  seems  to  be  a  general  name  for 
the  bustards  in  Africa.  Gmelin  has  given  the  title  as  a  specific  dis- 
tinction to  an  African  bustard  smaller  than  Major  Denham' s,  which 
is  3  feet  9  inches  in  length.  But  this  is  smell  in  comparison  with  the 
Kori  Bustard  (Otis  Kori)  discovered  by  Mr.  Burchell  in  South  Africa, 
for  that  stood  upwards  of  5  feet  high,  and  may  be  considered  the 
most  gigantic  development  of  the  form  hitherto  observed* 

Burchell,  in  his  Travels  in  the  interior  of  Southern  Africa,  gives  the 
following  account  of  his  becoming  possessed  of  this  noble  Bustard  on 
the  banks  of  the  Orange  River :— "  We  shot  a  large  bird  of  the  bustard 
kind,  which  was  called  Wilde  Paauw  (Wild  Peacock).     This  name  is 

here  very  wrongly  applied,  as  the  

bird,  to  which  it  properly  belongs 

differs  from  this  in  every  respect. 

There  are  indeed  three,  or  perhaps 

four,  birds  to  which  in  difierent 

districts  this  appellation  is  given. 

The  present  species,  which  is  called 

Kori  in  .the   Sichuana  language, 

measured  in  extent  of  wing  not 

less  than  7  feet,  and  in  bulk  and 

weight  was  almost  greater  than 

some  of  the  people  could  manage. 

The  imder  part  of  the  body  was 

white,   but  the   upper  part  was 

covered  with  fine  lines  of  black  on 

a  light  chestnut-coloured  ground. 

The  tail  and  quill-feathers  pai-took 

of  the  genei^  colouring  of  the 

back ;  the  shoulders  we¥c  marked 

with  large  blotches  of  bla^k  and 

white,  and  the  top  of  tho  h*id  was  black ;  the  feathers  of  the  occiput 

were  elongated  into  a  orc«t ;  those  of  the  neck  were  also  elongated, 

loose,  narrow,  and  pointed,  smd  were  of  a  whitish  colour  marked  with 

numerous  transverse  lines  of  black.    The  irides  were  of  a  beautiful. 


Head  of  Kori  Bustard  {Otis  Kori). 


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pellucid,  changeable,  silvery,  femigineous  colour.  A  representation 
of  the  head  of  the  Kori  Bustard  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 
Its  body  was  so  thickly  protected  by  feathers  that  our  largest  sized 
shot  made  no  impression,  and  taught  by  experience  the  hunters  never 
fire  at  it  but  with  a  bullet  It  is  reckoned  the  best  of  the  winged 
game  in  the  country,  not  only  on  account  of  its  size  but  because  it  is 
always  found  to  abound  in  fat.  The  meat  of  it  is  not  unlike  that  of 
a  turkey,  but  is  certainly  superior  as  possessing  the  flavour  of  game." 

BUTCHER-BIRD.    [Laniada] 

BUTCHER'S-BROOM.     [Ruscus.] 

BUTEA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Legumi- 
noBce,  named  nfter  John,  Earl  of  Bute,  a  great  patron  of  botanists. 
It  has  a  campanulate  calyx,  5-toothed,  the  two  superior  teeth 
approximate  and  almost  connected ;  the  corolla  with  a  lanceolate 
spreading  vexillum;  keel  incurved,  equal  in  length  to  wings  and 
vexillum ;  the  stamens  diadelphous;  the  legume  stipitate,  compressed, 
flat,  meuibranoiis,  indehiscent,  l-seeded  at  the  apex  ;  the  seed  large, 
compressed.  The  species  are  natives  of  the  East  Indies.  They  are 
unarmed  trees,  with  pinnately  trifoliate  leaves,  with  racemes  of  deep 
scarlet  flowers. 

B.  frondosa  has  pubescent  branches  ;  roundish  obtuse  or  emarginate 
leaflets,  velvety  beneath;  the  corolla  four  times  thp  length  <»f  the 
calyx ;  the  calycine  teeth  rather  acute.  It  is  a  native  of  mountainous 
districts  in  Hindustan.  A  red  juice  flowa  from  this  tree,  which  when 
evaporated  is  found  to  consist  principally  of  tannin,  and  is  brought 
into  the  market  under  the  name  of  East  Indian  Kino.  The  juice  of 
the  common  flowers,  which  in  this  species  are  two  inches  long,  gives 
to  water  a  bright  yellow  colour  similar  to  gamboge.  This  property  is 
al8(\^os8e88ed  by  the  dried  petals.  "  The  lac  insects  are  frequently 
found  upon  the  smaller  branches  of  the  tree,  but  whether  the  natural 

i'uices  of  its  bark  contribute  to  improve  their  red  colouring  matter 
las  not  been  determined."     (G.  Don.) 

B.  tuperha  hajs  glabrous  branches ;  roundish  ovate  obtuse  leaflets, 
velvety  beneath ;  the  corolla  four  times  the  length  of  the  calyx  ;  calyx- 
teeth  acute.  It  grows  on  the  mountains  of  Coromandel.  It  resembles 
the  last  species,  but  is  larger  in  all  its  parts.  It  yields  the  same  kind 
of  juice.     There  are  two  other  species  described, 

(G.  Don,  Gardener's  Dictionary  ;  Lindley,  VegdahU  Kingdom.) 

BUTEO,  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  order  Rapt  ores 
and  the  family  Falconid^e.  It  includes,  according  to  Yarrell,  two 
British  species,  B.  vulgaris,  the  Common  Buzzard,  and  B.  lagopus,  the 
Rough-Legged  Buzzard.  [Falconidjs.]  Various  other  species  of  the 
Falconidce  have  been  included  under  this  generic  name.  (Yarrell, 
British  Bird^.) 

BUTOMA'CE^,  BiUomads,  the  Butomus  Tribe,  a  natural  orJer  of 
Endogens,  the  type  of  which  is  the  BiUomus  umbcUatus,  a  common 


Flowering  Rush  {Butomus  unibclfafus). 

1 ,  A  section  of  a  portion  of  a  leaf ;  S,  an  entire  flower ;  3,  the  carpels ; 
4,  tiic  ripe  fruit ;  5,  a  separate  carpel ;  0,  a  transverse*  section,  showing  how 
the  whole  lining  of  the  ripe  carpels  is  covered  with  seeds;  7,  a  seed  much 
magnified ;  8,  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  same ;  9,  a  ^eed  germinating ; 
10,  the  same  in  a  more  advanced  state;  e,  the  cotyledon;  &,  the  plumule 
sprouting ;  a,  the  radicle  just  bursting  through  its  integuments.  (N.B.  This 
offers  an  illustration  of  the  endorhisal  mode  of  germination,) 

water-plant  of  this  country.    It  is  vulgarly  called  the  Flowering  Rush, 
and  is  accounted  the  handsomest  herbaceous  plant  of  the  British 


Flora.  Butomacea:  are  briefly  characterised  by  being  Tripetaloideous 
Endogens  (that  is,  with  three  sepals  distinct  in  size  and  colour  from 
the  three  petals),  with  several  carpels,  the  whole  lining  of  which  \r 
covered  with  seeds.  This  simple  circumstance  cuts  them  off  from 
Alisviac€(B,  with  which  they  were  once  associated,  and  also  di8tinguii»he.s 
them  from  all  other  monocotyledonous  orders.  The  order  is  a  very 
small  one,  not  containing  more  than  three  known  genera,  and  about 
half  a  dozen  species,  natives  of  equinoctial  America,  exclusive  of  the 
Buiomxu  umbellatut  of  England,  and  another  species  of  the  same  geniu 
occurring  iu  Nepal. 

Butomus  umbellatus  is  a  rush-like  plant  with  three-cornered  sword- 
shaped  leaves,  and  umbels  of  handsome  rose-coloured  flowers,  con- 
taining nine  stamens,  a  peculiarity  by  which  it  is  immediately 
i-ecognised  among  other  wild  flowers.  The  roots  of  it  are  r^rded  in 
Russia  as  a  specific  iu  hydrophobia ;  but  experiments  made  with  them 
in  this  country  have  not  confirmed  the  accounts  of  their  influence  in 
this  utterly  incurable  disease  recorded  by  the  Russian  phyaiciana. 

BUTT,  a  name  for  the  Flounder.     [Platessa.] 

BUTTER-BUR.    [Petasites.] 

BUTTER-FISH.    [Mur^noides.] 

BUTTERFLY.    [Lepidoptera.] 

BUTTERFLY-FISH.     [Blennics.] 

BUTTERFLY-ORCHIS.    [Platanthera.] 

BUTTERFLY-PLANT.     [Oncidium.] 

BUTTERFLY-WEED,  a  name  given  in  the  United  States  to  the 
Asclepxa*  iuberosa.     [Asclepias.] 

BUTTERS,  VEGETABLE,  the  name  given  to  the  concrete  oil  of 
certain  vegetables,  from  its  resemblance  to  the  butter  obtained  from 
the  milk  of  animals,  and  from  being  employed  for  similar  purposesi. 
The  term  is  also  occasionally,  but  improperly,  applied  to  Bome 
vegetable  products  which  are  entirely  of  a  waxy  nature,  such  as  the 
wax  of  the  Myrica  cenfcra.  The  name  is  likewise  bestowed  in  Siberia 
on  certain  alga3,  species  of  the  genus  NostoCy  such  as  N.  prunifarmL 
The  most  importnnt  Vegetable  Butters  are  produced  by  the  Bastia 
butyracca  and  other  species  of  that  genus  {Bastia)  and  certain  palms, 
such  as  the  Cocos  biUyracea  and  the  Elais  Guineerms  ;  the  former  of 
which  is  of  great  utility  to  the  inhabitants  of  Brazil,  where  it  growH 
naturally,  and  to  the  negroes  of  St  Domingo,  where  it  is  cultivated; 
while  the  latter  is  very  serviceable  to  the  natives  of  Guinea. 

{Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge —  Vegetable  Substances,  MattriaU 
of  Manufacture  J  p.  221.) 

BUTTER-TREE.     [Bassia.] 

BUTTERWORT.     [Pinodicdla.] 

BUXBAUMIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  uatui-al  order  of 
Mosses.  It  was  named  in  honour  of  J.  C.  Buxbaum,  a  Gerraan 
botanist,  and  author  of  a  catalogue  of  plants  of  the  environs  of  Halle, 
and  who  first  detected  this  moss  in  Russia.  Buxbaumia  has  an  oblique 
gibbous  capsule ;  a  double  peristome,  the  outer  consisting  of  numerous 
filiform  erect  joiutless  teeth,  the  inner  a  plaited  membranous  cone ; 
a  minute  mitriform  calyptra.  There  is  but  one  species  of  this  singular 
genus,  the  B.  apkylla.  This  plant  is  destitute  of  apparent  leaves,  and 
looks  more  like  a  fungus  than  a  moss.  The  ascending  axis  of  the 
plant  is  in  fact  reduced  to  a  little  conical  bulb,  which  is  clothe<l  with 
minute  scales,  and  these  Mr.  Robert  Brown  pointed  out  as  its  leave:». 
From  the  bulb  arises  a  red  tuberculated  seta  bearing  the  reproductive 
organs,  which  is  about  an  inch  high.  It  is  a  very  rnre  ]>laut  It  was 
first  discovered  in  Great  Britain  at  Sproughton  near  Norwich.  It  hft.<» 
also  been  found  in  three  or  four  localities  in  Scotland.  (Smith's 
English  Flora^  vol.  v.) 

BUXUS,  the  genus  of  plants  whose  species  afford  the  valuable  Linl 
wood  called  Box.  It  is  remarkable  botanically  as  being  the  most 
northern  arborescent  plant  of  the  natural  order  Euphorbiacece,  all  the 
other  trees  of  which  are  confined  to  mild  or  tropical  climates.  Its 
essential  character  is  to  have  both  the  male  and  female  flowers  upon 
the  same  individual;  a  3-  or  4 -parted  calyx  ;  in  the  males  a  2-lobe*i 
scale  and  4  stamens  placed  round  the  rudiment  of  an  ovary ;  in  the 
females  8  small  scales,  3  styles,  3  blunt  stigmas,  and  a  3-honK^i 
3-celled  S-seeded  capsular  fruit 

The  only  two  certain  species  are  B.  sempei'virens  and  B.  BaJearica. 
The  former,  or  common  Box,  foi-ms  a  large  evergreen  bush  or  small  tree, 
common  all  over  the  south  of  Europe,  from  Spain  to  Constantinople, 
and  reaching  even  so  far  as  the  north  of  Persia.  In  this  country  it  is 
only  found  on  warm  chalky  hills.  Many  varieties  are  known  in  gardens, 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  Dwarf-Box,  so  much  used  for  the 
edgings  of  walks.  Between  this  and  the  arborescent  form  the 
difference  is  so  great,  that  one  wonders  how  they  can  be  both  the 
same  species,  and  Miller  and  others  have  even  considered  them  difitinct. 
But  De  Candolle  states  that  the  wild  plant  in  France  is  very  variable 
in  size,  rising  in  some  places  to  the  height  of  15  or  20  feet,  and  in 
rocky  localities  not  exceeding  3  feet.  It  is  from  the  arborescent 
Buxus  sempervirens  that  box-wood  is  obtained.  For  the  turner,  for 
mathematical  instruments,  and  especially  for  the  uses  of  the  woo<l 
engraver,  it  is  invaluable.  The  Fi-ench  employ  it  for  coat-button?. 
Ac.  "  The  value  of  the  box-wood  sent  from  Spain  to  Pari^  i^ 
reported  to  amount  to  about  10,000  francs  a  year.  In  1815,  the 
box-trees  cut  down  on  Box-Hill,  near  Dorking  in  Surrey,  produced 
upwards  of  10,000^"  (Macculloch,  *  Dictionary  of  Commerce.')  Great 
quantities  are  imported   from   Turkey,  and  of  fine  quality.     The 


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BUZZARD. 


BYSSOMA. 


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l-:ayefl  have  been  employed,  medicinally,  as  a  tonic^  a  substitute  for 
Peruvian  bark. 

Biumt  BaUarica,  the  Majorca  Box,  is  a  handsomer  plant  than  the 
other,  with  broader  leaves,  and  a  more  rapid  gi'owth  ;  but  it  is  much 
more  impatient  of  cold.  Plants  of  it  however  live  in  the  neighbour- 
iiood  of  London  without  protection.  It  is  found  wild  in  the  neigh- 
iTourhood  of  Lluch  in  Majorca,  on  the  hills,  at  the  height  of  1500 
feet ;  and  it  also  occurs  abundantly  on  Mount  Galatzo,  where  it  is 
xningled  with  the  palmetto,  but  not  in  great  masses.  We  find  nothing 
2X1  books  concerning  the  quality  of  its  wood ;  but  there  is  reason  to 
suppose  that  a  part  at  least  of  the  Spanish  and  Turkey  box-wood  is 
£urmshed  by  this  species. 
BUZZARD.     [Falconid^] 

BYRRHUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  instituted  by  Linnaeus, 

l>clongmg  to  the  family  of  ByrrhidcR  as*^  defined  by  Leach.     The 

beetles  composing  it  are  more  or  less  globose,  very  convex,  and 

sericeous ;  the  club  of  their  antennae  is  5-jointed,  and  is  gradually 

tliickened  to  the  extremity.     The  elytra  cover  the  body,  and  the 

animal  can  so  contract  its  legs  as  to  pack  them  in  cavities  adapted  for 

their  reception  on  the  imder  side  of  the  body.     This  it  does  when 

alarmed,  simidating  death.     The  larva  of  the  common  species,  the 

Syrrhua  pUulaj  popularly  known  as  the  Pill-Beetle,  is  of  an  elongate 

form,  narrow,  with  a  large  head,  the  dorsal  plate  of  the  first  segment 

large,  and  the  two  terminal  segments  lai^er  than  the  others.     Seven 

British  species  of  Byrrkua  are  eniunerated  by  Mr.  Stephens  in  his 

*  SyHtematic  Catalogue  of  British  Insects.'     (Westwood,  Introduction 

to  Entomohffy.) 

BYRSONIMA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Malpighiaeea.  The  bark  of  the  species  is  astringent,  and  is  used 
extensively  for  tanning  in  the  Brazils.  The  wood  of  some  of  the 
species,  especially  B.  verhascifoliOf  is  of  a  bright  red.  The  bark  of 
A  craaifolia  is  used  in  fevers.  B.  crasHfolia  is  one  of  the  thousand 
remedies  for  rattlesnake  bites.  It  is  called  Chapera  Manteca.  The 
Alcomoco  Bark  is  the  produce  of  B.  laurifoUa,  B.  rhopaUsfoliOf  and 
B.  coccolobafolia.  The  acid  and  astringent  berries  of  B.  spiccUa  are 
said  to  be  good  in  dysentery.     (Lindley,  Vegetable  Kingdom.) 

BYSSA'CE^,  a  tribe  of  Cryptogamic  Plants,  raised  by  some 
botaniats  to  the  importance  of  a  distinct  order,  whilst  others  refer  it 
either  to  the  Lichens  or  the  Fwngi,  or  distribute  its  genera  amongst 
the  various  orders  of  Cryptogamia.  Fries  places  this  group  of  plants 
in  the  natural  order  of  Lichens,  with  the  following  definition : — 
'*  Aerial,  perennial,  constantly  growing,  with  a  filamentous  texture, 
consisting  of  solid  fibres  (either  few,  or  several  glued  together,  with 
a  common  bark),  unchanged  and  permanent.  Fructification  homo- 
geneous, growing  externally  and  naked."  Many  of  the  species  of 
plants  referred  to  this  order  are  of  a  very  doubtful  nature,  and 
particular  states  of  decaying  vegetable  and  animal  matter  have 
undoubtedly  been  described  as  plants,  and  placed  amongst  them. 
These  forms  of  matter,  whatever  they  may  be,  are  not  less  interesting 
to  the  naturalist  than  if  they  came  under  his  definition  of  a  plant. 

The  genus  BJuzomorpha  [Rhizomobpha]  is  referred  by  most 
botanists  to  Byssacea.  Some  authors  have  doubted  their  specific  vege- 
table character.  The  various  forms  are  found  on  decaying  wood,  and 
in  mines,  pits,  and  dark  places.  In  the  coal-mines  of  Dresden  they 
form  objects  of  great  interest  on  account  of  their  phosphorescence. 
JVIr.  Erdmann,  quoted  by  Burnett  in  his  '  Outlines  of  Botany,'  gives 
the  following  account  of  this  phenomenon  in  one  of  the  Dresden 
mines: — "I  saw,"  he  riiays,  "the  luminous  plants  here  in  wonderful 
beauty ;  the  impression  produced  by  the  spectacle  I  shall  never  forget. 
It  appeared,  on  descending  into  the  mine,  as  if  we  were  entering  an 
enchanted  castle.  The  abundance  of  these  plants  was  so  great  that 
the  roof  and  walls  and  the  pillars  were  entirely  covered  with  them,  and 
tho  beautiful  light  they  cast  around  almost  dazzled  thb  eye.  The 
light  they  give  out  is  like  faint  moonshine,  so  that  two  persons  near 
each  other  could  readily  distinguish  their  bodies.  The  lights  appeal* 
to  be  most  considerable  when  the  temperature  of  the  mines  is  com- 
paratively high."  One  of  the  species,  Rhizomwpha  cinchonarum,  Is 
found  on  the  cinchona  barks  of  commerce,  and  is  a  sure  indication  of 
their  worthless  state.  Another  species  of  Byssacea,  HimaiUia  cinchon- 
arum  of  F^  is  an  evidence  of  the  subputrescent  state  of  the  barks 
on  which  it  is  found.  Racodium  is  a  genus  referred  by  Fries  to  this 
group  of  plants.  The  R  ceUare  is  a  common  plant  in  wine-cellars, 
where  it  forms  a  kind  of  tapestry  on  the  walls  and  roofs,  investing 
the  casks  and  bottles  with  a  tunic  resembling  in  colour  and  appear- 
ance the  akin  of  a  mouse.  Uypochnua  is  a  genus  found  on  the  decaying 
bark  of  trees.  When  found  on  barks  used  for  medicinal  purposes, 
they  should  bo  rejected  as  unfit  for  use,  as  this  plant  indicates 
incipient  decay. 

The  genera  Monilia  and  A»pergUltt8  are  sometimes  referred  to 
ByncLcea.  The  species  of  these  genera,  with  many  others,  form  ^hat 
is  known  by  the  name  of  Mould  on  various  substances.  [Mouldiness.] 
Mcmilia  peniciUctta  is  commonly  found  on  plants  in  herbaria.  The 
various  forms  of  Aspergillus  are  found  on  all  kinds  of  decaying  sub- 
stances. A.  glaiLcws  is  the  blue-mould  which  forms  on  cheese,  lard, 
bread,  &c.  It  gives  a  value  to  cheese,  and  its  colour  is  often  imitated 
by  fraudulent  dealers  by  sticking  brass  pins  into  the  cheese,  the 
verdigris  formed  from  the  pins  giving  it  the  colour  of  mould. 
Most  of  the  species  of  the  old  genus  Byssua  are  distributed  amongst 

MAT.  mST.  DIV.  VOL.  L 


other  genera.  B.  lolithusy  the  Violet-Scented  Byssus,  is  found  of  a 
deep  red  colour  on  boarded  buildings,  old  pales,  and  trunks  of  trees, 
on  rocks  in  mountainous  countries,  and  on  walls.  It  is  now  called 
Lepraria  lolithia.  It  is  not  less  remarkable  for  its  violet  scent 
than  its  red  colour.  [Snow,  Red.]  There  is  another  plant,  Chroo- 
lepua  lolUhuSt  which  was  included  under  the  Byssus  lolitkvs  of  older 
writers.  Byssus  Cryptarum  forms  the  genus  Tophora  of  recent  writers. 
Several  species  of  Tophora  have  been  named.  They  do  not  however 
produce  spores,  and  by  some  they  are  supposed  to  arise  from  the 
germination  of  the  spores  of  fei-ns  and  mosses  arrested  in  the  rudi- 
mental  state.  The  LeprarUe  are  sometimes  referred  to  Byssacecs,  but 
they  seem  to  be  the  commencing  point  of  the  organisation  of  true 
Lidhens.  They  have  a  thallus  resembling  a  scurf  which  is  fomied  of 
sporules.     They  ai-e  very  common  on  decaying  timber  of  all  kinds. 

The  cells  of  the  leaves  of  many  plants  during  decay  assume  a 
variety  of  forms  which  have  been  described  as  cryptogamic  plants, 
imder  the  genera  Phyllerium,  Erin^wn,  Cfrumaria,  Taphna^  &c. 
[Fungi.]  Many  of  these  so-called  plants  are  meteoric  productions. 
"  On  one  occasion  they  are  said  to  have  suddenly  overrun  idl  the  leaves 
of  pines  on  the  side  next  the  wind  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dresden  ; 
on  another,  on  the  29th  of  August,  1830,  to  have  in  an  instant  spread 
over  the  sails  and  masts  of  a  ship  at  Stockholm ;  and  Fries  is  disposed 
to  consider  the  cobweb-like  matter  that  overruns  the  grass  in  the 
mornings  of  spring  and  autumn  of  this  nature,  and  not  of  animal 
origin."     (Lindley.) 

(Lindley,  Vegetable  Kingdom;  Burnett,  Outline;  Smith,  English 
Flora,) 

BYSSOARCA,  a  sub-genus  of  Molluscay  separated  by  Swainson 
from  the  genus  Area  of  Linnaeus,  and  considered  by  the -former  as 
the  sedentary  type  of  that  genus.  The  following  is  the  sub-generic 
character  given  by  Swainson  in  his  second  series  of  'Zoological 
Illustrations : ' — Animal  fixed  by  byssiform  filaments  to  other  bodies ; 
shell  transverse;  umbones  remote;  valves  gaping  in  the  middle  of 
the  ventral  margin. 

"  The  animals  of  these  shells,"  says  the  author  last  quoted,  "  affix 
themselves  to  other  bodies  by  a  particular  muscle,  which  is  protruded 
through  the  gaping  part  of  the  valves ;  they  also  adhere  when  young 
by  the  byssiform  epidermis  which  covers  the  exterior."  Mr.  G.  B. 
Sowerby  has  described  several  new  species  collected  by  Mr.  Cuming 
on  the  western  coast  of  South  America  and  among  the  islands  of  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean,  in  the  *  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society 
of  London 'for  1858.  Byssoarca  hsa  been  found  moored  to  stones 
and  shells  at  depths  varying  from  the  surface  to  75  fathoms. 


Ityssoarca  Xoce. 
1,  Valves  closed;  2,  valves  closed,  view  of  the  hinge  area  ;  3,  a  single  valTC, 
sliowing  the  hinge  teeth  and  the  interior  of  the  valve  ;  o,  umbones ;  &,  part  of 
the  ventral  margin  where  the  valves  gape,  to  give  room  for  the  extrusion  of  the 
tendinous  foot. 

BYSSOMYA,  a  genus  of  Conchiferous  Mollusks,  separated  by  Cuvier 
and  placed  by  him  under  his  Acephalous  Testacea,  between  Pandora 
sndffiatella,  De  Blainville,  who  approves  of  Cuvier's  separation, 
observing  that,  though  the  shell  diflTers  little  from  Saxicava,  the  animal 
is  very  distinct,  arranges  it  in  his  fiaunily  of  Pyloridea,  between  iaxi- 
cava  and  Rhomhoides. 

Generic  Character. — Animal  more  or  less  elongated,  subcylindrical, 
elongated  behind  by  a  long  tube,  which  is  bifurcated  at  its  extremity 
only.  A  hole  at  the  lower  and  anterior  part  of  the  mantle  for  the 
passage  of  a  small  conical  canaliculated  foot,  and  of  a  byssus  situated 
at  its  posterior  base.     Two  strong  adductor  muscles. 

Shell  often  irregular,   covered  with  a  sti-ong  epidermis,  oblongi 

2  z 


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BYSSUa 


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70^ 


Byssomya  pholadis. 


Bbrougly  striated  longitudinally,  equivalve,  very  inequilateral,  obtune 
and  wider  before,  and  attenuated  or  rostrated  as  it  were  behind. 
Umbones  but  little  developed,  though  distinct  and  a  little  curved 
forward.      Hinge  toothleesy  or  only  having  a  rudiment    of   teeth 

under  the  corse- 
let. External 
ligament  ra- 
ther long.  Two 
strong,  distant, 
and  rounded 
muscular  im- 
pressions. 

Example,  Py«- 
aomya  pholadis, 
Saxicava  phola- 
dis  of  Lamarck. 
The  species 
inhabits  the 
northern  seas, 
living  in  the 
fissiures  of  rocks 
in  company 
with  MytUi 
(Mussels),  and 
attached  by  its 
byssus ;        but 

sometimes  it  buries  itself  in  the  sand  or  lodges  in  small  stones,  the 
roots  of  Fucif  and  even  in  the  polymorphous  MUlepora :  in  the  latter 
cases,  according  to  0.  Fabricius,  it  is  without  byssus. 

Forbes  and  Hanley,  in  the  *  History  of  British  MoUusca,*  refer 
B.  pholadii  of  Bowdich  and  the  S.  pholadia  of  Lamarck  as  synonymous 
to  Saxicava  rttgota.    [Saxicava.] 

BYSSUS,  the  name  of  a  long,  delicate,  lustrous,  and  silky  fasciculus 
of  filaments,  by  w^hich  some  of  the  conchiferous  moUusks  (the  Myti- 
laceOf  Mussels,  and  Malleacea^  Hammer  Oysters,  for  example)  are 
mooi«d  to  submarine  rocks,  &c.  This  is  not,  us  some  authors  have 
stated,  a  secretion  spim  by  the  animal,  but,  according  to  De  Blainville, 
an  assemblage  of  muscular  fibres  dried  up  in  one  ps^  of  their  extent, 
still  contractile  and  in  a  living  state  at  their  origin,  a  condition  which 
they  enjoyed  throughout  their  whole  length  at  the  period  of  their 
attachment.  The  tendinous  foot  of  Byssoarca  and  Tridacna  seems 
to  be  a  step  towards  the  organisation  of  a  true  byssus.  In  the  great 
Pinna  of  the  Mediterranean  this  substance  is  well  and  lax*gely  deve- 
loped, and  its  situation  is  in  a  fleshy  sac  or  sheath  at  the  base  of  the 
foot,  which  is  .attached  towards  the  middle  of  the  abdominal  mass  of 
the  animal.  In  Italy  the  byssus  is  manufactured  into  various  articles ; 
and  there  are  few  museums  without  a  glove  or  a  stocking  woven  out 
of  this  substance.  In  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851  a  large  number 
of  articles  were  exhibited  manufactured  from  this  substance,  as  well 
as  specimens  of  the  silk  for  making  up. 

BYTTNERIA'CEuE,  Byttneriads,  the  Byttneria  Tribe,  a  group 
of  plants  by  some  botanists  considered  a  distinct  natural  order,  by 
others  reduced  to  a  section  of  Sterculiacece.  They  belong  to  Lindley's 
Malval  alliance  of  Exogens,  and  are  readily  known  by  their  petals 
being  bagged  at  the  base,  their  stamens  partly  sterile  and  petaloid, 
and  their  finit  covered  with  hooked  spiny  hairs.  From  Sterculiacece 
proper  they  differ  by  the  presence  of  petals,  and  their  stamens  not 
being  united  into  a  column;  from  Malvacece  by  their  2-celled 
anthers  and  bagged  petals ;  and' from  Latiopetalea:  by  their  calyx  not 
being  coloured  like  a  corolla,  and  their  petals  not  rudimentary.  The 
species  are  chiefly  inhabitants  of  tropical  countries.  They  partake  of 
the  mucilaginous  inert  properties  of  Malvacea:,    Their  bark  often 


yields  a  tough  filjre  fit  for  manufacture  into  cordage ;  and  one  spede?, 
Tkeobroma  Cacao  [Thkobroma],  produces  the  seeds  from  which  the 
buttery  and  somewhat  bitter  substance  called  cocoa  is  obtained,  a&d 
which  foims  the  basis  of  chooolate. 


7  H 


6    V 


Byttneria  inodom. 
1,  A  complete  flower  Been  from  above ;  the  outer  pentagon  is  the  etlyi,  '<^ 
auricled  bodies  are  petals,  and  the  five-rayed  centre  represents  the  fire  "tfrik 
stamens ;  2,  the  calyx  cut  open,  with  the  stamens  attached  to  it ;  3,  » 
longitudinal  section  of  a  flower,  showing  the  origin  of  the  petal* ;  4,  t  petal ; 
5,  a  calyx  seen  from  above,  with  the  young  fruit  cut  transversely,  aad  it* 
hocked  hairs  with  which  it  is  covered  projecting  flrom  iU  sides ;  6,  a  etaafs; 
7,  the  ovary. 

The  fruit  of  Guazuma  vlmifolia  is  eaten  by  the  Brazilians.  Mmj 
of  the  species  yield  fibres  which  might  be  manufactured  into  cortug  • 
as  Micn)l<jena  apectahilia  and  Abroma  avgttstum.  [Abbosll]  1^ 
Madagascar  the  bark  of  Ihmheya  spectabUis  is  made  into  i^y^- 
[Dombeya.] 

BYTTNERIADS.    [Btttnewacea] 


CABBAGE.    [Bbassica.] 
CABBAGE,  BRAZIL.     [Caladitm.] 

CABBAGE  PALM.     [Areca] 

CABOTZ,  a  name  for  the  Cusso  or  Kousso.     [BraYIRA.] 

CACHALOT.     [Cetacea.] 

CACHOLONG.     [Opal.] 

CACTACE^,  or  CACTEiE,  Indian  Figs,  the  Cactus  Tribe,  a 
natural  order  of  Exogeno\is  plants. 

The  fructification  of  these  plants  consists  of  a  calyx  adhering  to  the 
ovary,  with  a  border  divided  into  an  wicertain  number  of  segments, 
which  are  arranged  in  several  rows,  the  one  overlapping  the  other, 
and  the  innermost  graduallv  ceasing  to  be  green  and  leafv,  but 
ncquiring  the  delicacy  and  colour  of  petals.  The  latter  usually  pass 
into  sepals  by  insensible  gradations,  are  very  numerous,  and  often 
brilliantly  coloured.  The  stamens  originate  in  the  orifice  of  the  tube 
formed  by  the  combination  of  the  petals  and  sepals,  are  very  nume- 
rous, and  consist  of  delicate  thread-shaped  filaments  terminated  by 
small  roundish  anthers.  The  ovary,  which,  in  consequence  of  its 
adhesion  to  the  sepals,  seems  to  occupy  the  place  of  the  stalk  of  the 
flower,  consists  of  a  single  cell  lined  with  parietal  i)lacentse  covered 


over  with  minute  ovules ;  its  style  is  slender ;  the  stigm*  i-^  etar- 
shaped  and  divided  into  as  many  narrow^  lobes  as  the  ovary  conu«£^ 
placent®.  The  fruit  is  a  succulent  berry,  marked  at  the  end  py  ^ 
broad  scar  formed  by  the  separation  of  the  limb  of  the  <*Jp,^' 
contains  a  great  quantity  of  sec^s,  which  consist  of  nothing  but  &^^ 
containing  a  succulent  embryo  slightly  two-lobed  at  the  upper  enu. 

In  natural  affinity  these  plants  have  been  considered  allied  to  M" 
Gooseberry  Tribe  (Grosmlacea:)  on  account  of  the  great  similant}  jn 
the  structiu^  of  their  fruit,  and  in  the  general  production  ®^J^®* 
upon  their  branches.  Their  relationship  is  probably  far  gr^^ 
with  Afesembryacete  and  the  other  epigynous  orders  of  polypetaiow 
dicotyledons.  ,   . 

The  habit  of  Cactaee(F  is  remarkable.  They  have  a  veiy  ^^^^^^ 
stem  in  which  the  woody  system  is  developed  in  but  a  small  P^^^ 
tion  compared  to  the  whole  mass.  Usually  the  stem  is  angular  ^ 
deeply  channeled,  occasionally  it  is  destitute  of  both  ^^^  ^. 
channels,  but  in  that  case  is  mostly  either  much  compressed  as ' 
Opuntia,  or  leafy  as  in  EpiphyUum.  Sometimes  it  is  continnouMi-oi^ 
the  base  to  the  apex,  but  in  many  instances  it  is  divided  '?^  ^ 
regular  joints,  each  of  which  has  a  similar  form  varying  y^vA 


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CACTACEiE. 


CACTUS. 


710 


species :  in  these  instauces  however  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  as 
the  steins  advance  in  age  the  angles  fill  up,  or  the  articulations  6ia- 
appear  in  consequence  of  the  slow  growth  of  the  woody  axis  and  the 
gradual  development  of  the  celluhiJ  substance ;  so  that  "  at  the  end 
of  a  number  of  years,  which  vary  according  to  the  species,  all  the 
branches  of  Cactacece,  however  angular  or  compressed  they  originally 
may  have  been,  become  trunks  that  are  either  perfectly  cylindrical 
or  which  have  scarcely  any  visible  angles.  This  metamorphosis  is 
one  of  the  causes  which  render  it  so  difficult  to  identify  species  that 
have  been  described  in  their  native  localities  from  full-grown  speci- 
mens with  such  as  are  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  Europe."  The 
greater  part  of  the  species  have  stems  which  are  more  or  less 
elongated,  but  in  some  they  are  spherical,  as  in  the  whole  genera 
Mdocactut  and  Echinocactus.  Whatever  may  be  the  form  of  the  stem, 
they  usually  bear  upon -their  surface  little  tubercles  which  at  an  eai'ly 
age  lose  the  leaves.  Those  organs  however  rapidly  fall  away,  and  are 
iiucceeded  by  tufts  of  hairs  or  spines  hooked  backward  at  the  ends, 
and  then  the  species  have  the  appearance  of  being  perfectly  leafless. 


Ifclocacttu  communis. 

AIHhe  species  are  believed  to  be  natives  of  America,  whence  how- 
ever some  of  the  Opuntias  have  been  so  long  introduced  to  the  Old 
World  that  they  have  here  and  there  taken  possession  of  the  soil,  and 
appear  like  aboriginal  inhabitants.  Such  is  the  case  on  the  volcanic 
soQ  of  ^tna,  and  in  variotis  places  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean ; 
and  this  has  led  to  the  erroneous  idea  entertained  by  Sprengel  and 
others,  that  the  Opuntia  of  Theophrastus  was  the  Opuntia  vulgaina  of 
modem  botanists.  The  Cactacece  are  chiefly  found  in  the  tropical 
parts  of  America,  a  few  species  only  escaping  from  those  countries ; 
a*,  for  example,  to  the  southern  states  of  North  America  and  to  the 
highlands  of  Chili  and  Mendoza.  They  principally  occur  on  hot  dry 
rocka  or  plains  where  the  commoner  forms  of  vegetation  could  not 
exist,  and  may  be  considered  one  of  the  means  which  nature  has 
pn)vided  for  the  *  support  of  man  in  regions  where  neither  food  nor 
y^ater  can  be  procured.  Their  sterna  are  filled  with  an  abundant 
inxipid  wholesome  fluid,  and  their  fruit  is  succulent  and  in  many  cases 
'•nixjrior  to  that  of  European  gooseberries.  In  the  fevers  of  their 
native  countries  they  are  freely  administered  as  a  cooling  drink,  and 
heing  bruised  they  are  esteemed  a  valuable  means  of  curing  ulcers. 
y^r  the  sake  of  such  their  uses,  because  of  their  rapid  growth,  and 
specially  on  account  of  the  numerous  spines  with  which  they  are 
armed,  the  Opuntias  or  Tunas,  as  the  Spanish  Americans  call  them,  are 
much  planted  rovmd  houses  as  fences,  which  neither  man  nor  animals 
oan  easily  break  through.  They  are  not  imfrequent  in  the  dry  forest- 
lands  of  Brazil,  but  are  said  never  to  occur  in  the  damper  parts  of  the 
lountry.  In  stature  they  vary  greatly,  many  of  them  having  small 
f  rt'^'ping  stem ji,  which  Beem  to  crawl  upon  the  groimd  among  the  dead 
^Miicht^  of  the  surrounding  trees,  with  whose  gray  colour  their  deep 


green  shoots  form  a  singular  contrast.  Others  rise  like  candelabra 
with  many  angidar  ascending  arms,  while  a  few  elevate  their  tall  and 
deeply-channeled  leafless  trunks  far  above  the  stunted  vegetation  of 
the  sterile  regions  they  inhabit,  reaching  sometimes  the  height  of  30 
or  40  feet. 

To  enable  them  to  endiure  the  excessive  drought  to  which  they  are 
naturally  exposed  they  are  furnished  with  an  imusually  tough  skin, 
the  evaporating  pores  or  stomates  of  which  are  few  in  number  and 
very  often  to  all  appearance  merely  rudimentary.  This  cobtrivance 
prevents  their  losing  the  scanty  moisture  which  they  collect  from  the 
burning  soil,  and  enables  them  to  sustain  the  full  ardour  of  the 
brightest  equinoctial  sun  without  inconvenience;  in  this  respect 
resembling  the  succulent  fniits  of  Europe,  such  as  the  plum,  the 
grape,  the  peach,  &c,  which  by  the  absence  of  stomates  from  their 
tough  skin  are  equally  enabled  to  bear  the  powerful  action  of  the 
bright  Sim  that  is  necessary  for  their  maturation* 

These  facts  teach  us  what  the  points  are  that  it  is  moat  necessary 
to  attend  to  in  the  cultivation  of  the  numerous  species  which  now 
abound  in  our  gardens.  Their  skin  is  so  formed  that  perspiration 
takes  place  veiy  slowly  through  it,  imless  under  the  influence  of 
powerful  stimulants  and  when  in  a  yoimg  state.  It  is  therefore 
obvious  that  they  should  be  sparingly  watered  or  not  watered  at  all 
during  a  considerable  period  of  the  year.  Dry  as  the  places  usually 
are  in  which  Cacti  naturally  grow,  they  are  periodically  visited  by 
heavy  rains,  whicl^  combined  with  a  bright  light  and  a  high  tempera- 
ture, force  into  activity  even  the  sluggish  vital  powers  of  such  plants 
as  those  under  consideration.  At  such  a  time  the  annual  growth  of 
a  Cactiu  takes  place,  secretions  which  enable  the  species  subsequently 
to  form  its  flowers  are  deposited,  and  a  general  impulse  is  given  to 
all  the  torpid  energies  of  its  constitution.  But  by  degrees  the  rains 
moderate  and  finally  cease ;  tlie  young  cuticle  which  at  its  first  for- 
mation perspired  freely  becomes  thicker  and  tougher,  and  impermeable 
to  moisture ;  what  food  has  been  obtained  during  the  short  period  of 
growth  is  securely  inclosed  within  the  recesses  of  the  stem ;  and  when 
the  air  and  earth  become  dry  the  plant  is  provided  with  the  means 
of  enduring  another  long  period  of  fasting  and  inactivity.  With  the 
fall  of  rain  the  heat  moderates,  but  the  light  to  which  the  Cacti  are 
exposed  is  but  little  if  at  all  diminished;  so  that  the  assimilation 
and  alteration  of  the  food  contained  within  the  stem  keeps  continually 
going  on,  however  slowly.  It  is  by  following  this  natural  course  of 
events  that  gardeners  have  succeeded  in  bringing  their  Cacti  to  that 
extraordinaiy  state  of  beauty  for  ^which  they  are  now  conspicuous ;  it 
is  by  attending  practically  U>  such  points  in  the  habits  of  the  species 
that  we  obtain  the  myriads  of  lai^ge,  brilliant,  red,  or  blush  or  snow- 
white  blossoms  that  form  the  glory  of  our  green-houses  in  the  spring. 
A  Cactut  is  placed  in  a  damp  stove,  exposed  to  all  the  light  that  can 
be  collected  without  being  concentrated,  and  it  begins  to  grow  :  it  is 
then  watered,  at  first  gently,  afterwards  copiously  with  water  holding 
a  quantity  of  organisable  matter  (manure)  in  solution ;  this  practice 
is  continued  for  three  months,  when  the  quantity  of  moisture  is 
diminished  and  the  temperature  is  lowered,  but  exposure  to  light  in 
still  attended  to,  till  at  last  the  plant  sinks  to  rest.  In  this  state  it 
is  kept  till  the  season  for  again  forcing  it  into  growth  shall  have 
returned,  when  it  is  subjected  to  a  repetition  of  the  same  treatment 
as  before. 

If  the  Cactacem  are  to  be  propagated,  their  branches  or  joints,  if 
they  have  any,  are  cut  off,  a  little  dried,  and  then  placed  in  a  hot  and 
damp  place,  when  they  strike  root  immediately.  Among  the  practi- 
cal consequences,  De  CandoUe  observes,  that  result  from  the  facility 
with  which  they  are  thus  multiplied,  is  one  which  deserves  to  bo 
noticed  on  account  of  its  importance,  namely,  the  manner  in  which 
the  Opuntia  is  employed  to  fertilise  the  old  lavas  at  the  foot  of  JEtna. 
As  soon  as  a  fissure  is  perceived,  a  branch  or  joint  of  an  Opwitia  is 
stuck  in :  the  latter  pushes  out  roots,  which  are  nourished  by  the 
rain  that  collects  round  them,  or  by  whatever  dust  or  remains  of 
organic  matter  may  have  collected  into  a  little  soil :  these  roots,  once 
developed,  insinuate  themselves  into  the  most  minute  crevices,  expand, 
and  fimdly  break  up  the  lava  into  mere  fragments.  Opuntias  treated 
in  this  manner  produce  a  great  deal  of  fruit,  which  is  sold  as  a  refresh- 
ing food  throughout  all  the  towns  of  Sicily. 

Where  however  the  species  have  neither  branches  nor  joints,  as  in 
the  case  with  some  of  the  species  of  Melocactua  and  Echinocacttutf  a 
difierent  mode  of  propagation  is  had  recourse  to  :  it  is  then  necessary 
to  compel  them  to  branch  by  artificial  means.  Each  of  the  numerous 
tufts  of  spines  that  occupy  the  ridges  of  their  stems  is  a  bud,  and  Ih 
capable  of  being  forced  into  a  branch,  if  by  any  means  the  general 
tendency  to  grow  at  the  upper  extremity  only  is  checked.  This  is 
efiected  either  by  burning  the  apex  of  the  plant  with  a  broad  flat  iron, 
or  by  cutting  the  plant  across  below  the  top,  in  either  of  which  casen 
several  of  the  spiny  buds  will  gradually  swell  and  develop  themHelve« 
as  little  branches,  which  being  broken  off  will  strike  root  and  become 
new  plants. 

It  is  on  species  of  the  Cactacea;  that  the  cochineal  insect  feeds.  Of 
these  the  most  common  are  the  three  following  : — Opuntia  Tuna,  which 
seems  the  most  employed  in  Peru ;  0.  Uemandezii,  which  is  the  most 
celebrated  in  Mexico ;  and  0.  cochenilUfera,  the  native  province  of 
which  is  somewhat  doubtful. 

CACTUS,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of  the  natural  order  Cadacea, 


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CABDICE. 


CALAMITES. 


712 


The  apeciea  are  numerouB,  and  have  the  general  characters  of  the 
order.    [Cactacea.] 

CADDICE,  CADDIS-WORM,  or  CAD-BAIT,  the  common  name 
for  the  larvae  of  the  species  of  Pkryganea,  which  reside  in  the  water, 
in  cases  which  they  form  of  various  substances,  such  as  bits  of  stick, 
grains  of  sand,  small  stones,  shells,  &c.,  which  are  held  together  by  a 
silken  thread  secreted  in  their  bodies  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
silk-worm.  The  case  acts  as  a  protection  to  the  larva,  and  it  is  capable 
of  draviring  in  its  head  or  putting  it  out,  aoooixling  to  circumstances. 

CADMIUM.     [QREBNOOKTrE.] 

C^SALPINIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  tribe  Cassiecgj 
of  the  natural  order  Leffumvnoias,  and  especially  distinguished  by  the 
lowermost  of  its  sepals  being  arched,  ike  uppermost  of  its  stalked 
petals  being  the  shortest^  its  stamens  all  perfect  with  shaggy  bases, 
and  the  fruit  a  compressed  bivalved  pod.  The  species  are  trees  or 
shrubs,  found  in  both  the  East  and  West  Indies,  with  showy  yellow 
flowers,  abruptly  pinnated  leaves,  and  stems  which  are  iisuidly  more 
or  less  prickly.  The  Brazil-Wood  of  commerce  is  said  to  be  famished 
by  two  of  its  species. 

One  of  these,  C.  Branlimsitf  is  a  West  Indian  rather  than  a  Bra- 
zilian tree,  without  prickles,  downy  flower-stalks,  panicled  flowers, 
smooth  obtuse  oblong  leaflets.  The  other,  C.  echincUOf  which  is  really 
a  Brazilian  plant,  is  a  prickly  tree,  with  yellow  and  red  blossoms, 
smelling  deliciously  like  lilies  of  the  valley,  prickly  pods,  and  oval 
blunt  leaflets.  Both  these  species  undoubtedly  yield  a  red  wood,  but 
it  is  by  no  means  clear  that  they  exclusively  furnish  the  Brazil- Wood 
of  commerce,  as  is  commonly  stated.  According  to  Dr.  Bancroft^ 
this  article  is  obtained  from  a  tree  with  a  large  crooked  knotty  stem, 
the  bark  of  which  is  so  thick  that  a  tree  as  large  as  a  man's  body  with 
the  bark,  will  not  be  so  thick  as  the  ^g  when  peeled ;  and  he  calls 
this  species  C.  Brasiletto,  a  name  unknown  to  botanists :  he  however 
states  that  it  is  called  by  the  natives  Ibiripitanga.  Now,  that  is  the 
name  given  by  Marcgraaf  to  the  C.  echincUa,  but  this  author  says 
nothing  about  the  peculiarity  in  the  bark.  One  authority'  however 
ascribes  a  particularly  thick  alburnum  to  C.  echincUa,  but  says  nothing 
of  the  banc.  Malte-Brun  says  there  are  three  kinds  of  Mirim,  or 
Brazil-Wood  found  in  Brazil ;  but  he  includes  with  them  the  C.  Bror 
iilientitf  which  there  is  no  good  authority  for  considering  a  native  of 
that  country.  F^e  again  refers  the  sappan  wood  of  the  East  Indies 
{CattUpinia  Sappan)  to  one  of  the  Brazil- Woods  of  the  merchants. 
Upon  the  whole  it  appears  that  we  have  no  good  testimony  as  to  what 
the  tree  is  that  yields  it ;  but  it  is  probable  that  it  is  the  produce  of 
many  species,  and  posdiblv  of  more  than  one  genus,  for  De  CandoUe 
and  Sprengel  doubt  wheuier  the  Ocefalpinia  echinata  is  not  rather  a 
Guilandina.  The  best  Brazil- Wood  is  said  to  come  from  Pemambuoo, 
where  it  is  called  Pdo  da  Rainha,  or  Queen's  Wood,  on  account  of  its 
being  a  royal  monopoly.  The  Bukkum  or  Sappan  Wood  of  commerce 
is  yielded  by  0.  Sappan.  A  substance  known  in  the  markets  under 
the  name  of  Dividivi  or  Libidibi  has  lately  become  important  on 
account  of  the  tannin  it  contains.  It  is  the  fruit  or  pods  of  C.  coriaria. 
They  are  not  used  in  medicine,  but  in  dyeing  and  tanning. 

CAFFER-BREAD.    [Encephalartos.] 

CAKILE,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Orucifercg, 
to  the  suborder  Lomentacea,  and  the  tribe  Oakilinea.  In  addition  to 
the  accumbent  cotyledons  of  the  tribe,  it  has  an  angular  pouch  com- 
posed of  two  1 -seeded  indehiscent  joints,  the  upper  joint  deciduous, 
with  an  erect  seed,  the  lower  one  persistent,  seedless,  or  with  a  pendent 
seed.  The  species  are  annual  branched  herbs,  smooth,  fleshy,  glaucous, 
with  pinnatifid  or  toothed  leaves;  racemes  of  flowers  opposite  the 
leaves,  and  terminal  with  filiform  bractless  pedicles. 

C,  maritima,  Purple  Sea-Rocket,  has  the  joints  of  the  pouch  2-edged, 
the  upper  one  with  two  teeth  at  the  base,  the  leaves  flediy,  pinnatifid, 
somewhat  toothed.  The  flowers  are  of  a  purplish  colour.  It  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  along  the  sea-coast  from  Swoden  and  Lapland  to 
Gibraltar ;  it  is  also  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is 
a  native  of  Great  Britain,  on  the  sea-coast  This  plant  had  at  one 
time  a  reputation  as  a  cathartic,  but  it  is  not  employed  at  the  present 
day.  There  are  three  other  species  of  OakiUf  named — C.  JSgyptiaca^ 
C.  Americana,  O.  eqwUit.  They  are  all  pretty  annuals,  and  may  be 
easily  cultivated.  The  seeds  may  be  sown  in  spring  or  autumn,  and 
they  should  be  treated  as  other  hardy  annuals. 

(Babington,  Manwd  ;  Don,  Chwdmet't  Dictionary.) 

CALABASH,  a  name  given  in  the  West  Indies  to  the  fruit  of  the 
tree  called  Crescentia  Cujete  by  botanists.     [Crescentia.] 

CALA'DIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Ar<nde(e,  and  to  the  tribe  Caladiece.  The  flowers  are  monoecious,  and 
the  calyx  and  corolla  are  absent ;  the  male  flowers  have  many-celled 
peltate  anthers,  disposed  in  a  spike  at  the  end  of  the  spadix ;  the 
female  flowers  have  the  ovaries  inserted  at  the  base  of  the  spadix,  no 
style ,'  the  fruit  is  a  1-celled  berry  with  many  seeds.  A  great  number 
of  species  of  this  genus  have  been  described.  They  are  frequently 
cultivated  in  this  country  for  the  sake  of  their  spotted  stems  and  neat 
green  leaves,  which  are  rarely  disfigured  by  any  of  the  accidents  which 
afiect  other  stove-plants.  They  have  the  same  general  appearance  as 
the  species  of  Arum,  and  also  resemble  them  in  physical  and  chemical 
properties. 

C.Seguinum,  Dumb-Cane,  is  a  caulescent  suberect  plant  with  oblong 
cuspidate  leaves,  and  the  spadix  shorter  than  the  oblong  spathe.    This 


plant  is  a  native  of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies.  It  grows  to 
a  height  of  five  or  six  feet.  It  secretes  an  acrid  poison,  so  that  when 
any  part  of  the  plant  is  chewed  the  tongue  swells  and  the  power  of 
speech  is  lost  It  is  on  this  accoimt  called  '  Dumb-Cane.*  Sir  William 
Hooker,  in  his  '  Exotic  Flora,'  relates  the  case  of  a  gardener  who 
incautiously  bit  a  piece  of  Dumb-Cane  :  "  His  tongue  swelled  to  such 
a  degree  that  he  could  not  move  it ;  he  became  utterly  incapable  of 
speaking,  and  was  confined  to  the  house  for  some  days  in  the  most 
excruciating  tormenta"  The  juice  is  stated  to  impart  an  indelible 
stain  to  linen.  Notwithstanding  its  poisonous  nature,  P.  Browne 
says  that,  in  common  with  the  Arum  ovatuntf  its  stalk  is  used  to  briog 
sugar  to  a  ^ood  grain  when  it  is  too  Tiscid,  and  cannot  be  made  to 
granulate  with  lime  alone.  In  the  districts  where  it  grows  the  natives 
use  a  decoction  of  the  stem  as  a  bath  and  fomentation  in  dropsy,  and 
the  rootstock  is  used  in  obstinate  constipation  and  in  long-standing 
gout    The  negroes  use  it  as  an  anti-aphrodisiac. 

O.  tagittifclium,  Brazil  Cabbage,  is  stemless,  with  sagittate  acumi- 
nate leaves,  the  spadix  shorter  than  the  spathe,  which  is  ovate-cucollate. 
This  plant  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  and  is  called  by  the  French 
Chou-de-Bresil,  and  by  the  Germans  Essbar  Arum.  In  appearance 
it  resembles  Arwn  colocaria,  and  is  used  for  .the  same  purposes.  Both 
the  leaves  and  rootstock  of  this  plant  are  eaten.  The  leaves  are 
boiled  and  eaten  as  coleworts;  the  rootstock  is  not  considered  so  great 
a  delicacy  as  the  leaves.  Of  all  the  eatable  AroidMB,  this  appean  to 
be  the  most  extensively  cultivated.  It  is  found  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  in  China,  Japan,  New  Zealand,  and  the  South  Sea  Islands. 
When  raw  the  rootstock  contains  a  certain  amount  of  the  poisonous 
secretion  of  the  family,  and  like  the  potato  has  an  acrid  unpleasant 
flavour,  which  entirely  disappears  in  cooking.  The  leaves  are  rery 
soft  and  glaucous,  from  being  covered  with  a  fine  silky  hair,  and  in 
many  places  are  used  instead  of  plates  and  dishea 

C.  etculentum  resembles  the  last :  its  leayes  are  peltate-cordate,  and 
its  spathe  ovate-lanceolate.  It  is  also  a  native  of  South  America,  and 
is  cultivated  on  account  of  the  starch  contained  in  its  rootstock  It 
possesses  properties  similar  to  the  last. 

C.  arborescena  is  a  poisonous  species,  though  not  so  virulent  as  the 
Dimib-Cane.  Merat  says  that  it  was  formerly  used  for  wetting  the 
mouths  of  negroes  as  a  punishment  for  slight  m^isdemeanours. 

(Loudon,  Off  clopcBdia  of  Plants  ;  Uiidlejf  Naiural  Syttem  ;  Burnett^ 
Outlines  of  Botany;  Bischoff,  Medicinitch-Pharmaceutischc  Bolanik) 

CALAMINE.    [Zinc] 

CALAMINT.    [Calamintha.] 

CALAMINTHA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Lamiacea,  and  the  tribe  Satureiinece.  It  has  the  apices  of  the  stamens 
connivent  under  the  upper  lip  of  the  corolla;  the  anther-cells  at 
length  divergent^  connective,  subtriangular ;  the  upper  lip  of  the 
corolla  straight^  nearly  flat»  the  lower  patent  trifid ;  the  calyx  2-lipped 
and  10-lS-nerved,  throat  hairy ;  the  flowers  whorled,  axillary  or  spiked. 
This  genus  was  constituted  by  Moench,  and  contains  several  species 
which  were  placed  under  Thymus  and  Clinopodium  by  Smith,  in 
Melissa  by  Bentham,  and  one  in  Acinos  by  Hooker.  Koch  in  his 
'  Flora  Germanica'  follows  Moench,  and  also  Babington  in  his '  Manual 
of  British  Botany.'  There  are  four  species  of  this  genus,  common  and 
well-known  plants  in  Great  Britain. 

0.  Nepeta,  Lesser  Cajamint,  Cat-Mmt,  Balm  or  Field-Balm,  has 
leaves  ovate,  obtuse,  serrated,  pale  beneath,  shortly  stalked ;  calyx 
subcampanulate,  obscurely  2-lipped,  teeth  all  nearly  the  same  shape, 
the  upper  ones  slightly  shoiier;  nuts  roimdish,  almost  smooth; 
cymes  dichotomons,  many-flowereid.  This  is  not  a  common  plant, 
and  is  found  on  dry  banks.  It  has  a  strong  aromatic  smell  not  unlike 
that  of  penny-royal,  and  a  pungent  taste.  Cats  are  said  to  be  ipnd  of 
the  smell,  and  hence  its  name  cat-mint  An  infusion  of  the  leaves  is 
recommended  as  a  tonic  and  stimulant  in  flatulence  and  colia  This 
and  the  other  species  possess  the  volatile  oil  which  is  foimd  in  the 
whole  order,  and  hence  they  all  have  a  more  or  less  powerful  medicinal 
action. 

C.  officinalis  {Thymus  Calaminiha,  Smith;  Melissa  Calaminthaj 
Benthiun),  Mountain-Balm,  Common  Calamint»  has  broadly  ovate, 
rather  acute,  slightly  serrated  leaves,  green  on  both  sides,  seated  on 
longish  stalks;  the  calyx  tubular,  ventricose  in  front,  distinctly 
2-Upped,  teeth  of  the  upper  lip  triangular,  of  the  lower  twice  as  long, 
and  subulate;  nuts  roundish^  covered  with  impressed  dots;  cymes 
scarcely  dichotomous,  few-flowered. 

C.  Acinos  (Acinot  vulgaris,  Persoon ;  Aeinos  thymoides,  Moench), 
Basil-Balm,  or  BasU-Thyme,  has  ovate  subserrate  acute  leaves  with 
revolute  maigins  ;  tubular  gibbous  calyx  distinctly  2-lipp6d,  the 
upper  lip  with  short  trian^ar  teeth,  the  lower  one  with  subulate 
teeth,  all  convei^ging  in  fruit  It  is  found  in  dry  gravelly  places,  and 
in  corn-fields  throughout  Europe. 

C.  Clinopodium  {Clinopodium  wlgare.  Smith),  WQd  Basil,  Bed-Footy 
has  ovate  obtuse  leaves,  rounded  below,  slightly  crenate;  whorls 
equal,  many-flowered;  bracts  setaceous,  as  long  as  the  calyx.  Common 
in  dry  bushy  places,  in  Europe ;  it  is  also  found  in  America,  but  has 
probably  been  introduced  there. 

(Babington,  Manual ;  Bentham,  Lahiatarum  Genera  et  Speciet.) 

CALAMITES,  one  of  the  most  frequent  and  characteristic  gpnera 
of  fossil  plants.  It  is  found  abundantly,  but  not  exclusively,  in  the 
Carboniferous  system  of  strata,  and  generally  in  the  sandstones  and 


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CALAMOPHILUS. 


CALAPPA. 


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shales  which  alternate  with  coaL  Calamitet  Suckovii  occurs  in  most 
European  and  American  Coal-Fields.  Calamites  arenaceua  occurs  in 
the  Bunter  Sandstein.  We  have  found  traces  of  a  Calamites  in  the 
Red  Marl  series  of  Worcestershire.     [Coal  Plants.] 

CALAMOPHILUS,  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  family 
Paridce  and  the  tribe  Inseaaorea,  sub-tribe  Dentirostres.  C.  biarmicua 
of  Tarrell  is  the  Parua  biarmicua  of  Pennant  and  other  writers.  This 
bird  is  conmion  in  Oreat  Britain,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Bearded  Tit.     [Paridjjl]     (Yarrell,  British  Birda.) 

CALAMO'PORA,  the  generic  title  applied  by  Goldfuss  to  many 
Palaeozoic  Corals,  for  some  of  which  Lamarck  employed  the  name  of 
Favoait^a. 

CAIjAMUS,  a  genus  of  Palms  the  different  species  of  which  yield 
the  Rattan  Canes  of  commerce.  Although  a  genuine  palm,  yet  from 
the  slender  stems  and  general  habit,  it  has  more  the  look  of  some  tall 
grass,  and  has  been  considered  as  one  of  the  links  in  the  chain  of 
organisation  which  connect  the  Grasses  with  the  Palms.  Blume  ^ives 
the  following  accoimt  of  the  flowers  and  fruit : — Polygamous-dioecious, 
or  dioedous;  spathes  several,  incomplete;  flowers  sessile,  in  spikes; 
calyx  8-toothed  or  trifid ;  petals  8,  united  at  the  base;  stamens 
6 ;  filamentfi  subulate,  connected  at  the  base  into  a  cup ;  anthers 
arrow-shaped,  fixed  by  the  back.  The  rudiment  of  an  ovary : — 
female :  ovary  3-celled,  surrounded  by  a  staminiferouB  cup,  which 
is  usually  sterile ;  style  scarcely  any ;  stigmas  3,  distinct  or  com- 
bined ;  berry  protected  by  scales  overlapping  each  other  downwards, 
1 -seeded ;  seed  surrounded  by  a  succulent  flesh ;  albumen  imeven 
in  the  circumference,  even  in  the  inside,  or  near  even  in  the  circimi- 
ferenceitnd  ruminated  internally ;  embryo  at  the  baae  ;  leaves  pinnated. 
The  species  are  principally  found  in  the  hotter  parts  of  the  East 
Indies,  vrhere  they  grow  in  iJie  forests,  climbing  over  trees  and  bushes 
to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  known  plants.  The  stem  of 
Calamus  vcrua  is  described  as  being  100  feet  long,  that  of  C.  oblongua 
300  to  400  feet,  of  C.  rudentwn  upwards  of  500  feet,  and  of  C.  exten*ua 
as  mucli  as  600  feet ;  Rumphius  even  stat-es  that  one  kind  attains  the 
extraordinary  length  of  1200  feet  (voL  v.  100).  It  is  closely  covered 
over  by  the  tubular  bases  of  the  leaves,  through  which  it  is  drawn  by 
the  cane-gatherers  when  green ;  afterwards  it  is  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
then  is  ready  for  market.  These  canes  are  extensively  used  for  the 
sake  of  the  hard  flinty  coating  of  their  stems,  which  are  readily  split 
into  strips,  from  wh;ch  the  bottoms  of  chairs  and  similar  articles  are 
manufactured.  It  is  not  possible  to  say  from  what  particular  species 
the  canes  of  the  shops  are  obtained,  it  being  probable  that  many  are 
gathered  indiscriminately ;  C.  Rotang  has  however  been  said  to  furnish 
the  stouter,  and  C.  Scipionwn  the  slenderer  sorts.  The  flesh  that 
sarrounds  the  seeds  of  this  genus  is  a  delicate  article  of  food ;  limpid 
"Water  flows  from  the  stems  when  cut  through  ;  and  finally  the  young 
shooUj  of  some  of  them,  while  still  tender,  are  roasted  or  boiled, 
chopped  small,  and  being  fried  with  pepper  and  gravy,  are  said  to 
furnish  a  very  delicate  dish. 

It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  notwithstanding  the  polished 
Rurface  of  the  stem,  almost  all  the  other  parts  except  the  fruit  should 
be  furnished  with  stiff  hairs  and  even  prickles.  The  prickles  are 
usually  hooked  backwards  to  enable  the  plants  to  raise  themselves 
upon  the  trees  among  which  they  grow  in  their  native  forests ;  and 
to  assist  them  in  this  operation  the  terminal  pinnse  of  the  pinnated 
leaves  are  shortened,  hardened,  and  also  hooked  backwards.  Several 
species  are  copiously  described  in  liumphius's  *  Herbarium  Amboi- 
nense,'  (vol.  v.)  under  the  name  of  Palmijuncus.  Dragon's  Blood  or 
Djumang,  is  the  produce  of  a  species  of  Calamus.  Those  which  chiefly 
yield  it  are  the  C.  petrceua  (Lour.),  C.  rudentum  (Lour.),  C.  verus 
(Lour.),  and  C.  Draco  (Willd),  of  which  the  last  three  were  by 
Linnaeus  reckoned  mere  varieties  of  the  C.  Botang  (Linn.).  They  are 
natives  only  of  Hindustan,  Cochin  China,  and  the  Moluccas;  The 
ripe  fruits  are  covered  with  a  reddish-brown  dry  resinous  substance, 
which  is  the  Dragon's  Blood.  In  this  state  they  are  collected,  and 
allowed  to  remain  in  rice-miUs  till  the  resin  drops  off*.  The  resin  is 
afterwards  melted,  either  by  the  natural  warmth  of  the  air  or  by  arti- 
ficial heat,  and  then  moulded  into  the  different  forms  in  wluch  it 
occurs  in  commerce.  Another  mode  of  obtaining  it  is  as  follows  : — 
The  ripe  fruits  are  shaken  in  bags,  and  the  resin  so  obtained  is  formed 
into  pieces  about  the  size  of  a  bean,  which  are  then  wrapped  up  in 
leaves ;  this  kind  is  much  prised  in  the  East  Indies.  A  second  sort  is 
procured  by  throwing  together  the  fruits  after  they  have  been  treated 
in  the  foregoing  manner,  melting  them  in  the  sun  or  with  a  slow  fire, 
and  coUeeting  what  exudes,  which  is  then  formed  into  small  four- 
cornered  cakes.  A  third  sort  is  obtained  from  what  remains  after  the 
two  foregoing  processes,  being  run  out  and  formed  into  round  cakes, 
which  contain  hard  portions  of  the  fruit.  According  to  other 
accounts,  the  finest  sort  is  procured  by  exposing  the  fruits  to  the 
vapour  of  boiling  water,  and  scraping  ofif  the  soft  resin  as  it  exudes. 

CALA'NDRA,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging  to  the 
section  /ZAyncAop/tora,  and  family  CurciUionicUe.  It  has  the  following 
characters : — Antenna9  eight-jointed,  geniculated,  and  inserted  behind 
the  middle  of  the  rostrum  (that  is,  towards  the  base) ;  the  six  joints 
following  the  basal  one  are  cihort,  the  apical  joint  forms  a  lai^ge  knob, 
generally  somewhat  hatchet-shaped,  having  the  apex  soft  and  spongy ; 
rotitnmi  long,  and  slightly  bent  downwards ;  thorax  rather  long  and 
depressed,  narrower  in  front  than  behind  ;  body  somewhat  depressed 


and  pointed  at  the  apex;  elytra  shorter  than  the  abdomen;  legs 
short,  tibiae  armed  with  a  spine ;  tarsi  four-jointed,  the  penultimate 
joint  bilobed. 

The  well-known  Corn-Weevil  (C.  granaria),  which  commits  so 
much  havock  in  our  granaries,  belongs  to  this  genus :  it  is  about 
one-sixth  of  an  inch  long,  or  rather  less ;  of  a  pitchy-red  colour ;  the 
thorax  is  coarsely  pimctured,  and  the  wing-cases  are  deeply  striated ; 
the  strise  are  minutely  punctured ;  the  legs  and  antennae  are  red. 

This  little  insect  bores  a  hole  into  the  grain  with  its  proboscis,  in 
which  an  egg  is  deposited ;  the  egg  turns  to  a  little  grub  or  larva, 
which  devours  the  whole  of  the  inside  of  the  grain,  leaving  the  husk 
entire.  This  quantity  of  food  is  just  sufficient  to  mature  the  grub :  it 
then  turns  to  the  pupa,  and  afterwards  to  the  weevil,  which  easily 
breaks  through  the  hu£^  and  is  then  at  liberty  to  proceed  as  its  parent 
did.  When  wheat  is  suspected  to  contain  these  little  weevils  or  their 
grubs,  that  which  is  affected  may  be  easily  discovered  by  throwing 
the  whole  into  water ;  that  which  is  good  will  sink,  while  the  rest 
will  float. 

Another  species  of  Calandra  {C.  OryzcB^  Linn.)  closely  resembling  the 
corn-weevil,  from  which  however  it  may  be  distinguished  by  its  having 
four  red  spots  on  its  elytra,  attacks  the  rice  grain  in  the  same  way  as 
the  one  above  mentioned  does  that  of  the  wheat. 

C.  Palmarumy  a  large  species,  being  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  length,  lives  during  its  larva  state  on  the  pith  of  the  x>alms  of  South 
America.  It  is  of  a  dull,  velvet-like  black,  and  has  the  proboscis  fur- 
nished with  a  brush  of  black  hairs  on  the  upper  part  near  the  apex. 

The  larva  of  this  species,  which  is  called  by  the  natives  the  Ver 
Palmiste,  is  considered  by  them  a  great  dainty. 

CALAPPA,  a  genus  of  Brachyurous  Decapod  Crustacea^  separated 
by  Fabricius,  and  formerly  embracing  the  genus  Ilepatus  of  LatreUle, 
though  now  restricted  to  the  following  form'. 

Qeneric  Character : — External  and  internal  antennae  similar  to  thofte 
of  the  Crab  (Cavncer)  properly  so  called,  third  articulation  of  the  pedi- 
palpi  (pieds-m&choires  ext^rieurs)  terminated  somewhat  like  a  pointed 
hook ;  chelae  equal,  very  lai^ge,  compressed,  with  their  upper  edge, 
which  is  notched  or  crested,  very  much  elevated,  and  fitting  exactly 
to  the  external  border  of  the  shell  or  carapace,  so  as  to  cover  the 
entire  region  of  the  mouth  ;  the  rest  of  the  feet  short  and  simple ; 
carapace  short,  convex,  wider  posteriorly  than  anteriorly,  and  forming 
behmd  a  vaidted  shield,  imder  which  the  posterior  legs  are  hidden 
when  the  animal  is  in  a  state  of  repose;  eyes  mounted  on  short 
pedicles,  and  at  a  short  distance  fr^m  each  other. 

The  genus  is  well  marked  by  the  peculiarities  of  the  shell  and 
chelso,  with  which  last,  as  with  a  shield,  the  Calappce  cover  the 
mouth  and  anterior  parts,  at  the  same  time  contracting  up  their  feet 
beneath  the  posterior  vaults  of  the  shell,  under  whose  hard  protection 
their  vulnerable  parts  are  comparatively  secured  from  the  attacks  of 
their  enemies.  They  are  called  by  the  French,  Migranes,  and  also 
Coqs  de  Mer,  from  their  crested  chelae,  as  well  as  Crabes  Honteux, 
from  their  appearing  to  hide  their  heads  and  smaller  limbs  behind 
their  large  chelae.  Their  geographical  distribution  is  wide.  The 
species  are  recorded  as  inhabiting  the  seas  of  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
and  of  Australia,  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans,  the  seas  of  South 
America,  &c.  The  proximate  form  is  found  in  the  genus  (Ethra 
of  Leach.     [CEthra.] 

We  select  as  an  example  C.  gi-anulataf  an  inhabitant  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  and  found,  according  to  M.  Risso,  most  frequently  in  the 
fissures  of  rocks  ^ 

near  Nice,  where 
these  crabs  reach 
to  the  depth 
of  90  feet.  The 
same  zoologist 
b&jB,  that  the 
females  deposit 
their  eggs  in 
summer ;  and 
that  there  is  a 
variety  whose 
shell  is  six- 
toothed  poste- 
riorly, and 
whose  general 
colour  is  pale 
rose,  with  whit- 
ish feet  and 
brown  nails. 

The  following 
is  Desmarest's 
description  of 
C,  granulata: — 

Carapace  verru-  / 

cose,        marked  Oulappa  ffmnuMa. 

t^toalTutoS,*     '''  '^^  ^^"^  ^^'^  '^^  "™^'  '•'"'''^  •  '•  '""^  "*^'''  '"'''"• 
and  having  on  each  side  before  it  begins  to  dilate  seven  teeth,  three 
short  and  obtuse,  and  four  more  strong  and  pointed  upon  the  borders 
of  the  enlai^ed  part,  with  two  other  smaller  ones  entirely  behind ; 


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CALATHIDIUM. 


CALCAREOUS  SPAR. 


716 


front  bidentated ;  colour,  that  of  fleah  sprinkled  with  spots  of  carmine 
red;  length  24  inches;  breadth  3  inches,  6  lines,  French. 

CALATH  11)11131,  a  modem  name  for  the  flower-head  of  the  plants 
called  Compositcg,  the  common  Calyx  of  Limusus.  It  consists  of  a 
flattish  or  conical  cellular  disk,  called  the  Receptacle,  upon  which  a 
number  of  small  flowers  are  very  oompactly  arranged ;  and  its  surface 
is  either  naked  and  even,  except  so  far  as  the  scars  left  by  the  attach- 
ment of  the  flowers  render  it  otherwise,  or  covered  with  hairs, 
bristles,  or  scales,  named  Palese.  Its  mai^gin  is  uniformly  furnished 
with  one  or  more  rows  of  toiall  leaves  or  scales  which  inclose  the 
flowers  afl  within  a  cup.  The  form,  number,  texture,  and  proportions 
of  these  scales  often  afford  good  generic  characters.  In  reality,  a 
Calathidium  is  a  short  spike  of  inflorescence,  the  receptacle  being  the 
depressed  axis,  its  pales  bracts,  and  the  external  scales  being  other 
bracts  in  a  more  perfect  state.  The  Daisy,  the  Dandelion,  and  the 
Sunflower,  offer  illustrations  of  this  form  of  inflorescence. 

CA'LATHUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging  to  the 
section  Geodephaga  and  family  HarpdLidcs.  It  has  the  following 
characters: — Body  elongate,  somewhat  ovate,  slightly  pointed  pos- 
teriorly ;  thorax  wider  behind  than  before ;  anterior  tarsi  with  the 
three  basal  joints  dilated  in  the  males ;  claws  dentate  beneath  ;  palpi 
with  the  terminal  joint  almost  cylindrical,  and  truncated;  labrum 
transverse,  and  slightly  emarginated  anteriorly. 

Upwards  of  twenty  species  of  this  genus  have  been  discovered, 
almost  all  of  which  are  European.     Their  general  colouring  is  black 

or  brown;  one  or  two  metallic- 
coloured  species  however  are 
known.  In  England  eight  species 
have  been  enumerated,  most  of 
which  are  common.  Four  species 
may  be  foimd  under  stones  and 
rubbish  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
London ;  of  these  C.  dsteloides  is 
exceedingly  common,  frequently 
being  met  with  in  pathways,  &c  ; 
it  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  and 
of  a  black  colour;  the  antenna) 
are  pitchy  black,  with  the  basal 
joint  red  ;  the  legs  are  black,  and 
in  some  specimens  red.  The 
wood-cut  here  given  of  C.  loUus 
%vi]l  enable  the  reader  to  form  an 
idea  of  their  general  appearance ; 
Calathtn  latus.  it  is  a  very  rare  species  in  this 

country,  and  differs  chiefly  from  the  one  above  mentioned  in  its  greater 
width,  and  the  thorax  having  the  lateral  mai^gins  of  a  reddish  hue. 
CALCAIRE  GROSSIER,  the  coarse  calcareous  building-stone  of 
Pans,  which,  geologically  speaking,  is  coeval  with  the  blue  clay  of  the 
basin  of  London,  and  contains  many  identical  shells.  These  con- 
stitute the  types  of  the  Eocene  Tertiaiy  series  of  Mr.  Lyell. 

CA'LCAR,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging  to  the  section 
ffeteromera  and  family  TenebrionicUB.  This  genus  is  distinguished 
from  the  allied  genera  {HypophlceuSj  Apis,  &c.)  by  having  the  body 
linear,  the  head  emaiginated  anteriorly,  and  the  three  or  four  terminal 
joints  of  the  antemuB  nearly  globular;  the  thorax  is  longer  than 
broad,  truncated  anteriorly  and  posteriorly,  and  of  nearly  equal  width 
throughout. 

CALCAR,  or  Spur,  in  flowers,  is  a  hollow  projection  from  the  base 
of  a  petal,  and  has  usually  a  conical  figure.  It  was  called  Nectary  by 
Linnaeus,  but  it  rarely  secretes  honey.  Its  use  is  unknown.  The 
spurs  of  some  of  the  Orckidacece  are  several  inches  long,  and  many 
times  longer  than  the  flowers  to  which  they  belong,  hanging  down 
like  vegetable  tails. 

CALCAREOUS  SPAR.  Under  this  term  it  is  usual  to  include 
only  those  varieties  of  Carbonate  of  Lime  which  occur  in  distinct 
individual  crystals  of  the  rhombohedral  system,  the  name  never  being 
used  to  denote  Arragonite,  or  any  crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime 
belonging  to  the  prismatic  system  ;  nor  is  it  usual  to  apply  it  to  those 
more  or  less  crystalline  limestones  of  which  marble  is  the  purest 
variety,  where  each  crystal  is  so  embedded  in  the  mass  as  to  have 
lost  all  individuality.  In  a  word,  these  rocks  are  of  such  importance 
and  interest  that  they  do  not  admit  of  our  treating  them  as  a  minera- 
logical  variety,  but  as  masses  formed  by  the  aggregation  of  numerous 
crystals  of  it.  These  are  noticed  therefore  under  the  heads  Limbstone 
and  Marble,  while  we  shall  here  confine  oiu-selves  to  the  individual 
crystals  of  which  the  others  are  composed. 

This  substance  presents  us  with  one  of  the  most  interesting  objects 
which  can  engage  the  attention  of  the  mineralogist,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  important  part  it  plays  in  the  geological  structure  of 
the  earth,  being  frequently  almost  the  sole  ingredient  of  beds  of  rock 
of  great  thickness  and  extent,  produced  at  every  geological  epoch,  but 
ako  from  the  beauty  and  diversity  of  its  crystaUine  forms,  and  from 
the  peculiarity  of  several  of  its  physical  properties.  The  study 
and  a  correct  knowledge  of  this  mineral  species  have  also  become 
of  still  greater  importaiice  since  the  discovery  of  the  principles  of 
isomorphism,  by  which  it  is  shown  that  it  is  the  most  perfectly 
developed  individual  of  a  very  lai^e  clas*  of  the  mineral  salts  of 
carbonic  acid,  of  which  it  may  consequently  be  considered  the  type. 


If  any  crystal  of  calcspar,  whatever  its  form,  be  carefully  examined, 
an  appearance  indicating  a  tendency  in  its  substance  to  break  or  split 
in  the  direction  of  three  planes  svmmetrically  related  to  the  form 
may  be  perceived,  and  by  a  gentle  blow  the  whole  is  readily  reduced 
to  fragments,  each  of  which  may  with  a  little  care  be  brought  to  the 
form  of  the  rhombohedron  represented  in  Jiff.  2,  the  faces  of  which 
are  parallel  to  the  three  planes  of  cleavage  above  mentioned.  This, 
in  the  language  of  Haiiy,  is  the  primitive  form  of  calcspar,  and 
represents,  according  to  his  theory,  the  shape  of  the  \iltimate  mole- 
cides  or  atoms  of  carbonate  of  lune,  by  the  aggregation  of  which, 
according  to  certain  laws,  its  various  crystals  are  produced.  Although 
this  rhombohedron  occurs  rarely  or  never  sjb  an  unbroken  crystal  of 
pure  carbonate  of  lime,  it  is  nevertheless  the  most  convenient  groimd- 
;  form,  to  the  axis  of  which  the  f&ces  of  all  other  crystals  of  this 
I  substance  may  be  referred,  and  it  is  therefore  selected  for  that 
purpose.  These  forms,  although  far  exceeding  in  nmnber  tho^e 
observed  in  any  other  mineral  species,  are  however  (omitting  the 

Figr.  1.  Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fiff.  : 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


....^-- 


regular  hexagonal  prism,  c,  and  its  terminal  faces,  o,  fig.  6)  but  (k 
two  kinds,  being  either  rhombohedrons,  of  which  varieties  are  repre- 
sented in  Jigs.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  or  scalinohedrons,  one  of  the  most 
common  of  which  is  seen  in  Jig  5.  Their  relations  to  each  other  and 
their  combinations  have  been  developed  principally  by  Hauy, 
Boumou,  and  Monteiro,  by  whom  no  lena  than  30  diffoient  rJitui- 


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CAI.ClSDONlf. 


CALiaus. 


718 


bohedrons  and  50  scalinohedrons  have  been  distingoished.  As  might 
naturally  be  expected,  the  combinations  resulting  from  so  laige  a 
number  of  simple  forms  are  exceedingly  great,  and  Boumon,  who  has 
written  a  treatise  of  three  thick  volumes  on  this  mineral  and  Arra- 
gonite,  has  distinguished  no  less  than  700  varieties  of  foroo.  Of  these 
154  are  described  in  the  large  work  by  Haiiy,  accompanied  by  very 
accurate  drawings  of  each. 

A  general  knowledge  of  the  crystalline  form  of  this  mineral  may 
however  be  easily  obtained  by  acqmring  a  knowledge  of  the  relation 
of  the  faces  of  the  five  simple  forms  and  the  hexagonal  prism  referred 
to  above ;  as  in  almost  all  the  more  ordinary  combinations  the  general 
feature  of  the  crystal  is  produced  by  one  of  these.  The  fi^,  2,  which, 
as  has  been  already  stated,  is  considered  as  the  ground-foim,  is  a 
rhombohedron,  the  faces  of  which  are  inclined  to  each  other  in  the 
terminal  edges  at  105^  5'.  This  form,  though  exceedingly  rare  in  pure 
calcspar,  is  however  the  prevailing  aystal  in  the  nearly  allied  species 
produced  by  the  combinations  of  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
as  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  article  Dolomite.  In  deter- 
mining the  relations  of  any  form,  the  position  of  the  planes  of  this 
rhombohedron  in  reference  to  the  other  parts  must  first  be  fixed,  and 
this  is  readily  accomplished  in  every  case,  owing  to  cleavage-planes 
running  parallel  to  its  fiuses.  This  being  determined,  all  other  rhom- 
bohedrons  are  at  once  divided  into  rhombohedrons  of  the  first  order, 
such  as  fiff.  4,  which  have  their  faces  situated  as  the  faces  of  the 
ground-form,  or  into  rhombohedrons  of  the  second  order,  the  faces 
of  which  are  situated  as  the  edges  of  the  ground-form,  as  is  the  case 
with/y«.  1  and  3. 

The  rhombohedron  fig,  1,  which  may  thus  be  seen  to  belong  to  the 
second  order,  is  readily  recogmsed  by  having  its  faces  g  making  the 
same  angle  with  the  vertical  axis  A  B  {Jig.  2)  as  the  terminal  edges  of 
the  ground-form,  so  that  in  a  combination  the  terminal  edge  of  the 
ground-form  is  truncated  by  the  plane  g.  This  rhombohedron,  which 
is  called  the  first  obtuser,  has  the  angles  at  the  terminal  edges 
135^  67',  and  has  with  the  same  breadth  its  vertical  axis  one-half 
that  of  the  ground-form.  It  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  the 
rhombohedrons,  and  is  frequently  found  alone,  but  still  more 
frequently  in  combination  wi^  the  hexagonal  prism,  producing  the 
form  seen  in  fig  7.  It  occurs  frequently  at  Andreasberg,  in  the 
Harz,  and  in  the  mines  of  Derbyshire. 

The  rhombohedron  fig.  3  is  also  of  the  second  order,  and  is  called 
the  fint  obtuser :  its  terminal  edges  correspond  with  the  long  diago- 
nals of  the  faces  of  the  ground-form,  and  therefore,  with  the  same 
breadth,  its  vertical  axis  is  double  that  of  the  other :  the  inclination 
of  the  faces  at  the  terminal  edges  is  78''  51'.  In  combination  with  the 
ground-form,  if  the  faces /predominate  the  form  P  appears  as  trun- 
cations of  the  terminal  edges;  if  P  predominates,  the  fiaces  of/ 
produce  truncations  of  the  si^L  lateral  angles,  the  edges  of  intersection 
being  parallel  to  the  inclined  diagonals  of  P  for  two  faces,  and  with 
the  horizontal  one  for  the  third. 

Tho  rhombohedron  fig.  4  bears  to  fig.  Z  the  same  relation  as  this 
does  to  the  ground-form,  the  terminal  edges  of  the  first  corresponding 
with  the  indined  diagonal  of  the  second :  the  inclination  of  the  planes 
to  each  otiier  in  the  terminal  edges  is  65^  50'. 

Fig.  5  \b  one  of  the  most  conuuon  scalinohedrons,  and  is  commonly 
known  as  the  Dog's-Tooth  Calcspar,  and  is  found  frequently  in  Derby- 
shire and  other  localities.  It  bears  a  close  connection  with  the 
rhombohedrons  P  and  m,  having  the  lateral  edges  of  the  first  and 
terminal  edges  of  the  latter,  so  that  in  combination  with  the  first  the 
form  fig.  8  is  produced,  and  with  the  second  it  forms  a  bevelment 
of  the  terminal  edges :  the  inclinations  of  the  faces  in  the  terminal 
edges  are  respectively  lOi"  38'  and  144°  24',  This  form  frequently 
occurs  as  twins,  formed  by  two  crystals  growing  on  each  other,  their 
principal  or  vertical  axes  being  in  the  same  right  line,  and  the  two 
ciystaU  so  situated  that  the  obtuser  terminal  edges  of  the  one  abut 
on  those  of  the  other,  and  the  acuter  on  the  acuter. 

This  minend  may  be  recognised  by  its  perfect  cleavage  parallel  to 
the  faces  P  :  the  specific  gravity  of  the  purest  crystals  is  2*721 ;  and 
the  hardness  is  in  the  scale  of  Mohs  3,  being  situated  between  gyps 
and  fluor-spar.  It  is  of  itself  colourless,  but  frequently  occurs  of 
various  tints  of  yellow,  green,  red,  brown,  and  even  bla&,  from  the 
admixture  of  impurities.  Its  glance  is  vitreous,  with  the  exception 
of  the  terminal  face  o,  which  generally  presents  a  mother-of-pearl 
lustre.  It  is  usually  more  or  less  translucent,  and  when  transparent 
produces  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  double  refraction  of  light :  this 
property  is  best  seen  in  the  varieties  obtained  from  Iceland,  and 
hence  known  as  Iceland-Spar,  and  occurs  as  the  groimd-form,  being 
in  fact  merely  broken  fragments  of  other  larger  ciystals. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the  more  common  varieties  of  Cal- 
careous Spar : — Iceland  Spar,  Satin  Spar,  Chalk,  Rock  Milk,  Calcareous 
Tufa,  Stalactites,  Stalagmite,  Limestone,  Oolite,  Pisolite,  Argentine, 
Fontainbleau  Limestone,  White  and  Clouded  Marbles,  Statuary  Marble, 
Compact  Limestone,  Stinkstone,  Anthraconite,  Plumbo-Calcite,  Mine- 
ral Agaric,  &o. 

CALCEDONY.    [Aqate.] 

CA'LCEOLA,  an  extinct  genus  of  Brachiopoda^  which  occurs  in 
the  Palaeozoic  Strata,  and  especially  in  the  middle  g^^up.  Calceola 
iandalina  occurs  in  this  position  in  the  Eifel,  and  in  South  Devon. 

CALCEOLA'RIA,    a  genus    of  very  ornamental  herbaceous  or 


shrubby  plants,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  ScrophularuiceeB.  Its 
distinctive  characters  are  principally,  the  flowers  being  diandrous, 
with  a  two-lipped  corolla,  the  lower  lip  of  which  is  much  larger  than 
the  upper,  and  inflated  so  as  to  resemble  a  bag.  All  the  species  are 
South  American,  and  are  confined  either  to  the  western  side  of  the 
Cordilleras,  or  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent  and  its 
adjacent  idands  :  in  Chili  and  the  mountainous  parts  of  Peru  they 
are  so  common  as  to  give  a  peculiar  appearance  to  the  vegetation. 
Some  of  them  are  lowlanders;  others  Inhabit  the  highest  parts  of  the 
Andes  in  the  districts  just  below  the  regions  of  lichens  and  mosses ; 
and  thus,  if  both  their  wide  geographical  distribution  and  the  various 
elevations  at  which  they  occur  are  taken  into  account,  they  are  exposed 
to  every  kind  of  climate  between  those  of  England  and  Barbaty. 

The  greater  part  of  the  genus  has  yellow  flowers,  a  few  have  purple 
ones,  and  here  and  there  in  nature  species  occur  with  the  two  colours 
intermixed,  by  the  addition  of  spots  of  purple  to  the  yellow  ground- 
colour, the  latter  changing  the  former  to  a  deep  rich  brown.  By 
intermixing  artificially  the  two  colours  natural  to  the  genus  a  pro- 
duction of  hybrid  varieties  has  resulted,  and  some  crosses  of  extra- 
ordinary beauty  have  been  obtained,  especially  from  C.  iniegrifolia, 
corymbota,  arachnoidea,  ChUoentis,  crenatifiora,  vtscomftma,  kc 

CALCITE.    [Calcarbous  Spar.] 

CALEDONITR    [Lead.] 

CALENDULA.    [Alauda,] 

CALE'NDULA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Oom/poaitcBy  the  sub-order  Coryrfibiferaf  the  tribe  Cynaveo;,  the  sub- 
tribe  Calendulacece,  the  division  CalenduUa.  It  has  an  involucre  of 
two  rows  with  equal  scales ;  the  flowers  of  the  ray  ligulate,  pistil- 
liferous,  fertile;  the  style  divided  at  top  into  two  siigmaU;  the 
flowers  of  the  disk  hermaphrodite,  barren,  the  style  imdivided ;  the 
achenia  unequal,  curved,  toothed,  or  muricated. 

C.  arvensis,  Field-Msirigold,  has  the  achenia  cymbiform,  muricated, 
incurved,  the  outer  ones  lanceolate,  subulate,  muricated  on  the  back. 
This  plant  is  common  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  is  found  in 
immense  numbers  in  some  of  the  vineyards  of  the  Rhine. 

C.  offi4Hnali8,  Common  Marigold,  has  cymbiform  achenia,  all  of  them 
incurved,  and  muricated.  TMb  is  the  Souci  du  Jardin  of  the  French, 
Qold-Blume  of  the  (Germans,  and  Furrancio  of  the  Italians.  Although 
common  enough  now  in  the  gardens  of  Great  Britain,  and  frequently 
found  wild,  it  is  not  a  native  of  these  islands,  and  has  been  introduced 
from  the  south  of  Europe.  This  plant  is  a  great  favourite  in  gardens, 
and  Ci)ntinues  to  blossom  till  the  approach  of  winter.  It  is  often 
grown  in  churchyards  in  this  country,  and  in  cemeteries  on  the 
Continent,  but  this  practice  does  not  appear  to  be  connected  with  any 
superstition.  There  are  several  varieties  of  this  plant  foimd  in  gardens, 
as  the  orange-coloured,  the  lemon-coloured,  and  the  double.  It 
had  formerly  numerous  virtues  attributed  to  it,  but  independent  of 
the  bitterness  of  the  tribe  to  which  it  belongs,  and  a  rather  more 
powerful  volatile  oil  than  is  found  in  other  species  of  the  order,  it 
possesses  no  active  properties.  The  flowers  are  used  in  some  parts  of 
the  country  to  give  a  yellow  colour  to  cheese.  In  the  Clock  of  Flora 
of  Linnaeus,  it  is  said  to  open  its  flowers  at  nine  in  the  morning  and 
to  close  them  at  three  in  the  afternoon.  C.  pluvialit  has  been  named 
from  its  flowers  closing  at  the  approach  of  rain.  The  petals  of  these 
plants  are  sometimes  employed  to  adulterate  safiron. 

(Loudon,  Encyclopcedia  of  Planis  ;  Koch,  Flora  Germanica.) 

CALIDRIS,  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  order  GraUatoret  and 
the  family  Charadriidai.  It  has  the  foUowing  characters  : — Beak  as 
long  as  the  head,  straight^  slender,  flexible,  compressed  at  the  base, 
with  the  point  dilated  and  smooth ;  nostrils  basal,  lateral,  narrow, 
longitudinally  cleft  in  the  basal  furrow,  which  extends  to  the  smooth 
point  of  the  beak ;  wings  of  moderate  length,  pointed,  the  first  quill- 
feather  the  longest ;  legs  of  mean  length,  naked  above  the  tarsal 
joint ;  feet  with  three  toes,  all  directed  forwards,  with  a  very  small 
connecting  membrane  at  their  base.  Gould,  in  his  *  Birds  of  Europe,' 
regards  the  Knot  (Trmga  caniUwt)  as  a  species  of  Calidru.  With  this 
exception  the  only  British  bird  which  is  a  species  of  this  genus  is 
C.  arenariaf  the  Sanderling.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  most  of  the  shores 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  It  obtains  its  food  by  probing  the 
moist  sands  of  the  sea-shores,  from  which  it  obtains  minute  MottuacOf 
shrimps,  annelides,  &c  It  visits  the  shores  of  Sweden,  a:nd  is  stated 
to  breed  still  farther  north.  Sir  John  Richardson  says  it  breeds  on 
the  coasts  of  Hudson's  Bay.  It  does  not  appear  to  breed  in  the  British 
Islands.    (Tarrell,  BritUh  Birds.) 

CALI'GUS,  a  genus  of  Entomostraoous  Cruttacea,  separated  by 
Muller,  in  which  Latreille  and  Lamarck  include  the  genus  Pandarut 
of  Leach,  but  which  Desmarest  places  imder  the  fourth  sub-division 
or  race  of  PoecUopoda :  namely,  those  which  have  fourteen  feet>  of 
which  the  six  anterior  are  unguiculated,  the  fifth  pair  being  bifid  with 
the  last  joints  fkinged  with  fine  hairs  in  the  form  of  cilia. 

It  has  the  body  depressed,  having  its  anterior  portion  covered  by  a 
membranous  shell  in  the  form  of  a  shield,  narrowed  posteriorly. 
Abdomen  narrower,  of  an  elongated  oval  or  nearly  square  shape,  and 
terminated  by  two  elongated  antenn»-like  processes,  cylindrical  and 
simple.  There  are  two  small  conical  antennas  situated  on  the  anterior 
border  of  the  head,  and  directed  laterally,  and  at  the  internal  base  of 
these  are  placed  the  two  distant  eyes.  Beneath  the  head  there  is  an 
obtuse  beak. 


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CALLA. 


CALLICHTHYS. 


Caligus,  together  with  Argulus,  and  other  of  its  oongenem  of  the 
family  Siphanostomata,  are  commonly  known  among  the  fishermen  as 
Fiph-Lioe.  But  CaUgua  is  without  the  cupping-glass-like  suckers,  by 
which  2ir^2tw  adheres  to  its  slippery  supporters;  and  the  hooks  of 
the  anterior  pair  of  feet  are  the  principal  organs  by  which  the  former 
holds  on  to  the  fish.     [Arqulus.] 

Argvlua  and  Caligu$  are  now  usually  regarded  as  types  of  distinct 
&milies  Argulidce  and  Caligida.  ArguLtit  is  the  only  genus  in  the 
family  ArgulidcB.  With  CcUigidce  are  included  the  following  British 
genera,  Lqf>eopth%ruSj  CfuUimiUf  Trebiut. 

Dr.  Baird,  in  his  '  History  of  the  British  Entomostracous  Crustacea,' 
describes  four  species  of  Caligus  as  natives  of  Qreat  Britain. 

O,  MiUUri  is  found  parasitic  upon  the  Cod  (Morrhua  valgaris)  the 
Brill  or  Brett  {Rhombtu  vulgaris)  and  upon  several 
other  fishes.  The  following  description  is  from 
Baird  :— 

Female. — Carapace  oval,  rather  longer  than  broad, 
narrower  at  upper  extremity;  frontal  plates  of 
considerable  size,  notched  in  the  centre ;  lemules 
well  developed;  antennsQ  of  considerable  size; 
basal  joint  large.  Thorax  shorter  than  the  cara- 
pace, about  hsdf  the  size  ;  penultimate  joint  very 
small,  of  an  elongate  diamond  shape ;  last  joint 
nearly  quadrilateral,  and  lobed  at  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity. On  each  lobe  there  are  two  very  small 
tubercles,  each  of  which  gives  off  two  short  setae. 
Abdomen  yery  short  and  rounded,  broader  than 
long ;  caudal  plates  terminated  by  three  tolerably- 
long  plumose  setae ;  internal  fork  with  simple  short 
obtuse  branches ;  second  pair  of  foot-jaws  very 
long,  the  last  joint  being  narrow,  long,  and  termi- 
nated by  two  curvel  claws,  one  longer  than  the 
other;  fourth  pair  of  legs  stout,  the  first  joint 
broad  and  thick,  the  last  ending  in  one  long 
stout  curved  claw,  which  is  serrated  on  its  inner 
edge,  and  two  short  ones ;  oviferous  tubes  of  considerable  length. 

Male. — In  the  male  the  last  joint  of  thorax  is  considerably  smaller 
than  in  the  female  and  more  rounded  ;  the  lobes  much  sharper,  and 
terminated  by  the  same  tubercles,  but  of  a  larger  size.  Abdomen 
about  two-thirds  the  size  of  the  last  joint  of  thorax  ;  second  pair  of 
foot-jaws  large. 

C.  diaphanus  is  foimd  on  the  turbot,  the  gurnard,  the  mackerel,  the 
plaice,  the  holibut,  and  other  fish. 

C.  rapax  has  been  taken  on  the  gurnard,  Lough  Neagh  trout,  brill, 
whiting,  dory,  and  common  dab. 

C.  cerUrodonti,  has  been  found  on  the  fins  and  tail  of  the  conunon 
Sea-Bream  {Pagellus  centrodontiu)  alone. 

CALLA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Arum  Tribe,  the  most 
remarkable  species  of  which,  6'.  jEthiopicaf  is  now  referred  to  Richardia. 

[RiCHARDIA.J 

CALLEI'DA,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging .  to  the 
section  Truncatipennes  and  the  family  Brachinida?. 

This  group  was  separated  from  the  genus  Tarut  of  authors,  by 
Dejean,  and  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  species  having  the  penulti- 
mate joint  of  the  tarsi  bilobed. 

Upwards  of  twenty  species  of  this  genus  are  eniunerated  in  Dejean's 
catalogue,  most  of  which  are  of  brilliant  metallic  colouring,  and  inhabit 
the  hottest  climates,  in  loth  of  which  respects  they  likewise  differ 
from  the  typical  species  of  Tarns. 

CALLIANASSA,  a  genus  of  Macrourous  Decapbd  Ci^stacea,  the 
chelae  of  which  are  very  unequal  both  in  form  and  in  their  proportions. 
The  carpus  of  the  largest  chela  is  transvei-sal,  and  forms  a  common 
body  with  the  claw ;  the  same  joint  of  the  other  chela  is  elongated. 
The  two  posterior  feet  are  nearly  didactylous.  The  external  foliation 
of  the  lateral  fins  of  the  end  of  the  tail  is  larger  than  the  internal. 
The  carapace  is  slightly  elongated,  smooth,  and  terminated  suddenly 


Califfus  hUllcH. 
View  of  back. 


Calliunassa  suhtenanea. 
o,  Intcrmcdiale  antenna ;  ft,  external  antenna ;  e,  right  chela. 

by  a  small  beak.  The  abdomen  is  of  considerable  size,  and  nearly 
membranous.  The  other  general  characters  are  those  of  I%ala8sina, 
[Thalassina.]    The  only  species  known  is  Callianassa  iitbterranea, 


which  is  found  on  the  sands  of  the  sea-shore  washed  by  the  tides  on 
the  French  and  English  coasts. 

CALLIANIRA,  or  CALLIANYRA,  agenusof  Ciliograde  AcalaplT, 
established  on  no  very  sure  foundations  by  Pdron  and  Lesueur,  in 
their  *  Memoir  on  the  Pttropoday  and  considered  by  them  to  belong 
to  the  type  of  the  Malacozoairia.  It  seems  however  from  its  structure 
that  in  its  general  character  it  is  not  far  removed  from  Beroe, 
Lamarck,  who  perceived  this  relation,  states  that  it  was  first  estab- 
lished by  P^ron,  in  manuscript,  under  the  name  of  Sophia  ;  and  the 
species  described  by  him  had,  according  to  his  account,  a  membranous 
gelatinous  wing,  divided  into  two  large  folioles  provided  with  cili& 
on  their  margins. 

De  Blainville,  who  observes  that  Callianira  is  only  known  by 
figures  and  descriptions  not  veiy  complete  in  their  details,  states  that 
Slabber^s  figure  copied  by  Brugui^res  was  drawn  after  an  animal  from 
the  coasts  of  Holland,  and  that  the  description  was  taken  from  another 
belonging  to  the  waters  of  Madagascar ;  infoimation  which  De 
Blainville  acknowledges  that  he  owes  to  Professor  Yanderhoeven.  De 
Blainville  adds  that  M.  Eschscholtz  refers  them  to  two  different 
species. 

The  following  is  the  generic  character  given  by  De  Blainville.— 
Body  regular,  gelatinous,  hyaline,  cylindrical,  elongated,  tubular, 
obtuse  at  the  two  extremities,  and  provided  with  two  pair  of  wing- 
shaped  appendages,  which  develop  themselves  in  large  foliations,  and 
are  fringed  with  a  double  row  of  vibratory  cilia  upon  their  edges.  A 
pair  of  tentaculiform  appendages,  branched,  and  not  ciliferous.  A 
large  .transverse  opening  at  one  of  the  extremities,  and  probably 
another  smaller  one  at  the  other. 

Example,  Callianira  triploptera. 


Callianira  triploptera. 

CALLrCERA,  a  genus  of  Insects  of  the  order  IHptera  and  family 
SyrphidcBf  section  A  thericera.  This  genus  is  allied  to  Ceria  of  Fabridus, 
and  differs  principally  in  having  the  body  shorter  and  wider  in  propor- 
tion and  silky.  The  second  joint  of  the  antennae  is  shorter  than  tha 
last,  and  forms  with  it  an  elongated,  compressed,  slightly-curved  club. 

CALLICHRO'MA,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
LoTigicornea  and  family  Cerambyddoff  distinguished  from  the  allied 
genera  {OerambyXf  PhcenicocertiSf  &c.)  by  having  the  maxillary  palpi 
smaller  than  the  labial,  and  shorter  than  the  terminal  lobe  of  the 
maxillae.    The  posterior  tibiae  are  generally  much  compressed. 

As  in  the  genus  Cerambyx,  the  species  of  this  genus  emit  a  veiy 
agreeable  odour.  , 

CALLI'CHTHYS  (Linnaus),  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the 
section  Abdominal  Malacopterygii  and  family  SUuridtr.  They  "J 
distinguished  by  the  species  having  the  body  almost  entirely  protected 
by  four  ranges  of  large  hard  scaly  plates :  the  head  is  also  protected  «'»y^ 
plates  of  the  same  texture;  the  snout  and  under  surface  of  the 
body  are  the  only  naked  parts.  The  mouth  is  not  deeply  cleft,  and 
is  furnished  with  four  long  cirri,  two  from  each  comer ;  the  teeth 
are  very  small ;  eyes  small,  and  situated  on  the  side  of  the  head. 

The  species  of  this  genus  generally  frequent  rivers  and  streams. 
Like  eels  they  can  live  for  a  considerable  time  out  of  water,  and  aa 
they  are  natives  of  hot  climates  the  streams  which  they  inhabit  not 
unfrequently  dry  up  :  when  such  is  the  case  they  are  said  to  perform 
long  journeys  over  land,  directing  their  course  to  some  olJier  atromL 
In  some  instances  they  bury  themselves  in  the  mud.  Their  structure 
appears  to  fit  them  for  these  habits. 


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CALLIDIUM. 


CALLITRIS. 


732 


The  genus  CaUichthyi  appears  to  be  induded  in  the  genus  Oai<i- 
phractus  of  Willughby  and  Ray  and  some  others  among  the  older 
authors. 

CALLIDIUM,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging  to  the 
section  LongicomeM  and  family  Cerambycida:.  It  has  the  following 
characters : — ^Body  depressed,  thorax  wider  than  the  head,  rounded 
at  the  sides ;  antennso  generally  shorter  than  the  body ;  palpi  rather 
short,  the  terminal  joint  thicker  than  the  rest,  and  truncated  at  the 
apex.  Legs  short;  femora  suddenly  thickened  towards  the  apex, 
especially  in  the  males ;  tibise  simple. 

CaUidiwm  Bajviut  is  not  an  uncommon  insect  in  this  country.  It 
lives  during  the  larva  state  in  fir-timber,  and  when  it  occurs  plenti- 
fully is  exceedingly  destructive.  The  perfect  insect  is  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  flattened  elongate  form,  and  dull  black 
or  pitch  colour;  the  thorax  is  pubescent  and  has  two  smooth  glossy 
tubercles  on  the  disc ;  the  elytra  are  furnished  with  a  fascia  (more  or 
less  distinct)  of  silvery-white  hairs. 

Instances  have  been  recorded  of  these  insects  attacking  the  fir- 

'   rafters  of  houses,  to  which  they  are  of  course  exceedingly  injurious, 

and  we  have  known  instances  when  the  perfect  insects,  in  order  to 

effect  their  escape,  have  peiforated  the  lead  with  which  the  house-top 

was  covered. 

In  many  of  the  deal  palings  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London,  and 
elsewhere,  numerous  oval-shaped  holes  (about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  diameter)  may  be  observed;  these  are  formed  by  the  perfect 
insect  of  this  species  of  Callidium  to  effect  their  escape,  having 
passed  through  the  larva  and  pupa  states  within  the  wood. 

Mr.  Stephens  in  his  'Catalogue  of  British  Insects,'  enumerates 
thirteen  species  of  this  genus,  but  of  these  many  have  undoubtedly 
been  imported  in  foreign  timber. 

CALLI(K)NUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Pdyganacect,  of  which  one  species,  C.  Pallana,  yields  in  its  roots  an 
amylaceous  gummy  matter,  on  which  the  Calmucks  feed  in  times  of 
scarcity.  The  fruits  and  branches  are  acid,  and  are  chewed  by  the 
same  people  to  allay  their  thirst.  This  plant  is  destitute  of  leaves,  and 
grows  in  gi*eat  abundance  on  the  sandy  steppes  of  Siberia.  (Lindley, 
Vegetahle  Kingdom). 

CALLIMO'RPElA  (Latreille),  a  genus  of  Insects  belonging  to  the 
order  Lepidopterat  section  Nocturna,  and  family  Liikottida  (Stephens). 
It  has  the  following  characters : — Antennse  slightly  ciliated  in  the 
males;  palpi  small,  three-jointed;  legs  moderate,  the  hinder  tibiso 
each  with  two  pairs  of  spurs;  bodv  slender,  especially  in  the 
males;  wings  large,  somewluit  triangular,  with  the  hinder  nuugins 
rounded. 

CaUimorpha  JcuHjhcecBf  the  Pink  Underwing,  is  a  very  beautiful  and 
common  moth.  When  the  wings  are  expanded  it  measures  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  width.  The  upper  wings  are  of  a  greenish-black 
colour,  with  two  round  pink  spots  at  the  apex,  and  an  oblong  dash  of 
the  same  colour,  extending  nearly  the  whole  length  of  and  parallel  to 
the  outer  margin.  The  under  wings  are  entirely  pink,  with  the 
exception  of  the  maigins,  which  are  of  the  same  tint  as  the  groimd- 
colour  of  the  upper  wings.  The  head,  thorax,  abdomen,  and  legs 
are  entirely  blacL 

The  caterpillar  of  this  moth  is  not  uncommon  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  London.  In  some  situations  it  is  found  in  the  greatest 
abundance  in  the  month  of  June,  feeding  upon  the  flowers  of  the 
Ragwort  {Senecio  Jacobaa)  and  often  upon  Groundsel  (Senecio  vulgaris). 
It  is  of  a  bright  yellow  colour,  with  numerous  slender  black  bands, 
and  is  sparingly  covered  with  hair.  The  moth  appears  in  the  month 
of  May. 

CA'LLIODON,  a  genus  of  Fishes  of  the  section  AcarUhopterygii 
and  family  Lahridai.  This  genus  was  separated  from  that  of  Searut 
(Linn.)  by  Cuvier,  and  differs  in  the  species  having  the  lateral  teeth 
of  the  upper  jaw  divided  and  pointed ;  the  upper  jaw  is  also  furnished 
with  an  inner  range  of  small  teeth.  Scarus  tpinident  of  Quoy  and 
Gaimard  is  given  as  an  example  of  this  genus.     [Scarus.] 

CALLIO'NYMUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  Abdominal 
AcarUhopterygii  and  family  GohiadcB, 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  known  in  England  by  the  name  of 
Dragonets.  Their  branchiso  have  but  a  single  small  opening  placed 
near  the  nape  of  the  neck ;  their  ventral  fins  are  widely  separated, 
larger  than  the  pectorals,  and  situated  under  the  throat ;  the  head  is 
obloDg  and  depressed ;  the  eyes  are  placed  on  the  top  of  the  head 
and  rather  close  together ;  body  smooth  and  without  scales ;  inter- 
maxillaries  very  protractile;  teeth  small,  numerous,  and  placed  on 
the  jaws  only ;  the  anterior  dorsal  fin  has  the  first  ray  elongated.  _ 

Two  species  of  this  curious  genus  (remarkable  for  the  peculiarities 
ia  the  branchiss  and  ventral  fins  above  noticed)  are  found  on  our 
own  coasts.  C.  Dracwncvlut,  the  Sordid  Dragonet,  the  Fox  of  the 
Kentish  coest  and  the  Skulpin  of  Cornwall,  is  the  better  known,  being 
frequently  met  with  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames.  It  is  about 
10  inches  long  and  of  a  reddish-brown  colour  above;  the  under 
P^J^  the  head,  pectoral  and  ventral  fins  uniformly  white ;  the  dorsal 
£bh  are  of  an  immaculate  pale-brown. 

^'  iyra,  the  Gemmeous  Dragonet,  Yellow  Skulpin  of  Comwall  and 

Govfi^Q  of  Scotland,  veiy  closely  resembles  the  one  above  described, 

'^^  ^deed  has  by  some  been  considered  as  the  same  species.    TheS-e 

^PP^^tn  however  to  be  very  good  grounds  for  separating  them,  inde- 

'''-Vt.  hist.  div.  vol.  l 


pendent  of  the  difference  of  oolour.  The  prevailing  hue  of  this 
species  is  yellow  of  various  shades,  with  sapphirine  stripes  and  spots 
on  the  head  and  sides  of  the  body.  The  ventrals  and  caudal  fins 
are  bluish-black. 

In  the  Sordid  Dragonet  the  head  bears  the  proportion  of  one  to 
five  of  the  whole  length  of  the  fish,  and  is  of  the  form  of  an 
equilateral  triangle :  the  distance  between  the  eyes  and  the  nostrils 
is  only  equal  to  one  diameter  of  the  former. 

In  the  Qemmeous  Dragonet  the  head  is  of  an  oblong-ovate  form, 
and  its  length  compared  with  that  of  the  fish  is  as  one  to  four: 
this  species  may  also  be  distinguished  from  the  former  by  its  less 
depressed  form. 


Gemmeous  Dragonet  {Oftllionymvt  lyra). 

The  latter  species  has  been  found  on  various  parts  of  our  own  coast 
as  well  as  that  of  Ireland.  It  also  occurs  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
on  the  coast  of  Norway. 

The  Dragonets  live  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  as  might  be  sup- 
posed from  the  disposition  of  the  eyes.  Their  food  consists  of  sm:dl 
shell-fish  and  worms.  They  are  sometimes  caught  by  the  shrimpers 
whilst  fishing. 

CALLI'STUS  (Bonelli),  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging 
to  the  family  Harpalidcs  (IffLeay).  The  following  are  its  cha- 
racters : — Three  basal  joints  of  the  anterior  tarsi  dilated  in  the  males. 
Palpi  with  the  terminal  joint  elongated,  rather  ovate,  and  terminated 
almost  in  a  point.  Aiitennse  filiform  and  slightly  compressed. 
Labmm  transverse,  emarginated  anteriorly.  Head  somewnat  tri- 
angular. Thorax  nearly  heart-shaped.  Body  rather  short  and 
depressed. 

Only  one  species  of  this  genus  has  hitherto  been  discovered,  but  it 
is  found  almost  all  over  Europe :  it  is  not  uncommon  in  France,  and 
is  foimd  beneath  stoDes.     In  England  it  is  rather  scarce. 

This  species,  Callittus  lunatus,  is  conspicuous  in  the  cabinets  of 
British  insects  for  its  beauty.  It  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
long ;  the  head  and  under  parts  of  the  abdomen  are  of  a  greenish- 
black  colour,  the  thorax  is  reddish-yellow,  and  the  wing-cases  are 
yellow  with  six  black  spots,  placed,  two  at  the  base,  one  on  the  disc 
of  each  elytron  which  extends  to  the  outer  maigin,  and  two  at  the 
apex ;  these  spots  are  large,  and  occupy  about  one-half  of  the  whole 
surface  of  the  elytra.  The  antennsB  are  black,  with  the  two  basal 
joints  yellow.  The  legs  are  black,  with  the  base  of  the  femora  and 
tibiae  yellow.  The  head  and  thorax  are  very  thickly  punctured ;  the 
elytra  are  punctate-striated.  The  upper  parts,  with  the  exception  of 
the  head,  are  devoid  of  glossiness. 

CALLITHAMNION.     [Aloje.] 

CALLITRICHA'CE-*:,  Startoortt,  the  Callitriche  Tribe,  a  small 
natural  order  of  Achlamydeous  Dicotyledonous  Plants,  consisting  of 
a  few  obscure  floating  species,  all  of  which  belong  to  the  genus  Calli- 
triche, The  distinctive  character  resides  in  the  presence  of  several 
one-seeded  carpels  combined  into  a  single  pistil  with  two  styles,  and 
altogether  destitute  of  any  floral  covering.  Brown  and  many  others 
consider  the  order  related  to  Halorageas.  Lindley,  who  formerly 
placed  it  near  Podoatemaceoe,  now  agrees  with  Endlicher  that  its 
proper  position  is  near  Euphorhiaeece,  of  which  it  may  be  regarded  as 
an  aquatic  form.  In  the  genus  CcMUriche  the  flowers  are  without 
calyx  or  corolla,  with  2  bracts  at  their  base ;  1  stamen ;  2  ovaries, 
each  2-lobed  and  imperfectly  2-celled ;  the  styles  2,  subulate; 
the  fruit  dry,  separating  into  4  indehiscent  carpels.  Kiitzing 
has  figured  a  deciduous  calyx  belonging  to  this  genus.  Five 
species  have  been  described.  Four  of  these  are  natives  of  Great 
Britain.  They  are  water-plants  with  smooth  leaves,  and  are  known 
by  the  name  of  Water-Starworts.  C.  vema  is  conmion  in  stagnant 
waters  and  slow  streams.  C.  platycarpa  is  found  on  mud  or  in 
shallow  water;  seldom,  and  then  apparently  by  accident,  in  deep 
water.  C.  peduncukUa  is  found  in  marshes;  and  Babington  has 
described  a  variety,  C.  p.  tettilis,  which  is  found  in  lakes.  C.  autum- 
nalis  is  found  in  streams,  but  is  rare.  The  surface  of  C.  verna,  and 
probably  of  the  other  species,  is  covered  with  rosette-formed  epidermal 
appendages.  The  same  bodies  are  found  on  ffippuris.  (Lankester, 
British  Associatum  Transaeti<ms  ;  Babinjrton,  Manual  of  Botany.) 

CALLI'TRICHE.    [CallitbichackaJ 

CALLITRIS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Coniferce.  Dr.  Lindley  states,  on  the  authority  of  Brongniart  and 
Schouflboe,  that  Sandarach  ia  yielded  by  a  species  of  this  genus,  the 

3  ▲ 


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CALLUNA. 


CALYCANTHACE^. 


m 


C.  quadrivalvU,  and  not  from  Jvnipenu  comtMinis,  aa  ia  frequently  anp- 
poeed.  He  alao  adda  that  he  haa  seen  **  a  plank  two  feet  wide  of  this 
Sandarach-Tree,  which  is  called  the  Arar-Tree  in  Barbaiy.  The  wood 
is  considered  by  the  Turks  indestructible,  and  they  use  it  for  the 
ceilines  and  floors  of  their  mosques."     (lindley,  Vegetable  Kingdom.) 

CALLU'NA  (from  jcaAA^fw,  to  make  beaut&ul),  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Ericaoece.  It  has  a  4-parted  mem- 
branous coloured  calyx,  longer  than  the  4-clelt  campanulate  corolla, 
surrounded  by  four  green  bracts ;  8  stamens,  with  dilated  filaments ; 
the  capsule  4-oelled,  the  dissepiments  adhering  to  the  axis ;  the  valves 
opening  at  the  dissepiments,  and  separate  from  them.  There  is  only 
one  species  of  this  genus,  the  Common  Heath  {O.  wigaria).  It  is  a 
low  tufted  shrub  wii£  small  sessile  dosely-imbricated  keeled  leaves, 
arranged  in  four  rows,  each  leaf  having  two  small  spurs  at  the  base, 
and  nearly  or  quite  smooth.  The  colour  of  the  flowers  varies  from  a 
deep  red  to  a  white,  and  nmnerous  varieties  have  been  named.  This 
plant  is  common  on  every  heath  in  Great  Britain.  The  varieties  are 
ornamental  when  planted  in  the  garden.  They  should  be  grown  in 
a  peat  soil,  and  may  be  propagated  by  layers  or  cuttings  under  a  bell- 
glass.     (Babington,  Mamuu  0/  British  Botany.) 

CALOCHO'RTUS,  a  beautiful  genus  of  Bulbous  Plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  JAliacecBf  and  nearly  allied  botanically  to  the 
f ritillary  and  tulip,  from  both  of  which  it  is  immediately  known  by  the 
sepals  being  of  a  diflerent  form,  colour,  and  texture  from  the  petals. 
Several  species  have  been  introduced  into  England  from  California, 
where  or  near  which  country  they  are  exclusively  found  wild.  Their 
exact  localities,  and  the  precise  conditions  of  climate  imder  which  they 
occur,  are  however  nearly  \mknown.  It  would  appear  that  they 
inhabit  a  mild  climate,  subject  to  rains,  and  a  moderately  high  tem- 
perature during  their  season  of  £prowth,  but  dry  and  cool  subsequently. 
Accordingly  it  is  found  that  in  this  coimtry  they  do  not  succeed  very 
well  imless  they  are  cultivated  in  pits  where  they  are  protected  from 
frost  and  from  water  stagnating  about  their  roots,  and  can  be  exposed 
freely  to  light  and  air  when  growing.  They  are  so  exceedingly  im- 
patient of  wet  near  their  bulbs  when  not  in  a  growing  state,  that 
prudent  gardeners  take  the  precaution  to  dig  them  up  and  keep  them 
dry  from  the  time  when  the  leaves  are  withered  to  the  recommence- 
ment of  their  vegetation.  When  they  are  replanted  they  will  scarcely 
bear  any  water  until  the  young  leaves  begin  to  appear  above  the 
soil 

CALOPHTLLUM  (from  Kak6s,  beautiful,  and^^AXov,  leaf),  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Guttiferce.  It  has  a  bractless 
calyx,  consisting  of  from  2-4  unequal  coloured  sepals;  i  petals  (some- 
times 2)  opposite  the  sepals ;  indefinite  stamens,  free  or  connected  at 
the  base ;  filaments  short ;  anthers  inserted  by  their  base,  2-celled, 
bursting  longitudinally ;  the  style  twisted,  crowned  by  a  large  capitate 
stigma,  which  is  usually  lobed;  fruit  drupaceous,  globose  or  egg- 
shapecC  1 -celled,  1-eeeded ;  the  seeds  laige.  The  species  are  trees,  uie 
leaves  of  which  have  numerous  transverse  parallel  veins,  which  give 
them  a  very  beautiful  appearance. 

C.  InophyUum  has  oblong  or  obovate  obtuse  leaves,  usually  emargi- 
nate;  round  branches;  loosely  racemose  flowers;  racemes  axillary, 
1-flowered ;  usually  opposite  peduncles.  This  tree  is  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  and  often  attains  a  height  of  90  or  100  feet  It  has 
large  handsome  leaves  like  those  of  a  water-lily,  snow-white  fragrant 
flowers,  and  a  fruit  about  tiie  size  of  a  wsJnut.  When  the  trunk  is 
wounded  it  exudes  a  yellow  viscid  juice,  which  frequently  hardens  to 
the  con&istence  of  a  gum.  It  is  a  common  plant  in  Malabar,  where  it 
yields  fruit  twice  a  year — in  March  and  September — and  frequently 
attains  the  age  of  300  years.  The  nuts  afford  a  fixed  oil,  which  is 
expressed,  and  used  for  burning  in  lamps,  for  making  ointment,  &c. 
This  tree  is  cultivated  in  Java  for  the  sake  of  its  shade  and  the 
fragrance  of  its  flowers.  The  bark  and  the  exudation  are  used  for 
medicinal  purposes. 

C7.  Calaba,  Calaba-Tree,  has  obovate  or  oblong,  obtuse  or  emaiginate 
leaves ;  hermaphrodite  or  male  flowers ;  lateral  very  short  racemes. 
This  plant  is  a  tree  60  feet  in  height,  and  is  a  native  of  the  Caribbee 
Islands.  It  has  white  sweet-scented  flowers,  and  a  green  fruit  some- 
thing  like  the  cornelian  cherry,  which  contains  a  white  solid  kernel. 
An  oil  is  expressed  from  the  seed  for  domestic  uses  and  for  burning 
in  lamps.  The  timber  is  used  for  various  purposes,  especially  for 
staves  and  cask-headings.  Lindley  says  that  "  the  true  East  Indian 
Tacamahaca  is  produced  by  GalophyUtm.  Calaba,"  There  are  how- 
ever several  gums  brought  mto  the  market  imder  the  name  of  Taca- 
mahaca, of  which  formerly  more  was  used  than  at  the  present  day. 
The  *  Tacamahaca  seu  Resiaa  Tacamahaca'  of  the  old  Pharmacopoeias 
appears  to  have  been  the  produce  of  the  JSlaphrium  UnneiUogum  and 
£.  excelnm,  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Amyridea,  It  is 
described  as  a  resin  of  a  brownish  yellow  colour,  spotted  with  white, 
easily  broken  into  pieces,  which  have  a  alining  fracture,  easily 
melting  in  the  fire,  and  having  a  pleasant  scent  Cullen  says  that  it 
was  not  employed  in  his  day  ''as  an  internal  medicine;  and  as  an 
external  I  cannot  perceive  its  virtues."  It  was  used  for  making 
plasters  as  a  counter-irritant,  for  which  there  are  forms  in  the  conti- 
nental Pharmacopoeias  at  the  present  day.  There  is  however  another 
form  of  Tacamahaca  brought  to  Europe  called  '  Taoaroahaoarin-Shells.' 
It  has  got  this  name  from  being  collected  in  little  gourd-ehellsL  This 
is  the  true  East  Indian  Tacamahaca,  which  is  collected  from  <7. 


Inophyllttm  in  the  East  Indian  Islands  and  from  0.  Tacamakaca  in 
Madagascar  and  the  Mauritius.  C.  Bratiliejue  jields  an  acrid  arcm&tic 
lemon-scented  resin.  C.  angttstifolium  is  the  Piney-Tree  of  Penang, 
and  yields  a  hard  timber. 

(Bischoff',  Medicimech'Pharmaceuiische  Botamik;  Loudon,  £ncydo. 
padia  ;  Don,  Oard.  Diet. ;  Lindley,  Vegetable  Kingdom.) 

CA'LOPUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging  to  the 
section  Sttndytra  and  family  (Edemerida.  The  species  are  difitanguiih&d 
by  having  the  femora  of  the  posterior  legs  of  the  same  size  in  both 
sexes,  or  nearly  so ;  the  antezinse  with  the  second  jomt  much  shorter 
than  the  third,  more  or  less  serrated,  and  inserted  into  an  eaas\^.- 
nation  of  the  eyes.    [CEdimeba.] 

CALOSO'MA,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  belonging  to  tha 
section  Gfeodepkaga  (M'Leay),  and  familv  Carabidcs.  It  is  Imown  by 
the  following  chiuracters  : — Three  basal  joints  of  the  anterior  tara, 
in  the  males,  much  dilated,  the  fourth  joint  slightly  ao ;  anteimse  vith 
the  third  joint  longer  than  the  rest;  labrum  bilobed;  mandihk 
simple^  slightly  bent,  and  transversely  striated;  thorax  abort;  djtn 
generaJly  rather  broad  and  short 

This  genus  is  very  closely  allied  to  the  true  Carabi;  indeed  eo  much 
so,  that  it  is  difficult  to  point  out  any  very  tangible  diatinguithii^ 
characters ;  and  yet  the  entomologist  is  seldom  puzzled  in  eeparatisg 
them,  even  without  close  examinatioiL 

There  is  a  considerable  difierence  in  the  general  appearance  of  the 
species  of  the  two  genera,  and  we  think  this  in  a  great  meunre 
arises  fr^m  the  comparative  proportions  of  the  head  and  thorax.  In 
CcUoeoma  these  parts  are  always  smaller  and  considerably  sborter  ii 
proportion  to  the  body  (which  is  generally  broad)  than  in  Cant/u 
The  eyes  are  generally  more  projecting ;  and  M.  Dejean  moitioM  the 
larger-sized  jaws,  and  their  being  always  transversely  striated,  ts  a 
good  distinctioiL 

To  the  genus  Caloaoma  belongs  our  largest  and  most  beftotifd 
British  Carabideoua  insect,  the  C.  SycopharUa.    It  is  about  aa  icch 

long ;  tiie  head, 
thorax,  and  wdx: 
parts  of  the  body 
are  of  a  beantiful 
blue  colour,  and  tk 
elytra  are  green, 
with  red  reflec^om 
more  or  leea  wn- 
spicuoua  in  differesi 
examples ;  the  le^ 
and  antemise  an 
blade 

Most  of  the  best 
British  collection 
contain  this  insect, 
and  some  era 
several  Bpecimens: 
itmuatneTerthelefi 
be  coDiddered  a  nn 

insect  in  this  island,  hardly  ever  more  than  one  specimen  having  been 
foimd  at  one  time.  In  France  and  Qermany  it  is  not  uncommon, 
and  is  found  in  woody  districts.  Most  of  the  British  epecimens  ban 
been  taken  on  the  sea  coast. 

C.  Inquifitor  is  the  only  other  species  of  this  genus  found  in  tbia 
country.  It  is  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  t 
bronze  or  brassy-green  above,  and  black  beneath.  Tbis  spccK^ 
though  by  no  means  common,  is  far  more  abundant  than  the  Ias^ 
It  has  been  frequently  met  with  crawling  up  the  trunks  of  08kb«e 
in  the  spring  of  the  year,  about  the  time  that  that  tree  begins  to  pt*. 
forth  its  leaves.  Most  probably  it  feeds  upon  the  young  caterpilbr=. 
which  are  then  abundant. 

Unlike  most  genera  of  insects,  this  appears  to  be  confined  to  no 
particular  quarter  of  the  globe,  species  having  been  met  witb  in  »lni'>"^ 
all  countries.  About  thirty  si>ecies  are  known ;  their  prevailing  cobun 
are  various  shades  of  green,  generally  of  a  brassy  hue,  and  sometima 
black. 
CALOTHRIX.  [ALOiE.] 
CALOTRAQUS.    [Antilopejk.] 

CALOTROPIS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Aeclepiadaceoe.  One  species,  C.  gigantea  (Aedt^^  gigantea^  Ujm^\ 
is  the  Mudar-Plant,  Akund  or  Yercum  of  the  Hindooa  It  yields  a 
milky  juice,  which  is  extensively  used  in  India  as  a  medicinal  agent, 
as  are  also  the  root  and  bark.  [Mudak,  in  Abtb  akd  Sc  Div.J 
CALPE.    [Aoalbpha] 

CALTHA,  a  genua  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  m^iar 
culacece.  Two  species  are  met  with  in  this  country ;  one,  C.  j)««*fU 
the  Water-Caltrops  or  Marsh-Marigold,  commonly  in  meadows  ana 
by  the  side  of  wet  ditches.  It  is  very  much  like  a  Ranmculviy  trom 
which  genus  OaUha  chiefly  differs  in  having  a  calyx  and  corolla  mixM 
together,  no  scale  at  the  base  of  the  petals,  and  many  seeds  m  eac 
C9rpe\.  The  other  species  is  (7.  rodwow,  which  is  veiylocaL  ab 
species  partake  of  the  acridity  of  Jiamtnctdut  itself.  ... 

CALUMBO-ROOT,  the  bitter  tonic  root  of  an  African  plant  caUca 
Cocculxis  palmaiue.    [Cocculus.]  .  „i 

CALYCANTHA'CKiE,  Calycanihe,  the CalyoMithus Tribe, an«to»' 


Cahtoma  Sycophanta, 


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CALYCAITTHUS. 


CAJjYVTRMIDM. 


7W 


order  of  hardy  Dicotyledonous  Plants,  well  known  in  gardens  for  the 
delicious  fragrance  of  their  blossoms.  They  are  in  some  respects 
Allied  to  the  MagnoliOy  or  Star-Anise  Plant  {lUicvum),  in  consequence 
of  their  chocolate-coloured  flowers  with  the  segments  overlying  each 
other  in  several  rows,  and  because  also  of  their  peculiar  fragrance ; 
their  true  affinity  is  however  with  RosacecB,  as  the  mass  of  their 
characters  sufficiently  proves ;  especially  the  imusual  circumstance  of 
the  cotyledons  of  the  embryo  being  rolled  up  both  in  this  order 
and  in  the  genus  Chamcemdes  in  iZofoceor. 

Caiycanihacea  consist  of  but  two  genera,  CalycarUhua  and  OkiffiO' 
nanthus,  which  agree  in  having — Ist^  an  imbricated  calyx  and  corolla 
that  pass  insensibly  into  each  other,  and  combine  at  their  bases  into 
a  thick  fleshy  tube ;  2nd,  a  small  number  of  perigynous  stamens, 
whose  anthers  are  adnate  and  are  tipped  by  a  projection  of  the 
connective;  3rd,  several  one-seeded  nuts  inclosed  in  the  tube  of  the 
calyx;  and  4th,  a  convolute  embryo,  destitute  of  albumen.  Their 
wood  is  remarkable  for  the  glandular  nature  of  the  woody  tubes; 
and  for  having,  in  addition  to  the  usual  structure  of  exogens,  four 
imperfect  axes  with  concentric  circles,  lying  at  equal  distances  in 
the  bark  near  the  circumference,  on  which  they  produce  externally 
four  elevated  lines  or  wheals. 

The  two  genera  are  thus  distinguished: — CalycarUhuSf  or  the 
Carolina  Allspice,  has  48  stamens  arranged  in  four  rows,  the  inner- 
most being  rudimentary ;  and  a  great  many  nuts  inclosed  in  a  calyx, 
which  is  naked  at  its  apex.  It  consists  of  small  shrubs,  natives  of 
North  America,  with  fragrant  chocolate-coloured  flowers,  appearing 
along  with  the  leaves  in  May  or  June. 

Chimonanthus,  or  the  Japan  Allspice,  has  10  stamens,  all  perfect 
and  inserted  in  a  double  row ;  only  one  or  two  nuts  to  each  calyx- 
tube,  which  is  crowned  and  closed  up  by  the  permanent  recurved 
stamens.  The  only  species  is  found  wild  in  Japan,  and  has  fragrant 
lemon-coloured  blossoms,  appearing  in  the  winter  after  the  fall  of 
the  leaves.  Botanists  call  it  Chimonanihua  fragrans,  and  distinguish 
three  varieties : — let,  the  pale  kind,  which  has  long  been  in  gardens. 
Mid  has  flowers  the  colour  of  which  is  very  slightly  yellow ;  2nd, 
the  large-flowered,  with  bright  yellow  flowers  twice  as  large  as  those 
of  the  last ;  and  8rd,  the  small-flowered,  which  is  in  all  respects  the 
same  as  the  first,  except  that  its  blossoms  are  less  than  half  the 
size.    These  plants  are  multiplied  with  some  difficulty  by  layering. 

(Lindley's  Vegetable  KingcUm.) 

CA.LYCANTHUS.    [Caltcanthacea] 

CALYCERA'CE-^,  CafycerSf  a  small  natural  order  of  Monopetalous 
Dicotyledons,  differing  from  Composita  in  nothing  but  their  seeds 
having  albumen,  and  being  pendulous,  and  in  their  anthers  being 
only  half  syngenesious.  It  has  five  genera  and  ten  species.  They 
are  natives  of  South  America,  but  more  especially  of  South  Chile. 

CALYCIFLO'RiE,  an  artificial  division  of  Polypetalous  Dicotyle- 
rlonous  Plants,  proposed  by  Jussieu  and  adopted  by  De  CandoUe.  It 
i:^  characterised  by  the  stamens  adhering  more  or  less  to  the  side  of 
the  calyx ;  or,  in  the  language  of  the  French  school  of  botanists, 
being  perigynous. 

CALYCOPHYLLUM  (from  «c(iAu^,  calyx,  and  ^i/AAov,  leaf),  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cinchonacece.  It  has  the 
limb  of  the  calyx  truncate  or  bluntly  5-toothed,  one  of  the  teeth 
expanded  into  a  petiolate  coloured  membranous  leaf;  the  corolla 
campanulate  or  funnel-shaped  with  a  6-plaited  limb ;  5  stamens,  the 
filaments  rising  from  the  throat  free,  the  length  of  the  corolla ;  the 
anthers  oval,  exserted;  the  style  ending  in  2  reflexed  stigmas; 
the  capsule  dehiscing  at  the  apex,  oblong,  2-celled,  many-seeded ;  the 
seeds  fixed  to  the  linear  placenta,  imbricate,  oblong,  ginied  by  a  very 
narrow  membranous  wing.  The  species  are  small  smooth  trees,  with 
opposite  glabrous  leaves,  short  stipules,  and  flowers  disposed  in 
axillary  and  terminal  dichotomous  corymbs. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  species  of  this  genus  has  been  de- 
scribed by  Sir  Bobert  Schombuigk  as  a  native  of  British  Guyana. 
There  are  seyeral  genera  closely  alUed  to  Calycophyllvm,  as  Muwoenda 
Pinkneya,  Ac,  in  which  one  of  the  teeth  of  the  calyx  expands  into  a 
petioled  and  coloured  leaf  of  a  membranaceous  texture.  In  the  species 
discovered  in  Quyana  the  bract-like  expansion  of  the  calyx  has  a  rose 
colour,  and  aa  the  flowers  are  very  numerous  the  whole  tree  assumes 
the  colour  of  the  rose.  In  describing  the  discovery  of  this  plant,  Sir 
Robert  says,  "  Let  imagination  convey  you  to  the  great  garden  of 
nature  in  Ghiyana>  clothed  in  tropical  exuberance ;  and,  among  those 
productions  of  a  congenial  sun  and  fertile  soil,  figiure  to  yourself  trees 
from  40  to  60  feet  high,  presenting  a  mass  of  leaves  the  colour  of 
our  favourite  flower,  from  a  deep  pink  to  the  lightest  rose,  and 
perhaps  your  fancy  will  assist  you  to  form  some  idea  of  the  picture 
I  beheld  at  one  of  the  valleys  of  the  river  Rapunnuni,  where  a  high 
mountain  on  the  river^s  left  bank  turns  its  bed  boldly  to  the  east. 
The  banks  of  the  stream  and  the  steep  side  of  the  hill  were  alike 
covered  with  trees  clothed  with  rose-coloured  leaves ;  and  only  on  a 
near  approach  could  tho  shining  green  leaves  and  the  spikes  of 
flowers  of  a  relvety  blue  be  discovered." 

This  plant  is  called  by  its  discoverer,  in  honour  of  the  present  Lord 
Derby,  Ccdycophyllum  Stanleyanum.  The  wood  of  the  tree  is  very 
hard.  It  is  very  bitter  to  the  taate,  and  like  the  rest  of  the  order  is 
probably  febrifugal. 

(Hooker,  London  Jowmal  of  BoUmy,  1844.) 


CALY'MENE,  the  generic  title,  in  Brongniart's  classification  of 
Trilobitet,  for  the  species  of  Onutacea  allied  to  the  well-known  Dudley 
fossil,  Calymene  Blvmenbachii,    [Tbilobites.] 

CALYMMA,  a  genus  of  Ciliogiade  Ac<Uqi>luB,  thus  characterised  by 
Eschscholtz: — Body  but  little  elevated,  compressed,  widened,  as  it 
were,  and  provided  on  each  side  with  a  considerable  appendage, 
taking  its  rise  from  four  other  smaller  appendages,  free  at  their 
extremity,  near  the  mouth,  and  furnished  with  the  series  of  cilia. 
The  species  on  which  this  genus  was  established  was  taken  in  the 
South  Seas  near  the  equator. 

CALY'PTRA,  in  Botany,  a  name  given  to  a  hood-like  body 
connected  in  some  plants  with  the  organs  of  fructification.  In  the 
genus  PiUanthtu  it  covers  over  the  flower,  and  is  formed  of  imited 
bracts ;  in  Eucalyptus  and  Eudesmia  it  is  simply  a  lid  or  operculum 
to  the  stamens,  and  is  produced  in  the  former  by  the  consolidated 
sepals,  in  the  latter  by  the  petals  in  the  same  state :  in  mosses  it  is 
seated  upon  the  end  of  the  fruit-stalk,  inclosing  the  spore-vessel,  and 
is  a  leaf  rolled  round  the  latter  and  torn  away  from  its  bese.  In 
Jungermannia  it  exists  in  the  form  of  a  cup  or  wrapper  at  the  base  of 
the  fruit-stalk,  which,  instead  of  carrying  it  up  upon  its  point,  pierces 
through  its  apex  and  leaves  it  behind. 

CALYPTILEIDiB,  a  family  of  Gasteropodous  Molkuca,  formerly 
arranged  under  the  genus  Patella  of  Linnaeus,  and  known  by 
collectors  as  Chambered  Limpets,  comprising  the  genera  CalyptroKt 
and  Crepidvia  of  Lamarck,  vdth  the  sub-genera  into  which  they  have 
been  divided  by  Lesson. 

"  When,"  says  M.  Deshayes,  in  his  edition  of  Lamarck,  '*  collections 
contained  but  a  small  number  of  Calyptrceat  and  Orepiduke,  and  when 
the  animals  of  these  two  genera  were  unknown,  it  was  natural  and 
proper  to  preserve  them  both;  but  now  the  resemblance  of  the 
animaJs  of  these  two  genera  is  proved,  not  only  by  what  M.  Cuvier 
formerly  stated  in  the  '  Annales  du  Museum,'  but  also  by  the  more 
reoent  works  of  M.  Lesson,  of  Messi's.  Quoy  and  Ghiimard,  and  of  Mr. 
Owen.  Already  we  had  perceived,  in  publishing  our  work  upon  the 
environs  of  Pans,  as  well  as  in  our  articles  *  Calyptreea*  and  *Orepidula* 
in  the  '  Encyclopedic,'  that  there  existed  a  great  resemblance  between 
the  shells  of  these  two  genera.  One  sees  in  effect,  in  certain  Orepi- 
duloBf  the  summit  taking  a  spiral  shape  upon  the  side  of  the  shell,  and 
raiping  itself  insensibly  in  a  suocession  of  species  so  as  to  show  an 
incontestable  passage  between  the  Orqfddtdce  and  spiral  Calyptrace, 
which  we  would  particularly  designate  by  the  name  of  Trochiform 
Ccdyptrcea,  As  in  the  Calypircece,  properly  so  called,  there  exist  a 
certain  number  of  particular  forms  which  may  serve  to  group  them 
in  sections,  it  waa  necessary  to  see  whether  the  species  having  in  their 
interior  a  lamina  or  plate  of  a  funnel  shape  afforded  proof  of  a 
passage  to  the  Orepidula,  like  those  which  are  trochiform.  This 
passage  does  exist ;  so  that  from  the  entire  facts  we  may  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  two  genera,  Calyptrcea  and  Orepidtda,  ought  to  be 
united  for  the  future  in  the  system.  '  This  conclusion,  which  we  had 
in  some  sort  foreseen,  has  been  rigorously  drawn  and  proved  by 
incontestable  evidence  in  the  work  lately  published  by  Mr.  Broderip, 
in  the  first  volume  of  the  *  Transactiona  of  the  Zooloffioal  Society  of 
London.'  M.  Lesson,  in  the  conohological  part  of  t^he  great  work 
published  on  the  return  of  the  expedition  in  the  corvette  La  Coquille, 
had  attempted  to  establish  in  the  united  genera  Calyptrcea  and 
Orepidtda  many  sub-genera,  of  which  some  have  been  adopted  by  Mr. 
Broderip  as  sections  of  the  entire  genus  Calyptrasa.  These  sections, 
of  whicJi  some  persons  think  that  they  can  make  genera,  are  con- 
nected one  with  another  by  the  strongest  affinities,  and  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated into  genera  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  the  animals." 

Deshayes  then  proposes  the  following  sections  of  the  great  genus 
Calyptrcea : 

1.  Those  which  have  in  their  interior,  and  fixed  to  the  summit,  a 
shelly  plate,  hollowed  out  into  a  sort  of  gutter,  which  may  be  com- 
pared to  a  hollow  cone  of  paper  cut  longitudinally  in  two,  and  of  which 
one  portion  has  been  removed.    (Calyptrcea  eqnettri».) 

2.  Those  which  have  a  delicate  plate  or  lunella  in  the  form  of  a 
funnel,  fixed  either  to  the  side  or  tne  summit :  a  well-defined  section, 
representing  nevertheless  a  passage  towards  some  of  the  Orepidtdce, 

8.  Uniting  all  the  species  from  those  which  begin  to  have  a  very 
short  lamella  attached  to  the  internal  side  (Calyptrtea  extinctorivm) 
to  those  whose  lamella  forms  spiral  turns  (Calyptrcea  trochtformis),  the 
gradations  being  very  insensible.  To  this  section  M.  Deshayes  thinks 
that  many  of  Lamarck's  Crepidulas  should  be  referred. 

4.'  Crepidula,  properly  so  called.  This  section  he  says  might  be  sub- 
divided, taking  for  a  basis  of  the  subdivision  characters  of  less  ytflue 
than  those  relied  on  for  forming  the  four  principal  sections. 

Some  idea  of  the  variety  of  shape  to  which  tiiese  shells  are  subject 
mav  be  obtained  from  the  following  passage  in  Mr.  Broderip's  paper  i—^ 
"  1  nave  before  me  specimens  taken  from  under  the  same  stone,  evidentiy 
of  the  same  species,  varying  in  shape  from  a  regular  high  cone  to  an 
almost  flat  surface,  with  nearly  every  intervening  irregularity  of  dr- 
cumferenoe  that  can  be  imagined." 

The  species  of  Calyptrceidce  are  numerous  and  widely  diffused; 
but  the  great  development  of  the  form  is  to  be  found  m  warm  dimates, 
where  many  of  the  species  attain  considerable  size,  and  are  remarkable 
for  their  form  and  the  richness  of  their  colour.  They  are  found  stick- 
ing on  rocks^  on  and  under  stones,  on  other  living  and  dead  shells  and 


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CALYSTEGIA. 


CAMELUS. 


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submarine  substances  at  depths  rarying  from  the  surface  to  40  fathoms, 
on  sea-coastfl,  in  sestuariei^  and  in  tidal  rivers. 

Two  genera  of  this  family  have  representatives  in  the  British  seas — 
Pileoptittknd  Calyptrcea.  Each  genus  has  one  species.  PiUopsU  Hun- 
,garicus  is  a  common  Limpet  on  our  shores,  and  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Bonnet  or  Large  Foolscap  Limpet.  Oalyptra  Sineniia  is 
essentially  a  southern  British  shelL  It  does  not  range  north  of  Britain, 
but  extends  southward  to  the  Meditemmean.  Botii  these  species  are 
found  fossil,  and  date  back  as  far  as  the  Coralline  Crag. 

CALYSTE'GLi  (from  jca\f>|,  calyx,  and  ffr4yw,  to  cover),  a 
genus  of  plants  composed  of  species  formerly  included  under  Convol- 
vulus, and  separated  by  Robert  Brown.  It  is  distinguished  by  two 
laige  bracts  which  indose  the  flower.  It  has  a  5-parted  calyx,  a  cam- 
panulate  5-plicate  corolla,  one  style,  a  2-lobed  stigma,  globose  or  terete 
lobes,  a  2-celled  ovarium  with  2  ovules ;  the  capsule  only  1-eelled  from 
the  shortness  of  the  dissepiment.  The  species  are  lactescent,  glabrous, 
twining  or  prostrate  herbs,  with  solitary  l-flowered  peduncles. 

C.  Sepium,  Great  Bindweed,  has  sagittate  or  cordate  very  acute 
leaves ;  lobes  truncate,  entire,  cordate,  keeled ;  acute  bracts,  longer 
than  the  calyx,  but  one-half  shorter  than  the  coroUa ;  the  peduncles 
square ;  sepals  acute.  This  is  the  Convolvulus  Septum  of  older  botanists. 
The  genus  Calysteffia  is  not  adopted  by  Koch,  Babington,  and  other 
botanists.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  in  hedges,  and  is  found  in  Great 
Britain  very  common.  It  possesses  apparently  the  properties  of  the 
genus  Convolvulus,  Haller  and  Withering  state  that  the  expressed 
juice  of  the  root  may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  scammony.  It  is 
sometimes  called  German  Scammony.  In  doses  of  20  or  30  grains  it 
has  been  recommended  as  a  hydragogue  cathartic  in  dropsies,  by 
Mason  Good. 

C.  Soldanella,  Sea  Bindweed,  has  trailing  glabrous  rather  fleshy 
leaves,  reniform,  entire,  or  a  littie  angular ;  peduncles  angular,  angles 
winged ;  bracts  large,  ovate,  blunt,  mucronate,  generally  shorter  than 
the  calyx.  It  is  a  native  of  many  parts  of  Europe  on  the  sea-coast, 
and  also  some  parts  of  Asia.  It  is  common  on  the  coasts  of  Great 
Britain.  The  young  stalks  are  sometimes  eaten  pickled.  The  juice 
of  the  mature  plant  is  however  a  cathartic. 

Several  other  species  of  this  genus  are  described.  Like  the  Convol- 
vuli  they  are  elegant  plants  in  blossom,  and  are  of  the  most  easy 
culture.  They  may  be  propagated  by  pieces  of  the  root  or  by  seeds. 
The  C.  SoldaneUa  should  now  and  then  be  watered  with  salt-water. 

(Don,  Oardenei-'s  Dictionary.) 

CALYX,  the  external  wrapper  of  a  flower  within  the  bracts. 
Usually  it  is  green  and  leaf-like,  sometimes  however  it  is  coloured  like 
a  corolla,  from  which  it  is  only  known  by  its  being  the  outermost  of 
the  rows  of  floral  envelopes.  It  consists  of  leaves  called  sepals,  which 
are  sometimes  separate,  when  the  calyx  is  polysepalous,  and  sometimes 
united  into  a  sort  of  cup  by  the  edges,  or  monosepalous.  Occasionally 
it  is  converted  into  feathery  or  short  divisions,  when  it  is  named  pap- 
pus ;  or  it  is  altogether  reduced  to  a  small  rim,  so  as  to  be  hardly 
visible.  In  some  plants  it  grows  to  the  sides  of  the  ovary,  and  is  tech- 
nically called  superior,  while  it  is  named  inferior  if  it  is  quite  sepa- 
rate from  that  part  Its  segments  are  usually  of  the  same  number  os 
those  of  the  corolla,  and  alternate  with  them.  The  office  of  the  calyx 
appears  to  be,  in  its  ordinary  green  state,  merely  that  of  protecting 
the  tender  parts  that  are  formed  within  it ;  but  when  it  is  coloured 
and  similar  to  a  corolla,  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  in  such  cases  it 
also  performs  the  part  of  a  coroUa.  [Corolla.]  In  some  instances, 
as  in  that  of  pappus,  it  seems  merely  intended  as  a  means  of  trans- 
porting seeds  to  a  distance  by  enabling  them  to  catch  the  wind  by  the 
wings  which  it  at  that  time  resembles.  This  is  especially  seen  In  many 
of  the-  frniits  of  ComposUog.  The  foliar  nature  of  the  sepals  is  well  seen 
in  the  cases  of  CalycophyUwm,  Musacenda,  &c.,  where  the  sepals  natu- 
i^y  grow  into  leaves. 

CAMASSIA,  a  genus  of  Bulbous  Plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  LUiacece.  The  bulbs  of  one  of  the  species  {C.  esctdenta)  are  eaten 
by  the  North  American  Indians  under  the  name  of  Quamasn. 

CAMBING  OUTAN.    [Antilope^.] 

CAMBIUM,  a  viscid  substance  that  appears  in  the  spring  between 
the  wood  and  bark  of  exogenous  trees.  It  is  in  this  substance  that 
the  yoimg  cells  are  fozTned  which  became  the  wood  of  the  following 
year.  This  substance  disappears -every  spring  after  the  complete 
formation  of  the  wood,  which  then  adheres  firmly  to  the  bark ;  but 
it  re-appears  whenever  the  plant  is  again  called  into  growth,  as  at 
midsimimer  in  those  species  which  dioot  twice  a  year,  like  roses, 
peaches,  &c. 

CAMBOGK  The  produce  of  several  species  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  QuUifercB  is  known  by  this  name.  It  is  a  gum-resin, 
and  has  purgative  properties.  On  account  of  its  bright  yellow  colour 
it  is  also  used  as  a  pigment.   [Stalaohiteb  ;  Gabcinia  ;  Guttiferjb.] 

CAMBKIAN  ROCKS.  Science  is  indebted  to  Professor  Sedgwick 
for  having  established  in  North  Wales,  beyond  a  doubt,  the  important 
fact)  that  beneath  the  slates  and  flags  of  Denbighshire,  which  belong 
to  the  Upper  Silurian  Strata,  occur  in  the  Berwyn  Mountains  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  Bala  other  strata  containing  Lower  Silurian  fossils,  to 
the  extent  of  several  thousand  feet  in  thickness.  In  South  Wales  the 
progress  of  the  Geological  Survey,  imder  Sir  H.  De  la  Beche,  has  esta- 
blished the  fact  of  very  considerable  thicknesses  of  partially  fossiliferous 
rocks  beneath  the  Llandeilo  (or  Lowest  Siluxian)  Strata  of  Murchison. 


By  these  labours  we  perceive  that  the  PalsDozoic  forms  of  oiganisatiou 
descend,  in  Wales,  many  thousand  feet  below  the  lowest  recogniaed 
Silurian  strata^  and  the  subjoined  view  of  the  nomenclatures,  sepa- 
rately proposed  by  Sedgwick  and  Murchison,  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
relations  of  these  rocks. 

Upper  Silurian,    f  Ludlow  Rocks. 
(Murch.)  \  Wenlock  Rocks. 


Lovter 

Palaozoic 

Strata. 


\    Cambrian 
Strata. 
(Sedgw.) 


Lower  Silurian.    /  Caradoc  Rocks. 
(Murch.)  \  Llandeilo  Rocks. 


Groups  yet 
to  be 
named. 


Hypozoic  Strata  of  CumbcrUmd  and  Scotland. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  Cambrian  Strata  are  not  exactly  equiraleats 
of  the  Lower  Siliirians,  but  include  a  great  range  of  other  strata  below 
those  originally  defined  by  Sir  Koderic  Murchison.  Viewed,  how- 
ever, without  reference  to  nomenclature,  the  Cambrian  and  Lower 
Silurian  Rocks  form  one  type,  and  may  perhaps  deserve  to  be  ranked 
as  one  great  Protozoic  System. 

CAMEL.     rCAMELUS.] 

CAMELIInA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
CrucifercB,  to  the  sub-order  Laliseptos,  and  the  tribe  Camdinm.  It 
has  a  subovate  pouch,  the  valves  ventricose,  with  a  linear  prolonga- 
tion at  the  end,  which  is  confluent  with  the  persistent  style. 

C  scUiva,  Gold  of  Pleasure,  has  pear-shaped  pouches,  intermediate 
stem,  leaves  lanceolate,  sagittate  at  the  base,  entire  or  denticulate.  It 
has  small  yellow  flowers.  Its  name  is  a  burlesque  on  the  humble 
appearance  of  the  plant.  Babington  admits  it  into  his  British  Flora, 
but  it  is  undoubtedly  a  foreign  plant,  which  has  been  introduced  with 
the  seed  of  flax.  It  is  found' abundantly  in  the  com  and  flax  fields  of 
the  Continent,  from  whence  the  seed  is  brought  to  this  cotmtry. 

C.  dentata  is  another  species  frequently  found  in  Great  Britain,  in 
company  with  the  last,  and  introduced  in  the  same  way. 

CAME'LLIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Temstromiacece,  and  nearly  related  to  the  pltmts  which  yield  the  tea 
of  the  shops.  All  the  species  are  natives  of  China  and  Japan,  or  of 
corresponding  climates  in  the  north  of  India,  whence  they  have  been 
introduced  to  Europe.  C.  Japonica,  a  species  with  broad  shining 
leaves,  and  red  flowers,  is  the  origin  of  the  numerous  beautiful 
varieties  now  so  common  in  our  gardens.  The  principal  part  of  theae  have 
been  raised  by  the  skill  of  the  Chinese  or  Japanese,  and  are  remarkable 
not  only  for  their  gay  colours,  but  for  the  great  symmetry  with, which 
their  petals  are  arranged,  the  flowers  when  seen  in  perfection 
resembling  nothing  so  much  as  beautiful  shell-work.  The  sorts  that 
have  been  raised  in  this  country  are  in  most  instances  inferior  to  the 
Chinese  in  symmetry,  but  they  occa^onally  surpass  them  in  richness 
of  colour.  They  are  multiplied  by  cuttings,  grafts,  and  buds,  and 
also  by  seeds,  which  the  Waratah  and  some  single  sorts  produce  in 
plenty. 

The  other  species  of  Camellia  in  our  gardens  which  deserve  notice 
are,  the  C.  maliflora,  the  Apple-Blossomed  Camellia,  which  is 
probably  a  mere  variety  of  the  last ;  C.  oUifera,  whose  seeds  yield  & 
valuable  oil  in  China ;  and  C.  reticulaiaf  which  is  by  far  the  hand- 
somest of  all.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  very  remarkably  netted, 
and  the  semi-double  flowers,  which  are  sometimes  as  much  as  six 
inches  across,  are  of  a  deep  rich  rose-colour.  For  the  culture  of  these 
plants  see  Camkllta,  in  Arts  and  Sc.  Div. 

CAMELOPARD.    [Giraffa.] 

CAMEL'S-THORN  a  name  given  to  a  species  of  J2Aa^,  thei. 
Camelorvm.     [Alhaql] 

CAMELUS  a  genus  of  Ruminant  Animals  'without  horns ;  Gamalof 
the  Hebrews,  Djemal  of  the  Arabs,  KduriKos  of  the  Greeks,  Camelus  of 
the  Romans,  Cammello  of  the  Italians,  Camello  of  the  Spaniards, 
Eameel  of  the  Germans,  Chameau  of  the  French,  and  Camel  of  the 
English.  It  includes  two  species,  0.  Bactrianus,  the  Camel,  and 
C  Arabicus,  the  Dromedary. 

The  Camels  have  34  teeth :  16  in  the  upper  jaw ;  namely,  two 
incisors — for  the  camels  and  the  llamas  have  these,  and  form  the 
exceptions,  the  other  ruminants  being  without  any  incisors  in  the 
upper  jaw  —  two  canines,  twelve  molars:  18  in  the  lower  jaw; 
namely,  six  incisors,  two  canines,  ten  molars.  The  incisors  of  the 
upper  jaw  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  canine  teeth,  for  they  are 
conical,  compressed  at  the  sides,  pointed,  and  somewhat  cun-ed  or 
hooked.  There  is  another  difference  between  the  Camels  and  the 
other  Ruminants :  the  former  have  the  scaphoid  and  cuboid  bones  of 
the  tarsus  separated.  Instead  of  the  great  homy  case  or  shoe,  which 
envelopes  all  the  lower  part  of  each  toe  and  determines  the  figure  of 
the  ordinary  cloven  hoof,  the  camels  have  only  a  small  one,  or  rather 
the  rudiment  of  one,  adhering  only  to  the  last  joint  of  the  toe,  and 
symmetrical  in  form,  like  the  hoofs  of  the  Pachyaerma^a.  These  and 
other  peculiarities  of  form  lead  to  the  opinion  that  the  Camels  and  the 
Llamas  form  the  link  between  the  RuminarUia  and  Pachydermaia. 

The  characters  of  the  genus  may  be  thus  summed  up : — Lower 
incisors  in  the  form  of  cutting  wedges;  upper  incLsors  sub-lateral ; 
canines  conical,  sub-erect^  strong ;  false  molars  situated  in  the  inter 


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deutazy  space  on  either  side ;  head  long ;  upper  lip  cleft ;  nostrils  slit 
obliquely ;  eyes  prominent ;  ears  smalL  Neck  elongated.  Back  with 
fleshy  bosses  or  hunches ;  tail  moderate.  Toes  united  below.  Teats 
veatral,  four  in  number.  Hair  inclining  to  woolly.  Callosities  on  the 
breast,  and  flexible  points  of  the  extremities.  The  upper  lip  of  the 
Camel  swollen  and  divided,  the  projecting  orbits  of  its  eyes,  the 
lengthened  and  certainly  not  graceful  neck,  the  bcu^k  bossed  with  a 
hump  or  humps,  and  croup  Gomparativel^  weak,  supported  upon  the 
long  and  awkward-looking  legs  terminatmg  in  apparently  dispropor- 
tioned  feet»  are  not  materials  for  producing  elegance  of  form :  and 
indeed  the  air  of  the  animal  is  altogether  grotesque;  but  this 
uncouth  shape  is,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  one  of  those  admirable 
examples  of  contrivance  which  must  stnke  the  most  casual  observer. 

The  two  species  of  Camel  were  well  known  to  Aristotle,  who,  in  his 
*  Natural  Histoiy '  (ii  1),  mentions  both  the  Arabian  and  the  Bactrian, 
remarking  that  the  latter  has  two  humps,  whereas  the  former  has 
but  one. 

The  oi^ganisation  of  the  Camels  is  wonderfully  adapted  to  their 
habits  and  uses  to  man.  The  pads  or  sole-cushions  of  the  spreading 
feet  are  divided  into  two  toes  without  being  externally  separated, 
which  buoy  up  as  it  were  the  whole  bulk  with  their  expansive 
elasticity  from  sinking  in  the  sand,  on  which  it  advances  with  silent 
step — the  nostrils  so  formed  that  the  animal  can  dose  them  at  will 
to  exclude  the  drift  sand  of  the  parching  simoom — ^the  powerful  upper 
incisor  teeth  for  assisting  in  the  division  of  the  tough  prickly  shrubs 
and  dry  stunted  herbage  of  the  desert — and,  above  all,  the  cellular 
■tructure  of  the  stomach,  which  is  capable  of  being  converted  into  an 
assemblage  of  water  tanks,  bear  ample  testimony  to  the  care  mani- 
fested  in  the  structure  of  this  extraordinary  quadruped. 

The  stomach  of  the  Camel  has  been  well  described  by  Sir  Everard 
Home. 

"  The  earners  stomach,"  he  says,  "  anteriorly  fonns  one  laige  bag, 
but  when  laid  open  this  is  found  to  be  divided  into  two  compart- 
ments, on  its  posterior  part,  by  a  strong  ridge,  which  passes  down 
from  the  right  side  of  the  orifice  of  the  oesophagus,  in  a  longitudinal 
direction.  This  ridge  forms  one  side  of  a  groove  that  leads  to  the 
orifice  of  the  second  cavity,  and  is  continued  on  beyond  that  part, 
becoming  one  boundary  to  the  cellular  structure  met  with  in  that 
situation.  From  this  ridge  eight  strong  muscular  bands  go  off  at 
right  angles,  and  afterwards  form  curved  lines,  till  they  are  insensibly 
lost  in  the  coats  of  the  stomach.  These  are  at  equal  distances  from 
each  other,  and,  being  intersected  in  a  regular  way  by  transverse 
muscular  septa,  form  &e  cells.  Thb  cellular  structure  is  in  the  left 
compartment  of  the  first  cavity,  and  there  is  another  of  a  more  super- 
ficial kind  on  the  right,  placed  in  exactly  the  opposite  direction,  nuMle 
up  of  twenty-one  rows  of  smaller  cells,  but  entirely  unconnected  with 
the  great  rioge.  On  the  left  side  of  the  termination  of  the  cesophagus 
a  broad  muscular  band  has  its  origin  from  the  coats  of  the  first  cavity, 
and  passes  down  in  the  form  of  a  fold  parallel  to  the  great  ridge,  till 
it  enters  the  orifice  of  the  second,  where  it  takes  another  diiection. 
It  is  continued  along  the  upper  edge  of  that  cavity,  and  terminates 
within  the  orifice  of  a  sm^l  bag,  which  may  be  termed  the  third 
cavity.  This  band  on  One  side  and  the  great  ridge  on  the  other  form 
a  canal,  which  leads  from  the  oesophagus  down  to  the  cellular  struc- 
ture in  tlie  lower  part  of  the  first  cavity.  The  orifice  of  the  second 
cavity,  when  this  muscle  is  not  in  action,  is  nearly  shut ;  it  is  at  right 
angles  to  the  side  of  the  first.  The  second  cavi^  forms  a  pendulous 
bag,  in  which  there  are  twelve  rows  of  cells,  formed  by  as  many 
strong  muscular  bands,  passiug  in  a  transverse  direction,  and  inter- 
sected by  weaker  muscular  bands,  so  as  to  form  the  orifices  of  the 
cells.  Above  these  cells,  between  them  and  the  muscle  which  passes 
along  the  upper  part  of  this  cavity,  is  a  smooth  surface,  extending 
from  the  orifice  of  this  cavity  to  the  termination  in  the  third. 

''From  this  account  it  is  evident  that  the  second  cavity  neither 
receives  the  solid  food  in  the  first  instance,  as  in  the  buUock,  nor 
does  the  food  afterwards  pass  into  the  cavity  or  cellular  structure. 
The  food  first  passes  into  the  first  compartment  of  the  first  cavity, 
and  that  portion  of  it  which  lies  in  the  recess,  immediately  below  the 
entrance  of  the  oesophagus,  under  which  the  cells  are  situated,  is  kept 
moist,  and  is  readily  returned  into  the  mouth  along  the  groove  formed 
for  that  pui^ose,  by  the  action  of  the  strong  muscle  which  surrounds 
this  part  of  the  stomach,  so  that  the  cellular  portion  of  the  first 
cavity  in  the  camel  performs  the  same  office  as  the  second  in  the 
niminants  with  horns.  While  the  camel  is  drinking,  the  action  of 
the  muscular  band  opens  the  orifice  of  the  second  cavity  at  the  same 
time  that  it  directs  the  water  into  it ;  and  when  the  cells  of  that 
cavity  are  fiiU,  the  rest  runs  off  into  the  cellular  structure  of  the  first 
cavi^  immediiately  below,  and  afterwards  into  the  general  cavity. 
It  would  appear  that  camels,  when  accustomed  to  go  journeys,  m 
which  they  are  kept  for  an  imusual  number  of  days  without  water, 
acquire  the  power  of  dilating  the  cells  so  as  to  make  them  contain  a 
more  than  ordinary  quantity  as  a  supply  for  their  journey ;  at  least, 
■uch  is  the  acoo\mt  given  by  those  who  have  been  in  Egypt.  When 
the  Old  has  been  chewed,  it  has  to  pass  along  the  upper  part  of  the 
second  cavity  before  it  can  reach  the  third.  How  this  is  effected 
without  its  falling  into  the  cellular  portion,  could  not,  from  any 
inspection  of  dried  specimens,  be  ascertained ;  but  when  the  recent 
Btomach  is  accurately  examined  the  mode  in  which  this  is  managed 


becomes  very  obvious.  At  the  time  that  the  cud  has  to  pass  from 
the  mouth  the  muscular  band  contracts  with  so  much  force  that  it 
not  only  opens  the  orifice  of  the  second  cavity,  but  acting  on  the 
mouth  of  the  third  brings  it  forward  into  the  second,  by  which  means 
the  muscular  ridges  that  separate  the  rows  of  cells  are  brought  close 
together,  so  as  to  exclude  these  cavities  from  the  canal  through  which 
the  cud  passes." 

Sir  Everaid  Home  having  stated  that  John  Hunter  did  not  give 
credit  to  the  assertion  that  the  Camel  can  retain  a  quantity  of  water 
in  its  stomach  unmixed  with  the  food,  and  capable  of  being  reoovered 
after  the  animal  has  been  killed,  the  following  note  by  Dr.  Patrick 
Russell,  in  the  Appendix  to  his  brother's  'SUi^ry  of  Aleppo,'  is  of 
some  interest : — "  That  water,  in  cases  of  emergency,  is  taken  from 
the  stomach  of  camels,  is  a  fact  neither  doubted  in  Syria  nor  thought 
strange.  I  never  was  myself  in  a  caravan  reduced  to  such  an  expe- 
dient;  but  I  had  the  lees  reason  to  distrust  the  report  of  others, 
particularly  of  the  Arabs,  seeing  that  even  the  love  of  the  marvellous 
could  in  such  a  case  be  no  inducement  to  invention.  It  may  perhaps 
be  superfluous  to  produce  the  authority  of  an  Arab  historian  (Beidawi), 
who,  in  his  account  of  the  Prophet's  Expedition  to  Tabuc  against  the 
Greeks,  relates,  among  other  distresses  of  the  army,  that  uiey  were 
reduced  to  the  necessity  of  killing  their  camels  for  the  sake  of  the 
water  contained  in  their  stomachs.  (Sale,  '  Koran,'  p.  164 ;  Gibbon, 
'  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,'  v.  p.  245.) 

**  On  my  retum  from  the  East  Indies,  in  1789,  hearing  accidentally 
that  my  friend  Mr.  John  Hunter  had  dissected  a  camel,  and  was 
supposed  to  have  expressed  an  opinion  that  the  animal's  power  of 
preserving  water  in  its  stomach  was  rather  improbable,  I  took  an 
opportuni^  of  conversing  with  him  on  the  subject,  when  (to  the  best 
of  my  recollection)  he  told  me  that  '  he  by  no  means  drew  any  such 
absolute  inference  from  his  dissection;  that  he  saw  no  reason  for 
assigning  more  than  four  stomachs  to  the  camel,  though  he  could 
conceive  that  water  might  be  found  in  the  paunch  little  impregnated 
by  the  dry  provender  of  the  desert,  and  readily  separating  or  draining 
from  it' 

"  In  hopes  that  other  particulars  might  be  found  among  the  papers 
of  my  lately-deoeased  friend,  I  applied  to  his  brother-in-law,  Mr. 
Home,  who  informed  me  that  he  had  examined  them,  but  without 
discovering  any  observations  on  the  subject."    (VoL  ii.  p.  425.) 

"From  these  remarks,  then,  it  appears  that  the  small  cavity 
rmrded  by  Daubenton  as  analogous  to  a  reticulum,  was  not  con- 
sidered by  Mr.  Hunter  as  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  ranked  as  a 
distinct  stomach ;  and  the  water-bag  must  therefore,  in  his  opinion, 
have  held  the  place  of  the  honey-comb-bag  in  the  homed  rummants. 
And  when  we  compare  the  relation  of  the  reticulum  to  the  rumen  in 
that  tribe,  with  the  corresponding  free  communication  which 
subsists  between  the  water-bag  and  rumen  in  the  camel  tribe; 
and  when  also  we  observe  in  both  the  i^recise  correspondence,  in 
the  mode  of  communication  of  these  two  cavities  witn  ti^e  oeso- 
phagus and  with  the  muscular  apparatus  destined  to  convey  the 
re-masticated  food  bevond  their  aperture.?  into  the  third  cavity, 
and  at  the  same  time  nnd  an  approach  to  the  peculiar  disposition  of 
the  cells  of  the  water-bag  in  the  reticulum  of  some  of  tne  homed 
ruminants,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  two  cavities  are  analogous, 
the  reticulum  of  the  camels  being  modified  for  its  destined  functions 
by  the  greater  development  of  the  secondary  cells,  by  the  absence  of 
a  outicular  lining,  and  by  the  production  of  the  inner  layer  of  the 
muscular  tunic,  which  forms  the  apparatus  for  dosing  the  orifice  of 
the  primary  cells.  The  third  cavity,  therefore,  which  could  not  have 
been  recognised  as  a  distinct  compartment  in  the  llama,  and  which 
imdoubtedly  receives  the  re-masticated  food  in  the  camel,  ought  rather 
to  be  regarded  as  a  peculiar  structure,  to  which  nothing  analogous  is 
to  be  found  in  the  stomachs  of  the  homed  ruminants." 


Cells  of  Camel's  Stomach,  oucniuth  of  natural  si/.c. 

Here  is  represented  the  muscular  arrangement  provided  for  closing 
the  orifices  of  the  cells  so  as  to  prevent  the  food  from  falling  into 
them.  The  cells  themselves  are  exposed,  bringing  into  view  their 
bottoms,  the  muscular^  conformation  of  which  enables  the  animal  to 
give  out  their  contents.' 

The  seven  callosities  on  the  flexures  of  the  limbs  and  chest,  and  the 
hump  on  the  back,  seem  perhaps  to  bear  more  relation  to  the  neces- 
sities of  the  animal,  considered  as  the  slave  of  man.     These  callosities 


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are  the  poiuta  whereon  the  animal  resta  when  it  kneels  down  to  receive 
its  burden.  The  hump,  which  is  a  fatty  secretion,  is  known  to  be 
absorbed  into  the  system  when  the  animal  is  pinched  for  food,  thus 
forming  a  provision  against  the  casualties  of  a  life  ordained  to  be 
spent  in  the  desert. 

The  Camel  furnishes  the  Arab  with  flesh  and  milk ;  of  its  hair  he 
weaves  clothing  and  even  tents ;  his  belt  and  his  sandals  are  the 
produce  of  its  hide ;  and  the  dung  affords  him  fueL  The  soot  of  this 
fuel,  after  having  undergone  the  process  of  sublimation  in  closed 
vessels,  produced  the  sal-ammoniao^  or  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia, 
which  was  formerly  imported  from  Egypt  into  this  country,  where 
the  alkali  is  now  however  manufactured  in  a  variety  of  ways.  In  the 
East  the  hair  of  the  camel  is  made  into  cloth.  The  raiment  of  John 
the  Baptist  was  of  camel's  hair.  (Matthew,  iii  4 ;  Mark,  i.  6.)  It  is 
principally  imported  into  these  islands  for  the  manufacture  of  pencils 
for  the  painter.  The  hair  which  is  the  product  of  Persia  is  held  in 
the  greatest  estimation.  There  are  three  qualities — bTack,  red,  and 
gray ;  the  black  brings  the  best  price,  the  red  comes  next  in  value, 
and  the  gray  is  only  valued  at  ludf  the  price  of  the  red.  But  these 
uses  are  mere  trifles  when  compared  with  the  paramount  importance 
of  these  animals  as  commercial  vehicles,  'ships  of  the  desert,'  as  they 
have  been  poetically  termed;  for  they  are  the  living  machines  by 
means  of  which  conmiunication  is  kept  up  across  the  most  desolate 
and  frightful  deserts,  which  without  some  such  aid  would  be  entirely 
impassable  by  man.  These  toilsome  joumies  over  the  most  dreary 
and  inhospitable  regions,  the  organisation  of  the  camel  and  its  extreme 
temperance  enable  it  to  perform  with  comparative  ease. 

The  load  of  a  heavy  or  slow-going  camel  in  one  of  the  caravans  is, 
according  to  Major  Rennell,  from  500  to  600  lbs.  weight.  The  latter  is 
the  amount  given  by  Sandys  as  the  ordinary  load ;  **  yet,"  he  adds, 
"  will  he  carry  a  1000  lbs.  weight."  At  Pisa  the  burden  of  a  full-grown 
camel  is  stated  to  be  sometimes  14  kilogrammes  (above  800  lbs.).  The 
mode  of  training  the  beast  to  bear  these  loads  seems  to  vary.  Brue, 
speaking  of  an  African  mode  (Senegal)  towards  the  end  of  the  17th 
century,  says  : — "  Soon  after  a  camel  is  bom  the  Moors  tie  his  feet 
under  his  belly,  and  having  thrown  a  large  cloth  over  his  back,  put 
heavy  stones  at  each  comer  of  the  cloth,  which  rests  on  the  ground. 
They  in  this  manner  accustom  him  to  receive  the  heaviest  loads." 
Santi  describes  the  method  adopted  at  Pisa.  At  the  age  of  four  years 
a  camel  which  is  intended  for  labour  is  broken  in.  The  trainers  first 
double  up  one  of  his  four  legs,  which  they  tie  fast  with  a  cord ;  they 
then  pull  the  cord,  and  thus  usually  compel  the  animal  to  fall  upon 
his  bent  knee.  If  this  does  not -succeed  they  tie  up  both  legs,  and  he 
falls  upon  both  knees,  and  upon  the  callosity  which  is  upon  his  breast. 
They  often  accompany  this  operation  with  a  particular  cry  and  with 
a  slight  blow  of  a  whip.  At  this  cry  and  blow,  with  the  addition  of 
a  sudden  jerk  downwards  of  his  halter,  the  camel  gradually  learns  to 
lie  down  upon  his  belly,  with  his  legs  doubled  under  him,  at  the 
conmiand  of  his  driver.  The  trainers  then  accustom  him  to  a  pack- 
saddle,  and  place  on  it  a  load  at  first  light,  but  increased  by  degrees 
as  the  animal  advances  in  docility,  till  at  last,  when  he  readily  lies 
down  at  the  voice  of  his  driver  and  as  i*eadily  rises  up  with  his  load, 
his  education  is  so  far  complete.  The  camels  at  Pisa,  it  appears,  do 
not  complain  if  too  heavily  laden ;  but  in  Egypt,  according  to  Denon, 
they  remonstrated  loudly  on  such  occasions,  crying  out  when  they 
were  laden  too  heavily  or  unequally. 

In  travelling  with  a  caravan  the  acute  sense  of  smelling  possessed 
by  the  Camel  is  strikingly  displayed.  When  apparently  completely 
worn  out,  and  when  all  have  been  on  the  point  of  perishing  with  thirst, 
he  has  been  known  to  break  his  halter  and  run  with  imerring  cer- 
tainty to  a  spring  which  had  escaped  the  observation  of  .the  other 
quadrupeds  of  the  caravan,  and  of  man  himself. 

Arabia,  Persia,  the  south  of  Tartary,  some  parts  of  India,  and 
Africa,  from  Egypt  to  Mauritania,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
river  Senegal,  appear  to  be  the  countries  over  which  the  Arabian 
Camel  is  principidly  distributed.  It  is  also  nimierous  in  the  Canary 
Islands.  That  it  was  a  native  of  Asia  from  the  earliest  times,  and  the 
great  oriental  conmiercial  vehicle  of  ancient  as  it  is  of  modem  days, 
cannot  be  doubted.  We  trace  it  repeatedly  in  the  Scriptures.  Thus 
when  Joseph's  brethren  had  cast  him  into  the  pit,  and  after  the  com- 
mission of  their  crime  had  sat  down  to  eat  bread,  "  they  lifted  up 
their  eyes  and  looked,  and,  behold,  a  company  of  Ishmaelites  came 
from  Gilead,'  with  their  camels  bearing  spicery  and  balm  and  myrrh, 
:oing  to  carry  it  down  to  Egypt."  (Genesis  zxxviL  25.)  Again,  in 
udges,  viii  21,  we  read  that "  Gideon  arose  and  slew  Zebah  and 
Zalmunnah,  and  took  away  the  ornaments  that  were  on  their  camels' 
necks."  In  Genesis  xxxii.  7,  we  find  that  Jacob  "  divided  the  people 
that  was  with  him,  and  the  flocks,  and  herds,  and  the  camels,  into 
two  bands ;"  and  the  domestic  state  of  the  animal  at  this  early  period 
is  further  proved  by  verse  15  of  the  same  chapter,  where  we  see,  as 
part  of  the  present  sent  by  Jacob  to  propitiate  Esau,  "  thirty  milch 
camels  with  their  colts."  In  Leviticus,  xi.  4,  the  camel  is  enumerated 
among  the  forbidden  animals,  "because  he  cheweth  the  cud,  but 
divideth  not  the  hoof :  he  is  unclean  imto  you."  Part  of  Job's  *'  sub- 
stance (Job  i.  3.)  consisted  of  three  thousand  camels ;"  and  the  third 
messenger  of  evil  infonhs  him  (i.  17)  that  "the  Chaldaoans  made  out 
three  bands,  and  fell  upon  the  camels,  and  have  carried  them  away." 
When,  after  his  afflictions,  the  Lord  blessed  the  latter  end  of  Job 


5' 


more  than  his  beginning  (xliL  12)  "six  thousand  camels"  fonn*  .1  a 
portion  of  the  blessing.  And  here  we  may  observe  that  though  the 
inquiry  has  been  the  subject  of  much  research,  there  is  no  satisfactory 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  the  Camel  in  an  originally  wild  state  at 
any  period  whatever.  Diodorous  and  Strabo  indeed  mention  its 
existence  in  such  a  state  in  Arabia;  and  Desmoulins,  who  has  written 
most  valuably  on  the  subject^  asserts  that  it  so  existed  in  the  time  of 
Hadrian ;  the  natives  too  of  Central  Africa  maintain,  it  is  said,  that 
the  animal  is  to  be  found  wild  in  the  mountains  where  Europeans 
have  never  penetrated.  But  it  is  far  from  improbable  that  these  wild 
camels  might,  like  the  wild  horses  of  the  American  prairies,  h&ve 
owed  their  parentage  to  camels  which  had  escaped  from  the  control 
of  man.  Cuvier,  in  relating  the  report  of  Pallas  upon  the  evidence  of 
the  Bucharians  and  Tartars  that  there  are  wild  camels  in  the  deserts 
of  the  middle  of  Asia,  well  remarks  that  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  Calmucks  give  liberty  to  all  sorts  of  animals  from  a  religious 
principle. 

In  Europe,  Pisa  seems  to  be  the  only  locality  where  the  Camel  is 
now  bred.  At  San  Rossora,  the  arid  phuns  and  stimted  bushes  bear 
some  distant  resemblance  to  the  Asiatic  and  African  desert ;  but  moat 
authors  who  understand  the  subject  agree  in  considering  that  the  rac^ 
is  fast  degenerating.  The  time  of  their  introduction  into  Tuscany  ia 
not  accurately  known. 

The  Arabian  Camel  was  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Moors ;  and 
the  southern  districts  possessed  many  of  these  animals  for  a  consider- 
able period  after  the  conquest  of  Granada ;  but  they  are  now  no  longer 
to  be  found  as  a  species'  in  the  Spanish  territory.  After  the  conquest 
of  Spanish  America  an  attempt  was  made  to  introduce  them  into  that 
country  by  Juan  de  Reinega,  a  Biscayan ;  and  Acosta  saw  them  towards 
the  end  of  the  16th  century  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes.  But  the  intro- 
duction of  these  animals  was  looked  upon  with  no  favourable  eye  by 
the  ruling  Spaniards,  and  they  gradually  dwindled  away.  They  haTe 
however  been  lately  imported  with  greater  success  from  the  Canary 
Islands.  Humboldt  mentions  them,  aud  particularly  some  that  he 
saw  feeding  imder  a  palm-tree  near  New  Valencia. 

Cameltts  BactHanut  (Linn.),  the  Mecheri,  or  Camel.  It  is  the  C.  Di- 
tophus  of  Walther,  C.  Turcicua  of  Alpinus,  the  Bactrian  Camel  of  Pen- 
nant, Le  Chameau  of  Buffon,  the  Trampelthier  of  Knorr.  It  has  two 
humps  on  the  back.  Length  about  10  feet.  Hair  shaggy,  particulorlj 
under  the  throat.  Colour  generally  dark-bi-own.  Localities,  Persia, 
Turkey,  &c. 


Bactiian  Caincl  {^Camchis  B.-iririnuus), 

This  species  is  comparatively  i-are ;  but  in  the  middle  zone  of  ArLi^ 
north  of  the  Taurus  and  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  it  is  found  in  com- 
parative abundance.  Not  that  it  is  not  to  be  seen  occasionally  in  other 
countries — in  Arabia,  for  instance ;  but  such  instances  are  said  to  be 
uncommon.  The  Bactrian  C^mel  is  stouter  and  more  muscular  than 
the  Arabian  species,  and  his  strength  is  in  proportion.  "  It  varies 
from  brown  to  white,  and  also  greatly  in  size,  strength,  and  quicknca^, 
according  to  the  breed  aud  climate."  (Gray.) 

C.  Ih'omedarius  (Linn.),  the  Sghimel,  or  Dromedary.  It  is  the 
C.  Luk  of  Eversmann,  C.  v^ulgaris  of  Forskal,  C.  monotopkut  of  Walther, 
C.  Ih'omcu  of  Gesner,  C.  minimus  of  Kl^in,  C.  reius  of  Frisch,  the 
Arabian  Camel  of  Pennant,  and  Le  Drometlaire  of  Buffon. 

It  has  one  hump,  situated  on  the  middle  of  the  back.  Length  about 
8  feet.     Hair  palo  brown.     Localities,  Arabia,  Africa,  &c    ^ 

Purchas  (book  vi.,  c  1,  s.  9)  says  that  of  Camels  there 'are  three 
kinds ;  the  first  called  Huguin,  of  tall  stature  and  able  to  carry  a 
thousand  poimds  weight ;  the  second  less,  having  a  double  bunch, 
fit  for  carriage  and  to  ride  on,  called  Becheti,  bred  only  in  Asia ;  the 
third  sort,  called  Raguahill,  small,  able  to  travel  (for  they  are  uuiit 
for  burdens)  above  an  hundred  miles  in  a  day.  The  king  of  1  im- 
buctoo  can  send  messengers  on  such  camels  to  Segelmesse  or  Darha, 
900  miles  distant,  in  the  space  of  eight  days  at  the  farthest  He  further 
states  that  such  enduring  swiftness  would  be  almost  incredible,  were 
it  not  corroborated  by  the  best  authorities,  who  all  agree  in  their 


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7SS 


CAMERARIA. 


CAMPANULACE^ 


731 


acooTints  of  the  speed  of  the  Heine,  El  Heine,  or  Maheny  of  the 
desert— Purchas'a  Raguahill.  "  When  thou  shalt  meet  a  heirie,"  say 
the  Arabs  in  their  poetical  mode  of  expression, ''  and  say  to  the  rider 
'  Salem  Aleik,'  ere  he  shall  have  answered  thee '  Aleik  Salem,'  he  will  be 
aforofi^  and  nearly  out  of  sight,  for  his  swiftness  is  like  the  wind." 


Dromedary  {Camelus  Dromedar'ui-s), 

The  '  Sabayee,*  said  to  be  the  fastest  breed  of  the  swift  Dromedary, 
will,  it  is  asserted,  perform  a  journey  of  thirty-five  days'  caravan  tra- 
velling (about  18  miles  a  day)  in  five  days,  performing  630  miles  in 
that  small  period  of  time.  Riley  often  travelled  on  a  dromedary  at 
the  rate  of  7  or  8  miles  an  hour  for  nine  and  ten  hours  a  day ;  and 
Lyon  says  that  the  Maherry  of  the  Northern  African  Arabs  will  con- 
tinue at  a  long  trot  of  9  miles  an  hour  for  many  hours  together. 

Besides  the  swift  variety  above  alluded  to,  the  species  varies  in 
colour,  like  the  Bactrian,  being  sometimes  cream-coloured  or  even 
white.  There  are  specimens  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society 
in  the  Regent's  Park. 

The  natural  family  of  the  Camdidm  comprises  also  the  South 
American  form  so  well  known  by  the  name  of  ilaina.    [Tj.ama.] 

A  fossil  species,  C.  SivdlensiSf  of  this  genus  was  discovered  by 
Dr.  Falconer  and  Captain  Cautley  in  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  the 
Sewalik  Hills  of  Hindustan.  The  crania,  jaws,  and  teeth  of  this 
species  are  to  be  seen  in  a  fine  state  of  preservation  in  the  British 
Museum.  It  was  nearly  related  to  the  existing  species,  but  exceeded 
them  by  at  least  one-seventh  in  height 

CAMERARIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Apocynace(e,  C.  latifolia  is  called  the  Bastaixl  Manchineel-Tree  in 
the  countries  where  it  grows,  on  account  of  its  possessing  properties 
similar  to  the  Manchineel.  The  true  Manchineel  is  the  produce  of 
Hippwnane  ManchineUOf  one  of  the  Spurgeworts.     [Hipfomane.] 

CAMOMILE,  or  CHAMOMILE.    [Anthemis,] 

CAMPA'NULA  (diminutive  of  Campana,  a  boll,  on  account  of  the 
form  of  its  flowers),  a  genus  of  plants  the  type  of  the  natural  order 
Campcnvulacece.  It  has  a  6-cleft  calyx,  the  corolla  mostly  bell-shaped, 
with  five  broad  and  shallow  segments,  the  anthers  free,  the  filaments 
dilated  at  the  base,  the  stigma  3-5-fid,  the  capsule  not  elongated, 
3-5-cellcd,  and  opening  by  lateral  pores  outside  the  segment  of  the 
calyx.  This  genus  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
although  from  time  to  time  the  niunber  of  its  species  has  been 
reduced  by  the  formation  of  new  generic  types.  Eight  species  are 
described  by  Babington  as  British.  The  species  of  Smith  were  more 
numerous,  but  Babington  recognises  Heister's  genus  SpectUaria  for 
the  old  C.  kyhrida  (JPrUmatocarpiis  hyhridua  of  L'Heritier)  and  its 
allies,  and  Schrader's  genus  Wahlenbergia  for  the  C.  hcderacecb.  The 
older  names  of  the  genus  Campanvla  are  TracJidium  and  Ctrviccma, 
names  which  were  given  to  it  on  account  of  the  supposed  efficacy  of 
many  of  the  species  in  the  cure  of  disorders  of  the  neck  and  trachea. 
Hence  also  the  common  name  Throatwort.  All  the  species  are 
herbaceous,  with  mostly  perennial  roots,  and  the  radical  leaves 
differing  in .  form  from  those  of  the  stem.  They  are  natives  of  the 
northern  hemisphere. 

C.  edtdiSf  Chobs,  Okab,  is  a  hispid  plant  with  a  thick  root,  erect 
1 -flowered  stems,  ovate-lanceolate  crenate  leaves  ;  lobes  of  the  calyx 
linear-lanceolate,  equal  in  length  to  the  corolla,  which  is  hispid.  It  is 
a  native  of  Arabia  Felix.  Its  root  is  thick  and  sapid,  and  contains  a 
couHiderable  quantity  of  starch.  It  is  on  this  account  frequently 
eaten  by  children,  as  are  the  roots  of  many  other  species. 

C.  glomerataf  Clustered  Bell-Flower,  has  the  leaves  minutely  crenate- 
serrate,  the  lowermost  stalked,  ovate-lanceolate,  generally  cordate 
at  the  base,  the  upper  leaves  half-clasping,  scssUe,  ovate,  acute; 
the  flowers  sessile  in  terminal  and  axillary  clusters.  This  is  a  native 
of  Europe,  especially  in  mountainoius  districts.  In  Great  Britain  it 
IB  found  in  dry  pastures  on  limestone.  It  is  the  Trac?ielium  miniu 
and  Oervicaria  miJiar  of  Lobel  and  Dodonasus.    It  is  often  cultivated 


in  our  gardens,  and  a  great  number  of  wild  varieties  have  been 
described  by  Alphonse  De  CandoUe. 

C.  Trachelium,  Nettle-Leaved  Bell-Flower,  has  the  leaves  coarsely 
doubly  serrate,  hispid,  the  lower  one  cordate,  with  long  stalks,  upper 
nearly  sessile,  ovate  or  lanceolate,  acuminate;  flowers  racemose, 
peduncles  2-3-flowered ;  segments  of  the  calyx  triangular-lanceolate, 
entire,  erect ;  tha  stem  erect,  angular.  This  is  a  European  species 
It  is  found  in  the  south  of  England,  and  has  large  blue  bell-shaped 
flowers.  A  decoction  of  this  herb  was  formerly  used  in  disordci'S 
of  the  throat,  but  the  properties  of  the  genus  are  medicinally  inert. 

C.  rotwndifolia,  Hare-Boll,  Blue-BeUs,  Milkwort,  has  the  radical 
leaves  cordate  or  reniform,  shorter  than  their  stalks;  stem-leaves 
linear,  the  lower  ones  lanceolate;  flowers  one  or  more  racemose, 
corolla  turbinate,  campanulate.  It  has  pretty  blue  flowers,  and  is  a 
favourite  throughout  Europe.  In  France  it  is  called  Clochette;  in 
Germany  Weisen-Busch,  and  Grassglas.  The  juice  of  the  flowers 
makes  a  very  good  blue  ink,  and  when  mixed  with  alum  a  green  one. 
The  roots  of  this  species  also  may  be  eaten. 

O.  pyramidaLU  is  a  glabrous  plant  with  leaves  glandular,  toothed, 
the  lower  ones  petiolate,  ovate-oolong,  somewhat  cordate,  the  stem- 
leaves  sessile,  ovate-lanceolate;  the  flowers  n\miei*ous,  pyramidally 
racemose,  the  lobes  of  the  calyx  acuminate,  spreading,  the  capsule 
spherical,  deeply  furrowed.  It  is  indigenous  on  rocks  and  walls  in 
Carinthia,  Camiola,  and  Dalmatia.  From  its  having  been  a  great 
favourite  in  the  gardens  of  Europe,  it  has  now  become  naturalised  in 
many  places  where  it  was  not  originally  a  native.  It  has  not  often 
been  found  wild  in  Great  Britain,  though  it  is  commonly  cultivated 
for  the  sake  of  its  tall  raceme  of  beautiful  blue  flowers.  It  is  in 
gr^t  demand  in  Holland,  where  it  is  employed  to  ornament  halls  and 
staircases,  and  to  place  before  fire-places  in  summer,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  planted  in  l£^e  pots  and  trained  in  a  fan-manner  so  as  to  hide 
a  large  surface.  In  the  shade  it  remains  in  bloom  two  or  three 
months.  "  The  art  of  producing  a  very  large  plant  is  to  begin  with 
pots  of  a  small  size,  and  shift  frequently  dming  two  years,  till  at 
l&st  the  plant  occupies  a  pot  of  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  Rich 
light  soil  should  be  used,  but  no  animal  manures  or  recent  dung, 
as  these  are  very  injurious.  Cuttings  of  the  roots  flower  the  second 
and  seedlings  the  third  year.  C.  carpatica  and  C.  grandifiora  may 
be  treated  in  the  same  manner."     (Loudon.) 

C.  Eapuncvlw,  Rampion,  has  leaves  crenate,  the  radicle  leaves 
oblong-elliptical  narrowed  into  a  petiole,  the  stem-leaves  linear- 
lanceolate,  sessile,  the  raceme  few-flowered,  the  segments  of  the  calyx 
lanceolate.  It  is  a  native  of  Marocco  and  Barbaiy,  also  of  the  south 
of  Europe,  and  extends  as  iar  north  as  Norfolk  in  England.  It  has 
a  fusiform  thick  white  root,  which  looks  like  a  little  turnip  ;  hence 
the  specific  name  rapunctUua,  being  the  diminutive  of  rapa,  or  radish. 
In  Gennany  it  is  called  Rapunzel,  in  France  Raiponce,  in  Italy  Raper- 
onzola ;  the  English  Rampion  appears  to  be  the  same  word.  It  is 
much  cultivated  in  France  and  Italy,  and  sometimes  in  Britain,  for 
the  sake  of  the  roots,  which  are  "  boiled  tender  and  eaten  hot  with 
sauce,  or  cold  with  vinegar  and  pepper."  (Loudon.)  In  its  cultivation 
the  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  spring  on  deep  light  soils,  in  drills ; 
and  in  the  autumn  of  the  year  the  plants  will  be  ready  for  use. 
The  C.  persicifoliOf  a  doubtful  native  of  Britain,  and  the  C.  HapuncU' 
loideSf  an  indigenous  plant,  may  be  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  C. 
Rapwnculua, 

C.  lilifolia  {Adenophora  lUifolia,  Ledebore)  has  alternate  leaves,  the 
radical  ones  petiolate,  ovate-roundish,  cordate,  toothed ;  the  corolla 
campanulate,  the  style  exserted.  It  is  a  native  of  Siberia,  and  of  the 
east  of  Europe.  Like  many  othera  of  the  genus  it  has  an  edible  root, 
which  is  sometimes  divided  into  several  turnip-formed  tubers.  The 
flowers  are  numerous  and  sweet-scented.  It  is  interesting  from  the 
fact  that  the  leaves  before  blossoming  are  crowded  toge&er  on  the 
summit  of  the  stem,  so  as  to  form  a  green  rose-like  body.  But  as 
the  axis  elongates,  the  leaves  become  afterwards  scattered  on  the 
prolonged  stem.     The  roots  are  eaten  in  China  both  raw  and  cooked. 

The  other  British  species  of  this  genus  not  described  are  C.  latifolia, 
Great  Bell-Flower,  common  in  the  North ;  C.  Rapunculoides,  very  rare ; 
and  C.  pcUuUif  frequent  in  hedges  and  thickets.  [Specularia  ; 
Wahlenbbbgia.] 

(Loudon,  Encydopcedia  of  Plants;  Koch,  Flora  Germanica ; 
Babington,  MantMl  of  British  Botany;  Burnett,  Outlines;  Don, 
Cfardener's  Dictionary.) 

CAMPANULA'CEiE,  Bdlworts,  the  Campanula  Tribe,  a  natui-al 
order  of  Monopetalous  Dicotyledonous  Plants,  the  character  of  which 
is. to  have  an  inferior  three  or  more  Qelled  fruit  containing  many 
minute  seeds,  combined  with  a  regular  corolla,  distinct  stamens  equal 
in  number  to  the  lobes  of  the  corolla,  dilated  bases  to  the  filaments,  a 
downy  style,  and  a  milky  juice.  It  consists  of  plants  usually  herbace- 
ous, sometimes  shrubby,  scattered  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  but  most 
abundant  in  the  form  of  species  related  to  the  common  Campanula,  or 
Bell-Flower,  in  the  milder  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Of  600  species 
only  19  are  found  within  the  tropics.  The  flowers  are  commonly 
blue,  purple,  or  white,  occasionally  rose-coloured,  very  rarely  yellow, 
as  in  a  Canary  shrub  called  Mvsschia  aurea.  None  of  the  species  are 
poisonous,  notwithstanding  that  the  order  is  very  closely  allied  to  the 
dangerous  Lobdiacea,  which  hardly  difl'er  except  in  having  irregular 
flowera  and  syngeuesluus  stamens.     The  aflSnkies  of  this  order  are 


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CAMPANULARIA. 


CANARY-BIRD. 


73a 


with  Oom/poiUa  through  LobeUaceoe,  and  also  with  Solanacece  and 
Vaceiniaeea.    It  embraces  28  genera  and  about  600  spedea. 


»i 


6     5  4  1  2  3 

R&mpion  {Campanula  Bapwiouloide*), 
1,  The  base  of  the  corolla,  -with  the  stamens;  2,  a  stamen  separate;  3,  a 
ealTx  with  the  style  and  stigma ;  4,  a  ripe  seed-Tessel ;  5,  a  section  of  the 
flame ;  6,  seeds  natural  size ;  7,  a  seed  magnified ;  8,  a  section  of  the  same. 

CAMPANULARIA.    [Poltpiabia.] 

CAMPHOR  is  a  substance  produced  by  several  plants,  and  in  its 
chemical  characters  belongs  to  the  class  of  Vegetable  Oils.  It  is 
yielded  in  greatest  abundance  by  the  natural  order  Zavracecc,  from 
several  species  of  which  Camphor  might  be  produced.  It  is  however 
obtained  for  commercial  and  medicinal  purposes  from  the  Camphora 
Qficinarum,  Nees  {LoMrm  Camphora  of  Linnaeus).  A  substance  called 
Borneo  Camphor,  having  similar  properties  to  that  from  the  natural 
order  LauracecB,  is  obtained  from  the  Bryohalanopt  Camphorct,  This 
Camphor  does  not  come  into  Europe  on  account  of  the  great  demand 
for  it  in  the  Chinese  markets.  [Camphor,  Medical  Ifsea  of,  in  Arts 
AND  Sc.  Drv.] 

CAMPHOR-OIL,  a  substance  obtained  in  Borneo  and  Sumatra 
from  the  Drpobalaaiops  Campliorck  It  is  supposed  to  be  Camphor  in 
an  imperfect  state  of  formation.    [Drtobalanofs.] 

CAMPHORA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Zauracea.  This  genus  was  constituted  by  Nees  von  Esenbeck  for  the 
Zaunu  Camp?iorifera  of  Kampfer,  the  plant  which  yields  the  Camphor 
of  commerce.  It  is  known  by  its  hermaphrodite  panicled  naked 
flowers;  6-cleft  papery  calyx,  with  a  deciduous  lunb;  9  fertile 
stamens,  3  in  a  row,  Uie  inner  row  with  two  stalked  glands  at  their 
base ;  the  anthers  4-celled,  the  outer  turned  inwards,  the  inn^  out- 
wardis ;  the  fruit  placed  on  the  obconical  base  of  the  calyx ;  the  leaves 
triply  nerved,  glandular  in  the  axils  of  the  principal  veins ;  the  leaf- 
buds  scaly. 

C,  officinarum,  the  Camphor  Laurel,  is  a  tree  with  lax  smooth 
branches ;  the  leaves  are  bright-green  and  shiny  above,  paler  beneath, 
and  somewhat  coriaceous,  with  a  sunken  gland  at  the  a:^  of  the 
principal  veins,  projecting  at  the  upper  side,  opening  by  an  oval  pore 
beneath.  This  plant  is  a  native  of  Japan  and  China,  and  is  cultivated 
in  most  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world.  The  Camphor  of  commerce 
is  yielded  by  this  tree,  which  is  cultivated  most  extensively  in  the 
island  of  Formosa,  from  whence  it  is  taken  to  Canton,  which  is  the 
principal  market  for  Camphor. 

CAMPION.    [Lychnis;  Silbnb.] 

CAMPONTIA,  a  genus  of  supposed  Marine  Annelides,  first  described 
by  Dr.  Johnston.  Of  this  genus  Dr.  Johnston  says,  **  When  I  first 
described  this  animal  its  close  resemblance  to  some  caterpillars  was 
particularly  mentioned,  but  the  suspicion  of  its  being  actually  a  larva 
did  not  occur  to  me ;  for  I  believed  it  to  be  an  established  fact  among 
entomologists  that  no  insect  passed  its  preparatory  stages  in  sea-water. 
I  have  been  informed  however  that  Mr.  Mljeay,  and  no  higher 
authority  can  bo  given,  has  proved  that  the  worm  in  question  ia  the 
larva  probably  of  some  dipterous  fly;  and  if  this  epinion  be  correct 


(which  its  anatomy  strongly  confirms),  then  it  will  follow  that  at  least 
one  larva  naturally  lives  and  undergoes  its  changes  in  the  sea—a  con- 
clusion which  I  think  is  one  of  some  importance,  and  at  variance  with 
our  present  notions.  Our  Catnpontia  cruciformis  may  be  found  at  all 
seasons  at  the  roots  of  sea-weed  and  corallines  in  pools  left  by  the 
recess  of  the  tide.  The  very  specimens  before  me  were  procured  by 
myself  a  few  days  ago  in  parts  to  which  no  fr^sh-water  could  have 
access,  and  which  are  covered  to  the  depth  of  several  feet  every  tide, 
for  they  are  near  low-water  mark."     {Mag.  Nat,  ffut.  voL  viii.) 

CA'MPSIA  (Lepeletier  and  ServUle),  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects, 
of  the  section  ffeteromeroj  sub-section  Stenelytra  (LatreUle),  and  family 
ffdopida.    [HxLOpfeA.] 

CAMPTO'CERUS  (Dejean),  a  genus  of  wood-feeding  Coleopterous 
Insects,  belonging  to  the  section  Xylophagi  of  Latreille.  .  [Xtlophaol] 

CAMPTODO'NTUS  (Dejean),  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  of 
the  family  ScarUidcBf  closely  allied  to  Oxy$tomu» ;  fr^m  which  genus 
however  tiie  present  is  distinguished  by  the  species  having  the  labial 
pdpi  shorter  than  the  external  maxillary :  antennsd  with  the  basal 

toint  scarcely  longer  than  the  two  following  joints  taken  together. 
SOARITIDiE.] 

CAMPYLOMY'ZA  (Wiedeman),  a  genus  of  Dipterous  Insecia,  of 
the  family  Tipulidte.  It  has  the  Allowing  characters : — Proboscis 
curved;  antennas  filiform,  14-jointed,  two  basal  joints  tolerably 
thick,  the  remaining  short,  cylindrical,  and  covered  with  fine  hain ; 
body  short ;  femora  elongated ;  wings  hairy,  with  one  maiginal  cell, 
and  three  posterior  cells,  the  first  and  second  divided  by  an  indistinct 
nervure. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  all  extremely  minute,  and  found  on 
the  leaves  of  trees. 

C  bicolor  is  less  than  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  blackish 
colour,  with  the  edges  of  the  abdominal  segments  pale;  legs  pale- 
yellow.    This  species  and  three  or  four  others  inhabit  this  country. 

CA'MPYLUS  (Rscher),  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  belonging 
to  the  family  Elaterido!.  The  species  of  this  genus  are  distingui^ed 
by  their  having  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  free,  or  not  simk  into  the 
thorax  as  far  as  the  eyes,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  this  tribe.  The 
eyes  are  globular  and  projecting:  the  antennss  are  rather  long, 
obscurely  pectinated,  and  inserted  close  to  the  eyes  beneath  a  pro- 
jecting frontal  ridge ;  thorax  narrow ;  elytra  much  elongated,  and 
somewhat  linear. 

C.  dispar,  a  common  insect  in  this  country,  is  found  on  the  leaves 
of  trees,  and  on  nettles  and  other  plants.  It  is  nearly  half  an  inch 
long,  and  of  an  ochreous  colour,  with  the  under  part  of  tke  body  more 
or  less  black  :  sometimes  the  posterior  part  of  the  head,  the  disc  of 
the  thorax  and  elytra,  and  the  femora  are  black. 

About  six  or  seven  species  of  this  genus  have  been  discovered,  most 
of  which  are  European.  The  above-described  species  is  the  only  one 
known  to  inhabit  England. 

CAMWOOD  (German,  Kammholz;  French,  Bois  de  Cham  ;  Portu- 
guese,  Pao  Ghibao),  a  red  dye-wood,  the  colouring  matter  of  which  is 
similar  to  that  of  Nicaragua  or  Peach-Wood.  It  is  the  produce  of  a 
plant  belonging  to  the  natuzal  order  Leguminosce,  called  Bapkia  nitida. 
It  is  used  with  alum  and  tartar  as  a  mordant.  It  does  not  afford  more 
than  a  third  part  of  the  colouring  matter  yielded  by  an  equal  quantity 
of  Brazil-Wood.  It  is  used  likewise  by  turners  for  making  knife- 
handles,  and  by  cabinet-makers  for  ornamental  knobs  to  fiuniture. 
The  greatest  part  of  the  Camwood  imported  into  Europe  is  brou^t 
from  Sierra-Leone. 

CANARIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Amyridacea.  C.  commvme  yields  a  gum  which  is  said  to  have  the 
same  properties  as  the  BaLsam  of  Copaiva.  The  fruit,  which  is  a 
three-cornered  nut,  is  eaten  in  Java  both  raw  and  dressed ;  and  an  oil 
is  expressed  from  them  which  when  fresh  is  eaten  at  table,  and  when 
stale  is  used  for  burning  in  lamps.  The  raw  nuts  are  apt  to  bring  on 
diarrhoea. 

CANARY-BIRD,  or  CANARY-FINCH,  Le  Serin  de  Canarie  ol 
the  French,  Der  Canarienvogel  of  the  Germans,  Canario  of  the 
Italians,  the  Canary  of  the  English,  FringiUa  Canaria  of  Linnseus. 
This  bird  is  the  well-known  songster  which  is  to  be  found  caged  in 
every  house  where  the  inmates  are  fond  of  song-birds.  The  Canary 
Islands  are  the  most  frequented  haunts  of  the  specieo.  In  the  wild 
state  the  prevailing  hue,  according  to  the  observations  of  Adanson, 
Labillardi^,  and  others,  is  gray  or  brown,  mingled  however  with 
other  colours,  but  never  reaching  the  brilliancy  of  plumage  exhibited 
by  the  bird  in  captivity — a  brilliancy  arising  from  long  domestication 
and  repeated  crosses  with  analagous  species.  Its  introduction  into 
Europe  is  stated  by  some  to  have  taken  place  in  the  14th  century ; 
but  Bechstein  names  the  beginning  of  the  16th.  "  The  arrival,"  says 
the  author  last  quoted,  "  of  the  canary  in  Europe,  is  thus  described  :— 
A  vessel  which  in  addition  to  its  other  merchandise  was  bringing  a 
number  of  these  birds  to  Leghorn,  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Italy, 
opposite  the  island  of  EUba,  where  these  little  birds,  having  ^^^^^ 
at  liberty,  took  refuge.  The  climate  being  favourable  they  increased, 
and  would  certainly  have  become  naturalised,  had  not  the  wish  to  pos- 
sess them  occasioned  their  being  caught  in  such  niunbers  that  at  last 
they  were  extirpated  6x)m  tlieir  new  abode.  From  this  cause  Itwy 
was  the  first  European  country  where  the  canary  was  reared.  At  first 
their  education  was  difficulty  as  the  proper  manner  of  treating  them 


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yna  mikziowii ;  and  what  tended  to  render  them  scarce  wa^i  that  only 
the  male  birds  were  brought  over, — no  females.  The  gray  of  its  primi- 
tive colour,  darker  on  the  back  and  greener  on  the  belly,  has  under- 
gone so  many  changes  from  its  being  domesticated,  from  the  climate, 
and  from  the  union  with  birds  analogous  to  it  (in  Italy  with  the  citril- 
finch,  the  serin;  in  our  country — Germany — with  the  linnet,  the  green- 
finch, the  siskin,  and  the  goldfinch),  that  wo  now  have  canaries  of  fdl 
colours.  If  we  had  not  sufficient  proof  that  canaries  came  originally 
from  the  Fortunate  Islands,  we  should  think  the  citril-finch,  tibe 
serin,  and  the  siakin  were  the  wild  stock  of  the  domesticated  race. 
I  have  seen  a  bird  whose  parents  were  a  siskin  and  serin,  which  per- 
fectly resembled  a  variety  of  the  canary  which  is  called  the  green. 
1  have  also  seen  mules  from  a  female  gray  canary,  in  which  was  no 
trace  of  their  true  parentage.  The  gray,  the  yellow,  the  white,  the 
bladdsh,  and  the  chestnut  are  the  principal  varieties,  and  it  is  from 
their  combination  and  from  their  tints  that  we  derive  the  numerouu 
varieties  that  we  now  possess.  Those  canaries  thaj  have  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  of  a  dusky  green  or  linnet-brown,  and  the  imder  part 
the  yellowish-green  of  the  green-bird,  with  dark  brown  eyes,  are  the 
strongest,  and  most  nearly  resemble  the  primitive  race.  The  yellow 
and  white  often  have  red  eyes,  and  are  the  most  tender.  The  chestnut 
are  the  most  uncommon,  and  hold  a  middle  rank  for  strength  and 
length  of  life  between  the  two  extremes.  But  as  the  plumage  of  the 
intermediate  ones  is  a  mixture  of  these  principal  colours,  their  value 
depends  on  the  pretty  and  r^lar  manner  in  which  they  are  marked 
The  canary  that  is  most  admired  amongst  us  now  is  one  with  the  body 
white  or  yellow,  the  head,  particularly  if  crested,  wings,  and  tail,  yel- 
lowish-dun :  the  second  in  degree  is  of  a  golden  yellow,  with  the  head, 
wings,  and  tail  black,  or  at  least  dusky  gray.  Next  follow  the  gray 
or  blackish,  with  a  yellow  head  and  collar ;  and  the  yellow,  with  a 
blackish  or  green  tuft,  which  are  very  much  valued.  As  for  those  that 
are  irregulto'ly  spotted,  speckled,  or  variegated,  they  are  much  less 
sought  ^ter,  and  are  used  to  pair  with  those  of  one  colo\ir,  white, 
yellow,  gray,  brown-gray,  and  the  like." 

The  usual  length  of  a  Canary  is  about  5  inches,  of  which  the  toil 
measures  about  two  and  a  quarter.  The  bill  is  about  5  lines  in  length, 
strong,  sharply  pointed,  and  inclining  to  white.  The  shanks,  or  feet 
as  they  are  technically  called,  are  about  8  lines  long,  and  of  a  flesh- 
colour. 

The  female  is  very  like  the  male,  but  is  generally  less  bright  in 
colour,  smaller  about  the  head,  shorter  about  the  neck  and  body,  not 
so  high  on  the  shanks,  and  altogether  of  a  form  somewhat  less  elegant 
than  that  of  the  male.  There  is  a  bean-shaped  feather  under  the  bill, 
and  the  temples  and  cirdee  round  the  eyes  ai'e  deeper  in  colour  than 
the  other  psjts  of  the  body. 

The  Canary  breeds  freely  with  allied  species  of  birds,  and  many 
hybrids  are  recognised  by  breeders.  Amongst  the  more  common  are 
the  following : — 

1.  Mules  bred  from  a  hen  Canary  and  a  Gk)ldfinch. — These  partake 
of  the  parental  colours  on  both  sides.  The  finest  are  pi'oduced  from 
yellow  or  white  hen  canaries. 

2.  Mules  bred  from  a  hen  Canary  and  a  male  Siskin* — The  young 
always  resemble  the  Siskin  in  shape.  If  the  mother  be  green  they 
will  be  like  a  hen  Siskin  ;  if  she  be  white  or  yellow  they  will  be  lighter 
in  colour  than  a  "Siskin,  without  however  any  great  difference. 

3.  Mules  bred  between  a  hen  Canary  and  a  Green-Bird,  or  a  Citril- 
Finch. — When  the  mother  is  neither  white  nor  yellow  the  young 
do  not  differ  much  from  the  Gray  or  Green  Canary ;  but  they  are 
generally  rather  more  slender,  and  their  bills  are  also  shorter  and 
thicker. 

4.  Mules  bred  between  a  hen  Canary  and  a  Linnet. — These,  if  the 
mother  be  white  or  yellow,  will  be  speckled  ;  if  she  be  gray  they  will 
resemble  her  generally,  but  their  tails  will  be  longer. 

Most  of  these  mules  are  fruitful,  and  there  is  no  great  difficulty  in 
getting  the  parents  to  pair ;  but  when  the  union  is  with  species  more 
remote,  the  difficulty  increases  in  proportion. 

5.  Mules  between  a  hen  Canary  and  a  Bullfinch. — ^Bechsteia  says 
that  the  eggs  of  this  union  seldom  prove  frmtful ;  but  Dr.  Jajssy  of 
Fi-ankfort  obtained  mules  of  a  bullfinch  and  a  canary,  by  making  other 
canaries  sit  on  the  eggs  and  bring  up  the  yoimg,  a  plan  pursued  in 
Bohemia. 

Besides  the  birds  above  enumerated,  chaffinches,  yellowhammers, 
&c.  have  been  tried,  but  with  no  good  success.  Bechstein  says  that 
he  never  saw  a  male  canary  very  fond  of  a  female  yellowhammer,  nor 
a  male  of  the  latter  kind  of  a  female  canary,  though  the  plumage  may 
be  selected  so  as  to  offer  a  striking  resemblance. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  all  the  five  instances  recorded  the  Canary 
is  always  the  mother.  The  reason  why  breeders  select  the  male  of 
the  other  species  when  mules  are  desired  is,  because  a  female  siskin, 
goldfinch,  &C.  could  not  easily  be  induced,  if  at  all,  to  lay  her  eggs  in  an 
artificial  nest  like  a  canary.  ^ 

The  hybrids  between  these  various  species  are  stated  to  be  fruitful, 
and  to  have  the  power  of  continuing  their  mixed  forms.  The  first 
^/gs  of  these  hybrids  are  said  to  be  very  small,  and  the  young  hatched 
from  them  very  weak.  The  eggs  of  the  next  year  are  said  to  be  latter, 
and  the  nestlings  stronger  and  stouter. 

In  order  to  obtain  bright  and  good  plumage,  those  birds  whose 
colours  are  clear  and  whose  spots  are  Acan  and  well  defined  should  be 

^▲T.  mST.  DIY.  TOL.  I. 


placed  together.  A  brownish-gray  or  greenish  bird  paired  with  one  of 
a  lively  yeUow  often  produces  young  of  a  dim  white  and  of  other 
admired  ooloura.  Two  crested  birds  should  nevef  be  joined,  for  their 
ofispring  are  frequently  hatched  with  part  of  the  head  bald,  or  other- 
wise defbrmed  in  plumage. 

Bechstein  gives  the  following  directions  for  forwarding  the  breeding 
of  Canaries  : — "  The  best  time  for  pairing  canaries  is  the  middle  of 
ApriL  Either  one  male  and  one  or  two  females  are  placed  in  a  laj^ 
cage,  or  many  of  both  sexes  are  united  in  a  room  or  aviary,  having  the 
advantage  of  a  south  aspect.  Nests  made  of  tunied  wood  or  osiers 
are  given  them,  as  straw  ones  are  too  easily  torn.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
place  in  the  room  or  aviary  slips  of  pine,  which  being  cut  in  February 
do  not  lose  their  leaves.  If  a  little  inclosure  of  wire-gauze  can  be  fixed 
over  the  window,  where  the  birds  can  enjoy  the  fresh  air,  nothing  will 
more  effectually  contribute  to  render  the  yoimg  healthy  and  robust 
Birds  which  are  to  be  paired  for  the  first  time  should  be  previously 
placed  in  the  same  cage  for  seven  or  eight  days,  in  order  to  become 
acquainted  and  accustomed  to  live  together.  If  two  females  are  to  be 
caged  with  one  male,  it  is  especially  necessary  that  they  should  be 
together  long  enough  to  leave  off  quarrelling,  and  the  pairing-cage 
should  be  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  conmiunicating  by  a  sliding- 
door.  This  being  done,  a  lively  male  and  one  of  the  females  should 
be  placed  in  the  first  division ;  as  soon  as  she  has  laid  the  male  should 
be  moved  into  the  other  division,  the  door  of  separation  being  shut ; 
but  afl  soon  as  the  other  has  also  laid  the  door  may  be  left  open  :  the 
male  will  then  visit  the  females  alternately,  and  they  will  not  trouble 
themselves  about  each  other ;  but  without  these  precautions  jealousy 
would  incline  them  to  fight  and  destroy  each  other's  eggs.  When  it 
is  intended  to  place  a  great  many  females,  double  or  treble  the  number 
of  males,  in  a  room  or  aviary,  the  latter  should  always  be  first  paired 
with  a  single  female,  which  will  ever  after  remain  the  favourite ;  and 
it  will  only  be  when  she  is  about  to  sit  that  he  will  pair  with  the 
others ;  and  this  is  all  the  notice  he  will  take  of  them,  for  afterwards 
he  will  only  notice  their  young.  It  is  from  these  mothers  however 
that  the  most  and  the  best  birds  are  generally  procured.  If  the  floor 
of  the  room  or  aviary  is  well  covered  with  moss,  little  else  need  bo 
added  for  making  the  nests,  otherwise  they  should  be  supplied  with 
the  hair  of  cows  and  deer,  hog's  bristles,  fine  hay,  lint,  wool  cut  two 
or  three  inches  long,  paper-shavings,  and  the  like.  That  which  is 
coarsest  serves  for  the  outside,  and  the  softest  and  finest  for  the  inside. 
If  they  have  shrubs,  traces  of  the  natural  instinct  of  the  canary  are 
soon  observed  in  the  nests,  which  they  construct  without  the  help  of 
the  turner  or  basket-weaver ;  but  they  are  of  an  inelegant  form,  and 
the  outside  is  not  very  carefully  fini^ed.  The  females  alone,  as  ia 
usual  among  birds,  are  iLe  builders,  the  males  only  choosing  the  situa- 
tion and  bringing  the  mateiials.  It  is  in  the  nest,  where  the  female 
is  in  continual  motion,  that  the  pairing  takes  place  ;  she  invites  the 
male  by  constant  little  chirpings,  repeated  more  quickly  the  nearer  she 
IB  to  laying.  Seven  or  eight  days  are  generally  reckoned  from  the  first 
pairing  to  the  laying  of  the  first  egg ;  the  other  eggs,  whose  number 
varies,  without  exceeding  six,  are  laid  successively  every  following  day, 
and  often  at  the  same  hour.  The  laying  ended,  pairing  continues 
during  the  first  days  of  incubation.  If  the  pairs  agree  they  must  be 
left  entirely  to  themselves,  without  endeavouring  to  use  art  to  help 
nature,  as  many  do.  It  is  usual  to  take  away  the  first  egg  and  substi- 
tute an  ivory  one,  which  is  repeated  with  the  others  to  the  last,  pre- 
serving them  in  the  meantime  in  a  box  filled  with  fine  dry  sand :  they 
are  afterwards  restored  all  together  to  the  nest  to  be  hatched." 

Upon  this  practice  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion,  as  the  plan  above 
recommended  causes  the  mother  a  greater  loss  of  heat,  and  burdens  her 
at  once  with  five  or  six  little  ones,  which  coming  together  disturb  rather 
than  please  her ;  whereas  in  seeing  them  hatched  successively  one  after 
the  other  her  pleasure  is  increased,  and  her  strength  and  courage  are 
supported.  "  Very  intelligent  bird-fanciers,"  adds  Buffon,  "  assure  us 
that  by  not  removing  the  eggs  from  the  female,  and  leaving  them  to 
be  hatched  in  succession,  they  have  always  succeeded  better  than  when 
they  have  substituted  ivory  eggs."  The  hen  Canary  will  generally  lay 
three  or  four  times  in  the  year,  from  April  to  September,  and  some 
will  even  continue  to  lay  during  their  moult.  The  eggs  are  of  a  deli- 
cate seargreen  hue,  spotted  at  one  end  more  or  less  with  violet  or 
maroon  colour.  About  the  eighth  day  after  the  hen  has  begun  to  sit, 
the  eggs  may  be  examined  by  holding  them  between  the  flame  of  a 
candle  and  the  eye.  Those  which  are  good  will  by  that  time  exhibit 
well-developed  blood-vessels,  whereas  the  bad  ones  will  continue  clear 
or  be  already  addled — ^theee  should  be  thrown  away.  It  may  be 
doubted  however  whether  the  better  course  be  not  to  leave  the 
hen  quite  undisturbed.  The  cock  will  sometimes  take  his  turn  foi 
some  hours  in  the  day ;  but  the  hen  seldom  approves  of  this  :  as  soon 
as  she  has  taken  her  hasty  meal  she  flies  ba(&  to  the  nest,  and  if  the 
male,  whose  capabilities  as  a  hatcher  she  seems  strongly  to  question, 
do  not  retire,  she  pecks  him  till  he  does.  On  the  thirteenth  day  the 
young  genexally  make  their  appearance.  While  incubation  is  going 
on  the  place  where  the  birds  are  confined  should  be  kept  quiet ;  foi 
it  is  aaserted  that  sudden  jarring  noises,  such  as  the  violent  slamming 
of  a  door  or  the  discharge  of  a  gun  will  kill  the  yoimg  in  the  shell.  We 
have  above  seen  that  it  is  uauid  to  give  two  females  to  one  male ;  and 
it  is  alleged  that  if  one  of  the  former  should  die  dm'ing  incubation, 
the  survivor  immediately  takes  charge  of  the  eggs,  to  the  care  of  which 

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CANARY-BIRD. 


CANCfiR. 


?« 


she  80  entirely  devotes  herself  that  she  repels  the  caresses  of  her  mate, 
whose  solace  she  was  while  the  deceased  was  sitting. 

As  soon  as  the  f  oung  break  the  shell,  two  jars  should  be  placed 
near  the  feeding-trough.  In  one  of  these  there  should  be  a  quarter 
of  a  hard  egg,  yolk  and  white  together,  chopped  very  fine,  with  a 
bit  of  crumb  of  white  bread  or  biscuit,  which  has  been  soaked  in 
water,  and  afterwards  well  pressed  to  get  out  the  moistui-e.  In  the 
other  jar  rape-seed,  well  boiled  and  then  waahed  in  fresh  water,  should 
be  placed ;  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  this  food  become  sour, 
which  would  destroy  the  nestlings.  The  cock-bird  is  the  principal 
nurse  after  hatching. 

It  is  sometimes  neccssair  to  bring  up  the  young  by  hand,  and  then 
a  paste  should  be  made  of  white  bread  or  biscuit  pounded  very  fine, 
rape-seed  well  bruised,  a  small  quantity  of  the  yolk  of  an  eggy  and 
water.  The  nestlings  must  be  fed  with  a  quill  cut  into  the  shape  of 
a  spoon,  and  should  not  have  less  than  ten  or  twelve  meals  a  day ; 
four  beaksful  well  piled  up  on  the  quill  constitute  a  meal.  On  the 
thirteenth  day  they  will  begin  to  feed  themselves,  and  in  four  weeks 
they  may  be  removed  to  other  cages.  Care  however  must  be  taken 
to  supply  them  for  some  time  with  the  paste  above  described,  together 
with  the  food  of  full-grown  birds,  as  a  sudden  privation  of  the  former 
has  been  known  frequently  to  occasion  death;  especially  if  the 
nestlings  are  deprived  of  it  when  moulting. 

Mr.  Rennie  says,  "  It  sometimes  happens  in  very  dry  seasons  that 
the  feathers  of  the  young  birds  cannot  develop  naturally ;  a  bath  of 

tepid  water,  employed  on  such  an  occasion  by  Madame ,  was  so 

successful,  that  I  cannot  do  better  than  recommend  it.  The  same 
lady  succeeded  equally  well  in  similar  circrmistances  in  hatching  late 
eggs ;  she  plunged  them  for  some  minutes  in  water  heated  to  the 
degree  of  incubatiou,  and  immediately  replaced  them  under  the 
mother ;  in  a  short  time  she  enjoyed  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  little 
ones  make  their  appearance.  This  interesting  experiment  may  be 
applied  to  all  sorts  of  birds,  and  may  be  particularly  useful  in  regard 
to  those  of  the  poultry-yard." 

About  the  thirteentifi  or  fourteenth  day,  by  which  time  the 
nestlings  can  eat  alone,  the  males  begin  to  warble  and  so  do  some  of 
the  feznales,  but  in  a  more  disjointed  style.  The  males,  which  may 
then  be  easily  disting^hed,  should  be  forthwith  separated,  each  bird 
being  placed  in  a  cage  by  himself  (which  must  be  first  covered  with 
a  piece  of  linen  and  afterwards  with  a  darker  curtain)  apart  from 
every  other  bird,  in  order  that  his  education  may  begin,  if  it  is 
intended  that  his  natural  song  should  be  superseded  by  an  artificial 
melody ;  if  he  is  left  unseparated  beyond  the  fourteenth  day  he  will 
retain  a  portion  of  his  father's  song,  and  murder  his  acquired  melody 
by  interouDgling  the  paternal  notes.  His  musical  lesson  must  be 
repeated  five  or  six  times  in  the  day,  especially  in  the  morning  and 
evening,  his  master  performing  the  desired  air  either  on  a  flagomet  or 
a  bird-organ  ;  but,  as  has  been  observed  in  the  case  of  the  bullfinch, 
if  the  instrument  be  not  in  perfect  tune  the  whistling  of  a  man  of 
taste  is  infinitely  preferable.  From  two  to  six  months,  according  to 
the  memory  and  the  abilities  of  the  scholar,  will  be  spent  in  this 
musical  education.  Some  canaries  have  been  thus  taught  to  repeat 
correctly  two  or  three  airs,  and  others  have  learned  to  pronounce 
distincly  a  few  short  words ;  for  they  possess  great  quickness  and 
correctness  of  ear,  and  have  excellent  memories. 

When  the  more  natural  song  is  preferred,  those  canaries  are  most 
esteemed  which  introduce  into  their  warblings  the  notes  of  the  night- 
ingale, wood-lark,  or  tit-lark,  and  this  may  be  easily  accomplished  by 
placing  those  birds  near  the  young  canaries.  The  canaries  of  the 
Tyrol  are  more  frequently  taught  to  introduce  the  notes  of  the  night- 
ingale, while  those  of  England  more  frequently  interweave  those  of 
the  wood-lark.  "  In  Thuringia,"  says  Bechstem,  "the  praference  is 
generally  given  to  those  which,  instead  of  a  succession  of  noisy  bursts, 
know  how,  with  a  silvery  sonorous  voice,  to  descend  reg^lariy  through 
all  the  tones  of  the  octave,  introducing  from  time  to  time  the  sound 
of  a  trumpet.  There  are  some  males  which,  especially  in  the  pairing 
season,  sing  with  so  much  strength  and  ardour,  that  they  burst  the 
delicate  vessels  of  the  lungs  and  die  suddenly." 

Canaries  may  be  made  to  sing  in  the  night — some  do  this  of  their 
own  accord.  The  tuition  must  commence  early  in  their  youth  by 
covering  the  cage,  and  thus  keeping  them  in  the  dark  during  the  day 
long  enough  for  them  to  be  hungry ;  they  are  thus  brought  to  feed  by 
candl&^ht^  and  at  last  sing.  The  hen  birds  will  also  sing,  particularly 
in  the  spring,  but  in  an  unconnected  style.  Old  hens  past  breeding 
will  often  sing  in  this  way  the  year  round. 

There  are  societies  in  London  for  promoting  the  breeding  of  Canaries, 
and  amateurs  distinguish  upwards  of  thirty  varieties. 

Mr.  Rennie  mentions  two  sorts  of  Canaries,  **  the  plain  and  variegated, 
or  as  they  are  technically  called,  the  gay  spangles  or  mealy,  and  jonks 
or  jonqu&s.  These  two  varieties  are  more  esteemed  than  any  of  the 
numerous  varieties  which  have  sprung  from  them;  and  although 
birds  of  different  feathers  have  their  admirers,  some  preferring 
beauty  of  plumage,  others  excellence  of  song,  certainly  that  bird  is 
most  desirable  where  both  are  combined.  The  first  property  of  these 
birds  consists  in  the  cap,  which  ought  to  be  of  fine  orange-colour, 
pervadmg  every  port  of  the  body  except  the  tail  and  'wings,  and 
possessing  the  utmost  regularity,  without  any  black  feathers,  as  by 
the  smallest  speck  it  loses  the  property  of  a  show  bird,  and  is  con- 


sidered a  broken-capped  bird.  The  second  property  consists  in  the 
feathers  of  the  wing  and  taU  being  of  a  deep-black  up  to  the  quill,  as 
a  single  white  feather  in  the  wing  or  tail  causes  it  to  be  termed  a  foul 
bird ;  the  requisite  number  of  these  feathers  in  each  wing  is  18,  and 
in  the  tail  12.  It  is  however  frequently  observed  that  the  best- 
coloured  birds  are  foul  in  one  or  two  feathers,  which  reduces  thelr 
value,  although  they  may  still  be  matched  to  breed  with."  These 
form  the  leading  features  of  excellence;  but  it  is  generally  the  custom 
of  the  societies  above  mentioned  to  award  the  prize  to  the  competitor 
who  produces  a  bird  nearest  to  the  model  published  by  them  the 
season  prior  to  that  wherein  the  competitors  are  to  show  for  the  prize. 

The  fullest  information  on  the  subject  of  breeding  and  treating 
the  Canary  will  be  found  in  Bechstein's  Cage-Bird^. 

CANARY-GRASS.  [Phalarib.] 
'  CANCER,  a  genus  of  Short-Tailed  Onutaeeaf  the  type  of  the  family 
Ccmcerida;.  Dr.  Leach  restricted  the  genus  Cancer  to  the  form  of 
Cancer  PagumSy  Linn.,  the  large  eatable  Crab  of  our  coasts,  wbic^ 
was,  when  he  defined  the  genus,  the  only  species  known.  It  has  the 
following  characters : — 

External  antennse  with  the  basilar  joint  broad,  very  long  and  thick, 
filling  the  hiatus  between  the  inner  canthus  of  the  orbit  and  the  front, 
and  terminating  forwards  in  a  strong,  angular,  tooth-like  projection, 
directed  forwards  and  a  little  inwards,  reaching  beyond  the  frontal 
line.  The  terminal  br  moveable  portion  is  slender,  very  short,  and 
arises  from  the  internal  part  of  the  basilar  joint  nearer  to  the  cell  of 
the  internal  antenns  thim  to  the  orbit.  The  internal  antennse,  instead 
of  lying  obliquely  outwards  or  transversely,  as  in  most  other  genera 
of  this  section,  are  directed  forwards — a  character  by  which  Cohcer 
may  at  once  be  distinguished  from  Platypodia,  Carpilius,  XofnthOf  &c 
The  second  joint  of  l£e  inner  footstalk  of  the  external  pedipalps  l« 
excavated  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  inner  margin ;  in  some  species 
the  notch  is  confined  to  the  angle,  in  others  it  extends  half  way  down 
the  side  of  the  joint.  The  first  pair  of  feet  is  nearly  equal ;  in  some 
specimens  of  eadh  species  the  difference  in  size  being  scarcely  app>re- 
ciable.  They  are  generally  very  robust.  The  remaining  feet  have  so 
spines,  but  are  in  most  species  more  or  less  hairy.  The  abdomen  of 
the  male  has  five,  and  that  of  the  female  seven  joints. 

With  the  exception  of  our  indigenous  species.  Cancer  Pagurvs,  they 
ore  all,  as  far  as  their  localities  are  known,  exclusively  natives  of  the 
coasts  of  the  hotter  parts  of  America. 

Mr.  Bell,  in  a  paper  on  the  genus  Cancer  {*  Zool  TranB.M.  335),  give^ 
three  new  species,  namely,  C.  hngipes,  C.  Edtoardtii,  and  C.  d^tatw, 
brought  home  by  Mr.  Cmning  and  Mr.  Miller,  besides  C.  irroratua  of 
Say,  and  C.  Pagurut,  which  last,  bs  it  wan  considered  the  type  by  Dr. 
Leach,  we  select  as  an  example. 

C.  Pagurus  is  the  Great  Crab  of  the  English  coasts.  Mr.  Bell 
gives  the  following  description  of  it : — ^Carapace  transversely  oblocr, 
flattened,  but  little  higher  in  the  middle  than  at  the  sides,  some- 
what rounded  before  and  behind;  the  surface  minutely  granulatotl 
smooth,  with  the  regions  but  slightly  marked.  Latero-anter;«^r 
margin  slightly  recurved,  divided  into  ten  quadrate  lobes,  the  sides 
of  which  are  contiguous  and  the  margins  entire;  the  last  ]ol:>e 
inconspicuous,  and  passing  into  the  posterior  marginal  line,  which 
terminates  immediately  anterior  to  the  posterior,  transverse  ndge. 
Front  trifid,  the  teeth  of  nearly  equal  length  and  size.  Orbits 
round,  with  a  strong  triangular  tooth  over  the  inner  canthus,  which 
does  not  project  so  far  as  the  front ;  and  a  smaller  one  filling  the 
space  between  the  two  superior  fissures.  External  antennsi?  with 
the  basilar  joint  much  elongated,  and  terminating  forwards  in  an 
obtuse  tooth;  the  first  joint  of  the  moveable  portion  cluhshsped, 
the  second  cylindrical,  the  remaining  portion  setaceous.  Internal 
antennas  directed  forwards,  the  anterior  half  doubled  directly  back- 
wards in  a  state  of  rest  The  basilar  joint  broad,  cup-shaped,  its 
outer  edge  projecting  forwards ;  the  second  joint  (the  first  of  the 
moveable  portion)  cylindrical,  the  penultimate  with  a  small,  hooked, 
and  recurved  process  at  the  apex.  Padipalps  as  in  the  rest  of  the 
genus.  Sternum  minutely  punctated,  and  furnished  with  ?mall 
patches  or  lines  of  short  scanty  hair.  Abdomen  in  the  mole  with  the 
maigin  fringed  with  short  hair ;  the  last  joint  forming  an  equilateral 
triangle.  Anterior  feet  large,  robust,  smooth,  without  spmes  or 
tubercles,  minutely  granulated ;  the  hand  rounded,  without  crest,  the 
inner  surface  exhibiting  only  the  rudiments  of  the  five  lines  of  puztcta> 
so  conspicuous  in  other  spedes  of  the  genus.  The  remaining  feet 
furnished  with  numerous  fasciculi  of  stiff  hairs,  the  last  joiot  in  all 
furrowed,  and  terminated  by  a  short  strong  naiL  Colour  above 
reddish-brown,  the  l^gs  more  red,  the  daws  deep  shining  black; 
beneath  whitish.  Locality,  coasts  of  Great  Britain,  &a,  and  of  western 
Europe.  Great  nimibers  are  annually  caught  on  the  coasts  of  Great 
Britain.  They  sometimes  attain  a  large  size,  weighing  ten  or  twelve 
pounds. 

Pennant  states  that  this  species  inhabits  rooky  coasts,  and  is  the 
most  delicious  meat  of  any,  and  that  it  casts  its  shell  between 
Christmas  and  Easter.  "There  are  some  species,"  says  Milne- 
Edwards,  in  his  article  '  Crustacea,'  in  the  '  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy 
and  Physiology,'  "  such  as  the  crabs  and  the  irachyura  graendly,  in 
which  the  carapace  presents  a  considerable  expansion  on  either  aide, 
forming  two  laige  compartments  in  which  the  greater  mass  of  the 
thoracic  viscera  is  contained.    Under  these  circmnstoncee  it  would  be 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Til 


CANCROMA. 


CANIS. 


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impOBBible  for  the  animal  to  escape  from  its  dorsal  coTering  by  the 
relatively  inconsiderable  opening  which  this  part  presents  on  its 
inferior  aspect.  This  rendera  it  necessary,  that  the  carapace,  instead 
of  being  cast  ofif  by  simply  rising  in  a  single  piece,  should  give  way 
and  separate  in  some  direqtion  or  another,  and  this  it  does  by  splitting 
along  the  curved  lines,  extending  on  either  side  from  the  mouth  to 
the  origin  of  the  abdomen,  in  the  course  of  which  the  epimeral  pieces 
cohere  with  the  dorsal  one."  (Collinson,  'PhiL  Trans.'  1746  and 
1751 ;  'Hist  Nat  des  Crustacds,'  t.  1,  p.  56.)  Sir  Charles  Lyell  says 
(' Principles  of  Qeology ' ),  "A  laxge  female  crab  (Cancer  Jpagwnu) 
covered  with  oysters,  and  bearing  also  Anomia  Ephippium  and 
ActinicBf  was  taken  in  April,  1832,  off  the  English  coast.  The  oysters 
include  individuals  of  six  years'  growth,  and  the  two  laigest  are  four 
inches  long  and  three  inches  and  a  half  broad.  Both  the  crab  and  the 
oysters  were  seen  alive  by  Mr.  Robert  Brown.  This  specimen  is  in 
the  collection  of  my  friend  Mr.  Broderip,  who  observes  that  this  crab, 
which  was  apparently  in  perfect  health,  could  not  have  cast  her  shell 
for  as.  years,  whereas  some  naturalists  have  stated  that  the  species 
moitlts  annually,  without  limiting  the  moulting  period  to  the  early 
gtages  of  growth  of  the  animal." 

The  genus  Cancer  of  Linnaeus  inclijded  a  large  number  of  species, 
and  the  term  Crab,  which  is  a  translation  of  it,  is  in  common  parlance 
applied  to  the  great  bulk  of  the  Brachyurous  Crustaceans. 

For  the  Blood-Spotted  Crab  of  the  Asiatic  seas  (Cancer  maculatuSf 
Linn.,  &c.)  and  the  Coralline  Crab  (Cancer  coraUmue,  Fabr.),  Dr.  Leach 
mstituted  the  genus  CarpiliuSy  characterised  by  the  existence  of  a 
single  tooth  on  the  border  of  the  carapace,  and  by  the  tridentated  front; 
and,  for  the  Eleven-Toothed  Crab  (Cancer  undecirndentatus,  Fabr.), 
the  carapace  of  which  is  smooth,  with  11  crenulated  teeth  on  each 
antero-lateral  border,  and  black  toothed  fingers,  spoon-shaped  at  the 
end,  he  founded  the  genus  ClorodiiLs  or  Cfdorodiua.  Milne-Edwards 
enumerates  four  species  of  Carpilius  and  seven  of  Chlorodiua.  He 
considers  the  fossil  Crabe  aux  Grosses  Pinces,  Cancer  macrochdus, 
Desm.  ('  Hist  Nat  des  Crustac^s  Fossiles,*  p.  91,  pi.  vii.  fig.  1-2), 
Cancer  LapidescenSf  Rumph.  (*  Amb.  Rariteit  Kamer,'  pi.  60,  f  3),  as 
referrible  to  the  genus  CarpUiita  rather  than  to  the  division  of  Crabs 
properly  so  called.  It  shoiild  be  remembered  that  Milne-Edwards's 
genus  Cancer  (Crabe)  differs  from  that  of  Leach.  The  former  includes 
under  that  name  such  forms  as  Cancer  roeeus  (Carpilitta  roseus  of 
Riippell),  C  lobcUus,  C.  esculptiLSf  C.  Umbatut  (Xcmtho  granvloauBf 
Riip.),  C  Savignii  and  C  Acanthus,  excluding  Leach's  Cancer ,  the 
type  of  which  is  the  eatable  Crab  of  our  coasts,  to  which  form  Milne- 
Edwards  gives  the  name  Platycarcinus.  It  does  not  appear  that 
any  species  of  Cancer,  Leach,  PkUycarcinus,  M^e-Edwards,  has  been 
found  in  a  fossil  state. 

CANCROMA.    [Boat-Bill.] 

CANDY-TUFT.     [Iberis.] 

CANIS,  a  genus  of  Carnivorous  Mammalia,  of  which  the  common 
Dog  may  be  regarded  as  the  type. 

Under  the  Linnsean  genus  Canis  are  to  be  found  the  Dogs  (Cants 
famUiaris) ;  the  Wolves  (Canis  Lupus) ;  the  Hyaenas  (Canis  Hycena) ; 
the  Foxes  (Canis  Vvipes),  &c. ;  the  Jackals  (Canis  aureus) ;  the 
Mexican  Wolf  (Canis  Mexicanus),  Xoloitzcuintli  of  Hernandez ;  and 
Canis  Thotts  of  Surinam. 

Cuvier  arranges  under  the  genus  Ca/nis  Les  Chiens,  the  Dogs 
properly  so  called  (Canis  famUiaris  and  its  varieties) ;  the  Wolves 
{Canis  Lupus,  C.  Mexicanus,  Cjvhatus);  and  the  Jackals,  Chacal  or 
Loup  Dor^  (Canis  aureus) :  and  he  observes,  that  the  Foxes  (which 
Brieson  and  others  have  separated  under  the  name  of  Vulpes)  may 
be  distinguished  from  the  Wolves  and  the  Dogs  by  their  longer  and 
more  tufted  tail ;  by  a  more  pointed  muzzle ;  by  the  pupils  of  their 
eyes,  which  by  day  present  a  kind  of  longitudinal  slit  instead  of  the 
round  form;  by  the  superior  incisors  being  less  lobated  (echan- 
crdes) ;  and,  he  observes  on  their  fetid  odour,  their  disposition  to  dig 
for  themselves  earths,  and  to  prey  upon  the  weaker  animals.  These 
he  places  in  a  sub-genus,  including  the  Zerda  (Megalotis  of  Ilb'ger, 
Canis  Megalotis  of  Lalande,  Canis  Zerda  of  Gmelin) ;  at  least  he  terms 
the  Zerdas  "  esp^ces  de  renards,"  though  he  seems  to  consider  them 
as  a  section,  and  notices  them  as  the  Megalotis  of  Illiger.  The  Hycena 
rtnatica  of  Burchell,  Hyaena  picta  of  Temminck  (Wild  Dog  of  the 
Cape),  terminates  Cuvier's  Canida,  and  he  then  passes  on  to  the 
Civets  (Fiverro). 

M.  Lesson  in  his  *  Manuel '  begins  the  second  section  of  the 
Digitigrades  with  the  genus  Canis,  and  he  adopts  the  following  sub- 
divisions : — 

1.  Those  genera  which  have  the  pupil  of  the  eye  round,  including 
the  Dogs  properly  so  called,  the  Wolves,  and  the  Jackals. 

2.  Those  genera  in  which  the  pupil  of  the  eye  contracts  vertically, 
the  Foxes  and  the  Zerdas. 

3.  The  Dogs  with  Hysena-like  feet ;  the  Hysena-Dog,  Canis  pictus, 
DesDL,  Hycena  picta,  Temm.,  Lyceum,  Brookes. 

The  genus  Canis  being  mostly  restricted  at  the  present  day  to 
the  animals  of  Lesson's  first  section,  this  article  will  be  confined  to 
the  animals  commonly  called  Dogs,  Wolves,  and  Jackals. 

Dogs. 
C.    famUiariSf    the    Dog.       The    specific    description  given    by 
finnatis  is  aiuiply   "Canis  caudd  (siuistrosum)  recurvatA" — "dog 


with  tail  curled  towards  the  left " — ^and  his  lengthened  description, 
after  enumerating  the  varieties,  of  which  he  gives  eleven,  though  it 
may  appear  to  some  almost  ridiculously  minute  and  not  very  delicate, 
is  eminently  characteristic.  Cuvier  observes^  that  the  Domestic  Dog 
(Canis  famUiaris,  Linn.),  is  distinguished  by  its  recurved  tail,  and  that 
it  varies  infinitely  besides  in  stature,  form,  colour,  and  the  quality 
of  the  hair.  It  exhibits,  he  adds,  "the  most  singular,  the  mo^t 
complete,  and  the  most  useful  conquest  that  man  has  made.  The 
whole  species  is  become  our  property ;  each  individual  is  entirely 
devoted  to  his  master,  adopts  his  manners,  distinguishes  and  defends 
his  property,  and  remains  attached  to  him  even  unto  death ;  and  all 
this  springs  not  from  mere  necessity,  nor  from  constraint,  but  simply 
from  reconnaissance  and  a  true  friendship.  The  swiftness,  the  strength, 
and  the  highly  developed  power  of  smelling  of  the  dog,  have  made 
him  a  powerful  ally  of  man  against  the  other  animals,  and  were 
perhaps  necessary  to  the  establishment  of  society.  It  is  the  only 
animal  that  has  followed  man  all  over  the  earth." 

It  is  a  question  of  considerable  interest  as  to  what  was  the  parent- 
stock  of  die  Dog.  Some  zoologists  are  of  opinion  that  the  breed  is 
derived  from  the  Wolf;  others  that  it  is  a  familiarised  Jackal ;  all 
agree  that  no  trace  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  a  primitive  state  of  nature. 
That  there  were  dogs  or  rather  animals  of  the  canine  form  in  Europe 
long  ago  we  have  evidence  from  their  remains,  which  we  shall 
presendy  notice;  and  that  there  are  wild  dogs  we  know.  India,  for 
example,  affords  many  of  them,  livmg  in  a  state  of  complete  inde- 
pendence, and  without  any  indication  of  a  wish  to  approach  the 
dwellings  of  man.  These  dogs,  though  they  have  been  accurately 
noticed  by  competent  observers,  do  not  throw  much  light  on  the 
qifestion.  They  may  have  escaped  from  the  dominion  or  hslt  dominion 
of  man,  and  have  betaken  themselves  to  a  vagabond  life.  It  becomes 
necessary  however  to  examine  into  the  state  of  these  dogs,  some  of 
which  are  entirely  wild  and  keep  to  the  moimtain  and  forest,  whilst 
others  hang  about  the  villages,  and  though  without  owners  give 
tokens  of  a  more  social  disposition,  and  are  tolerated  as  the  scavengers 
of  the  place,  which  they  clear  of  disgusting  incumbrances,  somewhat 
after  the  Portuguese  fashion. 

Colonel  Sykes  thus  describes  the  Dukhun  (Deccan)  Dog,  Canis 
Duhfiunensis,  Sykes,  Eolsun  of  the  Mahrattas,  Cwm  Dukhunensis : — 
"Red,  paler  underneath;  tail  bushy,  pendulous;  pupil  rounded. 
This  is  the  Wild  Dog  of  Dukhun.  Its  head  is  compressed  and 
elongated ;  its  nose  not  very  sharp,  the  eyes  are  oblique  :  the  pupils 
round,  irides  light  brown.  The  expression  of  the  coimtenance  that 
of  a  coarse  ill-natured  Persian  Grayhound,  without  any  resemblance 
to  the  Jackal,  the  Fox,  or  the  Wolf,  and  in  consequence  essentially 
distinct  from  the  Canis  Quao  or  Sumalrensis  of  Qeneral  Hardwicke. 
Ears  long,  erect,  somewhat  rounded  at  the  top,  without  any  repli- 
cation of  the  tragus.  Limbs  remarkably  large  and  strong  in  relation 
to  the  bulk  of  the  animal,  its  size  being  intermediate  between  the 
Wolf  and  the  Jackal  Neck  long.  Body  elongated.  Between  the 
eyes  and  nose  red  brown :  end  of  the  tul  blackish.  From  the  tip 
of  the  nose  to  the  insertion  of  the  tail  38  inches  in  length :  tail 
84  inches.  Height  of  the  shoulders  16^  inches."  Colonel  Sykes  adds 
that  none  of  the  domesticated  dogs  of  Dukhun  are  common  to  Europe. 
The  first  in  strength  and  size  is  the  Brinjaree  Dog,  somewhat 
resembling  the  Persian  Grayhound  but  much  more  powerful  The 
Pariah  Dog  he  states  is  referrible  to  M.  Cuvier's  second  section. 
This  is  veiy  numerous,  not  individual  property,  but  breeds  in  the 
towns  and  villages  unmolested.  The  Colonel  remarks  that  the  Turn- 
sprit  Dog,  long  backed,  with  short  crooked  legs,  is  frequently  found 
among  the  Pariahs.  There  is  also  a  petted  minute  variety  of  the 
Pariah  Dog,  usually  of  a  white  colour,  and  with  long  silky  hair, 
corresponding  to  a  common  Lapdog  of  Europe ;  this  is  taught  to 
carry  flambeaux  and  lanterns.  The  last  variety  noticed  is  the  dog 
with  hair  so  short  as  to  appear  naked  like  the  Canis  JSgyptius,  It 
is  known  to  Europeans  by  the  name  of  the  Polygar  Dog.  ('  Zool. 
Proc.,'  part  i.)  In  1832  the  skin  of  the  Wild  Dog  of  Nepaul  was 
compared  by  Colonel  Sykes  with  a  specimen  of  the  Kolsun  of  the 
Mahrattas  above  described,  and  he  stated  his  impression  to  be  that 
the  animals  are  identical,  differing  only  by  the  denser  coat  and  more 
woolly  feet  of  the  Nepaul  race,  a  difference  readily  accounted  for 
by  the  greater  cold  of  the  elevated  regions  inhabited  by  it  Colonel 
Sykes  is  also  of  opinion  that  the  Eobun  is  identical  with  the 
Buansuah,  an  Indian  dog,  described  by  Mr.  B.  H.  Hodgson  under  the 
name  of  Ouon  primcevus.  Specimens  of  these  dogs  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  British  Museum,  in  the  Catalogue  of  which  institution  they  are 
not  only  made  specifically  distinct,  but  are  placed  under  the  genus 
Cuon  as  distinct  from  Canis. 

Mr.  Bell,  in  his  '  History  of  British  Quadrupeds,'  also  discusses  this 
difficult  question.  "In  order,"  says  Mr.  Bell,  "to  come  to  any 
rational  conclusion  on  this  head,  it  will  be  necessary  to  ascertain  to 
what  type  the  animal  approaches  most  nearly,  after  having  for  many 
successive  generations  existed  in  a  wild  state,  removed  from  the 
influence  of  domestication  and  of  association  with  mankind.  Now 
we  find  that  there  are  several  different  instances  of  the  existence  of 
dogs  in  such  a  state  of  wildness  as  to  have  lost  even  that  common 
character  of  domestication,  variety  of  colour  and  marking.  Of  these 
two  very  remarkable  ones  are  the  Dhole  of  India  and  the  Dingo  of 
Australia:  there  is  bcBides  a  half-i*eclaimed  race  amongst  the  Indians 


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of  North  America;  and  another  also  partially  tamed  in  South 
America  which  deserve  attention ;  and  it  is  found  that  these  races 
in  different  degrees,  and  in  a  greater  degree  as  they  are  more  wild, 
exhibit  the  lank  and  gaunt  form,  the  lengthened  limbs,  the  long  and 
slender  muzzle,  and  the  great  comparative  strength  which  characterise 
the  wolf;  and  that  the  tail  of  the  Australian  dog,  which  may  be 
considei*ed  as  the  most  remote  from  a  state  of  domestication,  assumes 
the  slightly  bushy  form  of  that  animal.  We  have  here  then  a  con- 
siderable approximation  to  a  well-known  wild  animal  of  the  same 
genus,  in  races  which,  though  doubtless  descended  from  domesticated 
ancestors,  have  gradually  assumed  the  wild  condition;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  especial  remark,  that  the  anatomy  of  the  wolf,  and  its 
osteology  in  particular,  does  not  differ  from  that  of  the  dogs  in 
general,  more  than  the  different  kinds  of  dogs  do  from  each  other. 
The  craniimi  is  absolutely  similar,  and  so  are  all  or  nearly  all  the 
other  essential  parts ;  and  to  strengthen  still  further  the  probability 
of  their  identity,  the  dog  and  wolf  will  readily  breed  together,  and 
their  progeny  is  fertile.  The  obliquity  of  the  position  of  3ie  eyes  in 
the  wolf  is  one  of  the  characters  in  which  it  differs  from  the  dogs ; 
and  although  it  is  very  desirable  not  to  rest  too  much  upon  the 
effects  of  habit  on  structure,  it  is  not  perhaps  straining  the  point  to 
attribute  the  forward  direction  of  the  eyes  in  the  dogs  to  the  constant 
habit,  for  many  successive  generations,  of  looking  forwards  to  their 
master  and  obeying  his  voice." 

Another  criterion,  and  a  soimd  one,  is  the  identity  of  gestation. 
Sixty-three  days  form  the  period  during  which  the  bitch  goes  with 
young.  Precisely  the  same  time  elapses  before  the  she-wolf  gives 
birth  to  her  ofiBpring.  Upon  Buffon's  instance  of  73  days,  or  rather 
the  possibility  of  such  a  duration  in  the  gestation  of  a  paji^icular  she- 
wolf,  we  do  not  lay  much  stress  when  opposed  by  such  strong 
evidence  of  the  usual  period  being  68  days.  The  young  of  both  wolf 
and  dog  are  bom  blind,  and  see  at  the  same  or  about  tiie  same  time, 
namely,  at  the  expiration  of  the  10th  or  12th  dav. 

Hunter's  important  experiments  proved  witnout  doubt  that  the 
Wolf  and  the  Jackal  would  breed  with  the  Dog;  but  he  had  not 
sufficient  data  for  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  all  three  were 
identical  as  species.  In  the  course  of  those  experiments  he  ascer- 
tained that  the  jackal  went  59  days  with  young,  whilst  the  wolf  went 
63  days ;  nor  does  he  record  that  the  progeny  of  the  dog  and  jackal 
would  breed  together:  and  he  knew  too  well  the  value  of  the 
argument  to  be  drawn  from  a  fertile  progeny  not  to  have  dwelt  upon 
the  fact  if  he  had  proved  it ;  not  to  have  mentioned  it,  at  least,  if  he 
had  ever  heard  of  it 


Skull  of  Jackal  {(hnis  aureus).    From  F.  Cavier. 

Mr.  Bell  disposes  of  the  objection  arising  from  the  alleged 
untameably  savage  disposition  of  the  wolf  by  relating  two  anecdotes, 
one  on  his  own  authority  and  the  other  on  that  of  Mons.  F.  Cuvier,  in 
proof  of  the  susceptibility  of  attachment  to  man,  and  the  appetite — 
for  it  is  an  appetite— for  his  caresses  on  the  part  of  the  wolf.  The 
first  occurred  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  in  the  Regent's 
Park,  London,  and  was  exhibited  in  the  person  of  a  she-wolf,  who 
came  forward  to  be  caressed,  and  even  brought  her  pups  to  be 
caressed  also,  whenever  Mr.  Bell  or  any  one  whom  she  knew 
approached  her  den.  Indeed  she  killed  all  her  unfortunate  young 
ones  in  succession  by  rubbing  them  against  the  bars  of  her  cage  in 
her  zeal  to  have  them  fondled  by  her  friends.  The  second  happened 
in- the  Mdnagerie  du  Roi  at  Paris,  and  no  faithful  dog  could  ^ow 
more  affecting  instances  of  attachment  to  his  master,  or  distress  on 
account  of  his  absence,  than  did  the  male  wolf  which  is  the  subject  of 
Mons.  F.  Cuvier's  touching  accoimt.  ^'With  all  these  analogous 
properties  of  form  and  structure" — we  quote  Mr.  Bell — "as  well  aa  of 
disDosition,  I  cannot  but  incline  at  least  to  the  opinion  that  the  wolf 
in  the  original  source  from  which  all  our  domestic  dogs  have  sprung  : 
Qor  do  I  see  in  the  great  variety  which  exists  in  the  different  races 


sufficient  ground  for  concluding  that  they  may  not,  all  of  them,  have 
descended  from  one  common  stock.  The  turnspit  and  the  mastiff 
the  pug  and  the  grayhound,  are  perhaps  more  unlike  each  other  than 
any  of  the  varieties  of  other  domestic  animals ;  but  if  it  be  true  that 
variation  depends  upon  habit  and  education,  the  very  different 
employments  to  whidh  dogs  have  in  all  ages  been  trained,  and  the 
various  climates  to  which  they  have  been  naturalised,  must  not  be 
lost  sight  of  as  collateral  agents  in  producing  these  different  fonns. 
The  care  too  with  which  dogs  of  particular  breeds  are  matched  with 
similar  ones,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  progeny  aa  pure  as 
possible,  has  doubtless  its  effect  in  promoting  such  distinctions." 
The  same  author  thus  sums  up  his  opinion : — "  Upon  the  whole,  the 
argument  in  favour  of  the  view  which  I  have  taken,  that  the  wolf  is 
probably  the  original  of  all  the  canine  races,  may  be  thus  stated :  the 
structure  of  the  animal  is  identical,  or  so  nearly  so  as  to  afford  the 
strongest  2k  priori  evidence  in  its  favour.  The  dog  must  have  been 
derived  from  an  aninud  susceptible  of  the  highest  degree  of  domesti- 
cation, and  capable  of  great  affection  for  mankind ;  which  has  been 
abundantly  proved  of  the  wolf.  Dogs  having  returned  to  a  wild  state, 
and  continued  in  that  condition  through  many  generations,  exhibit 


Skull  of  Wolf  {Cants  Lupus),    From  F.  Curler. 


Skull  of  Canada  Wolf  {Canis  Lupus).    From  F.  Cuvier. 

characters  which  approximate  more  and  more  to  those  of  the  wolf,  in 
proportion  as  the  influence  of  domestication  ceases  to  act.  The  two 
animals  will  breed  together,  and  produce  fertile  young.  The  period 
of  gestation  is  the  same." 

We  have  given  above  the  skull  of  a  wolf,  that  it  may  be  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  different  varieties  of  dogs. 


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ft  1__ 

Dental  fonnula :  inciflon,  -;  canines,  — 


-^ ;  molars,  ^^--^  =   42. 


Such  ia  M.  Lesson's  statement  of  the  dentition  of  the  great  genus 
Cbnit  of  Linnaeus.  F.  Cuvier  says  that  Dogs  in  general  have  40 
teeth,  namely,  six  Incisors,  two  canines,  three  false  molars,  one 
camasaier,  and  two  tubercular  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw;  and  six 
incisors,  two  canines,  three  false  molars,  one  camassier,  and  two 
tubercidar  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw.  Of  all  these  teeth,  he  observes, 
none  change  their  shape  in  any  appreciable  degree  in  any  race  what- 
ever. Only  there  is  sometimes  found  an  additional  false  molar  or 
tubercular  tooth. 


Teeth  of  Dog. 

Fore  feet  with  five  toes;  hind  feet  with  four  toes;  claws  not 
retractile. 


/ 


Feet  of  Dog.    From  F.  Cavier. 

Gfenerally  speaking  all  dogs  have  five  toes  on  the  fore  feet  and  four 
on  the  hind  feet,  with  the  rudiment  of  a  fifth  metatarsal  bone,  which 
^oes  not  show  itself  externally.  Nevertheless  some  dogs  have  this 
™  toe  very  long  and  well  proportioned,  and  advancing  as  far  as  the 
^fiSinof  the  first  phalanx  of  the  neighbouring  toe;  and  in  those 
^  which  have  only  a  radimentary  fifth  bone  of  the  tarsus,  this 
WDe  articulate!  itself  to  the  lower  facet  of  the  great  cuneiform  bone, 


which  is  itself  placed  in  relation  with  the  scaphoid  bon6,  the  second 
cuneiform  bone,  and  the  second  bone  of  the  metatarsus,  counting  as 
one  the  rudiment  in  question.  But  in  the  dogs  that  have  the  fifth 
toe  complete,  a  fourth  cuneiform  bone  is  developed  between  the  first 
and  the  second  toe,  and  in  that  case,  in  some  varieties,  the  great 
cuneiform  bone  elevates  itself,  and  on  its  internal  side  offers  a  large 
articulating  facet  to  the  astragalus. 

The  tail  is  very  variable  in  the  number  of  caudal  vertebra,  which 
range  from  twenty-one  down  to  three  or  even  two. 

Of  dogs  which  have  been  regarded  as  varieties  or  species,  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  is  the  Australian  Dog,  or  Dingo  {Cania  Dingo  of 
Blumenbach).  It  is  so  wolf-like  in  its  appearance,  that  Bewick  figures 
it  as  the  *  New-South- Wales  Wol£*  Governor  Philip  describes  the 
height  of  this  species,  when  standing  erect,  as  rather  less  than  2  feet, 
and  the  length  2^  feet.  The  head,  he  says,  is  formed  much  like  that 
of  a  fox,  the  ears  short  and  erect,  with  whiskers  from  1  to  2  inches 
in  length  on  the  muzzle.  The  general  colour  of  the  upper  parts  is  pale 
brown,  growing  lighter  towards  the  belly ;  the  hind  part  of  the  fore 
legs  and  the  fore  part  of  the  hinder  ones  white,  as  are  the  feet  of 
both ;  the  tail  is  of  a  moderate  length,  somewhat  bushy,  but  in  a  lees 
degree  than  that  of  a  fox  :  the  teeth,  he  adds,  are  much  the  same  as 
is  usual  in  the  genus. 


Skull  of  Dingo  [Cani$  Dingo),    From  F.  Cuvier. 

This  description  may  be  considered  as  accurate,  with  the  exception 
that  the  animal  generally  bears  a  greater  affinity  to  the  Wolf  than  the 
Fox.  ''  It  has,"  says  the  author  last  quoted,  describing  a  female, 
"  much  of  the  manners  of  the  dog,  but  is  of  a  very  savage  nature,  and . 
not  likely  to  change  in  this  particular.  It  laps  like  other  dog^  but^ 
neither  barks  nor  growls  if  vexed  and  teazed ;  instead  of  which  it 
erects  the  hairs  of  the  whole  body  like  bristles,  and  seems  furious  : 
it  is  very  eager  after  its  prey,  and  is  fond  of  rabbits  or  chickens  raw, 
but  will  not  touch  dressed  meat.  From  its  fierceness  and  agility  it 
has  greatly  the  advantage  of  other  animals  much  superior  in  size ;  for 
a  very  fine  French  fox-dog  being  put  to  it,  in  a  moment  it  seized  him 


Dingo  {Canit  familiarit  AiutralatUe,  or  C.  Dingo), 

by  the  loins,  and  would  have  soon  put  an  end  to  his  existence  had 
not  help  been  at  hand.  .With  the  utmost  ease  it  is  able  to  leap  oyer 
the  back  of  an  ass,  and  was  very  near  worrying  one  to  death,  having 
fastened  on  it  so  that  the  crcatiux)  was  not  able  to  disru^age  himself 


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«7ithout  aaaistanoe  :  it  has  also  been  known  to  run  down  both  deer 
and  sheep.  A  second  of  these  is  in  the  possession  of  Sir.  Lasoelles, 
of  which  we  have  received  much  the  same  account  in  respect  of  its 
ferocity ;  whence  it  is  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  this  elegant  animal 
will  ever  become  familiar." 

Mr.  Bell,  in  his  work  above  quoted,  describes  the  first  effect  of  the 
dominion  of  man  upon  this  wolf-like  dog : — "  The  effect  of  domesti- 
cation in  producing  variation  in  colour,  to  which  allusion  has  already 
been  made,  has  lately  been  exhibited  in  a  very  striking  and  interesting 
manner  in  the  menagerie  of  the  Zoological  Society.  An  Australian 
bitch,  or  Dingo,  had  a  litter  of  puppies,  the  father  of  which  was  also 
of  that  breed :  both  of  them  had  been  taken  in  the  wild  state,  but 
were  of  the  imiform  reddish  brown  colour  which  belongs  to  the  race, 
and  the  mother  had  never  bred  before ;  but  the  young,  bred  in  con- 
finement and  in  a  half-domesticated  state,  were  all  of  i^em  more  or 
less  spotted." 

If  we  turn  to  the  dogs  of  other  comparatively  uncivilised  nations, 
we  find  the  prick  ears  and  other  indications  of  the  half-reclaimed  animaL 
The  Esquimaux  Dog  {Cants  familiaris  BorecUis),  and  the  Hare-Indian 
or  Mackenzie  River  Dog  {CanU  familiofii  Lagopus),  will  occur  as 
instances  to  those  who  have  been  familiar — and  who  is  not  ? — with 
the  histories  of  our  northern  expeditions  and  the  (harden  of  the  Zoolo- 
gical Society  of  London  in  the  Regent's  Park.  In  that  menagerie  the 
three  dogs  last  named  might  at  one  time  be  seen  side  by  side,  affording 
the  best  opportunities  for  comparison.  Peter,  the  Esquimaux  Dog, 
kept  in  the  garden,  was  of  a  dingy-white  with  a  tinge  of  yellow  on 
the  upper  parts,  gradually  fading  away  upon  Hie  sides ;  in  short,  of 
nearly  a  umform  colour ;  but  in  general  this  race  exhibits  a  predo- 
minance of  black  markings.  Thus  Akshelli,  brought  from  the  Polar 
Sea  by  Mr.  Richards  in  Captain  Parry's  first  voyage,  and  described  by 
Mr.  Children  in  the  *  Zoological  Journal,'  was  almost  entirely  blackish, 
or  of  a  oolour  nearly  approaching  to  black  on  the  upper  parts,  and 
white  underneath,  tail  included.  Akshelli  seldom  barked,  but  if  dis- 
pleased uttered  a  low  wolfish  growl,  and  was  a  very  powerful  dog. 
Peter  was  brought  to  this  country  by  Lieutenant  Henderson,  one  of 
the  companions  of  Captain  Roes,  in  his  first  voyage,  and  lived  long  at 
the  Regent's  Park.  He  was  very  good  tempered  and  familiar.  The 
Hare-Indian  Dogs,  it  is  said,  are  never  known  to  bark  in  their  own 
country;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  those  which  were  brought 
from  thence  to  the  Regent's  Park  never  barked  at  all,  but  the  younger 
one  which  was  bom  here  barked  like  the  other  dogs.  It  is  curious  to 
observe  these  steps. 

"The  period,"  says  Mr.  Bell,  "at  which  the  domestication 
of  the  dog  first  took  place  is  wholly  lost  in  the  mist  of  antiquity. 
The  earliest  mention  of  it  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures  occurs  during 
the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in   Egypt — *But  against  Israel  shall 


Asiatic  Strcct-Dogs. 

not  a  dog  move  his  tongue.'  It  is  again  mentioned  in  the  Mosaic 
law  in  a  manner  which  would  seem  to  show  that  they  were  the  com- 
mon scavengers  of  the  Israelitish  camp,  as  they  are  still  in  many  of 


the  cities  of  the  East : — '  Neither  shall  ye  eat  any  flesh  that  is  torn 
of  beasts  in  the  field  :  ye  shall  cast  it  to  the  dogs.'  A  similar  office 
seems  to  be  repeatedly  alluded  to  in  the  course  of  the  Jewi^  his- 
tory : — *  Him  that  dieth  in  the  city  shall  the  dogs  eat,  and  him  that 
dieth  in  the  fields  shall  the  fowls  of  the  air  eat ;'  a  common  cone,  &3 
it  would  appear,  as  it  occurs  verbatim  on  no  less  than  three  eepar&te 
occasions  in  the  First  Book  of  Kings ;  and  evidently  intimates  avioleu; 
and  disgraceful  death,  without  the  honour  of  sepulture.  The  dogwss 
considered  by  the  Jews  as  eminently  an  unclean  animal,  and  wu  the 
figure  selected  for  the  most  contemptuous  insults.  It  is  impossibW 
not  to  be  struck  with  the  striking  similarity  which  exists  in  the  feel 
ings  of  many  oriental  nations  at  the  present  day,  among  whom  th» 
very  phnuBeology  of  the  Scriptures  is,  with  little  modification,  applied 
to  a  similar  purpose." 

One  circimistance  should  be  borne  in  mind  throughout  an  inquiiy 
Into  the  origin  of  the  Dog.  None  of  the  wild  dogs,  however  appa- 
rently living  in  a  state  of  nature,  have  ever  been  found  to  return  to 
the  true  form  of  Wolf. 


Skull  of  Shepherd's  Dog  (Chien  de  Berger).    From  F.  Cotier. 


Skull  of  Spaniel.    From  F.  Cnvicr. 


of  the 


The  Shepherd's  Dog,  a  variety  which  was  most  probably  one  of  tw 
first  that  civilised  and  settled  man  called  in  aid  to  preserve  hi3  noco 
from  beasts  and  birds  of  prey  and  the  depredations  of  roving  hai^ 
tribes,  is  remarkable  for  the  capacity  of  its  cranium  and  its  gw» 
sagacity. 


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It  is  indeed  diatanguished  by  this  cranial  development  even  above 
the  Spaniels  and  their  varieties,  and  the  Hounds,  which  comprise  the 
most  useful  and  intelligent  dogs»  In  the  Bull-Dogs  and  Mastiffs, 
Dogues  de  Forte  Race  of  the  French,  though  the  head  is  one-third 
laiTger  than  those  of  the  Shepherd's  Dog  and  of  the  Spaniels,  '  Barbets/ 
the  cranial  capacity  is  not  by  any  means  so  great. 


SktiU  of  Dogueile  Forte  Tiacc.    From  F.  Cuvicr. 


Skull  of  Chien  Matin. 

Dr.  Caius,  the  physician  of  queen  Elizabeth's  time,  wrote  several 
papers  on  natural  lustoi-y  for  the  use  of  Gesner,  his  correspondent 
and  friend.  In  one  of  these  treatises  he  divides  the  British  dogs  into 
— Ist,  The  most  generous  kinds,  which  he  subdivides  into  the  Dogs 
of  Chace,  including  the  Hoimds,  namely,  the  Terrier,  Harrier,  and 
Bloodhound ;  and  the  Qazehound,  Grayhound,  Leviner  or  Lyemmer, 
and  Tumbler:  the  Fowlers,  namely,  the  Spaniel,  Setter,  Water- 
Spaniel,  or  Finder  :  and  the  Lap-Dogs,  namely,  the  Spaniel-Gfentle,  or 
Ciomforter.  2nd,  The  Farm-Dogs,  namely,  the  Shepherd's  Dog  and 
the  Mastiff*,  or  Ban-Dog.  8rd,  Mongrels,  namely,  Wappe,  Turnspit, 
and  Dancer. 

Bewick  enumerates  the  following  : — The  Shepherd's  Dog,  the  Cur- 
Dog,  the  Greenland-Dog,  the  Bull-Dog,  the  Mastiff",  the  Ban-Dog,  the 
Dahnatian  or  Coach-Dog,  the  Irish  Grayhound,  the  Highland  Gray- 
hound,  the  Gazehound,  the  Grayhound,  the  Italian  Grayhound,  the 
Lyemmer,  the  Lurcher,  the  Tumbler,  the  Terrier,  the  Beagle,  the 
^arrier^  the  Fox-Hound,  the  Old  English  Hound,  the  Kibble  Hound, 


the  Blood-Hound,  the  Spanish  Pointer,  the  English  Setter,  the  New- 
foundland Dog,  the  Rough  Water-Dog,  the  Large  Water-Spaniel,  the 
Small  Water-Spaniel,  the  Springer  or  Cocker,  King  Charles's  Dog,  the 
Pyrame  Dog,  the  Shock-Dog,  the  Lion-Dog  (a  small  and  rare  varieiv), 
the  Comforter  (a  small  Spaniel),  the  Turnspit,  and  the  Pug.  We 
could  add  many  more  to  this  list,  which  is  long  enough.  The  French 
divide  the  dogs  into  three  groups,  namely,  the  M&tins,  the  SpanieLi 
(including  the  Hounds  and  Pointer),  and  the  Dogues  (the  laat  con- 
taining the  Mastiff*,  Bull -Dog,  &c). 

We  give  the  gigantic  Tibet  Dog  as  a  fine  example  of  the  Mastiff's. 
Dr.  Wallich  gave  to  Mr.  Broderip  the  data  which  enabled  the  latter 


The  Tibet  Dojj  {Canii  familiariSy  var.  Molouut  Thibet amu). 

to  write  the  following  account : — *'  These  noble  animals  are  the  watch- 
dogs of  the  table-land  of  the  Himalaya  Mountain^  about  Tibet. 
Their  masters,  tiie  Bhoteas,  to  whom  they  are  most  strongly  attached, 
are  a  singular  race,  of  a  ruddy  copper-colour,  indicating  the  bracing 
air  which  they  breathe,  rather  short,  but  of  an  excellent  dispostion. 
Their  clothing  is  adapted  to  the  cold  climate  they  inhabit,  and 
consists  of  fur  and  woollen  doth.  The  men  till  the  ground  and  keep 
sheep,  and  at  certain  seasons  come  down  to  trade,  bringing  borax, 
tincal,  and  musk,  for  sale.  They  sometimes  penetrate  as  far  as 
Calcutta.  On  these  occasions  the  women  remain  at  home  with  the 
dogs,  and  the  encampment  is  watched  by  the  latter,  which  have  an 
almost  irreconcileable  aversion  to  Europeans,  and  in  general  fly  fero- 
ciouslv  at  a  white  face.  A  warmer  climate  relaxes  all  their  enei^es, 
and  they  dwindle  even  in  the  valley  of  NepauL"  Some  specimens 
were  brought  to  this  country  by  Dr.  Wallich ;  they  were  placed  in 
the  Zoological  Society's  Garden  iu  the  Regent's  Park,  but  died  soon 
after  their  arrival  The  Hon.  Edward  Gardner,  British  resident  at 
the  court  of  the  Raja  of  Nepaul,  never  heard  of  any  other  instance 
of  this  variety  being  domesticated  by  Europeans. 

In  all  the  varieties  the  period  of  gestation  is  63  days.  The  litter  is 
generally  numerous,  often  as  many  as  eight  or  nine.  The  whelps 
are  bom  blind,  and  do  not  see  till  nine  days  are  fully  expired  :  they 
sometimes  see  on  the  tenth,  and  sometimes  not  till  the  twelfth  day. 
At  the  fourth  month  the  teeth  begin  to  change,  and  at  two  years  the 
growth  of  the  animal  is  considered  complete.  A  dog  is  considered 
old  at  the  expiration  of  five  years,  and  the  limits  of  his  existence 
rarely  exceed  20  years.  It  is  confidently  stated  that  in  all  the  varie- 
ties, if  a  Dog  has  any  white  on  any  part  of  his  tail,  that  colour  will 
invariably  be  found  at  the  tip. 

For  the  special  qualities  of  particular  varieties  of  the  Dog  see  the 
articles  Beagle,  Blood-Hound,  Grayhound,  Harrier,  Pointer, 
Pug,  Setter,  Spaniel,  Terrier,  Wolf-Doo. 

\  Wolves. 

C,  Lupus  (Linnseus),  the  Wolf.  Lieutenant-Colonel  Hamlltoq 
Smith  makes  Lupus  the  first  section  of  his  first  sub-genus  Chaon,  of 
the  Diurnal  CanidoBj  or  Canine  group  furnished  with  a  round  pupil  of 
the  eye. 

In  this  section  he  comprises  the  Common  Wolf,  Lupus  vutgaiHs; 
the  Black  Wolf,  L.  Lycaon  ;  the  Dusky  Wolf,  L,  nuhiluSt  Wied. ;  and 
the  Wolf  of  the  Southern  States  of  North  America,  L,  Mexicanus, 
Smith. 

In  the  second  section,  Lyciscus,  or  as  he  terms  the  group  the 
Lyciscan  Dogs,  he  places  the  North  American  Wolf,  L.  latrans;  and 
the  Caygotte  of  Mexico,  Z.  CagottuSf  Smith. 

With  regud  to  the  American  Wolves,  Colonel  Smith  remarks  that 
whether  they  be  distinct  from  those  of  the  eastern  hemim>here,  or 
primeval  varieties,  is  not  as  yet  satisfactorily  established.  The  high 
authority  of  Sir  John  Richardson  he  observes  leans  towards  the 
opinion  that  they  are  different  species;  while  Prince  Maximilian  of 
Wied,  perhaps  stUl  more  praoticaUy  conversant  with  the  races  of  both 


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oontinents,  thinks  that  they  are  not  specifically  distinct.  To  this  last- 
mentioned  opinion  Colonel  Smith  states  that  his  own  somewhat 
extensive  researches  lead  him  to  subscribe;  but  he  qualifies  this 
statement  by  observing  that  while  our  ideas  respecting  the  charactei> 
istics  of  species  remain  unsettled  the  difference  of  conclusion  is 
perhaps  only  formular. 

In  M.  Lesson's  '  Manuel '  the  following  existing  Wolves  appear  as 
distinct  species  : — ^the  Common  Wolf,  C.  Lupua,  Idnn. ;  the  Mexican 
Wolf,  C.  Mexicanua,  Desm. ;  the  lied  Wolf,  C.  juJbcUtu,  Deem. ;  the 
]hrairie  Wolf,  C.  latrana,  HarL ;  and  the  Dusky  Wolf,  Loup  Odorant, 
C  nubUtu,  Say. 

Colonel  Smith  observes  that  the  typical  Wolf  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  the  varieties  belonging  to  this  tribe  in  America,  may  be  described 
as  Animiila  occupying  the  two  continents  from  within  the  Arctic  circle 
on  the  north,  to  Spain,  and  perhaps  to  Marocco  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Old  Continent ;  to  Syria,  and  beyond  the  Crishna  in  India ;  and 
to  near  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  in  the  New  World.  Farther  south,  in 
the  last-mentioned  part  of  the  globe,  they  are,  he  remarks,  replaced 
by  an  aberrant  canine,  the  Red  Wolf  of  Cuvier ;  and  in  the  first  by 
Hyoinas,  the  Painted  Lycaon  (Cants  pictu9\  and  perhaps  by  other 
species  not  as  yet  fully  developed.  "  In  China,"  says  Colonel  Smith, 
'*  wolves  abound  in  the  province  of  Xnntung  [Changtung  fj ;  but  how 
far  they  are  found  to  the  south  is  not  known.  Buffon,  from  the 
account  of  Adan9on  (Adanson),  asserts  the  existence  of  a  powerful 
race  of  wolves  In  the  Senegal  country,  hunting  in  company  with  the 
lion ,  but  the  name  is  most  likely  applied  to  a  hysna,  a  lycaon,  or 
one  Cif  the  red  chrysean  group."     (*  Naturalist's  Library.') 

The  following  must  be  the  passage  alluded  to : — Adanson  states 
that  one  night  a  lion  and  a  wolf  (loup)  entered  together  in  the  court 
of  the  house  where  he  slept;  they  raised  themselves  by  turns  by 
placing  their  feet  on  the  timber-work  of  the  roof  (comble),  as  he 
could  easily  hear,  and  carried  off  their  provision.  In  the  morning  the 
occupiers  of  the  dwelling  were  satisfied,  from  the  well-marked 
impressions  of  their  feet  in  the  sand,  that  the  animals  came  together, 
and  perceived  the  place  whence  they  had  taken  away  two  fish :  doubt- 
less, says  Adanson,  each  took  his  own.  This  theft,  he  adds,  was 
moderate  for  two  such  carnivorous  animals,  but  they  did  not  choose 
Uie  smallest.  ''I  do  not  know,"  continues  the  French  traveller, 
"that  it  has  been  before  observed  that  the  wolf  goes  (fraye)  with  the 
lion;  nevertheless  the  fact  is  not  extraordinary;  there  are  daily  proofs 
of  it  in  this  country,  and  evesy  evening  the  wolf  may  be  heard 
howling  at  th^  side  of  the  lion.  I  have  witnessed  the  same  thing  a 
hundred  times  in  all  my  voyages  on  the  Niger  (the  Senegal),  and  I 
know,  without  possibility  of  doubt,  that  the  wolf  is  often  found  with 
the  Hon  without  having  anything  to  fear.  It  is  not  that  the 
size  of  the  African  wolf,  which  is  much  superior  to  that  of  the  wolf 
of  Europe,  makes  any  impression  on  the  lion ;  it  is  only  because  the 
flesh  of  the  former  is  no  temptation  to  the  latter  :  and  what  confirms 
me  in  this  opinion  is,  that  I  never  saw  the  two  lions  which  were  kept 
in  the  middle  of  the  village  of  Senegal  attack  the  dogs  which  were 
exposed  to  them,  or  which  they  met  when  they  were  unchained; 

whereas  they  fell  upon  the  first  horse  or  child  which  came  in  their 
_____  f »  % 

Le  Vaillant  and  the  French  generally  called  the  Spotted  Hysena 
Loup  Tachet^ ;  and  the  terms  Tigre  and  Tigresse  are  used  generally 
for  any  large  spotted  cat.  Thus  we  have  an  account  of  the  'Hardiesse 
du  Tigre '  in  Adanson's  very  next  sentence,  where  he  says — "  Some 
days  after  this  visit  of  the  lion  with  the  wolf  we  received  one  from 
a  tigress,  which  came  to  the  same  place  with  her  young  one  and  also 
carried  away  two  fish."  In  the  '  New  History  of  Ethiopia,  being  a 
Full  and  Accurate  Description  of  the  Kingdom  of  Abesainia,  vulgarly, 
though  erroneously,  called  the  Empire  of  Prester  John;  in  foiur 
books  :  by  the  learned  Job  Ludolphus,  Author  of  the  Ethiopic 
Lexicon;  made  English  by  J.  P.  Gent.  Folio,  London,  1682,' — ^is 
the  following  passage : — "  Tygers  and  panthers  are  much  more  cruel 
and  fierce  than  lyons,  for  they  never  spare  mankind ;  yet  they  covet 
the  Ethiopians  before  white  men,  as  more  accustomed  to  that  sort  of 
dyet.  These  two  beasts  differ  only  in  colour ;  for  the  panthers  are 
brown,  spotted  with  black ;  the  tigers  gold-coloured,  with  fine  black 
spots  like  five-leaved  grass  :  they  are  beasts  of  a  dreadful  celerity  and 
boldness ;  by  night  they  break  into  villages,  and  make  doleful  massa- 
cres among  the  poor  innocent  cattle ;  yet  Alvarez  affirms  that  these 
butcheries  never  happen  in  Midra-BahriL"  Jt  is  almost  superfluous 
to  add,  that  the  Tiger,  properly  so  called,  does  not  inhabit  Africa. 

C.  LitpuB,  the  Common  Wolf,  is  known  by  the  following  characters : — 
It  is  yellowish  or  fulvous  gray ;  hair  harsh  and  strong,  longest  below 
the  ears  and  on  the  neck  (particularly  the  throat),  shoiUders,  and 
haunches ;  muzzle  black ;  cheeks  and  parts  above  the  eyes  ochreous, 
gray  in  very  old  subjects ;  upper  lip  and  chin  white ;  eyes  oblique ; 
tail  net  curling ;  a  blackish  streak  or  band  on  the  fore  legs  about  the 
carpus ;  height  at  the  shoulder  from  27  to  29  inches. 

Variety  white :  cither  as  an  albino,  or  according  to  the  French 
writers,  from  the  effect  of  the  northern  climate  in  the  winter. 
Colonel  Smith  is  of  opinion  that  the  white  wolves  occurring 
sometimes  among  the  races  of  middle  Europe  are  mere  cases  of 
albinism. 

This  is  the  wolf  that  more  commonly  infests  the  western  countries 
of  Europe.     Cuvier  state    that  it  is  found  from  Egypt  to  Lapland, 


and  seems  to  have  passed  over  into  America.  Colonel  Smith  remarlu 
■that  the  Ffench  wolves  are  generally  browner  and  somewhat  smaJler 
than  those  of  (Germany ;  that  the  Russian  race  is  longer,  and  appears 
more  bulky  and  formidable  from  the  great  quantity  of  long  coarse 
hair  on  the  cheeks,  gullet,  and  neck ;  ti^eir  e^es  are  very  small,  and 
their  whole  aspect  peculiarly  savage  and  sinister ;  that  the  Swedish 
and  Norwegian  wolves  are  similar  to  the  Russian  in  form,  but  appear 
heavier  and  deeper  in  the  shoulder,  lighter  in  colour  than  the  Russian 
race,  and  in  winter  totally  white ;  that  the  Alpine  wolves  are  broimish- 
gray  and  smaller  than  the  French ;  those  of  Italy  and  to  the  eastward 
towards  Turkey  fulvous. 

This  is  the  variety,  most  probably,  which  formerly  lurked  in  the 
uncleared  woody  districts  of  tiie  British  Islands ;  for  that  Wolves  were 
once  numerous  here  is  as  clear  as  that  the  Bear  once  prowled  in  Scot- 
land and  Wales.  It  would  be  a  waste  of  paper  and  space  to  detail  th<i 
documentary  evidence,  and  that  to  be  derived  from  ancient  ooins, 
gems,  and  sculptures,  which  prove  that  the  Lupus  of  the  Roman  his- 
torians and  poets,  and  the  Ztfpa  which  was  fabled  to  have  suckled 
Romulus  and  Remus  was  the  same  animal  with  the  ancient  Britiat 
Wol£  Whatever  the  Romans  might  have  done  to  put  down  these 
ferocious  but  cowardly  beasts  of  prey,  they  left  enough  for  their  Saxoc 
and  Norman  successors  to  do.  Edgar  applied  himself  to  their  extir- 
pation in  earnest,  enlisting  English  criminals  in  the  service  by  com- 
muting the  punishment  awarded  for  their  crimes  to  a  deliveiy  of  a 
given  number  of  wolves'  tongues,  and  liberating  the  Welsh  from  the 
payment  of  the  tax  of  gold  and  silver  on  condition  of  an  annual  tribute 
of  300  wolves.  But  tiie  vast  wild  tracts  and  deep  forests  of  ancient 
Britain  were  holds  too  strong  even  for  his  vigorous  measures.  What 
the  numbers  and  consequent  danger  had  been  may  be  imagined  from 
the  necessity  that  existed  in  the  previous  reign  of  Athelstane  (a.]X  925) 
for  a  refuge  against  their  attacks.  Accordingly  a  retreat  was  built  at 
Flixton  in  Yorkshire,  to  save  travellers  from  being  devoured  by  these 
gaunt  hunters.  The  Saxon  name  for  the  month  of  January,  Wolf- 
Moneth,  in  which  dreary  season  hunger  probably  made  the  wohea 
most  desperate,  and  the  term  for  an  outlaw,  *  Wolfa-Hed,'  implying 
that  he  might  be  killed  with  as  much  impimity  as  a  wolf,  also  indicate 
the  numbers  of  these  destructive  beast.s,  and  the  hatred  and  terror 
which  they  inspired. 

That  Edgar  failed  in  his  attempts  at  extirpation  is  manifest  from  a 
mandamus  of  Edward  I.  to  all  bailiff's,  &c.  to  give  their  assistance  to 
his  faithful  and  beloved  Peter  Corbet,  whom  the  king  had  enjoined  to 
take  and  destroy  wolves  (lupos>,  "  cum  hominibus,  canibus,  et  ingeniis 
suis  modis  omnibus  quibus  viderit  expedire,"  in  all  forests  and  parks 
and  other  places  in  the  counties  of  Gloucester,  Worceeter,  Hereford, 
and  Salop,  where  they  could  be  found.  King  John,  in  his  grant,  quoted 
by  Pennant  from  Bii&op  Lyttelton's  collection,  as  beiug  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  dean  and  chapter  of  Exeter,  mentions  the  wolf  (lupnm) 
among  the  beasts  of  chace  which  the  Devonshire  men  are  thereby 
licensed  to  kill. 

In  Derbyshire  certain  tenants  at  Wormhill  held  their  lands  by  the 
duty  of  hunting  and  taking  the  wolves  (*  Wolve  Hunt ')  which  har- 
boured in  the  county.  Even  so  late  as  1577  the  flocka  of  SeotUnd 
appear  to  have  suffered  from  the  ravages  of  wolves,  which  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  rooted  out  of  that  portion  of  the  kingdom  till  about  the 
year  1680,  when  Sir  Ewen  Cameron's  hand  laid  the  last  wolf  \ovf.  In 
Ireland  wolves  must  have  lingered  as  late  as  the  year  1710,  about 
which  time  the  last  presentment  for  killing  them  in  the  county  of 
Cork  was  made. 

The  Black  Wolf  is  a  name  given  to  a  variety  which  is  most  frequent 
in  Southern  Europe,  and  particularly  in  the  Pyrenees  and  to  the  south 
of  those  mountains,  where  they  are  more  common  than  the  ordinary 
or  last-mentioned  wolf,  which  the  Black  Wolf  equals  in  stature,  and, 
if  anything,  exceeds  in  strength.  Cuvier  says  that  it  is  found,  but 
very  rarely,  in  France.  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith  relates  an  anecdote 
illustrative  of  its  great  size  and  weight  One  of  these  wolves  at  a  battue 
in  the  mountains  near  Madrid  came  boimding  towards  an  Englieh 
gentleman  who  was  present  at  the  sport,  through  the  high  grass  and 
bushes,  so  large  that  the  sportsman  took  it  for  a  donkey.  Seven  were 
slain ;  and  this  gentleman,  though  active  and  in  the  flower  of  life, 
could  not  lift  one  entirely  from  the  ground.  The  specimen  figured 
by  the  Colonel  came  from  the  banks  of  the  Tagus,  and  he  describes  it 
as  equal  to  the  laigest  mastiff,  of  a  very  dark  brown  coloiu",  with  ears 
larger  and  the  muzzle  thicker  than  the  Common  Wolf,  but  withal 
resembling  a  very  lai^  and  shaggy  Wolf-Dog.     , 

"The  Spanish  Wolves,"  says  Colonel  Smith,  "congregated  formerly 
in  the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees  in  large  troops,  and  even  now  the  Lobo 
will  accompany  strings  of  mules  as  soon  as  it  becomes  dusky*  They 
are  seen  bounding  from  bush  to  bush  by  the  side  of  travellers,  uid 
keeping  parallel  with  them  as  they  proceed,  waiting  an  opportunity 
to  select  a  victim ;  and  often  succeeding  unless  the  muleteers  can 
reach  some  place  of  safety  before  dark,  and  have  no  dangerous  pas9« 
to  traverse.  Black  wolves  occur  again  in  the  mountains  of  Friuli  and 
about  Cattaro." 

The  Vekvoturian  Mountain-Wolf  of  Russia^  described  by  Pall*«. 
belongs  to  the  black  variety.  Colonel  Smith  thinks  that  the  Romo- 
mak  of  the  Lenas  in  Siberia,  with  shining  black  valuable  fur,  is  P^ 
bably  the  same. 

The  female  of  the  Common  Wolf  produces  four  or  five  at  •  httor; 


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and  although  it  is  said  that  until  the  young  can  see,  the  female  care- 
fully hides  them  from  the  male,  for  fear  he  should  devour  them,  it  is 
certain  that  he  hunts  for  them  and  brings  them  food,  consisting  for 
the  most  part  of  the  smaller  quadrupeds,  partridges,  moor-game,  &c, 
after  they  have  the  use  of  their  eyes,  and  that  both  parents  take  their 
offspring  out  to  teach  them  to  hunt  as  soon  as  they  are  strong 
enough. 


The  Common  Wolf  (Cbntj  Lupus). 

Several  varieties  or  species  of  Wolf  are  met  with  in  Asia.  The 
Landgah,  or  Indian  Wolf,  is  the  Canis  paUipes  of  Sykes,  and  the  Sac- 
caliut  Indicua  of  Hodgson.     It  is  an  inhabitant  of  Nepaul. 

The  wolves  of  Asia  Minor  are  fulvous,  but  the  coloiu*  is  more  pre- 
dominant and  has  more  red  in  it  than  that  of  the  Italian  wolves. 

Of  the  Indiah  wolves,  one,  the  Beriah,  is  described  as  being  of  a 
light  fox-colour  inclining  to  dun,  not  larger  than  a  grayhound,  slen- 
derly made,  but  bony ;  the  head  and  ears  long,  like  those  of  a  Jackal, 
and  the  tail  long,  but  not  very  hairy;  the  other,  which  is  smaller. 
Colonel  Smith  refers  to  his  Lvciscan  group.  The  last-named  zoologist 
refers  the  black  Derboun  of  the  mountains  of  Arabia  and  the  south  of 
Syria  to  the  Wolf. 

The  wolf,  or  the  lupine  forms  of  the  genus  Canis,  are  found  in 
America.  Sir  John  Richardson,  in  the  'Fauna  Boreali- Americana,' 
observes  that  the  Common  Wolves  of  the  Old  and  New  World  have 
been  generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  species — ^the  Cania  Lupvs 
of  Linnaeus.  The  American  naturalists  have  indeed,  he  remarks, 
described  some  of  the  northern  kinds  of  wolf  as  distinct ;  but  it 
never  seems  to  have  been  doubted  that  a  wolf  possessing  all  the 
characters  of  the  European  Wolf  exists  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States.  He  then  goes  on  to  point  out  that  the  wolf  to  which 
these  characters  have  been  ascribed  seems  to  be  the  Large  Brown  Wolf 
of  Lewis  and  Clark ;  and,  according  to  them,  it  inhabits  not  only  the 
Atlantic  countries,  but  also  the  borders  of  the  Pacific  and  the  moun- 
tains which  approach  the  Columbia  River,  between  the  great  falls  and 
mpida,  but  is  not  found  on  the  Missouri  to  the  westward  of  the  Platte. 
Richardson  remarks  that  he  had  seen  none  of  these  Brown  Wolves. 

In  the  *  New  Description  of  Virginia'  (1649)  wolves  are  mentioned 
among  the  beasts  found  there ;  and  Lawson  notices  the  Wolf  of  Caro- 
lina and  thus  describes  him  :— "  The  Wolf  of  Carolina  is  the  dog  of 
the  woods.  The  Indians  had  no  other  curs  before  the  Christians 
came  amongst  them.  They  are  made  domestic.  When  wild  they 
ore  neither  so  large  nor  fierce  .as  the  European  Wolfl  They  are  not 
man-slayers,  neither  is  any  creature  in  Carolina  unless  wounded. 
They  go  in  great  droves  in  the  night  to  hunt  deer,  which  they  do  as 
well  as  the  best  pack  of  hounds :  nay,  one  of  these  will  hunt  down 
*  deer.  They  are  often  so  poor  that  they  can  hardly  run.  When 
they  catch  no  prey  they  go  to  a  swamp,  and  fill  their  belly  ftill  of  mud ; 
if  afterwards  they  chance  to  get  anything  of  flesh,  they  will  disgoi^e 
the  mud  and  eat  the  other.  When  tiiey  hunt  in  the  night,  and  there 
is  a  great  many  together,  they  make  the  most  hideous  and  frightful 
noiae  that  ever  was  heard.  The  fur  makes  good  mufis.  The  skin, 
dressed  to  a  parchment,  makes  the  best  dnmi-heads,  and  if  taimed 
makes  the  best  sort  of  shoes  for  the  summer-countries." 

Catesby  says : — "  The  wolves  in  America  are  like  those  of  Europe 
in  shape  and  colour,  but  are  somewhat  smaller.  They  are  more  timor- 
ous, and  not  so  voracious  as  those  of  Europe.  A  drove  of  them  will 
fly  from  a  single  man,  yet  in  very  severe  weather  there  have  been  some 
instances  to  the  contrary.  Wolves  were  domestic  with  the  Indians, 
who  had  no  other  dogs  b^ore  those  of  Europe  were  introduced,  since 
which  the  breed  of  wolves  and  European  dogs  .are  mixed  and  become 
prolific.   It  is  remarkable  that  the  European  dogs  that  have  no  mixture 

NAT.  HIRT.  DIV.  VOL.  I. 


of  wolfish  blood  have  an  antipathy  to  those  that  have,  and  worry  them 
whenever  they  meet.  The  wolf-breed  act  only  defensively,  and,  with 
his  tail  between  his  legs,  endeavours  to  evade  the  other's  fuiy.  The 
wolves  in  Carolina  are  very  numerous,  and  more  destructive  tnan  any 
other  animaL  They  g;o  in  droves  by  night,  and  hunt  deer  like  hounds, 
with  dismal  yelling  cries." 

Sir  John  Richardson  gives  a  minute  description  of  the  CanU  Lupui 
occiderUalU,  American  Wolf,  the  Missouri  Wolf  of  Lewis  and  Clark, 
and  states  that  he  does  not  mean  to  assert  that  the  differences  existing 
between  it  and  its  European  congener  are  sufficiently  permanent  to 
constitute  them,  in  the  eye  of  the  naturalist,  distinct  species.  The 
same  kind  of  differences,  he  observes,  may  be  traced  between  the 
foxes  and  native  races  of  the  domestic  dog  of  the  New  World  and 
those  of  the  Old ;  the  former  possessing  finer,  denser,  and  longer  fur, 
and  broader  feet,  well  calculated  for  running  on  the  snow.  These 
remarks  were  elicited  by  a  comparison  of  living  specimens  of  American 
and  Pyrenean  wolves ;  but  he  had  not  an  opportunity  of  ascertaining 
whether  the  Lapland  and  Siberian  wolves,  inhabiting  a  similar  climate 
with  those  of  America,  had  similar  peculiarities  of  form,  or  whether 
they  differed  in  physiognomy  from  the  wolf  of  the  soutih  of  Europe. 
He  therefore  considered  it  imadvisable  to  designate  the  northern  wulf 
of  America  by  a  distinct  specific  appellation,  lest  he  should  unneces- 
sarily add  to  the  list  of  synonyms.  The  word  occidetUalUf  which  is 
affixed  to  the  Linnsean  name  of  Canis  LupuSt  is,  he  tells  us,  to  be 
considered  as  merely  marking  the  geographical  position  of  that 
peculiar  race  of  Wolf. 

This  animal  is  very  conmion  throughout  the  northern  regions  of 
America,  but  more  or  less  abundant  in  different  districts.  "  Their 
foot-marks,"  says  Richardson,  "  may  be  seen  by  the  side  of  every 
stream,  and  a  traveller  can  rarely  pass  a  night  in  these  wilds  without 
hearing  them  howling  around  Imn.  They  are  very  numerous  on  the 
sandy  plains  which,  lying  to  the  eastward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
extend  from  the  sources  of  the  Peace  and  Saskatchewan  rivers 
towards  the  Missouri.  There  bands  of  them  hang  on  the  skirts  of 
the  buffalo  (bison)  herds,  and  prey  upon  the  sick  and  straggling  calves. 
They  do  not,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  venture  to  attack  the 
full-grown  animal ;  for  the  hunters  informed  me  that  they  often  see 
wolves  walking  through  a  herd  of  bulls  without  exciting  the  least 
alarm ;  and  the  markunen,  when  they  crawl  towards  a  buffalo  for  the 
purpose  of  shooting  it,  occasionally  wear  a  cap  with  two  ears,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  head  of  a  wolf,  knowing  from  experience  that  they  will 
be  suffered  to  approach  nearer  in  that  guise.  On  the  Barren-Grounds 
through  which  the  Coppermine  River  flows  I  had  more  than  once  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  a  single  wolf  in  close  pursuit  of  a  rein-deer ; 
and  I  witnessed  a  chace  on  Point  Lake  when  covered  with  ice,  which 
terminated  in  a  fine  buck  rein-deer  being  overtaken  by  a  large  white 
wolf,  and  disabled  by  a  bite  in  the  flank.  An  Indian,  who  was  con- 
cealed on  the  borders  of  the  lake,  ran  in  and  cut  the  deer's  throat  with 
his  knife,  the  wolf  at  once  relinquished  Ms  prey  and  sneaked  off.  In 
the  chase  the  poor  deer  urged  its  flight  by  great  bounds,  which  for  a 
time  exceieded  the  speed  of  the  wolf;  but  it  stopped  so  frequently  to 
gaze  on  its  relentless  enemy,  that  the  latter,  toiling  on  at  a  '  long 
gallop'  with  its  tongue  lolling  out  of  its  mouth,  gradually  came  up. 
After  each  hasty  look  the  poor  deer  redoubled  its  efforts  to  escape ; 
but,  either  exhausted  by  fatigue  or  enervated  by  fear,  it  became,  just 
before  it  was  overtaken,  scarcely  able  to  keep  its  feet" 

The  same  author  observes  that  the  wolves  destroy  many  foxes, 
which  they  easily  run  down  if  they  perceive  them  on  a  plain  at  any 
distance  from  their  hiding-places ;  and  he  relates  that  in  January  1827 
a  wolf  was  seen  to  catch  an  Arctic  Fox  within  sight  of  Fort  Franklin, 
and  although  immediately  pursued  by  hunters  on  snow-shoes,  it  bore 
off  its  prey  in  its  mouth  without  any  apparent  diminution  of  its  speed. 
The  same  wolf,  he  adds,  continued  for  some  days  to  prowl  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  fort,  and  even  stole  fish  from  a  sledge  wluch  two  dogs 
were  accustomed  to  draw  home  from  the  nets  without  a  driver.  As 
this  kind  of  depredation  oould  not  be  allowed  to  go  on,  the  wolf  was 
waylaid  and  killed.  It  proved  to  be  a  female,  which  accounted  for 
the  sledge-dogs  not  having  been  molested.  He  further  states  that  the 
buflEaJo-hunters  would  be  unable  to  preserve  the  game  they  kill  from 
the  wolves  if  the  latter  were  not  as  fearful  as  they  are  rapacious.  The 
simple  precaution  of  tying  a  handkerchief  to  a  branch,  or  of  blowing 
up  a  bladder  and  hanging  it  so  as  to  wave  in  the  wind,  is  sufficient  to 
keep  herds  of  wolves  at  a  distance.  At  times,  however,  he  says  that 
they  are  impelled  by  hunger  to  be  more  venturous,  and  that  they  have 
been  known  to  steal  provisions  from  under  a  man's  head  in  the  night, 
and  to  come  into  a  traveller's  bivouac  and  carry  off  some  of  his  dogs. 
"  During  our  residence  at  Cumberland  House  in  1820,"  continues  Sir 
John,  "  a  wolf,  which  had  been  prowling  round  the  fort,  and  was 
wounded  by  a  musket-ball  and  driven  off,  returned  after  it  became 
dark,  whilst  the  blood  was  still  flowing  from  its  wound,  and  carried 
off  a  dog  from  amongst  fifty  others,  that  howled  piteously,  but  had 
not  courage  to  unite  in  an  attack  on  their  enemy.  I  was  told  of  a  poor 
Indian  woman  who  was  strangled  by  a  wolf,  while  her  husband,  who 
saw  the  attack,  was  hastening  to  her  assistance ;  but  Uus  was  the  only 
instance  of  their  attacking  human  life  that  came  to  my  knowledge. 
As  the  winter  advances  and  the  snow  becomes  deep,  the  wolves,  being 
no  longer  able  to  hunt  with  success,  suffer  from  hunger,  and  in  severe 
seasons  many  die.     In  the  spring  of  1826  a  lai^e  gray  wolf  was  driven 

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CANIS. 


C-W^IS. 


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by  hunger  to  prowl  amongst  the  Indian  huts  which  were  erected  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  Fort  Franklin,  but  not  being  succesaful  in 
picking  up  aught  to  eat,  it  was  found  a  few  days  afterwards  lying 
dead  on  the  snow  near  the  fort.  Its  extreme  emaciation  and  the 
emptiness  of  its  intestines  showed  clearly  that  it  died  from  inanition." 

We  learn  from  the  same  excellent  authority  that  the  American 
Wolf  burrows,  and  brings  forth  its  young  in  earths  with  several 
outlets,  like  those  of  a  fox.  Sir  John  Richardson  saw  some  of  their 
burrows  on  the  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan,  and  also  on  the  banks  of 
the  Coppermine  River.  The  number  in  a  litter  he  states  to  vary  from 
four  or  five  to  eight  or  nine.  After  referring  to  the  instances 
recorded  in  the  narratives  of  Captain  Parry  and  Captain  Franklin  of 
the  association  of  the  female  wolves  with  the  domestic  dog,  he  relates 
that  he  was  informed  that  the  Indians  endeavour  to  improve  their 
■ledge-dogs  by  crossing  the  breed  with  wolves,  and  he  adds,  that  the 
resemblance  between  the  northern  wolves  and  the  domestic  dog  of 
the  Indians  is  so  great,  that  the  size  and  strength  of  the  wolf  seem  to 
be  the  only  difference.  **  I  havo  more  than  once,"  says  he,  '*  mistaken 
a  band  of  wolves  for  the  dogs  of  a  party  of  Indians ;  and  the  howl 
of  the  animals  of  both  species  is  prolonged  so  exactly  in  the  same 
key,  that  even  the  practised  ear  of  an  Indian  fails  at  times  to  discri- 
minate them." 

Captain  Lyon  gives  the  following  account  of  the  Esquimaux  wolf- 
trap.  It  is  made  of  strong  slabs  of  ice,  long  and  narrow,  so  that  a 
fox  can  with  difficulty  ttun  himself  in  it,  but  a  wolf  muat  actually 
remain  in  the  position  in  which  he  is  taken.  The  door  is  a  heavy 
portcullis  of  ice,  sliding  in  two  well-secured  grooves  of  the  same 
substance,  and  is  kept  up  by  a  line,  which,  passing  over  the  top  of  the 
trap,  is  carried  through  a  bole  at  the  furthest  extremity ;  to  the  end  of 
the  line  is  fastened  a  small  hoop  of  whalebone,  and  to  this  any  kind 
of  iiesh-bait  is  attached.  From  the  slab  which  terminates  the  trap,  a 
projection  of  ice,  or  a  peg  of  wood  or  bone,  points  inwards  near  the 
bottom,  and  under  this  the  hoop  is  lightly  hooked  ;  the  slightest  pull 
at  the  bait  liberates  it,  the  door  falls  in  an  instant,  and  the  wolf  is 
speared  where  he  lies. 

The  following  varieties  of  the  North  American  Wolf  are  enumerated 
by  Sir  John  Richardson : — 

Variety  a.  Common  Gray  Wolf,  Lupus  grisciu^  the  Mahaygan  of  the 
Cree  Indians,  and  the  Amarok  of  the  Esquimaux. 

Variety  6.  The  White  Wolf,  Lupus  alius. 

Variety  c.  Tho  Pied  Wolf,  Lupus  sticfe. 

Variety  d.  The  Dusky  Wolf,  Lupus  Jiiibilus,  Cants  nuhUus  oi^y. 


The  Dasky  Wolf  [Lupus  mthilus). 

Variety  e.  The  Black  American  Wolf,  Lupw  aio'y  Cams  Lt/caon  of 
Harlan. 

C.  latrans  (Say),  the  Prairie  Wolf,  Lyciscus  lalrans  of  Smith. 

The  animals  which  are  thus  distinguished  have  been  long  known  to 
voyagers  on  the  Missouri  and  Saskatchewan,  as  distinct  from  the 
Common  Wolf.  They  are  the  Small  Wolves  of  Du  Pratz ;  the  Prairie 
Wolf  of  Qass ;  the  Prairie  Wolf  and  Burrowing  Dog  of  Lewis  and 
Clark,  and  of  Schoolcraft ;  the  Cased  Wolves  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company's  lists  ;  and  the  Meesteh-chaggoneesh  of  the  Cree  Indians. 

Sir  John  Richardson  states  that  the  northern  range  of  the  Prairie 
Wolf  is  about  the  55th  degree  of  latitude,  and  that  it  probably 
extends  southward  to  Mexico.  It  associates,  according  to  him,  in 
greater  numbers  than  the  Gray  Wolf  of  the  same  districts ;  it  hunts 
in  packs,  and  brings  forth  its  young  in  burrows  on  the  open  plain 
remote  from  the  woods.  On  the  btmks  of  the  Saskatehewan  these 
animals  start  from  the  earth  in  great  numbers  on  hearing  the  report 
of  a  gun,  and  gather  roimd  the  hunter  expectant  of  the  offal  of  the 
animal  which  he  has  slain.  They  are  much  more  fleet  than  the 
Common  Wolves.  Sir  John  Richardson  was  informed  by  an 
experienced  hunter  who  had  resided  for  forty  years  on  the  Saskat- 
chewan, that  the  only  animal  on  the  plains  which  he  could  not  over- 
take, when  mounted  on  a  good  horse,  was  the  Prong-Homed  Antelope, 
and  that  the  Pi-airie  Wolf  was  the  next  in  spee<l. 


C.  ochropus,  the  Coyotl,  Tuljtcs  Indica  of  Hernandez  (*  Hist.  Quadr. 
Nov8B  Hisp.,'  c.  xiii.),  appears  to  be  the  Caygotte  of  the  Mexican 
Spaniards,  and  is  "  moat  probably,"  the  Ljfcitcut  Cagottis  of  Smith. 
This  appears  te  bo  the  animal  mentioned  by  Mr.  Bullock,  in  his  'Six 
Months  in  Mexico.'  "  Near  Rio  Frio,"  says  that  traveller  and 
assiduous  collecter,  **  we  shot  several  handsome  birds,  and  saw  a 
cayjot^e  or  wild  dog,  which  in  size  nearly  approached  the  wolf.  He 
stood  looking  at  us  at  a  short  distance  from  the  road,  and  it  was  not 
till  a  gim  was  fired  at  him  that  he  deliberately  moved  off." 

