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Natural History of Hawaii

BOOK ONE
The People, The Islands

AND THE

Plant Life of the Group

fr J'Ui^i^U}v /Srt^^

Frontispiece

"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,
Than are dreamt of in your philosophy."- Shakespeare.

Natural History of Hawaii

Being an Account of the Hawaiian People, the Geology and Geography

of the Islands, and the Native and Introduced Plants

and Animals of the Group

WILLIAM ALANSON BRYAN, B. Sc.

Professor of Zoolofjy and Geology in the College of Hawaii

Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; Member, The American
Ornithologists Union; National Geographic Society; American Fisheries Society; Ha-
waiian Historical Society; Hawaiian Entomological Society; Amer-
ican Museums Association; National Audubon Society;
Seven Years Curator of Ornithology in the
Bishop Museum, etc.

Illustrated with one luiiulred and seventeen full paize plates from four hundred
and forty-one photographs elucidating the ethnology of the native
people, the geology and topography of the islands and figur-
ing more than one thousand of the conuuon or inter-
esting species of plants and animals to be
found in the native and introduced
fauna and flora of Hawaii.

Honolulu. Hawaii

The Hawaiian (jazcltc Co., Ltd.

1915

For Distributors see Index

Copyriclit, 1915, By William Alasson Bkvan
Ht>N<)LrLU

(Pate Severn

TO THE MEMORY OF

R. G. B.

THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED

PREFACE.

In the preparation of the following" pages it has been the aim of the author
to bring together into one volume the more important and interesting facts about
the Hawaiian Islands and their primitive inhal)itants, as well as infonuation
concerning the native and introduced plants and animals of the group.

It is believed that those who read this volume — be they travelers, residents
or students — will find, in its brief account of nature in Hawaii, not only much
that will prove interesting and entertaining, but that which will foster and
stimulate an interest in the things of nature for which these mid-ocean islands
are far-famed.

It is asserted that, in childhood, every person is interested in some of the
many fields of natural history. It would be strange, indeed, if Hawaii, with
its wonderful natural environment and remarkable tropical plants and interesting
animals, did not rekindle in the minds of the old and encourage in the hearts
of the young a desire to know more about things Hawaiian. As a result of
the natural longing for information, there has existed for years a pressing de-
mand in Hawaii, from teachers, travelers and students, for a hand-book that
would supply the names for, as well as the facts relative to, familiar objects.

To supply a guide that would provide reliable and readable information,
in a form that would be welcomed by the general reading public, and, at the
same time, that would meet the requirements of the homes, the schools, and the
libraries of Hawaii and the mainland, as a convenient reference book, has been
the author's endeavor. While the volume lays no claim to being an exhaustive
monograph of the vast subject of which it treats, the material used has been
patiently gathered from every possible source and carefully selected, sifted
and verified in the field and study, by the author, during many years' resi-
dence in the islands as an enthusiastic naturalist, museum curator and college
professor. For these reasons it is believed that specialists willi technical in-
formation at hand, no less than those who pride themselves on their general
knowledge of things Hawaiian, will find the volume a handy 'first aid' and re-
liable and convenient reference work.

The carrying out of the three-fold object of in-eparing a readable account
of Hawaii, a text-book or supplementary readei' on the natural history of the
islands, and a convi-nicnt rcfcfcnce book for those who i-(M|iiii-(' a iiiori' Icclniical
or detailed handling of the material iiicln(hMl tlian is custoiuai-y in a l)ook
frankly popular in nature, presents certain difficulties that seem to have been
met by the selection, classification, and arrangement of the text and the illustra-
tions.

The casual reader will find the body of the text shorn of the technical
verbiage and scientific names that so often distract, annoy and fatigue the lay-
man. Where such terms have been indispensal)l(' tli(\v have been defined in the

136722

10 NATUKAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

text, the footnotes, or in the index and glossary. Those who prefer their reading
should rest on the firmer ground that definite nomenclature is supposed to im-
part, will find the necessary technical names of orders, families, genera and
species, referred to in the text given in the footnotes, or in the cross-references
in the index. The systematist and specialist will not expect the degree of com-
pleteness in this regard that Avould characterize a manual dealing with any one
of the subjects herein treated. However, the scientific worker will find in the
index and glossary, not only the scientific names most frequently in use for
common objects in the more important contributions to the literature of his
subject in the islands, but often the latest word on the nomenclature of the
species in question.

The index and glossary is made a special feature of the book. It has been
carefully prepared and numerous cross-references to the various English, Ha-
waiian and Latin names that are current with the people, or are written into the
literature of the islands will aid the student in working out synonyms. The
author has endeavored to make the possession of a little information, concerning
the natural history of Hawaii, of use to the would-be student. To aid the lay-
man, two generous open doors have been provided : one through the index, the
other through the table of contents. By the use of these doors the inquirer, in
possession of any one of the -many common names, the name of the great division
to which the plant or animal belongs, or even knowing something of its habits
or habitat, will, in most cases, find their knowledge sufficient to guide the way
to such definite information as may be contained within the body of the book.

]\Iuch in the form of notes, comments and observation that seemed too
specific, local, critical, fragmentary or prosaic to fit well into the plan of the
body of the text, has been reserved for the combined index, glossar}^ and com-
pendium at the end of the volume, and there appears in alphabetical order without
reference to the text. The index therefore should be in constant use by the
reader and student.

Because of obvious limitations, and owing to the nature of the objects
sought, the author has made no rigid attempt to follow out a system
of arrangement in this volume such as an ethnologist, a geologist, a botanist
or a zoologist would choose were they treating their special subject
separately and in fuller detail. Strictly rigorous adherence to the various
chapter headings has often been next to impossible. A given subject is often
presented in preceding and succeeding chapters; or it may occur in dift'erent
parts of the book. The natural desire is that books, in any way scientific in
character, should follow some generally accepted system or arrangement. Such
systems usually start with the lower, older, simpler or more generalized form
and proceed gradually to the consideration of the more recent, higher or com-
plex. Occasionall.v, however, for the sake of convenience, the system is reversed
and a different order of arrangement may be followed. In the following pages
the arrangement of the material has been based largely on a certain association
of ideas and objects; but the sequence of the chapters has been controlled, to a

PREFACE. 11

certain degree, by expedienc}' or caprice. Even in the arrangement of the five
main sections into which the book is divided, it has seemed expedient to place
that part first which, in a rigid natural order, would logically have been placed
near the last. Nevertheless it will require no great intelligence on the part
of the reader to trace out for himself the historical sequence of nature in Hawaii.
No doubt the first great event would be the formation of the islands, followed by
their occupation by plants and animals. These events in the natural order, and
according to system, would doubtless long precede the peopling of the islands
by the Hawaiian race, or the introduction, by them or any other race, of the
various foreign plants and animals found in the group.

The intiinate relation which existed between the splendid native Hawaiian
people and their isolated environment is a subject of the greatest interest and
entitles the human inhabitants to first consideration in the present treatment of
this subject. The character and natural history of the race and the use
made by the people in their economy, arts and practices, of the various ma-
terials furnished them by nature, unites them most closely with their environ-
ment ; and in a natural history, such as this, calls for an acquaintance with the
Hawaiian race, as a native people and the aboriginal inhabitants of the coun-
try, before we consider the environment which they had so thoroughly explored
and mastered long before their contact with Europeans.

It is confidently believed that the all too brief account of the ancient Ha-
waiian people is one that will instill a just pride of ancestry into the hearts
of those readers whose forebears were of the native Hawaiian race. Not so
many hundred years ago, the ancestors of the proudest Europeans were little
more than aborigines, and ate nuts and herbs, and depended on the fortunes
of the chase for their meat. Not so many centuries before that, as the world
measures time, a collection of their handiwork would have shown a group of
objects far more crude than were those possessed by the Hawaiians at the time
of their meeting with a dominant and powerful race.

It seems hardly necessary to say that the following pages are not offered
primarily as an original contribution to the natural history of Hawaii. The
task has been chiefly to bring together information about the islands that only
an expert knows where to find. That which has suited the author's purpose
has often been taken almost verbatim from the most available, wliicli in many
cases has been the original source.

From the writings of the many experts who liave studied the various fields
the natural history of Hawaii affords, the author in his own rcadinu' has culled
wherever anything was found that would help to makt^ this l)ook more complete
or interesting. The fruitful fields have been many, aiul to workers, past and
present, whoever they may be, the author gladly makes the fullest acknowledg-
ments. It is owing to the efforts of all that this general treatment of nature in
Hawaii is made possible. In many cases whci-e it has been necessary to trace
material to its original source, so much lias been found that luul been borrowed
without acknowledgment — even in the writings of our most punctilious scient-

12 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

ists — that to give full and proper credit for information on Hawaiian subjects
would involve a searching and comparing of original sources, that would profit
but little, and Avould add endless labor to an already heavy task.

So as the teller of an old tale the author makes no elaborate attempt to
enumerate his sources and burden his book with an extended bibliography.
No one however can, without flagrant injustice, write upon any Hawaiian
theme without acknowledging his indebtedness to Mr. Thomas G. Thrum, who
for more than forty years has been steadily engaged in gathering, compiling
and publishing data on every phase of the Hawaiian Islands. His forty An-
nuals constitute a mine of information of which these islands are justly proud.

In the body of the text effort has been made to indicate the chief source
and give credit for noteworthy facts, but the author wishes especially in this
connection to allude to his colleagues and fellow workers in the field of science,
who have generously given every assistance in their power in a spirit of willing
cooperation that has made a pleasure of what would otherwise — and but for
the love of the thing — have been a tedious and thankless task.

In order that these pages might carry the additional weight of specific
authority the author has read the manuscript of the various chapters to special-
ists who have distinguished themselves in their chosen fields, and has incorporated
their suggestions and corrections in the text. Those who have rendered material
aid in this line or in other ways not elsewhere mentioned are Dr. John T. Gulick,
evolutionist; Dr. N. B. Emerson, ethnologist; Dr. William D. Alexander, his-
torian ; ]\Irs. Emma Metcalf Nakuina, Hawaiian scholar ; Mr. Thomas G. Thrum,
historian and Hawaiian authority ; Dr. Charles H. Hitchcock, geologist ; Pro-
fessor Charles W. Baldwin, geographer; Dr. Henry A. Pilsbry, conchologist ;
Miss Mary Rathbun, crustaceologist ; Dr. Walter K. Fisher, zoologist ; Professor
Otto Swezey, Mr. David T. Fullaway, ]\Ir. E. ]\I. Ehrhorn, economic ento-
mologists; Dr. R. C. L. Perkins. Professor Henry W. Henshaw, Mr. Daniel B.
Kuhns, naturalists; Mr. J. E. Higgins, horticulturist; Professor F. G. Krauss,
agriculturist ; Professor Vaughan IMacCaughey. Mr. Joseph F. Rock, Mr. Charles
N. Forbes, botanists, and to Messrs. D. Thaanum, William Wilder, Irwin Spald-
ing, collectors. The author is under especial obligations to his former student,
Mr. D. B. Kuhns, for much help in many fields.

To the author's wife, Elizabeth Letson Bryan, Sc. D., whose interest in his
labors has been never failing, a sincere tribute of appreciation is due for con-
stant and valuable help, criticism and suggestions in all departments of the book.
Only those Avho write books can appreciate what her contribution in encourage-
ment, denial, love and service has been to this book.

The half-tone illustrations were made from photographs in the author's col-
lection. They, like the text, have been brought together from many sources.
The greater number, however, are from negatives that, at one time or another,
have been made expressly for use in this volume. Credit is given for the
illustrations in another connection.

PREPWCE. 13

Doubtless errors will be found in llu- U'xt ;aul in lla- pruur-i-eadini; \)y those
who search for them. Few will expect absolute perfection. If the bare facts of
nature have been clothed with living interest sufficient to make them acceptable
and full of information for the general reader, as well as memorable and useful
to the student of nature; and if at the same time what has Ix'cn written falls
well within the tenets and tenor of truth as understood by the more critical
scientists; and above all, should th(^ ])0()k prove generally useful, the author's
ambition will have been attained.

WILLLUI ALAXSOX BRYAX.

The Palms, Honolulu, Hawaii,
September 13th, 1915.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Tlie illustrations used in the following pages are, in the main, reproduced
from unpublished photographs taken by the author, at various times, during a
period of many years residence in the islands. In addition to the plates taken
especially for this work, a number of choice photographs, many of them of
great value, have been secured from various sources, and the author takes this
opportunity to publish his indebtedness to his friends and colleagues for gener-
ous permission to select and use, from their private collections, such prints as
are accredited to them in the followina- table :
Baker, K. J.— Plate 1, fig. 2 ; 23—4 ; 25—2, 8.
Baldwin, C. W. (Author, Geographv of the HaAvaiian Islands)— Plate 7, figs. 1, 2,

5, 6 : 41—1, 2, 3, 4 ; 44^1. 2, 5, 6, 7 : 49—2, 3 : 74—1. 2, 3, 6, 7, 8.
Bishop Museum, Objects in the (Bv permission of the Trustees) — Plate 8, fig. 2;

11—1, 2, 3, 4 ; 12—1 ; 13 ; 77—4 ;*78.

Bonine, E. K.— Plate 90, figs. 1, 2. 3, 4, 6.

Brvan. AY. A.— Plate 8, fi-s. 1. 4; 10—5: 11—1. 2, 3, 4: 12—1: 13—1 to 21
i7_4; 18; 19—1, 3, 4, 5: 20—1, 2, 4: 22: 23—2, 3. 4: 24: 26: 29—1, 3
30— 1, 2, 4: 32—1, 2, 3, 4: 33—1. 2, 3. 4: 34: 35—1. 2. 4: 36—1. 2, 3, 4. 5, 6
37—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, e, 7. 8: 39: 46—3: 48—1, 2, 3. 4: 49—3: 51—1 to 18
52—1. 2. 3, 5, 6. 8: 53—1 to 20: 54^1 to 15: 56—1 to 14: 57—1. 2, 3, 6, 7. 9,
lU- 58—1 to 16: 59—1 to 17; 60—1. 2, 4. 6: 61—1 to 17: 62—1 to 12: 63—1
to 19 : 66—1. 3. 5, 7 : 67—1, 2, 5, 6. 7 : 69—5 : 71—2 ; 72—3, 6 ; 74^1 : 75 : 77 ;
78—1. 2. 3. 4. 5, 6, 7: 79—2, 6, 7. 10, 11. IH, 17: 80: 81—1 to 9: 82—1 to 6
83—1 to 12: 84^1 to H: 85—1 to 9: 86—1 to 7: 87—2, 3. 7: 88—1 to 16
90—1, 2. 3, 4, 5 : 91—1 to 14 : 92—1 to 16 : 93—1 to 11 : 94—1 to 15 ; 97—1 to
25- 98—1 to 19: 99—1 to 30; 100: 101—1 to 27; 103—1 to 32: 104—1 to 21
105—1 to 27: 106—1 to 59; 108— 1 to 24: 109—1, 2, 3, 4, 5; 110—1 to 29
111—1 to 12 : 112—1 to 13 : 113—1 to 16 : 114—1 to 19 ; 115 : 116—1 to 24
117—1 to 18.

Fisher, W. K.— Plate 79, figs. 3, 4, 5. 8, 9, 12, 13. 14, 15.

Frear, Hon. W. F.— Plate 21. fias. 2, 4.

Gartlev, A.— Plate 17. fi-. 5 : 23—1 : 25—1 : 27 : 35—:] ; 64—1.

Gurrev, A. K., Jr.— Plate 14: 17—1; 47—2.

Henshaw. H. W.— Plate 2: 3. fius. 1. 2: 4—5: 5:6: 8—5: 12—2: 15—1, 2
16—2 5- 31: 38: 40: 42: 43: 44—4: 45: 46—1. 2, 4: 47—4, 5: 48—5
49—1. 5, 6 : 50 : 55 : 64—2. 3 : 69—1. 4. 6, 7 : 70 : 71—1 : 72—1, 5 : 73—6, 7, 8
74^1 . 87—4, 5, 8 ; 89 : 102—2 : 107.

Lawrence, ^Nliss Marv S. (Author Old Time Ha waiians)— Plate 14: 17—1.

MacCaughev, Vaughan— Plate 52, fig. 7 ; 57-4 ; 60—3, 7 ; 66—4, 6, 9 ; 67—3, 4 ;
68—3, 5, 9.

Moses. Ernest— Plate 46. fig. 3 : 47—1.

Perkins, R. W.— Plate 69, fii:s. 2. 8.

Pope. W. T.— Plate 33, fig. 5: 66—2, 8, 30: 67—8; 68—1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8; 71—4;
72—2. 4. 7: 73—1, 2, 4, 5.

Stokes, J. F. G.— Plate 8. fig. 2.

Thrum, D. T.— Plate 4, fitrs. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Warren. J. T.— Plate 1. fie 1 : 3—3, 4 : 10—2. 4. 6 : 23—5 : 30—3 : 52—4 : 71—5 ;
102—1.

Williams, J. J.— Plate 9 : 10. fig. 1 ; 15—3, 4 : 47—3 ; 65 : 76 : 79—1.

Miscellaneous Sources ( Including Hawaii Promotion Committee. Hawaiian
Suoar Planters' Exp. Station. Colles-e of Hawaii, Purchast-d Photographs.
Etc.— Plate 7. fiss. 3. 4: 8 3. 6: 10—3: 16—1. 3. 4; 17—2; 18 : 19-2 : 21—1.
3 6- 22- 23—3- 24- 26- 29 2 : 34: 39: 48—6: 57—5. 8: 60—5: 65: 71—3:
75- 77_1. 2. 3, 5: 80: 82: 81: 83: 84: 85: 86: 87—1, 6: 88: 91: 92: 93:
94: 95—1, 2, 3 : 96^1. 2, 3, 4, 5. 6.

CONTENTS.

BOOK ONE

SFJ'TIOX oyE.
THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE.

CHAPTER I.

Coming op the Hawaiian Race.
Plates 1, 2, [3, 5].*

Hawaiians the First Inhabitants — Polynesian Affinities — Evidence of Early
Immigration — Traditional and Historical Evidence of Early Voyages — Ancient
Voyages — Animals and Plants Brought to Hawaii as Baggage — Double Canoes — ■
Provisions for Long Voj^ages — Steering a Course by the Stars — Establishment
of the Hawaiian Race.

CHAPTER II.

Tranquil Environment of Hawaii and Its Effect on the People.

Plates 3, 4, [1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 25, 50, 71, 87, 89, 102, 106].

Natural Environment and its Effect on the People — Kona Weather — -Tem-
perature — Effect of the Trade Winds — Altitude and its Effect on Climate —
Rains in Hawaii — Eft'ect of a Sufficient Amount of Food — Inter-lsland Com-
munication — -Inter-tribal War — Agriculture and the Food Supply — The Fauna
and Flora Explored by the Hawaiians — Food and its Eff'ect upon the People —
Important Foods of the Natives — Response of the Natives to their Environment.

CHAPTER III.

Physical Characteristics of the People; Their Language, Manners and

Customs.

Plates 5, 6, [1, 2, 3, 4, 14, 15, 16].

Splendid Stature and Physical Development of the People — Clothing of
the People — Cleanliness — Effect of their Life in the ()])en Air — Their Lan-
guage — The Alphabet — Genealogy and History — Meles and Hulas — INIarriage —
Polygamy — Marriage Among Persons of Rank — Infanticide — -The Descent of
Rank— The Tabu.

CHAPTER IV.

Religion of the Hawaiians : Their ]\Iethod of Warfare and Feudal

Organization.

Plates 7, 8, [6. 9. 10. 11. 13. 17].

Religion Among the Hawaiians — Idol Worship — The Future State —
Heiaus — Warfare — Temples of Refuge — Preliminary to a Battle — The King and
His Power — Sorcerers — The Nobility, Priests and Common People — The King
and the Land — Taxes.

* Numorals in livackots indiratc ]>lat('S sliiiwiiii: siii'i>I<'iniMitary illustrations.

16 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

CHAPTER V.
The Hawaiian House: Its Furnishings and Household Utensils.
Plates 9, 10. [2, 4, 5, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17].
Complete Domestic Establishment — Building of a House — House Furnish-
ings — Household Implements.

CHAPTER VI.

Occupations of the Hawaiian People.
Plates 11, 12, 13, [2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 14, 50, 71].
Agriculture Among the Hawaiians — Taro Growing — Agricultural Imple-
ments — Irrigation — Planting and Harvesting a Crop — Taro and Its Uses — Poi^
Sweet Potatoes and Yams — Breadfruit — Bananas — Fiber Plants, "Wauki, etc. —
The Manufacture of Tapa — Tapa ]\Iaking a Fine Art Among Hawaiians — ]\Iat
]\Iaking — Lauhala Mats — IMakoloa Mats — Fishing — Salt jManufacture.

CHAPTER A^I.

Tools, Implements^ Arts and Amusements of the Hawaiians.
Plates 14, 15, 16, 17, [3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 28, 35, 87, 89, 106].
The Stone Age — Whet-stones — Rotary Drill — Implements of Stone, Bone
and Shell — Ornaments of Feathers — The Kahili — Leis — Medicine Among the
Hawaiians — Implements of Warfare — The Hula — ]\Iusical Instruments — Boxing
th.3 National Game — Wrestling — Spear Throwing- — The Primitive Bowling
Alley — Summer Tobogganing — Gambling — Cock Fighting — Children's Games^
Surf -Riding.

SECTION TWO.

GEOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF THE HAWAIIAN

ISLANDS.
CHAPTER VIII.

Coming of Pele and an Account of the Low Islands of the Group.

Plates 18, 19, 20. 21, [22, 79].

Pele's Journey to Hawaii — Legend and Science Agree — Geographical Posi-
tion of the Islands — The Leeward Islands — Ocean Island — ^Midway — Gambler
Shoal — Lisiansky^ — Laysan — Maro Reef — Dowsett Reef — Frost Shoal — Gard-
ner — French Frigates Shoal — Necker^Nihoa.

CHAPTER IX.
The Inhabited Islands: A Description of Kauai and Niihau.

Plates 22, 23, 24, 25, [75].
HaAvaii-nei — Position of the Inhabited Islands — Niihau — Kaula — Lehua —
Kauai, the Garden Island — Shore-Line — Waialeale — Lava Soils — Secondary

CONTEXTS. 17

Volcanic Cones — The Canons of Kauai — Valleys and Waterfalls — Region of
Napali — Barking Sands — Spouting Horn — Caves.

CHAPTER X.

Island of Oahu.
Plates 26. 27. 28, 20, 30, 31, 32. 33, [22, 71, 73, 75, 87, 106].
Oahu, the ]\Ietroi)olis of the Group — A Laboratory in Vulcanology — Dimen-
sions and Outline of the Island — Honolulu Harbor — Pearl Harbor — Koolau
Range — Waianae Range — The Pali — AVork of Erosion — Smaller Basaltic
Craters and Tufa Cones — Diamond Head — Punchbowl — Elevated Coral Reefs — ■
The Age of Oahu — Black Volcanic Ash — History of Diamond Head — The
[logic History of Oahu — Artesian Wells — Economic Products — Brick — Build-
ing Stone — Lime — Points of Geologic Interest About the Island.

, CHAPTER XL

Islands of Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Kahoolawe.
Plates 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, [22, 53, 57, 60, 75].

The Position and Relation of Molokai, Maui. Lanai and Kahoolawe — Molokai
Described — Valley of Halawa — ]\Iapulehu Valley — The Leper Settlement^
Lanai — Kahoolawe — Maui, the Valley Isle — lao Valley — "The Needle" — Summit
of Puu Kukui — Outline of Maui — Haleakala — Plan of East Maui — Trip to the
Summit of Haleakala — The Great Crater Described — Sunset Seen from the
Summit — Kaupo Gap — Floor of the Crater — History of Haleakala — The Last
Eruption.

CHAPTER XII.

Island of Ha wail

Plates 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45. 46, 47, 48, 49, [17, 22, 27, 50, 52, 55, 72, 74,

75, 87, 89].

Size and Position of Hawaii — The Youngest Island of the Group — The Ko-
hala Range — Waipio and Waimanu Valleys — Hamakua Coast — Sunnnit of
Mauna Kea — The Ascent of Mauna Kea — Hualalai — Eruption of 1801 — ]\Iauna
Loa — Early Exploration of the Mountain — History of the Important Eruptions
of Mauna Loa — Earthquake of 1868 — Amount of Lava Poured Out in the 1907
Flow — Work of Hawaii's Volcanoes.

CHAPTER XIII.

KiLAUEA, THE WoRLD^S GREATEST ACTIVE VOLCANO.

Plates 45, 46. 47, [22, 39, 48, 49, 50, 52, 55, 57].

Geologic History of Kilauea — Kilauea an Indt'pendent Crater — Dimensions
of the Crater — An Exploded IMountain — Rise and Fall of the Liquid Lava —
Explosive Eruption of 1789 — Condition at Ihe Crater in 1823 — Kapiolani Breaks
the Spell of Pele— Eruption and Flow of 1840— Eruption of 1892-94— Ac-

NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII. 18

tivity in 1902 — Activity in 1907 — Account of a Visit to Kilauea in 1909 — The
Journey — First Glimpse of the Crater — Steam Cracks — Sulphur Beds —
Kilauea-iki — Keanakakoi • — Descent Into the Great Crater — Heat Cracks —
Spatter Cones — The Pit of Halemaumau by Day and Night — Side Trips from
the Crater — Fossil Tree Moulds — The Road to Honuapo — Kona District.

CHAPTER XIV.

Condensed History of Kilauea 's Activity.

Plates 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, [See Chapter XIII.]

Brief Chronology and History of Kilauea from the Earliest Records of Its
Eruptions Down to the Present, with Dates and Observations on the Condition of
the Lava in the Crater of Kilauea and the Pit of Halemaumau.

SECTION THBEE.

FLORA OF THE GROUP.

CHAPTER XV.

Plant Life of the Sea-shore and Lowlands.
Plates 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, [5, 14, 19, 30, 33, 40, 43, 60, 64, 65, 66,

67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 76, 78, 79].
The Island Flora — Its Isolation and Peculiarities — Sources — Number of
Genera and Species — Endemic and Introduced Plants — Variation in Flora from
Island to Island — Floral Zones — The Lowland Zone — Common Littoral Species — •
Common Plants from the Sea-Shore to the Lower Edge of the Forest — Introduced
Plants — Grasses.

CHAPTER XVI.

Plant Life in the High Mountains.

Plates 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, [23, 25, 44, 45, 46, 50, 52, 55, 56, 57, 74].

Plants of the Lower Forest Zone — Fiber Plants Cultivated by the Ha-
vvaiians — Sandalwood — Middle Forest Zone — Giant Ferns — Upper Forest Zone —
Silver-Sword — Mountain Bog Flora.

SECTION FOUR.

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE IN HAWAII.

The Introduced Plants and Animals of Forest, Field and Garden.

CHAPTER XVII.

A Ramble in a Honolulu Garden: Part One.
Plates 64, 65, 66, [2, 4, 5, 41, 45, 53, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 90].
First Impressions of Honolulu — Palms — A Falling Leaf — Cocoanut Palm —

CONTENTS. 19

Date Palm — Ornamental Talms — -Araucaria — Kukiii — - Breadfruit — [Mango —
Monkey-Pod — Algaroba.

CHAPTER XYIII.

A Ramble in a HoNOLUiiU Garden: Part Two.
Plates 67. 68, [See Chapter XVIIJ.

Ornamental Trees — Poinciana — Pride of the Barbadoes— Golden Shower —
Pride of India — Tamarind — Banian — Pepper Tree — Kamani — Blaek Wattle —
Australian Oak — Bougainvillea — Allamanda — Big-nonia — Vines and Shrubs —
Hedge Plants — Crotons — Ki — Pandanus — Ferns — Night-Blooming Cereus.

CHAPTER XIX.

Tropical Fruits in Hawaii.

Plates 69, 70, [5, 50].

Native and Introduced Fruits — Strawberry — Raspberry — Ohelo — Mountain
Apples — Poha — Bananas — Pineapples — Alligator Pears — Papaia — Guava — •
Lemons, Oranges, Limes, Etc. — Wi — Cusard Apples — Sour Sop — Cherimoya^
Sapodilla — Loquat — Figs — Grapes — [Mulberry — Eugenia — Rose Apple — Passion
Powers — Pomegranates — Liehi — [Melons — Prickly Pear.

CHAPTER XX.

Agriculture in Hawaii: Its Effect on Plant and Animal Life.

Plates 71, 72, 73, 74, [2, 25, 41, 58, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99].

Agriculture in Recent Times — Sugar — Rice — Coffee — Sisal — Fiber Plants —
Cotton — Rubber — Tobacco — Potatoes — Sweet Potatoes — Cassava — Castor Bean
Plant — Lotus — Peanuts — Sorghum — Forage Grasses — Weeds — Live Stock.

BOOK. TWO
SECTIOX FIVE.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP.
CHAPTER XXI.

Various Animals from Land and Sea.
Plates 75, 76, 77, [21, 74].

Hawaiian Rats — Plague Carriers — Royal Sport — [Mice — Rabbits — Guinea
Pigs — Cats — Bats — Hogs — Dogs — Chickens — Goats — Deer — Mongoose — Skinks
and Geckos — Frogs and Toads — Snakes — Sea Turtles — Galapagos Land Tortoise
— Porpoise — Dolphin — Whales — Whaling Industry.

CHAPTER XXII.

Introduced Birds.

English Sparrows — Rice Birds — Chinese Sparrows — Chinese Turtle Doves—
Mynahs — The Skylark — Pheasants — California Partridge— Chinese Thrush.

20 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

CHAPTER XXIII.

Birds of the Sea.

Plates 78, 79, [19, 20, 21, 76, 80, 81].

Regular Visitors aud Ocean Waifs — Tropic Birds — Petrels — Shearwaters —
Terns — Albatross — Man-o'-War Bird — Birds of Laysan Island — ]\Iiller Bird —
Laj'san Canary — Laysan Honey-eater — Hawaiian Rail — The Albatross Dance —
Guano Deposits — Nesting Habits of the i\Ian-o'-war Bird — White Terns — Grey-
backed Terns — Laysan Duck — Flightless Rail — Land Birds of Laysan.

CHAPTER XXIV.

Birds of the Marsh, Stream and Shore.

Plates 80, 81, [78, 79].

The Golden Plover— Old 'Stump-leg'— Turnstone— Sanderling— Tattler-
Curlew — Hawaiian Stilt — Black-crowned Night-Heron — Coot — Gallinule — The
Legend of ]\Iaui and the Alae — Hawaiian Duck — Foreign Ducks.

CHAPTER XXV.

Birds of the IMountain Forests.

Plates 82, 83, 84, 85, [80, 81].

Fifty-six Species — • Elepaio — Apapane — liwi — Amakihi — Oreomystis —
Thrush-like Birds — Finch-like Birds — ]Moho — Black Mamo — Oo — Hawaiian
Duck — Hawaiian Goose — Crow — Viridonia — Hoi — Hawaiian Hawk — Hawaiian
Owl — Family Drepanididte — Extinction of Hawaiian Birds.

CHAPTER XXVI.

Hawaiian Fishes : Part One.

Plates 86, 87, [9, 13, 16, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 91, 102. 106].

Fishing in Former Times — Fishing Outfits — Fish Poison — Fish Bait — Shark
Fishing — Man-Eater Sharks — Hammer-Head Sharks — Dogfish — ]\Iackerel-
Sharks — Killers — Rays and Skates — Sting-Ray — Sea Devil.

CHAPTER XXVII.

Hawaiian Fishes : Part Two.

Plates 88, 89, 90, [See Chapter XXVI].

Food Fish in the iNIarket — Anchovies — Barracudas — Butterfly-Fish — Blen-
nies — Bone-Fish — Catalufas — Cirrhitida^ — Dophin — Eels — Frog-Fish — Plying-
Fish — Gobies — Flying-Gunards — Headfish — ]\Iullet — Awa.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

Hawaiian Fishes : Part Three.

Plates 91, 92, 93, 94, [See Chapter XXVI].

Flatfish — jMorays — INIaekerel — ]\Iilk-Fish — Needle -Fish — Pampanos —
Tarpon — Parrot-Fish — Pipe-Fish — Porcupine-Fish — Porgies — Puffers — Remoras

CONTENTS. 21

or Sucker-Fish — Scorpion-Fish — Sea-Bass — Snappers — Soles — • Flounders —
Squirrel-Fish — Surgeon-Fish — Surmullets or Goat-Fish — Swordfish — Trigger-
Fish — Trunk-Fish — Trumpet-Fish.

CHAPTER XXIX.

Introduced Fresh Water Fish.
Goldfish — Carp — Catfish — China Fish — Black Bass — Trout — Salmon — Top
Minnows or Mosquito Fish.

CHAPTER XXX.

Important Economic Insects: Part One.

Plates 95, 96, [97, 98, 99].

The Study of Insects — Destructive Species — Control by Natural Enemies —
Sugar-Cane Leaf-Hopper — Sugar-Cane Borer — Lantana Insects— Maui Blight^
Mediterranean Fruit-Fly — ]\Ielon-Fly — Horn-Fly — Flies — Mosquitoes — Sugar-
Cane Insects — Aphids or Plant-Lice.

CHAPTER XXXI.

Important Economic Insects: Part Two.
Plates 97, 98, 99 [95, 96].

Scale Insects — Ladj'bird Beetles — Beetles — Japanese Beetles — Fuller Rose
Beetle or Olinda Beetle — Weevils — Leaf-Rolling jNIoths — Cutworms — Army-
Worms — Hau Moth — Loopers — Silkworms — Cabbage Butterfly — Sweet Potato
Horn- Worm or Humming-Bird Moth — Cotton Boll- Worm — Bird-Lice— Lice —
Mites — Ticks — Fleas — Bubonic or Black Plague carried by Fleas — Cock-
roaches — Bedbugs — Bugs — AVhite Ants — Silverfish — Ants — Carpenter Bees —
Mud-Daubers — Wasps — Honey-Bee — Clothes-]\Ioth — Household Pests — Centi-
pedes — Scorpions — Thousand-Legged Worms — Sow-Bugs or Slaters — Sand-Hop-
pers — Spiders, Mites and Ticks — House-Spider — Jumping-Spiders — Ilamakua
Spiders.

CHAPTER XXXII.

Native Insects.

Character of the Native Fauna — Insects Occurring on ^Nlamaki — Ants,
Bees and Wasps — Beetles — Fleas — Two-Winged Insects or Flies and Mos-
quitoes — Butterflies and jMoths — Dragon-Flies and the Nerve-Winged Insects —
The True Bugs — Plant-Lice — Jumping Lice — Leaf-Hoppers, etc. — Thrips —
Grasshoppers, Crickets, Cockroaches, Earwigs — Wingless Bird-Lice — Silver-
fish — Spring-Tails.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

Land and Fresh Water Shells.
Plates 100, 101 I 75. }():]].
Character of the Fauna — Land Shells — \'a rial ions — Dillicullies of Classifica-

22 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

tion — Color Varieties — Important Families Represented — Common Forms De-
scribed — Earthworms.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

Shells from the SexV-shore: Part One.
Plates 102, 103 [104, 105, 106].
Pleasure of Collecting Shells — The Common Forms Numerous — Three Tj^pes
of ]\Iollusca — ]\Iussels, Clams, Scallops, Oysters — Attempts at Oyster Culture —
Gasteropods. including the Snails, Slugs, Whelks, Cowries, Periwinkles, etc. — •
Spiny Rock Shells— Tritons— Spindle Shells— AVhelks— Dog Wlielk— r^Iitre
Shells— :\Iargin Shells— Olives— Harp Shells— Dove Shells— Grey Shells. ,

CHAPTER XXXV.

Shells from the Sea-shore : Part Two.
Plates 104, 105. [See Chapter XXXIV].
Cone Shells— Auger Shells— Conch Shells— Cowry Shells— Egg Shells— Tun
Shells — Cameo Shells — Moon Shells — Slipper Shells — Limpets, etc. — Worm
Shells — Caicum Shells — Eulimas — Pyramid Shells — Sun-Dial Shells — Violet
Snails — Ladder Shells — Cerithiida^ — Periwinkles — Sea Snails — Turban Shells — ■
Top Shells— Keyhole Limpets— Umbrella Shells— Chitons— Bubble Shells— Sea
Slugs.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

Plants and ANiMiU^s from the Coral Reef: Part One.
Plates 106, 107, 108, 109. 110. [72. 102, 103, 104, 105, 111, 112. 113, 114,

115, 116, 117].
The Common Crabs — The Lobster — Prawns — Shrimps — Hermit Crabs^
Barnacles — Common Corals — Sea-Anemonies — Coral Reefs — Eight-Rayed Corals
— Sea-Fans — Sea-Plumes, etc. — Jellyfish — Hydroids — Portuguese Man-of-war
^Sea Money — AIoss-Animals — Lamp Shells — Sea-Sciuirts — Balanoglossus.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

Plants and Animals from the Coral Reef: Part Two.
Plates 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, [See Chapter XXXVI].
Starfish — Sea-Urchins — Brittle - Stars — Sea - Cucumbers — Sea-Lilies or
Crinoides — Flat-AVorms — Bristle-Worms — Earthworms — Single - Celled and
Many-Celled Animals — Sponges — Protozoa — Seaweeds — How to Collect Ha-
waiian Algae.

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Natural History of Hawaii.

SECTION ONE

THE J!A^yAIIAS PEOPLE.

CHAPTER I.

THE COMING OP THE HAWAIIAN RACE.
Hawaiians the First Inhabitants.

The Polynesian ancestors of the Hawaiian race are believed to be th(; first
human inhabitants to set foot on Hawaii's island shores. Inasmuch as the group
comprises the most highly isolated island territory on the globe, it seems logical
to infer that this sturdy race must have migrated to Hawaii from other lands.
By tracing the relationship of the original inhabitants it has been found that
they belong to the same race as the natives of New Zealand, Samoa, Marquesas,
Society, Tonga and other islands in the southern, central and eastern Pacific.

That all the native people found over this vast Pacific region are the
scattered branches of one great race, springing from a common ancestral stock,
has been demonstrated in many ways. The marked similarity in the manners
and customs, language and religion, as well as many peculiar physical char-
acteristics and intellectual traits common to the inhabitants of the widely scat-
tered Pacific islands just mentioned, leaves little doubt in the minds of +hosp
who have studied these people of the Pacific, as to their racial affinities.

Polynesian Affinities.

Collectively, this group of Pacific Islanders has been called by Europeans
the Polynesian I'ace, a reference to the inau.x' islands inhabited by them. The
exceedingly vexed question as to the genesis of the race as a whole and the
fixing of the place fi'oni whence the progenitors of the dark-skiiine;! kaiuika
people entered the Pacific has long been a subject of interest int.;' discussion.

Since the genesis of the race is by no means a settled (juestion it will !iot
be profitable in this connection to dwell uixm the matter farther than to say

Descrti'tkin- of Pi.atk.

Tho .s|)leii(li(l physique of tlio ])e()])lo, tlieir woll shaped heads, attractive features and
kindly eyes are well shoAvn by the photographs and indicate the strong iudividualit}' and lovable
character of the race as a M-hole. Old Hawaiians, especially of the better class, possessed a
high ty]ie of Polynesian culture that embraced a tliorouf;h and useful knowledjje of their iso-
lated environment. At the time of tlieir introduction to European ci\ilization many among
tlu'in w ic intimately acquainted with their own iiistory and peuealogy, as well as with the
fund of inf or. nation concerning their traditions, myths, arts, occupations and i)raetices; more-
over they possessed a store of knowledge about the i.slands and their natural history that at
once won for tlie i-ace the respect ai-d admiration of their Knropean benefactors.

D. H. HILL LIBRARY
North Carolina State College

26 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

that the origin of the Polynesian race has been traced by different writers, in
different ways to various places. North. South and Middle America, as well
as Papua, i\Ialay. China. Japan and India, have each in turn been declared
the cradle of this widely distributed people and each made responsible, directly
or indirectly, for their presence in the Pacific Ocean.

While it is probable that the origin of the race, as a whole, will always be
shrouded in doubt, there is little uncertainty as to the more immediate an-
cestors of the Hawaiian people. All their various affinities seem to point un-
erringly in the direction of the islands to the south of us. Although the Society
and Samoan Islands, which are the nearest islands in any direction at present
inhabited by this race, are more than two thousand miles distant, they, without
doubt, form the stepping stones over which the early immigrants passed — if they
are not the actual points of origin of the migrations that resulted in the
settling of the Polynesian race on this, the most remote group.

Evidence of Early Immigrations.

That the race existed here ages ago, perhaps far beyond the traditions of
the people, is believed by some to be proven by certain geologic evidence. What-
ever the geological facts may be. and the data thus far secured is by no means
conclusive, the traditions of the people are more certain. They throw much light
on the antiquity of the early voyages of the race and point far back into the
shadowy past. Their genealogies, which were handed down from father to son
with remarkable accuracy, also contribute much information that can be ac-
cepted as reasonably authentic and historic, and give a fair basis for measuring
time, especially during the past four or five centuries. The comparative study
of gejiealogical records has brought to light proof of many obscure points that
had to do with the history and wanderings of the race as a whole, l)ut their
traditions are especially clear witli reference to the ITawaiians themselves.

Traditional and Historical Evidence of Early Voyages.

Those who have studied, the history and traditions of the Polynesians as a
people regard Savaii, in the Samoan group, as the most likely center of dispersal.
It is probable that at least one of the bands of early voyagers that settled on
these, then presumably unpeopled islands, came from that group in very ancient
times, — perhaps as long ago as 500 B. C. Just why these early wanderers
set out on the long perilous journey over unknown seas will never be known.
It is suggested that they may have been forced from their early homes by war
and driven from their course by storms. But since there was no written lan-
guage, the historian, as already stated, is forced to rely for his data on legends,
traditions, genealogies and such other meager scraps of information as are
available.

Unfortunately, of the very early period scarcely a reliable tradition exists.
We are therefore left free, within a certain measure, to construct for ourselves
such tales of adventure, privation and hardship as seem sufficient to account for
the appearance of the natives in this far-away and isolated land. We know

TIIK HAWAIIAN PF.OPLK. 27

that tlie first voyaues, like iiKiiiv undcflakcii in more recent times, must have been
made in open boats over an unfriendl\' and uncharted ocean. We know also
that they survived the journey and found the land hal)itablc when they came.

To the dim and uncertain period coverinu the several centuries that fol-
lowed, many gTeat primitive achievements have l)een asci'ibed. Amonsr them are
such tasks as the buildino- of walled tish-])on(ls, the consli-uction of certain ureat
crude temples, the niakinu' of irrioation ditches, and the development of a
distinct dialect, based of course, on their ancient mother tongue. But at last,
after the lapse of centuries, perhaps many centuries, this long |)eriod of isola-
tion and seclusion ended and conununication was once more resumed \\illi the
rest of the Polynesian world.

Ancient Voyages.

It is reliably recorded in the traditions of the race, but more especially
in those of the Hawaiian people, that after many generations of .separation
from the outside world, communication was again taken up and many voyages
were made to Kahiki — the far-away land to the south. From this time on the
story of the people becomes much more definite and reliable. We not only know
that intercourse was resumed between Hawaii and the islands of tlie South
Pacific, but the names of several of the navigators and the circumstances, as well
as the time when their journeys were made, also incidents of their voyages,
have come down to us. In some cases the same mariner is known to have made
more than a single journey. Naturally the exploits of the brave navigators of
the race were made matters of record in the minds of the people and handed
down from father to son in numberless songs, stories and traditions. As a mat-
ter of fact, there is evidence to prove that during the twelfth and thirtetMith
centuries of our Christian calendar there came an era of great unrest tlirough-
out the whole of Polynesia and a great number of voyages wern made to the
remote parts of the region. In fact it is asserted in the tradition of the peo-
ple that "they visited every place on earth." This broad statement seems to
indicate that to the Polynesian mind the world was confined to Oceanica. as
they appear to have known nothing of the gi'eat eonlinents which sui'miuided
them on every side. At any rate, there is on record a eonsidei'able list of
these voyages and an equally long list (tf the places where the\ landed, accom-
panied l)y incidents of their wanderings.

Animals and Plants Bkoluut to Hawau as r).\(i(;A(JL.

Our special interest in the natural history of the plants and aninrds of
Hawaii inakes this period of Pacific travel of unusual importance. It was at
this time that most, if not all, of the useful plants and animals that had fol-
lowed the race in their various wanderings were l)rough1 as |)recious baiigage
with them to these islands from over th(» s(»a.

Any one who has experienced the ilitficidties and. dis;i|)i)oin1nients encoun-
tered in transplanting a young breadfruit tree from one valley to another, will

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THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 29

appreciate in a measure the difficult ics tli.-it miisl Iuinc Ix-sct tlie TT;i.\v;iiitiiis in
transporting liviny' ciittiiius of this delicate seedless plant from far oft' Kahiki
to these islands, yet it is practically certain that not only was the breadfruit
brought here in this mannci- but also the banana, the taio. the mountain apple,
the sugar-cane and a score or more of their other important economic plants.
The wild fowl, the pig and th(^ dog were also brought with them in the same
way, in very early times, and were in. a state of common domestication over the
group when the islands were first visited by the white race.

Naturally there were many references in Hawaiian and Polynesian tradi-
tion to these long and teinpestous voyages. AVhen all the circumstances sur-
rounding these rugged feats of daring and adventure are considered, it is not
loo much to say that the race to which the ancient Hawaiians belonged is worthy
of a special place among the most daring and skillful navigators of all times.
To this day their prowess and aptitude in matters pertaining to the sea is such
as to command the admiration and respect of all.

Double Canoes.

The making of the large canoes employed in their important journeys by
the use of stone tools alone, was by no means an ordinary task. Aside from the
descriptions of their canoes handed down to us in their traditions, we know that
a century ago there existed in these islands the remains of war canoes, such as
we are told were used in those early voyages, that were seventy feet in length
by more than three feet in width and depth, capable of carrying seventy per-
sons from island to island. What is still more remarkable the hull in each case
was carved from a single giant koa log.

The selecting of a suitable tree from among its fellows in the mountain
forests, the felling and shaping of it by means of the crude stone implements
of the time, and the subsequent transporting of the rough-hewn canoe to the
sea by main strength, was an undertaking not to be lightly assayed; but the
executing of a 2000-mile voyage in such a craft seems almost incredible. In this
connection it is well to remember that the early Polynesians made not only
single canoes of monstrous proportions, but double ones by lashing two together
and rudely decking over the space between them. In this ingenious way they
made a craft capable of carrying a large numl)er of people and a ^-oodly supply
of provisions.

Provisions for Long Voyages.

It is probable that in tlicii- more extended xoyaues. especially when they
were voluntarily luidertakeii, the natives used the double canoe and provided
the craft with a mast to which lliey riiii^vd laruc dui-able sails made of mats.
The legendary mele telling of the coming of llawaii-loa states that during live
changes of the moon he sailed in such a craft to b.' i-ewarded at last by the
sight of a new land ever after calh-d Hawaii.

As to the snp])ly of pro\isions it is to be remembered that the Polyiu^sians

30 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

have several kinds of food capable of being preserved in a compact form. The
eocoaniit, either fresh or dried, was an invalnable article of food, while dried
fish and squid are not to be despised. The taro, lireadfrnit and sweet potato,
or yam, are articles of daily diet, capable of being transported in an edible
condition for great distances at sea. Besides cocoanut water, in the nut, to
drink, they had utensils for storing fresh water and it is probable that they
provided themselves with calabashes and wooden bowls specially prepared for
use on their long sea journeys.

Steering a Course by the Stars.

As they were expert fishermen and exceedingly hardy seamen the perils of
the deep were considerably minimized. Add to this their intimate knowledge
of the food to be found living everywhere in the sea at all seasons and their
acquaintance with the habits and methods of capture, as well as skill in the
preparation of such animals and plants as they esteemed as food, and we must
conclude that they were by nature well fitted for such journeys. With such
substitute food as the sea would furnish, always at hand, it was possible for
them to travel far and suffer but little, for they were able to eat, not only such
fresh and dried food as we have mentioned, but to relish many creatures of the
sea in a raw state — as flying-fish, squid and seaweed — that would scarcely be
thought of as food ])y a more fastidious peoi^le. jMoreover, in making these
journeys they were able to roughly guide their course by the stars, the sun and
the moon, as they had a crude but working knowledge of astronomy. In addi-
tion to this they had a number of traditions, telling of mysterious lands, far
away beyond the horizon, that served them both as an inspiration and an assur-
ance, besides being useful to them in many ways in tlieir practical navigation.

Establishment of the Hawaiian Race.

Great care was always exercised in selecting the proper place and season
for setting forth on their journeys. Once having made a successful voyage
they were particular to start from the same spot in making similar journeys
thereafter. In this wa\- the south point of Hawaii as well as the southern end
of the little island of Kahoolawi came to be known as the proper points from
which to embark on a journey to Tahiti.

There is but little doubf that in those times they were expert navigators,
who in addition to being able to guide their courses at sea by the stars, also
knew the art of steering their canoes in such a fashion as to catch and ride
great distances on the splendid long ocean s^\■ells, after the manner of the surf
riders of less adventurous times.

Just how tliese striking feats of navigation were accomplished we may
never know. At any rate there is every reason to Ix'lieve that they were per-
formed. We do know, however, that the perils att<'nding them were safely
passed, the difficulties of tlie journeys surmounted, and that those who per-
formed them lived to tell the tale of tlieir daring to their eliildnMi. and they to

THE HAAVAIIAN PEOPLE. 31

their children's children. We know tlint tlif(MiL;li llicin in titnc the Polynesian
race came to occupy a new land, established the Hawaiian people and ])iiilt up a
crude though Avorthy civilization.

CHAPTER II.

TRANQUIL ENVIRONMENT OF HAWAII AND ITS EFFECT ON THE

PEOPLE.

The Natural Environment.

Without dwelling further on the remote and uncertain period whicli had
to do with the origin and early migration of the Hawaiian people, it will .be
fitting to briefly consider the race in connection with their natural environment.
It is well within the purpose of this sketch of the natural history" of Hawaii
to treat of the people as the native inhabitants, and for that reason we sliall
dwell upon their primitive and interesting native culture rather than their
more recent political history.

In dealing with the race as a natural people it will be of interest to enu-
merate some of the various forces of nature among which they developed for
centuries, since without doubt their environment helped to make the race what
it was at the time of its discovery, — a swarthy, care-free, fun-loving, super-
stilious people, witli a culture that, now it has been more fully studied b\' un-
biased ethnologists and is better understood, has at last gained for the ancient
Hawaiians, not only the respect, but the admiration of their more highly cultured
and fairer skinned ])rothers. In seeking only to depict their life as it was in
the interesting time of their primitive paganism, before Christianity was brought
to them, we must leave entirely out of account the story of one of the most re-
markable religious and political developments that a race has ever under-gone
in the history of the civilized world.

.So capable and receptive was the Hawaiian race thai within less tlian an
hundred years the entire population has not only embraced a foi-eign and ex-
ceedingly advanced form of religion, but by its agency transformed their lan-
guage, practices, customs, manners, arts and moi-als to sucli a degree that today
hardly a trace of their former culture remains to indicate the long road wliieh
they have traveled in the upwni'd march from a i-ude i-ule of miglit, feai" and
sui)erstition to the place where their representatives, chosen l)y ballot, sit on
equal terms in legislative asseml)lages with their oiK^-time ]iatrons and Avould-ix'
benefactors, and. witliout fear or favor, creditjihly discharuc the duties of citi-
zenship in the great American Republic.

KoNA Weather and Traok AYintds.

One of the most iiMp(U'1;int physical iuHuenees lliat has atf'ected the ]iei>ple
is the climate. Althougli tlu' Hawaiian Tslai.ds lie ;it the northern edge of the
torrid zone, their climate is seini-troi)ii'al rathei- than li'ojucal. and is several

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^- r.

.-- .- -j:

THE HAWAIIAN PEOl'LE. 33

d grees cooler than thai of ;\<.\y other coiiiili'v in the same latitude. The tem-
perature is moderate, at U-ast ten degrees below the noniial. owinL; to tlie in-
fluence of the cool ndi'llieast ocean cuiTents. The delightfully cool iKtrtheast
trade wind, which is ohvions'.y the pi'iiicipal I'h'ini'iit in the Hawaiian climate,
l)l(;ws steadily during at least nine months of the year. During the I'eiiiaining
months the wind is variable, and occasionally stoinis with heavy i-ains blow
from the southwest, producing what is k'liown as "Kona"' weathci-. Taken
through a long period, the temperature at sea level rarely rises aijove 90
degrees during the hottest day of the year, and seldom falls below 60 degrees
for more than a few hours at a time, with the mean temi)eralnre fluctuating
about 75 degrees Fahrenheit. The ditference between the daily average mid-
sunnner and midwinter temperature is about 10 degrees. With I'cference to
human comfort the temperature excells for its equableness. This fact, coupled
with the refreshing trade winds that sweep over thousands of miles of cool
ocean and the bright and genial warmth of the troi)ical sun, produces the climate
of Paradise — a condition found in no other region on the globe.

Altitude and Its Effect on Climate.

In fact the Hawaiian language liad no word for "weather," as it is usually
understood. Nevertheless, a remarkable difference in climate is experienced
in passing from one side of the islands to the other, or from lower to hii^her
altitudes. The northeast, oi' windward side of the grou|). which is expnseil to
the trade winds, is cool and rainy, while the southwestern or leeward side is, as
a rule, unicli drier and warmer. The most important variation, however, is
due to altitude; the thermometer falling about four degrees for every 1. ()()(• feet
of ascent. It is therefore possible to look from the i)alin groves thai hask
in tropical warmth aloiiL;- the coast of Hawaii to the highest mountain pc;ik- of
the gi'ouii,- to And it frequently snow-capped, pai'ticularly durini;' the cooler
months. As to rainfall, similar variations occur. At Honolulu Ihe average
precipitation is thirty-eight inches, at the Pali. Ave miles away in the niunn-
taius. 11(1 inches; while at Hilo, on the north side of Hawaii, it is nearly
twelve feet. If the group is taken as a whole, almost evei'y variation from
warm to cold, wet to dry. windy to calm, may be found.

Effect of a Sufficient Amount of Fo(ti\

The direct influence of thes(> facts on the chai-acter of the people, howevei-,
is rather obscure. .Aside from the hearing it may have had on their clolhing,
food aud sheltei' it is imleed difficult to trace. .\lthough it is the i^cneral
opinion that a warm climate is not liable 1o be couducive to a highei- culture,
there is plenty of e\idence to the coiiti'a ry here and elsewhei'e. and. considering
the insular i)ositi(»n of the Islands, their limited fcxul sui)pl.\\ the lack of raw
materials for manufacture, the absence of such metals as iron and coi)per and

Southerly. - Maunu Ken, 13.825 feet

34 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the want of domestic animals as beasts of burden, the Hawaiians achieved a
remarkably high stage of development before their discovery. The degree of
their development is especially shown, as we shall see, by the thoroughness
with which they had explored their environment and utilized the natural raw
materials which it supplied.

The easy tropical conditions, as well as the unsettled political state which
surrounded them originally, were not necessarily conducive to the highest
physical or mental achievements. According to Blackman, the regular recur-
rence of a sufficient amount of food to supply their needs may also have pre-
vented the development of the traits of thrift and frugality that are so inbred
in the races of the north. There is no doul)t tliat the bright, warm, cheerful
climate had its influence on their temperatment, their health, and their home
life, by diminishing the relative importance of permanent shelter, by enticing
the people out of doors; and also on their morality, as we interpret it, ]\v ren-
dering clothing the thing least required for l)odily comfort.

Inter-Island Communication.

Another important point in their environment was the fact that the in-
habited islands were sufficiently numerous and near enough together to influ-
ence one another decisively, yet far enough apart to make inter-island com-
munication difficult. The group was far enough removed from other groups to
prevent fre(iuenf migrations and small enough to render a wandering life and
contact with other people and tribes impossible. At the same time they were
just far enough away from each other to satisfy the natural human desire for
travel, adventure and experience.

Inter-Tribal Wars.

The valleys on the various islands constituted natural divisions of the land
that had a marked influence on the government of the people by district chiefs
who were frequently at war with one another. To offset this there were inter-
tribal and inter-island marriages enough to in-cduce a uniform stock throughout
the group. This interchange of blood and ideas was most beneficial in bringing
about the homogeneity and compactness necessary to preserve inherited habit
and secure the persistence of traditions, customs and the learning of the whole
people.

Agriculture and the Food Supply.

Althougli file valleys are usually fertile, they are limited in extent. The
soil though rich, varies greatly in productiveness, and being of a porous nature,
needs much water to render it valuable for the various pursuits of agriculture.
To meet this demand, extensive irrigation systems were built and used by the
native farmers. Besides flic valley lands, there are broad tracts of rougli lava
and dry upland country that were of little use to the aborigines with their
primitive methods of agriculture. In brief, the conditions were such as to re-
quire much labor and skill to produce sufficient food from the soil t(t sn])ply

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 35

their wants. For tliis reason, among' others, their life was not the one of
indolence it is sometimes thoug'ht to have been, yet eoiulitioiis were niiiforinly
more favorable to life in llaw.-iii than were tliose met willi in certain other
gronps in the Pacific to which I'olynesians migrated and settled, presumably
as they did in these islands.

Fauna and Flora Explored by the Hawamans.

So much must be said of the animals and plants in anothci- conneeliori thai,
though they form an important feature of environment, it will suffice here to
note the salient facts. The flora furnished trees for the construction of theii-
canoes and houses, the implements of their warfare and peaceful pursuits, the
raw material for the manufacture of their clothing, nets, calabashes, medicines,
and above all, a sufficient amount of Avholesome food throughouf tlie year to pro-
vide for their sustenance.

The most important animals existing on the islands at th(> time of their dis-
covery by the whites were the swine and the dogs, both of which were freely used
as food. There were domestic fowls of the same species as were common
throughout the Polynesian islands. The waters about the group provided a
never failing supply of fish food. The insects were all inconspicuous and harm-
less. The only game birds, as ducks and plovers, were not abundant, while the
reptiles were represented by a few species of small, inotfensive lizards that
were of little importance.

The Hawaiians were preeminently an agricultural people with a natural
love for the soil and its cultivation. They had an appreciation of the beautiful
in flower and foliage that has had an abiding influence on their homes and
home surroundings. They were also skilled fishermen. The lack of animals,
domestic or wild, other than the few species mentioned, in-evented them from
following the hunting and pastoral life, and as a result they were settled in
permanent villages, usually along the coast.

Since there were no noxious insects, poisonous serpents or dangerous birds
or beasts of prey, there was no occasion for the alertness and constant fear that
so frequently makes life in a tropical country a never-ending strain if not an
actual burden.

Food and Its Effect on the People.

While the chiefs and the more prosperous of the people were well supplied
with meat, the common people had it only at I'ai-c intervals. They were forced
to subsist on a diet chiefly vegetal)le, which wa^-- lacking in variety, and. althoueli
fat-producing, was also difl:'use and hnlky. To the cliaracter of their food ni;iy
be attributed the hal)it of alternately gorgini; and Tasting, whicli was so com-
mon a trait of the ancient Hawaiians, and which is believed to have resulted in
the abnormal development of the abdomen, formally so noticeable anions theiii.

Although taro was the staff of life in Hawaii, sweet potato, oi' yam,
also figured largely in the every day di;'t of the comnioii people. Tlion-^li meat
was never al)uiidant, as lias been s1ate(l. tlie\- wei-e not eiitireh' witlioiit aiii-

i s,

TIIK HAWAIIAN I'KOIMJO. Zl

mal food. Fisli \v;is jilwfiys jivjiihihlc jiiid I'jiirlv piciilifiil, and tnTlaiii kiials
were often eaten raw. Fowl, pork and do.us were occasionally to be had as a
change and were much esteemed as delicacies. The poi-dou'. when carefnlly
fed and fattened on poi. was regarded as even more delicious in tlavoi- ilum pnrk.
Dogs always formed an important dish at the native feasts and on sueli occa-
sions large nundiers of them would he hak'ed ,n eaiHi ovens.

Response op the Natives to their EInvironment.

Looking ))roadl.\' at their environment it may be said that the most (U-cisive
factors in the surroundings of the Hawaiian race were isolation, the evenness
of the climate and the conditions which made the [)ui'suit of agriculture a
necessity. The latter induced a more regular and constant activity and more
settled life than is found among a hunting and roving jx'ople. and in connection
with the other conditions mentioned it had an important beariim on the tcmpcM-a-
ment of the race. The isolation, even temperature, and always sufficient food
supply nnist have had their effect in producing a patient, traiKiuil. self-i-eliant
mind — a satisfied disposition — an even temper — a settled attachment to the soil — -
an aptitude and faculty for the development of their peculiar forms of learning,
and above all, habits of life and customs of dress that were peculiarly suited to
and the result of the ffentle demands of their environment.

CHAPTER III.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTK^S OF THE PEOPLE.

Statitre and Physical Development of the People.

At the time of the discovery of the llawaiians they were i)hysical]y one of
the most striking native races in the world. ^loreover, they were distinguished
as being among the kindest and most gentle nuninered of jH^oplc. and l)ut for the
oppression of their priests and chiefs, they would undoulttedly have been among
the happiest.

As a race they were tall, shapely and musculai-. witli Liood features and
kind eyes. In symmetry of form the women ha\'e scai'cely lieeii surpass mI. if
equalled, while the men excelled in muscular .streuLith, pai-ticularly in the region
of the back and arms.

The average height of an adidt Po]\uesian is giv(Mi as five fe(>t nine and a
third inches, and the Hawaiians were well up to. if not aitovc. that av'ei'aL;*'.
while individuals of unusual size, often little sliort of giants, were not uncomnio'i

Desckiption of 1'l.\te.

1. Sfra]iingf and prcparhir>' a jiig' []niaa] for tmkiiiir. -1. Tlio oartli oven | iimi j liollnwetl
out ami filloii witli hpalcd stmies ready foi' tlic fund. :;. The iinu Idled and closed; the heat
and steam hakes the food wliich is wraiijieil in ki or banana leaves. 4. Tlie food baked and
ready to be eaten, .t. Founding- ]>oi on a " doul)le " board jjiapa kui poll, wliicdi is a shallow
trough made of hard wood; "single" boards were also common. About the grass house may
be seen coeoanut palm trees in the rear, jiajiaya trees to the right and left and a small noni
tree at the end of the house.

38 NATl'RAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

ainouy' tliein. There is an authentic record of a skeleton foiiiid iu a burial
cave that measured six feet seven and three-quarters inches in length, and there
is sufficient evidence to establish tlie tact tliat men of even larger stature were
b}' no means unusual.

Instances of excessive corpulency have been common among Hawaiians,
especially among the chiefs who were always better nourished than were
the common people. Having plenty to eat and little to do, they grew
large and fat. This tendency to corpulency, as has been elsewhere noted, was,
however, more common among the women. IMany of them were perfectly enor-
mous in size, but this is not to be wondered at since the Hawaiian ideal of
female loveliness includes stoutness of figure as a fundamental requisite.

The natives, before their mixture with foreigners, were a brown race, vary-
ing in color from light olive to a rich swarthy brown. Their hair, usually raven
black, was straight, wavy or curly, Imt never kinky. Their lips were of a little
more than medium thickness, witli the upper lip slightly shortened. This gave
to tile mouth a peculiar form that is characteristic of the race. Their teeth
were sound, regular and very beautiful, a fact frecpiently ascribed to the char-
acter of the food they ate. The nose, a rather prominent feature, was in most
cases broad and slighty flattened. The eyes of the pure-hlooded Hawaiian
were always black and very expressive. Their foreheads were usually high,
and perhaps a trifle narrow in proportion. In general, their features were
strong, good-humored, and in many instances, when combined with their splendid
physiques, produced a striking and impressive personality that gave the im-
pression of their belonging to a very sui)erior race.

Clothing of the People.

At the time of their discovery the men wore the malo, a plain piece of tapa
cloth, about the loins in the form of a T bandage. The W(mien Avore the pa'u
of tapa, which was a simple piece of bark cloth, wrapiied about the Avaist, to
form a short skirt, that hung down to tht^ knees. While the foregoing were the
usual articles of dress they were by no means averse to answering the call of
their environment by stalking about naked or nearly so, if a pretense offered.
They were fond of certain kinds of adornment, particularly flowers, using them as
garlands about their necks or as wreaths aliout their heads. The children while
often wearing flowers about their necks, went otherwise unadorned until six or
eight years of age.

Cleanliness.

Although the Hawaiians wore their tapa cloth clothing as long as it would
hold together, the people as a whole took great pride in personal appearance
and cleanliness. They were fond of ornaments and were skillful in their manu-
facture. Both sexes wore ornaments fashioned from shells, nuts and ivory
about their heads and shoulders in addition to the flower garlands just men-
tioned. While tattooing was indulged in as a form of decoration its use in this
respect was not carried to the extent that it was among the New Zealanders or

THE HAWAIIAN PKOI'LE. 39

the Marquesians. Its ])riiu'ipal use in Hawaii was to denote I'aiik or lineage,
to brand a slave or sometimes as a token of mourning.

Although the chiefs were markedly superior physically and otherwise, when
compared with the common people, they were, nevertheless, descendants of the
same race. The difference in stature and capability which they exhibited seems
to have l)een the natural result of their environment. Being better fed. having
more leisure, and relieved of the burdens of living and in many wa\s ])ampered
and protected, they escaped the mai'k's that exposure, excessive toil, hunger,
fear and superstition invariably stamp on the less fortunate of every race.

Life in the Open Air.

The unusually salubrious Hawaiian climate stimulated the habit of out-of-
door life, which was almost universal. The native huts were used chietly as
sleeping places and for protection from the rain. Their aquatic, athletic and
sea-going habits were the growth of the open-air life they led. The love of
freciuent bathing, the nearness of the sea and the necessity of securing at least
a i)art of their sustenance from the ocean, all combined in making them the
most powerful and daring swimmers in the world and developed among them,
perhaps, the world's most expert and intelligent fishermen.

Their Language and Alphabet.

Their language was singularly deficient in generic and abstract terms, but
to make up for this general deficiency it was especially rich in specific names
of places and things, most of which were derivitives that were full of meaning,
frequently taking account of nice distinctions. Broadly speaking the Hawaiian
language was little more than a simple tribal dialect of the Polynesian tongue
that was spoken with much uniformity in a large number of the Pacific island
groups. In fact, there is less variation in meaning and pronunciation of the
language throughout Polynesia than exists today between the Spanish and
Italian tongues. Besides the language of every-day life there was a style especi-
ally appropriate for oratory and another suited to the demands of religion and
poetry. Since there was no written language, not even a picture language, at
the time of which we write, one of the first acts of the American missionaries
was to reduce their speech to writing. For this purpose only five vowels, a, e,
i, 0, u. and seven consonants, li. k. 1. ni. u. j). w. were found necessary. In the
use of these twelve letters the p]uropean pi-oiiuiiriation of llic vowels \\;is adopted.
The letter a is sounded as in arm; e as in they; i as in niacliine. and u as
in rule. Tht^ (lil)thong ai, resembles the English ay. and an has the sound of ow.
The consonants were sounded as in English excei)t that k is sometimes exchanged
for t, and the sound of 1 confounded with k and d. The dirth of consonants
and the over-plus of vowels gave to the spoken language such openness, fluidity
and richness as to be particularly noticeable to persons unac(iuainted with tlie
tongue. By some this peculiar (piality of the spokiMi language, by reason of
its intellectual indefiniteness, perhaps, is Ix-lieved to represent, oi- at least re-
flect, the open, frank character of the people who developed it.

■SI

— J

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 41

Genealogv and TTistory.

Their legends and traditions, many of Ihetn ideiilical witli lliose found in
other groups in Polynesia, as has been stated, were handed down, generation
after generation, by a highly hon()r(>d class of genealogists and bards. Each
family or elan hatl its respected historians and j>oets, and generally the i)osition
of genealogist, at least, became hereditary, to be handed down from father to
son. It was the especial office of the genealotiist to keej) and correctly transmit
the historical records of chietiy unions, births, deaths and the achieveiiuMits of
the mor(^ important people of their community.