Hernandez  describes  the  Coyotl  to  be  an  animal  unknown  to  the 
Old  World,  with  a  wolfs  head,  vivid  large  and  pallid  eyes,  small  and 
sharp  ears,  a  long  black  and  not  thick  muzzle,  muscular  legs,  crooked 
and  thick  claws,  a  very  rough  and  thick  tail,  a  noxious  bite,  approaching 
in  form  to  the  Fox,  to  which  genus  it  is  perhaps  to  be  referred,  and 
intermediate  between  it  and  the  Wolf  in  size ;  for  it  is  twice  the  size 
of  the  fox  and  less  than  the  wolf,  wherefore  it  is  said  to  attack  and 
kill  not  only  sheep  and  similar  animals,  but  stags,  and  sometimes  even 
men.  It  is  covered  with  brown  and  white  long  hair,  is  sagacious  m 
hunting  and  vulpine  in  its  manners,  and  so  pertinacious  an  avenger 
of  wrongs,  and  so  mindful  of  the  abstraction  of  ite  prey,  that  it  will 
recognise  the  robber  after  many  days,  will  follow  him,  and  sometimes 
set  upon  him  with  others  of  its  own  kind,  &c.  It  is  however  grateful 
to  its  benefactors.  It  lives  in  many  places  of  New  Spain,  and 
especially  in  those  which  are  colder.  It  feeds  upon  the  weaker 
animals,  maize  and  other  fnunentaceous  v^etables,  and  sugar-cane. 

The  AgUara  Guazu  of  D' Azara  is  the  Cants  jubatus  of  Cuvier,  the 
Loup  Rouge  of  the  French,  the  Canis  campestris  of  the  Prince  de 
Wied,  and  the  Maned  Aguara,  Chrysocyon  jubaius^  of  Smith. 

D' Azara  thus  describes  this  Red  Wolf,  to  which  the  Payagnas 
Indians  give  the  name  of  Paraepaga,  and  the  Chilians  that  of  Culpeu. 
In  Moxos,  he  says,  the  animal  goes  by  the  appellation  of  Ocorome. 

Length  of  an  adult  male  exactly  5  feet,  that  of  the  tail  19  inche?, 
the  hairs  being  4  inches  long.  Height  in  front  2  feet  lOj  inches, 
behind  2  feet  11  inches ;  circumference  close  to  the  fore  l^s  wanting 
half  an  inch  of  2  feet,  of  the  middle  of  the  neck  1  foot ;  and  of  the 
head,  before  the  ears,  1  foot  3  inches ;  the  ears  6  inches  high,  in  their 
broadest  part  4  inches,  erect^  but  not  exactly  sharp,  and  very  thick. 
From  the  tip  of  the  muzzle  to  the  ears  0|  inches,  and  to  the  inner 
angle  of  the  eye  5  inches ;  the  whiskers  24  inches  long,  and  black. 
The  upper  jaw  projecting  1  inch ;  the  canine  teeth  10  lines  long, 
although  they  were  very  much  worn ;  eye  small  and  somewhat  sunk; 
from  the  eye  forwards  the  muzzle  of  almost  equal  thickness  to  the 
tip.  Under  the  head  a  great  white  spot ;  long  hair  within  the  ears, 
and  extreme  half  of  tail  white  also.  Fore  and  hind  feet  to  the  claws, 
lower  jaw^  from  the  comer  of  the  mouth  forwards,  and  extremity  of 
upper  jaw,  black ;  rest  of  the  coat  clear  yellowish-red.  Mane  com- 
mencing at  the  occiput  and  continuing  erect  till  beyond  the  shoulder, 
5 1  inches  long,  red  in  the  first  half  of  each  hair,  and  black  Iq  the 
remainder  towards  the  tip.  Hair  all  over  the  body,  including  the 
belly,  except  the  lower  part  of  the -fore  legs,  very  long,  and  on  tho 
extremity  of  the  spine  44  inches.  D' Azara  observes  that  it  is  neither 
completely  flattened  nor  very  rough,  and  would  make  good  carpeta. 
Hair  of  the  tail  rather  bushy  and  of  the  same  length  as  on  the  Ixxly. 

D' Azara  caught  four  males  at  different  times  which  were  identical, 
the  smallest  towards  the  end  of  September,  which  appeared  to  him 
to  have  been  whelped  at  the  end  of  July  or  the  beginning  of  August 
D'Azara's  friend  Noseda  caught  another  about  two  months  old,  and 
in  the  hope  of  domesticating  it,  fed  it  on  raw  beef,  which  it  was  unable 
to  digest,  and  which  caused  its  death.  D' Azara  and  Noseda  caught 
another  afterwards,  about  three  months  old,  and  gave  it  raw  beef 
but  seldom  ;  when  it  was  given  however  the  animal  threw  it  up,  and 
to  prevent  this  ite  meat  was  cooked,  but  still  it  was  not  digested. 
This  Aguara  got  loose  from  ite  chain  and  escaped.  During  its  short 
captivity,  if  anybody  approached,  it  grow^led  and  barked  like  a  dog, 
but  more  vehemently  and  confusedly.  It  drank  by  lapping,  and  when 
feeding  trod  on  the  flesh,  which  it  tore  to  pieces  with  its  teeth.  This 
animal  was  fond  of  rate,  sugar-cane,  oranges,  eggs,  and  small  birds ; 
but  did  not  appear  to  be  attracted  by  the  poultry,  which  sometimes 
passed  within  ite  reach  without  ite  attempting  to  pounce  upon  them. 

D' Azara  further  stetes  that  in  a  wild  stete  they  do  not  commit 
havoc  on  the  herds  or  smaller  flocks ;  and  as  they  inhabit  only  the 
extensive  lowlands  and  marshes  of  Paraguay  as  far  as  the  river  Plata 
and  near  ite  mouth,  he  has  no  doubt  that  tiiey  feed  on  rats,  guinea- 
pigs,  small  birds,  and  certain  vegetebles,  if  these  fall  in  their  way;  but 
chiefly  on  snails,  toads,  frogs,  and  other  reptiles,  and  on  the  land- 
crabs,  which  are  abundant  in  the  plains  and  sand-banks.  They  walk 
with  very  long  paces,  run  much,  and  are,  D' Azara  adds,  great  plun- 
derers, although  they  alwa3rB  fly  from  man,  and  even  from  dogs.  They 
are  solitary  in  their  habits,  and  are  said  to  swim  well ;  and  in  their 
wild  stete  to  utter  no  sound  but  *  gouaa,'  which  they  often  and  loudly 
repeat  so  as  to  be  heard  at  a  great  distance.  The  sexes  have  no  very 
marked  difference. 

The  Aguara  Dogs  (Ihisi<:yon  of  Smith)  ai-e  a  distinct  race ;  and  so 
are  the  Aguara  Foxes  (Cerdocyon  of  the  same  author). 

JaclcaU, 
C.  aureus  (Llnn»ufl),  the  Jackal,  or  Tschakkal,  Chacal  or  Loup  Dor^ 
of  the  French,  Adive  of  Buffon. 


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CANIS. 


CANNABIS. 


The  dental  fonnula  of  this  species  is  that  of  the  Dog.  The  pupil 
of  the  eye  is  round  like  those  of  the  dog  and  wolf.  Yellowish-gray 
above,  whitish  below ;  thighs  and  legs  yellow ;  ears  ruddy ;  muzzle 
very  pointed ;  tail  reaching  hardly  to  the  heel  (properly  so  called). 
The  colours  sometimes  vary,  and  the  back  and  sides  are  described  by 
Mr.  Bennett  as  of  mixed  gray  and  black,  and  as  abruptly  and  strikingly 
distinguished  from  the  deep  and  uniform  tawny  of  the  shoulders, 
haunches,  and  legs.  The  hc^  nearly  of  the  same  mixed  shade  with 
the  upper  surface  of  the  body. 

It  is  an  inhabitant  of  India,  other  parts  of  Asia,  and  Africa.  Cuvier 
sajB  that  Jackals  are  met  with  from  India  and  the  environs  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  to  Guinea^  but  that  it  is  not  certain  that  they  are  all  of 
the  same  species. 

The  habits  of  the  Jackal  are  gregarious,  himting  in  packs,  and  the 
pests  of  the  countries  where  they  are  found,  and  where  they  burrow 
in  the  earth.  In  their  huntings  the  Jackals  wiU  frequently  attack 
the  larger  quadrupeds,  but  the  smaller  animals  and  the  poultry  are 
their  most  fi^quent  prey.  Their  cry  is  very  peculiar  and  piercing. 
Captain  Beechey  notices  it  as  having  something  rather  appalling  when 
heard  for  the  first  time  at  night ;  and  he  remarks,  that  as  they  usually 
come  in  packs,  the  first  shriek  which  is  uttered  is  always  the  signal 
for  a  general  chorus.  "  We  hardly  know,"  continues  the  Captain,  **  a 
sound  which  partakes  less  of  harmony  than  that  which  is  at  present 
in  question;  and  indeed  the  sudden  burst  of  the  answering  Igng- 
protracted  scream,  succeeding  immediately  to  the  opening  note,  is 
scarcely  le^  impressive  than  the  roll  of  the  thunder-clap  immediately 
after  a  flash  of  lightning.  The  eficct  of  this  music  is  very  much 
increased  when  the  first  note  is  heard  in  the  distance  (a  circumstance 
which  often  occurs),  and  the  answering  yell  bursts  out  from  several 
points  at  once,  within  a  few  yards  or  feet  of  the  place  where  the 
auditors  are  sleeping."  These  animals  are  said  to  devour  the  dead  on 
the  battle-field,  and  to  scratch  away  the  earth  from  the  shallow  graves 
in  order  to  feed  on  the  corpses. 

John  Hunter  ('  PhiL  Trans.')  has  recorded  the  case  of  a  female 
Jackal  which  whelped  in  this  country.  The  period  of  gestation  was 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  dog,  and  the  whelps  were  blind  at 
first. 

The  story  of  the  Jackal  being  the  lion's  provider  may  have  arisen 
from  the  notion  that  the  yell  of  the  pack  gives  notice  to  the  lion  that 
prey  is  on  foot,  or  from  the  Jackal's  being  seen  to  feed  on  the  rem- 
nants of  the  lion's  quarry. 

Cuvier  observes  that  it  is  not  certain  that  all  the  Jackals  are  similar 
('of  the  same  species');  those  of  Senegal,  for  example  the  Dieb, 
(Conw  anthuSj  F.  Cuvier),  he  remarks,  stand  higher  on  the  legs,  and 
appear  to  have  the  muzzle  sharper  and  the  tail  rather  longer. 

The  offensive  odour  of  the  Jackal  has  been  given  as  one  of  the 
reasons  against  reducing  it  to  a  state  of  domestication.  We  do  not 
see  what  advantage  is  to  be  derived  from  such  a  process,  but  if  it 
were  desirable  that  objection  it  seems  would  not  hold.  Colonel  Sykes, 
who  notices  it  as  the  Kholah  of  the  Mahrattas  and  as  being  numerous 
in  Dukhun  (Deccan),  had  in  his  possession  at  the  same  time  a  very 
large  wild  male  and  a  domesticated  female.  The  odour  of  the  wild 
animal  was  almost  unbearable ;  that  of  the  domesticated  Jackal  was 
Bcarcely  perceptible. 


Jackal  {Cams  auretts).' 

Some  are  of  opinion  that  the  300  foxes  between  whose  tails  Samson 
13  said  to  have  put  firebrands  in  order  that  they  might  set  fire  to  the 
<^ps  of  the  Philistines  (Judges,  xv.  4,  6)  were  jackals.  Many  of  the 
modem  oriental  names  for  the  last-mentioned  animals — Chical  of  the 
Turks,  Sciagal,  Sciugal,  Sciachal,  or  Shacal  of  the  Persians — come 
]^«ry  near  to  the  Hebrew  word  *Shual.'  Hasselquist,  speaking  of 
"  CanU  auretUf  the  Jackcall,  Chiccd  of  the  Turks,"  says  : — "  There  are 
P^t^r  numbers  of  this  species  of  fox  to  be  met  with  than  the  former 
(Cant*  Vulp€s)f  particularly  near  Jaflb,  about  Gaza,  and  in  Galilee. 
1  leave  others  to  determine  which  of  these  is  the  fox  of  Samson." 


Fossil  Canida, 

The  remains  of  the  Dog  and  Wolf  have  been  found  in  Great  Britain. 
If  there  were  no  historical  records  to  prove  that  the  wolf  was  once  an 
inhabitant  of  these  islands,  its  abundant  remains  would  testify  to  the 
fact.  They  were  not  present  in  any  considerable  number  in  the  Bone- 
Caves  of  Kirkdale  which  were  so  diligently  examined  by  Dr.  Buck- 
land,  but  they  have  been  found  at  Paviland  in  Glamoiganshire  and 
at  Overton  near  Plymouth.  After  alluding  to  the  difficulty  which 
was  more  particularly  expressed  by  Cuvier  of  distinguishing  between 
the  Wolf  and  the  Dog,  Professor  Owen  referring  to  some  specimens 
from  Kent's  Hole  says  : — "  The  more  important  points  of  concord- 
ance between  the  skull  fix)m  Kent's  Hole  and  those  of  the  existing 
wolf  leave  no  reasonable  ground  for  doubting  their  specific  identity ; 
and  the  naturalist  who  does  not  admit  that  the  dog  and  the  wolf 
are  of  the  same  species,  and  who  might  be  disposed  to  question  the 
reference  of  the  British  Fossils  described  in  the  present  section  to  the 
wolf  must  in  that  case  resort  to  the  hypothesis  that  there  formerly 
existed  in  England  a  wild  variety  of  dog  having  the  low  and  con- 
tracted forehead  of  the  wolf,  and  which  had  become  extinct  before 
the  records  of  the  human  race.  The  conclusion  however  to  which  my 
comparison  of  the  fossil  and  recent  bones  of  the  large  Canida  have 
led  me  is,  that  the  wolves  which  our  ancestors  extirpated  were  of  the 
same  species  as  those,  which,  at  a  much  more  remote  period,  left  their 
bones  in  the  limestone  caverns  by  the  side  of  the  extinct  bears  and 
hycenas." 

Recognisable  remains  of  the  Dog  have  however  been  obtained  from 
Bone-Cavea  Dr.  Schmerling  has  described  and  figured  an  almost 
entii'e  skull,  two  right  rami  of  lower  jaws,  a  humerus,  ulna,  radius,  and 
some  smaller  bones,  indicating  two  varieties  of  the  domestic  dog,  from 
some  Bone-Caves  near  Li5ge. 

CANNA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Marau' 
tacece.  It  has  spathaceous  flowers,  simple  anthers  attached  to  the 
edge  of  a  petal-like  filament,  an  inferior  ovary,  thick  club-shaped  erect 
free  style,  a  linear  obtuse  stigma.  There  are  several  species  of  this 
genus,  all  of  which  are  known  by  the  name  of  Indian  Shot.  They  are 
inhabitants  of  South  America  and  of  the  East  Indies. 

C.  Indica  has  the  inner  limb  of  the  corolla  trifid,  the  segments 
lanceolate,  acuminate,  straight.  This  species,  with  C.  patens  and 
C.  coccinettf  are  common  plants  within  the  tropics  on  all  the  conti- 
nents. In  America  and  Brazil  they  are  known  by  the  common  name 
of  Wild  Plantains.  Their  leaves  are  laige  and  tough,  and  are  mostly 
chosen  for  forming  envelopes  for  articles  of  commerce.  Hence  the 
fVench  call  these  plants  Balisiers.  The  seeds  of  most  of  the  species 
are  round,  black,  shining,  hard,  heavy,  and  about  the  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  resembling  shot,  for  which  they  are  sometimes  used 
as  a  substitute.  They  are  roasted  and  employed  in  infusion  in  the 
same  manner  as  coffee.     They  yield  also  a  purple  dye. 

C  edulis  has  smooth  leaves  and  stems  colonized  at  the  base,  the 
roots  tuberous  and  large,  the  middle  segment  of  the  corolla  very  short. 
This  is  one  of  the  species  of  the  order  the  rootstock  of  which  is  used 
for  making  arrowroot.  Nearly  all  the  species  contain  starch  in  the 
rootstock,  which  renders  them  fit  to  be  used  as  food  after  being 
cooked.  The  starch  is  separated  by  tearing  the  rootstock  in  pieces 
and  submitting  it  to  the  action  of  water.  The  water  with  the  starch 
suspended  is  poured  off  from  the  ligneous  portion  of  the  rootstock, 
and  the  starch  is  afterwards  allowed  to  subside.  Clusius  says  that 
the  O.  liUea  grows  in  the  open  air  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  that  the 
inhabitants  of  those  countries  use  the  seeds  for  making  rosaries. 

Many  of  the  species  will  bear  the  open  air  in  the  summer  in  this 
country.  They  require  a  light  rich  soil,  and  may  be  increased  by 
dividing  the  roots  or  by  sowing  the  seed.  They  should  be  planted 
out  in  a  warm  border  early  in  the  summer. 

(Loudon,  Encychpccdia  of  Plants.) 

CANNABINACEiE,  Ilempwoi'ts,  the  Hemp  Tribe,  a  natural  order 
of  Exogenous  Plants.  This  little  order  wluch  has  been  separated 
from  Urticacece  embraces  two  well-known  plants,  the  Hop  (HwrnvlvLS 
Lupulvs)  and  the  Hemp  {Cannabis  saliva).  They  are  distinguished 
from  the  Nettle  Tribe  by  having  a  solitary  suspended  ovule,  and  a 
hooked  ex-albuminous  embryo,  with  a  superior  radicle.  [Humulub; 
Cajjnabis.]     ■ 

CA'NNABIS  (in  Greek  K&vva^iSy  and  in  Latin  also  Cannahis)^  a 
genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cannabinacece. 

Cannabis  sativaf  the  Common  Hemp,  is  a  plant  nearly  allied 
botanically  to  the  nettle,  with  which  it  even  agrees  in  its  general 
appearance.  It  is  an  annual  dioecious  plant,  with  erect  nearly-simple 
stems  from  4  to  6  feet  high,  and  covered  -with  rigid  hairs.  The 
leaves  are  either  alternate  or  opposite,  digitate,  and  stalked ;  the 
leaflets  are  five  in  number,  narrow,  lanceolate,  sharp-pointed,  serrated, 
rough,  pale-green  on  the  under  side;  the  uppermost  leaves  have 
only  three  leaflets.  The  male  flowers  grow  in  Uttle  bunches  at  the 
axils  of  the  upper  leaves ;  they  are  pendulous  from  short  stalks,  and 
have  a  calyx  of  five  spreading  narrow  lanceolate  sepals,  containing 
five  stamens.  The  female  flowers  appear  in  close  leafy  clusters  at  the 
axils  of  the  upper  leaves,  and  consist  of  a  roundish  calyx,  split  half- 
way down  into  two  parts,  and  containing  a  simple  1-celled  ovary 
terminated  by  a  couple  of  awl-shaped  stigmaa  The  fruit  is  a  lenticular 
body,  looking  like  and  commonly  called  a  seed. 

This  is  the  only  species  known ;  it  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Persia, 


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CANNON-BALI^TREE. 


CAPERCALL 


r» 


aud  is  certamly  wild,  according  to  Roxburgh,  "  among  the  hillB  and 
mountains  north  of  India,  as  well  as  common  everywhere  in  the 
gardens  of  the  natives  throughout  Asia."  It  is  now  universally 
distributed  over  the  north  of  Europe.  Herodotus,  iv.  74,  describes  it 
as  growing  in  Scythia,  north  of  the  Danube,  a  country  which  he 
had  visited.  We  must  from  this  conclude  that  the  plant  is  really  a 
native  of  north  and  east  Europe. 

It  is  from  its  possessing  a  remarkably  tough  kind  of  woody  tissue 
capable  of  being  manufactured  into  linen  and  cordage,  that  hemp  is 
best  known  ;  and  for  its  good  qualities  in  this  respect  it  is  unrivalled 
among  the  many  species  possessing  similar  properties.  But  it  also 
contains  a  deleterious  narcotic  secretion  of  great  energy.  If  one 
remains  for  any  length  of  time  amongst  a  plantation  of  young  hemp, 
head-ache  and  vertigo  are  often  the  result;  in  hotter  countries 
these  effects  are  much  more  violent,  a  kind  of  intoxication  being 
speedily  produced.  Oriental  nations  have  taken  advantage  of  this 
to  add  another  to  the  list  of  intoxicating  drugs,  whidi  they  contrive 
to  substitute  for  the  forbidden  wine  of  western  people.  The 
powdered  leaves  mixed  with  some  kind  of  aromatic  are  infused  in 
water  and  drunk,  when  a  drowsy  ecstatic  feeling  comes  on,  which  is 
said  to  be  much  more  agreeable  than  that  produced  by  opium.  The 
leaves  are  also  mixed  with  tobacco  for  smolung.  The  two  chapters  of 
Herod.,  iv.  74,  75,  arc  curious  as  to  its  intoxicating  effects,  &c.  The 
drug  obtained  from  hemp  is  called  bang,  or  haschish,  or  cherris  : 
gangika  or  ganga,  kinnab,  subjah,  majan,  are  other  names  for  it. 
The  seeds  of  hemp  abound  in  a  thick  mucilage,  and  are  used  medi- 
cinally for  the  preparation  of  emulsions :  a  useful  oil  is  obtained 
from  them  by  pressure.  The  hemp  develops  its  active  properties 
more  in  warm  climates,  hence  for  medicinal  purposes  it  is  brought 
into  this  country  from  India  imder  the  name  of  Cannabis  Indica, 

CANNON-BALL-TREE.    [Couroupita.] 

CANTHAHID^,  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
Trachdidet.  It  has  the  following  characters  : — Hooks  of  all  the  tarsi 
cleft;  antennse  generally  filiform;  head  usually  broader  than  the 
thorax,  and  divided  posteriorly  by  an  indentation ;  thorax  for  the 
most  part  narrower  behind  than  before ;  elytra  soft  and  flexible,  and 
in  most  of  the  species  inclosing  the  sides  of  the  abdomen.  The  genus 
CarUkaris  may  be  distinguished  from  other  genera  of  this  family  by 
the  following  characters : — Antennae  long  and  filiform,  the  second 
joint  very  short ;  maxiUary  palpi  short,  the  joints  nearly  equal,  the 
terminal  joint  slightly  exceeding  the  others  in  bulk ;  head  a  little 
wider  than  the  thorax,  which  is  slightly  elongated,  and  has  the 
anterior  part  suddenly  narrowed,  forming  as  it  were  a  neck ;  elytra 
elongate,  and  somewhat  linear. 

CanUharis  vesicatoria,  the  Spanish  Fly,  or  Blister-Beetle,  is  well 
known  for  its  medical  uses.  [Cantharis  vesicatoria,  in  Arts  a^^d 
Sc.  DiY.]  It  is  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a 
bright-green  colour ;  the  legs  and  antenns  are  bluish-black. 

This  insect  is  found  but  rarely  in  this  country.  It  appears  in  the 
month  of  June  and  frequents  ash-trees,  upon  the  leaves  of  which  it 
feeds.  O.  vesicatoria  is  also  found  in  France,  but  in  Italy  and  Spain 
it  appears  to  be  most  abundant. 

When  touched  these  insects  feign  death,  and  emit  an  odour  of  a 
highly  i)enetrating  natiu«.  Their  larvse  live  in  the  ground,  and  feed 
upon  the  roots  of  plants. 

CANTHARIS.    [Cantharidjb.] 

CANTHARUS,  a  genus  of  Acanthopterygious  Fishes  belonging  to 
the  family  Sparidas.  It  has  a  deep  compressed  body ;  a  single  elon- 
gated dorsal  fin ;  teeth  of  rather  small  size,  numerous,  conical,  placed 
in  several  rows,  those  of  the  outer  row  rather  larger  and  more  curved 
than  those  forming  the  inner  rows;  mouth  rather  small;  branchi- 
ostego\is  rays,  six.  (Yarrell.)  One  species  of  this  genus  appears  on 
the  coasts  of  Great  Britain,  the  C.  griseus  of  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes. 
It  is  the  Sparus  lineatus  of  Montagu.  It  is  conmaon  on  the  coasts  of 
Kent>  Sussex,  and  Devonshire,  where  it  is  called  the  Black  Bream. 
It  is  also  called  the  Black  Sea-Bream,  but  it  is  a  different  fish  from 
the  Sea-Bream  (PageUus  centrodontus).  Mr.  Yarrell  says,  "  It  enters 
harbours,  and  is  frequently  taken  by  anglers  from  rocks  and  pier- 
heads." It  takes  common  baits,  but  seems  principally  to  feed  on 
marine  vegetables. 

CAOUTCHOUC.    [Indian-Rubber.] 

CAOUTCHOUC,  FOSSIL.    [Bittimen.] 

CAPERCALI,  CAPERKALLY,  or  CAPERCALZE,  the  Scotch 
name  for  the  Capercail,  Wood-Grouse,  or  Cock  of  the  Wood,  the 
Teirao  Urogallus  of  Linnssus. 

Pennant  refers  this  bird  to  the  Coc  de  Bois,  or  Faisan  Bruyant,  of 
Belon,  and  the  Gallo  Cedrone  of  the  Italians ;  and  it  is  very  probable 
that  these  and  other  names,  namely,  Gkdlo  di  Monte,  Gallo  Selvatico, 
Gallo  Alpestre,  Fasan  Negro,  and  Fasiano  Alpestre,  were  applied  both 
to  the  Caperkally  and  the  Black-Cock,  according  to  the  different 
localities  where  the  species  occurred.  [Black-Cock.]  Part  of  Belon's 
description  of  his  Coc  de  Fois — such,  for  example,  as  the  plume 
'^si  noire  et  reluisant  au-dessous  du  col,  et  de  Testomach,  qu'elle 
monstre  en  estre  toute  changeante,"  and  the  tail  with  the  feathers 
"  voultdes,  c'est  h  dire  courb^es  en  arc,  et  larges  par  le  bout,  ayant 
quelque  petites  madrures  blanches,"  might  apply  to  the  Black-Cock, 
while  "the  size  approaching  to  that  of  the  peacock" — "the  head  not 
less  than  that  of  a  bustard,  with  the  great  mtissive  trenchant  beak," 


_ .  much  more  applicable  to  the  Caperkally,  which  lb  Le  Grand 
Coq  de  Bruy^s  of  Brisson,  the  Coq  de  Bruyfere  ou  Tetrao  of  Buffon, 
Kjader  of  the  '  Fauna  Suedca,'  Tjaderhona  of  Hasselquist,  the  Teku 
Auerhan  of  Temminck,  Auer  Hahn  of  Frisch,  Auerwaldhuhn  of 
Bechstein,  the  Peacock  of  the  Wood  {Pavo  syivestris)  of  Giraldiu 
Cambrensis,  Capricalca  of  SibbaJd,  the  Cock  of  the  Mountain  or 
Wood  (called  by  the  Venetians  Gallo  di  Montagna)  of  Willughby, 
the  Cock  of  the  Wood  or  Mountain  of  Ray,  Wood  or  Great  Orous  of 
Pennant,  Ceiliog  Coed  of  the  ancient  British,  Urogallus  seu  Tttrao 
major  of  Aldrovand,  Tetrao  UrogaUus  of  Linnaeus,  and  UrogaUlm 
vtUgaris  of  Fleming. 

Temminck  says  that  this  bird  is  numerous  in  the  north  of  Aaa, 
and  in  Russia  towards  Siberia :  and  that  it  is  common  in  LiTonia, 
sufficiently  abundant  in  Germany,  in  Hungary,  and  in  certain  parts 
of  the  Archipelago  :  he  adds  that  it  is  more  rare  in  France,  and  never 
found  in  Holland.  Pennant  states  that  these  birds  are  common  in 
Scandinavia^  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  several  parts  of  the  Alp& 
It  is  added  in  a  note,  on  the  authority  of  Hasselquist,  that  the  bird 
was  shot  in  the  Isle  of  Milo  on  a  palm-tree,  and  on  that  of  Belon  that 
it  is  found  in  Crete ;  and  it  is  observed  that  the  English  translator  of 
Hasselquist  gives  a  false  name  to  it,  calling  it  Black  Game.  Mr. 
Lloyd  says  that  it  is  to  be  found  in  most  parts  of  the  ScandiBavian 
peninsula;  indeed  as  far  to  the  north  as  the  pine-tree  flourishes, 
which  is  veiy  near  to  the  North  Cape  itself.  He  adds  that  the  bird 
is  very  rare  in  the  more  southern  of  the  Swedish  provinces. 

That  it  was  once  frequent  in  the  British  Islands  there  is  no  doubt, 
though  it  is  now  utterly  extinct  as  a  wild  British  species.  Ray  aays : 
''Anglia  hunc  non  alit.  In  Hibemi&  inveniri  dicitur."  Pennant 
writes  :  "  This  species  is  found  in  no  other  part  of  Great  Britain  than 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  north  of  Inverness,  and  is  very  rare  even 
in  those  parts.  It  ia  there  known  by  the  name  of  Capercal^e,  Auer- 
calze,  and  in  the  old  law-books  Caperkally— the  last  signifying  the 
Horse  of  the  Woods — ^this  species  being,  in  comparison  of  others  of 
the  genus,  pre-eminently  large."  He  also  says :  "  In  our  country  I 
have  seen  one  specimen,  a  male,  killed  in  the  woods  of  Mr.  Chisolme, 
to  the  north  of  Inverness.  About  the  year  1760  a  few  were  to  be 
found  about  Thomas  Town,  in  the  county  of  Tipperaiy,  but  I  suspect 
that  the  breed  is  now  extinct  in  every  part  of  Ireland."  Graves 
(1818)  says:  "This  species  is  nearly  extinct  in  Great  Britain;  two 
instances  of  its  being  killed  in  Scotland  within  these  few  years  are 
the  only  satisfactory  accounts  we  have  received  of  its  being  recently 
found  in  these  kingdoms.  One  was  killed  by  a  gentleman  of  the  name 
of  Henderson  near  Fort  William  about  six  years  ago,  and  sent  to 
Dundee ;  but  the  vessel  that  conveyed  it  to  London  was  detained  so 
long  on  the  passage  that  the  bird  became  so  putrid  that  only  the 
head  and  legs  oould  be  preserved.  The  other  specimen  was  shot  by 
Captain  Stanton  near  Burrowstoneness  two  winters  ago ;  they  were 
both  males.  Some  few  are  said  to  be  yet  remaining  in  the  pine 
forests  of  Scotland,  and  also  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Ireland." 
Bewick  speaks  of  it  as  very  rare  in  Great  Britain.  In  the  last  edition 
of  Montagu  (1833)  it  is  stated  that  the  bird  was  last  seen  in  1760  in 
the  woods  of  Strathglass,  that  it  continued  in  Strathspey  till  1745, 
and  that  recent  attempts  have  been  made  to  re-introduce  it  from 
Norway  without  success.  Selby  (1825)  alludes  to  its  extirpation, 
and  omits  the  species.  Jenyns  (1835)  observes  that  it  waa  formely 
abundant  in  the  mountaino\is  forests  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  bat 
that  it  is  now  extirpated.  A  living  pair  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  but  they  did  not  long  surviYe  the 
loss  of  liberty. 

"A  few  years  ago,"  writes  Mr.  Lloyd  in  his  interesting  'Field 
Sports,'  "  I  procured  a  brace  of  those  birds,  consisting  of  cock  and 
hen,  for  a  friend  of  mine,  Mr.  Thomas  Fowell  Buxton,  the  member 
for  Weymouth,  then  resident  at  Cromer  HaU  in  Norfolk  After  a 
lapse  of  a  few  months  the  hen  laid  six  eggs,  and  from  these,  in  process 
of  time,  six  capercali  were  produced.  The  chicks  lived  imtilthey 
had  attained  to  a  very  considerable  size,  when,  owing  to  the  effects, 
as  it  was  supposed,  of  a  burning  sun,  to  which  they  had  been 
incautiously  exposed,  the  whole  of  them,  together  with  the  mother, 
died.  On  this  mishap  the  old  cock,  the  only  survivor,  was  turned 
loose  into  the  game  preserves,  where  he  remained  in  a  thriving  con- 
dition for  about  a  year  and  a  half.  At  last  however  he  also  met  his 
doom,  though  this  was  supposed  to  be  owing  rather  to  accidental 
than  natural  causes." 

In  further  corroboration  of  the  fact  that  the  Capercali  will  breed 
when  in  confinement,  we  make  the  following  quotation  from  Mr. 
Nilsson's  work.  That  gentleman's  authority  was  the  ofwer  director 
of  Uhr ;  and  the  birds  alluded  to  were  at  a  foi^e  in  the  province  of 
Dalecarlia : — 

"  They  were  kept  together  during  the  winter  in  a  large  loft  over  a 
bar^,  and  were  fed  with  com,  and  got  occasionally  a  change  of  fresh 
spruce-fir,  pine,  and  juniper  sprigs.  Early  in  the  spring  they  were 
let  out  into  an  inclosure  near  the  house,  protected  by  a  high  aud 
close  fence,  in  which  were  several  firs  and  pines,  the  common  trees  of 
the  place.  In  this  inclosure  they  were  never  disturbed ;  and  during 
the  sitting  season  no  one  approached  except  the  person  who  laid  in 
the  meat,  which  at  that  time  consisted  of  barley,  besides  fresh  sprigs 
of  the  kinds  before  mentioned.  It  is  an  indispensable  rule  that  they 
shall  have  full  liberty,  aud  remain  entirely  undisturbed,  if  the  bens 


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are  to  sit  and  hatch  their  young.  As  soon  as  this  had  ooourred,  and 
the  brood  were  out,  they  were  removed  to  the  yard,  which  waa  alao 
roomy,  and  so  closely  fenced  that  the  young  ones  could  not  escape 
through ;  and  within  this  fence  were  hedges  and  a  number  of  bushes 
planted.  Of  the  old  ones  one  of  the  wings  was  always  clipped,  to 
prevent  their  flying.  I  have  seen  several  times  such  broods,  both  of 
black  game  and  capercali,  eight  to  twelve  young  ones  belonging  to 
each  hen.  They  were  bo  tame  that,  like  our  common  hens,  they 
would  run  forward  when  com  was  thrown  to  them.  They  should 
always  have  a  good  supply  of  sand  and  fresh  water." 

M.  Qreiflf  gives  the  fallowing  directions  for  rearing  the  young : — 

"  The  eggs,  usually  so  called,  to  be  found  in  ant-hills  and  stubble, 
are  to  be  gathered ;  hard  boiled  eggs  are  to  be  chopped  and  mixed 
amongst  fine  moistened  barley-meal ;  also  pea-haulm  and  trefoil-grass 
are  to  be  given  them  for  food,  and  water  to  drink,  which  must  be 
placed  so  tbAt  they  cannot  overturn  the  pitcher,  for  they  suffer  very 
much  if  they  get  wet  when  they  are  young.  Dry  sand  and  mould 
they  never  should  be  without  When  they  get  larger,  and  cabbage- 
leaves,  strawberries,  cranberries,  and  blueberries  are  to  be  had,  they 
are  fond  of  such  food ;  and  when  thev  are  full  grown  they  eat  barley 
and  wheat ;  and  in  winter  they  should  get  young  shoots  of  pine  and 
birch-buds.  I  have  seen  many  people  who  thought  they  treated 
young  birds  well  by  giving  them  jimiper  berries ;  but  they  never 
resort  to  this  kind  of  food  but  in  case  of  necessity." 

The  following  observations  of  Professor  Nilsson  show  how  well 
this  bird  is  adapted  for  the  game  preserve : — 

"  When  the  capercaU  is  reared  from  the  time  of  being  a  chicken, 
he  frequently  becomes  as  tame  as  a  domestic  fowl,  and  may  be  safely 
left  by  himself,  He  however  seldom  loses  his  natural  boldness,  and, 
like  the  turkey-cock,  will  often  fly  at  and  peck  people.  He  never 
becomes  so  tame  and  fiEtmiliar  as  the  black-cock.  Even  in  his  wild 
state  the  capercali  frequently  forgets  his  liferent  shyness,  and  wiU 
attack  people  when  approaching  his  place  of  resort  Mr.  Alderbei^g 
mentions  such  an  occurrence.  During  a  number  of  years  an  old 
capercali  cock  had  been  in  the  habit  of  frequenting  the  estate  of 
Villinge  at  Wermdo,  who,  as  often  as  he  heard  the  voice  of  people  in 
the  adjoining  wood,  had  the  boldness  to  station  himself  on  the  ground, 
and,  during  a  continual  flapping  of  his  wings,  pecked  at  the  legs  and 
feet  of  those  that  disturbed  his  domain." 

For  the  details  of  the  experynent  made  by  Lord  Fife  in  the  years 
1828, 1829, 1830,  and  1831,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Mr.  Wilson's 
interesting  paper  in  '  Jameson's  Journal '  for  July  1832.  Sufllce  it  to 
say  that,  after  some  failures,  Mr.  Wilson,  in  August,  1831,  saw  at 
Braemar  five  young  Capercali  which  had  been  hatched  there,  and 
were,  with  their  parents,  in  good  health.  The  intention  of  the  Thane 
was, ''  as  soon  as  some  healthy  broods  had  been  reared  in  confinement 
to  liberate  a  few  in  the  old  pine  woods  of  Braemar,  and  thus  eventually 
to  stock  with  the  finest  of  feathered  game  the  noblest  of  Scottish 
forests."  In  1844  five  young  birds  were  hatched  in  the  aviary  of  the 
late  Lord  Derby  at  Knowsley. 

Temminck  makes  the  food  to  consist  of  many  sorts  of  berries,  the 
buds  and  yotmg  shoots  of  the  leaves  of  trees  and  of  alpine  shrubs ; 
also  of  insects,  but  rarely  of  seeds.  Mr.  Lloyd  says  that  it  feeds 
principally  on  the  leaves  of  the  Scotch  fir  (Tal),  and  very  rarely  on 
those  of  the  spruce  (Qran) :  also  on  juniper  berries,  cranberries, 
blueberries,  and  others  common  to  the  northern  forests,  and  occasi- 
onally in  the  winter  time  on  the  buds  of  the  birch,  &a  The  young, 
he  says,  are  for  the  most  part  sustained  at  first  on  ants,  worms, 
inmcts,  &C. 

Temminck  says  that  the  nest  is  formed  in  high  herbage  and  under 
bufihefi,  and  that  the  hen  lays  from  6  to  16  obtuse  eggs  of  a  dirty 
white  colour,  marked  with  yellowish  spots.  Latham  states  that  he  is 
well  informed  that  the  nest  of  one  found  in  Scotland  was  placed  on  a 
Scotch  pine :  '*  if  so,"  savs  Montagu,  "  it  differs  from  all  the  genus, 
who  are  known  to  lay  their  eggs  on  the  bore  ground."  3ir.  Lloyd, 
who  bad  the  best  opportunities  for  ascertaining  &e  fact,  observes  that 
the  hen  makes  her  nest  upon  the  ground,  and  lays  from  6  to  12  eggs, 
and  that  her  young  keep  with  her  till  towards  the  approach  of  winter ; 
but  that  the  cocks  separate  from  the  mother  before  the  hens.  The 
same  author  describes,  evidently  from  personal  observation,  the  '  lek,' 
or  play,  of  the  male  in  the  breeding  season,  and  as  it  is  in  itself  most 
interesting,  and  corrects  some  errors  which  have  gone  abroad  on  the 
subject,  we  make  no  apology  for  inserting  it : 

"At  this  period,  and  often  when  the  ground  is  still  deeply  covered 
with  snow,  the  cock  stations  himself  on  a  pine  and  coumiences  his 
love-song,  or  play  as  it  is  termed  in  Sweden,  to  attract  the  hens  about 
him.  This  is  usually  from  the  first  dawn  of  day  to  sunrise,  or  from  a 
little  after  sunset  until  it  is  quite  dark.  The  time  however  more  or 
less  depends  upon  the  nuldness  of  the  weather,  and  the  advanced  state 
of  the  season. 

"  During  his  play  the  neck  of  the  capercaU  is  stretched  out,  his  tail 
is  raised  and  spread  like  a  fan,  his  wings  droop,  hia  feathers  are  ruffled 
np,  and,  in  shorty  he  much  resembles  in  appearance  an  angry  turkey- 
cock.  He  begins  his  play  with  a  call  something  resembling  '  poller, 
peller,  poller;  these  soimds  he  repeats  at  first  at  some  little  intervals ; 
but  as  he  proceeds  they  increase  in  rapidity  until  at  hst,  and  after 
perhaps  the  lapse  of  a  minute  or  so,  he  makes  a  sort  of  gulp  in  his 
throat,  and  fimshes  with  sucking  in  as  it  were  his  breath. 


"  During  the  continuance  of  this  latter  process,  which  only  lasts  a 
few  seoonds,  the  head  of  the  capercali  is  thrown  up,  his  eyes  are 
partially  dosed  and  his  whole  appearance  would  denote  that  he  is 
worked  up  into  an  agony  of  passion.  At  this  time  his  faculties  are 
much  absorbed,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  approach  him  :  many  indeed, 
and  among  the  rest  Mr.  Nilsson,  assert  that  the  capercali  can  then 
neither  see  nor  hear;  and  that  he  is  not  aware  of  the  report  or  flash 
of  a  gim,  even  if  fired  immediately  near  to  him.  To  this  assertion  I 
cannot  agree,  for  though  it  is  true  that  if  the  capercali  has  not  been 
much  disturbed  previously  he  is  not  easily  frightened  during  the  last 
notes,  if  so  it  may  be  termed,  of  his  play ;  should  the  contrary  be  the 
case,  he  is  constantly  on  the  watch,  and  I  have  reason  to  know  that 
even  at  that  time,  if  noise  be  made,  or  that  a  person  exposes  himself 
incautiously,  he  takes  alarm  and  immediately  flies. 

"  The  play  of  the  capercali  is  not  loud,  and  should  there  be  wind 
stirring  in  the  trees  at  the  time,  it  cannot  be  heard  at  any  considerable 
distance.  Indeed  during  the  calmest  and  most  favourable  weather  it 
is  not  audible  at  more  than  two  or  three  hundred  paces. 

"On  hearing  the  call  of  the  cock,  the  hens,  whose  cry  in  some 
degree  resembles  the  croak  of  the  raven,  or  rather  perhaps  the  sounds 
'gock,  gock,  gock,'  assemble  from  all  parts  of  the  surrounding,  forest. 
Hie  male  bird  now  descends  from  the  eminence  on  which  he  was 
perched  to  the  ground,  where  he  and  his  female  friends  join  company. 
The  capercali  does  not  play  indiscriminately  over  the  forest,  but  he 
has  his  certain  stations,  '  Tjador-lek,'  which  may  perhaps  be  rendered 
his  playing  grounds.  These  however  are  often  of  some  little  extent. 
Here,  unless  very  much  persecuted,  the  song  of  these  birds  may  be 
heard  in  the  spring  for  years  together.  The  capercali  does  not  during 
his  play  confine  himself  to  any  particular  tree,  as  Mr.  Nilsson  asserts 
to  be  the  case,  for  on  the  contrary  it  is  seldom  he  is  to  be  met  with 
exactly  on  the  same  spot  for  two  days  in  succession. 

"  On  these  lek  several  capercali  may  occasionally  be  heard  playing 
at  the  same  time ;  Mr.  Qi'eiff,  in  his  quaint  way,  observes  *  it  then 
goes  gloriously.'  But  so  long  as  the  old  male  birds  are  alive  they  will 
not,  it  is  said,  permit  the  young  ones  or  those  of  the  preceding  season 
to  play.  Should  the  old  birds  however  be  killed,  the  young  ones  in 
the  course  of  a  day  or  two  usually  open  their  pipes.  Combats,  as  it 
may  be  supposed,  not  xmfrequently  take  place  on  these  occasions, 
though  I  do  not  recollect  having  heard  of  more  than  two  of  those 
birds  being  engaged  at  the  same  time. 

"  Though  altogether  contrary  to  law,  it  is  now  that  the  greatest 
slaughter  is  committed  among  the  capercali ;  for  any  lump  of  a  fellow 
who  has  strength  to  draw  a  ti'igger  may,  with  a  little  instruction, 
manage  to  knock  them  do¥m.  But  as  the  plan  of  shooting  these 
noble  birds  during  their  play  is  something  curious  I  shall  do  my  best 
to  describe  it. 

"  It  being  first  ascertained  where  the  lek  is  situated,  which  is  com- 
monly known  to  the  peasants  and  others  in  the  vicinity,  the  sportsman 
(if  so  he  may  be  called)  proceeds  to  the  spot>  and  listens  in  profound 
silence  until  he  hears  the  call  of  the  cooJc  So  long  however  as  the 
bird  only  repeats  his  conmiencing  sound  he  must,  if  he  be  at  all  near 
to  him,  remain  stationary ;  but  the  instant  the  capercali  comes  to  the 
wind-up,  the  gulp,  &c.,  during  which,  as  I  have  said,  his  faculties  of 
both  seeing  and  hearing  are  in  a  degree  absorbed,  then  he  may 
advance  a  Uttle.  But  this  note  lasts  so  short  a  time  that  the  sportsman 
is  seldom  able  to  take  more  than  three  or  four  steps  before  it  ceases, 
for  the  instant  that  is  the  case  he  must  again  halt,  and  if  in  an  exposed 
situation  remain  fixed  like  a  statue.  This  is  absolutely  necessary, 
for  during  his  play,  excepting  when  making  the  gulp,  &c.,  the  capercali 
is  exceedingly  watchful,  and  easily  takes  the  alarm.  If  all  remain 
quiet,  the  bird  usually  goes  on  again  immediately  with  his  first  strain ; 
and  when  he  once  more  comes  to  the  final  note,  the  sportsman  advances 
as  before,  and  so  on,  until  he  gets  within  range  of  shot. 

**  To  become  a  proficient  at  this  sport  requires  a  good  deal  of  prac- 
tice. In  the  first  place  a  person  must  know  how  to  take  advantage  of 
the  ground  when  advancing  upon  the  capercali,  for,  if  full  dayhght, 
this  is  hardly  practicable  (whatever  may  be  said  to  the  contrary)  in 
exposed  situations ;  and  in  the  next,  that  he  may  not  move  forward 
excepting  upon  the  note  which  is  so  fatal  to  that  bird.  This  is  likely 
enough  to  happen  if  it  be  an  old  cock  that  has  been  previously 
exposed  to  shots,  for  he  often  runs  on,  as  I  have  repeatedly  heard 
him,  with  'poller,  peller,  poller,'  tmtil  one  supposes  he  is  just  coming 
to  the  gulp,  when  he  suddenly  makes  a  full  stop.  If  therefore  a 
person  was  then  incautiously  to  advance  he  would  in  all  probability 
instantly  take  to  flight 

"  At  the  lek  the  cocks  most  commonly  fall  the  sacrifice ;  for  the 
hens,  as  well  from  their  colour  more  resembling  the  foliage  of  the 
trees  as  from  the  sportsman  having  larger  and  better  game  in  view, 
usually  escape.  This  is  a  fortunate  circumstance ;  as  were  a  propor- 
tionate slaughter  to  take  place  among  the  latter  as  the  former,  the 
breed  in  many  parts  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  would  soon  be 
exterminated. 

"  Though  this  plan  of  shooting  the  capercali  during  the  spring  is 
common  throughout  most  parts  of  Scandinavia,  I  am  told  that  in 
Nor/land  and  Wiisterbotten,  from  whence  Stockholm  is  furnished 
with  its  principal  supplies  of  game,  that  destructive  practice  is  not 
generally  adopted.  This  arises  from  the  people  in  those  districts 
having  sense  enough  to  know  that  if  they  kill  too  many  of  the  coclui 


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CAPILLARY  VESSELS. 


in  the  spring,  there  ia  little  probability  of  there  being  a  good  breed 
duiing  the  suoceeding  autumn." 

Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  enter  into  the  details  of  the  more 
legitimate  chace,  which  will  be  found  in  Mr.  Lloyd's  book  :  suffice  it 
to  say  that  the  rifle  is  the  instrument  used  by  the  fair  sportsman, 
and  that  in  the  course  of  his  sport  Mr.  Lloyd  observed,  that  when 
the  weather  is  cold  and  the  snow  loose  and  soft,  the  capercali 
not  unfrequently  buries  himself  beneath  its  surface  during  the 
night  season,  and  once  in  a  while  he  found  the  bird  in  that 
situation  in  the  day-time;  so  that  the  old  wood-cuts  of  grouse 
nestling  under  the  snow  are  not  entirely  without  foundation.  Mr. 
Lloyd  remarks -that  the  capercali  often  becomes  the  prey  of  the 
great  homed  owl.     [Bubo.] 

As  an  article  of  food  the  capercali  is  justly  admired ;  and  the  rapidity 
of  communication  consequent  upon  the  increased  and  increasing 
development  of  the  powers  of  steam  now  furnishes  annually  the  shops 
of  the  London  poulterers  with  a  supply  in  the  spring.  Some  assert  that 
at  certain  seasons  the  flavour  of  the  bird  is  rendered  extremely  un- 
pleasant by  the  fir-buds  which  then  form  its  food ;  but  those  which 
we  have  tasted  were  excellent.  The  hen,  though  smaller,  is  in  our 
opiniott  preferable  to  the  cock.  In  preparing  the  bird  for  roasting, 
the  breast  should  be  skinned  aiid  a  veal-caul  spread  over  it. 

Male. — Elongated  feathers  of  the  throat  black ;  the  rest  of  the  head 
and  neck  ashy  black ;  eyebrows  red ;  wings  and  scapulars  brown, 
sprinkled  with  small  black  dots ;  breast  changeable  green ;  belly  and 
abdomen  black,  with  white  spots ;  rump  and  flanks  sprinkled  with 
ashy  zigzags  on  a  black  ground ;  tail-feathers  black,  with  some  small 
white  spots  disposed  at  about  two  inches  fix)m  their  extremities ;  bill 
nearly  8  inches  long,  very  strong,  hooked,  and  of  a  whitish  horn- 
colour  ;  iris  clear  brown ;  length  about  2  feet  10  inches ;  usual  weight 
from  9  to  12  lbs.  Graves  says  that  the  fine  specimen  from  which  his 
figure  was  taken  measured  3  feet  1 J  inch  in  length,  7  feet  5  inches  in 
breadth,  and  weighed  15  lbs.  2^  ounces. 


Capercali  {Tetrao  UroffaUus),  male. 

Female. — Striped  and  spotted  with  red  or  bay,  black  and  white ; 
feathers  of  the  head  bright  ruddy,  and  those  of  the  breast  deep  red  ; 
tail  ruddy,  striped  with  black  ;  bill  blackish-brown ;  size  about  one- 
third  less  than  that  of  the  male. 

Young  Males,  after  their  first  Moult. — Breast  of  a  less  lustrous  green 
than  in  the  old  birds,  and  the  ash-colour  predominating  over  the 
black ;  some  red  feathers  spotted  with  black  are  scattered  irregularly 
over  the  plumage.  Before  the  first  moult  the  young  males  resemble 
the  females. 

Mr.  Lloyd  says  that  the  capercali  occasionally  breed  with  the  black 
game,  the  product  of  which  are  in  Sweden  called  Racklehanen : 
these  partake  of  the  leading  characters  of  both  species ;  but  their  size 
and  colour  greatly  depend  upon  whether  the  connection  was  between 
the  capercali  cock  and  the  gray  hen,  or  vice  versd.     "  Out  of  twenty 


racklehanar,  which  is  the  male,  two,  acoording  to  Mr.  Falk,  are  not 
alike ;  and  the  difference  of  colour  observable  among  the  rackLehonan, 
which  is  the  female,  but  very  rare,  is  still  greater.  Racklehanen 
are  very  seldom  to  be  met  with.  During  my  stay  in  Wermeland, 
however,  Mr.  Falk  had  two  of  these  birds  in  hia  possession,  and  I 
myself  shot  a  third."  The  bird  here  alluded  to  was  probably  the 
Rakelhan  {Tetrtw  mediua  of  Meyer),  which  Temminck  observes,  some 
naturalists,  and  recently  M.  Nilsson,  have  erroneously  considered  a 
hybrid  between  the  Capercali  and  Black-Cock.  But  at  Braemar,  in 
1828,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  the  hen  which  had  been 
imported  with  a  cock,  a  common  barn-door  hen  was  introduced  to 
the  latter.  The  result,  apcording  to  Mr.  Wilson,  was,  that  she  laid 
several  eggs,  which  were  placed  under  other  hens ;  but  from  tiiese 
eggs  only  a  single  bird  was  hatched,  and  when  it  was  first  observed 
it  was  found  lying  dead.  It  was,  however,  an  evident  mule  or 
hybrid,  and  showed  such  unequivocal  marks  of  the  capercali 
character  as  could  not  be  mistaken. 

CAPERS,  the  young  flower-buds  of  Capparis  spinosa.    [Cappari- 

DACE£  1 

CAPILLAIRE.    [Adiantum.] 

CAPILLARY  VESSELS,  so  called  from  their  hair-like  minute- 
ness. The  blood-vessels  of  the  body  consist  of  arteries  and  veins, 
the  arteries  carrying  the  blood  from  the  heart,  and  the  veins  returning 
it  to  the  heart.  The  blood-vessels  that  supply  the  body  are 
arborescent,  that  is,  the  branches  which  spring  from  the  aorta 
successively  increase  in  number  and  diminish  in  size  as  they  proceed 
from  the  heart  towards  their  ultimate  terminations  in  the  system. 
In  like  manner  the  veins  divide.  These  ultimate  terminations  of 
the  arteries,  together  with  the  first  origins  of  the  veins,  constitute  a 
peculiar  system  of  vessels  termed  the  Capillary  System.  These 
capillary  vessels  are  too  minute  to  be  detected  by  the  naked  eye; 
but  in  the  transparent  parts  of  the  body  of  a  living  animal,  when 
brought  under  the  field  of  the  microscope,  they  become  perfectly 
visible,  as  in  the  web  of  the  frog's  foot,  the  mesentery  of  the 
rabbit,  the  tail  of  the  tadpole,  &c.  The  greater  number  of  the 
arteries  and  veins  are  then  seen  to  be  directly  continuous  with  each 
other,  no  substance  intervening  between  the  two  orders  of  veasek 
No  words  can  describe  the  beauty  of  the  sight  presented  by  the  flow 
of  the  vital  fluid  through  these  minute  tubes.  Myriads  of  veaaelB 
not  visible  to  the  naked  eye  instantly  come  into  view.  In  one  case 
the  direction  of  a  minute  artery  being  suddenly  altered  it  is  reflected 
on  itself,  and  thus  becomes  an  incipient  vein ;  in  other  cases  minute 
branches  are  sent  off  from  an  artery  into  a  parallel  vein ;  and  in  a 
third  case  several  minute  arterial  ramifications  are  continuous  with  a 
single  vein.  The  venous  capillaries  are  generally  larger  and  more 
numerous  than  the  arterial,  and  they  commimicate  more  freely  with 
each  other. 

The  minute  capillary  vessels  are  totally  distinct  both  in  structure 
and  office  from  the  large  trunks  from  which  they  spring.  All  the 
timics  of  the  capillary  arteries  diminish  in  thickness  and  strength  as 
the  tubes  lessen  in  size,  but  more  especially  the  middle  or  fibrous 
coat  [Artert];  "but  this  coat  may  still  be  distinguished  by  its 
colour  in  the  transverse  section  of  any  artery  whose  internal 
diameter  is  not  less  than  the  tenth  of  a  line,  but  it  entirely  disappears 
in  vessels  too  small  and  too  remote  to  receive  the  wave  of  blood 
in  a  manifest  jet.  But  while  the  membranous  tunics  diminish,  the 
nervous  filaments  distributed  to  them  increase.  The  smaller  and 
thinner  the  capillary  the  greater  the  proportionate  quantity  of  it^ 
nervous  matter ;  and  this  is  most  manifest  in  oi^gans  of  the  greatest 
irritability.  The  coats  of  the  capillaries  successively  becoming 
thinner  and  thinner  at  length  disappear  altogether,  and  the  vessels 
ultimately  terminate  in  membraneless  canals  formed  in  the  substance 
of  the  tissues." 

Of  the  capillary  arteries  which  it  has  been  stated  terminate  by 
direct  communication  with  the  capillai-y  veins,  some  are  large  enough 
to  admit  of  three  or  four  of  the  red  particles  of  the  blood  [Blooit] 
abreast ;  the  diameter  of  others  is  sufficient  to  admit  only  of  one ; 
whilst  others  are  so  small  that  they  can  transmit  nothing  but  the 
serum  of  the  blood.  Their  prevalent  size  in  the  human  body  may  be 
stated  at  from  g^ths  to  j^^ths  of  an  inch  when  naturally  filled 
with  blood.  As  long  as  the  capillary  is  of  sufficient  magnitude  to 
receive  three  or  four  blood  globules  abreast,  it  is  evident  that  it 
possesses  regular  parietes ;  but  by  far  the  greater  number,  before  they 
communicate  with  veins,  lose  altogether  their  membranous  coats. 
There  are  no  visible  openings  or  pores  in  the  sides  or  ends  of  the 
capillaries  by  means  of  which  the  blood  can  be  extravasated 
preparatory  to  its  being  imbibed  by  the  veins.  There  is  nowhere 
apparent  a  sudden  passage  of  the  arterial  into  the  venous  stream,  no 
abrupt  boundary  between  the  division  of  the  two  systems.  The 
arterial  streamlet  winds  through  long  routes,  and  describes  nimierous 
turns  before  it  assumes  the  nature  and  takes  the  direction  of  a 
venous  streamlet.  The  ultimate  capillary  rarely  passes  from  a  lai^ 
arterial  into  a  lar^e  venous  branch. 

The  capillary  network  differs  in  the  size  and  width  of  the  meshes 
in  different  pcurts.  It  is  very  close  in  the  lungs  and  in  the  choroid 
coat  of  the  eye ;  close  also  in  muscle,  in  the  skin,  and  in  most  parts 
of  the  mucous  membrane,  in  glands  and  secreting  structures,  and  in 
the  gray  part  of  the  brain  and  spinal  coi'd.     On  the  other  hand,  it 


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f^ 


CAPITtJLtTM. 


CAPRE^. 


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li^^s  wide  meBhes  and  comparatively  few  vessels   iu  the  ligaments, 
t^pudons,  and  other  allied  textures.     (Sharpey.) 

All  the  great  organic  functions  of  the  living  body  are  performed 

jjp^  ainly  by  the  capillary  vessels.     Their  action  is  essential  to  secre- 

^>^n,   nutrition,    calorification,   and   every   other  process   which  is 

■^^dispensable  to  the  support  of  life.    From  experiment,  it  has  been 

X^ferred   that   these    vessels  possess    an    active   contractile   power 

^-^ogether  independent  of  the  impulse  derived  from  the  heart.    Under 

>^e  ordinary  condition  of  the  circulation,  the  blood  indeed  flows 

through  these  capillary  vessels  by  the  force  commimicated  to  the 

circulating  fluid  by  the  contraction  of  the  heart;  but  the  evidence 

Drought  forward  seems  to  indicate  that  stimulants  of  various  kinds 

applied  directly  to  the  capillary  arteries,  without  in  the  least  affecting 

the  heart's  action,  are  capable  of  modifying  to  a  considerable  extent 

the  action  of  the  capillaries ;  sometimes  causing  them  to  contract  and 

at  other  times  to  dilate ;  sometimes  quickening  the  flow  of  the  blood 

through  them;   at  other  times  retarding  it,  and  not  unfrequently 

altogether  arresting  its  progress. 

For  an  account  of  the  development  of  the  capillaries,  see  Blood- 
Vessels. 

CAPITULUM,  a  head  of  flowers,  a  particular  form  of  inflores- 
cence. ^  Theoretically  botanists  consider  it  an  imdeveloped  spike, 
the  axis  of  which  becomes  a  receptacle,  and  the  external  empty 
bracts  an  involucre.  It  really  consists  of  a  number  of  small  flowers, 
which  in  the  majority  of  plants  are  arranged  upon  an  elongated 
stalk,  or  arranged  upon  a«  flattened  or  horizontal  stalk.  The 
Dandelion,  the  Daisy,  the  Groundsel,  and  all  Compoiita,  have 
au  inflorescence  of  this  nature;  it  is  vulgarly  looked  upon  as  a 
flower, 

CAPNEA.      [ACTINIADJE.] 

CAPPARIDA'CE^,  Ca^parids,  the  Ca,per  Tribe,  a  natural  order  of 
Dicotyledonous  Polypetalous  Plants,  having  a  superior  fruit,  parietal 
placentae,  an  embryo  curved  upon  itself,  without  dbumeu,  four  petals 
and  sepals,  a  great  number  of  stamens,  and  an  ovary  elevated  upon  a 
long  stalk.  They  are  known  from  Cruciferce  by  their  indefinite  sta- 
mens and  reniform  seeds.  All  of  them  appear  to  be  more  or  less 
acrid.  They  are  bushes  or  herbs  found  all  over  the  tropics,  and  not 
extending  in  many  places  beyond  them.  Egypt  and  the  south  of 
Europe,  which  are  inhabited  by  Cappoi'is  spinosa  and  similar  species, 
offer  the  greatest  exceptions  to  the  rule. 

Some  of  the  American  species  of  Cappandacete  &re  very  poisonous ; 
others  act  as  vesicatories ;  and  a  few  are  merely  stimulant.  To  the 
latterclass  belongs  the  Capparis  spinoaa  of  the  south  of  Europe.    This 


Caper-Tree  {CapparU  spinoaa), 
^t  An  expanded  flower ;  2,  a  petal ;  3,  a  calyx  with  the  stalked  ovary ;  4,  a 
horizontal  section  of  the  fruit ;  6,  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  seed ;  6,  an 
embryo  Extracted  from  the  seed-coat. 

plant  g:rows  naturally  upon  rocks  and  ruina  all  over  the  south  of 
France  and  Italy,  rendering  them  inconceivably  gay  with  its  large 
white  blossoms,  from  the  centre  of  each  of  which  there  springs  a  long 
^*^^  o  :f  deep  lilac  stamens.  The  flower-buds  constitute  the  Capers  of 
the  «i\iO'^H^  the  quality  of  which  depends  exclusively  upon  the  ago  at 


which  they  are  gathered,  the  smallest  and  yoimgest  being  the  dearest 
and  most  delicate,  and  the  lai^gest  and  oldest  the  coarsest  and  cheapest. 
On  an  average  each  plant  of  the  caper-bush  gives  a  pound  of  buds. 
The  consumption  of  capers  in  this  country  is  inconsiderable,  not 
amounting  to  more  than  about  60,000  lbs.  a  year. 

Several  other  species  of  Capparis  possess  stimulating  properties. 
There  is  a  plant  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Carthagena  called 
Fruta  de  Buno,  supposed  to  be  a  CappariSf  the  fruit  of  which  is 
extremely  poisonous.  The  fruity  of  a  species  of  Oratceva  are  eaten. 
PolanUia  icosandra  acts  as  a  vesicatory.  The  root  of  Cleome  dodecan- 
dra  is  used  as  a  vermifuge  in  the  United  States.  The  order  has  28 
genera  and  about  840  species. 

CAPREiE,  a  sub-tribe  of  the  family  Bovidce  amongst  the  Ruminant 
Mammalia f  and  equivalent  to  the  sub-tribes  Bovecs  [BoviDiE],  Anti- 
lopeaSf  Strepsicei'CB  [ANXiLOPEif;],  and  Ovece  [OvEiE],  according  to  Dr. 
Gray's  wrrangement  of  the  Mammalia  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
Caprece  include  what  are  commonly  known  by, the  name  of  Goats. 
The  classification  of  these  animals  has  been  the  cause  of  much  differ* 
ence  of  opinion. 

Ray  established  three  genera  of  Ruminants  with  bisulcated  hoofs. 
1.  Bovinum  gemu — the  Oxen.  2.  Ovinum  genua — the  Sheep.  8.  Co- 
prvrmm  genus — the  Goats ;  comprising  the  Common  Goat,  the  Ibex, 
the  Chamois,  the  Gazelles,  &c. 

Klein's  second  family  of  quadrupeds  consisted  of  those  which  have 
a  divided  homy  hoof.  The  type  of  the  first  genus  was  the  Ox ;  of  the 
second,  the  Sheep ;  of  the  third,  the  Goat ;  of  the  fourth,  the  Stag ; 
and  of  the  fifth,  the  Hog. 

Brisson's  fifth  order  consisted  of  those  quadrupeds  which  have  no 
incisor  teeth  in  the  iipper  jaw,  but  have  eight  in  the  lower  jaw, 
and  the  hoof  clov^i.  The  first  section  consists  of  those  which  have 
simple  horns;  and  comprises,  as  genera,  the  Giraffe,  the  Goat, 
the  Sheep,  and  the  Ox.  The  quadrupeds  with  branched  horns,  the 
Stags,  follow. 

X^innscus  in  his  last  edition  (the  12th)  makes  Capra  the  fourth 
genus  of  his  fifth  order  {Pecora),  placing  it  between  Gervus  and  Ovis : 
the  genus  contained  the  species  Ifircus,  Ibex,  Mamhrica  (Syrian  Goat), 
Rupicapra  (Chamois),  &c.,  including  some  of  the  Antelopes  and  Capra 
Amman  {Tragelaphus  and  Musimon  of  Gesner). 

Gmelin,  in  the  13th  edition  of  the  *  Systema  Naturce,'  arranges  the 
genus  Capra  tmder  the  same  order,  between  Antilope  and  OviSj  to 
which  latter  genus  he  transfers  the  Musmon,  Capra  Ammon  (GmeL)  of 
Linnaeus,  Ovis  Ammon  of  Gmelin. 

Pennant,  in  the  first  and  third  edition  of  his  '  Synopsis,'  placed  the 
Goats  between  the  Sheep  and  the  Giraffe,  the  latter  being  followed  by 
the  Antelopes :  in  his  *  British  Zoology '  the  Goats  are  arranged  between 
the  Sheep  and  the  Deer. 

M.  Lesson,  in  his  *  Manuel*  (1827),  arranges  the  Caprid(B  (Les 
Caprdes)  between  the  Bovidce  (Les  BovincSes)  and  the  Ovidce  (Les 
Ovindes). 

In  both  his  editions  of  the  *  R^gne  Animal,'  Cuvier  gives  the  Goats 
{Capra)  the  same  position  under  his  Ruminants  h.  Comes  Creuses 
{Cavicomia — Hollow-Horned  Ruminants,  or  those  whose  horns  have  a 
bony  core),  namely,  between  Antilojte  and  Ovis. 

Fischer  (1829)  arranges  the  genus  Capi'a  (which  he  divides  into  two 
sections — 1,  Barhatce,  Caprce  of  authora ;  2,  Imherbes,  Ores  of  authors) 
between  Antilope  and  Bos. 

Dr.  J.  E.  Gray,  as  we  have  seen,  places  Capra  among  the  Bovidce. 
In  his  interesting  '  Spicilegia  Zoologica'  (1830),  where  he  figures  the 
female  of  the  Nubian  Goat,  the  genus  appeal's  under  that  family.  He 
had  previously  so  arranged  it  in  the  'Annals  of  Philosophy'  (1826) ; 
and  Mr.  W.  S.  M*Leay,  in  his  paper  *  On  the  Comparative  Anatomy  of 
cei'tain  Birds  of  Cuba'  ('Linnsean  Transaotions'),  speaking  of  the 
Mammalia^  observes  that  the  normal  and  aberrant  groups  were  dis- 
tinguished and  named  by  Aristotle  in  his  '  Historia  Animalium,'  but 
had  not,  to  his  knowledge,  appeared  again  in  any  work  until  Dr.  Gray 
had  the-  honour  of  reviving  them  in  the  *  Annals  of  Philosophy.' 

Referring  our  readers  to  the  works  of  Messrs.  F.  Cuvier,  De  Blainville, 
Desmarest,  Desmoulins,  Erxleben,  Geofii'oy,  Hasselquist,  Illiger,  Lich- 
tenstein,  Meyer,  Schreber,  Shaw,  Zimmermann,  and  others,  for  their 
views  on  tlus  subject,  which,  however  interesting  and  desirable  for 
the  student,  our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  dwell  on  here,  we  proceed 
to  notice  the  observations  of  Mr.  Hodgson  iu  the  *  Zoological  Proceed- 
ings'  for  1834. 

Mr.  Hodgson,  after  remarking  on  the  difficulty  experienced  by 
zoologists  in  the  determination  of  distinctive  marks  adequate  for  the 
sepai'ation  of  the  genera  Antilope^  Capra,  and  Ovis,  insists  that,  as  ho 
has  shown,  the  character  founded  on  the  presumed  absence  of  cavities 
in  the  cores  of  the  horns  connected  with  the  frontal  sinus  is  incorrect, 
and  he  conceives  that  the  v^ue  of  the  characters  which  are  generally 
admitted  by  authors  as  distinguishing  between  the  genera  Capra  and 
Ovis  may  be  tested  by  a  comparison  of  the  wild  race  of  either  genua 
which  belongs  to  the  Himalaya.  He  then  describes  Capra  Jhdral, 
which  is  "  clad  in  close  short  hair,  and  without  the  least  vestige  of  a 
beard,"  as  related  to  the  Alpine  ^gagri  and  to  Capra  Jemlaica  and 
Ovis  NaJioor  (Hodgson),  placing  them  both  under  the  tribe  Capi'idoi 
(H.  Smith) ;  and  having  completed  the  description  of  this  wild  goat  and 
wild  sheep,  he  proceeds  to  exhibit  the  points  of  difference  and  of 
resemblance  between  the  two  in  the  following  table : — 


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CAPREiE. 


CAPREA 


7ft 


N  Goat, 

%Vhole  stracture  ftronger  and  more 

compact.         • 
Limbs  thicker  and  more  rigid. 
Hoofs  higher  and  more  compact. 
False  hoofs  well  developed.     . 
Head  smaller  and  finer. 
Facial  line  straight. 
Ears  shorter  and  rounded.  . 

Tall  short,  flat,  nade  below.   . 

"Withers  higher  than  croup. 
Fore  legs  stronger  than  hind. 
Croup  sloped  off. 

Odorous 

Nose  moister,  with  nares  short 

wide 

Horns    of   medial  sixe,  keeled, 

turned  upwards. 
Kye  darker  and  keener. 
Hair  long  and  unequal.  . 
Back  arched. 

Bears  change  of  climate  well. 
Is  eminently  curious,  capricious,  and 

confident. 
Barks  trees  with  its  horns,  feeding  on 

the  peel  and  on  aromatic  herbs. 
In  fighting,  rears  itself  on  its  hind  legs, 

and  lets  the  weight  of  its  body  fall 

on  the  adversary.    . 


and 


She«p. 

I  Less  so. 

Feebler  and  more  dender. 
Lower  and  leas  so. 
Evanescent. 
Longer  and  heavier. 
Cbaflfiron  arched. 
Longer  and  pointed. 
'  Longer,  leas  depressed,  and  half  nude 

only. 
Croup  higher. 
Fore  and  hind  equal. 
Not  so. 
Not  so. 


^^    \  Less  moist,  longer,  and  narrower. 


(Horns  very  large,    not    keeled,    and 
turned  to  the  sides. 
Paler  and  duller. 
Short  and  equal. 
Back  straight. 
Bears  it  iU. 

[  Is  incurious,  staid,  and  timid. 

[  Does  not  bark  trees,  and  is  less  addicted 
to  aromatics. 

I  In  fighting,   runs  a  tilt,  adding  the 
force  of  impulse  to  that  of  weight. 

In  describing  the  wild  sheep,  Mr.  Hodgson  observes  that  the  horns 
are  inserted  high  above  the  orbits  on  the  crown  of  the  forehead,  touch- 
ing nearly  at  the  base  with  their  whole  depth,  and  carrying  the  frontal 
bones  very  high  up  between  them,  the  parietals  being  depressed  in  an 
equal  degree.  The  goat's  skull  has,  he  states,  the  same  form,  but  less 
strikingly  developed ;  and  he  seems  to  think  that  this  form  of  the 
skull  would  afford  a  just  and  general  mark  to  separate  Ovia  and  Capra 
from  Cerviu  and  AntUope,  remarking  that  there  is  a  gradation  of  cha- 
racters in  this  respect  among  the  Antelopes  tending  to  the  Caprine 
type  in  their  general  structure.  Mr.  Hodgson  thus  concludes  :  "  The 
goat  and  sheep  have  in  common  hair  and  wool ;  no  beard ;  no  subor- 
bital sinuses;  evanescent  muzzle ;  no  inguinal  pores  ;  horns  in  contact 
at  the  top  of  the  head;  knees  and  sternum  callous;  angular  and 
transversely  wrinkled  horns;  striated  ears;  two  teats  only  in  the 
females ;  horns  in  both  sexes ;  and,  lastly,  incisors  of  precisely  the 
same  form.  Of  the  various  diagnostics  then  proposed  by  Colonel 
Hamilton  Smith,  it  would  seem  that  the  following  only  can  be  per- 
fectly relied  on  to  separate  Ovis  from  Capra : — slender  limbs ;  longer 
pointed  ears ;  chafifron  arched ;  nares  long  and  oblique ;  very  volumi- 
nous horns,  turned  laterally  with  double  flexures.  I  should  add 
myself  the  strong  and  invariable  distinction — males  not  odorous,  as 
opposed  to  the  nudes  odorous  of  the  genus  Capra.  But  after  all  there 
are  no  physical  distinctions  at  all  equivalent  to  the  moral  ones  so 
finely  and  truly  delineated  by  Buffon,  and  which,  notwithstanding 
what  Colonel  H.  Smith  uiges  m  favour  of  the  courage  and  activity  of 
sheep,  will  for  ever  continue  to  be  recognised  as  the  only  essential 
diagnostics  of  the  two  genera." 

Mr.  Swainson  ('Classification  of  Quadrupeds,'  1885)  places  the 
Goats  (Capra)  between  the  BavicUe,  or  Bovine  Family,  and  the  Sheep 
{Ovis). 

In  an  interesting  paper  on  the  Ruminantia  {*  Zoological  Pi'oceedlngs '), 
Mr.  Ogilby,  after  observing  on  the  first  introduction  by  Illiger  of  the 
consideration  of  the  muzzle  and  lachrymal  sinus  into  the  definitions 
of  the  genera  AntUope,  Capra,  and  Boa,  and  the  application  of  those 
principles  by  Messrs.  Lichtenstein,  De  Blainville,  Desmarest,  and 
Hamilton  Smith,  in  the  subdivision  of  the  artificial  genus  AntUopt 
into  something  more  nearly  approaching  to  natural  groups  (a  reform 
but  partial  in  its  operation,  and  leaving  the  root  of  the  evil  untouched), 
makes  Capridce,  which  he  places  between  Motchidce  and  Bovidce,  the 
fourth  family  of  the  order  Ruminamiiau 

The  following  is  Dr.  Gray's  definition  of  the  sub-tribe  Capreas : — 
Forehead  convex,  elevated  behind ;  chin  of  males  bearded ;  suborbital 
sinus  none.  Horns  erect,  compressed,  curved  backwards  and  rather 
outwards,  and  furnished  with  a  longitudinal  keel  in  fronts  deeper 
than  wide  at  the  base,  and  with  transverse  ridges  in  front.  Hoofs  four- 
sided,  scarcely  higher  before  than  behind.  The  skull  has  a  small 
suborbital  fissure,  no  fossa ;  the  masseteric  ridge  ascending  high  before 
the  orbit ;  the  auditory  bulla  prominent  and  compressed ;  the  basi- 
occipital  flat,  with  its  processes  developed ;  the  middle  incisors  not 
expanded;  the  molars  without  supplemental  lobes.  The  occipital 
plane  of  skull  forms  an  acute  angle  with  frontal  plane.  Cores  of  horns 
thick,  porous,  cellular ;  horns  seated  superiorly  on  the  crest  of  the 
forehead,  and  by  their  union  covering  the  top  Qf  the  head.  Canine 
teeth  wanting.  Teats  two,  rarely  four.  The  males  ha^e  a  strong 
stench ;  they  butt,  first  raising  themselves  on  their  hind  legs  and  then 
coming  down  sideways  against  their  enemies. 

The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  genera  of  Capreas : — 

A.  Muffle  Naked. 

1.  HeniitraguB,    Horns  trigonal,  compi-essed,  and  knotted  in  fi-ont 

2.  Kcmat.  Horns  square,  flat,  and  cross-ridged  in  front 


B.  Muffle  Haiiy. 

3.  jEgoceroa.    Horns  roundish,  conicaL 

4.  Capra.    Horns  square,  flat,  and  nodose  In  front. 

5.  Hircns.  Horns  trigonal,  compressed,  sharp-edged,  and  knotted 
in  front. 

Dr.  Gray  refers  the  Common  Gk>at,  which  must  be  taken  aa  the  type 
of  the  family,  to  the  last  genus,  of  which  it  is  the  only  apecies. 

Hiircua  jBgaanu,  the  QoeX,  is  "Ai^  {6  ical  ^,  but  generally  used  fur 
the  female),  rpiyos,  x^f"V<>s  (^^  male),  Ijpi^f  (young  male  lud  of  three 
or  four  months),  x^h^^P^  (young  female  before  its  first  winter),  of 
the  Gbeeks ;  Caper,  and  Ifircm  (male),  Capra  (female),  Hcedut  or 
ffcedw  (a  young  male  kid),  ffcedtdiu  or  ffcedUltu  (a  very  young  male 
kid,  or  kidling,  fyu^s),  Capella  (female  kid),  of  the  Romans ;  Becco 
(male),  Capra  (female),  Capretto  and  Caprettino  (kid  and  kidling), 
of  the  Italians ;  Bouc  (male),  Chdvre  (female),  Chevreau  (kid\,  of 
the  French;  Cabron  (male),  Cabra  (female),  Cabrito  (kid),  of 
the  Spanish ;  Cabram  (male),  Cabra  (female),  Cabrito  (kid),  of  ths 
Portuguese ;  Bock  (male),  Greisz  (female),  Bocklein  (kid),  of  the  Ger- 
mans ;  Bok  (male),  Giyt  (female),  of  the  Dutch ;  Bock  (male),  Gat 
(female),  Kiidh  (kid),  of  the  Swedes ;  Buk,  Geedebuk  (male),  Geed 
(female),  Kid  (Ud),  of  the  Danes ;  Bwch  (male),  Gafr  (female),  Mynn 
(kid),  of  the  ancient  Britons.  It  is  the  Capra  Hircus  of  Linmcus;  the 
Capra  Caucatia,  H.  Smith ;  JBgoceroa  Capra,  Pallas ;  Capra  jEgagnu, 
Gmelin. 

The  varieties  of  this  animal  are  very  numerous ;  and  many  of  the^ 
are  regarded  by  writers  on  natural  history  as  species. 

The  Goat  affords  another  example  of  the  uncertainty  which  clouilij 
the  history  of  our  domestic  animals ;  and  to  this  day  zoologists  wt 
not  entirely  agreed  as  to  the  species  from  which  it  is  derived.  Pn>- 
fessor  Bell,  in  his  'History  of  British  Quadrupeds,'  says,— "The 
opinions  of  naturalists  have  been  much  divided  respecting  the  original 
stock  of  our  domestic  goat ;  some  referring  it  to  the  jEgagriu  and 
others  to  the  Ibex.  Buffon  appears  to  have  adopted  the  latter  opinion; 
but  most  modem  zoologists  who  have  paid  much  attention  to  the 
question,  and  who  have  brought  to  the  consideration  of  it  all  the  helps 
which  recent  discoveries  in  philosophical  zoology  have  furnished,  have 
leaned  to  the  belief  that  the  Aigayme,  or  wild  goat  of  the  mountaiiw 
of  Caucasus  and  of  Persia,  is  the  true  original  stock.  The  zoological 
characters  of  this  animal  certainly  bear  a  closer  resemblance  to  those 
of  the  domestic  breeds ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  horM  of 
the  Persian  domestic  goat,  though  smaller,  are  similar  in  form  to  tho^e 
of  the  Paaeng,  or  ^gagrus.  The  arguments  which  have  been  va^ 
from  the  intermixture  of  the  Ibex  with  the  common  goat  are  at  pre- 
sent of  little  value,  as  the  facts  recorded  are  very  deficient.  The  hirge 
goats  which  are  reported  to  have  been  brought  from  the  Alpa  and  the 
P3rrenee8  to  the  Garden  of  Plants  in  Paris,  and  which  were  stated  to 
have  been  wild,  were  probably  the  progeny  of  the  Ibex  with  the  com- 
mon goat,  as  there  is  no  proof  of  the  existence  of  the  true  jEgagriu  ic 
Europe.  These  were  found  to  be  capable  of  producing  offspring,  and 
the  details  are  given  by  M.  Fred.  Cuvier  with  great  clearness ;  but  the 
old  fault  still  remains — ^the  question  is  not  set  at  rest  by  these  obae^ 
vations ;  for  we  are  only  informed  that  they  produce  offspring,  with- 
out any  statement  whether  they  will  breed  inter  se,  or  only  with  the 
common  goat.  The  progeny  however  were  either  prematurely  brought 
forth,  or  lived  only  a  short  time  in  a  sick  or  languishing  conditiou. 
Surrounded  by  these  doubts,  and  without  the  power  of  satisfactorilT 
solving  them,  it  is  better  perhaps  to  leave  the  question  to  be  decided 
by  future  experiments,  should  the  opportunity  ever  occur  of  deter 
mining  the  results  of  interbreeding  between  the  Ibex,  the  ^g^igru*, 
and  the  common  goat,  particularly  with  reference  to  the  mutual  fer- 
tility of  the  offspring." 

Buffon's  opinion  is  not  ve»y  clearly  stated,  nor  is  it  certain  that  he 
had  a  very  distinct  idea  on  the  subject.  Sonini,  in  his  '  Travels  in 
Greece  and  Turkey,'  after  speaking  of  the  wild  solitudes  that  surroand 
the  Convent  of  St  John  at  Cape  Malacca,  in  Candia,  says :  "  Cones  of 
red  partridges  delight  in  these  inaccessible  mountains,  and  there  they 
live  in  safety.  There  also  are  to  be  seen  wild  goats,  which  leap  fwDi 
rock  to  rock  with  admirable  address  and  agility.  These  wild  goat«, 
which  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  Isle  of  Candia,  and  several  other 
islands  of  the  same  sea,  are  of  the  Bouquetin  (Capra  Ibex,  Linn.},  or 
mountain-goat  species.  The  modem  Greeks,  as  has  been  done  by  their 
ancestors,  confound  the  Bouquetin  and  the  Chamois  under  the  same 
denomination  of  Wild  Goat.  The  French  habituated  to  the  Le>TUit 
also  knew  them  by  no  other  denomination  than  that  of  Ch&vre  Saunige. 
It  is  to  be  presumed,  in  fact,  that  Buffon  himself  imagined  that  these 
two  animals  are  not  of  a  species  different  from  that  of  the  domestjc 
goat."  , 

Linnaeus,  in  his  *Systema  Nature,'  (12th  edition)  givM  tlw 
goat  (Capra  Jlircus)  an  oriental  origin ;  but  seems  to  consider  it 
as  a  distinct  species.  He  says  of  it:  "Habitat  in  Onentc  m 
montosis  Hircus  et  Capra  cum  Hoedo,  victitans  ramulia  variw 
frondibusque  arborum,  lichenibus ;  hospitatur  in  Europfl.  tie 
does  not  mention  the  uEgaginu,  but  gives  the  Ibex  (Capra  Ibex)  a." 
a  species.  f 

Gmelin  ('Syst.  Nat.,'  ed.  13)  gives  uEgagruB  as  the  first  spf 'f^^J 
the  genus  Capra,  and  it  is  followed  by  Bircui.  Cuvier,  m  boto 
editions,  considers  the  Paseng  (C.  ^agrus)  to  be  the  parent^«^K 
of  all  the  varieties  of  the  domestic  goat.     He  adverts  to  the  1  «secg 


Digitized  by 


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CAPREiE. 


CAPREJS. 


as  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  Persia  in  troops,  and  to  the  Oriental 
Bezoar  as  a  concretion  found  in  its  intestines.  Fischer  speaks  of  the 
.^ffogrui  as  being,  without  doubt,  the  parent  of  our  Domestic  Qoat 
AVhilst  upon  this  inquiry  we  must  not  omit  the  Jenilah  Goat  (Capra 
J'emlaica,  of  Hamilton  Smith),  which  is  said  to  inhabit  the  district  of 
Jemlahy  between  the  sources  of  the  Sargew  and  the  Sampoo    that  is, 


•>.-^ 


rascng  {IThcus  .Hgngnia,  Giav). 


resembles  the  ordinary'  types  of  the  tame  races  than  any  wild  species 
yet  discovered. 

"  No  animal,"  says  Pennant,  "seems  so  subject  to  varieties  (the  dog 
excepted)  as  the  Goat ; "  nor  did  its  multitudinous  transfigurations 
escape  Pliny  (lib.  viii.,  c.  58).  Cuvier  observes  that  the  Domestic  Groat, 
Capra  Hircvs,  varies  infinitely  in  stature,  colour,  length,  and  fineness 
of  the  hair,  and  in  size  and  even  number  of  the  horns.  The  goats  of 
Angora,  in  Cappadocia,  with  their  soft  and  silky  hair,  and  those  of 
Tibet,  whose  delicate  wool  is  manufactured  into  the  shawls  (cache* 
mires)  so  highly  prized  by  the  French  beauties,  are  especially  alluded 
to  by  him.  To  enumerate  all  the  varieties  would  be  to  exceed  our 
limits.  The  Angora  Goat,  which  inhabits  the  tract  that  surrounds 
Angora  and  Beibazar,  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  where  the  goatherds  bestow 
much  care  on  their  flocks,  frequently  combing  and  washing  them, 
loses,  it  appears,  the  delicacy  of  its  hauy  covering  when  exposed  to  a 
change  of  climate  and  pasture ;  and  Pennant  hints  his  suspicions  that 
the  design  of  the  Baron  Alstroemer,  a  patriotic  Swede,  who  imported 
some  iuto  his  own  coimtry  to  propagate  the  breed  for  the  sake  of 
their  hair,  turned  out  fruitless.  A  spirited  attempt  to  acclimatise 
the  Cashmere  Goat  was  made  by  an  English  gentleman,  Mr.  Towers, 
some  years  ago.  The  Cashmere  Goats,  which  lived  some  time  in  the 
Gardens  of  i£e  Zoological  Society,  and  at  the  farm  on  Kingston-Hill, 
certainly  did  not  appear  to  have  suffered  in  the  fineness  of  their  coats ; 
but  it  is  one  thing  to  keep  an  imported  individual  by  care  and 
attention  in  the  same  state,  and  another  to  carry  on  the  breed  from 
generation  to  generation  in  its  pristine  beauty,  tmder  a  different  sky 
and  on  a  strange  pasture.  We  have  indeed  been  informed  that  the 
flock  of  Mr.  Towers  amounted  to  about  forty,  and  that  the  shawls 
made  from  the  produce  of  their  hides  were  excellent.  One  of  these 
^awls  was  presented  to  Queen  Adelaide.  The  importance  of  this 
manufacture  to  the  people  of  Cashmere  may  be  estimated  from  the 
alleged  fact  that  16,000  looms  are  there  in  constant  work,  each  loom 
giving  employment  to  three  men,  the  annual  sale  being  calculated  at 
30,000  shaws.  A  preference  ia  given  to  the  wool  of  Tibet,  and  24 
pounds  weight  of  the  best  of  it  is  said  to  sell  at  Cashmere  for  20 
rupees.  The  wool  is  spim  by  women,  and  coloured  afterwaitls.  It 
appears  also,  from  a  book  quoted  in  the  *  Naturalist's  Library  *  {'Bvmi- 
nantiii,*  part  2,  by  Sir  William  Jardine),  that  a  fine  shawl,  with  a 
pattern  all  over  it,  takes  nearly  a  year  in  making.  The  persons 
employed  sit  on  a  bench  at  the  frame ;  sometimes  four  people  at  each, 
but  if  the  diawl  is  a  plain  one,  only  two.  The  borders  are  marked 
with  wooden  needles,  there  being  a  separate  needle  for  each  colour,  and 
the  rough  part  of  the  shawl  is  uppermost  while  it  is  in  progress  of 
manufacture.  A  Tartar  half  breed,  having  been  found  to  thrive  well 
in  a  colder  climate,  has  been  introduced  into  France,  not  without 
success.  The  Cashmeres  however  which  are  brought  from  the 
kingdom  of  that  name  are  the  shawls  in  high  request,  and  those  who 
are  curious  in  such  articles  should  remember  that  there  are 
in  India  several  other  goats  besides  the  true  Cashmere  breed  whose 
wool  is  employed  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  Jaal  Goat,  Capra  Jaela  {Capra  NubianOf  Gray),  is  found  in  the 
mountains  of  Abyssinia,  Upper  Egypt,  and  Mount  Sinai. 


Il)cx  {Cktpra  Ibex,  Gray). 

nays  Colonel  Smith,  the  most  elevated  range  of  Central  Asia,  forming 
the  nucleus  between  the  western  and  south-eastern  branches  of  the 
Himalaya  Moimtains.  This  animal  appears  to  be  the  same  as  the 
Jh&ral  of  the  Nepaulese,  Capra  Jhdral  {ffemitragus  Jemlaictu,  Gray,) 
described  by  Mr.  Hodgson  (*Zool.  Proc.,'  1834),  from  a  fine  male 
specimen  kept  in  his  garden  at  Nepaul.  He  states  that  the  Jh&ral  is 
found  wild  m  the  Kachftr  region,  in  small  flocks,  or  solitarily,  and 
gives  its  character  as  bold,  capricious,  wanton,  eminently  scansorial, 
pugnacious,  and  easily  tamed  and  acclimatised  in  foreign  parts.  He 
remarks  that  the  Jhdral  has  a  close  affinity,  by  the  character  of  the 
horns,  to  the  Alpine  jEgagri  and  still  more  nearly,  in  other  respects, 
to  Capra  Jmlaica.  It  differs,  he  observes,  from  the  former  by  the 
less  volume  of  the  horns,  by  their  smooth  anterior  edge,  and  by  the 
absence  of  the  beard ;  from  the  latter,  by  the  horns  being  much  less 
compressed,  not  turned  inwards  at  the  points,  nor  nodose.  He  adds, 
that  the  JhAral  breeds  with  the  Domestic  Goat,   and  more  nearly 

KAT.  HIST.  DIV.  VOL.  I. 


Jaal  Goat,  or  Abrgsinian  Ibex  {Capra  JV'iiW/iwa,  Gray). 

The  Syiian  Goat,  with  its  excessively  long  ears,  which  is  plentiful 
in  the  East,  and,  according  to  Pennant,  supplies  Aleppo  with  milk,  is 
worthy  of  especial  notice,  as  well  as  the  Dwarf  Afiican,  with  its 

3d 


Digitized  by 


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CAPREiE. 


CAPRIFOLIACEiB. 


two  haiiy  wattlea  under  the  chin,  and  the  pretty  little  Whidaw  Goat. 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Sykes,  in  his  'Catalogue  of  the  Mammali%' 
obtained  by  him  in  Dukhun  (Deccan),  notices  Co/jgra  Hvrcuif  Linn. : 
Bukee,  of  the  Mahrattaa.  The  goats  ia  Dukhun  are  gaunt,  stand 
high  on  their  legs,  have  the  sides  much  compressed,  and  are  covered 
with  long  shaggy  hair,  which  in  most  is  blacL  Earn  nearly  pendent. 
Irides  ochrey-yellow  or  reddish-yeUow.  Tail  always  carried  erect  in 
movement. 

Pennant  states  that  the  Domestic  Goat  {Capra  ffircus),  inhabits 
most  parts  of  the  world,  either  native  or  naturalised,  and  that  it 
bears  sJl  extremes  of  weather,  being  found  in  Europe  as  high  as 
Wardhuys  in  Norway,  where  they  breed  and  run  out  the  whole  year ; 
but  in  winter  only  have,  during  night,  the  shelter  of  hovels.  Li  that 
season  they  feed  on  moss  and  Uie  bark  of  fir-trees,  and  even  on  the 
logs  cut  for  fuel.  Pennant  quotes  Dr.  Solander  as  authority  to  show 
that  in  Norway  and  West  Bothnia  their  skins  formed  an  article  of 
commerce,  and  says  that  these  animals  thrive  equally  well  in  the 
hottest  part  of  Africa  and  in  India  and  its  islands.  It  is  not,  he 
adds,  a  native  of  tiie  New  World,  having  been  introduced  there  first 
by  the  discoverers  of  that  continent.  In  Britain  the  Domestic  Gbat 
is  become  comparatively  rare,  and  even  in  its  strong  hold,  Wales,  it  is 
no  longer  plentiful.  In  South  Wales  a  goat  is  seldom  seen,  but 
there  are  still  some  wild  ones  in  Glamoiganshire.  Their  flourishing 
condition  in  the  Principality  at  one  time  may  be  imagined  from 
the  size*  of  the  horns  of  the  Cambrian  he-goat  mentioned  by 
Pennant ;  they  were  3  feet  2  inches  long,  and  measured  3  feet  from 
tip  to  tip. 

Few  animals,  when  properly  treated,  are  more  useful  to  man ;  and 
though  it  never  can  answer  to  breed  the  goat  in  districts  which 
will  carry  sheep,  in  rocky  and  woody  countries  it  is  invaluable. 
The  manufactures  from  the  hair  have  been  alluded  to.  The  pillow  of 
goats'  hair  that  supported  the  head  of  the  image  with  whidi  Michal 
deceived  the  messengers  of  Saul  when  he  sought  David's  life  (1  Sam. 
adx.  18-16)  will  occur  to  every  one;  and  Pennant  thinks  that  the 
variety  which  furnished  it  was  tiie  goat  of  Angora*  In  the  days  of 
wigs,  the  hair  of  the  common  Domestic  Goats  of  this  coimtry  was  in 
high  request,  and  the  whitest  were  made  of  it.  The  best  hair  for 
this  purpose  was  selected  from  that  which  grew  on  the  haunches, 
where  it  is  longest  and  thickest.  In  Pennant's  time  a  good  skin,  well 
haired,  was  sold  for  a  guinea,  though  a  skin  of  bad  hue,  and  so  yellow 
as  to  baffle  the  barber's  skill  to  bleach,  did  not  fetch  above  eighteen 
pence  or  two  shillings.  Goats'  hair  is  at  present  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  wigs  for  the  dignitaries  of  the  church,  and  the  members  of 
the  bar  and  the  bench.  The  skin,  particularly  that  of  the  kid,  is  of 
high  importance  to  the  glove  maniifacturer;  it  is  also  said  to  take  a 
dye  better  than  most  others.  The  horns  are  useful  for  knife-handles ; 
and  the  suet,  it  is  alleged,  makes  candles  far  superior  in  whitenes  and 
goodness  to  those  made  fix)m  that  of  the  sheep  or  the  ox,  and,  according 
to  Pennant,  brings  a  much  greater  price  in  the  market.  The  flesh  of 
the  kid  is  good.  "  The  haunches  of  the  goat,"  writes  the  author  last 
quoted,  "  are  frequently  salted  and  dried,  and  supply  all  the  uses  of 
bacon ;  tMs  by  the  natives  is  called  Cdch  yr  wden,  or  hung  venison. 
The  meat  of  a  castrated  goat  of  six  or  seven  years  old  (which  is  called 
Hyfr)  is  reckoned  the  best ;  being  generally  very  sweet  and  fat.  This 
makes  an  excellent  pasty,  goes  imder  the  name  of  rock-venison,  and  is 
little  inferior  to  that  of  the  deer."  The  medical  properties  of  goats' 
milk  and  whey  have  been  highly  extolled,  and  the  cheese  is  much 
valued  in  some  mountainous  countries. 

The  odour  of  the  Goat,  strong  at  all  times,  becomes  insufierably 
powerful  in  the  rutting  season  (from  the  beginning  of  September  to 
November),  but  this  pungent  scent  is  not  supposed  to  be  imwhole- 
some ;  and  horses  are  said  to  be  re&eshed  by  it,  whence  the  animal 
is  frequently  to  be  seen  about  stables.  The  female  brings  forth  from 
the  latter  end  of  February  to  the  latter  end  of  April,  after  a  gestation 
of  fotir  months  and  a  half,  generally  two  but  sometimes  ^ree  and 
even  four  young.  The  activity  with  which  these  animals  will  securely 
bound  from  rode  to  rock,  and  the  unshaken  firmness  with  which  they 
will  fix  themselves  on  the  edge  of  the  highest  precipices,  are  wonder- 
ful. Pennant  says  that  when  two  are  yoked  together,  as  was  frequently 
practised,  they  will,  as  if  by  consent,  take  large  and  hazardous  leaps, 
and  yet  so  time  their  mutual  eflbrts  as  rarely  to  miscarry  in  the  attempt. 
Nicholas  Hasselgren  in  his  'Swedish  Pan'  ('Amoen.  Acad.')  states  that 
goats  eat  449  plants  and  refuse  126.  The  same  author  states  that 
though  they  will  eat  greedily  and  safely  long-leaved  water-hemlock, 
monkshood  kills  them.  Their  favourite  food  consists  of  the  tops, 
tendrils,  and  flowers  of  moimtain  shrubs  and  6f  aromatic  herbs ;  to 
this  delicate  diet  was  supposed  to  be  owing  the  salubrity  of  the  milk. 
The  blood  was  supposed  to  have  its  healing  properties  also :  that  of 
a  he-goat  dried  is  mentioned  by  Pennant  as  a  great  recipe  in  some 
famiUes  for  the  pleurisy  and  inflammatory  disorders,  and  is  noticed 
in  Dr.  Mead's  *  Monita  Medica.'  As  an  enemy  to  the  vine  it  was 
sacrificed  to  Bacchus ;  and  the  subject  is  prettily  touched  in  many 
epigrams  and  verses,  both  Greek  and  Latin.  The  elegant  lines  of 
Ovid  beginning  "Rode  caper  vitem"  are  familiar  to  scholars.  In 
that  dark  and  melancholy  time  when  modem  witchcraft  was  supposed 
to  be  rife,  and  when  the  very  absurdity  of  the  alleged  facts  seems  to 
have  sharpened  the  belief  of  tibie  credulous,  and  increased  their  eager- 
ness to  shed  innocent  blood,  the  Goat  figures  not  only  as  the  conveyance 


on  which  the  witches  flew  through  the  air  to  their  diabolical  festival , 
j  but  as  the  shape  in  which  Satan  himself  often  exhibited  his  person  to 
his  votaries. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Domestic  Qoai  will  breed  with  the  Sheep. 
F.  Cuvier  states  that  the  mule  which  is  the  result  of  the  connectioD 
participates  in  the  nature  of  its  parents,  and  is  fruitful,  but  repro- 
duces with  difficulty.  "  I  have  had,"  says  this  zoologist, "  a  simikr 
female  mule,  which  in  its  form  inclined  to  the  sheep,  while  it  leuit  to 
the  she-goat  in  its  gait  and  in  its  hair  (par  ses  formes  tenoit  di 
mouton,  et  de  la  ch^vre  par  ses  allures  et  ses  poils) ;  it  did  not  couple 
till  the  third  year  with  a  goat,  and  was  fruitfuL" 

During  a  visit  to  Rhenish  Germany  in  the  autumn  of  1837  Mr. 
Ogilby  learned  from  Professor  Cretzschmar,  the  well-know  editor  of 
the  mammalogical  part  of  Dr.Ruppell's  first  *  Atlas,'  the  sacceiB  of 
I  an  experiment  which  the  professor  had  been  carrying  on  for  «mi 
I  years  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  to  asoertun  tiu> 
possibility  of  procuring  a  cross  between  the  Cashmere  Goat  and  the 
Saxon  Merino  Sheep.  With  this  intention  Professor  Cretzsdunar  bid 
two  or  three  years  ago  procured  a  large  Cashmere  buck,  which  irag 
put  into  a  stable  with  twelve  Merino  ewes.  For  two  seasons  hovers 
his  hopes  were  disappointed,  and  it  was  not  till  the  season  of  1536 
that  the  desired  union  took  place.  During  the  spring  of  that  year 
the  sheep  very  freely  took  the  buck,  and  produced  fine  hedthylamh*, 
which  were,  when  Mr.  Ogilby  obtained  his  information,  rather  better 
than  a  year  old.  They  were  kept  in  a  large  stable  with  a  number  of 
pure  Merinos,  which  is  the  usual  mode  of  treating  these  yaliable 
animals  in  that  part  of  Germany,  where  the  land  is  all  under  the 
plough,  and  there  are  neither  sheep  nor  grazing  farms ;  and  so  cloeely 
did  they  resemble  the  pure  Saxon  breed,  that  it  was  impossible  to 
peroeive  any  difference  in  their  external  characters. 

The  species  of  the  genera  of  Caprea  in  the  British  Museum  Catalogue 
are  as  follows : — 

HemUragut  JemlaiouB,  the  Jh&ral  or  Tehr.  This  animal  inhabits 
the  loftiest  mountains  of  India. 

Kemas  WatrycUo,  the  Warryato  or  Jungle  Kema&  It  is  a  natiye  of 
India,  and  has  been  called  the  Wild  Sheep  of  TennasserioL 

jEgocero9  Pyrenaica,  the  Pyrenean  Tur.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, and  is  regarded  by  some  as  a  variety  of  the  Ibex. 

jE,  Caucasica,  the  Tur,  or  Zac  It  inhabits  the  Caucasus,  and  'u 
sometimes  called  the  Caucasian  Ibex. 

Copra  IheXf  the  Ibex,  or  Stein-Boc.  This  animal  is  a  native  of  thd 
European  Alps. 

C.  Sibiricciy  the  Tek  or  Takija.  It  is  a  native  of  Siberia,  and  is  fit- 
quently  referred  to  the  Ibex. 

C.  Himalaycmay  the  Sakeen  or  Skyn.  It  is  also  called  the  Himakya 
Ibex.  Dr.  Gray  observes  that  this  is  not  probably  distinct  finom  litx 
{Capra)  Silnricct. 

C,  (?)  ItEvicomis,  the  Smooth-Homed  Ibex-    It  la  probably  a  hybrid. 
(7.  Nubiana,  the  Beden,  or  Jaela.    It  is  an  inhabitant  of  E^grpt, 
Arabia,  and  Crete. 

C.  Valie,  the  Walie.    A  specimen  is  in  the  Frankfort  Museum. 
Hircw  ^ffogrus,  the  Goat. 

Fossil  remains  of  the  Goat  have  been  found  at  Walton  in  Esex. 
Professor  Owen  says,  on  this  discovery : — "  Whether  the  Cnpra 
jiEgagrus  {ffircui  ^gagrua)  or  the  Capra  Ibex  shoidd  be  regarded  m 
the  stock  of  the  domesticated  goat  of  Europe  has  long  been  a  queetion 
amongst  naturalists ;  the  weighty  aigumenti  which  may  be  dravn 
from  the  character  of  the  wild  species  which  was  contemporaxy  with 
the  Bot  primigemut  and  Bo8  longifrona  in  England  is  shown  by  the 
presenj;  fossil  to  be  in  favour  of  Capra  jEgagrus**  (Owen,  Bii^ 
Fossil  MammaU.) 
CAPRE'OLUS.    [CERViDiE.] 

CAPRE'OLUS,  an  old  name  for  the  tendril  of  a  vine. 
CAPRICORNI.    [Ammonites.] 
CAPRICORNIS.    [Aktilopea] 

CAPRIFOLIA'CE^,  CapHfoils,  the  Honeysuckle  Tribe,  a  natural 
order  of  Monopetalous  Dicotyledons,  having  an  inferior  ovary,  oppo- 
site leaves  without  stipules,  and  a  small  embryo  lying  in  aconsidenble 
mass  of  homy  albumen.  The  type  of  the  order  is  the  genus  Caprir 
folium,  or  Honeysuckle ;  the  genera  that  are  associated  with  it  in  part 
consist  of  dismemberments  of  Lonicera,  and  in  part  of  plants  having 
a  resemblance  to  them  in  habit  The  genera  most  dissimilar  to 
Caprifolium  are  Samhucua  and  Vihumum ;  but  their  characters  are 
more  dependent  for  their  dissimilitude  upon  the  shortness  of  the 
tube  of  their  corolla,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  flowers  are 
arranged,  than  upon  any  actual  differences  of  organisatioD.  Capri- 
foliacecB  differ  from  Cinchonaceas  in  little  except  the  want  of  stipuleii 
between  the  leaves,  and  consequently  there  is  great  resemblance  in 
their  sensible  properties;  their  bark  being  often  astringent,  their 
leaves  sometimes  emetic,  and  the  seeds  of  TrioHtvM  peffoliat»» 
similar  to  coffee. 

The  fragrance  of  the  Honeysuckle  is  well  known.  The  flowere  of  the 
Elder  {Sambucw  nigra)  have  a  reputation  as  a  medicinal  agent  The 
plant  dedicated  to  Linnaeus,  the  Linnwa  horealia,  belongs  to  this  order, 
and  is  said  to  possess  diaphoretic  and  diuretic  properties.  The 
berries  of  LoniceracarvUa  are  a  favourite  food  of  the  Kamtchatkadales. 
Elderberry  wine  is  a  favourite  beverage  in  some  parts  of  £nglan(l< 
The  order  has  14  genera  and  about  220  spedea  « 


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CAPRIMULQUS. 


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Honeysuckle  [(hpr{foHum  perfoliatum). 
a.  Flower  opened  to  show  the  insertion  of  the  fire  stamens ;  ft,  front  and 
back  Tiew  of  anthers ;  e,  horizontal  section  of  ovary ;  d,  fruit ;  ^,  the  same  in 
section  ;  /,  seed ;  g,  the  same  in  section,  showing  the  embryo ;  A,  embryo. 

CAPRIMULGUS,  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  tribe  fjueaaoret 
and  the  family  Caprimulffidcg.  One  of  the  speciea,  C.  Europcnu,  the 
Night-Jar,  Night-Churn,  or  Fem-Owl,  is  a  native  of  Great  Britain.  It 
is  a  nocturnal  bird,  hence  its  names.  The  species  of  Caprimulffus  are 
also  called  Goat-Suckers.    [GoAT-SuciLEBajl 

CAFRISCUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes,  to  which  some  authors  refer  the 
European  File-Fish.    [Baustes.] 

CATROS,  a  genus  of  Acanthopteiygious  Fishes,  belonging  to  the 
family  Scomberido!. 

Only  one  species  of  this  genus  has  yet  been  discovered ;  the  Capros 
jiper  of  Lacep^de,  and  Zeua  aper  of  Linnseus. 

The  characters  of  the  genus  are : — Body  short,  somewhat  ovate, 
much  compressed,  and  covered  with  small  serrated  scales;  mouth 
capable  of  considerable  protrusion.  Dorsal  fin  emarginated  (as  in  the 
dories),  but  no  spines  at  the  base,  nor  at  the  base  of  the  anal  fin. 

Caproi  (xpeVf  the  Boar-Fish,  in  general  appearance  is  not  unlike  the 
dory  (to  which  it  ia  in  fact  closely  allied),  but,  independent  of  other 
characters,  may  be  distinguished  by  its  mouth  being  more  attenuated 
and  protractile,  the  body  being  covered  with  scales,  and  the  want  of 
long  filaments  to  the  dorsal  spines.  This  fish  appears  to  be  most 
generally  about  6  inches  in  length,  of  a  pale  carmine  colour  above  and 
ailvery-white  beneath.  The  colour  of  the  upper  part  extends  more 
or  less  down  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  sometimes  several  orange- 
coloured  bands  are  observable  extending  from  the  back  downwards. 
The  lateral  line  is  not  readily  seen,  excepting  in  recent  specimens, 
when  it  is  said  to  have  a  crystalline  appearance.  This  fish  is  a  native 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  has  been  found  on  our  own  coast,  but  very 
rarely ;  a  third  specimen  has  recently  been  recorded  as  British.  An 
interesting  i&oount  of  this  fish  will  be  found  in  Yarrell's  '  History  of 
British  Fishes.' 

CAPROVIS.    [Ovea] 

CAPSELLA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Crvkciferce,  the  sub-order  Af\gufi\6tpt(Xy  the  tribe  Lepidinta,  It  has 
a  triangular-oboordate  pouch;  compressed  valves,  keeled  but  not 
winged ;  numerous  seeds ;  simple  filaments.  The  species  of  the 
Linnsan  genus  Thla9pi,  without  wings  to  their  valves,  form  this  genus. 
The  best  known  is  the  common  Shepherd's  Purse  (C7.  Bw%a  Pcutoria). 
It  is  an  annual  herb,  veij  variable  in  habit,  a  follower  of  man,  and 
springs  up  wherever  he  fixes  his  abode.  As  a  weed  it  is  frequently 
very  troublesome  in  gardens.  It  may  be  got  rid  of  by  hoeing  in  hot 
and  dry  weather  whilst  it  is  in  flower,  but  if  it  be  allowed  to  ripen 
ita  seed  it  is  with  difficulty  eradicated.  Koch  describes  several 
varieties  of  this  plant.  He  also  describes  two  other  species  as  inha- 
bitants of  Germany.  C.  proctmbens  {Lepidium  procumbent  of  Lin- 
nnus),  and  C.  paucijloraf  apparently  a  variety  of  the  lastw  (Koch, 
Flora  Germanica;  Babington,  Manual  of  Brit.  Bot) 

CATSICUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
JSoIanacecc,    The  species  aie  called  Bird-Peppers.    The  shell  of  the 


fruit  is  fleshy  and  coloured,  and  contains  a  pungent  principle,  which 
also  exists  in  its  seed  in  great  activity.  On  this  account  both  the 
fruit  and  seeds  of  different  species  of  Capsicum  are  in  request  as  a 
condiment,  and  either  in  the  unprepared  state  or  ground,  when  they 
are  called  Cayenne  Pepper,  form  a  conspicuous  feature  amongst  the 
plants  affording  stimidatiug  oils  used  by  man.  In  Europe  the  Cap- 
sicum enters  largely  into  the  seasoning  of  food  and  the  preparation  of 
pickles,  and  in  warmer  countries  it  constitutes  one  of  the  first  neces- 
saries of  life  either  green  or  ripe.  The  species  from  which  the  fresh 
Capsicums  used  in  Europe  are  principally  obtained  is  the  Capsicum 
annuum,  a  weedy  plant  found  wild  in  South  America  and  the  West 
Indies.  This  species  grows  from  one  to  two  feet  high,  forming  a  dark 
green  bush,  with  ovate  or  ovate-lanceolate  leaves ;  its  flowers  are  small 
and  white ;  its  fruit  is  extremely  variable  in  size,  colour,  position, 
and  even  in  quality.  Red  and  yellow  are  the  prevailing  colours; 
the  oblong-conical  is  the  ordinary  figure;  and  to' hang  in  a  drooping 
position  is  the  most  usual  direction  of  the  fruit.  But  round,  ovate, 
and  even  depressed  fruit  is  known,  and  many  varieties  constantly 
bear  their  fruit  in  an  erect  position.  Most  of  them  are  too  pimgent 
for  European  palates ;  but  tne  laige  Red  Bullock's  Heart  and  Yellow 
Tomato  Capsicums  are  mild  enough  to  be  sliced  with  salad. 

A  much  hotter  species  is  the  C.frv>ticosvm,  or  Goat-Pepper,  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies,  which  differs  from  the  C.  annuum  in  oeing  a  shrub 
and  in  its  fruit  being  very  smalL  There  is  aUo  a  kind  cultivated  by 
the  Chinese,  with  black  fruit ;  and  botanists  recognise  many  others, 
but  they  appear  to  be  in  many  cases  mere  varieties  of  C,  annuum  or 
C.  fruticosum. 

The  acrid  principle  of  Capsicum  has  been  analysed  by  Braconnot 
(*  Annales  de  Chimie,'  voL  vi,  p.  122),  who  foimd  it  not  to  be  volatile, 
to  diBBolve  readily  in  water,  more  freely  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and 
that  it  is  mixed  with  mucilage,  wax,  ana  resin. 

The  species  of  Capsicum  are  easily  brought  to  perfection  in  this 
country.  Their  seeds  are  sown  in  a  hot-bed  in  the  beginning  of 
April ;  the  young  plants  are  managed  like  other  tender  annuals;  and 
abDut  the  end  of  May  they  are  planted  in  the  open  air  under  a  south 
wall.    They  will  readily  ripen  their  fruit  in  such  a  situation. 

CAPSULE,  a  vague  name  given  by  botanists  to  any  kind  of  dry 
seed-vessel  containing  many  cells  and  seeds.  It  usually  opens  by 
valves. 

CARA'BIDiE,  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
Pentam^a  of  Latreille.  This  family,  named  as  a]>ove  by  M'Leay, 
is  nearly  identical  with  Latreille's  section  Vrandipalpi  as  given  in 
Cuviei's  *  Rfegne  Animal'  The  distinguishing  characters  are : — Ante-  # 
rior  tibiss  without  emaigination  on  the  inner  side ;  head  narrower 
than  the  thorax ;  eyes  rather  prominent ;  palpi  with  the  terminal 
joints  often  compressed,  latge,  and  somewhat  triangular  in  shape; 
mandibles  simple,  moderately  long,  and  rather  thick. 

The  species  of  the  Carahvdce  are  usually  laiige,  and  adorned  with 
brilliant  metallic  colours. 

CA'RABUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  of  the  family  ' 
Carahidxs,  This  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  genus  Carahus  of 
Linnseus,  which  according  to  many  of  the  modem  authors  is  divided 
into  several  families,  and  each  of  those  families  contains  numerous 
genera.  The  necessity  for  sub-dividing  the  group  c:illed  Carahus  by 
Linnseus  will  be  seen  when  it  is  taken  into  consideration  that  there  are 
probably  now  about  800  species  discovered. 

The  genera  Carabiu,  Tefflvx,  Procerus,  Procrustes,  and  Cdlosoma, 
contain  the  largest  species  of  the  Carnivorous  Beetles,  and  together 
appear  to  form  a  natural  group :  we  will  therefore  here  notice  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  each,  omitting  those  of  Cidosoma, 
which  will  be  foimd  imder  that  head.  These  genera  are  usually 
aiTanged  in  succession  as  follows :  —  Teffius,  Procerus,  Procrustes, 
Carahus,  and  Calosoma ;  and  their  chief  technical  characters  may  be 
readily  seen  by  the  following  ti\ble : — 

1.  Anterior  tarsi  the  same  (or  nearly  so)  in  both  sexes. 

a.  Labrum  entire        ....    T^us. 

b,  Labrum  bilobate        .        .  .    Procerus, 

2.  Anterior  tarsi  with  the  three  or  four  basal  joints  dilated  in  the 
males. 

a.  Ijabrum  trilobate    ....    Procrustes. 

b,  Labrum  bil."^bed  .        .  .     Carabus. 

In  Tefflus,  Procerus,  and  Carabus,  there  is  a  simple  tooth-like  pro- 
cess in  the  emai::gination  of  the  mentum ;  whilst  in  Procrustes  this 
process  is  broad  and  slightly  notched  at  the  apex.  The  terminal  joint 
of  the  palpi  in  these  genera  is  nearly  triangular,  and  larger  in  the 
males  than  in  the  females.  In  Procerus  this  joint  is  much  laiger  in  pro- 
portion than  in  either  Carabus  or  Procrustes  ;  and  in  Tefflus  it  is  most 
developed,  and  is  of  an  elongate  form,  slightly  convex  anteriorly. 

T^us  Megei'lei.  The  only  species  known  of  this  genus  is  nearly 
two  inches  long,  and  is  black ;  the  thorax  is  almost  double  the  width 
of  the  head,  sUghtly  convex  and  rugose,  and  has  the  lateral  and  pos- 
terior maigins  reflected;  it  is  truncated  anteriorly  and  posteriorly, 
and  the  lateral  margins  and  posterior  angles  are  rounded ;  the  elytra 
are  elongate-ovate,  very  convex,  and  furnished  with  seven  smooth 
elevated  longitudinal  ridffes,  and  in  the  space  between  these  ridges 
there  is  a  chain  of  small  elevated  tubercles    the  legs  and  antennie  aiv 


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CARACHICHU. 


CARDAMINE. 


778 


Carabu$  violaceua. 


moderately  long.    This  rare  and  conspicuous  insect  is  found  in  Senegal 
and  on  the  coast  of  Guinea. 

Procerm  icabrosua  is  about  two  inches  in  length,  and  in  the  broadest 
part  of  the  elytra  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  width,  and  of  a 
bluish-black  colour;  the  thorax  is  "broad,  truncated  anteriorly  and 

posteriorly,  very  slightly 
convex,  and  rugose ;  the 
elytra  are  oval,  convex,  and 
covered  throughout  with 
small  tubercles.  This  is 
the  largest  of  the  carnivo- 
rous beetles  known. 

M.  le  Comte  Dejean  de- 
scribes three  other  species  be- 
longing to  this  genus,  which 
are  all  of  a  beautiful  blue 
or  violet  colour  above,  and 
black  beneath.  The  Proceri 
are  often  found  under  dried 
leaves  in  the  forests  and  on 
the  moimtains  of  Russia, 
Hungary,  and  Asia  Minor: 
they  are  the  giants  of  Euro- 
pean Carabidce. 

Four  species  of  the  genus 
Pt'OcriLites    have    been    de- 
scribed, the  laigest  of  which, 
P.  coi'icLceuif  is  recorded  as 
British;    it  is   however  so 
rare  in  this  country  as  to 
have  given  rise  to  doubts  as 
to  its  being  strictly  an  in- 
habitant.     In   France    and 
Germany  it  is  tolerably  com- 
mon, and  is  foimd  in  woods. 
P.  coriaceus  is  rather  more 
than  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
Tig.  2,  Head  of  Tefflut  Megerlei,  magnified,     length,  and  of  a  dull  black 
a,  maxillary  palpua ;  6,  labial  palpus.         colour ;  the  thorax  is  nearly 
Fig.  3,  maxillary  palpus  of  Carabu*  tiolacmt,  smooth ;  the  elytra  are  ru- 
•  gose,  and  of  an  ovate  form. 

Of  the  genus  Carahua  upwards  of  120  species  have  been  described, 
the  greater  portion  of  which  inhabits  Europe,  Siberia,  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  northern  parts  of  Africa. 

From  the  immense  number  of  species  Count  Dejean  has  found  it 
necessary  in  his  descriptions  to  arrange  them  under  16  divisions, 
founded  principally  on  the  sculpture  of  the  elytra.  Mr.  Stephens, 
in  his  'Illustrations  of  British  Entomology,'  describes  17  species: 
the  most  common  are — C,  violaceuSj  C.  monilUf  C.  catenulatiu,  C. 
hortcMitj  C.  cancdlatus,  and  C.  arvensis,  all  of  which  are  tolerably 
abundant  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London. 

C.  hortemU  is  very  frequently  met  with  on  pathways  (especially 
early  in  the  morning),  and  not  uncommonly  with  a  worm  in  its  jaws. 
It  is  about  an  inch  long ;  the  head  and  thorax  are  of  a  copper-like 
hue,  and  the  elytra  are  brassy-green ;  the  under  parts  of  the  body  are 
black ;  the  elytra  are  faintly  sculptured,  and  exhibit  three  longitudinal 
TOWS  of  impressions,  and  numerous  rows  of  very  delicate  confluent 
punctures. 

0.  violaceu8  is  equally  common  with  the  last ;  it  is  dull  black,  and 
has  the  margin  of  the  elytra  of  a  copper-like  hue ;  this  tint  is  also 
more  or  less  observable  on  the  thorax  ;  the  elytra  are  very  delicately 
punctured,  and  appear  smooth  to  the  naked  eye,  in  which  respect  this 
species  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  C.  ccUenulcUuSj  which  has 
the  elytra  distinctly  sculptured.  C.  catenulatut  also  differs  in  form 
considerably  from  C,  violacev3  ;  it  is  dull  black,  and  has  the  thorax 
and  margins  of  the  elytra  of  a  purple  or  blue  colour.  Its  locality  is 
heaths  and  commons,  where  it  is  found  under  clods  of  turf,  &c. 

O.  canceUatua  appears  to  confine  itself  to  old  pollard-willows,  at  the 
roots  and  under  the  loose  bark  of  which  it  is  foimd  in  abundance. 
This  species  is  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  and  of  a  brassy 
hue  above.  The  elytra  are  adorhod  with  three  distinct  longitudinal 
rows  of  oblong  elevated  tubercles,  and  between  these  there  is  a  smooth 
elevated  stria. 

(Dejean,  Species  GinSrale  dea  CoUoptirea.) 

CARACHICHU,  a  name  given  in  Brazil  to  the  Solanum  nigrum. 
It  is  also  called  Erva  Moria.    [Solanum.] 

CARADOC  FORMATION,  the  uppermost  of  the  two  great  divi- 
sions of  the  Lower  Silurian  Strata  of  Murchison.  It  is  not  well  and 
clearly  seen  except  in  Salop,  the  Abberley  and  Malvern  Hills,  Woolhope, 
May  Hill,  and  other  points  on  the  eastern  borders  of  Wales. 

CARAGA'NA,  a  genus  of  Papilionaceous  Yellow-Flowered  Shrubs, 
formerly  comprehended  in  Rohinia.  Several  species  are  cultivated  in 
gardens,  but  they  are  not  much  valued.  They  are  exclusively  found 
in  Asiatic  Russia,  Tartary,  and  the  north  of  India ;  one  of  them,  the 
Caragana  Gerardiana,  is  one  of  the  plants  called  Tartarian  Furze  by 
travellers. 

CARAMBOLA.     [Averrhoa.] 

CA'RANX,  a  genus  of  Acanthopterygious  Fishes,  and  belonging  to 


the  family  Scomhertda.  This  genus  is  distinguished  chiefly  by  the 
lateral  line  of  the  body  being  furnished  with  a  series  of  scaly  plates. 
These  plates  are  horizontally  keeled  (especially  on  the  posterior  half 
of  the  body),  and  frequently  terminate  in  a  spine  or  an  angular  pro- 
jection, the  point  of  which  is  directed  backwards.  The  remainder  of 
the  body  is  covered  with  small  scales.  There  are  two  distinct  dorsal 
fins ;  the  last  rays  of  the  posterior  one  are  sometimes  but  slightly  con- 
nected by  membrane,  or  separated  into  spurious  fins.  Some  free 
spines  are  placed  before  the  anal  fin.     The  teeth  are  very  minute. 

Several  species  of  this  genus  inhabit  the  seas  of  Europe,  but  we  are 
aware  of  only  one  which  has  occurred  off  the  British  coast,  the 
Caranx  tracturua.  This  fish,  well  known  by  the  name  of  the  Scad  or 
Horse-Mackerel,  is  frequently  met  with  on  various  parts  of  the  coasts 
both  of  England  and  Ireland,  and  at  times  occurs  in  such  immense 
shoals  that  the  whole  sea  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  appears  alive 
with  them.  The  Scad  is  about  the  size  of  the  mackerel,  to  which  it 
comes  near  in  afiOnity.  The  body  is  more  even  in  width  (that  is,  less 
tapering  towards  the  head  and  tail),  and  is  of  a  dusky  olive-colour 
above,  exhibiting  in  certain  lights  splendid  hues  of  blue  and  green ; 
the  lower  part  of  the  body  is  silvery-white,  with  the  exception  of  the 
throat,  which  is  black ;  there  is  also  a  black  spot  just  above  the 
pectoral  fin.  This  species,  like  many  others  found  on  our  own  coasts, 
occurs  also  on  those  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  some  of  the  species  of  the 
genus  Caranx  the  scaly  plates  are  observable  only  on  the  posterior  half 
of  the  lateral  line,  and  the  anterior  part  is  furnished  with  small  scales. 

C.  punctattia  of  Cuvier  has  but  a  single  spurious  dorsal  and  anal  fin, 
whilst  the  C.  Rotleri  (Scomber  Rotleri  of  Bloch)  has  several  Scomber 
dentua  (Bloch),  and  one  or  two  other  species  now  included  in  this 
genus,  are  remarkable  for  having  a  single  range  of  teeth  and  the  body 
of  a  more  elevated  form. 

C.  Carangua  (Scomher  Carangua  of  Bloch),  a  laige  species  of  this 
genus  from  the  Antilles,  weighing  from  20  lbs.  to  25  lbs.,  is  of  a 
silvery  hue,  and  has  a  black  spot  on  the  operculum ;  the  body  is  com- 
pressed, and  of  a  somewhat  ovate  form  ;  the  head  is  obtusely  termi- 
nated. This  fish  is  good  eating,  whilst  the  Bastard  Carangue 
(C.  Ouaraterebt^a),  another  which  closely  resembles  it,  but  wants  \h& 
black  spot,  is  apt  to  prove  poisonous. 

CARANXCMORUS,  a  genus  of  Acanthopterygious  Fishes  belong- 
ing to  the  family  Scomberidas, 

C ARAPA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Mdiaeed, 
0.  Touloucowna  yields  the  Tallicoonah  or  Kundar  Oil,  which  has  a 
reputation  as  an  anthelmintic.  It  is  said  to  be  well  suited  for  burning 
in  lamps.  The  bark  of  the  root  of  C.  obovaia  is  bitter  and  astringent 
The  bflurk  of  C.  Guianenaia  is  used  as  an  anthelmintic  and  febrifuge. 
(Lindley,  Vegetable  Kingdom.) 

CA'R APUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  Apodal  Malacoptery- 
gians. 

CARAWAY.    [Carum.] 

CARBO,  a  genus  of  Birds,  of  the  order  Naiaiorea  and  the  tribe 
PelecanidcBf  to  which  Temminck  referred  the  Common  Cormorant 
It  is  now  usually  placed  in  the  genus  Phalocrocorax,  [Phalogbocorax.] 

CARBON  is  one  of  the  elements  which  occurs  pure  in  nature.  In 
this  state  it  is  called  Diamond^  and  forms  one  of  the  most  precious 
gems.  [Diamond.]  It  is  also  found  in  a  tolerably  pure  condition  in 
Graphite  {Plwmbago  or  Black-Lead).  This  substance  contains  from 
90  to  96  per  cent  of  Carbon,  with  the  rest  iron.  rORAffliTE.]  Carbon 
enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  Amber  [Amber],  and  also  of 
mineral  Caoutchouc  and  the  various  forms  of  Bitumen.  [Bitumen.] 
It  forms  the  distinguishing  element  of  Coal.     [Coal.] 

CARBONIFEROUS  SYSTEM,  the  great  group  of  strata  which 
includes  nearly  all  the  valuable  coal  yet  discovei'ed.     It  consists  of— 

D.  The  Coal  Formation. 

c.  The  Millstone-Grit  Group. 

B.  The  Moimtain  Limestone  Formation. 
a.  The  Limestone-Shale  Group. 

The  portions  marked  a,  c,  are  the  least  constant  in  range  and 
character;  the  Limestone-Shale  graduates  in  South  Wales  to  Devonian 
Strata,  and  in  Ireland  constitutes  the  Yellow  Sandstone  Series  of  the 
northern  counties.  (QriflSth.)  Most  of  the  coal  of  Ireland  belongs  to 
the  Millstone-Grit  group.    [Coal  Formation  ;  Mountain  Limestone.] 

CARBUNCLE.    [Garnet.] 

CARCHA'RIAS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  of  the  Shark  Tribe.  [Squalid^] 

CARDAMINE,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Orucifero!,  the  sub-order  SUiqttoacgf  and  the  tribe  Arabidece.  It  has  a 
compressed  pod,  flat  nerveless  valves,  a  capitate  stigma,  the  seeds  in 
a  single  row,  with  the  funiculus  simple  and  filiform.  The  species, 
which  are  numerous,  are  usually  smooth  herbs,  with  stalked,  entire, 
lobed,  or  pinnately  cut  leaves,  and  racemes  of  white  or  red  flowera 

C.  pratenaiaf  Cuckoo-Fower,  Bitter-Cress,  Common  Ladies'  Smock, 
has  pinnate  leaves,  the  leaflets  of  the  lower  leaves  roundish,  slightly 
angled,  those  of  the  upper  leaf  linear^lanoeolate,  entire;  the  petak 
three  times  longer  than  the  calyx,  spreading;  the  stamens  half  the 
length  of  the  petals ;  stem  terete.  This  plant  has  lai^  lilac-coloured 
flowers,  and  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  some  parts  of  the  countiy. 
It  has  a  bitter  taste,  hence  its  name  Bitter-Cress.  It  is  generally  in 
blossom  when  the  cuckoo  returns  to  this  coimtiy,  and  at  that  period 
covers  the  fields  as  though  linen  was  bleaching :  these  circnmBtancea 


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m 


CARDIOSPERMUM. 


CAIIEX. 


778 


explain  its  other  oommon  English  names.  Till  recently  it  retained  a 
place  in  the  London  and  Dublm  Pharmacopoeias.  At  one  time  it  had 
the  reputation  of  being  a  diuretiq  and  antispasmodici  and  a  drachm  of 
the  flowers  was  administered  as  a  dose  in  hysteria,  chorea^  epilepsy, 
and  other  nervous  affection&  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America,  and  is  abundant  throughout  Qreat  Britain. 

Babington  describes  four  other  species  of  Cardamine  as  natives  of 
Great  Britain,  C.  impcUiena,  C.  sj/lvcUica,  C.  hinutaf  C.  amara :  with  th« 
exception  of  the  last  they  are  common  plants.  C,  beUidifolia  has  been 
figured  in  the  ' English  Botany'  as  a  British  plant,  but  no  station  for 
it  is  known.  The  leaves  of  0.  hirsuUi,  when  ripe  and  laid  upon  the 
ground,  put  forth  buds  which  produce  a  new  plant.  It  is  extensively 
propagated  in  this  way  in  moist  soila  It  is  said  that  other  species 
nave  the  same  property.  C.  impatiens  is  so  named  from  its  pods 
when  fully  ripened  expanding  suddenly  with  force  when  touched,  and 
throwing  the  seeds  to  a  distance. 

(Don,  Gard,  Diet,;  Loudon,  Enci/e.  of  Plants;  Babington,  Manual 
of  Britith  Botany.) 

Ci\JlDIOSPERMUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Sapindacea.  The  root  of  one  of  the  species,  C.  Ifalicacabumf  is 
is\id  to  be  diuretic,  diaphoretic,  and  aperient.  In  the  Moluccas  the 
leaves  are  cooked  and  eaten. 

CARDIUM,  a  genus  of  Bivalve  McUusca  belonging  to  the  Ace- 
phalous JLamdlibranchiata,  It  is  the  type  of  the  family  Cardiadcg, 
aud  the  species  are  known  by  the  common  name  of  Cockle.  The 
shell  is  equivalve,  more  or  less  cordiform,  oblong  or  transversely 
ovate,  usually  inflated,  closed  or  gaping  posteriorly,  longitudinally 
ribbed  or  furrowed  in  radiating  fashion  from  the  prominent  beaks, 
rarely  smooth;  ribs  often  scaly  or  spiny;  margin  almost  always 
crcDulated.  Hinge  composed  of  two  oblique  primary  teeth  in  each 
valve  and  two  remote  lateral  ones  (in  certain  exotic  forms,  the  teeth 
become  partially  or  wholly  obsolete).  The  ligament  short,  external, 
conspicuous ;  pallial  impression  simple.  The  animal  is  suborbicular, 
tumid,  its  mantle  freely  opening  in  front  with  plain  or  less  frequently 
fringed  edges,  conspicuously  fimbriated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
two  very  short  slightly-sepai'ated  siphons,  the  branchial  one  of  which  is 
always  fringed  at  the  orifice.  Foot  very  large,  cylindrical,  geniculated. 
Branchial  leaflets  unequal,  labial  palps  rather  long  and  triangular. 
(Forbes  and  Han  ley.) 

The  shells  belonging  to  this  genus  are  very  widely  distributed,  and 
many  of  them  are  remarkable  for  the  elegance  of  their  form  and 
colouring.  The  species  are  about  200  in  number.  "  We  find,"  say 
the  aulhors  of  the  'History  of  British  Mollusca,'  ''the  great 
assemblage  of  Cockles  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  a  region  where  about  a 
third  of  the  species  are  congregated.  Around  this  centre  the  numbei* 
of  specific  forms  diminishes,  though  found  in  every  sea.  They  are 
most  plentiful  everywhere  within  the  tropics,  and  diminish  as  we 
proceed  noHhward  and  southward;  but  some  of  the  forms  most 
prolific  in  individuals  and  most  gregarious  in  habit  are  present  in 
cold  climates,  and  make  up  by  abundemco  for  the  absence  of  variety. 
Of  these  several  are  valuable  articles  of  food ;  and  it  may  be  said  of 
all  the  Carduz  that  they  hold  a  high  rank  among  Mollusca,  both 
for  nutritive  qualities  and  excellence  of  flavour.  The  genus  contains 
several  remarkable  abnoimal  forms ;  some  of  the  most  singular  are 
to  be  found  in  the  Caspian  and  other  relics  of  the  great  Aralo-Caspian 
Sea — the  demonstration  of  which  mighty  inland  ocean  is  among  the 
finest  discoveries  of  Sir  Roderick  Murchison. 

*'  The  geological  distribution  of  this  interesting  group  corresponds 
iu  extent  with  the  geographical  Even  in  Paheozoic  Strata  we  find 
the  fossilised  remains  of  MoUusks  closely  allied  if  not  belongmg  to 
Cardium.  In  the  Secondary  Rocks,  even  in  their  oldest  members, 
well-marked  forms  of  Cardium  are  not  unfrequeut,  often  singularly 
similating  those  of  existing  times.  During  the  later  part  of  the 
Secondary  epoch  and  the  beginning  of  the  Tertiary  a  group  of  half- 
ribbed  cockles  seemed  to  have  beien  developed  at  the  expense  of 
ordinary  forms,  and  to  have  dwindled  away  as  they  came  near  our 
own  epoch,  when  but  two  or  three  allies  of  them  are  found."  (Vol. 
il  p.  3,  4.) 

Cockles  inhabit  all  parts  of  the  ocean.  Some  species  are  constantly 
met  with  between  high  and  low  water  marks,  and  they  have  presented 
thumselves  from  the  deepest  sea-beds.  Each  species  has  however  a  very 
definite  range.  They  lie  buried  in  sand  or  sandy  mud,  often  occurring 
\n  prodigious  quantities.  According  to  the  researches  of  Dr.  W.  B. 
Carpenter,  the  shell  of  the  genus  Cardium  has  a  very  definite 
elementary  structure.  Exterzially  it  presents  a  tubular  structure, 
but  internally  there  is  little  development  of  ofganic  structure. 

C.  ediUe.  (Linnaeus),  the  Common  or  Eatable  Cockle,  is  known  by  the 
following  characters : — It  is  neither  triangular  nor  porcelain-white. 
It  has  radiating  ribs,  which  are  neither  armed  with  spines  nor 
tubercles.  This  bivalve  assumes  a  vaiiety  of  appearances,  aud  the 
adult  especially  differs  from  the  young.  Forbes  and  Hanley  include 
under  this  the  following  species  of  other  writers : — C.  vuUfore,  Da  Costa; 
C.  crenulatumj  Lamarck ;  C.  peclinatum,  Lamarck ;  C.  arcuatum,  Reeve ; 
C.  zonatum.  Brown ;  (7.  obliquunif  Woodward ;  C.  rusticum,  Chenmitz ; 
C.  glaucum,  Brugiere ;  C.  Lamarchii,  Reeve ;  C.  Bellicum,  Reeve. 

This  species  is  met  with  in  most  parts  of  the  British  Islands,  and 
is  almost  everywhere  regarded  as  a  pleasant  article  of  diet.  The 
ordinary  run  of  examples  arc  from  four-fifths  of  an  inch  to  one  inch 


in  length,  but  on  the  coast  of  Devon,  and  especially  at  Limpstone 
on  the  mouth  of  the  Ex,  where  they  are  cultivated  in  beds,  they 
attain  a  much  greater  size.  It  is  a  gregarious  animal,  inhabiting  the 
sands  at  low  water,  especially  where  there  are  large  tracts  of  sand  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  sestuaries. 

The  Common  Cockle  has  a  wide  geog^phical  range,  extending 
southward  to  the  Canary  isles.  It  is  ^o  found  in  the  Caspian  Sea. 
It  occurs  fossil  in  the  Red  Crag. 

The  other  British  species  enumerated  by  Forbes  and  Hanley,  are — 
C.  aculeatum,  C.  eehinatum,  C  ru^ticum,  C.  nodosfwrn,  C,  fasciatum,  C, 
pygmcsum,  C  Suecicum,  and  C  Norwefficum.  They  regard  C.  OrmUan- 
dicuMf  C.  serratum,  C.  medium,  and  C,  mwiceUumy  as  spurious  iu  tiie 
British  Fauna. 

CARDOON,  a  name  applied  to  the  blanched  leaflets  aud  stems  of 
Cynara  Cardunculus.    [Ctnara.] 

CARDUELIS,  a  genus  of  Binls  belonging  to  the  tribe  Insessores, 
division  Conirostres,  and  the  family  FringUlidce.  It  has  a  lengthened 
conical  compressed  beak ;  the  point  attenuated  and  acute ;  commissure 
slightly  cui-ved.  The  nostrils  basal,  lateral,  covered  by  small  incum* 
bent  plumes.  Wings  lengthened,  pointed ;  the  first,  second,  and 
third  quills  longest,  and  nearly  equal  The  tail  moderate,  slightly 
forked.  Feet  with  the  middle  toe  longer  than  the  tarsus,  which  is 
equal  to  the  hind  toe ;  lateral  toes  &ort,  of  equal  length ;  claws 
slender,  curved,  aud  acute. 

There  are  two  species  of  tlus  genus  indigenous  in  Great  Britain,  the 
Goldfinch  and  the  Siskin. 

C.  degans  {PringiUa  Cardudis\  the  Goldfinch,  is  a  well-known  bird. 
It  has  a  gay  plumage,  lively  habits,  an  agreeable  form  and  song,  and 
a  disposition  to  become  attached  to  those  who  feed  it.  In  captivity 
they  can  be  taught  a  variety  of  tricks,  such  as  drawing  up  water  for 
themselves  to  drink  in  a  thimble  bucket,  or  opening  the  lid  of  their 
seed-box.  They  may  be  often  seen  performing  with  canaries  in  the 
streets  of  London. 

The  Goldfinch  builds  a  very  neat  nest,  and  lays  four  or  five  eggs  of 
a  pale  bluish-white  colour,  with  a  few  spots  and  lines  of  pale  purple 
and  brown.  It  is  a  very  general  inhabitant  of  the  British  Islands. 
It  is  also  found  in  Sweden,  and  is  abundant  in  Germany,  France, 
Provence,  Spain,  and  Italy.  It  is  found  also  at  Corfu,  Sicily,  Malta, 
and  Crete. 

The  whole  length  of  this  bird  is  5  inches.  It  has  a  whitish  horn- 
colour  beak,  black  at  the  tip ;  the  circumference  at  the  base  of  the 
beak  crimson-red ;  cheeks  and  ear  coverts  white ;  top  of  the  head 
black ;  nape  of  the  neck  white ;  the  back  and  rump  a  dusky  wood- 
brown  ;  the  carpal  portion  of  the  wing  and  the  smaller  wing-coverts 
black ;  the  greater  wing-coverts  and  the  outer  edge  of  the  basal  half 
of  each  primary  brilliant  gamboge-yellow ;  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  primaries  black;  under  surface  of  the  body  dull  white. 
(YarreU.) 

C,  spinas  (FrvngiUa  spinus),  the  Siskin.    [Aberdevine.] 

CARDUTJS.    [Thistle.] 

CAREX^  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cyptr- 
acecB,  Wid  the  tribe  CaricecB.  The  flowers  are  diclinous,  arranged 
in  imbricated  spikes,  each  covered  by  a  glume ;  the  female  flowers 
have  a  single  urceolate  persistent  perigone,  in  which  the  nut  is 
completely  inclosed ;  one  style  with  two  or  tiiree  stigmas ;  the  male 
flowers  have  three  stamens  without  a  perianth.  The  species  for  the 
most  part  are  inconspicuous  and  unattractive  plants.  They  are 
however  exceedingly  numerous.  Lindley,  in  Loudon's  '  Encyclopaedia 
of  Plants,'  describes  105  species,  and  this  is  probably  not  more  than 
half  that  are  now  known.  Babington  describes  66  species  as  natives 
of  Great  Britain,  being  the  lai^est  number  of  species  of  any  genus 
of  phsenogamous  plants  in  this  country.  Koch,  in  the  '  Flora  Ger- 
manica,'  describes  103  species  as  natives  of  Germany  and  Switzerland 
Although  so  numerous,  they  serve  directiy  few  of  the  purposes  of 
man  or  the  higher  animals.  Their  leaves  are  tough  and  hard,  so  that 
none  of  them  are  eaten  by  cattle  except  in  cases  of  great  necessity. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  inhabitants  of  wet  and  swampy  grounds, 
in  bogs,  fens,  and  marshes,  in  the  temperate  and  northern  parts  of 
the  world.  In  the  hop-grounds  of  Great  Britain  the  leaves  of  some 
of  the  species  are  used  for  tying  the  bines  of  the  hops  to  the  poles. 
In  Italy  they  are  used  for  placing  between  the  staves  of  wine-casks, 
are  woven  over  Florence  flasks,  and  occasionally  employed  for  making 
chair-bottoms.  The  leaves  of  the  Carex  sylvcUica,  according  to 
Linnseus,  arc  combed  and  dressed,  and  used  as  a  warm  lining  for 
gloves  and  riioes ;  and  thus  protected,  the  Laplanders  seldom  suffer 
from  being  frost-bitten. 

O.  arenaria  has  a  place  in  some  of  the  continental  Pharmacopoeias ; 
its  root-stock  being  a  reputed  diaphoretic  and  diuretic  It  is  used 
under  the  name  of  German  Sarsaparilla,  aud  is  employed  in  cases  of 
skin-disease,  as  well  as  in  secondary  syphilis. 

The  C.  hirta  and  C.  disticlM  ai'e  often  substituted  fraudulently  or  by 
mistake  for  it,  but  do  not,  according  to  Bischoff,  possess  such  active 
properties.  It  is  not  known  to  the  practitioners  in  medicine  of  this 
country. 

C.  armaria  grows  on  the  sands  of  the  sea-shore,  and  is  one  of  the 
plants  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  Elymus,  Arundo,  and  Psamma, 
binds  the  loose  sands,  and  forms  them  into  solid  embankments. 
Although  most  of  the  species  are  devoid  of  striking  beauty,  soine  of 


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them  when  in  flower  are  much  admired  on  acoount  of  the  elegant 
drooping  of  their  panicles  of  golden-coloured  flowers.  This  is  the 
case  with  C.  remota  and  C.  Prateri,  Unattractive  as  the  mass  of 
these  plants  are  to  the  general  observer,  they  have  been  carefully 
studied  by  botanists,  and  Willdenow,  Ooodenough,  Wahlenberg,  Sckuhr, 
Soopoli,  Boott,  Babington,  and  S.  Qibson  have  done  much  to  throw 
light  upon  this  obscure  genus.  Their  importance  in  nature  however 
must  not  be  estimated  by  their  appearance  or  their  utility  to  man. 
They  frequently  form  the  only  vegetation  of  the  swamp,  and  by  their 
existence  and  decay  they  gradually  form  a  soil,  on  which  plants  more 
immediately  useful  to  man  may  be  grown. 
CARIACUS.    [CebvidaI 

gARIAMA,  or  SARIAMA,  the  name  by  which  the  Palamedea 
crittala  of  Qmelin,  iHchohphtu  crigtatut  of  Illiger,  Mierodactylut  of 
GeofEh>y,  the  Saria  of  the  Guaranis  of  Paraguay,  and  the  Seriema  or 
Ceriema  of  the  Brazilian  natives,  is  known  to  the  Portuguese  colonists 
of  BraziL 

Marcgrave,  Piso,  lyAzara,  Qeoffiroy,  and  the  Prince  de  Wied  have 
entered  into  a  detailed  history  of  this  bird,  which  has  always  attracted 
the  notice  of  zoologists  on  acoount  of  the  curious  relations  which 
its  structure  indicates  to  the  QraUatoret  (Waders),  the  Gallinaceous 
birds,  and  even  the  StrtUhionidof, 

It  is  found  in  the  great  solitary  moimtain-plains,  surrounded  by  the 
forests  which  extend  over  so  large  a  proportion  of  Brazil,  and  where 
its  sonorous  voice  often  breaks  the  silence  of  the  desert.  It  is  also 
found  in  Paraguay,  but  is  said  to  occur  there  more  rarely.  It  feeds 
in  a  state  of  nature  on  lizards,  insects,  and  molluscous  animals,  and 
not  improbably  small  seeds  occasionally. 

The  habits  of  the  wild  ^^nama  are  of  the  most  retired  description. 
A  tenant  of  the  vast  solitudes  that  form  its  wide  spreading  home,  it 
flies  from  the  face  of  man ;  and  being  almost  always  on  the  watch  is 
very  difficult  of  approach.  Stalking  slowly  on  the  plain  its  eye 
instantly  notes  the  distant  intruder,  and  after  a  moment's  hesitation 
«t  decides  either  to  stay  or  fly,  according  to  the  circumstances.  Those 
who  have  had  the  best  opportunities  of  observing  them  in  their  native 
wilds  state  that  the  hunters,  though  surrounded  by  these  birds,  caimot 
without  considerable  labour  obtain  them.  As  soon  as  the  bird 
perceives  tiukt  it  is  pursued,  it  sets  ofif  with  great  rapidity;  the 
pursuer  follows  on  horseback,  but  it  is  not  till  after  a  sharp  and 
tedious  course,  with  all  its  turns  and  windings,  that  the  Qariama, 
wearied  out,  either  crouches  on  the  ground,  or  alights  on  some  bush 
or  tree.  Till  this  happens  the  horseman  in  vain  seeks  for  an  oppor- 
tunity to  throw  his  lasso  or  pull  his  trigger. 

But  wild  as  the  bird  is  in  its  natural  state  it  ia  easily  domesticated, 
and  will  live  sociably  with  the  other  tenants  of  the  poultry-yard.  In 
this  state  they  will  eat  little  pieces  of  meat,  but  are  said  to  refuse 
maize,  though  it  is  probable  that  other  kinds  of  grain  may  not  be 
disagreeable  to  them.  When  thus  tamed  they  will  walk  about  the 
hamlet  or  village  where  they  have  been  brought  up,  and  even  return 
after  taking  short  trips  in  the  fields  like  the  poultry.  The  flesh  is 
described  as  very  good  food ;  the  Brazilians  however  do  not  hunt  it 
for  the  game-bag. 

The  nest  is  composed  of  dry  sticks  and  branches,  covered  with  cow- 
dung,  and  placed  upon  a  low  or  a  moderately  high  tree.  The  eggs  are 
generally  two  in  number  and  white. 

It  has  the  neck  covered  with  long  loose  barbed  feathers,  floating 
and  silky  upon  the  nape,  somewhat  like  those  of  the  bittern  :  when 
the  bird  is  excited  or  frightened  it  can  raise  them.  A  light  crest 
consisting  of  a  few  disunited  feathers  forms  an  ornamental  ttSt  on  the 
front,  and  advances  upon  the  base  of  the  bill,  which  it  overshadows, 
ifeminding  the  observer  of  the  crests  of  the  Rupicolcs  (Cocks  of  the 
Hock)  in  its  disposition.  Space  round  the  eyes  naked,  the  nakedness, 
which  is  bluish,  reaching  to  the  bUl.  The  upper  eye-lid  fringed  with 
long  dark  eye-lashes.  Feet  long  and  slender,  and  the  toes  very  short, 
whence  G^firoy's  name.    Tail  rounded  and  of  moderate  length. 

The  general  colour  of  the  ^ftriama  is  an  earthy-brown  on  the  upper 
parts,  while  the  lower  parts  are  whitish.  All  the  neck-feathers  are 
finely  rayed  with  zigzags  of  darker  brown  than  that  which  forms  the 
general  ground-colour  of  the  plumage.  The  two  middle  feathers  of 
the  tail  are  brown :  the  others  for  the  most  part  black,  with  white 
extremities,  and  marbled  with  black  upon  a  white  ground  at  their 
insertion.  The  wing-feathers  are  blackish  and  traversed  by  white 
bands  dotted  with  blackish.  There  are  delicate  zigzags  of  a  clear 
brown  on  the  feathers  of  the  front  of  the  neck,  the  ground  colour  of 
these  feathers  being  whitiah.  The  feathers  of  the  breast  and  belly  are 
longitudinally  rayed  with  white  in  the  direction  of  the  shafts.  The 
naked  part  of  the  leg,  the  feet,  and  the  toes  are  of  an  orange-red. 
The  bill,  which  is  of  a  bright  coral  red  in  the  adult,  is  blackish  or 
marbled  with  black  and  reddish  in  the  younger  birds.  The  iris  is 
yellow. 

D*  Azara  gives  80  inches  as  the  length  of  the  young  bird  described  by 
him ;  that  of  the  Prince  de  Wied  was  half  an  inch  more,  and  the  adult 
male  of  the  Museum  of  the  Netherlands,  from  which  Temminck's 
figure  was  taken,  measures,  according  to  him,  82  inches.  The  nestlings 
are  covered  with  down)  and  with  the  iris  of  a  very  lively  yellow.  They 
are  very  soon  able  to  run. 

Temminck,  after  observing  that  the  ^'U'i&n^a  at  first  view  seems  to 
offer  some  resemblance  to  Uie^Secretary-Biixl  of  Africa  (Gypogfranut 


serperUariut),  remarks  that  this  resemblance  vanishes  upon  a  e\(aet 
inspection,  and  that,  if  it  be  permitted  to  form  any  judgment  from  tbe 
forms  solely,  it  would  seem  probable  that  the  skeleton  of  the  ^ariamt, 
which  was  not  known  when  he  wrote,  ought  to  have  some  relatioiuhip 


(^ariama  {Palamedea  crlitata), 

with  that  of  the  Common  Bittern  {BotauniA,  steUarit),  of  the  Aguni 
{Psophia  crepUana),  and  the  GraUatores  generally.  There  is  a  akektoD 
of  a  female  in  the  museum  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  pre- 
sented by  the  Earl  of  Derby,  in  whose  possession  the  bird  died.  An 
account  of  the  anatomy  of  this  bird  by  Mr.  Martin  was  published  in 
the  '  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society.'  In  this  paper  Mr.  Martia 
observes  that  "  in  its  general  aspect  the  skeleton  of  the  fariama  u 
very  remarkable.  The  comparative  shortness  of  the  neck,  the  com- 
pactness of  the  chest,  and  stoutness  of  the  ribs,  together  with  the 
abbreviated  condition  of  the  wings,  appear  as  if  out  of  harmony  with 
the  length  of  the  limbs,  especially  of  the  tibia  and  tarsus,  while  the 
toes  concluding  tins  length  of  limb  are  short,  the  hinder  one  being 
situated  high  and  not  touching  the  ground. 

"  Though  the  Cariama  in  its  osseous  structure  exhibits  but  little 
resemblance  to  the  birds  of  the  Raptorial  order,  it  approaches  tha 
order  very  remarkably  in  the  structure  of  the  eye,  which  is  surroonded 
by  a  firm  consolidated  osseous  ring.  This  ring  departs  materiaHy  in 
its  formation  from  what  obtains  among  the  GraUatores  generallj', 
where  it  is  imbricated  and  slight,  and  indeed  scarcely  merits  the 
name  of  osseous." 

For  the  anatomy  of  the  bird  we  refer  the  reader  to  Mr.  Martm  s 
paper,  but  we  may  observe  that,  according  to  Mr.  Martin,  '*  in  the 
whole  of  the  visceral  arrangement  a  close  afi^ty  may  be  obserred  to 
the  Grue  tribe."  In  the  Stanley  Crane  (Anthropoida  P<^^^ 
Bechst.)  the  intestines  are  similarly  disposed  in  folds  or  loops,  »nd^e 
two  C89ca,  given  off  6  inches  from  the  anus,  are  4  inches  long.  In  ^* 
Stanley  Crane  however  the  muscular  coat  of  the  gizzard  is  thicter 
than  in  the  ^^ri^ma,  being  in  some  parts  an  inch  across,  while  m  tfe 
latter  bird  it  is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch ;  hence  is  there  in  tJuapowJ 
an  index  of  a  less  vegetable  regimen.  In  the  Stanley  Crane  ^^Jz 
length  of  the  intestines  is  5  feet  3  inches.  In  the  fariama  it  is  3  iae« 
6i  inches.  , 

CA'RICA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natonU  order 
Papayacea.  One  of  the  species,  C.  Papaya^  is  a  remarkable  tr«e 
found  in  various  parts  of  South  America,  with  a  simple  unbrancflea 
erect  trunk,  from  12  to  20  feet  high,  abounding  in  a  n^J"|lJ*' 
having  broad  7-lobed  leaves  a  foot  at  least  long,  and  unisexual  flow^ 
the  inales  of  which  are  monopetalous,  with'ten  short  stamps  i^^^^J^ 
in  the  i 


in  the  mouth  of  the  corolla ;  the  females  polypetalous,  with  a  W 
ovary,  having  a  starry  sort  of  stigma.  The  fruit  is  thus  descntefl 
Hooker  in  the  'Botanical  Magazme:*  "The  corolla  fiiUs  a^^J"'  T\ 
the  germen  in  coming  to  maturity  becomes  pendent ;  the  tree,  . 
advancing  in  height  casts  its  lower  leaves  from  below  the  "^^^JV^i^ 
the  fruit  constituting  a  large  oblong  kind  of  berry,  or  mon?  convc  . 


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speaking  pepo,  rests  suspended  upon  the  leafless  part  of  the  trunk, 
much  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the^  rtocarpuSf  or  Bread-Fruit.  The 
sorfaoe,  when  the  fruit  is  ripe,  is  a  pale  and  rather  dingy  orange- 
yellow,  ohflcurely  furrowed,  and  often  rough  with  little  elevated 
points.  The  fledi  is  very  thick,  coloured,  but  paler  than  the  outside, 
and  there  passes  through  it  longitudinally  five  bundles  of  vessels.  In 
the  centre  is  a  considerable  cavity,  with  five  longitudinal  ridges,  and 
these  are  thickly  clothed  with  numerous  seeds."  This  fruit  is  called 
the  Papaw,  and  is  accounted  of  considerable  interest  in  the  tropical 
part  of  the  world.  An  excellent  histoiy  of  its  uses  is  compiled  in  the 
work  already  quoted,  from  which  we  borrow  the  fbllowing :  "The 
papaw-tree  is  of  rapid  growth.  St.  Pierre  probably  spoke  from  his 
owa  knowledge  when  he  described  Viiginia  as  having  planted  a  seed 
which  in  three  years'  time  produced  a  trunk  20  feet  high,  with  its 
upper  part  loaded  with  ripe  fruit.  It  is  for  the  sake  of  this  fruit 
mainly  that  the  plant  is  cultivated ;  but  if  the  flavour  were  not  better 
than  that  yielded  by  what  ripened  in  our  stove,  I  cannot  recommend 
it  as  at  gJI  agreeable."  Brown,  in  his  *  Natural  History  of  Jamaica,' 
tells  us  that  "  it  has  a  pleasant  sweetish  taste,  and  is  much  liked  by 
many  people ;  that  while  young  it  is  commonly  used  for  sauce ;  and 
when  boiled  and  mixed  with  lime-juice  and  sugar  is  not  unlike  or 
much  inferior  to  that  made  of  real  apples,  for  which  it  is  commonly  sub- 
stituted." In  the  opinion  of  Sloane  it  is  not  a  very  pleasant  fruit,  even 
when  helped  with  pepper  and  sugar ;  and  the  more  ordinary  use,  he 
adds,  of  this  fruit  is  before  it  is  ripe,  when,  as  large  as  one's  fist,  it  is 
cut  into  slices,  soaked  in  water  till  the  milky  juice  is  out,  and  then 
boiled  and  eaten  as  turnips  or  baked  as  apples.  The  juice  of  the  pulp, 
according  to  Descourtilz,  in  the  *  Flore  Midicale  des  Antilles,'  is  used 
as  a  cosmetic  to  remove  freckles  on  the  skin  caused  by  the  sun ;  and 
the  negroes  in  the  French  colonies  employ  the  leaves  to  waa^  their 
linra,  instead  of  soap.  As  a  medicinal  plant  the  Papaw-Tree  is  parti- 
cularly deserving  of  notice.  Hernandez  long  ago  spoke  of  the  milky 
juice  of  the  unripe  fruit  as  a  powerful  voi*mifuge,  which  has  been  con- 
firmed by  M.  Charpentier  Cossigni,  as  mentioned  in  the  'Asiatic 
Researches '  by  Dr.  Fleming  (vol.  iL  p.  162).  A  single  dose,  that  gen- 
tleman says,  is  sufficient  to  cure  the  disease  however  abimdant  the 
worms  may  be.  Another  French  writer  (Poupdo  Desportes)  recom- 
mends the  use  of  the  seed  instead  of  the  juice.  But  the  most  extra- 
ordinary property  of  the  Papaw-Tree  is  that  which  is  related,  first  I 
believe  by  Brown,  in  his  *  Natural  History  of  Jamaica,'  namely,  that 
"water  impregnated  with  the  milky  juice  of  this  tree  is  thought  to 
make  all  sorts  of  meat  washed  in  it  very  tender ;  but  eight  or  ten 
ininates  steeping,  it  is  said,  will  make  it  so  soft  that  it  wUl  drop  in 
pieces  from  the  spit  before  it  is  well  roasted  or  turn  soon  to  rags  in 
the  boiling."  Mr.  Neill  mentioned  this  circumstance  more  fully  in  his 
interesting  'Horticultural  Tour  through  Holland  and  the  Nether- 
lands ; '  and  it  has  repeatedly  been  confirmed  to  me  by  gentlemen  of 
this  country  who  have  been  long  resident  in  the  West  Indies,  and  who 
speak  of  the  employment  of  the  juice  for  such  a  purpose  as  of  quite  a 
general  occurrence ;  and  more,  that  old  hogs  and  old  poultry  which 
are  fed  upon  the  leaves  and  fruit,  however  tough  the  meat  they  afibrd 
might  otherwise  be,  are  thus  rendered  perfectly  tender,  and  good  too, 
if  eaten  as  soon  as  killed,  but  that  the  flesh  very  soon  passes  into  a 
state  of  putridity.  The  juice  causes  a  separation  of  the  muscular 
fibres.  Nay,  the  very  vapour  of  the  tree  serves  the  purpose ;  hence 
many  people  suspend  the  joints  of  meat,  fowls,  &c.  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  tree  in  order  to  prepare  them  for  the  table.  Such  is  the  effect 
upon  hogs  that  feed  upon  the  fruit,  that  the  good  housewives  reject  the 
fleah  of  such  if  it  is  destined  for  salting,  well  knowing  that  it  is  not 
sufficiently  firm  for  that  purpose. 

"Whether  this  power  of  hastening  the  decay  of  meat  be  attri- 
butable to  the  animal  matter  or  fibrine  contained  in  the  juice  of  the 
Papaw  or  not>  I  will  not  pretend  to  say  ;  but  the  presence  of  such 
is  a  fact  scarcely  less  wonderful  than  the  property  just  alluded  to. 
Two  specimens  of  tho  juice  were  brought  fr^m  the  Isle  of  France ; 
in  the  one  it  had  been  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  was  in  the  state  of 
ui  extract ;  in  the  other  the  juice  was  preserved  by  being  mixed  with 
an  equal  bulk  of  rum.  Both  were  subjected  to  analysis  by  Yauquelin. 
The  first  was  of  a  yellowish-white  colour  and  semi-transparentw  Its 
tsste  was  sweetish.  It  had  no  smell,  and  was  pretty  solid;  but 
attracted  moisture  when  kept  in  a  damp  place.  The  second  was 
reddish-brown,  and  had  the  smell  and  taste  of  boiled  beef.  When 
the  first  specimen  was  macerated  in  cold  water  the  greatest  part  of  it 
diasolved ;  the  solution  frothed  with  soap.  The  addition  of  nitric 
»cid  coagulated  it>  and  rendered  it  white ;  and  when  boiled  it  threw 
down  abundance  of  white  flakes.  When  the  juice  of  the  Papaw  is 
treated  with  water  the  greatest  part  dissolves ;  but  there  remains 
a  substance  insoluble,  which  has  a  greasy  appearance.  It  softens  in 
the  air,  and  becomes  viscid,  brown,  and  semi-transparent.  When 
thrown  on  burning  coals  it  melted,  let  drops  of  gi-ease  exude,  emitted 
the  noise  of  meat  roasting,  and  produced  a  smoke  which  had  the 
odour  of  fat  volatilised.  It  left  behind  it  no  residue.  The  substance 
^a«  fibrine.  The  resemblance  between  the  juice  of  the  Papaw  and 
^imal  meat  is  so  close  that  one  would  be  tempted  to  suspect  some 
imposition,  were  not  the  evidence  that  it  is  really  the  juice  of  a  tree 
quite  imquestionable.  This  fibiine  had  been  supposed  previously  to 
belong  exclusively  to  the  animal  kingdom ;  but  it  haa  since  beeu 
foimd  in  other  vegetables,  especially  in  Fuvf/i.'' 


C.  digUalcky  the  Chambum,  is  a  Brazilian  plant,  and  regarded  with 
little  less  honour  than  the  Upas-Tree  itself.  Poppig  says  the  juic« 
which  -  spirted  on  his  face  when  he  cut  into  the  tree  only  caused 
itching  in  the  face  and  a  few  blisters  on  the  hands.  The  male  flowers 
have  a  very  disgusting  smell. 

CARINA,  in  Botany,  the  two  oblique  front  petals  of  a  PapUiona- 
oeous  flower,  united  by  their  contiguous  edges  into  an  organ  having  a 
figure  somelMng  like  that  of  the  keel  of  a  boat. 

CARINA'RIA,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  MoUusca,  arranged  by 
Cuvier  under  his  fifth  order  of  Qasteropods  (Lamarck's  Heteropoda) 
as  the  type  of  that  order,  and  by  De  Blainville  under  the  first  family 
(Nectopoda)  of  his  order  NucUobranchiaia.  The  shells  of  this  genus 
were  formerly  known  to  collectors  under  the  names  of  Venus's 
Slipper  and  the  Qlass  Nautilus:  indeed  one  of  the  species  is  the 
ArgonatUa  vUreus  of  Qmelin. 

The  body  of  the  animal  is  BulMnrUndrical,  elongated,  transparent, 
dotted  with  elevated  points,  prolonged  posteriorly,  and  furnished 
towards  the  upper  part  of  its  posterior  extremity  with  a  sort  of  fin, 
which  performs  the  part  of  a  rudder.  A  reddish  thin  compressed 
sub-circular  fin,  beautifully  reticulated  by  decussating  muscular 
fibres,  furnished  with  a  sort  of  acetabulum  or  sucker,  rises  from  the 
belly  nearly  opposite  to  the  point  on  the  bade  occupied  by  the  shell. 
With  the  aid  of  this  fin  it  floats  along.  M.  Verany  says  that, 
notwithstanding  the  greatest  possible  attention,  he  has  not  been  able 
to  discover  the  use  of  the  sucker,  or  rather  suctorial  disc,  in  the 
ventral  fin ;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  analogous  to  the 
foot  in  Gasteropods,  and  that  the  animal  avails  itself  of  its  powers  of 
adhesion  by'  sticking  to  rocks  or  other  submarine  bodies,  and  thus 
lying  at  anchor,  as  it  were,  in  repose,  with  the  frail  shell  that  protects 
the  droulatmg  and  respiratory  oi*gans,  together  with  the  liver  and 
generative  gland,  lowermost — the  same  position  occupied  by  it  when 
the  animal  is  in  motion. 

The  head  is  capable  of  contraction  ^vithin  the  body,  and  is  provided 
with  a  sort  of  retractile  proboscis.  There  are  two  tentacula  of  some 
length  and  of  a  subconical  shape,  placed  laterally  at  the  insertion  of 
the  head ;  and  there  are  two  eyes  situated  at  the  base  of  the  tentacula. 
The  mouth  is  furnished  with  a  circular  jaw,  armed  with  four  rows  of 
teeth,  of  which  the  two  internal  ones  are  fixed  and  smalL 

The  organs  of  respiration,  together  with  the  heart  and  vent,  are 
protected  by  a  delicate  transparent  shell,  somewhat  compressed, 
without  a  spire,  but  with  a  syimmit  a  little  recurved  backwards,  and 
the  opening  wide,  entire,  and  oval.  The  vent  is  under  the  edge  of 
the  mantle,  which  envelopes  the  oi'gana  above  mentioned  and  lines 
the  shelL 

The  sexes,  according  to  M.  Verany,  are  separated  as  in  the  FiroUe 
(Ptd'otrachea) ;  the  sexual  organ  of  the  male  being  placed  a  little 
anteriorly  on  the  right  side  under  the  subdrcular  belly-fin ;  that  of 
the  femsJe  is  near  the  vent. 

The  digestive  organs  consist  of  a  retractile  tube  famished  within 
with  a  homy  rasp,  and  a  short  oesophagus,  opening  into  a  slightly 
dilated  stomach,  which  is  continued  into  an  intestinal  tube  passing 
straight  towards  the  shell,  into  which  it  enters,  and  making  a  convolu- 
tion terminates  in  the  vent 

^  There  is  between  the  eyes  a  ganglion  from  which  many  nerves  are 
given  ofiT,  and  of  these  six  are  directed  forwards  and  four  backwards. 
Of  the  six  directed  forwards  two  go  towards  the  mouth,  and  appear 
to  provide  for  the  action  of  the  proboscis,  two  belong  to  the 
tentacula,  and  two  to  the  eyes.  Of  the  four  directed  backwards,  two 
go  directly  to  the  nucleus  in  the  sheU,  and  the  o^er  two  unite  under 
the  fin,  whence  they  ramify  into  five  branches,  three  of  which  are 
appropriated  to  the  belly-fin,  and  two  go  towards  the  tail 

Carinaria  Mediterranea  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the  genus. 
M.  Verany  states  that  it  is  to  be  found  all  the  year  on  the  coasts  (in 


Carinaria  McdiUrranca^  male, 
o,  Situation  of  the  ganglion  or  brain ;  ft,  eye  ;  c,  head ;  d,  retractile  tube  ; 
/,  digestive  tube ;  g,  »hell  containing  the  organs  of  respiration,  heart,  &c. ; 
A,  the  posterior  or  rudder-ftn ;  *,  ventral-fln;  *,  the  sucker;  /,  /,  nerves. 
The  figure,  with  slight  modification,  is  taken  fk-om  Verany's. 
the  neighbourhood  of  Nice),  but  that  it  is  sufficiently  abundant  in  the 
months  of  May,  June,  and  July.  He  further  observes , that  it  is  rare 
to  find  it  with  the  shell  entire,  that  it  feeds  on  gelatinous  bodies  and 
on  very  small  fishes,  such  m  Atfterina  nana  (the  Dwarf  Atherine),  and 


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CARLINA. 


CARNIVORA. 


78* 


that  he  has  often  found  in  the  stomach  the  remains  of  other  Carinarice, 
which  satisfies  him  that  the  species  is  mutually  destructive. 

Delle  Chiajei  who  has  placed  the  animal  in  its  proper  position  with 
relation  to  the  brain,  has  given  a  careful  and  detailed  account  of  its 
organisation  in  his  '  Memorie  suUa  Storia  e  Notomia  degli  Animali 
senza  Vertebre  del  Regno  di  Napoli/  vol.  ii.  p.  214,  illustrated  in  his 
plates  14  and  15.  DeUe  Chiaje  makes  the  spermatic  canals  rise  at  the 
posterior  base  or  insertion  of  the  ventral  fin  and  proceed  to  the  genital 
oigan,  near  the  origin  of  what  we  have  termed  the  rudder-fin ;  but  he 
gives  no  external  view  of  the  apparatus  so  conspicuous  in  M.  yeran/s 
figure.  ^ 

Carinaria  has  never  yet  been  taken  in  any  other  than  warm  lati- 
tudes. Three  species,  C.  vitreaf  C.  fragilis,  and  C.  Mediteiranea,  are 
recorded  without  reckoning  Lamai'ck's  C.  ct/inbium. 


The  above  is  copied  from  the  Iconographie  of  Cuvier's  'Animal 
KiDgdom,'  and  represents  the  Carinaria  with  its  back  uppermost.  It 
is  denominated  Carinaria  cymbiwmf  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it 
is  Carinaria  Mediterranea. 

CARLINA.    [Thistle.] 

CARNATION,  a  kind  of  Dianthus  or  Pink,  a  vaiiety  of  the 
JHanthut  CaryophyUtu  of  botanists,  much  esteemed  by  florists  for  the 
beautiful  colom's  of  its  sweet-scented  double  flowers.  It  is  usually 
grown  in  rich  light  loamy  soil,  in  which  sand  enough  is  mixed  to 
prevent  water  stagnating,  and  is  propagated  either  by  cuttings  or 
layering.  A  great  many  varieties  are  cultivated,  the  most  esteemed 
of  which  are  those  wiUi  a  strong  tall  stem  about  8  feet  high,  and 
reguleu*ly  formed  flowers,  with  the  stripes  or  markings  dear,  well 
defined,  and  broadest  near  the  end  of  the  petals.  From  their  colours 
they  are  technically  distinguished  into  Flakes,  which  have  but  one 
colour,  disposed  in  stripes  upon  a  white  ground ;  Bizards,  which  have 
stripes  of  two  colours ;  and  Picotees  or  Piquettees,  which  have  petals 
notched  at  the  edges,  and  spotted  instead  of  striped  upon  a  ground 
that  is  most  commonly  pale-yellow. 

CARNELIAN.    [Agate.] 

CARNITORA,  a  term  generally  applicable  to  any  creatures  that 
feed  on  flesh  or  animal  substances,  but  definitely  applied  to  that  order 
of  the  Mammalia  which  prey  upon  other  animals. 

The  forms  of  this  order  are  varied,  and  the  number  of  species 
consi4erable.  Furnished  like  Man  and  the  Q^adrumana  with  three 
sorts  of  teeth,  and  nails  or  claws  on  the  feet,  they  entirely  difler  &om 
those  two  orders  in  never  having  the  thumbs  of  the  anterior  extremity 
capable  of  being  opposed  to  the  other  fingers.  The  greater  or  less 
development  of  their  molai*  teeth  as  cutting  or  lacerating  instruments 
seems  to  determine  the  kind  of  animal  food  fitted  for  their  support. 
Those  Camivora  which  have  their  molars  totally  or  partially  tuber- 
culated  partake  of  a  diet  in  which  vegetables  form  a  greater  or  less 

Sroportion,  and  those  which  have  them  serrated  as  it  were  with  points 
ve  principally  on  insects.  There  are  other  modifications  of  these 
molars,  fitting  them  for  crushing  bones  or  dividing  animal  muscle, 
according  to  the  exigency  of  the  animal ;  but  in  all,  as  a  general  rule, 
the  articulation  of  the  jaw  does  not  permit  of  horizontal  movement, 
the  power  being  simply  that  of  opening  and  shutting,  upwards  and 
downwards,  like  a  pair  of  shears. 

In  their  general  organisation  the  prevailing  feature  of  the  skull  is 
the  great  development  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  afibrding  room  for  the 
action  of  the  powerful  muscles  that  work  the  trenchant  jaw ;  the 
vrbit  is  not  separated  from  the  temporal  fossa.  The  articulation  of 
Jie  bones  of  the  fore-arm  in  most  of  the  Camivora  is  so  constructed 
as  to  allow  of  free  motion,  though  in  a  degree  inferior  to  that 
bestowed  on  the  Quadrtmiana,  The  brain  (cerebrum)  is  considerable 
in  bulk,  well  marked,  but  without  a  third  lobe,  and  does  not  cover 
the  cerebellum.  Of  all  the  senses  that  of  smelling  seems  to  be  in  the 
highest  perfection,  the  pituitary  membrane  being  extended  over  a 
manifold  labyrinth  of  bony  plates.  The  intestines  are  comparatively 
short,  the  nature  of  their  food  requiring  less  elaboration  than  that 
necessary  for  the  extraction  of  nourishment  from  vegetables. 

Cuvier  gives  the  name  of  Camasaiers  (Flesh-Eaters)  to  the  order,  and 
divides  it  into  the  following  families ; — 

I.     Cheiroptera, 

These,  as  he  observes,  have  still  some  affinities  with  the  Qiuidru- 
mana,  as  is  manifested  by  the  pendulous  genital  oi^an  of  the  male, 
and  the  position  of  the  teats  of  the  female  on  the  breast.  Their 
distinguishing  character  consists  of  a  fold  of  the  skin,  which  lising  at 
the  sido  of  the  neck  is  extended  between  the  fore  feet  and  the  fingers 


Skull  of  Pteropus  Keraudrenius, 


or  toes,  so  as  to  suspend  the  animal  in  the  air,  and  in'  those  genera 
which  have  the  bones  of  the  hand  sufficiently  developed  to  spread  a 
sufficient  extent  of  this  membranous  skin,  there  is  a  power  of  executing 
all  the  evolutions  required  for  flight.  Strong  calvicles  and  laige 
shoulder-blades  were  required  for  this  feat,  and  we  accordin^y  find 
great  strength  and  solidity  thrown  into  those  parts ;  but  as  the  rotatory 
motion  of  the  fore-arm  would  have  been 
worse  than  useless,  inasmuch  as  it  would 
have  weakened  the  force  of  the  impulse 
of  the  membranous  wing,  and  would 
have  consequently  lessened  the  power  of 
flying,  we  find  it  almost  entirely  absent 
Four  great  canine  teeth  are  found  in  all 
the  genera  of  this  large  family ;  but  the 
number  of  their  incisors  varies.  Some 
idea  will  be  formed  of  the  arrangement  of  the  teeth  in  the  Cheiroptera 
from  the  annexed  cut 

In  the  Cheiroptei'a,  as  we  have  seen,  the  teats  are  pectoral,  but  in 
all  the  rest  of  the  families  they  are  ventral. 
The  next  family  in  Cuvier's  arrangement  is — 

II.  Inaectivoi'a. 

The  lateral  membranes  with  which  the  Cheiroptera  are  fumighed 
are  no  longer  to  be  found  in  the  In»eclivora,  which  still  have  clavicles; 
and  their  molai-s  like  those  of  the  first  family  are  serrated  with  conical 
points.  In  their  dental  system  the  position  and  relative  proportiou 
of  their  incisors  and  canine  teeth  vary.  Some  have  long  incisore  in 
front,  followed  by  other  incisoi-s  and  canines  lower  than  the  molars,  a 
scale  of  dentition  to  be  found  among  some  of  the  ^iodrumana 
{Tartiu9)t  and  approaching  in  a  degree  the  dental  system  of  the 
Jtodentta.  Others  have  lai^e  and  widely-separated  canines,  between 
which  are  small  incisors,  the  most  ordinary  disposition  of  the  teeth 
in  the  Quadrumana  and  Camivora,  The  feet  are  shoit,  and  their 
motions  comparatively  feeble;  the  male  oi-gau  is  furnished  with  a 
sheath,  and  the  teats  are  ventral  There  is  no  caecal  appendage,  and 
the  entire  sole  of  the  foot  is  applied  to  the  ground  in  walking.  Their 
habits,  resembling  in  a  degree  those  of  the  Clveiroptera^  are  frequently 
nocturnal  and  subterranean.  Insects 
form  their  principal  nourishment,  and 
many  of  them,  especially  in  cold  coun- 
tries, pass  the  winter  in  a  dormant  state. 
Hitherto  we  have  seen  the  carnivorous 
oi-ganisation  in  a  comparatively  mitigated 
state,  but  we  now  approach  CuTiers 
third  family,  the  Camivora,  properly  so 
called,  which  have  every  part  of  their 
frame,  in  the  cats  especially,  formed  for  the  destruction  of  other 
animals.  In  two  of  the  tribes,  but  more  particularly  in  one,  namely, 
the  Plantigrades,  the  carnivorous  form  is  indeed  somewhat  modified, 
but  among  these  three  tribes  we  find  the  greatest  harmony  of  parts, 
fitted  for  keeping  down  the  numbers  of  the  granivorous  and  phyto- 
phagous animals,  to  be  anywhere  observed  among  the  Mammalia. 

III.  Camivora, 

In  this  family  we  have  the  thirst  for  blood  at  its  highest  degree  of 
development,  and  with  it  the  power  and  the  instruments  for  gratifying 
the  appetite.     Four  large,  long,  and  distant  canines,  separated  by  the 
intervention  of  six  incisors  in  each  jaw  (the  root  of  the  second  of  the 
lower  incisors  being  a  little  deeper  planted  than  the  others) — molarB, 
either  formed  entirely  with  cutting  edges,  or  constructed  partly  wiUi 
blunt  tubercles ;  these,  with  the  powerful  mechanism  of  the  jaw  in 
which  they  are  set,  present  a  most  formidable  apparatus  for  finishing 
the  bloody  task  which  the  rest  of  the  frame  of  the  C<tmivora  is  so 
nicely  adapted  for  commencing  and  continuing.    The  more  completely 
trenchant  these  molars  are,  the  more  completely  carnivorous  are  the 
habits  of  the  animal,  and  the  different  gradations  may  be  in  general 
safely  traced  by  observing  the  proportional  extent  of  surface,  con- 
sidered with  reference  to  its  tubercular  or  cutting  shape.     The  Bear^ 
which,  taken  as  a  whole,  may  be  said  to  be  capable  of  supporting 
themselves  entirely  on  vegetables,  have  nearly  all  their  molar  teeth 
tuberculated.    [Bear,] 

The  anterior  molars  have  the  most  cutting  edges,  and  then  comes 
a  molar  larger  than  the  rest,  with  a  tuberculated  heel  or  process  more 
or  less  developed,  and  behind  it  one  or  two  small  teeth  almost  entirely 
flat.  With  these  small  teeth  Uie  dogs,  as  Baron  Cuvier  has  observed, 
masticate  the  grass  which  they  occasionally  swallow  for  medicinal 
purposes  :  he  also  agrees  with  M.  Frederic  Cuvier  in  naming  the 
great  molar  above  and  its  antagonist  below  '  camassi^res,'  or  flesh- 
cutters  ;  the  anterior  pointed  molars,  false  molars ;  and  the  posterior 
blunt  molars,  '  tuberculeuses,'  or  tuberculated  molars. 

By  observing  these  dificrences  of  dental  form,  the  genera  of 
Camivora  are  most  surely  established,  and  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a 
general  rule,  that  those  carnivorous  animals  which  have  the  shortest 
jaw  and  the  least  development  of  the  false  molars  are  those  in  which 
the  sanguinary  propensity  and  the  destructive  power  coexist  in  the 
highest  degree. 

Many  of  the  genera  apply  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  (particiil^ulv 
of  the  hinder  one)  to  the  ground  in  walking,  and  this  sole  ie  gem i ally 
destitute  of  hair.     These  are  called  Plc.rlrnc.da. 


^^^^  ^:^ 


Skull  of  common  Hedgehog 
{Ennaceus  Europteua). 


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CARNIVORA. 


CARPINUS. 


786 


Others  again  walk  on  the  tips  of  the  toes,  as  it  were,  and  these,  the 
DigUiffradti,  are  endowed  with  great  swiftness  of  foot  The  clavicle 
in  both  is  merely  a  bony  rudiment  suspended  in  the  flesh. 

Cuvier  divides  his  Oamivora  into  the  four  following  tribes : — 

1.  Plantigrade9, 

.  These  pooBess  a  great  facility,  from  the  structure  of  the  sole,  of 
reuing  themselyes  up  on  the 
hindfeetb  Cuvier  observes  that 
they  participate  in  the  compa- 
rative  slow  motion  and  noc* 
tumallife  of  the  Intectivora,  and 
that  they  are  like  them  deprived 
of  a  csecum.  The  greater  part 
of  tiiose  whose  geographical  dis- 
tribution is  confined  to  cold 
ooimtriM  paas  the  winter  in  a  gityu  of  Common  Badger  (Melet  vulgarit.) 
donnant  state.    They  have  all 

five  toes  on  each  foot.    [Beab  ;  Badger.]     The  annexed  cut  will 
serre  as  an  example  of  the  dental  form  and  arrangement. 

2.  Digitigradet. 

This  tribe  is  separated  by  Cuvier  into  two  subdivisions : — 
Subdivision  a. 

The  animals  composing  this  subdivision  have  been  called  Vermiform, 
from  the  comparatively  great  length  and  flexibility  of  their  bodies 
and  the  shortness  of  their  legs.  Every  one  who  has  watched  the 
serpentine  movements  of  a  ferret 
must  have  been  struck  with  the 
great  facility  of  motion  given  by 
ttda  form,  and  its  particular  adapta- 
tion for  passing  through  small 
openings  and  narrow  burrows,  and 
turning  therein.  Like  the  former 
families  they  have  no  cflBcum,  but 
unlike  them  they  are  not  lethai^c 
in  winter.  Though  small  they 
are  of  indomitable  courage  and  ferocity,  and  litera!lly  most  blood- 
thirsty, for  the  greater  part  of  them  live  principally  upon  that  fluid. 
The  annexed  cut  will  give  an  example  of  the  general  form  of  the 
Bkull  and  teeth. 

Subdivision  5. 

T^ese  have  two  flat  tuberculated  molars  behind  the  upper  great 
flesh-cutter,  which  has  itself  a  sufficiently  laige  heel  or  process.  Many 
of  these  live  upon  carrion,  and  all  have  a  smedl  csecum.     [Canis.] 

We  refer  to  the  next  cut  for  a  general  idea  of  the  dental  systeuL 


Sknll  of  Polecat  {PutoHui  Zorilla), 


Skull  of  Common  Fox  {Vulpes  vulgarU), 

S.  Cats  {Felidce). 
In  this  tribe  we  have  the  destructive  power  most  highly  developed. 
The  short  round  muzzle,  the  abbreviated  and  powerful  jaw,  and  the 
i^tractile  claws  sheathed  by  means  of  elastic  ligaments  when  the 
animal  is  in  a  state  of  repose,  so  that  they  are  kept  sharp  and  ready 
for  action,  form  with  the  rest  of  the  oi^ganisation  a  destructive  type  of 
the  highest  order.  All  the  Cats  have  two  false  molars  above  and  two 
below ;  their  upper  flesh-cutter  has  three  lobes  and  a  blunt  heel  or 
process  within;  while  the  lower  one  has  two  pointed  and  cutting 
lobes,  but  without  any  heel  or  process ;  and  they  have  but  one  small 
tuberculated  molar  above  without  any  corresponding  tooth  below. 
The  species  are  numerous,  and  vary  greatly  in  size  and  colour.  [Feus.] 
Subjoined  is  a  cut  of  the' skull  and  jaw  of  a  Boyal  Tiger 


Skull  of  Royal  Tiger  {Felts  Tigris),    o,  Teeth  of  upper  Jaw. 

4.  Amphibia,  or  Amphibious  Camivora, 
Those  who  have  seen  a  seal  on  the  land  will  have  noticed  the  com- 
parative  helplessness  of  the  animal ;  for  the  short  limbs  enveloped  in 
the  skin  only  serve  them  by  assisting  their  awkward  shufflings  when 
in  that  situation.  But  as  they  never  come  on  the  land  excepting  for 
the  purposes  of  repose,  basking  in  the  son,  or  suckling  their  young, 
their  organisation  is  adapted  to  that  element  in  which  the  great  por- 
.    »AT.  HBT.  Djy.  ypi^  L 


tion  of  their  life  is  spent.  The  moment  the  Seal  enters  the  water  he 
is  completely  at  Ms  ease.  Then  the  oar-like  membranous  hands  and 
feet»  or  flippers,  as  some  of  our  northern  navigators  not  unaptly  term 
them,  the  elongated  body  and  moveable  spine  with  its  powerful  mus- 
cular machinexT,  the  narrow  pelvis,  and  the  dose  waterproof  fur, 
afford,  when  taken  together,  a  model  for  swinmiing.  The  annexed 
cut  of  the  skuU  of  a  Common  Seal  will  illustrate  the  general  form  and 
arrangement  of  the  teeth.     [Seaia] 


Skull  of  Common  Seal  {Calocephalus  pitulinua). 
Fornl  Camivora. 

Remains  of  the  Mammiferous  Camivora  are  found  abundantly  in 
the  Ossiferous  caverns  and  Osseous  Breccia.  Those  of  a  lion,  a  tiger 
[Felib],  bears,  a  glutton,  a  weasel,  a  wolf  [Canis],  a  fox,  a  dog,  and 
hyaenas,  have  been  satisfactorily  identi&ed ;  but  the  bears,  e8i>eciaUy 
the  great  Cavern  BeeriUrsua  SpeUsm)  [Bear],  and  the  hyaenas  [HviENAj 
seem  to  have  been  predominant  in  many  of  the  localities. 

CAROB-TREE.    [Ceratonia.] 

CAROLINA  PINK.    [Spigblia.] 

CARP.    [CTPRiNua.] 

CARP-BREAM.    [Bream.] 

CARPEL,  a  term  applied  to  the  fruits  of  plants.  If  the  finiit  of  a 
pssony  is  examined  it  will  be  found  to  consist  of  two  or  more  hollow 
bodies  terminated  by  a  stigma,  and  containing  vegetable  eggs  or 
ovules ;  taken  collectively  these  are  called  a  Pistil,  but  each  separate 
body  is  a  Caipel.  A  carpel  is  a  transformed  leaf,  with  its  edges 
brought  into  contact^  united,  and  generating  ovules  at  the  inside  of 
the  suture,  while  its  midrib  is  lengthened  and  distended  as  a  stigma. 
If  several  carpels  are  arranged  in  the  centre  of  a  flower,  they  have 
exactly  the  same  respective  position  as  the  same  number  of  leaves 
would  have;  and  their  sutures  and  stigmas  are  placed  in  the  same 
position  aa  the  united  edges  and  distended  points  of  so  many  leaves 
would  be  placed.  Supposing  these  carpels  to  grow  together  by  their 
sides,  their  sutures  will  then  be,  with  the  ovules  that  belong  to  them, 
in  the  centre  of  the  body  formed  by  such  a  union.  Wben  fruits  6r 
pistils  are  composed  of  several  carpellary  leaves,  or  carpels  not  united, 
they  are  called  Apocarpous.  When  the  carpels  grow  together,  the  pis- 
til or  fruit  is  said  to  be  Syncarpous.  (Schleidon,  Principles  of  Scientific 
Botcmy.) 

CARPHOLITE,  a  Mineral,  a  variety  of  PreJmitc  [Prehnite],  occur- 
ring in  minute  radiated  stellate  tufts,  of  a  straw-yellow  colour  and 
silky  lustre.  It  is  brought  from  the  tin-mines  of  Schlackenwald  in 
Austria,  with  fluor-spar. 

CARPHOSIDERITE,  a  yellow  Phosphate  of  Iron,  brought  from 
Greenland.    It  occurs  in  remform  masses.    (Dana,  Mineralogy.) 

CARPI'NUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Cv/pvliferoi,  and  distinguished  obviously  from  the  Beech  {BettUa),  the 
Oak  (Querctw),  &c.,  by  its  cupule  being  prolonged  on  one  side  into 
a  leafy  lobe,  while  its  other^  lobes  are  shorter,  and,  as  it  were, 
abortive.  Ostrya,  the  Hop  Hornbeam,  differs  in  having  an  inflated 
membranous  cupule  surrounding  each  nut.  The  following  species  are 
known : — 

C  Betuku,  Conunon  Hornbeam.  It  is  an  indigenous  British  tree 
very  common  in  copses,  and  frequently  pollarded  by  the  farmer. 
When  allowed  to  acquire  its  natural  appearance,  it  forms  a  graceful 
ti-ee  fix)m  60  to  60  feet  high,  very  often  branching  to  within  a  short 
distance  of  the  ground.  In  general  appearance  it  resembles  the  Beech, 
but  it  does  not  acquire  the  smooth  plump  bole  of  that  tree,  nor  are 
its  leaves  so  shining.  Its  wood  is  coarse,  and  imfit  for  cabinet-makers' 
work,  on  account  of  the  large  size  of  its  medullary  processes ;  but  it 
is  tough,  and  well  suited  fi>r  cogs,  handles  of  tools,  and  for  other 
purposes  in  which  strength  is  required.  It  is  much  consumed  on  the 
continent  as  fuel  Like  the  Beech,  the  Hornbeam,  if  stimted,  retains 
its  withered  leaves  all  the  winter ;  and  as  it  bears  clipping  and  dose 
pruning  remarkably  well,  it  is  much  employed  for  hedges  where  winter 
shelter  is  required.  The  distinctive  character  of  the  Common  Horn- 
beam is — ^leaves  oblong,  cordate,  oblique  at  the  base,  doubly  serrated, 
smooth,  with  the  veins  of  the  under  side,  which  is  very  shining,  downy 
at  the  axils.  Lobes  of  the  cupules  nearly  entire  A  cut-leaved  variety 
is  known  in  gardens. 

C.  Americana,  American  Hornbeam.  It  has  ovate  oblong  leaves, 
obliquely  cordate  at  the  base,  doubly  or  almost  simply  serrated,  smooth, 
with  the  veins  of  the  under  side  downy  at  the  axils.  Lobes  of  th? 
cupules  somewhat  falcate  and  serrated.  Common  from  Lower  Canada 
to  the  Carolinas,  and  extremely  frequent  in  almost  all  soils  except 
pine-barrens  and  swamps.  It  is  a  smaller  tree  than  the  European 
Homboam,  not.  usually  acquiring  a  greater  height  than  15  to  20  feet, 

3  E 


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w 


CARPOLOOY. 


CABUM. 


793 


although  specimens  haye  been  found  as  much  as  80  feet.higfa.  From 
the  snudl  size  of  this  species  it  is  little  used  by  the  Americans :  its 
wood  appears  however  to  have  the  same  properties  as  that  of  C» 
Betulut, 

C.  orientalit,  Oriental  Hornbeam.  It  has  oblong  doubly-serrated 
cordate  leaves,  and  very  little  oblique  at  the  base;  when  young, 
rather  downy  :  lobes  of  the  cupules  coarsely  and  unequally  serrated. 
It  is  a  bushy  tree  of  small  stature,  found  in  the  eastern  parts  of 
Europe  and  on  the  mountains  of  Caucasus.  It  is  of  no  known  use, 
and  prindiMdly  di£fienrs  from  the  Common  Hornbeam  in  its  downy 
leafstidks  and  green  much-lacerated  cupules.  It  is  the  C.  dmnemit 
of  ScopolL 

C.  viminea  is  related  to  the  last,  but  has  taper-pointed  leaves 
with  simple  or  nearly  simple  serratures,  and  less  deeply  serrated  lobes 
to  the  cupules.  It  is  a  large  handsome  tree  with  weeping  branches, 
found  on  the  mountains  of  NepauL 

C.  foffinea,  from  the  same  country,  is  distinguished  frY>m  the  last 
by  its  woolly  leafstalks  and  simply  setaceo-sernted  leaves,  which  are 
but  little  acuminated. 

CARPOLOGY  is  a  division  of  Botany  comprehending  what  relates 
to  the  structure  of  seeds  and  their  seed-vessels,  or  what  is  commonly 
called  fruit.  The  subject  is  usually  treated  of  incidentally  in  all 
elementary  botanical  works;  and  with  much  csre  by  Mirbel  in  his 
'  £l^mens  de  Botanique ; '  Lindley,  in  his  '  Introduction  to  Botany ; ' 
and  especially  by  Sdileiden  in  his  '  Principles  of  Scientific  Botany.* 
[Fruit.] 

CARRAGEEN  MOSS.    [Aloa] 

CARRION-CROW.    FCoBViDiB.] 

CARROT.    [Dauccs.] 

CARR-SWALLOW,  a  name  for  the  Black  Tern  {Sterna  jUtipa), 
[Sterna.] 

CARTER,  a  Cornish  name  for  the  Whiff,  a  fish  belonging  to  the 
genus  Bhomhut,    [RHOifBU&] 

CAHTHAMUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
CompotUa.  C.  HneioriHs,  the  &ifflower,  is  a  pretty  annual  plant,  found 
wild  in  Egypt  and  the  Levant.  It  has  an  erect  cylindrical  stem, 
branching  near  the  summit,  a  foot  or  two  high,  and  furnished  with 
sharp-pointed,  oval,  sessile,  somewhat  spiny  leaves.  The  flowers  grow 
in  heaos,  inclosed  in  a  roundish  spiny  involucre ;  the  florets  are  of  an 
orange-yellow,  becoming  red  when  dried.  These  latter  contain  a 
colouring  principle  called  Carthamite,  which  is  employed  by  dyers  as 
the  source  of  some  of  the  more  delicate  rose-colours,  and  the  rich 
scarlet  called  Ponceau ;  it  also  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  cosmetic 
known  by  the  name  of  Rouge. 

The  dned  flowers  of  Carthamia  are  exported  in  great  quantities 
f^om  Egypt,  and  are  very  like  saffiron  to  the  eye,  on  which  account 
they  have  been  employed  to  adulterate  that  drug,  and  the  plant  itself 
has  acquired  the  name  of  Bastard  SafiVon,  or  Safflower. 

CARTILAGE,  commonly  called  Gristle,  a  substance  intermediate 
in  density  between  the  membranous  and  bony  structures  of  tiie  body. 
It  is  distmguished  frY>m  every  other  texture  by  its  pearly  whiteness, 
its  smoothness,  its  firmness,  and  its  great  elasticity.  When  divided  it 
appears  to  be  perfectly  homogeneous,  without  fibres  and  without 
laminse ;  but  when  examined  under  the  microscope  it  is  seen  to 
consist  of  nucleated  cells,  disseminated  in  a  solid  mass  or  matrix. 
Articular  CartiJage  has  no  blood-vessels,  the  nutrient  fluid  required 
being  supplied  from  vessels  in  adjoining  textures.  In  other  kinds  of 
cartilage  canals  are  observed  conducting  blood,  but  not  for  the 
immediate  supply  of  the  cartilaginous  tissue.  No  nerves  have  been 
found  in  any  of  the  cartilages,  and  they  are  now  known  to  be  desti- 
tute of  senaibility. 

The  simplest  form  of  Cartilage  consists  merely  of  nucleated  oells, 
and  closely  resembles  the  cellular  tissue  of  plants.  T^  kind  is 
found  in  the  rudimentary  spinal  column  of  the  early  embiyo ;  it  also 
exists  in  the  chorda  dorsf^  of  the  cartilaginous  fishes.  In  other 
kinds  of  cartilage  the  cells  are  embedded  in  an  intercellular  substance, 
presenting  certain  varieties  of  appearance. 


Articular  Cartilage  from  the  head  of  the  hamenu.     Vertical  sections. 
A,  section  close  to  the  surface;  B,  section  far  in  the  interior. 

In  Articular  Cartilage  the  ceUs  are  oval  or  roundish,  dispersed  in 
gioups  through  a  nearly  homogeneous  intercellular  substance.    The 


cells  measure  from  the  1800th  to  the  900th  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In 
the  interior  part  of  the  incrusting  cartilages  the  cells  usually  asBume 
a  more  or  less  linear  arrangement.  In  the  different  cartilages  the 
oells  vary  in  size  and  form. 

Ordinary  permanent  oartilsge  contains  about  three-fifths  of  its 
weight  of  water  and  becomes  transparent  when  dried.  It  is  resolved 
into  ohondrin  by  boiling.  Cartilage  contains  a  certain  amount  of 
mineral  matters.  Frommherz  and  Gugert  obtained  8*4  per  cent  of 
ashes.  When  analysed  these  ashes  were  found  to  consist  of— 
Carbonate  of  Soda       ...  .     85*07 

Sulphate  of  Soda 24*24 

Chloride  of  Sodium 8*23 

Phosphate  of  Soda 0*92 

Sulphate  of  Potash 1*20 

Carbonate  of  Lime 18*87 

Phosphate  of  Lime 4*06 

Phosphate  of  Magnesia 6*91 

Oxide  of  Iron,  and  loss 1*00 

The  vital  processes  are  carried  on  very  slowly  in  cartilage.  It  '» 
subject  to  absorption,  and  when  thus  removed  by  disease  or  when 
taken  away  by  operation  it  is  not  again  renewed.  When  fractured  or 
broken  the  union  is  not  effected  by  new  cartilage,  but  by  fibrous  or 
areolar  tissue,  or  bone. 

Cartilage  is  not  only  closely  allied  to  bone  in  the  mechanical 
arrangement  of  its  component  fibres  and  in  its  chemical  composition, 
but  it  sometimes  supplies  the  place  of  bone,  as  in  the  foetus  and  in 
yoimg  persons.  CartUages  of  this  class,  which  regularly  disappear  as 
ossification  advances,  are  called  Temporary,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Permanent,  which  remain  during  all  periods  of  life.  Permanent 
Cartilages  either  cover  the  extremities  of  the  bones  in  the  moveable 
joints  or  articulations,  and  are  thence  called  Articular ;  or  are  attached 
to  the  extremities  of  the  ribs,  and  are  thence  termed  CostaL  The 
Articular  Cartilage  consists  of  a  layer  of  the  same  shape  as  the 
extremity  of  the  bone  which  it  covers,  vaiying  in  thickness  from  one 
or  two  lines  to  the  fraction  of  a  line,  and  over  its  external  or  free 
surface  there  is  always  reflected  a  fine  and  delicate  membrane,  termed 
the  synovial,  which  secretes  the  fluid  by  which  the  joint  is  lubricated 
and  its  free  and  easy  motion  secured,  denominated  synovia,  or  joint  oil 
The  Costal  Cartilages,  which  are  cartilaginous  productions  of  the 
osseous  ribs,  are  much  larger  and  thicker  thau  the  Articular,  assist  in 
the  formation  of  the  thoracic  cavity,  and  perform  a  very  important 
part  in  the  function  of  respiration. 

The  distinctive  property  of  this  peculiar  form  of  organised  matter, 
to  which  the  name  of  Cartilage  has  been  given,  is  elasticity,  on  which 
depends  the  specific  use  of  this  substance  in  the  economy.  It  is 
mainly  an  adjunct  to  bones,  coimteracting  certain  evils  which,  but  for 
the  intervention  of  some  substance  of  this  kind,  must  necessarily  have 
resulted  from  the  hard  unyielding  nature  of  the  osseous  fibres. 
Covering  the  extremities  of  bones,  or  interposed  between  layers  of 
bony  fibres,  without  in  the  least  diminishing  the  firmness  and  strength 
of  Uie  osseous  fibres,  it  enables  the  bones  to  yield  in  the  shocks  ta 
which  the  body  is  exposed  in  the  ever-varying  movements  of  the 
frame;  defends  them  from  fracture  and  displacement;  and  at  the  same 
time  protects  the  great  centres  of  the  nervous  system,  the  spinal 
cord  and  brain,  from  the  concussions  and  jars  to  which  these  tender 
and  delicate  orgSLna  would,  but  for  its  interposition,  have  been 
constantly  exposed. 

(Quain's  Mement$  of  Anatomy,  by  Sharpey ;  Carpenter,  Principle*  of 
Physiology;  Simojiy  AninuU  Chemistry;  Schwann,  On t fie  Accordance 
in  the  StrucChire  of  Animals  and  Plants;  Kolliker,  Handbuch  det 
Qewtbelehre.) 

CARUK  (from  Caria  in  Asia  Minor,  where  the  plant  was  originally 
foimd),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  VmbeUifercey 
to  the  sulHorder  Orthospermeo!,  and  to  the  tribe  Ammineas,  It  has  an 
obsolete  calyx,  obcordate  petals,  with  a  narrow  acute  inflexed  point, 
oblong  fruit)  carpels  with  five  filiform  ridges,  interstices  with  single 
vittee,  a  depressed  stylopodium.  The  species  are  glabrous  herbs, 
with  perennial  tuberous  edible  roots,  pinnate  leaves,  and  white 
flowers. 

C.  Carui,  Common  Caraway,  has  a  fusiform  root,  bipinnate  leaves, 
leaflets  cut  into  linear  segments,  no  partial  involucre,  the  general 
involucre  absent  or  of  only  one  leaf.  It  is  a  native  throughout  the 
whole  of  Europe  in  meadows  and  pastures.  It  is  found  in  Great 
Britain,  but  can  only  be  i*egarded  as  a  naturalised  plant  The  fruit 
of  this  plant  is  known  in  shops  by  the  name  of  caraway  seeds. 
fCARUM  Carui,  in  Arts  and  So.  Div.]  The  leaves  of  this  plant  are 
frequently  used  in  spring  to  put  in  soups,  and  the  roots  are  boiled  and 
eaten  as  parsnips,  to  which  some  persons  prefer  them. 

Several  varieties  have  been  described  by  botanists.  One  of  these 
is  the  American  species  C.  C.  elongatum,  which  has  the  segments  of 
the  leaves  linear  elongated. 

C.  verticillatum  -haiei  the  general  and  partial  involucres  of  many 
leaves,  the  leaves  pinnate,  and  the  leaflets  linear.  The  segments  of 
the  leaflets  spread  in  sudi  a  way  as  to  appear  whorled ;  hence  the 
trivial  name.  It  is  a  native  of  the  western  parts  of  Europe.  In  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  it  occurs  as  a  rare  plant  in  damp  hilly  pastures. 

C.  bidbociutanum  of  Koch,  is  the  Bunium  btUbocastanum  of  Linnaeus. 
[BuviUM.]    It  is  the  Scandix  and  /Sitm  btUbocastantm  of  Spivnj^ 


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789 


.    CARUNCULA. 


CARYOCATACTES. 


790 


and  Moenoh.  Babington,  in  his  *  Manual/  has  restored  the  Linnscan 
species.    (Babington,  Manual  of  Britiah  Botany.) 

GARU'NCULA,  a  name  applied  by  botanists  to  protuberances 
fonnd  oocaaionally  surrounding  the  hilum  of  a  seed.  It  is  sometimes 
also  called  a  Strophiloa.  Parts  of  this  kind  ocour  on  the  seeds  of 
Euphorbia  Lathyris. 

CAHYA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Juf^ati- 
dacea.  The  species  are  North  American  trees,  comprehending  the 
Tarious  kinds  of  Hickory.  This  genus  was  formerly  combined  with 
JuglaiM,  or  the  true  Walnut ;  but  it  is  distinguished  by  the  shell  of  its 
nuts  not  being  deeply  furrowed,  and  by  the  catkins  of  the  male  flowers 
growing  in  threes.  This  must  not  be  confounded  with  Careya,  a  genus 
of  Indian  ifyrfoceof. 

Several  species  of  Hickory  are  recognised  by  botanists ;  but^  accord- 
igg  to  Michaux,  the  timber  pf  all  of  tiiem  is  so  similar  in  quality  that 
it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  itu  The  bark  of  the  Hickory  is  in  all  cases 
remarkable  for  the  lozenge-shaped  arrangement  of  its  woody  tissue. 
The  wood  is  coarse-grained,  very  heavy,  exceedingly  tough  and  strong, 
and  red  at  the  heart;  but  on  the  other  hand  it  decays  quickly  when 
exposed  to  the  weather,  and  it  is  subject  to  be  attacked  by  worms. 
Itia  on  these  accounts  chiefly  employed  for  the  shafts  and  springs  of 
carriages,  for  large  screws,  such  as  those  of  bookbinders'  presses,  for 
bows,  chur-backs,  whip-handles,  wooden-cogged  wheels,  hoops  for 
casks,  and  a  variety  of  similar  purposes.  When  burnt,  hickory-wood 
consumes  slowly,  gives  out  a  great  heat,  and  forms  a  heavy  coal,  which 
remains  glowing  for  a  long  while.  It  is  considered  to  be  upon  the 
whole  the  best  of  all  woods  for  fuel :  it  has  however  the  fault  of 
crackling  and  scattering  about  its  sparks. 

(7.  oliwgformis,  the  Pecan  or  Pecana  Nut  {Jtiglana  anguttifolia, 
'Hortus  Kewensis').  This  is  a  swamp  species,  witii  a  slender  stem, 
Bometimes  as  much  as  70  feet  high.  Its  leaves  are  a  foot  to  18  inches 
long;  their  stalks  are  downy;  the  leaflets,  which  are  2  or  8  inches 
long,  or  as  much  as  5  inches  on  very  strong  shoots,  are  taper-pointed 
and  firmly  serrated.  Their  nuts  are  oblong,  very  smooth,  angular  in 
only  a  slight  degree,  about  l^  inch  long,  and  thinner  shelled  than  the 
other  sorts.  The  kernel  is  good  to  eat,  and  by  far  the  best  of  the 
hickories;  on  this  accoimt  the  nuts  are  a  small  article  of  North 
American  trade.  The  Pecan  Nut  is  found  in  Upper  Louisiana  and 
Kew  Orleans.  It  is  common  on  the  banks  of  rivers  in  Missouri, 
DlinoiB,  and  Arkansas.  It  does  not  occur,  except  in  straggling  speci- 
mens, more  than  200  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio. 

C.  ndcata  {Juglan$  lacinioacty  Michaux),  Thick-Shell-Bark  Hickory, 
Springfield  or  Gloucester  Nut,  is  very  oonmion  in  all  the  low  grounds, 
adjoining  the  Ohio  and  its  tributaries,  where,  along  with  three>thonied 
gleditschias,  black  walnuts,  Yiiginian  bird-cherries,  American  elms, 
planes,  and  different  species  of  Acer,  it  forms  dense  forests ;  it  is 
seldom  found  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  Its  trunk  is  as  much  as  80 
feet  high,  on  which  it  has  a  noble  spreading  head.  Its  bark,  like  that 
of  some  of  ihe  other  hickories,  strips  off  in  ribands  from  1  to  3  feet 
long,  which  separate  at  their  extremities  and  curl  backwards,  finally 
adhering  to  the  trunk  only  by  their  middle.  The  leaves  vary  in 
length  from  8  to  20  inches ;  in  form  they  are  very  like  those  of  O.  aUta, 
but  they  usixally  have  six  or  eight  leaflets  instead  of  four,  which  is 
the  invariable  nvtmber  in  that  species.  The  nuts  are  oblong,  sharp- 
pointed  at  each  end,  with  four  elevated  angles,  and  a  thick  shell  of 
a  yellowish-brown  colour,  not  white  as  in  C7.  alba.  They  are  brought 
to  market  in  North  America  under  some  of  the  names  mentioned 
i^ve. 

C.  alha  {Juglana  squamom,  Michaux),  White-Shell-Bark,  Shag-Bark, 
Scaly-Bark  Hickory.  The  shaggy  appearance  of  the  bark  adverted 
to  in  speaking  of  the  last  species  has  caused  the  above  names  to  be 
appUed  to  thu  common  species.  It  extends  from  South  Carolina  to 
*the  neighbourhood  of  Portland  in  the  state  of  New  Hampshire,  where 
it  is  said  to  disappear.  It  is  the  most  slender-stemmed  of  all  the 
hickories,  its  trunk  being  sometimes  80  or  90  feet  high  and  not  more 
than  2  feet  in  diameter,  and  is  described  as  a  magnificent  tree  in  its 
native  forests.  The  yoimg  buds  are  woody,  and  slightly  orange- 
ooloured.  The  leaves  are  often  20  inches  long ;  they  have  only  four 
leaflets  and  an  odd  one,  which  are  smooth  and  bright  green  above, 
finely  downy  on  the  under  side,  and  serrated  at  the  edge.  The  nuts 
are  whitish,  nearly  round,  hardly  pointed  at  each  end,  angular,  com- 
pressed, thick-shelled,  remarkably  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  fruit  with  its  fleshy  rind  upon  it.  The  kernel  is  next  in  quality 
to  that  of  the  Pecan  Nut.  They  form  a  common  article  of  market 
commerce. 

C.tomentoiti,  Mocker-Nut  Hickory,  so  called  in  consequence  of  the 
amallness  of  the  kernel  comp&red  with  the  size  of  the  nut.  Its  leaflets 
are  from  7  te  9  in  number,  slightly  round,  very  dowmr  on  the  imder 
aide ;  they  become  bright-yellow  in  the  autumn.  The  leaf-buds  are 
thick,  short,  whitish-gray,  and  very  hard  in  the  winter  season.  The 
nuts  are  sessile,  roundish,  and  inclosed  in  a  rind  which  only  opens 
half-way  to  let  them  drop  out ;  they  are  light-brown,  angular,  and 
▼ery  little  pointed.  The  bark  of  this  species  does  not  scale  off,  but 
rends  into  deep  fissures.  It  grows  the  slowest  of  all  the  hickories, 
and  is  found  duefly  in  forests  from  New  England  to  Yirginia  and  in 
the  Alleghanies ;  Fur^  says  in  fertile  soils,  but  Miohaux  adds  that 
it  nevertheless  is  the  only  hickory  which  makes  its  appearance  in 
^^u»e  sterile  tracta  called  pine-barrens,  where  however  it  is  only  a 


scrubby  bush.  In  the  most  favourable  situations  it  rarely  grows 
more  than  60  feet  high,  and  is  usually  a  gnarled  inelegant  tree. 
Nuttall  mentions  a  variety  of  this  species  as  occurring  a  few  miles 
from  Philadelphia,  with  "  £ruit  nearly  twice  the  ordinary  size,  as  large 
as  an  apple." 

(7.  microcarpct.  Leaflets  about  five,  oblong-lanceolate,  sharply 
serrate,  and  obviously  tapered  to  the  point;  smooth  on  each  side, 
glandular  beneath.  Fruit  roundish,  with  a  small  thin-shelled  nut, 
which  is  somewhat  quadrangular  and  abruptly  roimded  at  the  end, 
with  a  very  small  point.  According  to  Nuttall  this  is  found  wild 
on  the  banks  of  the  Schuylkill,  in  the  vidnity  of  Philadelphiis  where 
it  forms  a  large  tree  with  an  even  bark.  The  fruit  is  much  lUce  that 
of  C,  tamentoio,  and  eatable,  but  very  small,  not  exceeding  the  size  of 
a  nutmeg. 

C.  omora,  Bitter  Nut,  or  Swamp  Hickory ;  found  from  the  state  of 
Vermont  in  the  north,  as  far  as  the  most  southern  parts  of  the  Ame* 
ricab  Union.  In  woods  near  New  York,  Michaux  measured  several 
individuals  which  were  10  or  12  feet  in  drcumferenoe,  and  from  70 
to  80  feet  high ;  but  in  general  it  is  smaller.  It  is  the  latest  in  leafing 
of  all  the  hidcories.  The  leaflets  are  fr^m  7  to  9  in  number,  smooth, 
coarsely  and  irregularly  serrated,  long,  lanceolate,  and  more  wrinkled 
than  in  other  species.  The  frxdt  is  sniall,  roundish,  with  a  thin  rind ; 
the  nuts  are  obovate,  depressed  at  the  end,  with  a  central  projecting 
point ;  they  have  no  angles,  and  are  broader  than  they  are  long ;  the 
shell  is  thin  and  brittle,  and  the  kernel  so  bitter  and  austere  that  even 
squirrels  refuse  to  eat  it.  This  specres  is  easily  known  in  winter  by 
its  yellow  buds. 

(7.  aquatica,  foundronly  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  southern  states  of 
the  American  Unicm,  in  swamps,  and  by  the  side  of  ditches  surround- 
ing rice-fields,  along  wiUi  red  maples,  deciduous  cypresses,  and  Carolina 
poplars.  It  is  readily  known  by  its  very  narrow  taper-pointed  leaflets, 
which  vary  in  number  from  9  to  11.  Its  frnit  is  small,  ovate,  tuber- 
culatedj  angular,  and  placed  upon  stalks  in  little  clusters.  The  nuts 
are  bright  brown,  ovate,  angular,  but  little  pointed  at  either  end ; 
they  are  very  thin-shelled,  and  contain  an  extremely  little  kemeL 
The  tree  grows  from  40  to  50  feet  high,  and  is  of  much  less  value 
than  the  other  species. 

C.  porcina,  the  Pig-Nut  Hickory,  or  Hog-Nut.  This  is  niost  com- 
mon in  the  middle  states,  beginning  wiUi  Lancaster  County,  Penn- 
sylvania, in 'the  north.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  trees  in  the  United 
States,  growing  to  the  height  of  70  or  80  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  8 
or  4  feet.  Its  brown  shoots  and  oval  very  small  buds  distinguish  tt 
in  winter.  The  leaflets  are  lanceolate,  very  taper-pointed,  regularlv 
serrated,  and  from  3  to  7  in  number ;  they  are  quite  smooth  on  each 
side,  and  on  vigorous  dioots  in  shady  places  meir  stalks  are  violet 
The  fruit  is  sessile,  and  varies  in  form  from  pyriform  to  spherical : 
its  little  nuts  correspond  in  this  respect  with  their  rind ;  they  are 
scarcely  at  all  angular,  and  always  rounded  at  the  apex,  with  a  sharp 
point ;  the  shell  is  very  thick  and  hard ;  the  kernel  sweet  but  small, 
and  difficult  to  extract 

C.  myrigticuBfonnis,  Nutmeg  Hickory.  This  is  a  little  brown  species, 
of  which  Michaux  obtained  a  single  branch  with  'about  80  nuts  at 
Charlestown  from  a  negro  gardener,  who  procured  them  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  that  city.  Its  leaves  are  like  those  of  C.  aquatica,  but 
not  quite  so  long  and  narrow.  The  fruit  is  sessile,  oval,  tuberculated, 
and  contains  a  small  smooth  brown  striated  nut,  with  an  exceed- 
ingly thick  shell,  and  a  very  small  kernel  Elliott,  who  resided  near 
Charlestown,  and  wrote  on  the  plants  of  Carolina,  could  never  gain 
any  further  inteUigence  of  this  plant. 

(Michaux,  Arhres  ForeHier$  de  VAmSrique  Septentrionate.) 

CABTO'CAB,  the  only  genus  of  the  natural  order  Rhizohohtcece, 
one  of  whose  species  yields  the  Butter-Nuts  of  the  London  fruiterers' 
shops.  One  spedes  is  described  by  Aublet,  tmder  the  name  of  Pehea 
hutyroea,  as  a  large  tree  with  a  trunk  80  feet  high,  and  3  feet  in  dia- 
meter. The  berries  are  covered  by  a  rind  two  or  three  lines  thick, 
and  consisting  internally  of  a  buttery  yellowish  substance,  which 
mdts  between  the  fingersi,  and  which  is  sometimies  used  in  cooking 
instead  of  animal  butter.  Under  the  rind  lies  a  stone  covered  all 
over  with  slender  stings,  which  easily  separate,  and  become  very  trou- 
blesome to  those  who  open  the  stones ;  within  is  a  kidney-shaped 
kemd  covered  with  a  brownish  membrane,  and  very  good  to  eat ;  it 
is  commoidy  served  at  table.  It  is  called  Pekea  by  the  blacks  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Oyapoco  in  French  Guyana,  where  it  is  mudi 
cultivated.  The  spedes  that  furnishes  the  Butter^Nuts  of  the  London 
markets  is  much  like  this,  but  is  called  Tata-youba  by  the  natives 
of  Quyana,  and  differs  in  having  no  stings  upon  the  surface  of  the 
stone  of  its  fruit :  this  is  the  Pekea  tubercvUtsa  of  Aublet ;  the  Caryo* 
cuut  tmMx^Uiw,m  of  modem  botanists. 

Another  species,  the  Qc^ryocOfr  nttct/entm,  bears  what  are  called  the 
Suwarrow,  or  more  properly  Saouari,  Nuts  of  commerce.  It  has  only 
three  leaflets  to  each  leaf,  each  with  a  toothed  margin  and  a  taper- 
pointed  extremity ;  the  flowers  are  very  large,  deep  brown  externally 
and  rich  crimson  in  the  inside;  the  fruit  is  in  form  like  an  egg, 
covered  with  a  thick  rough  brown  rind,  beneath  which  is  a  soft 
greenish  buttery  substance.  The  nut  has  a  stinging  surface,  and 
contains  a  very  excellent  kernel,  from  which  may  be  extracted  an  oil 
like  that  from  sweet  almonds. 

CARYOCATACTES.    [NucinuoA.] 


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CARYOCRINITES. 


CARYOTA. 


;«i 


CARYO'CRINITES,  a  genus  of  Crinoidea,  from  the  Palaeozoic 
Limestone  of  North  America. 

CARYOPHYLLA'CEiE,  Cloveworis,  the  Pink  Tribe,  a  natural 
order  of  plants,  the  type  of  which  may  be  considered  the  DiafUhui 
caryophylltbS,  or  Common  Garden  Pink.  It  consists  of  plants  having 
narrow  opposite  undivided  leaves,  arising  from  tumours  at  the  arti- 
culations of  the  stem  ;  flowers  with  a  definite  number  of  hypogynoua 
stamens ;  a  fruit  with  a  central  placenta,  and  seeds  that  usually  have 
the  embryo  rolled  round  mealy  albumen.  The  species  are  in  many 
cases  m^:«  weeds.  In  no  instances  have  they  properties  of  any  im- 
portance, being  mostly  inert ;  but  are  occasionally  objects  of  cmtiva- 
tion  on  account  of  their  pretty  flowers,  as  is  the  case  in  the  whole 
genus  JHanihut,  and  in  several  species  of  SUenef  Agroitemma,  Lychnis, 
and  Sciponaria.  The  order  has  always  been  divided  into  two  parts, 
one  of  which  has  the  sepals  combined  into  a  tube,  and  the  other  the 
sepals  wholly  distinct :  Dr.  Lindley  at  one  time  regarded  these  as 
distincb  natural  orders,  the  former  constituting  Silenacea,  the  latter 
AltinacecB,  Of  these  the  last^mentioned  is  very  near  lUecthracea,  and 
formerly  contained  species  that  are  now  known  to  belong  to  that 
order.  The  other  members  of  this  family  have  relations  with  Mai- 
vacece  and  Gercmicicta!.  The  most  important  application  of  any  of  the 
species  is  the  use  of  SajHmaria,  Soapwort^  for  washing.  The  order 
contains  43  genera  and  upwards  of  1000  species.  [Ltchitib  ;  Sapon- 
Silbne;  Stellaria;  Spergula.] 


Lyehuis  grand^fiora, 
1,  Uncxpanded  flower ;  3,  xalyx ;  3,  pistil  and  stamens ;  4,  a  petal,  with 
stamen  attached ;  5,  anther  impree:nated ;  6,  a  back  view  of  the  same  ;  7,  fruit, 
with  calyx  remaining  after  impregnation  ;  6,  the  same  without  the  calyx,  and 
as  it  opens  when  mature ;  9,  the  same  cut  horizontally. 

CARYOTHYLLIA,  a  genus  of  Corals  of  the  section  MadrephyUvxa 
of  De  Blainville.    [Madrbfhtlllsa.] 

CARYO'TA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of 
Palms.  It  has  pinnated  leaves  and  wedge-shaped  leaflets,  strongly 
toothed  at  the  extremity ;  monoecious  polyandrous  flowers ;  a  some- 
what peltate  stigma;  and  a  1-  or  2-seeded  pulpy  fruit,  with  the 
embryo  near  the  point  of  the  albumen.  The  best  known  species, 
Caryota  urens,  is  a  native  of  most  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia, 
especially  in  mountainous  situations,  where,  according  to  Roxburgh, 
it  grows  to  be  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Palm  Tribe.  Its  trunk  is 
described  as  being  60  feet  high,  thick  in  proportion,  and  slightly 
marked  with  annular  scars,  produced  by  the  fall  of  its  leaves.  Its 
wood  is  80  hard  as  to  be  cut  with  some  difficulty,  and  is  consequently 
of  considerable  value,  provided  the  soft  sap-wood  in  the  centre  is 
scraped  away.  Its  leaves  are  pinnate,  the  leaflets  obliquely  triangular, 
the  apex  of  the  triangle  being  the  point  where  they  are  attached  to 
the  stalk ;  their  end  is  irregularly  toothed,  as  if  bitten  or  gnawed  by 
an  animal  (technically  prsemorse) ;  and  their  general  appearance  is  on 
this  account  so  remarkable  that  Rumf  compares  them  not  inaptly  to 
tlie  fin  of  a  finh.  The  mass  of  flowers  (spadix)  is  said  to  be  from  6  to 
16  feet  long,  divided  into  many  simple  branches,  which  are  pretty 
thickly  covered  with  innumerable  sessile  flowers.    The  fruit  is  called 


a  berry,  1 -celled,  roundish,  about  the  sIec  of  a  plum,  with  a  thin 
yellow  rind,  so  acrid  that  it  produces  a  severe  s^isation  of  burning 
y  applied  to  the  skin ;  and  hence  its  name,  urent.  It  is  generally 
stated,  apparently  upon  the  authority  of  Rumf,  that  this  noble  species 


(hryota  went. 


Caryota  urcra.    A  portion  of  the  fpadix. 

of  palm  yields  no  sap  fit  for  manufacture  into  wine,  and  that  the  sa^ 
obtained  from  the  soft  central  part  of  its  stem  is  of  such  inferi«^r 
quality  as  only  to  be  employetl  in  tinles  of  famine.    Roxburgh  bow- 


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CASCABILLA. 


CASTANEA. 


•m 


ever  gives  a  veiy  different  account  of  it.  He  says  : — "  This  tree  is 
highly  valuable  to  itto  natives  of  the  countries  where  it  grows  in 
plen^ ;  it  yields  them  during  the  hot  season  an  immense  quantity 
of  toddy,  or  palm-wine.  I  have  been  informed  that  the  best  trees 
will  yield  at  the  rate  of  100  pints  in  the  24  hours.  The  pith,  or  fari- 
naceous part^  of  the  trunk  of  old  trees  is  said  to  be  equal  to  the  best 
sago;  the  natives  make  it  into  bread,  and  boil  it  into  thick  gruel  I 
have  reason  to  believe  this  substance  to  be  highly  nutritious.  I  have 
eaten  the  gruel,  and  think  it  fully  as  palatable  as  that  obtained  from 
the  Malay  countries."  This  remarkable  tree  is  not  uncommon  in 
ihis  country  in  hoVhouses  where  palms  are  cultivated. 

CASCARILLA,  an  aromatic  bark  yielded  by  more  than  one  species 
of  Oroton^  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Ewphor- 
biacece.    [Croton.] 

CASEARIA,  one  of  the  five  genera  of  plants  constituting  the 
natural  order  SamydaceoB.  Several  of  the  species  are  used  medici- 
Daily.  The  leaves  of  C,  utmifolia  are  astringent,  and  in  the  Brazils 
are  applied  to  recent  wounds.  A  decoction  of  the  leaves  of  (7.  lingua, 
called  by  the  Brazilians  Cha  de  Frade  and  Ldngua  de  Fin,  is  used  in 
fevers  and  inflammatory  disorders.  (7.  astringms  is  used  as  an  external 
apphcation  on  account  of  its  astringent  properties.  C.  Anavinga,  an 
lodian  species,  is  bitter.  The  leaves  of  C.  etctdenta  are  eaten,  but  the 
root  is  bitter  and  purgative.    (Lindley,  Vegetable  Kingdom,) 

CASHEW-NUT.    [ANACARDiAoaB.] 

CASS  AT  A,  or  Manioc,  a  nutritious  fecula  obtained  from  the  roots 
of  Jairopha  or  Janipha  Manihot,  and  some  allied  species.  This  plant 
belongs  to  the  natural  order  Fiiphorbiacece,  and  abounds  in  a  highly 
poisonous  juice,  which  contains  Hydrocyanic  or  Prussic  Acid,  so  that 
vezy  small  doses  produce  the  most  dangerous  consequences.  The 
add  however  is  easily  driven  off  by  heat,  and  consequently  there  is 
no  practical  difficulty  in  procuring  the  nutritious  substance  in  a  pure 
state.  In  order  to  effect  this  the  roots  are  peeled,  well  wo^ed,  and 
then  ground  between  millstones  till  they  are  reduced  to  the  state  of 
paste.  This  is  subjected  to  pressure  for  the  purpose  of  depriving  it 
as  far  as  possible  of  the  juice ;  the  residue  is  placed  in  vessels  over  a 
brisk  and  r^ular  fire,  and  continually  stirred  until  it  becomes  dry ; 
it  then  acquires  a  granular  appearance,  is  gradually  cooled,  and  after- 
wards packed  in  barrels,  when  it  may  be  preserved  for  a  great  length 
of  time.  Half  a  pound  of  this  substance  daily  is  said  to  be  sufficient 
to  support  a  vigorous  man.  Tapioca  is  a  preparation  of  Cassava,  but 
contains  less  nutritive  matter.  Tapioca  consists  almost  entirely  of 
starch. 

CA'SSIA  (from  the  Qreek  Koaota),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Legwninosa.  It  consists  of  a  lai^  number  of 
species,  chiefl^y  inhabiting  the  tropical  or  temperate  parts  of  the 
world,  and  including  among  them  the  plants  that  produce  the  Senna 
leaves  so  commonly  employed  as  a  purgitive.  The  genus  Cassia 
belongs  to  the  sub-order  CcualpiniecB  of  I^fuminosce,  and  is  character- 
ised by  De  CandoUe  as  foUows  : — Calyx  consisting  of  five  sepals  which 
scarcely  adhere  at  their  base,  but  are  more  or  less  irregular.  Petals 
five,  unequal  in  size;  staniens  ten,  distinct  from  eadi  other;  the 
three  lowest  being  the  longest,  the  four  intermediate  ones  shorter  and 
straight,  and  the  three  upx)ennost  deformed ;  such  of  the  anthers  as 
are  perfect  open  at  the  point;  ovary  stalked,  usually  curved ;  legume 
variable  in  form ;  the  species  consist  of  trees,  shruos,  or  mere  herbs ; 
the  leaves  are  simply  and  abruptly  pinnated,  and  usually  bear  glands 
on  their  stalks ;  the  leaflets  are  opposite  each  other.  Between  200 
and  300  species  are  described  by  botanists. 

C.  actUifoliaf  a  small  under-shrub,  with  ovate  lanceolate  sharp- 
pointed  leaflets,  yeUow  flowers  in  terminal  erect  racemes,  and 
oonapressed  velvety  legumes  an  inch  long  and  half  an  inch  broad. 
It  is  found  wild  in  Egypt,  Sennaar,  and  Abyssinia,  and  forms  an 
unportant  article  in  the  conmierce  of  those  cotmtries.  It  is  chiefly 
sent  to  Alexandria  for  shipment,^  whence  it  has  gained  the  name  of 
Alexandrian  Senna  among  the  drug-merchants.  It  is  considered  the 
most  valuable  of  all  the  sennas. 

C.  obovaia,  Aleppo  Senna,  has  obovate  very-blunt  leaflets,  and 
curved  pods,  with  a  very  slight  covering  of  down.  The  flowers  are 
pal^ellow.  It  is  common  in  the  same  countries  as  the  last,  and 
mix^  with  it  in  commerce;  it  however  chiefly  constitutes  the 
Aleppo  Senna. 

C.  lanceolaia.  Leaflets  veiy  narrow  and  acute;  pods  piano- 
compressed,  straightish,  a  little  tumid  in  the  middle.  Foimd  wild 
in  Arabia,  whence  it  is  exported  under  the  name  of  Senna  of  Mecca. 
It  is  a  good  deal  cultivated  in  India,  on  which  account,  and  from  its 
being  usually  shipped  for  Europe  from  Indian  ports,  it  has  acquired 
the  name  of  East  Indian  Senna  in  the  market.  As  a  species  it 
appears  to  differ  very  little  if  at  all  from  C.  actUifolia. 

Of  the  different  species  of  Cassia  mentioned  above  only  the  leaves 
are  used  in  medicine.  C.  FisttUa  and  other  species  are  now  referred 
to  Cathartocarpus,    [Cathartocabpus.] 

The  le^ets  of  several  different  species  of  Cassia  belonging  to  the 
section  Senna  constitute  the  various  kinds  of  Senna  called  Senna 
Ieave&  In  addition  to  the  leaflets,  the  leaf-stalks  and  pods  are 
frequently  present,  especially  in  the  Alexandrian  Senna,  which  contains 
also  the  leaves  and  pods  of  TepJirosia  ApoJUnea^  and  the  leaves,  but 
rarely  the  follicles,  of  Cynanchwm  Arghel,  Delile  {C.  oleafolium, 
Nectoux),   a   plant   belonging   to  the  natural  order   Apoq/naccas, 


;  which  possesses  deleterious  properties.  The  leaves  of  this  last-named 
\  plftat  constitute  two  parts  in  ten  of  the  Senna  of  Alexandria.  The 
Tripoli  Senna  is  free  from  it,  as  is  likewise  the  Trinivelly  Senna, 
which  is  now  the  best  and  cheapest  in  the  markets  of  this  country, 
and  should  always  be  preferred,  as  much  of  the  griping  tendency  ot 
common  Senna  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  Argel  leaves.  The  Senna 
Leaves  met  with  in  the  continental  markets  or  shops  are  frequently 
adulterated  with  the  leaves  and  berries  of  the  Ccridria  myrttfolia,  a 
very  poisonous  plant. 

When  free  from  adulterations,  Senna  furnishes  a  most  valuable 
pui^gative  medicine ;  but  when  impure,  its  action  is  accompanied  with 
nausea,  griping,  and  other  unpleasant  symptoms.  It  is  desirable 
therefore  to  free  it  from  impurities  before  administering  it  or  sub- 
jecting it  to  the  action  of  water  to  form  an  infusion.  [Senna,  in  Arts 
AND  Sc.  Drv.] 

CASSIA  BUDS.  The  unexpended  flowers,  when  they  have 
attained  about  a  fourth  of  their  complete  size,  of  a  species  of  Cinna- 
momwn,  are  collected  and  sold  imder  this  name.  Much  diversity  of 
opinion  exists  respecting  the  particular  species  of  plant  which  yields 
this  article.  Professor  C.  G.  Nees  von  Esenbeck  (who  is  perhaps  the 
best  authority^  says  it  is  chiefly  C.  aromaticum  (Nees),  and  partially 
(7.  dtdce  (Nees),  Lcmrus  dtUcis  (Roxb.),  dnnamomum  Chinense (Blum.); 
while  Dr.  Th.  Fr.  Ludwig  Nees  von  Esenbeck  ascribes  it  to  Lauras 
TamcUa  (Hamilton,  'Linn.  Trans.*  xiii.  p.  556,  the  L.  Cassia,  'Hort 
Beng.'),  and  Dierbach  to  the  Z.  Cttbeba  (Lour.),  which  last  supposition 
is  at  variance  with  the  statement  of  Louriero  ('  Flora  Cochmensis/ 
p.  310),  respecting  the  action  of  the  berries  of  that  species. 

Cassia  Buds  have  the  appearance  of  nails  with  heads  of  different 
sizes  and  shapes,  according  to  the  period  of  growth  when  collected. 
But  an  artificial  process  is  employed  by  the  Chinese  collectors,  of 
pressing  the  top  against  a  flat  hard  body,  by  which  the  ovary  or  fruit 
is  prevented  falling  out.  Externally  they  are  of  a  dark  or  grayish- 
brown  ;  the  fruit,  which  is  within,  is  of  a  bright  brown.  The  taste 
and  odour  resemble  cinnamon.  By  distillation  they  yield  a  heavy 
yellowish-coloured  oil.  It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  an  inferior 
sort,  neai'ly  devoid  of  taste,  which  is  met  with  in  commerce,  was  the 
genuine,  which  had  been  previously  deprived  of  its  oil ;  but  Martius 
showed  that  this  was  a  spurious  kind,  which  is  distinguished  from 
the  true  by  having  the  upper  part  of  the  calyx  marked  by  six  slits  or 
incisions.  It  is  moreover  not  so  round  as  the  true  sort,  and  in 
furnished  with  a  longer  foot-stalk.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
the  term  Cassia  used  here  has  no  relation  to  the  genus  which  yields 
the  Sennas  of  commerce.    [Cassia.] 

The  uses  of  Cassia  Buds  are  the  same  as  those  of  cinnamon  and 
doves. 

CA'SSICUS,  a  genus  of  Passerine  Birds,  of  the  family  Conirostres, 
allied  to  the  Beef-Eaters  and  Starlings.  They  are  distinguished, 
among  other  characters,  by  their  large,  conical,  and  sharply  pointed 
beaks.  The  species  of  Cassicus  are  all  inhabitants  of  America.  They 
are  gregarious,  and  feed  upon  grain  and  insects. 

CA'SSIDA,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  family  Cauidiadas, 
It  has  the  foUowing  characters : — Body  generally  somewhat  oval  or 
orbicular,  and  sometimes  nearly  square :  thorax  semicircular  or 
forming  the  segment  of  a  circle,  the  mai^gins  projecting  considerably 
beyond  and  covering  the  head ;  the  elytra  also  have  the  margins 
projecting,  and  forming  as  it  were  a  kind  of  shield  to  the  b(3y; 
mandibles  with  several  small  notches ;  the  anterior  maxillary  lobe  as 
long  as  the  inner  one. 

CASSIDI'ADuE,  Leach  {CassidaruB,  Latreille),  a  family  of  Coleop- 
terous Insects  of  the  section  Cyclica  of  Latreille.     [Ctcuca.] 

The  species  of  this  family  are  distinguished  by  their  having  the 
antennse  rather  short>  filiform  or  slightly  thickened  towards  the  apex, 
placed  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  head,  and  almost  close  togeUier. 
The  legs  are  short  and  contractile ;  the  tarsi  are  flattened,  soft,  and 
velvet-like  beneath;  the  penultimate  joint  bilobed,  the  lobes  completely 
inclosing  the  terminal  joint ;  body  generally  very  flat 

CASSOWARY.    [Struthionidjb.] 

CASTA'NEA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Corylacea,  one  of  the  species  is  the  Sweet  Chestnut.  From  the 
similarity  in  their  name  one  would  be  disposed  to  believe  that  the 
genus  to  which  Horse-Chestnuts  belong  was  nearly  related  to  this ; 
they  are  however  extremely  different  in  everything  except  the  un- 
important circumstances  of  the  fruit  of  both  being  prickly ;  and  even 
in  regard  to  this,  their  resemblance  is  more  apparent  than  real,  for  the 
prickly  part  of  the  fruit  of  Castanea  is  an  involucre,  while  that  of 
the  Horse-Chestnut  is  a  pericarp ;  and  the  so-called  seeds  of  Casia/nca 
are  seed-vessels,  while  the  parts  which  in  the  Horse-Chestnut  correspond 
with  these  are  really  seedis.    [iEscuLUS.] 

C,  vesca  (C.  v^aris,  Ltun.),  the  Sweet  Chestnut,  or  Spanish 
Chestnut,  is  a  deciduous  tree  of  considerable  size,  with  long  snining 
serrated  sharp-pointed  leaves,  clusters  of  long  spikes  of  pale  greenish- 
yellow  unisexual  minute  flowers,  having  no  corolla,  and  fruits  con- 
sisting of  a  roundish  prickly  hui^  or  involucre,  technically  called  a 
cupula,  and  analogous  to  the  cup  of  the  acorn  or  the  beard  of  the 
filbert,  in  which  are  contained  one  or  more  dark-brown  ovate  sharp- 
pointed  nuts,  each  of  which  conceals  a  lai^e  single  seed,  and  is  tipped 
by  the  remains  of  several  rigid  styles.  The  seeds  contain  a  lai^ 
quantity  of  nutritive  starchy  matter,  of  a  sweet  flavoiiTi  on  which 


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CASTANOSPERMUM. 


CATALPA. 


79C 


account  Cheatnuts  are  extensively  used  as  food  in  the  couutiicd  where 
the  tree  abounds.  In  all  Spain,  the  southern  parts  of  France,  Italy, 
and  the  adjacent  countries,  Sweet  Chestnuts,  either  raw,  or  roasted, 
or  ground  into  flour,  or  prepared  in  some  other  way,  form  a  common 
article  of  diet.  It  is  however  not  the  wild  Cattanea  which  furnishes ' 
the  nuts  that  are  principally  consumed  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and 
exclusively  exported  to  more  northern  countries,  but  a  number  of 
cultivated  varieties,  the  nuts  of  which  are  larger,  and  the  seeds 
sweeter;  of  these  the  most  remarkable  are  the  Corive,  the  Ganiaude, 
the  Egalade,  and  the  Marron  Comu  of  the  south  of  France.  The 
Sweet  Chestnut  is  a  native  of  all  the  southern  parts  of  Europe, 
extending  eastward  to  the  Caucasus,  beyond  which  it  hardly  passes 
in  Asia.  In  North  America  it  occurs  wild  in  great  abundance  in  the 
hilly  and  mountainous  parts  of  Virginia,  the  two  Carolinas,  and 
Georgia,  as  well  as  other  districts,  not  however  reaching  beyond  New 
Hampshire  to  the  north.  Michaux  distinguishes  the  American  from 
the  European  Chestnut  as  a  peculiar  species,  but  hardly  upon  sufficient 

Cunds.  It  is  always  included  as  a  wild  plant  in  our  English  Floras, 
;  upon  no  sort  of  authority.  It  is  said  mdeed  that  its  timber  forms 
a  considerable  part  of  our  oldest  building  and  that  it  has  been 
ascertained  to  be  the  material  out  of  which  were  constructed  the 
ancient  piles  that  have  from  time  to  time  been  taken  from  the  Thames, 
the  roof  of  Westminster  Abbey,  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas  at  Great 
Yarmouth,  erected  in  the  reign  of  William  Ruf  us,  and  the  timbers  of 
other  places;  but  these  statements  have  arisen  from  the  singular 
mistake  of  confounding  the  timber  of  Quercus  tetailijlora  with  that  of 
Coitan^a  vesca ;  it  is  to  the  former  that  are  to  be  referred  all  the 
supposed  cases  of  ancient  chestnut  wood  found  in  English  buildings. 
[Quercus.]  The  Sweet  Chestnut  in  its  wild  state  acquires  an  unusual 
size.  On  ^tna,  where  it  constitutes  forests,  there  are  trees  of  great 
antiquity,  one  of  which,  called  the  Hundred-Horse  Chestnut,  from 
its  being  able  to  contain  a  hundred  mounted  men  in  its  hollow,  has  or 
had  a  circumference  of  above  160  feet ;  and  in  the  department  of  the 
Cher,  near  Sancerre,  there  is  still  standing  a  tree  of  this  species,  which 
at  6  feet  from  the  groimd  measures  more  than  30  feet  in  circum- 
ference, and  is  to  eJl  appearance  still  sound.  It  is  stated  that  600 
rears  ago  this  was  called  the  Great  Chestnut-Tree,  and  its  actual  age 
18  computed  at  1000  years.  The  wood  of  the  chestnut  is  well  suited 
for  paling  or  piles,  as  it  resists  well  the  influence  of  water ;  it  is  also 
used  for  mill-timber  and  for  water'-works,  but  it  is  not  in  this  country 
of  much  importance. 

Several  varieties  are  cultivated  in  this  country,  among  which  are  a 
shimng-leaved,  a  variegated,  and  a  cut-leaved  sort;  they  are  multiplied 
by  gracing  on  the  common  Sweet  Chestnut. 

C.  pumilaf  the  Chinquapin-Nut,  is  a  shrub  rather  than  a  tree, 
with  leaves  hoary  on  the  underside,  and  small  sweet  nuts.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  United  States  of  North  America,  especially  in  damp 
mountainous  situations  on  a  gravelly  soil. 

There  are  other  species  in  India  and  on  the  west  coast  of  North 
America. 

CASTANOSPEIIMUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Leffuminoao!.  The  only  known  species  of  this  genus  is  described 
as  forming  a  tree  firom  80  to  40  feet  high  in  the  forests  near  Moreton 
Bay  in  Australia.  It  has  unequally-pinnated  leaves,  with  elliptical 
ovate  acuminate  entire  smooth  leaflets.  The  flowers  are  papiliona- 
ceous, and  bright  saffix)n-yellow.  The  pods  are  large,  solitary,  and 
pendulous,  produced  by  the  two-years'-old  wood,  obtuse,  rather 
mflated,  and  containing  from  S  to  6  lai|^  chestnut-like  seeds.  The 
shade  i^orded  by  the  foliage  is  said  to  excel  that  of  most  Australian 
trees.  By  the  natives  the  seeds  are  eaten  on  all  occasions  :  they  have 
when  roasted  the  flavour  of  a  Spanish  chestnut,  and  travellers  assert 
that  Europeans  who  have  subsisted  upon  them  have  experienced  no 
other  unpleasant  efiect  than  a  slight  pain  in  the  bowels,  and  that 
only  when  the  seeds  are  eaten  raw.  They  are  however  hard, 
astringent,  and  not  at~  all  better  than  acoma  (Hooker,  Botanical 
Miscellany.) 

CA'STNIA,  a  genus  of  Lepidopterous  Insects.    [SPHiNOiD-fi.] 

CASTOR.    [Beaver.] 

CASTOR,  a  colourless,  transparent,  feldspar-like  mineral  from  EHba. 
Its  hardness  is  6*5  and  specific  gravity  2'38  to  2*4.  It  has  the  follow- 
ing composition : — 

Snica 780 

Alumina .    18*9 

Oxides  of  Iron  and  Manganese      .        .        .      1'6 
Lithia,  Potash,  and  Soda    .  .  .       2*8 

CASTOREUM.    [Beaver.] 

CASUARINA'CEiE,  a  natural  order  of  Incomplete  Exogens, 
whose  branches  are  in  all  cases  long,  drooping,  green,  and  wiry,  with 
very  small  scale-like  sheaths,  in  the  room  of  leaves.  The  flowers  are 
unisexual,  and  disposed  in  verticillate  spikes ;  they  have  neither  calyx 
nor  corolla,  are  monandrous,  and  their  ovaries  are  lenticular,  with  a 
solitary  erect  ovule.  The  fruit  consists  of  hardened  bracts,  inclosing 
the  small  fruits,  which  are  winged.  This  very  small  family,  which  is 
exclusively  Asiatic,  Australasian,  and  Polynesian,  is  allied  to  Myricacece 
and  Betulacea:.  In  habit  and  in  their  striated  stems  Casuarinacece  are 
■ike  the  arborescent  species  of  EquiMttum.  The  timber  of  some  species 
forms  the  Beef-Wood  of  the  New  South  Wales  colonists,  and  is  of 
excellent  quality.      The  young  branches  and  cones    of  Catwirina 


quadrivalviiy  the  She-Oak,  when  chewed  yield  a  pleasant  acid.  Cattle 
are  said  to  be  fond  of  them.  The  only  genus  is  Catwirvna,  of  which 
about  20  species  have  been  described. 


The  She-Oak  {^Cuiuarina  quadncahi$). 


1,  Mole  flowers;  2,  one  of  the  same;  3,  bracts;  4,  male  flower,  without  iu 
bracts ;  5,  female  flowers ;  6,  section  of  the  same ;  7,  one  of  the  same ;  8,  »ce. 
tion  of  the  cone;  9,  capsule;  10,  the  same  opened;  11,  section  of  the  same; 
1 2,  a  bractea ;  1 3,  seed ;  1 4,  section  of  the  same ;  1 5,  seed  without  an  envelope ; 
16,  embryo. 

CAT.     [FeuDJS.] 

CATABRO'SA,  a  genus  of  plants  belongmg  to  the  natural  order  of 
Grasses,  and  to  the  tribe  Festucinea  of  that  order.  It  has  unequal 
very  short  glumes,  rounded  or  truncate,  without  lateral  ribs,  much 
shorter  than  the  spikelet ;  the  flowers  usually  two,  rounded  on  the 
back,  distant ;  the  outer  palea  membranous,  with  three  ribs  ending 
in  teeth,  whidi  do  not  quite  extend  to  the  summit,  and  are  connected 
by  the  scarious  mai^gin ;  the  styles  terminal ;  the  upper  glume  has 
two  very  short  faint  lateral  nerves,  the  awn  absent.  This  is  agenui 
formed  by  Palisot  de  Beauvois,  and  adopted  by  Babington  in  hii 
'  Muiual  of  British  Botany.'  The  only  British  spedes  is  the  C.  <iqwi,- 
ilea ;  it  has  an  equal  panicle,  with  half-whorls  of  patent  branches, 
and  obtuse  broadly  linear  leave&  It  is  found  in  ponds  and  ditches 
and  wet  sands.     (Babington,  Manual  of  Brit,  BoL) 

CATALPA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Biffnoniacece.  It  has  a  2-parted  calyx;  campanulate  ooroUa,  with  s 
ventricose  tube,  and  an  unequal  4-lobed  limb;  6  stamens,  two  of 
which  are  fertile,  the  other  three  sterile;  tiie  atigma  bilamellste; 


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CATAPHRACTUS. 


CEATJ'OTHUS. 


708 


the  capsule  silique-formed,  long,  cylindrical,  2-valyed;  the  disaepi- 
ment  opposite  the  valves ;  the  seeds  membranous  at  the  margin,  with 
pappus  at  the  base  and  apex.  The  species  are  trees  with  simple 
leaves,  opposite  or  disposed  three  in  a  whorl ;  the  flowers  terminal, 
panicled. 

C.  tyringctfcUa  has  flat  cordate  leaves,  three  in  a  whorl.  This  plant 
is  a  native  of  North  America,  and  is  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio, 
Mississippi,  and  Delaware,  also  in  the  forests  on  the  Wabash  in 
Illinois,  where  it  occurs  in  so  great  abimdance  that  the  wood  is  cut 
up  for  palings.  It  is  a  low-spreading  singular-looking  tree,  with  suc- 
culent shootai,  easily  injured  by  the  frost.  The  leaves  are  large  and 
come  out  late ;  the  petals  are  white,  spotted  with  purple  and  yellow. 
It  is  a  plant  well  adapted  for  laige  shrubberies.  There  is  one  in  the 
gardens  of  Gray's  Inn,  which  is  said  to  have  been  planted  by  Lord 
Bacon.  The  name  of  the  genus  appears  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  plant  growing  on  the  banks  of  the  Catawba  River.  It  does  not  bear 
fruit  in  this  country. 

(7.  longuaima  has  oblong  or  ovate-lanceolate  leaves,  acuminated, 
three  in  a  whorl,  undulated.  It  is  a  tree  80  or  40  feet  in  height  It 
contains  much  tannin  in  its  bark.  It  is  known  in  the  West  Indies, 
by  the  name  of  French  Oak,  and  the  French  call  it  Chdne  Noir. 

There  are  several  other  species  of  Catalpa,  all  elegant  plants.  The 
C.  tyrmgcefolia  thrives  well  in  common  garden  soil,  and  may  be  pro- 
pagated by  seeds  or  divisions  of  the  root.  The  other  species  grow 
well  in  a  mixture  of  loam,  peat,  and  sand,  or  any  light  rich  soil. 
Cuttings  half-ripened  root  readily  if  planted  in  sand  with  a  hand-glass 
over  them. 

CATAPHRACTUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  to  which  some  Icthyologista 
refer  the  Armed  Bull-Head.    [Aspidophorus.] 

CATA'STOMUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  Abdominal 
Malaeopterygii  and  family  Oyprinidce.  The  fishes  of  this  genus  are 
peculiar  to  the  rivers  of  North  America,  and  the  species  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  others  of  the  Carp  section  by  their  having  the  lips 
thick  and  pendent,  and  crenated  or  fringed  at  the  edges ;  Qxe  dorsal 
fin  shorty  as  in  the  genus  Ltuciscua  (which  contains  the  Roach,  Dace, 
&c),  and  opposite  to  and  above  the  ventral  fins.  M.  Lesueur  describes 
17  species  of  this  genus  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  of  Philadelphia.' 

CATCHFLT,  a  name  applied  to  several  plants  which  have  the  pro- 
perty of  retaining  insects,  either  by  their  viscid  surface  or  by  some 
other  meana  In  Apocynum  cmdroscemifoliumf  and  some  others,  they 
are  caught  in  the  hairs  that  clothe  the  mouth  of  the  corolla ;  in  SUene 
by  the  glutinous  substance  that  exudes  from  the  calyx ;  in  Du)n€ea 
by  the  collapsing  of  the  two  sides  of  the  irritable-toothed  leaves. 
[Silene;  Diok&a.;  LTcmns.] 

CATECHU,  an  extractive  matter  containing  large  quantities  of 
tannin,  obtained  from  species  of  Acacia.    [Acacia.] 

CATENI'PORA,  a  genus  of  Corals  found  only  in  the  PalcDOzoio 
Strata,  and  in  Britain  only  in  Silurian  Rocks.    [Madrephtllkea.] 

CATERPILLAR,  a  name  given  to  the  larva  state  of  Butterflies  and 
Moths.    [Larva.] 

CAT-FISH.    [ANARRraCAB.] 

CATHA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  CeUutra- 
cetK.  C,  ediUis  is  the  Kat  or  Kh&t  of  the  Arabs.  ''  It  would  appear," 
says  Dr.  Lindley,  "  to  be  of  a  stimulating  character.  According  to 
Forekiihl  the  Arabs  eat  the  green  leaves  with  greediness,  believing 
them  to  have  the  power  of  causing  extreme  watchfulness,  so  that  a 
man  may  stand  sentry  all  night  long  without  drowsiness.  They  also 
regard  it  as  an  antidote  to  the  plague,  and  assert  that  a  person  wearing 
a  twig  of  it  in  his  bosom  may  go  among  the  infected  with  impunity ; 
they  even  believe  that  the  plague  cannot  appear  in  places  where  the 
tree  is  cultivated."  ('Vegetable  Kingdom,'  p.  687.)  At  the  same 
time  Forakahl  adds,  ''The  taste  of  the  leaves  does  not  seem  to  indicate 
such  virtues." 

CATHARTOCARPUS  (from  xaeaipa,  to  purge,  and  Kdfnros,  fruit), 
a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Leguminoace.  It  has 
very  blunt  sepals,  hardly  joined  at  the  base,  more  or  less  unequal ; 
5  unequal  petals;  10  unequal  free  stamens,  the  three  lower  one^ 
longest,  the  four  middle  ones  short  and  straight,  the  three  upper  ones 
bearing  abortive  difformed  anthers ;  the  anthers  ovate,  opening  by 
two  chinks  at  the  apex ;  the  ovary  stipitate ;  the  legumes  terete  or  a 
little  compressed,  indehiscent,  woody  with  elevated  sutures,  trans- 
versely many-celled  inside,  the  cells  1-seeded  and  filled  with  pulp  ; 
the  seeds  elliptic,  rather  compressed,  horizontal  The  species  are  trees 
with  abruptly-pinnate  leaves  and  racemes  of  large  yellow  flowers.  In 
appearance  they  are  not  unlike  the  Common  Laburnum  when  in 
flower.  This  genus  of  plants  was  formerly  comprehended  under 
Cattia  [Cassia],  but  was  separated  by  Peraoon,  who  has  been  followed 
by  Lindley,  Ivees  von  Esenbeck,  and  others.  The  habit  of  these 
trees  and  the  character  of  their  fruit  differ  from  the  species  of  Cassia. 
It  is  also  undoubtedly  desirable  that  a  genus  like  Cassia^  with  nearly 
200  species,  should  be  subdivided. 

p.  Fistula,  the  Purging  Cassia,  or  Pudding  Pipe-Tree,  has  leaves 
with  4-6  pairs  of  ovate  rather  acuminated  glabrous  leaflets;  the 
petioles  glandless ;  the  racemes  loose,  bractless ;  the  legumes  cylin- 
drical, rather  obtuse,  smooth.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally 
a  native  of  tropical  Africa,  but  is  now  extensively  difiiised  over  the 
globe,  and  is  found  abundsxntly  in  Hindustan,  China,  the  East  Indian 


Islands,  the  West  Indies,  and  South  America.  It  is  a  tree  from  30  to 
40  feet  high,  with  yellow  flowers  and  long  cylindrical  black  pods,  from 
9  inches  to  2  feet  in  length.  The  valves  of  this  pod  are  thin, 
hard,  and  brittle ;  and  its  cavity  is  divided  by  numerous  thin  brittle 
transverse  dissepiments ;  the  partitions  thus  formed  have  each  a  single 
hard  flattened  ovate  seed,  surrounded  by  a  soft  pulp.  The  pulp  has 
a  sweetish  flat  not  unpleasant  taste,  and  is  separated  by  boiling  the 
pod  in  water,  straining  the  fluid,  and  then  evaporating  it  to  the  con- 
sistence of  a  thick  extract.  This  extract  acts  as  a  mild  purgative  on 
the  system,  and  was  long  in  great  repute  in  Europe  on  that  account. 
It  is  now  however  seldom  used ;  and  although  admitted  into  the  lists 
of  Materia  Medica  of  the  British  Pharmacopoeias,  is  only  placed  there 
as  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  Electuarium  Cassiss  and  the 
Confectio  Semue.  The  pulp,  according  to  Henry,  consists  of  61  per 
cent,  of  sugar,  6*75  of  gum,  and  18'25  of  tannin.  It  probably,  idso 
contains  Cathartine  or  an  analogous  principle. 

C.  Javanicusj  Horse-Cassia,  has  leaves  with  12-15  pairs  of  ovate 
obtuse  glabrous  leaflets ;  glandless  petioles ;  axillary  racemes ;  nearly 
cylindrical,  very  long,  and  transversely  torose  legumes.  It  is  a  native 
of  Java  and  the  Moluccas.  Its  legumes  are  above  two  feet  in  length, 
and  contain  a  black  cathartic  pulp,  which  is  used  as  a  horse-medicine 
in  the  East  Indies.  G.  Don  has  described  a  species  of  Cathartocarpus 
(C.  conspicuus),  which  is  a  native  of  Sierra-Leone,  where  the  pods 
are  called  Monkey  Drum-Sticks. 

(Christison,  XHspensatory  ;  Don,  Gardai^s  Dictionary.) 

C ATILLUS,  a  fossil  genus  of  Bivalve  Shells,  allied  to  OretuUida  and 
Pema,  so  named  by  Cuvier  and  Brongniart  In  the  Chalk  occur 
species  of  large  size,  remarkable  for  their  largely  fibrous  texture. 
They  have  also  been  called  from  this  circumstance  JnoceraiMu  by 
Sowerby,  who  includes  in  the  genus  one  si)ecies  from  the  Lias  and 
others  from  the  Gault. 

CATKIN,  in  Botany,  a  kind  of  inflorescence  which  difiers  from  the 
spike  in  nothing  but  its  falling  off  the  stem  by  an  articulation,  after 
its  temporary  office  as  the  support  of  the  organs  of  reproduction  is 
accomplished.  It  occurs  in  the  willow,  the  poplar,  the  birch,  &c., 
which  hence  are  sometimes  called  Ajnentaceous  plants,  amerUum 
being  the  Latin  name  of  the  catkin. 

CATLINITE,  a  form  of  argillaceous  mineral  called  Pipestone  by 
the  North  American  Indians.  It  comes  from  the  Coteau  des  Prairies, 
and  is  a  red  claystone  or  compacted  clay.  A  similar  material  is  now 
accumulating  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  at  Nepigon  Bay. 
Another  variety  is  used  by  the  Indians  of  uie  north-west  coast  of 
America.    (Dana,  Mineralogy.) 

CAT-MINT.    [Nepbta.] 

CATOBLEPAS.    [Antilopea] 

CAT'S-ETE,  a  form  of  Chalcedony,  of  a  greenish-gray  colour, 
having  a  peculiar  opalescence,  or  glaring  internal  reflections,  like  the 
eye  of  a  cat :  the  effect  is  owing  to  filaments  of  asbestos.  It  comes 
from  Ceylon  and  Malabar,  and  possesses  considerable  value  as  a  gem. 
(Dana,  Mineralogy.) 

CAT'S-TAIL  GRASS,  the  common  name  of  PUewm  pratense,  an 
agricultural  plant,  also  called  Timothy  Grass.    [Phleum.] 

CAU'CALIS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Umbellifercg,  the  su&order  Campylospermea:,  and  the  tribe  Oaucalinece. 
It  has  a  calyx  of  five  teeth,  the  petals  obcordate,  with  an  inflexed 
point,  outer  ones  radiant  and  bifid,  the  point  slightly  lateraUy 
compressed,  the  carpels  with  filiform  bristly  primaiy  and  more  or 
less  prominent  secondary  ridges,  all  bearing  1-8  rows  of  prickles. 
The  species  are  herbs,  with  multiplied  leaves  and  white  flowers. 
They  are  called  by  the  common  name  of  Bur-Parsley.  Two  of  the 
species  are  found  in  England,  C.  daucoides  and  O,  UAifclia.  They  are 
found  in  corn-fields  on  chalky  soils ;  the  last  is  a  rare  plant,  and  has 
been  probably  introduced.    (Babington,  Manual  of  British  Botany.) 

CAUDISONA.    [Viperidje.] 

CAULERPITES,  a  group  of  Fossil  Fucoid  Plants,  of  which  niany 
species  occur  scattered  through  nearly  all  the  marine  formations. 
In  the  Oolites  seven  species  have  been  found.  The  recent  genus 
Caukrpa  is  found  in  warm  southern  climates. 

CAULIFLOWER.    [Brassioa.] 

CAULINIA,  a  genus  of  aquatic  plants,  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Naiadacem.  One  of  the  species,  C.  fragUiSj  exhibits  a  circula- 
tion in  its  transparent  joints,  and  was  one  of  the  first  plants  in  which 
this  phenomenon  was  noticed  by  Amici,  and  also  probably  by  Costa. 

CAVIA.    [Cavy.] 

CAYT  is  the  vulgar  name  applied  to  various  species  of  animals 
belonging  to  the  genus  Coma.  Of  these  the  most  common  is  C.  Aperea^ 
the  Restless  Cavy,  or  Guinea  Pig.  An  account  of  this  animal,  with 
the  species  to  which  it  is  aUied,  will  be  found  under  Htsteicida 

CAWK.    [Barttes.] 

CAYENNE  PEPPER.    [Capsicum.] 

CAYMAN.    [ALLIOATOR.J 

CEANOTHUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
MamnaceoB,  The  calyx  is  6-cleft,  campanuLite,  cut  round  after 
flowering,  with  the  base  permanent  and  adhering  to  the  fniit ;  petals 
hooded,  with  long  spreading  claws;  fruit  dry,  8-celled,  loculicidal, 
with  papery  valves :   cells  1-seeded.     The  species  are  smooth  or 

{>ubescent  shrubs,  with  erect  branches ;  alternate  serrated  8-nerved 
eaves ;  and  very  slender  white  blue  or  yellow  flowers,  disposed  in 


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CECIDOMYIA. 


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terminal  panicleBy  or  in  axillary  racemes.    They  are  nativea  of  North 
America. 

C.  Americanust  Red  Root,  New  Jersey  Tea,  has  ovate  acuminate 
serrated  leaves,  pubescent  beneath;  flowers  arranged  in  axillary 
ebngated  thyrses,  with  a  pubescent  rachis.  An  infusion  of  the  twigs 
of  this  plant  is  used  in  Canada  for  venereal  diseases.  During  one  of 
the  wars  with  America  the  leaves  of  this  plant  were  used  in  New 
Jersey  as  a  substitute  for  tea.  It  dves  wool  of  a  fine  strong  nankin- 
cinnamon  colour,  and  is  a  beautiful  shrub  when  in  flower. 

There  are  several  other  species  of  this  genus,  natives  of  North  and 
South  America.  They  are  small  neat  shrubs,  with  large  red  roots, 
which  give  them  the  name  of  Red  Root.  They  grow  very  well  in  this 
coimtry,  and  may  be  planted  in  any  common  garden  soil,  and  form 
proper  plants  for  the  front  of  a  shrubbery.  They  may  be  propagated 
by  hkyers  or  seeds.  Those  from  Mexico  and  the  greenhouse  soecies 
must  be  protected  from  frost  during  the  winter.  Cuttings  will  root 
in  sand  under  a  hand-glass. 

(Lindley,  Flora  Medica  ;  Don,  Gardener^s  Dictionary.) 
.  CEBADI'LLA,  CEVADILLA,  or  SABADILLA,  the  Spanish-Mexi- 
can  name  for  a  species  of  Veratrvm,  the  seeds  of  which  are  an  article 
of  considerable  importance  in  couBequence  of  their  having  been  found 
to  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  V eratria.  Much  interest  has  been 
excited  about  this  drug,  from  the  obscurity  that  is  supposed  to  hang 
about  its  origin.  It  has  always  been  understood  to  come  from  Mexico. 
Retzius,  who  fii*st  referred  the  Cebadilla  to  Veratrum,  had  no  better 
materials  to  describe  it  from  than  a  bit  of  the  inflorescence  which  he 
foimd  among  a  sample  of  the  seeds.  Smith,  imder  Veratmm  (in  1819), 
traced  out  its  synonyms  in  Rees's  *  Cyclopaedia,'  but  without  throwing 
much  light  upon  its  history.  F^e,  in  1828,  knew  no  more  about  it 
than  what  Retzius  had  stated,  adding  that  the  meamng  of  the  word 
waB  Little  Oat — ^^Cebadilla  being  a  diminution  of  Cebada,  the  Spanish 
for  Oat.  He  considered  it  was  fit  for  use  as  a  horse-medicine,  and  to 
destroy  vermuL  At  a  later  period  Descourtilz  referred,  in  his  '  Blore 
des  Antilles,'  the  Veratrum  SdbadUla  of  Retzius  to  a  West  Indian 
plant;  and  shortly  after  it  was  ascertained  that  there  was  also  a 
Mexican  Cebadilla,  which  corresponded  entirely  with  the  seeds  of  the 
shops.  Thus  again  Mexico  was  fixed  as  the  undoubted  origin  of  that 
valuable  production  in  which  the  principle  Veratria  ia  foimd  more 
concentrated  than  in  any  known  plant.  Dr.  Schiede  discovered  it  in 
grassy  places  near  the  Hacienda  de  la  Laguna  in  Barranca  de  Tioselo, 
on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Mexican  table-laud ;  and  it  has  been 
since  described  by  Schlechtendahl  and  Chamisso  under  the  name  of 
Veratrum  officinale,  Lindley  has  constituted  a  new  genus  for  this 
plant,  and  calls  it  Asagrcea  officinalit.  It  has  the  following  charac- 
ters : — Root  bulbous ;  plant  usually  growing  in  tufts ;  leaves  linear, 
tapering  to  the  point,  even,  quite  smooth,  entire,  channeled  on  the 
upper  side,  keeled  at  the  beick,  four  feet  long,  rather  weak ;  scape 
naked,  as  high  as  a  man,  quite  simple,  terminated  by  a  raceme  a  foot 
and  a  half  long ;  perianth  deeply  6-parted,  spreading,  yellowish,  small, 
persistent,  with  thick  blunt  linear  segments,  of  whidh  three  are  rather 
broader  than  the  others ;  filaments  six,  somewhat  club-shaped,  yel- 
lowish, inserted  into  the  base  of  the  perianth,  the  three  that  are  oppo- 
site to  the  broader  segments  rather  longer  than  the  others,  and  all 
longer  than  the  perianth ;  anthers  rather  large,  yellow,  cordate  at  the 
base,  obtuse ;  pollen  yellow ;  ovary  superior,  consLsting  of  three  car- 
pels united  by  their  sutures ;  styles  very  short ;  fruit  tricapsular,  the 
capsules  adhering  by  their  suture,  but  readily  separated ;  lower  flowers 
hermaphrodite  and  fertile,  upper  male,  and  sterile  on  account  of  the 
abortion  of  the  ovary ;  flowers  have  the  smell  of  the  Common  Bar- 
berry. This  plant  produces  the  true  Mexican  CebadiUa  or  Sabadilla, 
which  is  now  extensively  employed  in  making  the  alkaloid  Veratria. 
But  in  the  shops  there  appear  to  be  seeds  of  two  distinct  species,  one 
of  which  is  the  V.  Sabadilla,  the  other  the  plant  now  described,  which 
differs  in  having  linear  keeled  channeled,  and  not  ribgrass-like  leaves, 
yellow  and  not  purple  flowers,  segments  of  the  perianth  linear  and 
shorter  than  the  filaments,  and  not  ovate  or  lanceolate,  and  longer 
than  the  filaments.  Nearly  related  to  this  is  a  F.  frigidum,  found  in 
the  alpine  regions  of  Orizaba,  where  it  flowers  in  September :  this 
has  blackish-brown  flowers,  and  ia  reckoned  a  poisonous  plant  by  the 
Mexicans,  who  call  it  Sevoeja.  It  is  referred  by  Lindley  to  the  genus 
Ildoniat.     [Verateum;  Helonias.] 

CEBRIONITES  (Latreille),  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects 
belonging  to  the  section  Malacoderma.  It  has  the  following  cha- 
racters:— Body  generally  somewhat  oval  and  convex;  wing-cases 
rather  soft  and  flexible;  thorax  broader  than  long,  widest  at  the 
base,  and  with  the  hinder  angles  acute,  or  produced  into  a  spine. 
Antennae  generally  longer  than  the  h^  and  thorax;  mandibles 
terminating  in  a  simple  point;  joints  of  the  palpi  of  nearly  equal 
thickness ;  legs  moderate,  not  contractile. 

The  species  of  this  family  are  frequently  found  upon  plants  in 
marshy  situations,  but  very  little  is  known  of  their  habits;  their 
larvae  are  supposed  to  live  in  the  ground,  and  very  probably  subsist 
on  the  roots  of  planta 

The  genus  Cebrio  is  distinguished  from  other  genera  of  this  family 
by  having  all  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  entire,  and  without  any  velvet- 
like  pjellets  beneath,  and  the  posterior  thighs  of  the  same  size  as  the 
anterior.  About  ten  species  of  this  genus  have  been  discovered, 
most  of  which  are  peculiar  to  Europe.    Oehrio  gigaa,^.  species  not 


uncommon  in  France,  is  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  of  a  pale  brownish-yellow  colour.  In  the  male  the  head  and 
thorax  and  the  logs  (excepting  the  thighs)  are  black ;  the  head  and 
thorax  are  thickly  punctured,  and  together  with  the  elytra,  which 
are  striated,  are  covered  with  small  yellowiah  hairs;  the  antenna 
are  long,  and  if  extended  backwards  would  reach  about  half  way 
down  the  elytra.  In  tiie  female  there  is  so  striking  a  difierence  in 
this  oigan,  as  to  cause  that  sex  to  be  mistaken  for  a  distinct  speciea : 
here  the  antennae  are  very  short,  and  if  extended  backwards  would 
not  reach  farther  than  the  base  of  the  thorax ;  the  basal  joint  is  much 
longer  than  the  other ;  the  fourth  and  following  joints  are  short, 
thick,  and  joined  closely  together.  The  legs  of  Uie  female  are  abo 
shorter  and  thicker  in  proportion  than  in  the  other  sex. 

It  is  said  that  the  European  species  of  this  genus  appear  iu  great 
numbers  afber  heavy  rains. 

During  lir.  Eirby's  observations  he  discovered  no  leas  than  three 
parasites,  belonging  to  the  Icknewntmidat  on  the  larva  of  the  iuaect 
in  question,  wmoh  accounts  for  the  great  diSerenoe  between  the 
number  of  larvae  and  that  of  the  pupae. 

CECIDOMYIA,  a  genus  of  Two-Winged  Flies,  belonging  to  the 
order  Diptera  and  the  family  TiptdidoB.  It  ia  known  by  the  following 
characters : — Wings  resting  horizontally,  and  having  3  longitudinal 
nervurea ;  head  hemispherical :  antennae  as  long  as  the  body,  and 
generally  24-jointed,  the  joints  hairy  (in  the  females  14-jointed) ; 
the  2  basal  joints  short;  l^s  long,  basal  joint  of  the  tarsi  very 
short,  second  long. 

lir.  Stephens,  in  his  '  Catalogue  of  British  Insects,'  enumerates  26 
species  of  this  genus.  They  are  always  of  small  size,  and  many  of 
them  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  yoim^  buds  of  various  kinds  of  plants, 
where  the  larva  is  hatched,  and  transforms  them  into  galhs,  in  which 
it  subsists  and  iindeigoes  its  metamorphosis. 

C.  aalieina  is  conmion  in  France  on  willows  in  the  month  of  May; 
it  is  of  a  blackish  colour,  covered  with  fine  velvet-like  hairs ;  Uie 
antennae  have  20  joints ;  the  wings  are  slightly  obscure  and  downy ; 
length  one-sixth  of  an  inch. 

This  little  fly  fixes  each  of  its  eggs  on  a  bud  of  the  willow  in  the 
month  of  June.  The  bud  at  the  time  of  its  evolution,  near  the  end 
of  the  month,  instead  of  putting  forth  its  branch,  becomes  enlai^gwl 
at  the  base,  and  ultimately  forms  a  gall  in  which  the  lanra  is 
lodged,  nourished,  and  undergoes  its  metamorphosis :  the  larra  is  of 
a  reddish-yellow  colour,  and  assumes  the  pupa  state  in  the  winter, 
when  the  gall  is  become  of  a  large  size. 

Other  species  of  Cecidomyia  produce  similar  deformities  upon 
various  parts  of  many  species  of  plants,  and  resemble  in  this  part  of 
their  habits  the  CynipidcB  among  the  Hymenoptera. 

C.  Tritici  {Tipnla  Tritici,  Kirby),  an  insect  commonly  known  hy 
the  name  of  the  Wheat-Fly,  has  occupied  much  of  the  attention  of 
entomologists.  Kirby  published  two  accoimts  of  its  habits  in  the 
'Linnaean  Transactiona'  (vol.  iv.). 

This  little  fly  is  about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  lengtJi,  and  of  a 
reddish-yellow  colour;  the  wings  are  milk-white,  and  exhibit  the 
prismatic  colours  in  certain  lights  :  the  eyes  are  black.  The  Wh«it- 
Fly  may  be  observed  sometimes  in  the  greatest  abundance  flying 
about  wheat-fields  in  the  month  of  June.  It  generally  makes  itd 
appearance  about  seven  or  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening.  "  Although," 
says  Mr.  Kirby,  "  these  insects  are  so  numerous  in  the  evening,  yet 
in  the  morning  not  a  single  one  is  to  be  seen  upon  the  wing ;  they  do 
not  hpwever  then  quit  the  field  which  is  the  scene  of  their  employ- 
ment, for  upon  shaking  tiie  stalks  of  the  wheat  or  otherwise  disturb- 
ing them  they  will  fly  about  near  the  ground  in  great  numbers.  I 
found  their  station  of  repose  to  be  upon  the  lower  part  of  the  cuhn 
with  their  heads  upwards."  The  fly  totally  disappears  by  the  end  of 
June.  According  to  Kirby,  it  is  about  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening 
that  they  deposit  their  eggs.  He  has  seen  as  many  as  twelve  sped- 
mens  thus  occupied  at  the  same  time  on  a  single  ear,  and  observes 
that  these  flies  are  sometimes  so  numerous  that,  were  all  to  lay  their 
eggs  and  these  to  hatch,  one-half  of  the  grain  would  be  des^yed. 

The  eggs  are  deposited  by  means  of  a  long  pointed  and  contractile 
tube,  or  ovipositor,  generally  upon  the  interior  valvule  of  the  corolla, 
just  above  the  stigmata ;  and  it  occasionally  happens  that  the  fly  is 
unable  to  retract  its  ovipositor,  and  being  thus  held  prisoner  it  dies. 

About  the  middle  of  June  tiie  larvae  are  hatched,  and  may  be  seen 
adhering  to  the  lower  end  of  one  of  the  anthers,  and  sometimes 
immersed  in  the  woolly  sunmiit  of  the  germen,  or  in  the  interior  of 
the  valvulae  of  the  corolla.  These  larvae  are  simple  minute  grubs, 
without  legs  or  any  visible  head,  and  of  a  yellowish  colour;  and  their 
food  consists  of  the  pollen  of  the  anthers,  which  it  appears  in  the 
plants  thus  attacked  is  unfit  for  impregnation. 

The  pupae  are  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  in  number  bear  no  proportion 
to  that  of  the  larvae.  "I  have  seen,"  says  Mr.  Blirby,  "more  than 
once,  seven  or  eight  florets  in  an  ear  inhabited  by  the  latter,  and 
sometimes  so  many  as  thirty  in  a  single  floret,  seldom  less  than  eight 
or  nine,  and  yet  I  have  scarcely  ever  found  more  than  one  pupa  in  an 
ear,  and  had  to  examine  several  to  meet  with  that.  ....  ^^ 
pupae  that  I  have  observed  have  generally  been  somewhat  attached 
to  the  grain,  and,  what  is  worthy  of  notice,  I  never  observed  them 
within  those  florets  where  the  larvae  had  taken  up  their  residence ; 
they  seem  invariably  to  choose  for  their  habitation,  in  their  immediate 


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CfiDRELACEiS:. 


Ml 


state,  one  where  the  grain  ia  uninjured,  to  which  they  may  attach 
themBelves." 

In  a  field  of  15  acres  (planted  partly  with  white  and  partly  with 
red  wheat),  which  Mr.  Kirby  carefully  examined,  and  which  was 
much  attacked  by  these  insects,  lie  calculated  that  tiie  havoc  done  by 
them  would  amount  to  five  combs ;  he  observed  that  the  wl^te  wheat 
was  most  efiected. 

CECILIID^  (properly  C JBCILUD^E),  a  family  of  Reptiles,  which 
some  naturalists  have  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Batrachiuis,  but 
which  Cuvier,  following  Linnaeus,  places  in  his  third  and  last  family 
(Les  Serpents  Nub)  of  the  Ophidians,  observing  that  those  who  placed 
it  among  the  Batrachians  did  so  without  knowing  whether  the  form 
underwent  a  metamorphosis  or  not.  In  the  'British  Museum  Catalogue' 
of  Amphibia  it  stands  as  a  family  of  the  third  order  of  that  class 
{Pteudophidia),  The  following  synopsis  of  the  genera  is  given  in  the 
same  work : — 

A,  Muzzle  pitted. 

1.  CkeeUia  :  the  pit  under  each  nostriL 

2.  Sipkonopi :  the  pit  before  each  eye ;  body  with  broad  rings. 

8.  lehihyophis :  the  pit  before  each  eye ;  body  with  narrow  rings. 

JB,  Muzzle  not  pitted. 

4.  Hhinatrema, 

Ccgciiia  was  named  by  LimuBus  from  the  supposed  blindness  of  the 
ipedea  The  eyes  in  fact  are  exceedingly  small,  and  nearly  hidden 
under  the  skin.  Cuvier  observes  that  in  some  species  these  organs 
are  wanting  altogether ;  and  the  following  is  his  description  of  the 

rus : — The  skin  is  smooth,  viscous,  and  striated  with  annular  folds, 
would  appear  altogether  naked,  but  on  dissection  scales  well 
formed  are  K>und  in  its  thickness ;  but  these  scales  are  delicate,  and 
disposed  regularly  in  many  transverse  rows  between  the  wrinkles  of 
the  skin,  as  Cuvier  himiBelf  saw  with  certainty  in  O,  glutinoia, 
C.  aUnvenirit,  and  other  species.  The  head  is  depressed;  the 
vent  is  round,  and  very  near  the  end  of  the  body ;  the  ribs  are  toa 
short  to  circiunvent  the  trunk,  and  the  articulation  of  the  bodies  of 
the  vertebras  is  effected  by  facets  with  hollow  cones,  the  depression 
m  which  is  filled  with  a  gelatinous  dutilage,  as  in  the  Fishes  and  in 
some  of  the  Batrachians.  Their  skull  is  united  to  the  first  vertebra 
by  two  tubercles,  as  in  the  Batrachians,  a  mode  of  union  approached 
by  the  Amphisbcence  onlv  among  Serpents.  Their  maxillary  bones 
coTer  the  orbit,  which  is  only  pierced  in  the  form  of  a  small  hole, 
and  the  temporal  bones  cover  the  temporal  fossa,  so  that  the  head 
when  examined  from  above  presents  only  a  continuous  bony  shield. 
Their  os  hyoides,  composed  of  three  pairs  of  arches,  may  have  led  to 
the  supposition  that  m  early  youth  the  bones  supported  gills.  The 
maxillary  and  palatal  teeth  are  arranged  on  two  concentric  lines,  as 
in  the  Protei,  but  are  often  sharp  and  curved  backwards,  as  in  the 
true  serpents.  The  opening  of  the  nostrils  is  at  the  back  of  the 
paUte,  and  the  lower  jaw  has  no  moveable  pedicle,  while  the  tym- 
panic bone  is  dovetailed  (enchass^)  with  the  other  bones  into  the 
^hield  of  the  skulL  The  only  ossiculum  auditus,  or  auditorjr  bone, 
u  a  small  plate  upon  the  fenestra  ovalis,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
Salamanders. 


Bknll  of  a  speeies  of  Geeilia, 

The  auricle  of  the  heart  in  these  animals  is  not  divided  sufficiently 
deep  to  be  regarded  as  double,  but  the  second  lung  is  as  small  as  it 
usually  is  in  the  other  serpents.  The  liver  is  divided  into  a  great 
number  of  transverse  leaves  (feuillets).  In  their  intestines  Cuvier 
Ktates  that  there  is  to  be  found  a  quantity  of  vegetable  matters, 
vegetable  earth,  and  sand 

The  following  species  are  given  in  the  'British  Museum  Catalogue :' — 

C.  gracilis,  a  native  of  South  America.  It  is  the  C.  vermiformis  of 
Shaw.  ^ 

C.  tentacukUa,    It  is  the  C.  albiventris  of  Daudin. 

C.  compreMHcauda,  a  native  of  Guyana. 

C.  rostrata,  a  native  of  South  America. 

C.  oxywcL,  from  Malabar. 

C.  tqualoioma,  fix>m  Africa. 

There  are  two  species  of  Siphonopi : — 

S.  inierrupta  {C.  ommuUUa,  Mikan).      It  is  a  native  of  the  Brazils. 

S.  Mexicana  is  a  species  found  in  Mexico. 

The  ^nus  Ickihyophis  has  but  one  species,  the  /.  glvtinotut 
{C.  gluttnoia  of  linncBus).    It  is  a  native  of  Ceylon. 

MAX,  BIBI.  DIV.  TOL.  I. 


The  0.  bivUtata  of  Cuvier  constitutes  the  genus  Jihinatrenuk 
The  only  species,  R  biviUatwn,  is  a  native  of  Cayenne. 


QBeilia  MetMota,  Cavier  (Jlhinatrtma  bUfitUdum,  Domeril). 

CECROPIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Afiocarpaee€B,  C.  pelttUa  yields  from  its  juice  caoutdiouc.  The  bark  is 
astringent  The  stems  are  hollow;  and  its  light  porous  wood  is 
used  by  the  natives  of  the  countries  where  it  grows  to  give  light  by 
friction.    It  is  a  native  of  South  America. 

CECROPS,  a  genus  of  Entomostracous  Oruttacecif  the  type  of  the 
CecropidcB,  a  family  of  the  Poecilopoda,    [Poboilopoda.] 

CEDAR-BIRD.    [Boicbtoilla.1 

CEDAR-TREEa    [Abies.] 

CEDRELA,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of  the  natural  order 
Ced^rtlacea.  It  has  the  following  characters: — Calyx  5-toothed; 
petals  adnate  to  the  torus;  stamens  5,  distinct;  capsule  5-celledy 
^-valved ;  seeds  numerous,  on  each  side  of  the  dissepiment  ending  in 
a  wing. 

C,  Toona,  Bastard  Cedar,  has  lanceolate  leaflets,  acuminate,  entire, 
pale  glaucous  beneath.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  where  it  is 
called  Toon.  It  has  an  erect  trunk  of  great  height  and  size,  with 
smooth  grav  bark.  The  flowers  are  very  numerous,  sinall,  white, 
fngnnt,  like  honey.  The  seeds  are  numerous,  imbricated, 
winged  The  bark  is  a  powerful  astringent,  and  is  said  to  be  a  good 
substitute  for  Peruvian  Bark  in  the  cure  of  periodic  diBeasos.  Dr. 
Blume  used  it  in  Java  with  much  success  in  the  various  forms  of 
fever,  dysentery,  diarrhoea,  kc    Horsfield  also  used  it  in  dysentery. 

C.  odorata  has  leaflets  ovate-lanceolate,  entire,  on  short  stalks.  It  is 
a  native  of  Barbadoes  and  the  Caribbee  Islands.  It  is  a  large  tree  with 
a  rough  bark.  Hie  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  partridge-egg.  When 
fresh  liie  bark  and  berries  smell  like  assafcetida.  The  trunk  ie 
hollowed  out  into  canoes.  The  wood  is  of  a  brown  colour  and  has 
a  fragrant  odour,  from  which  circumstance  it  is  called  Cedar  in  the 
British  West  India  Islands.  It  is  fr^uently  out  into  shinies  for 
covering  houses,  but  it  is  not  adapted  for  ship-building  on  account  of 
its  being  subject  to  the  attacks  of  worms.  It  is  not  adapted  for  oasks^ 
as  it  gives  its  odour  to  whatever  is  placed  in  contact  with  it. 

O.  febrifuga  {Soyfuidia  fd>rifuga)  has  leaflets  ovate-oblong,  aon- 
minated,  quite  entire.  It  is  a  native  of  Java.  Its  bark  is  said  to 
have  a  l^Uer  effect  on  some  of  the  fevers  of  India  than  cinchona.  It 
is  also  a  powerful  astringent.    The  wood  is  good  for  many  purposes. 

CEDRELA'CEJS,  a  natural  order  of  plants,  belonging  to  the 
Syncarpous  group  of  Polypetalous  Exogens.  The  species  are  timber- 
trees:  tiie  timber  is  usually  compact,  scented,  and  beautifully 
veined;  the  leaves  are  alternate,  pinnated,  without  stipules;  the 
flowers  are  in  terminal  panides.  The  essential  characters  of  the  order 
are :  Calyx  4-5-cleft,  petals  4-5,  longer  than  the  sepals ;  stamens  8*10, 
the  filaments  either  curled  into  a  tube  or  distinct,  and  inserted  into 
a  hypogynous  disc  ;  the  style  and  stigmas  simple ;  the  cells  of  the 
ovary  equal  in  number  to  the  petals  or  flower,  with  the  ovules  4  or 
often  more,  imbricated  in  two  rows ;  the  first  capsular  with  the  valves 
separable  from  the  dissepiments,  with  which  they  alternate;  the 
seeds  flat,  winged;  albumen  thin  or  none.  This  order  is  nearly  related 
to  Mdiacta,  from  which  it  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  its  winged  and 
indeflnite  seeds. 

The  dotted  leaves  of  some  species  connect  this  order  with  Awrmir 
tiaoetE,    It  contains  9  ffenera  and  about  25  species. 

An  eesential  oil  called  Wood-Oil  is  found  in  Chhrwcghn  SmUiema 

8r 


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CELLARI.£A. 


8M 


which  is  ft  nfttive  of  the  East  Indioa.  The  wood  is  of  a  deep  yellow 
colour,  and  called  Satin-Wood,  remarkably  oloee-grained,  heavy,  and 
durable,  and  comes  nearer  to  box-wood  than  the  produce  of  any 
other  tree.  Flmdenia  possesses  a  volatile  oiL  F,  Auttralu  is  a 
native  of  Australia,  and  its  wood  is  said  to  be  not  inferior  to 
mahogany.  P.  Amboinentia  is  a  native  of  the  islands  of  Hitu  and 
Ceram.  The  spiny  part  of  the  fruit  is  fonned  into  rasps.  It  was  on 
this  account  called  by  Rumphius  Arbor  rachdifera,  Oxleya  xamiho- 
xyla  is  a  native  of  Australia.  It  attains  a  height  of  XOO  feet.  The 
wood  is  yellow,  and  employed  for  building  boats.  It  is  called 
Yellow- Wood.    [Swixtenia;  Ckdbela,! 

(Lindley,  Flora  Medica;  Don,  Qardenei^i  Dictionary;  Lindley, 
Natural  Sj^em.) 

CELANDINE,  a  name  properly  applied  to  the  species  of  Chdido- 
nium.  [Chelidonium.]  It  has  however  been  given  by  some  of  our 
poets  to  the  Ranvnculut  Ficaria,  Linnseus  {Fiearia  vema  of  others), 
the  vulgar  name  of  which  is  Pilewort    [Ranunculus.] 

CELASTRA'CEJE:,  Spvnd^Treea,  the  Spindle-Wood  Tribe,  a 
natural  order  of  Polypetalo^a  Exogens,  consisting  of  shrubs  or  trees 
principally  found  in  temper^  latitudes,  and  not  abounding  in  either 
the  colder  or  the  hotter  tnurts  of  the  world.  They  are  found  in 
Europe,  Asia,  North  Amer&a,  and  South  Africa.  They  have  simple 
alternate  or  opposite  leaves^  a  small  number  of  perigynous  stamens 
inserted  into  a  fleshy  disc  agbd  alternate  with  the  petals ;  a  superior 
syncarpous  ovary  immersed  In  the  fleshy  disc ;  and  a  superior  capsular 
or  succulent  fruit,  with  A  small  number  of  as^ndiifg  seeds.  The 
order  is  not  of  much  economical  importance.  A  slight  degree  of 
acridity  is  said  to  have  been  detected  in  some  of  the  species. 
Euonymut  Furopcnu,  the  SpinSle-Tree,  the  wood  of  which  is  used 
for  butchers'  skewers,  is  the  eomjnonest  European  form  of  this  order. 


JSuonymtu  atropurpurtut,     • 

1,  A  front  view  of  the  flower ;  3,  tke  some  from  below,  showing  the  csItx  ; 
S,  a  Tlew  of  the  disc,  with  the  stamens  growing  on  it ;  4,  a  sUmcn ;  5,  a  ripe 
fruit ;  6,  a  cross  section  of  the  same ;  7,  a  seed ;  8  and  9,  seotions  of  the  latter. 

The  barks  of  Celastnu  tcanderu  and  C.  Senegal^rmt  are  said  to  be 
purgative  and  emetic,  whilst  the  species  of  C.  venenatus  are  reported 
to  inflict  the  most  painful  woimds.  The  fruits  of  JBlaodtndron  mber 
are  eaten  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  relations  of  the  order  are 
according  to  Lindley  expressed  thus  : — 

AqtUfoUaeeas. 
Sapot€tcece,    Celastbach^    BippocraUicea* 


It  has  2i  gen^rft  and  260  species. 
CELERY.    rAFiUM.! 

CELESTINE,  the  Native  Sulphate  of  Strontia.    It  has  its  name 
from  its  pale  bhie  colour.    [Stromtia.] 

CELL,  VEGETABLE.  [Cbllb:  HiBTOLOGti  TfiMUBS)  Y^BTablB.] 
CELLARLAu    [Cillabuli.] 


CELLARIiEA,  or  CELLARIAD2S,  the  second  £unily,  according  to 
De  Blainville's  arrangement,  of  the  sub-class  Polypiaria  Memhnmaeea. 

Animals  hydriform,  provided  with  very  delicate  ciliated  t^a^Ui^ilz, 
separated,  distinct,  contained  in  oval  flattened  membranous  cellules, 
with  a  bilateral  subterminal  crescentio  opening;  usually  provided 
with  a  moveable  cartihigiQous  lip,  forming  by  their  lateral  juncti(», 
in  one  or  two  tiers  or  stages,  a  cretaceous  or  membrano*i8,  limited, 
diversifoim,  and  fixed  polyaoariunL  Ovioells  external,  globose,  above 
the  aperture  of  the  ceU. 

This  group  corresponds  pretty  nearly  with  the  Stekarada, 
Fiuitrada,  and  CdlaHadas  of  Fleming,  and  the  Btckanma  sod 
OeUeporina  of  Ehrenberg ;  it  also  includes  part  of  the  subK>rder  (AeUo- 
ttomaia,  of  the  Polyfoa  infwndiJtndata  of  Mr.  Busk's '  Catalogue  of  Marine 
PolysML*  For  further  particulars  respecting  the  structure  of  the 
animals  and  their  habitations,  reference  must  be  made  to  Poltzoa,  a 
few  onlv  of  the  principal  forms  being  here  noticed. 

We  shall  notice  here  the  principal  generic  forms  of  this  group. 

1.  LwMiliUi,  The  number  of  species  of  this  generic  group,  of 
which  imtil  lately  only  a  few  fossil  fonns  were  known,  has  been 
much  augmented  oy  the  addition,  not  only  of  other  fossil  spedes,  hut 
also  of  several  recent  ones.  The  latter  have  also  afforded  a  mndi 
more  precise  insight  into  the  structure  of  the  peculiar  polyio- 
arium  than  it  was  possible  to  obtain  from  the  inspection  merely  of 
fossil  specimens.  The  division  of  the  genus  suggested  by  Lamourrax 
seems  to  be  sufficiently  founded  in  nature  to  justify  its  definitive 
adoption  so  far  as  it  goes ;  and,  in  addition,  a  recent  form  described 
and  figured  in  the  'Voyage  of  H.  11  S.  Rattlesnake'  would  seem 
to  indicate  the  propriety  of  instituting  a  third  generic  or  sub-generic 
type. 

In  all  these  forms  the  polyzoary,  wnich  is  more  or  less  regulariy 
circular,  convex  above,  and  concave  or  flattened  below,  presents  cells 
of  two  kinds — one  set  of  which  may  be  termed  secondary  or 
accessory ;  and  it  \a  according  to  the  relative  position  of  these  cella 
as  regards  the  others  that  the  division  of  the  genus  is  founded. 

In  one  case  the  secondary  cell,  which  is  then  considerably  smaller 
than  the  other,  is  situated  at  the  apex  of  the  primary  cell,  immediately 
above  the  aperture  (Cwpvlxxrici).  In  a  second  form  any  distinction 
of  size  between  the  two  sorts  of'^cells  is  less  or  not  at  all  obvious.  The 
two  sets  of  cells  however  are  very  differently  arranged  from  those  in 
the  former  case  ;  the  secondary  being  disposed  more  or  less  regulariy 
in  longer  <v  shorter  rows,  alternate  with  the  others,  and  like  them 
radiating  horn  the  centre  {Lunulitet).  Of  the  former  of  these  forms 
the  Lunulite  en  Parasol  of  Defrance  may  be  taken  to  afford  a  type,  and 
of  the  latter,  L.  radiata.  In  the  third  form  the  secondary  ceUs  are 
scattered  more  irreguhu-ly  over  the  surface  of  the  polyzoary.  In  this 
case  the  secondary  cell  is  also  superior  to  one  of  the  other  kind. 

From  the  examination  of  recent  forms  it  has  been  ascertained  that 
the  secondary  cell  probably  contains  nothing  more  than  a  mass  of 
muscular  substance  for  the  movement  of  a  vibratile  spine  or  seta,  of 
various  forms  and  structure,  and  which  corresponds  with  the  vibrs- 
culum,  or  moveable  setose  oi^gan,  which  is  foimd  on  several  of  the 
Polyzoa,  and  particularly  in  the  genus  Scm^ceUaria, 

The  arrangement  of  the  group  therefore  into  three  genen  would 
appear  to  be  justifiable  and  convenient,  namely,  Lunulitet,  OupulariOf 
and  Sdenaria ;  which  may  be  thus  defined  :— 

Lunulites,  Lamouroux.  Polyzoarium  circular  oi^  irregular,  con- 
vex above,  concave  or  flattened  beneath;   cells'  arranged  in  series 


LmuUiUi  radimia. 

a,  Tlew  of  the  Upper  Bide,  magnified ;  h,  natoral  sise ;  c,  Tiew  of  Lover  OAe, 

magnifled* 


i 


Defirtnoe'i  Lunulite  en  Parasol. 
a>  A  Portion  magnifled}  I,  natural  size ;  c,  three  oells  highly  magaiiM. 


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radiating  from  the  centre,  and  separated  by  alternate  rows  of  cells 
supporting  yibracalar  spines ;  linder  sarfiace  usually  with  radiating 
striss,  and  the  surface  with  minute  perforations. 
Recent  species : — 

L,  etijmlus,  Busk;  'Voyage  of  Rattlesnake.' 
L,  gAbota,  Busk ;  'Cat  Brit.  Mus.'  pi  112. 
L.  cemedUaOf  Budc ;      „        ,,  pL  113. 

CupulariOf  Lamourouz.  Polyzoarium  circular,  regular,  convex 
on  Uie  upper  side  and  concave  below;  oeUs  disposed  quincun- 
cially,  each  with  a  smaller  yibracular  cell  at  its  summit;  under 
surface  with  radiating  lines,  grooves,  or  ridges,  or  divided  into 
sub-hexagonal  areas;  sur&ce  perforate  or  imperforate,  smooth,  or 
granular. 

Recent  species : — 

a  Ouineeruis,  Busk;  'Cat.  Brit.  Mus./  pL  114. 
O.  Owenii,  Gray;  „        „         pL  116. 

O.  LowH,  Qnj ;  „        „         pi.  116. 

CttdkUa,  Bu9k;  „        „.       pi.  118. 

SeUnaria,  Busk;   'Cat.  Brit.  Mus.'  Polyzoariimi  circular,  r^g^ular, 
convex  above,  concave  below;    cells  disposed  quincuncially,  some 
(doeed  in  front  by  a  cribriform  calcareous  plate)  furnished  with  a 
superior  vibraculum. 
Recent  species  :— 

&  macukUoy  Busk ;  *  Voy.  of  Rattles. ; '  'Cat.  Brit  Mus.,*  pi.  117. 
Example,  LuiMUite^  radicUa.    Locality,  Grignon,  &S 
2.  EUcircL     Animals  unknown,  contained  in  memlranous  vertical 
beU-ahaped  cellules,  ciliated  on  the  edges,  and  shut  by  a  diaphragmatic 
membrane,  with  a  very  small  and  semiltmar  opening,  and  disposed  in 
a  verticillate  form  around  an  ideal  axis. 
Example,  Eledra  veriicUUUcL 


EUetra  wrtieilkUa,    a,  natural  size ;  5,  magnified. 

This  is  the  Fhutra  vertieillata  of  Gmelin  (Sertvlaria  vertidUcUa  of 
Esper)  ;  and  this  genusf  which  was  separated  by  Lamouroux, 
scarcely  deserves,  as  De  Blahiville  remarks,  to  be  distinguished  from 
Fluttra  pUoaa,  whose  cellules  are  occasionally  somewhat  vertidllated ; 
bnt  in  this  he  confounds  two  things  perfectly  distinct^  though  often 
mifloonceived. 

8.  FluttnL    Cells  contiguous ;  on  both  sides  of  the  frond. 


Fhaira  foUaeea,    a,  natural  sixe ;  5,  some  of  the  cells  magnified. 

4.  Carboiem,    Cells  contiguous ;  on  one  side  only  of  the  frond. 

Example,  FUutra  carbaua.    Locality,  seas  of  Scotland,  &c. 

Sir  Jcmn  Dalyell,  in  his  interesting  paper  entitled  '  Further  Ulus- 
tratioDS  of  the  Propagation  of  Scottish  Zoophytes'  ('Edinburgh  New 
>  tlosophical  Joumid,'  April-July,  1886),  nves  the  following  account 
of  the  propagation  of  the  Pluttnx.  Speaking  of  Atcyoniumt  he  says, 
"  We  find  it  consists  of  a  compact  gelatmous  or  fleshy  matter,  studded 


with  innumerable  cells  sunk  in  its  substance,  which  are  inhabited  br 
vivacious  hydras.  Different  species  or  varieties  occur  in  the  Scottiw 
seas,  especially  the  gdaiinotum,  and  a  thin  green  flattened  palmate 
kind,  which  has  perhaps  escaped  the  notice  of  naturalists  hitherta 
A  white,  opaque,  ovoidal  or  nearly  circular  flattened  corpusculum, 
previously  invisible,  issues  from  the  fleshy  part  of  these  products 
whence  it  seems  to  be  elicited,  particularly  by  the  influence  of  light 
On  removal  of  a  small  specimen  that  had  already  afforded  many  from 
a  dark  situation  to  a  moderate  degree  of  light,  at  least  150  quitted 
their  recesses  within  an  hour.  These  beings  are  endowed  with  much 
greater  activity  than  the  corpuscula  of  the  Actinia;  their  courses  are 
alike  diversified ;  they  iwiin  through  the  water  in  all  directions,  regu- 
larly and  irregularly,  ascending  to  the  surface  or  descending  to  uie 
bottom,  pursuing  a  straight  line,  describing  an  orbit,  or  tumbling 
about  among  the  neighbouring  substances.  Meanwhile,  as  if  of  soft 
consistence,  their  form  alters,  and  the  action  of  the  cilia  environing  the 
body  is  alternately  depressed  and  relaxed.  At  Itogth,  having  become 
stationary,  a  margin  diffuses  around  the  body,  and  supervening  trans- 
parence of  the  centre  soon  exposes  an  inanimate  hydra  within,  which 
in  nine  or  eleven  days  is  displayed  perfect  from  its  cell.  The  inner 
surface  of  each  tentaoulum  is  now  clothed  by  a  double  row  of  stout 
dark  cilia  in  rapid  motion,  but  in  opposite  directions ;  for  as  those  of 
one  side  strike  upwards  those  of  the  other  strike  downwards.  Further 
difi^ion  of  the  basis  adhering  below  forms  additional  compartments 
for  other  hydrse.  The  propagation  of  the  Fluttrce  carhauei,  foliacect, 
and  trtmeata  ensues  after  a  similar  fashion.  A  ciliated  obrpusculum, 
spherical,  ovoidal,  or  irregular,  quits  the  leaf,  pursues  its  course  in  the 
water,  becomes  stationary,  adheres,  and  a  nascent  Pkuttra  arises  from 
the  spot^  Above  ten  thousand  such  corpusoiUla  have  been  produced 
by  a  moderate-sized  specimen  of  the  FWstra  foliaceOf  tin^g  the 
bottom  of  a  vessel  yellow  horn  their  multitude,  and  vitiating  the 
water  by  their  decay." 

The  same  author,  in  the  'Proceedings  of  the  British  Aasooiation' 
(Edinbuigh,  September,  1884),  thus  clearly  and  elaborately  describes 
the  organisation  of  Fluttra  carbatea: — "The  Fhtttra  carbatea  re- 


Flustra  carbaua,    a,  A  Portion,  natural  sise ;  5,  a  Poctioa  magnified. 

sembles  a  leaf  divided  into  subordinate  PArts^  one  of  the  surfeoes 
being  studded  with  cells,  and  the  other  exhibiting  elevations  or  con- 
vexities corresponding  to  their  bottom,  and  Ihe  whole  product  is  of  a 
yellowish  colour.  Each  cell,  of  a  shuttle  or  slipper  shape,  level  with 
the  surface  of  the  leaf,  is  inhabited  by  a  vivacious  polypus,  exercising 
a  percussive  faculty  both  of  the  tentacula  individually  and  of  the 
whole  head.  Some  of  the  cells  are  occupied  occasioxiaUy  by  laige 
blight  yellow,  irregularly  globular,  solid,  ciliated  animalcula,  subse- 
quently quitting  them  to  swim  heavily  below.  In  several  days  they 
become  motionless  like  the  former,  and  die  also  without  immediate 
decomposition.  Next,  there  appears  in  just  about  the  same  spot 
below,  occupied  by  the  motionless  animalcidum,  a  yellow  nucleus  with 
a  lighter  diffiising  maxgin.  This  in  its  further  diffusion  assumes  a 
shuttle  or  slipper  form ;  it  becomes  a  single  cell,  which  afterwards 
displays  a  polypus  under  the  wonted  figxire  and  action.  The  adult 
Flnstra  was  vertical,  for  the  leaf  is  always  erect ;  but  here  the  new 
cell  is  horizontal  By  a  singular  provision  of  nat\u«,  as  only  one  side 
of  the  adult  is  cellular,  the  original  cell  is  necessarily  a  root,  sole,  or 
foundation  to  admit  subsequent  enlargement,  which  in  such  zoophytes 
is  always  from  a  single  cell  One  end  of  the  cell  next  rises  vertically, 
wherein  a  second  cell,  with  its  polypus,  is  soon  displayed  overhanging 
the  first,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  its  position."  (See  also 
Professor  Gnmfs  '  Observations  on  the  Polypes'  of  this  species  in  the 
'  Edinbuigh  New  Philosophical  Journal') 

Example,  Fluttra  aviculariB,  Locality,  European  was;  Seaford 
Bay,  Sussex. 

This  species  however  should  be  removed  from  the  genus  Flmttra 
altogether,  as  its  affinities  are  clearly  with  that  of  Bugyda  (Oken). 
It  is  the  B.  (AvicuLaria)  JlabdUUa,  J.  Y.  Thompson,  'Manuscript, 
Brit  Mus.,'  and  its  avictilaria,  or  'bird's-head'  processes,  from  their 
size  and  transparency,  are  well  adapted  for  the  investigation  of  the 
structure  of  those  curious  organs. 

5.  Slterina.  Animals  unknown,  contained  in  sufficiently  large  oval 
elongated  subhexagonal  bordered  cellules,  having  a  membranoui 
tympanum  or  drum,  in  which  is  pierced  the  sigmoid  openings  forming 
by  tneir  quinoundal  and  drciUar  arrangement  the  branches  of  a 


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membranous,  'plani-like,  non-articulated, 
polyioarium. 


diohotomoufly    and   fixed 


Jfluttra  mricnloHi.    Showing  a  tpherical  man  of  the  natural  size. 


Example,  CfeUaria  SalieonUa   {CfdUilaria  SaUeorma  of  Pillai; 
I^ibuhrta  M^idoia  oi  huamtam).    Locality,  European  wm. 


Jautrina  BlainvHUi, 
a,  natural  aiae ;  6,  a  poition  magnified. 


Fluttra  avicularis, 
m,  A  Speeimen  showing  the  root  and  branching  form  of  the  natural  slse ; 
h,  e,  portions  magnified.    From  Sowerby's  'British  Miscellany,*  London,  1806. 

Example,  Elzerina  BlainviUiu    Locality,  the  seas  of  Australia. 

Do  Blainville  observes  that 

^      ^  ^g^      this  genus  was  established  by 

I    ^        M         ^^B      Lamburoux    for     a     polype 

^A#^       J^^      ^HB     brought   fix>m   the     seas    of 

"^j  ^^^^^      HHr      Australia      by     P^ron     and 

M^r  J^m       Lesueur,  whidi  De  Blainville 

4Kl^^Jf  Hf         examined     in     Lamouroux's 

M^  ^^         collection,  and   that   he  has 

a         M^  h  been  satisfied  that  it  is  a  genus 

which  can  hardly  be  distin- 
guished firom  the  phytoid  or 
plant-like  Flusirce, — that  it 
di£fere  from  them  only  in  the 
union  of  the  cellules,  which  form  a  circular  quincunx,  as  in  Cdlaria 
Salicomitiy  and  are  still  more  soft  and  membruious. 

Rispo  records  two  species  of  Elzerina  in  the  Mediterranean, 
B.  vm%LHa  and  E,  mutabUis  ;  but  De  Blainville  observes,  that  if  it  be 
true  that  their  cellules  are  scattered,  it  is  probable  that  those  species 
do  not  belong  to  this  genus,  the  characters  of  which  it  must  be  con- 
fessed are  by  no  means  at  present  well  defined. 

6.  Vincularia  (recent  and  fossil).  Animals  unknown,  contained  in 
oval  subhexagonal  regular  cellules,  having  a  subterminal  semilunar 
orifice,  and  applied  and  united  longitudinally  in  many  rows,  so  as  to 
form  a  cretaceous  brittle  polysoarium,  in  the  fbrm  of  a  little  wand. 

Example,  Vincularia  fragilis.  Locality  of  the  genus  at  present 
known,  the  Oalcaire  Tertiaire  of  WestphaliL  A  recent  species  occurs 
in  the  Pacific  or  Australian  seas,  and  is  figured  in  *  Cat  Brit.  Mus.* 
pL  65,  V.  gigantea* 

De  Blainville  observes  that  this  genus  was  established  by  Defrance, 
and  that  it  has  been  adopted  by  Gold  fuss  under  the  denomination  of 
.Glauconoma,  a  denomination  which  De  Blainville  rejects,  remarking 
that  Qoldfuss  regards  it  as  approaching  nearly  to  Cdlaria  Salicomia, 
and  stating  that  the  Vincularia  fragilit  which  he  (De  Blainville) 
examined  in  Defrance's  collection  might  well  be  nothing  more  ^h*-"^  a 
true  Fluttra,  which  is  found  in  the  same  beds  with  V.  fragilit,  De 
Blainyille  adds  in  support  of  this  opinion  that  Defrance  showed  him 
a  specimen  which  was  compoeed  of  two  rows  or  series,  instead  of  a 
single  series  only. 

.    7.  Salicomarxa,    Cells  disposed  around  an  imaginary  axis,  forming 
cylindrical  branches  of  a  dichotomously  divided  erect  polyzoariiun. 
a.  Spades  with  Hexagonal  Cellules,  and  with  a  transverse  aperture. 
(Genus«  Salicomia  of  Cuvier.) 


Cellarim  Salicomia, 
a,  natural  sise ;  I,  a  portion  magnified ;  e,  a  smaller  portion  still  more  hifUy 
magnified. 

fi.  Species  with  Oval  Cellules,  and  the  apertora  rounded  and 
tubular. 
Example,  C,  cer&ldet  (Sertularia  ceroldet  of  Qmelin).     Localitj, 
Mediterranean  and  the  Indian  seas. 

De  Blainville  observes  that  this 
genus,  establiished  by  Pallas  under 
the  name  of  Cellulariat  has  beeo 
successfully  simplified  by  Lamarck 
and  by  Lamouroux,  who  has  ests- 
blished  many  genera  at  its  expeoie. 
De  Blainville  further  sUtee  thtt 
before  Delle  Chiaje  no  author  who 
had  described  a  spedes  of  a  titie 
Cdlaria  was  known ;  but  that  the 
Neapolitan  observer  had  filled 
this  gap  by  informing  us  in  hii 
Memoirs  that  the  polypes  ^f  C. 
ceroldet  bear  a  perfect  resemblance 
to  those  of  MiUepora  {Mifriapora) 
trwncata,  Pallas  made  a  ouiioos 
observation  relative  to  the  rapid 
growth  of  C.  Salicomia;  for  he 
found  individuals  an  inch  and  * 
half  long  upon  the  eggs  ofSquaii, 
which  were  still  far  from  the  time  when  the  young  are  excladei 
The  genus  as  here  characterised  should  perhaps  rather  be  regarded 
as  a  family  group,  under  which  would  be  included  two,  if  not  three, 
genera,  should  the  spedes  here  noticed  and  figured  as  C  eervida 
prove  to  be  a  cheiloitomatous  polyzoan.  The  genera  ara  SalieorMnt 
(Cuvier),  Ndlia  (Busk,  *Cat  Brit.  Mus.'). 

8.  Intricaria  (fossil).  Animals  unknown,  contained  in  hezagonsl 
elongated  cellules  with  elevated  borden,  and  covering  the  entire 
surface  of  a  calcareous  polyparium  suffidentiy  solid,  rush-like 
(joncao^)  internally,  composed  of  a  considerable  number  of  cylindrical 
branches  ixregularly  anastomosed. 
Example,  /.  Bajocentit. 

De  Blainville  observes  that  this  genus  was  established  by  Denanoe 
for  a  pretty  fossil  polypier  found  by  M.  de  Gerville  in  the  ^•P*'*' 
ment  of  La  Manche ;  and  he  states  that  on  examining  it  in  tiie 
collection  of  the  first  named  of  those  naturahsta,  he  was  satisfied  that 
it  approaches  very  nearlv  to  the  Cdlaria,  and  esp|ecially  to  C.  Salieor- 
nia  in  the  form  of  its  cellules,  while  however  it  difien  from  it  because 
it  is  not  articulated,  and  because  in  all  probability  it  did  not  adhere 
by  radical  fibrila  Lamouroux,  he  adds,  thought  it  was  a  Millepore. 
At  all  events  its  place  here  seems  to  be  doubtfiiL 


OeUaria  cerdSdes. 
natural  size ;  b,  a  portion  of  the 
lower  part  magnified. 


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9.  Canda.  AnimalB  unknown.  Cellfl  riiomboidal,  ritnsied  on  the 
outer  side  for  the  lodgment  of  ft  vibraouluxn ;  no  ftyiculArium  on  the 
upper  and  outer  angle. 

Example,  C  arachnMea,  Lamooronx  {Cetlaria  fiU/era,  Lamarok> 
Looality,  seaaof  AnetmlU 


OuUUt  arachncXdea,    a,  nataral  liae ;  b,  «,  poxtlons  magnified. 

De  Blainville  obeervea  that  thia  genus  was  eetabliahed  by  Lamou- 
roux  for  a  species  of  (Mlaria  brought  by  Pdron  and  Lesueur  from 
the  Australian  seas,  and  which  he  saw  in  Lamouroux's  collection, 
which  now  forms  part  of  the  Museum  of  Caen.  The  assemblage  of 
cells  resembles  the  vertebral  column  of  a  fish.  Upon  one  of  the 
surfaces  are  two  rows  of  alternate  cells,  separated  by  an  angular 
crest  Upon  the  other  surface  may  be  seen  the  back  of  the  cells, 
with  tubidar  filaments  which  reach  transversely  from  one  branch  to 
another,  and  are  analogous  to  the  radiciform,  or  root-like  tubes.  He 
adds  that  it  would  appear  that  these  transverse  fibrils  are  sometimes 
wanting,  as  in  the  variety  noted  by  LamarcL 

To  this  genus,  as  thus  defined,  also  belongs  Ccmda  reptan$  {CeUth 
laria  reptant  of  our  coasts). 

10.  CcAerea,  Animalw  unknown.  Cells  bi-multiserial,  in  the  latter 
case  quincundal ;  back  of  branches  famished  with  lai^ge  vibracula, 
which  are  placed  obliquely  in  two  rows,  diverging  in  an  upward 
direction  from  the  middle  line,  where  the  vibracula  decussate  with 
those  of  the  other;  avicularia,  when  present,  sessile  on  the  front  of 
the  cell 

Example,  O.  dichcioma. 


Oaberea  diekotoma,    0,  natural  sixe ;  b,  two  eellnlcs  magnified. 

British  speciee.  C.  Borffi  {*  Audouin,'  Savigny,  'Egypt,'  pi.  12,  f.  4) ; 
C.Eookeri  (John's  *Brit  Zooph.'  Ed.  2,  pL  60);  but  these  two 
species  have  been  confoimded. 

11.  Bwpda,  Polyeoarium  erect,  phytoid,  dichotomously  divided 
into  narrow  ligulate  bi-multiserial  branches;  no  vibracula;  avicu- 
laria  when  present  pedunculate  and  articulated;  cells  elliptical 
(viewed  behmd),  closely  contiguous,  aperture  veiy  large,  maigin 
simple,  not  thickened.    (Colour  not  unfrequently  red  or  blue.) 

Example,  B.  Neritina.    Locality,  Mediterranean. 

This  genus  was  established  by  Oken,  and  was  also  constituted  by 
Lamourouz  under  the  name  of  Acamarchii  ;  but  was  not  adopted  by 
Lamarck,  nor  by  Dr.  Fleming,  who,  according  to  De  Blainville,  con- 
founds it  with  BicellaricL 

12.  Bicellaria,  Polysoarium  erect^  phytoid,  dichotomously  divided 
into  narrow  ligulate  biserial  or  multisenal  branches ;  no  vibracula ; 
ayicularia  when  present  pedunculate  and  articulated ;  cells  turbinate, 
distant;  aperture  directed  more  or  less  upwards;  several  spines, 
maiginal  or  dorsaL 

To  the  same  family  belong  ffahphUa  (Qray) ;  Bugnla  (Oken). 

Example,  BiceUairia  cUicUct,  SerttUaria  pilota,  I^ocality,  European 
seas^ 

This  division  of  Cdlartadcg,  OriticB  of  Lamouroux,  Odlaria  of 
Lamarck,  was  separated  by  Dr.  Fleming,  who  gave  it  the  denomi- 
nation of  CeUularta,  a  name  preoccupied  as  we  have  seen  by  Ptdlas 
for  the  whole  family.  Instead  of  this  name  De  Blainville  proposes 
that  here  given,  and  observes  that  Savigny,  in  the  plate  which  he  has 
devoted  to  CeUaricB  in  his  great  work  on  Egypt,  has  figured  the  solid 


part  of  four  spedes,  which  being  composed  of  two  noki  of  etUulaa 
should  belong  to  this  aeotion. 


Aetmarehis  NeriH$uu    «,  natural  aise ;  h,  lower  portion  magnified. 

15.  Notamia,  Cells  opposite,  in  pairs;  a  pair  of  tobaooo-pipe- 
shaped  avioularia  above  each  pair  of  cells,  each  arising  from 
the  inferior  tubular  prolongation  of  one  of  the  cells  in  the  pair  next 
above. 

Example,  N,  Itwna/na,    Locality,  European  seas,  fta 

This  is  the  Sertulairia  humairia  of  Linnaeus,  CdMaria  hwnaria  of 
Pallas,  Bynamena  burtaria  of  Lamouroux. 

To  the  same  family  belong  CfemeUaria  (Savigny),  Bidymia  (Bosk), 
Bimetopia  (Busk). 

14.  Scmj^aria,  Cells  uniserial;  junctions  rigid,  or  of  the  samo 
consistence  as  the  cells ;  polyzoaiy  adnata  or  erect 

Example,  8,  chelaia,  Ellis  and  Linn. ;  OeUularia  chdata,  Pallas ; 
Sucratea  chdata,  Lamomoux;  £,  lorieata,  Fleming.  Locality, 
European  seas. 

In  the  same  family  are  included  ffippathoa  (Lamouroux); 
^tea  (Lamouroux);  Beania  (Johnst). 

Lamouroux  broke  up  this  generic  division  into  the  genera  Eueraiea 
and  Lt^oea.  De  Blainville  says  that  Unicellaria,  under  which  he 
includes  SerupcuiOf  is  easily  characterised  by  the  solitary  disposition 
of  its  cellules,  and  that  he  had  examined  both  Bucratea  and  Lafoea 
in  Lamouroux's  collection  at  Caen,  and  found  the  differenoes  of  too 
little  value  to  warrant  the  separation. 

16.  OaXeMcdJUk,  De  Blainville;  CbltfMorta,  Saviffny.  Animala 
unknown ;  contained  in  calcareous  cells  arising  one  from  the  upper 
and  back  part  of  another  by  a  short  oomeous  tube,  all  facing  the 
same  way  and  forming  dichotomously  divided  branches  of  an  erect, 
phytoid,  polyzoaiy  cell,  at  each  bifurcation  ffeminate. 

16.  Mtnypta,  Cells  oblong^  or  attenuated  downwards,  imperforate 
behind,  with  a  sessile  aviculariuxn,  frequently  absent  on  the  upper  and 
outer  angle,  and  one  or  two  sessile  aviculana  on  the  front  of  the  odl 
below  the  aperture. 

Synonyms.     OeUaria  (part),  Linnsdus,  Solander. 
Crina  (part),  Lamouroux. 
TriceUaria,  Fleming,  De  Blainville,  Grar. 

The  essential  distinctive  character  of  this  genus,  as  here  intended^ 
consists  in  the  presence  of  one  or  more  sessile  avicularia  on  the  front 
of  the  cell  below  the  aperture,  and  usually  of  a  sessile  avicularinm  at 
the  upper  and  outer  angle ;  no  vibraculunL  With  the  exception  of 
one  or  periiaps  two  species  the  Mmipea  have  three  or  aix  cells  only 
in  each  intemode ;  the  branches  consequently  are  loose  and  stragglings 
and  usually  inquxved  at  the  extcemitieB|  as  is  bwt  M«a  in  M,  cirrakL 


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CELLABIJEA. 


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Thn  genuB  appears  to  enjoy  a  wide  geographical  range,  ooourring 
from  the  Arctic  Cirde  to  the  southern  points  of  America  and  Africa. 


Seruparia  chflaia.    n,  natural  siee ;  ^,  a  portion  highly  magnified. 

This  gentiB  (of  which  Bcrentcen  species  are  described  and  figured  in 
the  '  Cat  Brit.  Mus.')  admits  of  division  into  three  subgeneric  groups. 
The  species  are  for  the  most  part  Australian,  and  with  the  exception 


of  that  described  by  Savigny,  which  might  have  been  procured  in 
the  Bed  Sea,  appear  to  be  limited  to  the  Southern  Hemiq^iere. 

The  M,  hyaketif  of  which  a  figure  is  here  given  from  Lamouroux, 
appears  to  be  referrible  to  this  genua 


Ifenipea  hyalaa.    a,  natural  size ;  h,  e,  cellulca  magnified. 

For  the  best  account  of  the  species  of  this  and  other  familieB  of 
the  Polyzoa  the  reader  is  referred  to  Mr.  Busk's  complete  and  beauti- 
fully illustrated  '  Catalogue  of  the  Marine  Polyzoa'  in  the  collection 
of  the  British  Museum.    [Poltzoa.] 

CELLASTR-fiA.    [Madrephtlluba.] 

CELLIPORA    rPoLTZOA.] 

CELLS.  The  ultimate  structure  of  animal  and  vegetable  bodies 
consists  of  minute  vesicles  which  are  called  Cells.  In  both  animal 
and  vegetable  structures  these  organs  are  not  generally  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  as  they  vary  from  the  l-500th  to  the  1-lOOOOth  part  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  In  all  cases  they  consist  of  an  enveloping 
membrane  or  cell-wall,  which  incloses  in  a  space  more  or  less  enlarged 
certain  constituents,  called  cell-contents.  The  nature  of  the  substances 
which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  cell-walls  and  constitute  the 
cell-contents,  differs  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  but  there 
ore  certain  properties  which  all  ceUs  possess  in  conomon.  Sometimes 
these  prox)erties  are  called  vital,  to  distingfuish  them  from  the  pro- 
perties possessed  by  inorganic  or  mineral  bodies,  which  are  called 
physical.  It  will  however  be  seen  that,  independent  of  the  fonnatire 
power  by  which  particles  of  gelatine,  cellulose,  &&,  arrange  them- 
selves in  the  form  of  cells,  and  again  these  cells  arrange  themselvei 
iuto  the  forms  of  organs  and  beings  of  a  specific  form,  there  are  few 
of  the  functions  performed  by  cells  that  may  not  be  referred  to  the 
action  of  physiciJ  forces.  One  of  the  first  and  most  necessary  con- 
ditions of  the  cell  is,  that  it  shall  allow  of  the  passage,  through  the 
membrane  of  which  its  walls  are  composed,  of  those  substances  bj 
means  of  which  it  grows,  and  which  it  acts  upon  for  the  production 
of  the  peculiar  secretions  which  characterise  either  specific  beings  or 
parts  of  their  organisation.  This  function,  which  is  called  AbsorpUoo, 
teems  referrible  to  the  physical  relations  which  exist  between  liqxdda 
and  gases  and  the  membrane  of  which  the  cell-wall  is  composed. 
[Absorptioh.J 

The  liquid  or  gaseous  contents  which  are  thus  introduced  into  the 
interior  of  cells  undergo  a  variety  of  changes,  according  to  the  position, 
ige,  or  othercircumstancesof  the  celL  Sometimes  the  fluid  that  is 
absorbed  appears  to  be  transmitted  in  compound  structures  from  cell  to 
cell  without  undergoingany  great  amount  of  change.  In  other  cases  the 
most  decided  chemical  chimges  take  place  in  the  elements  introduced. 
The  cells  of  some  parts  of  vegetable  structures  are  an  instance  of  the 
latter,  in  which  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  are  absorbed  with  water, 
and  converted,  either  during  their  passage  through  the  cell-wall,  or 
whilst  in  the  interior  of  the  cell,  into  cellulose,  starch,  sugar,  protein, 
and  other  constituents  of  the  celL  In  other  parts  of  plants  the  cells 
convey  solutions  of  sugar  and  other  substances  without  producing  on 
them  any  change. 

The  constituents  absorbed  into  the  interior  of  the  cell  are  the 
materials  from  which  the  cell-wall  and  all  its  contents  are  derived 
The  process  by  which  the  cell  appropriates  to  itself  these  matten  is 
called  Assimilation.  This  function  is  supposed  to  be  carried  on  hj 
an  independent  force  or  power  residing  in  the  cell,  or  congeries  of  cells, 
which  form  an  organ  or  a  body,  and  has  been  called  the  'assimilative 
force  or  property,'  '  organising  force,'  ''plastic  force.*  It  is  neceesaiy 
however  in  this  process  to  separate  between  the  changes  by  which 
one  substance  is  converted  into  another,  and  which  is  probably  the 
result  of  ordinary  chemical  force  under  other  circumstances,  and  the 
power  or  force  by  which  these  substances  are  made  to  assimie  definite 
forms  in  cells  and  organs.  The  latter  is  a  special  force  in  the  case  of 
each  cell,  plant,  or  anhnal,  and  to  which  alone,  of  the  changes  involved 
in  the  function  of  assimilation,  the  term  vital  can  be  properly 
appUed. 

The  result  of  the  appropriation  of  the  new  matter  absorbed  from 
without  in  all  cells  is  their  enlargement  or  growth.  This  takes  place 
in  two  ways :  either  the  new  matter  is  taken  up  into  the  interior  of 
the  substance  of  the  cell-wall,  which  is  always  the  case  where  the 
cell  becomes  augmented  in  size,  or  it  is  deposited  in  the  form  of 
layers  in  the  interior  of  the  cell.  According  aa  the  first  mode  of 
growth  is  regular  or  irregular  will  be  the  form  of  the  cell  The  vege- 
table and  animal  kingdoms  present  almost  all  conceivable  forms  of 
cells,  from  the  spherical  and  hexagonal  cells  observed  in  the  lower 


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CELLS. 


CELSL^ 


814 


forms  of  pluita,  and  the  leas  oiganifled  tissues  of  aniiDalfl,  as  oazi^ilage, 
up  to  the  eLmgated  TesselB  of  the  plant,  and  the  irregular  oells  of 
bone  or  areolar  tissue  in  animals.  The  animal  kingdom  presents  by- 
far  the  greatest  variety  in  this  respect,  and  so  great  are  the  changes 
that  some  of  the  animal  cells  undergo,  that  the  terms  Metamorphoses 
or  TraoBformations  have  been  applied  to  these  ohimges.  As  examples 
of  these  oeUa  we  may  quote — ^the  homy  scales  of  the  epidermis^  of 
the^  hair  and  the  naUs,  and  the  laminated  pavement,  epithelium — ^in 
which  the  oelle  are  flattened,  polygonal,  or  fusiform,  and  the  oell-waU 
is  fused  into  one  mass  with  the  oell-contents ;  the  contractile  flbre- 
oells  of  the  smooth  muscles ;  the  tubules  of  the  lens ;  the  prisms  of  the 
enamel ;  the  various  forms  of  bone-cells ;  and  the  transversely  striated 
cells  of  muscular  fibre. 

All  cells  originate  or  are  produced  in  the  same  way.  Either  they 
are  developed  free  in  vegetable  or  animal  fluids,  or  they  are  produced 
in  the  interior  of  prececUng  cells.  In  all  cases  they  originate  in  con- 
nection with  a  substance  called  protein,  which  exists  in  ceUs,  either 
in  the  form  of  a  small  dark  spot  called  a  nucleus,  or  cytoblast,  in  the 
interior  of  which  is  a  nucleolus,  or  of  an  expansion  on  the  interior  of 
the  cell,  -when  it  is  called  the  primoi*dial  utricl&  Free  cell-development 
has  been  observed  to  take  place  in  plants,  in  saodiarine  and  other 
liquids  about  to  undergo  the  fermentation  prooesei,  and  amongst 
animals  in  the  chyle,  blood,  and  lymph.  The  exact  mode  of  the 
development  of  cells  under  these  circumstances  has  not  been 
accurately  observed,  and  the  particles  or  granules  of  proteinaceous 
matter  from  which  they  are  supposed  to  originate  have  not  yet  been 
proved  to  have  had  their  origin  independent  of  other  cells.  The  most 
common  form  of  cell-development  is  that  in  which  the  cell  grows 
around  or  from  the  nucleus  or  primordial  utiide.  In  the  animal 
kingdom  the  development  of  the  cell  more  frequently  takes  place 
around  the  nucleus,  whilst  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  its  origin  is 
more  £reqtient  from  the  folding  in  or  contraction  of  the  primordial 
utricle  upon  itself,  by  which  means  two  cells  originate  in  one. 

Besides  the  development  of  cells  around  the  nucleus  and  round  the 
investing  membrane,  or  primordial  utricle,  within  the  walls  of  the 
oelly  a  multiplication  of  cells  frequently  takes  place  by  division  of  the 
whole  celL  This  takes  place  in  many  of  the  lower  forms  of  ftnimaln 
and  plants  [Protozoa],  and  also  in  the  red  blood-corpuscles  of  the 
embryoes  of  birds  and  mammalia,  and  ia  the  colourless  blood-corpuscles 
of  the  tadpole.  It  is  probable  that  further  observation  will  extend 
our  knowledge  of  this  mode  of  cell-multiplication. 

One  of  the  highest  problems  for  the  physiology  of  the  present  day 

to  solve  is,  the  efficient  causes  of  the  phenomena  of  oell-developmentw 

-  The  following  propositions  have  been  laid  down  by  KoUiker  as  an 

attempt  to  follow  up  Schwann's  idea  of  the  analogy  between  chemical 

changes  in  inorganic  bodies  and  those  which  occur  in  cells  :— 

1.  The  nucleus  of  the  cell  arises  in  the  first  place  as  a  precipitate 
in  an  oiganisaUle  fluid,  and  afterwards  becomes  consolidated  in  such 
a  manner  that  a  special  investment  and  contents  with  a  nucleolus 
appear.  Its  development  may  in  this  case  be  compared  to  that  of 
inorganic  precipitately  yet  the  constantly  globular  figure  and  size  of 
the  nuclei  whicn  are  just  formed,  indicate  some  essential  though  not 
yet  recsognised  condition  peculiar  to  them. 

2.  In  the  development  of  cells  by  division  the  oell-nudeus  plays 
exactly  the  same  part  which  was  previously  ascribed  to  the 
nucleolus,  and  the  occurrence  of  the  formation  of  cells  in  this 
manner  demonstrates  that  chemical  conditions  are  not  necessarily 
concerned  therein. 

3.  In  cell-development  around  portions  of  contents,  and  in  the 
cleavage  process,  the  nuclei  also  operate  as  simple  centres  of  attrac- 
tion upon  a  certain  mass  of  blastema,  and  then  follows  the  formation 
of  a  membrane  upon  the  surface  of  this  mass,  which  ia  most  simply 
understood  as  a  condensation  of  the  blastema. 

4.  In  the  cell-development  directly  around  the  nucleus  the  invest- 
ment with  bUstema  is  wanting,  and  the  nucleus  develops  the  mem- 
brane immediately  around  itself. 

From  what  has  been  previously  said,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cells 
axe  the  active  seat  of  the  functions  of  both  animals  and  plants,  and 
the  most  coni^icuous  results  of  organisation  takes  place  in  conse- 
quence of  their  agency.  They  not  only  constitute  the  mass  of  the 
body,  but  by  their  agency  alone  all  the  special  secretious  and  products 
»f  individual  plants  and  animals  are  formed.  The  food  is  conveyed 
into  the  body  by  cells,  the  blood  of  animals  is  charged  with  cells,  and 
tbe  functions  of  locomotion  and  sensation  are  carried  on  by  the  agency 
of  cells.  Nor  are  these  last  functions  peculiar  to  the  animal  kingdom. 
Contractility  and  sensibility  seem  to  be  the  property  of  the  substance 
(protein)  of  which  the  nudeus  and  primordial  utncle  are  composed. 
To  this  substance  Mr.  Huxley  proposes  to  give  the  name  Endoplast, 
and  thus  concludes  a  lecture  on  the  identity  of  structure  of  plants 
and  A.niTnitl« : — 

"  In  both  plants  and  animals  then  there  is  one  histological  element, 
the  Endoplast,  which  does  nothing  but  grow  and  vegetatively  repeat 
itself ;  the  other  element,  the  periplastic  substance  (the  cell  membrane) 
being  the  subject  of  all  the  chemical  and  morphological  metamorphoses, 
in  consequence  of  which  spedfio  tissues  arise.  The  differences  between 
the  two  xingdoms  are,  mainly,  1,  that  in  the  plant  the  Endoplast 
grows,  and,  as  the  primordial  utricle,  attains  a  lai^e  comparative  size ; 
-while  in  the  animal  the  Endoplast  remains  small,  the  principal  bulk 


of  its  tissues  being  formed  by  the  periplastic  substance ;  and,  2,  in 
the  nature  of  the  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the  periplastic 
substance  in  each  oaae.  This  distinction  however  does  not  always 
hold  good,  the  Ascidians  furnishing  examples  of  ft^nimRla  whose  peri* 
plastic  substazuse  contains  cellulose. 

''The  plant  then  is  an  animal  confined  in  a  wooden  case,  and 
nature,  like  Sycorax,  holds  thousands  of  '  delicate  Ariels'  imprisoned 
within  every  oak.  She  is  jealous  of  letting  us  know  this ;  and  among 
the  higher  and  more  conspicuous  forms  of  plants  reveals  it  onlv  by 
such  obscure  manifestations  as  the  shrinking  of  the  Sensitive  Plan^ 
the  sudden  dasp  of  the  DioncBO,  or,  still  more  slightly,  by  the  pheno- 
mena of  the  OyeloM.  But  among  the  immense  variety  of  creatures 
which  belong  to  the  invisible  world  she  allows  more  liberty  to  her 
Dryads ;  and  the  Protoeocci,  the  Volvox,  and  indeed  all  the  Alga,  are 
during  one  period  of  their  existence  as  active  as  animal  a  of  a  like 
grade  ia  the  scale.  True,  they  are  doomed  eventually  to  shut  them- 
selves up  within  their  wooden  cages  and  remain  quiescent ;  but  in 
this  respect  they  are  no  worse  off  than  the  Polype,  or  the  oyster 
even." 

For  further  information  on  the  subject  of  Cells,  see  the  articles 
Animal  Kingdom  ;  Blood  ;  Hibtoloot  ;  Botant  ;  Cilia  ;  Tissues, 
Ybgetabls  ;  Tissues,  Animal  ;  and  also  Cells  [See  Supplement]. 

(Sharpey,  in  Qqmu'b  EUmentt  of  Anatomy  ;  Kolliker,  Handbook  of 
Human  Histoloffy,  translated  for  the  Sydenham  Society  by  Huxley  and 
Busk ;  Carpenter,  Manual  of  Human  PhytioUtgy  ;  Principles  of  Phy- 
siology; Mohl,  On  the  Vegeteile  Cdl,  translated  by  Henfrey ;  Schleiden, 
Principles  of  Scientific  Botany,  translated  by  Lankester ;  Schleiden,  On 
Phytogenesis ;  Schwann,  On  the  Identity  of  Strv^fture  in  Plants  and 
Animals,  translated  by  £L  Smith  for  the  Sydenham  Society ;  Quekett, 
Lectures  on  Histology;  Hassall,  Microscopic  Anatomy  of  the  Human 
Body  ;  Todd  and  Bowman  The  Physiological  Anatomy  and  Physiology 
of  Man  ;  Quekett,  Catalogue  of  the  Histological  Series  in  the  Museum 
of  the  BoycU  CoUege  of  Surgeons,  London  ;  Qitartcrly  Journal  of  Micro- 
scopical Science;  and  Transactions  of  Microscopical  Society,  vol.  i) 

CELLULAR  TISSUE.  This  name  has  been  given  to  certain  forms 
of  both  animal  and  vegetable  structures.  In  the  animal  kingdom  it 
has  been  applied  to  that  tissue  which  is  found  investing  and  forming 
the  basis  of  all  others.  As  however  this  tissue  is  not  more  strictly 
cellular  than  any  of  the  other  structures  of  the  body,  and  is  even  less 
cellular  under  tiie  microscope  than  many  others,  this  term  has  been 
abandoned  by  recent  anatomical  writers,  and  ^e  term  Areolar  Tissue 
substituted.  TAreolab  Tissue.]  The  term  Cellular  Tissue  is  still 
made  use  of  by  botanists  to  distinguish  those  parts  of  plants  in 
which  the  cells  have  not  tmited  together  to  form  continuous  tubes 
or  vessels.  The  whole  of  the  tissues  of  plants  like  those  of  animals 
originate  in  cells,  and  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  fix  the  limitations 
of  this  term.    [Cells;  Tissues,  Yeqstablb.] 

CELLULARES,  a  term  applied  to  the  large  class  of  plants,  which 
have  also  received  the  names  Cryptogamia,  Acotyledons,  Agamcs, 
Exemhryonata,  and  Aei*ogens»  [Aoboqenb.]  It  was  especially  adopted 
by  De  Candolle,  the  primary  divisions  of  whose  system  consist^  of 
VoMvlares,  or  plants  with  both  cellular  and  vascular  tissue,  and 
Cellulares,  or  plants  furnished  with  cellular  tissue  only.  These  distinc: 
tions  do  not  hold  good  anatomically,  and  since  the  more  prominent 
recognition  of  the  fsust  that  cellulEur  and  vascular  tissue  originate 
alike  in  the  cell,  and  are  but  forms  of  the  same  substance,  these 
distinctions  have  been  less  regarded. 

CELLULAEIA.    [Cbllabisa.] 

CELO'SIA  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Amarantace(Z,  comprehending  the  flowers  which  gardeners  call  Cocks- 
combs, on  account  of  the  crested  flattened  appearance  of  their 
inflorescence.  The  calyx  consists  of  5  narrow  sharp-pointed  sepals, 
surrounded  by  some  bracts  of  the  same  shape  and  colour  as  tnem- 
selves.  The  stamens  are  5,  and  united  into  a  plaited  cup.  The 
capsule  is  membranous,  1-cdled,  opens  by  a  transverse  fissure,  and 
contains  two  or  three  seeds.  The  leaves  are  always  alternate.  Only 
two  species  are  cultivated,  namely  C*  cristaia  and  0.  coccinea, 

C,  cristaia,  the  Common  Cockscomb,  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  but  it  is  more  probable  that  it  came  originally  firom  either 
Japan  or  China,  for  it  is  only  seen  in  gardens  in  the  East  Indies.  It 
varies  in  regard  both  to  stature  and  colour,  some  of  the  sorts  being  as 
much  as  two  feet  high,  while  others  do  not  exceed  six  inches ;  in 
colour  it  is  seen  with  deep  blood-red,  puiple,  and  yellowish-white 
combs,  the  latter  however  is  seldom  cultivated  now. 

C.  coccinea  is  by  no  means  so  striking  a  plant  as  the  last  in  appear- 
anse,  for  it  forms  little  or  no  crest,  but  it  bears  its  flowers  in  panided 
spike&  It  also  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  and  varies 
with  purple  and  silvei^r  or  yellow  flowers. 

Nothing  can  be  more  easy  of  cultivation  than  these  flowers ;  and 
they  are  capable  of  being  brought  to  an  extraordinary  size  by  good 
management. 

CELiSIA  (named  by  Linnieus  in  honour  of  Olaf  Celsius,  p.D., 
professor  of  QrcMBk,  and  afterwards  of  Theology,  in  the  University  of 
Upsal),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Solanacea. 
It  has- a  5-parted  calyx,  a  rotate  5-lobed  corolla,  4  perfect  stamens, 
didynamous,  bearded.  All  the  species  are  herbs  with  simple  or  pinnate 
leaves,  the  flowers  disposed  in  loose  termiiud  racemes,  eacA  rising  firom 
the  axil  of  a  bract  or  small  leaf. 


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CELYPHtJS. 


CENfR01<rOTU8. 


O,  orienUdii  htm  the  lower  leaves  jagged,  those  of  the  stem  biplnnate. 
It  is  a  native  of  Ciqppadocia  and  Armenia. 

O,  nManata,  shmbbj  clothed  with  woolly  tomentom,  the  leaves 
oval-oblong,  obtuse,  crenated,  wrinkled,  soft  It  is  now  cultivated  in 
this  countrv,  but  its  native  district  is  unknown.  It  has  sweet-soented 
flowers.  There  are  several  other  species  of  Oeliia,  all  of  them  closely 
resembling  the  species  of  Verbatoum,  under  wMch  genus  many  of 
them  have  been  described. 

In  the  cultivation  of  the  species  of  OeUia,  the  seeds  should  be  sown 
on  a  gentle  hot-bed,  and  when  the  plants  are  large  enough  they  should 
be  set  in  separate  pots,  as  they  require  the  protection  of  a  greenhouse 
or  frame  the  first  winter.  In  the  second  year  they  may  be  planted 
out  about  the  month  of  May  in  any  warm  sheltered  situation.  They 
will  flower  and  ripen  their  seed  in  the  open  air.  O.  aManata  and 
Cparvi^iora  being  shrubby  plants  should  be  treated  as  Pelaigoniums 
or  other  neenhouse  shrubs. 

n)on,  Uardenei't  Dictionary.) 

CEXYPHUS,  a  genus  of  Dipterous  Insects  of  the  family  La/uxanida 
(Haoquart).  It  hM  the  following  characters : — Antenna  wide  apart, 
as  long  as  the  head,  stylet  rather  thick  and  covered  with  fine  hain ; 
soutellum  convex,  and  covering  the  abdomen. 

This  genus  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  of  the  Diptera,  the 
species  having  more  the  appearance  of  little  beetles  than  two-winged 
flies;  the  peculiarity  is  caused  by  the  immense  size  of  the  scutellum, 
which  covers  the  whole  abdomen  and  incloses  the  wings  when  at 
restb 

C,  €btedfu  is  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  length ;  the  head  is 
yellow ;  the  last  joint  of  the  antennsB  is  black ;  the  thorax  and 
scutellum  are  of  a  bluish  black  colour  with  violet  reflexions ;  the 
former  is  broader  than  long ;  the  abdomen  is  fawn-colour,  the  legs  and 
wings  are  yellowish,  the  latter  with  the  base  brown.  It  inhabits  Java. 

uiictUaJtui  very  much  resembles  the  one  just  described,  but  is  of  a 
greemsh  coppeiHsolour  above  and  beneath ;  it  is  found  in  the  East 
Indies. 

(7.  AfrieoMU,  is  a  small  species  inhabiting  Sierra-Leone. 

CENCHRIS,  a  genus  of  Snakes  belonging  to  the  feunily  of  Rattle- 
snakes.    rCBOTALIDJL] 

CENTAU'REA,  a  ve^  extensive  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
Cynaraceous  division  of  the  natural  order  UompoHUe,  but  compre- 
hending no  species  of  any  importance  to  man.  It  has  the  following 
characters : — ^The  pappus  in  many  rows,  imequal,  the  second  row 
lar^st ;  the  anthers  with  papillose  filaments ;  involucre  imbricated ; 
receptacle  cbaffy;  the  fruit  attached  laterally  above  to  the  re- 
ceptacle. 

C.  Oyanut,  the  Common  Blue-Bottle  of  com  fields,  is  sometimes 
cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  many-coloured  flower-heads.  Two 
others,  O,  mo$ekata,  the  Purple  or  White  Sultan  of  gardeners,  and  O. 
iuavetientf  Yellow  Sultan,  are  occasionally  seen  among  other  annuals 
innrdens. 

C7.  Cfyanm  with  the  following  are  British  species : — 01  Jaeea  ;  O. 
nigra,  the  Black  Knapweed;  Cnigreteena;  O.  Scaibiata,  QrttA  Knap- 
weed; a  $olttitiali9,  Yellow  Star-Thistle;  O,  OaleUrapa,  Conmion 
Star-Thistle ;  O,  Jtnardi. 

CENTAURY.       fCBHTAUBKA.] 

CENTIPEDE.    IMtbiapoda.] 

CENTRANTHUS  (from  icirrpor,  a  spur,  and  iifBos,  a  flower),  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Valenafutcece.  It  has  a 
regular  5-lobed  corolla  with  a  spur,  a  single  stamen,  the  fruit  1-celled, 
indehiscent^  crowned  with  the  limb  of  the  calyx,  expanded  into  a 
feathery  pappus.  The  species  are  smooth  herbs  with  undivided  or 
pinnate  leaves,  and  white  or  red  flowers. 

(7.  ruber,  Red-Flowered  Spurred  Valerian,  Red  Valerian,  has  ovate- 
lanceolate  leaves,  spur  much  shorter  than  the  tube  of  the  corolla  and 
twice  as  long  as  the  germen.  It  is  a  native  of  Great  Britain,  in  chalk- 
pits and  on  old  walls.  It  has  purple  flowera,  and  attains  a  height  of 
one  or  two  feet    It  has  a  sweet  scent. 

C.  CftUeitrapa  has  radical  leaves,  ovate,  entire,  the  stem-leaves 
pinnatifid,  the  spur  very  short  It  is  a  native  of  the  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  of  the  more  temperate  parte  of  France.  It  grows 
wild  at  Elthun  in  Kent,  but  there  is  httle  doubt  of  its  being  a 
naturalised  plant  there.  The  first  species  may  have  also  been 
Introduced,  but  it  grows  wild  in  many  parts  of  Qreat  Britain.  Several 
other  species  are  described  and  some  are  grown  in  gardens.  They  are 
elegant  border-flowere,  and  will  grow  in  any  common  soil,  on  walls  or 
rock-work,  and  may  be  easily  propagated  by  seed. 

(Babington,  MamuU  of  BritUh  Botany.)  * 

CENTRA^CHUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  section 
Acanihopterygii  and  the  funily  Percida,  and  the  subdivision  'with  less 
than  seven  branchial  rays.'  In  this  genus  the  species  have  numerous 
spines  in  the  anal  fin ;  the  tongue  is  furnished  with  a  group  of  fine 
and  very  thickly-set  teeth ;  the  pre-operoulum  is  entire ;  the  angle  of 
the  operculum  is  divided  into  two  flat  points ;  and  the  body  is  com- 
pressedand  somewhat  oval ;  they  inhabit  the  riven  of  North  America. 
The  genus  Oyehla  of  some  American  ichthyologists  is  synonymous 
with  the  above. 

CENTRINA.    [Squalida] 

CBNTRI'SCUS  (Linnsdus),  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the 
Motion  Acml^hiopttrygii  and  to  the  family  FiMonridcs,    The  species 


of  thi9  genus  are  principally  distinguished  by  their  having  a  long 
tubular  snout^  from  which  character  they  have  received  the  names 
of  SeapSnipes,  Trumpet-Fish,  fta  The  b<Mly  is  inclining  to  an  oblong 
oval  form,  compressed,  carinated  beneath,  and  covered  with  scalea 
The  mouth  is  small,  obliquely  cleft>  and  devoid  of  teetL  Thero  are 
two  dorsal  fins ;  Uie  rays  of  the  first  (which  is  placed  very  &r 
back)  are  spinous ;  the  veniml  fins  are  small,  and  situated  behind  the 
pectorals. 

Centri$cu8  Seolopax  (Linnous),  the  Trumpet-Fish  or  SesrSnipe 
(known  in  Cornwall  by  the  name  of  the  Beflows-Fish),  is  the  oidj 
species  yet  discovered  off  ihe  British  coast,  where  it  is  rare ;  the 
Mediterranean  appears  to  be  its  natural  locality.  Its  length  is  about 
five  inches;  the  bodv  is  oval  and  compressed ;  the  snout  is  elongated, 
and  forms  a  tube  which  extends  about  an  inch  and  a  half  before  the 
eyes,  which  are  large ;  the  back  is  elevated,  and  the  part  for  some 
little  distance  anterior  to  the  first  dorsal  fin  is  straight,  whence 
it  tapen  rather  suddenly  to  the  taiL  The  anterior  spine  of  the  first 
dorsal  (which  has  but  three  rays)  is  very  large  and  denticulated 
beneath;  the  rays  of  the  second  dorsal  are  soft;  the  anal  fin  is 
elongated ;  the  ventrals  are  small,  and  have  a  depression  behind  them 
in  which  they  may  be  lodged.  The  body  is  covered  with  hard  rough 
scales,  which  are  minutely  ciliated  on  the  external  edge. 

Young  specimens  of  this  fish  are  of  a  shining  silver-like  colour; 
the  adult  specimens  are  reddish,  with  the  sides  of  the  head  and 
under  parts  silveiy  or  slightly  tinted  with  a  golden  hue. 

There  is  a  figure  of  this  curious  fish  given  in  YarreU's  '  Bxitiih 
Fishes,'  and  also  in  Donovan's  '  British  Fishea' 

The  genus  AmphitiU  of  Klein  is  closely  allied  to,  and  was  included 
in  the  genus  Geniitcua  by  Linnseus ;  the  species  have  the  back  mailed 
with  lurger  scaly  plates,  of  which  the  anterior  spine  of  the  fint 
dorsal  fin  appears  to  be  a  continuation. 

CENTRO'LOPHUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  secUon 
Aeanthopterygii  and  family  Scomberida.  The  body  is  elongate,  covered 
with  minute  scales;  teeih  small  and  numerous;  palatine  without 
teeth;  one  very  long  dorsal  fin. 

C.  morio,  the  Black  Fish,  has  been  met  with  though  very  rarelj  on 
the  British  coast  It  is  of  a  black  colour,  the  fins  intensely  so ;  the 
under  parts  are  of  a  slightly  paler  hue.  The  head  is  rather  blunt 
and  rounded  in  front,  and  the  mouth  is  small ;  the  eyes  are  prominent ; 
the  body  is  compressed,  and  in  a  specimen  15  indies  long  is  abont 
8  inches  deep.  There  is  a  thin  elevated  ridge  on  the  bacl^  to  which 
the  dorsal  fin  is  attached;  this  fin  commences  before  the  middle  of 
the  back  (viewing  it  from  the  side),  and  extends  almost  to  the  tail; 
the  pectoral  fins  are  pointed ;  the  ventral  fins  are  bound  down  hj  a 
membrane ;  the  tail  is  large  and  forked ;  the  body  is  covered  with 
very  small  scales. 

In  Mr.  Yarreirs  'British  Fishes,'  one  specimen  is  described  as 
being  15  inches  long,  and  another  "measured  2  feet  8  inches  in 
lengtii,  and  weighed  14  lbs.  The  skin  was  observed  to  be  so  tough 
as  to  be  AtrippMl  from  the  fish  like  that  of  an  eel;  no  air-bladder 
was  found.  The  taste  was  delicious."  They  were  caught  off  the 
coast  of  Cornwall,  and  the  species  is  described  as  having  grwt  strength 
and  velocity. 

CENTRONCTUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  section 
Aeanthopterygii  and  famUy  Seomherida.  In  this  genus  the  spines, 
which  in  most  of  the  Acanthopterygians  form  the  anterior  donsi 
fin,  are  free  or  unconnected  by  membrane ;  they  have  all  ventral  fins. 

The  above  characten  are  common  to  a  large  number  of  species  of 
the  ScomberidcB,  and  hence  it  has  been  thought  convenient  to  seize 
some  minor  distinctions  for  the  purpose  of  dividing  the  geaua 
Centronotua  into  several  sub-genera.  In  Cuvier*s  'Rdgne  Animal' 
they  are  as  follows : — Sub-genus  Naucratea,  or  those  in  which  the  body 
is  elongate ;  the  tail  carinated  at  the  sides,  and  which  have  two 
free  spines  before  the  anal  fin.  To  this  sub-genus  belongs  the  Pilot 
Fish  (Naucratea  ductor),  which  is  well  known  for  its  habit  of  following 
vessels  to  a  considerable  distance  in  order  to  feed  upon  what  u 
thrown  overboard ;  and  it  is  under  such  circumstances  tiiat  this  fi^ 
has  been  occasionaUv  met  with  on  the  British  coast  It  is  about  a 
foot  in  length,  and  of  a  bluish-gray  colour,  with  five  broad  bands  of 
deep  violet.  Its  shape  is  something  like  that  of  the  mackerel,  bat 
leas  tapering  towards  the  head  and  tail  The  pectoral  and  ventral 
fins  are  of  moderate  size,  the  latter  very  dose  together ;  the  dorsu 
fin  commences  about  midway  between  the  head  and  the  tail,  and 
continues  almost  to  the  latter  part ;  anterior  to  the  dorsal  fin  there 
are  three  free  spines :  the  tail  is  forked. 

Elacatea  is  another  sub-genus.  The  spedee  have  nearly  the  form  of 
the  one  last  mentioned,  but  differ  in  the  head  being  depressed,  tiie 
tail  not  carinated,  and  there  being  no  free  spines  before  the  anal  fin. 
The  next  subgenus,  Lichia,  has  free  spines  before  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins,  and  the  tail  not  carinated  at  the  sides.  In  front  of  the  dorsal 
spines  there  is  a  single  one  laid  flat  and  pointing  forwards.  The 
Scomber  amia  of  LinnsBus,  a  large  fish  upwards  of  4  feet  in  lengtii, 
which  inhabits  the  Mediterranean,  belongs  to  this  section.  There  are 
two  other  species  known  from  the  same  locality;  the  one  hen 
mentioned  is  distinguished  by  the  lateral  line  bang  much  citfred 
and  forming  an  S.  The  last  suVgenus,  Trachinolva,  differs  chiefly  from 
Lichia  in  having  the  profile  of  the  body  deeper,  and  the  dorsal  and 
anal  fins  longer  and  more  tapered. 


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CBNTROPHORUa 


CEPHALOPODA. 


818 


CENTROPHORUa    [SQUAUDJi.] 

CENTROPOliUS,  a  genus  of  FiBhea  bdongixig  to  tho  section 
Accmthopterpgiif  to  the  division  Thoradc-Perches,  and  the  family 
Pereidce,  In  this  genus  the  muzzle  is  oompressed,  as  in  the  pike, 
and  the  head,  when  viewed  from  the  side,  is  much  pointed ;  the  lower 
jaw  projects  beyond  the  upper ;  the  pre-operculum  and  operculum 
are  covered  with  scales;  tiie  former  is  dentated,  and  the  latter 
unarmed.  There  are  two  dorsal  fins  with  a  distinct  intervening 
space ;  the  anterior  one  has  eight  rays,  and  the  posterior  eleven ;  the 
teeth  are  very  minute  and  crowded ;  the  ventral  fins  are  under  the 
pectorals. 

C.  undeeimalitt  so  named  from  its  having  eleven  rays  to  the 
poBterior  dorsal  fin,  is  common  throughout  South  America^  where  it 
forms  a  considerable  article  of  consumption,  and  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Sea-Pike;  it  firequents  the  mouths  of  great  rivers,  and 
sometimes  extends  its  course  up  as  far  as  the  fresh  water. 

The  Sea-Pike  grows  to  a  considerable  size,  and  weighs  sometimes 
as  much  as  26  lbs.  The  body  is  of  rather  a  more  elongieite  form  than 
the  common  perch ;  its  colour  is  greenish-brown  above  and  silveiy 
beneath ;  the  anterior  dorsal  fin  is  gray ;  the  other  fins  are  yellowish, 
and  finely  dotted  with  black  on  the  edges ;  the  lateral  line  is  blacL 
This  species  is  tiie  only  one*of  the  genus  known,  and  is  the  Sckena 
undecimalis  of  Bloch. 

CENTROPRI'STIS  (Cuvier),.  a  genus  of  Fishes  belongmg  to  the 
section  Aeanthopterygii,  and  to  the  family  Percidai,  and  belonging  to 
the  division  with  '  seven  branchial  ravs  and  a  single  dorsal  fin.'  This 
genus  is  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  species  having  all  the  teeth 
fine,  rather  strong  and  recurved,  and  closely  set :  the  preK>perculum 
is  Berrated ;  and  the  operculum  is  spined. 

C.  nigrieana,  the  Black  Perch  or  Black  Bass,  is  abundant  in  the 
riTera  of  the  United  States,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  the  table.  It 
is  of  a  deep  olive-green  colour  above,  and  pinkish  on  the  under  parts; 
the  dorsal  fin  is  bluish,  with  pale  transverse  bands ;  the  other  fins 
are  of  a  deeper  hue ;  the  tail  and  anal  fins  are  spotted. 


Black  Perch  {OentropritHi  nigrieant). 

This  species  is  remarkable  for  having  the  tail  doubly  notched,  the 
central  and  two  outer  parts  projecting.  This  character  however  is 
not  so  distinct  in  old  individuals.  The  young  are  marked  with 
clouded  transverse  bands. 

There  are  some  few  other  species  found  on  the  American  coast 
The  one  above  described  is  the  Perca  varia  of  Mitchell. 

{TransadioTU  of  the  Literary  and  PhUosopMcal  Society  of  New  Torh.) 

CENTROPUS  (Illiger),  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  order 
Scantoret.  The  species  are  natives  of  India  and  Africa.  They  have 
a  long  pointed  thimib-nail,  the  same  as  the  larks.  Their  plumage  is 
rigid  and  spinoiis.  They  build  their  nests  in  the  holes  of  trees,  and 
lay  white  eggs.  They  feed  chiefly  on  grasshoppers,  and  dwell  amongst 
r&eda  and  other  herbage,  and  do  not  often  take  to  vring.  Their  flesh 
is  not  pleasant  eating. 

CENTU'NCULUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
PrxTMdaceiB.  It  has  a  4-parted  calyx,  corolla  with  a  subglobose  inflated 
tube  and  patent  4-parted  limb,  4  stamens  inserted  in  the  throat  of  the 
oorolb;  the  capsule  many-seeded,  opening  all  round  transversely. 
The  only  species  of  this  genus,  C,  minimuSf  is  a  native  of  Great 
Britain.  It  is  a  very  minute  plimt  with  a  prostrate  stem,  the  leaves 
alternate,  ovate, acute;  the  flowers  pale  rose-colour,  subsesrale^  without 
glands  at  the  base.  It  grows  in  damp,  sand^,  and  gravellv  places, 
and  is  known  by  the  common  name  of  Bastard  PmipemeL  (Baoington, 
Manual  of  Brii,  Bot.) 

CEPHAEXIS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Oin- 
flKmaeece.  The  species  are  remarkable  among  other  things  for  their 
flowers  growing  in  close  heads,  and  being  surrounded  by  involucrating 
bracts,  which  are  sometimes  richly  coloured.  They  are  chiefly  interest- 
ing from  comprehending  the  plant  which  yields  the  Ipecacuanha  Root 
of  the  druggists.  This  species  is  the  Cephtulit  Ipecacuanha,  and  is  a 
oativo  of  vSd  forests  of  Brazil,  growing  in  close  damp  shaded  places, 
sod  flowering  in  the  months  of  January  and  February.  It  was  also 
met  with  by  Humboldt  and  Bonpland  in  the  mountains  of  New 
Oranada.  It  is  a  perennial  plant,  with  a  weak  stem  not  above  2  or 
3  feet  long,  and  usually  lying  almost  prostrate.  Its  roots  are  con- 
torted, from  4  to  6  inches  long,  about  as  thick  as  a  goose-quill,  and 
Mparating  into  rings  which  are  about  half  as  thick  as  the  whole 
diameter  of  the  root.  The  leaves  collect  about  the  end  of  the  stem 
or  its  brandies,  are  of  an  oblong  ovate  figure,  slightly  hairy,  from 
3  to  4  inches  long,  and  connected  by  deeply-Iobed  finnge-like  stipules. 

»iT.  mar.  wv.  vou  l 


The  flower-heads  are  vexy  small,  surrounded  by  given  bracts,  and 
placed  upon  the  end  of  a  long  peduncle ;  when  in  flower  they  are 
said  to  be  erect,  but  they  are  represented  as  being  pendulous  in  that 
state  as  well  as  when  in  fruit.  The  flowers  are  snuill  and  white,  and 
are  succeeded  by  little  purple  berries.  The  Pun  and  Coroado  Indians 
chiefly  collect  this  drug,  which  furnishes  them  with  a  valuable  means 
of  barter  with  Europeans.  They  gather  it  at  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
principally  however  in  Januair,  February,  and  March ;  and  the  only 
care  th^  take  is  to  separate  the  roots  from  the  stem,  to  lay  them  up 
in  bundles,  and  to  dry  them  in  the  sun. 

CEPHALANTHE'RA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Orchidacea,  and  to  the  tribe  Limodorta,  It  has  a  oonvei^ging 
perianth,  the  lip  interrupted,  the  basal  division  saccate,  jointed  to  the 
recurved  terminal  one,  the  stigma  transverse  without  a  rostellum,  the 
anthers  terminal,  erect,  moveable,  shortly  and  thickly  stalked,  2-celled, 
the  cells  with  imperfect  septa,  the  column  elongated,  the  germen 
sessile,  twisted.  Three  species  of  this  genus  are  natives  of  Gkeat 
Britain. 

C,  grandifiora,  with  ovate-lanceolate  or  ovate-pointed  leaves,  bracts 
longer  than  the  glabrous  germen,  lips  obtuse,  izicluded.  It  has  white 
flowers,  with  the  lips  marked  with  several  elevated  longitudinal  lines. 
It  is  found  in  dense  woods,  usually  on  a  calcareous  soil. 

C.  eniifoliOf  with  lanceolate-pointed  leaves,  bracts  much  shorter 
than  the  glabrous  germen,  lips  obtuse,  included.  The  flowers  are 
white,  the  lips  marked  with  several  elevated  white  lines  and  a  yellow 
spot  in  fkont.    It  is  a  rare  plant,  and  found  in  mountainous  woods. 

C.  rubra  has  lanceolate  acute  leaves,  bracts  longer  than  the  downy 
germen,  the  lip  acute,  as  long  as  the  petaL  The  flowers  are  purple^ 
the  lip  white  with  a  purple  margin,  marked  with  numerous  wavy 
longitudinal  lines.    A  very  rare  plant  in  mountainous  woods. 

(Babhigton,  Manual  of  Brit.  BoiS 

CEPHALANTHUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belongmg  to  the  natural 
order  CHnch^macecB,  of  whidi  it  is  one  of  the  most  northern  represent 
tatives.  C,  occidentalis,  the  Button-Wood,  derives  its  English  name 
from  the  roimd  balls  of  flowers  with  which  it  is  covered  in  the 
month  of  August.  This  plant  is  common  in  iiwamps,  ponds,  and 
stagnant  waters,  from  Carolina  to  Canada,  forming  a  shrub  from  6  to 
15  feet  in  height,  with  a  light  spongy  wood.  The  inner  bark  of  its 
root  is  an  agreeable  bitter,  and  is  frequently  used  as  a  remedy  in 
obstinate  coughs. 

CEPHALA'SPIS,  a  singular  genus  of  Fossil  Placoid  Fishes,  esta- 
blished bv  Agassiz  on  specimens  from  the  Old  Red-Sandstone  of 
Herefordshire,  Forfarshire,  &a  The  head  covering  is  like  the  anterior 
part  of  a  Trilobite.  Cephalatpis  Lyellii,  and  C.  LLoydii  are  British 
species. 

CEPHALO'CULUS,  Lamarck's  name  for  a  genus  of  Branchiopoda, 
which  he  established  for  the  Polyphemus  Oeulut  of  MUUer,  and  which 
he  places  next  to  Cyclops.    [Branchiopoda.] 

CEPHALOTODA,  MoX^io  of  Aristotle,  MoUia  of  Pliny,  Cepha- 
lophora  of  De  Blainville,  Antliobrachiophora  of  Gray,  a  class  of 
Molludcs  whose  mantle,  according  to  Cuvier,  unites  beneath  the  body, 
and  thus  forms  a  muscular  sac  which  envelops  all  the  viscera.  Tlus 
body  or  trunk  is  fleshy  and  soft,  varying  in  form,  being  either  sub- 
spherical,  sub-plano-elliptical,  or  elongato-cylindrical,  and  the  sides  of 
the  mantle  are  in  manv  of  the  species  extended  into  fleshy  fins.  The 
head  protrudes  from  the  muscular  sac,  and  is  distinct  from  the  body ; 
it  is  gifted  with  all  the  usual  senses ;  and  the  eves  in  particular,  which 
are  either  pedunculated  or  sessile,  are  large  and  well  developed.  The 
mouth  is  anterior  and  terminal,  armed  with  a  pair  of  homy  or  calca- 
reous mandibles,  which  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  bill  of  a 
panot,  acting  vertically  one  upon  the  oUier.  ,  Its  situation  is  the  bottom 
of  a  subconioal  cavity  formed  by  the  base  of  the  numerous  fleshy 
tentacular  appendages  which  surround  it,  and  which  have  been 
termed  arms  by  some  naturalists  and  feet  by  others. 

These  appendages  in  the  great  majority  of  living  species  are  provided 
with  aoetabula — suckers  or  cupping-glass-like  instruments — ^by  means 
of  which  the  animal  moves  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  head  downwards, 
or  attaches  itself  to  its  prey  or  to  foreign  bodies.  These  suckers  are 
either  unarmed  or  armed  with  a  long  sharp  homy  daw,  as  in 
Onychoteuthit.  In  the  unarmed  acetabulum  the  mechanism  for 
adhesion  is  so  perfect  during  life  that,  as  Dr.  Roget  well  observes  in 
his  'Bridgewater  Treatise,'  "while  the  muscular  fibres  continue 
contracted  it  is  easier  to  tear  away  the  substance  of  the  limb 
than  to  release  it  from  its  attachment ;  and  even  in  the  dead  animal' 
the  suckers  retain  a  considerable  power  of  adhesion."  The  same 
author  dearly  describes  the  apparatus  by  means  of  which  the 
acetabulum  executes  its  functions : — ^*'The  circumference  of  the  disc  is 
raised  by  a  soft  and  tumid  max^ ;  a  series  of  long  slender  folds  of 
membrane,  covering  corresponding  fasciculi  of  muscular  fibres,  con- 
verge from  the  circumference  towards  the  centre  of  the  sucker,  at  a 
short  distance  from  which  they  leave  a  circular  aperture ;  this  opens 
into  a  cavity  which  widens  as  it  descends,  and  contains  a  cone  of  soft 
substance  rising  from  the  bottom  of  the  cavi^,  like  the  piston  of  a 
syringe.  When  the  sucker  is  applied  to  a  surface  for  the  purpose  of 
adhesion,  the  piston,  having  preriously  been  raised  so  as  to  fill  the 
cavity,  is  retracted,  and  a  vacuum  produced,  which  may  be  still  further 
increased  by  the  retraction  of  the  plicated  central  portion  of  the  disa 
Here  we  have  an  excellent  description  of  the  apparatus  for  'holding 

8  o 


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CEPHALOPODA, 


CEPHALOPODA. 


8tt 


on/  but  the  explanation  stops  short  of  showing  how  the  operation  of 
letting  go'  is  effectod.  We  well  remember  in  onr  youth  going  hr  out 
with  an  old  fisherman  of  Dawlish  to  visit  his  floating  nets  whioh  he  had 
laid  for  the  pilchards.  As  we  looked  down  into  the  dear  blue  water  we 
could  see  that  the  number  of  fish  entangled  was  great ;  but  to  the  great 
disoomfiture  of  the  fisherman,  who  was  eloquent  on  the  occasion, 
almost  every  other  fish  was  locked  in  the  embraces  of  a  cuttle-fish 
plying  his  parrot-like  mandibles  to  some  purpose.  The  fisherman 
who  seemed  to  regard  these  unbidden  guests  as  an  incarnation  of  all 
evil,  carried  a  capacious  landing-net»  but  so  quick  was  the  sight  of 
these  Cephalopods,  so  ready  were  they  in  letting  go  and  i^e  in 
darting  back  or  sideways  clear  of  the  net,  that  though  t^  greedy 
oreatures  held  on  to  the  last  moment,  the  fisherman  did  npt  secure 
above  three  out  of  the  crowds  that  had  spoiled  his  hauL  Upon 
mentioning  this  to  Mr.  Owen,  he  informed  us  that  the  muscular 
arrangement  enabled  the  animal,  when  it  was  disposed  to  let  go  its 
hold,  to  push  forward  the  piston,  and  thus  in  a  moment  destroy 
the  vacuum  which  its  retraction  had  produced."  The  same  author 
(*  Cydopsodia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,'  article  'Cephalopoda')  has 
stated  that  in  the  Calamary  the  base  of  the  piston  is  inclosed  by  a 
homy  hoop,  the  outer  and  anterior  margin  of  which  is  developed  into 
a  series  of  sharp-pointed  curved  teeth.  These  can  be  firmly  pressed 
into  the  flesh  of  a  struggling- prey  by  the  contraction  of  the  siurounding 
transverse  fibres,  and  can  be  withdrawn  by  the  action  of  the  retractile 
fibres  of  the  piston.    [Sbpi^djb.] 

Digestive  Organa — The  tongue,  which  is  beset  with  homy  points, 
lies  between  the  mandibles,  and  the  oBSophagus  widens  into  a  kind  of 
crop  which  leads  to  a  gizzard  nearly  as  flei£v  as  that  of  birds.  To 
the  gizzard  succeeds  a  third  stomach,  which  is  membranous  and 
somewhat  spiral,  wherein  the  liver,  which  is  of  considerable  volume, 
pours  the  bUe.    The  rectum  opens  into  the  infundibulum. 

Respiratory  Organs. — These  are  branchial,  and  the  branchiss  are 
equal,  symmetrical,  and  protected  by  the  mantle  under  which  they 
are  concealed.  The  infundibulum,  or  funnel  (entonnoir  of  the  French), 
is  a  fleshy  pipe  or  passage  in  fh)nt  of  the  neck,  through  which  the 
respiratory  currents  pass  and  the  excrements  are  discharged.  The 
young,  as  in  other  classes,  respire  more  quickly  than  the  adult.  Dr. 
Coldstream  saw  an  Eledone,  one  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  breathe 
eighteen  times  in  a  minute,  while  another  of  the  same  spedes,  four 
inc];|es  in  length,  breathed  only  ten  times  in  a  minute. 

Circulating  Organs.— The  higher  oiganised  Cephalopoda  present 
the  remarkable  circumstance  of  having  three  separais  and  well- 
oiganised  hearts :  one  for  the  circulation  of  the  arterial  blood  through 
the  body,  the  other  two  for  the  propulsion  of  the  venous  blood 
through  each  gill  or  respiratory  oigan.  Only  the  first  of  these 
hearts,  or  the  'systemic,'  is  present  in  the  Pearly  Nautilus,  which  is, 
according  to  Owen,  the  type  of  the  lower  order  of  the  class.  Li 
both  divisions  the  venous  system  is  characterised  by  the  glandular 
bodies  appended  to  the  branchial  divisions  of  the  vena  cava,  or  ina-in 
venous  trunk. 

Sexual  Organs. — Separate  and  developed  in  distinct  individuals. 
It  is  not  determined  whether  impregnation  is  effected  before  the 
ova  are  excluded,  during  their  exclusion,  or  afterwards.  Cuvier  was 
of  opinion  that  fecundation  is  effected  by  arrosement,  as  in  the 
majority  of  fishes.  The  ovary  of  the  female  is  situated  in  the  bottom 
of  the  sac.  Two  oviducts  receive  the  eggs  from  the  ovary,  and  carry 
them  out  across  two  large  glands,  which  envdop  them  with  a  viscous 
substance,  and  unite  them  together  into  bunches  like  grapes. 

Brain  and  Senses. — The  brain  is  included  in  a  cartilaginous  cavity 
in  the  head,  and  gives  off  on  each  side  a  nervous  cord,  which  forms 
in  each  orbit  a  large  ganglion,  whence  proceed  innumerable  optic 
nervous  filaments.  The  'eye  is  composed  of  numerous  membranes, 
and  covered  by  the  skin,  which  becomes  transparent  in  front  of  the 
oigaji,  and  sometimes  forms  folds  which  perfomi  the  office  of 
eyelids.  Owen  has  observed  that  the  cornea  of  Jioitia  is  defended 
by  a  drcular  fold  of  integument,  which  can  be  completely  closed  by 
an  orbicular  sphincter  in  front  of  the  eye — a  stmoture  which  is 
probably  required  in  this  species  in  order  to  protect  the  cornea 
against  the  spicula  of  ice,  with  whioh  its  native  seas  abound, 
especially  in  the  summer  or  thawing  season.  In  the  Calamary  (Loligo) 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  tegumentary  fold.  The  ear  is  nothUig 
more  than  a  small  cavity  hollowed  out  on  each  side  near  the  brain, 
without  semicircular  canals  or  an  external  tube,  and  in  this  cavity  is 
suspended  a  membranous  sac  containing  a  limpid  fluid  and  a  small 
compact  stony  substance  or  otolithe,  a  sort  of  ossiculum  audittis. 

Ink-Bags.— -The  excretion  from  these  bags  is  of  a  deep  black,  and 
in  those  species  in  which  it  occurs  (for  it  is  not  common  to  the  whole 
family)  it  is  produced  by  a  gland  appropriated  to  its  secretion,  and 
reserved  in  a  small  bag  till  the  exigendes  of  the  animal  caU  for 
its  effusion  to  doud  the  surrounding  water  in  order  that  it  may 
conceal  itself.  It  has  been  long  considered  that  the  Indian  Inx 
imported  from  China  is  manufactured  from  this  secretion,  but  Cuvier 
observes  that  M.  Rdmusat  has  foimd  noUiing  in  Chinese  authors 
confirmcfctory  of  this  opinion.  That  it  makes  an  excellent  pigment 
even  after  having  been  buried  for  thousands  of  years  in  the  earth  is 
proved  by  Dr.  Buckland's  fossil  ink,  which  he  submitted  to  a  odebrated 
painter,  who  immediatdy  inquired  from  what  colourman  such  good 
sepia  might  be  procured. 


The  skin  of  the  naked  spedes  is  chan^ble,  showing  spots  i?liicli 
brighten  and  fade  with  a  rapidity  supenor  to  the  euticulsr  changes 
of  the  chamaleon. 

Food. — Prmdpally  fishes  and  crustaceans ;  but  there  ii  little  doubt 
that  few  animal  matters  come  amiss  to  these  mollusks,  for  they  are 
most  voracious. 

Qeographical  Distribution. — ^Very  wide.  Hardly  any  sea  is  without 
some  spedes  of  the  family.  Captain  Ross  discovered  a  new  genog 
(i2oma,  Owen),  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  which  has  smoe  been  found  in 
our  own  seas.  Fabridus  describee  two  spedes  which  firequeot  the 
coasts  of  Greenland.    ('Fauna  Grcenlandica,'  p.  SQL) 

Utility. — ^The  flesh,  especially  that  of  the  arms,  is  eatable,  and  is 
considered  very  nutritious.  Though  neglected  in  the  British  lalandi, 
it  is  brought  to  table  in  other  countries.  The  arms,  out  into  portions 
and  prepared  for  cookery,  are  to  be  frequently  seen  in  the  Neapolitan 
market..  The  cuttle-bone  is  used  for  erasures,  and  manufactured  into 
'  pounce '  of  the  shops.  The  prepared  ink  is  capable  of  being  made 
into  a  pigment.  That  the  Naked  Cephalopoda  formed  a  favourite 
dish  with  the  andents,  and  were  considered  not  unworthy  of  the 
most  exquidte  cookery,  there  is  no  doubt.  (See  for  instance  Athensua, 
'Ddpnoeoph.'  lib.  i  vL,  vol.  i,  p.  14  :  lib.  viL  IzxxviL  et  cxxx.,voliii^ 
pp.  140  et  199:  lib.  xiv.  xvii,  voL  v.,  p.  255,  SchweighiiuBer^B 
edition.) 

The  natural  division  of  the  class  is  into  those  Cephalopoda  which 
are  naked  (CejJialopoda  nuda),  and  those  which  are  protected  by  an 
external  shdl  {Cephalopoda  iettaeea).  Of  the  former,  Sepia  ofieimU*, 
the  Conmion  Cuttle-FiBh,  may  be  taken  as  an  example ;  and  the 
following  cut  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  form  of  a  ni^ed  Gephalo- 
pod,  but  this  varies  in  the  different  genera.  In  Sepia  ojSleindUt  the 
soft  parts  are  supported  by  a  firm  calcareous  bone,  the  well-known 
cuttle-bone  of  tne  shops,  and  in  all  the  naked  Cephalopoda  (not 
induding  Afyanauta)  now  existiug,  it  would  appear  that  some  rudi- 
ment at  least  of  a  bony,  homy,  or  cartilaginous  support  is  to  be 
found.    [SsriADJL] 


The  CutUo-Pish  (SepiotnOhU  iepUicta). 
a,  Bepioteiiikit  upiaeea  ;  the  dotted  line  shows  tbe  plaoe  and  abape  of  tbe  donal 
piece,  or  cuttle-bone ;  b,  the  lower  aide  of  an  acetabulQin  of  OOapus  vniferu; 
e,  of  an  aoetabulam  of  Eledone, 

The  iVaK^i^MS  PompUiut  ^ords  an  example  of  the  testaoeooJ 
Cephalopods,  or  those  which  are  protected  by  a  shelL    rNAUTiLn)&] 

Professor  Owen  has  howe  rer  shewn  tjhe  neoesdty  of  dividing  thu 
order  into  two  groups,  whi<  h  he  proposes  to  call  DibrancMaia  and 
Tetrabranchiata. 

The  Dibranchiata  are  characterised  by  possessing  two  branchis; 
and  to  this  dividon  all  the  Naked  Cephalopoda  bdong,  such  as  the 
species  of  the  genera  Sepvt,  to  whic^  the  Common  Cuttle-Fish 
belongs,  Loligo,  Octopus,  Eossia,  and  Ommastrephet, 

The  TetraSranchiata  possens  four  branchiae ;  and  to  this  division  the 
Nautilus  [NautiudaJ,  and  the  bulk  of  the  fossil  spedes  of  Cephaio- 
poda  known  under  the  names  of  Ammonites,  Ooniatites,  CeratUetj  &c^ 
bdong.  The  extinct  animals  of  this  dividon  are  by  far  the  most 
numerous. 

None  of  the  Tetrabranchi>aa  exist  in  the  British  seas ;  there  are 
however  several  forms  of   Dilfranchiata,  of  which  the  following 


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CEPHALOPODA. 


CEPHALOPODA. 


82S 


BynopsiB  from   Forbes  and   Hanley's   'Britifih    Molluaoa,'  will  give 
an  idea : — 
Family,  OcnoFODm  A 

QeouB,  Octopus,    [Ootopoda.] 

0.  vulgaris. 
Chwm,  Flethne,    [Ootofoda.] 
£,ve)Urioo»a, 
Family,  Tiuthidjl 

Genua,  Septolos    [Sefiadjl] 
S.  AilanUea, 
S.  Ronddetii, 
Gemifl,  JZoMto.    [Boaau;  Ssfiaoa] 
Kmacro9oma, 
R,  Owenii, 
Genufl^  Loligo,    [Louoo.] 

L.  nuufnorti, 
Qeniu,  Ommattr^hes,    [Omuastrefhes.] 

0.  sagittatfu, 

0.  todanu, 

O.ENana, 
FaBuly>  Sefiada 

Oenii%  Septa.    [Sipuda] 

ikofflcmdUs. 

S.  biuerialis. 
Gemu,  SpiruUk    [Sfibula.] 

8,Per<miL 

FottH  Cephalopoda. 

These  are  multitudinonfl,  and  in  the  bye-gone  ogee  of  the  world 
appear  to  have  been  powerful  inetrumentB  for  keeping  down  the 
other  tribes  of  ancient  Testaceans,  CruBtaceans,  and  even  Fishes ;  for 
many  of  them — certain  Orihocerata  and  AfMnonttes  for  example^ 
affoid  eTidence  of  gigantic  dimensions.  In  the  periods  prior  to  the 
Chalk  Formation,  and  at  the  time  of  its  deposit,  thev  were  the 
agoits  employed  for  this  purpose,  and  were  succeeded  in  the  Tertiary 
period  by  the  Fossil  Trachelipods,  which  are  either  entirely  absent 
or  very  scarce  in  the  Secondary  and  Transition  series,  while  the  Fossil 
Cephalopoda  occur  but  rarely  in  the  Tertiaiy  beds.  The  extinct 
Ammonite  [Ammonites],  Baculite,  Belemnite,  Hamite,  Orthoceratite, 
Turrilite,  and  Scaphite,  will  readily  occur  to  the  fossil  zoologist  as 
some  of  the  ancient  class.  The  Foraminifera,  formerly  placed  by 
B'Orbigny  in  this  class,  are  now  no  longer  regarded  even  as  MoUutca. 

[FOBAMIKITZBA.] 

The  following  is  M.  D'OrbignVs  diyision  and  airangement  of  the 
clasB  (kphaiopodaf  including  l^th  recent  and  fossil  genera  :*- 

Order  A.  Aoxtabuufera,  Fer.  and  D'Orb. ;  Dibrahchiata,  Owen. 
OoroPODA.     Geinuy  Odopvt,  Lam.;  Ex.,  0.  vulgaris  (fig. 
8606,  2607) ;  0.  vmirieoiUB  (2609). 
„      Bledone, 
„      Phikmexitf  D'Orb. 
„      Argonaiutay  Linn. ;  Ex.,  A.  Argo  (2680, 
2682). 
Oranchia,  Leach ;  Ex.,  C.  scabra  (2616). 
Sepidla,  Lam.;  Ex.,  S.  vulgaris  (fig. 
2610) ;  &  stenodactyla  (2611,  2612). 
iZoinoyOwen;  Ex.,i2.|)alpe&rofa(2618). 
8e^  Linn.;  Ex.,  S.  oficinalis  (2619, 

>  (2618). 


DlOAPODA. 

Fam.  Sbfiadjb, 
CntUe-Hahes. 

[SlFZADJl] 


Fam.  LouQiDA     < 


Fam.  Teuthid^ 
Calamaries. 
[Tedthida] 

Fam.  BELEinnTiDA 

[fiELEinriTE&] 


Fam.  Sfibulxda. 
rSnuuLA.] 


{ 


LoHgo,  Lam. ;  Ex.,  L.  vulgar 
SepifUuthiSf  Blain.,  B.  and  F. 
Teudopsis,  Deslongchamps.    Fobs. 
JsUgopsis,  Lam. 
IfistioteuthiSy  D'Orb. 
LeptoteuthiSf  Meyer. 
Bdoteuthis,  Miinster. 
BeUnmosepia,  Agfataz. 
Onvdkoteuihis,  Lichtenstein ;    Ex.,   0. 

Banksii  (2616). 
SnoploieuiMs,  jyfth. 
Acanthoteuthis,  Wagner. 
KalcBna,  Mtinster. 
Ommastr^hes,  D'Orb. 
OenoUulhU,  D'Orb. 
BeUmnitdla,  D'Orb. 
BdemniUs,   I  Aeuari.    Oolitic. 

ii  CanalieuUUi.    Oolitic. 
iiL  JIastati.    Oolitio    and 

Cretaceous, 
ir.  ClavatL    Lias. 
V.  JHlaUUi.    Neooomien. 
Spinda,  Imol 
SpiruHrostrOy  D'Orb. 
Bdopiera,  Disi ;  Ex.,B.  sepMea  (2684) ; 

£.  beUmnoidoa  (2686). 


Order  B.  Txntaouufera,  D*Orb. ;  Tetrabbakchiata,  Owen. 
Ist  Fam.  ^AXJTiLXDM.   [Nautilida] 

Genus,  Naulilus;  Ex.,  N.  Pompilius  (2621); 
N.  Mcrobioulaius  (2622). 
Fossil  spedes.   a.  StrioH. 
h.  JRadiali. 
e,  LoBoigatL 
„      Liiuites,  Breyn,  F. ;  Ex.,  L,  articvlatus 

(2681). 
„      ffoHohUy  Montfort^  F. 
„      N<MUiloeeras,  D'Orb.,  F. 
„       Aplooeras,  D'Orb.,  F. 
„       Qomphocoras,  Lew.,  F. 
„       Ooniooeras,  Hall,  F. 
„       OrthooeratiUs,    Breyn,   T.;    Ex.,    0. 

laterale. 
„      AeUnoesras,  Bronn. 
„      JSndocsras,  HalL 

2nd  Fam.  Cltmenida    [Cltkebidje.] 

*  Partitions  without  lateral  or  dorsal  lobes. 

Genus,  Melia,  Fischer. 
„       Cameroeeras,  Conrad. 
„       Campulites,  Desh. ;  Ex.,  C7.  ventricosui 

(2682,  2688);  PhragiMoefas,  Bow. 
,,      Troeholite$f  Conrad. 
**  Partitions  with  one  lateral  lobe  but  no  dorsal  lobe. 
Ctenus,  Olymenia,  Miinster. 
„      Megasiphoma,  D'Orb. 

8rd  Fam.  AimoinnDJL   [AMMOKnBB.] 

*  Without  a  dorsal  lobe. 

Genus,  OncoceraSf  HalL 

„       Cfyrtoe^ras,  Goldfuss;  Ex.,  C,  depres- 

sum  (2680). 
„       QuroceraSf  Mojer. 
»       Oiypioceras,  D'Orb. 
**  One  dorsal  lobe. 

Genus,  JStenoeeras. 
***  Partitions  angular,  not  branched;  lateral  lobes, 
and  one-angular  dorsal  lobe. 
Genus,  ChniatiUs  [Goniatubs]  ;  Ex.,  Q.  trun- 
catus,    0.  Listeri,  Q.    spirorbis,  Q. 
Cfibsonl 

I  LiitguaU. 
iL  Zanceolaii;  Ex.,  O.  SensUwi 

(2668). 
ill  Qmuifraciis    Ex.    Q.   striatus 

(2663). 
iv.  Serrati. 
y.  Cfrenati. 
▼L  Acutolateralu. 
vii  MagnosiUares;  'Ex.,0,sublams 

(2667). 
viii  NauHUni;   Ex.,  O.   expansus 
(2666). 
„       OeraUteSt  De  Haan;    Ex.,  C.  nodosus 
(2647). 
♦•••  Partitions  branched,  one  dorsal  lobe. 

Genus,  AmmoniUs,  Brag.    [Ammobites.] 
L  Oolitic  Groups. 
Arietes.    Lower  Lias;    Ex.,  A, 

obtusus  (2688). 
Poleiferi,    Upper  Lias. 

Omati.    Oxford  Clay. 

Capricomu 

Oaronaii,    In£-Oolite. 

Armaii.    Upper  Oolite. 
iL  Oolitio  and  Cretaceous  Groups. 

Heteroph}fili.    D'Orb. 

MaeroeephM. 

Fimbriati.   D'Orb. 

PlanuUui. 
iiL  Cretaceous  Groups. 

OristaU. 

TubereuhUL 

Clypeiformes, 

PuleheUi. 

Rothomagenses  (2648). 

Deniati. 

FlexuosL 

Covtprcss%» 

Angulicostatu 

Ligati, 
Scapkites,  Parkinson. 
„       Orioeeras,  L^veill^;  Ex.,  C.  JhwdUi 
(2660). 


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CEPHALOPl'EBA. 


CERAltlAOE^ 


m 


GeniiB,  Toxoceras,  D'Orb. 
„       Baculites,    Lam.;    £z.  B.  vertthralii 

(2676). 
„       PtychoceraSf  D'Orb. 
,1       Hamitea,  Parkinson. 
„       TurrUitea,    Lam-  ;    Ex.,    T,   costatus 

(2577). 
„       ffeteroceras,  D'Orb. 
M      ffelicocerat,  D'Orb. 

CEPHALOPTERA.    [Squalidjs.    See  Sufflemxnt.] 

CEPHALOPTERUa    [Coraoika.] 

CEPHALOPUS.    [AiraiLOPRB.] 

CEPHALOTA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  Exogenous  Plants.  It 
consists  of  but  one  genus,  and  that  of  only  one  species,  the  CepJialotus 
foUietUarUf  Australum  Pitcher-Plant.  It  has  the  following  essential 
characters : — Calyx  coloured,  6-parted,  with  a  valvate  lestiYation ;  no 
corolla ;  stamens  12 ;  those  opposite  the  sepal  shortest,  inserted  into 
the  edge  of  a  deep  glandular  perigynous  disc ;  anthers  with  a  thick 
granular  connectiYe,  carpels  six,  distinct,  1-seeded,  ovate,  erect; 
achenia  membranous,  opening  by  the  yentral  suture,  surrounded  by 
the  persistent  calyx  and  stamens;  seed  solitary  (sometimes  two), 
erect;  embiyo  minute,  in  the  base  of  the  axis  of  a  fleshy  friable 
somewhat  oUy  albumen.  The  Oephalotua  foUicularU  has  small  white 
flowers,  with  a  simple  scape,  bearing  a  compound  terminal  spike ;  the 
leaves  are  exstipulate,  and  have  mingled  amongst  them  operculate 
pitchers.  This  plant,  according  to  Labillardidre,  is  allied  to  Roaacea, 
and,  according  to  Jussieu,  to  ^asttUacecB.  Brown  places  the  order 
between  OrcimlacecB  and  Francoctcece.  Lindley  points  out  its  relations 
through  the  last  order  to  PUtoaporacece  and  Sarrciceniacea!,  where  the 
leaves  of  the  plants  are  also  converted  into  pitchers.  He  also  formerly 
placed  Dionaa  in  this  order,  and  observed  that  it  differed  little  from 
CqahcUottu  except  in  the  presence  of  petals,  and  in  the  syncarpous 
fruit,  with  the  seeds  collected  upon  a  flat  central  placenta.  He 
now  places  DUmma  with  Droteracea  and  Oephalotua  in  or  near 
Ranuneulacece,    [Diona^] 

In  cultivating  the  Australian  Pitcher  J^lant  it  should  be  placed 
in  turfy  peat  soil  either  in  a  box  or  pot  It  should  be  kept  rather 
moist,  and  this  may  be  effected  by  placing  the  pots  in  pans  of  water. 
The  plants  are  always  the  heidthier  for  allowing  moss  to  grow  over 
the  surflAoe  of  the  soil  in  which  they  are  planted.  They  can  only  be 
increased  by  seed. 

(UjiSlierr,  Natural  System,;  Don,  Gardener^  a  Dictionary.) 

CEPHALOTEa    [Chbibottera.] 

CEPHALOTUa    [Cephalotaoka] 

CEPHEA.    [ACALBPHA] 

CEPHUa      [COLTMBIDAl 

CEPHUS,  a  genus  of  Blymenopterous  Insects  belonging  to  the 
liEtmily  Xiphydriido!  (Leach).  It  has  the  following  characters : — 
Antennas  rather  long,  growing  gradually  thicker  towards  the  apex ; 
head  transverse,  joined  to  the  thorax  by  a  distinct  and  rather  long 
neck ;  mandibles  exserted ;  maxillary  palpi  long  and  slender ;  body 
somewhat  compressed,  especially  towards  the  apex ;  ovipositor  dis- 
tinct^ exserted. 

CL  pygmceua  is  common  in  flowers,  particularly  buttercups.  It  is 
about  one-third  of  an  inch  in  length ;  black,  witti  two  yellow  fasciae 
on  the  abdomen ;  the  palpi  and  tibise  also  more  or  less  yellow.  The 
larva  of  this  insect  is  said  to  live  in  the  stems  of  wheat  Mr.  Stephens 
enumerates  ten  British  species  of  this  genus,  most  of  which  are  black, 
with  yellow  fascia?. 

CEFO'LA  (Linnaeus),  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  section 
A  canthopteryffii  and  family  Tcenioidei.  The  technical  characters  of  this 
genus  are : — ^Body  much  elongated,  compressed,  and  tapering  gradually 
towards  the  tail,  which  is  pointed ;  head  (when  viewed  from  the  side) 
about  the  same  width  as  the  body ;  snout  short  and  obtuse ;  imder 
jaw  curved  upwards;  teeth  curved  and  weU  developed;  dorsal  fin 
extending  from  the  head  to  the  tail  (whidi  is  pointed) ;  anal  fin 
extending  thence  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  body;  branchi- 
ostegous  membrane  with  six  rays. 

O.  rubeacena,  the  Red  Band-Fish  and  Red  Snake-Fish,  has  been 
found  on  the  British  coasts,  but  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean. It  is  of  a  pale  carmine  colour,  and  varies  from  10  to  15  inches 
in  length ;  it  is  very  smooth  and  almost  destitute  of  scales ;  the  body 
is  slender,  much  compressed,  and  tapers  very  gradually  from  the 
head  to  the  tail  The  riband-like  and  compressed  form  of  the  body 
increases  with  age ;  the  young  are  somewhat  oval,  or  almost  round. 
The  pectoral  fins  are  small ;  the  ventrals  ai*e  situated  rather  anterior 
to  the  line  of  the  origin  of  the  pectorals,  and  have  the  first  ray  spinous. 
The  dorsal  and  anal  fins  both  extend  to  and  join  the  tail,  or  caudal 
fin  (which  terminates  in  a  point),  so  that  they  form  one  continued 
fin.  (YarrelFs  < British  Fishes;'  Jenyn's  'Manual  of  British  Verte- 
brate Animals ;'  Linnsean  '  Transactions,'  vol.  vii.,  &c.,  where  this  fish 
was  recorded  as  British  for  the  first  time  by  Colonel  Montagu.) 

O,  tcenia  (Limueus)  is  said  to  differ  from  the  species  just  described 
in  having  a  row  of  hard  points  along  the  side  of  the  body  above  the 
lateral  Ime,  and  in  having  an  inner  row  of  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw :  it 
is  however  very  probably  not  a  distinct  species. 

CERADIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Corymbiferous 
division  of  the  natural  order  Compoailce,    C.  furcata  is  a  half-suoculent 


plant  inhabiting  the  most  sterile  regions  of  south-westeni  Africa.  It 
yields  in  some  abundance  a  brittle  resin-like  substance,  which  gives 
out  a  fragrant  odour  when  burnt,  and  has  been  odled  Africaa 
Bdellium;  it  is  however  a  very  different  thing  from  the  true 
Bdellium.    [BDELLniH.] 

CERAMBY'OIDiE,  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  secticm 
Longicomia  (Latreille).  They  are  characterised  by  the  body  being 
generally  elongate ;  antennse  very  long,  as  long  or  longer  than  the 
body ;  labrum  very  distinct  and  broader  than  long ;  maxillae  with  the 
terminal  processes  membranaceous  and  projecting ;  mandibles  mode- 
rate ;  eyes  lunat€^  partly  surrounding  the  basal  joint  of  the  antenps ; 
thorax  nearly  cylindrical,  or  orbicular,  truncated  before  and  behind; 
logs  rather  long,  and  generally  compressed;  tarsi  spongy  beneath, 
penultimate  joint  bilobed. 

The  CerambyeidcB  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  but  they 
abound  most  in  hot  climates,  and  constitute  a  very  extensive  group 
of  coleopterous  insects,  the  most  striking  feature  of  which  is  the 
great  lengtii  of  the  antennae.  One  of  their  most  important  funddoiu 
appears  to  be  to  assist  with  numerous  other  wood-feeding  inseds  in 
the  removal  of  old  and  decaying  trees  :  it  is  in  the  larva  state  princi- 
pally that  this  business  is  performed.  The  parent  insect  deposite  her 
eggs  in  a  hole  excavated  for  the  purpose.  When  these  are  hatched 
the  larvae  commence  feeding  upon  the  wood,  and  in  so  doing  excavate 
burrows  in  various  directions,  but  mostly  longitudinal ;  in  this  state 
they  frequently  live  for  two  or  three  years,  and  the  perforations  which 
they  make  are  very  extensive. 

The  larvae  are  elongate,  broadest  towards  the  head,  and  taper 
slightly  towards  the  tail,  and  are  oomi>OBed  of  18  segnckente.  They 
have  6  legs  (situated  one  on  each  side,  on  the  under  part  of  the  three 
anterior  segments  of  the  abdomen)  which  are  so  minute  as  to  be  scarcely 
apparent.  They  move  chiefiy  by  means  of  the  segments  of  the  body, 
which  have  the  upper  and  under  surfaces  flat  and  covered  with  minute 
tubercles.  In  making  their  way  in  the  cylindrical  or  (what  is  almost 
always  the  case)  oval  burrows,  the  animal  protrudes  the^e  parts  of 
the  segments  above  and  beneath,  and  thus  thrusts  itself  forward.  The 
head  has  the  appearance  of  being  coiflposed  of  two  segments ;  the 
hinder  part  is  very  broad  (almost  equalling  that  of  the  segment  in 
which  it  is  inserted),  terminated  on  each  side  anteriorly  by  an  angle, 
and  separated  from  the  fore  part,  which  is  luirrow,  by  an  elevated 
ridge;  the  jaws  (mandibles)  are  short  and  vexy  stout  and  strong ;  the 
antennas  cxe  scarcely  visible ;  the  palpi  are  small.  The  first  segment 
of  the  abdomen,  or  that  next  the  head,  is  protected  by  a  shield  aboTe 
of  A  horn-like  substance. 

The  pupae  are  what  is  termed  incomplete,  that  is,  when  the  external 
organs  (such  as  the  wing-cases,  antennae,  legs,  &a)  are  each  inclosed 
in  a  separate  and  distinct  sheath,  and  "consequently  not  closely 
applied  to  the  body,  but  have  their  form  for  the  most  part  clearly 
distinguishable."  The  antennae,  which  have  been  before  described  aa 
being  very  long  in  the  perfect  insect,  are  bent  backwards,  and  lie  along 
the  back  of  the  pupa  until  they  reach  the  apex  of  the  body ;  they  are 
then  recurved  and  extend  along  the  under  side,  and  if  very  long  they 
are  again  reoorved,  so  that  they,  as  well  as  all  the  other  parts,  lie  dose 
to  the  body. 

The  Oerambycidce  in  the  perfect  state  frequent  flowers,  especially 
the  UmbelltfercB;  the  lai^ge  species  are  often  found  on  the  trunks  of 
trees.  Different  individuals  of  the  same  species  vary  extremely  in 
size,  a  circumstance  frequently  observed  in  those  insects  whose  lanw 
feed  on  wood,  and  arising  most  probably  from  the  degree  of  moisture 
or  dryness  of  the  food. 

M.  Latreille  restricts  the  genus  Ceramhyx  to  those  spedes  whidi 
have  an  unequal  or  rough  thorax,  usually  spinous  or  tuberoulated,  and 
dilated  in  the  middle  at  the  sides,  with  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 
joints  of  the  antennae  evidently  thicker  than  the  following  ones,  and 
the  remaining  joints  abruptly  longer  and  thinner. 

C.  heroa  affords  an  example  of  t^his  genua :  it  is  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  length ;  of  an  elongate  forx^  attenuated  posteriorly ;  black ; 
elytra  with  the  apex  pitchy,  or  brown;  the  thorax  is  rough  and 
shining,  and  has  a  spine  on  each  side.  This  species,  together  witii 
another  belong^g  to  the  same  genus  (C7.  cerdo),  has  been  found  in 
England,  but  it  is  extremely  rare ;  in  me  warm  and  temperate  parts 
of  Europe  it  is  common.  The  larva  perforates  the  oak,  and  according 
to  Latroille  is  perhaps  the  Cossus  of  the  andents. 

The  genus  CeraiMyx  of  Mr.  Stephens  and  most  of  the  British 
entomologists  is  synonymous  with  that  of  CalUehchroma  of  Latreille, 
whereas  the  characters  given  by  him  for  Ceramhyx  agree  with  those 
of  HamicUicherua  oi  English  authors. 

The  Musk-Beetle,  which  is  very  common  in  the  south  of  England 
on  old  pollard  willows,  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  genus  CeramJbyx  of 
Stephens's  'Illustrations  of  British  Entomology.'  It  is  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  length,  of  an  elongate  and  somewhat  linear  form ;  ita 
colour  is  usually  bright  green,  sometimes  blue :  the  under  part  of  the 
body  is  bluish. 

This  insect  emits  a  very  strong  and  agreeable  odour,  which  is  not 
unlike  attar  of  rosea.  It  certainly  bears  no  resemblance  to  musk, 
though  those  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Musk-Beetle  appear  to  have 
thought  that  it  did. 

CERAMBTX.    [CERAiCBTaiDJB.] 

CERAMIACE^    [ALOiB.] 


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ttS 


CJ^RAHIUS. 


GERAStTa 


CERA'MIUS,  a  genus  of  Hymenopierous  Inflecta  belonging  to  the 
section  IHploptera  (Latreille).  This  genns  is  arranged  by  Latreille  next 
to  the  True  Wasps.  It  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  superior  wings 
being  flat  (not  folded  as  in  the  wasps)  and  having  only  two  cubital 
cells ;  the  labial  palpi  are  longer  than  the  maxillae.    [yB8Fn>&] 

CERAPTEBUS.    [Paussida] 

CE'RAPUS,  a  genus  of  Amphipodous  Crustaceans  forming  the 
sixth  division  of  the  third  section  of  the  order  Amphipoda  (Latreille), 
according  to  Desmarest.  The  following  are  the  characters  of  this 
division : — All  four  antenuGD  very  great  and  strong,  and  nearly  of  the 
same  length ;  the  upper  with  four  joints,  the  lower  or  lateral  ones 
with  five. 

Say  first  established  this  genus,  which  has  the  antennae  hairy,  and 
performing  in  some  sort  the  ofiSoe  of  limbs,  herein  corresponding  in 
a  degree  to  the  lower  antennae  of  the  Corophia  of  Latreille.  Feet  of 
the  first  pair  small,  and  terminated  by  a  simple  short  nail ;  those  of 
the  second  pair  on  the  contrary  very  lai^e,  having  a  laige,  flat>  trian- 
gular manua  provided  with  a  biarticulated  thtlmb,  corresponding  to  a 
well-developeid  point  which  represents  the  immoveable  finger  in-  the 
ordinary  crustaceans;  those  of  the  three  succeeding  pairs  moderate 
and  monodactylous,  and  the  four  last  longer,  more  slender,  and 
directed  backwards  and  upwards.  Body  long,  linear,  demicylindrical, 
composed  of  twelve  segments,  the  last  of  which  is  flattened  into  the 
form  of  an  oval  plate  furnished  on  each  side  with  a  small  bifurcated 
appendage  at  the  extremity.  Head  terminated  by  a  very  small 
rofitrunL    Eyes  projecting. 

Example,  Cerapv*  tt^bvlari^.  Like  the  larva)  of  the  PhryganecB  this 
extraordmaiy  crustacean,  which  is  about  six  ILaes  in  length,  lives  in  a 


r\.a 


Cerapus  tubularU, 
small  cylindrical  tube,  which  is  considered  to  be  that  of  a  Tutmlaria, 
exposing  only  the  head,  the  four  lai^ge  antennae,  and  the  two  first 
pairs  of  feet  The  species  occurs  in  abundance  in  the  sea  near  Egg 
Harbour  in  the  United  States,  in  the  midst  of  SertuUtrioif  which  aro 
supposed  to  form  its  principal  food.  (Journal  of  the  Academy  0/  Nckt, 
Scu  of  Philadelphia,  vol  i.  p.  49,  pi.  4.) 

CERASITE,  a  native  Chloride  of  Lead.  It  has  a  white,  yellowish, 
or  reddish  colour,  is  nearly  opaque,  and  has  a  pearly  lustre.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  7  to  7*1.  It  consists  of  lead  88,  and  chlorine  14.  It  is 
found  in  the  BCendip  HUls,  Somersetshire. 

CERASTES.    [YiPERiOJi.] 

CERA'STICTM  (from  Kcpar,  a  horn),  a  genus  of  phmts  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Caryophyllacea!,  It  has  a  5-parted  calyx,  5  petals, 
all  bifid;  stamens  10,  5,  or  4 ;  styles  5  or  4 ;  the  capsules  tubular, 
opening  at  the  end,  with  10  teeth.  This  is  an  extensive  genus,  con- 
taining species  wluch  are  common  weeds  in  the  temperate  climates 
of  most  parts  of  the  world.  Don  enumerates  82  species ;  of  these  9 
are  British. 

C,  cUpinum,  Alpine  Mouse-Ear  Chickweed,  has  a  hairy  ascending 
stem,  the  leaves  ovate,  ovate-oblong,  or  lanceolate ;  the  flowers  few ; 
the  sepals  bluntish,  with  membranous  margins ;  bracts  herbcu^eous, 
their  margins  often  narrowly  membranous ;  the  capsules,  at  length, 
twice  as  long  as  the  calyx.  This  plant  is  a  native  of  the  Pyrenees, 
the  mountainous  parts  of  Wales  and  Scotland,  and  of  Melville  Island. 
It  is  subject  to  great  variations,  and  a  number  of  varieties  have  been 
described  by  Brown,  Bentham,  and  other  botanists. 

C.  gUmeratum  has  ovate  leaves,  acute  lanceolate  sepals,  with  a 
narrow  membranous  margin,  and,  as  well  as  the  herbaceous  bracts, 
hairy  throughout ;  the  capsule  cylindrical,  ascending,  twice  as  long  as 
the  calyx ;  fruitHstalks  about  as  long  as  the  calyx.  This  is  a  conomon 
plant  in  fields  and  on  banks,  flowering  from  April  to  September. 
The  other  British  species  are  C,  triviale,  common  in  fields ;  C.  aemidee- 
andrum,  found  in  dry  places :  C.  cUrovireM,  inhabiting  sandy  places 
and  rocks  near  the  sea;  C.  pumilunif  found  only  near  Croydon  in 
Surrey;  C,  tetnxnd/ntm,  found  at  Tynemouth  and  Shetland;  C.  laii- 
foftttm,  a  rare  plant;  and  C,  arvente,  abundant  in  chalky  and  gravelly 
places. 

A  few  of  the  species,  as  C,  tomeniostm,  C,  grandifiortm,  and  C, 
2>ahfudcum  are  worth  cultivating  as  border  flowers.  C,  UUtfolium, 
C.  alpinum,  and  C,  glaciaU  are  adapted  for  growing  on  rock-work,  or 
in  small  pots,  when  they  should  be  placed  in  a  mixture  of  loam, 
■sod,  and  peat  They  require  the  same  general  treatment  as  most 
Wdy  plants.    The  annual  species  may  be  propagated  by  sowing  seed 


in  an  open  border  in  the  spring ;  the  perennial,  by  dividing  the  plants 
at  the  root. 
(Don,  Oardenet'e  Dictionary  ;  Babington,  Mamual,) 
CE'RASUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Amygdaloous  divi- 
sion of  the  natm-al  order  Rosacece,  and  including  the  Common  Cheny 
among  its  species.  It  is  hardly  dififerent  from  Prtmttt,  there  being 
little  or  nothing  to  distinguish  it  beyond  its  leaves  when  young  being 
folded  flat  insteieul  of  being  rolled  up.  Botanists  seem  however  pretty 
well  agreed  in  looking  upon  the  Cherries  as  a  genus  distinct  from 
Plums,  and  we  follow  their  example.  The  species  may  be  divided  into 
the  True  Cherries,  the  Bird-Cheiries,  and  the  Cherry-Laurels. 

Section  I.  True  Cherries.  Flowers  growing  in  Umbels  or  singly, 
or  occasionally  in  short  Corymbs ;  usually  appearing  earlier  than 
the  Leaves. 

1.  C.  Aviim  (PruiMi  Avium,  Linn.),  the  Wild  Cherry.  Flowers 
appearing. with  the  leaves,  which  are  pale  and  rather  downy  under- 
neath. Branches  when  young  weak  and  spreading.  Fruit  roundish, 
with  a  soft  flesh  and  an  austere  juice.  A  native  of  the  woods  of 
Europe  and  the  west  of  Asia }  and  in  a  cultivated  form  common  in 
gardens.  In  this  country  it  occurs  as  far  to  the  north  as  Ross-shire, 
where  it  exists  in  the  form  of  a  dwarf  bush  propagating  itself  rapidly 
by  the  roots.  The  wood  is  remarkable  for  the  large  size  of  its  medul- 
laxy  processes,  which  give  its  longitudinal  section  a  bright  satiny 
lustre,  and  render  it  well  suited  for  ornamental  cabinet  work.  In  this 
respect  it  is  much  superior  to  the  C.  vvlgarie.  When  growing  in 
gravelly  or  sharp  sandy  situations  with  a  dry  bottom,  which  are  the 
only  localities  ^ere  it  thrives,  it  acquires  a  very  considerable  size, 
occasional  specimens  being  spoken  of  as  much  as  80  feet  and  more  in 
height ;  it  is  however  more  oonomonly  seen  in  the  state  of  coppice 
wood.  To  this  species  we  presume  all 'the  weeping  or  weak-bran<»ied 
cultivated  cherries  wi^h  an  acid  juice  are  to  be  referred  either  as 
genuine  varieties  or  hybrid  forms ;  such  are  the  Merise  or  Merisier, 
MoreUo,  Kentish  and  All  Saint,  or  Overflowering  Cheny,  which  last  is 
often  made  into  a  species  by  systematic  writers,  and  called  C,  eemper' 
fioreni.  Some  of  the  varieties,  especially  the  Double-Flowered  French, 
as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  Double  Merisier  of  the  French,  are 
remarkable  for  their  elegance  and  beauty.  C.  Avium  is  the  Ceratut 
iylv€9tri$  of  Ray;  and  the  C.  marcuca,  or  Maiasche  Cherry,  of 
Dalmatia,  from  wbach  maraschino  is  prepared,  has  no  specific  marks 
to  distinguish  it. 

2.  0.vulg<u^{Pi'tMU8  Oerasm,hixm.),  ike  Common  Chdrrj,  Flowers 
appearing  earlier  than  the  leaves,  which  are  light  green  and  smooth 
underneath.  Branches  when  young  stifif  and  erect  Fruit  roundish 
or  heartshaped,  succulent,  more  or  less  firm,  and  sugary.  Found  wild 
in  the  woods  of  Asia  Minor,  where  it  aoquires  a  very  large  size. 
Walsh  speaks  of  it  as  being  still  oommon  along  the  northern  coast  of 
Asia  Mmor,  whence  the  '  original  cherry '  was  brought  to  Europe. 
One  variety  is- chiefly  seen  in  g^irdens,  the  other  grows  in  woods  in  the 
interior,  particularly  on  the  banks  of  the  Sakari,  the  ancient  Sangarius. 
The  trees  attain  a  gigantic  size ;  they  are  ascended  by  perpendicular 
ladders  suspended  from  the  lowest  branches.  Walsh  measured  one 
of  them  5  feet  in  circumference  (f),  40  feet  to  the  origin  of  the  lowest 
branches,  and  from  90  to  100  feet  in  full  height ;  this  large  tree  was 
loaded  with  delicious,  fine,  transparent,  amber-coloured  fruit  Dr. 
Royle  considers  the  cherry  wild  in  Cashmera  It  was  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Romans  under  LucuUus,  about  half  a  century  before 
the  birth  of  Christ,  and  has  ever  since  fdimed  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  varietes  of  dessert  fruit  It  differs  from  the  genuine  form 
of  (7.  Avium  in  the  characters  above  assigned  to  it,  as  also  in  its  wood 
having  such  small  meduUary  processes  that  nothing  like  a  satiny 
appearance  in  it  is  produced,  whatever  the  direction  be  in  which  it  is 
cut;  hence  its  grain  is  plain,  and  it  is  but  ill  suited  for  cabinet- 
makers' work.  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  this  exotic  species  is  the 
origin  of  the  sweet  lai^ge  cherries  called  Bigarreaus,  Guignes,  and  the 
like,  to  which  must  undoubtedly  be  added  the  Tartarian  Cherries  of 
the  English  gardens.  That  the  two  species  now  enumerated  were 
really  distinct  in  the  beginning  we  have  little  doubt ;  but  long  culti- 
vation and  their  intermixture  by  hybridising,  either  intentional  or 
accidental,  have  |p  confused  them  that  the  gardens  are  filled  with 
intermediate  raceai,  and  their  limits  are  lost  sight  of. 

It  is  here  that  the  C.  jutiana  and  Dwacina  of  modem  botanists 
have  to  be  referred;  while  their  C.  capronianct,  or  acid  succulent 
cherries,  are  probably  hvbrids.  [Chebbt.]  For  a  full  account  of 
these  species  see  Loudon s  'Arboretum  Britannicum.' 

8.  C.  chamaweratuB,  the  Ground-Cherry.  Flowers  in  umbels,  either 
with  the  leaves  or  earlier.  Leaves  obovate-lanceolate,  shining,  ere- 
nated,  quite  smooth,  with  few  or  no  glands.  Fruit  spherical^  acid, 
with  st^ks  longer  than  the  leaves.  A  dwarf  species,  never  rising 
above  3  or  4  feet  high,  and  in  the  gardens  usuaUv  budded  on  the 
common  cherry  at  the  height  of  5  or  6  feet  from  the  p;round.  It  is 
not  ornamental,  and  is  seldom  seen.  Its  native  situations  are  stony, 
ro6kj,  mountainous  places,  about  the  skirts  of  woods  and  in  hed^ 
in  the  eastern  parts  of  Europe  and  west  of  Asia;  it  is  common  in 
Lower  Austria  and  Hungary.  Gmelin  met  with  it  in  Siberia,  and 
Ledebour  in  the  Kirglus  Desert,  near  Ejurkaraly,  in  the  AltaL 

4.  C.  nigra,  the  Black  American  Chwrv.  Flowers  in  sessile  umbels, 
appearing  before  the  leaves ;  light  pinL    Leaves  obovate-oblong  or 


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CERATONIA. 


obovate-lanoeolate,  often  cuspidate,  somewhat  doubly  serrated,  with 
or  without  two  glands  at  the  base,  slightly  rugose.  Segments  of  the 
calyx  toothed.  Native  of  the  northern  states  of  the  North  American 
Union,  and  extending  into  Canada  and  Newfoundland.  It  forms 
rather  a  handsome  tree,  with  its  loose  umbels  of  pinkish  flowers. 
The  fruit  is  as  huge  as  a  moderately-sised  cherry. 

5.  G,  Penngyhanica,  Pennsylvanian  Cheny.  Flowers  in  sessile 
umbels,  i^pearing  iJong  with  the  leaves.  Leaves  ovate  or  oval,  sharp- 
pointed,  smooth,  and  rather  shining,  with  minute  unequal  toothings. 
Segments  of  the  calyx  toothless.  A  native  of  the  more  northern  parts 
of  North  America,  especially  in  Canada,  where  it  is  common.  It  K)nns 
a  small  tree,  vexy  like  O.  nigra  in  some  respects,  but  differing  from 
that  species  in  its  much  smaller  colourless  flower  and  smooth  rather 
shining  leaves,  which  never  acquire  the  obovate  figure  so  common  in 
C.  nigra.  The  fruit  is  that  of  a  bird-cherry,  and  is  said  to  be  sweet 
C,  horecUii  is  considered  by  Sir  William  Hooker  as  being  identical 
with  this.  It  is  represented  in  the  southern  states  of  the  American 
Union  by  C.  vmhellata,  which  appears  to  differ  chiefly  in  having 
spinous  branches,  more  finely  serrated  leaves,  and  downy  calyxes. 

6.  C,  serruUUa,  the  Fine-Toothed  Cherry.  Leaves  oblong-lanceolate, 
obtuse  at  the  base,  tapering  to  the  point,  bordered  with  fine  bristle- 
pointed  teeth,  thin,  and  not  shining.  A  native  of  China,  and  only 
known  in  our  gardens  with  double  flowers.  These  are  exceedingly 
delicate  and  beautiful,  but  they  appear  at  so  early  a  season  aa  to  be 
liable  to  injury  from  the  spring  frosts. 

7.  O.  ptettdocerasut,  the  Chinese  Cheny.  Flowers  in  hairy  loose 
corymbs,  appearing  before  the  leaves,  with  a  long  hairy  tube  to  the 
calyx.  Leaves  ovate  or  obovate,  cuspidate,  doubly  serrated,  slightly 
downy  on  the  veins.  A  Chinese  species,  probably  from  the  northern 
provinces  of  that  great  empire.  It  bears  a  small  pale-red  sweet  fruit, 
which  is  more  readily  forced  than  that  of  the  Common  Cherry. 

8.  O.  depretaa,  the  Sand-Cherry.  Flowers  appearing  a  little  earlier 
than  the  leaves,  or  about  the  same  time,  in  small  compact  umbels. 
Leaves  obovste-lanceolate,  seirated,  glaucous  on  the  under  side,  bluish- 
green  and  somewhat  shining  on  the  upper.  Fruit  mucronate.  A 
small  bush  resembling  a  dwarf  almond,  covered  with  profusion  of 
small  white  flowers  in  May,  and  afterwards  with  small,  black,  bitter, 
shining,  sharp-pointed  fruit.  It  is  found  in  Canada  and  the  northern 
part  of  the  Umted  States. 

9.  C,  prostrcUa,  the  Spreading  Cherry.  Flowers  solitary,  or  few  in 
a  cluster,  appearing  along  with  the  leaves,  than  which  they  are  shorter. 
Leaves  roundish-ovate,  loosely  hairy  beneath,  deeply  and  simply  ser- 
rated. Calyx-tube  oblong,  segments  downy  inside.  A  small  prostrate 
bush,  found  on  the  sea-coast  of  Candia,  and  on  the  moimtains  of  Dal- 
matia  and  Asia  Minor. 

10.  O.  JaponicOj  the  Dwarf- Almond.  Leaves  ovate-lanceolate,  very 
much  tapering  to  the  point,  finely  serrated,  slightly  downy  beneath, 
very  rugose.  Flowers  appearing  a  little  before  the  leaves  in  small 
dense  clusters.  Calyx  smooth,  bell-shaped,  with  the  segments  as  long 
as  the  tube.  A  native  of  Japan,  and  long  known  in  our  gardens  as 
the  Double  Dwarf-Almond,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  objects  that 
appear  in  the  month  of  March. 

Section  IL     Bird-Cherries.      Flowers  growing  in  long  Racemes, 
appearing  with  or  later  than  the  Leaves.    Leaves  deciduous. 

11.  0.  Mahaleht  the  Perfumed  Cherry.  Leaves  roundish  ovate, 
deciduous,  glaucous  on  the  underside,  simply  serrated.  Flowers  in 
somewhat  corymbose  racemes  not  much  longer  than  the  leaves.  A 
shrub  or  small  tree,  remarkable  for  the  powexful  and  agreeable  odour 
of  its  flowers.  It  is  a  native  of  rocks  in  the  Tyrol,  Dalmatia,  Car- 
niolia,  and  Hungary,  spreading  into  Asia  till  it  acquires  its  most 
eastern  limits  in  the  woods  and  hedges  of  the  southern  parts  of  the 
Crimea.  It  is  not  a  particularly  ornamental  plant>  and  though  per- 
fectly hardy  is  seldom  seen  in  our  gardens.  The  fruit  is  ble^,  and 
nauseously  bitter. 

12.  O.  Padui  {Prunut  Padus,  Linn.),  the  Common  Bird-Cherry. 
Leaves  oblong,  cuspidate,  rugose,  simply  serrated,  deciduous.  Flowers 
in  racemes  much  longer  than  the  leaves.  A  common  species,  wild  in 
the  woods  and  hedges  of  the  middle  parts  of  Europe,  less  common  in 
the  south,  and  occurring  on  the  mountains  of  Caucams  and  the  Altai. 
It  is  readily  known  by  its  deciduous  rugose  leaves,  long  racemes  of 
white  flowers,  and  round  bitter  fruit,  which  is  however  agreeable 
enough  to  birds.    It  is  a  native  of  Ghreat  Britain. 

18.  C.  Virginiana^  the  Choke-Cherry.  Leaves  ovate  or  oblong- 
lanceolate,  acuminate,  serrated,  flat,  vexy  smooth,  shining,  deciduous. 
Racemes  long,  cylindrical,  lateral.  In  all  systematic  books  are  named 
two  American  Bird-Cherries,  O.  Virginiama  and  (7.  serotina,  to  each 
of  which  are  assigned  charaicters  that  comprehend  so  little  of  a  dis- 
criminative nature  that  we  find  it  impracticable  to  ascertain  whether 
two  species  have  really  been  before  tiie  writers  on  these  subjects,  or 
whether  they  have  not  distinguished  under  different  names  specimens 
of  one  and  the  same  species.  O,  Virginiana  with  the  above  characters 
forms  a  large  tree,  according  to  Michaux,  in  the  southern  states, 
attaining  from  80  to  100  feet  in  height.  It  is  the  Tawquoy-Meen- 
ahtik  of  the  Crees,  according  to  Sir  John  Richardson,  rising  on  the 
sandy  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan  to  20  feet,  but  extending  as  far 
north  as  the  Qreat  Slave  Lake  (62'  N.  lat.),  where  it  attains  the  height 
of  5  feet  only.    Its  fhxit  is  not  very  edible  ip  a  recent  stAte  but  when 


dried  and  bruised  it  forms  an  esteemed  addition  to  pemmicao.  Elliott 
adds  that  its  timber  is  among  the  best  in  the  United  States  for  cabinet- 
maker^ work.  In  this  country  it  forms  rather  a  graceful  thougb 
roimdish  headed  tree  from  20  to  80  feet  high,  Imd  its  shining  though 
deciduous  leaves  give  it  almost  the  appearance  of  an  evergreen. 

14.  C,  aerotina,  the  Late  Bird-Cherry.  Leaves  obovate-laaoeolate, 
acute,  serrated,  channeled,  very  shining,  deciduous.  Racemes  long, 
cylindrical,  latcoraL  What  is  thus  designated  in  this  place  is  a  plant 
with  something  of  the  aspect  of  a  Portugal  Laurel,  and  as  it  flowers 
later  than  the  last  its  fruit  is  not  usually  ripened  in  tins  climate.  It  is 
principally  distinguished  by  its  leaves  being  more  obovate,  never  M, 
but  always  half-folded  up,  and  with  a  more  shinitig  suifiaoa 

15.  C.  CapoUvn,  Mexican  Bird-Cherry.  Leaves  ovate-Ianceokie, 
acuminate,  serrated,  flat,  shining,  dedduoua  Racemes  terminal  A 
native  of  the  mountains  of  Mexico. 

Section  III.  Laurel-Cherries.    Flowers  growing  in  long  Racemes, 
appearing  with  the  Leaves.     Leaves  eveigreea 

16.  C.  CaroliniaiMk^  the  Carolina  Laurel-Cherry.  Leaves  oblong- 
lanceolate,  acute,  serrated,  and  entire,  evergreen.  Racemes  lateral, 
much  shorter  than  the  leaves.  It  is  a  native  of  Carolina,  and  a  very 
uncommon  species  in  the  collections  of  this  country.  It  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  most  ornamental  of  the  trees  of  Carolina^  Its  leaves  are 
very  poisonous. 

17.  O.  lauro-eerasuSf  the  Common  or  Broad-Leaved  Laurel  (cherry). 
Leaves  oblong-lanceolate,  remotely  serrated,  somewhat  convex,  pale 
green,  evergreen.  Racemes  shorter  than  the  leaves.  This  valnable 
and  common  evergreen,  which  now  gives  half  their  richneas  to  the 
varied  pleasure-grounds  of  Great  Britain  ;  which  is  so  hardy  that  do 
frost  seems  to  affect  it ;  which  is  equally  capable  of  resisting  the 
greatest  heat  and  drought  of  summer,  and  which  will  flouriah  either 
in  the  most  exposed  or  the  most  shadeid  situations ;  is  a  iui;tive  of  the 
coimtry  near  Trebizond  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  sent  £h>m  Constanti- 
nople to  Ecluse  in  the  year  1576  by  the  imperial  ambassador  Ungnad. 
Eduse  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  difficulty  he  had  in  establish- 
ing the  first  plant,  which  must  have  been  tranismitted  at  no  smaQ 
charge ;  for  it  is  stated  to  have  been  six  feet  high,  with  a  stem  as  thid[ 
as  a  man's  arm.  (Claiisii,  '  Historia  Plontorum,'  p.  6.)  A  variegated 
and  a  barren-leaved  variety  are  known  in  gardens,  but  the  originil 
kind  is  the  only  one  worth  cultivating  as  an  object  of  ornament  It 
is  multiplied  in  the  nurseries  by  layering,  cuttings,  and  seeda  This 
species  is  remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  hydrocyanic  acid  secreted 
in  its  leaves. 

18.  O.  lAuiicawsOy  the  Portugal  Laurel  (cheny).  Leaves  ovite- 
lanceolate,  acuminate,  concave,  dark  g^een,  glandleas,  shining,  ever 
green.  Racemes  lateral,  longer  than  the  leaves.  A  native  of  Portugal, 
and  slso  found  in  the  Canaries,  where  it  is  called  Hixa,  acquiring  a 
height  of  60  or  70  feet.  According  to  some  the  Hixa  is  a  distinct 
species ;  Mr.  Barker  Webb  found  that  plant  on  the  Serra  de  Oerez  in 
Fortugal  of  the  height  just  stated,  while  the  true  C.  LuBiiantea  v»s 
not  above  18  or  20  feet  high.  This  is  less  hardy  than  the  preceding; 
it  is  less  easy  to  transplant,  and  will  not  grow  so  weU  under  other 
trees;  nevertheless  it  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  our  natmalised 
evergreens.  It  produces  fruit  in  abundance  in  England,  from  which 
it  is  readily  propagated. 

CERA'TINA,  a  genus  of  Hymenopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
Mdlifera  and  family  Apidcf.  It  has  the  following  characters:— 
Exterior  palpi  6-jointed,  interior  2-iointed ;  antennsQ  inserted  in  a  little 
fossula,  and  terminated  almost  m  an  elongated  club;  mandibles 
sulcateid,  and  tridentate  at  the  apex;  abdomen  somewhat  ovate, 
elongate,  narrower  towards  the  base,  and  destitute  of  a  ventral  seopa. 

This  genus  is  included  in  ^e  section  Apia  (xx.  d.  2  a.)  of  Kirbys 
'  Monographia  Apum  Anglise.' 

O.  cceruUBa{Api8  eyanea,  Kir.),  alittle  bee,  which  is  very  uncommon 
in  this  country,  and  found  during  the  autumn  in  the  flowera  of  the 
Jacohosa,  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  this  genua  It  is  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  bluish-green  colour,  and  very 
smooth  and  shining ;  the  fore  part  of  the  head  in  the  naale  is  white. 

Spinola  states  that  the  female  Ceratina  selects  the  dead  branches 
of  the  bramble  and  likewise  those  of  the  sweet  briar,  and  witii 
her  mandibles  excavates  the  pith,  till  a  cylindrical  burrow  of 
considerable  length  is  formed ;  this  is  then  divided  generally  into 
eight  or  nine  cSls,  by  partitions  formed  of  the  pitti  which  wm 
dislodged,  mixed  with  a  glutinous  secretion.  In  eich  cell,  as  it  m 
formed,  an  egg  is  deposited ;  it  is  then  furnished  with  a  portion  ot 
honey,  which  serves  for  the  food  of  the  larva  when  discloMd. 
The  account  is  given  under  the  name  of  Ceratina  aUnlabrity  which  « 
said  to  be  synonymous  with  the  one  above  mentioned.  He  also  says 
that  the  insect  is  common  in  the  south  of  Europe. 

(Annates  du  MwSum  cPffistoire  Naturdle,  voL  x.)  , 

CERATI'TES,  a  subdivision  of  the  Ammonitidce,  as  proposed  by 
Haan.    It  is  peculiar  to  the  Muschelkalk.     [Goniatites.] 

CERATO'NIA,  agenus  of  Apetalous  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Leguminosa:.  0.  SUiqua^  St.  John's  Bread,  or  the  Csrob.l're^ 
is  a  remarkable  plant,  found  wild  in  all  the  countries  skirtmg  "e 
Mediterranean,  especially  in  the  Levant  At  Malte  it  is  »!?»«*  ^^ 
only  tree  that  grows,  relieving  the  irksomeness  of  the  white  stone 
incTosuree  by  its  dark  foliage.    The  pods  contain  a  sweet  nutnttoui 


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pulp,  and  are  aometdmes  seen  in  the  fruiterers'  shops  in  London ;  they 
are  a  common  article  of  food  in  the  ooontries  where  the  tree  grows 
wild.  Pliny  calls  it  SUiqua  prceduleit,  "  At  the  present  day  it  is 
wnt  from  Pftlestine  to  Alexandria  in  ship-loads   and  from  thence 


Carob-Tree  {Ceratonia  Sillqua). 

acroAS  the  tf  edlterranean,  and  as  far  as  Constantinople,  where  it  is 
sold  in  aU  the  shops.  The  pulp  resembles  numna  in  taste  and  con- 
sistence, and  is  sometimes  used  as  sugar  to  preserve  other  substancea 
But  the  circumstance  that  has  rendered  it  famous  is  the  controversy 
whether  it  was  not  the  real  food  of  St  John  in  the  wilderness.  Some 
of  the  fiithers  assert  that  the  iuepl^ts,  or  locusts,  of  St  John  were 
some  Tegetable  substance;  and  the  fi^Ki  Sypioiff  wild  honey,  the 
saccharine  matter  of  this  pod.  It  is  certain  that  the  plant  grows  in 
great  abundance  in  the  wilderness  of  Palestine,  where  its  produce  is 
at  this  day  used  for  food.  It  is  called  by  the  Arabs  kharoob." 
(Walsh.)  The  Spaniards  call  it  Algaroba,  and  give  its  pods  to  horses. 
The  seeds,  which  are  nearly  of  the  weight  of  a  carat,  have  been  thought 
to  have  been  the  origin  of  that  ancient  money-weight 

CERATOPHRYa    [AMPmBiA.] 

CERATOPHYLLA'CEiE,  Ifonworts,  the  Ceratophyllum  Tribe,  a 
small  and  obscure  group  of  plants  oomprohending  the  single  genus 
CeratophyUwUf  probably  a  mere  section  of  Urticaceoi,  with  the  structuro 
and  habit  of  that  natural  order  modified  by  the  submersed  situation 
in  which  the  species  live.  It  has  also  been  supposed  to  have  rolations 
with  Coniferck,  Halorngaeeoi,  and  NaiadactOL  They  are  aquatic  plants, 
with  cellular  leaves  split  into  capillary  divisions,  with  monoecious 
flowers,  a  many-parted  inferior  calyx,  several  stamens,  a  1-celled 
ovarv  with  a  pendulous  ovule,  and  a  seed  whose  embryo  has  four 
cotyledons  surrounding  a  highly  developed  many-leaved  plumula. 
Ceratophyllum  tubmersum  and  0.  demertum  inhabit  ditches  in  this 
countiy.  Four  other  species  are  described.  Schleiden  says  thero 
is  but  one  species. 

CERATOPHYTA.    [Polyzoa.] 

CE'ItBElRA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Apocynacem,  contains  among  other  poisonous  species  that  from  whidi 
the  Taoghin  poison  of  Madagascar  is  procured.  The  genua  Ceir(>era  is 
known  by  the  calyx  being  leafy,  the  corolla  funnel-shaped,  with  a 
davate  tube,  and  nve  scales  on  its  orifice,  the  stamens  sessile  just 
below  tiie  orifice  of  the  tube,  and  a  1-  or  2-seeded  drupe,  with  a 
fibrous  woody  stone. 

C.  Tanqhin,  the  Tanghin,  is  described  as  a  tree  with  lanceolate 
alternate  leaves,  of  a  leathery  texture,  pale-pink  flowers  arranged  in 
corymbose  panicles,  with  a  crimson  star-like  blotch  at  the  orifice  of 
the  tube,  and  an  oval  drupe  as  lai^e  as  a  peach,  of  a  green  colour 
Btained  with  purple,  and  not  unlike  some  sorts  of  mango.  The 
foUovring  interesting  account  of  the  plant  is  given  by  Mr.  Telfair  : — 
The  kernel  of  the  fruit  must  be  a  very  powerful  poison :  it  is  not 
much  lai^er  than  an  almond,  and  vet  is  sufficient  to  destroy  above 
twenty  persons.  Radama,  the  late  king  of  Madagascar,  abolished  the 
use  of  it  as  an  ordeal  Whether  the  custom  has  been  rovived  by  the  new 
government  I  know  not  It  was  with  great  difficulty  that  the  chief- 
tains could  be  persuaded  to  admit  of  the  abolition  of  an  usage 
which  had  existed  from  time  immemorial,  and  whose  unerring  efficacy 
in  the  detection  and  punishment  of  crime  had  never  been  questioned, 
untU  Mr.  Hasty,  our  government  agent,  had  acquired  such  an  influence 
with  Radama  and  his  court  as  to  admit  of  the  exposure  of  its  fidlaoy. 


But  this  was  the  work  of  years ;  and  although  Radama  was  at  length 
himself  convinced  that  nothing  could  be  moro  ui\just  than  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  practice,  he  dared  not  so  fex  shook  the  projudices  of 
his  people  as  to  order  that  it  should  cease.  Even  the  chi^  performers 
in  the  ceremony,  the  Skids,  as  they  aro  called  at  Tanararissoo,  who 
unite  in  their  own  persons  the  offices  of  priests  and  physicians,  and 
who  administer  the  poisonous  kernel  to  the  victims,  never  doubt  its 
power  of  rovealing  guilt  or  clearing  innocence.  The  last  occasion  on 
which  it  was  practised  in  Radama*s  roign,  and  ot  which  he  availed 
himself  to  efiect  its  disoontinuance,  personially  regl^'ded  his  court  and 
attendants.  The  king  was  affected  with  a  complaint  of  the  liver,  for 
which  the  skid  prescribed  some  inefficacious  remedies,  and  as  the 
disease  became  worse  Mr.  Hasty  gave  him  some  calomel  in  doses 
which  he  had  found  by  experience  to  rolieve  himself  utider  similar 
symptoms.  The  disease  oisappearod,  but  ptyalism  was  produced, 
and  alarmed  the  king's  family,  who  believed  that  he  was  poisoned,  and 
insisted  that  all  lus  immediate  attendants  should  be  put  to  the  ordeal 
of  the  tanghin ;  and  the  royal  skid  was  most  earnest  in  pressing  to 
have  it  performed,  although  he  himself  from  his  rank  and  place  was 
among  the  first  to  whom  it  would  be  administered.  In  vain  the  king 
protested  that  he  felt  himself  cured,  and  that  the  indisposition  and 
soroness  of  the  mouth  was  caused  by  the  medicines  that  had  rolieved 
him,  and  which  would  pass  off  in  a  few  days.  The  skid  insisted,  the 
ministers  and  principal  chieftains  joined  with  the  family  in  requiring 
the  ordeal,  to  which  the  king  in  spite  of  his  convictions  was  compelled 
to  consent;  but  at  ihe  same' time  he  made  it  a  condition  that  this 
should  be  tJie  last  exhibition  of  the  kind,  and  he  bewailed  the  neces- 
sity which  deprived  him  of  so  many  attached  dependants  whose 
fate  he  had  predicted,  while  he  protested  his  conviction  of  their 
innocence. 

The  king's  servants,  including  the  skid,  wero  moro  than  twenty  in 
number ;  they  wero  shut  up  at  night  separately,  and  not  allowed  to 
taste  food ;  the  next  mormng  they  wero  brought  out  in  procession 
and  paraded  beforo  the  assembled  people ;  the  presiding  skid  had  the 
tanghin  fruit  in  readiness;  after  some  prayers  and  superstitious 
evolutions  he  took  out  the  kernel,  which  he  placed  on  a  smooth 
stone,  and  with  another  stone  broke  down  part  of  it  into  a  soft  whito 
mass  like  powdered  almonds.  The  victims  wero  then  brought  sepa- 
rately forward,  each  was  questioned  as  to  lus  guilty  and  if  he  denied, 
his  arms  wero  tied  behind,  and  he  was  placed  on  his  knees  beforo  the 
skid,  who  put  a  portion  of  the  pounded  kernel  on  his  tongue  and 
compelled  him  to  swallow  it  Thus  the  kernel  was  shared  among  aU 
the  king's  personal  servants.  On  some  of  the  individuals  the  poison 
began  to  operate  in  half  an  hour  or  less.  The  skid  takes  particidar 
notice  how  they  fall,  whether  on  the  fiuse,  to  the  right  or  left  hand,  or 
on  the  back,  each  position  indicating  a  different  shade  of  guilt  Con- 
vulsions generally  come  on  accompanied  with  efforts  to  vomit  Those 
whose  stomachs  roject  the  dose  at  an  early  period  usually  recover.  On 
this  occasion  thero  wero  only  two  individuals  with  whom  this  was  the 
case.  The  others  wero  thrown  in  a  state  of  insensibility  into  a  hole,  and 
every  person  present  at  the  ceremony  was  obliged  to  throw  a  stone 
over  them,  so  that  their  burial  was  quickly  completed.  The  king's 
skid  was  one  of  the  first  that  felL  Those  that  recover  aro  supposed 
to  bear  a  channed  life  ever  after,  and  aro  respected  as  the  peculiar 
favourites  of  the  gods.     ('  Botanical  Magazine,'  foL  2968.) 

The  plant  whidi  yields  the  Tanghin  has  been  called  by  Du  Petit 
Thomas  Tanghinia  vmtnifcra,  C7.  Manghas  is  a  native  of  Singapore 
and  some  of  the  adjacent  islands.  The  seeds  aro  emetic  and  poisonous, 
whilst  the  milky  sap  is  purgative.  The  leaves  and  bark  aro  used  as 
a  substitute  for  senna. 

CE'RBERUS,  a  genus  of  Snakes,  established  by  Cuvier  in  his 
division  of  the  great  genus  Coluber.  In  Dr.  Gray's  arrangement  of 
the  Snakes  of  the  British  Museum,  it  is  — 

placed  amongst  the  Hydridos,  The 
Cerberi  like  the  Pythons,  next  to  which 
they  aro  placed  in  the  '  R^e  Animal,' 
have  nearly  the  whole  of  the  head 
covered  witii  small  scales,  and  plates 
only  between  and  beforo  the  eyes ;  but 
they  aro  without  the  hooks  or  nails 
near  the  vent  Cuvier  further  says 
that  they  have  also  sometimes  simple 
plates  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  but  ob-  i 

serves   that  whilst   he   has  seen  this  I  1 

arrangement  in  one  individual,  he  has  I  | 

remarked  others  of  the  same  species  \ 
which  had  them  all  double ;  a  proof  in 
his  opinion  of  the  small  importance  of 
the  character. 

C.  einereua  (Coluber  Cerberus,  Daudin), 
the  Karoo  Bokadam.  Russell,  who 
gives  the  native  name  above  stated, 
tiius  describes  the  species : — 

"  Abdominal   Bcuta  U4,  subcaudal  ^^^^  ^^  c-ei-jmi*. 

squamsB    59.      The    head    somewhat 

broader  than  the  neck,  yet  appears  small  in  proportion  to  the  trunk ; 
a  little  convex  above,  compressed  on  the  sides,  and  projecting  into  ar 
shorty  obtuse,  or  subtruncate  snout,  on  whidi  the  eyes  and  nostrils 


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CERCARIA. 


CEREOPSia 


are  aituated.  The  inout  is  ooTered  with  amall  laminn  of  Tarloua 
formi ;  the  reat  of  the  head  with  small  suborbicular  carinated  soales. 
The  mouth  not  large,  the  jaws  nearly  of  equal  length.  The  teeth 
dose  set,  regular,  small,  reflex ;  a  marginal  and  two  palatal  rows  in 
the  upper  jaw.    The  eyes  vertical,  small,  orbicular,  protuberant^  each 

situated  in  the  centre  of  a 
remarkable  oirde  of  small 
triangular  lamina.  The  noa- 
trils  very  small,  yertical,  near 
to  each  other,  and  close  to  the 
apex  of  the  rostrum. 

"The  trunk  thick,  round, 
covered  with  large  carinated, 
broad-oval,  imbricate  scales. 
The  length  8  feet  4 4  inches; 
thickness  near  the  head  about 
8  inches ;  the  middle  of  the 
trunk  44  inches.  The  tail 
measures  only  8  inches,  is  a 
little  compressed,  tapers 
moderately,  and  terminates  in 
an  obtuse  point. 

"  Part  of  the  head  is  almost 
black ;  the  colour  of  the  trunk 
and  tail  a  veir  dark  gray; 
the  throat,  belly,  and  imder 
part  of  the  tail  are  of  a  dusky 
yellow ;  but  the  colour  of  the 
scuta  seemed  to  have  been 
changed  by  the  spirits." 

Dr.  Russell  further  observes 
that  his  specimen  from  which 
our  figure  is  taken  was  sent 
from  Gkmjam  in  July,  1788, 
and  that  he  never  saw  one 
alive.  He  adds  that  notwith- 
standing its  Buspicioua  ap- 
pearance, the  want  of  poison 
The  Karoo  Bokadam  (Cferftma  cinereu$y.     orgKDB  shows  that  the  snake 

is  not  formidable. 
<7.  cmutuiy  the  Bomean  Bokadam,  is  a  native  of  Borneo. 
C.  unicolor,  the  Philippine  Bokadam,  is  a  native  of  the  Philippines. 
C.  AuttralUt  the  Australian  Bokadam.  is  a  native  of  Australia. 
CERCARIA.    [Entozoa.    <Sto  Supplbmemt.] 
CERCERIS.    [Hymbnoptxra.] 

CERCIS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Legvmi- 
noBCR,     C.  siliquaitrum,  the  Judas-Tree,  so  called  from  the  tradition 
that  it  was  upon  a  plant  of  it,  near  Jerusalem,  that  the  betrayer  of 
our  Saviour  hanged  himself,  is  a  leguminous  tree  common  on  the 
shores  of  Asia  Minor  and  in  all  the  East.    Dr.  Walsh  speaks  of  it  as 
abounding  in  the  Levant  at  the  present  day,  clothing  the  shores  of 
the  Bosporus  and  the  sides  of  Mount  Libanus.    It  is  very  beautiful 
in  all  its  stages.    Yeiy  early  in  spring  flowen  of  a  bright  pale  red 
burst  out  before  anv  leaf  appears,  not  only  from  every  part  of  the 
branches  but  from  the  trunk,  piercing  the  thick  strong  bark  nearly 
down  to  the  root  in  a  very  remarkable  manner,  and  it  is  for  this 
reason  called  Red  Bud.   These  buds  are  gathered  and  used  with  other 
raw  vegetables  by  the  Greeks  and  Turks  in  salads,  to  which  they 
give  an  agreeable  colour  and  taste.    It  is  very  common  in  England, 
where  it  proves  quite  hardy,  but  it  does  not  flower  well  unless  in  a 
very  sheltered  situation,  or  when  trained  to  a  wall.     There  is  a  pale 
.almost  white-flowered  variety,  and   also   an  American  species  {C, 
CanadensU)t  but  neither  is  worth  cultivation. 
CERCOCEBUS.    [Simiadjb;  Guewons.] 
CERCOMTS.    [Rodehtia;  Htstbicida] 
CERCOPITHECUS.    [Simiada;  Guemonb.] 
CEREBELLUM.    [BsAiir.] 
CEREBRUM.    [Bbaiit.] 

CERE'OLITE,  a  native  hydro-silicate  of  Magnesia  and  Alumina. 
It  occun  in  globules,  in  Wacke,  or  Toadstone,  and  appean  to  result 
from  its  decomposition. 

CEREOPSIS,  a  genus  of  Birds  established  by  Latham,  and  placed 
by  him  (1802)  among  the  Waders  {Grallatorei) ;  and  (in  1824)  next 
to  the  Swimmers — Palmipedes  {An§eretf  Linn.).  The  charaotera  of 
this  bird,  which  Mr.  Bennett  says  has  been  observed  by  nearly  all  the 
navigators  who  had  visited  tne  south  coast  of  Australia  and  its 
neighbouring  islands  from  1792  downwards,  are  as  follows  : — 

Bill  short,  elevated,  obtuse,  covered  by  a  broadly  expanded  cere, 
except  at  the  extremity,  which  is  somewhat  vaulted  and  truncated. 
NoRtrils  large,  situated  about  the  middle  of  the  bill,  and  open.  Feet 
with  tarsi  (shanka)  longer  than  the  middle  toe,  and  bare  of  feathere 
a  little  way  above  the  knees ;  great  toe  articulated  to  the  posterior 
part  of  the  tarsus ;  anterior  toes  palmated,  and  furnished  with 
membranes  deeply  notched  or  cut  out  as  it  were  so  as  to  appear 
scarcely  to  reach  beyond  the  half  of  their  length ;  naila  long  and 
strong;  wings  ample;  wing-coverts  nearly  as  long  as  the  quills; 
flrat  quill  a  little  shorter  than  the  succeeding  ones.  Tail  feathere 
sixteen. 


C.  NcwB  HoUomdia,  the  Cereopsii  Qoose,  is  about  the  size  of  the 
common  goose  and  nearly  of  the  same  carriage,  with  the  exception 
of  the  lei^^  of  the  legs.  Temminck  gives  the  length  at  from  2  J  feet 
to  8  feet  We  select  Mr.  Bennett's  description : — *'  A  broad  patch  on 
the  top  of  the  head  is  of  a  dull  white,  and  the  rest  of  the  plumage 
of  a  dmgy  sny,  deeper  on  the  upper  than  on  the  under  parts,  having 
the  extremity  of  each  of  the  feathen  of  the  back  mai^^ined  with  a 
lighter  band,  and  most  of  the  wing-ooverts  and  secondary  qnill- 
feathen  marked  with  rounded  duskv  spots  of  from  two  to  four  lines 
in  diameter.  On  the  feathen  of  the  back  and  shoulden  the  spoti 
are  much  lai^ger,  assume  an  angular  or  semilunar  form,  and  approach 
more  nearly  the  general  colour  of  the  plumage.  The  quill-feathen 
boUi  of  the  wings  and  tail  are  dusky  black  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  theur  extent.  The  naked  extremity  of  the  bill  is  black ;  the 
broadly  expanded  cere  of  a  light  straw  or  lemon  colour ;  the  iridee 
light-hazel ;  the  naked  part  of  the  legs  reddish-orange ;  and  the  toes, 
together  with  their  web  and  claws,  andavtreak  passing  for  some 
little  distance  up  the  fore  part  of  the  leg,  black." 

Mr.  Tarrell  having  examined  one  that  died  in  the  Tioological  Gardena, 
Regent's  Ptok,  states  that  its  trunk  was  much  shorter  than  that  of 
the  true  geese,  and  more  triangular  in  its  shape.  The  pectoral  muscles 
were  laige  and  dai^-coloured.  The  trachea  was  of  large  but  nearly 
uniform  odibre,  without  convolution,  and  attached  in  its  descent  to 
the  right  side  of  the  neck,  as  in  the  heron  and  bittern.  In  the  form 
of  its  bone  of  divarication  and  bronchise,  it  most  resembled  the 
same  part  in  ^e  geese.  The  muscles  of  voice  were  two  pairs;  one 
pair  attached  to  the  shafts  of  the  os  fiircatorium,  the  other  to  the 
inner  lateral  surface  of  the  sternum.  The  lobes  of  the  liver  were  of 
large  size,  morbidly  dark  in  colour;  their  substance  broke  down 
under  the  finger  on  the  slightest  pressure.  The  stomach,  a  true 
gizzard,  was  of  small  size  as  compared  with  the  bulk  of  the  biri 
The  firat  duplicature  of  intestine  was  6  inches  in  length,  at  the 
returning  portion  of  which  the  biliary  and  pancreatic  ducts  entered ; 
from  thence  to  the  origin  of  the  cseca  4  feet  6  inches ;  the  csca 
9  inches  each ;  the  colon  and  rectum  together  5  inches ;  the  whole 
length  of  the  intestines  was  7  feet  5  inches.  The  stomach  and 
intestioal  viscera  were  loaded  with  fat 

With  regard  to  its  habits  Mr.  Bennett  says — "  It  is  true  that  the 
limited  opportimities  that  have  occurred  of  observing  it  in  a  state  of 
natura  have  precluded  the  possibility  of  obtaining  a  complete  history 
of  its  habits  and  mode  of  life ;  but  the  accounts  furnished  by  various 
writen  lead  directly  to  the  inference  that  it  resembles  the  wild  geese 
of  the  northern  hemisphere  as  closely  in  these  pariiculan  as  in 
general  conformation.  We  cannot  state  with  certainty  whether  it  is 
equally  migratory ;  but  Captain  Flinders,  who  found  it  at  one  period 
of  the  year  so  abundant  on  Goose  Island  as  fully  to  justify  the  appel- 
lation, adds  that  it  was  by  no  means  so  numerous  at  a  different  seawn, 
and  this  fact  necessarily  implies  at  least  a  partial  change  of  locality 
In  its  mannera  it  appean  that  it  is  by  no  means  so  shy  as  our  northern 
geese,  a  circumstance  which  probably  depends  on  the  little  disturbance 
that  it  has  hitherto  met  with  in  its  native  haunts.  Labillardi^  tells 
us  that  many  of  those  first  seen  by  him  suffered  themselves  to  be  taken 
with  the  hand ;  but  the  rest  becoming  apprised  of  their  danger  speedily 
took  to  flight.  Considerable  numbera  were  taken  by  the  crew  of 
Captain  Flindere's  vessel,  both  at  Lucky  Bay  and  Goose  Inland,  by 


CercopsU  Goose  {(^rcopiis  Nova:  Ilollandia:), 

knocking  them  down  with  sticks,  and  some  of  them  were  secured 
alive.  According  to-  M.  Bailly,  those  seen  by  him  at  Preservation 
Island  evinced  so  little  shyness,  and  suffered  themselves  to  be 
approached  so  readily,  that  his  boat's  crew  were  enabled  to  procars 


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CERET7S. 


CEROCOMA. 


bU 


without  any  trouble  a  sufficient  quantiW  to  yictual  them  durhig 
their  stay.  The  flesh  of  these  geeee,  as  they  are  called,  is  described 
by  Bass  as  being  excellent.  D'Entrecasteaux  considered  it  much 
more  delicate  than  that  of  the  European  goose ;  and  Flinders  adds 
that  on  Preservation  Island  it  formed  the  best  repasts  of  his  men. 

''It would  seem  that  this  bird  does  not  often  leave  the  coast  to 
visit  the  interior  of  the  country,  for  M.  Riche,  who  was  lost  by  his 
companions  for  more  than  two  days  at  Espdrance  Bay,  never  met 
with  it  in  the  course  of  his  wanderings  in  search  of  them.  K.  Bailly 
states  that  on  Preservation  Island  it  takes  up  its  abode  on  the  grassy 
declivities ;  and  Captain  Flinders  found  it  on  Goose  Island,  amongst 
the  grass  and  on  the  shore :  *  It  feeds,'  he  says,  *  upon  grass,  and  rarely 
takes  to  the  water.'  Its  usual  weight  is  from  7  to  10  lbs.  According 
to  Mr.  Bass  it  has  a  deep,  hoarse,  clanging,  and  though  a  short  yet 
an  inflected  voice ;  and  to  the  accuracy  of  this  observation  we  can 
ourselves  bear  testimony." 

This  bird  has  lived  and  bred  in  the  Gardens  of  the  2^ological  Society 
in  Regent's  Park,  where  there  are  at  present  several  liviog  specimena 
Our  drawing  is  from  a  pair  with  a  brood  hatched  in  the  Gardens.     • 

CE'REUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Cactacea.  It  is  characterised  by  its  sepals  being  very  numerous, 
imbricate,  adnate  to  the  base  of  the  ovarium,  united  into  an  elon- 
gated tube,  outer  ones  shorter  and  like  a  calyx,  middle  ones  longer 
and  coloured,  innermost  ones  petaloid ;  the  stvle  multifid  at  the  apex ; 
the  berry  areolate,  tubercular,  or  scaly  from  the  remains  of  the  sepals. 
The  species  are  fleshy  grotesque  shrubs,  with  a  woody  axis  and  soft 
interior.  They  possess  angles  which  are  vertical  and  covered  with 
bundles  of  spines.  The  flowers  are  laige,  arising  from  the  angles  of 
the  spines.    They  are  called  Torch-Thistles. 

C,  tenilit,  the  Old  Man  Torch-Thistle,  is  an  erect  plant,  having  a 
stem  with  20-25  vertical  ribs,  covered  with  fascicles  of  bristles,  each 
fasricle  containing  from  15-20  radiating  hair-formed  curled  bristles. 
Its  long  gray  bristles  give  it  the  appearance  of  the  head  of  an  old 
gray-haired  man.    It  is  a  native  of  Mexico. 

C.  fiageUtfortnU,  the  Creeping  Cereus,^  has  prostrate  stems  with 
about  10  angles.  It  is  very  common  in  our  gardens,  and  its  trailing 
stems  requii-e  the  support  of  trellis-work.  It  bears  an  abimdance  of 
beautiful  red  and  pink  flowers.  It  is  a  native  of  South  America^ 
though  now  naturalised  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

C,  grandifiorvba,  the  Night-Flowering  Cereus,  has  rootiDg  stems, 
with  5  or  6  angles  and  fascicles  of  bristles,  with  5-8  in  each  fascicle. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  West  India  Islands,  and  is  found  in  many  parts 
of  the  mainland  of  South  America.  This  plant  when  cultivated 
produces  very  Uuige  beautiful  sweet-scented  flowers.  They  are  how- 
ever of  short  duration,  remaining  open  not  more  than  six  hours. 
They  generally  begin  to  open  between  seven  and  eight  o'clock  in  t^e 
evening,  and  are  fully  expanded  by  eleven  or  twelve,  and  before  the 
next  morning  they  are  quite  fetded. 

C.apeciotistvatua  is  an  erect  plant,  8-4  angled,  the  angles  toothed, 
the  prickles  subulate,  straight,  rising  from  a  white  tomentum.  It 
is  a  native  of  Mexico,  but  is  very  commonly  cultivated  in  our  gardens, 
on  account  of  its  laige  flowers,  which  are  of  a  beautiful  scarlet,  the 
inner  petals  having  a  violaceous  colour.  Nearly  100  species  of  this 
beautiful  genus  of  plants  have  been  described,  and  a  fine  collection 
of  them  exists  in  the  Royal  Gardens  at  Eew.  They  are  of  easv 
culture,  and  require  the  same  general  treatment  as  the  order  to  which 
they  belong.    [Cactacea] 

CEHIA,  a  genus  of  Dipterous  Insects  belonging  to  the  &mily 
Syrpkida,  It  has  the  following  characters : — Head  longer  than  the 
thorax;  antennse  longer  than  the  head,  inserted  on  a  petiole,  the 
second  and  third  joints  forming  an  ovsd  mass ;  stylet  terminal  and 
Bhort ;  abdomen  cylindrical ;  submarginal  nervure  of  the  wings  much 
bent,  and  throwing  out  a  rudiment  of  another  nervure. 

Five  species  of  this  genus  are  known ;  the  colouring  is  black  and 
yellow,  which,  together  with  an  elongated  and  somewhat  ovate  form 
of  body,  gives  them  a  resemblance  to  wasps.  Only  one  has  been 
discovered  in  England,  and  that  is  extremely  rare — it  is  the  Ceria 
conoptoides,  and  is  about  half  an  inch  long ;  black,  front  of  the  head 
yellow  in  the  tnale,  black  and  yellow  in  the  female ;  petiole  of  the 
antennsB  elongated  and  yellow  beneath ;  sides  of  the  thorax  with 
yellow  spots;  scutellum  yellow,  with  the  apex  black;  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  segments  of  the  abdomen,  with  their  margin,  of 
the  same  calour;  legs  yellow;  exterior  margin  of  the  wings  brown. 
It  is  also  found  in  France.  It  appears  not  to  have  been  found 
abundant  anywhere. 
CERITHItJM.    [Ehtomootomata.] 

CERIUM,  a  metal  not  found  pure  in  nature.  It  occurs  in  several 
minerals,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most  remarkable  — 

1.  Cerite,  found  near  Riddarhittan,  in  Sweden.     It  occurs  amor- 
phous.   Its  colour  is  pale  dull  red,  sometimes  grayish,  and  its  streak 
is  white ;  its  lustre  is  resinous,  slightly  translucent,  and  sufficiently 
hard  to  give  sparks  with  steel,  or  6*5.    Speoific  gravity,  4*912. 
Accoidii^  to  Hisinger  it  consists  of — 

Silica 18 

Peroxide  of  Cerium 68*59 

Peroxide  of  Iron 2 

Lime 1-25 

Water  and  Garbonic  Add    ....      9*6— 99'44 

KAT.  BIBI.  BIT.  VOL.  I. 


In  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Thomson  it  is  a  hydrous  silicated  peroxide 
of  Cerium. 

2.  Oerine,  found  as  above,  occurs  massive  and  in  imperfect  crystals. 
Colour  brownish-black,  streak  brownish-gray,  opaque,  with  an  imper- 
fect metallic  lustre.  Hardness  5*5  to  6*0.  Specific  gravity,  4'178 
Composition  according  to  Berzelius : — 

Silica 80-07 

Oxide  of  Cerium 28*19 

Oxide  of  Iron 20*7 

Oxide  of  Copper 0*87 

Alumina 11*07 

Lime 9*12 

Volatile  Matter 04 


100-42 
8.  Allanite,  found  at  Alluk,  East  Greenland.  It  occurs  massive, 
and  crystallised  in  the  form  of  a  doubly  oblique  prism.  Fracture 
imperfect  conchoidal.  It  is  opaque,  with  an  imperfect  metallic  lustre. 
Colour  brownish-black,  streak  greenish-gray.  Hardness,  6*0.  Specific 
gravity,  4.    It  is  composed,  according  to  Stromeyer,  of — 

Silica 88*021 

Protoxide  of  Cerium 21*6 

Protoxide  of  Iron 15*101 

Protoxide  of  Manganese         .        .        .    .      0*404 

Alumina 15*226 

Lime 11*08 

Water 3. 


99*482 

4.  Monaeite,  found  near  Slatoust,  Russia ;  also  in  the  United  States, 
where  it  occurs  in  small  brown  crystals,  disseminated  through  mica- 
slate  ;  at  Norwich,  Connecticut ;  at  Chester,  Connecticut ;  and  York 
Town,  New  York.  It  is  brittle,  has  a  hardness  of  5,  and  specific 
gravity  of  4*8  to  5*1.    It  is  composed  of — 

Oxide  of  Cerium 26*00 

Oxide  of  Ttanthanum 23*04 

Thorina .     17*95 

Phosphoric  Acid      .        .        .        .        .    .     28*05 

Oxide  of  Tin 2*01 

Protoxide  of  Manganese 1*09 

Lime 1*07 

99*21 

5.  CfryptoUte  is  a  phosphate  of  the  Oxide  of  Cerium  in  minute 
prisms.  It  is  found  with  the  apatite  of  Arendal,  Norway.  It  has  a 
pale  wine-yellow  colour.    It  has  a  spjecific  gravity  of  4*6. 

Orthite  is  another  mineral  with  Cerium  [Orthue]  ;  so  also  are  Tttro- 
eerUe  [Yttbium]  and  PyrocHtore  [Ptroohlob*]. 

CERNUA,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  section  AcamJUKh 
pUry^i  and  the  family  Percida.  It  includes  the  Bufie  or  Pope,  a 
British  fish,  which  has  also  been  named  Acerina  wlgaris  and  Perea 
Cemua.  llie  generic  character  of  Acerina^  as  given  by  Yarrell  in  his 
'British  Fishes,'  is  as  follows: — "Dorsal  fin  single,  elongated,  the 
rays  of  the  first  portion  spinous,  the  others  flexible ;  branchiostegous 
rays  seven;  teeth  very  small,  uniform,  numerous;  head  wil£out 
scales ;  suborbital  bone  and  pre-operculum  indented ;  operculum  ending 
in  a  single  point. 

In  Acerina  vulfforitf  the  Ruffe  or  Pope,  the  prevailing  colour  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  and  head  is  a  light  olive-brown,  passing  into  a 
yellowish-brown  on  the  sides,  and  becoming  almost  silvery-white  on 
the  belly.  The  lateral  line  prominent  and  strongly  marked.  Small 
brown  spots  are  disseminated  over  the  back,  dorsid  fin,  and  tail, 
assuming  on  the  latter,  from  their  arrangement,  the  appearance  of  bars ; 
pectoral,  ventral,  and  anal  fins,  pale-brown.  This  fish  is  an  inhabitant 
of  fresh  waters,  and  closely  allied  to  the  perch.  It  was  first  described 
by  Dr.  Caius,  who  called  it  Atpredo,  being  a  translation  of  our  word 
Ruffe  (rough),  which  is  applied  to  this  fish  on  account  of  the  harsh 
feel  of  its  denticulated  scales.  It  is  common  in  all  the  rivers  of 
England,  especially  the  Thames,  the  Isis,  and  Cam,  and  is  found  in 
the  colder  parts  of  the  European  continent.  It  is  like  the  perch  in 
its  habits.     (Yarrell,  Bntish  Pishea.) 

CERO'COMA,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  belonging  to  the 
family  OanUiouridas  (Latreille).  It  has  the  following  characters : — 
Antennse  short,  9-jointed,  the  basal  joint  as  long  as  the  two  following; 
the  second  and  next  joints  in  succession  are  short  and  gradually 
increase  in  width  to  tiie  apex  of  the  antennse ;  the  terminal  joint 
forms  a  distinct  ovate  knob ;  palpi  moderate,  all  the  joints  of  nearly 
equal  width — such  are  the  characters  of  the  females.  The  males  have 
the  antennse  short,  thick,  and  the  joints  extremely  irregular  in  shape 
and  size ;  those  towards  the  base  are  imcommonly  large,  the  terminal 
joint  forms  a  laige  flattened  knob,  the  joints  immediately  adjoining 
are  the  smallest ;  the  palpi  are  also  very  much  developed,  the  basal 
joints  being  very  lar^  The  head  and  thorax  are  rounded  at  the 
sides,  and  of  about  equal  width ;  the  elytra  are  narrow,  somewhat 
linear,  elongate,  and  soft 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  remarkable  for  the  extraordinaiy 
antennse  of  the  males.  They  are  European,  and  make  their  appear- 
ance during  the  summer  months,  fluently  in  great  numbers  m  the 

8  B 


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CERTHIAD-E. 


886 


same  spot  Thej  are  found  on  flowen,  partioulArlj  those  of  the  wild 
ohamomile,  &c. 

C,  Sehafferi  is  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a  bright  golden 
green  above,  or  bluish ;  the  legs  and  antennn  are  yellow.  In  the 
female  the  base  of  the  thighs  and  the  tarsi  are  black.  The  colour  of 
this  species  and  the  texture  of  its  wings  closely  resemble  that  of  the 
common  Blister  Beetle.  The  general  form  of  the  body  is  not  very 
dissimilar :  it  is  of  a  smaller  size.      This  spedes  is  common  in  France. 

CEROPILES.    [PoMPiLus.] 

CERO'XYLON,  a  gen\is  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of 
Palma  C.  Andicolc^  the  Wax-Palm  of  South  America,  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  plants  in  the  large  natural  order  to  which  it  belongs. 
It  is  a  species  with  pinnated  leaves  and  panided  polygamous  flowers. 
Its  calyx  consists  of  three  small  scales ;  the  petals  are  also  three,  but 
much  larger  and  sharp-pointed.  The  stamens  are  numerous,  with 
very  short  filwnents.  The  fruit  is  a  little  round  drupe,  with  a  single 
seed  of  the  same  figure. 


Wax-Palm  {Otrozyton  Andieola), 

This  plant  has  received  from  the  American  Spaniards  the  name  of 
Palma  de  Cera,  or  Wax-Palm,  on  account  of  the  abundance  of  that 
■ubstance  yielded  by  the  stem.  It  grows,  according  to  Bonpland,  in 
that  part  of  the  Andes  which  separates  the  valley  of  the  Magdalena 
from  that  of  the  river  Cauca,  in  4"  35'  N.  lat.  Below  the  snow- 
capped mountains  called  Tolima,  San  Juan,  and  Quindiu,  especially 
the  last,  the  CeroxyUm  grows  in  all  its  grandeur,  devating  its  majestic 
trunk,  coated  with  a  thick  incrustation  of  wax,  to  the  height  of  180 
feet  among  the  most  rugged  predpices  of  the  wild  region  which  it 
inhabits.  Unlike  the  greater  part  of  the  palm-tribe,  this  species  avoids 
the  heat  of  tropical  plains,  and  seems  incapable  of  existmg  except  in 
regions  where  the  temperature  is  lowered  by  elevation  in  the  air  and 
the  contiguity  of  perpetual  snow.  It  is  said  to  make  its  first  appear- 
ance on  the  sides  of  the  Quindiu,  at  a  height  equal  to  that  of  the  Puy 
de  Dome  or  the  passage  of  Mont  Cenis ;  this  is  higher  than  the  r^ion 
of  Cinchonas,  and  so  cool  that  Humboldt  does  not  estimate  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  year  higher  at  the  utmost  than  65"  or  68**  Fahr., 
which  is  at  least  17  degrees  lower  than  the  mean  temperature  of  palm 
countries.  It  does  not  extend  over  more  than  15  or  20  leagues  of 
country  altogether.  Its  roots  are  fibrous  and  very  numerous,  the 
main  root  being  thicker  than  the  stem  itself.  The  trunk  is  distinctly 
marked  by  rings  caused  by  the  fall  of  the  leaves,  which  are  from  18  to 
20  feet  long.  The  spaces  between  the  rings  are  pale  yellow,  and  smooth 
like  the  stems  of  a  reed,  and  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  wax  and 
resin.  This  substance,  melted  with  a  third  of  fat,  makes  excellent 
candles.  Vauquelin  ascertained  that  this  vegetable  matter  consists  of 
.two-thirds  resin  and  one-third  wax,  which  is  only  a  little  more  brittle 


than  bees-wax.  The  only  paralld  among  palms  to  this  property  of 
exuding  wax  occurs  in  a  Brazilian  palm  wita  palmated  leavei,  called 
Camauba. 

CERTHIA.    [Certhiada] 

CERTHIADiE,  the  Creeper  Family,  a  family  of  birds  placed  by 
Mr.  Vigors  imder  his  order  Scantorei,  or  Climbing  Birds.    "  The  genus 
Cerihia,"  writes  that  author  ('Ldnn.  Trans.,'  vol  xiv.  p.  461),  "as 
originally  instituted  by  Linnteus,  contained,  besides  the  true  Cerikia 
and  its  congeners,  which  form  the  extreme  family  of  the  preceding 
tribe  (Picidce),  all  those  birds  whose  slender  and  gradually  cnrred 
bills  and  delicate  formation  of  body,  added  to  their  practice  of 
employing  their  tongues  in  taking  their  food,  indicated  a  strong 
affinity  to  each  other,  and  which  have  since  been  particnlarised  by 
authors  under  the  various  names  of  NeetaHwia,  OvUnyrity  I>repanii, 
&C.    To  the  group  thus  known  and  described  by  the  Swedish  natu- 
ralist, later  ornithologists,  who  have  strictiy  followed  his  steps,  have 
added  another,  discovered  since  his  tinle  in  Australasia,  similar  in 
habits  and  manners,  and  now  distinguished  by  the  generic  title  oi 
Mdiphaga,    The  whole  of  the  birds,  however,  thus  imited  by  close 
affinities,    and  as  such  generally  brought  together  by  systematic 
writers  into  one  conterminous  series,  are  deddedly  divisible  into  two 
distinct  groups,  naturally  arranging  themselves  under  different  sub- 
divisions of  the  order.     The  funily  of  CerthiadcB  live  upon  animal 
food ;   while  the  remaining  genera  of  the  Linnsean  Oertkia  subusl 
chiefly  upon  vegetable  juices.     The  tongues  of  each,  though  simiUr 
in  being  more  or  less  extendble,  and  in  being  the  medium  through 
which  they  are  supplied  with  food,  are  equally  distinct  as  the  nature 
of  the  food  itself.     Those  of  the  former  are  sharp  and  of  a  spearlike 
form,  as  if  to  transfix  the  insects  which  are  their  prey ;  while  those 
of  the  latter  are  divided  into  tubular  filaments,  which  appear  exclu- 
sively adapted  to  the  purposes  of  suction.     In  other  particulars  Uiey 
exhibit  an  equal  difference.     The  Oerthiada  climb,  and  their  feet  are 
of  a  conformable  structure ;  but  the  feet  of  the  suctorial  birds  are  not 
only  in  general  unsuited  to  that  purpose,  but  they  become  gradually 
weaker,  and  of  less  use  as  they  come  nearer  the  type  of  the  tribe, 
where  they  are  so  short  and  slightly  formed  as  to  be  serriceable  only 
in  perching,  when  the  bird  is  at  rest.    ....    The  two  groups  of 
the  Linnsean  Certhia  are  disposed  in  the  separate  departments  to 
which  the  distinct  nature  of  their  food  and  habits  more  immediately 
unites  them ;  while  at  the  same  time,  by  their  forming  the  extremee 
of  their  respective  tribes,  and  touching  each  other  at  the  correspondng 
points  of  the  circles  in  which  they  are  arranged,  their  obvious  affinities 
are  preserved  inviolate. 

''In  addition,"  continues  Mr.  Vigors,  "to  Dendrocolaptetj  and 
the  true  Oerthia  of  the  present  day,  the  family  before  us  consists 
of  a  variety  of  genera  which  are  strongly  united  by  their  corre- 
sponding habits.  Among  these,  CUmacteriSf  Temm.,  and  Orthmyx, 
Temm.,  preserve  the  strong  shafts  of  the  tail-feathers,  which  are 
carried  on  to  them  from  the  true  Piei.  This  construction  gradually 
disappears  in  the  remaining  groups  of  the  family ;  but  the  strong 
hind  toe,  and  the  tongue  more  or  less  extensile,  and  serving  to  spear 
their  prey,  is  still  conspicuous.  Among  such  groups  we  may  particu- 
larise the  Tichodroma,  IlL,  and  Upvpct,  Limu,  together  with  the 
Idnnsean  SUtaj  and  the  conterminous  form  of  Xenopt,  HI  Here  also 
may  be  associated  the  Opetiorkynckua  and  AnabcUet  of  M.  Temminck, 
as  also  the  Oxyrhynchui  of  the  same  author.  The  genus  may  be 
observed  to  be  connected  with  those  groups  of  the  present  family 
which  are  united  with  the  genus  Tunx  of  the  preceding ;  it  is  a 
perfect  Wryneck,  as  justiy  asserted  by  M.  Temminck,  with  a  Creeper's 
foot." 

Mr.  Swainson  ('  Fauna  Boreali-Americana,'  voL  u.)  places  the  genus 
Troglodytes  {Wrena)  among  the  Certhiadce,  which  fanaily  he  also  places 
under  the  Seansores, 

Cuvier,  the  Prince  of  Canino,  and  Lesson,  arrange  the  Oertkiada 
under  the  Tenuirostres. 

The  character  of  the  Family  is  as  follows  : — Bill  sometimes  very 
much  curved,  sometimes  but  little,  sometimes  nearly  straight, 
rounded,  slightly  compressed,  pointed;  tongue  dmple,  curtilaginous 
at  the  extremity;  tail-feathers  generally  worn  at  the  end.  (Lesson.) 
The  following  are  the  genera  enumerated  by  Lesson : — 

Certhia.  Bill  moderately  long,  more  or  less  curved,  triangular, 
compressed,  dender,  pointed ;  nostrils  basal,  partially  dosed  by  » 
membrane ;  wings  diort,  fourth  quill  longest ;  tail-feathers  stiflF,  a 
little  curved,  pointed  at  the  end. 

C.  familiaris  (Linn.).  The  Creeper,  Common  Creeper,  Tree- 
Creeper  and  Tree-Climber,  C.  familioH*  (Linn.),  is,  according  to 
Bdon  and  others,  the  K^pBios  of  Aristotle  (book  ix.  17).  It  is  Le 
Grimperoau  of  the  French  ;  Picchio  Piccolo,  Picchietto,  Bam- 
pichino,  and  Piccio  Rampichino,  of  the  Italians;  Baumlatffer, 
Kleinere  Qrau-Specht,  or  Kleinste  Baum-Hacker  of  the  Germans. 
Krypare  of  the  'Fauna  Suedca;*  and  the  Grepianog  of  the  andoit 
British. 

It  has  the  bill  about  half  an  inch  long,  slender,  and  curved ;  h«d 
and  neck  above  streaked  with  black  and  yellowish-brown ;  a  white 
line  above  each  eye;  irides  hazel;  back,  rump,  and  ,»<*P^^ 
approaching  to  tawny;  quills  dusky,  tipped  and  edged  with  white 
or  light  brown ;  coverts  dusky-brown  and  yellowish-white,  nroduong 
a  variegated  appearance;  a  ydlowish- white  bar  across  the  wing; 


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breast  and  belly  silvery-white;  tail-feathers  twelve,  tawny-brown; 
length  rather  more  than  5  inches ;  weight  about  2  drachms  (Montagu), 
Pennant  says  5  drachms. 


firmly  (se  oramponn^nt  fortement),  without  however  mounting  and 
descending  by  creeping.  Clefts  and  crevices  of  rocks  and  the  widls  of 
old  edifices  are  its  favourite  haunts,  and  sometimes,  but  very  rarely, 


Creeper  {OgrlAiafamiliari$). 

The  Crbeper  is  a  most  restless  and  active  little  bird,  ever  on  the 
alert,  and  climbing  up  and  about  the  trunks  and  branches  of  trees 
intent  on  picking  up  its  insect  food.  Though  comparatively  common, 
and  a  constant  resident  in  Britain,  it  is  not  easily  seen,  for  its  activity 
in  shiftmg  its  position  makes  it  very  difficult  to  follow  it  with  the 
eye.  At  one  instant  it  is  before  the  spectator  and  the  next  ia  hidden 
from  his  view  by  the  intervening  trunk  or  branch,  to  the  opposite 
side  of  which  it  has  passed  in  a  moment.  The  form  of  the  tail  and 
organisation  of  the  feet  are  beautiful  adaptations  for  this  sort  of  rapid 
locomotion.    Its  note  is  monotonous,  and  often  repeated. 

It  builds  its  nest  in  the  hole  or  behind  the  bark^f  decayed  trees, 
formed  of  dry  grass  and  the  inner  part  of  the  bark,  lined  with  small 
fathers,  in  which  six  or  eight  eggs  are  deposited.  While  the  female 
sits  on  these  she  is  regularly  fed  by  the  male  bird. 

It  is  found  in  Great  Britain  and  the  continent  of  Europe.  Pennant 
says  that  it  migrates  to  Italy  in  September  and  October.  Latham 
states  that  it  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Qermany  and  elsewhere  on 
the  Continent,  and  is  also  said  to  inhabit  North  America.  This  is 
confinped  by  the  Prince  of  Canino,  who,  in  his  '  Specohio  Compara- 
tivo,'  notes  it  as  common  and  permanent  near  Rome,  and  rare  near 
PhiUdelph^ 

Temminck  is  of  opinion  that  the  O,  hrachydactyla  of  Brehm  is 
identical  with  C,  familiofru, 

Tiehodroma  {Petrodrotna,  Yieill.).  Bill  longer  than  the  head, 
triangular  at  the  base,  slightly  ben^  rounded,  entire,  and  depressed 
at  the  point;  nostrUs  horizontal;  tail-feathers  nearly  equal,  with 
ordinary  shafts ;  wings  long ;  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  quiU  the  longest ; 
T,  mvraria,  C.  Bonap. ;  T,  phcmux^pUra,  Temm. ;  C.  mwraria,  Linn. 
This  bird  is  tlie  Qrimpereau  de  Muraille,  Pic  de  Muraille,  Temier, 
Eschelette,  and  Echelette,  of  tiie  French ;  Picchio  Muraiolo  and  Picohio 
di  Muro  of  the  Italians ;  Mmier  Baumlaufer  of  the  Gtermans ;  and 
Wall-Creeper  of  Latham. 

The  summit  of  the  head  is  of  a  deep  ash-colour ;  nape,  back,  and 
scapulars  bright  ash ;  throat  and  firont  of  the  neck  deep  black ;  lower 
parts  blackish-ash ;  coverts  of  the  wings  and  upper  part  of  the  exterior 
barbs  of  the  quills  bright  red;  extremity  of  tne  alar  quills  black-^ 
these  quills  have  two  lai^ge  white  spots  disposed  upon  the  interior 
barbs;  tail  black,  terminated  with  white  and  ash;  bill,  iris,  and  feet 
black;  length  6  inches  6  lines.  Such  is  Temminok's  description  of 
the  male  in  its  nuptial  or  spring  dress. 

The  female,  according  to  the  same  author,  has  the  summit  of  the 
head  of  the  same  bright  adi  as  the  back;  the  throat  and  front  of  the 
neck  white»  slightly  tinged  with  ash;  and  the  rest  of  the  plumage 
like  that  of  the  male. 

It  is  a  natiTa  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Tolerably  abundant  in  Spain 
and  Italy,  always  on  the  most  elevated  rocks,  and  very  rare  in  the 
mountahis  of  moderate  height.  Never  found  in  the  norUi,  according 
to  Temminck.  The  bird  is  common  in  Provence ;  and  the  Prince  of 
Canino  notes  it  as  permanent  and  rather  rare  near  Rome,  where  it 
may  however  be  seen  oreepiog  on  the  outward  walls  of  St.  Peter's. 
It  is  not  a  Brituh  bird,  at  least  it  has  never  been  recorded  as  such. 

Temminck  says  that  what  the  Creeper  does  upon  trees  the  Wall- 
Creeper  does  against  the  vertical  how  of  rooks,  on  which  it  sticks 


WaliwCreeper  {IXehodroma  muraria), 

the  trunks  of  trees.  It  feeds  on  insects,  their  larvse,  and  pupes,  and  is 
particularly  fond  of  spiders  and  their  eggs.  Belon  has  figured  his 
example  dinging  to  a  pillar  with  a  spider  in  its  bilL  The  nest  irf 
made  in  clefts  of  the  most  inaccessible  rocks,  and  in  the  crevices  of 
ruins  at  a  great  height 

The  bird  moults  twice  a  year.  It  is  in  the  spring  only  that  the 
male  has  the  black  on  the  throat,  and  this  ornament  disappears  before 
the  other  feathers  fall.  The  females  moult  also  twice,  but  without 
changing  colour,  which  makes  it  impossible  to  distinguish  the  sexes 
after  pairing  and  breeding  time,  llie  voimg  may  be  distinguished 
firom  their  parents  before  their  first  moult,  but  in  winter  no  difference 
is  observable.    (Temminck.) 

Dendrocolaptet  (DendrocopvSf  Vieill.)  Bill  long  or  moderate,  com- 
pressed laterally,  rather  strong,  convex,  straight  or  curved,  or  only 
curved  towards  the  extremity,  pointed ;  nostrils  lateral,  round,  open ; 
tongue  short  and  cartilaginous ;  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  quills  the 
longest;  tail-feathers  stifif,  pointed;  hind  toe  shortest;  daws  very 
much  curved,  channeled. 

D.  procurmu  (Temm.),  2>.  trochUorostria  (Wied),  is  the  size  of  the 
blackbird.  Bill  strongly  curved,  and  nearly  20  lines  long;  tail 
graduated,  and  each  feather  terminated  by  a  stiff  point;  general 
colour  cinnamon,  passing  into  dirty  ruddy  gray  on  the  head  and 
belly ;  there  are  numerous  white  spots  on  the  head  and  neck.  It  is  a 
native  of  Brazil. 


DendroeolapUi  procwvus. 
OUmacterit.  Bill  shorty  weak,  very  much  compressed  throughout 
its  length,  but  little  curved,  oval  shaped ;  mandibles  equal,  pointed ; 
nostrils  basal,  lateral,  covered  by  a  naked  membrane;  feet  robust; 
tarsi  of  the  length  of  the  middle  toe,  which  as  well  as  the  hallux  are 
extraordinarily  long ;  daws  lai^  and  curved,  channeled  on  the  sides^ 
subulate,  very  mu^  hooked;  external  toe  united  up  to  the  seooiid 


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CERTHIADiE. 


CERVIDiE. 


articulatioiiy  the  internal  toe  as  fur  as  the  first;  lateral  toes  very 
unequal ;  wings  moderate ;  first  quill  shorty  second  shorter  than  the 
third ;  which  last  and  the  fourth  are  the  longest    (Temminck.) 

0,  Picwnnus,  The  summit  of  the  head  is  deep  gray;  nape  and 
neck  bright  gray ;  wings  and  two  middle  feathers  of  the  tail  brown  ; 
a  large  nankeen-coloured  band  passes  nearly  through  the  middle  of 
the  quills ;  tail-feathers  black,  except  at  their  origin  and  extremity ; 
throat  and  cheeks  dirty  white ;  breast  gray ;  feathers  of  the  lower 
parts  white  in  the  middle,  bordered  with  brown ;  lower  coverts  of  the 
tail  Isabella-colour,  marked  with  transverse  brown  spots ;  length  6 
inches  6  lines.  (Temm.)  Locality,  Timor,  Celebes,  and  the  north 
coast  of  Australia. 

This  genus  bears  a  strong  relation  to  the  Soui-mauga^. 


nearly  equal  in  length,  and  the  external  toe  is  united  with  the  middle 
toe  at  its  base ;  the  claw  of  the  posterior  toe  is  doable  the  length 
of  the  anterior  toes,  which  are  very  much  compressed  at  the  sidei, 
curved,  and  pointed.  The  entire  plumage  of  the  bird  is  &  clear 
fuliginous  brown,  spread  equally  over  all  the  parts  of  the  body,  the 
neck  alone  exhibiting  yellow  and  brown  ill-defined  stria ;  the  under 
side  of  the  tail  is  of  a  bi  ight  gray-brown ;  a  yellow  band  of  deeper 
tint  occupies  the  middle  of  the  great  quiUs,  and  forms  a  kind  of 
scarf  when  the  bird  is  in  flight ;  the  extremity  of  the  quills  is  a  little 
deeper  than  the  rest  of  the  plumage,  and  their  extenial  border  u  a 
shade  brighter."     (Lesson.) 

The  F.  fvliffinotVK  inhabits  the  Falkland  Islands.  It  lives  upon  the 
beach,  where  its  familiarity  and  fearless  disposit.on  pennits  approach 
till  it  may  be  almost  touched  with  the  huid.  Its  sombre  plumage 
has  caused  it  to  be  mentioned  under  the  name  of  Merle  in  the  narra- 
tives of  some  voyages.  Pemetty,  who  sojourned  at  the  Falkhnds, 
thus  describes  it :  "  This  bird  is  so  tame  that  it  will  almost  fly  upon 
the  finger ;  in  less  than  half  an  hour  I  killed  ten  with  a  small  switch, 
and  almost  without  changing  my  position.  It  scratches  in  the 
goemons  (fucus)  which  the  sea  throws  upon  the  beach,  and  there  eata 
worms  and  small  shrimps,  which  they  call  sea-fleas  (puces  de  mer)." 
''  Its  flight  is  short  When  disturbed  it  contents  itself  with  flying 
two  or  three  paces  farther  ofL     Its  habits  are  solitaiy."    (Lesson.) 

Coereba,    [Nbotarinida] 

Diccewn.  Bill  pointed,  bent,  of  the  length  of  the  head,  depressed 
and  widened  at  the  base. 

The  species  forming  this  genu^  instituted  by  Cuvier,  are  small, 
oriental,  have  more  or  less  of  scarlet  in  their  plumage,  and  differ  £rom 
the  true  Oerthictt  inasmuch  as  their  tails  are  not  worn,  nor  do  they 
creep.  It  is  questionable  whether  they  d6  not  belong  to  the  Neda- 
rinida ;  but  their  position  will  principally  depend  upon  their  habits 
and  the  form  of  their  tougue.  Cuvier  places  the  genus  next  to  Le 
Foumier  {Meropa  rufus)  and  under  Nrrtanvirr. 


Climacten*  J'ieumnus, 


Fwmarius  (Opetiorhynchot),  Temm.p  FigtUut,  Spix.  Bill  shortei: 
than  the  head,  as  wide  as  it  is  high,  compressed  laterally,  but  little 
curved,  entire,  pointed ;  tongue  moderate,  straight,  worn  at  the 
point;  wings  feeble.     (Vieillot)    Type,  Jf«r<)p#  ru^  Gmel. 


rvfiu, 

F,  fuUginotuSj  Lesson  {O,  arUarcticct,  Gamot). 

''The  genus  FiAmarius"  writes  M.  Lesson,  ''was  established  by 
M.  Vieillot  for  the  reception  of  some  small  birds  of  Parsguay,  the 
most  celebrated  among  which  have  been  placed  among  the  Thrushes, 
the  Creepers,  the  Bee-Eaters,  and  the  Promeropid<E,  The  most 
anciently  known,  the  Foumier  of  Buenos  Ayres  {Meropa  rufus,  GmeL ; 
FigtduB  albogulan'Sj  Spix),  is  often  noticed  on  account  of  the  manner 
in  which  it  constructs  its  nest,  namely,  in  the  form  of  an  oven  ('four'), 
whence  comes  its  name,  (hi  this  point  we  know  nothing  of  the 
habits  of  the  Foumier  Brun,  which  lives  in  South  Amerioa,  and 
which  approaches  much  in  other  respects  to  Meropa  rufut,  figured  by 
Commerson  under  the  name  of  ffomero  BonarienHum  and  of  Turdus 
f-wmifaher,  and  which  is  said  to  be  an  object  of  veneration  at  La 
Plata.  As  it  ought  to  be,  the  genus  FumaHvs  should  only  contain 
the  three  species  indicated  by  D'Azara,  and  that  which  we  add  imder 
the  name  of  F\urna/nvs  fvligmotm, 

"  This  bird  is  five  inches  and  a  half  in  length ;  the  bill  is  eight 
lines  long,  the  tarsi  an  inch,  and  the  tail  two  inches  eight  lines.  The 
bill  is  slightly  compressed,  convex  above,  with  the  upper  mandible 
slightly  curved,  entire,  and  exceeding  the  lower  one ;  the  tail  is  nearly 
rectilinear,  composed  of  twelve  feathers ;  the  legs  are  feathered  down 
to  the  tarsi,  which  are  slender,  elongated,  with  large  but  little  appa- 
rent  soutella;    the   middle  toe  is  longest,   the  two  outside  ones 


Dieaum  erythronotta, 

CERTHILAUDA.    [Alaudiwa] 

CERUSE,  a  name  for  White  Lead.    [Lead.] 

CERYANTE'SI A,  a  name  given  by  Ruiz  and  Pavon  to  a  genus  of 
plants,  in  honour  of  their  immortal  countiym&n  Cervantes.  One  of 
the  species,  C.  tometUoBOj  is  a  native  of  Pern,  and  yields  seeds  which 
are  eaten  in  the  same  manner  as  almonds  in  Europe,  or  the  Quandsos 
Nut  (/WcNMM  <Kuminatu»)t  another  Santalaceous  plant,  in  Australia. 

CERVICOBRANCHIATA,  an  order  ot  Molltuca,  in  De  Blaiorille'i 
arrangement,  including  the  genera  Pa<e2^  .^isturei^  Ac.  [Patellioj; 
Fibsurbllielb.] 

CERYIDiE,  or  CERYINA,  a  tribe  or  family  of  Ruminating 
MammaUa,  embracing  the  animals  popularly  known  as  Deer.  They 
belong  to  tiiat  division  of  the  Rwninanti(i,  or  UngulatOf  whose  honii 
are  deciduous,  and  covered  when  young  with  a  deciduous  hairy  akin, 
or  entirely  wanting.  The  CervinOf  which  include  the  genus  Cenm  of 
Linnsdus,  are  characterised  by  the  absence  of  cutting  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaws;  by  the  horns  bong  deciduous,  and  often  wanting  in 
the  females;  the  tarsus  hairy  on  the  hinder  aide;  the  false  hoofi 
distinct 

Yarious  arrangements  of  this  tribe  have  been  approved.  The 
following  remarks  from  the  'Catalogue  of  the  Specimens  of  the  Ifaffl* 
malia  in  the  British  Museum  *  will  be  the  best  introduction  to  the 
system  followed  in  this  article : — 

"Dr.  J.  K  Gray,  in  the  'Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society' 
(1836,  67),  proposed  to  arrange  the  species  of  Deer  into  three  sections, 
according  to  the  positions  of  certain  tufts  of  hair  on  the  hind  1^ 
thus : — 1,  a  tuft  of  hair  below  the  middle  of  the  outside  of  the 
metatarsus ;  2,  a  tuft  of  hair  above  the  middle  of  the  outside  of  the 
metatarsus ;  and  8,  with  a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  inside  of  the  hocL 
Dr.  Sundevall,  in  his  '  Pecora»'  has  adopted  those  divisions.  These 
tuftA  have  the  advantage  of  being  found  in  all  ages  and  in  both  sexes* 
so  that  they  can  be  consulted  when  the  horns  are  deficient 


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Ml 


CERVID^ 


CEBYID^ 


84t 


"MLPuoheran  ('Diet  Univer.  Hist.  Nat'  iii  814,  1848)  divides 
the  Deer  as  follows : — 

"A,  With  flathoma.  1.  C,  Dama  (and  var.  mmnricwi),  B,  With 
round  horna  a.  With  more  than  two  andouilleres: — 1.  C,  VirgimMiMu, 
2.  C.  DwMiucdlil  8.  O.  WaUichii.  4.  C.  Mapkiu,  5.  C.  Wapiti, 
6.  C.  maerotit,  7.  (7.  macrunu.  8.  C.  occid&ntalis.  9.  O,  Blaphoides. 
h.  With  only  two  andouilleres : — 10.  O.  ITippdaphui,  11.  (7.  Aritto- 
telit,  12.  C.  equinus,  IS.  O.  marianua,  14.  C.  Peronii.  15.  C, 
vmeohr.  16.  &  ila:«f.  17.  0.  pordnut,  18.  (7.  n«M2tpa/p«6r(k  19. 
C.  LesehenauUii.  20.  (7.  OapreoluB.  21.  (7.  Mexieamu,  22.  C  poZtf- 
cfentt.  28.  (7.  eamptitrii,  c,  Cerft  Daguets : — 24.  O.  nemorvvaffut. 
25.  C.  rufiu, 

"  This  essay  is  a  mere  compilation  without  any  examination. 

''M.  Pucheran,  in  his  'Monographie  des  Esp^ces  du  Qenre  Cerf ' 
('Comptes  Rendus  Acad.  Sci/  1849,  ii  775),  divides  the  tribe  Oervieru 
into  four  genera: — 1.  Alcea ;  2.  Tarmdua;  8.  Cerwlus;  and 
4.  (krvut. 

''Since  the  publication  of  Cuvier^s  Essay  on  Deer  ('Ossemens 
FoBsiles,'  iv.),  where  he  exhibited  the  development  of  the  horns  of 
Mveral  species ;  and  in  which  he  described  several  species  from  the 
study  of  the  horns  alone,  many  zoologists  have  almost  entirely 
depended  on  the  horns  for  the  character  of  the  species ;  and  Mr. 
Hamilton  Smith  has  been  induced  to  separate  some  species  on  the 
study  of  a  single  horn.  But  the  facilities  which  menageries  have 
affoided  of  studying  these  animals,  and  watching  the  variations  which 
the  horns  of  the  species  present,  have  shown  that  several  most  distinct 
but  allied  species,  as  the  Stag  of  Canada  and  India,  have  horns  so 
similar  that  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  them  by  t^eir  horns.  On 
the  other  hand,  the^  have  shown  that  animals  of  the  same  herd,  or  even 
family,  and  sometmies  even  the  same  specimen,  under  different  cir- 
cumstances, in  succeeding  years,  have  produced  horns  so  unlike  one 
<mother  in  size  and  form  w&t  they  might  have  been  considered,  if 
their  history  was  not  known,  as  horns  of  very  different  species.  These 
observations,  and  the  examination  of  the  cUfferent  cargoes  of  foreign 
horn  which  are  imported  for  the  uses  of  the  cutler-^each  cargo  of 
which  is  generally  collected  in'  a  single  locality,  and  therefore  would 
most  probably  belong  to  a  single  species  peculiar  to  the  district — 
have  proved  to  me  that  the  horns  afford  a  much  better  character  to 
separate  the  species  into  groups  than  to  distinguish  the  allied  species 
from  one  another. 

**  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith,  in  his  monograph  of  the  genus^  separated 
Uiem  into  genera  according  to  the  form  of  the  horns. 

''In  the  'Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society'  for  1886  I  drew 
attention  to  the  glands  on  the  hind  legs,  as  affording  very  good 
characten  to  arrange  the  genera  proposed  by  Colonel  Smith  into 
Datund  groups ;  which  in  most  particulars  agreed  with  the  geogra- 
phical distribution  of  the  species. 

"  Dr.  Sundevall,  in  his  '  Essay  on  Pecora,'  has  availed  himself  of  the 
characters  suggested  in  my  paper,  and  has  also  pointed  out  some  other 
external  characters,  such  as  the  form  and  extent  of  the  muffle,  which 
afford  good  characters,  and  which  I  firmly  believe  are  much  more  im- 
portant for  the  distinction  of  the  genera  and  species  than  those 
derived  from  the  form  of  the  skidl,  or  the  modifications  of  the  teeth, 
or  the  form  and  size  of  the  horns ;  as  they  are  not  l^e  those  parts  so 
liable  to  alteration  from  age,  local  circumstances,  and  other  changes 
during  the  growth  of  the  animal ;  and  the  characters  derived  from 
these  parts  can  be  seen  in  the  feinales  as  well  as  males,  which  is  not 
the  case  with  the  horns,  as  they  can  only  be  observed  in  the  male  sex. 

"  These  examinations  have  shown  that  the  fortn  and  extent  of  ^e 
muffle,  the  position  and  presence  of  glands  on  the  hind  legs,  the 
general  form  of  the  horns,  and  the  kind  of  hinr  which  forms  the  fur, 
takoi  together,  afford  the  best  characters  for  the  arrangement  of  the 
Bpedes  into  natural  genera,  and  these  genera  into  groups.  And  I 
betieve  that  the  progress  of  zoology,  and  Uie  natui^  arrangement  and 
affinities  of  animals,  are  best  promoted  by  the  general  study  of  all  the 
parts  of  the  animal  taken  together,  rather  than  confining  one's  atten- 
tion to  any  set  of  characters,  and  believing  them  as  muoh  more 
important  than  the  others." 

At  the  same  time  that  we  agree  with  the  general  principles  on 
which  Dr.  Gray  proposes  his  arrangement^  we  would  draw  especial 
attention  to  the  very  interesting  nature  and  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  horns  of  this  family  of  ftnimala- 

In  the  Museum  of  the  Boysd  College  of  Surgeons  ('  Physiological 
Series,'  No.  179)  will  be  found  a  section  of  part  of  the  os  frontis  and 
of  the  base  of  a  Fallow-Deer^s  horn  {(Mrvui  Dama),  the  growth  of 
which  is  nearly  completed.  It  shows  the  horn  to  be  a  continuation 
of  bone  from  iho  outer  table  of  the  skull,  and  the  vdivet-like  covering 
of  the  horn  to  be  equally  continuous  with  the  integuments  of  the 
bead.  It  shows  also  the  burr  or  pearl  which  has  been  formed  round 
the  base  of  the  horn,  and  illustrates  the  effects  of  this  port  on  the 
growth  of  the  horn. 

In  the  formation  of  the  burr,  which  is  the  last  part  of  the  process, 
and  takes  place  rapidly,  the  osseous  tubercles  of  which  it  is  composed 
are  projected  outwards,  and  by  their  pressure  induce  absorption  of 
the  vaacularextemal  covering ;  and  increasing  at  the  same  time  laterally, 
they  enclose  and  oompress  the  blood-vessels :  thus  in  a  short  space  of 
time  theoiroiUation  is  entirely  obstmoted,  and  consequently  the  whole 
>f  that  once  very  vascular  and  sensible  tegument  loses  its  vitality. 


dries,  shrinks,  and  peels  oS,  leaving  the  horn  a  naked  insensible 
weapon.  In  one  of  the  branches  (the  brow  antler)  in  this  prepara- 
tion, the  whole  of  the  vessels  appear  to  have  been  thus  obliterated ; 
in  the  other  a  slight  degree  of  vascularity  remains,  and  one  of  the 
large  external  arterial  branches  is  still  imcompressed  ('Catalogue, 
Physiol  Series,'  vol.  L).  The  beautiful  preparations  illustrative  of 
theprocess  are  numbered  163  to  187,  both  inclusive. 

Tne  rapidity  with  whidi  this  firm  mass  of  bone  is  secreted  is  worthy 
of  note.  The  budding  horns  of  a  male  Wapiti  were  several  inches 
high  in  ten  days  from  their  first  appearance ;  a  month  afterwards  there 
was  an  interval  of  two  feet  between  them,  measuring  frx>m  branch  to 
branch 

It  is  in  the  spring  generally  that  the  reproduction  of  the  horn  is 
begun.  From  the  place  whence  the  old  horn  had  been  separated  a«d 
oast,  and  which  at  first  is  apt  to  bleed,  but  soon  is  skinned  over  with 
a  fine  film,  the  new  horn  sprouts.  At  this  time  there  is  a  strong 
determination  of  blood  to  the  head,  great  in  proportion  to  the  demand 
for  such  an  enormous  and  ultimately  solid  secretion.  The  vessels 
from  the  roots  swell,  the  vascular  horn  pushes  up,  protected  by  a 
delicate  and  soft  covering.  In  this  its  early  stage  it  is  nearly  cylin- 
drical, and  the  quantity  of  animal  heat  which  it  contains  may  be  in 
some  degree  imagined  by  gently  grasping  it  with  the  hand.  Gradually 
the  antlers  appear ;  the  whole  '  head,'  to  use  the  sporting  term,  is 
developed,  and  becomes  of  the  firmest  solidity ;  the  animal  feels  its 
powers,  and  proceeds  to  rub  off  the  drying  and  decaying  *  velvet,' 
which  may  be  seen  at  this  period  hanging  from  the  horn  in  ragged 
strips,  against  trees  and  other  resisting  bodies,  leaving  at  last  the 
magnificent  ornament  and  weapon  with  only  the  ti*aces  on  its  now 
hard  surface  of  the  blood-vessels  which  had  produced  it.  Then  it  is 
that  the  deer,  conscious  of  his  strength,  comes  forth  in  all  his  gran- 
deur, ready  to  do  battle  with  any  creature,  even  man  himself,  who 
may  dare  to  invade  his  haimts.  Fierce  fights  ensue,  and  the  strongest 
male  reigns  paramount  The  rutting  season  dies  away,  spring  returns, 
the  antlers  are  shed,  again  to  be  regenerated  in  time  for  the  season 
of  love. 

In  the  Common  Stag  or  Red  Deer  {Cennu  Elaphus\  the  shedding 
of  the  horns  takes  place  about  the  end  of  Februaiy  or  during  March 
The  Fallow-Deer  sheds  his  horns  from  about  the  middle  of  April  to 
the  first  weeks  of  May. 

For  the  production  of  these  annually  regenerated  bony  masses 
nature  has  provided  with  her  usual  ctare.  "  We  find  it  a  common 
principle  in  the  animal  machine,"  says  John  Hunter,  "  that  every  part 
increases  in  some  degree  ^cording  to  the  action  required.  Thus  we 
find  muscles  increase  in  size  when  much  exercised ;  vessels  become 
larger  in  proportion  to  the  necessity  of  supply,  aa  for  instance  in  the 
gravid  uterus.  The  external  carotids  in  the  stag  also,  when  his  horns 
are  growing,  are  much  lai'ger  than  at  any  other  time ;  and  I  have 
observed  that  in  inflammation  the  vessels  become  lai^ger,  more  blood 
passes,  and  there  appears  to  be  more  actions  taking  place ;  but  the 
nerves  do  not  seem  to  undergo  any  change.  The  nerves  of  the  gravid 
uterus  are  the  same  as  when  it  is  in  a  natural  state ;  neither  do  the 
branches  of  the  fifth  and  seventh  pair  of  nerves  in  the  stag  become 
larger."    (Hunter,  '  On  the  Blood.') 

But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  antiers  reach  their  fall  ampli- 
tude in  the  first  years  of  the  male  deer^s  life.  In  the  Stag  or  Red  Deer 
the  horns  of  the  male  do  not  appear  till  its  second  year,  and  the  first 
which  is  shed  (Jig,  1,  Series  A)  is  straight  and  single,  like  a  small  thrust- 
sword  or  dagger,  whence  the  young  male  is  termed  Daguet  by  the 
French  The  next  hom  has  generally  but  one  antier,  as  in>^.  2;  but  it  has 
sometimes  two,  and  even  three  {fya,  8,  4,  which  are  horns  of  stags  in 
their  third  year).  The  third  hom  has  three  or  four  antlers,  and  some- 
times as  many  as  five  or  six,  which  are  also  the  numbers  of  the 
fourtii  (Jiffi.  5,  6).  Up  to  this  time  the  young  male  is  called  a  Toung 
Sta^ — Jeune  Cerf.  The  fifth  hom  bears  five  or  six  antlers  of  Ihe 
degree  of  development  indicated  in  figa,  6,  7,  or  8.  In  this  stage  the 
anunal  is  called  by  the  French  Ceif  de  Dix  Cors  jeunement.  The 
sixth  hom,  which  the  stag  sheds  at  about  seven  years  of  age,  is  that 
which  bestows  upon  the  stag  the  appellation  of  Cerf  de  Dix  Cors. 

The  proportional  length,  direction,  and  curvature  of  the  antlers 
vary ;  and  it  often  happens  that  there  is  one  more  or  less  on  the  one 
side  than  on  the  other.  Independently  of  the  number  of  antlers,  the 
horns  become  laiger,  the  superficial  furrows  more  marked,  the  burr  is 
more  projecting,  and  the  prominences  of  the  frt>ntal  sinus  which 
support  the  horns  become  shorter  and  wider  every  year.  By  such 
signs  is  the  age  of  old  stags,  or  those  of  from  eight  years  upwards, 
determined ;  for  after  the  seventh  year  the  number  of  the  antlers  is 
regulated  by  no  fixed  rule.  They  are  multiplied  towards  the  summit 
of  the  beam,  where  they  are  coi^oined  into  a  kind  of  crown  or  palma- 
tion  (Jigs,  9, 10, 11, 12).  The  oldest  heads  do  not  in  general  present 
more  than  10  or  12  antlers  (Tines,  in  Scotch) ;  but  some  have  been 
seen  that  bore  the  enormous  number  of  88.  Such  was  the  noble 
Cerf  h  66  Cors,  killed  by  the  first  king  of  Prussia,  and  presented  by 
that  monarch  to  Augustus  I.,  elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of  Poland. 
This  noble  head  is  said  to  be  still  preserved  at  MoiitzbuiK. 

In  all  gradations  of  age  after  the  appearance  of  the  antlers,  the 
second  antler  is  more  or  less  approximated  to  the  first  or  brow  antler 
(Maltre  Andouiller  of  the  French,  a  name  given  to  it  because  it  is  the 
laigest). 


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841 


BeriM  jL 


Horns  of  Stag  {Oervut  Slaphus),    Left  Horns. 


The  sympathy  between  that  part  of  the  system  which  regulates 
the  development  of  the  horns  in  the  Deer-Tribe  and  the  organs  of 
generation  is  most  remarkable.  For  instance,  if  a  stag  is  castrated 
when  his  horns  are  in  a  state  of  perfection  they  will,  it  is  affirmed, 
never  be  shed ;  if  the  operation  is  performed  when  the  head  is  bare, 
the  horns,  it  is  said,  will  never  be  regenerated ;  and  if  it  is  done  when 
secretion  is  actually  going  on,  a  stunted  ill-formed  permanent  horn  is 
the  result,  more  or  less  developed,  according  to  the  period  at  which 
the  animal  Lb  emasculated.  Any  disturbance  of  the  system  generally 
produces  a  corresponding  deterioration  in  the  horn.  In  the  subjoined 
cut,  fg.  a  represents  the  horn  of  a  deer  {Cervtu  Canadermt)  produced 


a,  Horn  of  Deer  produced  under  unfaroorablo  cireumstances ;   (,  horn  of 
fame  Deer  produoed  under  more  favourable  circumstances, 
during  a  voyage  from  America ;  and  b  a  horn  subsequently  developed 
in  the  French  Menagerie  by  the  same  individual,  which  afterwards 
produced  a  head  of  surprising  dimensions. 

The  same  system  of  development  which  wfr  have  obeerved  in  the 
horn  with  branching  antlers  is  in  great  measure  to  be  traced  in  the 
other  leading  form  of  horuy  namely,  the  palmated  horn.  Taking  the 
horn  of  the  Fallow-Deer  {Oervua  Jkma)  as  an  example  of  the  latter, 
we  find  the  horn  first  put  forth  by  the  buck  at  two  years  old  (when  he  is 
called  a  Pricket),  a  simple  shaft,  sUghtly  curved,  the  concavity  turned 
forwards  (Jig.  1,  Series  £) ;  this  curvature  the  horns  retain  throughout. 
The  second  year  there  are  two  antlers  directed  forwards  (fig*  ^)t  '^^ 


(figa,  6,  6,  7,  8).  Sometimes  one  or  two  of  these  dentelations  form 
true  recurrent  antlers  (jiga.  6,  8).  Figs.  8  and  9  are  horns  of  the 
fourth  growth,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  they  begin  to  be  divided  aboTe. 
In  the  following  years  the  palm  is  irregularly  and  variously  divided 
(^a.  10,  11,  12,  IS),  so  that  the  horns  of  old  bucks  are  very  firequently 
oddly  shaped;  and  hardly  to  be  recognised.    With  still  more  advanced 


Horns  of  a  Fallow-Deer  {Cervut  Dama)  that  were  not  shed  at  the  usual  tint 
in  consequence  of  the  castration  of  the  animal.  From  the  Museum  of  the 
College  of  Surgeons. 

age  they  continue  to  dwindla    Cuvier,  from  whom  this  account  and 
the  figures  of  the  growth  of  the  deei^s  horn  are  taken,  says  that  it 


I 


Horns  of  Fallow-Deer  {(knmt  Lama).    Left  Horns. 

the  summit  of  the  horn  in  soma  oases  begins  to  spread  into  a  palm  1  is  asserted  that  these  palmated  horns  of  the  bu<^  finish  by  puiiiDg 
(Jiga.  8,  4),  whioh  afterwards  inoreases,  Growing  out  a  greater  or  on  the  simple  appearance  of  the  horn  first  developed  (dagoft) ;  and 
leas  number  of  dentelations  on  its  posterior  and  superior  border  |  states  that  he  in  fact  possessed  the  head  of  a  fallow-deer  which  had 


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CSEBVID^ 


8M 


only  siinple  horzifl,  and  whose  teeth  were  ground  down  to  the  very 
roots  by  long  use. 

The  reproduction  of  the  horns  is  annual  in  the  Deer  of  temperate 
sad  oold  climates ;  but  it  has  been  supposed  that  some  of  the  species 
inhabiting  hot  climates  do  not  oast  them  erery  year.  The  palmated 
hom  seems  to  be  more  especially  giTon  to  those  deer  which  inhabit 
the  northern  latitudes ;  and  Colonel  Smith  is  of  opinion  that  it  is 
aproTision  to  enable  the  animals  to  remove  the  snow  from  their  food. 

The  dental  fonnuJa  of  the  deer  is,  generally  speaking,  the  same  as 
in  the  giraffes^  goats,  antelopes,  sheep,  oxen,  &Q. ;  namely, 

Indsora,  j;  Canines,  ^--^;  Molars,  ^--^=82. 

Of  the  molars,  both  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  six  are  true 
and  six  false.  In  the  upper  jaw  the  three  first  molars  are  bordered 
by  a  Uiick  crest  on  their  internal  surface ;  the  three  next  have  all 
tne  characters  of  the  molars  in  the  dromedaries.  [Cahslub.]  In  the 
lower  jaw  the  first  incisor  is  the  longest,  the  second  and  the  third 
rather  decrease,  and  the  fourth  is  very  small ;  all  have  cutting  edges. 
The  two  first  false  molars  are  simple;  the  third  has  a  process  or 
heel  at  its  posterior  part,  and  the  three  others  do  not  differ  from 
those  of  the  upper  jiw.  In  the  formula  given  above  the  canines  are 
noted  as  absent;  but  this  general  rule  is  not  without  exception, 
some  of  the  species  presenting  canines  similar  to  those  of  the  Musks 
(Motekut)  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  Muntjak  has  these  teeth  laigely 
developed. 

The  Deer-Tribe  possess  the  Lachrymal  Sinus,  or,  as  it  is  often  , 
termed,  the  Suborbital  Sinus  (Larmiers  of  the  French,  Tear-Pits  of  the  ' 
English,  Cnimen  of  others),  even  more  universally  than  the  Antelopes.  ' 
[Antilopejs.1  ! 

The  late  Hu*.  Bennett  was  of  opinion  that  the  use  of  the  lachrymal 
sinus,  which  has  long  remained  a  problem  to  eoologiste,  must  be 
referred  to  sexual  rations.  In  support  of  this  opinion  he  has 
referred  to  the  condition  of  this  organ  in  some  old  Indian  Deer 
formerly  in  the  possession  of  the  Zoological  Society  in  the  Gardens 
in  Regent's  Park. 

Professor  Owen  at  one  time  conceived  it  possible  that  the  secretion 
of  these  glands,  when  rubbed  upon  projecting  bodies,  might  serve  to 
direct  individuals  of  the  same  species  to  each  other.  He  endeavoured 
to  test  the  probability  of  this  supposition  by  preparing  a  tabular  view 
of  the  relations  between  the  habits  and  habitats  of  the  several  species 
of  Antelopes  and  their  suborbital,  maxillary,  post-auditory,  and 
inguinal  glands,  in  order  to  be  able  to  compare  the  presence  and 
degrees  of  development  of  these  glands  with  the  gregarious  and  other 
habits  of  the  Antelope-Tribe.  He  has  stated  however  that  it  was  evi- 
dent from  this  table  that  there  is  no  relation  between  the  gregarious 
habits  of  the  Antelopes  which  fi^quent  the  plains  and  the  presence  of 
the  suborbital  and  maxillary  sinuses ;  since  these,  besides  being  alto- 
gether wanting  in  some  of  the  gregarious  species,  are  present  in  many 
of  the  solitary  frequenters  of  rocky  mountainous  districts.  The  sup- 
position l^en^ore  that  the  secretion  might  serve,  when  left  on  shrubs 
or  stones,  to  direct  a  straggler  to  the  general  heid,  MLb  to  the  ground. 
('ZooLProc.,'  1886.) 

The  oeteological  structure  of  the  Deer-Tribe  is  such  as  would  be 
expected  when  it  was  necessary  that  the  bony  framework  should 
exhibit  a  union  of  Uffhtness  and  strength  necessary  for  an  animal 
whose  life  is  to  depend  on  its  agility  and  defensive  powers. 

The  Cervida  are  widely  spread,  and  seem  capable  of  being  so  modi- 
fied as  to  withstand  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

The  following  arrangement  of  the  Deer  is  proposed  by  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray : 

A.  The  Deer  of  tiie  Snowy  Regions  have  a  very  broad  muzzle,  entirely 
covered  with  hair.  The  horns  are  expanded  and  pcdmate ;  and  the 
fawns  are  not  spotted. 

0.  The  Alcine  Deer  have  no  basal  anterior  snag  to  the  horns,  and 
a  small  bald  muffle  between  the  nostrils,  as  the  genus  ^2cet. 

h.  The  Rangerine  Deer  have  a  large  basal  anterior  snag  to  the  horns 
dose  on  the  crown  or  burr,  and  no  muffle,  as  Tarandtu. 

B.  The  Deer  of  the  Temperate  or  Warmer  Regions  have  a  tapering 
muzzle  ending  in  a  bald  muffle.  The  fawns,  and  sometimes  the  adult^ 
ire  spotted. 

c.  The  Elaphine  Deer  have  a  distinct  anterior  basal  snag  to  the  horns, 
the  muffle  broad,  and  separated  frx>m  the  lip  by  a  hai^  band ;  and 
the  tuft  of  hair  on  the  outside  of  the  hind  leg,  above  tiie  middle  of 
the  metatarsus,  as  Oerom  and  DamcL 

d.  The  Rusine  Deer  have  a  distinct  anterior  basal  snag  to  the  horns; 
the  muffle  very  high,  and  not  separate  from  the  edge  of  the  lips ;  and 
the  tuft  of  hair  on  the  outside  ot  the  hind  l^,  above  the  middle  of  the 
metatarsus,  as  Rueervuif  Panolia,  Ituia,  Axit,  Hydaphm,  and  OervtiJhu, 

e.  The  C^preoline  Deer  have  no  basal  anterior  snag  to  the  horns, 
the  first  branch  being  some  distance  above  the  burr ;  the  crumen  (and 
pit  in  the  skull)  generally  small,  as  CbpreoZut,  Cairickcui,  BUutocenu, 
Fwcifer,  Coauus,  and  Pudu, 

The  Alcme  and  Rangerine  Deer  are  confined  to  the  northern  part 
of  both  continents ;  the  Elaphine  and  Rusine  Deer  to  the  Eastern 
World  (the  latter  almost  exdusively  to  the  warmer  part  of  Asia) ;  all 
*he  Capreoline  Deer  are  peculiar  to  America.  The  only  exception  to 
these  roles  are— the  Wapiti  Deer  of  the  Elaphine  group  is  found  in 
Northern  America,  and  the  Roe-Buck  and  Ahu  of  the  Capreoline 
group  are  found  in  Europe  and  Northern  Asia. 


The  following  is  an  arrangement  of  the  genera  and  species  of  th« 
tribe  Oervina  of  Gray : — 
Sub-Tribe  1.  Alcba 
Genus,  Aleet, 

1.  A.  Malekii,  the  EOL 
Sub-Tribe  2.  Rahobbinjs. 

Genus,  Tarandu*. 

2.  r.  Rangifer,  the  Caribou  or  Rein-Deer. 
Sub-Tribe  8.  Elafhikjl 

Genus,  Cervua. 

3.  C.  Ctmadauii,  the  Wapiti 

4.  a  Blaphfu,  the  Stag. 

5.  0.  Barbarut,  the  Barbary  Deer. 

6.  a  WaUiehii,  the  Bara  Singa. 

7.  C.  affiniif  the  Saul-Forest  Stag. 

8.  a  Sika,  the  Sika. 
Genus,  Dama. 

9.  2>.  vtUfforii,  the  Fallow-Deer. 
Sub-Tribe  4.  Rubina. 

Gtoius,  Panolia. 

10.  P.  BldU,  the  Sungnai 
Gemu,  Bttcervus. 

11.  R  DuvaueeUii,  the  Bahrainga. 
Genus,  Bubo. 

12.  R  AriHoUiii,  the  Samboo. 

18.  R  Dimarphef  the  Spotted  Rusa. 

14.  R  Hippdaphm,  th&Mijangan  Banjoe. 

15.  R  eqwiniUf  the  Samboe. 

16.  iZ.  Perontif  the  Smaller  Rusa. 

17.  R  Philippinus,  the  Philippine  Rusa. 

18.  R  lepida,  the  Sundevall  Rusa. 
Genus,  Axis. 

19.  A.  macvkUa,  the  Axis. 

20.  A.  ptendaxii,  the  Spotted  Axis. 
Genus^  Bydaphiui. 

21.  ff.  poreiMU,  the  Lugna  Para. 
Genus,  CermUui. 

22.  a  vo^MoItf,  the  Kijaog. 
28.  C.  moaehatus,  the  Kegan. 

24.  O.  BeevetU,  the  Chinese  Muntjak. 
Sub-Tribe  5.  Capbeoldta. 

Genus,  CapreoUu. 

25.  C.  Oaprcsa,  the  Roe-Bu^k. 

26.  C.  Pyg<i/rgyi»,  the  Ahu. 
Genus,  Blattoeerut. 

27.  B.  paludotu$,  the  Guasupuco. 

28.  B.  camptitrii,  the  Manme. 
Genus,  Fwrdfer. 

29.  P.  AnHiiensii,  the  Tarush. 

80.  P.  JfftumO,  the  GuemuL 
GenuSy  Ckuriacui. 

81.  C.  Virgmianui,  the  Amerioan  Dear. 

82.  a  ifftncrmtM,  the  Mexican  Dear. 
88.  a  leueuruB,  the  Whit»-Tailed  Deer. 

84.  C.  nesMro^is,  the  Cariaoou  Deer. 

85.  a  iMNie^otM,  the  Califomian  Roe. 

86.  a  Xfwifit,  the  Black-Tailed  Deer. 

87.  C  flUMTOtw,  the  Mule-Deer. 
Genus,  Coamu. 

88.  C  nemortvasFitf,  the  Gauzu-viva. 

89.  a  r«/itf ,  the  Cugnaou-ete. 

40.  a  «ip«rc««»rif,  the  Eye-Browed  Brocket. 

41.  C.  a/toriiui,  the  Large-Eared  Brocket 
Genus,  i\Mlik 

42.  P.  humUU,  the  Yenada. 

In  selecting  afew  of  these  animals  for  descriptian  we  shall  follow 
the  above  arrangement : — 

1.  Aloet  MalchiSy  the  Elk  or  Moose.  This  animal  is  the  Alea  AfOi- 
^uomm  of  RttppeU;  Oenmt  Aleet  ot  Uasamxu ;  Moose  Deer,  Moose  or 
Elk,  Amerioan  Black  Elk,  Flat-Homed  Elk,  of  English  writers; 
the  Eland  and  Orignal  of  Bufibn  and  others ;  Eloh  of  the  Germans; 
Loss  of  the  Russians;  AleetofCmur;  Alee  of  l?]mj. 

"This  animal  is  the  largest  of  the  ^us,  being  higher  at  the 
shoulders  than  the  horse;  its  horns  weigh  sometimes  near  501b& 
Aooordingly,  to  bear  this  heavy  weight  its  neck  is  short  and  strong, 
taking  away  much  of  the  elegance  of  proportion  so  generally  predomi- 
nant in  the  deer.  But  when  it  is  asserted  thai  the  dk  wants  beauty  or 
majesty,  the  opinion  can  be  entertained  by  those  who  have  seen  the 
female  only,  the  young,  or  the  mere  stufiled  n>ecimens;  for  us,  who 
have  had  the  opportumty  of  viewing  the  animal  in  all  the  glory  of  its 
ftdl-grown  horM,  amid  the  scenery  of  his  own  wademew,  no  aninul 
oould  appear  more  majestic  or  more  imposing.  It  is  however  the 
aggregate  of  his  appearance  whioh  produces  this  efiect ;  for  when  the 
proportions  of  its  structure  are  oonsidered  in  detail  they  certainly 
^seem  destitute  of  the  harmony  of  parte  whioh  in  the  imagination 
produces  the  feeling  of  beauty.  The  head  measuring  above  two  feet 
m  length  is  narrow  and  dumsUy  shaped  by  the  swelling  upon  the 
upper  part  of  the  nose  and  nostrils;  the  eye  is  propottionaUj  smali, 


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CERVID^ 


and  ftunk ;  the  ears  long,  hairy,  and  asinine ;  the  neck  and  withers  are 
surmounted  bj  a  heavy  mane ;  and  the  throat  furnished  with  long 
coarse  hair,  and  in  younger  specimens  encumbered  with  a  pendiilous 
gland :  these  give  altogether  an  uncouth  character  to  this  part  of  the 
animal.  Its  body  however  is  round,  compact^  and  short ;  the  tail  not 
more  than  four  inches  long;  and  the  legs,  though  very  long,  are 
remarkably  clean  and  firm ;  this  length  of  limbs  and  the  overhanging 
lips  have  caused  the  ancients  to  fancy  that  it  grazed  walking  back- 
wards. The  hair  of  the  animal  is  coarse  and  angular,  breaking  if  bent. 
Its  movements  are  rather  heavy,  and  the  shoulders  being  higher  than 
the  croup,  it  does  not  gallop,  but  shuffles  or  ambles  along,  its  joints 
cracking  at  every  step,  with  a  sound  heard  to  some  distance.  Increas- 
ing its  speed,  the  hind  feet  straddle  to  avoid  treading  on  its  fore  heels, 
tossing  Uie  head  and  shoulders  like  a  horse  about  to  break  from  a  trot 
to  a  gallop.  It  does  not  leap,  but  steps  without  effort  over  a  fallen 
tree,  a  gate,  or  a  split  fence.  During  its  progress  it  holds  the  nose  up, 
so  as  to  lay  the  horns  horizontally  back.  This  attitude  prevents  its 
seeing  the  ground  distinctly ;  and  as  the  weight  is  carried  very  high 
upon  the  elevated  legs  it  is  said  sometimes  to  trip  by  treading  on  its 
fore  heels,  or  otherwise,  and  occasionally  to  give  itself  a  heavy  fall. 
It  is  probably  owing  to  this  occurrence  that  the  elk  was  believed  by 
the  ancients  to  have  frequent  attacks  of  epilepsy,  and  to  be  obliged  to 
smell  its  hoof  before  it  could  recover ;  hence  the  Teutonic  name  of 
Elend  (miserable),  and  the  reputation  especially  of  the  fore  hoofs  as 
a  specific  against  the  disease."  (Smith.)  The  Elk  is  an  inhabitant  of 
woods  in  the  northern  parts  of  both  continents. 

In  '  A  perfect  Description  of  Virginia'  (small  4to.  1649),  we  find  it 
thus  written :  "  The  elkes  are  as  great  as  oxen,  their  horns  six  foot 
wide,  and  have  two  calves  at  a  tima"  Heame  remarks  that  the  horns 
of  the  Moose  occasionally  exceed  60  lbs.,  and  that  their  texture  is  harder 
than  that  of  any  other  deer-horns  to  be  found  in  the  Fur  Countries. 
Lawson  {*  Nat.  Hist,  of  Carolina')  says,  "  The  elk  is  a  monster  of  the 
venison  sort.  His  skin  is  used  almost  in  the  same  nature  as  the 
bufifelo's  (bison's).  Some  take  him  for  the  red  deer  of  America,  but 
he  is  not;  for  if  brought  and  kept  in  company  with  one  of  that  sort, 
he  vrill  never  couple.  ....  His  horns  exceed  (in  weight)  all 
creatures  which  the  New  World  affords."  Richardson  states  that  he 
has  been  informed  that  the  males  sometimes  attain  a  weight  of  eleven 
or  twelve  hundred  pounds. 

**  The  flesh  of  the  moose  is  very  good,  though  the  grain  is  but  coarse, 
and  it  is  much  tougher  than  any  other  kind  of  venison.  The  nose  is 
most  excellent,  as  ia  also  the  tongue,  though  by  no  means  so  fat  and 
delicate  as  that  of  the  common  deer  (rein-deer).  The  fat  of  the  intes- 
tines ia  hard  like  suet ;  but  all  the  external  fat  is  soft  like  that  of  a 
breast  of  mutton,  and  when  put  into  a  bladder  is  as  fine  as  marrow. 
In  this  they  differ  from  all  the  other  species  of  deer,  of  which  the 
external  fat  is  as  hard  as  that  of  the  kidnies."  (Heame.)  In  the 
'  Perfect  Description  of  Virginia,'  above  quoted,  it  it  stated  that  the 
**  skins  make  good  buffe,  and  the  flesh  as  good  as  beefe."  Lawson, 
though  he  sp^iks  of  the  good  qualities  of  (£e  skin,  does  not  seem  to 
have  so  high  an  opinion  of  the  flesh.  "His  flesh,"  says  Lawson,  ''is 
not  so  sweet  as  the  lesser  deers."  Richardson  remarks  that  the  flesh 
of  the  moose  is  more  relished  by  the  Indians  and  residents  in  the  Fur 
Countries  than  that  of  any  other  animal,  and  principally,  he  believes, 
on  account  of  the  soft  fat.  In  his  opinion,  corroborating  the  old  book 
above  quoted,  the  flesh  bears  a  greater  resemblance  in  its  flavour  to 
beef  than  to  venison. 

The  same  author  describes  the  dung  of  the  animal  as  being  in  the 
form  of  brown  oval  pellets,  and  such  were  the  droppings  from  the 
individuals  kept  at  the  (hardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  in  the  Regent's 
Park.  "  The  skins,"  Sir  John  Richardson  observes,  **  when  properly 
dressed,  make  a  soft,  thick,  pliable  leather,  excellently  adapted  for 
mocasins,  or  other  articles  of  winter  clothing.  The  Dog-Ribs,"  he  adds, 
"excel  in  the  art  of  dressing  the  skins,  which  is  done  in  the  following 
manner  : — They  are  first  scraped  to  an  equal  thickness  throughout, 
and  the  hair  taken  off  by  a  scraper,  made  of  the  shin-bone  of  a  deer, 
split  longitudinally ;  they  are  then  repeatedly  moistened  and  rubbed, 
after  being  smeared  With  the  brains  of  the  animal,  until  they  acquire 
a  soft  spongy  feel ;  and  lastly,  they  are  suspended  over  a  fire  made  of 
rotten  wood  until  they  are  well  impregnated  with  the  smoke.  The 
last-mentioned  process  imparts  a  peculiar  odour  to  the  leather,  and  has 
the  effect  of  preventing  it  from  becoming  so  hard  after  being  wet  as  it 
•would  otherwise  do."     ('  Fauna  Boreali-Americana.') 

"  Du  Pratz,"  writes  Sir  John  Richardson,  "  informs  us  that  in  his 
time  moose-deer  were  found  as  far  south  as  the  Ohio,  and  Denys  says 
that  they  were  once  plentiful  on  the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  though 
at  the  time  he  wrote  they  had  been  extirpated.  At  present,  according 
to  I^.  Godman,  they  are  not  known  in  the  State  of  Maine,  but  they 
exist  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Bay  of 
Fimdy.  They  frequent  the  woody  tracts  in  the  Fur  Countries  to  their 
most  northern  limit.  Several  were  seen  on  Captain  Franklin's  expe- 
dition at  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  River,  feeding  on  the  willows, 
which  owing  to  theridi  edluvial  deposits  on  that  great  river  extend  to 
the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea  in  lat.  69".  Farther  to  the  eastward, 
towards  the  Coppermine  River,  they  are  not  found  in  a  higher  lati- 
tude than  65",  on  account  of  the  scarcity  on  the  Barren  Grounds  of 
the  aspen  and  willow,  which  constitute  their  food.  I  have  not  been 
Able  to  ascertain  whether  they  occupy  the-  whole  width  of  the  oon« 


tment  or  not.  Mackenzie  saw  them  high  up  on  the  eastern  declivity 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  near  the  sources  of  the  Elk  River,  but  I 
suspect  that  they  are  rarely,  if  ever,  found  to  the  westward  of  the 
Mountains.  Authors  mention  that  the  moose  generally  form  small 
herds  in  Canada. 


The  Elk  or  Moose  {Aleet  Malchis). 

"  In  the  more  northern  parts  the  moose-deer  is  quite  a  solitaiy 
animal,  more  than  one  being  very  seldom  seen  at  a  time,  imless  during 
the  rutting  season,  or  when  the  female  is  accompanied  by  her  fawna 
It  has  the  sense  of  hearing  in  very  great  perfection  and  is  the  most 
shy  and  wary  of  all  the  deer-species,  and  on  this  account  the  art  of 
moose-hunting  is  looked  upon  as  the  greatest  of  an  Indian's  acquire- 
ments, particularly  by  the  Crees,  who  take  to  themselves  the  credit  of 
being  able  to  instnict  the  hunters  of  every  other  tribe.  The  skill  of 
a  moose-hunter  is  most  tried  in  the  early  part  of  the  winter;  for 
during  the  summer  the  moose,  as  well  as  other  animals,  are  so  much 
tormented  by  musquitoes  that  they  become  regardless  of  the  approach 
of  man.  In  the  winter  the  hunter  tracks  the  moose  by  its  foot- 
marks in  the  snow,  and  it  is  necessary  that  he  should  keep  couBtantly 
to  leeward  of  the  chase  and  make  his  advances  with  the  utmost 
caution,  for  the  rustling  of  a  withered  leaf  or  the  cracking  of  a  rotten 
twig  is  sufficient  to  alarm  the  watchful  beast.  The  difficulty  of 
approach  is  increased  by  a  habit  which  the  moose-deer  has  of  mi^g 
daily  a  sharp  turn  in  its  route,  and  choosing  a  place  of  repose  so 
near  some  part  of  its  path  that  it  can  hear  the  least  noise  made  by 
one  that  attempts  to  track  it.  To  avoid  this  the  judicious  huoter, 
instead  of  walking  in  the  animal's  footsteps,  forms  his  judgment  from 
the  appearance  of  the  country  of  the  diroction  it  is  likely  to  ha^e 
taken,  and  makes  a  circuit  to  leeward  until  he  again  finds  the  track. 
This  manoeuvre  is  repeated  imtil  he  discovers,  by  the  softness  of  the 
snow  in  the  foot-marks  and  other  signs,  that  he  is  very  near  the 
chase.  He  then  disencumbers  himself  of  everything  that  might 
embarrass  his  motions,  and  makes  his  approach  in  the  most  cautious 
manner.  If  he  gets  close  to  the  animal  s  lair  without  being  seen,  it 
is  usual  for  him  to  break  a  small  twig,  which  alarming  the  moose,  it 
instantly  starts  up,  but  not  fully  aware  of  the  danger  squats  on  its 
hams  and  voids  its  urine  preparatory  to  setting  off  In  this  posture 
it  presents  the  fairest  mark,  and  the  hunter's  shot  seldom  fails  to  take 
effect  in  a  mortal  part.  In  the  rutting  season  the  bucks  lay  aside 
their  timidity,  and  attack  every  animal  that  comes  in.  their  way,  and 
even  conquer  their  fear  of  man  himself.  The  hunters  then  bring 
them  within  gim-shot  by  scraping  on  the  blade-bone  of  a  deer  and 
by  whistling,  which,  deceiving  the  male,  he  blindly  hastens  to  the  spot 
to  assail  his  supposed  rivaL  If  the  hunter  fails  in  giving  it  a  mortal 
wound  as  it  approaches,  he  shelters  himself  from  its  fury  behind  a 
tree,  and  I  have  heard  of  several  instances  in  which  the  enraged 
animal  has  completely  stripped  the  bark  from  the  trunk  of  a  large 
tree  by  strikiug  with  its  fore  feet" 

With  respect  to  the  food  of  the  Moose  the  same  traveller  says, 
"  Their  legs  are  so  long,  and  their  necks*  so  short,  that  they  cannot 
graze  on  the  level  ground  like  other  animals,  but  are  obliged  to 
browse  on  the  tops  of  large  plants  and  the  leaves  of  trees  in  the 
summer,  and  in  winter  they  always  feed  on  the  tops  of  willows  and 
the  small  branches  of  the  birch-tree,  on  which  account  they  are  never 
found  during  that  season  but  in  such  places  as  can  afford  them  a 
plentiful  supply  of  their  favourite  food ;  and  although  they  have  no 
fore  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  yet  I  have  often  seen  w&lo>%s  and  small 
birch-trees  cropped  by  them  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  had  been 
cut  by  a  gardener's  shears,  though  some  of  them  were  not  smaller 
than  a  common  pipe-stem.  They  seem  particularly  partial  to  red 
willows"  {Comu8  alba).     To  the  eastward  of  the  Rodry  Mountains 


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CEBYIDA 


CERVID^ 


the  eTogreen  leavee  of  the  WaUUria  ShaUon  fonn,  aocording  to 
Lewia  and  Clark,  a  £BtToiirite  part  of  tho  food  of  the  mooBendeer. 

Mr.  Lloyd  ('  Field  Sporta  of  the  North  of  Europe/  yoL  il)  observes 
that  the  iUk  was  at  one  time  numerous  in  most  parts  of  Sweden 
and  Norway;  but  owing  to  the  incjeased  population  and  other 
cauMB  it  is  now  only  to  be  met  with  in  particular  distriots.  In 
Scania,  he  adds^  the  most  southern  piovinoe  of  SwedeUi  where  elks 
once  abounded,  none  are  now  to  be  found. 

H.  Nilsson  states  that  the  Elk  cannot  endure  so  cold  a  climate  as 
the  stag,  64"  of  latitude  bein^  the  extreme  limit  at  which  it  is  met 
with  in  the  Scandinavian  penmsula. 

Mr.  Llovd  states  that  the  period  of  gestation  is  about  nine  months, 
and  that  the  female  brings  forth  about  the  middle  of  May  from  one 
to  three  youpg  ones ;  bat  it  Is  seldom  that  she  has  more  than  two. 
At  this  period  the  mother  retires  alone  to  the  wildest  recesses  of 
the  forest  After  a  lapse  of  two  or  tluree  days,  the  fawns,  which  are 
of  a  light  brown  colour,  have  sufficient  strength  to  follow  their  dam 
everywhere;  they  keep  with  her  until  they  are  in  their  third  year, 
when  she  leaves  uiem  to  shift  for  themselves. 

Mr.  Lloyd  thus  describes  tiie  habits  and  uses  of  the  European  Elk : 
—"The  elk  is  a  long-lived  animal;  he  does  not  attain  to  his  ^11 
growth  until  after  his  fourteenth  year.  At  leaat  so  it  is  to  be 
presumed,  as  up  to  that  period  his  horns,  which  are  of  a  fiat  form, 
are  annually  provided  with  an  additional  branch.  He  sheda  Ids 
honia  about  the  month  of  February  in  each  year.  The  female  elk, 
unlike  the  rein-deer  of  that  sex,  has  no  horns.  The  horns  of  the 
young  male  elk  are  perceptible  nine  months  after  its  birth :  for  the 
first  year  they  are  cylindncal  and  short;  the  second  year  they  are 
about  a  foot  in  length,  but  not  branched ;  .the  third  year  two  points 
are  disoemible ;  the  fourth  year  three ;  Uie  fifth  year  they  are  full 
grown  in  Ita^^  From  that  time  forward  thev  yearly  increase  in 
breadth  and  m  the  number  of  branches  until  there  are  as  many  as 
fourteen  on  each  hom. 

"By  nature  the  elk  is  timorouSi  and  he  usually  flies  at  the  sight 
of  man.  In  the  rutting  season,  however,  like  other  animals  of  the 
deer  kind,  he  is  at  times  rather  dangerous.  His  weapons  are  his 
horns  and  hoofs ;  he  strikes  so  foroiUy  with  the  latter  as  to  annihilate 


a  wolf  or  other  laige  animal  at  a  single  blow.  It  is  said  that  when 
the  elk  is  incensed,  the  hair  on  his  neck  bristles  up  like  the  mane  of 
a  lion,  which  gives  him  a  wild  and  frightful  appearance. 

"  llie  usual  pace  of  the  elk  is  a  high  shambling  trot,  andlus  strides 
are  immense,  but  I  have  known  him  when  frightened  to  go  at  a 
tremendous  gallop.  In  passing  through  thick  woods  he  carries  his 
horns  hoiisontallv,  to  prevent  them  fh>m  being  entangled  in  the 
branches.  From  the  formation  of  his  hoofs  he  mokes  a  great  clattering, 
like  the  rein-deer  when  in  rapid  motion.  In  the  simimer  season  the 
elk  usually  resorts  to  morasses  and  low  situations;  for,  like  other 
animals  of  the  deer  kind,  he  frequently  takes  to  the  water  in  warm 
weather ;  he  is  an  admirable  swimmer.  In  the  winter  time  he  retires 
to  the  more  sheltered  parts  of  the  forest,  where  willow,  ash,  &a  are 
to  bo  found;  as  from  the  small  boughs  of  these  trees  he  obtains  his 
sustenance  during  that  period  of  the  year.  In  the  summer  and 
autumn  the  elk  is  often  to  be  met  with  in  small  herds,  but  in  the 
winter  there  are  seldom  more  than  two  or  three  in  company.  At 
the  latter  season  indeed  he  is  frequently  alone. 

"The  flesh  of  the  elk,  whether  fresh  or  smoked,  is  very  excellent; 
the  young  are  particularly  delicious.  According  to  Mr.  Nilsson,  it 
resembles  in  taste  that  of  the  stag.  The  tongue  and  the  nose  are 
thought  to  be  great  delicacies  in  £andinavia  as  well  as  in  America. 
Great  virtue  was  once  placed  in  the  hoof  of  that  animal,  as  parings 
of  it  were  supposed  to  be  a  specific  against  the  falling  sickness  and 
other  diKmlers;  but  this  idle  notion  must  by  this  time,  I  should 
think,  be  nearly  exploded.  The  skin  is  convertible  to  many  purposes, 
and  is  vezy  valuable.  Mr.  Qreiff  says : — '  It  is  not  long  since  that  a 
regiment  was  clothed  with  waistcoats  made  from  the  hides  of  those 
animals,  which  were  so  thick  tiiat  a  ball  oould  scarcely  penetrate 
them.'  He  adds  further,  tixat  *  when  made  into  breeches,  a  pair  of 
them  among  the  peasantiy  of  former  days  went  as  a  legacy  for 
several  generations. 

**  The  elk  is  easily  domesticated :  several  instances  have  come  to 
my  knowledge.  I  had  a  fawn  in  my  own  possession  a  year  ago,  but 
from  want  ox  proper  nurture  it  died.  Formerly  these  animals  were 
made  use  of  in  Sweden  to  draw  sledges,  but  owing;  as  it  was  said,  to 
their  speed  frequently  accelerating  the  escape  of  people  who  had  been 
guilty  of  murders,  or  other  crimes,  the  use  of  uem  was  prohibited 
under  great  penalties.  Though  I  apprehend  those  ordinances  if  not 
abrogated  are  obsolete,  I  am  not  aware  that  the  elk  is  ever  made  use 
of  in  that  kingdom  at  the  present  day,  either  to  draw  a  sledge  or 
for  other  domestio  purposes. 

"In  Sweden,  as  I  have  observed,  it  is  contrary  to  law  at  this 
particular  time  to  kill  the  elk  at  any  season  of  the  year :  this  is  not 
the  case  in  Norwav ;  for  in  that  countrv  as  I  have  just  shown,  these 
^mmals  may  be  destroyed  vrith  certam  limitations  as  to  numbers, 
from  the  Ist  of  July  to  the  1st  of  November  inclusive.  The  penalty 
however  for  killing  an  elk  out  of  season  In  Norway  is  very  much 
heavier  than  in  Sweden ;  it  amounts  indeed,  including  legal  expenses, 
Ac.,  to  about  20Z.,  which  is  no  inconsiderable  sum  in  that  kingdouL" 
(Uoyd,  'Northern  Field  Sports,'  voL  ii  p.  829  et  seq.) 

*AT.  mt,  DIV.  yOL.  L 


2.  Tarandui  Mangier  (Bonaparte),  the  Rein-Deer.  This  animal  has  a 
multitude  of  synonyms.  It  is  the  Cervua  Tarandus,  Linnaeus ;  Oervui 
Bangifer,  Ray ;  Cervm  Grosnkmdieut,  Brisson ;  Cervui  coronaiutf  Geofi&oy; 
Rangifer  Taramdut,  Gray ;  Cenmapalmatutf  Johnston ;  Tarandus,  PUny ; 
Bangtfer,  Gesner ;  the  Rein-Deer,  Caribou,  and  Greenland  Buck  of 
English  writers ;  Renthier,  Renhirsch  of  the  Germans ;  Renne  of 
Buffon;  Carreboeuf  of  the  French  Canadians;  and  Oleen  of  the 
Russians.  Several  varieties  have  been  recognised ;  amongst  others,  a 
small  variety  which  goes  by  the  following  names : — 

1.  Woodland  Caribou. 

2.  Great  Caribou  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
8.  Labrador  or  Polar  Caribou. 

4.  Siberian  Rein-Deer. 

5.  Newfoundland  Caribou. 

On  this  animal  Dr.  J,  R  Gray  observes  that  it  "varies  exceedingly 
in  size.  In  the  British  Museum  there  are  spedmens  varying  from 
41  to  50  inches  high  at  the  withers." 

Richardson  observes, ''  There  are  two  well-marked  and  permanent 
varieties  of  Caribou  that  inhabit  the  Fur  Countries :  one  of  them 
(Woodland  Caribou)  confined  to  the  woody  and  more  southern  district ; 
and  the  other  (Barren-Ground  Caribou)  retiring  to  the  woods  only 
in  the  winter,  but  passing  the  summer  on  the  coast  of  the  Arctic 
Seas,  or  on  the  Barren  Grounds  so  often  mentioned  in  this  work." 
('Faun.  Bor.-Amer.,* p.  299.) 

The  large  Siberian  variety  is  ridden  on  by  the  Timgusians.  They 
also  use  them  for  draughty  as  the  Laplanders  do  the  smaller 
variety. 

They  have  a  laige  variety  in  Newfoundland,  i^early  as  large  as  a 
heifer.  They  have  very  large  and  heavy  horns.  There  are  some 
horns  of  this  variety  in  the  British  MuseunL  Dr.  Middendorf 
informed  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  that  the  horns  of  the  large  Siberian  variety 
were  as  laige  as  and  greatiy  resembled  the  horns  from  Newfoundland 
in  the  Museum  collection. 

PaUas  observes,  "Americas  forte  oontinuo,  gregatim  vemo  tempore 
per  glades  admigrant,  paido  diverai  k  Siberia  urguibinis  et  vero- 
sindllime  AmericanL"    r  ZooL  Ross.  AsiaV  L  208.) 

In  winter  the  hair  of  the  Rein-Deer  is  long,  thick,  gray-brown ; 
neck,  rump,  belly,  ring  round  the  hoo^  and  end  of  nose^  white.  In 
sunmier  the  same  animal  has  short  daric  sooty-brown  hair,  with  the 
parts  which  are  white  in  winter  being  rather  paler  gray-brown. 

The  tame  Rhendeer,  or  Rein-Deer,  of  the  Laplanders^  is,  according 
to  Hoffberg  ('  Amen.  Acad.,'  voL  iv.),  at  the  end  of  his  back  an  Sfi 
and  a  half  high,  and  his  length,  from  horns  to  tail,  is  two  ells,  whilst 
from  the  navel  to  the  back-^ne  he  measures  threeK^uarters  of  an  elL 
On  casting  his  coat  his  hair  is  at  first  brownish-yellow,  but  as  the 
dog-days  approach  it  becomes  whiter,  till  it  is  at  last  almost  entirely 
wmte.  Round  the  eye  the  colour  is  always  black.  The  longest  hair 
is  under  the  neck ;  the  mouth,  tail,  and  paaianear  the  latter  are  white, 
and  the  feet,  at  the  insertion  of  the  hoof,  are  surrounded  with  a  white 
ring.  The  hair  of  the  body  is  so  thick  that  the  skin  cannot  be  seen 
when  it  is  put  aside,  for  it  stands  erect,  as  in  other  animals  of  the  same 
genus,  but  is  much  thicker.  When  the  hair  is  oast  it  does  not  come 
awav  with  the  root,  but  breaks  at  the  base. 

The  horns  are  cylindrical,  with  a  short  branch  behind,  compressed 
at  l^e  top  and  palmated  with  many  sogments,  beginning  to  curve 
back  in  the  middle,  and  an  ell  and  a  quarter  long.  A  single  branch 
sometimes,  but  seldom  two,  springs  from  each  hom  in  front,  very  near 
the  base,  frequently  equaUing  the  length  of  the  head,  compressed 
at  the  top  and  branched.  The  distance  between  the  tips  equals  the 
length. 

The  horns  of  the  female  are  like  those  of  the  male,  but  less,  more 
slender,  and  not  so  much  branched.  She  has  four  true  paps  and  two 
false  ones. 

The  horns  grow  in  the  usual  manner,  and  during  the  early  part  of 
theur  growth  are  extremely  sensible,  and  suffer  from  the  clouds  of 
gnats  {pulex  pifpiefM)  that  form  one  of  the  persecutions  of  both  deer 
and  owner.  About  autumn,  before  rutting  time,  they  have  become 
hard,  and  the  velvet  is  rubbed  off  Tovrards  the  end  of  November 
the  male  loses  his  horns,  but  the  female  retains  hers  till  she  brings 
forth ;  if  barren,  she  drops  them  in  the  beginning  of  November. 
The  wild  animal  grows  to  a  much  larger  size  than  those  which  are 
tamed. 

Geo^gnuphical  Distribution. — ^Northern  Europe,  Asia,  and  America. 
Captain  James  Clark  Ross,  in  the  Appendix  to  Sir  John  Ross's  '  Last 
Voyage,'  says  that  although  this  animal  was  seen  in  great  numbers  on 
the  isthmus  of  Boothia,  only  one  individual  was  killed  in  the  course 
of  their  late  voyage.  It  was  a  fine  buck,  of  larger  sise  than  ordinary, 
and  weighed  250  lbs. ;  the  average  of  those  killed  at  Spitsbergen  and 
Melville  Island  did  not  exceed  half  that  weight  The  does  arrive 
about  the  middle  of  April,  the  bucks  nearlv  a  month  later ;  and  herds 
of  several  hundreds  were  seen  about  the  isthmus  towards  the  end  oi 
May.  Although  they  migrate  towards  the  middle  of  September  to 
milder  dimes,  yet  stragglers  are  occasionally  seen  in  the  winter. 
They  are  indeed  spread,  as  Mr.  Bennett  observes,  "  abundantiy 
through  all  the  habitable  parts  of  the  arctic  ragions  and  the  neigh- 
bouring countries^  extending  in  the  New  Continent  to  a  much  lower 
latitude  than  in  the  Old,  and  passing  still  farther  south  on  all  the 
prindpal  mountain  chains.    In  America  the  aouthem  limit  of  tfa* 

8  1 


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CERVIDJS, 


CBRVIDJ3. 


Ka 


HMds  of  two  old  book  Caribou  of  the  Barren  Groonda.    From  Sir  John 
llichardaon'a  cnta  taken  from  Captain  Back'a  drawinga. 

Bein-Deer  across  nearly  the  whole  continent  appears  to  be  about  the 
parallel  of  Quebec ;  but  the  animal  is  most  numerous  between  68** 
and  66**  N.  lat.  Passing  westward  it  is  said  to  be  unknown  in  the  islands 
interposed  between  America  and  Asia,  but  is  again  abimdant  in 
Kamtohatka,  throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  Siberia,  in  Northern 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  and  more  especially  in  Finmark  and 
Lapland.  In  these  latter  countries  the  numbers  of  the  few  wild  herds 
that  still  exist  are  suffering  a  constant  diminution,  every  art  being 
put  in  practice  by  the  hardy  natives  to  reclaim  and  domesticate  an 
animal  which  constitutes  their  sole  property,  the  source  of  all  their 
comforts,  and  the  very  means  of  their  existence ;  without  which 
their  land  would  actually  be,  as  at  a  first  glance  it  seems,  a  bleak 
and  uninhabitable  desert.  According  to  M.  Cuvier,  the  Baltic  forms 
iu  Europe  its  southern  limit;  in  Asia  however  it  extends  along  the 
Ural  chain  to  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus ;  and  we  have  the  authority 
of  a  passage  in  C»sar^s  '  Commentaries,'  which  can  scarcely  apply  to 
any  other  animal,  for  its  having  existed  in  his  day  in  the  Hercynian 
Forest.  The  boundariee  of  thifi  immense  tract  of  woodland  are 
certainly  not  very  well  defined ;  but  this  location  would  imply,  at 
all  events,  a  more  southern  European  habitat  than  any  that  is  at 
present  known.  Again,  crossing  the  ocean,  we  find  the  Rein-Deer 
at  Spitsbergen,  in  Greenland,  and  in  Newfoimdland ;  but  it  has 
been  said  by  Pennant,  and  this  haa  been  repeated  by  Sir  John 
Richardson,  iu  his  valuable  zoology  of  the  Fur  Countries  of  North 
Ampric.1,  Dot  to  be  known  in  Iceland.  This  statement,  which  was 
scarcely  true  at  the  time  when  Pennant  wrote,  is  not  by  any  means 
correct  as  refers  to  the  present  day.  About  eighty  years  since,  as 
we  learn  from  Van  Troils  'Letters  on  Iceland,'  thirteen  of  these 
animals  were  imported  from  Norway,  ten  of  which  dying  on  the 
passage,  only  three  wero  landed.  These  were  turned  out  into  the 
mountains,  and  have  since  multiplied  to  such  an  extent  in  the  interior 
and  imfrequented  parts  of  the  coxmtry  that  their  progeny  was  esti- 
mated by  Coimt  IVampe,  the  governor,  in  1860,  the  period  of  Dr. 
Hooker's  visit,  at  no  less  than  5000  head.  Herds  of  forty,  sixty,  or 
even  a  hundred  individuals,  are  said,  both  by  Dr.  Hooker  and  by  Sir 


George  Mackenzie,  who  visited  the  island  in  the  foUowbg  Bommer, 
to  be  not  imoommon  in  the  mountains.  'They  are  however  of  little 
use  to  the  inhabitants,  who  have  made  no  attempts  to  domettictte 
them,  and  are  too  poor  to  purchase  powder  and  baU  for  their  destriK- 
tion.  It  does  not  appear  indeed,  that  they  are  much  sought  after, 
the  cow  and  the  sheep  thriving  extremely  well  upon  the  jshod,  and 
supplying  the  place  of  the  deer  in  almost  every  respect  We  mar 
add,  that  according  to  Mr.  (Sir  Arthur)  Brooke,  an  importatioii 
of  six  bucks  and  twenty-four  does  took  place  in  1777,  about  leres 
years  after  the  period  of  the  first  introduction  of  the  animal  into 
IceLmd."  ('(hardens  and  Menagerie  of  the  Zoological  Sodetr/ 
VOL  i) 

The  size  of  the  Rein-Deer,  widely  spread  as  it  is,  varies  very  muck 
according  to  the  accidents  of  climate ;  and  if  authors  are  to  be  cre- 
dited their  weight  ranges  from  60  to  400  Ibe.    The  latter  is  probablj 
an  exaggeration,  but  it  is  evident  that  the  weight  increases  in  propo^ 
tion  to  the  proximity  of  the  animal  to  the  Pole.    According  to  Sir 
John  RichardUon,  the  bucks  of  the  variety  called  the  Barren-Gromd 
Caribou  weigh,  exclusive  of  the  ofGal,  when  in  good  condition,  from 
I  90  to  180  lbs.,  whilst  he  describes  the  Woodland  Caribou  as  much 
i  hocger ;  and  Captain  (Sir  John)  Franklin  makes  the  wei^t  of  the 
I  latter  from   200  to  240  lbs.      The  buck  killed  on  the  isthntu  of 
;  Boothia  was,  as  we  have  seen,  250  lbs. ;  while  the  average  of  tbei 
I  killed  at  Spitzbeigen  and  on  Melville  Island  did  not  exceed  half  tbt 
I  weight.    The  Rein-Deer  of  Norway  and  Sweden  are  diminutive  when 
compared  with  those  of  Finmark  and  Lapland,  which  in  their  torn 
yield  to  tiiose  of  Spitsbeiigen ;  and  these  again  fall  short  of  the  mora 
;  FoIbt  races.    The  sledge^eer  of  the  Laplanders  are  small  i^en  com- 
'  pared  with  those  reared  by  the  Tungusians  of  the  nori^  of  Asia,  wh 
ride  upon  them. 

The  food  of  the  Rein-Deer  varies  with  the  seasons  and  the  dimata 
Lapland,  says  Hoffberg,  in  the  memoir  above  quoted,  is  divided  into 
two  tracks,  called  the  alpine  and  woodland  country.  Those  inmieoae 
moimtains  called  in  Sweden  Fjellen  divide  that  country  fiomKorvij, 
extending  towards  the  White  Sea  as  fkr  as  Russia,  and  are  frequently 
more  than  twelve  miles  in  breadth.  The  other,  called  the  woodUDd 
division,  lies  to  the  east  of  this,  and  differs  from,  the  neighbouiis; 
provinces  of  Norway  by  its  soil,  which  is  exceedingly  stony  and  bams, 
being  covered  with  one  continued  tract  of  wood,  of  old  pine-treo. 
This  tract  has  a  very  singular  appearance.  The  trees  above  an? 
covered  over  with  great  quantities  of  a  black  hanging  lichen,  gn-iwii. 
in  filaments  i-esembling  locks  of  hair,  while  we  ground  beccn'b 
appears  like  snow,  being  totaUy  covered  with  white  lichena  Betvreii 
this  wood  and  the  Alps  lies  a  region  called  the  Woodland,  or  Desert 
Lapmaro,  of  80  or  40  miles  in  breadth,  of  the  most  savage  and  horrid 
appearance,  consisting  of  scattered  uncultivated  woods  and  contisned 
plains  of  diy  barren  sand  mixed  with  vast  lakes  and  moiintana 
When  the  mosses  on  part  of  this  desert  tract  have  been  burnt,  eitkr 
by  lightning  or  any  accidental  fire,  the  barren  soil  inmiediatelv  pro- 
duces the  white  lidien  which  covers  the  lower  parts  of  the  Alpa  The 
Rein-Deer  in  summer  seek  their  highest  parts,  and  there  dwell  amidst 
their  storms  and  snows,  not  to  fly  the  heat  of  the  lower  regions,  bnt 
to  avoid  the  gnat  and  gad-fly.  In  winter  these  intensely  cold  moos- 
tains,  whose  tops  reach  high  into  the  atmosphere,  can  no  longer 
support  them,  and  they  are  obliged  to  return  to  the  desert,  and 
subsist  upon  the  lichens.  Of  these  its  principal  food  is  the  rein-deer 
lichen.  There  are,  says  Hoffbeiig,  two  varieties  of  this ;  the  first  is 
called  Lichen  syVoeatriSy  which  is  extremely  common  in  the  bamn 
deserts  of  Lapland,  and  more  partioulariy  in  its  snndy  and  gnvcllj 
fields,  which  it  whitens  over  like  snow ;  its  vast  marshes,  fall  of 
tussocks  of  turf,  and  its  dry  rocks  are  quite  grov^n  over  by  it  Tie 
second  variety  of  this  plant,  which  is  less  frequent  than  the  former,  is 
named  the  Alpine ;  this  grows  to  a  greater  height^  with  its  branch  :3 
matted  together :  it  has  this  name  because  when  tliose  mountains  &re 
cleared  of  their  wood  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  is  covered  with 
it ;  yet  it  is  seldom  to  be  found  on  their  tops.  When  the  voo-i^ 
become  too  luxuriant  the  Laplander  sets  fire  to  them,  as  experience 
has  taught  him  that  when  the  vegetables  are  thus  destroyed,  the 
lichen  takes  root  in  the  barren  soil  and  multiplies  with  facilitv; 
though  it  requires  an  interval  of  eight  or  ten  years  before  it  comes  to 
a  proper  height.  The  Laplander  esteems  himself  opulent  who  ba 
extensive  deserts  producing  this  plant  exuberantly.  When  it  whitens 
over  his  fields  he  is  under  no  necessity  of  gathering  in  a  crop  of  hay 
against  the  approach  of  winter,  as  the  Rein-Deer  eats  no  dried  vegetAbK\ 
unless  perhaps  the  River  Horsetail  (Equiaetum  JluviatiU).  Thev  too"* 
j  for  this  lichen  under  the  snow  like  swine  in  a  pasture ;  their  foreheads, 
nose,  and  feet  are  guarded  with  a  hard  skin  closely  attached  to  tho^e 
parts  that  they  may  not  be  hurt  by  the  icy  crust  which  covers  the 
surface  of  the  snow.  The  very  strong  shoes  which  the  Lq)I&ndcr 
esteems  so  much  are  made  of  those  parts  of  the  hide.  It  sometimes 
happens  (but  very  rarely)  that  the  winter  sets  in  with  great  raina, 
which  the  frost  immediately  congeals ;  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
covered  with  a  coat  of  ice  before  the  snow  falls,  and  the  lichen  is 
entirely  encrusted  and  buried  in  it :  thus  the  Rein-Deer  is  sometimes 
stMrved,  and  a  famine  attacks  the  Laplanders.  In  sudi  an  exigence 
they  have  no  other  resource  than  that  of  felling  old  fip-treea  grown 
over  with  the  hairy  liverworla.  These  afford  but  a  very  inadeqaate 
supply  even  for  a  small  herd,  but  the  greater  part  of  a  large  one,  ia 


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CERVIDiE. 


854 


such  a  case,  is  sure  to  perish  with  hunger.  In  the  summer,  when  the 
Bein-Deer  ranges  upon  the  Alps,  a  number  of  plants  a£ford  it  food. 
Hagstrom  states  that  it  refuses  to  eat  46  species,  the  names  of  which 
he  gives.  Richardson  states  that  the  Barren-Ground  Caribou,  which 
resort  to  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  Sea  in  summer,  retire  in  winter 
to  the  woods  lying  between  68°  and  66°  N.  lat,  where  they  feed  on 
the  UmecR,  Aleetoria,  and  other  lichens  which  hang  from  the  trees 
and  on  the  long  grass  of  the  swamps.  About  the  end  of  April,  when 
the  partial  m^l^  of  the  snow  has  softened  the  CetraruXf  Oomictt- 
laricB,  and  Cenomyea,  which  clothe  the  Barren  Grounds  like  a  carpet, 
they  make  short  excursions  from  the  woods,  but  return  to  them  when 
the  weather  is  frosty.  In  May  the  females  proceed  towards  the  sea- 
coast,  and  towards  the  end  of  June  the  males  are  in  full  march  in 
the  same  direction.  At  that  period  the  s\m  has  dried  up  the  lichens 
on  the  Barren  Grounds,  and  the  Caribou  frequent  the  moist  pastures 
which  cover  the  bottoms  of  the  narrow  valleys  on  the  coasts  and 
islands  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  where  they  graze  on  the  sprouting  CariceSj 
and  on  the  withered  grass  or  hay  of  the  preceding  year,  which  is  at 
that  period  still  standing  and  retaining  part  of  its  sap.  Their  spring 
journey  is  performed  partly  on  the  snow,  and  partly,  after  tiie  snow 
has  disappeared,  on  the  ice  covering  the  rivers  and  lakes,  which  have 
in  general  a  northerly  direction.  Soon  after  their  arrivid  on  the  coast 
the  females  drop  their  yoimg;  they  commence  their  return  to  the 
south  in  September,  and  reach  the  vicinity  of  the  woods  towards  the 
end  of  October,  where  they  are  joined  by  the  males.  This  journey 
takes  place  after  the  snow  has  fallen,  and  they  scrape  it  away  with 
their  feet  to  procure  the  lichens,  which  are  then  tender  and  pulpy, 
being  preserved  moist  and  unfrozen  bv  the  heat  still  remaining  in  the 
earth.  Except  in  the  rutting  season,  tne  bulk  of  the  males  and  females 
live  separately ;  the  former  retire  deeper  into  the  woods  in  the  winter, 
whilst  herds  of  the  pregnant  does  stay  on  the  iJdrts  of  the  Barren 
Grounds,  and  proceed  to  the  coast  very  early  in  the  sprine.  Captain 
(Sir  William)  Parry  saw  deer  on  Melville  peninsula  as  Tate  as  the 
23rd  of  September,  and  the  females  with  their  fawns  made  their  &r8t 
appearance  on  the  22nd  of  April.  The  males  in  general  do  not  go  so 
far  north  as  the  females.  On  the  coast  of  Hudson's  Bay  the  Bmen- 
Ground  Caribou  migrate  farther  south  than  those  on  the  Coppermine 
River  or  Mackenzie  River,  but  none  of  them  go  to  tht  souUiward  of 
the  ChurchilL  The  lichens  on  which  the  Caribou  principally  feed  whilst 
on  the  Barren  Grounds  are  Cwnkukena  trittiif  O,  divergens,  and  C. 
ochriUucOf  Cetraria  nivcdit,  0.  cucvUaJtctf  and  C,  lalandica,  and 
Cenomyce  rwngiferincu  {'  Faima  Boreali-Americana.')  In  the  isthmus 
of  Boothia  the  Rein-Deer  does  arrived  about  ihe  middle  of  April,  the 
bucks  nearly  a  month  later ;  and  herds  of  several  hundreds  were  seen 
about  the  isthmus  towards  the  end  of  May.  Numbers  of  the  fawns, 
-which  at  that  period  are  in  a  very  woEik  state,  are  killed  by  the 
natives,  who  hunt  them  with  their  dogs ;  and  the  does  themselves 
often  ftU  yiotims  to  their  attachment  to  their  ofbpring.  Captain 
James  Ross  states  that  the  Rein-Deer  feeds  on  the  UinecB,  Aledoria, 
Cetraria,  and  other  lichens  in  the  early  part  of  spring ;  but  as  the 
Bummer  advances  the  young  and  tender  grass  fattens  them  so  quickly 
that  in  August  they  have  been  killed  witih  several  inches  thick  of  fiit 
on  their  haimches.  In  this  state  the  meat  is  equal  to  the  finest  Eng- 
lish venison,  but  is  most  tasteless  and  insipid  when  in  poor  condition. 
(Appendix  to  Sir  John  Ross's  '  Last  Voyage.') 

The  Caribou  travel  in  herds  varying  in  number  ftam  eight  or  ten  to 
two  or  three  hundred ;  their  daily  excursions  being  generally  towards 
the  quarter  from  which  the  wind  blows.  The  In£ans  kill  tiiem  with 
bows  and  arrows  or  guns,  sometimes  approaching  by  means  of  a  dis- 
gfuise,  sometimes  taking  advantage  of  rocks  or  other  shelter,  and 
always  greatly  assisted  by  the  curiosity  and  imsuspecting  nature  of 
the  deer  themselves.  They  also  take  the  Rein-Deer  m  snares,  or  spear 
them  as  they  are  crossing  rivers  or  lakes.  The  Esquimaux  take  them 
in  traps  ingeniously  formed  of  ice  and  snow.  A  single  fiunily  of 
Indians  will  sometimes  destroy  two  or  three  hundred  in  a  few  weeks ; 
and  in  many  cases  they  are  killed  for  the  sake  of  their  tongues  alone. 
The  reader  will  find  a  graphic  account  of  the  Esquimaux  method  of 
taking  them  in  Captam  Lyon's  'Private  Journal,'  p.  386;  and  a 
description  of  the  oeer  found  in  use  among  the  Chepewyans  (Chip- 
peways),  in  Heame.  Sir  John  Franklin  relates  the  ingenious  methods 
pursued  by  the  Copper  Indians  and  Dog-Ribs.  Captain  James  Ross 
remarks  that  the  natives  of  Boothia  seldom  hunt  the  Rein-Deer  in  the 
spring,  and  then  the  bow  and  arrow  is  the  onlv  mode  of  kiUing  it ; 
but  in  the  autumn,  as  the  animals  return  from  the  north  in  fine  con- 
dition, they  are  destroyed  in  great  numbers  by  parties  of  the  natives 
driving  them  into  the  water,  whilst  others  in  canoes  kill  them  with 
spears  at  their  leisure. 

Utility  to  Man. — To  the  Laplander  particularly  the  Rein-Deer  is 
all  in  alL  According  to  Hoffbeig,  the  mountaineer  very  often  pos- 
sesses three  or  four  himdred  or  even  a  thousand  head ;  the  woodman 
very  rarely  above  one  hundred.  As  a  domestic  aniznal,  yielding  a 
quantity  of  the  most  delicious  food,  and  occupying  the  place  of  the 
cow  and  the  ox,  it  is  invaluable.  As  a  beast  of  biirden  its  importance 
is  equally  great,  and  its  organisation  is  adapted  to  the  icy  wastes,  over 
which  it  rorms  the  Laplander's  sole  medium  of  communication,  no 
less  than  that  of  the  camel  is  framed  for  those  arid  deserts  which 
without  the  latter  animal  would  be  impassable.  The  weight  which  it 
can  draw  when  harnessed  to  a  sledge  is  said  to  be  800  lbs. ;  but  240  lbs. 


form  the  general  limit  of  the  burden.  The  tales  told  of  its  swiftness, 
when  thus  employed,  would  appear  almost  incredible  if  not  so  well 
attested  as  the^  are.  In  a  race  of  three  deer  with  light  sledges  started 
by  Pictet,  who  went  to  the  north  of  Lapland  in  1769  to  observe  the 
transit  of  Venus,  the  first  performed  3089ft.  Sin.  and  j^  in  two 
minutes,  molring  a  rate  of  nearly  19  English  miles  an  nour;  the 
second  went  over  the  same  ground  in  three  minutes,  and  the  last  in 
three  minutes  twenty-six  seconds.  One  is  recorded  to  have  drawn  an 
officer  with  important  dispatches,  in  1699,  800  English  miles  in  forty- 
eight  hours ;  and  the  portrait  of  the  poor  deer,  which  fell  dead  at  the 
end  of  its  wonderful  journey,  is  still  preserved  in  the  palace  of  Drot- 
ningholm  in  Sweden.  Journeys  of  150  miles  in  niueteen  hours  are 
said  not  to  be  xmcommon. 

To  the  natives  of  North  America  the  Rein-Deer  is  onlv  known  as  a 
beast  of  chase,  but  it  is  a  most  important  one :  there  ia  hardly  a  part 
of  the  animal  which  is  not  made  available  to  some  useful  purpose^ 
Clothing  made  of  the  skin  is,  according  to  Richardson,  so  impervious 
to  the  cold,  that,  with  the  addition  of  a  blanket  of  the  same  material, 
any  one  so  clothed  may  bivouack  on  the  snow  with  safety  in  the  most 
intense  cold  of  an  arctic  winter's  night.  The  venison,  when  in  high 
condition,  has  several  inches  of  fat  on  the  haunches,  and  is  said  to 
equal  that  of  the  fiillow-deer  in  our  best  British  parks ;  the  tongue 
and  some  of  the  tripe  are  reckoned  most  delicious  morsels.  Pemmican 
is  formed  by  pouring  one-third  part  of  melted  fat  over  the  pounded 
meat  and  mcorporating  them  well  together.  The  Esquimaux  and 
Greenlanders  consider  the  stomach  or  paunch,  with  its  contents,  a 
great  delicacy,  and  Captain  James  Ross  says  that  those  contents  form 
the  only  vegetable  food  which  the  natives  of  Boothia  ever  taste. 
(Richardson's '  Fauna  Boreali-Americaiia.') 


Rein-Deer  {Tarandm  Sang\fer), 

Highly  excellent  as  an  article  of  food,  and  useful  domestically  as 
this  animal  is,  we  do  not  think  that  it  can  ever  be  introduced  with 
much  success  into  the  British  Islands.  Not  that  there  would  be  much 
difficulty  about  the  food  for  the  deer ;  it  is  space  that  is  wanting.  A 
long  succession  of  generations  would  be  required  before  the  migratory 
habits  of  the  Rein-Deer  could  be  got  rid  of,  and  possessing  as  we  do 
the  best  venison,  and  the  finest  breed  of  homed  cattle  and  horses, 
there  seems  no  very  good  reason  for  repeating  the  experiments  which 
have  already  been  tried  and  have  failed. 

8.  CervuB  Canadentis,  the  Wapiti.  This  animal  is  the  Wapiti  Stag  of 
Pennant,  '  Arctic  Zool.' ;  Wewaskiss  of  Heame ;  Waskeesews,  or  Red- 
Deer,  of  Hutchins ;  Red-Deer  of  Uinfreville ;  the  Elk  of  Lewis  and 
Clark ;  the  American  Elk  of  Bewick ;  Wapiti  of  Barton  and  Warden ; 
Le  Wapiti  of  F.  Cuvier ;  the  Wapiti  {C.  Strongvlocerot)  of  Smith ; 
Red  Deer  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Traders ;  La  Biche  of  the  Canadian 
Voyageurs;  Wawaskeedio,  Awaskees,  and  Moostosh,  of  the  Cree 
Indians  (Richardson).  It  is  also  Le  Cerf  du  Canada  of  Cuvier,  who 
makes  it  the  C.  Canadenait  of  Gmelin  (Bufibn),  and  C.  Strcngyloceroa 
of  Schreber ;  and  Cerf  Wapiti  of  Lesson,  who  states  it  to  be  (7.  Wapiti 
of  Mitchdl  and  C.  tnajor  of  Ord.  It  may  be  also  the  Stag  of 
Carolina  of  Lawson,  but  he  describes  it  as  "  not  so  laige  as  in  Europe, 
but  much  laxger  than  any  fidlow-deer ; "  and  he  says  they  are  always 
fiit  with  some  delicate  herbage  that  grows  on  the  hills,  whereas  the 
modem  travellera  describe  the  Wapiti  as  frequenting  the  savannahs 
or  the  clumps  of  wood  that  skirt  the  plains.  There  is  hardly  any 
doubt  that  it  is  the  Stag  of  America  {C.  major  Americanut)  of 
Catesby.  '<Tlus  beast,"  says  the  author  last  named,  "nearest 
resembles  the  European  red  deer  in  colour,  shape,  and  form  of  the 
horns,  though  it  is  a  much  larger  animal  and  of  stronger  make. 
Their  horns  are  not  palmated  but  round,  a  pair  of  which  weighs 
upwards  of  thirty  pounds.  They  usuall;^  accompany  bufibloes 
(Bisons^,  with  whom  they  range  in  droves  m  the  upper  and  remote 
parts  ox  Carolina,  where,  as  w^  as  in  our  other  colonies,  they  are 
improperly  mlled  Elks.    The  French  in  America  call  this  beast  Htui 


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Canada  Stag.  In  new  England  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Qrav 
MooBei  to  diatingniRh  it  from  the  preceding  beast  (the  True  Elk)  which 
they  call  the  Black  Moose."  Kichardson  states  that  it  is  without 
doubt  the  Canada  Stag  of  yarious  authors;  but,  as  F.  Cuvier  has 
observed,  the  want  of  a  pale  mark  on  the  rump  in  Perrault's  figure  is 
sufficient  to  exdte  a  doubt  of  its  being  the  C,  Canaderuis  of  that 
author.  Indeed  he  does  not  think  it  at  all  improbable  that  this 
figure  is  that  of  the  C.  Mcicrotit,  which  may  hereafter  prove  to  be  an 
inhabitant  of  Upper  Canada.  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  defines  it  as  follows : — 
Red-brown ;  rump  with  a  very  large  pale  disc  extending  far  above 
the  base  of  the  tail,  and  with  a  black  streak  on  each  side  of  it ;  male 
with  hair  of  throat  elongated,  black  with  reddish  tips. 

Qeographical  Distribution. — Sir  John  Richardson  says  that  tins 
animal  does  not  extend  its  range  farther  to  the  north  than  the  56th 
or  57th  parallel  of  latitude,  nor  is  it  found  to  the  eastward  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  south  end  of  Lake  Winipeg  to  the  Saskatchewan  in 
the  lOdrd  degree  of  longitude,  and  thence  till  it  strikes  the  Elk 
River  in  the  111th  degree.  To  the  south  of  Lake  Winipeg  he  thinks 
it  may  perhaps  exist  farther  to  the  eastward.  He  adds  that  they  are 
pretty  numerous  amongst  the  clumps  of  wood  that  skirt  the  plains 
of  the  Saskatchewan,  where  they  live  in  small  families  of  six  or  seven 
Individuals,  and  that  they  feed  on  grass,  on  the  young  shoots  of 
willows  and  poplars,  and  are  Tery  fond  of  the  hips  of  the  Soaa  hUmdc^ 
which  fonns  much  of  the  imderwood  in  the  districts  which  they 
f^eqneni. 

A  small  variety  is  described  as  a  native  of  the  plains  of  California 
and  the  upper  parts  of  the  river  Missouri.  It  is  very  abundant  and 
occurs  in  liEurge  herds. 

The  height  of  this  animal  at  the  shoulders  is  4  4  feet,  more  than 
a  foot  exceeding  that  of  the  common  stag.  All  the  upper  parts 
and  the  lower  jaw  are  of  a  somewhat  lively  veUowish-orown ;  a 
black  mark  from  the  angle  of  the  mouth  along  the  side  of  the  lower 
jaw;  a  brown  circle  round  the  eye.  The  first  antlers  depressed  in 
the  direction  of  the  facial  line.  Neck  mixed  red  and  black,  with 
coarse  black  hairs  descending  firom  it  like  a  dewlap,  deeper  in  colour 
than  the  side&  From  the  uioulders  to  the  hips  fVench  gray ;  a  pale 
▼eUowish  patch  on  the  buttocks,  bounded  on  the  thighs  by  a  black 
une;  tail  yellowish,  24  inches  long,  whereas  it  is  nearly  7  inches  in  the 
European  Stag.  The  hair  of  a  mean  length  on  the  shoulders,  the 
back,  the  flanks,  the  thighs,  and  the  imder  part  of  the  head ;  that 
on  the  sides  and  limbs  shorter,  but  the  hair  is  very  long  on  the 
sides  of  the  head  posteriorly  and  on  the  neck,  particularly  below, 
where  they  form  the  kind  of  dewlap  above  alluded  to.  On  the  pos- 
terior and  outer  aspect  of  the  hind  legs  there  is  a  brush  of  tawny 
hair  which  surrounds  a  narrow  long  homy  substance.  Ears  white 
within  and  clothed  with  tufted  hair,  externally  of  the  same  colour 
as  the  neighbouring  parts;  a  naked  triangular  space  round  the 
larger  lachiymal  sinus  near  the  inner  angle  of  the  orbit  Hoofb 
snialL  Like  the  common  stag,  the  Wapiti  has  a  muxsle,  upper  canine 
teeth,  and  a  soft  tongue.  The  auality  of  the  hair  is  brittle  and 
there  is  a  short  wool  beneath  it    RichfuxUon  thinks  that  the  Crees 


whistling  and  quivering  noise,  not  very  unlike  the  Draying  of  tn  ua 
Mr.  Drummond,  who  saw  many  in  his  journeys  through  the  pluoi 
of  the  Saskatchewan,  informed  Sir  John  Riduodson  that  it  does  not 
bell  like  the  English  deer.  F.  Cuvier  describes  the  cry  as  prolonged 
and  acute,  consisting  of  the  successive  sounds  a»  o, «  (Frendi)^  uttered 
with  so  much  stre^th  as  to  ofiend  the  ear. 

The  flesh  of  the  Wapiti  is  cosrse,  and  little  priied  by  the  natiTei, 
principally  on  account  of  the  fat  being  hard  like  suet  It  vanti 
the  juiciness  of  venison,  and  resembles  dry  but  small  grained  beet 
Its  hide,  when  made  into  leather  after  the  Indian  fiawion,  ia  aid 
not  to  turn  hard  in  drying  after  being  wet,  and  in  that  reaped  to 
exoel  moose  or  rein-deer  leather. 

The  velvety  covering  of  the  horns  shrivels  and  is  rubbed  off  in  the 
month  of  October,  at  the  commencement  of  the  rutting  season,  bot 
the  horns  themselves  do  not  fall  until  the  month  of  March  or  April 

The  pair  shed  by  'Monkey'  (one  of  the  Wapiti  kept  by  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London  in  the  Regent's  Ftek),  en  the  4th 
March,  1887,  weighed  26}  lbs. 


Wapiti  {Certui  CaHodentU). 

That  the  Wapiti  will  live  and  thrive  well  and  propagate  in  Great 
Britain  tiiere  is  now  no  doubt ;  but  grand  as  the  appearanoe  of  the 
animal  la,  it  is  not  probable  that  it  will  be  bred  here  to  any  great 
extent  on  account  of  ^e  inferior  quali^  of  its  venison. 

4.  C.  Slaphut,  the  Stag.    It  is  the  Common  Stag,  or  Bed  Deer,  of 


y,B. 


Cbminon  Stag  {(krvuM  Slaphm), 
Mr.  Smith  makes  a  enb-genns  of  the  True  Stags  under  the  name  of  Sk^hvt. 


give  it  the  name  of  Stinking  Head  on  acoount  of  the  large  suborbital 
opening. 

Heame  gives  the  Wapiti  a  character  for  stupidity  surpassing  that 
of  all  the  deer  kind.    He  says  that  they  frequently  make  a  shrill 


the  EngUsh ;  Carw  (Stag),  Ewig  (Hind),  EUin  (Young  or  Calf),  of  the 
ancient  British ;  Le  Cerf  (Stag),  La  Biche  (Hind),  Fbon  (Young  « 
Calf),  of  the  French ;  Cervio,  Cervia,  of  the  Italians ;  Cierro,  utf«» 
of  the  Spanish;  Cervo,  Cerva»  of  the  Portuguese ;  Hirti,Hii«a(8W»i 


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Hind  (Hind),  Hinde  Ealb  (Calf)  of  the  QermauB ;  Hart  (Stag)  and 
Hinde  of  the  Datoh ;  Hjort,  Kronlyort  (Stag),  and  Hind,  of  the 
Swedes;  Eronhjort^  Hind,  Kid,  or  Hind-Ealv,  of  the  Danes;  the 
Cerrmt  tmlgaria,  Linnseiu;  C,  nobUit,  Klein;  Oarvus,  Pliny;  'EAo^t, 
Aristotle;  Cervvt  Oermanicut,  Brisson;  Troffdaphtu,  Geoier;  ffipp- 
daphui,  Johnston. 

This  noble  Bpedea  is  a  native  of  the  forests  of  the  whole  of  Europe 
and  Asia  where  the  climate  Is  temperate.  In  England  it  is  intimatdy 
blended  with  the  old  oppressive  forest  laws,  which  valued  the  life  of 
a  man  at  less  than  that  of  a  stag,  and  with  some  of  our  legends  of 
deadly  feud :  '  Chevy  Chaoe,'  for  instance.  The  stag-hounds  that 
formerly  roused  the  deer  on  the  moors  of  the  west  of  England  are  at 

E resent  dispersed,  and  although  in  Scotland  villages  have  been  depopu- 
kted  to  let  it  run  wild,  it  is  the  rifle  of  the  deer-stalker  principally 
that  now  brings  the  stag  down. 

The  Bed  Deer  is  distinguished  by  its  brown  colour.  The  rump  has 
a  pale  spot  extending  rather  above  the  upper  surface  of  the  base  of 
the  tail  They  sometmies  attain  a  great  size.  Pennant  speaks  of  one 
that  weighed  18  stones  Scots,  or  814  lbs.,  exclusive  of  the  entrails, 
head,  and  skin.  The  Prince  of  Canino  has  described  a  Corsican  variety 
as  CerwM  Cfanieui.  Buffon  remarks  of  this  species  that  he  believes  its 
small  size  depends  on  a  deficiency  of  nourishment,  for  when  removed 
to  better  pastures  it  becomes  even  bigger  than  the  Common  Stag. 

5.  C.  Barharu$,  the  Biurbary  Deer,  is  chiefly  distinguished  from  the 
Common  Stag  and  the  Algerian  variety  of  it  by  its  smaller  size,  stouter 
form,  and  more  permanently-spotted'  fur.  It  is  the  Bush-Qoat  of  the 
Moors,  and  inhabits  the  coasts  of  Barbary. 

6.  C,  Wallichii,  the  Bara  Singa,  or  Mori,  is  an  Indian  species.  It  is 
also  found  in  Persia,  where  it  is  called  Maral,  G^evezu,  or  Gookoohee. 
It  is  the  Cervui  Pyfformtt  of  Hardwicke ;  also  Jesrael,  or  Tailless  Deer, 
and  Red  Deer,  of  &dia. 

7.  C.  affinU,  the  Saul-Forest  Sta^,  the  Stroa  or  Tibetan  Stag  of 
Hodgson,  the  Bara  Sing^  of  the  Hmdoos.  The  bones  are  as  heavy 
and  as  laige  as  those  of  the  Wapiti. 

8.  C  SUm,  the  Sika,  is  of  a  daxk-brown  colour,  and  has  rather 
slender  horns.     It  ife  a  native  of  Japan. 

9.  Dama  vulgarit,  the  Fallow-Deer.  This  well-known  ornament  of 
our  parks  is  the  Hydd  (Buck),  Hyddes  (Doe),  Elain  (Fawn),  of  the 
ancient  British ;  Le  Daim  (Buck),  La  Daime  ^oe),  Ftuon  (Fawn),  of 
the  French ;  Daino  (Buck),  Damma  (Doe),  Cerbietto,  Cerbietta  (Fawn), 
of  the  Italians ;  Qama,  Corza  (Buck),  V enadito  (Fawn),  of  the  Spanish ; 
Cona  (Buck),  Veado  ^Fawn),  of  the  Portuguese ;  Damhirsch  of  the 
Qermans ;  Do^  Dof'fijort^  of  the  Swedes ;  Daae,  Dijr,  of  the  Danes; 
Dama  vulgarit,  Qesner ;  Cervui  paUnatut,  Elein ;  Oervut  platyceroi, 
Ray ;  Oervui  Dama,  Linnseus. 

It  is  not  certain  whether  the  common  Fallow-Deer  is  the  np6^  of 
Aristotle.  Buffon  and  others  are  of  that  opinion ;  but  M.  Camus,  who 
seems  veir  well  disposed  to  coincide  with  such  opinion  if  he  could, 
gives  good  reasons  for  doubt.  Pennant  considers  the  PUUyeerata  of 
Pliny  (book  xL  o.  87),  and  the  Euryoerata  of  Oppian  ('  Cyneg.'  lib.  li, 
lin.  298),  to  have  been  our  Fallow-Deer. 

Pennant,  speaking  of  the  two  varieties,  the  spotted  and  the  deep- 
brown,  says,  on  the  authority  of  Collinson,  that  they  were  introduced 
into  this  country  by  James  L  from  Norway,  where  he  passed  some 
time  when  he  visited  his  intended  bride,  Anne  of  Denmark;  and  he 
remarks  (citing  Uywd),  that  one  of  the  Welsh  names  of  the  animal, 


Fallow-Deer  {Dama  vulgaru), 

Qeifr  Danyi,  or  Danish  Goat,  implies  that  it  was  brought  from  some 
of  the  Danish  dominions.  James,  who  observed  their  hardiness, 
brought  them  first  into  Scotland  and  thence  to  Enfield  Chaoe  and 
^PPinft  to  be  near  his  favourite  palace,  Theobalds.  When  Pennant 
^^te,  they  were,  according  to  him,  scarcely  known  in  France,  but 


were  sometimes  foxmd  in  the  north  of  Europe.  In  Spdn,  he  observes, 
they  are  extremely  large ;  and  that  they  are  met  with  in  Greece,  the 
Holy  Land,  and  in  China.  For  the  two  latter  localities  he  quotes 
Hasselquist^  who  says  he  saw  it  in  Mount  Thabor,  and  Du  Halde. 
Pennant  goes  on  to  state  that  in  every  coimtry  except  our  own  these 
deer  are  in  a  state  of  nature  unconfined  by  man ;  but  they  are,  and 
for  some  time  have  been,  confined  in  parks  on  the  Continent  as  they 
are  in  England.  In  Moldavia  and  Lithuania  they  are  said  to  be  found 
wild.  Cuvier  observes  that  they  have  become  common  in  all  the 
countries  of  Europe,  and  that  they  appear  to  have  come  originally 
from  Barbary.  In  a  note  to  his  last  edition  of  the  '  R^e  Animal ' 
he  states,  that  since  the  publication  of  the  second  edition  of  his 
'Ossemens  Fossiles'  he  hsA  received  a  wild  Fallow-Deer  (Daim) 
which  had  been  killed  in  the  woods  to  the  south  of  Tunis. 

Besides  the  varieties  above  mentioned,  there  are  many  others,  as  is 
generally  the  case  with  reclaomed  or  half-reclaimed  animals.  One 
variety  is  milk-white.  Pennant  remarks  that  in  the  old  Weldi  laws 
a  Fallow-Deer  was  valued  at  the  price  of  a  cow,  or,  as  some  say,  a  he- 
goat.    This  species  is  represented  on  the  sculptures  of  Nineveh. 

10.  Panolia  Etdii,  the  Sun^nai,  is  an  Indian  species. 

11.  Mttcervut  Du/vauceUii,  the  Bahrainga,  is  another  Indian  species. 
It  is  called  the  Spotted  Deer  of  the  Sunderbxmds,  and  Barara  Singha 
by  Hardwicke.  It  is  the  Cennu  ElapJunda  of  Hodgson.  It  inhabits 
riedy  marshes  and  the  islands  of  great  rivers,  never  entering  the 
mountains  or  forests.  The  tail  is  short,  with  no  caudal  disc  and  no 
heavy  mane. 

12.  Jtuia  Ariitotelis,  the  Samboo.  It  is  the  Cervtu  ffippelaphu»  of 
Ogilby,  Cenmt  unicolor  of  H.  Smith,  Cerf  de  Coromandel  of  Cuvier, 
CoTUi  JBengaUniit  of  Schirz,  Daim  Koir  de  Bengale  of  Duvaucell,  the 
Samboo-Deer  of  Bennett,  Cennu  heterocerut  of  Hodgson.  The  last 
author  describes  four  varieties  of  this  animal  They  are  natives  of 
various  parts  of  India,  and  inhabit  great  forests  and  the  moimtains 
above  them.  They  are  not  gr^arious,  and  rut  and  drop  their  horns 
in  spring. 

18.  jR.  Dmorpket  the  Spotted  Rusa,  Qerver  or  Gower.  Their  colour 
is  red-brown.    They  are  confined  to  the  saul-forests  in  India. 

14.  R,  ffippelaphua,  the  M^angan  Banjoe.  It  is  the  Cenm$  Hipp- 
elaphut  of  Cuvier;  Cerf  Noir  du  Bengale,  ou  Hippelaphe,  of  F. 
Cuvier;    Cerf  d'Eau,  ou  Mejanganbai^joe,  of  the  Malays   of  Java, 


M^angan  Baojoe  {Oarvus  {Eusa)  Hippslaphut), 


Skoll  of  (knu9  Sipp^phut, 

according  to  DuvauceU;  Rusa,  or  Roussaitan  (Black  Stag),  of  the 
Javanese  and  Sumatrans;  Mu$a  Bippdaphui,  the  Great  Rusa,  of 


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CERVIDiE. 


CEBYID^ 


Smith ;  C,  MoUueeeiuit  of  Quoy  and  Ofaimard ;  0.  (Rubo)  Tmorentii 
ofMiiUer. 

The  aze  and  proportions  of  this  animal  are  about  those  of  the 
Common  Stag,  but  its  hair  is  rougher  and  harder,  and  when 
adult  that  of  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  of  the  cheeks,  and  of  the 
throat  is  long,  and  forms  a  sort  x>f  beard  and  mane.  In  winter  its 
colour  is  of  a  grayish-brown  more  or  lees  deep ;  in  summer  it  is  of  a 
brighter  and  more  golden  brown.  The  croup  is  a  pale  yellow,  and  iJie 
tail  is  brown  terminated  by  rather  long  hair. 

It  is  a  native  of  Bengal,  Sumatra,  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago. 

This  is  supposed  to  be  the  fftppelaphut  of  Aristotle ;  but  Q.  Cuvier, 
who  once  was  of  that  opinion,  seems  in  the  last  edition  of  his  '  R^gne 
Animal '  to  consider  that  another  species,  C.  (Rusa)  ArutoteliSt  Cuvier, 
living  in  the  north  of  India,  is  the  animal  alluded  to  by  the  Qreek 
soologisi 

15.  R  equmua,  the  Samboe.  It  is  the  Rma  of  Raffles ;  the  Eland 
or  Elk  of  the  Dutch  sportsmen.  It  inhabits  Sumatra  and  Borneo. 
It  is  of  a  plain  brown  colour. 

16.  R.  Peronii,  the  Smaller  Rusa^  is  a  native  of  Timor  and  Lombok, 
Batchian  and  Temate. 

17.  ^  PkilippinuSt  the  Philippine  Rusa,  is  the  C.  Marianus  of 
Cuyier,  the  Cerf  de  Philippine  of  Desmarest.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
Philippines. 

18.  A  Upida,  the  Sundevall  Rusa,  is  a  native  of  Java.  It  is 
scarcely  as  large  as  a  roe-buck. 

19.  Axis  mactUata,  the  Axis.  It  is  the  Axii of  Pliny;  C.  Axis  of 
Erxleben ;  A.  major  of  Hodgson,  also  A.  medius  and  A.  minor  of  the 
same  author;  Cerf  Cochon  of  Buffon;  Spotted  Axis  or  Chittra, 
Langna  or  Pada,  or  Spotted  Porcine  Deer,  Thou  or  Spotted  Porcine 
Axis,  A.  medius,  or  Spotted  Hog-Deer,  or  Thou  Langna  of  the 
Tarai,  of  Hodgson.  In  size  and  general  form  it  nearly  resembles 
the  common  Fallow-Deer.  The  skm  is  at  all  times  of  a  rich  fawn- 
colour  spotted  with  white.  Height  at  the  shoulder  2  feet  6  or  7 
inches.  The  distribution  of  the  spots  varies  in  different  individuals. 
The  ground-colour  changes  to  nearly  black  along  the  back ;  the  under 
parts  are  snow-white.  Flanks,  sides,  shoulders,  hind  quarters,  and 
part  of  the  neck  spotted  as  above  mentioned.  There  is  a  broad 
dusky  spot  on  the  forehead,  and  a  line  of  the  same  colour  extends 
along  the  middle  of  the  nose.  The  male  has  no  canine  teeth,  nor  has 
the  female  any  horns ;  she  is  generally  less  in  size  than  the  male,  and 
resembles  him  much  in  colour,  but  mav  be  distinguished,  it  is  said,  by 
a  white  longitudinal  line  on  the  flanka  The  yoxmg  resemble  tiie 
parents. 

It  is  a  native  of  India  and  the  laiger  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago ;  veiy  abundant  in  Bengal,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Qanges. 

The  Axis  haunts  the  thick  jungles  in  the  vicinity  of  waW^  and  the 
British  sportsmen  hunt  it  under  the  name  of  the  Spotted  Hog-Deer. 
It  feeds  in  the  night ;  and  is  timid,  indolenti  and  mild,  excepting 
when  the  females  have  youngs  and  then  the  male  is  bold  and  fierce. 


daphus,  var.  8,  of  Cuvier.  This  species  is  easily  known  from  the  Axis 
by  being  lower  on  ito  legs,  and  having  no  distinct  black  domal  streak, 
nor  white  streak  on  its  haunohe&  The  horns  are  generally  short, 
with  only  short  snags.  They  live  in  families,  or  ■mall  herds,  on 
the  plains  of  Hindustan.  They  are  also  found  in  Ceylon.  Mr. 
Ogilby  says  they  do  not  ascend  mountains.  The  C.  Dodur  of  Royle 
is  probably  a  <Ustinct  species.  C,  pumiUs  of  H.  SmiUi  is  p^ups  a 
variety. 

22.  CervuUu  vaginalis,  the  K^ang  or  Muntiak.  It  is  the  Orrsi 
Muntjae  of  Zimmerman ;  Prox  Muntjac  of  Sxmdevall ;  Cervus  plieatut 
of  Forster ;  the  Ribbed-Faoed  Deer  of  Pennant ;  the  Chevreoil  dea 
Indes  of  Allamand. 


Skull  of  Muntjak  {Oervulu*  vaginalis). 

The  height  of  the  Muntjak  at  the  shoulders  is  about  2  feet  2  inches; 
head  pointed ;  eyes  large,  with  lachrymal  sinuses ;  can  rather  lu:ge ; 
tail  short  and  flattened. 

In  the  living  animal  there  are  on  the  faoe  two  rough  folds  of  the 
skin,  considerably  distended  and  elevated,  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
apart  above ;  and  following  the  direction  of  the  prominent  part  of 
the  forehead  they  unite  below,  so  as  to  mark  the  face  with  the  letter 
v.  In  the  dried  subject  the  folds  are  contracted,  and  three  distinct 
ribs  appear,  which  suggested  to  Pennant  the  name  of  Rib-Faced  Deer. 
Gen  wal  colour  reddish-brown  above ;  belly  and  front  of  the  thighi 
pure  white.  The  male  has  laige  canines  in  the  upper  jaw ;  the 
female  has  none,  nor  has  she  horns. 

Dr.  Horsfield,  who  has  given  the  best  account  of  this  animal,  states 
th«t  ^  the  Muntjak  selects  for  its  retreat  certain  districts,  to  which  it 
forms  a  peculiar  attachment,  and  which  it  never  voluntarily  deserts. 
Many  of  these  are  known  as  the  favourite  resort  of  our  animal  for 
several  generations.  They  consist  of  moderately-elevated  gTOaiid& 
diversified  by  ridges  and  valleys,  tending  towards  the  acclivities  of 


i^ 


AxM  {Axis  maculala). 

The  Axis  is  easily  domesticated,  and  in  England  has  propagated 
freely  in  captivity.  The  species  has  been  kept  with  success  both  in 
menageries  and  open  parks,  to  both  of  which  its  form  and  colour 
make  it  an  elesant  omament. 

20.  A,  pseudaxis^  the  Spotted  Axis.  It  is  the  C,  pseudaxis  of 
Qervais.  It  differs  from  A.  maculafa  in  having  a  series  of  spots  in 
place  of  an  oblique  streak  on  the  haunches. 

21.  Hydaphus  porcinus,  the  Lugna.  Para,  or  Shgoriah.  It  is  the 
C  porcinus  of  Simdevall ;  the  C.  niger  of  H.  Smith ;  the  Porcine 
.Occr  of  Pennant  j  the  Brown  Porcine  Axis  of  Hodgson ;  C.  Hipp- 


Mantjak  (C  vagmatis). 

the  more  considerable  mountains,  or  approaching  the  confines  of 
extensive  forests.  Such  districts  are  by  no  means  uncommdn  m 
Java:  they  are  oovered  with  long  grass,  and  shrubs  and  trees  of 
moderate  size,  growing  in  groups  or  small  thickets,  and  thefgenerallj' 
intervene  between  cultivated  tracts  and  the  deep  forests.  Their  nfge- 
tation  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  afford  our  animal  *  veiy  abundant 


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sopplj  of  nonriBhinent ;  their  sur&oe  is  oovered  with  long  grasB 
(Sac^arum  ipicatwm),  well  known  to  persons  who  have  visited  the 
interior  of  Java  by  the  Aame  of  Allang-Allang,  and  the  groves 
and  thickets  abound  with  Phylkmthtu  Emblica,  Linn. :  these  two 
plants  oonstitate  its  principal  food.  They  also  produce  many  species 
of  BibiieuM,  Orewiciy  Uremt,  and  other  nuJvaceous  plants,  all  of  which 
are  greedily  eaten  by  the  Eujang.  .  .  .  The  Kijang  is  impatient 
of  confinement,  and  is  not  fitted  for  the  same  degree  of  domestication 
as  the  stag.  It  is  however  occasionally  found  in  the  indosure  of  natives 
and  £uxx)peaii8,  but  requires  a  considerable  range  to  live  comfortably :  it 
is  cleanly  in  its  habits,  and  delicate  in  its  choice  of  food.  The  flesh 
affords  an  excellent  venison,  which  is  often  found  on  the  tables  of 
Europeans.  The  natives  eat  the  males,  and  always  present  them 
in  a  conspicuous  place  in  their  feasts*'  but  in  consequence  of  some 
peculiarities  in  the  habits  of  the  females,  they  have  an  aversion  to 
them  as  food." 

28.  C,  motchaina,  the  Kegan  or  Kakr.  It  is  the  Cenmt  Motckm  of 
Desmarest^  C.  Eatwa  and  Styloeeroi  Jtahoa  of  Hodgson,  Prox  ReUwa  of 
Sundevall,  P.  albipet  of  Wagner,  P.  ttyiooero9  of  Wagner,  the  Musk- 
Deer  of  Kepaol ;  the  Jungle  Sheep. 

It  ia  of  a  bright  reddidn-ycJlow  colour,  with  the  chin  and  gullet 
whitish.    The  hair  is  not  ringed  as  in  the  following  species. 

The  Ratwa  are  natives  of  India,  where  they  live  in  forests,  in  the 
mountains,  or  at  their  bases.  They  live  six  or  eight  together.  The 
horns  fall  in  May.  The  females  have  bristly  tufts  en£ng  in  a  knot 
instead  of  a  horn. 

24.  C  Beeveiiif  the  Chinese  Muntjak,  is  of  a  grayish-brown  colour, 
with  short  pale  ringed  hair.  It  is  a  native  of  China.  Dr.  J.  £.  €bay 
says  ('Brit  Mu&  Cat')  :—*'  The  Earl  of  Derby  has  these  three  kinds 
(the  three  last  species)  at  Knowsley,  but  they  breed  together,  and  it 
has  henoe  become  impossible  to  discriminate  the  males  £rom  the 
original  species." 

25.  Capreolu»  Cfaprcea,  the  Roe-Buck.  This  animal  is  probably  the 
AofuAs  of  Aristotle ;  Jorcoi  and  Dorcat  of  Oppian ;  Cbprea  of  Fliny 
(xi  37);  Caprea,  OapreohUy  Jhrcat,  of  Qeaner;  Cai^reohu  of  Ray 
and  of  Sibbald ;  Cervut  Caprecku  of  Linn»us ;  0.  minimua  of  ELlein; 
Iwrch  (male),  lyrchell  (female),  of  the  andent  British;  Le  Chevreuil 
of  the  Frendi;  Capriolo  of  the  Italians ;  Zorlito,  Cdbronzillo  Montes, 
of  the  Spanish ;  Cabra  Montes  of  the  Portuguese ;  Rehbobk  (male), 
Rehgees,  of  the  Qermans ;  Radiur,  Rabock,  of  the  Swedes ;  Raaedijr, 
Raaebok,  of  the  Danes. 

Its  length  is  about  8  feet  9  inches ;  height  before  about  2  feet 
8  inches ;  behind,  2  feet  7  inches.  Weight  from  about  50  to  60  Iba 
Length  of  horns  from  8  to  9  inches ;  they  are  erect,  round,  and 
divided  into  three  branches  above;  their  lower  part  is  deeply 
furrowed  longitudinally.  Those  of  a  yoimg  buck  in  its  second  year 
are  simple ;  in  the  third  year  a  branch  appears ;  the  head  is  complete 
m  the  fourth  year.  In  the  winter  the  hair  on  the  body  is  long,  the 
lower  part  of  each  hair  is  ash-coloured,  there  is  a  narrow  bar  of  black 
near  the  end,  and  the  tip  is  yellow.  On  the  face  the  hair  is  black 
tipped  with  yellow.  The  ears  are  long,  of  a  pale  yellow  on  the 
inside,  and  covered  with  long  hair.  In  summer  uie  coat  is  short  and 
smooth,  and  of  a  bright  reddish  colour.  The  chest,  belly,  legs,  and 
inside  of  the  thighs,  are  yellowish-white ;  the  rump  is  pure  white, 
and  the  tail  very  short  On  the  outside  of  the  hind  legs,  below  the 
joint,  is  a  tuft  of  long  hair. 

"The  Roe-Buck  was  formerly  very  common  in  Wales,  in  the  north 
of  England,  and  in  Scotland,  but  at  present  the  species  no  longer 
exists  in  any  part  of  Great  Britain,  except  in  the  Scottish  HighlantU." 
Such  is  the  locality  given  by  Pennant  when  he  wrote ;  and  he  adds 
that,  according  to  Dr.  Mouffett,  it  was  found  in  Wales  as  late  as  the 
reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  in  great  pleniy  in  the  Cheviot  BTil^ 
according  to  Leland,  in  tiiat  of  Henry  the  V III.  That  at  one  time 
the  Roe  inhabited  the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom  is  clear,  if  the 
information  given  to  the  editor  of  the  last  edition  of  tiie  '  British 
Zoology '  is  correct,  for  that  states  the  discovery  of  seven  or  eight 
horns  of  the  Roe  in  the  peat  beds  near  Romsey,  in  Hampdure, 
together  with  the  complete  head  of  a  beaver,  with'  ihe  teeth  entire. 
In  Ireland  the  animal  is  not  known.  They  are  frequent  in  France, 
and  are  foimd  in  Italy,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Siberia.  Pannaht, 
who  gives  these  localities,  says  that  the  first  that  are  met  with  in 
Great  Britain  are  in  the  woods  on  the  south  side  of  Loch  Rannoch, 
in  Perthshire ;  the  last  in  those  of  Langwal,  in  Caithness ;  but  that 
they  are  most  numerous  in  the  beautiful  forests  of  Invercauld,  in  the 
midst  of  the  Grampians.  They  are  still  comiMuratively  plentiful  in 
Scotland.  Sir  James  Carnegie  had  a  battue,  in  which  forty  were 
killed.  Sir  William  Jardine  states,  that  south  of  the  ForUi  they 
are  now  very  rare,  one  or  two  wilder  parks  only  possessing  a  few ; 
but  frequent  traces  of  their  former  abundance  are  found  in  the 
border  counties,  remains  and  skeletons  being  almost  yearly  disinterred 
from  most  of  the  larger  peat  mosses.  The  same  author  speaks  of 
its  frequency  in  many  European  coimtries,  Germany,  Silesia,  &c. 
('  Naturalist's  Library,'  Mammalia,  voL  iii) 

The  Roe  does  not  keep  in  herds,  but  only  congregates  in  fiEtmilies  in 
the  lower  coverts  and  lees  wild  woods.  The  female  goes  with  young 
five  months,  and  produces  two  fawns  at  a  birth,  and  these  she  con- 
ceala  frova.  the  buck.  They  are  said  to  live  twelve  or  fifteen  years, 
and  to  be  able  to  reproduce  the  species  at  the  age  of  eighteen  months. 


Pennant  observes  that  it  is  a  tender  animal,  and  quotes  Buffon,  who 
saysthat  in  the  hard  winter  of  1709  the  breed  was  almost  oxtingiished 
in  Burgimdy,  and  many  years  passed  before  it  was  restored  agahi.  It 
is  generally  killed — either  in  the  covert  or  by  the  sportsman,  who 
waits  outside  while  the  copse  or  wood  is  driven—with  shot  It  falls 
very  readily,  and  often  without  being  apparently  severely  struck ; 
we  have  heard  instances  of  their  being  knocked  over  with  com- 
paratively small  shot.  As  soon  as  it  is  down  the  throat  is  cut,  and 
the  animal  is  hung  up  by  the  hind  legs  on  the  fork  of  some  tree 
to  bleed. 


Boe-Buok  {Cbpreolut  Doreat), 

Herbage  and  tender  shoots  of  underwood  are  the  food  of  the  Roe 
in  the  smnmer.  They  are  said  to  be  very  fond  of  the  Rubut  seucaHUt, 
called  in  the  Highlands  the  Roe-Buck  Berry.  In  winter,  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow,  they  browse  on  the  tender  branches  of 
tiie  fir  and  the  birch.  (Pennant) 

The  flesh  is  delicate  food  when  well  killed,  and  the  horns  are  used 
for  handles  of  carving-knives,  &c. 

Pennant  states  that  in  the  old  Welsh  laws  a  roe-buck  was  valued  at 
the  same  price  as  a  she-goat 

26.  a  Pygargut,  the  Ahu.  It  is  the  Cferwa  Ppgargua  of  Pallas, 
Ca-vui  Ahu  of  Griffith,  the  Siaga  of  the  Tartars,  Dikaja  Kosa  of  the 
Russians,  Tailless  Roe  and  TalUesB  Deer  of  Pennant  and  Shaw.  It 
is  a  native  of  Central  Asia. 

27.  Blattocenti  paludonu,  the  Guazupuco.  It  is  the  Cervut  Mexi- 
canu»  of  Goldfuss,  C.  dichotomy  of  Hhger.  It  is  a  native  of  South 
America. 

28.  JB.  campettris,  the  Mazame  or  Guazuti.  It  is  the  Oervui  haoftr- 
Hcui  of  Linnnus,  O,  campettrU  of  F.  Cuvier,  C,  leucogaster  of  Goldfuss, 
the  Biche  de  Pampas  of  Cuvier.  It  is  a  native  of  South  America 
in  Northern  Patagonia.  It  is  exceedingly  abundant,  in  small  herds, 
throughout  the  coimtries  bordering  the  Plata.  Mr.  Darwin  describes 
the  odour  of  the  buck  as  quite  overi)Owering,  from  its  disagreeable 
character. 

29.  Fuiyifer  ArUisieruit,  the  Tarush  or  Taruga,  is  a  native  of  South 
America,  in  the  Bolivian  Alps. 

80.  F,  Huamdy  the  GuemuL  It  is  the  Auchenia  Hucmd  of  H. 
Smith,  the  Caindv4  Equinua  of  Leuckart,  Cerveeua  Andictu  of  Lesson, 
the  Cloven-Footed  Horse  of  Shaw.  It  is  a  native  of  the  east  coast 
of  South  America. 

81.  Cariacu8  VirgimanuSf  the  American  Deer.  It  is  the  Ddma 
Virginiana  of  Ray,  Oervttt  Virginicmut  of  Gmelin,  C.  Strongyloeeroa 
of  Schreber,  the  Viiginian  and  Mexican  Deer  of  Pennant,  the  Cerf 
de  la  Louisiane  of  Cuvier,  the  Cariacou  of  Bufifon.  The  tail  of  this 
animal,  like  the  rest  of  its  body,  is  fulvous,  above  the  tip  it  is  black, 
but  beneath  white,  and  is  carried  erect  when  running.  They  inhabit 
the  Oregon,  and  are  foimd  to  be  most  numerous  near  the  coast  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Their  range  on  that  coast  is  up  to  15**  N.  latitude. 
At  the  Umqua,  in  latitude  48"  they  give  place  to  the  Black-Tailed 
Deer.  "  We  believe  that  the  same  species  of  deer  inhabits  all  the 
timbered  or  partially  timbered  country  between  the  coast  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans."    (Gray.) 

82.  C,  Mexicanua,  the  Mexican  Deer.  Tail  fulvous  gray.  Not  well 
known.    Inhabits  Mexico. 

83.  C.  leueuruif  the  White-Tailed  Deer.  It  is  the  Cervui  Uucui-ug 
of  Douglass,  C.  campettrit  of  F.  Cuvier.  Various  writers  on  America 
have  called  it  by  the  following  names  :  Roe-Buck  (Dobbs),  the  Fallow 
or  Vinrinian  Deer  (Cook's  Third  Voyage) ;  the  Long-Tailed  Jumping 
Deer  (Umfreville) ;  Deer  with  small  horns  and  long  taQ  (Gass.) ;  Long- 
Tailed  Red  Deer,  Small  Deer  of  P&dfic,  Common  Red  Deer,  and 
Common  Fallow-Deer  with  long  tails  (Lewis  and  Clark) ;  Jumping 
Deer  (Hudson's  Bay  Traders);  Chevreuil  (Canadian  Voyageurs); 
Mowitch  (Cree  Indians). 


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This  species  is  not  found  on  the  east  side  of  the  Bocky  Mountains 
fiEurther  north  than  latitude  54°  N.,  nor  is  it  found  in  tiiat  parallel  east 
of  1 05°  W;  longitude.  Mr.  Douglass  says,  *'  it  is  the  most  common  deer 
in  the  district  adjoining  the  river  Columbia,  more  especially  on 
the  fertile  prairies  of  the  Cowalidoke  and  Multnomah  rivers,  vfrithin 
100  miles  of  the  Pacific  Ocean." 

84.  C.  nemoralit,  the  Cariacou  Deer.  It  is  the  Cerf  Blanc  or  Cerf 
des  Paletuviers  of  Cuyier,  Chevreuil  d' Am^rique  of  Daubenton,  Biohe 
des  Savannes  of  Buffon.  It  is  a  native  of  the  ^ores  of  the  Mexican 
Gulf  and  of  Guyana.    (Baillon.) 

85.  C.  ptmcttUattu,  the  CaUfomian  Roe.  Dr.  J.  K  Gray  says, 
"  There  is  a  female  of  this  species  in  the  Zoological  Gardens ;  it  is 
much  smaller  and  darker  than  0.  Virginiamitj  and  it  differs  in  the 
hair  being  dark,  with  a  distinct  yellow  subterminal  band.  It  is  a 
native  of  Columbia,  and  at  best  a  doubtful  species." 

86.  C.  Lewitii,  the  Black-Tailed  Deer.  It  is  the  Certnu  Lewitii  of 
Peale.  A  native  of  California  between  the  Columbia  River  and  the 
Umqua.  It  is  seldom  seen  east  of  the  Cascade  Moimtaina  It  never 
elevates  its  tail  in  running,  and  viewed  from  behind  shows  two 
narrow  white  lines  of  hair,  instead  of  the  large  white  and  elevated 
tail  of  the  Vii^ginian  Deer. 

37.  C  jnacrotis,  the  Mule-Deer.  It  is  rather  larger  than  C.  Virginui- 
nu8,  having  more  the  general  aspect  of  the  WapitL  It  is  destitute 
of  the  black  submaxillary  marks  of  C.  Lewisii  and  C.  Virffin%€mu», 
It  is  most  abxmdant  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Moimtains, 
and  delights  in  rocky  hiUs  covered  with  cedars  and  flr-trees. 

SB.  Co(U9ut  nemorivagwt  ^^  Gauzu-viva.  It  is  the  Cervus  Nemorwn 
of  Desmarest,  C.  simplicicomis  of  lUiger,  C.  movrgivorut  of  Schrank. 
This  delicate  little  deer  is  onlv  26  inches  in  length.  Its  aspect  is 
said  to  approach  that  of  the  sheep.  The  hichrymal  sinus  is  said  to 
be  nearly  imperceptible. 


Gaojia-Tiva  {Ooauut  nemorhagut). 

The  lower  part  of  the  head  and  lips  whitish.  Space  round  the 
eyes,  inside  of  fore  legs,  and  from  lower  part  of  breast  to  buttocks 
whitish-cinnamon.  Neck  and  all  the  other  parts  brownish,  approaching 
to  grayish,  each  hair  being  tipped  with  white.  Horns  short  It  is  a 
native  of  the  Brazils. 


Cagoacu-ete  {Obauut  rvfU»). 


SO.  C.  rufiu,  the  Cuguaou-ete  or  Pita.  It  is  the  Cenm  rtcftu  of 
F.  Cuvier,  C.  dolichwut  of  Wagner,  Sub%Uu$  Americanut  of  J.  Brookes, 
Svbulo  rufiu  of  H.  Smith. 

Its  height  is  about  29  inches ;  general  colour  reddish-brown;  inside 
of  ears  Quurs  short),  space  round  the  lips,  lower  part  of  head  and 
tail,  hind  part  of  bdly,  buttocks,  and  inside  of  fore  legs  to  kneei, 
whitish.  Females  without  horns.  Nearlv  of  the  same  reddish  tint^ 
with  a  white  spot  above  the  nose  and  on  the  upper  lip. 

It  Uves  in  the  low  moist  woods  of  South  America,  in  large  herda, 
and  as  ten  females  are  seen  for  one  male,  it  is  supposed  that  their 
appearance  gave  currency  to  the  report  of  a  form  of  deer  on  the 
New  Continent  without  horns.  They  are  very  fleet  only  for  the  fint 
burst,  for  they  are  soon  run  down  by  dogs,  and  are  sometimes 
captured  by  the  lasso  and  balls. 

40.  C,  iupercUiarit,  the  Eye-Browed  Brocket^  differs  chiefly  firom  the 
two  last  in  the  form  of  the  muffle,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  white 
streak  over  the  eyes.    It  is  a  native  of  Uie  Branls. 

41.  C.  auritus,  the  Lai^ge-Eared  Brocket.  It  is  also  anative  of  the  Bnzila. 

42.  Pudt*  Awnt^M,  the  Venada.  It  istheCerviwAiioiiZtf  of  Bennett; 
Cawra  Pudu,  Molina ;  ArUiloeapra  Pudu,  Lesson ;  AntUope  Dieranocem 
TemamaMoma,  H.  Smith;  Oervui  MaccUlchicheltic,  Seba;  Mazame  of 
Hemandei.    It  is  a  native  of  Chill 

Poisil  Cet'vidos. 

The  remains  of  Deer  are  suffldently  numerous  in  beds  of  the  third 
period  of  the  Tertiary  Series  and  in  caverns.  Thus,  in  the  cave  at 
Kirkdale,  Dr.  Buckland  foxmd  evidences  of  at  least  three  species,  the 
smallest  being  very  nearly  of  the  size  and  form  of  a  fiftllow-deer,  the 
laigest  agreeing  in  size  with  the  elk,  but  differing  in  form;  and 
a  third,  of  intermediate  size,  approaching  that  of  a  Isrge  stag  or  red- 
deer.  The  skeletons  of  animals  found  in  the  recent  shdl-marla  of 
Scotland,  according  to  Sir  C.  Lyell,  all  belong  to  species  which  now 
inhabit  or  are  known  to  have  been  indigenous  in  Scotland.  Several 
hundred,  he  observes,  have  been  procured  within  the  last  oentoiy 
firom  five  or  six  small  lakes  in  Forfitrshire,  where  ^ell^nail  has  been 
worked.  Thoee  of  the  Stag  {Oarvtu  Elaphui)  are  stated  to  be  the  most 
numerous ;  and  if  the  others  be  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  reUtire 
abundance  they  will  follow,  according  to  ^  C.  Lvdl,  neariy  thua :— 
Ox,  boar,  horse,  do&  hare,  fox,  wol^  and  cat.  The  beaver,  be  adda, 
seems  very  rare ;  but  it  has  been  found  in  the  shell-marl  of  Loch 
Marlie  in  Perthshire,  and  in  the  parish  of  Edrom  in  Berwickahire. 

The  most  remarkable  of  the  Fossil  Oervidce  foimd  in  the  British 
Islands  la  the  Megcteeros  Hibtmic%ity  the  gigantic  Irish  Deer.  This 
animal  has  been  called  by  various  names,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  most  conmion : — Cenmt  pUUycerot  aliiuimttg.  Large  Inah  Deer, 
Molyneux ;  OenmB  fouilit,  Goldfuss ;  Cerf  "k  Bois  €Hgantesque,  Cnvier; 
the  Fossil  Elk  of  Ireland,  Parkinson;  Cervut  Biberwtu,  Desmareat; 
Cervut  mtgaoeroif  Hart ;  Fossil  Dama  of  Ireland,  Hamilton  Smith. 

Dr.  Molyneux,  to  whom  we  owe  the  first  account  of  the  remaina  of 
this  animal,  supposed  it  to  be  the  American  Moose.  On  this  point 
Professor  Owen  savs,  "  The  great  extinct  Irish  Deer  surpassed  the 
largest  Wapiti  or  Elk  in  size,  and  much  exceeded  them  in  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  antlers.  The  pair  first  described  and  figured  in  the 
'  Philosophical  Transactions '  measured  10  feet  10  indies  in  a  straight 
line  from  the  extreme  tip  of  the  right  to  that  of  the  left  antler ;  the 
length  of  each  antler,  from  the  buir  to  the  extreme  tip  in  a  straight 
line,  was  5  feet  2  indies,  and  the  breadth  of  the  expanded  pu%  or 
palm,  was  1  foot  10^  inc^e&  Dr.  Molyneux,  after  giving  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  fossil  head  and  its  noble  attire,  says — '  Doubtleas  all  the 
rest  of  the  parts  of  the  body  answered  these  in  due  proportion,'  and 
he  infers  the  amount  of  the  superiority  of  the  great  Iruh  Deer  over 
the  '  fairest  buck'  accordingly." 

**  Recent  discoveries  of  the  entire  skeleton  of  the  Megaceros  however 
have  shown  that  the  proportions  of  the  trunk  and  limbs  to  the  vast 
antlers  were  not  the  same  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  existing 
Deer  beet  provided  vdth  these  weapons,  but  tiiat  the  antlers  were 
both  absolutely  and  relatively  larger  in  the  great  extinct  spedes.  Thia 
in  fact  constitutes  one  of  its  best  characteristics,  and  invdves  other 
differences  in  the  form  and  proportions  of  its  osseous  firameworiL 
One  of  the  modifications  in  the  skeleton  of  Megaceros,  which  relates 
to  the  vast  weight  of  the  head  and  neck,  is  the  stronger  proportions 
of  its  limbs ;  and  another  and  more  striking  character  is  the  great 
size  of  the  vertebrse  of  the  neck,  which  form  the  column  immediately 
supporting  the  head  and  its  massive  appendages.  The  extent  of  these 
mooifications  may  be  appreciated  bv  the  following  dimensions  of  the 
skdeton  of  the  Megaceros  and  of  that  of  the  Great  American  Mooee 
(Alcei  poimcUa  and  AfMriccma) : — 

Megaoerof.       Alcef. 
Ft.  In.  Lin,    Ft  In.  Lin. 

Length  of  the  trunk  firom  the  lat  rib  to  the  end  of 

theiachiam 6S8        500 

Height  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  longest 
dorsal  apine 600        560 

Length  of  the  fore- leg  tmrn  the  top  of  the  acapnia 
in  a  straight  line 

Length  of  hind  leg  firom  the  head  of  the  femur  in  a 

straight  line 4     9    S 

Circumtoence  of  fourth  cenrioal  vertebra      .        .    1  10    0 

9pan  of  antlers  between  the  extreme  tips  .        ..900 


5     7     0        5    4    6 


4  10 
1  0 
4    0 


Digitized  by 


Google 


w 


CEKVIDM. 


CERVID^. 


806 


Gigantic  fossil  Deer  [ifegaceros  Hibamieui), 


Skull  and  horns  of  the  same, 
a.  Fnni  tIcw  of  the  whole  head ;  b,  the  skull  seen  from  below;  t,  profile  of  the  same ;  d,  horn,  on  a  leas  soale,  seen  perpendioolarlj  to  its  posterior  sorface. 
KAT.  HXBT.  DXV.  YOL.  L  3K        ,^^^1^ 

■   •  Digitized  by  V^UOylC 


807 


CERVIDJS. 


OESTRUM. 


The  weight  of  ihe  akull  and  antlonof  the  Megfocerot  in  the  Museum 
of  the  College  of  Surgeons  in  London  is  76  lb&,  whilst  another  exists 
in  Dublin  which  weighs  87  lbs.  The  avenge  weight  of  the  skull, 
without  the  horns  or  lower  jaw,  is  5^  lbs.  From  this  &ot  we  may 
form  some  idea  of  the  enormous  sixe  of  the  antlera,  which  seem  to 
have  obeyed  the  same  neriodical  law  as  those  of  all  existing  deer.  When 
it  is  reooUected  that  idl  the  matter  of  these  antlers  must  have  been 
drawn  from  the  blood  oaxried  to  the  head  by  the  carotid  arteries  in 
the  course  of  a  few  months,  our  wonder  may  well  be  excited  at  the 
special  activi^  of  the  capiliaiy  circulation  of  these  parts. 

The  question  has  been  somewhat  eagerly  discussed,  as  to  whether 
the  Megaeeroa  existed  within  the  historical  period.  On  this  point 
Professor  Owen  has  the  following  remarks  : — 

"  Is  there  any  evidence,  it  may  be  asked,  that  the  Megaceroi  co- 
existed with  thejiuman  race,  or  that  its  extinction  was  the  result  of 
roan*s  hostility  f  Dr.  Molvneux  ('  Phil.  Trans.,'  xix.  p.  490)  says  that 
its  extinction  in  Ireland  has  occurred  '  so  many  ages  past>  as  there 
remains  among  us  not  the  least  record  in  writing,  or  any  manner  ot 
tradition,  that  makes  so  much  as  mention  of  its  name ;  as  that  most 
laborious  inquirer  into  the  pretended  ancient  but  certainlv  fabulous 
history  of  this  coimtry,  Mr.  Boger  O'FIaherty,  the  author  of '  Ogygia,' 
has.lately  informed  me.' 

"  The  term  Shelch,  in  the  romance  of  the  '  Kiebelungen,'  written  in 
the  ISth  century,  and  there  applied  to  one  of  the  beasts  shun  in  a 
great  hunt  a  few  hundred  years  before  that  time  in  Germany,  has 
been  cited  by  Qoldfuss,  and  subsequently  by  other  naturalists,  as 
probablv  sigxufying  the  Megcieeros,  just  as  the  Halb-Wolf  of  the  same 
'  Lied '  has  been  conjectured  to  be  the  Hysan^ 

"  The  total  silence  of  Cscsar  and  Tacitus  respecting  such  remarkable 
animals,  renders  their  existence  and  subsequent  extirpation  by  the 
savage  natives  a  matter  of  the  hi^est  improbability;  and  it  has  been 
well  observed  by  Dr.  Buckland,  that  'the  authority  of  the  same 
romance  would  equally  establish  the  actual  existence  of  giants,  dwarfs^ 
and  pigmies,  of  magic  tum-capa — ^the  using  of  which  would  make  the 
wearer  become  invisible — and  of  fire-dragons,  whose  blood  rendered 
the  skin  of  him  who  bathed  in  it  of  a  homy  consistence,  which  no 
sword  or  other  weapon  could  penetrate.' 