In this way nnu-li of the history of the people, as well as many of their
legends and nuieh of their historical beliefs, superstitions and ])ractices, have
come down to us in fairly accurate form, often from very remote times.

Meles and Hulas.

Their meles and hulas were the supreme literary achievements of the ancient
historians and poets, and, as their subjects were diverse, they vary much in
substance and character. j\Iany are folk songs; some are of a religious order,
being prayers or prophecies; others are name songs, composed at the birth of a
chief, in his honor, recounting the exploits of his ancestors ; the dirge was a
favorite form of composition; others again are mere love souths, and still others
are composed to or al)out things and places.

Although they are without rhyme or regular meter, as it is generail\- under-
stood, many of them are strikingly poetic in spirit. A single example taken
almost at random from the many excellent translations given liy my fiiend.
Dr. X. B. Emerson, in his l)ook on the Hula, may serve to illustrate their
appreciation of the poetic side of nature as well as to demonstrate their natural
descriptive power and literary gift.

By way of introduction, we should know that Koolau is a district on the
windward, or rainy, side of the Island of Ocdni and that the stanza given is
one taken from one of the many songs for the hula ala'a i)apa. It is but an
episode from the story of Hiiaka on her journey to Kauai to bring the handsome
prince T.ohiau to the goddess Pele. Hence, —

" 'Twas in Koolau I met the rain;
It comes with liftino' and tossing of dust,
Advancing in columns, dashing along.
The I'ain, it sighs in the forest;
The rain, it beats and whelms like the surf;
It smites, it smites now the land.
Pasty the earth from the stainiiinj: rain;
Full run the streauis a lushing' flooii;
The mountain walls leap with the rain.
See the water chafing its bounds like a dog,
A raging dog, gnawing its way to pass out."

nKSORIPTICV OF PL.\TE.

1. The nose flute player and iiula dancer. 2. Hawaii.iii Imuse on a raised stone |ilat-
form. 3. Making fire by the ancient Hawaiian method: a hard stick of t)lomea (Pcrrottetia
Sa7idu-ice)K'iis) is rubbed in a groov(> on a soft jiieee of hau wood until the friction ignites the
tinderdike dust that aeeunnilates in tlu' end n\' the groovr. I. A icni|i(iiarv house made of
sugar-cane leaves. In the foreground taro and t(d)acco are shown, to the left a ]iapaya. while
in the background lauhala, banana, breadfruit and cocoanuts may be seen.

42 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Mauy find a suggestive parallelism of expression in the Hawaiian meles
comparable with the Hebrew psalms, others to tlie rugged poetry of Walt Whit-
man. No better illustration of this dignified form of Hawaiian poetry can be
found, perhaps, than the passage from the dirge, "In the ^Memory of Keeau-
moku," as preserved by tlie Rev. William Ellis:

"Alas, alas, dead is my chief.
Dead is my lord and friend;
My friend in the season of famine,
My friend in the time of drought.
My friend in my poverty,
My friend in the rain and the wind.
My friend in the heat and the sun,
My friend in the cold from the mountain.
My friend in the storm.
My friend in the calm,
My friend in the eight seas,
Alas, alas, gone is my friend,
And no more will return. ' '

As SO frequently happens with people gifted with a lyric talent, the Ha-
waiians were also possessed of an extraordinary musical talent. There were
many among them at the time of their discovery that sang with skill, after their
own fashion, and they were by no means slow to acquire the technique of our
own more intricate written music, a fact which soon revolutionized their form of
musical expression.

]\Iarriage.

Passing now to the more domestic customs of the people it may l)e said that
among the Hawaiians, marriage was entered into with very little ceremony,
except, perhaps, in the case of a few of the more important chiefs. Among all
classes the relations among the sexes w^ere very free and it is difficult to determine,
with accuracy, what the exact condition was originalh^ with reference to chastity.
All the evidence goes to show that the habits of the people in this regard were far
better formerly than they afterwards became. Whatever may have lieen
brought about by the coming of white men, and we refer to the hardy seamen
of the early days, it is a mistake to assume that wholesale promiscuity existed
originally among them comparalile to the debasing type found among certain
classes in our own scheme of social civilization. Although there was much free-
dom on the part of both parties in the marriage relation and scarcely any re-
straint at all among the young previous to entering the more settled domestic
arrangement, it is an error to suppose that there was an absence of a definite
marital relationship, accompanied l\v well understood obligations between the
parents and their offspring.

Polygamy.

By such Hawaiians as could afford and command more than one wife,
polygamy was practiced to some extent, rather more as a mark of distinction

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 43

and affliU'iK-e tiiaii utlierwise. The pour and dcpeiidfiit euudilioii (j1 tlir mass
of the common people, if there had been no other reasons, prevented the practice
from becoming widespread among them. It is a curicus and interesting fact
in this connection to note that the Hawaiian called all of his relatives of the
same generation as himself "brothers" and "sisters," and those of the next
older — "fathers" and "mothers"; tliose of a younger generation "sons" and
"daughters," and so on. This tendency is taken by some as indicative of the
uncertain relations that existed among them, since brothers, to a certain extent,
shared their wives in common, and sisters their husbands. P)ut Pic marital form,
where one man and one woman habitually cohabit, while yet indulging in other
attachments, was the rule among them at all times and in all classes as is cleai'ly
shown by the earliest recorded facts on the subject.

It is known that in certain instances betrothals were arranged by parents
and friends while the children who were the prinei])als in the arrangement were
still quite young. Among the common people, as distinguished from the chiefs,
marriage was largely a matter of caprice, but among the chiefs it was a subject
of serious concern, involving matters of state, puljlic policy, position and power.
Especially was this true at the mating of women of rank, since rank, position
and inheritance descended chiefly, though not wholly, through the mother. For
example, the offspring of a woman of noble l)irth would inherit her rank despite
the rank of the father. But the children of a father of liigli rank would fail
to retain their position if born to a woman of inferior position.

Marriage Among Persons of Rank.

For this reason reigning families were careful to examine into the genealogy
of those who were liable to join themselves with members of the more exelusiv(;
families. For reasons of policy brothers were forced on rare occasions to marry
sisters, that there might be no question as to the i-ank of theii- cliildi'eii.

While there was no set wedding ceremony the event was often made an
excuse for a feast; and frequently, particularly among the common peo|)le, the
bridegroom declared his choice by throwing a piece of tapa clotli ovei- the lu'ido
in the presence of her relatives, or less frecpiently by their friends throwin;:;
a piece of tapa over both bride and groom. It is an astonishing fact, that with
the exception of marriage, almost every act in the life of the peoi)le was cele-
brated with prayers, sacrifices and religious ceremonies. It eaimot be doubted,
therefore, that the marriage tie was a loose one. lightly assunn'il and liuhlly
put off, and depended largely for its duration on the will of the husliand.
As might be expected, separation was of frequcMit occurrence^ amoni: tlimi: and
while fond of their children, after time had given o])poi'l niiily I'oi- an alladi-
ment to develop between parent and child. i1 was ne\ci--1 he-less a widespread prac-
tice among them, for mothers to part with tlieii- balnis at birth. i:ivinu' them freely
and without reserve to relatives or friends who iiiiuht e\])ress a wish tor the ehild.

Infanticide.

There can be no doidjt but that infant ieide was [)i'evalent auionu them and

X -

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 45

tliat n very I.u'uo per cent of llic cliildicii liorii were dispose;! ol' in \;ii'i(!iis ways
liy their parents, soon after their hirtli. (ieiierally speaking, i1 ap-
pears that in Hawaii, as tln'oniihout Polynesia, tlie strnugh' for exist-
ence and life's necessities, was largely evaded l)y i'es1 riding the na-
tni'al increase in popnlation in this way. AVhatcNcr the cansr may liave
been for this ninisnal restriction, it is (piite generally adiiiilled to have Ixvn an
effective one so far as keejting the populalion down to whri'c a cond'ortahle
snhsistenee conld hi' had l)y all who were [)erinitted by their i)ai'en1s to live past
the perilous period of early infancy. From the purely economic point of view
this artificial check was most l)eneficial. Freed from crowding liy overpopnla-
tion, the [vrimitive connnnnily need not live under the scourge of grin;lin'.i'
poverty. By limiting the size of the family to the means and ability of the
parents to ])i-ovide, there conld lie enough foi' all. Direct reasoninu' led tliem,
therefore, to free themselves from the irksome necessity of providing nnire oi"
dividing less, by restricting the increase in popidation to a jxiint well within
the apparent normal food sui)ply. jNIv friend, T)i\ Titus .Alnnson Coan. without
upholding the crude methods employed in adjusting the two imjiortant factors
mentioned, fiiuls the freedom which the ])eople enjoyed from tlie necessity of
pi-oviding, to be the main cause of the unusual development of the genial and
generous traits of the llawaiians, and in it finds the principal source of their
marital happiness. Other writers account for the practice of infanticide among
the TTawaiians on the unpardonable ground of laziness — unwillingness to tike
the trouble to reai' children. But as we are told that pariMits wei-e fond of their
children and ]iarental disciplini^ was not riti'orous. and as children were left
laryelx- to their own devices, their care could hardly be regarded as a serious
burden ; moreover, more girl children were destro^■ed than boys, indicating' that
the f(U^mer reason was the more economic and. theri^fore the more human and
logical one. On the other hand it may be urged that a cei'tain aiiiount of
brutality was always exhibited toward their own kind. The old and jihvsically
unfortunate among the connnon {)eople fared roughly at the hands of the com-
munity. Old age was despised. The insane were often stoned to death and

Descriptiox of PIj.\te.

1. A sturdy old native in characteristic Euro]iean dress. 2. The Hawaiian warrior
Kaniehaneha I. From a monument in front of the Judiciary Building in llonohiiu. erected,
during the reign of King Kalakaua, one handnd years after the discovery of the ll;n\;iiian
Islands by Captain Cook. The statue, by an Anieric;ni artist, is a coniposite. based on a |iaint-
ing of Kamehameha by a Eussian artist and supidiniented by ])hotographs of the finest tyjies of
modern Hawaiians. The figure is shown wearing the helmet |mahio]e| made of wick(>r-work
covered with feathers; a long cloak [ahuula] of feathers attaclied to a fine net work of olona ;
about the chest and over the shoulders is draped tlie malo of I'mi. also made of feathers on an
olona fouiidaticm. About the loins is tied the common tajia malo — the covering worn by the
men of ancient Hawaii when at work; in the left hand is tlie sjiear [newa|, the ciiief imple-
ment of warfare. The Honolulu statue is a duplicate of the original whicli was lost in a wreck
on the voj^age to Honolulu. The sunken statue was subsetinently raiseil and now stands in
the court yard at Kohala, Hawaii. Four pictures in bas-relief about the base of tiie monu nent
(not here shown) represents (a) canoes greeting Captain Cook at Kealakekiia l^ay ; (b) si.\ men
hurling s]iears at Kjunehamelia ; (c) a fleet of war canoes buih f(n' tlie invasion of Kauai,
and (d) ir.en am! children im the roadside. 3. Muscular ydiiiig Ilnwaiian.

46 NATUEAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the sick sometimes left to die of neglect or, less frequently, were put to death
by their relatives.

Descent of Rank.

AVhile the descent of rank through the female line gave women a place of
unquestioned importance in their social scheme and often elevated her to the
hiuhest positions in the political order, it did not save her from certain forms
of social degradation directed irrevocably at all her sex. For example, her sex
was excluded from the interior of their chief heiaus. At lurth she was more un-
welcome than her brother and more lialile to be summarily sent to the grave.
She was the object of the most oppressive of the regulations of the tabu system.
She must not eat with men or even taste food from an oven that had been used
in preparing food for them. She was not allowed in the men's eating houses,
and several of tlie choicer food products of the islands Avere absolutely forbidden
her. Such delicacies, for example, as turtle, pork, certain kinds of fish,
cocoanuts and l:)ananas, were reserved by the tabu for the exclusive use of the
male sex. But as a sort of compensation the men attended to the preparation
and cooking of the food, and women were allowed the privilege of accompanying
and aiding their husbands and brothers in battle They could manufacture
bark cloth without fear of competition by the men, and they could engage in
the practice of medicine, as they understood it, on equal terms with the sterner
sex.

The Tabu.

Reference has just been made to their tabu system. A cursory examination
of it will show what a far-reaching, serious and exceedingly complicated system
of penal exactions and regulations it was. No one, not even the king, was alto-
gether free from its influence, and the common people were made to bow to its
dictation at every turn of their daily lives. As an institution, the system was
both religious and political, in that the violation of the tabu ^ was a sin as
well as a crime. As a punishment for its infraction the offender was liable to
lu'i ng down the wrath of the gods, and they were numerous, as well as bring
al)()ut his own death. Avhich was often inflicted in an exceedingly cruel and bar-
lifirous manner. This extraordinary institution, although common throughout
Polynesia, was worked out to a finer detail, and more sternly enforced in Hawaii,
perhaps, than in any of the Pacific islands. For the present purj^ose it would be
tedious to sketch the system in anything more than a general way. Suffice to
say that the tabu was the supreme law of the land. In its final analysis it was a
system of religious prohibition founded on fear and superstition, the interpreta-
tion and use of which was in the hands of a ]iowerful and unscrupulous priest-
hood, the kahunas, who in their i)almy days were supported with all the physical
power that the kings and influential chiefs could bring to bear.

Some of the tabus were fixed and permanent, being well understood by all
the people. Many such there were relating to the seasons, to the gods and to

^ That which was forbidden.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 47

oft-repeated ceremonies. Others were special. Icinpofary jiiid ci-i-alic. liaving
their inception in the will or caprice of the king or tlie pleasnrc of the kalmnas.
Some of the more burdensome were sjjecific and dii-ected against certain persons
or objects. Eor example, the persons of llie chiefs and priests were lalni -
as were the temi)les and the temple idols. Some in effect were exceedingly
rigid requirements, others partook more of the force and importance of regula-
tions. There were four principal tabu periods during each month. During
these periods a devout chief was expected to spend much time in the heiau.-'^
At such times women were forbidden to enter a canoe or have intercourse with
the other sex until the tabu was lifted. An especial edict nuide it incumbent
that during the whole period of her pregnancy the expectant mother nuist live
entirely apart from her husband, in accordance with a very ancient tabu. At
the periods sacred to the great gods many were put to death for infractions
of th(^ tabu, as many restrictions were promulgated and enforced at such sea-
sons, and, through ignorance, the people were liable to disregard them.

We are informed by the people and through the records of early visitors
that at such times no person could bathe, or be seen abroad during the day-time,
no canoes could be launched, no fires were allowed, not even a pig could grunt,
a dog bark or rooster crow for fear the tabu might be broken and fail of its
purpose. Should it fail the offenders were made to pay the penalty with tlieir
lives.

Any particular place or object might be declared tabu by tlie proper person
by simply affixing to it a stick bearing aloft a bit of tapa, this being a sufficient
sign that the locality was to be avoided. The bodies of the dead were especially
sacred objects and always tabu. As long as the body remained unburied it was
subject to the vagaries of the system. Those who remained in the house or had
to do with the corpse were defiled and forbidden to enter other houses in the
village.

Owing to the tabu, two ovens must l)e nuiintained, one for tlie husl)and, the
other for the wife: two houses must be built t(» eat in, a third to sleep in. Tn a
thousand similar ways the system was fastened on every act of the daily life of
the people to such an extent that it was ever present, dominating their every
thought and deed. It o]')pressed their lives, cirtniled tluMi- libcM-ties. and dark-
ened and narrowed th(Mr horizon bevond belief.

CHAPTER IV.

THE RELIGION OF THE HAWAllAXS: THEIR :\[ETHODS OF WAR-
FARE AND FEUDAL ORGANIZATION.

Complex and bewildering as was the Hawaiian system of tabus. Ilieir re-
ligious system was even more so. Moreovei'. the one was so inlerlwined with
the other that the two subjects cannot 1><' treated sepai'atelx-. Since the lla-

^ Sacred. ^ Tenijile.

-f.

x' t

THE HAWAIIAN PP^OPLE. 49

waiians were naturally a lii'-ihly religious people, tlicy found iiinny objects to
worship and many ways in which to worship them. As a matter of fact, the
cartli, the sea and the air were iilled with their aiiiakiias, in the form of invisible
being's, who wrought wonders in the powers and ])lienoineiia of natni-e. Tiie
presence and power of the amakuas was evidenced to them b\- the thundt-r, light-
ning, wind, earthquakes and volcanoes.

Religion Among the IIawaiians.

Of the innumerable gods in the pantheon, Ku, Kane, Lono and Kanaloa
were supreme. These important gods were supposed to exist in the heavens, in
invisible form, and to have been present at the beginning. They were also ho-
lieved to appear on the earth in human form. In addition to these each person
had his or her own titulary deity, and each occupation was presided over by a
special amakua, to which worship was due. Thus the fisherman, the canoe maker,
the hula dancer, the tapa maker, the bird catcher, even the thieves and the
gamblers, all had presiding deities with power to prospei- them in their callings
and bring them good luck in their undertakings. Other deities were clothe 1 in
life in the form of numerous animals and plants. Disease and death were quite
naturally regarded as the woi-k of the gods and appreciated l)y the people as
material evidence of their invisil)]e powers.

Idol Worship.

They Avorshipped their deities chiefly through idols made of wood or stone.
They believed that such images represented, or in some way were occupied by
the spirit of the deity that they sought to worship.

The people as a whole had a rather well defined conception in regard to
existence after death. They believed that each person had an invisible double.
They also thought that after death the spirit lingered al'iout in dark places in
the vicinity of the body and was able to struggle in hand to hand encounters
with its enemies. A nightmare was interpreted as a temporai'v (piitting of the
l)ody by the spirit and in certain cases, through proper prayers and ceremonies,
it was believed to be possible to put the soul back into the body after it had
left it. This was usually accomplished by lifting the toe-nail of the unfortunate
pel-son concerned. Many places were believed to be haunled and the spirit was
supposed to journey from the grave to its fcu-mer abode along tlie path that the
corpse was carried for burial.

DKsrKiPTiox OF Plate.

1. The Ilc'iau of Puukiluiln at Kawailiac — a luii;(.' .stuiic ciiclosuri' Imilt liy Kaiticlianielia I.
as a ])roteetion ajjainst the perils of war. Many human sacrifices were nia(h' on ils altar to
the great war god Kukailiinoku ; among others the l)o<ii(>s of Kaniehameha 's rival. Keoua. and
his followers who, on a peace mission, were treacherously slain while landing at Kawaihae
from a canoe in the year 1791. -. P^ntranee to the lliian at Kawaiha". .'!. l)oul)le war
canoe equip{)ed with mat sails; the gourd masks wcirn liy the wari-iors art' also shown.
4. l^eather cloalf [ahuula] worn liy (diiefs of importance; made of red |iiwi] and yellow
[mamo and o-o] bird feathers. ■"». The city of refuge | })Uulioiuia | at llonaunau; a stone wall
twelve feet high and fifteen feet thick encloses seven acres of tabu grtnnid. To such sanctuaries
women and cliildren, warriors worsted in battle, criminals and others in peril might floe f(U"
safety from their avengers. 6. Heian of the ojien truncated jiyramidal type; compare with
the rectangular walled type shown in figs. 1 and 2.

D. H. HILL LIBRARY

50 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

The Future State.

They had a ratlier iiideiiuite notion as to the exact nature of the future state.
However, they believed that the two usual conditions, misery and happiness,
existed. If the soul after journeying- to the region of Wakea ^ was not favor-
ably received, it was forced through despair and loneliness to leap into the
abode of misery, far below. Precipices from which the souls of the unhappy
departed were supposed to plunge on this wild leap are occasionally pointed out
at various places about the group. One at the northern point of Oahu, another
at the northern extremity- of Hawaii, and a third on the western end of Maui
are w^ell known to those acquainted with Hawaiian superstition.

Heiaus.

In order to propitiate their gods, or better accomplish their worship, the peo-
ple through fear or at the command of the king or priests, erected numerous
temples or heiaus. To many students of the race this blind fear of their gods
and their chiefs, and their unreasoning acceptance of the tabu, are subjects of
continual wonder. Their principal temples were of two general forms, the
older being composed of rough stones laid up without mortar in the form of a
low, truncated pyramid, oblong in shape, on top of which were placed the altar
of sacrifice, certain grass liouses, the idols of the temple and the other grotesque
wooden images and objects used in their worship. The later and more common
form of heiau was made by erecting four high walls of stone, surmounted with
numerous images, enclosing a space occupied, as before, by the various images,
oracles, sacred places and altars of worship. These temples were numerous in
the more thickly settled regions on all the islands and were usually built near
the shore. On Hawaii, in the region from Kailua to Kealakekua, particularly,
they were very numerous and close together. The principal heiaus were dedi-
cated to their chief gods, but many smaller ones were built, as fish heiaus, rain
heiaus and the like, and were dedicated to the special god of the builder.

Where temples were found in large numl)ers a corresponding num1)er of
priests were to he expected. Of these there were many orders and sub-orders.
They and th<Mr rights were constantly made use of by the chiefs for the purpose
of terrifying the people. Through them the tabu was coupled with idol worship,
and their combined cruelties, terrors and restrictions made an integral part of
the general system of government.

Warfare.

War among the ancient Hawaiians was one of the chief occupations and
witli them, as with other races, war was the "sport of kings." In making
preparations for war the king, however, in addition to the council of his chiefs,
had the advantage of the advice and skill of a certain class of military experts
who were instructed in the traditions and wisdom of their predecessors. Being

1 The hdiiip (if the re]iiite(l father of the race, a jihTce provided with houses, food, consorts and
pleasures.

THE HAWAIIAN l*EOJn.E. 51

well ac'cjuaiuted with the inetluxl.s of warfare that had been successfully re-
sorted to by kings in former times, the\- wei-e at all times among the king's
most respected advisors.

Fortitications, as we understand them, were not a ])art of their scheme of
warfare, though sites for camps and defences were selected that jxjssessed
natural advantages in the matter of their defense against tlie enemy. That
part of the population not actually engaged in battle was sent to strongholds,
usually steep eminences or mountain retreats. In case of a rout the whole army
retired to these strongholds and valiantly defended them. In addition to these
natural forts, there were temples of refuge or sanctuaries to whicli those broken
in battle, or in peril of their lives in time of peace, might tiee and escape tho
wrath of all powers without. These temples were crude thougli permanent
enclosures, whose gates were wide open to all comers at all times.

The Hawaiian warriors had many methods of attack and defense, depend-
ing usually on such matters as the strength of the enemy, the character of the
battlefield and the plan of campaign. Their l)attles were generally a succession
of skirmishes, the whole army seldom engaging in a scrimmage. They usuall\",
though not always, made their attack in the daytime, generally giving battle in
open fields, without the use of much real military strategy. Occasionally inter-
island wars occurred in the form of naval battles in Avhich several hundred canoes
were used by both sides, but as a general thing their differences were settled on
land.

Practically the entire adult population was sul)ject to a call to engage
in hostilities. Only those who were incapacitated through age or from in-
firmity were exempt from the summons of the recruiting officer sent out by the
king to gather warriors, when anything like an extensive military operation
was determined upon. If occasion required, a second officer was sent to forcibly
bring to camp those who refused to answ^er the call of the first. As a limniliation
and mark of their insubordination it was a custom to slit the ears of the offenders
and drive them to camp with ropes around their bodies.

Preliminary to a Battle.

The army stores were usually prepared beforehand, and each wai-rioi- was
expected to bring his own provisions and arms. Not infrequently iiolice of
an impending attack was sent to the opposing forces and a battlefield imiluail\'
satisfactory to both forces selected for the engagement. The women took an
active share in the important pai't of the work connected with tlie eonnnissar\ ;
often following their husbands and hi-others onto the battlefield, carrying extra
weapons or calabashes of food. Wlien tlu^ forces were assembled and all tilings
in readiness for the fray, an astrologer was consulted by the king. 1 1" tlu^ signs
were auspicious the battle would l)e undertaken. As the opposing armies aiv
proached each other, the king's chief priests were smnmoned to make the king's
sacrifice to his gods. Two fires beiue built b(>tween the armies, the ]-)riosts
of each army made an offering, usually a \u\s. wliieli was killed by strangling.
When the various relisious ceremonies were over the battle would begin,

^ 1

<1^

>-'

= ,

a:'

•5

„^

<11

TlIK HAWAIIAN I'HOI'LH. 53

the, priests aeeoiupaiiyiii^- tlic armies, l)eariii^' tiicii- idols alol't thai the Ixxlic^s
of the first slain in battle mi^ht be properly olTci-cd lo the <iuds. Tlieir idols
took the place of hjiiiiiers. During- the heat of halllc ihey would be advanced
in the midst of the warriors, while the priests, siipporl iiig' them, to cheer their
followers and spread terror in llic hearts of the enemy, would aive blood cui-dling
>('lls accompanying' Ihciii with frightful grimaces, all ol whii-li were supposed to
come from the images themselves, and to be an unmistakahle token that the
gods were in their midst.

In opening the attack-, it is i-elated. a single wai'ri(»r would sometinu^s ad-
vance from the ranks, armed only with a fan and when within hailing distance
would proceed to blackguard the enemy, daring them to attack him single-handed.
This exasperating challenge would l)e answered by a nund)er of spears being
hurled at the taunting warrior, who would nimbly avoic^l tiiem or seize them in
his hands and hurl them back at the enemy. Such incendiar\' manoeuvers were
well calculated to precipitate trouble and not infrequently they resulted in the
death of the intrepid warrior. A fierce struggle would tlien follow to gaiit
possession of his body.

Their battles were often almost hand to hand encounters, lasting some-
times for days. However, they do not seem to have been very fatal. Often
they resulted in routing one party or the other, the conquerors taking possession
of the land and portioning it out among the victorious chiefs. A heap of stones
was made over the bodies of tlie victorious dead, v/hile the vanquished slain were
left unburied. Captured wai-riors were occasionally allowed tlieir freedom, but
more frequently they were put to death or kept as future sacrifices. The
women and children of the captured were made slaves and hound to the soil.

When peace was sought a ])raneli of ki leaves or a young banana plant was
borne aloft b\' the ambassadors as a flag of truce. When terms were arrived at
a pig was sacrificed and its ])lood poured on the ground as an emblem of the fat<^
of the party to the treaty who shoul'l break its conditions. The leaders of both
armies would then braid a lei of maile and deposit it in a temple as a peace
offering. The heralds were then sent running in all dii-ections to announce

Descriptiox of Pl.\te.

1. Typical Hawaiian burial caw. The coininon pcoiilc after dcatli were usually secreted
in caves in the neighliorhood ; the burial took place durinu' the iiiyht. tireat care was taken,
however, to hide the bones in secret places to prevent them fniin being used for fish hooks and
arrow points. The important bones of the kings, including the skull, leg and arm bones, were
gathered from the decayed flesh, collected into a ))undle, wrapped with ta])a and bound up with
cord; the bundle was tlien deified by elaborate ceremonii's before the bonces were placed in tlie
mo,st secret and inacc;ssible caves, often being carried from uiie island to another. The bones
of a high chief were preserved in vaultdike caves in the idiffs and nut infrequently were laid
at rest in the warrior's canoe together with other precious possessions belonging to the departed.
2. An aged kahuna. 3. Kukailinn)ku, the god of war; taken from a figure in ( 'ook 's
Voyages; other representations of this go<l are on exliil)ition in the i^)isho]) .M\iseum. 4. Burial
cave (near view of fig. 1) showing a ''transition" burial in a eollin hewn from a log.
5. Burial cave showing portion of a cano(>, mats, tapa, etc. li. Ancient wooden idol. Prior
to the landing of the missionaries idolatry was abolished and the idtils df the nation hidden
away in caves; later many of them were collected ami burned. A number, however, were
preserved and are now in museums in Hawaii, America and Europe.

54 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the termination of the war, and the event wonki be approi)riately eelebrated with
feasts, dancing and games.

The King and His Power.

The king was the recognized liead of all civil and military, also ecclesiastical
authority. The lands, the people, their time, their possessions, the temples, the
priests, the idols, the tabus, the prophets, all lielonged finally to him. Every-
thing M'as his to use as he willed so long as he Avas in the favor of the
gods. The priests, who were the only ones skilled in interpreting the oracles
and learning the wishes of the gods, were also the class which determined the
offerings that would placate the deities worshipped. In this way, through
fear, they were able to hold no small amount of influence over the affairs of
state by reason of the king's dread of the wrath of the gods of his realm.

The liigh priest kept the national war god and was at all times in close rela-
tion to the monarch. Other priests were charged with perpetuating the traditions
of the people as well as their own medical, astronomical and general learn-
ing. Besides the regular orders of priests there was a numerous class of
more irregular priests or kahunas, that were little more than sorcerers. They
were able to cause the death of persons obnoxious to themselves, their clients,
their chiefs or their king.

In order to pray any person to death it was only necessary for one of their
kahunas to secure the spittle, the hair, a flnger nail, or personal effects be-
longing to the intended victim, and, by means of certain rites, conjurings and
prayers to the gods, to so work upon the fear and imagination of the individual
as to almost invariably cause his death. As a result they were unpopular as a
class and not infrequently were conspired against by the people, or themselves
prayed to death by the more powerful of their cult.

The Nobility, Chiefs and Common People.

In the time of which we write the ixtpulation was divided into three classes,
the nobility, including the kings and chiefs ; the priests, including the priests,
sorcerers and doctors ; and the common people, made up of agriculturists,
artisans and slaves taken in war. There was an impassable gulf between the
class including the chiefs and the common people.

The distinction was as wide as though the chiefs came from another race
or a superior stock, yet as we have said elsewhere they were undoubtedly all
of one and the same origin with the people under them. A common man could
never be elevated to the rank of a chief, nor could a chief be degraded to that of
a commoner. Hence the rank was hereditary in dignity at least, tliough not
necessarily so as regards function, position or office. Within the class of the
nobility, sharp distinctions were numerous and a certain seniority in dignity
was maintained. As far as can be learned there was no distinction between
civil, military, ecclesiastical and social headship, and there was no separation
between the executive, judicial and legislative functions. The power, in an
irresponsible way, was entirely centered in \ho hands of the nobility.

TlIK HAWAIIAN PKoi'Llv 55

Since the eliiei's were Ix'licved l),v llie coiiinu)n people to he desceiideil i'l-din
the gods in some mysterious and complicated way, they wer-e supposed to be in
close touch with tlie invisible i)owers. They were looked up to with super-
stitious awe, as being both powerful and sacred. This' ndvantage was shrewdly
employed l)y the ruling class in securing the respect and iiii<iiiestioned sul)-
mission of the common people. Death was the penalty inflicted for the slightest
breach of etiquette. Through the enforcement of such submission the chiefs
were able to exact the marks of distinction claimed by them from the masses,
and to control and direct them through a blind rule of duty. Singularly enough
the chiefs were respected while living and in most cases were revered })y the
people after their death.

Among the chiefs themselves there was constant bickering and class rivalry.
The moi, or king of each island usually inherited his i)Osition, but the accident
of birth did not guarantee that he would long remain in power, for unfortu-
nately the assurance of his i)lace lay in the hands of the district chiefs under
him. Seldom could they' be relied upon for unshaken fealty. Their love of
power and capacity for intrigue, as a rule, was not of a common order and
they were often able to demonstrate their complete mastery of the game of
politics.

The important chiefs were therefore usually summoned by the king to sit in
council as an advisory body when weighty matters were to be passed upon.
But the immediate source of all constructive law as such, among the ancient
Iljiwaiians, was the will of their king. Not unlike kings in more enlightened
lands, they were guided in important matters by their stronger chiefs whose
influence they required. These, in turn, were influenced by and dependent upon
the good will of the people under them, for there was nothing to prevent the
common people from transferring their personal affections and allegiance to
other and more considerate chiefs. But back of the king, the chiefs, and the
people M'as the traditional code of customary laAV that served as a powerful re-
straint on the king in preventing the promulgation of purely arbitrarj^ decrees.
The traditional law of the land related mostly to religious and customary ob-
servances, marriage, the family relation, lands, irrigation, personal property and
barter. With such crimes as theft, personal revenge was the court of first
resort. The aggrieved person had the right, if he so desired, to seek the aid of
a kindred chief, or to resort to sorcery with the aid of his kahiuia. The king,
however, was the chief magistrate, with his various chiefs exercising inferior
jurisdiction in their own territories.

The King and the Land.

The king was regarded as the sole proprietor of the land : of the pcojile who
cultivated it, the fish of the sea, — in fact everything oti 1he land oi' in the sea
about it was the property of the king. The king, in short, owned everything,
the people owned nothing, so that technically, the peo|)le existed in a state of
abject dependence. The system that developed lidiii Ihis was one of complete

56 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAAVAII.

and absolute feudalism. Tlie kiny made his head chiefs his principal bene-
ficiaries. They, in turn, established a jirade of lesser chiefs or landlords, who
gathered under them the connnon people as tenants at will. The lands beini]:
divided, those who held the land owed every service and obedience to the chief-
tain landlords. On these landlords the king relied for men. lab(n\ nnmitions
and materials to carry out his plans and fight his battles.

Taxes.

This system was so offensive that it is said that the laborer did not receive
one-third the returns due him for his toil; the lion's share of everything, even
in this simple system, went to the over-lords, in the form of a tax. There was
first, the royal tax that was collected by each grade paying to its superiors until
the whole tax. which consisted of such articles as hogs, dogs, fish, fowl, potatoes,
yams, taro, olona. feathers, and such articles of manufacture as calabashes,
nets, mats, tapas and canoes, was collected. In addition to the foregoing, the
people were subject to special taxes at any time, and labor taxes at all times,
when they were called upon to build walls, repair fisli ponds, cultivate the chief's
taro ponds, or construct or repair the temples.

Besides all these, and other means of taxing the people, there were customs
which made it necessary to make extraordinary presents to the king, especially
when that dignitary Avas traveling, with the penalty that if enough presents
were not brought, plunder and rapine was the consequence. AVith this hasty
review of some of the more general and especially interesting or striking pecu-
liarities of the Hawaiian people, as a branch of the Polynesian race, that are of
importance as salient characteristics when we wish to compare them and their
natural human history with that of other races of mankind, we can now pass to a
brief review of their arts, occupations, ornaments, weapons, tools and kindred
subjects in which they made use of the materials with which nature surrounded
them.

CHAPTER Y.

THE HAWAIIAN HOUSE: ITS FURNISHINGS AND HOUSEHOLD

UTENSILS.

The houses of the common people were little more thnn single-room straw-
thatched hovels, supported upon a crude frame-work of poles, the structure
in many instances being scarcely suffici(Mit to shelter the family. On the other

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)
woven over a wooden umeke or a gourd-calabash, a fine Niihau [makaloa] mat, a sled [papa
holiia] for coasting on the grass on steep hills and two spears; in 2 are a number of small
objects including gourd water bottle [huewai], small idol, canoe model, bowling stones [ulu-
maika]. Hawaiian brick shaped pillows [uluna], gourd hula drum [palm hula], three large
and several small umekes, fans, a feather malo or waistband and a large and small kahili; in
3 the old Hawaiian keeper [kahu] is surrounded by numerous objects of native manufacture,
including poi pounders [pohaku kni poi], kukui nut and feather leis. the famous skirt [pa-u]
of 0-0 feathers (made for the sister of Kamehanudia III. and last useil over the coffin of
Kalakaua) and two large and two small kahilis; in 4 are three large umekes in nets [koko],
a carrying stick [auamo], a gourd fish line container [poho aho], several choice umekes, rare
tapas, kukui nut leis and a small kahili.

PLATE 9. POETION OF THE HAWAIIAN GOVEKNMENT COLLECTION.
(Now Deposited in the liishop Muscuni.)
Among other objects shown in 1 are three large wooden calabashes [iiineke| of flat form
on a fine lanhala mat; four kaliibs of various forms; a wicker-work basket |liaiiai poepoe]

(Dcucfi/flidii (if I'lalc ('(ihtiiiiicd mi tin' Opinmite Page.)

58 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

hand, the houses of the better class, notably the chiefs and the nobility, were
much superior. Being well built and neatly kept, they were not so devoid of
simple comfort as their absolute lack of architectural beauty might suggest.

While their houses varied much in size and shape they were uniformly
dark and poorly ventilated, being invariably without windows or doors, save
the small hole left, usually on one side, through which the occupant might pass
in and out in a crouching posture.

Complete Domestic Establishment.

As with the various occupations that had to do with the gathering of their
food and the making of their raiment, so the building of the house which
sheltered them was attended by many important religious observances, the omis-
sion of any of which might result in the most serious consequences. Every
stage, from the gathering of the timbers and grass in the mountains, to the last
act of trimming the grass from over and around the door before it was ready
for final occupancy, furnished an occasion for the intervention of the priests
and the imposition of special tabus that must be satisfied before the house
could be used as a dwelling.

As has been suggested elsewhere, a complete domestic establishment was made
up of several conveniently grouped single-room houses that were given over to
special purposes. The well-to-do Hawaiian boasted of at least six such single-
room houses. The house for the family idols and the men's eating house were
both always tabu to women. The women's eating house, a common sleeping
house, a house for the beating of the tapa, and lastly, a separate house for the
use of the women during various tabu periods made up the group. Occa-
sionally the better houses were on a raised stone foundation, and a fence made
about the group to separate them from their neighbors and to mark the limits of
the sphere of domestic influence. To the foregoing might be added a house
for canoes, a storehouse, and others for special purposes as might be required.

Building of a House.

The building of a grass house of the better type was an important task and
one that called for much skill and experience. The timbers of which it was con-
structed were selected with great care, different woods being preferably used for
certain purposes. When trimmed of the outer bark, notched and fashioned into
shape by crude stone tools they were placed into the positions which they were
intended to occupy in the framework of the structure and then firmly bound
together with braided ropes of ukiuki grass.

The corner posts were first to be put in place, each being securely set in the
ground. The side posts were next planted in line and the plate pole lashed
to the top. The tall poles at the end of the house w^ere next put up and the
ridge pole put into place. The rafters were then added and the upper ridge
pole lashed firmly above the main ridge pole. Small straight poles were finally
lashed horizontally, a few inches apart, on the outside of the completed frame-

THE HAWAIIAN PP:OPLE. 59

work. This clone the thatch was added and a rude sliding door made and fitted
in place. The outside was trimmed, and over all a large net placed to hold the
grass in shape while it dried. Pili grass, lau.hala leaves, sugar-cane and ki
leaves were used as a thatch according to circumstances. When completed a
group of Hawaiian houses resembled nothing as much, in general appearance,
as a number of neat hay stacks.

While as a general rule each man was expected to be able to perform all
the various forms of labor necessary to the building of a house, making a canoe
or carving his dishes, there were those who l)y choice did certain things in ex-
change for the work of others. That is to say, should a chief order a house built,
certain men would cut the timbers, others gather the pili grass, others hue the
timbers, while still others made the binding cords or prepared the holes for the
corner posts. The thatchers would then perform their work, so that l)y piece
work, all working together, a house could be completed in two or three days.

If well made it would last a dozen years, — when it Avould require re-thatching

House Furnishings.

The furnishings and utensils in even the best houses were meager in the
extreme. The raised portion of the floor, covered with mats that formed tht?
beds by night and lounge by day, and the space on the stones in the center of
the floor, that served as a fireplace when required during rainy weather, were
the most noticeable evidences of comfort. •The braided mats and ornamented
tapas were the most conspicuous among their possessions, liut the bowls and
dishes for the serving and storage of food were, perhaps, the most important
household necessities. These few objects formed characteristic features of the
Hawaiian home. The most valuable of their household utensils, without doubt,
was the calabash. It was fashioned from wood or made from the shell of
the gourd, for though clay was known to the Hawaiian people they made no use
of it and knew nothing whatever of the potter's art.

In the carving of these wooden bowls or umekes they exhibited much skill,
using only the simple stone implements of their culture and such primitive
devices as they knew in fashioning them. Some wonderful bowls were pro-
duced from the woods of the native kou, kamani and the koa trees. After the
log had been soaked for a long period it Avas roughly shaped without and was
hollowed out within by hacking and burning until the desired form was secured.
By this method the wooden sides were reduced to a fraction of an incli in tliick-
ness. The receptacle was then smoothed by rub])ing first with coral, then rough
lava, and lastly with pumice. The real polishing was done by rubbing with
charcoal, bamboo leaves and at last with ])readfruit leaves and tapa. Ol'ten a
lid, made and polished in the same way, was added, and usually a koko or net
of convenient form for carrying or handling them was provided. It may be
truthfully said that the splendid vessels made in this way, some of them thirty
inches in diameter, were among the most remjirkablt^ obj(M'ts wronulit by the
ancient Hawaiians.

7. <

< 3

i-l o

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 61

Household Implements.

In the manufacture of other household implements, as pig dishes, dog
trays, fish dishes, finger bowls, slop hasins and the like, the same tools and ma-
terials were used and tlie same general method of working them into shape was
emploj'Cd, though frequently they were carved or ornamented in various ways.

In the calabash gourd the Hawaiians had a substitute for the more labori-
ously prepared wooden bowl jnst described. While the calabash gourd is not a
native of Hawaii and was not found on the other islands in Polynesia, it was
in general use among the natives of this group at the time of their discovery
and the shells of the fruit put to many uses in their economy, often being em-
ployed as receptacles for food, containers for water and storage boxes for cloth-
ing and personal effects.

A slightly different though equally useful species was the bottle gourd.
Unlike the former, it was known and used quite generally throughout Poly-
nesia. The smaller ones served as first-rate water bottles and the larger speci-
mens were utilized in the manufacture of their hula-drums, which w'ere some-
times three feet or more in height. Both species were extensively cultivated in
the period of which we write. In preparing them for use the soft, bitter pulp
was first scraped out as clean as possible and the shell allowed to dry. When
it had become thoroughly hardened the remaining portion of the soft material
was scraped out with a piece of pumice or a fragment of coral. They were then
filled with water and left to stand until they had become sweet.

In making water bottles where the small neck did not admit of the pre-
liminary scraping, the soft part was allowed to rot ont. Then stones and sand
were put inside and shaken about until the contents came away, leaving only
the clean, hard outer shell. To the bottle was added a sea shell or folded palm
leaf as a stopper, and the container was ready for use. The different forms often
had different uses. When it was desired to carry them, — or indeed any heavy
burden, — the larger gourds were usually provided with carrying nets of one form
or another and suspended one on either end of a tough wooden carrying stick
which was notched at each end.

Finger bowls were in general use among the Hawaiians long before they
were introduced by the v.hites, and many ingenious devices were perfected
by the natives to remove the sticky, pasty poi from their fingers. These bowls
varied greatly in size, shape and design, bnt were gencraly made from the kou.

Description of Plate.

1. A chiefess [alii] wearing a lioloku ; about tlie neck is sliowii a lei | li'i jialnoa | of
braided human hair ornamented with a pendant ivory hook; in the liand is a small kaliili with
ivory and tortoise shell handle. The lei palaoa and the "fly flap" are both insignia of chief-
tainship. 2. Middle-aged corpulent Hawaiian; beside the poi board is shown the tare roots
as they appear before baking. 3. Group of Hawaiian diving boys in Honolulu harbor.
4. Hawaiian woman plaiting a lauhala mat; besiile her is a finished mat and a bundle of the
lauhala leaves ready for use. 5. Ohulenui, whose father, as a boy, was familiar with the
history and practices of worship at Hiiliopoi. the great heiau on Molokai in Mapulehu Valley.
6. A pure blood middle-aged Hawaiian surrounded by objects of more or less recent manu-
facture.

62 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

With the finger bowl at liand, into which the fingers might be dipped or the
hands washed, and witli a plentiful supply of fresh leaves as napkins, the
absence of knife, fork and spoon from the Hawaiian table was not such a serious
omission as it might at first seem. However, in certain parts of the group, as
Puna, where a less tenacious poi was made from the sweet potato, a general
utility implement w^as fashioned in the form of a generalized spoon from a frag-
ment of cocoanut shell that served very well the combined purpose of spoon and
ladle.

Otlier household implements for special use were made from the shells of
cocoanuts. Besides serving many varied purposes they were chiefly useful
as cups and were made in special forms as containers for awa.

The Hawaiian mirror was an ingenious device consisting simply of a pol-
ished piece of wood or a piece of smooth, dark-colored lava. In order to pro-
duce a reflecting surface it was dropped into a calabash of water. The image
was thus produced on the surface of the water, or, if sufficiently polished, it!
could be used after immersion in the water. To trim the hair, a shark tooth
firmly fastened in a stick was employed; or, if this method proved to be too
painful, fire might be used instead. A fan of curious form, braided usually
from the leaves of the pandanus or the loulu palm, was a convenience of ancient
origin among the Hawaiians. The form, however, has been greatly modified
in recent times. The back-scratcher, a scraper-like implement made of hard
wood and provided with a long handle, M'as a decided comfort to the ancient
Hawaiians. and they were in general and frequent use at the time of which we
write.

In the evening artificial light was supplied by burning the nuts of the
kukui, which were strung on slencler strips of bamboo. The oil of these useful
nuts was also pressed out and burned with a tapa wick in a stone cup or crude
lamp. Occasionally the fat of the pig and dog was used as an illuminating oil.

Fire.

The Hawaiian method of lighting a fire was by the friction of tw-o pieces
of wood. A sharp hard stick w^as pressed firmly into a groove on a large and
softer stick and rubbed up and down until the fine dust that rubbed ofl^ and
accumulated in one end of the groove ignited from the heat of friction. When
everything was properly managed only a few minutes were necessary to start
the tinder and transfer the light to a bit of tapa or other inflammable material.
The trouble incident to igniting a fire was obviated by carrying fire from place
to place. To do this old tapa was twisted into a cord a third of an inch in
diameter and rolled into a ball to lie used when desired as a slow-burning torch.
In this way a lighted fuse might be carried a long distance.

The Hawaiian broom was simpl^y a conveniently-sized l)undle of palm-stem
midribs tied together. And since sweeping ^vas not an exacting art, it served
every purpose. While wooden pillows were used, oblong six-sided ones made of
platted pandanus leaves were more common.

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 63

Small stones of different shapes for various domestic purposes were used,
some for cooking birds, others as bath rubbers, and so on. })ut the principal
use of stone in the household was in the manufacture of pt)i pounders and
mortars, to which reference has been made in another chapter. Lastly, refer-
ence should be made to their wooden slop jars which were in common use as
receptacles for refuse food, banana skins, fishbones and offal. While many of
them were roughly made of Ivou. others were finished, and a few belonging to
the chiefs were inlaid with the bones of their enemies or those whom they
would dishonor.

CHAPTER VI.
OCCUPATIONS OF THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE.

Agriculture Among the Hawaiians.

Agriculture w^as one of the principal occupations of the ancient Hawaiians
and like almost everything they did, was accomplished by a set of more or less
elaborate religious ceremonies. They were particular to plant in the proper
time of the moon, and prayers were said, and offerings made and tabus kept
during the various stages of the growth of the plant. When necessary, prayers
were made for rain or to allay the wind, or to stop the ravages of insects, and at
last when the crop was ripe, prayers of thanksgiving were said and appropriate
offerings were made to the family gods.

The growing of taro was the chief industry among their farming activi-
ties, and the simple dishes manufactured fronj this plant have always been their
principal and often only article of food. Two methods of planting were and
still are followed. Where running water was to be had from the streams taro,
or kalo, could be grown at all seasons, and only a scarcity of water could seri-
ously influence the yield. AVhere water could be led onto the ground from the
streams or be led to the fields by their primitive irrigation ditches, the crop was
always in a flourishing state of growth. The work necessary to prepare the
ground, plant, irrigate and cultivate the crop, then as now. formed the most
laborious part of the native farming.

Taro Growing.

Considering the character of the country, the natives had arrived at a
degree of skill in the cultivation of the useful taro plant that has been difficult
to improve upon. After a century of contact with European ingenuity and
learning, the crop is still cultivated in the ancient manner, with the exception
that the primitive digger or oo, made of wood, has been sn]>]ilauted by some of
the more modern garden implements made of metal.

The taro ponds are usually small and irregular in form, and vary in size
from a few yards to a half acre or more in extent. They were formerly nuide
with the utmost care, by first removing the earth down to a water level and

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THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 65

using- the surplus soil to l)uild strong embankments on jill sides of the pond,
which, when necessary, were re-enforced with stones, sugar-cane and cocoanut
leaves. The earth in the pond was then carefully manipulated so that the bot-
tom and sides could be beaten solid. In early times tlie hai-d end o£ a cocoanut
leaf was used as a flail when it was necessary to pack the earth tirmlv to form
the walls and bottom into a water-tight basin. When the pond was water-tight
the earth was thoroughly spaded and worked over for a couph^ of feet in dcptli.
The water was then let into the pond and the earth mixed and stamped wilh
the feet until a thin muck was formed.

The next step was the planting of the ne\\ crop. The leaves cut oCf in a
buncli just below the crown of the plant as the ripe roots are harvested, form
the Imli. The taro is usually propagated by planting the huli wliile still fresh,
in rows eighteen inches to two feet apart. Water is let into the patch, after
planting, so as to form a shallow pond and a fresh water supply is constantly
kept running into the patch until the roots become mature, when they, are ready
for use.

The taro plants usually recpiire from nine to fifteen months in which to
ripen, but they will continue to grow and improve in quality for two years or
more. The provident Hawaiian would therefore plant but a small area at a
time with the result that the plants would not all l)e ready to harvest on the
same date.

In addition to the common method of pond cultivation just described. several
other methods continue to be made use of in the planting and cnltivation of
taro, which varj^ more or less in detail. In regions where streams vrere not avail-
able and where other conditions were suitable, the land was cleared of weeds
and large holes dug in which several plants were set. AVhen necessary the soil was
enriched with kukui leaves, ashes and fine earth. The crop, if carefully i)lanted
in this way, and tended faithfulh'. would vield abundant returns.

Description of Plate.

1. Kahuna pule aiuiana. It was the business of these sorcerers to jn'ooure the deatli of
persons obnoxious to themselves, or the chiefs, or their clients, by means of prayers and reli-
gious rites. They secured the spittle or some intimate beloncfing of the person whom they
wished to destroy and by means of certain rites, coiijuriny and jiraycrs to the gods, so wrought
upon the imaoination and superstitious fear of the individual as to almost invariably briug about
his death. At the left is showA a large cocoanut hula drum [palm hula] that formerly was
only beaten on the occasion of a royal birth. 2. Group designed to show the process of poi
pounding. 3. Tapa making; the old woman is shown boating the Itark on the wooden anvil
I kua kuku] with a tapa club for the purpose of thinning the wet liark or felting the edges
of the sti'ips together. The girl stands by with an umeke of water to sprinkle on the bark
from time to time; on the bush beside her are a numl)er of strips roughed out ready to be
beaten thin and smooth; behind her a finished sheet is in the process of being ornamented.
4. Scraping olona. The long fibers of this useful jilant are hackled out by scraping the
bark on a narrow board [laau kahi olona] with a tortoise shell scraper [uhi kahi olona
kuahonu]. From the fiber, twine for all purposes, but especially useful in the manufacture of
fish nets, was made. In the case behind are shown such fishing apparatus as seins. nets, fish
hooks, shrimp baskets, sinkers and all the various articles made use of by the native fisherman.

66 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Taro and Its Uses.

Several varieties of taro were planted by the natives which varied in size,
flavor and growth. In general, however, the varieties all have large, thrifty,
heart-shaped leaves of a light green color. The flower is a fragrant, green-
yellow, calla-like blossom and inconspicuous. The root is of a regular oval
form, from four to eight inches in length, and from two to four inches in dia-
meter. In a natural state, when either ripe or unripe, both the root and the
leaves have the exceedingly acrid, pungent taste so characteristic of the genus
of plants to which the taro belongs. But when thoroughly cooked it becomes
mild and palatable without a more disagreeable, peculiar or characteristic taste
than spinach or potatoes might be said to have. When the root is ripe it is
compact and whitish in color, both before and after cooking; but when poor in
quality or unripe, it is liable to be a dull lead color. There are several varieties,
as the pink or royal taro, and the blue, or common taro, which differ as indi-
cated in the color of the ripe and cooked roots as well as in the color of the
poi made from them.

The natives prepared the root for use, as they cook all their food, by first
baking it in a curious oven called an inui. The oven is formed by digging a
hole two or three feet in depth and six or more feet in circumference and
placing in the bottom of the hole a layer of stones. On the stones wood is piled
and on top of the heap still other layers of stones are laid. A fire is then
lighted in the pile of wood and kindling. AVhen the stones are thoroughly
heated those on top are thrown to one side and the taro, sweet potatoes, bananas,
pig, dog, fish or whatever is to be cooked is wrapped in ki or banana leaves
and laid on the stones in the bottom of the hole. The loose hot stones are thrown
in on top of the bundle of leaves containing the food, and a little water is added
to create steam ; the earth and leaves are then hurriedly placed on the mound
to prevent the heat from escaping.

Pol

The taro after being cooked in this manner was and is made into the favorite
dish of the Hawaiians, namely poi. The process of manufacture, though simple,
was laborious and was invariably performed by the men. The first step in the
process of transforming taro into poi was the removing of the rough outer skin
of the root after it had been thoroughly cooked. The scrapings thus secured
were put aside to he returned to the ponds as a fertilizer. The roots when
carefully scraped were thrown on a short plank of hard wood called a poi
board. The board was scooped out slightly in the middle, like a shallow tray.
On this plank the roots were pounded with a thick, heavy stone pestle, of which
two or three forms were formerly in use.

Poi pounding is real work, and when it was to be done properly the na-
tives stripped themselves of everything save thcii- loin cloths. Seating them-
selves cross-legged, usiuilly one at each end of the poi board, the pestling of the

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 67

mass would continue for an honr or more. With careful niani])iilati()ii tlir roots
were thus reduced to a sticky, dough-like mass. As the pounding proceeded,
water was judiciouslj' added to prevent the mass, in the form called paiai. from
sticking' to the stone pestle. When it was sufficiently smooth and firm i1 was
removed from the board and at once made into poi 1)\' thinning with water to
whatever consistency was desired; or made into good-sized bundles wrapped
with ki leaves. In this way the paiai could be kept for months at a time and
was often shipped from place to place. It was in this condition, in all proba-
bility, that taro formed one of the chief stores made use of by the natives in
their long voyages.

Whenever poi was required a portion of the doughy mass, paiai, was put
in a calabash and thinned with water. It was ready for use in a few hours
after the water was added, but the natives preferred it after it had soured, or
worked, for a dav or more.

Poi vras eaten by tlirusting the forefinger of the right hand into the mass
and securing as much as would adhere to the finger, and then passing the food
from the bowl to the mouth by a neat revolving motion of the hand and finger.
The native name for the forefinger signifies the "poi finger.' For this reason
it was quite the custom to grade poi as one-finger poi, two-finger poi, and so on,
thereby indicating its consistency. When ready to be eaten a dozen or more
natives might surround one calabash and greedily dip up its contents, sucking
their fingers and smacking their lips in a state of obvious enjoyment. Usually
they finished the entire allowance at one sitting, only to fall asleep afterwards —
"full and satisfied." Poi was occasionally mixed with the tender meat of the
eocoanut, and was specially prepared for the sick in several ways. Baked taro
also makes an excellent vegetable, and the leaves of the plant, as well as the stems
and flowers were cooked and greatly relished hy the natives.

Sweet Potatoes and Yams.

Next to the taro, sweet potatoes and yams were the most important food
plants grown in the islands. Many varieties, accurately described and named
by the natives, were in general cultivation. They thrived in the drier localities
and were eaten raw, baked or roasted. They were also made into a kind of poi.
Poi and sweet potatoes v,-ere fed to their pigs and dogs to fatten them, and ani-
mals cared for in this way were regarded as particularly delicious hy the TT;i-
M'aiians of a century ago.

Breadfruit and Bananas.

The breadfruit was much used as a food by tlie natives, after being cooked
in their ovens or roasted in an open fire. It was pounded into a delicious \nn
as well. The natives were very skillful in growing this delicate plant
which was propagated by root cuttings. Bananas were also cultivated by lliciu
and eaten both raw and cooked. Sugar-cane calabasli gourds, the paper nnil-
berry, olona, ki, cocoanuts and awa were anioiiL; tlic uscrul plants fornio'ly
grown by the Hawaiians.

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THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 69

In addition to the forogoiny list of plants that were cultivated to a cer-
tain extent, there were a number of others that were made use of as food in
times of scarcity that could hardly be regarded as cultivated in a strict sense.

Fiber Plants.

The paper mulberry, called wauki, one of the plants from which their
bark cloth was manufactured, was regularly cultivated, there being extensive
groves of this small tree planted about almost every n.itive home. The plant
was kept carefully trimmed from its earliest growth in order to prevent it fol-
lowing its inclination to branch out from the main stem. In this way a single
shoot was secured unbroken by branches. When it had attained a height of
ten or twelve feet and a diameter of an inch or two. the men cut the plants and
the women stripped otf the bark in a single piece by splitting it from end to
end of the stem. The outer bark was then scraped otf and the fibrous part
forming the inner bark, was rolled endways into loose disk-like bundles
and left to dry until it had taken on a fiat surface. The bark was then placed
in water until it became covered with a mucilaginous coating; then it was laid
on a stone or a log prepared for the purpose and beaten with a series of round
and square sticks of hard wood, known as tapa beaters.

]\Ianufacture of Tapa.

In the making of tapa cloth, strips of raw material were laid side by side
and doubled, pounded and manipulated in order to unite the free edges, the mass
being kept saturated with w^ater during the process. The length and breadth
of the tapa sheet was increased at pleasure by the addition of more bark. Sheets
double the size of an ordinary blanket were frequently made in this simple way.
The water mark in the fibre, as well as the texture and thickness, was regu-
lated by the amount of the beating and the character and markings of the mallet
used. Places torn in making the sheet were mended by rewelding the edges.
When finished the tapa was spread in the sun to dry and bleach.

The next step in the process was the dying and marking of the clotli. The
tapa is naturally of a light color and much of it was worn in that state, but a
great portion of it was stained either with dyes, mostly of vegetable origin,
or by mixing with the sheet while in a plastic state fragments of old colored
tapas that had been reduced to pulp. The colors used were both beautiful and
durable — yellow, salmon, straw, blues in various shades, puri)le, green, red, lilac,
pink, dove, chocolate, brown, fawn, as well as black and white were quite com-
mon. The list of vegetable and mineral dyes utilized in j)i-(»(luce the various
colors is a long one and shows a knowledge of the simple clieinical reactions of
the dyer's art that is truly remarkable. Leaves, roots and hai-k were used in
various conditions, singly and in combination, often witli minei'al substances,
as salt, earth, inuck. charcoal, or occasionally wilii animal dyes, as that derived
from the sea-urchin, the s(iniil and ceiiain sea slugs.

PLATE 13. OBJECTS OF NATIA^E MANUFACTUEE.

(Scale line — 6 in.)
1. Large wooden idol of ohia wood, long buried in a fish pond. 2. A wooden image of
Kalaipahoa, the jaoison god. 3. Hawaiian fish baskets and traps. 4. Canoe paddle.

(Descrijitiun of Plate Continued on the Oi>iiosite Page.)

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 71

Tapa IMaking a Fine Art. .

The plain or colored tapas were, often, beautifully and tastefully
printed with ingenious figures or patterns of various designs. 'I'he pattern lo he
transferred to the cloth was first cut on the side of a narrow strip of haniboo.
The bamboo was then dipped into the color and the pattern carefully printed on
the tapa by pressing the stick on the tapa and against the hand. This operation
was repeated until little by little the intended design was completed. Often
the entire tapa was printed with various designs and colors in this primitive
manner. Some kinds were marked with a string dipped in the color to be trans-
ferred. The string was then drawn taut across the tapa and the color snapped
on it in the same manner in which the chalk line is commonly used.

In the preparation of their "printing inks" the colors were frecpiently mixed
with kukui nut oil. Some tapas were saturated with cocoanut oil to render them
waterproof and to make them more durable. Tapas which were not oiled could
not be washed. For this reason the laundry work to be done in the Hawaiian
family was reduced to the minimum. l)ut the amount of time and labor expended
in the manufacture of the tapa must have been enormous, since three or four
days were required to beat an average sized tapa and a new set was required
about once a month. Other materials were used by the Hawaiians in the manu-
facture of tapa, the most important being the bark of the mamake, which grew
wild in the woods. It was gathered by the women and steamed in an oven
with a certain fern that gave off a dark red coloring matter. The bark from
tender breadfruit stems was sometimes 'used, as was also the bark from the
hau tree.

Provision was commonly made for carrying on this work by providing a
special house devoted to the purpose and also by the setting aside of certain special
gods to preside over the undertaking. Certain of their tapas were delicately
perfumed with the root of the kupaoa ; maile and mokihana were also used in
this way on account of their delicate and lasting scents.

It is worthy of remark that tapa beating was coiniiion among all the
Polynesian islanders, when suitable material was to be had. It was an art that
was old in the hands of the pioneer Hawaiians at the time of their scltliiig
on these islands. While tapa making was generally practiced over the whole of
the Pacific, and indeed almost the whole world, it fell to the pninstaking
Hawaiian women to carrj' the manufacture of paper cloth to the highest degree
of excellence attained among any primitive people. Their best tapas Avere l)ut
little, if any, inferior to the fine cotton fabrics tli;i1 ha\-e enlii'ely disj^laced

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Pnfie.)

5. Small kahili. (J. Slop bowl orntinioiited with luniiati teeth. 7. Stoiio lamps of various
forms. 8. Feather cape [ahunla]. 9. Tapa beater. 10. Poi pounders (ring form). 11.
Pandanus baskets. 12. Finger bowls of various designs. 13. Spittoons. 14. T.arge and
small umekes or bowls. 15. Hanai poepoe. Ki. Carved dish for baked jiig. 17. Oourd
hula drums. 18. Hawaiian fans. lil. f'oeoanut wood hula drums. "JO. I'liuli hula or
rattles. 21. Mortar and pestle.

72 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAAVAII.

them. So completely, however, has the art and manufactiire disappeared that
the implements used in its manufactnre even are only to be seen in museums,
while the technique of the art must be gleaned from the scanty records of the
early missionaries and travelers.

Mat Making.

Perhaps the manufacture next in importance to the making of tapa was
the plaiting of mats. These were used by the natives to lounge upon by day and
to sleep upon by night. ^Nlats were also used as sails for their canoes, as parti-
tions in their houses, as food mats, clothing and robes, — in fact their uses were
innumerable. Taken altogether, being more durable than tapa, their possession
in abundance was regarded as unmistakable evidence of material Avealth.

The typical bed of the Hawaiian chiefs was a raised portion of the floor,
perhaps one entire end of the house. The elevated portion was made of loosely
laid stones forming a pile eight or ten feet square, over which was spread several
thicknesses of mats, as many as thirty or fort.y being employed on the lied of a
well-to-do chief. Naturally the coarsest ones were placed at the bottom and
the finer ones spread on top. Lauhala mats are still made and used quite generally
throughout the group, many of the best houses being furnished with them in
place of the more familiar though less approved floor rugs. Several materials
were made use of in the weaving of mats, the most important being
the lauhala ; next came the stems of the makaloa, and lastly species of other
native sedges.

Lauhala ]\Lvts.

In the making of lauhala mats, the leaves were broken from the trees, by the
women, with long sticks. They were withered over a fire for a short time and
then dried in the sun. The young leaves were preferred to the old ones, so
that in plaiting the mats the raw material was carefully selected and graded
as to quality and color. It w^as then scraped, the saw-like edges removed, and
split into strips of the required width, varying from an eighth to an inch or
more in width. The braiding was done \>y hand without the aid of a frame
or instrument, and, though mats were often made twenty-five feet scpuire, they
were finished with great evenness of texture and regularity of shape. The finer
braided ones were usually small in size and left with a wide fringe; being
greatly prized, they were occasionally carried by attendants to be spread down
on other coarser mats when their chiefs chose to sit.

IMakaloa jNIats.

The rush or sedge mats, called makaloa mats, are soft and fine; the
islands of Kauai, and particularly Niihau, were famous for their production.
For this reason the mats are frequently spoken of as Niihau mats. V>\\\ on both
islands the finest mats were those made from the young shoots.

Many of the lauhala, as well as most of the Niihau mats were ornamented with

THE HAWAIIAN PI^OPLE. 71

imicli taste — rod and Iji-own sedge stems being used fni- tlic piii-i)()sr. Tliese were
worked in on the iipi)er surface of the mat in patterns tluit reseml)k!d embroider}^
various designs being formed, as squares, diamonds, stripes and /igzau' lines.

Tlie phiiting of mats, like the beating of tapa, w;is women "s \v()rl< in ancient
Hawaii, and those who possessed much skill in llicsc imijortant arts were; esteemed
for their labor and praised for their handiwork.

Fishing.

Aside from war, fishing and agriculture were the chief occui)ati()ns engaged
in l)y the men, so that, in general, men procured the food while the woihimi did
their full share in making the provisions for the Hawaiian family, and supply-
ing the raiment that their civilization refjuired.

Fishing, like agriculture, was associated with religious ceremonies and tlie
worship of idols. Among this class, the practice was carried to such an extent
that special heiaus and altars were constructed and a somewhat ditferent form
of worship established. Like the fishermen in all lands and in all times, the
natives were firm believers in good luck and their faith in si<:ns and omens was
accordingly deep-seated. Their gods were numerous, so that each fisherman
worshipped one of his own choice. Likewise the tabus of their gods were many
and the devotee would go to a great length in carrying out the fancied desire
of his patron deity. The god of one fisherman would tabu black, for example,
and in observance of the tabu, the fisherman would have nothinu' black on liis net
or canoe, would take nothing black from the seas, and his duliful wife woidd
wear nothing black upon her person nor allow the taltu color to appear even
in the vicinity of her home.

The business of fishing was carried on with great skill and those engaged in
the occupation had an extensive knowledge of the habits, feeding gi-ounds and
species of fish in the sea round about the islands.

Fish nets were made in various forms for various pur]ioses. They Averc
netted of a twine manufactured by twisting the fiber of the olona to form
■cordage, most remarkable for its durability. As a substitute in certain cases,
cord made from the cocoanut fiber was used, though it was by no means as
flexible or durable as the former. The olona grew in a semi-culti\ated state, in
the mountain valleys, where abiuidant rainfall was assured. The bai-k was
gathered from the young shoots, which were stripped and hackled w itli a scnipei-
made of tortoise shell or bone.

Nets of various sizes and patterns were designed I'or \ai-ious pui-poses, as
were various fish hooks, ])oisons, trai)s and the like. A few of these will
a fuller treatment in a chapter devoted to Hawaiian lish and lisliiiit^'.

Salt ]\Ianufacti'ke.

Salt was an important article among the Hawaiians and they were adept
in the manufacture of a coarse salt from the sea water. Two methods were em-
ployed: One, that of putting the water in shallow scooped-out stone dishes

74 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

to evaporate ; the other, by impounding the sea water in small shallow ponds
and collecting the residue as the water evaporated. Salt Lake, on Oahu, also was
an important source of supply.

The foregoing w^ere the principal productive occupations that consumed
the four to six hours a day that the ancient Hawaii ans devoted to labor. It is,
however, not to be presumed that these were the only pursuits in Avhieh they
could engage. Certain districts and settlements became famous for their peculiar
wares and products. Occasional fairs or markets were held at which the pro-
ducts and articles of manufacture of one district were exchanged for those of
another, and a crude sort of barter was thus in vogue by which, recognizing
the importance of specialized skill, or by utilizing special natural advantages,
the wants and necessities were supplied, so that food, clothing, ornaments, uten-
sils and tools might be had by all.

CHAPTER VII.

TOOLS, BIPLE^IENTS, ARTS AND AMUSEMENTS OF THE HA-

WAIIANS.

The Hawaiians at the time of their discovery by white men were still in the
stone age. The absence of iron, copper or any of the metals in a workable form
was a serious handicap to their development. Stone, bone and wood w^ere the ma-
terials at their disposal, and from them they were forced to construct such tools
as they could devise.