"  Some  appearances  in  the  bones  themselves  of  the  Megacerta,  and 
perhaps  an  undue  confidence  in  the  vague  statements  of  their  discovery 
with  remains  of  the  existing  deer,  ho^  and  sheep,  in  peat-bogB,  have 
led  to  the  opinion  that  the  Gigantic  Deer  existed  within  the  time  of 
man.  Dr.  Hart  cites  the  fact  of  the  discovery  of  a  human  body  in 
gpravel,  under  eleven  feet  of  peat,  soaked  in  the  bog<water,  which  was 
in  good  preservation,  and  completely  clothed  in  antique  garments  of 
hair,  which  it  had  been  conjectured  might  be  that  of  our  fossil  animaL 
But  if  any  Megaeeroi  had  perished,  and  left  its  body  under  the  like 
circumstances,  its  hide  and  hair  ought  equally  to  have  been  preserved. 
Except  however  the  solitaiy  instance  of  fat  or  adipodre  in  the  shaft 
of  one  of  the  bones  discovert  by  Archdeacon  Maunsell,  not  a  particle 
of  the  soft  parts  of  the  animal  seems  ever  to  have  been  found.  Dr. 
Hart  conceives  that '  more  conclusive  evidence  on  this  question  is 
derived  from  the  appearance  exhibited  by  a  rib,  in  which  he  discovered 
an  oval  opening  near  its  lower  edge,  with  the  maigin  depressed  on  the 
outer,  and  raised  on  the  inner  surfoce,  round  which  there  is  an  irre- 
gular effusion  of  callus.  This  opening,*  he  says,  '  appears  evidently 
to  have  been  produced  by  a  shai^pointed  instrument  which  did  not 
penetrate  so  deep  as  to  cause  the  animal's  death,  but  which  probably 
remained  fixed  in  the  opening  for  some  length  of  time  afterwards;  in 
fiiot,  such  an  effect  as  would  be  jproduced  by  the  head  of  an  arrow 
remaining  in  a  wound  after  the  shaft  was  broken  ofil'    (Op.  dt,  p.  29.) 

''But  a  conical  arrow-head,  with  a  base  one  indi  in  diameter, 
sticking  in  a  rib,  with  its  point  in  the  chest>  must  have  pierced  the 
contiguous  viscera,  and  nulling  there  have  excited  rapid  and  fatal 
inflammation.  The  evidence  of  the  healing  process  in  the  bone  would 
rather  show  that  the  instrument  which  pierced  the  rib  had  not  been 
left  there  to  impede  the  operations  of  the  '  vis  medicatrix  naturse.' 
A  formidable  branch  of  the  formidable  antler  is  as  well  suited  to 
inflict  such  a  wound  as  the  hypothetical  arrow;  and  if  the  combative 
instincts  of  the  rutting  stag  rightly  indicate  the  circumstances  nnder 
which  the  wound  of  the  Megaeeroa  was  inflicted,  they  would  be  those 
which  best  accord  with  the  actual  evidence  of  recovery  from  itw" 

Although  the  remains  of  this  animal  have  been  found  principally 
in  Ireland,  they  have  also  been  dug  up  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  in  Scotland, 
and  found  in  several  of  the  ossiferous  caverns  of  England.  This 
discovery  is  interesting,  as  from  the  position  in  which  the  remains  of 
the  Megaeeroa  have  been  found,  it  establishes  the  comtemporaneib^  of 
ttus  animal  with  the  Mammoth,  Rhinoceros,  and  other  extinct  Mam- 
malia of  the  period  of  the  formation  of  the  newest  tertiaiy  fresh-water 
fossiliferous  strata. 

In  the  cavern  of  Kent's  Hole,  near  Torquay,  the  base  of  an  antler, 
forail,  and  partly  gnawed,  has  been  found.  It  does  not  bdong  to 
Megaeeroa  ;  and  Professor  Owen  has  refeired  it  to  a  genus  and  species 
which  he  calls  Strongyloceroa  SpeUcBua,  Gigantic  Round-Antlered  Deer. 
"  If  the  trunk  and  limbs  bore  the  same  proportions  to  the  head  and 
antlers  as  in  the  Wapiti  and  Red  Deer,  as  most  probably  they  did, 
the  species  indicated  by  this  remarkable  fragment  of  antler  must  have 
been  the  most  gigantic  of  our  extinct  English  Cervine  animals." 
(Owen.) 


Besides  these,  the  remains  of  C,  Elaphua,  the  Red  Deer,  C.  Tarandna, 
the  Rein-Deer,  J>ama  wlgaria,  the  Fallow-Deer,  Oapreohu  Capm, 
the  Roe-Buck,  have  all  been  found  in  various  parts  of  the  BntLsh 
Islands.  Amongst  the  bones  foimd  in  Kirkdale  are  those  of  a  small 
deer,  which  Professor  Owen  calls  Cenma  BuddandL 

Remains  of  Deer  occur  in  other  ossiferous  caverns  beddes  those  of 
Great  Britain,  as  in  the  Muggendorf  caverns,  the  Grotte  d'Echenos, 
and  that  on  the  banks  of  the  Meuse,  at  Cheekier ;  as  well  as  in  the 
osseous  breccias  of  Gibraltar,  Cette,  Nice,  Corsica,  and  Antibei. 
M  Bertrand  de  Done  found,  among  the  bones  entombed  in  and 
beneath  volcanic  matter  near  St  Privat  d'Allier  (Yelay),  a  laige 
proportion  of  remains,  refemble  to  at  least  four  undetermined 
species  of  Oervif  in  company  with  Xhinoceroa  lepforJwMu  and  Hyma 
apdcea  ;  and  M.  Robert  extracted  from  the  ferruginous  beds  at  CoBBte 
(Haute-Loire)  the  bones  of  seven  spedes  of  deer  (to  two  of  which  he 
assigns  the  names  of  Cervua  SolUhacuaf  and  C.  dama  PoliffMeu\ 
accompanied  by  the  bones  of  the  antelope,  ^of  Urua  and  B,  Vdatum, 
two  spedes  of  horse,  Elephaa  primigemua,  BMnoeeroa  Uptorhumt  and 
Toptr  Arvementia,  Among  the  fossil  spedes  enumerated  we  find, 
under  section  a,  Cervua  giganteua,  C.  eu/ryeeroif  and  C.  Americamm; 
under  section  fi*t  O.  CfueUardi;  and  under  /§**  0.  Sibenm  and 
C.  Somonentia, 

Captain  P.  Cautley,  in  his  paper  'On  the  Remains  of  Mammalia 
found  in  the  Sewalik  Mountains,  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  Hima- 
layas, between  the  Sutli:g  and  the  Ghmges,'  enumerates,  among  the 
fine  collection  of  bones  found  hv  him,  those  of  the  elk  and  seyeial 
varieties  of  deer.  In  the  district  between  the  Jumna  and  the  Oanges 
he  obtained  the  remains  of  more  species  of  deer  than  one  in  the  marl 
or  day  conglomerate,  described  as  consisting  of  fragments  of  indurated 
day,  cemented  by  clay,  sand,  and  carbonate  of  lime.  ProfesBor  Kaup 
discovered  the  bones  of  the  following  deer : — Cenma  anoeenttf  C.  triffo- 
nocerua,  C.  dicranocerua,  and  C  eurtoeertu — ^in  the  sand  resting  upon 
the  calcaire  grosder  in  Rhenish  Hease,  in  companv  with  Z)mo<Acri«A, 
kc  &a  Deer  therefore  may  be  considered  to  nave  existed  in  the 
second  and  third  tertiaiy  periods,  namdy,  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene 
periods  of  LyeU.     [Su  8uPi>LiiixnT.] 

CERVUa    [CEBViDit] 

CESTRA'CE  JB,  or  CESTRI'N^,  a  natural  order  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  dass  of  Monopetalous  Exogens.  It  is  nearly  related  to 
Solanaeeoif  and  is  sometimes  made  to  form  a  tribe  of  that  order.  It 
has  the  following  characters : — Limb  of  corolla  plicate,  yalvate  or 
induplicata  in  seativation;  calyx  6-toothed;  corolla  ftumel-ahaped, 
5-lobed,  regular ;  tube  elongated,  limb  usually  spreading ;  stomena  5 ; 
anthers  dehisdng  lengthwise;  ovarium  seated  on  a  cupulate  diac; 
pericazp  capsular  or  baccate;  placentas  adnate  to  the  dissepiment; 
embryo  nearly,  straight^  with  a  cylindrical  radide,  and  rounduh  leiiy 
cotyledons.  It  embraces  the  genera  Ceatrwoif  Jhrnalia,  Meyem, 
Dartua,  Vaalifi,  Le$aea,  Fabiana,  LoMreria,  Lcunarlna.  In  the  aeeond 
edition  of  the  '  Natural  System,'  Dr.  Lindley  reoognisea  the  order 
Ceatraeeoi,  and  adds, ''  I  do  not  attempt  to  charaoterise  this  assemblage 
of  plants,  being  uncertain  what  its  real  peculiarity  is.  According  to 
Schlechtendahl,  it  has  all  the  characters  of  Sotanaceae,  except  that 
the  embi^o  is  nearly  straight,  and  the  cotyledons  foliaoeoua  To  this 
however  it  is  posdble  that  the  valvate  {estivation  of  the  corolla  ought 
to  be  added;  but  I  am  by  no  means  sure  that  the  species  of 
Periphragynoa  of  the  'Flora  Peruviana,'  with  winged  seeds,  ought  not 
to  be  induded,  although,  as  they  have  an  imbricated  ssstivation,  and  a 
tricarpellaiy  fruit,  they  are  placed  in  PolemofUeieeas.  These  planta, 
which  are  very  di£forent  from  those  of  Jussieu's  CantwUf  espedallj 
C  qttercifolia,  have  much  the  habit  of  Lycium  as  well  as  Veatia.  U 
they  really  do  belong  to  PoUmatUacece,  they  must  be  oooaidered  i 
connecting  link  between  that  order  and  Oeatraeeca,'*  The  xenen 
then  reoc^nised  by  Lindley  were,  Ceatrvm,  VettiOy  Leaaea,  FwioM. 
In  the  'Vegetable  Kingdom,'  Dr.  Lindley  has  dropped  tiie  oider 
CestraceoB. 

The  genua  Ceairum  has  a  tubular  calyx,  terete;,  very  short,  obsoletely 
5-toothed ;  corolla  funnd-shaped,  with  a  long  dender  cylindrical  tube ; 
a  roundish  throat  and  a  flat  limb,  with  ovate  equal  segments ;  filamentB 
the  length  of  the  tube;  anthers  indoeed,  l^ing  roundish,  2-oelled, 
many  seeded.  C.  ventnaium  is  a  large  woody  bush  which  grova  at 
the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope,  in  Houtinqua  Land,  and  elsewhere.  Tb^ 
flowers  are  arranged  in  axillary  dusters;  the  corolla  has  a  reddish 
tube  and  a  white  limb,  and  emits  a  perfume  resembling  Jasmine 
flowers.  A  decoction  of  the  bark  reduced  to  an  extract  by  evaporatioo 
is  employed  by  the  Hottentots  to  poison  tiieir  arrows.  It  ia  said  to 
be  a  speedy  poison,  and  is  also  employed  to  destroy  wild  beasts  by 
mixing  with  their  food.  C  macrophyUHm  and  C.  noctmm  have  similar 
properties.  C  JEfediunda  and  C.  lamifblium  are  febrifuge,  and  are 
applied  extendvdy  as  astringents  in  Peru.  About  50  species  m 
Gettrum  have  been  described.  They  are  all  of  them  natives  of 
North  and  South  America,  and  the  West  India  Islands,  and  aie 
known  by  the  common  name  of  Bastard  Jasmines.  They  are  easily 
cultivated,  and  will  grow  in  any  rich  light  soil,  and  are  easily^  prop** 
gated  by  cuttings,  which  should  be  placed  under  a  hand-glasa  in  heat 
The  spedes  of  the  allied  genera  require  the  same  treatment 

(Don,  Ga/rdena'a  Dictionary;  Lindley,  Flora  Mediea;  Lindley, 
Vegetable  Kingdom) 

CESTRACTON.    [Squalid*.]       CESTRUM.    [Cestbaom] 


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CESTTJM, 


CETACEA, 


870 


CBSTUIL     [AOALBPHAl 

CETACEA,  an  order  of  Aquatic  MammalB  with  fin-like  anterior 
extremities,  the  posterior  extremities  being  absent^  or  rather,  haying 
&eir  place  supplied  by  a  large  horizontal  caudal  fin  or  tail ;  without 
an  external  ear,  without  hair  on  their  external  integument,  and  the 
cervical  bones  so  compressed  as  to  leave  the  animal  without  any 
outward  appearance  of  a  neck.  This  order  comprises  the  Whales,' 
the  largest  animated  forma  in  existence.  Some  of  the  genera  com- 
posing it  are  phytophagous,  or  plant-eaters;  others  are  zoophagous, 
or  animal-eaters. 

The  Cetaceous  Mammals,  whose  abode  is  either  in  the  sea  or  the 
great  rivers,  resemble  Fishes  so  closely  in  external  appearance,  that 
it  is  hardly  to  be  wondered  at  that  not  only  the  vulgar,  but  even 
some  of  the  earlier  zoologists,  looked  upon  them  as  belonging  to  that 
dass.  This  notion  is  kept  alive  to  the  present  day  in  the  announce- 
ments of  the  comparative  success  of  those  ships  which  are  employed 
in  the  Whale  Fisheiy ;  for  not  only  is  it  conveyed  by  that  general 
term  for  the  capture  of  whales,  but  bv  statements  that  one  ship  has 
arrived  with  three  fish,  another  with  four  fish,  a  third  witih  one 
fish,  &0L 

If  we  turn  to  the  Sacred  Scriptures  we  find  the  Hebrew  words  Than 
and  Thannin,  which  have  been  translated  by  the  words  Kt/tos  (the 
word  used  by  .^hieas  QazuDUS  to  designate  the  fish  out  of  whose  beUy 
Hercules  is  said  to  have  escaped  after  having  been  swallowed)  and 
<  whale.'  Lycophron  terms  the  marine  animal  that  so  disposed  of 
Hercules  when  he  was  shipwrecked,  xdpxBipos  xiw,  a  shark. 

The  Septuagint  translates  the  Hebrew  words  above  noticed,  t&  k^ 
ra  /UyaXa,  in  the  21st  verse  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis.  The 
same  Greek  word  is  used  in  the  17th  verse  of  the  first  chapter  of 
Jonah.  In  the  book  of  Job  (vii  12),  and  in  that  of  Ezekiel  (xxxii.  2), 
the  translation  uses  the  term  ZoAkw.  In  Matthew  (xii  40),  where 
the  swallowing  up  of  Jonah  is  alluded  to,  inrros  is  employed. 

In  Barker^s  'Bible'  (1615)  the  passage  in  Genesis  is  translated, 
"  Then  God  created  the  great  whales,"  much  the  same  as  it  stands 
in  the  version  now  read  in  our  churches,  "And  God  created  great 
whalea" 

The  other  passages  are  translated  in  Barker's  '  Bible '  as  follows : — 
Jonah  (L  17),  "Now  the  Lord  had  prepared  a  great  fish  to  swallow 
up  Jonah :  and  Jonah  was  in  the  belly  of  the  fish  three  days  and 
three  nights :  "—Job  (vii  12),  *'  Am  I  a  sea  or  a  whale  fish,  that  thou 
keepest  me  in  wardl" — Ezekiel  (xxxii  2),  "  Thou  art  like  a  lyon  of 
the  nations,  and  art  as  a  dragon  in  the  sea; "  in  a  note  ' or  whale'  is 
added : — ICatthew  (xii  40),  "  For  as  Jonas  was  three  days  and  three 
nights  in  the  whale's  belly,"  fta 

In  the  version  now  used  in  our  churches  the  passage  in  Jonah  is 
verbatim  the  same  as  in  Barker ;  that  in  Job  is  thus  rendered,  "Am 
I  a  sea,  or  a  whale,  that  thou  settest  a  watch  over  me  ? " — that  in 
Ezekiel,  "  Thou  art  like  a  yoimg  lion  of  the  nations,  and  thou  art  as  a 
whale  in  the  seas : " — ^that  in  Matthew  is  identical  with  the  passage 
in  Barker. 

These  are  merely  cited  as  examples :  there  are  other  passages  in 
the  Old  Testament  in  which  the  wonts  whale  and  inrros  occur  in  the 
English  and  Greek  versions.  It  would  be  beside  the  present  question 
to  enter  into  the  discussion  wl^ether  the  whale  was  meant,  or  a 
crocodile,  as  some  will  have  it,  in  the  verses  above  quoted;. it  is 
sufi&dent  for  our  purpose  to  show  the  commonly  received  opinion 
tiiat  a  whale  was  a  fish 

In  the  Index  to  Pliny's  'Natural  History'  we  find  the  Whales 
treated  as  Fishes,  "Balsenarum  Piscium  Consideratio,"  "Balsena 
piacis,"  &C. ;  but  in  the  work  itself  the  Balcena  and  Phyuter  are  noticed 
as  JBdwB,  and  a  Mr  account  is  given  of  their  spouting  and  general 
habits.  The  7th  chapter  of  his  ninth  book,  indeed,  is  headed  "An 
Spirent  pisces,  an  dormiant;"  but  in  that  chapter  he  expressly  states 
that  neither  whales  nor  dolphins  (balsenis  nee  delphinis)  have  gills, 
bat  breathe  by  means  of  fistuleo,  or  blow-holes,  wnich  appertain  to 
the  lungs. 

Aristotle,  whose  great  zoological  work  Pliny  had  closely  studied, 
was  certainly  aware  of  the  broad  distinction  between  the  Whales  and 
Dolphins  (the  position  of  whose  blow-holes  he  mentions),  and  Fishes. 

Craener  separated  the  Whales  from  the  Fishes,  includhig  them  in  a 
distinct  order  of  marine  animals.  Aldrovandi  separated  them  also, 
though  thev  appear  in  the  same  volume,  the  title  of  which  is  '  De 
Piscibus  Libri  V. :  De  Getis  Liber  Unus.'  Johnston  gives  them  a 
separate  chapter  at  the  head  of  his  book  '  De  Piscibus.' 

Ray,  in  lus  '  Synopsis  Methodica  Piscium '  (1713),  observes  that 
the  term  'fish'  is  extended,  even  by  the  learned  of  our  country,  to 
the  bloodless  aquatics,  as  they  were  then  termed,  Exangvia  ctqucUica, 
such  as  Crustacea,  Tettacea,  and  ^foUia,  or  Shellless  Mollusks.  On 
the  other  hand,  some,  he  remarks,  not  only  exclude  those  Bxanguia 
aquatica,  but  also  the  Oetaoea  ("Cetaceum  genus,  seu  Bdllu® 
Marinss "),  contending  that  no  other  animals  can  justly  be  termed 
fishes  except  those  which  breathe  by  means  of  gills,  and  have  but 
one  ventricle  to  the  heart  With  these  last  Ray  agrees,  and  expresses 
his  own  opinion,  that,  if  we  speak  properly  and  philosophically,  the 
name  of  Fish  should  be  restricted  to  sudi  last-mentioned  animals  only, 
and  points  out  the  absence  of  any  relationship  of  the  "  Pisces  Cetacei 
dicti "  with  the  true  fishes ;  adding,  that  with  the  exception  of  the 
place  where  they  spend  their  lives^  the  extenud  figure  of  their  body, 


their  hairless  skin,  and  their  natatory  progression,  the  Cetaoea  have 
hardly  anything  in  common  with  the  true  fishes,  but  in  other  respects 
agree  with  the  viviparous  quadrupeds. 

Nevertheless,  that  he  may  avoid  dissent  from  received  opinions 
and  the  appearance  of  paradox,  Ray  declares  that  he  will  not  inno- 
vate, but  consider  the  Cetaceous  Animals  as  Fishes ;  and  he  proceeds 
to  define  what  a  fish  is,  thus :  An  aquatic  animal  having  blood,  wanting 
feet,  swimming  with  fins,  covered  either  with  scales  or  with  a  naked, 
smooth,  hairless .  skin,  passing  its  life  in  the  waters,  and  never 
voluntiuily  leaving  it  for  the  d^  land. 

The  Cetaceous  Fishes,  or  BeUucB  MarincB,  form  his  first  section, 
and  are  immediately  followed  by  the  Cartilaginous  Fishes,  called 
29\dxn  by  Aristotle.  Of  the  Cetaceans  he  says,  that  they  breathe, 
like  quadrupeds,  by  means  of  lungs,  copulate,  bring  forth  their  yoimg 
alive,  and  nourish  them  with  their  milk,  and  in  the  structure  and  use 
of  all  their  internal  parts  agree  with  Uiose  animals. 

The  following  are  the  genera  enumerated  by  Ray : — 

Balcena  (2  species) ;  Gete  (1) ;  Orca  (2,  but  one  not  clearly  defined) ; 
Albua;  Monocercs;  bdphinut;  PkoccBna.  And  he  divides  the  Cetacei 
generis  Pisces,  seu  Balcmo!,  into  two  great  groups — the  Toothed  and 
Toothless ;  the  latter  having  homy  lamins  in  the  up^er  jaw. 

The  Toothed  Whales  are  subdivided  into  those  which  have  teeth  in 
both  jaws,  and  those  which  have  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw ;  and  there 
are  further  subdivisions  depending  on  the  absence  or  presence  of  the 
back-fin  and  the  shape  of  the  teeth. 

The  Toothless  or  Whalebone  Whales  are  subdivided  also  with 
reference  to  the  absence  or  presence  of  the  back-fin,  the  presence  of 
a  blow-hole,  or  the  employment  of  nostrils  in  respiration,  tne  presence 
of  plaits  on  the  belly,  and  the  width  of  the  lower  jaw. 

Linneus,  in  his  last  edition  of  the  'Systema  Naturae'  (1766),  defines 
the  fulcra,  or  props,  of  his  Mammalia  to  be  4  feet>  with  the  exception 
of  those  MA.mm«.1«  which  are  merely  aquatic,  "in  quibus  pedes 
posteriores  in  caud&  pinnam  compedes;"  in  other  words,  in  which 
the  posterior  limbs  are  manacled  or  conjoined,  so  as  to  form  a 
tail-fin. 

The  seven  orders  of  MammaUa  in  this  system  are  divided  into 
three  sections: — ^1,  Uhguiculata;  2,  Ungviala;  8,  Mutica,  The 
seventh  and  last  oider,  Ctie,  is  the  only  one  belonging  to  the  section 
Mutica, 

The  following  is  the  Linnsean  definition  of  the  last-named  order :~  • 

Pectoral  fins  in  lieu  of  feet^  and  feet  conjoined  into  a  horizontal 
fiattened  fin  in  lieu  of  a  taiL  No  daws.  Teeth  cartilaginous.  Nose 
often  a  frontal  pipe.    Food,  mollusks,  fishes.    Locality,  the  ocean. 

LinnsBUS  then  declares  that  he  has  separated  these  Cetaceans  from 
the  Fidies,  and  associated  them  with  the  Mammals,  on  account  of 
their  warm  bilocular  hearty  their  lungs,  their  moveable  eyelids,  their 
hollow  ears,  "penem  intrantem  feminam  mammis  lactantem,"  and 
this,  to  use  his  own  expressive  words,  "ex  lege  naturse  jure  meri> 
toque." 

Here  then  we  find  the  decisive  step  taken,  with  the  imfllnchlDg 
fimmess  of  a  master  mind,  relying  upon  the  philosophical  principles 
that  demanded  the  separation,  and  no  longer  yielding  to  popular 
prejudice  by  caUing  that  a  fish  which  he  knew  to  be  a  mammiferous 
animij].  Somc  parts  of  his  definition — ^not  much  of  it — ^may  be  open 
to  criticism,  as  where  he  designates  the  teeth  as  cartilaginous,  a  term 
probabhr  used  to  comprehend  both  the  homy  lamina  of  the  Whale- 
bone Whales  and  the  true  teeth  of  the  other  Cetaceans ;  but  the  broad 
line  of  distinction  is  unassailable,  and  will  ever  remain  so. 

The  order  Ceie  is  thus  summarily  defined  by  its  great  founder : — 
Spirades  upon  the  head.  Pectoral  fins  and  horizontal  caudal  fin 
without  claws. 

Genera : — Monodon,  Balamet,  Physeter,  Dd^hinus. 

This,  the  last  order  of  the  Linntean  Mammalia,  is  immediately 
preceded  by  the  BeUuce, 

For  Lac^pMe's  arrangement,  see  his  'Histoire  Naturelle,  &c. 
Des  C^tac^^  4to.,  Paris,  1804. 

The  C4tao^  form  Cuvier^s  ninth  and  last  order  of  Mammif^res, 
the  Ruminants  (Pecora,  Linn.)  being  the  eighth. 

Cuvler  defines  the  Cetaceans  to  be  manuniferous  animals  without 
posterior  feet.  Their  trunk,  he  states,  continues  itself  with  a  thick 
tail,  which  a  cartilaginous  horizontal  fin  terminates;  and  their  head  is 
joined  to  the  trunk  by  a  neck  so  short  and  thick  that  no  narrowing 
or  constriction  of  the  part  is  perceptible,  and  composed  of  cervical 
vertebrse,  which  are  very  delicate,  and  in  part  conjoined  or  soldered 
together.  Their  anterior  extremities  have  the  first  bones  shortened, 
and  Ihe  succeeding  bones  flattened  and  enveloped  in  a  tendinous 
membrane,  which  reduces  them  to  true  fins.  This  gives  nearly 
entirely  the  external  form  of  the  fishes,  except  that  these  last  have 
the  tail-fin  vertical  The  Cetaceans  therefore  remain  constantly  in 
the  water;  but  as  they  respire  by  means  of  lungs,  they  are  obliged  to 
come  frequently  to  the  surfiskce  for  air.  Their  warm  blood—their 
ears  open  externally,  although  with  very  small  apertures — ^their  vivi- 
parous generation,  the  teats  by  means  of  which  they  suckle  their 
young,  and  all  the  details  of  their  anatomy,  sufficiently  distingnish 
them,  Cuvler  observes,  from  the  fishes. 

The  same  great  zoologist  remarks  that  their  brain  is  large,  and  its 
hemispheres  well  developed ;  the  petrous  bone,  or  that  portion  of  the 
cranium  which  contains  the  internal  ear,  is  separated  from  the  rest  of 


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CETAGEA. 


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tlie  head,  and  only  adhene  thereto  by  ligunente.  There  Ib  no  external 
ear,  nor  are  there  any  haire  upon  their  bodies.  The  form  of  their 
tail  obligee  them  to  move  it  from  above  downwards  for  their  pro- 
greeaire  motion,  and  aids  them  greatly  in  raialDg  themselTes  in  the 
water. 

To  the  genera  which  up  to  Cuyier^s  time  naturalists  had  reckoned 
among  the  Oetacea,  he  adds  those  which  had  formerly  been  oon- 
.founded  with  the  Wslruses,  and  which  form  his  first  fiunily,  namely, — 

The  Herbirorous  Cetaceans. 

The  teeth  of  these  hare  a  flat  crown,  which,  Cuvier  remarks, 
determines  their  mode  of  life,  leading  them  often  to  leave  the  water 
to  creep  and  feed  on  the  bank :  these  have  two  teats  on  the  breast, 
and  hauy  moustaches;  two  circumstances,  he  observes,  which  when 
they  have  been  seen  from  a  distance,  with  tiieir  heads  ndsed  vertically 
out  of  the  water,  have  given  them  some  resemblance  to  women  or 
men,  and  have  probably  given  origin  to  the  stories  of  some  travellers 
who  pretend  that  they  have  seen  Tritons  and  Syrens.  Although  in 
the  cranium  the  bony  nostrils  open  upwards,  they  are  only  pierced  in 
the  skin  at  the  end  of  the  muzzle.  Their  stomach  is  divided  into 
four  pouches,  two  of  which  are  lateral ;  and  they  have  a  great  caecum. 

Cuvier  divides  the  Herbivorous  Cetcicea  into— 

1st,  The  Lamantins,  or  rather  Manatees  {Manatui,  Cuv.) ;  2nd,  the 
Dugongs,  Lac^p.  (Halicore,  III);  Srd,  the  Stell^rea,  Cuv.  (Rytiruij  HI.). 

Cuvier^s  second  family  of  this  order  consists  of — 

The  Ordinary  GetaceancL 

These  are  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the  singular  appa- 
ratus which  has  procured  for  them  the  French  name  of  Souffleurs,  or 
Blowers.  As  they  take,  together  with  their  prey,  says  Cuvier,  large 
volumes  of  water  into  their  very  spacious  mouth,  there  was  a  necessity 
for  some  outlet  to  get  rid  of  it ;  it  passes  across  the  nostrils  by  means 
of  a  particular  disposition  of  the  velum  palati,  and  is  collected  in  a 
sac  placed  at  the  external  orifice  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose,  whence  it 
is  driven  out  with  violence  by  the  compression  of  powerful  muscles 
by  a  narrow  aperture  pierced  at  the  top  of  the  head.  Thus  it  is, 
adds  Cuvier,  that  they  produce  those  jets  d'eau  which  cause  them  to 
be  seen  firom  afeir  by  voyagers. 

He  further  observes  that  their  nostrils,  incessantly  traversed  by 
floods  of  salt  water,  could  not  be  lined  with  a  membrane  sufficiently 
delicate  for  the  perception  of  odours.  The  whales  therefore  are 
without  those  projecting  lamine  which  are  to  be  found  in  other 
animals ;  the  olfactory  nerve  is  wanting  in  many,  and  if  any  of  them 
enjoy  the  sense  of  smelling  they  must  have  it  veiy  much  obliterated. 
Their  larynx,  of  pyramidal  form,  penetrates  into  the  back  nostrils  for 
the  reception  of  the  air,  and  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  it  to  the 
lungs,  without  any  necessity  on  the  part  of  the  animal  to  lift  its 
head  and  mouth  out  of  the  water :  there  are  no  projecting  lamin»  in 
their  glottis,  and  their  voice  must  be  reduced  to  simple  bellowings. 
They  have  no  vestige  of  hair,  but  their  body  is  covered  with  a  smooth 
skin,  imder  which  lies  the  thick  blubber  abounding  in  oil,  and  the 
principal  object  for  which  they  are  sought  Their  teats  are  near  the 
anus,  and  they  are  unable  to  seize  anything  with  their  fins.  Their 
stomach  has  five,  and  sometimes  as  many  as  seven,  distinct  pouches. 
In  lieu  of  a*single  spleen  they  have  many  small  and  globular  ones ; 
those  which  have  teeth  have  them  conical,  and  similar  to  each  other. 
They  do  not  masticate  theb  food,  but  swallow  it  rapidly.  Two  small 
bones,  suspended  in  the  flesh  near  the  anus,  are  the  only  vestiges  of 
posterior  extremities.  Many  have  on  the  back  a  vertical  fin  of  a 
tendinous  substance,  but  not  sustained  by  bon&  Their  flattened  eyes 
have  a  thick  and  solid  sderoUo ;  their  tongue  has  only  smooth  and 
soft  integuments. 

Cuvier  divides  this  group  into  two  small  tribes :  1,  those  whose 
heat  bears  the  ordinary  proportion  to  the  body ;  and  2,  those  which 
have  the  head  disproportionately  great. 

let  Tribe. 

Genera: — 1.  DdpMMUi,  Linn.,  with  the  sub-genera  Ddphinutf 
Cuv.;  Phoecena,  Cuv.;  Dd^naptenu,  Lac^p. ;  and  Hypavodon, 
Lacdp. 

2.  Monodon,  Linn. 

2nd  Tribe. 

These  Cetaceans  have  the  head-  so  Luge,  that  it  is  either  a  third  or 
one-half  of  the  length  of  the  body ;  but  neither  the  cranium  nor  the 
brain  participates  in  this  disproportion,  which  is  entirely  due  to  an 
enormous  development  of  the  bones  of  the  face. 

Qenera: — 1.  PAysster,  Linn,  (the  true  Cachalots);  with  the  sub- 
genus Phyteter,  Lac^p.  (Cachalots  with  a  dorsal  fin). 

2.  Balina,  Linn.  (Whalebone  Whales) ;  with  the  sub-genera  con- 
taining the  JBalamoptera  of  Lac^pMe :  namely,  the  Balcenoptera  with 
a  smooth  belly ;  and  the  BakenoptercB  with  a  plaited  belly,  conmionly 
termed  Rorquals.    ('R^e  Animal.') 

The  following  synopsis  of  the  fanulies  of  Cetacea  is  taken  fh)m  the 
'  Catalogue  of  Uie  British  Museum,'  by  Dr.  J.  £.  Cray. 

Sub-Order  CETE. 
Skin  smooth,  bald.    Teats  2,  ingninal.    Limbs  dawless.    Fore- 
limbs  fin-shaped;   hinder  united,  forming  a  forked  horizontal  tail 
Nostrils  enla^s^  into  blowers.    Camivorouu. 


Family  1st    Balmstdm. 
Nostrils  2,  separate,  longitadinaL    Fislate  with  baleeo.    Jaw  tooth- 
less.   Head  very  large. 
OenusL  BakBtia. 

Species  1.  JB,  myttieetutj  Bight  Whale. 

2.  B.  marginata.  Western  AnstnJisnWblB. 
8.  B.  auitralii.  Cape  Whale. 

4.  B.  Japonica,  Japan  Whale. 

5.  B,  antaretiea,  New  Zealand  Whalfli 

6.  B,  gihhota,  Scmg-Whale. 
Genus  XL  Meffapiera,  Humpbacked  Whales. 

Spedes  7.  M.  Umffimana,  Johnston's  Hump-Bsckod 
Whale. 

8.  M.  Amerioana,  Bermuda  Hump-Back. 

9.  M.  Poahop,  Cape  Hump-Back. 
10.  M,  Kvzira,  the  Kuzira. 

Qenus  IIL  Balanoptertt. 

Species  11.  B.  roatraia,  Pike-Whsle. 
Genus  lY.  Phymlua. 

Species  12.  P.  Antiquorum,  Bazor-Back. 
18.  P.  Boopg, 

14.  P.  Sibbaldii, 

15.  P.  fasciatut,  Peruvian  Finner. 

16.  P.  IvHui,  Japan  Finner. 

17.  f.  antarcticui. 

18.  P.  Bt-asiliauit. 

19.  P,  auttralis,  Southern  Finner. 

Family  2nd.    Catodontid Ji,  or  Phybstbbidjl 
Nostrils  2,  separate,  longitudioaL    Palate  smooth.    Lowerjaw 
toothed.    Head  very  large. 

Genus  I.  CcUodon,  Spermaceti  Whales. 

Species  20.  C.  mocroogaAoZitf,  Northern  Sperm-Whale. 

21.  0.  Colueti,  Mexican  Sperm-Whale. 

22.  C.  polyeyphut.  South  Sea  Sperm-Wbae. 
Genus  IL  Kogia,  Short-Headed  Whales. 

Species  28.  K,  brevieepM,  Short-Headed  Whale; 
Genus  IIL  Phy$eler. 

Species  24.  P.  Tursio,  the  Black  Fish. 

Family  Srd.    DsLPHiKiDiB  (Dolfhihs). 
Nostrils  united,  lunate,  transverse.    Palate  smooth.    Jaws  toothad, 
rarely  deciduous.    Head  moderate. 
Genus  L  JEfyperoodon. 

Species  25.  B.  BtUtkosf,  Bottle-Head. 

26.  jET.  roitrcUumj  Beaked  Hyperoodon. 

27.  jET.  DowneiU,  Corsican  Hyperoodon. 

28.  ff,  Detmarutii,  Desm&rest's  Hyperoodon. 

29.  ff.  latifrom. 
Genus  II.  Zi  h}U9. 

S|">cl(]8  30.  Z,  Sowerlnentia. 

81.  Z.  Sechdlentit,  Seohelle  Ziphius. 
Genus  IIL  Ddphinorhynchua. 

Species  82.  J),  microptenu,  Blainville's  Whsla 
Genus  IV.  monodon. 

Species  88.  ^f.  monoceroi,  the  NarwhaL 
Genus  y.  Belugeu 

Species  84.  B.  Catodon,  Northern  Beluga. 
85.  B.  Kingiif  Australian  Beluga. 
(}enus  VI.  Neomeris. 

Spedes  36.  N,  Phoecmaides,  Neomeris. 
Genus  VII.  Phoccena. 

Species  87.  P.  wmmwnii,  Conmion  Poipoise. 
Genus  VIIL  Orcunput. 

Species  88.  0.  Ouvieri,  Cuvier's  Grampus. 
89.  O.  RiMtoanu»,  Risso's  Grampus. 

40.  O.  Richardtonii. 

41.  a  Sakamata. 
Genus  IX.  Gkhiocephaliu. 

Species  42.  0.  Svineval,  Pilot-Whale. 

48.  a  tntermedtiu,  the  Black  Fish. 

44.  O.  affinis.  Smaller  Pilot-Whale. 

45.  O.  Sieboldiif  Naiso  Gota. 

46.  (7.  macrorhynchfti,  South-Sea  Black  Fish. 
Genus  X.  Oreo. 

Species  47.  0.  gladiaior.  Killer. 

48.  0.  ertutidefu,  Linoolnshire  Killer. 

49.  0.  Cdpentis,  Cape  Killer. 

50.  a  tn/€nMcita,  Small  Killer. 
Genus  XL  Lagenorhynchua, 

Species  51.  L.  Uueopleurui,  White-Sided  Bottleooso. 
52.  L.  albirostrit,  White-Beaked  BottleooBa 
58.  L.  Blectra,  the  Electra. 

54.  L.  candeo  oBmg, 

55.  L,  Asia,  the  Ana. 

56.  L.  aeutttt,  Eachricht's  Dolphin 

57.  L.  danetdvi. 

58.  L,  ThicokcL 


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CETACEA. 


CETACEA. 


674 


Oentu  XIL  Ikiphwapterus. 

Species  59.  D.  Penmii,  Peron's  Dolphin. 
60.  2>.  borealii. 
GenoBXIII.  Ddphinut, 

Speoies  61.  />.  JEfeavindii,  Hasfcated  Dolphin. 

62.  2>.  chtcwrut,  Dusky  Dolphin. 

63.  J).  eompre$ticauda,     Compressed  -  Tailed 

Dolphin. 

64.  D.  Tunio,  Bottienose  Dolphin. 

65.  D.  Ahtualam,  the  Abusalam. 

66.  D.  EtUropia,  the  Eutropia. 

67.  J>,  Ewrynome,  the  Euiynome. 

68.  2>.  if«<ia,  the  Metis. 

69.  2>.  ^jpuxioce,  the  Cymodoce. 

70.  2>.  iA)m,  the  Doris. 

71.  D/frenatvt,  Bridled  Dolphin. 

72.  2>.  Clymene, 

78.  D.  5^yx,  the  Styx. 

74^  D.  Euphrotyne,  the  Euphrosyne. 

75.  i>.  Alope,  the  Alope. 

76.  D.  micr6br<ichw.m. 

77.  D.  ^mWiw. 

78.  D.  loriger. 

79.  Z).  JDdphis,  the  Dolphin. 

80.  D.  Janira,  the  Janira. 

81.  2>.  iVovee  ZecHanduB,  New  SSealand  Dolphin. 

82.  D.  Porsterif  Forster^s  Dolphin. 

83.  2>.  Sao,  the  Sao. 

84.  D,  longirostris.  Cape  Dolphin. 

85.  2>.  micropf,  Small-Headed  Dolphin. 
GennsXIY.  Steno. 

Species  86.  8,  MalayanuSt  Malay  Dolphin. 

87.  &  fror^atut,  Fronted  Dolphin. 

88.  8,  compretaus,  Narrow-Beaked  Dolphin. 

89.  8,  aUenuatiu,  Slender-Beaked  Dolphin. 

90.  &  fu8cu8,  Cuban  Steno. 

91.  &  rostraUit,  Beaked  Dolphin. 
Genua  XY.  Pontcparia, 

Species  92.  P,  Blainvillii,  the  Pontoporia. 
Genus  XYL  Into, 

Spedes  98.  /.  Oeoffi-oyii,  the  Inia. 
Genus  XYII.  PkUanuia, 

Spedes  94.  P.  Ocmgetiectf  the  Sou  Soil 

Sub-Order  SIRENIA. 
Skm  rather  hairy.    Whiskers  rigid.     Limbs  clawed.     Teats  2, 
oeeioraL    Nostrils  %  apical.    Herbivorous. 

Family  MANATiDiB. 
Gijnders  n<m^or  flat  crowned.    Front  of  jaws  ooyered  with  horn. 
Genus  XYHC.  Manatut, 

Spedes  95.  M,  atutralia,  the  Manatee. 

96.  if.  SenegcUenm,  the  Tiamantia 
Gains  XIX.  JEfaXieore. 

Spedes  97.  IT.  Dugong,  Indian  Dugong. 

98.  H,  TdbemaeuHx 

99.  H.  anutralu. 
Genua  XX.  Bytintk 

Spedes  100.  JL  gigat,  Morskaia  Korova. 

The  following  is  M.  F.  Cuvier^s  arrangement  of  the  Cdacea,  to 
which,  and  that  of  Baron  Cuvier,  we  shall  prindpally  refer  when 
apmking  of  the  anatomy  of  these  creatures. 

Tribe  1. 
Fhttofhaga  (Yegetable-feeding). 
Teeth  of  different  kinds;  molars  with  flattened  crowna,  corre- 
sponding to  the  yegetable   nature  of  their  food.     Mamnus  two, 
pectoral    lips  provided  with  stiff  bristles.    External  nostrils  always 
two,  situated  at  ^e  extremity  or  upper  part  of  the  rostrum,  which  is 
obtnsQL 
Genera :  Manatus^  Cuv. ;  ffalieore,  Cuv. ;  MytwOf  III 

Tribe  2. 
ZooFHAGA  (Animal-feeding). 
Teeth   of   one   kind  or  wanting^  not  adapted   for  mastication. 
UamnuB  two,  pudendal.    External  nostrils  double  or  single,  dtuated 
on  the  top  of  the  head. 

i.  With  the  head  of  moderate  size. 

Family  Ddphinidcs. 

Teetii  in  both  jaws,  all  of  simple  structure,  and,  generally, 
conical  form.     No  caecum. 

Genera :  J>dphiiiorhynchut ;  Ddphiniu  ;  Inia  ;  Phoecena, 

M.  F.  Ouvier  is  of  opinion  that  the  following  genera  seem  to  form 
the  types  of  as  many  distinct  fanulies  of  Zoophagous  CetaceaosL 

Genera:  M<modon;  ffyperoodan;  PUUanitta. 


B,  With  the  head  of  immoderate  size,  equalling  one-third  the 
length  of  the  body. 

Family  1.     Catod<mtidcB, 
Teeth  numerous,  conical,  but  developed  only  in  the  lower  jaw. 
External  nostrils  or  blow-holes  confluent.    No  caecum. 
Genera:  Catodon;  Phyteter, 

Family  2.    BaJUxnidcB, 
No  teeth ;  their  place  supplied  by  the  plates  of  baleen,  or  whalebone, 
attached  to  the  upper  jaw.     Blow-holes  distinct.    A  csecum. 

(Genera :  BoiUxnopiera;  BaUxna*  ('  Histoire  Naturelle  dos  C^tac^s,'  &c.) 

On  the  arrangement  and  remarks  of  the  two  Cuviers,  Dr.  J.  K  Gray 
makes  the  following  critidsm.  After  referring  to  Lao^pMe's  classi- 
fication, he  says : — 

"  Cuvier,  dissatisfied  with  this  state  of  things,  in  his  '  Ossemens 
Fossiles'  examined  the  various  documents  and  consulted  the 
authorities  which  had  been  used  by  LacdpMe ;  but  he  appears  to  have 
imdertaken  the  work  with  a  predisposition  to  reduce  Ihe  number  of 
species  which  his  predecessor  had  described  to  the  smallest  number. 
Thus,  he  concludes  that  there  are  only  eleven  species  of  Dolphins,  one 
Narwhal,  one  Hyneroodon,  one  Cachalot  or  Sperm-Whale;  and  he 
appears  to  think  there  are  only  two  Whalebone  Whales-— the  Right 
Whale  and  the  Finner.  To  nuJce  this  reduction :  First,  he  believes 
that  the  Hump-Backed  Whale  of  Dudley  is  only  a  whale  that  has  lost 
its  fin,  not  recognising  that  the  Cape  Rorqual,  which  he  afterwards 
described  from  the  fine  skeleton  now  shown  in  the  inner  court  of  the 
Paris  Museum  is  one  of  this  kind.  Secondly,  that  the  Black  Fish  and 
the  Sperm- Whale  are  the  same  species,  an  error  which  must  have 
arisen  from  his  not  having  observed  that  Sibbald  had  figured  the 
former,  for  he  accuses  Sibbald  of  twice  describing  the  Sperm-Whalc; 
and  when  he  came  to  Schreiber's  copy  of  Sibbald's  figure,  h^  thinks 
the  figure  represents  a  dolphin  which  had  lost  its  upper  teeth,  over- 
looking the  peculiar  form  and  posterior  position  of  the  dorsal  fin,  and 
the  shape  of  the  head,  which  is  unlike  that  of  any  known  dolphin. 
This  mistake  is  impoitant,  as  it  vitiates  the  greater  port  of  Cuvier's 
criticism  on  the  writings  of  Sibbald,  Artedi,  and  others,  on  theee 
animala  Unfortimately  these  views  have  been  very  generally  adopted 
without  reexamination.  But  in  making  these  remarks,  it  is  not  with 
the  least  desire  to  underrate  the  great  obligation  we  owe  to  Cuvier 
for  the  papers  above  referred  to ;  for  it  is  to  him  that  we  are  indebted 
for  having  placed  the  examination  of  the  whales  on  its  right  footing, 
and  for  directing  our  inquiries  into  the  only  safe  course  on  these  animals 
which  only  fall  in  our  way  at  distant  periods,  and  generally  under  very 
disadvantageous  droumstances  for  accurate  exammation  and  study. 

"M.  F.  Cuviei^s  'Cetacea'  (Paris,  1836).  is  little  more  than  an 
expansion  of  his  brother^s  essays,  with  a  compiled  account  of  tbe 
species ;  but  he  has  consulted  with  greater  attention  the  works  of 
Sibbald  and  Dudley;  has  some  doubts  about  the  finned  Cachalots 
being  the  same  as  the  Sperm-Whale  (p.  475),  but  at  length  gives  up 
the  subject  He  has  found  that  the  Hump-Backed  Whale  Ib  evidently 
a  Rorqual  (p.  805),  but  does  not  record  it  as  a  mpedee,  nor  recognise 
it  as  the  Cape  Rorqual,  nor  as  Dr.  Johnston's  Whale :  the  latter  he 
incorrectly  considers  the  same  as  B,  PhytaluB,  He  combines  together 
as  one  spedes  Quoy's  Short-Finned  Rorqual  of  the  Falkland  Islands, 
with  Lalande's  Long-Finned  Whale  of  the  Cape  (p.  852).  He  is  in 
great  doubt  about  the  hump  of  the  Cachalots  (p.  279) :  his  remarks 
on  that  subject^  and  on  the  Cachalots  of  Sibbald,  show  how  dangerous 
it  is  for  a  naturalist  to  speculate  beyond  the  facts  before  him." 

Before  giving  any  account  of  the  natural  history  of  the  species  of 
Whales,  we  shall  make  some  remarks  on  their  general  structure  and  or- 
ganisation. First  we  shall  speak  of  the  structure  of  the  skeleton  in  the 
Phytophagous  Cetaceans — of  which  the  Lamantin,  or  Manatee,  is 
an  example..  The  nasal  bones  in  the  skull  of  the  Manatee  are  very 
small,  almond-shaped,  separated  from  each  other,  and  let  in  on  each 
dde  in  a  notch  of  the  frontal  bone.  The  result  of  tiiis  conformation 
is  a  very  laige  aperture  of  the  bony  nostrils.  The  rest  of  the  bones 
of  the  nose  are  nevertheleas  replaced  by  cartilages,  so  that  in  the 
living  animal  the  opening  of  the  nostrils  is,  as  ordinarily,  at  the  end 
of  the  muzkle.  The  intermaxillary  bones  cany  no  teeth  in  the  adult^ 
nor  at  any  period  of  life,  except  during  the  first  days  of  embiyonic 
existence ;  they  are  notwithstanding  very  much  extended  longitudi- 
nally, and  they  re-ascend  along  the  edge  of  the  nostrils  to  above  the 
region  of  the  eye.  The  orbits  are  very  much  advanced  and  very  pro- 
jecting. The  suborbital  hole  is  pierced  in  the  re-entering  angle  formed 
by  the  projecting  frame  of  the  orbit  with  the  anterior  part  of  the 
maxillary  bone^  so  that  it  is  not  perceptible  when  the  cranium  is  seen 
in  profile.  This  projection  of  the  orbit  causes  the  distance  between 
the  lower  external  border  of  the  zygomatic  portion  of  the  intermaxil- 
lary bone  and  the  teeth  to  be  greater  than  the  width  of  the  palate. 
The  frontal  bones,  whose  anterior  branches  are  much  separated,  in 
order  that  they  may  embrace  tiie  aperture  of  the  nostrils  and  form 
the  walls  of  the  orbits,  give  off  each  an  obtuse  postorbital  apophysis. 
The  cheek-bone  extends  throughout  the  lower  half  of  the  orbit  on 
the  orbital  apophysis  of  iLe  maxillary  bone,  and  thus  borders  the 
whole  of  the  orbit  anteriorly;  it  gives  off  a  postorbital  inferior  apo- 
phyna.  A  very  small  lachrymal  bone  la  let  in  at  the  anterior  angle 
betw<*en  the  fh)ntal,  the  jugal,  and  the  maziDary,  which  interrenea 


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CETACEA- 


87< 


I  point  between  the  laohiymal  and  the  jngal  bones.    A  little 
down,  in  a  depression,  is  pierced  the  laige  suborbital  hole,  which 


at  this  _ 

lower  down,  .  ,     . 

is  thus  carried  fiurther  backward  than  the  edge  of  the  orbit,  and  cannot 
give  place  to  any  canaL  The  dental  part  of  the  maxillary  is  more 
Inward  than  the  orbit,  so  that  the  interior  part  of  the  wall  of 
this  cavity  is  formed  by  a  flat  advancement  of  that  bone.  The  zygo- 
matic apophysis  of  the  temporal  bone  is  thicker  than  in  any  other 
animal,  but  the  rest  of  the  bone  is  moderate ;  it  contributes  to  form 
the  sides  of  the  occipital  crest,  and  leaves  above,  between  it  and  the 
superior  and  lateral  occipitals,  a  space  which  permita  the  petrous  bone 
to  be  seen.  The  two  crests  which  limit  the  temporal  fossa  above  run 
in  a  nearly  parallel  direction,  and  do  not  unite  in  a  single  line,  as  in 
the  greater  part  of  the  Carnivores  In  the  adult  there  is  only  a  single 
unequal  parietal  bone,  which  enters  largely  into  the  temple ;  but  in 
the  fostus  there  are  two,  completely  separated  by  a  double  inter- 
parietal ;  these  four  bones  however  speedily  unite,  not  only  with  each 
other,  but,  what  is  singular,  with  the  upper  occipital,  even  before  the 
other  parts  of  the  occipital  are  united.  The  plane  of  the  occipital  is 
inclined  from  before  backwards,  and  from  above  downwards,  and  the 
occipital  crest  makes  an  obtuse  angle ;  there  is  no  vestige  of  a  mastoid 
apophysis.  Below,  the  intermaxiUaries  form  the  point  of.  the  muzzle, 
occupying  nearly  the  fourth  of  the  palate,  and  surrounding  a  large 
incisive  hole,  which  is  single,  because  they  have  no  internal  apophysis. 
Very  young  Manatees  have  a  small  tooth  in  each  of  their  intermaxil- 
laries,  thus  completing,  Cuvier  observes,  their  analogy  with  theDugongs. 
He  observed  this  in  the  fostus,  but  he  remarks  that  the  tooth  disappears 
at  a  very  early  period.  The  jaws  commence  a  little  behind  the  sub- 
orbital hole,  which,  from  the  disposition  of  the  orbits,  is  foxmd  nearly 
at  Uieir  level.  The  palatine  bones  advance  in  a  narrow  and  obtuse 
point,  occupying  nearly  a  fourth  of  the  palate,  and  contribute  to  the 
formation  of  two  large  pterygoid  wings,  whose  body  is  in  other 
respects  almost  entirely  sphenoidal,  and  does  not  separate  itself  from 
the  body  of  the  posterior  sphenoid  even  in  the  fodtus.  The  temporal 
alae  of  the  sphenoid  remain  distinct  much  longer.  The  palatine  bone 
shows  itself  in  the  temple  by  a  narrow  tongue^ahaped  process,  between 
the  maxillary  on  one  side  and  the  anterior  sphenoid  and  the  frontal 
on  the  other ;  but  its  continuity  is  partially  hidden  by  the  dental 
portion  of  the  maxillary  bone,  which  is  continued  backwards  to  the 
wing  of  the  sphenoid,  which  it  touches  without  articulation.  The 
anterior  sphenoid  also  only  shows  itself  in  the  temple  by  a  narrow 
tongue-shaped  process,  but  much  shorter  than  that  of  the  palatine. 
It  does  not  reach  the  parietal  bone,  and  the  orbital  wing  of  the  sphenoid 


Skull  of  Manatee  {Manatui  auttralit), 
touches  the  frontal   The  body  of  the  basilary  bone  and  that  of  the  two 
sphenoids  are  conjoined  with  each  other  and  with  the  cribriform  plate 
{A  the  ethmoidal  bone,  considerably  before  the  basilary  unites  with 


nearly  flat  sufaces,  as  in  all  the  fferbwora.  The  ascending  ramus  is 
very  wide,  and  ita  posterior  angle  roimded.  The  ooronoid  i^physiB  is 
directed  forwards,  and  truncated  nearly  into  a  hatchet^hape.  The 
region  of  the  symphysis  is  thick  and  elongated  anteriorly,  llie  whole 
portion  tiiat  supports  the  gum  is  pwforat^  with  small  holes.  The 
holes  for  the  exit  of  the  lower  maxillaiy  are  very  large.  The  lateral 
and  dental  portions  of  the  lower  jaw  are  very  kige  and  rounded. 

The  shoulder-blade  is  nearly  semi-elliptical ;  ita  lower  line  beinf; 
almost  straight,  and  answering  to  the  great  axis  of  the  ellipse :  the 
spine  occupies  only  the  anterior  half  of  the  bone.    Ita  greatest  pro- 
jection is  near  ita  root;  it  is  prolonged  forwards  into  a  pointed  acromion, 
which  ascends  a  little  obliquely,  and  which  has  the  air  of  terminating 
by  an  articular  facet.    There  are  no  clavicles.    A  strong  blunt  tuberde 
occupies  the  place  of  the  coraeoid  process.    The  hun:^ral  Bur€ue  is  a 
little  higher  than  it  is  wide,  and  very  concave.    The  upper  part  of  the 
humerus  is  also  very  convex ;  ita  external  tuberosity  is  very  projecting. 
The  bicipital  groove  is  not  deep,  but  there  remains  a  deep  canal 
between  the  internal  tuberosity  and  the  articular  head ;  the  deltoidean 
crest  is  but  little  marked.    The  lower  head  is  a  rather  oblique  simple 
pulley,  ascending  at  the  internal  edge.     Ita  width  is  not  greater  than 
ita  antaro-posterior  diameter.    The  internal  condyle  prcjecta  much 
more  than  the  other  backwards.    The  ulna  and  radius,  which  are 
rather  short  in  proportion  to  their  stoutnesB,  and  still  more  so  with 
reference  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  are  joined  together  by  their  two 
extremities.    Their  upper  articulation  corresponds  to  the  pulley  of 
the  humerus ;  the  head  of  the  radius  is  wider  than  it  is  high,  and, 
even  when  not  conjoined,  is  incapable  of  executing  rotation ;  in 
which  circumstance  the  Manatee  difiers  still  more  widely  from  the 
Seals,  to  approximate  itself  to  the  Herbivara.    The  radius  has  below, 
at  ita  external  surface,  two  pointed  crests.    There  are  only  six  carpal 
bones ;  the  pisiform  bone  is  wanting,  and  the  trapezium  and  trapezoid 
are  united  into  a  single  bone,  whidh  is  articulated  at  once  with  the 
metacarpal  bone  of  the  thumb  and  of  the  fore  finger.    The  analogue 
of  the  OS  magnum  responds  to  those  of  the  fore  and  middle  fingezs. 
The  unciform  bone  responds  to  the  middle,  ring,  and  little  finders, 
which  last  articulates  itself  at  the  same  time  with  the  cimeiform  bone 
of  the  first  row.    Each  of  these  bones  has  also  in  the  Manatee  its 
particular  character.     The  pisiform  bone,  Cuvier  observes,  is  also 
wanting  in  the  Dolphins,  and  ia  veiy  small  in  the  Seals  and  Sloths, 
whilst  it  is  very  long  in  the  animals  which  make  much  use  of  their 
fore  feet  for  seizing  or  progression.    The  metacarpal  bones  are  flat 
above  and  carinated  below ;  that  of  the  thumb,  which  has  no  pha- 
langes to  support,  terminates  in  a  point ;  the  others  are  enlarged  at 
their  lower  extremity.    That  of  the  little  finger  is  longer  and  the 
most  enlarged  of  alL    The  ring-finger,  on  the  contraxy,  is  that  'vHudi 
has  the  longest  phalanges ;  but  those  of  the  little  finger  are  flatter  and 
wider.    All  the  articular  surfaces  of  the  phalanges  are  rather  full, 
and  must  possess  but  little  mobility. 

There  are  only  6  cervical  vertobrse,  all  very  short  The  »^nTinT«F 
portion  of  the  third,  the  fourth,  and  the  fifth  is  incomplete.  The 
transverse  apophyses  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  are  pierced  ^th  a 
hole ;  they  are  all  simple.  There  are  16  ribs  and  16  dorsal  vertebne ; 
the  spinous  i^ophysee  of  which  last  are  moderately  elevated  and 
inclined  backwarda  Counting  from  the  sixth  dorsal,  there  is  cm  the 
ventral  surface  of  their  body  a  small  sharp  crest  The  two  suooeeding 
vertebrro  may  be  called  lumbar,  and  then  there  would  be  22  caoidaL 
Thus  there  are  in  all  46  vertebrso.  Under  the  joint  of  the  first  eleven 
caudal  vertebras  are  articulated  small  chevron  bones,  as  in  the  grtsater 
part  of  quadrupeds  which  have  a  powerful  tail  The  transversa 
apophyses  of  the  vertebras  of  the  tail  are  very  laige,  especially  in  the 
first,  but  the  spinous  processes  ore  inconsiderable;  which  aooards^ 


Skeleton  of  Manatee  {Manaiut  Mittralit). 


the  lateral  occipitals.  The  area  of  the  section  of  the  cranium  Ib 
nearly  half  of  tbat  of  the  face ;  it  is  singularly  high,  especially  before, 
in  proportion  to  ita  length.  The  frontal  bones  are  there  nearly 
vertical ;  the  cribriform  plates  are  found  below  the  anterior  surface ; 
they  are  small,  not  much  pierced  with  holes,  and  scarcely  sunk.  The 
crista  galli  is  prolonged  more  backwards  than  tiiey  are.  There  is  no 
sella ;  the  whole  base  is  united ;  the  median  fossas  hardly  depressed. 
The  analogous  hole  of  the  spheno-palatine  is  laige,  and  entirely  in  the 
Valatine  bone.  The  optical  foramen  is  small  and  in  the  form  of  a 
aanal;  the  spheno-orbital,  which  comprises  also  the  rotundum,  is 
rather  large  and  of  an  oybX  form ;  the  foramen  ovale  is  a  noteh  of  the 
border  of  the  posterior  sphenoid,  completed  by  the  tympanic  bone; 
the  condyloidean  foramen  is  very  small,  and  forms  a  notch  in  the 
lateral  oocipitaL     The  articulation   of  the  lower  jaw  is  formed  by 


Cuvier  remarks,  with  the  depressed  form  of  the  tail<4n,  to  prove  tiiat 
the  Manatee  swims  by  a  vertical  movement  of  the  tail  The  ribs  are 
singularly  stent  and  thick ;  their  two  edges  are  rounded,  and  they  are 
as  convex  internally  as  externally. 

The  connections  of  the  bones  of  the  skull  of  the  Dugong^  fte.  are, 
Cuvier  observes,  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  Manatee.  To  dbange,  he 
adds,  the  head  of  the  latter  te  that  of  the  Dugong^  it  would  suffice  to 
render  more  convex  and  elongate  the  intermaxillary  bones  to  make 
room  for  the  tusks,  and  to  curve  the  symphysis  of  the  lower  jaw 
downwards  so  as  to  make  it  conform  to  tiie  inflection  of  the  upper 
jaw.  The  muzzle  would  then  assume  the  form  that  it  has  in  the 
Dugong,  and  the  nostrils  would  be  raised  as  they  are  in  that  animaL 
In  a  word,  says  Cuvier,  one  might  say  that  a  Manatee  is  muy  a 
Dugong  whose  tusks  are  not  developed. 


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The  eoormouB  devolopinent  of  the  iatermazillary  bones  of  the 
DtigoDff  oarries  up  the  aperture  of  the  bony  nostrils  much  higher  than 
in  weManatee,  uid  it  is  situated  at  the  superior  part  of  the  head  in 
the  middle  of  its  length  and  directed  upwards,  its  form  being  a  laise 
oTol  as  in  the  Manatee  of  Senegal    The  whole  skulli  and  pf^icularTy 


Skull  of  Dugong  {Hdlicore  Dugong), 

the  frontal  bones,  are  for  the  same  reason  much  shorter  in  proportion 
than  in  the  Manatee.  The  branches  of  the  frontal  bone  whicn  form 
the  upper  part  of  the  orbit  are  more  delicate  and  more  rugose.  The 
maxillary  portion  which  serves  as  a  floor  for  the  orbit  is  narrower ; 
the  jugal  bone  in  turning  to  form  the  anterior  and  inferior  edge  of  the 
orbit  is  more  compressed  and  directed  more  downwards.  There  is 
also  a  lachrymal  bone  in  the  anterior  angle  more  considerable  than  in 
the  Manatee,  but  equally  without  any  hole.  The  zygomatic  apophysis 
of  the  temporal  bone  is  more  delicate  and  more  compressed.  The 
connections  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium  are  the  same,  but  at  the 
inferior  sur&oe  the  basilary  bone  is  united  with  the  latend  occipitals 
rather  than  with  the  posterior  sphenoid.  A  very  great  solution  of 
continuity  is  seen  in  the  bottom  of  the  orbit  and  of  the  temple,  and 
establishes  in  the  skeleton  an  extensive  commtmication  between  these 
two  foesso  and  that  of  the  nostrils;  it  is  intercepted  between  the 
maxillary,  the  frontal,  the  anterior  sphenoid,  and  the  palatine  bones, 
llie  continuity  of  the  temporal  portion  of  the  palatine  with  the  rest 
of  the  bone  is  not  here  concealed,  as  in  the  Manatee,  by  a  production 
of  the  maxillary  bone.  The  occiput  is  narrower  and  its  crest  less 
marked  than  in  the  Manatee;  the  frame  of  the  tympanum  is  also 
narrower  and  more  delicate,  but  the  bone  of  the  ear  is  disposed  nearly 
in  the  same  way,  and  is  let  in  between  the  same  bones.  There  also 
remains  in  the  dEeleton  a  lai^ge  empty  space  between  that  bone,  the 
boriUay,  and  the  anterior  sphenoid.  Within  the  cranium  there  is  no 
bony  tentorium;  the  cribriform  fossa  is  reduced  to  two  simple 
depressions  reiy  much  separated  from  each  other,  and  which  terminate 
anteriorly  by  two  or  three  smaU  holes.  There  is  no  sella  Turcica. 
The  optic  aperture  is  a  long  narrow  canaL    The  lower  jaw  is  of  a 


two  long  slender  bones,  which  have  some  resemblance  in  form  to  tha 
clavicles  of  man.  There  are  V-shaped  bones  articulated  imder  the 
interval  of  the  vertebrse  after  that  which  comes  beyond  the  pelvia 
They  diminish  by  degrees,  and  seem  to  terminate  altogether  under 
the  last  fourth  of  the  tail 

The  shoulder-blade,  as  in  the  Manatee,  has  its  anterior  angle 
rounded,  the  posterior  angle  sharp,  and  carried  well  backwards ;  &e 
posterior  border  very  oblique  and  slightly  concave.  Its  spine  is  pro- 
jecting, its  acromion  pointed,  but  much  less  elongated  than  in  the 
Manatee.  The  coracoid  process  is  much  more  pointed  than  \fx.  that 
animal,  and  directed  forwards  and  a  little  inwai^  The  humerus  is 
much  stouter  and  shorter  than  in  the  Manatee ;  its  deltoid  crest  pro- 
jects  more,  and  it  forms  with  the  great  tuberosity  a  rhomboidal  pro- 
tuberance. The  bones  of  the  fore-arm  are  rather  longer  in  proportion 
than  those  of  the  Manatee,  but  their  form  is  the  same,  and  they  are 
equally  conjoined  at  their  two  extremities.  There  are  only  four  caipal 
bones ;  two  of  which  are  in  the  first  row,  one  for  the^  radius,  the  other 
for  the  ulna ;  and  two  in  the  second,  the  first  of  which  supports  the 
metacarpals  of  ticie  thumb  and  fore  finger,  and  the  second  those  of  the 
middle  and  ring-finger.  That  of  the  little  finger  bears  upon  the 
second  bone  of  the  second  row,  and  upon  that  of  the  first.  The 
thumb,  as  in  the  Manatee,  is  reduced  to  a  pointed  metacarpal  The 
other  fingers  have  the  ordinary  number  of  phalanges,  the  last  of  which 
are  compressed  and  obtuse.    ('  Ossemens  Fossiles.') 

Professor  Owen,  in  his 'Anatomy  of  the  Dugong'  ('ZooL  Proc./ 
1838),  remarks  that  after  the  excellent  and  elaborate  descriptions  of 
the  osteology  of  that  animal  by  Cuvier,  Riippell,  and  others,  but  little 
remains  to  be  said  on  the  subject.  The  bones.  Professor  Owen 
observes,  are  chiefly  remarkable,  as  in  the  Manatee,  for  l^eir  dense 
texture  and  the  non-development  of  medullary  cavities  in  them. 
This  reptile-like  condition  of  the  skeleton  is,  he  adds,  further  exempli- 
fied in  the  loose  connection  of  the  bones  of  the  head.  The  bones  are 
not  loaded  with  oil  as  in  the  true  Cetiicea,  All  l^e  specimens  ex- 
amined by  the  Professor  presented  7  cervical  and  19  costal  vertebras, 
corresponding  to  the  19  pairs  of  ribs ;  but  the  numb^  of  the  remaining 
vertebrsd  exceeded  that  ascribed  to  Uie  Dugong  by  Home  and  Cuvier, 
there  being  at  least  30,  making  in  all  55.  Riippell  assigns  to  the 
ffalicore  iahemaculi  7  cervical,  19  dorsal,  8  lumbar,  8  pelvic,  and  27 
caudal  vertebrsB ;  in  all  59.  Professor  Owen  found,  as  Riippell  also 
describee,  that  the  first  four  pairs  of  ribs  reached  the  sternum  through 
the  medium  of  cartilages ;  all  the  others  terminated  freely  in  the  mass 
of  abdominal  muscles  :  the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth  Professor  Owen  foxmd 
the  longest,  and  the  last  the  shortest. 

The  Professor  points  out  that  the  affinity  of  the  Dugong  to  the 
PachydkmuMta  is  here  again  illustrated  by  the  great  number  of  the 
ribs.  The  lower  jaw  is,  he  observes,  articulated  to  the  cranium  by  a 
true  synovial  capsule,  reflected  over  cartilaginous  surfaces,  and  not^ 
as  in  the  Carnivorous  CeUtceOf  by  a  coarse  and  oily  ligamentous  sub- 
stance. In  treating  of  the  rudimental  pelvic  bones  of  the  Dugong, 
he  remarks  that  in  the  true  Oetcuxa  the  parts  analogous  to  the  ischia 
are  alone  present,  and  that  those  bones  serve  a  similar  purpose  in 
the  Dugong. 


Skeleton  of  Dugong  {Salicm-e  Dugong), 


hei^t  corresponding  with  the  curvature  and  length  of  the  intermaxil- 
lary bones.  This  pfu-t  shows  in  the  adult  the  remains  of  three  or  four 
alveoli  on  eadi  side. 

The  atlas  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Manatee ;  the  axis  the  same. 
The  five  other  cervical  vertebra  are  very 'delicate,  but  not  conjoined. 
There  are  18  dorsal  vertebrse,  the  spinous  apophyses  of  which  are 
UTsnged  nearly  in  a  straight  line.  Counting  firom  the  ninth,  the  ribs 
do  not  attach  their  head  between  two  vertebrae,  but  only  to  the  same 
▼ertebra,  to  the  transverse  apophysis  of  which  they  are  articulated. 
The  ribs  are  not  nearly  so  stout  as  in  the  Manatee,  but,  notwithstanding, 
the  first  are  still  very  thick  and  have  their  edges  blunt.  After  the 
18  dorsal  yertebreo  come  27,  and  perhaps  more,  whose  spinous  apo- 
physes diminish  progressively.  In  the  lumbar  vertebrse  the  transverse 
apophyses  are  very  long ;  anerwards  they  diminish  by  degrees  on  the 
sidea  of  the  tail,  and  again  become  rather  longer  at  its  extremity, 
apparently  for  the  support  of  the  tail-fin.  It  would  seem  that  the 
first  three  only  belong  to  the  loins.  The  fourth  has  towards  its  extre- 
tnity  a  fitcet^  which  is  probably  destined  for  the  attachment  of  the 
P«Ivlc  bones,  which  last  are  well  marked  in  the  Dugong.    They  are 


2iOophagous  Cetaceans. — The  skull  in  the  Dolphins  is  veiy  much 
elevated,  very  short  and  very  convex  behind.  The  occipital  crest  sur- 
rounds the  top  of  the  head,  and  descends  on  each  side  on  the  middle 
of  the  temporal  crests,  which  are  directed  much  more  backward  than 
it  is.  This  laxge  and  occipital  surface  is  formed  by  the  occipital,  the 
interparietal,  and  parietal  bones,  which  early  umte  into  one  piece. 
The  parietal  bones  descend  on  each  side  into  the  temple  between  the 
temporal  and  the  frontal  bones,  and  they  there  reach  the  posterior 
sphenoid  bone.  In  front  and  above,  the  parietals  terminate  behind 
the  occipital  crest^  and  the  maxilluies  approaching  on  their  side,  what 
appears  of  the  occipital  bone  externally  only  represents  a  very  narrow 
band,  which  traverses  the  skidrfrt)m  right  to  left^  and  seems  to  dilate 
at  each  extremity  to  form  the  wall  of  each  orbit ;  but  on  raising  the 
maxillary  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  anterior  surface  of  the  cranium, 
the/rontal  bone  will  show  itself-  much  lazger  than  it  appears  to  be 
externally.  The  nasal  bones  are  two  rounded  tubercles  let  into  two 
fossae  of  the  middle  of  the  frontal,  and  in  front  cf  which  the  nostrils 
are  sunk  vertically.  The  posterior  and  vertical  i\ir&ce  of  these  no«- 
trils  is  formed  by  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  ethmoid  bone,  bat  it  bai 


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CETACEA. 


very  few  holes— three  or  four,  Bomotimes  less.  The  rert  of  the  inter- 
nal oontour  of  the  noetrils  belongs  to  the  maxillariee.  Their  septum 
is  the  vomer,  which  is  united  to  the  ethmoid  bone  as  ordinarily.  The 
maxillaries,  after  forming  the  long  muzzle,  and  uriving  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  orbits,  enlarge,  and  cover  with  a  wide  and  dilated 
band  the  ceiling  which  the  frontal  bone  gives  to  those  cavities,  and 
the  whole  anterior  surface  of  the  frontal  bone,  with  the  exception  of 
the  small  band,  which  they  su£fer  to  appear  along  the  occipital  crest 
They  also  touch  the  bones  of  the  nose.  The  two  intermaxillaries 
form  the  external  and  anterior  border  of  the  nasal  aperture,  and 
descend  upon  and  between  the  two  maxillaries  up  to  the  point  of  the 
xnuzde,  where  they  even  show  themselves  below ;  but  the  maxillaries 
are  seen  a  little  between  them,  above,  near  the  nostrils. 

But  the  frontal  bone  does  not  entirely  form  the  lower  surface  of  the 
ceiling  of  tiie  orbit ;  the  anterior  part  is  formed  by  a  flat  and  irregu- 
lar bone,  covered  above,  like  the  frontal,  by  the  maxillary ;   this, 
which  is  the  jugal  bone,  gives  off  from  its  anterior  angle  a  slender  and 
long  apophysis,  which  is  directed  backwards,  and  proceeds  to  articu- 
late itself  to  the  zygomatic  apophysis  of  the  temporal  bone :  this  deli- 
cate filament  is  the  sole  bony  limit  of  the  orbit  below.    The  zygomatic 
apophysis  of  the  temporal  bone  unites  itself  to  the  postorbital  apo- 
pnysis  of  the  frontal,  in  order  to  limit  the  orbit  backwards ;  whence  it 
happens  that  the  whole  zygomatic '  arch  properly  so  called  appertains 
to  the  temporal  bone,  which  last  extends  but  little  into  the  t^ple, 
and  tonninates  at  the  temporal  crest,  so  that  it  does  not  appear  in  the 
occiput.    Below,  the  lateral  occipital  and  the  basilary  bones  produce 
projecting  plates,  which,  uniting  to  the  continuation  *of  the  ptery- 
goidean  ida  and  to  a  lamina  of  the  temporal  bone,  compose  a  sort  of 
fault,  under  which  are  suspended  by  ligaments  the  petrous  and  tym- 
panic bones,  which  are  promptly  conjoined  into  one  piece.     The 
parietal  bone,  after  having  passed  behind  the  temporal,  fonns  a  part 
of  this  vault    The  tempond  bone  itself  therefore  seems  to  be  almost 
foreign  to  the  composition  of  the  cranium,  only  serving  to  stop  some 
small  holes  remaining  in  the  parietal    This,  Cuvier  observes,  is  the 
commencement  of  the  separation  which  it  undeigoes  in  the  inferior 
classes.    The  part  of  these  crests  which  borders  the  basilaiy  region 
on  each  side  makes  this  region  resemble  a  wide  canaL    At  the  bottom 
of  the  orbit  are  seen  the  two  sphenoids  placed  as  ordinarily — ^the 
posterior  touching  the  temporal,  the  parietal,  and  the  frontal ;  the 
anterior  touching  the  posterior,  the  frx)ntal,  and  the  internal  pterygoid 
apophysis  :  but  the  great  peculiarity  is  the  form  of  the  back  nostrils. 
The  maxillaries  being  prolonged  into  a  flattened  muzzle,  and  the  teeth 
terminating  in  front  of  the  orbit,  the  maxillary  is  not  on  the  floor  nor 
on  the  anterior  or  lateral  walls  of  that  cavity,  but  at  its  ceiling,  as  is 
also  the  jugal  bone :  it  completes  the  internal  border  of  this  ceiling; 
From  the  entire  posterior  contour  of  the  lower  surface  or  palatine  of 
these  maxillary  bones  rises  a  sort  of  quadrangular  pyramid,  whose 
base  18  traversed  vertically  by  the  nostrils,  and  in  which  the  rest  of 
the  space  is  hollow,  or  contained  between  two  laminan  open  behind. 
These  form  a  sort  of  double  walls,  which  surround  the  posterior  aper- 
ture of  the  nostrils.    They  are  composed  of  the  palatines  and  the 
pterygoid  internal  apophyses.    Each  palatine  is  folded  back  on  itself 
in  an  irregular  ring  to  form  the  base  of  this  double  wall,  and  the 
ceiling  is  completed  by  the  maxillaiy  to  which  it  is  articulated    The 
interual  pterygoid  apophysis  is  only  recurved  in  the  form  of  S.    One 
of  its  curvatures  articiUates  itself  externally  to  the  palatine  to  prolong 
the  lower  and  external  wall ;  the  other  unites  to  the  other  arch  of 
the  palatine,  and  afterwards  continues  on  the  anterior  sphenoid  to 
articulate  itself  to  the  vomer,  and  thus  complete  the  internal  part  of 
this  endoeure  of  the  back  nostril ;  whence  it  results,  that  the  entire 
border  of  the  back  nostril,  except  the  vomer,  belongs,  as  in  the  Ant- 
Eaters,  to  the  internal  pterygoid  apophysis.    The  great  sinus  inter- 
cepted between  the  two  walls  of  this  border  is  a  peculiarity  in  the 
Dolphin :  this  internal  pterygoid  always  remains  distinct    The  poste- 
rior sphenoid  is  conjoined  with  the  basilary  much  sooner  than  to  the 
anterior  sphenoid :  Cuvier  even  found  it  conjoined  in  some  foetuses 
before  any  of  the  other  bones.    This  nearly  absolute  derangement  of 
the  bones  has,  Cuvier  observes,  much  changed  the  direction  of  the 
holes.    In  place  of  the  incisive  hole  there  is  a  long  canal,  which  pro- 
ceeds between  the  two  maxillaries  and  the  two  intermaxillaries^  from 
the  end  of  the  muzzle  to  the  nostrils,  near  which  it  bifurcates.    The 
suborbital  hole  is  to  be  sought  in  the  ceiling  of  the  orbit,  where  it 
represents  a  cavity  open  below,  from  which  proceed  in  different  direc- 
tions canals  which  go  to  open  on  the  superior  surface  of  the  maxillaries 
and  intermaxillaries,  not  below  but  above  and  opposite  to  the  orbit 
Cuvier  could  find  neither  lachrymal  bone  nor  hole.    In  a  hollow  in 
front  of  the  orbit,  between  the  maxillary,  the  vomer,  and  a  point  of 
the  palatine  bone,  is  a  small  hole  which  ascends  in  the  nostril  and 
represents  the  spheno-palatine.    To  respond  to  the  pterygo-palatine, 
Cuvier  could  omy  perceive  a  small  hole  on  the  junction  of  the  palatine 
to  the  maxillary  in  the  palate,  which  enters  the  sinus  placed  on  each 
side  of  the  posterior  nostrils.    The  optic  hole  is  moderate  and  in  the 
anterior  sphenoid  as  ordinarilv.    The  spheno-orbital  hole  between  the 
two  sphenoids  also  performs  the  office  of  the  round  hole.    There  is  an 
oval  hole  in  the  posterior  sphenoid,  and  more  internally  in  the  same 
bone  a  hole  for  a  vessel    An  aperture  between  the  temporal,  the 
lateral  occipital,  the  basilary,  and  the  posterior  sphenoid  gives  passage 
to  the  nen*es  of  the  ear  to  go  to  the  petrous  bone.     In  front  of  it,  and 


very  near,  is  the  oarotidean  hole.  In  the  basilary  bone,  and  in  a  notch 
of  Uie  borders  of  this  vault  of  the  ear,  is  the  condyloidean  hole,  which 
is  very  small.  It  is  the  posterior  border  of  this  vault  which  occupies 
the  place  of  the  mastoid  apophysis. 

Internally  the  cerebral  cavity  is  very  remarkable,  inasmuch  as  iti 
height  surpasses  its  length.  The  floor  is  very  compact  The  eella  ij 
but  slightly  marked.  The  cerebellar  fossn  are  the  most  hollowed ; 
there  is  often  a  veiy  projecting  bony  tentorium  in  its  middle ;  the 
falx  is  always  bony  oackwards,  but  it  has  no  crest,  and  some  small 
holes  are  scarcely  perceptible  in  the  cribriform  plate.  The  pet2X)UB 
and  tympanic  bones  are  not  joined  to  the  cranium  by  any  sutore,  and 
are  not  even  inclosed,  but  only  suspended  by  ligaments  under  the  sort 
of  vault  above  noticed.  They  umte  at  an  early  period  into  a  single 
bone  of  the  ear.  The  occipital  condyles  are  large,  but  project  little 
The  hole,  directed  entirely  m  the  line  of  the  head,  is  nearly  circular. 

Cuvier  remarks  that  complete  symmetry  is  never  found  in  the  skulls 
of  Dolphins  ,*  the  two  nostrils,  the  two  nasal  bones,  and  the  adjacent 
parts,  never  appeared  to  him  equal,  as  in  other  mammiferous  animals ; 
and  this,  he  observes,  conducts  us  to  tiie  extreme  inequality  of  those 
parts  in  the  Cachalots. 

The  various  species  of  Dolphins  differ  from  each  other  in  the  relatiTe 
length  and  widUi  of  the  muzzle,  the  number  of  teeth,  and  the  diTon 
convexities  or  concavities  of  their  parts,  the  palate,  &c.^  Cuvier  points 
out  these  variations  in  the  species,  and  particularly  noidoes  the  Dolphin 
of  the  Gkmges  (Susuk)  as  the  most  extraordinary  in  the  stractuie  of 
its  cranium. 


Skull  of  Porpesae. 

In  the  common  Dolphin  the  seven  cervical  vertebrsB  are  united  in  a 
single  body,  and  so  they  are  in  the.Porpesae ;  but  this  is  not  xmnt- 
sally  the  case,  for  in  the  Dolphin  of  the  Ganges,  for  instance,  the 
cervical  vertebrae  are  as  distinct  as  in  any  quadruped.  But  where 
they  are  anchylosed,  as  in  the  common  Dolphin,  the  atlas  is  fullj 
developed,  and  has  sufficiently  strong,  transverse,  conic  apophysea 
The  body  of  the  axis  is  veiy  delicate;  but  its  spinous  apophysis, 
anchylosed  to  the  atlas,  is  also  well  marked.  The  four  succeeding 
vertebrsB  are,  to  use  Cuvier^s  expression,  as  thin  as  paper,  and  their 
ftnnyl*^'*  part  unites  above  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  spine  of  the  axis. 
The  seventh  cervical  has  some  volume  and  rather  strong  distinct 
apophyses.  The  dorsal  vertebrae  are  18  in  number,  and  there  are 
13  ribs.  The  first  three  ribs  only  have  a  head  and  a  tubercle,  and 
aro  articulated  on  the  body  of  two  vertebrse  and  on  the  eztrenuty 
of  the  transverse  apophysis  of  one  of  them.  The  ten  succeeding  rilN 
are  only  articulated  to  the  extremity  of  the  transverse  apophysis. 
The  last  cervical  and  the  first  six  dorsal  have  their  articular  apophyses 
united  to  each  other  by  horizontal  surfaces,  the  anterior  of  whidi  is 
above.  At  the  sixth  they  begin  to  become  oblique ;  at  the  seven^ 
they  are  nearly  vertical  Commencing  with  the  fourth,  the  trapsrene 
apophysis  gives  off  a  small  point  from  its  anterior  border.  This  point 
approaches  the  anterior  articular  apophysis,  and  becomes  blended  with 
it  at  the  seventh ;  afterwards  these  points  form  the  only  articular 
apophysis ;  those  of  one  vertebra  embracing  the  lower  part  of  the 
spinous  apophysis  of  the  preceding  vertebra.  Towards  the  twenty- 
second  vertebra  or  the  second  luinbar  they  no  longer  reach  it ;  but 
they  remain  irregularly  marked  far  upon  the  taiL  The  transverse 
apophyses  of  the  lumbar  resion  sire  very  lon^  and  the  spinous  veiy 
high.  On  the  tail  they  are  shortened ;  the  spmous  are  widened;  and 
the  transverse  are  directed  rather  forwards.  They  disappear  at  the 
forty-ninth  vertelnra,  and  ike  spinous  at  the  fifty-first  or  fifW-second. 
The  V-shaped  bones  (hsemapophyses  of  Professor  Owen)  of  the  under 
part  of  the  tail  commence  under  the  thirty-eighth.  The  body  of  the 
vertebras  are  round,  rather  angular  below ;  more  compressed  and 
thicker  in  the  region  of  the  back ;  shorter  in  the  lumbar  r^on  and 
in  that  of  the  taU,  where  they  present  a  kind  of  carination  below. 
The  anterior  and  posterior  epiphyses  remain  a  long  time  distinct 
The  sternum  is  composed  of  three  bones ;  the  first,  very  wide,  u 
notched  in  front,  and  gives  off  on  each  side  between  the  first  and 
second  rib  a  sharp  point  directed  backwards.  There  is  a  hole  in  the 
middla  The  second  is  simply  rectangular.  Between  the  first  and 
it  the  second  rib  is  articulated ;  the  third  rib  is  attached  between  the 
second  and  third  bone,  which  receives  on  its  sides  the  fourth,  and 
towards  its  point  the  fifth  and  sixth,  which  is  the  last  true  rib  The 
sternal  parts  of  the  ribs  are  all  osHified. 

The  shoulder-blade  is  fan-shaped,  with  the  external  surface  sli^^Uy 
concave,  and  its  spinal  border  forming  ^o  segment  of  a  drde :  tho 


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two  other  borden  are  slightly  concave  and  nearly  equal ;  tbe  anterior 
ie  bifurcated,  and  thuB  presente  two  edges — one  external,  the  other 
nearer  the  ribs.  The  external  givee  off  a  flat  apophysis  direoted  for- 
wards, and  enlaiged  at  its  extremity,  wbioh  represents  the  acromion. 
The  other  border,  which  is  the  true  antsrior  border,  gives  off  also, 
but  dose  to  the  artioular  snr&oe,  a  flat  apophysis,  less  than  the 
acromion,  descending  a  little  and  equally  enlarged  at  the  end :  this  is 
the  ooraooid  prooess.  The  humerus  is  very  short  and  stout.  On  the 
anterior  part  of  its  upper  extremity  or  head  is  a  tuberosity  as  large 
afl  itself:  the  lower  head  is  enlarged  and  compressed  from  before 
backwards,  and  does  not  terminate  in  a  facet  that  may  be  termed 
articular,  but  imites  by  synchondrosis  with  the  radius  and  ulna :  these 
two  bones  are  short  and  compressed.  The  radius  is  in  front  and  the 
lai^gesty  and  its  form  is  nearly  rectangular :  the  ulna  is  behind  and 
narrower.  Its  posterior  border  is  concave,  and  it  forms  at  its  upper 
extremity  a  projecting  angle,  which  is  the  only  vestige  of  the  olecranon. 
The  carpal  bones  are  flat,  angular,  and  together  form  a  sort  of  pave- 
ment. There  are  three  in  the  first  row,  the  anterior  of  which  responds 
to  the  radius,  the  posterior  to  the  ulna,  and  the  intermediate  one  to 
both  radius  and  ulna.  In  the  second  row  there  are  four,  the  anterior 
of  which  is  the  smallest  Under  this  anterior  bone,  which  may  be 
also  taken  for  a  metacarpal,  is  a  pointed  bone  which  is  the  sole  vestige 
of  a  thumb.  The  next  bone,  which  is  the  fore  finger,  is  composed  of 
nine  joints,  which  must  represent  its  metacarpal,  its  phalange,  and 
their  epiphyses :  there  are  seven  in  the  third  finger  and  four  in  the 
fourth  ;  the  fifth  is  reduced  to  a  single  very  smaU  tuberde. 

In  the  Narwhals  the  skull  resembles  that  of  the  Dolphins,  and 
e:«pecially  the  head  of  the  Bduga,  in  structure ;  but  instead  of  the 
numerous  teeth  ranged  along  the  maxillaries  presented  by  the  Dol- 
phins generally,  there  is  but  one  on  each  side,  directed  forwards  and 
implanted  in  an  alveolus  common  to  the  diaxillary  and  intermaxillary 
bones.  Very  rarely  indeed  are  these  teeth  symmetrical ;  and  neariy 
always  one  of  the  two  remains  iudosed  in  its  alveolus,  whilst  the 
other  grows  to  a  length  of  ten  or  twelve  feet.  The  muzzle,  and  more 
especially  the  intermaxillary  bones,  are  more  widened  than  in  the 
Dolphins.  The  intermaxillaries  ascend  near  to  the  bones  of  the  nose. 
The  holes  with  which  the  maxillaries  are  pierced  in  their  wideaed 
part^  and  which  occupy  the  place  of  the  suborbital  holes,  are  laigo 


Bkull  and  Teeth  of  Narwhal  {Mcnodon  monoeirros),  wen  from  below.     Owen. 


and  numerous.  The  notch  which  separates  this  widened  part  from 
the  muzzle  is  small,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  orbit  projects  but 
little.  The  nasal  are  very  small,  and  the  left  nostril  is  smaller  than 
the  other.  «         ,  •-        •    i 

The  number  of  vertebra,  according  to  Scorasby,  are— 7  osrvical, 

VAT.  Hm.  Diy.  YOL.  I. 


12  dorsal,  and  85  lumbar  or  caudal — 54  in  alL  The  spinal  canal 
is  said  to  cease  at  the  forty-first  The  spinous  apophvBes  begin 
to  dimimsh  at  the  thirty-fourth,  and  disappear  at  the  thirty 
eighth.  The  V-shaped  bones  commence  between  the  thirtieth  and 
the  thirty-first,  and  terminate  between  the  forty-second  and  forty- 
third.  There  are  six  pairs  of  true  ribs  and  six  false,  all  rather  dender. 
The  bones  of  the  anterior  extremity  appear  to  bear  a  dose  resemblance 
to  those  of  the  Porpesse,  except  that  the  bones  are  more  equal,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  roundness  of  the  Narwhal's  flipper. 

In  the  Hyperoodons  the  skull  differs  almost  entirely  in  form  from 
those  belonging  to  the  Dolphins.  From  the  maxillaries,  which  are 
pointed  in  front  and  widened  towards  the  base  of  the  muzde,  rises  on 
each  of  their  lateral  borders  a  Luge  vertical  crest,  rounded  above, 
descending  obliquely  forwards  and  more  rapidly  backwards,  where  it 
fkUs  again  nearly  above  the  postorbital  apophysis.  Still  more  back- 
wards, the  maxillary  bone,  continuing  to  cover  the  frontal  bone, 
ascends  verticdly  witii  it  and  with  the  occipital,  to  form  on  the  back 
part  of  the  head  a  transverse  ocdpitd  crest,  which  is  very  elevated 
and  very  thick,  so  that  on  the  skull  of  the  animal  there  are  three  of 
these  great  crests :  the  occipital  crest  behind,  and  the  two  maxillary 
cresto  on  the  sides,  which  are  separated  from  the  first  by  a  wide  and 
deep  noteh.  They  do  not  approximate  above,  nor  do  they  form  a 
vault,  as  in  the  Dolphin  of  the  Ganges,  but  simply  a  sort  of  lateral 
walls.  The  intermaxillaries,  placed  as  ordinarily  between  the  maxil- 
laries, ascend  with  them  to  the  nostrils,  and  passing  by  the  side^  of 
them,  raise  themselves  above,  so  that  they  take  part  in  the  formation 
of  the  posterior  crest  elevated  upon  the  occiput  The  two  nasal  bones, 
which,  as  well  as  the  nostrils,  are  very  imequal,  are  placed  at  the 
anterior  surface  of  this  occipital  crest,  and  are  ndsed  to  its  summit 
In  other  respecte  the  connections  of  the  bones  are  nearly  the  same  as 
in  the  Dolphins. 

The  zygomatic  apophysis  of  the  temporal  bone  is  thick,  without 
being  as  long  as  in  the  Dolphin  of  the  Ganges ;  the  orbit  is  as  wide 
as  in  the  ordinary  Dolphins,  and  bounded  in  like  manner  below  by  a 
dender  stem  given  off  by  the  jugd  bone.  The  parietal  bones  show 
themselves  but  very  little  in  the  temporal  fossa,  which  is  iteelf  not 
much  extended  in  height  Below,  the  palate  is  slightly  carinated, 
indicating  an  approximation  to  the  BalcmcB,  The  lateral  furrows 
observable  in  the  common  Dolphin  are  absent  The  pterygoideans 
occupy  a  very  great  length  in  the  back-nostrils,  and  much  diminish 
the  portion  which  the  palatine  bones  fill  in  front  The  vomer  shows 
itself  at  two  pointe  of  the  lower  surface,  between  the  pterygoideans 
and  the  palatines,  and  between  the  maxillaries  and  intermaxillaries. 
The  ocdput  is  higher  than  it  is  wide.  The  lower  jaw  has  not  the 
symphysis  longer  than  in\he  ordinarv  species  of  the  Dolphins. 

The  seven  cervical  vertebrte  are  all  anohylosed  together ;  there  are 
thirty-eight  other  vertebne,  nine  of  which  carry  the  ribs.  At  the 
twenty-second  the  Y-shaped  bones  which  characterise  the  first  caudal 
commence,  so  that  seventeen  caudal  vetebrse  may  be  oounted.  There 
are  six  of  these  Y-shaped  bones ;  and  the  superior  spinous  apophyses 
cease  on  the  ninth  caudd.  The  five  first  ribs  only  are  articulated  to 
the  sternum,  and  there  are  only  four  fdse  ribs  on  each  nde.  The 
sternum  is  composed  of  three  bones,  the  first  square,  notched  in  front 
and  behind ;  the  second  square  also,  and  notehed  in  fh>nt ;  the  third 
oblong  and  notehed  behind. 

The  shoulder-blade  has  the  spinal  border  more  extended  in  pro- 
portion and  more  rectilinear  than  in  the  Dolphins,  the  anterior  angle 
more  pointed,  the  acromion  directed  rather  downwards,  and  the  oora- 
coid  process  a  little  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  bones  of  the  arm 
and  fore-arm  are  a  little  less  shortened  than  in  the  Dolphins.  ('Ossemens 
Fossiles,') 

The  skull  of  the  Cachdote  bears  a  nearer  resemblance  to  that  of 
the  Dolphins  than  to  that  of  any  other  Cetacesns.  The  immense 
muzde,  notwithstanding  ite  prodigious  extent,  is,  like  that  of  the 
Dolphin,  formed  by  the  maxillaries  on  the  ddes,  the  intermaxillaries 
towards  the  mesial  line,  and  the  vomer  on  that  line.  The  inter- 
maxillaries readi  beyond  the  other  bones  to  form  the  anterior  point ; 
they  ascend  on  the  two  sides  of  the  nostrils  and  the  nasd  bones^^  and 
raise  themselves  to  form  that  spedes  of  wall  which  devates  itsdf 
perpendicularly  and  drculM-ly  on  the  back  of  the  head,  but  that  of 
the  right  dde  is  carried  higher  than  tliat  of  the  left  The  vomer  showp 
itself  between  them  in  considerable  width,  espeddly  at  the  upP«r 
part ;  it  is  hollowed  into  a  semicand  throughout  ite  length.  The 
nostrils  are  pierced  at  the  foot  of  this  sort  of  wdl  at  the  root  of  the 
vomer,  and  between  the  raised  and  ascending  parte  of  the  two  inter- 
maxillaries. Their  direction  is  obUque  from  below  upwards,  and 
from  behind  forwards.  They  are  excessively  unequd,  and  that  on 
the  right  dde  is  not  a  fourth  of  the  size  of  that  on  the  left  The 
ryiuuA  bones  are  dso  very  unequal  Both  asoend  between  the  intennaxil> 
laries  against  the  foot  of  the  semicircular  wdl  which  is  raised  upon 
the  cranium,  but  they  only  rise  to  the  level  of  the  left  intormaxillaiy. 
The  right  nasd  bone  is  not  only  Iwrger  than  the  other,  but  it  also 
descends  lower  between  the  two  nostrils,  articulating  itself  upon  the 
root  of  the  vomer,  and  giving  to  that  part  an  irregular  crest  which 
reposes  a  little  obliqudy  on  the  left  nostril,  which,  as  before  observed, 
is  the  longest 

The  direction  of  the  vomer  and  amplitude  of  the  left  nostril 
indicate  a  direction  of  the  membranous  cand  of  the  nostrils  and  tha 

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whole  gpouting  apparatus  towards  the  same  side,  and  explain,  Cuvier 
observes,  the  fact  obsenred  by  mariners,  namely,  that  the  Cachalots 
throw  their  spoutings  towards  the  left  side. 

The  maxillaries  do  not  join  each  other  in  front  of  the  semicircular 
wall ;  and  leave  exposed  between  them  an  irregular  and  considerable 
part  of  the  frontal  none,  which  goes  behind  them,  and  directing  itself 
laterally,  proceeds  to  form,  as  in  the  Dolphins,  the  principal  part  of 
the  ceiling  of  the  orbit  The  maxillarv  makes  its  anterior  angle,  in 
front  of  which  the  border  of  the  maxillary  has  a  deep  notch,  and  at 
its  upper  siurface,  opposite  to  that  notch,  is  the  great  hole  which 
occupies  the  place  of  the  suborbital,  but  which,  Cuvier  remarks,  should 
here  be  called  supra-orbitaL  The  posterior  angle  of  the  orbit  is 
occupied  by  the  point  of  the  zygomatic  apophysis  of  the  temporal  bone ; 
but  it  does  not  quite  join  the  postorbital  apophysis  of  the  frontal 
bone,  so  that  the  edge  of  the  orbit  is  open  at  this  point.  The  lower 
part  of  the  orbit  is  formed  by  a  stout  and  cylindrical  jugal  bone, 
whose  anterior  part  dilates  itself  into  an  oblong  lamina  which 
partially  closes  the  orbit  in  front.  The  temporal  fossa  is  very  deep, 
rounded,  but  not  distinguLshed  by  a  crest  from  the  rest  of  the  occiput : 
a  little  of  the  parietal  bone  is  perceptible  between  the  temporal  and 
the  frontal  bones.  The  squamous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone  is 
not  extensive,  its  zygomatic  portion  is  in  the  shape  of  a  stout  and 
short  cone ;  proceeding  to  the  orbit  it  alone  forms  the  arch  as  in  the 
Dolphins.    The  occipital  bone  is  vertical  and  forms  the  whole  posterior 


Skull  of  Cachalot,  seen  from  below. 


Skull  of  Cachalot,  seen  obliquely  from  above. 


rroflle  of  Skull  of  Cachalot  and  under  Jaw. 


Skull  of  Cachalot,  seen  from  behind. 

surface  of  the  semicircular  wall  which  surrounds  the  skull  behind. 
The  occipital  hole  is  nearly  at  the  lower  third  of  its  height  The 
lower  border  of  the  occipital  bone  is  divided  on  each  side  by  a 
notch  into  two  lobes,  the  external  of  which  represents  the  mastoid 
apophysis. 


The  lower  part  of  the  skull,  allowing  for  the  difference  of  proportion 
of  the  parts,  much  resembles  the  lower  portion  of  that  of  the  Dolphina 
The  region  behind  the  nostrils  is  very  much  shortened  in  comparisoii 
of  that  which  is  anterior  to  them,  and  of  which  the  enormous  muzde 
forms  the  greatest  portion.  The  result  of  this  oonfamiation  ii  that 
the  basilary  and  posterior  q»henoid  are  very  short ;  that  the  anterior 
sphenoid,  as  in  the  Laige-Muzzled  Dolphins,  only  shows  itself  below  in 
a  notch  of  the  vomer,  and  appears  very  little  towards  the  temple 
between  the  palatine,  the  pterygoidean,  and  the  temporal  ala  of  the 
posterior  sphenoid;  and  that  the  pteiygoideans  extend  on  their 
lateral  and  posterior  part»  nearly  to  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
basilary  bone.  The  jugal  bone  on  its  anterior  part  lines  below  a 
great  portion  of  the  vault  of  the  orbit,  and  proceeds  to  touch  behind 
the  points  of  the  two  sphenoids.  Their  anterior  border  is  not  double, 
as  in  the  Dolphins.  Tne  bone  of  the  ear  bears  a  great  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  Dolphins,  but  the  tympanic  bone  is  less  elongated  and  less 
lobated  backwards. 

Of  the  cervical  vertebr»  of  the  Cachalot  the  atUs  alone  is  distinct ; 
the  six  others  are  anchylosed  into  a  single  mass  by  the  bodies  and 
spinous  apophyses ;  but  the  number  may  be  made  out  by  the  aides 
where  very  delicate  laminae  interpose  between  the  holes  where  the 
nerves  pass  out.  There  are  14  pairs  of  ribs  and  14  dorsal  vertebrae 
(perhaps  a  fifteenth),  and  85  others.  The  dorsal  vertebre  have 
tneir  transverse  apophyses  short;  their  anterior  articolar  apo- 
physes are  turned  inwards,  and  embrace  the  posterior,  which 
look  outwards.  The  spinous  processes  are  less  elevated  and 
wide  from  before  baokwaida  The  two  Isst  carry  the  ribe  only  on 
the  extremity  of  their  transverse  apophyses,  and  not  on  a  £aoet  ol 
their  body.  On  the  succeeding  vertebrse  the  spinous  apophyses  rise, 
become  oblique,  and  wider  at  their  summit  than  at  their  base.  The 
articulars  ascend  gradually  to  their  anterior  borders,  as  in  the 
Dolphins :  the  spinous  apophyses  shortening  by  degrees,  the  articnlar 
apophyses  arrive  at  their  summit  on  the  tail,  and  finally  disappear. 
The  spinous  apophyses  disappear  also  on  the  last  caudal  vertebrse. 
The  transverse  apophyses  are  at  first  simple  tubercles  of  the  artacokr 
apophyses :  they  do  not  take  the  form  of  distinct  apophyses  tUl  the 
three  last  dorsal  vertebrse,  and  afterwards  continue  on  the  Inmbar 
and  caudal,  but  always  remaining  of  moderate  length,  and  not  dflatrng 
at  their  extremity*  The  lower  part  of  the  body  of  the  vertebrae, 
counting  from  the  fourth  lumbar,  is  strongly  carinated.  The 
V-shapMl  bones  do  not  commence  before  the  twenty-first  after  the 
dorsal  vertebrse.  They  are  at  first  rather  long,  and  more  so  than  the 
spinous  apophyses  to  which  they  correspond;  but  afterwards  they 
are  a  little  shortened.  The  vertebne  which  cany  them  have  their 
lower  carination  divided  into  two  truncated  ridges,  eadi  at  the  tw 
extremities,  fto  as  to  form  facets  for  the  V-shaped  bones,  which  always 
articulate  between  two  vertebrae.  The  caudal  vertebrse  still  remun 
verv  large  up  to  the  six  or  seven  last,  which  diminish  rapidly,  losing 
their  different  eminences :  thus  the  greatest  portion  of  the  spine  is 
nearly  much  of  a  size. 

The  shoulder-blade  is  concave  externally,  convex  on  the  aide  of  the 
ribs,  and  narrower  than  in  the  other  Cetaceans :  its  spinal  border  is 
not  two-thirds  of  its  height  Its  anterior  border  becomes  double 
below  the  middle  of  its  height,  and  gives  off  from  its  external  ridge  a 
great  acromion,  more  projecting  antmoriy  than  the  shoulder-blade  is 
at  this  point,  and  enlsi^ged  at  its  extremity.  The  internal  border 
gives  off  near  the  articulur  head  a  coracoid  apophysis,  which  projects 
less  than  the  acromion,  and  terminates  in  a  point.  The  humerus  » 
very  short  and  stout,  and  has  at  its  anterior  border  a  oreety  terminated 
towards  the  lower  part  by  a  hook  which  represents  the  deltoidal 
crest.  The  ulna  is  anchylosed  early  to  the  humerus,  even  before  the 
epiphysis  of  this  last  is  united.  The  olecranian  apophysis  projects 
very  much,  and  curves  towards  the  wrist    ('  Ossemens  Fossxlea.') 

Balcenido!,  or  Whalebone  Whales.— The  skull  of  the  Roarqual 
(Balamoptera)  is  more  approximated  to  that  of  the  Dolphins  than 
the  skull  of  the  ^atoius, -properly  so  called.  The  immense  maxillary 
bones  are  disposed  below,  in  form  of  a  reversed  roof  or  a  keel,  to  the 
two  sides  of  which  the  baleen,  or  whalebone,  is  attached.  The  vomer 
is  shown  between  them  in  nearly  the  mesial  line  of  the  keel  Above^ 
the  two  intermaxillaries,  placed  parallel  between  the  two  maTJllarie^ 
leave  between  them  a  vacant  space,  which  is  continued  above,  or 
rather  backwards,  with  the  very  lai^  aperture  of  the  nostrils,  'sH^idi 
is  in  the  form  of  an  elongated  oval;  and,  contrary  to  the  other 
Cetaceans,  preserves,  as  in  tiie  whole  of  the  BakentB,  a  symmetzical 
form.  The  nasal  bones,  which  are  shorty  but  notched  or  fieetooned 
anteriorly,  and  not  in  form  of  tubercles,  form  the  upper  border  of  this 
aperture.  The  maxillaiy  does  not  cover  the  frontal  bone,  except  by 
a  narrow  apophysis  on  the  two  sides  of  the  nasal  bones.  The  whole 
portion  of  the  frontal  bone  which  goes  on  each  side  to  form  the  orbit 
is  exposed,  but  tiie  parietal  bones  cover  the  upper  part  of  the  tern 
poraf  fossa  to  the  sides  of  the  apophysis  of  the  maxillary  bone,  vdiich 
shows  itself  between  the  frt>ntal  and  the  bones  of  the  noseu  Tlie 
occipitiJ  bone  advances  between  them,  and  covers  the  middle  of  the 
frontal  to  near  the  bones  of  the  nose;  so  that  at  the  base  of  the  noee 
the  frontal  does  not  show  itself  externally.  There  are  two  temporal 
crests  projecting  greatly  outwards,  commencing  at  the  aides  of  the 
nose,  and  between  which  Uie  skull  is  flat^  or  even  slightly  concave, 
and  iesoenda  slowly  towards  the  oooipital  hols^  which  is  at  the 


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extremity  of  this  plane.  The  oodpital  orest  oomes  near  the  base  of 
the  nasal  banee,  trayendjg  from  one  temporal  erest  to  the  other.  On 
the  middle  of  this  oooipital  ^  surface  is  a  slightly  projecting  longitu- 
dinal ridge. 

The  jugal  bone  is  curved  into  a  portion  of  a  circle,  and  forms  the 
lower  border  of  the  orbit,  coming  firom  the  zjrgomatio  apophysis  of 
the  maxillary  bone,  which  abuts  at  the  anterior  angle  on  the  temporal 
apophysis,  which  abuts  on  the  posterior  angle.  The  jugal  bone  is  not 
dilated  at  its  extremity  as  in  Uie  Dolphin.  The  frontal  on  one  side 
touches  the  maxillary,  and  on  the  other  the  temporal  bones,  by  its 
ante-  and  post-orbital  apophyses,  and  forms  by  itself  the  whole  ceiling 
of  the  orbit,  without  being  doubled  aboTC  by  the  maxillary ;  but  on 
the  contrary  it  is  below,  on  its  anterior  portion,  that  in  front  of  the 
orbit,  and  moreover  is  bordered  there  anteriorly  by  the  lateral  lamina 
of  the  maxillary  bone,  which  is,  with  reference  to  the  frontal,  in  an 
inverse  position  from  that  which  it  holds  in  the  Dolphins.  It  is  by 
this  lanuna  that  the  maxillary  bone  abuts  on  the  anterior  angle  of  the 
orbit,  and  articulates  itself  with  the  anterior  and  enlarged  extremity 
of  the  jugal  bone ;  but  what  is  very  remarkable  is,  that  at  this  poin^ 
between  the  frontal  and  the  maxillary,  and,  so  to  speak,  at  their  very 
articulation,  a  peculiar  bone,  in  form  of  a  lamina,  occupies  nearly  half 
the  length  of  that  suture,  and  which  perhaps  is  the  analogue  of  the 
Ischrjrmal  bone.  The  whole  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  properly  so 
called,  which  is  very  huge,  belongs  to  the  temporal  bone.  The  frame 
of  the  orbit  is  closed  on  all  sides ;  its  ceiling  is  very  large  and  concave 
above.  The  palatine  bones  are  prolonged  below  the  keel  of  the 
maxiUaries.  The  posterior  nostrils  are  very  near  the  occipital  hole. 
They  have  at  each  angle  a  tuberosity  formed  by  the  pterygoidean 
bone,  which  has  little  longitudinal  extent,  and  only  surrounds  the 
nostrils  on  th^  external  side  and  a  little  above  and  below,  but  without 
forming  a  sinus  or  double  border  there,  as  in  the  Dolphins.  The 
baailary  region,  which  is  very  short,  is  also  hollowed  into  a  canal,  as  in 
them,  and  has  on  each  side  the  bones  of  the  ear,  which  are  very  small 
in  proportion,  and  of  oval  form,  and  equallv  convex  in  their  inferior 
surface.  In  front  of  the  basilary  bone,  and  between  the  pterygoidean 
bones,  may  be  seen  the  body  of  the  posterior  sphenoid.  The  glenoid 
&ce  of  the  temporal  bone  is  nearly  vertical,  and  looks  forwards ;  that 
which  makes  the  articular  surface  of  the  lower  jaw  is  in  some  sort 
the  truncature  of  the  extremity  of  the  bone.  This  jaw  is  an  arch 
externally  convex,  compressed,  slightly  trenchant  above  and  below. 
It  has  a  coronoid  apophysis  in  form  of  an  obtuse  angle,  and  a  tuber- 
osity a  little  more  backwards. 

Cuvier  points  out  certain  differences  between  the  skulls  of  the 
Rorquals  of  the  Cape,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  North  Sea,  for 
which  we  most  refer  the  reader  to  his  '  Ossemens  Fossiles.' 

Balcmtu — To  form  the  idea  of  a  Balcena,  properly  so  called,  Cuvier 
states  that  we  must  figure  to  ourselves  the  muzzle  of  the  Rorqual 
narrowed,  elongated,  compressed  laterally,  and  arched  from  before 
backwards,  nearly  in  a  quarter  of  a  circle.  It  is,  he  observes,  in  the 
space  whidi  this  curvature  leaves,  that  the  plates  of  baleen,  or  whale- 
bone, which  adhere  by  their  upper  and  wide  extremity  to  the  sides 
of  the  keel  which  the  muzzle  forms  below,  and  descend  obliquely 
outwards  by  their  lower  and  pointed  extremity  towards  the  lower 
jaw,  are  lodged.  It  is  predseiy  because  this  curvature  gives  them 
more  space  in  the  BalcgncBf  properly  so  called,  that  they  are  longer  in 
those  whales  than  in  the  Rorquals,  in  which  last  the  nearly  straight 
muzzle  leaves  them  little  room. 

It  results  from  this  lateral  compression  of  the  muzzle  that  the 
intermaxillary  bones  are  not  horizontally  between  but  vertically  upon 
the  maxillaries :  the  upper  plane  of  these  last  is  itself  nearly  vertical, 
except  in  the  lateral  branch,  which  borders  the  frontal  before,  to 
proceed  with  it  upon  the  orbit.  This  transverse  portion  of  the 
frontal  bone  is  narrower  from  before  backwards  than  m  the  RorquaL 
The  occipital  bone  is  convex  throughout  its  ]|]ipper  portion,  less 
oblique  than  in  the  Rorqual,  and  semi-oval.  The  temporal  bone 
remains  transverse,  and  its  zygomatic  portion  hardly  curves  forwards 
at  alL  The  nasal  bones  are  rhomboidal,  and  not  triangular  as  in  the 
KorquaL  Below,  the  palatine  and  pterygoidean  bones  are  thrown 
still  more  back,  and  are  shorter,  and  the  sphenoid  bone  is  more 
concealed  than  in  the  RorquaL  The  maxillary  bone  has  a  deep 
notch  at  its  lower  and  posterior  border.  The  glenoid  surface  of  the 
temporal  bone  is  much  less  vertical  than  in  the  Rorqual,  so  that  the 
lower  jawbone  rises  a  little  to  offer  its  articular  convex  surface.  This 
disposition,  joined  to  the  absence  of  a  coronoid  apophysis,  may  serve 
to  distinguidi  it  from  the  lower  jaw  of  the  Rorqual. 

In  the  Rorqual  of  the  Cape,  Cuvier  found  the  atlas  distinct  from 
the  axis ;  this  last  is  anchylosed  by  the  upper  part  of  its  ring,  which 
has  no  spinous  apophysis,  with  the  corresponding  part  of  the  third 
cervical  This  last  and  the  four  others  do  not  imite  :  they  are  of 
some  thickness.  The  transverse  apophyses  are  double  in  the  first 
three,  as  in  the  axis ;  one  superior  is  given  off  from  the  annular 
portion  below  the  articular  apophysis,  the  other  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  body ;  none  of  these  apophyses  are  directed  forwards.  The 
lower  are  shortened  from  the  ajds  to  the  fourth  vertical  and  are 
tnmting  in  the  succeeding  ones.  The  upper  apophyses  are  longest  on 
the  axis  and  on  the  third ;  afterwards  they  are  equal,  and  form  a 
scries  with  the  transverse  apophyses  which  carry  the  ribs.  There  are  7 
cervical  vertebra),  14  dorsal  Tertebr»  and  as  many  pairs  of  ribs,  and 


81  other  vertebrae  to  the  end  of  the  tail — 52  in  all  The  second, 
third,  and  fourth  ribs  only  have  heads,  and  seem  hardly  able  to  reach 
the  body  of  the  vertebrae.  The  others  only  reach  the  extremities  of 
the  transverse  apophyses,  which  go  on  lengthening  to  the  lumbar 
region.  They  are  longer  than  they  are  wide,  and  dilate  at  the  end, 
as  in  ihe  Greenland  Whale.  They  thus  continue  to  the  thirteenth 
lumbar,  where  they  begin  to  shorten,  but  still  widen  to  the  fifteenth 
or  sixteenth,  where  they  disappear.  The  spinous  apophyses  begin  to 
show  themselves  on  the  third  cervical  They  remain  small  on 
the  neck,  and  begin'to  be  elongated  and  compressed  on  the  first 
dorsals.  They  form  a  nearly  equal  series ;  wider  on  the  middle  of  the 
back,  narrower,  but  always  moderately  elevated,  on  the  lumbar  region, 
and  shortening  by  degrees  on  the  tail  They  vanish  on  the  last 
twelve,  and  the  annular  portion  disappears  two  vertebrae  after  the 
spinous  apophyses.  The  facets  of  the  articular  apophyses  look 
inwards  as  far  as  the  eleventh,  where  they  begin  to  open  outwards. 
They  do  not  rise,  and  finally  form,  towards  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth, 
with  the  spinous  (which  is  always  shortened),  a  trilobated  prominence. 
The  pelvis  in  the  French  skeleton  is  attached  imder  the  ninth  lumbar 
vertebra.  At  the  eleventh  the  V-shaped  bones  commence.  The  first 
is  still  formed  of  two  separate  bones.  They  re-divide  anew  behind. 
The  lower  part  of  the  lumbar  and  caudal  vertebrae  is  hardly  marked 
by  a  slight  carination.  Commencing  from  the  fifteenth  vertebra 
after  the  dorsal,  the  body  of* each  is  pierced  on  both  sides,  above  and 
below,  with  a  laige  hole  for  the  vessels.  These  holes  do  not  diminsh 
on  the  last  caudal,  though  they  are  much  smaller,  so  that  they  each 
represent  two  cylinders  set  back  to  back,  pierced  in  their  axis. 

The  single  bone  of  the  sternum  was  square,  deeply  forked 
posteriorly,  and  with  a  point  at  its  external  boiler. 

The  shoulder-blade  of  the  Cape  Rorqual  is,  Cuvier  remarks, 
entirely  different  from  that  of  the  Balcma  ;  it  is  wider  than  it  is  long, 
semicircular  on  the  spinal  side,  with  a  single  anterior  border,  a  single 
prominence  (the  acromion)  towards  the  lower  third,  and  a  tubercle 
near  the  articulation,  which  is  the  coracoid  apophysis.  The  humerus 
is  still  stouter  in  proportion  than  that  of  the  Balcena,  but  the  bones 
of  the  fore-arm  are  much  more  elongated.  The  fin  is  also  much  more 
pointed.  There  are  onlv  four  well-marked  fingers,  which,  not 
counting  the  metatarsals,  have  the  following  joints  : — the  index  two, 
the  middle  and  ring-finger  seven  each,  and  the  little  finger  three  :  all 
the  fingers  are  terminated  by  a  cartilaginous  dilattition. 

The  bone  of  the  ear  in  the  Balance  differs  from  that  of  the 
Dolphins  in  the  enormous  thickness  of  the  tympanic  bone,  especially 
on  the  internal  side.  The  tympanic  bono  is  a  little  more  closed  in 
front,  but  leaves  between  it  and  the  petrous  bone  on  the  internal  side 
a  solution  of  continuity  wider  and  longer  in  proportion.  It  is  not 
bilobated  backwards.  The  petrous  bone  is  of  very  irregular  form, 
and  very  rugged ;  it  gives  off  two  great  and  stout  apophyses,  also 
veiy  rugged,  one  of  which,  posterior  and  a  little  superior,  articiilated 
to  a  corresponding  apophysis  of  the  tympanic  bone,  is  inserted 
between  the  temporal  and  lateral  occipital ;  and  the  other,  anterior 
and  inferior  is  articulated  by  squamous  suture  with  the  temporal 


Skull  of  Greenland  Whale,  with  lower  jaw,  seen  ftrom  above. 


Skull  of  Greenland  Whale,  seen  from  below. 

portion,  which  descends  to  furnish  articulation  with  the  lower  jaw. 
The  ear-bones  in  all  the  Cetaceans  are  four  in  number,  as  in  the 
MammalMf  and  the  malleus  is  anchylosed  to  the  frame  of  the  tym- 
panum, which,  Cuvier  observes,  is  the  more  singular,  inaamuch  as  it 
]•  not  deprived  of  its  muscles. 


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Cuvier  remarka,  that  tho  skull  of  the  Greenland  Whale  differs  more 
ih)m  the  Balama  of  the  Cape  than  the  skulls  of  the  Rorquals  dififer 
from  each  other.  He  points  ont  these  dififerences,  which  extend, 
although  slightly,  to  the  Dones  of  the  ear ;  and  expresses  his  opinion 
that  they  are  different  speciea 


SkoU  of  Greenland  Whale,  with  lover  Jaw,  profile. 

In  the  great  Cape  Bdlcma,  according  to  Cuvier,  the  atlas,  the  axis, 
and  the  Sve  other  cervical  vertebrsd  are  united  together  by  their 


jection  externally  :  there  are  only  three  in  the  second.  The  metatw- 
sals  are  in  length  only  double  their  width.  The  thumb  has  two 
phalanges,  the  ring-fii4;er  four,  the  little  finger  three ;  and  all  an 
terminated  by  a  oartilBginous  dilatation.  A  wide  and  short  fis 
obliquely  rounded  is  the  result.     ('  Ossemens  Fossiles.') 

The  pelvis  in  the  Cetaceans  is,  as  we  have  seen,  only  mdimentaiy; 
but  it  may  be  necessary  here  to  give  a  summary  of  the  modification 
of  the  bones  and  their  connection  with  the  skeleton  in  the  different 
groups. 

In  the  Dugong  it  consists  of  two  pairs  of  bones  joined  two  and  two, 
and  end  to  end,  by  a  cartilage :  to  the  vertebns  this  apparattu  is 
attached  by  a  cartilage  also. 

The  construction  of  this  part  varies  in  the  tnie  Zoophagous 
Cetaceans.  Two  small  long  bones  lodged  in  the  flesh,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  anus,  form  the  pelvic  rudiments  in  the  Dolphins.  In  the 
great  whales,  the  Mysticete,  or  Whalebone  Whale,  for  example,  at  the 
extremity  of  each  of  the  bones,  regarded  by  comparative  ana^mistau 
ilia,  a  second,  which  is  smaller  and  curved,  is  articulated.  The  con- 
vexity of  this  last  bone  is  external,  and  may  be  considered  as  a  pnbis 
or  ischium. 


Skeleton  of  HTStieete,  or  Whalebone  Whale. 


bodies.  All  their  spinous  apophyses  are  anchylosed  into  a  single 
crest  The  atlas  and  axis  imite  besides  by  their  upper  transverse 
apophyses,  which  are  wide  and  strong :  their  lower  transverse 
apophyses,  which  are  equally  long  and  strong,  are  anchylosed  to  each 
other  and  to  that  of  the  Uiird,  which  is  more  slender.  The  next 
four  cervioals  have  only  delicate  transverse  apophyses,  of  which  the 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  are  anchylosed  together.  The  last  also  has 
only  one  upper  transverse  apophysis,  but  longer,  stronger,  free,  and 
directed  forwards.  Cuvier  remarks  that  this  division  of  the 
apophyses  into  upper  and  lower  responds  to  the  two  branches 
separated  by  a  canal,  which  are  seen  in  those  of  ordinary  mammals. 
The  transverse  apophyses  of  the  first  dorsal  are  directed  also  forwards, 
and  are  long  and  a  little  stronger  than  at  the  last  cervical;  they 
conmience  increasing  in  bulk,  and  shortening  at  the  fourth  dorsal. 
The  succeeding  take  a  more  transverse  direction,  and  kre  enlarged  at 
the  end,  to  the  tenth  inclusive.  Counting  from  the  eleventh,  they 
again  begin  to  elongate  to  the  seventeenth;  they  then  diminish 
insensibly  to  the  thirty-fourth,  where  they  disappear.  They  are 
throughout  longer  than  in  the  Cachalot,  and  enlarged  towards  the 
end,  the  contrary  of  which  is  manifested  in  that  genus.  There  are 
fifteen  pairs  of  ribs  ;  the  last  four  pairs  and  the  first  two  do  not  reach 
the  body  of  the  vertebra,  and  are  only  attached  to  its  transverse 
apophysis.  The  first  pair  is  flattened  and  extremely  wide,  especially 
at  the  sternal  extremity.  The  last  three  are  slender  and  short. 
After  the  fifteen  dorsal  vertebrae  come  twenty-seven  others.  The 
V-shaped  bones  commence  between  the  eleventh  and  twelfth ;  they 
are  small  compared  with  those  of  the  Cachalot,  and  disappear  after 
the  twenty-sixth.  The  eleven  br  twelve  last  vertebrsD  have  no  longer 
any  eminences.  The  last  of  all  are  nearly  quadrangular,  and  are 
each  pierced  with  two  vertical  holes.  The  spinous  apophyses  form  a 
tolerably  uniform  series  of  moderate  height,  all  inclined  forwards; 
they  begin  to  diminish  on  the  tail.  The  anterior  articular  apophyses 
are  not  ele'vated,  remain  at  the  same  height,  and  preserve  the  same 
dimensions.  They  widen  on  the  tail  where  they  have  no  articulation 
to  furnish,  and  the  last  five  or  six,  nearly  equal  to  the  corresponding 
spinous  apophyses,  form  with  them  on  their  vertebrsB  a  trilobated 
prominence. 

The  single  bone  of  the  sternum  was  oblong,  widest  in  front,  and 
carried  on  each  side  an  articular  facet  for  a  rib. 

The  shoulder-blade  ia  nearly  flat ;  one  can  scarcely  perceive  a  slight 
concave  curvature  :  it  is  nearly  fan-shaped,  and  less  wide  than  high. 
Its  anterior  border  is  simple,  and  has  only  a  single  projecting  apo- 
physis, which  from  its  position  is  probably  the  acromion.  Its  articular 
head  is  much  wider  in  proportion  than  in  the  Cachalot.  The  humerus 
is  stout  and  short,  scarcely  twice  as  long  as  it  is  thick.  Its  tuberositv 
does  not  reach  beyond  the  head  in  front ;  this  last  is  hemispherical, 
and  nearly  parallel  to  the  axis.  The  lower  head  is  divided  into  two 
slightly  inclined  planes  for  the  ulna  and  radius,  which  two  bones  are 
compressed ;  the  ulna  is  the  narrowest,  especially  in  its  middle.  Its 
upper  head  is  slightly  oblique  at  its  axis,  and  the  olecranon  ascends  a 
little  instead  of  recurving  into  a  hook,  as  in  the  Cachalot.  The  radius 
enlarges  below,  so  as  to  be  there  two-thirds  of  its  length ;  above  it  is 
not  more  than  a  third.  There  are  four  carpal  bones  in  the  first  row, 
of  which  the  ulnar  bone,  which  responds  to  the  pinform,  forms  a  pro- 


Digestive  Organs. — Phytophagous  Cataceans. — The  teeth  (molars)  of 
the  Manatees  are  ridged  doubly  or  trebly,  the  root  distinct  from  the 
crown :  here  the  resemblance  to  the  pachyderms.  Tapir  and  Hippopo- 
tamus for  instance,  is  very  strong.  The  molars  of  the  Dugongs  are 
elliptical,  without  true  fangs,  and  with  two  slight  furrows  on  tiie 
unworn  crown,  which  disappear  with  age.  In  the  upper  jaw  are  two 
tusks.  In  the  Ryiince  there  are  no  molars ;  but  there  is  in  lien  of  them 
a  homy  plate  in  the  middle  of  each  jaw.  The  tongue  is  short,  and  can 
hardly  b^  endowed  with  much  motion.  The  form  of  the  os  hyoidea  is 
simple:  anchylosis  between  the  body  and  posterior  comua  soon 
supervenes ;  but  the  latter  send  no  ligament  to  the  thyroid  cartilage. 
The  anterior  comua  remain  generally  cartilaginous,  and  are  tbe  medium 
of  union  between  the  body,  or  basi-hyal,  and  the  large  and  long  styloid 
processes. 

Professor  Owen  states  that  the  opening  of  the  larynx  is  chiefly 
defended,  during  the  submarine  mastication  of  the  vegetable  food  of 
the  Dugong,  by  the  extreme  contraction  of  the  faucial  aperture,  which 
resembles  that  of  the  Ca/pyhara.  No  pyramidal  larynx  traverses  it, 
as  in  the  true  Celacea.  Two  lai^ge  parotid  glands  are  situated  imme- 
diately behind  the  large  ascending  ramus  of  the  lower  jaw.  A  thick 
layer  of  simple  follicular  glands  is  developed  above  the  membrane  of 
the  palate,  and  a  glandular  stratum  is  situated  between  the  mucous 
and  muscular  coats  of  the  lower  part  of  the  oesophagus.  Professor 
Owen  states  that  a  similar  but  more  developed  glandular  structure  is 
present  in  the  OBSophagus  of  the  Ray.  He  then  observes  that  the 
stomach  of  the  Dugong  presents,  as  Sir  Everard  Home  had  justly 
observed,  some  of  the  peculiarities  met  with  in  the  Whale  Tribe,  the 
Peccari  and  Hippopotamus,  and  the  Beaver  :  like  that  of  the  first  it 
is  divided  into  distinct  compartments ;  like  the  second  and  third  it 
has  pouches  superadded  to  and  communicating  with  it ;  and  like  the 
last  it  is  provided  with  a  remarkable  glandudar  apparatus  near  the 
cardia.  These  modifications,  the  Professor  remarks,  obviously  har- 
monise with  the  diflScult  digestibility  and  low-organised  matter  of  the 
food  of  the  Dugong.  "Yet,"  says  he,  "it  is  a  fact  that  would  not 
have  been  h  priori  expected,  that  in  the  Carnivorous  Cetacea  the 
stomach  ia  even  more  complicated  than  in  the  Herbivorous  species, 
and  presents  a  closer  resemblance  to  the  ruminant  stomach ;  it  is 
divided,  for  example,  into  a  greater  number  of  receptacles,  and  has 
tbe  first  cavity  like  the  rumen  lined  with  cuticle ;  while  in  the 
Dugong,  on  the  contrary,  the  stomach  is  properly  divided  into  tvo 
parts  only  (of  which  the  second  much  more  resembles  intestine),  and 
both  are  lined  with  a  mucous  membrane."  After  a  luminoufl  detailed 
account  of  the  stomach,  Professor  Owen  observes  that  it  would  seem 
that  a  csBcum — and  he  minutely  describee  that  of  the  Dugong— « 

E resent  in  all  the  Herbivorous  Cetacea :  for  Steller  notices  it  as  of 
irge  size  and  sacculated  in  the  Northern  Manatee  (St^lenu) ;  and 
Daubenton  has  given  a  figure  of  the  bifid  c»oum  in  the  Southern 
Manatee  {Manatm  Americanut).  It  is  interesting,  he  adds,  to  find 
that  a  caput  coli  (the  situation  and  structure  of  which  in  the  I'^W? 
he  describes)  is  present  in  the  true  CetaceOf  as  the  ^otenute,  which 
subsist  on  animal  food  of  the  lowest  organised  kind.  The  ™'®  ° 
the  alimentary  canal  and  the  individual  differences  presented  by^ 
three  specimens  having  been  elaborately  detailed.  Professor  Owen 
proceeds  to  point  out  that  the  Dugong  with  respect  to  the  m»zj 


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CETACBA. 


CETACEA. 


fiM 


organs  deriatea  in  a  marked  degree  from  the  ordinary  Oettmeot  in  the 
praence  of  a  well-developed  gall-bladder,  an  organ  which  Daubenton 
also  found  in  the  Manatee.  But  the  presence  of  the  gall-bladder  is  noty 
the  Professor  obaeryes,  constant  in  the  Herbivorous  Oet<icea ;  for  in  the 
Northern  Manatee^  according  to  Steller,  it  is  wanting,  and  its  absence 
aeema  to  be  compensated  by  the  enormous  width  of  the  ductus  com- 
munis oholedoohus,  which  would  admit  the  five  fingers  united.  The 
secretion  of  the  pancreas  ¥raa  carried  by  from  twenty  to  thirty  ducts,  each 
about  two  lines  in  diameter,  to  a  veiy  wide  common  excretory  canal, 
which  terminates  below,  but  on  the  same  prominence  with  the  cystic 
duct,  at  a  much  greater  relative  distance  from  the  pylorus  than  in 
the  true  CeUicea.  In  one  of  the  Dugongs  dissected  by  Professor  Owen 
were  two  small  accessory  spleens  in  addition  to  the  laiger  rounded 
^ne,  but  in  the  other  specimens  the  last  alone  was  present.  ('  ZooL 
Proa/  1888.) 

Zbophagous  Cetaceans. — ^The  teeth  of  the  Dolphins  are  generally 
simple  and  conical  or  compressed.  They  are  present  in  both  jaws ; 
their  number  varies,  and  they  not  unfrequently  lie  hid  in  the  gums  in 
a  rudimentary  state.  Those  of  the  Cachalots  are  simple,  of  a  long 
ovoid  recurved  shape,  and  placed  in  the  lower  jaw  only.  The  Mysti- 
cetesi,  or  Whalebone  Whales,  are  without  true  teeth ;  in  lieu  of  which, 
transverse  homy  plates  of  baleen,  or  whalebone,  as  it  is  commonly 
termed,  grow  from  the  palate.  These  plates  on  their  internal  edges 
are  fringed  with  loose  beards,  and  among  these  the  small  marine 
animals  which  form  their  fbod  are  entangled  as  in  the  meshes  of 
a  net^ 

The  stomachs  of  the  Zoophagous  Cetaceans  are  very  complicated' : 
the  number  of  these  in  various  species,  and  ia  different  individuals  of 
the  same  species,  has  been  variously  given  by  different  authors. 
Some  have  stated  the  number  in  the  common  Dolphin  and  Porpesse 
at  three,  others  at  four,  others  at  five,  others  at  six.  F.  Cuvier  con- 
siders it  as  certain  that  these  numerical  differences  proceed  simply  from 
the  manner  in  which  the  organ  is  viewed.  Professor  Owen  was  unable 
to  distinguish  more  than  four  compartments  in  the  stomach  of  tiie 
Porpesse.  In  general  the  spouting  whales  have  no  ■  csBOum ;  but  a 
trace  of  it  has  been  found  in  the  Platanist,  and  it  actually  exists  in 
the  Piked  and  Whalebone  Whales. 

John  Hunter  pointed  out  the  considerable  degree  of  uniformity 
present  in  the  liver  of  this  tribe,  observing  that  in  shape  it  resembles 
that  of  man,  but  that  it  is  not  so  thick  at  the  base  nor  so  sharp  at 
the  lower  edge,  and  probably  not  so  firm  in  the  texture.  The  right 
lobe  is  the  largest  and  thickest.  There  is  no  gall-bladder.  The  same 
di.qtinguished  comparative  anatomist  describes  the  pancreas  as  a  very 
long  &tbody,  having  its  left  end  attached  to  the  right  side  of  the 
first  cavity  of  the  stomach :  it  passes,  he  adds,  across  the  spine  at  the 
foot  of  the  mesentery,  and  near  to  the  pylorus  joins  the  hollow  curve 
of  the  duodenum,  along  which  it  is  continued  and  adheres  to  the 
intestine,  its  duct  entering  that  of  the  liver  near  the  termination  of 
the  gutk  In  the  Piked  Whale  the  spleen  is  single  and  small ;  in  the 
Porpesse  it  is  subdivided  into  several  distinct  portions. 

There  is  an  interesting  series  of  preparations  illustrative  of  the 
anatomy  of  the  Cetcicea  in  the  museiun  of  the  College  of  Suigeons, 
and  weU  desernng  the  attention  of  the  student  of  comparative  ana- 
tomy. One  of  these  preparations.  No.  823,  is  a  perpendicular  section 
of  several  plates  of  whidebone,  with  the  intermediate  substance  and 
vascular  nidus,  from  the  upper  jaw  of  a  young  specimen  of  the  Great 
Whale  {Bakena  myttieettu,  Linn.).  The  disposition  and  relative  pro- 
portions of  the  plates  of  whalebone  are  here  shown;  from  which  dispo- 
sition it  results,  that  only  the  fringed  extremity  of  the  whalebone 
plates  are  visible  from  the  inside  of  the  mouth  of  the  whale ;  the 
whole  concavity  of  the  palate  appearing  to  be  beset  with  coarse  rigid 
hairs  or  bristles,  which  explains  the  passage  in  Aristotle  ('  Hist  Anim.' 
ilL  12),  who,  speaking  of  the  (h-eat  Whale  {*  t^^ffriicrrros,  or,  as  Bekker 
reads  it,  6  iivs  rh  inrros),  says,  "  The  Mystioete  has  no  teetii  in  its  mouth, 
but  hairs  like  hog^s  bristles." 

Circulating  System. — Phytophagous  Cetaceana — The  three  Dugongs 
dissected  by  Professor  Owen  presented  the  same  remarkable  extent 
of  separation  of  the  two  ventricles  of  the  heart  described  by  Sir 
Everard  Home  and  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  in  the  individuals  examined 
by  them,  and  observed  by  Biippell  in  the  Dugong  of  the  Red  Sea 
{Halicore  Tobenuusvlii.  Daubenton  appears  to  be  the  first  who  noticed 
this  condition  of  the  heart,  in  his  dissection  of  the  foetus  of  the  Mana- 
tee. Stellei^  also  described  it  in  the  genus  which  bears  his  name;  but 
in  that  animal  the  apical  deft  of  the  heart  extended  upwards  only 
9ne-third  of  the  way  towards  the  base,  whereas  in  the  Dugong  it 
reaches  half-way  towards  the  base. 

Professor  Owen  found  the  foramen  ovale  completely  dosed,  and  the 
ductus  arteriosus  reduced  to  a  thick  ligamentous  cord,  permeable 
for  a  diort  distance  bv  an  eye-probe  from  the  aorta,  where  a  crescentic 
slit  still  represented  the  original  commimication.  He  states  that  in 
the  smoothness  and  evenness  of  their  exterior  and  their  general  form 
the  auricles  of  the  Dugong  resemble  those  of  the  Turtle  (CMUmt), 
and  that  the  appendix  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  in  either.  The 
right  auride  is  uxger  than  the  left.  The  primary  branches  from  the 
arches  of  the  aorta  correspond  in  each  specimen  with  Sir  Everard 
Home's  figure  and  description.  There  was  only  one  superior  cava, 
not  two,  as  in  the  Elephant;  and  the  pulmonary  veins  terminated  in 
tiie  left  auride  by  a  common  trunk  an  inch  in  length. 


As  no  mention  had  been  made  in  the  anatomical  descriptions  of  thi 
Herbivorous  Cetaceans  by  Daubenton,  SteUer,  Cuvier,  Raffles,  and 
Home,  respecting  the  existence  or  otherwise  of  the  extraordinary 
intercostal  and  intervertebral  arterial  plexuses  present  in  the  true 
Cetaeea,  Professor  Owen  carefully  followed  out  this  part  of  the  dis- 
section, but  could  detect  no  trace  of  this  very  striking  modification. 
Here  again,  he  observes,  in  enimciating  a  general  anatomical  propo- 
sition regarding  Cuvier^s  Cetaceci,  the  Herbivorous  species  must  be 
exceptionally  dted  apart 

Zoophagous  Cetaceans. — Professor  Owen  remarks  that  the  Carni- 
vorous Cetaceans  do  not  partidpate  in  the  structure  of  the  heart  above 
described  with  the  Herbivorous  section. 

The  following  is  John  Hunter^s  description  of  the  heart  of  the 
Whale:— 

''  The  heart  is  inclosed  in  its  pericardium,  which  is  attached  by  a 
broad  surface  to  the  diaphragm,  as  in  the  human  body.  It  is  com- 
posed of  four  cavities — ^two  aurides  and  two  ventricles :  it  is  more 
flat  than  in  the  quadruped,  and  adapted  to  the  shape  of  the  chest 
The  auricles  have  more  fasciculi,  and  then  pass  more  across  the  cavity 
from  side  to  side,  than  in  many  other  animals ;  besides  being  veiy 
muscular  they  are  very  elastic,  for  being  stretched  they  contract  again 
very  considerably.  There  is  nothing  uncommon  or  particular  in  the 
structure  of  the  ventricles,  in  the  valves  of  the  ventricles,  or  in  that 
of  the  arteries.  The  genei-al  structure  of  the  arteries  resembles  that 
of  other  animals ;  and  where  parts  are  nearly  similar,  the  distribution 
is  likewise  similar.  The  aorta  forms  its  usual  curve,  and  sends  off 
the  carotid  and  subclavian  arteries.  The  veins,  I  believe,  have  nothing 
particular  in  their  structure,  excepting  in  parts  requiring  a  peculiarity, 
as  in  the  folds  of  the  skin  on  the  breast  in  the  Piked  Whale,  where 
their  elastidty  was  to  be  increased." 

This  assertion  respecting  the  veins  is  not  stated  verv  podtively, 
and  we  shall  presentiy  see  that  there  is  a  peculianty  in  their 
structure. 

The  same  great  physiologist  well  observes,  that  in  our  examination 
of  particular  parts,  the  size  of  which  is  generally  regulated  by  that 
of  the  whole  animal,  if  we  have  only  been  accustomed  to  see  them  in 
those  which  are  small  or  middle  sized,  we  behold  them  with  astonish- 
ment in  animals  so  far  exceeding  the  common  bulk  as  the  Whale. 
"  Thus,"  says  Hunter,  "  the  heart  and  aorta  of  the  Spermaceti  Whale 
appeared  prodigious,  being  too  large  to  be  contained  in  a  wide  tub, 
the  aorta  measuring  a  foot  in  diameter.  When  we  consider  these  as 
applied  to  the  circulation,  and  figure  to  ourselves  that  probably  10  or 
15  gallons  of  blood  are  thrown  out  at  one  stroke,  rnd  moved  with  an 
immense  velodty  through  a  tube  of  a  foot  diameter,  the  whole  idea 
fills  the  mind  with  wonder." 

But  the  most  remarkable  modification  of  the  arterial  system  ia  the 
Whales  remains  to  be  noticed.  This  consists  in  an  almost  infinite 
circumvolution  of  arteries,  forming  a  plexus  of  vessels  filled  with 
oxygenated  blood,  situated  under  the  pleura  and  between  the  ribs,  on 
each  side  of  the  spine.  This  intercostal  plexus,  or  rete  mirabile,  is 
the  apparatus  which  enables  the  whale  to  remain  under  water  for 
more  than  an  hour. 

M.  Breschet  read  a  paper  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  ip 
1834,  which  bears  the  following  titie:  *  Histoire  Anatomique  et  Phy- 
siologique  d'lm  Oigane  de  Nature  vasculaire  diwvLvert  dans  les  C^tac^s, 
etc.'  H.  Breschet  has  however  no  claims  to  the  discovery  of  this 
oigan.  It  was  indicated  and  described  long  ago  by  Tyson  in  his 
'  Anatomy  of  a  Porpesse,'  but  he  was  not  aware  of  the  use  of  it,  and 
considered  it  as  a  glandulous  body.  Himter  was  the  first  who  deter- 
mined its  exact  nature,  and  showed  that  it  was  a  reservoir  of  arterial 
or  aerated  blood. 

After  noticing  the  general  qjbructure  of  the  arteries  as  above  men- 
tioned, and  stating  that  the  aorta  forms  its  usual  curve,  sending  off  the 
carotid  and  subclavian  arteries,  Hunter  proceeds  as  follows : — 

"Animals  of  this  tribe,  as  has  been  observed,  have  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  blood  than  any  other  known,  and  there  are  many  arteries 
apparentiy  intended  as  reservoirs,  where  a  laige  qua-jtity  of  arterial 
blood  seemed  to  be  required  in  a  part,  and  vascularity  could  not  be 
the  only  object  Tlius  we  find  that  the  intercostal  arteries  divide  into 
a  vast  number  of  branches,  which  run  in  a  serpentine  course  between 
the  pleura,  ribs,  and  their  muscles,  making  a  thick  substance,  some- 
what similar  to  the  spermatic  artery  in  the  BulL  These  vessels, 
everywhere  lining  the  sides  of  the  thorax,  pass  in  between  the  ribs 
near  their  articulation,  and  also  behind  the  ligamentous  attachment 
of  the  ribs,  and  anastomose  with  each  other.  The  meduUa  spinalis 
is  surrounded  with  a  net-work  of  arteries  in  the  same  manner,  more 
especially  where  it  comes  out  from  the  brain,  where  a  thick  substance 
is  formed  by  their  ramifications  and  convolutions ;  and  these  vessels 
most  probably  anastomose  with  those  of  the  thorax.  The  subclavian 
artery  in  the  Piked  Whale,  before  it  passes  over  the  first  rib,  sends 
down  into  the  diest  arteries  which  assist  in  forming  the  plexus  on  the 
inside  of  the  ribs.  I  am  not  certain  but  the  internal  mammary  arteries 
contribute  to  form  the  anterior  part  of  this  plexus.  The  motion  of 
the  blood  in  such  cases  must  be  very  dow ;  the  use  of  which  we  do 
not  readily  see.  The  descending  aorta  sends  off  the  intercostals 
which  are  very  large,  and  gives  branches  to  this  plexus ;  and  when 
it  has  reached  the  abdomen  it  sends  ofi;  as  in  the  quadruped,  the 
different  branches  to  the  viscera  and  the  lumbar  artenes,  which  are 


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CETACEA« 


CETACEA. 


Ukowise  very  lai^,  for  the  lupply  of  that  vast  man  of  miuoles  which 
movM  the  tail" 


Arterial  Plexus  in  the  Dolphins.     Breschet. 

With  regard  to  the  yeins,  Professor  Owen  points  out  that  they  are 
remarkable  not  only  for  their  great  capacity,  which  Hunter  noticed, 
but  also  for  their  number  and  the  immense  plexuses  which  they  form 
in  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  above  all  for  the  almost  total 
absence  of  valyea.  Tyson,  he  observes,  has  given  a  fig^ure  of  the 
extensive  venous  plexus  situated  on  the  membrane  investing  the 
psoas  muscles,  and  these  have  recently  occupied  the  attention  of 
breschet  and  Yon  Baer.  The  inferior  and  superior  vens  cavse  are 
not  brought  into  communication  by  the  vena  azygos,  as  in  other 
Mammalia  ;  such  veins  in  the  usual  situation  in  the  chest  would  have 
been  subject  to  oompression  between  the  arterial  plexuses  and  the 
lungs.  The  venie  azygos  are  therefore  represented  by  two  venous 
trunks  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  vertebral  canu,  where  they 
receive  the  intercostal  and  lumbar  veins,  and  finally  communicate 
with  the  superior  cava  by  means  of  a  short  single  large  trunk,  which 
penetrates  the  parietes  of  the  posterior  and  right  side  of  the  chest. 
Professor  Owen  concludes  this  interesting  note  to  Hunter's  '  Animal 
Economy'  by  clearing  up  the  difficulty,  which  must  have  occurred 
to  most,  of  accounting  for  the  fact  of  so  enormous  an  aninud  as  the 
great  whale  being  killed  by  such  puny  instruments  as  the  harpoon 
and  lance.  **  The  non-valvular  structure  of  the  veins  in  the  Cetacea" 
says  the  Professor,  "  and  the  pressure  of  the  sea-water  at  the  depths 
to  which  they  retreat  when  harpooned,  explain  the  profuse  and 
deadlv  haemorrhage  which  follows  a  woimd  that  in  other  Mammalia 
would  be  by  no  means  fatal.'' 

Respiratory  System. — Phytophagous  Cetaceans. — Professor  Owen 
states  that  the  peculiar  form,  structure,  and  position  of  the  lungs 
have  been  so  accurately  described  and  figured  by  Raffles,  Home,  and 
Riippell,  that  he  has  only  to  observe  the  close  agreement  with  these 
accounts  which  the  structure  of  the  parts  presented  in  the  three 
Dugongs  dissected  by  him.  Daubenton  and  Humboldt^  he  remarks, 
describe  and  figure  a  precisely  similar  condition  of  the  respiratory 
apparatus  in  the  Manatee.  Steller,  he  adds,  describes  the  same 
extension  cf  the  lungs  in  the  Rytinaj  and  compares  it  with  the  lungs 
in  the  Bird,  but  without  their  fixation  in  the  parietes  of  the  chest,  so 
characteristic  of  that  class.  Professor  Owen  is  of  opinion  that  the 
Chelonian  reptiles  perhaps  offer  a  closer  resemblance  to  the  Herbivo- 
rous Cftaeea  in  this  respect ;  and  he  notices  it  as  worthy  of  remark, 
that  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs  are  larger  in  the  Dugong  than  in  any 
other  mammals.  In  the  Carnivorous  (7etacea,  the  air-cells,  he  observes, 
are  remarkably  minute,  and  the  lungs  more  compactly  shaped  and 
lodged  in  a  shorter  thorax. 

**  Existing,"  continues  Professor  Owen,  "  as  both  the  Herbivorous 
and  Carnivorous  Ctiacea  do,  under  such  peculiar  circumstances — as 
air-breathing  animals  constantly  dweUing  in  an  element  the  access  of 
which  to  the  lungs  would  be  inmiediately  fatal — ^it  niight  be  supposed 
that  the  mechanism  of  the  larynx,  or  entry  to  the  air-passage,  would 
be  similarly  modified  in  all  the  species,  in  order  to  meet  the  contin- 
gencies of  their  aquatic  existence.  But  we  can  as  little  predicate  a 
community  of  organisation  in  the  structure  of  this  part,  as  of  the 
circulating  or  digestive  system  in  the  CHacea  of  Cuvier.  The  Dugong 
and  the  Dolphin  present^  in  fietct^  the  two  extremes  in  the  Mammi- 
ferous  dass,  in  the  development  of  the  epiglottis,  which  is  one  of  the 
chief  internal  characteristics  of  that  class.    In  the  true  Gdaeea  and  the 


Ddphiiwida  in  particular,  it  is  remaricable  for  its  great  length,  and  in 
the  Dugong  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  at  alL" 

Professor  Owen,  after  giving  a  minute  and  aoeorate  account  of  the 
larynx,  thus  proceeds : — 

"Amongst  the  true  (Macea^  we  have  obsared  thai  it  is  those 
which  subsist  on  the  lowest  oi'ganiaed  animal  substance^  as  the 
BalcenidcB,  which  approach  the  nearest  to  the  herbivorous  speciea,  in 
having  the  additionid  complexity  of  the  csscum ;  and  it  is  interestii^ 
to  find  that  the  same  affinity  is  manifnted  in  the  structure  of  the 
larynx.  The  epiglottis  and  arytenoid  cartilages,  for  example,  are 
relatively  shorter  in  the  JBakgnoptera  than  in  Ddphktmi;  and  as  Mr. 
Hunter  has  observed,  they  are  connected  together  by  the  membranes 
of  the  larynx  only  at  their  base ;  and  not  wrapped  together  or 
surrounded  by  that  membrane  as  far  as  the  apices,  as  in  the  DolphizKL 
In  the  Balcenoptera  also,  the  apices  of  these  cartilages  are  not  expanded, 
as  in  the  Dolphins,  but  diminished  to  an  obtuse  exfanemity.  These 
points  of  resemblance  to  the  condition  of  the  larynx  in  the  Dugong 
and  Bianatee  are  carried  still  further  in  the  Mystioete  Whale,  at 
least  in  the  foetus  dissected  by  me,  and  in  which  both  the  epiglottis 
and  arytenoid  cartilages  were  relatively  much  shorter,  and  the  thyroid 
cartilage  larger  and  more  convex  than  in  the  Piked  Whale  {BaUBmoplera). 
The  thyroid  cartilage  is  however  a  single  piece  in  both  genera  <^ 
Balcenidatf  though  deeply  notched  above  and  below;  and  ih»  larynx 
presents  several  interesting  individual  peculiarities,  which  however 
the  minute  and  accurate  descriptions  and  illustrations  of  this  origan, 
in  both  the  Bakenoptera  and  BakauB,  published  by  Profeaaor  Q. 
Sandifort,  preclude  the  necessi^  of  further  dwelling  upon." 

The  diaphragm,  lungs,  bronchi,  and  trachea  present  in  the  Zoopha- 
gous  Cetaceans  secondary  modifications  only,  but  important  difSsreoces 
are  exhibited  in  the  nostrils,  which  serve  to  conduct  the  air  from  the 
atmosphere  to  the  lungs.  The  necessity  for  the  act  of  spouting  seems 
to  have  led  to  the  obuteration  of  the  oi^gan  of  smelling,  and  to  the 
formation  of  a  new  organ  especially  destined  to  fulfil  that  ad 
Although  this  oi^gan  has  only  been  studied  thoroughly  in  the 
DolphiniB,  the  probability  is,  that  the  apparatus  in  all  the  Zoophag^ous 
Cetaceans  is  the  same. 

If,  says  Baron  Cuvier,  we  trace  the  oesophagus  upwards,  we  find 
that  when  it  arrives  opposite  the  pharynx  it  appears  to  divide  into 
two  passages,  one  of  which  is  continued  onwards  to  the  month,  while 
the  other  ascends  to  the  nose.   Mucous  glands  and  fleshy  fibres,  whidi 
constitute  several   muscles,    surround  the   last-mentioned  passage. 
Some  of  these  are  longitudinal,  and  arise  fix>m  the  circumference  of 
the  posterior  orifice  of  the  bony  nostrils,  and  descend  along   that 
canal  to  the  pharynx  and  its  sides ;  the  others,  whidi  are  annular, 
appear  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  proper  muscles  of  the  phjuynx. 
The  larynx  rises  into  this  passage  in  a  pyramidal  form,  and' the 
annular  fibres  have  the  power  of  constricting  it.     Mucous  follicles, 
which  pour  out  their  secretion  by   conspicuous  excretory  orifices, 
prevail  in  this  part     When  the  lining  of  the  nasal  passage  has  x^oached 
the  vomer,  it  Inscomes  of  a  peculiar  texture,  thin,  smooUi,  and  hlatk, 
is  apparently  destitute  of  vessels  and  nerves,  and  very  dry.    A  fleshy 
valve  closes  the  two  bony   nasal  canals  at  the  upper  or  external 
orifice.     It  is  formed  of  two  semicircles  attached  to  the  anterior  edge 
of  that  orifice,  which  it  shuts  by  the  agency  of  a  very  strong  moade 
lodged  above  the  intermaxillary  bones.   To  open  it,  there  is  a  neoeaaty 
for  some  foreign  body  to  press  against  it  from  below ;  and  v^en  it 
is  dosed,  it  debars  aU  communication  between  the  nasal  passsgee  and 
the  cavities  above  them,  which  cavities  are  two  large  membranous 
pouches  formed  by  dark  mucous  skin,  and  very  much  wrinkled  when 
empty ;  but  when  distended,  they  become  of  an  oval  shape,  which  in 
the  Porpeese  is  about  as  large  as  a  common  wine-glass.     These  two 
pouches  lie  beneath  the  integument  in  front  of  the  nostrils,  and 
communicate  with  an  intermmliate  space  immediately  above  those 
nasal  organs,  whose  external  orifice  is  a  transverse  ■AmilniMM'  alit 
Strong  fleshy  fibres  expand  and  cover  the  whole  upper  suifkce  of  this 
apparatus,  radiating  from  the  entire  circumference  of  the  cranium, 
umting  above  the  two  pouches,  and  adapted  for  compressing  them 
forcibly.    Now  we  wifl  suppose  that  the  Cetacean  has  taken  into  its 
mouth  water  which  it  wishes  to  eject :  it  first  sets  the  tongue  and 
jaws  in  motion  as  if  it  were  about  to  swallow  tiie  water ;  bat,^utting 
its  pharynx,  it  forces  the  water  to  ascend  into  the  nasal  passages, 
where  the  annular  fibres  above  mentioned  accelerate  its  progress  tSi 
it  raises  the  valves  and  distends  the  membranous  poudies  abova 
The  water,  when  once  in  the  pouches,  can  be  there  retained  till  the 
animal  wishes  to  spout    When  that  wish  is  present,  the  Cetacean 
closes  the  valve,  and  so  prevents  the  descent  of  the  water  into  the 
nasal  passages,  and  forcibly  compresses  the  pouches  by  means  of  the 
muscular  expansion  which  overspreads  them.    The  water,  compiled 
then  to  escape  by  the  narrow  semilunar  aperture,  is  projected  to  a 
height  which  corresponds  to  the  amoimt  of  the  pressure  arolied. 

In  the  case  of  the  Spermaceti  Whale,  it  appears  that  the  animal 
occupies  about  a  seventh  of  its  time  in  breathing ;  and  when  it  rises 
after  long  intervals,  an  enormous  column  of  air  must  rush  into  the 
lungs  and  aerate  a  vast  quantity  of  blood  for  the  reservoir  described 
by  Hunter.  In  ordinary  mammals,  man  and  the  quadrupeds  for 
instance,  respiration  is  momentarily  going  on,  and  enou^  air  only 
18  inhaled  to  oxygenate  the  blood  requisite  for  a  few  pulsations 

The  spout-hole  is  simple  in  the  Dolphins^  and  situated,  as  seen  in 


Digitized  by 


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CKTACEA. 


CETACEA. 


the  cai>  towards  the  top  of  the  head :  the  same  shnplioity  ezistB  in 
that  of  the  Cachalots,  but  it  is  situated  at  the  upper  extremity  of 
the  snout  In  the  Whalebone  Whales  it  is  double,  opening  towards 
the  summit  of  the  head,  as  in  the  Dolphins,  in  a  crescentic  form 
whose  convexity  is  sometimes  anterior  and  sometimes  posterior. 


Yertieal  sectioii,  exhibiting  the  tongae,  larynx,  and  noetrils  of  the  Porpesse. 
(*  Cataloffoe  of  the  PhyBiologieal  Series '  (Mas.  Coll.  Chir.),  toL  U.  pL  29,  p.  163.) 

Uropoietic  System. — Professor  Owen  observes,  that  if  we  were 
acquainted  with  the  structure  of  the  urinary  organs  of  the  Herbivorous 
Ottacea,  as  it  is  exemplified  in  the  Dugoug  alond,  we  should  have  to 
establi^  as  marked  a  distinction  in  this  respect  between  tiiem  and  the 
true  Oetacea  as  in  the  preceding  organic  systems.  Instead  of  the 
numerous  and  minute  lobuli  or  renules  into  which  the  kidney  is  sub- 
divided in  the  Dolphins  and  Whales,  it  presents  in  the  Dugong  a 
simple  compact  form  with  an  unbroken  external  surface ;  the  tubuli 
uriniferi  terminate  upon  two  lateral  series  of  eleven  mammillae,  which 
project  into  a  single  elongated  cavity  or  pelvis,  from  which  the  ureter 
IS  continued.  ia.  the  Northern  Manatee  however,  Steller,  whose 
accuracy  Professor  Owen  justly  notices,  describes  the  kidney  as  being 
subdivided  like  that  of  the  Seal  and  Sea-Otter.  A  similar  lobulated 
structure  is  also  ascribed  by  John  Hunter,  in  his  paper  on  Whales,  in 
*  PhiL  Trans.'  (1787),  to  the  Manatee,  including  it,  with  the  Seal  and 
White  Bear,  among  the  animals  occasionally  inhabiting  the  water. 
Daubenton,  in  his  anatomical  description  of  the  Manatut  Americamu, 
merely  notioes  the  kidneys  as  oblong,  and  placed  opposite  to  each 
other ;  nor  does  his  figure  give  any  indication  of  lobulated  structure ; 
neither  does  Sir  Evenurd  Home  mention  such  structure  in  his  Anatomy 
of  the  Manatee  in  '  PhiL  Trans.'  (1821).  This  want  of  uniformity 
in  the  structure  of  the  kidney  in  the  Herbivorous  Cekuxa  is  however. 
Professor  Owen  adds,  of  less  moment  with  reference  to  their  natural 
affinities ;  since  in  the  Pachyderms  we  find  some  species,  as  the 
Bhinoceros,  and  though  in  a  less  degree,  the  Elephant,  presenting  a 
subdivided  kidnev ;  while  others,  as  the  Tapir  and  Hog,  have  it  entire. 

In  the  foetus  of  the  Dolphin,  according  to  Miiller,  the  lobules  of 
the  kidney  oonsiBt  prinoii>ally  of  convoluted  urmiferous  ducts, 
extending  from  the  apex  to  the  circumference  of  the  lobule;  the 
intertwinings  of  the  tubuli  are  greatest  in  the  interoortical  portion. 
It  is  a  curious  fact.  Professor  Owen  remarks,  that  the  supra-renal 
gland  in  the  Porpesse  presents  a  certain  resemblance  to  the  kidnev  in 
its  lobulated  exterior ;  but,  he  adds,  the  analogy  extends  no  fiuther, 
for  on  making  a  section  of  this  part  it  was  found  to  consist  of  the 
usual  continuous  compact  substance. 

Qenerative  System. — John  Hunter  remarks  that  the  organs  of  genera- 
tion of  this  order  of  animals  come  in  both  sexes  nearer  in  form  to  those 
of  tbe  Ruminants  than  of  any  others ;  and  this  similarity  is  particu- 
larly remarkable  in  the  female ;  in  the  male  their  situation  varies  on 
aooonnt  of  the  modification  of  the  external  form  of  the  body. 

Tbe  female  organs  in  the  Rytina  have  been  described  by  Steller ; 
and  Sir  Everard  Home  has  given  an  account  of  those  of  the  Dugong. 
('Phil.  Trans.,'  1820.) 

Hunter,  in  his  paper  on  Whales  has  entered  particularly  iuto  the 
structure  of  those  of  the  Zoophagous  Cetaceans.  The  period  of 
utexdne  gestation  does  not  appear  to  be  certainly  known ;  the  number 
of  young  IB  generally  considered  not  to  exceed  one,  there  being  but 
two  nipples;  the  gli^ds  for  the  secretion  of  milk  are  two,  one  on  each 
aide  of  the  mesial  line  of  the  belly  at  its  lower  part.  The  milk  is  very 
rich,  like  that  of  a  cow  to  which  cream  has  been  added. 

Professor  Owen  remarks,  that  much  stress  has  been  recently  laid 
on  the  supposed  existence  which  the  muscles  siurounding  the  mam- 
mary g^and  aflbrd  in  the  act  of  suckling,  by  compressing  the  gland  and 
ejaculating  the  nulk  accumulated  in  the  dilated  receptacle  or  reservoir ; 
hut  he  observes  that,  considering  how  great  the  pressure  of  the 
surrounding  water  must  be  upon  the  extended  surfietoe  of  the  mam- 
mary gland,  it  may  readilv  be  conceived,  that  when  the  nipple  is 
grasped  by  the  mouth  of  the  young,  and  the  pressure  removed  from 
it  by  the  retraction  of  the  tongue,  the  milk  will  be  expelled  in  a 
copious  stream  by  means  of  the  surrounding  pressure  alone^  indepen- 


dently of  muscular  aid.  The  Professor  adds,  that  the  intimate  stmo- 
ture  of  the  mammary  gland  in  the  Zoophagous  Uetcusea  Is  essentially 
the  same  as  in  the  OrnUhorhynchuSf  being  composed  of  an  innumerable 
quantity  of  csocal  tubes ;  tiiese  are  however  shorter  than  in  the 
Omithorhynchiu,  and  their  glandular  parietes  are  firmer;  they  are 
well  shown  in  the  figure  of  the  mammary  gland  in  a  young  Piked 
Whale  {Balamoptera  rottrata)  given  by  Miiller  in  his  seventeenth  plate, 
fig.  2.,  and  according  to  that  author  present,  after  the  Omithorhynchus, 
the  simplest  structure  of  the  mammary  gland  in  the  entire  mammi- 
ferous  series  of  animals. 

Brain,  Nervous  System,  and  Senses. — The  brain  is  well  formed.  In 
the  Porpesse  and  the  common  Dolphin  it  has  been  stated  to  be  as 
highly  developed  as  in  any  mammiferous  quadruped.  In  the  greater 
whales  there  is  reason  for  supposing  that  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of 
the  brain  to  that  of  the  body  is  ^^  In  the  smaller  Cetaceans  it  is  not 
diminished  to  a  proportionate  size,  as  its  extraordinary  development 
ia  the  Dolphin  testifies. 

SmelL — Hunter  observes  that  in  many  of  the  Whale  Tribe  there  ia 
no  organ  of  smell  at  all,  and  ia  those  which  have  such  an  organ,  it  is 
not  that  of  a  fish,  therefore  probably  not  calculated  to  smell  water. 
It  becomes  difficult  therefore,  he  remarks,  to  accoimt  for  the  manner 
in  which  such  AnimAlH  smell  the  water ;  and  why  the  others  should 
not  have  had  such  an  oi-gan,  which  seems  to  be  peculiar  to  the  large 
and  small  Whalebone  Whales  (Balcena  mysticetua  and  Balcenoptera 
roatrata) ;  the  organ,  in  those  which  have  it»  he  adds,  is  extremely 
small,  when  compared  with  that  of  other  animals,  as  well  as  the  nerve 
which  is  to  receive  the  impression. 

Taste. — The  complicated  and  indeed  delicate  structure  of  the  tongue 
in  the  Phytophagous  Cetaceans  indicates  that  they  must  enjoy  the 
sense  of  taste,  alUiough  the  tongue  is  capable  of  but  slight  motion. 

But  it  has  been  doubted  whether  the  Zoophagous  Cetaceans  are 
endowed  with  a  special  oxgan  for  the  enjoyment  of  this  sense.  No 
foasulate  nor  conical  papilke  are  present  ia  the  tongue  of  the  Dolphin 
or  of  the  Porpesse ;  slight  elevations,  the  middle  of  which  appears  to 
be  perforated,  are  only  perceptible,  and  the  fringed  edges  would  seem 
to  lead  to  the  notion  that  their  object  is  more  intended  for 
furthering  the  sensations  of  touch. 

John  Hunter  states  that  the  tongue,  which  is  the  organ  of  taste,  is 
also  endowed  with  the  sense  of  touch.  He  found  the  tongue  in  the 
Porpesse  and  Grampus  firm  in  texture,  composed  of  muscle  and  fat» 
poiuted  and  serrated  on  its  edges  like  that  of  a  hog.  In  the  Spermaceti 
Whale,  he  says,  it  was  almost  like  a  feather-bed.  In  the  Piked 
Whale  it  was  but  gently  raised,  hardly  having  any  lateral  edges,  and 
its  tip  projecting  but  little,  yet  like  every  other  tongue,  composed  ox 
muscle  and  fat.  He  supposes  thai^  the  tongue  of  the  large  Whale- 
bone Whale  rises  in  the  mouth  considerably ;  the  two  jaws  in  the 
middle  being  kept  at  such  a  distance  on  account  of  the  whalebone,  so 
that  the  space  between,  when  the  mouth  is  shut,  must  be  filled  with 
the  tongue. 

Sight. — The  eye  in  the  Herbivorous  Cetaceans  only  is  provided 
with  anictitatiDg  membrane,  or  lateral  lid ;  that  of  the  Zoophagous  or 
Spouting  Cetaceans  has  no  lachrymal  glands,  but  the  lids  are  furnished 
with  glands  for  a  mucous  secretion  adapted  for  lubricating  the 
sclerotic  coat 

John  Hunter  states  that  the  eye  in  this  tribe  is  constructed  upon 
nearlv  the  same  principle  as  that  of  the  quadrupeds,  difiering  how- 
ever m  some  circumstances,  by  which  it  is  probably  better  adapted  to 
see  in  the  medium  through  which  the  light  is  to  pass.  It  is  upon 
the  whole  small  for  the  size  of  the  animal  The  lids  have  but  little 
motion,  and  consist  not  of  loose  cellular  membrane,  as  in  common 

auadrupeds,  but  rather  of  the  common  adipose  membrane  of  the  body ; 
le  connection  however  of  their  circumference  with  the  common 
iuteguments  is  loose,  the  cellular  membrane  being  less  loaded  with 
oil,  which  allows  of  a  slight  fold  being  made  upon  the  surrounding 
parts  in  opening  the  eyelids.  This  is  not  to  an  equal  d^^^^ee,  he  adds, 
in  them  all,  being  less  so  in  the  Porpesse  than  ia  the  Fiked  Whale. 
A  detailed  account  of  the  anatomy  of  the  eye  in  whales  will  be  found 
in  Hunter's  paper. 

Hearing. — There  is  no  external  concha,  but  the  ear  is  constructed 
much  upon  the  same  principle  as  in  the  quadruped ;  there  are  how- 
ever certain  differences  which  the  reader  will  find  set  forth  in  Hunter^s 
paper.  The  sense  seems  to  be  fairly  developed,  and  whale-fishera 
experience  no  small  difficulty  from  the  warning  given  by  both  eve 
and  ear.  It  has  however  been  stated  that  the  Greenland  Whale, 
though  not  without  a  nice  sense  of  hearing,  remains  insensible  to  the 
report  of  a  cannon. 

Touch. — The  sensation  of  touch  must  be  lively,  though  it  is  a 
commonly  received  opinion  that  the  common  Dolphin,  notwithstanding 
its  delicate  epidermis,  is  not  very  sensible  to  tactile  impressions. 
Messrs.  Breschet  and  Roussel  de  Vauz&me  distinguish  the  following 
constituents  in  the  skin  of  the  Cetaceans : — 1.  Derm,  or  corium,  a 
dense  fibrous  cellular  texture,  which  contains  and  protects  all  the 
other  parts  of  the  skin.  2.  The  papillary  bodies,  consisting  of 
papillfid  covered  by  the  denn.  8.  The  sudorific  apparatus,  consisting 
of  soft,  elastic,  spiral  canals,  which  extend  through  the  entire  thick- 
ness of  the  denA,  and  open  in  the  intervals  of  the  papUls  by  an 
orifice,  closed  generally  by  a  small  epidermic  valve.  4.  The  inhalent 
apparatus, .  5.  The  mucous  apparatus.    6.  The  colorific  apparatus. 


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CETACEA. 


According  to  Hunter,  the  reticular  network  containing  the  blubber, 
which  is  described  by  him  as  fine  in  the  Porpesse,  Spermaceti,  and 
laige  Whalebone  Wlude  (BalcBna),  and  coarse  in  the  Grampus  and 
■mall  Whalebone  Whale  {Bakgnaptera),  forms  part  of  the  skin.' 

In  gi^g  some  illustrationB  of  this  large  family  we  shall  follow  the 
arrangement  of  Dr.  J.  K  Gray  as  indicated  above. 

The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  chanoter  of  the  genera  of  the 
first  family  BalanidoB : — 

a.  Dorsal  fin  none.    Belly  smooth.    Baleen  elongate,  slender. 

1.  BalcencL 

h.  Dorsal  fin  distinct.    Belly  plaited.    Baleen  broad,  short. 

2.  Megaptera.    Pectoral  fins  elongate.    Dorsal  fin  low. 

8.  Bakenoptera,    Pectoral  fins  moderate.     Dorsal  fin  falcate, 
I  length  from  nose.    Yertebno  5i  or  64. 

It  is  in  the  genus  BaUena  that  the  baleen,  or  whalebone,  is  most 
highly  developed.  John  Hunter  describes  this  extremely  elastic 
animal  substance  as  being  of  the  same  nature  as  horn,  a  term  which 
he  uses  to  express  what  constitutes  hair,  nails,  daws,  feathers,  &c. 
It  consists,  he  remarks,  of  thin  plates  of  some  breadth  and  in  some  of 
very  considerable  length,  their  breadth  and  length  in  some  degree 
corresponding  to  one  another ;  when  longest  they  are  commonly  the 
broadest,  but  not  always  so.  The  plates  differ  in  size  in  different 
ports  of  the  same  mouth,  more  especially  in  the  lai^  Whalebone 
Whale.  "They  are  placed,"  continues  Hunter,  **in  several  rows, 
encompassing  the  outer  skirts  of  the  upper  jaw,  similar  to  teeth  in 
other  Miimftla,  They  stand  parallel  to  each  other,  having  one  edge 
towiu*ds  the  circumference  of  the  mouth,  the  other  towards  the  centre 
or  cavity.  They  are  placed  near  together  in  the  Piked  Whale,  not 
being  a  quarter  of  an  inch  asunder,  where  at  the  greatest  distance,  yet 
differing  in  this  respect  in  different  parts  of  the  same  mouth ;  but  in 
the  Great  Whale  the  distances  are  more  considerabla  The  outer  row 
is  composed  of  the  longest  plates ;  and  these  are  in  proportion  to  the 
different  distances  between  the  two  jaws,  some  being  14  or  15  feet 
long  and  12  or  16  inches  broad ;  but  towaitls  the  anterior  and  posterior 
parts  of  the  mouth  they  are  very  short,  they  rise  for  half  a  foot  or 
more,  nearly  of  equal  breadths,  and  afterwards  shelve  off  from  their 
inner  side  until  they  come  near  to  a  point  at  the  outer :  the  exterior 
of  the  inner  rows  are  the  longest,  corresponding  to  the  termination  of 
the  declivity  of  the  outer,  and  become  shorter  and  shorter  till  they 
hardly  rise  above  the  g^m.  The  inner  rows  are  closer  than  the  outer, 
and  rise  almost  perpendicularly  from  the  gum,  being  longitudinally 
straight,  and  have  lees  of  the  declivity  than  the  outer.  The  plates 
of  the  outer  row  laterally  are  not  quite  flat,  but  make  a  serpentine 
line ;  more  especially  in  the  Piked  Whale  the  outer  edge  is  thicker 
than  the  inner.  All  round  the  line  made  by  their  outer  edges  runs  a 
small  white  bead,  which  is  formed  along  with  the  whalebone,  and 
wears  down  with  it  The  smaller  plates  are  nearly  of  an  equal  thick- 
ness upon  both  edges.  In  all  of  them  the  termination  is  in  a  kind  of 
hair,  as  if  the  plate  was  split  into  innumerable  small  parts,  the  exterior 
being  the  longest  and  strongest  The  two  sides  of  the  mouth  com- 
posed of  these  rows  meet  nearly  in  a  point  at  the  tip  of  the  jaw,  and 
n>read  or  recede  laterally  from  each  other  as  th^  pass  back ;  and  at 
their  posterior  ends  in  the  Piked  Whale  they  make  a  sweep  inwards, 
and  come  veiy  near  each  other,  just  before  the  opening  of  the  odso- 
phaguR.  In  the  Piked  Whale  there  were  above  800  in  the  outer  rows 
on  each  side  of  the  mouth.  Each  layer  terminates  in  an  oblique 
surface,  which  obliquity  inclines  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  answering 
to  the  gradual  diminution  of  their  length ;  so  that  the  whole  surfiioe, 
composed  of  these  terminations,  forms  one  plane,  rising  gradually 
from  the  roof  of  the  mouth :  from  this  obliquity  of  the  edge  of  the 
outer  row  we  may  in  some  measure  judge  of  the  extent  of  the  whole 
base,  but  not  exactly,  as  it  makes  a  hollow  curve,  which  increases  the 
base.  The  whole  surface  resembles  the  skin  of  an  animal  covered 
with  strong  hair,  under  which  surface  the  tongue  must  inmiediately 
lie  when  the  mouth  is  shut ;  it  is  of  a  light-brown  coloiu*  in  the  Piked 
Whale,  and  is  darker  in  the  Large  Whale.  In  the  Piked  Whale,  when 
the  mouth  is  shut,  the  projecting  whalebone  remains  entirely  on  the 
inside  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  two  jaws  meetingeverywhere  along  their 
surface ;  but  how  tlus  is  effected  in  the  Laige  Whale  I  do  not  certainly 
know,  the  horizontal  plane  made  by  the  lower  jaw  being  straight,  as 
in  the  Piked  Whale ;  but  the  upper  law  being  an  arch  cannot  be  hid 
by  the  lower.  I  suppose  therefore  that  a  broad  upper  lip,  meeting  as 
low  as  the  lower  jaw,  covers  the  whole  of  the  outer  edges  of  the 
exterior  rows.  The  whalebone  is  continually  wearing  down,  and  renew- 
ing in  the  same  proportion,  except  that  when  the  animal  is  growing 
it  is  renewed  faster  and  in  proportion  to  the  growth.  The  formation 
of  the  whalebone  is  extremely  curious,  being  in  one  respect  similar  to 
that  of  hair,  horns,  spurs,  &a ;  but  it  has  besides  another  mode  of 
growtii  and  decay  equally  singular.  These  plates  form  upon  a  vascular 
substance,  not  immediately  adhering  to  the  lower  jaw-bone,  but 
having  a  more  dense  substance  between,  which  is  also  vascular. 
This  substance,  which  may  be  called  the  nidus  of  the  whalebone, 
sends  out  (the  above)  thin  broad  processes,  answering  to  each  plate, 
on  wMch  the  plate  is  formed,  as  the  cock's  spur  or  the  bull's 
horn,  on  the  bony  core,  or  a  tooth  on  its  pulp;  so  that  each 
plate  is  necessarily  hollow  at  its  growing  end,  the  first  part  of  the 
growth  taking  place  on  the  inside  of  this  hollow.    Besides  this 


CETACEA.  6S6 

mode  of  growth,  which  is  oommon  to  all  such  sobstancea,  it 
receives  additional  layers  on  the  outside,  whidi  are  fonned  from 
the  above-mentioned  vascular  substance  extended  along  the  suriaoe 
of  the  jaw.  This  part  also  forms  upon  it  a  semi-hocny  sabetuoe 
between  each  plate,  which  is  very  white,  rises  with  the  whaleboiw, 
and  becomes  even  with  the  outer  edge  of  the  jaw,  and  the  tenni* 
nation  of  its  outer  part  forms  the  Iwad  above  mentioned.  Thii 
intermediate  substance  fills  up  the  spaces  between  the  pistes  u 
high  as  the  jaws,  acts  as  abutments  to  the  whalebone,  or  is  similar  to 
the  alveolar  processes  of  the  teeth,  keeping  them  firm  in  their  places. 
As  both  the  whalebone  and  the  intermediate  substance  are  constantly 
growing,  and  as  we  must  suppose  a  determined  length  neceasuy,  a 
regular  mode  of  decay  must  be  established,  not  depending  entirely  on 
chance,  or  the  use  it  is  put  to.  In  its  growth  three  parte  appear  to 
be  formed  :  one  from  the  rising  core,  which  is  the  centre ;  a  second 
on  the  outside ;  and  a  third  being  the  intermediate  substance.  Theae 
appear  to  have  three  stages  of  duration ;  for  that  which  forms  on  the 
core,  I  believe,  makes  the  hair,  and  that  on  the  outside  makes  princi- 
pally the  plate  of  whalebona  This,  when  got  a  certain  length,  breab 
off,  leaving  the  hair  projecting,  becoming  at  the  termination  Tery 
brittle ;  and  the  third  or  intermediate  substance,  by  the  time  it  rises 
as  high  as  the  edge  of  the  skin  of  the  jaw,  decays  and  softens  away 
like  the  old  cuticle  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  when  steeped  in  wate. 
The  use  of  whalebone,  I  should  believe,  is  principally  for  the  retention 
of  the  food  till  swallowed ;  and  I  suppose  the  fish  they  catch  are 
small  when  compared  with  the  size  of  the  mouth."  (Hunter  'On 
Whales.') 


View  of  the  Inside  of  the  Jaws  of  a  fostal  Baianoptera,  showing  the  i 
of  the  Whalebone.     (Owen,  '  Odontography.') 

The  following  notes  bv  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  contain  the  result  of  the  most 
recent  observations  on  this  curious  production  in  the  Oetaeea.-— 

"  The  baleen,  or  whalebone,  has  generally  been  considered  as  the 
teeth  of  the  whale ;  but  this  must  be  a  mistake,  for  Mr.  Knox 
observes :  'In  the  foetal  B.  myttieetut  60  to  70  dental  palps  wen 
found  on  each  side  of  each  jaw,  making  the  whole  number  amount  to 
from  260  to  800.  The  preparation  (No.  56)  exhibits  a  portion  of  this 
gum  with  12  pulps.  Had  these  pulps  been  confined  to  the  upper  jaw, 
and  corresponded  to  the  nimiber  of  baleen  plates,  it  would  have  fonned 
a  strong  analog  between  the  baleen  and  teeth ;  but  the  number  of 
baleen  plates  m  the  whale  greatiy  exceeds  the  number  of  dental 
pulps ;  and  the  lower  jaw,  which  contained  an  equal  number  of  pulpa 
with  the  upper,  has  neither  teeth  nor  baleen  in  the  adult  whak 
Their  presence  therefore  in  the  foetal  Mytticetut  forms  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  illustrations  of  the  unity  of  organisation  in  the  animal 
economy.  The  teeth  in  the  Bidcena  never  cut  the  gfum,  but  become 
gradually  re-absorbed  into  the  ^stem ;  the  very  cavity  in  which  the 
gums  were  lodged  disappears ;  whilst,  to  suit  the  purposes  of  natore, 
the  integumentary  mtem  fiimishee  the  baleen,  whidi  is  eridently  a 
modified  form  of  hair  and  cuticle.'  (Knox, '  Cat.  Whales,'  22.)  Pro- 
fessor Eschricht  has  shown  also  that  ^e  foetus  of  Megaptera  Bo9fi 
('  Danish  Trans.,'  xL  t.  4,  1845)  has  numerous  teeth  on  the  edge  of  the 
jaw,  though  they  are  never  developed.  I  am  inclined  to  reg«r«ithe 
baleen  as  a  peculiar  development  of  hair  in  the  palates  of  these 
animals,  and  somewhat  analogous  to  the  hair  foimd  in  the  palates  of 
the  genus  Leput,  . 

"  From  the  examination  I  have  been  able  to  make  of  the  baleen  or 
Balcenoptera  roatrata^  and  of  different  masses  of  small  blades  of  BaiaM 
aiutraliSf  it  would  appear  as  if  there  was,  at  least  in  these  two  species, 
two  series  of  baleen  on  each  side  of  the  palate ;  the  external  senes 
being  fonned  of  large  triangular  blades  placed  at  a  certain  distanot 


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CETACEA. 


Apart ;  and  the  iutemal,  in  B<zlanoptera  rottraia,  formed  of  Bmaller, 
much  thinner,  triangular  pieces,  placed  much  closer  together,  and 
forming  a  yery  dense  screening  apparatus ;  and  in  Bctkma  atutralia  the 
inner  aeries  is  formed  of  numerous  separate  narrow  strips  of  whale- 
bone, each  ending  in  a  pencil  of  hairs,  which  vary  in  sixe  from  that  of 
small  twine  to  that  of  tape,  half  an  inch  wide  :  these  are  placed  behind 
the  others,  and  gradually  increase  in  size  from  the  umermost  to  the 
broad  external  series. 

"The  baleen,  or  whalebone,  affords  good  characters  for  the  separation 
of  this  family  into  sections.  Mr.  Knox  (*  Cat  Prep.  Whale,')  gives 
the  best  account  of  the  development,  position,  and  distinction  between 
the  baleen  of  the  whales  of  the  North  Sea  which  has  come  under  my 
observation ;  and  it  agrees  with  the  observations  I  had  made  on  the 
subject  before  I  could  procure  his  pamphlet. 

"Jn  BfxleBnamaxitMU,  Knox  {Phytalue  Antiqwntm),  814  external 
or  labial  plates  (baleen)  were  counted  on  each  side.  Towards  each 
extremity  these  plates  degenerate  into  bristles,  and  admit  of  being 
counted  with  difficulty.  Towards  the  mesial  line  the  baleen  as  a 
masB  diminishes  gradually  in  depth,  giving  the  whole  palatine  surface 
an  elegant  arched  form.  The  814  external  or  labial  plates  do  not 
extend  to  the  whole  extent  in  a  transverse  direction,  but  a  system  of 
numeroiu  small  and  narrow  plates  succeeds  the  external  ones.  For 
each  external  plate  twelve  (internal)  smaller  ones  could  be  easily 
counted ;  so  that  the  number  of  plates  which  could  be  counted,  and 
not  including  the  bristly  terminations  towards  the  snout^  pharynx, 
and  mesial  line,  stands  thus :  external  or  labial  plates  814 ;  internal 
small  plates^  corresponding  to  each  external  one,  12 ;  total  number  of 
baleen  plates  8768.  The  longest  plate  of  baleen  is  placed  about  the 
centre  of  each  of  the  sides,  and  measured  26  inches  in  length,  and  15 
indies  in  breadt]^  The  substance  when  recent  is  highly  elastic  and 
veiy  heavy :  the  whole  weighed  nearly  two  tons. 

*'It  is  short  or  long  according  to  the  species  of  whale,  being 
modified  entirely  by  the  more  or  less  arched  form  of  the  upper  jaw. 
ICr.  F.  Knox  first  pointed  out  this  curious  and  important  fact.  The 
usual  ocmdusion  come  to  by  all  persons  was,  that  the  siee  of  the  whale 
corresponded  to  the  length  of  the  bone  or  baleen.  Now,  this  is  only 
good  with  regard  to  one  species  of  whale,  and  not  at  all  to  the  whole 
group  of  Whalebone  Whales.    (Knox,  *  Cat.  Prep.  Whale,'  8.) 

*'m  Bakena  mminuu,  Knox  (Balcmoptera  rostrata),  807  external 
or  labial  (baleen)  plates  can  be  counted  on  each  side.  Towards  each 
extremity  these  plates  degenerate  into  fine  bristles,  which  were  not 
counted.  The  plates  hang  perfectly  parallel  with  each  other,  and 
from  their  closeness  and  fringed  lingual  aspect  must  act  as  a  very 
perfect  filter  in  collecting  the  minute  molluscous  animals,  and  at  the 
same  time  enable  the  whale  to  eject  the  water.  The  food  of  the 
whale  is  still  a  much  disputed  point.  It  is  now  generally  admitted 
that  the  MytHeetut  lives  only  on  small  MeduMB,  shrimps,  &c.,  but 
that  the  other  species  of  Wlialebone  Whale  devour  inconceivable 
quantities  of  fish ;  for  instance,  M.  Deemoulins  states  that '  600  great 
cod  and  an  immensity  (probably  as  many  thousands)  of  pilchards 
have  been  found  in  the  stomach  of  a  single  Rorqual' 

"Mr.  F.  Knox,  in  dissecting  the  BtUcpnamaximitay  saw  no  cavity  in 
the  course  of  the  viscera  which  could  have  contained  six  cod  of 
ordinary  size;  that  of  B.  minimut  was  empty,  although  the  Frith  of 
Forth,  particularly  at  and  above  Queensferry,  abounds  at  all  seasons 
vrith  herrings  and  other  fishes  and  their  fry.  The  want  of  teeth  by 
no  means  renders  it  impossible  that  the  Balcena  with  baleen  can  live 
on  large  fishes ;  but  the  extreme  narrowness  of  the  gullet  (that  of  B. 
mojeiMUi  barely  allowed  the  passage  of  the  closed  human  hand,  and 
that  of  B.  minimut  was  certainly  nairower  than  that  of  an  ordinary 
sized  cow),  added  to  the  want  of  teeth  and  the  want  of  proper 
authenticated  information  on  the  subject,  are  strong  arguments  in 
favour  of  the  hypothesis  that  they  do  not.  (Knox,  *  Cat.  Prep. 
Whale,'  16.) 

"  The  thickness  of  the  plate  of  baleen  depends  on  the  number  of 
briatlea  In  the  baleen  of  B,  mcucimug  there  are  506  bristles  in  the 
thickness  of  the  plate,  and  by  a  rude  enumeration  thc^  appeared  to 
be  at  least  130  bristles  in  each  inch.  The  whole  breadth  of  the  plate 
being  5^  inches  gives  us  747  bristles  entering  into  its  composition. 
These  bristles  are  matted  together  to  the  extent  of  11  inches  on  the 
external  and  5  inches  on  the  internal  maigins  by  a  substance  like 
minute  lamina  or  scales,  and  which  may  be  seen  by  the  aid  of  a 
microscope  to  invest  the  free  bristles  at  the  fringed  extremity  of  the 
plate.  We  have  often  observed  the  facility  with  which  some  baleen 
can  be  split  up,  and  were  struck  with  the  fact  that  the  baleen  of 
JB.  maximua  would  not  split.  The  removal  of  the  external  lamina  in 
the  plate  under  description  shows  the  cause  of  this :  about  6^  inches 
from  tiie  root  of  ^e  plate,  many  of  the  bristles  have  deviateid  from 
their  direct  parallel  inclination,  and  become  intimately  twisted  and 
interwoven  with  each  otiier.  It  has  been  attempted  to  prove  the  age 
of  the  whale  from  an  examination  of  the  baleen,  in  the  same  manner 
as  we  judge  of  the  age  of  cattle  by  certain  annulated  markings  on 
the  horns.  On  tiie  plate  before  us  we  can  distinctly  perceive  numerous 
tnnsverse  lines  crossing  the  course  of  the  bristles  at  right  angles.  If 
these  transverse  lines  indicate  a  periodical  check  to  the  growth  of  the 
baleen,  then  the  age  of  the  B.  maanmtts  would  be  800  to  900  years 
old,  that  being  the  number  of  transverse  lines  on  the  longest  plate  of 
baleen.    (Knox,  *  Cat.  Prep.  Whale/  9.) 

HAT.  wan,  DIV.  VOL.  L 


"The  whalebone  of  the  smooth-bodied  whales  without  any  back  fins 
(Balcma)  is  elongate,  much  longer  than  broad  at  the  base,  and 
gradually  attenuated,  and  edged  with  a  fringe  of  equal  lengthened 
fine  sofb  bristles.  The  baleen  is  internally  formed  of  a  thin  layer  of 
fibres,  covered  on  each  side  with  a  thick  coat  of  '  eziamel ; '  when  dry 
and  out  of  the  mouth  the  blades  are  flat 

''The  whalebone  of  the  plaited-bellied  whale  with  a  bunch  (Ifs^a- 
ptera)  or  a  dorsal  fin  {Btdcmoplera)  is  short,  broad,  triangular,  not 
much  longer  than  broad  at  the  base,  and  rapidly  attenuate ;  and  ia 
edged  with  a  series  (sometimes  rather  crowded)  of  elongate  rigid 
unequal  bristle-like  fibres,  which  become  much  thicker  and  more  rigid 
near  and  at  the  tip.  The  baleen  is  internally  formed  of  a  more  or 
lees  thick  layer  of  thick  fibres,  covered  on  each  side  with  a  thin  layer 
of  enamel,  and  when  dry  and  out  of  the  palate  ihey  are  curled  up 
and  somewhat  spirally  twisted. 

"  The  bfdeen  of  the  Balcena  ia  alone  designated  Whalebone  (or  rather 
Whale-Fin,  as  it  is  usually  called)  in  commerce.  The  baleen  of  the 
other  genera  of  this  family  is  called  Finner-Fin  or  Humpback-Fin. 
The  wholesale  dealers  in  baleen,  in  the  '  London  Directory,'  are  called 
Whale-Fin  Merchants,  and  whalebone  occurs  tmder  the  name  of 
Whale-Fin  in  the  'Price-Current.*  In  the  'London  New  Price- 
Current,'  for  1843,  the  South  Sea  Whale-Fin  varied  during  that  year 
from  200^  to  8052.  per  ton,  and  there  is  no  price  named  for  Qreenland 
Whale-Fin.     (H«Culloch,  '  Com.  Diet.'  L  1344.) 

"  The  baleen  was  formerly  thought  to  be  the  tail  of  the  animal. 
(Blackstone,  'Conmien.'  i  238,  quoted  by  M<'Culloch, '  Com. Diet'  1844." 

BctUena  myatieetui  (the  Right  Whale).  It  is  the  B.  Orcenlandica  of 
Linnnus;  B.  vulgturis  of  Brisson;  B.  RonddetU  of  Willughby;  the 
Right,  Whalebone,  Common,  or  Greenland  Whale  of  English  writers. 
One  variety  is  called  the  Nord  Kapper  or  Nord  Caper,  another  the 
Rock-Nosed  Whala 

Description. — Colour  velvet-black,  gray,  and  white,  with  a  yellow 
tinga  Back,  greater  portion  of  the  upper  jaw,  part  of  the  lower,  fins, 
and  tail,  black ;  lips,  lore  part  of  lower  jaw,  sometimes  a  little  of  the 
upper,  and  a  portion  of  the  abdomen,  white ;  eyelids,  junction  of  the 
tail  with  the  body,  part  of  the  axilla  of  the  flippers,  &c.,  gray.  The 
older  the  whale,  the  more  white  and  gpnay  is  there  upon  it;  some  are 
piebald  all  over.  The  surface  of  the  body  is  rather  furrowed.  The 
head  is  yery  large,  forming  nearly  a  third  of  the  whole  bulk,  the 
under  part,  tiie  outline  of  which  is  given  by  the  jaw-bone,  flat. 
The  lips  inclose  the  cavity  of  the  mouth;  the  upper  jaw  is  bent 
down  at  its  edges  like  a  boat  upside  down,  so  as  to  shut  in  the  front 
and  upper  paits  of  the  cavity.  On  the  most  elevated  part  of  the 
head  are  situated  the  blow-holes,  two  longitudinal  apertures  like  the 
holes  in  the  belly  of  a  violin,  and  from  8  to  12  inches  long.  The 
baleen  is  very  long,  ranging  from  9  to  12  feet  There  are  upwards  of 
three  hundred  of  these  plates  of  whalebone  on  each  side  of  the  jaw, 
enclosing  the  tongue  between  their  lower  extremities,  and  themselves 
covered  by  the  lower  lip.  The  body  is  thickest  a  little  behind  the 
flippers,  near  the  middle  of  its  whole  length,  whence  it  gradually 
tapers  conically  towards  the  tail,  and  slightiy  towards  the  head. 
There  is  no  dorsal  fin.  The  fiippers,  about  9  feet  long  and  5  feet 
broad,  are  placed  about  two  feet  behind  the  angle  of  the  mouth,  and 
cannot  be  raised  above  a  horizontal  position.  The  horizontal  tail  is 
flat  and  semilunar,  indented  in  the  middle ;  the  two  lobes  somewhat 
pointed  and  turned  a  little  backwards.  The  eyes,  not  much  larger 
than  those  of  an  ox,  have  a  white  iris,  and  are  situated  on  the  sides 
of  the  head  about  a  foot  obliquely  above  and  behind  the  angle  of  the 
mouth.  The  sense  of  sight  appears  to  be  acute  in  the  water,  but  not 
above  it  The  size  of  this  whale  has  been  supposed  to  have  been 
greatly  exaggerated  by  old  statements.  Eighty  and  100  feet  were 
mentioned  as  a  frequent  length,  and  many  accounts  more  than  doubled 
that  measurement  At  present  65  or  70  feet  appear  to  be  the  extreme 
length  of  a  full  grown  Mysticete.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Scoresby,  who  has 
elucidated  the  hirtory  of  uiis  whale  as  satisfactorily  as  Mr.  Beale  has 
that  of  the  Sperm-Whale,  and  who  was  personally  concerned  in  the 
capture  of  322,  found  not  one  that  exceeded  60  feet  It  should  be 
remembered  however,  in  criticising  old  accounts,  that  the  great 
persecution  which  tiiese  animals  have  long  undexgone  and  still 
undergo,  while  it  reduces  their  numbers,  is  very  unfavourable  to 
longevity. 

The  habitat  usually  assigned  to  this  whale  is  most  extensive :  thus, 
M.  Lesson  states  that  it  Inhabits  all  the  seas  of  the  globe,  especially 
the  two  poles;  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  Whalebone  Whale 
or  Black  Whale  of  the  South  Seas  {Balcena  amtralia,  Desmoulins, 
B.  antardica,  Less.),  which  has  every  appearance  of  being  disUnct, 
and  moreover  of  being  infested  with  parasitioal  cirrhipedes  {TuMcindUi, 
Chrawula,  &c.)  of  different  species  from  those  which  infest  the  Green- 
land Whale,  has  been  mistaken  for  the  last  named  cetacean.  Multi- 
tudes of  the  Southern  Bakena  were  seen  by  Captain  James  Boss,  R.N., 
in  very  high  southern  latitudes  during  his  laat  expedition. 

This  spedee  seems  to  hear  acutely  any  noise  made  in  the  water, 
such  as  splashing,  &c.  in  calm  weather ;  but  a  sound  produced  in  thei 
air,  a  loud  shout  for  instance,  when  the  whale  is  only  at  the  distance 
of  a  ship's  length,  is  disregarded.  The  usual  rate  of  swimming  seldom 
exceeds  four  miles  an  hour,  but  they  will  descend  when  harpooned  at  a 
velocity  of  seven  or  eight  nuleB  an  hour,  and  one  of  these  whales  when 

8  K 


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alarmed  can  aink  in  five  or  six  seconds  far  beyond  the  reach  of  a  hnman 
enemy.  The  Mysticete  seldom  remains  at  the  surface  to  breathe  longer 
than  two  minutes,  during  which  period  it  blows  eight  or  nine  times. 
It  then  descends  for  five  or  ten  minutes ;  sometimes,  when  on  its  feed, 
for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Though  Dr.  Scoresby  states  that  it 
has  no  voice,  it  makes,  he  observes,  a  loud  noise  in  blowing.  The 
spout  is  ejected  some  yards  high,  and  has  the  appearance  of  a  pu£f  of 
smoke  at  a  distance.  They  blow  strongest,  densest^  and  loudest  when 
alarmed,  or  after  a  long  stay  imder  water. 

A  veiy  considerable  portion  of  the  feeding-grounds  is  occupied  by 
what  is  termed  '  green  water,'  which  swarms  with  minute  life,  and 
has  been  carefully  examined  ajid  described  by  Dr.  Scoresby.  The 
smallness  of  the  gullet  is  only  fitted  for  swaUowing  small  animals, 
such  as  the  Clio  borealis,  numerous  specimens  of  which  (the  *  Whale's 
Food'  of  the  Greenland  Whalers)  will  be  found  in  the  preparation 
Ko.  323  A  of  the  Physiological  Series  of  the  Museum  of  the  Boyal 
College  of  Surgeons  in  Ltondon.  This  small  moUusk  is  said  to  consti- 
tute the  chief  support  of  the  Mysticete,  and  the  structure  and  dispo- 
sition of  the  whalebone-plates  explain  how  these  or  any  other  small 
species  of  animal  are  retained  in  the  capacious  mouth  of  their  devourar, 
while  the  water  taken  in  along  with  them  drains  thiough  the  inter- 
stices of  the  plates.  When  the  Mysticete  feeds,  it  swims  rapidly  below 
the  surface  with  open  jaws ;  a  stream  of  water  enters  them,  and  with 
it  myriads  of  small  marine  animals ;  the  water  finds  an  outlet  at  the 
sides,  but  the  thick  internal  hairy  apparatus  of  the  whalebone  does 
not  permit  one  of  these  animals  to  escape. 

Nine  or  ten  months  is  supposed  to  be  the  period  of  utero-gestation, 
and  the  •mother  is  so  attached  to  her  young  one,  or  '  sucker,'  as  it  is 
termed,  that  it  is  often  struck  as  a  snare  to  the  affectionate  parent^ 
for  she  will  not  leave  it,  and  falls  a  viotim  to  her  maternal  love.  Dr. 
Scoresby  relates  instances  of  this  kind  which  cannot  be  perused,  much 
less  witnessed,  without  great  pain  by  any  person  of  ordinary  humanity. 
Such  a  mode  of  capture  seems  hai^y  justifiable,  whilst  it  must  be 
ruinous  to  future  prospects. 

This  species  is  generally  found  alone  or  in  pairs,  excepting  when 
many  individuals  are  attracted  to  some  abundant  feeding-ground  or 
to  a  desired  locality,  such  as  the  vicinity  of  icebergs. 

To  the  Esquimaux  and  the  Greenlander  this  species  is  all  in  alL 
They  eat  the  flesh  and  fat  with  indescribable  relish.  The  membranes 
of  the  abdomen  serve  them  for  clothing,  and  the  thin  transparent 
peritoneum  .admits  light  through  the  windows  of  their  huts  whilst  it 
keeps  out  the  weather.  The  bones  are  made  into  props  for  their 
tents,  or  aid  in  the  formation  of  their  boats,  and  supply  them  with 
harpoons  and  spears  for  the  capture  of  the  seal  and  greater  sea-birds. 
The  sinews,  divided  into  filaments,  are  used  as  thread  for  sewing  their 
dress,  &c.  Some  have  stated  that  pickled  and  boiled  blubber  is 
palatable,  and  that  the  tail,  first  parboiled  and  then  fried,  is  sgreeable 
eating.  The  fiesh  of  the  young  whale  is  said  to  be  by  no  means 
indifferent  food.  To  civilised  nations,  the  oil  made  from  its  fat  or 
blubber,  and  the  whalebone,  have  long  made  it  a  great  oommercial 
object.    [FisHS&isa,  in  Abis  and  Sa  Drv.] 


Greenland  Whale  {Baiana  myHicetus). 

B.  margvnata,  the  Western-Australian  Whale,  has  very  long  and 
slender  baleen,  with  a  rather  broad  black  edge  on  the  outer  or  straight 
side.  From  the  character  of  the  baleen  Dr.  Gray  considers  this  a 
distinct  species. 

B.  outtrcdiBy  the  Cape  Whale.  It  is  the  Right  Whale  of  South  Sea 
Whalers,  the  Southern  Whalebone  Whale  of  Nunn,  the  Common 
Black  Whale  of  Su*  James  Ross.  It  inhabits  the  South  Seas,  and  is 
of  a  uniform  black  colour. 

B.  JaponicOf  the  Japan  Whale.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  coasts  of 
Japan,  which  it  visits  periodically.  Its  head  is  covered  with  barnacles. 
•Only  the  baleen  has  been  seen  in  England.  The  species  has  been 
desoribed  from  Chinese  drawings. 

B,  mUarctica,  the  New  Zealand  Whale.  A  species  described  by 
Dr.  J,  E.  Gray  as  B,  Antipodarum,  from  a  very  accurate  drawing  of  a 
•pedmen  taken  in  Jackson's  Bay,  New  Zealand.    It  is  the  Tuku  Peru 


of  the  natives.    The  specimen  was  60  fset  in  length.    The  following 
cut  is  reduced  from  Dr.  Gray's  {date. 


New  Zealand  Whale  {BdUtna  AnHpodarum).    Gray. 

B.  gUiboMCkf  the  Scrag-Whale,  is  regarded  as  a  species  by  Dr.  J.  R 
Gray.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  "It  is  near  akin  to  the 
Finback,  but  instead  of  a  fin  upon  its  back,  the  ridge  of  the  after  part 
of  its  back  is  scragged  with  half-a-doaen  knobs  or  knuekle&"  (Dudky.) 

The  remaining  genera  of  the  Baltgwida  have  either  fins  or  humps 
on  their  backs,  and  are  called  Finners  and  Hump-Backs. 

The  genus  MegapUra  includes  the  Hump-Backed  Whaks.  Thejare 
easily  known  from  the  Finners  in  being  shorter  and  more  robust^  the 
skull  nearly  one-fourth  the  entire  lengw,  the  head  wider  between  the 
eyes,  the  mouth  laiger,  the  lip  warty,  and  the  nose  laige  and  rounded ; 
the  plaits  of  the  belly  and  throat  are  broad.  The  skuU  is  intermediate 
between  that  of  BaUxna  and  Baktnoptera, 

M.  longimana,  Johnston's  Hump-Backed  Whale.  It  was  described 
by  Dr.  Johnston  from  a  specimen  cast  ashore  at  Newcastle.  It  is  an 
inhabitant  of  the  North  Sea,  and  has  been  takon  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Maas.  It  is  the  BcUama  lonffimana  of  Rudolphi,  and  the  Baiana 
BoopSf  or  Keporkak,  of  Esohricht^  who  says  it  is  the  most  common 
whale  in  the  Greenland  seas. 

M.  Americana,  the  Bermuda  Hump-Back,  is  of  a  black  colour,  with 
a  white  belly,  and  has  its  head  covered  with  tubercles.  It  is  the 
Balcma  nodota  of  Bonnaterre.  It  is  foimd  at  Bermuda  from  March 
to  the  end  of  May,  when  it  departs.  The  baleen  of  this  whale  is 
extensively  imported  from  Bermuda. 

M,  Poaicopy  the  Poeskop,  or  Cape  Hump-Back.  It  is  the  Rorqual 
du  Gap  of  Cuvier,  the  B.  Lalandii  of  Fischer,  and  B.  Capattit  of 
Androw  Smith ;  the  Hump-Backed  Whale  of  Boss's  '  Antarctic  Voyage.' 
It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  seas  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

M.  Kugira,  the  Kuzira.     It  inhabits  tjie  Japanese  seas. 

Balamoptera  rottratay  the  Pike-Whale.  It  is  the  BaicBna  rottraia, 
MiQler;  Borqnalus  rottraUu^  Dekay;  Balcenoptera  mierocepkak, 
Brandt ;  RorqtuUtu  Boopt,  F.  Cuvier.  It  is  of  a  black  colour,  under 
neath  of  a  reddish  white.  It  inhabits  the  North  Sea,  and  has  been 
found  in  New  York  Bay,  at  Valognes  in  France,  and  a  specimen  was 
taken  in  the  Thames  at  Deptford. 

Phyaalut  AfUiquorvm,  the  Razor-Back.  It  is  iheBalamaAniiquoriM 
of  Fischer,  and  probably  the  Great  Northern  Rorqual  of  Enox  and 
Jardine ;  the  Rorqual  de  la  Meditarrante  of  Cuvier.  It  is  of  a  slate- 
gray  colour,  whitii^  beneath.  The  baleen  is  slate-colDured,  the  under 
edge  blackish,  the  inner  edge  pale-streaked.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of 
the  North  Sea,  and  is  sometimes  found  on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain. 
Thero  is  a  skeleton  at  Black  Qtaxg  Chine  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  75  fi'et 
long.  It  was  taken  in  1842.  A  specimen  was  taken  at  Berwick  in 
1881.  Thero  is  a  skeleton  of  one  also  at  Plymouth  7i^  feet  long.  This 
animal  was  found  floating  in  Plymouth  Soimd  on  the  2nd  of  October 
1831.  It  is  stated  to  have  been  102  feet  long  and  75  feet  in  circam 
ference.  This  specimen  was  taken  round  the  country  in  three  cara- 
vans. Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  rofers  the  skeleton  of  the  whale  now  in  the 
Edinburgh  Botanic  Gardens  to  this  species.  It  was  80  feet  long,  and 
was  taken  off  North  Berwick  in  1833. 

P.  (Rorqualut)  Boopa  of  Gray  has  been  taken  off  the  coast  of  Wales. 
The  length  of  the  specimen  in  the  British  Museum  is  38  feet ;  the 
head  is  9  feet  long,  the  vertebrsB  aro  60  in  number,  and  there  are 
15  pairs  of  single  ribs.  It  was  tedcen  in  1846,  and  was  mentioned 
in  the  papers  of  the  day  as  a  Spermaceti  Whale. 

P.  {Rorqualus)  Sihbaidii.  A  specimen  of  this  species  exists  in  the 
museum  at  HulL     It  is  50  feet  long. 

P.  ftucicUut,  the  Peruvian  Finner,  desoribed  by  Tschudi,  has  beeo 
found  on  the  coasts  of  Peru. 

P.  Iwasiy  the  Japan  Finner.  It  is  very  raro ;  one  was  cast  ashore 
at  Eii  in  1760.    It  was  25  feet  long. 

P.  cmtarciicuty  named  from  the  iMileen  of  a  Now  Zealand  qiedea  by 
Dr.  J.  E.  Gray. 

P.  Bratiliengis,  the  Bahia  Finner.  Named  from  baleen;  brought 
from  Bahia. 

P.  auatralit,  Southern  Finner,  inhabits  the  seas  of  the  Filkland 
Islands. 

The  family  of  CatodoKtIDJB  inoludes  the  Toothed  Whales.  The 
genera  aro  as  follows : — 

Catodon.  Dorsal  hump  rounded.  Blowen  on  ttoai  of  tnmcated 
head.     Skull  elongate. 

Koffia,    Dorsal  hump.    Blowers  (?).    Skull  short,  broad. 

Phyaeter.  Dorsal  fin  falcate.  Blower  on  back  of  fordiead.  SkuU 
elongate. 


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flOl 


There  lifts  been  much  discuBaioii  about  the  genera  and  speoies  of 
this  family.  We  shall  however  follow  the  '  Britidi  Museum  Catalog;ue,' 
adding  the  more  common  synonyms  of  the  spedea 

Catodon  maerocephalus,  Northern  Sperm-Whale.  This  is  the  Phytekr 
macrocephaliu  of  Linnaeus ;  the  Sperm- Whale,  the  Spermaoeti  Whale, 
the  Blunt-Headed  Caohalot  of  English  wiiters.  It  is  the  Physeter 
Tnmpo  of  Bonnaterre;  the  OoUodon  Trwnpo  of  Gkrard ;  the  Phfseter 
g3}btu  of  Schreber;  Cetut  mctcrocephcUtu  of  Oken. 

The  colour  of  this  animal  is  blaok,  becoming  whitish  below. 

The  subjoined  out  of  the  jaw  is  from  F.  Cuvier,  who  givea  it  from 
the  skeleton  in  the  Paris  Museum,  and  ia  confined  to  the  lower 
jaw  only;  from  which  it  may  be  inferred,  that  in  the  French  specimen 
there  is  no  appearance  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw :  in  the  lower  there 
are  27  on  each  Bide=:54. 


Teeth  of  Gachalot. 

To  render  the  following  description  more  intelligible  we  prefix  a 
cot  from  Mr.  Beale's  won  on  the  Sperm-Whale,  which  is  by  far  the 
most  accarate  pabliahed  figure  extant  of  the  Spermaceti  Whale. 


=>  > 


Spermaceti  Whale  [Ck$Mkm  maeroeepholm). 

I,  Outline  of  the  entire  form ;  2,  anterior  aspect  of  the  head ;  a,  nostril,  or 
RpottUhole ;  fr,  situation  of  the  ease ;  e,  the  Junk ;  d,  beach  of  the  neck ;  «,  eye ; 
/,  fin ;  gj  spiral  strips  or  blanket  pieces ;  A,  the  hump ;  i,  the  ridge ;  k,  the 
small;  I,  the  tail  or  flukes. 

B,  a  harpoon.    C,  a  lanoe. 

a,  in  fig.  2 :  the  lines  fornolng  the  square  are  intended  to  represent  the  flat 
anterior  part  of  the  head. 

The  head  presents  a  very  thick  blunt  extremity,  constituting  about 
a  third  of  the  whole  length  of  the  animal ;  at  its  jimctlon  with  the 
body  is  a  large  protuberance  on  the  back  called  *  the  bunch  of  the 
neck.'  Immediately  behind  this  is  the  thickest  pert  of  the  body, 
which  from  thence  gradually  tapers  ofif  to  the  tail,  but  it  does  not 
become  much  smaller  for  about  another  third  of  the  whole  length, 
when  '  the  small '  or  tail  conunences ;  and  at  this  point  also,  on  the 
back,  is  a  large  pyramidal  prominence  called  'the  hump,'  from  which 
a  series  of  smaller  processes  run  half  way  down  the  '  small'  or  tail, 
constitatiug  what  the  whalers  term  the  *  ridge.'  The  body  then  con- 
tracts BO  much  as  to  become  finally  not  thicker  than  that  of  a  man, 
and  terminates  by  expanding  on  the  sides  into  the  'flukes'  or  tail, 
forming  a  large  triangular  horizontal  fin  with  a  slight  notch  or 
depression  posteriorly  between  the  flukes,  which  are  about  6  or  8 
foet  in  length,  and  from  12  to  14  feet  in  breadth  in  the  largest  males 
or  '  bulls.'  The  chest  and  belly  are  narrower  than  the  broadest  part 
of  the  back,  and  taper  off  evenly  towards  the  tail ;  the  depth  of  the 
bead  and  body  is,  in  all  parts  except  the  tail,  greater  than  the  width. 
The  head,  viewed  in  front,  presents  a  broad  somewhat  flattened 
surface,  rounded  and  oontracteid  above,  considerably  expanded  on  the 
sides,  and  gradtially  contracted  below,  resembling  in  some  degree  the 
cutwater  of  a  ship.  The  slit  of  the  single  blowing-hole  or  nostril  ia 
about  12  inches  in  length.  In  the  right  side  of  the  nose  is  the  '  case,' 
a  cavity  for  the  purpose  of  secreting  and  containing  an  oily  fluid, 
which  after  death  concretes  into  a  granulated  yellowish  substanoe : 
this  is  the  Spermaceti.  In  the  case  of  a  large  whale  there  is  not  un- 
frequently  a  ton,  or  more  than  ten  barrels  of  spermaceti  Beneath 
the  case  and  nostril  is  tiie  elaatio  'junk,'  formed  of  dense  cellular 
tissue,  strengthened  by  strong  tendinous  fibres,  and  infiltrated  with 
veiy  fine  sperm-oil  and  spermaceti  The  mouth  extends  nearly  .the 
whole  length  of  the  head.  Both  the  jaws,  especially  the  lower,  are 
contracted  in  front  to  a  very  narrow  point;  and  when  the  mouth 
is  closed  the  lower  jaw  is  received  within  a  sort  of  cartilaginous  Up,  or 
projection  of  the  upper  one :  but  principally  in  front ;  for,  farther  back 
at  the  sides,  and  towards  the  angle  of  the  moutii,  both  jaws  are 
Axmiahed  with  tolerably  well-developed  lips.    The  tongue  is  small 


and  white.  The  throat  is  capacious  enough  to  give  passage  to  the 
body  of  a  man,  presenting  a  strong  contrast  to  the  contracted  gtdlet 
of  tiie  Qreenland  Whale.  Throughout^  the  mouth  is  lined  with  a 
pearly  white  membrane.  The  eyes  are  small  in  proportion  to  the 
sise  of  the  animal,  and  are  fumi^ed  with  eyeUds,  the  lower  of  which 
is  most  moveable.  At  a  short  distance  behind  the  eyes  are  the 
external  openings  of  the  ears,  sufficiently  lai^  to  admit  a  small  quilL 
Not  far  from  the  posterior  angle  of  the  mouth  are  the  swimming- 
paws  or  fins,  which  are  not  much  used  in  progression,  but  probably 
more  as  balances,  and  occasionally  in  supporting  the  young. 

Mr.  Beale  gives  the  following  as  the  dknensions  of  a  Sperm-Whale 
of  the  largest  siae^  or  about  84  feet  in  length : — Depth  of  head  from 
8  to  9  feet ;  breadth  from  6  to  6  feet ;  depth  of  body  seldom  exceed- 
ing 12  or  14  feet ;  circumference  seldom  exceeding  86  feet ;  swimming* 
paws  about  6  feet  long  and  3  feet  broad. 

The  skin  is  smooth,  bui  occasionally  in  old  whales  wrinkled^  The 
general  colour  is  very  dark,  deepest  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head, 
back,  and  flukes,  in  which  situationr  it  is  sometimes  black ;  on  the 
sides  it  gradually  assumes  a  lighter  tint,  and  on  the  breast  becomes 
silvery-gray.  In  different  individuals  there  is  however  every  variety' 
of  shade,  and  some  are  piebald.  Old  '  bulls '  hsve  generally  a  portion 
of  gray  on  the  nose,  immediately  above  the  fore'part  of  the  upper  jaw, 
when  they  are  said  to  be  'gray-headed.'  The  '  black  skin'  in  young 
whales  is  about  three-eighths  c^  an  inch  thick ;  in  old  ones  it  is 
not  more  than  one-eighth.  Immediately  beneath  the  black  skin  is 
the  blubber  or  fat»  termed  the  '  blanket'  of  a  light  yellowish  colour, 
producing  when  melted  the  sperm-oiL 

The  bulk  of  the  head  is,  as  we  have  seen,  made  up  of  a  membranous 
'  case,'  containing  a  thin  oil  of  much  less  specific  gravity  than  water ; 
below  which  again  is  the  'junk,'  which,  although  heavier  than  the 
spermaceti,  is  still  lighter  than  the  element  in  which  the  whale 
moves ;  consequently,  observes  Mr.  Beale,  the  head  taken  as  a  whole 
is  lighter  specifically  than  any  other  part  of  the  body,  and  will  always 
have  a  tendency  to  rise  at  least  so  far  above  the  surface  as  to  elevate 
the  nostril  or  blow-hole  sufficiently  for  all  purposes  of  respiration ; 
and  more  than  this,  a  very  slight  effort  on  the  part  of  the  whale 
would  only  be  necessary  to  raise  the  whole  of  the  anterior  fiat  surface 
of  the  nose  out  of  the  water.  At  very  regular  intervals  of  time  the 
snout  emerges,  and  from,  the  extremity  of  the  nose  the  spout  is  thrown 
up,  and  at  a  distance  appears  thick,  low,  bushy,  and  white.  It  is 
formed  of  the  expired  air  forcibly  ejected  through  the  blow-hole,  and 
acquires  its  white  colour  from  minute  partidee  of  water  previously 
lodged  in  the  chink  or  fissure  of  the  nostril,  and  also  from  the  con- 
densation of  the  aqueous  vapour  thrown  off  by  the  lungs.  The 
spout,  says  Mr.  Beale  in  continuation,  is  projected  at  an  angle  of 
186  degrees,  in  a  slow  and  continuous  manner  for  about  three  minutes, 
and  may  be  seen  from  the  majit-head  in  favourable  weather  at  the 
distance  of  four  or  five  miles.  When  the  whale  is  alarmed,  or  '  gallied,' 
the  spout  is  thrown  much  higher  with  great  rapidity,  and  differs  much 
from  its  usual  appearance.  Immediately  after  each  spout  the  nose 
sinks  beneath  the  water,  scarcely  a  second  intervening  for  the  act  of 
inspiration,  which  must  consequently  be  performed  very.quiddy,  the 
air  rushing  into  the  chest  with  astonishing  velocity ;  there  is  however 
no  sound  caused  by  inspiration,  and  very  little  by  expiration  in  this 
species  :  in  short,  nothing  of  that  loud  noise  called  the  'drawback' 
in  the  Finback  and  other  whales.  Ten  seconds  is  oocupied  by  a  large 
bull  sperm  whale  in  making  one  inapiration  and  one  expiration : 
during  six  of  these  the  nostril  is  beneath  tiie  water.  At  each  breathing- 
time  the  whale  makes  from  60  to  70  expirations,  and  remains  there- 
fore at  the  surfiaco  10  or  11  minutes.  When  the  breathing-time  ia 
over,  or,  as  the  whalers  term  it,  he  has  had  his  '  spoutings  out^'  the 
head  sinks  slowly,  the  '  snudl,'  or  the  part  between  the  '  hump '  and 
'  flukes,'  appears  above  the  water,  curved,  with  the  convexity  upwards ; 
the  flukes  are  then  lifted  high  into  the  air,  and  the  animal  having 
assumed  a  straight  position,  descends  perpendicularly  to  an  unknown 
depth.  This  last  act  is  called  '  peaking  the  flukes,'  and  those  who  are 
on  the  look-out  call  loudly  when  they  see  it—'  there  goes  flukes.'  The 
whale  continues  thus  hidden  beneath  the  surface  for  one  hour  and  ten 
minutes ;  some  will  remain  one  hour  and  twenty  minutes,  and  othem 
only  for  one  hour ;  but  these,  Mr.  Beale  says,  are  rare  exceptions.  A 
seventh  of  the  time  of  this  whale  is,  Mr.  Beale  makes  out,  consumed 
in  respiration. 

Small  fishes  are  occasionally  swallowed  in  quantities  by  this  whale, 
and  one  has  been  known  to  eject  from  its  stomach  a  fish  as  large  as 
a  moderate-sized  salmon ;  but  the  principal  food  of  the  Sperm-Whale 
appears  to  consist  of  squids  or  cuttle-fishes.    [SsFlABiB.] 

This  species  is  gregarious ;  and  the  herds  called  'schools'  are  of 
two  kinds,  one  consisting  of  females,  the  other  of  young  males  not 
fully  grown.  Mr.  Beale  has  seen  as  many  as  500  or  600  in  one 
'school'  With  each  female  'school'  are  from  one  to  three  large 
'  bulls '  or  '  school-masters,'  as  they  are  termed  by  the  whalers.  The 
full-grown  males  almost  always  go  alone  in  search  of  food :  they  are 
when  alone  very  incautious  and  easily  kill^  It  is  the  smaller,  or 
'  forty-barrel  bull,'  as  he  is  called,  that  makes  the  most  desperate  resist- 
ance.   A  large  whale  will  yield  80  barrels  of  oil,  and  sometimes  100. 

Mr.  Beale  states  that  the  female  is  smaller  than  the  male,  and  that 
she  breeds  at  all  seasons,  producing  generally  only  one  at  a  time,  but 
sometimes  two.    Nothing  certain  appears  to  be  known  as  to  the 


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period  of  gestation,  but  F.  Cuyier  suppoaea  it  to  be  ten  months. 
A  foetal  Cachalot,  diaaected  by  Mr.  Bennett,  waa  14  feet  long  and 
6  feet  in  circumferenoe,  deep  black,  mottled  with  white  spots.  Its 
position  in  the  womb  waa  that  of  a  bent  bow.  According  to  F.  Cuvier, 
the  two  brought  forth  by  the  Stranded  Whale  near  D'Audieme, 
were  10  or  11  feet  long ;  and  Captain  Colnett  states  that  the  young 
Sperm-Whales  which  he  saw  in  great  numbers  off  the  Ghdapagos 
Idands  were  not  larger  than  a  small  Porpesse.  Mr.  Beale's  own 
observations  coincided  with  those  of  Mr.  Bennett 

For  many  other  habits  of  this  whale,  such  as  *  breaching,'  or  leaping 
clear  out  of  the  water  and  falling  back  again  on  its  side,  so  that  the 
breach  may  be  seen  in  a  dear  day  from  the  mast-head  at  a  distance 
of  six  miles ;  *  going  head  out,'  a  mode  of  progression  which  enables 
it  to  attain  10  or  12  miles  an  hour,  which  Mr.  Beale  believes  to  be  its 
greatest  velooi^;  'lob-tailing,'  or  lashing  the  water  with  its  tail; 
and  the  vivid  aesoriptions  of  the  dangers  and  haii^breadth  escapes 
attending  its  capture,  we  must  refer  to  Mr.  Beale's  book,  which  every 
one  who  is  anxious  for  information  on  this  subject  should  read. 

This  animal  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  north ;  it  has  however  been 
found  on  the  coasts  of  America,  Japan,  New  Guinea,  and  Timor.  It 
has  been  frequently  stranded  on  the  British  Islanda.  Twelve  males 
were  caught  at  Walderwich  on  the  Suffolk  coast  in  1788.  There  is  a 
skeleton  of  an  adult  at  Burton-Constable  Castle,  near  Hull,  in  York- 
shire. It  has  been  taken  also  near  Teignmouth,  in  Whitstable  Bay,  and 
in  the  Frith  of  Forth. 


The  Spermaoetl  "Wbalo  {Oatodon  fnaeroeephaiut),    Beale. 

C.  (klnetiy  the  Mexican  Sperm-Whale,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  North 
Pacific,  the  South  Seas,  and  equatorial  oceans,  and  often  referred  to 
the  last  species. 

C.  polycyphut,  the  South  Sea  Sperm-Whale,  is  found  in  the  Southern 
Ocean,  and  is  also  spoken  of  as  the  Cachalot,  or  Sperm-Wliale. 

Koffia  is  the  generic  name  given  by  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  to  a  form  of 
whale  with  a  shorter  head,  whic^  has  been  taken  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  It  has  been  sometimes  regarded  as  the  young  of  the  Sperm- 
Whale. 

K.  brevicepBy  the  Short-Headed  Whale  of  Gray,  is  the  only  species, 
and  has  been  described  from  a  single  skull  in  the  Paris  Museum. 

PhyHier  is  the  generic  term  applied  by  LinnsBUB  and  many  subse- 
quent writers  to  the  Sperm-Whale,  but  it  was  originally  applied  by 
Artedi  to  the  Black  Fish,  to  which  Dr.  J.  K  Gray  has  restored  it  in 
the  '  British  Museum  Catalogue.' 

P.  Turiio,  the  Black  Fish  of  Gray,  is  the  PhpaeUr  mteroja  and 
P.  Twrtio  of  Artedi,  and  probably  the  Ddphinus  glAicept  or  i>.  Qram^ 
put  of  Cuvier.  It  is  of  a  black  colour.  "The  teeth  are  from  11  to  22 
on  each  side.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  North  Sea.  Two  specimens, 
52  feet  in  length,  have  been  taken  off  the  coasts  of  Scotland,  and 
were  described  by  Sibbald.  Of  one  of  the  specimens  Sibbald  observes, 
<<  The  size  of  the  cranium  may  be  estimated  by  the  fact  that  four 
men  were  seen  inside  it  at  one  time  extracting  the  brain,  which  con- 
tained several  cells  or  alveoli,  like  those  which  bees  keep  their  honey 
in,  and  in  these  were  rounded  masses  of  a  white  substance,  which 
upon  examination  were  proved  to  be  sperm.  Some  of  this  substance 
was  also  found  externally  on  the  head,  in  some  parts  to  the  thickness 
of  two  feet." 

The  family  of  Dblfhinii>J3,  or  Dolphins,  are  more  numerous  than 
those  of  the  other  Odetcea.  They  are  distinguished  from  the  last 
family  by  the  smaller  and  more  proportionate  head ;  and  in  those 
species  which  have  lost  their  upper  teeth  at  an  early  age,  by  there 
being  no  regular  pits  in  the  gums  of  the  upper  jaw  for  the  reception 
of  the  teeth  of  the  lower  one ;  and  also  by  the  hinder  part  of  the 
skull  not  being  deeply  concave,  and  surrounded  on  the  sides  and 
behind  bv  a  high  ridge. 

The  following  is  a  synopsiB  of  the  genera  and  sub-families  of  this 
extensive  family: — 

A,  Jaws  tapering ;  the  symphysiB  of  the  lower  jaw  short,  not  half 
the  length  of  the  jaw.  Dorsal  fin  generally  distinct ;  pectoral  fin 
ovate,  acute.    Marine. 

a.  Upper  jaw  toothless ;  lower  jaw  with  only  one  or  two  teeth 
(which  are  often  hidden  in  the  gums)  on  each  side.  Beak  of  the 
skull  keeled  on  each  side,  the  keel  being  sometimes  large,  and  forming 
a  kind  of  reflexed  wing  on  Mch  side ;  head  with  a  short  beak. 
ffyperoodotUina. 

1.  Byperoadon.  Th^Jbeak  of  the  upper  jaw  with  a  lai^  erect 
wing-like  expansion  in  front  of  the  blowers ;  lower  jaw  with  two 
rudimentaiy  teeth  in.  front. 

2.  Ziphiut,  Beak  of  upper  jaw  keeled  on  each  side ;  lower  jaw 
broad,  bent  down  in  front  with  large  compressed  teeth  in  the  middle 
of  each  side. 


8.  Ddpkiwirhynchm,  Beak  of  upper  jaw  keeled  on  each  aide; 
lower  jaw  nearly  straight,  with  two  or  three  small  rudimentaiy 
conical  teeth  in  the  middle  of  each  side. 

6.  Upper  and  lower  jaw  vrith  few  or  deciduous  teeth.  Wings  of  the 
maxillary  bones  expanded  and  shelving  downwards.  The  beak  shorty 
deflexed.     Forehead  convex.     Head  rounded,   without  any  beaL  . 
Monoceratina. 

*  Lower  jaw  toothless. 

4.  Monodon.  Upper  jaw  of  males  with  one  or  two  very  long 
projecting  spirally-twisted  tusks.     Dorsal  fin  nona 

**  Upper  and  lower  jaw  with  conical,  eariy  deciduous  teeth. 

5.  Beluga.    Dorsal  fin  none. 

*«*  Upper  and  lower  jaw  with  compressed  permanent  teeth. 

6.  NeomerU,    Dorsal  nona 

7.  Pkoaena.    Dorsal  triangular,  in  the  middle  of  the  back. 

c.  Uppor  and  lower  jaw  with  many  teeth,  rarely  dedduous  with 
age.  Wings  of  the  jaw-bone  horizontally  produced  over  the  orbita. 
Sdphinina. 

*  Head  rounded  in  front,  not  beaked.  Nose  of  skull  scaroelj  bo 
long  as  the  brain-cavity.     Dorsal  distinct 

8.  Grampus.  Teeth  conical,  truncated,  early  deciduous.  Inte^ 
maxillaries  broad.    Pectoral  ovate. 

9.  GlobiocephaUu.  Teeth  conical,  deciduous  when  old.  Inter- 
maxillaries  very  broad.    Pectorals  narrow,  linear. 

10.  Oreo.  Teeth  conical,  acute,  permanent  Intermaxillaries 
moderate.    Pectorals  ovate. 

**  Head  beaked.  Nose  of  skull  as  long  as  or  longer  than  brain-cavity. 

11.  Lctgenarhynchui.  Head  shelving  in  front  Dorsal  nther 
posterior.     Nose  of  skull  depressed,  expanded. 

12.  Ddphinapterus.  Head  rather  convex  in  front  Dorsal  none. 
Nose  of  skull  rather  depressed,  convex  above. 

13.  Bdphinus.  Head  rather  convex  in  front  Dorsal  medial 
Nose  of  skull  rather  depressed,  convex  above. 

14.  Steno.  Head  rather  convex  in  front  Dorsal  medial  Noee  of 
skull  compressed,  higher  than  broad ;  symphysis  of  lower  jaw  rather 
elongate. 

15.  Ponioporia,  Head  rather  convex  in  front  Dorsal  medial  Nose 
of  skull  rather  compressed ;  high  symphysis  of  lower  jaw  very  long. 

B,  Jaws  much  compressed  ;  symphysis  of  the  lower  jaw  veiy  long. 
Dorsal  none.    Teeth  in  both  jaws.    Fluviatile. 

d.  Skull  with  the  maxillary  bones  simple,  expanded  over  the  orbit 
Teeth  conical     Paddles  ovate  or  oblong.    Iniana. 

16.  Inia.  Teeth  rugose;  the  hinder  ones  with  a  rounded  tubercle 
on  the  inner  side. 

e.  Skull  with  the  maxilliaiy  bones  bent  up  in  front  of  the  blowen, 
and  forming  a  vault  The  teeth  compressed.  The  paddles  fan- 
shaped,  truncated  at  the  end.    PUUamttina, 

17.  PlatanitCa. 

Hyperoodtm  Butzkopf,  the  Bottle-Head.  It  is  the  Flounder's  Head  of 
Dale,  in  his  '  History  of  Harwich,'  where  it  has  been  taken.  Pennant 
calls  it  the  Beaked  Whale.     It  inhabits  the  North  Sea. 

M.  rotiratum,  the  Beaked  Hyperoodon,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Korth 
Sea.  It  differs  from  the  last  species  in  having  the  dorsal  fin  behind 
the  middle  of  the  back.  It  has  been  taken  in  the  Thames  and  the 
Humber,  and  skeletons  exist  in  the  museums  of  Edinbuigh,  Bristol, 
and  Liverpool 

Two  other  species  of  Hyperoodon  are  described  by  Dr.  J.  £.  Gray, 
Bf.  Jksmareaiii  and  B.  latifront.  The  latter  is  a  native  of  the  North 
Sea,  and  has  been  taken  on  the  coast  of  Lancashire. 

Ziphiut  Sowerbiensit  is  the  Phyteter  bident  of  Sowerby,  the  Diodw 
bidens  of  BeU.  The  head  of  a  specimen  caught  in  Scotland  is  now  in 
the  museum  at  Oxford.  Dr.  Qray  observes  that  "  it  belongs  to  the 
genus  Ziphiut  of  Cuvier,  before  only  known  in  the  fossil  state;  and 
the  examination  of  the  skull  has  proved  the  accuracy  of  theae 
determinations. ' ' 

Z.  SechdUntit,  named  from  a  skull  in  the  museum  at  Paris  brought 
from  the  Sechelles. 

Bdphinorhynchut  micropterut  was  first  described  by  De  Blainville. 
It  inhabits  the  seas  of  the  coasts  of  Europe. 

Monodon  monoeerotf  the  Narwhal,  Unicom,  or  Unicorn-Whale.  It 
is  the  Monodon  tnicrocephalut  and  Nanohaiut  AndertoMom  ot 
Desmarest  When  young  it  is  black,  but  when  old  it  is  whitiih 
marbled.  Although  it  has  sometimes  two  tusks,  it  has  more  frequently 
one,  from  which  it  derives  its  name  of  UnioomL  It  inhabits  the 
Northern  Ooean,  and  is  not  unfrequent  on  tiio  coast  of  Scotland 

The  use  of  the  tusk  has  been  a  matter  for  discussion.  Dr.  Scoresby 
has  expressed  an  opinion  that  as  the  end  of  the  tusk  is  smooth  and 
clean,  while  the  rest  of  it  is  rough  and  dirty,  and  as  a  broken  task 
was  found  rubbed  and  rounded,  it  may  be  used  to  pierce  thin  ice  for 
the  purpose  of  enabling  the  animal  to  respire  without  the  necessity 
of  retreating  into  open  water.  Again,  he  states  that  his  father  sent 
him  the  contents  of  a  Narwhal's  stomach,  conmsting  of  several  half- 
digested  fishes,  with  others  of  which  the  bones  only  remained.  There 
were  the  remains  of  a  cuttle-fish,  part  of  the  spine  of  a  flat-fish,  pro- 
bably a  small  turbot,  and  a  skate  almost  entire.  The  last  was  two  feet 
three  inches  in  length,  and  one  foot  eight  inches  in  breadth,  comprising 
the  bones  of  the  head,  back,  and  tail,  the  side-fins,  and  considerable 


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portions  of  the  muscular  subtstanoe.  It  appears,  he  obeerres, 
renuLrkable  that  the  Narwhal,  an  animal  without  teeth,  with  a  small 
mouth  and  stiff  lips,  should  be  able  to  catch  and  swallow  so  lai^  a 
fiiih  as  a  skate,  the  breadth  of  which  is  nearly  three  times  as  great  as 
the  width  of  its  own  mouth.  As  the  animal  in  which  these  remains 
were  found  had  a  tusk  of  seven  feet»  Dr.  Sooresby  apprehended  that 
this  instrument  had  been  employed  in  the  capture  of  the  fishes  on 
which  it  had  recently  fed.  It  seemed  probable  to  him  that  the  skates 
had  been  pierced  with  the  horn  and  kiUed  before  they  were  devoured ; 
otherwise,  he  observes,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  how  the  Narwhal 
could  have  swallowed  them,  or  how  a  fish  of  any  activity  would  have 
permitted  itself  to  be  taken,  and  sucked  down  the  throat  of  a  smooth- 
mouthed  animal  without  teeth  to  detain  and  compress  it. 


The  Narwhal  {Monodan  monocerot). 

Narwhals  swim  with  great  swiftness.  When  at  the  surface  for 
respiration  they  blow  repeatedly  with  considerable  force,  and  then 
frequently  lie  motionless  for  several  minutes  with  their  back  and  head 
just  above  water.  Dr.  Scoresby  describes  them  as  often  sporting  about 
his  ship,  sometimes  in  bands  of  about  twenty  together,  often  elevating 
their  long  tusks  and  crossing  them  with  each  other  as  if  they  were 
fencing.  They  often  uttered  a  very  unusual  sound  resembling  the 
gurgling  of  water  in  the  throat,  which  Dr.  Scoresby  thinks  produced 
it,  as  it  only  occurred  when  they  reared  their  tusks,  with  the  front  of 
the  head  and  mouth  out  of  the  water.  Several  of  them  followed  the 
ship,  seeming  to  be  attracted  by  curiosity.  As  the  water  was  perfectly 
transparent,  they  could  be  seen  descending  to  the  keel  and  playuig 
about  the  rudder  for  a  considerable  time.  Sir  Joseph  Banks  stated 
to  Dr.  Fleming,  who  has  published  a  very  interesting  account  of  one 
in  the '  Wemerian  Transactions,*  that  a  Narwhal  stranded  on  the 
Liacolnahire  coast  was  found  with  the  whole  of  its  body  buried  in  the 
mud  of  the  beach,  and  seemed  safely  and  securely  waiting  the  return 
of  the  tide. 

The  blubber  of  the  Narwhal  yields  a  very  superior  oil,  which,  as 
well  as  the  fleeh,  is  considered  a  dainty  by  the  Qreenlauder.  It  is 
regarded  as  the  herald  of  the  Mysticete,  in  whose  neighbourhood  the 
former  is  said  generally  to  be  found — perhaps  from  partaking  of 
the  same  food.  When  harpooned  it  swiftly  dives  to  about  200 
fathoms,  and  on  its  return  to  the  surface  is  killed  by  lances.  The 
Greenlander  drives  them  to  fissures  in  the  ice,  where  they  come  up 
to  respire,  and  kills  them  with  harpoons,  &c  The  ivory  of  the  tusk 
is  considered  superior  to  that  of  the  elephant ;  it  is  very  dense  and 
hard,  very  white,  is  not  subject  to  become  yellow,  and  is  susceptible 
of  a  high  polish.  They  formerly  brought  a  high  price,  and  many 
virtues  were  attributed  to  them :  they  s^l  form  a  valuable  article  in 
commerce.  The  celebrated  throne  of  the  Danish  kings  is  stated  to  be 
made  of  the  tusks  of  this  animaL 

Bdu{fa  Cdtodonf  the  Northern  Beluga.  It  is  the  Cetut  hipinnis  of 
Brisson ;  Phyaeter  Catodon  of  Linneeus ;  Delpliinut  leucaa  of  Pallas  ; 
Catodon  Sibbaldii  of  Fleming ;  the  Beluga,  Round-Headed  Cachalot, 
Small  Catodon,  of  English  writers;  the  White  Whale,  and  White 
Fish,  of  whalers ;  and  the  Albtu  Piscia  Cetaceut  of  Ray.  It  is  known 
by  its  white  coloiur.  When  young  however  it  is  black.  It  is  an  inha- 
bitant of  the  North  Sea^  and  has  been  taken  in  Scotland.  We  are 
informed  by  Mr.  Whittle  of  the  dockyard,  Chatham,  that  one  made 
its  appearance  in  the  waters  of  the  Med  way  in  the  spring  of  1846, 
ad?ancing  daily  with  the  flow  of  the  tide  for  a  month  as  high  as 
Kochester  bridge.  It  was  at  last  shot  near  Upnor  Castle.  It  measured 
13  feet  1  indi,  and  was  all  over  of  a  most  delicate  primrose  yellow 

colour.    The  dental  formula  was  — H--. 

8—  8 

One  of  these  dolphins  baimted  the  Frith  of  Forth  in  the  summer  of 
1815  for  nearly  three  months,  passing  almost  daily  upwards,  and  again 
retiring  with  the  flood  and  ebb.  It  was  supposed  to  be  in  pursuit  of 
salmon,  and  after  many  unsuccessful  attempts  the  salmon-fishers 
killed  it  with  fire-arms  and  spears.  Mr.  Bald  of  Alloa  bought  it,  and 
Bent  it  to  Professor  Jameson  :  it  is  now  in  the  Edinburgh  Museum, 
and  formed  the  subject  of  the  interesting  observations  of  Dr.  Barclay 
and  Mr.  Neil  in  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Wemerian  Society.* 

Mr.  Neil  remarks  that  the  shape  of  this  animal  is  very  symmetrical, 
Buggesting  the  idea  of  perfect  adaptation  to  rapid  progression  in  the 
water.    « Its  head,"  he  observes,  "is  small  and  lengthened,  and  over 


the  forehead  there  is  a  thick  round  cushion  of  flesh  and  fiat :  the  body 
continues  to  swell  as  far  as  the  huge  thick  oval  flippers,  and  from 
that  point  gradually  diminishes  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail,  which  ia 
powerful,  and  described  as  bent  imder  the  body  in  swimming,  and 
propelling  the  animal  with  the  velocity  of  an  arrow." 

g g 

In  the  specimen  examined  by  Mr.  Neil  the  teeth  were  — — - 

6 — 6» 

The  higher  and  arctic  latitudes  appear  to  be  the  chosen  haunts  of 
the  Bduga,  They  abound  in  Hudson's  Bay,  Davis's  Straits,  and  on 
parts  of  the  southern  coasts  of  Asia  and  America,  where  they  ascend 
the  large  rivers.  Steller  noticed  them  at  Kamtchatka ;  and  in  Charle- 
voix's time  they  were  numerous  in  the  Oulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  going 
with  the  tide  as  high  as  Quebec.  Disco  Island  in  Greenland  is  said 
to  abound  with  them,  nor  are  they  scarce  at  Spitzbeigen.  Scoresby 
did  not  see  them  lower  than  Jan  Mayen's  Land ;  he  seldom  observed 
them  among  the  ice,  but  where  the  water  was  clearest  and  smoothest 
They  are  described  as  not  at  all  shy,  but  often  following  the  ships, 
tumbling  about  the  boats  in  herds  of  forty  or  fifty,  bespmgling  the 
surface  with  their  brilliant  whiteness.  The  whale-fisher  seldom  dis- 
turbs these  beautiful  creatures,  for  they  are  not  only  difficult  to  strike 
on  account  of  their  activity,  but  when  stricken  the  harpoon  frequently 
draws,  and  if  it  holds  the  capture  is  but  of  little  value.  Sir  Charles 
Giesecke  speaks  of  their  regular  azmual  visits  about  November  to  t^e 
west  coast  of  Greenland,  where  they  become  a  seasonable  supply  to 
the  natives  when  other  provisions  fall  short  They  arrive  in  herds 
with  stormy  weather  and  south-west  winds,  and  are  taken  with  har- 
poons and  strong  nets.  Cod,  haddock,  flounders,  &c.,  are  said  to  be 
the  usual  food  of  the  Beluga, 


The  \VhiU5  Whale  [Beluga  Catodon), 

The  oil  is  repoi-ted  to  be  of  the  best,  whitest,  and  finest  qualitv, 
and  of  their  skins  a  sort  of  morocco  leather  is  said  to  be  made,  which, 
though  thin,  will  resist  a  musket-ball.  The  internal  membranes  are 
used  for  windows  and  bed-curtains,  and  the  sinews  for  thread.  The 
fleeh,  it  is  asserted,  resembles  beef,  though  somewhat  oily.  Hans 
Egede  describes  both  it  and  the  fat  as  having  no  bad  taste  **  when  it 
is  marinated  with  vinegar  and  salt ; "  and  says  that  it  is  then  as  well- 
flavouied  as  any  pork  whatever.  He  declares  the  fins  also  and  the 
tail  "  pickled  or  sauced  "  to  be  very  good  eating ;  so  that,  according 
to  Hans,  "  he  is  very  good  cheer." 

B.  Kingii  is  the  representative  of  the  last  species  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere.     It  has  been  taken  ofi"  the  coasts  of  Australia. 

Neomeris  Phocanoides  is  the  name  given  by  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  to  a 
species  of  Dolphin  found  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Ddphinut  meUu  of 
Temminck. 

Phoccena  communiSf  the  Common  Porpoise,  or  Porpesse.  It  is  the 
Pkocasna  BondeleUi  of  Willughby,  Ddphinut  Phoccena  of  Linnaeus.  It 
appears  to  be  the  ^Kcuva  of  Aristotle  ('  Hist  Anim.'  vi  12).  Pennant 
supposes  it  to  be  the  Turaio  of  Plipy  (*  Nat  Hist'  ix.  9),  which, 
according  to  the  Roman  uaturalist,  bears  some  likeness  to  the  Dol- 
phins, of  which  he  relates  so  many  anecdotes  illustrative  of  their 
affection  for  man  in  the  preceding  chapter.  It  is  the  Porco  Pesce  of 
the  Italians  (whence  probably  the  English  name  Porpesse) ;  Marsouin 
of  the  French ;  Marsuin  and  Tumblare  of  the  Swedes ;  Meerschwein  of 
the  Germans ;  and  Llamhidydd  of  the  ancient  British.  It  is  the  most 
common  of  all  the  Cetotcea  on  the  British  coastf*.    It  is  black  all  over. 

The  following  is  its  dental  formula  :—Moh«,  ^^^  =  80  to  92. 

40  to  46 

Porpesses  swim  in  shoals,  and  drive  the  mackerel,  herrings,  and 
salmon  before  them,  pursuing  them  up  the  bays  "with  the  same 
eagerness,"  says  Pennant,  "  as  a  pack  of  dogs  does  a  hare.  In  some 
pUces  they  ahnost  darken  the  sea  as  they  rise  above  water  to  take 
breath  :  they  not  only  seek  for  prey  near  the  surface,  but  often  descend 
to  the  bottom  in  search  of  sand-eels  and  sea-worms,  which  they  root 
out  of  the  sand  with  their  noses,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  hogs  do 
in  the  field  for  their  food."  In  fine  weather  they  leap,  roll,  and 
tumble  in  the  manner  so  well  known,  principally  in  the  spring  and 
summer,  which  is  supposed  to  be  their  rutting  season.  They  go  up 
the  rivers  in  pursuit  of  the  salmon,  to  which  they  are  a  deadly  enemy. 


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and  other  flah ;  and  have  been  seen  high  in  the  Loire,  Charenie^  and 
Seine  in  France.  It  has  been  remarked  that  when  the  Porpenes  are 
gambolling  in  the  spring  and  summer,  they  appear  heedless  and  blind 
to  all  danger  and  risk,  which,  as  their  brain  is  highly  developed, 


Teeth  of  Porpeue  {Phocana  eommunu).    F.  Cuvier. 

strengthens  the  supposition  that  they  are  at  such  times  actuated  by 
the  sexual  impulse  to  an  extent  that  lessens  their  usual  wariness. 
On  the  23rd  May,  1842,  we  saw  about  10  a.m.  two  rolling  and  sporting 
a  little  above  London  Bridge,  towards  the  Surrey  shore.  They  seemed 
to  disregard  the  numerous  steam-vessels  which  were  constantly  passing, 
and  to  pay  no  attention  to  the  wherries,  some  of  which  went  close  to 
them.  The  man  on  the  look-out  in  the  steamer  from  whose  deck  we 
watched  them  said  that  they  had  been  seen  between  five  and  six  that 
morning  near  Southwark  Bridge,  and  that  one  of  them  had  been 
hooked  with  a  boat-hook,  but  had  got  away.  It  was  blowing  fresh 
from  the  south-west,  and  the  tide  was  running  up  :  the  time  for  high 
water  at  London  Bridge  that  day  being  45  minutes  after  12. 


The  Porpoise,  or  Forpesse  {Pkocana  communiB), 

The  oil  procured  from  the  fat  surrounding  the  body  of  the  Porpoise 
is  of  the  purest  kind,  and  the  skin  when  carefully  tanned  and  dressed 
is  used  for  wearing  apparel,  and  for  coverings  for  carriages.  The 
shoals  of  these  creatures  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland  are  immense, 
and  might  be  well  worth  the  attention  of  the  neighbouring  popula- 
tion if  furnished  with  boats  and  proper  implements  for  their  capture, 
and  conversion  to  economic  purposes.  As  an  article  of  food  the  flesh 
was  anciently  esteemed,  and  considered  worthy  of  the  tables  of  the 
great.  Receipts  for  dressing  it  appear  in  the  '  Forme  of  Cury,*  com- 
piled (circ.  1390)  by  the  master  cooks  of  King  Richard  II.  It  appears 
to  have  been  served  in  '  furmente,'  in  broth,  and  roasted,  and  was 
evidently  used  both  fresh  and  salted.  Several  of  them  were  on  the 
board  at  the  great  feast  holden  at  the  'intronazation*  of  George 
Neville,  archbishop  of  York,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  In  Henry 
VIII.'s  time  it  continued  to  be  a  royal  dish,  and  was  in  fashion  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth.  It  appears  to  have  been  in  those  days  generally 
presented  as  a  roast  with  a  sauce  made  of  fine  white  bread-crumbs, 
mixed  with  vinegar  and  sugar.  The  Common  Dolphin  (Ddphinus 
delphis)  was  then  considered  so  great  a  delicacy  that,  according  to 
Dr.  Cains,  one  which  was  taken  in  his  day  was  thought  a  present 
worthy  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  who  distributed  it  amongst  his 
friends :  it  was  roasted  and  dressed  with  the  porpesse-sauoe  last  above 
mentioned.  At  a  later  period  the  Porpesse  kept  its  ground  on  the 
table  of  Roman  Catholics  on  fish-days  and  during  Lent.  Nor  have 
modem  navigators  found  it  undesirable  food.  Captain  Colnett's 
people,  who  fell  in  with  numbers  of  them  off  the  Mexican  coast,  mixed 
their  flesh  with  their  salt-pork — making  excellent  sauaages,  which 
formed  their  ordinary  food.  Captain  Basil  Hall  speaks  with  some 
unction  of  a  dish  of  porpesse-cutlets,  well  separated  from  the  invest- 
ing lard  and  blubber,  which  was  served  at  his  table  with  such  happy 
effectthat  the  dish  left  his  cabin  empty. 

The  flesh  of  the  porpesse  is  the  Greenlander^s  great  dainty,  and  he 
quafis  its  oil  as  the  most  delicious  of  draughts. 


0rampu8  Ouvieri  is  the  Ddphiniu  griseui  of  Cuvier ;  Phoettna  gritea 
of  Lesson.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  North  Sea,  and  has  been  taken 
off  the  coast  of  France,  and  also  off  the  Isle  of  Wig^t 

0,  Riuoanua,  A  i^>ecimen  was  taken  at  Nice,  and  described  by 
RisBo. 

O.  Richardionii,  Described  by  Dr.  Gray  in  the  Zoology  of  the 
Erebus  and  Terror. 

Q.  SakanuUa.  Described  by  Schlegel  in  '  Fauna  Ji^nica'  u 
Sakamata  KMora.    It  has  been  found  off  the  coasts  of  Japan. 

Globiocephalnt  Svinevalj  the  Pilot-Whale,  also  known  to  saOors  as 
the  Black  Whale,  Howling  Whale,  Social  Whale,  and  Bottle-Head. 
It  is  the  Ddphimu  globicept  of  Cuvier,  the  Narwal  Edente  and  Petit 
Cachalot  of  the  French.  It  is  of  a  black  colour,  with  a  white 
streak  from  throat  to  vent.  It  is  a  native  of  the  North  Sea,  and  has 
been  taken  off  the  coast  of  Scotland.  A  skull  in  the  British  Museum 
measures  28  inches  in  length. 

O.  wtermediut  is  the  BladL  Fish  of  American  sailors.  It  inhabits 
the  coasts  of  North  America. 

O.  affinUf  the  Smaller  Pilot-Whale.  Its  locality  is  unknown.  A 
specimen  exists  in  the  museum  of  the  College  of  Sui*geona.  It  is  the 
Dclphinus  mdaa  of  Owen. 

O.  Sieboldii  is  a  native  of  the  coasts  of  Japan,  where  it  is  called 
Naiso-Gota. 

O.  nMcrorhynckvu  ia  the  Black  Fish  of  the  South  Sea  whalers.  It 
inhabits  the  South  Seas. 

Orca  Gladiator,  the  Killer.  It  is  the  Ddphinus  Orca  of  Linnxiu, 
Grampus  of  Hunter,  Ddphinus  Grampus,  and  Large  Grampus,  of  Oweo. 
It  inhabits  the  North  Sea,  and  has  been  taken  on  various  parts  of  the 
British  coasts.  There  is  the  skuU  of  one  in  the  Hunterian  Collection 
at  the  Royal  College  of  Suigeons  which  was  killed  at  Greenwich  in 
1793. 

0.  crassidens  is  a  fossil  species.  It  is  described  by  Professor  Owen 
in  the  '  British  Mammals  and  Birds '  under  the  name  of  Phoccma  cras- 
sidens.   A  skull  was  found  in  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire  in  1848. 

0.  Capensis,  the  Cape  Killer,  is  the  Ddphinus  globieeps  of  Owen. 
It  inhabits  the  Southern  Pacific  Ocean. 

0.  intermedia  is  a  smaller  species,  described  by  Dr.  Gray  in  the 
Zoology  of  the  Erebus  and  Terror. 

Lagenorhynchus  leucopteurus,  the  White-Sided  Bottlenose.  It  is  the 
Ddphinus  Tursio  of  Knox.  It  is  a  native  of  the  North  Sea.  The 
skeleton  of  a  specimen  taken  in  the  Orkneys  is  in  the  museum  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh. 

L.  albirostris,  White-Beaked  Bottlenose.  A  specimen  was  taken  off 
the  coast  of  Norfolk  in  1846. 

X.  Electra,  the  Electra.  Described  by  Dr.  Gray  in  the  Zoology  of 
the  Erebus  and  Terror. 

L.  c(erulco  cUhus.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  east  coast  of  Sooth 
America — Rio  de  la  Plata. 

L.  Asia.  Described  by  Dr.  Gray  in  the  Zoology  of  the  Erebus  and 
Terror.     Locality  unknown. 

L.  acutus.    It  inhabits  the  North  Seas — Faroe  Islands. 

L.  clanculus.  Described  by  Dr.  Gray  from  a  skull  brought  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

L.  Thicd^a.  Described  by  Dr.  Gray  from  a  skull  brought  from  the 
west  coast  of  North  America. 

Ddphinapterus  Penmii.  It  is  the  Right  Whale-Porpoise  of  the 
whalers.  It  is  black,  with  the  exception  of  the  beak,  pectoral  fins, 
and  under  part  of  the  body,  which  are  white.  It  is  found  on  the 
Brazil  Bank,  off  New  Guinea,  and  in  the  higher  southern  latitudes. 
There  are  two  skulls  in  the  museum  at  Paris.  They  live  in  lai^ 
shoals,  and  the  flesh  is  esteemed  a  delicacy. 

D.  borealis.  It  inhabits  the  North  Pacific  Ocean.  It  has  been 
described  by  Peale  in  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition. 

Delpfiinus.  The  Euglish  name  for  this  genus  is  Dolphin,  but  as  Dr. 
J.  E.  Gray  observes  : — "  Most  maritime  persons  call  these  animals 
Bottlenoses,  Bottleheads,  Flounderheads,  Grampuses,  Porpoises,  Por 
pesses  or  Porpusses,  sometimes  adding  Whale  to  the  name.  They 
generally  confine  the  name  of  Dolphin  (most  used  by  landsmen)  to 
the  Scomberoid  Fish  {Coryphama),  which  changes  colour  in  dying." 
[CoRTPH^yA.]  We  subjoin  a  synopsis  of  the  characters  with  the 
localities  of  the  species  of  this  large  genus : — 

A.  Head  shortly  beaked ;  nose  of  skull  moderate ;  triangle  or  hinder 
part  of  beak  elongate,  produced  before  the  teeth-line ;   pahite  flat 

Teeth  ^tll^ 
24—40. 
+  Beak  scarcely  produced ;  nose  of  skull  rather  depressed,  scarcely 

91 3Q 

longer  than  the  brain  cavity.    Teeth 

1.  Ddphinus  ffeavisidii,  the  Hastated  Dolphin,  inhabits  the  South 
Sea — Cape  of  Gk>od  Hope. 

2.  D.  obscvrus,  Dusky  Dolphin,  inhabits  the  Southern  Ocean- 
Cape.  . 

8.  D.  compressicauda,  the  Compressed-Tailed  Dolphin,  inhabits  4 
S.  lat,  24-  W.  long.  

+t  Beak  short ;  nose  of  skull  rather  thick,  conical,  convex  abor^ 
half  as  long  as  the  head. 

*  Beak  of  skull  rather  thick  and  rather  swollen  on  the  aides. 

4.  D.  Tursio,  Bottlenose  Dolphin,  inhabits  the  North  Sea 


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5.  i>.  iL&uMZoM  inhabits  the  Red  Sea. 

6.  i>.  EtUropia  inhabits  the  Paoifio  Ocean— ChilL 

7.  D.  Burjfnome  inhabits  the  North  Sea. 

**  Beak  of  skull  rather  thick,  conical,  eyenlj  tapering. 

8.  J>.  MetiB,  the  Metis.    Locality  unknown. 

9.  D.  Oymodocey  the  Cjmodooe.    Locality  not  known. 
***  BeidL  of  skull  slender,  cylindrical 

10.  i>.  Dwrit,     The  Doris.     Inhabits ? 

11.  D.  frenatui^  the  Bridled  Dolphin,  inhabits  Cape  de  Yerds. 

B.  Head  longly  beaked.    Nose  of  cJcull  slender,  light,  rather  de- 

pi-essed,  especially  in  front,  much  longer  than  the  head.    Teeth  -r^r—rz' 

*  Skull  flattened  behind ;  triangle  to  the  teeth  line.    Palate  flat^ 
not  grooved  on  the  side. 

12.  i>.  Clymene.    Locality  unknown. 

13.  D,  Styx,  the  Styx,  inhabits  West  Africa. 

14.  J>.  Euphroayne,  the  Euphroeyne,  inhabits  the  North  Sea. 

15.  D,  A  lope,  the  Alope.    Locality  unknown. 

**  Skull  roundish ;  triangle  just  to  the  teeth  line.    Palate  with  a 
deep  groove  on  each  side,  and  a  high  central  ridge  behind, 
t  Beak  moderate,  1^  the  length  of  the   brain  cavity.      Teeth 

^lor^. 
45        50 

16.  D.  Ddphu,  the  Dolphin,  inhabits  the  North  Sea,  Atlantic 
Ocean.     Has  been  taken  on  the  English  ooost. 

17.  2).  /antra,  the  Janira,  inhabits  Newfoundland. 

18.  D.  Nova  Zealandia,  the  New  Zealand  Dolphin,  inhabits  New 
Zealand  and  Cape  Qable. 

19.  2>.   Fonteri,    Forster's    Dolphin,  inhabits   the  Pacific  Ocean 
between  New  Caledonia  and  Norfolk  Island. 

20.  J).  Sao  inhabits  Madagascar. 

-H*  Beak  of  skull  twice  as  long  u  the  brain  cavity.    Teeth ^-. 

55 — 60 

21.  D.  longirottris,  the  Cape  Dolphin,  inhabits  the  Southern  Ocean. 
— Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

*♦♦  Skull  round ;  triangle  not  reaching  to  the  teeth  line.     Palate 
convex,  with  a  very  concave  line  on  the  hinder  part  of  each  side. 


50 
50* 


Beak  twice  as  long  as  the  head.    Teeth 

22.  J).  nUcropi,  the  Small-Headed  Dolphin,  inhabits  the  coasts  of 
BnudL 

Steno  Mala^yanui,  It  is  the  Delphin  h  Ventre  Roux  of  the  Paris 
Museum,  Delphwut  phmbew  of  Cuvier.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Indian 
Ocean. 

<SL  frontcUus.    It  inhabits  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Pacific. 

JS.  comprettut.  Described  by  Gray  in  the  Zoology  of  the  Erebus 
and  Terror. 

JS.  aUenualUB,    Foimd  at  Cape  Horn. 

&  futcus.  Described  by  Gray  in  the  Zoology  of  the  Erebus  and 
Terror.     A  foetus  was  brought  m>m  Cuba  by  Mr.  M'Leay. 

JS,  rottratut.  It  inhabits  the  North  Sea,  and  has  been  taken  at 
Holland  and  at  Brest. 

PofUoporia  BlamvUlii,  It  has  been  found  ofif  Monte  Video.  A 
skull  is  in  the  museum  at  Paris.  It  is  described  by  Freminville  as 
J>clphinus  BlainviUii. 

Jnia  Geoffrojfii.  A  native  of  Upper  Peru  or  Bolivia— River  Moxos. 
*'Tbe  specimen,'*  says  Gray,  "in  Uie  Paris  Museum,  which  Desmarest 
described  as  J)elphinu$  Oeqffroyii,  is  evidently  this  species." 

PUUanitta  dangetica.  It  is  the  Sou  Sou  of  India,  the  Susu  of 
BufioD,  the  PUUanista  of  Pliny,  Dauphine  du  Gauge  of  Cuvier, 
JJdphinus  Shawenait  of  Blainville. 

The  family  MANATiOiE  includes  a  nimiber  of  animals,  which, 
although  usually  referred  to  Cetacea,  have  relations  which  have 
induct  some  soologists  to  propose  that  they  should  be  placed 
amongst  other  orders  of  Mammalia,  They  differ  from  the  animals 
we  have  already  considered  in  being  entirely  vegetable  feeders,  and 
are  comprised  in  the  division  of  Phytophagous  Cetaceans  of  the  two 
Cuviers. 

It  is  not  indeed  surprising  that  they  should  so  long  have  been  con- 
founded with  the  Cetaceans ;  for  their  general  appearance  and  hori- 
zontal tail,  joined  to  the  difficulty  of  associating  them  either  with  the 
Seals  or  the  Walruse8,notwithstanding  their  aquatic  habits,  led  naturally 
to  their  being  placed  in  the  same  order  with  the  true  Zoophagous 
Whale&  But  with  external  form  almost  all  resemblance  ceases ;  and 
when  these  Phytophagous  Mammals  are,  as  they  ought  to  be,  referred 
to  a  separate  group,  there  will  not  be,  so  far  as  discovery  has  hitherto 
gone,  any  such  animal  as  a  Phytophagous  Whale. 

''  The  short  and  thick  neck,  fin-like  fore  legs,  want  of  liind  legs, 
caudal  tegomentary  fin,  smooth,  naked,  and  almost  hairless  inter- 
ment, are  all  modifications  of  external  form  by  which  the  Dxigongs 
and  Manat.eft8  are  adapted  to  play  their  part  in  the  water :  but  the  kind 
of  part,"  says  Professor  Owen,  *'  which  they  are  to  play  in  that  ele- 
ment depends  on  oiiganie  oharacters  which  mainly,  if  not  exclusively, 
reveal  their  true  afllnities.  Now  we  have  seen  that  iiie  whole  of  the 
internal  structim  in  the  Herbivorons  Cetacea  differs  as  widely  from 


that  of  the  Carnivorous  Cetacea  as  do  their  habits :  that  the  amoimt 
of  variation  is  as  great  as  well  could  be  in  animals  of  the  same  class 
existing  in  the  same  great  deep.  The  junction  of  the  Dugongs  and 
Manatees  with  the  true  Whales  cannot  therefore  be  admitted  in  a 
distribution  of  animals  according  to  their  oiganisation.  With  much 
superficial  resemblance  they  have  little  real  or  organic  resemblance 
to  the  Walrus,  which  exhibits  an  extreme  modification  of  the  amphi- 
bious carnivorous  type.  I  conclude  therefore  that  the  Dugong  and 
its  congeners  must  either  form  a  group  apart,  or  be  joined,  as  in  the 
classification  of  M.  de  Blainville,  with  the  Pachyderms,  with  which 
the  Herbivorons  CetacM  have  the  nearest  affinities,  and  to  which  they 
seem  to  have  been  more  immediately  linked  by  the  now  lost  genus 
IHnotherivm." 

The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  genera : — 

9       6 

1.  Manaius.    Tail  rounded.    Grinders,  -  or  .,  tubercular. 

^9       6' 

8 

2.  HaUcore,   Tail  forked.  Grinders^  -  ;  flat-tipped ;  upper  outting- 

8 
teeth  produced,  tusk-like. 

Bytina,     Tail  forked.     Grinders  none. 

Manatiu  atuiraliSf  the  Manatee.  This  is  the  Lamantin  of  Buffon ; 
Trichechut  Manatus  of  Linnaius ;  Manattu  Amet-icanus  of  Desmarest ; 
Manate  del'Orenoque  of  Humboldt ;  Lamantin  d'Amdrique  of  Cuvier. 
The  terms  Manatee  and  Lamantin  are  indifferently  applied  to  this  and 
the  following  species.  The  present  species  is  of  a  gray-black  colour, 
and  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  warmer  parts  of  America  and  its  islands. 

Cuvier  describes  the  Manatees  as  having  an  oblong  body  terminated 
by  an  elongated  oval  fin ;  eight  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  with  a  square 

crown  maii:ed  by  two  transverse  ridges ;  ^ .  .^ 

neither  indsors  nor  canines  in  the  adult ; 
but  in  the  very  yoimg  ones  two  small 
pointed  teeth  are  found  in  the  intermaxil- 
lary bones,  which  disappear  early.  The 
vestiges  of  nails  are  observable  on  the 
edges  of  their  flippers,  which  they  use 
dexterously  enough  in  creeping  and  carry- 
ing their  young.  This  has  caused  these 
organs  to  be  compared  to  hands ;  whence 
their  name  Manati,  or  Manatee. 

The  mammse  of  the  Manatees  and 
Dugongs  are  pectoral,  and  this  conforma- 
tion, joined  to  the  adroit  use  of  their 
flippers  (whose  five  fingers  can  be  easily 
distinguished  through  the  investing  mem- 
branes, four  of  them  being  terminated  by 
nails)  in  progression,  nursing  their  young, 

&c.,  have  caused  them,  when  seen  at  a  y 

distance  with  the  anterior  part  of  their 
body  out  of  the  water,  to  be  taken  for 
some  creature  approaching  to  human 
shape  so  nearly  (especially  as  their  muzzle 
is  thick  set  witii  hairs,  giving  somewhat  of 
the  effect  of  human  htur  or  a  beard),  that 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  not  a  few 
of  the  tales  of  Mermen  and  Mermaids 
have  had  their  origin  with  these  animals,  v. 

as  weU  as  with  Seals  and  Wahruses.     Thus    Teeth  of  Manatee  (ITaiiafrw 
the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  give  the  auMtralU), 

Manatee  a  denomination  which  signifies 

Woman-Fish;  and  the  Dutch  call  the  Dugong  Baardmannetje,  or 
Little  Bearded  Man.  A  very  little  imagination  and  a  memory  for 
only  the  marvellous  portion  of  the  appearance  sufficed  doubtless  to 
complete  the  metamorphosis  of  this  half  woman  or  man,  half-fish,  into 
a  Siren,  a  Mermaid,  or  a  Merman;  and  the  wild  recital  of  the  voyager 
was  treasured  up  by  such  writers  as  Maillet^  Lachesnaye-des-Bois, 
Sachs,  Valentyn,  and  others,  who,  as  Cuvier  well  obsefres,  have 
displayed  more  learning  than  judgment. 

This  and  the  other  species  of  Manatees  are  called  by  English 
sailors  the  SearCow  and  the  Woman-Fish,  and  by  the  French  Bceof 
Marin  and  Vache  Marine. 

The  Manatees  are  gregarious,  and  generally  go  in  troops.  The  young 
are  usually  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  herd  for  protection,  and  on  the 
approach  oi  danger  all  unite  for  the  common  safety.  It  is  alleged 
that,  when  one  has  been  struck  by  a  harpoon,  its  companions  will  tear 
out  the  weapon ;  and  they  are  so  attached  to  their  young  that  if  the 
calf  be  taken^  the  captors  are  sure  of  the  mother,  from  Uie  reckless- 
ness with  which  her  maternal  afiection  leads  her  to  the  place  of  capture. 
If  the  mother  be  captured,  the  yoimg  follow  her  to  the  shore,  and  fidl 
an  easy  prey. 

The  shallow  bays  of  the  Antilles  and  the  quiet  creeks  of  the  South 
American  rivers,  particulariy  in  Guyana  and  ^e  Brazils,  are  the 
favourite  haunts  or  the  Manatee.  They  were  formerly  abundant  at 
the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon,  ascending  many  miles,  even 
into  their  tributaries  and  the  fresh-water  lakes.  There,  their  actions 
are  recorded  as  being  similar  in  some  respects  to  the  whales^ 
such  as  '  breaching,'  or  leaping  to  a  considerable  height  out  of  the 
water.  The  food  is  entirely  v^etable^  oonsisting  of  sabaqueoui 
plants  and  littoral  herbs  principally. 


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The  mild  innoffenBive  manners  of  the  Manatee,  and  the  unaiupect- 
ing  nature  of  the  animal,  make  it  an  easy  prey  to  the  hunter,  who 
pursues  it  for  the  sake  of  the  flesh,  which  all  pronounce  to  be  excel- 
lent, both  firesh  and  salted.  Hemandes  compares  it  to  well  fatted 
pork  of  pleasant  flavour.  Others  compare  it,  when  roasted,  to  beef 
or  Teal  in  flavour,  and  state  that  when  salted  it  makes  excellent  sea 
provision. 

It  is  alleged  that  formerly  they  were  so  plentiful  within  ten  or  twelve 
leagues  of  Cayenne,  that  a  large  boat  might  be  filled  with  them  in  a 
single  day,  when  their  flesh  was  sold  in  the  market  at  about  Sd.  per  lb. 
But  the  eagerness  with  which  it  was  purchased  soon  reduced  the 
numbers,  and  made  them  comparatively  scarce. 

The  capture  is  generally  effected  by  means  of  the  harpoon.  At 
St.  Donmigo  the  hunters  approached  them  in  a  small  boat,  and 
struck  them  with  a  large  harpoon  to  which  a  long  stout  cord  was 
made  fast  The  stricken  animal  made  violent  efforts  to  escape, 
carrying  with  it  the  harpoon  and  cord,  to  the  end  of  which  a  cork  or 
piece  of  light  wood  to  serve  as  a  buoy  was  attached,  and  indicated 
the  whereabouts  of  the  Manatee.  After  a  while  the  hunters  took  hold 
of  the  rope  and  at  last  drew  the  exhausted  animal  on  shore,  where 
it  was  killed.  The  sport  of  Manatee-catching,  thus  conducted,  is 
described  as  highly  exciting,  but  the  boat  is  sometimes  upset  by  the 
struggles  of  the  animal  in  the  shoals. 

Manatees  have  reached  Europe.  The  carcass  of  one  which  had 
been  long  dead,  is  recorded  to  have  come  on  shore  at  Newhaven  in 
the  Frith  of  Forth,  in  the  autumn  of  1785  ;  and  Duhamel  states  that 
one  with  its  cub  was  thrown  on  shore  near  Dieppe. 


The  Manatee  {ilanaliu  au»tralU), 

M.  Senegalensigf  the  Lamantin.  This  species  is  a  native  of  the 
west  coast  of  Africa.  It  is  the  Manattu  Senegalenns  of  Desmarest ; 
Lamantin  of  Adanson;  Lamantin  du  Senegal  of  Daubenton;  the 
Woman-Fish  of  Purchas ;  the  Round-Tailed  Manati  of  Pennant. 

Halicore  Dugong^  Indian  Dugong.  It  is  the  Trichechut  Dugong  of 
Gmelin ;  Dugungut  Indicut  of  Hamilton ;  Le  Dugong  des  Indes  of 
French  writers. 

The  head  of  this  Dugong  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  body,  which 
in  general  form  much  resembles  that  of  the  Manatee.  The  large 
upper  lip  is  thick  and  obliquely  truncated,  and  the  truncated  surface, 
which  forms  the  short  and  nearly  vertical  snout,  is  furnished  with 
soft  papillae  and  a  few  bristles.  A  homy  substance  covers  the  lips, 
the  upper  of  which  is  very  moveable  and  tumid  on  the  edge ;  the 
lower  is  much  smaller,  resembling  a  round  or  oblong  chin.  The 
inside  of  the  cheeks  is  furnished  with  strong  projecting  bristle  The 
nostrils  are  situated  on  the  summit  of  the  upper  jaw,  where  it  curves 
downwards,  and  penetrate  obliquely,  so  that  the  upper  semilunar 
edge  presses  upon  the  lower  sur&ce  to  form  a  valve  capable  of  being 
shut  at  the  will  of  the  animal  The  eyes  are  small.  The  little 
aperture  of  the  ear  is  hardly  perceptible.  The  mamms  are  placed  on 
the  chest,  beneath  the  thick  and  fleshy  flippers  or  paws,  which  are 
rather  warty  on  their  anterior  edge ;  but  there  is  no  appearance  of 
nails.  The  tail  is  broad,  and  lobated  or  crescent-shaped.  The  skin  is 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  of  a  uniform  bluish  colour,  sometimes 
blotched  with  white  below.     Length  from  7  to  8  feet. 

The  attention  of  Professor  Owen  was  particularly  directed  to  the 
state  of  the  dentition  of  the  Dugongs  of  different  sexes  which  he 
examined,  from  which  it  appeared  that,  as  in  the  Narwhal,  the  perma- 
nent tusks  of  the  female  are  arrested  in  their  growth,  and  remain 
throughout  life  concealed  within  the  substance  of  the  intermaxillary 
bones  and  the  alveolar  int^ument.  The  cavity  of  the  tusks,  he 
states,  is  in  like  manner  filled  up  by  the  secretion  of  the  pulp  which 
retrogrades  in  the  course  of  its  absorption,  and  hence  the  tusks  are 
solid,  like  the  corresponding  tusks  in  the  female  Narwhal,  or  at  least 
present  only  a  shallow  cavity  at  their  expanded  and  distorted  base. 
He  found  in  one  cranium  of  a  male  Dugong,  in  the  upper  jaw,  the 
deciduous  incisors  or  tusks  co-existing  with  the  permanent  ones.    Ini 

3—8 
the  skull  of  a  male  which  had  r — ^  molars,  the  sockets  of  the  deci- 

daoQa  indsors  were  obliterated,  and  the  points  of  the  permanent  ones 


projected  from  their  sockets.    Kot  more  than  20  grindtn^  6  on  each 
side  of  the  jaw,  appear  to  be  developed  in  this  animaL 


Teeth  of  Dugong  {StMcore  ZhifOHg).    F.  Cavier. 

"  It  is  obvious,"  says  Professor  Owen,  "  that  the  different  form  and 
condition  of  the  tusks  thus  observed  in  the  heads  of  Dugongs  of  the 
same  size  and  age,  might  be  regarded  as  indicating  a  specific  instead 
of  a  sexual  difference.  Dr.  Knox  inclines  to  the  former  opinion ;  I 
have  however  adopted  the  latter  view,  not  hastily  or  hypotiieticallj, 
but  as  a  result  of  the  minute  comparison  of  the  forms  and  proportions 
of  all  the  crania  which  have  come  under  my  observation." 

JT*.  Dugong  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

"  The  external  form  of  the  Dugong,"  says  Professor  Owen,  "  is  not 
so  well  calculated  for  moving  rapidly  through  the  water  as  that  of  the 
Dolphin  and  other  Carnivorous  Cetacea,  which  subsist  by  a  perpetoal 
pursuit  of  liviug  animals.  In  these  the  snout  is  conical  and  peculiarly 
elongated,  and  in  some,  as  the  Iklphintu  Oangeticnt,  the  jaws  are  pro- 
duced to  an  extreme  length,  so  as  to  give  them  every  advantage  in 
seizing  their  swift  and  slippery  prey;  whilst  in  the  herbiferooi 
Dugong  the  snout  is  as  remarkable  for  its  obtuse  truncate  character— 
a  form  however  which  is  equaUy  advantageous  to  it,  and  well  adapted 
to  its  habits  of  browsing  upon  the  Algce  and  I^uci  which  grow  upoa 
the  submarine  rocks  of  the  Indian  seas.  As,  from  the  fixed  nature  of 
the  Dugong^s  food,  the  motions  of  the  animal  during  the  time  of  feed- 
ing must  relate  more  immediately  to  the  necessity  of  coming  to  the 
surface  to  respire,  its  tail,  the  principal  locomotive  organ  of  ascent 
and  descent,  is  proportionally  greater  than  in  the  true  Cetacea,  its 
breadth  being  rather  more  than  one-third  the  length  of  the  whole 
body.  But  the  most  important  external  differences  are  seen  in  the 
presence  of  the  membrana  nictitans,  in  the  anterior  position  of  the 
nostrils,  and  in  the  situation  of  the  mammae,  which  are  pectoral,  or 
rather  axillary,  being  situated  just  behind  the  roots  of  the  flippers  : 
in  the  female  specimen  examined,  their  base  was  aboyt  the  siie  of  a 
shilling,  and  they  projected  about  half  an  inch  from  the  surface.  A 
considerable  ridge  extends  along  the  middle  of  the  upper  surface  of 
the  posterior  part  of  the  back,  which  is  continued  upon  and  terminates 
in  the  tail" 

.  The  haunts  of  the  Dugong,  which  does  not  appear  ever  to  frequent 
the  land  or  fresh-water,  are  generally  in  the  sea-shallows,  where  the 
water  is  not  more  than  two  or  three  fathoms. 

Sir  Stamford  Raffles  states  that  during  six  months  four  of  th«w 
animals  were  secured  at  Singapore,  but  that  the  greatest  number  is  aaid 
to  be  taken  during  the  northern  monsoon,  when  the  sea  is  most  calm, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Johore  River.  They  are  usually  caught  by 
spearing,  in  which  feat  the  natives  are  very  expert^  during  the  night, 
when  the  animals  indicate  their  approach  by  a  snuffing  noise  which 
they  make  at  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  first  object  of  the  captor 
is  to  secure  and  elevate  the  tail,  when  the  animal  becomes  perfectlj 
powerless.  Sir  Stamford  adds,  that  the  Dugongs  are  seldom  caught 
at  Singapore  above  8  or  9  feet  in  length ;  but  how  much  larger  they 
grow  is  not  ascertained,  as  when  they  exceed  that  size,  their  sapenor 
rtrength  enables  them  to  make  their  escape. 

Leguat,  who  speaks  of  them  as  occurring  at  the  Isle  of  France  m 
great  numbers  about  120  years  ago,  says  that  they  were  20  feet  long, 
but  were  vexy  easily  taken.  They  fed  in  flocks  like  sheep  in  three  ^ 
four  fathoms*  water,  and  made  no  attempt  at  escape  when  approached. 
Sometimes  they  were  shot  at  the  end  of  the  mosket,  sometimes  laid 
hold  of  and  forced  on  shore.  Three  or  four  hundred  were  met  with 
together,  and  they  were  so  far  from  shy  tihat  Ihey  suffered  themael^^* 
to  be  handled,  and  the  fattest  were  thus  selected.  The  laiger  ontf 
were  avoided,  not  only  on  account  of  the  trouble  they  gave  in  the 


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capture,  but  becaiue  their  fleah  was  not  so  good  as  that  of  the  amaller 
and  younger  ones. 

The  female  Dugong  produces  generally  only  one  young  at  a  birth, 
and  to  this  the  mother  bears  such  strong  affection  that,  if  the  young 
is  speared,  the  mother  will  not  depart,  but  is  sure  to  be  taken  also. 
The  Malays  consider  this  animal  as  almost  typical  of  maternal  affection. 
The  young  utter  a  short  and  sharp  cry,  and  are  said  to  shed  tears, 
whidi  are  carefully  preserved  by  the  common  people  as  a  charm, 
under  the  notion  that  they  will  secure  the  affections  of  those  whom 
they  love,  as  they  attract  the  mother  to  the  young  Dugong. 

The  flesh  of  the  Dugong  is  delicate,  and  is  said  to  be  superior  to 
that  of  the  Buffalo  or  common  Ox.  It  is  considered  by  the  Malays 
as  a  royal  fish,  and  the  king  has  a  right  to  all  that  are  taken.  Sir 
Stamford  RafiBes  states  that  this  species  afforded  much  satisfaction  on 
the  table,  as  the  flesh  proved  to  be  most  excellent  beef. 

H.  Tabemaculi,  the  Dugong  of  the  Red  Sea,  is  considered  by 
Kuppell  a  distinct  species.  He  gave  it  its  specific  name  under  the 
impression  that  it  was  with  the  skin  of  this  species  that  the  Jews 
vrere  directed  to  veil  the  Tabernacle.  He  saw  it  swimming  among 
the  coral  banks  on  the  Abyssinian  coast  near  the  Dalac  Islands.  The 
fiahermen  harpooned  a  female,  which  he  dissected,  10  feet  long.  The 
Arabs  stated  that  they  Uve  in  pairs  or  small  families,  that  they  have 
feeble  voices,  feed  on  Algce,  and  that  in  February  and  March  bloody 
battles  occur  between  the  males,  which  attain  the  length  of  18  feet. 
The  female  brings  forth  in  November  and  December.  The  flesh, 
teeth,  and  skin  are  esteemed  by  the  Arabs. 


J^-^. 


>^^f^^1^ 


Dugong  {Ilalicore  DHgong). 

H.  auttraiis.  It  is  a  native  of  the  north-west  coast  of  Australia. 
It  is  the  Manate  of  Dampier  and  the  Whale-Tailed  Manate  of  Pennant. 
Two  upper  jaws  and  three  skulls  of  this  species  are  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Rytina  gigat,  the  Morskaia  Korova.  It  is  the  Manate,  or  Vacca 
marina,  Tridiechut  Mcmatus  of  Miiller;  Rytina  SteUeri  of  Illiger; 
Stdlenu  horealis  of  Desmarest ;  the  Whale-Tailed  Manate  of  Pennant. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic  Ocean — Bohring's  Straits.  The  Sea- Ape  of 
Pennant,  Triehechiu  HydropUkecus  of  Shaw,  Manatm  Simla  of  Illiger, 
Dr.  Qray  suggests  may  belong  to  this  family,  if  it  is  not  a  Seal 

Foita  Cetacea, 

The  fossil  remains  of  Cetocea  have  hitherto  been  found  in  the 
Tertiary  Formations  only.  Bones  from  the  Portland  Stone  which 
vere  at  first  thought  to  belong  to  whales  proved  to  belong  to 
the  gentis  CetioM.ur%»  (Owen),  the  most  gigantic  of  all  the  fossil  rep- 
tiles. (Owen,  *  Report  on  British  Fossil  Reptiles  *  in  '  Trans.  Brit 
Ass.'  1841.)  Dr.  Buckland,  in  his  '  Bridgewater  Treatise,'  remarks 
that  the  seas  of  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  periods  were  inhabited  by 
marine  Mammalia^  consisting  of  Whales,  Dolphins,  Seals,  Walrus,  and 
the  Lamantin  or  Manatee,  whose  existing  species  are  chiefly  found 
near  the  coasts  and  mouths  of  rivers  in  the  torrid  zone. 

Manatidci.  Cuvier  figures  and  describes  the  remains  of  a  Manatee 
diflering  from  the  existing  species.  Specimens  were  collected  from 
various  parts  of  Frrnce,  and  he  states  it  to  be  very  certain  that  an 
animal  of  the  genus  ManatvSj  a  genus  now  peculiar  to  the  torrid-zone, 
inhabited  the  ancient  sea  which  has  covered  Europe  with  its  shells,  at 
an  epoch  posterior  to  the  formation  of  the  chalk,  but  anterior  to  that 
when  the  gypsum  was  deposited  and  the  Paltgotherium  with  its  con- 
temporary genera  lived  on  the  soil  of  France.     (*  Oss.  Fobs.') 

Iklphinida.  Cuvier  notices  and  figures,  with  an  accurate  descrip- 
tion, the  remains  of  a  fossil  Dolphin,  approaching  the  Grampus  and 
Iklphinut  globicepSf  from  Lombardy,  the  skeleton  of  which  vtss  found 
nearly  entire  by  M.  Cortesi ;  and  another  with  a  very  long  symphysis 
of  the  lower  jaw  from  the  department  of  Landes.  Also  a  fossil 
Dolphin  closely  approximating  the  common  Dolphin  frvm  the  same 
locality,  and  another  frt>m  the  Calcaire  Qrossier  of  the  department  of 
Ome.    ('O8S.F08S.*) 

H.  von  Meyer  refers  to  these  and  another  (Grateloup,  *  Ann.  Q^ner. 
d.  Sa  Phys.'  iil,  s.  68,  t.  86 ;  Taylor,  *  Magazine  of  Nat  Hist'  March, 
1830,  8.  262),  giving  the  following  names: — Ddphintu  CorUsii, 
J>'  nacrogeniut,  J),  Iwigiroatria.    ('  P^seologica.') 

Monodon.  Cuvier  collects  notices  of  fossil  fragments  of  the  Narwhal 
from  Parkinson  and  Georgl    He  adds  that  he  himself  saw  a  broken 

NAT.  HI8T.  DIV.  VOL.  I. 


piece  of  a  tusk  in  the  Cabinet  of  Natural  History  of  Lyons  which  had 
formerly  been  in  that  of  Pestalozzi  ('  Oss.  Foss.')  Remains  of  the 
M,  monoeeroa  have  been  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London  and 
in  other  parts  of  England.     (Owen,  '  Brit  Foss.  Mam.') 

Ziphius,  Cuvier  founded  this  genus,  which  approximates  the 
Cachalots  and  Hyperoodons,  on  crania  discovered  on  the  coast  of 
Provence,  and  diunterred  in  excavating  the  docks  at  Antwerp,  and 
on  a  fragment  in  the  Paris  Museum.  On  these  materials  he  rests 
three  species,  namely — Ziphius  cavirottrig,  Z,  planiroatriSf  and 
Z.  longiro»tr%8,  the  remains  of  which  he  figures  and  describes. 
('Oss.  Foss.') 

Zeuglodon.  This  name  was  given  by  Profiessor  Owen  to  the  BasUo- 
8aAirtu  of  Dr.  Harlan.  It  was  at  first  regarded  as  a  reptile  by  its 
discoverer,  but  Professor  Owen  found  that  the  microscopic  characters 
of  the  textm-e  of  the  teeth  were  strictly  of  a  mammiferous  character, 
and  the  nature  of  their  investing  substance  limited  the  comparison  of 
them  with  those  of  the  few  mammals  in  which  the  teeth  are  devoid 
of  enamel.  Among  these  are  the  EdentaJtaf  including  the  Megatherium 
and  its  congeners,  the  Morse,  the  Dugong,  and  the  Cachalot  It  is  to 
the  teeth  of  the  Cachalot  and  Dugong  that  those  of  the  so-called 
Basilosaur  ofier  the  nearest  resemblance ;  and  Professor  Owen  conceives 
that  its  position  in  the  natural  system  was  in  the  cetaceous  order, 
intermediate  between  the  Cachalot  and  the  herbivorous  species. 
In  a  paper  read  before  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  Professor 
Owen  says,  "  The  teeth,  in  their  combination  of  an  exaggerated  con- 
dition of  the  conjugate  form — which  is  but  indicated  in  certain  teeth 
of  the  Dugong,  with  two  distinct  fangs,  in  their  oblique  position  in 
the  jaw,  and  the  irregular  interspaces  of  their  alveoli, — present  veiy 
striking  peculiarities ;  and  when  to  these  dental  characters  we  add 
the  remarkable  and  abrupt  contraction  of  the  distal  end  of  the 
humerus,  which  is  nevertheless  provided  with  an  articulating  surface 
for  aginglymoid  joint,  and  its  remarkably  diminutive  size— a  cetaceous 
character,  which  likewise  is  here  carried  to  an  extreme, — and  when 
we  also  consider  the  dense  laminated  structure  of  the  ribs,  and  the 
third  exaggeration  of  a  cetaceous  structure  in  the  extreme  elongation 
of  the  body  of  the  caudal  vertebrae, — we  cannot  hesitate  in  pronouncing 
the  colossal  Zeuglodon  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  of 
the  Afammalia  which  the  revolutions  of  the  globe  have  blotted  out  of 
the  number  of  existing  beings." 


Teeth  of  Zeuglodon, 

o.  Portion  of  upper  jaw,  containing  three  teeth,  very  much  reduced  ; 

6,  section  of  tooth. 

In  the  '  American  Journal  of  Science'  for  April,  1848,  is  a  '  Notice 
of  the  Discovery  of  a  nearly  complete  Skeleton  of  the  Zygodon 
(Zeuglodon)  of  Owen  {Boiihaaunu  of  Harlan)  in  Alabama,'  by  S.  B. 
Buckley,  A.M. 

The  entire  length  of  the  skdeton,  including  the  head,  is  deiMsribed 
as  nearly  70  feet,  and  was  imbedded  "  in  a  marly  limestone  soil"  on 
the  plantation  of  Judge  Creagh,  the  same  gentleman  who  had 
forwarded  the  bones  to  Dr.  Harlan.  This  discovery  entirely  oorrobo- 
rates  the  conclusions  to  which  Professor  Owen  came  in  the  memoir 
above  quoted.  Bones  of  this  gigantic  fossil  Cetacean  have  been  also 
found  near  the  Washita  River  in  Louisiana,  and  have  been  seen  in 
Washington  County,  Mississippi :  frvm  thence,  Mr.  Buckley  adds,  they 
have  been  found  in  several  places  as  far  east  as  Claiborne,  on  the 
Alabiuna  River.    The  skeleton  is  now  at  New  York. 

BaUmidcg, — Bakenopterci,  Cuvier  figures  and  describes  the  skeleton 
of  a  fossil  whale,  which  he  considers  to  have  been  a  sab-genus  of 

8  N 


Digitized  by 


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CETE. 


CHiEROPHYLLUM. 


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Baloenoptera,  or  Rorqual,  found  in  Lombard/  by  M.  Corteei,  on  the 
east  flank  of  Monte  Pulgnasco  (Apennines)  in  1806.  Cuyier  calculates 
the  entire  length  at  21  feet,  French ;  observing,  that  if  the  animal  was 
adult  it  was  a  very  small  Rorqual  Another  skeleton  of  the  same 
species,  not  more  than  12  feet  6  inches  long,  was  also  discovered  by 
H.  Cortesi  in  similar  beds,  and  a  neighbouring  valley  near  a  small 
stream  which  falls  into  the  Chiavenna^  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the 
Po.    ('Oss-Foss.') 

Bakena,  Numerous  remains  of  Balcena  have  been  found  in  the 
Tertiary  Formations.  Cuvier  mentions  a  considerable  fragment  of  the 
skull  of  a  Balcena  disinterred  in  the  Rue  Dauphine  at  Paris  in  1779. 
Daubenton  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  whale  to  Which  it  belonged 
must  have  been  100  feet  long ;  but  Cuvier,  on  satisfkctoxy  calculations, 
reduces  the  length  to  60  feet,  and  states  his  opinion  that  it  is  an 
imknown  species.  ('  Oss.  Foas.')  Dr.  Mantell  detected  the  remains 
of  BaUena  in  Sussex  (Brighton  Cliffs).  In  the  Red  Crag  of  Felixstow 
the  tympanic  bones  of  whales  are  frequent,  whilst  their  bones  are  so 
numerous  as  to  constitute  a  considerable  portion  of  the  phoephatic 
substances  which  are  now  dug  from  this  formation  under  the  name  of 
Coprolite.  From  the  form  of  the  tympanic  bones,  which  hb  calls 
Cetotolites,  Professor  Owen  has  named  four  species  of  Balcena'. 
B.  affiniSf  B.  d^nitay  B.  gibhosa,  and  B.  emcurgmaJta,  (Owen,  '  Brit. 
Foss.  Mam.') 

Phoccena.  Professor  Owen  refers  the  fossil  found  in  the  Lincoln- 
shire fens  to  this  genus,  which  Dr.  Qray  places  imder  the  genus  Oreo. 

Physeteridce,  Teeth  of  the  Phystter  tnacrocephahu  have  been  found 
in  the  Tertiary  Beds  of  Essex  and  in  other  parts  of  Great  Britain. 
From  the  section  of  a  tooth  found  in  the  Red  Crag  at  Felixstow, 
Suffolk,  Professor  Owen  proposes  to  call  the  animal  to  which  it 
belonged  Balcenodon  physaloides. 

(Cuvier,  Ossemeru  FoanUs;  F.  Cuvier,  HUtoire  NaiureUedeM  CetaeSs; 
Owen,  Descriptive  and  Illustrated  Catalogue  of  the  Physiological  Series 
in  the  Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  ;  Scoresby,  An  Account  of  the 
Arctic  Regions  ;  Beale,  Natural  History  of  the  Sperm  Whale  ;  Owen, 
British  Fossil  Mammals  and  Birds;  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray,  Catalogue  of  the 
Specimens  of  Mammalia  in  the  British  M^ueumf  Part  L,  *Cetacea;* 
Cyclopedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology ,  article  '  Cetacea.*)    [See  SoPF.] 

CETE.     [Cbtaoea.] 

CETIOSAIJRUS,  a  genus  of  large  Fossil  Saurians  adopted  by 
Professor  Owen.     It  occurs  in  the  Oolitic  Formations. 

CE'TOCIS,  De  Montfort's  generic  name  for  those  Belemnites  which 
are  plicated  at  the  summits. 

CETONI'ADiE  (M'Leay),  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of 
the  section  Mditophili  (Latreille).  The  species  belonging  to  this 
family  have  the  sternum  more  or  less  prol^ged  into  an  obtuse  point, 
between  the  second  pair  of  1^ ;  the  mcStum  is  emarginated,  and 
never  transverse ;  the  terminal  lobe  of  the  maxillaa  is  furnished  with 
a  tuft  of  fine  hairs ;  the  labrum  is  concealed ;  the  antennae  are  small 
and  ten-jointed ;  the  basal  joints  are  short ;  the  three  terminal  joints 
are  comparatively  lai*ge,  placed  close  together,  and  form  a  triphyllous 
knob.  The  thorax  is  generally  somewhat  triangular,  with  the  anterior 
part  (which  would  form  the  apex  of  the  triangle)  truncated.  The 
elytra  are  usually  rather  straight  at  the  sides,  and  obtusely  roxmded 
at  the  apex,  thus  presenting  a  somewhat  square  form ;  their  disc  is 
rather  flat.  A  triangular  scale  is  interposed  between  the  base  of  the 
thorax  and  that  of  the  elytra  at  their  outer  angles. 

The  CetoniadoB  form  one  of  the  most  extensive  groups  of  the  Beetle 
Tribe,  and  nothing  can  exceed  the  brilliant  colours  with  which  many 
of  them  are  adorned — ^in  this  respect  vyeing  with,  if  not  surpassing, 
the  Bvprestidce. 

In  the  larva  and  imago  states  these  insects  feed  upon  vegetable 
substances :  the  grub  or  larva  of  the  common  Rose-Beetle  very  much 
resembles  that  of  the  cockchafer;  and  when  about  to  assome  the  pupa 
state  incloses  itself  in  a  cocoon  formed  of  particles  of  earUi  and  rotten 
wood,  or  any  surrounding  substances,  fastened  together  by  means  of 
a  glutinous  secretion. 

In  viewing  a  large  collection  of  insects  of  this  family  it  is  difficult 
to  say  what  colours  prevail  most.  In  Cetoma,  the  typical  genus  of  ^ 
the  group  (in  which  the  scutellum  is  of  moderate  size)  tiie  colours  are 
generally  burnished,  and  consist  for  the  most  part  of  various  shades 
of  green.  Cetonia  auraia,  the  common  Rose-Beetle,  affords  a  good 
example  of  this  genus.  It  is  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  of  a  bright  green  and  sometimes  oopper-like  coloiur,  with  two 
white  irregular  fascise  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  elytra,  and 
extending  from  the  side  inwards:  these  fascia  (and  several  little 
spots  of  the  same  colour  which  are  observable  on  the  elytra)  are  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  small  scales,  which  in  old  specimens  are  often 
nearly  all  rubbed  off  This  species  is  too  well  known  to  require 
further  description.  It  is  seen  very  commonly  in  the  south  of  Eng- 
land, flying  about  in  the  sunshine  during  the  months  of  May  and 
June,  frequently  settling  on  roses,  the  leaves  of  which  it  greedily 
devours ;  it  is  also  very  fond  of  elder  and  Ulac  flowers.  If  perchance 
the  bark  of  a  tree  be  wounded  so  that  the  sap  oozes  out,  this  insect 
will  frequently  be  observed  licking  it  up,  and  collecting  it  by  means 
of  the  tufts  of  hair  with  which  the  maxillse  are  terminated. 

Rosel  informs  us,  that  he  kept  one  of  these  insects  alive  for  upwards 
of  three  years,  during  which  time  he  fed  it  upon  fruit  and  moist 
white  bread. 


Cetonia  stictiea,  a  small  species,  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  and 
of  a  black  colour,  with  numeroxis  white  spots  on  thet&orax  and  dytn, 
ii  said  to  have  been  taken  in  this  country.  Its  occurrence  is  how- 
ever BO  rare,  that  it  is  doubted  by  some  if  it  be  truly  indigenous. 
It  is  common  in  France  and  Germany,  and  is  found  on  tmistles. 

C,  fastuosa,  a  species  which  somewhat  resembles  CSOonia  awrata, 
but  is  of  a  larger  idze  and  without  any  spots,  oocmrs  in  the  south 
of  France. 

CETRARIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  family  of  Licheni. 
The  species  have  the  following  chancters :  —  Thallus  foliaoeous, 
lobed,  and  laciniated ;  on  each  side  smooth  and  naked ;  the  shieldi 
are  orbicular,  obliquely  adnate  with  the  margin  of  the  thaUus,  the 
lower  portion  being  free ;  the  disc  coloured,  plano-concare,  with  a 
border  formed  of  the  thallus,  and  inflexed. 

C.  Jslandica,  Iceland  Moss.  It  is  the  Lichen  Islandieus  of  older 
botanists.  It  has  an  erect,  tufted,  olive-brown  thallus,  paler  on  one 
side,  laciniated,  channeled,  and  dentato-ciliated ;  the  fertile  lacinia 
very  broad.  Shields  brown,  flat,  with  an  elevated  border.  It  growi 
on  the  ground  in  exposed  sittmtions  in  northern  oounMes.  The 
aqueous  decoction  when  cold  forms  a  thick  Jelly.  It  has  a  bitter 
flavour.  It  has  been  employed  medicinally.  [Igelaitd  Mo6b,  in  Abb 
AiTD  Sa  Dry.] 

C.  nivalis  is  an  allied  species  growing  on  mountains  in  northern 
countries.    It  has  similar  properties  to  the  last. 

CEUTORHT'NCHUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  of  the 
£unily  Curculionida  (Leach).    The  species  have  the  antenns  elcTen- 

i'ointed,  seven  of  which  compose  the  funiculus ;  the  basal  joint  is  as 
ong  as  the  remainder  taken  together ;  the  club  is  ovate.  Bostnim 
sometimes  long,  bent,  and  filiform,  and  at  others  short  and  straisht. 
Thorax  with  the  fore  part  much  attenuated,  with  a  channel  beneath, 
in  which  the  snout  may  be  deposited.  Scutellum  minute  and  hardly 
apparent ;  the  elytra  are  rounded  at  the  extremity,  and  do  not  entirelj 
cover  the  abdomen ;  the  extremxiy  of  the  tibise  is  without  spina 

The  little  insects  of  wbich  tBs  genus  is  composed  are  very  nnme- 
rous,  and  Xrequent  plants  of  various  sorts ;  some  scarcely  exceed  a 
mustard-seed  m  size.  C.  didymus  is  abundant  on  the  common 
stinging  nettle,  and  is  about  the  size  of  a  hemp-seed.  It  is  white 
beneath,  and  of  a  duU  brownish  black  above ;  the  sides  of  the  thorax 
ardrhite,  and  the  elytra  are  fumisli'Sd^^ilii^ivo  spots  of  the  same 
colour ;  tiie  apex  of  the  elytra  is  also  more  or  lees  whitei  When 
touched,  or  often  when  even  approached,  these  little  beeties  doee 
their  snout  in  a  groove  on  the  imder  part  of  the  body,  contract  the 
legs,  and  allow  themselves  to  roll  off  the  leaves  to  the  ground,  where 
they  are  with  difficulty  distinguished  from  the  mould. 
CEVADILiiA.  [Cebadilla.] 
CEYX.    [Halotootdju] 

CHABAZITE,  a  mineral  belonging  to  the  large  dass  of  Ahminates. 
It  always  occurs  in  the  form  of  atte^ed  crystals ;  never  massive  or 
fibrous.  The  primary  form  of  the  crystal  is  a  rhomboid.  The  colonr 
is  white,  also  yellowish  and  red.  The  lustre  is  vitreous,  and  it  ia 
transparent  to  translucent.  The  hardness  is  4  to  4*5.  The  specific 
gravity  is  2-06  to  2'17.    It  has  the  following  composition  :— 

SiUca 48*4 

Alumina  •     ' 19-8 

Lime 8*7 

Potash 2-5 

Water 211 

10(H) 

This  speciee  includes  Cfmelinite,  which  ocenm  in  small  gUasy 
crystals;  also  Zevyne,  which  is  found  in  oompound  cfystals;  and 
ZedererUe,  which  has  the  form  of  Gmelinite,  but  differs  in  containing 
just  one-third  the  quantity  of  water.  Phaeolite  is  another  varietj. 
It  occurs  in  the  form  of  small  glassy  crystals,  which  are  double  six- 
sided  pyramids.  AcadioUte  appears  to  be  another  variety.  It  has  a 
red  colour,  and  oomee  from  Nova  Scotia.  JBereehdite  is  another 
variety.    It  occurs  in  small  hexagonal  tables. 

Chdbante  is  mostiy  easily  distinguished  by  the  nearly  cubical  fonn 
presented  by  its  crystals.  From  Analcime  it  is  distinguished  by 
the  intumescence  produced  by  it  under  the  blow-pipe.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  CalC'Spar  by  its  hardness  and  its  action  with  adds ; 
from  Pluor-Spar  by  its  form  and  cleavage,  and  by  the  abeenee  of 
phosphorescence. 

It  is  found  in  Trap,  Gneiss,  and  Syenite.  In  the  New  World  it  is 
found  in  the  Trap  of  Connecticut,  in  New  Jersey,  and  New  York. 
Ledererite  is  found  in  Nova  Scotia.  Chabagite  is  found  in  the  Faroe 
Islands,  at  the  Giant's  Causeway,  Ireland,  also  in  Iceland.  GntdmiU 
is  found  in  Antrim,  Ireland.  Levyne,  at  Glenarm  in  Irelaod;  also  in 
Scotland,  Iceland,  and  the  Faroe  Islands. 

CHACMA.    [Baboon.] 

CHi£RADODIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Anutryllidaceee.  One  species  of  tMs  genus,  C.  ChilensiSf  is  called  Thekel 
in  ChilL  A  cold  infusion  of  the  leaves  is  used  as  a  puigatire  and 
diuretic  medicme-by  the  natives. 

CHiEROPHYLLUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  naturtJ 
order  UmbelltfercB,  to  the  sub-order  Camp^/lospenMe,  and  the  tribe 
Scandieinea.    It  has  an  obsolete  calyx;  obcordate  petals  with  an  . 
inflexed  point ;  a  fruit  not  beaked ;  carpels  with  five  equal  obtuse 


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CH-ffiTODON. 


CHAFFINCH. 


918 


ridges ;  intcrsticeB  with  Bingle  vittse.  The  species  are  annual,  bieania), 
or  perennial  plants  with  decompound  leaves.  Many  plants  formerly 
placed  in  this  genus  are  now  referred  to  ArUhriscus,  [Anth&ibcus!j 
The  CJuerophyU'Um  »ylve$tre  of  Linnaeus  is  now  Anthriscua  tyhcttrU, 
It  has  been  used  in  medicine  as  a  substitute  for  hemlock.  The 
ChtjsraphyUwn  tcUiwtni  of  Lamarck  is  the  ArUhrucut  cerrfolium  of 
Hoffiocum.  It  is  the  garden  Chervil  of  Great  Britain,  and  is  used  in 
lome  placet  as  a  pot-herb.  Three  species  of  Chuerophyllum  are 
described  by  Babington  in  his  '  Manual  of  British  Botany : '  C.  temu- 
{ttm  has  a  rough  stem  swelling  beneath  the  joints;  the  leaves 
bipinnate ;  the  leaflets  ovate,  oblong,  pinnatifid,  with  obtuse  mucro- 
Mt6  8^;ment8;  glabrous  petals;  styles  equalling  the  stylopode.  It 
ii  a  common  plant  on  hedge-banks  in  Great  Britain,  attaining  a 
height  of  three  or  four  feet.  C,  aureum  and  C.  aromcUicwn  have  been 
described  as  natives  of  Scotland,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  as  to  whe- 
ther they  have  not  both  been  introduced.  (Babington,  McumucU  of 
Britith  Botany  ;  Lindley,  Flora  Medico.) 

CHi£T0DON  (x^^rri,  hair,  and  69ohs,  a  tooth),  it  genus  of  Fishes 
of  the  section  Acanthopterygii  and  family  Sqttammipemna,  It  has 
the  following  characters: — Body  compressed;  mouth  small,  fur- 
nished with  several  closely-set  rows  of  long  slender  bristle-like  teeth. 
The  scales  (which  are  usually  confined  to  the  body)  in  this  genus 
extend  on  to  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  see 
where  the  latter  commence. 

These  fishes  aboimd  in  the  seas  of  hot  climates,  frequent  rocky 
shores,  and  are  adorned  with  beitutiful  colours.  Their  most  common 
tints  appear  to  be  black  and  yellow,  but  brilliant  metaUic  blues  and 
greens  of  various  hues  are  not  unfrequent.  Many  of  the  species  have 
a  vertical  black  band  in  which  the  eye  is  placed.  In  some  there  are 
several  similar  vertical  bands  on  the  body;  in  others  the  body  is 
spotted  or  adorned  with  oblique  or  longitudinal  bands.  They  have  a 
large  air-bladder ;  their  intestines  are  long  and  ample ;  and  theii*  ceeca 
are  numerous,  long,  and  slender.    Their  flesh  is  good  eating. 

The  species  are  numerous,  and  have  been  divided  into  several  sub- 
genera; those  to  which  the  name  CAcBtodon  is  now  restricted  have 
the  body  more  or  less  elliptical,  the  rays  of  the  dorsal  fin  forming  a 
tolerably  uniform  curve,  the  snout  more  or  less  produced,  and  the 
pre-operculum  sometimes  furnished  with  a  small  tooth. 

In  some  of  this  section  one  or  more  of  the  soft  rays  of  the  dorsal 
fin  are  much  produced,  and  form  a  long  filament;  and  others  are 
distinguished  by  their  having  very  few  spines  to  the  same  fin. 

Chatodon  vagabwndus,  a  species  which  inhabits  the  coasts  of  Ceylon, 
has  the  body  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  with  numerous  oblique  brownish- 
purple  lines;  the  dornJ  fin  is  blackish,  and  has  13  spinous  rays ;  the 
caudal  fin,  or  tail,  is  yellow,  with  two  black  bands ;  the  anal  fin  is 
blackish  with  a  yellow  curved  longitudinal  band ;  its  mai^gin  is  also 
yellow ;  a  broad  black  vertical  band  extends  through  the  eye ;  and 
the  part  anterior  to  this  band,  as  low  down  as  the  eye,  is  of  a  pinkish 
hue  with  yellow  streaks.  Its  length  is  from  6  to  12  inches ;  the  scales 
on  the  body  are  lai^e ;  those  on  the  head  are  rather  small. 


tubular  snout  with  such  precision  as  frequently  to  disable  the  little 
animal,  so  that  it  falls  into  the  water  and  is  devoured. 

In  those  parts  where  C.  rostratvs  aboimds  it  is  frequently  kept  in 
vessels  of  water,  and  aflbrds  much  entertainment  by  the  dexterity 
displayed  in  shooting  at  flies  which  are  placed  on  the  vessel  for  thf 
purpose :  it  generally  approaches  to  withm  five  or  six  inches  before 
the  drop  of  water  is  ejected. 

The  sub-genus  Heniochus  differs  from  the  true  Chsetodons  in  having 
the  anterior  spines  of  the  back  produced  into  a  long  filament,  which  is 
sometimes  double  the  length  of  the  body. 

Ephippua  may  ba  distinguished  by  the  species  having  the  dorsal  fin 
deeply  cleft  between  the  spinous  and  soft  portions.  The  spiny  portion, 
which  is  scaleless  when  not  erected,  is  received  into  a  groove  formed 
by  the  scales  of  the  back. 

ffolocanthua.  The  species  of  this  sub-genus  have  a  large  spine  on  the 
angle  of  the  pre-operculum,  and  most  of  them  have  the  edge  of  the 
same  bone  serrated  :  they  are  foimd  both  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans. 

The  next  subdivision,  Pomacanthutf  has  the  body  of  a  more  ele- 
vated form,  owing  to  the  sudden  rising  of  the  anterior  margin  of 
the  dorsal  fin.  The  only  species  known  are  ftrom  the  American 
coasts. 

In  the  last  subdivision,  PlalaXf  the  species  may  be  known  by  the 
extremely  compressed  form  of  the  body,  the  large  vertical  dorsal  fin 
(which  has  the  anterior  spines  almost  concealed  in  the  membrane), 
the  long  ventral  fins,  and  the  teeth.  Here,  in  addition  to  the  fine 
thickly-set  teeth,  there  are  some  in  front  which  are  trenchant,  and 
each  of  them  is  divided  into  three  points. 

All  the  species  of  this  section  are  found  in  the  Indian  Oceatu  One 
has  been  found  in  a  fossil  state  at  Mount  Bolca. 

Platax  vetperiUio  will  afibrd  an  example  of  this  section.  It  is  found 
off  the  coast  of  Ceylon,  and  is  of  a  yellowish  colour ;  the  dorsal,  anal, 
and  ventral  fins  are  brownish,  the  back  is  also  mottled  with  the  same 
colour,  and  a  dark  band  extends  downwards  through  the  eye ;  the 
base  of  the  caudal  fin  is  dark  brown.  This  species  grows  to  a  lai^e 
size,  and  is  found  in  rocky  situations,  but  more  commonly  in  deep 
water. 


Ohatodon  vagabundm. 

The  next  sub-genus,  Chdmon  (Les  Chelmons,  Cuy.),  is  distinguished 
by  the  form  of  tihe  snout,  which  is  much  elongated,  open  at  &e  end 
only,  and  formed  by  a  great  elongation  of  tiie  intermaxillary  and 
under-jaw  bones. 

C.  rottratu$,  a  species  which  inhabits  the  fresh  waters  of  India,  is 
of  a  silvery  hue  and  has  five  brownish  bands ;  the  posterior  part  of 
tbe  dorsal  fin  is  furnished  with  a  black  spot  encircled  with  white. 

This  fish  feeds  upon  insects,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  mode  of 
procuring  thentL  mien  it  observes  a  fly  or  any  other  insect  on  a 
weed  or  hoyeriDg  over  the  water,  it  ejects  a  little  drop  through  its 


•  Platax  vespertilio. 

The  two  species  of  Chsetodons,  of  which  figures  are  here  given, 
have  been  selected  from  Mr.  J.  W.  Bennett's  *  Fiahea  of  Ceylon,'  a 
work  illustrated  by  beautiful  coloured  plates. 

(Cuvier,  lUgne  Animal;  Lac^pMe,  Hiitoirt  Natwdle,  <ke.,  dea 
Poiisona;  Bloch,  Histoire  NatwrdU,  gSnSrale  et  partidUi^e,  dea 
Poiaaona.) 

CHAFFINCfl,  the  English  name  for  a  well-known  species  of 
Fringilla  :  Jxffo  of  Aristotle  and  the  Greeks ;  FringUla  and  Frigilla 
of  ^  Gkener  and  others ;  Franguello,  Frangueglio,  Fringuello,  and 
Spincione,  of  the  Italians ;  Pinson,  Pin9on,  Grinson,  and  Quinson,  of 
the  French;  Fink,  or  Buch-Fink  (Beech-Finch),  Edel-Fink,  Gemeine- 
Fink,  Schild-Vink,  of  the  Germans,  &o. ;  Fincke  and  Bofincke  of  the 
'  Fauna  Suedca ;'  Asgell-Arian,  Wine,  of  the  ancient  British ;  FringiUa 
ccaUbs  of  Linnaeus.  It  has  also  the  following  local  names  in  English  :— 


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CHAFFINCH. 


CHAILLETIACE^. 


Spink,  Beech-Fmch,  Pink,  Twink,  Skelly,  Shell-Apple,  Hone-Finoh, 
Soobby,  Shil&s  Chaffy,  Boldie. 

Ab  far  back  as  the  time  of  Belon  the  powerful  Toioe  of  this  bird 
was  remarked : — "  On  les  garde  en  cage  pour  les  faire  chanter,  dont 
le  chant  est  si  puissant  qu'il  en  est  fiiisoheuz  "  (folio,  1555) ;  and  in 
the  small  quarto  (1557)  the  following  quatrain  is  printed  under  the 
figure  of  the  bird  : — 

Fonr  bien  plnter  l<m  me  Dom  PiMon, 
Qui  ay  la  toIz  fort  hanltaine  et  pniaiajite ; 
Je  hay  le  ohaald,  ftroidura  m'eat  plaiaaate; 

En  ce  contraire  cat  k  tooa  ma  £if  on. 

"The  passion  for  this  bird,"  says  Bechstein,  in  his  'Cage  Birds,'  "is 
oanried  to  such  an  extent  in  Thuiingia,  and  those  which  sing  well  are 
sought  for  with  so  much  activity,  that  scarcely  a  sixigle  chaffinch  that 
warbles  tolerably  can  be  found  throughout  the  province.  As  soon  as 
one  arrives  from  a  neighbouring  country  whose  notes  appear  good, 
all  the  bird'Catohers  are  after  it^  and  do  not  give  up  the  pursuit 
till  they  have  taken  it  This  is  the  reason  why  tiie  chaffinches  in 
this  province  are  so  indifferent  songsters ;  the  young  ones  have  only 
bad  masters  in  the  old  ones,  and  they  in  their  turn  cannot  prove 
better." 

In  England  however  it  appears  to  have  been  appreciated.  The 
Hon.  Daines  Barzington,  in  his  paper  ' On  the  Small  Birds  of  Flight' 
(the  bird-catcher^s  expression),  observes  that  the  greatest  sum  he  ever 
heard  given  for  a  song-bird  which  had  not  learned  to  whistle  tunes, 
was  five  guineas  for  a  Chaffinch  that  bad  a  particular  and  imcommon 
note,  under  which  it  was  intended  to  train  others.  Bechstein  says 
the  Thuringians  have  been  known  to  give  a  cow  for  a  Chaffinch  with 
a  fine  voice. 

Bechstein,  after  describing  the  different  notes  that  express  its 
passions  and  wants,  among  which  the  often-repeated  cry,  'fink,  fink' 
(our  '  twink'),  from  which  its  Qerman  name  is  derived,  he  oonsidera  to 
be  mechani(»l  and  involuntary,  thus  speaks  of  its  powers  : — "  But 
what  makes  it  appear  to  still  more  advantage  among  other  birds  are 
its  clear  and  trillmg  tones  that  seem  almost  to  approach  to  words ; 
in  fact,  its  warbling  is  lees  a  song  than  a  kind  of  battement^  to  make 
use  of  a  French  word,  and  is  expressed  in  Qerman  by  the  word  schlag 
(trill),  which  is  used  to  designate  its  song  as  well  as  the  nightingale's. 
Some  chaffinches  have  two,  three,  four,  even  five  different  battemens, 
each  consisting  of  several  strains,  and  lasting  several  minutes.  This 
bird  is  so  great  a  favourite  in  Qermany  that  not  a  single  tone  of  its 
voice  has  escaped  the  experienced  ears  of  our  bird-fanders.  They 
have  observed  its  nicest  shades,  and  are  continually  endeavouring  to 
improve  and  perfect  it  I  confess  I  am  myself  one  of  its  warmest 
admirers;  I  have  constantly  around  me  the  best  songsters  of  its 
species,  and  if  I  liked  could  write  a  good  SLsed  volume  on  all  the 
details  of  its  music." 

The  following  chaffinch  songs,  or  melodies,  are  most  esteemed  in 
Saxony  and  Hesse.  ^Some  are  heard  in  the  woods,  but  they  are  rarely 
sung  with  a  clear  and  strong  voice.  If  the  bird  executes  well,  and 
adds  to  the  last  strain  the  sound  'fink,'  which  the  Qerman  bird- 
catchers  translate  by  '  amen,'  it  is  of  the  highest  value.  "  No  price," 
says  Bechstein,  "  will  be  taken  for  it :" — 

1.  The  'Double  Trill  of  the  Harz,'  in  Lower  Saxony.  2.  The 
'  Reiter  Zong,'  or  '  Rider's  Pull,'  first  heard  among  the  mineral  moun- 
tains of  Saxony  and  Voigtland.  8.  The  'Wine  Song,'  with  the  fol- 
lowing subdivisions,  namely  : — The '  Fine,'  or '  Langsrald  Wine  Son^ ;' 
the  '  Bad  Wine  Song'  and  the  '  Sharp  Wine  Song,'  which  is  subdivided 
into  the  'Common  Sharp'  and  the  '  Ruhl  Sharp.'  4.  The  'Brauti- 
gam,'  or  'Bridegroom  Song,'  also  divided  into  good  and  bad.  5.  The 
'  Double  Tria'  One  of  these,  the  '  Double  Trill  of  lamblach,'  is 
only  to  be  acquired  in  the  house,  and  is  so  deep  and  powerful  that  it 
can  scarcely  be  conceived  how  the  larynx  of  so  small  a  bird  can  pro- 
duce such  sounds.  Bechstein,  who  makes  this  observation,  adds  that 
*a  Chaffinch  which  sings  this  either  alone  or  with  the  '  Gk>od  Bride- 
groom's Song'  (such  as  are  educated  at  lamblach),  sells  at  Walters- 
hausen  for  eighteen  French  francs.  6.  The  'Qutjar,'  or  'Qood  Tear 
Song^'  with  two  subdivisions.  Chaffinches  gfTiging  this,  united  to  the 
'Wine  Song'  of  Ruhl,  or  the  'Sharp  Song,'  had  become  verv  rare 
when  Bechstein  wrote,  and  fetched  high  prices.  7.  The  'Quakia 
Song,'  formerly  much  admired  Bechstein  says,  "  I  believe  I  possess 
the  onlv  bird  that  is  now  to  be  found  .which  sings  this.  To  be 
admired  the  '  Quakla '  must  be  united  with  the  '  Double  TrilL'  This 
my  chaffinch  sings  also."  8.  The  'Pithia,'  or  'Trewethia,'  a  very 
uncommon  and  agreeable  song,  never  heard  but  in  the  depliis  of  the 
Thuringian  mountains. 

For  we  different  modes  of  capturing  this  pretty  bird,  so  precious 
when  in  pefect  song  to  the  bird-fancier,  its  treatment  in  confinement^ 
the  diseases  to  which  it  is  subject^  and  their  remedies,  we  must  refer 
the  reader  to  Bechstein's  'Cage  and  Chamber  Birds/  of  which  tiiere 
is  an  English  edition  published  by  Bohn  (1853). 

The  following  description — ^ana  the  bird  is  so  common  that  a  more 
particular  one  is  unnecessary — ^is  from  the  interesting  '  Journal  of  a 
JNaturalist ' : — "  The  male  bird  is  remarkable  for  the  cleanliness  and 
trimnees  of  his  pluxnage,  which,  without  having  any  great  variety  or 
splendour  of  colouring,  is  so  composed  and  arranged,  and  the  white 
on  his  wiogs  so  brilliant,  as  to  render  him  a  very  beautiful  little 


creature.  The  female  is  as  remaxkable  for  the  quiet  unobtnuive 
tintings  of  her  drees;  and  when  she  lies  crouching  on  her  nest^ 
elegantly  formed  of  lidiens  from  the  bark  of  the  apple-tree,  and  fSuled 
mosses,  she  would  hardly  be  perceptible  but  for  her  little  bright  eyes 
that  peep  with  suspicious  vigilance  from  her  covert"  TemminGk 
saysy  that  in  autumn  after  the  moult^  the  colours  of  tiie  plumage  of 
the  male  are  more  bright  than  they  are  in  the  spring,  because  all  the 
feathers  of  the  upper  and  lower  parts  are  terminated  by  a  clear  aih- 
colour ;  and,  at  the  season  of  love,  the  male  bird's  dreu  beoomee 
decked  with  pure  and  brilliant  colour,  without  the  aid  of  a  aecoud 
moul^  the  edges  of  the  barbs  being  worn  away  with  use,  and  thni 
suffering  those  colours  which  had  been  hidden  to  appear  in  all  their 
beauty. 

Many  varieties  occur,  as  pure  white,  yellowish  white,  some  parte  of 
the  body  white.  The  usual  colours  with  a  white  collar ;  wiogs  and 
tail  white.  Aldrovandus  mentions  one  partly  yellowish  and  partly 
blackish. 

This  bird  inhabits  almost  all  the  countries  of  Europe;  itiBpe^ 
manent  in  the  southern  parts,  and  a  regular  bird  of  paaeage  in  the 
greatest  number  of  localities.  The  Prince  of  Canino  says  that  it  is 
very  common  near  Rome,  and  makes  its  passage  in  October,  when 
numbers  of  them  are  taken  for  the  table  among  other  small  birds  at 
Paretajo  and  Roooolo,  but  in  much  the  lai^ger  proportion,  500  chaf- 
finches being,  according  to  the  Prince,  captured  to  every  80  linneta, 
65  goldfinches,  80  green  grosbeaks  or  greenfinches,  &c.,  &c.  It  has 
been  stated  and  denied,  that  only  the  females  of  this  bird  are 
migratory  in  Europe.  On  this  point  Selby  observes,  "  In  Northum- 
berland and  Scotland  this  separation  takes  place  about  the  month  of 
Kovember,  and  from  that  period  till  the  return  of  spring,  few  females 
are  to  be  seen,  and  those  f6w  always  in  distinct  societies.  The  males 
remain,  and  are  met  with,  during  the  winter,  in  immense  flock% 
feeding  with  other  granivorous  birds  in  the  stubble  lands  aa  long  as 
the  weather  continues  mild  and  the  ground  finee  from  enow ;  and 
resorting,  upon  the  approach  of  storm,  to  fiBurm-yanls  and  other 
places  of  refuge  and  supply.  This  separation  of  Uie  sexes  I  am 
induced  to  believe  takes  place  in  many  other  species,  with  respect  to 
their  migratory  movements,  as  I  have  before  remarked  in  the  acooant 
of  the  snow-bunting.  This  appears  also  to  be  the  case  with  the  wood- 
cock, having  observed  that  the  first  flight  of  these  birds  (which  seldom 
remain  looger  than  a  few  days  to  recruit^  and  then  pass  southward) 
consists  chieflv  of  females ;  whilst)  on  the  contrary,  the  subsequent  aiid 
latest  flight  (which  continue  with  us)  are  principally  composed  of 
males.  It  has  been  noticed  by  several  authors  that  the  arrival  of  the 
males,  in  a  number  of  our  summer  visitants,  precedes  that  of  the 
females  by  many  days ;  a  fact  fr^m  which  we  might  infer  that  in  sach 
species  a  similar  separation  exists  between  the  sexes  during  their 
equatorial  migration."  Knapp  ('  Journal  of  a  Naturalist')  says,  ''Wi^ 
us  (Qloucestershire)  the  sexes  do  not  separate  at  any  period  of  the 
year,  the  flocks  frequenting  our  barn-doors  and  homesteads  in  winter 
being  composed  of  both.  In  the  nortiiem  parts  of  Europe  however 
the  females  are  said  to  migrate  to  milder  regions,  which  induced 
Linnseus  to  bestow  the  name  of  C<M>b  upon  this  speciea."  White 
observes  upon  the  vast  flocks  which  he  saw  near  Selbome  towards 
Christmas,  all  of  which  were  hens.  Jenyns  says  that  it  collects  in 
flocks  at  the  approach  of  winter,  but  makes  no  meoition  of  the  sepait- 
tion  of  the  sexes.  In  Middlesex  we  have  seen  in  winter  flocks  com- 
posed mostly  of  females,  but  we  have  also  seen  both  sexes,  aboot 
Christmas,  partaking  with  other  little  winged  pensioners  of  the  cramba 
daily  thrown  out  for  their  support 

The  Chaffinch  feeds  principally  on  seeds.  We  are  however  com- 
pelled to  add  that  they  are  very  injurious  to  the  florist  and  gardener. 
"  These  birds,"  says  Knapp,  **  make  sad  havoc  with  some  of  oar 
spring  flowers;  and  the  polyanthus,  in  March,  in  our  sheltered 
borders,  is  very  commonly  stripped  of  all  its  blossoms  by  these  little 
plunderers,  I  suppose  to  obtain  the  immature  seeds  at  the  base  of 
their  tubea  ....  At  this  period  too  they  are  sad  plunderenin 
our  kitchen  gardens,  and  most  dexterously  draw  up  our  young  tonipe 
and  radishes  as  soon  as  they  appear  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil;  but 
after  this  all  depredation  ceases,  the  rest  of  their  days  being  spent  in 
sportive  innooenoe."  Selby  savs  that  in  summer  it  feeds  much  upon 
insects  and  larvae,  and  that  he  has  witnessed  its  assiduity,  during  the 
autumn,  in  devouring  the  females  of  a  large  species  of  aphis,  that 
infests  the  trunks  and  stronger  branches  of  the  larch  and  some  other 
kinds  of  fir.  In  winter,  he  adds,  grain  and  other  seeds  constitute 
its  food. 

Like  the  other  finches  it  builds  one  of  the  most  beautiful  nests,  and^ 
as  Selby  observes,  always  accordant  with  the  particular  colour  of  iti 
situation.  It  is  variously  placed  in  trees  and  bu^ea  In  orchaHs 
an  old  apple-tree  is  a  favourite  situation.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  bluuh- 
white^  tinged  with  pink  and  marked  with  Streaks  and  spots  of 
pur^ish-red. 

CHAILLETIA'CEiE,  ChaiUeiiads,  an  obscure  natural  order  of 
Polypetalous  Exogens,  some  of  whose  species  are  said  to  be  poisonous. 
They  are  very  near  JtkamnacecB,  from  which  they  diflbr  in  having  the 
stamens  alternate  with  the  petals,  and  five  hjrpogynoos  glands.  The 
petals  are  small  scale-like  bodies  stationed  at  Uie  orifice  of  a  tubuUr 
calyx ;  the  ovaiy  is  superior,  and  two  or  three  celled,  the  ovules  penda- 
louS|  tiie  frxut  somewhat  drupaceous^  and  the  seeds  without  albumen. 


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dflALAZA. 


CtiALClDlD^ 


02:1 


Ckaiilftia  ioxiearia  in  called  lUtsbane  in  Sierra  Leone, 
embraces  four  genera  and  ten  species. 


The  order 


Chailletia  prduneulata. 
1,  an  expanded  flower ;  2,  the  back  of  ditto;  3,  a  petal ;  4,  stameni* ;  5,  dif. 
fcrent  views  of  the  ovary ;  6,  different  vicwi  of  the  firuit ;  7,  an  embryo. 

CHALA'ZA,  that  part  in  a  seed  where  the  vessels  of  the  raphe  pass 
from  the  exterior  integument  or  primine,  and  expand  into  the  secun- 
dine.  In  the  common  almond  it  is  readily  seen  by  turning  the  testa 
inside  out  and  observing  that  part  which  corresponds  to  the  apex  of 
the  cotyledons.  When  the  foramen  of  a  seed  is  next  the  hilum,  the 
chalaza  is  most  conspicuous ;  but  when  the  foramen  is  at  the  apex  of 
a  seed,  the  chalaza  will  then  be  in  contact  with  thehilum,  with  which 
it  must  necessarily  be  then  confused. 

CHALCEDONY.    [Agate.] 

CHA'LCIDES,  Daudin's  name  for  a  family  of  Lizards,  which,  like 
the  Seps-Lizards,  are  very  long  and  serpent-like ;  but  whose  scales, 
instead  of  being  imbricated  or  disposed  like  tiles,  are  rectangular,  and 
form,  like  those  of  the  tail  in  the  ordinaxy  lizards,  transverse  bands 
which  do  not  intrench  upon  each  other.  Some,  says  Cuvier,  have  a 
ridge  on  each  side  of  the  trunk,  and  the  tympanum  still  very  apparent, 
^ey  approach  the  Cordylij  as  the  Seps-Lizards  approach  the  Scinkt, 
and  lead  by  several  relations  to  the  Sheltopusicks  and  Ophisauri.  The 
Ohalcides  have  four  legs,  but  they  are  little  developed,  and  the 
extremities  may  be  considered  as  in  a  degree  rudimentary;  for  some 
of  them  cannot  be  said  to  be  furnished  with  more  than  one  well- 
formed  toe  on  each  foot,  though  there  are  traces  or  rudiments  of 
more.    Cuvier  thus  arranges  the  family  : — 

A  species  with  five  toes  from  the  East  Indies,  Lacerta  Sep$  of 
Linnaeus. 

A  species  with  four  toes,  Lacerta  tdradactyla  of  Lac^p^de ; 
Chaleii  tetradactyla.  The  genus  Tetradactylus  of  Merrem ;  SauropMs 
of  Fitzinger. 

A  section  which  have  the  tvmpanum  concealed,  and  leading 
oirectly  to  the  Bimana  {Chirote^t  and  thence  to  the  AmphUbcena. 
Of  these,  there  is  a  species  with  five  toes,  forming  the  genus  Chalcidea 
of  Fitzinger. 

A  species  from  Brazil,  with  four  toes  before,  and  five  behind, 
Baerodactylut  imbricatus  of  Spix. 

A  species  with  four  toes  on  each  foot^  forming  the  genus  Brachypus 
of  Fitzinger. 

A  species  from  Guyana,  with  five  toes  before,  and  three  behind,  but 
i^uced  to  small  tubercles  so  little  visible  that  the  species  has  been 
I^^S^ed  at  one  time  as  having  three  toes,  and  at  another  as  having 
but  one.  Cuvier  adds,  that  on  the  first  supposition,  it  is  the  ChcUcide 
of  lAodpMe,  pi.  xxxii. ;  the  Chamaaavra  Cophiaa  of  Schneider ;  the 
Jjjnus  Okaleis  of  Merrem;  and  the  genus  Cophiat  of  Fitzinger;  and 
^t  upon  the  second  hypothesis,  it  is  the  Chaleide  monodactyle  of 
l^^idin ;  the  genus  OoMm»  of  Merrem ;  but,  adds  Cuvier,  all  these 
8«n«ra  resolve  themselves  into  a  single  species. 


Ckalcii  tetradactyla  has  been  given  as  an  example  of  the  family. 
It  is  the  Saiwrophis  Sept  of  Fitzinger,  and  under  the  name  of  S.  tetrth 
dactylu  is  referred  by  Qray  to  his  fajnily  OordyUs.    [Saubia.] 


ChalcU  tetradactyla, 

CHALCI^ID  Jjl,  a  family  of  Hymenopterous  Insects,  of  the  section 
Pvpivora  (Latreille).  Nearly  all  the  species  are  exceedingly  minute. 
Many  are  very  brilliant,  their  colours  consisting  of  various  shades 
of  green,  blue,  or  copperlike  hues ;  in  some  of  the  sections  however 
black  is  the  prevailing  colour.  The  thorax  is  usually  large  in  pro- 
portion to  the  body,  and  the  latter  is  often  of  a  compressed  form, 
and  joined  to  the  thorax 
by  a  distinct  long  petiole 
or  stalk,  as  in  ChalcU 
clavipeSf  which  is  one  of 
the  largest  of  the  British 
species,  measuring  from 
tip  to  tip  of  the  wings 
when  expanded  upwards 
of  half  an  inch ;  it  is  of 
4  dull  black  colour,  and 
remarkable  for  the  exces- 
sive  development  of  the 
coxise  and  femora  of  the 
hinder  legs ;   the  latter  OhaMs  elavipes, 

are  of  a  reddish  hue,  «»  The  wings;  6,  the  hind-leg;  e,  antenna, 
and  armed  with  eight  magnified;  d,  hind  femur  and  tibia  of  a  spedes  of 
little     teeth     beneath;   ■^<»*»«««- 

the  hinder  tibise  are  curved.  It  is  found  on  the  leaves  of  shrubs  in 
marshy  situations. 

In  the  species  just  described  the  oviduct  is  short,  and  hidden 
beneath  the  abdomen,  a  circumstance  very  common  in  this  tribe ; 
in  some  however  the  oviduct  is  very  long,  equalling  or  exceeding  the 
body  in  length.  This  is  the  case  m  the  genus  CcUlimome,  a  group 
the  species  of  which  have  very  brilliant  colours,  principally  green,  and 
deposit  their  eggs  in  the  larvse  of  the  Qall  Insects  {Oynipidce),  an 
operation  which  their  long  bristle-like  ovipositors  enable  them  readily 
to  perform.  Here,  as  in  the  genus  Chaicia,  the  body  is  compressed. 
Many  of  the  species  however  have  that  part  depressed.  One  of  the 
most  striking  characters  in  the  Chalcidg<las  is  in  the  wings,  which 
are  almost  destitute  of  nervures.  Most  commonly  there  is  in  the 
superior  wing  a  single  nervure  springing  from  the  base  and  running 
parallel  with  the  exterior  margin  for  about  one-third  of  the  whole 
length  of  the  wing.  It  then  cdopes  upwards  and  joins  the  margin 
itself;  and  a  little  beyond  the  part  where  the  slope  takes  place  there 
is  a  small  short  ramification  thrown  out  obliquely,  which  is  generally 
thickened  towards  the  extremity,  and  forms  a  little  dark  spot.  The 
antennss  are  always  elbowed,  that  is,  the  terminal  joints  are  bent 
forward  at  an  angle  with  the  basal  joint.  We  have  observed  that 
when  these  little  insects  are  about  to  leap,  which  a  great  portion 
of  them   have  the  power  of  doing,   th^  invariably  bend  their 


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CHALCOLITR 


CHALK  FORMATION. 


antennsD  under  tho  bodj,  and  it  appeared  that  tbia  organ  was  used 
in  making  the  spring.  If  this  should  be  the  case,  it  would  be  a 
most  extraordinary  use  to  make  of  those  parts,  which  are  usually  oon- 
sidered  either  as  oigans  of  hearing  or  touch.  We  may  observe  that 
the  species  which  we  found  to  possess  this  power  in  a  high  degree 
had  immensely  thick  antennas,  and  the  hind  legs,  the  usual  leaping 
oigans,  do  not  appear  at  all  adapted  for  that  purpose,  nor  can  we 
discover  any  other  part  that  is.  Although  in  G,  davipet  (the  species 
figured)  the  hinder  femora  are  thick,  yet  it  does  not  possess  the  power 
of  leaping;  and  when  we  examine  the  structure  of  this  part,  we  find 
that  it  dilfers  much  from  the  thickened  thigh  of  leaping  insects.  It 
is  formed  upon  the  same  type  as  the  same  part  in  some  of  the  Ihnaeia 
tribe  (among  beetles),  whidi  appears  to  be  used  for  clinging ;  and  this 
species,  inhabiting  marshy  situations,  would  probably  require  such  a 
dinging  apparatus  for  the  same  reason  as  the  JDtOfMcioi  do,  namely,  to 
keep  them  from  falling  into  the  water.  A  figure  of  the  leg  of  a 
species  of  Donaeias  is  given,  to  show  the  resemblance  both  in  the 
femur  and  curved  tibia. 

The  ChaleididcB  are  aU  parasitical  in  their  larva  state.  Some 
are  so  minute  as  to  -undeigo  their  metamorphosis  in  the  eg^  of  other 
insects.  The  chrysalides  of  some  of  the  lepidopterous  msects  not 
imfrequently  form  the  nidus  of  an  immense  number  of  these  little 
insects.  One  species  of  Ckaleit  generally  confines  its  attacks  to  the 
chrysalis  of  one  species  of  lepidopterous  insects ;  but  occasionally  we 
have  reared  more  than  one  species  of  the  ChalMida  from  the  same 
chrysalis. 

Mr.  Walker,  a  gentleman  who  has  written  much  on  this  group  of 
insects,  looks  upon  it  as  a  great  section  of  ffymenoptera  rather  than 
a  family,  and  his  views  appear  to  us  correct.  The  OMcidida  are 
divided  by  him  into  two  sections,  which  he  calls  Chalcidet  Pentameri 
and  Chalcidet  Tetrameri,  names  applied  from  their  having  five  or  four- 
jointed  tarsi ;  each  of  these  sections  is  again  subdivided  into  several 
fiunilies,  the  species  of  which  are  exceedingly  numerous.  Mr.  West- 
wood,  who,  as  well  as  Mr.  Walker,  has  paid  great  attention  to  this  inter- 
esting group,'  states  that  there  are  probably  1500  species  in  England. 

CHALCOLITE,  a  mineral  of  a  green  colour  containing  Uranium. 
[Uranium.] 

CHALI'COMTS,  a  genus  of  Rodent  if ammaZui^  allied  to  the  beaver. 
From  Eppelsheim ;  in  Tertiary  beds. 

CHALICOTHE'RIUM,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Pachydermatous  Animals 
allied  to  the  Tapirs,  comprising  two  species  found  at  Epplesheim, 
about  12  leagues  south  of  Mayence,  in  sand,  supposed  to  be  of  the 
Second  Tertiary  or  Miocene  period  of  LyelL  (Kaup,  DetcripHon 
d^OstemeTU  FouUet,  Darmst,  1832.) 

CHALILITE,  a  mineral  belonging  to  the  group  of  Zeolites.  It 
occurs  massive.  Its  fracture  is  splintery  and  flat  conchoidal.  Hard- 
ness 4*5.  Colour  deep  reddish-brown.  Lustre  between  vitreous  and 
resinous.    Translucent  on  the  edges.    Specific  gravity  2*252. 

By  the  blowpipe  it  becomes  white,  and  spreads  out ;  with  carbonate 
of  soda  it  effervesces,  and  fuses  with  some  difficulty  into  a  white  bead 
with  a  pearly  lustre ;  with  borax  it  fuses  into  a  colourless  glass. 
It  is  found  in  the  county  of  Antrim,  Ireland. 

Analysis  by  Dr.  Thompson  : — 

Silica 36*56 

Alumina 26*20 

Lime 10*28 

Peroxide  of  Iron 9*28 

Soda 2*72 

Water 16*66 


101*70 
CHALIMUS,  a  genus  of  Entomostracous  Cruttaeea  allied  to  Ccdigus. 
[Calioub.] 

CHALK  FORMATION  and  CRETACEOUS  GROUP,  in  Oeology, 
consist  of  the  upper  strata  of  the  Secondary  series  immediately 
below  the  Tertiary  series  and  superincumbent  on  the  Wealden,  or 
whore  that  is  wanting,  on  the  Oolitic  system.  This  group  is  common 
to  Europe,  and  also  to  at  least  a  part  of  Aaia.  It  consists  of  chalk 
resting  upon  either  an  arenaceous  or  argillaceous  deposit.  The  Chalk 
bears  a  remarkably  uniform  mineralogical  character  over  a  surface 
extending  from  the  British  Islands  through  Northern  France,  Northern 
Germany,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  into  both  European  and  Asiatic 
Russia.  (De  La  Beche, '  Res.  in  Theor.  GeoL')  The  Cretaceous  system 
is  subdivided  into  the  following  strata : — 


Chalk 


/Upper.     1.  Msstrichtbedi    . 
)  Lower.    2.  Chalk  with  flints . 


•  )  Marly.     8.  Chalk  without  flints,    -      . ,  ,  „„„^^„.  .,^.^.  «• 
^  and  Chalk  with  marl  >  ^  ^^l'^  nnmerons  species  of 

( Upper  Greenland     .    .    .    .       '      manne  fossils  are  found. 

Greensand  .  <  Gault 

(  Lower  Greensand  {yeocomicn) 

The  area  over  which  this  system  prevails  in  England,  and  the  various 
strata  which  it  contains,  have  been  well  defined  by  geologists. 

The  Cretaceous  Group  occupies  nearly  the  whole  of  the  south- 
eastern part  of  England.  A  line  drawn  from  Crewkeme  on  the  south- 
west to  Hunstanton  on  the  north-east  forms  its  western  boundary ; 
and  it  extends  from  this  line  to  the  east  coast,  with  the  exception  of 
•  small  part  on  the  south-east.    It  is  also  found  on  the  north  of  the 


Wash  forming  the  Wolds  of  Lincolnshire.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
Humber  and  constitutes  also  the  Wolds  of  Yorkshire.  It  termizuitee 
near  Flamborough  Head  at  Speeton,  about  six  miles  north  of  that 
promontory.  The  same  formation  appears  to  prevail  in  the  north  of 
France,  extending  to  the  Cretaceous  district  of  Aix-la*Chape]le.  The 
Chalk,  or  upper  portion  of  the  system,  is  in  some  parts  covered  with 
the  strata  of  the  Tertiary  series ;  in  other  parts  it  is  denuded.  The 
Greensand  crops  out  round  its  edge,  which  is  broken  and  inteirapted 
in  manv  places  where  the  lower  strata  appear. 

On  the  north-east  the  Chalk  appears  in  a  narrower  belt  along  the  diff 
from  near  Cromer  to  Hunstanton.  From  Cromer  along  the  coast  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Thames,  and  along  the  north  bank  of  that  river,  it  is  con- 
cealed l^  the  upper  strata,  which  extend  a  considerable  distance  inland. 

Beginning  with  Norfolk  and  proceeding  southwards,  the  boundaiy 
line  between  the  Chalk  and  the  superior  strata  is  about  i  nulea  east 
of  Snettisham,  2  miles  west  of  Diss^  8  miles  east  of  Mildenhall, 
between  i  and  5  miles  west  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  continuing  to  the 
north-east  of  Hertfordshire  by  Hertford  and  near  St.  Alban's,  to  3  miles 
south-east  of  Wendover. 

In  the  northern  part  of  this  district  the  Chalk  has  in  a  few  places 
been  partially  denuded.  On  the  north-east  there  is  a  small  piece  of 
Chalk  along  the  banks  of  the  Bure.  The  town  of  Norwich  also  stands 
upon  Chalk,  which,  in  its  vicinity,  extends  along  the  banks  of  tht 
Yare  and  Wensum.  There  is  a  piece  of  Chalk  likewise  at  each  side 
of  small  parts  of  the  Stour  and  of  the  OrwelL  The  strata  super 
incumbent  on  the  Chalk  series  extend  a  little  beyond  TTxbridgeon  the 
west,  and  then  run  in  a  narrow  tongue  to  the  north-west,  8  miles 
south  of  Wendover,  which  intervening  space  at  that  point  is  the 
whole  width  of  the  denuded  Chalk,  Wendover  being  there  its  western 
limit.  The  Chalk  becomes  wider  towards  the  south-east,  taking  in 
Maidenhead ;  it  is  again  partially  covered  a  little  to  the  west  of  that 
place,  and  continues  in  a  very  uneven  line  to  Reading,  Newbury,  and 
a  little  to  the  east  of  Marlborou^  The  Tertiary  strata  then  run 
from  west  to  east  by  Kingaclere,  Sasingstoke,  Guildford,  to  3  miles 
north  of  Dorking,  round  by  the  Darent,  and  appear  near  Woolwich 
and  Greenwich.  Another  detached  portion  appears  in  the  north-west 
of  Kent,  taking  in  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  and  continues  from  the  sBstuaiy 
of  the  Medway  along  the  coast  to  the  Isle  of  Thanetw  The  Chalk  is 
covered  on  the  west  and  north  of  Canterbury  and  at  Sandwich ;  ths 
beds  which  cover  it  terminate  on  the  coast  at  DeaL  On  the  south 
coast,  from  Worthing  westward,  the  Chalk  is  again  concealed  by  the 
superincumbent  series,  extending  nearly  in  a  straight  line  through 
Cluchester  as  far  as  a  little  to  the  east  of  Salisbury ;  it  then  continues 
in  a  south-west  direction  nearly  as  far  as  Dorchester.  The  Chalk 
passes  entirely  across  the  Isle  of  Wight  nearly  from  east  to  west,  in 
a  narrow  ridge  consisting  of  vertical  strata,  from  Culver  Cliff  to 
Compton  Bay ;  there  is  also  a  smaU  piece  on  the  south  of  the  island. 
The  limits  of  the  Chalk  on  the  other  side,  where  it  is  bounded  by  the 
outcropping  of  the  lower  strata  of  the  system,  remain  to  be  noticed. 
The  clif&  of  the  whole  of  the  Isle  of  Thanet  are  composed  of  Chalk. 
The  chalk-diffs  again  commence  near  Deal,  and  are  continued  past 
Dover  to  East  Weare  Bay,  a  distance  of  about  13  miles.  As  the 
Chalk  rises  from  Dover  towards  Folkstone  the  upper  beds  diBapi)ear, 
and  the  cliffs  consist  entirely  of  the  lower  members  of  that  stzatiun. 
The  rise  of  the  Marly  Chalk  occurs  about  14  mile  to  the  east  of  the 
escarpment  of  Folkstone  Hill,  which  is  56^  feet  high.  Just  at  the 
rise  of  this  bed  there  is  a  very  copious  and  perennial  spring  culled 
Lydden  Spout  About  2000  paces  west  of  this  spring  the  cliff  recede^ 
fix)m  the  sea,  and  the  intermediate  shore  thence  to  Copt  Point  it 
occupied  by  a  mass  of  ruins  which  has  fallen  from  above.  The  sadden 
transition  from  the  chalk-clifis  is  very  remarkable;  Turning  inland 
the  chalk-rauge  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  outcrop  of  the  Green- 
sand strata,  which  extend  4  miles  north  of  Ashford,  3  miles  north  of 
Maidstone,  and  is  cut  by  the  Medway,  whence  it  forms  a  line  curving 
outward  to  the  south  as  far  as  the  Darent,  where  it  is  5  miles  north 
of  Sevenoaks.  Merstham  is  on  the  boundary,  which  then  continuea 
in  nearly  a  west  direction,  immediately  north  of  Reigate  to  Box  Hill. 
near  Dorking,  and  thence  to  Guildford,  leaving  a  veiy  narrow  ridge  of 
Chalk.  From  Guildford  to  a  point  about  2  miles  from  Famham  thers 
is  a  remarkable  ridge,  called  the  Hog's  Back,  produced  by  an  upthrow 
of  the  Chalk  and  the  breaking  off  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  carrs. 
The  coast  between  Copt  Point  and  Beachy  Head,  near  these  respectire 
points,  is  occupied  on  each  side  by  the  Greensand,  and  the  inter 
mediate  space  by  the  Wealden  Clay  and  Hastings  Sand:  the  two 
latter  do  not  belong  to  this  series,  being  lower  denuded  strata.  The 
Sussex  chalk-range,  or  South  Downs,  commences  at  Eastbourne,  near 
Beachy  Head,  and  continues  thence  along  the  coast  beyond  Shoreham 
and  onwards  in  a  west-by-north  direction.  The  Greensand  bonnda  it 
on  the  north,  and  leaves  a  range  of  Chalk  varying  from  8  to  3  nilea 
in  breadth.  About  3  miles  south-west  of  PetersSeld  the  Greensand 
again  sinks  below  the  Chalk,  which  is  connected  with  the  north  range 
by  the  Alton  chalk-hills,  ruiming  from  near  Famham  to  near  Butaer 
HiU  (917  feet). 

It  now  remains  to  define  the  boundary  of  the  Chalk  from  Doraetahire 
on  the  south-west  to  Norfolk  on  the  north-east.  It  has  been  thus 
described  by  Dr.  Fitton :— "  The  great  range  of  the  chalk-escarpment 
in  the  interior  of  England,  which  stretches  like  the  diore  of  a  sea  or 
lake  from  Crewkeme  in  Dorsetshire  to  the  north-east  of  Danstablem 


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CHALK  FORMATION. 


CHALK  FORMATION. 


OM 


Btsdfordshire,  Ib  perfectly  analogous  in  structure  and  appeanmce  to 
the  Downs  of  Surrey  and  Sussex.  It  is  interrupted  by  three  or  four 
indentations  or  gulfs ;  one  of  great  width,  opening  towards  the  west 
between  Crewkeme  and  the  heights  about  Stourh^,  in  South  Wilt- 
ahire ;  another  expanding  to  the  north-west^  and  terminating  in  the 
defile  where  the  Thames  cuts  through  the  chalk  in  its  way  to  the 
south-east  from  Buckinghamshire  and  Oxfordshire.  The  vales  of 
Pewsey  and  of  Warminster  are  intermediate  bays  of  the  same  general 
structure,  but  of  smaller  dimensions ;  and  all  these  valleys  are  appa- 
rently the  result  of  denudation,  aided  by  previous  disturbance  of  the 
strata,  which  has  carried  away  the  chalk,  and  laid  bare  to  various 
depths  the  strata  beneath  it."  ('  Qeol.  Tram,'  2nd  series,  vol.  iv.  part 
2nd.y  p.  243.)  From  the  heights  near  Dunstable  ike  Upper  Chalk 
range  passes  through  the  north-west  of  Hertfordshire,  by  Hitchin 
and  Baldock,  to  Barkway  and  Royston  Downs,  and  thence  by  Balsham 
and  Newmarket  into  Suffolk  by  Mildenhall,  2  miles  west  of  Brandon, 
4  miles  west  of  Downham,  by  Narborough,  and  on  to  Snettisham. 
The  chalk-hills  decline  rapidly  in  height  in  the  north-east  of  Bedford- 
shire. Kensworth  Hill  is  904  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  the 
hills  east  of  that  town  are  850  feet  high.  Lilleyhoe  is  664  feet ; 
Barkway  Windmill,  513  feet;  the  station  near  Royston,  484  feet; 
Balsham,  on  the  east  of  Cambridge,  380  feet ;  Newmarket  station, 
267  feet;  Brandon,  in  Suffolk,  190  feet.  The  chalk-hills  stretching 
from  Cambridgeshire  to  the  north-west  coast  of  Norfolk  rise  nowhere 
probably  above  600  feet  in  height,  bounding  "the  fen  country  like 
the  low  shore  of  a  sea." 

The  Chalk  Inland  Range  is  highest  towards  the  central  part  between 
WUtshire  and  Hertfordshire.  In  departing  from  that  central  Vact 
the  rise  is  comparatively  small  both  towards  Devonshire  on  the  south, 
as  well  as  in  the  counties  northwards.  The  Chalk  nearly  disappears 
in  Devonshire,  a  few  insulated  portions  only  appearing  there,  prin- 
cipaUy  upon  the  coast  between  Sidmouth  and  Lyme,  and  along  a  line 
from  Befuninster  through  Chard  and  White  Stanton.  The  transition 
from  the  Chalk  to  the  Greensand  is  here  distinctly  seen,  especially  on 
the  south-west  of  Axmouth,  where  sections  of  the  subjacent  beds  are 
exposed  in  the  oli£&.  In  many  parts  of  the  chalk-range  the  upper 
and  lower  strata  are  well  defined  even  by  the  outward  features ;  a 
marked  difference  appearing  in  the  vegetation  and  general  aspect 
The  Upper  Chalk  has  usuedly  layers  of  flint  nodufes  occurring  at 
regrular  intervals,  and  is  softer  than  the  Lower  Chalk.  At  Sandown 
Bay,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight^the  latter  stratum  is  defined  W  a  layer  of 
distant  and  insulated  flints  which  separates  it  from  the  Flinty  Chalk 
above ;  it  is  sometimes  of  a  grayish  colour,  as  is  also  the  bed  of  Marly 
Chalk  immediately  beneath  it.  This  Marly  Chalk  is  of  a  temicious 
nature,  and  sustains  the  water  which  descends  through  the  Chalk; 
in  consequence,  a  line  of  ponds  has  been  produced  along  the  bottom 
of  the  escarpment  of  the  South  Downs.  The  Malm-Land,  remarkable 
for  its  fertility,  is  the  soil  over  the  lowest  beds  of  Marly  Chalk.  The 
Malm-Rock,  immediately  below  the  Marly  Chalk,  consists  of  stony  beds 
belonging  to  Uie  Upper  Qreensand  formation.  Salisbury  Plain,  which 
is  more  Uian  25  miles  in  extent  from  west  to  east,  and  12  miles  from 
north  to  south,  is  occupied  by  the  Upper  Chalk.  Though  it  has  many 
inequaliUes  of  surface,  it  would  be  almost  destitute  of  water  but  for 
the  Avon  and  its  branches,  which  traverse  itw  But  in  the  tracts 
occupied  bv  the  Lower  Chalk,  and  still  more  in  the  Chalk  Marl,  there 
are  few  valleys  without  streams ;  hence,  as  well  as  owing  to  the  dif- 
ferenoe  of  soil,  the  vegetation  differs  also,  and  the  luxuriance  of  the 
lower  regions  affords  a  strong  contrast  to  the  barrenness  of  the  higher 
downs.  The  village  of  Dunstable  stands  on  the  Lower  Chalk,  which 
may  be  distinctly  traced  from  Tottemhoe  through  Houghton  Regis, 
Upper  Sundon,  and  Streatley. 

Accurate  measures  of  the  entire  thickness  of  the  Chalk  have  rarely 
been  made  in  England.  The  following  are  however  approximate 
numbers  taken  from  the  best  authorities.  Sir  Henry  De  La  Beohe's 
estimate  of  the  average  thickness  of  this  stratum  is  700  feet.  Dr. 
Conybeare  considers  it  to  range  from  600  to  1000  feet.  The  height 
of  the  cliff  at  Beachy  Head,  which  at  the  summit  includes  part  of  the 
Flinty  Chalk,  and  goes  down  very  nearly  to  the  Upper  Greensand,  is 
only  535  feet;  350  feet  is  the  thickness  of  the  Flinty  Chalk  at  Dover. 
If  then  250  feet  are  added  for  the  remainder  of  that  division  at 
Beachy  Head  the  aggregate  thickness  of  the  chalk  on  the  Susr^x 
coast  may  be  estimated  at  about  QOO  feet.  At  Wendover  Hill  the 
total  thickness  of  chalk  is  considered  something  more  than  500  feet. 
At  Diss,  in  Norfolk,  it  was  found  by  boring  to  be  510  feet  The 
great -variation  in  thickness  is  ascribed  in  part  to  the  unequal  removal 
and  abrasion  of  the  upper  strata,  and  in  part  to  the  original  inequality 
in  the  thickness  of  the  Chalk  itself. 

Qreensand. — The  general  position  of  this  stratum  has  been  suffi- 
ciently indicated  in  describing  the  boundary  of  the  Chalk,  the  former 
oatcropping  round  the  latter  in  an  uneven  line,  in  some  places  much 
wider  than  in  others. 

The  Upper  Qreensand  commences  immediately  on  the  north  of 
Copt  Point;  beyond  Folkstone,  where  the  succession  of  the  various 
beds  of  the  system  is  best  seen.  Here  the  Upper  Qreensand  is  of 
comparatively  small  thickness,  and  occupies  a  very  narrow  belt  round 
the  Chalk,  running  in  a  west^north-west  and  then  in  a  westerly 
direction,  as  already  defined  in  describing  the  chalk  boundary.  It 
asiamea  a  new  character  near  Qodstone,  and  is  there  more  distinctly 


marked.  The  firestone  obtuned  in  that  part  of  the  country  is  in  the 
Upper  Qreensand,  occupying  four  beds  separated  by  seams  of  stratifi- 
cation; the  thickness  of  the  first  two  beds  is  respectivelv  1  foot 
9  inches  and  1  foot  i  inches ;  the  two  others  are  only  10  inches  each. 
This  stone  is  extensively  quarried  between  Qodstone  and  Reigate. 
Continuing  still  in  a  narrow  belt  to  Quildford,  the  Upper  Qreensand 
forms  a  slight  projection  along  the  foot  of  the  Hog's  Back ;  from 
Famham  by  Selbome  and  Petersfield  to  the  south  of  Petworth,  this 
stratum  runs  out  beyond  the  foot  of  the  chalk-escarpment  like  a  step 
or  terrace.  Near  Petersfield  it  is  remarkable  for  its  width,  which  is 
there  2  miles,  a  much  greater  extent  than  at  any  other  part  A  little 
east  of  Petersfield,  for  a  short  space,  this  stratum  entirely  disappears; 
it  then  continues  in  a  narrow  belt  along  the  north  escarpment  of  the 
South  Downs.  This  formation  la  but  partially  disclosed  along  the 
base  of  the  central  ridge  of  Chalk  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  but  it  is 
distmctly  seen  along  the  escarpments  of  the  Under-Cliff ;  its  step-like 
projection  beyond  the  Chalk,  as  seen  in  Western  Sussex,  is  likewise 
observable  here  in  several  places. 

In  the  Isle  of  Purbeck  the  Qreensand  runs  in  a  narrow  band  on  the 
south  escarpment  of  the  Chalk,  but  there  the  separation  of  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Qreensands  has  in  a  great  measure  disappeared,  and  the 
latter  is  greatly  reduced  in  thickness  or  wholly  united  with  the  Upper 
Qreensand.  The  Black  Down  HiUs,  in  Devonshire,  are  composed  of 
Qreensand;  the  two  beds  thus  united  wanting  the  intermediate 
Qault.  These  hills  are  distinguished  by  the  uniform  level  of  their 
summits ;  and,  when  cursorily  viewed,  appear  to  be  composed  of  hori- 
zontal or  nearly  horizontal  beds  of  Qreensand,  with  here  and  there 
an  occasional  patch  of  Chalk.  It  is  found  however  that  the  rocks 
composing  these  hills  have  been  fractured  subsequently  to  their 
deposition,  and  that  the  valleys  mostly  are  lines  of  faults  having  a 
general  northerly  direction.     At  some  parts  there  are  faults  which 


do  not  form  valleys.  In  a  section  across  a  southern  part  of  the 
hills  the  Chalk  and  Qreensand  seem  to  form  a  continuance ;  Qreensand 
being  on  one  side  of  a  vertical  section,  and  Chalk  on  the  other.  In 
the  yellowish  sand,  near  ike  smface,  at  the  Bamscombe  side  of  the 
Beacon  Hill,  brown  iron  ore  is  found  in  polished  fragments  of  very 
high  lustre.  Whetstones  are  obtuned  from  the  Black-Down  Hills, 
the  manufacture  of  which  occupies  a  great  number  of  the  neighbouring 
inhabitants.  The  quarries  are  driven  in  direct  lines  into  the  hill, 
almost  horizontally,  about  80  feet  below  the  top  of  the  hill  The 
stones  from  which  the  whetstones  are  cut  are  irregular  concrete 
masses,  imbedded  in  a  looser  sand,  and  more  properly  belong  to  the 
Lower  Qreensand  stratum;  but  the  different  strata  of  the  Qreensand 
of  these  hills  are  not  distinguished  by  Dr.  Fitton,  as  the  Qault 
between  the  Upper  and  Lower  Qreensand  is  entirely  wanting.  The 
Upper  Qreensand  is  not  distinctly  marked  in  the  great  south-western 
escarpment  of  the  Chalk  till  beyond  the  Stour,  from  the  north  bank 
of  which  it  extends  northward  for  about  10  miles  to  Shaftesbury, 
and  continues  thence  round  the  Yale  of  Wardour.  On  the  south  side 
of  the  Vale  of  Wardour  the  upper  beds  of  this  stratum  are  concealed 
at  the  foot  of  the  chalk-hills,  but  the  lower  beds  shoot  out  into 
plateaus,  whidi  form  the  tops  of  the  hills  all  the  way  from  Shaftes- 
bury along  the  south  side  of  the  Vale  of  Wardour.  On  the  north 
side  of  the  vale,  the  whole  series  of  the  Upper  Qreensand  rises 
abruptly  and  forms  a  narrow  ridge  of  unequal  height.  At  the  north 
of  the  valley  this  stratum  appears  to  consist  of  two  portions :  that 
which  immediately  succeeds  the  Chalk  is  the  same  as  tibie  firestone  of 
Surrey ;  the  other  is  equivalent  to  the  Malm-Rock  of  Sussex,  and 
abounds  in  chert  In  a  well  sunk  at  Bidgo  the  Upper  Qreensand  is 
distinguished  into  four  different  strata,  their  aggregate  thickness 
being  100  feet.  The  Upper  Qreensand  is  not  nearly  so  conspicuous 
inland  as  near  the  coast;  from  the  Vale  of  Wardour  it  does  not  occur 
again  till  the  Vale  of  Pewsey.  The  town  of  Devizes  stands  upon  a 
platform  of  the  Upper  Qreensand,  which  is  there  about  430  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  occurs  a^ain  at  Swindon,  and  then  at  Tetsworth,  whence 
it  continues  in  a  narrow  belt  and  in  a  north-east  direction  beyond 
Cambridge. 

The  Upper  Qreensand  consists  in  some  places  of  a  soft  marly 
sand,  traversed  in  every  direction  by  stem-like  cylinders,  having 
within  them  cores  of  darker  green  matter;  it  also  contains  some 
irregular  masses  of  a  bright  brown  or  orange  hue,  but  the  greater 
part  is  composed  of  gray  calcareous  marl,  resembling  the  lowest 
chalk,  but  so  thickly  interspersed  with  green  particles  as  to  entirely 
assimie  their  colour.  The  green  particles,  according  to  analysis,  are 
found  to  consist  of — 

SiUca 48'6 

Black  Oxide  of  lion 22 

Alumina 17 

Magnesia        ....  .        .      8'8 

Water .     .       7 

Potnsh    .        .  ■     .  ti-accd 

98-8 


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CHALK  FORMATION. 


CHALK  FORMATION. 


The  thickDoas  of  this  series  near  Folkstone  is  from  25  to  80  feet : 
at  Qodstone  it  increases  considerably,  and  the  depth  of  the  wells 
sank  through  it  in  the  Malm-Rock  strata  of  Hampshire  varies  from 
60  to  100  feet  In  Western  Sussex  the  thickness  is  between  70  and 
80  feet.  It  is  about  70  feet  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  The  thickness  of 
the  Qreensand  at  Black  Down  is  about  100  feet»  probably  from  60  to 
80  feet  in  the  Yale  of  Wardour,  and  from  80  to  50  feet  near  Swindon. 
At  Cambridge  it  is  not  more  than  18  inches;  thence  through  West 
Norfolk  the  stratum  is  nowhere  distinctly  seen.  At  Hunstanton 
the  beds  which  are  supposed  to  represent  it  are  not  more  than  2  feet 
thick. 

Qault — The  stratum  which  is  usually  found  between  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Qreensand  is  obscured  at  East  Weare  Bay  by  the  ruins 
of  the  superior  beds,  but  is  visible  in  detached  points.  Farther  on, 
towards  Folkstone,  it  becomes-  more  marked,  and  forms  the  greater 
part  of  the  cliff  at  Copt  Pointy  as  well  as  the  gvMsy  cliff  between 
the  base  of  the  Martello  tower,  situated  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  sea. 
Thence  it  forms  a  narrow  band  between  the  Upper  and  Lower  Qreen- 
sand. Near  Qodstone  it  occupies  a  tract  distinguished  as  '  the  Black 
Land,'  and  forms  a  slight  depression  below  the  stratum  which  affords 
the  firestone.  Between  Farnham  and  Alton  this  narrow  belt  of 
Qault  swells  out  to  three  or  four  times  its  former  width,  and  then 
again  narrowing,  continues  to  form  a  narrow  band  between  the  two 
strata  of  Qreensand  as  far  as  Beachy  Head.  In  the  Isle  of  Wight 
this  stratum  likewise  forms  a  narrow  band  between  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Qreensand.  The  Qault  again  appears  in  the  Yale  of  Wardour : 
on  the  south  it  forms  a  rapid  slope ;  on  the  north  a  depression  imme- 
diately below  the  sand.  It  is  here  identified  with  that  in  the  eastern 
counties  by  the  characteristic  fossils.  At  Ridge,  near  Fonthill  Park, 
the  clay  of  this  stratum  has  been  long  used  for  tile-making,  and  it  is 
there  75  feet  in  thickness.  From  the  Yale  of  Wardour,  and  thence 
north-eastward  to  the  sea  at  Hunstanton,  the  Qault  everywhere 
appears,  though  it  is  much  reduced  in  quantity  in  Norfolk.  This 
stratum  occupies  a  large  part  even  of  the  higher  grounds  between 
Whitchurch  and  Wing.  Immediately  to  the  west  of  Hitchin  and 
Baldock  it  is  still  wider;  the  towns  of  Shefford  and  Biggleswade 
stand  on  it.  From  Cambridge,  for  a  few  miles  towards  the  north,  it 
likewise  occupies  as  great  a  width.  In  consequence  of  the  numerous 
borings  for  water  made  in  Cambridgeshire  about  this  part>  its  relations 
and  thickness  have  been  well  tuBCertained,  especially  from  Basingboume 
through  Meldrith,  and  thence  towards  Cambridge.  This  stratum  is 
very  distinct  at  Mildenhall :  the  Blue  Qault  has  been  traced  as  far 
as  West  Newton,  about  three  miles  south  of  Ingoldsthorpe.  The 
valley  between  the  Chalk  and  Lower  Qreensand  is  there  interrupted 
by  an  advance  of  the  Chalk ;  and  beyond  that  point  the  Blue  Qault 
is  no  longer  observable:  its  place  is  thence  occupied  by  the  red 
marly  stratum  of  Hunstanton  Cliff,  which  is  a  calcareous  argillaceous 
matter,  4  feet  thick,  and  it  is  questioned  by  geologists  whether  the 
term  Qault  should  be  applied  to  it.  The  Qault,  as  far  as  regards  its 
composition,  may  be  divided  into  two  portions :  the  upper  party 
immediately  succeeding  the  Upper  Qreensand,  contains  green  particles, 
and  thence  for  some  feet  downwards  it  is  harsh  and  sandy.  The 
lower  portion  consists  of  a  smooth  imiform  very  plastic  clay,  of  a 
light-blueish  colour,  which  is  used  for  tiles  ana  common  pottery. 
Throughout  the  Qault,  but  chiefly  in  the  lower  part,  concretions  of 
iron  pyrites  are  found,  and  other  nodules  and  irregular  masses.  The 
thickness  of  this  stratum  at  Copt  Point  is  about  180  feet  At 
Merstham  it  is  150  feet  thick,  which  is  likewise  the  average  thickness 
in  Cambridgeshire.  In  the  Isle  of  Wight  it  is  about  70  feet;  at 
Ridge  about  75  feet ;  near  Thame  90  feet ;  at  Mildenhall  the  blue 
clay  is  only  9  feet  Mr.  Rose  considers  it  not  more  than  15  feet  in 
West  Norfolk. 

The  Lower  Qreensand.  —  This  stratum  appears  of  a  uniform 
surface,  shooting  out  beyond  the  Chalk  in  the  south-east  counties, 
and  occupies  a  much  larger  area  than  either  of  the  upper  strata  of 
the  Qreensand  series.  The  resemblance  in  the  aspect  of  the  surface 
of  the  coimtry,  here  occupied  by  the  Lower  Qreensand,  to  that  of 
the  Black-Down  Hills,  in  Devonshire,  is  extremely  striking;  and 
I>erhaps  indicates  that  the  description  of  the  latter  more  properly 
belongs  to  this  section  than  to  that  which  treats  of  the  Upper  Qreen- 
sand stratum.  The  Lower  Qreensand  has  three  distinct  subdivisions, 
clearly  defined  in  most  parts  where  it  occurs.  This  series  of  strata 
rises  gradually  from  Copt  Point,  and  occupies  the  whole  cliff  west  of 
the  village;  thence  it  is  continued  without  interruption  through 
Sandgate,  and  in  the  heights  above  Hythe.  Its  outcrop  turns  from 
the  coast  to  the  interior  at  Adlington  Comer ;  here  the  subdivisions 
are  all  distinctly  marked,  and  their  respective  limits  defined.  The 
lower  beds,  which  contain  much  calcareous  matter,  are  extensively 
worked  in  quarries,  both  fbr  building  and  lime-burning,  at  Pluckley, 
on  the  north-west,  and  at  Ghreat  Chart,  on  the  south-west  of  Ashford ; 
and  generally  along  the  outcrop  west  of  Adlington  Comer,  where  it 
forms  a  prominent  ridge  adjoining  the  valley  of  the  Weald :  here 
are  the  principal  beds  of  stone  known  under  the  name  of  '  Kentish 


xtensive  quarries  are  worked  at  Boughton,  to  the  south  of  Maid- 
stone. The  stone  for  the  construction  of  Westminster  Abbey  is  said 
to  have  been  procured  here.  The  stone  is  a  variety  of  the  Kentish 
rag.    Fro|n  ^dlington  Comer  tiie  Lower  Qreensand  continues  towards 


the  west  in  a  broad  band  varying  in  width ;  on  the  coast  the  distance 
from  the  Chalk  at  Folkstone  Hill  to  the  outcrop  of  this  series  is  about 
10  miles,  but  from  Lenham  to  the  outcrop  it  is  not  more  than  2 
mileSk  Maidstone,  Sevenoaks,  Qodstone,  Reigate,  Dorking,  and  Qodal- 
ming  stand  on  the  Lower  Qreensand  series.  Near  Qodstone  the 
surface  is  comparatively  lower,  and  ponds  are  friequent  where  the 
middle  stratum  occurs ;  the  stony  beds  of  the  lowest  group  then  rise 
to  form  the  escarpment  of  Tilburstow  Hill,  which  is  nearly  on  a 
level  with  the  Chalk  Downs.  At  the  top  of  the  hill,  the  beds,  which 
to  the  north  of  Tilburstow  HUl  rise  uniformly  at  an  angle  of  not 
more  than  10  degrees,  are  suddenly  thrown  up  to  about  45  degrees, 
giving  decisive  evidence  of  an  elevation  from  the  Chalk,  or  of  a 
sinking  towards  it.  Fullers*  Earth  has  been  dug  in  this  part  of  Surrey 
for  a  very  long  period;  at  present  the  neighbourhood  of  Nutfidd  is 
the  only  place  in  which  it  is  got  The  beds  occur  near  the  top  of 
the  lowest  stratum  of  Qreensand ;  in  one  pit  near  Nutfield  the  prin- 
cipal bed  of  Fullers'  Earth  is  16  feet  thick.  On  the  south  of  th« 
Hog's  Back  the  Lower  Qreensand  rises,  like  the  Chalk,  at  a  veiy  high 
angle,  and  then,  being  bent  suddenly  in  an  opposite  direction,  ia 
continued  several  miles  to  the  south.  Hindhead  is  the  most  prominent 
point  in  this  part  of  the  country,  where  the  whole  of  the  tiact 
occupied  by  the  Lower  Qreensand  is  wild  and  barren,  producing  only 
fern,  heath,  and  furze. 

Ajb  this  formation  turns  towards  the  east  and  continues  along 
Sussex  to  the  coast,  it  is  not  nearly  so  wide  as  on  the  north  of  the 
Weald.  At  Beachy  Head  it  is  three  miles  wide,  but  it  is  only  one  mile 
wide  a  little  to  the  west  of  the  spot  where  the  Adur  runs  through  it 
The  Lower  Qreensand  occupies  a  great  part  of  the  surface  on  the 
south  of  the  Isle  of  Wight)  and  is  everywhere  conformable  to  the 
Chalk,  a  ridge  of  highly-inclined  strata  of  Qreensand  creasing  the 
island  from  the  shore  on  the  south  of  Bembridge-Down  to  the  foot 
of  Afton  Down.  The  sands  likewise  form  the  lower  ground  of 
the  interior  from  Mottestone  through  Newchurch  to  the  coast 

A  narrow  belt  of  Qreensand  runs  along  the  west  and  north-west 
of  Dorsetshire.  In  the  Yale  of  Wardour  the  Lower  Qreensand  is 
nowhere  prominent ;  but  it  occupies  the  whole  of  the  entrance  of  the 
Yale  of  Pewsey,  and  continues  with  its  subdivisions  well  defined 
through  the  northern  coimties  in  a  north-east  direction  as  far  as  the 
coast  of  Noi-fol^  The  greatest  width  of  the  formation  in  this  part 
occurs  between  Leighton  and  Amptbill  in  Bedfordshire,  where  it 
rises  in  Bow-Brickhill  to  the  height  of  688  feet  above  the  sea.  Near 
Wobum  there  is  a  fullers*  earth  pit,  the  beds  of  which  occur,  like 
those  in  Surrey,  near  the  top  of  the  lowest  division ;  that  of  the  best 
quality  is  in  a  bed  from  seven  to  nine  feet  thick.  The  pits  in  this  part 
of  the  country  have  continued  to  supply  fullers'  earth  for  more  than  a 
hundred  years. 

The  three  groups  into  which  this  stratum  is  divided  are^  in  most 
places  in  the  south-east  counties  where  sections  have  been  made,  well 
defined;  and  in  general,  in  different  situations  where  this  fonnfttion 
occurs,  the  respective  characteristics  are  found  to  be  alike.  The 
Cretaoean  System  is  not  confined  to  England,  but  is  found  extending 
over  very  laige  portions  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  seen  is 
France  on  the  coasts  opposite  to  England,  and  it  is  foimd  on  the 
north  as  far  as  Denmark.  It  may  in  fact  be  traced  from  the  north- 
east of  Ireland  to  the  borders  of  Asia  Minor,  and  from  Denmsrk  to 
the  south  of  France.  It  also  has  its  representative  in  some  perts  of 
North  America.  In  South  America  deposits  of  this  period  have  also 
been  developed  along  the  whole  country  fr^m  Columbia  to  Tlcna 
del  Fuego.  The  south-east  of  India  has  also  yielded  foasfls^  whidi 
apparently  belong  to  this  period. 

The  oipiuic  remains  in  the  Chalk  and  Qreensands  are  nsnaDy 
abundant,  and  ara  mostly  marine.  They  consist  of  marine  plants : 
/n/tMorta,  Sponges,  Zoophytes,  Echinodermata,  MoUuica,  CrtuUteea^ 
Fishes,  and  Reptiles.  Sir  Henry  De  La  Beche  obeervea^  tiiat 
"  Organic  remains  are  in  general  beautifully  preserved  in  the  chalk ; 
substances  of  no  greater  solidity  than  common  sponges  retain  their 
forms,  delicate  shells  remain  unbroken,  fish  even  are  frequently  not 
flattened,  and  altogether  we  have  api)earances  which  justify  us  in 
concluding  that  since  these  organic  exuvisD  were  entombed  they  have 
been  protected  from  the  effects  of  pressure  by  the  consolidation  of 
the  rock  around  them,  and  that  they  have  been  very  tranqiuDy 
enveloped  in  exceedingly  fine  matter,  such  as  we  should  oonaider 
would  result  from  a  chemical  precipitate." 

The  most  remarkable  form  in  which  the  fossils  of  this  fcmnatioa 
appear  is  that  of  flint  The  production  of  this  substance  has  by  some 
been  referred  to  organic  agencies.    [Flimt.] 

Although  the  remains  of  plants  are  rare  in  tiiis  formation  ia 
England,  they  have  been  found  in  abundance  in  the  oontemporaaeoua 
sandstones  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  Amongst  them  have  been 
found  the  remains  of  dicotyledonous  plants. 

An  examination  of  the  flints  by  the  mierosoope  reveals  the 
existence  of  many  forms  of  JHatwMUiea  in  the  Chiyk.  From^  the 
siliceous  structure  of  their  frustules  these  organisms  are  entirely 
preserved  wherever  they  occur.  A  large  number  of  spedes  hsT« 
been  discovered  in  the  Chalk.    [Diatoicacxjl] 

Amongst  the  lowest  animals  we  must  now  reckon  the  P^rmmw^feraf 
which  were  formerly  regarded  as  minute  CXepKalopoda  by  IXOibflgny. 
Many  forms  of  these  creatures,  which  seem  to  hold  a  place  between 


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029 


CHALTBJSUa 


CHAMACEA. 


no 


the  Sponges  and  aome  of  the  Iirfvmria  are  found  in  the  Chalk. 

[FORAMIHirB&A.] 

Of  the  Zooph^teSy  the  Poljftoa  have  been  found  in  the  greatest 
abundance  in  the  Cretaoeooa  beds  (N'eoe<mien)  of  the  continent  of 
Europe.    They  have  been  most  elaborately  described  by  D'Orbigny. 

[POLTZOA.] 

The  Sehinodermata  abounded  during  the  period  of  the  deposit  of 
the  GhaU:,  and  afford  a  larger  number  of  interesting  forms  than  occur 
in  any  other  formation.  The  genus  MarmpUet  affi)rds  an  instance  of 
the  passage  amongst  these  creatures  from  Encrinitea  to  the  Spatangi, 
Numerous  spedes  of  Spatcmgut,  Oidarit,  QoniatUr,  and  other  genera 
of  this  fiiuxuly  are  found.  The  spines  of  the  Schmida  are  often  found 
separated  from  the  shelL    [Eohinodxbicata.] 

SeYeral  forms  of  Onutaeea  belonging  to  the  more  highly-developed 
sections  of  the  fiimily  are  found. 

The  MoUutca  are  abundant  Of  these  the  forms  of  Brachiopoda, 
especially  TertbrtUnla,  are  numerous.  The  genus  Budittes,  which 
D'Orbigny  refers  to  the  Brachiopoda,  is  in  some  respects  the  most 
interesting  of  the  MoUutca  of  the  Cretaoeous  Fonnations.  The 
species  are  most  abundant  in  the  Cretaceous  series  of  the  South  of 
Europe.  The  Cephalopodous  Molhuca  were  very  numerous  and 
varied  in  their  forms  during  the  Cretaoeous  period.  The  following 
genera  are  found : — Nauiiiut,  Ammonitei,  Orioceratitet,  TurrUUea, 
Scaphite$,  BaeuUUt,  Hamita,  and  others. 

The  fishes  of  the  Cretaoeous  system  are  numerous,  and  belong  to 
the  Plaooid,  Oanoid,  Ctenoid,  and  Cycloid  types.  Of  the  last  two  the 
genera  are  fewer  in  nimiber  than  of  the  first  two.  The  Ctenoids  and 
Cycloida  however  i4>pear  in  the  Cretaceous  system  for  the  first  time, 
and  are  interesting  on  this  account. 

The  Reptiles,  though  not  so  numerous  in  the  Cretaceous  period 
ss  in  that  which  immediately  preceded  it,  are  nevertheless  numerous. 
It  is  here  that  the  Mo§aiawrua  has  been  found,  also  several  spedes  of 
Pterodaetyli,  and  the  remains  of  the  Igttanodon  and  Ichthiyotaitimi, 
with  species  of  Chdonia, 

CHALYBiBUS,  a  genus  of  Birds,  separated  bv  Cuvier  from  the 
Cassieana  of  Buffon ;  Barita  of  Cuvier.  The  bill  has  the  same  form 
as  that  of  the  Cassicans,  but  it  is  a  httle  laiger  at  the  base  than  that 
organ  is  in  the  last-named  genus,  and  the  nosbrils  are.  pierced  in  a  laige, 
membranous  space. 

The  species  come  from  New  Quinea,  and  are  remarkable  for  the 
metallic  tints  of  their  plumage. 

Example,  CkalyhoBut  paraditaui.  This  richly-plumed  bird  is  the 
ParadUea  viridis  of  Qmelin ;  Le  Calyb^  de  la  Nouvelle  Guin^  of 
Buffon ;  Le  Qrand  Chalyb^  of  Le  YaiUant ;  Oiseau  de  Paradis  Vert  of 
Sonnerat;  Paradiieaehalyhea,  Blue-Qreen  Paradise  Bird,  of  Lathun; 
Cractiew  chalybetu  of  Yieillot ;  Barita  viridis  of  the  first  edition  of 


Blue-Green  Bird  of  Paradise  {Chalybtnts  paradisaus). 

the  '  B^e  Animal '  (where  it  was  placed  under  the  Cassicans,  Bdrita), 
and  Chalyhamt  paraditcBua  of  the  last  edition.  It  is  the  Mansin^e 
of  the  Papuan  tongue,  according  to  Lesson,  who  thus  writes  on  the 
subject  from  personal  observation : — ^'^  Among  the  numerous  skins  of 
birds  of  paradise  which  the  inhabitants  of  New  Guinea  brought  daily 
vjo,  mss,  DXV.  TOL.  z 


on  board,  I  found  some  Ohalphad  deprived  of  their  feet,  and  run 
through  with  a  stick  like  the  skins  of  the  true  birds  of  paradise. 
Afterwards  we  often  procured  in  our  shooting  parties  a  bird  which 
does  not  vary  from  that  of  which  we  speak,  except  in  having  a  more 
sombre  and  tarnished  plumage,  there  being  no  difference  in  the  pro- 
portions  of  the  body,  bill,  wings,  or  taiL  We  regard  it  as  a  slight 
variety  of  the  Calybd  of  authors ;  for  those  that  we  saw  which  were 
adult  and  in  complete  plumage,  did  not  peimit  us  to  thhik  that  they 
could  be  ChalybcBi  before  or  after  their  moult.  The  total  length  of 
our  Chalyb(gu$  was  14  inches  6  lines  (Frendi).  The  bill  differed  not 
at  all  from  the  ordinary  Chalybceut,  The  head  is  large,  and  the  tail, 
6  inches  in  length,  is  rounded  by  the  disposition  of  the  feathere^  as  in 
the  preceding.  The  plumage  is  entirely  bluish  metallic  green, 
having  none  of  the  iridescent,  varying,  and  violet  tints.  The  feathers 
of  the  neck  and  abdomen  are  not  figured  (gaufr^es),  nor  powdered 
(sablte)  with  gold  and  silver  on  a  green  and  blue  ground  of 
burnished  steel,  as  it  were  (d'acier  brun^,  like  the  CfhalyhcBtu;  but 
the  plumage  that  oovers  these  parts  has  a  uniform  tint,  having  the 
brilhani^  of  specular  iron  (fer  sp^culaire)  following  the  refiections 
of  the  light.  The  fSeathers  which  cover  the  head  and  neck  are  short, 
dose  set,  and  vdvety.  The  nostrils  are  partially  dosed  by  a  mem- 
brane covered  by  the  frontal  feathers,  which  advance  on  each  side 
of  the  edge  (ardte)  of  the  bill,  which  is  black.  The  iris  is  coral-red, 
and  the  legs  are  of  the  same  colour  as  the  bilL  Their  shanks  (tarses) 
are  covered  with  large  scales  (^ussons),  and  their  toes  are  strong, 
furnished  with  compressed  daws,  flattened  above,  and  crooked. 

"  The  Chalyb€But  lives  solitary  in  the  forests  of  New  Quinea.  We 
often  saw  it  perched  in  the  great  trees,  where  it  seeks  for  firuits. 
Its  manners  appeared  to  have  great  analogy  to  those  of  the  crows." 

CHALYBEATE  WATERa  The  water  of  springs  charged  with 
any  of  the  salts  of  iron  are  called  Chalybeate.    [Sfbinqb,  Minbbal.] 

CHAMA.    [Chamaoea.] 

CHAMA'CEA,  or  CHA'MID.S,  a  famihr  of  Conchiferous  MoUusea, 
the  third  of  the  Acephalous  or  Headless  Tataoeti,  according  to  Cuvier, 
who  places  them  between  his  MytHacea  (Hussel-like  Testaceans),  and 
his  Cardiacta  (Cockle-like  Testaceans). 

Under  the  Linnsean  genus  Ohama  many  heterog^eous  forms  were 
assembled ;  and  as  G.  Sowerby  observes,  "  in  his  arrangement  regcdar 
and  equivalve  shells  are  placed  with  sudi  as  are  irregular  and  equi- 
valve ;  f^e  shells  with  others  that  are  attadied  to  marine  bodies ; 
and  shells  which  have  two  distinct  muscular  impresdons  with  others 
which  have  only  one." 

Brugnike  first  divided  this  genus,  and  Lamarck  carried  out  the 
reformation.  The  latter  makes  the  Ohan^idtB  to  consist  of  the  genera 
DieeroM,  Cfkama,  and  Btheria,  placing  Tridaona  and  Hippoput  under 
his  Tridacn^  the  first  section  of  his  second  order  ConohifSres  Mono- 
myaires. 

Cuvier  made  the  Camao^  consist  of  the  genera  ChamOy  Tridacna, 
Hippopui,  Ckama  (Brug.),  Dicerat,  and  Isocardia, 

The  genus  Cfhama  has  the  following  characters : — ^The  valves  are 
irregular,  indining  for  the  most  part  to  the  orbicular  diape,  unequal, 
generally  foliated  or  spined  externally,  and  adherent.  The  umbones 
are  distant,  unequal,  and  curled  or  mvoluto.  The  hinge  consists  of 
one  thick  oblique  somewhat  notched  tooth,  inserted  into  the  groove 
of  the  oppodte  valve.  There  are  two  muscular  impressions,  and  they 
are  distant  and  lateral  The  ligament  is  external,  and  divided  into 
two  portions  at  its  posterior  extremity.  The  animal  {Ptilopui  of 
Poll)  is  less  irregular  than  the  shell,  and  cordiform,  or  heart-shaped ; 
the  two  lobes  of  the  mantle  unite  posteriorly,  and  in  the  commissure 
are  two  very  short  dilated  dphons,  like  those  of  Jtocordia.  Upon  the 
abdominal  mass  a  small  cylindrical  truncated  bent  foot  rises.  The  mouth 
is  small,  and  is  furnished  on  eadi  side  with  a  pair  of  somewhat  square 
and  obliqudy-truncated  palpi  Deshayes  states  that  all  the  indivi- 
duals of  the  same  species  adhere  by  the  valve  of  the  same  nde,  and 
that  the  umbones  curve  in  the  same  direction* 

Broderip,  in  the  first  volume  of  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Zoological 
Sodetyof  London'  (1834),  where  he  describes  several  new  spedes 
brought  home  by  Mr.  Cimiing,  says,  ''The  shells  are  attached  by  their 
external  surface  to  submarine  bodies,  such  as  corals,  rocks,  and  shells, 
and  have  been  observed  at  depths  ranging  from  points  near  the  sur- 
face to  17  fikthoms.  These  shells  appear  to  be  subject  to  every  change 
of  diape,  and  often  of  colour,  that  the  accidents  of  thdr  podtion  may 
bring  upon  them.  Their  shape  is  usually  determined  by  the  body  to 
which  Ihey  are  fixed ;  the  devdopment  of  the  foliated  laminn  whidi 
form  thdr  general  characteristic  is  affected  by  their  dtuation ;  and 
their  colour  most  probably  by  thdr  food  and  by  their  greater  or  lees 
exposure  to  light  The  Chtma  that  has  lived  in  deep  and  pladd 
water  wHl  generally  be  found  with  its  foliations  in  the  nighest  state 
of  luxuriancy;  while  those  of  the  individual  that  has  borne  the 
buffeting  of  a  comparatively  shallow  and  turbulent  sea  will  be  poor 
and  stunted.  Lamarck  hais  divided  the  species  into  two  sections, 
namely,  firsts  those  the  umbones  of  whose  sheUs  turn  from  left  to 
right ;  and,  secondly,  those  whose  umbones  turn  fr^m  right  to  left 
M.  Sander  Bang,  in  his  '  Manual,'  has  adopted  this  dividon,  to  whidi 
I  cannot  subsoibe,  because  it  ynil  npt  bear  the  test  of  examination. 
Two  remarkable  instances  are  now  well  known  of  regular  bivalves  of 
the  same  spedes,  in  which  one  specimen  may  bereguded  asbeingthe 
reverse  of  the  other,  namdy,  Xnctno  ChiMitnif  imd  an  inequiSidve 

8  o 


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9S1 


GHAMACEA. 


CHAMJELAUCIACEJt 


9a 


Htftihu  in  the  Britiah  MoBeum :  and  to  oome  at  onoe  to  the  oaae 
befora  JUf  the  nme  spedes  of  Okama  if  ■ometimet  attaoliMl  hj  the 
ri£^t»  Bometiinee  by  tlie  left  ralve ;  or,  In  other  wordi,  in  one  indi- 
vidual of  the  apedee  the  nmbonea  will  torn  from  left  to  ri^t»  whUe 
io  another  indi^oal  they  will  torn  from  right  to  left."    The  aame 
author  obaerYOs,  that  the  diatinotion  of  the  apeoieB  appeara  to  him  to 
be  difficulty  the  variety  being  infinite.    The  number  of  recent  apeciea 
given  in  Deehayea'a  edition  of  Lamarck  (1885)  ia  aeventeen,  including 
Okama  albida  (C^moBtit^e  of  DeliowBji  CZeidotA^vnif  of  Stutohbuzy). 
Broderip,  in  the  paper  above  alluded  to,  deacribea  eleven  additional 
apeciea  vHth  variefciea  not  noticed  by  Deahayea,  who  haa  however  aome 
obaeryationa  on  the  following  apedea,  O,  LoMttrut,  a  gryphMa,  C, 
unieomii,  O,  atpereUa  (the  living  analogue 
of  (7.  tehinulata  in  Lamarck'a  foaail  liat), 
and  C,  albida,  well  worthy  the  attention 
of  the  atudent    We  elect  aa  an  example 
0,  grypholdei  {O,  gigat,  Linn.),  which  ia 
famoua  for  ita  enormoua  aiae.    Individuala 
have  been  known  to  weigh  above  three 
hundred  pounda.    The  byasus  by  whidi 
it  adherea  to  rocka  ia  so  tough  that  in 
I   order  to  procure  the  ahell  it  muatbecut 
I    with  an  axe.    The  animal  may  be  eaten, 
'    but  ita  fleah  ia  very  tough.    Some  very 
large  apedmena   are   to   be  aeen  in  the 
Gardena  of  the  Zoological  Sodety,  Begent^a 
Park.      One  of  the  valvea  ia  aometimea 
uaed  aa  a  font  for  baptiam   in  country 
ohurohea. 

The  apedaa  are  apparently  confined  to 
the  warmer  aeaa,  the  Mediterranean  being 
the  lo<Mdity  of  the  lowest  temperature  where 
<»ama  grypkoidtt,         any  of  them  have  been  hitherto  found. 

FoM  Chamidte. 

The  foaail  spedea  of  Chama  are  numerona,  and  occur  in  the  snpra- 
cretaceoua  groupa,  particularly  in  the  auba{)penine  beda,  and  thoae  of 
Bordeaux  and  Dax ;  in  the  Cretaceoua  group ;  and  alao  in  that  of  the 
Oolite.  According  to  G.  B.  Sowerby,  tiiey  are  found  in  the  London 
Clay,  and  Calcaire  Groaner,  alao  in  the  Chalk  and  Greenaand.  Deahayea, 
in  hia  tablea,  givea  fifteen  living  apedea,  and  twenty  foaail  (tertiary), 
occurring  in  the  Pliocene,  Miocene,  and  Eocene  perioda.  Of  these  he 
makes  four,  namdy,  (7.  gryphoUki,  O,  crefMiIato,  (7.  tmigtrGna^  and  a 
new  apedea,  both  living  and  foaail ;  the  localitiea  for  the  living  (with 
the  exception  of  cmmUxta^  from  Senegal)  being  the  Mediterranean 
SeiL  The  apedea  found  in  more  than  one  Tertiazy  formation  he 
makea  C,  echinyiaUck,  0.  ruttica,  and  C.  lamdlota  ;  and  givea  the  follow- 
ing number  of  apedea  in  the  loccditiea  here  mentioned : — ^Four  in 
dicily,  four  in  Italy  (aubappenine  beda),  one  at  Bordeaux,  three  at 
Dax,  three  in  Touraine,  two  at  Vienna^  two  at  Angers,  nine  at  Paris, 
one  at  London,  and  two  at  Yalognee.  In  the  foaau  liat  of  hia  edition 
of  Lamarck  (1835),  Deahayea  enumeratea  only  thirteen  foaail  apedea, 
and  of  theae  he  makea  C,  gryphina  indude  (7.  tmi&tirona  aa  a  aynonym, 
obeerving  in  a  note  that  he  knows  the  living  analogue  as  exiating  in 
the  Sicilian  seaa,  and  that  the  apedea  No.  8  (C7.  locernoto)  ia  a  variety 
of  this,  while  the  valvea  dted  as  bdonging  to  the  environa  of  Angera 
bdong  to  another  apedea.  O.  tckmwieAa  he  identifiea  with  O.  atp^eUa 
now  living  in  the  Mediterranean,  d  ymeomaria,  he  obaervea,  waa 
formed  for  a  variety  of  (7.  gryj^ma,  with  very  huge  nmbonea ;  and  he 
auggeets  the  neceaaity  of  uniting  (7.  gryphma^  O*  UteemaiOf  and  (7. 
unicomaria  in  one  apeciea.  Nilaaon  names  (7.  eormk  ArieUt  {Diaeraa 
arietinat),  Kjuge;  Morby,  Sweden;  and  (7.  laeimaia,  Kjuge;  Bala- 
beig ;  Morby,  Sweden ;  and  Mantell,  an  undetermined  apedea  from 
the  Chalk,  Suasex.  Phillips  namea  Chama  mima,  or  Orypkaa  mima 
O^e  genera  are  auffidently  different^  by  the  wav),  from  the  Coral 
Oolite  and  Caloareoua  Ghnts  of  Torkahire.  Smith,  Ohama  {t)  erat$a 
from  the  Bradford  Clay.  Thurman,  O,  Bemqjmrenni,  from  the  Calca- 
reous Grit,  Bemeee  Jura;  and  Lonsdale,  an  undetermined  spedea 
from  the  Combraah  Forest  Marble,  and  Bradford  Clay,  Wilts. 

Cuvier  aays  that  the  JHceraia  do  not  appear  to  differ  from  the 
Chama  in  anything  essential ;  only  their  oardmal  tooth  ia  very  thick, 
and  the  spirals  (umbones)  of  their  valvea  are  auffidently  projecting  to 
remind  the  obeorver  of  two  homa.  G.  B.  Sowerby  thus  writes :  "  On 
account  of  the  aimilarity  between  thia  genua  (Chwna)  and  Dieeroi  we 
ahall  be  expected  to  explain  the  characters  by  which  thia  latter  ia 
diBtinguiahed  from  Chama,  with  which  indeed  it  ia  arranged  by  Bru- 
gui^;  theae,  according  to  Lamarck,  are  the  large,  conicio,  diverging, 
spiral  .umbones,  and  tiie  large,  concave,  aubauriculate,  promhient 
tooth  in  the  large  valve  of  JHceroi*  Not  having  ouiadvea  aeen  the 
hinge  of  Dieerat,  we  will  not  venture  to  offer  an  opinion ;  but,  judg- 
ing from  the  specimens  we  possess,  we  see  in  J>%oenu  a  sort  of  con- 
necting link  between  I§ocariUa  and  Chama,  having  both  the  umbones 
free  and  involute,  .and  being  moreover  a  neariy  equivalve  shell,  like 
Isocardia ;  but  being  attached  by  one  valve,  and  not  quite  oqui- 
valve,  in  theae  respects  resembling  Chama,*'  Rang  observes :  "  lliis 
genua  ia  very  imperfectly  known,  without  doubt,  but  neverthdeaa  one 
may  well  believe  that  it  ia  very  near  to  Chamtk"  Defranoe  enumeimtea 
five  apedea.    Deahayea  does  not  give  it  as  a  genus  in  hi*  tablet  and 


in  his  last  edition  of  Lamardc  only  two  speoles-sre  recorded,  Dieem 
airidina  (Lam.),  the  type  from  Ifont  Sal^ve  uid  the  neighbouxhood  of 

St.  Mihiely    and   Dieerat  tmktn 
(Desh.),  ftom  the  superior  Oolite 
I  in  the  vicinity  of  the  last^iamed 

J  k  place. 

I      Bang  would  place  next  to  Dicerai 
'  the  genus  Oaprina  of  lyOtbignT 
aenior ;  and  he  ia  of  opinion  tluit  if 
thai  coologist  would  paUisk  hia 
diacoveriee    on    theae   intereetiog 
I  sheila,  the  genus  would  be  gene- 
rally adopted.    The  genus  Ichtkyo- 
iarcolite,  which  haa  been  alwayi 
daaaed    with     the    Ceplialq>odi, 
Dicera*  arictina.  migH    He    thinks,   bekmg  to  i 

bivalve  approximating  to  Oaprina 
Deahayea,  he  aays,  communicated  to  him  the  same  idea.  But  tiie  list- 
named  author  doea  not  notice  the  genus  when  treating  of  i^iMrai  in 
the  last  edition  of  Lamarck. 

CHAMJSDOHEA,  a  genus  of  Palms,  alao  called  JVimiiaAarta  and 
NMnmegia.  They  are  small  reed-like  plants,  with  ringed  shoots.  Their 
leaves  are  dther  deft  or  pinnated.  The  inflorescence  is  sessile  within 
the  sheatiiB  of  the  leaves,  and  branched  in  an  irregular  manner ;  the 
spathea  are  membranous.  The  flowers  are  yellow  and  dioedoua,  with- 
out bracta,  which  ia  a  remarkable  circumstance.  In  the  males  the 
calyx  ia  cup-shaped  and  8-parted,  the  petals  S,  and  the  stamens  6. 
In  the  femides  the  calyx  and  petala  are  tne  same ;  the  ovary  S-eelled; 
the  berry  1-aeeded ;  the  albumen  even ;  and  the  embryo  lateral 
These  are  palma  of  humble  growth,  receding  in  that  reapect  from  the 
general  character  of  ^e  order,  and  approximating  to  Herbaoeoni 
Endogena,  or  to  Bamboos.  C.  fragram,  the  Chutasslium  of  the 
Peruviana,  ia  a  plant  with  a  stem  about  a  man's  hdgfat,  and  so  fra- 
grant aa  to  fill  the  grovea  with  its  perfume  in  the  months  of  Aognil^ 
September,  and  October. 


1,  Ohamwimrm  paue^lora  s  S,  OLJIragrana, 

CHAMJELAITCIACE^  Fringe  Myrtles,  a  amall  natural  order  of 
PolypetalouB  Exogenoua  Hants.  Thev  are  chanoterised by  havingii 
1-cdled  ovaiy,  aacending  ovulea,  dotted  leave^  and  the  embiyo  fused 
into  a  aolid  mass.  They  are  anoall  bushes  with  evergreen  leaves,  and 
in  external  appearance  have  a  doae  resemblance  to  heaths.  All  their 
parte  abound  in  glandular  oily  cavities.  They  are  mostly  regarded  tf 
tMBlonging  to  Myrtaoecg,  and  there  is  no  doubt  of  their  affinity  to  th^ 
order.  Their  peculiar  aspect,  abortive  stamens,  simple  ovaiy,  and 
pam>ose  calyx  suffidently  diatinguiah  them.  They  have  the  frsgianM 
of  Myriacett,  Fifteen  genera  and  fifty  n>edes  are  induded  in  this 
Older,  all  natives  of  Australia.    Their  posxtion,  according  to  lisdley, 


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CHAMJELEDON. 


CHAMELEONS. 


is  between  Atteroeea  and  Oombretaceoit  near  to  Myriacea,  (Lindley, 
Vegeiablt  Kingdom,) 

CH  A  M  iELElX)N,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Ericacete.  C.  ftrocumbent  is  a  beautifiJ  little  alpine  bush, 
fonnerly  referred  to  AsdUa,  from  which  it  differs  essentially  both  in 
habit  and  botanical  characters.  It  is  a  small  evergreen  creepmg 
shmb,  found  on  the  mountains  of  Europe  and  North  America.  The 
leaves  are  leatheiy,  shining,  turned  back  at  their  edge,  and  about  half 
an  inch  long.  The  flowers  are  minute,  and  grow  in  terminal  umbels 
of  a  light  flesh-colour.  The  calyx  is  5-parted ;  the  corolla  campanu- 
late  and  regularly  5-cleffc»  the  anthers  rounded  and  openmg  longi- 
tudinally. It  is  occasionally  seen  in  gardens,  but  it  is  ratner  impatient 
of  cultivation. 

CHAlLfiLEONID^.    [Chjlmelbok&] 

CHAlLfiPELLL    [CoLUMBiOA.] 

CHAMJBltOPS,  a  genus  of  Pahn-Trees,  in  which  is  comprehended 
the  most  northern  species  of  those  remarkable  vegetable  prod.uctions 
whoee  home  is  so  frequently  in  Hie  tropics.  It  is  characterised  by 
its  flabelliform  leaves,  polygamous  flowers,  which  are  sometimes  even 
dioBcsioua^  and  triple  monospermous  drupes,  with  ruminated  albumen. 
Chamaropi  hiunUia,  the  European  species,  grows  in  hot-houses  to  the 
height  of  15  feet ;  but  in  Spain  and  Barbc^  it  is  not  more  than  4  or 
5  feet  high,  and  in  Italy  it  is  much  dwarfer.  It  is  common  upon  the 
hills  near  Algiers.  It  occurs  in  many  places  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Italy,  and  reaches  its  northern  limits  in  the  vicinity  of  Nice.  The 
trunk  of  this  plant  is  6  or  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  closely  covered 
with  triangular  hard  scales,  which  are  the  bases  of  the  old  leaves. 
The  new  leaves  grow  in  a  tuft  at  the  top  of  the  stem,  and  have  smooth 
flat  stalks,  with  ri|[id  spines  proceeding  from  the  ed^ ;  the  blade  is 
deeply  palmate,  with  from  12  to  15  narrow  sword-shaped  divimoxis, 
which  are  slightly  glaucous  and  downy.  The  flowers  grow  within 
compresMd  spathes,  whidi  are  downy  at  the  edge,  and  from  6  to  8 
inches  long,  and  upon  a  short  oompressed  spaddz,  which  is  closely 
ooTered  over.  The  drupes  are  blackish-brown,  and  round,  with  a 
fibrous  dry  spongy  flesh.  The  young  underground  parts  of  the  stem 
and  the  young  roots  are  said  by  Desfontaines  to  be  eatable. 


Organisation. — Skeleton. — The  more  striking  peculiarities  consbt 
in  the  elevated  and  pyramidal  form  of  the  occiput ;  the  absence  of  a 
true  sternum ;  and  in  certain  apophyses  of  the  vertebral  oolomn,  espe- 
cially about  the  tail,  where  they  are  placed  en  chevron,  so  as  to  leave 
at  their  base  a  space  where  the  caudal  artery,  a  prolongation  of  the 
pelvic,  is  protected  somewhat  in  the  same  wa^  as  the  spinal  Cord  is 
oy  the  bony  case  above  it^  when  the  prehensde  tail  would  otherwise 
subject  it  to  pressure  in  grasping  bougns  of  trees  or  other  solid  bodies 
with  its  lower  surface.  The  transverse  apophyses  of  the  tail  are  but 
little  developed.  The  glenoid  cavity  is  supported  upon  a  short 
pedicle.  The  majority  of  Saurians  have  eight  cervical  vertebrae,  but  the 
Chameleons  have  only  flve.  The  first  ribs  are  joined  to  the  mesial 
line,  which  performs  the  office  of  a  sternum,  and  the  following  ribs 
are  united  to  each  other  by  their  cartilaginous  prolongations  towards 
the  mesial  line  of  the  belly,  so  as  to  protect  the  abdomen  by  an  entire 
bony  circle.  There  are,  as  Schneider  has  observed,  but  two  shoulder- 
bones,  of  which  the  coracoid  is  very  small,  the  clavicle  being  entirely 
absent.  Cuvier  remarked  the  singular  disposition  of  the  wrist  The 
two  carpal  bones  which  come  next  to  those  of  the  fore-arm  are  articu- 
lated upon  one  large  central  piece,  which  receives  the  five  bones  which 
correspond  to  the  metacarpal,  three  of  these  being  for  the  external 
toes  and  two  for  the  internal,  thus  forming  two  opposeable  prehensile 
instruments,  the  two  bundles  being  bound  up  in  the  integuments  and 
skin  to  the  very  claws.  In  the  pelvis,  the  ilia  are  long  and  slender 
and  directed  towards  the  sacrum,  with  which  they  partially  unite, 
but  are  prolonged  by  a  cartilage.  The  hind  as  well  as  the  fore  toes 
are  five,  and  disposed  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  anterior 
extremities.  The  trunk,  which  has  a  oompressed  appearance,  is 
mounted  high  on  the  Im,  forming  an  exception  to  the  minority  of 
reptiles,  whose  belly  tou<mes  the  ground. 


Kui-oi)oan  Pulm  {C\ttu.ierop»  hiimilit), 

CHA]L£ZA,  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  family  MenUida  of 
Vigors.    [MxBUUDJL] 

CHAHEGK.    [Atbus.] 

CHAKELEONS,  CHAHELEON-TRIBB»  CHAMiELEONIDiE, 
the  name  for  a  well-defined  family  of  Saurians  (Lisard-like  Reptiles), 
whose  differential  and  essential  characters  may  be  summed  up  as 
existing  in  tiie  form  of  their  feet,  the  toes  of  which  are  joined  or  bound 
op  together  in  two  packets  or  bundles  opposed  to  each  other — ^in  their 
ahagreen-Uke  skin— in  their  prehensile  tail— and  in  their  extensile  and 
retraotfle  Tcrmiform  tongoe. 


Skull  of  ChamaUc  Ififldui. 

Organs  of  Bespuation.— Cuvier  observes  that  their  lung  is  so  large 
that  when  it  is  filled  with  air  it  imparts  a  transparency  to  the  body, 
which  made  the  ancients  say  that  it  lived  upon  air ;  and  he  inclined 
to  think  that  to  its  sise  the  Chameleon  owed  the  property  of  changing 
its  colour.  But  with  regard  to  this  last  speculation  he  was  in  error, 
as  we  shall  presently  see. 

Organs  of  Nutrition  and  Digestion. — ^The  teeth,  as  in  the  great 
majority  of  Saurians,  have  no  true  roots :  their  crowns,  which  are 
trilobated,  seem  to  be  soldered  as  it  were  upon  the  edge  of  the  upper 
horder  of  a  groove  hollowed  in  the  maxillaiy  bone ;  they  are  con- 
nected to  the  osseous  portion  and  also  to  each  other,  so  as  to  present 
the  appearance  of  an  enamelled  and  denticulated  portion  of  the  edge 
of  the  bone.  But  it  is  the  veimiform  extensile  and  retractile  tongue 
which  is  the  chief  organ  for  taking  the  insects  on  which  the  chame 
icon  lives.  By  a  curious  mechanism,  of  which  the  os  hyoides  (tongue- 
bone)  is  a  principal  agent^  the  Chameleon  can  nrotrude  this  cylindri<»l 
tongue,  which  is  terminated  by  a  dilated  and  somewhat  tubular  tip 
covered  with  a  glutinous  secretion,  from  the  sheath  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  mouth  (where  the  whole  of  the  tongue,  with  the  exception  of 
the  dilated  tip,  remains  when  at  rest)  to  the  length  of  six  inches.  When 
the  Chameleon  is  about  to  seise  an  insect  it  rolls  round  its  extraor- 
dinary eyeballs  so  as  to  bring  them  to  bear  on  the  devoted  object :  as 
8oon  as  it  arrives  within  range  of  the  tongue^  that  organ  is  projected 
with  unerring  precirion,  and  returns  into  the  mouth  with  the  prey 
adhering  to  tiie  viscous  tip. 


Chameleon  taking  Ui  prey. 

There  is  not  much  difference  between  the  c9sophagus  and  stomach, 
which  latter  is  small  and  bent  back  upon  itsel£  There  is  no  true 
pylorus,  although  there  exists,  at  the  point  where  it  should  be,  a  sort 
of  contraction  in  the  membranee,  which  are  there  thickened. 

Organs  of  Sense. — ^Touch.— On  the  under  sur&ce  of  the  tail  and 
toes  are  granulated  papillw,  probably  for  the  purpose  of  conveying 
to  the  sensorium  the  nature  of  the  body  grasped.  The  tongue  must 
have  a  considerable  share  of  the  sense  of  tonoh;  whether  it  has  any 


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CHAMELEONS. 


CHAMELEONS 


high  perception  of  that  of  taste  may  be  doubted.  SmelL — ^Moet  pro- 
bably not  acute ;  the  exteraal  orifices  of  the  nostrils  are  more  lateral, 
and  consequently^  wider  apart  than  in  most  of  the  other  Saurians. 
Hearing. — ^There  is  no  visible  external  ear,  but  an  internal  oairity  not 
much  developed  in  the  bones  of  the  sides  of  the  skuU,  communicating 
^th  the  throaty  and  oovered  externally  by  the  common  integuments. 


brownish-gray,  inclining  to  minime.  The  rest  of  the  skin  which  wu 
not  illuminated  by  the  sun  changed  its  gray  into  several  brisk  and 
shining  colours,  forming  spots  about  half  a  nnger^s  breadth,  reaching 
fromwe  crest  of  the  spine  to  the  middle  of  the  back ;  others  appeared 
on  the  ribs,  fore  legs,  and  tail  All  these  spots  were  of  an  Isabella 
colour,  through  the  mixture  of  a  pale  yellow  with  which  the  grannla 


Skeleton  of  Chameleon  {ChamaUo  vtdfarit.) 


Sight. — The  eyes  of  the  Chameleon  are  remarkable  olrjects ;  Uo^ 
projecting;  and  almost  entirely  covered  with  the  shagreen-like  Bk^ 
with  the  exception  of  a  small  aperture  opposite  to  the  pupil :  their 
motions  are  completely  independent  of  each  other.  It  adds  to  the 
strange  and  grotesque  appearance  of  this  creature,  to  see  it  roll  one 
of  its  eye-globes  backwards,  while  the  other  is  directed  forwards,  as 
if  making  two  distinct  surveys  at  one  time.  Its  sight  must  be  acute, 
from  the  unerring  certainty  with  which  it  marks  and  strikes  its  prey. 

Reproduction. — By  means  of  eggs,  which  are  numerous  at  each 
depoaity  oval,  and  enveloped  in  a  white,  tough,  parchment-like  skin. 

Habits,  &C. — The  Chameleons  spend  their  lives  in  trees,  clinging 
to  the  branches  by  means  of  their  feet  and  taiL  There  they  lie  in 
wait  for  the  insects  which  may  come  within  their  reach ;  and  it  is 
highly  probable  that^  in  such  situations,  their  fiEiculty  of  changing 
their  colour  becomes  highly  important  in  aiding  them  to  conceal 
themselves.  They  move  about  with  great  regularity  and  a  kind  of 
afieoted  gravity.  The  powers  of  abstinence  possessed  by  this  singular 
race  are  very  great^  and  hence  most  probably  arose  the  old  fable  of 
their  living  on  air,  which  was  for  a  long  time  considered  to  be  "  the 
chameleon  s  dish."  We  kept  one  for  upwards  of  six  weeks,  and  during 
all  that  time  it  never,  as  fEtr  as  we  could  observe,  took  any  sustenance, 
though  meal-worms  and  other  insects  were  procured  for  it.  Kotwith- 
standing  this  fast>  it  did  not  appear  to  &11  away  much.  It  would  fix 
itself  by  the  feet  and  tail  to  the  bars  of  the  fender,  and  there  remain 
motionless,  apparently  enjoying  tiie  warmth  of  the  fire  for  hours 
together.  Its  motions  were  excessively  slow.  It  was  a  female,  and 
died  after  laying  a  great  number  of  eggs^  Hasselquist  describes  one 
that  he  kept  for  near  a  month,  as  climbing  up  and  down  the  bars  of 
its  cage  in  a  very  lively  manner.  Ktunbers  have  been  exhibited  from 
time  to  time  in  the  Zoological  Qardens,  Rogent's  Park,  but  they  do 
not  live  Icmg.  The  males  are  distinguished  by  the  thickness  of 
their  tails. 

That  the  Chameleon  was  known  to  the  ancients  there  is  no  doubt. 
It  was  the  Xafuu\4^if  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Chamceleo  of  the  Latins. 
Aristotle's  history  of  the  animal  proves  the  acute  observation  of  that 
great  zoologist^  for  he  notices  the  peculiarities  of  the  animal,  the 
absence  of  a  sternum,  the  disposition  of  the  ribs,  the  mechanism  of 
the  tail,  the  motion  of  the  eyes,  the  toes  bound  up  in  opposeable 
bundles,  &c,  though  he  is  not  entirely  correct  in  some  points. 
('Hist  Anim.,'  book  2,  ch.  xL)  Pliny  ('Hist  Nat,*  lib.  viiL,  c.  88) 
mentions  it,  but  his  aocotmt  is  for  the  most  part  a  compilation  from 
Aristotle. 

The  power  possessed  by  these  creatures  of  changing  colour  has 
been  a  subiect  of  wonder  and  exaggeration  from  an  early  period. 
Wood,  in  his  'Zoography/  gives  the  following  translation  of  the 
account  given  by  the  Fixnich  academicians  of  this  phenomenon :  "  The 
colour  of  all  the  eminences  of  our  chameleon,  when  it  was  at  rest^  in 
the  shade,  and  had  continued  a  long  time  undisturbed,  was  a  bluish- 
gray,  except  under  the  feet^  where  it  was  white  inclining  to  yellow ; 
and  the  intervals  of  the  granules  of  the  skin  were  of  a  pale  and 
yellowish-red.  This  gray,  which  coloured  all  the  parts  exposed  to 
the  lights  changed  when  in  the  ran  ;  and  all  the  plaoes  of  its  body 
which  were  iUuminated,  instead  of  their  bluish  colour,  became  of  a 


were  tinged,  and  of  a  bri^t  red,  which  is  the  colour  of  the  bottom  of 
the  skin  which  is  visible  between  the  granules ;  the  rest  of  the  akin 
not  enlightened  by  the  sun,  and  which  was  of  a  paler  gray  than  ordi- 
nary, resembled  a  cloth  made  of  mixed  wool ;  some  of  the  granules  being 
greenish,  others  of  a  minime  gray,  and  others  of  the  usual  bluiah-gisy, 
the  ground  remaining  as  before.  Whien  the  sun  did  not  shine,  the 
first  gray  appeared  again  by  little  and  little,  and  spread  itself  all  oyer 
the  body,  except  imder  the  feet^  which  continued  of  the  same  ooloar, 
but  a  little  browner ;  and  when,  being  in  this  state,  sotoe  of  the  com- 

Cy  handled  it,  there  immediately  appeared  on  its  shoulders  and  fore 
several  very  blackish  spots,  about  the  size  of  a  finger  nail,  and 
which  did  not  take  place  when  it  was  handled  by  those  who  usu^y 
took  care  of  it  Sometimes  it  was  marked  with  brown  spots,  which 
inclined  towards  green.  We  afterwards  wrapped  it  up  in  a  linen 
doth,  where  having  been  two  or  three  minutes  we  took  it  out  whitish; 
but  not  so  white  as  that  of  which  Aldrovandus  speaks,  which  was  not 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  linen  on  which  it  was  laid.  Oun,  which 
had  only  changed  its  ordinary  gray  into  a  pale  one,  after  baring  kept 
this  colour  some  time,  lost  it  insensibly.  This  experiment  made  na 
question  the  truth  of  the  chameleon's  taking  all  colours  but  white,  as 
Theophrastus  and  Plutarch  report,  for  ours  seemed  to  have  such  a 
disposition  to  retain  this  colour,  that  it  grew  i>ale  eveiy  night,  and 
when  dead  it  had  more  white  than  any  other  colour ;  nor  did  we  find 
that  it  changed  colour  all  over  the  body,  as  Aristotle  reports;  for 
when  it  takes  other  colours  than  gray,  and  disguises  itself  to  appear 
in  masquerade,  as  iElian  pleasantly  says,  it  covers  only  certain  parts 
of  the  body  with  them.  Lastly,  to  conclude  the  expOTimento  relatiye 
to  the  colours  which  the  chameleon  can  take,  it  was  laid  on  substances 
of  various  colours,  and  wrapped  up  therein ;  but  it  took  not  them  u 
it  had  done  the  white,  and  it  took  that  only  tlie  first  time  the  experi- 
ment was  made,  tiiough  it  was  repeated  several  times  on  different 
days.  In  makiog  these  experiments  we  observed  that  there  were  a 
great  many  plaoes  of  its  skm  which  grew  brown,  but  very  little  at  a 
time :  to  be  certain  of  which  we  marked  with  small  spiecks  of  ink 
those  granules  which  to  us  appeared  whitest  in  its  pale  state,  and  we 
always  found  that  when  it  grew  brownest  and  its  skin  spotted,  those 
grains  which  we  had  marked  were  always  less  brown  than  the  rest 

Numerous  theories,  some  of  them  sufficiently  absurd,  have  bmn 
proposed  to  accoimt  for  this  phenomenoiL  It  was  reserved  for 
Milne-Edwards  to  give  a  complete  and  satis&ciory  explanaiion. 
In  a  paper  published  in  the  '  Annales  des  Soienoes  Naturellee'  for 
January,  1884,  and  translated  in  the  17th  voL  of  the  'Edinburgh 
New  Aiilosophical  Journal,'  he  has  given  the  result  of  his  investi- 
gations.   The  following  are  his  conclusions : —  ^^ 

1.  That  the  change  in  the  colour  of  Chameleons  does  not  depeivl 
essentially  either  on  the  more  or  less  considerable  sweUing  of  their 
bodies,  or  the  (dianges  which  might  hence  result  to  the  condition  (£ 
their  blood  or  circulation;  nor  does  it  depend  on  the  greater  orj*^ 
distance  which  may  exist  between  the  several  cutaneous  ^"^'^Jf ' 
although  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  these  drcumstanoes  probably 
exercise  some  iofluenoe  upon  the  phenomenon.  . 

2.  That  there  exists  in  the  skin  of  these  animals  two  Isyen  ot 
m  mbranous  pigment  placed  tlie  one  above  the  other,  but  diapoied  in 


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vuch  a  waj  as  to  appear  siinultaneously  under  the  outide,  and  aome- 
timea  in  auch  a  manner  that  the  one  may  hide  the  other. 

8.  That  eyerything  remarkable  in  the  ohangea  of  colour  that 
manifest  themselTes  in  the  Chameleon  may  be  explained  by  the 
appearance  of  the  pigment  of  the  deeper  layer,  to  an  extent  more  or 
less  considerable^  m  the  midst  of  the  pigment  of  the  auperfidal  layer; 
or  from  ita  disappearance  beneath  this  layer. 

4.  That  these  displacements  of  the  deeper  pigment  do  in  reality 
occur ;  and  it  is  a  probable  consequence  that  the  chameleon'a  colour 
changes  during  life,  and  may  oontmue  to  change  eren  aiter  death. 

5.  That  thm  exita  a  doae  analogy  between  the  mechanism  by 
the  help  of  which  the  changes  of  colour  appear  to  take  place  in 
these  reptiles,  and  that  which  determines  the  suceessiye  appearance 
and  disappearance  of  coloured  spots  in  the  mantles  of  seyenl  of  the 


fitmilT  embrace  but  the  one  genus,  Ckamaleo,     Dr.  J.  K 

Gray  places  the  ChamaUonida  in  the  tribe  Dendrotaura,  of  the  sub- 
order Pachygloiicgf  of  the  order  Saurci,  or  Lizards.  The  tribe  Dendro- 
iaura  embrace  onl  v  this  £Gimily,  and  have  the  following  characters : — 
Scales  of  the  belly,  sides,  and  back,  granular.  Tongue  elongate, 
lab-cylindiical,  worm-like,  yery  extensile.  Eyes  globular,  yeir  mobile, 
with  a  small  central  round  opening.  Toes  equal,  united  in  two 
opposing  groups. 

The  spedeB  are  inhabitants  of  the  Old  World,  in  A&ioa  and  Asia, 
and  are  naturalised  in  Southern  Europe. 

The  following  spedes  are  described  in  the  '  Catalogue  of  the 
Spedmens  of  Lizards  in  the  British  Museum  : ' — 

*  Back  with  an  erect  fin.    Belly  crested. 

C.  crittatui,  the  Fringed  Chameleon.    A  native  of  Feniando  Pa 

**  Back  high,  compressed.    Belly  and  ddes  with  a  toothed  crest 

C,  kUeralii,  the  Side-Crested  Chamdeon.  It  is  a  natiye  of 
Hadagascar. 

***  Back  and  belly  with  a  toothed  creat.    Sides  simple. 

t  Scales  equal,  aznalL    Muzzle  simple. 

C  vulgarii,  the  Chamdeon.  It  is  the  O,  mutdbilU,  Meyer;  (7. 
einemUf  Aldrovandus ;  O,  Paristentis,  C.  Zeylandicus,  and  6.  Mexi- 
emutf  Laurent ;  C,  carinatua,  C.  nibcrocetu,  C,  ealcaratut,  Merrem ; 
C,  Ze6ra,  Boiy ;  Lacerta  Chamdto%  Linnnus.  It  ii  a  natiye  of  the 
Bast  Indies,  and  the  spedes  which  is  most  frequently  brought  to 


ChaiiMleo&  {CkameclM  vulgaria), 

C.  SeneffdUntii,  the  Sene^  Chameleon.  It  is  the  Lacerta  Chameleon 
of  LimuBus;  C,  Bonea  Spa  of  Laurent ;  L.  pwmUa  of  Gmelin.  It  is 
a  natiye  of  the  West  of  AfHca. 

C.  dUepis,  the  Flap-Necked  Chamdeon.  Found  in  Africa.  Sped- 
mens in  the  British  Museum  haye  come  from  Fantee,  Ashantee^ 
Gambroon,  and  SenegaL 

tt  Scales  unequal,  laiger  tubercles.    Muzzle  simple. 

C.  Pardalia,  the  Bourbon  Chameleon.    A  natiye  of  Bourbon. 

C.  verrMcotus,  the  Warty  Chamdeon.    It  inhabits  Madagascar. 

t+t  Scalea  unequal*    Muzde  (of  male^  with  a  central  prominence. 

C.  i2;ktiiooeni<t(#,  the  Rhinoceros-Chameleon.  Anatiyeof  Madagaacar. 
Specimena  of  this  and  the  last  spedes  were  presented  to  the  British 
Museum  by  Sir  Edward  Bdcher. 

****  Back  with  a  toothed  crest    Bdly  and  aides  simple. 

t  Chin  and  muzzle  simple. 

C.  tvbereul^erui,  the  Tuberoulated  Chamdeon.  A  natiye  of  South 
Africa. 

C.  cucfittahu,  the  Hooded  Chamdeon.  An  inhabitant  of  Mada- 
gaaoar. 

tt  Chin  Bunple ;  muzzle  oomtreesed,  produced. 

C.  namUvi,  the  Sharp-Nosed  Chamdeon.    A  natiye  of  Madagascar. 

ttt  Chin  simple ;  muzzle  of  male  forked. 

fiftywrcM^  the  Laige-Naped  Chamdeon.    A  natiye  of  Madagascar. 

tttt  Chin  bearded ;  muzde  simple. 

C.  Tigrii,  the  Fringed  Chameleon.    Found  in  the  Seydielle  lalands. 

C'  vetUroHi,  the  Belly-Shaped  Chamdeon.  Found  in  South  Africa. 
^^•fumOM^  the  Pearled  Chamdeon.  A  nathreof  the  Capeof  Good 
Hopst 


«■«••  Bn^  mj^  Yy^ij  ^^  crested. 

C,  Parionii,  Person's  Chameleon.    A  natiye  of  Madagascar. 

C.  Owenii,  the  Three-Homed  Chamdeon.  It  ia  a  natiye  of  Fer- 
nando Po. 

C,  Proohetianut,  Brookes's  Chameleon.  Locality  unknown.  Named 
from  a  specimen  in  the  Museum  of  Joshua  Brookes. 

CHAMOia    [Amtzlopejl] 

CHAMOISITE,  a  mmeral,  composed  of  Silicate  of  Iron. 

CHAMOMILK    [ANTHuaa.] 

CHAMP,  a  yaluable  kind  of  timber,  produced  in  the  East  Indies 
hj  Magnolia  excelta, 

CHANDELIER-TREE,  a  spedes  of  Pandanu§  which  grows  in 
Guinea  and  St  Thomas's,  and  which,  on  account  of  the  arrangement 
of  ita  dichotomous  brandies,  has  obtained  this  name.    [Pahdamus.] 

CHAODINEiE,  Chaotic  Planta,  a  family  inyented  by  Bory,  for 
the  puipoae  of  pladng  a  number  of  the  lower  forms  of  plants  or 
oiganio  beings  of  uncertain  character,  which  could  not  be  plaoed 
amongst  other  well-defined  groups  of  Cfryptogamia.  To  this  family 
were  at  one  time  assigned  fonns  of  DicUomacetB,  Jkmideo!,  Noitoe, 
and  others. 

CHARA'CE^  Charai,  the  Chara  Tribe,  a  curious  group  of  plants 
inhabiting  pools  and  dow  streams,  to  which  they  communicate  a 
nauseous  ofTendye  odour,  which  is  said  to  become  a  peatilential  miasma, 
when,  as  in  the  Campagna  of  Rome,  the  pUnta  are  in  great  numbers. 
They  are  jointed  leaflees  plants,  with  yerticillate  branches,  composed 
either  of  one  or  of  seyeral  tubea  adhering  in  bundles,  and  dther 
encrusted  with  calcareous  matter  (Chora),  or  transparent  {NiieUay 
The  reproductiye  organs  are  of  two  kinds.  One  named  a  nucule,  is 
an  oyal  sessile  spirally  striated  body,  with  a  flye-deft  apex,  and  a 
number  of  graina  in  ita  interior;  this  has  been  looked  upon  as  the 
pistil,  and  has  been  seen  to  grow  into  a  voung  plant  The  other, 
called  the  globule,  is  a  reddish  body  consisting  of  triangular  scales, 
indosing  a  mass  of  elastic  wayy  threads,  and  has  been  named  an 
anther. 


C%arm, 
a,  A  portion  of  tabdar  stem,  showing  the  bases  of  a  whorl  of  lesTes ;  b,  last 
bearing  the  orgmnt  of  ftnetifleation ;  «,  a  single  organ  of  ftmctiflcation,  greatly 
enlarged;  d,  upright  seetion  of  tke  fruit ;  e,  plant  germinating. 

The  following  ia  Sohldden'a  description  of  these  organs : — "On  the 
lateral  brandies,  generally  in  the  axis  of  the  aboye-mentioned  pair  of 
cdls,  fiye  cdls  may  be  seen  spirally  wound  round  a  thick  mass,  and 
haying  their  parallel  extremities  surrounded  by  a  kind  of  pentagonal 
crown.  From  this  thick  granular  maas  a  laige  cell  (spore)  is  formed, 
filled  with  large  granules  of  starch,  mucus,  and  oil-globules,  and  with 
a  substance  l£at  dosdy  inyests  the  sporeK)dls ;  and  from  bdng  at 
first  transparent  subsequently  becomes  green  or  red,  and  finally  black. 
The  fiye  inyesting  cdls  then  dther  become  cartilaginous,  and  remain 
until  the  wholedecays  after  germination,  or  they  are  conyerted  into 
a  gelatinous  state,  and  then  speedily  diasolyed  after  the  sporocaip  has 


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010 


fallen.  Close  below  this  sporooarp  there  may  generally  be  seen,  at 
the  same  time,  seated  upon  a  short  (^lindrioal  oeU,  another  cell,  which 
is  at  first  simple  and  spherical,  but  from  which  eight  [query  always 
eight  ?]  cells  are  gradually  developed,  which  become  flattened,  and 
inclose  a  cavity  tluit  appears  from  its  origin  to  be  filled  with  a  dense 
grumous  mass.  The  eight  cells  expand  into  closely  compressed  radii, 
arranged  side  by  side,  increasing  the  circumference  and  depth  of  the 
whole  body,  whilst  red  granules  are  gradually  deposited  upon  their 
inner  walL  The  dark  contents  are  meanwhile  developed  into  other 
cells,  so  that  in  the  perfect  oigan  a  conical  cell  pnyects  from  the 
cell  fonning  the  pedicle  into  the  cavity,  and  a  cylmdrical  cell  is 
formed  from  the  middle  of  each  of  the  eight  cells  of  the  walL 
These  new  cells,  which  likewise  contain  pale-red  granules,  bear  on  their 
free  extremity  several  spherical  or  truncated  cylindrioal  cells,  from 
which  project  many  long  filaments  composed  of  minute  cells.  The 
spheri<Md  cells  and  the  filaments  form  a  dense  coil  in  the  centre  of 
the  cavity.  In  each  separate  cell  of  the  filament  we  at  first  see  a 
grumous  mass,  which  however  subsequently  disappears,  giving  place 
to  a  spiral  fibre  coiled  up  in  two  or  three  turns,  and  which  manifests 
a  peculiar  motion  on  escaping  from  its  celL  These  mysterious  organs 
have,  as  yet^  without  any  reason,  been  termed  anthers." 

There  is  however  an  analogy  between  these  oigans  and  the  so^aalled 
spermatozoids  of  other  OryptogcmUa,  that  would  lead  to  the  infmnenoe 
that  they  perform  the  same  functions.  [RiPBODUonoir,  Ybobtablk.] 
In  addition  to  these  organs,  Montague  has  recently  described  bulbilli 
as  present  in  the  Ohar<ice<Bf  by  which,  he  says,  the  species  are 
frequently  propagated. 

The  Characea  are  also  highly  interesting  on  account  of  the  fkeility 
with  which  thev  exhibit  the  circulation  of  their  fiuids,  and  because  of 
the  light  they  thus  i^pear  to  throw  upon  some  of  the  more  obscure 
of  the  phenomena  of  vegetable  life.  If  one  of  the  tubes  of  a  Chora 
be  observed  under  a  pretty  good  microscope^  by  the  aid  of  tnnsmitted 
lights  the  fiuid  it  contains  mH  be  distinct^  seen  to  have  a  motion  up 
one  side  of  each  tube,  down  the  other,  and  then  up  again,  affcer  the 
manner  of  a  jack-chain ;  and  this  goes  on  continually  as  long  as  the 
plant  remains  alive.  No  spectacle  that  we  are  acquainted  with  is 
more  beautiful  than  this,  if  it  is  well  seen  with  the  aid  of  a  good 
microscope.  This  movement  was  first  described  by  Amid.  It  has  led 
to  the  examination  of  other  water  plants ;  in  most  of  which  the  same 
kind  of  circulation  can  be  detected.  The  best  account  of  these  move- 
ments, with  drawings,  is  that  published  by  Yarley  in  the '  Transactions 
of  the  Microscopicfd  Society,'  voL  iL    [CroLoam.] 

Remains  of  CharacecB  are  frequently  foimd  in  the  fresh-water 
Tertiary  deposits,  but  not  lower  down.  The  species  are  met  with 
almost  everywhere  in  stagnant  water  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  North 
and  South  America,  and  Australia.  They  are  most  prevalent  in 
temperate  dimes.  The  spedes  of  Ohara  are  of  no  known  use.  The 
stems  of  the  spedes  which  are  calcareous  often  present  beautiful 
examples  of  crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime.  They  are  easily  cultivated 
in  glass  vessels,  which  is  often  done  for  the  sake  of  examining  their 
circulation  under  the  microscope.  In  the  Chora  this  can  <mlybe 
done  after  removing  the  calcareous  incrustation,  but  in  NiteUa  it  is 
seen  without  any  preparation.  The  family  has  three  genera  and 
thirty-five  spedes.  Their  relations  are  evidently  with  the  Algas  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  EqiUsetaoece  on  the  other. 

CHARAa)BIAD^,  a  family  of  Birds,  placed  bv  Mr.  Vigors  in  the 
order  QralUUora,  or  Waders.  The  genus  Charodri%»^  induding  the 
True  Plovers,  the  Dottrell,  the  Sea^Lark,  the  Sandeiiing,  the  Stone 
Curlew  (OSdicnemiuM),  the  IiOng;-Legged  Plover  (Himamtowu),  and  the 
Spur-Winged  Plover  {Charadrim  tpinotut),  was  placed  by  Linnous, 
in  his  'Systema  NatursB,'  between  the  genera  Trmga  and  Rtewrvi- 
rottra  [Atobbt],  in  his  order  QtoIUb, 

Cuvier  makes  the  fiunily  of  Plovers  (Lea  Pluviers,  Charadrius,. 
Linn.),  comprising  those  genera  which  want  the  hind  toe,  and  have  a 
moderate  bill  compressed  and  convex  at  the  end,  consist  of  two 
genera,  CSdicnemu$,  and  the  Plovers  so  called  {C%aradriu9,  Liim.), 
embracing  the  Qolden  Plover,  Charadrius  Morinelltu,  C,  Hiatieula,  kc 
The  Plovers  are  succeeded  by  the  Yanneaux  {VaneUut,  Bedist, 
Tringa,  Linn.),  consisting  of  SqwUanla,  Cuv.,  and  VondUu,  Cuv. ; 
which  are  followed  by  ff(cnuUopu8  and  Cwioriut ;  after  which  last, 
judging  from  external  form,  he  places  the  9uiama  (Microdactylu$, 
Geo£,  J>icholoput,  111.),    [^ariama.] 

The  following  is  Mr.  0.  B.  (Cray's  arrangement  He  mokes  the 
Charadriada  the  first  family  of  the  QraUaUtrei. 

Sub-Family  1.    GldicntmincB, 
Qenera.      CSdicnemut,  Temm.  {Charadriui,    Linn.;    Otis,  Lath.; 
Pluvialis,  Briss.}. 
Burhinut,  JJL  ((Edicnemutf  Shaw;  Charadrius,  Lath.). 

Sub-Family  2.    Oursorinat, 
Qenera.    Cwsorvus,  Lath.  {Charadrivs,  GnL;  Tachydr<mus,  BL; 
Oreophilus,  Qould). 
Ortygodes,  Yidll  {Eemipodius,  Sw. ;  Ortygis,  Steph.). 
Pluvianus,  Yieill.  (Charadrim,  Qm. ;  Cursor,  WagL ;  ffyaSf  Gloger ; 
Ammopiila,  Sw. ;  CheOodromm,  Biipp.). 

Sub-FamUv  8.    CharadHance. 
Qfioara.    CHarsUa,  Briss.  (Sinmdo,  Lnm. ;  Traehdia,  Soop. 


Squatarola,  Cuv.  {Trimffa,  Qm. ;  Plwrialis,  Brissi ;  FomUm,  Bechsi.; 
Charadrius,  PalL). 

Vandlus,  Briss.  (TWfipa,  Linnaeus;  Charadrius,  Wagler;  (TuvtO) Klein). 

Srythrogonys,  Qould. 

Philomachus,  Moehr.  (Parra,  Gmelin;  VatuBus,  Gmelin;  Eoph' 
pterus,  Bonap.). 

Charadrius,  Linn.  {Plvnialis,  Bay). 

Budromias,  Boie  {Charadrius,  Linn. ;  PUmalis,  Brisik ;  MorituUiu, 
GenL). 

EiaticuUt,  Moehr.  {Charadrius,  Linn. ;  PUsviaUs,  Brisik ;  .^giaiita, 
Boie). 

Pipis,  Licht.  {Charadrius,  Lioht). 

Anarhfuehus,  Quoy  and  Gaim.  {Seohpax  t  Baffles). 

Sub-Familv  4.    HcemaUfpimm, 
Qenus.    Hctmalopus,  Linn.  {Ostndtga,  Briss. ;  Scolopox,  Scop.). 

Sub-Family  5.    DmmadiMS. 
Genera.    Dromas,  Payk.     {Erodia,  Stanley ;  Corrira,  Briss.  ?) 
Esacus,  Less.  {Carvanaca,  Hodgs.). 

We  now  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  some  'of  the  fonni 
induded  in  tfds  family. 

The  first  family  of  the  order  OraUatores,  according  to  Mr.  G.  R. 
Gray's  arrangement,  is  the  Charadriadce,  which  are  divided  by  him 
into  the  following  sub-families  and  genera : — 

In  illustration  of  this  family  we  sdect  prindpally  the  spedes 
inhabiting  the  British  Islands. 

CEdienemus  crepitans,  the  Great  Plover.  It  is  the  Otis  GdtenmHt^ 
Pennant;  Charadrius  (Edicnemus,  Montagu;  Oidicnemus  BeUmU, 
Fleming.  It  is  also  known  by  the  common  name  of  the  Norfolk 
Plover.  It  is  the  Ostardeau  of  Bdon ;  Le  Grand  Pluvier,  on  Courlis 
de  Terre,  of  the  French ;  Gran  Pivieri,  Curlotte,  Ciuriul,  and  Ciurlovi 
of  the  Italians ;  Lerchengraue  BM^enpfeifer,  Grosser  Brachvogel,  and 
Grosse  Bragvogd  oder  Gluth,  of  the  Gennans,  among  whom  it  Ib  also 
called  Triei,  or  Grid,  accordhig  to  Gesner,  who  thinks  that  it  is  the 
Charadrius  of  Aristotle ;  the  Glin-braff  of  the  ancient  British.  This 
genus  connects  the  Bustards  and  Plovers. 


ncad  and  foot  of  (Edienemttt, 

Mr.  Gould,  who  concurs  in  this  view,  observes  that  he  has  often 
had  occasion  to  remark,  that  while  the  normal  or  typical  gronpe  an 
abundant  in  spedes,  the  aberrant  forms,  whidi  appear  to  be  created 
for  the  purpose  of  filling  up  the  intervening  chawns,  are  restrietod 
for  the  most  part  to  a  limited  number  of  spedes :  thus  while  the 
Bustards  and  Plovers  comprise  a  vast  multitude  of  q)ede8,  the  genus 
(Edienemus  contains  at  most  but  five  or  six  spedes,  and  these  con- 
fined entirely  to  the  regions  of  the  Old  World.    ('  Birds  of  Europe. J 

The  following  is  the  character  of  the  genus :— Bill  strong;  nesriy 
straight,  rather  depressed  towards  the  tip ;  colmen  devated,  lowtf 
mandible  angulated;  nostrils  lon^tudinal,  pierced  through  and 
through  the  homy  part  of  the  middle  of  the  bill,  and  most  opei 
anteriorly.  Tarsi  long;  three  toes,  all  before,  united  as  far  m  the 
second  joint  by  a  membrane  whidi  skirts  their  edgea  Wmgs 
moderate ;  first  quill  shorter  than  the  second,  whidi  is  longest 

The  only  British  example  of  the  genus  is  the  Great  Plover.  It  has 
all  the  upper  parU  of  a  reddish  ashy-brown,  with  a  loogitudinai 
dash  on  the  odddle  of  each  feather ;  space  between  the  eye  and  the 
bill,  throaty  bdly,  and  thi^  pura  white;  neck  and  breast  sb^tlj 


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odoared  with  reddish  and  speckled  with  longiiadiiial  brown  streaks ; 
a  loDgitadinal  white  band  on  the  wing ;  towards  the  middle  of  the 
fint  quill  a  great  white  dash,  and  a  Teiy  small  one  on  the  interior 
barb  of  the  aeoond;  lower  tail-ooverts  mddy;  qaill-feathers,  except 
thoae  of  the  middle,  terminated  with  black ;  base  of  the  bill  briffht- 
yeUowiah,  the  rest  black ;  naked  skin  round  the  eyes,  iris,  and  feet^ 
pure  yellow.  Length  from  the  bill  to  the  feet  16  inches  2  lines. 
Hale  and  Female. 


Great  Plover  {(EdtenAntu  erepUanM), 

Such  is  Temminck's  description  of  the  adult  bird ;  but  the  plmnage 
Taries  in  some  individuals.  For  instance,  in  the  specimen  figured 
and  described  by  Qould,  in  his  'Birds  of  Europe,'  there  is  an  obscure 
bar  of  white  above  and  below  the  eye,  and  the  ground-colour  of  the 
flanks  and  under  surface  is  stated  to  be  yellowiidi- white ;  whilst  the 
yellow  toes  and  feet  are  noticed  as  having  a  tinge  of  green. 

The  young  birds  have  the  colours  less  distinct,  and  are  detected 
at  the  first  glance  by  the  highly  dilated  form  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  tarsus  and  by  the  size  of  the  knee-joint.  Temminck,  who  g^ves 
this  description,  adds  that  this  form  of  the  tarsus  exists  in  the  young 
of  the  year  of  all  species  of  birds  with  long  slender  legs^  but  is 
particularly  remarkable  in  the  ]^oung  (Edicnemi. 

Rapid  on  fbot^  powerful  in  mght,  which  it  executes  in  wide  circles, 
and  haunting  downs  and  open  places,  this  species  is  in  general 
approached  with  difficulty  by  the  sportsman,  wough  it  will  often 
squat  in  places  favourable  to  its  colour,  till  it  is  almost  trod  on. 
Their  shnll  evening  cry  pierces  the  ear,  and  may  be  heard  nearly  a 
mile  in  a  still  night.  Slugs,  worms,  reptiles,  and,  some  say,  mice  are 
eaten  by  them ;  but  the  two  former  seem  to  be  their  favourite  food. 
White,  in  a  letter  to  Pennant^  dated  80th  March,  1768,  says,  "  I 
wonder  that  the  Stone  Curlew  {Charcuhiui  (Editiiemua)  should  be 
mentioned  by  writers  as  a  rare  kind  :  it  abounds  in  all  the  campaign 
parts  of  Hunpehire  and  Sussex,  and  breeds,  I  think,  all  the  summer, 
having  young  ones,  I  know,  very  late  in  the  autumn.  Already  they 
begin  clamouring  in  the  evening.  They  canno^  I  think,  wim  any 
propriety  be  called,  as  they  are  by  Mr.  Ray,  'circa  aquas  versantes;' 
for  with  us,  by  day  at  least,  they  haunt  only  the  most  dry,  open, 
upland  fields,  and  sheep-^alks,  far  removed  m>m  water :  what  they 
niay  do  in  the  night  I  cannot  say.  Worms  are  their  usual  food,  but 
they  also  eat  toads  and  firogs."  Ko  nest  receives  the  eggs,  which  are 
two  or  three  in  number,  of  a  light  brown  or  dirty  white,  with  dusky 
blood-coloured  blotches  and  streaks.  **  It  lays,'  says  the  author  of 
the  '  Histoiy  of  Selbome,'  **  its  eggi^  usually  two,  never  more  than 
three,  on  the  bare  ground,  without  any  nest^  in  the  field ;  so  that  the 
countryman,  in  stimng  his  fallows,  often  destroys  them.  The  young 
run  immediately  firom  the  egg>  like  partridges,  &&,  and  are  with- 
drawn to  some  flinty  field  by  the  dam,  where  they  sculk  among  the 
stones,  which  are  their  best  security;  for  their  feathers  are  so  exactly 
of  the  colour  of  our  gray-spotted  flints,  that  the  most  exact  observer, 
unless  he  catches  the  eye  of  the  young  bird,  may  be  eluded.  .*.  . 
(Edicnemtu  is  a  most  apt  and  expressive  name  for  them,  since  their 
legs  seem  swollen  like  those  of  a  gouty  man.  After  harvest  I  have 
shot  them  before  the  pointers  in  turnip-fields."  In  his  Manuscript  the 
same  author  remaiiLB  that  they  seem  to  descend  in  the  niAt  to 
streams  and  meadows,  perhaps  for  water,  which  their  upland  haunts 
do  not  afibrd  them. 

Geographical  Distribution. — Europe  generally,  where  it  seems  to 
be  migratory  in  many  parts,  in  Britain  and  Qermany  for  instance. 
Temminck  notes  it  as  abundant  in  the  south  of  France  (in  which 
coimtry  Belon  found  young  ones  that  could  not  fly  at  the  end  of 
October),  Italy,  Sardinia,  the  Greek  Archipelago,  and  Turkey.  It  is 
also  found  in  Asia  and  Africa.  It  occurred  among  the  Trebisond 
eoUeotion  of  birds  presented  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  by 


Mr.  Keith  Abbott ;  and  the  locaUties  attributed  to  it  by  Mr.  Gould 
are  Europe  and  Africa,  but  not  India.  (<ZooL  Proa,'  1834.)  CoL 
Sykes  however  had  previously  recorded  it  among  the  bbrds  of  the 
Deooan :  at  least  he  says  ''there  is  no  visible  difference  between  the 
Dukhun  and  British  species."  (<  ZooL  Proa,'  1882.)  If  it  be  the 
Okaradriua  Kervari  of  Hasselquist,  which  Linnseus  and  most  authors 
suppose  it  to  be,  that  traveller  describes  it  as  inhabiting  Lower  Egypt^ 
near  the  sepulchres,  and  in  the  deserts.  In  Britain  it  arrives  early  in 
the  spring.  The  following  is  the  earliest  period  recorded  by  White : — 
"  On  the  27th  of  Februaiy,  1788,  Stone  Curlews  were  heard  to  pipe ; 
and  on  March  1st,  after  it  was  dark,  some  were  passing  over  the 
village,  as  might  be  perceived  by  their  quick  short  note,  which  they 
use  in  their  nocturnal  excursions  by  way  of  watch-word,  that  they 
may  not  stray  and  lose  their  companions.  Thus  we  see  that  retire 
whithersoever  they  may  in  the  winter,  they  return  again  early  in  the 
springs  and  are,  as  it  now  appears,  the  first  summer  birds  that  come 
back.  Perhaps  the  mildness  of  the  season  may  have  quickened  the 
emig^tion  of  the  curlews  this  year."  They  are  seldom  seen  after  the 
beginning  of  October;  but  Markwick  states  that  he  received  on  the 
81st  Januaxy,  1792,  a  bird  of  this  species  which  had  been  recently 
killed  by  a  neighbouring  farmer,  who  said  that  he  had  frequently 
seen  it  m  his  fields  (Sussex)  during  the  former  part  of  the  winter. 
This,  perhaps,  adds  Miurkwick,  was  an  occasional  straggler,  which,  by 
some  accident,  was  prevented  from  accompanying  its  companions  in 
their  migration.  As  the  autumn  advances,  Uiese  birds  collect  into 
flocks,  soon  after  which  they  leave  this  country.  Norfolk,  Suffolk, 
Kent,  and  Hampshire  seem  to  be  the  fiEivourite  counties  of  the  Stone 
Curlew ;  but  it  occurs,  though  rarely,  in  the  Yorkshire  Wolds,  higher 
than  which  it  does  not  seem  to  go  m  these  islands.  Mr.  Selby  says 
that  he  never  met  with-it  or  heard  of  it  in  the  more  northern  English 
counties,  nor  in  SooUand.  It  does  not  occur  in  Mr.  Thompson's  Irish 
list  in  the  '  Zoological  Proceedings.' 

The  Great  Plover  is  a  delicate  bird  for  the  tabla 

In  the  *  Portraits  d'Oyseaux,'  the  following  quatrain  well  describes 
the  bird  and  the  reason  for  the  name  given  to  it  by  Belon : — 

"  L*on  peat  notnmer  cestay-oy  Ontardeau, 
Paroeqa'il  est  approohant  de  TOstarde. 
Qui  touB  le  ply  des  genoux  I'os  regarde, 
Le  trouTo  gros  plus  qn'  k  nol  autre  oyseao." 

Cunoriut,  Bill  as  long  as  head ;  mandibles  arched,  and  compressed 
towai*ds  their  extremities;  base  depressed;  tip  sharp  and  entire; 
nostrils  basal,  oval,  with  an  oblong  lateral  opening.  First  quill 
longest  L^  long;  three  front  toes  separated  throughout;  middle 
toe  much  ^e  longest^  with  a  serrated  claw. 

O,  Temmindni,  Black-Bellied  Courier,  Swainson.  The  following  is 
Mr.  Swainson's  specific  character  and  description  : — ''Cream-coloured 
brown ;  top  of  the  head  and  breast  ferruginous,  nuchal  collar  double; 
the  lower,  with  the  quills  and  middle  of  the  body,  black ;  the  upper 
and  the  sides  of  the  body  white.  Total  length  from  the  bill  to  the 
tail  eight  inches;  bill  one  inch  from  the  gape,  and  half  from  the  end 


BUek^BeUied  Courier  {Ourtoriut  Temminckii), 
of  the  nostrils.  Legs  three  inches  from  the  naked  thigh  to  the  tip  of 
the  middle  toe,  the  daw  of  which  is  serrated  internally.  Tul  round ; 
the  middle  feathers  not  spotted ;  the  two  next  with  a  black  dot  near 
the-  tip,  which,  in  the  next  pair,  is  further  broken  into  two  white  dots ; 
the  outer  pair  white."  («ZooL  Illust./  pL  106,  first  aeries).  It 
inhabits  Africa  (Abyssiuia.) 


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M4 


(7.  l9ci>MMUf  Meyer,  Temmindk;  (7.  Ewn^pce^B^  'Ind.  Om;'  O. 
ChUicua,  Gmelixi;  Le  Couirita,  Buff,;  Cream-Coloured  Ployer, 
Latham ;  Cream-Coloured  Couner,  Pennant;  Cream-Colouied  Swift- 
Foot^  Selby.  It  haa  been  seen  in  France  and  En^dand,  but  only  aa  an 
oocanonal  Tiaitor.  Thua  we  find  (Mont  'Orn.  Diet')  tliat  onewaa 
killed  in  France^  where  it  waa  seen  to  run  with  great  swiftneM;  ano- 
ther was  shot  near  St.  Alban's  in  East  Kent  the  seat  of  William 
Hammond,  Esq.,  on  the  10th  of  November,  1785,  and  he  presented 
the  prise  to  Dr.  Latham.  Mr.  Hammond  first  met  with  it  on  some 
light  land ;  and  so  little  fearfbl  waa  it  that  having  no  gmi  with  him 
at  that  time  he  sent  for  one,  which  did  not  readily  go  o^  having  been 
charged  for  some  time,  and,  in  consequence,  he  missed  his  aim ;  the 
report  fin^htened  the  bird  away,  but  after  making  a  turn  or  two,  it  again 
settled  within  a  hundred  yards  of  him,  when  he  waa  prep>ared  with  a 
second  shot  which  killed  it  He  observed  it  to  run  with  incredible 
swiftness,  considering  its  sise,  and  at  intervals  to  pick  something  from 
the  ground  :  it  was  so  bold  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  make  it  rise  in 
order  to  take  a  more  secure  aim  on  the  wing.  The  note  was  unlike 
that  of  any  known  bird.  Colonel  Montagu  says  that  one  waa  shot  in 
North  WiJes  in  the  year  1793,  and  preserved  in  the  collection  of  the 
late  Professor  Sibthorp  at  Oxford.  Mr.  Atkinson,  author  of  *  The 
Compendium  of  Ornithology,'  was  also  in  possession  of  a  specimen 
shot  at  Netherby,  in  April,  1816. 

Another  of  these  birds  was  taken  in  Austria ;  and  the  young  bird 
in  the  Darmstadt  Museum,  alluded  io  by  Temminck,  was  probably 
killed  in  Europe.  Mr.  Fox  ('  ZooL  Journal,'  voL  iiL,  p.  492)  records 
the  death  of  one  shot  on  the  15th  October,  1S27,  under  Timberwood 
Hill,  in  Chamwood  Forest  Leicestershire,  by  a  tenant  of  Mr.  T.  Qis- 
borne.  He  described  it  as  coming  fiying  over  his  head,  uttering  a 
ay  with  which  he  waa  unacquainted,  and  it  settled  near  him.  Some 
idea  of  the  enormous  prices  which  were  at  one  time  given  by  collectors 
for  rare  birds  killed  in  Britain  may  be  foimed  from  the  sum  which 
Dr.  Latham's  specimen  produced  :  Mr.  Fox  says  it  was  purchased  for 
88  guineas. 

OlareolcL,  Brisson*  Bill  shorty  hard,  convex,  curved  for  upwards 
of  half  its  length,  and  compressed  towards  the  point  Nosteils 
at  the  sides  of  the  base,  oblong^  and  obliquely  deft  L^g;8 
feathered  nearly  to  the  knee ;  toes,  three  before  and  one  behind,  the 
outer  united  to  the  middle  one  by  a  short  membrane ;  daws  long, 
and  drawn  to  a  fine  point  Wings  very  large,  the  first  quill-feather 
the  longest    Tail  more  ar  less  forked.    (€k>uld.) 

Example,  O.  Pratmcola  (Hirwndo  Praimccla,  Linmeus),  the  Collared 
Pranticole.  Both  male  and  femalC'  when  old  have  the  summit  of 
the  head,  nape,  back,  scapulars,  and  coverts  of  the  wings  gray-brown ; 
throat  and  front  of  the  neck  white  slightly  tinged  with  red,  whidi 
colour  is  endrded  or  framed,  as  it  were,  by  a  very  narrow  black 
band,  which  ascends  towards  the  comers  of  the  bill;  space  between 
the  eye  and  the  bill  black ;  breast  whitish-brown ;  under  coverts  of 
the  VTings  chestnut-red;  lower  P^rts  white,  douded  with  reddish; 
coverts  of  the  tail  and  origin  of  the  caudal  feathers  pure  white,  the 
rest  blackish  towards  their  end;  bill  black,  red  at  its  base,  iris 
reddish-brown ;  naked  cirde  round  the  eyes  bright-red ;  feet  reddish- 
ash.  Tail  veiy  much  forked.  Length  rather  more  than  9  inches. 
(Temm.) 

In  this  state  it  is  the  Perdrix  de  Mer  of  Brisaon,  &c. ;  the  Perdrix 
de  Mer  Ordinaire  et  k  Collier  of  Qerard ;  Austrian  Pratincole  of 
Latham ;  Das  Rothfussige  Sandhuhn  of  Bechstein;  Das  Oestrichisohe 
Hdaband,  and  SUdliche  Sandhuhn,  of  Brehm ;  and  Pemice  di  Mare 
of  Savi 

Varieties. — The  gray-brown  brighter  or  deeper:  the  white  of  the 
throat  more  or  less  clouded  with  reddish  or  bright  russet ;  the  gular 
black  band  more  or  less  intense  in  colour,  and  often  accompani^  by 
a  very  small  white  line.  The  band  too  is  often  only  indicated  by 
small  black  spots.    (Temm.) 

When  young  the  upper  parts  are  brown-ash,  clouded  with  deeper 
undulations  and  whitish  borders ;  throat  tarnished  white,  surrounded 
with  brown  spots  disposed  so  as  to  replace  the  band  which  surrounds 
this  part  in  tne  old  birds ;  breast  and  belly  deep  gray  with  brown 
spots,  but  sometimes  without  spots;  the  tail  less  forked,  and  the 
lateral  fei^er  much  shorter  than  in  the  old. 

In  this  state  it  appears  to  be  La  Perdrix  de  Mer  k  Collier,  la  grise, 
labrune,  etlaQiarole  of  Sonnini,  of  Buffon;  La  Perdrix  de  Merdes 
Maldives,  de  Coromandd,  et  de  Madras,  of  Sonnerat;  Das  Braun- 
ringige  Sandhuhn,  and  Qefleckte  Sandhuhn,  of  Bechstein;  and  Collared 
and  nirther  varieties  of  Pratincole  of  Latham. 

"  The  genus  Qlamola^"  says  Mr.  Qould  in  his  great  work  on  the 
'Birds  of  Europe,'  ''appears  to  be  strictly  confined  to  the  Old  World, 
no  transatlantic  example  having  ever  been  discovered,  nor  indeed  are 
we  aware  of  any  form  in  the  ornithology  of  America  which  at  all 
approaches  the  present  Three  spedes  are  all  that  are  as  yet  disco- 
vered. Of  these,  two  (the  0,  graUaria  and  the  O.  lactta)  are  peculiar 
to  tiie  eastern  provinces  of  Ada  and  Africa ;  the  oth^,  the  bird  now 
before  us  (O,  torqtuUa),  is  spread  throughout  the  warm  and  tempentte 
regions  not  only  of  these  continents,  but  Europe  also :  hence  it  would 
seem  as  if  nature  endeavoured  to  make  up  by  extent  of  habitat  for  the 
limitation  of  spedes.  Still  however,  although  thus  difiused,  the 
Prantincole  may  be  said  to  be  truly  a  native  of  the  eastern  provincea 
of  Europe  on  the  Asiatic  borders,  and  especially  Hungary,  where 


wide  tnoti  of  moraii  and  flat  lands,  abounding  in  hkm  both  fttsh 


hundreds  of  these  birds;'  and  we  might  add  that  it  is  no  lea 
abundant  in  Western  Tartary.  In  TCngUiwi  it  is  only  an  oocasionil 
visitor ;  but  in  Qermany,  France^  and  Italy,  it  is  a  bird  of  periodical 
occurrence." 

M.  Temminck,  in  the  last  part  of  his  '  Manuel,'  states  that  it  breedi 
in  Sardinia,  and  that  it  is  very  abundant  in  Dalxnatia,  on  the  boiden 
of  the  lake  Boocagnaro,  on  itsspring  passi^pa.  The  eggs  he  deacribet 
as  being  ydlowish-white.  **  With  the  long  wings  and  forked  tail  of 
the  swallow" — ^we  again  quote  Mr.  Qould— "the  Pnnticde  posBesMi 
that  rapidity  and  power  of  flight  for  which  the  bird  is  so  remaikable. 
It  takes  its  food,  which  consists  of  insects,  and  espedally  audi  u 
frequent  marshes  and  the  borders  of  rivers,  while  on  the  wing, 
darting  along  in  the  chase  with  the  rapidity  of  an  arrow ;  nor  is  it 
less  distinguishable  for  celerity  on  the  ground,  and  often  catchei  ita 
prey  as  it  nimbly  runs  idong.  This  elegant  and  graoefal  biid 
mcubates  in  the  concealment  affbrded  by  reeds,  osiers,  and  tall 
herbage,  laying  three  or  four  white  eggs."  A  pair  of  Pratinoolea 
were  shot  at  Yarmouth  in  1827 ;  another  in  Wilbraham  Fen  in 
Cambridgeshire  in  1885 ;  and  a  specimen  at  Blakeney  in  Norfolk,  in 
May,  1845. 


Collared  Fratinoole  {QlareoUt  Pratimcola). 

Squatarola,  Cuvier.  Bill  rather  strong,  cylindrical,  straight,  nearly 
as  long  as  the  head ;  the  tip  or  homy  part  about  half  the  length  of 
the  whole  Inll,  tumid  and  arched,  with  the  tomia  bending  inwardi ; 
nasal  grooves  wide^  half  the  length  of  the  bill;  mesorhinom 
depressed  bdow  the  level  of  the  tip ;  nostrils  longitudinally  pierced 
in  the  membrane  of  the  groove,  linear,  oblong.  Wings  rather  long; 
acuminate,  wilJi  the  first  quill-feather  the  longest  Legs  alender,  of 
mean  length,  naked  above  the  tarsal  joint ;  feet  four-toed,  three  before 
and  one  behind ;  front  toes  joined  at  their  base  by  a  membrane,  that 
portion  of  it  between  the  outer  and  middle  toe  being  the  longest; 
hind  toe  veiy  small  or  rudimental ;  tarsi  reticulated.  Plumage  thick, 
close,  and  adpressed.    (Gould.) 


Head  and  Foot  of  Squataroh, 

S.  cinerea  {Ti-inffa  SquataroUi,  Linn.),  the  Bastard  or  Gray  Plover. 

Adult  Male  and  Female,  Winter  Plumage.— Fronts  throaty  middle 
of  the  belly,  thigh,  abdomen,  and  upper  coverts  of  the  Uil,  pore 
white ;  space  above  the  eye^  front  of  the  neck,  sides  of  the  breast  and 
sides,  white,  varied  with  brown  and  ashy  spots ;  upper  parts  blackish- 
brown,  variegated  with  greenish-ydlow  spots,  but  the  whole  of  the 
feathers  terminated  with  ash-oolour  and  whitish;  long  ^^^^ 
feathers  of  the  wings  deep  black ;  lower  coverts  of  the  tul  mariced 
on  ^eir  external  barbs  with  small  diagonal  brown  bands;  tail  white, 
but  reddish  towards  the  end,  striped  with  brown  bands,  which  are 


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pale  and  Usw,  and  placed  on  the  lateral  feathen;  bill  Uadk;  iris 
Kiai>irf«>i ;  feet  ashy-blaok.    Length  rather  more  than  10  inohet. 

Adult  Male  and  Female,  in  their  Spring  or  Nuptial  Plmnage.— 
Space  between  the  eye  and  the  bill,  throat/  sides  and  front  of  the 
neck,  middle  of  the  breast,  belly,  and  sides,  deep  black ;  fronts  a  large 
band  above  ^e  eyes,  lateral  parts  of  the  neck,  side  ot  the  breast^ 
thi|^  and  abdomen,  pure  white ;  nape  variegated  with  brown,  black, 
an^  white ;  occiput,  back,  scapulars,  and  coverts  of  the  wings,  deep 
black ;  all  the  feathers  of  these  parts  terminated  by  a  laige  space  of 
pare  white ;  large  white  spots  on  the  greatest  of  the  wing-coverts  and 
on  the  scapulars ;'Obliaue  black  bands  on  the  lower  tail-coverts; 
feathen  of  the  middle  of  the  tail  striped  with  white  and  black. 

The  yoiong  before  the  moult  resemble  more  or  less  the  adult  bizdi 
and  the  young  in  winter;  the  front,  space  above  the  eye,  sides  of  the 
neck,  and  sides  are  variegated  with  laiger  but  paler  spots ;  upper 
parts  of  a  Inight-gnr^  tint  varied  with  whitish,  also,  a  httle  whitish 
at  the  extremity  of  the  quiUs ;  transverse  bands  of  the  tail  gray. 
(Temm.) 

In  the  first  of  these  states  of  plumage  the  bwpd  is  the  Tringa 
SqucOarola,  QmeL ;  Le  Yanneau  Yari^,  Bu£ ;  and  Gray  Sandpiper, 
Lath.  ('Syn.') 

In  the  second  it  is  the  VaneUut  mdanoffotter,  Bech.;  Tnnga 
ffdvetieet,  OmeL  :  Oharadriut  apnomiiu,  Wils. ;  Le  Yanneau  Suisse, 
Bu£t ;  Swiss  Sandpiper,  Lath. ;  and  So^warsbauchiger  Kiebia,  Meyer. 

The  young  before  the  moult  are  Tringa  Squalarolog  var.,  QmeL ; 
Le  Yanneau  Pluvier,  and  Yanneau  Ghris,  Buff ;  Qray  Sandpiper, 
Lath^ ;  and  Schwarzbauohiger  Kiebiz  im  Herbetkleide^  Meyer. 

M.  Tenuninck,  who  gives  these  synonyms,  remarks  m  his  '  Manuel,' 
that  at  the  two  epoc^  of  the  moult>  individuals  are  found  which 
have  the  deep  black  of  the  lower  parts  sprinkled  with  some  white 
feathers,  or  vraien  the  white  predommates  it  is  variegated  with  some 
black  feathers.  The  birds  in  winter  plumage  and  the  young  may,  he 
observes,  be  easily  disting^uished  from  those  of  the  Qolden  Plover, 
first  by  the  presence  of  the  posterior  toe,  and  secondly  by  the  long 
black  feathen  which  an  found  inside  of  the  wings,  near  the  body ; 
the  rest  of  the  plumage  diffen  so  little  at  these  epochs,  that  one 
might  be  easily  mistaken. 

This  species  is  the  Chartidrim  hypomdat  of  Wagler,  and  the  Qray 
Squatarole  of  Shaw.  It  appean  to  be  the  Pluvier  Qris  of  Belon,  and 
in  the  <  Portraits  d'Oyseoux/  &a,  is  the  following  loyal  quatrain  under 
the  figun  of  the  bird : — 

"  De  noiet  lenlet,  de  Jour  en  oompagnle, 
Ta  le  FluTier  Bayvant  ion  appelleur. 
Far  la  voiUon,  que  e'est  blen  le  meilleor, 
QdHine  gent  soU  parnn  roy  gonTemde.*' 

BC  Temminck,  who,  in  the  fourth  part  of  his  <  Manuel'  (1840), 
protests  against  the  generic  separation  of  this  form,  hot  withCut 
a  paasingbut  sweeping  censun  on  ''toutes  les  autres  coupes  nou- 
vellee,"  adds  to  the  synonyms  SqwUarola  varia  et  Bdvdica,  Brehm. ; 
Kiebiz  Begenpfeifer,  Naum;  Pivieressa,  Savi;  and  Spraokling  Yipa, 
Nils. 

In  Britam,  when  this  bird  is  not  numerous,  and  principally  known 
as  a  migratory  species,  it  is  found  on  the  coast  "  in  oozy  bays,  or  at 
the  mouths  of  riven,"  when  it  feeds  upon  worms,  marine  crustaceans, 
&C.  The  bird  runs  well,  and  its  whistle  is  like  that  of  the  Qolden 
Plover,  but  not  so  shrilL  If  killed  in  good  season  it  is  delicious  for 
the  table.  The  nest  is  of  the  most  rude  construction.  A  shallow 
depression  in  the  earth  is  lined  with  a  few  pieces  of  dried  bents  or 
straw,  and  then  four  eggs  generally,  which  an  oil-green  blotched 
with  black,  an  depositedT  According  to  Wilson  and  Nuttall,  this 
Plover  has  often  in  the  temperate  parts  of  the  United  States  two 
broods  in  a  season,  tiiiough  it  has  only  one  in  Massachusetts,  when 
their  nests  an  of  ran  occurrence.  During  the  summer  both  young 
and  old  feed  much  upon  various  kinds  of  berries,  particularly  those 
of  the  early  bramble,  called  dew-berries,  and  their  flesh  is  then  highly 
esteemed.  About  the  last  week  in  August  they  npair  with  their 
young  to  the  borden  of  the  seaK>oast,  when  they  assemble  hi  great 
numbers,  feeding  on  small  shell-fish,  shrimps,  and  other  small  marine 
iLTiima.lii-  Qrasshoppera  and  other  insects  that  abound  in  the  fields 
are  also  eaten  by  tiiem.  "  They  an,"  says  Nuttall,  "  extnmely  shy 
and  watchful,  uttering  a  loud  rather  plaintive  whisUing  note  as  they 
fly  high  and  cinling  in  the  air,  and  an  so  often  noisy,  particularly  in 
the  breeding  season,  as  to  have  acquired  among  many  of  the  gunnera 
along  the  coast  the  name  of  the  Black-Bellied  Killdeer.  They  usually 
linger  round  the  sea-coast  m  the  Middle  States  till  the  commencement 
of  November,  when  the  frosts  beginning  sensibly  to  diminish  their 
prospect  of  subsistence,  they  instinctively  move  off  towards  the  south, 
proceeding  probably  at  this  time  under  the  shade  of  twilight,  as  moving 
flocks  an  nowhen,  a3  far  as  I  can  learn,  seen  by  day.  About  the 
middle  of  September,  in  the  marshes  of  Chelsea  (Mass.)  contiguous 
to  the  beach,  they  sometimes  assemble  at  daybreak  in  flocks  of  mon 
than  a  thouMmd  individuals  together,  and  soon  after  dispene  them- 
selves in  companies  on  the  Acres,  to  feed  upon  the  small  shell-flsh 
and  marine  msects  (Oruttacea).  This  crowding  histinct  takes  place 
a  short  time  previoustotheirgeneralmigration  southward."  ('Manual 
of  the  Ornithology  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.*) 
The  Qray  Plover  is  found  in  all  the  temperate  countries  of  Burope. 

VAI.  XDSZ.  9I¥.  TOL.  L 


Mon  abundant  in  France  than  in  Qermany ;  ran  in  Switzerland ; 
common  enough  in  the  islanda  and  on  the  coasts  of  Holland.  Abun- 
dant in  summer  in  the  regions  of  the  Arctic  Circle  and  of  Oriental 
dimates,  when  it  breeds.  M.  Cantraine  killed  a  young  one  in  the 
Strait  of  Boniface.  (TemnL)  Dr.  Yon  Siebold  and  M  Biirger  saw  it 
in  Japan,  and  M  Temminck  states  that  he  has  seen  individuals  from 
that  locality  in  both  summer  and  winter  plumage.  Sir  John  Bichard- 
son,  who  notices  it  as  the  Toolee-areeoo,  or  Tooglee-aiah,  of  the 
Esquimaux,  says  that  it  is  observed  in  the  Fur  Countries  in  similar 
places  to  tiiose  frequented  by  the  Qolden  Plover,  though  it  is  not 
equally  oomx^on,  and  that  it  breeds  in  open  grounds  from  Penn- 
sylvania  to  the  northern  extnmity  of  the  continent.  He  describee  a 
Mofanen  killed  at  Hudson's  Bay  (lat.  57*)  in  August  1822.  Captahi 
James  Boss,  in  the  Appendix  to  Sir  John  Ross's  '  Last  Yovage,' 
observes  that  it  was  mon  ranly  met  with  than  the  Qolden  Plover, 
but  was  found  breeding  near  the  maigins  of  the  marshes  immediately 
to  the  south-west  of  Fury  Point  in  considerable  numbers.  Some 
specimens  wen  also  obtained  near  Felix  Harbour.  It  is  met  with  in 
^gypt^  and  upon  the  confines  of  Asia,  in  Siberia,  ftc.  (Selby.)  The 
last-quoted  author  states  that  in  Britain  then  an  a  few  stations 
on  the  coast  of  Northumberland  when  it  is  found  during  the  whole 
winter,  but  only  in  families  or  small  fiocks.  It  generally  arrives  about 
the  middle  of  September,  sometimee  even  earner,  he  adds,  at  which 
time  several  of  the  old  birds  still  ntain  a  part  of  their  summer 
plumage.  In  the  month  of  May  they  go  northward.  Mr.  Qould  says 
that  they  appear  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  this  country  whue 
performing  their  periodical  migrations  in  the  months  of  April  and 
May  along  the  coasts  of  Lincolnsbin,  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Essex,  and 
Kent    {'  Birds  of  Europe.') 


Gray  Plover  or  Gray  Lapwing  {Squatarola  einerea). 
a.  Spring  plvmage ;  b.  Winter  plumage. 

Vandlui  (Briss.).  Bill  shorter  than  the  head,  straight  slightly 
compnssed,  the  points  of  both  mandibles  horny  and  hard.  Nasal 
groove  wide,  and  reaching  as  far  as  the  horny  tip.  Nostrils  haaal, 
linear,  piened  in  the  membrane  of  the  nasal  groove.  Legs  slender, 
with  the  lower  part  of  the  tibiao  naked.  Feet  4-toed,  three  befon 
and  one  behind,  united  at  the  base  by  a  membrane ;  hind  toe  very 
short,  articulated  upon  the  tanus.  Tani  reticulated.  Wings  ample, 
tuberoulated,  or  spurred.    The  first  three  quill-feathera  notched  or 


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suddenly  narrowed  towards  their  tips,  and  shorter  than  the  fourth 
and  fifth,  which  are  the  longest.    (Gould.) 

F.  erittat%$  (Tringa  VanMm,  Linn.),  the  Peewit,  or  Lapwinff.  The 
nude  in  winterplumage  has  the  oodpital  feathers  yerjlongtlooseMrbed, 
and  curved  upwards.  Top  oftthe  head,  orest^front  of  the  neck  and  breast, 
glossy  black ;  upper  parts  deep  green  with  brilliant  reflections ;  sides  of 
the  neck,  belly,  abdomen,  and  base  of  the  tail,  pure  white ;  tail-feathera 
tenninated  by  a  large  block  space,  with  the  exception  of  the  external 
feather ;  lower  ooverts  ruddy,  bill  blackish ;  feet  red-brown.  Length 
rather  more  than  12  inches.  The  female  has  the  black  of  the  throat 
and  breast  less  deep.  The  young  before  the  moult  have  the  occipital 
crest  shorter;  some  blackish  colour  below  the  eyes ;  the  throat  varied 
with  black  and  ash^  brown ;  all  the  feathers  of  the  upper  and  lower 
parts  terminated  with  ochreous  yellow ;  feet  ashy-olive.  The  spring 
or  nuptial  plumage  is  scarcely  distingiushable  by  the  greater  bril- 
liancy of  the  reflections  on  the  back  and  wings,  and  by  the  deeper 
intensity  of  the  black  of  the  throat  and  breast  The  crest  however 
is  longer,  and  the  colour  of  the  feet  bright  reddiBh. 


Head  and  foot  of  Peewit,  or  Lapwing  ( VantUut  erigtaim). 

Accidental  Yarieties.^Pure  white.  Yellowish  white  with  faint 
indications  of  the  deeper  colours.  One  or  other  part  of  the  body 
speckled  with  white  feathers.    (Temm.) 

This  species  is  Le  Vanneau  of  the  French;  Paonoella  Commune  of 
the  Italians ;  Qehatibte  Eiebiz  of  the  Qermans ;  De  Eievit  of  the 
Netherlanders;  Peaseweep,  Peewit,  Bastard  Plover,  Lapwing,  and 
Wype,  of  the  British ;  Comchwigel  of  the  Welsh.  It  is  also  the  Wipe, 
Eowipa,  and  Blsocka,  of  the  Swedes ;  Yibe  and  Eivit  of  the  Danes ; 
and,  according  to  Belon,  At|  of  the  Greeks  (Aristot,  'Hist  Anim.,' 
viii  8) ;  Pavonzino  and  Pamichello  of  the  Italians ;  and  in  some 
provinces  Dixhuit  and  Papechieu  of  the  French. 

The  habits  of  this  species  verv  much  resemble  those  of  the  other 
Plovers,  and  the  arts  by  which  the  parents  try  to  lead  either  dog  or 
man  from  their  eggs  or  young  by  counterfeiting  tiie  gait  of  a  wounded 
bird,  &c,  are  as  well  if  not  better  known  as  the  stratagems  of  its 
■  congeners  on  the  like  occaaionB.  This  is  the  bird  which  furnishes  the 
plover's  eggs  of  the  London  market ;  and  tJioee  who  rob  the  nest  are, 
it  is  said,  careful  not  to  take  all,  but  they  leave  one  or  two,  so  as  to 
induce  the  bird  to  go  on  laying,  which  she  generally  does  to  make  up 
her  number.  The  full  complement,  when  Uie  bird  is  not  robbed,  is 
generally  four,  and  they  are  olive-coloured,  spotted  and  blotched  with 
black.  That  part  of  the  egg  which  is  usually  called  the  white  (the 
albumen)  is  transparent  whan  boiled,  and  has  somewhat  of  a  bluish 
tinge.  The  nest,  if  nest  it  may  be  called,  is  the  bare  earth.  It  haunts 
the  borders  of  rivers,  lakes,  plains,  and  marshy  places,  and  is  generally 
to  be  found  near  the  sea-shore  in  the  vnnter.  This  part  of  its  habits 
well  agrees  with  those  described  as  ^per  to  Aristotle's  Aix,  accord- 
ing to  the  reading  given  by  Belon.  This  elegant  bird  seems  to  have 
been  as  much  esteemed  by  the  French  for  the  table  as  by  our  own 
countrymen.  In  the  '  Portraits  des  Oyseauz '  the  following  quatrain 
appears  under  the  figure  of  the  bird : — 

"  Y07  ej  deans  le  portraiet  da  Yaneaii, 
£t  le  Toyant,  poorras  ta  vene  poiatre ; 
Maia  ai  ta  vealx  d'un  bon  morceaa  repaiatre 
II  7  a  pea  de  mcilleara  oyseanx  d*eaa." 

In  the  'Northumberland  Household-Book,'  'Wypes'  are  ohaiged 
at  one  penny  each,  and  they  are  among  the  birds  admitted  to  his 
lordship's  own  *  mees.' 


The  Peewit  ii  spread  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  is  partioolsriy 
plentiful  in  Holland.  Mr.  Qould  states  that  he  has  seen  spedmeiiB  in 
collections  from  India  and  Africa.  It  is  noted  by  Messrs  Dixon  and 
Boss  as  occurring  in  great  numbers  near  Eraeroom,  arriving  at  the 
end  of  March,  and  departing  at  the  end  of  November.  Daring  the 
summer  it  frequents  the  river  (Eara-Su,  or  northern  branch  of  the 
Euphrates),  but  on  its  arrival,  and  previous  to  its  dspartare,  it  is 
found  in  moist  fields.  The  native  name  is  Eis-Cooah^  (Midden's 
Bird),  or  Eahmaum  Cooehdo  (Bath-Bird).  VcmeUui  KeptmachiOf  and 
Cfharadriut  MorineiUu  and  C.  minor  were  found  by  those  gentlemen  at 
the  same  locality.  ('  ZooL  Proa,'  1889.)  It  appears  in  the  'List  of 
Birds'  seen  in  Japan,  by  Dr.  Yon  Siebold  imd  M.  Biirger;  and 
Temminck  states  that  individuals  from  that  locality  differ  in  nothing 
from  those  of  Europe. 


Peewit,  or  Lapwing  ( VansUuM  erUtatu$). 

This  species  is  confined  to  the  Old  World ;  but  Captain  P.  P.  King, 
R.N.,  has  described  a  second  spedes  from  the  Straits  of  Magalhaww. 
It  is  figured  in  the  'Illustrations  of  Ornithology,'  under  the  name  of 
Squatarola  eimeia, 

Phihmaehnu,  the  Spur-Winged  Plover.  It  is  the  PkHmw^ 
tpijumii  (Charadriiu  tpmotut,  Linn. ;  PluviaH^  Senegalmtit  amatOj 
Briss. ;  Plunama  tpinotut,  Gould.) 


/■    A:   ./^< 


Spnr-Wlnged  Plover  {VhXUmanikm  qpfaoww). 

When  the  male  and  female  are  in  perfect  plumage  aU  the  gosunit 
of  the  head  and  occiput^  throat,  front  of  the  neck,  breast,  sides,  quill^ 
and  three-fourths  of  the  tail  are  black ;  region  below  the  eyes,  lateral 
base  of  the  bill,  sides  of  the  necl^  nape,  long  feathers  on  the  sides, 
inside  of  the  wings,  the  whole  border  of  the  wing,  thighs,  abdomen, 
rump,  and  first  fourth  of  the  origin  of  the  tail,  pure  white ;  the  whole 
of  the  mantle,  quills  nearest  the  body,  as  well  as  all  the  coverts,  gray- 


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'brown,  more  or  leas  deep  or  umber-colour ;  two  lateral  feathen  of  the  ' 
tail  terminated  with  white.    Length  10  to  11  inches. 

This  is  Le  Pluvier  k  Aigrette,  Le  Pluvier  Huppd  de  Perse,  and  the 
PluTier  Axm4  du  Senegal,  of  Buffon  ,*  Spur-Winged  and  Black-Breasted 
Indian  Plover  of  Latham. 

Little  or  notling  is  known  of  the  habits  of  this  species,  with  the 
excej^on  of  what  we  learn  from  Dr.  Latham,  who  says  that  it  inhabits 
KuflBia,  and  is  frequent  near  Aleppo,  about  the  river  Cole.  **  The  Spur- 
Winged  Plovers,"  says  he,  ''are  very  numerous  and  exceedingly  noisy, 
have  a  hastv  and  continual  movement  of  the  head  and  neck,  drawing 
them  up  bnskly,  and  then  stretching  them  quickly  forward,  almost  as 
if  they  were  making  hasty  and  eager  bows.'* 

H.  Temminck  gives  Egypt  and  Senegal  as  the  habitat  of  this  bird, 
and  says  that  it  shows  itself  accidentally  in  Italy,  but  is  said  to  be 
more  common  in  the  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  In  Ghreece, 
he  adds,  great  numbers  are  found ;  and  Professor  Nordmann  killed 
one  in  Russia. 

Charadriui  (Linn.).  Bill  slender,  strught,  compressed,  shorter 
than  the  head ;  nasal  furrow  prolonged  more  than  two-thirds ;  man- 
dibles enlaiged  towards  the  tip.  Nostrils  basal,  jagged,  cleft  longi- 
tudinally in  the  middle  of  a  large  membrane  which  covers  the  nasal 
foflsa.  Toes  three,  directed  forwards,  the  external  imited  to  the 
middle  one  by  a  diort  membrane ;  the  inner  toe  free.  Tail  square 
or  slightly  rounded.  Wings  moderate,  first  quill-feather  longest 
(Gould.) 


Head  and  foot  of  Golden  Plover  {(^aradriut  pluvialis), 

C,  phmaiig  (Linn.),  the  Golden  Plover.  The  old  male  in  winter 
plumage  has  the  top  of  the  head,  as  well  as  all  the  upper  parts  of 
the  body,  wings,  and  tail,  sooty  black,  marked  with  large  spots  of 
golden  yellow,  din>osed  on  the  borders  of  the  barbs  of  the  feathers ; 
■idea  of  the  head,  neck,  and  breast  varied  with  aahy  brown  and 
yellowiah  spots ;  throat  and  lower  parts  white ;  quUls  black,  shafts 
white  towards  the  end;  bill  blackish;  feet  deep  ash-colour;  iris 
brown.    Length  rather  more  than  10  indies. 

The  young  of  the  year  have  the  upper  parts  ashy  black  with  spots 
of  yellowish  ash.    (TenmL) 

In  tiiis  garb  the  birds  are,  according  to  Temminck,  C,  phmaUt, 
GmeL ;  O.  aurahu, Suckow ;  Le  PluvierDor^ Buff. ;  Golden  or  Green 
Plover,  Lath ;  Goldregenpfeifer,  Bechst ;  Piviere  Dorato,  of  the  '  Stor. 
degl.  Uoc' ;  Goud  Plevier,  Sepp. 

The  old  male  and  female  in  summer  or  nuptial  plumage  have  the 
upper  parts  deep  black ;  over  all  the  borders  of  the  feathers  are  dis- 
posed small  spots  of  a  vexy  bright  golden  yellow ;  front  and  space 
above  ibe  eyes  pure  white ;  lateral  piffts  of  the  neck  white  also,  but 
varied  with  greiat  black  and  yellow  spots ;  throat,  front  of  the  neck, 
and  all  the  <^er  lower  parts,  deep  black. 

White  and  black  mingled  are  often  seen  on  the  lower  parts  of  the 
feathers  during  the  moiUt.  This  livery  is  always  to  be  seen  on  the 
young  birds,  even  after  their  first  spring  moult    (Temm.) 

In  this  state  the  bird  is,  according  to  M.  Temminck,  C.  apriearivSt 
GmeL ;  Le  P^uvier  Dor^  k  Gorge  Noire,  Buff ;  Alwaigiim  Plover, 
Lath. 

In  the  fourth  part  of  his  '  Manuel,'  M.  Temminck  adds  the  following 
synonyms: — C.  awraiui,  Naum.;  Der  Platkopfiffe,  Hochstemige, 
Mittlere,  und  Hochkopfige  Goldregenpfeifer,  Br^UL;  Brockfogel, 
Nils. ;  and  Ploiere,  Savi. 

This  species  is  also  Le  Pluvier  GuiUemot  of  Belon  (Who  savs  that 
it  is  named  Pluvier,  "  pour  ce  qu'on  le  prend  mieux  en  temps  pluvieux 
qu*en  nulle  autre  saison,"  and  he  gives  an  amusing  account  of  the 
mode  of  taking  these  birds  by  the  peasants) ;  Der  Rechte  Brachvogel 
of  the  Germans;  Hawk's  Eyes  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  residents  (?) ; 
Cwttyn  yr  aur  of  the  ancient  British. 

Mr.  Selby  g^ves  a  most  correct  and  interesting  account  of  the  habits 
of  the  Urd  in  this  country  \—**  About  the  end  of  Mav  or  beginning  of 
June  the  females  begin  to  lay,  miJdng  but  a  little  artificial  n^  a  small 
depression  in  the  ground  amidst  the  heath  being  generally  taken 
advantage  of,  and  Imed  with  a  few  dry  fibres  and  stems  of  grass. 
The  eggs  ava  four  in  number,  rather  larger  than  those  of  the  lapwing, 
of  a  cream-yellow  inclining  to  oil-green,  with  large  irregular  confluent 
blotches  or  spots  of  deep  umber-l»own.  The  young,  when  excluded, 
are  covered  with  a  beautiful  partioolonred  down  of  bright  king's 
yellow  and  brown.  They  quit  the  nest  as  soon  as  hatched,  and  follow 
their  pacvnta  till  able  to  fly  and  support  themselves,  which  is  in  the 


course  of  a  month  or  five  weeks.  The  old  birds  display  great  anxiety 
in  protecting  their  yoimg  brood,  using  various  stratagems  to  divert 
the  attention  of  an  enemy ;  among  others,  that  of  tumbling  over,  as 
if  unable  to  fly,  or  feigning  lameness,  is  most  frequent,  and  appears 
indeed  to  be  tiie  instinctive  resort  of  those  birds  that  construct  the 
nest  and  rear  their  young  on  the  ground.  When  aware  of  an  intruder 
near,  the  female  invariably  runs  to  some  distance  from  her  nest  before 
she  takes  wing,  a  manoeuvre  tending  to  conceal  its  true  situation ;  and 
the  discovery  of  it  is  rendered  still  more  difficult  by  the  colour  and 
markings  of  the  eggs  assimilating  so  closely  to  that  of  the  ground  and 
surrounding  herbage.  The  usual  call-note  of  the  Plover  is  a  plaintive 
monotonous  whistle,  by  imitating  which  it  may  frequently  be  enticed 
within  a  very  short  distance.  In  the  breeding  season  a  more  varied 
call  is  used,  during  which  it  flies  at  a  great  elevation,  and  continues 
soaring  round  for  a  considerable  time.  Towards  the  end  of  August 
these  birds  begin  to  leave  the  moors  (having  there  congregated  in 
laige  flocks),  and  descend  to  the  fallows  and  the  newly-sown  wheat- 
fields,  where  an  abundance  of  their  favourite  food  can  be  readily 
obtained.  At  this  season  they  soon  become  very  fat,  and  are  excellent 
at  the  table,  their  flesh  not  being  inferior  in  flavour  to  that  of  the 
Woodcock  or  any  of  our  most  esteemed  sorts  of  game.  In  these 
haunts  they  continue  till  severe  weather  approaches,  when  they  either 
move  nearer  to  the  coast  or  migrate  to  the  southern  parts  of  the 
kingdom.  They  flv  with  strongUi  and  swiftness,  and  if  disturbed, 
when  in  large  flocks,  generally  perform  many  aerial  evolutions  and 
rapid  wheelings  before  they  again  settle  on  the  ground.  The  (Golden 
Plover  is  a  nocturnal  feeder,  and  during  the  day  is  commonly  seen 
squatted  upon  the  ground  or  standing  asleep,  with  the  head  drawn 
down  between  the  shoulders.  Its  food  consists  of  earth-worms,  slugs, 
insects,  and  their  larvse,  particularly  those  of  the  Lepidopterous  tribe, 
many  rare  species  of  which  I  have,  upon  dissection,  foimd  in  their 
stomachs  and  g^et  during  the  summer  season.  It  runs  veiy  fast, 
and,  when  wounded,  is  difficult  to  be  caught  without  the  aid  of 
a  dog." 


\*VVVl 


V/rir/  ^ 


Golden  V\oxzt  {CJunradriw plwfialU,) 
Of  Summer  dress ;  (,  Winter  dress. 

This  species  has  been  always  considered,  and  most  Justly,  a  delicious 
dish.  It  figures  in  the  old  bills  of  fare  accordingly.  Thus  in  the 
account  ofSir  John  Nevile,  of  Chete  Knight,  of  the  viands,  &a,used 
at  the  marriage  of  his  son-in-law  Roger  Rockley  and  his  dau^^iter 
Elisabeth  Nevile,  the  14th  of  Januaiy,  in  the  seventeenth  year  "of 


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CJHARADRIAD-ffl. 


961 


the  reigne  of  our  Boreraigne  lord  king  Heniy  YIIL,"  we  find  in  the 
Beoond  oourBe,  "  Item,  plover,  8  of  a  dish,"  and  among  the  charges, 
"  Item,  in  plover,  3  doz.,  5«."  In  the  chaige  of  the  said  Sir  John 
Nevile,  at  Lammas  Assises,  twentieth  of  Heniy  YIIL,  we  also  find 
"  Item,  6  dos.  plovers,  12»."  Four  hundred  plovers  appear  among 
'*  the  goodlj  provision  "  at  the  intronisation  of  Geoige  Novell,  arch- 
bishop of  York,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  lY.  Drayton,  in  his  '  Poly- 
albion,'  makes  Lyndsey  boast  that  her  "  fowle  more  ayrie  are"  ih«Q 
those  of  Holland  (Lincolnshire) ; 

«  And  make  fine  spirits  and  blood ; 
For  neere  this  batning  i^e,  in  me  is  to  be  seene, 
More  than  on  any  earth,  the  plover  grey  and  greene.*' 

There  is  evidence  of  the  presence  of  the  Qolden  Plover  in  each  of 
the  four  quarters  of  the  globe.  Mr.  Qovld  indeed,  in  his  observations 
on  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  species  collected  by  Mr.  Keith 
Abbot  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Trebizond,  notices  the  bird  as  inhabit- 
ing Europe,  and  the  adjoining  portions  of  Africa  and  Asia,  but  not 
America.  ('ZooL  Proc.,'  1834.)  Now  Temminck  expressly  says  that 
the  species  is  Uie  same  in  America  and  Asia.  Sabine  also  (Parry's 
*  First  Voyage')  makes  Wilson's  C.  apricaritu  and  the  Qolden  Pbver 
identical,  and  states  tiiat  it  breeds  in  the  swamo^  parts  of  the  North 
(Georgian  Islands  in  considerable  abundance,  ftichardson  statee  that 
the  breeding-quarters  of  this  well-known  bird  are  the  Barren  Grounds 
and  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  "  It  hatches,"  he  says, 
"  early  in  June,  and  retires  southward  in  August.  Numbers  linger  on 
the  muddy  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  and  on  the  sandy  beaches  of  rivers 
and  lakes  in  the  interior  untU  the  hard  frosts  of  September  and 
October  drive  them  away.  At  this  period  they  are  very  fat,  and  are 
highly  prized  by  the  epicures  of  the  Fur  Countries.  They  make  but  a 
short  stay  in  Pennsylvania,  and  are  said  to  winter  beyona  the  United 
States"     ('  Faima  Boreali- Americana.') 

Cktptain  Sir  James  Ross,  R.N.,  notices  it  as  abundant  during  the 
breeding  season  in  most  parts  of  the  arctic  regions,  and  he  found  them 
plentifully  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Felix  Harbour,  feeding  in  the 
marshes  m  pompany  with  0.  temipalmaitu$  (American  Ring-Plover). 
(Sir  John  Ross's  '  Second  Voyage.')  Nuttall  remarks  that  the  bird  is, 
accordina;  to  the  season  of  the  jrear,  met  with  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  world,  particularly  in  Asia  and  Europe,  firom  Eamtchatka  to 
China,  as  well  as  in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  from  Arctic  America, 
where  it  breeds,  to  the  Falkland  Islands.  The  Prince  of  Canino 
('Birds  of  Europe  and  North  America')  appears,  on  the  other  hand, 
to  agree  with  Mr.  (}ould,  for  the  Prince  makes  the  American  analogue 
of  U,  pluvialit,  Linn.,  O.  Virginiacus,  Borkh.  (O.  plwnaliif  Wils.) ;  and 
Colonel  Sykes  notes  it  among  the  birds  of  the  Deocan,  and  as  identical 
with  Javanese  specimens,  smaller  indeed  than  one  North  American 
specimen  and  two  English  specimens  in  the  British  Museum,  but 
absolutely  identical  wIul  other  British  specimens.  He  says  that  it  is 
rare  in  the  Deocan,  and  appears  only  in  the  cold  weather.  In  the 
stomach  he  found  beetles,  land-insects,  and  coarse  sand.  ('Zool. 
Proc.,'  1882.)  It  appears  among  the  list  of  birds  seen  in  Japan  by 
Dr.  Von  Siebold  and  M  Burger ;  and  Temminck  states  that  those 
killed  there  did  not  differ  essentially  from  those  of  Europe.  Mr. 
Selby  allows  a  wide  geographical  range  to  ii^  though  not  to  the  extent 
supposed  by  many  naturalists,  ^e  birids  which  have  been  considered 
hy  them  as  belongmg  to  this  species  being  of  a  different  one,  namely, 
C.  marmorcUui  of  Wagler.  Instead  therefore  of  extending  iihe  range 
of  the  Qolden  Plover  to  America,  Australia,  and  otiier  parts  of 
the  southern  hemisphere,  he  feels  inclined  to  limit  it  to  Europe, 
Northern  Asia,  and  some  few  districts  in  the  north  of  Africa.  ('  British 
Ornithology.') 

(7.  Monnellut,  Linn.,  the  Dotterel  It  is  Eudr<m%cu  MorindUi,  Boie ; 
E.  MorineUa  morUana  d  stolida,  Brehm,  according  to  Temminck. 

This  bird  in  its  winter  plumage  has  the  top  of  the  head  and  occiput 
blackish-ash ;  laige  eyebrows  of  reddish-white  uniting  on  tiie  occiput ; 
fjEU)e  white,  dotted  with  black ;  upper  parts  blackish-ash  tinged  with 
greenish,  all  the  feathers  of  those  parts  framed  as  it  were  with  ruddy 
colour ;  breast  and  sides  reddish-ash ;  the  large  patch  on  the  breast 
and  the  middle  of  the  belly  pure  white ;  shaft  of  the  first  quill  white, 
except  towards  the  end,  tail  terminated  with  white ;  bill  black ;  iris 
brown ;  feet  greenish-ash.    Length  more  than  8  inches. 

The  young  have  the  tints  more  ashy ;  top  of  the  head  reddish  or 
rusty,  varied  with  longitudinal  spots ;  the  ruddy  colour  which  firames 
as  it  were  the  feathers  of  the  upper  parts  less  vivid ;  tail  tenninated 
with  bright  ruddy. 

In  their  summer  or  nuptial  plumage  the  very  old  male  has  the  face 
and  eyebrows  very  pure  white;  summit  of  the  head  and  oodput 
blackish ;  nape  and  sides  of  the  neck  ashy ;  feathers  of  the  mantle  and 
wings  bordend  with  very  deep  ruddy ;  on  the  breast  a  nairow  brown 
band,  succeeded  by  a  large  white  cincture ;  part  below  the  breast  and 
sides  very  bright  ruddy ;  middle  of  the  belly  deq>  black;  abdpmen 
reddish-white.  The  femsle  is  of  a  ruddv  colour  on  the  sides  often 
clouded  with  ash-colour ;  black  spot  of  tLe  middle  of  the  belly  less 
apparent  than  in  the  male,  or  vaned  with  white  feathers. 

Thia  is  the  Pluvier  Quignard  and  Pluvier  Solitaire  of  the  French ; 
Piviere  de  Corrione  and  Piviere  Tortolino  of  the  Italians ;  Der  Dumme 
Begenpfeifer  of  the  Qermans ;  Dotterel,  Dotterell,  and  Dottrell  of  the 
Britidi,  and  Hullan  of  the  Welsh. 


Drayton  sings,  of  this  bird — 

'*  The  Dotterell,  which  we  think  a  very  dainty  dish, 
Whose  taking  makes  snoh  sport  as  man  no  more  esn  wish; 
For  as  yon  oreepe,  or  cowre,  or  lye,  or  sUmpe,  or  goe, 
So  marking  you  (with  care)  the  apish  bird  doth  doe, 
And  acting  everything,  doth  never  mark  the  net. 
Till  he  be  in  the  snare  which  men  for  him  have  set." 

Poets  have  a  right  to  a  little  licence^  and  in  many  of  the  olderproie 
writers  a  similar  acoount  of  ihe  silly  mimicry  of  the  Inrd  is  giveo. 
<*  The  Dotterel,"  says  Mr.  Belby,  "  has  always  been  considered  a  stapid 
bird,  but  for  what  reason  I  cannot  conceive.  I  allow  that^  on  its  met 
arrival,  it  shows  but  little  fear  of  man,  but  this,  I  apprehend,  siises 
more  firom  inexperienoe  of  persecution  in  its  native  wilds  than  from 
any  other  cause,  and  which  appears  evident  from  the  birds,  wheo 
haraased  and  repeatedly  fired  at^  soon  becoming  too  cautious  to  sdmit 
of  near  approach  any  longer.  Their  faabitB  also  oontribirte  to  render 
them  imwaiy,  for  being  nocturnal  feeders  (like  many  others  d  the 
Oharadriada),  they  are  at  rest  and  aaieep  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  day,  m  which  state  also  the  Qolden  Plover  (a  waiy  Inrd  when 
roused)  will  finequently  admit  of  a  close  approach.  As  to  the  sUny  of 
the  Dotterel  mimicking  the  actions  of  the  fowler,  by  stretdung  ontiti 
legi  wing,  or  head,  when  he  sets  the  example,  it,  whhont  doubt^  aroee 
ftSm  the  motions  that  they  as  well  as  other  birds  usoaUy  and  most 
naturally  make  when  roused  firom  a  state  of  repose;  and  which  eTaiy 
one  who  attends  to  the  habits  of  the  feathered  race  must  (in  flodcs  of 
gulls,  plovers,  tringas,  &c.)  have  frequently  observed."  The  food  con- 
sists principally  of  insects,  slugs,  and  worms.  For  a  long  time  it  wu 
doubted  whether  the  Dotterel  bred  in  this  country,  but  these  doubts 
are  now  removed,  as  the  reader  will  find  in  the  next  pazagraph.  The 
rude  nest  is  foimed  of  lichens  or  moss,  and  the  three  or  four  lustreleH 
oliveHX>loured  eggs  are  sprinkled  with  large  dots  and  numerous  spots 
of  deep  brown-oHve. 

Mr.  Selby  notices  the  Dotterel  as  particulariy  abundant  in  Nortiieni 
Asia  and  the  eastern  P&rts  of  Europe,  and  as  inhabiting  Siberia  and 
the  vast  steppes  of  Tartary,  frequently  living  in  the 'ncinity  of  the 
salt  lakes  and  marshes  of  that  open  region.  He  adds,  that  it  is  also 
found,  during  its  winter  migration,  in  Italy  aad  Spain,  and  that  the 
great  body  of  these  birds  retires  to  the  high  latitudes  of  Northern 
Asia,  Russia,  and  Lapland  Alps  to  breed ;  but  the  flocks  which 
pass  along  the  eastern  coast  of  our  island  are  supposed  to  limit 
their  flight  to  the  upland  districts  and  mountains  of  Sweden  and 
Norway.  Temminck  states  that  it  breeds  in  tiie  north  of  Bussia; 
also  in  Norway  on  the  great  bare  plateaux  of  the  mountains,  and  in 
no  great  number  on  the  high  mountains  of  Bohemia  and  Sileeia  at  an 
elevation  of  from  4600  to  4800  feet  In  this  country,  Sussex,  Hamp- 
shire, Wiltshire,  Berkshire,  Cambridgeshire,  Lincolnshire,  Dei^ahire, 
Torkshire,  and  Northumberland  possess  it  Dr.  Latham  states  Uut 
in  the  elevated  district  of  Braemar,  Aberdeenshire,  these  birds  hatch 
their  young  on  dry  mossy  ground  near  to  and  on  the  very  summits  of 
the  highest  parts,  somethnes  in  the  tufts  of  little  .short  heather  or 
moss.  The  female  sits  three  weeks,  and  the  young  appear  about  the 
middle  of  July.  Mr.  Tarrell  exhibited  eggs  of  this  bird,  belonging  to 
Mr.  Heysham,  of  Carlisle,  obtained  on  Skiddaw  in  the  summer  of  1835. 
Several  pairs  were  breeding  in  the  same  locality.  (<  ZooL  Proc,'  1886.) 
Mr.  Oomd  {*  Birds  of  Europe ')  says,  **  The  eggs  of  these  birds  are  so 
difficult  to  obtain,  that  we  only  know  one  collector  who  posseaaea 
them.  They  are  one  inch  eight  lines  long,  by  one  inch  two  liiies  and 
a  half  in  br^th,  light  olive-brown  blotted  and  spotted  with  black : 
these  specimens  were  procured  fh>m  the  Qnmpiaa  HiUs." 

.-^'^ 


Dotterel  {Oharadriw  Morinelhu),  in  nuptial  plamage. 
They  are  excellent  for  the  table  when  in  season.  Numben  are 
shot  near  Cambridge  and  Boyston  during  their  spring  migratioQ. 
We  find  '  Dotrels '  charged  at  one  penny  each,  a  consideFable  som  in 
those  days,  in  the  'Northumberland  Household-Book,' and  enume- 
rated among  the  birds  admitted  to  the  high  (his  lordship's)  taUe. 
They  now  find  a  ready  sale  in  the  London  market  at  about  sixshilliogi 
a  couple. 


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GHABADSIADJa!. 


O,  hiaiicula,  the  Ringed  Plover,  Bing-Doiierel,  Qrand  Pluvier  k 
Collier  of  Temminck.  It  is  found  thron^out  the  year  on  most  of  the 
shores  of  the  British  Islands,  and  is  eyen  more  nmneroos  on  our  own 
shores  in  winter  than  it  is  in  summer. 

O.  Cantianm,  the  Kentish  Ployer,  PluTier  k  Collier  Interrompu, 
Temminck.  This  bird  was  first  obtained  at  Sandwich  in  Kent,  and 
named  by  Dr.  Latham  in  his  '  General  Synopsis  of  Birds.'  Dr.  Plom- 
ley  of  Maidstone  states  that  it  is  very  numerous  in  Romney  Marsh  at 
the  present  time.  It  arrives  in  April,  breeds  on  the  shingle,  and 
depute  in  August    nfarrell, '  British  Birds,'  voL  ii) 

O.  minor,  the  Little  Ringed  Plover,  or  the  Little  Ring-Dotterel, 
Petit  Pluvier  k  Collier,  Temminck.  Although  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  by  no  means  a  rare  bird,  it  has  been  obtained  very  rarely  in 
Kngland. 

Jacgmatoput,  BUI  long,  strongs  compressed ;  point  very  much  com- 
pressed, chisel-like.  Nostrils  lateral,  longitudinally  slit  in  the  groove 
of  the  bilL  Feet  strong,  muscular;  three  toes  directed  forwards, 
middle  toe  united  to  the  external  one,  up  to  the  first  joint,  by  a 
membrane,  and  to  the  intemal  toe  by  a  small  rudiment;  toes  bor- 
dered with  the  rudiment  of  a  membrane.  Wings  moderate,  the  first 
quill  longest 

Habits  of  the  Qenus. — ^The  species  live  along  the  sea^ore,  on  the 
beach  or  sands ;  following  the  retreat  of  the  waves,  to  gather  such 
crustaoeous  or  marine  ftnimala  as  they  wash  up.  They  assemble  in 
great  flocks  for  their  migrations,  but  live  solitunly  during  the  time  of 
pairing  and  incubation.  Their  nests  are  made  in  the  herbage  and  in 
the  marshy  meadows  near  the  sea,  and  i^ey  both  run  and  fly  with 
rapidity.  Their  crj  is  shrill  and  resounding.  They  moult  twice,  in 
autumn  and  spring,  but  the  colours  of  the  plumage  scarcely  change  at 
all  at  those  periods;  the  only  marked  difibrence  observed  at  this 
change  of  plumage  exists  in  the  absence  or  presence  of  the  white 
gorget    There  is  no  difierence  in  the  sexes.    (Temm.) 

S,  odraUgui  (Linn.),  the  Oy8ter<]latoher.  The  male  and  female  in 
winter  plumage  have  the  head,  nape,  upper  part  of  the  breast,  back, 
wings,  and  extremity  of  the  tail,  deep  black ;  a  very  marked  goi^t 
under  the  throat;  rump,  origin  of  caudal  feathers  and  quills, 
transverse  band  on  the  wings,  as  weU  as  all  the  lower  i>arts,  pure 
white ;  bill  and  naked  drde  round  the  eyes  veiy  bright  orange ;  iris 
crimson ;  feet  obscure  red. 

The  young  of  the  year  have  the  black  of  the  plumage  douded  and 
bordered  wi&  brown ;  the  white  dirty ;  bill  and  naked  circle  of  the 
eyes  blackish-brown ;  iris  brown ;  feet  livid  gray. 

The  summer  or  nuptial  plumage  has  all  the  upper  parts  of  the  front 
of  the  neck  of  the  same  black  as  the  wings,  which  black  is  more  lus- 
trous and  with  reflections.    (Tenmi.) 

This  is  L'Hultrier,  Pie  de  Mer,  and  Becasse  de  Mer,  of  the  French ; 
Boccaoda  dl  Mare  of  the  Italians  ;  Marspitt  and  Strandslgusft  of  the 
Swedes ;  Tialldur  (fem.  Tilldra)  of  the  Icelanders ;  Kielder  of  the 
Feroe  Islanders ;  Tield^  Kield,  Glib,  and  Strand-Skiure,  of  the  Norwe- 
gians ;  Strand-Skade  of  the  Danes ;  Geschackte  Austemfischer  of  the 
Germans;  Scholackster  of  the  Netherlanders ;  Oyster-Catcher  and 
Sea-Pie  of  the  British ;  and  Piogen  y  Mdr  of  the  Welsh. 

It  is  common  in  Denmarl^  Sweden,  and  Norway,  Russia,  Siberia, 
and  extending  to  Kamtchatka ;  the  British  IsUnds  (where  it  is  indi- 
genous, and  breeds),  from  the  Scilly  Isles  to  Shetland;  common 
and  resident  in  Ireland.  Tenuninck  states  that  this  species  also  lives 
in  North  America,  but  that  the  Oyster-Catcher  of  Brazil  and  the 
whole  of  South  America  forms  a  distinct  race.  He  adds  that  it  also 
inhabits  JapuL  The  IVince  of  Canine,  in  his  '  Birds  of  Europe  and 
North  America,'  however  does  not  indude  it  among  the  North 
American  birds,  but  places  opposite  to  it  (in  the  American  column) 
Hcematopus  palliatui,  Temm.  (ff.  oitralegui,  Wils.;  if.  BrasUiermt, 
Ucht). 


or  ydlowiBh  stoneHX>lour,  spotted  with  ash-gray  or  dark  brown,  or 
blackish,  are  depodted  in  a  shallow  hole,  scratdied  in  the  gravd  or 
sand,  and  sometimes  among  the  shingles  of  the  beadi,  but  most  fre- 
quently among  the  herbage  of  marshy  places  near  the  sea.  It  can 
hardly  be  said  to  make  a  nest  Time  of  incubation  three  weeks. 
Young  when  first  hatched  covered  with  down  of  a  brownish-gray 
colour.  It  is  sometimes  seen  fu  up  rivers  and  inland,  where  it  feedii 
on  earth-worms,  &c.,  and  fr^sh-water  insects  and  moUusks.  Easily 
domesticated  in  poidtry-yards.  Several  used  to  be  kept  upon  the 
grass*  in  frt>nt  of  the  Pa^on  at  Brighton,  and  there  are  some  in  the 
(hardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  in  the  Regent's  Park. 

StreptUat  (IlL).  Bill  moderate,  hard  at  the  pointy  strong,  strai^t, 
of  an  elongated  conical  shape,  slightly  curved  upwards ;  ardte  flat- 
tened ;  point  straight,  truncated.  Nostnls  basal,  lateral,  long,  half- 
closed  by  a  membrane,  pierced  through  and  through.  Feet  moderate ; 
not  much  nakedness  above  the  knee;  three  toes  before  and  one 
behind ;  the  three  anterior  toes  united  at  the  base  by  a  very  short 
membrane;  the  posterior  toe  articulated  upon  the  tarsus.  Wings 
acuminate ;  the  first  quill  the  longest    (Tenmi.) 

S,  interpret  {Ondtte  interpres,  G.  R.  Ghmy),  the  Turnstone.  The  very 
old  male  has  the  front  space  between  the  bill  and  the  eye,  a  large 
collar  on  the  nape,  a  part  of  the  back,  a  longitudinal  band  and  another 
transversal  one  upon  the  wing,  upper  coverts  of  the  tail,  middle  of 
the  breast,  as  well  as  the  other  lower  parts,  all  of  pure  white ;  deep- 
black  takes  the  shi^  of  a  narrow  frontal  band,  which,  passing  before 
the  eyes,  is  dilated  bdow,  where  on  one  dde  it  is  directed  on  the 
lower  jaw,  and  on  the  other  dilating  itself  anew  on  the  ddes  of  the 
neck,  it  surroimds  the  throat,  and  forms  a  wide  plastron  in  tnmt  of 
the  neck  and  on  the  ddes  of  the  breast ;  top  of  the  head  reddish- 
white,  striped  longitudinallv  with  black;  upper  part  of  the  back, 
scapulars,  and  coverts  of  the  wing  bright  onestnut  red,  sprinkled 
irreigularly  with  large  black  spots ;  a  laige  brown  band  on  the  rump ; 
li^ml  qmll  of  the  tail  pure  white ;  bill  and  iris  black ;  feet  orange- 
vdlow.  Length  8  inches  and  2  or  8  lines.  The  female  differs  only 
m  having  the  shades  less  pure  and  the  black  less  deep. 

In  this  state  of  plumage  the  bird  is  Tringa  imierpret  of  Gmdia ; 
MorineUa  coUarie,  Meyer ;  Turnstone  or  Sea-Dotterd  of  Edwards. 

The  young  of  the  vear  have  no  trace  of  black  nor  of  red  chestnut 
Head  and  ni^  of  awy-brown  striped  with  deep-brown ;  white  spots 
on  the  ddes  of  the  head  and  neck ;  throat  and  front  of  the  neck 
whitish ;  feathers  of  the  ddes  of  the  breast  deep  brown,  terminated 
with  whitish ;  the  other  lower  parts  and  the  ba<x  pure  white ;  upper 
part  of  the  back,  scapulars,  and  coverts  of  the  wmgs  deep  brown ; 
all  the  feathers  surrounded  by  a  wide  yellowish  boirder;  tnmsreiBe 
band  of  the  rump  deep  brown  bordered  with  ruddy ;  feet  yellowish- 
red.  The  black  and  wnite  more  regularly  defined,  in  proportion  as 
the  bird  advances  in  age. 

In  this  plumage  the  bird  is  iZWf^^ifimfieZ^  Linn.;  TrimgatHterprtt 
MormeUa,  Gmd. ;  Arenaria  einerea,  Briss. ;  the  Turnstone,  Pennant 

The  young  at  tiie  age  of  a  year  have  the  large  plastron,  or  collar 
on  the  frxmt  of  the  neck  and  on  the  ddes  of  the  breast^  marked  out 
with  bladL  feathers,  terminated  by  a  narrow  whitish  border ;  summit 
of  the  head  and  nape  brown,  spotted  with  blackish-brown ;  back, 
scapulars,  and  coverts  of  the  wings  black,  all  the  feathers  sortounded 


OTiter-Cateher,  or  8ea-Pie  {Samatopua  aulrdlagw). 

It  feeds  upon  small  crustaceans,  &c.  and  bivalve  mollusks,  whidi 

last  its  powenul  bill  and  frame  well  enable  it  to  open,  so  as  to  get  at 

the  contents.    It  will  fr^uently  wade  far  out>  and  trust  to  swiimning 

back  for  zfc«  return.    Their  four  ^ggs,  of  a  bright  hue,  inclining  to  oliye 


Tumstone  [StreptiUu  inUrprm). 
by  a  ruddy  border;  a  great  black  spot  on  the  lateral  tail-fstther;  thtt 
rest  as  in  the  adults.    (Temm.) 

This  ii  the  V oHapietre  of  Savi ;  Steinwalier  of  Brehm ;  and  Huttan 
y  Mdr  of  the  Welsh. 

Geographical  Distribution.— Very   wide.    Nova  Zembla.    Green- 
land»  Winter  Island.  Felix  Harbour,  the  coast  between  Tiolork 


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CHAILSAS. 


CHEILODIPTERU& 


dS8 


Harbour  and  Fury  Point — ^about  the  middle  and  end  of  June. 
Shores  of  Hudson  s  Bay  and  of  the  Arctio  Sea  up  to  the  75th 
parallel,  Tvhere  it  breeds  in  June,  quitting  in  September,  halting  in 
October  on  the  shores  of  the  Delaware,  and  proceeding  farther  south 
on  the  setting  in  of  cold  weather.  The  United  States.  The  straits 
of  Magellan.  Cape  of  Qood  Hope.  Japan,  Sunda,  the  Molucca 
Islands,  and  New  Guinea.  Australia.  In  Europe,  6^m  Russia  south- 
ward to  Italy.  Norway.  Madeira.  In  this  country  it  is  foimd  on 
the  coasts  from  August  to  May,  when  it  returns  northward  to  breed. 
Stationary  in  Zet^d,  according  to  Dr.  Fleming,  who  condudee  that 
it  breeds  there. 

The  Tumstope,  as  its  name  implies,  procures  its  food — small 
crustaceans,  molluscous  animals,  8cc — by  turning  oyer  with  its  strong 
bill  the  stones  on  the  shore  which  shelter  its  prey.  Mr.  Hewitson 
found  its  nest  on  the  coast  of  Norway  placed  against  a  ledge  of  rock, 
and  consisting  of  nothing  more  than  the  dropping  leaves  of  the 
juniper  bush.  Under  a  creeping  branch  of  this  dumb  the  eggs,  four 
in  number,  of  an  olive-green  colour,  spotted,  and  streaked  with 
ash-blue  and  two  shades  of  reddish-brown,  were  concealed  amd 
sheltered. 

CHARJS'AS  (Stephens),  a  genus  of  Moths  of  the  family  Noctuidce. 
It  has  the  following  characters  :  Wings  more  or  less  denticulated ;  the 
posterior  wings  usually  whitish  in  the  males  and  brown  in  the  females ; 
palpi  short,  2-jointed ;  maxillae  long ;  antennss  rather  long,  simple  in 
the  females,  and  more  or  less  pectinated  in  the  males ;  head  small ; 
thorax  large,  not  crested ;  apex  of  the  body  furnished  with  a  tuft  of 
hairs  in  the  males. 

Several  species  of  this  genus  have  been  found  in  England ;  their 
larvae  tve  naked,  feed  upon  roots,  and  assume  the  pupa  state  under- 
ground. 

C.  OramintB  (Ceraipteryx  Graminit,  *  Cat.  Brit  Lep.  in  Brit  Mu&'), 
the  Antler  Moth.  It  varies  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  width, 
measured  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  wings  when  expanded ;  it  is  of  a  brownish 
colour;  the  upper  vnngB  have  a  longitudinal  white  streak,  which 
extendi!  beyond  the  middle,  and  gives  out  three  branches  at  the  apex  : 
touching  this  white  line  above  there  are  two  pale  brown  spots,  and 
another  of  the  same  colour  beneath,  near  the  base  of  the  wing ;  the 
apex  of  the  wing  has  a  row  of  pointed  black  spots,  more  or  less 
distinct 

The  caterpillar  is  of  a  brownish  colour,  with  yellow  streaks  on  the 
sides  and  back :  it  feeds  upon  grasses,  and  is  exceedingly  destructive 
to  the  pastures  in  Sweden.  In  England  the  insect  is  not  so  abundant ; 
there  is  however  an  instance  on  record  of  its  having  committed  con- 
siderable devastation  in  the  north  of  England  during  the  larva  state. 
We  allude  to  an  account  given  by  Mr.  Wailes,  in  the  second  volume 
of  the  'Entomological  Magazine,'  who  observed  a  portion  of  the 
moimtain  of  Skiddaw  thus  affected— their  devastation  causing  the 
herbage  to  have  a  dry  and  parched  appearance :  the  part  affected 
comprised  at  least  fifty  acres,  and  extended  some  distance  down  the 
western  side  of  the  mountain ;  and  so  marked  was  the  line  that  the 
progress  made  by  the  larvae  could  be  distinctly  seen  from  the  town  of 
fceswiok.  Large  floc^  of  rooks  were  observed  to  frequent  the  spot, 
and  no  doubt  devoured  immense  numbers;  the  moths  however 
appeared  in  great  abundance  in  the  month  of  August  From  this 
same  gentleman's  observations  we  find  that  the  history  of  the  moth 
is  also  interesting.  It  appears  to  be  their  habit  to  fly  from  about 
half-past  seven  to  half-past  eight  in  the  morning,  during  which  time 
ih.ej  are  seen  in  some  parts  of  the  country  in  the  utmost  profusion ; 
their  appearance  and  disappearance  are  extremely  sudden.  The  field 
in  which  Mr.  Wailes  observed  them  became  in  one  moment  a  moving 
mass,  and  idler  about  an  hour  not  a  single  moth  was  to  be  seen,  all 
having  disappeared  in  a  manner  equally  sudden  :  they  fly  about  three 
or  four  inches  from  the  ground,  and  thread  their  way  with  considerable 
rapidity  through  the  stalks  of  grass.  This  moth  is  by  no  means 
abundant  in  the  south  of  England  :  it  departs  a  little  from  the  dia- 
racters  of  the  genus  in  not  having  the  wings  notched. 

The  other  species  of  this  genus  are  C,  cespttis,  the  Hedge-Rustic,  C. 
ItUulerUa,  the  Barred-Feathered  Rustic,  (7.  JSlkiopt,  the  Black  Rustic 

CHARD-BEET.     [Bkta.] 

CHARLOCK.     [SiNAPis,  See  Supplement;  Raphanus.] 

CHARR,  or  CHAR.    [Salmonid^] 

CHASMCDIA,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
LanuUicomes  {ScarabceuSf  Linn.),  and  sub-section  XylophUi  (Latreille). 
The  species  have  the  following  characters : — Body  rather  convex  and 
broad ;  scutellum  large,  somewhat  triangular,  equalling  in  length  at 
least  one-third  of  that  of  the  elytra ;  the  mesostemum  is  prolonged 
into  a  blunt  point,  and  extends  as  far  as  the  base  of  the  femora  of  the 
anterior  pair  of  legs ;  the  mandibles  are  entire,  and  obtuse  at  the 
apex ;  maxiUae  with  only  two  teeth,  and  furnished  with  a  tufb  of  fine 
hairs  at  the  extremity ;  mentum  elongated ;  elytra  shorter  than  the 
abdomen,  broad  behind,  and  obtusely  rounded.  The  mide  Ckasmodia 
has  the  upper  claw  of  the  fore  torsi  very  broad  and  bifid,  or  divided 
at  the  apex ;  the  inner  claw  is  small  and  entire ;  the  claws  of  the  four 
posterior  legs  are  entire,  and  of  large  size.  The  female  has  all  the  claws 
of  small  size ;  those  of  the  anterior  pair  of  legs  simple ;  the  four  posterior 
legs  have  the  outer  claw  bifid.  The  tarsi  of  the  maJe  are  thicker  than 
In  the  female,  particularly  those  of  the  anterior  pair  of  legs. 

All  the  spedeB  of  this  genus  are  of  lai^e  size,  and  may  be  readily 


distinguished  from  the  Cetanias  by  their  laige  acuteUum  and  convex 
form,  combined  with  their  smooth  and  glossy  appearance.  The  thorax 
is  convex,  and  has  the  posterior  margin  considerably  waved ;  the  part 
joining  the  scutellum  has  a  segment  of  a  circle  as  it  were  cut  oirt  to 
admit  the  fore  part  of  the  latter,  which  is  rounded ;  Uiis  diaracteris 
also  observed  in  the  genus  (JeUmia  and  Macrcupii,  and  affords  a  good 
point  of  distinction  between  these  and  the  groups  nearest  allied.  The 
genus  M<icraipu  has  also  a  very  large  scutellum,  but  diffisrs  in  th« 
tand  and  other  parts.    [Macraspis.] 

Ckasmodia  viridU  is  about  an  inch  in  length  and  of  a  deep  blae- 
green  colour  throughout,  with  the  exception  of  the  antennae,  the  basal 
joints  of  which  are  pitchy-red,  and  the  dub  is  black. 

There  are  four  other  species  known,  some  of  which  are  of  a  gloasj 
brown  or  chestnut  colour.  They  all  inhabit  South  America.  The 
species  above  named  is  common  in  collections  from  the  Brasils. 

CHATOESSUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belon^ng  to  the  family  Clupadce. 
It  resembles  the  common  herring,  but  the  first  dorsal  ray  is  prolonged 
in  the  filament    The  spedes  are  inhabitants  of  the  warmer  seas. 

CHATTERER.    [Bombyoilla.] 

CHAULIODUS,  a  genus  of  Natatorial  Birds  bdonging  to  the  familj 
AnatidcBf  instituted  by  Swainson.    [Ducks.] 

CHAULIODUS,  a  genus  of  Fidies  bdonging  to  the  Pike  FamOj 
(Biocidce),  There  is  but  one  spedes,  0,  Sloani.  It  has  two  teeth  in 
each  jaw,  across  the  other  jaw  when  the  mouth  is  shut  The  doraal 
fins  are  between  the  pectorals  and  ventrals.  The  first  dorsal  nj 
terminates  in  a  filament  It  has  been  taken  at  Gibraltar,  is  about  IS 
inches  long,  and  of  a  deep  green  colour. 

CHAULMOOGRA,  a  native  Indian  name  for  the  bruiaed  seeds  of 
Oynoeardia  odorcUa.    [PAiroiACBiB.] 

CHAUNA.    [Palamzdsa.] 

CHAYICA,  a  genus  of  plants  bdonging  to  the  natoral  order 
PipercKea.  It  includes  many  of  the  spedes  which  are  ordinarily 
referred  to  the  genus  Piper.    [Pipbr.] 

CHEESE-RENNET,  the  OaUum  venm  of  botanists,  which  derives 
its  popular  name  from  having  been  formerly  employed  to  curdle  milk 


CHEILINUS.    [Labbidj!.] 

CHEILODA'CTTLUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  section 
Acanthopterygii  and  fonuly  Scicniidcs,  The  mouth  is  small ;  dorsal 
fin  with  numerous  spiny  rays ;  lower  rays  of  the  pectoral  fins  rnrn^i 
and  continued  beyond  &e  membrane. 

CheHodactylui  monodactylua  {Ckcetodon  numodaetylue,  CaimichaeL 
'  Linnaean  Transactions,'  voL  xii)  will  serve  to  illustrate  "Uiis  genns. 
This  fish  is  about  18  inches  in  length ;  the  body  is  somewhat  oval  and 
compressed ;  the  teeth  are  small  and  crowded ;  the  pectoral  fin  is 
large,  and  has  15  rays,  the  six  lower  of  which  are  dmple  and  proteude 
beyond  the  membrane ;  the  sixth  ray  frx>m  the  bottom  is  very  much 
elongated.  The  colour  is  oUve,  or  bronze,  with  six  dai^  stripes  on 
the  back ;  the  fins  are  blackish,  with  the  exception  of  the  pectorals, 
which  are  amber-coloured. 


ChHlodactylut  fHonodaety!u$, 

This  spedes  is  very  common  on  the  coast  of  the  small  island  of 
Tristan  dia  Cunha,  and  feeds  upon  the  Fucus  pyriferus, 

CHEILODI'PTERUS  (Lac^pMe),  a  genus  of  Fishes  bdonging  to 
the  section  Aeantfiopterygii  and  fanuly  Percidos.  The  body  is  rather 
short ;  pre-operculum  double-edged,  the  edges  findy  serrated  ;  soaks 
lai^,  easily  dislodged,  continued  on  to  the  preK)peroulam;  the  two 
dorsal  fins  widdy  separated. 

The  characters  here  detailed  are  those  of  the  fgaxoA  Apogon,  from 
which  the  present  genus  differs  chiefly  in  having  the  jaws  furnished 
with  long  and  pointed  teeth.  Three  spedes  ot  Ch^lodiptenu  are 
known ;  tiiey  are  all  of  small  size,  and  furnished  with  dender  longi- 
tudinal stripes.  C  octo-vUtatus,  as  its  name  implies,  has  eig^t  stripes. 
C7.  quinquelineatua  has  five  longitudinal  black  stripes,  the  fpround  colour 
of  the  body  being  silvery  white ;  it  is  about  four  inches  m  length,  and 
comes  from  the  Society  Idands.  The  third  spedes,  C.  Arabiau,a  of 
an  olive-green  colour  above,  and  has  the  under  parts  dlvexy  with  a 
pinkish  hue ;  this  spedes  has  from  14  to  17  lon^tudinal  stripes. 

As  an  example  of  the  genus  Apogon,  of  which  there  are  aereral 
spedes,  we  may  notice  the  Apogon  Rex  MtUhrumj  or  Rd  des  Roogete 
(Cuvier) :  this  spedes  rarely  exceeds  six  inches  in  length,  and  is  of  a 
beautiful  red  colour  with  three  large  bladi  spots  on  the  back ;  one 
under  each  of  the  dorsal  fins^  and  one  towards  the  tail ;  the  whole 


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CHSntOHYS. 


8ur&oe  ia  also  Bprmkled  with  small  black  dota.  The  remaining  apedee 
ure  also  amall,  and  must  of  them  are  of  a  red  colour ;  a  few  have  been 
found  off  the  coast  of  Australia,  but  most  of  them  frequent  the 
Indian  seas. 

CHEIRACA'KTHUS,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Fishes  from  the  Old  Red- 
Sandstone  of  Qamrie  in  Forfarshire  and  the  Orkneys.    (Agassis.) 

CHEIRANTETCrS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Crucifera,  This  genus  is  known  by  possessing  square  or  compressed 
Biliques ;  a  2-lobed  or  capitate  stigma ;  a  calyx  bi-saocate  at  the  base ; 
oTate  compressed  seeds  in  one  series.  The  species  are  biennial  or 
perennial  herbs,  or  under-shrube.  The  leaves  are  oblong,  lanceolate, 
entire,  or  toothed.  The  flowers  are  arranged  in  racemes,  and  are  of 
various  colours — ^yellow,  white,  purple,  or  parti-coloured.  Many  of 
the  species  exhale  a  delicious  odour,  and  are  great  favourites  in 
gardens. 

C.  Cheiri,  the  common  Wall-Flower,  has  lanceolate  entire  leaves, 
which  are  either  smooth  or  covered  with  2-parted  appressed  hairs ; 
linear  pods,  and  recurved  lobes  of  the  stigmft.  It  is  found  wUd 
throughout  Europe,  on  old  walls  and  in  stony  places,  and  almost 
constantly  amongst  the  ruins  of  old  castles.  Oa  this  account  it  is  a 
great  favourite  with  poets,  and  is  popularly  regarded  as  an  emblem 
of  faithfulness  in  adversitv.  The  general  colour  is  a  brown  vellow, 
or,  as  a  poet  has  called  it,  the  "  yellow  wall-flower  stained  with  iron- 
brown."  It  is  however  subject  to  considerable  varieties  of  colour  even 
in  its  wild  state,  and  these  are  much  increased  by  cultivation.  On 
account  of  its  scent  it  has  been  transferred  from  ruined  walls  to  the 
flower-borders  of  gardens,  and  there,  by  the  doubling  of  its  flowers 
and  the  variations  of  its  colours,  a  number  of  distinct  varieties  have 
been  recorded.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  remarkable 
varieties  foimd  in  gardens : — 

0.  Jlore  rimpliei.        Single  Yellow. 
$,  fiore  plmo.  Double  Yellow. 

Largo-Flowered  Yellow. 

Large  Yellow,  saw-leaved. 

Double  Yellow,  spreading. 

Double  Bos^. 

Double,  variegated  with  purple  and  yellow. 

Laige  Double,  pale  yellow. 

Bunch-Flowered,  yellow. 

Flowers  with  anthers  changed  into  oarpelsL 

Single  and  Double^  bloody-flowered. 

The  Wall-Flower  is  a  common  wild  plant  in  Great  Britain.  It 
possesses  the  alight  acridity  of  the  order  to  which  it  belongs,  and  it 
has  been  recommended  to  sow  it  in  pastures  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting rot  in  sheep.  The  wild  flower  has  by  some  botanists  been 
distinguished  from  the  cultivated  plant  by  the  name  of  O.  frutiadonu, 
but  they  are  both  the  same. 

Sevend  other  species  of  this  genus  have  been  described,  and  are 
occasionally  foimd  in  collections  in  gardens  in  this  country.  In  their 
cultivation  the  hardy  shrubby  species,  such  as  the  common  Wall- 
Flower,  may  be  propagated  by  cuttings,  which  soon  strike  root  when 
planted  under  a  himd-glass.  Other  perennial  species  will  permit  of 
growtii  by  dividing  tiie  roots.  The  annual  species  ma^  be  sown  in 
the  open  border  or  on  rock-work,  where  they  will  flourish,  and  most 
of  them  will  survive  the  winter  in  such  a  situation. 

CHEIROQALEUa    [Lemubida] 

CHEIRO'LEPIS,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Fishes  from  the  Old  Bed-Sand- 
etone  of  the  Orkney  Islands  and  Morayshira  The  scales  are  very 
minute.    (Agassiz.) 

CHEIBOMELEa    [Chukoptbba.] 

CHEIHOMYS,  one  of  the  generic  names  given  the  Aye-Aye  (which 
must  not  be  confounded  wi{h  the  Ai,  or  Sloth  [Bradtfus],  from  which 
it  very  strongly  differs  in  oiganisation),  an  animal  discovered  by 
Sonnorat  at  Madag^tscor,  and  described  by  him  in  the  second  volume 
of  his  *  Voyage  aux  Indes.'  The  name  Aye-Aye  it  appears  is  an 
exclamation  of  the  natives ;  and  it  is  conjectured  that  it  was  g^ven  to 
this  animal  in  consequence  of  a  supposed  resemblance  to  its  cry. 
Sonnini,  who  formed  the  genus,  censures  Qmelin  for  denominating  it 
Sdurut  Madagcucarientis  (Madagascar  Squirrel),  because  a  quadruped 
of  the  latter  genus  really  exists  in  Madagascar.  Cuvier  places  the 
form  next  to  the  Flying  Squirrels,  Polatouches  (Pteromya),  and 
immediately  before  the  Bats  (Mu8,  Linn.),  remarking  that  the  lower 
incisors  are  much  more  compressed,  and  especially  more  extended 
from  before  backwards,  than  those  of  the  squirrds,  and  resemble 
ploughshares  (socs  de  charrue).  The  feet,  he  adds,  have  all  five  toes, 
of  which  four  of  those  on  each  anterior  extremity  are  elongated,  the 
middle  toe  being  much  more  slender  than  the  others ;  in  the  hind 
feet,  the  great  toe  is  opposeable  to  the  others,  so  that  in  this  respect 
the  animal  is  among  the  Bodents  what  the  Opossums  (Sarigues)  are 
amonff  the  Camassiers.  The  etructure  of  the  head,  he  continues,  is 
very  different  from  that  of  the  other  Bodents,  and  has  more  relation 
to  the  Qiuadrwfuma, 


7.  nuunmm, 

8.  temUnt, 
(.  jntvlani. 

C  fermffineuM, 
B.  variiu, 

K.  tkynoideus, 
X.  gynanihenu, 
II,  hamanthuM, 


Dental  formula:  incisors,  -•  ;  molars,—-.  =:i8. 

Sonnerat  says  that  the  Aye-Aye,  which  is  found  chiefly  if  not 
exclusively  on  the  western  part  of  the  island,  does  not  approach  any 
genus,  but  that  it  leans  towards  the  Maki,  the  Squirrel,  and  the  Ape. 


Its  large  and  flat  ears,  he  observes,  resemble  much  those  of  a  bat ; 
and  states  that  its  principal  character,  and  a  very  singular  one  it  is, 
is  the  middle  toe  or  finger  of  the  fore  foot,  the  two  last  joints  of  which 
are  very  long,  slender,  and  denuded  of  hair.     This  member,  he  adds, 


Skull  of  Aje^^ye  {Chekromyt  MadagatearieHtU), 

is  useful  to  it  in  drawing  worms  out  of  holes  in  the  trees,  and  that  it 
seems  also  to  be  of  service  in  holding  on  to  the  branches  of  trees.  He 
says  that  it  appears  to  be  a  subterranean  animal,  and  does  not  see 
during  the  day,  and  that  its  eve  resembles  in  colour  that  of  the  owL 
He  describes  it  as  being  very  slothful,  but  good  tempered,  remaining 
always  at  rest,  and  requiring  a  good  deal  of  shaking  to  make  it  move. 
The  subject  of  his  observations  lived  two  months  upon  no  other 
nourishment  than  cooked  rice,  and  it  fed  itself  with  its  two  fingers  like 
the  Chinese  with  their  chopsticks.  All  the  time  M.  Sonnerat  had  this 
animal  alive,  he  never  saw  it  carry  its  tail  elevated  like  the  squirrel. 
It  alvrays  dragged. 

Buffon  describes  the  colour  as  a  musk-brown  mixed  with  black  and 
gray-ash.  On  the  head,  round  the  eyes,  on  the  body,  thighs  and  legs, 
the  colour  was  deep  musk,  in  which  nevertheless  bfick  predominated 
upon  the  back  and  many  parts  of  the  body  and  le^  The  tail  was 
entirely  black :  the  sides  of  the  head,  the  neck,  the  jaw,  and  the  belly 
were  grayish.  There  were  woolly  hidn  of  this  gray  oolour  below  the 
great  black  or  white  hairs,  of  two  or  three  indies  long,  which  were 
on  the  body  and  legs ;  but  the  legs  and  thighs  were  of  a  raddidi-browiv 
Black  prodominated  at  the  approach  of  the  feet,  which  were  covered 
with  small  hun  of  that  colour.  The  head  was  like  that  of  a  squirrel, 
and  the  ean  laige,  naked,  erect,  and  round  at  their  extremitieB,  with 
a  wide  opening.    It  is  about  the  size  of  a  common  hare. 


Aye-Aye  {Cheiromyt  Madapatearientit), 

This  animal  is  the  Aye- Aye  Squirrel  of  Pennant,  Shaw  considered 
it  to  be  a  species  of  Lemwr,  and  Schreber  named  it  Lcmwr  filo* 
dactylut,  a  name  adopted  by  Shaw. 


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CHEIBOKSCTEa 


CHEIBOPODA. 


860 


OHEIBONECTES,  or  CHIRONECTES  (Illjger),  a  geiiiu  of  ICu^ 
■anal  a^nim^iM     [Mabsxtpiata.] 

CHBIROTODA,  Chdropedi,  a  name  propoMd  by  Kr.  Ogilby  for 
all  the  mammiferous  animala  that  are  poMeased  of  haadii.  The 
fbUowing  is  Mr.  O^b/s  ammgement  of  his  Cheiropedfl : — 


^L  BniAXA    

(on  the  fore  handB  only) 

JZOfM. 

r 

Satynu. 

81X1J1 

SpMHUei. 

CbMuf. 

teeth) 

CkrcorUkseut. 

ILOVADaVXAMA.. 

(on  both  fore  and  ^ 
hindhandB) 

PropUksetu. 
Lnmr. 

(and     abnormal^ 

teeth) 

Stmept, 

CH7IB0PED8    .. 

7br««u«. 

t^OAut. 

AMe$. 

(and  anthropoid  ( 
teeth) 

Mye$U». 
Aatui. 

m.  TXDJMAMA     .. 

(on     the     hind( 

PUhseia. 
^Kapale. 

bende  only) 

DnwLmiBJB    ....     Ftitmrm, 
(and     abnormal/  JHdelphii. 
teeth)                   1  CheironectM, 
Daaywnu, 

1^ 

V. 

Kr  Ogilby  states  that  obsemtions,  oommenoed  in  1829  and 
oontinoed  for  more  than  six  years,  haye  assured  him  that  the  non- 
oppooeable  oharaetor  of  the  izmar  finger  of  ih»  anterior  extremitieSy 
whioli  he  first  renutfked  in  Myctta  Senieulua,  is  not  confined  to  that 
genus,  but  extends  throughout  the  whole  of  the  genera  of  the  South 
Amerioan  monkeys,  individualB  of  all  of  whioh  £ive,  he  states,  been 
seen  by  him  in  a  llTing  state.  In  none  of  them  consequently,  he 
observes,  does  a  true  "Uiumb  exist  on  the  anterior  limbs;  and  he 
considers  that  it  follows  as  a  further  oonsequonoe  that  the  whole  of 
them  have  been  hithorto  incorrectly  referred  to  the  Quadnimana  by 
zoologists  generally.  The  fbllowing  extract  from  the  '  Proceedings  of 
the  Zoological  Society,'  for  1886,  will  explain  the  views  of  this 
naturalist: — 

"Of  the  eight  natural  genera  which  include  all  the  known 
monkeys  of  the  western  hemisphere,  one,  AUUt,  is  entirely  destitute 
of  a  thumb,  or  has  that  member  existing  only  in  a  rudimentary  form 
beneath  the  skin.  In  five  others,  Myeetet,  Loffothrix,  Aotut,  PUheeia, 
and  HapaiU,  the  anterior  thumbs  (using  the  ordinary  expression  for 
them)  are  placed  absolutely  on  the  same  line  with  the  other  fingers, 
are  of  the  same  form  with  them,  act  invariably  in  the  same  direction, 
and  are  totally  incapable  of  being  opposed  to  them.  .  In  the  two 
remaining  genera,  Ctbui  and  CailiUvriXf  the  extremities  of  the 
anterior  limbs  have  a  greater  external  resemblance  to  the  hands  of 
man  and  of  the  monkeys  of  the  Old  World :  the  internal  finger  is 
placed  farther  back  tlum  the  general  line  of  the  other  fingers,  and 
has  on  that  account,  when  superficially  noticed,  the  semblance  of 
being  opposed  to  them;  but,  as  has  been  correctly  observed  by 
lyAzara  with  reference  to  O,  cofmcMHii,  it  is  less  separated  than  in 
man  :  it  is  besides  of  precisely  the  same  dender  form  with  the  rest,  is 
weaker  than  them,  absolutely  without  power  of  opposition  to  them, 
and  habitually  acts  in  the  same  direction  with  them.  The  impression 
derived  from  contemplating  the  hands  of  the  Old  World  monkeys 
might  induce  the  belief  that  the  extremities  of  the  Cdii  are  aimilarly 
constituted;  but  if  the  knowledge  that  in  Myceta,  Piihecia,  Ac., 
there  are  no  opposeable  thumbs  leads  to  a  dose  observation  of  the 
anterior  extremities  of  the  Odn,  it  will  be  found  that  they  do  not 
act  as  hands  and  cannot  be  oonsidered  as  possessing  the  powers  of 
those  oxgans.  From  innumerable  observations  of  many  species  of 
that  genus,  Mr.  Ogilby  states  that  it  was  veiy  evident,  notwithstanding 
the  fallacious  appearance  occasioned  by  the  backward  position  of  the 
organ,  that  they  had  not  the  power  of  opposiDg  the  thim&bs  to  the 
other  fingers  in  the  act  of  prehension ;  and  in  fact  their  principal 
power  of  prehension  seems  to  be  altogether  independent  of  the 
thumb,  for  generally  speaking  that  member  was  not  brought  into 
action  at  all,  at  least  not  simvdtaneously  with  the  other  fingers,  but 
hung  loosely  on  one  side,  as  Mr.  Ogilby  has  seen  it  do  in  like  circum- 
stances in  the  Opossums,  Fhalangers,  and  other  arboreal  mammaln : 
when  actually  brought  into  play  however  the  thumb  of  the  Cchi 


invariably  acted  in  tlie  same  direction  m  the  other  fingers.  Cb6iii 
ooosequently  agrees  in  the  ohancter  of  non-oppoeeaUeness  of  thiimb 
with  the  near^  allied  genera.  And  in  this  hitherto  uDsnspeoted 
peculiarity  soologists  obtain  a  far  more  important  oharacter  by  wMeh 
to  distinisuish  the  monkeys  of  the  Old  and  New  Worid  than  that 
hitherto  relied  on,  the  comparative  thickness  of  the  septum  narimn, 
or  than  the  accessory  aids  afforded  by  the  absence  of  cheek-pouchea 
and  callosities.  Henoe,  according  to  Mr.  Ogilby,  as  the  moi^eys  of 
America  have  now  been  ascertained  to  be  destitute  of  anterior  hands, 
they  oaa  no  longer  be  included  among  the  Q^adnm^ma,  and  he 
proposes  in  oonsequenoe  to  naud  them  as  Pedmana,  He  ooDsiden 
that  the  latter  senes,  the  monkeys  of  America,  form  a  group  parallsl 
to  that  of  the  monkeys  of  the  Old  World  among  the  QiMdrumtma: 
and  viewing  the  Qauidnimema  as  consisting  of  two  primary  gnmpi, 
that  of  which  Simia  forms  the  ^^pe^  and  thiB  Lemmnda,  he  prooe«]i 
to  analyse  the  PecUmanOf  in  order  to  determine  whether  any  group 
analogous  to  the  Lemurs  exists  in  iK  He  finds  such  a  group  in 
the  association  of  the  genera  JHddpkit,  Cheironeolet,  PhdUatffitlaf 
Pettmrui,  and  Phateolaretoa  (together  with  a  new  genua,  Pteudockina, 
which  he  has  found  it  necessary  to  separate  firom  Phtdmff*'^  ^  &t 
present  constituted);  and  for  this  assooiation  he  uses  the  name  of 
IHddpMdas,  Aware  that  the  modifications  observable  in  the  dentazy 
^tems  of  these  several  genera  have  been  regarded  by  many 
soologists  as  betokening  a  dtfferenoe  of  regimen,  which  has  led  to 
their  being  viewed  as  oonstituting  distinct  famHies,  he  in  the  fint 
place  states,  as  the  result  of  his  observation  of  the  habitii  of  the 
numerous  species  of  all  these  genera  which  have  been  firom  time  to 
time  exhibited  in  the  Sodety^  (hardens,  that  there  is  little  or  no 
difference  in  this  respect  between  the  Onossums  and  Fhalapgen,  bot 
that  all  are  equally  omnivorous ;  and  tnen  proceeds  to  diseon  the 
modifications  that  exist  among  them  in  the  number  and  fonnB  of  the 
several  kinds  of  teethe  which  are  not  in  bis  estimation  so  very 
diflbrent  in  reali^  between  the  Opossums  and  Fhalangers  u  they 
appear  to  be  at  first  sight.  In  further  support  of  his  ojMon  that 
this  association  of  genera  forms  a  natural  family,  Mr  Ogilby  refera  to 
the  gradual  and  uninterrupted  transition  firom  the  naked-preheanle' 
tailed  Opossums  of  Soutii  America,  through  the  equally  naked-tailed 
Ck>uscou8,  BaiUmtia,  of  the  Indian  Isles,  to  the  true  Fhahmgen ;  and 
from  these  to  the  Petaurists  diraotiy  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  meaoB 
of  the  FWndooheirs  to  the  Koalas  on  the  other. 

'<0n  the  prehensile  power  of  the  tail  Mr.  Ogilby  parideularly 
insists  as  on  a  faculty  possessed  by  the  greater  number  of  the 
Pedinuma,  and  as  one  which  is  in  truth  almost  confined  to  them; 
only  three  known  genera  belonging  to  other  groups,  Syndhena, 
Myrmecophaga,  and  OereoiUptti,  bemg  endowed  with  it.  He  remarks 
on  this  ^ulty  as  on  one  c^  oonsideiable  importance,  affording  as  it 
does  in  some  degree  a  compensation  for  the  absence  of  oppoeeable 
thumbs  on  the  anterior  limbs.  Combined  with  the  prehensile  tai^ 
in  every  known  instance^  whether  among  the  PecKsMina  or  in  otha 
groups,  is  a  slowness  and  apparent  cautiousness  of  motion,  not 
observable  in  any  of  the  Quadrunutna,  except  in  the  Nydtkdi  In 
none  of  the  true  QKodnimana  is  the  tail  prenenaile. 

"Another  evidence  of  the  distinctness,  as  two  groups^  of  the 
QliMdrwMma  and  tiie  Pedmona  is  furnished  by  their  geographiesl 
distribution.  The  QuadnMnafMi  are  strictiy  confined  to  the  limits  of 
the  Old  World;  the  Peiimana  almost  as  exdusiyely  to  the  Kew 
World,  for  Mr.  Ogilby  considers  the  continent  of  Australia  to  belong 
more  properly  to  America  than  to  Asia.  The  very  few  i4)parent 
exceptions  that  occur  to  this  latter  position  are  in  the  presence  of 
some  species  of  Fhalangers  in  the  long  chain  of  islands  that  connect 
the  south-eastern  shores  of  Asia  with  the  north-eastern  coast  of 
Australia;  islands  which  may  in  truth  be  fairly  regarded  as 
belonging  piotly  to  the  one  and  partly  to  the  other,  and  the 
productions  of  which  might  consequentiy  be  expected  to  partake  ol 
the  character  of  both. 

"Mr.  Ogilby  Bubsequentiy  adverts  to  another  Pedimanous animal, 
the  Aye-Aye  of  Madagascar,  oonstituting  the  genus  Chanmyii 
respecting  the  afi^tiee  of  which  he  speaks  with  hesitation,  because 
having  never  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  the  animal  itself,  he 
is  acquainted  with  its  cnaracters  only  at  second  hand.  He  is  howem 
disposed  to  reigard  it  as  representing  a  third  group  among  the 
PeoMnono,  to  be  placed  in  a  station  intermediate  between  the  Monkeys 
of  the  Kew  Worid  and  the  Diddphidof.  With  the  latter  he  would, 
in  fact,  be  disposed  to  associate  it,  were  it  not  destitute  of  the 
marsuinal  character  which  belongs  to  all  the  other  animals  comprised 
in  that  group.  In  some  of  the  Diddphidce,  the  Phahngers  and 
Petaurists  especially,  there  is  a  marked  approximation  to  that  rodent 
form  of  incisor  teeth  which  obtains  in  Chetromyt,  and  which  has 
hitherto  been  regarded  as  especially  attaching  to  it  an  ahnonnal 
character. 

''Man  is  the  only  other  animal  furnished  with  hands^  and  howeTer 
distinct  he  may  be  as  regards  his  moral  and  intellectual  powei^  he 
must,  zoologically,  be  oonsidered  on  physical  grounda  ^7.r? 
structural  characters  he  becomes  associated  with  all  those  of  which 
mention  has  previously  been  made  in  Mr.  Ogilby's  oonmiunioafawi; 
although  he  unquestionably  constitutes  among  them  a  P^^^l" 
group,  sensibly  exalted  above  the  rest^  as  weU  as  above  all  other 
Mammals." 


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CHEIROPTERA. 


CHEIROPTERA. 


96S 


CHEIROPTERA  {x*ip,  a  hand,  wr€p6v,  a  wing),  the  name  of  a 
natural  family  or  division  of  Mammiferous  Animals ;  the  Bats  or 
Flitter-Mioe  of  the  English ;  Fledermauser  of  the  Qermans ;  Vesper- 
tUioneg  of  the  Latins;  Pipisfcrelli  and  Nottoli  of  the  Italians ;  Chauve- 
Boiuis  of  the  French. 

The  animals  belonging  to  this  wing-handed  family  embrace  those 
which  come  nnder  the  genus  VeapertiUo  of  Linnseus.  They  all  have 
the  faculty  of  sustained  flight,  and  their  oi^ganisation  and  habits 
point  them  out  as  a  separate  and  well-defined  group,  distinguished  by 
a  folding  extension  of  the  membranous  skm,  which,  risine  from 
the  sides  of  the  neck,  is  spread  between  their  fore  feet  and  their 
fingers. 

Oiganisation. — Skeleton. — The  skull  is  thin,  and  there  is  a  marked 
difTerence  between  that  of  the  so-called  Frugivorous  group  {Pteropua 
and  Cq>haiote»)  and  the  true  or  Insectiyorous  Bats,  the  former  being 
much  more  elongated  than  the  latter.  The  bony  tentorium,  so 
strongly  developed  in  the  majority  of  the  Camivora,  is  entirely  absent ; 
but  tiiere  is  a  considerable  development  of  the  auditory  portion  of 
the  temporal  bone.  The  occipital  bone  is  remarkably  narrow.  The 
superior  maxillary  is  veiy  much  elongated,  particularly  in  the  so- 
called  Frugivorous  order,  a  term  which  we  would  change  for  Omnivorous, 
for  their  well-developed  sharp  canines,  and  the  structure  of  some  of 
their  other  teeth,  would  seem  to  be  more  trenchant  than  fruit-eating 
habits  alone  would  require ;  and  indeed  Cuvier,  in  the  last  edition 
of  the  '  Rdgne  Animal,'  says  of  the  genus  Pteroput,  "  they  live  prin- 
cipally on  miit,  of  which  they  destroy  a  great  deal ;  but  they  know, 
nevertheless,  how  to  pursue  birds  and  small  quadrupeds ;"  and  we 
think  it  highly  probable  that  they  occasionally  prey  on  the  large 
insects  which  are  foimd  in  the  climates  they  inhabit.  All  the  family 
have  four  great  canine  teeth,  but  there  is  considerable  difference 
between-the  molars  of  the  fruit-eating  section  and  of  that  whose  diet 
is  confined  entirely  to  insects,  the  crowns  of  the  former  being  com- 
paratively blunt,  and  hollowed  out  or  grooved  lengthwise,  while  those 
of  the  latter  are  shorter  and  sharper,  and  beset  with  points.  The 
molars  vary  in  number  in  the  different  genera,  the  smallest  develop- 
ment being  three  in  each  jaw,  and  the  largest  five  above  and  six 
below,  or  vice  versA.  The  incisors  set  in  the  small  and  short  inter- 
maxillary bones  vary  also  in  the  different  genera.  The  smallest 
number  in  the  upper  jaw  is  two,  and  the  largest  four ;  the  snuJlest 
number  is  also  two 
in  the  lower  jaw, 
and  the  largest  six. 
The  atlas  is  of 
considerable  size, 
but  the  dentata  is 
not  laige.  The 
greatest  number  of 
the  donml  verte- 
brae is  twelve,  the 
smallest  eleven. 
The  canal  for  the 
spinal  cord  is 
large  in  these  verte- 
brsB.  The  lumbar 
▼ertebre  vary  in 
number;  the  small- 
est number  is  four, 
the  largest  seven. 
The  ossa  ooccygis 
are  slender  and 
elongated :  their 
HBO  seems  only  to 
be  to  assist  (some- 
what like  a  spreat) 
in  spreading  the 
interfemoral  por- 
tion of  the  mem- 
branes, by  the  aid 
of  which  the  ani- 
mal sails  in  the 
air ;  their  smallest 
number  is  six, 
and  their  lai^st 
twelve ;  for  in  the 
majority  the  tail 
extends  to  the  margin  or  the  membrane,  while  in  some  it  protrudes 
beyond  it,  and  in  others  it  does  not  reach  more  than  half  way.  In 
Pteroput  there  is  no  trace  of  these  bones. 

The  ribs  are  remarkably  long,  except  the  first  pair,  which  is  vety 
short,  and  remarkably  broad,  especially  in  the  cartilage,  which  is 
ossified ;  and  the  sternum  is  highly  developed,  as  might  be  expected 
from  the  exigencies  of  the  animaL  The  anterior  portion  is  expanded 
laterally  into  what  is  termed  the  manubrium,  which  seems  to  be 
largest  in  the  Horse-Shoe  Bat  (HMnolophm),  forming  a  suitable  point 
of  attAohment  for  l^e  strong  long  arched  clavicles,  which  are  articu- 
lated both  to  the  sternum  and  scapula ;  the  latter  is  very  large  and 
elongated,  and  the  lower  surface  is  very  concave.  The  fosses  for  the 
ftrong  musdes,  both  above  and  below  the  spine  of  this  bone,  are 

VAT.  HIST.  DIY.  TOL.  I. 


Skeleton  of  Bat  {Vnp^rHlio  murUtui), 


a,  mftnabrial  bone;  (,  xiphoid  cartiUige;  e,  coracold  bone;  d,  claviflle;  e,  iboalder.blade ;  /,  huinenu ; 
fft  radius ;  A,  rudiment  of  ulna ;  i,  carpus  (wrist) ;  k,  metacarpus  of  thumb,  terminated  by  a  hook-shaped 
phalanx ;  I,  metacarpal  bones  of  the  flngrers ;  m,  digital  phalanges ;  n,  pelvis ;  o,  femur ;  p,  tibia ;  9,  fibula ; 
r,  tarsal  bones  of  foot ;  t,  styllform  appendage  to  os  caleis ;  t,  metatarsus  and  toes ;  u,  tall. 


deeply  marked.  The  habits  of  the  animal  required  an  ample 
development  of  these  parts  to  give  the  shoulder  the  required  solidity 
for  working  the  mechanism  of  the  wing,  and  we  accordingly  find  the 
strength  thrown  into  the  sternum,  clavicles,  and  scapula.  But  Uiese 
same  habita  would  have  rendered  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  fore-arm 
worse  thjKD.  useless,  for  such  a  disposition  wotdd  have  weakened  the 
power  of  the  limb  in  beating  the  air  with  the  extended  membrane. 
We  accordingly  find  that  this  power  is  absent :  the  ulna,  indeed,  is 
remarkably  small,  and  in  some  the  bone  is  merely  rudimentaiy, 
forming  a  mere  fiat  process,  only  partially  separated  from  the  radius ; 
there  is  no  olecranon  (elbow).  The  humerus  is  long,  slender,  and 
cylindrical,  and  the  head  of  the  bone  large  and  round.  The  structure 
of  the  wrist  is  peculiar :  first  come  two  bones  next  to  the  radius,  and 
on  these  that  bone  rests ;  one  of  these  is  very  large,  and  the  other 
very  small — ^the  second  series  consists  of  the  usual  four  bones ;  but 
it  is  in  the  bones  of  the  metacarpus  and  of  the  fingers  that  the 
adaptation  of  the  osseous  parts  of  the  animal  to  its  necessities  is, 
perhaps,  most  strongly  shown.  These,  with  the  exception  of  the 
phalanges  of  the  thumb,  are  greatly  elongated,  and  run  outwards  and 
downwards  to  the  edge  of  the  wing-membrane,  something  after  the 
fashion  of  the  whalebones  that  sasist  in  spreading  an  umln«lla.  The 
first  finger  is  the  shortest,  and  extends  to  the  upper  angle  of  the 
outer  e^^  of  the  membrane ;  the  second  is  generally  the  longest,  and 
the  third  and  fourth  nearly  of  a  length ;  the  last  three  descend  to 
the  lower  edge  of  the  membrane.  The  pelvis  is  straight  and 
lengthened,  and  rather  wider  below  than  it  is  above,  the  ilia  being 
very  narrow  and  elongated.  The  ossa  ischii  approach  even  to  the 
contact  of  their  tuberosities,  and  in  some  examples  touch  the  ossa 
ooccygis.  The  ossa  pubis,  in  some  species,  recede  from  each  other, 
the  intermediate  space  being  filled  by  a  ligament;  and  in  others 
these  bones  touch  each  other  in  the  male,  and  are  separated  in  the 
female.  The  sacrum  and  ilia  are  anchylosed  early  in  life.  The  lower 
extrendties  do  not  offer  any  very  striking  differences  from  those  >f 
other  mammifers,  excepting  that  the  thighs  being  directed  outwards, 
the  bones  of  the  leg  are  partially  turned  round  as  it  were  (the  fibula 
appesring  at  the  inner  side  of  the  tibia,  and  a  little  posterior  to  that 
bone),  and  that  there  is  a  singularity  about  the  heel.  An  elongated 
delicate  bony  process  is  given  off  from  the  back  part  of  the  foot,  is 
indosed  in  the  margin  of  the  inteifemoral  'membrane,  and  proceeds 

about  halfway  to 
the  taiL  Cuvier 
thotrght  this  a  por- 
tion of  the  OS 
oalds;  Daubenton, 
that  it  was  a  dis- 
tinct bone ;  and 
Meckel,  that  it  is 
only  a  develop- 
ment of  the  tubero- 
sity of  the  bone, 
disunited  from  its 
body. 

Biesides  the  dif- 
ference of  the  molar 
teeth  in  the  Fruit- 
Eating  (or  Omni- 
vorous) and  the 
Insectivorous  Bats, 
the  stomach  and 
intestines  present'a 
remarkable  corre- 
sponding variance. 
The  stomach  of  the 
former  is  very  com* 
plicated,  and  the 
intestines  very 
long:  in  Pteroput, 
for  example,  Uiey 
are  seven  times  as 
long  as  the  body. 
■In  the  latter  the 
stomach  is  veiy 
simple,  and  merely 
divided  into  the 
cardiac  and  pyloric 
portions,  and  the  intestines  are  not  more  than  twice  the  length  of 
the  body.  These  differences,  together  with  that  of  the  greater  or 
leas  development  of  the  tail,  which  is  powerful,  generally  speaking,  in 
the  true  Insectivorous  Bats,  and  either  absent,  rudimentary,  or  com- 
paratively inefficient  in  the  Fruit-Eaters,  which  last  do  not  require  to 
turn  BO  rapidly  as  the  desultory  fiight  of  the  prey  of  the  former 
makes  it  necessary  for  them  to  do,  form,  it  is  true,  a  marked  distinction 
between  the  two  groups;  but  we  are,  notwithstanding,  of  opinicm 
that  very  few  bats  confine  themselves  entirely  to  a  vegetable  diet. 

The  nervons  system  of  Cheiroptera  is  folly  developed.  The  senses 
of  taste,  smeli  sight,  and  hearing  are  acute.  The  external  earis  very 
large  in  many  of  the  species.  The  sense  of  touch,  or  a  sense 
analogous  to  it^  must  be  highly  developed.     BpeUanzani— we  cannot 

8  a 


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CHEIROPTERA. 


CHEIROPTERA- 


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compliment  him  on  his  humanity — extracted  the  eyes  of  bats  and 
covered  the  empty  eockets  with  leather ;  yet»  in  this  condition,  they 
flew  round  his  room,  avoiding  the  sides,  never  striking  against  any- 
thing, and  flying  out  of  tiie  door  without  touching  the  door-case.  In 
flying  through  a  sewer  which  made  a  right  angle,  they  turned  at  the 
proper  pointy  though  at  a  distance  of  two  feet  nt>m  the  walla.  They 
round  tneir  resting-place  on  a  cornice,  and  flew  through  threads,  sus- 
pended perpendicularly  from  the  ceiling,  without  touching  them, 
though  scarcely  farther  apart  than  would  admit  their  extended  wings ; 
and  they  avoided  all  obstacles  with  equal  facility  when  the  whole 
head  was  covered  with  varnish.  But,  according  to  the  experiments 
of  Carlisle,  the  British  Long-Eared  Bat  was  entirely  at  a  loss,  if,  when 
blinded,  its  ears  i^re  stopped,  for  in  that  condition  the  blinded  bats 
struck  against  the  sides  of  the  room,  and  seemed  to  be  quite  unaware 
of  their  aituation.  The  following  additional  note  to  the  £n^h 
translation  of  Blumenbach  however  corroborates  Spallanzani : — "Bats 
have  been  supposed  to  poasefls  a  peculiar  power  of  perceiving  external 
objects,  without  coming  actually  into  contact  with  them.  In  their 
rapid  and  irregular  fli^t»  amidst  Tarious  surrounding  bodies,  Ihey 
never  fly  against  them;  yet  it  does  not  seem  that  the  senses  of 
hearing,  seeing,  or  smelling,  serre  them  on  these  occasions,  for 
Uiey  avoid  any  obstacles  with  equal  certainty  when  the  ear,  eye, 
and  nose,  are  doaed.  Hence  naturalists  have  ascribed  a  sixth  sense 
to  these  animals ;  it  is  probably  analogous  to  that  of  touch.  The 
nerves  of  the  wing  ace  laige  and  numerous,  and  distributed  in  a 
minute  plexus  between  the  integuments.  The  impulse  o£  the  air 
against  this  part  may  probably  be  so  modified  by  the  objects  near 
.whi^  the  amnuJ'  passes,  as  to  indicate  their  situation  and  nature." 
Cuvier,  in  his  '  Lemons  d' Anatomic  Compar^e,'  had,  in  a  great  measure, 
solved  the  rnvstoy  by  observing,  as  is  remariLod  in  the  note  just 
quoted,  that  the  whole  surface  of  the  flying  membrane,  on  both  sides, 
is  endowed  with  extraordinary  sensibility,  and  may  be  considered  as 
one  -continuously  expanded  organ  of  touch.  Nor  is  this  the  only 
peculiarity  connected  with  the  integument  of  the  bats,. for  in  the 
genus  NycteriB  -tiiere  exists  a  power  of  inflation  to.  such  a  degree,  that 
when  the  fSaculty  ii  exerted  the  animal  looks,  according  to  Qeoffroy, 
like  a  little  balloon  fitted  with  wings,  a  head,  and  feet  The  sub- 
cutaneous tissue  is  the  part  inflated,  and  as  the  skin  adheres  to  the 
body  at  particular  points  only,  tiie  connection  being  by  means  of 
loose  cellular  membrane,  spaces  are  left  which  can  be  filled  with  air 
at  the  win  of  the  Nycterit,  through  the  cheek  pouches,  which  are 
TOHBrforated  air  the  bottom  so  as  to  communicate  with  those  spaces. 
When  the  NycterU  wishes  to  inflate  its  skin,  it  draws  in  its  breath, 
closes  its'nostrils,  and  transmits  the  air  through  the  perforations  of 
the  cheek  pouches  to  the  subcutaneous  spaces,  and  the  air  is  prevented 
from  SBtiiming  by  the  action  of  a  sphincter,  which  closes  those 
openings,  and  by  valves  of  considerable  sixe  on  tiie  neck  and  back. 

The  organs  of  reproduction  nearly  approach  those  of  the  Q^ad• 
rumana  and  man  in  many  respects.  In  the  female  two  teats  are 
placed  on  the  breast  as  in  man  and  in  the  Qaadrvmana, 

The  Cheiroptera  are  widely  spread  over  the  globe.  They  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Old  and  New  World  and  in  Australia^  A.  tolerably 
temperate  climate  seems  necessary  for  them,  and  the  greatest  develop- 
ment of  the  form  takes  place  in  warm  coimtries.  Sir  John  Richardson 
1'  Fauna Boreaili-Americana')  notices  two  species,  Vetpertilio pruinotua 
Say)  caught  at  Cumberlard  House,  on  the  Saskatchewan  in  54"  N.  lat, 
and  VaptH^Uoaiubidatui  (Say),  which  he  observes  is  the  most  common 
species  near  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  upper 
branches  of  the  Saskatchewan  and  Peace  River. 

Habits. — GkneraUy  speaking  they  remain  in  concealment  during 
the  day  in  caverns,  ruinous  buildings,  hollow  trees,  and  such  hiding 
places,  and  flit  forUi  at  twilight  or  sunset  to  take  their  prey.  White, 
m  his  '  Selbome,'  thus  describes  the  mode  of  feeding  a  tame  bat : 
**  It  would  take  flies  out  of  a  person's  hand ;  if  you  gave  it  anything 
to  eat  it  brought  its  wings  round  before  the  mouth,  hovering  and 
hiding  its  head,  in  the  manner  of  birds  of  prey  when  they  feed.  The 
adroitness  it  showed  in  shearing  off  the  wings  of  flies,  which  were 
always  rejected,  was  worthy  of  observation,  and  pleased  me  much. 
Insects  seemed  to  be  most  acceptable,  though  it  did  not  refuse  raw 
flesh  when  offered;  so  that  the  notion  that  bats  go  down  chimneys 
snd  gnaw  men's  bacon,  seems  no  improbable  story.  While  I  amused 
mysdf  with  this  wonderful  quadruped  I  saw  it  sereral  times  confute 
the  vulgar  opinion,  that  bats,  when  down  on  a  flat  surface,  cannot' get 
on  the  wing  again,  by  rising  with  great  ease  from  the  floor.  It  ran,  I 
observed,  with  more  dispatch  than  I  was  aware  of,  but  in  a  most 
ridiculous  and  grotesque  manner."  The  Large-Eared  Bats,  ooUected 
by  Carlisle,  refused,  according  to  Shaw,  every  species  of  food  for  four 
days,  as  did  a  lam  number  which  were  afterwards  caught  and 
preserved  in  a  dark  bos,  for  above  a  week.  During  the  day-time,  they 
were  extremely  desirous  of  retirement  and  darkness ;  and,  i^iile  con- 
.fined  to  the.'boKy'  sever  moved  or  endeavoured  to  get  put  the  whole 
-day ;  and  when  spread  on  the  carpet  they  commonly  rested  some 
minutes,  and  then,  beginning  to  look  about,  crawled  slowly  to  a  dark 
comer  or  crevic&  At  sunset  the  scene  was  quit^  changed :  everyone 
-then  endeavoured  to  scratch  its  way  out  s^  the  box ;  a  continual 
<6hirpiDgwaa  kept  up,  and  no  sooner  was  ^e  lid  of  their  prison  opened 
than  each  was  active  to  escape;  either  flying  awa^  immediately,  or 
running  nimUy  to  a  convenient  place  for  taking  wmg.    When  these 


bats  were  first  collected,  several  of  the  females  had  young  ones 
clinging  to  their  breasts  in  the  act  of  sucking.  One  of  them  flew 
with  pierfect  ease,  though  two  litUe-ones  were  thus  attached  to  her, 
which  weighed  nearly  as  much  as  the  parent  All  the  young  were 
devoid  of  down,  and  of  a  black  colour.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
and  detailed  accounts  of  the  habits  of  these  animals  is  that  made  by 
Mr.  Daniell  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  The  bats  consisted 
of  two  species,  the  PipistreUe  ( VttpeHiUo  PipittnUui  of  Qeoffroy) 
and  the  Noctule  ( VetpertUio  nochda  of  Schreber).  Mr.  Daniel!  stated 
that  in  July,  1888,  he  receiyed  five  specimens,  all  pregnant  females, 
from  Elvetham  in  Hampshire.  Many  more  were  congregated  together 
with  them  in  the  ruins  of  the  bam  in  which  they  were  taken,  bnt  all 
the  rest  escaped.  They  had  been  kept  in  a  tin  powder  canister  for 
several  days,  and  on  being  turned  loose  into  a  common  packing-case, 
with  a  few  strips  of  deal  nailed  over  it  to  form  a  cage  they  exhibited 
much  activity,  progressing  rapidly  along  the  bottom  of  the  box, 
ascending  by  the  bars  to  tiie  top,  and  then  throwing  themaelyes  off 
as  if  endeavouring  to  fly.  They  ate  flies  when  offered  to  them, 
seizing  them  with  the  greatest  esgemees,  and  devouring  them  greedOy, 
all  of  them  congrcgatinig  together  at  the  end  of  the  box  at  wluch  ^ 
were  fed,  and  crawling  over,  snapping  at,  and  biting  each  other,  at  the 
same  time  uttering  a  grating  kind  of  squeak.  Cooked  meat  was  next 
presented  to  them,  snd  rejected ;  but  raw  beef  was  eaten  by  them 
with  avidity,  and  with  an  evident  preference  for  such  pieces  as  had 
been  moistened -with  water.  This  answered  a  double  puzpoee;  the 
weather  being  warm  numbers  of  the  Blue-Bottle  Flies  (M%»ca  vomitma 
of  Linnaeus)  were  attracted  to  the  meat ;  and  on  approaching  within 
range  of  the  bats'  wings  were  struck  down  by  their  action,  the  animal 
its&  falling  at  the  same  moment  with  all  its  membranes  expanded, 
and  coweriug  over  the  prostrate  fly,  with  its  head  thrust  under  in 
order  .to  secure  its  prey.  When  the  head  was  again  drawn  forth  the 
membranes  were  immediately  closed,  and  the  fly  -was  observed  to  be 
almost  invariably  taken  by  the  head.  Mastication  appeared  to  be  a 
laboured  operation,  consisting  of  a  suocession  of  esger  bites  and  snaps, 
and  the  sucking  process  (if  it  may  be  so  termed),  by  which  the  insect 
was  drawn  into  nie  mouth,  being  much  assisted  by  the  looseness  of 
the  lipa  Several  minutes  were  employed  in  devouring  a  Isige  flj. 
In  the  first  instance  tiie  flies  were  eaten  entire,  but  Mr.  Daniell  after- 
wards observed  detached  wings  in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  Theie 
however  he  never  saw  rejected,  and  he  is  inclined  to  think  that  they 
are  £^erally  swallowed.  A  slice  of  beef  attadied  to  the  side  of  the 
box  was  found  not  only  to  save  trouble  in  feeding,  bnt  alaol^ 
attracting  the  flies  to  afford  good  sport  ia  observing  the  animals 
obtain  their  food.  Their  olfactory  nerves  appear  to  be  vdty  acutely 
sensible.  When  hanging  by  their  posterior  extremities,  and  attached 
to  one  of  the  bars  in  &ont  of  the  cage,  a  small  piece  of  beef  placed 
at  a  little  distance  from  their  noses  would  remain  unnoticed ;  bat 
when  a  fly  was  placed  in  the  same  situation  they  would  instantly  begin 
snapping  after  it  The  beef  they  would  eat  when  hungry,  but  they 
never  refused  a  fly.  In  the  day-time  they  sometimes  cliutered 
together  in  a  comer ;  but  towiuds  evening  they  became  very  lively, 
and  gave  rapid  utterance  to  their  harsh  grating  notes.  One  of  them 
died  on  the  fifth  day  after  they  came  into  Mr.  Darnell's  possession; 
two  on  the  fourteenth ;  the  fourth  survived  until  the  eighteenth;  and 
the  fifth  imtil  the  nineteenth  day.  Each  was  foimd  to  contsin  a  single 
fostus. 

On  the  16th  of  May,  1884,  Mr.  Daniell  procured  from  Hertfordahiie 
five  specimens  of  VetpertUio  nociula — four  females  and  one  mal&  The 
latter  was  exceedingly  restless  and  savage,  biting  the  females,  and 
breaking  his  teeth  against  the  wires  of  the  cage,  in  his  attempts  to 
escape  from  his  place  of  confinement.  He  reje^ed  food,  and  died  on 
the  18th.  Up  to  this  time  the  remaining  four  continued  sulkv;  but 
towards  evening  they  ate  a  few  small  pieces  of  raw  beef  in  preference 
to  flies,  beetles,  or  gentles,  all  of  which  wore  offered  to  them ;  only 
one  of  them,  however,  fed  kindly.  On  the  20th  one  died,  snd  on  the 
22nd  two  others.  The  survivor  was  tried  with  a  variety  of  food,  and, 
evincing  a  decided  preference  for  the  hearts,  livers,  ko.  of  fowls,  was 
fed  constantly  upon  them  for  a  month.  In  the  course  of  this  time 
large  flies  were  frequently  offered  to  her,  but  they  were  always 
rejected,  although  one  or  two  May  Chafers  {MdoUnUMa  vtUgarit)  were 
partially  eaten.  In  taking  the  food  the  wings  were  not  thrown  fo^ 
ward  as  in  the  Hpistrelle,  and  the  food  was  seized  withansoUon 
similar  to  that  of  a  dog.  The  water  that  drained  from  the  iood  was 
lapped,  but  the  head  was  not  raised  in  drinking,  as  Mr.  Daniel!  1^ 
observed  it  to  be  in  the  Pipistrolle.  The  animal  took  considerable 
pains  in  cleaning  herself;  using  the  posterior  extremities  as  a  comb, 
parting  the  hair  on  either  side  from  head  to  tail,  and  forming  » 
straight  line  along  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  membrane  ofue 
wings  was  cleaned  by  forcing  the  nose  thix>ugh  the  folds  and  thoeby 
expanding  them.  On  the  20th  of  June  this  spedmen  produced  a 
young  one.  At  the  time  of  its  birth  the  young  was  larger  than  a 
new-bom  mouse,  and  its  hind  l^gs  and  daws  were  remaikshlTitro^ 
and  serviceable,  enabling  it  not  only  to  ding  to  its  dam,  but  also  to 
the  deal  sides  of  the  cage.  On  the  24th  the  animal  took  her  food  m 
the  morning,  and  appeared  veiy  careful  of  her  young»  shifting  » 
occasionally  from  ride  to  side  to  suckle  it»  and  foldiiv  H  in  the  mem- 
branas  of  the  tail  and  wings.  On  these  occasions  her  usoiJ  poeitiM 
was  rsYersed.    In  the  eyening  she  was  found  dead,  but  the  ycoi^ 


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was  still  alive,  and  attached  to  the  nipple,  from  which  it  was  with 
come  difficulty  removed.  It  took  milk  from  a  sponge,  was  kept  care- 
fully wrapped  up  in  flannel^  and  survived  eight  days,  at  the  end  of 
which  period  its  eyes  were  not  opened,  and  it  had  acquired  very  little 
h&ir.    All  the  species  of  Cheiroptera  hybemate. 

Systematic  Arrangement — Among  the  ancients  Aristotle  says  but 
little  about  the  Bat,  and  Pliny  is  considered  to  have  placed  it  among 
the  Birds,  none  of  which,  he  observes,  with  the  exception  of  the  Bat, 
have  teeth.  (*  Hist.  Nat.*  lib.  xi  c  87.)  Again  (lib.  x.  c.  61),  he  notices 
it  as  the  only  winged  animal  that  suckles  its  young,  and  observes  on 
its  embracing  its  two  little  ones  and  flying  about  with  them.  In  this 
arrangement  he  was  followed  by  the  older  of  the  more  modem  natu- 
ralists ;  Belon,  Geaner,  and  Aldiovandus,  for  instance.  The  formeV, 
after  expressing  some  doubt^  places  it  at  the  end  of  the  Night-Birds,  in 
his  'Histoire  de  la  Nature  des  Oyaeaux'  (folio,  1555),  and  it  occu- 
pies the  same  position  in  the  small  iio  (1557),  with  the  following 
quatrain: — 

'*  La  Sonria  Chaure  est  un  oisesu  da  nuict. 

Qui  point  nc  pond,  sinB  ses  petits  enfante, 

Lesquels  de  lalct  de  see  tetins  austante, 

£n  petit  oorpa  grande  Terta  reluit." 

The  Bat  {AttdUphy '  bird  of  darkness ')  was  one  of  the  unclean  ani- 
mals of  the  Hebrews  (Deut.  xiv.  18),  wnere  it  is  placed  among  the 
forbidden  birds. 

Under  the  tiUe  '  Yespertilio,'  the  fourth  and  last  genus  of  his  first 
order,  PrinuUes,  Ldnnaeus  arranged  all  the  Cheiroptera  known  to  him, 
and  the  number  of  species  recorded  in  the  twelfth  edition  of  the 
'  Systema  Naturae '  amounts  only  to  six.  In  the  thirteenth  edition 
(Gmelin's)  the  number  of  species  given  amounts  to  twenty-three.  This 
edition  was  printed  in  1789,  and  ^w  families  afford  stronger  evidence 
of  the  c^reat  influx  of  the  new  species  within  the  last  five-and-forty 
years  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  numbers  of  Cheiroptera  which  have 
been  described  within  that  period.  Of  English  bats  alone  Jenyns 
enumerates  sixteen  species,  and  the  general  numbers  have  been 
increased  more  than  six-fold.  Cuvier  made  the  Cheiroptera  the  first 
family  of  his  third  order  of  Mammifers,  placing  them  next  to  the 
Lemurida,  which  close  his  second  order,  Quadrvmana,  JeayuBf  in 
his  '  Manual  of  British  Vertebrate  Animals,'  places  them  \maer  the 
order  PrinuUet,  which  he  makes  the  second  in  his  arrangement  of 
British  Mammalia,  the  Ferce  being  the  first ;  and  they  come  inmiediately 
after  the  shrews  and  the  hedge-hog. 

The  classification  of  the  family  we  propose  to  follow,  is  taken  in 
great  measure  from  the  French  authors,  and  adopted  by  Desmarest 
and  Lesson.  OaUopithecuUf  whkh  is  the  type  of  the  first  tribe  of 
Cheiroptera,  according  to  Lesson,  we  have  rem^ed,  in  accordance 
with  the  opinions  of  other  zoologists,  from  thitf -family ;  and  though 
the  VaperttlionicUB  may  be  divided  into  two  natural  sections,  the 
Insectivorous  Bats  and  the  Fruit-Eaters,  we  have^  in  consideration  of 
the  gradual  shades  of  form  when  the  numerous  species  are  brought 
under  observation,  followed  Mc  Linson's  arrangement^  with  the  excep- 
tion above  alluded  to. 

VBSPSRtlLI05n>& 

§  1.  Ittiophori,  Spix. 

Bats  having  a  membrane  in  form  of  a  leaf  upon  the  nose.  Molar 
teeth  with  sharp  tubercles. 

1.  Sub-Family,  Phylloetomatina. 

Nose-leaf  simple,  solitary,  or  unequal,  the  forefinger  composed  of 
two  joints. 

Phyllottoma,  Geoff.  Four  incisors  above  and  the  same  number 
below.  Canine  teeth  very  strong.  Nose  supporting  two  nasal  crests, 
one  l«if-like,  the  other  like  a  horseshoe.  Ears  large.  Internal  oreillon 
dentelated.  Tongue  bristled  with  pa^illsB.  TaU  variable  in  length, 
sometimes  none.    The  dental  formula  is — 

,        5—5 
"lolars,  -— .  =  82. 
0 — 0 


Indsors,  — ;   canines,  - — -  ; 


a.  Tail  shorter  than  the  interfemoral  membrane. 
P.  erenulattm.    The  borders  of  the  nasal  leaf  are  dentelated,  the 
end  of  the  tail  free.    Locality  unknown. 

h.  No  TsSL 

P.  perepiciUatum,  Qeoff.     VcapertUio  perepidilatue,  Linn. 

Vampirut,  Geoff  and  F.  Cuvier.  The  same  character  as  in  the 
Phylloitomala,  with  the  exception  of  the  dental  formula,  which  is  as 
follows : — 


Incisors, ..{ 


1—1 '  ^  6—6 


84. 


V.  Spectrum.  This  is  the  celebrated  Vampire  Bat  of  which  so  many 
bloodthirsty  stories  have  been  told;  the  Phylloetoma  Spectrum  of 
some  authors,  ^Vam^nrut  tanguituga  of  others,  the  Andira-guaca  of 
Piso,  and  the*  VetperlUio  Speetrmn  of  Linnsus.  The  nose-leiif  ia  entire, 
higher  than  it  is  wide,  although  it  becomes  widened  at  the  base.  The 
following  is  Piso's  aocotmt  of  its  habits : — "  They  seek  out  every  kind 
of  animid^  and  suck  their  blood.  But  in  Maranhan  (Maranham)  there 
is  a  oertdm  kmd  of  bats  which  approach  by  night  the  naked  feet  of 


men,  and  wound  them  with  their  rostrum,  for  the  sake  of  sucking 
human  blood.  The  bite  is  so  slight  and'  subtle  that  the  wotmded  db 
not  feel  it  before  the  bed  covered  with  blood  ^ivds  tpkjSh  of  ttre  woimd. 
So  great  a  quantity  of  blood  flows  from  the  envedbmecf  bite  that  it  can 


Phyllottoma  crenulaium. 


Teeth  of  Vampire  Bat  {Vampinu  Spectrum). 


Vampire  BaX{VatnpiruM  ^ectrum), 

only  be  stopped  with  difficulty,  and  the  peril  is  imminent  unless  a 
cure  by  the  prescribed  remedies  be  effected.  The  inhabitants  first 
wash  these  wounds  with  hot  sea-water,  and  afterwards  apply  hot 
ashes,  or  even  cautery,  if  the  blood  be  not  stopped.**  Captain 
Stedman,  who  states  that  he  was  bitten,  thus  describes  the  opera- 
tion : — "  Knowing  by  instinct  that  the  person  they  intend  to  attack 
is  in  a  sound  slumber,  they  generally  alight  near  the  feet,  where,  while 
the  creature  continues  fanning  with  its  enormous  wings,  which  keeps 
one  cool,  he  bites  a  piece  out  of  the  tip  of  the  great  toe,  so  very  small 
indeed  that  the  head  of  a  pin  could  be  scarcely  received  into  the 
wound,  which  is  consequently  not  painful ;  yet  through  this  orifice 
he  continues  to  suck  the  blood  until  he  is  obliged  to  disy>rge.^  He 
then  begins  again,  and  thus  continues  sucking  and  disgorging  till  he 
is  scarcely  able  to  fiy ;  and  the  sufferer  has  often  been  known  to  sleep 
from  time  into  eternity.  Cattle  they  generally  bite  in  the  ear,  but 
always  in  places  where  the  blood  flows  spontaneously.  Having  applied 
tobacco-ashes  as  the  brat  remedy,  and  washed  the  gore  from  mvself 
and  my  hammock,  I  observed  several  small  heaps  of  congealed  blood 


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all  round  the  place  where  I  had  lain,  upon  the  ground,  on  examining 
which  the  surgeon  judged  that  I  had  lost  at  least  twelve  or  fourteen 
oun'bes  during  the  night."  This  is  sufficiently  circumstantial,  and  the 
narrative  is  assisted  hy  Mr.  Wood,  who  quotes  the  passage  in  his 
'  Zoography,'  and  who  informs  us  that  *'  it  is  said  to  perform  the  ope- 
ration by  mserting  its  aculeated  tongue  into  the  vein  of  a  sleepmg 
person  with  so  much  dexterity  as  not  to  be  felt ;  at  the  same  time 
fanning  the  air  with  its  laige  wings,  and  thus  producing  a  sensation 
00  delightfully  cool  that  the  sleep  is  rendered  still  more  profound,  and 
the  ui^ortunate  person  reduced  almost  to  death  before  he  awakes." 
And  the  same  author  further  informs  ub  that  "  there  is  reason  to 
belieye  that  this  thirst  after  blood  is  not  confined  to  the  hats  of  one 
continent,  nor  to  one  species,  since  at  Java  they  seldom  fail  to  attack 
those  persons  who  lie  with  their  feet  uncovered."  The  same  sort  of 
stories  are  to  be  found  in  most  books  of  Natural  History  up  to  a  late 
period.  Wood's  work  was  published  in  1807,  and  the  tales  are  con- 
tinued in  Bewick  in  the  edition  of  1820.  Cuvier,  in  the  last  edition  of 
the  'R^ne  Animal'  (1829),  says,  ''They  have  accused  this  species  of 
having  caused  men  and  beasts  to  perish  by  sucking  them,  but  it  con- 
tents itself  with  making  very  small  woimds,  which  may  sometimes 
become  envenomed  by  the  climate."  Lesson  (1827),  in  his  notice  of 
the  genus,  says,  "  The  single  American  species  is  celebrated  by  the 
fitbles  with  which  they  have  accompanied  its  history."  Dr.  Horsfield, 
who  paid  particular  attention  to  the  Javanese  Bats,  does  not  say  a 
word  of  their  blood-thirsty  propensities.  That  some  of  the  Phyllot- 
tomtUa  suck  the  blood  of  animals  as  well  as  the  juices  of  succulent 
fruits,  zoologists  are  agreed;  and  we  have  above  endeavoured  to 
describe  the  peculiar  apparatus  with  which  they  are  furnished. 
Where  the  "aculeated  tongue"  fitted  for  insertion  "into  the  vein  of 
a  Bleeping  person"  is  to  be  found  among  the  known  bats,  we  are  igno- 
rant. The  rough  tongue  of  the  genus  Pteroput  has  been  supposed  to 
have  been  employed  for  abrading  the  skin,  to  enable  the  animal  to 
suck  the  part  abraded,  but  soologists  are  now  agreed  that  the  suppo- 
sition is  groundless.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  celebrated 
Vampire  superstition  and  the  blood-sucking  qualities  attributed  to 
the  Bat  have  some  connection  with  each  other. 

Piso  describes  the  bodies  of  his  Bats  (Andira-guaca)  as  being  as 
laige  as  European  pigeons. 

MadcUeut,  Leach.  Characterised  by  four  incisors  in  each  jaw ;  the 
two  intermediate  upper  ones  are  longer  than  the  lateral ;  they  are 
bifid ;  the  lower  incisors  are  equal,  simple,  and  pointed.  Four  molar 
teeth  in  the  upper  and  five  in  die  lower  jaw  on  each  side.  Two  nasal 
leaves.  No  taU.  Lips  furnished  with  soft  fringed  and  compressed 
papills.    Tongue  bifid  at  the  point 

M,  Levntii.  Nasal  leaf  suddenly  pointed;  ears  moderate  and 
rounded.  Fur  blackish.  Interfemoral  membrane  notched.  Expan- 
sion 16  inches.    Locality,  Jamaica. 

GCosiophaga,  Four  incisors  in  each  paw ;  canines  moderately  strong. 
Tongue  very  long,  extensile,  and  terminated  by  a  sort  of  sucker.  Nose 
surmounted  by  a  crest  in  form  of  a  pike-head.  Tail  none,  or  variable 
in  length.    Interfemoral  membrane  very  small,  hardly  any. 

A  T  1  O Q 

Incisors  -.;  canines, ;  molars, =24. 

A  1 — 1  3^8 

Locality,  entirely  American.  The  extensile  tongue,  says  Lesson, 
enables  the  species  to  suck  the  blood  of  animals. 

O.  aoricina  of  Qeofiroy,  VeapertUio  soricinui  of  Pallas  and  Gmelin. 
Interfemoral  membrane  comparatively  laige.  No  tiul.  Locality, 
Surinam  and  Cayenne. 

Bhinopoma,  Qeoff.  Two  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  four  in  the 
lower.  Nose  long,  conical,  cut  square  as  it  were  at  the  end,  and  sur- 
mounted with  A  small  lea£  Nostrils  straight,  transversal,  and  oper- 
dilated.  Ears  large,  earlet  (o^illon)  extemaL  Tail  long,  enveloped 
at  its  base  in  the  interfemoral  membrane,  which  is  cut  as  it  were 
square,  and  free  at  the  extremity. 

Incisors,  — ;  oanineei,  -ZL ;  molars,  -IZ.=s28. 

There  are  two  species  only;  one  African,  the  other  American. 

R  mierophylla.  This  is  Belon's  Chauve-Souris  d'Egypte.  The  fur 
is  ash-coloux^ed,  and  the  tail  very  long  and  slender.  It  is  the 
species  that  aboimds  in  the  long  and  dreary  galleries  of  the  Egyptian 
Pyramids. 

Artibeut,  Leach.  Four  incisors  in  each  jaw,  of  which  the  upper 
ones  are  bifid  and  the  lower  ones  truncated.  Two  canines  above  and 
the  same  number  below ;  the  upper  ones  have  an  internal  border  at 
their  base.  Four  molara  above  and  five  below  on  each  side.  Two 
nosal  leaflets ;  one  horizontal,  the  other  vertical    No  tail 

A.  Jamaicenns,  the  only  species  known.  Brown  above,  grayish 
below.  Flying  membranes,  and  ears  brownish.  The  lips  are  sur- 
rounded with  a  regular  series  of  warts,  and  the  mouth  is  provided 
internally  with  a  narrow,  fimbriated,  cribriform  membrane.  Expan- 
sion about  1  foot,  8  inches.  Length  from  the  muzzle  to  the 
extremiiy  of  the  interfemoral  membrane,  4  inches,  10  lines.  Dr. 
Horsfield  calls  it  PhyUottoma  Jamaiceme,  and  says  that  in  many  par- 
ticulars it  agrees  with  PhyUottoma  planirottrwn  of  Spix,  though  it  is 
clearly  distinguishable  from  it. 

MonophyUut,  Leach.  Four  unequal  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  of 
which  the  two  middle  ones  are  longer  than  the  lateral,  and  bifid ; 
none  in  the  lower  jaw ;  two  canines  in  each  jaw.    Five  molars  above 


and  six  below  on  eadi  side.    A  sin^e  straight  leaf  upon  the  nose. 
Tail  short 

M,  Bedmami.  Brown  above,  grayish  below.  Eanroundei  Ko«- 
leaf,  which  is  sharp,  covered  with  small  white  haiia.  MembruM 
brown.    Locality,  Jamaica. 

2.  Sub-Family,  Bhinolophina. 

Nasal  leaf  complicated,  membranous.  Index  with  a  sing^  pbaUnx. 
Wings  largely  developed.  Females  with  pectoral  teats  often  aoeom- 
panied  by  pubic  warts  simulating  mamill«>. 

Bhinclophut,  Qeofil      Nose  at  the  bottom  of  a  cavity  bordered  by 

a  wide  crest  of  a  horseshoe  shape,  and  surmounted  by  a  leaf    Ean 

moderate,  lateral,  without  an  earlet  (oreillon).    Tail  long,  entirely 

enveloped    by  the   interfemoral  membrane,   which  is  very  rniefa 

developed. 

T    .         2  .        1—1         ,        5—6 

Incisors,  -;  canmes,  — -;  molars,  ^—5=82. 

There  are  several  species. 

R  iridetu  {Aaellia  tridentf  Gray)  is  a  native  of  ESgypt 


Head  and  skull  of  Sinolophua  trtdent, 

R  fUihilts  is  a  rare  and  fine  Javanese  species :  it  is  the  K6bbl&  of 
the  natives.  It  was  described  by  Dr.  Horsfield,  who  obserres  that  it 
belongs  to  the  second  section  of  the  genus.  The  nasal  apparatus  con- 
sists  of  a  broad  membrane  stretching  transversely  across  the  noee  in 
form  of  a  shelf;  the  sides  are  bounded  by  several  parallel  folds,  and 
inferiorly  it  constitutes  a  semicircular  envelope,  which  his  a  short 
obtusely-rounded  point  in  the  middle.  Colour  above,  pure  brown; 
beneath,  brown  variegated  with  gray.  Fur  remarkably  long  and 
silky,  and  supplied  with  a  most  delicate  down  at  the  base,  so  is  to 
be  throughout  very  soft  to  the  touch.  Body  4  inches  in  lengtL 
Expansion  19  i  inches. 


Shinolophut  nobilU, 
Megaderma,  Geoff.     Ears  very  much  developed,  and  brought  fo^ 
ward  on  the  head.    Earlet  internal,  wide.    Three  nasal  crests,  one 
vertictd,  one  horizontal,  and  one  inferior  of  a  horseshoe  shape.   Ko 
taiL    Interfemoral  membrane  cut  square. 


Incisors,  — ;  canines, ;  molars,  - — -=2fi. 

4  1 — 1  6 — 0 

Jf.  trifoliam.    Locality,  Java,  where  it  is  the  Lovo  of  the  natiTea. 


Head  of  Megaderma  trifolium  ;  b,  Sknll  of  JT^yMlflnM  liroiu, 
Nycterii,  Geoff.  A  very  deep  longitudinal  sillcm  upon  the  diai^rem. 
Nostrils  covered  by  a  cartilagmous  moveable  operculum.  Ears  laig«» 
united  at  their  base.  Earlet  external.  Intemmoral  membrane  voy 
large,  comprehending  the  tail,  the  last  vertebra  of  which  isteiminsted 
by  a  bifurcated  cartilage. 


1  1 T  ____ 

Incisors,  -.;  canines,  . ;  molars,  - — -^%%. 

6  1 — 1  0 — 0  __ 

N,  Oeoffroyi.    Fur,  gray-brown  above ;  brighter  below.    Ears  raj 

large.    A  well-develop^  wart  placed  upon  the  lower  lip,  between  two 


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bourrelets,  haying  the  form  of  a  Y. 
Senegal 


liooalitj,  the  Thebald  and 


Jfyeteru  Geoffiroyif  and  skulL 

TaphoBOfUM,  Geoff.  Chanfrein  with  a  aillon.  Upper  lip  thick.  Ears 
moderate  and  wide  apart  Tail  fine  towards  its  point,  beyond  the 
inierfemoral  membrane,  which  is  large,  prolonged,  and  angular  at  its 
external  border. 

Incisors,  —;  canines,  ^H-;  molars,  -II-=28. 
4  1 — 1  5 — 5 

There  are  seyeral  species. 

T.  MaurUianus.  Fur,  chestnut  above,  ruddy  below.  Earlet  termi- 
nated  by  a  siuuoua  border.    Locality,  Mauritius. 


^.-..^ 


Taj>hoz(ms  Mauritiantu,  and  profile  of  the  same. 

Mormopif  Leach.  Four  upper  unequal  incisors,  of  which  the  inter- 
mediate ones  are  widely  notched,  and  four  below  which  are  equal  and 
trifid ;  two  canines  in  each  jaw,  the  upper  ones  twice  the  length  of 
those  below,  almost  compressed  and  canaliculated  before ;  five  molars 
above  and  six  below  on  each  side.  A  single  nasal  leaf  united  to  the 
ears,  which  are  very  complicated. 

M.  Blaiwvilliiy  uie  only  species;  and  it  is  remarkable  for  the 
extreme  elevation  of  its  front ;  the  excavation  of  its  chanfrein  ;  the 
lobated  crenellated  form  of  its  upper  lip,  and  the  division  of  the 
lower  one  into  three  membranous  lobes ;  the  existence  on  the  tongue 
of  papillae,  of  which  the  anterior  are  bifid  and  the  posterior  multifid ; 
the  folding  of  the  nasal  leaf,  and  the  division  of  the  upper  border  of 
its  ears  into  two  lobes.     Locality,  Jamaica. 

Nyctophiltu,  Leach.  Two  upper,  elongated,  oonical,  pointed 
incisors ;  six  lower  ones,  equal  and  trifid,  with  rounded  lobes ;  two 
canines  above  and  two  below,  the  lower  ones  having  a  small  point  at 
the  back  part  of  their  base.  Four  molars  on  each  side  of  the  jaws, 
with  crownB  furnished  with  pointed  tubercles.  Two  nasal  leaves,  of 
which  the  posterior  is  the  laigest.  Tail  projecting  a  little  beyond  the 
interfemoral  membrane. 

iV;  Geoffroyij  the  only  species  known.  Fur,  yellowish  above.  Belly, 
breast,  and  throat  dirty  white.  Ears  large.  Membranes  brownish- 
black. 

§  2.  Anistiophorif  Spix. 

Bats  without  any  nasal  appendage. 

8.  Sub-Family,  Vetptrtilionina. 

Molar  teeth  with  pointed  tubercles.  Wings  wide  and  extended. 
A  single  phalanx  to  the  forefinger  (index).  Head  elongated.  The 
h'pe  simple.     Tongue  short    Tail  long. 

VespertUio,  Linn.,  Geoff  Upper  incisors  four,  sometimes  two. 
Lower  incisors  six.  Muzzle  very  simple.  Ears  separated,  but  some- 
times united  at  their  base.  Earlet  internal.  Tail  long,  entirely 
enveloped  in  the  interfemoral  membrane.    Cheek  pouches. 

Incisors,  — ;  canines,  -^;  molars,  -II_=82. 
6  1 — 1  o— -0 

Lesson  observes,  that  many  VetpertUiones  have  but  two  incisors. 
Tbe  species  of  the  genus  are  many  in  number,  and  their  geographical 
distribution  is  very  wide. 

a.  European  Species. 
V.  mtcrmitf,  Linmeus.  This  is  the  Flitter-Mouse,  Flutter-Mouse, 
and  Rear-Mouse,  of  the  English;  La  Chauve-Souris  of  Buffon, 
and,  according  to  Pennant,  ^e  TsUnm  of  the  Welsh ;  the  Nattola, 
Notula,  Sporteglioue,  Yispistrello,  and  Vilpistrello,  of  the  Italians ; 
Murciegalo  and  Mordegalo  of  the  Spaniards;  Morc^go  of* the  Portu- 
guese ;  Speckmaus  and  Fledermaus  of  the  Germans;  Vledermuys  of 
the  Dutch ;  Laderlap  and  Fladermus  of  the  Swedes ;  and  Flagermaus 
and  Aflcnbakke  of  the  Daues. 


The  ears  are  oval,  of  the  length  of  the  head ;  the  earlets  fi&loiform. 
The  fur  of  the  adults  is  ruddy-brown  above,  whitish-gray  below; 
that  of  young  individuals  is  gray-ash. 

This  species  is  common  in  Europe.  It  has  been  supposed  to  exist 
in  Asia,  and  even  in  Australia.  Its  haunts  are  caves,  ruined  build- 
ings, church-towers,  the  roofs  of  houses  or  churches,  and  hollow  trees, 
where  it  hybemates  during  the  whole  winter,  snugly  wrapped  up  in 
the  wing  membranes,  and  suspended  by  the  hind  feet  We  have 
g^ven  the  skeleton  of  this  species,  and  below  will  be  found  a  head  aad 
skull  of  F.  PipUtrdliUf  another  European  species. 


Head  and  skull  of  VeMpertUio  JHjnttreUus. 

/3.  African  Species. 
F.  nigrita.    Adanson  discovered  this  species  at  Senegal.    The  ears 
are  oval,  triangular,  very  short,  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  head. 
Earlet  long,  and  terminating  in  a  point    Fur  yellomsh-brown  above, 
and  yellowLsh-ash  below. 

y.  Asiatic  Species. 
F.  pictvs.  The  ears  are  shorter  than  the  head,  oval,  wider  than 
they  are  high.  Earlet  oval-shaped.  The  fur  is  reddish,  passing  into 
bright  yellow  upon  the  back,  and  of  a  tarnished  yellow  on  the  belly. 
Citron-coloured  rays  mark  the  course  of  the  fingers  in  the  wings, 
which  are  chestnut-brown.     Locality,  Ceylon. 

9.  American  Species. 

F.  Naao.  This  speoies,  remarkable  for  the  length  of  its  nose,  was 
first  described  bv  the  Prince  de  Neuwied.  The  nasal  organ  is  elon- 
gated in  a  straight  line  above  the  upper  jaw,  almost  like  a  proboscis. 
The  ears  are  szuall,  and  very  much  pointed.  The  fur  is  grayish-brown 
above  and  yellowish-gray  below.    Locality,  Brazil,  in  trees. 

PUeotut,  Geoff.  This  genus  in  many  of  its  characters  agrees  with 
VetperiiliOf  but  the  ears  are  very  much  developed,  being  Luger  than 
the  head. 

Incisors,  — ;  canmes,  ;   molars,  =  86. 

6  1 — 1  6 — 6 

There  are  several  species,  and  the  form  occurs  in  all  the  four  quarters 
of  tbe  globe. 

P.  JHmorieruu.  This  species  was  discovered  by  P^ron  and  Lesneur 
in  the  island  of  Timor,  one  of  the  Moluccas.  The  ears  are  ample, 
united  at  their  base  by  a  small  membrane.  The  fur  is  blackish-brown 
above,  and  ash-brown  below. 


Plreotus  Timoriensu. 
b,  front  view  of  tbe  teeth,  Ac. ;  r,  profile  of  the  skull ;  d,  profile  of  the  head. 

The  genera  Atalaphck,  Hypexodon,  and  Nyctiocut  of  Rafinesque^  are 
oonsiderod  doubtful  by  Lesson  and  others. 

Mfopteris,  Geoff  The  chanfrein  lb  united  and  simple.  The  ears 
are  laige,  insulated,  and  lateral,  with  an  internal  earlet  Tail  long, 
half  enveloped  in  the  interfemoral  membrane.  Muzzle  short  and  large. 

Incisors,  — ;   canines,  -H-  ;   molars,  -HI-  =  26. 
2  1 — 1  0 — 0 

M.  DaubeiUonii,  Geoff. ;  Le  Rat  Volant  (Flying  Rat)  of  Daubenton. 
The  locality  of  this  speoies  is  unknown.  The  upper  part  of  the  head 
and  body  ia  brown ;  beneath,  the  colour  is  dirty  white,  with  a  slight 
tinge  of  yellow. 

4,  Sub-Family,  NactUumina. 
Molars  tubercular.    Wings  long  and  straight    Two  phalanges  to 
the  forefinger  (index).    Bead  short  and  obtuse.    Lips  very  laige. 


Digitized  by 


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CHEIROPTERA. 


CHEIROPTERA. 


tn 


Tail  recurved.    The  fexnales  often  fumiabed  with  lateral  pouches  for 
the  receptioit  of  the  young  in  nundng. 

NoctUiOfOeofL  Canines  very  strong.  Muzzle  short  and:  swollen, 
and  divided  and  studded  with  fleshy  tubercles  or  warts.  Nose  simple, 
and  losing  itself  in  the  lips.  Ears  small  and  lateral.  Interfemoral 
membrane  veiy  much  developed.    Tail  enveloped  at  its  base. 

Incisors,  — ;  canines,  -HI- ;   molars,    =  28. 

2  1 — 1  5 — 5 

N.  Leporinut.  Size  of  a  rat.  Fur  of  a  uniform  reddish-yellow. 
This  is  the  VespertUio  Leporinits  of  Gmelin ;  Noctilio  unicolor  of  Oeo£f- 
roy.    Localiticii,  Brazil,  Peru,  and  Paraguay. 


-jiL^ 


N.  ^ffypUacui,  QeoflEl ;  Dytopes  Cfeqfiroyi,  Temminck.  Reddiili 
above  and  brown  below.  Tail  slender.  Interfemoral  membrBiie 
enveloping  only  half  of  the  tail.  Locality,  ruina  and  subterraoeoiu 
places  in  Egypt 

IHnops,  SavL  Ears  united  and  extended  on  the  front.  Lips  pendent 
and  plaited.  Tail  enveloped  for  half  its  length  in  the  interfemoral 
membrane. 


Incisorsy  —  ;  canines,  ; 

6  1 — 1 


molars,  rllr  =  8i 
5 — 5 


Noctilio  Leporinus, 

a.  Profile  of  head ;  h,  profile  of  skull ;  e,  front  view  of  mozsle ;  d,  trom 

view  of  teeth,  See, 

Dytopes,  Illiger.  M.  Temminck  is  of  opinion  that  Molount,  Nycti- 
nomus,  and  Che%romeU$  are  identical  with  Dytopet.  The  following  is 
the  character  of  the  teeth,  according  to  F.  Cuvier :  two  incisors  above 
and  four  below ;  two  canines  in  each  jaw ;  four  molars  on  each  side 
of  the  upper  jaw ;  that  is  to  say,  two  false  and  two  normal ;  ten 
molars  in  the  lower  jaw,  namely,  four  false  .and  six  true.  Type, 
J).  Moop8.  We  proceed  to  give  the  definition  of  Molotnu,  Cimro- 
meUt,  and  Nyctinomua,  for  the  assistance  of  the  student. 

Molotiui.  Head  short ;  muzzle  swollen.  Ears  laige ;  earlet  extemaL 
Interfemoral  membrane  straight^  with  a  square  termination.  Tail 
long,  enveloped  at  its  base,  and  most  fi^uently  free  at  its  extremity. 

■r      .  2  .  1 1  1  5 — 5         «« 

Incisors,  --. ;  camnes,  ;    molars,  =  28. 

2  1 — 1  5 — 5 

The  geographical  distribution  of  this  form  is  wide  :  Africa,  Asia, 
and  South  America  possess  it :  but  the  species,  which  are  numerous^ 
occur  principally  in  ^e  two  last-mentioneid  localities. 

M,  obteuntt,  M.  fwnariui  of  Spix,  Dytopes  obteunu  of  Temminck. 
Size  of  the  Barbastelle  of  Europe.  Fur  composed  of  hair  of  two 
colours,  blackish-brown  above,  and  ash-brown  below.  Whiskers  at 
the  bolder  of  the  lips.  LengUi  about  8  inches,  8  lines.  Expansion 
9  inches.    Localities,  Brazil  and  Guyana. 


w 


Head  of  lioloinu  oUamtt, 


Skull  and  front  teeth. 


Cheiromdetf  Horsfield.  Two  incisors  above  and  two  below;  the 
upper  ones  large,  approximate,  semiconical,  and  acute,  the  lower  very 
small  and  simple.  Muzzle  conical,  sulcated,  and  with  setiferous 
glandules.  Ears  distant^  patent,  with  a  short,  semicordate,  obtuse 
operculun*.  Axillary  poudi  ample ;  but  the  hind  foot^  according  to 
Dr.  Hors&eld,  constitutes  the  chief  distinguishing  character.  The 
hind  foot^  or  rather  hand,  "  consists  of  four  fingers,  which  have  the 
same  disposition  and  structure  as  in  other  animius  of  this  family,  and 
of  a  distinct  thumb,  essentially  agreeing  with  this  member  in  many 
Quadmmanaf  and  in  several  animals  of  the  Rodentia  and  Marsvpialia. 
It  is  a  complete  antagonist  to  the  fingers,  enables  the  animal  to  take 
hold  of  objects,  and  thus  constitutes  a  perfect  hand." 

(7.  torqucUxtt,  Horsfield,  '  Researches  in  Java ;'  Molossvu  CkeiropiUf 
Auct.;  Dysopea  Cheiroput,  Temminck.  Length,  54  inches.  Expan- 
sion nearly  2  feet.    Localities,  Siam  and  Western  Asia. 

Nyctinomus,  Geoff.  Nose  flat,  losing  itself  in  the  lips,  which  are 
deeply  slit  and  wrinkled.  Ears  laige,  and  hanging  with  an  external 
earlet.  Interfemoral  membrane  moderate  and  angular.  Tail  long, 
ind  nearly  half  of  it  enveloped. 

Incisors,—;  canines,  t — i;    molars,    - — -=80. 
i  1 — ^1  6 — 5 

Localities.    This  form  occurs  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  South  America. 


D.  Cestoniif  SavL     Fur  thick  and  soft,  gray-brown,  tending  slightly 

I  to  yellowish,  but  a  little  browner  on  the  back.    Wings  black-browii. 

Muzzle,  lips,  and  ears  black,  the  latter  large,  roimded,  and  a  liUle 

notched  on  their  external  border.      Tail  long,  of  a  brown-bkcL 

Locality,  the  environs  of  Pisa,  where  Savi  discovered  iL 

Stenaderma,  Geoff.  Nose  simple.  Ears  small,  lateral,  and  isolated; 
earlet  intemaJ.  Interfemoral  membrane  rudimentary,  and  bordering 
the  logs.    Ko  tail 

4  1 1  1 4 

Incisors,  — ;  canines, ;  molars,  =  28. 

^  4 '  'l— 1'  '  4—4 

But  it  should  be  remembered  that  Cuvier  only  allows  of  two  incison 
in  the  upper  jaw,  instead  of  four,  the  number  given  by  Geofi&oy. 

8.  ruftL  Fur  uniform,  chestnut-red.  Ears  moderate,  oval,  and  a 
little  notched  on  their  external  border. 

CdcenOf  Leach.  Two  upper  indsors  pointed  and  simple ;  four  lower 
ones  contiguous  and  cylindrical  Two  canines  above  and  below,  tbe 
upper  ones  laigest.  Four  molars  on  each  side  of  the  jaws,  the  first 
pointed  and  simple,  and  the  last  three  with  their  crowns  beset  with 
points.  Third  and  fourth  finger  with  three  phalanges,  the  fifth  or 
external  with  two  only.  Int^emoral  membrane  prolonged  a  little 
below  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet  Ears  separated;  earleta  simple. 
NotaiL 

(7.  BrooJcsiaiM,  Back  ferruginous ;  belly  and  shoulders  yellowish- 
ferruginous.  Ears  pointed,  with  the  anterior  bonier  round^  and  the 
posterior  one  straight.     Membranes  blacL 

uEUOf  Leach.  Two  upper  incisors  laige,  compressed,  bifid,  and  with 
rounded  lobes.  Two  lower  equal,  trifid,  with  rounded  lobes.  Two 
upper  canines,  long,  very  sharp,  with  a  small  projecting  point  before 
and  behind  their  hise ;  the  two  lower  smaller  and  less  pointed.  Four 
upper  molars  on  each,  the  two  first  pointed  and  triangular,  the  sectmd 
Iftigest,  the  third  bifid,  and  the  fourth  trifid  externally.  Third  finger 
of  the  wings  with  four  phalanges,  fourth  and  fifth  witii  three.  I^te^ 
femoral  membrane  straight.  Ears  contiguous,  short,  very  large ;  no 
earlet.    Tail  not  exceeding  the  membrane. 

A.  Ouvieri.  Colour  ferruginous-Isabella.  Wings  obscure  brown. 
Ears  truncated,  as  it  were,  at  the  end. 

Seotophilus,  Leach.  Four  upper  incisors  unequal,  pointed,  tbe 
intermediate  ones  being  largest  and  simple,  and  the  lat^al  ones  bifid 
with  equal  lobes  :  six  lower  incisors  indistinctly  trifid.  Two  canines 
above  and  below,  the  upper  ones  with  a  small  point  behind  their  bue, 
and  the  comer  ones  with  a  similar  one  in  front  Four  molars  with 
crowns  armed  with  points.  Fourth  and  fifth  fingers  of  the  wingi 
with  three  phalanges. 
S,  Kuhlii,    Fur  ferruginous.    Ears,  nose,  and  wings  brown. 

5.  Sub-Family,  Pteropina. 
We  now  come  to  a  numerous  and  widely  distributed  fionily  ooo- 
taining  some  of  the  largest  forms  of  the  VaperHlionidaiy  and  subsiit- 
ing  principally  on  vegetables  and  fruits.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
fabulous  Harpy  may  have  had  its  origin  in  some  of  these  enormom 
bats  with  their  well-developed  pectoral  mamma?. 


Pteropui  Duitttmieri. 

Molar   teeth    tuberculated  and  grooved  longitudinally.     "^^^^ 
rounded.    Interfemoral  membrane  and  tail  often  wnting:    Index 


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973 


CHEIROPTEBA. 


CHEIROPTERA. 


074 


ivith  three  phalanges,    head  long  and  hairy.    Females  for  the  most 
part  with  nursing  pouches. 

Pterojmtt  Bnsscm  (Roussettes  of  the  French).  A  small  nail  on  the 
index  wing-finger.  Head  conical.  Ears  ^ort  Tail  absent^  or  nidi- 
mentaiy.    Interfemoral  membrane  yery  little  derdoped. 

a.  Tailless. 
P.  Javanicut.  Upper  part  of  the  neck  smoky  red,  rest  of  the  fur 
blackiah,  some  white  hairs  mingled  with  the  black  ones  of  the  back. 
Expansion  5  feet.  This  is  tbe  Kalong  of  the  Javanese,  which, 
according  to  Dr.  Horsfield,  is  extremely  abundant  in  the  lower  parts 
of  Java,  and  uniformly  lives  in  society.  The  more  elevated  districts 
are  not  visited  by  it.  **  Numerous  individuals,"  continues  the  Doctor, 
"  select  a  laige  tree  for  their  resort,  and  suspending  themselves  with 
the  claws  of  ^eir  posterior  extremities  to  the  naked  branches,  often 
in  companies  of  several  hundreds,  afford  to  a  stranger  a  very  singular 
•pectacle.  A  species  of  Ficus,  in  habit  resembling  the  F,  rdigiota  of 
India,  which  is  often  found  near  the  villages  of  the  natives,  affords 
them  a  very  ftivourite  retreat,  and  the  extended  branches  of  one  of 
these  are  sometimes  covered  by  them.  They  pass  the  greater  portion 
of  the  day  in  sleep,  hanging  motionless  :  ranged  in  succession,  with 
the  head  downwards,  the  membrane  contracted  about  the  body,  and 
often  in  close  contact,  they  have  little  resemblance  to  living  beings, 
and  by  a  person  not  accustomed  to  their  economy  are  readily  mistaken 
for  a  part  of  the  tree,  or  for  a  fruit  of  imconmion  size  suspended  from 
its  branches.  In  general  these  societies  preserve  a  perfect  silence 
daring  the  day  :  but  if  they  are  disturbed,  or  if  a  contention  arises 
among  them,  they  emit  sharp  piercing  shrieks,  and  their  awkward 
attempts  to  extricate  themselves  when  oppressed  by  the  light  of  the 
Ban,  exhibit  a  ludicrous  spectacle.  In  consequence  of  the  diarpness 
of  their  claws,  their  attachment  is  so  strong,  that  they  cannot  r^ily 
leave  their  hold  without  the  assistance  of  the  expanded  membrane  : 
and  if  suddenly  killed  in  the  natural  attitude  during  the  day,  they 
continue  suspended  after  death.  It  is  necessary  "Uierefore  to  oblige 
them  to  take  wing  by  alarming  them,  if  it  be  desired  to  obtain  them 
daring  the  day.  Soon  after  sxmset  they  gradually  quit  their  hold,  and 
parsue  their  nocturnal  flight  in  quest  of  food.  They  direct  their 
coarse  by  an  unerring  instinct  to  the  forests,  villages,  and  plantations, 
occasioning  incalculable  mischief,  attacking  and  devouring  indiscrimi- 
nately every  kind  of  fruit,  from  the  abundant  and  useful  cocoa-nut 
which  surrounds  the  dwelUng  of  the  meanest  peasantry,  to  the  rare 
and  most  delicate  productions  which  are  cultivated  with  care  by 
princes  and  chiefs  of  distinction.  By  the  latter,  as  well  as  by  the 
European  colonists,  various  methods  are  employed  to  protect  the 
oroharda  and  ^^ardens.  Delicate  fruits,  such  as  mangoes,  jambus, 
lanaas,  Ac.,  as  they  approach  to  maturity,  are  ingeniously  secured  by 
means  of  a  loosa  net  or  basket,  skilfully  constructed  of  split  bamboo. 
Without  this  precaution,  little  valuable  fruit  would  escape  the  ravages 
of  the  Kalong.  There  are  few  situations  in  the  lower  pcurts  of  Java  in 
which  this  nigkt  wanderer  is  not  constantly  observed :  as  soon  as  the 
light  of  the  sun  has  retired  one  animal  is  seen  to  follow  the  other  at  a 
small  but  irregular  distance,  and  this  succession  continues  uninter- 
rupted till  darkness  obstructs  the  view.  The  flight  of  tiie  Kalong  is 
slow  and  steady,  pursued  in  a  straight  line,  and  capable  of  long  con- 
tinuance.  The  chase  of  the  Kalong  forms  occasionally  an  amusement 
of  the  colonists  and  inhabitants  during  the  moonlight  nights,  which 
in  the  latitude  of  Java  are  uncommonly  serene.  He  is  watched  in  his 
descent  to  the  fruit-trees,  and  a  disoluurge  of  small  shot  readily  brings 
him  to  the  ground.  By  this  means  I  fr^uently  obtained  four  or  five 
indiriduals  in  the  course  of  an  hour." 


Pteroptu  Javtmieut. 

fi.  With  Tails. 
P-  ttromineus.    Fur  reddish-yellow;   tail  very  short    Expansion 
*^o  feet    Brought  from  Timor  by  P^ron  and  Lesueur.  ^ 

y.  With  Wings  on  the  Back. 
Cephaloteif  Qeofil    A  small  nail  on  the  index  in  one  species.    Head 


conical;  ears  short;  tall  but  little  apparent.    Interfemoral  membrane 
notched.    Flank-membrane  springing  from  the  mesial  line  of  the  back. 

T     •         4  .        1—1  ,        5—6 

Incisors,  -;  canmes, ;  molars,  !LZrs-82. 

6  1 — 1  4 — 4 

C.  Peronii,  Fur  brown  or  red,  and  Tery  short  Ko  nail  on  the 
index.  Wings  springing  from  the  middle  of  the  back.  Expansion 
two  feet  Locality,  Timor.  N.B.  Temminck  thinks  that  the  P,  pal- 
liatut  of  Geofiroy  is  the  young  of  this  species. 

Harpya,  lUiffer.  Differing  from  Ce^^ialoia  in  the  want  of  lower 
incisors  and  of  the  last  sm^  molars  in  both  jaws.  OeoflVoy  thinks 
that  the  difference  between  the  system  of  dentition  in  Harpya  and 
Ceph<Uote$  Penmii  is  attributable  to  age  only. 

Incisors,  - ;  canines, ;  molars, =24. 

0  1 — 1  5 — 5 

JST.  Pallcaii  (Cephalotea  Pallasii,  Geoff.).  Fur  consisting  of  scanty 
and  soft  hairs,  grayish-ash  above,  pale  white  below.  A  nail  on  the 
index.    Expansion  1  foot  11  inches.    Locality,  the  Moluccas. 


w 


Ilcad  of  Harpya  ralluiU. 

Oynoptems,  F.  Cuvier.  Four  incisors  and  two  rudimentary  false 
molars  in  each  jaw,  like  the  Pttropi,  but  they  entirely  want  the  last 
molars.  The  jaws  are  abbreviated,  and  the  heads  much  resemble 
those  of  Cephalotes, 

Macrogloua,  F.  Cuvier.  A  genus  approaching  very  closely  to 
Pteropns  and  formed  by  F.  Cuvier  for  the  Lowo-assu  of  the 
Javanese,  P,  minimui  of  Geoffix>y,  P.  rottratus  of  Horsfield.  Its 
character  depends  upon  the  extreme  length  of  the  head,  the  absence 
of  false  molars,  the  great  development  of  the  posterior  molar  and  the 
extensile  tongue. 

Incisors,-;  canines, ;  molars,  =84. 

4  1 — 1  6 — 6 

M.  Hor^fiddii  {Pteroputroiiraiut,  Horsfield).  Temminck  is  of  opinion 
that  M,  Kiodotet,  P,  fnwitmiM,  Geo£,  and  M.  Hortfiddii  are  identicaL 

5.  Wings  placed  extremely  backwards. 

Epomophorut  (Gray).  £,  WhUii  {Pleropus  JBpomophonUt  Bennett). 
Pale  brown,  the  colour  being  paler  posteriorly ;  belly  white ;  humeral 
brush  (or  epaulette)  white  and  large.  Total  length,  six  inches  three 
quarters ;  length  of  the  head,  two  inches  and  a  quarter.  Expansion 
12  inches. 

The  following  is  the  arrangement  of  the  species  of  this  order  of 
which  thero  are  specimens  in  the  British  Museum,  as  given  in  the 
list  of  the  Mammalia  by  Dr.  J.  E.  G^y  .• — 

Yespebtilionidje. 

A,  JiHophorL 
a,  PhyUotiomina, 

1.  Phinopcma  Hardwickiiy  the  Indian  Rhinopome. 

2.  JR.  microphyllaf  the  Egyptian  Rhinopome.    Egypt 
8.  Stumira  Spectrum,  the  Stumira.    Brazils. 

4.  Arctibeui  Jamaictmii,  the  Jamaica  Arctibeus.  Jamaica  and 
Brazils. 

6.  A.  fimhriaiutf  the  Fringe-Lipped  Arctibeus.    Brazils. 

6.  A.  verrucatut,  the  Warty-Chinned  Arctibeus.    South  America. 

7.  A.  falcaltu,  Sickle- Arctibeus.    Cuba. 

8.  Vampynu  Spectrum,  the  Pale  Vampire.    Jamaica. 

9.  PhyUottoma  hoMtaium,  the  Javeline  Phyllostome.    Brazils. 

10.  P.fuliginoeum,  the  Sooty  Phyllostome.    South  America. 

11.  P.  Childreni,  Children's  Phyllostome.    South  America. 

12.  P.  $oricinum,  the  Soricine  Phyllostome.    Jamaica,  West  Indieai 
18.  P.  Bennettii,  Bennett's  Phyllostome.    South  America. 

14.  P.  laneeoUUum,  Long-Leaved  Phyllostome.    South  America. 
16.  P.  ehngatum.  Elongated  Phyllostome.    Brazils. 