Implements of Stone, Bone and Shell.

Of the simpler tools made use of by the natives, none was of more value
and importance than was the stone adz. It w^as formerly in general use
throughout the whole group, as it was throughout the most of Polynesia. In
Hawaii adzes were made in various shapes, weights and sizes, for various pur-
poses, but the principle Avas the same in all and consisted in the securing of a
cutting or bruising edge of stone that might be held in a convenient form
for use as a hand tool.

The hardest, most compact clinkstone lava was selected for the liit by the
ancient adz maker. The rough stone was patiently worked into form by chip-
ping, splitting and grinding. When at last the proper shape was secured, the
bit was bound to the handle, (usually made from a branch of the ban tree), by
means of a cord made of cocoanut or olona fiber.

In certain cases, the bit was used without the addition of a handle. For
heavy work, as the felling of trees, the shaping of canoes, or the framing of
the house timbers, large adzes were recpiired, and there are some in existence
that weigh several pounds. For more exacting work, as in carving their hideous
idols, or finishing and mending the umekes, fine chisels were needed, and ex-
amples are extant that are, in effect, carving sets in which simple forms of

THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 11

gouo'es, cliiseLs, aud the like can easily be recognized. Aiiiung- their iiuplenients
they had sharpening stones made of hard phonolite, which were used to give an
edge to their tools, or as polishing stones. Some of these were boulders and
were permanently located, while others were smaller and could be taken about
as rquired. The saw-like teeth of the shark were used as tools in many ways,
where cutting, scraping, and sawing edges were required. One of the most
curious of their tools was the rotary or pump drill. The staff, tipped with a
slender piece of hard lava or a Terebra shell, was fitted with a crude fly-wheel
and a bow-like device, which caused it to spin back and forth. This simple
device was convenient for boring the innumerable holes required to accom-
modate the cord that, for want of nails, was used in fastening all kinds
of objects together. Hand stones for hammers, stone files for making fish
hooks of bone, scrapers of bone and shell, stones for smoothing, fine pumice,
coral grit and other fine materials for polishing, w^ere all tools commonly found
in an artisan's kit. The oo or digger, a long staff of hard wood, was almost
the only tool of husbandry, while in net manufacture the simple and widel}'
used seine needle and mesh gage were practically the only tools employed.

As we think of the endless variety of tools necessary to perform even the
most ordinary task in our own more complex civilization, it seems incredible
that the patient Hawaiian, with such exceedingly simple tools at his command,
could have utilized the materials of his environment to such splendid purpose.
The wonder of their achievement grows when we contemplate not only the
variety and amount of their handicraft, but the neat and substantial character
of their work — a trait for Avhich the ancient Hawaiians are .justly famed.

Ornaments of Feathers.

Ornaments wrought from the feathers of birds Avere among their most
valuable possessions. Among their handicraft, especially such as had to do
with adornment, nothing made by them surpassed in elegance their feather
capes, helmets, cloaks, leis, kahilis, and feather pa 'us or dresses. So handsome
were they that their possession was almost entirely limited ti^ the alii or ]ier-
sons of rank, or those of special distinction.

The most valuable of all were the feather cloaks oi' robes of state, which
were indeed priceless insignia of rank. The most valuable were made en-
tirely of the rich, golden-yellow feathers of the very rare and now extinct
native mamo. A robe in the Bishop Museum that was the property of Kame-
hameha I, is composed almost entirely of the feathers of the mamo, and con-
stitutes one of the Museum's chief treasures. As the arrangement of the cloak
was always such that additions could be made from time to time, it is not to be
M'ondered that this beautiful robe of state, which occupied over one hundred
years ^ in making, should be valued at as high a figure as a million dollars,
when the amount of labor involved in the gathering of the raw material from
whieli it was made is taken into account. As a substitnti^ for the rarer golden-
yellow mamo feathers, certain more common y(^Ilow I'ealhers from the tiow

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THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLP]. 77

equally rare oo were used by the old llawaiians. The feath(M's of other hirds
as the iiwi. apapane, ou, koae and iwa were used in eoniljination with the
foregoing or in various other ways, in the different articles mentioned, that
chiefs and those who could atford tiiem might have ca]:)cs ; but the ycHow feathers
were reserved for royalty only. The ground work for the capes and cloaks was a
fine netting made of the native oloua ; to this the feathers were 1iriiil\- fastened in
such a way as to overlap each other and form a smooth and utiifonii surface.

The Kahili.

The kahili, a fly brush or plumed staff of state, Avas the emblem and embellish-
ment of royalty and was held in the time of which we write, solely as an adjunct of
the alii. A few of these curious feather plumes were of enormous proportions,
there being records of some that were borne on poles thirty feet in length. The
plume was composed of feathers arranged in bunches, bound on stems, which
were attached to the central staff in such a way as to form a loose, fluffy,
cylinder-shaped head, sometimes two or more feet in diameter l)y three or four
feet in length. The handle Avas occasionally made of alternate rings of ivory
and tortoise shell. In some instances the bones of the famous alii slain in
battle were placed on the stem as trophies of victory or as savage ornaments.
However, the kahili handle was commonly made of a stout spear-like shaft of
kauila wood. IMany of the smaller kahilis were definitey used for the
purpose of fly flaps and are thought to be the form from which the hn-ucr and
more ornamental ones were evolved.

Their helmets, which were exceedingly picturesque and striking ornaments,
were generally worn by the chiefs on state occasions. They were made of
wicker work of the aerial ieie roots, covered with the feathers of several species
of the birds mentioned, red and yellow being chiefly used, and were extremely
variable in form.

Hideous effigies of the powerful war god Kukailimoku - were made of
wicker work and feathers, like tlie helmets, and were usually supjilied with
staring pearl-shell e.yes and hoi'ri])le gi'inuing mouths set i'<iun(l with dogs'
teeth. We are told tluit not more than a dozen of these cufious feather gods
have been preserved in various museum collections.

Leis.

The feather lei was the simplest form of feather work wi-ouuht by the
llawaiians, and may be regarded as the roya! couutei'pni'l of the more com-
mon and perishable garlands made of flowers, nuts and seeds. The flower
and feather leis were twined through the hair or sluna- gracefully around
the necks of both sexes, and seem to have had but little real sJLiiiiHeauee other
than to gratify a taste for ornament. Dui'abie leis were also made of such
objects as sea and land shells, lioars' tusks and dried fi'uits.

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THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 79

many strands of finely braided hnman hair on which was snspended, as a
pendant, a mnch-prized ornament, the palaoa, made from the tooth of a whale
or walrns. These were tabn to all below the rank of chief. Necklaces of ivory
beads were also prized; bracelets of shells, especially the pipipi, and of whale
ivory, were worn, fastened on the back of the wrist with a small cord of olona.
Boars' teeth were also used as bracelets. A beautiful amber tone was tiiven
to many of the ivory ornaments by wrapping; them in ki leaves and exposing
them for considerable time in the heavy, strong' smoke of sug-ar-cane.

Medicine op the Hawaiians.

Of the practice of medicine and the use of medicinal herbs among the
ancient Hawaiians, but little is known further than that it Avas a matter of
worship rather than the practice of a healing art. It seems that superstition
was the principal element combined with vegetable substances and crude sur-
gery. The doctors were a distinct class of priests who worshipped certain gods
from whom they were supposed to have inherited their knowledge of medicine.
They were regular in the practice of their art in that they exacted offerings
for the god of medicine before they would undertake a cure, and then forbade
certain articles of food to the sick. As a matter of fact they seem to have
had considerable knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs though they were
by no means uniformly successful in their prescription and use. They followed
a crude form of external diagnosis for internal ailments. They were adept
in the use of rubbing and manipulation to alleviate soreness and minor ills.
They set limbs with some skill, reduced inflammation by the use of herb
poultices and made use of the pulp of the calabash gourd vine as a cathartic.
Patients were held over the smoke of specially prepared fires for certain ail-
ments, were steamed over hot stones for others, and so on through a long list
of practices that were, no doubt, useful in securing to the patients the satisfac-
tion of feeling that they Avere at least doing something for their ailments. From
the natural history point of view their practice of medicine adds much interest
to the study of the botany of the islands, for a surprisingly large number of na-
tive plants Avere Avell knoAA-n as specifics for different diseases, and to this day
frequent allusions are made l)y the natiA^es to the uses of A^arious plants by tlie
old kahuna doctors.

Implements of Warfare.

Although Avar Avas an important A'ocation Avith the ancient HaAvaiians,
there being a certain period of the year set apart during AA'hich it might
properly be engaged in, the implements AA'ere fcAV and simple. They consisted
chiefly of spears, jaA'elins, daggers and clubs made of tough Avood and AA^ere, as
a rule, smoothly polished. They liad no armor other than the gourd masks
Avorn by the canoe men. The IlaAvaiian Avarriors preferred to fight dressed
in their malos only. As a substitute for the shield, a device of Avhich they ap-

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THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 81

peared to ])e ignorant. Ilicy used tlieir stout spears in \v;ii-dinii' ott' blows.
These were made of lieavy solid wood ]i('i-fectly straiuht in form and were
twelve to twenty feet in length. 'riicir J;i\cliiis were smaller, l)eing about
six feet in length and were i)rovided with i)laiii. ai'rnw-slnipcd. or harl)ed
heads which, though dull, were effective when lliinist against the bare skin of
the enemy. The next most important of their weapons were stout clubs of
various sizes and forms made of wood, stone or hone. With these they were
able to deal a powerful hhiw. Their dagger-like sword was from sixteen inches
to two feet in length and was frequently pointed at both ends. This weapon
was supplied with a string of olona by which it was suspended from the wrist.
Another form of sword liad a saw-like edge set with a fev/ shark teeth. The bow
and arrow in a diminutive form, although used l)y the alii in the royal spoi-t
of shooting rats and mice, was never made use of in warfare; instead, slings
manufactured of human hair, braided pandanus or cocoanut cord were the im-
portant weapons of defense. AVith them they were able to hurl the smooth
egg-shaped pebbles which they prepared with special care, witli gi-e:it force and
accuracy. The canoe breaker, made for naval warfare, was simpl\' a round stone
tirmly fastened to the end of a rope. This could be whirled about the head
and thrown with sufficient force to smash the thin shell of the enemy's canoe.

The instruments made use of in hand-to-luiud eneounlers wei-e knives titted
witli one or two shark's teeth; disemboweling Aveapons were made by fastening
a single shark tooth firmly in a short stick of wood, so arranged as to be carried
concealed in tlie hand, until, in an unguarded moment, it eonld sudileidy be
made use of with fatal effect. A rarer weapon, used in seeui'ing victims
for human sacrifice, was a stout cord in a slip-noose form, that was firmly
fastened to a knob-like handle. In use the noose was stealthily Ihi-own over the
head of the intended victim and hauled taut fi-om the reai- by tlie knob, the back
of the victim usually biMiig liroken in the attack that followed.

Wliile tlie natives were industrious and skilled in the pnrsnits of peace,
expert in their primitive arts of war, and an exceedingly religious i)eoi)le. they
found much time for anuisements and devised many gam(>s suited to b(4li chil-
dren and adults, from which they derived much enjoyinent.

The Hula.

The hula was tlu^ form of diversion most commonly indnlLicd in. .\11 of
every age and character took part in it. It was not so much a dance in the
usual sense of the term, as a form of i-elii^ions sei-vice in which acting in gesture
and movement was made use of in developing the ideas expressed by the song:

DKSCRrrrioN of Plate.

1. Hawaiian youth standing on tlic svirf board \v^Vii hoc naln]. 2. Showing the
shape and size of the board. 3. Racing in the surf at Waikiki; Dianioml Head in the back-
ground. 4. An outrigger canoe (waa) showing the outrigger (aina) of wiliwili wood anti
the connecting bars [iako] of hau and the gunwale [inooj of ulu. The jiaddh's [hoe] are of
koa and kauila wood. 5. Two single canoes on the licadi. Tlic hull of thi' canoe is always
made of a single koa log.

82 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

which the gestures accompanied. Like everything else the Hawaii ans did it was
made the subject of extensive religious ceremonies and was accompanied by an
intricate form of worship in which Laka was the chief goddess. Naturally
there were many forms of the luila, some of them extremely lewd. The latter
class, unfortunately, have been used more than any other single thing to spread
the fame and infamy of Hawaii, and create an erroneous and distorted im-
pression of the Hawaiian race. Yet it should be understood that their dances
were, in the main, entirely chaste ; but, unfortunately, some of them were in-
tended for the gratification of the baser instincts and it is these, under the en-
couragement given by a certain class belonging to our own European civiliza-
tion, that are most frequently seen in our own times.

The dancers, who were usually though not always women, wore the pa'u, or
hula skirt, about their waists, with wreaths of flowers about their heads and
shoulders. Occasionally dogs' teeth anklets, Jiogs' teeth bracelets and Avhales'
teeth ornaments were worn by the participants. The performers stood or sat
singly, or in companies, according to the hula being given, usually staying in
one place and moving their body and limbs in perfect time and in keeping with
the sentiment of the accompanying chant, which was accentuated with the various
sounds produced by a series of primitive musical instruments. It is a curious
fact that almost all the Hawaiian musical instruments were made use of in the
performance of the hula. Naturally the most important instruments were those
calculated to mark the crude intervals of time in their chanted songs. The
large drums, some of them three feet in height, with half that diameter, made
of hollow cocoanut stems over which shark skin heads were stretched, were played
l)y rapping with the finger tips and were especially prized. Other drum-like
instruments, with astonishing resonance, were made from large bottle gourds,
two of which were joined ])y inserting the neck of one within the other.

Musical Instruments.

To produce the sound desired, the gourd instrument, held in the hand by a
loop, was dropped on the padded fioor of the house and at the same time beaten
with the palm of the hand, thus varying the sound to accord with the action
and feeling of the accompanying song. The deep base of the larger drums was
supplemented by the rattle of lesser drums made from cocoanut shells with shark
skin heads, or by rattles of small gourds partly filled with dry seeds. Other
rattle instruments were made by splitting a long joint of bamboo for half its
length, to form small slivers, so that the free ends, in response to the lively
motion from the hands of the player, produced a curious swishing sound. A
still more primitive instrument was made of two sticks of hard, resonant Avood
which were struck together.

The most ambitious musical instrument of the ancient Hawaiians and one
requiring unquestioned skill in its manipulation, was the nose flute. To make
the nose flute, a long, single joint of bamboo was used. One end was left closed
by the joint and three small holes bor(^d along the up]ier side, one near the

THE TTAWAIIAX PEOPLE. 83

closed end, the other two about a third of +lie distance from either end. In
playing, the instrument was held so that the end hole was squarely under the
right nostril. The sound produced was modified by the finger holes to give five
notes, which might be varied at the pleasure of the performer.

A similar instrument was the love-whistle or kiokio, made of very small
gourds in which three holes were pierced. The method of playing tliis tiny
instrument was similar to that of the nose flute. Another instrument sometimes
used to accompany the mele, was based on the principle of the Jew's harp.
It was made of a short stick of bamboo slightly bent in sucli a manner as to
hold the three strings of olona fiber taut. In use one end of the instrument
was placed in the open month Avhich served as a resonator for the feeble tones
produced by striking the strings with the fiimers or with a baiiil)oo splinter as a
plectrum.

Boxing the National Game.

Returning to their festivals and games, for there were many in which
strength, skill and chance played an imj)ortant part, we find boxing was, per-
haps, the national game. It was regulated b.y certain rules, uiiii)ires were ap-
pointed, the victor defended the ring against all comers, the conqueror receiving
the highest honors. A great crowd of all classes usually attended their games
and sports, and wild excitement and much hilaritj^ prevailed. In many of the
important contests between the followers of various chiefs, not infi-<M|uently
death was the result of blows received.

Wrestling and foot racing were also popular sports. It is recorded tliat
the king's heralds were frequentty able to make the circuit of Hawaii, a distance
of three hundred miles, over exceedingly rough trails, in eight or nine days.

A game which must have contributed much to their skill as warriors, in
their form of Avarfare, was one in which spears were thrown a short distance
at the body of the contestant — to be parried by him. The more skillful, it is
said, were able to ward off a numl)er of spears at once. Mock fights with stones,
spears and other missiles, were also indulged in.

The Primitive Bowling Alley.

A favorite amusement was one Avliich consisted in bowling or rolling a
smooth disk-like stone over a track especially prepared for the purpose, with
sufficient skill to cause the stone to pass between two sticks di'iven a few inches
apart at the opposite end of what may be termed a primitive bowling alley.
The game had many variations, one being to excel in bowling the longest distance.
Still another modification of this game had as its object the breaking of the
opponent's bowling stone. Amusements of precision, like the al)(n-e, hnl to
great care being exercised in the selecting of the material and the employment
of much skill in the manufacture of their ulu or olohu stones. The best were
preferably perfect disks in shape, of hard lava stone, or coral rock, and were
three or four inches in diameter by an inch or more in thickness, with an average
weight of about one pound. They were slightly thicker in the center, gradually

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TTTE HAWATTAX PEOPLE. 85

thinning' sliulitly toward the edge of tlie stono. While tliis was the usual form,
otlici's that were perfect spheres are in existence that iiicasiifc over seven inches
in tUanieter and weigh as nmcli as twenty-two ])onnds.

A sport which was justly popular with all chisses was what might tie called
"summer tobogganing." It consisted in slidiim' down hill over' carefully pre-
pared slides, a few yards in width, on a long, douhle-i-uniier sled. There are a
number of these slides that are still jioiiited out as favorite coast ini: places of
ancient times. Any smooth mountain slope of sufficient steepness would serve
the purpose. The only complete sled in existence is in the l>islio]) Museum.
The two runners of this one are each just over eleven feet in length and are
three inches apart. They are firmly fastened to the narrow frame. The native
tobogganer would lie fiat upon this curious sled, the papa holua, and give
it a push with his foot, to start it off. During the decent it would fi'cMpiently
gain an immense velocity, and the sport, wliile exhilarating, iiuist ]\;wo been
accompanied with great danger to life and limh. Several of the old slides are
more than a half mile in length, one on the town side of Diamond Head ran far
out on the plain, and another still longer one is to be seen from King street, at
the opposite end of the city of Honolulu.

Gambling.

]\[any of their sports and games were more properly games of chance.
Gambling in various forms was indulged in by all classes in the natural state
of their civilization. Seldom did they enter into serious contests without an
accompanying bet of some sort, so that food, clothing, ornaments, cro])s. wives.
their daughters, and even the bones of their bodies after death, were wagered
on the outcome of some simple contest.

In addition to those already described, cock fighting was also nnich affected
in the ancient times, and was a game of chance of rare interest. The\- also
played a game resembling checkers on a flat lava stone, divided into numerous
holes or scpiares, using black and white stones for the men.

Surf Riding.

A favorite -game in which women engaged v.ith much skill, consisted in
hiding a pebble, the noa. which Avas held in the hand, under one of five piles of
tapa. It was for the opi)osing side to guess in which pile the stone was left,
striking the pile selected with a rod tipped with feathers. There were also many
children's games, such as Hying kites, cat's cradle and juni|»inL: the I'ojte. lint
the sports ])ar excellence in which the chiefs and connnon pe<i|)le. both old and
younu' indulged, wei-e those which had to do with the wondei'Tul sui'f i^u' which

Description of Pl.^te.

1. Hawaiian girls jtlaitinjj lauhala mats. 2. Spear jiraetice (from an old tlrawiug).
3. Sheet of copper formerly affi.xed to a coeoanut tree at Kealakekua Bay marking the spot
where ('a])tain f'ook mot his death February 14, 1779. 4. Captain Cook's numiiment at
Kealakekua Bay. This monument was ereet(>d by the British Government about fifty years
after the death of the great explorer at a spot as near as possilde to the place where he fell
when killed by the natives. 5. Two old Hawaiiaiis at home.

86 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the islands are far-famed. Being excellent swimmers from their youth the na-
tives were as a race devoid of fear. They would leap from high precipices into
the foaming surf below, fifty, sixty and seventy feet; and it is still common to
see the swimmers and divers in the harbor leap one after another from the
bridge or from the life boats of the largest ocean steamers. But riding the
surf with the surfboard was and is still the favorite amusement, and an art in
which the Hawaiians always exhibited wonderful skill and dexterity. For
this amusement a plank, preferably of koa wood, known as a surfboard, was
used. It was a coffin-shaped plank averaging about ten feet in length by a
foot and a half in width, though they were occasionally eighteen feet or more
in length, and from that ranged down to very small ones for children. Some
were made of the very light wiliwili wood. They were always made with great
care and were kept smoothly polished. The swimmer, with his board, would
gradually work his way out through the shallow water, over the fringing coral
reef to where the high rollers rise over the outer reef and follow each other
in rapid succession over the table-like reef toward the shore. The more terrific
the surf, the greater the pleasure to those skilled in the sport, a form of recreation
that is enjoyed in these modern and more strenuous times by natives and foreign-
ers alike.

Selecting the proper kind of wave, the surf-rider would get his board under
way by paddling furiously with his hands and feet. At the proper moment, mount-
ing a high wave he throws himself on the board just as it is seized by the force
of the on-rushing water. Skillful manipulation is required to manage and keep
the board just abreast of the crest of the towering wave, which, if everything
goes as planned, carries the swimmer and his board, at race-horse speed, clear
into the shallow water at the beach.

In this manner they disported themselves for hours at a time, returning
again and again, often standing erect and gracefully poised on their boards as
they were wafted in on the bosom of the foam-capped wave. Surf-riding ex-
tended to canoe racing in which the principle just indicated was even more
elaborately applied.

Strong crews of picked men would man their best type of racing canoes
and pull out to where the surf began to rush over the reef. There amid the rush
and dash of the sea, each crew would await the signal, when the race would
begin, each man paddling furiously, until the canoes were caught by the waves,
and amid wild shouts of exhilaration, scarcely audible above the ocean's roar,
the successful crew would reach the shore, claiming the race, to the unbounded
joy of all.

Thus we have hastily passed in review, the life, the customs and the culture
of this splendid, though vanishing race. We have seen how, though isolated
as they were from their own kind, they developed a natural civilization well
adapted to their needs and their peculiar environment. We can now approach
the natural history of the animals and plants, and the land itself, with a better

THE HAAVAIIAN PEOPLE. 87

understanding' of its iiicniiiti^^ to the natives and a livelier appreciation of other-
wise unimportant elements which have long been (Iclcrniiiiing factors in the
lives of these people.

We can now lietter understand the changes and modifications which have
been wrought on the Avhole by the introduction of another race that has trans-
planted hither the animals, the plants, the industries and the arts of a more
aggressive and far different civilization.

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Natural History of Hawaii.

SECTION TWO

GEOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY AM) TOPOGRAPHY OF THE IIAWAIIAX

ISLANDS.

CHAPTER VTIT.

COMING OF PELE AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE LOW ISLANDS OF

THE GROUP.

Pele's Journey to Hawaii.

There is perhaps no better way to begin an account of tlic natnivil history
of the Hawaiian Islands than ])y recounting an Hawaiian legend that tells of
the coming of Pele, that powerful mytliieal deity of fii'c and Hood, fctircd aii.l
respected by all the ancient inhabitants of the grouj) as the source, as well as
the end, of all the wonderful volcanic phenomena with which they were familiar.

In the beginning, so one version of the legend runs, long, long ago, before
^^hings were as they now are, there was born a most wonderful child called Pele.
Hapakuela was the land of her birth, a far distant land out on the edge of the
sky — away, ever so far away to the southwest. There she lived with her parents
and her brothers and .sisters, as a happy chih!. until she had gi-owii to woman-
hood, wlien she fell in love and was married. But ere long licr husband grew
neglectful of her and her charms, and at length was (Miticcd away from her
and from their island home. After a dreary ]ieriod of louiiini:- and waitim: for
her lover, Pele determined to set out on the ])(M'ih)Us and nncci'tnin jo\n-iii'y in
quest of him.

When the time came foi- tlie journey lier ])arents. who must have been very
remarkable people indeed, made her a gift of the sea to bear her canoes upon. We
are told that among other wonderful gifts Pele had ]iower to pour foiMh tlie
sea from her forehead as she went. So. when all was in renditiess. sh.e and
her ])rothers set forth together, singing, making soniis. jind sailing -on. (tn, on
over the new-made sea — out over the great unknown in the dii'ectioii of what
we noAv know as the Hawaiian Islands.

P>ut in the time of which the legend tells the islands n\' Hawaii were not
islands at all, hut were a grouj) of vast nnwatered iiKMintains standing on a
great plain that has since be'onie the ocean ".^ tloor. Tiiei-e was not even I'resh
water on these ni'nintains until Pele bi-oULiht it. lint as she journeyed in
search of her hushand, the waters of the sea preceded her. coNcring over the
bed of the ocean. It I'ose before her until onl\- tlie tops of the hiiihesi inoun-

7 89

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 91

tains were visil)le; all else was covered by the mitrhty delnj^e. As time went
on, the water receded to the present level, and Ihus it was that the sea was
l)rought to Ilawaii-nei.i

From her coming nnlil now. Pele has continued 1o dwell in Ihe ITawaiian
Islands. According to the legend, her home was first on Kauai — one oi
the northern islands of the group. From there she moved to JNlolokai and settled
in the crater Kauhako. Later she removed to ^Nlaui and established herself in
the crater hill of Pnulaina, near Lahaina. After a time she moved again to
Ilaleakala, where she hollowed out that mighty crater. Finally, as a last resort,
she settled in the great crater of Kilauea, on Hawaii, where she has even since
made her abode.

In this way Pele came to be the presiding goddess of Kilauea and to rule
over its fiery flood, and from those ancient days to the present, she has been
respected as the ranking goddess of all volcanoes, with power at her command
to lift islands from the sea, to rend towering mountain peaks, to make the very
earth tremble at her command, to obscure the sun with stifling smoke, to cause
rivers of molten rock to flow down the mountains like water, and above all to
keep the fires forever burning in her subterranean abode.

This interesting legend should be regarded as a sincere effort of the Ha-
waiian mind to account for the presence in the islands of the primeval power
they saw in the volcano and to explain certain fundamental phenomena of
nature which surrounded them on every hand. Here were the islands, here
were the burning mountains, here was the great sea, here were the people, the
animals and the plants. Whence came they all, and how did the}' come to be?

Legend and Science Agree.

With all our boasted science, v/e are still groping, as were the ancient Tla-
waiians, seeking an explanation of the beginning of the islands, and of the iii;ir-
velous variety of life which they support. Li the search, science has sub-
.stiiuted theory for legend, and observation for myth, but when we compare the
legendary course of Pele as she moved her home, from the oldest island, Kauai,
to the young island, Hawaii, with the theory that geologists have workej out
to account for certain basic facts in the evolution of the grouj). w(^ are sur-
l)rised to find that legend so closely accords with the modern accei)ted theory
of tile succession in time ot the extinction of the volcauie fires that marked
the completion of one island after anothei-, until Hawaii alone can boast of the
possession of the eternal fires.

1 All Hawaii.

Description of Plate.

1. ]\li(l\v:iy Island; looking from sand islet towards groon islet, showing tlie characteristic
vegetation. '2. Showing the cable station on Midway Island. Note the growth of sand grass
(Ci/)toJon (Incti/lon) in the foreground. ."?. View on Ocean Island showing the formation of
sand hills under the protection of the low bushes (Scwvula Kocnigii). 4. Hut built on green
islet by Japanese bird poachers. 5. Midway Island home of Capt. Walker and family, who
were shipwrecked on the island in T^S7 and spirit fourteiMi months there before being rescued.
(The hut has since been burned).

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GEOLOGY AND T01>()(iTJAIMI Y ()F HAWAII. 93

Geographic Positiox of the Tsi.axds.

Considering' the Hawaiian Islands in relation to each other and to tiic rest
of the world, we find this wonderful group of mid-Pacific islands to he made up
of twenty-one islands and a number of other small islets that are contiguous
to the shores of the larg(n- ones. For the sake of convenience, the group, which
stretches for about 2.000 miles from southeast to noi-thwcst. has been divided
into the leeward or northwest, and the windward or inhabited chain. In the
leeward islands are grouped eight low coral islands and reefs, and five of the
lowest of the high islands. Beginning at the western extremity, the low Lironp
includes Ocean Island, ten feet high; Midway Island, fifty-seven feet higli;
Gambler Shoal, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Lisiansky Island, fifty feet high;
Laysan Island, forty feet high, and Maro and Dowsett Reefs.

These are probably the tops of submerged mountains that have had tlieir
summits brought up to or above the surface of tlie ocean by the combined
action of the hardy reef-building corals, the waves, and tlie transporting; jiower
of the wind. The wind has had an important ])ai't in their final form, since it
has gathered up the dry saiul left above the ordinary action of the wave and
piled it, as at Midway, in the center of a secure enclosure, formed by an encircling
coral reef, or as at Laysan. to form a sand rim about an (devated coral lago;)n.

Lying between the group of low islands and forming a coiuiecting link
with the high or inhabited group, are five islands, the lowest of the high islands.
They form a transition group between the coral and the volcanic islands and a
second division of the leeward chain, and are made up of Gardner Island. 170
feet high; French Frigates Shoal, 120 feet high; Xecker Island. 800 feet high;
Frost Shoal, and Xihoa or Bird Island, 1)03 feet high.

Together with the low islands, they form the leeward chain of thirteen
islets, reefs and shoals that have a combined area of somethinu o^•el• six sijuare
miles, or about four thousand acres. With the exception of .Midway, which is
the relay station for the Commercial Pacific Cal)le Company's wii-e across the
Pacific, they are uninhabited at the present time. The entire cliain. with the
exception of Midway, has been set aside by the fedei-al goverinnent to form the
Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation, wliich. taken collectively, foi-nis tlie largest
and most populous bird colony in the world.

To many these remote, shimuK^'ing, unitdinl)ited islands are de\-oid of intei--
est ; to the naturalist, however, every si|uai'e foot of ihe siii-face, and all the
life that iidia])its them, has a.n interesting story to tell. 'I'he u-eolo^ist finds
in th(Mn subjects of the greatest interest and importance. The thrilling
story of their up-buildini:' through ceutui'ies by tiie tireless activity of the
tiny animal, the ct)ral polyp, that by natui'e is endowed with the mxsterions
l)ower of extracting cei'tain elements in solution from the sea water and lilth*
by little transforming them into a reef of solid linie-stone niasoiii-y. whicli. in
time, becomes the foundation of inhal)ited land is indeed most wonderful.

94 NATURAT; HISTORY OF HAWAII.

As the formation and growth of coral islands and reefs has been a subject
profound enough to engage the attention of such thinkers as Darwin, Agassiz,
Dana, Wallace, and a score of others, it is small wonder that these coral islands,
which gem the surface of our summer seas, are invested with \dtal interest for
those who feel a scientific concern in them and who are permitted to study them.

Ocean Island.

The leeward chain furnishes interesting examples of the various tj-pes of
coral islands. Ocean Island, the extreme western end of the Hawaiian chain,
lies in 178° 29' 45" west longitude, and 28° 25' 45'^ north latitude, and is almost
at the antipodes from Greenwich, and, as it lies in the northern limit of the
coral belt, it furnishes an excellent example of a circular barrier atoll in mid-
oc(?an. The coral rim surrounds and forms a barrier alwut four small sand islets
and is approximately sixteen miles in circumference. The rim is broken for a
mile or more on the western side, but the lagoon enclosed is too shallow to
admit the entrance of sea-going ships. Over this low coral rim the curving line
of white breakers beat, forming a snowy girdle about the low islets that lie pro-
tected w^ithin.

Midway Island.

]\lidway Island is fifty-six miles to the east of Ocean Island, and, like it,
is made up of a low circular coral rim or atoll, six miles in diameter, averaging
five feet in height by twenty feet in width, which is open to the west. Like Ocean,
it has one fair-sized sand islet and one that is covered with shrubbery. These
islets lie in the southern part of the circle, about a mile apart, and are utilized as
stations by the cable company. The coral rim encloses an area of about forty
square miles of quiet water which attains a depth of eight fathoms. The island
was discovered in 1859 by Captain Brooks, A\ho took possession of it for the
United States. Attempts to utilize it as a coaling station were abandoned after
a single trial ; but in 1902 it was successfully occupied by the cable company,
and has since been regularly visited by vessels carrying provisions and supplies.

Just prior to my visit in 19U2, which preceded the arrival of the cable by a
few months, the island had been visited and devastated by a party of poachers
engaged in securing birds' feathers for millinery purposes. The dead bodies of
thousands of birds, ruthlessly slaughtered by them for their wings and tails,
were thickly strewn over both islets. The reports made at the time, by the
writer, to the State Department and various officials in AVashington, was the
first step in the long campaign that finally resulted in the establishment of the
Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation.

Gambier Siioal.

Gambier Shoal is a circular atoll lying al)Out half way between Midway and
Pearl and Hermes Reef. The latter is an irregular oval atoll, about forty miles
in circumference, which encloses a dozen small islets of shifting sand. It was

GEOLOGY AND TOPOCJ R A PI I V OF 1 1 A \VA II. 93

discovered in 1822 l)y two \vlialin<i' vessels, Ixdli of wliicli were wrecked mi the
reef the same niiiht within ten miles of eacli otlier. thus giving the reef its
double name, and establishing a record for the locality tlinl lias served as a
danger warning to mariners even to the present day.

Lisiansky, discovered in 1805 by a Ru.ssian. for whom i1 is iuiiikmI. is a
small oval island composed mostly of coral sand. It is alxuit two miles by
three miles in extent and is surrounded by shallow water, but is w ithcnit a central
lagoon. Like I\Iidway and Laysan, it has been visited by hied poachers from
time to time. In 1905 a party of Japanese were found on the island engaged
in killing birds for the millinery trade. It was estimated by the officers of the
U. S. Revenue Cutter Thetis, who arrested the otTenders, that they had killed three
hundred thousand birds during the season.

Laysan.

Laysan Island was an American discovery, made in 1828, and named by the
captain for his vessel. It was taken possession of by the Hawaiian Kingdom
and later proved to be a rich guano island. For years it was leased to a firm in
Honolulu, which removed thousands of tons of valuable fertilizer from it.
Laysan is about two miles long by a mile and a half in breadth. The wi'ilcr
has estimated that during the vear 1902 it was inhabited bv ten million sea birds
that roam over the central north Pacific Ocean. This island differs from those
previously considered in that it is unmistakably an elevated coral atoll, since
it holds in its center a large briney lake, that has its surface slightly above
the level of the sea that surrounds the island. The evidence seems to indicate
that what was a low atoll at some remote period, possibly during the late Pliocene,
was elevated and transformed, so that the atoll became a lake in mid-ocean
surrounded by a ring of coral sand. The island is in tui'n practicallx' sur-
rounded by a coral reef with here and there an opening of sufficient size to
admit a small row boat.

The harbor is on the southwest side and aff'ords a safe anehorage in the lee
of the island. The island has been more or less continuously inhahited foi- a num-
ber of years, and has been visited on several occasions by natni'alists, so that its
fauna and flora have been more fully studied and the island made more widi'ly
known than any of the other islands in the leeward chain. In anothei- con-
nection the remarkable bird po])ulation for which Laysan is justly famous has
been referred to at some length.

The guano deposits have been very extensively w(wkeil and ma\- now be
regarded as ])ractieally exhausted. The beds were located on the inner slopes
of the sand rim of the island at each end of the lake m- l.mtton. Oi-i^inally
they were from a few inches to two feet in thickness and \ai'ied lii-cally in ilie
percentage of phosphate of lime — the valualiic i)i-oi)ci-ty Uw which they were
worked. The bones and eggs of the birds whose excrement, in eomhination
with the eoral sand, formed the rich calcium plmsphate or guaim fertilizer, were

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 97

often found in these beds in a semi-fossilized stnte, pointing- to the wi\y in which
similar fossils have been embedded elsewhere in nnich older deposits.

The rate of deposition of this valuable fertilizer is necessarily very slow and
is in direct proportion to the l)ird ]ioi)nlation. While it continues to be dc-
])osited, the amount is small as the colony has been seriously intcrfciTcd with
owing to the slaughter of the greater number of the large al])atr()ss, w Inch doubt-
less have always been the chief factors in guano production in llicsc waters.

^laro Reef was also the discovery of an American whaling ship in ]82(). It
is a rough quadrangular wreath of white breakers, about tliii'ty-tivc miles in
circumference, with no land in sight.

Dowsett Reef is ])ut thirteen miles south of l\Iaro, and like it. is evidently
a young reef as compared with Laysan, since only a few rocks are awash here
and there above the breakers. It was named for Captain Dowsett of the whal-
ing brig "Kamehameha." whose vessel struck on the reef in 1872.

Gardner and P^'rench Frigates Shoal.

Coming next to the second division of the leeward chain, we tlnd. with tiie
possible exception of Frost Shoal, which is thirteen miles southwest of Xihoa,
that they are no longer wholly of coral formation. Gardner, the first of these
islands, is a cone-shaped rock 170 feet high by 600 feet or more in diameter.
There is a small island lying a short distance to the east of the main roek, but
deep water comes up close to the main island on all sides, and vertical sea clitfs,
sixty or seventy feet high, surround it on all sides. It vras discovered 1)\ an
American whaler in 1820, l)ut has seldom been visited since. This is the first
exposed evidence of volcanic rock to be met within the chain, and is of special
interest, since it is more than 700 miles east and south of Ocean Island,
and is at least 600 miles northwest of Honolulu. Such facts give the reader
an idea of the magnificent distances one encounters in traveling through the
length of the Hawaiian group. It also emphasizes the extent and magnitude
of the chain of volcanic mountains submerged in the central north Pacific, of
which, according to the legend of Pele's coming. ])reviously related, and the
opinion of learned geologists, only the tops of the tallest peaks are expostHl.

The Fr(Mich Frigates Shoal- is about thirty s(|uai-e miles in exti'ut and
was discovered by the great navigator. La Perouse. in ITSii, ;ind by him named
for the two French frigates under his conunand. A striking \-olcanie i-ock,
120 feet high, rises from the lagoon, which is filled with growing reefs and shift-
ing sand-])anks. The surrounding reefs form a bai'i'iei- about the voleanii- imint
within and is perhai)s the b(\st example of this form (tf" i-eef in tlie lirou]).

Necker Island.

Necker Island was discovered in 17S(i. duriiiL; the snme expedition that
ni;ide the French Frigates Shoal first known to the world. It was named by
the discoverer for the ureat French statesman and financier who convened the

- Not Frigate as usually written.

98 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAAVAII.

French States-General in 1781). The ishmd, as shown by the steep sea cliffs,
is the remains of a soil-capped volcanic crater, that is about 300 feet high,
three-fourths of a mile in length, by 500 feet in width, at the widest part. It is
surrounded by shallow water; there being an extensive shoal, principally on
the south side.

This island and near-by Nihoa, or Bird Island, are of special interest as
they were visited in ancient times hy hunting and fishing parties from Kauai,
who made th? journey to it in their outrigger canoes. As Necker is 250
miles distant from the nearest inhabited island,^ the journey thither would
seem to be one not to be lightly undertaken. But as the island was one of the
few sources of supply of the coveted frigate and tropic bird feathers much used
in their feather work, the journey seems to have been made more or less regu-
larly.

The level portion on top of the island of Necker is more or less covered
with a number of curiously formed stone enclosures, which may have been
temples,^ in Avhieh have been found several remarkable stone images, fifteen
inches or more in height. These, together with a number of curiously formed
stone dishes with which they were associated, are now in the Bishop ^Museum.
They are of such unusual design and workmanship as to make them appear
relics of some race other than the Hawaiian. However, as the Hawaiian is the
only race known to have visited these remote islands at so early a period, and
as they were by nature a very religious people, there still remains the possi-
bility that the relics, including the stone enclosures, if not of their making,
were at least known to and probably made use of by them.

Nihoa.

Nihoa completes the list of the leeward uninhabited islands of the Ha-
waiian group. It is 150 miles east of Necker and 120 miles northwest from
Niihau, the nearest inhabited island. It is the highest island in the leeward
chain, its summit being a pinnacle at the northwest end which rises 900 feet
above the sea. The island is about a mile in length by 2000 feet in breadth,
which gives it an area of 250 acres. It is unmistakably the eroded remains of
a very ancient and deeply submerged crater, the outer slopes of which have been
worn away, leaving only a portion of the familiar, hollowed, volcanic bowl.
The materials of which it is composed are similar to those of the high islands,
and there is every evidence that it is even more ancient than Kauai.

Dr. Sereno Bishop, who visited it in 1885 as the geologist of a party, headed
by the then Prnicess Liliuokalani, declared the island to be a pair of clinker
pinnacles out of the inner cone of a once mighty volcanic dome, which has been
eaten down l)y wind and rain for thousands of feet during unreckoned ages.
From the large number of basaltic dikes which cut the island from end to end.
he was led to infer that Nihoa is the result of an extremely protracted period
of igneous activity. Perhaps this hoarj^ remnant of the past may at one time

•■' Xiihau. * Heiaus.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OP HAWAII. 99

have been a stately island, like tliose of Uic inhabited fii'diip with wliidi we ;ire
familiar, tliiit throngh snl)mergence and erosion. li;is been reduced jilmost to sea-
level.

CHAPTER IX.

THE INHABITED ISLANDS : A DESCRIPTION OF KALAi AND NlillAL^

Hawaii-nei: Position of the Inhabited Islands.

The wonderful group of high, inhabited, volcanic islands over the forma-
tion, or at least the completion, of which the Hawaiians believed Pele presided,
consists of the islands of Hawaii, Kahoolawe, ]\Iani, Lanai, ]\[olokai, Oahn, Kauai
and Niihau, together with several smaller islands scattered about them. Taken
collectively they form the Hawaiian group as it is generally understood, or as
the natives expressed it, "Hawaii-nei," meaning all Hawaii. They are an-
chored far out in the middle of the north Pacific, under the Tropic of Cancer, and
extend in a northwesterly direction from Hawaii, the southern most, to Niihau,
a distance of about 400 miles. Honolulu, the capital and principal port of
the Territory of Hawaii, is located on Oahu. The position of the Territorial
observatory in the capitol grounds in Honolulu is in W. long. 157° 18' 0"
and N. lat. 21° 18' 02", and is at a point about fifty miles north and west of the
geographical center of the inhabited group.

Like most volcanic islands, the Hawaiian Islands lie in a nion> or less
straight line; or to be more exact, in two nearly parallel lines, and ;ire sup-
posed by some to be superimposed over a great crack in the t)cean's floor, and
b}' others to rise from a submerged plateau.

Looking more broadly at the gronp in its relation to \\w rest of the worhl.
we find the islands situated at the cross-roads of the Pacific Ocean, 21(»(i niih's
southwest from San Francisco and eleven days' journey by tlie fastest train and
ship, from New York. They are planted far out in the deep bine watei's of the
Pacific and are the most isolated islands in the world. It is twelve to eighteen
thousand feet down to the ocean's floor on all sides of the group, and, as h;is
already been said, it is believed that all of the islands are the exposed sum-
mits of gigantic mountains that rise more or less abruptly from the very bed
of the Pacific Ocean.

This chain of fantastically sculptured Aolennie monnlain peaks, is inn(h' np
of fifteen great craters, of the first magnitude, all of wliieli ;it one time or another
have been active. All but three of them. howe\-ei'. have been dead and extinct
for centuries, perhaps thousands of centuries. Fortunately all thi-et' of the
active volcanoes are located on Hawaii, the southei-ninost. and undoiilitedly the
youngest island of the group.

Since Honolulu is oi'dinai'ily the point of ai'i'ival and depai'ini'e foi' ti'ans-
Pacific steamers, as well as inter-island boats, it is well to make it the center

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF 1 1. \ WAIT. 101

from which to study, in some ddnil. Ilic iiuiiu Licoornpliic. topographic and
geologic features of the group.

NlIHAU.

To the udi'tliwest of Honolulu lie the islands of Niiluiu and Kniiai. Th-'
former, the farther removed of the two, is in a iioii li\vcs1ci-ly dii-cclion
from Honolulu and is in line with the islaiuls niciitioncd in atiolhcr cha])ter as
forming the leeward chain. It is seventeen miles west of Kauai from w hidi it is
separated by a very deep ocean channel. It is about eighteen iiiih-s loni; by
eight miles in width, at the widest part, and has an area of ninety-seven square
miles. The highest portion attains an elevation of about l'-U)() feet above sea
level.

The island consists of a high central section called Kaeo, surrt)unded by a
plain on three sides. On the north and west sides it is the highest and it is here
that steep cliffs occur where the high land joins the summit flat. The higher
part is irregular and of a basaltic origin, but is without the sharp peaks that
characterize some of the larger islands. A large, natural i)()iid near the center
of the island and several smaller ponds and artificial reservoirs are found in
various sections.

While Niihau shows evidence of great erosion it is evident that its niodei-ate
height and small size has prevented it receiving the abundant rainfall which
has been an important factor in aging its larger companions.

A large part of the island is low, apparenth^ of coral or leolian origin,
and is the inhabited section. The island is noAV utilized as a great sheep ranch,
there being extensive areas of grass land, especially suited to grazinii. Per-
haps 150 natives, mostly comparatively new arrivals, now iidialtit the ishind,
and together with the old inhabitants, all told, are but a renuiant of the
thousand sturdy Hawaiians who made it their home less than seventy years
ago. The island is noted in the gi'oup as the one on which is found the famous
sedge from which the natives vreave their serviceable soft grass mats, althouizh
the same plant occurs in suitable localities on all of the islands. The beaches
are strewn with beautiful, though small, sea shells, known as Xiihau shells. i
which are strung into long necklaces called Niihau leis.

Near Niihau are two cinder cones, Kaula on llie west and Lchua on tli '
northeast, which form small detached islands. Prof. llitchcocU says, '"The hrst
is about the size and shape of Punchbowl, cul in two and the lower half destroyeil
by the waves. The concentric structure of Ihe yellow cinders, nnich lik'e the
lower surface of Koko Head, is wvy ob\ioiis Lehiia a|i|)eai's lo he a similar
renuiant, less eroded, as it has maintained aliont 20(1 di'grees of its cir-
cumference instead of the 14(1 (lei:i-ees of Kan.la. Both these crater cones have
the western or leeward side the hiuhest. l)ecause the ti'ade winds drive the
falling rain of ashes and lapilli in the direction of the aii- movement, building
up a compact lamiujded i)ile of material to leewai-d. The subseipient ei-osion

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF TTAAVATT. 103

by the waves fashion a ereseent-shnpcd island oponino- to tlio winds and surges
upon the northeast side."

Kauai — The Garden Island.

Kauai, next to the smallest of the five large islands, seems to agree with Niihau
in age of formation. In fact, it is suggested tliat some great force has lorn the
smaller island away from the larger one without disturbing the strata of either.
It is nearly circular and at the same time roughly quadrangular in form.
Excepting the ]Mana tiats, whicli seem to be uplifted coral reefs, the island
could all be included within a circle, with a radius of fifteen miles, using
Waialeale, the highest point, as the pivot. It is a beautiful, rich, well-watered
island clothed with varied and luxuriant verdure and as such is often spoken
of as the "Garden Island" of the group. Disintegration of the lava has pro-
ceeded farther here than on the other islands, a fact, taken in connection with
other data, as indicating that the volcanic fires died out first at this end of the
chain.

The coast is singularly regular in outline, there being no extensive ba\s or
pronounced points or headlands. Except along the northwest side of the island,
at Napali, where there are fifteen miles or more of picturesque sea cliffs, the
coast lands are comparatively low and flat. The shore-line is free from coral
reefs, presumably owing to the depth of water near the shore. In general the
main contour of the island slopes rather gradually from Ihc summit of Wai-
aleale, at an elevation of 5250 feet, down to the sea, though ridges and correspond-
ing vallej^s radiate spoke-like in all directions.

The eastern and northern side of the island, as is the case with all the
islands, has been drenched by tropical rains for countless centuries with the
result that erosion by wind and rain is most marked on that side of the island.
The original slopes on the windward side of Kauai have been almost entirely
eroded, leaving only a few short spur-like ridges. On the opposite or leeward
side; however, the erosion is not so marked nor so far advanced, as the deep
gorges with wide level spaces between them indicate. These gorges are deep and
canon-like, inland, but, as they near the sea-coast, their sides become less
precipitous and finally loose their character as the valley reaches the coastal
plain.

Waialeale Mountain.

Geologists agree that the central dome of Waialeale must liaNc Ix'cii much
higher than now, and that the disintegrated lava has been washed from its
summit to form the rich soil that makes up tlie coastal plain. The effects of
erosion have been considered as perhaps the best evidence of the age of the Ha-
waiian mountains, and this great mountain worn to the core with its oiic-tiiin'
lofty central crater eaten down to form a slimy bog on its siuninil. points to the
great antiquity of the island under consideration. The gnawing action of wind
and rain leaves only the more resistant ridges, as the old mountain is thus slowly

■^-fc:-^

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRA IM I Y ( )F IIA WA 1 1. 105

eaten away. This has progressed on Kauai until only the skilled geologists
can, in fancy, reconstruct its orio'inal dome-like outlines.

Everywhere in the group, hut especially on Kauai, is found cxci'llfnt ex-
amples of one-time solid rocks which are passing into fertile soil through the
ordinary agencies of disintegration. In its earlier stages the new-formed soil
is open and porous like a gravel bed. In this condition it absorbs large quanti-
ties of moisture which rapidly seep away from the surface. The j)ower of
lava soils to retain moisture varies with th(> mechanical state of the soi! and
the amount of org-anic matter it contains. While the soil under cultivation on
Kauai is very fine, and for that reason retains water reasonably well, it is, in
most cases, very red in color, indicating that it has not been discolored by the
impregnation of vegetable acids, which in the forests and beds of valleys is
very liable to produce a characteristic l)lack soil.

Lava Soil.

Generally speaking the soil on Kauai is everywhere good, but is light and
open, and requires much irrigation to make it fertile. The constant cultivation
of the land does much to improve the soil, and by the addition of carefully com-
pounded fertilizer and an abundant supply of water, enormous yields of sugar-
cane are secured. The growth of various crops atfect the soil ditferently, as
they remove from it varying amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and
lime, which are the principal elements required by plants as food. Careful
experiments have shown that the amount of these elements removed varies
greatly even with the different varieties of cane that are grown in tlie islands.
As a result, the care and proper fertilization of tlie soils of the grouji has been
the subject of much scientific study.

While the main central dome on Kauai is the most conspicuous natural fea-
ture, there are other important elevations. The Hoary Head range, which
extends down to the coast at Nawiliwili Bay, may be considered as part of the
backbone of the main mountains. The highest point on this ridge, llaupu, is 2080
feet ; but between this point and the central dome the ridge is much lower,
forming a pass for the Government road from Lawai to Lihue.

Secondarv Volcanic Cones.

A number of secondary volcanic cones on Kauai are important in the general
topography of the island. The largest of these is Kilohana crater, wliieli i-i.ses
from the level Lihue plain to a height of 1100 feet. The ejecta from this cone
has been thrown over the country-side roundabout within a ladius ol' jour
or five miles. In the neighborhood of Koloa are several small secondary vol-
canic cones within the radius of a finv miles. The lava emitted by them was
black and of a peculiar ropey type. Along the sea-sliore the sen watei' forces
its way under the surface and is often expelled through holes .-iiid opou-
ings in the lava in this vicinty. At favorable seasons the water spouts high in
the air, forming great fountains tei-med "sixjutin;,' horns.''

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 107

A great central forested bog, or morass, extends for miles aloip.;' Ilic top
of the precipice M^hich bounds the Wainiha Valley on llic northeast. Il slopes
gradually to the southwest, and provides the nalui-al storage reservoir for tlic
headwaters of the Waimea, Makaweli and Ilanapepe rivers. This l)og forms
one of the least known, most dangerous and thoi-onghly inaccessible regions in
the entire Hawaiian group. The writer, with an experienced native guide,
spent three weeks in the region in the spring of 1900. and amid chilling rains
and bewildering fogs made an expedition extending through I'oui- (la\s over
miles of quaking moss-grown bog to a point designated l)y the guide as tlic;
summit of Waialeale. We were never out of the dense fog during the expedi-
tion, and that v.^e returned to our camp and to civilization at all has always
seemed little short of the miraculous.

In many sections the thin turf, which covered the quagmire beneath, wouhl
tremble for yards in all directions at every step, and too often at a fals(^ stei)
from the proper route, would give way, plunging us hip deep in the mire. Our
chief concern was to locate reasonably solid ground, a necessary precaution that
entailed many weary miles of wandering in the weird moss-grown wilderness,
with attendant hardships and hazardous experiences that are still vivid in memory.

Canons of Kauai.

The numerous valleys and eafions of Kauai, and their attendant streams
have justly been celebrated for their beauty and grandeur. Waimea is one of
the tinest, since it has cut its way between perpendicular walls which are several
thousand feet in height at the head of the stream. The scenery along the
Makaweli and Olokele canons, tributaries of the Waimea system, and the
Wainiha gorge, is the equal of the most rugged and magnificent mountain
scenery anywhere in the world, and well repays the traveler for the effort made
to view it.

The great Hanalei Valley, on the northern side of the island, is note-
worthy for its scenery, its waterfalls and its stream, which is the lai'gest rivei- in
the group, being navigable by small boats for about three miles. Wailua and
Hanapepe are beautiful valleys, made more beautiful by their sphMulid wnter-
falls. Several of these streams, notably Hanalei, aiul the TTana|)epe stream
opposite it, give evidence of being drowned valleys, as in each case a bro;id inter-
vale extends for a considerable distance inland.

The Napali Cliffs.

The region of Napali, on the northwest side oi' tiic ishuid, is difficult of
access and, unfortunately, is seldom seen by the traveler. The section is given
over l)y nature to a series of short, deep amphitheater-shaped gulches that show
marks of profound erosion, leavinu- the reuion with some of the most ;i\ve-
inspiring scenery on the islands. Returning from ;i cruise down the leewjii'd
chain, the writer luid an opportunity to view the woiuh'rful scenerj^ of Napali
at its best, from the vantage point of the deck of the vessel, at close range under

lOS NATIKAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

th.' most I'jivoralili' cniHlit ions. The l;ite afternoon sun was lighting the bold
headlands and tlif fanlaslic rjoi-d-lik.- valleys — in a way to accentuate every detail
of tlie singularly eliariiiing and heautifid i)anoramic view. The splendor of
Kalalau valley, the largest and perhaps the most wonderful of them all, — a val-
le\ of i-randtMii", golden light, i)urple shadows, and sunset rainbows, — was a
welcome change aftei- the dailx monotony of the open sea on a long, lonely,
though l!a['i>\ voyage.

The Barking Sands.

Among the iiatui-a! features of Kauai of considerable geologic interest
should he mentioned the l)arking sands of ]\Iana. Tlioy consist of a series of
wiiul-hlown sand hills, a half mile or more in length, along the shore at Nahili.
The bank is nearly sixty feet high and through the action of the wind the
mound is constantly advancing on the land. The front wall is quite steep.
The white sand, which is composed of coral, shells and particles of lava, has
the |MM-iiliai' |ii-o[)ert\, when very dry, of emitting a sound when two handfuls
are clapped together, that, to the imaginative mind, seems to resemble the
harking of a dog. When a horse is rushed down the steep incline of the
mound a curious sound as of subterranean thunder is produced. The sound
varies with the dem-ee of Jieat, the dryness of the sand and the amount of friction
emi)loyed; so that sounds varying from a faint rustle to a deep rumble may be
produced. Attempts at explaining this rare natural phenomenon have left
nnich of the m_\ster\- still unsolved. However, the dry sand doubtless has
a resonant qiudity that is the basis of the peculiar manifestation, which dis-
appears when the saiul is wet. That the barking sands are found in only a
couple of the driest localities in the group is also significant. Much of the shore-
line of Kauai, for example, is lined with old coral reefs that have partly dis-
integrated into sand that forms the beaches. This sand, as a?olian deposits, is
often carried inland for considerable distances, and though composed of the same
material, it has none of the peculiar (lualities of the sand at Mana.

Spouting Horn — Caves.

The blow hole, or spouting horn, is a familiar natural curiosity fairly com-
mon in the islands. Famous ones at Koloa, mentioned above, have long been
objects of interest to travelers. At half-tide, particularly during a heavy sea,
the larger ones throw up foiuitains from openings five feet in diameter, that
often rise as a colunui of water and spray fifty or sixty feet in height. The
sound of the air as it rushes through the small crevices is most startling to the
spectator, who feels the rocks beneath his feet tremble as shrill shrieks and various
uncanny noises are produced by the wild rush of the water into the cave below
hnn. These caves are usiiall\ bubbles in the lava stream, or sometimes they
are formed by the washing away of the loose pieces of rock underlying the more
solid outer crust of the old lava fiow.

The caves in the cliffs of Haena are among Kauai's ntmierous places of

GEOLOGY AND TOPO( IK A P 1 1 V OF 1 1 A \VA 1 1 . 109

geologic interest. Two of these are at sea level and are (illed willi walciv
In one the water is fresh, in the other it is salt. In many plaees the roof of the
caves are encrnsted with mineral deposits, sometimes several inches in thick-
ness. The lower eaves can only be entered at certain tides and under favor-
able conditions. However, they are known to be old biva conduits and evi-
dently extend back into the cliff for some distance.

In several places in the yroup, but notal)ly in llaiuipepe Valley, coluimijir
basalt occnrs. These cnrions prisms are from ten to eighteen inches in dia-
meter with sides from five to seven feet in length. . They are rude six-sided
columns which ai)pear to be due to the peculiar contraction (tf tlic lava, usually-
under pressure, as it cools.

CHAPTER X.

ISLAND OF OAIIU.

For obvious reasons the formation of Oahu, the metropolis of the group,
has received much attention from various observers, with the result that its
topography and geology are better known than is the case with any of the other
islands.

A Laboratory in Vulcanology.

Only a few of the more striking physiographic features of the island can be
referred to here, but it is a fact that on Oabn the student of natural phenomena
has a veritable open-air laboratory in vulcanology, stored with splendid speci-
mens, showing practically every phase that results from volcanic activity and
erosion.

Oahu is about fifty-four miles long by twenty-three broad in i1s greatest
right angle dimensions. It has an area of 5.985 square miles, with a coast line
of 177 miles, and has its highest mountain peak 4,030 feet above the sea. In
outline it forms a four-sided kite-shape figure in which the foui- points miiilil
be said to correspond, in relative position, to the stars in the Southern t'ross.
Kaena, the northwest point of the island, is at the top of the cross; Makapuu,
the southeast point, is at the bottom. Kahnku Point, at the northeast, and
Barber's Point, at the southwest, correspond with the I'ight and left hand stai-s
in the astral figure. The shore-line of the island which connects these four main
points is more irregular in outline than that of any othei- island in the i:r(iui>.
a fact which has given to Oahu its valualile harboi- facilities.

HUXOLL'LU HaKBOH Ph;AHL Haki'.ok.

Beginning with Honolulu Harbor, situated at the mouth of the Xuuanu
stream, and about midway along the soutliern side of the island bet ween .Mal<a-
puu and Barber's Point, we find the most inip(>rtan1 hai-l>oi- in the Lii'nnp. It is
formed bv a sight indentation of the coast-line and is |)rott'cted by a coral reef

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GEOLOGY AXl) TOl'OGKAPliY OF HAWAII. Ill

that extends across the exposed sea-side. Tliroii^h tlie reef an entrance has
been kept open bv the waters from Xunann and the adjoining stream, which,
being fresh, prevents the growth of the coral. This natural entrance to the
harlior. which has since been deepened and strengthened, was taken advantage
of by the natives and by foreign vessels that visited ihc islands until, in time,
the village on the shore grew into a prosperous city. The harbor derived its
name not from the harbor itself, but from a small district along the Xuuatiii
stream a mile from the mouth, — "a district of al)imdant calm," or "a pleasant
slope of restful land," that received its name in turn from a chief called
Honolulu, whose name was formed by a union of two words, 'bono,' abund-
ance, and 'lulu,' peace or calm; hence to speak of Honolulu as a haven of
abundant peace and calm is but to transfer to the harbor a poetic descriptive
name derived from the adjacent land.

Along the coast a few miles to the west is tlie entrance to Pearl Har-
bor, which is an enclosed body of water made up of two main divisions, known
respectively as East and West Lochs, the latter being much the larger of the two.
They combine to form a channel which also carries fresh water sufficient to keep
open a passage, through the protecting coral reef, to the sea. This great land-
locked harbor is now being developed by the Federal government, by dredging
and fortifying its channel, with a view to making of it a great naval base for the
United States, as Avell as the finest and safest harbor in the Pacific. On the
opposite or windward side of the island are located Kaneohe Bay and Kahana
Bay, both with extensive coral reefs across their mouths. The former, a large,
beautiful sheet of water, is partially enclosed on one side by ^lokapu Point, and
on the other by Kualoa headland, but unfortunately it is filled with submerged
coral islands, rendering it inaccessible except to small vessels. Waialua Bay. on
the northwest shore, while formed by a pronounced curve of the coast-line, is
in reality little more than an open roadstead where small coasting vessels can
anchor and find shelter from the northeast trades that have full sweep down
that coast. Other beautiful bays of much geologic interest and significance
occur at various points. Among them should be mentioned Waimea, a few miles
beyond Waialua, Laic and Kailua bays on the windward coast, and Hanauma
and Waialae bays between Honolulu and Makapuu Point on the south coast.

The Koolau and Waianae Mountains.

Turning to the land itself we find the island formed by the union of two
nearly parallel mountain chains. The Koolau Range str(4ches for thii-ty-sev(Mi
miles along the northeast or windward side of the island and. extendinu' fi-oni
Kahuku to ]\rakapuu points, forms the longest range of mountains in the Ha-
waiian group. Along the southwest side extends the AVaianae Range, wliich is
about one-half the length of the range along the opposite side of the island.

Without doubt, the Waianae Range is the dlder oi" the two. and with Kaaia.
the highest point on the island, as its central (igure. the range furnishes topo-
graphic features of prime importance. Geologists believe this group of moiui-

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GEOLOGY ANT) TOIM)GRAPlIY OF TIAWATT. 113

tains to correspond in age witii the central dt)nie of Kauai and that an enormous
amount of erosion has left but the skeleton of a vast dome that was much liigher
and more symmetrical than its tiine-scarred outline would now suggest.

It is thought that it was long after the Waianae Range ^ was formed as a
separate island, before the Koolan Range.- ])egan to hudd itself uj) aliove the
sea to form an annex, as it were, to the original island which had Kaala
as its center. Thus, according to Dana and o1her geologists, Oahu was formed
as a volcanic doublet — the work of two volcanoes whose adjacent sides, by lava
tlows and by erosion, have been united in the ])lains of Wahiawa, but whose
forms have been so eroded that the exact position and extent of tlicii- craters
has not been indicated with certainty.

The Pali.

The magnitude of the second crater is perhaps best appreciated from the
historic landmark and pass through the Koolau Range known as the Pali, a word
signifying in Hawaiian, a steep precipice. The Pali is approached from Hono-
lulu by a road five or six miles in length that ^\inds up the floor of Nunanu Val-
ley until at an elevation of 1,207 feet, with the peak of Lanihuli,^ on the left,
and Konahuanui."^ the highest peak in the Koolau Range, on the right, it sud-
denly ends in a vertical drop of 70(1 feet. Several miles of almost vertical
basaltic clitfs, — the eroded walls of this vast crater — stretch away on either
hand. The Pali is truly Oahu's scenic lion. It is a na.tural wonder, that as a
genuine surprise has nothing to equal it in all the world. From its sheer edge,
the splendid panoramic view of the windward side of the island is spread out at
the observer's feet — a view of rugged mountains, of cliffs, of country side, of
quiet bays, of coral strands, and of the open sea that has beggared the descriptive
powers of the most gifted.

Here the observer comes to appreciate not only the stupendous constructive
power of nature that has called the island into being, but also those destructive
agencies Avliich, through countless centuries have been tearing down the solid
rock, disintegrating, transporting and distributing it according to well-established
natural laws.

With its long, vertical crater wall standing abreast of the noi-theast trade
winds, and with the elevation and other conditions favorable to l)ring about an
abundant rainfall, the Koolau range, on the leeward side, especially, has l)een
furroAved from end to end into a series of deep lateral valleys, separated from
each other by nearly parallel ridges that are conspicuous and significant fea-
tures of the general topography of the island. Tlie lai'ger and more iiiii>oi-taii1
of these valleys and ridges have a genei'al southwestei-ly Ireud. The si reams
which rise in the section between the Koolau ami the Waianae chain, however,
are deflected by reason of thi- high plateau nt Wahiawa so that pari of them
enter the sea at Waialua. while others join in the Hwa disti'ici of ttie island

' Fornied l)y an elliptic crater. -The remains nf an eloiiKiited crater. ^ 2275 feet -"SIO.} feet.

114 XATLKAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

an.l liiid tli.-ir outlet to the oee.-iii lluoii-h the L-reat Pearl Lochs already men-
tioned.

The windward side sliows plainly the full force of drenching rains -^ and
the cutting winds. Tor the seaward surfaces are everywhere deeply eroded and
the disinteural rd lava removed, leaving a series of amphitheaters, narrow
l>i-nninntory-like outlying ridges and clitt's that mark the more resistant cores of

the solid rock.

The erosion of the Kaala dome is not so easily understood since the greater
excavations are on the west side, while the slopes which are to windward, that
is towards the Koolau range, are more gradual. But as the Waianae Moun-
tains are conceded to l;e much older than the opposite range it is presumed that
the conditions wliicii exist now are much modified from those that were in effect
when the AVaianae Range was first eaten down.

Smat.lkr Ijasai.tic Ckaters and Tuff-Cones.

While the main ranges already discussed are of first importance in the
topograi)hy of the island, the later volcanic manifestations, especially of the series
of basaltic craters and tuff-cones that mark the close of volcanic activity on
Oahu. form striking objects in the general contour of the island.

The tuft'-eones are the most numerous and conspicuous, several being in view
from llonolidu. Of these Diamond Head, or Leahi, the famous landmark often
spoken of as the sphynx of the Pacific, is the most noticeable. As the traveler
approaelies tile island for the first time Diamond Head with its imposing, rugged
outline is sui'e til attract attention; often, too, it is the last parting glimpse oi
Diamond Head from the distance, as the voyager leaves the island behind, that
brings the full i-ealization to mind of all that it typifies of the life in a tropic
land that has so fascinated him that, wander wlun'e he will, Oahu's shores seem
always to call liim back again.

Diamond Head.

Diamond Head rises in bold relief from the shore-line beyond Waikiki, to
the lieiLilit of 7()1 feet. While its sharp outline may seem to suggest to some the
ajipi-opriate and accepted popular name by which the point is known far and
wide, the name was, in fact, derived from the excitement created through the
discovery by sailors at an early day of small calcite crystals '^ that they thought
to be diamonds.

This cratei" mountain looks from the outside to be solid rock, but in
reality it is a great hollow oval tuff-cone, 4,000 by 3,300 feet in its diameters,
with its elongation in the direction of the trade winds. Owing to the ejecta
being carried hy the prevailing winds when the crater was in eruption the
southwest side of this and of similar cones on the island is considerably higher
than is the opposite side. Inside the crater the walls slope gently to the center,
w^here, near the eastern wall, during the wet season, there is, or at least there

■"■ 'llip annual rainfall at the Pali usually exceeds 150 inches. « Sfju f,, )jp ],,,(i ,-,„. ,1,^ gathering.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAAVAII. 115

was, a small fresh water lake. 200 feet above the sea, thnt was frequented ])y wild
fowl at the proper season.