16.  BrachyphyUa  Cavemarum,  the  Cavern-Bat  St  Vincent's, 
West  Indies ;  Cuba. 

17.  PhyUophora  megalotii,  Large-Eared  Phyllophore.    Brazils. 

18.  P.  niffra.  Black  Phyllophore.    Brazils. 

19.  P.  amplexicaudata,  West-Indian  Phyllophore.  West  Indies^ 
Jamaica. 

20.  €flo9jN)pkaga  Soricina,  the  Soricine  Bloodsucker.  Jamaica, 
West  Indies. 

21.  MonopkyUut  Redmani,  Redman's  Leaf-Nosed  Bat    Jamaica. 

22.  Anowa  Geojfroyi,  Geoffh>y's  Tailless  Bat    BrazUs. 

28.  if csrckiermai^yra^Lyi^-Nosed  Broad-Winged  Bat  Java;  Indi^ 
Madras  and  Bengal. 

24.  M,  Spatma,  the  Cordate  Bat    Java  and  Singapore. 

25.  Lavia  fiwu,  the  African  Leaf-Bat    West  Africa,  Gambia. 

h,  Phinolopkina, 

26.  ArUeuiJlaveiceni,  th»  YeUvwish  AriisiLk 


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27.  Jtkinolophui  Hippotiderat,  the  Smaller  Horseshoe-Bat.     Devon- 
shire. 

28.  jRL  fefTum-e^inum,  the  Lai^ger  Horseshoe-Bat.    England  and 
Turin. 

29.  jRL  megaphyllui,  the  Laiige-Leayed  Horseshoe-Bat    AiutnUiik 

80.  R  mario,  the  Black  Horseshoe-Bat.    Singapore. 

81.  JL  traffoiui,  Nepaul  Horseshoe-Bat.    NepauL 

82.  jRL  Capeniii,  Cape  Horseshoe-Bat.    Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

83.  IL  elivosui,  Short-Faced  Horaeehoe-Bat    I^orth  Africa. 

84.  Bippatideroi  fulvut,  Foxy  Horseshoe-Bat.    India,  Madras. 

85.  J7.  murinuB,  Mouse-Coloured  Horseshoe-Bat.     India,  Madras. 

86.  If.  bieolor,  Bhinolophut  bicohr,  Two-Coloured  Horseshoe-Bat. 
Jaya. 

87.  ff.  apiculatua,  Apidllated  Horseshoe-Bat.    India,  Madras. 

88.  ir.  larvatuiy  Masked  Horseshoe-Bat.    Java. 

89.  J7.  penicUlatua,  Pencilled  Horseshoe-Bat.    Madras. 

40.  ir.  vulffari$,  Javanese  Horseshoe-Bat    Java. 

41.  M,  nobilis,  l^oble  Horseshoe-Bat    Java. 

42.  ir.  armiger,  Hodgson's  Horseshoe-Bat    Nepaul. 
48.  A$eUia  trident,  the  Three-Toothed  Asellia.    Egypt 

JB,    AnisHophoru 
e.  VeapertilUmidcB, 

44.  iVyc<«ri«  Sf%«&atca,  Egyptian  Nycteris. 

45.  N,  Bamarentis,   Damara   Nycteria. 
country. 

46.  N.  PoenaUy  Fernando  Po  Nycteria.    Africa^  Fernando  Po. 

47.  Pttalia  Javanica,  Kuhl's  Petalia.    Java. 

48.  NydophUiit  Oeojfroyi,  the  Australian  Kyotophila     Australia. 

49.  Barbtutellua  commwnitf  the  Barbastelle.    England. 

50.  PUcottu  eommwHU,  Common  Long-Eared  Bat  England,  London. 

51.  P.  Christii,  Egyptian  Long-Eared  Bat     North  Africa,  Egypt. 

52.  Romicia  ealcareUa,  the  Long-Burred  Romicia. 

58.   VupertUio  mysladnutf  the  muakered  Bat     Devonshire  and 
Cambridgeshire. 

54.  F.    DavbenUmii,  Daubenton's  Bat     Scotland,  Aberdeen. 

55.  F.  Caroli,  Prince  Charles's  Bat     North  America. 

56.  F.  mwrfWo,  the  WaU-Bat    Nepaul. 

57.  Trilotitv*  BUpotis,  the  Blepote.     Timor. 

58.  T.  Sonfiddii,  the  Lowo-Manir.   Java;  India. 

59.  MyUU  mtcrifitit,  the  Laige-Eared  Bat    Hamburg  and  England. 

60.  M.  Bechstanii,  Bechstein's  Bat    New  Forest^  Hampshire. 

61.  if.  Nattereri,  Natterer's  Bat    England. 

62.  Kerivoiyla  picta,  the  Eerivoula.    Jav^ 

68.  ir./or»io»a,  the  Nepaul  Kerivoul^   NepauL 

64.  JT.  SyjIseHi,  Sykes's  Kerivoula.    India,  Calcutta. 

65.  K,  trUatitcidea,  the  Javanese  Kerivoula.    Jav^ 

66.  K.  BainhtHekii,  Hardwicke's  Kerivoula.    Java. 

67.  X,  PoenaU,  the  Fernando  Po  Kerivoula.    Fernando  Po. 

68.  K.  ffriaect,  the  Gray  Kerivoula. 

69.  K.  Bratilentit,  the  Brazilian  Kerivoula.    Brazils. 

70.  Natcdut  ttramineut,  the  Natale.    America. 

71.  ScotophUm  Serotinut,  the  Serotine.    England. 

72.  S,  discolor,  Parti-Coloured  Bat    England. 

73.  &  Leideri,  the  Hairy-Armed  Bat    England. 

74.  &  muWnitf,  the  Bat    England;  North  of  Scotland;  Hambuig; 
and  Madeira. 

75.  &  fuliffinoiutf  the  Sooty  Sootophil&    Nepaul. 

76.  S,  ffodgtonii,  the  Indiim  Bat    India,  Calcutta. 

77.  S.  lobcUut,  the  Lobed  Scotophile.    India. 

78.  S,  Maderatpatanua,  the  Madras  Bat    Madras. 

79.  S.  morio,  the  AustnUian  Bat    Van  Diemen's  Land,  AustraliiL 

80.  &  OofUdii,  Gould's  Scotophile.    Van  Diemen's  Land. 

81.  S,  pumilua,  the  Dwiurf  Bat    Australia. 

82.  8,  Oreifii,  Captain  Grey's  Bat    Australia. 
88.  8,  OubcMit,  the  Cuba  Bat    Cuba. 

84.  &  MacLetvyii,  MacLeay's  Bat.    Cuba. 

85.  8,  BeUii,  Bell's  Bat    West  Indies. 

86.  8,  GrtewU,  Green's  Bat    North  America. 

87.  8  Temmindeii,  Temminck's  Noctule.    Calcutta  and  Java. 

88.  &falcaiua,  the  Falcated  Noctule.    India. 

89.  8.  Leciehii,  Leach's  Noctule.    India. 

90.  &  fulvua,  the  Foxy  Noctule.    Java  and  Madras. 

91.  NoduUnia  altivolant,  the  Noctule.    England. 

92.  N.  Malaeoamt,  the  Singapore  Noctule.    Singapore. 
98.  N.  labiata,  Large-Lipped  Noctule.    NepauL 

94.  Zatiuru$  n/itf,  the  Red  Hairy-Tailed  Bat    America. 

95.  X.  pmtnotia,  the  Powdered  Hairy-Tailed  Bat   North  America. 

96.  SeotapkUut  Capeniii,  the  Cape  Bat    Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

97.  Murina  wOlut,  the  Pig-Nosed  Bat    India. 

d  NoctiUonina. 

98.  Tapkaaoui  perf»raiut,  the    African  Taphozous.     Africa  and 
Mauritiua. 

99.  T,  hngimanut,  the  Long-Armed  Taphozous.    India,  Calcutta. 

100.  T.  pudiverUer,  the  Naked-Bellied  Taphozou&    Africa,  Nubia. 

101.  r.me;ano|MSPon,theBlaok-BeardedTaphozous.  Caves  of  Kenneri, 
Hindustan. 


102.  T,  Moeeolaimua,  the  Javauese  Taphozou&    Java. 
108.  NoctUio  AmerieanuB,  the  BuU-Dog  Bat    Para. 

104.  N.  nuutvvui,  the  Striped  Bull-Dog  Bat  Brazils  and  CoitnJ 
America. 

105.  Moiia  nigrttemi,  the  Moeia.    South  America. 

106.  ifyitacma  ^u^M^oto,  the  Mystaoine.    NewZeahmd. 

107.  (7tfn/«rio  aener,  the  Wrinkled-Faced  Epaulet-Bat    Amboyiuu 

108.  Chenolycterii  MaeLeayii,  MacLeay's  Fringe-Nosed  Bat 
Cuba. 

109.  Mormops  BlainvtUii,  the  Mormops.  Cuba  and  South 
America. 

110.  Nyctinomua  plicotus,  the  Groove-Cheeked  Bat  JsTa  and 
BengaL 

111.  N,  JtUppdlxif  Ruppell's  Groove-Cheeked  Bat  Fernando  Po 
and  Singapore. 

112.  N,  pumilut,  the  Smaller  Groove-Cheeked  Bat    Egypt 
118.  N.  murintu,  the  Murine  Groove-Cheeked  Bat    Jamaica. 

114.  N.  macrotit,  the  Lam-Eared  Groove-Cheeked  Bat    Cubs. 

115.  Molouus  velox,  the  Swift-Flying  Thick-Lipped  Bat  Bnzib, 
and  St  Lucia,  West  Indies. 

116.  M,  fiUiginoMs,  the  Sooty  Thick-Lipped  Bat  Bennuda, 
Jamaica,  and  Portobella 

117.  M,  rufiu,  the  Reddish  Thick-Lipped  Bat    Brazils. 

118.  M,  iropidorkynchut,  the  Ridge-Nosed  Thick-Lipped  Bat  Cuba 

119.  M.  BrazUientit,  the  Brazilian  Thick-Lipped  Bat    Br&zila. 

120.  M,  Norfolc€Mis,ihe  Norfolk  Island  Thick-Lipped  Bat  Norfolk 
Island. 

121.  Dididurui  Freyreitii,  the  Diclidure.  Pueblo  Nuevo,  Tropical 
America. 

e.  Pteropina. 

122.  Pteroput  poUocephalut,  Gray-Headed  Kalong.    Australia. 

123.  P.  Edwardni,  the  Wurba-GooL     India,  Nepaul,  and  Molucca. 

124.  P.  edulit,  the  Kalong.   Sumatra. 

125.  P.funeretu,  Red-Naped  Kalong.    Australia,  Port  Essingtoo. 

126.  P,  ptelapkon,  Hairy-Footed  Kalong.  Island  of  Benin  (Loo- 
Chooe). 

127.  P.  rubrieoUitf  the  Roussette.    Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

128.  XmUharpiyia  ampUxicaudata,  the  Xantharpye.    Amboyna. 

129.  X  JBgyptiaea,  Egyptian  Xantharpye.     North  Africa,  fgypi 
180.  X  utraminea,  the  Pale  Xantharpyei    Africa. 

131.  EpomophwruM  WhitU,  the  Shoulder-Soiot  Bat  West  Afiica, 
Gambia. 

182.  CysMpferiM  margynaJtvM,  the  Margin-Elared  Cynoptere.  Indif 
Java,  and  NepauL 

138.  C  iToTf^ldUit,  Horsfield's  Cynoptere.     Java  and  India. 

184.  0.  brmcamdalut,  the  Short-TaUed  Cynoptere. 

185.  C  affinis,  the  Indian  Cynoptere.    Himalaya 
188.  Macro^o$tut  minimtu,  the  Kiodote.    Java. 

Fo98il  Cheiroptera. 

Cuvier  described  the  skeleton  of  a  species  of  bat  allied  to  tlM 
Serotine,  which  waa  petrified  and  imbedded  in  a  block  of  th« 
Eocene  Gypsum  at  Montmartre,  Paris.  Some  fossil  teeth  reaembling 
those  of  a  Cheiropterous  animal  have  been  found  in  the  Eooeoe 
Sand  at  Kyson  near  Woodbridge  in  Suffolk.  More  numerona  remaics 
of  this  family  have  been  met  with  in  England  in  the  limestone  carerai 
containing  the  fossil  bones  of  extinct  bean,  hy senaa,  and  other  animals. 
Professor  Owen  says  of  these  remains  that  he  has  "  failed  to  detect 
in  the  more  complete  skulls  and  skeletons  from  cave-localitiea  any 
character  by  which  they  could  be  distinctly  referred  to  unknown 
species  of  bats,  or  to  such  as  do  not  now  exist  in  England;  and  after 
much  pains  bestowed  on  the  less  complete  and  more  abundant  fng" 
mentary  and  detached  parts  of  the  enduring  framework  of  the 
Cheiroptera  I  have  been  seldom  able^partly  indeed  from  the  still 
imperfect  state  of  the  osteology  of  this  order — to  arrive  at  any  Boond 
specific  determinations."  One  of  the  most  complete  examples  of  the 
skeleton  of  a  bat  from  a  crevice  of  a  bone-cave  in  the  Mendip  Hills 
Professor  Owen  refers  to  Veepertilio  noctula.  Remains  of  a  bat  from 
the  bone-cave  called  Kent's  Hole,  near  Torquay,  Devon,  are  F®"**^"*^ 
in  the  British  Museum;  and  from  an  examination  of  these  Profeaaor 
Owen  concludes  that  they  belong  to  the  Bhinolophfu  femtM-tquiMf 
the  Great  Horseshoe-Bat,  which  is  not  now  a  native  of  these  ialanda. 
Other  Cheiropterous  remains  have  been  foimd  in  the  bone-cavea  of  the 
contment  of  Europe.    [Su  Supflsmsnt.] 

CHEIROSTE'MON,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  8terculiaeetB.  C.  platanoidee,  a  most  singular  plant,  is  com- 
monly called  the  Hand-'Tree,  in  consequence  of  its  stamens  being  w 
arranged  as  to  present  an  appearance  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  a 
human  hand.  It  is  a  lofty  tree,  with  the  habit  of  a  plane,  and  a 
trunk  about  as  thick  as  a  man's  body.  Its  head  divides  into  a  number 
of  close  horizontal  branches,  which  are  of  a  brownish  colour  *<j^^'j2 
their  extremities  in  consequence  of  the  number  of  short  fiiwn-oolcurw 
hairs  that  beset  them.  The  leaves  are  heart-shaped,  slightly  r-lobed, 
six  or  eight  inches  long,  and  a  little  toothed ;  they  are  of  a  nch  deep 
green  on  the  upper  side,  and  are  covered  with  fawn-coloured  »*^  ?J[ 
the  under  side.  The  flowers  are  of  a  bright  red,  and  »PP^**  t! 
end  of  the  branches ;  they  consist  of  three  external  lanceolate  wownwo 
bracts,  and  a  beU-shaped  fleshy  angular  calyx,  about  an  inch  ana  a 


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half  deejs  bright  red  inside,  corered  externally  with  a  nuset  down ; 
it  is  deeply  divided  into  fiye  lobes,  and  is  marked  on  Uie  outside  at 
the  base  with  five  prominences,  whidi  correspond  with  an  equal 
number  of  little  pits  filled  with  a  slightly  viscid  whitish  fluid.  There 
is  no  corolla.  There  are  five  stamens  combined  into  a  central  column- 
like tnbe,  from  the  apex  of  which  proceed  five  long  slender  sharp- 
pointed  processes,  which  are  all  curved  one  way,  coloured  red,  and 
look  very  much  like  what  one  might  imagine  to  be  the  claws  of  a 
d«>mon's  hand ;  on  the  convex  side  these  processes  bear  the  anthers. 
The  fruit  is  a  laijge  woody  6-celled  5-valved  capsule,  with  from  fifteen 
to  twen^  seeds  in  each  celL 


^ir*    V 


Hand-Tree  {Cheiro*Umon  platanoidet.) 
a,  fruit  opened ;  h,  section  of  yoang  Aruit,  showing  the  disposition  of  the 
seeds ;  e,  pistil  and  bracts ;  d,  flower  opened  to  show  the  tnbe  of  the  stamens 
and  the  Ave  anthers  (all  these  figures  are  about  one>aixth  less  than  the  natural 
aize ;  .those  which  follow  are,  some  of  the  natural  sise,  and  others  slightly 
magnified) ;  e,  /,  g,  seeds ;  ^  ft,  sections  showing  the  situation  of  the  embryo ; 
jk,  the  embiyO)  placed  to  show  Uie  cotyledons. 

The  singular  form  of  the  stamens  and  their  large  size  have  rendered 
this  tree  an  object  of  curiosity  and  veneration  in  Mexico  from  time 
immemorial.  The  native  Mexicans  call  it  by  the  unpronounceable 
name  of  Macpal  Cochiquauhitl,  which  the  Spaniards  translate  Arbol 
de  Maoitas,  and  the  English  Hand-Tree.  What  made  it  a  greater 
object  of  admiration  was,  that  in  all  Mexico  only  one  tree  was  known, 
which  was  near  the  town  of  Toluca,  about  sixteen  leagues  west  of 
the  city  of  Mexico.  The  flowers  of  this  plant  were  so  constantly 
gathered  by  the  Indians  as  objects  of  veneration  that  the  fruit  never 
ripened,  and  it  was  not  till  the  year  1801  that  cuttings  transferred  to 
the  Botanic  Gkirden  at  Mexico  struck  root,  and  began  to  multiply 
this  vegetable  wonder.  The  original  tree  must  be  much  more  ancient 
than  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  for  it  has  been  distinctly  described  by 
the  Spanish  luatorians.  The  people  of  Toluca  imagine  that  the  tree 
is  one  and  indivisible,  that  no  other  was  ever  created,  nor  any  other 
ever  propagated.  Seeds  however  have  been  produced  from  the  young 
plants  in  the  Botanic  Garden,  Mexico,  whence  they  ma^  now  Im 
procured  without  difficulty.  Plants  of  it  were  thus  obtamed  some 
years  since  by  Mr.  Lambert,  of  Boyton  House,  in  Wiltshire,  and  they 
are  not  uncommon  in  large  collections.  Notwithstanding  the  belief 
of  the  Mexicans  to  the  contrary,  it  is  really  foimd  wild  in  Guatemala, 
where  whole  forests  of  it  were  observed  near  the  city  of  that  name 
by  one  of  the  pupsls  of  Professor  Cervantes.    The  Hand-Tree  is  said 

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to  form  a  very  large  tree,  which  preserves  its  leaves  all  the  year 
round,  and  forms  a  fine  shady  canopy,  flowering  in  November, 
December,  and  January. 

(Hernandez,  Hiit.  Plant.  Nov.  Hisp.t  voL  ii.,  ed.  2,  p.  631 ;  Yetan- 
court,  Theatr.  Mexic. ;  Larreategui,  Dinert.,  June,  1795 ;  TUesius  in 
Act.  Petrop.,  6,  321,  t.  ix. ;  Humb.  and  Bohpl.,  PI.  uEquinoct.,  i.  85.) 

CHEIROTHE'RIUM.  The  footprints  on  the  Red-Sandstone  of 
Hildburghausen  were  referred  by  Kaup  to  a  mammiferous  animal 
\mder  the  above  title.  To  the  same  origin  many  similar  remains  in 
England  have  been  referred.  Professor  Owen  is  of  opinion  that  the 
animal  was  reptilian,  and  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  identical  with 
the  Ldbyrinthodon  of  the  same  formations,  of  which  the  teeth  are 
very  characteristic.  The  animal  was  probably  a  Batrachian  Reptile. 
The  footprints  occur  with  ripple  marks,  and  what  are  called  rain 
marks,  on  the  flaggy  red-sandstones  of  the  Mersey  and  also  in 
Dumfriesshire. 

CHELIDO'NIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Pq/pavercLcea.  0.  majut  is  uie  only  species.  It  is  a  glaucous 
rather  hairy  annual,  with  small  yellow  flowers,  a  siliquose  capsule, 
and  orange-coloured  juice.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  in  waste  places  in 
this  country;  it  is  commonly  called  Celandine,  and  possesses  no 
useful  properties  worth  naming. 

CHE'LIFER,  a  genus  of  ArcLchnida  remarkable  for  the  resemblance 
which  the  species  composing  it  bear  to  scorpions.  Hence  Lamarck 
styled  the  order  in  which  he  placed  them  'les  Faux  Scorpions,' 
associating  them  with  Galeodes.  They  belong  however  to  the 
Trachearian  division  of  the  class  ArachnidcL  The  mandibles  of 
Chdifer  are  short,  with  didactylous  extremities.  The  palpi  are  two, 
ver^  long,  and  fine  pointed,  resembling  arms,  and  having  claws  at 
their  extremities.  The  maxillse  are  connivent  and  two  in  number. 
The  eyes  are  two  in  the  Chdifert  proper,  as  distinguished  by  Hermann 
from  the  species  of  the  genus  C>6inw»  of  Leach,  which  have  four ; 
they  are  placed  at  the  sides  of  the  thorax.  The  body  is  ovate, 
anteriorly  acute,  and  depressed.    The  feet  are  eight. 

These  curious  animals  are  very  small,  and  resemble  miniature 
scorpions  deprived  of  their  tails.  They  run  fast,  moving  backwards, 
forwards,  and  often  sideways  like  crabs.  They  live  \mder  stones,  in 
crevices  of  rocks  by  the  sea-side,  under  bark  of  trees,  and  in  houses 
among  old  papers  and  old  furniture.  They  feed  upon  insects.  They 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  Europe. 

CHE'LMON.    [CHJffroDON.] 

CHEXODUS,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Mammalia  proposed  by  Eaup.  It 
is  of  the  rodent  type,  allied  to  the  beaver  and  porcupine,  and  occurs 
in  Tertiaiy  Beds  at  Eppelsheim,  near  Mainz. 

CHE'LONARIUM.    [Elaterida] 

CHELONE.     [Chklonia.] 

CHELONIA  (XeXwi^p,  a  Tortoise),  Tortoises  and  Turtles,  a 
numerous  and  highly  interesting  order  of  Reptiles,  generally  con- 
sidered the  first  by  herpetologists.  They  are  also  termed  TatwivMUa 
(from  TestttdOf  the  Latin  name  for  a  Tortoise),  and  are  distinguished  at 
the  first  glance  by  the  double  shield  in  which  their  body  is  normally 
inclosed,  whether  they  are  terrestrial,  fresh-water,  or  marine.  They 
were  all  comprised  by  Linnaius  under  his  genus  Tettudo. 

The  following  account  of  the  organisation  of  these  animals  is 
principally  derived  from  Cuvier. 

Skeleton. — The  surface  of  the  skull  in  these  reptiles  is  continuous, 
being  without  any  moveable  articulations,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
Serpents  and  the  Tailed  Batrachians.  But  whilst  this  character 
prevails  in  all  the  genera  of  which  the  order  is  composed,  many  of 
those  genera  difier  much  in  their  cranial  structure,  and  it  becomes 
necessary  to  point  out  these  differences,  which  are  much  greater  than 
those  which  exist  in  the  crania  of  the  Crocodiles. 

In  the  Land-Tortoises  the  head  is  oval  and  obtuse  anteriorly ;  the 
interval  between  the  eyes  is  lai^e  and  convex ;  the  aperture  of  the 
nostrils  is  lai^e,  higher  than  it  is  wide,  and  a  little  depressed  back- 
wards. The  orbits,  which  are  large,  are  nearly  round,  complete 
throughout^  directed  sideways  and  a  little  forwards.  ^  The  parietal 
region  terminates  backwards  in  a  large  projecting  occipital  spine,  and 
has  on  each  side  two  laige  temporal  fossae,  \mder  which  are  enormous 
tympanic  cavities ;  behind  these  cavities,  and  a  little  above,  project 
two  large  mastoidean  protuberances,  and  beneath  them  are  the 
apophyses,  which  serve  for  the  articulation  of  the  under  jaw.  These 
apophyses  descend  vertically,  and  are  not  directed  backwards  as  in 
the  Crocodiles.  Underneath,  the  basilary  region  is  flat^  the  palatine 
ooncave ;  and  upon  the  anterior  part  of  this  last  the  osseous  posterior 
nostrils  open,  there  being  no  palatine  roof,  and  the  palatine  part  of 
the  maxillaries  being  open  up  to  the  anterior  fourth  of  the  muzzle; 
a  disposition  rendered  necessary  by  the  mode  of  respiration  in  these 
animals,  and  which  as  much  resembles  that  of  the  fVogs  as  it  differs 
from  that  of  the  Crocodiles.  The  occipital  region  is  in  its  totality 
vertical,  although  the  occipital  spine,  the  mastoidean  protuberances, 
and  the  articular  condyle  of  the  skull,  which  is  a  very  projecting 
tubercle,  render  it  very  imequaL 

The  first  remarkable  feature  in  the  composition  of  the  head  of  the 
Tortoises^  is  the  absence  of  nasal  bones.  In  the  recent  animal  the 
external  bony  nostrils  are  narrowed  by  cartilaginous  laminae,  which 
represent  these  bones ;  but  in  the  skeleton  is  found  immediately  at 
their  upper  border  the  anterior  frontal  bone,  which  takes  itR  ordinary 

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place  in  the  frame  of  the  orbit,  is  articulated  also,  as  ordinarily,  to 
the  ante-orbital  apophysis  of  the  mazillaxy  bone,  descends  within  the 
orbit,  forms  the  anterior  septum,  which  separates  the  orbit  from  the 
nose,  and  is  articulated  below  with  the  palatine  and  the  Yomer, 
leaving  between  it,  the  maxillaiy,  and  the  palatine,  an  oblong  hole, 
which  leads  into  the  posterior  nostrils.  The  osseous  cavity^  of  the 
nose  is  oblong,  and  formed  by  the  maxillarie9,  the  intermaxillaries, 
the  Tomer,  the  two  anterior  and  the  two  principal  frontals.  The 
extent  of  the  anterior  frontals  and  the  absence  of  the  nasal  bones  are 
the  causes  that  the  first  articulate  with  each  other,  and  that  they 
extend  above  the  orbit  and  outside  the  principal  frontals  up  to  the 
posterior  frontals  in  Teitudo  Ijulica,  or  very  near  it  in  some  other 
species.  The  intermaxillaries  have  no  ascending  apophysis.  They 
form,  as  ordinarily,  the  termination  of  the  muzzle,  and  are  directed 
backwards  in  the  palate  between  the  maxillaries,  and  even  between 
the  posterior  nostrils,  to  the  vomer.  The  posterior  nostrils  are  two 
large  apertures  pierced  on  each  side  in  the  middle  of  the  nasal  cavity 
between  the  maxillaries,  the  intermaxillaiies,  the  vomer,  and  the 
anterior  frontal  bones.  The  bottom  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose  is 
covered  above  and  closed  behind  by  the  principal  frontals,  which 
leave  a  large  aperture  between  them,  closed  by  a  cartilage  which 
permits  the  passage  of  the  filaments  of  the  olfactory  nerve.  Lower 
and  laterally  there  is,  between  the  frontal,  the  anterior  frontal,  and 
the  vomer,  a  rather  lai^  space  closed  by  a  continuation  of  the  same 
cartilage,  which  represents  the  os  planum.  In  the  Terrestrial 
Tortoise  there  is  no  inter-orbital  simple  cartilaginous  septum,  or 
nearly  none;  but  this  is  not  so  in  other  sub-genera.  The  frontals 
cover  but  very  little  of  the  cerebral  chamber,  because  they  are  short, 
and  together  form  a  lozenge  wider  than  it  is  long.  The  parietals 
form  together  a  pentagon,  the  most  acute  angle  of  which  proceeds  to 
unite  itself  with  the  occipital  spine.  They  cover  more  than  half  of 
the  oerebnd  chamber,  and  are  directed  backwards  by  means  of  a 
scaly  suture  on  the  occipital  bone  and  on  the  petrous  bone.  On  each 
side  the  parietal  bone  descends  very  low  into  the  temporal  fossa; 
there  it  occupies  nearly  all  the  space  which  the  temporal  wing  of  the 
sphenoid  bone  occupies  in  the  crocodile,  and  in  the  tortoise  there 
only  remains  a  very  small  portion  of  this  bone,  which  unites  on  one 
side  to  the  descending  portion  of  the  parietal;  on  the  other  to  the 
palatine,  the  internal  pterygoid,  the  body  of  the  sphenoid,  the 
tympanic  cavity,  and  the  os  petrosum.  The  jugal  bone  is  artictilated, 
as  ordinarily,  with  the  external  and  posterior  angle  of  the  maxillary 
bone.  It  is  narrow  and  continued  under  the  orbit,  behind  which  it 
encounteiB  the  posterior  frontal  bone,  which  completes  the  frame  in 
this  part,  and  the  squamous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone^  which 
fonns  by  itself  the  whole  zygomatic  arch,  as  may  be  seen  in  many  of 
the  Cdcicea.  The  temporal  bone  widens  to  unite  itself  to  the 
tympanic  cavity,  which  is  extremely  large.  It  forms  a  fram^  which 
is  nearly  completely  bony  for  a  lazge  tympanum ;  and  below  this 
frame  it  descends  in  form  of  an  apophysis  for  the  artictilation  of  the 
lower  jaw.  This  frame  leads  into  a  vast  cavity,  completed  only  at 
its  upper  posterior  angle  by  the  mastoidean.  At  the  bottom  of  this 
cavity  is  a  hole  through  which  pa^es  the  ossiculum  audittls  to  arrive 
at  a  second  cavity,  formed  externally  by  the  bone  of  the  tympanic 
cavity,  on  the  internal  side  by  the  petrous  bone  and  the  occipital 
bones,  below  a  little  by  the  sphenoid  bone,  and  closed  backwards  by 
cartilage.  It  is  a  second  part  of  the  tympanic  cavity  which  is  thus 
divided  by  a  constriction,  of  which  we  have  examples  among  the 
mammals,  especially  in  the  genus  FelU,  but  the  communication 
between  the  two  parts  is  less  narrowed  than  in  the  Tortoise.  The 
tympanic  bone  forms  besides  a  considerable  part  of  the  posterior 
walls  of  the  temporal  fossa.  Between  it  and  the  parietal  the  petrous 
bone  shows  itself  in  this  same  temporal  fossa,  and  the  cranium  is 
closed  behind  by  the  occipital  bone,  which  is  here  divided  into  six 
bones,  not  into  four ;  for  the  latend  occipitals  are  each  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  most  external  of  which  Cuvier  terms  the  exterior 
occipital  The  fenestra  ovalis  is,  he  observes,  common  to  the  petrous 
bone  and  this  exterior  occipital ;  as,  in  the  crocodile,  it  is  common  to 
the  petrous  bone  and  the  ordinaiy  lateral  occipital:  the  fenestra 
rotunda,  on  the  contrary,  is  pierced  in  the  exterior  occipital,  as  it  is 
pierced  in  the  lateral  occipital  of  the  crocodile.  The  two  bones 
contribute  to  the  formation  of  the  cell  of  the  labyrinth  with  the 
upper  occipital,  as  the  petrous  bone  and  the  lateral  occipital  contri- 
bute to  it  in  the  crocodile.  In  both  genera  the  great  aperture  for 
the  exit  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves  is  in  front  of  the  petrous  bone, 
between  it  and  the  temporal  ala.  In  the  Turtle  this  hole  is  between 
the  petrous  bone  and  the  descending  part  of  the  parietal  bone^  The 
ossicidum  auditds  is  simple,  as  in  the  crocodile,  and  formed  of  a 
slender  stem,  which  widens  at  the  point  of  its  approximation  to  the 
fenestra  ovalis,  and  which  is  there  applied  by  a  round  and  concave 
surface,  so  that  it  has  nearly  the  figure  of  a  trumpet.  The 
Eustachian  tiibe  is  entirely  cartilaginous  or  membranous.  It 
commences  in  the  external  chamber  of  the  cavity,  above,  by  a  large 
notch  of  the  posterior  border  of  the  tympanic  bone,  near  the  edge  of 
the  tympanum  itself,  and  is  directed  obliquely  within,  p.*)ssing 
between  the  bone  of  the  cavity  and  the  depressor  muscle  of  the 
lower  jaw,  to  a  notch  of  the  lateral  and  posterior  border  of  the 
pterygoid  bone,  whereby  it  penetrates  into  the  back  of  the  fauces,  on 
the  side,  close  to  the  sirticulation  of  the  lower  jaw,  but  far  enough 


fW>m  its  ooDgener,  and  especially  yery  far  behind  the  internal  nostrih. 
On  the  palate,  or  rather,  behind  the  roof  of  the  back  of  the  moath, 
may  be  seen  tiie  orifices  of  two  tubes,  under  the  form  of  two  small 
holes  separated  from  each  other. 


Bknll  of  Testvdo  Indica, 
1,  Profile ;  2,  seen  tram  above ;  3,  seen  from  below ;  4,  seen  from  behind. 
Beverting  to  the  lower   bui&oo  of  the  craniuiiii  behind  ^ 
maxillaries  and  the  frontals,  posterior  to  the  two  rides  of  the  TomoTi 


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are  the  palatines,  surroiinded  behind  and  externally  by  the  pterygoid 
bones,  which  last  extend  along  the  external  border  of  the  palatine  to 
the  maxillary  bones.  The  rest  of  the  pterygoids  covers  the  lower 
surface  of  the  cranium  between  the  two  tympanic  cavities  and  the 
two  temporal  alse,  leaving  exposed  to  view  behind  only  a  triangular 
part  of  ^e  body  of  the  sphenoid.  The  olfactory  and  optic  nerves 
have  their  exit  by  the  cartilaginous  septa  of  the  cranium,  and  not  by 
any  particular  opening  in  the  skull.  Cuvier  thinks  that  it  is  the 
same  with  the  third  and  fourth  pairs:  the  sixth  goes  forth  by  a 
small  canal  of  the  body  of  the  sphenoid  bone.  The  fifl^  pair  nas 
a  great  hole  between  the  petrous  bone  and  the  temporal  ala  divided 
into  two  externally.  There  is  at  the  external  border  of  the  palatine 
bone  a  hole  analogous  to  the  pteiygo-palatine. 

Internally,  the  cerebral  cavity  is  higher  than  it  is  wide;  the  bottom 
of  it  is  very  entire  :  but^  in  front,  in  the  sphenoid,  there  is  a  deep 
fosset  for  tne  pituitary  gland,  a  kind  of  saddle.  From  the  sides  of 
this  part  spnng  the  cartilaginous  septa,  which  in  going  to  form  a. 
junction  with  the  ante-cerebral  partition  of  the  frontal  bone,  close  the 
cavity  of  the  cranium,  support  the  whole  anterior  part  of  the 
encephalon,  and  occupy  the  place  of  the  cribriform  plate,  of  the  orbital 
ahe ;  or  otherwise,  the  anterior  sphenoid,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
temporal  alse,  of  which  another  considerable  part  is  replaced  by  the 
descending  portions  of  the  parietal,  so  that  what  remains  does  not 
participate  m  the  formation  of  the  chamber  of  the  cranium  except  a 
little  in  front  of  th6  hole  for  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves.  There  is  no 
more  bony  trace  of  the  anterior  sphenoid  than  in  the  crocodile. 

In  the  £mydet,  or  ordinary  Freah-Water  Tortoises,  the  head  is  more 
flattened.  The  principal  frontals,  although  they  are  wider  than  they 
are  long,  do  not  always  reach  to  the  border  of  the  orbit,  as  is,  for 
example,  the  case  in  the  Testudo  (Cistudo)  Europcea;  the  posterior 
frontal  is  wider.  The  frame  of  the  tympanum  is  not  complete,  and 
in  lieu  of  a  hole  there  is  a  fissure  for  toe  passage  of  the  ossiculum 
auditiis  from  one  hollow  of  the  cavity  to  the  other.  The  basilary  and 
palatine  regions  form  but  one  plaue ;  the  palatines  not  being  even 
concave.  Cuvier  observes  that  Teitudines  saipta,  picta,  tcabra, 
dortata,  centraiOy  clauia^  and  virgvlatOy  belong  to  this  category. 
Certain  Fmydet,  he  remarks,  Emyt  expama  for  instance,  tend  to  the  Sea- 
Tortoiies,  or  Turtles,  and  the  Fresh- Water  Tortoises,  and  yet  exhibit 
characters  peculiar  to  themselves. 

In  the  SVionyoet,  or  Soft  Tortoises,  the  skull  is  depressed,  and 
elongated  backwards ;  the  muzzle,  pointed  in  certain  species  (that  of 
the  Nile  for  instance),  is  short  and  rounded  in  some  others.  The 
intermaxillary  bones  are  very  smaU,  and  have  neither  nasal  nor 
palatine  apophysis ;  there  is  behind  them  a  large  incisive  hole.  The 
maxillaries  unite  upon  the  palate  for  a  rather  long  space,  so  that  the 
posterior  nostrils  are  more  backwards  than  in  the  Land-Tortoises. 
The  palatines  do  not  unite  below  to  prolong  the  palate ;  they  are 
hollowed  into  a  demi-canal  anteriorly,  and  less  extended  than  in  the 
Land-Tortoises. 

The  principal  character  of  the  Marine  Tortoises,  or  Turtles,  is  that 
a  lamina  of  weir  parietal,  their  posterior  frontal,  their  mastoidean, 
their  temporal,  and  their  jugal,  unite  together,  and  with  the  tympanic 
cavity,  by  sutures,  to  cover  the  whole  region  of  the  temple  with  a 
bony  roof,  which  has  no  solution  of  continuity.  Their  muzzle  being 
shorter  than  in  other  tortoises,  and  their  orbits  much  longer,  their 
nasal  cavity  is  smaller,  and  as  wide  as  it  is  high  and  long.  ^  Its 
posterior  wall  belongs  entirely  to  the  anterior  frontals,  and  it  is 
between  them  that  the  olfactory  nerves  are  introduced.  The  bony 
tubes  pf  the  back  nostrils  commence  in  the  lower  part  of  this 
posterior  partition,  and,  like  the  palatines,  have  a  palatine  part  or 
lower  lamina;  these  tubes  are  rather  longer,  more  directed  backwards, 
and  bear  less  resemblance  to  simple  holes.  It  results  also  from  the 
size  of  the  orbit  that  the  inter-orbital  membranous  or  cartilaginous 
space  is  more  extended. 

The  most  heteroclite  skull  among  the  tortoises  is  that  of  the  Mata- 
mata  (Te$tudo  fianhritUa,  Chdy$  fimbriata).  Extraordinarily  large  and 
flat^  it  seems  to  have  been  crushed.  The  very  small  orbits  are  close 
to  the  end  of  the  muzzle.  The  posterior  region  of  the  craniiun  is 
elevated ;  and  the  two  tympanic  bones,  in  form  of  trumpets,  widen 
out  on  each  side  of  the  oraniimi.  The  temple  is  a  wide  horizontal 
fossa,  not  deep,  and  not  at  all  covered,  except  behind  by  the  imion  of 
the  posterior  angle  of  the  parietal  with  the  mastoidean  bone ;  and, 
what  is  peculiar,  Cuvier  observes,  to  this  sub-genus,  this  fossa  is  not 
framed  in  externiJly,  because  there  is  no  temporal  bone,  or  at  least 
it  is  reduced  to  a  simple  vestige.  The  two  maxillaries  form  together 
a  transversal  arch,  in  the  middle  of  which,  below,  is  a  single  inter- 
maxillary, and,  above,  the  external  aperture  of  the  nostrils,  which  is 
continued  into  a  small  fleshy  proboscis.  The  two  palatine  bones,  and, 
between  Uiem,  the  vomer,  fill  below  the  concavity  of  this  arch,  and 
have  in  front  the  two  back  nostrils  well  separated,  but  which  the 
palatines  do  not  encircle  below.  At  the  posterior  border  of  the 
palatine  is  a  rather  large  pterygo-palatine  hole.  The  anterior  and 
posterior  frontals  form  the  upper  pisurt  of  the  orbits.  The  principal 
frontals  advance  between  the  anterior  frontals  to  the  edge  of  the 
external  nostrils.  There  is  no  more  nasal  bone  than  in  the  other 
tortoise&  The  jugal  proceeds  from  the  posterior  angle  of  the  orbit 
between  the  maxillary  and  posterior  frontal,  beyond  which  it  does  not 
go,  touching  a  little  behind  and  b^ow  the  pteiygoidean ;  but  not 


forming  any  projection  behind  to  border  the  temple.  This  last  is  in 
this  manner  separated  from  the  orbit  by  a  postorbital  branch  of 
excessive  width,  and  which  takes  in  the  totality  of  the  posterior 
frontal  and  the  jugal  bones.  The  posterior  frontal  articulates  itself 
to  the  pterygoidean  by  its  external  posterior  angle.  The  rest  of  its 
posterior  border  is  free,  and  is  continued  with  that  of  the  parietal 


1,1 


Skall  of  Matamata  {Chelytjimhriata). 
I  from  above ;  3,  seen  from  below ;  3,  profile ;  4,  leen  fh>m  behind. 


to  cover  a  wide  and  flat  canal  of  communication,  proceeding  from  the 
temple  to  the  orbit,  and  formed  below  by  the  pterygoidean  and 
palatine  bones.  The  two  pterygoideans  are  enormous.  They  form 
the  greatest  part  of  the  base  of  the  cranium  and  of  the  bottom  of 
the  temple.  Their  external  border  is  curved  in  its  anterior  part  for 
its  continuation  with  the  free  border  of  the  posterior  frontal ;  there 


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are  neither  orbital  nor  temporal  alse.  The  parietal  bones,  which 
form  above  a  great  rectangle,  unite  by  their  descending  portions  to 
the  palatines,  the  pterygoideans,  the  petrous,  and  the  upper  occipital 
bones.  They  form  by  themselves  nearly  the  whole  roof  of  the 
cranium.  Following  the  pterygoidean,  the  temple  is  bounded  behind 
by  the  tympanic  bone  or  the  tympanic  cavity,  which  reeembles  in 
part  a  trumpet.  The  firame  of  the  tympanum  is  complete.  A  hole 
in  the  posterior  wall  suJSers  the  ossiculum  to  pass  into  the  second 
chamber,  which,  in  the  skull,  is  only  a  long  groove  of  the  posterior 
BurfSsioe  of  the  cavity,  which  terminates  in  a  hollow,  in  the  formation 
of  which  the  petrous  bone,  the  external  occipital,  and  the  lateral 
occipital  concur.  It  is  not  closed  behind,  except  by  cartilage  and 
membranes ;  and  in  the  wall  of  the  side  of  the  cranium  are  pierced 
the  two  fenestras,  Ik  ordinarily.  Above  this  hole  of  the  first  chamber, 
by  which  the  ossiculum  passes,  Ib  another  which  conducts  into  the 
mastoidean  cellule,  which,  on  accoimt  of  the  outward  projection  of 
the  tympanum,  is  found  within  and  not  behind.  The  occipital  spine 
is  a  short  vertebral  crest,  and  the  mastoidean  tubercles  are  transversal 
crests,  which  belong  entirely  to  the  mastoidean.  Even  in  large 
individuals  the  six  occipitals  ordinary  to  the  tortoiBes  may  bo  distin- 
guished. Below,  the  smooth  and  nearly  plane  cranium  presents  a 
sort  of  regular  compartment,  formed  of  the  intermaxillaries,  the 
maxillaries,  the  vomer,  the  palatines,  the  pterygoideans,  the  sphenoid, 
the  petrous  bones,  the  tympanic  cavities,  the  basilary,  and  the  lateral 
and  external  occipitals.  Behind  the  ceiling  of  the  temple  the  petrous 
bone  forms  a  square  compartment  between  the  pt^goidean,  the 
tympanic  cavity,  the  external  occipital,  the  superior  occipital,  and 
the  parietal  bones. 

'  The  lower  jaw  of  the  tortoises  is  divided  in  a  manner  which  it  is 
not  very  easy  to  refer  to  that  manifested  in  the  crocodile,  to  which, 
Cuvier  obsOTves,  that  of  the  biHs  has  a  much  more  striking  relation ; 
but  the  bird's  jaw,  he  adds,  also  approaching  to  that  of  the  tortoises, 
aids  us  in  referring  it  to  a  common  type.  The  space  occupied  in  the 
crocodile  by  the  two  dental  and  the  two  opercular  bones  is  filled  in 
the  Marine  Tortoises,  the  Fresh-Water,  and  Land-Tortoises,  as  well  as 
in  the  Trianycet,  with  a  single  bone  only,  the  analogue  of  the  two 
dental  bones.  Cuvier  never  saw  in  all  these  sub-genera,  even  in  their 
youth,  any  trace  of  symphysis:  the  bone  is  continuous  in  the  tortoises, 
1^  in  birds.  The  Matamata,  or  ChdyB,  on  the  contrary,  preserves  in 
every  age  a  division  at  the  anterior  part.  The  opercular  bone  always 
exists,  as  in  the  crocodile,  at  the  internal  surface  ;  but  it  is  carried 
fkrther  backwards,  and  attains  to  the  posterior  extremity.  Beneath  it 
is  the  angular  bone  forming  the  lower  edge  of  the  jaw.  That  which 
Cuvier  names  the  surangular  bone  occupies  the  external  surface  of 
this  part  of  the  jaw,  and  proceeds  also  to  its  posterior  extremity, 
but  only  touches  the  angukr  bone  quite  behind,  and  in  becoming 
separated  on  the  two  anterior  thirds  by  a  long  point  of  the  dental 
bone.  Above,  and  towards  the  back  part,  between  the  opercular  and 
surangular  bones,  the  articular  bone  is  situated,  as  in  the  birds ;  but 
in  the  tortoises  it  is  reduced  to  smaller  dimensions,  only  serving  for 
the  articulation  and  for  the  iosertion  of  the  depressor  muscle,  or  the 
analogue  of  the  digastric  muscle.  The  coronoid  apophysis  does  not 
belong  at  all  to  the  surangular  bone  in  this  order,  but  to  a  bone  placed 
between  the  dental,  the  opercular,  and  the  surangular  bones ;  and  in 
front  of  the  aperture  by  which  the  nerves  enter  the  jaw,  an  opening, 
which  is  here  found  at  the  upper  border,  instead  of  being,  as  in  the 
crocodile  and  the  birds,  at  the  mtemal  surface.  This  bone,  which  is 
not  found  in  the  birds,  can  only  respond  to  the  complementary  bone 
in  the  crocodile.  Cuvier  saw  in  the  Emyt  expanta  the  surangular,  the 
opercular,  and  the  articular  bones  anchylosed,  and  their  sutures 
efbced,  at  a  period  when  all  the  others  were  stiU  visible.  The 
general  form  of  the  bony  jaw  corresponds  nearly  to  what  is  seen 
externally.  More  pointed  in  the  Trionycea  and  Chdone  CareUa  ;  more 
obtuse,  more  parabolic,  in  C.  Myda»  and  the  Land-Tortoises ;  semi- 
circular in  front  of  the  coronoid  apophyses  in  the  Matamata;  it  differs 
also  in  the  furrow  with  which  it  is  hollowed.  This  furrow  is  narrow, 
deep,  and  equally  wide  in  the  Land-Tortoises ;  widens  and  deepens 
towards  the  symphysis  in  (7.  Mydcu;  and  is  entirely  wanting  in 
TrUmyXf  C.  Ckwetta,  &c. 

The  OS  hyoides  of  the  tortoises  is  more  complicated  than  that  of  the 
erooodiles,  and  varies  singularly  in  form  from  one  g^nus  and  even  one 
species  to  another.  It  is  in  general  composed  of  a  body  itself,  some- 
times subdivided  into  many  pieces,  and  of  two,  sometimes  three  pairs 
of  horns  :  and  tmder  the  anterior  part  of  its  body  is,  besides,  suspended 
a  bone  or  a  cartilage,  sometimes  double,  which  is  the  true  bone  of  the 
tongue  analogous  to  that  seen  in  the  birds,  but  articulated  in  them  in 
front  of  the  body  of  the  os  hyoides,  whilst  in  the  tortoises  it  is  sus- 
pended below  it.  The  greatest  horns  (the  anterior  pair  when  there 
are  only  two,  the  middle  when  there  are  three,  representing  the 
styloidean  bones)  embrace  the  oesophagus,  and  mount  behind  the 
muscles  which  are  the  analogues  of  the  digastrics,  or  depressors  of 
the  lower  jaw,  but  without  being  fixed  otherwiae  than  by  their  proper 
muscles.  The  Land-Tortoises  have  the  body  of  the  os  hyoides  wider, 
its  anterior  portion  longer,  and  want  the  small  anterior  horns,  whilst 
the  anterior  angle  is  very  much  developed.  In  the  middle  of  the  disc 
are  two  round  spaces,  which  in  certain  tortoises,  the  I^vdo  Indica  for 
example,  are  only  more  delicate ;  but  which  in  the  others,  Tutvdo 
radiata  for  instanco,  are  absolutely  membranous. 


In  some  Fresh-Water  Tortoises,  Tettudo  Ewropcea  and  T.  dauaa  for 
example,  the  body  of  the  bone  ia  longer  tiian  it  is  wide;  and  has 
in  the  front  a  small  membranous  space,  and  at  its  anterior  angles 
the  small  lateral  horns.  Sometimes  two  or  even  four  ooseous  nuclei 
are  there  formed. 

The  OB  hvoides  of  Trionyx  differs  still  more.  Its  body  is  composed 
in  front  of  a  cartilaginous  point,  imder  which  is  suspended  a  great 
lingual  oval  cartOage.  At  the  base  of  this  a  rhomboidal  osseous  {neoe 
adheres  on  each  side,  which  piece  represents  the  anterior  horns,  and 
afterwards  four  others  forming  a  tidck  diK,  concave  above,  wider 
in  front,  and  notched  on  the  sides  and  behind.  At  the  anterior 
angles  of  this  disc  adhere  the  middle  horns,  and  to  the  posterior 
azijgles  are  attached  the  posterior  horns :  all  four  are  very  bony.  The 
middle  are  formed  by  a  long  piece,  which  is  compressed,  arched,  and 
terminated  by  a  smtdl  cartilage.  The  others  are  wider,  flatter,  and 
prolonged  by  a  cartilage,  in  the  substance  of  which  are  encrusted  in  a 
row  from  five  to  six  bony  nuclei,  which  are  round  or  oval,  very  hard 
and  very  distinct;  so  that  the  entire  bone  comprehends  twenty 
different  osseous  pieces,  which  appear  to  remain  dutinct  to  old  age. 

The  most  sing^ular  of  all  these  is  that  of  the  Chdys,  and  is  very 
early  entirely  ossified.  Its  body  is  composed  of  a  long  narrow  pris- 
matic piece,  hollowed  above  by  a  canal  where  the  trachea  nma.  In 
front  this  piece  is  dilated,  and  carries  on  each  side  two  an^lar  por- 
tions, four  in  all,  without  counting  the  piece  itself.  The  two  interme- 
diate ones  unite  in  front,  leaving  between  them  and  the  principal  body 
a  membranous  space  on  which  the  larynx  reposes.  The  lateral  por- 
tions, Cuvier  observes,  represent  perhaps  the  small  anterior  horaa.  It 
is  on  the  angle  which  they  form  with  the  dilatation  of  the  prin<^al 
body  that  the  middle  horns  are  articulated;  these  last  are  veiy 
strong,  prismatic  on  their  internal  moiety,  and  then  slender,  and  ter- 
minated by  a  bony  and  pointed  piece,  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the 
horn.  The  posterior  horns  are  articulated  at  the  posterior  extremity 
of  the  prism  formed  by  the  principal  body.  They  are  long,  stroqg, 
slightly  compressed,  and  curved  into  an  arch. 

Under  the  anterior  and  dilated  part  is  suspended  the  true  bone  of 
the  tongue,  formed  in  front  of  a  semicircular  cartilage,  and  behind  of 
two  bony  pieces  in  form  of  a  crescent,  the  intemal  angle  of  which  is 
prolonged  into  a  sort  of  tail  or  pedicle,  which  lies  under  the  prismatic 
body  of  the  os  hyoides. 

In  the  Turtles,  CheUme  CareUa  for  instance,  the  body  of  the  bone 
is  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  buckler,  concave  above  for  the  support  of 
the  larynx  and  the  commencement  of  the  trachea,  and  drawn  out  ia 
front  into  a  point  which  penetrates  into  the  flesh  of  the  tongue  in 
passing  upon  the  lingual  bone.  It  presents  on  each  side  an  angle  for 
carrying  the  anterior  horn,  which  is  very  small ;  the  great  horn  curved 
into  an  obtuse  angle  for  going  round  the  oesophagus  and  jaw,  mors 
bony  than  all  the  rest  of  the  apparatus,  is  articulated  to  the  middle  of 
the  lateral  border  of  the  body  of  the  bone,  and  its  free  or  upper  extre- 
mity is  terminated  by  a  small  cartilaginous  articulation.  The  posterior 
horns  are  articulated  to  the  posterior  angles.  They  are  cartilaginovis, 
flat,  rather  wide,  and  scarcely  arched. 

Bones  of  the  Trunk :  Dorsal  Buckler,  or  Carapace. — The  wide  dif- 
ferenoes  prevalent  in  the  modification  and  arrangement  in  the  bones 
of  the  head  in  this  order  lead  one  to  expect,  as  the  great  French  sookh 
gist  observes,  proportional  differences  in  the  rest  of  the  skeleton.  The 
cranial  differences  are,  as  he  remarks,  greater  peiiiaps  than  obtain 
among  the  whole  of  the  mammals,  and  most  certainly  are  more 
extensive  than  can  be  found  in  the  whole  class  of  birds. 

The  general  distinguishing  character  of  the  TortoiseSjlhat  which 
separates  them  from  all  the  VerUbrata,  is  the  external  position  of  the 
bones  of  the  thorax,  enveloping  with  a  cuirass  or  double  budcler  the 
muscular  portion  of  the  frame,  and  serving  also  as  a  protectioii  for 
the  shoulder-bones  and  the  pelvis. 

The  dorsal  buckler  is  principally  formed  of  eight  jpairs  of  ribs, 
united  towards  the  middle  by  a  longitudinal  succession  of  angular 
plates,  which  adhere  to  the  annular  parts  of  so  many  vertebne,  or 
even  form  a  part  of  them ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  these  annular 
portions  alternate  with  the  body  of  the  vertebrse,  and  do  not  cozresp<Hid 
directly  with  them. 

The  ribs  are  inlaid  by  means  of  sutures  into  these  plates ;  they  are 
also  united  with  each  other,  on  the  whole  or  a  ]part  of  their  length, 
according  to  the  species,  and  even  in  each  species  aecording  to  the 
ages  of  the  individuals.  There  are  eight  anterior  vertebrae  which  do 
not  enter  into  this  conjunction.  The  first  seven  (the  ordlnaiy  cei^ 
vical)  are  free  in  their  movements.  The  eighth,  whidi  may  be 
regarded  as  the  first  dorsal,  is  placed  obliquely  between  the  last 
cervical  and  the  first  of  the  fixed  vertebns  of  the  dorsal  buckler, 
which  shortens  it  anteriorly ;  behind,  its  spinous  apophysis  is  elon- 
gated, and  enlarges  a  little  to  attadi  itself  by  synchondrosis  to  a 
tubercle  of  the  first  of  the  plates  of  the  intermediate  series  of  the 
plastron. 

The  first  of  these  fixed  vertebrae,  which  is  the  second  dorsal,  is  stiU 
rather  short,  and  carries  also  its  proper  annular  part^  the  spinous 
apophysis  of  which,  shorter  than  the  preceding,  attaches  itself  to  the 
second  phite  by  a  cartilage.  This  second  plate,  narrower  than  the 
first,  forms  but  one  bone  with  an  annular  part  which  is  below,  and  of 
which  the  anterior  portion  is  articulated  by  two  small  ap<^y»e«wxth 
the  articular  apophyses  of  the  second  dorssL    This,  properiy  speakiq^ 


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is  the  anntilar  portion  of  the  third  dorsal  vertebra ;  but  the  body  of 
this  third  vertebra  is  onlv  articulated  by  its  anterior  moiety  with  the 
posterior  moiety  of  this  third  annular  part,  and  by  itfl  posterior  moiety 
it  is  articulated  to  the  anterior  moiety  of  the  fourth  annular  portion ; 
and  this  alternation  continues,  so  that  the  body  of  the  fourth  vertebra 
responds  to  the  annular  portions  of  the  third  and  the  fourth,  the  body 
of  the  fifth  to  the  annular  portions  of  the  fourth  and  fifth,  and  so  on 
to  the  tenth. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  distmguish  in  the  ribs  the  plate  included  in 
the  buckler,  and  a  small  branch  which  proceeds  from  its  lower  sur- 
fiice,  and  which  represents  what  is  termed  the  head  of  the  bone  in  the 
ordinary  ribs.  This  head  is  always  articulated  between  two  bodies  of 
vertebrse.  The  first  of  all  these  ribs  has  only  this  small  branch,  with- 
out having  any  plate  belonging  to  it  in  the  buckler,  excepting  only  in 
some  of  tiie  Emydei,  where  may  be  seen,  between  the  first  and  second 
longitudinal  plate,  and  the  first  or  second  widened  rib,  a  small  piece 
which  can  oiidy  represent  the  enlaiged  portion  of  this  first  rib,  but 
which  does  not  belong  to  its  head.  It  is  articulated  between  the 
eighth  vertebra  or  first  dorsal,  and  the  first  fixed  vertebra,  and  by  its 
ouier  extremity  applies  itself  to  the  internal  surface  of  the  second  rib. 
This  last  has  a  plate  which  incorporates  itself  by  its  anterior  border 
with  the  first  of  the  longitudinal  series,  by  its  spinal  border  with  the 
second  piece  of  that  series  or  the  annular  portion  of  the  third  vertebra, 
and  by  its  head  between  the  body  of  the  second  vertebra  and  that  of 
the  third.  The  succeeding  ribs  observe  the  same  law,  are  articulated 
by  means  of  their  head  between  the  body  of  one  vertebra  and  that  of 
the  succeeding  vertebra,  and  incorporate  themselves  by  means  of  their 
dilated  part  with  the  plate  which  represents  the  annular  portion  of  the 
second  of  these  two  vertebrsa :  and  this,  Cuvier  observes,  is  a  return 
to  the  general  law ;  for  in  man  and  in  the  quadrupeds  the  ribs  are 
articulated  by  their  head  between  two  vertebrse,  and  by  means  of 
their  tuberosity,  with  the  transverse  apophysis  of  the  second  of  the 
two.  The  dilated  portions  of  the  ribs  of  the  tortoise,  in  the  part 
where  they  are  incorporated  with  the  plates  of  the  longitudinal  series, 
represent,  then,  the  tuberosities  of  the  ribs  of  mammals.  The  ninth 
plate  of  the  longitudinal  series,  which  belongs  to  the  tenth  dorsal,  is 
the  last  with  which  a  pair  of  the  dilated  ribs  is  incorporated ;  and  this 
last  is  the  ninth  in  all,  or  the  eighth  of  those  which  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  dorsal  buckler.  It  is  directed  from  its  posterior 
border  backwards,  and  nnbraces  again  the  succeeding  plates,  with 
tile  external  edges  of  which  it  becomes  incorporated :  but  these  three 
plates  do  not^  any  more  than  the  first,  serve  to  complete  the  vertebral 
caDaL 

The  tenth  rib,  attaoh(Hi  between  tne  bodies  of  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  vertebrse,  produces  no  plate  and  enters  not  into  the  com- 
position of  the  dorsal  buckler.  Like  the  first,  it  has  only  a  portion 
of  the  head,  and  is  joined  by  its  other  extremity  to  the  internal 
surface  of  the  ninth. 

The  eleventh  vertebra  after  the  cervical  is  the  only  one  that  can 
be  termed  lumbar;  it  carries  no  rib.  In  the  Turtles,  its  annular 
portion  again  gives  a  plate  to  the  longitudinal  series  of  the  dorsal 
buckler,  and  is  the  tenUi  and  the  smallest  of  the  pieces  of  this  series. 
The  twelfth  and  thirteenth  vertebrse  are  the  sacral  At  their  sides 
are  attached  two  lateral  pieces  sufficiently  similar  to  the  heads  of  the 
ribs,  but  stronger,  especially  the  first,  and  convex  at  the  end,  in  order 
to  their  union  with  the  posterior  and  upper  angle  of  the  ossa  ilii. 
Their  annular  portion  is  close  and  complete,  and  is  not  incorporated 
with  the  plates  of  the  buckler  which  follow  that  of  the  eleventh 
vertebra.  The  vertebrse  of  the  tail  are  free,  like  those  of  the  neck : 
hence  the  plates  of  the  longitudinal  series,  which  follow  the  tenth, 
do  not  adhere  to  the  vertebrse,  and,  if  they  belong  thereto,  only  so 
belong  by  a  metaphysical  relation,  and  accordingly  they  may  be 
considered  as  having  been  dismembered.  So  of  the  first  of  all  the 
plates  of  the  series.  It  only  furnishes  an  attachment  to  the  annular 
portion  by  synchondrosis,  otherwise  dose  and  complete,  of  the  first 
dorsal  vertebra ;  and  if  one  would  regard  it  as  belonging  thereto,  it 
would  be  necessary  to  consider  it  as  dismembered. 

The  Turtles  have  three  longitudinal  plates  after  the  tenth,  making 
thirteen  in  all ;  but  the  second  is  sometimes  divided  into  two,  and 
the  ninth  also,  which  increases  their  number  to  fifteen. 

Cuvier  found  fourteen  in  some  of  the  JBmydet,  the  Bmyt  terrata  for 
instance ;  but  the  eleventh  and  twelfth,  he  adds,  are  very  small  in 
them.  There  is  but  a  single  one  after  the  tenth  in  the  Land-Tortoises 
and  the  Ckdydea,  so  that  th^  have  only  eleven  in  all.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  one  or  two  of  these  plates  are  not  seen  externally. 
Thus  in  the  Box-Tortoises,  the  two  ribs  of  the  last  pair  are  joined  to 
each  other,  and  thus  cover  the  ninth  plate ;  and  in  this  respect  many 
modifications  occur  in  the  same  species ;  of  which  Bojanus  has,  in 
his  third  plate,  given  many  examples  taken  from  the  European 
Tortoise. 

In  Ohdyt  the  last  and  penultimate  rib  are  attached  to  the  eighth 
plate,  and  the  ninth  remains  hidden.  In  both  cases  the  tenth  and 
the  eleventh  subsist  as  ordinarilv. 

In  the  Turtles,  the  eight  pairs  of  ribs  and  the  thirteen  plates  of 
the  longitudinal  series  form  a  slightly  convex  oval  buckler,  a  little 
narrowed  backwards.  The  ribs  are  not  incorporated  throughout 
their  length,  a  narrow  fraction  remains  towards  their  exterior,  and 
the  intervals  between  this  portion  and  that  of  the  anterior  and 


posterior  ribs  are  filled  up  by  a  cartilaginous  membrane  only.  It  is 
only  in  extreme  old  age  that  some  are  widened  to  the  end.  Cuvier 
had  sometimes  seen  tbe  first  three  and  a  part  of  the  fourth  in  this 
state. 

In  the  Fresh-Water  Tortoises  and  in  Chdya  the  buckler  is  entirely 
filled  up  in  time,  and  the  ribs  incorporate  themselves  throughout 
their  length,  between  each 
other  and  with  the  mai^ginal 
pieces.  The  ossification  pro- 
ceeds still  faster  in  the  Land- 
Tortoises,  and  it  is  only  in 
their  youth  that  vacant  spaces 
are  observed  between  the  ex- 
ternal parts  of  their  ribs.  ,  i 

The  Sternum  Plastron,  or 
Breast-Plate  is  always  com- 
posed of  nine  pieces,  of  which 
eight  are  pairs,  and  the  ninth 
is  odd  and  always  placed  be- 
tween the  four  anterior  ones, 
with  the  first  two  of  which 
it    generally    coheres,    when 

it  is  not  articulated  with  the      carapace  of  Trionyx,  seen  from  below, 
four. 

These  nine  pieces  vary  much  in  figure  according  to  the  genera  and 
species. 

In  the  Land  and  Fresh-Water  Tortoises  and  in  Chdy9  they  only 
leave  vacancies  between  each  other  in  early  youth,  when  they  are 
formed  by  bony  rays  shooting  in  various  directions  in  the  still 
cartilaginous  disc  of  the  plastron,  like  the  bones  of  the  cranium  in 
the  foetus  of  mammals ;  but^  wiUi  age,  these  rays  join  each  other 
from  every  side,  and  form  a  disc  compact  in  ail  its  parts,  which 
unites  itself  by  a  more  or  less  considerable  extent  on  each  side  to  the 
dorsal  buckler. 

In  the  Turtles,  and  in  the  Trionyce»y  or  Soft  Tortoises,  these 
radiating  expansions  do  not  unite  throughout;  and  even  when 
the  four  pieces  on  each  side  unite  together  and  the  odd  piece  is  joined 
to  those  of  the  first  pair,  there  remains  in  the  middle,  between  them 
all  and  on  each  side  between  them  and  the  dorsal  buckler,  great 
spaces  which  are  filled  up  by  cartilage  only. 

Vertebrse. — The  atlas  is  composed  of  four  pieces.  The  first  two, 
united  above  in  a  slight  spinous  prominence,  after  having  surrounded 
the  vertebral  canal,  and  each  having  given  backwards  its  articular 
apophysis,  concur  with  a  third  very  small  one  in  the  formation  of  a 
ring  for  the  reception  of  the  condyle  of  the  head  :  Cuvier  calls  it  a 
ring,  because  in  the  skeleton  this  foaset  is  open,  and  its  bottom  filled 
by  a  fourth  piece,  which  is  a  true  body  of  a  vertebra  without  the 
annular  portion,  and  which,  presenting  an  anterior  convex  surface  in 
the  space  here  noticed,  is  articulated  behind  by  a  concave  surface  on 
the  body  of  the  axis.  This  piece,  analogous  to  what  we  have  already 
seen  in  the  crocodile,  represents,  he  observes,  the  odontoid  apophvsis 
of  the  axis  of  mammals.  At  their  junction,  there  is  besides,  attacmed 
below,  a  small  bone  formed  nearly  like  a  patella  (rotule). 

The  axis  and  the  succeeding  vertebrse  are  .composed  of  a  nearly 
rectangular  body,  carinated  below,  concave  in  front,  convex  behind, 
and  of  an  annular  portion,  which  remains  distinct  from  the  body 
throughout  life,  by  means  of  two  sutures,  is  elevated  above  by  a 
crest  in  lieu  of  a  spinous  apophysis,  and  whose  anterior  articular 
apophyses,  placed  at  first  under  the  posterior  portions  of  the  preceding 
vertebra,  raise  themselves  obliquely  to  embrace  them  slightly  up  to 
the  sixth,  and  nearly  resume  their  horizontal  position  in  the  two 
succeeding  ones.  At  the  anterior  angle  of  each  side  of  the  body  is  a 
iSmall  facet,  common  to  the  body  and  the  annular  portion. 

The  vertebrse  adhering  to  the  dorsal  buckler  have  their  body  wide 
and  feebly  carinated  in  the  Marine  and  Fresh- Water  Tortoises:  in 
these  last  it  is  even  flattened  in  the  anterior  ones.  It  is  also  wide 
and  with  but  little  convexity  in  Trionyx,  and  Chdys  has  it  wide  and 
elevated  longitudinally  into  a  small  crest  But  there  are  Land; 
Tortoises  (Tettudo  getmetrica  and  T.  raduUa)  in  which  it  is  exces- 
sively compressed,  and  does  not  even  join  itself  throughout,  except 
by  a  membranous  partition,  to  the  pieces  of  the  middle  row  of  the 
buckler,  these  pieces  only  afibrding  each  two  narrow  laminse,  and 
descending  on  each  articulation  of  we  two  bodies.  It  is  in  a  fold  of 
the  lower  portion  of  this  membrane,  between  these  vertical  laminse, 
and  in  a  semicuial  hollowed  at  the  upper  part  of  the  bodies,  that  the 
spinal  marrow  goes. 

In  the  other  sub-genera  the  pieces  of  the  longitudinal  series  of  the 
dorsal  buckler  afibrd  more  complete  vertical  partitions,  which  form 
with  the  bodies  a  continuous  bony  canal,  the  nerves  of  which  go  out 
through  holes  which  remain  between  the  laminse. 

The  sacral  and  caudal  vertebrse  are  each  composed  of  a  bodv, 
concave  bcKfore  and  convex  behind,  of  an  annular  portion,  squarely 
flattened,  and  without  a  spine  above,  the  anterior  articular  apophyses 
of  which  obliquely  embrace  below  the  posterior  apophyses  of  the 
preceding  vertebra,  and  of  two  transverse  short  apophyses,  articulated 
on  each  side  on  the  suture,  which  joins  the  body  to  the  annular  ring- 
Cuvier  counted  28  caudal  vertebrse  in  Tetivdo  Cfrceca,  T.  Indiea,  and 
other  Land-Tortoisesy  and  as  many  as  27  in  TVttudo  rad4akL    Ha 


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states  that  there  were  only  18  in  the  Fresh-Water  and  Karine 
Tortoises  which  he  examined. 


Stcrnuin  of  Trionifx, 


Stemam  of  Cfheione, 


Sternuin  of  CUtudo. 

Bones  of  the  Extremities. — The  bone  which  goes  from  the  dorsal 
buckler  to  the  sternum  is  suspended  by  a  ligament  under  the  dilata- 
tion of  the  second  rib,  but  in  front  of  Uie  first,  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
consists  only  of  a  head  articulated  under  the  second ;  so  that  in  some 
respects  this  bone  is  outside  the  thorax.  There  is  sometimes  in  the 
ligament  by  which  it  is  attached  one,  and  even  two,  peculiar  bones. 
This  bone  is  at  first  nearly  cylindrical :  it  proceeds  forwards,  and 
after  having  afforded  on  its  external  surface  a  portion  of  the  articular 
facet  which  receires  the  head  of  the  humerus,  it  goes  with  a  more 
or  less  strong  inward  bend  to  attach  its  other  extremity  to  the  internal 
surface  of  the  sternum,  towards  the  lateral  angle  of  the  odd  piece. 
The  rest  of  the  facet  for  the  articulation  of  the  humerus  is  furnished 
by  another  bone,  -which  is  directed  more  or  less  obliquely  backwards 
and  towards  the  mesial  line,  widening  into  a  fan-shape,  and  which 
thus  lies  nearly  parallel  to  the  sternum.  The  osseous  branch  which 
comes  from  the  bony  buckler,  is,  according  to  Cuvier's  self-corrected 
opinion,  the  shoulder-blade,  and  the  part  which  it  offers  beyond  the 
articular  fosset  is  its  acromion.  The  flattened  bone  which  is  directed 
backwards  is,  he  adds,  incontestably  the  coracoid  bone:  and  he 
farther  remarks  that  all  the  muscles  which  proceed  from  these  bones 
to  go  to  the  arm  are  respectively  the  same  as  in  birds,  whatever 
changes  they  have  undergone  in  their  position  relatively  to  the 
horizon  in  tiieir  size  and  in  their  figure.  Cuvier  considers  that  it 
vemains  to  be  known  whether  there  is  a  clavicle  or  not. 

The  three-brandbied  dbonlder,  the  nearly  cylindrical  shoulder-blade, 
the  acromial  portion  nearly  equal  in  volume  to  the  rest  of  the 
shonlderblade,  are  characteristic  of  the  Tortoises.  There  is  nothing 
pwallel  to  this  conformation  in  the  other  animals,  because  there  is 
no  other  shoulder  situated  within  the  thorax.    The  varied  forms  of 


these  parts  afford,  Cuvier  observes,  very  good  characten  for  the  sob- 
genera  ;  and  he  details  the  modifications  characteristic  of  the  Marine 
Tortoises,  the  Land-Tortoises,  the  Fresh- Water  Tortoises,  CKdyi^  uid 
TMonyx. 

The  humerus  of  the  Tortoises  is  required  to  turn  siogQlarij  upon 
its  axis,  in  order  to  place  the  fore  foot  in  the  pontion  required  by  the 
bony  cuirass,  which  only  leaves  a  narrow  passage  for  it  The  result 
is  that  its  internal  tuberosity  is  become  posterior  and  superior,  and 
that  the  external  tuberosity  is  become  internal  and  also  posterior. 
The  head  of  the  bone  goes  out  of  the  axis  more  than  in.  any  other 
animal,  and  that  towards  the  posterior  face  which  ia  the  ordinary 
position  is  the  superior  one.  It  presents  the  segment  of  a  ephete, 
and  is  very  convex.  The  two  tuberosities  are  very  large,  Tery  pro- 
jecting, and  leave  between  a  concavity,  as  there  is  one  backwards, 
between  the  condyles  of  the  humerus  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
mammals.  The  internal  tuberosity — ^become,  as  has  been  pointed 
out,  posterior — is  the  largest.  It  has  the  form  of  a  long  obtuae  creat, 
analogous  to  the  deltoidean,  and  which  receives  the  same  moiclee. 
The  other  tuberosity  forms  a  crest  also,  but  much  shorter.  Both 
are  near  the  head.  The  body  of  the  bone  is  bent ;  and  its  ooncaTity, 
which  in  man  would  be  anterior,  is  ordinarily  found  inferior.  The 
opposed  surface  is  convex.  Above  it  is  a  small  hollow  oppoaiie  the 
end  of  the  fossa,  which  is  between  the  two  tuberosities.  The  lover 
part  of  the  bone  is  widened  and  a  little  flattened  from  before  back- 
wards. On  the  external  border  is  a  furrow,  not  much  developed  in 
the  Land-Tortoises ;  deeper  in  the  JSmydes,  the  Chdydeij  and  the 
Trionyces;  and  which  in  the  Karine  Tortoises  nearly  separates  the 
lower  head  of  the  bond  into  two  unequal  parts.  This  furrow,  Cum 
observes,  is  perhaps  the  best  character  for  ^^ifffingnUliing  the  lover 
part  of  the  humerus  from  that  of  the  femur,  which  is  without  it,  but 
which  in  every  other  point  offers  only  very  slight  differences.  Ita 
lower  head,  transversely  oblong  and  of  uniform  convexity,  reoeirei 
the  bones  of  the  fore-arm,  but  without  offering  two  distinct  fitceta 

The  Trionycei  do  not  differ  from  the  Land-Tortoises,  excepting  in 
having  the  tuberosities  more  aparL  Other  differences  are  manife^ 
in  Emyt  and  Chdyt,  for  which  we  refer  to  Cuvier's  work,  but  the 
humerus  of  the  Manne  Tortoises  cannot  be  passed  by  wiUiout  p&^ 
ticular  notice,  for  it  differs  from  that  of  all  the  other  Testwdinata  in 
being  not  bent  longitudinally,  but  nearly  toaight;  in  hamg  its 
great  tuberosity  (the  analogue  of  the  small  or  internal  tuberosity  in 
man)  longer,  overreaching  the  head,  and  resembling  an  olecranon; 
and,  lastly,  in  having  the  other  tuberosity  shorter,  and  representing  a 
chevron-shaped  crest. 

There  are  always  two  bones  in  the  fore-arm,  but  they  hsTe  little 
motion  one  on  the  other.  They  are  placed,  when  the  animal  pro- 
gresses, so  that  the  ulna  forms  the  external  and  the  radius  the 
internal  border  of  the  arm. 

The  radius  has  a  semicircular,  slightly  concave,  upper  head,  a 
somewhat  slender  body,  and  the  lower  head  compressed  and  cut,  ai 
it  were,  obliquely,  so  that  it  is  shorter  on  the  ulnar  side. 

The  ulna  is  compressed  Its  upper  head  is  triangular  and  cat 
obliquely,  so  that,  its  external  border  is  longer  upvrards  than  the 
radial  border  without  having  a  true  olecranon.  This  border  ia  tren- 
chant. The  lower  one  is  cut  jquare.  Differences  occur,  as  in  Tnonfx 
and  the  Ohelona,  or  Marine  Tortoises. 

The  pelvis  is  always  composed  of  three  distinct  bones,  contribniisgi 
as  in  the  Mammalia,io  the  composition  of  the  cotyloid  fossa,  namely, 
an  elongated  os  ilium,  which  attaches  itself  by  ligaments  to  the 
transversal  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebrae  and  the  neigbboming 
part  of  the  eighth  pair  of  the  dilated  ribs ;  a  pubis  and  an  ischimn, 
which  are  diiwted,  widening  as  they  proceed  tovrards  the  plastron, 
and  are  each  united  to  its  similar  piece.  At  the  point  of  union  for 
the  formation  of  the  cotyloid  cavity,  each  bone  has  three  faces ;  one 
for  each  of  the  two  others  and  one  for  tha  cavity.  On  the  rest  of  the 
length  the  os  ilii  is  oblong,  the  ischium  proceeds,  widening  as  it  go^ 
directly  towards  the  symphysis,  and  the  pubis,  after  firet  directing 
itself  forward,  makes  a  curve  towards  the  symphysis,  and  widoa 
also  to  reach  itw  Various  differences  occur  in  this  part  of  the  skeletal 
in  the  Land  and  Marine  Tortoises,  in  Chdy^  and  in  Trionyx. 

The  femur  might  be  easily  mistaken  for  the  humerus  of  a  mamnu- 
ferous  quadruped.  Its  oval  head  leaves  the  body  of  the  bone,  without 
being  precisely  separated  from  it,  by  a  narrow  necL  In  lieu  of  the 
trochanter  there  is  a  transverse  crest>  but  little  elevated,  separated 
from  the  head  by  a  semicircular  depresmon.  The  middle  of  the  bone 
is  delicate  and  round,  and  the  lower  part  compressed  from  before 
backwards,  widening  by  degrees  to  form  the  lower  head,  which  u  a 
transverse  portion  of  the  cylinder  a  little  inflected  backwaitM. 
Differences  of  modification  occur  in  the  Fresh-Water  and  Marine 
Tortoises. 

The  two  bones  of  the  leg  are  nearly  straight.  The  tibia  is  Ui?* 
and  nearly  semicircular  alx>ve,  becoming  again  sli^^tly  larger  beiov; 
the  fibula  is  more  compressed  and  wider  below.  The  ^^  P'^'^^i^ 
slightly  concave  imiform  surface,  the  other  one  which  is  *^tJ 
convex  and  rhomboidal  at  the  astragalus.  Modifications  occur  in  the 
Land-Tortoises,  in  Chelyt,  in  Trionyxy  and  in  tiie  CheUmet. 

Bones  of  the  Fore  Foot. — The  differences  in  the  mode  of  progi*®J°J 
required  corresponding  variations  in  the  bones  of  the  fore  *nd  n^ 
feet  especially.     Accordingly  we  find  that  in  the  CkehM  sU  »• 


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CHELONIA. 


CHELONIA. 


900 


bones  of  the  wrist  are  flat  and  out  nearly  square.  In  the  first  row 
are  two  bones  adhering  to  the  ulna,  and  in  the  last  row  five  smaller 
on€B,  supporting  the  five  bones  of  the  metacarpus.  There  is  besides 
an  intermediate  bone  under  the  first  ulnar  bone,  and  upon  the  second 
and  third  of  the  last  row.  Cuvier  observes  that  this  woidd  seem 
to  correspond  with  that  dismembered  trapezoidal  bone  which  is 
found  in  the  monkeys.  Lastly,  there  is  a  great  semilunar  bone  out 
of  the  rank,  adhering  to  the  external  border  of  that  which  is  above 


Skeleton  and  Carapace  of  Cisiudo  vuhjarisy  scon  from  below. 


Skeleton  and  Carapace  of  Chelone  Caouana^  seen  from  below. 

the  metacarpal  of  the  little  finger.  It  is  a  true  pisiform  bone, 
although  a  little  descended.  Between  that  which  is  on  the  metacarpal 
of  the  thumb  and  the  radius  there  is  for  a  long  time  nothing  but  liga- 
ments, and  one  does  not  see  the  great  semUunal  scaphoidal  which 
may  be  observed  in  the  other  sub-genera  :  but  with  age  a  small  radial 
bone  shows  itself  in  this  place.  Very  lai^ge  individuals  have  also  the 
two  penultimate  bones  of  tha  second  row  anchyloeed  together.    The 


metacarpal  of  the  thimib  is  short  and  large :  the  others  are  long  and 
slender.  The  little  finger  has  two  phalanges,  and  is  not  larger  than 
the  thumb ;  the  three  others  are  elongated,  especially  the  middle 
finger ;  and  the  whole  result  is  a  pointed  hand^  which  has  the  unguial 
phalanx  of  the  thumb  and  forefinger  only  armed  with  a  claw. 

In  the  Land-Tortoises  there  are  but  two  phalanges  on  each  finger. 
There  are  foimd  in  the  carpus  a  great  radial  or  semilunar  scaphoidal, 
two  ulnar  bones  nearly  square,  five  bones  of  the  second  row  sup- 
porting the  five  metacarpals,  and  an  intermediate  bone  placed  between 
the  great  radial,  the  first  cubital  or  ulnar,  and  those  which  carry  the 
third  and  fourth  metacarpal.  This  intermediate  bone,  according  to 
Cuvier,  is  often  anchylosed  with  the  semilunar  scaphoidal  bone. 
The  bones  of  the  metacarpus  are  even  shorter  than  the  phalanges. 

In  the  Fresh-Water  Tortoises  the  three  mesial  fingers  have  their 
three  phalanges  well  developed ;  but  there  are  only  two  belonging  to 
the  thumb  and  the  little  finger.  The  metacaq^ala  are  rather  long, 
and  the  two  external  ones  are  carried  on  a  single  bone  of  the  carpus : 
nevertheless  the  last  row  consists  also  of  five  bones,  because  there  is 
one,  very  small,  externally  on  the  side  of  the  thumb.  In  the  first 
row  the  ulna,  in  the  European  Tortoise  at  least,  carries  four  bones — 
two  laige  ones,  a  small  intermediate  one,  and  another  small  one  out 
of  the  rank ;  but  there  are  other  species,  Testudo  clama  for  instance, 
where  the  two  small  ones  do  not  appear.  The  great  radial  or  send- 
lunar  scaphoidal  passes  partially  under  the  two  uluar  bones. 

The  Chdydet  have  the  hand  formed  nearly  like  the  Fresh-Water 
Tortoises,  except  that  their  radial  bone  is  small,  and  re-enters  towards 
the  inside  of  the  carpus  at  the  side  of  the  bone  named  by  Cuvier 
intermediate;  and  that  the  little  finger  has,  like  the  three  inter- 
mediate ones,  three  phalanges. 

The  Trionycet  have  also  the  radial  bone  re-entering  at  the  side  of 
the  intermediate  bone.  Their  first  three  fingers  have  their  threo 
phalanges  large,  wide,  and  pointed  to  carry  the  claws ;  the  fourth  has 
four  phalanges,  all  rather  slender;  and  the  last  three. 

Hind  Feet. — Cuvier  remarks  that  in  the  Chelonia,  generally,  the 
calcaneum  is  without  any  backward  prominence,  so  that  their  tarsus 
is  flat  like  a  carpus. 

In  the  CVidonea  it  is  composed  of  six  or  seven  bones,  if  the  first  of 
the  little  toe  be  counted :  two  in  the  first  row,  of  which  the  lai^gest, 
nearly  rhomboidal  and  answering  equally  to  the  tibia  and  fibula,  is 
the  astragalus ;  the  smaller,  which  is  square  and  articulated  only  to 
the  fibula,  is  the  sole  vestige  of  a  calcaneum.  In  the  second  row  there 
are  four :  three  wedge-^aped  for  the  metacarpals  of  the  great  toe  . 
and  the  two  next  toes,  and  one  larger  for  the  two  last  metatarsals. 
The  bones  of  the  metatarsus  of  the  great  and  little  toes  are  shorter 
than  the  others,  and  singularly  wide  and  flatw  That  of  the  little  toe 
however  may  be  taken  for  one  out  of  the  rank  of  the  tarsus.  In  this 
last  case  the  little  toe  would  have  but  two  phalanges,  otherwise  three 
like  the  others.  The  great  toe  has  but  two.  It  carries  a  claw,  and 
so  does  the  next  toe.  The  two  succeeding  toes  have  still  their  last 
phalanges  rather  large,  although  without  claws,  but  the  last  has  that 
phalanx  very  small. 

In  the  Land-Tortoises  the  bone  analogous  to  the  astragalus  is  laiger 
and  thicker ;  and  the  fibular  bone  on  the  analogue  of  the  heel  is 
smaller.  The  four  other  bones  exist,  and  that  here  called  the  meta- 
tarsal of  the  little  toe  seems  to  make  up  the  suite  by  its  position  and 
figure.  '  It  sometimes  carries  a  vestige  of  a  toe  formed  of  one  piece, 
which  seemed  to  Cuvier  to  be  wantmg  in  many  species.  The  meta- 
tarsal of  the  great  toe  is  very  short  and  not  flattened ;  the  others  are 
rather  longer.  Kone  of  the  four  existing  toes  has  more  than  two 
phalanges. 

The  tarsus  of  the  Fresh-Water  Tortoises  is  nearly  the  same,  except 
that  the  fibular  ossicle,  or  calcaneum,  when  it  is  not  united  to  the 
astragalus,  is  larger ;  that  the  ossicle  which  serves  as  a  vestige  of  the 
little  toe  is  longer ;  and  that  the  three  toes  which  succeed  the  great 
toe  have  their  phalanges  very  distinct. 

In  the  tarsus  of  the  THonyces  the  fibular  bone  descends  outside  the 
three  cuneiform  or  wedge-shaped  bones,  and  carries  half  the  head 
of  the  third  metatarsal  and  the  whole  of  that  of  the  fourth.  At  its 
external  border  a  large  square  bone  adheres,  that  about  which  Cuvier 
expressed  a  doubt  whether  it  was  a  metatarsal  bone  or  one  out  of 
the  rank.  It  carries  the  fifth  metatarsal  on  the  first  phalanx  of  the 
little  toe ;  but  in  this  case  the  little  toe  would  have  three.  It  is  true, 
Cuvier  adds,  that  the  fourth  toe  has  four,  without  counting  its  meta- 
tarsal The  great  toe  has  two,  and  the  two  succeeding  toes  three 
each.  In  all  three  the  last  is  large,  wide,  and  pointed  to  carry  a  claw. 
In  the  fourth  and  fifth  toe  this  last  phalanx  is  very  small  and  without 
a  claw. 

In  the  Matamata  (Chelyt)  the  fourth  toe  is,  like  the  two  preceding, 
composed  of  three  phalanges,  and  armed  with  a  claw ;  the  fifth  also 
has  three  phalanges,  and  it  would  even  have  four  if  one  regarded  the 
bone  as  to  which  Cuvier  has  expressed  his  doubts  as  a  tarsal  bone ;  but 
the  last  is  very  small,  cartilaginous,  and  without  a  nail  The  tarsus 
is  the  same  as  in  Trionyx^  with  this  difference  that  the  analogues  of 
the  astragalus  and  the  calcaneum  are  divided  transvei'sely  each  into 
two  bones ;  so  that  what  is  detached  from  the  calcaneum  forms  a 
fourth  cimeiform  bone  for  the  fourth  metatarsal,  and  that  which  is 
detached  from  the  astragalus  is  a  true  scaphoid,  which  carries  the 
first  three  cuneiform  bones. 


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CHELONIA. 


CHELONIA. 


C92 


Hijflcniir  System. — ^We  have  seen  that  the  Bhoulder-blade  is  inter- 
ns! in  the  tortoises,  that  is,  it  is  placed  on  the  inside  of  the  ribs ;  the 
mnsdes,  consequently,  of  the  head  and  neck,  instead  of  being  attached 
upon  the  ribs  and  spine,  as  in  the  other  Vert^atcty  are  attached 
beneath  them ;  the  same  obsenration  holds  as  to  the  bones  of  the 
pelvis  and  the  muscles  of  the  thigh ;  so  that^  to  use  CuYier^s  expression, 
a  tortoise  mav  be  termed,  in  thu  respect, ''  un  animal  retoum^  "—an 
animal  turned  inside  out,  or  rather,  so  to  speak,  outside  in. 

The  progressive  motions  to  be  aocomplisned  by  the  bony  and  mus- 
cular apparatus  of  the  tortoises  are  those  of  walking  and  swimming 
or  paddling. 

The  walk  of  a  tortoise  is  proyerbially  slow,  such  as  might  be 
expected  from  a  reptile  whose  limbs  are  so  imperfectly  developed. 
Short,  and  placed  at  a  great  distance  from  the  centre,  they  foAn  a 
sort  of  short  crutches,  calculated  to  drag  the  unwieldy  body  g^radually 
along,  and  if  the  animal  be  turned  on  its  back  it  becomes  almost 
helpless.  The  feet  are  little  better  than  stumps,  the  toes  being  only 
indicated  externally  by  what  may  be  termed  a  collection  of  hoofs, 
placed,  as  in  the  elephimts,  on  the  circumference  of  the  apology  for  a 
foot,  and  which  serve,  so  to  speak,  as  a  sort  of  grapplings  to  hold  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  and  drag  the  armed  trunk  onwards.  We 
hardly  need  add  that  progression  in  a  vertical  direction  is  impossible ; 
but  many  tortoises  can  burrow  with  some  difficulty. 

Nor  is  this  slowness  out  of  place :  the  preservation  of  the  animal 
is  provided  for  by  the  very  strong  bony  carapace  and  plastron  pro- 
tecting the  whole  body,  and  only  suffering  the  head,  tail,  and  four 
feet  to  be  protruded  from  its  anterior  and  posterior  part  and  its  four 
angles ;  these  protruded  parts  can  be  withdrawn  into  the  shell  upon 
the  approach  of  danger,  and  the  animal  then  rests  secure  in  its  portable 
arched  oastie,  leaving  the  enemy  to  the  hopeless  task  of  besieging  a 
garrison  that  can  remain  for  months  without  food.  A  laige  Land- 
Tortoise  can  defy  the  whole  animal  world  except  man,  from  whom 
nothing  is  safe. 

The  most  complete  defence  is  made  by  the  Box-Tortoises ;  for  in 
them  the  pieces  which  form  the  sternum  are  moveable,  and  may  be 
compared  to  doors  or  niuged  lids,  which  diut  upon  the  carapace  and 
thus  form  a  sort  of  closed  co£fer  in  which  the  head,  neck,  tail,  and 
feet,  in  short,  the  only  exposed  partsi,  can  at  will  be  inclosed  &r  more 
securely  than  a  snail  in  its  shelL 

But  this  slowness  is  confined  to  the  Terrestrial  Tortoises ;  for  the 
aquatic  species  swim  with  great  facility  on  or  below  the  surface ;  and 
some,  CheUme  and  Sphargit  for  instance,  with  rapidity.  But  the  well- 
developed  flipper  that  enables  the  Marine  Tortoise  to  oar  its  way  with 
swiftness,  is  even  a  worse  organ  for  land  progression  than  the  clumsy 
foot  of  a  Land-Tortoise.  Kot  but  that  they  will  shuffle  back  to  the 
sea,  which  they  have  only  occasion  to  leave  in  order  to  deposit  their 
eggs,  at  a  good  pace,  and  they  will  deal  heavy  blows  with  their  flippers 
to  those  who  attempt  to  stop  them  (for  they,  as  well  as  the  Land- 
Tortoises,  are  very  strong),  as  those  who  have  been  foiled  in  turning 
turtles,  have  known  to  their  cost. 

But  however  powerfidly  the  muscles  which  act  upon  the  head,  tail, 
and  extremities  are  developed  in  this  order  of  reptiles,  those  of  the 
abdomen,  as  might  indeed  be  expected,  have  little  extent,  and  those 
of  the  ribs,  as  might  also  be  divined,  are  non-existent ;  for  nature  does 
nothing  in  vain  :  but  the  square  muscle  of  the  loins,  whose  principal 
office  in  mammals  is  to  move  the  lumbar  vertebrae,  acts  in  the  tor- 
toises, which  have  those  vertebro  fixed,  in  another  direction,  and  is 
employed  In  drawing  up  the  moveable  os  ilii ;  and  the  straight  muscle 
(rectus  abdominis)  wmch  extends  from  the  pubis  to  the  sternum, 
moves  the  whole  haunch  in  the  greater  part  of  the  TettudintUd. 

Digestive  System. — The  Ckdonia  have  no  teeth,  although  there  are 
often  a  median  groove  and  denticulated  projections  and  hollows ;  bat 
the  mandibles  are  covered  with  a  homy  case,  as  in  the  birds.  The 
Chdydea  and  the  Trionycet,  though  they  have  the  homy  covering, 
have  the  mouth  furnished  with  soft  skin  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  lips. 
The  muscles  that  work  the  lower  jaw,  which  is  the  only  moveable 
one,  are  veiy  powerful  in  many  of  the  species ;  and  tiie  force  with 
which  the  great  Turtles  and  many  other  Chelonians  grasp  a  solid 
body  in  their  vice  of  a  mouth  is  prodigious.  The  Chelydet  are  the 
only  TestudifuUa  which  have  the  jaws  fiat  and  the  gape  of  Uie  mouth 
very  wide. 

The  food  with  which  the  Chdonia  have  to  deal  is  various,  and 
there  are  modifications  in  the  digestive  oigans  accordingly.  The 
ChdofMt  and  Teatudinet  generally  prefer  a  vegetable  diet.  The  Tri- 
onycei  and  Ohdydea  prey  upon  fishes  and  small  aquatic  birds ;  and  the 
Emydet  attack  the  weaker  animals,  such  as  Crustaceans,  Insects, 
Worms,  and  Mollusks. 

These  aliments  are'  submitted  in  the  Terrestrial  Tortoises  and  in 
the  Chelonians  to  the  trendiant  homy  bill,  well  fitted  to  mince  up 
vegetable  fibre,  assisted  by  the  tongue,  which  draws  the  food  into  the 
mouth  and  the  homy  grooves  and  hollows  of  the  jaws ;  the  Tnonycet 
and  Emyde*  seize  their  living  prey  in  their  sharp-edged  beaks  and  tear 
it  to  pieces  with  the  cutting  and  pointed  claws  of  their  fore  feet : 
some  of  these  dart  out  their  head  and  long  neck  upon  their  prey  from 
an  ambush ;  or,  stealing  along  like  the  cats  till  they  come  within 
reach,  suddenly  extend  their  destructive  apparatus  witi^  unerring  aim. 
The  ChdydeSf  whose  fleshy  jaws  are  flat,  swallow  their  prey  whole, 
and  in  this  respect,  t^  we]l  as  in  the  genera}  conformation  of  the  head 


and  the  os  hyoides,  they  resemble  the  Toads,  and  especially  the  Pipai, 
like  which  they  are  obliged  to  be  content  with  a  victim  of  small 
dimensions  suited  to  the  calibre  of  their  mouth,  whidi  is,  in  troth, 
sufficiently  large.  They  are  said  never  to  seize  their  prey  till  they 
are  satisfied  by  its  motions  that  it  is  alive,  for  they  never  feed  on 


The  tongue  of  the  tortoises  is  fieshy,  like  that  of  the  parrota,  and 
its  nervous  papillsB  are  very  distinct  The  oesophagus  is  uort^  and  in 
the  Chelonians  is  furnished  internally  with  a  number  of  cloae^et  ca^ 
tilaginouB  points,  directed  so  as  to  prevent  the  reguigitation  of  the 
food  towards  the  stomach,  which  has  a  transverse  position.  The 
intestines  are  long;  the  cloaca  is  situated  beneath  the  tail,  and 
rounded,  and  internally  is  found  the  orifice  of  canals  which  terminate 
in  the  cavity  of  the  peritoneum.  The  liver  is  voluminous,  fotmii^ 
two  masses  or  lobes  placed  transversely  bdow  the  heart  and  in  front 
of  the  junction  of  the  oesophagus  with  the  stomach.  The  pancreaa  is 
a  very  large  gland,  and  the  spleen  is  rounded,  median,  and  situated 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  liver.  The  chyle  is  tranaladd 
and  aqueous  in  the  vegetable  feeders,  but  of  a  white  snd  milky  tint  in 
those  species  which  feed  on  animals. 

The  power  of  abstinence  in  this  order  of  Reptiles  is  very  great 
Messrs.  Dum^ril  and  Bibron  state  that  they  have  seen  a  Long-Necked 
Emys  remain  more  than  a  year  without  food ;  and  Redi  kept  Land* 
Tortoises  fasting  for  eighteen  months. 

Circulating  System. — The  heart  in  the  Chdonia  is  composed  of 
two  auricles,  and  one  ventricle  with  two  unequal  chamben  which 
oommunicate  together.  The  blood  of  the  body  enters  into  the  ri^t 
auricle  and  that  of  the  lung  into  the  left ;  but  both  these  modifica' 
tions  of  blood  mingle  more  or  less  in  passing  by  the  ventride. 

Respiratory  System. — Cuvier  remarks  that  the  quantity  of  respira* 
tion  in  Reptiles  is  not  fixed,  like  that  of  Mammals  and  Birds,  bat 
varies  with  the  proportion  of  the  diameter  of  the  pulmonaiy  artery 
compared  with  that  of  the  aorta.  Thus,  he  observes,  the  TortoiM 
and  the  Lizards  respire  much  more  than  the  Frogs. 

The  lungs  are  of  great  extent,  and  placed  in  the  same  cavity  with 
the  abdominal  viscera.  We  have  seen  that  the  thorax  is  immoveable^ 
in  the  greater  number  at  least,  and  the  inlaid  fixed  ribs  can  give  no 
assistance  in  respiration  in  the  full-grown  normal  forma  It  it  there- 
fore by  the  play  of  the  parts  about  the  mouth  that  the  Ckdoni* 
respire,  and  here  the  complicated  os  hyoides  is  called  into  prominent 
action.  The  jaws  are  closed,  and  the  animal  alternately  elevates  and 
depresses  the  os  hyoides ;  the  first  movement  lets  the  air  enter  by 
the  nostrils,  and  the  tongue  then  closing  their  interior  aperture,  the 
second  movement  compels  the  air  to  penetrate  into  the  lungs.  Id 
short,  the  Tortoises  swallow  or  gulp  down  the  air  necesBary  for  their 
reroiration  Uke  Frogs. 

John  Hunter,  in  his '  MS.  Catalogue,'  obaerves  that  the  vesselB  of 
the  lungs  of  those  animals  whose  whole  blood  passes  through  them 
are  confined  to  the  lungs,  and  lungs  only,  as  distinctiy  as  if  the  Inngs 
were  a  separate  animal ;  but  this,  he  aidds,  is  not  the  case  with  the 
Amphibia,  "  for,"  says  he,  "  we  find  the  vessels  of  the  lungs  of  the 
Turtle  communicate  with  those  of  other  parts,  such  as  the  yeaseis  of 
the  oesophagus,  which  shows  that  the  blood  of  that  part  is  not  so 
perfect  in  them  as  in  others.  From  this  it  must  appear  that  the  longa 
are  not  of  that  consequence  in  this  class  of  ftnim^U  that  they  are  in 
the  more  perfect,  for  we  lungs  themselves  appear  to  share  in  common 
with  the  other  parts.  Some  of  the  blood  whidi  just  came  from  the 
lungs  returns  back  again  to  them,  which  woiUd  appear  to  answer  no 
purpose ;  and  on  the  other  hand  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  blood 
which  had  undergone  the  general  circulation  (and  therefore  would  appear 
to  require  refinement)  pust  retums  through  the  same  course.  It  would 
appear  from  this  admixture  that  it  was  not  necessary  that  the  whole 
of  the  blood  should  have  imdergone  a  thorough  change  for  its  greatest 
motion;  yet  we  do  not  see  why  the  luni^  should  have  a  part  of  their 
blood  of  the  perfect  kind.  The  cells  of  the  lungs  of  the  ifl»pA»to 
seem  to  increase  in  size,  the  farther  from  the  trunk  or  trachea,  so  that 
the  trachea  and  its  ramifications  bear  no  proportion  between  them  and 
the  cells."  . 

Brain,  Nervous  Svstem,  and  Senses.— In  the  ChdoiUa  generally,  m 
vertical  height  of  the  capacity  of  the  cranium  is  greater  than  in  m 
other  Reptiles;  but  in  the  Sea-Tortoises,  or  Turtle^  the  mass  of  the 
encephalon  does  not  entirely  fill  it,  and  the  highly  vaulted  bones  aie 
rather  destined  to  serve  as  solid  points  of  resistance  to  the  upper 
beak,  and  to  the  powerful  action  of  the  muscles  which  act  upon  the 
lower  jaw.  The  mass  of  the  enoephalon  is  less  elongated  and  more 
compact  than  in  the  serpents.  Bojanus,  in  his  work  on  the  *  Anatomy 
of  the  European  Emys,*  has  shown  that  the  great  ^ympatheUc  or 
ganglionic  series  of  nerves  exists  in  that  reptile  nearly  as  it  does  m 
the  other  Veriebrata;  that  on  the  one  hand  it  has  sympathetic  reU- 
tions  with  the  encephalic  and  vertebral  nerves,  and  that  on  the  oWier 
it  makes  a  oommunioation  between  the  two  lateral  and  B7°^fj"^ 
parts  of  the  body,  at  the  same  time  that  its  filaments  are  d^*"?"^ 
and  intermingle  in  numerous  plexuses  round  the  principal  .^f*^ 
destined  to  the  nutrition  of  the  intemal  viscera.  Elaborate  illuswr 
tions  of  the  Nervous  System,  and  especiaUy  of  the  great  Sympstntfao 
of  the  Hawk's-Bill  Turtle,  have  been  published  by  Mr.  Swan,  in  ta» 
'  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Nerves,'  4to.,  1886.  , 

Here  we  must  notice  the  experiments  of  Redi,  which  were  p^nap* 


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CHELONIA. 


more  cruel  in  appearance  than  in  reality.  Host  are  familiar  with  the 
length  of  time  that  a  turtle  will  move  after  its  head  is  off,  and  the 
enap  of  the  jaws  which  the  severed  head  will  give ;  but  there  is 
reason  for  believing  that  there  is  more  of  irritab&tj  than  sensation 
in  such  motions;  and  the  state  of  Redi's  tortoises  must  have  been 
analogous. 

Redi,  in  the  beginning  of  November,  made  a  large  opening  in  the 
skull  of  a  Land-Tortoise,  extracted  the  brain,  and  cleaned  out  the 
cavity.  He  then  set  the  animal  at  liberty,  and  it  groped  its  way 
freely  about  wherever  it  pleased,  as  if  it  had  not  been  injured.  RecU 
makes  use  of  the  term  'groping'  (brancolando),  because  he  says  that 
when  the  tortoiM  was  deprived  of  its  brain  it  closed  its  ^es,  which 
it  never  again  opened.  The  wound  which  was  left  open  skinned  over 
in  three  days,  and  the  tortoise,  continuing  to  go  about  and  execute 
other  movements,  lived  to  the  middle  of  May.  On  a  post-mortem 
examination  the  cavity  which  the  brain  had  occupied  was  found  empty 
and  dean,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  dry  and  black  dot  of  blood. 
He  repeated  this  experiment  upon  many  other  Land-Tortoises  in  the 
months  of  November,  January,  February,  and  March,  with  this  differ- 
ence, that  some  were  locomotive  at  their  pleasure,  whilst  others, 
though  they  made  other  motions,  did  not  move  about :  he  found  the 
same  results  when  he  treated  Fresh-Water  Tortoises  in  the  same 
manner,  but  thev  did  not  live  so  long  as  the  terrestrial  spedes.  He 
states  his  belief  that  the  Marine  Tortoises  would  live  a  long  time 
without  their  brain,  for  he  recdved  a  turtle  which  he  treated  in  the 
same  way,  and  though  it  was  much  spent  and  faint  from  having  been 
long  out  of  the  sea,  it  lived  six  daya  In  November  he  deprived  a 
ItLTge  tortoise  of  its  head,  without  which  it  continued  to  live  twenty- 
three  days :  it  did  not  move  about  as  tiioee  did  whose  brain  had  been 
taken  out,  but  when  its  fore  or  hind  legs  were  pricked  or  poked,  it 
drew  them  up  with  great  strength,  and  executMl  many  other  move- 
ments. To  assure  himself  beyond  aU  doubt  that  life,  such  as  it  was, 
continued  in  such  cases,  he  cut  off  the  heads  of  four  other  tortoises, 
and  on  opening  two,  twelve  days  afterwards,  he  saw  the  heart  beat 
and  the  blood  enter  and  leave  it. 

We  have  already  had  occadon  to  call  attention  to  the  great  length 
of  time  during  which  these  reptiles  will  live  without  food,  and  the 
facts  above  recorded  afford  additional  proof  of  their  extreme  tenadly 
of  life. 

Touch. — In  the  greater  part  of  this  order,  skin,  properly  so  called, 
does  not  exist  at  all  on  certain  parts  of  the  body,  or  is  reduced  to  a 
delicate  fibrous  plate  applied  like  a  simple  periosteum  on  the  bones 
of  the  head  and  on  the  external  parts  of  the  vertebreo  of  the  back, 
the  ribs,  and  sternum.  The  Soft  Tortoises  {Tricnyx  and  SpKargit,  for 
instance)  are  the  only  ones  that  differ  in  this  respect  Nevertheless 
the  neck,  the  feet,  and  most  frequently  a  condderable  part  of  the  taU, 
are  covered  with  a  true  flexible  skin.  This  skin  in  the  Matamata  is 
fringed,  or  ftimished  with  moveable  appendages  on  the  lateral  parts  of 
thenead  and  neck.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  sort  of  touch  or 
sensation  which  will  indicate  to  a  TrionjfXf  or  even  to  a  Marine  or 
Land-Tortoise,  the  differences  of  temperature  that  affect  the  medium 
wherein  it  moves^  i»  present  in  those  animals,  but  the  sendbility  of  a 
true  toudi  must  be  very  much  blunted  in  them.  Some  have  their  toes 
united  down  to  the  nails,  or  rather  hoofs,  and  absolutely  immoveable ; 
others  have  them  flattened,  and  forming  a  sort  of  paddle,  as  in  Chehne 
and  Sphargit ;  or  the  whole  foot  terminates  by  a  sort  of  shapdess 
stump,  rounded  like  that  of  Uie  dephant,  the  presence  of  the  toes 
being  only  indicated  by  those  nails  or  hoofs,  as  in  the  Land-Tortoises. 
Othm,  it  is  true,  Emyt,  TrUmffx,  and  €^y»,  for  example,  have  their 
toes  very  distinct,  but  they  are  neverthdess  united  by  membranes, 
and  in  general  their  feet  seem  more  adapted  for  the  diffsrent  modes 
of  transport  than  for  touch.  The  Matamata  indeed  has  its  nose 
prolonged  into  a  sort  of  moveable  proboscis ;  but  this  organisation 
seems  to  be  directed  more  to  favour  th6  required  mode  of  respiration, 
than  to  give  the  animal  that  sort  of  perception  exercised  by  the 
snout  of  swine  and  the  muzdes  of  moles  and  some  shrews.  (Dum^ril 
and  Bibron.) 

Taste. — The  wide  fleshy  tongue,  with  its  distinct  papillsB,  like  those 
of  Mammals,  seems  wdl  cdctdated  for  tasting  vegetable  and  animd 
juices  after  the  food  is  minced  up  by  the  homy  mandibles ;  the  fleshy 
lips  on  the  outside  of  these  mandibleB  in  the  ITWoiiyoet  probably  assist 
in  retaining  these  juices. 

SmelL — Though  there  is  probably  suffident  of  this  sense  to  assist 
the  ^»»im«^1  in  its  discrimination  of  food,  and  aid  the  functions  of  the 
tongue  in  giving  the  animal  a  perception  of  flavour,  it  may  be  con- 
duded  from  the  very  simple  state  of  the  oisans,  so  different  from  the 
complication  of  those  in  «^T*imAU  where  the  sense  is  known  to  be 
hi^y  developed,  that  it  is  not  very  acute  in  the  tortoises. 

Hearing. — ^From  the  structure  of  the  internal  ear,  to  which  we 
have  before  alluded,  it  might  be  inferred  that  this  function  is  tolerably 
acute,  but  many  of  the  spedes  appear  very  insendble  to  sound. 

Sight. — The  eye  is  well  devdoped  and  is  large.  It  is  modified  so 
%s  to  be  adapted  to  the  medium,  whether  air  or  water,  through  which 
the  light  is  to  be  transmitted.  In  the  substance  of  the  cornea  scdes 
or  osseous  plates  are  found  andogous  to  those  in  birds,  and  there  are 
three  eyelids  and  two  lachrymd  glands. 

Reproduction. — ^According  to  the  accounts  of  voyagers  the  Coriaceous 
Tortoises  (Sphargit)  and  the  Trionycet  seem  to  pair,  and  two  indivi* 

MAT.  HBT.  DIY.  VOL.  T. 


duals  of  different  sexes  remain  constantly  together  in  the  same  placea 
The  great  Marine  Tortoises,  as  is  well  known,  come  every  year  at  their 
appointed  times  to  depodt  their  oggs  in  the  sand  on  the  shores  of  the 
sea  and  banks  of  rivers  near  strands  of  gentle  declivity.  There  the 
femdes  hollow  out  a  sort  of  rude  but  strong  vaulted  nest  or  oven,  as 
it  may  be  termed,  wherein  the  eggs  may  have  ^e  benefit  of  the  con- 
centrated rays  of  the  sun,  so  as  to  enjoy  an  equable  heat,  as  in  the 
case  of  eggs  under  a  mtting  hen,  but  under  circumstances  which  do 
not  permit  the  body  of  the  mother  to  impart  the  necessary  warmth. 
The  shell  of  these  eggs  is  generally  solid,  and  their  form  globular,  or 
of  a  short  cylindrical  shape  equally  rounded  at  the  extremitiea  A 
femde  Turtle  will  lay  as  many  as  a  hundred  at  one  time.  The  plastron 
of  the  mdes  of  many  species  of  CheUmia  is  concave,  that  of  the  females 
being  convex.  Messrs.  Dum^ril  and  Bibron  say  tiiat  in  the  Chdonians 
and  Anourous  Batrachians  from  eighteen  to  tibirty-one  days  and  more 
have  elapsed  before  the  mde  has  quitted  the  female. 

With  regard  to  the  integument  of  tiie  carapace  and  plastron,  the 
number,  colour,  and  shape  of  the  investing  plates  of  horn  or  didl, 
as  it  is  termed,  vary  condderably.  The  subjoined  cuts  will  convey  a 
better  notion  than  words  of  their  arrangement  in  a  land  and  marine 

ries ;  but  it  must  be  conddered  that  these  are  mere  examples,  and 
the  variety  is  very  great. 


Carapace  of  Tutudo  marfinata, 
covered  with  shell. 


Carapace  of  OheUme  Oaotuma, 
ooTered  with  ihell. 


Syttefnaiic  Arrangement  and  Natural  Hittory, 
Aristotle  has  mentioned  three  principal  groups  of  Tortoises,  or  at 
any  rate  genera,  under  the  names  of  XcAi^  x<P^^a  ^^t^  ^®  Land- 
Tortoise  ;  XcAiini  QaKarrla  or  QaKofftrUi  for  the  S<^Tortoise  or  Turtle 
('  Hist.  Anim.,  ii  17) ;  and  'EfuJt  for  the  Fresh-Water  Tortoise  (Ibid., 
V.  88).  Qesner  remarks  that  there  are  three  "summa  genera"  of 
Tortoises :  the  1st,  terrestrid ;  the  2nd,  living  in  fresh-waters ;  and 
the  8rd,  in  the  waters  of  the  sea.  Messrs.  Dum^ril  and  Bibron  copy 
his  'Cordlarium  de  Testudinibus  in  (Jenere,*  to  ^ow  how  fSar  it 
accords  with  their  own  arrangement,  as  follows : — 

terreMtru 


Tatudo 
aut  est' 


Imari 
aquftduld 


Tettudo  marina,  XtXAni 

OaXarrlcu 
Mui  mM-inua,  MiSs  BaXdr' 

TtOS. 

puriore,     ut     lacubus, 

amnibus. 
csenosA,  ut  pdudibus. 


Linnseus  placed  the  form  at  the  head  of  his  Amphibia  RtptUiOp 
under  the  generic  name  Testudo. 

Cuvier  Svides  them  into  five  sub-genera  : — 1,  the  Land-Tortoises 
(Tettudo,  Brongn.);  2,  the  Fresh-Water  Tortoises  (Emyty  Brongp.), 
indudingthe  Box-Tortoises  (Terrapenej  Merrem ;  Kvnottemtmf  Spix ; 
Oii^fuio,  Fleming) ;  8,  the  Marine  Tortoises ;  4,  the  Chdydes  (Tetiudo 
fimhriaia) ;  5,  the  Soft  Tortoises  (Trumyx,  Qeoff ). 

Dr.  J.  E.  Gray,  in  his  '  Catdogue  of  the  TortoiBcs,  Crocodilea^  and 
Amphisbeenians,  in  the  Collection  of  the  British  Museum,'  I8i4,  znakes 
the  Chehnia,  the  third  order  of  Reptiles  in  his  arran^ment,  come 
under  his  second  section,  Cataphractay  the  Squamata  bemg  the  first. 

Family  1.    Tettudinidce* 
Genera: — Tetiudo,    ChenincL    Kinixyt.    Pyxit, 

Family  2.    Emydidce, 
Genera:  —  Qeoemyda*     Emyt,     OycUmyt,     Malaelemyt,    Oistudo, 
Kinoitenum,    Chdydra,     Platyttemum. 

Family  8.     Chdydida. 
Oesier%:—Slemothiru».  PeUmedma,   ffydraapit,   Ohdymyt.  Phryi^ 
opt.  Chehdinfk  Hydromeduta.    Chelyt.   PeUocephalut.  Podocmmit, 

Family  4.    Trionyddte, 
Geneva : — Trumyx,    Emyda, 

Family  5.    CheUmiada. 
QeawA:— Sphargit.    Chdonia.    CareUa.    Oaouana, 

Messrs.  Dum^ril  and  Bibron,  in  their  elaborate  and  highly  vduable 
'  Erp^tologie/  divide  the  Tortoises,  or  Chdonians,  into  the  following 

S  8 


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CHELONIA. 


CHELONIA. 


families : — Ist,  the  Ghenitee  (Cheraians,  or  Land-Tortoiaes) ;  2iid,  the 
Elodltes  (Elodians,  or  Marah-TortoiBas) ;  3rd,  the  Poiamites  (Potamians, 
or  River-Tortoifles) ;  4th,  the  Thalaautes  (ThalaaaianB,  Sea-Tortoises,  or 
Turtles). 

Of  these  groups  the  authors  observe  that  Chersites  is  Dot  perfectly 
limited,  for  some  of  the  species  arranged  by  them  imder  the  succeed- 
ing family  (Elodltes)  seem  to  form  a  natural  passage  between  the 
Land-  and  Marsh  -  Tortoises.  Such  are  Oittudo  Carolina  and  Bmys 
MufUenbwgU,  which  are  in  reality  Paludines,  or  Marsh-Tortoises,  with 
distinct  toes,  though  they  possess  only  very  short  membranes  and  but 
slightly  palznated  feet 

The  principal  characters  which  distinguish  the  Chersites,  or  Cher- 
nans,  from  the  three  other  divisions  of  tiie  order  Che^ia  are  thus 
defined : — Body  shorty  oval,  convex,  covered  with  a  carapace  and  a 
plastron ;  four  feet ;  no  teeth.  But  Messrs.  Dum^ril  and  Bibron  remark 
that  the  principal  distinction  may  be  enunciated  by  this  simple  term 
drawn  from  the  conformation  of  the  limbs,  and  which  indicates  per- 
fectly the  manner  of  life  of  the  group— stumpy  feet  (des  pattes  en 
moignon) : — ^this  would  recall  the  condition  of  those  feet,  namely, 
that  they  are  short,  unshapely,  though  nearly  of  equal  length,  wiw 
toes  but  little  distinct,  nearly  equal,  immoveable,  united  by  a  thick 
skin,  and  conglomerated  into  a  sort  of  truncated  mass,  callous  in  its 
periphery,  on  the  outside  of  which  one  only  distinguishes  homy  cases, 
a  sort  of  hoofs  which  for  the  moat  part  correspond  with  tiie  last 
phalanges  they  incase,  and  would  consequently  show  that  these 
animals  live  only  on  the  land,  never  in  the  water.  The  other  three 
groups  differ  from  the  last  and  from  each  other  in  the  form  of 
the  feet 

The  ThalaMites,  or  Thalassians,  have  the  carapace  very  much 
depressed,  and  their  two  pairs  of  feet,  unequal  in  length,  are  flattened 
into  the  form  of  oars  or  solid  fins,  because  their  toes  are  always  con- 
joined and  hardly  distinct  from  each  ot]^r,  incased  as  they  are  in 
these  paddles. 

The  Elodltes,  or  Elodiaos,  have  the  toes  separate,  or  rather  sepa- 
rately moveable,  furnished  with  crook^  claws,  most  frequently 
palmated  or  united  at  their  base  by  membranes,  as  in  the  Duck  Tribe 
among  birds ;  but  the  transition  of  these  last  three  fEunilies  is,  so  to 
speak,  insensible  on  the  one  side  between  the  spedes  of  the  genus 
UisCtido,  and  on  the  other  between  Chelys  euid  all  the  species  generally 
known  as  Soft  Tortoise& 

These  last,  the  Potamites,  or  Potamians,  have  also  the  toes  palmated 
or  connected  by  membranes ;  they  have  pointed  daws,  three  in  number 
only,  on  each  foot ;  their  pointed  and  trenchant  beak  is  constantiy 
ftimished  externally  with  folds  of  the  skin,  like  lips,  appendages 
which  have  hitherto  been  only  observed  in  tlus  family.  In  addition 
their  bony  carapace  is  covered  with  a  coriaceous  skin,  the  edges  of 
which  in  the  greater  number  remain  flexible  and  floating  on  the  sides 
of  the  body. 

Family  1.    Chersiaiifl — Land-Tortoises. 

Geneni. 

J[  TMoveable  behind,  where  it  is,  as  it  were,  articulated  4,  Kinixyt. 
J^ J  Immoveable;  T four  only 2,  Homoput. 
I    nails  on  the  <  flve,  front  of  ("  moyeable         .        .  8,  PyxU. 
I.  anterior  feet  [  the  plastron  \  immoveable             .  1,  Tettudo. 

Tettudo. — Feet  with  five  toes,  hind-feet  with  four  nails  only ;  cara- 
pace of  a  single  piece;  sternum  not  moveable  anteriorly. 

This  genus  is  divided  by  MessrHiDtim^ril  and  Bibron  into  three  sec- 
tions or  sub-genera : — 

1.  Those  species  which  have  the  posterior  portion  of  their  plastron 
moveable.  These  correspond  with  the  genera  Chernu  of  Wagler; 
Tetiudo  of  authors ;  Ckereina  of  Gray. 

2.  Those  spedes  whose  plastron  is  solid  in  all  its  parts,  or  of  a  single 
piece  covered  with  twelve  plates. 

8.  Those  spedes  which  have  the  sternum  equally  immoveable,  but 
covered  with  eleven  homy  plates. 

These  sections  embrace  twenty-two  spedes. 

In  tiie  first  section  Tattido  margincUa,  Schoepfl,  and  T.  Mauritianica, 
Dum.  and  Bibr.,  are  placed. 

In  the  second  are  Testudo  Cfrcfca,  Linn. ;  T.  geometrical  Linn. ;  T. 
aetinode$,  Bell ;  T. pardalis,  Bell ;  T.  ndcata,  Miller;  T.  nigrita,  Dum. 
and  Bibr. ;  T.  radiata,  Shaw ;  T.  tabttlata,  Walbaum ;  T.  carbonaria, 
Spix;  T.  pdyphemua,  Daud.;  T,  Sckweiggeri,  Gray;  T.  dephanUna, 
Dum-  and  Bibr. ;  T.  nigra,  Quoy  and  Gaim. ;  T.  gigantea,  Schweigg. ; 
T.  DawUnii,  Dum.  and  Bibr. ;  T,  PerrauUii,  Dum.  and  Bibr. 

In  the  third  are  T,  angvlata,  Dum.  and  Bibr. ;  T.  Cfrcdi,  Dum.  and 
Bibr. ;  T,  peUattet,  Dum.  and  Bibr. ;  and  T.  Voitnaeriy  Fitadng. 

For  an  account  of  the  habits  of  Land-Tortoises  we  turn  to  the 
records  of  two  acute  and  eloquent  observers,  whose  narratives  it  would 
be  unjust  to  give  in  other  words  than  their  own. 

White  of  Selbome  thus  writes  to  the  Honourable  Daines  Barring- 
ton,  in  April,  1772 : — "  While  I  was  in  Sussex  last  autuom,  my  resi- 
dence was  at  the  village  near  Lewes^  whence  I  had  formerly  the 
pleasure  of  writing  to  you.  On  the  1st  of  November  I  remarked  that 
the  old  tortoise  formerly  mentioned  began  first  to  dig  the  ground  in 
order  to  the  forming  its  hybemaoulum,  which  it  had  tined  on  just 
beside  a  great  tuft  of  hepaticas.  It  scrapes  out  the  ground  with  its 
fore  fec«i,  and  ihiows  it  up  over  its  back  with  its  hind  feet;  but  the 


motion  of  its  legs  is  ridiculously  slow,  littie  exceeding  the  hoxiivbaad 
of  a  clock.  .  .  .  Nothing  can  be  more  assiduous  than  this  creature 
night  and  day  in  scooping  the  earth  and  forcing  its  great  body  into 
the  cavity ;  but  as  the  noons  of  that  season  proved  unusually  ^rann 
and  sunnv,  it  was  continually  interrupted,  and  called  forth  by  the 
heat  in  we  middle  of  the  day ;  and  though  I  continued  there  tiU 
the  18th  of  November,  yet  the  work  remained  unfinished.  Htraher 
weather  and  frosty  mornings  would  have  quickened  its  operationi. 
No  part  of  its  behaviour  ever  struck  me  more  than  the  extreme 
timidity  it  always  expresses  with  regard  to  rain ;  and  though  it  has 
a  shell  that  would  secure  it  against  a  loaded  cart,  yet  does  it  diaooyer 
as  much  solicitude  about  rain  as  a  lady  dressed  in  all  her  best  attiie, 
shufiOing  away  on  the  first  sprinklings,  and  running  its  head  up  in  a 
comer.  If  attended  to,  it  becomes  an  excellent  weatherglaaa ;  for  aa 
sure  as  it  walks  elate,  and  as  it  were  on  tiptoe,  feeding  with  great 
earnestness  in  the  morning,  so  sure  will  it  ndn  before  nig^t  It  is 
totally  a  diurnal  animal,  and  never  pretends  to  stir  after  it  beoomee 
dark.  The  tortoise,  like  other  reptiles,  has  an  arbitrary  stomach  as 
well  as  lungs,  and  can  refrain  from  eating  as  well  as  breathing  for  a 
great  part  of  the  year.  When  first  awakened  it  eats  nothing ;  nor 
again  in  the  autumn  before  it  retires :  through  the  height  of  the 
summer  it  feeds  voradously,  devouring  all  the  food  that  cornea  in  its 
way.  I  was  much  taken  with  its  sagadty  in  discerning  those  that  do 
it  kind  offices ;  for  as  soon  as  the  good  old  Istdy  comes  in  sight  who 
has  waited  on  it  for  more  than  thirty  yean,  it  hobbles  towards  its 
benefactress  with  awkward  alacrity,  but  remains  inattentive  to 
strangers.  Thus,  not  only  '  the  ox  knoweth  his  owner,  and  the  asi 
his  master's  crib,'  but  the  most  abject  reptile  and  .torpid  of  beings 
distinguishes  the  hand  that  feeds  it^  and  is  touched  with  the  feelings 
of  gratitude."  In  a  postscript  he  adds,  that  in  about  three  days 
after  he  left  Sussex  the  tortoise  retired  into  the  ground  under  the 
hepaticas. 

In  April,  1780,  White  again  writes  to  Mr.  Barrington :— "  The  old 
tortoise  that  I  have  so  often  mentioned  to  you  is  become  my  property. 
I  dug  it  out  of  its  winter  dormitory  in  Mai^ch  last^  when  it  waa  enough 
awakened  to  express  its  resentment  by  hi«wiTig ;  and,  packing  it  in  a 
box  with  earth,  carried  it  eighty  miles  in  post^shaises.  The  rattle 
and  hurry  of  the  journey  so  perfectly  roused  it,  that  when  I  turned  it 
out  on  a  border,  it  walked  twice  down  to  the  bottom  of  my  garden; 
however,  in  the  evening,  the  weather  being  cold,  it  buried  itself  in 
the  loose  mould,  and  continues  still  concealed.  As  it  will  be  under 
my  eye,  I  shall  now  have  an  opportunity  of  enlarging  my  obaerrations 
on  its  mode  of  life  and  propensities,  and  perceive  already  that,  towards 
the  time  of  coming  forth,  it  opens  a  breathing-plaoe  in  the  groond 
near  its  head,  requiring,  I  oondude,  a  freer  respiration  aa  it  beoomes 
more  alive.  This  creature  not  only  goes  under  the  earth  from  the 
middle  of  November  to  the  middle  of  April,  but  sleeps  great  part  of 
the  sunamer ;  for  it  goes  to  bed  in  the  longest  days  at  four  in  the 
afternoon,  and  often  does  not  stir  in  the  morning  till  lata  Besides, 
it  retires  to  rest  for  every  shower,  and  does  not  move  at  all  in  wet 
days.  When  one  refieets  on  the  state  of  this  strange  being,  it  is  a 
matter  of  wonder  to  find  that  Providence  should  bestow  sudi  a  pro- 
fusion of  days,  such  a  seeming  waste  of  longevity,  on  a  reptile  that 
appears  to  relish  it  so  little  as  to  squander  more  than  two-thirds  of  its 
existence  in  a  joyless  stupor,  and  be  lost  to  all  sensation  for  months 
together  in  the  profbundest  of  slumbers. 

"  While  I  was  writing  this  letter  a  moist  tjxd  warm  afternoon,  with 
the  thermometer  at  50**,  brought  fortii  troops  of  shdlnmailB;  and,  at 
the  same  juncture,  the  tortoise  heaved  up  the  mould  and  put  out  its 
head ;  and  the  next  morning  came  forth,  as  it  were  raised  tram  tlM 
dead,  and  walked  about  till  four  in  the  afternoon.  This  was  a  curious 
coincidence — a  very  amusing  occurrence — ^to  see  such  a  similarity  of 
feeling  between  the  two  i^tp^ouan — for  so  the  Qieeks  oJl  the  sheS- 
snail  and  the  tortoise." 

Again  White  reverts  to  the  "old  family  torto^"  in  the  same 
letter  : — *'  Because  we  call  this  creature  an  abject  reptile,  we  are  too 
apt  to  undervalue  his  abilities  and  depreciate  his  powers  of  instiniA 
Yet  he  is,  as  Mr.  Pope  says  of  hia  lord, 

* mach  too  wise  to  walk  into  a  well ;' 

and  has  so  much  discernment  sts  not  to  fiill  down  an  haha,  but  to  ston 
and  withdraw  from  the  brink  with  the  readiest  precaution.  Thoiuh 
he  loves  warm  weather,  he  avoids  the  hot  sun,  because  his  thick  ahol, 
when  once  heated,  would,  as  the  poet  says  of  solid  annour,  'scald 
with  safety.'  He  therefore  spends  the  more  sultry  hours  under  the 
umbrella  of  a  large  cabbage-leaf,  or  amidst  the  waving  forests  of  an 
asparagus-bed.  But  as  he  avoids  heat  in  the  summer,  so,  in  the  decline 
of  the  year,  he  improves  the  faint  autunmal  beams  by  getting  within 
the  reflection  of  a  friiit-wiJl ;  and  Uiough  he  never  has  read  that 
planes  inclining  to  the  horiaon  receive  a  greater  share  of  warmth,  he 
inclines  his  shell  by  tilting  it  against  the  wall,  to  collect  and  admit 
every  feeble  ray.  Pitiable  seems  the  condition  of  this  poor  embtf- 
rassed  reptile :  to  be  cased  in  a  suit  of  ponderous  annour  which  he 
cannot  lay  aside ;  to  be  imprisoned,  as  it  were,  within  his  own  sheU, 
must  preclude,  we  should  suppose,  all  activity  and  disposition  for 
enterprise.  Yet  there  is  a  season  of  the  year  (usually  the  b^gifUUBg 
of  June)  when  his  exertions  are  remarkable.  He  then  walks  on  tiptop 
and  is  stirring  by  five  in  the  morning;  and,  trayeniQg  tiie  gardeoy 


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CHBLONIA. 


CHBLONIA. 


explores  every  wicket  and  intentico  in  the  fences,  through  which  he 
wdl  escape,  if  possible ;  and  often  has  eluded  the  care  of  the  gardener, 
and  wandered  to  some  distant  field.  The  motives  that  impel  him  to 
ondertake  these  rambles  seem  to  be  of  the  amorous  kind ;  his  t«ncj 
then  becomes  intent  on  sexual  attachments,  which  transport  him 
beyond  his  usual  gravity,  and  induce  him  to  forget  for  a  time  his 
ordinary  solemn  deportment" 

Mr.  Darwin  in  his  '  Journal '  describes  the  habits  of  Testudo  Indiecif 
or  rather  one  of  the  species  that  have  been  confounded  under  that 
name,  and,  not  improbably,  the  Testudo  nigra  of  Quoy  and  Qaimard. 
He  speaks  of  their  numbers  as  being  very  great,  as  indeed  they  always 
seem  to  have  been,  for  he  quotes  Dampier,  who  states  that  they  are 
so  numerous  that  five  or  six  hundred  men  might  subsist  on  them  for 
several  months  without  any  other  sort  of  provisions,  and  describes 
them  as  being  so  extraordinarily  large  and  £at  that  no  pullet  eats 
more  pleasanUy.  The  day  on  which  Mr.  Darwin  visited  the  little 
craters  in  the  Gk^pagos  Archipelago  was  glowing  hot»  and  the  scram- 
bling over  the  rough  surface  and  through  the  intricate  thickets  was 
very  fatiguing.  "  But^"  says  Mr.  Darwin,  **  I  was  well  repaid  by  the 
Cyclopian  scene.  In  my  walk  I  met  two  large  tortoises,  each  of 
which  must  have  weighed  at  least  two  hundred  pounds.  One  was 
eating  a  piece  of  cactus,  and  when  I  approached  it  looked  at  me,  and 
then  quietly  'vi^lked  away ;  the  other  gave  a  deep  hiss  and  drew  in  his 
head.  These  huge  reptiles,  surrounded  by  the  black  lava,  the  leafless 
shrubs,  and  large  cacti,  appeared  to  my  fancy  like  some  antediluvian 
animals." 

Mr.  Darwin  states  his  belief  that  these  tortoises  are  found  in  all 
the  islands  of  the  Archipelago ;  certainly  in  the  g^reater  number,  and 
thus  continues  his  description: — "They  frequent,  in  preference,  the 
high  damp  parts,  but  likewise  inhabit  the  lower  and  arid  districts. 
Some  individuals  grow  to  an  immense  size.  Mr.  Lawson,  an  English- 
man, who  had,  at  the  time  of  our  visit,  charge  of  the  colony,  told  us 
that  he  had  seen  several  so  large  that  it  required  six  or  eight  men  to 
lift  them  from  the  ground,  and  that  some  had  afforded  as  much  as 
two  hundred  pounds  of  meat.  The  old  males  are  the  laigest,  the 
females  rarely  growing  to  so  great  a  size.  The  male  can  readily  be 
disUziguished  from  the  female  by  the  greater  length  of  its  taiL  The 
tortoises  which  live  on  those  islands  where  there  is  no  water,  or  in 
the  lower  and  arid  parts  of  the  oUiers;  chiefly  feed  on  the  succulent 
cactus.  Those  which  frequent  the  higher  and  damp  regions  eat  the 
leaves  of  various  trees,  a  kind  of  berry  (called  guayavita)  which  is 
acid  and  austere,  and  likewise  a  pale  green  filamentous  lichen,  that 
hangs  in  treeses  from  the  boughs  of  the  trees. 

**  The  tortoise  is  very  fond  of  water,  drinking  large  quantities,  and 
wallowing  in  the  mud.  The  liuger  islands  alone  possess  springs,  and 
these  are  always  situated  towards  the  central  parts,  and  at  a  consi- 
derable elevation.  The  tortoises,  therefore,  which  frequent  the  lower 
districts,  when  thirsty  are  obliged  to  travel  from  a  long  distance. 
Henoe^  broad  and  wdl-beaten  paths  radiate  off  in  every  direction  from 
the  wells  even  down  to  the  sea-coast ;  and  the  Spaniards,  by  following 
them  up,  first  discovered  the  watering-places.  When  I  landed  at 
Chatham  Island,  I  could  not  imagine  what  animal  travelled  so 
methodicaUy  along  the  well-chosen  tracks.  Near  the  springs  it  was  a 
curious  spectacle  to  behold  many  of  these  great  monsters ;  one  set 
eegerly  travelling  onwards  with  outstretched  necks,  and  another  set 
returning,  after  having  dnmk  their  filL  When  the  tortoise  arrives  at 
the  spring,  quite  regardless  of  any  spectator,  it  buries  its  head  in  the 
water  above  its  eyes,  and  greedily  swallows  great  mouthfuls,  at  the 
rate  of  about  ten  in  a  minute.  The  inhabitants  say  that  each  animal 
stays  three  or  four  da3rs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  water,  and  then 
returns  to  the  lower  country ;  but  they  differed  in  their  accounts 
respecting  the  feequency  of  these  visits.  The  animal  probably  regu- 
lates them  according  to  the  nature  of  the  food  which  it  has  consumed. 
It  is  however  certain  that  tortoises  can  subsist  even  on  those  islands 
where  there  is  no  other  water  than  what  falls  during  a  few  rainy  days 
in  the  year. 

"  I  believe  it  is  well  ascertamed  that  the  bladder  of  the  frog  acts 
as  a  reservoir  for  the  moisture  necessary  to  its  existence :  such  seems 
to  be  the  case  with  the  tortoise.  For  some  time  after  a  visit  to  the 
springs,  the  urinary  bladder  of  these  animals  is  distended  with  fluid, 
which  is  said  gradually  to  decrease  in  volume  and  to  become  less  pure. 
The  inhabitants,  when  walking  in  the  lower  district,  and  overcome 
with  thirsty  often  take  advantage  of  this  cu-cumstance,  by  killing  a 
tortoise^  a^  if  the  bladder  is  full,  drinking  its  contents.  In  one  I 
saw  killed,  the  fluid  was  quite  limpid,  and  had  only  a  very  slightly 
bitter  taste.  The  inhabitants  however  always  drink  flrst  the  water  in 
the  pericardium,  which  is  described  as  being  best.  The  tortoises, 
when  moving  towards  any  deflnite  point,  travel  by  night  and  by 
day,  and  arrive  at  their  journey's  end  much  sooner  than  would  be 
expected.  The  inhabitants,  from  observations  on  marked  individuals, 
consider  that  they  can  move  a  distance  of  about  eight  miles  in  two 
or  three  days.  One  laige  tortoise  which  I  watched,  I  found  walked 
at  the  rate  of  60  yards  m  10  minutes,  that  is,  860  yards  in  the  hour,  or 
four  miles  a  day— allowing  also  a  little  time  for  it  to  eat  on  the  road. 
During  the  breeding  season,  when  the  male  and  female  are  together, 
the  male  utters  a  hoarse  roar  or  bellowing,  which,  it  is  said,  can  be 
heard  at  the  distance  of  more  than  100  yards.  The  female  never 
uses  her  voice,  and  the  male  only  at  such  times ;  so  that  when  the 


people  hear  this  noise,  they  know  the  two  are  together.  They  were 
at  this  time  (October)  laying  their  eggs.  The  female,  where  the  soil 
is  sandy,  deposits  them  together,  and  covers  them  up  with  sand ;  but 
where  the  ground  is  rocky,  she  drops  them  indiscriminately  in  any 
hoUow.  Mr.  Bynoe  found  seven  placed  in  a  line  in  a  fissure.  The 
egg  is  white  and  spherical ;  one  whidi  I  measured  was  7i  inches  in 
circumference.  The  young  animals,  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  fall 
a  prey  in  great  numbers  to  the  buzzard  with  the  habits  of  the  cara- 
cara.  The  old  ones  seem  generally  to  die  from  accidents,  as  from 
falling  down  precipices.  At  least  several  of  the  inhabitants  told  me 
they  had  never  found  one  dead  without  some  such  apparent  cause. 
The  inhabitants  believe  that  these  animals  aro  absolutely  deaf; 
certainly  they  do  not  overhear  a  person  walking  dose  behind  them. 
I  was  always  amused,  when  overtaking  one  of  these  great  monsters  as 
it  was  quietly  pacing  along,  to  see  how  suddenly,  the  instant  I  passed, 
it  would  draw  in  its  head  and  legs,  and  uttering  a  deep  hiss  fall  to 
the  ground  with  a  heavy  sound,  as  if  struck  dead.  I  frequently  got 
on  their  backs,  and  then,  upon  giving  a  few  raps  on  the  hinder  part 
of  the  shell,  they  would  rise  up  and  walk  away ;  but  I  found  it  very 
difficult  to  keep  my  balance.  The  flesh  of  this  animal  is  largely 
employed,  both  fresh  and  salted;  and  a  beautifully  clear  oil  is 
prepared  from  the  fat.  When  a  tortoise  is  caught,  the  man  makes  a 
slit  in  the  skin  near  its  tail,  so  as  to  see  inside  its  body,  whether  the 
fat  under  the  dorsal  plate  is  thick.  If  it  is  not,  the  animal  is  liberated ; 
and  it  is  said  to  recover  soon  from  this  strange  operation.  In  order 
to  secure  the  tortoises,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  turn  them  like  turtle, 
for  they  are  often  able  to  regain  their  upright  position. 

"It  was  confidently  asserted  that  the  tortoises  coming  from 
different  islands  in  the  Archipelago  were  slightly  diffei-ent  in  form  ; 
and  that  in  certain  islands  they  attained  a  larger  average  sise  than  in 
others.  Mr.  Lawson  maintained  that  he  could  at  once  tell  from 
whi<di  island  any  one  was  brought.  Unfortunately,  the  specimens 
which  came  home  in  the  '  Beagle '  were  too  small  to  institute  any 
certain  comparison.  This  tortoise,  which  goes  by  the  name  of  Testudo 
JndicOy  is  at  present  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  Mr.  Bell,  and  some  others  who  have  studied  reptHes,  that 
it  is  not  improbable  that  they  all  originally  came  from  this  Archi- 
pelago. When  it  is  known  how  long  these  islands  have  been  frequented 
by  the  buccaniers,  and  that  they  constantly  took  away  numbers  of 
these  animals  iJive,  it  seems  very  probable  that  they  should  have 
distributed  them  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  If  this  tortoise  does 
not  originally  come  from  these  islands,  it  is  a  remarkable  anomaly ; 
inasmuch  as  nearly  all  the  other  land  inhabitants  seem  to  have  their 
birthplace  here." 

In  his  travels  in  Lycia,  Professor  E.  Forbes  gives  the  following 
account  of  the  Tortoise : — "  Among  Lycian  reptiles,"  he  says,  "  the 
Tortoise  (Tettudo  Orceca  and  marginata)  is  the  most  conspicuous  (uid 
abundant.  The  number  of  these  animals  straying  about  the  plains 
and  browsing  on  the  fresh  herbage  in  spring,  astonishes  the  traveller. 
In  April  they  commence  love-m  wng.  Before  we  were  aware  of  the 
cause,  we  were  often  surprised,  when  wandering  among  ruins  and 
waste  places,  at  hearing  a  noise  as  if  some  invisible  geologist  was 
busily  occupied  close  by  trimming  his  specimens.  A  search  in  the 
direction  of  the  noise  discovered  the  hammer  in  the  shape  of  a 
gentleman  tortoise,  who,  not  being  gifted  with  vocal  powers,  endeavoured 
to  express  the  warmth  of  his  affection  to  his  lady-love  by  rattling  his 
shell  against  her  side.  The  ardour  of  the  tortoise  is  celebrated  by 
Milan.  In  ditches  and  stagnant  waters  the  Fresh-Water  Tortoise  {Emyt 
Caapica)  is  equally  plentiful  In  fine  weather  long  rows  of  them  may 
be  seen  sunning  themselves  on  the  banks ;  whence,  on  being  alarmed, 
they  would  waddle  and  plunge  with  great  rapidity  into  the  water, 
apparently  always  following  a  leader,  who  made  the  first  plunge  from 
one  end  of  the  row." 

The  Tortoise  lives  to  a  great  age.  White  relates  that  one  was  kept 
in  a  village  till  it  was  supposed  to  be  1 00  years  old,  and  it  is  conjectured 
that  the  patriarohs  of  the  Galapagos  Islands  exceed  that  age. 

T.  sulcata  will  serve  for  an  illustration  of  this  genus :  it  is  the 
species  assigned  to  Africa  and  America  with  a  ?.     M.  de  Orbigny  is 


Teitttdo  sulcata. 

stated  to  have  himself  collected  the  young  of  Teatvdo  sulcata  in 
Patagonia,  where,  according  to  him,  the  species  is  very  common, 
Messrs.  Dum^ril  and  Bibron  declare  that  other  spechnens  come  without 
doubt  ft^m  Africa. 


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CHELOKU. 


CHELONIA. 


1000 


Homoput,  Dum.  and  Bibr. — Four  toes  only  on  each  foot,  and  all 

migiiioulate ;  carapace  and  sternum  of  a  single  pieoeu    There  are  two 

species: — 

JET.  areolatut ;  H.  tignaiut. 

Pyxii,  BelL — ^Feet  each  with  five  toes,  toe  posterior  ones  with 

four  nidls  only;    carapace  of  a  single  piece;    sternum  moyeable 

anteriorly. 

This  genus  is  the    only  Land  Box-Tortoise;    but   an  analogue 

{Stemoihenu)  occurs  among  the  'Marsh-Tortoises,  in  the  division  of 

Pleurodere  Elodians. 

The  anterior  portion  of  the  plastron  of  Pffxit,  which  is  susceptible 

of  motion,  is  of  very  small  extent,  for  it  oz^y  reaches,  backwards,  to 

the  space  of  the  first 
two  pairs  of  sternal 
plates,  and  oonse- 
quently  it  is  under 
the  strongly  indi- 
cated sutiue  of  the 
second  with  the  third 
^  pair  that  the  elastic 
^  ligament  which  per- 
forms the  office  of  a 
hinge  is  seen.  By 
means  of  this  sort  of 
moveable  door  or  lid, 
the  Pyxit  can,  by 
lowering  it  at  will, 
protrude  its  head 
and  its  fore  feet, 
and  by  raising  it, 
shut  itself  up  in  a 
sort  of  box,  for  the 
edges  of  this  hinged 
operculum  closely 
fit  those  of  the  cara- 
pace, which  serve  it 
as  a  door-case.  The 
animal  then  has 
nothing  to  fear,  be- 
cau«e  its  sternum 
protects  behind,  by 
its  enlaigement,  the 

I'yxi*  arachuvidcs,  seen  from  above.  ^P^   ^^^^^^^m  *^® 

feet  and  the  tail  can 
be  put  forth  and 
deeply  drawn  up. 

P.  arachnaidei  is 
the  only  species 
known. 

Kinixyi,  BelL — 
Feet  with  five  toes, 
the  posterior  ones 
with  four  nails  only ; 
carapace  moveable 
behind;  sternum  of 
a  single  piece. 

Messrs.  Dumdril 
and  Bibron  observe 
that  this  is  the  most 
curious  of  the  family 
Chersites.  TheChe- 
lonians  that  compose 
it  alone  enjoy  the 
faculty  of  moving 
the  posterior  part  of 
their  carapace  in 
order  to  lower  it  and 
apply  it  against  the 
plastron,  so  as  com- 
pletely to  close  the 
osseous  box  behind, 
as  the  Pyxida  dose 

„    .         ^     .^  ,       ^  ,  theirs   before    when 

PyxwflracAikmfe*,  wen  from  below.  ^^^^     ^^^^^^       ^^ 

moveable  anterior  portion  of  their  plastron.  But,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  mobility  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  sternum  is  in  Pyxit  due 
to  the  presence  of  an  elastic  ligament  which  performs  the  office  of 
a  hinge,  whilst  in  Kinixys  the  carapace  offers  no  really  moveable 
articulation ;  the  bones,  the  vertebra),  and  ribs  are  the  parts  which 
bend.  In  consequence  of  this  elasticity  of  the  bones  and  their 
thinness,  the  carapace  can  be  moved  down  to  approximate  the 
sternum.  The  sinuous  line  on  which  this  flexion  operates  is  indi- 
cated externally  by  a  riight  space,  which  is  filled  by  a  sort  of  fibro- 
cartilaginous tissue.  TMb  undulated  line  exists  between  the  ante- 
penultmiate  and  the  penultimate  margino-lateral  plate. 

The  three  known  species  have  not,  like  all  the  other  Chersians, 
the  abdominal  plates  much  more  extensive  than  the  other  homy 
plAtes  of  the  stemap^i  which,  joined  to  tl^e  ^uJargement  and  the 


rounded  contour  of  the  plastron  behind,  approximatss  them  in  i 
certain  d^^^ree  to  Oi$huU>,  the  first  genus  d  the  Elodians.  There  are 
three  species : — 

K,  ffomeana  ;  K.  eroia  ;  K.  BMicma. 

Pausanias  notices  a  Land-Tortoise  in  the  woods  of  Arcadia,  whose 
shell  was  used  to  make  lyres. 

Family  IL  Elodians — ^Marsh-Tortoises. 

The  habits  of  the  Elodians  differ  very  much  from  those  of  the  other 
three  great  groups  of  Chelonians.  The  Marsh-Tortoises  have  not  the 
slowness  of  Uie  Land-Tortoises.  They  swim  with  fiMsility,  and  on  land 
make  much  quicker  progress  than  the  Chersians.  They  frequent 
small  streams  whose  oourse  is  not  too  rapid,  lakes,  ponds,  and  marshea : 
they  are  not  almost  entirely  vegetable-feeders,  like  the  Chersiuu  and 
Thalassians,  but,  like  the  Potamians,  prey  on  living  animals ;  rirer 
mollusks,  Anourous  and  Urodele  Batraehians,  and  Annelides  are  their 
food. 

The  eggs  are  generally  spherical,  with  a  calcareous  shell,  and  white, 
like  those  of  the  other  Chelonians.  The  females  deposit  them  in 
shallow  cavities,  which  they  hollow  out  in  the  earth,  nearly  in  tiie 
same  manner  as  the  Land-Tortoisee ;  but  the  Elodians  prefer  ^ 
banks  of  the  waters  where  they  dwell,  in  order  that  their  young  ones 
may  the  more  easily  there  find  refuge  from  their  numerous  enemies. 
The  number  of  eggs  varies  according  to  the  species,  and  prohablj 
according  to  the  age  of  the  individuals,  for  the  females  are  capable  of 
producing  fertile  eggs  for  some  years  before  they  have  attained  their 
full  growth. 

Sub-Family  1. — Cryptodere  Elodians. 

Cryptoderes  are  not  only  distinguished  from  the  Pleuroderes  hy  the 
power  of  completely  concealing  their  cylindrical  neck  with  its  sheath 
of  loose  skin  under  the  middle  of  the  carapace ;  but  also  by  their 
head,  which  is  nearly  equal  in  width  to  its  height  at  the  oocipat  The 
eyes  are  always  lateral,  and  their  orbits  so  large  that  the  diameter  of 
the  cavity  nearly  equals  a  fourth  of  the  total  extent  of  the  craniam 
considered  with  regard  to  its  length.  The  jaws  of  the  Cryptoderes 
are  stronger  than  those  of  the  Pleuroderes ;  sometimes  they  are  simplj 
trenchant  sometimes  more  or  less  dentilated  on  their  edges,  which 
are  straight,  or  sometimes  sinuous.  In  the  greater  number  of  spedea 
the  anterior  extremity  of  th6  upper  beak  offers  a  large  notch,  on  each 
side  of  which  may  be  seen  pretty  constantly  a  rather  strong  tooth; 
in  which  case  it  is  rare  for  the  corresponding  extremity  of  the 
mandible  not  to  curve  upwards  towards  the  mumle  in  a  sharp  point 
In  short,  in  such  cases  the  upper  beak  closely  resembles  that  of  birds 
of  prey. 

Sub-Genus  1. — The  Clausiles. 

CistvdOf  Fleming,  reformed  by  Qray. — Feet  with  five  toes,  the  pos- 
terior with  four  claws  only;  plastron  wide,  oval,  attadied  to  the 
buckler  bv  a  cartilage,  moveable  before  and  behind  on  the  same 
transversal  mesial  hmge,  furnished  with  twelve  plates;  twenty-fire 
marginal  homy  plates  or  scales. 

C.  Carolina  ;  C.  Amboinensit  ;  C.  triffuciaUL 

Sub-Genus  2.— The  Gapers. 

C.  Buropcea  and  C.  DiardiL 

Bmyt,  Dum.  and  Bibr. — ^Feet  with  five  toes,  the  posterior  with  four 
nails  only ;  plastron  wide,  inmioveable,  solidly  articulated  upon  the 
cai  apace,  fumiahed  with  twelve  plates ;  two  axillaiyand  two  inguinal 
shells ;  head  of  ordinary  size ;  tail  long. 


1st  Group.- 
E,  CoBpica  ;  E,  SigriU, 


-European  Emydet. 


2nd  Group. — ^American  Emyda. 
E.  pwnctiUaria,  E.  marmarea,  E.  pulchella,  E,  geograpkiea,  R  C(me9- 
ttica,  E.  terrata,  E.  Dorhianii,  E.  irrigata^  E.  decuuatOy  E  rubnwntrit, 
E,  rugotOf  E,  Floridanti,  E  omata,  E.  eoncinna,  E  reticiUata,  EgvUaia, 
£.  picta,  E.  BeUU,  and  E  MuhUnbergiu 

8rd  Group. — African  Emyt. 

ESpengleri, 

4th  (Jroup. — Oriental  Emydet. 

E  Tri^a,  E.  Eeevuii,  E  HemiUonii,  E  Thwryii,  E  Ueta,  R  BeaUi, 
E,  cnuncoUit,  E.  tpinota,  E  aceUata,  E.  triviUala,  E.  JDwHWcdlH,  and 
£.  lineata, 

Tetraonyx,  Lesson.— Five  toes,  one  of  them  without  a  nail  on  all  the 
feet ;  sternum  solid,  wide,  furnished  with  six  pairs  of  pktes;  twenty- 
five  marginal  scales. 

T.Ltuonii;  T.  BaAa, 

PUUystemcn,  Gray. — Head  armed  or  shielded,  and  too  Isige  to  enter 
under  the  carapace ;  upper  jaw  hooked ;  sternum  wide,  immoveable, 
fixed  solidly  to  the  carapace,  with  short  alse;  three  sternocostal 
scales ;  five  nails  on  the  anterior  feet ;  four  only  on  the  posterior  feet  ; 
tail  very  long,  scaly,  without  a  crest 

P.  megcLcejpkal'wn^ 

Emytauroj  Dum.  and  Bibr.— Head  laige,  covered  with  small  plates ; 
muzzle  short;  two  barbies  under  the  chin;  plastron  immoveable, 
cruciform,  covered  with  twelve  plates;  three stemo-costal scales ;fiw 
nails  on  the  fore  feet>  four  on  the  hind  feet ;  tail  long,  surmounted  by 
a  scaly  crest. 


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CHBLONIA. 


CHELONIA. 


loos 


B,  terpentina.  It  liyes  in  lakes  and  riven,  feeding  on  fish,  and,  as  it 
would  seem,  on  youne  birds.  This  ia  Testudo  serpentina,  Linn.; 
Chdydra  «erpeiUina»  Schweigg.,.  and  CheUmura  terperUina,  Say,  &c. 

I 


Siaurotffput,  Wilier. — Head  sub-quadrangalar,  pyramidal,  ooTered 
in  front  with  a  single  very  delicate  scale  only ;  jaws  more  or  less 
hooked ;  barbies  under  the  chin';  twenty-three  liznbar  scales ;  sternum 
thick,  cruciform,  moveable  in  front>  furnished  with  eight  or  eleven 
scales ;  axillary  and  inguinal  scales  contiguous,  placed  on  the  sterno- 
costal sutures ;  anterior  feet  with  five  nails ;  posterior  feet  with  four 
only. 

8.  triporeatut ;  S,  odoraivt,  so  called  from  the  musky  odour  which 
it  is  said  to  exhale. 

Kinatiemcn,  Wagler. — Head  sub^uadrangular,  pyramidal ;  a  single 
rhomboidal  plate  upon  the  cranium ;  jaws  dightly  hooked ;  barbies 
under  the  chm ;  scales  of  the  shell  slightly  imbricated ;  limbar  plates 
to  the  number  of  twenty-three ;  sternum  oval,  moveable  before  and 
behind  on  a  fixed  piece,  furnished  with  eleven  scales;  aln  short, 
narrow,  sub-horizontal ;  a  very  large  axillary  plate  and  an  inguinal 
still  laiger ;  tail  long  (in  the  males),  imguiculate. 

K.  tcorpioidft.  It  lives  in  marshes  and  on  river-banks.  K.Pewnaylvar 
ateam  lives  in  muddy  waters,  feeding  on  small  aquatic  animals,  and 
exhaling  a  strong  musky  odour.   K,  hirtipft, 

Sub-Family  2. — Pleurodere  Elodians. 

The  Pleuroderes,  as  their  name  indicates,  have  all  of  them  the  neck 
retractile  upon  one  of  the  sides  of  the  anterior  aperture  of  the  cara- 
pace; but  tiiey  are  never  able  completely  to  draw  it  in  betweeh  their 
fore  feet  and  under  the  middle  of  the  buckler  and  plastron,  like  the 
Ciyptoderes. 

PeltocephahUf  Dum.  and  Bibr. — Head  large,  subhquadrangular, 
pyramidiJ,  covered  with  large,  thick,  slightly  imbricated  plates ; 
jaws  extremely  strong,  hook^,  without  dentilations ;  eyes  lateral; 
plates  of  the  carapace  slightly  imbricated;  no  nuchal  plate;  feet 
slightly  palmated:  two  large  rounded  scales  at  the  heels;  nails 
straight,  robust ;  tail  unguiculate. 

P.Traeaxa. 

Podoenemia,  Wagler. — Head  slightly  depressed,  covered  with  plates ; 
front  hollowed  wnb.  a  large  longitudmal  furrow ;  jaws  slightly  arohed, 
without  dentilations ;  two  barbies  under  the  chin ;  no  nuclial  plate ; 
sternum  wide,  immoveable ;  feet  largely  palmated,  the  posterior  ones 
carrying  at  the  heels  two  Urge  but  ddicate  rounded  scales ;  tail  shorty 
not  unguiculate. 

P.  txpanta.    It  lives  in  streams  and  rivers.    P.  DumeriliaiML 

PaUonjfx,  Dum.  and  Bib. — Head  large,  depressed,  covered  with 
plates;  muBzle  roonded ;  jaws  slightly  ardied,  trenchant;  two 
barbies  under  the  chin ;  no  nuchal  plate;  sternum  inmioveable ;  five 
claws  on  all  the  fset;  tail  moderate,  not  unguiculate. 

P*  Capentit ;  P.  Adamonii. 

BUmkhenu,  BelL — Head  depressed,  furnished  with  great  plates; 
jaws  without  dentilations ;  no  nuchal  plate ;  sternum  wide,  with  very 
iHUToii^  lateral  prolongations;  frw  anterior  portion  of  the  plastron 
rounded,  moveaole :  five  daws  on  each  foot. 

S.  niger;  8,  nigricani  ;  S.  cait€meu$.  • 

PkUemyt,  Wa^er,  as  reformed  by  Messrs.  Dumdril  and  Bibron,  com- 
prising part  of  Bydraapii  of  Qray,  PUUcmya,  Bhinemyt,  and  Phrynopt 
of  Wagler. — Head  flattened,  covered  with  a  single  delicate  scale  or 
^^ith  a  great  number  of  small  irreg^ar  plates ;  jaws  simple ;  two 
barbies  under  the  chin;  carapace  very  much  depressed;  sternum 
immoveable ;  five  claws  on  the  fore  feet,  four  on  the  hind. 

It  embraces  the  following  species  : — P,  Martinella  (Brazil  and 
Cayenne) ;  P,  SpixU  (Brazil) ;  P,  radiolaia  (Brazil,  where  it  lives  in 
the  marshes);  P.  gibha;  P.  Gtofrtmaa  (young  sent  from  Buenos 
Ayres  by  M.  d'Orbigny) ;  P.  WagUrii  (Brazil) ;  P,  JVteiwwdu  (Brazil) ; 
P'  Oaiidichaudii  (Brazil) ;  P.  HUarii  (Brazil) ;  P.  MUwtii  (Cayenne) ; 
P'  rtijfipet  (Brazil,  banks  of  the  River  Solimoens);  P.  Schweiggerii 
(South  America) ;  P.  M<tcqtuiria  (Macquarie  River,  Australia). 

Chelodina,  Fitzinger. — Head  very  long  and  very  flaty  covered  with 
ddicate  skin ;  muzzle  short,  gape  wide,  jaws  feeble,  without  dentila- 
tions ;  no  barbies  to  the  cfain ;  neck  very  much  elongated ;  a  nuchal 
plate,  plastron  immoveable,  very  wide,  rounded  in  front  and  solidly 
fixed  on  the  carapace ;  stexml  alsa  very  short ;  intergular  scale  larger 
^^•n  each  of  the  gulars ;  four  daws  on  each  foot ;  tail  excessively 
ahorl 


a  Navof  ffolkmdia  ;  C.  JlavilabHi  ;  O.  MaxmUianL 


Chelodina  Jfova  HollandUe, 

C%e/y<,Dum.and  Bibr. — Head  much  depressed,  wide,  and  triangular; 
nostrils  prolonged  into  a  proboscis ;  gape  wide,  jaws  rounded,  of  but 
little  thickness;  neck  furnished  with  long  cutaneous  appendages, 
two  barbies  to  the  chin ;  a  nuchal  plate ;  five  daws  on  the  fore  feet, 
four  on  the  hind  feet 

The  gape  extends  beyond  the  ears.  Messrs.  Dumdril  and  Bibron 
remark  that  the  jaws  are  rounded,  narrow,  and  not  simply  covered 
with  soft  skin,  as  Cuvier,  Wagler,  and  Gray  believed,  but  protected 
by  homy  cases,  like  those  of  all  the  other  Chelonians ;  only  in  Chidy$ 
they  are  extremely  delicate. 

C.  MatamcUa.  It  lives  in  stagnant  waters.  A  female  lived  some 
montlis  at  Paris  and  laid  three  eggs,  one  of  which  was  hatched  and 
the  young  animal  preserved  in  the  Paris  Museum. 


(Hteljfi  Matamata. 

Family  III.    Potamians,  or  River-Tortoises. 

The  spedes  belonging  to  this  family  live  constantly  in  the  water, 
only  ooming  out  occasionally. 

It  would  seem  that  individuals  of  this  fiunily  attain  a  large  size. 
Messrs.  Dumdril  and  Bibron  quote  Pennant  as  mentioning  some 
which  wdghed  70 lbs. ;  one  which  he  kept  three  months  weighed 
20  lbs.,  and  its  buckler  was  20  inches  in  length,  not  reckoning  the 
neck,  which  measured  184  inches.  Their  mode  of  life  and  habits 
seem  to  have  great  similarity.  They  swim  with  much  ease  both  on 
the  surface  and  at  mid-water.  The  lower  part  of  their  body  is 
generally  pale  white,  rosy,  or  bluish ;  but  their  upper  parts  vary  in 
their  tints,  which  are  most  frequently  brown  or  gray,  with  irregularly 
marbled,  dotted,  or  ocellated  spots.  Straight  or  sinuous  brown, 
black,  or  yellow  lines  are  disposed  symmetricallv  on  the  right  and 
left,  prindpally  on  the  lateral  parts  of  the  neck  and  on  the  limbs. 
During  the  xughts,  and  when  they  bdieve  themselves  to  be  secure 
from  danger,  the  Potamians  oome  to  repose  on  the  islets,  the  rooks, 
the  fallen  trunks  of  trees  upon  the  banks,  or  fioating  timber,  whence 
they  predpitate  themselves  in  the  water  at  the  sight  of  man  or  at 
the  least  alarming  noise.  They  are  very  voradous  and  agile,  and 
pursue,  as  they  swim,  reptiles,  especially  young  crocodiles  and  fishes. 
Their  flesh  being  esteemed  they  are  angled  for  with  a  hook  and  line 
baited  with  small  fish  or  living  animals,  or  with  a  dead  bait,  to  which 
the  angler  gives  motion  and  apparent  life ;  for  they  are  said  never  to 
approach  a  dead  or  immoveable  prey.  When  they  would  seize  their 
food  or  defend  themselves  they  dart  out  their  head  and  long  neck 


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140B  CHELONIA. 

with  the  rapidity  uf  an  arrow.  They  bite  sharp  with  their  trenchant 
beak,  and  do  not  let  go  till  they  have  taken  the  piece  seized  ont ;  so 
that  their  bite  is  mnch  dreaded,  and  the  fishermen  generally  cut  off 
their  head*  m  soon  as  they  have  caugbi  them. 

The  males  appear  to  be  fewer  in  mim1>er  than  the  females,  or  at 
least  they  come  less  frequently  to  th«  hanks  of  rivers,  where  the 
females  resort  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  hollows,  which  contain  from 
fifty  to  sixty.  The  number  varies  according  to  the  age  of  the  females, 
which  are  less  fruitful  in  proportion  to  their  youth.  The  eggs  are 
spherical,  their  shell  is  solid,  but  membranous  or  slightly  calcareous. 

Qymnopuif  Dum.  and  Bibr.  {Trionyx,  Geoff ;  AtpidonecUa,  Wagler). 
Carapace  with  a  cartilaginous  circumference,  very  large,  floating 
behind,  and  deprived  of  bone  externally ;  sternum  too  narrow  behind 
to  hide  the  limbs  completely  when  the  animal  draws  them  up  under 
the  carapace.    Trumyx  and  Tttiudoferox  of  authors. 

O.  tpmiferut.  M.  Lesueur  states  that  towards  the  end  of  April, 
or  most  frequently  in  May,  iJie  females  of  this  species  seek  out  on  the 
river  banks  sandy  spots  for  the  deposit  of  their  eg^ ;  steeps  of  ten  or 
fifteen  feet  elevation  deter  them  not  when  they  are  choosing  places 
exposed  to  the  sun.  Their  eggs  are  spherical,  and  their  shell  is  more 
fragile  than  that  of  the  eggs  of  the  species  of  Elodians  living  in  the  same 
waters ;  their  eggs  amount  to  from  fifty  to  sixty.  M.  Lesueur  counted 
in  the  ovary  twenty  ready  for  laying,  and  a  great  quantity  of  others 
of  variable  dimensions,  from  that  of  a  pin's  head  to  the  much  greater 
volume  which  they  attain  when  they  are  covered  with  their  calcareous 
coat.  The  retreats  of  these  tortoiHCS  are  on  rocks  and  on  the  trunks 
of  trees  overthrown  in  the  river,  lliey  may  be  taken  with  hook  and 
line  baited  with  a  little  fish ;  they  are  very  voracious,  and  bite  their 
captors,  so  that  the  prudent  cut  off  their  heads.  M.  Lesueur  was 
often  bitten  by  those  he  had:  thoy  dart  out  their  heads  like  lightning. 
The  young  begin  to  show  themselves  in  July.  The  flesh  of  this 
spedes  is  very  delicate. 


Oymnopus  ipUiiferua. 

0,  fMUicui  (Trumyx  muticut,  Lesueur,  Leconte,  and  Gray). 

0.  JSgyptiacus  {Trionyx  jEgyptiacu$,  Geoff. ;  T,  Niloticut,  Gray). 
This  is  supposed  to  be  tl\e  'Efi6s  of  Aristotle  ('De  Part  Anim.,' 
v.  9). 

O.  Duvomeelii  {Trionyx  Gangetietu,  Cuv. ;  T,  Hwvm,  Gray) ;  O. 
oeeUatut  {Trionyx  ocdUUua,  Hardwick ;  T.  Ifurum,  the  young.  Gray) ; 
0,  lineatui  (Trion/yx  JBgypliacuiy  var.,  Hardw. ;  T.  Indicus,  Gray) ; 
O.  JatHxmcut  {Trionyx  Jawmicug,  Schweigg.) ;  O.  tf^lantu  {Trionyx 
mbbplanus,  Geoff.)  ;   O.  BuphraiicuB  {Trionyx  Euphraticut,  Geoff.). 

Cryptopui,  Dum.  and  Bibr.  (Trionyx,  WagL ;  Emyda,  Gray). — 
Carapace  with  narrow  cartilaginous  borders  supporting  above  the 
neck  and  behind  the  thighs  'small  bonv  pieces;  sternum  large, 
forming  in  front  a  moveable  door  or  lid  whidb  can  hermetically  close 
the  apertture  of  the  osseous  box.  The  posterior  part  of  the  sternum 
furnished  right  and  left  witli  a  cartilaginous  operculum,  shutting  Uie 
apertures  which  give  passage  to  the  hind  feet;  tiiere  is  a  third 
operculum  besides  to  stop  the  opening  whence  the  tail  issues. 


CHSLONIA. 

C.  ffnmonu  {Trionyx  grtaumu,  Schweigg.).    It 
The  flesh  is  eaten.    C,  Senegalamt, 


lirea  in  fresh-water 


Family  IV.    Thalassians,  Sea-Tortoises,  or  Turtles    {ChdomadeB, 

Gi»y ;  Carettoids,  Fltsing. ;  Mafychdona,  Bitgen; 

Oiacopod  Tortoisa,  WagL). 

This  family  is  at  once  distingubhed  from  all  tta  othen  by  the 
comparatively  depressed  carapace  and  the  long  and  broad  paddles, 
the  anterior  of  which  are  very  much  prolonged  when  oompared  with 
the  posterior  ones.  Indeed  their  limbs  are  entirely  00  modified  as  to 
become  swimming  organs. 

The  Turtles  hardly  ever  leave  the  sea  excepting  for  the  purpose  of 
laying  their  eggs ;  but  some  accounts  state  that  they  will  crawl  up 
the  shores  of  desert  islands  in  the  night,  and  clamber  up  the  edges  <^ 
isolated  rocks  far  at  sea,  for  the  purpoee  of  browsing  on  certain 
favourite  marine  plants.  They  have  been  seen  in  smooth  water  as 
fiir  as  700  or  800  leagues  from  the  land,  floating  motionless  on  the 
surfisM^  of  the  sea  as  if  they  were  dead,  and  it  has  been  supposed  that 
they  are  then  asleep.  They  dive  well,  and  can  remain  beneath  the 
surface  a  long  time,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  extent  and 
volume  of  their  arbitrary  lungs,  capable  of  retaining  and  fomiahiDg  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  air  while  they  are  submerged. 

Messrs.  Dum^  and  Bibron  speak  of  the  Potamians  and  Turtles  as 
exceptions  to  the  rest  of  the  Ckelonia,  which,  generally  speaking,  can 
produce  no  other  sounds  than  hif^es:  we  fibod  however  frt>m  Mr. 
Darwin's  account  above  given,  that  the  Great  Land-Tortoises,  the 
males  at  least,  bellow  loudly  at  the  pairing  season.  The  cries  of  the 
Potamians  and  of  some  Thalassians  have  been  noticed  by  observers, 
and  especially  those  of  the  Coriaceous  Turtle,  or  Sphatyis.  Individuals 
of  this  last  genus,  when  hampered  in  nets  or  grievously  wounded, 
have  been  heard  to  utter  loud  roars,  from  which  they  derive  their 
name  {atf>ap<xyiC»,  to  roar,  or  cry  loudly). 

The  food  of  the  Thalassians  consists  principally  of  marine  plants ; 
but  it  appears  that  some  of  them,  especially  those  which  exhale  a 
musky  odour,  Chelonia  Caouana  (C^oouano,  Gray),  for  instance^  feed 
also  on  crustaceans  and  many  species  of  mollusks,  the  cutties  especi- 
ally. Their  jaws  are  robust,  like  the  beaks  of  birds  of  prey  ;  solidly 
articulated  and  worked  with  highly  developed  muscles;  and  thdr 
homy  beak,  hooked  above  and  below,  is  tremmant  on  the  edges,  and 
most  frequently  serrated,  so  as  to  assist  in  securing  a  slippery  prey. 

Whilst  little  is  known  with  regard  to  the  conduct  of  the  two  sexes 
during  the  breeding  season,  those  attendmg  the  deposit  of  the  egga  are 
better  known.  To  reach  the  destined  spot,  the  females  have  often  to 
traverse  the  sea  for  more  than  fifty  leagues,  and  the  males  acoompaay 
them  to  the  sandy  beaches  of  those  desert  islands  selected  for  the 
places  of  nidificatlon.  Arrived  at  the  end  of  their  voyage,  they 
timidly  oome  forth  frt>m  the  sea  after  sunset ;  and  as  it  is  nnrrnnirj 
to  leave  the  eggs  above  high-water  mark,  they  have  often  to  dng 
themselves  to  a  considerable  distance  before  they  can  hollow  out  their 
nests  (about  two  feet  in  diameter)  during  the  nighty  and  there  lay  at 
one  sitting  to  the  number  of  a  hundred  eggs,  lliis  laying  is  repeated 
thrice,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks.  The  eggs  vary  in  suee,  but 
are  spherical,  like  tennis-balls ;  and  when  they  arelaid,  their  investiDg 
membrane  is  slightly  flexible,  although  covered  with  a  d^cate  cal- 
careous layer.  After  slightly  covering  the  nest  with  light  sand,  the 
parent  returns  to  the  sea,  leaving  the  eggs  to  the  fbst^ng  inflnenee 
of  a  tropical  sun.  The  eggs  are  said  to  be  hatched  from  uie  15th  to 
the  29th  day ;  and  when  the  young  turtles  come  cut»  their  dxells  are 
not  yet  formdid,  and  they  are  white  as  if  blanched.  They  instineiivelj 
make  for  the  sea ;  but  on  their  road,  and  as  they  pause  before  entering 
the  water,  the  birds  of  prey  that  have  been  watching  for  the  nK»ncnt 
of  their  appearance  hasten  to  devour  them ;  whilst  those  that  have 
escaped  their  terrestrial  persecutors  by  getting  into  the  sea,  have 
to  encounter  a  host  of  voracious  fishes  and  l^ons  of  ambushed 
crocodiles. 

Those  that  escape  attain,  under  favoiu^ble  circumstances,  enonnoos 
dimensions.  Individuals  of  the  genus  Sphargia  have  been  known  to 
weigh  from  1500 lbs.  to  1600 lbs.;  and  some  whose  carapace  haa 
measured  in  its  circumference  more  than  15  feet,  and  near  7  feet  ia 
length,  have  weighed  down  more  than  from  1800  lbs.  to  1900  lbs. 
Aged  turtles  often  carry  about  with  them  on  their  carapace  a  little 
world  of  parasites,  such  as  Flvstrct,  SerpuUe,  Balani,  and  Ooromtla; 
whilst  certain  Anndidet  securely  fix  themselves  at  the  origin  or  base 
of  the  limbs,  where  the  motion  of  the  turtle  cannot  displace  them. 

Though  many  of  the  other  Chelonia  are  highly  usefru  to  man,  egpe- 
cially  as  articles  of  food,  none  are  of  such  great  utility  as  the  Ilialae- 
sians.  The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  them  were  not  lost  upon 
the  ancients ;  and  though  Mercury  is  said  to  have  taken  tiie  first  hint 
for  the  structure  of  a  lyre  from  the  dried  carapace  and  tendons  of  a 
tortoise  (a  Oymnopua,  probably),  found  by  the  god  after  an  inundation 
of  the  Nile,  and  which  sounded  when  he  struck  '  the  chorded  shell,' 
the  benefits  arising  from  the  Thalassians  are,  if  not  so  refined,  of  a 
much  more  substantial  and  varied  nature.  The  inhabitants  of  those 
countries  where  the  turtles  grow  to  a  lai^  size  do  not  merdly  derive 
from  them  a  supply  of  food,  but  they  convert  their  carapaces  into 
boate^  into  huts,  into  drinking-troughs  for  their  domeetio  animals,  and 
baths  for  their  children.  The  Chdonophagi  of  old,  who  inhabited 
the  shores  of  India  and  the  Red  Sea,  converted  the  enonnous  dkeOs 


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1006 


CHELONIA. 


CHELONIA. 


1006 


of  the  turtles  which  they  caught  into  roofs  for  their  houses  and  boats 
for  their  little  Toyages,  as  Strabo  and  Pliny  testify.  The  latter,  in 
the  tentJi  chapter  of  his  ninth  book,  enters  at  laige  upon  the  subject. 

As  an  article  of  food  the  Qreen  Turtles  (Tortues  Franches  of  the 
French),  are  so  highly  prized,  that  they  have  become  a  considerable 
article  of  commerce.  The  fat  of  many  species,  when  fresh,  is  used 
with  success  in  lieu  of  butter  and  oil  in  cookery ;  and  in  those  species 
which  have  a  musky  odour  (CheUmia  Caauana  and  C.  Caretta  for 
instance),  is  used  for  embrocations,  leather-dressing,  and  as  lamp-oiL 

The  Imbricated  Turtles  furbish  that  valuable  article  tortoise-shell, 
or  rather  the  best  sorts  of  it,  so  highly  prized  in  ancient  and  modem 
times,  and  so  ornamental  and  useful  in  the  arts.  The  eggs  of  all  the 
species,  particularly  those  of  the  Green  Turtles,  are  excdlent. 

In  proportion  to  the  benefits  derived  from  the  spoils  of  the  turtles, 
the  ingenuity  of  maa  has  baen  sharpened  by  his  eagerness  to  acquire 
them.  One  of  the  most  obvious  methods  of  capttire  was,  and  is,  to 
watch  the  females  as  they  emeige  from  the  sea  to  deposit  their  oggs, 
and  then  turn  them  upon  their  backs  on  the  high  and  dry  sand, 
where  tiiey  helplessly  remain  till  the  captors  come  to  fetch  them  on 
the  morrow.  When  the  turtles  lie  floating  on  the  sea,  either  for  the 
purposes  of  sleep  or  respiration,  the  turtle-fishers  approach  them 
quietly  with  a  sharp  harpoon,  carrying  a  ring  at  the  butt-end,  to 
which  a  oord  is  attached.  The  haqwoner  strikes,  and  the  wounded 
animal  dives,  but  is  at  last  secured  by  the  cord.  In  the  South  Seas 
skilful  divers  watch  them  when  so  floating,  and,  getting  under  the 
animals,  suddenly  rise,  and  so  seize  them.  Mr.  Darwin,  with  his 
usual  felicity,  describes  another  method  of  capture.  In  his  account 
of  Keeling  Island,  he  says : — "  I  accompanied  (April  6,  1836)  Captain 
Fitzroy  to  an  island  at  the  head  of  the  lagoon:  the  chaimel  was 
exceedingly  intricate,  winding  through  fields  of  delicately  branched 
corals.  We  saw  several  turtles,  and  two  boats  were  then  employed 
in  catching  them.  The  method  Ib  rather  curious :  the  water  is  so 
clear  and  shallow,  that  although  at  first  a  turtle  quickly  dives  out  of 
sight,  yet  in  a  canoe  or  boat  under  sail,  the  pursuers,  after  no  very 
long  chase,  come  up  to  it.  A  man  stancUng  ready  in  the  bows  at  this 
moment  dashes  through  the  water  upon  the  turtle's  back;  then 
clinging  with  both  hands  by  the  shell  of  the  neck  he  is  carried  away 
till  the  animal  becomes  exhausted,  and  is  secured.  It  was  quite  an 
interesting  chase  to  see  the  two  boats  thus  doubling  about,  and  the 
men  dasMng  into  the  water,  trying  to  seize  their  prey."     ('  Journal') 

But  the  most  extraordinanr  mode  of  fishing  is  uiat  said  to  be  prac- 
tised towards  the  coasts  of  Qiina  and  the  Mozambique,  where  tiurtles 
are  taken  by  the  aid  of  living  fishes  trained  for  the  purpose,  and 
thence  named  Fisher-Fishes.  The  fact  appears  to  have  been  known  to 
Columbus,  and  has  been  verified  by  Commerson  and  cited  by  Middleton 
and  Saltb  The  fish  is  a  species  of  Echtneia  or  Remora,  and  the  islanders 
who  use  it  are  said  to  proceed  in  tiie  following  manner: — They  have 
in  their  little  boat  tubs  containing  many  of  these  fishes.  The  upper 
part  of  the  head  of  the  fish  is  covered  with  an  oval  plate,  soft  and 
fleshy  at  its  circumference.  In  the  middle  of  this  plate  is  a  very  com- 
plicated apparatus  of  bony  pieces,  disposed  across  in  two  regular  rows, 
like  the  laths  of  Persian  blinds.  The  number  of  these  plates  varies 
from  15  to  36,  according  to  the  species ;  they  can  be  moved  on  their 
axis  by  msans  of  particular  muscles ;  and  their  free  edges  are  furnished 
with  small  hooks,  which  are  all  raised  at  once  like  the  points  of  a 
wool-card.  The  tail  of  each  of  the  trained  fishes  in  the  tubs  is 
furnished  with  a  ring  for  the  attachment  of  a  fine  but  long  and 
strong  oord.  When  the  fishermen  perceive  the  basking  turUes  on 
the  surface  of  the  sea,  knowing  that  the  slightest  noise  would  disturb 
the  intended  victim,  they  slip  overboard  one  of  their  Remoras  tied  to 
the  long  cord,  and  pay  out  line  according  to  their  distance  from  the 
turtles..  As  soon  as  the  fish  perceives  the  floating  rentile  he  makes 
towards  it,  and  fixes  himself  to  it  so  firmly  that  the  fisnermen  pull  in 
both  fish  and  turtle  to  their  boat,  where  the  fish  is  very  easily 
detached  by  pushing  its  head  in  a  direction  from  behind  forwards, 
and  the  turtle  is  secured. 

Chdoni€t,  Brongn.  (Cwretta,  Merrem). — Body  covered  with  homy 
scales  or  shells.    One  or  two  nails  on  each  foot. 

Sttb-Qenus  1. — Chelon^es  Franches.    Qreen  Turtles. 

Disooidal  plates  to  the  number  of  thirteen,  not  imbricated.  Muzzle 
shorty  rounded.  Upper  jaw  with  a  slight  notch  in  front  and  small 
dentilations  on  the  sides ;  homy  case  of  &e  lower  jaw  formed  of  three 
pieces  and  having  its  sides  deeply  dentilated.  A  nail  on  the  first  toe 
of  each  foot. 

C,  Mydas.  Messrs.  Dumdril  and  Bibron  observe  that  this  and  the 
three  following  species  are  so  similar,  that  it  is  possible  for  them  to 
form  one  species  only  :  but  they  add  that  this  question  can  only  be 
satisfiM^xJly  solved  by  those  who  have  opportunities  of  comparing 
the  living  animals. 

O.irtrgcUa;  C.  maculosa;  C.marmorata. 

Sub-Qenus  2.-- Imbricated  Chelones. 

Plates  of  the  disc  imbricated  and  thirteen  in  number.  Muzzle  long 
and  compessed.  Jaws  with  straight  edges  without  dentilations, 
curved  slightly  towards  each  other  at  their  extremities.  Two  nails 
on  each  fin. 


C.  imbricata,  the  Hawk's-Bill  Turtle  of  Catesby  and  Brown  {Caretta 
imbricata,  Qtaj  ;  Tettudo  imbricata  Limueus).  Flesh  bad.  Eggs  very 
good. 


Hawk's-Bill  Turtle  {Chelone  imbrieata). 

Sub-Genus  3. — Chelon^es  Caouanes.    Logger-Head  Turtles. 

Plates  of  the  carapace  not  imbricated.  Fifteen  plates  on  the  disc. 
Jaws  slightly  curved  towards  each  other  at  their  extremity. 

(7.  Caoiuma,  the  Logger-Head  Turtle  of  Catesby  {Ca<mana  Caretta, 
Qray);  (7.  IhMSumierii  {Chdonia  olwacea  of  Eschscholtz;  CoAmana 
oHvacea,  Gray). 

SphargU,  Merrem  (Coriudo^  Flem. ;  DermatocMys,  Blainv.). — Body 
enveloped  in  a  coriaceous  hide,  tuberculous  in  young  subjects,  com- 
pletely smooth  in  adults.     Feet  without  nails. 

S,  eoriacea  {Tettudo  Lyra,  Donnd.  and  bechst. ;  Tortue  Luth  of  the 
French ;  Coriaceous  Toi-toise  of  Pennant). 


Sphargit  eoHaeea. 


Plastron  of  Spharpii  coriacea. 

This  turtle  has  been  taken  on  many  of  the  European  coasts ; 
several  of  large,  size  (700  lbs.  and  800  lbs.  in  weight)  have  been  captured 
on  those  of  Britain.  One  case,  where  the  capture  was  efiected  off 
the  coast  of  Scarborough,  should  be  a  warning  not  to  use  it  rashly  as 
food.  Pennant  relates  that  one  of  the  three  taken  in  1748  or  1749 
was  purchased  by  a  family,  who  invited  several  persons  to  partake  of 
it.  A  gentleman  present  told  the  guests  that  the  flesh  was  imwhole- 
some,  but  one  of  the  company  persisted  in  eating  of  it,  and  suffered 
most  severely,  being  seized  with  dreadful  vomiting  and  purging ;  and 
yet  the  Carthusians,  Pennant  tells  us,  are  said  to  eat  no  other  species. 
It  would  seem,  then,  that  the  severe  effect  above  noticed  must  have 
been  accidental,  and  the  animid  may  have  been  in  an  unhealthy  con- 
dition. It  is  said  to  grow  very  sat;  but  the  flesh  is  reported  to 
be  coarse  and  bad.    The  French  name  is  given  probably  upon  the 


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CHELONIA. 


CHBLONIA. 


Buppoflition  that  it  was  the  species  used  bj  the  aadents  in  the  early 
ooDBtniGtion  of  the  lyre. 

This  and  the  last-named  turtle  are  the  only  species  of  the  CUdonia 
that  have  been  taken  alive  on  the  British  coasts.  Professor  Bell  in 
his  'British  Reptiles'  expresses  his  conviction  that  aeyeral  of  the 
"fresh-water  species,  both  of  Europe  and  North  America^  might  be 
naturalised  in  the  southern  parts  of  lihigland.  The  Terrapent  Europaa;* 
he  says,  "  the  common  Lacustrine  Tortoise  of  the  oontinent,  is  found 
in  Portugal,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece,  in  France,  and  even  in  Prussia. 
These  tortoises  are  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of  all  ^e  countries  in 
which  tiiey  are  found ;  and  as  they  live  principally  upon  small  fish, 
the  air-bags  of  which  they  reject,  it  is  said  that  the  people  are  wont 
to  judge  of  the  quality  of  tiie  tortoises  to  be  found  in  a  lake  or  pond 
by  the  number  of  ai]>bagB  which  are  seen  swimming  on  the  surface  of 
the  water.  I  once  placed  in  a  small  pond,  in  which  were  some  of 
these  Fresh-Water  Tortoises,  six  small  living  fish,  and  on  the  following 
morning  I  found  the  air-bags  of  five  of  them  fioating  on  the  surface 
of  the  water  and  the  sixth  fish  still  alive.  In  some  parte  they  are  fed 
upon  grains  and  other  nourishing  food,  and  fattened  for  the  table. 
There  are  also  several  American  species  of  Emyt,  or  Freeh-Water 
Tortoise,  which  will  bear  a  greater  degree  of  cold  than  that  of  most 
of  our  winters  without  perishing ;  and  it  is  certainly  deniable  that  a 
wholesome  and  agreeable  food,  l^e  that  afforded  by  some  of  these, 
should  not  be  lost  to  us,  if  the  species  can  be  easily  perpetuated  and 
multiplied  in  our  dimate." 

Several  species  of  Freeh-Water  Tortoises  are  now  in  the  collection 
of  the  Zoological  Society,  in  the  Aquavivarium  of  the  Regent's  Park 
Gardens. 

The  following  list  of  Chdonia,  arranged  according  to  their  geogra- 
phical distribution,  is  from  Dr.  J.  E.  Grav's,  *  Catalogue  of  the  Tortoises 
and  Crocodiles,  &c.,  in  the  Collection  of  the  British  Museum.'  Allien 
a  species  is  found  in  two  of  the  larger  divisions  of  the  list  on  account 
of  its  extensive  range,  it  is  preceded  by  an  asterisk. 

EUROPK 
Teitwdo  marffinata, 
*T.  Cfraca. 
Emyi  CaipuM. 
Culudo  BuropacL 
*Sphargit  coHoceo. 

Asia. 

River  Tigria 
jyrse  Rafeht. 

Cabul. 
Tettudo  Honfieldil 

India. 
TeMtvdo  Indiea. 
Bmffi  tectum. 
E.  teiUoria. 
E,  iHivaueelliu 
E.  trijufftk 
ElineatcL 
EMongoka. 
E.  I%wrjiu 
E  trivittata. 
EoceUata. 
E.  Hamiltanii. 
Tetraonyx  Batagur, 
Emyda  pwnclcUa. 
Tyrte  Oangetica, 
J)organia  mbplancL 
Chiira  Indiea, 

Ceylon. 
Tettudo  iteUaia. 
EmyeSAa, 

China 
*Gtoemyda  Spengleri. 
Q,BealiL 
0.  Beeveaii, 
O,  muticti, 
O.  nigricane. 
Cittudo  trifatciaJta, 
Platyetenum  megacephalum, 
Tyrae  peroceUata. 

Japan. 
Emy  Jcvpcmea, 

Sumatra. 
Qeoemyda  tpmoaa. 
Emye  eraetieoUie. 
E.platynota. 

Amboyna 
Oiitudo  AnUfoinemis. 

Java. 
Cfiitudo  dentaia. 
Tyrte  Javaniea. 


Africa. 
North. 
•Tettudo  Grceea. 
Tyrte  Nilotica. 

Eastern. 
Pdomeduta  OehaJUe, 

Western. 
Tettudo  tulcata. 
*KvMxyt  ffomeana, 
K.  erota. 
K.  Belliana. 
Stemotherut  Derlianut, 
Emyda  Senegalentit. 
Tyrte  Argut, 

SouthenL 
Tettudo  pardalit. 
T.  temiterrata. 
T.  geometrica. 
T.  VerroTti, 
Homoput  artolalut, 
H.  tignatut, 
Ckertina  angvlaia, 
•Qeoemyda  Spengleri, 
Emyt  ocuLifera, 
Stemotherut  cattaneut. 
Pelomedtua  tubrufd. 

Madagascar. 
Tettudo  radiata. 
Pyxit  arachnoidet. 
SUmotherut  niger. 
S.  tubniger. 
•Hydratpit  gibha. 

Australia. 
Chelymyt  Macquaria. 
CkelodifM  dbiUmga. 
Chelodina  longicoUit, 

Oceanic. 
Mediterranean  and  Atlantic. 
Sphargit  coriacea, 

Atlantic  and  Indian  Ocean. 
Caouana  Caretta, 

Atlantic  Ocean. 
Caouana  dingcUa. 
CheUmia  virgata. 
C.  viridit. 

Indian  Pcean. 
Caouana  oUvacea, 

Red  Sea. 
Caretta  imhricata. 


Emyt  teahra. 
E  rugota,    W.  Indies. 
E  deeuttata.    W.  Indies. 
E  vermicuUUa, 
Kinottenum  teorpioidtL 
K,  triporeaiwm. 
ffydratpit  plameept. 
H.  radiclala. 
ff.SpixiL 
H,  deprttta. 
*B.gibba, 
H.  natua. 
H,  WagleriL 
H.  Qaudiehaudn. 
H,HUtnriL 
ff.UUa, 
ff.afintt. 

Phrynopt  Oeqfiroyma. 
P.  rujtpet. 
P.  Bella, 
P.  MUiuni, 

ffydrom^ima  MaxmHima. 
H.  JlavUabrit. 
Ckdyt  Maiamaia, 
Pdtoeepkaiut  Traeaxa, 
Podoenemit  expanta, 
PDumeriiiana, 

South  Amrriga. 
East  coast 
Emyt  DorbignU, 
Phrynopt  Geofnuyana, 

Galapagos  IslsndL 
Tettudo  Indiea,    KataraliMd. 

Locality  unknown. 
Emyt  hinottemoidet, 
E.  annuiifer. 
E  Kuhlii. 


North  Amxrica. 
East  coast 
Tettudo  Oopher. 
Emyt  Mulhenbergii. 
Epulchaia, 
E.  geographiea. 
E.  megaeephaia. 
EBennetHL 
E,  terrata. 
E.  rimdata, 
Eteripta. 
E  ffdbrookii. 
E  TrootUi, 
E.  mohilentit. 
E»  concintta. 
E  reticulata. 
E.  macrocephala. 
EPloridana. 
E.  hieroglyphietk 
E.  guttata. 
Epieta. 
E  BOlii. 

Malademft  coneenirietL 
Cittudo  Chrolina. 
Einottemon  oblongum. 
K.  DoubledayO. 
K.  Pentylvanicum. 
K.  odoraium. 
Chdydra  terpentina. 
Trionyx  ferox. 
T.ffiutieut. 

West  coast 
Emyt  omcUa. 
E.  Oregonentit. 

Tropical  Amxrica. 
Tutudo  tubiUanta.    W.  Indies. 
•Kiniryt  J^omeana. 

FotaU  Chdonia. 

Cuvier,  in  his  treatise  upon  Fossil  Tortoises,  observes  that  tlie 
number  of  living  species  is  so  consUierable  that  it  is  very  diificnlt  to 
decide  whether  a  fossil  tortoise  is  or  is  not  of  an  unknown  species; 
inasmuch  as  it  is  not  only  necessary,  before  arriving  at  this  conduaiflo, 
to  compare  the  carapaces  and  plastrons  covered  with  their  hony 
plates  or  scales,  as  they  are  ordinarily  seen  in  cabinets  and  repre- 
sented in  books,  but  also  the  skeletons,  so  that  the  observer  may 
accurately  study  the  joining  of  the  ribs  and  other  bones  which  ooncar 
to  compose  their  cuirasses.  He  names  twenty-nine  species  that  lie 
himself  had  stripped  of  their  covering,  and  says  that  he  ha^  peifomied 
that  operation  on  others  beside. 

Cuvier  commences  his  description  with  the  fossil  ^Wonyoo^  and 
distinguishes — 1,  those  from  the  gypsum-beds  of  the  environs  of 
Paris ;  2,  those  frx>m  the  gypsum-beds  of  Aix ;  8,  those  from  the 
'molasse*  of  the  department  of  the  Gironde ;  4,  those  from  the  gravel 
and  olay-beds  of  Hautevigne  in  the  department  of  the  Lot  and 
Garonne;  6,  those  from  the  gravel-beds  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Castelnaudiy ;  and  6,  those  from  the  sandy  beds  in  the  environs  of 
Avaray. 

He  next  considers  the  Emydetf  or  Fresh-Water  Tortoises^  notidsc^- 
1,  those  from  the  Paris  gypsum-beds ;  2,  those  discovered  together 
with  crocodiles  in  the  Jurassic  limestone  of  the  neighbourhood  of 
Soleure ;  8,  those  of  the  ferruginous  sand  of  Sussex ;  4,  those  of  the 
'molasse'  of  La  Grave  and  those  of  the  'molaases*  of  Switaeriand;  ^ 
those  from  our  Isle  of  Sheppey ;  6,  those  from  the  environs  of 
Brussels ;  and  7,  those  fit>m  the  marly  sand  (sable  maraeuz)  of  the 
province  of  Asti 

The  Marine  Tortoises,  or  true  Chelonians,  he  divides  into — 1,  those  of 
the  environs  of  Maestricht;  and  2,  those  of  the  slate  of  Glaria 

The  Land-Tortoises  noticed  are— 1,  those  of  the  environs  of  Aix; 
and  2,  those  found  in  the  Isle  of  France  under  the  volcanic  beds. 

The  conclusions  drawn  by  Cuvier  are,  that  the  Tortoises  are  as 
ancient  inhabitants  of  the  world  as  the  Crocodiles;  that  they  accom* 
pany  the  remains  of  the  latter  generally ;  and  that  as  the  greater 
number  of  their  remains  belong  to  fresh-water  or  terrestrial  roedes 
they  confirm  the  conjectures  drawn  from  the  bones  of  crocodilee  as 
to  the  existence  of  isles  or  continents  which  were  frequented  bf 
reptiles  before  the  existence  of  viviparous  quadrupeds^  or  at  leest 
before  there  was  a  sufficient  nmnber  of  these  last  to  afford  a  quantity 
of  remains  at  all  comparable  to  thoee  of  reptiles. 

Professor  Owen,  in  his  elaborate  'Report  on  British  Foou 
Reptiles,'-- drawn  up  at  the  request  of  the  British  Aseociation  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science,  and  published  in  their  Transaetioni' 
gives  the  following  account  of  the  order  CheUmia : — 

I.  Family  TtttudiinidcBt  Tortoises,  or  Land-Tortoisea 
1.  New    Red-Sandstone    Tortoises.      The   most   ancient  of  the 
eridenoea  of  Chelonians  in  British  fonnations  appear  to  Professor 


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CHELONIA. 


CHELONIA. 


1010 


Owen  to  be  refenible  to  the  Land-Tortoises ;  and  he  quotes  the  foot- 
prints from  the  quarries  at  Corncockle  Muir,  and  those  subsequently 
disoovered  at  the  quarries  of  Craigs,  two  miles  east  of  Dmnfries^  as 
examples.    [Amphibia.] 

2.  Oolite  Tortoises.  Examples.  Impressions  of  homy  scutes  about 
the  sia»  of  thoao  covering  the  carapace  of  a  tortoise,  ten  inches  in 
length,  in  the  Oolite  Slate  of  Stonesneld. 

IL  Family  EmydidcB,  Fresh-Water  Tortoises. 

1.  An  undetermined  species  in  the  museum  of  Professor  Bell,  from 
the  Eocene  Clay  near  Harwich. 

2.  Emys  tatttdiniformis,  Owen  (Emys  de  Sheppey,  Cut.?).  Sheppey. 
8.  Platemyt  BcwerhankU,  Owen.    Sheppey. 

4.  PUUemyt  JBuUockii,  Owen.    Sheppey. 

6.  TetrottemonpwnetcUum,  Owen.  Purbeck  Limestone.  N.B.  Closely 
allied  to  Trionyx, 

6.  With  regard  to  Platemyt  ManUeUi  (Emys  de  Sussex,  Cuv.,  Emy9 
MouUeUi,  Gray),  Professor  Owen  remarks  that  the  fossils  discovered 
by  Dr.  Mantell  in  the  Wealden  strata  of  Tilgate  Forest,  and  the 
resemblance  of  which  to  the  flat  species  of  Emydian  discovered  by 
M.  Hugi  in  the  Jura  Limestone  at  Soleure  has  been  pointed  out  by 
Cuvier,  are  refenible  to  the  pleurodend  section  of  the  Emydian  family 
as  arrauged  by  Messrs.  Bumdril  and  Bibron,  and  in  that  section  to 
the  genus  Ptatemya  {Ifydrtupit,  Bell) ;  but  that  not  enough  of  the 
skeleton  of  any  individual  has  yet  been  obtained  to  afford  a  foundation 
for  specific  character. 

7.  Laige  Emydian  from  the  Kimmeridge  Clay.  A  bone  in  the 
museum  of  Sir  P.  Grey  Egerton,  Bart,  from  Heddington  Pits, 
probably  belonging  to  a  species  of  Platemys. 

8.  Footsteps  of  Emydians  in  New^  Red-Sandstone.  Stourton 
Quarries,  Cheshire. 

With  regard  to  the  genus  TrionyXf  Professor  Owrn  remarks  that 
certain  British  fossils  from  the  Secondary  Formation  referred  to 
Trionyx  have  been  proved  to  belong  to  another  family  of  Chelonians : 
the  supposed  Trionyx  frt>m  the  New  Red-Sandstones  (Caithness)  has 
been  pronounced  to  be  a  ganoid  fish  (genus  Coccostetu)  by  Agassiz. 
Nor  had  Professor  Owen  when  he  wrote  (1841)  seen  any  Chelonite 
fh>m  the  Wealden  Formation  that  could  be  confidently  affirmed  to 
belong  to  Trionyx, 

A  femur  from  the  Lias  at  Linksfield  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Robertson 
of  Elgin,  44  inches  in  length,  and  found  with  remains  of  Pleaiotaurua 
and  HyhoduMf  though  not  identical  in  form  with  any  Trionyx  with 
which  Professor  Owen  could  compare  it,  he  found  to  resemble  the 
modifications  of  the  bone  in  that  genus  more  closely  than  in  Tortoises, 
Emydians,  or  Turtles.  He  remarks  that  although  some  of  the  Turtles 
of  the  Eocene  period,  as  the  Chelone  longicepa,  present  such  modifica- 
tions of  the  jaws  as  seem  to  have  adapted  them  to  habits  and  food 
analogous  to  those  of  the  Trionyx,  yet  evidences  of  this  genus,  to 
which  the  destruction  of  the  eggs  and  young  of  crocodiles  is  more 
particularly  assigned  in  the  Nile  and  Ganges,  are  not  wanting  in 
certain  localities  where  the  London  Clay  appears  to  have  been  depo- 
sited under  circumstanoes  analogous  to  those  at  the  termination  of 
equally  gigantic  rivers;  and  he  adds  that  unequivocal  portions  of  a 
tzTie  Trionyx  have  been  obtained  from,  the  Eocene  Clay  at  Sheppey 
and  at  Bracklesham,  and  that  they  are  also  associated,  as  in  the  Paris 
basin,  with  remains  of  Anoplotherium  and  PaUeotherivm  in  the  Eocene 
Limestone  deposits  in  the  Isle  of  Wight 

IIL    Family  CheUmidce,  Thalassian  Family,  or  Turtles. 

1.  CheUme  planiceps,  OwwL    Portland  Sandstone. 

2.  C.  obowUa,  Owen.    Purbeck  Limestone. 

8.  An  undetermined  species  of  CktUmetrom  the  Wealden.  Portions 
of  the  carapace,  plastron,  and  bones  of  the  extremities  of  a  large 
species  of  Marine  Turtle,  some  of  them  indicating  individuals  nearly 
three  feet  in  length,  discovered  by  Dr.  Mantell  in  the  Wealden  strata 
of  TUgate  Forest,  are  figured  in  the  Doctor's  '  Illustrations  of  the 
Geology  of  Sussex.'  This  species,  in  Professor  Owen's  opinion,  comes 
nearest  to  (7.  planimentvm  of  the  Harwich  Eocene  Clay. 

4.  (7.  pvlchricep9,  Owen.  Superincumbent  beds  of  the  Lower 
Greensand;  Greensand  near  Barnwell,  Cambridge. 

5.  C.  JBemtedi,  Owen  (Emyt  Bmttedi,  Mantell).  Chalk ;  Burham, 
Kent. 

In  a  monograph  on  the  '  Fossil  Reptilia  of  the  London  Clay,'  by 
Professors  Owen  and  Bell,  published  by  the  PalsBontographioJ 
Society,  the  following  species  are  described,  and  figures  of  the  remains 
found,  given. 

Order—  Ohdonice* 

Family — Marina, 

Qenua — CheUme, 

1.  C,  hrevicepi  {Emys  Parhinttmii,  J.  E.  Gray ;  Emys  de  Sheppey, 
H.  v.  Meyer;  Chelone  antiqwi,  K5nig).    Eocene  Clay  of  Sheppey. 

2.  O.  kngicept.    Eocene  Clav  of  Sheppey. 
8.  0.  ercusicottata,    Harwich  Clay. 

4.  C.  decUvis.    Eocene  Deposits  of  Bognor,  Sussex. 

5.  C.  trigonicept.    Eocene  Clay  at  Brackle^am. 

6.  C,  cvneieepi.  London  Clay  of  Sheppey. 

7.  C.  tyboar%nata,    Sheppey. 

HAT.  HIST.  DIT.  TOL.  L 


Remarking  on  the  descriptions  of  these  species.  Professor  Owen 
says,  ''A  retrospect  of  the  facts  above  detailed  relative  to  the  Fossil 
Chelonians  of  the  genus  Chelone,  or  marine  family  of  the  order,  leads 
to  conclusions  of  much  greater  interest  than  the  previous  opinions 
respecting  the  Chelonites  of  the  London  Clay  could  have  suggested. 
Whilst  these  fossils  were  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  a  fresh- 
water genus,  the  difference  between  the  present  fauna  and  that  of 
the  Eocene  period,  in  reference  to  the  Chelonian  order,  was  not  veiy 
great;  since  the  Emys,  or  Cittudo  Europcea,  still  abounds  on  the 
Continent,  after  which  it  was  named,  and  lives  long  in  our  own 
island  in  suitable  localities. 

"But  the  case  assumes  a  very  different  aspect  when  we  come  to 
the  conviction  that  the  minority  of  the  Eocene  Chelonites  belong  to 
the  true  marine  genus  Chdone  ;  and  that  the  number  of  species  of 
these  extinct  Turtles  already  obtained  from  so  limited  a  space  as  the 
Isle  of  Sheppey,  exceeds  that  of  the  species  of  Chelone  now  known 
to  exist  throughout  the  globe.  Notwithstandiog  the  assiduous 
search  of  naturalists,  and  the  attraction  to  Uie  commercial  voyager 
which  the  shell  and  the  fiesh  of  the  Turtles  offer,  all  the  tropics!  seas 
of  the  world  have  hitherto  yielded  no  more  than  five  well-defined 
raecies  of  Chelone;  and  of  these  only  two,  as  the  C.  Mydat  and 
C  Caotumaf  are  known  to  frequent  the  same  locality.  It  is 
obvious,  therefore,  that  the  ancient  ocean  of  the  Eocene  epoch  was 
much  less  sparipgly  inhabited  by  Turtles ;  and  that  these  presented 
a  greater  variety  of  specific  modifications  than  are  known  in  the 
seas  of  the  warmer  latitudes  of  the  present  day. 

**  The  indications  which  the  English  Eocene  Turtles,  in  conjunction 
with  other  oz^ganic  remains  from  the  same  formation,  afford  of  the 
warmer  climate  of  the  latitude  in  which  they  lived,  as  compared 
with  that  which  prevails  there  in  the  present  day,  accord  with  those 
which  all  the  oi^ganic  remains  of  the  oldest  Tertiaiy  deposits  have 
hitherto  yielded  in  reference  to  this  interesting  point 

"  That  abundance  of  food  must  have  been  produced  under  such 
influences  cannot  of  course  be  doubted ;  and  we  may  infer  that  to 
some  of  the  extinct  species,  which  like  the  Chdone  longieeps  and  C. 
planimentum  exhibit  either  a  form  of  head  well  adapted  for  pene- 
trating the  soil,  or  with  modifications  that  indicate  an  affinity  to  the 
Trionycet,  was  assigned  the  task  of  checking  the  undue  increase  of 
the  now  extinct  crocodiles  and  gavials  of  the  same  epoch  and  locality, 
by  devouring  their  eggs,  or  their  yoimg  becoming  probably  in  return 
themselves  an  occasional  prey  to  the  older  individuals  of  the  same 
carnivorous  Saurians." 

Family — Plvmalia, 

Genus — Trionyx. 

1.  T.  ffenricL    Eocene  at  Hordwell. 

2.  T.  Barharm.    Eocene  at  Hordwell. 

S.  T.  incrtuactttu.    Eocene  Formations  of  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

4.  T.  tnarginaius.     Eocene  Deposit  at  Hordwell  Cliff. 

5.  T.  rivotus.    Eocene  Beds  at  Hordwell  Cliff. 

6.  T.  planu*.    Eocene  at  Hordwell  and  Bracklesham. 

7.  T.  circutMtdcatus,    Eocene  at  HordweU. 

8.  T.  pustulatus.    Clay  at  Sheppey. 

¥aixxuiy—%Paludino9a, 
Genus — Platemys, 

1.  P,  BuUockii,    London  Clay. 

2.  P.  Eowerbankii,    Clay  at  Sheppey. 

Genus — Emys, 

1.  E,  iestudiniformis  (Emys  de  Sheppey,  Cuvier?).  Eocene  Clay 
of  Sheppey. 

2.  E,  lofvis.    Clay  of  Sheppey. 

3.  E,  Comptoni, 

4.  E.  hicarinata, 

5.  E.  Belahediii,    London  Clay,  Isle  of  Sheppey. 

Amongst  the  Fossil  remains  brought  from  the  Tertiary  Formations 
of  India  by  Dr.  Falconer  and  M^jor  Cautley,  are  those  of  a  gigantic 
species  of  Land-Tortoise.  The  species  referred  to  has  been  named 
Colossochelys  Atlas.  Portions  of  its  skeleton  and  a  model  of  the 
entire  animal  are  now  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum.  The 
carapace  of  this  gigantic  animal  measures  in  some  specimens  above 
12  feet  in  length.  These  remains  were  found  associated  vrith  the 
bones  of  gigantic  extinct  Mammalia  allied  to  Palceotherium,  and  the 
other  PachydermMta  of  the  Paris  basin.  In  the  same  deposits  were 
also  found  the  remains  of  several  smaller  species  of  Chdonia,  and  of 
the  one  which  now  inhabits  India.  There  nave  been  also  found  in 
the  same  locality  the  remains  of  gigantic  crooodiles,  differing  from 
those  now  inhabiting  India,  and  several  species  of  elephant 

In  the  'Reports'  of  the  United  States  Surveying  Exj^edition  in 
Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minesota,  in  1850,  an  account  is  given  of  the 
discovery  of  the  remains  of  a  large  nimiber  of  species  of  Chdoma, 
both  Tortoises  and  Turtles,  with  the  remains  of  extinct  forms  of 
Mammalia  in  the  district  of  the  Mauvaises  Torres  on  the  Missouri. 

CHELO'NIA  (Godart),  a  genus  of  Lepidopterous  Insects,  of  the 
section  Noetwrna  (Latreille),  and  family  Arcmda  (Leach).  Before  we 
proceed  with  an  account  of  this  genus,  which  contains  two  of  the 

8  T 


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CHELONIANS. 


CHEBDfOTER. 


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moBt  conspicuous  and  beautiful  of  the  British  moths,  it  may  be  well 
briefly  to  state  the  characters  of  the  family  ArctiidcPf  as  far  as  the 
diversified  habit  of  the  species  will  admit.  The  palpi  are  two  in 
number,  mostly  S-jointed  and  hairy.  The  antenme  have  a  double 
series  of  pectinations ;  thorax  laige  ;  the  apex  of  the  body  generally 
furnished  with  a  tuft ;  wings  closing  so  as  to  form  an  angle  by  their 
junction,  or  folding  horizontally.  The  males  are  usually  larger  than 
the  females ;  iorvse  generally  very  hairy,  frequently  furnished  with 
numerous  tufts,  those  on  the  tail  and  towards  the  head  the  longer. 

The  genus  Ckelonia  is  synonymous  with  Arctia  of  Schrank.  The 
latter  name  is  generally  aidopted  by  British  entomologists  from  its 
priority.  The  term  Chelonia  is  open  to  another  objection,  being 
commonly  used  to  designate  a  section  of  Tortoises. 

Arctia  C<nfa,  the  Large  Tiger-Moth,  or  the  (Garden-Tiger,  is  very 
common  in  the  south  of  England,  but  apparently  less  so  in  the  north. 
The  expanded  wings  measure  from  24  to  8  inches  in  width;  the 
upper  wings  are  of  a  chocolate-brown  colour,  with  numerous  irregular 
cream-coloured  markings ;  the  under  wings  are  scarlet,  with  five  or 
six  large  blue-black  spots ;  the  body  is  also  scarlet,  or  pinkish  above, 
with  several  transverse  black  bands ;  on  the  under  side  the  ground- 
colour is  black,  with  pink  bands ;  the  head  and  thorax  are  brown, 
separated  with  a  red  ring;  the  legs  are  red  at  the  base,  and  the 
antennsB  are  white. 

The  caterpillar  of  this  moth  is  found  in  great  abundance  near 
London,  and  is  frequently  seen  crawling  on  pathways :  it  is  covered 
with  long  black  hairs,  and  when  touched  will  roll  itself  up  in  a  ring : 
it  feeds  upon  a  great  variety  of  plants,  but  seems  most  fond  of 
lettuce,  groundsel,  and  chickweed.  The  larva  is  foimd  in  the  spring 
months,  and  turns  into  a  pupa  about  June.  The  pupa  is  inclosed  in 
a  loose  web  of  a  white  colour;  the  moth  appears  in  the  autumn. 

This  species  is  extremely  variable  in  its  imago  state;  we  have 
seen  specimens  in  which  the  upper  wing  is  nearly  all  white,  and 
others  in  which  the  white  is  almost  obliterated :  the  spots  on  the 
under  wing  vary  also  considerably ;  they  sometimes  run  one  into  the 
other  so  as  to  form  a  band. 

Arctia  Villica,  the  Cream-Spot  Tiger-Moth,  is  the  only  other  well 
authenticated  British  species ;  it  is  far  less  abundant  than  the  other. 
The  upper  wings  are  black,  with  about  eight  large  cream-coloured 
spots;  the  under  wings  are  yellowish,  spotted  more  or  less  with 
black,  and  has  an  irregular  black  fascia  near  the  margin;  the 
abdomen  is  reddish,  spotted  with  black ;  the  head  and  thorax  are 
black  ;  the  latter  has  two  cream-coloured  spots. 

The  caterpillar  very  much  resembles  the  one  last  described,  but 
has  a  red  head,  and  legs  of  the  same  colour;  like  the  last  it  feeds 
upon  various  plants,  particularly  the  chickweed.  The  moth  appears 
about  the  end  of  June,  and  is  rather  less  than  the  Large  Tiger. 

CHELONLA.NS.    [Chelonia.] 

CHELYS.    [Chelonia.] 

CHEMNITZIA,  a  genus  of  Mollusca  belonging  to  the  Prosobran- 
chiate  section  of  the  Gatteropoda,  and  referred  to  the  family  Pyrami- 

ddlidcB.      [PTRAMIDELLlDJi.] 

OHENALOPEX,  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  family  Anatida, 
to  which  the  Ejnrptian  Qoose  (C,  ^gyptiacw)  is  referred.     [Ducks.] 

CHE'NNIUM,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects.     [Pbelaphus.] 

CHENOCOPROLITE,  a  Mmeral  of  a  yellow  or  pale-green  colour, 
belonging  to  the  silver  series,  /md  supposed  to  be  an  arsenate  of  silver 
and  iron. 

CHENOPODIA'CE^,  CA<fm)pocZ»,  the  Chenopodium  Tribe,  a  natural 
order  of  Exogens,  consisting  of  numerous  species,  used  either  for 
culinary  purposes  or  for  the  manufacture  of  soda.  They  are  apetalous 
plants,  with  minute  green  herbaceous  flowers,  a  small  number  of 
stamens,  which  are  opposite  the  segments  of  the  calyx,  and  a  one- 
celled  membranous  fruit,  containing  one  single  erect  seed,  or  a  very 
small  number.  The  leaves  are  soft  and  rather  succulent,  without  any 
trace  of  stiptdes.  Most  of  them  are  found  in  the  cold  and  temperate 
parts  of  the  world.  They  differ  from  Polygonacta;  and  Urticacece  in 
the  want  of  stipules,  and  from  Amarantacece  in  their  flowers  not  being 
coloured  and  enveloped  in  membranous  bracts.  This  order  embraces 
plants  of  opposite  characters,  and  when  better  investigated  will 
probably  be  split  up.  Schleiden  has  observed  that  certain  species 
have  the  wood  very  compact,  and  pierced  with  vertical  cords  of 
cellular  tissue.  The  order  contains  63  genera  and  360  species.  They 
are  natives  of  all  parts  of  the  world,  in  waste  and  uncultivated  places. 
Spinach  [Spihacia],  Fat  Hen,  Good  King  Henrv  [Chenopodium], 
Garden  Orach  [Atriplex],  Chard-Beet,  Beet,  Mdngold  Wurzel  [Beta], 
belong  to  this  order.  Soda  is  obtained  from  species  of  Salsola  and 
Salicomia.    [Salbola;  Saucornia.] 

CHENOPO'DIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  the  type  of  the  natural  order 
CheiwpodiacecB.  It  consists  of  weedy  plants,  common  on  dunghills  and  in 
waste  places,  and  known  by  the  strange  names  of  Fat  Hen  {C.  alhum), 
Good  King  Henry  {C.  Bonua-ffmrtcus),  &c.  They  are  generally 
insipid  plants,  whose  leaves  and  young  shoots  maybe  eaten  as  spinach, 
but  which  have  no  particular  merit.  In  this  genus  is  however  found 
the  celebrated  Quinoa  of  Peru  (C,  Quinoa).  This  plant,  whose  seeds 
are  said  to  be  of  as  muoh  importance  to  the  Peruvians  m  the  maize, 
potato,  and  wheat,  is  an  annual  weedy  species,  with  an  appearance 
similar  to  that  of  Garden  Orach,  to  the  size  of  which  it  grows.  Its 
flowers  appear  in  close  clusters  about  the  ends  of  the  brancheii  and 


ffli 


I 


^$>  ^ 


Ohenopodiaeea.    Blihtm  virgatnm, 

«,  angle  of  the  petiole,  ebowing  the  peduncle ;  ft,  flower ;  e,  flower  deprlred 
of  it«  calyx,  showing  the  ovary,  surmounted  by  three  pistils  ;  <f,  calyx ;  e,  fruit 
imbedded  in  the  succulent  calyx ;  /,  g,  fruit  separated  from  the  calyx  ;  A,  hori- 
xontal  section  of  fruit ;  t,  rcrtical  do. ;  *,  embryo.  All  these  figur»,  excepting 
o,  magnified  hi  various  degrees. 

are  succeeded  by  a  profusion  of  little  black  or  white  seeds  (according 
to  the  variety)  about  the  size  of  grains  of  millet.  Its  leaves  are 
employed  as  spinach,  and  the  seeds  in  soup  or  broth  as  rice,  and  in 
some  parts  of  South  America  they  are  in  as  much  use  as  rice  in  India. 
They  are  said  to  yield  a  pleasant  beer  when  fermented.  It  is  chiefly 
upon  the  highest  land  of  Southern  Peru,  where  neither  barley  nor  rye 
will  ripen,  as,  for  instance,  at  the  height  of  nearly  13,000  feet  on  tie 
table-land  of  Chiquit6s,  that  Quinoa  forms  the  great  article  of  agri- 
culture ;  it  there  forms  fields,  the  limits  of  which  the  eye  can  hardly 
reach,  of  a  monotonous  and  unpleasant  aspect,  scarcely  mixed  with  a 
single  other  species,  and  very  unlike  the  rich  and  waving  greenness  of 
our  standing  com.  It  is  also  extremely  common  about  the  great  lake 
of  Titicaca.  The  seeds  are  ripened  in  England,  and  may  now  be 
purchased  at  any  of  the  seed-shops ;  but  the  plant  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered worth  the  attempt  at  cultivating  it  where  anything  else  will 
grow.  X!.  olidum,  has  an  atrocious  odour,  and  has  a  reputation  as  an 
antispasmodic  and  emmenagogue. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  British  species  of  Chawpodiun^. 
♦  Perianth  enveloping  the  fruit. 
+  Leaves  undivided. 

Leaves  ovate  rhomboidaL     C.  olidum. 

Leaves  ovate-ellipticaL     C.  polyspermum. 
tt  Leaves  toothed,  angled,  or  lobed. 

Leaves  triangular.     C.  wrbicum. 

Leaves  sinuate-dentate.     C.  aJhum, 

Leaves  unequally  8-lobed.     C.  fidfoUtm, 

Leaves  rhomboid-ovate.     0.  muraU. 

Leaves  subcordate.     C.  hybridum, 
**  Perianth  not  covering  the  fruit, 
t  Stigmas  short 

Leaves  rhomboid.     C,  rubrwn. 

Leaves  triangular.     C.  botryoidet. 

Leaves  oblong.     C,  glauevm. 

ft  Stigmas  elongated. 

Leaves  trisjogular.     C.  Bonua-ffenriau, 
CHERIMOYER,  the  fruit  of  a  Peruvian  downy-leaved  species  of 
Anona,  the  A,  Cherimclia,    It  is  described  as  the  fruit  most  esteemed 


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CHERLERIA. 


CHIMONANTHUS. 


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by  the  people  of  the  western  parts  of  South  America,  and  is  very  like 
the  Cuatard  Apple  of  the  West  Indies.  [Anoi^a.]  It  is  a  tree  about 
12  feet  high ;  the  leaves  are  oval,  pointed  at  both  ends ;  the  flowers 
solitary,  very  fragrant,  of  a  greenish-white  colour,  and  the  fruit  some- 
what heart-shaped,  with  a  scaly  appearance  on  the  outside :  when 
ripe  it  is  grayish-brown,  or  black.  The  flesh  is  white  and  sweet, 
mixed  with  several  seeds  of  the  colour  of  cofiee.  The  Creoles  think 
this  fruit  the  best  of  the  country.  Baron  Humboldt  speaks  of  it  in 
terms  of  high  praise,  and  his  account  is  completely  confirmed  by  the 
testimony  of  manv  officers  who  have  been  in  the  South  American 
service ;  but  Feuillde  says,  one  European  pear  or  plum  is  worth  all  the 
Cherimoyers  of  Peru. 

CHERLE'RIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
OaryophyUacece.  It  has  5  sepals,  5  petals  (sometimes  absent),  10  stamens, 
the  outer  ones  opposite  to  the  sepals,  springing  from  an  oblong  emaigi- 
nate  glandular  base,  3  styles,  a  3-valved  capsule.  There  is  only  one 
species  which  is  a  native  of  Great  Britain.  It  was  called  by  Linnaeus 
U.  tedoides.  The  petals  are  very  generally  wanting,  the  flowers  are 
solitary  on  short  stalks.  The  stems  are  numerous,  forming  a  dense 
mass  close  to  the  ground.  The  leaves  are  very  numerous,  linear- 
subulate,  and  finely  ciliated.  It  is  found  on  the  summits  of  tibe 
mountains  of  Scotland. 

CHERRY,  the  fruit  of  the  various  species  of  Cenum,  [Cerasus.] 
Like  most  of  the  fruits  yielded  by  the  natural  order  Amygdcdacea,  it 
is  characterised  by  the  hardness  of  its  endocarp,  hence  this  part  is 
often  called  the  stone.  This  hard  part  is  often  used  for  ornamental 
carving,  specimens  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  museum  of  the 
Royal  Gardens  at  Kew.  For  the  varieties  of  Cherry,  and  the  culture 
of  the  tree,  see  Cherrt,  in  Arts  and  So.  Dit. 

CHERRY-LAURELS.    [Cerasus.] 

CHERRY-TREES.    [Cerasus.] 

CHERSIANS.    [Chelonia.] 

CHERT,  a  variety  of  quartz  being  a  kind  of  granular  Chalcedony. 
It  is  a  transition  from  the  smoother  forms  of  Quartz  to  Homstone. 
[Aqate.] 

CHERVIL,  a  culinary  vegetable,  the  Antkriseiu  Cerefolium  FAn- 
thribcus]  of  botanists.  It  is  an  annual,  and  a  native  of  the  south  of 
Europe.  Its  leaves  have  a  slight  aromatic  taste,  and  are  used  in  soups 
and  salads.    It  is  little  cultivated. 

CHESTNUT,  BUCK'S-EYE.    [Pavia.] 

CHESTNUT,  HORSR    [^Esculus.] 

CHESTNUT,  SWEET.    [Castanea.] 

CHIASTOLITE  is  a  name  given  to  a  variety  of  AnddlutUe,  [Anda- 
LUsiTE.]     It  is  also  called  ifocic.      [Macle.] 

CHICA.    [Biononia.] 

CHICHA.    [Sterculia.] 

CHICK-PEA.    [Cicer.] 

CHICKRASSIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Cedrelacea.     C.  taJMarU  is  said  to  be  a  powerful  astringent. 

CHICK  WEED,  a  common  annual,  with  soft  light-green  opposite 
ovate  leaves,  a  brittle  stem,  and  minute  white  petals,  almost  split  into 
two  parts.  It  and  groundsel  are  two  plants  which  are  to  be  found  in 
flower  on  any  day  in  the  year.  Botanists  name  it  Stellaria  medict. 
[Stellaria.] 

CHICORY.    [CiCHORiuM.] 

CHIFF-CHAFF.    [Sylvia.] 

CHIGOE.    [Pulex.] 

CHILDRENITE,  a  Mineral  found  in  Derbyshire.  It  occurs  in 
minute  yellowish-brown  crystals,  coating  spathic  iron.  It  is  supposed 
to  consist  of  phosphoric  acid,  alumina,  and  iron. 

CHILINA,  a  genus  of  Testaceous  Mollusks,  separated  by  Dr.  J.  E. 
Gray  from  Auricula,  and  including  Auricula  Dombeiana  of  Iiamarck, 
and  Auricula  fiuviatilia  of  Lesson.  Locality,  South  America,  in 
fresh-water  streams,  with  most  of  the  habits  of  the  XuimeoL 

CHILLIES.    [Capsicum.] 

CHILLINGHAM  CATTLE.    [Bovidjb.] 

CHILO'GNATHA  (Latreille),  an  order  of  Insects  belonging  to  the 
clast)  Myriapoda.  It  has  the  following  characters : — Body  generally 
cylindrical,  and  consisting  of  numerous  crustaceous  rings  or  segments ; 
the  head  is  furnished  with  two  short  7-jointed  antennae,  and  two 
mandibles ;  the  horny  substance  of  the  mandibles  does  not  continue 
uninterruptedly  from  the  base  to  the  apex,  but  is  divided  in  the  middle 
so  that  the  upper  part  is,  as  it  were,  hinged  to  the  lower  by  a  tough 
membrane;  they  are  covered  above  by  the  fore  port  of  the  head, 
which  forms  a  kind  of  upper  lip,  and  beneath  by  an  imder  lip ;  this 
last  part  is  divided  externally  into  four  portions  by  three  sutures ; 
the  two  central  portions  are  narrower  than  the  outer  ones,  and  spring 
from  a  plate  of  a  semicircular  shape ;  the  apex  of  the  under  lip  is  fur- 
nished with  several  large  tubercles.  The  first  segment  of  the  body, 
or  that  next  the  head,  is  considerably  larger  than  the  following  seg- 
ments. The  legs  are  short,  very  numerous,  and  terminated  by  a 
simple  hook ;  the  anterior  segments  of  the  body  are  some  of  them 
unprovided  with  legs,  and  others  have  a  single  pair  each  ;  the  remain- 
ing segments  (with  the  exception  of  the  last  two  or  three)  commencing 
from  the  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  from  the  head,  are  each  furnished  with 
two  pairs  of  legs.  The  sexual  organs  of  the  male  are  situated  behind 
the  seventh  pair  of  legs,  and  those  of  the  female  behind  the  second 
pair.    The  respiratory  Iriflces  ore  situated  on  the  sternal  part  of  each 


segment  of  the  body;  they  communicate  internally  with  a  double 
series  of  pneumatic  sacs  which  extend  the  whole  length  of  the  body, 
and  from  which  the  tracheal  branches  spring  and  spread  over  the 
other  organs;  these  sacs  are  not  connected  with  each  other,  as  is 
usually  the  case,  by  a  principal  trachea,  A  series  of  pores  on  each 
side  of  the  body  have  been  mistaken  for  the  stigmata,  but  their 
orifices  give  vent  to  an  acid  liquid  secretion  which  has  a  very  disa- 
greeable odour,  and  probably  serves  as  a  means  of  defence. 

The  ChUognathcB  crawl  slowly,  and  appear  to  glide  over  the  ground, 
and  when  touched  they  wUl  roll  themselves  up  spirally.  They  feed 
upon  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  substances.  The  genus  luhti  of 
Linnaeus  [Iulub]  included  all  the  species  of  this  order  known  in  his 
time.  It  now  embraces  several  genera  and  upwards  of  seventy  species. 
[Myriapoda.] 

CHILOTODA  (Latreille),  an  order  of  Insects  belonging  to  the 
class  Myriapoda,  This  famUy  is  synonymous  with  the  order  Syi^ 
gnatha  (Leach),  and  the  genus  Scolopendra  of  Liniueus.  The  characters 
are : — Antennae  thick  at  the  base,  and  gradually  growing  slender  towards 
the  apex,  composed  of  fourteen  or  more  joints ;  the  mouth  consists  of 
two  mandibles,  which  are  furnished  with  a  palpiform  process,  and 
provided  at  the  apex  with  numerous  little  denticulations ;  covering 
these  is  an  upper  lip  and  an  under  lip ;  the  latter  is  composed  of  four 
distinct  portions,  of  which  the  two  outer  parts  are  the  largest,  and 
transversely  jointed  ;  above  this  part  (viewing  the  head  from  beneath) 
are  two  palpi,  which  resemble  legs  in  being  terminated  by  a  pointed 
claw :  covering  this  under  lip,  there  is  a  second  lip,  an  organ  furnished 
with  two  lateral  processes,  each  of  which  is  terminated  by  a  large  bent 
claw,  which  is  said  to  be  perforated  beneath  by  a  hole  through  which 
a  poisonous  liquid  is  ejected. 

The  body  is  depressed,  composed  of  numerous  segments,  which  are 
covered  above  and  beneath  with  plates  of  a  homy  substance,  and  each 
segment  is  generally  furnished  with  a  pair  of  legs ;  the  last  pair  are 
thrown  back.  The  sexual  organs  are  placed  at  the  posterior  extre- 
mity of  the  body.  The  organs  of  respiration  consist  wholly  or  partly 
of  tubular  tracheoe.  The  stigmata  are  placed  on  the  sides  of  the 
body. 

These  insects  are  carnivorous,  and  crawl  about  by  night  Most  of 
them  are  very  active  in  their  movements,  and  some  emit  a  phosphoric 
light  They  conceal  themselves  under  stones  and  fallen  trees,  and  are 
all  found  in  rotten  wood.  In  hot  climates  some  of  the  species  grow 
to  an  immense  size  (especially  those  of  the  genus  Scolopendra,  as  it  is 
now  restricted),  and,  owing  to  their  venomotis  bite,  are  much  dreaded 
by  the  inhabitants  of  those  parts. 

The  animals  conmionly  known  by  the  name  of  Centipedes  belong 
to  this  family.    [Scolopendra.] 

The  species  of  this  oi-der  have  been  recently  greatly  increased.  It 
now  embraces  nearly  a  hundred  species.     rMTRiAPODA.] 

CHIMiB'RA,  a  genus  of  Cartilaginous  Fishes  allied  to  the  Sturgeon 
and  Shark  sections  [Sturionid^]  One  spedes,  (7.  monetrota,  inha- 
bits the  British  seas,  and  is  known  by  the  names  of  the  King  of  the 
Herrings,  the  Rabbit-Fish,  and  Sea-Monster. 

CRIMMRIDM,  a  family  of  Fishes  between  the  Sharks  and  the 
Sturgeons,  to  which  is  referred  the  anomalous  genua  Ckinuerci, 
[Sturionidjl] 

CHIMA'PHILA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Pyrqlactw,  C*  corymbota  (Pursh),  the  Pyrola  vmhellata  of  Linnaeus, 
the  Corymbose  Winteigreen,  is  a  small  evergreen  woodv  plant,  com- 
mon in  the  pine-forests  of  the  north  of  Europe,  also  found  in  Asia 
and  in  North  America,  to  the  Indian  inhabitants  of  which  its  virtues 
have  been  long  known.  The  leaves  possess  diuretic  properties  joined 
to  a  tonic  power,  and  they  impart  strength  and  comfort  to  the  stomach 
while  they  increase  the  action  of  the  kidneys.  Applied  externally, 
they  cause  redness  and  vesication  of  the  skin.  Chemical  analysis 
shows  them  to  consist  of  tannin,  resin,  and  an  acrid  extractive.  The 
taste  is  at  first  sweet,  afterwanls  bitter.  Their  tonic  and  diuretic 
properties  render  them  valuable  remedial  agents  in  dropsies,  espe- 
cially such  as  follow  acute  diseases.  They  have  also  been  given 
advantageously  in  intermittent  and  even  typhus  fever.  Dr.  Chapman 
ascribes  a  diaphoretic  power  to  them.  Infusion,  decoction,  and 
extract  are  the  forms  in  which  they  have  been  given :  decoction  is 
preferable,  of  which  some  ounces  may  be  given  repeatedly  during 
the  day. 

CHIMONA'NTHUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belongiilj;  to  the  natural 
order  Calycanthacece.  The  species  or  rather  varieties  of  this  genus 
are  called  in  the  gardens  Japan  AUspice.  They  are  deciduous  planti^ 
with  opposite  pide-green  sharp-pointed  rather  rough  leaves,  of  an 
ovate-hmceolate  figure.  About  the  end  of  November  these  fiJl  from 
the  bushes,  and  are  succeeded  by  the  flowers,  whi^  appear  at  Christ- 
mas-time upon  the  naked  branches.  They  consist  of  an  inferior  calyx, 
formed  of  a  considerable  number  of  roundish  scale-like  sepals,  the 
outermost  of  which  are  pale  brown,  the  innermost  semi-transparent^ 
with  some  tinge  of  yellow.  The  petals  are  yellowish  ovate  leaves, 
stained  with  chocolate-red  veins,  and  surroundmg  a  small  number  of 
stamens.  The  fruit  is  a  bright-brown  leathery  calyx-tube,  inclosing 
three  or  four  oblong  bright-brown  polished  nuts.  There  is  probably 
no  plant  more  deliciously  fragrant  than  this,  orange  flowers  and  violel^ 
not  excepted.  The  plant  is  quite  hardy  if  protected  a  little  by  a  wall 
or  by  palings.    The  only  species  is  C.  fragrant.    Of  this  three  yarietMS 


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are  known  in  the  gardens;  the  common  kind,  C.  fntgrara,  with 
•mall  pale-yellow  flowers ;  the  C.  f.  grandifioruM,  with  large  bright- 
yellow  flowers ;  and  another,  C.f.  parvijloriu,  with  flowers  resembling 
those  of  the  first,  except  in  being  much  smaller.  The  last  is  not  worth 
cultivating ;  both  the  former  should  be  found  in  every  garden,  how- 
ever smalL  Nothing  can  be  more  elegant  as  room-ornaments  than 
handfuls  of  their  round  flowers  placed  on  little  porcelain  traya 

CHIMPANZEE,  the  name  by  which  one  of  those  forms  which 
approach  nearest  to  man  is  most  generally  knoi^oi.  The  term  has 
been  applied  to  the  Simla  Satyrut  of  Linnaeus,  the  Oriental  Orang  ; 
but  zoologists  are  now  agreed  in  its  proper  application  to  the  Black 
or  African  Orang  or  Pygmy  {Troglodytet  niger  of  GJeoffroy,  Simia 
Troglodytes  of  Blumenbach).  Linnaeus  placed  the  form  under  the 
genus  Homo,  with  the  specific  name  Troglodyte$,  next  to  Homo  tajnent, 
arranging,  as  we  have  seen  above,  the  Asiatic  Orang  under  the  Simia. 
But  he  seems  to  have  confounded  the  two  species  of  Orangs,  which 
differ  veiy  considerably ;  for  he  refers  to  the  ngure  given  by  Bontius, 
which  was  intended  for  the  Asiatic,  and  yet  he  gives,  quoting  Pliny, 
the  borders  of  Ethiopia  as  its  habitat,  as  well  as  Java,  Amboyna, 
Temate,  and  Moimt  Ophir  in  Malacca.  That  the  Chimpanzee,  though 
much  of  its  organisation  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  that  of  Man, 
is  separated  from  him  by  a  wide  interval,  the  accurate  investigations 
of  modem  anatomists  sufficiently  prove.  Tyson,  Camper,  Blumen- 
bach, Cuvier,  Lawrence,  and  especially  Owen,  have  set  that  question 
at  reety  though  Bory  de  St:  Vincent  struggled  hard  to  retain  Man  and 
the  Orangs  as  members  of  the  same  zoological  family.  Before  we  refer 
to  the  alignments  of  the  last-named  zoologist  and  his  followers,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  apprize  the  reader  that,  to  say  nothing  of  the  difference 
of  oivanisation  in  other  parts  of  the  body  and  foot,  the  heel-bone  (os 
oalcis)  of  man  does  not  project  backwards  so  far  in  proportion  as  that 
of  the  Chimpanzee,  and  Lawrence  notes  this  as  an  infallible  human 
characteristio ;  '  ex  calce  hominem.'  Bory  de  St.  Vincent,  and  those 
who  support  the  theory  of  gradual  development  of  animal  form, 
endeavour  to  show  that  the  position  of  the  great  toe,  upon  which  its 
conversion  into  an  opposeable  organ,  or  thumb,  and  the  consequent 
transmutation  of  the  foot  into  a  hand,  principally  depends,  is  a  cha- 
racter subject  to  modification  ;  and,  after  a  somewhat  sweeping 
assumption  that  it  is  the  onlv  difference  of  oi^ganisation  between  the 
Orangs  and  Man,  points  the  whole  strength  of  bin  ailment  against  its 
value  as  a  zoological  character ;  and,  by  a  rather  retrograde  process 
of  reasoning,  endeavours  to  support  his  views  by  giving  an  instance 
where  man,  under  certain  circimistances,  obtains  a  prehensile  power 
of  foot.  Calling  in  aid  the  Resiniers  of  the  Landes  of  Aquitaine,  he 
exhibits  them  as  having  acquired  a  power  of  opposing  the  great  toe  to 
the  others,  a  faculty  supposed  to  have  been  arrived  at  by  their  scan- 
Borial  habits  in  obtaining  their  living  by  gathering  the  resin  of  Pinus 
maritima.  "  But,"  as  PJx>fessor  Owen  well  observes,  "  supposing  the 
extent  of  motion  of  the  great  toe  to  be  sufficiently  increased  by  con- 
stant habits  of  climbing,  or  in  connection  with  a  congenital  defect  of 
the  upper  extremities,  yet  it  does  not  appear  that  the  os  calcis,  or  the 
other  bones  of  the  foot,  have  lost  any  of  those  proportions  which  so 
imerringly  distinguish  man  from  the  ape."  M.  Bory,  however,  in  his 
zealous  endeavours  to  lower  the  arrogance  which  makes  man  unwilling 
to  fraternise  with  apes  and  monkeys,  is  carried  so  far  as  to  give  vent 
to  this  naive  question  : — "  En  effet,  quatre  mains  ne  vaudraient  elles 
pas  mieux  que  deux  comme  6\6meua  de  perfectibility  ? " — "  In  fact, 
are  not  four  hands  of  more  value  than  two  as  elements  of  perfecti- 
bility ?"  Now,  let  us  look  at  this  fallacy,  for  a  fallacy  it  is.  There 
might  be  a  little,  and  a  very  little  after  a\1,  in  the  query,  if  any  one 
of  the  four  hands  of  the  Quadrwnana,  or  all  of  them  put  together, 
approached  the  hand  of  man  as  an  instrument  of  action, — an  instru- 
ment whereby,  though  bom  the  most  helpless  of  animals  and  without 
clothing  or  any  natural  protection,  he  has  made  himself  master  of 
all,  and  compelled  the  apparently  most  impracticable  natural  produc- 
tions to  minister  not  only  to  his  wants  but  to  his  most  luxurious 
imaffinatious.  Let  any  one  who  is  at  all  conversant  with  animal 
mechanics  look  at  the  hand  of  a  Chimpanzee,  and  compare  it  with  his 
own ;  or  let  any  one  observe  the  Chimpanzee  using  his  apology  for  a 
thumb,  and  then  cast  his  eyes  on  the  merest  hodman  at  his  work,  and 
he  will  soon  see  where  the  advantage  liea  And  this  is  not  all  "  To 
give  due  force  to  this  proposition,"  says  Professor  Owen  in  his  paper 
'  On  the  Osteology  of  the  Chimpanzee  and  Orang-Utan,'  "  the  four 
hands  of  the  ape  ought  to  be  independent  of  any  snare  in  stationary 
support  or  progression.  Now,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe  that 
the  perfection  of  the  hands  of  man  results,  in  a  great  measure,  from 
the  free  use  he  is  enabled  to  make  of  them  in  consequence  of  the 
oi^p^anisation  of  the  lower  members  as  exclusive  instruments  for  sus- 
taining and  moving  the  body.  It  has,  however,  been  suggested  that 
the  hidlux  (thumb)  of  the  orang  might  acquire  increased  length  and 
strength  during  the  efforts  of  successive  generations  to  maintain  the 
erect  position ;  but  if  we  look  a  little  further  into  the  anatomy  of  the 
orangs,  a  difficulty  presents  itself  unforeseen  b^  Lamarck  and  Bory. 
The  muscle  called  'flexor  longus  pollicis  pedis'  terminates,  in  Uie 
human  subject,  in  a  single  tendon,  and  its  force  is  concentrated  on 
the  great  toe,  the  principal  point  of  resistance  in  raising  the  body 
upon  the  heeL  In  the  orang,  however,  the  analogous  muscle  termi- 
nates in  three  tendons,  which  are  inserted  separately  and  exclusively 
in  the  three  middle  toes,  obviously  to  enable  these  to  grasp  with  greater 


force  the  boughs  of  trees,  &c.  It  is  surely  asking  too  much  to  reqtiire 
us  to  believe  that  in  the  course  of  time,  under  any  circumstances, 
these  three  tendons  should  become  consolidated  into  one,  and  thst 
one  become  implanted  into  a  toe,  to  which  none  of  the  three  separate 
tendons  were  before  attached.  The  myology  of  the  orangs,  to  which 
I  may  hereafter  endeavour  to  direct  more  attention  than  it  hag  yet 
received,  affords  many  arguments  equally  unanswerable  against  the 
possibility  of  their  transmutation  into  a  higher  race  of  bongs." 
From  the  same  author  we  take  the  following  summary  comparison  of 
the  Chimpanzee  and  Orang-Outan  with  each  other,  and  with  man  :— 


Skeleton  of  Man. 


Skeleton  of  Chimpansee.    From  Own. 


The  Chimpanzee  differs  osteologically  from  the  Orang :— 1.  In 
having  the  cranium  flatter  and  broader  in  proportion  to  the  face. 
2.  In  having  the  supraciliary  ridges  more  developed,  and  in  the 
absence  of  the  interparietal  and  sagittal  crests.  8.  In  the  junction  of 
the  temporal  with  the  frontal  bones.  4.  In  the  greater  proportional 
breadth  of  the  interorbital  space.  5.  In  the  more  central  position 
and  less  oblique  plane  of  the  occipital  foramen.  6.  In  having  bat 
one  anterior  condyloid  foramen  on  each  side,  while  the  orang  has  two. 
7.  In  having  generally  but  one  suborbital  foramen  on  each  side,  while 
the  orang  has  three  or  more.  8.  In  the  persistence  of  the  cranial 
sutures.  9.  In  the  earlier  obliteration  of  the  maxillo-intermaxillaiy 
sutures.  10.  In  the  smaller  proportional  size  of  the  incisive  and  canine 
teeth,  and  consequent  smaller  development  of  the  jaws,  especially 
of  the  intermaxillary  bones.  11.  In  the  smaller  proportional  siie  of 
the  cervical  vertebrae,  and  larger  proportional  size  of  the  lumbar  ver 
tebrsB.  12.  In  the  additional  dorsal  vertebra  corresponding  to  the 
additional  pair  of  riba  13.  In  the  more  complete  composition  of  the 
sternum,  wkich  consists  of  a  single  and  not  double  series  of  bones, 
as  in  the  orang.  14.  In  the  greater  sigmoid  curve  of  the  dayicl^ 
which  in  the  orang  is  nearly  straight.  16.  In  the  less  proportionw 
breadth  of  the  scapula,  and  the  more  lateral  aspect  of  the  glenoid 
cavity.  16.  In  the  less  proportional  breadth  and  greater  length  of  the 
sacrum.    17.  In  the  less  proportional  breadth  ^  the  ilium,  and  greater 


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expaiudon  of  the  ischium.  18.  In  the  comparative  shortneas  of  the 
upper  extremities,  more  especially  of  the  fore-arm  and  hand.  19.  In 
the  non-diyision  of  the  pisiform  bone  of  the  wrist  20.  In  the  greater 
proportional  length  of  the  femur  and  tibia,  and  the  less  proportional 
lengtii  of  the  foot.  21.  In  the  presence  of  a  ligamentum  teres,  and 
consequent  depression  in  the  head  of  the  femur.  22.  In  the  greater 
proportional  size  of  the  tarsus  as  compared  with  the  phalanges  of  the 
toes.  23.  In  having  constantly  two  phalanges  in  the  hallux  or  great 
toe  with  a  nail,  while  the  ungueal  phalanx  and  nail  are  often  wanting 
in  the  hallux  of  the  orang,  especially  in  that  of  the  female. 

The  chimpanzee  approximates  more  nearly  to  the  human  structure 
in  those  deviations  which  are  numbered  i,  5,  6,  7,  S,  9, 10, 12,  13, 17, 
18, 19,  20,  21,  22,  23. 

The  orang  has  a  nearer  resemblance  to  man : — 1.  In  the  junction 
of  the  sphenoid  with  the  parietal  bones.  2.  In  having  twelve  pairs 
of  ribs.  3.  In  the  form  of  the  scapula,  especially  in  its  greater 
breadth. 

Owen  well  observes  that  it  is  a  result  of  the  preceding  comparison 
that  the  chimpanzee  ought  to  rank  above  the  orang  in  a  descending 
series,    and  not  below  it  as  in  the    'R^gne  Animal'   of   Cuvier. 
Linnscus,  as  we  have  seen,  gave  the  chimpanzee  that  superiority  of 
rank,  but  erred  as  much  on  the  other  side  by  placing  it  under  the 
genus  Homo,  for  both  the  chimpanzee  and  orang,  according  to  Owen, 
differ  in  structure  from  the  human  subject : — 1.  In  the  diastema,  or 
interval  between  the  cuspidati  and  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  and 
between  the  cuspidati  and  biouspides  of  the  lower  jaw.     2.  In  the 
greater  magnitude  of  tiie  intermaxillary  bones,  indicated  in  the  adult 
by  the  distance  of  the  foramina  incisiva  from  the  incisive  teeth  ;  both 
of  which  differences  result  from  the  greater  proportional  develop- 
ment and  dififerent  forms  of  the  cuspidati  and  incisors.     These,  as 
the  author  observes,  are  differences  of  generic  value.     3.  In  the  more 
backward  position  and  oblique  plane  of  the  occipital  foramen.     4.  In 
the  smaller  proportional  size  of  ihe  occipital  condyles.     5.  In  the 
larger  proportional  size  of 
the  petrous  bones.     6.  In 
the  greater  proportional  de* 
velopment  of  tne  jaws.     7. 
In  the  flatness  of  the  nasal 
bone,  which  is  rarely  divided 
in  the  mesial  line,  while  in 
man  the  nasal  bones  are  as 
rarely  consolidated  into  one. 
8.  In  the  presence  of  the 
ant -auditory     process     of 
the  temporal  bone,  and  the 
absence  of  the  mastoid  and 
styloid  processes.   9.  In  the 
absence  of  the  process  of 
the  ethmoid,  called  crista 
gain    10.  In  the  shortness 
and  comparative  weakness 
of  the  lumbar  region  of  the 

Stinal  column;  which  is 
80  composed  of  four  in- 
stead of  five  vertebrae.  11. 
In  the  narrowness  and  pro- 
portional length  of  the 
sacrum.  12.  In  the  flatness 
of  the  ilia,  and  the  larger 
development  and  outward 
curvature  of  the  ischia.  13. 
In  the  position  of  the  pelvis 
in  relation  to  the  spine.  14.  ' 
In  the  lai^r  proportional 
development  of  the  chest,  i 
15.  In  the  greater  length  of  | 
the  upper  extremities.  16. 
In  the  wider  interval  be- 
tween the  ulna  and  radius. 
17.  In  the  shortness  and 
weakness  of  the  thumb,  and 
narrowness  of  the  hand  in 
relation  to  its  length.  18. 
In  the  shortness  of  the 
lower  extremities.  19.  In 
the  greater  proportional 
length  and  narrowness  of 
the  foot.  20.  In  the  small 
sizeof  theoscalds.  21.  In 
the  shortness  and  oppose- 
able  condition  of  the  hallux. 


Skeleton  of  Orang-Outan.    From  Owen. 


"  These  differences,"  adds  Professor  Owen,  "result  from  original 
formation,  and  are  not  liable  to  be  weakened  in  any  material  degree, 
either  on  the  one  hand,  by  a  degradation  of  the  human  species,  or,  on 
the  other  hand,  by  the  highest  cultivation  of  which  the  anthropoid 
apes  are  susceptible." 

In  following  out  this  osteological  comparison  it  becomes  necessary, 
for  the  assistance  of  the  student,  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  cranial 


WcU-developcd  Human  SkulU 


Skull  of  Haman  Idiot.    From  Owen. 


Skull  of  Chimpanxee.    From  Owen. 


Skull  of  Orang-Outan.    From  Owen. 


Digitized  by 


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1019 


CHIlttPANZEK 


CHIMPANZEK 


deyelopment  in  man  and  in  the  anthropoid  apes,  so  that  he  may  have 
under  his  eye  the  comparative  form  of  each. 

We  cannot  do  better  than  give  the  folio  w^ing  conclusive  statements 
of  Professor  Owen. 

"  Certain  modifications  in  the  form  of  the  human  pelvis  have  been 
observed  to  accompany  the  different  forms  of  the  cranium  which 
characterise  the  different  races  of  mankind ;  but  there  is  nothing  in 
the  form  of  the  pelvis  of  the  Australian  or  Negro  which  tends  to 
diminish  the  wide  hiatus  that  separates  the  bimanous  from  the 
quadrumanous  type  of  structure  in  regard  to  this  part  of  the 
skeleton.  Observation  has  not  yet  shown  that  the  pelvis  of  the  orang, 
in  a  state  of  captivity,  undeigoes  any  change  approximating  it 
towards  the  peculiar  form  which  the  same  part  presents  in  the  human 
subject.  The  idea  that  the  iliac  bones  would  become  expanded  and 
curved  forwards,  from  the  pressure  of  the  superincumbent  viscera, 
consequent  on  habitual  attempts  at  progression  on  the  lower 
extremities,  is  merely  speculative.  Those  features  of  the  cranium  of 
the  orangs  which  stamp  the  character  of  the  irrational  brute  most 
strongly  upon  their  frame,  are  however  of  a  kind,  and  the  result  of  a 
law,  originally  impressed  upon  the  species,  which  cannot  be  supposed 
to  be  modified  under  any  circumstances,  or  during  any  lapse  of  time; 
for  what  external  influence  operating  upon  and  around  the  animal  can 
possibly  modify  in  its  offspring  the  forms,  or  alter  the  size,  of  the 
deeply-seated  germs  of  the  permanent  teeth  ?  They  exist  before  the 
animal  is  bom ;  and  let  him  improve  his  thinking  faculties  as  he  may, 
they  must,  in  obedience  to  an  irresistible  law,  pass  through  the  phases 
of  their  development,  and  induce  those  remarkable  changes  in  the 
maxillary  portion  of  the  skull  which  give  to  the  adult  orangs  a  more 
bestial  form  and  expression  of  head  than  many  of  the  inferior  Simia: 
present.  It  is  true  that  in  the  human  subject  the  cranium  varies  in 
its  relative  proportions  to  the  face  in  different  tribes,  according  to 
the  degree  of  civilisation  and  cerebral  development  which  they 
attain ;  and  that  in  the  more  debased  Ethiopian  varieties,  and 
Papuans,  the  skull  makes  some  approximation  to  the  quadrumanous 
proportions :  but  in  these  cases,  as  well  as  when  the  cranium  is 
distorted  by  artificial  means  or  by  congenital  malformation,  it  is 
always  accompanied  by  a  form  of  the  jaws,  and  by  a  disposition  and 
proportions  of  the  teeth,  which  afford  unfailing  and  impassable 
generic  distinctions  between  man  and  the  ape.  To  place  this  propo- 
sition in  the  most  unexceptionable  light,  I  lutve  selected  the  cranium 
of  a  human  idiot,  in  whom  nature  may  be  said  to  have  performed  for 
us  the  experiment  of  arresting  the  development  of  the  brain  almost 
exactly  at  the  size  which  it  attains  in  the  chimpanzee,  and  where  the 
intellectual  faculties  were  scarcely  more  developed ;  yet  no  anatomist 
would  hesitate  in  at  once  referring  this  cranium  to  the  human  species. 
A  detailed  comparison  with  the  (»-anium  of  the  chimpanzee  or  orang 
shows  that  all  those  characters  are  retained  in  the  idiot's  skull  which 
constitute  the  differential  features  of  the  human  structure.  The 
cranial  cavity  extends  downwards  below  the  level  of  the  glenoid 
articulatory  surfaces.  The  nasal  bones  are  two  in  number,  and 
prominent.  The  jaws  and  teeth  exhibit  the  bimanous  characters  as 
strongly  as  in  the  most  elevated  of  the  human  race.  The  cuspidati 
do  not  project  beyond  the  contiguous  teeth,  and  consequently  there 
are  no  interruptions  in  the  dental  series,  as  in  the  orangs,  where  they 
are  required  to  lodge  the  disproportionate  crowns  of  the  canine 
teeth." 

M.  Geoffroy  St  Hilaire  characterised  the  sub-genus  Troglodytes 
from  immature  Chimpanzees ;  and  as  Professor  Owen's  observations 
were  made  upon  the  skeleton  of  an  adult  individual,  and  he  has 
consequently  altered  the  zoological  characters  given  by  Geofl&xjyj  we 
follow  Professor  Owen's  definition. 

Sub-Qenus  Troglodytes. 

Dental  formula  the    same  aa  in  the  human  subject;    namely, 

incisors,  _  ;  canines,  _  ;  bicuspids,   _ ;  molars,    _  <=  82. 

The  teeth  approximate  in  their  proportionate  size  much  more 
nearly  thfm  those  of  the  orang  to  the  human  teeth ;  but  they  manifest 
in  their  relative  position  the  absence  of  the  character  which,  with  one 
anomalous  exception — ^that  of  the  fossil  genus  Anoplotherium — is 
peculiar,  among  mammifers,  to  man ;  namely,  unbroken  proximity. 
Muzzle  long,  truncated  anteriorly;  strong  supraoiliary  ridges, 
behind  which  the  forehead  recedes  directly  backwards;  no  cranial 
ridges.  Facial  angle  35**,  excluding  the  supraciliary  ridges.  Auricles 
large.  Thirteen  pairs  of  ribs ;  bones  of  the  sternum  in  a  single  row. 
Arms  reaching  below  the  knee-joint.  Feet  wide ;  hallux  extending 
to  the  second  joint  of  the  adjoining  toe.  Canines  large,  overpassing 
each  other ;  the  apices  lodged  in  intervals  of  the  opposite  teeth. 
Intermaxillary  bones  anchylosed  to  the  maxillaries  during  the  first  or 
deciduous  dentition. 

Troglodytes  nigcr  (GeoflBroy),  Simla  Troglodytes  (Blumenbach),  the 
Chimpanzee,  Black  Orang,  or  Pigmy.  In  the  young  state  the  animal 
has  been  named  Jocko. 

The  following  is  the  description  by  Dr.  Traill  of  a  young  female, 
about  80  inches  high,  which  was  brought  to  Liverpool  by  Captain 
Payne : — "  The  skin  appeai*s  of  a  yellowish-white  colour,  and  is  thinly 
covered  with  long  black  hair  on  the  front ;  but  it  is  considerably 
more  hairy  behind.    The  hair  on  the  head  is  rather  thin,  and  is 


thickest  on  the  forehead,  where  it  divides  about  an  inch  above  the 
orbital  process  of  the  frontal  bone,  and  running  a  little  backwards 
falls  down  before  the  ears,  forming  whiskers  on  the  cheeks.  Here  the 
hair  measures  nearly  two  inches  long ;  but  that  on  the  occiput  is  not 
above  an  inch  in  length.  There  are  a  few  stiff  black  hairs  on  the 
eyebrows,  and  a  scanty  eyelash.  A  few  whitish  hairs  are  scattered  on 
the  lips,  especially  on  the  under  one.  The  rest  of  the  face  is  naked, 
and  has  whitish  and  wrinkled  skin.  There  is  scarcely  any  liair  on  the 
neck  ;  but,  commencing  at  the  nape,  it  becomes  somewhat  bushy  on 
the  back.  The  abdomen  is  nearly  naked.  The  hair  on  the  back  of 
the  head,  and  the  whole  trimk,  front  of  the  lower  extremities,  back 
of  the  legs,  and  upper  part  of  the  superior  extremities  is  directed 
downwai^s,  while  that  on  the  back  df  the  thigh  and  fore-arms  is 
pointed  upwards — appearances  well  represented  in  Tyson's  figure. 
The  longest  hair  is  just  at  the  elbows.  Tliere  is  none  on  the  fingers 
or  palms  of  either  extremity.  The  ears  are  remarkably  prominent, 
thin,  and  naked,  bearing  a  considerable  resemblance  in  shape  to  the 
human,  though  broader  at  the  top.  The  projection  of  the  process 
above  the  eyes  is  very  conspicuous,  but  has  not  been  sufficiently 
marked  in  any  engraving  or  drawing  which  has  fallen  imder  my 
observation.  The  nose  is  quite  flat,  or  rather  appears  only  as  a 
wrinkle  of  the  skin  with  a  ^ight  depression  along  its  centre.  The 
nostrils  ai*o  patulous  and  open  upwards,  which  would  be  inconvenient 
did  the  animal  usually  assume  the  erect  posture.  The  projection  of 
the  jaws  is  excessive,  and  though  much  less  so  than  in  the  baboon, 
yet  the  profile  of  the  face  is  concave.  It  may  be  remarked  however 
that  the  projection  of  the  lower  jaw  is  caricatured  in  the  first  and 
second  figures  of  Camper's  second  plata  The  mouth  is  wide,  the 
lips  rather  thin,  and  destitute  of  that  recurvation  of  the  edges  which 
adds  so  much  to  the  expression  of  the  human  countenance.  The 
spread  of  the  shoulders  is  distinctly  marked,  but  the  width  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  chest  is  proportionally  greater  when  compared  to 
the  upper  than  in  man.  From  the  lower  ribs  the  .diameter  of  the 
abdomen  decreases  rapidly  to  the  loins,  where  the  animal  is  pecu- 
liarly slender — a  circumsttuice  in  which  it  approaches  the  other  Simice, 
The  pelvis  appears  long  and  narrow,  another  approximation  to  the 
rest  of  the  genua.  With  regard  to  the  limbs,  the  chief  difference 
between  our  specimen  and  Dr.  Tyson's  figure  consists  in  the  excessive 
length  of  the  arms,  which  in  this  animal  descend  below  the  knees,  by 
the  whole  len^h  of  the  phalanges  of  the  fingers,  which  are  above 
three  inches  m  length.  The  same  observation  applies  to  almost 
every  figure  of  this  animal  which  I  have  seen.  The  proportions  in 
the  work  of  Camper  approach  nearest,  in  the  present  instance,  in  this 
particular.  The  hand  differs  from  the  human  in  having  the  thumb 
by  far  the  smallest  of  the  fingers.  The  foot  is  more  properly  a  hand 
appended  to  a  tarsus.  The  thumb  of  this  extremity  is  very  long, 
powerful,  and  capable  of  great  extension.  The  legs  are  certainly 
furnished  with  calves;  but  they  scoreely  resemble  the  human  in 
form,  because  they  are  continued  of  equal  thickness  nearly  to  the 
heeL  Wlien  this  animal  is  erect  the  knees  appear  considerably  bent, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  other  SimicBf  and  it"  stands  with  the  limbs 
more  apart  than  man."  This  description  applies  to  the  various 
specimens  of  this  creature  which  have  been  exhibited  in  the  Gardens 
of  the  Zoological  Society  in  Regent's  Park,  London.  At  the  present 
time  (November  1853)  a  young  male  is  in  the  collection.  The  last 
specimens  were  a  male  and  female ;  the  latter  died  of  consumption^ 
and  her  disconsolate  companion  soon  followed. 

Africa  is  the  only  part  of  the  world  known  to  be  the  residence  of 
the  Chimpanzee,  which  it  should  be  remembered  has  been  confirmed, 
as  Cuvier  observes,  by  almost  all  zoologists.  The  specimen  described 
by  Dr.  Traill  was  procured  in  the  Isle  of  Princes,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  from  a  native  trader,  who  had  carried  it  thither  from  the 
banks  of  the  Gkiboon.  The  individual  exhibited  in  the  E^gyptiaa 
Hall,  Piccadilly,  in  1831,  had  been  obtained  by  a  trading  vessel  on  the 
river  Gambia ;  and  those  exhibited  at  the  CJardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society  have  all  been  brought  from  the  coast  of  Africa.  Cuvier  gives 
Guinea  and  Congo  as  its  localities.  The  subject  of  Professor  Owen's 
paper  was  shot  by  a  European  at  Sierra  Leone. 

Habits. — The  habits  of  the  Chim|>auzee  in  a  state  of  nature  are  but 
imperfectly  known.  Cuvier  states  that  the  Chimpanzees  live  in  troops, 
construct  themselves  huts  of  leaves,  arm  themselves  with  sticks  and 
stones,  and  employ  these  weapons  to  drive  man  and  the  elephant 
from  their  dwellings.  He  also  repeats  the  story  of  their  pursuit  of 
the  negresses  and  carrying  them  off  into  the  woods.  This  report  is 
still  credited  in  the  country  where  they  are  found.  Speaking  of 
Captain  Payne,  Dr.  Traill,  in  his  interesting  paper  in  the  *  Wemerian 
Transactions,'  says,  "  The  natives  of  Gaboon  informed  him  that  this 
species  attains  the  height  of  five  or  six  feet ;  that  it  is  a  formidable 
antagonist  to  the  elephant ;  and  that  several  of  them  will  not  scruple 
to  attack  the  lion  and  other  beasts  of  prey  with  clubs  and  stones.  It 
is  dangerous  for  solitary  individuals  to  travel  through  the  woods 
haimted  by  the  orang,  and  instances  were  related  to  Captain  Payne  of 
negro  girls  being  carried  off  by  this  animal,  who  have  sometimes 
escaped  to  human  society  after  having  been  for  years  detained  by 
their  ravishers  in  a  frightful  captivity.  These  reports  confirm  the 
narratives  of  the  early  voyagers,  who  have  often  been  suspected  of 
exaggemtion ;  and  similar  facts  have  been  recently  stated,  very  circum- 
stantially, by  gentlemen  who  have  lived  in  Western  Africa."    As  it  is 


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1021 


CHIMPANZEE. 


CHIMPANZEE. 


102S 


now  however  well  made  out  that  there  are  two  species  of  Chimpanzee 
inhabiting  the  Ghiboon,  and  the  larger  of  the  two  has  not  been  seen 
alive  in  Europe,  it  is  probable  the  habits  of  the  two  aniTn^la  have 
been  confounded. 

In  a  state  of  captivity  its  manners  have  been  the  theme  of  many  a 
tale  and  much  adiniration ;  and  as  most  of  the  individuals  described 
have  died  veiy  young,  conjecture  has  been  busy  as  to  the  progress  the 
animal  might  taake  if  its  education  were  continued  to  the  adult  state. 
**  Deductions,*'  says  Professor  Owen  in  his  paper  above  referred  to, 
"in  favour  of  the  anthropomorphous  character  of  the  orangs  have 
been  derived  from  observation  of  the  living  habits  of  young  orangs ; 
but  these  cannot  be  regarded  as  affording  a  type  of  the  nature  of  the 
adults,  since  it  is  well  known  that  the  docility  and  gentle  manners  of 
the  youne  ape  rapidly  give  way  to  an  unteachable  obstinacy  and 
untameable  ferocity  in  the  adult ;  at  least  of  those  species  to  which, 
as  I  shall  afterwards  show,  the  fuU-sfrown  orangs  have  the  nearest 
resemblance  in  the  form  of  the  head. 


Chimpansee  [TYoglodytet  niffer). 

Captain  Payne  thus  describes  the  manners  of  the  linimal  which 
formed  the  subject  of  Dr.  Traill's  paper.  "  When  our  animal  came 
on  board,"  says  Captain  Payne,  *'  it  shook  hands  with  some  of  the 
sailors,  but  refused  its  hand  with  marks  of  anger  to  others  without 
any  apparent  cause.  It  speedily  however  became  familiar  with  the 
crew,  except  ono  boy,  to  whom  it  never  was  reconciled.  When  the 
seamen's  mess  was  brought  on  deck  it  was  a  constant  attendant ; 
would  go  round  and  embrace  each  person  while  it  uttered  loud  yells, 
and  then  seat  itself  among  them  to  share  the  repast."  It  sometimes 
expressed  its  anger  by  a  dirking  noise  like  a  dog;  at  others  it  would 
cry  like  a  froward  child,  and  scratch  itself  most  vehemently.  When 
any  favourite  morsel  was  given  to  it,  sweetmeats  more  especially,  it 
expressed  its  satisfaction  by  a  sound  like  'hem,'  in  a  grave  tone. 
The  variety  of  its  tones  seems  to  have  been  small.  It  was  active  and 
cheerful  in  wann  latitudes,  but  languor  came  on  as  it  left  the  torrid 
zone ;  and  on  approaching  our  shores  it  manifested  a  desire  for  warm 
covering,  and  would  roll  itself  carefully  up  in  a  blanket  when  it  went 
to  rest.  It  generally  progressed  on  all  fours,  and  Captain  Payne 
particularly  observed  that  it  never  placed  the  palms  of  the  hands  of 
its  anterior  extremities  on  the  ground,  but  closing  its  fists  rested  on 
the  knuckles.  This  mode  of  progression  noticed  by  Tyson  was  con- 
firmed to  Dr.  Traill  by  a  young  naval  officer  who  had  been  for  a 
considerable  time  employed  in  the  rivers  of  Western  Africa,  and  had 
opportunities  of  observing  the  habits  of  this  species.  Captain  Payne's 
animal  did  not  seem  fond  of  the  erect  posture,  which  it  rarely  affected, 
though  it  could  run  nimbly  on  two  feet  for  a  short  distance.  In  this 
case  it  appeared  to  aid  the  motion  of  its  legs  by  grasping  the  thighs 
with  its  bands.      It  had  great  strength  in  the  four  fingers  of  its 


superior  extremity;  for  it  would  often  swing  by  them  on  a  rope 
upwards  of  an  hour  without  intermission.  When  first  procured  it 
was  so  thickly  covered  with  hair  that  the  skin  of  the  trunk  and  limbi 
was  scarcely  visible  until  the  long  black  hair  was  blown  aside.  It  ate 
readily  every  sort  of  vegetable  food ;  but  at  first  did  not  appear  to 
relish  flesh,  though  it  seemed  to  have  pleasure  in  sucking  the  leg-bone 
of  a  fowl.  At  that  time  it  did  not  relish  wine,  but  afterwards  seemed 
to  like  it,  though  it  never  could  endure  ardent  spirits.  It  once  stole 
a  bottle  of  wine,  which  it  uncorked  with  its  teeth  and  began  to  drink. 
It  showed  a  predilection  for  coffee,  and  was  immoderately  fond  of 
sweet  articles  of  food.  It  learned  to  feed  itself  with  a  spoon,  to  drink 
out  of  a  glass,  and  showed  a  genei-al  disposition  to  imitate  the  actions 
of  men.  It  was  attracted  by  bright  metals,  seemed  to  take  a  pride  in 
clothing,  and  often  put  a  cocked  hat  on  its  head.  It  was  dirty  in 
its  habits,  and  never  was  known  to  wash  itself  It  was  afraid  of  fire- 
arms; and  on  the  whole  appeared  a  timid  animal.  It  lived  with 
Captain  Payne  seventeen  weeks,  two  of  which  were  spent  in  Cork  and 
Liverpool  At  the  former  place  it  was  exhibited  for  the  benefit  of 
the  soup-kitchen  for  a  few  days,  but  seems  to  have  been  there 
neglected.  On  coming  to  Liverpool  it  languished  for  a  few  days, 
moaned  heavily,  was  oppressed  in  its  breathing,  and  died  with  oon- 
vidsive  motions  of  the  limbs. 

T.  Chrilla,  Savage  {T.  Savagei,  Owen),  the  Gorilla,  or  Great 
Chimpanzee.  In  the  *  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society'  for  1848 
a  description  is  given  by  Professor  Owen  of  the  skulls  of  adult  and 
aged  mole  and  female  Chimpanzees  fix>m  the  Gaboon  Hivcr,  much 
exceeding  in  size,  and  specifically  distinct  from  the  previously  known 
T.  niger.  At  that  time  Professor  Owen  proposed  to  call  the  species 
T.  Savageif  in  honour  of  Dr.  Savage,  an  American  missionary,  who 
had  first  obtained  specimens  of  this  Chimpanzee,  and  described  its 
character  and  habits.  In  a  letter  to  Professor  Owen,  dated  "  Protestant 
Mission  House,  Gaboon  River,  West  Africa,  April,  1847,"  Dr.  Savage, 
after  describing  the  existence  of  this  Chimpanzee,  says,  "  As  yet  I 
have  been  unable  to  obtain  more  than  a  part  of  a  skeleton.  It  belongs 
to  the  Simiada,  and  is  closely  allied  to  the  orangs  proper.  It  reaches 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  the  height  of  five  feet  in  the  adult  state,  and  is 
of  a  large  size.  I  am  considerably  in  doubt  in  regard  to  its  identity 
with  an  animal  said  to  have  been  known  to  Buffon  as  a  large  species 
of  orang-outan  imder  the  name  of  Pongo."  After  the  receipt  of  Dr. 
Savage's  letter  and  specimens,  Professor  Owen  received  skulls  from 
Mr.  Stutchbtuy,  of  Bristol,  which  had  been  collected  by  Captain 
Wagstaff,  who  shortly  after  died.  "  The  only  information  which  Mr. 
Stutchbury  was  able  to  obtain  from  him  was,  that  the  natives,  when 
they  succeed  in  killing  one  of  these  chimpanzees  make  a  '  fetish '  of 
the  cranium.  The  specimens  bore  indications  of  the  sacred  marks  in 
broad  red  stripes,  crossed  by  a  white  stripe,  of  some  pigment  which 
could  be  washed  off.  Their  superstitious  reverence  of  these  hideous 
remains  of  their  formidable  and  dreaded  enemy  adds  to  the  difficulty 
of  obtaining  specimens." 

The  following  are  the  points  by  which  the  T.  Gorilla  is  distinguished 
from  T.  niger  : — 

"1.  By  its  greater  size.  2.  By  the  size  and  form  of  the  super- 
ciliary ridges.  3.  By  the  existence  of  the  large  occipital  and  inter- 
parietal crests  in  the  males,  and  by  rudiments  of  the  same  in 
females.  4.  By  the  great  strength  and  arched  form  of  the  zygomatic 
arches.  5.  By  the  form  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  nasal  orifices. 
6.  By  the  structure  of  the  infra-orbital  cansd.  7.  By  the  existence 
of  an  emargination  on  the  posterior  part  of  the  hard  palate.  8.  The 
incisive  alveoli  do  not  project  beyond  the  line  of  the  rest  of  the  face, 
as  in  the  chimpanzee  and  orang.  9.  The  distance  between  the  nasal 
orifice  and  the  edge  of  the  incisive  alveoli  is  less  than  in  the 
chimpanzee.  10.  The  ossa  nasi  are*  more  narrow  and  compressed 
superiorly." 

Professor  Owen  concludes  his  paper  on  the  anatomy  of  this  creature 
by  the  following  remarks  : — "  The  analogy  which  the  establishment 
of  the  second  and  more  formidable  species  of  chimpanzee  in  Africa 
has  brought  to  light  between  the  representation  of  the  genus 
Troglodytes  in  that  continent  and  that  of  the  genus  Pithecut  in  the 
great  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  is  very  close  and  interesting. 
As  the  T.  Oorilla  parallels  the  Pithecus  Wurmhii  [Pithbcus],  so  the 
T,  niger  parallels  the  P.  moi'io ;  and  an  unexpected  illustration  has 
thus  been  gained  of  the  soundness  of  the  interpretation  of  the 
specific  distinction  of  that  smaller  and  more  anthropoid  orang.  It 
is  not  without  interest  to  observe  that  as  the  generic  forms  of  the 
Q^oAid/rvmcma  approach  the  Bimanous  order,  they  are  represented  by 
fewer  species.  The  Gibbons  (Jlylobates)  scarcely  number  more  than 
half  a  dozen  species ;  Pithecus  has  but  two  species,  or  at  most  three; 
Troglodytes  is  represented  by  two  species. 

"  The  imity  of  the  human  species  I  regard  as  demonstrated  by  the 
constancy  of  those  osteological  and  dental  characters,  to  which  my 
attention  has  been  more  particularly  directs  in  the  investigation  of 
the  corresponding  characters  in  the  higher  Quddrumanaf  and  the 
importance  of  the  comparison  will  justify  the  minuteness  with  which 
they  have  been  detailed. 

"  Man  is  the  sole  species  of  his  genus,  the  sole  representative  of 
his  order ;  he  lias  no  nearer  physical  relations  with  the  brute  kind 
than  those  which  mark  the  primary  (unguiculate)  division  of  the 
placental  sub-class  of  Mammalia.**     (*  Tran.  ZooL  Soc.'  voL  iii) 


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CHINABARK. 


CHINCHILLIDJS. 


1Q24 


CHINA-BAKK,  a  name  given  to  the  bark  of  £uaM  hexandrOf  a 
plant  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cinchonacece.  It  is  uaed  as 
a  febrifuge,  but  is  less  powerful  than  the  barks  obtained  from  the 
species  of  OmchoMi.    [Cinchoitacbje.] 

CHINCHI'LLIDiB,  a  family  of  animals  belonging  to  the  order 
JRodewtict, 

This  family  is  defined  by  Mr.  Bennett,  to  whom  we  are  principally 
indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  the  species,  as  follows : — 


Upper  incisors  simple ;  molars,  7 — 7,  consisting  of  two  or  three 

t»nial  or  riband-like  bony  lamells  or  plates,  parallel  with  each  other, 
entirely  surrounded  with  a  vitreous  substance ;  the  crowns  exactly 
opposite  to  each  other  and  flattened  by  attrition.  The  posterior 
limbs  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  anterior.  The  tail  produced,  with 
long  and  somewhat  bristly  hairs  above  and  at  the  tip.  The  ChinckUr 
Ud<B  are  gregarious  and  subterranean  in  their  habits,  and  mild  in 
disposition.  Mr.  Waterhouse,  in  his  '  Natural  History  of  Mammalia,' 
makes  the  CMnchUlma  a  sub-family  of  the  family  Hyttricidcs  of  the 
Rodentifi,  It  embraces  the  following  genera, — Lagidium,  Lagottomut, 
and  ChtnckUUi, 


Lagidtwn  (Lagotit,  Bennett). 


Incisors,  — ;  molars,    ^ — ^  = 
2  4—4 


20. 


The  incisors  are  sharpened,  and  each  molar  consists  of  three  complete 
oblique  plates.  Skidl  arched  posteriorly  and  above;  the  superior 
cdlides  of  the  tympanum  inconspicuous.  All  the  feet  4 -toed,  the 
great  toe  being  entirely  absent ;  nails  long  and  subfalcular.  Ears  very 
long.     Tail  long.     Fur  soft,  but  caducous.  r 

L.  Onvieri,  Wagner  (Lagotit  Otivieri,  Bennett).  Sizo  and  much  of 
the  general  form  of  the  rabbit.  Posterior  limbs  twice  the  length  of 
the  anterior :  tail  about  equal  in  length  to  the  body,  excluding  the 
head.  Whiskers  very  numerous,  closely  set,  jet  black,  ten  or  twelve 
of  the  longest  on  each  side  being  exceedingly  thick  and  rigid,  and 
seven  inches  long.  Ears  nearly  like  a  long  parallelogram,  rounded  at 
the  tip,  three  inches  long  and  one  inch  broad,  with  the  mai^gins 
rolled  in  below,  so  sparingly  furnished  with  short  scattered  hairs  as  to 
appear  almost  naked.  Fore  feet  like  the  hinder,  with  four  toes  only, 
there  being  no  vestige  of  a  thumb  ;  claws  small,  slightly  sharpened, 
and  entirely  concealed  by  long  and  somewhat  bristly  hairs ;  those  of 
the  hinder  feet  similar  in  shape  and  rather  larger,  but  that  of  the 
inner  toe  flattened,  curved  inwards,  and  exposed,  the  immediately 
adjoining  hairs  giving  place  to  a  tuft  of  about  eight  rows  of  short 
stiff  homy  curved  bristles,  approaching  nearly  in  rigidity  to  the 
comb-like  appendage  found  in  almost  the  same  situation  in  the 
Ctenomya  Masaonii  of  Gray.  A  similar  structure  occurs  in  the  CMi^ 
cHUUl  The  fur  is  beautifully  sofk,  downy,  and  of  considerable 
length,  but  so  loosely 
attached  to  the  skin 
Uiat  it  readily  falls 
off,  unless  handled 
with  care.  It  is 
dusky  at  the  base 
and  to  within  a  short 
distance  of  the  tip, 
where,  for  an  extent 
of  from  one  to  three 
lines,  it  Ib  dirty- 
white,  more  or  less 
tinged  with  yel- 
lowish-brown. A 
few  long  black  hairs, 
most  numerous  pos 
teriorly,  protrude 
through  itb  The 
genend  tone  of 
colour  is  a  mottled 
grayish-ash.  On  the 
sides  of  the  neck  and 
body,  where  the  tips 
of  the  fur  merge 
more  into  yellowi^- 
brown  than  on  the 
back,  and  where  they 
are  also  of  greater 
length,  as  weU  as  on 
the  haunches  and 
beneath,  the  latter 
tinge  appears  rather 
more  predominant. 
There  is  little  of  the 
duskv  colour  visible 

on  the  under  surface.  The  hairs  of  the  tail  below  are  extremely 
short,  doeely  depressed,  and  of  a  brownish-black;  on  its  sides 
they  are  of  two  kinds,  black  and  white ;  and  this  is  also  the 
case  with  the  very  long  rigid  and  erectile  hairs  which  form  a  crest 
along  its  upper  surface.  The  very  long  bristly  hairs  which  project 
in  a  tuft  at  the  tip  are  wholly  block. 

Mr.  Bennett  believes  this  species  to  be  the  Viscacha  of  all  the 


I 


k&i 


writers  from  Pedro  de  Cieca  downwards,  including  Acosta,  Garcilasso, 
Peter  de  Laet,  Nierembei^,  Feuill^e,  Ulloa,  Yidaur^  Molina, 
Schmidtmeyer,  and  Stevenson,  who  have  stated  that  animal  to  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  western  or  Peruvian  declivities  of  the  Andes. 
Messrs.  BlainvUle,  Desmarest,  and  Lesson  are  among  the  modern 
zoologists  who  have  noticed  the  Viscacha;  Lesson,  in  his  'Manuel,' 
apparently  confounding  the  eastern  and  western  species,  gives  it  as 
the  LepuM  Vitcaccia  of  Gmelin,  places  it  among  the  hares,  and 
quotes  Desmarest,  as  expressing  his  opinion  in  his  '  Mammalogie,' 
that  it  ought  to  be  the  type  of  a  new  genus  under  which  the 
Chinchilla  might  bo  perhaps  arranged. 

L,  pcUlipei  {Lagotit  palltpet,  Bennett).  The  fur  of  this  species,  he 
observes,  is  perhaps  even  softer  to  the  touch  than  that  of  L.  Cwcieri ; 
a  feel  which  is  probably  owing  to  its  being  less  dense,  on  account  of 
the  comparative  shortness  of  the  hairs  composing  it;  the  fur  of 
L,  Cuvieri  imparting  to  the  hand  the  sensation  of  fulness  and  conse- 
quent finnness,  while  that  of  L.  pallipei  is  yielding  with  its  softness. 
The  hairs  in  both  species,  especially  those  which  form  the  mass  of 
the  fur,  are  wavy  for  the  grcit  part  of  their  length,  their  tips  only 
being  straight ;  those  of  the  middle  of  the  sides  measure,  when  their 
natwral  waves  are  not  interfered  with,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
L.  pallipety  and  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  L.  Cuvieru  In  neither  of 
these  species  however  is  the  quality  of  the  fur  at  all  comparable  to 
that  of  Chinchilla  lanigera. 

The  following  is  the  English  version  (1709)  of  the  passage  in  Pedro 
de  Cie9a'B  'Chronica  del  Peru  '  (1554),  descriptive  of  the  habits  of 
these  animsls : — "  There  is  another  sort  of  creature  they  call  viscacha, 
about  the  bigness  of  and  resembling  a  hare,  but  that  it  has  a  long  tail 
like  a  fox.  These  breed  in  stony  places  and  among  rocks,  and  m«ny 
of  them  are  shot  with  guns  and  crossbows,  and  taken  by  tho  Indians 
in  gins  (with  the  lasso),  they  being  good  to  eat  after  hanging  to 
tender ;  and  of  their  hair  or  wool  the  Indians  make  large  mantlea, 
cloaks,  or  bhmkets,  as  soft  as  silk,  and  very  valuable."  Ulloa's 
accoimt  (*Noticias  Americanas,'  1772)  is,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr. 
Bennett  (whose  translation  we  adopt),  the  best  history  that  has  been 
given  of  its  habits  and  manners.  "  Taking  the  place  of  the  rabbit, 
which  is  wanting  in  Peru,  there  is  another  kind  of  animal  called 
viscacha,  which  is  not  found  in  Quito.  In  form,  and  in  the  colour  of 
its  fur,  it  is  similar  to  the  rabbit,  but  differs  from  it  in  having  a  long 
tail  furnished  with  tufted  hair  (like  that  of  the  squirrel),  which  is 
very  thin  towards  the  root,  but  thick  and  long  as  it  approaches  the 
tip.  It  does  not  carry  its  toil  turned  over  the  head  like  the  squirrel, 
but  stretched  out,  as  it  were,  in  a  horizontal  direction ;  its  joints  are 
slender  and  scaly.  These  animals  conceal  themselves  in  holes  of  the 
rocks,  in  which  they  make  their  retreats,  not  forming  burrows  in 
the  earth  like  rabbits.       There  they    congregate    in    considerable 

numbers,  and  aro 
mostly  seen  in  a 
sitting  pojfture,  but 
not  eating ;  they  feed 
on  the  herbs  and 
shrubs  that  grow 
among  the  rocks, 
and  are  very  active. 
Their  means  of 
escape  do  not  con- 
sist in  thevelodtjof 
their  flight,  but  in 
the  promptitude 
with  which  they  run 
to  the  shelter  of  their 
holes.  This  they 
commonly  do  when 
wounded ;  for  which 
reason  the  mode  of 
killing  them  is  hy 
shooting  them  in  the 
head ;  as,  if  they  re- 
ceive the  chaige  in 
any  other  part,  al- 
though much  in- 
jured, they  do  not 
fail  to  go  and  die  in 
the  interior  of  their 
burrows.  They  hare 
this  peculiarity,  that 
as  soon  as  they  die 
their  hair  falls  off; 
and  on  this  account, 
although  it  la  softer 
and  somewhatlonger 

, cannot  be  made  use 

of  for  common  purposes.  The  flesh  is  white  but  not  well  flavoured, 
being  especially  distasteful  at  certain  seasons,  when  it  is  altogether 
repugnant  to  the  palate."  Molina  speaks  of  the  employment  of  its 
wool  among  the  ancient  Peruvians,  adding  that  the  ChilisnB  of  the 
present  day  (his  work  was  originally  published  in  1782,  and 
reprinted  with  additions  in  1810)  use  it  in  the  manufacture  of  hata. 


Sts^^^^ 


I 


Skeleton  of  Lagotii  (Smtri. 
Skull  seen  from  above ;  5,  the  same  seen  from  below  ;  e,  lower  Jaw  seen  from  above ;  i,  crowns  of  the  two 
anterior  molar  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  enlarged ;  «,  crowns  of  tho  two  posterior  molar  teeth  of  the 

upper  Jaw  enlarged. 

and  finer  than  that  of  the  rabbit>  the  skin 


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CHINCHILLID^. 


CHINCHILLIDiE. 


1024 


Its  burrows,  acoording  to  the  report  of  eTe-witQeeaeB,  have  two  flats, 
commanicatixig  hy  a  spiral  staircase ;  in  we  lower  it  deposits  its  food, 
while  it  lives  in  the  upper,  which  it  seldom  quits  except  at  night. 
It  collects  round  the  mouth  of  its  burrow  whatever  has  been  left 
behind  or  lost  by  travel- 
lers :  and  its  flesh,  which 
is  white  and  tender,  is 
prefeired  to  that  of  the 
rabbit  or  hare.  But  this 
account  is  liable  to  the 
same  objections  as  that 
in  the  'Journal  de  Phy- 
sique.' Dr.  Tschudi,  in 
his  'Fauna  Peruana*'  has 
oomfinned  most  of  these 
particulars,  with  regard  to 
the  habits  of  the  Viscachas, 
and  also  the  distinction 
between  the  two  species 
above  named.  IhPenumwn 
of  Meyer,  and  Callomyt 
aurcM  of  Oeoffroy  and 
D'Orbigny,  are  probably 
varieties  of  X.  Cuvieri, 

ChinchiUa.   Xncisom,^: 
2* 

molars, 


LagotU 


The  molars  generally 
consist  of  three  complete 
oblique  plates,  except 
the  anterior  lower  moliur, 
which  has  but  two  lameUsB,  the  anterior  lamella  being  deeply  bilobated. 
Skull  posteriorly  retuso-trunoated,  above  depressedly  flattened;  cellules 
of  the  tympanum  oonspicuoualy  inflated.  Anterior  feet  5-toed,  pos- 
terior feet  4-toed,  the  nails  small  and  subfalcular.  The  ears  ample. 
The  tail  rather  long. 

C.  Umigerci,  The  length  of  the  body  is  about  nine  inches,  and  that 
of  the  tail  nearly  five.  Its  proportions  are  close-set,  and  its  limbs 
comparatively  short,  the  posterior  being  considerably  longer  than  the 
anterior.  The  fur  is  long,  thick,  close,  woolly,  somewhat  crisped,  and 
entangled  together,  grayish  or  ash-coloured  abovo,  and  i>aler  beneath. 
The  form  of  the  head  resembles  that  of  the  rabbit ;  the*eyes  are  full, 
large,  and  black ;  and  the  ears  broad,  naked,  rounded  at  tne  tips,  and 
nearly  as  long  as  the  head.  The  moustaches  are  plentiful  and  very 
long,  the  Ictogest  being  twice  the  length  of  the  head,  some  of  them 
black  and  others  white.  Four  short  toes,  with  a  distinct  rudiment  of 
a  thumb,  terminate  the  anterior  feet ;  and  the  posterior  are  furnished 
with  the  same  number,  three  of  them  long,  the  middle  more  produced 


with  long  bushy  hairs ;  it  is  usually  kept  turned  tlpwards  towards  the 
back,  but  not  reverted  as  in  the  squirrels. 

The  best  account  of  the  anatomy  of  this  animal,  from  the  dissection  of 
one  which  diedin  the  menagerie  of  the  Society,  was  given  by  Mr.  TarreU, 

in  the  '  Proceedings  of  the 
Zoological  Society,'  in 
1881.  In  this  paper 
Mr.  Tairell  remarks  thaC 
in  some  previously  pub- 
lished observations,  ha 
had  stated  that  the 
Chinchilla  appeared  to 
be  closely  allied  to  Mr. 
Brooke's  Lagariomui,  but 
that  the  more  compli- 
cated structure  of  the 
teeth,  and  the  existence 
of  an  additional  toe  on 
each  of  the  feet,  require 
for  the  Chinchilla  the  ge- 
neric distinction  daimed 
for  it  by  Mr.  Bennett  and 
Dr.  J.  £.  Gray.  He  adds 
that  the  resemblance  of 
the  skeleton  to  that  of 
the  Jerboa  is  also  remark- 
able, particularly  in  the 
form  of  the  head,  in  the 
excessive  development  of 
the  auditorjr  cavities,  and 
the  small  size  of  the  an- 
Cttueri,  terior    extremities    com- 

pared with  the  hind  logs. 
Although  an  extensive  trade  has  been  carried  on  in  the  skins  of 
this  interestmg  little  animal,  it  is  only  within  the  last  few  years 
that  it  has  been  seen  alive  in  this  countiy. 

The  earliest  aocoimt  of  this  animal,  as  cited  by  Mr.  Bennett,  is  an 
English  translation  (London,  1604)  of  Father  Joseph  Acosta's  '  Natural 
and  Moral  History  of  the  East  and  West  Indies,'  published  at  Baioe- 
lona»  in  Spanish,  in  1591.  "  The  Chinchilles  is  another  kind  of  small 
beasts,  like  squirrels ;  they  have  a  woonderfull  smoothe  and  soft  skinne, 
which  they  (the  natives)  weare  as  a  healthfull  thing  to  comfort  the 
stomacke  and  those  parts  that  have  neede  of  a  moderate  heate."  Sir 
John  Hawkins,  in  his  '  Voyage  into  the  South  Sea,  A.D.  1593 '  (London, 
small  folio,  1622,  reprinted  in '  Purohas  his  Pilgrims '),  says,  "  Amongst 
others  they  have  little  beastes,  like  unto  a  squirrell,  but  that  he  is 
grey ;  his  skinne  is  the  most  delicate,  sofl^  and  curious  furre  that  I 
have  scene,  and  of  much  estimation  (as  is  reason)  in  Peru ;  few  of 
them  come  into  Spaine,  because  difficult  to  be  come  by,  for  tiiat  the 
princes  and  nobles  laie  wait  for  them ;   they  call  tlus  beast  Chin- 


Skeleton  of  ChinehiUa  lantgtra. 
a,  Sknll  seen  from  a1)ove ;  6,  the  same  seen  from  below ;  «,  lower  Jaw  seen  from  above. 


than  the  two  lateral  ones,  and  the  fourth,  external  to  the  others,  very 
short  and  placed  fax  behind.  On  all  these  toes  the  daws  are  chort^ 
and  nearly  hidden  bv  tufts  of  bristly  hairs.  The  tail  is  about  half 
the  length  of  the  body,  of  equal  thickness  throughout^  and  covered 

VAT.  HIST.  DIT.  TOL.  1. 


chilla,  and  of  them  they  have  great  abmidanoe."  Alonso  de  OvaUe^ 
in  his  <  Historical  Belation  of  the  Kingdom  of  Chili'  (Rome,  1646), 
calls  them  squirrels.  "  The  squirrels  (Ardas)  which  are  found  only 
in  the  valley  of  Qunsco,  ore  ash-colourcHl,  and  their  skins  are  in  great 

9  u 


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CHINCHILLID^ 


esteem  for  the  fineness  and  softness  of  the  for."  An  anonymous 
Italian  author,  supposed  by  some  bibliographers— erroneously;  as  Hr. 
Bennett  thinks— to  be  the  Abb^  Vidaur^,  who  publishad  at  Hologntk, 
in  1776,  a  'Compendium  of  the  Qeographicu,  Natural,  and  Cmi 
History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Chili,'  speaks  of  the  Arda  (Spanish  for  a 
squirrel)  as  a  species  of  rat>  or  campagnol,  of  the  size  of  a  cat,  found 
only  in  the  province  of  Copaipo,  moderatdy  docile,  and  covered  with 
ash-coloured  wool,  as  close  and  delicate  as  the  finest  cotton.  Buffon, 
and  that  too  after  quoting  Feuill^e's  excellent  description,  confounded 
it  with  the  Chinche,  the  most  stinking  of  beasts.  D'Azora  corrected 
this  error,  but  falls  into  another  himself,  in  regarding  the  Chinche  of 
Feuill^  and  Buffon  as  his  Yagouar^.  Molina  ('  Natural  History  of 
Chili ' — Italian,  Bologna,  1782)  describes  the  Chinchilla  as  a  species  of 
Linnsean  Mus,  \mder  the  name  of  Mu$  laniger.  Qmelin  adopted  the 
appellation,  but  M.  G^offroy  St.  Hilaire  considered  that  it  ou|;ht  to 
be  regarded  as  one  of  his  Hamsten.  Zoologists  generally  took  up  this 
opinion,  and  Molina,  in  a  second  edition  of  his  Essay  (1810)  seems  to 
have  entertained  it.  "  The  Chinchilla,"  says  Molina,  "  is  another  spe- 
cies of  field-rat,  in  great  estimation  for  the  extreme 'fineness  of  its 
wool,  if  a  rich  fur  as  delicate  as  the  silken  webs  of  the  garden-spiders 
may  be  so  termed.  It  is  of  an  ash-gray,  and  sufficiently  long  for 
spinning.  The  little  animal  which  produces  it  is  six  inches  long  from 
the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  with  small  pointed  ears,  a  short  muzzle, 
teeth  like  the  house-rat,  and  a  tail  of  moderate  leiigth,  clothed  with  a 
delicate  fur.  It  lives  in  burrows  undeiground,  in  the  open  country 
of  the  northern  provinces  of  Chili,  and  is  very  fond  of  being  in  com- 
pany with  others  of  its  spedes.  It  feeds  upon  the  roots  of  various 
bulbous  plants  which  grow  abundantly  in  those  parts ;  and  produces 
twioe  a  year  five  or  six  young  ones.  It  is  so  dodle  and  mild  in  tem- 
per that  if  taken  into  the  hands  it  neither  bites  nor  tries  to  escape,  but 
seems  to  take  a  pleasure  in  being  caressed.  If  placed  in  the  bosom  it 
remains  there  as  still  and  quiet  as  if  it  were  in  its  own  nest  This 
extraordinary  placidity  may  possibly  be  rather  due  to  its  pusillani- 
mity, which  renders  it  extramely  timid.  As  it  is  in  itself  peculiarly 
cleanly,  there  can  be  no  fear  of  it  soiling  the  clothes  of  those  who 
handle  it,  or  of  its  communicating  any  bad  smell  to  them,  for  it  is 
entirely  free  from  that  ill  odour  which  characterises  the  other  species 
of  rats.  For  this  reason  it  might  well  be  kept  in  the  houses  with  no 
annoyance,  and  at  a  trifling  expense,  which  would  be  abundantly 
repaid  by  the  profits  on  its  wool.  '  The  ancient  Peruvians,  who  were 
£Eir  more  industrious  than  the  modem,  made  of  this  wool  coverlets 
for  beds  and  valuable  stuffs.  There  is  found  in  the  same  northern 
provinces  another  little  animal  with  fine  wool,  called  tiie  Hardilla, 
which  is  variously  described  by  those  who  have  seen  it ;  but  as  I  have 
never  observed  it  myself,  I  cannot  determine  to  what  genus  it  belongs." 
Upon  this,  Mr.  Bennett,  whose  translation  we  have  given,  remarks  that 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  animal  is  identical  with  the  Chin- 
chilla, the  latter  being  frequently  spoken  of  by  the  name  of  Arda,  the 
same  with  Harda,  the  diminutive  of  which  is  Hardilla.  Schxnidt- 
meyer  ('Travels  into  Chile  over  the  Andes,'  London,  4to,  1824),  thus 
describes  the  animal : — "  The  Chinchilla  is  a  woolly  field-mouse,  whidi 
lives  underground,  and  chiefly  feeds  on  wild  onions.  Its  fine  fur  is 
well  known  in  Europe ;  that  which  comes  from  Upper  Peru  is  rougher 
and  larger  than  the  Chinchilla  of  Chile,  but  not  always  so  beautiful  in 
its  colour.  Qreat  numbers  of  these  animals  are  caught  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Coquimbo  and  Copiapo,  generally  by  boys  with  dogs, 
and  sold  to  traders  who  bring  them  to  Santiago  and  Valparaiso,  from 
whence  they  are  exported.  The  Peruvian  skins  are  either  brought  to 
Buenos  Ayres  from  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Andes,  or  sent  to  Lima. 
The  extensive  use  of  this  fur  has  lately  occasioned  a  very  considerable 
destruction  of  the  animals." 

Captain  Beechey,  RN.,  on  his  return  from  his  expedition  to  the 
north-west  coast  of  America,  presented  a  living  specimen  to  the  Zoolo- 
gical Society;  and  an  entire  skin,  rendered  particularly  valuable  in 
consequence  of  its  having  the  skuU  preserved  in  it.  was  at  the  same 
time  brought  home  by  Mr.  Collie^  tne  suigeon  of  Captain  Beechey's 
ship,  and  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 

**  To  the  acooimt  of  its  habits  given  by  Molina,"  says  Mr.  Bennett,  **  we 
can  only  add,  that  it  usually  sits  upon  its  haunches,  and  is  even  able  to 
raise  itself  up  and  stand  upon  its  ninder  feet.  It  feeds  in  a  sitt&g  pos- 
ture, grasping  its  food  and  conveying  it  to  its  mouth  by  means  of  its 
fore  paws.  In  its  temper  it  is  generally  mild  and  tractable,  but  it 
will  not  always  suffer  itself  to  be  handled  without  resistance,  and 
sometimes  bites  the  hand  which  attempts  to  fondle  it  when  not  in  a 
humour  to  be  played  with.  Although  a  native  of  the  alpine  valleys 
of  Chili,  and  consequently  subjected  in  its  own  country  to  the  ejects 
of  a  low  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  against  which  its  thick  coat 
affords  an  admirable  protection,  it  was  thought  necessary  to  keep  it 
during  the  winter  in  a  moderately  warm  room,  and  a  piece  of  fiannel 
was  even  introduced  into  its  sleeping-apartment  for  its  greater  com- 
fort. But  this  indulgence  was  most  pertinaciously  rejected,  and  as 
often  as  the  flannel  was  replaced,  so  often  was  it  dragged  by  the  little 
animal  into  the  outer  compartment  of  its  cage,  where  it  amused  itself 
with  pulling  it  about,  rolling  it  up,  and  shaking  it  with  its  feet  and 
teeth.  In  other  respects  it  exhibits  but  little  playfulness,  and  gives 
few  signs  of  activity ;  seldom  disturbing  its  usual  quietude  by  any 
sudden  or  extraordinary  gambols,  but  occasionally  displaying  strong 
symptoms  of  alarm  when  startled  by  any  unusual  occurrence.    A 


second  individual  of  this  interesting  spedes  has  lately  been  added  to 
the  collection  by  the  kindness  of  Lady  Knighton,  in  whose  poaBeaion 
it  had  remained  twelve  months  previously  to  her  presenting  it  to  the 
Sodety.  This  specimen  ia  larger  in  size  and  rougher  in  its  fiir  thin 
the  one  above  described ;  its  colour  is  also  less  uniformly  gray,  deriTing 
a  somewhat  mottled  appearance  from  the  numerous  small  blacklBh 
spots  which  are  scattered  over  the  back  and  sides.  It  is  possiUe  that 
this  may  bo  thd  Pe^hivian  variety,  mentioned  in  the  extract  from 
Schmidtmeyer's  '  Travels,'  as  furnishing  a  less  delicate  and  valuable 
fur  than  the  Chilian  animal.  It  is  equally  good-tempered  and  mild  in 
its  dispodtion,  and,  probably  in  consequence  of  having  been  exhibited 
in  a  public  ooUection,  is  im^ch.  niore  tame  and  pla]^.  In  its  late 
abode  it  wits  frequently  suffeind  to  run  about  the  room,  when  it  would 
show  off  its  a^pUty  by  leering  to  the  height  of  the  table.  Its  food 
oonsisted  principally  of  dry  herbage,  such  as  hay  and  dover,  on  which 
it  appears  to  have  thriven  greatly  :  that  of  the  Sodety's  original 
spedjpen  has  hitherto  been  chiefly  grain  of  various  kinds  and  succu- 
lent roots.  When  the  new-comer  was  first  introduced  into  Bruton 
Street,  it  was  placed  in  the  same  cage  with  the  other  specimen ;  but 
the  latter  appeared  by  no  m^ans  disposed  to  submit  to  ike  presence  of 
the  intruder ;  a  ferodous  kind  of  scuffling  fight  immediately  ensued 
between  them,  and  the  latter. would  unquestionably  have  fallen  a 
viotiA  bad  ii  jiot  bpen  rescued  from  its  impending  fate :  since  that 
time  they  have  inhabited  separate  cages,  placed  ride  by  side;  and 
although  the  open  wires  would  admit  of  some  little  familiarity  taking 
place  between  them,  no  advances  have  as  yet  been  made  on  either 
dde.  Such  an  isolated  fact  can,  of  course,  have  little  weight  in  oppo- 
dtion  to  the  testimony  of  Molina,  that  the  Chinchilla  is  fond  of 
company.  It  is  nevertheless  a  remarkable  circumstance,  and  deeerres 
to  be  mentioned  in  illustration  of  the  habits  of  these  animals."  It 
breeds  fireely  in  confinement,  the  oldest  pair  at  present  in  the  Zoolo- 
gical Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  having  produced  seven  young  ones. 


Chmchillo  lanigera. 

The  fur  of  this  species  is  a  oondderable  article  of  commerce.  Id 
mufB^  tippets,  linings  to  cloaks  and  pelisses,  and  trimmings  for  the 
same,  it  is  sold  extendvely,  and  at  a  comparatively  high  price.  The 
annual  import  of  the  skins  of  ChinOhiUas  into  England  in  1851  was 
85,000  :  about  18,000  of  these  were  re-exported. 

C,  brevioaudattt,  Waterhouse  (ErUmyt  Ckfm^iUa,  Liditenstain  and 
Wagner).  Mr.  Waterhouse,  in  his '  Natural  History  of  the  Mammalia,' 
says,  *'  I  fed  little  doubt  that  further  investigation  will  prove  this  to 
be  a  distinct  spedes  from  the  C,  lamgerar  This  spedes  inhabits 
Peru,  and  is  larger  than  the  last 


Lago9Umu», 


Indsors, . ; 


molars, 


=  20. 


The  incisors  are  sharpened ;  the  molars  eadi  consists  of  two  com- 
plete oblique  lamellss,  the  upper  posterior  one  being  triUmellir. 
Anterior  feet  4-toed,  the  thumb  being  altogether  defident,  the  nails 
small  and  fidcular.  Posterior  feet  3-toed,  tiie  ndls  produced,  straight 
and  robust    Ears  moderate.    Tail  moderate. 

L,  triehodaetjfim,  Brookes  {OaUomys  VUeacia,  Is.  Geoffiray  and 
D'Orbigny;  Dipua  maxitnua,  De  Blainvjlle).  It  is  La  Yiscache  of 
D' Apura,  and  the  Marmot  Diana  of  Griffiths,  translator  of  Cuviei^B 
'Animal  Kingdom.'  The  following  are  the  characters  as  giv^  io 
Mr.  Waterhouse's  work  : — Body  «tout ;  limbs  powerful ;  tarsi  long; 
ear  nearly  half  as  long  as  the  head^  broad  at  the  base,  narrow  at  the 
oppodte  extremity,  being  distinctly  emaxginated  behind;  fiir  soft  and 
moderately  long.  Qeneial  line  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  animal  gray, 
somewhat  mottled  with  dusky,  and  distincUy  pencilled  with  black; 
the  whole  of  the  under  parts  white  or  yellow-white ;  a  broad  dusky  or 
black  band  extends  on  either  side,  from  Uie  munle  to  the  back  part 
of  the  cheek ;  an  equally  broad  white  band  mosses  the  muzzle  and 
terminates  on  each  dde  beneath  the  eye,  and  a  third  narrow  band 
passes  across  the  forehead  which  is  of  a  dinky  hue ;  tail  about  half 


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CHINCHILLID.E. 


CHINCHILLIDiE. 


1080 


the  lengih  of  the  bod;^,  for  the  most  part  of  a  diuky  brown-blaokiah 
colour,  and  clothed  with  long  hairs  on  the  upper  surface. 


Skeleton  of  Marmot  Diana  {Lago$tomu»  triehodaetylus), 
a.  Upper  jaw ;  b,  lower  jaw  ;  c,  crown  of  the  second  molar  tooth  flf  the  left 
side  of  the  lower  Jaw ;  d,  crown  of  the  laet  molar  tooth  of  the  right  side  of  the 
vpper  Jaw. 

This  animal  appears  to  be  the  Yiscacha  described  by  so  many 
travellers  as  colonising  the  vast  plains  eastward  of  the  great  chain  of 
the  Andes.  Dobrizhofifer,  Jolis,  D' Azara,  Proctor,  Head,  Miers,  and 
Haigh,  all  mention  it.  Captain  (now  Sir  Francis)  Head  gives  a  picture 
of  these  animals,  sitting  solemnly  ^  the  entrance  of  their  burrows, 
quite  in  his  peculiar  style.  Bisoacbo  is  the  name  he  assigns  to  them, 
and  according  to  his  account,  the  Biscachueras,  or  Biscacho  burrows, 
which  perforate  the  plains,  are  terrible  traps  for  the  xmwary 
horsemen. 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  accoxmts  of  two  foreign  travel- 
lers (whose  works  are  not  in  the  hands  of  every  one)  of  the  habits  of 
this  species  : — ''  The  Biscacha,  called  by  the  Abipones  Neheldterek," 
says  Dobrizhoffer  in  his  curious  '  Hlstoria  de  Abiponibus '  (Yiennse, 
1784),  "  digs  its  burrows  in  the  more  elevated  parts  of  the  plains  with 
so  much  art,  that  no  aperture  is  left  by  which  the  rain  ce^  penetrate; 
and  these  burrows  are  divided  into  distinct  settlements,  numerous 
families  inhabiting  the  same  locality.  On  the  surface  of  the  ground 
are  several  entrances  to  the  burrows,  at  which,  towards  sunset^  they 
are  seen  seated  in  crowds,  diligently  listening  for  the  sound  of  any 
person  approaching.  If  everything  remains  quiet,  they  seek  their 
food  in  the  obscurity  of  the  night,  and  commit  grievous  devastation 
on  the  neighbouring  fields,  devouring  both  wheat  and  Indian  com 
with  extreme  avidity,  and  when  either  is  to  be  had  despising  grass. 
For  this  reason  the  stations  of  the  Biscachas  are  rarely  to  be  seen  in 
the  desert  plains,  but  indicate  with  certainty  the  near  neighbourhood 
of  the  Spanish  settlements.  I  have  often  wondered  never  to  have 
seen  the  Biscacha  in  the  territories  either  of  the  Abipones  or  the 
Guaranis,  although  well  supplied  with  all  kinds  of  crops.  They  daily 
heap  up,  at  the  entrances  of  their  burrow,  dry  bones,  chips  of  wood, 
or  whatever  other  refuse  they  may  meet  with,  but  for  what  purpose 
they  collect  such  things  it  is  impossible  even  to  coigecture.  The 
Spanish  colonists  amuse  themselves  with  hunting  them;  pouring 
many  buckets  of  water  into  their  subterraneous  retreats,  until,  to 
avoid  drowning,  the  animals  come  forth  into  the  plain,  where,  no 
means  of  escape  being  afforded  them,  they  are  killed  with  sticks. 
Their  flesh,  unless  when  very  old,  is  not  considered  despicable  even 
by  the  Spaniards." 

The  Abbd  JoUs  dwelt  for  twelve  years  in  South  America,  and  made 
three  journeys  into  the  remote  districts  of  the  interior.  His  work, 
'  Saggio  sulla  Storia  Naturale  della  Provincia  del  Qranchaoo'  (Foenea, 
1789),  is  BO  little  known,  and  his  description  in  some  particulars  differs 
so  much  from  that  of  Dobrizhoffer,  that  we  give  Mr.  Bennett's  trans- 
lation of  it : — **  The  Biscachas  live  in  society  in  burrows  imder- 
groundi  which  they  form  for  themselves,  excavating  in  all  directions 


to  the  extent  of  a  mile  in  circumference,  with  various  exits  and 
separate  retreats,  in  which  the  old  live  distinct  from  the  younger. 
The  soil  in  which  these  are  usually  made  is  that  which  is  harcl  and 
barren,  and  destitute  of  everything,  but  with  bushes  (boscaglie)  at  no 
great  distance,  and  pasture  of  tender  grass,  roots,  and  the  bark  of 
trees.  They  collect  around  their  retreats  bones,  dried  leaves,  and 
whatever  they  find  in  the  neighbourhood :  if  anything  is  missing  in 
their  districts,  it  is  to  be  found  with  certainty  piled  up  in  these 
situations  the  following  day.  As  they  are  animals  that  avoid  the 
light,  having  little  power  of  vision,  they  are  not  to  be  seen  in  the 
day-time,  unless  at  dawn,  or  towards  evening  after  sunset.  The  night, 
and  especially  when  the  moon  shines,  is  the  proper  time  for  seeUng 
their  food.  Those  among  the  Biscachas  which  ai*o  called  Chinchillas, 
and  which  may  be  said  to  belone  to  the  first  species,  inhabit  only  the 
mountains  and  cold  situations ;  m  size  they  are  like  a  rabbit,  and  are 
clothed  with  a  fine  long  fur.  Their  agility  is  surprising ;  they  are 
seen  leaping  from  rock  to  rock  as  if  they  had  the  faculty  of  flight. 
The  others,  indicated  above,  inhabit  the  level  country  in  warm  situa- 
tions. .  .  .  Fierce  and  courageous,  they  defend  themselves  with 
all  their  might  against  the  dogs,  and  sometimes  even  attack  the  legs 
of  the  hunters.  I  shall  speak  in  my  travels,  as  a  fitter  place,  of  the 
three  curious  modes  in  which  they  are  driven  out  of  tiieir  retreats ; 
that  is  to  say,  with  water,  with  fire,  and  by  rubbing  sticks  together." 

But  neither  of  those  authors  mentions  the  somewhat  anoma- 
lous companions  with  which  the  Biscachoes  are  associated,  and  we 
select  from  the  travels  of  Proctor,  Head,  Miers,  and  Haigh,  the 
account  of  the  first-named  traveller,  which,  as  Mr.  Bennett  observes, 
gives  nearlv  all  the  particulars  which  are  to  be  foimd  in  the  rest. 
"  The  whole  country,  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  San  Luis  de  la  Punta,  is 
more  or  less  burrowed  by  an  animal  between  a  rabbit  and  a  badger, 
called  the  Biscacho,  which  renders  travelling  dangerous,  particularly 
by  night,  their  holes  being  so  laige  and  deep  that  a  horse  is  almost 
sure  to  fill  if  he  steps  into  ono  of  them.  The  Biscacho  never  ventures 
'far  from  its  retreat,  and  is  seldom  seen  till  the  evening,  when  it  comes 
out  to  feed,  and  hundreds  may  be  observed  sporting  round  their  holes 
and  making  a  noise  very  similar  to  the  grunting  of  pigs.  Their  flesh 
is  much  liked  by  the  people,  and  they  are  remarkably  fat,  and  on  that 
account,  when  caught  at  any  distance  from  their  holes,  are  easily  run 
down ;  they  will  however  defend  themselves  from  a  dog  a  considerable 
time.  The  holes  of  these  animals  are  also  inhabited  by  vast  numbers 
of  small  owls,  which  sit  during  the  day  gazing  at  the  passing  travel- 
lers, and  making  a  very  ludicrous  appearance.  The  parts  of  Uie  road 
most  frequented  bv  the  Biscacho  are  generally  overrun  by  a  species  of 
small  wild  melon,  bitter  to  the  taste ;  whether  it  thrives  particularly 
on  the  manure  of  the  animal,  or  whether  the  Biscacho  chooses  his 
hole  nearer  this  itmning  phmt,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  ascer- 
tained." 