Dr. Sereno E. Bishop made Diamond Head the basis of a study calculated
to show the brief time required for the completion of tuff-cones of similar form.
He concluded that such a cone "could have Ixmmi crcati'd only hy ;m cxti'cmely
rapid projection aloft of its material, comi)leted in a few liours at the most,
and ceasing suddenly and finally." Taking into account the extreme regularity
of its rim and the uniform dip and character of its crater he i)r()ceeded, with a
mathematical calculation, to estimate that the 18,000,000,000 cubic feet of ma-
terial that forms its mass could have been raised to approximately 12,000 feet,
and dropped into its present position in two liours' time, and he was inclined to
increase the velocity of the ejecta and reduce the time to perhaps one hour
Other geologists, however, are very likely to question the soundness of the con-
clusions drawn by Dr. Bishop since there is unmistakable evidence that it was
in eruption a number of times with intervening periods of repose.

Punchbowl Hill.

Punchbowl Hill, with a form which suggests its name — lies just back of the
city and is 498 feet high. It is similar to Diamond Head in form and structure
and has in its outer wall on the town side, numerous seams filled with calcite.
Much can be learned of the geology of the vicinity by the study of the cone
itself and from the phenomena about it. Other tuff-cones are Tantalus, Salt
Lake, and Koko Head ; there are still others on the opposite side of the island at
Kaneohe, as well as at the south end of the Waianae ]\Iountains at Laeloa.
Some of the cones in the latter region, however, are small basaltic craters, as
are also the one on Rocky Hill in ]\Ianoa A^alley, and the two small craters,
IMuumai and Kaimuki. on the ridge l)ack of Diamond Head, to the east of Hono-
lulu.

Elevated Goral Reefs.

Almost the entire shore-line of Oahu shows more or less evideiiee of elevated
coral reefs. In the vicinity of Honolulu these reefs form the foundation on
which much of the city it built. The elevated reefs are most extensive, how-
ever, in the vicinity of Pearl Lochs, where they are intinuitely associated with
the sedimentary deposits, volcanic flows, decaying rock and volcanic ash. It is
thought by Professor Hitchcock and others that this series of deposits began
in the Pliocene period and that it and the older layers beneath may be a base on
v.hich the ejections that formed the volcanic island began to accumulate as
indicated on Plate 75. The region about Pearl Harbor is one of much geologic
interest, but is far too complicated in eharacter to l)e readily interpreted by the
casual visitor. Features of general interest, however, are that in many places
as many as nine or ten stratified deposits may he seen in a vertical cut of forty
or fifty feet, and that in the region, beds from one to tlii-ee or four feel thick, of
large oyster shells (Ostrea retusa) are exposed, far inland. Aeeoi-ding to tlie in-
vestigations of Professor Hitchcock, "the Pliocene area of Oahn eoineides very

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 117

nearly with the low land tract utilized for cane and sisal from Barber's Point
to Koko Head; perhaps to the altitude of 300 feet entirely around tlie island."
Small patches of the rock appear at AVaianae, Waialua, Kahuku Plantation.
Laie and other places on the northeast coast, the highest reef being' on the soutli-
west end of IMailiilii at 120 feet above the sea. The rock is also extensively dis-
tributed beneath the surface, as is developed in boring- artesian wells.

Age of Oahu.

Dr. AV. 11. Dall, who also studied the deposits in the vicinity of Pearl
Harbor and Diamond Head, found species of sea shells '• seemingly extinct,
which are referable to the Pliocene. In conclusion he says, "that the reef rock
of Pearl Harbor and Diamond Head limestones, are of the late Tertiary age
which may accord with the Pliocene of West American shores or even t)e some-
what earlier, and in the region studied there was no evidence of any Pleisto-
cene "^ elevated reefs whatsoever. It is probable that Oahu was land inhabited
by animals as early as the Eocene, "which period preceded the Miocene, and
marked the opening period of the Cenozoic era, or the era of modern life.

Black Volcanic Sand.

Over much of the region about Honolulu, l)ut especially on the slopes of the
Punchbowl and Tantalus group of cones, are to be found extensive deposits of
black ash, a volcanic product usually formed from basalt when erupted in associa-
tion with much steam. The maximum thickness of the deposits is exposed at tlie
base of the Tantalus cone, in Makiki Valley, where a bed twenty-five feet thick
occurs. This coarse-grained sand has found many uses in the city ; such as in
making sidewalks and grading roads, and to some extent as sewers in the early
days, while recently it has been found to be of some value as a fertilizer owing to
the presence of potassium. The sources of the deposits referred to seems to have
been Tantalus and Punchbowl ; but iiractically all of the smaller cones liave
given more or less volcanic ash, which varies in fineness and color, as well as in
amount, in each eruption and at different times during the same eruption. On
Punchbowl especially this ash overlays the tutf, and. owing to the prduounci'il
weathering of the latter, it seems to indicate two quite distinct ])erio(ls of activity
from the same source, with a long period of time between them. Iti tlic first
eruption the material came up through the sea as tlie diaracter of the tnfV
deposits indicate, while the later eruption or eruj^tions, including the ash. the
basalt-like dikes which radiate from the rim. as well as the ('i!id('i--lik(> beds on
the upper part of the rim, found its way up a jiijie witliin llic couf t'l'niii a
deeper source of basalt, apparently without coming in contact with the water of
the sea or its limestone deposits.

Limestone is also abundant about the crater at Diamond Ih'ail. at Knko
Head, and at the Salt Lake crater, where portions of the old reef are said to be
present on the inside of the crater.

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OP HAWAII. 119

A matter of considerable interest has been brought to light through the ex-
cavations and road-cuttings about the base of Diamond Head, and especially
at the quarries and sand pits opened there. The material of the lower slope is a
talus made up of angular fragments from the slopes above, which is cemented
into a brecciated mass, showing clearly that none of the angular i)articles have
been rounded against each other, or by the action of water. In this mass have
been discovered the remains of land shells of several probably extinct species
belonging to well-known genera. Dr. Hitchcock concludes that the talus breccia
at Diamond Head must be much newer than the date of the eruption of the
tuff, since it is composed of fragments of that material from the older eruptions
that are cemented together in the more recent talus. Considerable time must
have elapsed between the ejection of the older material and the presence of the
shell-bearing animals because the rocks must have been decomposed sufficiently
to admit the growth of some vegetation on which the mollusks could live. From
observations made in the same vicinity, and data gathered elsewhere a])()nt the
island, but principally from the remains of the marine shells distributed inland
over its surface, the same authority concludes that the whole of the island of
Oahu must have been subsequently submerged for a brief period to a depth of
two to three hundred feet, presumably during the Pliocene period. If so, it
is concluded that the time of deposition of the land shells, found at the foot
of Diamond Head, will be fixed at a period sufficiently remote to admit enough
time to have elapsed since then to account for the development elsewhere on
the island of the related and varied forms of land and tree shells^ which,
as we shall find in another chapter, have been much studied by many zoologists,
but especially by the world-renowned evolutionist, Dr. John T. Gulick, whose
pioneer work in that important field of science has added so much th;;t is funda-
mental to our understanding of the great laws of organic evolution.

Geologic History of Oahu.

In the preceding pages only a meager outline of the written evidence touch-
ing on the more salient points in the geologic history of Oahu has been at-
tempted. Enough of the wonderful story has been given, however, to malvc it
appear that the island was not in existence in its present form at the beginning,
nor was it thrown up in its present form in a single mighty titanic convulsion
of nature.

Let us review in their apparent natural order, some of the important chap-
ters in nature's history of Oahu, for the facts which tell of the hoary events
resulting in the formation of this wonderful island, with its charming scenery, are
all written in stone, as it were, and may be read by those with skill and patience
to decipher.

In the beiziniiing the long Pacific Ocean swells doubtless rolled wiUkmiI
interruption over the place where the island now stands. Just how hum' this
condition lasted we can never know, but tlie evidence seems sufficient to I'rofessor

^ AchutineUidm.

120 XATI'l^VL HISTORY OP^ HAWAII.

lliti-lu-(.ck and Mtli.Ts to wniraiit 1lic (-(>iirlusit>ii that deposits of the Tertiary,
IMM-lwips the Koceiie period, Un-m the fouiuhition on which the volcanic mass of
tlie nri-iiial ishind of Kaala was formed. These eruptive deposits began to be
laid down uudrv water, hiil in lime the cone of Kaahi built itself above the
ocean perhaps three thonsand feet higher than the tallest peak of the Waianae
Hanire as we know it today. In ivality the range is but the remains of a great
.Ininc. ni-.iv or less symiiicl ri.-al. that at first arose above the waters. By the
«'rosive acticm of copious i-aiiis brought then as now from over the sea, it was
drcplv eaten away on all sides until its ancient form was very nearly etfaced.
Duriiii; this period it slowly accumulated a stock of plants and animals from
other reirions. partly from othci' islands uenv and far and partly from the distant
continents about tlic ocean.

Subsefpiently the island which may be called Koolau, only twenty miles to
the north, was developed In' a succession of eruptions, much as Kaala had develop-
ed before it. until its lavas and the soil eroded from them banked up several hun-
dred feel al)out the fo(»1 of the older adjacent island-mountain, uniting the two
islands into one and forniiiig the plain of Wahiawa. It is asserted that Koolau
extended fai'ltiei' uoi'theast than at present and that the active center of the
crater iinist have been beyond the foot of the Pali.

A.s soon as conditions became favoi'a])le. limestone began to form as coral
reefs. prolialil\- lii-st about the older island and later about them lioth. It has
continued to be foi-med to the ])resent day through the various chemical, physical
and 1)io]ogic agencies. Artesian well borings i" and other sources of in-
foiiiiation have revealed data to prove that during this immensely long period
the sui'l'ace III' the island stood much higher than at present.

The Pali ci-ater and a doubtful crater near the head of Xuuauu Valley
give evidence of i)eriodic activity during this time, such as the eruption of
the cellular or viscular lava, the formation of olivine laccoliths, and the intrusion
of dikes of solid basalt that tilled in ti.ssures in the older mass. The last evidence
of activity at the Pali ai)pears in the form of an eruption of ash, clinkers and
lava.

About this time Kapuai ami Makakilo craters in the Laeloa region at the
east end of the Waianae Range, and perhaps one or more of the Tantalus
craters, weiv formed. Then came the ejection of some of the lavas met with
in the sinking of artesian wells and the formation of certain of the Laeloa
craters, also those at Kaimuki, Mauumai. and perhaps Rocky Hill, though Dr.
Bishop places the eruption of the solid basalt which completely blocked the
mouth of Manoa Valley at a much earlier period ; but as its lower end extends a

10 por example the famous Keologic land mark, the Campbell well, at the west base of Diamond
Head, after penctratiiij; the surface gravel and beach sand for fiftv feet and tufa, like Diamond Head.
for 2 70 feet, entered a strata of "hard coral rock like marble" .505 feet thick. Stratas of dark In-own
clay, wu.shed gravel, and deep red clay were below and overlaid soft white coral twenty-eight feet thick: be-
ginning at 1048 feet below the surface, stratas of stone-like rock, brown clay, and broken coral were next
penetrated, when the drill entered the first hard blue lava at a depth of "122.3 feet. A thin strata of
black and red cla.v was passed through, and the boring stopped at 1500 feet, after entering 249 feet into
brown lava. Xumerous other wells in different parts of the island show similar, though varying, evidence
of deeply submerged coral beds which, as they form onlv at or near the surface, bear mute testimony
of the periodic subsidence of the island.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 121

short distance over the elevated reef at Moiliili, Rocky Hill must have been in
eruption after the reef was formed.

Next came the period of the eruption of the tuff craters : the Salt Lake
group, Punchbowl, Diamond Head, Koko Head, the Kaneohe group and other
smaller craters of similar character. During this period the tuff eaine up
through coral reefs, the land as we know it being submerged in the region
of eruption. Then followed a long period of decay and the disintegration of
the older eruptions and the newer tuff-cones of sufficient duration to produce
soils from them. This period culminated in the discharge of ashes from Tantalus,
Punchbowl, Diamond Head, Koko Head and other members of this group of
craters, which terminated usually in a more or less extensive shower of vol-
canic stones. Dikes were then intruded into crevices, cutting Punchbowl, Dia-
mond Head, and the coral reefs at various points, notably at Kaena Point,
Kupikipikio and Koko Head.

Time then elapsed for the accumulation of calcarious talus breccia with
soil and vegetation on the lower slope of Diamond Head sufficient to support
several species of land shells. Then apparently came the depression of the
whole island during which time the ocean encroached on the land above its present
level, submerging the low lands about the island. This comparatively brief
period left ocean deposits and slight wave markings about the new shore line,
which, when the island was again elevated to its present level, was marked by
ocean-flooded sand dunes — over which more recent dunes have been piled by
the action of the wind. Lastly comes the long periods of disintegration, the
formation of surface soil and finally human culture. AVhile geologists may dis-
agree, and there is much ground for disagreement, in the interpretation of the
records in minor matters, all are agreed in the main points, and freely state
that almost inconceivable time has elapsed since the oldest part of Oahu first
emerged as a volcanic island.

Theory of the Formation of the Group.

Among the various theories that have been advanced in attempts to recon-
struct the past history of the group, one of great interest and significance has
recently been brought forward, in a very concrete form, by Dr. Henry A. Pilsbry,
that has as its basis an exhaustive study of the Hawaiian land shells. ^^

He finds this interesting portion of the fauna belonging chictl.N' to a l)rancli
of a very ancient group ^- of land moUusks that are distributed on various
islands of the Pacific. As there is a marked absence of modern types of land
mollusks — save those that have been introduced through commerce — he feels that
the peculiar fauna cannot be considered as springing from accidental intro-
duction in the group from time to time in the remote i)ast. By analogy the
conclusion is arrived at that "the AvIiafineJlidce had already differentiated as a
family before the beginning of the Tertiary." But tlie close relationship of the

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 123

genera of the sub-family Amastriiue and the even closer rclatioiislii]) of tlie
genera of the related sub-family AchatineUimt "indicate a sudden i-ejuvene.scence
of the old stock in comparatively modern ^^ time." A study of the species,
varieties and forms extant show that everywhere intense local differentiation
is still in progress.

Dr. Pilsbry concludes that "the logical geographic l)()uiidaries of most of the
species of AchaiineUida' give excellent ground for the belief that the ju'eseiit
distribution of all the larger species has been attained by their oavii means of
locomotion and that unusual or so-called accidental carriage, as hy ])irds, drift-
ing trees, etc., has been so rare as to be negligible. No evidence whatever of
such carriage is known to me. ' '

After exhausting the possibilities of accidental introduction of species frcmi
island to island, the conclusion follows that all of the important islands must
have been, at one time, connected by land, and that distribution of the an-
cestral forms of land shells from Kauai to Hawaii was effected at that time.

As the Hawaiian chain, from Ocean and Midway Islands to Hawaii, a
distance of 1,700 miles, rests on a submarine ridge, the greatest depth between
the islands being less than 3,000 fathoms, the distribution and subsequent isola-
tion of the forms on the islands appear to be in accord with the theory of sub-
sidence of the ridge supporting the entire archipelago after wide distril)ution
of the land forms had taken place.

From the affinities and the geographic relations of the several groups of hind
shells studied our authority deduces the following sequence of events, the be-
ginning of which is placed probal)ly in the Mesozoic, possibly in Eocene time.

I. "The Hawaiian area from northern Hawaii to and probably far be.yond
Kauai formed one large island which was inhabited by the primitive Amastriuce.
This pan-Hawaiian land, whatever its structure, preceded the era of vul-
canism which gave their present topography to the islands and ]>robMl)ly d;ited
from the Paleozoic." (Plate 75, fig. 1.)

II. "Volcanic activity built up the older masses, subsidence following,
Kauai being the first island dismembered from the pan-llawaiian area." (Plate
75, fig. 2.)

III. "Northern Hawaii was next isolated hy formaticm of the AU'nuihala
Channel, leaving the large intermediate island, which included the present islands
of Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui." (Plate 75, fig. 3.)

lY. "In the eastern end of this Oahu-^Iaui island arose certain genera,^*
while another ])eeuliar genera ^^ was evolved in tlie Avest from undoubted nn-
cesteral stock.

Y. "The Oahuan and the ^Folokai-Lanai-^lauiau areas were sundered by
subsidence of tlie Kaiwi Channel." (Plate 75, fiu. 4. i On Oahu the niollusean
fauna bears out the generally accepted theory of two centers, probaljly two
islands, the western or Waianae and the eastern or Koolau area. Tii each area
certain genera were differentiated, but latei'. in the later Pliocene or IMeistoeene

13 Tertiary. i-* LamiiicllK. i» Pterodiscus.

124 NATl HAL lilSTOKY OF HAWAII.

time a f..ivstt-.l .•..n.KH-tiuii was e'stal.lished l)"lwoen the two Oaluian centers of
evolnti.Mi. f..n..in- a fannal bridge ^vhi.-h mln.itted of the mingling of the two
ishmd I'aimas. WhWr Hie hind connection endi-ivs the forest has, in recent time,
become extin.-l an.l tlnis the two centers are again isolated so far as forest-
h)\iiii: snails are concerned.

Tni-ning to the eastern or Molokai-Lanai-Mani region it is Dr. Pilsbry's
opini.m that the elose relali..nshi|. of their fanna indicate that they formed a
sinude island up to late I'li.n-ene or even Pleistocene time. The formation of
the ciiannels between Molokai, Lanai and !\lani mnst be considered as a very
recent event since they stand on a i^latfonn wilhin the 100 fathom line and their
fannas are very closely related.

The investigation of the island fauna and flora as conducted by various ob-
servers has l)rought out facts of evolution that seem in full accord with the dis-
niemlierment of the various islands as here described.

hi addition to all else the evidence of the wonderfully dissected mountains,
the dcc|)ly eroded valleys, the submerged coral reefs all tend to bear out the
l,r..ad conclusion that the group has evolved by the submergence of a single
island, and that the isol;;tion of the existing islands, with their peculiar, yet re-
lated plants and animals, have been formed as superimposed volcanic rem-
nants on tl Ider and dec|)ly subsided larger bind area.

Dr. Seivno liishop. discussing the geology of Oahu, tentatively offered an
estimate of the leiii^th of time that must have elapsed since the successive events
in the geological history of the island took place. Such estimates of geologic
time nnist of necessity be accepted only as individual guesses and the personal
factor taken into acc(»niit. but they have their value for those less skilled, enabling
them to form a rouiili chronology that the mind can in a measure grasp.

While scientiiic guesses of this nature are valuable, they are liable in each
instance to fall far short of the actual time involved. Dr. Bishop's table places
the time of the emergence of the AA^aianae Range as a volcanic mountain at
one million years ago. The emergence of the Koolau Range is placed at
eight huiidi'ed thousand years ago, and the extinction of the AVaianae activity one
Inuidred thousand years thereafter, Avhile the extinction of the Koolau Range is
placed live hnmlred thousand years back in the past. The emergence of Laeloa
craters and Rocky Hill are both placed at least seventy-five thousand years ago.
Tlie time of the eruption of Punchbowl is given as forty-five thousand years ago:
the small Xuuanu craters twenty thousand; Diamond Head fifteen thousand;
Kainniki twelve thousand: the Salt Lake group ten thousand; Tantalus, seven or
eight thousand, while the eruption of the Koko Head group, the last of the im-
portant tuff-cones to be formed, is given as occurring but a meager five thousand
years ago. The ant hoi-, however, is inclined to attribute a very much greater
age to Oahu than that indicated by Dr. Bishop. TIk^ fouiulation for sucli a belief
is based largely on a careful physiographic study of the Waianae Mountains. It
seems obvious that the deeply eroded valleys of the Waianae Range were practi-
cally completed as they are now before the slight re-elevation of the island

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PLATE 31. NUTANU PALI.

1. Xuuaiiu Pali from the road on tlio wiinlward side lookiiiji' bai-k towards Lamlmli
peak (2781 feet); on the left of th;i road is Konaluiaimi (310.") feet); the
is 1214 feet above tlie sea. The Pali is of great geologic, historic and sceiiie interest.

road at tiie Pali

126 XATLKAL ilLSTOKY OF HAWAII.

bi-oii-lit the ancient reefs above tlie sea. Tlu'se ele'vated reefs contain extinct
fossils, probably those of Eocene time. The dawn of the Eocene is generally
placed by ^aH)logists at four million years ago. How much older then must be
tlir moimtain mass in which the valleys of the AYaianae region were so deeply
carved before the reefs were laid down across the emba^-ments at the mouths of
their valley streams?

Artesi.vn Wells.

Hcfci-ence has been made above to the artesian water supply of the island,
and the important geologic facts that the sinking of five hundred or more artesian
wells on Oahu has brought to light. The wealth of water, amounting to millions
of gallons per hour, now poui-ed out on what was formally in many places semi-
arid, and tlici-efore. un|)i'o(hictiv(^ land, has been the prime factor in the modern
development of the agricnltural resources, not only on the island under con-
sideration, bnl all the islands of the grou]), where conditions favorable to the
development of artesian wells are found.

The erosion of the sloping volcanic lava flows in the mountains offers condi-
tions favoi-a])le foi- storing in the ground much of the excess of the copious
precipitation occurring in the higher altitudes. As we have seen, the strata of
igneous cock exposed in the mountains are often buried several hundred feet
beneath the surface when they reach the costal plain. The Avater which enters
the exjHjsetl portion of the more porous strata, especially when the water-bearing
strata lie between more impervious strata, tends by gravity to flow as under-
ground M'ater down to the lower levels. Eventually, this underground stream
descends to the sea, often several miles distant from the point in the highlands
where it was taken into the porous rock or soil.

ir the lower ends of the water-bearing strata open into the sea beneath its
surface, the fresh water gradually forces its way out at the lower end of the
natural conduit, to mingle quietly with the water of the ocean, or, as often occurs
about the shore line of the group, to l:)u1)ble to the surface forming fresh water
springs in the ocean.

Owing to the pressure exerted by the sea, the subterranean water moves out
nuich more slowly than the surface water which rushes from the mountains to the
sea in the forin of rivers. If the pressure of the water in the imderground stream
is greater tlian tlie pressure exerted by the water of the sea, the stream con-
tinues to flow into the latter as fresh water. If the pressure of the ocean exceeds
that exerted by the underground waters, the two waters commingle, and brackish
water occui's in the underground basin. So long as the fresh water level in the
underground stream or basin is maintained at a level above sea-level, the water
in the undergr-ound sti-eam or l)asin seems to remain free from salt.

An appreciation of the geologic conditions existing in the strata of rock
underlying the island, and the need of a more abundant water supply, led to
the practical utilization of this great natural resource through the development
of artesian wells. The first well was sunk in 1879 by James Campbell on an

GEOLOGY AM) T01'( )( i H A IM I Y ( )F 1 1 A W A 1 1 127

island in Pearl Ilarlxu" and fi'csh walt-r was secured at a deplli of 24(1 feet.
The uatui'al principle involved in I he fresh water S])i'inu' and esp(M'i;ill\- the
spring in the ocean, was tui-ned to practical account. To secure water, wells
v/ere driven deep enouuh into the earth to puncture the iiioi-e oi' less iiii|)er\ious
strata overlying the water-bearing strata beneath, with tlie result that owinu- to
the pressure or head on the enipounded water, it rose in the well, and in the
lowei' zone about the island often overflowed to form an artilicial spiini;- or
flowing artesian well. The principle involved in wells which do not ovei'tlow
is the same as that in those that do; for which reason all deep wells are now
called artesian. Wells in which the water is raised to the surface In- pumps are
liable to become brackish, through excessive ])umping, while those which flow-
naturally seldom show a marked change in the amount of salt carried in their
waters.

The waterdiearing stratuin on Oahu at the sea-shore, is usually found to be
between three and four hundred feet below tide level, and is usually a very
porous basalt, capped wdth an overlaying impervious stratum usually of basalt.
Wells drilled in the vicinity of Honolulu at an elevation above forty-two feet
above the sea have to be pumped. The flowing wells are. as a rule, found at
the lower levels. It is of interest to note in this connection that as a rule the
shallowest wells are those bored about the ends of radiating lava i-idges and
that usually their depth increases the nearer they are to the sea-coast. Wells
drilled in the middle of valleys are usually deeper than those at either side.
All of these facts taken together indicate that the island has ])een submei-ged
to considerable depth before the subseciuent elevation of the raised coral reef
on the costal plain -AUmt the island, and that the reefs were laid down in sub-
merged valleys that wert' already dee[)ly eroded l)efore the reefs were formed
in them.

In several places, notably at Waianae and Oahu plantations, as well as else-
where in the group, underground streams have been encountered through hori-
zontal tunnels driven into the mountains, and the underground v/ater sui)ply has
been tapped near its head. The tuiuiel is then extended to the right and left, form-
ing a Y-shaped drain, which brings the water to the surface, far aboxc possible
contamination with sea water. Such tuiniels are usually driven a1 altilude-, sufli-
cient to admit of distributing the watei- by gravity ovei- extensive fields well
upon the slopes of the mountain. On Maui a daily t1o'.\- of six million Lialhins
has IjCfcU secured in this wa\- at an elevation of 2,()0() feet. The woudei-ful Waia-
hole tuiuiel on Oahu. built on a modifiejition of this principle. deliver~> lwciit\-
million uallous of w-ater each t wenty-l'oui- lioui's.

Economic PKonrcrs.

Of the economic products, clays are the most important and are found on
Oahu, .Maui and Hawaii, in many jtlaces. in \aryiiig amoiuits. A number of
years ago a brick kiln was oi)ened in Nuiianu X'alley and brick of fair (piality
was manufactured. Unfortunately, the attempt was abandoiietl in. a short time.

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOCRAPTTY OK 1 1. \ WATT. 129

In 1910 steam bricks were made at Moiliili fr-om imlviM-izcd Inva by nii ela])orate
process, but, owinsz' to unexpected chemicil chaii.m's, I lie l)i'icks wci'c found to
be inferior in (luality, and the process and product altered jil'ler an expensive
experiment. Lime manufactured from coral rock bas loim- been a common
commodity in the islands, but it has never been considered (juile eijnal 1n lliat
manufactured from limestone on the mainland. Sandstone of a fail- (|iiality
occui's at several points alxtnt tbe island. St. Andrew's Cathedi-ab in Ibuiohilu,
is made of sandstone imported from England long before Hawaii became an
integral part of the Ignited States. "When a few years ago it was decided to
enlarge the cathedral, the import duty made it impractical)]e to go to tbe same
source for more stone. A large part of tlie Thiited States was luisnccessfully
hunted over for a match to the English stone. It was finally found neai- P>ar-
ber's Point, about tv/enty miles from the cathedral site. This h)cal stone is ph'as-
ing in color and durable in quality. The hard, compact, dai'k l)luis]i-grey basalt
is much used in building operations whenever cut stone is reipiired. A lunu-
ber of the most substantial structures in the islands are made entirely of cut
stone derived from ciuarries usually opened in the vicinity of the particular
structure in which the stone is used.

]\Iuch of the softer grade of basalt is used in concrete and in road construc-
tion. Beach sand is also used in mortar and to some extent on the roads, and
as road dressing. It is usually mixed with coral rock, the whole being rolled
together and oiled to form a smooth surface. Sand from beds in the neighl)or-
hood of the Waianae Mountains is also used extensively in building operations,
but being formed from coral and shells it is undoubtedly inferior in quality
when compared with tbe sharp sand brought from the mainland. Salt is still
manufactured on the island by evaporating the sea water in shallow ponds along
the sea shore, but the main supply is imported. The use of the loose rough field
stone or "moss stone" has recently come much into vogue for foundation and
trim work and has added much to the rustic as well as permanent appearance
of the bungalow homes, in the building of whicii it is being exlensively nse.l.

This already lengthy chapter on the geology of Oalui wonld be inconq)lete
without some brief reference to a few of the more interesting, though minor,
natural features of the island which are obiects of interest to residents and
tourists alike. Among these may be mentioned the iiunierous natural caves
formed in the volcanic rock. One at the west end of .Judd street, a portion of
which was once used as a burial cave, extends back for several Innulred feet by
a winding, narrow passage. Other l)urial caves are found above the roail at
AVailupe Valley, and beyond, while along the sea coast, beyond !\oko lleiid, are
caves in which several interesting stone carvings iiave been found.

Points of Geologic Interest About Oaiiit.

The coast-line from Koko Head to Makapnu Point is a I'eiion of iinich
gee>logic interest, with spouting horns, olivine crystal beaches, and much coast
scenery. The dash of waves against the exi)ose<,l lieadlands at Koko ITead and

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 131

]\Iakapuu Points, are features of an excursion thither that arc always much en-
joyed, while the picturesque coral bay at Ilaiiauiua, and the unmistakable evi-
dence of the nature of the formation of the bay, presents a variety of objects well
worthy of a visit.

Along- the coast, beyond Diamond Head, at Waialae Bay, are a number of
fresh water springs on the edge of the ocean, and at the end of Black Point
is a sea cave with a large hole through the roof, from which water and spray
s])urt thirty or forty feet in the air during rough v/eather. As has been
intimated, the sea slope of Diamond Head is full of geologic interest. Along
the beach line sand concretions, caused by organic acids, may be seen in the
process of forming about the roots of plants and trees which penetrate the ex-
posed beds. Higher up, in excavations along the line of the road, similar con-
cretions may be found, thousands of years old, in wdiich the roots that formed
the center have been completely fossilized.

Pot-holes in the rock along tlie reef are especially numerous on the
shore at this point. Many of them are three feet or more across, and well
illustrate this peculiar, rather than important, feature of erosion. The scouring
work is accomplished 1)\- the grinding action of the sand rock fragments as tools
in the hands of the waves. The coral reef between Waikiki and the mouth of
Honolulu Harbor is a complete laboratory in reef formation. Seen through
a watergiass or a glass bottom boat, the growdng, living reef, in connection with
the elevated reef farther inland, exhibits the present side by side with the dim
past, and shows every phase of this living agent that has i)layed so important
a part in the geologic history of the group.

A half day's ramble over the slopes of Punchbowl and down along the
nearby Nuuanu Stream will reveal excellent examples to illustrate a hundred
points in structural and dynamic geology. The road ui) Xuuanu Valley, the
Pali, and the descent over the floor of the old Pali crater to the sea-shore on
the windward side of the island exhibit scores of points of interest to one who
cares for geology. The latteral valleys with their gauze-like w'aterfalls; ex-
amples of sub-aerial erosion at the Pali ; the splendid dikes displayed in the
solid rock by the roadside; the vertical walls of the mighty pit itself; the living
reef at Kaneohe; these and a thousand features like them, fill the mind with awe
and wonder, and the careful observer is surprised that so much can lie crowded
into a cross-country ride.

The windward shore of the island at Laie exhibits the ccmibined action of
the sea and the wind in ]uling up dry sand inland into mounds thirty or forty
feet in height, and of the effect of the submergence again of such dunes under
the sea from whence they originally came and from Avhich they have again
been lifted up. At Kahana we have an excellent example of a drowneil valley.
At Kaliuwaa is a valley of awe-inspiring grandeur; so nari'ow and deep is it
that it forms a dark, narrow passage-way cut into the solid mountain that is
shut in with inaccessible vertical w^alls, nearly a thousand feet in height. Down
these basalt walls clear, cold mountain Avater has cut out siiiooDi cliannels so re-

132 XATLKAJ. HISTORY OF HAWAII.

iiiarkaltlf, in I'act that they seem to liave been the handiwork of the gods, — and
indeed, tliey were regarded and worshipped as such hy the ancient inhabitants.

At Kahukn the elevated coral reef, filled with eaves, and th(^ interesting fea-
tures associated with thcni. fnrnisli an object entirely woi'thy of a separate
expedition.

The estuaries of tlic "Waiuiea and the AVaialua streams are the main points
of interest along the nortlr.vest end of the island. Returning to the city by
way of AVahiawa, the v,-iiulward side of Waianae and the long parallel valleys
t»f tile lee side of the Koolau Range may ];e studied to advantage, and the relative
age of the two chains observed.

The Salt Lake crater is a feature of much interest since here is formed a
lake three-quartei's of a mile from the sea, enclosed within a high tuft' rim and
entirely cut ot'i' from tlu^ sen. which is more salt than the sea itself. To the
student of natnr.il history Salt Lake, with its uplifted and shattered coral reefs,
salt-impregnated walls, and other unusual features, is a point of more than
ordinaiw interest. Along the line of the Oahu railway numerous cuts expose
till' strata of the complex section about the Pearl Lochs and in the neighbor-
hood of the Laeloa craters. Farther on, the lowering walls of Kaala, with its
abrui)t precipices and narrow buttresses, may be observed from the train as it
winds along tlie coast line. Objects of special interest ar*^ the n;itural bridge
and the giant basalt boulders along the coast, and the 'high reef in the neigh-
liorhood of Waianae.

CHAPTER XL

ISLANDS OF .MOLOKAI, LAXAI. .MAUI AND KAIIOOLAWE.

The five islands lying to the southeast of Oahu may all be seen from the
decks of the inter-island steamers in nuikinu the journey to Hawaii — a journey
usually made by ti-avelers in order to visit ^.ladame Pele in her abode in the
heart of the living volcano Kilauea.

As a matter of fact, when atmospheric conditions are favorable the outline
of the nearest of these islands, namely ]\Iolokai, Lanai and :\Iaui, may be plainly
seen from the rim of the crater of Diamond Head or Koko Head. Although no
one has probabl\- been able to do so, it is not improbable, as asserted by Dr.
Titus :Munsen Ooan, that from the high peak of Kaala, if visual conditions were
favorable, the high peaks on all of the inhabited islands could be seen through
a telescope.

]MOLOKAI.

Since on the actual journey to the volcano the mystical islaiul of Molo-
kai comes first to view, it nuiy be well to know that it is l)ut tweuTv-three miles
from Oahu and that it lies directly between that island aiul Maui. It extends
as a long narrow island almost due east and west for fortv miles, but it is

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPH Y i)V IIAAVAIT. l.v^^

only tell miles in width ;it its widest ]);\r\. It is roiiiihly feclnnuuhir in rnrrn
and has an area of Iwo liuiidrcd and sixly-niic s(|iiare niih's.

Like Oahn, it hears uiiinistakahie e\idenee of heiii^- I he I'esull of sevei'al
[)ei'i()ds of volcanic activity, and it, too, is formed hy the jniielion of two vol-
canic mountains of which the western crater JNIanna Loa.^ an eminence lit lie
more than a hill, is far the older. The eastern end of the island is much hi^iher,
attaining at Kamakua peak an altitude of 4,958 feet. The highland between
the two points mentioned, while less extensive, has been built up in iiinch 1 he
same manner as the region between the two gronps of mountains on Oahn.

The island from the north presents a more or less verlical face of vary-
ing height which rises, as a line of cliffs, usually from a very narrow level
plain. From the high backbone of the island in the eastern end, several deep,
beautiful valleys, with gaunt finger-like lateral ridges, run down to the sea.
The most prominent point along the northern coast is formed by the wedge-
shaped peak of 01okui,2 which has its sea end formed ])y a wall rising all but
perpendicularly from the sea to almost the extreme height of the mounlaiii.
The deep balloon-shaped valleys of Wailau ami Pelekunu almost surround this
point and form its almost inaccessible walls inland. The whole section has ])een
deeply eroded and is one of the most remarkable and pictui'esipie districts of
the entire group. The vertical sea cliffs and the great amphitheater-shaix'd val-
leys, set, as they are, directly across the ])ath of the northeast trade winds, are
almost constantly drenched with heavy tropical rains. l^nfortunately this
abundant supply of water is still allowed to tiow to the sea uncontrolled, while the
opposite end of the island, with its thousands of acres of rich, deep-red tillahle
soil lies parched and barren.

Halaw.s. Valley.

The eastern, and consequently the most remote end of the island, is occu-
pied by smooth, high bluffs toi:)ped with a table-land that is cut 1hrouL;!i by
the valley of Halawa. This valley is one of great isolation and primitive
beauty. Its purple cliff-like walls terminate abi-uptly a1 the head of the gorge
in a vertical precipice, over which jxjur two streams di-awn from the rain-soaked
uplands. The Halawa waters reach the tioor of the valleys by monster leaps,
foi-ming ]\roaula Falls; the other, the llipuapua stream, forms a siimie silvei-y
thread from top to bottom of tlie cliff. The ceaseless tund)lc and roai- of these
falls, the delicious freshness of the breeze, the song of the feaiiess nati\-e birds,
the abundant vine-swung tropical verdure, the sim])le I'l'ieiidly hospitality of the
natives, the morning and eveniuu I'ainltows tliat span the falls, the sweep df the
sand-rimmed bay, the traiujuil scene of life aloni;' the ri\-ei'. the peace, the |)leut\\
the contentment of it all, blends again in memoiw as 1 wi'ite, as not many years
ago it did in reality to foi'ui a |)icture. a pictui'c of bliss, such as I would iiaint
v.'ere I gifted, and call the ''Island \'ale .\\aloir" an eai'thly pai'adise within
the w'estern sea.

' 1382 feet. " 4600 feet.

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 135

The southeastern, aud partienlarly the southern part of the ishmd, is broken
l)y a number of parallel ridges and vallevs. As the valleys are many of them but
two or three miles in length the streams, which have tlicir source in the cloud-
wrapped peaks that form the dividing' line of the ishnul. are cool and beauti-
fidly clear. In nmny of these valleys inay still be seen tlie remains of the old
orange and breadfruit groves for which Molokai was one time famous. The
heads of the valleys often end in almost vertical and deeply eroded precipices.
Several of the valleys, as INIoanui, have a number of large caves, which were used
extensively in olden times as burial caves.

The valley of Mapulehu is the largest valley on the south side of the island.
Having steep funnel-shaped sides and being opposite the great rain-soaked valley
of Wailau, it is especially subject to torrential rains.

The nearby harbor of Pukoo, well to the eastern end, aud the harbor of
Kaunakakai, near the center of the island, are the principal ports of call on
the southern side of JNIolokai. They are both formed by openings in the wide
coral reef which extends along the greater part of the island.

The Leper Settlement.

Unfortunately the whole of this island of ^Molokai is known as the "Leper
Island." In reality only the low shelf-like promontory of Kalaupapa which
jets out into the sea, a distance of three or four miles, at a point about the
middle of the island on its northern side, is in any way included in the area set
apart by the Territory for the isolation and care of those suffering witli this
disease.

The settlement forms a colony inhabited by eight hundred to one thousand
persons, most of whom are lepers. The colony is completely cut off from the
rest of the island by clilfs fifteen hundred or more feet in height, the steep sea-
face of which is called Kalawao. The plain or shelf of Kalaupapa is crossed by
several lava streams of more recent date than have been found elsewhere on
the island. So it is not unlikely that this section, as stated in tlic legend of Pele
previously mentioned, was the last point on ]\lolokai to feel the influence of vol-
canic fires.

Lanai and Kahoulawe.

Lanai is in plain view from both ^Molokai and ^Ijiui. b( ing only nine miles
west from the nearest point of the latter island.

From the vessel as it passes through the channel between the islands it ap-
pears as a single volcanic cone, that doubtless, owing to the protection fur-
nished bv the nearbv-island to windward, has suffered but sliuht erosion, thougli
its sides are here and there furrowed by small gulches, down one of which there
runs a small stream. It has an area of 139 square miles and the principal peak,
which is well Avooded, is given as 3,400 feet in heii^Iit. It rises from near
the southeastern end and slopes rather gradually to the northwest, where abrupt
declivities are found. Steep cliffs also occur along the southwest shore where

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HA^VAII. 137

they are often three or four hundred feet in height. Tt ai^peai's that ticitlicr
Lanai nor Kahoohiwe have e\'er been carefully studied In- g(^()l()gists.

Kahoolawe, the smallest of the inhabited islands, is about twelve miles
long and has an area of sixty-nine square miles. Owing to its slight elevation,^
and the fact that it lies in the lee of ]\Iaui, whose high mountains wring the
rain-clouds dry, the surface shows but little wash and is almost level. There
being no important streams or springs on the island it has never been con-
sidered of much value. In consequence it has l)een given over to a few goats,
sheep and cattle that roam over its barren red lands at Avill. Plans have been
considered by the Territorial government, however, which contemplate refor-
esting the island, as an experiment in conservation, with a view to securing
scientific data on the increasing and storing of water through the agency of
plant growth.

Like Lanai, the island of Kahoolawe has high, steep sea cliffs on the lee
shore. Enough of the underlying strata is exposed to foster the belief that
neither of these small islands was ever more closely connected with each other
or with the nearby and larger island of ]Maui than they are now unless it was
l)y their normal slopes, now hidden beneath the sea. The larger island of ^laui
is separated from the smaller of the two islands by seven miles of placid water
known as the Alalakeiki channel which, together with the Auau channel between
Lanai and j\Iaui, forms the ^laui channel; a waterway which no doul)t has been
formed by the subsidence of all three islands just mentioned.

]\Lvri, THE Valley Isle.

It is the custom to regard ]\Iolokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe and INIaui as form-
ing a natural group of islands, there being about the same distance between the
nearest points on the neighboring islands of Molokai and Oahu ^ in the north-
west, that there is between the nearest points of IMaui and Hawaii ^ at the
southeast end of the central cluster of islands, the combined area of which is
placed at 7,289 square miles. Maui is the largest island in the middle group
and is the second largest in size of the inhabited islands. However, it is con-
siderably less than one-fifth the size of Hawaii, which boasts of its area of 4,015
square miles.

To the mere traveler Maui is but a synonym for the name of the gi-eat
extinct crater which forms one of the chief objective points of his round-the-
world journey. But to the geologist the splendid double island, aptly named
the Yalley Isle, is no less interesting in its topography and history than Kauai
or Oahu are.

Like Molokai and Oahu, it has been produced from two distinct centers of
volcanic activity. West ^laui with its highest peak" corresponds in ag" ^vith
the western group of mountains on Oahu. As on Oalni, the advanced disintegra-
tion, shown by the deep wonderful valleys dissected into its mass, makes it un-
mistakably the older end of the islaiul. In fact it has every (evidence of being
as old as Kauai, the Waianae Range on Oahu, the western end of ?»Iolo]\ai, or
the Kohala mountains on Hawaii.

3 1472 feet. * 23 miles. ^ 26 miles. " Piiu Kukui. 5788 feet.

J38 XATIKAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Iao Valley.

As has been tlic case on the other ishmds. this volcanic pile has snffered
its deepest erosion on the northeast tiank. Exposed to the trade winds, the
jrreat awe-inspiring valley of Iao. with its head a vast amphitheater in the very
heart of the monntain, has been so wonderfully eroded that it is indeed difficult
to fed it has been formed solely by the chisel of the elements.

Kising on every hand about "The Needle," an isolated, nearly inaccessible
pinnacle, standing hundreds of feet above the floor of the valley— are almost
vei-tical verdni-e-covered walls of basalt. They rise al)ruptly for more than
four thousand feet. Over and al)(mt the toj) of the highest peaks cluster and
frolic the down-like clouds that so often, without apparent provocation, gather
into a lowering pall from which pours torrents of cold, pelting rain. Within
an liour their waters will tiood and choke the babbling gorge stream, until it
rushes down to the sea in an irresistible torrent.

Few ai'e the visitors who have seen the grandeur of Iao who are not willing
to compai-e it favorably with the more famous valley of the Yosemite. But
those who have mastered the ditfieulty of the ascent and who have once looked
down from the summit of Puu Kukui into the head of Iao Valley, and the
e(pial!y wonderful valleys of Waihee and Olowalu. are unstinted in their praise
of tile wild scenery that stretches away from their feet in all directions — to the
ocean, to llaleakala. and to the snow-capped mountains of Hawaii. Those
travelers who can take the circumstances that surround each into account and
compare the grandeur of the Valley Isle with the grandeur of the Yosemite
never fail to rearrange the list of America's great natural wonders in a way
most eomplimeiitary to this island wonder, which, unfortunately, too few have
as 3'et been piixileucd to visit.

The suinniii of Puu I\ul<ui is made up of an extensive bog which, as a great
monntain reservoir, receives and stores the Avater that flows down the lee or
Lahaina side of the mountain. As a matter of fact no fewer than eight canons
radiate in all <lirections from the central portion of west ^Nlaui, at least five of
them being notahle for their size. The Avliole summit of this western end of
the island is c()i)iousl\- supplied with water. It is therefore well wooded,
although the lowei- slopes, especially on the southwestern side, are dry and
barren. Along the shore the costal plain is composed of rich red soil v.-ashed from
the mountains. When ai-tificially watered and under cultivation it is most
productive.

In its outline the island of :\raui has often been compared to the head and
bust of a woman. West Maui, the head, with the face looking to the southwest;
the lowland joining the portion just described to the larger eastern end of the
island, forms the neck, with Kahului Bay at the back of the neck and ]^faalaea
Ray forming the hollow beneath the chin.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 139

IIaleakala.

The giant crater of Haleakala, easily the largest extinct crater in the world,
rises as a shoulder from the center of the portion fonuiug- the bust of our
figure, to the sublime height of 10,032 feet. Besides being the feature of the
topography of ]\Iaui, since it covers an area six times as large as west ]\laui,
it furnishes to the world a single striking, clean-cut example of the awful power
in nature which can rock continents on their foundations and lift np islnnds in
the midst of tlie sea, until their tops are lost above the clouds.

The low plain forming the neck or isthmus between the eastern and western
extremities of the island is almost level and is al)Out six miles in length, by seven
or eight in width, at the narrowest part. There seems every reason
to believe that this portion of the island was at one time a waterway,
and that then the older and the newer ends of the island were sepa-
rate. Later this shallow channel was filled by flows from Haleakala which have
been added to by wash from the highlands. The sand dunes near AVailuku
are two hundred feet high and contain only fragments of coral and sea shells
in the form of sand particles that point to their origin, while the sand hills
nearer the shore and elsewhere are nndoubtedly the products of the wind.
Wind-blown or a'olian calcarious sand has had much to do with the building
up of the low land deposits ; the central part of the neck being only 156 feet
above the sea. In the sand hills along the shore in this portion of ]\lani, as
elsewhere in similar situations in the group, numerous calcarious concretions and
fossil land shells are found.

The trip to Maui is in many respects the most interesting one in the islands
to the traveler. Naturally Haleakala " is the chief object of interest to the
tourist and scientist and its ascent is often made as a side trip on the journey
to or from the active craters on Hawaii. In plan east ]\Iaui, which is formed
solely ])y Haleakala, is roughly triangular in outline, with the crater lying well
towards its eastern angle. The windward side of the dome being w^ell watered
is furrowed by numerons canons and gorges. Along the side exposed to the
weather there are sixty or more eroded canons, most of them cjii'ryiug fair-
sized streams, in a distance of half as many miles. While abundant rains fall
on the eastern or Hana end of the island, the canons are wanting, owiuu' ])er-
haps to the resistant nature of the more recent lava tiows in that region.

From Hana to Kaupo on the south side of the island, the slopes are cut np
into numerous gorges, many of them with streams. The ravines here have loug
been celebrated for their riot of tropical verdure, but as the trail from Kipahulu

'The Hawaiian name for this mountain, meaning the "house of the sun." doubtless finds its origin in
an interesting and very ancient folk-tale of the people. According to the legend it was to Haleakala
that Maui. — the adventurous son of Hina — went to capture and tame the sun. The ob,iect of the exploit
was to discipline the sun in its course and make it go more slowly in order to give time for the drying
of the bark cloth or tapa which his mother made. We are told he was successful in capturing the sun
by ingeniously snaring its rays as they rose one by one over the top of the mountain. When at last
sixteen of its longest rays had been captured the sun. begging for mercy, was hauled down to earth by
Maui, who only permitted it to continue on its course wlien an agreement had been made that the sun
should go more slowly ever after and that in certain seasons the days should be longer than in others.
The Rev. Mr. Forbes, the Hawaiian Missionary, who first published the legend, asserts that it was this
adventure that gave the name to the mountain which should properly be called Alele-kala (sun snarer)
and not by the more poetical name Haleakala, now in general use.

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 141

on leads up and down over the points of the ridges the road is a difficult and
tedious one to travel. The absence of important canons on the western side
of Haleakala seems to be due to the fact that the rain clouds are relieved of
their burden on the opposite slopes of the mountain, so that the two sides when
compared furnish interesting examples of the effect of wet and dry climate
on the same mountain.

The Great Crater Described.

The trip to the summit of the mountain is usually, though not always, made
from Paia, the terminus of the Kahului railroad. Paia is situated on the north-
western slope and can be easily reached from most of the landings on both
]\Iaalaea and Kahului bays. As no better conception of the great crater and
this portion of the island can be formed than that gained from making the ascent,
it is proposed to follow the usual route, which, from Paia, leads to Idlewild^
and on the way to the summit, a distance of about twenty-two miles.

The outer slopes of the crater on all sides are quite irregular, ranging be-
tween eight and ten degrees, but the slope is a trifle steeper on the northeastern
side. This jnakes the ascent an easy uphill climb that it most deceiving. The lower
western slope of the mountain has been graphically described as resembling a
whole township diversified with farms and woods, valleys and hills, resting on
its elbows, so to speak, and looking out over the broad Pacific. From the base
of the mountain one can look up to the cloud-line and often get a glimpse of the
summit through an occasional rift in the clouds.

At Idlewild ^ the traveler leaves his wheeled conveyance and continues the
ascent for a distance of eight miles on horseback. For six miles the trail leads
by an easy, gradual climb through grassy pasture land, where the skylarks,
stimulated by the fresh, cool air of the mountain side, often mount skywards,
carrying their song far into the clouds.

From the cloud-belt on to the summit the trail becomes rougher and steeper.
The grass and trees of the lower reaches give way to low, scrubby bushes.
Entering the clouds the soft white fog usually obscures everything above
and below, but in less than an hour's climbing the rough, jagged outline of the
summit appears, floating on a sea of clouds as the traveler emerges into the
sunshine again. Often the world below is completely hidden from view ; more
often, however, the blue Pacific may be seen in the distance, apparently rising
like the inner side of a vast blue bowl until it joins, in some mysterious way,
with the edge of the bright blue dome that overtops everything, even this high
mountain.

From the favorable places, at this great height, much of the outline of the
island may be seen, spread out like a great colored map lying on the lap of
the mountain. West Maui appears usually above the clouds as the detached
summit of another island mountain.

As the trail ascends it winds about the l)ase of more than one sizable crater,

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 143

l)ut in (•(mii)firis(ui these seem to lie mere [)imi)les on tlie back of tlie 'jii;aiitic
Haleakala. Taking' the entire western slope into consideral ion there are two
dozen of these craters. ]\lost of them appear to tie very ancient ])ut show no
evidence of ever liavinu' heen points of eruptive flow, though on the west coast
near the shore there are several streams of very fresh-lo. il<iiiL;' lava 1ha1 may
be traced to some of them.

All the route to the summit is exceedingly interesting and instructive to
one with an interest in geology, but to the ordinary tourist the ascent seems a
trifle monotonous after the first few miles of travel. The surface of the moun-
tain is everywhere covered with quantities of broken red rock and resembles the
region about Kaiuiuld on Oahu. On the lower slopes the lava beds, whicii cniiii)ose
the foundation of the mountain when exposed, show thcMr texture to be very solid
and apparently very resistant to the ordinary forms of erosion.

After passing the mountain house "' the first view of the crater is ol)tained.
On arriving at last at the very edge of the caldera the immense size of the
yawning gulf does not readil\' take hold on the imagination. It is only by
comparison and after its dimensions have l)een reduced to miles and acres and
its altitude to feet that the sublime magnitude of the scene is appreciated.

One must think of this stretch of mountain scenery not as a mere view
to be admired but rather as a burned-out boiling pot twenty miles in circum-
ference, that has an area of twelve thousand one hundred and sixty acres — five
times that of Kilauea. ^Measure with the eye its extreme length from point to
point 1^ and its extreme width'- and compare it with the largest city you have
ever seen ! See if you can realize that the island of Manhattan with all the
teeming life of New York City could be comfortably placed in this mighty
chasm and buried more than a c^uarter of a mile deep ! Grasp the fact that the
floor of the crater, at its lowest point,i-^ is two thousand nine hundred and
fifty-two feet below the highest point on the rim and that the point. Pukaoaa,
or Pendulum Peak i^ is 10,032 feet above the level of the sea.

The sixteen mounds on the floor of the crater towards the south end are
not mole hills, but craters, the highest of which i'' rises nine hundred feet from
its base, while none of them are less than four hundred feet in lieight. Com-
pare any one of these with Punchbowl or Diamond Head on Oahu and remember
that they are but the last parting touch laid on as the titanic fires that gave birth
to all the grandeur and desolation that surrounds them, died out. retiring into
the bowels of the earth hundreds, ]>ossil)ly thousands, of years ago, perhaps never
to appear on Maui again.

One of the most impressive sights in the entire grouf) is Jhat frequently
to be witnessed on the edge of this yawning gulf as the sun siifl<s into the Avest-
ern ocean. Set as it were between heaven and hell, the chauLiv in llie atmos-
pheric conditions on this great mountain sununit are most i-apid and pronounced.
As the sun drops in the sky and the chill of night comes on. the clouds that

1" 9,287 feet elevation. '^7.48 miles. '- 2.H7 iiiili s. i-'' The eave. "White Hill or Pakaoao.

" Kalua Ka Oo.

144 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

all clay (li-()\vsil\ float about the slopes of the mountain suddenly become rest-
less and crowd ;iii(l jostle and mill about one another like frightened animals.
At the proper moment, as at a signal from some shepherd of the winds that
guides and proteetH tliciii in the pasture of the heavens, they recognize and
peaeefully follow their leader. One by one, in dozens and in droves they work
around the slopes of the mountain to where the great gap in the crater wall,
like the gate to a sheep fold, is opened wide, ready to receive them from the
pasture out on Hie mountain side into the shelter and protection of the crater
fold. — tli(> vei-y heart of the mountain that nourishes them.

As (lai-kness gathers tlie last stragglers, those that have Avandered farthest
fi-om tile t'ohl, liun-y in lo join their fellows until the floor of the crater is hidden
I'n.in view liy the lleeey multitude. In the shelter of the crater Avail they settle
down foi' Ihe night knowing, perhaps, that e're long the Southern Cross will
climb into the cold eleai- sky to share with the great Polar star the vigils of the
night. The first i-ay of light that gilds the mountain is the signal from the
shepherd, aiul at onee the crater fold is active; round and round these cloud-
sheep go. impatient to be up and away. At the proper moment they again form
in line behind the one appointed to lead the way out through the gap; and before
long are av.ay for a day's frolic in their favorite haunts on the mountain side.

Should the traveler fail to witness the gathering of the clouds by night or
theii- partinii' in the morinng, the chances are that, as a substitute, he will Avit-
ness the most gorgeous sunrise to be seen anywhere; or perhaps, if the Aveather
is tine, the gleaming snow-capped peaks of ]\Iauna Kea and Mauna Loa on
Hawaii will loom ii|) to the south more than a hundred miles aAvay.

lint to i-eturn to the scene near at hand. The crater is not regular in its
outline luif a|)pears as two or more associated craters fused into one. IIoAVCA^er,
one gets but an imperfect conception of the shape or extent of the crater from
a single viewpoint on the brink. The zigzag" elbow-shaped pit has its highest
point formed by one of the three cinder cones at the soutliAvest angle of the
crater. The wall at the north end is split doAvn to its bottom to form the yaAvn-
ing Koolau gap with its towering walls. This gap extends to the sea under
the name of the Kanae valley. At the opposite or southern end of the crater
is a similar hi'eak. the famous Kaupo Gap. It descends abruptly as a gorge-like
valley to the sea. It is completely floored Avith a hard lava stream Avith occa-
sional clinker beds. About half Avay down the mountain this stream emerges
from its gorge and spi-eads over the surface, forming a fan-shaped delta, ex-
tending to the sea. These gaps are among the more striking features of Hale-
akala and are looked upon by some as offering all the evidence necessary to
prove that the great crater, as it noAv exists. Avas formed by a mighty fault
which split the motmtain from north to south, freeing the extreme eastern ^^
portion of the island from the opposite side. The gaps down Avhich the lava
sul)se(|nently (lowed are thus but extensions of the crack or fault. As such
they had their [)art in preventing the crater from filliu'.^ up with lava as it might

10 Hana.

PLATE 38. THE SUMMIT

1. The old mountain liovise at the .siiiniiut.
sliowiny a few of the niaiiv ciaters on its door.

ol' IIALKAKALA.

:.'. (i('ii('i;il \ lew iiisiilc tlie i>'reat crater

146 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

otherwise have clone — a course well illustrated by the summit crater on ^Manna
Kea.

The Floor of the Crater.

The floor of tlie crater is well covered with cinders, scoria and sand, its sur-
face being- relicvetl by the cones previously mentioned. From these craters the
loose material forming them, and that covering the floor of the great crater en-
closing Iheiii. was ei-ui)le(l. The light, loose material in the crater has a reddish
tinge often varied with black, grey, yellowish-broA\n and red and shows no
mark of its exact age. Toward the extreme eastern end there is an old pahoehoe
How, and higli up nn Itic eastern wall two flows of aa have broken forth. Conrsing
down llie side wall, they have pushed their wa^' some distance out over the flo(n'
of the crater.

Although the walls of the crater are steep it is possible to descend them
almost anywhere. The descent is made easier on acconnt of the sand and cinders
that ]ia\(' l)cen heaped up at the foot of the clififs on all sides. The floor and
inner walls of the crater are of great interest to gfeologists and will well repay
a visit. For the toui'ist, the "bottomless pit," a remarkable l)low-h()le; Pele's
l*ig-pen, a small partly-filled crater; the Chimney; the Crystal Cave; and the
chain of four craters known as the Natural Bridge, lying along a crack in the
floor of the crater, are natui'al objects Avell worth inspection at fli'st hand, and
interesting enough to tempt many to make the scramble down into the crater.

The summit of the mountain and its crater is a barren waste only relieved
here and there by a few plants, among them the remarkable plant known as the
silver sword, which is elsewhere described.

The PIistory of Haleakala.

Geologists agree that the history of Haleakala is a complicated one in which
the formation of the mountain by the nsual processes of summit eruptions and
surTace Hows have played dominant parts throngh long ages. The fracture
of the mountain that opened the great discharge ways at either end of the crater
must have occui-red as the mountain Avas nearing completion. The simultaneous
discharge of lava by l)oth of these great openings in the crater wall is proven
by the similai-ity of the lava found in the gaps themselves and in the floor of
the cratei- from end to end.

As the life of the mountain as a living volcano neared its close, it appears
that the convulsions which split the pile to its foundation brought about the
appreciable sinking of tlie extreme eastei-n portion of the dome. The final flows
from the gaps at either end of the crater reunited the fracture in the founda-
tion, filled the subterranean chambers formed by earlier flows, and left the
crater a solid mountain v,ith its interior completely filled with the rock mr.terial
that makes up its huge bulk. The expiring fires, through minor fissures in the
last-formed crater floor, threw up the numerous cinder cones scattered over it.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 147

The Last Erii'tion on ^Mati.

The date of the last simiiiiit cfuplidii is imkiKtwii even i(; Hawaiian
genealogical and traditional history. There is a fairly aulhciilic statement,
however, that the last eruption on Maui occui'rcd about two huinli't'd _\'ears ago
as a lateral eruption. It emerged at an elevation of about four hundred feet
above the sea on the southwest slope of the mountain in tlie region marked by a
line of craters extending from the summit to the sea. In its course it tlowed
over a Hawaiian stone fence, indicating the historic relation l)etween the ex-
tinction of the volcanic fires and the mountain's occupation by liuiiian inhabitants.

When the fires finally died down they apparently were completely extin-
guished on the island. No steam jets or warm springs, no mineral springs nor
solfataras remain behind to bridge the closing period of activity with the
present, and there have been no signs in historic times to indicate that the island
of Maui will ever witness active eruptions again.

CHAPTER XII.
ISLAND OF HAWAII.

Size and Position of Hawaii.

The last island to the southeast of Oahu and the one v.hich gives the name
to the group, is the island of Hawaii. It is not only the largest, but is also
the most important island of the chain. It is approximately triangular in form
with its greatest length ^ from north to south. It has an area of -IjOlo square
miles, which is a trifle less than the area of the state of Connecticut. Enclosed
within its 297 miles of coast line, is five-eighths the area of the whole group.
Of such an area only a few of the many important facts touching its geography,
topography, geology and vulcanology can be referred to in the briefest manner
in a single chapter.

Its coast line is interesting and varied, but the more important points geo-
graphically are the capes at the chief angles and the shallow bays at intervals
along the coast which are volcanic in origin, being formed in eaeh case by the
irregularities in the flow of lava into the sea. Its area is made up of the
summits of five mountains, one of which- attains the height of 13,825 feet
above sea level, and claims the distinction of being the higliest jieak in the
islands and the highest point in the Pacific. In general Hawaii's topogi-aphy
is formed by the simple joining of its five main peaks by their gentle slopes
in such a manner as to produce the simple outline of the island. 'I'liei-e are few
rivers of consequence except on the northeast or windward side.

On all sides the slopes of its great niouiit.iius at(^ scarred b>' the courses
of the broad lava streams that, at various times, have plowetl tlu'ir way from
near the summits of the central peaks. Often, even in rceeiil times, these streams

^ 93 miles. - Mauiin Kea.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 149

have found their way down to the sea-shore, leaving blackened, desolate tracks
behind that natnre and the lapse of time have done little to repair.

The Kohala Range.

While the island, owing to its active volcanoes, is considered as the youngest
island of the group there is little doubt but that the Kohala Range, forming
the northwest point, is the remains of a very old, perhaps among the oldest of
the Hawaiian volcanoes.

The slopes are deeply cut and the work of degradation has left deep canons
and enormous cliffs as the evidence of great antiquity. This portion of Hawaii
is somewhat separated from the younger group of craters, being isolated from its
neighbors, Hualalai and j\Iauna Kea, by the tableland of AVaimea.-' The summit
of the Kohala Mountains ^ is made up of a series of cinder cones and, owing
to the great rainfall, is a heavily wooded bog like that on the top of Kaala on
Oahu, and Waialeale on Kauai. All of the windward slope of the range is
much eroded, and is densely wooded.

From the coast the range appears as a series of deep canon-like valleys
that end three or four miles inland with vertical cliffs from 1.500 to 2,000
feet in height. Among the more noteworthy and scenic of these are the val-
leys of Waipio and Waimanu. The walls of these stream basins, especially' after
a heavy rain, are a veritable display of waterfalls, some of them pouring down in
a sheer drop for 1,500 feet. So vast and profound are these gorges, and so
steep are their sea faces, that their formation seems due to some great fault
along the sea cliffs, which caused a portion of the mountain to drop out of sight
beneath the waves, leaving great lateral fractures to form into valleys through
the action of the elements ; though it is quite probable they may prove, on further
study, to l)e the remains of valleys formed before the subsidence of the Kohala
mountains.

On the opposite side of the mountain, along the shore from Kawaihae
Bay around to the north point "• of Hawaii, the surface of the island is
more regular, though at several places lava streams have issued in .-ineient times
from craters higher up and flowed down to the coast. The road from Waimea
to Kohala is at an elevation of fifteen hundred feet or more and leads past
several of the cones that dot this region. Some of these are perfect cones four
or five hundred feet in height; others are much disintegrated and appear as little
more than rounded hills.

The soil of the district is a rich, red, ochreous earth mikI \\ hen well watered
is very fertile. It was at Kohala that one of the early and successful planta-
tions was established.

Maun A Kea.

The principal part of the northeast coast of Hawaii is foi'incd by Mauna
Kea, w^hich occupies more than half of the northern ])art of the island. Althoutzh

' 2670 feet. * 5489 feet. ^ Upolu.

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GEOLOGY AND TOPO(^.KArTlY OF TTAWAIT. 151

it is an extinct volcano it is of especial inlci-cst and has the disl iiidioti dl' hcing
the highest island monntain in the world, tlioiigli il is \)y no means sn bulky
and imposing as its neighbor Manna Loa. The Mauna Lun summit is only loU
feet below that of Mauna Kea, and were it not for the cinder cones that cap
the summit of the latter the former would be given its pi-opcr rank as first
among the island mountains of the world.

]\Iauna Kea has probably been extinct for centuries, but iioi Ioiil; cuouuh
for the abundant rains which fall on its northeast side to furrow out ils slopes
more than half way to its summit. Its lower slopes, lio\v( nci-. arc cut up into
many gulches from which the water pours into the ocean from the liaiiLiiuu val-
leys that notch the vertical sea clitt's all along the Hamakua and llilo coast.

As is usual with the higher mountains of the group, its southwestern slopes
show little signs of erosion, and owing to the comparatively small amount of rain
that reaches that side it is almost bare of vegetation. The effect of rainfall
may be very clearly seen here, since the windM'ard side has the upper limit of
its important vegetation at about ten thousand feet, whereas the dr^' or southern
side has little if any vegetation on its slopes above seven thousand feet.

The top of this mountain, like its neighbor JNlauna Loa, is often covered
with snow that sometimes forms a glistening v.-hite cap as far down as two
thousand feet or more from the summit. Unlike Mauna Loa its sky line does
not end in a single crater. Its elliptical summit is rather thickly sprinkled
with a num])er of cinder cones; about two dozen l)eing above the 12.500-feet
contour line. One of these is occupied by a pond'' forty feet deep and several
acres in extent. The pond is filled with water from the melting snow and on
several occasions has been found frozen over solid enough to bear the weiglit of
adventurous mountaineers.

Lower dov/n there are a large number of small cones, as many as seventy-
five having been enumerated above the 6,500-foot coidoui' on the survey maps,
while the outline of the lower flanks of the mountain is also relieved by tlicin.
At about twelve thousand feet elevation there still remains the evidence of an
old adze quarry" from which the old-time Hawaiians secured much of the solid
clinkstone used by them in the manufacture of th(=ir stone iniphMuents.

The Ascent of Mauna Kea.

]\Iauna Kea may be ascended from Waimea by way of the llumuula sheep
station on the southwest, and on the east side from ilihi by way t)f Ship-
man's ranch. Horses may be I'itUU'u to the summit i)lati'au. The rise of the
mountain is gradual, averaging about four hundred feet elexatiou to the mile.
From the plateau at the summit a spU'udid view of the adjacent mountain is
secured. To the southwest the outline of the sunuuit crater of Mauna Loa can
be tiviced, the summits being about t \\-enty-fi \'e miles apart. The northerly shipe
of ]\launa Loa is nnich distigui'ed by recent eruptions, the llows of 1845, 1852.

"Lake Wiiinu. ' Keaiiakakoi.

152 XATUKAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

1855 1880 and 181)0 all Ix'ing' i)laiiily visible from the summit of Mauna Kea —
the white mountain.

Dr. C. H. llii.-lu'(»c-k. wlio mach' tlie ascent in 1885, writing of the recent
flows visible on .Mauan Loa says: "They are narrow and tortuous near their
sources, spreading out low down into ])lack extensive areas, almost coalescing.
Besides these, others of prehistoric age can be traced and nowhere can one be
more impressed by the fact that the mountain has been built up by intermittent
lava Hows, and can appreciate the certainty that millions of years were required
to construct 1his eminence." When not covered with snow the surface of the
plateau of .Mauna Kea is described as a desolate gravelly plain on which occur
five or six specii's of phmts resembling those of the colder climates of high alti-
tudes. As reported by Professor INIacCaughey, the lake at the summit, though
very cold throughout the year, supports a very luxuriant growth of green algae.

HUALALAI.

Along the western coast of the island to the southwest of ]Mauna Kea, and
about •■<|ual in distance from Kohala to the north and Mauna Loa to the south,
is Hualalai. It is a much smaller mountain than :\Iauna Kea, but otherwise re-
sembles it in its general outlines and in having no characteristic summit crater.
It is 8,269 feet high and has its base entirely Avithin the Kona district. Its
lower base slopes quite gradually, but the ui)per part of the mountain is much
steeper and is rough and difficult of ascent. The north side of the mountain
appears quite bare, but the opposite side is well wooded. Its slopes are dotted with
many cinder cones — hundreds perhaps, which increase in size and number
toward the top.

The few naturalists who have ascended this lawless mountain have found its
summit covered A\itli crater bowls,'^ cinder cones and pit craters. Some of the
craters have gravel bottoms, while others are formed with hard basalt floors.
One of the features of the summit is the "bottomless pit" — a blow hole twenty
feet in diameter and 400 feet deep.

The Eruption of 1801.

The last erui)tion of Hualalai is placed at about 1801. It occurred from an
( )[)eti i ug on the sea or western side of the mountain. From there the lava descended
to the sea in a wedge-shaped stream. The flow was a very liffuid one and is said
to have traveled a distance of fifteen miles in two or three hours. This flow is
believed to have marked the extinction of the volcanic fires beneath the mountain.

An early missionary, the Rev. William Ellis, gathered an account of the erup-
tion from eye witnesses, who were living in 1823, about twenty years after the
flow. His account states: "Stone walls, trees and houses all aave way before
it, even large masses of rock of hard ancient lava, when surrounded by the fiery
stream, split into small fragments and, falling into th^ burning mass, appeared
to melt again as borne b\- it down the mountain side. Offerings were presented

'* One of them 800 feet in diameter.

GEOLOGY AND TOi'OGKAPll Y OF llAWAii. 133

and luaiiy hogs thrown alive iiilo the stream lo a|)i)ease the anger ol" the iiods,
by whom they supposed it was directed, to stop its devastating course. All
seemed unavailing, until one day the king Kamehameha went, attended by a
large retinue of chiefs and priests, and. as the most valuable offering he could
make, cut off a part of his own hair, which was always considered sacred, and
threw it into the torrent. A da\' or two aftei- the lava ceased to flow; the gods,
it was thought, were satisfied."

The Mountain of Puu W.vawaa.

On the north slope of llualalai near its base and in plain view from Iva-
waihae Bay, is a curious fluted mountain called Puu Waawaa." Numerous shal-
low ravines radiate from its summit in all directions, clearly the woric of rain.
Its curious form is of interest to the traveler, but it has been seldom visited
by scientists. It remained for Dr. Whitman Cross of the V. S. Geological
Survey to discover that the terrace bench at this point contains lavas i-icli in
alkali feldspar, a discovery of importance since formally only basalt and allied
rocks have been credited to the islands. The position of these alkali lavas
indicate the possibility of an older and extensive eruption forming an island
beneath the later basaltic flows of the great mountains of Hawaii that rest ui)on
the older island base.

Mauna Loa.

An examination of the map of Hav.aii will show Mauna Loa. the second largest
active island volcano in the world, as occupying the entire southern half of the
island, being seventy-four by fifty-three miles in its base dimensions at sea level.
It terminates in the great active crater, Mokuaweoweo, which is three and three-
quarters miles ^"^ long by one and three-quarters miles in width, with an area of
3.70 miles. ^^ This splendid caldera, the most perfectly formed crater in the
islands, is enclosed in w^alls from five hundred to one thousand feet in heii^ht.
Like its neighbor on the north, the top of Mauna Loa is a plateau, its high-
est point being 13,675 feet above the sea, or more than 30, ()()() feet above the
floor of the ocean about the group. From the central point the slopes of the
mountain radiate at a fairly uniform angle in all directions.

Eough lava flows of aa and pahoehoe w^hich overlap (>ach other extend from
near the summit of the sea-shore like the spokes in a wagon wheel. They show
clearly the way the vast mountain has been slowly bnilt up through eonntless
ages. Owdng to the altitude and the amount of rough lava on its slo])es the
ascent of Mauna Loa is an exceedingly difficult, and. in many respects, a dan-
gerous task. The first recorded ascent was that made by the famons traveler,
John Ledyard, in 1779, who visited Hawaii as a member of ('ai)tain Gook's
party on his last voyage. He made fairly accurate, though nei-ess.ii'ily fi-air-
mentary, record of the general features of the mountain.

The second attempt to explore ]\launa Loa was at the lime of Vancouver's

» 3824 feet elevation. "' l)iiiieiisi()ii.s in feet: 19,r)0() l.y 9,200 feet. "2370 acres.

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visit. All MCcouiit ot the ascent iiiadi' at thai tiiuc was rcconlcd in Ari-lnhald
Menzie's journal, in 17!)4, and remained uninihlished until brought to light
through the researches of Prof. Hitchcock and pi-inted for the first time in
Thrum's Annual for 1008. ^[r. Menzie cah-idated the height n\' tlie mountain
by use of tlu^ l)ar(uiieter without corrections for the \ afiations in temperature ^-
and made it but forty-one feet less than tlu^ [)resent accepted altitude, l-'roni the
time of Menzie's ascent to th(^ ])resent the mountain has been undei- abnost con-
•stant observation, and man\' parties of competent observers have attained the
summit. Its extensive and interesting history has been full\- recorded and com-
piled in two elaborate monographs, one by Prof. Hitchcock and the other l)y
Dr. Brigham. both appearing in 1909. To these works the reader is referred
for detailed accounts of the long series of eruptions, the bare enumei*ation of
which are almost beyond the scope of this chapter.

History of the Eruptions of Mauna Loa.

However, it is of interest to know that eruptions were reported on .Manna
Loa in 1780 and again in 1803; the first fully recorded eruption occurred in
1832, and in June of that year ^launa Loa is reported, by the Rev. Joseph
Goodrich, to have ejected lava from several places in the side of the mountain,
presunial)ly some little distance below th(^ summit. From that time until the
last eruptive tlow^-^ the lava has always issued from the weak places in the side
of the mountain, tliongh the caldera at the summit has on numerous occasions
become active, forming a lake of lava without iiows taking place.

Of the fifteen eruptions resulting iii flows that have occurred on Hawaii
within the last one hundred years, twelve have had ^lanna Loa as their source.
The eruption of 1843 was presaged by activity in the crater of ^lokuaweoweo
1)ut after a few hours the fire died down in the crater and reappeared on January
10, 1843, in two places on the northeastern shonlder of the mountain, at about
11,000 feet elevation; from these, lava ran in a l)road sheet down the side of
the monntain for about sixteen miles direetlx" towards the peak of .Mainia Kea,
fiowing continuously for a period of four weeks. In the saddle between the two
monntains the stream widened out and spread over the plain, being four and a
half miles across in the widest part. One branch extended a considerable
distance down tov;ards Waimea on the west, evidently uniting with a former
erui^tion known as the Keamuku flow.

The flow of 1851, beginning on August Sth. A\as announced by a remarkably
brilhaiit display accompanied by detonations in the suinmit crater. This tlow is
said to have occnrred from an opening on the west side of the monntain about
1,000 feet lielow the summit and. to have extended for ten miles westerly in the
direction of Kealakekua. It lasted only about four days, and is not commonly
shown on maps.

In the following year, on February 17. 1S.")2. light was aii'ain seen on the
summit, and within a short time lava broke out on the iiorthei-n slope of the

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 157

mountain, in plain view from Hilo. Fountains leaped three or four hundred
feet in the air, presenting a brilliant spectacle, but within twenty-four hours
the activity had apparently ceased. Three days later, February 20th, lava again
broke through the side of the mountain, much lower down towards Hilo, and the
stream of fire flowed for fifteen or twenty miles directly toward the town. This
eruption was an especially violent one, the stream descending with astonishing
rapidity. Activity lasted about five months and came to an end when its stream
was about ten miles from Hilo Bay. It is a privilege, at this point, to quote
from the vivid description of this eruption and flow given ]>y the great mission-
ary. Rev. Titus Coan, to whose labors, observations and faithful chronicles
of the activities of Pele not only Hawaii but science and the world owes so much.

On the morning of February 23rd, three days after the flow started on the
Hilo side, this experienced mountaineer started with a party to visit the source
of the flow. On the flfth day of battling with the tropical jungle he reached
the awful crater and stood at last in the light of the fire at its source.

"It was a moment of unutterable interest. I seemed to be standing in the
presence and before the throne of the eternal God, and, while all other voices
were hushed, His alone spoke. I was 10,000 feet above the sea, in a vast soli-
tude untrodden by the foot of man or l)east; amidst a silence unbroken by any
living voice, and surrounded by scenes of terrific desolation. Here I stood —
almost blinded by the unsuft'erable brightness ; almost deafened with the startling
clangor; almost petrified with the awful scene. The heat was so intense that
the crater could not be approached within forty or fift>' yards on the windward
side, and probably not within two miles on the leeward. The eruption, as
before stated, conunenced on the very summit of the mountain, i^ but it would
seem that the lateral pressure of the emboweled lava was so great as to force
itself out at a weaker point on the side of the mountain, at the same time crack-
ing and rending the mountain all the way down from the suminit to the place
of ejection.

"The mountain seemed to be siphunculated; the fountain of fusion being-
elevated some two or three thousand feet above the lateral crater, and being-
pressed down an inclined subterranean tube escaped through this valve with a
force which threw its burning masses to the height of four or five hundred feet.
The eruption first issued from a depression in the mountain, ])ut a rim of scoriiv
two hundred feet in elevation had already been formed around the orifice in
the form of a hollow truncated cone. This cone was about a mile in circum-
ference at its l)ase, and the orifice at the top may have been three hundred feet
in diameter. I approached as near as I could bear the heat and stood amidst
the ashes, cinders, scorite, slag and ]Mimice, which were scattered wide and
wildly around. From the horrid throat of this cone vast and continuous jets
of red-hot, and sometimes white-hot, lava were being ejected Avith a noisp that
was almost deafening and a force which threatened to rend the rocky ribs of
the mountain and to shiver its adamantine pillars. At times, the sound seemed

^* By fire showing in the summit t-rater.

158 NATIT^VL TTTSTORY OF HAWAII.

subterranean, deep .-iikI iiif.M-ii;)l. First a i-iiiul)lin,y. a muttering, a hissing, a
deep premonitory sui-giiiir: Hkmi followed an awful explosion, like the roar of a
broadside in a naval battle, or the quick discharge of pack after pack of artillery
on the Held of carnage. Sometimes the sound resembled that of 10,000 furnaces
in full bla.st. Again it was like the rattling of a regiment of musketry; and
sometimes like the booming of distant thunder. Th- detonations were heard
along the shore at Ililo.

'•Tlie eruption was not intermittent but continuous. Volumes of the fusion
were constantly ascending and descending, like a jet (Veau. The force which
expelled these igneous eolunnis from the orifice shivered them into millions of
fragments of une<iual size, some of which woidd be rising, some falling, some
shooting olf laterally, others describing graceful curves; some moving in tangents,
and some falling back in vertical lines into the mouth of the crater. Every
particle shown with the bi-illianey of Sirius and all kinds of geometrical figures
were being i'orini'd and broken up. No tongue, no pen, no pencil can portray
the l)eauty. the grandeur, the terrible sublimity of the scene.

"To l)e appreciated, it must be felt. * * * * Durin-' the night the scene
surpassed all powers of description. Vast eolunnis of lava at a white heat shot
up continuouslx in the ever- varying forms of ])illars. pyramids, cones, towers,
turrets, spires, minerets, etc., while th(^ descemling showers poured in one in-
cessant cataract of fire u])()n the rim of the crater down its Inirning throat and
over the surrounding areas; each falling avalanche containing matter enough to
sink- the proudest ship. A large fissure opening through the rim of tlie crater
gave vent to the molten flood which constantly ])oured out of the orifice and
i-olled down the mountain in a deep, broad river, at the rate probably of ten
miles an hour. This fiery stream we could trace all the way down the mountain
until it was hidden from our eyes by its windings in the forest, a distance of
some thirty miles. The sti'eam shown with a great brilliancy by night, and a
horizontal dra])ery of light hung over its whole course. But the great furnace
on the mountain was the all-absorbing object."

Three years later, in August, 1855, and continuing for sixteen months, oc-
curred the greatest flow of the century. The {)oint of emergence was at an
elevation of 12,000 feet on the northeast side of the mountain, and the molten
river took a course directly for llilo. After fifteen or sixteen months of con-
tinuous flowing-, during which the flood advanced at about a mile each w(H'k, tlie
erui)tion came gradually to an end, having sent a stream of lava for a distance
of many miles down the mountain side, that in places was eight miles in width
at the widest part. As its lower end came within five miles of Hilo the (luiet
village was greatly alarmed, but fortunately no damage was done.

In 1859 activity shifted to the northwestern side of the mountain. A flow
started on January 23d at an elevation of 10,500 feet, that came down to the
sea on the northwest coast in two branches, at a point just north of Kiholo.
On January 81st the stream had reached the sea, miu-e than thirty-three miles
in a direct line from its source — the first eruption in historic times from a liiuh-

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF II AAV. \ II. 139

altitude to accomplisli the extraordinary feat. The river of molten stone con-
tinued to How, advancing a great part of its h-iiulli throimh its self-made conduit,
)ititil some time diii-iiiL;' -TuIn'.

The Earthqu.vke of 1868.

The date of 1868 is made memoi'abie in tlie annals of Hawaiian iiistor\- l)y
reason of the severe earthquakes which preceded and attended the eruption of
that year. The eruption wliich took place low down on the Kau slope — the
opposite side of ^Inuna Loa from wliieh [)revious eruptions had issued — was an-
nounced, as usual, by activity in the sunnnit crater. On March 1^7th smoke
was seen issuing from the top of the mountain. Within half an hour a cdlumii
of illuminated cloud had risen to the height of ten or fifteen miles, hut the flow
did not occur at once. During the few days immediately following that portion
of the island was in an almost continual state of earth shock. On Api-il 2nd a
terrific earthquake took place which shook down every stone wall and almost
every house in the Kau district. The greatest shock occurred in the vicinity of
Waiohinu, where the stone church and other buildings were complete! \' demol-
ished. The earth continued to tremble until April 7th, when lava broke out in
Kahuku five thousand six hundred feet above the sea, through a great rent in the
mountain side that was ten miles from the ocean. The lava spouted several hun-
dred feet high and in two hours the torrent of fire reached the sea. Within the
five days that it continued to flow, as much lava was poured out as would have
issued from a rupture at a higher elevation in months. While no livi's wei'e lost
in the flow three men were imprisoned several days on a hill that was completely
surrounded by the lava flood, and several houses and a lai-ge nund)er of cattle
were destro^^ed, while more than four thousand acres of good land were turned
into a worthless heap of stone.

The earthquake detached a large mass of clayey soil on the mountain side
at Kapapala, causing a destructive land-slide or "mud flow" to rush down tlie
valley for three miles in a stream, half a mile wide and thirty feet deej). Thii-ty
human beings and five hundred or more domestic animnls were ovei'w helmed
by this earth avalanche.

Immediately following the earthquake an inunense tidal wave, estimated
to be forty or fifty feet in height, rolled in on the Kau coast and swe|)t away
several villages, drowning eighty people and h-aviuL; the survivors destitute.
While these events were transpiring on the mighty uiountaiu of .Ma)ina Loa,
the lava in Kilauea escaped through a great fissure which opened low down to
the southwest of the crater. As the lava escaix'd it left in Kilauea a pit thi'ee
thousand feet long and five hundred feel deej). Durinu th(» same \eai-, while the
people were still in an anxious mood, on .\ugust loth the sea about the islands
made a sudden rise and fall which although attributed by souu' to M.iuiia Koa at
the time, was later found to be caused by a tei-rible earHupiake in i*eru and
Ecquador.

The great flow of 1880, as usual was announced by a beacon from ]\Iokua-

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 101

weoweo. The liiilit first seen on ^Nlay 1st disappeared, however, and nothinti' of
note occurred until November .Ith, when a flow started t'l-din Ihc iiorllicast slope
of Mauna Loa at a point in the vicinity of* the soui'ce of the How of 1855. It
proved to be one of the most important ei'uptions and flows on rccoi-d in thr
islands. Although the amount of lava poured out did not equal that of the
'55 flow, the distance covered was "reater than that of any How from any island
volcano.

From an opening in the side of the mountain at an altitude of abont 11,000
feet the stream soon divided into three branches. The first branch, known as
the Kea stream, ran in the direction of that mountain and terminated in t la-
flat between the two mountains. The second, the Kan stream, ran in the direc-
tion of Kilauea and was plainly seen from the A^olcano House. The main stream,
however, continued in the direction of Hilo, where on August 10, 1881. it finally
stopped at a point only three-quarters of a mile from the town, after flowing in
a tortuous course more than thirty-five miles in length. As the stream slowly
but surelv worked its wav nearer and nearer the town, excitement was intense,
not only in Hilo but throughout the group. But at last, after nine months of
activity, the flow finally stopped, leaving the city unharmed.

In December of the year 1886, earthquakes became frequent and violent on
the opposite side of the mountain ; about Kahuku they increased in frequency
until from three to six hundred were noted by different observers in the two or
three days between January 17th and January 19th, 1887. Light was seen
at the summit several times during this period, but it was on the afternoon of
the 18th that the outbreak occurred at 6,500 feet elevation and at a point twenty
miles from the sea on the Kahuku side of Mauna Loa.

The following day l\v noon the lava stream had reached the sea at a point
four miles west of the flow of 1868. By noon of the 24th the flow ceased, l)u!
not until more lava had been poured forth than during the earlier flow.

Activity was renewed in 1899 on the north slope of ^launa Loa at what
was called the Dewey Crater, out of compliment to the distinguished admiral
whose achievement at Manila Bay was coincident with that of the eruption. On
June 20th earth shocks were felt in Hawaii, and on July 1st light was to be
seen over the pit in the top of the mountain. On July 5th th( re came an out-
break of lava on the slopes six miles northeast of ^loknaweoweo. The point of
eruption was at an elevation of near 11,000 feet, a short distance above the
point of origin of the 1880 flow. Fountains of fire could be seen spouting high
in air, and parties started at once from Hilo and the Volcano llonse to visit
the soiu-ce of the flow. It was found that two fountains were in operation
almost a mile apart, but later the upper one died down and a third hecjune
active near the second. The streanLs fi-om these fountains united and flowed
towards Mauna Kea. The lava continued to flow until July L'titli. ruiuiing
fifteen miles from its source in a stream which was a mile in width at the widest
part.

Eight years passed before Mauna Loa again gave forth an ei-uptive flow.

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OP IIAWAIL 163

As usual, the fii'st inliination of Mc1ivit\- was ^iven liy the lurid fi'lare over the
summit crater. Ou -lamiary 9tli sli,uli1 ('ai1li(|uak-cs wen- IVIl on Hawaii, and
on the night of January 10th, PX'T, Mauna l^oa was crowned with a bright
light. A few hours later the molten tiood broke through the walls of the great
mountain on the southerly or Kahuku side of the dome, at a place 8,500 feet
above the sea and at a point abont one half the distance from the sea to the
summit of the mountain. The tiow in its course down tlie mountain passed
near the path of the 1887 flow. About the middle of its course the stream
divided into two main divisions, with smaller branches to right and left. The
two main liranches crossed the government road five miles apart on the night
of January- 13th. i. e., within three days from the time of the oulbi-eak. Neither
of the streams in their divided and Aveakened condition had force enonuh 1o
reach the sea. Both came finally to a halt on January 24th, about four mih-s
from the shore and within ten days from the time the flow bi-oke out on the
mountain side. It has been estimated that in the upper part of the stream the
lava flood advanced at the rate of seven miles an hour, but lower down its ad-
vance was slow and majestic. Several hundred people from the vicinity and
from the other islands of the group rushed to the scene and were favored with
a splendid view of nature's most awe-inspiring spectacle.

On November 25, 1914, white fumes were seen rising above the crater on the
summit of ^Eauna Loa. By evening the fume eolunnis were seen to rise to a
height of 6,000 feet or more above the mountain, and, illuminatetl l)y the light
from beloAv, presented a spectacle of splendid magnitude and beauty. It was
generally thought that this manifestation was the percursor of the usual type of
outbreak and flow, but this event did not transpire. After a short period of vary-
ing activity, confined entirely to the crater of ^lokuaweoweo, the outbreak sub-
sided until no activity was visible from the observatory at Kilauea.

Lava Discharged in the li)07 Flow.

Mr. E. D. Baldwin has estimated that the flow of 1907 covered nine hun-
dred acres of rough land and that a volume of two hundred million cul)ic
yards of basaltic material was poured out. The flow of 1855 covered 15,000
acres and represented a discharge of six hundred million cubic yards of basalt.
The flow of 1880-81 covered 20,000 acres and equalled at least five hundred and
forty million cubic yards of lava. These estimates are necessai-ily suggestive
rather than accurate. When we look at the mountain as a whoh' we see numer-
ous streams of similar proportions showing plainly on its surface. Looking
deeper we find it made up of countless thousands of similar streams and con-
clude that at the present rate of gi'owth millions of \-eai's lia\c elapsul since
the building of the mountain first ])egan.

Work ok Hawaii's Volcanoes.

It should be observed that during the period of more than one hundred
years that Mauna Loa and the volcanoes of Hawaii have been under obsei'vation

164 XATUEAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

not a sintilt" im'Inoh lias perished in the molten tloods that time and time ai;ain
have been (xunvd out. ihoutrh tens of thousands of acres of the island's moun-
tain slopes have been made desolate and blackened, so that fertile land and peace-
ful valleys have been choked and left worthless when the torrent of liquitied
stone had ceased to flow.^^

One's veneration for this oTeat mountain increases when it is understood
that it is ill lliis way and by the same process that the whole group of islands
has been biiill up. A large view of the amplitude of geologic time can be
oaiiK'd by reference to a map showing the comparatively small proportion of
the foiii' Ihousand s(|uare miles of the surface of Hawaii that after all has been
sccmrged by tire within one hundred years. But when it is known that all the
material which composes this island, like that of the other islands of the group,
must have been forced up from beneath the tioor of the ocean to be poured out
on the sides of the mountains, one can better understand how great the combined
flows must have been. However, in arriving at an understanding of the amount
of volcanic work that has been done in the group it is important to take into
account the broad bases of the islands as well as that portion which towers above
the ocean's surface.

Geologists are fond of regarding Mauna Loa as an excellent example of a
volcanic mountain that has gone on slowly adding to its bulk until it has attained
to near the limit in altitude to which the subterranean forces can lift a column
of ]i(|ui<l lava.

The story of the titanic phenomenon attending the rise and fall of the
lava ill the chimney Avliich ends with the summit crater on ]\[auna Loa would
furnish material for an interesting chapter, but it seems wise to devote the
limited space available to a brief account of the active volcano Kilauea, on the

remaining mountain of the island.

CHAPTER XIII.

KILAUEA, THE WORLD'S GREATEST ACTIVE VOLCANO.

Reference to a map will show Kilauea located apparently on the slope of
Mauna T^oa and well to the southeastern part of the island of Hawaii. The
name is directl\- applied to the world's largest active crater, which in reality
is the center of activity of a shattered mountain 4,0-10 feet high. As the crater
is easily reached by automobile and train from Hilo Bay, on the north, and as
the journey can be extended past the crater to Honuapo on the sea-shore on
the opposite or southern side of the mountain, where the steamei" can be taken
for the return trip to Honolulu by way of the Kona coast, there is. perhaps, no
better way for completing our account of the geology and toi)ography of Hawaii,
and at the same time presenting the grandeur of the crater and the pleasure of
the journey to it, than bv following the route ordinarilv taken bv tourist travel-

'° The mud flow of 1868, luuvovpr, i-Iaiined a large nuiuVier of human victims.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGKAIMIY UF HAWAII. lo5

ers. But before such a joiiriicy is undertaken it is well to be iiiforiued of some
of the more important facts connected wilh Kilaiica's lonnr. varied and inter-
esting history, a history that in a way prepares tlic visildi' ti) j'ppreciate what
is to be seen at the great caldera as one stands on the vci-y Iti'ink of the burning
lake where the island-building activity is actually going on.

KiLAUEA AN Independent Crater.

Geologists supposed for a great many years that Mauna Loa and Kihiuea
were very closely related or sympathetic volcanoes. Further study, however,
has demonstrated that they are distinct in all essential features and may act in
the main entirely independent of each otlier, though there may be some remote
connection, as the eruptions in 1832, '49. '55, '68, '77, '87 and 1907 occurred in
both craters during the same years. The belief in reference to their intimate
relation seems to have grown from hasty conclusions based on llie superficial
fact of their proximity, their relative size and the further fact tluit they both
were more or less continually active. To the casual observer Kilauea, situated
as it is on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa, appears to be but a secondary
crater,^ — a mere wart — on the side of the great dome that rises almost ten tliou-
sand feet above it.

Whether Kilauea was formed before or after, or at the same time with
Mauna Loa, its action in recorded time has generally l)een of a character to ])rove
it more or less independent of the summit crater. AVbile eruptions have taken
place on top, Kilauea, much lower down and only sixteen miles distant, has
often exhibited no signs of active sympathy. So throu<i'h a long period of
activity it has proved itself to be a distinct crater, doing the work it has to do
in its own way and for that reason it is (juite properly admitted to l)e the worhl's
greatest active crater.

Dimensions of Kilauea.

To give some idea of the magnitude of Kilauea it is necessary to give a few
of its main dimensions. The Volcano House, which is a comfortal)le hotel
located on the very edge of the crater, is 4,040 feet abov(» tlie •-lea. The crater
from north to south measures 2.93 miles ^ and from east to west 1.95 miles.-
Its circumference is 7.85 miles ^ and the floor of the crater has an area of
4.14 square miles.^ From the \^)lcano House at the present time it is 484 feet
down to the floor of the crater, which is made up of an uneven mass of cold,
ink-black, shining lava. To reach the ])resent scene of action the visitor nuist
descend into the crater and cross over this floor for two mih*s to the brink of
the pit Halemaumau. in the bottom of which perhaps one hundred and flft\- feet
below the observer, the red hot hiva will he seen boiling in a wild, mad fury.

If what has been said is sufflcient to flx in mind a great, rouglily oval-sliaped
crater with apx^roximately vertical walls, and to make it clear ^hat the bottom
of this caldera is now formed of black lava of recent origin, and that it is five

115,500 feet. = io,300 feet. ^ 41 500 feet. ■> 2650 acres.

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GEOLOGY AND TOl'OGRAPllV OF HAWAII. 167

1iiiik1i'(hI feet hclow the liiizhcst [)(>iiit "' <iii the rim >>f llic ci'jitci'. aii'l lluil in
historic time the hlnck lava Hoor has iicvci- hccii liinlici- than it is ;!t llic present
time — there should be little tliftieiilly in f(»l lowing' a eondeiised lii^ory of Kilaiu^a.
For oui' ])iii'|)(ise its history can l)est he related by se'ectin^' e.xti'aets from a
few of the best descriptions of conditions at the eratei- iaken ri-oiii 1 he many
accounts w litten l)y eye Avitnesses.

An Exploded Mountain.

This is done with a view to bringing' out two points: the first that just as
Manna Loa is an excellent example of its type. Kilanea is an example of a dif-
ferent and rarer type, namely, a broken down or exploded voieaiio, that con-
tinues active. It is for this reason that it is spoken of as "safe" and. so far as
volcanoes can be, is regarded as perfectly tame, "docile," and well-behaved.
The second point to be developed is that of the character and periodicity of its
normal eruptions.

The explosion or explosions which undoubtedly l)roke Kilanea down and
prevented it from l)uilding up as Mauna Loa has liuilt up, has left an un-
mistakable geologic record.

Evidence of what transpired is to be found on every hand. These ex-
plosions, of Avhich there apparently were several, must have l)een in the very
distant past. Their etfect was to weaken and shatter the walls that surrounded
the crater, leaving the. mountain scarred by a series of radial and concentric
cracks that could have been produced only by an explosion deep down within
the crater. As a consequence, v.'hen the molten lava rises to a certain level in
the crater, the pressure becomes so great on the lateral walls of the volcanic pipe
that the lava Hood breaks through some weak spot, usually far down under-
neath, and the liquid lava often tlows (juietly out to sea through .some old
deep-hidden conduit.

The Rise and Fall of the Liquid Lava.

Never since the coming of white man to Hawaii has there I)eeu suffi-
cient force to lift the liquid lava over the l)i'ink of the crater. As a result of
these subterranean ventings Kilanea is esteemed as the best example of a
"welling" crater to be found.

The history of this volcano has been that through a period of niontlis or
years'' the pit of Ilalemaumau '^ tills up little by little until it reaches the
maximum of height and pressure that the walls will beai-. Then. owiuL;- to the
enormous lateral pressure exerted by the molten colunui ol la\a. tiie weakened
walls giv(^ way and the crater vents itself. The la\a lake recedes to a lower
level, often disappearing entirely, oidy to lill up again in due process of lime.
Thus in the welling and venting of Kilanea we have a sort of barometer that
indicates the conditions prevailing far down beneath the island.

■'' Uwekahuna. " Perhaps owing to soine uiiUnown iiilluriicc of the goddi'ss Pelo — wlio knows!

' The house of everlasting fire.

168 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

This welliii':- of the liquid lava is in marked contrast to what takes place
at volcanoes of the explosive sort. Their vents seal over after each explosive
eruption, and to all appearances they die out apparently to remain dead forever
Usually, howevei-. tho.\- awake and explode without warning, presenting' a magnifi-
eent spectacle of volcanic power that results too often in all the horrors attend-
ing the loss of life and property.

At Kilauca. as has been stated, dift'erent conditions prevail. The action
thci-e is coiitincd. in the main, within the crater itself, and the interest centers
in what actually takes place in the lower i)it of Ilalemaumau rather than, as
on near-by .Mauiia Loa, in the flow which may course down the mountain side.

The Explosive Eruption of 1789.

Willioiit (l(>iil)t one of the most remarkable exhibitions of volcanic force
which has occurred at Kilauea since the islands were first inhabited by the na-
tives occurred in the year 1789 — a little over ten years after the discovery'^ of
the group by ('a|)tain James Cook.

In November of that year, Keoua, a native chief of Hawaii, with a band of
followers set (m\ from Hilo to return to Kau in pursuit of a rival chief whose
warriors in liis absence were invading his home district. Hastily returning from
llilo with reinforcements, the shortest route took him by the overland trail
which passed the brink of the volcano Kilauea. They camped at the crater two
days, during which time it was very active. On the second night, being in a
state of terror and scarcely knowing which way to proceed, they divided into
three companies, presumably for safety, and set out upon their journey in fear
and trend)]ing. The party in the lead had not proceeded far, according to the
historian Dibble, "before the ground began to shake and rock beneath their feet
and it became quite impossible to stand. Soon a dense cloud of darkness was
seen to rise out of the crater, and almost at the same instant the electric eft'ect
upon the air was so great that the thunder began to roar in the heavens and
the liuhtning to flash. It continued to ascend and spread abroad until the
whole region was enveloped and the light of day entirely excluded. The dark-
ness was the more terrific being made visible l)y an awful glare from the
streams of red and blue light, variously combined, that issued from the crater
below, and lit up at intervals by the intense flashes of lightning from above.
Soon followed an immense volume of sand and cinders which were thro^\^l in
high heaven and came down in a destructive shower for miles around. Some
few persons in the forward company were burned to death l)y the sand and
cindcfs and others were seriously injured. All experienced a suftocating sensa-
tion n])on the lungs and hastened on with all speed.

"The rear body which was nearest the volcano at the time of the eruption
seemed to suffer the least injury, and after the earthquake and shower of sand
had passed over, hastened forward to escape the dangers which threatened them,

December 8, 1777.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 169

<iii(l I'cjoiciiiii' ill imitiuil coii^ralulatiuu tliat tlu'V had \nx'i\ j)rc'si'rv('(_l in tlitj
midst of such imminent peril. But what was their surprise and consternation,
when eominu' np with their comrades of the center parly, they discovered them
all to have become corpses. Some were lying down, and others sitting upright,
clasping with dying grasp their wives and children and joining noses'' as in
the act of taking final leave. So nnieh like life they lookcil that they at first
supposed them merely at rest, and it was not until they had conic up to them
and handled them that they could detect their mistake. Of the whole party,
including the women and children, not one of them sni-vived to relate the
catastrophe that had befallen their comrades."

This eruption, which occurred more than one hundred and twenty-five years
ago, far surpassed any subsequent one, and being explosive in character was of
a totally different nature from any that has since occurred. It does not SL'eni
too much to conclude, therefore, that it was possibly at that time that the final
breaking down and shattering of the mountain occurred, though explosive eruj)-
tions that preceded it in the more remote past must have been much more
severe.

At any rate, during the fifteen or more times that Kilauea has welled up
since 1789, there has been nothing even remotely suggestive of an explosive erup-
tion, and it is the general belief that so long as the crater remains open as it
now is there is little or no danger to be expected from it.

Space will only admit detailed reference being made to three of the manv
stages through which this crater passes in completing an eruptive cycle. The
material here presented is selected from the wealth of descriptive matter now-
available from the records of its varying moods left covering almost one hundred
years, and from which I have condensed a brief history which is appended in the
folloAving chapter for convenient reference.

Conditions at the Crater in 1823.

In 1823 the crater was visited and described for the fir.st time by a wliite
man. The distinguished missionary, the Rev. William Ellis, witnessed at that
time a wonderful display. From his description we conclude that the crater ap-
peared far different from what it does now. It was evidently venting itself at
the time of his visit and the lava was flowing out from deep down under the
lake of fire. The drawing off of the lake of lava left a conii>ai-atively nari-ow
black ledge al)out the inner wall of the crater on all sides as the la\a sanl': lower
and loA\'er. This oliserver found a place at the north end of the crater down
which he descended to the black ledge. His first impressions of the crater,
however, were those gained from the highest point'*' on the west side of the
crater, eight or nine hundred feet above the lava lake, and were as follows:

"Immediately before us yawned an immense gulf, in the form of a crescent,
upward of two miles in length, about a mile across, and ai»pareiitl\- ei<|-ht liuii-

* Their form of expressing affection. ^° Uwekaluni;i

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF TTAWATI. 171

dred feet deep. The bottom was filled witfi lava and the southwest and north-
ern parts of it were one vast tlood of licpiid lire in a state of terrific ebullition,
rolling to and fro its fiery surge of flaming billows. Fifty-one craters of varied
form and size rose like so many conical islands from the surface of the burning
lake. Twenty-two constantly emitted columns of gray smoke, or pyramids of
brilliant flame, and many of them at the same time vomited from their ignited
mouths streams of fluid lava which rolled in flaming torrents down their black
indented sides into the boiling mass below." That evening, "between nine
and ten, the dark clouds and heavy fog that since the setting of the sun had
hung over the volcano gradually cleared away. The agitated mass of li(iuid
lava, like a flood of molten metal, raged with tumultuous whii-l. The lively
flame that danced over its undulating surface tinged with sulphurous blue or
glowing with mineral red, cast a broad glare of dazzling light on the indented
sides of the insulated craters whose bellowing mouths, amidst rising flames shot
up at frequent intervals with loudest detonations, spherical masses of fusing
lava or bright ignited stones." The following year Ellis revisited the crater
and remarked on its much abated activity.

Kapiolani Breaks the Speel of Pele.

Brief as this sketch must be, I am impelled to interpolate an event that
occurred in the history of the islands about a year after the events described
by Ellis. Kapiolani, 11 daughter of a great chief of Hilo, was one of the noblest
characters of her time. Though intemperate and dissolute in early life, she soon
became an example of virtue and refinement to her countrywomen and excelled
them all in the readiness with wdiich she adopted civilized habits and Christian
customs. In December, 1824, four years after the arrival of the missionaries
in Hawaii, she determined to break the spell of Pele — the dread goddess of the
volcano — to whose mythical power frequent allusions have been made.

In spite of the opposition of her friends and husband she made a journey
of one hundred and fifty miles, mostly on foot, in order to defy the wrath of
Pele in her abode in the crater, and thereby prove to her people that no such
being existed.

It is related that as she neared the volcano she was met by an old pi-iestess
of Pele who warned her not to go near the brink of the crater, and ju'cilicted
her death if she violated the tabus of the great goddess.

Undaunted by the warning of the priestess, Kapiolani went foi-wai'd and

11 The captive of Heaven.

Desokiptton of Platk.

1. The sul]tliur banks near the Volcano Jloiisc; noto tlie effect of the siilpliur fiiinos on
the trees and phmts. 2. Kilaiiea-iki with the floor of smooth shiniiiir black lava. In the
foreground may be seen the flow that ran into the pit in 18:?2. 3. Flashlight view in Pele's
reception room. The light streams in through an opening in the roof in tiie farther end of the
cave. 4. Waldron's Ledge near the Vok'ano House sliowing 1 he ili'|itli of the crater of
Kilauea.

172 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

spent the iiiglit on tlic brink of the crater iu a rude grass hut constructed for
her shelter. In Ihc luorninu she and her little company of followers descended
into the ci-atcr to Hi.' lila.-k ledj^e just mentioned, and there in full view of the
grand and territie action of the inner crater at her feet, she ate the sacred
ohelo berries consecrated to Pele, and hurled stones into the burning lake, saying
"Jehovah is my God. lie kindled these tires. I fear not Pele. If I perish by
her anger then you may fear Pele, but if I trust in Jehovah and He preserves
me when breaking her tabus, then you must fear and serve Him alone.''

As the courageous woman was unharmed the belief in the mighty spell of
Pele was broken, and tlius v.as accomplished what has very justly been called,
"one of tile greatest acts of moral courage ever performed."

The Eruption and Flow of 1840.

Returning to our account of the crater, we must pass over the remarkable
eruption of 1832, when in two years the lava welled and dropped a thousand
feet, and consider for a moment the great eruption and flow of 1840. which
illustrated so splendidly an important phase of activity at the volcano.

For eight years after the eruption of 1832 the process of refilling the caldera
of Kilauea had been going on until at last the black ledge surrounding its inner
walls, as seen and described by Ellis, had been covered with new lava about
one hundred feet deep. Kilauea after eight or nine years of cumulative work
was ready for an outbreak, and in the summer of 1840 an extensive eruption
took place. The event was minutely recorded by the Rev. Titus Coan.

After a period of iiitense ebullition in the i)it the customary break-down
occurred, but on this occasion, in place of venting deep down in the bowels of the
earth, the lava worked its way to the eastward in the direction of Puna through
some old subten-anean conduit, perhaps a thousand feet beneath the surface of
the inountain. until it emerged in the bottom of an ancient wooded crater, eight
miles distant from Kilauea. Its course all the way to this place could be dis-
tinctly traced by the rending of the earth's crust into innumerable tissures and
by the emission of steam and gasses.

Fi'om the old crater, which was four hundred feet deep, the lava stream
continued on its way seaward; part of the time deep down under the earth;
part of the time flowing over the surface as a river of fire. At last, flowing in
this way for several miles, it again broke out like an overwhelming flood, and
sweeping forest, hamlet, plantation, and everything before it, rolled down with
resistless energ\' into the sea. There, leaping a precipice of forty or more feet
in height, it pourinl itself in one vast cataract into the depths below with loud
detonations, fearful hissing, and a thousand unearthly and indescribable sounds.
Imagine this miuhty Niagara of Are pouring its livid flood into the ocean night
and day for three v/eeks. The atmosphere in all directions was filled with ashes,
spray and gasses; the- coast was extended into the sea a quarter of a mile, a
sand beach and a new cape were formed, while the light was so great that print
could be read at midnight fortv miles at sea.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 173

The whole course of this stream from its source at Kilauea to the sea was
about forty miles. During the flow the lava in the crater fell about 300
feet and Pole's fires became nearly extinct. The story of the eruption as
given by Rev. Titus Coan is one of the most thrilling accounts of volcanic activity
ever written.

Eruption of 1892-94.

So many and so varied are the scenes that have been witnessed at the crater
that it is necessary to select only such as may form types of its activity. For
that reason we pass to the eruption of 1892-94, since it represents the height of
activity within the crater during the last score of years, and it is especially
interesting as the conditions then were the culmination of a period of activity
similar to that now (1913) in progress at the crater.

Through a period of several months the lava in the pit of Halemaumau
continued to rise slowly until a new lake, differing from those that had preceded
it. A\as formed at a higher level than had before been known — 260 feet be-
low the Volcano House. This lake was held in a superficial bowl, made of loose
fragments of solidified lava that were more or less firmly cemented together
by splashings from the lake within, or l)y occasional overflows which ran down
its side and out onto the floor of the crater. In due time the old law of pres-
sure went into effect and within a few hours the liquid lava lake had vanished,
leaving the pit an empty smoking chimney, 750 feet deep.

Activity in 1902.

In August, 1902, the fires in the bottom of the pit were again rekindled
after a long period of comparative quiescence. The period of increased activity
at this time, as usual, was heralded by an increase in the volume of smoke-like
vapor which issued from the pit of Halemaumau. Night and day for months
this great titanic chinme}^ rolled its cloud of heavy vapor skyward. At length
the never-failing sign of a change came: the vapor decreased in volume and be-
came thinner and bluer. Soon after an eye spot of fire became visible ;i1 the
very bottom of Halemaumau, 750 feet below the present rim of the ])it : slowly-.
day by day, the lava lake rose and increased in size, being fed l)y a burning
spring from below. In October of that year I visited the crater and at
that time made a careful survey and sketch model of the whole region. fi-om
which data I afterwards constructed the large model that forms the central
feature of the exhibits in the "Hawaiian Hall" in the Bishop ]\[useum. The
lava on that occasion was more than 500 feet down in the ])it. Soon afterwards
the bottom quietly dropped out and the lake of fire entirely (lisa])peared. and
the smoke-like vapor began silently and steadily to gnsh foi'tli. ]\ladam Pele
of her own accord had retired once more deep down into the secret inner cham-
bers of her ancient abode.

The Activity in 1907.

With the exception of the slight activity of 190;> bnt little has transpired
in the pit until the present eruption which began early in the year 1907. and has

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 175

contimiecl to tlic present witli mueli variabilil.\- in llie cliaraeter ol' the lava and
with many spectacular displays that have been enjoyed by an increasing com-
pany of travelers. The lava in Ilalemaumau on September 4th, 1908, was but
ninety-five feet below the rim of the pit. By the follow iiiiz' summer the lake
was 235 feet below the rim. l)iit by the end of the year it was well n|» lowards the
black mark left high on the walls of the pit in the preceding year.

A Visit to Kilauea in 19UU.

It was in this favorable condition for observation when I visited the crater
in December, 1909, and climbed down into the pit to the very edge of the burn-
ing lake. As that journey, out of the several that I have made to the volcanic
region was an especially pleasant one, I venture to relate brietly the main inci-
dents of the outing since, to the tourist, as well as those who are so fortunate
as to live in Hawaii, the visit to Kilauea is one of the most interesting experi-
ences of a lifetime.

The trip from Honolulu to Kilauea is always pleasant and well worth mak-
ing, no matter whether the crater is active or not. The journey b_\- 1)()at, although
rough while crossing the channels between the islands is filled with varied and
delightful experiences for the traveler. The scenery from the steamer's deck is
everywhere and at all times most fascinating. The landing at Lahaina, ]\[aui,
the quaint old capital of the group, the sunrise over the mountains at Kawaihae
Bay, and last and best of all the grand panorama along the Hamakua coast, the
glorj^ of which has already lieen referred to, form never-to-be-forgotten incidents.

The seventy miles that the steamer skirts the northeast or Hamakua side of
Hawaii affords a splendid opportunity to study the topography of the island
as a whole, but particularly in that section, and to note the great transfonnation
which the development of the island's sugar industry has brought about all
along the uplands in the foreground. Along the coast dozens of waterfalls,
varying in size from a mere silvery strand of water to mountain torrents. ])our
over the abrupt sea cliffs and dash into the ocean below. ^Eany of these
falls plunge down hundreds of feet in a single leap. As the vessel proceeds one
has little difficulty in counting as many as a dozen or fifteen good-sized falls
in sight at one time. All too soon the voyage is over and the landing at llih) is
made.

HiLO.

The people of Hilo claim their town to be the most l)eautiful one in the
group. Almost daily showers cool the air and refresh the vegetation, and the
sea and mountain breezes remove the dampness that otherwise would produce a
moist, heavy climate. The soil of the valley is rich and deep, and being well
watered it is highly productive.

The location of the town is most ehai-ming willi its fine bay, its improved
harbor, and picturesque Cocoanut island in the foreground. On the other hand
its background is formed by a superb view of ]\Iauna Loa aiul .Manna Kea in

176 XATl'RAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the distance. Evory liiiMi in the street invites one to linger or to turn aside
and explore. The sulxhied sound of a nearby waterfall, the g-urgie of the shin-
ing river, the calling of the l)irds, the trees, the Howers, the twining vines, all
cast a spell of peace and t-ontentment over the place and make one feel he
could stay, yes, live, and he happy forever in tliis enchanted little city hy the sea.
The natural points of special interest near Ililo for a tourist and a natural-
ist arc Coeoanut Island, Rainbow Falls, Onomea Gulch and Arch, the Akaka
Falls,^- at Ilonomu. and the Kaumana caves in the flow of 1881, — caves that are
in reality great tunnels left by the escape of the lava from the conduits that
brought it down from the mountain in the distance. From Hilo it is possible
to visit the Puna district and the flow of 1810 as a side trip. The railroad to
Kapoho passes over this interesting surface outbreak described above and fur-
nishes an opportunity for its inspection. The district is also famous for the lava
tree casts caused l)y tlie lava flowing through t!ie forests at Kapoho ; the Green
lake in a small extinct crater and the famous heiau, Wahaula.^^ A warm
spring witli a small pool in which the water is constantly at a temperature of
blood heat, ;ind a number of small craters are all objects of interest.

The Ascent of Kilauea.

The journey from Hilo to the volcano may be made by the railway or by
the wagon road. By train one may go to Glenwood, twenty-two miles on the
jnui-ney. As the train rumbles along over a good road bed, through immense
plantations of sugar-cane, and splendid forests of hard-\vood timber, by flourish-
ing mills and quiet retreats, one wonders if, after all, there has not been some
mistake, for nowhere can one see signs of the devastation by quaking earth and
blazing flood that are so intimately associated Avith the popular idea of a great
active volcano.

The whole journey from Hilo to the crater can l)e made by automobile.
If the railway route be taken after the transfer at Glenwood, for an hour the
auto winds up over a gradually ascending macadam road, through a delightful
tropical forest. The splendid woods with wonderful clinging vines produce a
jungle of flowers and trees and shrubs and ferns. Great feathery fern trees
lean out over the road so that the auto is driven beneath them. Occasionally
these giant ferns grow into a veritable forest with many trees thirty or forty
feet in height. Along the roadside bright flowers spring \\\) that are often
familiar flowers run wild. Here a clump of Cannas or a bunch of fragrant
ginger; there a tangle of beautiful roses that have escaped from some abandoned
garden ; farther on are great masses of nasturtium and wild morning-glories.
Objects of especial interest are the Avild berries and the bananas l)y the wayside.
Thimble berries abound and are recognized as great glorified raspberries — an
inch or more in diameter. The ohelo, an upland cranberry, grows in patches

12 500 feet.

A model of this liciau that the writer assisted in assembling, may be seen in tlie Bishop Museum.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 177

l)y tile rojidside. It was lierrics like llicsc thai were loiiu' a^o made an offering to
Pele. Their presence reminds one that we must he nearing Jier domain.

Bundled up in winter wraps as a protection against the eoo! of the higher
elevation one tintls it hard lo I'eali/.e that back yotidci' by the sea-shore, scarcely
4,000 feet below, groves of cocoanut trees are nodding in the hmguid warmth
of the tropical summer afternoon. But before long the auto rounds a curve
in the road and the Crater Hotel, a well-appointed though eomi)ai-ativeiy new
hostelry, is in sight. About a mile further is the old-established Volcano
House, the very personification of hospitality and good cheer. To the left and
just beyond the Volcano House, and until this moment hidden from view, looms
up the great caldera. Even then one can hardly realize that the journey to the
world's great inferno is really at an end.

First View of the Crater.

Those who are as enthusiastic as they should be join a horseback or an auto-
mobile party that very afternoon and ride down into the crater to get a view of
the eteriml fires, for fear, as sometimes happens, they may have vanished ])efore
the morrow. If worn from the journey and suffering from the effects of a
choppy sea while crossing the channels, the traveler may sit in the great observa-
tion room on the hotel lanai and rest and drink in the reflected grandeur of the
fires that, as darkness gathers, paint their fury on the fleecy white clouds that
silently drift over nature's great melting-pot, the dark outlines of which can be
traced by its own light reflected back from the sky.

In the morning the great crater looms out of the fog — black, silent and
sublime. The view in the early morning is most fascinating, but, as one's tinit^
is ahvays limited and as there are other sights to be seen near at hand, it is
customary to pay a visit to the sulphur beds before breakfast.

Steam Cracks and the Sulphur Bed.

It is a weird sight to see the steam rising from the cracks and ci'evices on
every side and to know that for years, centuries perhaps, these same exhausts of
steam have played without increased or diminished volume. It is not uneonunon
to find a hotel servant busily engaged heating water over one of the nearby
steam cracks, preparing to wash the hotel linen. A few rods farther on past
the hotel the sidphur beds themselves are to be seen steaming and sparkling in
the morning sun. They cover several acres in extent aiul ai"e a never-ending
source of delight and wonder. There perhaps for the first time one lireathes
real sulphur fumes and realizes not only that the earth under foot is hot. too
hot to stand on in places, but that it is slowly being added to, l)il by "oil. as-
nature quietly deposits there minerals in forms so delieate in sti-nrtni'f. and
beautiful in color, that they crumble and dissolve as the wonderful yellow and
pink and white masses of newly-formed crystals arc held in hand. While the
amount of sulphur deposited is not great it is in some cases quite pnrc As the
sulphur is usually mixed with the red clay formed by the decomposition of

178 .XATURAL HISTOEY OF HAWAII.

the lava owing to the chemically charged steam, it is of value only as a curiositj^
and specimens of sulphur, sulphate of soda, lime and alumina are usually car-
ried away.

KiLAUEA-IKI.

A short expedition is usually made on foot to Kilauea-iki ^ * before de-
scending into the main caldera. The small lateral crater, while connected with
the larger one is, in numy ways, really a side issue. It is less than half a mile
to the east of the north end of the main crater and a little over a mile from
the hotel.

It has not been active for more than half a century but in spite of that
it is full (iT interest to the geologist, as it is a splendid example of a pit crater.
It is 7-iO feet deep ^'' an dis more than half a mile^'' across the top. In 1832
a severe earthquake shattered the wall which separated this crater from Kilauea
and large crevices opened in the sunken neck of land which unites the two
craters. From the earth rents along the south side of the isthmus a curious
tlow of brown lava ran to right and left, entering both the craters, but the
amount of lava emitted was very slight. Nevertheless, the lava as it entered
Kilauea over the bank formed a fall 200 feet in height that is plainly seen from
the Volcano House. The black shining lava floor in Kilauea-iki was a result
of the activity in the main crater in 1868; since then the smaller crater has been
quiet and apparently dead.

Keanakakoi.

To the south of Kilauea-iki and on the flat plain surrounding Kilauea at a
point almost due east of the pit of Halemaumau is a still smaller lateral crater
Avith vertical walls known as Keanakakoi.^" The present floor of this pit, the
result (»f activity in 1877. is lielow the floor of Kilauea. It is of interest to note
that this crater derives its name from the fact that old-time Hawaiians found
there suitable material for the manufacture of their stone implements, but the
eruption just mentioned obliterated all trace of their workshop.

Both of these lateral craters are now skirted l\v the new automobile road
known as Echo Trail, a name due to the fact that five distinct echoes can be
heard from the west bank of Keanakakoi. The road leads down into Kilauea
at this point and crosses its floor to the pit, enabling one to run a motor car to
the very brink of Halemaumau with ease and safety.

The Descent Into the Main Crater.

As the descent into the main crater is the chief concern of the visitor and
is usually made on foot or on horseback, it is customary to make the start early
in the afternon. prepared to have a lunch beside the pit. in defiance of
Pele, just as Kapiolani did almost a centurv ago. However, no one should miss

>♦ Little Kilauea. is ge? feet below the Volcano House. '« 3300x2800 feet.

'• The workshop of the adzcmaker.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 179

the view of the eternal fires l)y night, since Ihc night \\vw is e\rii nidi-c wdndrr-
fnl than the display by day.

With horses, staffs, guides, lanterns and lunches in readiness the start is
made. To reach the tloor of the crater by the usual route the visitor nuist
descend several hundred feet l\v a l)ri(lie path that angles back and forth down
the face of old fault blocks that lie like steps one lower tliau the other, at the
north end of the crater at a point just below the Volcano House. The descend-
ing path leads down through a scrubby Avood where native l)ii'(ls are to be seen
fluttering about, singing their carols with little regard oi- concei'u for the
spectacle so near at hand.

Arriving at the floor of the crater 4S4 feet below the Volcano House, one
turns to look back at the imposing wall known as Waldron ledge, ^"^ Avith its
vertical face marking the extreme depth of the crater. Stretching away in the
opposite direction is the rough, irregular, glistening black floor of the crater.

Heat Cracks and Spatter Cones.

One of the first points of interest, after pSssing observation hill, is the
great crack that opened on the crater floor, fifteen or twenty feet wide and
half a mile long. It opened without warning a number of years ago (Novem-
ber 4th, 1889) while a party of visitors were down at the pit. On their way
back to the Volcano House they found this yawning gulf where they had passed
without fear l)ut a few hours before.

The journey across the lava field is full of interest, especially to one on foot.
There are great hollow domes of lava one or two hundred feet long by twenty
or more feet in height to be climbed; cracks and fissures to be inspected and
many curious forms and freaks that the lava takes in cooling to be studied
or puzzled over. Then there are the steam crevices, and heat crevices, and
gas crevices to be examined and tested. An innumerable number of caves of
different sizes have been formed by the change brought about by the cooling
lava. Among the more important perhaps are Pele's reception room, as cool
and inviting as her kitchen is hot and oppressive. Here hundreds of visitors
have left their cards scrawled over with messages to the great goddess. Then-
there are the curious stalactite caves Avhere the walls and floors are covered with
tube-like stalactites and stalagmites formed from the mineral-charged water
which percolates through tlie porous lava.

The corral where equestrians dismount and tie their horses is a rough en-
closure beside the trail a quarter of a mile from the fiery lake. Vyo\)\ it the,
elevation to the edge of the pit is quite noticeable. Along the path the sulphur
cracks become more numerous. A little way to the right the heat issues from
the cracks over an area several acres in extent, that, owing to the deposits of
soda and sulphur, appears white against the dark lava that surrounds it. It is •
here that tourists anuiso themselves by scorchinL;' souvenir ]~>ostal cards by tuck-

Named for the purser of the U. S. Exphiriiig Kxcpdition (1S40).

180 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

ing tlu'iii iiil.. the crevices; or by boiling cofit'ee and frying bacon and eggs over

the escaping heat.

It is quite common to find scattered over the surface or collected in crevices
of tlic rock curious greenish and yellowish threads of spun-glass called Pole's
hair. AVlien the fire lake is in violent ebullition small masses of lava are thrown
into the air as the fountains play. The threads, which are drawn out after the
fiery drops harden, are carried high by the uprising current of air from the pit
;ni(l are dropped later over the floor of the crater.

Close to the corral is a low spatter cone, the "little beggar," which ap-
peared in 1884 when the lava was occasionally overflowing the top of the dome
which now surrounds the pit. Near at hand is "the devil's picture frame," a
hole in a small la\a fall that ran down into a shallow cave in the crater floor.
Beginning at the spatter cone the trail winds up to the pit which is hidden from
view. After passing other spatter cones the visitor stands at last on the edge
of the great pit Halemaumau.

Halemaumau by Day and Night.

There, scarcely one hundred and fifty feet below the observer,!'-^ is the burning
lake perhaps a thousand feet in diameter,— dancing, boiling, and flaring like a
gigantic blast-furnace crucible. A dozen or more splendid fire fountains leap
from its face and toss the molten basalt into the air. A great gushing lava
spring wells up from beneath, pouring out lava steadily, w^hile the fountains
round about leap and dance in wild unbridled fury. The heat is often so
intense that it is necessary to shield the face to prevent the skin from blistering.
The roar of the fiery furnaces is of a solemn, determined, indefinable character,
comparable in a way to that made by a heavy canvas flapping in a gale, or to
the resistless roar of a storm on a rock-bound coast. Now and then the wind
shifts and the fumes of sulphur drive one back from the edge, for breath. Occa-
sionally rocks loosen from their nitches in the shattered walls of the pit and go
bonndiiig down the sides to melt away in the lake below.

The main body of the lake is usually covered over with large, irregular,
l)roken pieces of solidified lava that float on the liquid beneath like cakes of
ice in a river. As the fountains play, waves run out from them in all directions
and set the black cakes bobbing about in the lurid flood. Now and then the lava
shoots up a hundred feet in the air, and, as the falling discharge strikes the sur-
face again, waves roll across the lake and break, as surf, against the farther
wall. The observer is held in a spell of fascination for hours at a time.
As the daylight fades the fiery spectacle increases in brilliancy and beauty and
becomes more grandly majestic and imposing. The churning, seething mass
takes on more lurid, flaming hues, while the opalescent atmosphere over the pit is
resplendent with the most delicate ethereal tints that can be imagined. When
darkness finally falls the lake becomes as molten gold. Apparently one can
look not only into it but through it. The lines between the cooled dark masses

^^ Conditions of December, 1909.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 181

are far more brilliant by iiiuiil. Tliuuyli not pei'i-cplililt' l<i (uu- ](jokiii;j;- diri'etl\'
into the pit there is a stea(l\- column of vapor rising straight over it to
high heaven, where, as it cools, a cloud is formed that becomes a pillar of fire by
night, visible thirty or forty miles at sea.

The wonderful and vai'iod spectacle produces in some observers a sense of
profound reverence and awe, in others a spirit of wild, cliild-like glee. However,
one and all sooner or later grope as in the presence of the Great Unknown and
ask for an explanation of the wonders before them, so grand, so bewildering, so
terrible to contemplate.

In search of the answer to these questions men of science with delicate instru-
ments now camp day and night at the crater and record Pele's slightest whim
in the hope that some day, in some way, the explanation to the ages-old
question as to "the cause of the phenomenon of volcanoes" may be gained from
Pele herself. For the present the visitor must be content with theories and
superficial answers to almost every question.

It is evident, how^ever, even to the most casual visitor, that Pele is in a
sullen mood and is at work filling up her great caldera, preparing for an out-
break or an overflow. Every few hours the lake recedes a few feet, only to well
up again, swelling each time higher than before. Kilauea is active and nearing
the flood tide. Doubtless before the lava rises much higher, the expected and
oft-repeated breakdown in the walls of the great mountain will come, and the
fiery lake will vanish back into the bowels of the earth just as it has so often
done before.-"

The trip back to the Volcano House is usually an uneventful and silent one
for all ; even the most frivolous have food for deep and reverent thought.

Side Trips from the Crater.

Those who are able to prolong their stay at the crater will find a number of
side trips may be made that will lie full of pleasure and interest. Near Kilauea
may be seen tree molds formed in the solid lava, which, in remote time, flowed
through an ancient koa forest. In time the charred remains of the trees disaj)-
peared leaving their casts as great holes in the lava stream. Holes formed in
this way may be seen that are from six inches to six feet in di;mi"tci'. wliicli in
some cases are twenty feet deep.

Fossil tree moulds are quite plentiful in several places on Hawaii and aj)-
pear to have been formed in different ways. In Puna Inindreds of these
tree moulds stand above the flows, each mai'king the location of a li-cc. The
living tree was enveloped by the molten on-i'ushing Ia\'a, which (|uickly cooled
about the tree tnnik forming a crust. As the wood bui-ned nway fi-esli lava
filled the inside of the mould. When the stream iiowcd on the lava flood re-
ceded, leaving the cast in some cases, in others the mould, standing above ils
surface, forming a forest of tree trunks of stone. The li\ing koa forest a coui)le
of miles beyond the Volcano House will give the visitoi- ;i glimpse of these giant

2" The lake of fire disappeared May. 191H, leaviiiR the i)it omiity.

182 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

trees that were so much used In- the old-time Hawaiians in their arts, and that
Euroiieaiis have found valuable in many was as a substitute for mahogany.

The Road to the Port of Honuapo.

Beyond the erater the I'oad passes b\- the point Uwekahuna, which is 117
feet higlicr than the A^olcano House and 601 feet above the lava tloor of the
crater at the Jowest point. It was from this spot that the volcano was first de-
scribed by Ellis. As the traveler proceeds southwestward towards the port of
Honuapo he passes close by the series of cracks that opened in the lateral slopes
of Kilauca in 1828 and again in 1869 to give forth copious flows of lava. Other
flows from JNIauna Loa may be seen.

Near Punaluu a large underground stream of water runs into the sea. and
the coast line is dotted here and there by fresh water springs that in former
times were of value to the natives that lived in this district.

As the road continues from Honuapo into the Kau district it crosses several
recent lava flows from ]\Iauna Loa, the eruptions of 1868, 1887 and 1007 having
already been mentioned. There the fields of aa, or rough lava, and pahoehoe,
or smooth lava, may be studied to advantage, and the wonders of a great lava
flow appreciated without leaving the automobile.

The Kona District.

The Kona district is made up of decomposed lava flows. Its soil is rich
and where well watered is covered with verdure. There are no rivers of conse-
quence in the district, the water being absorbed l\v the loose earth before it has
time to run far over the surface.

Along the shore line are numerous stone heiaus that are worthy of notice
since they have many interesting traditions connected with them. At Honaunau
is a famous ancient city of refuge which occupies six or seven acres of the low
rocky point on the south side of the little bay. A portion of the structure was
destroyed some years ago l)y tidal waves, though the walls were twelve feet high
and eighteen feet in width.

At Kealakekua Bay may be seen the monument to Captain Cook at Kaawa-
loa, on the spot where he was killed.-^ Napoopoo is on the opposite side of the
bay, and it was there the chiefs lived and where Cook's vessels were anchored near
the shore. Beside a pond, overlooking the bay of Napoopoo, is the ruin of the
famous heiau where the great navigator was worshiped by the Hawaiians as the
god Lono. At the head of the bay is a vertical clitf eight hundred feet in height
on eitlier side of which recent lava streams have descended. The road from the
landing winds around the bay and over the cliff and continues northward to
Kailua past the great stone toboggan slide above Keauhou. This portion of the
island is rich and well watered and is given over to extensive coffee, sugar and
sisal plantations, while the mountains on the slopes of Hualalai are thickly
clothed with forests of koa and ohia.

-• February 14th. 1779.

GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 183

At Kailua tlie traveler may take the steamer retiiriiin<:' to TTonoliiln. havint;
practically completed the circuit of the island.

CHAPTER XIV.

CONDENSED HISTORY OF KILAUEA'S ACTIVITY.

A Brief Chronology and History of Kilauea from the Earliest Records of
Its Eruptions Down to the Present, with Dates and Observations on
THE Condition of the Lava in the Crater of Kilauea and the Pit of
Halemaumau.

The following condensed chronology and history of Kilauea and its active
pit, Halemaumau, has been drawn from the written testimom^ of a multitude of
observers, and is designed to give some important facts, dates and figures, as a
matter of reference, that were not suited to the more popular account of this
great volcano.

From the time of the first immigration, under the great Hawaiian \Vakea,i
\uitil the last and only historically recorded explosive eruption at the crater in
1789, when a portion of Keoua's army was overwhelmed, there appears legendary
and traditional evidence to prove that Kilauea was many times in active eruption.
. In 1823, when first visited by Europeans, the crater was active and was being
emptied by a flow to the south which reached the sea in the district of Kau.
The lava dropped from 900 feet - to a point 1,700 feet below Uwekahuna, the
fixed datum point on the highest bluff on the west edge of the crater — the point
to which the rise and fall in the lava lake is herein referred.

In 1824 the crater was empty and the bottom left black and smoking. In
1825 it had still farther discharged, but by the end of the year was filling again.
By 1829 it had filled up 200 feet liigher than when visited by the same observer
in 1825.

1832*. After the last date given (1829) the lava rose above the main crater
floor of the earlier period, which was some 300 feet below the floor of the crater at
present (1913). During the year (1832) the lava sunk again so that fire was
confined in the pit 400 feet down.

In January (1832) an earthquake rent the walls between Kilauea and
Kilauea-iki. Lava issued from the cracks thus opened and i-an into botli craters.

In 1834 Kilauea had subsided, and was nnu-h llic same as when visiteil by
Ellis, who was its first chronicler.

In 1838 the lava was up to near the present level, and all over an area four
square miles in extent. During 1839 the crater continueil very active, and by
the following year the lava lake was one hundred feet higher than in 1832.

In 1840 the crater was vented to the northeast by the Puna How. which
reached the ocean. The lava dropped from 650 to 1,030 feet below the datum
point. By 1841 Halemaumau was filling again. Kilauea Avas visited during the

1 140 A. D. - 300 feet below the present floor of the miter.

* Years marked by eruptions on Mauna Loa.

1— 1

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 185

year by the U. S. Exploring Expedition party. In 1842 the crater was filling,
with a dike built up fifty feet above the surface. 1843.* Unusual activity in
Kilauea. The year 1844 saw the large lake '■^ overfiowing on every side. In 1846
continued overflows had built the floor of the crater up higher than it was prior
to the breakdown in 1840. During 1847 the main crater continued iruich as in
the previous year. In 1848 the lake crusted over, and the dome-shaped crust rose
two or three hundred feet high in the center; this is the first dome to be noted
in the history of Kilauea.

In May, 1849* the crater was completely emptied by a hidden discharge.
The lava dropped from 350 to 1,030 feet below Uwekahuua. During 1852 great
quiet followed the eruption, but in due time the crater began to fill again. In
1852* it showed no sign of sympathy with the Mauna Loa eruption. During
1854 it still remained quiet, but in 1855* activity returned, and bj^ mid-sunmier
there were many fountains of leaping lava. In October it was less active, and
the dome over Halemaumau had fallen in; the lava was about 1,200 feet below
the datum point.

By 1856 there was little sign of activity, and during 1857 similar conditions
continued; the lake was about 600 feet in diameter. The following year (1858)
there was sluggish action in the pit beneath what was the old dome. In 1862
the lava pool in the pit had increased again to 600 feet in diameter.

The vear 1863 saw continued and increased activitv. During 1864 Hale-
maumau was 800 feet in diameter with the lava but fifty feet below the crater
floor. A cone was then active in the locality now marked by escaping steam
to the northwest of Halemaumau. In 1865 conditions were much as in the
previous year, but during 1866 a lava flow in the crater two miles in length
was reported.

In 1868* the crater slowly fllled up by overflows from the "North Lake"
and from Halemaumau, until the whole central portion was considerably ele-
vated. By April the crater w^as very active. Earthquakes were numerous.
Eight lakes were in ebullition in the crater, and were frequently overflowing.
The groat earthquake of April 2nd threw do^^^l fragments of the outer wall of
the crater, cracks opened and the lava flowed out, leaving two-thirds of the
bottom caved in from one to three hundred feet below the remaining floor, so
that the lava dropped from 600 down to 1.200 feet below Uwekahuua, and Hale-
maumau was emptied in three days. The discharge was at a point thirteen miles
southwest of the crater, and reached the ocean in Kau. Kilauea-iki was at this
time flooded over its floor with black, shining lava, the first to enter it since 1832.

^ Halemaumau. * Years marked by eruptions on iliuma Loa.

Description of Plate.

1. The ''Little Begger"; a spatter cone by the trail on \\\v way to the pit. 2. .-V tall
spatter cone near the northwest edge of Haleiiiauinan. 3. The entrance to Mnie. Pele 's
reception room. 4. Popping corn over heat cracks in the crater, o. The "Great Crack''
which opened in the floor of Kilauea in 1889. 6. The fire-place at the Volcano House — a
shrine famous for its hospitality, its history and its past associations. Before it have gathered
many of the world 's most distinguished men of science.

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GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF HAWAII. 187

In 1869 lava was seen far down in llaleniauiiiau. Two years later (1871)
Halemanmau had filled up to overflowing, and the lava ran two miles to the
north over the crater floor. By August the crater was emptied again. In
1872* Halemaumau again filled and was overflowing, but the action was confined
within the black dome, on the summit of which was the molten lake, on a level
with the black ledge about the crater, marking the height of former eruptions.

In 1874 the crater, after subsidence, became active again, and four small
lakes were reported. During 1875* two craters developed on the partially-filled
floor, to which lava had been gradually added by flows in the crater since the
activity of 1868. During 1876 activity in the south ^ and the north lake ^ con-
tinued with frequent overflows on the floor of the main crater about them.