The  following  account  of  the  habits  of  this  a'eature,  from  Mr. 
Darwin's  interesting  journal,  is  one  of  the  most  recent  contributions 
published  on  this  subject : — "  The  Yiscacha  is  well  known  to  form  a 
prominent  feature  in  the  zoology  of  the  Pampas.  It  is  found  as  far 
south  as  the  Rio  N^gro,  in  lat  41**,  but  not  beyond.  It  cannot,  like 
the  Agouti  {Ihlachotia  Palachonica),  subsist  on  the  gravelly  and  desert 
plains  of  Patagonia,  but  prefers  a  clayey  or  sandy  soil,  Yrldch.  pro- 
duces a  different  and  more  abundant  vegetation.  Near  Mendoza,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Cordillera,  it  occurs  in  close  neighbourhood  with  the 
allied  alpine  species.  It  is  a  very  curious  circumstance  in  its  geo- 
graphioal  distribution  that  it  has  never  been  seen,  fortunately  for  tiie 
inhabitants,  in  Banda  Oriental,  to  the  eastward  of  the  river  Uruguay ; 
yet  in  that  province  there  are  plains  which  appear  admirably  adapted 
to  its  habits.  That  river  has  formed  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  its 
migration,  although  the  broader  barrier  of  the  Parana  has  been 
passed ;  and  the  Yiscacha  is  common  in  Entre  Rios  (the  province 
between  the  two  rivers),  dii'eotly  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  Uruguay. 
Near  Buenos  Ayres  these  animals  are  exceedingly  common.  Their 
most  favourite  resort  appears  to  be  those  parts  of  the  plain  which, 
during  one-half  of  the  year,  are  covered  with  great  thistles  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  plants.  The  Quachos  affirm  that  it  lives  on  roots, 
which,  from  the  great  strength  of  its  gnawing  teeth  and  the  kind  of 
localities  frequented  by  it,  seems  probable.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
rabbit,  a  few  holes  are  commonly  placed  together.  In  the  evening 
the  Yiscachas  come  out  in  numbers,  and  there  quietly  sit  on  their 
haunches.  They  are  at  such  times  very  tame,  and  a  man  on  horse- 
badE  passing  by  seems  only  to  present  an  object  for  their  gntve 
contemplation.  They  do  not  wander  far  from  their  burrows.  They 
run  very  awkwardlv,  and  when  hunying  out  of  dxmger,  from  their 
elevated  tails  and  short  front  legs,  much  resemble  great  rats.  Their 
flesh  when  cooked  is  very  white  and  good,  but  it  is  seldom  used. 
The  Yiscacha  has  one  veiy  singular  habit,  namely,  dragging  eveiy 
hard  object  to  the  mouth  of  its  burrow.  Around  each  group  of 
holes  many  bones  of  cattle,  stones,  thistle-stalks,  hard  clumps  of 
earth,  dry  dung,  &c.,  are  collected  into  a  heap,  which  frequently 
amounts  to  as  much  as  a  wheelbarrow  would  contain.  I  was  credibly 
informed  that  a  gentleman,  when  riding  in  a  dark  night,  dropped  his 
watch;  he  returned  in  the  morning,  and  by  searching  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  every  Yiscacha  hole  on  the  line  of  road,  as  he  expected, 
soon  found  it.  .  This  habit  of  picking  up  whatever  may  be  lying  on 
the  ground  anywhere  near  its  liabitation  must  cost  much  trouble. 


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CHIOCOCCA. 


CHIR0CEPHALU8. 


ia» 


For  what  purpoee  it  ib  done  I  am  quite  unable  to  form  even  the  most 
remote  conjecture ;  it  cannot  be  for  defence,  because  the  rubbish  is 
chiefly  placed  above  the  mouth  of  the  burrow,  which  enters  the 
ground  at  a  very  small  inclination." 

CHIOCOCCA  (from  x^  uid  kSkkos),  a  ^nus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Cfmchonaeeee,  Calyx  with  an  oval  tube  and  an 
acutely  5-toothed  permanent  limb.  Corolla  funnel-shaped,  with  an 
obcomcal  tube  or  throat,  and  five  acute  lobes.  Stamens  with  the 
filaments  hardly  adnate  to  the  bottom  of  the  corolla,  downy,  and 
shorter  than  the  anthers,  which  are  inclosed  and  linear.  Style  rather 
davate  at  the  apex,  entire  or  slightly  2-lobed.  Berry  somewhat 
didymous,  compressed,  crowned  by  the  teeth  of  the  calyx,  containing 
two  chartaceous  1-seeded  pyrens.  Seeds  pendulous.  Embrvo  with 
a  long  superior  radicle.  Albumen  cartilaginous.  Shrubs  generally  with 
a  somewhat  climbing  habit  Leaves  opposite,  ovate  or  oblong  acute, 
glabrous.  Stipules  broad  at  the  base,  permanent,  more  or  less  api- 
eulated.  Racemes  axillary,  opposite,  simple  or  panided.  Flowers 
pedicellate,  of  a  yellowish-white  colour.    Roots  emetic  and  alexiteric. 

C.  rocemofo,  Racemose  Snow-Berry,  has  oval  leaves  acuminated  at 
both  ends,  smooth ;  stipules  broad  at  the  base,  and  apiculated  by  a 
long  point  at  tiie  apex ;  filaments  of  stamens  down^.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  West  Indian  Islands  and  Carthagena,  on  hills.  It  is  a  very 
variable  dirub.  'fhe  corollas  at  first  are  white  and  scentless,  but  at 
length  become  yellowish  and  sweet-scented.  The  berries  are  snow- 
white,  hence  the  English  name.  The  root  has  an  acid  bitter  taste, 
and  has  long  been  used  as  a  strong  resolutive  or  attenuant ;  it  is 
administered  in  obstinate  rheumatisms,  and  is  also  an  excellent  emetic 
This  is  a  plant  conunonly  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  there  are  several 
varieties  of  it. 

O,  deniifior<it  Dense-Flowered  Snow-Berry,  has  ovate  rather  coria- 
ceous leaves,  many-flowered  racemes,  the  corolla  much  longer  than 
the  calyx,  the  filaments  densely-bearded.  It  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  in 
woods  at  Almeida  and  Seiradas,  on  the  mountains  of  Bahia,  and*  at 
the  port  of  St.  Catherine. 

(7.  (mguifugoy  Anguifuge  Snow-Berry,  has  ovate  acuminated  leaves ; 
stipules  very  broad,  short,  each  ending  in  a  short  point;  racemes 
panided ;  corolla  not  quite  three  times  longer  than  the  calydne  teeth, 
it  is  a  native  of  Brazil  in  woods,  French  Guyana,  Trinidad,  Peru,  Cuba, 
and  on  the  Spanish  Main.  Both  this  and  the  former  species  are  used 
in  Brazil  as  a  certain  remedy  for  serpent  bites.  An  infusion  of  the 
bark  produces  the  most  violent  purgaUve  and  emetic  effects. 

C.  odorcUa,  Sweet-Scented  Snow-Berry,  has  broad  oval  leaves,  rather 
coriaceous,  very  blimt,  acute  at  the  base,  and  running  down  the  short 
petioles;  pedundes  axillary,  solitary;  84-flowered  corolla,  with  a 
bearded  tluoat.  It  is  a  native  of  Elizabeth  Island,  one  of  the  Society 
Islands.    The  flowers  are  described  as  smelling  like  cowslips. 

(7.  hofhatcL,  Bearded  Flowered  Snow-Berry,  has  oval  leaves,  acute 
at  the  base,  and  tapering  into  short  petioles,  acuminated  and  obtuse 
at  the  apex ;  peduncles  axillary,  solitaiy ;  1-3-flowered ;  corolla  with 
a  bearded  throat ;  5-cleft.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Society  and  Friendly 
Islan^lff. 

C.  Ja9€tna,  Java  Snow-Berry,  is  a  parasitical  shrub,  with  oblong 
lanceolate  leaves,  acuminated  at  both  ends,  glabrous,  velvety,  and 
shining  above ;  corymbs  terminal,  tridiotomous.  This  is  a  native  of 
Java,  on  the  mountains,  upon  trees. 

All  the  spedes  of  Chiococca  grow  beet  in  a  mixture  of  loam,  peat, 
and  sand,  and  strike  freely  in  sand  under  a  hand-ff lass. 

CHIOLITE,  a  Mineral  found  in  Siberia.  It  has  a  hardnees=8'5, 
and  a  specific  gravity  =2*6  to  2*77.  It  is  near  CryoUtt  in  composition 
and  characters,  and  appears  to  be  a  fluoride  of  aluminum  and  sodium. 

CHIO'KEA  (Dalman),  a  genus  of  Dipterous  Insects  bdonging  to 
the  section  T^ntZorics  terrieolcB, 

One  spedes  of  this  genus  is  remarkable  both  in  its  structure  and 
habits.  It  is  less  than  half  an  inch  in  length ;  the  head  is  of  a 
brownish-yellow  colour ;  the  thorax  and  abdomen  are  ashy-brown ; 
the  latter  is  of  an  oval  form  and  rather  hairy ;  the  legs  are  very  long, 
rather  thick  and  covered  with  hairs,  not  unlike  the  legs  of  a  spider, 
and  of  a  yellowish  colour.  It  is  perfectly  destitute  of  wings,  and  is 
found  upon  the  snow  in  the  woods  of  Sweden  throughout  the  winter. 
The  generic  characters  are : — Body  apterous ;  joints  of  the  palpi 
nearly  equal ;  antennsd  setaceous,  10-jointed,  and  covered  with  fine 
hairs  at  the  extremity ;  the  abdomen  of  the  male  terminated  by  a 
forceps-like  appendage  composed  of  two  horizontal  jointed  processes, 
and  that  of  the  female  ia  terminated  by  a  boring  instrument,  or  ovi- 
positor, consisting  of  two  valvules,  placed  one  upon  the  other,  of 
which  the  upper  one  is  the  longer,  and  composed  of  two  plates. 

There  is  another  insect  which,  though  it  belongs  to  a  different  order 
(Neuroplera),  resembles  this  spedes  in  its  habits  of  appearing  during 
the  winter,  and  crawling  upon  the  snow,  as  weU  as  in  bdng  apterous, 
a  diaracter  which  is  of  rare  occurrence  in  either  tribe.    [Bobbus.] 

Two  other  spedes  of  Ckionea  are  given  in  the  '  British  Museum 
Catalogue,'  boUi  of  them  inhabitants  of  North  America. 

CHIROCEPHALUS,  a  ^us  of  Entomostracous  Ch-vMtaeea  bdong- 
ing to  the  division  Sranchtopoda,  the  order  PhyUopoda,  and  the  family 
Branchipodidai,  In  this  family  two  British  genera  are  included — 
Artemia  [Branctriopoda]  and  CMrocephalus.  Artemia  is  distinguished 
troTn  the  latter  by  havmg  the  caudal  segment  of  the  body  simply 
bilobed,  and  not  divided  into  plates,  and  has  no  appendages  at  the 


base  of  the  cephalic  horns,  whidi  are  characteristic  of  CkiroeephaUL 
The  following  are  the  characters  of  Ohirocq»halH9 : — ^Abdomen  litge, 
consisting  of  nine  divisions,  and  terminated  by  two  wsU-dereloped 
caudal  plates  or  lamellar  appendages ;  cephalic  horns  of  a  eylindrical 
shape,  and  furnished  with  fan-shaped  and  digitiform  appendagei 
intiiemale. 

C,  diaphanut  is  the  only  spedes.  It  was  apparently  first  noticed  by 
Limueus,  and  called  by  him  Cancer  itagnaUi. 

The  following  synonyms  from  Dr.  Baird's  '  History  of  the  Britiah 
Entomostraoous  Crustaoea,'  will  give  some  idea  of  the  history  of  this 
curious  animal,  as  of  the  interest  it  has  created : — 

ChiriHsephahu  diapjtontu,  Prevost> '  Joum.  de  Phys.*  1803 ;  Jurine, 
'  Hist  Monoc.' 
Br<xnehipu»  PrevoaUi,  Fischer, '  BulL  Soc.  Imp.  Nat.'  Moscow,  188i 
Chirocephahu  Prevottii,  Thompson, '  ZooL  Researches,'  1834 
JBranckipui  Chirocei^alut,  Querin, '  Icoil  Reg.  An.  Crost' 
BranchipuB  diaphawuSf  Milne-Edwards, '  Hist.  Cmstaeese.' 
Bran^put  palud<mt»t  Desmarest,  '  Consid.  gen.  Crust' ;  Lamarck, 
'  Hist  An.  s.  Vert,'  2nd  ed. 
Cancer  itagnalit  (Linn,  f), '  Linn.  Trans.,'  voL  L 
Cancer  paludomu  (f),  MUller,  'ZooL  Dan.  Herbst  Krabben.' 
Branckipne  ttagnalu^  Milne-Edwards,  Cuv.  'R^ne  Animal,' edii 
Crochart 
Ino  pitcina,  Sdirank, '  Faun.  Boia,'  1803. 
Marteau  d'Eau  douoe,  Dudiesne, '  MaiL  du  Natnraliste.' 
Remarkable  Aquatic  Insect,  King,  'PhiL  Trans.,'  1762. 
SquUla  lacuBtrie  minima,  Petiver,  'Qaioph.  Nat,'  1709. 
The  following  is  Dr.  Baird's  description  of  the  spedes  :— 
"  When  fuU  grown  it  is  upwards  of  an  inch  in  length,  slender,  of  i 
cylindrical  form,  and  neariy  perfectiy  faransparsnt    The  male  is  more 
so  than  the  female,  but  witii  a  slight  reddidL  tinge  throughout   The 
tail  is  of  a  bright*r^  ;  the  large  basal  joint  of  the  prdiennle  sntanns 
of  a  beautifal  transparent  bluish-green  colour,  tipped  at  the  ertremiiy, 
where  the  second  joint  arises,  with  a  fine  red  hueu    The  back  of  the 
female  is  of  a  blue  colour;   and  the  ovary,  when  full  of  ots,  of  a 
reddish-brown." 


Chirocephalus  dUiphawt, 
1 ,  Male,  magnified ;  a  a,  oompoaite  or  network  eyes ;  h  h,  anteuis ;  «e,  nuadi. 
buliform  horns  ;  tf,  probotddlform  moresble  tentaenla,  rdledspiiaUy ;  *,  ii^ 
mdimentery  eye ;  //,  leaf-like  natatory  fbet  or  oars ;  §,  asale  organs ;  A  A,  tail ; 
i,  terminating  filaments;  S,  front  view  of  the  head;  S,  tall  of  the  feosk; 
i,  egg-pooch ;  /,  female  organ ;  4,  a  young  OMroetpkahu  after  the  first  noolt 

This  beautiful  litUe  creature  is  not  often  met  with,  and  iHien  foipd 
is  always  an  inhabitant  of  dirty,  stsgnant  water.  The  plaon  in  which 
it  is  fotmd  have  also  another  peculiarity — that  of  being  dried  ap  f<^ 
the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Thus,  the  most  common  I^mm  for  it 
are  ditches  by  road-sides,  and  cart-whed  ruts.  Several  localities  hsTS 
been  given  for  it  in  England ;  the  most  oonomon  is  that  of  Blaekhett^ 
where  in  a  few  of  the  pools  by  the  roaddde,  which  are  mostly  diim 
up  during  the  greater  part  of  tiie  year,  it  is  very  abundant  after  run. 
It  has  also  been  found  near  Epping,  near  Brighton,  near  Bristd,  utt 
Hammersmith,  and  in  Devorumire.  In  the  description  given  of  them 
by  King  in  the  < Philosophical  Transactions'  for  1767,  they  w«» 
found  in  a  ditch  of  standing  water  near  Norwich.  **  Thej  wers  <!*' 
covered,"  says  Mr.  King,  "  by  a  poor  mui,  now  dead,  whose  geuoi 
was  very  extraordinary,  and  much  superior  to  what  is  usually  found 
in  his  rank.  He  was  indefatigable  in  his  searches  after  STerythiog 
curious,  and,  without  ever  having  had  any  advantages  of  educinon, 
had  acquireii  a  degree  of  knowledge  by  no  means  oontemptibla 


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GHIROGEPHALUS. 


CHIRONOMXJS. 


1084 


Schcefibr  discovered  them  in  a  pool  of  water  near  Ratisbon.  Prevost 
found  his  apecimeos  at  Montaat>on,  and  at  Jurine's  reqaeet  sent  some 
ova  in  moist  paper  to  Qeneva,  where  Jorine  suooeeded  in  hatching 
them  and  making  those  observations  which  are  published  in  his 
'M onodes  ^ui  se  trouvent  k  Qeneve.'  Dr.  Baird  says,  "  It  is  rarely  to  be 
met  with  m  this  country,  compared  with  the  Daphmai  and  many 
Qither  Biiiomo§lraca ;  the  only  place  near  London  where  I  haTe  met 
with  it  being  on  BlaokheatL  They  swim  upon  their  backs,  and  in 
fine  warm  weather,  when  the  sun  is  not  too  strong,  they  may  be  seen 
balancing  themselves,  as  it  were,  near  the  surfiuse  by  means  of  thdr 
branohiu  feet,  which  are  in  constant  motion.  On  the  least  disturb- 
ance, however,  they  strike  the  water  rapidly  with  their  tail  from  right 
to  lelt^  and  dart  away  like  a  fish,  and  hasten  to  conceal  themselves  by 
diving  into  the  soft  mud  or  amongst  the  weeds  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pooL  They  are  nearly  tranroarent,  and  are  of  a  very  light  reddish 
colour,  with  a  slight  tinge  of  blue  on  some  parts.  '  When  placed  in 
a  glass  of  dear  water,'  says  Prevost, '  the  elegance  of  its  form,  the 
ease  and  softness  of  its  movements!,  ifcs  silvery  transparency,  or  its 
brilliant  ooloura,  its  large  black  eyes,  the  small  spot  which  it  carries 
on  its  head,  the  crown  of  the  male — are  a  beautiful  sight  which  the 
most  indifferent  observer  cannot  see  without  pleasure.' 

"  It  is  certainly  the  most  beautiful  and  elegant  of  all  the  EfUomoi- 
iraea,  The  male  is  especially  beautiful  The  uninterrupted  undu- 
latory  wavy  motion  of  its  graceful  branchial  feet^  slightly  tinged  as 
they  are  with  a  light  reddioa  hue,  the  brilliant  mixture  of  transparent 
bluish-green  and  bright-red  of  its  prehensile  antenns,  and  its  bright- 
red  tail,  with  the  beautifully  plumose  setsa  springing  from  it,  render 
it  really  exceedingly  attractive  to  the  view. 

"  The  undulatory  motion  of  its  branchial  feet  serves  another  purpose 
in  addition  to  that  of  keeping  the  animal  suspended  in  the  water. 
The  thorax  or  body  of  the  ammal  has  been  described,  when  floating 
on  its  back,  as  like  the  cavity  of  a  little  boat,  the  feet  representing 
When  these  are  in  motion,  they  cause  the  water  contained  in 


this  boat-like  cavity  to  be  compressed,  and  to  mount  up  as  along  a 
canal,  canying  in  the  current  the  particles  destined  ror  its  food 
towards  the  mouth.  It  seems  to  be  constantly,  when  in  this  position, 
employed  in  swallowing  and  digesting  its  food,  its  masticatory  organs 
being  in  perpetual  motion.  Shaw  imagined  this  little  creature  to  be 
a  fierce  and  yoraoious  beast  of  prey,  but  it  is  not  so ;  he  was  misled 
in  so  thinking  by  not  understanding  the  true  nature  of  its  prehensile 
anteniuB.  These  ho  imagined  were  oigans  for  seizing  its  victims 
and  crushing  them  to  death,  though  he  candidly  admits  that  he  never 
saw  them  attack  other  animals,  and  even  says  that  he  has  seen  them 
saocumb  to  the  assaults  of  the  Cypri$.  According  to  Prevost,  they 
live  upon  dead  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  but  they  have  apparency 
litUe  taste,  for  they  swallow  every  jort  of  thing  that  comes  m  their 
way,  however  hurtful  it  may  be.  Schcoffer  says  that  he  found  great 
difficulty  in  keeping  the  Bn!nehiput  alive  after  having  been  taken  out 
of  the  water  in  which  they  were  found,  and  also  says  that  they  are 
iseapable  of  bearing  any  degree  of  cold.  Jurine,  however,  found  no 
difficulty  in  hatching  the  ova  of  the  CkiroeepkalHs  sent  to  him  by 
Preyosty  and  keeping  the  animals  so  hatched  till  they  reached  matu- 
rity; and  Shaw  distinctly  asserts  that  he  has  found  them  in  this 
country,  in  shallow  pools,  m  the  months  of  December  and  January, 
eyen  after  pretty  sharp  frosts,  as  lively  almost  as  in  spring  or  summer. 
I  haye  always  found  them  in  the  months  of  October,  November,  and 
December,  and  even  after  frosts  of  short  continuance  thou^  of  con- 
siderable severity.  In  general  they  haye  been  yery  short-hyed  after 
being  remoyed  from  their  native  habitat^  but  I  haye  been  able  to 
hatob  the  young  and  watch  their  progress  to  maturity.  Though 
they  do  not  appew  destructive  to  other  animals,  they  fall  an  easy  prey 
themselyes  to  various  enemies.  Froga,  salamanders,  the  larve  of  the 
DytiMcif  the  OffprideM^  and  other  such  inhabitants  of  the  water,  kill  them 
in  yast  numbers;  and  they  seem  besides,  according  to  Prevost^  to  be 
spedally  infested  by  a  spedes  of  Vorticdla,  or  whed-aninudcule, 
which  attadies  itself  to  the  body  of  the  animal  in  great  numbem,  and 
would  yery  soon,  were  it  not  for  their  moulting  frequently,  completely 
destroy  it  I  have  found  them  yeiy  liable  to  a  peculiar  disease  which 
seems  yery  firequently  to  terminate  fatally.  It  attacks  their  body 
near  the  external  ovary,  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen,  fta,  and  the 
branchial  feet  are  not  exempt  from  it  It  consists  of  a  white  growth, 
composed  of  a  fktty  sort  of  substance,  and  when  once  this  appean, 
the  poor  animal  almost  always  soon  after  dies." 

After  impregnation  "the  ova  appears  at  first  as  small  white 
spherical  bodies  lying  in  the  internal  ovarjr,  which  stretches  along 
the  abdomen,  and  then  passing  from  it  mto  the  external  ovajT^ 
alnady  described.  When  the  proper  time  arrives  the  mother  deposits 
these  ova  loose  in  the  water,  the  ovary  opening  at  the  poin^  and 
the  eggs  being  thrown  out  by  a  sudden  jerk  to  the  number  of  10  or 
12  yery  n^iidly.  The  whole  process  of  laying  lasts  several  hours, 
sometimes,  according  to  Prevost  for  a  whole  day,  and  the  number  of 
ova  excluded  yair  from  1  to  400.  At  first  the  egg  ia  yellowish 
sphericid,  beset  all  round  with  short  setflB,  but  when  it  has  been  for 
a  short  time  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  the  water,  it 
asBumes  an  irregular  hexagonal  figure  and  a  greenish  hue.  In  about  a 
fortnight  or  so  the  egg  is  hatched  and  the  young  one  issues  forth,  but 
yeiy  unlike  its  parent  It  consists  of  two  nearly  equal  oval  portions, 
head  and  body.^' 


According  to  the  recent  observations  of  Dr.  Zenker  ('  Phydologioal 
Remarks  on  the  Daphnids,'  translated  in  yol  i  of  'Microscopical 
Journal')  and  others,  it  appears  that  the  female  DaphrudcB  have  the 
power  of  producing  eggs  which  are  fertile  without  access  to  the 
male.  This  is  what  occurs  in  some  of  the  Aphide$  for  a  given 
number  of  generations.  In  the  DapknicUB  it  appears  to  be  without 
limit  This  reproduction  from  unimpregnated  oya  is  quite  analogous 
to  the  process  of  gemination  amongst  the  lower  animals.  The 
great  difference  is  that  it  takes  place  from  the  ovary  and  not  from 
some  more  general  tissue  of  the  body.  In  the  Dapknida^  however, 
ova  are  produced  after  impregnation,  which  differ  from  the  other  in 
being  enveloped  in  a  fine  corneous  saddle-shaped  shell  which  is  called 
an  '  ephippium,'  and  such  ova,  as  they  are  now  known  to  occur  in  other 
animals,  are  called  '  ephippian  ova.'  Mr.  Huxley  however,  who  has 
described  them  in  LoicifwlaHa  tocialU,  a  spedes  of  Bottfera,  says  they 
"probably  do  not  require  fecundation,  and  are  thence  to  be  con- 
ddered  as  a  mode  of  asexual  reproduction." 

In  reference  to  this  curious  subject,  Mr.  Busk  has  added  the 
following  note  to  Zenker's  remarks  on  DaphmcUe,  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  'Microscopical  Journal': — 

**  The  number  of  males  is  very  considerable,  and  pretty  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  the  females  at  all  times  of  the  year.  This  fact  seems 
to  afford  a  curious  confirmation  to  Dr.  Z«iker^s  opinion,  that  the 
chief  object  of  male  impregnation  is  the  production  of  ephippian,  or 
winter  ova.  In  the  case  of  Chiroeephcuui  this  provision  becomes 
repeatedly  necessary  during  the  year,  and  not  towards  winter  only ; 
for  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  on  Blackheath  at  all  events,  that  the 
Chirocephalut  is  never  found  in  any  of  the  several  ponds  on  the 
heath,  except  in  those  which  dry  up  completely,  at  least  once,  but 
in  some  years  several  times,  or  for  the  whole  summer  continuously. 
The  ponds  inhabited  by  the  Ckirooephaliu,  in  fact,  are  merely  pools 
formed  by  the  drainage  from  the  roiads.  Now,  it  is  manifest  under 
these  circumstances  that  were  not  provision  made  by  the  formation 
of  winter  ova,  or  ova  having  a  thick  double  coat,  for  the  revival  of 
the  race  after  the  drying  up  of  their  habitation,  it  would  become 
extinct  We  accordingly  find  that  sach  provision  is  made  in  the 
numerous  males  at  all  times  present 

"The  extraordinary  power  possessed  by  the  ova  of  the  Chvro- 
eepJuUut  of  resistance  to  the  effects  of  desiccation  is  very  remarkable, 
as  is  also  the  readiness  and  rapidity  with  which  they  are  developed 
when  again  subjected  to  the  infiuence  of  water.  If  the  basin  of  a 
small  pool  which  has  been  dir  and  even  dusty  for  months  becomes 
filled  after  a  few  days'  rain,  the  water  will  be  found  swarming  with 
myriads  of  Chirocephali  in  about  ten  days  or  a  fortnight;  or  if  a 
piece  of  the  dried  bottom  of  such  a  pool  be-  placed  in  a  pailful  of 
water,  numerous  Chirocephali  will  be  hatched  from  it  in  the  same 
time.  The  reason  for  this  curious  arrangement  with  respect  to  the 
Chirocepkali  is  obvious  enough.  These  delicate  creatures,  themselves 
ye^table  feeders,  are  the  prey  of  innumerable  enemies ;  among  the 
chief  of  which  are  the  larvse  of  DjfHicm,  and  of  Dragon-Flies,  &c.  In 
ponds  which  never  dry  up,  these  voradous  enemies  have  time  and 
opportunity  to  destroy  the  whole  race  of  Chirocephali ;  but  in  the 
favourite  haunts  of  the  latter,  their  enemies  not  being  able  to  survive 
the  drying  up  of  the  water,  are  deared  off  on  each  such  occasion,  and 
the  Ckirocephali  being  rabidly  hatched,  have,  as  a  race,  time  to 
propagate  and  depodt  their  posterity  in  safety  for  another  resur- 
rection." 

Another  point  of  interest  with  regard  to  Chiroeephalut  is,  that  it 
affords  an  instance  of  the  nearest  living  type,  to  the  extinct  family 
of  TrUcbUei,  [Tbilgbites.]  Professor  Burmeister,  at  the  condusion 
of  hia  laborious  investigation  into  the  structure  and  afBnities  of  this 
fiunUy,  in  his  work  on  the  *  Organisation  of  Trilobites'  (translated 
into  English  and  published  by  the  Ray  Society),  says,  "The 
TrUobitei  were  a  peculiar  family  of  OnutaceOf  nearly  allied  to  the 
existing  PhyUopoda,  approaching  this  latter  family  most  nearly  in 
its  genus  JBranchipue  {(^rocephalut),  and  forming  a  link  connecting 
the  PhyUopoda  with  the  PcecUopoda:' 

CHIRO'NOMUS,  a  genus  of  Dipterous  Insecto  of  the  family 
TipulidcB.  This  genus  was  established  by  Meigen,  and  is  principally 
distinguished  by  the  following  characters: — Fourth  joint  of  the 
palpus  longer  than  the  rest ;  antenn»  13-jointed,  in  the  male,  and 
furnished  with  long  hairs ;  the  anteniue  of  the  female  are  6-jointed, 
and  the  hairs  are  short ;  the  anterior  legs  are  inserted  at  some  distance 
from  the  others,  and  the  anterior  tarsi  are  generally  very  long ;  the 
wings  when  closed  lie  parallel,  and  they  have  three  posterior  cells; 
the  body  Ib  long,  slender,  and  hairy. 

Mr.  Stephens,  in  his '  Catalogue  of  British  Insects,'  enumerates 
upwards  of  eighty  spedes  of  this  genus :  they  are  all  of  small  sise, 
frequent  marshy  situations,  and  veiy  much  resemble  gnats.  The  worm 
known  to  anglers  by  the  name  of  Blood- Worm  is  the  larva  of  one  of 
the  spedes  of  this  genus— the  Cfhironamut  plumotus.  This  worm  is 
about  half  an  inch  in  length ;  the  body  consists  of  numerous  segments, 
and  is  furnished  at  the  tail  with  several  appendages  which  constitute 
the  breathing  apparatus.  It  is  seen  during  the  summer  months  on 
the  mud  near  the  edges  of  ponds  and  dit<£e6 ;  when  thus  seen  how- 
ever it  is  only  shifting  from  one  place  to  another,  its  natural  locality 
being  in  the  mud,  where  it  may  generally  be  found  in  great  numbers, 
living  for  the  most  part  under  water.    This  larva  is  much  sought  after 


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CHIBOTES. 


CHISHOBRANCHUTA. 


and  deroured  by  birds  and  fiBhes;  but  daring  the  tummer  of  1886 
we  dlBoovered  that  it  had  a  yeiy  fonnidable  enemy  in  an  insect  of  its 
own  order.  A  fly,  which  closely  resembled  the  house-fly,  was 
observed  in  great  abmidanoe  on  the  mud  which  had  just  been  left  by 
the  retiring  water,  and  we  found  them  assembled  in  little  groups  of 
fire  or  six,  in  the  act  of  extracting  the  blood-worms  from  their  holes, 
using  the  proboscis  for  this  purpose  :  but  no  sooner  was  the  worm 
fairly  dislodged  than  a  battle  ensued,  for  each  f4>parentlv  wished  to 
have  the  wonn  to  itself;  those  that  kept  possession  sucked  out  the 
fluids  firom  the  worm. 

The  pupa  is  of  a  brownish  colour;  the  body  is  cylindrical,  the 
head,  thorax,  wings,  and  legs  are  inclosed  in  separate  sheaths,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  two  fore  l^gs,  lie  in  a  close  and  compact 
mass ;  the  fore  legs,  covered  by  their  riieaths,  project  from  each  side 
of  the  thorax.  In  this  as  well  as  in  the  larva  state,  the  animal  lives 
in  the  water.  The  breathing  apparatus  consists  of  two  appendages, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  thorax,  and  each  is  composed  of  five  branches 
which  spring  fh>m  a  common  centre. 

When  the  insect  is  ready  to  quit  its  pupa  case,  it  gains  t]^e  surface 
of  the  water,  and  there  remains  suspended  for  some  little  time  with 
the  disc  of  the  thorax  slightly  protruded ;  this  part  bursts  down  the 
middle,  and  the  insect,  which  is  hairy,  and  hence  does  not  easily  wet, 
places  its  feet  upon  the  sur&ce  of  the  water,  where  it  floats  (if  the 
weather  be  calm)  with  the  greatest  safety.  We  observed,  upon  taking 
one  upon  our  flnger,  that  the  wings  are  at  first  opaque  and  white, 
and  filled  with  a  fluid ;  but  in  a  minut?  this  fluid  was  expelled,  and 
the  sides  of  the  wings  collapsed  and  became  transparent.  The  fluid 
thus  ejected  we  perceived  on  our  finger  beneath  the  insect,  but 
could  not  ascertain  from  what  part  of  the  wing  or  body  it  made  its 
escape. 

Discussions  have  wisen  on  the  means  which  this  animal  possesses 
of  suspending  itself  at  the  surface  of  the  water  without  motion,  its 
specifio  gravity  being  supposed  to  be  greater  than  water. 

Messrs.  Kirby  and  Spence  account  for  it  by  a  kind  of  propelling 
power  which  the  centre  of  the  thorax  possesses,  and  state  that  this 
part  being  thus  protruded  and  drying,  the  attraction  of  the  air  to  the 
dry  portion  of  the  thorax  is  sufficient  to  overcome  the  slight  difference 
in  the  specific  gravity  between  the  animal  and  the  element ;  but  it  is 
further  stated  that  if  a  drop  of  water  fall  upon  the  insect  at  this 
time  it  will  immediately  sink. 

We  have  kept  these  insects  in  a  glass  jar  for  the  purpose  of 
observing  their  habits,  and  are  very  much  inclined  to  doubt  that  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  pupa  is  greater  than  that  of  the  water,  at  the 
time  just  previous  to  the  transformation  from  pupa  to  the  imago 
state.  Indeed  at  this  time  it  appeared  that  they  could  not  keep 
from  the  surface,  unless  they  were  in  motion.  Whenever  we 
approached  the  jar,  being  at  the  top,  they  inunediately  descended 
by  a  quick  zigzag  movement  of  the  body ;  but  upon  our  remaining 
quiet  for  a  moment  they  ceased  all  motion  and  rose  to  the  surface 
again.  We  imagine  that  at  this  time  the  animal  within  having 
become  partially  disengaged  from  the  pupa  case,  the  space  between 
the  two  is  filled  with  air,  that  this  would  be  sufficient  to  overcome 
the  difference  of  specific  gravity  between  the  animal  and  the  water, 
and  that  there  would  most  probably  be  more  air  in  the  region  of  the 
thorax  than  elsewhere ;  and  hence  this  part  is  protruded  from  the 
water. 

The  perfect  insect  is  of  a  pale-ash  colour,  and  is  a  little  larger  than 
the  common  gnat,  which  it  resembles.  This,  as  well  as  others  of  the 
g^nus,  is  remarkable  for  its  habit  of  carrying  the  two  fore  legs  in  a 
horizontal  position ;  they  project  in  front,  and  might  be  mistaken  for 
antennae ;  these  latter  organs  however  are  veiy  beautiful,  and  in  the 
males  resemble  little  plumes. 

CHI'ROTES,  a  genus  of  Sauriana  separated  by  Cuvier,  and,  accord- 
ing to  him,  resembling  the  Chalcidet  in  their  verticillated  scales,  and 
the  Amphithctna  still  more  in  the  obtuse  form  of  their  head ;  but 
distinguished  from  the  first  by  their  want  of  posterior  feet,  and  from 
the  last  by  their  possession  of  anterior  limbs.  The  same  author  adds, 
in  a  note  to  the  last  edition  of  the  '  lUgne  Animal,'  that  the  genera 
which  terminate  this  order  of  Saurians  are  interposed  in  various 
manners  between  the  ordinary  Saurians  and  the  genera  which  are 
placed  at  the  nead  of  the  ordor  Ophidians  to  such  a  point,  that  many 
naturalists  are  now  of  opinion  that  the  two  orders  ought  no  longer  to 
be  separated,  or  rather  that  one  order  should  be  established,  com- 
prising on  the  one  part  the  Saurians,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Oroeodilid4B,  and  on  the  other  the  Ophidians  of  the  family  Angwda, 
But  he  observes  that  there  exist,  among  the  fossil  forms  of  the  ancient 
calcareous  bods,  two  very  extraordinary  genera  (Ichthyotawui  and 
Plmo$auru8)f  which,  with  the  head  and  trunk  of  a  Saurian,  have  feet 
attached  to  short  limbs,  and  formed  of  a  multitude  of  smsll  articula- 
tions conjoined  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  paddle  or  fin,  like  the  anterior 
paddles  or  fin-feet  of  whales.  These  ought,  he  adds,  to  form  a  very 
distinct  family.  In  their  osteology  they  approach  the  Saurians, 
properly  so  called,  much  nearer  than  the  Crocodiles,  with  which 
Fitzinger  associates  them  in  his  family  Loricata  ;  though  in  the  fossils 
there  is  no  trace  either  of  scales  or  of  the  tongue,  the  two  parts  on 
which  the  characters  of  the  Loricata  rest 

These  Bimanous  Reptiles,  as  Cuvier  terms  them,  include,  according 
to  him,  but  one  species,  which  is  a  native  of  Mexico.    This  is  the 


Bimane  Gaanel^  (Okirotti  eanalieulatm)  of  Cuvier,  BipMe  QtmA6  of 
Lac^pMe^  Chamtuaura  propm  of  Schneider,  and  LekBoialmmhrieoida 
of  Bhaw.  The  animal  has  two  short  feet  with  four  toes  on  each  (and 
the  vestige  of  a  fifth)  sufficiently  organised  intemslly,  and  attadidd 
by  means  of  scapulas,  clavicles,  and  a  small  sternum ;  but  the  luad, 
the  vertebne,  and,  in  short,  all  the  rest  of  the  skeleton  resemble  that 
of  the  AmpkitbeauB.  Dr.  J.  B.  Gray  refers  Ohinim  to  a  third  frmily 
of  the  Amphisbenians  which  be  calls  Chirotida. 

Okirotei  canaUcukUnt  {O,  kmbriooidet,  Fleming;  C.  Mexiwm, 
Bory ;  Bipa  cofioitciiZa^iM,  Bonnaterre ;  OkamawMtrmpn^p^  Sdiiilti ; 
OhtUcidtt  propui,  Daudin),  is  about  the  size  of  a  human  1^  finger, 
and  is  ftom  eight  to  ten  indies  long.  It  is  of  a  fleih-ooloiir, 
and  oovfved  with  about  220  demi-rings  on  the  back,  and  as  muj 
under  the  belly,  which  meet,  in  alternating,  on  the  side.  The  toogac  is 
but  little  extensile,  and  is  terminated  by  two  small  homy  pointa  The 
eye  is  very  minute.  The  tympanum  is  covered  with  akin  and 
invisible  externally.  Above  the  vent  are  two  lines  of  pores.  It  is  a 
native  of  South  America. 


Cliirotes  canaliculatuM, 

CHIHUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  section  AeanthopUaw^ 
and  the  family  Gobioida.  The  species  of  this  genus  have  the  body  con 
siderably  elonsated,  furnished  with  ciliated  scales,  and  the  mouth  not 
deeply  deft ;  Uie  teeth  are  small  and  conical ;  but  the  most  remaiiable 
character  consists  in  the  body  being  furnished  with  several  l<mgita- 
dinal  lines  of  pores,  similar  to  the  ordinaiy  lateral  line.  Someof  ta« 
species  have  appendages  over  the  eyes,  as  observed  in  the  Blenmn; 
their  ventral  fins  have  each  five  soft  rays ;  the  spines  of  the  <io"J^° 
are  slender,  and  this  fin  extends  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  back. 

Cuvier  says  that  it  is  with  hesitation  that  he  places  this  genua  witn 
the  family  above  mentioned,  and  that  it  will  probably  one  d»y  f*™ 
the  type  of  a  separate  family.  All  the  species  as  yet  diaoomea 
inhabit  the  seas  of  Eamtchatka— they  are  induded  in  the  gesos 
Labrax  by  PaUas,  who  describes  seyeral  of  the  spedes  in  the  *Mcmoiff 
of  the  A(»demy  of  St.  Petersbuigh,'  vol.  il 

CHISMOBRANCHIA'TA,  an  order  of  MoUutea,  formijfc  ui 
De  Blainville's  system,  the  second  order  of  his  second  wb<WH 
Paracephalophora  Monoica.  The  following  is  his  <5«fi^**^°  r^ 
order  : — Oigans   of   respiration   aquatic,   braiiehial   or  pectmawo* 


situated  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  back,  in  a  laige  cavity  »^^^ 
eating  with  the  ambient  fluid  by  a  vride  oblique  anterior  slrt    *ou^ 
toothless,  but  provided  with  a  long  lingual  riband-like  o^JJ-   t**JJ 
either  none,  or  internal,  or  external,  very  much  depressed,  wi 
very  large  entire  aperture,  and  without  any  pillar  (columeUa). 

This  definition  is  incorrect,  in  so  far  as  it  states  that  m  w^ 
instances  there  is  no  shell;  for  CoHoceOa,  the  only  genna descnoeu 
by  De  Blainville  as  being  without  any  shell,  has  a  ^<>^7  ^^ZZ 
Cuvier  observes,  though  it  is  very  delicate  and  flexible  »?  "*:^ 
membranous.  Cuvier,  who  places  three  of  the  genwa,  -"^"vvj- 
CorioeeUa,  and  Otyptottoma,  under  his  Capuloida,  a  Jff^g  P^^^ 
order  Oatteropoda  peetinibranchiata,  observes  that  De  *»"  . 
places  the  greater  part  of  the  Oapuloidei  under  his  non-flyonw*"' 


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CHISMOBRANCHIATA. 


CHITONID-fi. 


lom 


ffermaphrodUe  pafwephahphora,  or  Calyptracians ;  bnt  that  they 
appear  to  him  (Cuvier)  to  be  all  dioecioiis. 

The  geographical  distiibution  of  this  order,  which,  according  to 
De  Blainville,  is  marine  and  probably  herbivorouB,  is  wide. 

Corioeella, — ^Body   elliptical,    very   much   depressed,  having  the 
borders  of  the  mantle  very  delicate,  notched  in  front,  and  spreading 
out  very  largely  on   all 
sides.      Foot    oval,   very 
smalL       Head     scarcely 
distinct;    two    tentacula 
hidden  under  the  shield 
of  some  size,  but  short 
and  contractile.    Eyes  at 
the  external  base  of  tho 
tentacula.      Back    some-   i 
what    rounded,  and,    ac-    I 
cording  to  De  BlainvUle — 
but  this  as  we  have  already 
seen   ia  an    error — with- 
out any  shell,  external  or 
internal 
•     C.  nimL  Blainville.  The  i^   .     »     . 

only  .^68  of  the  genua,  a.,-u,c,>la  ,.,gra. 

and  described  by  Be  Blainville  from  a  specimen  in  his  collection. 
Locality,  seas  of  MauritiuB.  Cnvier  places  this  and  the  two 
following  genera  under  his  Oasteropoda  pectinibtxtnchicUa. 

Sigaretug. — SheU  more  or  less  thick,  flattened,  with  an  ample  and 
round  aperture  and  but  little  spire,  the  whorls  of  which  increase  very 
suddenly;  and  enveloped  during  life  in  a  spongy  shield,  which  con- 
siderably encompasses  its  borders  as  well  as  the  foot,  and  which  is  l^e 
true  mantle.  In  front  of  this  mantle  there  is  a  notch  and  a  demi- 
canal,  which  serve  to  conduct  the  water  into  the  branchial  cavity. 
The  tentacula  are  conical,  and  the  eyes  are  placed  at  their  external 
base.     The  male  organ,  according  to  Cuvier,  is  very  large. 

De  Blainville  thus  subdivides  the  genus : — 

a.  Species  with  a  very  delicate  and  smooth  shell 

Example,  S.  ctmvexuB, 


Sigartttu  eoitvtxut,  seen  from  below. 


Stforettu  ntwixutf  side  view. 


b.  Speclee  with  a  thick  and  solid  sheU. 
Example,  8,  haliotoideus. 


Cryptostoma  LeaehH, 

OxynSe. — Body  gasteropod,  with  a  laige  dorsal  shell,  anterior,  bulli- 
form,  and  with  a  simple  spire.  Foot  narrow.  Branchiss  maiginal, 
striated  transversely.  Mantle  widened  into  two  lateral  wings.  Ten- 
tacula two,  not  retractile. 

Example,  0.  olivacea. 

VeltUina. — Animal  oval,  suflSciently  protuberant  (bombd),  hardily 
spiral ;  border  of  the  mantle  simple  anteriorly,  and  double  for  the 
whole  of  its  circumference ;  the  internal  lip  tiuckest  and  tentacular. 
Foot  thick.  Tentacula  large,  obconical,  distant,  with  a  small  frontal 
veil  between  them.  Eyes  black,  sessile  at  the  external  side  of  tiie 
base  of  the  tentacula.  Moutli  hu^e,  at  the  extremity  of  a  sort  of 
muzzle.^  Respiratory  cavity  large,  without  any  trace  of  a  tube,  and 
containing  two  \mequal  pectinated  branchi® ;  orifice  of  the  ovaiy  at 
the  base  of  the  male  organ,  situated  at  the  root  of  the  right  tenta- 
culum.  Muscular  attachment  of  a  horse-shoe  shape,  very  sUght 
behind  and  open  before.  Shell  external  with  an  epidermis,  pateUi- 
form,  with  a  small  lateral  spire,  and  without  a  columella.  Aperture 
large,  the  edges  almost  continuous,  and  sharp:  the  right  border 
united  to  the  left  by  a  lamellar  calcareous  deposit. 

Example,  F.  capuloidea  (Helix  Iccvifjafa.  Linn.).     [VELUmaDJE.] 


^ 


Slgttr9tu9  haliotoitUui. 

The  species  of  Sigaretui  have  been  found  at  depths  varying  from 
5  to  15  raUioms  on  sandy  bottoms. 

Fonil  Sigareti, 

Defiranoe  enumerates  three  fossil  spedea,  one  from  the  Plaisantin, 
one  from  Qrignon,  and  another  frx)m  the  environs  of  Bordeaux. 
G.  B.  Sowerby  says  that  the  fossil  species  are  few  and  rare,  and  that 
they  occur  in  the  London  Clay  at  Barton,  find  in  the  contemporaneous 
formationa  in  France  and  Italy.  The  species  in  the  Caloaire  Qrossier 
at  Grignon,  he  adds,  has  a  small  umbilicus.  Deshayes  in  his  'Tables ' 
gives  eleven  living  species  and  four  fossil  (tertiary) ;  one,  S,  depreuuSf 
living  in  the  seas  of  the  Molucca  Islands.  The  fossils  occur  in  the 
Pliocene,  Miocene,  and  Eocene  periods  of  Lyell.  S,  excavcUw  is  found 
in  the  Crag. 

CrypUaUmuk. — Shell  very  like  that  of  Sigaretvt,  carried  with  the 
head  and  abdomen,  which  it  covers,  upon  a  foot  four  times  its  size, 
cut  almost  squarely  behind,  and  which  produces  anteriorly  a  fleshy 
and  oblong  part,  which  makes  nearly  one-half  of  the  mass.  The 
animal  itself  haa  a  flat  head,  two  tentacula,  and  a  large  pectinated 
branchia  on  the  plafond  of  its  dorsal  cavity.  The  male  oigan  is  placed 
under  the  right  tentaculum. 

Example,  C7.  Loachii, 


VdutUia  capuloidea, 

CHITON.    [CHiTOinDJE.] 

CHITONELLUS.    [ChitonidaI 

CHITONID^,  a  natural  fanuly  of  Qasteropodous  Mollutca, 
affording  the  only  known  instance  of  a  protecting  shell  formed  of 
many  portions,  or,  as  they  have  been  somewhat  incorrectly  termed, 
valves,  often  in  contact  and  overlapping  each  other,  but  never  truly 
articulated.  The  following  cut  will  give  some  idea  of  the  structure 
of  this  shelly  covering. 

These  plates  are  bound  together  by  a  coriaceous  border,  which, 
as  we  shall  presently  see,  is  either  plain  or  beset  with  bristles, 
spines,  &c. 

The  early  naturalists  took  these  shells  for  the  peculiar  armoiu:  of 
certain  serpents,  a  conclusion  to  which  thev  were  doubtless  helped 
by  the  love  of  the  marvellous,  so  strongly  shown  in  the  acoounts  of 
the  older  travellers.  By  deg^es  the  true  condition  of  these  moUusks 
became  better  known ;  and  the  opposite  opinions  of  Linnseus  and 
Adanson  divided  the  naturalists  of  their  age.  The  former  arranged 
these  shells  among  his  Multivalves,  a  class  entirely  artificial,  and  Uke 
all  artificial  classifications  comprising  the  most  heterogeneous  forms. 
Adanson,  on  the  contrarv,  took  nature  for  his  guide,  and  carefully 
observing  the  animal  itself,  while  he  regarded  the  shell  as  of  compara- 
tively small  importance,  placed  Patella  and  Chiton  side  by  side  in  his 
method.  But  the  Linnican  school  long  reigned  paramount;  and 
Adanson's  labours  were  comparatively  forgotten,  when  Cuvier  began 
to  reform  the  crude  state  in  which  he  found  the  MolluscOf  and 
Lamarck  and  others  aided  in  the  work.  Cuvier,  who  made  anato- 
mical investigation  the  basis  of  his  opinions,  at  once  pronoxmced  in 
favour  of  Adanson.  Lamarck  afterwai-us  adopted  the  same  conclusion, 
but  not  till  ho  had  previously  placed  the  Chitons  at  the  end  of  the 


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CHITONIDJE. 


CHITONIDiE. 


lOiO 


SheUy  plates  or  TaWn  of  OhU^. 


AcephalouB  Molluaks,  between  FUtulana  and  Halanut,  Poll,  in  his 
magnificent  work  on  Ihe  'Testaoea  utriusque  Sicilis/ in  giving  the 
anatomy  of  a  Mediterranean  Bpeciea,  became  a  yaluable  ally;  for 
although  he  still  retained  Linne's  class  of  Multiyalves,  and  although 

in  his  anatomical  details  he 
said  nothing  of  the  nerrous 
system,  a  branch  of  animal 
organisation  essentially  ne- 
cessary to  be  known  for 
assigmng  an  animal  its  true 
place,  he  demonstrated 
enough  clearly  to  show  that 
the  ^Uon  bore  no  relation 
to  the  other  Multivalyes  of 
Linnseus.  M.  De  Blainville 
howeyer,  resting  upon  the 
generatiye  faculty  of  the 
Chitons,  proposed,  in  oppo- 
sition to  tnese  views  of 
Cuvier  and  Lamarck,  which 
had  been  adopted  by  almost 
all  zoologists,  to  form  a 
sub-type  of  MoUusks  under 
the  name  of  MaUntozoaria, 
in  which  each  of  the  Lin- 
n»an  genera  Lepat  and 
CkiUm  constitutes  a  class ; 
the  first  the  Lepadians,  or 
Lepadicea,  the  second  the 
Polyplaziphores,  or  Poly- 
plaxiphor€k  These  almost 
singular  views  of  De 
Blainville  have  not  pre- 
vailed among  zoologists; 
and  Cuvier,  in  the  last 
edition  of  the  '  lUgne  Ani- 
mal,' arranges  the  Chitons 
at  the  side  of  the  Patella,  forming  firom  these  two  genera  his  small 
fetmily  of  Cyclobranchians. 

Deshayes,  in  the  article  '  Oscabrion,'  in  the  '  Encyclop^e  H^tho- 
dique,'  enters  at  laige  into  the  organisation  of  tiie  Chitons,  and 
discusses  with  much  Teaming  and  acuteness  the  conflicting  opinions 
of  Cuvier  and  De  Blainville. 
The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  structure  of  this  family : — 
Digestive  Organs. — No  projecting  head,  in  which  the  Chitons 
resemble  the  Phyllidians.  No  tentacula,  which  are  replaced  by  a 
kind  of  veil  which  surrounds  the  mouth.  Eyes,  as  in  many  other 
Hollusks,  the  Pteropoda  for  example,  wanting.  Mouth  and  oasopha- 
gus  furnished  with  a  very  long  tongue  rolled  spirally  and  armed  with 
homy  teeth,  a  good  figure  of  which  is  given  by  Poll  Loven  has 
pointed  out  t.hat  the  teeth,  especially  the  central  one  on  the  lingual 
riband,  are  of  great  impoi*tance  in  determining  the  species.  Stoii^u^ 
intestine,  and  Uver  like  those  of  the  other  Qasteropods.  Vent  at  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  body,  as  in  the  Phyllidians,  Dorii,  kc 

Respiratory  and  Circulating  Organs. — The  branchin  of  the  Chitons 
consist  of  a  range  of  small  triangular  leaflets  placed,  as  in  the  Patella 
and  Phyllidia,  in  the  furrow  which  separates  the  foot  from  the 
mantle.  The  number  and  extent  of  tne  branchial  lamin»  are  of 
importance  in  determining  the  species.  The  heart  is  situated  poste- 
riorly in  the  mesial  and  dorsal  Ime ;  it  is  symmetrical^  and  composed 
of  a  single  ventricle  and  two  auricles. 

^  Their  oigans  of  generation  are  symmetrical,  and  repeated  on  each 
side  of  the  mesial  line,  and  there  are  a  pair  of  sexual  orifloes. 


Shelly  plates  or  valves  of  Chitonelliu, 


Animal  of  Chiton  iquamo*u$. 
a,   the  animal  and  shell  seen  ftrom  above ;  i,  the  animal  seen  f^om  below ; 
c,  side  view  of  fhe  shell  and  animal  in  a  creeping  or  adhering  state ;  d,  portion 
of  branchice  magnified. 

The  nervous  system  consists  of  what  may  be  termed  a  complete 
oe^ophagean  ring,  and  of  various  branches,  which  are  given  off 
divergingly  towards  the  several  oigans. 

The  locomotive  organs  consist  of  an  oval  foot^  more  or  less  wide. 


according  to  the  species,  and  extends  the  whole  length  of  the 
animal 

The  shell  is  composed  of  eight  narrow,  transverse,  calcareoui 
pieces,  overiapping  each  other,  and  strongly  implanted  on  each  side 
in  a  thick  and  fibrous  border  of  the  mantle,  which  somnrnds  the 
whole  body,  and  is  sometimes,  as  we  have  observed,  naked«  bat  mora 
generally  covered  with  small  scales,  spines,  or  haira.  These  pieov  an 
not  immoveable,  as  the  animal  can  roll  itself  up  or  stretch  itself  out 
again  for  the  purpose  of  progression  or  adhesion.  To  work  this 
machinery,  there  are  three  muscles  given  off  from  the  first  piece  to 
the  second,  three  others  given  off  from  the  second  to  the  third,  and 
so  on  throughout,  so  as  to  make  the  mechanism  of  this  seale^nnoor 
complete.  One  of  these  muscles  occupies  the  mesial  and  dorsal 
line,  the  other  two  are  lateral  and  obliaue.  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  regards 
theposterior  plate  as  the  homologue  of  the  limpet  shelL 

The  Chitons  then  resemble  the  other  Molluus :  1,  in  the  gcDeral 
fonn  of  the  body ;  2,  in  the  organ  of  locomotion ;  8,  in  the  nature, 
form,  and  position  of  the  branchin;  4,  in  the  heart,  and  in  the 
distribution  of  the  circulating  vessels ;  5,  in  the  month  sod  its 
veil;  6,  in  the  tongue  and  the  rest  of  the  digestive  organs;  7,  in 
the  position  of  the  vent;  and  8,  last^  but  not  leasts  in  tiie  nervous 
system. 

What,  then,  are  the  differences  ?  1,  the  form  of  the  shell  composed 
of  eight  pieces  instead  of  one ;  2,  the  mantle,  which  is  more  fleihy 
and  fibrous  than  in  the  other  moUusks;  8,  the  myology;  4,  the 
double  issue  of  the  organs  of  generation,  allowing  this  diff^ence  to 
be  established,  whereas  it  is  doubted.  With  regard  to  the  absence  of 
eyes,  that  defect  exists  in  a  considerable  number  of  mollnsks. 

Professor  K  Forbes  and  Mr.  Hanley  place  the  family  CkUomda 
next  befbre  the  PaUUida.  They  say :  "As  our  knowledge  stands  at 
present,  we  prefer  to  rmrd  them  as  an  abnormal  fitmily  of  PnM- 
oranekiaiaf  and  trust  before  long  that  some  active  observer  resident 
by  the  coast  will  occupy  himseUf  with  studying  the  development  of 
the  Chitons,  and  endeavour  to  ascertain  the  form  they  assume  in 
their  larval  condition.  Whoever  does  so  will  make  an  important 
discovery,  and  do  more  towards  fixing  the  true  position  of  these 
anomalous  creatures  than  all  cabinet  examinations  of  them  have  yet 
enabled  us  to  effect" 

Qeographical  Distribution. — The  species  are  numerous,  and  there 
are  few  roc^y  shores  without  some  of  them.  As  a  genenl  rule,  the 
largest  are  found  in  warm  climates,  but  there  are  exceptions;  for 
instance,  ChiUm  ietiger  and  Chiton  Bowenii  (King),  are  found  on  the 
shores  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  in  the  Straits  of  Magalhaens;  the 
foimer  of  these  species  grows  to  the  length  of  2}  inches,  and  the 
breadth  of  If  inches,  and  the  latter  to  the  length  of  8^  inches,  and 
the  breadth  of  14  indies. 

The  species  are  found  on  rocky  ahores,  where  they  adhere,  and  also 
on  stones  and  other  submarine  bodies.  They  are  found  at  depths 
varying  from  the  surface  to  25  fathoms.  A  few  are  found  creeping  on 
the  sand. 

Most  xooloffists  are  amed  that  there  are  no  differences  sufficiently 
strongly  marked  to  miu^e  a  generic  distinction  between  Ckito*  and 
Chiionellui ;  and,  indeed,  the  gradations  from  tlie  one  to  the  other 
are  so  imperceptible,  that  there  is  no  point  where  the  line  can  be 
satisfactorily  drawn.  In  the  most  completely-developed  form  of 
Chiton  the  shelly  secretion  greatly  preponderates ;  in  ChiUmdlni  that 
secretion  is  comparatively  small,  and  the  great  development  is  in  the 
border  of  the  mantle,  which,  in  some  instances,  almost  hides  the 
comparatively-minute  shelly  pieces. 

a.  Species  with  the  Mantle-Border,  or  mai^ginal  ligament,  oori- 
aoeous  and  naked.  Examples,  C,  ChiUtma,  FremUey,  and 
C.  Blainmllii,  Broderip. 

C.  Chilemii,  Shell  oblong-ovate,  opaque,  thick,  dark  brown,  smooth, 
dull ;  inside  white,  with  piu  markmgfi  on  the  first,  second,  and  last 
valves.  Valves  with  longiiiudinal  strise,  crossed  by  irregular  con- 
centric ridges.  Anterior  and  posterior  valves  senulunate,  slightly 
punctated;  second  valve  subcarinated,  the  front  maigin  obtosely 
angled,  lateral  margins  arcuate,  and  the  posterior  with  a  promin^ 
beak,  on  each  side  of  which  diverges  a  rather  elevated  grsnulated 
ridge ;  the  next  five  valves  alike,  bow-shaped,  with  a  granulate  ridge 
on  each  side.  Border  smooth,  coriaceous,  tough,  thick,  darker 
coloured  than  the  shell,  semipelludd,  broad  at  the  sides  and  i^*"^ 
at  the  extremities.  Locality,  Valparaiso,  in  crevices  of  roob  and 
under  stones.    (Frembley.) 

a  BlaimmUii,  In  this  species  the  shape  of  the  coriaceous  bordtf 
itself  is  not  only  very  remarkable;,  but  it  is  here  and  there  fiingjed, 
though  not  with  hair.  M.  Deshayes  has  placed  this  under  his  section 
of  those  species  which  have  the  border  of  the  mantle  fringed  with 
hair  or  spines,  probably  from  not  having  seen  a  good  specunen. 
Shell  roundish,  anterior  valve  obscurely  rayed,  the  posterior  one  very 
small  and  abrupt.;  the  others  concentrically  lineated,  the  whole 
bemg  rosy,  variegated  with  white  brown,  and  greenish,  and  internaUy 
white.  The  mantle-border  orange-red,  very  narrow  posteriorly,  and 
enormously  produced  anteriorly,  rounded  and  fringed,  here  and 
there,  especially  on  its  anterior  max|^,  with  some  short  oonaoeous 
processes.    Locality,  Inner  Lobos  Island,  coast  of  Peru. 


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CttltomDiE. 


CHITONID-fi. 


104i 


Chiton  Chilensu. 


ChUon  BlainvUlii, 


B.  Mantle-Border  smooth,  with  tufts  of  hair  at  the  lateral  eztremitiefl 
of  each  plate. 
C.  fcucietUoria,  Linnieus.  Shell,  apparently  smooth,  but  when 
examined  with  a  glass,  proving  to  be  rough  like  shagreen,  except 
on  the  elevated  dorsal  ridge;  margin  surrounded  with  tufts  of 
whitish  hair,  one  at  the  junction  of  each  valve,  and  two  in  the  front, 
making  1 8  in  number.  Colour  brown  or  dark 
cinereous ;  length  |tbs  of  an  inch ;  breadth 
rather  more  than  ^th.  Montagu,  who  gives 
this  deacription,  says,  that  on  the  coast  of 
Barbary  it  is  not  unfrequently  an  inch  long. 
It  is  found  under  stones  at  low  water,  and  on 
stones  and  shells  to  a  depth  of  26  fathoms,  ^Aiton  fascieuiaru, 
all    round    the  British   shores.     It   ranges 

northward  to  the  shores  of  Norway,  and  southward  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Some  remains  of  Chit<m  in  the  Crag  have  been  referred  by 
Mr.  Searles  Wood  to  C.  faacicviarit. 

y.  Mantle-Border  hairy. 
C.  Peruvianut,  Lamarck.  Shell  oblong-ovate,  opaque,  dirty- 
yellowish,  green,  or  yellowish-brown,  inside  white.  Valves  thin, 
slightly  elevated;  posterior  compartments  of  the  dokwd  valves  a 
little  raised  and  striated,  with  minute  granulated  stri®,  and  in 
like  manner  the  other  parts  of  the  shell;  under  each  valve  is 
inserted  a  series  of  short  black  hairs,  which  lie  on  the  back  of 
the  shell  Border  narrow,  coriaceous,  thickly  set  with  coarse  black 
hairs.     Length  2  inches,  breadth  14  inch.    Found  under  stoiiM  at 


a*  Hon  Peruvianus, 


ChUouMpinotus. 


JIaT.  nUT.  DIY.  VOL.  I. 


low  water  on  the  shores  of  Valparaiso  Bay.    There  is  a  variety  with 
the  anterior  valves  much  narrower  than  the  posterior.    (Frambley.) 
9.  Mantle-Border  beset  with  spines. 

(?.  jptnoMM.  Shell  brownish-blaok,  valves  opaque,  moderate,  with 
the  sides  granulated,  the  anterior  valves  entirely  graniilated.  Mantle- 
border  wide,  and  beset  with  long  aculeated  blackish  spines,  very 
much  resembling  those  of  certain  Echini.  Locality,  South  Seas, 
according  to  P^ron.    Length  8  inches. 

C.  «ptm/enM  (C,  oeultatHt,  Bunes ;  C.  tvberculiferut,  Sowerby,  in 
'  TankerviUe  Catalogue').    Shell  opaque,  oblong  ovate,  reddish-brown, 
glossy ;  inside  reddish-white.    The  posterior  angles  of  the  valves  do 
not  cover  the  anterior  ones.     Anterior  valve  with  generally  nine 
rows  of  raised  dots  divex^ging  from 
the  apex,  but  the  nimiber  perhaps 
varies  with  the  age  of  the  shell. 
Second  valve  rather  acutely  beaked 
and  carinated,  longer  than  the  five 
following,  which  are  striated  and 
shaped  alike ;  these  all  rise  into  a 
rather  acute  beak,  are  carinated, 
each   side   of   the   carina  being 
divided  into  two  distinct  portions, 
the  anterior  one  the  laxgest,  and 
bearing  broad  irregular  longitudi- 
nal striso;    a  prominent  row  of 
raised  dote,  extending  from  the 

apex  to  the  anterior  angles  of  the  I 

valves,  separates  the  Compart- 
ments; the  posterior  portion 
glossy,  with  fine  concentric  striae ; 
the  posterior  nuugins  with  tooth- 
like granulations.  Last  valve 
striated,  like  the  anterior  oom- 
pirtmente  of  the  others,  and  rising 
into  a  rather  prominent  beak,  lean- 
ing towards  the  posterior  mai^ ; 
from  under  the  beak  are  raised 
dots,  disposed  in  a  similar  manner 
to  tiiose  on  the  anterior  valve. 
Border  coriaceous,  thick,  broad, 
rough,      greenish      or      orange- 


Okiion  spiniferits. 


coloured,  and  in  the  younger  specimens  thickly  studded  with  blunt 
spines ;  but  in  the  old  shells  the  spines  are  short  and  scanty,  smd 
generally  covered  with  corallines;  the  inner  edge  of  the  border, 
inserting  itself  under  the  posterior  angles  of  the  valves,  has  the 
appearance  of  being  deeply  separated.  (Frembley.)  This  species 
grows  to  the  length  of  6  or  6  incnes,  but  has  then  generally  lost  all 
ite  external  beauty.  We  have  seen  many  individuals  in  all  the  stages 
of  growth,  and  have  invariably  found  the  spines  of  the  aged  ones 
covered  with  that  calcareous  matter  which  is  so  frequently  found 
adhering  to  shells  and  submarine  bodies,  but  we  have  never  detected 
anything  oi^ganic  about  that  which  was  attached  to  the  spines  of  this 
^>ecies.  Locality,  Chili  and  Valparaiso,  where  Mr.  Frembley  found 
several  specimens  in  veiy  exposed  situations;  so  much  so,  that 
collecting  them  was  attended  with  much  difficulty,  and  not  unfre- 
quently with  danger,  from  the  violence  of  the  sea  breaking  on  the 
rocks  to  which  tiiey  attach  themselves  very  strongly.  They  are 
generally  covered  with  sea-weed. 

c.  Mantle-Border  scaly. 

C.  Ooquimbfnsis,  Frembley.  Shell  ovate,  narrow,  opaque,  green- 
ish-brown, shining ;  inside  blackish  :  the 
anterior  valves  with  numerous  undulated,  con- 
centric ridges  ;  the  next  rather  acutely 
keeled ;  the  five  following  alike :  carina 
broad  and  smooth,  on  each  side  of  which  is  a 
similar  ridge  divei^ng  from  the  beaks,  and 
forming  with  the  carina  a  sagittate  figure, 
and  connected  with  it  by  several  strongly 
marked  ridges:  from  under  the  beaks 
to  the  anterior  angles  of  the  valves  extend 
sharp  moniliform  ridges,  each  side  of  which 
is  coarsely  striated  longitudinally.  Border 
thick,  moderately  broad,  and  covered  with 
coarse  seed-like  scales,  which  are  attached 
laterally.  Length  8  inches,  breadth  H  inch. 
Mr.  Frembley  says,  that  ihe  only  part  of  the 
coast  where  he  found  this  species  was  the  . 
south  side  of  Coquimbo  Bay :    their  habits, 

he  adds,  are  very  similar  to  Uiose  of  C.  jptn«-  

fenu,  with  the  exception  that  they  seem  more     ^;^,.,^  Ooouimhetms. 
gregarious. 

C  Mantle-Border  grauulous. 

C.  magniflcui,  Deshayes  {C.  olivacetu,  Frembley ;  O.  latw,  Sowerby). 
Shell  opaque,  ovate,  olivaceous,  dull,  dotted  with  lighter  coloured 
spoto  :  inside  glaucous.  Anterior  valve  with  regular  radiating  striae, 
crossed  by  concentric  ridges ;  posterior  margin  nearly  straight.  Dorsal 
valves  obtusely  beaked,  divided  laterally  into  two  compartmente,  the 

8  z 


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CHL^NIUS. 


lOM 


•Dterior  haviDg  regular  longitudinal  airife,  croaaed  with  othera  Tory 
minute  and  oonoentric;  from  under  the  beaka  diverge  to  the  lateral 
margina  of  the  yalvea  coarae  and  more  irregular  atri»,  which  raiae  the 
posterior  compartment  above  the  other.  The  poaterior  valve  haa  a 
well-defined  apex,  leaning  towarda  the  posterior  maigin.  Border  thin, 
moderately  broad,  and  covered  with  fine  shining  bead-like  granu- 
lationa,  of  the  same  colour  as  the  shells,  divided  into  two  distinct 
portions,  the  np^er  of  which  is  composed  of  finer  beads  than  the 
lower,  and  which  are  placed  transversely.  (Frembley.)  The  spedee 
grows  to  the  length  of  4  or  5  inches :  we  have*  seen  one  that  reached 
i\  inches  when  dead.  There  is  another  variety  narrower  than  the 
ordinary  individuals,  and  Mr.  Frembley  observes  that,  among  the 
very  young  ahells,  some  of  them  have  their  borders  of  a  lighter 
colour  than  their  shells,  and  spotted  with  black.    Locality,  Chili 


Chiton  magnificua. 

Species  with  the  Mantle-Border  highly  developed,  and  the  valves 
very  smalL     {ChiioneUwt). 
These  are  more  or  less  cylindrical,  and  vermiform,  the  valves  being 
very  email,  and  in  some  species  almost  entirely  hidden  under  the 
akin  of  the  border,  giving  the  animal  an  almost  naked  appearance. 
Examples,  ChUondlus  Icsvis,  and  O.  larvaformis. 


a,  Chitonellus  Unis  ;  (,  Chitonellu*  larvt^formii. 

The  following  species  are  noted  as  British  in  Messrs.  Forbes  and 
Hanley'a  'History  of  Mollusca' : — 6'.  feucicularii,  C.  discrepana,  C. 
ffanUyif  C,  ruber,  C.  cinereiu,  0.  aUnu,  C.  asellui,  O,  caneeUatua,  C. 
kevii,  O.  marmoreua,  and  O,  pwnetatut. 

Above  200  species  of  this  family  have  been  described.  The  genus 
Chitim  is  divided  by  Dr.  J.  E.  Qray  and  others  into  numerous  sub-genera. 
Fossil  Chitonidce. 

Although  &t>m  their  fragility  it  might  be  supposed  that  few 
remains  of  these  animals  would  be  found,  indications  of  their  existence 
have  been  discovered  as  far  back  as  the  Paleozoic  period.  About 
24  fossil  species  have  been  discovered.  Three  of  these  are  given 
In  Mr.  Searlee  Wood's  account  of  the  Crag  Mollusca,  published  by  the 
Palseontographical  Society. 

CHIYES,  the  common  name  of  Allium  schcmoprasum.  Its  bulbs 
have  the  usual  garlic  odour  of  the  genus,  and  are  used  in  soups  and 
•tews :  thej  are  but  little  cultivated.    [Alliuic] 

CHL^NA'CEiB,   Chknads,  a   natural   oi^er   pf  Polypetalous 


Exogenous  Plants,  by  some  accounted  'allies  of  Maioacta^  but  mon 
correctly  refanred  to  the  vicinity  of  OiAaeea,  from  which,  and  all 
those  aasooiated  with  them  in  the  Gynobaoic  Group,  they  differ  in 
having  an  involucrum  to  each  calyx,  or  to  each  pair  of  calices.  Tkey 
are  handsome  trees  or  shrubs,  but  of  no  known  use.  Their  lesTei  an 
alternate  and  undivided,  their  stipules  deciduous,  and  their  flowen 
in  panicles  or  racemes,  always  showy,  and  often  red.  There  are  four 
genera,  Sa/rcoUena,  LeptoUenci,  SchiaoUeiM,  Ithodol€mA.  The  whole  of 
the  species,  about  eight  in  number,  are  wild  in  Madagascar. 


Sareolana  muUifior*. 
a,  flower-bad ;  h,  flower ;  e,  vertical  section  of  flower  ;  d,  the  calyx ;  c,  th« 
involncnun ;  /,  base  of  the  flower,  showing  the  spiral  tabe  formed  by  the  imioa 
of  the  fllaments ;  g.  A,  back  and  front  views  of  anthers ;  i,  pistil ;  A,  traoflrerse 
section  of  ovary ;  I,  flrnit ;  m,  transverse  section  of  fmit ;  n,  rertical  section  ol 
fmit ;  0,  pericarp,  splitting  and  discharging  its  seed ;  p,  seed ;  q,  rertial 
section  of  seed ;  r,  transverse  section  of  seed ;  «,  embryo. 

CHLiE'NIUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects,  of  the  family 
ffarpalidcBf  and  section  PcaeUimants  (Dejean). 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  all  of  tolerably  laige  sise,  veiy  elegut 
in  form,  and  generally  adorned  with  various  hues  of  green,  the  colours 
being  rich,  but  not  glossy^  owing  to  the  upper  parts  being  more  or 
less  covered  with  a  very  delicate  pubescence,  wluoh  produces  a  lilk- 
like  appearance.  Very  many  of  the  species  have  the  legs  and  anteiuis 
of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  and  the  outer  maigin  of  the  wing-eaees  of 
the  same  tint^  and  some  have  the  elytra  adorned  with  laige  yellow  spcta 

The  genus  Chloenius  constitutes  a  veiy  large  group  of  the  EarpalidiBt 
which,  according  to  our  views,  embraces  the  genera  ^p(mii  tad 
Dinodes.  We  will  therefore  briefly  notice  the  distinguishing  cha- 
racters of  these  three  groups. 

All  three  of  the  genera  agree  in  having  the  tarsi  of  the  anterior 
pair  of  legs  dilated  in  the  males,  and  a  bifid  tooth  in  the  middle  of 
the  emaxgination  of  the  mentum ;  but  they  difi^  chiefly  in  the  form 
of  the  terminal  joint  of  the  palpi,  and  the  diflferenoe  may  he  thui 
expressed: — 

Terminal  joint  of  the  palpL 
Elongated  and  truncated  at  the  apex,  CMcmiut. 
Elongated  and  distinctly  securiform,   Bpomis, 
Short  and  slightly  secuiiform,  ^  Dinodes. 


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GHLAMYDOSAnRTia 


CHLAMYPHORUS. 


iai6 


As  regards  the  form  of  these  insects,  the  body  is  generally  more  or 
less  oval,  and  veiy  slightly  convex  :  the  thorax  is  almost  always  con- 
siderably narrower  than  tiie  elytra,  broad  towards  the  anterior  part; 
and  diminishing  in  width  towards  the  posterior.  The  head  is  rather 
long,  the  eyes  project  considerably,  and  are  rather  remote  from  the 
base  of  the  head ;  the  portion  of  the  head  before  the  eyes  is  rather 
pointed. 

The  species  are  fomid  under  stones,  weeds,  and  almost  any  rubbish 
which  will  a£ford  them  shelter;  sometimes  under  the  loose  bark  of 
old  trees  near  the  root^  but  they  must  be  sought  after  in  the  vicinity 
ot  water. 

Of  the  genus  CManitis  M.  Le  Comte  Dejean  enumerates  115  species, 
a  great  portion  of  which  are  European ;  many  are  from  Africa,  the 
East  Indies,  and  North  America,  but  South  America  and  Australia 
appear  to  be  almost  destitute  of  these  insects. 

Several  species  have  been  discovered  in  England.  Of  these  however 
two  only  have  been  found  in  any  abundance.  Chlcenius  vestittu 
{CarcUnu  marginatu$f  Linn.)  is  very  common  in  the  south  of  England, 
and  is  found  under  stones  by  the  edges  of  ponds  where  g^vel  aboimds. 
It  is  neariy  half  an  inch  in  length,  black  beneath,  and  of  a  rich  green 
colour  above :  the  elytra  are  distinctly  striated,  very  finely  punctured, 
and  covered  with  a  delicate  pubescence  of  a  golden  hue  :  their  outer 
mai^n  is  of  a  pale  yellow  colour :  this  tint  is  confined  to  a  narrow 
line  towards  the  base  of  the  elytra,  but  forms  a  broad  patch  at  the 
apex;  the  head  and  thorax  are  rather  glossy;  the  latter  is  finely 
punctured  throughout,  and  has  the  tnargin  slightly  tinted  with 
yellow :  the  legs,  antennro,  and  palpi  are  yeUovnsh-white  when  the 
insect  is  alive. 

Of  the  genus  Epomia  M.  Dejean  enumerates  six  species,  one  of  whidi 
has  been  found  in  England.  It  is  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
length ;  the  head  and  thorax  are  of  an  obscure  brasay-green  colour 
and  slightly  punctured  ;  the  elytra  are  black,  with  the  outer  margin 
pale  yellow ;  the  1^  and  antenneo  are  also  yellow.  This  species  is 
not  uncommon  in  ^unce  and  Italy. 

The  genus  Dinodei  only  embraces  four  species.  2).  rufipes  is  about 
half  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  rich  blue  colour  above,  and  finely  punc- 
tured throughout :  the  legs  and  base  of  the  antennse  are  of  a  reddish- 
yellow  colour. 

The  thorax  in  this  genus  (taking  D.  rufipes  as  the  type)  is  broader 
and  more  rounded  than  in  the  genera  Chlcmius  and  £pomU.  The 
species  described  is  found  in  France  and  Italy. 

CHLAMTDOSAURUS,  a  genus  of  Saurian  Reptiles,  founded  by 
Dr.  J.  E.  Gray  upon  a  specimen  brought  home  by  Qaptain  Phillip 
Parker  King,  R.N.,  F.R.S.,  &o.,  on  his  return  from  his  survey  of  the 
intertropical  and  western  coasts  of  Australia,  performed  between  the 
years  1818  and  1822.     The  following  is  Dr.  Gray's  description  : — 

Animal  scaly ;  the  head  depressed ;  the  nostitls  placed  on  the  side, 
midway  between  the  eyha  and  the  end  of  the  head ;  the  drum  of  the 
ear  naked;  the  front  teeth  conical,  awl-shaped  (eight  in  the  upper  and 
four  in  the  lower  jaw),  the  hinder  ones  longest ;  the  side  or  cheek 
teetli  compressed,  short,  forming  a  single  ridge,  gradually  longer 
behind;  tongue  short,  fleshy,  with  an  •oval  smooth  diso  at  each  side 
of  the  lower  part  of  its  front  part;  neck  rather  long,  furnished  on 
each  side  with  a  lainge  plaited  frill,  supported  above  by  a  crescent- 
shaped  cartilage,  arising  m>m  the  upper  hinder  part  of  the  ear,  and 
in  the  middle  by  an  elongation  of  Uie  side  fork  of  the  bone  of  the 
tongue ;  body  compressed ;  legs  rather  long,  especially  the  hinder 
ones ;  destitute  of  femoral  pores ;  feet  four,  with  five  toes,  the  first 
ha^dng  two,  the  second  three,  the  third  four,  the  fourth  £ve,  and  the 
little  finger  and  toe  three  joints;  claws  compressed,  hooked;  tail 
long,  nearly  round,  scaly. 

ChUmydotawnu  Kingii.  Colour  yellowish-brown,  variegated  with 
black.  Head  depressed,  with  the  sides  erect,  leavmg  a  blunt  ridge  on 
the  upper  part  wherein  the  eyes  are  placed.  The  ridge  over  the  eyes 
is  covered  with  laiger  scales  than  those  over  the  head.  The  eyes  are 
rather  small,  with  a  fleshy  ridge  above  them,  and  the  eyelids  are  covered 
with  minute  scales,  and  surrounded  by  a  delicate  serrated  ridge  of 
small  upright  ones.  The  Ups  are  surrounded  by  a  row  of  oblong 
4-sided  sctdes,  arranged  lengthways,  the  front  scale  of  the  upper 
lip  being  the  largest.  The  chin  is  covered  with  narrow  mid-ribbed 
scales,  with  a  Saided  one  in  the  centre,  and  several  of  larger  size  just 
over  the  front  of  the  fork  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  nostrils  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  rather  large  orbicular  scale,  situated  nearly  midway  be- 
tween the  eye  and  the  end  of  the  upper-jaw,  the  tubes  pointing  forwards. 
The  side  of  the  face  has  a  very  obscure  ridge  extending  from  the 
angle  of  the  mouth  to  the  under  part  of  the  ear.  The  neck  is  covered 
with  small  scales.  The  frill  arises  from  the  hinder  part  of  the  head, 
just  over  the  front  of  the  ears,  is  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  neck, 
and  extends  down  to  the  front  part  of  the  chesty  supported  above  by 
a  lunate  cartilage  arising  from  the  hinder  dorsal  part  of  the  ear,  and 
in  the  centre  by  a  bone  which  extends  about  half  its  length.  ^  Each 
frill  has  four  plaits  which  converge  on  the  under  part  of  the  chin,  and 
fold  it  up  on  the  ride,  and  a  Mm  where  the  two  are  united  in  the 
centre  of  the  lower  part  of  the  neck.  The  front  part  of  its  upper 
edge  is  elegantly  serrated,  but  the  hinder  or  lower  part  is  quite  entire : 
the  outer  surface  is  covei^  with  carinated  scales,  those  in  the  centre 
being  the  largest  The  inner  surface  is  quite  smooth.  The  scales  of 
the  back  are  oval,  and  nearly  smooth;  those  of  the  lower  part  of  the 


body  and  upper  part  of  the  legs  have  a  short  mid-rib,  and  those  of 
the  sides  and  joints  of  the  limbs  are  minute.  The  tail  ib  twice  as 
long  as  the  body,  roundish,  covered  with  scales  which  have  each  a 
sha^  mid-rib,  and  towards  the  termination,  which  is  blunt,  form  six 
rows,  BO  as  to  render  that  oi^n  obscurely  hexagonal.  The  toes  are 
long,  very  imequal,  compressed,  and  scaly.  The  claws  are  hooked, 
and  horn-coloured. 

Dimensions. — Length  of  the  tail  12  inches;  of  the  body  5  inches ;  of 
the  head  5^  inches.  Breadth  of  the  head  over  the  eyes  one  inch. 
Lttigth  of  the  thigh  1^  inch;  of  the  foot  and  sole  2|  inches;  of  tiie 
outer  edge  of  the  frill  10  inches. 

Jx>cality  and  Habits. — We  owe  the  discovery  of  this  extraordinary 
Saurian  to  Mr.  Allan  Cunningham,  who  accompanied  Captain  King's 
expedition  as  his  Majesty's  botanical  collector  for  Kew  Gardens,  and 
to  whom  naturalists  in  general  are  so  mudi  indebted  for  the  zeal  dis- 
played by  him  in  the  pursuit  of  natural  history,  and  for  the  Uberalitj 
with  which  he  has  communicated  the  results  of  his  labours.  He 
found  the  specimen  from  whi<^  the  description  was  taken  on  the 
branch  of  a  tree  in  Careening  Bay,  at  the  bottom  of  Port  Nelson,  and 
sent  it  to  Sir  Everard  Home,  by  whom  it  was  deposited  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  The  following  is  the 
account  of  the  capture  in  Mr.  Cunningham's  Journal : — ^*  I  secured  a 
lizard  c^  extraordinary  appearance,  which  had  perched  itself  npon  the 
stem  of  a  small  decayed  tree ;  it  had  a  curious  crenated  membraae, 
like  a  ruff  or  tippet  round  its  neck,  covering  its  shouldersy  and  when 
expanded,  whidi  it  was  enabled  to  do  by  means  of  transverse  slender 
cartilages,  it  spreads  5  inches  in  the  form  of  an  open  umbrella.  I 
regret  that  my  eagerness  to  secure  so  interesting  an  animal  did  not 
achnit  of  sufficient  time  to  allow  the  lizard  by  its  alarm  or  irritability 
to  show  how  for  it  depended  upon,  or  what  use  it  made  of,  this  extra- 
ordinary membrane  when  its  life  was  threatened.  Its  head  was  rather 
laige,  and  eyes,  whilst  living,  rather  prominent ;  its  tongue,  although 
bifid,  was  short  and  thick,  and  appeared  to  be  tubular."  According 
to  Captain -King,  the  colour  of  the  tongue  and  inside  of  the  mouth  was 
yeUow.  Dr.  J.  K  Gray  arranges  this  genus  under  the  family 
Affomidat.    [Aqama.] 


ChlatnydoiQUi'M  Kingii. 
a,  the  animal  In  the  Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons ;  h,  representation 
of  the  living  head,  from  the  '  Appendix '  to  Captain  King's  *  Voyage.' 

CHLAMT'PHORUS  (Harlan),  a  genus  of  Mammalia  belonging  to 
the  order  Edentata.  It  was  first  described  by  Dr.  ELarlan  in  the 
'Annals  of  the  New  York  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,'  voL  i,  firom  a 
specimen  presented  to  the  Philadelphia  Museum.  It  is  the  Piohifda^ 
0^  the  Indians  in  Mendosa  (its  native  place),  on  the  east  of  the  Cordil- 
leras, in  lat.  88*  25',  and  long.  «9"  iV.  It  had  been  obtained  on  the 
spot  in  a  living  state,  but  lived  in  confinement  onlv  a  few  days.  The 
viscera  and  £e  greater  portion  ot  the  skeleton  had  been  removed 
before  the  animal  came  into  Dr.  Harlan's  possession.  In  March  1828 
the  conncil  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  placed  in  the  hands  of 
Mr.  Yarrell  a  specimen  of  this  rare  and  new  animal,  and  to  his  dineo- 
tion  we  are  chiefiy  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  its  stmoture.  The 
following  account  is  an  abstract  of  Mr.  Yarrell's  paper  in  the 
'  ZoologicalJoumaL' 


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CHLAMYPHORUS. 


CHLAMYPHORUa 


loia 


The  form  of  the  head  praents  the  figure  of  an  irregular  cone,  the 
base  of  which  is  turned  towards  the  spine ;  the  cranium  does  not 
exhibit  any  sutures ;  the  cavity  capacious ;  the  frontal  bone  supporting 
two  rounded  processes  projecting  upwards  and  somewhat  outwards ; 
the  space  between  them  occupied  by  a  substance  resembling  in  appear- 
ance adipose  matter,  from  which  issued  a  fluid  like  oiU  From  the 
anterior  part  of  the  base  of  these  two  rounded  processes,  a  narrow 
ridge  of  bone  extends  forwards  on  each  side  converging  towards  the 
nose.    The  nasal  bones  elongated,  the  orifice  opening  downwards. 


No  incisor  nor  canine  teeth  in  either  jaw;  molars  .,  cylindrical, 

8 
separate,  encircled  with  enamel,  but  none  on  the  crowns :  the  first 
tooth  on  each  side  in  the  lower  jaw,  having  no  opponent,  is  the  longest^ 
the  remaining  seven  opposed  to  the  first  seven  oi  the  upper  jaw,  and 
taking  angular  impressions  on  their  surfiioes  by  contact ;  the  direction 
and  depth  of  the  alveolar  cavities  of  the  upper  jaw  distinctly  marked 
on  the  outside  by  parallel  ridges ;  in  the  lower  jaw  the  alveolar  cavi- 
ties are  pierced  the  whole  depth.  The  anterior  portion  of  the  lower 
jaw  is  elongated ;  the  inferior  edge  concave  the  first  half  of  its  length, 
thMi  convex ;  the  plate  broad,  rising  at  right  angles  with  the  line  of 
the  teeth ;  the  condyloid  process  longer  than  the  ooronoid,  the  condyle 
itself  elongated  tnmsversely.  The  external  meatus  auditorius  is 
extended  in  the  form  of  a  semicircular  cylindrical  tube  of  bone, 
curving  round  the  base  of  the  zygoma,  and  passing  forwards  termi- 
nates in  an  aperture  immediately  behind  the  eye.  The  orbits  and 
temporal  fosses  united ;  the  zygomatic  arch  is  slender  posteriorly,  but 
becomes  much  stronger  towards  the  firont,  expanding  downwards,  and 
famished  with  an  acute  descending  process.  The  occipital  foramen  is 
of  great  size. 


Skull  of  CfMoptyphonu  truneattu, 
a.  Skull  leen  from  abore;  »,  the  same  seen  horn  belov ;  0,  lower  Jaw. 

The  cervical  vertebrae  7,  the  first  large,  the  articulating  surface 
broad ;  the  2nd,  Srd,  and  4th  very  firmly  ossified  together,  pierced 
with  foramina  for  the  passage  ot  the  cervical  vessels ;  the  5th  united 
to  the  4th  on  the  under  surface  only ;  the  6th  and  7th  slender  and 
separate,  allowing  the  head  great  fireedom  of  motion  upwards ;  the 
whole  of  the  last  six  grooved  on  the  under  surface,  in  the  line  of  the 
passage  of  the  cesophagus.    Dorsal  vertebrsB  11,  the  spinous  process 
of  the  first  slender,  throe-eighths  of  an  inch  long,  the  others  duninish 
gradually  in  length,  but  increase  in  size ;  all  directed  backwards.    The 
fint  rib  is  very  broad,  and  from  the  2nd  to  the  8th  the  ribs  of  the 
CMamyphoruSf  like  those  of  birds,  are  firmly  united  to  the  sternum 
without  the  intervention  of  an  dongated  cartilage;  and,  again  like 
those  of  birds,  are  also  supplied  witii  a  false  joint,  at  the  distance  of 
about  two-thirds  of  their  length  from  the  spine  to  the  sternum.    The 
9th,  10th,  and  11th  being  fedse  ribs  are  united  in  Uie  usual  wa^  to 
each  other,  and  to  the  8th  by  elongations 
of  cartilage  from  their  extremities.    The 
portions  of  ribs  intervening  between  the 
liaise  joints  and  the  sternum  are  in'  the 
6th,  7th,  and  8th  ribs,  consolidated,  broad, 
flattened  portions  of  bone,  which  form 
the  boundary  of  the  anterior  and  lateral 
parietes  of  Uie  thorax.    The  first  bone 
of  the  sternum  is  broad  and  flai;^  the 
superior  surface  regularly  concave,  the 
inferior  irregularly  convex.     Upon  the 
anterior  edge  of  the  sternum  are  two 
prominences  to  which  are  attached  ^e 
extremities  of  each  davide.    From  each 
of  these  articulations  a  slightly  elevated 
ridge   proceeds   backwards    tlong    the 
inferior  surface  of  the  sternum,  oonvei^giog  towards  the  centre,  where 
they  become  united,  and  form  a  prominent  crest    The  lateral  edges 
of  this  first  bone  of  the  sternum  are  articulated  at  its  anterior  extre- 
mity to  the  first  and  broadest  rib;  from  this  part  th9  bone  suddenly 


Cervical  YertebrflD,  first  bone 
of  the  Btemnm,  with  parts  of 
the  first  and  second  ribs,  seen 
from  below. 


becomes  narrowed  posteriorly,  and  terminates  in  a  concave  articular 
surface  to  which  the  second  bone  of  the  sternum  is  attached.  Judging 
from  the  imperfect  remains  of  the  second  bone,  of  which  the  upper 
part  only  was  distinguishable,  it  would  appear  that  its  form  was 
oblong,  Uie  superior  surface  concave.  The  remaining  portion  of  the 
sternum  was  too  much  mutilated  to  admit  further  description. 

Lumbar  vertebras  8,  the  spinous  processes  short  and  flattened ; 
the  last  two  dorsal  vertebras,  as  well  as  the  lumbar,  furnished  with 
long  oblique  processes  directed  forwards,  upwards,  and  outwards ;  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  first  two  lumbar  vertebras  considerably 
elongated,  tne  last  possessing  a  rudiment  only. 

The  whole  of  the  sacrum  and  innominata  is  so  peculiar  and  unique 
in  character,  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  give  any  correct  idea  of 
this  part  without  the  assistance  of  accurate  representations.  The 
superior  part  of  the  ilium  is  flattened,  the  upper  part  bent  to  form  an 
arched  plane  of  bone,  the  concavity  of  whidi  fiices  downwards  and 
outwards;  the  aista  of  great  lengtii  from  before  backwarda.  The 
inferior  portion  'of  the  ilium  is  much  stronger,  inclining  outwards^ 
from  its  junction  with  the  sacrum  to  the  acetabulum. 

The  transverse  and  spinous  processes  of  the  sacrum  are  represented 
by  three  slender  plates  of  bone,  which,  approximating  as  they  pass 
backwards,  are  umted  to  form  a  septum,  extending  down  the  median 
line  of  the  sacrum  to  the  tail  A  channel  is  formed  on  each  side  of 
this  septum  by  a  thin  flat  plate  of  bone,  which,  arising  from  the 
posterior  and  superior  part  of  the  ischium  on  each  side,  is  bent  over 
the  back  part  of  the  sacrum  and  fixed  to  an  arched  and  prominent 
plate  of  bonc^  which  is  extended  from  this  septum  outwards  to  form 
a  junction  with  it  The  channels  thus  produced  are  bounded  below 
by  the  sacrum,  on  the  inner  sides  by  the  septum,  on  the  outer  sides 
by  the  ascending  phttes  of  bone  just  described,  and  above  by  the 
junction  of  both.  From  this  union  a  short  osseous  stem  issues  hori- 
zontally on  each  side,  and  expands  into  a  flattened  circular  plate  of 
bone,  to  the  rough  surfiice  of  which,  as  well  as  to  the  tuberosity  of 
the  ischium  below,  portions  of  the  truncated  exterior  of  the  animal 
are  firmly  attached. 

The  under  surface  of  the  sacrum  is  broad  and  flattened,  and  marked 
by  an  indistinct  central  ridge.  The  pelvis  is  open  in  front,  the  osaa 
pubis  on  each  side  do  not  incline  inwards,  but  descend  at  right  angles 
from  the  horizontal  surface  of  the  sacrum.  In  the  circumstance  of 
the  pelvis  being  open  there  is  a  second  resemblance  to  the  bony 
structure  in  birds. 


a,  the  Pelvis  seen  from  behind ;  b,  the  same  seen  from  below. 

The  caudal  vertebras  are  14  in  number;  the  transverse  pro- 
sses  of  the  last  four  are  elongated,  to  support  the  thin  dilated 
lateral  edges  of  the  paddle  or  spatular  extremity  of  the  taiL  Lai;ge 
muscles  are  imbedded  in  the  two  cavities  formed  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  sacrum  by  its  septum  and  the  two  lateral  elevated 
portions  of  the  ischium  before  described ;  and  thercf  are  antagonist 
muscles  of  equal  size  on  the  under  surface.    The  tendons  of  these 

muscles  were  inserted  on  the 

upper  and  under  parts  of  the 

caudal  vertebrae,  giving  i^reat 

power  to  the  tail,  whidi  is 

probably  exercised  in  remov- 

VertebrsB  of  the  tail.  ing  backwards  the  loose  earth 

accumulated  imder  Uie  bellj 

of  this  burrowing  animal  by  the  action  of  the  fore  legs,  and  for 

which  purpose  the  expanded  and  flattened   extremity  seems  weU 

calculated. 

The  scapula  has  its  superior  margin  straight,  ending  in  a  notdi  of 
great  size ;  the  base  rounded ;  the  inferior  margin  concave,  and  tha 
posterior  inferior  angle  considerably  elongated ;  the  coracoid  process 
but  little  produced,  the  spine  elevated,  the  acromion  very  long, 
passing  forwards,  downwanls,  and  inwards,  over  the  head  of  the 
humerus,  to  be  articulated  to  a  long  and  slender  but  perfect  davide. 
There  is  a  second  spine  of  smaller  size,  paralld  to  but  beneath  the 
true  spine.  The  humerus  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  Ur^e, 
and  broad;  the  deltoid  crest  prominent;  between  which  and  Uie 
external  condyle  a  deep  groove  is  formed  for  the  lodgment  of  muscles^ 
&c ;  both  condyles  very  much  elongated  transversdy ;  the  inner  con- 
dyle perforated  above;  the  edge  rising  from  the  external  condyle 
acute.  The  radius  small,  and  seven-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  length; 
the  ulna  flattened,  concave  upwards,  the  olecranon  nearly  as  long  as 
the  ulna,  horizontally  flattened  also,  and  presenting  a  superior  con- 


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CHLAMYPHORUa 


CHLAMYPHORUa 


106O 


Skeleton  of  Chlamyphonu  truneatus,  with  the  exception  of  the  feet,  which  are  eorered 
with  the  integuments. 


cave  BorfiBuse,  ending  in  a  onire  pointmg  downwards.  The  feet 
fiimiBhed  with  seaamoid  bones  for  the  insertion  of  the  tendons  of 
the  flexor  muscles. 

The  femur,  thirteen-sizteenths  of  an  inch  long,  large  and  strong ; 
the  length  of  the  neck  considerable ;  the  great  trochanter  elongated 
backwards  beyond  the  line  of  the  articulation  of  the  head  of  the 
femur  wiA  tiie acetabulum,  and  ending  in  a  tub-.i-osity ;  the  lesser 
trodlanter        directed  * 

downwards;  a  trochan- 
ter projecting  from  the 
outer  side  of  the  shaft 
of  the  femur  somewhat 
above  the  middle ;  the 
condyles  moderately 
elongated  transversely, 
the  outer  having  a  crest 
directed  backwards. 
The  tibia  and  fibula 
fifteen-sixteenths  of  an 
inch,  flattened,  concave 
inwards,  firmly  anchy- 
losed  at  each  extremity, 
and  arched  in  opposite 
directions,  giving  an 
appearance  of  great  size  and  strength  to  the  leg.  The  os  calois 
elongated  backwards,  flat,  and  ending  in  a  curve  slightly  inclined 
upwarda    Hind  feet  plantigrade. 

Mr.  Yarrell  observed  the  following  points  of  resemblance  between 
the  skeleton  of  Chlamyphorua  and  that  of  other  Mammalia: — 1. 
Beaver  {Castor  Fiber),  in  the  form  and  substance  of  some  of  the  bones 
of  the  limbs,  in  the  flattened  and  dilated  extremity  of  the  tail,  and 
the  elongation  of  the  transverse  processes  of  the  lower  caudal  vertebrae, 
but  no  further.  2.  Mole  {T<Upa  Buropcea),  in  the  shortness  and  great 
strength  of  the  legs,  and  in  the  articulation  of  the  daws  to  the  first 
phalanges  of  the  toes ;  but  in  the  form  of  the  bones  of  the  anterior 
extremity,  as  well  as  in  the  compressed  claws,  it  is  perfectly  different, 
nor  do  ike  articulations  of  the  bones,  nor  the  arrangement  of  the 
muscles,  allow  any  of  the  lateral  motion  so  conspicuous  in  the  mole. 
The  hinder  extremities  of  CMamyphorus  are  also  much  more  power- 
ful. 3.  Sloth  (Bradypu$  tridactylut),  in  the  form  of  tiie  teeth,  and  in 
the  acute  descending  process  of  the  zygoma,  but  not  otherwise.  4. 
Armadilloes  {Daeyp^,  in  the  ooat  of  mail,  in  the  peculiar  ossification 
of  the  cervical  vertebrae,  in  possessing  the  sesamoid  bones  of  the  feet, 
and  in  the  general  form  of  the  bones,  except  those  of  the  pelvis ;  they 
differ  however  in  the  form  and  appendages  of  the  head  and  in  the 
tail.  5.  Orycieroptu  Capentit  and  Myrmecophaga  jubiUa,  in  some  of 
the  bones.  6.  Echidna  and  Omithorhynchus,  in  the  form  of  the  first 
bone  of  the  sternum,  and  in  the  bony  articulations  as  well  as  the 
dilated  connecting  plates  of  the  true  and  false  ribs.  7  and  8.  Rwni- 
narUia  and  Pachydermata,  in  the  form  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  in  other 
points  equally  obvious.  The  unique  points  in  its  structure  appear  to 
be  the  fonn  of  the  head  and  the  open  pelvis. 

According  to  Dr.  Harlan,  the  total  length  of  the  entire  animal  is 
51  inches.  The  shell  which  covers  the  body  is  of  a  consistence  some- 
what more  dense  and  inflexible  than  sole-leather  of  equal  thickness, 
and  is  composed  of  a  series  of  plates  of  a  square,  rhomboidal,  or 
cubical  form,  each  row  separated  by  an  epidermal  or  membranous 
production,  which  is  reflected  above  and  beneath,  over  the  plates  : 
the  rows  include  from  15  to  22  plates,  the  shell  being  broadest  at  its 
posterior  half,  extending  about  one-half  round  the  body.  This 
covering  is  loose  throughout,  excepting  along  the  spine  of  the  back 
and  top  of  the  head,  being  attached  to  the  ba^k  immediately  above 
the  spme  by  a  loose  cuticular  production,  and  by  the  two  remarkable 
bony  processes  on  the  top  of  the  Os  frontis,  by  means  of  two  lai*ge 
plates,  which  are  nearly  incorporated  with  the  bone  beneath ;  but 
for  this  attachment  the  covering  would  be  very  easily  detached.  The 
number  of  rows  of  plates  on  the  back,  counting  from  the  vertex, 
where  they  commence,  is  24 ;  at  the  twenty-fourth  the  shell  curves 
suddenly  downwards,  so  as  to  form  a  right  angle  with  the  body; 
this  truncated  surface  is  composed  of  plates,  nearly  similar  to  those 
of  the  back ;  they  are^  disposed  in  semicircular  rows,  five  in  number ; 
the  lower  margin,  somewhat  elliptical,  presents  a  notch  in  its  centre, 
in  which  is  attached  the  free  portion  of  tail,  which  makes  an  abrupt 
curvature,  and  runs  beneath  the  belly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  body, 
the  extremity  of  the  tail  being  depressed,  so  as  to  form  a  paddle ;  the 
rest  of  the  tail  compressed.  The  superior  semicircuUr  margin  of  the 
truncated  surface,  together  with  the  lateral  margins  of  the  shell,  are 
beautifully  fringed  with  talkj  hair. 

The  posterior  half  of  the  head  broad,  anterior  half,  before  the  eyes, 
tapering ;  the  oociput  is  covered  by  the  first  five  rows  of  the  back 
plates  with  which  they  are  continuous ;  the  occiput  not  distinguish- 
able externally.  The  anterior  half  of  the  top  of  the  head  is  oovered, 
first,  by  a  row  of  large  plates,  five  in  number,  which  are  firmly 
attached  to  the  bone  beneath,  particularly  the  two  outer ;  secondly, 
by  a  smaller  row,  six  in  number,  anterior  to  which,  that  is  to  say,  the 
top  of  the  snout,  is  oovered  with  smaller  plates  irregularly  disposed. 
Mr.  Yarrell  observes  that  when  separating  the  skin  from  the 
muscled  of  the  back  the  fibres  (described  by  Dr.  Harlan)  by  which 


the  outer  ooat  was  attached  in  the  line  of  the  vertebrae  were  found  to 
be  adherent  to  the  muscles  immediately  iuTesting  the  spinous  pro- 
cesses, and  each  of  them,  Mr.  YarreU  supposes,  probably  affords  a 
nidus  for  vessels  nourishing  the  external  covering ;  bat  these  attach- 
ments did  not  extend  b^w  the  dorsal  vertebrae.  Proceeding  from 
thence  forwards  the  great  size  of  the  muscles  of  the  scapulae  and  neck 
was  apparent,  filling  up  the  whole  space,  the  back  and  upper  portion 

of  the  head  forming 
one  continued  line. 
The  thick  plate  of  scales 
covering  the  frxmta\ 
portion  of  the  head  was 
without  difficulty  sepa- 
rated from  the  surfaces 
of  the  singular  bony 
processes  of  the  os 
frontis;  the  projecting 
cartilaginous  portion  of 
the  nose  was  removed 
with  the  skin,  and 
the  tendons  of  several 
musdee  giving  motion 
to  the  snout  were  cut 
through. 

The  hinder  portion  of  the  body  still  remained  to  be  s^arated  from 
the  skin,  and  this  was  found  to  be  a  matter  of  some  difficulty.  The 
posterior  and  inferior  portions  of  the  sacrum  on  each  side  were  firmly 
united  by  distinct  attiuihments,  differing  in  form,  to  certain  scales  of 
the  truncated  extremity  of  the  outer  covering. 

The  necessity  of  preserving  this  outer  covering  entire  rendered  a 
division  of  these  portions  of  bone  necessary,  and  frx)m  the  particular 
form  of  the  part  this  was  attended  with  some  hazard,  but  was  ulti- 
mately accomplished  without  injury,  the  bones  being  out  through  as 


Chlamyphorua  truneatut. 


Tnmcated  extremity  and  tall. 

near  to  and  as  parallel  with  the  inner  surface  of  the  plates  as  their 
confined  situati^  would  admit.  The  covering  of  the  tail  was  sepsr 
rated  from  the  vertebrae  as  far  as  the  flattened  extremity,  where  the 
greater  elongation  of  the  transverse  processes  of  the  last  four  vertebras 
and  the  tenuity  of  this  flattened  portion  made  further  separation 


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GHLAMTS. 


CHLOROMT& 


loss 


difloult  The  tail  waa  then  divided  between  the  tenth  and  eldv«nth 
Tertebne,  and  both  parte  of  the  animal  entirely  separated. 

On  the  inner  surface  of  the  remoTod  skin  were  two  long  broad  and 
ihin  moaclea  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  back ;  each  muscle 
was  divided  as  it  approached  the  shoulder  into  two  portions ;  the 
outer  one  was  attached  to  the  superior  and  greater  spine  of  the 
scapular  bone ;  the  inner  and  longer  slip  proceeded  forwards,  and  was 
inserted  into  the  transverse  occipital  ridge.  The  posterior  extremity  of 
each  muscle  was  attached  to  the  superior  edge  of  the  spine  of  the  ilium. 
The  external  ear,  according  to  Dr.  Harlsm,  consists  of  a  circular 
somewhat  patulous  opening,  directly  posterior  to  the  eye,  surrounded 
with  an  elevated  margin,  and  oommimica&ig  with  a  bony  canisJ. 
The  eye  is  minute,  totally  black,  and,  like  the  ear,'nearlv  hidden  by 
long  silky  hair.  The  mouth  is  small.  The  nose  is  furnished  with  an 
enlarged  cartilage,  as  in  the  hog,  the  anterior  nares  opening  down- 
wards at  the  inferior  border. 

The  whole  surface  of  the  body  is,  it  appears  from  the  same  author, 
— and  the  correctness  of  his  description  is  proved  by  an  inspection  of 
the  stuffed  specimen — covered  with  fine  silk-like  hair,  longer  and  finer 
than  that  of  the  mole,  but  not  so  thick  set.  The  anterior  of  the  chest 
is  large,  full,  and  strong ;  the  anterior  extremities  short,  clumsy,  and 
powcnrful;  the  hair  is  continued  for  some  distance  on  the  palm — the 
phalanges  of  the  hand  united ;  five  powerful  nails  rising  gradually 
one  above  the  other,  the  external  shortest  and  broadest ;  the  whole 
so  arranged  as  to  form  a  sharp  cutting  instrument^  rather  scooped, 
very  convenient  for  progression  under  ground,  and  such  as  must  very 
much  impede  motion  on  the  surfiice.  Hind  legs  weak  and  short; 
feet  long  and  narrow ;  the  sole  resembles  considerably  the  human 
foot)  having  a  well-defined  heel,  which  rests  flat  upon  the  groimd,  and 
being  arched  in  the  middle ;  toes  separate,  nails  strong. 

In  the  specimen  dissected  by  Mr.  Yarrell  the  abdomen  and  thorax 
had  been  opened  throughout  tiieir  whole  length,  and  the  viscera  from 
both  cavities  had  been  entirely  removed.  Adhering  to  the  skin  lining 
the  truncated  portion  of  the  animal  were  two  sacs,  which  had  been 
lodged  in  cavities  on  each  outer  side  of  the  sacrum,  immediately 
under  the  superior  projection,  made  evident  by  the  corresponding 
depression  in  the  investing  muscle  of  that  part.  These  globular  bags 
were  lined  with  a  secreting  surface,  but  naving  suffered  some  muti- 
lation in  removal,  the  mode  by  which  the  secretion  passed,  or  its 
particular  use,  could  not  be  asceortained.  Mr.  Tarrell  thinks  that  they 
are  probably  analogous  to  the  well-known  anal  glands  of  various  other 
quadrupeds. 

According  to  Mr.  Closeberry,  who  first  discovered  this  animal,  the 
habits  of  Chlamyphorus  resemble  those  of  the  mole,  as  it  lives  for  the 
most  part  under  ground.  He  adds  that  the  animal  is  reputed  to  carry 
its  young  beneath- the  scaly  cloak  with  which  it  is  covered,  and  that 
the  tail  possesses  little  or  no  motion. 

CHLAMYS.    [Chrtsomelidje.] 

CHLENACEA    [Chljenaobjb.] 

CHLORA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natdral  order 
OferUianaeece.  It  has  8  sepals,  a  rotate  corolla  with  6-8  segments 
withering  round  the  capsule,  the  stigma  bi-lamellate,  the  anthers  not 
altering,  the  capsule  1-celled  with  spongy  placentae,  the  seeds  angular. 

C.  p&rfoliatOf  Yellow-Wort,  has  the  lowermost  leaves  elliptico-oblong, 
narrowed  below;  the  leaves  of  the  stem  broadly  perfoliate.  The 
corollas  are  of  a  bright-yellow  colour,  and  the  stigmas  are  scarlet.  The 
whole  plant  is  glaucous,  and  is  very  subject  to  attacks  of  mildew.  It 
is  a  native  of  chalky  hiUs  and  banks  in  most  countries  of  Europe.  It 
is  found  in  England  and  Ireland,  but  not  in  Scotland.  Like  the 
whole  order  to  which  it  belongs  it  possesses  a  bitter  principle,  which 
renders  its  action  on  the  system  tonic.  It  may  be  used  in  all  those 
cases  of  debility  and  in  diseases  where  the  roots  of  the  OerUiana  and 
J^rytAnva  are  recommended.  Its  tonic  properties  are  not  however  so 
powerful  as  in  many  other  species  of  the  onler. 

(Lindley,  Flora  Afedica;  fiabington,  Manual  of  Britith  Botany.) 

CHLORANTHA'CE^,  Chlorantht,  a  natural  order  of  Achlamy- 
deous  Exogenous  Plants  allied  to  the  Peppers,  and  like  them 
having  an  aromatic  fragrant  odour.  They  are  known  from  the  orders 
associated  with  them  by  their  jointed  stems  and  opposite  leaves, 
with  intermediate  stipules.  Their  flowers  grow  in  naked  spikes,  and 
consist  of  an  ovary  next  the  axis  of  inflorescence,  and  a  fleshy  anther 
on  the  outside.  Besides  (Moranthm  [Chlobanthus]  two  other  genera, 
ffedyo8mum  and  Ascarinaf  constitute  this  order.  In  structure  they 
are  allied  to  Piperacece,  Urticacece,  and  Saururaceas,  The  order 
contains  about  15  species. 

CHLORANTHUS,  a  genus  of  pbolts  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
(MorarUhaeea.  It  has  spiked  flowers,  each  with  a  bract.  Calyx 
absent.  Anther  solitary  and  2-oelled,  or  triple  and  4-celled,  with  a 
thick  fleshy  connective;  seated  on  the  exterior  side  of  the  ovary. 
The  stigma  sessile.    Drupe  baccate/  1-seeded. 

C.  officinalU  is  a  smooth  shrub  8-4  feet  high,  with  opposite 
straggling  branches,  tumid  at  the  articulations,  fistular  when  young. 
Leaves  spreading,  opposite,  stalked^  oblong,  acuminated  at  each  end, 
with  glandular  serratures,  thin,  shining,  and  somewhat  blistered; 
petioles  short  and  taper.  Spikes  terminal,  branched.  Bracts  dotted 
with  glands.  Anther  white,  changing  to  vellow.  Drupe  straw- 
ooloured.  All  the  parts  are  powerfully  aromatic ;  the  roots,  if  quickly 
dned»  retain  their  properties  for  a  long  time.    The  plant  is  a  native 


of  Java,  In  the  moist  woods,  at  an  elevation  of  1500  feet  shove  the 
level  of  Ihe  sea. 

The  mountaineers  of  Java  employ  the  roots  in  infusion  as 'a  remedy 
for  spasms ;  also  when  united  *^th  Ahise  or'  Ocym'um  it  is  given  in 
small-pox.  In  fevers  and  a  suppression  of  the  functions  of  the  skin  it 
is  said  to  be  of  the  greatest  service.  It  is  no  doubt  a  powerful  and 
active  stimulant. 


» 0  0 

CVthranthus  offieinalit. 
1,  Spike,  the  tipper  and  lower  flowers  without  stameuB ;  2,  flower  withoatUa 
bract ;  8,  an  interior  view  of  the  anther  ;  4,  a  magnified  fruit ;  5,  the  kernel  of 
the  fruit ;  6,  a  Motion  of  the  fruit,  ahowing  the  embryo  ;  7,  the  stone  of  the 
fruit,  with  a  portion  of  the  shell  removed ;  8,  a  perpendicular  section  of  the 
orary,  showing  the  position  of  the  ovule. 

C.  hrachyttachys  is  also  a  native  of  the  coast  of  Java.  It  ia  tn 
upright  bush  about  3  feet  high,  quite  smooth  in  all  its  parts.  '  Leaves 
obovate,  lanceolate,  tapering  very  much  into  the  petiole,  aharply 
serrate.  Spikes  short,  terminal,  bcanohed.  Bracts  glandukr.  Anther 
simple,  2-celled,  growing  from  the  side  of  the  ovary.  Its  properUee 
are  like  those  of  the  last  species. 

CHLO'RION,  a  genus  of  Hymehopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
Fosaores.    [Spheoiojs.] 

CHLORITE,  a  Mineral  of  a  dark  olive-green  colour  belonging  to 
the  talc,  or  hydrous  silicate  of  magnesia  series.  It  occurs  in  maesei 
of  a  granular  texture,  rarely  in  hexagonal  crystals,  foliated  like  talc. 
It  has  a  slight  pearly  lustre,  and  is  sub-translucent  or  opaque,  rarely 
sub-transparent.  Its  hardness  is  1-5;  specific  gravity,  2'65to2'85. 
It  has  the  following  composition  : — 

Silica .80*4 

Alumina .    17 

Magnesia        .        .        .        .        .        .34 

Protoxide  of  Iron .4'4 

Water *      .      .  .    126 

It  fuses  with  difficulty  on  the  thinnest  edges.  Its  oliv^green  colour 
and  granular  structure  distinguish  it  fix)m  Serpentine.  It  may  ^ 
known  fh)m  Talc  hj  its  yielding  water  on  fusiorL 

OMorite  Slate  is  an  impure  variety  which  occun  abundanUyi 
sometimes  in  slaty  rocks. 

CHLORITOID,  a  Mineral  of  a  greenish-black  colour,  and  coarsely 
foliated.  It  is  one  of  the  hydrous  silicates  of  alumina.  Ko  analysii 
of  it  appears  to  exist  It  comes  from  tiie  Ural  Mountains,  and  hsi 
a  hardness  =  5*5,  and  a  specific  gravity  =:  3*55.    (Dana,  Mwa-Qlfifpf) 

CHLOROMYS.    [Aaorn.] 


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CHLOROPAL. 


CHLOROPHTLE. 


KU 


CHLOROPAL  is  a  Kmeral  of  a  greezuBh-yellow  or  pistachio-green 
colour.    It  is  a  Silicate  of  Iron. 

CHLOROPHJSITE,  a  Mineral  fonnd  by  Dr.  Maccullocli  in  the 
Isle  of  Rnm.  It  oocus  in  small  masses  imbedded  in  basalt  or  a  black 
indurated  ironstone.  Its  colour  when  firesh  broken  is  green,  which 
becomes  black  by  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  brittle  and  soft  enough 
to  be  Bcratdied  with  a  quill.  Its  specific  gravity  is  2*02.  Some 
specimei&  are  transparent,  others  are  opaque.  The  lustre  is  vitreous; 
the  fracture  of  the  transparent  sort  is  conohoidal,  of  the  opaque  inter- 
mediate between  conchoidal  and  granular.     (Phillips's  Mineralogy.) 

CHLOROPHANE.     rFLUOR-BFAB.1 

CHLOROPHYLK  {Bndix^rome,  PhytoehUtre,  ChnmyU.)  The 
green  colouring-miatter  of  plants.  It  is  obtained  by  bruising,  press- 
tog,  and  then  washing  leaves  with  water,  and  afterwards  treating  them 
with  alcohol,  which  cDssolves  the  green  colour  and  wax ;  when  water 
is  added  to  this  solution,  and  the  alcohol  distilled,  the  green  substance, 
which  contains  wax,  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  water;  when  this  is 
heated  with  ether,  the  wax  is  dissolved,  and  Chlorophyle  remains 
nearly  pure.  When  exposed  to  light,  or  tjie  action  of  chlorine,  it  is 
blea^M.  Adds  produce  a  similar  effect^  and  by  the  alkalis  it  is  con- 
verted into  soap.  The  red  tint  which  leaves  assume  in  autumn  appears 
to  be  owing  to  the  formation  and  action  of  an  acid ;  the  gpreen  colour 
is  restored  by  an  alkali. 

This  substance  has  been  recently  investigated  with  great  care  by 
Mulder,  and  the  following  account  of  it  is  chiefly  derived  from  his 
researches  as  given  in  his  'Chemistry  of  AnioiiBl  and  Vegetable 
Physiology.' : — 

It  is  a  striking  fxyc^  that  young  leaves  have  a  much  lighter  f[K«a 
colour  than  those  which  are  older,  showing  that  the  quantity  of 
Chlorophyle  increases  with  the  age  of  the  leaves.  If  Chlorophyle  were 
a  substance -poor  in  oxygen,  and  were  derived  from  substances  rich  in 
oxygen,  this  fact  alone  would  be  sufficient  to  explain  the  power  which 
the  g^reen  parts  possess  of  separating  oxygen.  This  however  is  not 
the  case  :  Chlorophyle  is  rich  in  oxygen.  Nevertheless  the  leaves  give 
off  oxygen  not  because  they  are  green,  but  whilst  they  are  becoming 
green. 

When  green  leaves  are  digested  with  ether  the  liquid  becomes 
green.  0^  evaporating  the  etherial  solution,  and  treating  the  residue 
with  hot  alcohol,  a  considerable  amount  of  white  fatty  matte^  (wax) 
separates  on  cooling,  while  the  green  colouring-matter  remains  in 
solution.  Before  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  the  green 
colouring-matter,  it,  will  be  expedient  to  say  a  few  words  respecting 
the  mixture  it  forms  with  the  wax. 

In  a  physiological  or  botanical  sense  this  mixture  has  the  name  of 
Chlorophyle ;  in  a  chemical  sense  the  term  is  restricted  to  the  actual 
green  pigment.  To  prevent  confusion,  the  former  is  designated  as 
B.  Chlorophyle,  and  the  latter  as  C.  Chlorophyle ;  B.  indicating  the 
botanical,  and  C.  the  chemical  signification  of  the  word. 

We  find  similar  mixtures  of  a  waxy  fat  and  colouring-matter  in 
other  external  parts  besides  the  leaves,  namely,  in  the  skins  of  fruits, 
especially  of  such  as  are  coloured ;  and  on  digesting  them  in  ether 
we  obtain  a  large  quantity  of  waxy  matter  in  solution,  varying  in  tint 
according  to  the  colour  of  the  skin ;  being  gray  when  obtained  fr^m 
apples,  and  of  a  beautiful  ofange-oolour  when  obtained  from  the  berries 
of  the  Mountain-Adi. 

The  degree  in  which  the  action  of  light  contributes  to  the  change 
of  colour  in  the  C.  Chlorophvle  which  exists  in  the  perisperms,  and 
to  the  production  from  it  of  the  colouring^matter  of  the  skin  of  ripe 
fruits,  may  be  obviously  inferred  from  the  green  colour  which  such 
fruits  retain  if  they  do  not  receive  a  sufficient  supply  of  solar  light, 
.or  from  the  difference  of  colour  exhibited  by  tiie  opposite  side  of  the 
same  fruit,  as  well  as  from  the  fact  that  leaves  when  deprived  of  the 
action  of  light  become  colourless,  while  if  completely  exposed  to  its 
action  they  secrete  a  considerable  amount  of  R  Chlorophyle. 

This  apparently  anomalous  difference  in  the  action  of  light  on  the 
skins  of  fruits  and  on  leaves  is  dependent  on  the  same  cause  as  the 
change  of  colour  in  the  leaves  during  autumn ;  namely,  that  light  can 
only  produce  B.  Chlorophyle  when  there  is  a  sufficient  supply  of 
materials  for  its  renewed  formation  as  often  as  the  existing  quantity 
is  decomposed  by  the  influence  of  the  light ;  and  that  as  soon  as  this 
supply  is  exhausted  the  green  colouring-matter  is  itself  decomposed, 
and  other  compounds  are  formed  from  it.  * 

Light  acts  powerfully  in  keeping  plants  green,  and  likewise  exerts 
a  powerful  decomposing  action  upon  all  colouring-matters,  the  C. 
Chlorophyle  not  excepted ;  thus  asparagus,  potatoes,  young  leaves, 
ftc.,  become  green  whenever  they  are  exposed  to  light,  and  hence 
there  must  h^  a  substance  widely  diffiised  through  plants,  which 
causes  the  production  of  Chlorophyle.  The  change  takes  place  not 
merely  on  the  suir&co,  but  beneath  it  as  far  as  light  can  penetrate 
through  the  semi-transparent  parts.  All  plants  however  are  not 
coloured  green ;  some  have  no  colour  at  all,  while  others  are  speckled 
or  spotted,  or  of  a  colour  entirely  different  from  green.  Hence  we 
conclude  that  in  these  plants  or  parts  of  plants,  the  materials  yielding 
Chlorophyle  are  absent.  We  may  sometimes  observe  in  summer  one 
■ingle  spot  of  a  green  leaf  coloured  red  by  the  action  of  insects  or  by 
being  injured  bjr  hail ;  the  green  colouring-matter  is  at  the  spot  decom- 
posed by  the  ng^t ;  no  new  portion  is  formed,  and  the  spot  acquires 
the  same  colour  which  the  whole  leaf  would  have  assumea  in  autumn. 


From  this  we  infer  that  the  diange  of  colour  in  the  leaves  during 
autumn  is  simply  dependent  on  a  ehemical  alteration  of  the  green  - 
oolouring^matter  by  light. 

Mulder,  after  showing  from  a  laige  number  of  fiusts  that  wax  along 
with  a  green  colouring-matter  exists  in  leaves  and  unripe  fruits, — 
wax,  with  a  red  colouring-matter^  in  the  red  leaves  which  appear  in 
autumn,  and  in  the  red  fmiti, — and  wax  with  a  yellow  colourings 
matter,  in  the  yellow  leaves  of  autumn,  and  in  the  yellow  fruits — gives 
a  Isng^ened  chemical  description  of  Chlorophyle,  for  an  account  of 
which  we  must  refer  to  the  original  work. 

Fkom  Muldei^s  experiment^  and  those  previously  instituted  by 
Benelius,  it  appears  that  the  green  colouring-matter  of  the  leaves  is 
readily  decomposed  into  three  different  substances,  one  yellow,  another 
blue,  and  a  third  black ;  and  that  according  to  the  proportion  of  these 
three  mixed  with  the  green,  a  different  kind  of  green  must  be  produced. 
Hence  the  difference  in  the  green  colour  of  different  leaves  depends 
not  only  on  the  presence  of  more  or  less  Chlorophyle,  but  also  on  the 
different  mutual  proportions  of  these  three  colouring-matters. 

The  quantity  of  pure  C.  Chlorophyle  contained  in  the  leaves  is 
exceedingly  small;  according  to  Berselius  it  is  not  more  than  the 
amount  of  pigment  in  dyed  cotton. 

If  a  tincture  of  pure  Chlorophyle  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
sun  the  green  colour  becomes  in  a  few  hours  converted  into  a  yellow. 
When  a  solution  of  pure  Chlorophyle  in  ether  and  hydrochloric  acid 
was  kept  for  five  months  in  a  boUle  half  full,  the  green  was  entirely 
changed  into  a.  yellow.  From  these  experiments  we  learn,  first,  that 
the  green  xiolouring-matter  is  decomposed  and  a  yellow  one  left,  both 
with  and  independently  of  the  influence  of  light ;  and  secondly,  that 
in  aU  probability  a  similar  decomposition  (accompanied  by  a  repro- 
duction) of  green  colouring-matter  and  green  leaves  is  constantly 
going  on  undier  the  influence  of  light.  Mulder  conceives  that  the 
continual  decomposition  oi  the  green  colouring-matter  may  be  in  part 
the  origin  of  the  wax,  since  the  quantity  of  the  latter  is  found  to  have 
increased  when  the  same  leaves  are  analysed  later  in  summsr.  In 
consequence  of  the  continuance  of  this  reproduction,  the  leaves  remain 
green ;  when  it  stops,  the  leaves  become  yellow  as  in  autumn. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  decomposed  Chlorophyle  yields  a  blue 
colouring^matter ;  it  is  this  which  is  no  doubt  preflMit  in  the  skins  of 
many  fruits,  as  for  instance  those  of  the  grape;  the  exact  nature  of 
the  chemical  change  is  not  clearly  understood. 

It  is  very  obvious  that  the  influence  of  light  will-  oonvert  starch 
into  Chlorophyle.  Ev^^  part  of  an  amylaceous  root  becomes  green 
on  exposure  to  light.  The  parts  of  plants  which  become  green  (all 
without  exception)  contain  starch;  and  in  autumn  as  this  groen 
colour  decreases  the  starch  also  decreases,  and  finally  cannot  be 
detected  by  the  iodine-test  Hence  staroh  ceases  to  form  R  Chloro- 
phyle under  the  influence  of  lights  the  B.  Chlorophyle  being  a  complex 
substance  consisting  chiefly  of  wax.  The  change  of  staroh  into 
B.  Chlorophyle  may  be  explained  in  much  the  same  manner  as  its 
conversion  into  fat 

The  wax  contained  in  the  leaves  and  other  parts  of  plants  n^ay  be 

chemically  ropresented  by  the  formula  C^g  H^^  O.    Now  if  no  other 

products  be  simultaneously  produced  we  may  suppose   the   wax 

obtained  from  the  starch  in  the  following  i 

6  equiv.  of  staroh    . 

With  10  of  water 


.^00  5«>  9«> 


Make C„H«,0«, 

And  4  of  wax Cm,  Haq  0. 


Leaving  to  be  given  off    .        .        .  0^^ 

That  is  to  say,  5  equivalents  of  stardi  yield  4  equivalents  of  wax,  and 
give  off  56  equivalents  of  oxygen.  This  fully  explains  the  phenomenon 
why  plants,  while  becoming  green,  evolve  oxygen,  and  further  indicates 
the  use  of  starch  in  the  leaves. 

Mulder  has,  as  far  as  we  aro  aware,  made  only  one  ultimate  analysis 
of  pure  C.  Chlorophyle— that  from  poplar  leaves;  from  this  analysis 
he  calculated  the  formula  C,.  H,  N  0^. 

"Properly  speakinff,"  Mulder  observes,  ''the  green  colouring-matter 
in  the  leaves  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  evolution  of  oxygen ;  on  the 
contrary,  the  colourless  C.  Chlorophyle,  which  seems  to  be  every 
where  present,  becomes  green  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen.  Hence  a 
small  portion  of  the  oxygen  produced, from  the  conversion  of  staroh 
into  wax  is  employed  for  this  purpose,  and  is  not  mixed  with  the 
atmosphero.  But  this  is  just  the  reason  why  C.  Chlorophyle  is  not 
formed  by  the  exhalation  of  oxygen  ;,it  oAly  becomes  green  instead 
of  white,  as  it  previously  was.  This  eui  only  happen  when  thero  is 
an  abundance  of  oxygen,  and  this  we  have  seen  to  be  the  case  when 
staroh  is  converted  into  wax.  We  may  therefore  assume  as  proved 
that  white  Chlorophyle  diffiised  throughout  the  whole  plant,  will 
become  green  in  proportion  as  staroh  is  converted  into  wax ;  because 
it  is  enabled,  in  such  proportion,  to  take  up  oxygen— to  become 
oxidised,  just  like  white  indigo. 

''Now,  the  probable  composition  of  green  Chlorophyle, — C„  H^ 
N  Og  shows  that  pure  white  Chlorophyle  is  not  produced  from  staroh. 
It  is  necessary  that  an  asotised  body  in  a  liquid  state  shoiild  penetrate 
into  the  globule  of  stareh,  which  during  this  transformation  into  wax 
IB  converted  into  Q^  H,  N  O..    We  do  not  know  yet  what  that 


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CHLOROPHTLLItB. 


CHONDROMKBTGII 


1066 


■ulwtance  Im,  but  it  is  oertain  that  it  must  be  ono  which  is  diffused 
throughout  the  plant  like  starch ;  henoe  it  is  probably  protein,  which 
is  changed  into  a  moat  beautiful  Tioletcolonred  aubatance  by  the 
influence  of  hydrochloric  add  and  oxygen." 

At  one  time  it  was  supposed  that  the  posaeosion  of  Ghlorophyle  was 
ehaneteristio  of  the  T^getable  kingdom.  The  following  rama^ 
however  of  Schnltc^  in  the  '  Comptea  Rendus '  for  Kay  1852,  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  green  colouring-matter  of  some  animals 
elosely  approaches  that  of  juants.  He  enumerates  seyend  animals  of 
a  green  colour  which  are  conmion  in  ditches  and  marshes,  such  as 
Mydra  viridu,  several  green  TwrbtUarieis,  Vortex  vwidis,  Metotommm 
viridaium,  and  Ziero$tomum  eaeum,  and  also  several  green  Ii^fuwria, 
Buoh  as  SteiUorpolymcrphtu,  Ophr^ivm  venaHle,  and  Buir$ariavemaiis, 
The  colour  in  tiieee  animals  is  afforded  by  minute  green  globules,  about 
0*016  inch  in  diameter,  which  are  situated  under  the  integument  in 
the  parenchyma  of  the  animala.  They  are  perfectly  spherical,  and 
exhibit  wiUun  the  green  substance  an  extremely  minute  colourless 
and  homogeneous  nucleus;  or  they  may  consist  of  several  minute 
green  globules,  grouped  t<^ether  in  a  mulberry  form.  In  this  latter 
case  they  arise  from  the  di virion  of  a  homogeneous  vesicle.  This  green 
odonring  substance  is  not  altered  by  dilute  adds  or  alkaline  solutions, 
by  whi^  it  is  distinguished  from  the  green  colouring-matter  of 
Mveral  Algce,  which  according  to  Nageli  is  changed  into  yellow, 
orsnge,  or  red  by  the  same  reagents.  Concentrated  sulphuric  and 
muriatic  adds  dissolve  the  colouring-matter :  the  solution  is  of  a 
beautiful  green  or  bliush-green  colour,  unchanged  by  the  action  of 
beat ;  it  ia  also  dissolved  by  a  concentrated  solution  of  jMtass,  by 
ammoma,  alcohol,  and  ether,  the  colour  predaely  resembling  that  of 
a  solution  of  Chlorophyle.  Its  development  also  is  influenced  in  the 
same  way  as  that  of  vegetable  Chlorophyle  by  light;  but  animals  con- 
taining it  do  not  evolve  oxygen,  and  the  author  thence  condudes  that 
the  evolution  of  that  gas  is  not  soldy  dependent  upon  the  Chlorophyle 
in  plants.  In  Vortex  viridis  the  minute  green  globules,  owing  to 
their  mutual  compreaaion.  assume  a  hexagonal  fonn ;  the  green  com- 
partments thus  formed  are  separated  by  an  interstitial  colourless  sub- 
stance. The  exirtence  of  a  colourleas  membrane  around  each  veaide 
may  thence  be  deduced.  This  UnA  is  further  demonstrated  in  vedcles 
the  green  matter  of  which  only  partially  fills  the  globular  cavity. 

With  reapect  to  the  chemical  compodtion  of  the  membrane  and  of 
the  nucleus  of  the  vesicles  in  Vortex  viridit,  the  results  of  the  authoi's 
researches  are  limited  to  the  following  facts : — ^the  solution  of  potass, 
and  of  ammonia  and  sulphuric  acid,  after  the  extraction  of  the 
oolouring^matter,  causes  the  membrane  to  swell  out,  ia  which  the 
nucleus  can  no  longer  be  recognised.  The  membrane  becomes  pale, 
and  finallv  disappears  entirely,  but  especially  so  after  long  boiling. 
Acetic  and  chromic  adds  and  dcohol  do  not  affect  the  membrane  and 
the  nudens.  By  solution  of  iodine  the  yetiole  is  coloured  brown,  the 
nudeus  becomes  more  distinct,  but  its  colour  is  unaltered.  It  cannot 
consequently  be  assimilated  to  the  nucleus  of  the  vegetable  chloro- 
phyle vedde,  which  most  frequently  consists  of  amylum. 

CHLOBOPHTLLITE,  a  Mineral  occuning  in  6-  and  12-uded  prisms, 
highly  foliated,  paralld  to  the  base.  The  folia  are  soft  and  brittle, 
the  lustre  pearly,  the  colour  grayiah-green  to  dark-olive  green.  It 
has  the  following  compodtion : — 

SiUca 45*2 

Alumina 27*6 

Magnesia 9*6 

Protoxide  of  Iron 8*2 

Protoxide  of  Mangaues9 4*1 

Water 36 

It  fuses  only  at  the  edges,  and  yields  water  before  the  blow-pipe. 
It  occurs  with  lolUe  in  granite  in  the  United  States.  A  variety 
under  the  name  of  Etmarkite  is  brought  from  Brevig  in  Norway. 
FaMwnUe,  Cfigantolite,  and  AtpaaiolUe  are  allied  to  this  mineral,  and 
like  it  probably  proceJMi  from  the  alteration  of  lolUe, 

CHLOBOSPERMEJS.    [Alqjb.] 

CHLOROSPINEL.    [Spinel.] 

CHOANI'TES,  a  group  of  Spongoid  Fossils  from  the  Chalk  of 
England  and  France,  thus  named  by  MantdL  Analogous  living  forms 
occur  on  the  cosst  of  Australia. 

CHOCOLATE-TREE.    [Thbobboma.] 

CHCEROPOTAMUS,  a  genus  of  extinct  MomtM^fia  bdonging  to 
the  order  PadiydermiiUa, 

C.  Omvieri  (Owen).  This  animal,  the  remains  of  which  have  been 
found  in  the  gypsum  beds  of  Montmartre,  Paris,  and  the  Eocene 
Formations  of  the  Ide  of  Wight,  seems  to  have  resembled  the  Peccari, 
but  must  have  been  about  one-thixd  Uffger,  and  was  the  earliest  form 
of  the  Hog-Tribe  introduced  upon  our  planets  Cuvier  was  the  first  to 
recognise  the  distinct  diaraoters  of  tlus  animal  from  the  remains 
found  at  Psris.  They  were  subsequently  much  mono  clearly  defined 
by  Professor  Owen  from  the  portions  of  the  animal  discovered  in  the 
Ide  of  Wight.  The  Choeropotamut  is  one  of  the  links  between  the 
existing  ffippopotamut  and  Hog-Tribe.  Professor  Owen  in  his  *  British 
MMrwwft.1a  and  Birds,'  remarlu,  "Nothing  as  yet  is  known  of  the 
incisors  of  the  Clueropotamui,  the  rest  of  the  dentition  doeely  resembles 
that  of  the  Peccari;  but  tiie  premolars  are  more  simply  and  the 
canines  by  thdr  sine,  shape^  and  directioni  and  the  lower  jaw  by  the 


backward  prolongation  of  its  angle,  alike  manifest  a  maiked  approxi- 
mation to  the  Ferine  type.  The  occasional  carnivorous  properties  of 
the  common  Hog  are  wdl  known,  and  they  correspond  with  the 
minor  degree  of  resemblance  which  this  existing  pachydenn  pieaeaU 
to  the  same  tvpe.  The  extinct  Okoeropoiaimm$j  stdl  better  adapted  by 
its  dentition  for  predaceous  habits,  presents  an  iuterestijig  example 
of  one  of  those  links,  oompletinc  the  chain  of  affinities  which  the 
revolutions  of  the  earth's  surfkce  have  interrupted  as  it  were,  and  for 
a  time  concealed  from  our  view."  Other  links  in  this  chain  of 
affinity  are  the  genera  Antkraeotkeruim  (Cuvier),  MayeopotamMt,  and 
Hippophyva  (Cautley  and  Falconer). 

CHOIROPOTAMUS,  a  genus  of  Hogs  found  in  Africa.    [Sun>A.] 

CHOLiEPUS,  Illiger^s  generic  name  for  the  Two-Toed  Sloths. 
[Braotpus;  Edbvtata.] 

CHOLESTERIN,  a  crystalline  matter  formeriy  known  as  a  Inliary 
fat,  and  supposed  on  account  of  its  occurrence  in  biliaiy  ooncretioni 
to  be  espedally  connected  with  the  secretion  of  the  liver.  It  sepantei 
frt>m  its  solutions  in  nacreous  scales,  which  tmder  the  microeoope 
appear  in  very  thin  rhombic  tablets.  It  fuses  at  145**,  becoming 
soHd  and  crystalline  at  186*.  It  is  found  to  consist  of  Carbon, 
Hydrogen,  and  Oxvgen  (C,.  H,,  0).  In  order  to  prepare  it  arti- 
ficially gall-stones  should  be  boiled  in  alcohol,  when  the  Cholesterin 
is  deposited  bv  evaporation  and  cooling.  Although  when  dinoWed 
it  is  not  easily  detected  in  the  fluids  of  the  body,  its  presence  ii 
easily  detected  by  the  form  of  its  crystals. 

Small  quantities  of  Cholesterin  occur  in  most  of  the  snimal  flaida. 
It  is  constantly  present  as  a  noimd  constituent  of  the  bile,  and  also 
of  the  blood.    The  quantity  in  blood  averages  0*088  in  1*000  parts. 

It  is  often  found  as  a  morbid  product  in  the  body.  Its  mode  of 
formation  is  unknown. 

CHOMA'TODUS,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Fishes  bom  the  Honntain 
Limestone  of  Bristol  and  Armagh.     (Agassix.) 

CHOMORO,  a  name  for  PodoearpuB  cttpresnnaa 

CHONDRILLA,  a  genus  of  plants  bdonging  to  the  natural  order 
CompotUoi  and  the  sub-order  Attenteeai,  one  spedes  of  which,  C 
Juneea,  yields  a  gum. 

CHONDRITES.  A  Fessil  Fuooid  from  the  Oreensand,  named 
Fw!oide$  Targiom  by  Mantell,  is  thus  entitled  by  Sternberg.  ('Flon 
der  Yorwelt')  It  is  very  widdy  disseminated  in  the  Greenaand 
deposits  of  Europe.  Fueoidet  intricaius  of  Brongniart  bdonga  sLm 
to  the  Lower  Cretaceous  system  in  the  Alps  and  Carpathians. 

CHONDRODENDRON,  a  genus  of  plants  bdonging  to  the  natural 
order  Mtnitjpermaeea,  One  spedes,  C.  eonvolvulaeeum,  ia  employed  as 
a  febrifuge  in  Peru.  Endlicher  states  that  the  bark  of  some  of  the 
species  is  used  for  dyeing  yellow. 

CHONDRODITE,  a  Mineral,  containing— 

SiUca S31 

Magnesia 56*5 

Protoxide  of  Iron 3*6 

Fluorine 7*6 

It  occurs  usually  in.  imbedded  grains  or  small  rounded  or  flattend 
kernels  or  nodules  in  limestone,  and  appearing  brittle.  The  colour 
is  browniah-vdlow  or  brown.  The  lustre  vitreous.  It  is  translucent 
or  subtranducent,  with  an  uneven  fracture.  Hardness,  6  to  6*5; 
specific  gravity,  81  to  8*2.  It  has  also  been  called  BrucUe.  Found  in 
granular  limestone  in  the  United  States. 

CHONDROPTERY'GII,  or  CARTILAGINEI,  one  of  two  great 
sections  into  which  the  class  of  f^dies  is  divided. 

In  this  section  we  find  spedes  which  possess,  in  most  respects,  the 
highest  degree  of  organisation,  while  others  possess  the  lowest 
observed  in  the  dass. 

The  principal  character  which  distinguishes  this  section  from  the 
fishes  with  true  bone  (which  usually  come  first  in  arrangement)  is 
the  cartilaginous  substance  of  which  the  bones  are  composed,  a  circnm- 
stance  arising  from  the  very  small  quantity  of  earthy  matter  which 
enters  into  their  compodtion.  This  earthy  matter,  when  observed,  is 
found  to  be  disposed  in  small  granules  and  not  in  distinct  fibres,  as  in 
the  first  section. 

The  cranium  of  these  fishes  is  not  divided  by  true  sutures,  but  is 
formed  of  a  single  piece :  the  maxillary  and  intermaxillary  bones  are 
either  wanting  or  rudimentary,  and  thdr  functions  are  performed  by 
bones  analogous  to  the  palstines,  and  sometimes  the  vomer.  Many  of 
the  vertebrsB  are  often  consolidated.  The  gelatinous  substance, 
which  in  most  fishes  fills  the  intervals  between  the  vertebre  (these 
intervertebrd  masses  being  connected  only  by  a  small  cord),  in  this 
section  frequently  forms  a  thick  cord,  wmch  varies  but  slightly  in 
diameter. 

In  the  Myxine  {Ocutrobranchm  eaxui)  no  distinct  veriebre  are 
perodvable,  &eir  place  being  occupied  by  a  soft  gelatinous  tube.  In 
the  extraordinary  little  fish  described  by  Mr.  Tarrdl  in  his  'Histoiy 
of  British  Fishes,'  the  Lanodet  {Amphioxut  ImeeoUUut),  this  part  is 
BtiU  more  rudimentary,  consisting  only  of  a  dender  transparent 
column.    [Bbanchiobtoma.] 

The  Chondropterygii  are  divided  by  Cuvier  into  two  orders—tnoae 
which  have  their  pUs  free,  as  in  the  generality  of  fishes;  and  those 
in  which  they  are  fixed— that  ia,  the  extemd  edge  attached  totne 
skin.  In  the  former  of  these  oixlers  the  spedes  have  but  one  external 


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CHONDROSEPIA, 


CHRYSI'DIDA 


lOM 


and  in   the  latter  they  bave  seyeral— generally  five. 
These  orders  are  diTided  into  f^unilies  and  genera,  aa  follows : — 

Order  1.  Chondrcpterygii,    With  free  Gills. 
FamOy  1.  Sturianida  (Sturgeons). 
Cfenus  1.  Aecipenser, 
„     2.  Spatulmia, 
Family  2.  CMmeerida. 
Oenns  1.  Chimara, 
Orders.  Chondropteryaii,    With  fixed  Gills. 
Family  1.  SgyuMda  (Sharks,  &c.). 

The  prinoiiMd  genera  are : — 

Zygcma  (Hammer-Headed  Sharks). 
Sqitatina  (Angel-Fish). 
Pritta  (Saw- Jlsh). 
Family  2.  Raiida. 

Principal  genera : — 
Tcyrpedo  (Meotric  Rays). 
Maia  (Skaie-Fish). 
Triffon  (Sting-Rays). 
MylcbaUi  (l^le-Ray). 
Oephaloptera. 
Family  8.  Pteromynda  (Lampreys,  &a). 
Xienns  1.  Ptavmyam, 
„     2.  AmmoeaUM, 
,f      8.  Ocutrobranehut. 
„     4.  Am/phioxut  {Branchiotlama). 
CHONDROSFPIA,  Leackart's  name  for  a  genus  of  Oqpkalapoda, 
the  Sepioteuthis  of  Blainville.    [Sbpiadje.] 
CHONDRUS.    [Alga] 

CHONDRUS,  a  Pulmoniferous  Mollusk.     [Helioida] 
CHORDARIACE^     [Alqa] 
CHOUGH.    [Cobvida] 

CHRISTIANITE,  another  name  for  Anwihite,  [Anobtritb.]  It  has 
also  been  applied  to  a  mineral  allied  to  PhiUippnte,    [PHiLLiFPaiTB.] 
CHRISTMAS-ROSE.    [Hkllbbobus.] 
CHRISTOPHER,  HERlB.    [Aota^] 
CHROMIRON.    [Chbomium.] 
CHRO'MIS,  a  genus  of  Fishes.    [Labbida.] 
CHROMIUM,  a  Metal    It  does  not  occur  pure  in  nature.    The 
fbllowing  are  the  most  important  ores  containing  Chromium  : — 

Chromate  of  Lead.  Red  Lead,  Occurs  massive  and  crystallised. 
Primary  form  of  the  crystal  an  oblique  rhombic  prism.  Colour  deep 
omnge-red.  Lustre  adamantine,  sometimes  translucent,  rarely  trans- 
parent. Specific  gravity,  6.  Hardness,  2*5  to  8.  Brittle;  streak 
orange-yellow.  Cross-fracture  uneven,  passing  into  conchoidal,  with 
a  splendent  lustre.  With  the  blowpipe  it  crackles  and  melts  into  a 
grayish  slag.  Soluble  in  nitric  acid ;  solution  yellow.  Occurs  in  the 
gold  mine  of  Berezof  in  Siberia,  in  the  Ural,  and  Brazil. 
When  pure  it  is  composed  of — 

Chromic  Add 81*71 

Oxide  of  Lead 68*29 


100 


Massive  varieties  amorphous ;  structure  columnar,  granular. 
Subsesquichromate  of   Lead.    MonoehroUe.    Occurs  massive  and 
crystallised.   Form  of  the  crystal  imperfectly  dxcribed.    Colour  red. 
Lustre  resinous ;  translucent  on  the  edges.    Specific  gravity,  5*75 ; 
very  soft    Powder  tile-red. 

Fuses  by  the  blowpipe  into  a  dark  mass.    Occurs  with  Chromate  of 
Lead  in  the  Ural.    It  is  composed  of — 

Chromic  Acid 23*81 

Oxide  of  Lead 76*69 


100 
Chromate  of  Lead  and  Copper.  Vauqudinite,  Occurs  massive 
and  in  minute  crystals.  Primary  form  an  oblique  rhombic  prism. 
Colour  black  or  greenish-black.  Lustre  adamantine,  nearly  opac^ue. 
Specific  gravity,  5*5  to  5*78.  Hardness,  2*5  to  8.  Streak  greenish. 
Fracture  uneven. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  fuses  into  a  dark  gray  globule  of  metallic 
lustre,  surrounded  with  beads  of  metallic  lead. 

The  massive    varieties   are    amorphous,    botryoidal,     reniform. 
Structure  compact,  fine  granular. 

Found  with  Chromate  of  Lead  in  Siberia. 
Composed  of,  according  to  Berzelius, — 

Chromic  Add 28*33 

Oxide  of  Lead 60*87 

Oxide  of  Copper 10*8 

100 
Chromate  of  Iron.  Chnmiron,  Occurs  massive  and  crystallised. 
Crystal  the  regular  octahedron.  Colour  blackish;  lustre  imperfect 
metallic ;  opaque.  Hardness,  5'5 ;  brittle.  Spedfic  gravity,  4*321. 
Streak  brown.  Fractuze  uneven,  imperfect  conchoidal.  Not  attracted 
by  the  magnet    Cleaves  parallel  to  all  its  planes. 

HAT.   HIST.  Diy.  VOL.  I. 


Analysis  of  the  crystals  from  Baltimore,  by  Dr.  Thomson : — 

Green  Oxide  of  Chromium  .    .  52*95 

Peroxide  qf  Iron 29*24 

Alumina 12*22 

White  matter 809 

Water 0*70 

A  trace  of  Silica 


98*20 


The  massive  is  amorphous,  with  a  granular  or  compact  structureu 
It  is  found  in  the  island  of  Unst,  in  Scotland,  and  sometimes  inter- 
spersc»d  with  green  oxide:  it  occurs  also  in  France  and  in  North 
Ameiica,  especially  near  Baltimore.  Oxide  of  Chromium  has  been 
observed  in  some  aerolites. 

CHRYSALIS.    P>upa;  Insect.] 

CHRYSANTHEMUM,  a  genus  of  plsnts  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  CompoiUm  and  the  sub-order  ChrymhiferoB  or  AaUraoetB.  This 
genus  is  known  by  the  receptade  being  without  scales,  the  heads  of 
flowers  heterogamous,  the  flowers  of  the  rav  containing  pistils  and 
those  of  the  disc  both  stamens  and  pistils;  the  involucre  hemi- 
spherical ;  the  fruit  terete,  without  wings,  no  pappus ;  the  flowers  of 
the  ray  li^^te,  those  of  the  disc  tubular.  The  species  ai«  very 
numerous  m  the  temperate  parts  of  the  earth. 

C.  Sinerue  is  most  extensively  cultivated  in  our  gardens.  [Chbtb- 
ahthbmum,  in  Abtb  and  Sa  Diy.] 

There  are  two  British  species : — 

C.  leticafUhemum,  Ox-Eye  or  Ox-Eye  DaiiEnr.  It  is  very  common  in 
our  fidds,  and  is  known  by  the  laige  white  ugulate  flowers  of  the  ray, 
and  the  yellow  tubular  ones  of  the  disc. 

C,  Segeivm,  the  Corn-Marigold.  It  is  common  in  com-flelds,  and  is 
easily  distinguished  firom  the  last  species  by  the  flowers  of  the  ray 
being  yellow  instead  of  white. 

CHRY'SAOR,  one  of  the  nimierous  genera  into  which  De  Montfort 
<fivided  the  Bdenmites. 

CHRYSA'ORA.    [Acalephjb.1 

CHRYSIDID^,  a  family  of  Hymenopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
PupivcrcL  Distinguishing  characters : — No  nervures  to  the  under 
wings ;  terminal  segments  of  the  abdomen  forming  a  jointed  retractile 
ovipodtor ;  abdomen  of  the  females  with  only  three  or  four  distinct 
segmente,  concave  or  flat  beneath ;  antennae  13-jointed  in  both  sexes^ 
and  ^niculated ;  mandibles  dender,  curved,  and  pointed ;  maxillary 
palpi  filiform,  generally  longer  than  the  labid  palpi,  and  5-jointed ; 
the  labial  palpi  are  generally  8-jointed. 

The  Chryaidida  are  most  of  them,  if  not  all,  of  paradtic  habits, 
that  is  to  say,  they  seek  the  nests  of  other  insects  where  they  depodt 
their  eggs  to  the  destruction  of  the  rightful  owners ;  each  spedes  of 
this  family  apparently  confining  its  attacks  to  the  nest  of  some  other 
hymenopterous  insect,  and  generally  sdecting  those  of  the  same 
species.  They  are  all  of  brilliant  colouring,  very  active,  and  fiy  about 
in  the  sunshine ;  some  are  seen  upon  fiowers,  and  most  of  them  upon 
old  walls,  palings,  and  sand-banks.  Some  of  these  spedes  are  called 
Ruby-Tail  Flies. 

dryaii  ignita  will  afford  a  good  illustration  of  this  family.  This 
insect  is  rather  less  than  half  an  inch  in  length,  has  the  head,  thorax, 
and  legs  of  a  rich  blue  or  green  colour,  and  the  abdomen  of  a  burnished 
golden-copper  hue;  this  part  is  truncated  at  the  apex,  and  furnished 
with  four  utUe  spines. 

It  will  be  perodved  that  the  above  is  a  description  of  a  little  four- 
winged  fly,  which  so  often  attracts  our  notice  from  its  brilliant 
colouring,  and  is  so  common  on  our  garden  walls  when  the  sun  is  on 
them.  This  little  insect  is  in  constant  motion,  for  if  it  ceases 
running  or  flying  for  a  moment  its  little  horns  still  keep  up  thdr 
vibratoiy  motion.  If  we  watch  one  of  these  insects  for  a  short  time, 
we  perceive  that  it  thrusts  its  head  into  eveiy  little  hole  in  the  brick- 
work ;  it  is  then  searching  after  the  nest  of  a  wasp-like  insect  whidi 
builds  in  these  situations. 

The  prindpal  genera  comprised  in  the  family  CkryaididcB  are 
Panorpes,  ChryaU,  StUbvm,  Ifedicnm,  JBlampvi,  and  Cleptea,  An 
account  of  the  habits  of  one  of  the  spedes  of  Panorpa  is  given 
under  the  head  Bbmbbx,  where  the  habits  of  B,  rottrata  are  given, 
that  being  the  spedes  whose  nests  are  subject  to  the  attacks  of  the 
Panorpea  which  we  are  about  to  describe. 

The  genus  Panorpea  is  distinguished  from  the  other  genera  above 
mentioned  prindpally  by  the  elongated  maxilla  and  labium,  which 
appear  like  a  proboeciB,  and  the  palpi  being  very  small  and  two- 
jointed.  P.  camea  is  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  condderably 
broader  than  the  Chryaia  ignUa  (above  described) ;  the  head,  thorax, 
and  base  of  the  abdomen  are  of  a  blue-green  colour ;  the  remainder 
of  the  abdomen  and  the  legs  (with  the  exception  of  the  thighs,  which 
are  blue)  are  of  a  reddish-yellow  colour.  It  is  fbund  in  variouB  parts 
of  Europe. 

The  characters  of  the  genus  Ckryaia  are  i-^MaxiBaiy  palpi 
5-jointed,  and  longer  than  the  labial;  labial  palpi  8-jointed;  thorax 
not  narrowed  in  front ;  labium  rounded.  About  six  or  seven  species 
of  this  genus  are  natives  of  England.  O,  bidentata  is  rather  less  than 
O.  tgnitOf  and  differs  from  that  spedes  in  having  the  thorax  as  weU 
as  uie  abdomen  of  a  rich  copper-like  hu^  :  the  latter  however  has  the 
apex  blue.    C  cyanea  is  entirely  of  a  blue  colour. 


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CHRYSOBALANACEiE. 


CHRYSOCHLORia 


lOGO 


CHRYSOBALANA'CE^,  Cfirysohalans,  a  natural  order  of  Poly- 
petalous  Exogenous  Plants,  allied  to  Fotaeea  and  Fabaeea  {Legumi- 
noKK),  from  which  it  differq  in  the  style  proceeding  from  the  base  of 
the  ovary,  and  in  its  stamens  being  very  irregular,  often  placed  only 
on  one  side  of  the  ovary.  Thw  are  trees  or  shrubs,  with  alternate 
stipulate  simple  leaves,  and  flowers  in  loose  racemes,  corymbs,  or 
panicles.  Many  species  have  no  petals.  They  are  exclusively  natives 
of  the  tropics,  where  they  often  bear 'the  name  of  plums.  The  gray 
or  rough-skinned  plums  of  Sierra-Leone  are  produced  by  species  of 
Parinariumf  and  the  Callimato,  or  Cocoa-Plum  of  the  West  Indies 
belongs  to  Chrysobalanut  Icaco.  [Chrtsobalawxjs.]  The  drapes  of 
Moquilla  grcmdifiora  are  edible.  The  order  contains  11  genera 
and  50  species. 

CHRYS06ALANUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Chrysobalanacea.  It  has  a  campanulate  5-cleft  calyx.  Petals  5, 
unguiculate.  Stamens  about  20,  nearly  equal  in  length,  disposed 
in  one  series.  Drupe  fleshy,  plum-formed,  containing  an  ovate 
5-funx)wed  l-seeded  nut.  Trees  with  simple  leaves,  and  racemes  or 
panicles  of  insignificant  flowers.     The  fruit  of  all  the  species  is  edible. 

C.  Icaco,  Cocoa-Plum,  has  nearly  orbicular  or  obovate  leaves,  emar- 
ginate ;  racemes  axillary,  dichotomous ;  stamens  hair^.  It  is  a  native 
of  South  America  and  the  We^t  Indies,  by  the  sea-side,  as  well  as  of 
the  southern  parts  of  North  America.  The  flowers  are  whits.  The 
fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  plum,  ovate,  roundish,  varying  much  in 
colour,  white,  yellow,  red,  but  most  commonly  purple,  and  usually 
covered  with  a  sort  of  bloom.  The  skin  is  thin  and  the  pulp  white ;  the 
taste  sweet)  with  some  sharpness,  but  not  unpleasant.  It  is  eaten  both 
raw  and  preserved.    The  root,  bark,  and  leaves  are  used  in  medicine. 


p 


Cocoa.Plum  {(^rysobalanus  leaco). 
a,  Flowers  in  difTerent  stages  of  development ;    5,  vertical  section  of  the 
flower ;  c,  stamen ;  d,  vertical  section  of  the  pistil,  showing  the  ovules  in  the 
base  of  the  ovary ;  «,  horizontal  section  of  fruit,  showing  the  inclosed  nut ; 
/,  transverse  section  of  nut ;  g,  a  cotyledon,  with  the  plumule  at  its  base. 

C.  dlipticut,  Elliptic-Leaved  Cooon-Plum,  has  elliptic  leaves,  obtuse 
or  acute,  never  emai^ginate ;  racemes  axillaiy,  dichotomous ;  stamens 
hairy.  It  is  a  native  of  Sierra-Leone  on  the  sea-side.  The  fruit  is 
about  the  size  of  a  damson,  and  like  the  other  epecies  is  eatable. 

The  other  species  are — C.  oblongifoliiu,  Oblong-Leaved  Cocoa- 
Plum,  native  of  Brazil ;  (7.  ovalifoliiu,  Oval-Leaved  Cocoa-Plum,  a 
shrub,  native  of  Brazil ;  and  C.  macrophyllut,  Lai^&-Leaved  Cocoa- 
Plum,  also  a  native  of  BraziL 

The  species  thrive  best  in  sandy  loam.  The  best  mode  of  increasing 
the  plants  is  by  seeds,  when  they  can  be  procured. 

CHRYS06EBYL,  a  Mineral  called  Oymophane  by  Haiiy.  It  occurs 
massive  and  crystallised.  Primary  form,  a  right  rhombic  prism.  Its 
oolonr  is  green,  aometimsa  with  a  yellow  or  brown  tinge,  with  occa- 


sionally a  blue  opalescence.  Streak  white.  Lustre  vitreous.  It  is 
translucent  or  transparent.  Specific  gravity  about  8*8.  Hardness,  8*5. 
Fracture  conchoidaL  Before  the  blowpipe  it  suffers  no  change  alone; 
with  borax  it  fuses  into  a  transparent  glass. 

The  massive  variety  occurs  in  rounded  pieces. 

It'is  found  in  BrazU,  and  in  Connecticut,  North  America. 

Seybert  first  found  that  it  contained  glucina.  The  following  are 
his  and  Dr.  Thomson's  analyses : — 


Seybert. 

Alumina             . 

.    73*60 

Glucina . 

15*80 

Silica 

4 

Protoxide  of  Iron  . 

8*38 

Oxide  of  Titanium 

1 

Moisture 

0'40 

Thomson. 

76752 

Gluoina                .    . 

17*791 

Protoxide  of  Iron 

4i9i 

VoUitile  matter    .    . 

0*480 

99*517 


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CHRYSOCHLO'RA,  a  genus  of  Dipterous  InsecU  belonging  to  the 
family  Straliomydet,  Characters : — Body  elongated  ;  antennae  with 
the  basal  joint  short,  the  third  long,  conical,  and  compressed  ;  stylet 
terminal,  elongated;  third  posterior  nervure  of  the  wings  not 
reaching  the  hinder  margin. 

C.  amethyttina  is  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length ;  the 
head  and  antennas  are  black ;  there  is  a  white  spot  at  the  base  of  each 
antenna;  the  thorax  and  abdomen  are  of  a  violet-blue  colour,  the 
latter  has  a  vellow  spot  on  each  side  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
segments ;  the  legs  are  black. 

It  inhabits  the  island  of  Mauritius  and  the  East  Indies. 

CHRYSOCHLOHIS  (Lac^pMe),  a  genus  of  animals  belongiiig  to 
the  class  Mammalia,  and  allied  to  the  Moles  {Talpa),  but  differing  from 
them  in  their  dentition  and  in  other  particulars.    Dental  formula  : — 


2  O A 

Incisors,  - ;  canines,  0 ;  molars, 

A  8 — 8 


40.     The  true  molars  are 


long,  distinct^  and  nearly  all  in  the  shape  of  triangular  prisms. 

The  muzzle  is  short,  wide,  and  reflected.  There  is  no  external  ear, 
nor  any  appearance  of  the  eye  externally.  The  fore  feet  have  three 
claws  only;  the  exterior  claw  is  very  large,  arched,  and  pointed, 
forming  a  powerful  instrument  for  penetrating  and  digging  the  earth ; 
the  other  two  diminish  gradually.  The  hind  feet  are  fiinxidied  with 
five  claws  of  ordinary  size.  The  fore-arm  is  supported  by  a  third 
bone  placed  imder  the  ulna  to  strengthen  it  when  the  animal  is 
employed  in  excavation.  The  body  is  thick  and  short  The  hair,  or 
rather  fur,  which  is  thick  set,  has  a  metallic  lustre. 

C.  Capensit,  Desmarest ;  Taupe  Dor^e  of  the  French ;  Talpa  Anatica 
of  Linnaeus ;  C.  viUota  of  A.  Smith.    Hair  brown,  presenting  in  certain 


ChrfioeJilaru  Oaperuu, 
a,  the  animal  on  its  feet ;  b,  the  same  tamed  np  to  show  the  claws,  kt. 

lights  very  brilliant  changeable  (preen,  bronse,  and  coroery  tints. 
Cuvier  says  that  it  is  the  only  quadruped  whose  covenng  refleda 
those  metallic  tints  which  render  so  many  birds,  fishes,  and  insects 
brilliant.    There  is  no  apparent  taiL 


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CHRYSOCOLLA. 


CHRYSOPHYLLUM. 


loa 


This  oreature  inhabits  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope,  where  it  is  said  to 
live  much  in  the  same  way  aa  the  mole,  and  to  prey  like  it  upon 
worms,  &c. 

O.  holotericUi,  the  Changeable  Mole,*  is  a  species  also  found  at  the 
Cape. 

CHBYSOCCyLLA  (from  xp^vhs,  gold,  and  K({AXa,  glue),  is  a  name 
which  the  Qreeks  appear  to  have  applied  to  Borax,  perhaps  from  its 
useaa  a  flux  in  melting  gold. 

CHBYSOCODCA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  orJer 
Compontce,    C.  Liaiioiyrii,  a  British  plant^  is  now  referred  to  LinoByris. 

[LiNOBTRIB.] 

CHRY'SODON  (Oken),  a  name  given  to  the  Fectinaire$  of 
Lamarck,  the  Amphictdnes  of  Satigny,  and  the  Oiittnei  of  Dr.  Leach, 
forming  a  part  of  the  genus  AmphUrite  of  Cuvier.     [AmiXLiDA.] 

CHRYSOGA'STER,  a  genus  of  Dipterous  Insects  of  the  family 
Syrphidce.  Characters : — ^Body  much  depressed ;  no  false  nervures  to 
the  wings ;  third  joint  of  the  antennso  oval  or  orbicular. 

About  fourteen  species  of  this  genus  haye  been  discovered  in  Eng- 
land ;  they  are  all  of  moderate  size,  and  their  colouring  is  metallic. 
C.  tplendens  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  in  length;  the  head  is 
green ;  autennss  yellow  ;  thorax  golden-green ;  abdomen  purple- 
black,  greenish  towards  the  sides ;  the  legs  are  black ;  wings  brownish. 
This  and  all  the  other  species  recorded  aa  British  have  b^  found  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  London. 

CHRYSOLITE,  a  Mineral  called  Peridot  by  Hauy.  aivine  is  a 
variety  of  this  mineral,  and  Ohurite  also,  according  to  Dr.  Thomson. 

It  occurs  massive  and  crystallised.  Primary  form  a  right  rhombic 
prism.  Colour  green,  sometimes  brownish  or  yellowish ;  streak  white. 
Lustre  vitreous,  translucent^  transparent,  double  refracting.  Specific 
gravity,  3*33  to  3'41.    Hardness,  6*5  to  7.    Fracture  oonohoidaL 

The  massive  varieties  are  amorphous,  granular. 

The  Chrysolite  used  in  jewellery  is  brought  from  the  Levant^  and 
is  supposed  to  be  found  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  variety  on  account  of 
its  colour  called  Olivine,  occurs  in  basalt  in  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.    The  following  are  analyses  : — 

Klaproth.  Yanquelin. 

Silica 89  88 

Magnesia 43*5  50'5 

Protoxide  of  Iron    ...     19  9'5 


101-5  980 

Some  varieties  contain  small  portions  of  alumina  and  of  the  oxides 
of  nickel  and  manganese.  It  does  not  fuse  or  lose  its  transparency 
before  the  blow-pipe.  With  borax  it  fuses  into  a  coloured  glass,  and 
with  soda  into  a  brown  scoria. 

CHRYSOMEXIDuS:,  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the 
section  OyclicA  Charaicters : — ^Aiitennse  wide  apart  at  the  base,  and 
inserted  before  the  eyes;  body  generally  short  and  convex;  tarsi 
short  and  rather  broad,  4-jointed,  the  penultimate  joint  bilobed ;  all 
the  joints,  excepting  the  terminal  joint,  covered  beneath  with  a  velvet- 
like substance. 

The  Chrytomdida  constitujte  a  very  numerous  and  beautiful  family 
of  the  Beetle  Tribe :  they  are  general^  of  moderate  size^  and  fre- 
quently veiy  brilliant  in  colouring. 

Between  seventy  and  eighty  species  have  been  discovered  in  England, 
and  the  number  of  species  contained  in  collections  from  various  parts 
of  the  world  may  probablv  amount  to  four  or  five  hundred. 

This  group  may  be  divided  into  two  sections :  those  in  which  the 
head  is  hidden  beneath  the  thorax,  and  the  body  is  frequently  some- 
what cyliikdrical;  and  those,  in  which  the  head  projects  from  the 
thorax  so  as  to  be  distinctly  seen  when  the  insect  is  viewed  from 
above,  and  where  the  bddy  is  generally  roimded,  or  oval,  and  convex. 

The  first  of  these  sections  may  agyun  be  readily  subdivided  accord- 
ing to  the  proportions  of  the  antenns.  In  some  the  <tniAnnm  are 
short,  and  more  or  less  serrated;  here  belong  the  genera  Clythra, 
Lamprotoma,  and  Chlamyt,  The  spedea  of  this  last  genus  are  among 
the  most  remarkable  of  Coleopterous  Insects.  They  are  of  smaU  siae, 
the  largest  being  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  the  thorax  and 
elytra  are  genendly  veiy  uneven,  and  studded  with  numerous  angular 
projections.  This  circumstance,  together  with  the  extremely  brilliant 
colouring  with  which  they  are  adorned,  has  caused  them  to.  be  com- 
pared to  pieces  of  minerals;  indeed,  one  which  Is  now  before  us,  and 
which  is  of  a  beautiful  red  hue,  we  have  known  to  be  mistaken  at 
first  sight  for  a  piece  of  copper-ore.  Most  of  the  speciesof  ChlamyB 
inhabit  Brazil,  and  none  are  found  out  of  the  western,  hemisphere. 
The  generic  oharaoten  are: — Head  vertical;  thorax  humped;  the 
posterior  maigin  produced  in  the  region  of  the  seutellum ;  body  some- 
what oube-fonned ;  antennas  with  the  basal  joint  rather  long,  the 
second  very  small ;  the  remaining  joints  dilated,  and  more  or  less 
■eixated;  Ubial  palpi  sometimes  foiked. 

The  remainder  of  the  Ohrysomdidof  of  the  first  section  have  the 
antenncD  long  and  slender.  The  genera  are  OryptoetphaUu,  Choragus, 
Euryope,9ad  Sumolpm, 

The  second  section,  or  those  in  which  the  head  b  apparent  when 
the  insect  is  viewed  fi:t)m  above,  comprisea  the  genera  OoUupit,  Podon' 
Ha,  PhyUo€harii,  Ihryphora,  OyrtowuB,  Paroptiit  Apaauea,  TioMrcka, 
C^rytomela,  Phadon,  and  Prtuocwrii, 

The  genus  to  which  the  name  Chrysomtla  is  now  restrictedi  is 


principally  distinguished  by  the  following  characters: — Maxillary 
palpi  with  the  terminal  joint  as  large  or  larger  than  the  preceding 
one,  and  of  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone,  or  nearly  oval ;  the  elytra 
are  separate,  that  is,  not  joined  at  the  suture ;  no  sternal  projection. 

Upwards  of  forty  species  of  this  genus  have  been  discovared  in 
England. 

C  Bankni  is  one  of  the  laigest  species  of  the  genus :  it  is  rather 
less  than  half  an  indi  in  length,  and  of  a  brown  colour  with  a  metallic 
luatro ;  the  thorax  has  an  indentation  running  parallel  with  and  dose 
to  the  lateral  margins ;  the  elytra  are  coarsely  punctured ;  the  legp 
and  antennse  are  odire-colourod.  It  is  found  on  nettles  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  London  and  elsewhero,  but  is  rather  local  C  MCMguMUh 
lenta  is  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a  dull  blue- 
black  colour ;  the  elytra  are  rather  rough.  C.  Cframinis  is  about  the 
same  size  as  the  last,  and  of  a  bright-green  colour;  this  spedes  is 
abundant  in  various  parts  of  Cambridgeshire.  C.  poUta  is  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  very  glossy ;  the  head,  thorax,  and 
legs  are  green,  and  the  elytra  are  of  a  reddish-ochre  colour.  This 
spedes  is  very  common  in  marshv  situations.  C.  eereaHs  is  about  the 
same  size  as  u  saoiguinoUntct,  This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  spe> 
des  of  the  genus.  It  is  tolerably  common  in  France  and  Qermany^ 
but  till,  found  on  the  simimit  of  Snowdon  (about  twenty  years  ago), 
was  scarcely  known  as  a  British  insect  It  is  veny  glossy ;  the  1^, 
antennse,  and  under  parts  aro  blue;  the  elytra  are  adorned  with 
longitudinal  stripes  of  blue,  green,  and  red ;  and  the  same  colours 
are  observed  on  tne  head  and  thorax.  C.  QoeitingentU  is  of  a  purple 
colour,  and  the  elytra  aro  very  finely  punctured.  This  spedes  is  very 
common  in  chalk  districts.     [Cycliga.] 

CHRYSOTHILA,  a  genus  of  Dipterous  Insects.    [LsFrmm.] 

CHRYSOTHORA,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
LomtUioomia  and  £uqiu1^  XytopkUi,  The  principal  generic  characters 
consist  in  the  immense  siee  of  the  hind  logs  of  the  males.  The  sternum 
is  produced  into  A  somewhat  pointed  process  between  the  second  pair 
of  legs ;  the  posterior  thixh  of  the  male  is  very  thick ;  the  tibisd  are 
curved,  and  produced  at  the  i4)ex  internally  into  a  long  bent  process; 
the  hind  legs  of  the  female  aro  thick,  but  comparativdy  short,  and 
the  hinder  tibi»  aro  abruptly  terminated ;  the  outer  daws  of  all  the 
tard  aro  larger  (in  both  sexes)  than  the  inner ;  they  differ  in  the  male, 
however,  in  being  broader  than  in  the  female,  and  those  of  the  ante- 
rior pair  of  legs  are  bifid ;  their  outer  daws  are  very  long,  and  the 
insect  has  the  power  of  bending  them  under  so  as  to  fix  their  points 
beneath  a  projection  of  the  fourth  joint  of  the  tarsus :  they  aro  pro- 
bably used  for  clinging  to  the  slender  branches  or  leaves  of  trees. 

But  one  species  of  "Uiis  genus  is  known — C,  chryaocklora.  It  is  of  a 
rich  metidlic  green  colour ;  ^e  head,  thorax,  and  scutdlum  aro  sha- 
greened ;  the  elytra  aro  rugose  throughout ;  the  tibia  of  the  hind  leg 
is  of  a  brassy  or  copper-like  colour ;  all  the  term  aro  blue-black.  The 
length  of  the  hind  leg  of  the  male  exceeds  that  of  the  body,  which  is 
about  one  inch  and  a  half;  the  female  is  rather  less.  Thia  beautiful 
insect  inhabits  V enesuela. 

CHRYSOPHRYS,  a  genua  of  Acanthopteiygioua  Fishes  bdonging 
to  the  family  Sparideg.  The  body  is  deep,  compressed ;  dorsal  fin 
single,  the  rays  partly  spinous,  the  posterior  rays  flexihle ;  teeth  of  two 
YindB,  six  incisors  in  each  jaw,  conical,  with  rounded  and  oval  molar 
teeth  in  four  rows  above  and  three  rows  bdow ;  cheeks  and  operculum 
with  scales;  branohioBt^ous  rays  six. 

C.  aurata,  Qilt-Head,  is  one  of  the  fishes  most  abundant  in  the 
Mediterranean.  From  Gibraltar  it  is  found  as  far  south  as  the  Cape 
of  Gk>od  Hope^  and  northward  along  the  coast  of  Franoe  and  Spaui. 
It  has  been  recently  taken  on  the  British  ooasta.  These  fishes  wero 
so  called  by  the  Greeks  on  account  of  their  golden-coloured  eye- 
brows. They  are  said  to  spawn  in  the  summer :  their  food  consirts 
of  molluscous  and  testaceous  animals.  The  Gilt-Head  has  peculiar* 
rounded  teeth.  The  body  is  deepest  at  the  commencement  of  the 
dorsal  fin.  The  head  short  and  elevated;  the  back  silvery  gray, 
shaded  with  blue ;  the  belly  like  polished  sted,  with  longitudinal 
gold-coloured  bands  on  the  ddes ;  the  fins  aro  a  grayish-blue ;  the  tail 
darker;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  appear  as  if  placed  in  grooves  from 
the  rising  edges  of  the  scales  on  each  ddc  Tins  •fish  seldom  exceeds 
12  indies  in  length. 

CHRYSOPHYL'LUM,  a  genus  of  Plants  bdongmg  to  the  natural 
order  Sapotacece.  C,  Cainito  vields  a  West  Indian  fruit  commonly 
called  the  Star-Apple.  Like  the  rest  of  ita  kindred  it  abounds  in  a 
sweet  harmleaa  nu&y  juice,  that  flows  most  oopioudy  when  the  tree 
is  beginning  to  maturo  its  fruit,  which  grows  on  a  moderatdy-aiced 
spreading  tree  with  very  dender  flexible  branohea.  The  leaves  aro 
dark-green  on  their  upper  surface,  and  aro  covered  beneath  with  a 
remarkably  satiny  ferruginous  pubescence.  The  flowers  grow  in 
small  purplidi  bunches,  and  aro  succeeded,  by  a  round  fleshy  smooth 
fruit,  resembling  a  large  apple.  In  the  indde  it  is  divided  into  ten 
oella,  eadi  oontaming  a  black  ahining  rhomboidal  seed,  and  surrounded 
by  a  white^  or  aometimea  purplish,  gdatinous  pulp,  traversed  with 
milky  veins,  and  of  a  very  sweet  agreeable  flavour.  In  an  unripe 
state  the  taate  is  add  to  be  astringent  and  unpleasant  When  cut 
across,  the  seeds,  which  are  regularly  disposed  round  the  axis  of  the 
fruit,  preaent  a  stellate  figure,  from  whence  the  name  of  Star-Apple  ia 
derived.  Thero  la  a  smaller  spedes^  which  producea  the  firuit  called 
the  Damson-Plum.    The  tree  is  common  in  the  hot-houses  about 


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CHRYSOPLENIUM. 


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London,  and  is  well  represented  in  a  froii-bearing  gtate  in  Sloaae's 
'Jamaica,' plate  229. 

CHRTSOPLE'NIUM,  a  genua  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Saanfrogacta,  It  has  a  4-fid  half-superior  calyz,  no  corolla,  8 
stamens  (rarely  10),  2  b^I^i  a  1-celled  capsule  with  two  beaks  opening 
in  the  form  of  a  cup.  There  are  two  species  oi  this  genus  found  in 
Great  Britain,  and  known  under  the  name  of  Golden  Saxifrage.  One 
is  O,  altemifdiwn,  and  is  characterised  by  alternate  leayes.  It  has  an 
erect  stem  4  or  5  inches  high,  with  umbellate,  nearly  sessile,  deep 
yellow  flowers.  It  is  a  native  of  boggy  places.  C.  oppositifoliwn  has 
opposite  leaves.  The  stem  is  decumbent  and  straggling,  about  6 
inoiies  long.  The  flowers  are  paler  and  more  scattered  ^an  in  the 
last  species.  The  leaves  are  usually  glabrous,  but  sometin^  they  are 
slightly  hairy.  It  is  a  native  of  diuup  shady  places.  (Babington, 
Man^ual  ofBritith  Botany.) 

CHRTSOPRASE.    [Aoatb.] 

CHRY^OPS,  a  genus  of  Dipterous  Insects  of  the  family  Tabanidcg, 
Characters : — Head  hemispherical ;  antennsB  elongated,  second  joint 
nearly  as  long  as  the  first,  both  covered  with  fine  hairs ;  third  joint 

aual  in  length  to  the  first  and  second  taken  together,  and  having  five 
ise  joints  or  divisions;  eyes  of  a  golden  green  colour,  with  purple 
lines  or  spots. 

Upwards  of  thirty  species  of  this  genus  have  been  discovered. 

C,  eacutient  is  a  British  form.  It  is  rather  larger  than  the  common 
house-fly,  the  expanded  wings  measuring  about  two-thirds  of  an  inch. 
It  is  bla(^ ;  the  male  has  a  yellow  spot  on  each  side  of  the  first  seg- 
ment of  the  abdomen ;  the  female,  in  addition  to  these  spots,  has  the 
second  segment  ydlow,  with  two  diverging  black  lines  in  the  middle; 
the  wings  are  whitish ;  the  anterior  bonier  is  broadly  margined  with 
black,  and  Uiere  is  a  broad  black  band  near  the  middle  :  the  wings  of 
the  male  are  nearly  all  black. 

Most  persons  undoubtedly  have  been  troubled  more  or  less  with 
the  insect  above  described  when  walking  in  the  oountiy,  especially  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  water.  Three  or  four  will  sometimes  setUe  on 
Ufl  at  the  same  time,  and  if  on  the  arm  their  presence  is  soon  discovered 
by  a  sharp  prick,  caused  by  their  thrusting  the  proboscis  through  the 
sleeve ;  the  bite  however  is  not  venomous,  and  for  the  slight  pain 
caused  by  it  we  are  repaid  by  a  sight  of  the  little  insect.  Nothing  can 
be  more  beautiful  thim  its  large  eyes,  which  seem  to  reflect  all  the 
colours  of  the  rainbow :  they  may  be  described  as  green  with  purple 
spots,  but  the  green  varies  to  golden  and  red  hues  in  certain  lights. 
When  it  first  settles,  ^is  fly  is  not  easily  caught,  but  it  soon  becomes 
so  engaged  in  its  occupation  that  it  may  almost  be  touched  before  it 
will  move. 

CHUB.    [Lbuoiscus.] 

CHUSITE,  a  liineral  found  by  Saussure  in  the  porphyritic  rooks 
near  Limbourg.  It  occurs  massive,  granular,  translucent^  and  of  a 
greasy  lustre.    Dr.  Thomson  refers  it  to  ChrviolUe. 

CHU8SAL0NGA.    [Muiania.] 

CHYDORUS,  a  genus  of  Entomoetracous  Omttacea  belonging  to 
the  section  Brcmchiopoda,  the  order  Cladocerctf  and  the  family 
Lyneeida,  The  species  are  nearly  spherical  in  diape ;  the  beak  is 
very  long  and  sharp,  curved  downwards  almost  into  the  shape  of  a 
crescent ;  the  inferior  antennsd  are  very  short  There  are  two  Britiah 
species — 

C,  tpharicWt  Baird  {Lynceut  tph€Bricu9,  Miiller ;  MonociUut  gphcericutf 
Gmelm ;  Chydonu  MnUeri,  Leach).  It  is  very  common  in  ponds  and 
ditches  all  the  year  round.  It  has  a  round  smooth  shell,  of  an  olive- 
green  colour,  sUghtly  ciliated  on  the  anterior  maigin.  Through  this 
shell  can  be  seen  its  convoluted  intestine.  The  eye  is  areolar,  and  the 
black  spot  accompanying  it  large.  It  rather  rolls  than  swims  through 
the  water. 

C.  gldbomu,  Baird,  has  a  more  globular  shell,  and  is  six  times  larger 
than  the  last.  The  shell  is  of  a  reddish  hue,  and  has  a  large  irrc^gmar 
dark  band  running  across  the  centre  of  ihe  shelL  It  is  not  so  common 
as  the  last  species. 

CHYLE  (xvA^f),  the  product  of  digestion  formed  by  the  action  of 
the  pancreatic  juice  and  the  bile  on  the  chyme  in  the  duodenum. 
[DiGSsnov.] 

CHYME  (xvA^f )f  the  product  of  digestion  formed  by  the  action  of 
the  stomach  on  the  food.    [Digestion.] 

CICADARL^.      [HOMOFTEBA.] 

CICADEIjLA,  Latreille  (Cercopidat  Leach),  a  fiunily  of  Insects  of 
the  order  Symenoptera  and  section  OicadaricB.  Thia  family  is  syn- 
onymous ¥rith  the  Cficada  Banatra  of  Tiinnawis.  The  species  may  be 
diatingniished  from  those  of  allied  groups  by  their  having  the  antennsB 
situated  between  the  eyes.  These  insects  are  generally  small,  and  leap 
by  means  of  their  hind  legs.  The  genera  may  be  arranged  under  two 
heads  or  sections. 

1.  In  the  first  section  the  head  is  hidden  by  the  pro-thorax,  which 
is  always  veiy  laige,  generally  much  humped,  and  has  the  posterior 
portion  produced  over  the  abdomen,  sometimes  so  as  to  completely 
cover  that  part,  or  even  extend  beyond  its  apex ;  the  antenn»  are 
very  small,  and  inserted  in  a  cavity  on  the  head.  To  this  section 
belong  the  genera  Membraci*,  Tragopiif  Damis,  Bocydnm,  and 
Centroiut. 

There  are  perhaps  no  insects  more  remarkable  in  structure,  and 
whose  appearance  is  more  grotesque,  than  most  of  the  spedes  of  this 


group.  Their  peculiarity  arises  from  the  great  development  of  the 
pro-tnorax :  this  part  is  sometimes  so  large  as  greatly  to  exceed  in 
sise  all  the  other  parts  taken  together.  We  have  selected  for  illus- 
tration two  species  of  the  genus  B<tqfdiwn,  as  being  the  moet 
remarkable ;  one  of  these  is  the  Bocydwm  tUuUmaJbvHfervm,  In  this 
species  the  thorax  is  black  and  glossy ;  the  posterior  part  is  elongated 

and  pointed,  and 
&om  the  disc 
there  arises  a  ver- 
tical appendage, 
the  summit  of 
which  bears  four 
slender  horizontal 
stalks,  each  of 
which  is  furnished 
with  a  little  round 
black  spherical 
body:  these  little 
globes  are  covered 
with  fine  hairs ; 
the  abdomen  is 
reddish,  and  the 
wings  are  varie- 
gat^  with  the 
same  colour. 

The  other  spe- 
cies is  the  Bocydi- 
umgcUerUum.  This 
species,  as  well  as 
the  one  just  de- 
scribed, inhabits 
Brazil ;    the    pro- 

ik» -i  thorax  is  of  a  dark 

reddish-brown  co- 

Kig.  1.  Boepdium  galerUum,    a,  Natural  length.  ^^^i  the  posterior 

Fig.  2.  Soeyditm  tinUtmabuliftrtm,    b,  Natural  length,   pu^  is  elongated; 

the  disc  is  elevated 
into  a  process  which  is  at  first  compressed,  but  at  the  summit  becomes 
dilated  into  a  broad  angular  mass,  and  throws  out  a  flattened  portion, 
which  suddenly  bends  downwards  towards  the  body,  and  then  runs 
parallel  with  it  The  wings  are  transparent^  with  the  exception  of 
the  basal  and  apical  portion  of  the  upper  ones.  The  principal  dis- 
tinguishing characten  of  the  genus  Bocydium  consist  m  the  elytra 
being  wholly  or  partially  exposed,  that  is,  not  covered  by  the  pro- 
thorax  ;  and  the  posterior  prolongation  of  the  pro-thorax  narrowed 
and  pointed. 

Of  the  genus  Centrohu  two  species  are  found  in  England;  the 
more  common  species  is  OentrotUB  corwiU^u,  This  little  insect  is 
found  on  the  leaves  of  the  hazel  and  other  shrubs,  in  the  early 
summer  months.  It  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a 
brown  colour ;  the  pro-thorax  is  prolonged  posteriorly  (this  part  is 
compressed  and  pomted,  and  extends  nearly  to  the  apex  of  the 
abdomen),  and  the  sides  are  dilated,  and  form  two  horn-like  pro- 
jections :  a  character  from  which  the  insect  has  received  in  France 
the  name  of  '  le  petit  Diable.'  The  wings  are  brownish .  and  semi- 
transparent.  In  this  genus  the  wings  are  exposed,  as  in  the  last, 
but  the  species  differ  in  having  a  visible  scutellum. 

2 .  In  die  second  section  of  the  OicadeUcBf  the  head  is  on  a  line  with 
the  upper  surfinoe  of  the  pro-thorax,  or  nearly  so;  the  latter  part  is 
of  moderate  size,  and  without  the  extraordinary  processes  which 
characterise  the  former  division — the  wings  are  consequently  always 
entirely  exposed ;  the  scutellum  is  distinct  and  of  a  triangular  form. 
To  this  division  belong  the  genera  jEetalion,  Ledra,  Ciccfu,  Cercopis, 
Eulopct,  EupUx,  Penthimia,  Jatsui,  Tettigonia,  and  some  others. 

Of  the  g^iu  Oercopis  (Latreille)  we  have  many  species  in  this 
country.  They  are  all  smalL  The  laigeet  and  most  beautiful  of  the 
British  spedes  is  the  Oercopis  vulnerata.  This  insect  is  about  one- 
third  of  an  inch  in  length ;  black ;  the  upper  wings  are  obscure,  and 
have  each  two  laxge  red  spots  (one  at  the  base  and  another  in  the 
middle),  and  a  fasda  of  the  same  colour  near  the  apex,  the  black 
and  the  red  being  about  equally  divided ;  the  under  wmgs  are  trans- 
parent This  species  is  not  uncommon  in  various  parts  of  the  oountiy, 
and  is  found  on  the  herbage  in  woods.  Cercopii  apumaria  is  one  of 
the  most  common  insects  we  have,  being  found  in  abundance  on  the 
various  plants  in  our  gardens.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  Frog- 
Hopper,  from  its  habit  of  leaping  when  approached.  Its  colour  is 
brown,  the  under  wings  are  transparent,  the  upper  wings  have  two 
white  spots,  one  in  the  middle  and  another  towards  the  apex.  The 
larva  in  form  resembles  the  perfect  insect,  except  that  it  is  destitute 
of  wings;  it  is  soft  and  of  a  greenish  colour,  and  is  always  found  on 
the  leaves  of  plants,  inclosed  in  a  frothy  liquid,  with  which  it  surrounds 
itself,  probably  as  a  protection  against  the  sun's  rays.  This  frothy 
liquid  IS  commonly  known  in  England  by  the  name  of  Cuckoo-Spi^ 
and  in  France  it  is  called  Crachat  de  GrenouiUe.  The  pupa  diffsra 
only  from  the  larvsd  in  having  rudimentary  wings;  the  pecfect  insect 
is  aoout  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  characters  of  the  genus  Oercopis  are: — AntennsB  with  the 
third  joint  conical,  and  terminated  by  an  inarticulate  seta;  head 


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CICELY. 


CICINDELIDA 


lode 


ionuBlied  with  ocelli  This  genus  was  establlBhed  by  Fabricius,  and 
has  lately  been  Bubdivided.  The  insect  last  described  belongs  to 
sne  of  these  sub-genera  (Aphrophora  of  (3ermar),  in  which  the 
head  has  the  posterior  mai^  conoave,  and  the  ocelli  are  more 
widely  separated  than  in  the  genus  Oercopis  as  now  restricted.  The 
characters  of  some  other  sub-genera  will  be  found  in  a  paper  by  Mr. 
Lewis,  in  the  first  part  of  the  *  Transactions  of  the  Entomological 
Society.' 

The  genus  0iccM8  differs  from  OercopU  principally  in  the  species 
having  the  seta  of  the  antennsB  articulated,  and  composed  of  five 
joints ;  the  anterior  part  of  the  head  usually  projects. 
CICELY.    [Mtbrhib.] 

CICE'NDIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Oentianacece.  It  has  a  ^'-parted  funnel-shaped  corolla,  without  glands 
•r  any  corona,  eventually  twisted  over  the  capsule ;  the  calvx  4-lobed, 
tubular ;  the  stamens  4 ;  the  anthers  erect^  not  twisted ;  the 
stigma  capitate,  undivided ;  the  capsule  single,  or  imperfectly  2-celled. 
The  species  of  this  genus  were'  formerly  referred  to  OaUiana  and 
Sxaewn. 

C.  hyttopifolium  has  an  herbaceous  stem  4-sided,  with  the  angles 
lightly  winged ;  the  flowers  6  or  8  together  in  axillary  whorls,  each 
lumished  with  a  linear  spathulate  bract ;  the  calyx  S-deft^  permanent, 
and  closely  embracing  the  base  of  the  mature  capsule.  This  is  a 
common  plant  in  many  parts  of  the  East  Indies,  and,  like  the  whole 
of  the  order  to  Avluch  it  belongs,  the  plant  possesses  a  bitter  principle, 
though  not  so  intense  as  some  of  its  allies.  It  is  employed  by  the 
natives  of  India  as  a  stomachic,  and  is  administered  in  the  form  of 
decoction  or  powder.  In  addition  to  the  tonic  action,  it  is  said  to  act 
as  a  laxative. 

C.  fUformU  (Exacum  fUifcrvM  of  Smith  and  others)  has  the  calyx 
4-lobed,  half-tubulsr,  adpreesed  to  the  subglobose  tube  of  the  corolla ; 
lobes  ovate,  acute;  stem  thread-shaped,  forked;  flowers  solitary,  on 
long  stalks.  It  has  yellow  flowers,  and  is  a  native  of  Europe.  It 
is  found  in  damp  sandy  places  in  England  and  Ireland. 

In  their  cultivation  the  species  of  Cieendia  require  the  same 
treatment  as  Gentians. 

(Babington,  Manual;  Lindley,  Flora  Medico.) 
CICE'R,  a  genus  of  Leguminous  or  Fabaceous  Plants  allied  to 
the  Vetch.  A  5-lobed  calyx  which  project  on  the  upper  side,  and 
an  inflated  2-seeded  pod  with  tuberculated  seeds,  give  its  character. 
One  species,  Oicer  arieHnwn,  the  Chick-Pea,  a  native  of  Egypt  and 
the  Levant,  is  cultivated  in  the  south  of  France  for  its  seeds,  which 
bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  a  ram's  head.  They  have  for  ages 
been  a  common  food  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  world,  but  their 
taste  is  unpleasant  to  Europeans.  It  is  an  annual,  and  bears  pale 
violet  solitary  flowers.  Two  or  three  other  species  are  known  to 
botanists. 

The  most  remarkable  circumstance  about  (7.  arietinwn  is,  that 
during  the  heats  of  summer  its  leaves  and  stem  exude  little  viscid 
drops,  which,  on  evaporation,  leave  behind  ciystals,  nearly  pure,  of 
oxalic  acid.  Its  grateful  refrigerating  qualities  are  owing  to  this 
add.  Persons  who  walk  through  the  fields  where  it  grows,  with 
common  leather  shoes,  find  them  destroyed  by  the  acid. 

CICHORA'CE JS,  one  of  the  primary  subdivisions  in  the  system  of 
Juasieu  of  the  natxiral  order  Compoiitcg.  It  is  characterised  by  the 
absence  of  albumen  in  the  seed ;  the  seeds  are  erect,  the  corollas 
ligulate,  the  juice  milky.  The  plants  included  imder  this  division  by 
Juasieu  belong  to  De  CandoUe's  LigtUifiora,  The  OiehoracecB  in  their 
anatomical  structure  closely  resemble  the  CampamulacecB ;  they  also 
resemble  that  order  in  their  ph^cal  proi>erties.  Both  orders  pro- 
duce a  xnilky  juice,  possessing  m  some  species  powerful  medical 
properties.  This  juice  in  the  Ciehoracea  has  a  bitter  and  astringent 
taste,  and  possesses  narcotic  properties.  It  is  found  in  the  Ciehoriwn 
IrUyiuM,  the  common  Succory  [Cichorium],  and  in  the  cultivated  and 
wild  Lettuce.  [Lagtuoa.]  From  the  latter  plants  the  juice  has  been 
obtained  under  the  name  of  Lactucaricum,  and  used  as  a  narcotic, 
instead  of  opium.  Many  of  the  spedes  of  Cichoracea  secrete  starch 
in  huge  quantities,  and  are  used  as  articles  of  diet,  as  the  Endive, 
Sconcnera,  Tragopogont  or  Salsafy,  &a  The  root  of  the  Dandelion 
{Taraxacum  Dent  Leonis)  is  used  as  a  tonic  and  purgatiye,  and  has 
been  recommended  in  disorders  of  the  stomach.  [Leontodon.] 
The  British  genera  of  Compontce  belonging  to  this  division  are  as 
follows : — 

Section     L  LapsanecB, 

Laptana. 
Section  IL  HyonridetB, 

Amoteris, 

Cickoriwn, 
Section  IIL  Eypocharidea. 

Hypochceria. 

AchyrophoruB, 
Section  IV.  Scorzonerecg. 

Thrincia. 

LeotUodoTK 

OporvnicL 

Tragopogon, 

Picris, 

Helminihia, 


Section   V.  Lactucea, 
Zactuca. 
Leontodon. 
Barlchautia, 
OrepU, 
Sanchtu. 
Mfdgedium. 
Section  YI.  ffieracece. 

Hieracium, 

The  geographical  distribution  of  Oichoracecp  is  generally  similar  to 
that  of  CompoittaSy  but  they  are  found  in  greatest  numbers  in  cold 
climates,  and  in  this  respect  are  the  representatives  of  the  (7oryn»- 
hifercBf  which  are  most  abundant  in  hot  climates.    [Cobtmbiferjb.] 

^indley;  Natural  Sytttm  ;  Babington,  Manual  of  British  Botany.) 

CICHOkIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  tribe  Oichoraeeat 
and  the  natural  family  *  OomposUa,  The  species  are  known  by  the 
common  names  Chicory,  Succory,  and  Wild  Endive.  De  Theis 
derives  the  name  from  Chikouiyeh,  stated  by  ForskUl  to  be  the 
Arabic  name.  The  name  Endivia  seems  to  be  derived  fh)m  another 
Arabic  name,  Hindibeh.  The  genus  (Xchoriwn  consists  of  only  a  few 
spedes  found  in  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  the  Mediterranean 
i-egion,  and  in  Europe.  It  has  a  double  involucre,  of  which  the 
exterior  is  5-  and  the  interior  8-leaved,  with  the  leaflets  united  at  the 
base;  pappus  crown-like,  formed  of  many  palen,  shorter  than  the 
achenium.    Receptade  naked  or  pitted.    Flowers  blue. 

C.  Intybut,  found  in  uncultivated  places,  dry  pastures,  and  roadsides 
in  Europe,  has  two  or  more  heads  of  flowers,  crowded,  sessile  or 
stalked,  floral  leaves  lanceolate,  subamplexicaul,  broader  at  the  base, 
pappus  much  shorter  than  the  achenium. 

C.  Bndivia,  the  Common  Endive,  cultivated  throughout  Europe,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  introduced  from  India,  where  it  is  well  known 
by  its  name  of  Easnee.  This  spedes,  like  the  former,  has  two  or 
more  heads,  sessile  or  stalked,  but  witii  the  floral  leaves  broad-ovate, 
cordate  at  the  base  and  amplexicaul,  pappus  four  times  shorter  than 
the  achenium.    [Chioort  ;  Endiye,  in  Arts  and  So.  Diy.] 

CICINDE'LID JS,  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
Adephaga  9Si6.  sub-section  Oeodephaga.  The  true  Carnivorous  Beetles 
are  included  in  a  lai^ge  section  called  Adephaga,  all  the  spedes  of 
which  group  may  be  distinguished  by  their  having  six  palpi  The 
section  Ad^haga  is  divided  into  two  sub-sections,  the  Oeodephaga 
and  the  Hydradephaq<L  The  former  obtain  their  subsistence  on  the 
land  and  the  latter  m  the  water.  The  structure  of  the  insects  'Ji 
these  two  groups,  in  order  to  suit  them  to  their  habits,  is  therefore 
of  necessity  essentially  diflisrent  (aa  far  as  secondary  characters  of 
form,  &c.,  are  concerned),  the  former  being  formed  for  running*  and 
the  latter  for  swimming.  In  the  number  of  joints  to  the  tarsi 
(which  is  always  five),  and  the  antennse  (which  is  eleven),  and  the 
parts  of  the  mouth,  they  are  however  alike;  these  latter  are 
generally  considered  printary  characters.  To  make  ourselves  more 
dearly  understood,  we  may  compare  the  section  Adephaga  among 
Beetles  to  the  Camivora  among  the  Mammalia  ;  the  Oeodephaga  to 
the  bears,  weasels,  dogs,  and  cats;  and  the  Bydradephaga  to  the 
s«Us  and  otters.  We  may  again  carry  our  simile  further  by  com- 
paring the  OicinddidcB  to  the  cats  or  tigers,  the  beetles  bdonging  to 
this  &mily  bdng  pre-eminently  voradoua. 

The  CieindelidiB  are  divided  into  two  groups — ^those  spedes  in 
which  the  emai^ation  of  the  mentum  is  furmshed  with  a  tooth  or 
pointed  process  in  the  middle,  and  those  in  which  this  process  is 
wanting.  To  the  first  group  or  section  bdong  the  genera  Manticora, 
PlatycheHCf  Megaeephala^  Oxycheikt,  Iretia,  Oicindela,  Dromica, 
Buproiopuif  and  Ctmottoma;  and  to  the  second  section  bdong  the 
genera  Therate$,  TrieondylOf  and  CoUiunu. 

The  typical  genus  of  the  family  we  are  treating  of  is  Oicindda, 
and  in  this  genus,  as  is  generally  (if  not  idways)  the  case  in  typical 
genera,  the  roedes  have  a  wide  geographical  range,  and  are  very 
numerous.  Taking  Dejean's  '  Catalogue  aa  our  guide,  we  find  the 
genus  Cicindela  containing  upwards  of  200  species,  and  the  number 
of  spedes  contained  in  all  the  other  genera  taken  together  is  about 
forty.  The  spedes  of  Oicindela  are  found  in  every  quarter  of  the 
globe,  whereas  the  other  genera  mentioned  are  very  local ;  they  are 
all  extra-European,  some  being  entirely  confined  to  Africa,  several  to 
South  America,  and  others  to  India. 

The  technical  generic  nharocters  of  Oicindela  are: — Labial  palpi 
moderately  long,  in  this  respect  not  exceeding  the  maxillary  palpi ; 
last  joint  of  all  the  palpi  truncated  at  the  apex,  anch about  the  same 
width  as  the  preceding  joints ;  three  basal  joints  of  the  anterior 
tarsi  dilated  in  the  males^  and  covered  beneath  vrith  a  ydvet-like 
substance. 

As  regards  the  form,  the  most  striking  diaracter  of  the  Oicindela 
is  the  great  projection  of  the. eyes;  the  jaws  are  very  long  and 
sharply  pointed,  and  furnished  on  the  inner  side  with  three  tooth- 
like processes;  the  head  is  generally  equal  in  width  to  the  thorax, 
or  sometimes  exceeding  it ;  the  thorax  is  dther  somewhat  cylindrical 
or  rather  depressed  and  nearly  square,  and  is  transversdy  indented 
before  and  behind.  The  elvtra  are  generally  rather  depressed,  and 
almost  double  the  width  of  the  thorax ;  the  legs  and  antenna  are 
long  and  slender. 

The  colouring  of  the  OidndeUs  is  generally  ridi  and  metallio ;  the 


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CICINDELID^ 


CICONIA. 


ir«8 


upper  surface  is  usually  more  or  less  shagreened,  and  hence  is  not 
glossy ;  the  under  surface  is  glossy,  and  generally  sparingly  covered 
with  hairs  of  a  pale  colour. 

With  respect  to  their  habits,  it  has  been  before  remarked  that  the 
CicindelcB  are  extremely  voracious;  we  may  add,  they  are  very 
active,  and  almost  always  take  to  the  wing  when  approached,  and 
hence  are  caught  with  difficulty ;  their  flight  is  however  short  The 
situations  which  they  inhabit  are  generally  sandy  plains  or  heaths, 
and  sometimes  the  sea-shore  or  the  shores  of  rivers,  kc. ;  but  some  of 
the  other  genera  of  thd  Cicinddida,  from  their  form  and  colouring, 
appear  to  be  more  particularly  adapted  to  these  last-mentioned 
situations. 

Six  species  of  the  genus  Cicindela  have  been  found  in  England,  of 
which  the  most  common  is  Oicindela  campettru.  This  insect  is 
found  more  or  less  abundantly  throughout  the  country,  and  is  veiy 
common  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London;  it  is  rather  more  than 
half  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a  bright  green  colour ;  the  anterior  and 
posterior  margins  of  the  thorax,  the  less,  and  the  basal  joints  of  the 
antenne  are  of  a  rich  copper-colour ;  the  under  side  ot  the  body  is 
glossy  and  of  a  blue-green  colour ;  the  wing-cases  are  each  adorned 
with  six  cream-coloured  spots,  one  on  the  shoulder  or  outer  angle, 
another  at  the  apex,  three  on  the  outer  maigin  at  nearlv  equal 
distances  apart,  and  one  on  the  disc,  a  little  lower  down  than  the 
third  marginal  spot  from  the  shoulder. 

The  larva  of  this  insect  is  very  well  known,  and  may  be  found 
almost  at  any  time  during  the  summer  in  sandy  situations.  It  lives 
in  cylindrical  burrows,  varying  from  six  inches  to  a  foot  in  depth, 
these  burrows  being  excavated  by  itself.  Like  the  perfect  insect,  it  is 
very  voracious,  and  in  fine  weather  may  be  seen  with  its  head  on  a 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  soil,  lying  in  wait  for  any  insect  which 
may  happen  to  crawl  over  its  celL  Its  form  is  remarkable :  the  head 
is  very  Luge  and  slightlv  concave ;  the  jaws  are  also  large  and  curved 
upwards ;  the  body  is  furnished  with  six  logs,  attached  to  the  first 
three  segments,  and  is  himiped  near  the  middle  of  the  back,  at  which 
part  there  are  two  tubercles,  each  of  which  is  furnished  with  a  homy 
hook;  these  hooks  and  the  body  being  naturally  of  a  bent  shape, 
enable  the  animal  to  sustain  its  position  at  the  top  of  the  cell,  or  to 
ascend  and  descend  very  quickly  :  the  concave  head  and  the  recurved 

mandibles  form  a 
kind  of  natural 
basket,  in  which 
the  soU  is  brought 
to  the  mouth  of 
the  cell  during  the 
progress  of  its  ex- 
cavation. 

Four  other  Bri- 
tish species  of  the 
genus  Cicindela 
—  0,  9ylv(Uica, 
0.  tnaritima,  O. 
apricOf  and  C. 
t^vicolii,  have 
white  or  cream- 
coloured  spots  in 
the  same  situa- 
tions as  in  (7. 
camputrit,  but 
they  are  joined 
together  in  pairs ; 
the  two  towards 
the  base  of  the 
wing-case  form  a 
curved  dash  which 
surrounds  the 
shoulder;  the  one 
on  the  disc  of  the 
elytron  and  that 
at  the  margin 
nearest  it  are  idso 
joined,  and  form 
a  bent  fSascia,  and 
the  two  at  the 
apex  form  a  bent 
dash,  which  fol- 
lows the  outline  of 
that  part  of  the 
wing-case.  This 
disposition  of  the 
markings,  namely, 
a  lunukr  spot  at 
the  shoulder,  a 
bent  fascia  in 
the  middle,  and 
anoifaar  limular  spot  at  the  i4>ez  of.  the  etljiton,  is  that  which  is 
most  commonly  found  in  the  species,  and  the  most  common  colour 
is  brownish-bronie ;  such  is  the  colour  of  O.  9Utritima,  0.  riparia, 
and  0.  tylvicola  ;  the  latter  sometimei  yariea  to  ft  green  hue. 


In  some  exotic  species  of  Cicindela  the  elytra  are  adorned  with 
numerous  spots ;  eleven  is  the  greatest  number  we  have  found ;  of 
these,  however,  three  or  four  are  often  obliterated,  and  the  others  are 
joined  (two  or  three  together)  so  as  often  to  form  three  irregular- 
shaped  oblong  dashes  or  fascism. 

In  some  instances  the  markings. run  one  into  the  other,  so  that 
there  is  more  white  than  ground-colour;  and  in  one  specdea,  no« 
before  us,  the  wing-cases  are  entirely  white.  These  markings  vary  bui 
slightly  in  individuals  of  the  same  species. 

The  Cicinddida,  in  most  arrangements  of  insects,  form  the  first 
family  of  the  CoUoptcra. 

CICONIA  (Brisson),  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  family 
Ardeidai,  and  indudiiig  the  species  popularly  <»]led  Storks.  The 
genus  has  the  following  characters : — Bill  long,  straight,  subcylindri- 
cal,  in  form  of  an  elongated  cone,  pointed,  trenchant,  butt  (arSte) 
rotmded,  of  equal  height  with  the  head ;  lower  mandible  a  little  curved 
upwards.  Nostrils  uit  longitudinally  in  the  homy  substance  of  the 
bill,  placed  near  the  base.  Eyes  surrounded  with  a  naked  space, 
which  does  not  communicate  with  the  bill ;  the  face,  the  space  round 
the  eyes,  or  a  part  of  the  neck,  often  naked.  Feet  long ;  three  toes 
forward,  united  by  a  membrane  up  to  the  first  joint,  the  posterior  toe 
articulated  on  the  same  level  with  the  others ;  nails  short,  depressed, 
without  dentilations.  Wings  moderate ;  the  first  quill  shorter  than 
the  second,  which  is  rather  shorter  than  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth, 
which  are  the  longest    (TemmincL) 


Fiff.  1,  CtdtuUla  oamptstris.  Fig.  2,  anterior  tarsus 
of  the  male.  Fig.  3,  anterior  tarsus  of  the  female. 
Fig.  4,  labrum  of  another  speciM  of  Oicindela,  Fig.  5, 
mentom  of  the  same ;  a  a,  labial  palpi.  Fig.  6,  man. 
ble.  Fig.  7,  maxilla;  m,  external  maxillarj  palpi; 
h,  internal  maxillary  palpf.  Figs.  8,  9,  10,  II,  and  13, 
wing.49ases  of  Bve  different  species  of  deiniela,  to  show 
the  variation*,  n  the  markings. 


BiU  of  Stork. 

M.  Temminck  observes  that  the  Storks  live  in  marshes,  and  feed 
principally  on  reptiles,  frogs  and  their  spawn,  as  well  as  fishes,  small 
mammiferous  animals,  and  young  birds.  They  are,  in  all  the  coun- 
triee  of  tho  world  where  they  occur,  a  privil^ed  race  on  account  of 
their  utility  and  of  the  havoc  they  make  among  noxious  ^nimola 
Their  migration  takes  place  in  great  flocks :  they  are  easily  tamed. 
The  moult' is  autumnal  The  sexes  do  not  differ.  All  the  species 
make  a  clattering  noise  with  their  biUs. 

The  species  best  known  are  the  White  Stork  (Cicania  alba),  and 
the  Black  Stork  (CI  nigra),  both  of  which  are  British  birds.  We 
select  the  former  as  an  example  of  that  part  of  the  genus  which  con- 
sists of  the  Storks  properly  so  called. 

The  White  or  Common  Stork  is  the  IlcXapy^r  of  Aristotle 
and  the   Greeks;    Ciconia   of  the  Romans;    Cicogna,   Cicogna  Bi- 

anca,  and  Zigognia 
of  the  Italians ; 
Cicogne  and  Ci- 
gogne  Blanche  of 
the  French ;  and 
Weisser  Storch  of 
the  (Germans. 

a  alba  {Ardca 
Ciconia,  Montague), 
the  White  Stork, 
or  Common  Stork. 
It  has  the  bill 
straight,  smooth  ; 
naked  skin  of  the 
cheeks  very  small, 
and  not  commimi- 
eating  with  the  biU. 
Plumage  white. 
Head,  neck,  and 
all  the  parts  of  the 
body,  pure  white; 
scapulars  and  the 
wings  black ;  bill 
and  feet  red;  naked 
skin  around  the 
eyes  black ;  iris 
Iffown.  Length  3 
feet  5  or  6  inches. 
Young.— The  tar- 
?  — '  nished  black  of  the 
wings  is  tinged  with 
brown  in  the  young 
^mmon  Stork  {Ciconia  alba),  birds,  and  the  bill 

of  a  reddish-black. 
Habits,  Food,  Reproduction,  &a— Assured  by  the  kindness  with 
which  His  treated,  in  requital  for  its  services  in  dearing  the  land  of 
dead  as  weU  as  living  nuisances,  the  White  Stork  approaches  the 


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CICONIA. 


CICONIA. 


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dwellings  of  man  wiihout  fear.  In  Holland  and  (Germany  especially, 
the  bird  is  treated  as  a  welcome  guest,  and  there,  as  indeed  elsewhere, 
it  annually  returns  to  the  nest  which  has  cradled  many  generations, 
on  the  steeple,  on  the  turret,  on  the  false  chimney  that  the  Hollander 
has  erected  for  its  site,  in  the  box,  or  on  the  platform  which  the 
German  has  placed  for  its  use.  The  stump  of  a  decayed  tree  is  some- 
times chosen  by  the  bird,  and  the  nest  is  made  of  sticks  and  twigs,  on 
which  are  laid  from  three  to  five  cream-coloured  or  yellowish-white 
eggs,  about  the  size  of  those  of  a  goose.  The  incubation  continues 
for  a  month,  at  the  expiration  of  which  period  the  young  are  hatched, 
and  carefully  attended  to  by  the  parents  until  they  are  fully  feathered 
and  able  to  procure  food  for  themselves.  Frogs,  lizards,  snakes,  and 
other  reptiles,  mice,  moles,  worms,  insects,  eels,  the  young  of  ducks 
and  other  waterfowl  occasionally,  and  even  partridges,  according  to 
M.  Temminck,  are  devoured  by  these  birds.  In  the  continental  towns 
domesticated  Storks,  which  have  been  taken  from  the  nest  when  young, 
may  be  often  seen  parading  about  the  markets,  where  they  are  kept 
as  scavengers  to  clear  the  place  of  the  entrails  of  fish  and  other  ofilil, 
which  they  do  to  the  satisfaction  of  their  employers. 

Geographical  Distribution. — The  arrival  of  the  Stork  in  Europe 
takes  place  in  the  spring.  In  Seville  it  is  very  common ;  but,  accord- 
ing to  the  Prince  of  Canino,  it  is  very  rare  and  only  an  accidental 
visitor  near  Rome.  Though  so  common  in  Holland,  it  very  rarely 
arrives  in  Britain.  The  general  drainage  of  our  marshes  may  have 
something  to  do  with  this,  but  is  hardly  sufficient  to  account  for  so 
striking  a  difference  in  the  migratoiy  distribution  of  the  bird,  more 
especially  as  it  proceeds  to  higher  latitudes;  for  it  regularly  visits 
Sweden  and  the  north  of  Russia^  and  breeds  there.  The  winter  is 
passed  by  the  bird  in  the  more  genial  climates  of  Asia,  and  in  the 
northern  part  of  Africa,  Egypt  especially.  Those  who  have  seen 
these  birds  in  the  act  of  migration,  speak  of  their  numbers  as  very 
large  :  thus  Belon  remarks,  that  the  Storks  are  never  seen  in  flocks 
except  when  they  are  in  the  air ;  and  he  relates  how,  being  at  Abydos 
in  the  month  of  Auffust,  a  great  flight  of  Storks  came  from  the  north, 
and  when  they  reached  the  commencement  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
they  there  made  many  circuitous  turns,  and  then  dispersed  into 
smaller  companies.  When  Dr.  Shaw  was  journeying  over  Mount 
Carmel  he  saw  the  annual  migration  of  those  which  had  quitted 
Egypt;  and  he  states  that  each  of  the  flocks  was  half  a  mile  in 
breadth,  and  occupied  three  hours  in  passing  over.  They  have  been 
occasionally  seen  m  considerable  numbers  in  Great  Britain,  but  tlie 
instances  in  which  they  have  been  killed  are  few. 

Utility  to  man. — The  utility  of  this  bird  to  man  in  clearing  away 
noxious  ftTiiTnala  and  filih  has  given  it  a  claim  to  protection,  that  has 
rendered  it  quite  at  its  ease  in  his  presence  wherever  that  protection 
has  been  afforded. 

C.  nigra  (Ardea  nigra),  the  Black  Stork,  Cigogne  Noir  of  the  French. 
Like  the  last  this  species  is  a  migratory  bird.  It  passes  the  winter  in 
the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  spring  advances  to  high  northern 
latitudes  to  spend  the  summer.  Mr.  Tarrell  says  that  he  can  make 
out  only  four  authentic  instances  in  which  this  bird  has  been  shot  in 
England. 

M.  Temminck  remarks  that  all  those  gigantic  species  of  foreign 
Storks  arranged  by  systematists  under  the  name  of  Mycteria,  have  the 
same  external  characters  with  the  European  Storks,  the  same  manners 
and  the  same  habits,  and  he  further  refers  to  the  fact  that  Illiger  in 
his  *  Prodromus  *  has  given  his  opinion  that  the  genera  Mycteria  and 
Ciconia  ought  to  be  united. 

Mr.  Selby,  after  giving  the  characters  of  the  genus  Ciconia,  says, 
"My  readers  will  observe  that  these  generic  characters  are  not 
applicable  to  all  the  species  of  the  genus  Ciconia,  of  Bechstein,  Cuvier, 
Temminck,  and  Wagler,  but  only  to  that  group  of  which  C  alba  may 
be  considered  the  type.  The  laiger  species,  namely,  C  Marabou, 
Argala,  Mycteria,  &c.,  seem  to  me  possessed  of  characters  sufficiently 
distinct  to  warrant  such  a  separation,  a  fact  indeed  admitted  by  the 
necessity  imder  which  these  authors  have  found  themselves  of  sub- 
dividing their  genus  into  sections." 

Of  these,  the  three  gigantic  species  of  Stork  remarkable  for  the 
comparative  nakedness  of  the  head  and  neck,  a  kind  of  pquch  which 
hangs  externally  in  front  of  the  neck,  and  a  sort  of  vesicular  apparatus 
or  portion  of  skin  at  the  back  of  the  neck  which  can  be  inflated  by 
the  bird,  and  the  greater  enlargement  of  the  bill,  deserve  especial 
notice.  These  extraordinary  and  uncouth-looking  birds  are  natives 
of  Africa  and  the  eastern  parts  of  Asia,  and  have  only  been  known  to 
modem  naturalists  within  the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years. 

Ives  in  his  voyage  to  India  (1773)  made  known  a  gigantic  grallatorial 
bird,  from  which  Dr.  Latham  described  the  Adjutant  of  the  British 
residents  at  Calcutta  (the  Argala  of  the  natives),  with  the  name  of  the 
Gigantic  Crane.  At  the  same  time  he  noticed  the  observations  made 
by  Smeatlunan,  the  AMcan  traveller,  on  the  habits  of  a  bird  seen  by 
the  latter  on  the  western  coast  of  that  quarter  of  the  globe.  Gmelin 
upon  this  information  founded  a  species,  Ardea  dubia,  and  Latham, 
who  had  fiigured  the  bird,  and  related  some  additional  particulars  of 
its  habits  in  the  first  supplement  to  his  'Synopsis'  (1787),  changed 
the  name  inhis  'Index  Omithologicus'  to  Ardea  Argala.  Mr.  Bennett, 
who  adverts  to  these  points,  proceeds  thus:  "mr.  Marsden,  in  his 
*  History  of  Sumatra,'  makes  mention  of  a  bird,  called  by  the  natives 
of  that   island  Boorong-Cambing,    or    Boorar.g-Oolar,    which   was 


generally  believed  to  be  of  tlie  same  species  with  the  Adjutant  of 
BengaL  Dr.  Horsfield  however,  in  a  paper  published  in  the  18th 
volume  of  the  '  Linnaoan  Transactions,^  separates  a  Javanese  bird, 
which  is  probably  the  same  with  the  Snmatran,  as  a  distinct  species. 
Subsequently  M.  Temminck,  in  his  '  Planches  Colorizes,'  has  shown 
that  tlie  African  species  differs  in  several  essential  particulars  from 
that  of  the  continent  of  India,  and  still  more  remarkably  from  that 
of  Java  and  the  neighbouring  islands.  By  his  figures  of  the  three 
species,  all  taken  from  living  specimens,  he  has  so  clearly  determined 
their  characters  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  they  should  ever  again  be 
confounded.  In  one  point  however  he  has  himself  given  rise  to  a 
different  kind  of  connision,  that  of  their  nomenclature.  They  all 
furnish,  in  more  or  less  perfection,  the  beautiful  plumes,  superior  in 
estimation  even  to  those  of  the  ostrich,  known  by  the  name* of  Mara^ 
bous,  from  their  appellation  in  Senegal  But  those  of  the  Indian 
species  being  far  superior  to  the  others,  M.  Temminck  has  thought  fit 
to  transfer  to  that  bird  the  name  of  C,  Marabou,  and  to  rob  it  of  its 
native  appellation,  Argala,  which  he  has  bestowed  upon  the  African. 
The  consequence  of  this  perversion  of  their  native  names  has  been 
such  as  might  have  been  expected.  In  the  late  edition  of  his  '  R^gne 
Animal,'  M.  Cuvier  quotes  the  C.  Marabou  of  Temminck,  with  the 
characters  of  the  Indian  bird,  as  a  native  of  Senegal ;  while  he  states 
the  C  Argala  of  the  same  author,  to  which  he  attributes  the  characters 
of  the  African  species,  to  be  brought  from  India.  Nothing  could 
more  strongly  evince  the  necessity  of  restoring,  as  Mr.  Vigors  had 
previouslv  done,  in  the  Appendix  to  Major  Denham's  '  Travels  in 
Africa,'  the  name  of  Argala  to  the  Indian,  and  that  of  Marabou  to 
the  African  species." 

C.  Marahou,  Vigors.     M.  Temminck  has  clearly  pointed  out  the 
differences  between  this  species  and  the  Indian  Argala.     The  African 


Bill  of  African  Gigantic  Stork  {Ciamia  Marabou). 

Marabou  is  less  in  size  than  the  Indian  Argala,  the  latter  sometimes 
reaching  six  or  even  seven  feet  in  height,  while  the  former  seldom 
exceeds  five  feet,  even  when  the  neck  is  elongated.  The  bill  of  the 
Argala  is  enlarged  in  the  middle,  the  culmen  of  the  upper  mandible 
and  the  edges  of  the  lower  form  a  curved  line  from  the  base  to  the 
apex ;  in  we  iforo- 

bou   the    lines    are  

straight  and  the  bill 
is  regularly  conical; 
the  nostrujB  of  the 
Indian  bird  are  ovate, 
those  of  the  African 
species  are  oblong. 
The  iris  of  the  for- 
mer approaches  to 
pure  white;  that  of 
the  latter  is  dull- 
brown.  The  cervical 
or  sternal  pouch 
often  hangs  down 
more  than  a  foot  in 
the  Argala;  in  the 
Marabou  it  is  much 
shorter.  The  back 
and  wings  of  the 
Argala  are  dull- 
black  ;  in  the  Mara- 
&01*  there  is  agreenish 
tinge  on  the  black  of 
the  back,  with  the 
exception  of  the 
larger  wing-coverts 
and  the  secondaries, 
which  are  of  a  more 
decided  black,  edged 
more  or  less  broadly 
and  distinctly,  ac- 
cording to  the  age  of 

the  individual,  with    African  Oigantk  Stork,  or  Crane  {Ciconia  Marabou). 
pure   white    bands. 

in  the  young  birds  these  last  distinctions  are  imperceptible.  In  both 
species  the  bill  is  inclined  to  livid  yellow  in  colour,  and  is  more  or  less 
spotted  with  black  towards  the  base,  as  is  the  head,  which  is  duskv. 
When  the  bird  is  at  rest  the  pouch  as  well  as  the  neck  are  of  M>a!e 
flesh-oolonr,  but  when  it  is  excited  they  acquire  a  redder  tinge.  These 
parts  are  sparingly  covered  with  a  few  scattered  brownish  hairs,  most 


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numerous  in  the  young  birds,  and  resembling  down  in  the  early 
stages  of  its  growth.  The  tail  is  black ;  the  under  parts  pure  white, 
more  especially  the  under  tail  coverts,  which  afford  the  beautiful 
plumes.  These  are  sometimes  of  a  grayish  slate-colour  in  the  Indian 
species ;  but  the  white  of  the  African  feathers  is  not  so  dear  and 
brilliant  as  that  of  the  Indian  plumes,  to  which  a  decided  and  just 
preference  is  given.  The  natural  colour  of  the  legs  is  duskv  black, 
but  in  living  birds  these  limbs  are  generally  whitened  by  the  dust 
shaken  out  of  the  plumage  and  other  excrement. 

Geographical  DiKtribution  of  the  Marabou. — Nearly  the  whole  of 
Tropical  Africa  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  it  is  not  common. 
(Temminck.)  Banks  of  the  Nile.  (RiippelL)  Neighbourhood  of  the 
laive  towns  of  the  interior.   (Denham.)   Western  coast.   (Smeathman.) 

Habits,  Food,  &c. — Nearly  resembling  those  of  the  White  Stork, 
like  which  it  is  privileged,  on  account  of  its  utility  as  a  scavenger  in 
freeing  the  villages  and  towns  of  offensive  substances,  like  its  Indian 
congener.  Its  omnivorous  voracity  is  well  described  by  Denham. 
Where  carrion  and  filth  are  scarce,  reptiles,  small  birds,  and  small 
quadrupeds  taXL  victims  to  its  appetite.  These  are  usually  swallowed 
entire.  Smeathman  gave  to  Dr.  Latham  an  anecdote  of  a  domesticated 
individual  which  roosted  very  high  among  the  silk-cotton  trees,  and 
would  descry  the  servants  bringing  the  dishes  to  the  dinner-table,  from 
a  distance  of  two  or  three  miles  fiom  its  perch.  It  stood  behind  its 
master^s  chair  waiting  to  be  fed,  and  occasionally  helped  itself,  not- 
withstanding the  guardianship  of  the  servants  who  carried  switches 
to  prevent  its  snatciiing  the  meat,  which  it  nevertheless  sometimes 
contrived  to  do  :  in  this  way  it  had  been  known  to  swallow  a  boiled 
fowl  at  a  single  mouthful  Besides  the  pouch,  the  skin  at  the  back  of 
the  neck  can  be  inflated  so  as  to  have  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a 
counterpoise  to  the  former.  When  the  sun  is  shining  upon  the  bird 
we  have  observed  this  latter  pouch,  if  pouch  it  may  be  called,  very 

Erominent,  apparently  from  the  rarefaction  of  the  air.  The  bird  flies 
igh  and  roosts  high,  probably  for  the  purpose  of  taking  in  a  lax^e 
area  of  observation,  to  enable  it  to  perceive  those  objects  on  which  it 
feeds.  May  not  these  pouches  assist,  balloon  like,  in  supporting  or 
balancing  the  great  head  and  bill  ?  Living  specimens  of  the  White 
and  Bladk  Stork,  the  Marabou,  Jabiru,  and  American  Maguari  are 
now  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  Regent's  Park. 

CICUTA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  tiie  natural  order  UmhdU- 
fercBf  the  sub-order  Orthospermece,  and  Uie  tribe  Amminecs,  It  has  a 
calyx  of  5  leaf-like  teeth;  the  petals  obcordate,  with  an  inflexed 
point;  the  fruit  subdidymous;  the  carpels  with  5  equal  broad 
flattened  ridges,  the  lateral  marginal ;  the  vittae  solitary. 

O.  virota,  the  Water-Hemlock,  is  a  wild  poisonous  plant  found 


-Water-Hemlock  {Cficuta  virosa). 

1,  a  flower  j  2,  a  joung  flrait. 

occasionally  by  the  sides  of  ditches  and  ponds.    It  is  a  perennial  plants 

with  a  large  fleshy  white  root  covered  externally  with  fibres,  and 


divided  internally  into  several  low  chambers  filled  with  a  mUky  or 
yellowish  juice.  The  stem  is  erect,  hollow,  cylindrical,  striated,  and 
2  or  8  feet  high.  The  leaves,  especially  the  lower  ones,  are  decom- 
posed or  thrice-pinnated ;  the  leafiets  are  narrow,  lanoeolate,  deeply 
and  irregularly  toothed.  The  umbels  are  usually  destitute  of  invo- 
lucre, or  if  they  have  one  it  is  nothing  but  a  single  linear  bract ;  the 
partial  umbels  have  several  such  bracts.  The  flowers,  whidi  are 
white,  have  the  ordinary  umbelliferous  structure.  They  are  succeeded 
by  globular  double  fruit,  crowned  by  the  style  and  five  teeth  of  the 
calyx,  and  showing  on  each  of  their  convex  faces  five  salient  simple 
angles.  Its  medicinal  properties  are  similar  to  those  of  common 
Hemlock  [Conium],  but  more  energetic  Its  roots  have  been  mistaken 
by  children  and  country  folks  for  parsnips,  and  have  been  eaten  with 
fatal  consequences. 

CIDARIS,  a  genus  of  Star-Fishes  belonging  to  the  family  Eckinidct, 
It  has  a  globose  body;  mouth  and  anus  nearly  equal;  ambulacra 
continuous  from  mouth  to  anus,  whi<^  are  both  central,  the  former 
below,  the  latter  above;  the  spiniferous  tubercles  perforate,  the  spines 
of  several  forms. 

C,  papilUUctj  the  Piper,  is  a  British  species,  and  is  the  most  elegant 
of  our  native  sea-urchins,  but  at  the  same  time  the  rarest  It  is  found 
off  the  island  of  Zetland.  It  is  always  found  in  company  with  the 
Tusk  ((jhdiu  brosmus),  a  fish  that  is  never  found  but  on  rocky  ground. 
It  is  covered  with  two  sorts  of  spines ;  one  set  long,  the  other  short 
The  longer  ones  are  ordinarily  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length. 
In  Zetland  it  is  said  they  have  been  caught  with  the  spines  a  foot  long. 

(Forbes,  Britith  Star-Fuhet.) 

CI'LI A,  in  Anatomy,  small  moving  oi^g^ins  found  on  the  surface  of 
the  tissues  of  most  animals,  resembling  hurs,  and  requiring  the  use  of 
the  microscope  to  be  distinctly  observed.  They  are  mostly  found  on 
tissues  which  are  in  contact  with  water,  or  which  produce  fluid 
secretions.  They  are  constantly  in  a  state  of  active  movement,  and 
impart  to  the  fluid  with  which  they  are  in  contact  the  same  motion. 
This  is  called  vibratory  or  ciliary  motion.  The  best  time  for 
observing  Cilia  with  the  microscope  is  when  their  movement  begins 
to  slacken.  Their  figure  is  generally  that  of  slender  conical  or  some- 
times flattened  filaments,  which  are  broad  at  the  base  or  root  and 
gradually  taper  to  the  point  Their  size  differs  greatly  on  different 
parts  of  the  same  animtd.  ''  The  lai^gest  I  have  measured,"  says 
Dr.  Sharpey,  "  are  those  on  the  point  9r  angle  of  the  branchial  laminss 
in  the  Buccinum  undatvm  ;  they  are  at  least  g^  of  an  inch  long.  I 
have  not  attempted  to  determine  the  exact  size  of  the  smallest,  but 
Purkinje  and  Valentin  state  it  at  0.000075  of  an  inch,  while  they  make 
the  lai^est  they  have  met  with  only  0*000908  of  an  inch,  which  is 
considerably  less  than  I  have  foimd  them ;  but  they  had  no  oppor- 
tunity of  ftTumming  marine  animals,  in  which  generally  speaking  the 
largest  cilia  are  met  with.  In  the  sea-mussel  the  darker  coloured 
cilia  are  about  ^  of  an  inch  long,  the  others  considerably  leas." 
The  substance  of  the  Cilia  is  for  the  most  part  transparent  and  colour- 
less, in  some  however  a  slight  colouring  may  be  observed.  They 
assume  also  various  forms,  and  Ehrenberg  has  described  compound 
Cilia  in  the  Infuaoria.  In  the  Ciliograde  Medusce  the  Cilia  oonaiBt  ot 
rows  of  broad  flattened  organs,  each  of  which  is  made  up  of  several 
simple  filaments  joined  together  by  a  connecting  membrane  through- 
out their  whole  length.  In  most  cases  the  Cilia  are  arranged  in 
regular  order.  On  the  gUls  of  the  mussel  they  are  placed  in  straight 
rows ;  in  many  of  the  Infusoria  they  are  arranged  in  circles  or  spiral 
lines.  In  some  instances  they  are  oblique,  but  in  others  they  are  placed 
at  right  angles  to  the  surface  on  which  they  are  seated. 

The  movement  of  the  Cilia  is  not  very  rapid,  and  may  be  easily 
observed  with  a  lens  of  I  inch  focus.  Their  most  obvious  movement 
is  of  a  fanning  lashing  kind,  the  Cilium  being  bent  in  one  direction 
and  returning  to  it  again.  In  addition  to  this  movement  Professor 
Quekett  detected  another  in  the  Cilia  of  the  gill-rays  of  the  common 
mussel  This  consists  of  a  slight  movement  of  the  CUia  on  themselves, 
each  Cilium  turning  on  its  own  axis  through  the  space  of  a  quarter  of 
a  circle,  with  a  movement  like  that  of  the  feathering  of  an  oar  in 
rowing.  This  observation  of  Mr.  Quekett's  is  of  importance,  as  it 
explains  how  it  is  that  the  Cilia  are  capable  of  propelling  bodies  over 
their  points  which  could  not  be  effected  by  the  firstK>bserved  up  and 
down  movement  When  the  surface  of  an  oigan  is  examined  on 
which  are  seated  a  laxge  number  of  Cilia,  a  wave-like  motion  in  the 
whole  is  observed,  which  arises  from  the  regularity  with  which  each 
Cilium  is  affected  with  the  movement 

The  Cilia  were  first  observed  as  present  on  the  external  sur&ce  of 
the  bodies  of  infusory  animalcules.  Leeuwenhoek  seems  to  be  one  of 
the  earliest  observers  who  described  the  presence  of  the  Cilia  in 
animalcules.  In  his  '  Continuatio  Arcanorum  NstursD '  he  deaeiibes 
in  many  places  the  nature  of  the  Cilia  in  the  common  polygastric 
animalcules  as  weU  as  in  the  wheel-animalcules.  He  also  pointed 
out  the  probable  use  of  these  organs,  for  he  says,  "Moreover  His 
necessary  that  these  animals,  and  in  general  all  such  as  are  fixed  and 
cannot  ahfmge  their  place,  should  be  provided  with  an  apparatus  for 
stirring  up  motion  in  the  water,  by  which  motion  they  obtain  any 
matters  that  float  in  the  water  for  their  nourishment  and  growth,  and 
for  covering  their  bodies."  Since  the  period  that  Leeuwenhoek 
wrote  they  have  been  observed  in  almost  evezy  species  of  If^fiuoria, 
and  seem  to  be  the  active  oi^gans  by  means  of  which  these  animals 


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moYe  firom  place  to  place  and  carry  {heir  food  into  their  stomachs. 
In  the  Polypes  they  are  found  in  great  numbers  coTering  the  surface 
of  the  tentaicula  by  which  these  animals  obtain  their  food.  Although 
they  have  not  been  observed  on  the  full-grown  Sponges  they  have  been 
described  by  Dr.  Qrant  as  existing  upon  the  ova  of  these  animals 
before  they  become  fixed.  Though  not  abundant  in  the  Acalephce, 
they  have  been  seen  by  Dr.  Grant  and  others  in  the  BerUe  pileus  and 
other  Jfedtuce.  Dr.  Sharpey  has  observed  them  in  the  various  forms 
of  the  £chinodermata,  and  also  in  the  Aniftelida.  In  the  Mollwca 
they  are  very  abundant,  and  one  of  the  best  means  of  examining  these 
oiigans  is  afforded  by  the  common  mussel.  Till  within  a  recent 
period  it  was  supposed  that  Cilia  were  confined  to  the  Invertebrate 
classes  of  animals,  or  at  least  the  observation  of  their  existence  to  any 
extent  in  the  VertehrcUa  was  very  limited.  One  of  the  earliest  obser- 
vations of  their  presence  in  Vertebrate  animals  was  by  Steinbuck,  a 
Oerman  anatomist^  who  found  them  upon  the  gills  of  the  Salamander. 
Within  the  lasb  few  years  Purkii^'e  and  Valentin  have  devoted  much 
attention  to  the  subject,  and  have  found  that  Cilia  exist  very 
generally  on  the  moist  surfaces  of  the  membranes  of  all  the  higher 
animals.  The  systems  of  organs  on  the  surface  of  which  Cilia  have 
been  detected  are  as  follows : — 

1.  The  Surface  of  the  Body. — In  this  situation  Cilia  have  been 
detected  in  the  If\fiUoria,  Polypi,  Medusa,  Actinia,  Echinodermata, 
and  in  the  larvaB  of  the  Batrachian  Reptiles. 

2.  The  Respiratory  System. — Cilia  have  been  detected  in  the  lining 
membi*ane  of  the  air-passages  of  reptiles,  birds,  and  Mammalia,  in  the 
gills  of  the  larvae  of  uie  Ba^achia,  and  on  those  of  the  MoUusca  and 
A.  nnelida.  Those  on  the  external  surface  of  the  Infusoria,  Polypes,  and 
Medutce  must  also  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  respiratory  system. 

8.  Alimentary  Svstem. — They  are  foimd  in  the  mouth,  throat,  and 
gullet  of  Reptiles,  m  the  entire  alimentary  canal  of  MoUiuea,  in  the 
stomach  of  the  Atteriat,  &a 

i.  Reproductive  System. — Ciliaiy  movementa  have  been  observed 
in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  Fallopian  tubes,  in  the  uterus  and 
vagina  of  Mammalia,  and  in  the  oviduct  of  Birds  and  Reptiles.  A 
peculiar  ciliary  movement  has  been  observed  in  the  embryo  of  many 
animals.  This  movement  occurs  while  the  embiyo  is  in  the  ovum, 
the  Cilia  producing  a  current  in  a  certain  direction  along  its  surface, 
or  causing  the  whole  embiyo  to  move  in  an  opposite  direction.  In 
many  instances  when  the  embryo  has  escaped  the  egg  it  moves  about 
by  means  of  Cilia  in  the  same  way  as  occurs  in  the  naked  gemmules 
of  the  Sponge. 

There  can  be  litUe  doubt  that  the  functions  performed  by  the  Cilia 
in  these  various  parts  of  the  body  of  animals  are  important ;  at  the 
same  time  their  absence  in  a  great  number  of  cases,  m  oigans  which 
perform  the  same  functions  as  those  which  possess  them,  must  lead 
to  some  hesitation  before  pronouncing  a  decided  opinion  with  r^ard 
to  their  use.  Where  they  are  situated  on  the  external  surface  of  the 
bodies  of  animals  they  seem  to  be  the  active  organs  of  movement. 
Where  respiration  is  carried  on  by  means  of  the  external  surface,  as 
in  the  Ittfutoria  and  Polypifera,  the  Cilia  assist  this  process  by 
removing  the  used  water  and  bringing  fresh  currents  to  the  surface 
containing  the  matter  to  be  oxygenated.  They  may  undoubtedly 
perform  the  same  office  when  seated  on  internal  respiratory  mem- 
branes. On  the  surface  of  the  reproductive  oxgans  of  the  higher 
animals  th^  may  also  assist  in  bringing  the  unimpr^gnated  ovum  in 
contact  with  the  fertilising  cells  of  the  male  fluid.  The  movement 
in  the  embryo  has  probablv  the  same  object  in  view  as  that  on  the 
respiratory  membranes,  the  bringing  the  surface  in  contact  with 
currents  of  oxygenated  water. 

In  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  the  motions  of  fluids  on  the 
surfaces  of  membranes  are  produced  by  Cilia  where  these  organs  exist. 
Dr.  Sharpey  observes,  "  The  currents  cease  wnen  the  motion  of  the 
dlia  stops,  they  are  strong  and  rapid  when  it  is  bri^  and  feeble 
whenit  knguishes;  and  though  there  are  modifying  circumstances 
or  perhaps  exceptions,  yet  in  general  the  magnitude  and  velocity  of 
the  current  seem  to  be  proportioned  to  the  size  and  activity  of  the 
cilia.  It  is  true  that  while  doubts  remained  as  to  the  existence  of 
cilia  in  several  well-marked  instances  where  the  water  unequivocally 
received  its  motion  from  the  surface  over  which  it  flowed,  and  inde- 
pendently of  anv  visible  contractions  of  the  animal  tissue,  there  was 
always  oonsiderable  room  to  doubt,  whether,  even  in  the  cases  where 
cilia  were  manifest,  the  effect  of  these  organs  was  wholly  mechanical, 
and  whether  the  motion  of  the  Water  was  not  rather  due  to  some 
peculiar  impulsive  power  in  the  tissue  differing  fit)m  mechanical 
action.  But  more  extended  observation  has  almost  wholly  removed 
these  exceptions,  while  it  has  considerably  increased  the  number  of 
conforming  instances,  insomuch  that  there  seems  at  present  no 
necessity  for  having  recourse  to  any  other  explanation  of  the  motion 
of  the  fluids  than^at  it  is  produced  by  the  action  of  the  cilia,  and 
that  their  action  is  the  result  of  muscular  contractility,  a  known 
property  of  animal  tissues." 

There  are  however  some  remarkable  exceptional  cases.  Currents 
are  observed  in  the  Sponge,  in  the  stem  and  branches  of  the 
Sertularia,  but  no  Cilia.  There  are  also  a  number  of  remarkable 
cases  of  the  movements  of  fluids  in  cells  in  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
which  cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  existence  of  CiHa,  as  those  seen  in 
the  cells  of  Chora,  VaUisneria,  the  hairs  of  Tradeicantit^  &o, 

VAT.BSn.  DIV.  VOL.  !• 


When  first  discovered  the  Cilia  were  supposed  to  be  confined  to  the 
organs  of  animal  bodies.  In  1848  Meyer  and  Thuret  announced  that 
they  had  discovered  Cilia  on  the  spores  of  several  species  of  Confervas. 
They  were  subsequently  discovered  on  the  surface  of  several  species 
of  unicellular  plants,  as  also  on  the  spermatozoida,  which  occur  in 
the  Ferns  and  many  of  the  lower  forms  of  Cryptogamia. 

For  further  information  consult  the  article  *  CiUa,'  by  Dr.  Sharpey, 
in  the  *  Cyclop»dia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,'  to  which  we  are 
much  indebted  in  drawing  up  this  article ;  also  the  paper  of  Purkinje 
and  Valentin,  entitled  'Commentatio  Physiologica  de  Phsenomeno 
Motus  Vibratorii  continui,'  &c,  translated  in  the  'Dublin  Journal  of 
Medical  and  Chemical  Science'  for  May,  1885,  and  in  'Edinburgh 
New  Philosophical  Journal,'  voL  xix. ;  also  '  On  Unicellular  Plants 
and  Animals,'  'Microscopical  Journal,'  vol.  i. 

CILIATA.     rMOTBLLA.] 

CILICiEA.   TI80P0DA.J 

CILIOGRADA.    [Acalephjb.] 

CIMBEX,  a  genus  of  H^enopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
Terd)raniia,  sub-section  Secunfera,  and  family  Tenthredinidte. 

The  genus  Oimhex,  as  it  formerly  stood,  has  been  subdivided 
(principally  by  Dr.  Leach)  into  the  following  sub-genera :  Cimhex, 
Perga,  Sytygonia,  Trichiosoma,  ClaveUaria,  Zarea,  Ahia,  and  Amasia, 
All  these  sub-genera  have  the  antennsQ  short,  and  terminated  by 
thickened  joints,  which  are  nearly  of  an  oval  form ;  the  third  joint 
of  the  antennse  is  long,  forming  a  knob :  the  superior  wings  have 
two  marginal  and  three  sub-marginal  cells. 

The  antenns9  of  these  insects  generally  present  six  distinct  joints, 
of  which  the  two  basal  joints  are  very  short,  and  almost  concealed 
by  the  hair  on  the  head ;  the  third  is  long,  tiie  fourth  and  fifth  are 
of  moderate  length,  and  the  sixth  is  elongate  (or  moderate),  rounded 
at  the  apex,  and  tapers  more  or  less  towards  the  base ;  this  last  joint 
is,  however,  evidently  composed  of  two  or  three  joints  consolidated. 
All  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  have  a  membranous  pad  attached  to  their 
under  side,  and  protruding  from  their  apex. 

The  genus  Vimbex,  as  now  restricted,  may  be  known  by  the 
following  characters : — ^Body  slightly  hairy ;  abdomen  with  the  basal 
segment  emai^ate  above  (that  is,  .it  appears  as  if  a  semicircular  piece 
had  been  removed);  the  space  thus  left  unprotected  by  the  homy 
covering  filled  up  with  a  membrane.  Thighs  of  the  four  posterior  legs 
of  the  males  very  thick,  those  of  the  females  moderate.  Tarsi 
of  the  males  with  a  tooth-like  projection  on  the  under  side  of  tho 
basal  segment 

This  ^n\is  includes  the  largest  species  of  the  fiunily  TenihredinidcB. 

C  €fnffinii  is  about  an  inch  in  length,  and  when  the  wings  are 
expuided  its  width  is  about  one  inch  and  three  quarters.  It  is  ^.  a 
reddish-brown  colour;  the  abdomen  is  yellow,  and  more  or  less 
clouded  with  brown  towards  the  base;  Uie  antennsQ  and  tarsi  are 
yellow,  the  former  is  brighter  towards  the  apex. 

The  larva,  we  have  been  informed,  feeds  upon  the  sallow,  and  is 
not  uncommon  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cambridge.  Mr.  Stephens 
enumerates  eight  British  species  of  this  genus,  some  of  which  how- 
ever, it  is  thought,  will  eventually  prove  to  be  mere  varieties. 

CIMEX.    [Bug;  Cnacro^.} 

CIMI'CIDiB,  a  faioily  of  Hemipterous  Insects,  the  species  of 
which  may  be  distinguished  by  their  having  the  rostrum  snort^  and 
consisting  of  two  or 
three  joints  only;  the 
labrum  also  shorty  and 
without  stri89 ;  the  eyes 
are  moderate;  the  bodv 
is  generally  very  much 
depressed.  The  prin- 
cipal genera  are  Cvmex, 
Aneurui,  Aradua,  Agram- 
ma,  Tingit,  and  Dictyo- 
nota,  all  of  which  are 
found  in  England.  The 
genus  Cimex  is  distin- 
guished principally  by 
the  extreone  slendemess 
of  the  two  terminal 
joints  of  the  antennsa, 
which  are  not  thicker 
than  a  hair.  The  body 
is  very  much  depressed  : 
the  thorax  is  transverse ; 
antenme  4-jointed ;  basal 
joint  very  shorty  second 
long,  the  third  of  about 
equal  length,  the  fourth 
rather  shorter.    Labrum 

rather    long,    somewhat       j^  Bed^ag  (CImm   UcMarku)    magnified 
pointed,  and,  when  the  j^  natural  length  of  the  same;  8,  head  of  the 
probosds  IS  not  m  use,  gune,  highly  magnified;  a,  tho  lahmm;  b,  the 
recurved  under  the  head ;  proboeds ;  c,  base  of  tho  satennaB. 
proboscis  8-jointed,  and, 

when  at  res^  lies  along  the  under  side  of  the  thoraZf  its  apex  being 
between  the  two  fore  1^  at  their  base. 


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im 


X,  a  bug,  and  fuao,  to  driye  awayV  a  genua  of 
)  natunJ  order  JkanunctdaeecB.    The  calyx  ia 


The  moat  common  species  is  the  OifMX  Ucttdariui,  the  Bed-Bug. 
[Buo] 

CIMICI'FUQA  (cMiKar, 
Fluits  belonging  to  the 

composed  of  four  deciduous  sepals;  corolla  of  four  petals;  styles 
one  to  fifteen ;  the  carpels  dry,  dehiscent,  many-seeded.  The  speoies 
are  petennlal  herbs,  with  divided  leaves,  and  racemes  of  whitish 
flowers;  the  roots  act  as  drastic  puigatives  and  are  poisonous. 

C.  fcBtida,  Stinking  Bug- Wort,  has  four  almost  sessile  and  very 
villous  ovaries;  the  racemes  panided;  the  leaves  tenninate  or 
bitemate ;  the  leaflets  ovate-oblong,  deeply-toothed.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  Dauria,  Eastern  Siberia^  and  the  north- 
west coast  of  America.  It  is  a  very  fetid  plant,  and  is  used  in 
Siberia  for  driving  away  bugs  and  fleas,  just  as  tansy  and  wormwood 
are  used  in  this  country. 

C.  terpentaria,  Black  Snake-Root  or  Bug-Wort,  has  compound  very 
long  racemes ;  the  leaves  tritemate,  with  serrated  or  rather  out 
leaflets.  It  is  a  native  of  North  America,  fh>m  Canada  to  Florida. 
It  has  white  flowers,  and  resembles  the  species  of  Aetcsa,  to  which 

finus  it  was  formerly  referred  under  the  name  of  Actcea  raoemoio. 
ike  many  other  plants  possessing  active  properties,  it  has  a  repu- 
tation in  America  for  healing  the  bites  of  snakes  and  preventing  their 
poisonous  efiects  on  the  system.  There  is  one  species,  C,  Japome<i, 
a  native  of  Japan;  the  rest  are  American  plants.  They  are  easily 
cultivated,  preferring  a  moist  shady  situation,  and  may  be  propagated 
by  dividing  the  roots,  or  by  seeds. 

(Don,  Oardener't  IHctionary.) 

CIMOLITE,  a  hydrous  silicate  of  alumina  found  in  the  Island  of 
Cimola.  It  occurs  in  amorphous  earthy  masses,  the  structure  of 
which  is  rather  slaty.  Colour  grayish-white.  Fracture  earthy, 
uneven.  It  is  soft  and  opaque,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  2'0.  It  is 
used  for  the  same  purposes  as  Fuller's  Earth.  It  is  allied  to  Halloysite. 
[Hallotliti.] 

CI'NCHONA,  a  genus  of  Monopetalous  Exogenous  Plants,  the  dif- 
ferent species  of  which  have  a  great  reputation  in  medicine.  It  consti- 
tutes the  type  of  the  natural  order  (Jinehonaeitz,  It  is  known  by  the 
followiog  characters : — Tube  of  the  calyx  top-shaped,  with  a  per- 
manent 5-clefb  limb.  Corolla  with  a  taper  tube,  and  a  6-parted 
limb,  which  is  vidvate  in  aestivation.  Filaments  short,  inserted  into 
the  middle  of  the  tube,  within  which  the  linear  anthers  are  altogether 
inclosed.  Stigma  2-cleft,  a  little  davate.  Capsule  ovate  or  oblong, 
slightly  marked  on  each  side  by  a  furrow,  2-oelled,  crowned  by  the 
calyx,  dividing  through  its  disseniments  into  two  halves.  Placenta 
long.  Seeds  numerous,  erect,  imbricated  upwards,  compressed,  with 
a  broad  membranous  winged  border;  albumen  fleshy.  Trees  or 
shrubs,  with  a  bitter  aromatic  astringent  bark.  Leaves  on  short 
stalks,  with  flat  edges.  Stipules  ovate  or  oblong,  leafy,  separate, 
deciduous.  Flowers  in  tenmnal  panicled  corvmbs,  white,  or  of  a 
rosy-purple  colour. 

By  whom  the  important  properties  of  the  various  species  of  this 
genus  were  flrst  made  known  to  Europeans  is  unrecorded ;  for  it  is 
not  worth  repeating  the  fables  that  have  been  invented  upon  the 
subject.  The  native  Peruvians,  who  caU  the  trees  Kina,  or  J^nken, 
attach  no  febrifii^  importance  to  the  bark,  but  are  said  even  to  have 
a  prejudice  agamst  its  employment.  Its  introduction  to  Europe 
took  place  through  the  Spaniards  in  the  year  1640,  and  it  is  j>re- 
tended  that  a  certain  countess  Chinchon,  vice-queen  of  Peru,  having 
experienced  the  good  effects  of  the  bark  as  a  febrifuge,  it 
gamed  the  name  of  Pulvia  Comitissn,  and  under  that  name, 
or  as  Pulvis  Jesuiticus,  was  vended  by  the  Jesuits,  who  derived 
a  considerable  part  of  their  wealth  from  its  trade.  Humboldt  regards 
a  tradition  still  current  in  Loxa  as  a  more  probable  explanation  of 
the  discovery  of  the  properties  of  Oinchowi,  It  is  said  that  the 
Jesuit  missionaries  there  had  endeavoured,  according  to  the  custom 
of  the  country,  to  distinguish  the  different  lands  of  trees  by  chewing 
their  bark,  and  that  this  had  led  them  to  observe  the  remarkable 
bitterness  of  Oinehonck,  Those  who  were  medical  among  them  were 
thus  led  to  try  an  infusion  of  the  bark  in  terUan  agues,  which  are 
veiy  common  at  Loxa,  and  thus  the  discovery  uf  its  power  was  made. 
Little  was  known  of  the  tree  producing  this  substance  till  the 
voyage  of  La  Condamine,  who,  in  1788,  flrst  printed  a  detailed 
account  of  Quinquina,  as  it  was  then  called.  Since  that  time  the 
attention  of  botanists  has  been  constantly  directed  to  the  subject, 
and  a  good  deal  of  information  has  upon  the  whole  been  collected ; 
the  general  facts  connected  with  the  nabitation,  geographical  range, 
modes  of  preparation,  and  botanical  distinctions  of  the  species  have 
been  ably  itated  by  Humboldt,  Ruiz  and  Pavon,  F^e,  De  Candolle, 
Lambert,  Pdppig,  and  Lindley,  and  will  form  tho  basis  of  the  suc- 
ceeding short  account;  but  in  all  the  minor  details  regarding  the 
barks  themselves,  and  the  species  that  furnish  them,  Europeans  are 
still  much  in  the  dark. 

To  this  genus  botanists  have  from  time  to  time  referred  plants 
which,  upon  a  more  careful  examination,  have  been  ascertained  not  to 
belong  to  it ;  West  Indian,  Brazilian,  and  even  East  Indian  Cinchonas, 
thus  have  found  a  place  in  books,  but  the^  are  really  referrible  to 
other  genera.  Circumscribed  witliin  the  limits  of  tiie  preceding 
character,  Cinehofia  will  be  found  a  mountainous  genus  conflned  to 
the  Cordilleras,  between  La  Paz,  in  about  22"*  S.  lat,  and  Santa 


Martha,  near  10*  N.  lat. ;  a  line  having  these  northern  and  aouthem 
limits,  and  bounded  by  tiie  most  eastern  part  of  the  Cordilleras  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  Pacific  on  the  other,  will  venr  neariy  define  the 
comer  of  the  globe  inhabited  by  true  Cinchonas.  Within  these  limits 
they  occur,  on  the  plains,  but  chiefly  on  mountain  sides  as  far  as  10,000 
feet  of  elevation  above  the  sea,  the  principal  zone  being  at  from  1800 
to  6600  feet  of  elevation.  In  theso  places  the  mean  temperature  is 
estimated  by  Humboldt  at  frt)m  W  centigrade,  or  62*6*  Fahrenheit, 
to  12*  centigrade,  or  58*6*  Fahrenheit 

The  manner  of  collecting  the  Huanuoo  Bark  of  commerce  is  thus 
described  by  Poppig  ('  Companion  to  the  Botanical  Magazine,'  voL  L 
p.  249).  **  In  the  month  of  April  the  preparations  for  an  expedition 
commence ;  and  in  May  the  people  start  for  the  forest,  whence  the 
last  green  bales  are  transmiUed  home  in  November.  They  fell  the 
trees  dose  to  the  root,  sparing  those  trunks  which  appear  too  young 
(palos  verdes),  as,  till  they  have  attained  maturity,  the  bark  is  of  no 
value.  The  next  process  is  to  divide  (trozar)  the  stems  into  pieces  of 
uniform  length,  rejecting  only  the  very  smallest  branches^  With  a 
peculiar  kind  of  knife,  xnade  for  the  purpose,  the  bark  is  cut  length- 
wise, and  a  certain  degree  of  practice  is  necessary  to  perform  this 
operation  properlvso  as  to  remove  the  rind  without  injunng  the  wood 
or  severing  any  oif  the  fibres.  With  the  same  instrument  they  take  off 
the  stripes  (longos)  of  the  bark  as  broad  as  possible ;  but  this  however 
is  not  done  for  three  or  four  days  after  the  tree  is  felled,  as  before  that 
time  the  moisture  that  exists  between  the  cuticle  and  the  wood  would 
prevent  the  bark  from  severing  into  such  large  pieces  as  fetch  the 
highest  price.  A  worse  consequence  ensues  from  stripping  the  stems 
too  quickly,  as  then  tiie  thin  grey  or  blackish  epidermis  shivers  off; 
and  from  the  presence  of  this  outward  rind,  covered  with  many 
oiyptogamis,  the  value  of  the  bark  in  the  European  market  is  mainly 
estimated.  The  Fngliffh  purchasers  in  particular  hold  the  notion 
that  the  bark  is  most  powerful  according  as  its  epidermis  is  covered 
with  spots. 

**  On  the  celerity  with  which  the  artide  is  dried  depends  the  price 
which  it  commands;  but  there  are  few  instances  where  prNudme  is 
BO  powerfrd  as  in  the  trade  of  the  Cinchonas.  In  the  dense  forests  it 
is  impossible  to  perform  this  operation  properly,  and  therefore  the 
bundles  of  green  bark  are  dispatched  with  sill  speed  to  the  nearest 
inhabited  place,  where  Uie  person  appointed  to  take  the  charge  of 
them  is  stationed.  Without  any  prepsration  they  are  laid  in  a  spot 
exposed  to  the  full  action  of  the  sun,  the  greatest  care  being  requisite 
to  protect  them  from  wet,  as  even  a  few  hours'  dew  feJling  on  the 
half-dried  bark  will  give  to  the  dnnamon-brown  interior  of  Uie  finest 
sort  a  blackish  appearanoe,  and  lessen  its  value  about  one-half.  The 
quickness  of  the  drying  and  the  general  excellence  of  the  article  are 
indicated  by  the  pieces  oeing  rolled  up  into  several  spiral  windings, 
which  form  so  solid  a  cylinder  as  to  exhibit  no  cavi^(canuto)  within ; 
but  sudi  portions  are  rarely  seen  unfractured  in  Europe.  The  Cin- 
chona barxs  are  no  less  sensible  of  atmospheric  moisture  than  the 
Coca,  which  I  formerly  described,  so  that  the  collectors  always  hastea 
to  send  them  to  the  dry  dimate  of  the  Andes,  or  the  principal  towns. 
An  unavoidable  loss  however  hence  accrues:  however  perfectly  the 
bark  may  have  been  dried  in  the  woody  region,  it  still  loses,  in  three 
or  four  dm  after  its  arrival  in  Huanuoo,  12  to  15  per  cent  on  its 
weight.  The  padcages  are  made  up  into  bales  of  four  or  five  arrobaa 
each,  and  with  the  greatest  possible  care,  in  order  that  the  beautiful 
canes  of  two  feet  long,  into  whidi  the  beirk  was  coiled  on  the  Montafia, 
may  not  be  broken  in  the  carriage.  Trailing  plants  (bejuooe)  are  used 
to  tie  up  the  bundles,  and  when  they  arrive  in  Lima  they  are  undone^ 
and  sorted  into  lengths  of  difierent  pieces  previously  to  dispatching 
them  in  cheats  to  Europe.  The  trade  in  Huanuco  Baxk  was  very 
brisk  twenty  years  sgo  at  lima,  and  the  artide  went  to  the  Spanish 
market  under  the  naiae  of  (^ucariUa  rosea,  without  being  confounded 
with  the  Ooriez  China  rvher,  as  it  is  called  by  us.  The  barks  from 
the  districts  of  the  Lower  HuaUaga,  of  Huambo  and  Chachapovas, 
&c,  are,  on  the  other  hand,  very  Uttie  prized  in  Cadii^  and  culed 
OaseariUa  aroUada." 

Books  and  memoirs  without  end  have  been  written  to  detennine 
the  different  spedes  of  OinchiOna  that  yidd  the  baiks  of  oonuneroe, 
but  with  very  little  result  There  are  difficulties  tn  the  way  of  this 
which  persons  unaoquainted  with  the  bark  trade  can  hardly  estimateL 
For  example,  the  bark  of  the  same  spedes  may  be  weak  and  valueleaa 
in  warm  lowland  districts,  and  of  the  greatest  price  in  alpine  or 
mountainous  regions.  The  bark  of  the  low  oountnr  about  S.  J  aen  de 
Bracamorros  has  uniformly  proved  worthless,  althou^  the  same 
spedes  which  grow  there  afford  a  fair  bark  atMayobamba,  Chachapoyas, 
and  Lamas  in  the  mountains ;  and  others  whi^  at  Maynas  are  per- 
fectly inert,  are  energetic  enough  upon  the  sides  of  the  mountains.  It 
is  related  by  Pdppig  that^  in  ignorance  of  this,  many  speculatmg  mer- 
chants have  been  ruined  by  the  purchase  of  Uie  bad  lowland  bark  of 
Peru.  The  rule  is,  that  the  best  bark  always  comes  tram  mountain 
tops,  from  single  trees  growing  in  the  coldest  and  most  devated  spots. 
Some  of  the  £est  kinds  are  procured  near  the  mountain  villages  of 
Cayambe  and  PiUao,  and  firom  the  mountains  of  Psnataguas  and 
Pampayaoo. 

To  pretend  to  reduce  to  their  botanical  spedes,  in  the  existing  state 
of  knowledge  of  Cinchona  barks,  all  the  varieties  that  are  known  in 
shops  or  in  oommerce,  would  be  a  vain  and  hopeless  task.    Nothing 


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can  well  be  more  Btartiing  than  the  discrepancies  that  exist  upon  the 
subject  in  books  and  collections ;  every  collector,  eveiy  writer,  has  his 
own  set  of  specimens  and  opinions,  and  there  is  no  possibility  of 
reconciling  them.  There  is  not  a  chest  of  bark  which,  although  cabled 
of  one  Boi^  has  not  probably  been  fiirmshed  by  many  different  species ; 
and  there  is  much  reason  to  b^eve  that  many  of  the  best  known  sorts 
of  barks  of  the  shops  are  in  reality  furnished  by  the  same  species 
tmder  different  oiroumstanceei  Fee  asserts  that  gray  Quinquina 
passes  into  yellow  by  shades  that  cannot  be  distinguished;  that 
yellow  approaches  the  rod  both  in  colour  and  flavour;  and  that 
nobody  Imows  to  this  day  with  any  certainty  the  origin  of  even  the 
barks  of  Loxa,  Lima,  Huanuoo,  or  Carthagena.  Poppig,  who  has  so 
long  lived  in  tiie  Cinchona  countries,  seems  to  be  of  the  same  opinion, 
notwithstanding  the  details  he  has  given  respecting  certain  species — 
details  of  whidi  we  have  availed  ourselves  in  the  following  observa- 
tions. In  particular,  with  reference  to  this  subject,  to  which  a  vast 
deal  more  importance  is  attached  than  it  deserves,  when  speaking  of 
the  Huanuoo  Bark  of  commerce,  Poppig's  remarks  are  highly  deserv- 
ing of  attention.  He  observes  that  as  to  the  various  species  of  trees 
that  produce  bark,  and  the  different  quality  of  the  article  itself,  much 
prejudice  exists.  Without  cause  one  species  is  rejected,  and  another 
prised  for  its  imaginary  qualities ;  and  the  same  species  is  unmean- 
ingly divided  bv  the  bark-collectors  into  several,  upon  no  known  or 
intelligible  pnnciple.  Cinchona  glandvUfera  iias  three  names, 
although  scarcely  tne  least  trace  even  of  varieties  can  be  detected 
upon  the  closest  botanical  examination. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  species  of  any  ^enus  of  plants  are  more 
variable  in  their  appearance  than  those  of  Cinchona^  and  hence  those 
who  have  been  acquainted  with  them  from  dried  specimens  pnly,  or 
who  have  not  been  ai^are  of  their  tendency  to  vary,  have  multiplied 
the  species  far  beyond  their  true  number,  and  an  inextricable  confu- 
sion would  have  been  the  result  in  any  genus  less  constantly  before 
the  eyes  of  tiie  botanist  Thus  the  authors  of  the  'Flora  Peruviana' 
in  that  work  added  thirteen  supposed  new  species,  and  introduced  many 
more  into  their  Herbarium ;  Mutis,  on  the  other  hand,  who  had  ample 
means  of  studying  Cinchonas  in  New  Granada,  declares  that  he  was 
acquainted  with  seven  only.  Zea  asserts  that  all  the  efScacious  species 
of  the  '  Flora  Peruviana'  are  reducible  to  four.  F^e  admits  eighteen 
certain  species;  and  De  Candolle  reduces  the  number  to  fifteen, 
although  he  introduces  two  species  imknown  to  F^e.  Humboldt 
states  that  he  has  himself  seen  C.  puheaeenif  the  yellow  bark,  with 
ovate-oblong,  ovate-lanceolate,  and  ovate-cordate  leaves  on  the  same 

{)lant;  he  adds,  that  some  species,  such  as  0.  macrocarpOf  have  either 
eaves  entirely  smooth  or  downy  on  each  side,  and  that  even  C,  Oonda- 
minea  has  extremely  different  leaves,  aoconling  to  the  elevation  at 
which  it  grows.  These  statements  alone  are  sufficient  to  show  how 
much  caution  is  required  in  diHtingnishing  species  in  this  genus ;  but 
to  this  it  is  necessary  to  add,  that  there  is  too  much  reason  to  suspect 
that  the  authors  of  &e  '  Flora  Peruviana^'  in  creating  spurious  species, 
were  influenced  by  a  wish  to  please  the  Spanish  courts  by  appearing 
to  prove  that  the  barks  of  Peru,  from  which  the  Spmiards  exclusively 
derived  so  laige  a  revenue,  were  altogether  different  firom  those  of 
New  Granada,  which  other  nations  could  easily  procure  direct  from 
Carthagena.  Humboldt  adds,  that  mercantile  cunning  with  reference 
to  this  subject  was  carried  so  far,  that  at  the  royal  command  a  quan- 
tity of  the  best  orange-coloured  Cinchona  bark  from  New  Granada, 
which  Mutis  had  caused  to  be  picked  at  the  expense  of  the  king,  was 
burned,  as  a  decidedly  inefficacious  remedy,  at  a  time  when  all  the 
Spanish  field-hospitals  were  in  the  greatest  want  of  this  indispensable 
product  of  South  America.  It  would  however  be  observed  that 
some  of  Ruiz  and  Pavon's  species  have  been  restored  by  a  recent 
writer  upon  the  authority  of  dried  specimens ;  but  it  appears  to  us 
safer  in  such  a  case  as  this  to  take  the  opinion  of  a  man  like  Humboldt, 
who  studied  Cinchonas  in  their  native  forests,  than  that  of  a  botanist 
who  can  be  acquainted  with  them  only  from  Herbaria. 

In  the  following  enumeration  of  the  species  we  take  De  Candolle  as 
our  guide  in  the  systematic  distinctions  of  the  species,  and  Humboldt 
and  Poppig  principally  for  the  practical  observations  upon  them. 
After  every  specific  name  we  have  added  the  synonymous  names  that 
occur  in  books,  for  the  information  of  those  of  our  readers  who  may 
possess  Materia  Medica  works  whose  nomenclatxire  is  different  from 
that  of  De  Candolle. 

*  Corollas  downy  on  the  outside  or  silky. 
1.  O,  Otmdaminea,  Leaves  oblong,  tapering  to  each  end,  smooth 
and  shining^  pitted  on  the  under  surfEice  at  the  axils  of  the  veins. 
Limb  of  the  corolla  woolly.  Capsules  ovate,  twice  as  lon«;  as  broad. 
This  is  the  C.  officinalis,  Linn.  Humboldt  states  this  to  be  the  fine 
Uritucinga  Bark  originally  seen  by  La  Condamine.  It  is  one  of  the 
sorts  imported  in  quantity  to  Europe,  and  is  said  to  furmsh  the  pale 
bark  of  the  English  apothecariea  it  is  readily  known,  notwithstand- 
ing the  variable  figure  of  its  leaves,  by  their  having  at  the  axils  of 
their  veins  on  the  under  side  little  pits  not  bordered  with  hairs,  and 
secreting  a  transparent  bitter  fluid  matter.  Grows  wild  near  Loxa, 
in  the  mountains  of  Ciganuma,  Uritucinga,  Boqueron,  Villonaco,  and 
Monie.    It  also  occurs  near  Guancabcm^  and  Ayavaca  in  Peru.    ^* 


It 


climate  than  the  O.  lancifolia  of  Santa  F^.  The  temperature  of  the 
regions  which  it  inhabits  is  about  that  of  the  Canary  Idands.  This  is 
the  C.  lancifolia  of  the  '  London  Phamacopoeia '  of  1836,  and  is  now 
recognised  as  yielding  the  pale  bark  {Cinchona  pallida)  of  the  London 
College  of  Physicians. 


Cinchona  Cbndaminea, 

2.  (7.  scrohiculata  (C.  micraniha,  *  Fl  Peruv.,'  Ruiz  and  Pavon). 
Leaves  oval,  acute  at  each  end.  smooth,  shining  on  the  upper  side^ 


Oinekona  9crchicuiaia, 
pitted  underneath  at  the  axils  of  the  veins.     The  tube  of  the  corolla 


is  uways  found  among  micaceous  sohisty  at   elevations   of  from    downy  on  the  outside ;  its  limb  woolly.    Capsule  ovateK>blong,  three 
5400  to  7200  feet;  and,  according  to  Humboldt,  requires  a  milder  |  times  as  long  as  broad.    This  is  distinguished  from  the  last  not  only 


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by  tlie  form"  of  its  leaves,  which  never  taper  to  the  point,  but  also  by 
the  pits  at  the  under  eide  of  the  leaves  being  bordered  with  inflected 
hairs ;  in  (7.  Condaminea  they  are  quite  hairless.  It  is  also  allied  to 
C,  roaea,  but  that  species  has  a  smooth  corolla  and  glandless  leaves. 
In  tile  quality  of  its  bark  it  is  not  distinguishable  from  C.  Condaminea, 
Immense  forests  of  this  species  exist  m  the  province  of  S.  Jaen  de 
BracamorroB.  It  is  tiie  oommoneet  of  all  the  Quinas  in  that  part  of 
Peru,  and  the  most  esteemed ;  in  commerce  it  has  the  name  of  Quina 
Fina.  Dr.  Lindle^  says  this  species  is  the  origin  of  the  Seloa,  or  Qray 
Cinchona  of  English  oonmierce. 

8.  a  lancifoUa  ((7.  amffuttifolia,  Pavon;  C.  Ttmita,  Lopez).  Leaves 
obovate-IanceolatCL  very  smooth  on  each  side,  without  glands; 
panide  laige,  braohiate ;  oorolla  silky  on  the  outside ;  capsules  oblong, 
smooUush,  five  times  as  long  as  broad.  Next  to  C.  Condaminta  this 
is  accounted  the  most  efficacious  of.  all  the  species.  It  furnishes  the 
orangeKSolouied  bark,  or  the  Quina  Naranjanda  of  Santa  F6  de 
Bogota,  and  is  obviously  different  from  the  two  former  species  in  its 
leaves  being  destitute  of  glands.  Humboldt  states  that  it  prefers  an 
inclement  climate,  on  mountainous  declivities  fi*om  4000  to  9000  feet 
high,  where  the  mean  temperature  is  about  that  of  Rome.  In  the 
alpine  forests  of  the  upper  limits  of  the  -zone  inhabited  by  this 
species  the  thermometer  falls  for  hours  as  low  as  the  freezing  point. 
The  plants  are  more  rare  than  those  of  0,  piib€$cen$  and  C.  magnifoltay 
always  growing  singly,  and  not  increasing  readily  by  the  root.  A 
kind  of  bark,  bearing  a  high  reputation  at  Cadiz,  and  called  Calisaya, 
is  referred  to  this  species.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  province 
where  it  grows,  whicn  is  situated  in  the  most  southern  part  of  Peru, 
in  La  Paz. 

Another  variety  of  this,  according  to  Humboldt,  a  distinct  species 
according  to  others,  the  Cinchona  nitida  of  the  '  Flora  Peruviana,'  is 
found  only  upon  the  coldest  parts  of  the  mountains  of  Peru,  where 
,  it  becomes  a  tree  with  a  stem  scarcely  eight  feet  high.  Its  flowers 
are  bright  red,  covered  inside  with  a  white  down,  and  do  not  appear 
till  May.  Its  bark,  the  Cascarilla  Hoja  de  Oliva^  although  of  the 
finest  quality,  is  never  seen  in  commerce. 

4.  CCpubaeent  (C,  cordifolia  ;  0,  ov<Ua,  Ruiz  and  Pavon ;  C,  pdUet- 
eens,  Ruiz ;  O.  hinuta,  Ruiz  and  Pavon).  Leaves  ovate,  very  seldom 
sub-cordate^  leathery,  down^  or  nearly  smooth  on  the  upper  side, 
tomentose  on  the  under  side;  panicle  brachiate;  corolhi  downy 
outside,  the  limb  haiiy  inside;  capsules  ovate,  oblong,  ribbed 
externally,  three  times  as  long  as  broad.  A  most  variable  plant, 
yielding  what  is  oedled  Yellow  Bark.  It  is  found  in  the  republic  of 
New  Granada,  in  4"  N.  lat,  at  heights  between  5400  and  8650  feet ; 
it  has  tJie  name  of  Quina  Amarilla. 

5.  O,  purpureet.  Leaves  broadly  oval,  somewhat  wedge-shaped  at 
the  base,  shortly  cuspidate  at  the  point,  on  the  upper  side  smooth,  on 
the  under  rather  downy  upon  the  principal  veins;  panicle  lai^, 
brachiate;  flowers  somewhat  corymbose;  oorolla  slightly  downy 
externally,  its  limb  hairy  inside;  capsules  cylindrical,  becoming 
ovate-oblong,  with  longitudinal  ribs,  four  times  as  long  as  broad.  A 
native  of  the  Peruvian  Andes,  in  the  coldest  and  deepest  parts  of 
the  forests,  about  Chinchao,  Pati,  and  elsewhere.  It  is  also  apparently 
one  of  Uie  wild  roots  of  Swta  F6  de  Bogota. 

The  very  considerable  size  of  the  trees  of  this  species,  and  its  large 
membranous  leaves,  covered  on  the  under  side  with  prominent  violet- 
coloured  veins,  are  said  by  Poppig  to  mark  it  readily.  The  bark, 
called  Cascarilla  Boba  Colorada,  is  not  in  much  esteem ;  but  as  it  is 
readily  collected  it  can  be  sold  at  a  low  price,  and  is  used  for 
adulterating  other  sorts.  According  to  Reichel  it  is  undoubtedly  the 
Huamala  Bark  of  trade.  Dr.  Lindley  regards  this  and  the  foregoing 
species  as  identical. 

6.  O,  VMcrocalyx.  Leaves  ovate,  roundish,  hardly  acute,  quite 
smooUi  on  both  sides ;  their  principal  veins  dose  together ;  panicles 
corymbose ;  corolla  slightly  downy  externally,  with  the  lobes  hairy  on 
the  upper  side;  limb  of  the  calvx  smooth,  bell-shaped,  acutely 
5-toothed.  A  species  distinguished  by  De  Candolle  by  the  above 
characters,  but  onlv  known  to  him  from  specimens.  It  is  found  on 
the  mountains  of  Peru.    Nothing  is  known  of  its  sensible  properties. 

7.  C,  Evmboldtiana  (C,  ovalifolia,  Bonpland).  Leaves  oval,  rather 
obtuse,  on  the  upper  side  shining,  on  the  under  between  silky  and 
downy ;  panicle  brachiate,  4-flowered ;  corolla  silky  on  the  outside, 
smooth  in  the  throaty  with  its  lobes  shaggy  inside  at  the  point; 
capsules  ovate,  longitudinally  ribbed,  about  twice  as  long  as  broad. 
First  described  by  Bonpland  as  identical  with  C.  ovalifolia  of  the 
'  Flora  Peruviana,'  but  idPterwards  recognised  by  him  as  distinct.  It 
forms  forests  in  the  province  of  Cuenca  in  Peru.  In  commerce  it  is 
called  Cascarilla  Peluda,  which  signifies  Velvet-Leaved  Quina.  Its 
bark  is  not  in  much  estimation ;  it  is  however  a  good  deal  collected 
for  mixing  with  other  sorts,  and  Bonpland  suspects  it  to  be  of  good 
quality. 

8.  O,  magnifolia(C,  UUeacem;  O.  grandtfoUa;  O.  oblongifoUa). 
Leaves  broadly  oval,  somewhat  acuminate,  smooth ;  prindpal  vdns  of 
the  under  side  shaggy  at  the  edges ;  panide  braohiate ;  corollas  silky 
externally;  capsules  oblong,  tapering,  seven  times  as  long  as  broad. 
According  to  Ruiz,  Humboldt^  and  De  Candolle,  the  C.wlongjfolia 
of  Mutis,  which  produces  the  Red  Bark  of  Santa  F^  is  identical  with 
the  O.  magnifolia,  or  Flor  de  Azahar,  of  the  '  Flora  Peruviana.'  The 
former  grows  in  6"  N.  lat,  at  the  height  of  from  3600  to  7800  feet 


Cinekona  Sumholdtiana, 

above  the  sea,  and  \b  particularly  common  about  Mariquita;  the  latter 
occurs  in  the  hottest  parts  of  the  Andes  of  Peru,  about  10  degrees 
south  of  the  line.  C.  oUongifolia  of  Santa  F^  produces  a  bark  which, 
although  less  efficacious  than  that  of  C,  Condaminea  and  C.  lanetfolia, 
is  nevertheless  better  than  that  of  C.  pvibucent;  but  this  is  hardly 
reconcilable  with  Poppig's  statement  that  the  C.  fnagnifolia  has  a 
woody  'bark,  not  very  astringent,  and  ia  chiefly  used  for  purposes  of 
adulteration  :  he  adds,  that  the  bark-peelers  do  not  even  reckon  it  a 
fever  bark,  or  Cascarilla,  but  name  it  simply  Corteza  del  Azahar. 
This  last-mentioned  author  describes  the  tree  as  very  stately,  with 
uniisually  large  white  flowers,  diffusing  a  delidous  odour  like  tiiat  of 
orange-blossoms ;  possibly  the  differences  adverted  to  are  the  result 
of  climate. 

9.  C.  macrocarpa  {C.  ovalifolia,  MuUs).  Leaves  elliptical,  leathery, 
on  the  upper  side  perfectly  smooth,  on  the  under  between  hirsute 
and  pubescent ;  panicle  trichotomous ;  corollas  with  closdy  pressed 
down  on  the  outside ;  the  lobes  hairv  inside ;  capsules  cylindrical, 
twice  as  long  as  broad.  The  White  Bark  of  Santa  F^.  The  tree  grows 
between  S"*  and  6"  N.  lat,  at  heights  between  4200  and  8400  feet.  A 
variety  of  it,  with  leaves  quite  smooth  on  both  sides,  is  common  near 
Santa  Martha. 

10.  0.  crastifolia.  Leaves  oblong,  rather  blunt,  tapered  to  the  base, 
leathery,  smooth  on  each  side ;  whou  young  shaggy  in  the  axils  of  the 
veins ;  stipules  membranous,  grown  together ;  corymbs  terminal, 
trichotomous;  branches  2-edged,  few-flowered;  fruit  oval-oblong, 
three  times  as  long  as  broad,  crowned  by  the  calyx.  Found  about 
Quito  and  Loxa ;  distinguished  from  C.  macrocarpa  by  its  peculiar 
membranous  stipules.     Nothing  is  known  of  its  bark. 

11.  C.  didtotoma.  Leaves  oblong-lanceolate,  smooth,  when  first 
unfolding  rather  silky;  peduncles  terminal,  dichotomous,  in  loose 
few-flowered  corymbs;  capsules  linear,  cylindrical,  slender,  fourteen 
times  longer  than  broad.  Found  on  the  J^des  of  Peru,  in  groves  near 
Pueblo-Nuevo,  in  the  district  of  Chicoplaya.  Its  bark  is  described  as 
brown,  intensely  bitter,  with  a  little  addity.  This  and  the  forgoing 
species  Dr.  Lindley  places  with  those  impmectly  known. 

12.  C.  actUi folia.  Leaves  ovate,  acute,  smooth,  the  veins  of  their 
under  side  somewhat  shaggy ;  panicle  brachiate^  stalked ;  oorolla  silky 
outside,  woolly  inside ;  capsules  oblong,  tapering  to  the  base,  four 
times  as  long  as  broad.  A  lUitive  of  the  lower  woods  of  the  Andes  of 
Peru,  in  Chicoplaya.  The  bark  is  stated  to  be  called  Cascarilla  de 
Hoja  Aguda :  it  is  moderately  bitter.  Ruiz  says  it  does  not  deserve 
any  attention  for  medical  purposes. 

18.  C,  micrantha  (C  parv\/[ora).  Leaves  broadly  o\'al,  blunt, 
smooth,  rather  downy  underneath  at  the  base  of  the  vdns ;  panide 
very  large,  brachiate,  many-flowered ;  corollas  densdy  silky ;  capsules 
oblong,  three  times  as  long  as  broad.  A  spedes  inhabiting  the  cold 
devatod  parts  of  the  Andes  of  Peru,  espedally  about  the  village  of 
San  Antonio  de  Playa  Grande ;  the  inhabitants  call  its  bark  Cascarilla 
Fina.  The  tree  is  of  considerable  circumference,  flowers  in  February, 
and  frequently  yields  eight  to  ten  arrobas  of  dry  bark,  sometimes 


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1081 


CINCHONA- 


CINCHONA. 


called  Caacarilla  ProTinciana,  whioh  difFem  firom  that  of  Huanuco  hy 
its  decided  whitish  colour  and  greater  roughness  of  tiie  surface.  It  is 
thicker  and  more  woody,  the  fracture  is  more  fibrous,  and  the  colour 
is  of  a  bright  cinnamon-brown.  A  bark,  called  Pata  de  Qallinazo,  from 
the  numerous  specimens  of  Graphis,  a  forked  sort  of  lichen,  found 
on  its  Burfiftoe,  is  yielded  by  this  sort,  as  well  as  three  others.  Beichel 
considem  the  samples  wmch  Poppig  brought  home  as  undoubtedly 
belonging  to  the  Huanuco  Bark  of  conunerce.  Its  taste,  which  is  at 
first  acid,  becomes  afterwards  a  powerful  and  permanent  bitter. 
Lindley  regards  this  species  as  identical  with  C,  acrolnculcUct, 

14.  0,  ^ndulifera  (C.  glandulota).  Leaves  ovate-lanceolate ;  on 
the  upper  side  smooth  and  shining,  with  glands  at  the  axils  of  the 
veins ;  on  the  under  side  shaggy,  especially  upon  the  principal  veins ; 
panicles  somewhat  corymbose ;  corolla  velvety  on  the  tube,  woolly  in 
the  inside  of  the  limb ;  capsules  oblong,  three  times  as  long  as  broad. 
The  flowers  are  three  lines  long,  and  of  a  pale  rose-colour.  This  tree 
only  inhabits  the  higher  mountains  of  Peru,  and  is  more  scarce  than 
many  of  the  other  kinds  ;  its  trunk  is  frx)m  12  to  15  feet  high,  and  its 
flowers,  in  the  month  of  February,  fill  the  forests  ¥rith  their  perfume. 
On  the  colder  parts  of  the  mountains  it  becomes  a  bush,  the  greatest 
produce  from  which  ib  five  or  six  pounds  of  bark.  It  is  considered, 
according  to  Poppig,  one  of  the  finest  sorts  of  Cinchona  j  he  says  that 
the  Peruvians  (UBtinguish  it  by  its  blackish  rind,  which  is  only  here 
and  there  interrupted  by  small  shagreen 'spots  when  in  a  fr^h  state. 
The  common  people  consider  iJiese  blotches  an  integral  part  of  the 
bark,  and  look  upon  it  as  the  more  valuable  if  beneath  the  larger  spots 
there  appears  a  black  shiniug  velvety  substance  dispersed  in  ovals  of 
some  lines  broad ;  this  is  probably  caused  hjBomQ  Byssus.  The  bark- 
gatherers  hence  ogJI  it  CaBicariUa  Negrilla.  When  broken,  it  exhibits  a 
glossy,  shining,  almost  resiny  fracture  of  a  ripe  orange-colour  passing 
into  a  fieiT-brown.  A  variety  of  it,  called  Case.  Provmciana  Negrilla, 
is  obtainea  frt)m  the  trees  growing  in  warm  valleys.  According  to  Mr. 
Beichel,  this  bark  is  equal  to  the  finest  sort  from  Loxa,  but  it  is  not 
known  in  Europe^  except  in  mixtiire  with  other  kinds. 

**  Corollas  smooth  externally. 

15.  C.  eaduc^flora  {O.  magnifolia,  Humb.).  Leaves  oval,  smooth,  erect^ 
haiiy  in  the  anls  of  the  leaves ;  panicle  braohiate,  with  corymbose 
branches ;  corolla  smooth,  fiedling  off  very  quickly ;  capsules  oblong, 
four  times  as  long  as  broad.  Found  near  Jaen  de  Bracamorros,  a  hot 
damp  country,  where  it  is  called  G.  hora.  The  tree  is  described  by 
Bonpland  as  being  above  100  feet  high ;  its  bark  is  not  employed. 

id.  (7.  naea  (C.fiuca).  Leaves  oval,  tapering  to  the  base,  bluntly 
acuminate  at  the  point,  smooth  on  each  side;  panides  clustered, 
branches  corymbose ;  corolla  smooth  on  the  outside,  its  limb  downy 
above ;  capsmes  oblong,  three  times  as  long  as  broad.  This  occurs 
not  unfr^quently  about  Cuchero,  where  it  forms  a  highly  beautiful 
tree,  which  in  its  size  and  ramification  may  be  justly  compared  with 
the  White  Beech  of  Europe.    In  July  it  is  covered  with  innumerable 

Sale  violet  flowers,  whence  it  has  obtained  the  name  of  Palo  de  San 
uan.  Its  bark  is  not  collected,  but  Poppig  thinks  it  would  be  found 
to  possess  good  qualities. 

In  addition  to  these  spedea^  Dr.  Lindley  recognises  in  his  '  Flora 
Hedica '  the  following : — 

C.  lucumcrfoHa,  Pavon  {G,  8t%ipea)»  A  species  said  to  furnish  a  part 
of  the  Loxa  Bark. 

G,  lanceolata  *  Fl.  Per.'  Buiz  suspects  this  spedes  to  be  the  true 
source  of  the  Calisaya  Bark.  It  is  found  in  the  districts  of  MuHa, 
Panas,  PUlao,  and  Cuchero. 

G,  roiundifolia,  Euiz  and  Pavon,  MSS.  From  a  spedme^  in  Mr. 
Lambert's  Museum.    Found  at  Xioxa  in  Quito. 

G,  ewdi/olict^  Mutis,  MSS.  Found  in  the  mountains  of  New  Gra- 
nada, at  an  elevation  of  from  5000  to  8000  feet  above  the  eea. 

G,  hirstUaf  *  FL  Per.'  It  is  probable  this  spedes  yields  some  of  the 
fine  Yellow  Bark  of  the  shops.  It  is  found  in  high  and  cold  places 
near  Pillao  and  Acomayo. 

G.  viUota,  Pavon  {G,  ffumholdiiana,  Lambert).  Found  at  S.  Jaen 
de  Loxa. 

G.  obUmgifolia,  Lambert.  Although  nothing  is  known  of  this  plant 
beyond  the  specimens  in  the  Lambertian  Museum,  the  London  College 
of  Physicians,  in  their  *  Pharmacopoeia'  of  1886  recognised  it  as  yidd- 
ing  one  of  .the  barks  of  commerce. 

C7.  licvAifoluk^  *  FL  Per.'  It  is  found  in  the  lower  groves  of  the 
Peruvian  Andes,  in  Chicoplaya,  by  the  river  Tasa  It  yields  very 
poor  bark. 

G.  ttenocarpci,  Lambert    From  Jaen,  in  the  mountuns  of  Loxa. 

G.  cava,  Ptevon.    From  Quito. 

Whatever  may  be  the  botanical  history  of  the  different  kinds  of 
bark,  on  their  arrival  in  Europe  they  are  known  by  names  which  have 
reference  rather  to  their  physical  appearance  or  the  place  whence 
obtained,  than  to  the  botanic^  characters  of  the  trees  which  f  urmsh 
them.  In  England  they  are  classed  under  three  heads — pale,  yellow, 
and  red  barks.  Of  each  there  are  several  varieties,  which  comprehend 
however,  various  barks,  not  the  produce  of  any  of  the  genuine  spedes 
of  Ginchana  above '  enumerated,  but  obtained  from  species  of  Exo- 
tUmma,  Buena,  and  Strycknot  (according  to  Mr.  Buxxshell).  These 
last,  called  fiUseor  spurious  Cinchona  barks,  are  all  distinguished  from 
the  true  Cinchona  oarks  by  the  absence  of  Cinchonia,  Quinia,  and 


A^icina  (or  Cusco-Cinchoni%  a  prindple  found  in  the  Cusco  or  Arioa 
Barli^  referred  to  the  Cinchona  rubiginoaa,  Bergen).  Several  of  these 
spurious  barks  are  employed  in  fever  and  other  diseases,  but  they  are 
chiefly  used  to  adulterate  the  more  valuable  kinds  of  Cinchonas. 
Even  when  there  is  no  intermixture  of  these  inferior  sorts,  a  variable- 
ness in  quality  occurs  in  the  bark  of  the  same  species,  according  to 
its  place  of  gp:x>wth.  The  finer  kinds  are  known  by  experienced  persons 
by  a  glance  of  the  eye ;  but  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  indicate,  by  any 
description,  the  marks  by  which  they  are  guided.  All  kinds  arrive  in 
Europe  in  the  same  package,  either  a.diest  or  serone,  which  is  formed 
of  pieces  of  wood  rudely  fastened  together,  and  covered  with  the  hides 
of  animals.  They  are  afterwards  sorted,  and  bring  very  different 
prices  in  the  markets,  according  to  the  degree  of  estimation  in  which 
each  kind  is  held.  We  shall  describe  the  best  kind  only  of  eadi ;  but 
we  must  remark,  that  much  prejudice  exists  on  this  point,  and  some- 
times  excellent  kinds  are  rejected,  while  inferior  sorts  are  prized.  To 
meet  these  prejudices,  the  barkers  employ  various  artifices,  more  or 
less  injurious.  The  most  useful  clasdfication  of  barks  is  that  proposed 
by  Qeiger,  which  has  reference  to  the  relative  proportions  of  their 
aUcaloidB  : — 1.  Those  in  which  Cinchonia  predominates :  chiefly  pale 
or  brown  barks. — 2.  Those  in  which  Quinia  predominates,  of  which 
there  is  only  one — the  yellow  bark  of  English  commerce,  called  China 
regia  vera,  China  Caliaaya. — 3.  Those  in  which  Cinchonia  and  Quinia 
exist  in  nearly  equal  proportions,  red  barks,  and  the  yellow  bark  of 
continental  writers ;  the  China  of  Carthagena  of  the  French,  China 
fiava  durOf  Qmna  amariUa,  This  last  is  also  called  orange  bark 
{Quina  wwrantiaca  of  Mutis),  which  is  not  the  yellow  bark  of  English 
commerce,  though  by  some  it  is  erroneously  so  considered ;  and  henco 
the  frequent  error  in  the  British  PharmacopcDias  of  referring  yellow 
bark  to  the  (7.  cordifolta  (Mutis). 

Of  the  Pale  Barks  three  varieties  are  known  in  English  commerce : — 
1.  Crown  or  Loxa  Bark. — 2.  Qray,  Silver,  or  Huanuco  Bark. — 8.  Ash 
Bark.  These  are  always  quilled,  and  never  in  flat  pieces.  The 
powder,  which  gives  the  name,  varies  from  gray  to  fawn-colour. 

1.  The  first  variety.  Crown  or  Loxa  Bark,  called  also  True  Loxa 
Bark,  is  obtained  either  exclusively  from  tiie  G,  Condaminea,  or 
from  it  and  G,  scrobictdata*  It  occurs  in  pieces  from  six  to 
fourteen  inches  long,  the  quills  varving  in  diameter  from  the 
fourth  or  even  smaller  part  of  an  inch  to  nearly  half  an  inch ;  the 
rolls  are  sometimes  double,  meeting  at  the  centre :  the  dixuneter  of 
the  bark  is  from  a  quarter  of  a  line  to  a  line  and  a  half.  The  colour 
of  the  exterior  is  marked  dark  gray,  in  some  specimens  verging  to 
brown.  A  shining  but  peculiar  appearance  is  observable  upon  it> 
owing  to  the  thallus  of  the  lichens  spreading  over  it.  This  commonly 
alternates  with  the  colours  of  other  lichens,  grayish-white,  yellowish- 
white,  bluish-white,  so  that  the  bark  acquires  an  appearance  as  if  it 
were  painted.  Numerous  transverse  cracks,  often  extending  frvm  one 
side  of  the  bark  to  the  other,  with  the  edges  a  little  raised,  are  seen, 
sometimes  dose  to  each  other,  sometimes  more  remote,  especially  in 
the  larger  pieces,  in  which  also  they  rarely  extend  to  the  whole  cir- 
cumference of  the  piece.  In  the  lai^er  pieces  longitudinal  cracks  ai'o 
observed,  and  between  these  warts  or  knots  frequently  arise,  which 
give  a  very  rough  feel  to  such  spedmens.  The  Utnea  Jlorida,  and 
some  foliaceous  lichens,  such  as  ParmeUa  perforata  (Ach.),  often 
remain  attached  to  it.  The  inner  surface  is  smooth,  except  some  deli- 
cate, irregularly-longitudinal  fibres :  the  colour  is  a  dnnamon  or 
darker  brown.  The  fracture  of  the  smaller  quills  is  even,  or  slightly 
fibrous ;  that  of  the  larger  pieces  more  so,  the  fibres  firm,  but  neither 
oblique  nor  vitreous,  as  in  the  yellow  bark  (China  reffia);  but  the 
outer  drcle  presents  a  resinous  aspect.  The  odour  resembles  that  of 
tan.  The  taste  at  first  is  slightly  astringent,  and  faintly  acid ;  after- 
wards very  astringent,  somewhat  bitter,  but  not  acrid. 

In  respect  to  its  chemical  composition,  this  variety  is  commonly 
supposed  to  contain  Cinchonia  (discovered  in    pale  bark    by  Dr. 
Duncan,  jun.)  only ;    but  this  is  a  mistake,  and  it  is  most  probable 
that  the  specimens  which,  when  analysed,  yielded  no  Quinia,  were 
dther  very  thin  quills  obtained  from  yoimg  branches  or  trees,  or  were 
specimens  of  Huauuco  Bark.     Bucholz  anidysed  sixteen  ounces  of  the 
Loxa  Bark  of  commerce,  yet  found  no  Quinia,  but  some  error  is 
reasonably  suspected ;  the  other  constituents  were  found  to  bo- 
Drachms.  Grains. 
Fatty  matter,  with  Chlorophylle        ...       1        0 
Bitter  soft  Besin  (Geiger  thinks  this  con- 
tained Quinia) 2        0 

Hard  Besin  (red  insoluble  colouring-matter)  .12        0 
Tannin  (with  trace  of  Acetic  Acid)  .        •    .       3        0 

Cinchonia 0      28 

Kinic  Acid 1       80 

Hard  Resin,  with  Phyteuiiiucv.Iui    .        .        .       1       49 
Tannin,  with  Chloride  of  Lime  .        .        .    .       4      25 

Gum 6      40 

Kinate  of  Lime 1      40 

Starch,  a  trace • 

Woody  Fibre _ 

The  Cinchonia  exists  in  combination  with  the  kinio  add,  in  the 
form  of  kinate  of  cinchonia.  A  prejudice  exists  in  favour  of  the  thin 
quilled  pieces,  but  they  are  not  so  well  adapted  to  form  extracts^  &a, 
nor  to  be  employed  as  medidne.     Mutis  many  years  ago  stated  that 


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CINCHONA. 


CINCHONA. 


lOM 


the  thick  piaoes  obtitined  from  bnoches  of  middlo-c^  trees  were  the 
inosteffioacioiiB;  and  the  analyns  of  Yon  Santen  (hi  Yon  Beigezi*B 
'  Yermich  einer  Monographie  der  China ')  oonfiimB  the  oorreot&en  of 
this  Btatementy  aa  far  aa  the  relative  amount  of  Quinia  yielded  by 
bariu  of  different  ages  is  concerned.  From  100  lbs.  of  Loza  Bark,  he 
obtained  of  Quinia — 

Oances. 

Thin  selected  quills 1042 

Moderately  thick  pieces 4444 

Seleeted  thick  pieces^  with  rough  cracked  bark     11  '104 

2.  The  second  kind,  Huanuco  Bark,  termed  also  Silver  or  Qray 
Cinchona,  has  been  known  in  European  oonmierce  only  since  1799. 
The  minority  of  writers  on  the  origm  of  the  barks  refer  it  to  the  C, 
gUmdiUifera.  (Ruiz  and  PftTon,  'FL  Peruy/)  As  it  is  sent  from 
Huanuco  to  Lixna  for  shipment,  it  is  also  called  Lima  bark,  though 
some  apply  the  term  Lima  to  a  bark  supposed  to  come  from  the  (7. 
laneifoka  (Mutis).  It  is  likewise  called  Hayanna  bark.  We  have 
the  authority  of  Foppig,  as  stated  above,  for  considering  it  one  of  the 
finest  sorts  of  Cinchona.  The  variety  of  it  termed  Casa  Provindana 
NegriUa  (the  Quinquina  Huanuco  Noirfttre  of  the  Frendi)  is  likewise 
stated  by  Reichel  to  be  equal  to  the  finest  from  Loxa,  yet  it  is  not 
known  in  Europe  except  in  mixtive  with  other  kinds.  The  explana- 
tion of  which  is  two-fold :  first,  that  though  the  trade  in  this  bark 
was  at  first  veiy  brisk,  owing  to  its  excellent  quality,  the  subsequent 
shipments  of  it  being  very  inferior,  it  fell  into  disrepute ;  and  though 
it  is  now  again  pure  and  good,  still  it  is  necessary  to  introduce  it  as 
Crown  Bark.  Farther,  as  the  French  give  the  name  Lima  bark  to 
another  kind  as  above  mentioned,  probably  the  dark-aidi  bark,  the 
dark  Ten  (China  Pteudo-Loxa),  tiie  false  Loxa  bark,  confessedly  a 
very  bad  bark,  it  has  caused  the  genuine  Lima  baik  to  be  litUe 
esteemed.  Farther,  as  the  Huanuco  Bark  is  in  quills  which  are 
lai^ger  and  coarser  than  those  of  the  Crown  Bark,  the  prejudice  in 
favour  of  thin  quills  operates  to  the  disadvantage  of  this  vecy  excel- 
lent sort 

The  quills  are  from  throe  to  fifteen  inches,  generally  from  four  to 
ten  inches  long,  with  a  diameter  from  a  few  lines  to  one  or  even  two 
inches.  They  are  in  single  rolls,  or  double  and  indoeed  rolls ;  the 
inclosed  rolls  exhibit  spiral  windinf^  and  frequently  traces  of  a  sharp 
oblique  incision  of  the  knife.  This  incision  is  not  observed  in  the 
case  of  any  other  kind,  and  it  is  probably  made  by  the  CascariUeroe 
to  facilitate  the  separation  of  the  bark  from  the  trunk  of  the  ti«e. 
The  diameter  of  the  bark  varies  from  one-fourth  of  a  line  to  five  Ihies. 
The  epidermis  is  seldom  absent,  but  now  and  then  portions  of  it  have 
been  rubbed  off,  and  then  the  rusty  surface  of  the  fiber  is  seen.  The 
epidermis  is  a  whitish-gray,  but  ofben  covered  with  numerous  lichens, 
chiefly  Qlpphu  eietUricoia,  OrapkU  dvplicaia,  Porina  ffranuUUa, 
Pyrmvla  ducolor,  MoMtoidea,  Pupuh,  Leeanora  pwiicea,  Parmdia 
perforcUaf  Stieta  tmraia,  and  Utneajlorida, 

The  character  of  the  cracks  is  more  variable  than  in  Loxa  Bark, 
few  extending  to  the  whole  circumference  of  the  bark ;  in  the  young 
pieces  the  cracks  are  not  so  deep  as  in  the  older,  in  which  also  the 
edges  are  raised,  giving  a  rough  appearance  to  it.  Some  specimens 
also  between  the  large  and  extensive  cracks  present  spaces  very 
slightly  cracked,  of  a  golden-straw  or  leaden-gray  colour.  Huanuco 
Bark  is  distinguished  by  the  brighter  colour  of  its  surface,  the  multi- 
tude of  its  small  cracks,  and  the  sharp  oblique  incisions  i^ve 
mentioned,  from  the  yellow  or  Calisaya  bark  (Qmna  raffia),  and  the 
Loxa  bark,  to  both  of  which  it  bean  considerable  resemblance.  The 
inner  surfiice  is  of  a  bright-dnnamon,  passing  into  an  ochre-ydlow  or 
rusty  hue,  and  is  generally  rough,  and,  especially  in  the  thicker  quills, 
fibrous,  frequently  with  portions  of  the  wood  of  the  stem  adhering 
to  it  Though  no  satisfifstoiy  chemical  analysis  has  berai  made  of  it, 
exhibiting  its  entire  composition,  yet  the  relative  proportions  of  its 
alkaloids  have  been  statea.  It  is  the  richest  in  Cinchonia  of  all  the 
barks  hitherto  examined.  Qoebel,  Kirst,  and  Yon  Santen  say  that  it 
yields  this  alkaloid  onlv.  Michadis  maintains  that  two  spedmenn 
analysed  hj  him  yielded,  in  addition,  a  little  Quinia.  The  quantity  of 
Cindionia  is  very  variable.  Kirst  and  Goebel  obtained  from  one  pound 
168  grains ;  Yon  Santen  from  nine  different  specimens  examined  by 
him,  from  one  pound  a  quantity  varying  from  106|  grains  to  210  grains. 
The  fracture  of  the  bark  is  either  fibrous  or  splmterv ;  that  of  the 
outer  portion  resinous.  The  odour  resembles  that  of  clay.  The  taste 
add,  astringent, somewhat  aromatic;  then  bitter,  acrid,  and  enduring. 
The  powder  is  a  deep  dnnamon-brown. 

8.  The  third  kind  of  pale  bark,  c»dled  Ash,  Jaen,  or  hy  corruption 
Ten-Bark,  is  by  Yon  Bergen  referred  to  C.  avata  (R.  and  f.),  which  he 
oonsiden  synonymous  with  the  C.  pubetcem  of  YahL  It  is  likewise 
called  Pale  Ten-Bark  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Dark  Ten-Bark,  or 
False  Loxa  Bark.  The  quills  of  this  kind  are  always  crooked, 
frequently  also  twisted.  The  epidermis  is  frequently  absent ;  when 
present,  it  presents  fiunt  transverse  cracks,  the  edges  of  which  are 
somewhat  raised,  and  a  few  longitudinal  cracks  or  warts.  The  bark 
itself  is  of  an  ash-gray,  whitish-gray,  or  light-yellow  colour,  with 
brown  or  blackish  spots.  It  has  often  a  slightly  shining  aspect  The 
inner  surfsce  varies  very  much,  sometimes  smooth,  sometimes  with 
long  fibres  attached  to  it,  sometimes  splintery,  of  a  cinnamon  or  dark- 
brown  colour.  The  fracture  is  sometimes  even,  sometimes  slightly 
fibrous,  with  a  &int  external  rednous  drde.     The  odour  is  a  mtle 


like  tao,  and  pleasant  The  taste  sli^tly  add  and  moderately 
astringent,  a  pure  but  not  disagreeable  bitter.  The  aooounts  of  its 
chemical  composition  difibr  much.  Yon  Santen  says  it  contains 
neither  Cinchonia  nor  Quinia.  Qoebel  and  Kirst  from  one  pound 
obtained  no  Cinchonia,  but  12  grains  of  Quinia ;  while  Michaalis  says 
in  two  specimens  examined  by  him,  he  found  Ixith  Quinia  and  Clmi- 
chonia ;  of  the  former,  even  80  grains ;  of  the  latter,  12  grains.  Notwith- 
standing this  last  statement,  this  is  generally  and  lustly  regarded  as  a 
very  bad  sort  of  pale  bark,  and  was  chiefly  used  to  admtente  the 
true  Loxa  Bark. 

The  Dark  Ten-Bark,  or  China  PSeudo*Loxa,  occurs  gecmlljr  i&  thin 
or  middle-dzed,  but  seldom  thick,  quills.  The  surfeoe  exhibits  trans- 
verse cracks  and  longitudinal  wrinkles,  which  often  form  rings  a  line 
or  more  broad.  The  colour  is  milk-white,  but  covered  with  so  many 
lichens  as  to  have  a  dark  appearance.  The  under  surface  is  uneven, 
fibrous  or  splintery,  the  fibres  often  very  long :  the  colour  a  rusty 
brown.  The  fracture  is  fibrous  or  splinteiy :  it  exhibits  a  resinous 
appearance  only  when  cut  Smdls  strongly  like  tan.  The  taste  at 
first  enduringly  add,  afterwards  astringent  This  bark  is  frequently 
purchased  instead  of  the  true  Loxa  Bark,  and  is  at  present  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  maricet  Bei^gen  condden  it  to  be  produced 
by  the  C.  nUida  <R.  and  P.)  and  the  C.  laneifolia :  these  are  perhaps 
only  varieties  the  one  of  the  other ;  but  whenceever  obtained  it  is 
very  poor  in  slkaloids,  one  pound  yielding  only  9  grains  of  Kinia  and 
12  of  Cinchonia.    It  is  hdd  to  be  one  of  tiie  worst  kinds  of  pale  baric. 

The  lichens  and  epidermis  should  be  scraped  off  all  pale  barks 
before  they  are  reduced  to  powder :  though  they  increase  the  bulk, 
th^  diminish  the  effidency  of  the  powder. 

The  Yellow  Barks.— There  are  only  three  kinds ;  the  Ydlow  Bark  of 
English  commerce,  which  by  continental  writen  is  called  merely  China 
rtgiOf  Q^ma  Caliioya  (the  Quinquina  Royal,  Gdbe  Konigschina),  and 
the  Yellow  or  Carunagena  Baric  of  the  Continent  oomprehendii^  two 
sorts : — ^1.  China  flava  fibrosa,  China  de  Carthagena  fibrosa,  the  Quina 
Naranjada  (of  the  natives) ;  the  Quina  de  Santa  F^  fibrosa,  or  Quina 
de  Carthagena  lenoaa  (fibrosa),  of  the  Spanish;  Quina  de  Carthagena 
amarella  lenhosa  (fibrosa)  of  the  Portuguese ;  Qtdnquina  de  Cartha- 
gene  fibreux,  ligneux.  Quinquina  Orange  (of  tiie  F^rench);  Holdgo 
Qdbe  China,  Holdge  Carthsgenarinde  (of  the  Germans).  2.  China 
flava  dura,  China  lutea,  China  de  Carthagena  dura,  Quina  Naranjada 
de  Santa  F^,  Quina  aurantiaca,  Quina  de  Santa  F^,  or  Quina  de  Ou> 
thagena  dun  (Spanish) ;  Quinade  Cartagena  amarilla  dura  (Portuguese); 
Quinquina  de  Carthagene,  or  Quinquina  flava  dura  (French) ;  Harte 
Gelbe  China,  Harte  Carthagenarinde.  This  is  the  Orange  Bark  of 
Mutis,  which  he  says  is  obtained  from  C,  UmeifoUa.  Bei^gen  and 
Gk>ebel  ascribe  it  to  C  eordifdia  (Mutis),  which  some  deem  syncmy- 
mous  witii  C,  pubescent  (YahL),  which  spedes  is  therefore  stated  alone 
to  yield  the  ydlow  bark ;  but  this  only  applies  to  the  yellow  baric 
of  the  Continent,  for  the  source  of  the  Yellow  Bark  of  English  com- 
merce must  be  considered  as  yet  undetermined.  We  shall  limit  our 
description  to  this  last  kind,  as  the  best  known  in  this  country,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  most  valuable.  Thisoccun  in  two  forma—quills  and 
flat-pieces ;  the  quills  were  formerly  most  prized,  but  all  well-informed 
persons  now  prefer  the  flat  pieces  as  much  ridier  in  Quinia.  The 
quills  are  in  general  in  single,  sddom  in  double  rolls,  the  diameter  of 
which  is  mostly  greater  than  even  the  laigest  quills  of  pale  Loxa  Bark, 
being  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  an  inch,  the  length  from  4  to  24 
inches,  oocadonally  containing  smaller  quills  innde  the  lai^ger.  The 
thidcness  of  the  bark  varies  from  one-eighth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch. 
The  external  surface  is  generally  gravish-brown,  inclining  to  hlackiwh, 
vellowish,  or  whitish,  according  to  the  kind  of  lichen  by  which  it  is 
beset  Few  pieces  are  quite  free  from  lidiens ;  manv  spedmens  exhi- 
bit the  wax-yellow  thallus  of  Lepra  Jlava  (Aduu),  which  appears  as  if 
fused  upon  it :  this  is  a  very  characteristic  mark,  when  present,  of 
Calisaya  bark.  The  quills  sddom  have  the  epidermis  removed,  which 
has  both  transverse  and  longitudinal  cracks,  which  penetrate  down  to 
the  bark  itself,  as  their  traces  can  be  perodved  upon  it  even  when  the 
epidermis  has  been  removed.  The  transverse  cncks  frequently  extend 
over  the  whole  circumference  of  the  piece,  yet  they  are  mudi  inter- 
rupted by  longitudinal  cracks  and  furrows  (this  is  more  espedally  the 
case  with  the  thinnest  quills) ;  but  all  of  them  have  nused  edges, 
resembling  those  of  Loxa  Buk.  Where  the  epidermis  is  wanting, 
the  colour  of  the  exposed  part  is  of  a  dnnamon  or  rusty-brown  hue. 
The  colour  of  the  inner  suifEUie  varies  according  to  the  age  of  the  bark. 
Generally  it  is  a  deep  cinnamon,  in  recent  barks  verging  to  reddish ; 
in  older  spedmens  it  is  paler,  or  a  rusty-yellow.  The  transverse  frac- 
ture is  in  the  thinner  quills  smooth,  in  the  larger  fibrous,  splintery,  or 
vitreous ;  a  rednous  circle  is  under  the  epidermis.  The  longitudhial 
fracture  is  generally  uneven,  and  delicately  fibrous :  this  kind  of  bark 
is  easily  broken. 