By May, 1877* Halemaumau was empty again. During this year the pit
crater Keanakakoi was found to be filled with boiling lava. By September, 1878,
Ijoth "lakes" in the crater were very active again; several extensive flows from
them ran over the crater floor. In the early part of the year 1879 both lakes
were active, but on April 21st the bottom dropped out, the lava disappearing
within the pit from whence came much vapor and gas. By June both lakes were
active again, throwing up jets of lava above the rim of the lake. Later exten-
sive flows occurred on the main floor. On July 15th the sulphur bank in the
crater at the south end was set on fire by a flow from Halemaumau. During
1880* both lakes continued active.

During the period between 1865 and 1880, the outer walls of the crater were
found to have completely changed. The floor was now raised in the form of a
broad flat dome, the apex of which was but 300 feet below the Volcano House,
or 417 feet below Uwekahune; while the lov/est point on the floor was near the
north wall where the lava was 650 feet below the Volcano House. Throughout
the year 1881 both lakes continued active. During 1882 the same general con-
ditions continued with occasional flows on the crater floor. Similar conditions
to those of 1882 continued through the year 1883. The "Little Beggar"
spatter cone along the trail to Halemaumau was formed on March 31st, 1884. At
this time the "new lake" located beyond and to the left of Halemaumau
was active. In 1885 it was noted that there had been but little change in condi-
tions in the crater since 1882. The submarine eruption of¥ Puna on January
22, 1884, was attributed to Kilauea. On March 6th, 1886, both Halemaumau
and the "new lake" were overflowing. Thirty-six hours later the lava in both
had sunk out of sight, leaving a hole 590 feet below the rim of Halemaumau, or
1,017 feet below Uwekahuna, but by the middle of July the lava liad retiinied
again.

By August 1887* lava was overflowing from the edge of HalemauniHU. Con-
ditions continued during 1888 about the same as in the preceding years, with the
exception that "Dana Lake," a small crater on the west of the iiiaiii pit. was
quite active with occasional overflows. On November 4tli, 1889, the very large
fissure on the floor of the crater''' opened without warning. The activit\' of tlu>

* Halemaumau. ° Called Kilauea. " Now .spanned by a hridse.

* Years marked by eruptions on Mauna Loa.

188 XATUKAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

previous yeai's at tlu' pit continued throughout 1890 and gradually increased
duriny- the year. Early in the year 1891 "Dana Lake" on the west, and the
"new hike" on the east of the main pit were in constant ebullition, but on :\Iarch
7th thr lava dropped out of the pit, which "smoked from the bottom." A month
later the tire had returned and the lava in the pit continued to rise and fall dur-
ing the year. By Jul\-. 1892, overflows from the edge of the pit occurred and
activity continued to the end of the year. Similar conditions continued through-
out the year 1893. By March 6th, 1894, Halemaumau, still very active, had
built itself up in a retaining wall, formed by the solidification of molten lava
sphishing over the edge of the pit, until its surface was but 282 feet below the
Volcano House — the highest lake recorded in the history of the crater. The
floor of the crater had been added to by overflows from the pit during the pre-
ceding year.

In July the lava subsided in the pit, dropping 250 feet in ten hours. The
fire finally disappeared in December, leaving the pit empty during the following
year (1893). On January 3rd, 1896,* the fire returned, but on January 28th
disappeared. It reappeared on the bottom of the pit, 600 feet below the rim.
a few days later. After three weeks of very slight activity, it disappeared.
The fire returned for three days in June, 1897. In 1898 the pit was estimated to
be 800 feet deep.

A breakdown in the walls of Halemaumau occurred in 1900, filling the bot-
tom of the pit. By August 15th, 1901, a like had formed in the floor of the
pit. During 1902 the condition of the previous year continued with some varia-
tions for several months. At the time the writer made a survey for the model
in the Bishop Museum, the pit was 825 feet deep. During 1903* some slight
activity was noted far down in tlie pit. The crater was quiet during the year
1904, but in 1905 fire was again seen in the pit in ]\Iarch, and slight activity
continued throughout the year. The fire disappeared in 1906 leaving the pit
576 feet deep, but in December the pit became active.

By Januar}^, 1907,* the lake was more active, with the lava steadily rising.
Later it receded, but by May it had become active again. The amount of fire
to be seen varied from day to day, but the lava continued to fill up the pit until
during the month of ]\Iay the pit was estimated to be only 200 feet deep, with the
molten lake 800 by 400 feet. In the early part of 1908 the pool continued to
rise slowly and irregularly until it was within ninety feet of the level at the edge
of the pit. Later the lava receded, leaving a black ledge about the inner edge
of the pit. Since that time up to January, 1913. the lava was constantly boiling
with varying intensity, and at dift'erent levels.

During this long period of activity the crater has been visited by thousands
of tourists. Early in 1910 the new automobile road by way of Kilauea-iki was
completed into the crater, to a point within one hundred yards of Pele's abode
in the inner pit. iNFany have made use of it in making tlieir visits to her
sanctuary.

Years marked by eruptions on Mauna Loa.

Natural History of Hawaii.

SECTION THREE

FLORA OF THE GROUP.

CHAPTER XV.

PLANT LIFE OF THE SEA-SHORE AND LOWLANDS.

The plant life of these highly isolated islands has always been a subject
of aljsorbing interest, and much has been done by botanists since the time of
Cook's memorable voyages towards putting- a knowledge of the flora into an
orderly and systematic form. For those who contemplate a serious study of the
vegetation of the islands, the important volume of Dr. Hillebrand is, of course,
an essential, but for those ^^'ho A\ish merely to know something of the more useful,
familiar or conspicuous plants, without going into the subject exhaustively, a
brief summary of the more salient features may here suffice.

The Island Flora.

We have elsewhere had occasion to refer to Hawaii-nei as being so far removed
from the mainland of America and the islands of Polynesia that it is indeed
difficult to account for the presence of so varied and extensive a fauna and flora.
Nevertheless there is no very tangible geologic evidence, aside from the evidence
of a deep subsidence, to furnish ground for a belief that the islands in past
geologic time have been more closely connected with other lands than they are at
present. We therefore have here, if anywhere in the world, a truly virgin
flora — one of great tropical beauty and surpassing interest to students as well
as to travelers and holiday seekers who ramble off into the mountains and fields
or by the sea-shore in search of change from the common place of the city.

Those who have studied the matter assure us that the nearest land in the Pa-
cific that can be seriously considered as providing stepping stones that may have
been instrumental in giving Hawaii her original stock of plants are the ^Marquesas.
Rut since those islands, like all other lands and islands, are more than two thou-
sand miles distant and are separated from the Ilawaiinti group l)y the abysmal
depths of the ocean on all sides, the striking physical isolation of the group from
adjacent land areas is apparent. Aside from the intercourse that the Hawaiians
have had with the groups of islands to the soufli. an intercourse that undiMiMcdly
resulted in the bringing to the group of all of their more important economic
plants as elsewhere stated, the flora of the islands once established, seems to have
developed naturally and continuously for a very long jieriod of time. The
development seems to have been continued to the present time without the com-
plications that elsewhere result from geologic changes, oi' olhcr disturbing fac-
tors either from within or without.

189

PLATE 50. VEGETATION OF THE LOWEE AND MIDDLE FOREST.

1. Ki (Cordyline terminalis) ; the leaves are still used by Hawaiiaiis as a wrapping for
food, fish, etc. In former times a strong drink was brewed from the roots. 2. Typical view

(Ui'scriplwn of Plate Coidinved on llie Opposite Paf/e.)

FLORA OF THE GROIIP. 191

Sources.

Of the movement of ocean currents and their effect as transi)orting agents,
we know but little. Without doubt some plants are transported in this way.
As is well known the existing currents in the North Pacitic move in a direction
that carries them toward the equator from along the shores of the colder Ameri-
can continent. Although Hawaii is in the direct path of this cui-rent, few
indeed have been the representatives of the North American tiora that have
been brought to the islands. However, we are not sure that the currents have
always had their present motion or direction. It is possible that in by-gone
ages, long ago, the movement of the currents of the Pacific may have been re-
versed, so that various plants from the Australian, Polynesian and South Ameri-
can regions that are well known here, might have been carried to the islands by
them, in one w^ay or another.

Number of Genera and Species.

The abilit}' of birds to make long and direct flights is elsewhere referred to
and without doubt they have been able to bring a small per cent of the total
plant population of the islands. But be that as it may we find the flora of
Hawaii remarkable in that, in proportion to the entire number of plants, it has
more species that are peculiar to the group than are to be found in any other
region of the same area in the world. If we take the total number of plants,
including those which have been introduced and have become generally natural-
ized since the coming of Captain Cook, and include those undoubtedly intro-
duced by the Hawaiians themselves, we have a grand total, for the native and
introduced flora, of approximately a thousand species of flowering plants and a
trifle over one hundred and fifty species of cryptogamic or spore-bearing
plants, making a list, including recent species, of perhaps twelve hundred in
all. These are divided by Dr. Hillebrand into three hundred and sixty-five
genera, of which three hundred and thirty-five are flowering plants and thirty
are cryptogams. It should be remembered of course that this number is being
added to and altered and rearranged from time to time, through contiiuied re-
search. It is, however, sufficiently accurate to indicate the character of the
flora.

Endemic and Introduced Plants.

If Ave exclude from the total list as above given those known to have been
introduced by the Hawaiians and Europeans we find over eight hundred and

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

in a rain forest. In the Lauhala tree (Pandaniis odoratissinnis) is a bird's nest fern [Ekalia]
{Asphnium nidus) in its natural habitat. The Ohia (Mctrosideros polymorpha) trees in the
background are overrun with leie (Freycinetia Arnotti) while in the forefjround several genera
of ferns can be recognized among them Sadlcria, Cibotium, AspJeuhnn. Aspiditim, and the like.
3. A famous tree fern [Heii] (Cihotiuni Moizicsii) surrounded by a jungle of SadUria,
Aspidium and other genera of ferns which abound in the moist woods of Hawaii. 4. Wild
Bananas [Maia] (Musa sapirntum) and cultivatod Coffoe {Coffca Arabica) growing in a
forest clearing.

PLATE 51. COMMON PLANTS FEOiM KOCKY COASTS AND SANDY SHOKES.

1. llima (Sida spinosa), a name applied to several related species. 2. Beach Heliotrope
{Heliotroinum Curassavicum). 3. Pickle-weed {Batis maritima). 4. Alena {Boerhaavia

(Description of Plate Contiuved on flic Opposite Paye.)

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 193

sixty species distributed over two hundred and sixty-five genera that are to be
regarded as the original inhabitants of Hawaii. Of this number more than six
hundred and fifty species are found nowhere in a natural state outside of Hawaii
and are therefore endemic, precinctive or peculiar to the group.

The number of endemic plants found on the different islands of the
group varies in a way contrary to what might naturally be expected, as the
number is largest on Kauai and smallest on the large island of Hawaii. This
seems to be in accordance with geologic facts. Since, as has elsewhere been
said, Haw^aii as a whole is regarded by geologists as the youngest of the islands
geologically^, it is reasonable to conclude that the number of endemic plants oc-
curring on it, or on any of the islands, furnishes a fair index to the relative age
of that particular island. Thus Kauai, which stands fourth in area, stands
first in her list of species, and the species are as a rule much better defined
than are those on the younger islands of the group.

]\Tuch that is interesting has been learned by tracing the orgin and affinities
of the plants of the Hawaiian group. This is done by carefully following out
the relationship of the various genera, families and orders with a view to finding
if possible the place from which they have been distributed in times past. Since
there are no fossil plants in Hawaii it is necessary to rely entirely on the geo-
graphical method of determining the source and relationship of the native flora.

If the two-thirds of the list of the plants that are found nowhere else be
left out of account, we find that the remaining one-third has come from various
sources, in many instances far remote from th(' islands, by routes often diffi-
cult to trace. On the other hand there are species that are widely distributed
throughout Polynesia that are only allied to American forms. Many others are
of Asiatic origin with Polynesian affinities. A small number have been con-
tributed by Australia, while a limited number are of African origin. Si ill
other species are almost world-wide in their distribution.

Variation in the Flora from Island to Island.

The plant life of the several islands of the group not only varies as to the
character of the flora found on each, but each individual island varies in its
flora in dift'erent localities to a certain extent, showing adaptations that accord
with variations in altitude, soil, wind and the amount of rainfall. This is true
to such a degree that no two valleys will have exactly the same plants, and
each excursion into the mountains is liable to be rewarded by bringing to light
something not seen elsewhere and possi])ly not even known heretofore in the phmt
world.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

diffusa), see also No. 7. 5. Pauohiiaka (Jaequemontia Sandwicensis). 6. La Platte Tobacco
(N'ieotiana glauca). 7. Alena (Boerhaavia diff'usa). 8. Nolm (Tribuhis cistoidcs). 9.
Akoko (Euphorbia cordata). 10. Maiapilo (Cappdris Saiuhricliiana). 11. Pili (Andropo-
gon = {Hcteropocion) contortus). 12. Beach Saiulalwood |IliabiJ (^SantaUun Frci/ciiKiianum
var. littorale). 13. Beach Morning-glory [Pohiiehuc] (Ipomoea pes-caprce). 14. Beach grass
(Sporobolus Virginicvs). 15. Five-fingered Morning-glory [Koali ai] (Ipomoea tuberculata).
16. Carex sp. 17. Akulikuli (Sesuviiim Fort ularast rum). 18. Alaalapuloa (JValtheria
Americana).

'■A

2;
o

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 195

Ilillebrand and others have found it convenient to gronp the flora of the
islands into different zones based mostly on the elevation they occupy. There
are six of these arbitrary zones that with a little experience can easily be recog-
nized since their floras are more or less well defined though, of course, intergrad-
ing from one zone to another to some extent.

Floral Zones: The Lowland Zone.

For the purpose of this sketch of the flora of the Hawaiian Islands it will
suffice to speak of a few of the more important plants in each zone, beginning
at the sea-coast, where there is a peculiar strand vegetation, and from there make
an ideal ascent of the mountains, taking one zone after another until the summit
of the highest mountains have been explored.

Starting with the plants of the lower zone we have species that thrive at
the sea-shore, often at the very water's edge. This is known as the littoral flora
and alwa.ys grows along the sea-shore or the margin of brackish water, usually
within sound of the sea. It seems to be indifferent to the salt in the soil.
Almost all of the plants of this zone are ocean-borne and widely distributed
species. As a rule they have fleshy stems and leaves and possess great vitality.
They may be uprooted by the waves, borne out to sea by the tides, and carried
away for long distances by the currents, to be set out again by the action of
the waves on some foreign shore. The plants found growing on Midway, Laysan
and Lisiansky, and in fact all the low Pacific islands and shores, are of this
littoral type. On Laysan the writer collected twenty-six species that must all
owe their origin to the method of transplanting just described.

Common Littoral Species.

There is very little variation in temperature and conditions at the sea-shore
throughout the group, and as a result we generally find the condition of plant
life fixed and uniform on all of the islands. The same littoral species may occur
wide-spread about the shore of the different tropical islands, while the genus
to which the species belongs may be represented inland where conditions are
more variable by several species, often one or more such species being peculiar
to each island where the genus occurs. An interesting example of this is found
in the case of the genus Sccevola — the naupaka of the natives with a wide
spread shore species. ^ The species of the genus are all small shrubs bearing
white or pale blue and occasionally yellow flowers that are peculiar in that the
corolla is split along the upper side to its base. Owing to this peculiarity the

1 Sccevola Lobelia.

Description' of Platk.

1. Hawaiian Mahogany [Koa] (Acacia loa) from the koa forest near tlio volcano
Kilauea. 2. Tree Ferns (Cibotium sp.) in the fern jungle near the Volcano House. 3.
Lichens on trees; a charcteristic of the forests above 2000 feet. 4. Lauhala (Pandanus odor-
atissimus) by the sea-shore on Hawaii. 5. Staghorn Fern [Ululie] {Glcichenia linearis).
6. A Staghorn Fern tangle near the volcano Kilauea. 7. Wiliwili (En/thrina monospcrma).
8. Apeape (Gunnera petaloides), showing the comparative size of its splendid leaves.

PLATE 53. TWENTY COMMON WEEDS.

1. Cocklebiir (Xanthium struinarmm). 2. False Mallow (Malvastrum tricuspidatum).
3-4. Common Sida (Sida spinosa). 5. Wild Euphorbia {Eupliorhia genicuJaia). fi. Yel-

( Description of Plate Continued on the Opposite Page.)

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 197

natives have woven a pretty pathetic story al)()ut tlie ])lossom which tells of
how two lovers, who had long been fond of each other, one day (iuarreled and
parted. As a token of the unhappy event the maiden tore this flower down the
side. This was a sign by which her sweetheart might know that she loved
him no longer, nor would she care for him until he should find and carry to her a
perfect naupaka flower. The lover went in desperation from one bush to an-
other and from one island to another searching through the flowers, hoping to
find a blossom that was not torn apart. But alas, he was doomed to disappoint-
ment and it is said that he died of a broken heart. That was long, long ago ; but the
naupaka still blooms always with a slit down the side of the flower, no doubt, as a
warning to petulent maidens that it is unsafe to interfere with the laws
of nature. Be that as it may, through the long ages since (and longer ages
before) this shrub has been blooming on the different islands, and creeping
higher and higher into the mountains, and has slowly adapted itself to the changes
of soil, elevation and climate until several distinct species and a number of
varieties have been formed.

Another characteristic plant of this zone is the sea morning-glory.- the
pohuehue of the natives. This species w^ith its thick bright green leaves, lobed
at the tip, that grow on thrifty creeping stems which root down from the joints,
bears dusky pink flowers familiar to every one who has strolled along the sea
shore anywhere in the tropics.

A near relative of the above found on the sand beach on lowlands is the na-
tive island morning-glory ^ or koali. It is recognized by its heart-shaped leaves
and azure blue flowers that become reddish as they fade. The natives used its
root in their medicine as a cathartic, and also used it as a poultice for bruises
and broken bones.

Associated v.dth these, often growing together with them, is a third species
of morning-glory-^ or Convolvulus, the "koali ai." It is found in dry
rocky soils near the shore and is recognized by its having the leaves cut into five
fingers and its blossoms beautiful purplish-red flowers. It is of more than pass-
ing interest since, as the name implies, the natives ate its tuberous roots in times
of scarcity. They also wilted and used its .stems for coarse cordage. That tlie
natives should use this root as food is not so odd as it at first seems when we
remember that the sweet potato ^ or uala, a near relative with more than twenty

2 Ipomoea pes-caprce. ^ Ipomoea insularis. * Ipoinoea tiibiTfiilctfi. '^ Ipomoeu Batatas.

(Description of Plnte Continued from Opiioxite I'ai/e.)

low Wood-Sorrel (Oxalis cornindata). 7. False Geraniiiin, "Cheeses'' (Malva rotundifoUa).
8. Sow Thistle [Pnalele] (Sonchus oleraceus). 9. Eattlebo.x (Crotahiria sp.). 10. Spanish
Needles (Bidens pilosa). 11. Common Amaranth {Euxolus viridis). 12. Stick-Tight Crass
[Piipii] (Chrysopogon verticillata). 13. Paupilipili (DrsDwdium uiicinaium = Mciohrmia
uncinalus). 14. Purslane [Ihi] (Portulaca oUracea). lo. Nut Grass [Kaluha] (KyUinf/ia
inonocephala. 16. Thorny Amaranth (Amaratitus .spino.sits). 17. Dog's Tail or Wire
Grass {Eleusine Indica). 18. Garden Grass {Eragrostia major). 19. EcUpta alba, coniniou
about taro ponds, etc. 20. Crow-foot {Chloris radiata). (No number) Garden Spurge
(Euphorbia pihdifera).

PLATE 54. COMMON PLANTS OF THE FIELDS AND ROADSIDE (OAHU).

1. False Koa (Lcuccena glauca). 2. Kou (Cordia sub cor data). 3. Han (Hibiscus
tiliaceus). 4. Galingale (Cyperus pennatus). 5. Mexican Poppy [Puakala] (Argemone

(DescriptioTn of Plate Continned on the Opposite Page.)

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 199

v^arieties. was one of the principle sources of vegetable food used l)y the natives
at the time of the discovery of the islands.

Associated with the foregoing is an interesting plant, the kipii kai," one of
two species of heliotrope which occurs on the low littoral zone. As the Hawaiian
name implies it is invariably found near the sea. Both species, however, usually
grow on the raised coral rock or the dry lava flows rather th.in the sand of the
shore. The pure white flowers are in small compact clusters on a low prostrate,
wiry stem. The close rosettes of thick silky leaves distinguishes the second
species " at once from the smooth-leafed larger form with the longer spikes of
white flowers.

Account of the pickle weed ( akulikulikai ) ^ should here be taken since it is a
common and conspicuous plant in brackish water marshes about Honolulu and
Pearl Harbor and one that is rapidly spreading to other localities.

Still another plant that is of interest, especially to the small boy, is the
nohu.*^ It is sometimes called oMahukona violet by reason of the fragrance of
its flowers. The plant is a trailing hairy vine-herb with usually eight pairs of
small leaflets to the leaf. The blossoms are yellow and an inch or more across.
But the feature of particular interest is the horny seed pods each segment of
which is armed with twin spines. The bare-footed boy who steps on one of these
pods as it lies buried in the sand is liable to remember the experience for a long
time.

A common and interesting species in the lowlands along the shore or at the
mouths of streams where the water is not too brackish is the akaakai or bul-
rush ^" with its long, gradually tapering naked stems, three to six feet or more
in height. But there are many plants, sedges and grasses in this zone, common
on or near the sea-shore of the group, that are all so widespread in their general
distribution that they form a list too extensive to receive mention here.

Such plants as the polinalina ^^ with the underside of the leaves and flowers
nearly white; the nehe,^- a low prostrate plant with small, thick, veinless, silky-
haired leaves ; the beach sandalwood,^-^ a low shrub with thick, fleshy, pale green
leaves; the maiapilo,^^ a straggling shrub with smooth leaves and large showy
many-stamened white flowers; the maoor native cotton,^^ a Ioav shrub witli hoary
white, three-to-five-lobed leaves and sulphur-yellow hibiscus-like flowers; the
pololo or dodder,!*' a leafless thread-like twining parasite, as Avell as such trees as

* Eeliotropiiim Curassavicnm. ' Heliotropium anomalum. " Balis maritima.

^ Iribulus cistoides. i" Scirpus lacustris. ii Yitex trifolia. ^- Lipochata integrifoUa.

^^ Santalum littorale. ^* Capparis Sandwichwna. ^^ Gossypium tom-ei^tosiim.
1' Cuscuta Sandwiehiana.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

Mexicana). 6. Hinahina (Heliotorjnum anomalum). 7. .lob's Tears (Coi.r lacryma-
Jobi). 8. Sedge (sp. indet). 9. Mint (sp. indet). 10. Bullnish [Akaakai] (Scirpu.^
lacustris). 11. Lantana (Lantana Camara). 12. Kolu (Acacia Farncsiana). 13. Jimson
Weed [Kikania] (Datura Stramnnium). 14. "Opium" tree [Opiuma] (Inga dulcis =^ Pithe-
eolohium dvlce). 15. Club Rush (Scirpus palustris).

PLATE 55. VEGETATION IN THE FORESTS, ALONG THE STREAMS AND THE

ROADSIDE.

1. Typical scene along the mountain streams. 2. On the road to Kilanea. 3. Tyjiical
forest jungle in the middle forest zone showing the luxuriant growth of vines. A fern

FLORA OF Till] GKOFP. 201

tlie milo/^ niu/- kou,^'' k.iiuatii-" and the noni-' are all liable to occur at or
near the strand and to attract notice.

Plants from the Sea-Shore to the Edge of the Forest.

The second zone begins at tlie sea-shore and extends back to the lower edge
of the forest area and reaches up perhaps a thousand feet or more on the slopes
of the mountains. This is termed the lowland zone. It is open country, usually
covered with grass after a rain, with isolated trees scattered here and llicrc, repre-
senting comparatively few genera. Being either arid, sandy or rocky the region
nowhere, except possibly in the valleys and along the windward sid(\ produces
anything like a luxuriant vegetation. It is in this zone that man has longest
had his dwelling and has cultivated, cleared and panted most ; therefore since
the coming of foreigners and the extension of irrigation and the cultivation of
field ci*ops on a large scale the native plants have all but disappeared from this
costal or lowland area. They must now ])e sought in the most unpromising
agricultural districts, as about the base of tuff-cones like Diamond Head; or
along the lava ledges not accessible to animals ; or better still, on old lava flows
too rough or too dry for tillage.

One of the most common, persistent and useful of the native trees of this
zone is the hau.-- The tree is very nearly related to the Hibiscus of the gar-
dens from which it can be separated by the fact that in the hau the bracts of
the flowers are united to form an eight-to-ten-lobed cup. It is common from
the sea-shore to 1500 feet elevation and is a freely-branching tree growing in a
snarl, forming almost impenetrable thickets that sometimes completely fill small
valleys. It is a favorite tree with the Hawaiians and is frequently utilized as
a shade over arbors and lanais. The light wood served as outriggers for the
native canoes, the tough bark made pliable rope, and the bark and flowers were
used as an important medicine. The flowers are yellow one day and the next day
mauve, and according to Hillebrand double blossoms are occasionally found
near the sea-shore.

Very closely related to the foregoing is the niilo.-'' Like the hau the numerous
large, showy yellow blossoms make the milo an attractive tree which often at-
tains a height of forty feet or more. It is somewhat difficult for the novice to
recognize the tree as a distinct species. The flower bracts, however, are free and
only three-to-five in number, and the seed pods are an inch and a half in dia-
meter, almost as hard as horn, and hang on the tree long after the seeds have
ripened.

^' Tfies/x'sia poiiiiliicd. ^'^ Coros iniriffra. '^' Cordi/i subcorihita. -^ Cal'ipln/Uiini hioiilij/Utnii.

-^ iloritida citrifoUn. -'- Puriliutn tiliaceiini. -•' TheKpeiiiu piipidnea.

(Descriptioii of Plate Continued from O/ijiosite Pit<ie.)

stem corduroy road leads throujili the Oliia forest which is draped witli leie vines. To the
extreme riglit and left are graceful tree ferns, while in tlu' foregrnund are a number of ferns
and under-shrubs characteristic of the region. 4. View along the VolcaiKi House road show-
ing a nund>er of introduced plants that have escaped into the forest.

I'LATI-] .j(K KUKUI AND COMMON PLANT8 OF THE LOWER FOREST (OAHU),

1. Oloiia {Tourhardia lot if olid) . 2. Candlc-mit tree | Kukiii] (Alenrites Moluccana) .
3. Hawaiian Moon Flower {Ipomoea bona-nox). 4. Icic {Frcijcinetia Arnotti). 5. Hala-

(Deicriptiun of Plate Continued on t lie Oi>iiosite Page.)

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 203

Milo occurs generally' over the Pacific islands and was formerly much used
by the natives in various ways, but especially iu making wooden dishes, cala-
bashes and other household ntensils. In many parts of the Pacific the tree is
held in religious veneration, being planted iu or about the native temples, but
this does not seem to have been the case in Hawaii.

Two species of native cotton are found in this zone. The one with sulphur-
colored flowers is called mao -"* ; the one with brick-red flowers is the kokio -^
of the natives. Both species, unfortunately, are rarely met with and the cultiva-
tion of either as a garden shrub would be most commendable. In this
same region and belonging to the same order -^ as the foregoing are found the
four or five species of ilima.-^ They are all low shrubs two to six feet high,
with single yellow flowers. The flowers are much prized and have been used for
centuries by stringing them together one on top of another on fibers of olona,
to make garlands or leis. They are often called the national flower of Hawaii,
having long been the favorite flower of Hawaiian royalty.

The ohe ^^ is also a tree of this region, and though in no way resembling
the bamboo, the latter has been given the same name by the natives. It is a
low scrubby, thick-trunked tree fifteen to twenty-five feet high growing on ex-
posed open hillsides and is one of the rarer trees of the region. The leaves are
a foot long and bear from seven to ten ovate leaflets. These are lost in the
winter, the flowers appearing before the leaves in the spring.

The wiliwili ^^ is better known than the foregoing and resembles it in shape
and habit. The "coral tree," as it is often called, is to be seen in the city,
though unfortunately it is becoming yearly more rare in its native habitat — the
open country — where it was formerly a common tree on the rocky hills and plains
in the lower open regions on all the islands. The tree rarely grows more than
twenty-five feet high and belongs to the bean family, or Legnminosce- It has the
trunk and limbs armed with short, stift' thorns. The broad spreading crown of
stiff, gnarled, whitish branches bearing bean-like leaflets can hardly escape the at-
tention of the observer; but should it be in flower (its flowers open before the
leaves come out) the wealth of red, orange, or yellow blossoms will be a subject of
admiration and remark by the merest holiday rambler. The pods are from an inch
and a half to three inches in length with from one to several reddish bean-
shaped seeds a half inch or more in length. It is not to be mistaken for the
tree in parks and grounds bearing the small disk-shaped seed calltMl wiliwili or
red sandalwoods*^ of tropical Asia, that produces the red lense-shaped "Cir-

2* Gossypiurn tomentosum. "^ Gossppium drynarioides. "" Malvacew. -' Sida spp.
28 Reynoldsia Sandwicensis. 29 Erythrina monosperma. ^o Adenanthera pavonina.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

pepe (Draccena aurea). 6. Hauhele (Hibiscus Arnottiamis) . 7. Alaal;iwaiiiui (Peperomia
sp.). 8. Kopiko (Straussia Mariniana). 9. Native Ginger [Awapuhi] (Zinfjibcr Zerum-
bet). 10. Naupaka (Sccpvola Chamissoniana) . 11. Koa (Acocia Kna). 12. Kalia (E1(po-
carpus bifidius) with diseased inflorescence. 13. Uki (DiancUa en.sifoUa). 14. Uhi (Smilax
Sandwicensis) .

204 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

cassian seeds'" which are curiosities with travelers and used extensively in Hawaii
for leis or necklaces.

The wood of the wiliwili is very light, said to be lighter than cork, and was
niucli used l)y the ancient Ilawaiians for making the float log of the outrigger
for their canoes and also as floats on their fish nets.

Another useful plant native to this region, though not well known, is the
Hawaiian soap plant or anapanapa ^^ which grows to be a large shrub with small
greenish flowers.

The only really common flowering plant of the islands among the small
forms is the ^Mexican thistle or puakala. It occurs in dry rocky situations on
the leeward side of the islands and grows erect and stiff and from two or six
feet in height. It boldly displays the large, attractive wdiite terminal flowers
that are three inches or more in diameter. Its flowers are amply guarded
with a mass of Avhitish prickly leaves. Though thoroughly naturalized and
found by the first collectors, this thistle-poppy was undoubtedly introduced from
the warmer parts of North America.

One of the most characteristic and abundant native trees of the region, how-
ever, is the picturesque Pandanus, better known as lauhala ^- or hala by the
natives. It is common on the dry plains and about settlements of the lower
regions everywhere, frequently growing down on the sand beach. The stout
branching trunks and numerous aerial roots growing out of the trunk, as well
as the base of some of the branches, are well known peculiarities of the plant.
It has long linear leaves crowded into a head at the end of the branches. The
leaves are of great value to the natives, since from them they plait the mats,
fans, and other articles, elsewhere described, that are so serviceable. The
fibrous wood of the old trees is very hard and capable of taking a high polish
and in recent times has been used in making the modern turned wooden bowls
or calabashes. Picturesque as the lauhala tree is, its principal charm to the
natives is in the bright orange-red fruit from which they will continue to string
leis so long as there are natives left to wear them. The base of the fruit con-
tains a small, rich, edible nut — about the only native nut in Hawaii worth eating.

The Pandanus occurs widespread over Polynesia. The seeds will stand
saturation in sea water for months without loosing their vitality. Hence they
can be readily transported by ocean currents and planted by sea waves. In
addition to the wide geographical range of the plant, geologists tell us that its
ancestors were alive and flourishing in the Triassic period in Europe. It is said
to be among the oldest and most persistant of plants, and one that in every way
is fitted to take part in the pioneer work of starting plant life on a new-born
oceanic island; it is therefore strange that it has not been established in some
way on the low coral islands of this group.

In this same lowland zone occurs the Hawaiian dodder or pololo,^^ a species
that also extends its range down to the strand. This curious member of the

^^ Colubrinn Asicttirri. '- I'aiidditiis odorfitixsimis. ^^ Cusciita Sandivicliiana.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 205

convolvulus family is a golden yellow leafless parasitic vine that begins
life as a herb with a twining stem. When it comes into contact with
a suitable tree, shrub or vine it twines itself about it, and at the place where
it twines about the host plant it develops suckers which sa]) from the tree all
the nourishment the dodder requires for its growth. Finall\- the roots of the
parasite die and the ignoble plant continues to live on its victim much as the
mistletoe does. In various places about the group as in Kau on Hawaii,
it covers the bushes and the plant growth over hundreds of acres of the low
lands.

Introduced Plants.

As has been said, the region from the sea-shore up to and above one thou-
sand feet elevation has been most used by man, and as a result the character
of the flora has been changed by many plants, both of native and European in-
troduction, that have here found congenial surroundings.

A note^vorthy example of undoubted Hawaiian introduction is the noni.'^^
It is a small tree with stout angular branches clothed with thick, smooth, green
leaves six or eight inches long by half as broad. The tree is most easily recog-
nized by its curious potato-like greenish fruits. They are fleshy and .juicy, but
insipid to the taste, and are very fetid while decaying. The noni occurs all over
Polynesia from the strands up several hundred feet in the valleys, and in former
times Avas cultivated as a dye plant by the Hawaiians, who secured a yellow
dye from the roots and a pink dye from the bark. AVitli the addition of salt
they also secured a blue color that was very permanent.

Of the plants that have escaped from European introductions only a few
of the more conspicuous or interesting can be mentioned. Next to the lantaua per-
haps the Verbena or oi,-"*-^ an erect perennial three to six feet high with spikes
of small lilac-blue flowers, is one of the most troublesome introductions, especi-
ally where large tracts of land are used for pasture. The cassia flower-^" or
kolu bean was an early introduction into the islands and grows luxuriantly along
the road sides and elsewhere in unproductive regions. Its finely pinnate leaflets
and yellow, sweet-scented ball-like flowers are characteristic of this hush, but are
no better known to the cross-country rambler than are their sharp needle-like
spines. India furnishes tons of the dried blossoms of this plant to connnerce,
and France, we are told, has plantations devoted to the culture of this or a
closely allied species, the aromatic blossoms of which are much used in the manu-
facture of perfume. Experiments have proven that the quality of th(^ Hawaiian
grown flowers, if properly dried, excel in fragrance those gi-owii -.wmI cured in
India.

Perhai)s a dozen species of Acacia are grown in Hawaii, some of which have
established themselves in the open. With these should be mentioned several
species of the genus Cassia, belonging with their cousin the kolu to the great
order of pod-bearing plants •^' that are both wild and cultivated.

^* Morinda ritrifolia. ^^ Verbena Poiiai-ieiixis. '" Arariit Farnesiaita. *" Legiiminosa.

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FLORA OF TIIH (IROFP. 207

Tile iicarJy related lalse koa •''* Mitli white Isall-like hlossoins often ;iti iiidi in
diameter is one that has escaped and t)ec(inie eoniiiHui. Its senls. known as
mimosa seeds, are about the size of those of an apple and are used by the natives
in making leis and other ornaments for sah^ to tourists.

The wild indigo or iiiiko'''' of the na1i\'es growing two to tive feet hiirh. with
small leaflets in from Iwo to eiuht pairs to the leaf, is an introdueeil weed. It
was brought in 183() from Java by Dr. Sei'riere who, it is said, was a1)b- to
manufacture a good grade of indigo from it. The sj)eeies is of American origin,
l)ut is now grown in many eountries in preference to otlier indiizo-yielding
species. This plant is frequently confused with the native ])lant ahuliu or
auholo ^^ found growing in the same region and very closely resembling the
indigo in size and general appearance. The latter, however, has the flowers and
seed terminals on opposite leaves. The pods of the ahuhu are easily recognized,
being two inches long and straight, while those of the indigo are a half ineli long,
much incurved and usually thickly crowded together on the stems.

The ahuhu was nuich used by the natives for stupifying fish, as the plant
possesses a narcotic i)roperty similar to that of digitalis. It is said to have a
similar effect on the action of the heart.

The common Vinca,-'^ a native of troi)ical America, has escapetl in nuiny
places and, as about Tlalawa on ^lolokai, flourishes on the rocky hillsides in the
open country below^ the forest line.

Black-eyed susans, or Indian licorice,^- known to some as prayer beads,
has also escaped. The plant has leaflets in seven to ten pairs each a])out half
an inch in length. The flowers are pink or pale purple and are followed by
])ods an inch or so long filled with scarlet seeds, each with a Itlack spot at the
base. The plant probably came originally from Asia, l)ut it is now scattered
everywhere. Its seeds, like so many othei- introdueed seeds, are woi-n in Hawaii
in the form of leis.

Job's tears,'*-^ like the foregoing, no doubt escaped from the gardens of the
early missionary settlers and found a congenial soil along the wat(M' eoiu'ses,
ponds and waste places in the lowlands. The plant is corn-like in apjiear-
ance, and the large, white, shining fruits have some resemblance to heavy drops
of tears, hence. its fanciful name. The plant was originall\- a native of eastern
Asia but is now^ found everywhere in gardens.

AVith the foregoing should be mentioned the ('anna ov Indian shot.'' The
common species that has escaped grows along the streams and lias been widely
scattered about the valleys on the diiferent islands. The tlowei's ai'e generally
red but are frequently yellow and are often varieitated as well. The roniid
black seeds are responsible for the English name though the |ilanl is known
to ITawaiians as aliipoe. Other species of ('anna have escaped, especially on
Hawaii, where this genus, which belongs in the same family as the banana, finds
conditions especially favoral)le for its gi-owth.

'^'^ Leucwna glauca. '^" I iidii/'ifci-n Anil. *" Ti'iilinisid iiinfiitdnn. •" Viii<-(t msra.
*- AbfKs iiercritiiriiis. *'•' Coi.v lacryiim =■- ('. IncriniiiiJ ubi. ^' Ciiiiiki Iiiilica.

208 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

AVatercress ^'' is in reality a species of Nasturtium. It was an early arrival
and has spread in the streams about Honolulu and the islands generally. It is
the same species as that so nnieh esteemed as a food in Europe. While it nour-
ishes in Hawaii and is especially tine in flavor, it rarely flowers. Th^ air-plant '^^'
is another escaped plant. It grows two to five feet tall with erect fleshy stems
and large, thick, ovate leaves, aiul has green bell-shaped nodding flowers tinged
with reddish yellow. The air-plant is a familiar species in suitable localities
of tlic lower levels. While it is a native of Africa, it flourishes here and is a
well known curiosity owing to the fact that a leaf left lying on the table will
begin to grow from the crenate notches along its edge, apparently deriving its
sustenance from the air.

Grasses.

Grasses of various species, both native and introduced, form the principal
field vegetation of the costal region. No fewer than three dozen genera of
grasses have been recognized in Hawaii by botanists. Many genera found in the
lowlands enjoy a considerable range, extending well up into the mountains, and
have numerous species of more or less nnportance. Of the genus Panicum fifteen
species and several doubtful varieties have been recorded by Hillebrand and
others. They are found in various places under varying conditions throughout
the group. At least a half dozen and perhaps more introduced species belong-
ing to this genus are conunon in the cultivated districts.

The original manienie ^" that formerly occupied the lowlands up to 2,000
feet elevation, belongs to a different genus from the creeping grass introduced
in 1835 which is the familiar grass '^^ of the yards about the city. The former
is a coarser grass creeping with ascending branches six to eight inches long
bearing four to eight pairs of leaves. The latter has slender rooting stems, with
four to eight pairs of alternate leaves with three to six spikes, an inch or more
long, at the end of the stem. Owing to its creeping hal)it it has been called by
the natives manienie. It forms a dense mat in pasture lands and has crowded
out other grasses up to the upper limit of the lowland zone. It is of great
use in dry, sandy pastures as it binds down the soil and thrives where other
grasses fail, since its roots penetrate deep down in the loose soil. Like the
algaroba tree, which is a similar fortuitous introduction occupying this zone,
it is a most valuable acquisition to the island flora from every point of view.

Two species of Paspalum occur in this zone; one, the well known and
generally despised Hilo grass,^^ occurs in moist, heavy soils in the lower zone and
grows well into the higher regions in suitable places. The Hilo grass, which is
an introduced species as has been said, has crowded out almost every other
species of grass where it has gained a foothold. It is a large, rank grass, taller
than the native species, growing two to four feet high, and has two spikes at

*^ Nasturtium officinale. i" Bn/opfit/Hum rah/riuum. *" Sltruntafihrum. Ameriraiium.

** Cynodon dactylon. <» Paspalum CDUjugatum.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 209

the top of the stem, a peculiarity separating it at once fi-om the siiuiller species '■'^
havinu' three to six alternately arranged spikes.

The well known in'li yr^ss •"'' is nn important species in 1liis zone, as is also
the kakonakona.'""-

Tavo plants formerly connnonly grown in the lower zone l)y the llawaiians
were their calabash and bottle gourd vines. The calabash gourd •''■• is a prostrate
climber with lobed leaves and large yellow flowers bearing large depressed globe-
shap)ed red, green or yellow fruits, sometimes two feet or more in diameter.
While the original country from which this useful gourd came is unknown, it
was common in Hawaii at the time the islands were discovered l)y Cook, but
does not seem to have been known in the rest of Polynesia until after the coming
of the white man. As has elsewhere been explained, the hard shell of ihc
ipu nui was made use of as containers for food, water and clothing.

The bottle gourd"'-' differs from the foregoing in having the leaves niidi-
vided, the flowers white and the fruit elongate, often measuring four feet or
more in length. The ipu grows on a thrifty musk-scented vine that was lariiely
cultivated by the natives of most tropical countries and, unlike the ipii nui. it
was well known all over Polynesia. The hard, woody shell of the fruit served
as war masks, bula drums, containers (as water bottles) and in many other
ways in the household and general economy of the primitive inhabitants. One
of the ingenious arts of the ancient Hawaiians was the ornamentation of these
gourds. The gourd to ])e ornamented was first cleared of the seeds and pulp
and then coated on the outside with a thin layer of lireadfruit gum, which
made it impervious to water. With a sharp instrument, usually the tlunnb
nail, the gum was carefully removed from the part where the pattern, wlii'-h
varied greatly in design, was to show. This done the ipu was Iniried in taro
patch mud for a considerable period. When the color of the soil had become
thoroughly set in the shell of the gourd, it was taken from the water and the
remaining gum removed, leaving the desired design in two shades of rich brown
indelibl,y dyed in the shell.

The Lantana,^'' which belongs in the lower zone, extends its range in many
localities up to the three thousand foot level. The conunon cactus,"'" or panini.
is the prickly pear of Hawaii, and is common in this region, especially on
Oahu Two species of ilima occur in the lower zone throughout the group.
Their bright yellow flowers, so much used in leis, are well known to every one
The smaller species"'" is a low shrub, usually with ovale, hairy leaves, and
differs from the second species "''^ which usually has heart-shaped ovat(> leaves
that are hairy below and greenish above. Both of Hie foregoing have the leaves
rounded at the base, while a thii'd species"'" has the leaves bi-oadesi about th'^
middle.

In the open edge of the forests, or occasionally descending far down into
the lower zone, the ohia lehua "^ is first met with. The ohe "^ seldom n^aehes

^^ Paspalinv orbiciilare. ^^ Andropogon contortiis. ^•" Pan i rum torrid iitii. '-^ Ciiciirhita maxima.

^■> Lagenaria riilr/aris. ^5 Lantana Camara. ^o Opinifia Tuna. ^' Sida falla.v. ^* Hida cordifolia.
^* Sida rhombifolia. ^^ ^etrosideros polymorpha. "^ Reynoldxia Sandwicensis.

210 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

tlu' lower forest, wliilc its compMiiioii on the fore hills, the wiliwili,"- seldom
reaches ihr tlioiisniul-foot level; hut the hast;ird sandalwood, '■■■ Avhile it reaches
Ihc upper liiiiil of vegetation on the highest mountains, may also oeeur well down
into this lower zou'.'. thus exliiliitinu' a great vertical range in habitat.

CHAPTER XVI.

PLANT LIFE OF THE HIGH MOUNTAINS.

Passing now from the lowland zone to the lower forest zone, we find it
troi)ical in appearance. Though not sharply defined it is by common agree-
ment said to begin at al)out one thousand feet elevation and to extend as a belt
about the high mountains \\p to al)out three thousand feet.

Plants op the Lower Forest Zone.

The range of the kukui ' is almost confined to the limits of tlie h)wer fon^st
zone, and since it is the most abundant and conspicuous tree of the region,
it is regarded as the characteristic tree of the lower forests. The pale green
foliage of this useful tree sets it out in marked contrast with the darker greens,
and adds a touch of variety to the Hawaiian forest that delights the eye of the
lichohler. Tlie plants of tliis n^gion are lai'gei" and more thrifty than those of the
costal plain, and being more numerous the open sylvan eharacter of the zone is
Well defined.

The ki - (now commonly written ti)is at home on the steep valley sides and
in the gulches, at the lower edge of the forest zone all over the islands, and,
indeed, through all Polynesia, the Malayan Archipelago and China. Specimens
fifteen feet in height, with leaves from one to three feet in length and three to
six or more inches in width, are not uncommon. The ki belongs to the lily order
and the leaves are peculiar in having many parallel nerves diverging from a
short mid rib. I'he large saccharine root was made use of in ancient times by
the natives in makin^g a eui'ionsly fiavored beer. Later they learned a method
from the sailors of distilling a strong, intoxicating drink from the soaked roots.
The ki root was leaked 1)\- the Hawaiians in their imus (underground ovens,
elsewhere described), and eaten ])y them as a confection; it was their substitute
for candy, now so generally eaten by all ])eoples. The ki root prepared in this
way is very sweet, much like molasses candy; it is offered for sale in the market
ill Honolulu every Saturday. Among other uses, a stalk with the leaves at-
tached served as a flag of truce in native warfare, and the juice of the plant
was used by the Hawaiian belles to stiffen their hair. The leaves, known as la-i
or lauki. served and still serve as wrapping. And, since the coming of domestic
animals, the plant has })roved useful as fodder.

Closely related to the ki or ti, belonging to the same order in fact, is the
cin'ions halapepe or cabbage tree,-^ sometimes called a palm lily. Its ehief in-
terest lies in the fact tlmt it helps to give the foliage that weii-d character
which is expected of troi)ical verdure. The plant is the largest of the order

"- Erythrina monosperma. "' Mynporum Sandwieense. ' Aleuritcs Moltirc/nia.

- Cordylirie terrniiifdis. ^ Drarioia aurea.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 211

to which it belongs, often growing twenty-five feet or more in height. It
prefers the bold, rugged valley slopes and is a marked tree wherever it occurs.
Its thick trunk branches freely and roots are sent out above the ground, so that
the tree very much resembles the lauhala in this respect. The leaves, which
are two feet or more in length, are born in crowded tufts at the ends of the
branches, leaving the trunk and stem rough with leaf scars and marks of slow
growth.

The botanical name Draccena, lueaning a 'she dragon,' was given the genus
to which the Hawaiian species belongs because of the dragon's-blood resin of
commerce which exudes from the bark of certain species, a character shown to
some extent by the sap bark of the native species. The old-time Hawaiians
carved some of their hideous idols out of its soft, white wood.

Another plant peculiar to the lower woods, that extends its range far
beyond the line arbitrarily assigned for the upper limit of the zone, is the
ieie,'* a climbing shrub with many of the habits of its covisin, the lauhala. It
needs no introduction to the forest rambler. Climbing over the tallest trees
or trailing on the ground, it often forms impenetrable thickets. The rigid
stem is about an inch in diameter with numerous climbing and aerial roots.
The stiff rough leaves, from one to three feet long, are crowded into a tuft at the
ends of the stems. The male flowers are on two to four cob-like cylinders five
or six inches long by less than an inch in diameter and are surrounded by a
whirl of rose-colored leaf bracts. They are among the more showy blossoms of
the woodlands. From the pendant roots the natives formerly made ropes of
great strength and durability.

It is usually at about this elevation that the koa -^ is first met with, though
it does not attain its maximum size and importance as a forest tree until well up
in the middle forest zone. Hillebrand recognized two closely related species
and several varieties ; while the cabinet makers, basing their classification en-
tirely on the character of the wood, recognize a dozen or more as curly koa,
red koa, yellow koa, and so on, all of which are collectively called Hawaiian
mahogany, owing to the superficial resemblance which the wood bears to that
well-known cabinet material. ^Mahogany, by the way, is a native of Central
America and the West Indies, and belongs to an entirely different order of
plants, of which the introduced Pride of India is an example, but an order of
which there are, so far as known, no representatives in the native flora.

The koa is a tree of rare beauty with its laurel-green, moon-shaped, leaf-
like bracts. The tree often attains a height of sixty to eighty feet, witli enor-
mous trunks frequently six to eight feet in diameter, and with wide-spreading
branches. Canoes seventy feet long were made of a single trunk; it was in such
canoes that Kamehameha the Great made his conquest of this group and contem-
plated using them in a war-like expedition to the Society Islands two thousand
seven hundred miles distant.

In addition to the many uses made of the wood by the natives in making
canoes, calabashes and the like, it has long been esteemed as one of the choice

* Freycinetia Arnotti. ^ Aeacia Koa.

PLATE 58. PLANTS OF THE OPEN FIELDS AND LOWER FORESTS ON OAHU.

1. Hoawa (Pittosporum filahrum). 2. Mainake {Pipturus albidus). 3. Kaniole (Jus-
sicra villom). 4. Lobelia [Ohia wia] (Clcrmontia macrocarpa). 5. Akoko (Eupliorbia muUi-

(Descnptidii of Plate Cdiiti n iifil mi flii' Oji/ioxitt' Puge.)

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 213

cabinet woods. Combining as it does a rich rod wood, with a beautiful grain
that is susceptible of a high polish, it is much used in tlic iiuinufacture of furni-
ture and as an inside finishing wood in public buildings. The bark is also of
use in tanning leather.

Botanically the koa belongs to the genus Acacia of whicli fully half of the
known species are Australian, while the rest are scattered widely over the world,
many having been introduced into Hawaii.

Examples of the native Hibiscus occur, but they are rather rare j^lants.
Four species are known ; the flowers are all single and are pink," white,^ j^ellow*
and red^ respectively. One with ovate leaves and white flowers, often growing
twenty -five feet tall, is found in the mountains back of Honolulu and occasion-
ally on the other islands. All of the native species have been held in cultivation
as garden shrubs and much has already been done along the line of producing
new varieties by cross polinization. A closely allied genus, Hibiscadclphus, has
been recently established to include three rare species found on ilaui and
Hawaii.

The native Smilax^*^ is by no means the tender hot-house plant one might
be led to expect. On the contrary, it is a robust climber with stems a third
to a half inch in diameter and fifty feet in length that trail across the forest
path. The leaves are three to five inches long and broadly ovate, having a
width in proportion. They are easily recognized as they are dark glossy green
and have five to seven parallel nerves running lengthwise of the leaf. The
natives know this striking vine by various names — uhi. ulchihi and pioi bciug
among them. It is said that they formally ate the tuberous roots in times of
scarcity.

Another attractive vine of the lower forest zone is the hoi or yam.'^ The
scattering large, broad, heart-shaped leaves are five to seven inches long and
have from seven to eleven nerves converging towards the tip. It is a plant of
wide distribution, extending its range as far as Africa. To the botanist it is of
peculiar interest because of the large potato-like bulbs, called alaala by the na-
tives, that grow here and there at the base of the leaves. The large, irregular,
fleshy roots of the yam were much used as food l\v the natives, aiul formci'ly
were cultivated to supply ships calling at Hawaii before the common potnttt was
introduced.

The native ginger^- is a conspicuous and to a certain extent characteristic
plant of this zone. Growing one or two feet high Avith leaves six or eight indies
long, and bearing a pretty pale yellow flower on a curious cone-like iiitlorc^sciMice,

^ Hibiscus Toungianus. '' Hibiscus Arnottianus. ^Hibiscus Brackenridgei. ^ Hihiscus l\<,l,i

^" <S'?Jii7ax Sandwicensis. ii Dioscorea sativa. ^-Zingiber Zerumbet.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

formis). 6. Plantain (Plantar/o major). 7. Flpa]);uio or Horse-weed [Tlioho] (Erigeron
Canadensis). 8. (Solanum triflorum). 9. Indijjo | Iiiikoa] (Indigofera Anil). 10. Wild
Ipecac [Nuumele] (Asclepias Cura.s.savica) . 11. (Carer Oahueiusis). 12. Painter's Brush
{Com'posite Family). 13. Kaluha (Kyllingia oitiisifolia). 14. Lobelia (HoUandia calycina)
young. 15. Popolo (Solatnan arulrali.ssiminu). (No inimhrr) = Ljithrum niarifinnini.

PLATE 59. THE MAILE AND ITS PLANT ASSOCIATES ON OAHU.

1. Maile (Alyxia olivoeformis) . 2. Akoko (Eiipliorhia clusice folia). 3. Kapana (Phyl-
lostegia grandiflora) . 4. Composite (Sp. indei.). 5. Phyllostegia sp. 6. Gronud Pine

(Description of Plate Continued on the Opposite Page.)

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 215

the awapuhi often entirely covers the ground in llic lower forests. Tin- natives
made no use of the hoi'i/outal. tleshy root stocks, hut the slimy juice I'fom the
infldrescence, heiny "as slippery as water oil' au crl/^ was used hy llie heauty-
doctors of a former time as a dressing for the hair. This sul)stance, as
also the juice of ki, and the sap of the han tree mixed with poi for use in
cooling the skin, were three of the chief cosmetics to be found on the dressing
table of the Hawaiian belle. The Chinese ginger^-'' of commerce is occasionally
grown in the islands in a limited way by the orientals. A number of other
species are also grown as ornamental plants.

Kauila,!-^ or the more widely ranging foi'm^"' known by the same luitive
name, was one of the useful woods of old Hawaii. By reason of its remarkably
close, heavy grain it was especially useful in making spears, kapa beaters, and
other tools and implements. The second species mentioned was formei-ly fairly
common on the lower slopes of all of the islands, where it formed a tree fifty
to eighty feet high with alternate, parallel-veined haii'y leaves, and small
terminal tiowers.

The uulai,^*^ a low, much-branching, stiff shrub with small leaflets and small
white inconspicuous flowers which were followed by whitish roseapple-like fruits,
was used for making arrows for the toy bows used in killing rats.

The ohia,!' or ohia lehua, though growing best in altitudes where rain is more
abundant, is common and one of the characteristic trees of the lower forest zone.
From about 1,500 feet elevation to at least 6,000 and even 8,000 feet, it is an
important and abundant tree, to be seen in every landscape. Often it forms
dense shaded forests where the trees are festooned with vines and the ground is
carpeted with moss and ferns. In such localities trees four feet in diameter^
and nearly one hundred feet tall are occasionally seen. Unfortunately the root
system of this important forest tree is very shallow, often spreading ovei' the sur-
face of the hard soil beneath. As a result they are especially liable to be blown
down in the high winds and heavv' storms of the higher forest zones. Its wood
is very hard and durable, but warps badly. With the coming of the v.iiites it
was used to some extent in the framework of their houses and as fence jxists.
More recently its hard and durable Avood has been found to uiake vei-y excellent
railroad ties, street-paving blocks, antl it is also much used as a hardwood floor-
ing in dwellings.

The ohi;i occurs on many of the important islands of l'ol\nesia. and its many
and intergrading forms long puzzled the native botanists, ami it is oidy fair to
say that their European friends have 1)\' uo means satisfactorily disposed of the

^•^ Ziiiinhfr oljicinfili'. ^* CnJiibriiia oiiiio-iififiilia. ^^ Aliiliifaiiin cxrclsn.

'^" Ostcomi'Ii's aiitlnjUidijolia. ^' Mftro,sid<'riis /loli/iiii/riiha.

(Description of Plate Cohtinued from Oii/iosite I'aije.)

fWawao iole] Li/copndiitm rernuum). 7. Linm Kolin (ITrpatiea). 8. H(>]i:itica. !». Hawai-
ian .Mistletoe [Kauiiiahaiia] (riscum arlicuJdtuin). 10. Xcrtera depreH.sa. 11. Wawac iole
{Li/ropodinm pnrIi//.'<facIn/o)i). 12. Ci/rtandra sp. K?. Budlcija (usiaiicn. 14. Olia wai {Her-
mont'ia pcrsic(efoUa). 1.5. Papala (Pisonia umbellifeni). Ki. Kaawau (Ilex = (Bi/roiiia)
Sa7idicicensis) . 17. Lycopodiiim serratum.

216 NATURAL IJl^TORY OF HAWAII.

problems of classifying the many forms that under varying conditions occur on
every island in Hawaii. The.v may be either trees or shrubs with leaves op-
posite or alternate, smooth or rough, round or linear, witli flowers axillary or
terminal, red or rarely yellow ; in short any plant in the forest, about which
there may be any doubt, is liable to l)e an ohia or an ohia lehua, though lehua
is generally and more correctly the name of the beautiful blossoms which are
ciiiiiposcd iiKistly of clusters of the red pistils and stamens.

Of tliese flowers the natives are both fond and proud. Few indeed are the
mountain climbers that do not return at nightfall decked out with garlands of
the sweet-scented maile^'' and bearing a lei of the beautiful lehua to the never-
forgotten ones at home.

It is about the modest maile vine that the sweetest perfume and the
fondest memories linger. It is of the maile that the voyager first hears as ho
hinds in the islands of sunshine and smiles. It is for the maile that he learns
to seek on his day-long rambles in the mountains, and it is a braided strand of
maile thrown about his neck at the fond parting by the shore that tells with
its fresh breath of the enchanted forest, in an enchanted land, and with its
lingering caress brings the dew of human tenderness to the eyes of the one de-
parting. And at last it is the faint perfume from a withered half -forgotten
keepsake, — a maile lei, that, though the oceans, and half a life time may inter-
vene, will set the heart throbbing and make the eyes grow dim at the memory of
the fond aloha that it breathes, calling the wanderer back again to the happiest
of lands.

The straggling, somewhat twining, inconspicuous maile shrub is common
in the woods of the lower and middle regions and is recognized by the elliptical,
smooth, oval leaves from one to two inches in length ; by the flower which is small
and yellowish and by the elliptical, fleshy, black fruits that are more than half an
inch long. Tlie maile lei is made from the flner stems which are broken off and
the bark removed from the wood by chewing the stems until it will peal off
readily. The perfume is not noticeable until the bark has been bruised in this
manner.

The ohia ai,i" the mountain apple, or edible ohia, belongs to a different
genus,-'' but in the same family as the true ohia. Frequently clumps of the
mountain apple will occur surrounded by ohia or kukui, especially at the foot of
cliff's, and besides the mountain waterfalls. It is a tree from twenty to fifty
feet in height with large green leaves and red flowers followed bj" refreshing,
crimson fruits that grow from the trunk and main branches.

The awa -^ is best known owing to the intoxicating drink the Polynesians
manufactured from the large, thick, soft woody roots of a plant of the same
name which was cultivated by the natives of the various groups of islands
of the Pacific. The plant often grows two to four or more feet high, bearing
large, alternate heart-shaped begonia-like leaves six inches long by more than
that in width. It thrives in Hawaii and was always planted by the natives in

^^ Alyxia olivceformis. ^^ Eugetiia Malaccensis. -" 'i.love properly Jumhnsa. -^ Piper methysticum.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 217

the moist valleys of the lower zone. The plants were carefully cared foi- mid the
roots when gathered were nsed either fresh or dried. To make the drink the
root, which is astringant to the taste, was first clnnved and thoroughly mixed
with saliva. It was then put into a wooden bowl and a (|uan1ity of water added.
After it had stood a short time the liquid was strained olT: it was then ready
for drinking. The effect was that of a narcotic and invai'ial)l>- produced stupi-
fication if taken in any quantity.

Native Fiber Plants.

The natives formerly cultivated several other plants in the lower forest zone.
Olona -- was one of the most important of these. The plant growls best in regions
of great rainfall, usually in the wet forests on the windward side.

The olona plant is a low woody perennial, w^ith a viscid .juice, seldom
growing more than a dozen feet in height. It has large ovate leaves, often a foot
in length and proportionately broad. The genus is a Hawaiian one with but a
single species, but botanists tell us that it belongs to the same order as the
ramie, 2^ which is grown in many places as a fiber plant. The fiber, "olona," is
contained in the bast of the stem and is remarkably fine and straight and is en-
tirely free from gum.

In former times every chief had an olona plantation somewhere in the moun-
tains, as the fiber from the wild plants was not vised to any extent. In raising
the crop the ferns were carefully cleared away from about the patch to give the
plant all the strength of the soil. The old plants were broken or rolled down
to allow the young shoots to grow' straight and rapidly. When of sufficient
size the crop was cut, stripped and hackled by the use of crude implements
and allowed to dry and bleach until such time as the fiber was white and ready
for use. Being resistant to the action of salt water it made fine rope, seines and
fish lines. Certain of the natives formerly paid their taxes in olona, and it was
always regarded as a valuable possession.

The paper mulberry or Avauke -^ of the natives has a milky sap and is a
small tree with ovate leaves. The leaves are either entire or three-lolxnl and
usually from five to seven inches long, dentate along the edges and roughened
on the upper surface. The use and culture of the plant has been explained
elsewhere. It is now to be met with growing in clumps here and there through
the lower open portions of the forests. Wauke is to be distinguished from the
mamake,-^ which is a low shrul) seldom over ten feet high, with fiowers in axilhii-y
clusters, that was also used in the manufacture of tapa. ]\Ianiake lias the ovate
leaves three to four inches long, and the sap always watery and the flowers uni-
sexual. The leaves vary greatly in several respects, but generally are whitish
Ijeneath. The species seems to be unknown outside of this iii-oiq).

SANDALWOOD.

That portion of Hawaiian history wliich tells of the diseovery of sandal-

22 Touchardia latifolia. "^ Boelnneiia nivea. -* Brommonetia pnpyrifera. *^ Pijitiiriis nlbidiis.

's^

'w'

„

2-*

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 219

wood -^ in the islands, and the events which led to its being almost wiped out as
a forest tree as a conseciuence of its great value in commerce, may i)roperly be
sketched here, since the iliahi furnished the first article of export which attracted
commerce to the islands. Sandalwood is still occasionally found at rare intervals
and in out-of-the-way places in the lower forest belt on all of the islands, though
the range of the several imperfectly-defined varieties and species extends the
distribution from near the sea shore up to as high as ten thousand feet on Maui,
where the species ^^ becomes a low dense shrub, six to ten feet high.

The delicately scented wood is from a tree usually growing from fifteen to
twenty-five feet high with opposite ovate to obovate leaves two and a half to
three inches long by about an inch and a half in widtli, which are somewhat
thickened and perhaps ochraceous underneath. The flowers occur as small ter-
minal and axillary inconspicuous cymes.

The sandalwood trade began about 1792, the first authentic mention of it
being made by Vancouver. It is thought that the knowledge of there being
sandalwood in the islands was an accidental discovery by one Capt. Kendrick
and that the wood was probably brought to his vessel with other timber as fire
wood. From this time on the development of the business was raj)id until in
1816 it had developed into an important industry among the natives, chiefs and
foreigners. Between 1810 and 1825 the trade was at its height. The wood was
at first sold in India, but later the market shifted to Canton, where the large
pieces were used in manufacturing fancy articles of furniture and in carvings,
and the smaller pieces made into incense.

For export the green wood was cut in the mountains into logs three or four
feet long. These varied from two to eight inches in diameter. The logs were
carried on the heads and shoulders of the natives to the shore where they were
sorted and tied into bundles weighing one hundred and thirty-three and a half
pounds each. While green and wet the wood has no aromatic smell, but when
dry the odor is powerful and impregnates the whole atmosphere.

The bundles of sandalwood were eagerly purchased by American traders
for export. The business flourished to such an extent that it is reported that
during the height of the industry three hundred thousand dollars worth of
sandalwood was exported in a single year.

The king, as well as many chiefs, engaged in this profitable business on
their own account. At about this period each man was required to deliver to the

2" Santolum elHpticum. 27 Santalum Haleakalae.

Description of Plate.

1. The erest of the MajJulahu-\Vail;ai trail. :\rol()kai (3151 t'(>ct). showing the character
of the growtli in the rain forest. 2. View from near the .summit of the l*ah)h) trail, Oaliu ;
a typical mountain scene. 3. An leie (Freycinetia Arnotti) junfjk- on Oahu. 4. Typical
view of the vegetation on the mountain ridges of Oahu. 5. A mountain path, showing a
natural graft between two neighboring Ohia trees, fi. Wow showing tlu^ bog flora at the
head of Pelekultu valley, Molokai. 7. Sand beach, showing Pohuelmc {Ipomoca pcs-caprae)
trailing down to the water's edge.

PLATE 61. OHIA AND SOME OF ITS PLANT ASSOCIATES OX OAHU.

1. Kadua sp., one of many Hawaiian species. 2. Ohia (Metroaideros rugosa). 3. Ohia
ha {Syzygkim = {Eugenia) Sandwicensis) . 4. Tall Ohelo {Vaccinium jjenduliformis var.).

(Dcsrriiitinn nf rJnte Contbiin'il mi tlir Oiipnsile Pnr/e.)

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 221

governor of the district in which he lived oiu'-hjilf ''picul'' of sandalwood or
else pay four Spanish dolhirs.

The drain on the supply was enorinons. It was not uncommon for lum])er-
ing' parties of three hundred or four hundred people to go into the mountains.
On Hawaii, Ellis relates that he saw two or three thousand men returning from
the forest, carrying sandalwood for shipment tied on their backs with ki
leaves, each one carrying two or three pieces. Even the roots were dug up in
many places. As earl}' as 1831 the business was on the decline, ;ind l)y 1856
the wood had become very scarce. By 1835 the government recognized the dan-
ger of exterminating the valuable trees and steps were taken to prevent the cutting
of the 3'oung wood. But according to the historian Dibble credit nuist be given
to Kamehameha I for being the first to attempt to conserve the supply of this
valuable wood. It is related that the men cut the young as well as the old trees,
and that some of the small trees when brought to the shore attracted the great
warrior's attention. "Why do you bring this small wood hither?" he inquired.
They replied, "You are an old man and wall soon die, and we know not whose
will be the sandalwood hereafter." Kamehameha then said, "Is it indeed that
you do not know my sons? To tlieni the young sandalwood belongs."

Nevertheless, the drain on the forests continued until only an occasional
tree was left here and there on the more rugged and inaccessible heights, and
even these have suffered from the attacks of wnld goats, which find its bark especi-
ally toothsome.

It is said that the odor of the Hawaiian sandalwood is inferior to that from
Malabar, Ceylon, and certain parts of India. The fragrant wood, called laau
ala by the natives, is quite heavy even after the sap has dried out. It is then
a light yellow or pale brown color, and retains the scent indefinitely.

While the sandalwood was the most important among the Hawaiian plants
producing pleasant odors, it was by no means the only one. There were many
others whose flowers, fruits, leaves, sap, bark, wood or roots furnished perfume.
The most highly scented of all are the seed pods of the mokihana -'^ used in
making leis. They are much esteemed as they retain their perfume when dry
and hard. The best specimens of this plant, as of almost all the scented varie-
ties of native plants, come from Kauai. P^or temporary adornment, the leaves
and blossoms of wild ginger or awapuhi,-'* the drupe of the lauhala or screw
pine,^" the leaves of the maile-" and the fronds and stems of sevei';il sjiecies of
ferns, especially the palapalai •'- (a highly scented species) wei-e all used because

^'^ Pelea anisata. "^ Zinf/ihcr Zi'nniihrf. '" rantJnnii/i odomtix.siiiniii. ^^ Alyxia oliffcfornis.
''- Microlepia strigosa.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

5. Naupaka (Sccpvola moUis). 6. Kokolau (Campylotheen sp.). 7. Akoko (Euphorbia clu-
sicpfolia). 8. Hoawa (Pittosporum. spatliuIatHm). 9. Kopiko (Siraussia Kddudiia) . 10.
Naeuae puamelemele (I)ubaiitia laxa). 11. Ohia leliua (Mctrosidcros poli/Diorpha, rar.).
12. MetrosUleros polymorpha var. 13. Metrosideros polymorpha var. 14. Meirosidcros tre-
maloidfs. 15. Naenac (Dubautia pJantaf/inea). 16. Alaiii (Pdca cJmia-folia) with tree
snail attached to the leaf. 17. Syzyfjiuni = {Eugenia) Sandwiccnsis with deformed inflor-
escence.

222 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

of their pleasing odors. The scent of the lij)oa,-'^=^ a sea moss, was also used as a
perfiuiie. Cocoa nut oil. scented with sandalwood, was used to some extent on
the hair and body.

The bastard sandalwood or naieo ^^ is a tree common on the summit of
Kaala, and the higher forest belt generally, that becomes fragrant on drying and
has an odor tliat resembles sandalwood. After the exhaustion of the sandalwood
it was exported to China for a time as a substitute for that valuable vrood. The
naieo is found dead in many localities at as low a level as 1,500 feet.

In the lower forest region, on Oahu especially, occurs the pretty white-
tiowered napaka-^^ in the form of low shrub. The heads of the valleys in this
region are usually marked by clumps of wild bananas,^'' of which there are many
varieties, and various species of the interesting and curious Lobelia first appears,
and ferns of many species abound.

A marked difference exists in the nature of the flora of this zone on the
windward or wet and the lee or dry side of the islands, and the student of
plant life soon learns that there are many floral districts in this zone, each of
which usually has its characteristic species of plants.

The Middle Forest Zone.

The next important area is usually designated as the middle forest zone
and extends up the mountains from three to six thousand feet elevation. It is
well marked by the greatest luxuriance in tree and jungle. As it is within
the region of mist and clouds, it is well watered and furnishes conditions in every
Avay suited to plant growth. It is in this zone that the native Hawaiian
flora finds its fullest development. The tree ferns, the giant koa, the ohia and
kamani forests are the predominating species. Though none of these larger and
more important growths are wholly confined to this region, it is here that they
reach their maximum of size and development.

On visiting the region one is impressed at once by the number and variety
of ferns to be found in this zone. Probably the most important among them
are the giant tree ferns, the hapu^" and hapu ili "•'' and the smaller amaumau^^
being the most striking. The hapu with trunks that are from a few inches to
three feet in diameter and often fifteen to thirty feet in height are especially
abundant aljout Kilauea and there reach their greatest development. Their
plume-like fronds are often fifteen feet or more in length, giving the top a
spread of more than twenty-five feet. The native name hapu has been applied
to two or three closely allied species. But with the conmiercial importance the
tree gained a few years ago through the use made of the soft, glossy, yellowish
wool at the base of the young leaves, these and other large ferns have come to be
known as piilu ferns, pulu being the name of the wool-like fiber from the fern.
The fiber was used to some extent in stuffing mattresses and pillows, and in a

•■'^ naliseris pidi/iogramma. •''* Myoporiim Sandwicense. ^^ Srmi^oln Chamissoniana.

'" Musa sa/nenttim. ^7 Cibotiuin Chaviissoi. 38 Cibotium Menziesii.

^' -Sadleria Soulej/tianri on O.ihn ; S. pallida on Hawaii, and .V. ryafheoides on all islands at lower
elevations.

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 223

small way as a surgical dressing in cases of excessive bleedint^. The old-time
natives made use of it in their crude attempts at embalming, liiiman bodies
buried in dry caves and elsewhere if wrapped in pulu were lial)lo throuoh ab-
sorption by the pulu to dry out or mummify.

Giant Ferns.

Like several other species these giant ferns spring up again from the fallen
trunk, particularly in the damp and congenial atmosphere of the middle forest.
It is a common sight, along the volcano road, to see the fern stems used for walks
and fences continuing their growth, by means of lateral shoots. But space is not
sufficient to enumerate all or even the more interesting ferns. Botanists recognize
twenty-two genera and at least one hundred and forty good species, more than
half of which are confined to the islands. The great majority of these are found
most abundantly in the middle forest zone of the different islands of the group.

A species of considerable interest is the pala fern.^" It grows with glossy
dark green leaves three to five feet long rising from a thick tieshy root stock.
This latter abounds in starch and a mucilagious substance so that when cooked
in the native fashion it made a very good food and was much used by the na-
tives in times of scarcity.

The bird's-nest fern or ekaha ^^ belongs to a large genus that is a widespread
form of which there are forty species in Hawaii. The English name is there-
fore rather loosely applied to any species of the genus. They are common on
the trunks and in forks of trees in the forests where they are striking
and curious objects resembling birds' nests in many ways. They are mncli culti-
vated in the city where specimens with leaves four feet long and eight inches
wide are to be seen.

The common brake, kilua or eagle fern,-*- is everywhere common on nil the
islands from eight hundred to eight thousand feet elevation, especially on rocky
ridges. The species is broken up into many varieties and occurs in one form or
another all over the world. The roots of this fern were never used for food.
The wild pigs, however, are very fond of them and often turn up great
patches in the mountain in search of the roots, thus doing nnieli damage to
the forest. The maiden-hair fern or iwaiwa-*^ is found in the wet gulches,
particularly about waterfalls on all the islands. The black, glossy stems of this
fern and also of the larger closely allied species,'*-^ known under the same name
by the natives, was for a time used by them in making hats and baskets, several
specimens being preserved in the Bisliop Museum.

A conspicuous and serious impediment to travel in this region are the
tangled, forked fronds of the common ululii or staghoi-n ^■' or one of its two
other closely allied species. The polished brown stem, little larger than a slate
pencil, often grows six feet or more high, forming a tangle that may extend for
miles along the ridges in the whole of the forest /one up to tliree or four thou-

*° Marattia Douglusaii. *' Aspleniiiin nidus. *- I'ti'ria a<ii>ilina. *^ Adiautini) capilhis-Vetieris.

** Pteris decipiens. *^ Gleichenia dichotoma.

PLATE 62. PLANTS FROM NEAR THE SUMMIT OF KONAHUANUl, OAHU.

1. Species of Lobelia (Enlhiiidia cali/ciiia) adult. '2. Lajialapa (Cheirodendron pJati/-
phyllum). 3. " Kahili " Lobelia (Cy/r/^m rt/fr/Hsf/yo/K;)- -i- Kawaii {IJe.r =^ (Byronia) Sand-

( Description of Plate Continaed on the Ojipnsite Paye.)

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 225

sand feet elevation. The stems are so touuh and have the fronds so locked to-
gether that they often form a barrier through which it is most fatiguing to
force one 's way.

The enormous rhubarlj-shaped, thick, rough leaves of the apeape,"' tliree
to five feet across, are occasionally to be seen by the more hardy mountain
climbers who visit the Waianae Mountains and the higher mountains on the other
islands of the group. The leaves are the largest of any plant in Hawaii and
are said to be the largest of any of the dozen or more species belonging to the
genus Gunnera. Nearly the same name (ape or apii) was applied by the natives
to a plant ^" that grows on dry land in the lower zone. The latter plant belongs
to the taro family and is a native of India, but has long been naturalized and
cultivated in Polynesia as a substitute for taro and is generally known in Ha-
waii as dry-land tarn. It is remarkable for the strong, sickening smell (if the
flowers.

The ohelo,"^- described in the chapter on fruits, is common in the high
mountains of this zone, and its shining, fleshy berries, famous in native song
and story as an ofit'ering to Pele, are also delightful for their slightly astringent,
but cool and refreshing flavor. They are much enjoyed by those who visit the
region in which they grow.

A much-branching shruli of the region, growing from three to six feet
high with very small, stiff thick leaves, is known as the Christmas berry or
puakeawe.-^^ It is one of the most characteristic plants of the islands, particu-
larly of the higher mountain regions. The minute white flowers are followed by
small red, or red and white berries. The berries and leaves do not readily fall
and for this reason it is increasing in favor for use in Christmas decorations.

The Hawaiian mistletoe ^^^ is a curious parasitic plant of the forest belt
that is found growing quite commonly on the koa and ohia branches, securing
its substance entirely from the host plant.

The Hawaiian representatives of the order LoheUacece is one of the most
interesting and characteristic groups of plants in the whole island flora. They
are herbs, shrubs and small trees, all with woody stems and a milky juice.
jMore than sixty species are now known, belonging to six well-defined genera
which differ widely in appearance. The majority, however, are tall and shruli-
like with simple undivided trunks, and of somewhat palm-like growth owing to
the fact that they have rough scars on the trunks to mark the attachment of
of discarded leaves. They are without doubt survivors of an ancient flora which
has been superseded by other forms, and doubtless we have at present only a

*^ Gtinnern petnloidea. *' Alnmnin marrorrhizn. ^^ Yacciniion retirtilatum.

*8 Cyathodes lameianieice. ^'^ Yiscum articulatum.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opponite Page.)

wicensis). 5. Ahaniu {ClafJ'mm = (Baumca) Mci/niii). (i. Typical Lobelia (Lobelia hypn-
leuca). 7. Gahnia beecheyi. 8. Ohe (Tetraplasandra wcianclra). 9. Kanawau (Broussai.sin
ixilJucida). 10. Emoloa {Eragrostis variabilis). 11. Painui (A.slclia venifroi<hs). 12. lihyit-
chospora ih)/r.soidea.

226 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

remnant of the species that once flourished in our mountains. The natives recog-
nized their striking form and beauty and gave names to most of the species.
One of the commonest names is oha wai, which is applied indiscriminately to
species of the more abundant genu's Clermont ia. They are known to modern
Hawaiians as plants from which the old-time bird-catchers made a sticky glue
for capturing birds. Oahu has perhaps twenty-five species, and as many more
sub-species and varieties of these interesting plants, that are about equally
divided among five of the six Hawaiian genera.

An important forest tree that extends its range from two to eight thousand
feet elevation, often becoming the dominant tree in extensive areas on Kauai,
IMaui and Hawaii, is the native mamani.-^^ It grows from twenty to thirty feet
high, with six to ten pairs of obtuse, rich-green leaflets to each leaf. The pale
yellow flowers are followed later with long straight pods four to six inches
long. The hard wood has proved valuable as fence posts.

The foregoing, together with the bastard sandalwood or naio,^^ and several
species of shrub-like trees •'^^ with yellow flowers, are found growing up to and
giving character to the upper limit of the forest zone ; in some places reaching an
altitude of ten thousand feet above the sea.

Enough has been said to indicate the tropical luxurance of this zone ; but the
ferns, lobelias, creeping vines, lichens and mosses, all form an undergrowth that
is varied, striking and interesting. The middle zone, however, is primarily the
region of the native forest.

Of the native woods there are upwards of two hundred species, of which
over one hundred are well knoAvn forms. The list, as well as the total list of
Hawaiian plants, has been somewhat extended through the exploration of ]Mr.
Forbes and others who have been active in this field recently. The majority
of the trees are met A\ith in the lower and middle zone. The Avhole forest region
is distinctly tropical in character, since none of the familiar trees of the tem-
perate zone are present. The new-comer from America looks in vain for the
oaks, the elms, the maples, the spruce and the pine. In their stead he finds the
forest trees dominated by the koa, ohia, mamani and kukui, and that these are
combined with koaia."'^ kopiko,''"' kolea, naio, puu,-^" and a long list of ecjually
conspicuous trees that occur in almost every landscape.

Perhaps one of the most accessible and in many ways interesting regions
in this zone is that found about the volcano Kilauea. The most casual observer
is there impressed with the size and beauty of the tree-ferns that occur in such
profusion in that localitj^ ; but the botanist will find a rich field filled M-ith many
interesting species. Up to a hundred years ago the forests were only limited
by the natural conditions of rainfall, elevation and lava flows. Since the coming
of the whites there have been many causes as elsewhere enumerated that have
been at work bringing about a change in the natural conditions. Chief among
the disturbing elements, however, have been the cattle. As early as 1815 they

^1 Sophora chrysophylla. °- Myoporiivi Sandwicense. ^^ RaiUardia. ^* Acncia koaia.

^^ Straussia spp. ^^ Olea Sandwicensis.

FLORA OF TITE GROUP. 227

were recognized as a serious inenace to the native forests. Roaming at will
through the forests they and other animals, as goats and pigs, have done untold
damage, and brought about conditions that have been most serious in many
places. It is only in recent years that they have been fenced out of the forest
and their number reduced so as to more nearly correspond with the beef require-
ments of the islands.

The Upper Forest Zone.

The plant growth of the upper forest zone begins at about five or six thou-
sand feet above the sea and extends as high as eight or nine, and in some in-
stances, ten thousand feet. It is made up for the most part of more or less
stunted representatives of the trees, vines and shrubs met with in the middle and
lower zones. There are, however, a number of species found in the higher alti-
tudes which do not descend even into the middle zone.

The akia,-^" a name applied to several species with small leaves and flowers
in terminal and axillarv clusters that are followed bv orange-colored fruits, is
well represented in this zone; although species of the genus are first met with
in the lower woods. It was used by the natives as a fish poison in much the same
way that the awa and ahuhu were used. Its strong flexible bast-fibers were also
used in many ways.

The pilo,^^ a large diffuse shrub four to eight feet high with small, ovate,
thick leaves with nerves impressed on the upper surface, is also represented here,
and is one of the several species of the genus to be met with throughout the forest
area. The shrub naenae, a species of Duhautia with opposite lanceolate leaves
four to eight inches long and small orange-colored flowers borne in loose panicles,
also has much the same distribution as the preceding genus.

Conspicuous composites of which several species and varieties occur in
various altitudes are especially common in the upper forest zone under the name
kokolau,^"*^ a name applied generally by the natives to all the species. The genus,
with a dozen species, is purely Hawaiian and is closely related to the Spanish
needles of the lower levels. The plants grow from two to five feet high and in
many places cover large patches of ground with the warm yellow color of its
blossoms. The flowering plants of the region are mostly peculiar to Hawaii,
but the ferns which become more and more scarce as the upper limit of the
forest is approached are those that belong to the wide-spread forms, such as the
o\\alii,''" kaupu *^i and a few similar species belonging to the high mountain (iora.

The Silverrword.

The native strawberry, and the ohelo mentioned in another connection, are
also found in the upper forest zone. The distinct flora of th(^ hi'jher moun-
tains, well above the cloud belt, is affected more or less by snow and frost. The
species of the region are comparatively few in number. The most interesting

=^ Wikstroemia spp. ^^ Coprosma spp. ^^ Campylotheca spp. "" Asplenium Irichomanea.

^1 Aspidium nculeatum.

PLATE 63. COMMON GENERA OF FERNS ON OAHU.

1. Amaiiiiiau {SadJeria ryalhcoUlcs) . 2. Uluhe laumii (Gleichenia longissima). 3.
Okupiikupu (Nephrolepis exaltata). 4. (Microlepia tenuifolia). 5. Asplenium sp. 6.

(De.icriiitioti of Plate Contitiiied (in the Opimsite Page.)

FLORA OF THE GROUP. 229

and unique species in its aspect, perhaps, is a composite belonging exclusively to
the higher elevations known as the silversword."- In ils general appearance
it might be related to almost anything more nearly than the sunflower and the
chrysanthemums to which botanists make it next of kin. Its stout, woody tiower
stem, two or three inches in diameter and several feet high, is surrounded at the
base by a dense head of slender, rigid, dagger-like leaves, eight to sixteen inches
long, that are covered with white glistening silvery hairs. The tiower heads are
large and striking, objects much admired by mountainers. The securing of a
specimen of the ahinahina, or of a second closely related species known as the
green silver-sword,*'^ from their home on the high mountains of Maui and Hawaii,
seven to twelve thousand feet aliove the sea, is a feat that even as yet l)ut com-
paratively few have performed.

In Hawaii the gathering of a silversword corresponds with the gathering of
the edelweiss in the Alps, and furnishes the adventurous elim])er a prize well
worth keeping as a memento of a trip that invariably costs much in exertion if
not in actual peril.

Another plant peculiar to the region is one of the half dozen species
of the shrubby Geranium, or nohuanu of the natives. The leaves are
usually covered on both surfaces with silvery hairs like the species just men-
tioned, l)ut unlike them they are small and the flowers are regular and red or
white in color.

The ^Mountain Bog Flora.

Leaving these few plants and their less striking associates struggling for
existence at the limit of vegetation, we now return to consider for a moment the
most unique of all the Hawaiian flora, that which belongs to the mountain sum-
mits and table lands that are almost perpetually concealed in clouds at an elevation
of approximately 5,000 feet. Strange as it may seem, here and there about the
group are several curious mountain bogs that are nearly destituto of shrubby
plants of any size, but are clothed with a mat of grass, sphagniun moss and
sedges, together with a number of interesting plants of small size whose near
relatives are natives of the mountains of New Zealand, the Southern Andes and
the Antartic regions. It has been suggested that they represent the survivors
of an ancient flora that has been crowded out l)y the arrival of new plants.
Whether it is that, or some equally interesting and significant fact in distribution
will doubtless long remain open to discussion. The occurrence in such a locality
of several species of violets is remarkable to say tlie least, but a more curious

"" Argyroxiphium Sandwicense. ^^ Arygroxiphium virescens.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

Kaapeape (Asplenium pseudofalcat uin) . 7. Asplenium sp. 8, 9. 10. Cibotium sliowing the
development of a fern frond. 11. Asplenium ro)iti<iuii)»- 12. sp. indet. 13. Poalii (Pol}/-
podium spectrum) . 14. Aspidium sp. in. Kilau (T ricliom manes davallioides). Ki. Stajjliorn
Fern [Uluhe] (Gleichenia linearis) = (67. iIk-Ik, Ionia). 17. Waliine noho niauna {Pol i/ podium
tamariwinum). 18. Asplenium ereetum. 19. Kkaha {Elap]toglossum = (Scrostichum) coin-
forme).

230 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

fact is that some of them grow on upright and other on procumbent, creeping
stems three to five feet in length. These familiar sweet-scented flowers, together
with the moss and lichens, the stunted, creeping kolokolo kuahiwi ^-^ and maieli
or pupukeaAve ^-^ combine to form one of the most striking and interesting pro-
vinces in the flora of the whole group.

I>ut it is not to be expected that all the interesting and remarkable forms^
in the plant life of the islands could be touched upon in a few short pages.
Only a few have been mentioned; but omissions cannot be wondered at, as the
largest books on the subject leave much that is interesting unnoticed and often
fail to give the information that one would wish about even the common trees
and plants.

■* Lysimachia da pini aides. ^^ Cyothodes Tameiameice.

Natural History of Hawaii.

SECTION FOUR

THE IXTEODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF FOREST, FIELD AND

GARDEN.

CHAPTER XVII.

A RAMBLE IN A HONOLULU GARDEN: PART ONE.

To anyone coming to the islands from the more rigorous climate of the
mainland, the verdure to be seen in Honolulu is little short of a dream of para-
dise come true. In many ways the city of Honolulu appears as a great tropical
botanical park, conducted on a cooperative plan, the advantage being that the
residents, as shareholders in the enterprise, have their homes dotted about here
and there over the spacious well-kept lawns. The houses, covered as they are
with vines and surrounded with luxuriant foliage, add to the i)icturesque beauty
of it all, so that more than one person has been heard to exclaim, "This Pacific
Paradise is indeed the land of heart's desire."

First Impressions op Honolulu.

It is not too much to say that from the morning of the day of one's landing
after a wear}' sea journey to the very hour of their departure, be it in a day, a
year, or a life time, the rare tropical trees and plants to be seen on every hand,
but especially in Honolulu, furnish a source of never-ending pleasure and delight.

If one has an interest in plant life, it is a rare treat to be brought face to
face for the first time with living examples of such symbols of the tropics as the
breadfruit, the cocoanut palm, or the banana. One is made to feel that no
picture has ever done justice to such visions of beauty as they often present in
their natural setting, and the observant person is at once alive with interest,
anxious to know something of the multitude of interesting and curious trees
and plants with Avhicli these conspicuously tropical species are often grouped.
The visitor is always keen for a ramble through any of the attractive gardens
that abound on every hand and anxious to know more of th(^ wondorfnl exotic
flora that embowers the thrifty island capital.

Perhaps the first general observation in this connection is one made from
the deck of the steamer as it rounds Diamond Head and reveals Honolulu as a
city, not built on a hill, ])ut hidden beneath a canopy of waving green ti-ces that
are so large and dense that only the tallest 1)uildings and spires can be seen

231

232 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

above the tree tops to serve as a giuirantee that beneath the wealth ot* green
lies one of tlie most eosmopolitan and beautifnl cities in the world.

As one walks or rides abont the streets he observes that so far as the
tiora is concerned Honolulu may ])e said to be simply a very good reproduction
of the Kew gardens of London, the diiference being that in tropical Hono-
lulu the gardens are done on a very large and elaborate scale. In most
instances, in l)otli places the plants that one sees are not native to the country
but are those that have been brought hither from the very ends of the earth and
set growing for the interest, the benefit or the pleasure of those who know how
to en.joy them.

The streets of Honolulu are often narrow and winding, but most of them,
even the very broadest, are shaded by various species of trees that reach out
from the yards on either hand. Often great trees will be left in the center of the
sidewalk and occasionally the street itself is divided by some fine specimen that
has been allowed to stand, by an appreciative and public-spirited road overseer.

Palms.

Palms are to be seen in great variety and abundance. Of the more than
seventy species occurring everywhere about the city all but two or three are
foreign to the islands. The most conspicuous and stately among the introduced
species is the royal palm.^ It was brought to the islands long ago from its home
in the West Indies. Planted singly, in straight avenues or in irregular groves,
it is an attractive tree that cannot fail to arrest the eye, since it everywhere
gladdens and enriches the landscape. Their lofty, clean, grey trunks are abso-
lutely vertical and as symmetrical as though turned in a lathe. No scar of
growth or blight of disease mars their marvelous straight Ionic shafts up to the
crowning tuft of long, beautiful balanced, pinnate leaves of deep shining
green that form fitting capitals for such splendid stately pillars. The slightest
stir of breeze sets every leaf waving and singing, and night and day one knows
"when the wind is in the palm trees" by the gentle rustle that they make.

The blossoms are small, sweet-scented, cream-colored flowers that hang in a
great pendant cluster from the base of the lowest leaves. Their faint odor is a
pleasant one in the soft balmj^ evening, and by day a source of great concern to
swarms of busy bees that reap a rich harvest of honey during the few days that
the blossoms last. At length the blossoms are followed by the fleshy fruits that
are eaten by the mynah birds, and by them the seeds are carried from place to
place.

A Falling Leap.

I well remember witli what surprise and alarm I first heard a palm leaf
fall. It was in the still of the night soon after my arrival in the islands.
Scarcely a breath of air was stirring when suddenly I was aroused with a start at
hearing, somewhere in the garden, a mighty ripping noise that ended abruptly

^ Oreodoxa regia.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. ZS.'^

in a loud cracking sound ;is though a whirlwind li<hi hnikcii loose anions llie
tree tops. Then followed a swirl and a swish, a rustle, ;iiid a i-iisli that seemed
to leave no doubt but that all the trees in the garden had been siiddcidy set
whirling through the air. But after a moment of breathless suspense the whole
affair ended in a terrific clatter and thump, after which all was again as silent
as before. In the morning when the leaf was shown to me there remained no
doubt but that it was the cause of the "cyclone" of the night before. The leaf
was a trifle over eighteen feet in length and weighed several pounds ! Though
accustomed to regard a falling leaf as an exceedingly melancholy thing, I had
never before thought of the harm that might be received in tlic ti-opics a least,
from so simple and ordinary a thing as having a withered leaf strike one un-
aw^ares as it circled gracefully to the ground.

The Cocoanut Palm.

The cocoanut palm- is perhaps native, or at least of very early introduc-
tion by the natives, and is among the most showy of the palms. It is the cocoa luit
palm by the sea that first greets the stranger on his arrival in Hawaii. Basking
in the languid warm sunshine it has stood for generations at the post of honor by
the broad portal of this earthly paradise. Breathing the very spirit of the
tropics it has come to be the symbol of true hospitality and stands ever ready to
east that magical spell that none can resist. At the parting it is this stately
sentinel by the water's edge that is always the last living thing to reluctantly
wave a fond good-bye to those who must depart, knowing in their heart of hearts
they are to return again.

Its feathery plumes tower out above everything else, as they are often si.xty
feet or more in height. All things considered there are indeed few^ trees among
the wild, semi-cultivated or exotic flora in Hawaii that equals in picturesque
beauty this "the prince of palms."

Few trees so frequently and effectively figure in the domestic setting for
the Honolulu home. They are of fairly rapid growth and come into bearing,
in favorable soil, in ten or fifteen years. The tree continues to grow in
height until thirty or forty years of age, when they seem to have attained their
limit of growth, but they continue to live on indefinitely without gaining ma-
terially in size or height. On the beach at Waikiki are trees that arc known
to be several hundred years old, while a splendid grove neai- l)y has very nearl\-
caught u}) with them in heiglit in a single life time. This i)alin will never branch
and never sends up shoots from the gronnd. and like many oilier trees in the
tropics that belong to a great group known as Kndogenous plants, they are easily
killed by destroying the plume-like top.

The cocoanut trees thrive best at or near the sea-shore. Howevei-. tlie\- do
reasonal)ly well in some localities two or three miles inland. Klevation app.-sr-
ently has more influence in retarding growth than the absence of the effect of tlie
sea. Where water is to be had in al)undance any soil seems to do so long as it is

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INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANI^MALS. 235

easily penetrated by the roots of the palm. For this reason tlie sandy soil near
the sea-shore fnrnishes its best environment. The strncture of the tree fits it to
withstand wind of almost any force and they seem to prefer plenty of rain, wind
and snn.

The yield of nnts Unctuates greatly from year to year and from tree to tree.
There are reports of as many as -HH) nuts having" been gathered in one season
from a single tree in some of the more favored islands of the south Pacific.
In Hawaii as many as 200 nuts, besides innumerable blossoms, have been counted
on a tree at one time, but it is doubtful if an average of eighty mature nuts
could be gathered during a year. It is a curious thing that nuts perfectly green
in appearance will be as ripe as those having yellow husks. For this reason, it is
desirable to pick the oldest nuts on the tree without waiting for them to ripen
and fall to the earth. While no one in Honolulu, to my knowledge, has ever
been injured by a falling cocoanut, the constant danger from that source is ap-
parent since a good-sized nut in the fiusk weighs several pounds. Those who are
familiar with the delicate flavor of the young nut prefer to gather them when
half mature and spoon the soft meat out of the shell before it has had time to
solidify and become oily.

Of late years the tree rat has become a great pest in the cocoanut trees and
does great damage to the young nuts by gnawing holes in them. They readily
pass from one tree to another along the leaves, and when a colony of rats becomes
established in a grove the tin sheaths so commonly placed about the trunk of the
tree does ])ut little good, unless the tops of the trees are kept clear of the neigh-
boring foliage.

While it is considered a difftcult thing to tell how the milk gc^ts into a cocoa-
nut, the rate of growth and the remarkable changes that take place during the
period of germination and early growth when the milk is getting out of the nut
can be easily studied and well repays the trouble of making tli(^ observation.
The time occupied in germination varies greatly, owing to a number of condi-
tions, especially the amount of moisture and sunshine, but in general many weeks
must pass before the first leaf opens.

Just how the cocoanut came to Hawaii in the first })lace will never be knovrn.
Its legendary history dates far back, and doubtless the tree has acc(mi])anied
the Polynesians on all of their wanderings about the Pacific. To this day the
native country of the cocoanut is not definitely known. DeCandolle finds twelve
reasons for thinking it of Asiatic origin, but singularly enough there is one
reason — an almost unsurmountable one, for believing it to be an American plant.
Botanists have proven that none of the other nineteen species of the genus exist
anywhere in a wild state except on the American continent, and therefore con-
clude that the familiar species must have had the same origin. Somo say that
the Philippine Islands is its ancesteral home, and that it was from thence carried
in all directions by ocean currents or hy artificial means. At any rate it ranges
over the whole of the tropics, and within that range there are many varieties
based mainly on the size and shape of the fruit. However, these variations are

2^6 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

strongly marked and retain their charaeteristies when grown from seed. For
the reason jnst stated we may regard those grown in Hawaii — at the northern
limit of the range — where the climate is scarcely warm enongh for their best
development, as forming a fairly distinct variety, namely the Hawaiian cocoanut.
The eocoainit, or niii, had many uses in Hawaii a century ago. The trunk
of the tree furnished fairly heavy timber, while the long pinnate leaves were
used in former days as thatch, and laced together they formed the walls of the
native lanai. From the husk of the nut a durable rope v.'as made, and various
household utensils were manufactured from the shells. The natives drank the
juice and ate the meat of the nuts. They also healed their wounds with a balm
made from the juice, and with the oil extracted from the meat of the nut they
anointed their limbs and embalmed the bodies of their dead.

The Date Pai.m.

Less striking, perhaps, but even more beautiful in certain Avays than the
foregoing, are the date palms '•"' with their splendid fronds that are often larger
and always more numerous than are those of the cocoanut palm. To many these
sturdy, thrifty trees are the symbol of strength, beauty and repose.

The date palm was long ago introduced into Hawaii and it has been a con-
spicuous tree in the islands ever since. Though it bears large bunches of orange-
colored dates, the fruit is seldom eaten, as the pits are usually so large that the
little flesh that surrounds them is not worth the effort required to secure it.
Without doubt, however, a good quality of dates can be produced here, when
suckers are secured from selected parent plants.

The leaves of this and other species of palms are often used for decorations,
especially on Palm Sunday. It is thought that for this reason the parent plants
were of very early introduction into the new Avorld l)y the Spanish missionaries.

Ornamental Palms.

The betel nut,^ though with a very slender stem, is in superficial appear-
ance not unlike the royal palm. It bears a yellow fruit, the size of a hen's
egg which has one seed surrounded l)y a fibrous husk. The seeds are chewed by
the natives of certain south Pacific and East Indian islands to blacken the
teeth. The word betel is erroneously applied to this fruit, as it is the name
of the leaf of a totally different plant.

Of the native palms a few specimens of the louln i)alm are to be seen here
and tliere about the city. They are a fan palm with smooth trunks and in their
wild state grow in secluded places in the forests often to an elevation of three
thousand feet above the sea. One species, the lonlu lelo."' has small ovid fruit,
while the loulu hiwa ''• has large globulur fruits. Of the innumerable varieties
of fan palms to be seen only a word can be said, since their number and variety
defy a lu'ief characterization. TTov;ever, the class can be easily recognized by

^Phoenix dactylifcra. * Arcea caihecK. ^ Pritrlinrdin (Iniidirhniidii. '^ Pritchnrdin Martii.

IXTROnrCEl) PLANTS AND AXT^FALS. 237

their fan-shaped leaves. Tlie mow coninion, thoujili less attractive wine palm/
can at once be recognized owing to its large coarse ])i pinnate h'aves and wedge-
shaped leaflets that are strongly toothed at the extremities. The wine made
from this palm in India is drawn ofiP by cntting the ends of the flowering stems
from which exndes the sweetish sap. This is then boih-d down inlo a s\ i-iij) or
by fermentation made into a toddy. The splendid exam[)les of llie WasliinLiton
palm,^ with their tall robust trnnks clotb'd with the pen(huit i-eiiiains of dend
leaves, are sure to attract attention from travelers, especially those from ('ali-
fornia, where this "weeping palm" is a native.

Two or three species of the beautiful Khapis ])alms occnr in the islands,
where they are usually planted in pots and tubs. They are one of tiie few palms
that produce suckers at their base, thereby forming thick clumps. The large
species '■' often grows eight or ten feet in height and has the stems armed with
prickles. The smaller species^** most commonly have the stems unarmed and
the leaves with about ten segments. It can easily be identified as a different
species from the plants having leaves wdth from five to seven segments.^ ^ All
of the species are native to Japan and China and are occasionally called Japanese
or Chinese palms.

Other plants of interest are the sugar palm,'- a spineless species growing
forty feet high; and the oil palm,'-"^ with a stout coarsely and deeply-ringed stem
twenty or thirty feet high. It has red fruits wdiich yield the palm oil of eoin-
merce. The bottle palm,^^ with a curious bottle-shaped stem or caudex, and the
blue palm, I'' with splendid bluish fan-shaped leaves, are easily recognized.

Only two or three species of the tropical palm-like cycads are fonntl here,
and these are the common kinds to be seen growing under glass in more rigorous
climates. The plants are propagated from seeds. They are very curious in
their method of flowering since the flowers appear in a mass in the heart of the
great crown of leaves. In time the flowers are followed by the fertile seed from
which they readily grow. The sago palm^" is the commonest species in cultiva-
tion, though the much larger species '" is not luicoumion.

Araucaria.

Passing to the evergreen-like trees, the giant Araucaria of Australia and
elsewhere grows to an enormous size and is frequently seen in gardens. Some
splendid species of the Norfolk Island ])ine '•'' are to be seen in the older gardens
in Honolulu. The monkey-puzzle oi- Chili pine''' is also coninion about tli(> city.
The INIonterey cypress ^"^ seems to thrive in the islands and is much esteemed as
an ornamental tree.

A tree which is more common than any of the foregoing, and one which
might be easily mistaken for a pine, is the Aust I'alian ii-onwood.-'' beet'wood or
she-oak. The fi-nit is cone-lik'c in appeai'ance and touvthei' with the needlc-

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INTRODUCED PLAXTS AND AXT^FALS. 239

like branehlets would seem to entitle it to ehiini relationship willi the eedar,
cypress or pine. Though the tree is widely distriltuted it was ikiI known to the
native Hawaiians before its introduction by the whites. Tlie tree has its greatest
use as wind-breaks. However, it has been extensively planted about the city
and reminds the visitors from northern climes of the winter season as Ihc wind
whistles and soughs through its ])ranches.

The Ki^kt^i.

Look where one will in the city he will find l)ut little that really belongs to
the native flora. The few species to be seen that pass as native trees are for the
most part those brought here from Polynesia by the natives themselves. How-
ever, there are a few of these that are of common occurrence and especially strik-
ing" in appearance. The kukui or candle-nut tree ^- is always identified by its
conspicuous pale yellow-green, almost silvery foliage. It is one of the most
beautiful and abundant trees of the group from sea level up to two thousand
feet. In sheltered nooks and shady ravines the silvery-green foliage can be made
out from far out at sea, and is usually proudly pointed out to the stranger from
the deck of the steamer as one of the most beautiful and picturesque trees of
Hawaii-nei. It is a luxuriant shade tree and is well worthy of a larger place
in the jiarks, private grounds and streets of the city than it now occupies.

The wood is soft and white and is useless for building purposes; but the
nuts, which are similar in shape and size to a black walnut, were made by the
natives to serve in many useful ways. The shell of the nut is hard and bhiek
and capable of taking a very high polish. They were strung into leis and
fashioned into other ornaments. The oily kernels were strung on s])liut('rs of
bamboo to form torches, whence the name candle-nut. The acritl juice con-
tained in the covering of the nut was the base for a black dye for tapa and also
served as an ink in tatooing the skin. The nuts, roasted and mixed with salt,
form a very pleasant side dish at native feasts. The oil was pressed from the
kernels and burned in stone lamps of native manufacture. It also made a water-
proof coating for tapa, and was occasionally used among the old-time Hawaiians
to oil the body for various purposes, especially to render it sli]>pery in evading
their opponents in ])hysical encounters. The gum which exudes from Ihc bark
also had several uses.

It is of interest in this place to note that all bi'anches of the Polynesian race
know the kukui by the same name. Though Ihe kukui is generally dispelled
over the islands, and forms a large part of the forest up to the upi)er educ of its
range, it has but few enemies among the Hawaiian insects, 'i'liis fact is taken
to indicate its being of comparatively recent Hawaiian introduction, and sug-
gests that there has not been sufficient time for it to attract sci-ious insect pests.

The Breaupruit.
Another native importation of nuu-li value is the breadfi'uil.-'' or ulu. of the

^" Aleurites MoUuccana. -^ Arlorarpus ihcisn.

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IXTRODICED PLANTS AXl) AXiMALS. 241

natives. It is planted singly abont the uardeiis in the eit\' and is (jiiite eom-
nionly met with in siroves of some size in tlu* various valleys of the eroup.
Wherever grown it adds materially lo llic lirnuty of hiiidseape and in addition
it has a great utility value. Tlie young tree nsnally ui'ows in Ihi- form of a per-
fect cone. The leaves are often two feet or moi-e in Icnglh. dark, vigorous green
in color and deeply lobed. The tree always has a thi'ifty look wliicli it retains
long after it has lost the charm of perfect foi-ni. The lai-ge green iilolmlar fi-nits
are three to five inches in diameter and are especially esteemed by natives and
Europeans as food. When very ripe the baked fruit has a flavor suggesting
sweet potato. When cooked green the flavor is less pronounced and less pleasing.
The tree attains a height of forty to sixty feet. The wood is a saffron color,
very durable and not liable to split. Elsewhere it has l)een used to some extent
in the manufacture of wheel hubs. l)ut in Hawaii it is not used commercially.
The Hawaiians used the leaves for polishing, the bark as a medicine, and the
gum for capturing birds. Like the kukui. the breadfruit has accompanied the
Polynesians on all their wanderings wherever the climate would allow it to live.
The tree is exceedingly difficult to propagate. As the Hawaiian vai'iety
rarely, if ever, produces fertile seed the plant has been distril)nt('d li.\ root
sprouts and by layerings. It is not as important hci'e, however, as in Tahiti.
where the fruit is made into a breadfruit poi.

Mango.

The mango -"^ is a strikingly beautiful tree and is as much prized for its
shade as for its delicious friiit. It forms one of the most stately trees to be seen
in the city or about the islands. Its compact growth and its dense foliage of
large, dark-green leaves serve to identify the tree, but the rich purple-red or
red-brown young leaves, usually grouped on opposite sides of the tree at dif-
ferent seasons, make it especially conspicuous and worthy of remark.

INIost of the trees bloom in January and the fruit ripens along in -Inly and
August. However, these dates vary greatl\' and are frequently reversed, so
that there is hardly a day in the year when ripe, fresh fruits may not be found
in the citv. The bearing trees make but little growth owim:- to llu' lu'av\ fi'uit-
age which bends low the sturdy bran<'h('s. Often only one side of a tree will
be in fruit at a time.

The fruit of the mango is of the most excpiisite shape and color. It is abcmt
the size of a pear, ovoid, slightly flattene(] with \ho two sides developed uni'(|ually.

** Mangifera Indira.

Desckiptiox of Plate.

1. A fine Algaroba tree | Kiawe] (Prosopis JuU/loro). 2. Leaves of tlie Saered Bauiaii
(Ficus religiosa). 3. A Boiigaiiivillea in full bloom. 4. A Kliapis I'alni (iniajii.s Cochin-
chinensis). 5. Bird's Nest Fern [Ekaha] (Asplenium nidu.'i) from tin- native forest. (5.
Flowers of Clerodendron Thommsnntr. 7. Fruit, flowers and leaves of tlu' California Pepper
(Schinus Molle). 8. Air-jdant {BryoplnilUan nilt/riitm). 9. A ("yeas (Ci/cas sp.). 10.
Thylodendron in an Algaroba tree; a Bottle Palm to the left, a Fan Palm to the right.

242 NATURAL PIISTOEY OF HAWAII.

giving- it a thiclc comma shape. When ripe the fruit is a rich yeUow with apple-
red elieok on the side turned toward the sun. But they vary in size, shape and
color as much as apples do, for, like the api)h'. they seldom come true from the
seed.

The tree is supposed to have originally come from India. It is the only one
of thirty or more species belonging to the genus 3Ia)igifera that has any value.
As many as live hundred varieties have been reported from India, and perhaps
forty 01' lil'ly of the best sorts to be found are established in Honolulu. While
usually gfown from seed they may also be propagated by budding. This, un-
fortunatel\-, is a somewhat difficult process involving much care and skill. Within
the last few years the trees here have been affected with a blight not common
elsewhere. It is due to a fungus disease that is thought to be aided in spreading
by tlir l)luc-l)()ttle flies and other insects carrying the spores from flower to flower.
It will Ik' noticed that the sooty mould, when severe, often gives the whole tree a
blackened appearance.

Monkey-pod.

In almost every yard and square about the city, and indeed over the whole
group, will l)e found one or more monkey-pod trees.-^ The better name for the
tree is samang; although it is sometimes called the rain-tree, since it blossoms
at the beginning of the rainy season in its native home in tropical America.
It is an exotic, liaving long been introduced. It belongs to the great group of
acacia-like plants, and has compound or multi-compound leaves. Like inost of its
relatives it has the habit of closing its leaves in sleep at night. After sun-
down it presents a wilted appearance and does much toward changing the aspect
of the whole city after nightfall. Trees of this species that are several feet
in diameter at the girth and spreading shade over a space 150 feet across,
are to be commonly seen about the islands. It is a permanent shade tree, and aside
from the litter of the discarded leaves and pods and a slightly ragged appear-
ance dui'ing the winter season it is highly desirable as an ornamental tree. As
a tree to be planted along the sidewalks it is hardly to be recommended, as it
grows at such a furious rate that it is liable to lift the walk and injure the
curbing. It is therefore a tree better suited to ample lawns, open spaces and
parks.

The Algaroba.

Of all the introduced trees the algaroba -*' is the favorite. It is a mesquite,
perhaps of the southwestern United States and IMexico, and has been greatly im-
proved and modified by the change of environment. The original tree in Hawaii
grew from a seed planted in 1837 on Fort street, near Beretania, by Father
Batchelot, founder of the Roman Catholic mission. It is thought that the seed
was brought from Mexico, though this point is far from being settled by the his-
torians of the islands. The tree is still in a thrifty condition and is the pro-

2^ Pitherolnhiiim Snmaiuj. 28 Prosnpin jiilifliira.

INTRODUCED I'LANTS AND ANIMALS. 243

genitor of more than (iO.OOO acres of forest (listi'ihiitcd dvci- llic entire group.
At first it grew only at the lower levels, l)u1. litlle by litlle. succeeding genera-
tions have crept higher and higher until now th('\- llirive ri'om the sandy sea
beach to l,n()0 feet elevation. The lee coasts of Oahu, .Molokai, and parts of Ha-
waii have been changed from deserts to forests by the aluaroba alone. (furi-
ously enough, the land which it has taken possession of is usually arid or stony,
or so steep that it was considered generally worthless. If left alone they shade
the ground with a dense growth and attain a height of fifty to sixty feet. When
trimmed and thinned, as they are in the city, their delightful shade moderates
the heat of the tropic sun, allowing the growth of the lawn grass beneath, and
in dry seasons protecting it from the direct rays of the sun. Their slender,
brittle branches are often too much in evidence to be asthetic in themselves, but
nevertheless they have a weird picturesqueness of their own. The trunk at first
seems uncouth, but there is a grace and poise to the slender vine-like branches
and feathery leafiets as they toss to and fi'o in th(^ trade wind, that over-balances
the ruggedness of the gnarled and twisted trunk.

In addition to its asthetic qualities the algaroba is one of the most useful of
trees. Besides yielding an enormous amount of wood of splendid quality, they
are valuable for the pods that are produced with great regularity after the tree
is three years old. The pods ripen gradually during the summer months, and,
next to the grasses, form the most important stock food. They are eaten by
horses, cattle and hogs with great relish. The hard, horny seeds which are em-
bedded in a sweet pulp are not digested by the stock, and hence are in ])i'inie
condition for growing and are scattered broadcast in this way.

The algaroba is also our most important honey-producing plant. Bees are
exceedingly fond of the nectar of the flowers and the sugar of the beans. Many
apiaries in algaroba groves produce honey of attractive appearance and superior
flavor.

The tree exudes two dififerent kinds of gum. The most valuable collects in
clear, amber-colored, tear-like masses on the bark. It resembles the gum arable of
commerce. As it contains no tannin and desolves readily in watei- the gum has
elsewhere been used in laundries and to some extent in the manufacture of gum-
drops. In Mexico it is also valued for ciM-tain medical properties. In Hawaii
it has never been collected or used, though large quantities of the gum could be
secured.

CHAPTER NVTTT.
A RAiMBLE IN A HONOLULU GARDEN: PART TWO.

The Poixciana.

Turning to the purely ornamental trees, first ])laee is usually given to the
scarlet-flowered royal I'oinciana,^ or to one of tlie closely allied species or varie-

^ Poinciana repia.

244 XATL'RAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

ties. The cunaiion si)ecies grown here, known as the "flame tree" or "flam-
boyant tree," has been so well named as to scarcely require further description.
Thouiili it is a fairly rapid grower it is not a large tree as a rule. The smooth
trunk is e.\])anded at the base in a curious way, forming buttresses that corre-
spond with the principal roots. This peculiarity in connection with its rich-
green foliage arranged in horizontal spreading layers of fine pinnate leaves,
makes it a tree so dainty as to attract attention at all seasons. But when it
bursts into full flower it is one solid mass of crimson, the admiration of all, and
without doubt it is one of the most stinking of tropical trees. ^.Ithough it sheds
its leaves at certain seasons it is at such times almost as remarkable for its large
pods as for the blossoms which preceded them. The generic term, which is the
one conunonly used as the name of this species, was given in honor of Governor-
General Poinci, Avho wrote on the natural history of the West Indies during the
middle of the seventeenth century. The species and varieties common in warm
countries are found here.

I^RIDE OF THE BaRBADOES AND THE GOLDEN ShOWER.

The pride of the Barbadoes,- with orange-colored blossoms and a second
variety with yellow flowers, are quite common, the latter being known as the yellow
poineiana. But more conspicuous through the summer months is the golden
shower,-' or after the pods have set on it, the "pudding-stick" tree. The
foliage is quite scant, consisting of large pinnate leaves. The flowers appear in
pendant jninicles and for several months there is a succession of pure primrose-
yellow, fragrant blossoms that justify tlie popular common name of the tree.
Another species is the purging Cassia ^ or horse Cassia, with pink and white
flowers and leaves that somewhat resemble the locust. It is most conspicuous
when bearing the large club-like pods eighteen to twenty inches long and an inch
or more in diameter. Another species known locally as the "])ink shower" re-
sembles the latter in many ways, but has the pods divided ofl' with transverse
diaphragms separating the seeds which are embedded in pulj). In this species^
each seed is enclosed in a tiny pillbox-shaped case, the seeds lying collectively
in the pod like so many coins rolled together in a case. The flowers grow in
clusters closely resembling those of large, rich-colored crabapple blossoms and
surround the l)ough of the previous year's groAvth. The tree remains in full
blossoin ten or twelve weeks and is a delight to all beholders. But of this large
genus there are numerous species represented in the introduced flora of the
islands, many of them producing handsome trees and shrubs.

Pride of' India.

The pride of India.^' also a second and smaller species from Jamaica," l)oth
with delicate lilac-colored flowers, are often called the "umbrella tree." The
flowers are followed by a crop of yellowish berries which are eaten and dis-

Civitalpinia ptdcherriina. ' Cnxxia fistula. * Cassia nodosa. ^ Cassia (/raiulis.

" J\fetia Azedarach. ' Melia seinperrirens.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANDIALS. 245

tribiited by the mynah birds. The larger species withonl doubt eame orig-in;ill\-
from India, but has been extensively planted in warm climates everywhere.

The tamarind/'* a name which, by the way, is derived from the Arabic mean-
i]iu' "Indian date," is an exceptionally beautiful and useful tro^jical tree. It
attains a great height and its delicate acacia-like foliage crowded together so
as to produce a dense head makes it a shade tree that is considered by all
travelers to be one of the noblest in the tropics. It is probably ;i luilive of India
or Africa, but has been generally introduced in tropical eounlrics. The pods,
numerous and from three to six inches long, coiilain an acid pulp that in tlie
islands is made the base of a cooling drink of much the same character as that
made from lemons or limes. Occasionally the pulp is also used in making a
delicious tamarind butter, but as a general rule they are allowed to fall to the
ground or to be carried off by roving children. The wood is greatly esteemed
in the manufacture of furniture. It is 3'ellowish-white, sometimes Avitli ^ari-
colored sap streaks, and is very hard and close-grained.

The Banian.

The Banian (or Banyan) tree, a name derived from the fact that it fni'uished
shelter for the open markets of the banians, or Hindu merchants, and therefore
literally a "market place," is a common tree in Honolulu. The family to which
it belongs is well represented in the gardens and parks of the city, there being
at least a dozen or more of the large arboreal species that can be easily recog-
nized, usually, though not always, by the pendant aerial roots. The Banians
all belong to the great order'' to which the common fig i" ; the Indian ru])i)er
plant, ^1 the Bengal banian tree,^- and the creeping fig^-^ on our garden walls, as
w^ell as some six hundred other similar species scattered throughout the tropics,
are referred. The most ornamental plant, perhaps, is the India rubber plant. But
the great spread of the typical banian tree, which sends down some of its
branches or aerial roots that in time take root in the soil, is one ()f the largest
and most thrifty-looking trees growing in Hawaii. ]\Iany of the felateil s|)ecies
have the same or similar methods of reproduction.

Pepper Tree.

Among other important shade trees in the islands must he mentione-l the
pepper tree^-^ that grows so extensively throughout California. It is easily
recognized by its graceful, swaying branches and red berry-like clusters of fruits
about the size of peppercorns, from whicli resemblance it derives its po[)ular
though misleading California name.

The kamani,^'"' or tropical almond, often planted for llie sli.ide ntVoi-ded by
its broad, horizontal l)ranches and large, broad leaves, is ;ni iiilrodiiced s|)ecies
coming origiiuilly from Asia. Before the leaves fall 1liey lak-e on the brilli.-mt
autumn colors common in cold climates, and thus add much to tlieii- i)ictures(pie
beautv. The tree is also known as tlie Demei-ai'a aluiond. on ■•iccount of the

^ Tamariiulii.i I iidicd, " C liiciuwir. '" /'i'ck.s- (iirirn. '' F'uiix ihslicd. ^'- Finis licinilKiloi.tif!.

"^^ Ficiifi iiiniiitii. ^* Schinus Molle. ^■' Terminal in ciita jiiiii .

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INTRODUCED PLANTS AND AXLMALS. 247

edible almond-like, filbert-tlavored nut they prodiu-e. Tlie nuts iii;iy be eaten
either raw or roasted.

This tree should not be confused with the native kaiii;iui "' w liirli lias beauti-
ful ii'lossy, oblong or ovate leaves and globe-shaped nuts an inch or more in dia-
meter. This species is a splendid ornamental tree that is believed to be an an-
cient Hawaiian introduction, as it occurs throughout Polynesia and southern
Asia.

The Wattle.

The black wattle^" and the silver wattle ^'^ have been cultivated in Hawaii
for nearly half a century, and these or their numerous relatives are common
in the city and constitute the chief trees planted in the Tantalus forest. Like-
wise the Australian oak or silk-oak,^ ^* is common in parks and gardens and is
easily recognized by its fern-like leaves and sweet-scented golden-yellow trusses
of flowers.

Of the bananas and citrus fruits, and fruiting vines, that have some commercial
value and are grown both for their fruit and foliage, we will say nothing here,
deferring so engaging a subject for another chapter. Next to the trees in their
striking ornamental effect, however, are the numerous species of vines and vine-
like plants everywhere about the city. The property holder in Honolulu feels
that his fence, his house, and his out-buildings are doing full duly only when
loaded with a profusion of luxuriantly flowering vines, and there are perfect
tangles of vines and blossoms about many homes.

BOUGAINVILLEAS.

The most conspicuous of all in this class are the Bougainvilleas. ^lagenta,
scarlet-red and brick-red are among the common forms, and as to abundance they
occur in the order mentioned. Of the magenta colored species -'^ there are two
common varieties, one of which is an ever-blooiner. Throughout the year this
species is one continuous mass of purple, and is one of the most striking of
the introduced plants. The salmon, brick-red, orange and scarlet varieties are
to most people more pleasing than the l)rilliant magenta species; but when a
blaze of color is required, the Bougainvillea of any shade will never be a disap-
pointment. The curious thing a])Out them is that it is not tln' blossoms after
all that are so remarkable. An examination shows that it is onl.\ the bi-aets that
enclose the inconspicuous flowers that are so highly colored. All told there are

^^ Calophyllum Inophylhnii. ^''Acacia decurrens. ^^ Acacia dcalbata. ^« GrevUlea robiisla.

-" Bougainviilea spcctabilis.

Descripttox of Plate.

1. Japanese flower jjeddler. 2. Night-blooming Ccreus (Ccrctis triuiu/uhiris) on Oaliu
College wall. 3. Washington Palm (Waslihigtonia filifera) ; to the left a Royal Palm (Oreo-
do.ra ref/ia) ; to the right, a Date Palm (Phoenix dart yli fern). 4. Zamia sp. '^. A Banian
tree (Ficiis Iiidica), showing the enrious aerial roots. 6. Wine Palm in fruit an.l dower.
7. Tlie :Monstera (Manstera deliciosa). 8. A Mangosteen {Garcinia MoreUa) or (iaml)oge
tree.

248 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

perhaps a half-dozen or more of these South American shrubs from which several
varieties have been propa<4ate(1. Tlic uiuue was ti'iven in honor of Bougain-
ville, an eni-ly French navigator.

Allamanda.

The Allamanda. with two or three species, one of which -^ is a conspicuous
vine especially eonnnon about verandas, is easily recognized by its thick, green
leaves ;iii(l large, fragrant yellow flowers that are always blooming. Another
favorite is the trumpet-creeper or fire-cracker vine.-- Its orange-red flowers
are the coloi- of living flame of varying shades and tints. When in blossom
(and it blossouLs for weeks at a time), the green of its foliage is often completely
hidden from view, and the porch, barn or out-V)uilding over which it runs is a
magnificent sliow of flowers.

Other Vines and Shrubs.

A favorite especially suited to stone walls and to some extent as a climber
in trees, is the Bignonia or bird-claw vine.--^ The Bishop ]\Iuseum is literally
overrun with this rich, glossy-green climber, and at certain seasons the beautiful
yelliiw blossoms transform its otherwise uninteresting exterior into a palace of
gold. The masses of this flowering vine as they hang pendant from the tallest
trees about the city produce a vision of airy, golden loveliness that lingers long in
the mind's eye. More prized perhaps than any of the foregoing, but unfortu-
nately less common, is the Stephanotis,^"^ known as "Kaiulani's flower." Its
fragrant white blossoms at certain seasons transform the trellises of the city into
veritable banks of snow. With the Stephanotis will often be seen a fragrant
climber, known as the wax-plant,-"* so named on account of the thick, waxy
leaves and wax-like star-shaped flowers.

Here and there in old gardens one sees various species of ConvolvuliLS, giv-
ing a touch of the familiar morning-glory blue to the scene, or, with as much ease
a dash of yellow '-'' from India and the Orient. The pretty climbing Mexican
creeper or mountain rose,-" "Rosa de la jMontana de jNIexico," with its delicate
sprays of pink l)lossoms, and the more obscure though wonderfully fragrant
Chinese violet -"^ with greenish yellow blossoms, are both always in evidence.

Several species of jasmine are common. The beautiful climbing snow-
white -'• is a favorite, as is the perpetually blooming Arabian jasmine,^'^ with
handsome white flowers that turn purple as they die. The beautiful purple
wreath •■! is one of the most striking of the rarer climbers; the five-pointed
deep-lilac flowers hang in graceful racemes and come into full liloom in Ajiril
and ]\Iay, lasting several weeks.

More conspicuous and tro])ical than any of the foregoing are the several
species of arboreal plants with large foliage leaves, the number of which
growing in Honolulu is too great to receive more than passing notice here. The

'^^ Allamanda ratfiarfira. --Bignonia renasta. -^ Bir/nonia iini/is-rati. -* Stephanotis florihinida.

2^ Hot/a carnosa. -" Ipoemoea rhri/xi'idi's. -~ Antif/oiion l/'iitojiiix. -^ Xative name 'Pakalani.'

^^ Jasminttm yrandiflorum. '^o Jasmin inn Sambac. ^^ Petrca voluhilis.

IXTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANBIALS. 249

South American group of tree-loving Pliilodeiidrovs is represented by perhaps a
dozen species that arc among the more common cliniijing i)larits. Tlicy are
usually characterized by broad coriaceous, though often witli divided, leaves ami
are to be seen hugging palms, climbing trees and running over stone walls
everywhere about the city. The Monstera delicioca, like tlie foregoing, is a tree-
loving plant and is easily recognized by the enormous dark-green leaves that
are occasionally two feet in length and pierced by curious, large elliptical holes.
The flowers are small and betray the plant's relationsliip to the order Aracece, to
which great group the taro and the calla lily belong, l)y having the boat-shaped,
creamy -colored spathe. The succulent fruit of coherent berries requires many
months to ripen. But it eventually becomes a fruit a foot long by t\V(t indies
in diameter, resembling an ear of corn in shape and having a very delicate
tang suggesting both the pineapple and banana in flavor.

The city abounds in ornamental shrubs. What it lacks in annual and
perennial flowering plants is compensated for by the gorgeous, highly-colorcil
and varied leaves of this class of ornamental plants.

The Christmas flower, or poinsettia,-'- is recognized by the stranger in the
islands from temperate climates as a familiar hot-house friend. But instead
of being a scraggy plant growing in a tub, it grows in Hawaii in the open and
attains a height of fifteen to twenty feet. At Christmas time it is most con-
spicuous, lighting up the city with the splendid scarlet-red of the flowers, though
the so-called flowers are in reality a cluster of large leaf-like bracts that sur-
round the small insignificant blossoms. A white variety is also occasionally
seeu about the city.

The ])oinsettia belongs to the great tribe of euphorbias and has a white milk-
like juice. The genus was named as long ago as 1828 for the ITon. J. R. Poinsett,
an American minister to Mexico, who discovered the common species now in
cultivation, growing wild in that country.

Of recent years the beautiful Ixora has found much favor as a Christmas
flower owing to its large, showy clusters of bright-red blossoms and large
glossy-green leaves. The plants, however, do not confine their flowers to the
holiday season but generally extend their Christmas cheer througliout the year.
The species most common in Honolulu is a member of the typical genus in the
tribe Ixorem which belongs to the larger order Ruhiacca\ to which the cott'ee plant
belongs. The generic name Ixora is given as the name of a IMalabai- deity to
whom the flowers are ofi'ered in their native country. A mnnhei- of llie hundred
or more species belonging to the typical genus are occasionally met with in hot-
house collections in Europe and America, but in the eongtMiial climate of Hawaii
they thrive with but little care, forming one of oui- nidst attractive and con-
spicuous garden shrubs.

The crotons of the floriculturist, so extensively ^i-own as foliaL^c i)hin1s in
Hawaii, are not crotons at all but C^odiaeums, and like the foregoing, belong to the
great order Euphorbiacece. The word Codiaeum is of Malayan origin, and it is

'- Euphorbia pulclicrriiiia.

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IXTRODlTCP]D PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 251

from there the single speeies with tlir(M> well-marked varieties have been dis-
tributed all over the wor-ld to he (ieveloi)e(l into moi-e tluiii ;i hnndi-ed cultivjited
forms and sub-varieties. Whih- most of llic I'oriiis have been Liixcn iiatncs, 1 hi;
practice among' botanists is to regard thejn all as l)eloiigiiiL; to one species. •••'■ A
majority of the best known forms may be found growiiig in lloiKtlnlii gardens.

These l)eai!ti1'ul plants, with their many forms of odd and handsome foliage
of the most brilliant coloring, are to l)e seen in [)r()fusion everywhcM-e The colors
range from almost pure white to light and deep yellow, orange-pink, i-ed-crimson,
and all these joined in the most remarkal)]e combinations. In some cases one
color predominates, in others every possible combination is represented. Hut a
close study of the form of the leaves will demonstrate that three i)rincipal types
exist, namely, those with ovate, short-stalked leaves, those with narrow and
spatulate leaves, and those with narrow and often cork-screw twisted leaves.
Plant(Yl in clumps and masses the effect produced by the comliination of their
rich coloi's is charming. l^lwv are often used to advantage as hediii^s and are
made in one way or another to give color to almost every lawn.

The garden varieties of Coleus are also a legion, and many of them or their
near generic relatives thrive in the city and occasionally escape, as cm Hawaii,
into the wooded stretches along the roads and lanes. A very deep-red, large-
leafed foliage plant of this family is in general favor. It is planted in rows to
form hedges about gardens and is wonderfully varigated in foliage.

Hedge Plants.

The hedge plant that is most conspicuous and, happily. tli<^ most com-
mon in Hawaii is the Hibiscus. Of this splendid shrub about si.x; forms and in-
numerable varieties are in general cultivation. Of tlu' common varieties, miles
and miles of hedges have been made. These are among the lirst objects to attract
the attention of tourists and visitors, and one never tires of the display of blos-
soms of all sizes and colors that line the street. There are at least four native
species, two or more of which have been cultivated to some extent by Hibiscus
enthusiasts. Much has l3een done here and elsewhere along the line of producing
new varieties by cross-breeding, so that every color from white, yellow, salmon
to deep red, in double and single blossoms, are abtuidant. It is to be hoped that
this splendid shrub may become so populai' as to be regularly adopted as tin'
"City Flower" of Honolulu. As the hedges of scai'let and |>iiik Hibiscus ai'e ev<'r
a delight to the eye a keen rivalry ma>' well develop among househoUlers in the
production of rare forms, since new varieties are easily prodn.ced by cross
pollenization.

Ki.

A plant that is common in the mountains and is often planted in hedges is
the ki •'+ plant, the Draciena, or more pi'operly the ("oi-dyliiie of boiainsts. TIkmv
are several cultivated varieties, especially one with wine-i-eil leaves that ai-c coin-

'•'■' Codia'iinis rariri/ntinii . ^* Citnliiliiu' ti>niniintif!.

252 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

moil ill Huiiululu gardens. The natives find many uses for it that must be men-
tioned elsewhere. Its leaves are articles of daily use, however, especially as a
wrapping for fresh fish in the markets.

Still another shrub that is a favorite for hedges in the city is the beautifully
variegated FJiijIhnilli us rosio-pictus. The leaves are small, alternate, and entire
in two rows on small branchlets, so that they appear like pinnate leaves. They
vary in color, being variously mottled with pink and red as well as with white
and green.

]\Iost of Hawaii's visitors who come from northern climes for their first visit
to the tropics are greatly surprised to find the Oleander,^^ variously called rose-
bay, rose-laurel or South Sea rose, growing in beautiful ever-blooming hedges
ten to twenty feet in height. This old-fashioned evergreen shrub, so common as a
hot-house pant, flourishes here with but little care and blossoms in various
shades of pink, white and cream color. It is not generally known that all parts
of the Oleander are poisonous, and that there are authentic records of people
who have died ^rom eating the flowers ; death has also occurred from using its
wood as skewers in cooking meat.

A beautiful tree frequenty seen in gardens about the islands is locally
known as the "bestill-tree," owing to the fact that its large, slender, daintily
poised, shining green leaves are set in motion by the slightest breeze. It is also
called the yellow Oleander, on account of its golden, funnel-shaped flowers that
are further characterized by having the edge of the corolla made up of a series
of over-lapping lobes. The flowers and the foliage suggest the typical Oleander —
to which it is distantly related — and makes the name not inappropriate even
though it is not a true Neruim. This common species (Thcveia neyiifolia) is else-
where known as the quashy-quasher, and is widely distributed in the tropics,
particularly in the West Indies and tropical America. The wood is hard and
even-grained, and its seeds yield the fixed oil called exile-oil. The genus belongs
to the great order Apocynacece, which includes in its numerous tribes such well-
known and widely-differing ornamental i)lants as the Vinca, Oleander, Alla-
manda, and the Plumieria.

Pandanus.

Several species of Pandanus or screw-pine are found growing, in old gar-
dens, some forms attaining great size. They are remarkable for their stilt-like
aerial roots, and the perfect spiral arrangement of their long sword-like leaves,
which are held aloft on a few scarred, naked branches. The aerial roots gradu-
ally lift the trunk out of the ground, but at the same time anchor it firmly in all
directions. Two species are common, one of which is a variegated form. There
is not space here to go deeply into the question of varieties, for there are as many
as fifty species known and many of them are in cultivation in Honolulu gardens.

The splendid specimens of Hercules' club, or angelica tree,^*^ commonly

35 A'ertMm Oleander. '"'^ Aralia spinosa.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 253

called Aralia, are often among the more showy pliiiits about lioiiscs atul (ni Imwiis.
Another species^" has white margins to all the leaves and is much esteemed and
used as a quick-growing hedge. The cjuidicd lo;if-st;ilks of angelica are not an
uncommon confection.

The Plumeria -^'^ is a favorite, especially with the natives, and few of their
gardens are without one or more of these curious plants. Pt-om the white-and-
yellow flowers they are accustomed to make leis (wreaths) that i-ival in sweetness
the jasmine or the tuberose. Though they may be unsightly in appearance
for a month or two, when the leaves drop from their thick, club-like stems, they
make ample atonement for this defect during the rest oi the year when they are
bedecked with a profusion of rich-colored, star-shaped, sweet-scented blossoms.
The genus was named for a celebrated French botanist, Charles Plumier, and
includes about forty species, three or four of which are grown in Hawaii.

Ferns.

Although ferns abound in every garden, there are but few that belong to
the native flora. Perhaps the curious bird's-nest fern^^ or ekaha, is the most
conspicuous of this class. It stands out boldly against the background, formed
by the trunk of the tree in the fork of M^hich it is established and is often five or
six feet in diameter aross the curious whirl of paddle-shaped leaves. It grows
naturally in the mountains, but stands transplanting in tubs and rockeries in
the city. The tree ferns which abound in the native forests are seldom seen
in the city. They do not thrive in the drier climate of the lower zone. This is
unfortunate as nothing in the native flora could be more ornamental. Owing to
the difficulties encountered in growing native mountain ferns the town gardener
has come to depend to a large extent on the hardy fish-tail or Boston fern ^'^
and everywhere, in the ground, in pots and hanging baskets this species
thrives. The beautiful, graceful, dark-green, always fresh looking, maile-scented
Staghorn fern {GleicJienia longissima), a favorite for hanging ))askets or rock-
eries, is a vigorous grower in the low altitudes, and prevents the fishtail from
having an apparent monopoly of this style of ornamentation. But in hot-houses,
where the amount of moisture and sunlight are more easily regulated, a profusion
of rare and beautifully delicate ferns are grown that ai-e the source of just
pride among growers and furnish the basis for much rivali-y among tlie inhabi-
tants of Honolulu. Some of the larger collections have scores of species repre-
sented, among them some of the most delicate, as well as the largest and most
showy forms known.

Coming to the garden flowers, the visitoi- is usually doomed to disiippnint-
ment. Although almost any of the flowers in general ciillixation elsewliei'(> will
grow with little care and many of them thrive here, it is the exception to tiud a
yard in which any attempt is made to have a flo\ver-])ed of annuals, nuu'h less
an old-fashioned flower garden. In place of flowering ])lants l)ordering the drive-
ways, foliage plants and ferns are (piite coninK)nly substituted. Occasionally,

^'Aralia Guilfoylei. ^'^ PUniteria acutifolia. ^^ Aspletiiiiia itidiis. *" Xcphrolrpis exaltata.

254 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

howevei". tlowers are planted, hut usually sueh hardy lilouniers as Aviiite and pink
Vinca ^' will have their place about the base of a palm tree or by the garden
wall, and likewise the beautiful l)hie phlox-like leadwort ■*- will be seen, but as a
rule the flowfrs lliat one sees are sueh as require little eare and are perennials.
As thei'e is abundant color in the Howi^ring trees and shrubs one does not miss
the old-fashioned tiowers as nnicli as otherwise would be the case.