The  flat  Yellow  Bark,  or  that  in  splints,  occurs  dthffr  with  the  epi- 
dermis, or  divested  of  it  {C^ina  riffia  nuda).  Pieces  retaining  tne 
epidermis  ara  generally  from  one  to  five  indies  broad,  genersUy  quite 
flat,  but  sometimes  slightly  curved,  from  three  to  fifbeen  inches  long, 
and  from  one  quarter  to  three-quarten  of  an  inch  thick.  The  eharac- 
ten  of  the  epidermis  correspond  with  that  above  described :  the 
uncoated  kind  is  most  frequent,  and  occun  in  splints  from  one  to 
eight  lines  thick.  The  colour  varies,  but  is  generally  a  reddish  or 
rusty-brown,  and  is  nearly  the  same  on  both  surfiMcs,  so  that  in  pieces 


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CINCHONA. 


CINERABIA. 


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which  have  become  convex  on  the  inner  side,  and  concave  on  the  outer, 
08  often  happens,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  which  was  the  exterior ; 
this  is  by  far  the  best  kind  of  yellow  bark. 

Adulteration  of  Yellow  Bark  is  not  very  easy,  but  a  kind  of  humalia- 
like  bark  used  I'O  be  substituted  for  it 

The  odour  of  genuine  Yellow  Bark  is  slightly  that  of  tan.  The  taste 
IS  faintly  acid,  strongly  but  not  unpleasantly  bitter,  sxomatio,  stimu- 
lating, and  slightly  astringent 

The  analyses  of  uncoated  Yellow  Bark  (Calisaya)  by  Pelletier  and 
Caventou  riiow  its  composition  to  be  super-kinate  of  quinia,  fatty 
matter,  slightly  soluble  red  colouring-matter  (red  cinchonic  acid), 
soluble  red  colouring-matter  (more  than  in  gray  bark),  tannin,  Idnate 
of  lime,  lignin,  amylum.  When  the  uncoatod  kind  ia  analysed,  some 
Cinchonia  is  obtained.  By  a  comparative  analysis  it  is  found  that  a 
pound  of  flat  uncoated  yellow  bark  yields  nearly  twice  as  much 
Quinia  as  the  quilled  sort,  a  point  of  much  importance  to  the  pre- 
parers of  that  alkaloid.  The  Carthagena  yellow  barks  both  contain 
Quinia,  but  in  less  quantity  than  the  Calisaya  burk;  the  hard 
Carthagena  bark,  in  addition,  yields  Cinchonia,  but  not  the  fibrous 
kind. 

The  Red  Bark,  of  which  one  kind  only  is  known  in  English  trade, 
is  generally  referred  to  O.  oblongifolia  ;  though  many  doubts  may  be 
held  on  this  head.  Bergen  is  much  more  disposed  to  consider  the 
C.  oblongi/olia  as  the  source  of  the  China  Nova,  or  Surinam  bark, 
which  is  not  officinal  in  Britain ;  this  also  is  doubtfuL  Red  bark 
has  been  known  for  180  years,  but  was  not  much  used  in  Europe  till 
1779.  It  occurs  in  quills  and  flat  pieces,  most  frequently  in  the 
latter  form.  The  quills  are  rolled  singly,  or  doubly,  from  4  to  15, 
but  generally  from  4  to  6  inches  long,  and  from  a  few  lines  to  1  indi 
in  diameter,  the  bark  being  from  1  to  4  lines  thick.  The  figure  of 
the  flat  pieces  is  variable,  being  generally  very  much  broken,  fre- 
quently with  the  epidermis  entire ;  but  this  is  often  partially,  seldom 
or  never  completely,  absent  The  length  is  generally  from  4  to  24 
inches,  the  thickness  from  J  to  1  inch,  and  the  breadth  1  to  8  indies. 
The  quiUs  most  frequently  have  the  epidermis  entire ;  some  of  thrai 
have  a  whitish-yellow,  or  grayish-white  epidermis  (interrupted  by 
longitudinal  and  irregularly  transverse  cracks),  a  red  hue  shining 
through  it  In  fact,  even  in  pieces  with  the  epidermis  entire,  and 
covered  with  many  lichens,  the  red  hue  is  seen  ever  shining  through 
— a  characteristic  mark  of  this  kind  of  bark.  The  flat  pieces  have 
generally  an  amaring  number  of  lichens  upon  them.  In  tiiesejraeces 
also  what  is  called  the  rete  mucosum  is  often  very  spongy,  warty 
bodies  are  found  on  some  varieties.  The  inner  sunace  is  a  reddish- 
brown,  varying  in  intensity.  The  fracture  in  thin  quills  is  smooth, 
in  those  of  a  moderate  thickness  fibrous,  and  in  thick  quills  and  flat 
pieces  fibrous  and  splintery :  the  epidermis,  when  penetrated  by  Uie 
resinous  principle,  exhibits  a  vitreous  shining  ring. 

Pelletier  and  Caventou  analysed  a  specimen  of  the  variety  free  from 
warts,  and  found  it  to  contain — 

Sli^tlv  soluble  red  colouring-matter,  or  red 

CinGhonic  Add. 
Soluble  red  oolouzing-matter  (tamiin). 
Yellow  colouring-matter ;  fatty  matter. 
Kinate  of  Lime.    Woody  Fibre.    Starch. 
The  relative  proportions  of  Quinia  and  Cinchonia  differ  in  different 
specimens ;  a  pound  of  bark  yielding  in  some  instances  70  grains  of 
Cinchonia  and  77  grains  of  sulphate  of  quinia,  in  others  184  grains 
of  Cinchonia  and  only  9  grains  dt  sulphate  of  quinia. 

The  Humalies,  or  Brown  Bark,  is  not  known  m  English  commerce ; 
its  source  is  not  accurately  determined. 

Several  inferior  kinds,  and  others  erroneously  reputed  to  be 
Cinchona  barks,  are  met  with,  either  accidentally  or  fraudulently 
mixed  Avith  or  passed  for  the  genuine ;  but  they  may  be  known  l^ 
not  possessing  tne  characters  of  the  best  kinds  as  given  above. 

Dr.  Lindle^,  in  his  'Flora  Medica,'  gives  the  following  as  the 
result  of  his  inquiries  with  regard  to  the  barks  used  in  medidne : — 

(a).  PaleBarht,— 

Crown,  or  Loxa  Bark C,  Oondaminea. 

Silver,  Gray,  or  Huanuco  Bark         .        ,        ,  0.  micrcmtha, 

Ash-Bark (?) 

White  Loxa  Bark (?) 

(b).  TOlowBarhi:-' 

{O,  laneeolata, 
a  hiriuta. 
Cnitida. 

Calisaya C.  lanceoUUa, 

Carthagena  Bark C  eordifoliak, 

CusooBark (?) 

(c).  lUdBarkM:— 
Red  Cinchona^  or  Bark  of  Lima  ...  (?) 

Cinchona  Novex C,  magnifolia. 

(d).  Brown  JBarki: — 
Humalies  Bark     •        4       •       •        '  Cpurpurec^ 


In  the  'London  Pharmacoposia,'  published  by  the  College  of 
Physicians  for  1851,  the  following  Barks  are  recognised : — 

a  ^tow  (re^),  ((7.  coi^oKa,' Ph.' 1886)       .     j^'^^^X 

a  pallida  (de  Loxa),  (O.  lane^olta, '  Ph.'  1886)  j  ^'^y^^^ 

CrvbraiCMmffifolia'K'UZe)      .       .        I     C.tpecUt 

[_       tnctfia, 

CINCHOKA'CEJE,  Oindumadt,  the  Cinchona-Tribe,  a  natural 
order  of  Monopetalous  Exogenous  Plants,  with  an  inferior  fruit,  a 
regular  corolla,  seeds  containing  a  small  embryo  in  the  midst  of 
homy  albumen,  and  opposite  undivided  leaves  with  stipules  placed 
between  their  petiole&  This  brief  character  distinguishes  a  most 
extensive  and  important  assemblage  of  plants,  comprehending  many 
of  the  most  useful  spedes  we  are  acquainted  with.  Tlie  bark  of  the 
order  is  very  generailly  tonic^  aromatic,  and  febrifugal,  and  its  energy 
is  attested  by  the  well-known  use  of  that  of  (Hw^ona  itself,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  numerous  other  genera  fit  to  be  employed  as  sub- 
stitutes for  Jesuit's  Bark.  [CiNOHOirA.]  The  albumen  of  the  seeds 
when  roasted  affords,  in  the  case  of  coffee,  a  fragrant,  stimulating; 
and  agreeable  pzindple  [Covfba]  ;  and  the  roots  of  many  herbaceous 
kinds  possess  active  emetic  properties.  True  Ipecacuanha  is  the 
produce  of  dphcelU  Jpeeaeuanha  [Cbphaub],  but  many  other 
Cinchonaceous  plants  resemble  it  in  their  medicinal  qualities,  and 
are  perhaps  mixed  with  it  in  commerce.  Oinehonaceat  are  the 
Eubuiceaf  of  many  botanists ;  but  as  it  appears  advisable  to  separate 
Bulna  and  its  allies  into  a  distinct  order,  on  account  of  the  absence 
of  stipules,  and  for  other  reasons  [Stsllata],  it  is  necessary  to  alter 
the  name  of  the  remainder  of  the  group ;  and  as  a  type  of  the  order, 
when  circumscribed,  Cin^ona  is  unexceptionable. 

The  Honeysuckles  were  also  referred  to  Jtubiaeea,  but  are  now 
separated  bnder  the  name  of  Caprtfoliaeea.  With  these  two  orders 
CfinehonacecB  has  undoubtedly  the  greatest  affinity.  It  is  also  related 
to  the  Ckmposita,  and  throng  the  genus  LygodjfKidea  to  the  Umbd- 
ItfertB,  Some  of  the  genera  of  this  order  exhibit  a  tendency  in  their 
sepals  to  revert  to  the  foliar  condition  after  the  petals  have  fallen. 
This   is   the   case   with   Muuanda   and    OalyeophyUum.     [Calt- 

COPHTLLUK.] 

Cindionads  are  found  exdudvdy  in  the  hotter  parts  of  the  world, 
where  they  are  so  common  as  to  constitute  not  less  than  one-twenty- 
ninth  part  of  the  whde  of  the  vegetation.  The  order  comprises 
269  genera  and  2500  spedes.  The  most  valuable  of  these  are 
undoubtedly  the  spedes  of  Oinchonei,  but  many  important  plants 
beddes  these  are  yielded  by  this  order.  The  genera  Pindtnepa, 
QmdammM,  Oueuirda,  AnHrrhea,  Morinda,  MJmeitodictfon,  and 
Ophiorhiza,  all  afford  spedes  whidi  yield  barks  regarded  as  febrifuge 
and  astringent  in  the  treatment  of  disease.  Some  of  the  spedes 
yield  tannin,  as  the  Unearia  Oambier,  from  which  a  kind  of  Catechu 
or  Kino  is  prepared.  The  spedes  of  Cfhioeoeca  [Chiooocca]  have 
active  properties.  Only  a  few  spedes  yield  food.  "The  Qempap,  a 
South  American  fruity  as  laige  as  an  orange,  of  a  whitish-green 
colour,  but  containin£[  a  dark  purple  juice,  with  an  agreeable  vinous 
taste,  is  borne  bv  Cfenipa  Amerieana,  Saircoeephalv»  etetUentut  is  the 
edible  peach  of  Sierra-Leone.  Vangwna  edtUu,  or  Yoa-vanga  is 
said  to  be  a  good  dessert  fruit  in  Madagascar.  Oenipa  BratUUnaii  is 
also  eaten  in  Bradl,  but  Martius  says  that  it  is  only  fit  for  table  after 
becoming  blotted,  and  that  it  is  better  when  preserved  with  sugar 
than  when  fresh.  Some  of  the  bushes  called  in  Tasmania  naave 
currants  are  Coprosmas,  but  they  are  not  of  good  quality." 
(Lindley). 

Sevenil  genera,  as  Ofdmkmdia^  Ptydiotria,  Oenipa,  Condaminea^ 
and  Hydrcphylax,  yidd  colouring-matters  used  in  dyeing.  Some 
spedes  are  remarkable  for  their  fragrance  and  beauty,  especially 
amongst  the  genera  Qardema,  Bindna,  Potequerict,  Ixora,  Bowvardia, 
Catetbtea. 

(Lindley,  Vegetable  Kingd(nn.) 

CINCINNURUa    [BiBDS  of  Paradibb.] 

CINCLOSOliA,  a  group  of  Thrushes,  characterised  by  Dr.  Horaftdd 
and  Mr.  Vigors.    [Msbulidjs.] 

CINCLUS,  a  genus  of  Insessorial  Dentirostral  Birds,  belonging'  to 
the  family  MenUidce,  O,  aquatieut  is  the  Common  Dipper  of  British 
ornithologists.    [Mibulida] 

CINERAHIA,  a  genus  of  Plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
CompoiUa,  the  sub-order  Corymbi/era,  the  tribe  Bypaioriaeeat  the 
sub-tribe  SeneeionecB,  and  the  mvidon  Buienecionem.  It  dosdy 
resembles  Seneeio  [Sbkscio],  and  differs  from  that  genus  in  its 
involucre  being  ooxnposed  of  one  row  of  equal  scales  only.  Two 
spedes  are  found  in  Great  Britain. 

0.  paku^rii,  a  shaggy  plant  with  a  mudi  branched  stem  whidi 
is  corymbose  above ;  leaves  broadly  lanceolate,  half-dasping,  the  lower 
leaves  sinuate-dentate.  It  has  a  stem  8  feet  high,  thick,  hollow,  and 
leafy.  The  florets  are  of  a  bright-yellow  colour.  It  inluibits  ditches 
in  fenny  districts,  and  was  at  one  time  a  more  abundant  plant  in 
England  than  it  is  at  present. 

6.  eampairU,  a  shi^gy  plant,  with  a  simple  stem;  the  root-leaves 
oblongs  neariy  entire,  narrowed  below;  the  stem-leaves  lanceolate^ 
heads  ooiymbose,  involucre  woolly  below  nearly  glabrous  in  the 
upper  half;  the  fhiit  hispid.    It  has  a  stem  6  or  8  inches  high  with 


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yellow  florets.  It  U  found  moetly  on  ohalk  downs.  A  variety,  C, 
c.  monttmoy  oocors  near  the  sea  in  very  wet  seasons ;  it  is  then  twice 
or  three  times  as  large  as  usual,  and  the  lower  leaves  are  dentate. 

(Babington,  Maivwd  of  British  Botany  ;  Lindley,  Natural  System.) 

CINERAS,  a  genus  of  Bamadee.    [Cibrifedia.] 

CINNABAR.    FlfBBOTJBT.] 

CINNAMODENDRON,  a  genus  of  Plants  referred  to  Yon  Martius's 
doubtful  order  CaneUaeece.  This  genus  has  been  separated  from  CantUa 
which  is  well  represented  by  C,  alba,  a  common  West  Indian 
aromatic  shrub  with  eveigreen  coriaceous  obovate  alternate  stalkeid 
leaves,  no  stipules,  and  corymbs  ofpurple  flowers.  C,  alba  is  often 
called  Wild  Cinnamon  in  the  West  Indies,  on  account  of  its 
warm  aromatic  fragrant  properties.  [Cavella,  in  Arts  and 
Sc.  Drv.)  There  is  but  one  other  species  of  CaneUa.  Cinnamo- 
dendron  has  but  one  species,  (7.  axillare.  It  is  a  Brazilian  tree  with 
aromatic  properties.  Its  bark  is  used  as  a  tonic  and  stimulant.  It 
is  administered  in  low  fevers  and  relaxed  sore  throat 

CINNAMO'MUM,  a  genus  of  Plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Lauracece,  It  is  confined  to  the  East  Indies,  and  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  its  natural  order  by  the  following  technical  cha- 
racter : — Flowers  hermaphrodite ;  abortive  stamens  perfect ;  anthers 
with  four  cells ;  limb  of  the  perianth  articulated,  deciduous ;  buds 
of  the  leaves  incomplete ;  leaves  evergreen,  often  approximated  in 
pairs,  8-ribbed  or  triple-ribbed.  It  contains  several  species,  some  of 
which  yield  Cinnamon,  and  others  Cassia,  two  aromatic  barks  which 
appear  to  differ  from  each  other  in  little,  except  in  the  degree  in 
which  the  aromatic  principle  exists  in  them.  Till  lately  it  was 
understood  that  a  Ceylon  plant  called  Laurtu  Oirmamomwn  yielded 
true  Cinnam6n,  and  another,  called  Laurtu  Cauia,  produced  the 
inferior  Cassia  bark  on  the  coast  of  Malabar ;  but,  according  to  Nees 
von  Esenbeck,  at  least  two  distinct  species  yield  the  Cinnamon  of 
the  shops,  and  it  is  altogether  uncertain  which  out  of  several  yields 
Cassia. 

Cinnamon  has  been  known  to  European  nations  from  very  high 
antiquity.  The  Qreeks  procured  it,  together  with  the  name,  as 
Herodotus  (iil  111)  remarks,  from  the  Phoenicians,  who  are  by  some 
supposed  to  have  formed  the  name  Kinnamomon  from  Kagu-manis, 
or  Kaschu-manis,  two  Malayan  words  signifying  sweet  wood  (*  Annala 
of  Philosophy,'  1817);  and  Cassia  itself  may  have  originated  in  the 
same  word  Kaschu, '  wood.'  '  That  which  is  now  chiefly  consiuned  in 
England  is  the  aromatic  bark  of  a  small  tree  found  in  the  Island  of 
Ceylon. 

O,  Zeylanicumf  the  Ceylon  Cinnamon-Tree.  Its  leaves  are  of  an 
oblong  figure,  generally  more  or  less  heart-shaped  at  the  base ;  of  a 
thick  leathery  texture,  veiy  smooth  and  shining  on  the  upper  side, 


Ceylon  Clnnamon-Trcc  {Cinnamomum  Zcylanicum). 
1,  a perrect  stamen,  with  one  of  the  abortive  stamens  at  its  base ;  2,  a  pistil; 
3,  ripe  fruit. 

glaucous  and  beaatifully  marked  with  prominent  netted  veins  on  the 
under  side ;  they  are  always  blunt,  and  seldom  oven  tapered  to  the 


point ;  they  are  nearly  opposite  on  the  branches,  and  are  traversed 
D^  from  three  to  five  ribs,  of  which  the  lateral  ones  nm  in  a  onrved 
direction  from  the  base  to  the  point.  The  flowers  axe  greenish- 
white,  and  appear  in  threes,  collected  in  dusters,  in  small  termioal 
panicles ;  they  are  composed  of  a  downy  calyx  dirided  into  six  parts, 
and  containing  nine  perfect  stamens  and  nine  others  which  are 
imperfect  and  resemble  yellow  triangular-stalked  glands.  Their 
pistil  is  a  roundish  1-celled  body  terminating  gradiuJly  in  a  style 
with  a  white  downy  capitate  triangular  stigma.  The  fnut  is  an  otsI 
berry,  not  unlike  an  acorn,  seated  in  the  calyx,  which  is  enlarged 
and  converted  into  an  angular  6-toothed  cup.  The  tree  is  supposed 
to  produce  a  considerable  number  of  varieties  to  which  native  names 
are  given,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  these  are  not,  in  part  at 
least,  distinct  species.  In  addition  to  the  aromatic  oil  contained  in 
its  bark,  the  root  of  the  Cinnamon-Tree  yields  camphor ;  the  liber,  oil 
of  cinnamon ;  the  leaves,  oil  of  cloves ;  and  the  fruit  a  peculiar  terelan- 
taceous  ethereal  oil.  When  the  branches  are  peeled  the  finest  sticks  of 
Cinnamon  are  said  to  be  obtained  from  the  liber  of  the  middle- 
size  branches,  an  inferior  sort  from  the  youngest  shoots,  and  that 
which  is  produced  by  the  thickest  branches  is  considered  of  vezy 
little  value. 

It  is  said  to  require  a  rich  sandy  soil  mixed  with  vegetable  earth. 
Some  degree  of  shade  is  necessary  to  the  young  plants,  which  there- 
fore are  not  cultivated  in  open  plains,  but  in  spaces  in  the  woods 
where  a  few  large  forest-trees  are  left  scattered  about  to  shade  them. 
In  about  six  or  seven  years  from  the  time  they  are  sown,  yomig 
cinnamon  bushes  are  from  four  to  six  feet  high ;  they  are  not  how- 
ever generally  barked  before  the  ninth  year.  The  cinnamon  peeling 
begins  in  May,  at  the  end  of  the  rains,  and  lasts  till  November ;  the 
operation  of  peeling  consists  in  nothing  more  than  slitting  the  bark 
longitudinally  and  then  cutting  it  across,  so  that  it  can  be  readily 
turned  back  from  the  wood,  and  it  is  the  more  easy  in  consequence 
of  the  shoots  which  are  cut  for  peeling  not  being  more  than  three 
years  old. 

C.  aromaticum  (Esenbeck),  is  the  species  which  is  believed  to  be 
the  Cinnamon  of  China  and  Cochin  China.  This  plant,  which  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  hot-houses  of  Europe,  has  long  been  reputed  the 
kind  that  yields  cassia,  but  that  opinion  appears  to  be  altogether 
unfounded.  It  is  said  to  grow  in  the  div  sandy  districts,  lying  north- 
west of  the  town  of  Faifoe,  between  ly  and  16**  N.  hi.  The  leaves 
are  very  much  larger  than  in  the  true  Cinnamon,  they  usually  hang 
down  from  the  stdQu,  have  never  more  than  three  ribs,  and  never  are 
in  any  degree  cordate  at  the  base ;  sometimes  they  are  taper-pointed, 
sometimes  blunt.  A,  in  the  following  figure,  is  a  leaf  of  this  species ; 
B  and  C  are  different  forms  of  the  leaf  of  the  Oirmamomttm  Zeylankumj 
The  aromatic  fruits  called  Cassia-Buds  are  also  yielded  by  this  species. 
[Cassia-Buds.] 


With  regard  to  Cassia  lignea,  or  Cassia-Bark,  it  seems  altogether 
uncertain  what  it  is  that  yields  it ;  whether  it  is  some  peculiar  ipecies, 
as  it  has  long  been  supposed  to  be,  or  inferior  samples  of  Cinnainon 
gathered  in  unfavourable  seasons,  or  from  trees  growing  in  bad  sitoa- 


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tions.  The  differences  in  Cassia-Bark  are  of  snoh  a  natare  as  to  render 
the  last  the  most  probable  conjecture ;  it  possesses  Idss  aromatic  oU, 
a  circumstance  likely  to  occur  to  trees  in  unfavourable  situations; 
and  in  proportion  as  the  oil  disappears  there  is  an  increase  in  mucila- 
ginous and  resinous  matter.  But  on  the  otiier  band  there  are  so  many 
inert  or  oomparatiTely  inert  species  of  Onmamomum,  that  Cassia  mav 
yeiy  well  belong  to  one  of  them.  There  is  0.  dtUce  in  China,  obttui- 
folium,  xnerg,  Bazania,  and  others,  any  of  which  may  possibly  yield 
such  a  bark.  The  question  is  howeyer  one  more  of  curiosity  tlian  real 
consequence.  The  only  important  thing  about  Cassia  was  the  suppos- 
ing it  to  be  funuahed  by  what  is  really  a  most  valuable  species,  and 
that  error  is  now  removed. 

Cinnamon  of  the  genuine  Ceylon  kind  is  cultivated  in  Guyana,  the 
island  of  St.  Vincent,  the  Cape  de  Yerd,  Brazil,  the  Isle  of  France, 
Pondicherry,  GKiadaloupe,  and  elsewhere,  and  it  is  said  that  plants 
obtained  from  Paris  by  the  Pasha  of  Egypt  have  tiiriven  when  trans- 
ported to  Cairo.  There  is  however  no  probability  that  the  tree  will 
succeed  as  an  article  of  commerce  in  any  coimtry  that  has  not  the  hot 
damp  insular  climate  and  bright  light  of  Ceylon. 

C.  Tamala  is  a  native  of  the  continent  of  India,  wild  in  ]>erwanee 
and  Gongachora,  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  Rungpoor.  The  taste 
of  the  leaves  when  dried  is  aromatic;  they  are  sold  in  the  shops 
under  the  name  of  Folia  Malabathri  Tamalapathri  or  Indi 

C.  Loureirii  grows  on  the  lofty  mountains  of  Cochin  China,  to  the 
west  towai^  Laos,  Japan.  The  flowers  of  Cassia  are  produced  by 
this  species.  The  old  and  young  branches  are  worthless,  but  the 
middle-sized  shoots  are  superior  to  that  of  Ceylon,  and  are  sold  at  a 
much  higher  price. 

C.  Culilawan  is  a  native  of  Amboyna,  especially  in  Leitimoo  near 
the  villages  of  Saya,  Button,  and  Ema.  The  bark  when  dry  is  aro- 
matic like  cloves,  but  less  pungent  and  sweeter.  It  has  some 
astringency,  and  owes  its  medicinal  activity  to  a  combination  of  volatile 
oil,  resin,  and  bitter  extractive.  It  is  useful  in  dyspeptic  complaints, 
diarrhoeas,  &c  The  natives  of  Amboyna  use  it  both  as  an  internal 
medicine  and  as  a  BtlmulatiDg  linament. 

(7.  tn«6nMi»  grows  in  Cochin  China,  and  contains  an  essential  oil,  like 
the  last  species,  smelling  of  doves,  but  not  so  agreeable. 

C.  Sintoe  grows  on  the  Nilgherry  Mountains  in  B[industan,  and  the 
higher  mountains  of  Java.  It  is  a  tree  80  feet  high.  The  bark  is  in 
quality  very  like  the  true  Culilawan,  but  not  so^agreeable ;  it  is  more 
bitter  and  drier,  and  more  powdery  when  chewed. 

C.  xanthonevron  is  a  tree  growing  on  th^  Papuan  Islands  and  the 
Moluccas.  The  bark  has  great  fragrance  when  fresh,  but  loses  this 
qtiality  in  time.  It  is  so  extremely  like  Mapoy  Bark  as  to  be  con- 
founded with  it. 

C.  nitidum  is  a  shrub  or  small  tree  growing  on  the  continent  of 
India.  It  is  the  plant  which  furnished  the  principal  part  of  the  '  Folia 
Malabathri'  of  the  old  pharmacologists. 

C.  Javanieum  is  a  tree  with  a  trunk  20  feet  to  80  feet  high,  growing 
in  Java  and  Borneo.  The  bark  is  of  a  deep  cinnamon-brown  colour, 
more  bitter  than  Culilawan  Bark,  and  the  leaves  when  rubbed  have  a 
very  sharp  aromatic  odour.  Blume  says  the  bark  deserves  the  attention 
of  medical  men  on  account  of  its  powerful  anti-spasmodic  properties. 

With  regard  to  Cinnamon  and  Cassia  Barks  as  they  occur  in  com- 
merce, we  are  most  indebted  to  Nees  von  Esenbeck,  who  has  paid 
great  attention  to  the  subject  According  to  him,  the  finest  or  Ceylon 
Cinnamon  is  procured  from  the  three-year-old  branches  of  the 
Cinnamomum  Zeylaniewn  (Blume),  which  is  found  native  in  the 
island  of  Ceylon  only ;  the  cultivation  however  has  been  extended  to 
Java  and  to  South  America.  Though  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
island,  it  is  most  abundant  in  the  south-west  part,  near  Colombo,  and 
yields  the  best  Cinnamon  when  growing  in  a  sandy  quartz  soiL  The 
time  for  stripping  off  the  bark  is  from  May  to  October.  The  bark, 
after  being  removed  from  the  branches,  is  tied  up  in  bundles  for 
twenty-four  hours,  during  which  time  a  sort  of  fermentation  takes 
place,  which  greatly  facilitates  the  separation  of  the  outer  part  of  the 
bark  from  the  cuticle  and  epidermis,  which  is  very  carefully  scraped 
off  the  Ceylon  Cinnamon.  It  is  then  rolled  up  into  quills,  or  pipes, 
about  three  feet  in  length ;  the  thinner  or  smaller  quills  being  sux^ 
rounded  by  larger  ones — a  mark  which  always  distinguidies  Cinnamon 
from  Casna.  It  is  then  conveyed  to  Colombo,  where  it  is  sorted  by 
government  inspectors  into  three  kinds,  of  which  the  two  finest  alone 
were  allowed  to  be  exported  to  Europe,  while  the  third,  or  inferior 
kind,  was  reserved  to  be  distilled  along  with  the  broken  pieces  of  the 
other  two  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  oil  of  cinnamon.  The 
select  Cinnamon  is  formed  into  bales  of  about  924  ^^  weight,  con- 
taining some  pepper  or  coffee,  and  wrapped  in  double  cloths  made  of 
hemp,  and  not,  as  stated  by  some  writers,  of  the  cocoa-tree. 

Tnis  fine  Cinnamon  occurs  in  pieces  about  forty  inches  in  length, 
generally  containing  from  six  to  eight  rolls  or  quills  in  each,  one 
within  the  other,  of  the  thickness  of  vellum  paper,  of  a  dull  golden- 
yellow  colour,  smooth  on  both  outer  and  inner  surfiuse.  Itls  very 
fragrant,  agreeably  aromatio,  taste  pleasant,  warm,  aroma^c,  slightly 
astringent.  Analysed  by  Yauquelin,  it  yielded  volatile  oil,  tannin  in 
large  quantity,  an  aaotised  colouring-matter,  a  peculiar  add,  mucilage, 
and  fi&Bulmn. 

The  root  of  the  Cinnamon  tree  yields  a  kind  of  camphor,  and  the 
leaves  yield  an  oil  which  rtsembles  oil  of  doves,  which  it  is  often  used 

NAT.  HI8T.  SrV.  VOL.  L 


to  adulterate.  This  is  quite  distinct  from  the  oil  of  cinnamon  obtained 
from  the  bark.  The  ripe  berries  yidd  by  decoction  a  solid  volatile 
oil,  similar  to  the  oil  of  juniper.  Cassia,  according  to  M^rA^n  and 
others,  is  the  bark  of  the  old  branches  and  trunk  of  the  CHnnamomum 
Zeylamctun  already  mentioned,  while  others  assert  that  it  is  the  bark 
of  an  entirdy  different  species,  namely,  of  the  Cmnamotnum  Oama 
(Nees  Fratres,  et  Blume),  a  native  of  China,  but  cultivated  in  Java. 
This  last  view  is  much  the  more  probable ;  for  not  only  is  no  Cassia 
exjK>rted  from  Ceylon  (except  the  rejected  or  third  sort  of  Cinnamon, 
which  is  introduced  into  England  incorrectly  under  Ihat  name),  but 
almost  all  the  Cassia  whidi  reaches  Europe  comes  from  Canton.  Re- 
agents produce  very  different  efiects  both  on  the  infusion  and  oil  of 
these  two  barks,  which  is  a  rational  ground  for  believing  them  to  be 
obtained  from  different  species. 

Cassia  is  easily  distinguished  from  Cinnamon.  The  bales  in  which 
it  arrives  are  much  smaller,  containing  only  from  two  to  foiur  pounds, 
bound  together  by  portions  of  the  bark  of  a  tree.  The  quills  are 
thicker,  rolled  once  or  twice  only,  and  never  contain  thinner  pieces 
within ;  the  diameter  of  the  bark  is  much  thicker  than  that  of  Cinna- 
mon, and  harder,  the  outer  rind  less  carefully  removed  (large  patches 
of  the  cuticle  and  epidermis  often  remaining  upon  it),  the  colour 
deeper,  of  a  brownish  fawn-colour  (that  raised  in  Guyana  is  yellowish), 
with  the  odour  of  Cinnamon,  but  fainter  and  less  grateful ;  the  taste 
more  acridly  aromatic,  pungent,  less  sweet,  at  the  same  time  more 
powerfully  astringent,  yet  mucilaginous. 

Cassia  is  often  substituted  for  Cinnamon,  and  it  is  also  frequently 
adulterated  with  Cassia  Lignea  (which  is  the  bark  of  a  degenerate 
variety  of  the  Oiitnamomnm  Zeylanicum  (Blume)  growing  in  Malabar, 
Penang,  and  Silhet),  with  the  bark  of  Cinnamomwn  OSUilawan,  and 
with  portions  which  by  distUlation  have  been  deprived  of  their 
volatile  oft 

Oil  of  Cinnamon  is  obtained  chiefly  from  the  fragments  which  fall 
from  the  quUls  during  the  inspection  and  sorting  at  Colombo.  These 
fragments  are  coarsdy  powdered,  and  after  being  immersed  for  forty- 
eight  hours  in  searwater,  are  distiUed,  when  a  milky  fluid  comes  over, 
which  separates  into  two  parts,  a  light  oil  which  floats,  and  a  heavy 
one  which  sinks  in  the  water.  Eighty  pounds  wdght  of  Cinnamon 
vidd  about  two  ounces  and  a  half  of  light  oil,  and  five  ounces  and  a 
half  of  heavy  oiL  About  100  gallons  of  oil  of  cinnamon  are  annually 
obtained  at  Colombo.  As  the  oil  which  is  met  with  in  commerce  is  a 
mixture^  diese  two,  the  spedfio  gravity  is  variable,  1*085  to  1*090l 
In  time  a  spontaneous  separation  takes  place,  and  there  are  formed 
beautiful  transparent  crysfcals  of  a  stearopteo,  or  Cinnamon-Camphor. 
Sometimes  benzoic  add  is  formed.  Oil  of  Casda  is  also  obtained  by 
distillation ;  at  first  it  is  whiter  than  oil  of  cinnamon,  afterwards  it 
becomes  yellow,  but  never  of  such  a  fiery  yellow  as  dnnamon-oiL 
The  odour  is  agreeable,  but  not  so  delicate  ana  cinnamon-like :  taste^ 
acrid,  burning,  but  different  fiK>m  dnnamon.  Specific  gravity  1*0608 ; 
it  reddens  litmus  paper.  At  a  low  temperature  crystals  show  them- 
sdves,  which  disappear  with  an  increase  of  heat  Some  connder  these 
a  camphor,  others  benzoic  add.  Benzoic  add  unquestionably  exists 
in  this  oiL  Oil  of  cinnamon  is  adulterated  with  oil  of  cassia,  with 
the  oil  of  cassia-buds,  with  the  oil  of  the  Ceranu  lawo-ceroiut,  or 
Cherry-Laurd,  and  it  is  also  said  with  oil  of  bitter-almonds,  an  exceed- 
ingly dangerous  intermixture. 

CINNAMON-STONE.    [Gabitkt.] 

CINNAMON,  WILD.    [Cinkamodsitdron.] 

CINNYRIDiE,  a  feonily  of  Passerine  Birds  of  brilliant  plumage, 
living  upon  thejuices  of  flowers,  and  representing  in  the  Old  World  the 
TrochUuJUe,  or  Humming-Birds  of  the  New  Continent  and  its  islands 
They  are  known  bv  the  common  names  of  Sun-Birds  and  Soui-Mangas. 

Cuvier,  in  defining  his  genus  CiwnyrU^  states  that  the  spedes  com- 
posing it  have  the  tail  no  longer  worn ;  the  bill  long  and  very  slender, 
with  the  edge  of  the  two  mandibles  findy  serrated ;  and  the  tongue, 
which  can  be  protruded  from  the  bill,  terminating  in  a  fork.  They 
are,  he  observes,  small  birds,  the  plumage  of  whose  males  glitters  in 
the  season  of  love  with  metallic  colours,  approaching  in  splendour 
that  of  the  Humming-Birds,  which  they  represent  in  this  respect  in 
the  Old  Continent,  where  they  are  found  prindpally  in  Africa  and 
the  Indian  Archipelago.  They  live,  he  adds,  on  flowers,  from  which 
they  pump  the  juices  :  thdr  nature  is  gay,  and  their  song  agreeable. 
Their  beauty  makes  them  much  sought  after  in  our  cabinets ;  but  as 
the  plumage  of  the  females  and  that  of  the  males  during  the  interval 
between  we  seasons  of  love  is  entirdy  different  from  its  nuptial 
brillisncy,  it  is  difficult  to  characterise  the  spede&   ('  B^;ne  Animal.') 

Cvninyriif  in  Ouvier^s  arrangement,  stands  between  MdUkr^^i  and 
AraehnothircL, 

Mr.  Vigors  condders  the  Ten/nirottru,  or  Suctorial  Birds,^  the  most 
interesting  group  perhaps  of  the  animal  world.  "  Deriving,"  says 
that  author,  "thdr  subsistence  for  the  most  part  from  the  nectar  of 
flowers,  we  never  fail  to  associate  them  in  idea  with  that  more  beauti- 
ful and  perfect  part  of  the  vegetable  creation,  with  which,  in  thdr 
delicacy  and  fragility  of  form,  thdr  variety  and  brilliancy  of  hues,  not 
less  than  by  their  extraotiiig  their  nourishment  from  vegetable  juices, 
they  ikppear  to  have  so  many  pd»ti<ma.  As  the  tribe  is  confined  ex- 
cludvely  to  the  torrid  xone  aad  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  natu- 
ralists of  our  northern  latitudM  hft^e  little  opportunity  of  observing 
their  manners  or  of  inspecting  their  internal  construction.     Much 


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CINNTRIDiES. 


CINNYRID-fi. 


1093 


confusion  has  consequently  arisen  in  assigning  them  their  respective 
stations,  more  particularly  among  the  Honey-Suckers  of  Australia, 
which  have  been  indiscriminately  scattered  among  every  group  of  the 
order.  In  the  absence  of  that  certain  and  perfect  information  which 
alone  can  authorise  us  to  decide  upon  the  station  of  any  bird  in 
nature,  I  cannot,  at  present,  undertake  to  fill  up  the  details  of  this 
tribe  with  much  pretension  to  accuracy.  The  following  sketch  how- 
Qver  of  the  Suctorial  Families  will,  I  imagine,  be  found  to  afford  some 
approach,  in  its  general  outline,  to  the  natural  divisions  into  which 
the  tribe  branches  out,  and  to  the  order  in  which  they  succeed  each 
other  i—Nectariniadce  (/),  Ornnytida,  TroehilidcB,  PromeropidcBf  MeU- 
phagidcB,  Arranged  according  to  their  typical  characters,  they  thuff 
succeed  each  other : — 

Normal  Group. 
Bills  and  feet  comparatively  slender  f  (Hnnyridce. 
(gracilioribus)        ....   \Trochilid<8, 

Aberrant  Group. 

Bills  and  feet  comparatively  »tn>ng  JS2^J^({j: 
(fortionbus)      ....  \  ^eZri^iad<E(t)." 

Mr.  Vigors  then  proceeds  to  state  that  Illiger  was  the  first  who 
separated  the  true  Certhia  of  the  present  day  from  the  groups  of  the 
Linnaean  Certkia,  which  feed  upon  vegetable  juices,  and  which  he 
therefore  distinguished  by  the  generic  name  of  Nectarinia.  This 
latter  genus,  observes  Mr.  Vigors,  comprising  two  distinct  and 
strongly  marked  groups,  has  again  been  separated  by  Cuvier  into  two 
divisions  :  for  the  first  of  which,  consisting  of  birds  whose  bills  are 
shorter  and  stronger  than  those  of  the  second,  and  whose  feet  are  also 
in  general  more  robust,  he  has  retained  the  name  of  N^arinia ; 
while  he  has  distinguished  the  latter  division,  where  th^  bills  are 
longer  and  more  attenuated,  and  the  l^gs  and  feet  are  proportionally 
more  delicate,  by  the  appellation  of  OinnyrU.  The  first  two  families 
in  the  arrangement  of  Mr.  Vigors  accord  with  these  views ;  and  he 
remarks  that,  besides  the  difference  in  their  structure,  the  two  groups 
may  be  separated  by  their  geographical  limits.  The  NectariniadcB^  as 
far  as  Mr.  Vigors  can  trace  out  their  extent,  are  confined  to  the  Kew 
World ;  while  the  Oinnyridce  are  circumscribed  within  the  bounds  of 
the  ancient  continent  and  its  adjoining  islands.  In  looking  to  the 
succession  of  affinities  in  the  tribe,  1^.  Vigors  remarks  that  the 
Nectariniadce  appear  to  hold,  by  the  comparative  strength  of  their 
feet  and  bill,  an  intermediate  rank  between  the  Creepers  and  the 
typical  groups  of  the  present  tribe.  The  OertkitidiB,  as  we  have  seen 
[Certhiada],  employ,  he  observes,  the  feet  in  climbing;  the  Nectarir 
nictdcB  hop  from  fiower  to  fiower,  seeking  the  nectar  of  each ;  while 
the  Oinnyridce  and  TrochUida  make  no  use  whatever  of  the  foot  as 
they  extract  their  food,  but  during  the  process  of  feeding  are  poised 
entirely  on  the  wing.  The  two  last-mentioned  families,  he  adds, 
again  approach  each  other  in  the  slendemess  of  their  bill,  the  vivid- 
ness and  changeable  lustre  of  their  pltmiage,  and  the  habit  of  hover- 
ing on  the  wing  when  they  feed.  They  are  chiefly  separated  by  the 
comparatively  stronger  foot  and  bill  of  the  CHnnyridce ;  but  the 
geographical  distribution  of  the  two  families  points  out  a  line  of 
demarcation.  Mr.  Vigors  concludes  this  part  of  his  observations  by 
acknowledging  that  these  two  typical  families  are  the  only  groups  in 
the  tribe  of  whose  situation  he  can  speak  with  any  confidence ;  and  these 
two  families  form  the  subject  of  tkis  article.  ('  Katural  Afi&nities  that 
connect  the  Orders  and  Families  of  Birds,'  in  '  Linn.  Trans.,'  voL  xiv.) 

Mr.  Swainson  considers  the  CiimyridcBy  or  Sun-Birds — so  called  by 
the  natives  of  Asia  in  allusion  to  their  splendid  and  shining  plumage — 
the  subtypical  family  of  the  Tenvirottres,  He  observes  that  the 
affinity  is  obvious  between  this  family  and  the  Meliphagidce ;  but 
whether  the  direct  passage  is  made  by  the  short-billed  Honey-Suckers 
{DiecBwn,  Cuv.)  or  by  the  Spider-Suckers  {ArcKhnotfteraf  Temm.)  is 
uncertain.  "  The  plumage  of  the  meliphagous  birds  of  Australia," 
says  Jfr.  Swainson,  "is  almost  universally  dull,  or  at  least  destitute 
of  those  gay  and  beautiful  tints  which  are  so  strikingly  developed  in 
the  sun-birds :  a  rich  golden-green,  varied  on  the  under  parts  with 
steel-blue,  purple,  bright-orange,  or  vivid-crimson,  decorates  nearly  all 
the  species,  and  produces  a  bnllancy  of  colours  only  rivalled  by  those 
of  the  humming-birds.  The  bill  is  very  long,  slender,  and  acutely 
pointed,  the  maigins  being  dentated  in  ike  most  regular  and  delicate 
manner :  yet  these  teelh  are  so  small  as  scarcely  to  be  seen  by  the 
naked  eye ;  the  tongue  is  formed  into  a  bifid  tube,  or  rather,  as  wc 
suspect,  into  two  flattened  filaments;  thus  differingmaterially  from  that 
of  the  honey-suckers,  which  always  ends  in  abrush :  the  bill  aJso  is  never 
notched.  The  difference  between  the  two  structiures  is  softened  down 
by  the  intervention  of  the  nectar-birds  (Nectarinia,  HI.),  whose  bill 
shows  a  union  of  both  characters,  the  margins  being  finely  dentated, 
and  the  tip  distinctly  notched.  The  species  of  the  latter  are  few ; 
and  while  Cinnyris  is  restricted  to  the  tropics  of  the  Old  World, 
Nectarinia  represents  them  in  the  New.  Some  few  other  forms, 
found  in  Australia  and  in  the  Oceanic  Islands,  belong  to  this  group, 
and  they  are  arranged  in  the  genera  Melitkreptet  and  Dicceum,  but 
their  habits  are  imperfectly  understood." 

The  genelu  arranged  l»y  Mr.  Swainson  under  the  family  Oinnyridce 
im  Mdithreptes,  Cinnyris,  Antkreptes,  Nectarinia,  and  IHcoeum.  The 
family  staiids  between  the  Mdip?iaffid<B  and  the  Trochilida:. 


Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  makes  the  Nectarinidee,  aa  he  writes  the  word,  the 
second  family  of  the  tribe  Tenmroitret,  placing  it  between  the  Upvpida 
and  the  TrocktUdo!. 

The  NeetarinidcBy  in  his  arrangement^  comprise  the  following  sub- 
funilies  and  genera : — 

Sub-Family  1.    NeetarinintR. 

Genera: — Bfoho,  Less,  (Meropt,  Certhia,  Gm. ;  Oraevla,  Merr. ; 
Mdiphaga,  Temm.).  Drepanis,  Temm.  (Certhia,  Gm. ;  MeHtkreptw, 
Vieill. ;  Vetiiaria,  Flem.).  Arachnothera,  Temm.  (Cinmyrit,  Horaf  ; 
Certhia,  Lath.).  NectaHnia,  III  (Certhia,  Linn. ;  MelUwga,  Vieill. ; 
Cinnyris,  Cuv. ;  JRhundace,  Moehr.).  Ptilotwm,  Sw.  (Promerops,  Leas. ; 
Upupa,  Qul).  Anthrepiea,  Sw.  (Mellisuffa,  Vieill.;  Cinnyris,  Sw.). 
Certhionyx,  Less.  (Certhia,  Cuv.).  Diccswm,  Cuv.  (Certhitk,  Gm.). 
Sub-Family  2.  CcerAince. 

Certhiola,  Sundev.  (Fwnarius,  Steph.;  NeeUuriiUa  (111.),  Less.; 
Certkia,  Linn.).  DactUs,  Cuv.  (Certhia,  Linn.).  Undroslrum,  Lafr. 
and  D'Orb. 

Upon  the  whole  we  take  the  anangement  of  Mr.  Swainson. 
The  following  cut  is  after  his  figures  in  the  '  Classification  of  Birds.' 


Billa  of  dnnyridte, 
a,  MtlUhrepies;  h,  Cinnyris;  e,  Anthreptes ;  d,  Kectarinia;  e,  Dieteum, 

The  CinnyridcB  have  the  following  characters : — ^Wings  with  the 
outermost  quills  more  or  lees  shortened  or  graduated.  &11  more  or 
less  curved,  generally  entire.  Nostrils  shorty  oval,  membranaceous, 
opening  by  a  lateral  slit    Feet  moderate    Bill  entire.    (Sw.) 

Mdithreptes,  Vieill — Bill  long,  sickle-shaped ;  the  aides  considerably 
compressed ;  the  culmen  elevated,  and  the  tips  entire.  NostriU  very 
shorty  opening  by  a  semicircular  slit  Tongue  long;  the  tip  only 
terminated  by  a  bunch  of  short  filaments.  Wings  moderate ;  the 
first  three  quills  nearly  equal.  Feet  robust^  long ;  lateral  toes  equal ; 
tarsus  almost  twice  as  long  as  the  hind  toe.    Pacific  Islands.     (Sw.) 

Example,  Mdithreptes  Pacifica. 

Cinnyris,  Cuv. — Bill  long,  slender ;  the  tips  very  acute  and  entire  ; 
the  margins  minutely  denticulated;  base  of  the  upper  madible 
folding  over,  and  partiy  concealing  that  of  the  lower.  Nostrils  short, 
ovaL  Tongue  retractile,  simply  forked;  First  quill  spurious, 
second  shorter  than  the  third.  Tail  even  or  rounded.  India  and 
Africa.     (Sw.) 

C,  chalybeia.  It  is  golden-green,  with  brown  wings  and  tail,  and 
narrow  pectoral  red  band  bordered  above  by  another  of  steel-blue; 


Lesser  OoUared  Creeper  {(Xnnyrit  ehalybeia),    (Sw.,  *  ZooL  ID.*) 

upper  tail-covers  blue.  This,  according  to  Mr.  Swainson,  »  Certkia 
chalybeia,  Linn.,  GmeL;  Le  Soui-manga  Ji  Collier,  Vieill.;  and  Collared 
Creeper,  Lath. 

Mr.  Swainson  remarks  that  another  bird  veiy  nearly  resembling 
this  has  been  figured  by  Le  Vaillant  under  the  name  of  Le  Sucrier  ^ 
Plastron  Rouge  ('  Ois  d'Afr.,'  pi.  800),  but  that  Le  VaillanVs  i 


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CIONUS. 


1094 


for  separating  them  are,  he  thinks,  sufficient,  at  least  until  more 

forcible  ones  are  adduced  than  mere  conjecture. 

AfUhrtptet,  Sw. — ^Bill  moderate,   rather  strong,    slightly  curved; 

widening  towards  the  base,  which  is  much  broader  than  it  is  high. 

Base  of  the  under  mandible  thickened,  and  not  partially  covered  by 

the  upper.     Wings,  feet,  and  tail  as  in  Cinnyrii.     (Sw.) 

A.  Ja/panica  {Nectarinia  Javanicct,  Horsf.).  It  is  glossy  metallio- 
>urple  above,  olive-yellow  beneath;  scapulars,  rumn,  and  rather 
iroad  lateral  stripe  extending  from  the  comer  of  tne  bill  to  the 

breast  with  a  slight  curvature,  glossy  violet;  the  throat  chestnut; 

tail  black. 


t 


Antkreptet  Javanica.     (Sw.,  *  Zool.  HI.') 

Mr.  Swainson  describes  this  bird  as  a  Oinnyrtt  in  the  'Zoological 
Illustrations,'  and  by  the  name  here  adopted  in  his  '  Classification  of 
Birds.'  These  changes  however  leave  his  declaration  that  it  is  not  a 
Nectarinia  (a  genus  confined  to  the  New  World)  untouched. 

Neciarinia,  IlL — Bill  in  general  shorter  than  the  head,  wide  at  the 
base,  compressed  from  the  nostrils.  Tip  of  the  upper  mandible  with 
a  distinct  notch ;  the  margins  entire.  Wings,  long;  the  first  three 
quills  nearly  equal.  Lateral  toes  unequal.  South  America  only. 
(Swainson.) 


yrttVim  {NHftariitia  e^anoesphaia).    (Sw.,  *  ZooU  IlL*) 
Upper  flgore^  femalei   kowsr  fifue,  male. 


N,  cyanocephala.  Male :  Changeable  blue ;  throat,  back,  tail,  and 
wings  black;  the  quills  edged  with  blue.  Female:  green;  head, 
chedcs,  and  scapulars  bluish ;  throat  gray.     (Sw.) 

This,  according  to  Mr.  Swainson,  is  (Male)  MotaciUa  Capana,  Linn., 
QmeL;  Sylvia  Cayana,  Lath.;  Pepit  Bleu  de  Cayenne  (?),  Briss.; 
Cayenne  Warbler,  Lath.;  and  ^Ivia  CayenentU  ccsrtclea,  Briss. 
female)  MotaciUa  cyanocephala,  Omel. ;  Sylvia  cyanocephala,  QmeL; 
Sylvia  viridU,  and  Le  Pepit  Y erd,  Briss. ;  Blue-Headed  Warbler,  and 
Blue-Headed  Creeper  (?),  Lath. 

Mr.  Swainson  states  that  the  habits  of  this  bird  are  perfectly  the 
same  as  those  of  the  rest  of  the  Neetarinice,  "  It  is,"  he  ears,  *'  one 
of  the  commonest  birds  of  Brazil,  and  appears  spread  over  the  whole 
extent  of  that  country.  It  frequents  the  same  trees  as  the  humming- 
birds, hopping  frvm  flower  to  flower  and  extracting  the  nectar  from 
each;  but  this  is  not  done  on  the  wing,  because  its  formation  is 
obviously  difibrent  from  the  humming-birds,  which,  on  the  contrary, 
poise  themselves  in  the  air  during  feeding." 

Mr.  Swainson  remarks  that  the  young  males,  as  usual  before 
moulting,  have  the  colours  of  the  female,  and  that  the  rich  sky-blue 
of  the  male  in  some  lights  becomes  greenish,  and  in  others  dark  blue. 

Diccewn,  Cuv. — Bill  short,  remarkably  broad  at  the  base,  and 
suddenly  compressed  beyond ;  the  tips  entire ;  the  margins  minutely 
denticulated ;  nostrils  triangular.  Wings,  feet^  and  tail  as  in  Necta- 
rinia,    Indian  and  Australian  islands.     (Sw.) 

The  figure  referred  to  by  Cuvier,  and  copied  into  the  article 
Cbbthiaoji,  is  evidently  a  Humming-Bird,  and  must  have  been  given 
by  mistake.  The  reader  will  find  a  most  elegant  and  characteristic 
drawing  of  D.  hirvMdvnaceum  in  Mr.  Qould's  grand  work  on  the  '  Birds 
of  Australia.' 

Mr.  Gould  states  that  the  Swallow  Diccewn  has  neither  the 
habits  of  the  Pardalotes  nor  of  the  Honey-Eaters :  it  diffiBrs,  he  says, 
from  the  former  in  its  quick  darting  flight,  and  from  the  latter  in  its 
less  prying,  clinging,  and  creeping  actions  among  the  leaves,  &c. 
''When  perched  on  a  branch,"  continues  Mr.  Gould,  "it  sits  more 
upright,  and  is  more  swallow-like  in  its  contour  than  either  of  the 
forms  alluded  to.  The  structure  of  its  nest  and  the  mode  of  its  nidi- 
fication  are  also  very  dissimilar.  Its  song  is  a  very  animated  and 
long-continued  strain,  but  is  uttqred  so  inwardly  that  it  is  almost 
necessary  to  stand  beneath  the  tree  upon  which  the  bird  is  perched 
before  its  notes  can  be  heard.  Its  beautiful  purse-like  nest  is  com- 
posed of  the  white  cotton-like  substance  found  in  the  seed-vessels  of 
many  plants;  and  among  other  trees  is  sometimes  appended  on  a 
small  branch  of  a  Catwjurina  or  an  Acacia  pendida.  It  was  on  the 
latter  tree  that  I  found  a  nest  oontaining  three  or  four  young :  a 
second  nest  with  the  eggs  was  given  to  me  in  Sydney.  The  ground- 
colour of  the  eggs  is  dull  white,  with  very  minute  spots  of  brown 
scattered  over  the  surfaoe;  they  are  9  lines  long  by  b\  lines  broad. 
The  male  has  the  head,  all  the  upper  surfEuse,  wings,  and  tail  bkck ; 
throat,  breast,  and  under  tail-coverts  scarlet ;  flanks  dusky ;  abdomen 
white,  with  a  broad  patch  of  black  down  the  centre ;  irides  dark 
brown ;  bill  blackish-brown ;  feet  dark-brown.  The  female  is  dull- 
black  above,  glossed  with  steel-blue  on  the  wings  and  tail ;  throat  and 
centre  of  the  abdomen  buff;  flanks  light-brown ;  imder  tail-coverts  a 
pale  scarlet."     Locality,  the  Australian  continent  generally. 

CINNYRIS.    [Cikntrida] 

CINQUEFOIL.      [POTKKTILLA.] 

CI'ONUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section  Rkymcih 
phora  and  family  Curoulioniikg. 

Schonherr  (in  his  'Synonynua  Insectorum')  links  the  present 
genus  with  t^e  genera  6y»uuBtron,  Mecinut,  and  Nanodea,  under  the 
head  OUmidea,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  sub-family.  We  shall 
^erefore  briefly  state  the  characters  of  these  genera  imder  this  head, 
first  observing  that  the  Cionides  may  be  distingmahed  from  allied 
groups  by  their  having  the  antenna  9-  or  10-jointed,  6  of  which 
always  compose  the  funiculus,  or  that  portion  between  the  basal 
joint  and  the  club  which  terminates  the  antenna.    . 

The  characters  of  the  genus  Oionus  are  as  follows: — ^Antennas 
short,  the  two  basal  joints  of  the  funiculus  obconical,  the  remainder 
short  and  truncated  at  the  apex :  the  club  long  and  indistinctly 
jointed.  Rostrum  elongate,  curved,  inserted  in  a  groove  beneath  the 
thorax.  Thorax  small ;  elytra  neariy  spherical,  furnished  with  tufts 
of  a  velvet-like  nature ;  femora  very  thid^  in  the  middle ;  tibin  simple^ 
truncated  at  the  apex.  ^ 

Four  species  of  this  genus  are  found  in  England  ;  they  live  both 
in  their  larva  and  ima^  states  upon  plants,  more  especisily  those  of 
the  genera  Scrophul<»na  and  Verhoicum, 

ihonmt  Verbdici  is  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  length  and  of  a 
deep  ash-colour  approaching  to  black.  The  thorax  is  furnished^  on 
each  side  with  a  buff-coloured  patch ;  the  elytra  have  four  longitu- 
dinal velvet-like  bands,  which  are  black,  and  interrupted  with  gray 
spots ;  there  are  two  velvet-black  spots  on  the  suture,  one  near  the 
base  of  the  elytra  and  another  near  the  apex ;  the  former  has  a  yellow 
spot  joining  it  posteriorly,  and  the  latter  has  a  spot  of  the  same 
colour  before  and  behind. 

These  little  insects  are  almost  spherioaL  When  touched  or 
approached  they  apply  their  long  proboscis  dose  to  the  under  side  of 
the  body  (where  there  is  a  groove  for  its  reception)  and  also  the  legs, 
and  allow  themselYes  to  roll  to  the  ground.    Their  larvss,  which  aM 


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CIPOLIN. 


ClRRtPEDlA. 


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of  ft  yeUowieh  colour,  and  resemble  nnall  oblong  masMS  otjellj,  may 
be  teen  in  tlie  month  of  August  on  the  leares  of  the  Verbfueum 
T%ap9ut  and  some  few  other  plants  which  they  feed  upon.  When 
about  to  assume  the  pupa  state  tkey  inclose  themselves  in  a  little  brown 
spherical  ooooon  (less  than  an  ordinarily  sised  pea)  formed  of  a  glutin- 
ous substanoe,  whidi  is  attached  to  the  leayes  of  a  plant ;  in  about  a 
week  or  ten  days  after  this  the  perfect  insect  makes  its  appearance. 

The  genus  Gymmxtrqfn  differs  chiefly  from  Oionui  in  having  the 
elytra  somewhat  ovate,  sometimes  depressed,  and  not  covering  the 
apex  of  the  abdomen ;  and  the  anterior  tibiss  furnished  with  a  minute 
hook  at  the  apex.  Cfymnatnm  Beeeabunga  is  the  only  species  found 
in  this  oountoy. 

Meeimu  may  be  distinguished  from  either  of  the  two  last-mentioned 

Sf  the  rostrum  being  short  and  thick ;  the  thorax  sub-cylindrical,  the 
ytra  elongate,  nearly  cylindrical,  and  covering  the  bodjr ;  the  tibis 
are  aimed  with  a  hook  at  the  apex.  Three  species  of  this  genus  are 
found  in  England.  M.  ioniei^indricui  is  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
in  length,  and  of  a  blackish  colour  with  ash^joloured  pubescence. ' 

The  genus  Nanodet  hsa  the  antennas  rather  long,  the  club  large ; 
rostrum  elongate,  slightly  bent ;  thorax  conical ;  elytra  sub-ovate  and 
humped ;  the  anterior  tibi»  unarmed.  No  species  of  this  genus  have 
yet  been  found  in  tlus  oountir. 

(Schonherr,  Synonjfmia  Imeetamm, — Oenera  et  Speeia  Churevir 
litmidym.) 

CIPOLIN.    [Mabbli.] 

CIRCJEA,  a  genus  of  Plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
OnagraeecB.  The  species  are  found  in  woods  and  shady  places.  Th^ 
have  little  whitish  pink  flowers,  having  a  tubular  superior  calyx  wiw 
a  2-parted  limb,  2  petals,  2  stamens,  and  an  ovazy  with  2  cells,  each 
of  which  contains  1  erect  ovule.  The  genus  constitutes  the  type  of 
a  section  of  Onagrcuea  in  a  reduced  state.  The  species  are  commonly 
called  Enchantei's  Ki^tshade;  but  whatever  supposed  properties 
may  have  given  rise  to  this  name  aretpurely  imaginary. 

C.  LuiUUaana  has  ovate  leaves,  subterete  petioles,  no  bracteoles, 
petals  deeply  emaiginate,  calyx  hairy,  ovary  2-celled,  fruit  broadly 
obovate.  It  is  found  in  woods  and  hedge-banks  throughout  Gk'eat 
Britain,  though  not  an  abundant  plant. 

(7.  ci/pina  has  ovate  leaves,  ilat  petioles  and  setaoeous  bracteoles, 
a  glabrous  calyx,  and  1-celled  ovary.  It  inhabits  woods  and  thickets 
in  mountainous  districts,  and  is  a  rarer  plant  than  the  last. 

CIRCJE£TUS.    [  Paloonidji.] 

CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD.  As  the  blood  is  necessary 
for  the  nutrition  of  all  the  tissues  of  the  body  and  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  actions  of  its  organs  [Blood],  it  must  be  put  in  motion  m 
order  to  be  borne  to  them.  "  In  man  and  in  all  the  higher  animals 
an  apparatus  is  provided,  partijf  for  the  purpose  of  originating  an 
impelling  force  to  put  the  blood  m  motion,  and  parUy  for  tiie  purpose 
of  conveying  the  blood  when  put  in  motion  to  the  different  parts  of 
the  body." 

The  organ  that  puts  the  blood  in  motion  is  the  heart ;  the  pipes  or 
conduits  which  dirtribute  the  blood  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body 
are  the  great  vessels  in  connection  with  tiie  heart  The  course  of  the 
circulation,  which  in  all  the  higher  animals  is  doublo*-namely,  one 
through  the  lungs,  called  therefore  the  Pulmonic,  or  the  Lesser 
Circulation;  the  other  through  the  system,  called  therefore  the 
Systemic,  or  the  Greater  Circi^tion — ^will  be  best  understood  by  an 
examination  of  the  heart  and  vascular  apparatus  by  which  the 
circulation  is  carried  on.  [Hbuit.]  In  this  place  therefore  it  will  be 
suiBcient  to  r«fer  to  the  evidence  by  which  it  is  proved  that  the 
blood  is  really  in  motion.  Dr.  Southwood  Smith,  in  his  popular 
work  on  the  *  Philosophy  of  Health,'  thus  sums  up  the  proofii  that 
the  blood  is  a  flowing  stream,  and  that  it  constantiy  pursues  a 
regular  and  determinate  course. 

"  1.  With  the  microscope,  in  the  transparent  parts  of  animals,  the 
blood  can  be  seen  in  motion;  and  if  its  course  be  attentively  observed, 
its  route  may  be  clearly  traced. 

**%  The  membranes  termed  valves  are  so  plaoed  as  to  allow  of 
the  freest  passage  to  the  blood  in  the  drde  desoribed ;  while  they 
eitiier  altogether  prevent^  or  exceedingly  impede  its  movements  in 
any  other  direction. 

*'  8.  The  effect  of  a  ligature  plaoed  around  a  vein  and  an  artery, 
and  of  a  puncture  made  above  the  ligature  in  the  one  vessel  and 
below  it  in  the^her,  demonstrates  both  the  motion  of  the  blood  and 
Uie  course  of  it  When  a  ligature  is  placed  round  a  vein,  that  part 
of  the  vessel  which  is  most  distant  from  the  heart  becomes  full  and 
tuigid,  on  account  of  the  accumulation  of  blood  in  it ;  while  the  part 
of  the  vessel  which  is  between  the  ligature  and  the  heart  becomes 
empty  and  flaodd,  because  it  has  carried  on  its  oontents  to  the  heart 
and  it  can  receive  no  fresh  supply  from  the  body.  When,  on  the 
contrary,  a  ligature  is  placed  round  an  arterv,  that  portion  of  the 
vessel  which  lies  between  the  ligature  and  the  heart  becomes  fuU  and 
tuigid,  and  the  other  portion  empty  and  flaccid.  This  can  only  be 
because  the  contents  of  the  two  vessels  move  in  opposite  directions 
— ^from  the  heart  to  the  artery,  iiom  the  artery  to  the  vein,  and  from 
the  vein  to  the  heart  At  tiie  same  time,  if  the  vein  be  punctured 
above  the  ligature,  there  will  be  litUe  or  no  loss  of  blood ;  while  if  it 
'  be  punctured  below  the  ligature,  the  blood  will  continue  to  flow  until 
the  loss  of  it  occasions  death ;  which  could  not  be  unless  the  blood 


were  in  motion,  nor  unless  the  direction  of  its  course  woe  from  the 
artery  to  the  vein,  and  frx>m  the  vein  to  the  heart 

"4.  If  fluids  be  injected  into  the  veins  or  arteries,  whether  of  the 
dead  or  the  living  body,  they  readily  make  thcdr  way  and  fill  the 
vessels,  if  thrown  in  the  direction  stated  to  be  the  natural  coune  of 
the  circulation;  bat  they  are  strongly  resisted  if  forced  in  the 
opposite  direction." 

The  author  oondudes  his  account  of  the  structure  of  the  heart  and 
blood-vessels,  and  of  the  course  which  the  stream  of  blood  is  ascer- 
tained constantly  to  pursue^  with  the  following  reflections : — 

"Such  is  the  description,  and,  witii  the  exception  of  tiie  fiivt  proo^ 
such  the  evidence  of  the  droulation  of  the  blood  in  the  human  body, 
pretty  much  as  it  was  given  by  the  discoverer  of  it^  the  illustrious 
Harvey.  Before  the  time  of  Harvey,  a  vague  and  indistinct  concep- 
tion that  the  blood  was  not  without  motion  in  the  body  had  been 
formed  by  several  anatomists.  It  is  analogous  to  the  ordinary  mode 
by  which  the  human  mind  arrives  at  discovery  (chap,  iii,  p.  103), 
that  many  minds  should  have  an  imperfect  perception  of  an  unknown 
truth  before  some  one  mind  sees  it  in  its  completeness,  and  fully 
discloses  it  Having  about  the  year  1620  succeeded  in  completely 
tracing  the  circle  in  which  the  blood  moves,  and  having  at  that  time 
collected  all  the  evidence  of  the  fact,  with  a  rare  degree  of  philoso- 
phical forbearance^  Harvey  still  spent  no  leas  than  eight  years  in 
re-examining  the  subject  and  in  maturing  the  proof  of  every  point, 
before  he  ventured  to  speak  of  it  in  publia  The  brief  tract  which  at 
length  he  published  was  written  with  extreme  simplicity,  deamees, 
and  perspicuity,  and  has  been  justiy  characterised  as  one  of  tiie  most 
admirable  examples  of  a  series  of  arguments  deduced  from  observa- 
tion and  experiment  that  ever  appeared  on  any  subject 

"Contemporaries  are  seldom  grateful  to  discoverers.  More  than 
one  instance  is  on  record,  in  whidi  a  man  hsa  injured  his  fortune  and 
lost  his  happiness  through  the  elucidation  and  establishment  of  a 
truth  which  has  given  him  immortality.  It  may  be  that  there  are 
physical  truths  yet  to  be  brought  to  lights  to  say  nothing  of  new 
applications  of  old  truths,  which,  if  they  could  be  announced  and 
diononstrated  to  day,  would  be  the  ruin  of  the  discoverer.  It  is 
certain  that  there  are  moral  truths  to  be  discovered,  expounded,  and 
enforced,  which,  if  any  man  had  now  penetration  enough  to  see  them, 
and  courage  enough  to  express  them,  would  cause  him  to  be  regarded 
by  the  present  generation  with  horror  and  detestation.  Perhaps 
during  those  eight  years  of  re-examination  the  discoverer  of  the 
circulation  sometimes  endeavoured  in  imagination  to  trace  the  effect 
which  the  stupendous  fact  at  the  knowledge  of  which  he  had  arrived 
would  have  on  the  progress  of  his  favourite  science ;  and,  it  may  be, 
the  hope  and  the  expectation  occasionally  aroae,  that  the  inestimable 
benefit  he  was  about  to  oonfer  upon  his  fellow  men  would  secure  to 
him  some  portion  of  their  esteem  and  confidence.  What  must  have 
been  lus  disappointment  when  he  found,  after  the  publication  of  his 
tracts  that  the  little  practice  he  had  had  as  a  physician  by  degrees  fell 
off?  He  was  too  speculative,  too  theoretical,  not  practiod.  Such 
was  the  view  taken  even  by  lus  friends.*  His  enemies  saw  in  lus  tract 
nothing  but  indications  of  a  presumptuous  mind,  that  dared  to  call 
in  question  the  revered  authority  of  the  ancients ;  and  some  of  them 
saw,  moreover,  indications  of  a  malignant  mind,  that  conceived  and 
defended  doctrines  which,  if  not  checked,  would  undermine  the  very 
foundations  of  morality  and  religion.  When  the  evidence  of  the 
truth  became  irresLBtible,  then  these  persons  suddenly  turned  roimd 
and  said  that  it  was  all  laiown  before,  and  that  the  sole  merit  of  this 
vaunted  discoverer  consisted  in  having  circulated  the  circulation. 
The  pun  was  not  fatal  to  the  future  fame  of  this  truly  great  man, 
nor  even  to  the  gradual  though  slow  return  of  the  public  confidence 
even  during  lus  own  time,  for  he  lived  to  attain  the  summit  of 
reputation." 

For  an  aocoimt  of  the  circulating  apparatus,  see  the  artidee 
Abtbbt,  Cafilla^bt  Yksskls,  Blood  YBsaiLB,  Hbabt,  Vbih.  The 
nature  of  the  circulating  fluid  is  given  imder  Blood.  For  the  histoiy 
of  the  discovery  of  the  circulation  by  Harvey,  see  the  article  Harvxt, 
William,  in  the  Hist,  akd  Bioo.  Diy. 

CIRCUS.    [FALcx>inDJ&] 

CIRL  BUNTlKa.    [EmbbrizaJ 

CIRRHIBA'RBA,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  fiunily  Mrioidts  and 
section  Aeantkopterygii.  Only  one  spedes  of  this  genus  is  yet 
discovered,  and  this  is  from  India.  It  has  a  tentaculum  over  each 
e^e  and  nostril,  three  large  tentaonla  at  the  end  of  the  muxde,  and 
eight  under  the  point  of  the  lower  jaw.  These  tentacula  constitute 
the  chief  distinction  between  this  genus  and  tiiat  of  CUnut,  to  which 
it  is  closely  allied. 

CIRRHIQRADA.    [Aoalsfbub.] 

CIRRHINUS.    [GoBio.] 

CIBRHOBRAKCHIATA.    [Diivtaliuil] 

CIRRHUS.    [Tendbil.1 

CIRRITEDIA,  or  CIRRHIPEDA  {Lepat  of  Linnfleus,  drrhopodet 
of  Cuvier  and  F^russac,  CirrhipMee  of  Lamarck,  Nemalopodn  of  De 
Blaiaville,  CirripMes  of  Latreille),  a  well-defined  natunl  group  of 
Marine  Invertebrate  Amina.la,  whose  place  in  the  system  has  occa- 
sioned much  doubt  and  difference  of  opinion  among  soologists.  In 
the  earliec  times  the  most  absurd  stories  were  propagated  and  believed 
in  relation  to  one  of  the  most  common  species^  PftUoXatmU  aiwtf^cra 


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OIBRIPEDIA. 


CiRRlPEDiA. 


lOM 


{Lepaa  anatiferm  of  LiimsBus),  the  Common  or  Duok  BftmAole.  To  the 
references  on  this  head  in  ike  article  BBBNiOLS-Gk>08S,  we  may  add 
the  testimony  of  Sir  Robert  Moray  to  show  how  long  the  delusion 
laifted,  and  in  what  positive  terms  a  witness  can  state  the  thing  that 
is  not.  "  In  every  sholl  that  I  opened  I  found  a  perfect  sea-fowl ;  the 
little  bill  like  that  of  a  goose,  the  eyes  marked,  the  head,  neck,  breast, 
wings,  tail,  and  feet  formed,  the  feathers  everywhere  perfectly  shaped, 
and  blackish-coloured,  and  the  feet  like  those  of  other  water-fowl,  to 
my  beet  remembranoe."  So  widely  spread  has  been  ttiis  delusion,  that 
it  is  stated  that  the  Roman  Catholics  are  permitted,  in  France  at  least, 
to  eat  the  Bemicle-Qooee  upon  fastdays  and  during  the  whole  of  Lent^ 
in  consequence  of  its  supposed  marine  origin. 

Organiaation,  and  place  in  the  Natural  System. — ^LinnsBus  placed 
the  CtrHpttfto,  with  the  generic  name  of  Lepeu,  among  the  Multivalves 
of  his  Verme9  {Testaeea),  between  Chiton  and  PhoUu;  and,  supposing 
that  the  form  existed  without  a  shell,  found  a  situation  for  it  under 
the  name  of  Triton,  between  TerAella  and  Lemaa,  Cuvier,  in  the 
first  and  also  in  the  last  edition  of  the  *  RIgne  Animal,'  says  that  the 
existence  of  these  Tritons  is  not  confirmed,  and  that  we  must  suppose 
that  Linmeus  had  only  seen  the  anunal  of  an  Ana/t^a  (PentaUumtM), 
which  had  been  taken  out  of  its  shelL  Rang,  however,  thinks  that  he 
has  found  the  TntinflBim  genus  Triion  in  certain  specimens  brought 
home  by  Messrs.  Lesson  and  Gamot,  Quoy  and  Gaimard,  and  has 
published  it  under  the  name  of  AUptu.  Bruguidres  divided  the  genus 
Lepat  into  two ;  the  first,  AwOijfa,  a  barbarous  word  for  AnaUfera  (the 
Anatifes  of  the  French),  oomprising  the  Pedunculated  Cimpedes ;  and 
the  second,  Balanua,  the  Sessile  species.  Cuvier,  under  the  name  of 
Cirrhopoda,  made  these  animals  the  sixth  class  of  his  MoUuskl^  which 
he  places  between  the  BraeMopoda  and  the  first  dass  (Annelidas)  of 
lus  third  great  division  of  the  animal  kingdom,  namely,  the  Articu- 
lated Animals,  and  in  the  'R^e  Animal'  they  ap|>ear  between 
Orbicula  and  Serpukt,  Lamarck,  under  the  name  of  CHrrkipeda,  his 
tenth  dass  of  Invertebrate  Animds,  arranges  them  between  the  seden- 
taiy  AfUMlidei  and  his  Conckifera,  dividing  them  into  two  orders : 
'  Ist^  the  Sessile  Cirripedee ;  2nd,  the  Pedunculated  Cirripedes.  In  lus 
mtem  they  stand  between  Magilu»  and  AapergiUum,  Latreille, 
though  he  does  not  disturb  this  arrangement,  evidently  considers 
them  as  related  to  the  Ottntcoda,  among  the  Branchiopodous  Crusta- 
ceans. He  says  Ihat  the  Sessile  Cirripedes  seem  to  represent  the  ani- 
mals which  terminate  the  Ao^phales  Enfermte  of  Cuvier.  He  observes 
that  the  two  tubular  prooesses  of  (Hion  represent  the  two  tubes  of 
some  of  the  AcephtUa,  though  with  different  uses,  the  tentacula  being 
converted  into  jaws.  The  cirri  he  considers  as  a  kind  of  feet  anala- 
gous  to  the  sub-abdominal  appendages  of  many  Crustaceans,  esne- 
cially  those  of  the  Amphipoda,  and  is  of  opinion  that  we  may  also 
compare  them  to  those  of  many  Annelides.  The  oviduct^  he  remarks, 
has  some  resemblance  to  that  of  Phalangiwn.  Finally,  he  expresses 
a  conjecture,  that  nature,  to  form  the  Cirripedes,  has  borrowed  different 
organs  from  animals  of  several  classes.  Mr.  William  Sharp  M'Leay, 
in  his  profound  and  philosophical  work, '  Horsa  EntomologicsB,'  con- 
aiders  that  Pentcdaamia  exhibits  the  greatest  affinity  with  the  Oaira- 
coda;  but  he  seems  to  be  of  opinion  that  there  exists  an  affinity 
between  the  shell  of  Bakmui  and  that  of  Echinma,  and  sanctions 
Latreille's  opinion  that  ike  articulated  cirri  have  their  analogues  in 
the  arms  of  the  Radiata,  particularly  of  Comatnla.  Dr.  Leach,  who 
has  described  several  genera  unnoticed  till  his  time,  divided  the  dass 
into  two  oi^rs :  Ist,  Campyhaomata,  comprising  the  Pedunculated 
section;  and  2nd,  AcamptoaomatOf  inclu<Ung  the  Sessile  spedes. 
M.  de  Blainville  makes  the  Cirripedes  the  first  class  (NemcUopoda)  of 
his  sub-^pe  Malentozoaria,  a  group  which  corresponds  to  the  Multi- 
valves  ox  Linnseus,  after  separating  from  them  the  genus  Pholaa,  so 
that  De  Blainville's  Moier^tozoaria  consist  of  the  Cirripedes  and 
Chitons.  The  Cirripedes,  he  thinks,  have  an  evident  relation  to  the 
Bivalve  Mollusks,  by  means  of  their  calcareous  envelope,  in  which  he 
recognises  the  pieces  of  the  shell  of  the  Phokidea,  and  even  the  ana- 
logue of  the  tube  of  the  neighbouring  genera.  He  also  considers  the 
reuitionehip  further  indicate  by  the  recurved  position  of  the  animal 
fixed  head  downwards  (la  tdte  en  has) ;  but  he  also  considers  that 
their  idations  to  certain  •^nimftU  of  the  type  Eniomoaoaria  are  nume- 
rous, by  means  of  the  homy,  locomotive,  articulated  appendages 
whidi  are  branchial,  at  least  at  the  root,  becoming,  towards  the  mouth, 
true  homy  denticulated  jaws.  Mr.  Thompson,  in  his  'Zoological 
Researches,'  considers  the  Cirripedes  to  be  trae  Oruatacea,  and  that  in 
the  first  state  of  these  animals  they  not  only  possess  perfect  freedom 
and  power  of  motion,  but  organs  of  sight.  On  the  28th  April  1823, 
Mr.  Thompson  states  that  he  took  in  a  small  muslin  towing-net  while 
crossing  the  ferry  at  Passage,  among  other  minute  creatures,  a  small 
translucent  animal,  one-tenUi  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  somewhat  elliptical 
form,  but  very  slightly  compressed  laterally,  and  of  a  brownish  tint. 
When  in  a  state  of  perfect  repose  it  resembled  a  very  minute  mussel, 
and  lay  upon  one  of  its  sides  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  of  sea-water 
in  which  it  was  placed ;  at  this  time  all  the  members  of  the  animal 
were  withdrawn  within  ^e  shell,  which  appeared  to  be  composed  of 
two  valves,  united  by  a  hinge  along  the  upper  part  of  the  back,  and 
capable  of  opening  fh>m  one  end  to  the  other  along  the  front,  to  give 
occasional  exit  to  the  limbs.  These  were  of  two  descriptions,  namely, 
anteriorly  a  laige  and  very  strong  pair,  provided  with  a  cup-like 
sucker  and  hooks^  serving  solely  to  attoch  the  animal  to  rocks,  stones, 


&a  ;  and)  posteriorly,  six  pairs  of  natatory  members,  so  articulated  as 
to  act  in  concert,  and  to  give  a  very  forcible  stroke  to  the  water,  caus- 
ing  the  animal,  when  swimming,  to  advance  by  a  succession  of  bounds 
after  the  same  manner  as  the  Water-Flea  {Dapknia)  and  other  JfoM- 
ocfUi,  but  particularly  Oydopa,  whose  swimming-feet  are  extremely 
analogous.  [Branchiopoda.]  The  tail,  usually  bent  up  under  the 
bdly,  is  extremely  short,  composed  of  two  join^,  and  terminating  in 
four  set89,  and  is  employed  to  araist  in  progression  and  in  changing 
the  podtion  from  a  state  of  repose.  The  greatest  peculiarity  however 
in  the  straoture  is  in  the  eyes,  which,  although  constantly  shielded  by 
the  valves  of  the  shdl,  are  peidunoulated  as  in  the  Crab  and  Lobster, 
and  placed  entirdy  at  the  ddes  of  the  body.  Mr.  Thompson  observes 
that  tlus  anunal,  but  for  its  pair  of  pedunculated  eyes,  would  find  a 
place  as  a  new  genus  of  Oatracoda;  that  its  memben  approximate  it 
to  ArgtUua  on  the  one  hand  and  to  Oydopa  on  the  other— genera 
which  are  widely  separated;  while  the  eyes  show  its  relationship 
to  the  Decapoda  (crabs,  lobsters,  &&)  The  individuals  presented  no 
varifttion  indicative  of  a  difference  of  sex ;  and  this,  with  their  anoma- 
lous oiganisation,  induced  a  belief  that  they  were  the  larv»  or  dis- 
guised states  of  some  crustaoeous  animal,  or  (as  it  had  been  previoudy 
ascertained  that  the  Cirripedes  were  OruHcusea)  that  they  were  the 
males  of  these,  Mr.  Thompson  not  being  disposed  to  believe  that  the 
two  sexes  were  united  in  the  same  individual  What  follows  being  of 
the  last  importance,  we  give  in  the  author^s  own  words  : — "  Under 
the  foregoing  impressions,  some  of  them  were  collected  in  the  spring 
of  1826,.  and,  in  order  to  see  what  changes  they  might  undergo,  were 
kept  in  a  glass  vessel,  covered  by  such  a  depth  of  sea-water  that  they 
could  be  examined  at  ai^  time  by  means  of  a  common  magnifying- 
glass;  they  were  taken  May  1st,  and  on  the  night  of  the  8th  the 
author  had  the  satisfaction  to  find  that  two  of  them  had  thrown  off 
their  exuvia  (exuviss),  and,  wonderful  to  say,  were  firmly  adhering  to 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  changed  to  young  bamades,  sudi  as  are 
usually  seen  intermixed  with  grewn  specimens  on  rocks  and  stones  at 
this  season  of  the  year.  (BaloMia  pmiUua,  Penn.)  In  this  stage  the 
suturesbetweenthe  valves  of  thedieil  and  of  the  operculum  were  visible, 
and  the  movements  of  the  arms  of  the  animal  within,  although  these 
last  were  not  yet  completely  devdoped ;  the  eyes  also  were  still  per- 
ceptible, although  the  prindpal  part  of  the  colouring-matter  appeared 
to  have  been  ^rown  off  with  the  exuvium  (exuvie).  On  the  10th 
another  individual  was  seen  in  the  act  of  throwing  off  its  shdl,  and 
attaching  itself  as  the  others  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass.  It  only 
remains  to  add,  that  as  the  secretion  of  the  cdcareous  matter  goes  on 
in  the  compartments  destined  for  the  valves  of  the  dielly  covering, 
the  eyes  greduall^  disappear,  from  the  increadnff  opadty  thence  pro- 
duced, and  the  visual  ray  la  extinguished  for  we  remainder  of  the 
animal's  life ;  the  arms  at  the  same  time  acquire  their  usud  ciliated 
appearance.  Thus,  then,  an  animd  origuudlv  natatory  and  locomo- 
tive, and  provided  with  a  distinct  organ  of  dght,  becomes  permanently 
and  immoveably  fixed,  and  its  opticd  apparatus  obliterated,  and  fur- 
nishes not  only  a  new  and  important  physiological  fact,  but  is  the  only 
instance  in  nature  of  so  extraordinary  a  metamorphods." 

« During  the  whole  of  the  spring  and  summer  months,"  says  Mr. 
Thompson, ''  the  water  teems  with  these  exuvia  (exuvise)  of  Tritonea 
(the  animd  inhabitant,  according  to  Linnaeus,  of  the  bamades) :  it  is 
imposdble  to  avoid  drawing  up  numbers  every  time  a  towing-net  is 
thrown  out,  nay  the  tide  is  at  times  discoloured  from  their  abundance ; 
but  to  be  certain  that  these  are  really  such,  let  a  stone  with  sevinrd 
bamades  upon  it  be  kept  in  sea-water,  regularly  renewed,  towards  the 
latter  end  of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May,  and  with  due  attention 
many  of  them  may  be  observed  in  the  act  of  throwing  off  exuvia 
(exuvis)  in  every  respect  identical;  let  it  be  recollect^,  however, 
that  these  are  the  casts  of  the  animal  done,  and  not  of  the  valves  of 
the  shdl  or  of  the  operoulum."  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby  ('  Genera  of  Shells,* 
'Sealpelhm*)  thus  writes  on  the  subject  of  Mr.  Thompson's  disco- 
verv : — "  Without  describing  the  fects,  or  entering  upon  the  aiguments 
with  which  he  supports  this  opinion"  (that  is,  that  the  Oirripedia  are 
Cruatacea),  "  we  must  be  permitted  to  say  that  we  do  not  think  that 
he  has  fully  demonstrated  it ;  at  the  same  time,  conddering  that,  as 
far  as  we  hitherto  knew,  the  Cirripedee  were  all  attached,  the  circum- 
stance of  thdr  being  free  when  very  young  accotmts  well  to  our  mind 
for  the  fact  of  each  spedes  bcdng  found  attached  to  peculiar  situations, 
which  would  only  be  compatible  with  the  notion  or  their  being  at  one 
time  free  agents,  and  possessed  of  an  instinctive  volition  determining 
their  choice  of  dtuation."  Professor  Owen,  in  the  *  Catdogue  of  the 
Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons'  ('  CuTipeda'),  speaks  of  the  dis- 
covery without  expressing  any  doubt. 

But  Mr.  Thompson  has  since,  in  a  paper  read  .before  the  Royd 
Sodety  on  the  6th  of  Maroh  1885,  declared  his  "  discovery  of  the 
metamorphosis  in  the  second  type  of  the  Cirripedes,  namely,  the 
LqfKidea,  completing  the  natural  histoiy  of  these  singular  animals, 
and  confirming  their  affinity  with  the  Oruataeea;"  and  the  Memoir, 
with  a  plate,  is  published  in  the  second  part  of  the  '  Philosophicd 
Transactions '  for  1885.  The  following  is  the  abstract  of  the  paper : — 
"  The  discoveries  made  by  the  author  of  the  remarkable  metamor- 
phoses which  the  animals  oompoeinff  the  first  family  of  the  Cirripedes, 
or  Balanif  undergo  in  the  progress  of  their  development,  and  which  he 
has  published  in  the  third  number  of  his  'ZoK>logical  Researohea,* 
(p.  76),  are  in  the  present  palter,  which  is  intended  as  a  prize  essay  for 


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CIRRIPEDIA. 


IIM 


oue  of  the  royal  medala,  followed  up  by  the  report  of  his  disooyery  of 
Bmikr  ohanges  exhibited  by  three  speoiee  of  two  other  genera  of  the 
aeoond  tribe  of  this  fiunily,  namely,  the  Zepadu.  The  larv»  of  this 
tribe,  like  those  of  the  Btianif  have  the  external  appearanoe  of  BivalTe 
Monocnli,  fimuahed  with  looomotiye  oigana,  in  the  form  of  three 
pairi  of  members,  the  most  anterior  of  which  are  simple,  and  the 
other  bifid.  The  back  of  the  animal  is  covered  hv  sn  ample  ahield, 
terminating  anterioriy  in  two  extended  hocus,  and  posteriorly  in  a 
single  elongated  spinons  procefls.  Thus  they  poisess  considerable 
powan  of  locomotion,  iriucii,  with  the  asastanoe  of  an  oigan  of  Tision, 
enable  them  to  seek  Uieir  future  psrmaDsmt  place  of  residence.  The 
author  ii  led  from  his  researches  to  the  oondusioQ  that  the  Cirripedes 
do  not  constitute,  as  modem  naturalists  have  considered  them,  a  dis- 
tinct daas  of  animals,  but  that  they  occupy  a  place  intennediate 
between  the  Onutacea  dteapoda  (with  which  the  B<dani  have  a  marked 
affinity)  and  the  Onutacea  entomotiraea,  to  which  the  Lepades  are 
allied ;  and  that  they  have  no  natural  affinitr  with  the  Testaceous 
Molhuea,  as  was  supposed  by  Ldnnt»ns,  and  au  the  older  systematic 
'  writers  on  aoology." 

Mr.  Thompson  does  not  seem  to  haye  been  aware  of  a  paper  by 
Br.  J.  Martin-Saint- Ange,  read  at  the  Academy  of  Sdenoes  on  the 
14th  July  1884,  and  publiBhed  in  the  'Sayans  Etrangers'  (tome  yi), 
and  separately  by  Bailliftre  (1885).  The  following  is  the  summary  of 
the  principal  facts  stated  by  him  in  the  course  of  a  yety  laborious 
and  acute  investigation : — The-mouth  of  the  Pedunculated  Cirripedes 
IS  composed  of  pieces  entirely  comparable  to  those  of  the  moutos  of 
many  Ormtaeeot  and  espedally  of  the  Phylioiomes;  the  upper  lip, 
the  palpi,  and  the  mandibles  are  so  snalogoua  that  the  resemblance 
extends  even  to  the  fonn.  The  three  jaw-feet  (pieds-mAohoires), 
which  are  met  with  most  commonly  in  the  Oruttaeea,  are  conjoined 
in  a  single  jaw-foot  which  xeoeivea  the  nervous  trunks ;  at  its  base  are 
always  found  from  two  to  four  branchia.  The  ten  ordinary  feet  of 
the  Cfnutaeea  are  faithfully  represented  in  the  AnatiliDS  (Oampjflaith 
nuUa) ;  at  the  base  of  many  among  them  are  found  branchuB  disposed 
like  those  of  certain  Onuiaeea,  and  the  number  even  in  sometimes 
repeated.  There  exists  in  each  foot  a  double  canal,  fit  for  establish- 
ing a  circulating  cuirent,  and  traversing  all  the  articulations  of  the 
cirri.  The  body  is  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  rings,  or  of 
articulations,  very  distinct,  each  of  which  supports  a  pair  of  feet  In 
the  interior  of  the  body  there  are  a  dorsal  vessel  (like  that  in  a  great 
number  of  the  Articulated  Animals),  and  a  double  series  of  gsnglionB ; 
of  which  the  number,  acoordiogto  Dr.  Mar^-Saint-Ange's  researohes^ 
is  equal  to  that  of  the  feet;  there  is  besides  another  pair  on  the 
lateral  parts  of  the  stomaeh.  The  pedicle  may  be  rogarded  as 
analogous  to  the  tail  of  many  Oruttaeea ;  it  is  in  this  cavity,  and  not» 
as  has  been  said,  on  the  back,  that  the  eggs  are  found;  these  pass 
afterwaids  by  a  conduit,  not  yet  indicated,  in  the  envelope,  which,  by 
its  resemblance  to  the  mantle  of  the  MoUutca,  establishes  the  oi^y 
possible  analogy  between  the  Cirripedes  and  the  last-named  animala. 
The  organs  plaoed  upon  the  book,  which  Cuvier  described  as  eggs,  are 
the  generative  apparatus  of  the  male,  of  which  the  disposition  is  very 
remarkable^  Finally,  the  stomach  and  intestinal  canal  inclose  in  the 
interior  a  membranous  ne  of  a  ret<»rt-shape;  the  disposition  and  use 
of  which  establish,  according  to  the  researches  of  M.  Serres,  an 
additional  approximation  between  the  Cirripedes  and  the  Annelides. 
Dr.  Martin-Sunt- Ange  then  proposes,  as  the  last  result  of  his  labours,  to 
place  the  class  Oirnpedia  at  the  en^  of  the  Ortutacea,  so  as  to  estab- 
lish a  natural  link  or  passage  between  the  superior  Articulated  AnimaXs 
and  the  AnneliikL,  Such  are  the  conclusions  drawn  in  the  Memoir 
of  Dr.  Martin-Saint-Ange,  who  refers  with  approbation  to  the  dis- 
coveries of  Mr.  Thompson,  published  in  1830;  and  before  we  proceed 
to  give  a  further  account  of  the  structure  of  the  Oirripedia  we  will 
state  Mr.  Thompson's  view  of  the  ovarial  system.  "In  the  whole  of 
the  tribe  of  the  Cirripedes,"  observes  Mr.  Thompson,  in  his  paper 
in  the  'Philosophical  Transactions'  above  quoted,  "the  ova,  after 
expulsion  from  tne  ovariiuu,  appear  to  be  conveyed  by  the  ovipositor 
into  the  cellular  texture  of  the  pedicle,  just  beneath  the  bodv  of  the 
animal,  which  they  fill  to  the  distance  of  about  an  inch.  When  first 
placed  in  this  situation,  they  seem  to  be  amorphous  and  inseparable 
from  the  pulpy  substance  in  which  they  are  imbedded ;  but  as  they 
approach  to  maturity  they  become  of  an  oval  shape,  pointed  at  bow 
ends,  and  are  essily  detached.  Sir  Everard  Home  has  given  a  very 
good  representation  of  them,  at  this  stage  of  their  progress,  in  his 
'  X/ectures  on  Comparative  Anatomy,'  from  the  elegant  pencil  of  Mr. 
Bauer.  During  the  stay  of  the  ova  in  the  pedicle,  they  render  this 
part  more  opaque  and  of  a  bluish  tint;  the  ova  themselves,  and  the 
cellular  texture  with  which  they  are  siurrounded,  being  of  a  pale  or 
azure-blue  colour.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  in  what  manner  the 
ova  are  extricated  from  the  situation  above  indicated;  but  it  is 
certainly  not  by  the  means  suggested  by  Sir  Everard  Home  in  the 
above-mentioned  lecture,  namely,  by  piercing  outwards  through  the 
membranes  of  the  pedicle^  for  the  ova  are  subsequently  found  forming 
a  pair  of  leaf-like  expansions,  placed  between  either  aide  of  the  body 
of  the  animal  and  the  lining  membrane  of  the  shells  in  Lepas  {Pen- 
taUumis),  or  of  the  leathery  internal  tunic  in  Oinerat.  These  leaves 
have  each  a  separate  attachment  at  the  sides  of  the  animal  to  the 
septum,  which  divides  the  cavity  occupied  by  the  animal  from  that 
of  the  pedicle ;  they  are  at  first  comparatively  small,  have  a  rounded 


outline,  and  possess  the  same  bluish  colour  which  the  ova  had  in  the 
pedicle ;  but  as  the  ova  advance  in  progress  these  leaves  extend  in 
every  dimension,  and  lap  over  each  oUieronthe  back,  passing  through 
various  lighter  shades  of  colour  into  pale-pink,  and  finally,  when 
ready  to  hatch,  become  nearly  white.  These  leaves  appear  to  be  com- 
posed of  a  layer  of  ova  irregularly  placed,  and  imbedded  in  a  kind  of 
parenchymatous  texture,  out  of  which  they  readily  fall  when  about 
to  hatch,  on  its  substance  being  torn  asunder;  indeed,  it  i4>pears  at 
length  to  become  so  tender  as  to  foil  entirely  away,  so  that  after  the 
period  of  gestation  is  psst  no  vestige  of  these  leafy  conceptades  is  to 
be  found.  When  the  larvse,  barely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  burst 
forth  from  the  ova,  their  development  goes  on  with  such  rapidity  that 
they  seem  to  grow  sensibly  whUe  under  observation.  The  larva  of 
the  Lepadet  then  is  a  tailed  Monoeuhu,  with  three  pairs  of  members, 
the  most  anterior  of  which  are  simple,  the  othws  bifid,  having  its 
back  covered  with  an  ample  shield,  terminating  anteriorly  in  two 
extended  horns,  and  posteriorly  in  a  single  elongated  spinous  process." 

The  following  observations  on  the  development  of  the  larrae  of  these 
animals,  by  Mr.  Darwin,  are  amongst  the  latest  contributions  to  this 
interesting  inquiiy : — "  The  ova,  and  consequently  the  larve  of  the 
Lepadidoff  in  the  first  stage,  whilst  within  the  sac  of  the  parent,  vary 
in  length  from  -007  to  *009  in  Zepot,  to  *028  of  an  inch  in  SealpeUum. 
My  chief  examination  of  these  larv»  has  been  confined  to  those  of 
SealpeUum  vulgate ;  but  I  saw  them  in  all  the  other  genera.  The 
Isrva  is  somewhat  depressed,  but  nearly  globular;  the  carapace 
anteriorly  is  truncated  with  lateral  horns ;  the  sternal  surface  is  flat 
and  broad,  and  formed  of  thinner  membranes  than  the  dorssl.  The 
horns  just  alluded  to  are  long  in  Lepat  and  short  in  Sealpellm»/  their 
ends  are  either  rounded  and  excessively  transparent,  or,  as  in  Ihla, 
furnished  with  an  abrupt  minute  sharp  point  Within  these  horns  I 
distinctly  saw  a  long  fiJiformed  organ,  bearizijg  excessively  fine  hairs 
in  lines,  so  exactly  like  the  long  plumoee  spines  on  the  prehensile 
antennss  of  the  larvae  in  the  last  stage,  that  I  have  not  the  least  doubt 
that  these  horns  are  the  cases  in  which  antennse  are  in  process  of 
formation.  Posteriorly  to  them  on  the  sternal  surface,  near  each 
other,  there  are  two  other  minute  doubly-curved  pointed  horns,  about 
*004  in  length,  directed  posteriorly ;  and  within  these  I  again  saw  a 
most  delicate  articulated  filiformed  organ  and  a  thicker  pediclew  In 
an  excellent  drawing  by  Mr.  C.  S.  Bate,  of  the  larv»  of  a  Ohthamalut 
(BalamiM  punctaitu  of  British  author8)i  after  having  been  kept  alive 
and  moulted  once,  these  organs  are  distinctly  shown  as  articulated 
antennae  (without  a  case),  directed  forwards :  hence,  before  the  first 
moult  in  ScalpeUvm  we  have  two  pairs  of  antennae  in  process  of 
formation.  Anteriorly  to  the  bases  of  these  smaller  antennsB  is  seated 
the  heart-shaped  eye  (as  I  believe  it  to  be),  '001  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
with  apparently  a  single  lens,  surrounded,  except  at  the  apex,  by  daik- 
reddish  pigment-oells.  In  some  cases,  as  in  some  species  of  X^km, 
the  larvae,  when  first  excluded  from  the  egg,  have  not  an  eye,  or  a  very 
imperfect  one.  There  are  three  pairs  of  limbs,  seated  close  togeth^ 
in  a  longitudinal  line,  but  some  way  apart  in  a  transverse  direction. 
The  first  pair  always  consists  of  a  single  spinose  ramus ;  it  is  not 
articulated  in  Scdlpdlwn,  but  is  multi-articulate  in  some  genera ;  it  is 
directod  forwards.  The  other  two  pairs  have  each  two  rami, 
supported  on  a  common  haunch  or  pedicle ;  in  both  pairs  the  longer 
ramus  is  multi-articulate^  and  the  shorter  ramus  is  without  articula- 
tions, or  with  only  traces  of  them ;  the  longer  spines  borne  on  these 
limbs  (at  least  in  Scalpellum  and  CfUhamalua)  are  finely  plumose. 
The  abdomen  terminates  a  little  beyond  the  posterior  end  of  the 
carapace  in  a  slightly  upturned  homy  i>ointl  A  short  distance 
anteriorly  to  this  point,  a  strong  spinose  forked  projection  depends 
from  the  abdominal  siirface.  Messrs.  V.  Thompson,  (^oodsir,  and 
Bate  have  kept  alive  for  several  days  the  larvae  of  Lepat,  Oenchodermay 
Balamu,  Verruca,  and  OhthamaluB,  and  have  described  the  changes 
which  supervene  between  the  first  and  third  exuviations.  The  most 
conspicuous  new  character  is  the  great  elongation  of  the  posterior 
point  of  the  carapace  into  an  almost  filiform  spinose  point  in  Lepas, 
OonchoderTnaf  Chthamalut,  and  BalanuSf  but  not,  according  to 
Qoodsir,  in  one  of  the  species  of  the  latter  genus.  The  posterior 
point  also  of  the  abdomen  becomes  developed  in  BdUtnuB  (Goodsir) 
into  two  very  long  spear-like  processes,  serrated  on  their  outer  sides ; 
in  Lepat  and  Oonchoderma,  according  to  Thompson,  into  a  single 
tapering  spinose  projection ;  and  in  CfUhamalutt  as  figured  by  Mr.  Bate^, 
the  posterior  bind  point,  as  well  as  the  depending  ventral  fork, 
increases  much  in  size.  Another  important  change,  which  has  been 
particularly  attended  to  by  Mr.  Bate,  is  the  appearance  of  spinose 
projections  and  spines  (some  of  which  are  thick,  curved,  and  strongly 
plumose  or  almost  pectinated  along  their  inner  sides)  on  the  pedides 
and  lower  segments  of  the  shorter  rami  of  the  two  posterior  pairs 
of  limbs."  In  this  stage  of  the  growth  of  the  larva,  Mr.  Darwin 
found  the  mouth  in  Scalpellum  vrdgare  seated  on  a  very  slight 
prominence  in  a  most  remarkable  situation,  namely,  in  a  central 
point  between  the  bases  of  the  three  pairs  of  legs.  Mr.  Darwin 
continues : — "  I  traced  by  dissection  the  oesophagus  for  some  little 
way,  until  lost  in  the  cellular  and  oily  matter  filling  the  whole 
anixnal,  and  it  was  directed  anteriorly,  which  is  the  direction  that 
might  have  been  expected  from  the  course  followed  by  the  ceeophagus 
in  the  larva  in  the  last  stage,  and  in  the  mature  Cirripede." 

The  larva,  in  its  second  stage  of  development^  is  known  only 


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1101 


from  a  single  fipecimeii  described  and  figured  by  Burmeister  ('Bei- 
ii^ge  zur  Natui^geschichte  der  RankenfUsser/  s.  16).  In  its  general 
shape  and  compressed  form  it  seems  to  come  nearer  the  last  than 
the  first  stage.  It  has  only  three  pairs  of  legs,  situated  much  more 
posteriorly  on  the  body  than  in  the  first  stage,  and  all  directed 
posteriorly.  They  are  much  shorter  than  in  their  earlier  stages. 
They  are  undoubtedly  the  three  pairs  of  limbs  of  the  first  stage 
metamorphosed.  The  chief  development  of  the  larva  since  its  first 
stage  is  towards  its  anterior  end. 

In  the  last  stage  the  larvee  have  increased  many  times  in  size  since 
their  exclusion  from  the  egg.  They  are  now  much  compressed,  nearly 
of  the  shape  of  a  OyprU,  or  mussel-shell,  with  the  anterior  end  the 
thickest,  the  sternal  surface  nearly  or  quite  straight,  and  the  dorsal 
arched.  Almost  the  whole  of  what  is  externally  visible  consists  of  the 
carapace,  the  thorax  and  limbs  being  hidden  and  inclosed  by  its 
backward  prolongation,  and  even  at  the  anterior  end  of  the  animal 
the  narrow  sternal  surface  can  be  drawn  up,  so  as  to  be  likewise 
inclosed.  The  antennas  are  lax^  and  conspicuous.  They  are  at  first 
well-furnished  with  muscles,  and  serve  as  oi^gans  of  locomotion,  and 
apparently  as  feelers ;  but  their  main  function  is  to  attach  the  larva, 
preparatory  to  its  final  metamorphosis  into  a  Cirripede.  The  disc  can 
adhere  even  to  so  smooth  a  surface  as  a  glass  tumbler.  The  attach- 
ment is  at  first  manifestly  voluntaxy,  but  soon  becomes  involuntary 
and  permanent.  Mr.  Darwin  makes  the  following  remarks  upon  the 
eyes  and  mouth  in  their  last  stage  : — 

"  Eyes. — ^The  posterior  and  rounded  maigins  of  the  basal  articu- 
lation of  the  above-described  prehensile  antennsB  are  reflected  inwards, 
in  the  fonn  of  two  forked  homy  apodemes,  together  resembling  two 
letters  (J  U  close  together.  These  project  up  inside  the  animal  for  at 
least  one-third  of  its  thickness,  from  the  sternal  to  the  dorsal  surface. 
The  two  greatalmost  spherical  eyes  in  Lepas  atutralu,eBLch  j^th  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  are  attached  to  the  outer  arms,  thus,  *  U  U  *>  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  two  full  stops.  Hence  the  eyes  are  included  within  the  cara- 
pace. Each  eye  consists  of  eight  or  ten  lenses,  varying  in  diameter  in 
the  same  individual  from  sj^jcth  to  sj^jn^^  ^^  >^  inch,  inclosed  in  a  common 
membranous  bag  or  cornea,  and  thus  attached  to  the  outer  apodemes. 
The  lenses  are  surrounded  half-way  up  by  a  layer  of  dark  pigment 
cells.  The  nerve  does  not  enter  the  bluntly-pointed  basal  end  of  the 
common  eye,  but  on  one  side  of  the  apodeme.  The  structure  here 
described  is  exactly  that  found,  accorcUng  to  Milne-Edwards,  in  cer- 
tain Onistacect,  In  specimens  just  attached,  in  which  no  absorption 
has  taken  place,  two  long  muscles  with  tmnsverse  stria  may  be  found 
attached  to  the  knobbed  tips  of  the  two  middle  arms  of  the  two  *  (J  U  * 
and  running  up  to  the  antero-dorsal  surface  of  the  carapace,  where 
they  are  attached.  Other  muscles  (without  transverse  strise)  are 
attached  round  the  bases  on  both  sides  of  both  forks.  The  action  of 
these  muscles  would  inevitably  move  the  eyes,  but  I  suspect  that  their 
function  may  be  tojdraw  up  the  narrow  deeply-folded  sternal  surface, 
and  thus  cause  the  retraction  of  the  great  prehensile  antennas  within 
the  carapace. 

"  Mouth. — This  is  seated  in  exactly  the  same  position  as  in  the 
mature  Cirripede,  on  a  prominence  fronting  the  thoracic  limbs,  and 
so  far  within  the  carapace  that  it  was  obviously  quite  unfitted  for 
the  seizure  of  prey ;  and  it  was  equally  obvious  that  the  limbs  were 
natatory,  and  incapable  of  carrying  food  to  the  mouth.  This  enigma 
WAS  at  once  explained  by  an  examination  of  the  mouth,  which  was 
found  to  be  in  a  rudimentary  condition,  and  absolutely  dosed,  so  that 
there  would  be  no  use  in  prey  being  seized.  Underneath  this  slightiy- 
prominent  and  closed  mouth  I  found  all  the  masticatory  organs  of  a 
Cirripede  in  an  immature  condition.  The  state  of  the  mouth  will  be 
at  once  understood  if  we  suppose  very  fluid  matter  to  be  poured  over 
t^e  protuberant  mouth  of  a  Cirripede,  so  as  to  run  a  little  way  down 
in  the  shape  of  internal  crests,  between  the  different  parts,  and  in  the 
shape  of  a  shorty  shrivelled,  certainly  closed  tube^  a  little  way  (*008  of 
an  inch  in  L.  atutrcUia)  down  the  oesophagus.  Hence  the  larva,  in  this, 
its  last  stage,  cannot  eat.  It  may  be  called  a  locomotive  pupa ;  its 
whole  oxganisation  is  apparently  adapted  for  the  one  great  end  of 
finding  a  proper  site  for  its  attachment  and  final  metamoxphosis."  In 
this  stage  the  thorax  is  much  compressed,  the  six  pairs  of  legs  are  all 
close  one  behind  the  other.  In  all  the  limbs  the  obliquely-truncated 
summit  of  the  termioal  segment  of  the  inner  ramus  bears  three  very 
long  beautifully  plumose  spines ;  in  the  first  pair  the  summit  of  the 
outer  ramus  bears  four,  and  in  the  five  succeeding  pairs  six  similar 
spines.  The  abdomen  is  small,  and  consists  of  only  three  segments : 
it  contains  only  the  rectimi,  and  two  delicate  muscles  running  into 
two  appendages,  between  the  bases  of  which  the  anus  is  situated. 

Whilst  the  young  Zepas  is  closely  packed  within  the  larva,  the 
capitulum,  or  shell,  about  equals  the  length  of  the  peduncle.  Even  at 
this  early  period  the  muscles  of  the  peduncle  are  distinct.  The  com- 
pound  eyes,  which  we  have  seen  are  attached  to  apodemes  springing 
from  the  sternal  surface  of  the  larval  carapace,  are  consequenUy  cast 
off  with  it  Whilst  the  young  Cirripede  is  packed  within  the  larva, 
the  outer  integument  of  its  peduncle  necessarily  forms  a  deep  trans- 
verse fold  passing  over  the  eyes  and  apodemes.  This  determmes  the 
position  and  origin  of  the  sac  in  the  young  Cirripede. 

"  The  larva,"  says  Mr.  Darwin,  "  fcies  itself  with  its  sternal  surface 
parallel  and  close  to  the  surface  of  attachment,  and  the  antennte 
become  cemented  to  it :  if  the  Cirripede  after  its  metamorphosis  had 


remained  in  this  position,  the  cirri  could  not  have  been  exserted,  or 
only  against,  the  surface  of  attachment ;  but  there  is  a  special  pro- 
vision that  ike  young  Cirripede  shall  assume  its  proper  position  at 
right  angles  to  the  position  which  it  held  whilst  within'  the  larva, 
namely,  with  its  posterior  end  upwards.  This  is  effected  in  a  singular 
manner  by  the  exuviation  of  the  great  compound  eyes,  which  wehave 
seen  are  feustened  to  the  outer  arms  of  the  double  •UU*  ^^^ 
sternal  apodemes.  These,  together  with  the  eyes,  stretch  transversely 
across  and  internally  far  up  into  the  body  of  the  larva ;  and  as  the 
whole  has  to  be  rejected  or  moulted,  the  membrane  of  the  peduncle 
of  the  young  Cirripede  has  necessarily  to  be  formed  with  a  wide 
and  deep  inward  fold  extending  transversely  across  it;  this,  when 
stretched  open  after  the  exuviation  of  the  larval  carapace  and 
apodemes,  necessarily  causes  the  sternal  side  of  the  peduncle  to  be 
longer  than  the  dorsal,  and  as  a  consequence  gives  to  the  young 
Cirripede  its  normal  position,  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  larva  when 
first  attached." 

That  the  homologies  of  the  larva  of  the  Cirripedes  are  with 
the  Oruit<icea  has  before  been  pointed  out.  Mr.  Darwin  says : — "  In 
Crustacea,  according  to  the  ordinary  view,  there  are  twen<y-one  seg- 
ments ;  of  these  I  can  recognise  in  tne  Cirripede,  on  evidence  as  good 
as  can  generally  be  obtained,  all  with  the  exception  of  the  four 
terminal  abdominal  segments;  these  do  not  occur  in  any  species 
known  to  me  in  any  stu^e  of  its  development.  If  tiiat  part  of  the  larva, 
in  front  of  the  mouth,  bearing  the  eyes,  the  prehensile  antennae,  and 
in  an  earlier  stage  another  pair  of  antennae,  be  formed,  as  is  admitted 
in  all  other  Orttstacea,  of  three  segments,  then  beyona  a  doubt^  f^rom 
the  absolute  correspondence  of  every  part,  and  even  every  coloured 
mark,  the  peduncle  of  the  Lepadida  is  likewise  thus  formed.  The 
peduncle  being  filled  by  the  branching  ovarian  tubes  is  no  objection 
to  this  view,  for  I  am  informed,  on  the  high  authority  of  Mr.  J.  D. 
Dana,  that  this  is  the  case  with  the  cephalo-thorax  in  some  true 
Crustaceans ;  for  instance,  in  Sapphirina.  To  i^roceed  :-^the  mouth, 
formed  of  mandibles,  maxillae,  and  outer  maxillae,  corresponds  with 
the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  segments  of  the  archetype  Crustacean. 
Posteriorly  to  the  mouth  we  come,  in  the  larva,  to  a  rather  wide 
interspace,  without  any  apparent  articulation  or  oi^gan ;  and  then  to 
the  thorax,  formed  of  six  segments,  bearing  the  six  pairs  of  limbs,  of 
which  the  first  pair  differs  slightly  from  the  others.  The  thorax  is 
succeeded  by  three  small  segments  differently  shaped,  with  the 
posterior  one  alone  bearing  appendages.  These  segments  I  cannot 
doubt,  from  their  appearance  alone,  and  from  their  apparent  fmictlon 
of  steering  the  body,  are  abdominal  segments.  If  this  latter  view  be 
correct,  the  thoracic  sogments  are  the  six  posterior  ones  of  the  normal 
seven  segments;  and  there  must  be  two  s^^ents  missing  between  the 
outer  maxillae  and  the  first  thoracic  pair  of  legs,  which  latter,  on  this 
view,  springs  from  the  ninth  segment  Now,  in  a  very  singular 
Cirripede  named  ProteoUpatf  the  two  missing  segments  are  present^ 
the  mouth  being  actually  succeeded  by  eight  segments,  and  these 
by  the  three  usual  abdominal  segments,  every  segment  in  the  body 
being  as  distinct  as  in  an  Annelide ;  hence  in  ProteoLepas,  adding  the 
three  segments  for  the  mouth  and  three  for  the  carapace,  we  have 
altogether  seventeen  segments,  which,  as  I  have  stated,  is  the  full 


Fig.  1.  A  Stomapod  Cmstaeean  {Zeucifer,  Y.  Thompson. 
Pig.  S.  A  ipedes  of  Lepas. 

number  ever  observed  in  any  Cirripede ;  the  four  missing  ones  being 
abdominal,  and  I  presume  the  four  terminal  segments.  That  the 
cavity  in  which  the  thorax  is  lodged  in  the  larva,  and  therefore  in 
the  mature  Cirripede,  is  simply  formed  by  the  backward  production 
of  the  carapace,  does  not  require  any  discussion.  The  valves  have 
no  homolog^oal  signification." 

The  precedii^g  wood-cut^  copied  from  Darwin's  work,  will  make 
these  homoloflries  dear.  The  upper  figure  is  a  Stomapod  Crus- 
tacean (Leuci/ei*,  V.  Thompson),  and  the  abdomen,  which  becomes 
rudimentary  in  Cirripedes,  is  given  in  faint  lines.  The  lower  figiii« 
is  a  mature  Zepas  with  the  antennae  and  eyes  which  are  actually 
present  in  the  larva,  retained  and  supposed  to  have  gone  on  growing. 
All  that  is  seen  of  a  Cirripede,  whetner  pedunculated  or  sessile,  is 
the  three  anterior  segments  of  the  head  of  a  Crustacean,  with  its 
anterior  end  permanently  cemented  to  a  surface  of  attachment^  and 
with  its  posterior  end  projecting  vertically  from  it. 


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CIREIPEDIA. 


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For  the  obserralion  of  the  means  by  which  these  aniipftls  attach 
themselves  after  leading  a  free  life  we  are  also  indebted  to  Mr.  Dar- 
win. In  the  larra,  two  ducts,  called  cement-ducts,  can  be  traced  from 
within  the  discs  of  the  antennee  to  the  anterior  or  lower  ends  of  the 
two  gut-formed  bodies,  which  are  the  incipient  ovaries.  These  ducts 
are  filled  with  an  opaque  cellular  matter  m  the  larva.  In  the  mature 
Curipedes,  they  can  be  followed  in  a  slightly  sinuous  coune  along  the 
muscles  on  each  side  within  the  pedunde,  till  they  expand  into  two 
small  organs,  which  Mr.  Darwin  calls  cement-glands.  These  glands 
contain  a  strongly  coherent  pulpy  opaque  cellular  mass,  like  that  in 
the  cement^lucts ;  but  in  some  instances  this  cellular  mass  becomes 
converted,  within  either  the  ducts  or  gland,  or  within  both,  into  a 
transparent  tough  yellow  cement.  Tubes  are  seen  running  into  these 
glandjB,  containing  ova  in  every  stage  of  development.  ^t>m  obser- 
vations made  on  many  species  of  Cirripedes,  Mr.  Darwin  concludes 
that  the  gland  itself  is  part  of  an  ovarian  tube  specially  modified ;  and 
further  that  the  cellular  matter,  which  in  the  ovarian  tubes  serves  for 
the  development  of  the  ova,  is,  by  the  special  action  of  the  walls  of 
the  gland,  changed  into  the  opaque  cellular  matter  in  the  ducts,  and 
this  again  subsequently  into  that  tissue  or  substance  which  cements 
the  Cirripede  to  its  surface  of  attachment.  As  the  individuals  grow 
and  increase  in  size,  so  do  the  glands  and  cement-ducts ;  but  it  often 
happens  that  when  a  specimen  is  immoveably  attached,  the  cement- 
apparatus  ceases  to  act^  and  the  cellular  contents  of  the  duct  become 
converted  into  a  thread  of  transparent  cement.  The  cement  removed 
from  the  outside  of  a  Cirripede  consists  of  a  thin  layer  of  very  tough 
bright-brown  transparent  huninated  substance,  exhibiting  no  structure 
under  the  microscope.  Its  chemical  reactions  are  those  of  Chitine.  In 
the  larva,  the  cement  always  es«4>es  through  the  prehensile  antennas, 
and  in  most  inst^tnces  it  continues  to  do  this  throughout  the  life  of 
ibe  animaL  There  are  however  exceptions,  and  in  Seaipellwm  viUgart, 
and  probably  others  which  live  attached  to  coral,  the  cement  soon 
oeases  to  debouch  from  the  antennas,  but  instead  bursts  through  a 
row  of  orifices  on  the  rostral  margin  of  the  peduncle,  by  which  means 
this  margin  is  symmetrically  fastened  down  to  the  delicate  homy 
branches  of  the  zoophyte. 

The  external  shell,  which  misled  early  observers,  and  induced  them 
to  place  the  Cirripedes  among  the  Molhuca,  is  called,  in  the  Ifepadidm, 
the  Capitulum.  It  is  usually  much  flattened,  but  sometimes  broadly 
oval  in  section.  It  is  generally  formed  of  five  or  more  valves,  connected 
together  by  very  narrow  or  broad  strips  of  membrane.  When  the  valves 
are  numerous,  and  they  sometimes  exceed  a  hundred  in  number,  they 
are  arranged  in  whorls,  with  each  valve  generally  so  placed  aa  to  oover 
the  interval  between  the  two  valves  above.  The  upper  pair  of  valves,  the 
peduncle  being  beneath,  are  called  by  Mr.  Darwin  the  terga  ;  the  pair 
below  it,  on  the  same  side,  the  acuto.  The  upper  mesial  valve  opposed 
to  the  two  teiga  is  the  eariwi,  and  below  this  the  au&carifui;  and  on  the 
opposite  side  sf^  the  rotirym.  Below  this  is  sometimes  a  att^roatnim. 
Of  all  the  valves  the  scuta  are  the  most  permanent ;  then  come  the  teiga, 
and  then  the  carina.  The  others  occur  only  occasionally.  The  shell  is 
generally  white,  occasionally  reddish  or  purple ;  exteriorly  the  valves 
are  covered  by  more  or  less  persistent,  generally  yellow,  strong  mem- 
brane. The  scuta  and  teiga  are  always  considerably  larger  than  the 
other  valves.  The  adductor  muscle  is  always  attached  to  a  point  not 
&r  from  the  middle  of  each  scutum,  which  generally  has  a  pit  for  its 
attachment.  The  valves  are  either  placed  dose  together  or  at  some  dis- 
tance. The  membrane  connecting  the  valves,  where  they  do  not  touch, 
is  like  that  forming  the  peduncle,  and  is  sometimes  coloured  brilliantly 
ciimson-red;  generally  it  is  bluish-g^y.  Within  the  capitulum  is 
the  sac,  which,  together  with  the  upper  internal  part  of  the  peduncle, 
incloses  the  animal's  body. 

The  Peduncle  varies  in  length  in  difierent  species,  and  even  in  the 
same  species,  according  t<»  the  situation  occupied  by  the  individuaL 
It  is  usually  flattened,  but  sometimes  quite  cylindrioaL  It  is  com- 
posed of  very  strong  generally  thick  transparent  membrane,  rarely 
coloured  reddish,  and  often  penetrated  by  numerous  tubuli  The 
peduude  is  lined  within  by  thin  layers  of  musdes,  longitudinal, 
transverse,  and  oblique,  all  destitute  of  the  transverse  striae  charac- 
teristic of  voluntary  musdes.  They  run  from  the  bottom  of  the 
peduncle  to  the  base  of  the  capitulum,  as  in  Lfta^tu^  or  half  way  up  it,  aa 
in  ConcKodermii,  The  gentle  swaying  to  and  fro  movements  and  the 
power  of  longitudinal  contraction  are  produced  by  these  muscles. 
The  interior  of  the  peduncle  is  filled  up  with  a  great  mass  of  branching 
ovarian  tubes. 

There  are  six  pairs  of  cirri  The  five  posterior  pairs  are  seated  close 
to  each  other  and  equidistant ;  the  first  pair  is  generally  seated  at  a 
little  distance  and  sometimes  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
second  pair.  The  first  pair  is  shortest ;  the  others,  proceeding  back- 
wards,, increase  gradually  in  length.  The  number  of  segments  in  the 
posterior  diri  is  very  great.  The  drri  are  covered  with  spines.  Most 
of  the  genera  have  caudal  appendages. 

The  alimentary  canal  consists  of  an  oesophagus,  a  stomach,  and 
rectum.  The  cosophagus  is  of  considerable  length ;  it  is  formed  of 
strong  transparent  much-folded  membrane,  continuous  with  the  outer 
integuments,  and  moulted  with  them.  At  its  lower  end  it  expands 
into  a  bell  with  the  edges  reflexed.  This  bdl  lies  within  the  stomach, 
and  keeps  the  upper  oroad  end  expanded.  The  stomach  lies  in  a 
much-curved  almost  doubled  course,  and  is  often  a  little  constricted 


where  most  bent.  It  is  broadest  at  the  upper  end.  The  stomach 
is  coated  by  small  opaque  pulpy  slightly  arboresoeot  glanda^ 
believed  to  be  hepatia  The  rectum  varies  in  length,  extending 
inwards  from  the  anus  to  between  the  bases  of  the  second  and  fifth 
pair  of  cirri.  It  is  narrow,  and  formed  of  much-folded  transparent 
membrane.  Within  the  stomach  there  can  generally  be  seen,  accord* 
ing  to  the  period  of  digestion,  a  thin  yet  strong  perfectly  transparent 
epithelial  membrane,  not  exhibiting  under  the  microscope  any  struc- 
ture. It  enters  the  branching  caeca,  and  extends  from  the  edge  ot  the 
bell  of  the  oesophagus  to  the  commencement  of  the  dosed  rectum.  It 
was  this  membrane  which  was  supposed  by  M.  Martin-Saint-Ange  to 
be  a  distinct  organ,  like  the  dosed  tube  of  oertain  Atmdidcc 

The  circulatory  system  is  not  highly  developed.  No  heart  has  been 
discovered.  The  whole  body  is  permeated  by  chaxmek  which  have  no 
proper  coat. 

In  most  genera  of  the  Lepadida  the  nervous  system  consists  of  six 
main  ganglJA»  namely,  the  supra-ossophageal  and  five  thoracic  ganglia 
Of  these  the  first  thoracic  or  infra-oesophageal  ganglion  is  considerably 
the  largest  and  most  massive.  It  is  sijuarish,  or  oval,  or  heart-shaped ;  it 
presents  no  trace  of  being  formed  of  two  lateral  ganglia.  Two  great 
nerves  spring  from  its  under  side,  and  run  straight  down  amongst  the 
viscera.  These  nerves  are  about  as  large  as  those  forming  the  collar 
and  those  running  to  the  second  ganglion;  hence  six  great  nerree 
meet  here,  two  in  fronts  two  behind,  and  two  on  the  under  aide. 
Nerves  are  given  off  from  the  remaining  ganglia  to  the  drri  and  other 
organs.  The  musdes  of  the  capitulum  are  supplied  from  the  supra- 
oesophageal  gangliorL 

/  / 


Diagram  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  nenroiu  sjatem  In  Lepca  fudeularii* 
A,  first  thoraoio  or  Infta-oeeophageal  ganglion;  B,  second  thorade  gaBflkm; 
C,  third  thoracic  gangUon ;  D,  supnMBSopliageal  ganglion;  S,  the  two 
ophthalmic  ganglia ;  F,  doable  eye ;  «,  nerre  going  to  flrat  eirrhns ;  »,  to  the 
mnsoles  below  the  first  cirrhns ;  e,  to  the  second  drrhns ;  ^  to  the  third ; 
*,  nerves  running  to  the  ovarU;  /,  doable  nerves  snpplying  the  no  and 
p«dancle. 

Nerves  proceed  firom  the  supnHnsophageal  to  the  double  eye  of 
Lepas  fascicularit.  The  idea  that  the  whole  peduncle  and  capitulnm 
consists  of  the  first  three  segments  of  the  head  is  beautifully  sup- 
ported by  the  structure  of  the  nervous  system,  in  which  thcae  parts 
are  seen  to  be  supplied  with  nerves  exdusively  from  the  supraj 
oasophageal  ganglion.  In  ordinary  Cfnutacece  the  supm-OBSophageal 
ganglion  sends  nerves  to  the  eyes  and  the  two  pairs  of  antennas 
corresponding  to  the  first  three  segments  of  the  bod^.  ^       __^ 

The  reproductive  system  of  the  Cirripedes  has  exerted  much  intweet 
from  the  results  of  the  researches  of  Mr.  Darwin.  All  the  Cirnpedja, 
with  few  exceptions,  are  bi-sexual,  but  Mr.  Darwin  has  found  ™**^« 
masculine  power  of  certain  hermaphrodite  spedee  of  lUa  and  SeM- 
pellvm  is  rendered  more  efladent  by  oertain  paradtic  males,  which, 
from  their  not  pairing,  aa  in  all  hitherto  known  cases,  with  female^ 
but  with  hermaphrodites,  Mr.  Darwin  designates  Compleincn*d 
Males.  The  ordinary  male  organs  consist  of  pear-  or  finger^ped 
bodies  of  a  leaden  colour,  which  coat  the  stomach,  enter  the  pediclea, 
and  even  the  basal  segments  of  the  rami  of  the  drri,  and  in  some 
genera  occupy  certain  swdlings  on  the  thorax  and  prosoma- 

With  r^ard  to  the  ovaria,  M.  Martin-Saint-Ange  has  described  how 
the  peduncle  is  gorged  with  an  inextricable  mass  of  branching  oTsnan 
tubes  filled  with  granular  matter  and  immature  ova.  The  ova.  whffl 
exduded  remain  m  the  sac  of  the  animal  untU  the  larvae  are  hatchwL 
They  are  very  numerotis,  and  generally  form  two  ooncave  n«^y 
circular  leaves,  caUed  by  Darwin  Ovigerous  Lamellae.  The  ova  he  ma 
Uyer,  from  two  to  four  deep,  and  all  are  held  together  by  a  moat 
delicate  transparent  membrane,  which  separatdy  enfolds  each  ovum. 
This  membrane  is  often  thicker  and  strxmser  round  *^«  "^^f?"^ 
the  lamellae,  where  they  are  united  in  a  pecuUar  manner,  presently  to 


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be  deacribedy  to  a  fold  of  skin  on  each  side  of  the  sac ;  these  two 
folds  Darwin  calls  the  Ovigeroua  Frsena.  As  the  lamells  are  formed 
without  organic  union  with  the  parent  they  would  be  liable  to  be 
washed  out  of  the  widely-opened  sac  of  the  Zepadidce  if  they  had 
not  been  specially  attached  to  the  frsona. 

The  complemental  males,  to  which  we  have  before  alluded,  occur 
in  the  genera  Iblct,  SccUpeUum,  Alcippe,  and  Oryptophiahu  ;  and  these 
males  are  permanently  attached  to  the  females.  In  Ibla  the  male  is 
attached  within  the  sac  of  the  female ;  it  has  a  well-organised  mouth 
supported  on  a  pedimcle,  but  with  only  a  rudiment  of  the  thorax,  and 
with  only  two  pairs  of  aborted  cirri  In  ScalpeUum  the  males  differ 
in  the  different  species  remarkably  in  structure:  in  some  of  the 
species  they  are  not  very  unlike  ordinary  Pedunculated  Cirripedes, 
and  are  attached  between  the  scuta  of  the  females ;  in  other  species 
the  males  are  veiy  rudimental,  extremely  minute,  and  would  never 
without  close  examination  have  been  thought  to  have  even  belonged 
to  the  class  Oirripedia.  These  males  consist  of  a  sac,  with  rudiments  of 
four  valves,  inclosing  a  singularly  modified  thorax,  with  only  four  pairs 
of  appendages  (whi(£  cannot  be  called  cirri) ;  they  are  entirely  destitute 
of  a  mouth  or  stomach.  The  males  of  Oryptophialtu  and  Alcippe  are 
even  more  rudimentary  than  those  of  the  above  species  of  ScalpeUum : 
they  are  reduced  to  an  outer  envelope  (homologous  with  the  carapace 
of  ordinary  Cnutacea),  to  a  single  eye,  the  testis,  vesicula  seminalis, 
and  a  wonderfully  elongated  probosciformed  male  organ.  Hence 
there  is  no  mouth,  no  stomach,  no  thorax,  no  abdomen,  and  no 
appendages  or  cirri.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  in  the  whole  animal 
kingdom  there  exists  a  creature  in  a  more  rudimentary  condition 
than  these  males.  As  they  do  not  possess  a  mouth  or  stomach  they 
are  necessarily  short-lived.  The  pupa  fixes  itself  on  the  female, 
becomes  cemented  to  her,  undergoes  its  metamorphosis,  and  becomes 
a  male  Cirripede ;  the  spermatozoa  become  developed  and  are 
dischai^ged ;  the  me^e  dies,  decays,  and  generally  drops  off,  and  is 
succeeded,  when  the  ova  in  the  female  are  next  ready  to  be 
impregnated,  by  one  or  more  fresh  males.  Owing  apparently  to  the 
small  size  of  the  males,  there  is  generally  more  than  one  attached  to 
the  female  at  the  same  time ;  and  in  the  case  of  Alcippe  lampcu 
Mr.  Darwin  found  no  less  than  thirteen  of  these  singular  parasitic 
and  rudimentary  males  attached  to  a  single  female  ! 

Remarkable  as  is  the  occurrence  of  the  above  male  parasites  on  the 
females,  it  is  a  far  more  singular  fact,  that  in  some  of  the  species  of 
Ihla  and  ScalpeUvmt  the  males  are  attached,  not  on  females,  but  on 
hermaphrodites;  and  hence  they  have  been  called  by  Mr.  Darwin 
Complemental  Msles,  inasmuch  as  they  are  complcmentaiy  to  the 
male  organs  of  the  hermaphrodite.  Mr.  Darwin,  in  his  work  on 
the  drriptdid  (p.  281),  published  by  the  Ray  Society,  enters  at 
length  on  the  evidence  in  support  of  this  view,  and  he  believes  the 
iltcts  cannot  be  controverted,  (p.  214.)  **  Although  the  existence  of 
hermaphrodites  and  males  within  the  limits  of  the  same  species  is  a 
new  fact  amongst  animals,  it  is  far  from  rare  in  the  vegetable  king- 
dom :  in  such  cases  the  male  flowers  are  sometimes  in  a  rudimentary 
condition  compared  to  the  hermaphrodite  flowers,  exactly  in  the  same 
manner  as  are  the  males  of  Ihla  and  ScalptUum.  If  the  final  cause  of 
the  existence  of  these  Complemental  Males  be  asked,  no  certain  answer 
can  be  given ;  the  vesicula}  seminalea  in  the  hermaphrodite  of  Ibla 
quadrivalviSf  and  in  some  species  of  ScatpeUwn,  appeared  to  be  of 
small  diameter ;  but  on  the  other  hand  the  ova  to  be  impregnated 
are  fewer  than  in  most  Cirripedes.  No  explanation  can  be  given  of 
the  much  simpler  case  of  the  mere  separation  of  the  sexes  in  the 
four  genera  before  enumerated  ;  nor  can  any  explanation  be  given  of 
the  much  more  varied  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  fructification  in 
plants  of  the  Linnean  class  Polygamia" 

The  following  woodcuts  will  give  an  idea  of  the  structures  above 
described,  more  especially  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  Martin- 
Saint- Ange : — 

Fig.  1.  Anaiife  jaune  sans  coquille  (Cuvier,  Alepa*  f ) :  A,  a  gelatinous 
production,  the  cement,  which  serves  to  fix  the  peduncle;  B,  the 
first  membrane  of  the  peduncle ;  B'  a  small  Cirripede,  of  the  natural 
size  developed  upon  the  peduncle  of  the  parent ;  C,  the  capitulum, 
which  contains  the  body  of  the  animal ;  D,  the  fissure  of  the  capitu- 
lum from  which  issue  the  feet  or  cirri  F.  The  point  £  indicates  the 
termination  of  the  peduncle,  and  the  place  where  the  eggs  stop ;  G, 
the  eggs  arrived  within  the  sac.  Fig.  2.  The  same  letters  refer  to 
the  same  parts  as  in  ^.  1 ;  H,  the  pedicles  of  the  cirri,  which  sustain 
Uie  rami,  F.  At  the  base  of  the  feet  (H)  are  four  branchise;  and 
between  these  feet  and  those  placed  on  the  other  side  is  seen  the 
recurved  tube  which  serves  to  convey  the  seminal  liquor  to  the 
ova  within  th^  sac.  Fig.  8.  The  same  Cirripede,  from  which  the 
half  of  the  first  envelope  has  been  taken  so  as  to  expose  the  interior. 
The  peduncle  contains  a  second  cylinder  terminated  in  a  cul-de-sac 
by  its  inferior  extremity,  and  covered  at  the  other  by  a  very  deli- 
cate membrane ;  the  longitudinal  and  transverse  muscular  fibres  may 
be  observed ;  t,  e,  indicate  t^e  canal  which,  according  to  Saint- Ange, 
carries  the  eggs  of  the  peduncle  within  the  sac ;  6,  Uiat  which  serves 
as  a  nourishing  vessel  to  the  peduncle  and  the  eggs ;  g,  g^  the  mem- 
brane of  the  sac  which  iiltercepts  all  direct  communication  between 
the  peduncle  and  the  cavity  of  the  sac.  J  represents  the  body  of 
th«  Cirripede  inclosed  in  its  proper  envelope.  Fig.  4.  The  same  situa- 
tion as  the  liu>t,  representing  idl  the  membranes  which  envelop  the 

KAI.  H18T.  DIV.  VOL.  I. 


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body  of  the  Cirripede ;  B,  B,  the  miucular  (nrlindrical  pipe  open,  in 
-which  the  eggB  aro  seen ;  e,  ^  the  ooune  of  the  oyaiian  tubes  in  the 
thickness  of  the  second  envelope ;  ff,g,ff,  the  enrelope  opened  and  tamed 
back ;  J,  J,  J,  the  pr9per  membrane  of  the  bodj  of  the  animal ;  it  is 
with  this  cavity  that  the  canal  6  communicates,  and  it  is  between  this 
proper  membrane  and  that  of  the  second  envelope  g,  g,  g,  that  the  eggs 
are  found  :  whence  it  results  that  the  cavity  of  tne  mantle  has  no  com- 
munication  with  the  peduncle,  except  by  means  of  the  oviduct  e. 

Fig.  5.  Side  view  of  the  common  Duck  Barnacle  {Lepat  anatifera) 
taken  out  of  the  shell,  enveloped  in  its  proper  membrane,  under 
which  is  found  the  salivary  (?)  vesicle;  V,  the  cervical  ganglion; 
V,  the  nerve  which  is  given  off  from  the  brain  to  go  to  the  muscles  of 
the  skin ;  J,  the  two  levator  muRcles  of  the  upper  Up ;  K  K,  branchiss ; 
A,  a  homy  tubercle  which  is  formed  on  each  side  of  the  orifice  of 
the  vent ;  U',  the  extremity  of  the  tube,  bearded  with  fine  hairs. 
Fig.  6.  Anterior  view  of  the  same,  showing  the  truly  articulated 
disposition  of  the  body,  each  ring  of  which  corresponds  to  a  pair  of 
feet ;  S,  the  adductor  muscle  of  the  valves ;  U',  the  articulated  tube 
which  contains  the  spermatic  canaL  Fig.  7.  The  intestinal  canal  of 
the  same  species ;  D,  the  mouth  seen  from  the  side ;  d,  the  CBsophagus ; 
d',  the  stomach ;  d",  Uie  peduncle  which  makes  this  ox^gan  communicate 
with  a  species  of  csscum,  d**',  of  the  same  structure  and  form  as  the 
stomach  ;  T,  the  intestinal  canal,  offering  two  natural  curvatures ;  h, 
orifice  of  the  rectum ;  U  U,  vesicul»  seminales,  uniting  in  a  single 
canal  very  delicate,  and  terminated  at  U'  by  a  small  onfice.  Fig.  8. 
Disposition  of  the  nervous  system :  1.  The  first  cosophageal  ganglion, 
called  the  brain  :  from  these  united  ganglions  spring  the  branches  v, 
v',  v",  destined  for  all  the  muscles  of  the  dorsal  part,  and  two 
extremely  delicate  threads  which  go  on  each  side,  the  first  to  the 
salivaiy  veside  V,  the  second  to  a  new  ganglion  Z ;  2.  The  second 
ganglion,  sending  two  nervous  branches  to  each  jaw-foot  F,  and  small 
branches  to  the  cesophagus;  8,  i,  5,  6  correspond  to  the  other 
ganglions;  6  furnishes  the  two  last  pairs  of  feet.  It  is  from  the 
branches  which  go  to  the  last  feety  and  not  from  the  ganglions  them- 
selves, that  the  two  threads  y  and  ^,  which  go  to  the  extremity,  U', 
of  the  tube  are  detached.  The  point  x  corresponds  to  the  centre  of 
the  oesophagus  which  has  been  removed. 

The  process  of  exuviation  takes  place  in  the  Oirripedia.  Mr.  Darwin 
says,  "  In  the  LepadidcBy  with  the  exception  of  the  genus  JAthotryOf 
in  which  the  calcareous  scales  on  the  pedimcle  together  with  the 
membrane  connecting  them  is  cast  off,  neither  the  valves  nor  the 
membrane  uniting  them,  nor  that  forming  the  peduncle  with  its  scales, 
are  moulted ;  but  the  surface  gradually  disintegrates,  and  is  removed, 
perhaps  sometimes  in  flakes;  whilst  new,  and  larger  layers  are  formed 
beneath.  In  most  Sessile  Cirripedes  the  outside membraneconnectingthe 
operculum  and  shell  is  regularly  moulted.  The  delicate  tunic  lining 
the  sac  and  the  integuments  of  the  whole  body  are  periodically  shed. 
With  these  integuments,  the  membrane  lining  the  oesophagus,  the 
rectum,  the  deep  olfactory  pouches,  and  the  homy  apodemes  of  the 
maxillm  are  all  moulted  together.  The  new  spines  on  the  cirri  are 
formed  within  the  old  ones. 

'*A11  Oirripedia  grow  rapidly;  the  yawl  of  H.M.S.  Beagle  was 
lowered  into  the  water  at  the  Qalapagos  Archipelago  on  the  15th  of 
September,  and  after  an  interval  of  exactly  Uiirty-three  days  was 
hauled  in  a^ain.  I  found  on  her  bottom  a  specimen  of  Conekoderma 
virgata  with  the  capitulum  and  peduncle,  each  half  an  inch  in  length 
and  the  former  ^  uis  in  width ;  this  is  half  the  size  of  the  largest 
specimen  I  have  seen  of  this  species.  Several  other  individuals,  not 
half  the  size  of  the  above,  contained  numerous  ova  in  their  lamelln, 
ready  to  burst  forth.  Supposing  that  the  larvae  of  the  largest  specimen 
became  attached  the  first  day  the  boat  was  put  into  the  water,  we  have 
the  metamorphosis,  an  increase  of  length  from  about  '05  of  a  inch,  the 
size  of  the  Uurvaj  to  a  whole  inch,  and  the  laying  of  probably  several 
sets  of  egg.9,  all  effected  in  thirty-three  days.  From  this  rapid  growtii 
repeated  exuviations  must  be  requisite.  Mr.  W.  Thompson,  of  Belfast, 
kept  twenty  specimens  of  BcdaoMu  balanoideSf  a  form  of  much  slower 
growth,  alive,  and  on  the  twelfth  day  he  found  the  twenty-first  integu- 
ment,  showing  that  all  had  moulted  once,  and  one  individual  twice 
within  this  period.  I  may  here  add  that  the  Pedunculated  Cirripedes 
never  attain  so  large  a  bulk  as  the  Sessile.  Lq>€U  anatifera  is  some- 
times 16  inches  in  length,  but  of  this  the  far  greater  portion  consists 
of  the  peduncle.  PoUieipet  mitella  is  the  most  massive  kind ;  I  have 
seen  a  specimen  with  a  oa{>itulum  two-thirds  of  an  inch  in  width." 

The  Pedunculated  Cirripedes  extend  over  the  whole  world;  and 
most  of  the  individual  spedes  hafb  laive  ranges,  more  especially,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  those  attached  to  fioating  objects.  Excepting 
these  latter,  the  greater  number  inhabit  the  warmer,  temperate,  and 
tropical  seas.  Of  those  attached  to  fixed  objects,  or  to  littoral  ^nimRla^ 
it  is  rare  to  find  more  than  three  or  four  species  in  the  same  locality. 
On  the  shores  of  Europe  Mr.  Darwin  says  he  knows  of  only  three, 
namely,  Scalpellwn,  PoUicipea,  and  Alepoi.  At  Madeira  (owing  to  the 
admirable  researches  of  the  Rev.  R.  T.  Lowe)  two  PaciUunuu,  a 
Dichelatpit,  and  an  Oxyruupit  are  known.  In  Kew  S^ealand  there  are 
two  PoUieipet  and  an  Alepaa,  and  perhaps  a  fourth  form.  From  the 
Philippine  Archipelago,  in  the  great  collection  made  by  Mr.  Cuming, 
there  are  a  Poecilattna,  an  Ibla,  dkScalpeUum^  PoUicipea,  and  Litkotrya. 
Of  all  the  Lqi>adidce  nearly  half  are  attached  to  floatizig  objects  or  to 
animals  which  are  able  to  chaogetheir  position  ;  the  other  half  are 


generally  attached  to  fixed  oi^ganio  or  inoi^panio  bodies,  and  more 
frequently  to  the  former  than  to  the  latter.  Most  of  the  species  of 
SealpeUum  are  inhabitants  of  deep  water;  on  the  other  hand  most  of 
PoUicipei,  of  Ibla,  and  of  Liikotrya  are  littoral  forms.  The  species  of 
LUkoirya  have  the  power  of  excavating  burrows  in  caloareons  rocks, 
shells,  and  corals ;  and  the  singular  manner  in  which  this  is  effscted 
is  described  in  Mr.  Darwin's  work.  AneUuma  has  its  8ab«lobuIar 
peduncle  deeply  imbedded  in  the  flesh  of  northern  shanks,  and 
instances  have  occurred  of  the  basal  end  of  the  peduncle  of  Concho- 
derma  awrita  being  sunk  into  the  skin  of  Oeiaoea ;  in  the  same  way  the 
point  of  the  peduncle  in  the  male  of  Ibla  is  generally  deeply  embedded 
in  the  sac  of  the  femalei  In  all  these  cases  the  cementing  sub- 
stance affects  and  injures  the  oorium  or  true  skin  of  the  animal  on 
whicQi  the  creature  is  parasitic,  while  the  surrounding  parts  being 
not  injured  continue  to  grow  upwards,  thus  causing  the  partial 
embedment  of  the  Cirripede.  In  the  ease  of  Aneiaiina,  we  have 
growth  at  the  end  of -the  pedimcle,  and  consequently  downward 
pressure,  and  this  may  possibly  cause  absorption  to  take  place  in  the 
skin  of  the  shark  at  the  spot  pressed  on. 

AirangemeDt  of  the  Family.  * 
Class,  Orudacea;  Sub-Class,  Oirripedia, 
Oruataeea  attached  by  the  anterior  end  of  the  head  by  cement, 
proceeding  from  a  modified  portion  of  the  ovaria :  archetype  composed 
of  17  segments,  wiUi  the  first  three  of  Urge  size,  and  almost  always 
developed  into  a  carapace  not  wholly  exuviated,  and  capable  of 
various  movements ;  antennae  none ;  eyes  rudimentary ;  mouth 
prominent,  formed  by  the  partial  confluence  of  the  labrum,  pelpi, 
mandibles,  and  two  pairs  of  maxillae.  Thorax  attached  to  the  intei^ 
nal  sternal  surface  of  the  carapace,  generally  bearing  six  pairs  of 
captorial,  biramous,  multi-articulated  limbs.  Abdomen  generally 
rudimentary.  Branchiae,  when  present,  attached  to  the  under  sides 
of  the  carapace.  Bisexual ;  when  umsexual,  males  parasitic  on  the 
female;  male  onan  single,  generally probosciformed,  seated  at  the 
posterior  end  of  me  abdomen.  Oviducts  none.  Metamoiphosis  complex. 

Order  L    Thoraeica.f 

Oirripedia  having  a  carapace  consisting  either  of  a  capitulum  on  a 
peduncle,  or  of  an  operculated  shell  with  a  baai&  Body  formed  of  six 
thoracic  segments,  generally  furnished  with  six  pairs  of  cirri  Abdo- 
men rudimentary,  but  often  bearing  caudal  appendages.  Mouth  with 
the  labrum  not  capable  of  independent  movements.  Larva  firstly 
uniocular,  with  three  pairs  of  legs ;  lastly,  binocular,  with  six  pairs  of 
thoracic  legs. 

Family  1. — Balanidce, 

Oirripedia  without  a  peduncle;  acuta  and  terga  furnished  with 
depressor  muscles ;  other  valves  united  immovably  together. 

This  family  was  well  known  to  the  ancients.  The  genera  seem  to 
have  been  aJl  confounded  under  the  name  of  B^ai^oi  (Balanus)  by  the 
Greeks.  (Aristotle, '  Hist.  Anim.,'  book  iv.  ch.  8,  and  book  v.  ch.  15.) 
Athenaeus  mentions  them  more  than  once ;  and  ('  Deipnos/  book  iiL 
ch.  11,  p.  88)  speaks  of  the  large  ones  with  approbation  as  an  article 
of  food.  They  are  the  Balani  of  the  Latins ;  nor  did  Lucullua  dis- 
dain them.  The  Chinese  eat  the  soft  parts  of  one  of  the  species 
{Balanua  Hntinnabulvm),  which  has  the  reputation  of  being  like  the 
flesh  of  the  lobster  when  cooked ;  and  the  delicious  qualities  of  another 
species,  and  its  high  estimation  for  the  table,  are  referred  to  in  another 
place.     [Balakus.] 

Sub-Fsmily.— AitoninA 

Shell  with  the  rostram  without  alae,  but  having  radii ;  the  lateral 
compartments  all  with  alae  on  one  side  and  nidii  on  the  other; 
parietes  generally  either  porose  or  longitudinally  ribbed  on  their  inner 
surfaces. 

Section  +.  * 

Scutum  and  teigum  articulated  together  or  overlapping  each 
other  :  each  brancbla  composed  of  a  single  plicated  fold. 

Qenus,  Balanua  Auctonmi. — Compartments  six ;  basis  calcareous 
or  membranous ;  opercular  valves  sub-triangular.    [BALAirua] 

•  We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Darwin  for  fhs  followiiig  arrangement,  the  flnt 
Tolume  of  whose  great  work  on  the  dnripedia^  Inoladiiig  the  LipmiUttf  pub- 
lished by  the  Bay  Boeiety  has  alone  at  present  been  published. 

t  The  external  parts  of  Cirripedes  oonaUt  either  of  a  8hM  with  an  OpmretiXmm 
and  the  Baaia,  or  of  a  CupittUwm  (as  called  by  Mr.  Darwin),  which  is  homologoiis 
with  the  shell  and  operculum,  mounted  on  a  Pedtrnda,  which  again  is  homolo- 
gous with  the  basis.  The  two  valvea,  to  which  the  animal's  body  is  attached, 
and  which  have  the  power  of  opening  and  shutting,  are  called  by  Mr.  Darwin 
the  Scuta ;  a  second  pair  of  Talves,  bounding  the  oriilce,  at  that  end  at  which 
the  cirri  are  ezserted,  are  called  the  Terga.  At  this  same  end  of  the  shell,  or 
capitnlnm,  the  medial  valve  or  compartment  is  called  the  Oariaa  ;  the  medial 
valve  or  compartment  at  the  opposite  end  Is  called  the  JEeosfmm  .*  the  prindpal 
valves  or  compartments  on  each  side  are  called  the  roatroUaterait  UUarai,  and 
earino4aUralt  or  simply  the  lateral  compartments  or  Laiarm.  In  the  Baiamdai 
each  separate  compartment  may  be  said  to  consist  of  the  aoaU  or  paritial  portion 
(generally  wedge^ormed,  with  the  apex  upwards),  and  with  a  Badima  (either 
on  one  or  both  sides),  or  with  an  Ala  (either  on  one  or  both  sides) :  the  AU  is  a 
quadrangular  projection,  always  overlapped  by  the  adjoining  compartment ;  the 
Baiiua'ham  usually  the  shape  of  a  wedge,  with  the  apex  downwards ;  It  is  exte- 
rior, and  overlaps  the  adjoining  compartment. 


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Tliis,  the  typical  geniu  of  the  family,  includes  89  recent  spedes, 
which  range  u-om  77°  in  the  northern  hemisphere  to  Cape  Horn 
in  the  bouuu 

Sub-genoa,  Acattctf  Leach,  1817. — Compartments  six;  parietes 
and  basis  non-porose ;  basis  calcareous,  cup-formed,  not  elongated  : 
attached  to  sponges  or  rarely  to  the  bark  of  Isis. 

This  sub-genus,  which  is  a  very  natural  one  in  habits  and  appear- 
ance, nevertheless  can  hardly  bo  distinguished  from  those  species  of 
Balamu  which  live  attached  to  Gforffoniat.  Aecuta  is  found  in  almost 
all  parts  of  the  world. 

Tetr<KlUa,  Schumacher,  1817  {Conia  of  Leach,  AiemuM  of  Ranzani). 
— Compartments  four,  sometimes  with  their  outer  laminfB  calcified 
together;  parietes  permeated  by  pores,  generally  forming  seyeral 
rows ;  basis  flat,  irregular,  calcareous  or  membranous. 


a 


K 


■\ 


\ 


Tetraelita  porota, 

EhiinnUf  Leach,  1825. — Compartments  four ;  parietes  not  porose ; 
basis  membranous. 

This  genus  is  confined  to  the  southern  hemisphere. 

PyrgSna,  Leach,  1817  {Megatrema  of  Leach;  Adna  of  Leach; 
Daracia  of  J.  E.  Gray ;  Crewia  of  De  Blainville;  Nobia  of  Sowerby). 
— Shell  formed  of  a  single  piece ;  basis  cup-formed  or  sub-cylindrical : 
attached  to,  or  imbedded  m  condt. 


^ftgoma  crenalum, 
0,  tpeelmeDB  of  the  natural  sise  in  Attraa  fawa ;  5,  «,  <f,  diifterent  riewa 
and  section  of  the  cone ;  «,  the  opercular  ralTea.   6,  c,  d,  and  #,  are  ma^ifted. 

Subgenus  Oeima,  Leach,  1817.— Compartments  four;  furnished 
with  radii ;  basis  cup-formed,  imbedded  in  corals. 

This  sub-genus  is  most  closely  allied  to  Pyrgoma,  and  its  separation 
is  of  doubtful  propriety. 

CheUmobia,  Leach,  1817  (Ovronula  of  Lamarck ;  Asirolepat  of  Gray). 

Compartments  extremely  thick,  six  in  number,  but  the  rostrum 

is  internally  composed  of  three  compartments  united  together ;  basis 


membranous ;  scuta  narrow,  imited  to  the  terga  by  a  homy  articular 
ridge. 

Two  of  the  three  species  included  in  this  genus  are  always  attached 
to  turtles ;  the  third  adheres  to  crabs  and  smooth  shells. 

Section  t+. 

Scutum  and  tergum  (when  both  are  present)  not  overlapphig  each 
other;  basis  membranous;  parietes  often  deeply  folded,  with  the 
outer  lamina  towards  the  baisb  generally  imperfect ;  each  branchia 
composed  of  two  plicated  folds  :  shell  attached  to  living  Veriebrata. 

Coronvlaj  Lamarck,  1802  (Diadema  of  Schumacher;  Cetopirtu  of 
Ranzani). — Compartments  six,  of  equal  breadth,  deeply  folded,  with 
the  folds  outwardly  pressed  together,  but  inwardly  expanded,  so  as 
to  form  cavities  open  only  on  the  under  side ;  operoulflur  valves  much 
smaller  than  the  orifice  of  the  shell :  attached  to  C7etoc«a. 


Curcuula  balctnaris, 

PkUylepoi,  J.  E.  Gray,  1825  {CorontUa  of  De  Blainville). — Compart- 
ments six,  each  bilobed  and  inwardly  produced,  so  as  to  form  six 
mid-ribs,  which  support  the  outwardly  convex  membranous  basis. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  attached  to  turtles,  manatees,  and 
sea-snakes. 

Tubicinella,  Lamarck,  1802  {CorontUa  of  De  Blainville).— Compart- 
ments six,  of  equal  breadth ;  shell  sub-cylindrical,  wider  at  the  top 
than  at  the  baieds ;  belted  by  several  transverse  ridges :  attached  to 
Cetaeea. 


(^^^ 


Tubicinella  traeheali*. 

Xenobalanus,  Steenstrup,  1852. — Shell  almost  rudimentary,  star- 
formed,  composed  of  six  compartments,  with  a  long  peduncle-formed 
body  rising  from  tiie  middle  of  them ;  opercular  valves  none : 
attached  to  Cetaeea. 

Sub-Family. — Chthamalince, 

Shell  with  the  rostrum  having  alae,  but  without  radii ;  rostro-lateral 
compartments  without  alas  on  either  side ;  parietes  not  porose 

Chtkamalus,  Ranzani,  1820  {Ewaphia,  Conrad).— Compartments 
six ;  basis  membranous,  but  sometimes  in  appearance  calcareous  from 
the  inflected  parietes. 


Chthamalut  tUllatm, 


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lilt 


ChanKetipho,  Darwin,  1854. — Compartments  four,  with  the  satarei 
often  much  obliterated ;  basis  membranous. 

Pachylatma,  Darwin,  1854. — Compartments,  when  the  shell  is  Tery 
young,  eight ;  when  maturer,  either  six,  or  in  appearance  only  four, 
froih  tiie  close  union  of  the  lateral  compartments ;  basis  calcareous. 

Octtmerit,  G.  B.  Sowerby,  1825.— Compartments  eight ;  radii  with 
their  edges  crenated ;  basis  membranous. 


•^%^ 


Octotnerit  tm^uioio. 
a,  the  outside ;  below,  an  internal  Tiew  of  the  eight  diriiions ;  «,  the  anterior 
pieee;   d,  the  poeterior  piece;  •  to  ifc,  the  lateral  pieees ;  /,  the  operonlnm, 
eonaisting  of  four  pieoea,  of  which  the  two  anterior  are  the  larger. 

Catopkroffmuif  G.  B.  Sowerby. — Compartments  eighty  with  seToral 
exterior  whorls  of  small  supplemental  compartments ;  basis  either 
membranous  or  calcareous. 

"  The  shell,"  says  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby,  "  consists  in  a  number  of 
narrow  perpendicular  valves  arranged  around  the  shelly  cone,  and  in 
rows,  like  pales,  the  first  row  of  which  consists  of  eight  pieces,  placed 
so  as  exactly  to  cover  the  sutures  of  the  shelly  cone  immediately 
surrounding  the  animal ;  around  this  are  then  placed  several  sets  of 
more  and  more  numerous  pieces  gradually  decreasing  in  siise,  so  that 
the  outer  row,  which  is  the  most  numerous,  consists  also  of  the 
smallest  pieces.  Additional  rows  seem  to  be  produced  as  the  animal 
increases  in  age ;  for  a  young  specimen  in  our  possession  has  only 
one  row  of  eight  pieces  covering  the  sutures  of  the  first  cone,  while  a 
much  larger  and  older  specimen  stiU  retains  part  of  three  rows,  and 
has  evidentlv  lost  some  of  the  external  rows.  The  young  individual 
also  shows  that  the  whole  of  the  pieces  are  pointed  at  their  superior 
extremities,  wheroas  in  the  old  shell  these  extremities  are  so  worn  or 
eroded  as  to  become  very  irregular  and  obtuse." 


CatopKragmus  imbrieatus, 
«,  the  old  shell,  natural  sixe ;  h,  the  same  magnified ;  e,  the  yonng  shell, 
natural  aiae ;  d^  the  same  magnified. 

Family  IL—Verrucidag, 
Ctrripedia  without  a  peduncle ;  scuta  and  terga  not  furnished  with 
depressor  muscles,  moveable  only  on  one  side,  on  the  other  aide  united 
immoveably  with  the  rostrum  and  carina  into  an  asymmetrical  sheU. 


Verruca,  Schumacher,  1817  {Clma  and  Clitia  of  Leach,  Oreutia  of 
Lamarck,  Ochthona  of  Ranzani). — This  genus  is  very  remarkable  in 
many  respects,  especially  in  its  asymmetrical  shell ;  sometimes  the 
right  side  and  sometimes  the  left  side  being  specially  modified.  It 
includes  four  recent  species. 


Verruea  Strimia, 

Family  IIL — Lepadidce. 

Oirripedia  having  a  flexible  peduncle,  provided  with  muscles ;  scuta 
and  terga  (when  present)  not  furnished  with  depressor  muscles; 
other  vdfvee  (when  present)  not  united  into  an  immoveable  ring. 

The  genera  of  this  family  affix  themselves  by  means  of  their  peduncle 
to  submarine  bodies,  forming  numerous  groups.  They  are  often 
found  on  floating  substances  &r  at  sea :  on  ships,  on  logs  of  timber, 
on  bottles,  on  net-corks,  on  fuci,  on  floating  testaceous  moUusks, 
laaUhina  for  instance,  and  even  on  some  of  the  vertebrated 
animals,  on  whales,  turtles,  and  even  serpents  —  ffydrophis, 
for  example.  Other  testaceous  moUusks  might  be  mentioned,  and 
one  species  has  been  found  parafdtical  witlun  the  umbrella  of  a 
Medma,  A  large  log  of  timber  covered  with  these  animals,  twisting 
and  diverging  in  all  directions,  and  so  thick  as  entirely  to  hide  the 
surface  of  the  log,  is  a  strange  sight  They  look  like  an  enormous 
collection  of  serpents  to  the  ignorant;  and  we  have  heard  a  living 
nuun  of  this  description  casually  thrown  into  shallow  water  and  left 
by  the  tide  so  termed.  Their  growth  must  be  extremely  rapid.  A 
ship  going  out  with  a  perfectly  clean  bottom  vill  often  return  from  a 
short  voyage  covered  with  them  below  the  water-line.  The  Blacks  of 
Goree  are  said  to  eat  a  large  species  of  PerUalamit,  which  is  stated  to 
be  delicate. 

Lep€U, — Valves  5,  approximate ;  carina  extending  up  between  the 
teiga,  terminating  downwards  in  an  imbedded  fork  or  in  an  external 
disc;  scuta  subtriangular  with  their  umbones  at  the  rostral  an^a 
The  species  are  found  aU  over  the  world  attached  to  floating  objects. 

L,  anatifera,  the  Common  Barnacle.  It  is  the  AtuUifa,  AiuUifera, 
and  PentalatmU  of  many  authors.  AntUifa  engonata  of  Conrad; 
A .  dentata  (var.)  of  Brugui^res ;  PentdUumis  dentatut  of  Brown ;  Anatifa 
of  Martin-Saint- Ange.  The  valves  are  smooth  or  delicately  striated. 
Right  hand  scutum  alone  furnished  with  an  internal  umbonal  tooth ; 
uppermost  part  of  pedunde  dark-coloured.  It  is  extremely  comfaion, 
attached  to  floating  timber,  vessels,  sea-weed,  bottles,  &a,  and  to 
each  other. 


L13MU  amUif0ra, 


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Mr.  Darwin  describes  also  the  following  species : — L,  ffUlii,  L,  anseri- 
fera,  L.  pectinata,  L.  auttralts,  L.  fcucicularis. 

PaeciUuma,  Darwin. — Valves  S,  5,  or  7,  approximate ;  carina  extend- 
ing only  to  the  basal  points  of  the  terga,  with  its  lower  end  either 
truncated  or  produced  into  a  deeply  imbedded  disc.  Scuta  nearly 
oval,  with  their  umbones  at  the  rostral  angle.  This  genus  embraces 
the  following  species : — P,  Kaanpferi,  P.  auran/to,  P.  crcuact,  P,fl8tci, 
P,  thtumea.  Four  out  of  the  five  species  live  attached  to  OrustcKea 
in  the  European  and  Eastern  warmer,  temperate,  and  tropical  oceans. 
The  fifth  species  was  found  attached  to  the  dead  species  of  an  Echinus 
off  New  Guinea.  It  is  probable  that  several  more  species  may  be 
discovered. 

JDicheUupis,  Darwin  (OctolcumU,  J.  £.  Gray ;  ffeptdUumit,  Agassiz). 
— Valves  5,  generally  appearing  like  7,  from  each  scutum  being 
divided  into  two  distinct  segments,  united  at  the  rostral  angle; 
carina  generally  extending  up  between  the  terga,  terminating  down- 
wards in  an  imbedded  £sc  or  fork,  or  cup.  The  following  are  the 
species  j—D.  Warwickii,  D.  QrayH,  D.  pellucidct,  D.  Lcwei,  J),  ortho- 
gonia.  The  species  are  very  rare.  They  have  been  found  attached  to 
crabs  at  Madeira  and  off  Borneo,  and  attached  to  sea-snakes  in  the 
Indian  Ocean. 

Oxyruupis,  Darwin, — Valves  6,  approximate ;  scuta  with  their  umbones 
in  the  middle  of  the  oooludent  margin ;  carina  rectangularly  bent, 
extending  up  between  the  terga,  with  the  basal  end  simply  concave. 
The  only  species  is  0.  celata,  which  was  found  attached  in  numbers 
to  an  ArUipathea  in  Madeira,  by  the  Rev.  R.  T.  Lowe. 

Conchodermaf  Olfers  {Lepas,  Linnaus;  BrarUa,  Oken;  Malacotta 
and  Saioclita,  Schumacher ;  Oticn  and  CXnerat,  Leach ;  6ymnolep<u, 
De  Blainville ;  Pamina,  J.  E.  Gray). — Valves  2  to  5,  minute,  remote 
from  each  other;  scuta  with  two  or  three  lobes,  with  their  umbones 
in  the  jniddle  of  the  oocludent  margin ;  carina  arched,  upper  and 
lower  ends  nearly  alike. 

C.  awrita,  Darwin.  It  is  the  Lepat  awnta,  Linneens ;  Otion  OuvieranuB, 
0,  Blainvillianu8y  0.  Belli- 
anu8,  0.  DumerUliamUy  0. 
Riatoanui,  Leach ;  0.  depreasck, 
0.  taccwtiferdy  Coates;  0. 
aurituif  Macgillivray ;  Lepa* 
SeporinOf  Poli;  Lepaa  coiittUa, 
Montagu ;  Conchoderma  au- 
ritum,  C.  leporinvm,  Olfers; 
Branta  aurita,  Oken ;  Mala- 
cotta bivalvis,  Schumacher; 
Oymnolep<u  Ouvieri,  De  Blain- 
ville. 

The  capitulum  has  two 
ear-like  appendages  seated 
behind  the  rudimentary  and 
often  absent  teiga;  scuta  bi- 
lobed ;  carina  absent  or  quite 
rudimentary ;  peduncle  long, 
distinctly  separated  from  the 
capitulum.  This  species  is 
extremely  common  in  every 
ocean.  It  is  found  on  ships' 
bottoms  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  It  is  found  in  the 
Arctic  and  Antarctic  Oceans, 
not  unfrequently  on  the 
coronulse  on  whales,  and  on 
slow-moving  fish.  It  is  often 
associated  with  other  species. 


Conchoderma  aurita, 
a,   entire  animal;  6,  the  lateral  valve «; 


1  he  earlike  appendages  are  „,  the  single  valve ;  d,  the  terminal  valves, 
the  most  extraordinary  part 

of  this  animaL  Mr.  Darwin  thinks  that  their  function  is  respiratory. 
C.  virgaia,  Darwin.  It  is  the  O,  virgatum,  Olfers ;  Lepat  virgata, 
Spengler;  Z,  coriacea,  Poli;  L.  mm^ronacea, 'Montagu;  Branta 
virgata,  Oken ;  Senoclita  fateiata,  Schumacher ;  CineraaviiteUaf  Leach ; 
O.  metnbranacea,  MapgilUvray ;  C.  bicolor,  C.  vittattu,  Brown ;  Oymno- 
lepaa  Oranchii,  De  Blainville ;  Pamina  trilineata,  J.  K  Gray.  The 
scuta  8-lobed;  terga  concave  internally,  with  their  apices  slightly 
curved  inwaids;  carina  moderately  developed,  slightly  curved; 
peduncle  blending  into  the  capitulum. 


Oonehoderma  virgata, 
a,  Animal,   ft,  the  scuta  ;  e,  the  carina ;  i,  the  terga. 

Like  the  last^  this  species  is  extremely  common  on  ships'  bottoms 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  also  attaches  itself  to  sea-weed, 
turtles,  and  other  objects. 


The  small  valves  in  C.  awrita  were  overlooked  bv  Lamarck,  but 
detected  by  Leach.  In  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
'  Nat  Hist,'  No.  265,  there  is  a  species  named  CineroM  Hvmteri,  of 
which  two  small  groups  are  attached  to  the  tail  of  Eydrophia  bicolor, 
which  is  figured  in  Russell's  '  Indian  Serpents,'  1,  tab.  xli,  and  is 
called  by  the  natives  *  Nalla  Wahlagillee  Pam.'  Russell  says,  "  This 
sea-snake,  according  to  the  Vizagapatam  fishermen,  seldom  approaches 
the  shore ;  several  of  them  had  neVor  seen  one  before.  They  pre- 
tended it  was  of  a  very  dangerous  kind,  which  is  contradicted  by  the 
want  of  poisonous  organs." 

C.  Hunteri  is  admitted  as  a  species  by  Mr.  Darwin.  It  has  however 
scarcely  more  claim  to  be  reg^arded  as  a  species  than  some  of  the 
varieties  of  the  first  two  species. 

Alepaa,  Sander  Rang  (Anatifa,  Quoy  and  Gaimard ;  Triton,  Lesson ; 
Oineraa,  Lesson). — Capitulum  without  valves,  or  with  homy  almost 
hidden  scuta. 

M.  Rang  has  given  the  generic  appellation  above  stated  to  the 
Cineraa  paraaita  of  Lesson,  and  the  Awitifa  wnivalvia  of  Quoy  and 
Gaimard.  The  species  on  which  the  genus  was  founded  was  detected 
attached  to  the  umbrella  of  a  Meduaa,  Rang  considers  this  to  be  the 
Triton  of  Linnaeus.  Cuvier,  in  the  last  edition  of  the  *  R^gne  Animal,' 
observes  that  he  has  not  seen  the  species,  but  still  adheres  to  his  old 
opinion ;  for  he  says  that  it  ought  not  in  any  case  to  be  confounded 
with  the  Triton  of  Linnaeus,  which  was  the  animal  of  an  Anaiifa  torn 
from  its  mantle  and  shelL 

A,  paraaita,  Sander  Rang.     It  is  the  Anaiifa  wiivalvia  and  A.  para- 
aita, Quoy  and  Gaimard;  Triton  (AUpaa)  faaeicw- 
IcUua,  Lesson.     Orifice  not  protuberant^  equalling 
two-thirds  of  the  length  of  the  capitulum ;  scuta 
homy.    Total  length  two  inches. 

It  has  been  found  parasitic  on  Meduaa  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  oceans  and  on  the 
south  shore  of  England. 

Three  other  species— J.  minttto.  A,  comuta, 
and  A.  tubuloaa — are  described  by  Darwin. 

Anelaama,  Darwin;  Alepaa,  Loven.— Capitulum 
without  valves,  aperture  large,  peduncle  fimbri- 
ated, sub-globular,  imbedded.  Alepaa  paraaita, 

A.  aqualicola,  Darwin,  is  the  only  species  of  this 
genus.    It  was  referred  by  Loven  to  Alepaa,  but  has  been  separated 
by  Darwin.    It  lives  parasitic,  with  its  peduncle  imbedded  in  the  skin 
of  sharks  in  the  North  Sea. 

Alcippe,  A.  Hancock,  1849.— Capitidum  without  valves,  with  the 
aperture  spinose;  peduncle  grows  at  its  lower  end,  rostral  surface 
depressed  and  covered  by  a  homy  disc;  capitulum  and  peduncle 
imbedded  in  a  self-formed  cavity. 

This  most  remarkable  genus  bores  cavities  for  itself  in  shells.  It 
inhabits  the  shores  of  Ei^land.  It  has  but  one  species,  A.  lampaa, 
Hancock. 

Ibla,  Leach  (AnaHfa,  Cuvier;  Tetralaamia,  Cuvier).--Female  and 
hermaphrodite  with  4  homy  valves ;  peduncle  clothed  with  persistent 
homy  spines.  . 

There  are  two  species  of  this,  /.  Cumin^rii  and  /.  quadnvalvia. 
This  is  one  of  the  genera  in  which  complemental  males  occur,  tiie 
stmcture  of  which  Mr.  Darwin  has  described  at  great  length. 
/.  Cumingii  inhabite  the  seas  of  the  Phaippine  Archipelago,  and  they 
are  mvariably  atteched  to  the  peduncle  of  PoUicipea  mitdla  in  groups  of 
tw'o  or  three  together.  /.  qwuirivalvia  is  found  in  the  Australian  seas. 
ScalpeUum,  Leach  {Lepaa,  Linn. ;  PoUicipea,  Lamarck ;  Polylepaa, 
De  Blainville;  SmUium,  Leach;  Calantica,  J.  E.  Gray;  ThalieUa, 
J.  E.  Gray;  Anatifa,  Quoy  and  Gaimard;  Xiphidium,  Dixon).— 
Hermaphrodite  and  female  with  valves  12  to  16  in  number ;  latent  of 
the  lower  whori  4  or  6,  with  their  lines  of  growth  generally  directed 
towards  each  other;  sub-rostrum  very  rarely  present;  peduncle 
squamiferous,  most  rarely  naked.  «... 

S,  vulgare,  Leach.    It  is  the  Lepaa  Scalpdltm,  Lmnseus;  PoUte^pea 


Sealpellum  tmtgare, 
ScalpelUm,  Lamarck;  Polylepaa  vu%ronf,  De  Blainville;  SealpdJMm 
lave,  Leach.    Hermaphrodite  with  capitulum  of  14  valves,  includmg 


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CIRRIPEDIA. 


CntRIPEDIA. 


1116 


the  rudimentaiy  rostrum ;  upper  latera  irregularly  ovaL    The  com- 
plemental  male  flask-formed,  with  four  rudimenta^  valves. 

It  is  a  native  of  the  seas  of  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  France,  Norway, 
and  Naples.  Found  attached  to  homy  corallines,  according  to  Forbes 
and  MacAndrew,  at  from  twenty  to  thirty,  sometimes  even  to  fifty 
fathoms  in  depth.  There  are  five  other  species  of  this  genus.  They 
are  all  characterised  by  the  presence  of  the  complemental  male. 

PoUicipetf  Leach  {Lepoi,  Linnseus;   Anatifay  Brugui^res;  MiUUa, 

Oken;     Rampkidionia,     Schumadier;    PolylspoBy    De    Blainville; 

CapitulwMf  J.  K  Gray). — Valves  from  18  to  above  100  in  number; 

latera  of  the  lower  whorl  numerous,  with    Uieir  lines  of  growth 

directed  downwards;  subrostrum  always  present;  peduncle  squami- 

ferous. 

P.  miteUa,  Sowerby.      It  is  Lepat  miieOa,   Luinaus;   Polylepas 

miteUOf  De  Blain. ;  Capilulum  miuUa, 

Gray.    Capitulum  with  only  one  whorl 

of  valves  under   the    rostrum;    the 

upper  pair  of  latera  viewed  internally 

are  three  or  four  times  as  large  as 

the  lower  latera,  which  overlap  each 

other  laterally ;  scales  of  the  peduncle 

oymmetrically     arranged     in     dose 

whorls. 

This  species  is  foimd  in  the  seas  of 
the  PhiHppine  Archipelago  and  the 
Chinese  Bea.  There  are  five  other 
species.    They  are  found  attached  to 

PulUHp..  mUdla.  ^^  ^^^  ""^  ^°'^  objects  in  the 

warmer,  temperate,  and  tropical  seas. 

LUhofryck,  G.  B.  Sowerby  {LUholqxu,  De  Blainville ;  Ahtta,  Leach ; 
Brimmu  and  ConehotryOy  J.  E.  Gray ;  Lepatf  Gmelin ;  AnatifOf  Quoy 
and  Gaimard). — Valves  8,  including  a  small  often  rudimentary  ros- 
trum and  a  pair  of  smidl  latera ;  lines  of  growth  finelv  crenated ; 
peduncle  covered  with  small  calcareous  scales;  those  oi  the  upper 
whorls  crenated ;  attached  either  to  a  basal  calcareous  cup  or  to  a 
row  of  discs. 

Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby,  who  instituted  the  genus,  considers  it  as  inter- 
mediate between  the  Sessile  and  Pedunculated  Cirripedes ;  and  states 
that  it  possesses  a  peculiarity  not  to  be  found  in  any  hitherto 
described  genus  of  this  class,  namely,  that  of  penetrating  stones  for 
its  habitation.  Hang  says  that  De  Blainville  is  of  opinion  that  the 
genus  is  only  a  true  Anatifay  which  had  affixed  itself  upon  the  valve 
of  a  VentrupU  at  the  bottom  of  one  of  the  cavities  which  that  bivalve 
hollows  out  for  itsel£  De  Blainville,  in  his  '  Malacologie,'  describes 
it  imder  the  name  of  LUholepatt  sinking  Sowerb/s  name  altogether, 
though  he  says  the  genus  was  newly  estabUshed  by  him,  quotes  his 
description,  and  merely  states  that  he  has  never  seen  the  Cirripede. 

As  the  means  by  which  many  of  the  Mollu$ca  bore  into  the  rocks 
in  which  they  reside  are  at  present  imknown  and  are  matters  of  much 
discussion,  the  conclusions  at  which  Mr.  Darwin  has  arrived  with 
regard  to  the  species  of  LUhotrya  are  of  high  interest.  After 
describing  accurately  the  structure  of  the  valves,  the  peduncle,  the 
muscles  of  the  peduncle,  the  basal  calcareous  cups  or  discs,  and  the 
internal  structure  of  the  cup,  he  concludes : — "  The  sevenJ  species 
occur  imbedded  in  soft  calcareous  rocks,  in  massive  corals,  and  in 
the  shells  of  MoUmca  and  of  Cirripedes.  It  has  been  doubted  by 
several  naturalists  whether  the  basal  calcareous  cup  at  all  belongs  to 
the  LUhotrya  ;  but  after  the  foregoing  microscopical  observations  on 
its  structure  it  is  useless  to  discuss  this  point.  So  again  it  has  been 
doubted  whether  the  cavity  Is  formed  by  the  cirripede  itself;  but 
there  is  so  obvious  a  relation  between  the  diameters  of  specimens  of 
various  sizes  and  the  holes  occupied  by  them  that  I  can  entertain  no 
doubt  on  this  head.  The  holes  moreover  are  not  quite  cylindrical, 
but  broadlj  oval,  like  the  section  of  the  animal.  The  simple  fact 
that  in  this  genus  alone  each  fresh  shel^  layer  round  the  bases  of 
the  valves,  and  therefore  at  the  widest  part  of  the  capitulum,  is 
shaiply  toothed ;  and  secondly,  that  in  this  genus  alone  a  succession 
of  snarply-serrated  scaales,  on  the  upper  and  widest  part  of  the 
peduncle,  is  periodically  formed  at  eadi  exuviation,  *  and  that  con- 
sequently the  teeth  on  the  valves  and  scales  are  sharp  and  fit  for 
wearing  soft  stone  at  that  very  period  when  the  animal  has  to  increase 
in  size,  would  alone  render  tiie  view  probable  that  the  LUhotrya  makes 
or  at  least  enlarges  the  cavities  in  which  it  is  imbedded.  Althoii|;h 
it  may  be  admitted  that  LUhotrya  has  the  power  of  enlarging  its 
cavity,  how  does  it  first  bore  down  into  the  rook  T  It  is  quite  certain 
that  tiie  basal  cup  is  absolutely  fixed,  and  that  neither  in  form  nor 
state  of  surface  it  is  at  all  fit  for  boring.  I  was  quite  unable  to 
answer  the  forsffoing  question  until  seeing  the  admirable  figures  by 
Reinhardt  of  L.  Nieobarica  still  attached  in  its  cavity.  Subsequently 
I  obtained  from  Mr.  Stutchbury  several  pieces  of  rock  completely 
drilled  with  holes,  many  of  small  diameter,  by  L.  dortalii ;  and  in 
these  I  foimd  numerous  instances  of  the  linear  rows  of  little  discs 
like  those  of  L.  Nieobarica^  showing  in  the  plainest  manner  that  each 
time  a  new  disc  is  formed,  that  is,  at  each  exuviation,  the  animal 
moves  a  short  step  downwards ;  and  as  the  lowest  of  these  little  discs 
in  none  of  the  burrows  was  placed  at  the  very  bottom,  we  see  that 
the  lowest  point  of  the  peduncle  must  be  the  wearing  agent.  In  the 
peduncle  of  an  individual  of  L.  dorsalit,  nearly  ready  to  moult,  I 


found,  it  may  be  remembered,  beneath  and  round  the  basal  disc, 
under  the  old  membrane  of  the  peduncle,  a  new  membrane  studded 
with  calcified  beads,  but  with  the  homy  star-headed  spines  not  yet 
developed ;  whilst  on  the  old  outer  coat  these  latter  had  been  worn 
down  quite  smooth,  and  the  calcified  beads  worn  entirely  away.  Here 
then  we  have  an  excellent  rasping  surface.  With  respect  to  the  power 
of  movement  necessary  for  the  boring  action,  tiie  peduncle  is  amply 
furnished  with  transverse,  oblique,  and  longitudinal  striseless  muscles, 
the  latter  attadied  to  the  basal  disa  In  all  the  Peduneulata  I  have 
reason  to  believe  that  these  muscles  are  in  constant  slight  involuntary 
action.  This  being  the  case,  I  conceive  that  the  small  blunt  spur- 
like portion  of  the  peduncle  descending  beneath  the  basal  rim  of  the 
lowest  disc  would  inevitably  partake  slightly  of  the  movements  of 
the  whole  distended  animal  As  soon  as  tlra  LUhotrya  has  reached 
that  depth  which  its  instincts  point  out  as  most  suitable  to  its  habits, 
the  discs  are  converted  into  an  irregularly  growing  cap,  and  the 
animal  then  only  increases  in  diameter,  enlarging  its  cavity  by  the 
action  of  the  serrated  scales  on  the  peduncle,  and  of  the  serrated 
lower  edges  of  the  valves  of  the  capitulum.  With  respect  to  those 
reversed  individuals  attached  with  their  capitulums  downwards,  I 
suppose  that  the  larvae  had  crept  into  some  deep  cavity  perhaps  made 
orij^nally  by  a  LitholryOf  of  which  the  rock  in  the  specimen  in  question 
was  quite  full,  and  had  there  attached  themselves.  Finally,  it  appears 
that  \^  Lithotrya  the  burrowing  is  simply  a  mechanical  action :  it  is 
efiecteid  b^  each  layer  of  shell  in  the  baisal  attached  discs  overiapping 
in  a  straight  line  the  last-formed  layer ;  by  the  membrane  of  the 
peduncle  and  the  valves  of  the  capitulum  having  excellent  and  often 
renewed  rasping  surfaces ;  and  lastly,  by  the  end  of  the  pedunde  (that 
is,  homologically  the  front  of  the  head)  thus  roughened,  extended 
beyond  the  surface  of  attachment,  and  possessing  the  powsr  of  slight 
movement" 

L,  dortaliSf  G.  B.  Sowerby.  It  is  the  Lepas  dorwdUt,  EHlis ;  *LUho- 
Upat  de  Mont  Serrat,  De  Blainville.  Scuta  narrowly  overlapping  the 
terga ;  carina  internally  concave ;  rostnxm 
as  wide  as  two  or  three  of  ihe  sul^aoent 
scales;  latera  with  their  internal  sur- 
faces narrowly  elliptical,  as  long  as  fire 
\  of  the  subjacent  scales ;   upper  scales  of 

the  peduncle  less  than  twice  as  laxge  as 
those  in  the  second  whorl. 

This  species  is  foimd  imbedded  in  lime- 
stone at  Barbadoes,  Venezuela,  and  the 
Honduras. 

L.  catUa,  Darwin,  named  from  a  unique 
specimen,  was  found  imbedded  in  a  Cmtia 
or  TetraclUa  from  New  South  Wales. 

L.  Nicobariea,  Reinhardt,  is  a  rare  spe- 
cies occurring  in  the  Nioobar  Islands. 
L.  Bhodioput,  Darwin,  is  named  from  a 
LUhoti-ya  dorMlii.  specimen  imbedded  in  a  nuuBsive  coral  in 

the  British  Museum. 
L  truncata,  Darwin,  found  imbedded  in  coral  rock  in  the  Friendly 
Islands  and  Philippine  Archipelago. 

L.  yaUntinOf  Darwin,  from  two  specimens  imbedded  in  an  oyster- 
shell,  in  the  British  Museum,  from  the  Red  Sea. 

Order  IL     Abdominalta. 

Cirripedia  having  a  fiask-shaped  carapace.  Body  consisting  of  1 
cephalic,  7  thoracic,  and  8  abdominal  segments,  the  latter  bearing  8 
pairs  of  cirri ;  the  thoracic  segments  without  members ;  mouth  with 
the  labrum  greatly  produced,  and  capable  of  independent  movements ; 
cesophagus  armed  with  teeth  at  its  lower  end ;  larva  firstly  egg-like, 
without  external  limbs  or  an  eye ;  lastly,  binocidar,  without  thoracic 
legs.  • 

This  order  contains  only  one  genus  and  one  species,  CfrypdopkUUfii 
minuttti,  Darwin,  1854.  It  w  very  distinct  from  all  other  Cirripedes, 
but  more  nearly  allied  to  Alcippe  amongst  the  Lepadidtz  than  to  any 
other  form.  It  bores  cavities  in  the  ConehoUptu  PerwvitmOf  and  is 
of  very  minute  size. 

Order  III.   Apoda. 

Cirripedia  with  the  carapace  reduced  to  2  threads,  serving  for 
attachment.  Body  consisting  of  1  cephalic,  7  thoracic,  and  3 
abdominal  segments,  all  destitute  of  cirri ;  mouth  suctorial,  with  the 
mandibles  and  maxillae,  placed  back  to  back,  inclosed  in  a  hood, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  labmm  and  palpi;  metamorphoses 
unknown. 

This  order,  like  the  last,  contains  only  one  genus  and  species,  Proteo' 
lepas  hivinela^  Darwin,  1854.  It  was  found  parasitic  within  the  sac 
of  another  Cirripede  in  the  West  Indies.  Until  most  closely  examined 
.the  ProteolepoM  would  never  have  been  imagined  to  have  belonged  to 
the  class  of  Oirripedia.  In  external  appearance  it  resembles  the  larra 
or  maggot  of  a  fly ;  its  mouth  is  unlike  that  of  any  known  type  in  the 
articulate  kingdom. 

FowU  Cirripedia. 
As  with  the  recent  so  with  the  fossil  species  of  this  funily,  we  are 
most  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  them  to  the  exhaustive  labours 
of  Mr.  Darwin,  whose  recent  investigations   on  this  subject  hare 


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CIKRIPEDU. 


CISTELIDES. 


Ill) 


thrown  all  others  into  the  shade.  The  result  of  his  inquiries  into  the 
extinct  history  of  the  Cirripedia  has  been  given  in  a  work  published 
by  the  Palseontographioal  Society,  Which,  although  more  immediately 
intended  to  illustrate  the  fossil  Pedunctdated  Cirripedes  of  Great 
Britain,  embraces  an  outline  of  the  whole  subject  as  feur  as  it  is  known. 
In  our  remarks  we  shall  follow  Mr.  Darwin.  "  No  true  Sessile  Cirri- 
pede/'  he  says,  ''has  hitherto  been  found  in  any  Secondary  formation. 
Considering  that  at  the  present  time  mauY  species  are  attached  to 
oceanic  floating  objects,  that  many  others  bve  in  deep  water  in  con- 
gregated masses,  that  their  shells  are  not  subject  to  decay,  and  that 
they  are  not  likely  to  be  overlooked  when  fossilised,  this  seems  to  be 
one  of  the  cases  in  which  negative  evidence  is  of  considerable  value." 
Often  observers  have  searched  with  great  care  amongst  the  Secondary 
rocks  and  have  met  with  nothing  that  bear  the  characters  of  the 
jBalanidce  of  the  present  day.  The  Sessile  Cirripedes  are  first  met 
with  in  the  Eocene  deposits  of  the  Tertiary  formations,  and  subse- 
quently often  in  abimdance  in  the  same  formation.  They  appear  how- 
ever never  to  have  abounded  so  greatly  as  at  the  present  time,  so  that 
Mr.  Darwin  says,  *'  The  present  period  will  hereafter  apparently  have 
ajs  good  a  claim  to  be  called  the  age  of  Cirripedes  as  the  Pal»ozotc 
period  has  to  be  called  the  age  of  Trilobitee."  He  adds,  "There  is 
one  apparent  exception  to  the  rule  that  Sessile  Cirripedes  are  not 
found  in  Secondary  formations,  for  I  am  enabled  to  announce  that 
Mr.  J.  de  C.  Sowerby  has  in  his  collection  a  Verruca  from  our  English 
Chalk ;  but  this  genus,  though  hitherto  included  amongst  the  Sessile 
Cirripedes,  must,  when  its  whole  oiganisation  is  taken  into  considera- 
tion be  ranked  in  a  distinct  family  of  equal  value  with  the  BcUanida 
and  Lepadida,  but  perhaps  more  neariy  related  to  the  latter  than  to 
the  Sessile  Cirripedes." 

The  oldest  known  Pedunculated  Cirripede  is  a  species  of  Pollicipes 
discovered  by  Professor  Buckman  in  the  Stonesfield  Slate  in  Uie 
Lower  Oolite,  and  two  species  of  the  same  genus  have  been 
described  by  Mr.  Morris  from  the  Oxford  Clay  in  the  Middle  Oolite. 
No  Cirripede  has  yet  been  found  in  the  Upper  Oolite,  or  in  the 
Wealden  Beds.  During  the  development  of  the  great  Cretaceous 
system,  the  Lepadidce  arrived  at  their  culminating  point.  At  this 
time  there  exiited  8  genera  and  at  least  82  species,  some  occurring 
at  every  stage  of  the  system.  In  addition  to  the  species  described 
there  are  several  doub^l,  and  by  future  research  many  more  will 
undoubtedly  be  added  to  the  present  list. 

Although  rich  in  species,  the  individuals  in  the  Chalk  oceans 
seemed  to  have  been  rare,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  few  remains  of 
particular  species  that  exist  in  any  one  collection.  It  is  not  always 
the  case  that  a  great  variety  of  species  is  attended  with  a  multiplicity 
of  individuals,  although  that  is  frequently  observed. 

In  the  Eocene,  Miocene,  and  Pliocene  Tertiary  deposits,  Mr.  Darwin 
has  met  with  but  two  species  of  ScaZpellum  and  two  of  PoUicipes, 
distinct  from  recent  forms.  Two  or  three  species  are  doubtful.  It 
is  a  singular  fact  that,  widely  distributed  as  are  the  species  of  Zepcu 
at  the  present  day,  and  the  frequency  of  the  individuals,  not  a 
single  viJve  known  cei*tainly  to  belong  to  this  genus  or  to  any  of 
the  closely  allied  genera,  has  hitherto  been  foimd  fossil. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  the  species  described  in  Mr.  Darwin's 
monograph : — 


Table  ofDiHribution 
Scalpdlum  magnum 
8,  quadratum 
S,fo9tula 

S.  maximum  . 

S.  lineatum 
S,  hattatum 

S,  aiiguttum 

S.  quadricarinatum 

S.  triliTiecUum 

&  simplex 

S.  arcualum 

8,  tuberculatum 

S.  eolidulum 

S,  semiporeatum 

S.Creta{t). 

PoUifffpet  concinnu9 

P.  Ooliticut 

P.  NUetcnii    . 

P.  Ifauamanni    . 

P.  polUus 

P.  elongatua 

P.  acuminatut 

P.  Angdini 

P.  r^/Uxui 

P.  carinatu9 

P.glaber 

P.  unguis    • 

P.  validui      .        • 

P.  gracilis  .        • 

P,d9natui     . 


of  Species  and  the  Formations  where  they  a/re  found. 
Tertiary. 
,     Tertiary. 
Upper  Chalk. 

{Faxoe.     Scania.     Maestricht.     Upper 
Chalk. 
.    Lower  Chalk. 

Chalk  Marl, 
r  Upper  Chalk  (?),  Lower  Chalk  (?),  Chalk 
\     Mari(f). 

Chalk  Marl. 
,    Chalk  MarL 

Lower  Greensand. 

Gault. 

Upper  Chalk,  Lower  Chalk,  Chalk  Marl. 

Scania.    Upper  Chalk. 

Scahia.    Upper  Chalk. 

Upper  Chalk. 

Lower  Greensand. 
.    Lower  Oolite. 
.    Scania.    Upper  Chalk. 

Gault. 
.    Upper  Greensand  (?). 

Upper  Chalk. 
.  Lower  Chalk. 
.    Scania.    England.    Upper  Chalk. 

Tertiary. 
,    Tertiary. 

Upper  Chalk,  Lower  Chalk,  Chal^L  Marl. 
,    Gault,  Lower  Greensand. 

Scania.    Maestricht    Upper  Chalk. 
>    Upper  Chalk,  Lower  ChiOL 

nxoe.    Upper  Chalk. 


P.striatus  ....     Upper  Chalk. 

P,  semikUus    ....    Upper  Chalk,  Lower  Chalk,  Chalk  MarL 

P.  rigidut   ....    Gault. 

P  failasr  fScania.     England.     Hanover.     Upper 

P.  elegans  ....  Faxoe.    Scania.    Upper  Chalk. 

P.  JBronnii  .     .  Upper  Greensand. 

P.  plawuUUus  .  *  .  .  Lower  Greensand. 

Zoricula  puichella  .        .    .  Lower  Chalk.     [5ee  Supflkhekt.] 

CIS,  a  genus  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  family  Ptinidce  (Leach). 
They  are  minute  Beetles  which  infest  the  various  n>ecie8  of  Boleti. 
They  are  of  an  oblong  neariy  cylindrical  form,  and  generally  of  a 
brown  colour :  their  tarsi  are  4-jointed,  and  the  antennsB  have  Uie 
basal  joint  large,  and  the  three  apical  joints  forming  a  dub.  Four- 
teen species  have  been  discovered  in  this  country,  the  lugest  of 
which  IS  scarcely  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  length. 

CISSA'MPELOS,  a  genus  of  Plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Menispermacea.  It  is  dioecious;  the  sepals  8,  in  a  triple  series;  the 
stamens  united  into  a  slender  column  dilated  at  the  apex,  bearing 
two  2-celled  anthers  opening  horizontally.  The  species  are  twining 
shrubs  with  triangular  leaves,  shining  on  the  upper  and  pubescent  on 
the  under  surfiice. 

C,  Pareira,  the  Pareira-Brava,  is  a  native  of  several  of  the  West 
India  Islands,  of  Mexico,  and  of  Brazil.  The  root  of  this  plant 
arrives  in  Europe  in  pieces  from  two  to  three  feet  long,  varying 
in  thickness  from  that  of  a  finger  to  an  arm,  curved,  furrowed, 
and  warty,  with  a  thin  closely-adhering  bark  of  a  grayishobrown 
colour.  The  woody  part  is  tough,  but  so  porous  that  air  can  be 
blown  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  a  long  piece;  the  concentric 
circles  are  veij  conspicuous;  the  axis  is  not  in  the  centre.  The 
odour  is  very  ttant,  but  the  taste  is  at  first  sweetish  or  liquorice-like, 
afterwards  nauseous  and  bitter.  Analysed  by  FeneuiUe  it  was  found 
to  consist  of — soft  resin ;  a  yellow  bitter  principle  (tonic) ;  a  brown 
principle ;  animalised  matter,  starch,  malate  of  lime,  nitrate  of  pot- 
ash, and  other  salts.  The  juice  of  the  firesh  plant  in  its  native  country 
is  said  to  be  a  very  efficacious  application  to  the  bites  of  oerj^eaitM ; 
but  in  Europe  the  root  is  employed  only  as  a  tonic  diuretic. 

There  is  great  reason  to  believe  that  the  roots  of  several  different 
species  of  this  or  closely-allied  genera  are  confounded  under  the 
name  of  Pareira-Brava,  especially  the  root  of  C.  Caapeba,  also  of  C 
Mawritanica  (Aubl.),  which  is  much  esteemed  in  the  East  Indies 
given  along  with  aromatics  in  diseases  of  the  intestines.  Several 
other  species  of  Cissampelos,  on  account  of  their  prominent  bitter 
properties,  have  been  used  in  medicine.  Two  species  of  Abtita,  an 
allied  genus,  A.  rufescens  (AubL),  and  A.  candicans  (Decand.),  are 
used  in  Guyana  imder  the  name  of  White  and  Red  Pareira-Brava. 

CISSUa    [Vitackjl] 

CISTA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  Polypetalous  Exogenous  Plants,  be- 
longing to  Lindley's  Cslyoose  Group ;  among  which  they  are  known  by 
their  opposite  or  alternate  undivided  leaves,  generally  strongly  impr^- 
nated  with  a  fragrant  resinous  secretion,  regi:diGur  flowers  wil£crumpM 
petals  and  indefinite  stamens,  and  friiit  with  parietal  placenta ;  a 
simple  style,  and  a  large  number  of  seeds  containing  in  the  midst  of 
albumen  an  embryo  with  the  radicle  remote  from  the  hiluuL  They 
are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  fugitive  flowers  in  the  genera 
CiitusandJffeUanthemum,-  [Cistus;  Heluhthexox;  Cochlobferiium.] 
The  relations  of  Oistfuece  are  with  Oruc\fera!,  Capparidaeece,  Ster- 
culiacea^f  and  ffyperieacece.  It  contains  7  genera  and  about  190  speciea 
They  are  chiefly  found  in  the  south  of  Europe  and  the  north  of 
Africa.  They  are  rare  in  North  America,  extremelv  uncommon  in 
South  America,  and  scarcely  known  in  Asia.  (Lindlay,  '  Y ^stable 
Kingdom.') 

CISTELA.    rCi8TELn)E8.]- 

CISTElilDES,  a  family  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section 
ffeteromera  and  sub-section  Stenelytra.  The  species  have  the  fol- 
lowing characters : — Claws  of  the  tand  pectinated  beneath ;  antennn 
with  tiie  basal  joint  free,  that  is,  not  covered  by  a  projecting  portion 
of  the  head ;  mandibles  with  the  apex  entire. 

This  &mily  inoLudea  the  genera  Lgstronickiu,  CistdOf  Myeetocharus, 
AUecula,  and  some  others. 

Li^onichu9,—Ot  this  genus  there  are  upwards  of  thirty  species 
known ;  their  colouring  is  for  the  most  part  brilliant  and  metallic ; 
by  far  the  greater  portion  of  them  are  found  in  South  America*  They 
have  the  l£orax  depressed,  and  with  the  posterior  part  as  wide  as  the 
elytra,  or  nearly  so;  the  antennsB  are  filiform,  sometimes  growing 
slightly  thicker  towutis  the  apex. 

dstela, — The  characters  of  this  genus  are : — Head  long  and  some- 
what pointed  in  front ;  labrum  in  width  and  length  nearly  equal ; 
antennsB  rather  long,  sometimes  serrated,  or  with  most  of  the  joints 
triangular;  body  elongate-ovate ;  thbrax  broader  behind  than  before. 

Nearly  fortv  species  of  this  genus  are  known,  most  of  which  inhabit 
Europe,  and  n>ur  or  five  are  found  in  this  country. 

0,  Ceramboidet  is  neariy  half  an  inch  in  length ;  black  with  oofare- 
coloured  elytra,  and,  like  ;nost  of  the  insects  of  this  section,  is  found 
In  flowers. 

O,  nUphurea  {AUeeula  ttiZpAnrea  of  some  authors)  is  about  one-third 
of  an  inch  in  length,  and  its  oolour  is  pale-yellow  throughout    This 


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OlSTUBO. 


CITRUS. 


species  18  more  common  in  this  country  than  the  last,  and  appears  to 
be  confined  chiefly  to  the  sea-coast,  where,  like  the  one  abore  men- 
tioned, it  is  found  in  flowers. 

Mycetocharut. — In  this  genus  the  head  is  short  and  rounded,  and 
the  labrum  is  transverse ;  the  antennsB  are  shorter  and  the  body  is 
more  elongate  than  in  Oittda.  About  ten  species  are  known,  most  of 
which  inhabit  Europe  and  North  America;  but  one  is  found  in 
England  {Myeetoeharut  tcapitUtrit);  this  is  about  three -sixteenths 
of  an  inch  in  length;  black;  the  elytra  with  two  orange-coloured 
spots  at  the  base;  the  base  of  the  antennsB  and  the  tibi»  and  tarsi 
are  yellow. 

The  larvse  of  this  insect,  together  with  those  of  one  or  two  other 
species  of  the  Oistdidet,  are  figured  in  the  first  volume  of  the 
<  Entomological  Society's  Transactions,'  where  an  account  of  their 
habits  will  also  be  found. 

Hie  genus  AlUeula  (Latreille)  may  be  distinguished  from  either  of 
the  foregoing  genera  by  the  spedes  having  the  penultimate  joint  of 
the  tarsi  bilobed,  and  the  terminal  joint  of  the  palpi  securiform. 

Upwards  of  thirty  spedee  of  AlUoula  have  been  discovered,  most  of 
which  inhabit  South  America. 

CISTUDO.    [Chilohia.] 

CISTUS,  a  genus  of  Plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Oittaeeag. 
The  calyx  is  composed  of  5  nearly  equal  sepals  in  a  double  row ; 
corolla  of  5  equal  petals,  somewhat  cuneated,  caducous ;  the  stamens 
numerous;  style  filiform;  stigma  capitate;  the  capsule  superior, 
6-  or  10-celled,  locuUddal;  the  seed  ovate,  singular;  the  embryo 
filiform,  spiraL  The  species  are  shrubs  or  undershrubs  with  opposite 
leaves  and  one-  or  many-fiowered  peduncles.  The  flowers  are  either 
red  or  white,  lai^e,  resembling  a  rose. 

O.  Oreiictu,  Cretan  Rock-Rose,  has  spathulate  ovate  and  oblong 
leaves,  somewhat  hairy,  downy,  dull  green,  somewhat  wavy  at  the 
edge,  and  stalked ;  the  petioles  furrowed,  nearly  distinct,  the  pedun- 
cles 1-flowered;  sepals  with  a  long  taper  point  and  villous;  white 
flowers.  It  is  a  native  of  dry  hills  in  the  most  southern  parts  of 
Europe.  It  has  eveigreen  leaves  which  emit  a  balsamic  odour  when 
rubbed,  or  after  damp  warm  weather  in  the  summer.  It  yields,  with 
many  other  species  of  Oittut,  a  gum-resin  called  Ladanum  [Ladanum, 
in  Abtb  Am)  So.  Dir.],  formerly  in  great  repute  as  a  stimulant  in 
medicine,  and  still  used  by  the  Turks  as  a  perfume. 


Cretan  Book.Roae  {Cittut  Oretietu). 

C,  2aiM-{/oUiif,  the  Laurel-Leaved  Gum-Cistus  or  Rock-Rose  has 
stalked  ovate-lanceolate  S-nerved  leaves,  with  the  upper  surface 
^brous  and  the  under  surface  tomentose ;  the  footstalks  dilated  and 
oonnate  at  the  base ;  the  capsule  6-celled.  It  is  a  native  of  the  south 
of  France  and  Spain.  It  hu  white  flowers  with  a  yellow  mark  at  the 
base  of  each  petal 

0*  XodoniftrvM^  Qum-Cistus^  has  almott  sessile  leaves,  connate  at 


the  base,  linear  lanceolate,  8-nerved,  the  upper  surfiuse  glabrous,  the 
imder  surface  tomentose ;  the  capsule  10-ceIled.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
hills  of  Spain  and  Portugal  Two  varieties  are  described,  one  with 
white  petals  having  a  yellow  spot  at  the  base,  the  other  with  white 
petals  and  a  blood-coloured  spot  at  the  base. 

0,  Ledon  has  connate  leaves,  oblong  lanceolate,  nerved ;  upper  surface 
smooth,  shining,  under  surface  silky  villous ;  the  flowers  in  corymbose 
cymes ;  the  peduncles  and  calvx  clothed  with  silky  villi  It  is  a  native 
of  the  south  of  France.  All  the  species  of  Cittut  here  enumerated  are 
said  to  yield  the  Oum  Ladanum.  Many  species  which  were  formerly 
described  under  Cittut  are  now  referred  to  ffeliatUfiemum,,  [Helian- 
THSMUM.]  This  is  the  case  with  the  whole  of  the  old  British  species 
of  Cittut,  The  flowers  of  both  these  genera  are  very  beautiful,  and 
are  remarkable  for  lasting  only  one  day,  opening  with  the  rising  of 
the  sun  in  the  morning  and  perishing  with  the  setting  sim  of  the 
evening.  All  the  species  of  Cittut  are  worthy  of  cultivation  in  gar- 
dens. They  should  oe  kept  in  the  greenhouse  in  the  winter,  although 
during  mild  seasons  and  against  a  south  wall  they  will  survive  in  the 
open  air.  They  may  be  propagated  by  seeds  as  layers,  or  by  ripened 
cuttings  procured  in  July  or  August^  which,  if  planted  under  a  hand- 
glass, will  root  readily. 

(Don,  IHchlamydeout  Plantt ;  Lindley,  Flora  Medico,) 

CITHARI'NUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  belonging  to  the  family 
SaXmonidct,  The  species  inhabit  the  Kile.  These  fishes  are  chiefly 
diBtinguished  from  their  allies  by  the  depressed  muzzle,  the  upper 
mai^gin  of  the  mouth  being  formed  of  the  intermaxillary  bones,  the 
maxillaries  being  vezy  smalL  The  tongue  and  palate  are  smooth ;  the 
adipose  fin  is  covered  with  small  scales  as  well  as  the  greater  portion 
of  Uie  caudal  fin. 

CITRON.    [Citrus.] 

CITRUS,  a  genus  of  Aurantiaceous  Plants,  one  of  whose  spedes 
yields  the  Orange,  another  the  Lemon,  and  others  the  Citron,  Shad- 
dock, Lime,  and  similar  fruits.  Among  the  other  genera  of  the 
natural  order  to  which  it  belongs,  it  is  -known  by  its  stamens  being 
numerous  and  irregularly  combined  into  several  parcels,  and  by  its 
fruit  having  a  leathery  rind  which  can  be  easily  separated  firom  the 
pulpy  part  that  lie3  beneath. 

It  is  a  common  opinion  that  the  golden  apples  of  the  Hesjfhides 
were  the  fruit  of  some  species  of  this  genus ;  but  as  the  gardens  of 
these  fabulous  personages  were  stationed,  according  to  the  most 
approved  opinions,  either  among  the  mountains  of  Atlas  or  to  the 
west  of  them,  there  is  no  probability  that  the  opinion  alluded  to  L} 
correct ;  for,  independently  of  the  historical  facts  that  dtrons  and 
lemons  at  least  were  obtained  from  the  Persians,  it  is  certain  from 
the  researches  of  Wallich  and  other  Indian  botanists  that  it  is  among 
the  lower  ranges  of  hiUs  in  Nepaul,  and  most  probably  in  China  aUo, 
that  the  wild  states  of  the  genus  Citrut  find  a  home.  It  is  added  that 
the  Sweet  Orange  itself  comes  from  the  southern  provinces  of  China 
and  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  but  it  is  by  no  means  dear  that  the 
plant  in  those  countries  is  really  wild.  It  is  however  beyond  all  ques- 
tion also  of  eastern  origin. 

Eight  spedes  are  enumerated  by  Riaso,  whom  we  follow  in  the 

E resent  article :  we  regard  it,  however,  as  a  matter  of  great  doubt 
ow  far  they  are  really  distinct.  The  Orange,  the  Lemon,  the  Lime, 
and  the  Citron  were  all  that  could  be  distinguished  amongst  the  masit 
of  spedmens  collected  for  the  East  India  Company  in  Nepaul ;  and 
there  is  no  great  difficulty  in  believing  that  all  the  numerous  varieties 
now  cultivate!  in  every  part  of  the  temperate  and  tropical  zones,  both 
of  the  Old  and  New  World,  have  in  reality  sprung  from  these  four 
original  sources ;  part  of  them  being  natural  varieties  obtained  by 
long  cultivation,  and  part  being  hybrids  created  by  aoddental  drcuni- 
stanoes  or  artificial  means. 

1.  Citrut  Aurantiunif  the  Sweet  Orange  (Oranger  of  the  FrencL, 
Arando  of  the  Italians).  Stem  arborescent.  Leaves  ovate-oblon^', 
acute,  a  little  serrulated,  with  the  stalk  more  or  less  winged.  Flower:^ 
white.  Fruit  many-ceUed,  roundish,  very  seldom  pointed,  golden- 
yellow  or  tawny.  Cysts  in  the  rind  convex.  Pulp  very  sweet  Tie 
principal  varieties  of  this  species  are  : — 

a.  The  China  Orange,  with  ovate-oblong  leaves;  round  smooUi 
rather  fiattened  fruit ;  and  a  thin  golden-yellow  rind.  This  is  the 
Common  Orange. of  the  markets,  and  of  the  Portuguese. 

b.  The  Pear-Shaped  Orange,  with  elliptical  acute  leaves,  aul 
great  top-shaped  fiiiit,  with  a  deep  yellow  smooth  rind ;  a  rare  and 
curious  sort  not  known  in  the  market ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  «4>able 
of  resisting  cold. 

c  The  Orange  of  Nice,  with  ovate-acute  leaves,  and  large,  thick- 
skinned,  rough,  dark-yellow,  round  fruit  This  is  considered  one 
of  the  finest  of  the  whole  genus,  both  in  regard  to  beauty,  size,  pi\>- 
ductiveness,  and  quality.  It  is  a  good  d^  cultivated  about  the 
town  whose  name  it  bears. 

d.  The  Tiny- Fruited  Orange,  with  ovate-oblong  acute  leaves,  tiny 
globose  fruit,  and  a  thin  smooth  golden-yellow  rind.  Supposed  to 
have  been  brought  from  the  Philippines.  The  fruit  is  more  curious 
than  beautiful  or  good. 

e.  The  Fingered  Orange,  with  little  stiff  leaves,  and  ovate  fruit, 
some  one  at  least  of  whose  lobes  is  separate  from  the  remainder, 
and  homed ;  rind  pretty  thick.  This  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  Fingered  Citron  hereafter  to  be  mentioned. 


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f.  The  Blood-Red  Orange,  with  oyate-oblong  pellucid  leaves,  and 
nuddle-sized  roxmd  rough  reddish-yellow  finii^  with  a  pulp  irre- 
gularly mottled  with  crimson.  This,  which  is  said  to  have  come 
from  tiie  Philippines,  was  once  looked  upon  as  a  great  curiosity,  and 
living  plants  were  purchased  at  a  considerable  price ;  it  was  thought 
to  be  produced  by  grafting  an  orange  upon  a  pomegranate.  Now 
that  it  is  known  to  be  a  variety  of  indifferent  quality,  and  that  its 
fabulous  history  is  forgotten,  it  has  ceased  to  attract  much  notice. 
A  trifling  varie^  of  it  is  the  Arancio  di  Sugo  Rosso  of  the  Italians^ 
who  call  the  real  blood-red  variety  Arancio  di  Haiti  ^  Sanguigno. 
Another  variety,  with  small  fruity  is  the  Arancio  a  Foglia  Stretta  of 
Nice. 
#  g.  The  Ribbed  Orange,  with  oblong-acute  leaves,  and  a  flattened 
ribbed  deep^range  fruit.  This  is  one  of  the  most  tender  of  the 
varieties ;  its  fruit  is  spongy,  and  of  no  value. 

h.  The  Sweet-Skinned  Orange,  with  broad  taper  pointed  leaves, 
.  roundish  rather  ovate  heavy  fruit,  and  a  deep  yellow  smooth  thick 
Bweet  soft  rind.  This  is  the  Pomme  d* Adam,  or  Forbidden  Fruity  of 
the  shops  of  Paris.  Its  pulp  is  subacid  and  pleasant,  and  as  deep  a 
yellow  as  the  rind,  which  is  soft  and  melting  like  the  flesh  of  a 
cling-stone  peach ;  the  acidity  of  the  pulp  is  agreeably  mixed  with 
sweetness,  and  renders  tiie  fruit  extremely  pleasant.  This  is  very 
different  from  the  Forbidden  Fruit  of  the  London  shops;  see 
C  dtcwoiaiia  further  on. 

i.  The  Mandarin  Orange,  with  flattened  rough  deep-orange  fruity 
and  a  thin  rind,  which  separates  spontaneously  from  the  pulp.  This 
sort  has  been  raised  in  China,  where  its  fruit  is  chiefly  consumed  in 
presents  to  the  great  officers  of  state,  whence  its  name.  It  is  now 
csultivated  in  Malta,  where  it  arrives  at  perfection.  Its  singularity 
consists  in  the  rind  so  completely  separating  from  the  pulp  when 
quite  ripe  that  the  latter  may  be  shaken  about  in  the  inside. 
In  quality  this  yields  to  no  known  kind.  There  are  two  sub- 
varieties. 

2;.  The  Saint  MichAel's  Orange,  with  small  round  pale-yellow 
seedless  fruit,  having  a  thin  rind  and  an  extremely  sweet  pulp. 
This,  when  in  a  state  of  perfection,  is  perhaps  the  most  delicious  of 
all  the  oranges,  and  it  is  by  far  the  most  productive.  Great  quan- 
tities are  imported  from  the  Azores,  where  it  appears  to  be 
exdusivdy  cultivated  as  an  object  of  trade.  It  is  said  that  20,000 
of  these  oranges  have  beoi  packed  from  a  single  tree,  exclusively 
of  the  laige  quantity  which  were  blown  down  or  rejected  as  unfit 
for  sale. 

Besides  these  there  are  numerous  other  sorts  to  \a  found  in  the 
gardens  of  the  curious,  and  in  commerce  are  many  kinos  about  which 
little  is  known.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Egg-Oranges  of 
Malta,  which  are  sometimes  sent  to  England  as  presents ;  they  are 
not  however  equal  in  quality  to  the  China  or  the  Saint  Michael's 
varieties. 

2.  C,  Bigaradia,  the  Bigarade,  or  Bitter  Orange  (Bigaradier  of 
the  French,  Melanffolo  of  the  Italians).  Branches  i^iny.  Leaves 
elliptical,  acute,  wiw  a  winged  stalk.  Flowers  very  white.  Fruit 
middle-sized,  uneven,  more  or  less  globose,  deep  yellow,  with  an  acid 
and  bitter  pulp.  It  differs  moreover  from  the  sweet  orange  in  forming 
a  smaller  tree,  having  broader  leaves,  and  larger  and  sweeter  flowers, 
on  which  account  it  is  always  selected  in  preference  for  the  purposes 
of  the  perfumer.  Its  fruit  is  much  more  uneven.  Numerous  varieties 
of  it  are  known,  among  which  are  all  those  cultivated  for  the  sake  of 
their  flowers ;  especially  the  Homed  Bigarade,  a  variegated  variety  of 
it,  and  the  Curled-Leaved  Bigarade.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the 
most  striking  forms  of  this  species : — 

a.  The  Homed  Bigarade,  with  a  laxge  pale-yellow  ribbed  fruit, 
whose  sides  project  into  horns.  This  variety,  which  is  of  the  same 
nature  as  the  Fingered  Sweet  Orange  (var.  e.),  its  homed  appear- 
ance being  caused  by  the  separation  of  the  carpels  or  fruit-lobes,  is 
in  great  estimation  on  account  of  the  powerful  and  delicious  per- 
fume of  its  flowers.  It  is  the  Melangolo  a  Frutto  Comuto  of  the 
Italians. 

h.  The  Female  Bigarade,  with  a  deep  yellow  laxge  coarse  fruit, 
containing  orange  within  orange.  The  circumstance  from  which 
this  variety  derives  its  name  is  not  at  all  uncommon  in  the  genus 
CHtnUf  but  it  exists  here  in  perhaps  the  most  strongly-marked 
manner.  An  orange  in  its  natural  state  consists  of  one  whorl  of 
carpels,  which  are  consolidated  into  a  round  fruity  each  of  whose 
lobes  is  one  carpeL  But  it  sometimes  happens  that  two  whorls  of 
carpels  combine  to  fomi  the  same  frrdt ;  in  that  case  the  inner 
whorl  is  consolidated  into  a  central  orange,  and  the  outer  whorl 
grows  over  it.  Or  it  may  happen  that  three  whorU  of  carpels  con- 
stitute the  fruit ;  in  that  case  the  innermost  whorl  will  combine 
into  an  orange  in  the  centre ;  the  second  whorl  will  form  a  coating 
over  it;  and  the  most  exterior  whorl  will  indose  the  whole. 
Finally  the  carpels  may  separate  wholly,  as  in  the  Fingered  Citron, 
or  in  part)  as  in  the  fingered  Orange  and  Bigarade,  and  then  the 
fruit  consists  of  a  number  of  lobes  more  or  less  distinct.  Until 
the  discoveiy  made  by  Qothe  of  the  real  nature  of  compound  fruity 
oranges  of  this  kind  were  looked  upon  as  something  wondrous,  and 
many  idle  speculations  existed  as  to  their  cause.  A  flgure  of  this 
may  be  found  in  Risso's  *  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Orangars,'  t.  83, 
without  however  any  explanation  of  the  cause  of  the  moofltrosity. 

VAT.  HIBT.  Diy.  VOL.  L 


c.  The  Curled-Leaved  Bigarade,  with  very  compact  blunt 
small  curled  leaves,  and  flowers  growing  in  thick  dusters  at  the 
ends  of  the  branches.  No  variety  is  more  generally  cultivated 
than  this  for  the  sake  of  its  flowers,  which  are  large,  sweety  and 
produced  in  extraordinary  profusion.  The  French  gardeners 
call  it  Le  Bouquetier,  or  Nosegay  Plant,  and  Bigaradier  Riche 
D^pouill^ ;  the  Italians  Melangolo  Bicco.  The  fruit  is  coarse,  very 
light,  imeven,  and  with  a  large  conspicuous  scar  at  tiie  point  The 
plant  itself  is  fax  more  dwarf  than  the  other  varieties,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  robust  of  its  race.  It  is  a  common  object  of  culti- 
vation all  over  the  South  of  Europe. 

d.  The  Purple  Bigurade,  with  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  stained 
more  or  less  with  a  dull  purple,  especially  the  young  leaves. 
Hermaphrodite  and  Bigarade  Yiolette  of  the  French,  Melangolo 
Pavonezzo  of  the  Italians. 

e.  The  Double-Flowered  Bigarade,  with  rather  thick  leaves, 
double  flowers,  round  granulated  fruit,  and  a  thick  rind;  the 
common  double  orange  of  the  nurseries.  It  is  a  great  favourite 
in  gardens,  because  of  its  multitudes  of  fragrant  double  flowers, 
which  do  not  fall  in  pieces  so  quickly  as  those  which  are  single ; 
it  loses  its  'quality  of  producing  double  flowers  if  the  soil  in 
which  it  grows  is  not  kept  in  a  very  ridi  state. 

/.  The  Seville  Bigarade  or  Orange,  with  round  dark  fruit,  having 
an  uneven  rugged  extremely  bitter  rind ;  commonly  brought  to 
the  English  market,  where  it  is  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of 
bitter  tinctures,  and  in  the  preparation  of  candied  orange-peel.  The 
bittter  aromatic  principle  is  a  powerful  tonic ;  it  gives  its  flavour 
to  the  liqueur  called  Cura9oa. 

ff.  The  Myrtle-Leaved  Bigarade,  with  small  very  compact  ovate 
sharp-pointed  leaves,  and  small  round  fruit ;  generally  both  in 
flower  and  fruit  at  the  same  time,  if  well  cultivated.  On  this 
account  and  because  of  its  dwarf  habit,  it  is  a  very  common  object 
in  gardena  It  is  said  to  be  a  Chinese  production,  and  that  it  is 
employed  by  the  Chinese  gardeners  as  an  edging  of  flower-beds,  in 
the  same  way  as  the  dwarf  box  in  this  coun^. 

A.*  The  Bizanre  Bigarade,  wil^  curled  rather  deformed  leaves, 
purplish  or  white  flowen,  and  fruit  of  different  sorts,  some  being 
round  and  of  the  common  appearance,  others  half  bigarades  and 
half  lemons  or  citrons,  the  pulp  of  some  being  sweet,  that  of  othera 
acid  and  bitter.  A  curious  lusus  naturoe,  which  was  once  thought 
to  be  the  greatest  prodigy  in  all  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is 
however  merely  one  of  those  sports,  as  they  are  technically  called 
by  gardenera,  in  which,  owing  to  some  unknown  cause,  some  one 
individual  assumes  the  appearance  of  two  or  more  others  in 
particular  parts.  Analogous  instances  are — the  grape  called  the 
y ariegated  Chasselas,  some  of  whose  fruit  is  blade,  some  white,  and 
some  striped  with  both  colours;  the  Camellia,  which  bears  red, 
white,  and  party-coloured  flowers  on  the  same  stem;  and  the 
Chrysanthemum,  some  of  whose  flowera  are  purple  and  othera 
yellow.  This  Bigarade  was  raised  from  seed  by  a  gardener  at 
Florence  in  1644,  and  has  since  been  multiplied  by  grafting,  and 
so  has  been  preserved  to  the  present  day.  It  may  be  procured 
from  the  nurseiymen  of  France  and  Italy,  and  it  fruits  annually 
in  the  orangei^  at  Versailles. 

3.  C  £ergam%a,  the  Beigamot  Orange.  Leaves  oblong,  flowen 
small,  very  sweet.  Fruit  pear-shaped  or  flattened,  rugged,  with  a 
greenish-yellow  smooth  rind  filled  with  concave  receptacles  of  oiL 
Pulp  subadd,  very  fragrant.  The  trees  of  this  spedes  are  rather 
variable  in  appearance.  The  fragrance  of  both  flowera  and  frnit  is 
peculiar.  From  each  of  them  the  perfrimer  procures  an  essence  of  a 
delidous  quality.  The  rind,  deprived  of  the  pulp,  first  dried,  and 
then  moistened  with  water,  is  pressed  in  moulds  into  fancy  boxes  for 
holdinjg  lozenges  and  other  sweetmeats,  and  these  boxes  retain  much 
of  thaur  recent  odour.  The  Mellarosa  of  the  Italians  is  a  variety,  with 
ribbed  fruit,  haying  a  broad  scar  at  the  summit ;  it  is  much  esteemed 
on  account  of  the  abundance  of  its  flowers. 

4.  O,  Lmetta,  the  Lime.  Leaves  ovate,  obovate,  and  oblong, 
placed  upon  a  wingless  stalk.  Flowen  small  and  white.  fVuit  ovate 
or  roundish,  pale-yellow,  with  a  boss  at  the  point';  the  cysts  in  the 
rind  concave ;  pulp  subacid.  In  foliage  this  resembles  the  lemon,  but 
its  fruit  differa  in  the  pulp  never  having  the  sharp  and  powerful  add 
of  the  lemon ;  it  is  on  the  contrary  flat  and  slighUy  bitter :  it  is  prin- 
dpally  employed  for  flavouring  punch,  sherbet,  and  similar  dnnks. 
The  varieties  are  of  no  importance ;  they  prindpaUy  differ  in  the 
thickness  of  their  rind  and  in  form.  Here  is  to  be  arranged  the  round 
very  uneven  fruit  called  Pomo  d' Adamo  by  the  Italians,  because  they 
fancy  that  the  depressions  upon  its  surface  look  as  if  they  still  bore 
the  marks  of  our  universal  fiither^s  teeth. 

5.  O.  decumana,  the  [Shaddock.  Leaves  laxge,  with  a  winged 
stalk.  Flowen  very  large  and  white.  Fruit  usually  verv  laige, 
roundish,  pale  yellow,  smooth,  with  flat  or  convex  cvsts  in  me  rind. 
Rind  white,  spongy,  very  thick ;  pulp  juicy,  sweetish,  rather  insipid. 
Shaddocks  are  among  the  laxgest  nnits  which  are  known,  and  aro 
commonly  cultivated  in  both  the  East  and  West  Indies  for  the  sake 
of  the  deUcate  subadd  juicy  pulp  in  which  they  abound.  When 
they  arrive  at  their  greatest  size  they  are  called  ^ompoleons  or 
Pompelmousses;  when  at  the  smallest  they  form  the  Forbidden  Fruit 
of  the  English  markets.    Another  small  variety,  with  the  shaddocks 

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growing  in  dusterg,  foimo  a  larger  tree  than  «^  other  CfUrut;  the 
fruit  ia  about  as  large  aa  the  fist;  it  is  what  the  West  Indians  oall  the 
Grape-Fruit 

6.  C.  LuaUa,  the  Sweet  Lemon.  Leaves  like  those  of  the  lemon. 
Flowers  red  externally.  Fruit  with  the  flesh  and  rind  of  a  lemon, 
bat  with  the  pulp  sweet,  and  the  oysts  in  the  rind  both  oonToz  and 
oonoaye.  There  oan  be  no  doubt  that  this  is  a  mere  variety  of 
the  next  speoies,  from  which  it  only  differs  in  the  want  of  acidity  in 
the  pulp.  Many  sorts  are  known  in  orange  oountriei^  of  which  one, 
the  Commander^s  Pear,  resembles  very  much  a  laige  Beurr^  Fear ; 
their  fruit  is  seldom  seen  in  England. 

7.  O.  LimoMMn,  the  True  Ijemon  (Citronnier  of  the  French). 
Leaves  ovate-oblong,  usually  serrulated,  pale  green,  with  a  winged 
stalk.  Flowers  middle-sised,  red  externally.  Fruit  oblong,  v^ 
uneven,  now  and  then  almost  round,  with  a  pale-yellow  fragrant 
rind,  dotted  with  concave  cysts.  Pulp  juicy,  and  veiy  acid.  Of  this 
species  the  cultivators  take  little  pams  to  distinguish  the  varieties. 
When  young  plants  are  wanted  they  are  generally  raised  from  seeds 
in  the  orange  countries,  and  hence  the  samples  of  fruit  sent  to  market 
consist  at  tSl  times  of  numerous  sorts,  differing  very  much  in  quality. 
Some  of  them  have  their  rind  so  thick  and  insipid  that  they  approadi 
the  Citron  in  quality ;  one,  with  roundish  rugged  ribbed  fruit,  is 
called  Vignette  upon  the  Continent,  where  it  is  common ;  another, 
with  oblong  extremely  rugged  fruit,  is  one  of  the  Pondres  of  the 
French.  The  most  distinct  race  is  that  which  comprehends  the 
Perettes,  or  Little  Pears ;  they  are  very  small  in  the  fruity  which  is  a 
pale  greenish-yellow,  and  has  almost  the  shape  of  an  egg :  their  rind 
is  more  delicately  perfumed  than  that  of  common  lemons. 

8.  O,  mediea,  the  Citron  (Cedratier  of  the  French,  Cedro, 
Cedrato,  of  the  Italians).  Branches  short  and  stiff.  Leaves  oblong, 
toothed.  Flowera  purple  externally.  Fruit  usually  large^  warted, 
and  furrowed,  with  an  extremely  thick  spongy  rind,  and  a  subacid 
pulp.  This  is  an  exceedingly  variable  species,  chiefly  valued  for  the 
fragrance  of  the  rind  of  the  fruit,  from  which  a  delicate  sweatmeat  is 
prepared.  The  Citron,  supposed  to  be  the  Median,  Aasyri^p,  or 
Persian  apple  of  the  €hreeki^  ia  probably  the  moat  beautiful  species  of 
the  genus.  It  is  described  by  Risso  as  having  a  majestic  aspect,  shining 
leavei^  and  rosy  flowers,  which  are  succeeded  by  fruit  whose  beau^ 
and  size  astonish  the  observer  at  the  same  time  that  their  sweet 
odour  gratifies  his  senses.  The  trees  are  constantly  in  vegetation,  the 
flowers  appear  even  in  midwinter,  and  there  is  so  continual  a  succes- 
sion of  them,  that  flowers,  yoimg  fruit,  and  ripe  fruit,  may  always  be 
seen  together  at  the  same  moment  The  Poncire  Citrons  are  eight  or 
nine  inches  long,  and  are  the  largest  of  the  race  known  in  Europe. 

In  China  there  is  an  enormous  variety,  with  its  lobes  all  sepurating 
into  fingers  of  different  shapes  and  sises»  whence  its  name  of  Fingered 
Citron.  The  Chinese  esteem  it  very  much,  both  for  its  rarity  and  for 
the  grateful  odour  of  its  rind.  They  place  the  monstrous  fruits  upon 
porcelain  dishes,  and  have  them  in  their  apartments  to  fill  the  air 
with  fragrance.  Those  who  would  study  this  genus  in  detail  will 
find  excellent  figpues  of  above  100  varieties  in  Risso's  'Histoire 
Naturelle  dss  Orangers.'  For  the  culture,  medicinal  uses,  and  com- 
merce of  the  genua  CUruB,  see  Obanox,  in  Abtb  ard  So.  Diy. 

CrVET.    fVrvERRiDA] 

CLADIUM  (jrA<(8ov,  a  branch  or  twig),  a  genus  of  Plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  ChfperacecB,  It  has  1-2-flowered  spikelets,  5  or  6 
glumes,  the  lower  ones  empty  and  smaller,  bristles  absent,  the  nut 
with  a  thick  fleshy  coat,  tipped  with  the  slender  base  of  the  style. 
There  is  but  one  European  species  of  this  genus,  the  O.  Mari$cu», 
Common  Sedge.  It  has  latenu  and  terminal  repeatedly  compound 
panicles,  the  spikelets  capitate,  the  stem  roundish,  leafy,  smooth ;  the 
leaves  rough  on  the  margins  and  keel.  It  is  not  a  common  plant  in 
Great  Britain,  except  in  Cambridgeshire,  where  in  the  bogs  and  fens 
of  that  county  it  is  exceedingly  common,  hundreds  of  acres  being 
covered  entirely  with  it.  It  is  used  in  many  districts  of  Cambridge- 
shire for  the  purpose  of  lighting  firea  This  plant  is  the  SehcBrnu 
Mmriicui  and  Cladiwn  Oemamcum  of  many  botanista  Several 
species  of  Cladiwn  are  natives  of  Australia.  (Babington,  BriHth  Bot, ; 
Burnett,  Ouilineq,) 

CUL'DIUS,  a  genus  of  Hymenopterous  Insects  of  the  family 
^mthrtdinida.  It  has  the  following  characters : — ^Antennae  about 
the  same  length  as  the  body,  ciliated  beneath,  and  nine-jointed ;  the 
two  basal  joints  short,  the  third  joint  with  a  protuberance  beneath  at 
the  base,  and  a  branch  thrown  out  from  the  upper  side  at  the  apex ; 
the  fourth  and  fifth  have  likewise  the  last-mentioned  process ;  and  in 
the  sixth  and  seventh  it  is  rudimentary.  In  the  female  all  these 
processes  are  wanting,  excepting  the  one  on  the  underside  of  the 
third  ioint  Wings  with  one  marginal  and  three  sub-marginal  cells ; 
tarsi  smiple. 

O,  dijformiif  when  the  wings  are  expanded,  measures  in  width 
abont  one-third  of  an  indb :  it  is  black,  with  the  tibi»  and  tarsi  pale 
^eUow.  This  species  may  be  considered  the  type  of  the  genua.  It 
mhabits  this  country,  but  is  not  conmioiL 

CLABOCOOIA,  a  Fossil  genus  of  Corals  allied  to  LUhodendnm, 
and  occurring  in  the  Palnozoic  strata. 

CLA'DODUS,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Plaooid  Fishes,  from  the  Mountain 
Limestone  of  Armagh,  Bristol,  &c.    (Agassiz.) 

GLABCKIAy  a  genus  of  Plants  b^onging  to  the  natoial  order 


Lichejiu,  It  has  a  thallus  somewhat  shrubby,  brsnched,  rarely  simple, 
leafy,  with  scales,  which  are  often  evanescent ;  branches  oartilaginoas, 
rigid,  fistulose,  aU  attenuated  and  subulate,  divided,  fertile,  gmerally 
perforated  in  the  axils.  Shields  sessile,  orbicular,  convex,  capituU- 
form,  not  bordered,  fixed  by  the  droumferenoe,  free  beneath  in  the 
centre,  the  sides  reflexed,  uniform  within.  The  genus  Cladonia  thtu 
defined,  with  Scyphophonu  and  PycnotMia,  are  included  by  Achariaa 
and  Delisle  in  tiie  genus  Oenomyce.  Sir  W.  Hooker  observes  of  Uub 
gsnus,  that  "  the  determination  of  the  species  is  attended  with  the 
greatest  difficulty,  on  account  of  their  variable  character;  and  m*the 
present  state  of  my  knowledge  I  dare  not  venture  upon  introdadng 
others  than  those  published  in  English  Botany.  Much  attention  haa 
been  given  to  this  genus  by  DeUsle  in  the  '  Botanicum  QaUicum,' 
who,  with  Acharius,  unites  this  and  the  two  following  genera  into  one, 
Cenomyce,  and  enumeratea  fifty-three  species,  besides  many  marked 
varieties,  as  natives  of  France ;  all  of  which  are  most  probaUy  natiyei 
also  of  Britain.  He  would  render  an  acceptable  service  to  BritiBh 
Botany  who  should  undertake  a  monograph  of  the  British  Cladcniea." 
Hooker  enumeratea  only  five  Britiah  species. 

O.  rangiferina^  Rein-Deer  Moss,  has  erect,  elongated,  ronghiah, 
qylindrictd,  greeziish-white,  very  much  branched  podetia,  the  axik 
perforated,  the  branches  scattered,  often  intricate  divaricated,  the 
alternate  ones  drooping,  apotheda  suVglobose,  brown,  on  snuill  erect 
branchlets.  This  is  a  frequent  plant  in  Great  Britain,  on  moors,  heaths, 
and  mountains.  Its  botanical  characters  are  very  variable,  mora 
especially  the  colour  and  the  length  of  the  ramifications.  This  may 
be  accounted  for  by  the  wide  range  of  latitude  in  which  it  is  tound, 
extending  from  the  arctic  regions,  where  it  is  most  abundant^  to  the 
tropics.  This  plant  is  the  principal  support  of  the  rem-deer  in  its 
native  countries,  and  hence  its  common  nama  In  Li4)land  Ihere  ia 
no  plant  so  abundant  aa  this,  especially  in  the  pine  forests,  where  it 
covers  the  surface  of  the  soil  for  manv  miles  together  like  snow.  On 
the  destruction  of  the  forests  by  fire  this  plant  continues  to  grow,  and 
then  reaches  its  greatest  luxuriance.  In  such  districts  the  rein-deer 
are  principally  pastured  in  the  winter ;  and  whatever  mav  be  tiie  depth 
of  snow,  these  animals  are  enabled  to  obtain  their  food  by  grubbing 
with  their  noses  through  the  snow.  It  woidd  be  quite  impossible  that 
the  rein-deer  should  exist  in  these  climates  during  the  winter  were  it 
not  for  this  apparentiy  insignificant  plant  The  Laplanders  are  a]ao 
in  the  habit  of  collecting  thia  lichen  with  rakes  in  the  rainy  aeaaon, 
when  it  is  flexible,  and  readily  separatee  frwrn  the  ground  where  it 
has  grown ;  they  then  lay  it  up  in  heaps  to  serve  as  fodder  for  their 
oows.  Dr.  Cla^e  and  lus  companions,  during  his  travels  in  Lapland, 
were  tempted  to  eat  some  of  this  lichen.  *'  To  our  surprise,"  he  aajB, 
"  we  found  that  we  might  eat  of  it  with  as  much  ease  as  of  the  heart 
of  a  fine  lettuce.  It  tasted  like  wheat  bran.  But  after  swallowing  it 
there  remained  in  the  throat  and  upon  the  palate  a  gentle  heat  or 
sense  of  burning,  as  if  a  small  quantity  of  pepper  had  been  mixed 
with  the  lichen.  We  had  no  doubt  that  if  we  could  have  procured 
oil  and  vinegar  it  would  have  made  a  grateful  salad.  Cooling  and 
juicv  as  it  was  to  the  palate,  it  nevertheless  wanned  the  stomach  whan 
swallowed,  and  cannot  fail  of  proving  a  gratifying  article  of  food  to 
man  or  beast  during  the  dry  winter  of  the  frigid  cona  Tet  neither 
Laplanders  nor  Swedes  eat  of  this  lichen."  This  might  srise  from 
the  fact  which  Dr.  Clarke  relates  shortiy  after,  namely,  "that  when 
Oustavus  III.  succeeded  to  the  throne  an  edict  was  published  and  sent 
all  over  Sweden,  recommending  the  use  of  this  lichen  to  the  peasants 
in  time  of  deartii,  and  they  were  advised  to  boil  it  in  milL '  Snch 
an  edict  would  be  likely  to  have  the  effect  of  preventing  people  from 
eating  it»  as  it  would  from  that  time  forth  be  only  looked  upon  as  a 
last  resouroe.  DiUenius  however  states  that  when  boiled  in  water  it 
yields  no  jelly,  its  substance  is  very  little  diminished,  and  beoomea 
drier  than  before ;  and  the  decoction  evaporated  yields  only  a  amall 
quantity  ef  an  acerb  and  austere  extract  The  alimentary  secretion 
of  this  plant  appears  to  be  similar  to  that  of  other  Udiens.  It  ii 
called  lichenin,  or  Lichen  Starch,  and  contains  the  same  elements  as 
starch.  No  nitrogen  has  been  detected.  It  is  however  probable  that 
nitrogen  will  be  found  to  exist  in  this  lichen,  as  during  the  winter  it  sup- 
plies the  rein-deer  with  food  which  must  require  a  nitrogenona  com- 
pound in  order  to  maintain  its  muscular  power,  unices  we  have  recooFse 
to  the  aupposition  that  starch  or  lichenin,  by  union  with  free  nitrogen 
in  the  system,  can  be  converted  into  fibrins  or  other  proteinaoeoos 
compoimds. 

O.  vermtcwZorw,  Vermicelli  Lichen,  has  its  podetia  spreading  horifon- 
tally,  pure  white^  subulate,  simple  or  sU^tiy  branched,  bnuiehes 
tapering  at  each  end.  It  has  oeen  found  not  unfrequent  on  the 
loftiest  motmtains  of  the  north  of  England  and  Scotland.  The  ahape 
of  its  branches  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  bundle  of  small  worms  or 
of  vermicelli  It  is  a  native  of  South  America^  where  it  is  used  as  a 
stomachic  under  the  name  of  Oonirayerha  blanea. 

(?.  MN^iMMa  has  a  leafy  very  thick  imbricated  thallusi,  scsrlet,  and 
frosted  with  white  beneath ;  above,  green  and  somewhat  gelatinous ; 
the  lobes  crenulated,  ascending ;  podetia  nearly  solid,  cavernous,  split 
into  fingered  lobes,  either  wholly  or  at  their  apex  only;  the  shields 
marginal,  confluent^  scarlet  This  pretty  form  is  a  native  of  the 
Brarik,  where  it  is  rubbed  down  with  sugar  and  water,  and  is  found 
to  be  an  excellent  remedy  lor  aphthss  in  children.  The  ramainmg 
described  British  species  are  C.  imcia/is,  0.  pun^jfent,  O.  fitreaOk 


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1125 


CLADTODOK. 


CLAVAGELLA. 


1126 


(Lindley,  Flora  Mediea;  Burnett,  OtUlinei  of  Botany;  Hooker, 
SritUh  Floray  voL  iL) 

CLADTODON,  a  generic  title  for  some  FoBBilKeptiles  found  in  the 
New  Red-Sandvtone  Syntem.    [Theoodonts.] 

CLAKIS.    [Bebnicle  Goose.] 

CLANGULA,  a  genus  of  Birds  belonging  to  the  family  AnaHda, 

CLART.    [Salvia.] 

CLATHRAHIA,  a  genus  of  Fossil  Plants  found  in  the  Wealden 
strata  of  Sussex  by  Dr.  MantelL  The  stem  is  reticulated  on  the 
surface,  and  has  analogies  to  Xanthorrhoea  and  the  Cycadece.  CUUh- 
raria  LvelUi  and  01.  MarUeUi  (this  latter  the  fruit)  are  described  by 
Brongmart  ('  Hist,  des  Y^t.  Foss.'). 

CLATHROTTERIS,  a  remarkable  genus  of  Fossil  Ferns,  the 
foliation  of  which  is  marked  with  quadrangular  network  of  vessels — 
a  rare  drcumstanoe  in  living  ferns — such  as  Meniscivm,  OkUhropterU 
menitewidei  occurs  in  the  Mesozoic  Sandstone  of  Hor  in  Scania. 

CLAUSILIA,  a  genus  of  Palmonifer«us  MoUtuca,    [Helicida] 

CliAVAGELLA,  a  genus  of  Testaceous  Acephalous  Animalsi, 
established  by  Lamarck  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  '  Histoire 
Naturelle  des  Animauz  sans  Vert^bres,'  published  in  1818,  and 
arranged  by  him  under  his  Tubicol^es,  between  AaperyiUvm  and 
FUttUana.  He  described  four  species,  all  fossil,  referring  at  the  same 
time  to  the  '  Annales  du  Museum/  where  he  had  figured  the  first  of 
them  under  the  zuune  of  Fistulana  eehinaia*  Lamarck  thus  defines 
the  genus: — "A  tubular  shelly  sheath,  attenuated  and  open  ante* 
riorly,  terminated  posteriorly  in  an  ovate  subcompressed  club  beset 
with  tubular  spines ;  the  dub  presenting  on  one  side  the  one  valve 
fixed  in  its  wiJl  or  substancei,  while  the  other  valve  remains  free  in 
the  tube." 

The  genus  was  only  known  in  a  fossil  state  to  conchologists,  when 
Mr.  George  Sowerby  observed  in  the  British  Museum  a  recent  sped- 
-men,  which  he  at  first  thought  might  be  an  AapergiUum,  indosed  in  a 
mass  of  stone.  On  application  to  Mr.  Children,  that  gentleman 
allowed  Mr.  Sowerby  to  examine  it  more  closely,  and  on  ■orapllig 
away  some  of  the  investing  stone  the  latter  foimd  Clamaffdla  Ofperia, 
the  first  recorded  recent  species,  and  figured  and  describsd  it  in  his 
'  Genera  of  Recent  and  Fossil  Shells.'  The  same  naturalist,  on  the 
return  of  Mr.  Samuel  Stutchbuxy  from  his  vojrage  to  some  of  the 
Australian  and  Polynesian  Islands,  described  and  figured  (1827)  a 
second  species,  ClowageUa  amstraUs,  three  specimens  of  which  were 
with  difficulty  obtained  by  Mr.  Stutchbury  at  North  Harbour,  Port 
Jackson,  in  a  siliceous  grit  like  that  of  the  coal-measures,  where  their 
presence  was  betrayed  just  beneath  low-water  mark,  by  their  forcible 
ejection  of  the  water  from  the  aperture  of  their  tubes :  the  specimen 
of  Clavagella  ctAutraUa  fig^ured  by  Mr.  Sowerby  is  also  in  the  British 
Museum.  In  1829  Mr.  Henry  Stutchbury,  in  arranging  the  collection 
of  Mr.  Isaac  Lyon  Goldsmid,  suspected  the  presence  of  a  ClavagtUa 
in  a  mass  of  AttraoporOf  and,  on  fracturing  the  specimen,  laid  open 
two  individuals  of  another  species,  Clavoffella  dongata,  Broderip. 
According  to  Cuvler,  and  a  notice  in  the  'Annales  des  Sciences 
Naturelles'  (tome  zvii,  p.  78),  M.  Audouin  (1829)  described  a  recent 
spedes,  and  M.  Rang,  in  his  '  Manuel  des  MoUusques'  (1829),  mentians 
another,  apparently  ClavageUa  ropo. 

Still  the  animal  remained  unknown ;  when,  on  the  return  of  Mr. 
Cuming  from  his  first  voyage,  that  zealous  collector  produced  another 
specimen  which  fortunately  included  the  soft  parts.  A  fragment  of 
calcareous  grit  was  dredged  up  by  Mr.  Cuming  from  a  depth  of  deven 
fathoms,  at  the  island  of  Muerte,  in  the  Bay  of  Guayaquil,  andin  this  was 
thegreater  portion  of  the  chamber  and  tube,  both  valves,  and  the  animal 
of  Cla/vageUa  lata  of  Broderip.  Mr.  Broderip,  who  has  described  this 
and  two  other  recent  spedes  in  the  first  volume  of  the  '  Transactions 
of  the  Zoological  Sodety '  (p.  261),  says,  that  a  close  examination  of 
the  recent  species  has  convinced  Mm  that  though  one  "reive  is  alwavs 
fixed  or  imbedded  in  the  chamber,  and  soldered,  as  it  were,  to  the 
tube,  so  as  to  make  one  surface  with  it,  the  tube  is  not  necessarily 
continued  into  a  complete  testaceous  davate  shape.  In  Mr.  Goldsmid's 
best  and  laigest  speoimen,  the  fixed  valve  was  imbedded  in  the  coral, 
and  though  continued  on  to  the  tube  or  dphonic  sheath,  was  sur- 
rounded by  the  wall  of  the  coral  chamber  at  its  anterior  extremity. 
In  the  other  spedmen  the  fixed  valve  was  also  continued  on  to  the 
tube.  In  the  first-mentioned  specimen  of  ClavageUa  dongaita,  at  the 
anterior  or  greater  end  of  the  ovate  chamber,  an  insulated  or  shelly 
plate  had  been  secreted  with  tubular  perforations ;  that  part  of  the 
chamber  having  afforded  (apparently  at  a  former  period)  the  best 
communication  with  the  ambient  fluid :  but  a  calcareous  depodt 
haying  almost  entirdy  cut  off  that  communication,  the  animal  seemed 
to  have  been  compelled  to  secrete  a  second  shelly  plate  towards  the 
anterior  ventral  edge  of  the  fixed  valve,  where  the  perforation  of  some 
other  shell  (a  LUhodomm  probably)  secured  the  necessary  influx  of 
water.  Nor  is  this  the  only  instanoe  of  the  secretion  of  a  second 
tubular  plate  which  has  fallen  under  Mr.  Broderip's  notice.  In  the 
last-mentioned  or  smaller  spedmen,  the  perforated  shelly  plate  joins 
the  anterior  ventral  edge  of  the  fixed  valve  laterally,  that  point  of  the 
chamber  being  evidently  the  most  practicable  for  communicating  with 
the  water  by  means  of  tiie  tubules :  the  rest  of  the  anterior  edge  of 
the  fixed  valve  is  surrounded  by  the  coral  walL  In  Mr.  Cuming^s 
speoimen  the  fixed  valve  is  continued  on  to  the  tabeu  Tha  anterior 
edge  of  this  valve  is  suirounded  by  the  naked  wall  of  the  diamber, 


and  the  greater  end  of  the  chamber,  or  that  part  of  it  which  is  oppo- 
site to  tms  anterior  edge,  being  impracticable,  horn,  its  thickness,  as  a 
water  commumcation  (with  a  small  exception,  which,  not  improbably, 
had  ceased  to  be  available),  the  animal  lutd  been  driven  to  secrete  the 
perforated  shelly  plates  not  far  from  the  throat  of  the  tube  on  dther 
side,  where  the  chambers  of  PetricokB  or  LUhodomi  opened  a  passage 
to  the  surrounding  water. 

Professor  Owen,  from  an  examination  of  Mr.  Cuming's  specimeD* 
has  given  an  account  of  the  anatomy  of  this  moUusk.  (*  ZooL  Trans.,* 
vd.  l)  He  found  the  following  to  be  the  relative  podtion  of  the 
animal : — The  mouth  turned  towards  the  dosed  end  of  the  chamber, 
which  is  consequently  the  anterior  part.  The  heart  and  rectum  near 
the  side  where  the  vdves  are  connected  by  the  ligament,  or  the  dorsal 
pari  The  visceral  mass  projecting  towards  the  oppodte  or  neutral 
side.  The  siphon  exten^ng  into  the  conmiencement  of  the  calcare- 
ous tube,  which  leads  out  of  the  anal  or  posterior  part  of  the  chamber. 
The  fixed  valve,  which  covers  the  rough  surface  of  the  porous  rock  or 
ooral,  like  the  tiling  of  a  chamber-floor,  and  afibrds  a  smooth  polished 
surface  for  the  support  and  attachment  of  the  animal,  is  the  left 
valve :  the  right  valve  remains  fr^  or  is  connected  only  to  the  soft 
parts  and  caidinal  ligament,  in  order  to  assist  in  the  excavating  and 
respiratory  actions. 

The  shelly  substance  of  the  fixed  valve  passes  without  interruption 
into  that  of  the  tube ;  a  slight  ridge  circumscribing  the  entry  of  the 
tube  into  the  chamber  indicating  the  line  of  separation,  unless  the 
extent  of  the  valve  be  limited  to  that  of  the  inteziial  nacreous  depod- 
tion.  The  tube  of  an  oval  form,  7  lines  by  5  in  diameter.  The  cal- 
careous walls  ^th  of  an  inch  in  thickness  at  the  outiet^  and  about  ^th 
at  the  opposite  extremity.  The  free  valve  imequally  triangular,  with 
the  angles  roimded  off,  about  the  thickness  of  a  sixpence,  moderately 
concave  towards  the  soft  parte,  and  striated  only  in  the  direction  of 
the  layers  of  increment  on  the  outer  surface,  as  in  most  of  the  Pylori- 
dean  Bivalves  of  M.  de  Blainville.  QThe  layers  gradually  increase 
towards  the  dorsal  edge  for  a  littie  more  than  one  half  of  the  valve, 
beyond  which  the  layers  continue  of  almost  equal  breadth.  "  This 
flrowth  of  the  valve,''  adds  Mr.  Owen,  "  corresponds  to  the  direction 
m  which  the  chamber  is  enlarged,  which  is  prindpally  on  the  dorsal, 
dextral,  and  anterior  sides :  now  this  is  the  mode  of  enlargement  best 
adapted  for  the  full  development  of  the  ovary ;  so  tiiat  it  would  seem 
that  the  OUnageUa  continues  for  a  time  to  work  its  way  into  the  rock 
without  maleml  increase  of  dze,  leaving  behind  it  a  calcareous  tube, 
which  marks  its  track ;  after  which  it  becomes  stationary,  and  limits 
its  operations  to  enlarging  its  chamber  to  the  extent  necessary  for  the 
accomplishment  of  the  great  object  of  its  existence." 

The  manUe  enveloping  the  body  is  like  a  shut  sac,  but  perforated 
for  the  siphon  and  foot,  the  opening  for  the  latter  being  reduced  to 
a  small  sut.  M.  Riippdl  observed  an  analogous  orifice  in  the  corre- 
sponding part  in  AtpergUhimf  namely,  that  which  is  next  the  sunken 
sieve-like  extremity  of  the  tube,  and  by  which  he  supposes  the  water 
necessary  for  respiration  to  be  received  when  the  retreating  tide 
leaves  exposed  the  expanded  siphonic  extremity.  Professor  Owen  ia 
of  opinion  thai  this  cannot  be  its  use  in  those  spedes  of  Ola/vageUa 
whion  exist  at  depths  too  great  to  allow  of  their  being  ever  left 
with  the  dphonin  aperture  out  of  water;  but  that  it  must  serve  to 
keep  up  a  communication  with  the  neighbouring  cavities  of  the  rock, 
by  means  of  the  calcareous  tubules,  the  formation  of  which  is  deter- 
mined bv  ^  proximily  of  these  cavities.  When  therefore  the 
Olamuima,  by  a  sudden  ocmtraction  of  the  adductor  musdes,  has 
forcibly  etpelled  the  branchial  currents  from  the  dphon,  as  was 
observed  by  Kr.  Stutdibury,  the  space  between  the  free  valve  and 
the  walls  of  the  ohamber  would  be  simultaneoudy  filled,  dther  by 
water  rushing  ia  through  the  tubules,  or  forced  out  from  the  branchial 
cavity  through  the  small  anterior  orifice  of  the  mantle.  To  assist 
this  operation  there  is  a  proportional  development  of  the  muscular 
system,  which  is  remarkably  powerfoL  The  impresdon  of  the  great 
or  posterior  adductor  is  carried  two  lines  beneaw  the  sur&oe  of  the 
duunber  posteriorly,  but  gradually  rises  to  the  level  of  the  valve. 
The  impresdon  of  the  smtdler  anterior  adductor  is  more  fidnt,  and  is 
continued  into  the  sinuous  pallial  impresdon,  which  follows  the 
contour  of  ^e  anterior  margin  of  the  valve  at  about  two  Unes'  distance 
from  it.  In  the  free  valve  the  last  two  muscular  impresdons  are 
separate.  The  outer  dermoid  layer  of  the  mantie  is  extremely  thin, 
and,  where  it  does  not  line  the  vdves,  is  bottled  with  minute  dark 
spots,  less  numerous  than  those  on  the  skin  of  Cephalopods,  and 
presenting,  under  the  microscope,  a  glandular  appearanoe.  The 
muscular  layer,  after  forming  the  dphon  and  its  retractors,  is  confined 
to  the  anterior  part  of  the  mantie,  where  it  swdls  into  a  thick  convex 
mass  of  iAterlaced  and  chiefly  transverse  fibres,  and  fonning, 
Professor  Owen  supposes,  one  of  the  prindpal  instruments  in  the 
work  of  excavation.  No  fibres  could  be  detected  in  other  parts  of 
the  mantie ;  nor  could  any  be  expected  in  a  mantle  which  had  no 
lobes  to  be  retracted.  The  dphon,  in  the  contracted  state,  formed  a 
slightiy-compressed  cylindrical  tube,  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  tiie 
same  in  the  long  diameter,  traversed  longitudinally  by  the  branchial 
and  anal  canals,  separated  from  each  other  by  a  muscular  septum, 
extending  to  the  end  of  the  siphon,  beyond  which  the  two  tubes  do 
not  separatdy  extend  outwards,  agreeing  in  this  respect  with 
Oattrochcma  and  AtpergUkun,     Muscular  walls  of  the  dphon  two 


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CLAVAGELLA. 


CLAVAQELLA. 


M28 


lines  in  thickness;  the  septum  separating  the  branchial  and  anal 
canals  one  line;  diameter  of  each  canal  about  one  line;  inner 
extremity  both  of  the  anal  and  respiratory  tube  provided  with  a 
valvular  fold :  terminations  beset  with  short  papillse.  The  retractor 
muscles  attach  the  siphon  to  the  posterior  adductor  on  one  side,  and 
to  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  oval  mass  of  muscular  fibres  above 
mentioned  on  the  other,  leaving  an  intermediate  space  on  both  sides 
the  body,  which  exposes  part  of  the  gills  and  labial  tentacles.  The 
muscular  mass  which  bounds  the  anterior  part  of  the  animal's  body 
is  ova],  one  inch  three  lines  long,  eight  lines  broad,  and  varying  in 
thickness  from  two  to  three  lines :  it  is  smooth  and  convex  externally, 
and  hollowed  out  within  to  lodge  the  viscera  at  the  base  of  the  foot> 
for  the  passage  of  which  it  leaves  the  small  orifice  above  mentioned. 
The  mai-gins  attached  to  the  valves  are  more  or  less  irregular :  that 
affixed  to  the  loose  valve  is  the  broadest,  being  at  tiie  ventral 
extremity  three  lines  in  length. 

The  jplls  have  the  same  laminated  structure  as  that  observed  in 
other  bivalves,  they  are  broad  and  short,  corresponding  to  the  form 
of  the  animal ;  and  the  laminsB,  not  thin  compressed  layers,  but  broad 
and  projecting  but  little  from  the  sides  of  the  visceral  mass,  are 
arranged  in  three  layers  instead  of  two,  on  either  side  of  the  foot. 

The  digestive  system  is  accordant  with  the  structure  of  the  same 
part  in  the  other  acephalous  moUusks.  The  mouth,  a  transverse 
Blit>  without  masticatory  or  salivary  organs,  is  bounded  by  the  upper 
and  lower  labial  processes  which  are  continued  in  the  form  of  two 
transversely  striated  pointed  tentacles  on  either  side :  these  prehensile, 
sensitive,  and  probably  respiratory  oi^gans  measure  each  six  lines  in 
length,  and  about  one  and  a  half  lines  in  breadth.  The  oesophagus, 
after  a  course  of  two  lines,  dilates  into  a  stomach,  the  sides  of  wMch 


are  perforated  by  the  large  hepatic  ducts.  The  intestine,  after  a 
course  of  eight  fines,  forms  a  small  caecum  about  one  line  in  length.. 
The  intestine,  after  making  three  close  turns  upon  itself  in  the  mass' 
of  ova  and  hepatic  follicles  at  the  base  of  the  foot,  passes  in  imme- 
diate contact  witii  but  not  through  the  heart,  and  then  below  the 
posterior  adductor,  to  opposite  the  posterior  orifice  of  the  anal  tube. 
The  exterior  of  the  intestine  has  an  irregular  honey-combed  appear- 
ance, jfrom  the  close  adhesion  to  it  of  the  capsules  of  the  ova.  The 
liver  has  the  same  divided  follicular  structure  and  green  colour  as 
in  the  other  Bivalves. 

The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  large  and  conspicuous  ganglion 
situated  at  the  posterior  part  of  the  baise  of  the  foot,  just  al^ve  the 
orifice  of  the  anal  tube.  Two  nervous  cords  extend  from  this 
ganglion,  on  either  side  the  foot,  to  the  mouth;  other  branches  radiate 
in  l£e  opposite  direction  to  the  siphonic  and  adductor  muscles. 

The  ovaiT,  of  a  gray  colour,  forms  a  mass  at  the  dorsal  aspect  of 
the  body  above  the  great  adductor  muscle,  and  extending  ventral 
on  either  side  the  oesophagus  and  stomach  to  the  opposite  end  of  the 
base  of  the  foot.  All  this  mass  of  intestinal  folds,  hepatic  follicles, 
and  ova  was  covered  by  a  thin  membrana  The  little  muscular 
process  or  foot  which  passes  through  the  anterior  slit  of  the  mantle 
is  but  four  lines  long,  and  half  a  line  in  breadth :  its  possible  use 
may  be  to  apply  a  solvent  to  the  rock  in  which  the  chamber  is 
excavated. 

Mr.  Broderip  observes  that  we  are  left  to  conjecture  the  causes 
which  operate  to  deteimine  the  animal  in  the  choice  of  its  abode,  if 
indeed  it  can  be  called  choice,  for  most  probably  Clavagdla  is  the 
creature  of  circumstances,  and  if,  soon  after  its  exclusion  from  the 
parent  (when  Kr.  Broderip  supposes  it  to  be  furnished  with  its  two 


Fig  1,  part  of  ealcareoos  grit  rock  containing  the  fixed  valve  and  part  of  the  tube 
of  Clavagella  lata  ;  fig.  3,  external  view  of  the  right  or  free  valve ;  fig.  4,  internal 
view  of  the  same,  showing  the  mnscnlar  impreasiona  oorreaiKmding  with  those 
of  the  left  or  fixed  valve ;  fig.  2,  soft  parts  of  (7.  lata  seen  from  the  right  aide, 
the  dermal  layer  of  the  mantle,  e,  being  removed ;  fig.  5,  the  same  seen  f^om 
the  left  side,  or  that  which  is  in  contact  with  the  fixed  Talve.  The  extremities 
of  the  left  labial  appendages  only  are  exposed,  no  part  of  the  gill  being  pro. 
truded.  A  bristle  is  placed  in  the  opening  of  the  mantle,  a,  anterior  wall  of 
the  chamber ;  h,  dorsal  wall,  the  letter  placed  on  the  hinge  of  the  fixed  valve  ; 
c,  ventral  wall ;  <l,  posterior  or  siphonic  outlet ;  e,  tabular  communications 
with  a  neighbouring  cavity,  here  sent  off  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  mantle  ; 
^  «*,  calcareous  tubes  secreted  by  the  above  processes  and  extending  into  the 
cavities  contiguous  to  the  throat  of  the  tube ;,  if\  a  cavity  communicating  with 
the  anterior  part  of  the  chamber;  /,  impression  of  the  posterior  adductor 
muscle ;  /,  impression  of  the  anterior  adductor  muscle ;  K,  impression  of  the 


pallial  muscft,  or  third  adductor ;  /,  posterior  or  large  adductor  (the  single 
adductor  of  the  OttraeeOf  S^e.,  corresponds  to  this,  the  following  are  super- 
added in  other  families  of  Bivalves) ;  p,  the  anterior,  anterOi^dorBal,  or  smaller 
adductor ;  A,  the  pallial  or  antero-ventral  adductor ;  <,  the  convex  muscular 
mass  continued  over  the  anterior  part  of  the  body,  and  reducing  th»  opening  of 
the  mantle  to  the  small  slit  *,  through  which  a  bristle  is  placed  in  fig.  5  (this 
mass  is  an  inordinate  develoinnent  of  what  forms  the  muscular  margins  of  the 
mantle  lobes  in  other  Bivalves) ;  k,  muscular  fibres- of  the  siphon ;  I  (fig.  6), 
the  respiratory,  or  ingestive  siphonic  canal;  m,  the  anal  or  egestive  dphonic 
canal;  n,  the  labial  or  buccal  appendage ;  t,  the  gills :  in  fig.  2  the  rig^t  gill 
is  seen  partially  protruded  between  the  muscular  parts  of  the  mantle ;  jt,  part 
of  the  ovary  (figures  and  description  firom  Owen,  to  whose  lucid  memoir  and 
Ulustrations  the  reader  is  referred  for  the  anatomy  of  tlie  internal  parts) ; 
fig.  7,  anterior  termination  of  the  shelly  tube  of  C,  gperta,  Sow.,  firom  Mr. 
Sowerby's  *  Genera  of  Recent  and  Fossil  Shells.' 


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CLAVELINA. 


CLAVICORNES. 


1190 


yalTes  only,  and  to  float  free,  with,  perhaps,  some  voluntaiy  impulse), 
it  arriyes  at  the  vacant  hole  of  some  small  Petricola,  IdthodomuSf  or 
other  perforatmg  Testacean  which  suits  it,  one  valve  soon  becomes 
attached  to  the  wall  of  the  hole,  and  then  the  animal  proceeds  to 
secrete  the  aiphonio  sheath  or  tube,  to  enlarge  the  chamber  according 
to  its  neoesaities,  and  to  form  the  shelly  perforated  tubular  plate 
which  is  to  give  admission  to  the  water  at  the  practicable  part  of 
the  chamber.  How  the  excavation  is  carried  on  is  also  doubtful 
The  chambers  of  the  individuals  of  ClavageUa  aiatralis,  described 
by  Mr.  Broderip,  were  formed  in  a  siliceous  grit,  those  of  O,  dongata 
in  an  Astrceopora,  that  of  0,  lata  in  a  calcareous  grit,  and  those  of 
C.  Mditenna  in  an  argillo-calcareous  tufa.  "If,"  says  the  author 
last  mentioned,  "  the  excavation  be  the  work  of  a  solvent  secretion, 
it  must  be  a  solvent  of  extensive  power.  The  situation  of  the 
glands,  detected  by  my  Mend  Mr.  Owen,  leads  me  to  think  that  they 
minister  in  some  way  to  this  operation ;  and  I  do  not  see  how  the 
anterior  or  greater  end  of  the  chamber  can  be  operated  on  by  mere 
mechanical  attrition  with  such  parts  as  must  have  been  contiguous 
to  it.  It  has  been  objected  that  any  solvent  which  would  act  on  a 
calcareous  rock  would  equally  act  on  the  calcareous  shell  of  the 
animal ;  but  there  is  perhaps  more  of  point  than  of  strength  in  this 
objection.  Without  laying  too  much  stress  on  that  law  of  nature 
by  which  chemical  and  vital  forces  are  placed  in  a  state  of  hostility, 
and  which  may  or  may  not  be  applicable  to  such  a  substance  as 
shell,  the  gland  for  the  secretion  of  the  supposed  solvent,  as  well  as 
the  organ  for  applying  it,  may  be  so  placed  as  that  the  solvent  shall 
only  come  in  contact  with  the  inorganic  or  dead  substance  to  be 
acted  on  without  touching  the  shell.  Again,  it  has  been  asked,  what 
solvent  would  act  equally  on  a  calcareous  and  on  a  siliceous  sub- 
stance ?  To  this  it  may  be  answered,  first,  that  it  is  not  pretended 
that  the  nature  of  the  supposed  solvent  is  known ;  secondly,  that  in 
sUiceous  grits,  there  is  more  or  less  calcareous  matter  by  which  the 
mass  is  held  together,  and  that  tiie  solution  of  the  calcareous  particles 

would  be  followed  by  the  disintegration  of  the  stone One 

observation,  arising  from  the  various  depths  at  which  the  recent 
species  have  been  found,  will  not,  perhaps,  be  deemed  irrelevant.  C. 
auBtralis  was  so  near  the  surface  at  low  water,  that  it  was  detected 
by  its  ejection  of  the  fluid ;  C.  elongatOf  from  the  nature  of  the  coral 
in  which  it  was  chambered,  could  not  have  been  living  far  beneath 
the  Bur&ce ;  whereas  0.  lata  was  dredged  up  from  a  depth  of  66  feet. 
Any  inferences,  therefore,  as  to  the  state  of  submersion  of  a  rock 
during  the  life  of  the  fossil  species  of  ClavageUa  which  there  occur, 
should  be  made  with  caution  by  the  geologist." 

The  geographical  distribution  of  tiie  genus,  {hough  now  compara- 
tively rare  in  cabinets,  is  probably  wide.  A  sharp  investigation  of 
masses  of  coral  and  of  submerged  perforated  rocks  or  stones,  particu- 
larly in  warm  climates,  is  very  likely  to  be  rewarded  by  the  discovery 

With  regard  to  its  place  amongst  the  other  Molhuca,  'Profeeaor 
Owen  is  of  opinion  that  the  oigonisation  of  ClavageUa,  like  that  of 
AspergiUvm  described  in  the  'Reise  von  Afrik'  of  Dr.  Eiippell,  is 
modeUed  on  the  type  of  the  Acephalous  Bivalves ;  and  that  it  foUows 
most  closely,  in  the  variations  from  that  type^  the  modifications  which 
have  been  observed  in  Ckutrochama,  The  lengthened  worm-like  figure 
of  AspergiUvm  is  exchanged  in  Clawagella,  observes  Professor  Owen, 
for  a  shorter  form  with  greater  lateral  development;  and  instead  of 
the  small  rudimentary  valves,  which  are  enchased,  as  it  were,  in  the 
calcareous  sheath  oi  Aspergillum,  we  find  them  here  largely  developed, 
and  one  of  them  always  remaining  at  liberty,  to  be  applied  by  a 
powerful  muscTilar  apparatus  to  those  offices  which  are  essential  to 
the  forcible  expulsion  of  the  fluid  in  the  branchial  cavity,  and  pro- 
bably to  assist  in  the  excavation  of  its  secure  abode. 

FoisU  ClavageUoB. 

Mr.  Broderip  says  that  no  fossil  species  appear  to  have  been 
detected  below  the  Supracretaoeous  group.  M.  Deshayes,  in  his  tables, 
gives  two  living  and  seven  fbasU  (tertiaiy)  species,  and  one  (C7.  aperta, 
Sowerby)  as  found  both  Uving  and  fossil  (tertiary).  He  gives  the 
Mediterranean  and  Indian  Ocean  as  the  habitation  of  the  living 
animal,  and  Sicily  (Pliocene  Period  of  Lyell)  as  the  locality  of  the 
foBsfl.  In  his  edttion  of  Lamarck  he  makes  the  whole  number  (living 
and  fossil)  seven,  the  seventii  and  last  species  being  C.  aperta  ;  but 
he  refers  to  Bang^s  '  Manuel'  for  a  second  living  spedes.  C,  coronaia 
is  found  in  the  London  Clay.  In  Deshayes's  e£tion  of  Lamarck,  the 
speoies  C.  eehinaia  is  followed  by  C,  eruiata ;  and  the  ^editor,  in  a 
note  referred  to  from  the  latter,  says  that  these  two  species  should 
be  united,  as  they  only  difier  in  size  and  ago.  He  also  observes  that 
the  free  valve  of  C.  crittata,  or  of  C.  tibialiSf  has  been  placed  by 
Lamarck  among  the  species  of  GlycimerU  under  the  name  of  Q,  mar- 
garitacea.  And  here  we  may  mention  the  difficulty  of  laying  down 
specific  characters  from  the  valves,  which  being,  as  Mr.  Broderip 
remarks,  nearly,  perhaps  altogether,  excluded  from  the  light,  colour, 
at  best  but  a  treacherous  guide,  is  absent  entirely ;  whUe  the  shape 
of  the  chamber  and  of  the  valves,  together  with  the  comparative 
roughness  or  smoothness  of  their  outer  surfaces,  may  depend  upon 
the  greater  or  less  degree  of  hardness  of  the  material  in  which  the 
chamber  is  formed. 

CLAVELINA.    [Claysunidjs.] 


CLAYELINIDiE,  a  family  of  Tunicated  MoUuaca,  including  the 
British  genera  (Evelina  and  Perophora.  This  family  may  be  regarded 
as  uniting  together  the  Compoimd  and  Simple  Asoidians.  TiU  very 
recently  it  was  supposed  that  the  animals  forming  this  family  belonged 
to  the  latter.  Milne-Edwards  first  pointed  out  that  the  animals  wMch 
had  been  described  by  Savigny  under  the  genus  Clavelina  were  not 
always,  nor  even  usually,  separated  from  each  other ;  but  that  they 
spring,  as  it  were,  from  a  common  creeping  stem,  and  multiply  by 
gemmation  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Compound  Ascidians.  Id^e- 
Edwards  also  poiQted  out  that  an  animal,  described  by  Mr.  Joseph 
Jackson  Lister  in  the  'Philosophical  Transactions'  for  1884,  waa 
truly  an  Ascidian.  This  animal  occurs  in  groups  consisting  of  several 
individuals,  each  having  its  own  heart,  nespiration,  and  system  of 
nutrition,  but  fixed  on  a  peduncle  that  branches  from  a  common 
creeping  stem.  The  individual  animals  were  connected  together  by  a 
circulation  extendiog  throughout  the  stem.  They  are  transparent,  so 
that  their  structure  can  easily  be  seen  through  their  membranous 
covering.  Milne-Edwards  proposed  for  these  animals  the  name  of 
Social  Ascidians. 

Clavelina,  Savigny. — The  individuals  and  groups  are  connected  by 
creeping  radiciform  prolongations,  the  animals  having  elongated  erect 
more  or  less  pedunculated  bodies.  The  branchial  and  anal  ori^ces 
without  rays ;  outer  tunic  smooth  and  transparent ;  thorax  usually 
marked  with  coloured  lines. 

C.  lepadiformis  {Aacidia  Upadiformitf  0.  F.  Miiller).  Thorax 
forming  a  third  part  of  the  length  of  the  adult  individual,  and  marked 
with  yellow  lines ;  stomach  of  a  bright  orange,  placed  near  the  middle 
of  the  abdominal  portion  of  the  anunal ;  part  of  the  intestines  of  the 
same  colour.  Mr.  Alder  says  this  animal  is  very  generally  difiused 
throughout  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain.  He  has  met  with  it  on  the 
Devonshire,  Cornish,  and  Northumberland  coasts,  and  in  Lamlash, 
Rothsay,  and  Oban  bays  in  Scotland.  Mr.  W.  Thompson  has  found 
it  in  Irdand. 

MDne-Edwards  gives  the  following  account  of  the  development  oi 
this  species  : — "  If  we  examine  with  care  the  foot  of  a  (7.  lepadiformit, 
we  see  that  the  animal  adheres  to  the  soil  by  more  or  less  numerous 
radiciform  prolongations  of  the  tegumentary  tunic ;  and  usually  we 
find  also  cylindrical  filaments,  which  mingled  with  these  roots  and 
formed  externally  by  the  same  tissue,  creep  also  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil ;  but  are  hollow,  and  internally  furnished  with  a  membranous 
tube.  This  tube  is  continuous  with  the  internal  tunic  of  the  Ascidian, 
and  the  circtdation  which  is  seen  in  the  interior  of  the  abdomen  of 
the  latter  is  equaJIy  continued  into  the  appendicular  canaL  This 
stalk-like  body,  which  is  closed  at  the  extremity,  is  at  first  simple, 
but  ramifies  as  it  elongates.  When  its  growth  is  more  advanced, 
we  see  developing  at  the  extremities  of  its  branches,  or  even  at 
different  points  of  its  length,  tubercles  containing  in  their  interior  a 
little  organised  mass  in  connection  with  the  internal  tube.  These 
tubercles  elongate,  elevate  themselves  vertically,  and  become  olavi- 
fonn ;  the  blood  which  circulates  in  the  stem  penetrates  the  soft  and 
pyriform  central  mass;  but  this  mass,  at  first  pedunculated  and 
adhering  to  the  inner  tunic  of  the  principal  canal,  soon  separates 
itself,  and  no  longer  participates  in  the  circulation  of  the  individual 
to  which  it  owed  its  origin.  Nevertheless  its  development  continues, 
and  we  soon  distinguish  in  it  all  the  priacipal  characteristic  traits  of 
the  ascidian  structure ;  the  branchial  sac  becomes  perfectly  outlined 
without  being  as  yet  in  communication  with  the  interior ;  a  curved 
digestive  tube  is  seen  beneath  the  thorax.  At  length  a  buccal  opening 
is  formed,  and  the  general  shape  of  the  young  animal  approaches 
more  and  more  nearly  that  of  the  adult.  Thus  there  is  produced  by 
process  of  budding  a  new  individual,  linked  with  its  parent  by  a  radi- 
ciform prolongation  of  the  tegumentary  tunic,  and  which  during  the 
first  years  of  its  life  has  a  circulation  in  common  with  the  mother 
ascidian,  but  in  the  end  enjoys  an  independent  existence.  Still  how- 
ever it  may  remain  in  connection  with  the  individual  which  produced 
it  through  the  medium  of  its  roots,  or  it  may  become  completely 
free  by  their  rupture  without  any  change  of  consequence  in  its  mode 
of  Ufe."    (*  Mtooires  de  I'lnstitut^'  vol.  xviii.) 

There  are  several  other  species  of  Clavelina,  and  probably  many 
more  exist  on  our  own  coasts. 

Perophora. — The  animal  discovered  by  Lister  has  been  thus  named 
by  Wi^^mann.  It  is  characterised  by  the  individual  animals  being 
pedunculated,  suborbicular,  compressed,  attached  bv  their  pedicles  to 
creeping  tubular  processes  of  the  common  tunic,  through  which  the 
blood  circulates.    Thorax  not  lineated  by  granular  bands. 

P,  JAsteri  is  the  only  species  at  present  known.  It  is  a  minute 
creature,  and  occurs  not  unft^uently  on  the  south  coasts  of  England 
and  in  the  Irish  Sea.  It  lives  attached  to  sea-weeds,  and  is  beautifully 
transparent.  It  looks  to  tiie  naked  eye  like  little  specks  of  jelly  dotted 
with  orange  and  brown,  and  linked  by  a  silvery  winding  thread.  Mr. 
Lister's  paper  describing  this  animal  is  entitled, '  On  the  Structure 
and  Functions  of  Tubular  and  Cellular  Polypi,  and  of  Ascidise.'  It 
is  an  admirable  paper,  and  was  one  of  the  fint-fruits  of  those  labours 
on  the  improvement  of  the  microscope  for  which  the  world  is  indebted 
to  Mr.  Lister. 

CLAVICOHNES,  a  name  given  by  Latreille  to  a  sub-section  of 
Coleopterous  Insects  of  the  section  Peniamera, 

The  insects  of  this  sub-section  almost  alwaya  have  the  antenna 


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CLAVIOER. 


CLEOME. 


li» 


thickened  at  the  apex,  and  frequently  the  terminal  joints  forming  a 
dub  :  the  joints  of  the  tand  aie  usually  entire. 

Such  aie  the  principal  charaoters  of  the  sub-seetion  CUmcwmu,  a 
group  in  which  Latreille  includes  the  families  8(^dm€enid<Bt  BiiHridcB, 
SilpkidtB,  ScaphididcB,  NiHdvlida,  DermuHdm,  ByrrhidcB.  It  appesrs 
to  indude  many  genera  of  insects  which,  in  a  natural  arrangement, 
ought  not  to  be  associated  under  one  heed. 

CLAVIGER.      [PSBLAPHTTB.] 

CLAyiPA'LPI  (Latreille),  a  family  of  Inseots  belonging  to  the 
Tetramerous  Coleoptera, 

The  inseots  of  this  fiuaaily  are  prindpally  disionguished  by  the 
antennsB  being  terminated  by  a  perfoliate  dub.  The  tarsi  are  generallr 
furnished  with  a  veWet-like  substance  beneath,  and  have  the  penul- 
timate joint  bilobed ;  some  few  however  hare  the  tarsi  simple.  The 
mandibles  are  emarginated  or  dentated  at  the  apex ;  the  maxUln  are 
armed  on  the  inner  side  by  a  tooth-like  process ;  the  palpi  have  the 
terminal  joint  large.  Many  of  the  species  of  this  group  feed  upon 
fungi  and  boleti,  and  their  form  is  often  rounded  and  convex.  The 
genera  included  in  the  family  Clavipalpi  are  Erotylru,  Tripleue,  Zan- 
ffuria,  PhalacruB,  Agaihidium,  and  some  others. 

CLAVULI'NA.      [FORAMIWIFBBA.] 

CLAT,  any  natural  mixture  of  earths  which  breaks  down  or  disin- 
tegrates in  water,  and  affords  a  plastic  ductile  mixture.  It  depends 
upon  this  prop^ty,  rather  than  colour  or  composition,  whether  an 
earthy  body  belongs  to  the  class  of  clays.  There  are  many  varieties 
of  clay  used  for  dSlerent  purposes. 

Pipe-day  is  of  a  grayish-white  colour,  has  an  earthy  fracture,  and 
a  smooth  greasy  feel ;  it  adheres  to  the  tongue,  and  is  very  plastic, 
tenacious,  and  infusible.  Its  name  shows  the  purpose  to  which  it  is 
applied.    It  is  found  near  Poole  in  Dorsetshire. 

Potter't-Clay  is  of  various  colours,  and  disintegrates  bv  exposure 
to  the  air ;  when  mixed  with  sand  it  is  made  into  bricks  and  tiles. 
It  is  found  in  Hampshire,  Berkshire,  Devonshire,  and  is  largely  used 
in  the  Staffordshire  Potteries.  The  Hampshire  clay  yielded  by 
analysis — 

Silica         ....  •        .    51 

Alumina 26 

Lime         •••••••    — * 

with  some  Oxide  of  Manganese  and  water. 

Stourbridge  Gap  has  the  general  properties  above  described,  but  is 
of  a  dark  colour,  owing  apparently  to  an  admixture  of  carbonaceous 
matter.  It  is  most  extensively  employed  in  the  manufiuiture  of 
crucibles,  and  especially  for  those  used  in  glass-making.  It  is  ex- 
tremely refractory  in  the  Are.    It  yielded  by  analysis — 

Silica 57     ' 

Alumina 80 

Moisture 12*0 

A  trace  of  Iron  and  Carbonaceous  Matter. 

It  appears  to  have  originated  fit)m  the  disintegration  of  shale. 

Brick-Olag,  or  Loam,  varies  much  in  appearance,  texture,  and 
composition ;  its  colour  is  dependent  upon  tne  proportion  of  oxide 
of  iron  which  it  contains.  It  lies  in  abundance  upon  the  London 
Clay,  and  frequently  rests  upon  an  interposed  bed  of  sand.  The 
oiganic  remains  found  in  it  are  few,  but  it  sometimes  contains  the 
teeth  of  elephants. 

London  Clay  is  a  very  extensive  deposit  of  a  bluish  day,  except 
near  the  surface,  where  it  has  often  the  usual  clay  colour.  It  forms 
the  greater  part  of  Middlesex,  the  whole  of  Essex  and  Suffolk,  and 
part  of  KoiriTolk,  and  frequently  rises  almost  to  the  surface.  Some 
of  the  lower  beds  are  yellowish-white  or  variegated.  This  clay  occa- 
sionally includes  beds  of  sandstone,  and  of  a  coarse  argillaoeous 
limestone,  of  which  Parker's  Roman  Cement  is  made.  It  contains 
also  frequently  the  bones  of  the  crocodile,  turtle,  &c. 

Plattic  Cflayakirta  the  London  Cli^witliin  the  London  Chalk  basin, 
and  it  appears  also  at  the  Isle  of  mght.  This  formation  consists  of 
a  variable  number  of  sand,  day,  and  pebble-beds  irregularly  alter- 
nating, lying  immediately  upon  the  chalk ;  it  contains  some  appearance 
of  coal,  decidedly  of  vegetable  origin,  pyrites,  oysteiHshells,  and  the 
branches  of  trees.  The  sand-beds  of  the  Plastic-Clay  formation  are 
the  grand  reservoir  of  soft-water  from  which  the  deep  wells  in  and 
around  London  are  suppUed. 

Kaolin,  or  Porcdain-Clay,  ia  of  various  shades  of  white ;  it  is  dull 
and  opaque;  occurs  friable  or  compact;  feels  soft  to  the  fingers  and 
adheres  to  the  tongue.  It  is  infusible,  and  its  specific  gravity  is 
2*216.  A  large  tract  of  this  day,  which  indudes  crystals  of  felspar, 
quartz,  and  mica,  occurs  near  St.  Austell  in  Cornwall.  The  porcelain 
manufactures  of  Worcester  are  supplied  from  it.  According  to 
Wedgwood  it  consists  of  60  parts  alumina  and  40  silica.  It  probably 
arises  from  the  decomposition  of  felspar.  This  clay  occurs  in  France, 
Saxony,  and  Austria.  Various  other  kinds  of  day  are  met  with  in 
different  situations ;  their  nature  and  composition  depend  upon  those 
of  the  rocks  from  the  disintegration  of  which  they  have  been  formed; 
thus  slate,  steatite,  and  trap,  each  yields  a  different  kind  of  day. 

CLAY-SLATE.    [Slate.] 

CLEAT AQE,  a  term  employed  in  Qe^logy  to  indicate  a  peculiar 
fofsility  in  certain  (especially  argillaoeous)  rocks,  which  is  independent  < 


ot,  and  generally  meets  at  a  considerable  angle,  the  surfaces  of  lami- 
nation or  depositioa  Clay-Slate  famishes  the  best  examples  of  thin 
phenomenon.    [Slatb.] 

CLEAVERS.    rGAUniLl 

CLEAVLANDITE,  a  Mmeral  occurring  in  wedge^haped  masses  in 
the  Chesterfield  Albite  vein,  Massachusetts,  United  States.  It  is  a 
lamellar  variety  of  A  Ibiie.    [Albite.] 

CLEIDOTH^RUS,  a  genus  of  Acephalous  MoUvsca  (Condufers 
of  Lamarck),  established  by  Mr.  Samuel  Stutdibury  for  a  tmtaoeous 
animal,  the  mechanism  of  whose  hinge  connecting  the  two  valves 
differs  most  materially  from  that  exhiMted  by  other  Bivalves. 

Shell  bivalve,  somewhat  pearly,  inequivalve,  involute,  attached  by 
the  outside  of  the  larger  valve.  Hinge  with  a  small  conical  pointed 
tooth  in  the  ttee  valve,  fitting  into  a  corresponding  pit  in  the  attached 
valve.  A  testaceous  rather  elongated  curved  appendage,  connected 
by  cartilage,  is  inserted  into  a  deep  dcatrix  within  each  umbo ;  mus- 
cular impressions,  two  in  each  valve,  lateral :  the  anterior  ligulate ; 
the  posterior  suborbicular.  Muscular  impression  of  the  mantle  entire. 
Lif  ament  extemaL    (Stutchbury,  modified  by  O.  B.  Sowerby.) 

M.  De  Roissy  had  separated  the  genus  from  Chama,  with  which  it 
might  be  easily  confounded  by  a  superficial  observer  under  the  name 
of  Chamottrea ;  but  he  does  not  seem  to  have  been  aware  of  the 
appendage,  and,  as  Mr.  Stutchbury  observes,  his  name  is  entirely  inap- 
plicable, there  being  nothing  in  the  diell  to  connect  it  with  Ottrea. 

Oleidoihtena  OhamSidea  (Stutchbury).  Shell  involute,  brownish- 
red,  internally  of  a  greenish  pearly  lustre,  attached  by  the  anterior 
side  of  the  right  valve,  which  is  of  great  depth ;  left  valve  but  slightly 
convex ;  the  clavicular  appendage  with  a  groove  on  the  convex  side. 

Mr.  Stutdibury  states  that  C  ChamSidea  was  found  attached  to 
sandstone  rocks  by  T.  Toung,  Esq.,  B.N.,  together  with  an  Atper- 
gUlum  (perhaps  Aggltttinans  of  Lamarck),  some  Chamee,  &c.,  whHe 
seardiing  near  the  entrance  of  Port  Jackson,  pointed  out  to  him  as 
the  spot  where  Mr.  Stutchbury  discovered  in  1826  the  first  living 
dofoagdUB.  In  general  contour  this  shell  has  so  great  a  similitude  to 
Ckama,  that,  without  opening  it,  there  would  be  no  hesitation  in 
pronouncing  it  to  belong  to  that  genus.    [Chamacsa.] 

Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby  is  of  opinion  that^  as  £&r  as  the  character  of  the 
internal  hinge  cartilage  having  an  elongated  testaceous  appendsge  goes, 
CleidothcBrus  connects  the  Ckamce  of  Lamarck  with  his  Myaires. 

CLE'MATIS,  a  genus  of  Climbing  Plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Jtanvneulacecgf  and  characterised  by  having  a  valvate  coloured 
calyx,  carpels  in  a  ripe  state  terminated  by  long  feathery  styles,  and 
opposite  leaves.  The  most  common  spedes  ib  C,  vikUba^  the  Tra- 
veller's Joy,  which  runs  over  the  hedges  in  many  parts  of  England, 
loading  them  first  with  its  copious  clusters  of  wmte  blossoms,  and 
aftenxnitrds  with  heaps  of  its  feather-tailed  silkv  tufta  It  is  however 
better  known  f^m  some  of  the  exotic  species  being  favourite  objects 
of  cultivation.  C.  JUimmvla,  a  spedes  with  panides  of  small  white 
flowers,  is  among  the  most  fragrant  of  plants.  C.  cirrhosa,  C.  critpa, 
and  O,  fiorida,  are  remaricable  for  the  large  size  of  their  greexush- 
white  flowers ;  while  the  purple  or  pink  bdls  of  C,  vittceUa,  hanging 
gracefully  from  its  festooning  branches,  render  that  spedes,  when 
well  managed,  one  of  the  most  elegant  and  ornamental  of  dimbers. 
The  spedes  of  Atragene,  Siberian  and  Alpine  plants,  with  findy-out 
leaves  and  delicate  purple  flowers,  considered  a  peculiar  genus  hy 
Linnseus,  are  other  species  of  CUmaHt,  They  have  a  climbing  habi^ 
and  are  occasionally  seen  in  gardens ;  their  stems  however  are  apt  to 
become  naked,  and  they  are  not  so  generally  cultivated  as  the  spedes 
of  genuine  ClemcUi*,  The  leaves  of  C.  ereda  and  C.  fiamavula  are  used 
by  beggars  for  the  purpose  of  forming  artificial  ulcers.  There  are 
about  100  spedes  of  the  genus  Olematis, 

All  these  plants  are  hardy,  but  they  are  impatient  of  damp  in 
winter.  The  latter  circumstance  is  therefore  to  be  attended  to  by 
those  who  wish  to  ornament  their  gardens  with  them. 

CLEODORA.    [Ptbropoda.] 

CLEO'ME,  a  genus  of  Plants^  bdonging  to  the  natural  order 
Capparidacece.  It  has  a  calyx  of^4  almost  equal  spreading  sepals ; 
4  petals ;  a  torus  somewhat  hemispherical ;  6,  rardy  i,  stamens ;  a 
silique  dehiscent^  stipitate,  or  sessile  within  the  calyx. 

U  gigaaUea  is  a  uirubby  plant,  velvety-pubescent  and  somewhat 
clammy ;  the  leaves  7-foliate,  with  SO  or  40  veins  on  each  side  of  eadi 
leaflet.  It  has  whitish-green  flowers,  with  pinkish  filaments  and 
yellow  anthers.  It  is  a  native  of  South  America.  It  is  a  beautiful 
plant,  but  has  a  disagreeable  odour  and  an  acrid  taste. 

C.  rosea  is  an  herbaceous  unarmed  smooth  plant,  with  quinate 
leaflets,  the  lower  and  floral  ones  temate,  the  uppermost  ones  ovate 
sessile ;  the  silique  smooth,  the  length  of  the  stipes.  This  plant  has 
beautifrilly  rose-coloured  flowers.    It  is  a  native  of  Rio  Janeiro. 

There  are  about  fifty  spedes  of  the  genus  Cleome  described ;  many 
of  them  are  now  referred  to  the  genus  Polanina.  [PoLAiriSL^]  Most 
of  them  are  worth  cultivating  on  account  of  their  beauty.  The 
shrubby  spedes  do  best  in  a  rich  light  soil.  They  may  be  prop 
by  ripened  cuttings  in  a  moderate  heat  under  a  hand-^assi,  or  b^ 
The  seeds  of  the  annual  spedes  should  be  sown  on  a  hot-b 
spring,  and  when  the  young  plants  are  of  sufficient  eiae  they  may  be 
planted  out  in  the  open  border,  but  not  before  the  middle  of  May. 
The  biennial  spedes  must  be  kept  in  the  stove ;  they  may  be  propa- 
gated by  cuttings,  as  the  dirubby  spedes. 


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CLEONUS. 


ClilONID^. 


1134 


CLEO'KUS,  a  genus  of  Coleopteroua  InBects  of  the  Motion 
Jikjfncophoru  and  &inily  CfwretUionida,  It  has  the  following  oha- 
raoten  :—Antenn8e  rather  shorty  the  soape  not  touching  the  eyea; 
baaal  joint  of  the  funiculus  nearly  obconio,  and  rather  longer  than 
the  remaining  joints ;  the  joints  from  the  second  to  the  sixth  short 
and  ooarotate^  the  seventh  stouter,  and  closely  applied  to  itto  dub, 
which  is  oblong-ovate  or  nearly  so ;  rostrum  short  and  thick,  having 
generally  a  chiumel  above ;  eyes  oblong  and  depressed ;  thorax  su^ 
conic,  slightly  constricted  anteriorly;  elytra  elongate^  generally 
furnished  witii  a  protuberance  near  the  apex,  which  is  rounded ;  legs 
nearW  equal;  femora  imarmed;  tibi»  with  the  apex  slightly  thickenedi 
and  furnished  with  a  short  spine. , 

Of  the  genus  Cleonua  about  100  species  are  known ;  they  inhabit 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The  ground-colour  of  their  body  is  almost 
always  black,  but  this  is  for  the  most  part  hidden  by  the  denseness 
of  the  little  scales  with  which  they  are  covered.  These  scales  are 
generally  of  an  ash-like  colour,  gray,  white,  or  pole-brown,  and  small 
patches  of  two  or  more  of  these  tints  form  clouded  markings.  Dark 
markings  are  often  produced  by  the  want  of  these  scales  on  certain 
parts,  the  ground-colour  of  the  body  then  showing  itself. 

C  mUdrottrit  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  this  genus.  It  is  about 
two-thirds  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  an  elongate  o^  form,  and  of  an 
ashy  or  white  colour ;  the  rostrum  is  thick,  nearly  as  long  as  the 
thorax,  and  furnished  with  three  deep  longitudinal  furrows;  the 
thorax  is  almost  as  wide  as  the  elytra  at  the  base,  and  tapers  towards 
the  head ;  there  is  a  longitudinal  pale  line  in  the  centre,  which  ii 
bordered  by  two  broad  dark-brown  patches ;  the  rest  of  the  thorax 
is  pale,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  brown  patch  on^each  side; 
the  elytra  are  of  an  ashy  colour,  and  have  two  obUque  Y-shaped 
fasdsB  near  the  middle. 

This  insect  is  common  in  various  parts  of  England,  and  seems 
more  particularly  to  frequent  chalky  and  sandy  situations;  it  is 
sometimes  found  on  nettles  and  thistles,  and  often  crawling  on  barren 
Band-hills  near  the  sea-side.  Three  or  four  other  species  are  also 
found  in  this  country.  C.  ndfulotfiu  is  very  common  in  some  parts 
of  Hampshire,  and  nearly  resembles  the  one  above  described, 
but  may  be  at  once  distixiguished  by  the  absence  of  the  sulci  on 
the  snout  or  rostrum:  the  scales  in  this  species  are  not  unfire- 
quently  red. 

GLE'PTICtJS,  a  genus  of  Fishes,  belonging  to  the  section  Aecm- 
thofierygii  and  family  Ldbrida,  C,  genuara  ia  the  only  spedes,  and 
is  from  the  Antilles.  It  has  the  following  generic  characters : — 
Head  obtuse;  mouth  protractile ;  teeth  minute,  barely  perceptible  to 
the  touch;  body  elongate,  lateral  line  uninterrupted;  dorsal  and 
anal  fins  covered  with  scales  nearly  to  their  outer  maigins. 

CLE'RIBiSI  {TUlidce,  Leach),  a  fiimily  of  Coleopterous  Insects  of 
the  section  Malaeadermi,  It  has  the  following  characters : — ^Palpi 
generally  davate ;  mandibles  dentated  internally ;  penultimate  joint 
of  the  tarsi  bilobate ;  antenna)  more  or  less  serrated  or  terminated 
by  a  club ;  body  genonlly  cylindrical  and  pubescent ;  head  and  thorax 
narrower  than  the  abdomen ;  eyes  emaiginated.  Most  of  these  insects 
are  found  on  flowers  and  some  on  old  trees.  The  larvae  of  those  whidi 
are  known  are  carnivorous. 

The  principal  genera  induded  in  this  family  are— C^Ktufoiw,  TSSm, 
Priocera,  Axina,  JBurjfput,  Thanaiimus,  OpUtu,  Clertu,  Necrobia,  and 
JBnoplium, 

CUruB  is  thus  characterised :— Maxillarr  palpi  with  the  terminal 
joint  thicker  than  the  rest,  compressed,  broadest  at  the  apex,  and 
truncated ;  labial  palpi  with  the  terminal  joint  securiform ;  antemm 
with  the  b&Bal  joint  rather  long,  the  seven  following  short,  the  three 
terminal  joints  forming  a  compressed  knob  of  the  form  of  a  reversed 
triangle  ;  tarsi  exhibiting  only  four  distinct  jointa 

Two  species  of  this  beautiftil  genus  (C.  (vpiarim  and  C  aJ/veofrim) 
are  natives  of  this  country,  but  they  are  here  of  rare  occurrence, 
though  in  Germany,  France,  and  Italy  they  are  common,  and  are 
found  on  the  flowers  of  umbelliferous  plants. 

C.  apiariua  varies  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  is  very  thickly  covered  with  hairs ;  it  ia  blue ;  the  elytra  are  red, 
and  have  three  blue  fascism,  one  of  which  is  at  the  apex. 

The  larva  of  this  spedes  feeds  upon  those  of  the  common  hive-bee, 
and  is  sometimes  very  destructive  to  hives. 

C.  alyeariut  very  much  resembles  the  spedes  just  described,  differ- 
ing chiefly  in  having  a  blue  spot  in  the  region  of  the  scutellum  in 
addition  to  the  three  blue  fiiscisd  on  the  ely&a ;  its  larv»  feed  upon 
those  of  the  mason-bees. 

GLERUS.    [Clerida.] 

CLIMACTERIS.    [Certhiada] 

CLINKSTONE,  a  grayish  blue  Rock,  consistiiig  prindpally  of 
Felspar.  It  passes  gradually  into  gray  Basalt^  but  is  distinguished 
f^m  that  rock  by  its  lower  spedfic  gravity.  When  struck  with  a 
hammer  it  rings  like  iron.  It  is  fr^uent  in  volcanic  districts.  It  is 
also  called  PhonolUe, 

CLINTONITE  {SeyhertiU,  XanlhophyUite  (1),  ffolmente),  a  Mineral 
which  occurs  ciystallised  and  in  imperfectly  crystallised  masses.  Its 
•primary  form  is  an  oblique  rhombic  prism.  Cleavage  imperfect 
Colour  copper^red,  reddish  brown,  yellowish  brown,  and  reddish 
white;  streak  yellowish  gray.  Haniness  4*5.  Lustre  metijilioand 
metallic  pearly.    Translucent  to  opaque.    In  thin  lamin»  sometimes 


transparent     Spedfic   gravity  8*098.    p'ound   at  Amity,  Orange 
County,  New  York.    Analysis  by  Clemson  :— 

Silica 17.0 

Alumina    •...«,  .    87*6 

Magnesia 24'3 

Lime 10*7 

Protoxide  of  Iron  •....•      5*0 

Water        .  ' 8*6 

CLI'NUS,  a  genus  of  Fishes  bdonging  to  the  section  AeanUhop' 
terygii  and  fiEumly  CfobioidcR,  It  forms  one  of  the  sub-divisions  of  the 
BlenniiSy  the  spedes  of  which  may  be  distinguished  by  their  having 
several  ranges  of  short  pointed  teeth,  the  teeiui  of  the  external  range 
being  tha  laigest  The  dorsal  fin  is  dther  continuous  and  even,  or, 
in  some,  with  the  anterior  rsys  separated  fr*om  the  posterior  by  an 
emargination.  Like  the  true  Blennici^  these  flahii  hitive  small  fim- 
briated appandsges  over  the  tjes. 
CLIO.    rOuomDA] 

CLIO'NIDiE,  the  CUo  Xyibe,  a  fkmily  of  Naked  Marine  MaUutca, 
placed  by  Ouvier  as  the  first  of  his  class  PteropotUk  Lamarck  also 
arranges  them  under  the  Pteropods^  which  he  makes  an  order,  but 
gives  them  a  situation  immediately  afler  the  HyaUeidm,  Be  BlainviUe 
unites  the  Pteropoda  and  Oatdrofoda  of  Cuvier  in  one  dass  Para- 
ceplMdaphora,  under  which  the  PUropoda  form  an  order  with  the 
name  of  Aporobranehiataf  which  Is  £vided  into  two  families ;  the 
first,  Thecoiomata,  being  provided  with  a  shell,  and  the  second, 
Oynmotomatct^  comprising  those  Ptaropods  which  have  nona  Rang 
follows  this  last  arrangement,  still  retaining  Guvier's  term  Pteropoda, 
but  not  rejecting  De  Blainville's,  and  malong  the  spedes  of  Clio  of 
F^russac  synonymous  with  the  ChfmnotomcUa  of  DeBIainville,  and  the 
second  fanuly  of  the  class  Pttropodti, 

OjfmoMBomaita, — Body  of  an  dongated  form,  sub-conical,  completdv 
naked :  two  bundles  of  tentacular  suckers  at  the  mouth ;  no  tooth 
in  the  upper  lip ;  a  small  lingual  plate  bristled  with  spines. 

Rang  thus  defines  the  fiiunily : — ^Animal  with  the  head  distinct;  no 
intermediate  lobe,  but  one  or  more  fleshy  appendages  in  place  of  it ; 
a  muscular  envelope  or  mantie. 

Clio  {Clione,  Pallas). — Body  fr«e,  naked,  more  or  less  dongated,  a 
little  depressed,  attenuated  abaft  (amind  en  arri^re),  without  any 
other  fins  than  tiie  lateral  appendages.  Head  very  distinct,  provided 
with  six  long  retractile  tentaciila,  divided  into  two  groups  of  three 
each,  and  capable  of  being  entirely  concealed  in  a  spedes  of  prepuce 
bearing  a  small  tentaoulum  on  its  external  ude.  Mouth  enturdy 
terminal  and  vertical  Eyes  sessile,  nearly  supernal  A  sort  of 
sucker  or  rudiment  of  a  foot  under  the  neck,  between  the  roots  of  the 
fins.  Vent  and  termination  of  the  generative  apparatus  in  a  single 
tuberde,  dtuated  at  tiie  right  side  of  the  neck,  at  the  junction  of  uie 
fin  with  trunk.    Oigans  of  respiration  (1). 

0,  Spedes  whose  tentactda  are  well  known. 

Of  these,  C.  horealia  and  C.  awtralis  will  serve  as  examples.  The 
former,  which  appears  to  be  the  same  with  C.  limaeina  of  Phipps, 
C.  rehua  of  Fabricius,  and  Clione  papilionacea  of  Pallas,  is  well-known 
to  the  whale-fishers  and  others  under  the  name  of  '  whale's  food.' 
The  spedes  swarms  in  the  northern  seas,  and  indeed  so  plentiful  are 
they  mat  they  form  a  principal  part  of  the  food  of  the  whale-bone 
whales.  Captain  (now  Sir  W.  E.)  Parry  found  it  in  great  abundance 
in  all  parts  of  Baffin's  Bay  and  Davis's  Strait^  in  the  nei^bourhood 
of 'ica  ('  Supplement  to  Captain  Parry's  first  Voyage.^  Captain 
James  Ross  observes  that  it  is  very  numerous  in  mo^  parts  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  but  less  abundant  in  Regent's  Inlet  /end  the  Qulf  of 
Boothia.  When  the  weather  is  calm,  they  come  in  myriads  to  the  sur- 
face for  the  purpose  of  respiration ;  but  scarcely  have  they  reached  it 
when  they  again  predpitate  themselves  towards  the  bottom.  Cuvier, 
who  gives  this  account  of  their  habits,  adds,  that  the  sea  is  so  glutted 
with  them  in  certain  seasons,  that  the  whales,  so  to  speak,  cannot  open 
their  mouths  without  ingulphing  thousands  of  these  small  mollusks. 

Integument^  a  delicate  demi-transparent  soft  skin,  which  covers  a 
second  tunic  This  last  is  thicker,  and  presents  longitudinal  and  very 
sensible  muscular  fibres,  which  come  from  two  prindpal  bundles 
attached  to  the  udes  of  the  neck.  The  effect  of  these  fibres  must  be 
to  shorten  the  general  envelope  of  the  bod^,  and  to  approximate  its 
form  to  a  spherical  shape.  Cuvier,  who  gives  the  above  description, 
adds,  that  he  knows  not  with  what  the  interval  between  this  fleshy 
tunic  and  the  mass  of* the  viscera  is  filled  in  the  living  state;  but 
observes  that  it  is  certain  that  these  do  not  occupy  the  half  of  the 
area  which  the  tunic  incloses ;  and  conjectures  that  there  may  be  a 
liquor  diflused  there,  or  perhaps  only  a  quantity  of  air  which  the 
ammal  can  compress  at  pleasure  when  it  would  sink  in  the  water,  and 
dilate  when  it  would  rise. 

The  mouth  is  between  the  bases  of  the  two  tuberdes  of  the  head. 
Below  it  are  two  triangular  tentacula,  which  form,  as  it  were,  two 
small  wings  between  the  two  large  ones.  The  opening  of  the  mouth 
is  triangular ;  and  within  are  seen  some  longitudinal  wrinkles,  which 
Pallas  and  Fabridus  appear  to  have  taken  for  teeth,  but  which  have 
no  hardness,  and  are  entirely  fieshy.  The  viscera  are  connected  by 
vessds  and  cdUulodties  which  unite  them  in  a  small  padcet  dtuated 
near  the  neck.  The  liver  covers  the  greatest  part  of  them,  with  the 
exception  of  an  angle  which  is  occupied  by  the  testide  and  ovary. 


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The  oeBophagus,  of  a  fair  length,  descends  from  the  mouth  through 
the  neck,  and  is  dilated  into  a  stomach  towards  the  bottom  of  the 
mass.  Thence  the  intestinal  canal,  after  having  made  one  fold,  pro- 
ceeds directly  to  the  vent,  situated  under  the  gill  of  the  left  side.  The 
liver  is  composed  of  many  lobes  and  lobules,  and  envelops  the 
stomach  and  a  great  part  of  the  intestinal  canaL  Two  long  and 
straight  salivary  glands  float  at  the  sides  of  the  oesophagus ;  their 
excretory  ducts  are  inserted  in  the  mouth.    (Cuvier.) 


Olio  bortalit. 

Fig.  1,  view  of  the  back;  a,  the  body;  ft,  the  viaeera,  seen  through  the 
common  integtiments ;  <;,  r,  the  tubercles  of  the  head,  and  the  holes  wherein  the 
three  tentacula  on  each  »ide  are  withdrawn ;  d,  d,  gills  and  fins.  Fig.  2, 
the  same,  view  of  the  belly ;  a,  c,  d,  indicate  the  same  parts  as  in  fig.  1 ; 
e\  the  two  tentacula  placed  before  the  mouth.  Fig.  8,  c,  d,  indicate  the  same 
parts  as  in  the  two  former  figures ;  /,  /,  the  external  tunic  or  skin  ;  p,  g,  the 
internal  tunic  or  fieshy  pannicle ;  A,  h,  the  principle  bundles  of  its  fibres ; 
t,  the  mass  of  viscera ;  m,  the  principal  vein  of  the  gills. 

The  brain  consists  of  two  lobes  placed  at  the  origin  of  the  oeso- 
phagus. From  each  of  these  springs  a  small  filament,  which  swells 
into  a  lai^ge  ganglion  that  unites  itself  to  its  correspondent  under  the 
oesophagus.  These  two  ganglions  give  out  each  their  filaments  to  the 
neighbouring  parts.  Two  of  these  filaments,  one  on  each  side,  swell 
again  into  ganglions,  which,  uniting  together  by  a  new  filament  that 
traverses  upon  the  oesophagus,  form  there  a  second  collar  joined  to 
the  first  beneath ;  they  give  out  a  filament,  which  is  twice  swollen  or 
knotted,  and  it  is  from  Uiese  small  knots  of  medullary  matter  that 
the  difierent  nerves  arise.  Ko  eye  could  be  perceived,  nor  any  par- 
ticular organ  of  the  external  senses,  except  the  common  and  general 
organ  of  touch.     (Cuvier.) 

Each  gill  gives  off  a  vein,  which,  luuting  to  its  OQRespondent  iu  the 


shape  of  a  Y,  forms  the  trunk  which  reaches  the  heart.  This  last, 
situated  in  its  pericardium  on  the  left  side  of  the  mass  of  viscera, 
gives  out,  doubtless,  arteries  for  the  whole  body,  but  they  could  not 
be  followed  out.    (Cuvier.) 

In  the  reproductive  oi^gans  they  very  much  resemble  the  Qastro- 
pods,  and  unite,  like  them,  the  two  sexes.  The  ovary  gives  off  a 
delicate  and  short  oviduct,  which  reaches  the  testicle.  This  last, 
which  at  its  origin  resembles  a  csecum,  lessens  by  degrees  into  a  de- 
ferent canal,  and  terminates  at  a  small  round  purse,  which  fills  the 
left  tubercle  of  the  head,  and  has  its  exit  near  the  neck.  It  is  unde- 
termined whether  the  straight  and  firm  part  which  terminates  the 
deferent  canal  is  the  male  organ,  or  whether  that  organ  is  hidden  in 
the  small  purse  above  noticed.  At  the  side  of  this  purse  is  another 
oblong  one,  analogous  to  "that  which  is  termed  the  bladder  (la  vessie) 
in  the  ordinary  Gastropods.    (Cuvier.) 

Dr.  Leach  says,  "  In  1811,  during  a  tour  made  by  me  to  the  Orkneys 
with  some  friends,  I  observed  on  the  rocks  on  that  side  of  the  Isle  of 
Stafia,  several  mutilated  specimens  of  this  animal.  The  three  previous 
days  had  been  extremely  stormy  so  as  to  confine  us  to  the  Isle  of 
Colunsa.  Some  days  afterwards  I  borrowed  from  a  fisherman  a  large 
shrimp-net,  and  on  rowing  along  the  coast  of  Mull  when  the  sea  was 
calm,  after  many  vain  efforts,  I  was  at  last  enabled  to  catch  one  of 
them  aliva"  This  specimen  is  now  in  the  British  Museum ;  others 
are  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 

The  figures  and  description  above  given  (Cuvier's)  are  taken  from  an 
individual  which  had  its  tentacula,  &c.,  withdrawn. 

0,  Species  without  tentacula  (?),  and  whose  cephalic  enlargement  (renfle- 
ment)  is  separated  from  the  trunk  by  a  sort  of  narrow  and  very 
distinct  thorax.    (Oenus,  Cliodites  of  Quoy  and  Gaimard.) 
Example,  Clio  {Cliodites)  caduceus.    De  Blainville  observes  that  this 
species  is  too  incompletely  known  to  allow  of  a  satisfactory  conclu- 
sion as  to  what  it  is ;  and  he  even  thinks  that  it  may  be  identical  with 
the  C.  australis  of  Brugui^res. 

Pneumodamon. — Animal  oblong,  sub-cylindrical,  divided  into  two 
very  distinct  parts,  the  anterior  conical,  the  posterior  ovaL  The  fins 
placed  near  the  separation  of  these  two  parts,  and  presenting  between 
them,  and  on  the  ventral  side,  a  small  membranous  appendage.  Mouth 
at  the  extremity  of  a  sort  of  retractile  proboscis,  having,  at  its  base, 
two  bundles  of  tentacula,  each  terminated  by  a  small  disc  or  sucker. 
Oills  situated  at  the  posterior  paH  of  the  body,  and  disposed  some- 
what in  the  form  of  two  C's  placed  back  to  back,  DC,  and  separated 
by  two  small  bars.  Vent  on  the  right,  and  a  little  anterior  to  the 
giUs.  Orifice  of  the  organs  of  generation  in  a  common  tubercle, 
situated  at  the  root  of  the  fin  of  the  right  side. 

P.  Peronii.  This  is  about  an  inch  in  length,  and  was  discovered  in 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  P^ron.  The  genus  was  established  by  Cuvier. 
De  Blainville  founded  his  character  upon  many  well-preserved  indi-  ; 
viduals  brought  home  by  Messrs.  Quoy  and  Gkdmard  from  the  expedi- 
tion under  Captain  Freycinet,  and  gives  Australasia  as  the  locality  of 
the  speciee. 


END  OF  VOLUME  I. 


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