The old-fasliioned four o'clock ^-^ is a familiar tlower so long- established in
ilawjiii. 1ha1. in favoi-able situations, it has escaped and grows by the roadside,
'i'hey ai-e handsome, branching herbs nitli o|>posite leaves, the lower ])etiolate,
the uppcn- sessile, and with quite large, often fragrant, tiowers which are white,
scarlet, or variegated. There are perhaps a dozen other species that are native
to the warmer parts of America, a few of which are occasionally cultivated, but
the common four-o'clock, or marvel of Peru, is the one usually seen. It derives
its name from the fact that the tiowers open daily in the late afternoon.

Occasionally the curious sprouting-leaf ])lant. or "air" plant. "^-^ will be seen
in some neglected corner, and will be identitied as a l)egonia-like plant that may
be propagated by leaf cuttings. In fact, if one of the thick, fleshy leaves is
pinned to the wall, little i)lants will spring up from the notches on the edge of
the leaf.

XlGIIT-BLOOMING C'eREUS.

It would not do to draw this long chaptm- to a close without mention of the
wonderful blooms of the night-blooming Cereus.^^ Likely as not fragments have
been carelessly piled on the stone fence at the bottom of the garden where they
have grown unnoticed until they have transformed an unsightly fence into
the semblance of a sprawding evergreen hedge. At intervals of not more
than a few weeks, especially during the summer, it clothes its ungainly, fleshy,
trianuular stems with giant creamy-white, lily-like blossoms a foot or more
in diameter. Few there are who have visited Honolulu and not been delighted
by the famous cactus hedge at Punahou Academy. On the wall about the campus
is a continuous stretch of Cereus, five or six hundred yards in length, on which
thousands of these great flow^ers may be seen in blossom each year. They open
soon after the sun goes down and remain in full bloom during the night. But
by nine o'clock of the following day the glory of the night before will have de-
parted, although the following night belated blossoms will somewhat restore it.
Fortunate, indeed, is the visitor whose 'ramble in a Honolulu garden" has been
so timed that he may l)e present at the "Cereus season," since the occasion is
without doubt one of the most remarkable and wonderful of the city's many
fioral exhibitions. The night-blooiuing Cereus is a wonderful climber; it has
clambered high into many large algaroba trees in Honolulu, its magnificent
blossoms tantalizing beholders by being out of reach.

"Vinca rosea. *~ Plumboi/o Capcnsis. *'■' Mirnl/ilis Jaliiim. *■> liriio/ilnilliiiii riihiciiniin.

*^ Cereiis triangvlnris.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 255

CHAPTER XIX.

TROPICAL FRUITS IN HAWAII.

Until recently the brains and energy of the people in ILiwaii liave been so
centered on developiiiL'' the mure profitable field (•ro])s. that hiii lilth' systematic
effort has becMi i)ut forth towards the iiiti'odiiclioii and cull ixjiliini of edible
frnits. NIevertheless many delicious fruits are found iirowiuu in llic isliiuds
in l)oth a wild and cultivated state. In much the snmc \\;\y iliat we compare
Honolulu to a botanical garden, by reason of the number and variety of its
ornamental jdants, we may compare Hawaii to a great unkempt experimental
orchard.

Native and Introduced Fruits.

]\Iany rare, curious and toothsome frnits have been brought to Hawaii from
the ends of the earth in times past by fruit lovers. But, unfortunately, they
have too often been planted i»ut among ornamental plants, in out-uf-the-way
places or left in neglected corners to shift for themselves. With few excep-
tions such plantings have not materially advanced the cause of fruit-growing
more than to help demonstrate that a long list of worthy fruits will gi-ow in
Hawaii almost without attention.

jMany native-grown species of our most common fruits are seldom, if ever,
seen in the markets of Plonolulu, while the great majority of the list of island
species are to be seen only in the private grounds of the older residents. Although
it is true that most of the varieties as yet have a greater ornamental than com-
mercial value, a few, as the pineapple and the banana, are extensively culti-
vated. Their production has come to be important industries. It is to a brief
review of some of the more interesting and important of the island fruits, both
native and introduced, that this chapter is devoted.

Botanists tell us that the islands at the time of their settlement ])y the
aborigines had few native indigenous fruits. The Chilian strawberry ^ has
long flourished on the high mountains of Hawaii and East Maui at an elevation
of from four to six thousand feet. The natives have always held tliis small
though delicious berry in high esteem under the name ohelo papa. It seldom
reaches the market, but from May to September it is abundant; on Hawaii it is
one of the principal articles of food for the Hawaiian goose. Thei-e are several
cultivated species of better quality that find their way to market. Strawberries
do not thrive well at seadevel. but prefer the higher and coolei- regions. As a
result they are gro^\^l in beds in Nuuanu Valley, at AVahiawa and elsewhere,
where conditions are favorable. By changing the elevation, moisture and soil
conditions, an extended period of bearing is secured. As a mattei' of fact, if
they were more skilfully handled, fresh strawberries could be grown for tlie
market every day in the year. As it is there is not moi-c than a month or so
when fresh fruit cannot be secured.

1 Vrcn/arlfi Cliilcrtsis.

256 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAAVAII.

Native Raspberries.

There are at least three, and probably more species of the native raspberry,
or akala. They prefer the high altitudes and have been found growing
on all of the high islands with the exception of Oahu. In the deep woods on
Molokai, at the head of Pelekunu Valley, I have found the spineless Hawaiian
raspberry - growing under ideal wild conditions, as a perennial, attaining a
height of twelve to fifteen feet, with stems three or more inches in diameter at
the ground. AVhile the fruit is neither abundant nor of especially good quality,
the few berries that it produces are of large size and attractive appearance.
The species is worthy of propagation by horticulturists, on account of the im-
portant characteristics possessed by it that might be developed through cross-
fertilization.

In the mountains of Hawaii and Maui is found a low-spreading, prostrate
shrub with long, stiff, trailing branches that bear round, black fruit about a
half inch in diameter known to the natives as kukui neenee.^ The fruit is not
pleasant to the taste, but the wild Hawaiian goose feeds voraciously upon it.
They are common in the open country about the Volcano House.

The Ohelo.

Of more importance and general interest than the foregoing are the beauti-
ful and delicious ohelo berries ■* found especially abundant about Kilauea. They
belong in the same genus with the familiar bog-cranberry of commerce. The
berry is like tlie cranberry in size, shape and color. It is slightly astringent,
but not enough to render it unpleasant to the taste, when eaten out of the hand.
It also makes excellent pies and preserves, and being a very prolific bearer is
worthy of attention by those interested in the production of new fruits. The
berries vary greatly in color from almost white, through various shades of yel-
low and red to almost purple, and are covered with a waxy bloom. They grow
crowded together along the branching stems of the low erect shrub, which at-
tains a height of from one to two feet. The bush grows more or less in patches,
often covering considerable areas. In former times it was used as a propitiatory
offering to the goddess Pele, and a century ago no Hawaiian would approach
her abode without first making a suitable offering of these berries to the far-
famed goddess of the volcano. The Hawaiian islands have two distinct species
and several recognized varieties, though the berries of the taller species, fairly
common in the highest mountains of the different islands of the group, are
seldom eaten.

Mountain Apples.

An important native fruit tree, or at least one that must be considered as
of early native introduction, is the mountain apple, or ohia ai.^ The tree attains
a height of from twenty-five to fifty feet, and usually forms a clump or grove

- Rub'is Macrtvi. ' Coprosoma ernodeoides. * Yaccinium reticuhitiim.

^ Jarnhosa = (Eugenia) Malncrfrtsis.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

Zr/

along the streams. In the forest they jirc easily reeognizcil ])\- Wa-'w (hirk-oTeen
leaves and waxy-red or deep-erimson fruits, wliich are as large as apples and
are borne twice a year in great profusion. In the market the fi'iiit is of sm-li
attractive appearance that the watery, insipid tiavor comes at lii'st as a disap-
pointment; however, the curious cooling property of tlie i'l'iiit eompeiisates for
what it lacks in flavor. It bruises easily in liaiulliim' and is but little used,
except occasionally in making sweet pickles. The tree occurs on all the lai-ger
islands of the Pacific and is highly esteemed by the natives for its fruit. The
fragrant flowers were formally the favorite haunts of several of the native birds,
which were caught in the branches by the use of l)ird lime. While the tree
grows here and there in the city of Honolulu, it is by uo nutans cmiimon, and
must be seen in its native habitat to be appreciated at its full worth as a forest
tree.

PoiiA.

The poha, cape gooseberry, or ground cherry,'' is a spreading shrub belong-
ing to the great tomato family. It ])ears yellow berries in a bladder-like calyx,
and grows quite common on mountain slopes throughout the group, especially on
Hawaii and ]\raui. The fruit is edible, has a pleasant flavor ami when cooked
makes an excellent jam. In this form it has established a place for itself in
Hawaii at the head of the list of preserves. It is only occasionally seen in the
market in the raw state, and as it is mostly gathered from the wild plants, it is
usually high in price. The plant is said to be a native of Brazil, but has long
been naturalized in Hawaii. As it is only one of some thirty or more known
species, it is (piite possible that it would be worth while to introduce other species
for cultivation.

Baxanas.

The banana is a conspicuous and valuable plant everywhere in the tropics.
The striking bunches of fruit, and its broad, bright-green leaves occupy a promi-
nent place in the ornamental foliage about almost every home in Hawaii. The
banana is important among the commercial fruit-bearing plants of the islands.
If we accept the broadest use of the term, the word banana includes all of the
species and innumerable varieties of the genus Musa. This genus, which is
supposed to have been named for Antonius IMusa, a physician to Augu.stus the
Great, belongs to the order Scitaminacea', to which also belong several genera,
including many well-known plants found growing in Honolulu gardens — such
conspicuous ornamental plants as the travel(M-'s palm or ti-avelei-'s tree/ the
Canna and ginger^ being among them. The original Ikuhc of the banana is
thought to have l)een southern Asia. I)()ul)tless it has liceii long ages undei*
cultivation, and in very early times found its way into l*ol.\ lu^sia. Fm- this
reason it is thought that the wild, or native banana, or niaia. fonnd growing
everywhere in the mountain vallevs, even in the most remote disti-iets of tlie

^ Physalis Peruviann. '• Ravennla M(u!(i<j(isc<iricnsin. ^ Zingiber.

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INTRODUCED PLANTS AM) ANIMALS. 259

group, are all of very early Hawaiian iiitroduction from the islands to llic
south of the Ecjuator. The natives know as many as twenty-five and ptrluips
fifty varieties of so-called wild bananas, having a name for each, Ijut as the
same fruit is known l\v different names on different islands, many names dis-
appear as synonyms. It has been found that three main groups or types can be
recognized. But the native nomenclature will doubtless withslaiid the attacks
that may be made upon it by the systematic botanist and hortit-ulturist, and as a
consequence, the more important and striking forms will long continue to be
recognized, in the markets at least, by their native names.

While the original i)lants were doubtless set out well up in tlie mountain
valleys, in sheltered, moist, well-drained places, by the native planters, they are
now distributed along the streams. In certain sections peculiai' forms are
common, and it is not improbable that new varieties have been originated in the
islands by the natives through intelligent selection, or by isolation, or from
other causes. The koae, for example, is a striped variety, having the fruit and
leaves variegated with pale and dark green, that is said by some to have origi-
nated in Kona, Hawaii, and to have been brought from there to Honolulu for
ornamental purposes. The oa is striped, reddish and green, and like the variety
just mentioned is also said to have originated in Kona. Other interesting varie-
ties of possible local origin are the poni, or blac.k-trunked banana, the rose, and
the sweet-scented varieties.

Among Europeans the nomenclature of the banana is in an uncertain state.
The same varieties have different names in each country where grown ; even the
class terms, plantain and banana, are used with varying meanings. In some
localities the plantain is understood to mean almost all the edible species, while
in other localities banana has an equally wide an<l uncertain application. It is
urged that the better usage is to reserve the term {)lantain for the varieties that
can only be eaten after they have been cooked. Since it is the custom to recognize
two kinds of bananas, namely, cooking and eating, the two terms, used so far
as possible as above, would be generally useful.

In addition to the many excellent native varieties that arc to bi' had in llic
local market, there are a number of introduced species and varieties which,
though they stand liigh, are of but little commercial importance, as they will
not stand packing and shipping. This eh-iss includes some of oui' Ix'st talile
bananas; the Brazilian, the apple, the largo, the kusaie. and a hnig list of
other less common ones should be mentioned as among the nioi'c important.
Of the native varieties the iholena and lele ai-e considered as the choicest vai'ie-
ties for both cooking and eating.

The most important commercial varieties are tlie rhines(> or Cavendish,^
the Jamaica, IMartinique or Bluefield. and the red S|)anish or Jamaica red. The
latter is sold in the fruit stalls as a fancy variety. The Bluefield. whi<'li takes
its name from the principal jiorf from which the vai'iety is shippt'd into the
United States, was introduced into Hawaii in l!H»o and lias been fast winning

" Miisa Cavendixhii.

260 NATURAL PIISTORY OF HAWAII.

favor amouiz' the more intelligent growers, as it sells in the market at about
one-third more per luuicli than does the coinnion Chinese variety. Its fruit has a
tough, slow-ripening, golden-yellow skin, and the hands, or clusters, grow in
large, very compactly-arranged bunches.

The Chinese variety was introduced into the islands from Tahiti about
1855, and has long been the leading commercial banana. It is characterized
by its low growth and large bunches of yellow fruit of fine flavor and g:ood
keeping qualities. Only a single bunch is produced by a plant. The fruit
ripens at all seasons, retiuiring, in low levels, ten to twelve months for the
bunch to mature ; in higher elevations, twelve to eighteen months.

It has been found that an acre of good ground under favorable conditions,
well watered and tilled, will produce in a year 1,200 bunches of bananas weigh-
ing sixty pounds each. While dried banana and "banana flour" is prepared
from the fruit elsewhere, the common varieties in Hawaii have never been ex-
tensively used in this way.

Of the various cooking plantains very little is known outside of the tropics.
It is quite possible that when the value of the plantain becomes more generally
known as a winter substitute for vegetables, its export from Hawaii will ma-
terially increase.

As is generally known, the varieties of bananas most useful to man seldom
if ever reproduce from seed. They increase from suckers that spring up about
the base of the plant. If allowed to grow undisturbed a single plant will soon
develop a considerable clump, which may be divided and transplanted as desired.

The leaves are interesting, as the parallel veins stand at right angles to the
mid-rib and are joined together to form the broad leaf. Heavy winds in many
places tear the large leaves into shreds, hence a sheltered location is usually
selected for the cultivation of the fruit.

The flower of the banana is somewhat unusual in appearance. Each plant
bears but a single bunch of flowers which grows out of the center of the top
of the stock on the end of the elongated spike. It appears first as a purple-red
spike that curves downward as it gro^vs. This spike-like head is made up of a
large number of flowers grouped in clusters, each cluster later developing into a
"hand" of bananas. As the clusters emerge they are covered by the thick,
reddish bracts which curl up and expose the flowers. In time the tubular, cream-
colored blossoms fall ofif, leaving the long ovaries. These in turn develop into
fruits. Each bunch of bananas contains from one to a dozen or more of these
clusters and each cluster from twelve to twenty-four bananas.

So far, the lianana in Hawaii is fairly free from disease and pests. Three
forms of fungus diseases are known to prey on the plant, but as yet they are
nowhere serious. Two species of nematode worms are somewhat troublesome,
and the cane borer, common throughout the group, has been occasionally found
boring in the stem. The red spider, which is well known to most gardeners, has
been instrumental in causing a brown smut to gain a foothold on the fruit.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 261

Though this fungus has long l)een found on the fruit gi'owii here, its effects
are never serious.

The history of the development of the banana business is an intei'esting
one, Imt it must suffice here to note that the tirst exportation of tlic ft-nit was
made in 186-1, when 121 bunches woe shi|)p(Ml 1o the niainlaml.

Pineapples.

The pin('api>le '" is a native of America, and is the most important niciiiIxT
of the family ^^ in w^iicli it is placed. This family has nothing whatever to do
wdth either the pine or the apple families. The pineapple is a sorosis, or col-
lection of fruits formed by the cohesion into a mass of the ovaries and i)ei-iantlis
of the compact fruit. The flowers themselves are abortive. In the cultivated
pineapple, seeds are rarely found, but the wild variety, from v/hicli it oi'i^inalcd.
has many seeds.

In Hawaii it is extensively cultivated, and was of early introduction. It
seems well adapted to the islands and several varieties are grown, which produce
fruit of the most excellent flavor. There are instances where the fruit has es-
caped or has been abandoned, where it is to be found growing in a wild state.

As is w^ell knowai, the plant usually produces but a single fruit crowded in a
rosette of stifif serrated leaves, on the top of the stem of the plant, which ma-
tures in from twelve to tw^enty months. The fruit is itself crowned with a
cluster of stiff leaves. The plant is propagated by means of slips, suckers,
crowns and rattoons. Over fifty well-defined varieties are recognized, some of
them quite distinct forms, which vary widely in color, size and flavor. The
most important species grow^n locally are limited to a few carefully selected
types that are especially suited to the requirements of the canneries.

Fruits of the largest species not infreciuently attain a weight of t\velv(> or
more pounds. The crop is harvested at certain seasons, but fresh fruit reach
the market the year around. The plants are not entirely free fnmi pests and
diseases. The most serious disease, perhaps, is known as the ''pincapifle dis-
ease" of sugar-cane. This disease, which attacks the fruit causing it \o preuui-
turely decay and ferment, w-as first discovered on cane and received its name
from the fact that it produced an odor in the decaying cane similar to that of
the pineapple.

The Avocado or Allig.vtou Pear.

The avocado, or alligator pear,'- thouuh lechnically a fruit, is from tlic
culinary standpoint a salad vegetable, in that it is used much the sanu^ as the
cucumber, since it is usually eaten with salt, pepper and vinegar. It is almost
the only fruit which is eaten only as a salad. Persons wln) are serve(l with this
curious pear-shaped fruit for the first time nve usually disappointed. Hul a just
valuation of the rich nutty or butter-like flavor of the fruit is soon acquired,
and once it is fully appreciated the taste becomes little short of a craving.

^"Ananas .siitini. ^'^ Brdiiirliiicrip. ^- Per.scn ^/rdtisxinia.

262 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

The tree, which is a native of the American tropics, was of early introduc-
tion into Hawaii and is rapidly "aining in favor as an island fruit with a pos-
sil)le connnercial future, which, however, has l;een somewhat interfered witli
through fruit (puirantine measures that prevent its shipment to California for
fear it may carry witli it the much-dreaded fruit-fly that has already established
itself in Hawaii.

The earliest known account of the avocado is found in Oriedo's report to
Charles V. of Spain in ir)2t). At that time it was found growing wild in the
West Indies, doubtless having been introduced there from the continent of
Anici'ica. In varions places and in diverse ways the fruit has come to be known
under no fewer than tifty names, no one of which is less suitable than the ct)m-
inon English designation, since it is neither an alligator nor a pear, and more-
over the coml)ination of names is in no way pleasing, appetizing or appropriate.
The fruit is justly entitled to a characteristic name, and avocado seems suited
to the requirements.

In 1860 it reached Tahiti, and must have been planted in Hawaii very soon
after that date. Trees about the city grow rapidly to a height of from twenty
to sixty feet, and are at once identified by their large dark-green leaves and
large pear-shaped, green and purple fruits, which contain a single large seed.
The avocado belongs to the Lauracece and has such distinguishing relatives as
the cinnamon, ^-^ camphor,^ ^ and sassafras,^ -^ all of which were introduced into
Hawaii mam- years ago, but the avocado is the only member of the family that
has been cultivated to any extent. As the fruit is usually grown from the seed,
the quality varies with the different trees. Now the ripe fruits have been suc-
cessfully shipped from Hawaii to New York and Washington, and as recent ex-
periments have proved that choice trees can be propagated by budding, there
is every reason to think that the avocado has a future before it, as it seems to be
reasonably free from the attacks of the fruit-fiy. Selected trees, sheltered from
the wind and with other conditions favorable, have yielded as many as 250
fruits to a tree, while the yield from exceptional trees has been more than a
thousand pears.

Papaya.

Like the foregoing, the papaya^*' is a native of tropical America, probably
Brazil, and is a fruit much esteemed in the islands. It is one of the commonest
fruits in many private yards, and considered as a fruit, vegetable, salad or
.simply as an ornamental plant, it is a general favorite. Its large, golden, melon-
shaped fruits and handsome, thrifty, green, palmate leaves render it a species
that attracts attention at once from strangers.

By some the fruit is called papaw, a name which should perhaps be re-
served for the tree and fruit of AstDiiua trilola, which is a tree common through-
ont the southern Ignited States. It bears smooth, ol)long fruits that in no way
resemble the papaya of the tropics.- They are three or four inches long, banana-

•' Cinnamrimvin Zeylaiiiriiin. '* CiiiiitiiiifHiiuin i-amiihoni. i" Saxxnfrnn nfficiiinle.

'" Papaya ruJrjuris = Curira Papaya.

INTKOD'JCED PLANTS AND AXI.MALS. Z6Z

shaped, and are lilltMl witli sweet i)iil|> in wliicli ;ii-c cnihcddcil ilic Ijcaii-like seeds.

The ])apaya is an interesting example of a di(rci()us ])lanl, as it lias the male
and the female llowers on separate plants. The edible fruit is produced by the
female tree, as a rule. It is therefore desirable, in order to insure the best crop
of fruit, to plant a number of trees of both sexes in close pi-oximi1y.

There are a nuiii1)er of varieties under cultivation, all of wliidi ai-e known
locally as papaya. While it is iisuall\ a small, shorl-lixcd tree with a single,
stout, unbranched trunk, crowned with a eluster of leaves, there ai-e many old
specimens thirty feet or more in height that so difil'ei' in apjx'ai'anee that only
the characteristic leaves prevent them from being mistaken for some rare species
of curious tropical plant.

It is extensively grown in the ti'')])ies. and may now be found wluTever climate
and conditions are favorable. The milky juice of the plant has a property
similar to, though different from that of pepsin. If tough meat is wra]iped in
the fresh leaves for a short time it will become tender. The seeds also ])ossess
valuable properties as a vermifuge.

GUAVA.

Several species of guava thrive here. They grow from seed so readily
and spread so rapidly that the lemon-guava,^ " at least, is no longer cullivaled.
In many sections this species forms dense thickets. As it fruits al)un(lantly at
nearly all seasons at different elevations it furnishes a refreshing fruit that
may be enjoyed on mountain rambles.

Of the 130 species kno^vn several are well established in Hawaii, but aside
from the common lemon-guava and the .smaller red strawl^erry-guava.''^ the
other species are rarely met with. The fruit is supposed to ])e more agreeably
acid and hence more palatable if gathered in the early moi-ning. The lemon-
guava, besides being a rich, aromatic fruit, makes fine jam, guava win]), and
jelly, the latter being one of the finest-flavored jellies known. In spile of this
fact comparatively little of it is manufactured, and thousands of tons of the
fruit waste every year. This acid vegetable material, however, w hen added to tlie
lava soils of Hawaii is a decided benefit to the land. Since llie hushes gi-ow on
all kinds of soil under widely varying conditions the wedge-work' done by llieii-
roots has proven a decided help in opening u}) the moi-e resistant soils.

Lemons, Oranges and Limes.

The orange^" is one of the oldest of cultivnted fruits; although its nativity
is not known, it probably originated in the Indo-Chinese region. It is udw
widely distributed and just whether it was intrt)duced into thesi> islands 1)_\-
the natives themselves or by the earliest explorers will ])robably not be detinitely
known. Vancouver is generally accredited with its introduction, as in 17IV2
he came from Tahiti, where it had loTig grown, havinu- i-eceived a large store of
supplies from the natives there. Arriving on Hawaii he left with the native

^'' Psidium Guayava. ^'* Pxiiliinii <'(ittl<\i/iniiiiii. ^^ Citniii A u rant i inn.

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INTRODUCED PLANTS AND AXLMALS. 265

chiefs of Kona a number of valuable seeds and "sonic vine and orange plants."
A few days later he left some "orange and lemon plants" on the island of
Niihau. It is supposed that these plants were the parents of the famous russet
Kona oranges that are such general favorites among islanders. On Molokai, far
back in the mountains, a few years ago I found an old orange grove in a fairly
thrifty state, in which some of the trees were two feet in diameter at tlie lu-iglit
of my shoulder. Everything about them indicated their great age, and it is
highly probable that this grove antidates the introduction of the plants by
Vancouver.

Oranges, lemons,-*^ limes -^ and the grape fruit, pomelo or shaddock,-- have
all found an equally congenial home here, and there are many Hawaiian varie-
ties, and seedlings that lack names but that, nevertheless, are excellent and point
to the fact that our soil is well adopted to their growth and culture. As is to
be expected, the citrus fruits are here, as elsewhere, subject to a number of
pests. I\Iany of them are in an unchecked state and can do much damage.
Among them are root-rot or gum disease affecting the trunk ; ripe rot, due to a
fungus attacking the fruit, and sooty mould, causing the blackened or mouldy
appearance of the leaves, fruit and twigs. It is interesting to know that this
last disease does not feed on the tissues of the plant, but thrives on the sweet
dew-like substances deposited by aphids and scale insects. Lichens in moist
localities; 'die back, '--^ and lemon scab -^ are among the more connnon diseases.

Among the insect enemies, the purple scale is quite prevalent. It may be
readily identified, when adult, as a purplish object shaped somewhat like a
miniature oyster shell. A species of mealy bug, appearing as a cottony mass,
occurs in the terminal twigs causing them to grow twisted. The orange aphis
or black fly is a minute insect living in the fine twigs. And lastly, the orange
rust mite, which, though very tiny indeed, is the cause of tlie russet oranges.
It pierces the surface of the fruit and feeds on the oils therein. The same
species affecting lemons causes them to turn silvery. It is a curious fact that
fruits affected by this mite are usually better flavored than those that are not
troubled by it, though they are less attractive in appearance. The most serious
pest of all, however, is the recently-introduced ^lediterrancan fruit-My, elsewhere
described at length.

The lime is extensively grown, there being several local varieties. The
supply at present is almost sufficient for the local demand. The cilcon-'' is
generally grown in yards and gardens. Both the oblong and rnuiul lemon-like
kumquat 26 thrive, as does the shaddock, which is recognized t)y its size (six or
seven inches in diameter) and coarse texture. All (>f the foregoing have long
been cultivated and are found in deep valleys in such a wild state that they might
almost be considered as part of the native flora. The pomelo deserves more
care than has so far been bestoAved upon ils cnliui'c. Several of the .lapanese

-•' Citrus Limon. -^ Citrus arida. -'- Citrus Decuuiana.

"^ A disease traceable to unfavorable condition in the soil.
^* Cone-like elevation on leaves, fruit and twigs.
2^ Citrus Medica. -" Citrus japoiiicn.

266 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

and Chinese types i)f oranges bear astonishingly well, and should the trees be
more intelligently and extensively cultivated they would yield even more abund-
antly.

The wi or Tahiti apple -' has a golden fruit that grows in clusters, on a tree
resembling the walnut in appearance. The t'l-uit. which is the size of a peach.
and has a curious seed, somewhat suggests the pineapple in flavor. It is a
native of the South ra-'itic islands and is now widely distributed in the tropics.

The Custard Apple and Its Allies.

The custard apph' genus. -'^ of which more than tifty species are known, is
represented in tlie islands l»y at least three common species that occur here and
there, usually as ornamental trees or curiosities in door-yards about the islands.
Included in this genus is the sour sop.-'' It comes from the West Indies, where
it is a favorite fruit. This thrifty green tree bearing a large conical heart-
shaped, green, spiney fruit, six to eight inches long and weighing as much as Ave
pounds, will be recognized at once by the novice. The white, soft, juicy, suli-acid
pulp of the fruit is used to some extent as a flavoring for sherbet and fruit punch.

The sweet sop ^*^ bears a fruit resembling a short pine cone in shape that is
three or four inches in diameter, yellowish-green and tuberculate. The ]iul]i is
creamy-yellow, custard-like and very sw^eet.

The custard apple,-'" a smooth fruit, is also a favorite in the West Indies,
which is probably its home. Both the custard apple and the sweet sop are worthy
of more attention in Hawaiian gardens.

Cherimoya ^- is a thrifty tree coming originally from Peru, but now widely
naturalized. It is of comparatively recent introduction into Hawaii, the fruit
coming mostly from Kona. The fruits are slightly flattened spheres, two or
more inches in diameter, brownish yellow in color with the flesh soft, sweet and
rich in flavor. It is a well known fruit in the tropics. All three of the Anonas
just mentioned are easily propagated from seed and thrive in ordinary heavy soils.

The sapodilla,-^-^ a tree of Central America, is much esteemed under the more
common name of Sapota pear. The fruit is the size and color of a small russet
apple. It is a firm fruit with ten or twelve compartments and as nuuiy large
black seeds. The flesh is sweet and pear-like in flavor. From the sap of the
tree cheAving-gum is made.

The loquat '"^^ or Japanese plum, a native of China and Japan, is a snrill
tree with thick, evergreen, oval-oblong leaves that are covered with i-usty hair
beneath. It bears well in Hawaii, usually producing two crops each year, and
is an excellent decorative fruit. Tlie })efii'-shaped fruit is yellow with large seeds
and has a i)leasant flavor. It is extensively planted in southern California and
elsewhere in the southern states.

Figs, Grapes and ^NFrLBERRiES.
Several varieties of figs •"'•'• are grown here, and but for the attacks of birvl<

-'' Spoyidia.'! diilrix. -" J nono. -^ Anona miirirata. ^^ Annua Sgnamosn. ''^ Anot^a reticulata.

^^ Ano7in f'hi-rbnoUa. ^^ Achras Sapota. ^* Eriobotryu Japnnica. ^^ Ficus Carica.

INTRODUCED IM.AXTS A XT) ANIMALS. 267

arid insects would tioiii'isli. 'I'lic Hi-', as is well-known, is a iialive of Asia . It is
a true Ficus, bel()n<iint;' to the same s'l'^us of plants with the ordinary rubber
tree or banian common in the islands. Several varieties of the choice Smyrna
fig have been introduced recently, together with the interestin<>- wasj) which is
necessary to fertilize the Howei's. The story of the dexcldinin nt of Ihc Sniyi-na
fij^- industry in the United States is one dealini;- with a rcniai-kahlc triinnph of
economic entomology and is a tale of absorbin.u interest.

Grape culture is eai'i'ied on to some extent in a coiniuei'cial way, especially
by the Portuguese. Although the grape-'" has been cultivated hy man since the
beginning of history, it was unknown in Hawaii before its introduction by the
whites, which took place at an early date. The Isabella is the type of blue
grape most cultivated and is to be had in the markets thi-oughout tin' year. All
species grown are subject to the attacks of insects, the most imi)ortant pest
being the Japanese beetle. This insect is esi)ecially troul)lesome, often com-
pletely defoliating the vines.

Certain varieties of apples-^' have been grown in the islands at high alti-
tudes, though they seem to require a different climate. Peaches '-^ thrive fairly
well in the islands. While not |)roducing fruit of nuirketable appearance oi-
flavor, it seems to l)e l)ound to no set season, blossoms and fruit being found at
different elevations, and under varying circumstances, the year around.

The black mulberry •^■' was early introduced into the islands foi- the i)urpose
of supplying food for silk worms. It was hoped by the missi(»naries that the
silk industry might be established among the natives. Interest was allowed to
lapse, however, though the mulberry does well here, having escaped into a wild
state in many sections. The white nudberry ^" has also been introduced. Should
fruit-eating birds be extensively introduced it. would doubtless be spi-ead by
them into the mountains generally.

Eugenia.

Of th(^ large germs of Eti(j( iiia ^^ mau>' s])eci(N have been iut i-od'iced into
the Hawaiian islands. Of the fruiting shrub-like hushes seen in yai-ds. the
Cayenne or Surinam Cherry "^- is most conunon. It is a nati\-e of lii-azil. is
bush-like in growth, seldom if ever growing moi'e than twenty teet hiL:li. It is
easily identified by its dark red edible cherry-like fruits which are an inch in
diameter and ribbed from the stem to blossom end. The delightful, spicy, acid
flavor of the fruit is characteristic. Els(nvhere it is unu'h used for jellies and
jams, and is sometimes impro[)erl,\- called the Ureiicli cheri-y.

The rose apple, "•■'■ another Eugenia, is also fi-e(|ueii1 ly seen in Liardens in the
grouj). It is a tree usually attaininiz the heii^lit n\' tweiit\ or tliirty ieet with
long, lliick-. shiney green leaves much I'esembling the oleandei-. The fi'uit. whicli
has little to recommend it as a fruit, is white or vello',vi-;h in color, liiuzcd with a

^^ Vitis spp. 57 Pj/riix Malii.i. '"* I'runux Perxica. •'"' Mdnix nif/ra. *" l/on/.v niha.

*i Named in honor of Prince Eugene of Savo.v. *- Eiu/fnin M iriii-lii = IC. uiii)lora.

*^ Ell ye nut Janihus.

268 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

hliiish blush and is an ini-h and a half or mure in diameter. It is peculiar
in being rose-seented and apricot flavored. Another species of Eugenia that
is an especially prolific bearer is known locally as Java plum.^-^ The tree grows
thirty or more feet in heiiiht and bears a wealth of black fruit the size of a small
pliun; they are quite conniion in gardens in the islands. The mynah birds are
fond of the fniit and may be seen carrying it alwut when it is in season.
Flying to the nearest house-top or fence post, they eat the flesh off allowing the
hard seed to fall and take root as it will.

The Passion Flowers.

Of the great order Fassi/ioracea' or passion flowers, a number of species are
in cultivation, some of them producing fruit of a remarkable ciuality. The pas-
sion flower ^^ proper, is a slender vine coming originally from Brazil. It is
perhaps the most common garden species. The leaves are deeply divided into
five segments, the lower two being sometimes again divided. The flowers are
three to four inches across and slightly fragrant. It is interesting to know that
the Spanish, when they found this flower growing in the South American forests,
took it as a token that the Indians should be converted to Christianity. They
saw in its several parts the emblems of the passion of our Lord, hence the flos
passion is was described as early as 1610 as a marvel of prophetic beauty, and
l)roperly enough the description then made has been the foundation for the
name of the whole group of plants.

The devout, or those gifted with a fertile imagination, find in the varioiis
parts of the blossom, the crown of thorns ; a blood colored fringe suggesting the
scourge wath which the blaster w^as tormented ; the nails ; five blood stains, stand-
ing for the wounds received on the cross ; the fine filaments, seventy-two in num-
ber, agreeing with the traditional number of thorns with which the crown was
set, and lastlj^ the lance-like leaves of the plant referring to the instrument which
pierced the Savour's side. The leaves are also marked beneath with certain spots
suggesting the thirty pieces of silver.

But to return to the fruits belonging to this order, the species most com-
monly seen in the market is the egg-shaped water-lemon.**' This is an edible
fruit yellow in color, spotted with wdiite, the seeds having a sweetish, cool pulp
about them with a delicate and, to many, pleasant flavor. The flowers are about
two or three inches in diameter; the leaves entire with a short, sharp point.

The purple-fruited w^ater-lemon or lili koi,*" is also common, having es-
caped to many places about the islands. The ganadilla,*'^ the largest of the
passion fruits, is a most remarkably strong-growing climber introduced from
tropical America. The large leaves three to five inches across, and the long
yellow-green melon-shaped fruit, often nine or ten inches in length, make it a
striking plant. The fruit is edible, being used to advanatge as a flavoring for
sherbets.

** Eiifjfnia Jamlxtlima = Siizygiiiin Jambolana. *° Pas.nflora r(Trulea. *" Passiflora lainifolia.

*' Passiflora edulis. *'* Passiflora quadrangularis.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 269

Pomegranates.

Pomegranates""* are grown thronghoiil the islands in i:;ii-(lciis. re ;is oi-na-

ments than for the frnit. Their bnshy growth and awl-like spine.s and narrow,
glossy-green leaves, with red petioles, make it conspicuous. The fruit is globular
with a bright, smooth, yellow, red-blushed rind and n ]ir<pminent crown-like calyx.
The interior consists of a number of seeds enveloped in a bright erinistjn-eolored
pulp; the seeds being crowded into several segments. The cooling, astringent
juice of the pulp is enjoyed by many. The pomegranate, a native of Asia, is
supposed to have been introduced into southern Europe by the Carthagenians at
a very early date, and has from there been widely distributed. There are sev-
eral varieties grown in Hawaii, among them a double flowering vai'iet\' that is
quite popular as an ornamental plant.

We could extend the list of fruits and fruit-like ])roducts indefinitely.
The lichi ^^ of China ; the mangosteens ^^ of China ; the water-melon ^- of AfricM ;
the musk-melon ^^ of southern Asia ; the fruit of the prickly-pear ^'^ from Mexico,
are all to hv seen among the fruits in the Honohdu markets. Tn fact, a list
enumerating considerably over one hundred well-defined species of fruits oc-
curring in Hawaii has been prepared, and it is safe to assume it could easily' be
extended; a numlier of the rarer fruits receive bi'ief notice in the inde,\.

CHAPTER XX.

AGRICULTURE IN HAWAII: ITS EFFECT ON PLANT AND ANI.MAL

LIFE.

The remarkable agricultural transformation of the Hawaiian Islands, troia
the time when taro-growing was the chief occupation of the primitive inhabi-
tants, to the present, when the growing of sugar-cane is the dominant in-
dustry of the land, furnishes a story filled with facts of the greatest interest.
The account of this transition, however, would come more properly within the
scope of a political and industrial history of Hawaii. Nevertheless, agriculture,
in the broad sense, is a natural employment, having to do with plants and ani-
mals. It has lieen, and doubtless will always continue to be, the chief vocation
of the people of the islands, and as agriculture and the occupations growing out
of its practice will long continue to be the main source of prosi)erity and wealtli,
a brief account of the natural, as distinguished from the connnei-cial histoid' of
some of the industries, at least will not l)e ont of ])lace here.

Agriculture in Recent Ti.mes.

Our present interest in the sul)ject, liowever, comes mainly from the fact;
that the phenomenal development of agriculture in Hawaii in recent times has

*" Punica Qraiuiftnn. ••" Nrphciiiim Litrlii.

^^ (iarciiiid iiiinii/ostdtia from Sumatra; also llic more coiinnon (iarcinia .i(nith(ir)i i/iiiiik from India.

^"Citrullus riil(/(iris. ^^ Cuciimus Mflo. "■* Opuntia 'I'liiui.

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INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 271

not only brought in a host of l)()th beneficial and iiijiii-ious phiiits aiitl atiiinals
from abroad, but through tillage, has brought about changed conditions in the
natui-al environment. These sweeping changes have affected Ihc [)i-iniitive na-
tural history of the Hawaiian Islands more than all other agencies ])u1 together.
Enormous areas of land have been cleared of the natural growth of forest
and field and usually put under artificial irrigation, with the result that more
radical changes have ])een made in the character and use of the land of the
islands, in one generation, than was brought about by the operations of the
primitive inhabitants during the whole period of their occupation of the group.
Such wide-spread changes in the character of the country have been reflected in
numerous remarkable changes in the native fauna and flora. In numerous in-
stances, the extension of agriculture must l)e credited with the extermination of
many forms of life formerly common in such sections as are adapted to the
purposes of the planter and the ranchman.

The Sugar Industry.

Foremost among the industries of this class is the production of sugar.
All other field crops dwindle to insignificance in comparison with it. Few
places in the islands where cane can be grown at all. will yield less than thirty or
forty tons, and from that up to sixty and seventy tons to tlie acre. Such a yield
of green stuff' can hardly l^e obtained from any other farm crop, and the develop-
inent of th(^ industry has been as remarkable as the yield.

Cane is now cultivated extensively on the four main islands, being planted
from near the sea-shore up to elevations of about two thousand feet. As a rule,
however, it is the rich lands skirting the islands up to ')()() feet that con-
stitute the chief sugar-growing sections. The maximum area that can be put
under cultivation for this crop has been about reached, there being approximately
80,000 acres now i)Ianted to cane which yield on the average about 500,000 tons
of raw sugar annually. The yield i)er acre varies greatly according to tlie char-
acter of the soil, and the position of the plantations, whether in rainy or rainless
regions, the amount of fertilizer employed, and so on.

Under favorable conditions ten and a quarter tons of sugar liave been the
average yield for an entire plantation; while single acres have given iinich higher
yields. Some lands less favorably located fall far below this yield Next to
soil and climate, one of the most important factors in tlie production (tf a good
crop is the amount and character of the water used. Salt in the water, if in any
considerable amount is detrimental, and often conditions are such that one hun-
dred grams to the gallon would absolutely prevent the plant's growth.

As to the original introduction of sugar-cane into Hawaii, little is known.
There are writers who think the islands in the south Pacific were flu- oi-iginal
home of the sugar-cane, since there are peculiar species there that are found no-
where else. It is argued that the plants were introduced from there into Hawaii
by the natives. Rut the cultivation of cane has been carried on so long in
widely distributed regions that the real home of tlie i)lant is lost in antiipiitv.

272 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

The probabilities are that it Avas used by man ages before there was any record
of thv fact, and that its cultui'e and use as food in a raw state were among the
first agricultural efforts of any tropical people.

Tlio invention of the processes for extracting the jnice and converting it into
sugar or molasses has long been practiced. l)ut only during the last century has
it been brought to a liigh state of scientific perfection. The plant is now grown
under such exacting' conditions and handled by such a great variety of special
mechanical devices, and the sugar extracted by such intricate methods, that it is
doubtful if there is another plant grown that has been more exhaustively studied
and exploited.

The plant, ^ as is well known, is a gigantic perennial grass with heavy maize-
like stalks that grow from eight to twenty feet tall. Unlike most members of the
grass family the stems are solid and contain an abundance of sweet juice.

The many varieties of cane have different sugar-producing qualities that
cause one kind to be substituted for another owing to their adaptability to pecu-
liar soils. The varieties vary usually in the color of the stem; being yellow,
purple, green and variously striped. Five well recognized types of cane are
extensively grown in Hawaii, though there are numerous varieties of doubtful
scientific value. The chief types are the Yellow Otaheite; the Uheribon or
Wray's Batavian ; the Tanna, the Salangore and Cavengerie canes.

The cane leaves ai-e about two inches in width by three to five feet in
length. The flower stem is pampas-like, silvery-gray, or mauve, in color, and
when in l)lossom the field is strikingly beautiful.

AVhile cane had long been used in the islands, it was not until about 1828
that it was first made into sugar. Its culture was not really begun, however,
until about 1850. when with crude wooden and stone mills and inferior boiling
kettles a yield of one ton of low-grade sugar per acre was secured.

Since then all of the resources of science have been brought to bear on
the production of sugar, wnth the result that today Haw^aii leads the world in
the scientific production of this valuable commodity. By experimentation,
many kinds of soil have proved suitable to the growth of cane. Those pre-
ferred are the deep sedimentary deposits common in the lower zone or cane-
belt of the islands. These deposits, varying in thickness from one to fifty
feet, have been derived from the normal lavas that have undergone decomposi-
tion and disintegration in the warm and often dry climate of the lower coastal
zone. The process of erosion has been actively at Avork on them for ages.
Such soils are mainly red in color, owing to the great amount of iron they
contain. The most fertile of these soils are usually those that have been
darkened as the result of the decay of vegetable matter.

The first step in preparing the land for cane, or, indeed, almost any crop,
is to clear it of all trees, shrubs and stone, and render the surface as level as
possible. Plowing is then undertaken. This may be done by mules or oxen.

* fiaccharum officinurum.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANT;\rALS. 273

or by huge steam plows. Whore the character of the country will ;i(htiit, the
latter method is the one generally preferred.

The machinery consists of large, double gang-plows that arc dfnwii back
and forth across the fields by wire cables that wind and unwind from large
drums operated by traction engines located at opposite ends of the field. In
this w^ay five or more furrows sixteen inches wide by twelve inches deep
are turned over at once. The field is then plowed crosswise of the furrows,
Occasionally a giant plow that opens a furrow thirty inches deep is employed
to reach the subsoil. The plowing done, the ground is allowed to fallow for
several weeks. After it has thoroughly weathered, it is harrowed to break up
the clods and level the surface; a heavy drag is sometimes used for the
purpose.

If the crop is to be grown by irrigation, the main ditch lines are next laid
out by the plantation engineers. The trunk ditches or main flumes usually
remain in the same place from year to year, and are frequently walled with
stone or wood, and often are cut through the solid rock. Where they cross
gulches or are raised above the ground for any purpose, the flumes are made
of wood or metal, and much skill and money has been expended in these pre-
liminary operations in many sections. Water, which is the life of the land, is
transported in large cpiantities for long distances in this way.

The secondary ditches are next laid out in such a way that water may
be made to flow along every row of cane on the plantation. The furrows in
which the cane is planted are made by a curious double plow which is so
constructed that it will throw the earth both ways, forming ridges between
the furrows. These furrows are made from eight to twelve inches in depth,
and from four to five feet apart.

Sugar-cane is propagated by cuttings called seed-cane. Each seed joint
must have one or more living buds. To insure sufScient buds thev are usually
cut in sections having two joints to the piece. These pieces are dropped into the
furrows, a fe^v inches apart, by the planter from a bag carried on the shoulder.
The seed cane is then covered an inch or two deep with soil and water turned
on. In about a week the cane sprouts. From that time on the growing crop
is hoed and watered as required. Often loose soil is drawn over the moist
earth from the ridges between the rows to prevent the rapid evaporation of the
water; but the processes of cultivation vary widely o)i dift'ereut plantations.

Several times during the growth of the croj) the cane is stripped of the
dead leaves to prevent the water from being held along the stalks and souring
the juice. The bundles of leaves are piled on the ground under the tangle
of growing cane to support the stalks.

The age at which the cane matures varies greatly, but ranges from one to
two years. The tassel is the index that tells when it is ripe. Tlie crop should
be cut as soon as possible after it is thronu'h blooming, as the juice is at its
best at that time.

In harvesting the crop the stalks are cut and trimmed in the field, the

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INTRODUCED PLANTS AND AXI.MALS. 275

refuse and trash l)eiii,u' left on tlic tii-ouud to he ])unic(l Inter on. The li-iiimicd
stalks, which average eight or ten feet in length and more than an inch ;ind a
half in diameter, are loadi^l npon carts or cars dra^vn ()V(m- |)orta])lc li-acks ])y
horses or by small locomotives. Whei-e there is a sui-pliis of watei' the cane
is often floated to the mill in the flumes. In this way tiie water flumes are
utilized in the i)roduction and harvesting of the croj) in both wet and dry
districts.

The loaded car on arriving at the unloading shed is brought alongside
;i moving floor that, in reality, is a wide endless chain-belt that cai-ries the
cane to the elevator. The cane in most cases is unloaded ])y machinery that
pulls the load from the car to the moving floor. From the flooi- the cane is
elevated on a conveyor which delivers it to a pair of large corrugated rollers
that crush the stalks, extracting much of the juice. The crushed mass is then
passed through several sets of rollers, each set made up of three close-fitting
cylinders. In the final crushing process, hot water is added to aid in extract-
ing the last particle of juice that may remain. Tlie dry inass, now called
"bagasse," is carried on elevators to the furnace room, where it is used at once
for fuel.

The juice from the I'ollers is collected and conducted to the liming tank,
where a chemical change is effected by adding slaked lime. From a receiver
near the liming tank the juice is passed to the settling tanks.

After it has stood a few hours, the juice of the top {xu-tion is drawn off
and the muddy lower portion agitated by steam. This hot mixture is then
passed to the mud presses, where the clean juice is separated from the mud.
The liquid mixed with the clear juice from the settling tank is next conveyed
to the evaporating pans. Avhere it is changed by heat from juice into syrup.

The evaporators are a series of foui' or iiiore Uu'ge iron boilei's coniu'cted
one Avith the other. The air is removed from them in order to create a pai'tial
vacuum. The juice will then boil with less heat and the syrup is prevented from
scorching. The syrup, v.hen sufficiently reduced, is cimveyed to the vacuum
pans, where the grain in the thick molasses is produced by anofiiei- boiling-.

At this stage inventors have made many improviMueiits in the [)rocess by
which the thick mass is passed into the crystallizers, where the syrup or sucrose is
made into Arm, dry grains. Small amounts of syrup are transferred to the tub-
like machines called centrifugals. These tub-shaped cylinders have cenfral cavi-
ties made of wire netting. This wii'e cage revolves rapidl\" and by centrifugal
force thi'ows the molasses out, i-etaining the ci-ystals of sugar within the cage.
The uncrystallized licpiid is cai-ried to the boilers again and is made into
second-grade sugai'. The higher grade sugai' di-ops from the eeiit rifuiials into
a large retort known as the di-yini: machine. Tlii'ouLih this the sugar works
its way among hot coils that dry the crystals before they art' cai-ried to tii(»
sugar bin. From this bin the raw sugai- is drawn out. sacketl and weiglu>d.
Each burlap sack contains about ^'2^^ pounds of light-brown sugar.

]\Iost of the sugar is sent as liiilit brown, or I'aw, sugar to the mainland of

276 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the United States to be refined of purified. One mill on Oalui. however, prodnces
refined white sugar. In the refining process it is melted and boiled again, and at
the same time is chemically treated, the crystals becoming pure white and
transparent. It is in this condition that it is sold everywhere as granulated
sugar.

Rice.

Next to sugar and pineapples, rice - is the most important field crop in
Hawaii. Although the most primitve methods are practiced in its cultivation
and milling, the annual product, from the ten thousand or more acres under
cultivation, reaches as high as ten million pounds a year. Five crops can be
grown on the same land in three years, the annual yield per acre being about
eight thousand pounds. The crop is grown almost exclusively by the Chinese
on leased lands, for the use of which they pay an annual rental ranging from
ten to fifty dollars per acre. Their methods of propagation, culture, harvest-
ing and milling are extremely crude ; they are, nevertheless, interesting and
picturesque.

The rice plant is the only important economic species belonging to the
genus of grasses Oryza. It is said to furnish food for one-half of the human
race. The plant seems to have been originally a native of the East Indies,
probably being first cultivated in India. From that region it has spread to all
quarters of the globe where conditions are favorable. Our Hawaiian rice, so
called, is thought to have been originally derived from a South Carolina stock,
as the first rice cultivated here was obtained from that state. It has since
been mixed Avith a number of other varieties, however. Somewhat extensive
experiments under the direction of Professor Krauss have been made in recent
years wnth a view to introducing improved varieties. It is said that there are
more varieties of rice known than of any other crop, there being more than a
thousand varieties in India alone.

The plant is an annual, growing from three to five feet high in Haw^aii,
accoi'ding to variety and conditions. The seeds or grains grow on little stalks
springing from the main stalk, and when ripe, the appearance of the plant
is between that of l)arley and oats. Rice in India is knowni as paddy. The
tei'in is also used to designate the rice in the husk, and in Hawaii the small
shallow ponds in which it grows are called paddies.

Rice is growai in Haw^aii by what is known as the Oriental method of
culture. The seeds are planted in carefully prepared seed-beds that are kept
moist l)ut not flooded. Aft^er the seed has germinated and is three inches
tall, the ground is kept flooded until the plants have reached a height of six to ten
inches. They are then pulled from the muck and water and the roots sonndly
beaten on a board; the object being to prune back the root sprouts. The seed
plants are topped and tied in convenient size bundles and taken in large bas-
kets on shoulder poles to the field to be planted. The advantage of this

Oryza sativa.

INTKODUCED PLANTS AND ANDIALS. 177

method of planting is that a more uniform stand may be secured, resulting in
a larger yield in a shorter time.

The small fields, which are arranged so they can be Hooded with water,
have been previously prepared by plowing six or seven inches deep. The
water cow, -^ known also as water buffalo or carabou, is used in the plowing
operations as a general rule, but occasionally horses are employed. After
plowing, the earth is covered with water and a curious harrow used until the
soil is reduced to a fine, thick mud. It is next covered with water to the depth
of an inch or two, when it is ready for planting.

The planting is done by hand. The bunches of seed rice are distril)iit('d
over the paddies at convenient intervals along straight guide-lines set out
across the patch. The entire force of field hands rapidly plants out the
shoots by sticking the sprouts in a straight row ten or twelve inches apart, with
six or eight inches between the plants in the rows. The plants tiller or spread
from the roots, so that each root planted sends up many stalks.

After the plants are set, the field is kept flooded with water, the depth of
the water being increased somewhat as the plants grow\ "When the crop is
about fifteen inches high the field is gone over to weed, thin and transplant
where necessary. At this stage the wild rice, ^ which is found wlierever rice
is cultivated, is pulled up and destroyed. It differs from the cultivated rice in
being a coarser type with deeper green leaves and in having fruit which has
large a^Tis. The wild species falls to the ground as soon as it is ripe, tlius
seeding itself before the regular crop is harvested. As it thrives on the same
treatment as the commercial species and spreads its seed broadcast, it is by
far the worst weed in the rice fields. When compared with other crops, how-
ever, rice is singularly free from pests and diseases, and produces a remarkably
full and uniform yield, year after year.

The water is allowed to remain on the ground until about ten days before
the grain is fully ripe. The ripening period is generally indicated by the heads
bending over from the weight of the heavy grain. From the time the head
begins to form, a period marked by the peculiar odor given off by the oju'iiing
glumes, to the final gathering of the grain, the fields ai-e guarcb'd from dawn
until dark, by the planters, to prevent the three introduced i>ests — llie linnets
or rice birds; the weaver birds, and, to some extent, the English s|);iitows —
from destroying the crops. In spite of their vigilance, considerable quantities
of the maturing grain are consumed (u- si)oiled by t]i(> birds, esjiecially wlieu
the rice gi'ains are in the milk stage.

The harvesting of the golden-yellow crop is indeed picturesque. There
are usually a dozen or more Chinese engaged in the operation. The grain is
cut once near the ground, with reaping hooks, then mid-way (if the straw.
The grain portion is laid in neat straight ])iles on the coarse sii-;iw oi- bound
into good-sized bundles and left to cure. When sufficientlv cui-ed the l)uuiUes

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INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANI^MALS. 279

are carried, a few at a time, on each end of a can-ying- stiek over the shoulder,
and stacked near the thrashinji' floor and mill.

The iirain are tramped out in tln' most pi'imitive fasliinn by horses on a
smooth, hard floor. It is further dried on the floor and is Ihcn stored in sacks.

The removiuii' of the hull or huslc is a laborious task, occup\iu<i' iiours of
time and all tlie machinery thai the iimcnuity of the Chiiu^se race has been
able to bring to bear on the problem. The })rocess. to he appreeiatecl. is one
that must be seen in its primitive crudeness at the mills themselves, where tlu'
Chinese miller, cheerfully explaining the operation in answer to evei-y (|ues-
tion, blandly replies, "Oh, Chinaman, him long time do alle same, me no
sabbie."' However, it should be remarked that a few of the more j)r()gressive
rice growers are making use of some of the modern American machinery, and
it is (piite pi'obable that before many years the change in methods of growing
and milling will be complete.

Coffee.

Coffee growing is essentially a ti"0])ical industry, and the coffee '' plant
has found a favorable home in the higher districts in the Hawaiian Islands.
The industry, for various industrial reasons, has not prospered of late as it
should. The plants were first introduced into the islands in 182:] by Mr.
Matain, M^ho established a small plantation near Honolulu. Coff'ee was again
introduced from Rio de Janeiro, in 1825, by jNIr. John Wilkinson, a [jractieal
gardenei', who came to the islands fi'om England in the ship Blonde at the
request of Governor Boki. He settled in ]\Ianoa Valley, wdiere he nuide a
beginning in ])otli the sugar and coff'ee industries. Plants from there were
set out in Kalihi, Pauoa and Niu valleys. A year or two after (1827-28)
plants were introduced from Manila and wei-e also set out in iManoa Valley.
From this start coff'ee plants soon spread to other localities throughout the
group, and there are trees in existence over sixty yeai's old that ai'e still in a
thrifty condition.

The plant without question is a horticultural success in the ishuuls. attain-
ing an early maturity and bearing heavy crops. The berries are frequently so
crow-ded on the stem that there is scarcely room foi' one moi-e. The coff'ee of
the islands has a marked flavor, and pure "Kona"" is said to be superior in
every way to the best Mocha or Old (loverinuent Java.

The coff'ee plant -was first cultivated by the Arabs, wlio transferi-ed it
from its native soil in eastern Africa to Ai-al)ia. about the liitli eeiitui\-. l-'i-om
Arabia it was cai-ried to P)atavia. the capital of the Dutch i-]ast Indies, a hun-
dred years later. From this beginning man>- cultui'al vai-ielu's have been de-
veloped that are now grown in the colTtH' y.ouv liu'oughout the world.

In a wild state coff'ee is a slender t I'ee and urows fifteen to twentv feet in
height, but in cultivation, for conveuieiu'e in picking \hc fruit, it is not allowed
to grow over ten or twelve feet tall, and the ti'ce is made to assunu' a pxramidal

^ Coffea Arabira and ('. l.iherirn.

280 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAAVAII.

form. The leaves are evergreen and leathery; the flowers are small, snow
white and fragrant, and the whole appearance of the tree is so very pleasing
tliat they are frequently grown in gardens and elsewhere as ornamental shrubs.
The fruit when ripe is of a dark scarlet color, and the seeds are horn-like and
hard. The seeds are usually called coffee-beans. Not that they are beans at
all. hut because of the Arabic word "bunn," which means coffee.

The berries are very unequal in ripening. In Hawaii three or more pick-
ings are made annually. There are dift'erent methods of curing the berries.
P>y the old method the fruit is placed on floors especially adapted to the pur-
pose and allowed to dry in the sun. It is then passed between rollers to
remove the dried pulp of the bean, and the membrane which encloses the
seeds themselves. The coff'ee is afterwards freed from impurities by winnow-
ing machiner\-. By a new method the berries are freed from the pulp
and their coverings by maceration in water, with the aid of a pulping machine.
The beans are sometimes subjected to polishing.

Three types of coft'ee are in cultivation in Hawaii, namely, the Hawaiian,
of the original introduction — a very hardy type; the Java, brought directly
from Java; and Horner's Guatemala, a variety supposed to have been intro-
duced from a Javan source, but nevertheless of uncertain origin. However,
the latter variety is the most extensively cultivated, being a hardy, heavy
bearer and not subject to disease. It bears a large, flat berry resembling the
best types of imported Java coffee.

Sisal.

The growing of sisal ^ has attracted considerable attention on the island
of Oahu, Avhere several hundred acres are now planted to this crop. The
])lant not only grows luxuriantly on the better lands, but does well on land
not suited to other field crops. Sisal was first introduced and widely dis-
tributed for trial in 1892. It has been found to thrive from sea level to
three thousand feet elevation, and to be especially suited to the lee or dry side
of the islands. The species is a native of Central America and closely related
to the century ])lant." As a source of cordage it yields a fiber second only to
]\Ianila hemp in strength. Its smooth, straight strands of fiber are obtained
by decorticating the leaf. The life of a slioot, if undisturbed, is six or seven
years, after which period it sends u\) a blossom stalk as high as twenty-five
feet, and then dies. Cutting the leaves for fiber, however, extends the life of
the plant several years.

Other Fiber Plants.

Manila hemp, secured from a species of banana,^ has been grown experi-
mentally in the islands for a number of years, and is reported from various
localities. It was introduced from Manila manv vears ago, and was well

'^ Agave Mexieana var. sixalnna. 'Agave Aiiierivniia. "Miixii te.ititin.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND A X I .M A LS. 281

known to tile oldci' I I;i\v;iii;iiis. hciiiu' used by tlicin in nink'niL;' I'opc Also New
Zeahnul liemp " lias been iii'own in a limited way.

As a fil)er plant Upland cotton,'" oi" Sea Island colton'' now l)ids fair
to ontstfip any of those mentioned. Unfor'tnnateJN', it has been lield in
check owing- to attacks of the boll woi-m. Cotton of cultivated varieties was
introduced into the islands long ago. A sample of the fiber grown here -was
sent to China by Kamehameha the (Ireat. The plant in this latitndc is a
perennial. Several varieties have been experimentally gi'own from time to
time, among them being Sea Island, Georgia, Peruvia and Caravonica. and
a num1)er of other strains that have received experimental attention at the hands
of Professor F. G. Krauss and his associates. Although the revived indnstr>- is
hardly beyond the experimental stage, it is reassuring to know that tlif (ibrr
was an article of export from Hawaii during the Civil War.

The cotton fiber is distinguished from all others by the peculiar twist that
it i)ossesses. This twdst makes it very valuable in spinning, and it has long
been employed in the manufacture of cloth. Its use is spoken of by the
earliest writers, and the plant was long described as a natural wonder under
the name of the ' ' lamb tree. ' ' The cotton of commerce is the product of several
species of the genus Gossypiuni, belonging to the order Malvacea. to which
also belong the hollyhock and Hibiscus, the flowers being very nuicli alike.
There are fifty or more species of cotton. In fact, one,^^ a shrub with suljjhur-
colored flowers and having very short, brown fibers about the seed, is found
grownng in a wild state in the Hawaiian group in dry situations near the sea-
shore. It is known to the natives as mao, and can be separated easil_\- from
the small tree-like species called kokio,^-^ Avhich has brick-red flowers. The
cotton plant produces varieties that readily and rapidly adapt themselves to
new conditions. Single trees are common in Hawaii that are twent\ feet or
more in height.

Rubber.

The cultivation of rubber is among the newer industries that promise well
in the islands. Several species of rubber-producing ])lants are well estab-
lished in vai'ions ]ilaces on the principal islands, and other species are in
process of introduction.

One of the oldest, if not the oldest grove of rul)l)ei' ti-ees. is a small plant-
ing of the Ceara species. ^^ located at Koloa, on Kauai. It was planted in
1893, and from it a grove was j)lante(l at Liliue in IS!)!). I^xpei-iiiimla! taj)-
ping, under the direction of the Federal Experiment Station, has given a yield
of fifteen pounds of rubber per annnni fi-om the 1 liii-teeii-year-old trees, and it
is expected that this can be materially inci-eased by i)ro|)ei- cai-e. cnlti\alioii
and improved methods of tapping. The seeds ai'e cni-ions in that lliey have
a thick, hard coating and often reipiire some months for lliem to uvrmi-

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INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 283

nate. To hasten geniiiiialiun the seeds are sometimes carefully rasped on
either side with a file. The tree is of rapid growth, thriving best in a moist
climate. The natural home of the species however, is in the drier regions of
Brazil. It is closely related to the Cassava, mentioned elsewhere, and belongs
to the spurge family, which also includes the Para ^^ and many othei- rubber-
producing plants. The latex or milky sap occurs in the leaves, stems and
trunk. There is a continuous network of milk-tubes all through the living
green portion of the liark of the tree. The latex is collected by various
methods of tapping, and from this gum-like mass the rubber of commerce is
refined.

While the earlier plantings were largely of the foregoing species, there is
considerable area being planted to Hevea. Both species belong to the
Eupliorhiacece. They and their near relatives may be distinguished from
other rubber-producing plants by the hard, flinty seeds and the palmate leaves,
resembling those of the horse-chestnut. Such latex-producing trees, belong-
ing to the banian family, as the Assam rubber,!*^ the pipul tree, or banian
fig,i' are well established.

To the list of introduced species must now be added the Hawaiian rubber
tree^'^ brought to the attention of the Hawaiian Experiment Station in 1912 for
investigation. Its latex-producing characteristics were noted by a chance dis-
covery in the Kona district on Hawaii, where there are several thousand
acres of this promising tree. The natives were long familiar with its gum-
like latex and gave to the tree the name koko or akoko, in allusion to the
milk-sap which exudes freely from the injured bark. The fact that it is a
conspicuous tree, often twenty-five feet high, with a trunk ten inches in
diameter, and that it occurs in more or less extensive areas on several islands
of the group ; and, furthermore, that it has long been known to botanists, hav-
ing been described as a sub-species by Dr. Gray many years ago, indicates
how little attention has been given as yet to the investigation of the native
flora from the economic standpoint. The tree belongs to the typical tribe ^'-^
of euphorbias in which the flowerhead resembles a single flower. The species
has the flowerhead almost sessile and is marked by having small linear leaves
with the veins oblique to the rib. So far as its latex-producing qualities have
been investigated, the koko seem to give much promise as a rubber-yielding
plant. Its discovery points to the wisdom of extensive investigation of this
and other economic plants native to the islands, as well as those of promise
from other lands that may be suited to Hawaii's soil and climate, with a view
to the establishment of economic species in much of the island Territory now
given over to cattle ranges, or classed as waste land.

Tobacco.

Climate and soil are thought to have a mai'ked influence on the (|uality of
tobacco,-*^ and experiments that have been conducted in the islands in recent

^^ Bevea Braziliensis. '* Ficvs elastira. ^'^ Ficiis religiosa. ^^ Eupliarhid lorifoHa.

^^ Eiiphorbieoe. -" yicotiana Tahncum.

284 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

years, under tlie dirt-ctiun of Mr. Jared G. Siuith. demonstrate that there are
extensive areas about the group especially suited to the production of high-
grade tobacco. The growing of tobacco, however, is by no means a new
thing in the islands: it was early introduced by the whites and grown by the
Ilawaiians. It received only haphazard cultivation, was improperly cured,
and was invai-iahly too sti'ong for commercial use. It was, how^ever, smoked
by old Hawaiians to some extent; it being a custom among the natives to take
a whiff oi- two and pass the pipe (made of a root, or a stem or branch) about
fi-nni one to the other.

The tobacco phint is of American origin, ])elonging botanically to the
tomato and egg-plant family. The earliest voyagers to America found the
Indians using the leaves for smoking, chewing, and as snuff; pipes and other
means for smoking tobacco have been found buried in prehistoric mounds in
the United States, Mexico, and Peru.

Sweet and Irish Potatoes.

Formerly potato -^ growing was an important island industry. In 1849
potatoes stood at the head of the list of exports. The lands best adapted to
their growth are in the Kula district of Maui, where they were introduced and
planted as early as 1820. Of late years the industry has diminished, owing to
unskilled methods of culture and the appearance of various enemies. There
are several species and almost innumerable cultural varieties adapted to
various soils and conditions that, if introduced, would doubtless extend and
revive the industry.

Sweet potatoes -^ were at one time an important field crop. Like the
"Irish" potatoes, they were extensively exported during the period of the
gold-rush to California. The natives recognized as many as twenty varieties
of uala (sweet potato), and several important varieties have been introduced
from time to time by Europeans and others. It belongs to the morning-glory
family and is easily grown, thriving in loose soils where the rainfall is not too
abundant. The sweet potato is usually propagated by cutting off the tops ;ind
l)lanting them in a hill of dirt which often is only a pile of loose ash-like soil
scraped together.

Cassava and the Castor Bean Plant.

Cassava.--'' though not extensively cultivated, is gi-own with success in
Hawaii. It is an introduced European plant that thrives on all the islands,
is free from pests and recpiires but little cultivation. Its roots produce a
useful starch; they are used both as food for man and domestic animals, and
in the manufacture of laundry starch. There is a luitive plant well known to
the older Hawaiians as pia. or arrow-root, and in Hawaii. Cassava seems to
have fallen heir to this name. Hawaiian ari-ow-root -■* formerlv grew wild.

-• Solaiiini' ttihero.sinii. -- I/Kiinciea Batatas. -^ Matiilmt iitiliKxiiiiii. "^ Ti'ccn innniilitidn.

INTRODUCED PLANTS AND ANI.MAi.S. 285

being most abundniit on Kaiuii. Ft is (|iiil(' cotiitiiou tlironj»ho\it I'olynesia,
growing witliont care in the native gardens.

The castor bean phmt.-'' cnltivated in S(n-ei-al i)hi(M's. lias escaped and
grows evei-ywliere as a roadside shrub, often fifteen to thirty feet in height,
with a trunk twenty or inore inches in diameter. It is a native of western
Asia and eastern Africa. The large palmately-lobcd, reddish-green leaves
and large terminal flower clusters followed l)y the prickly three-parted l)urrs,
which bear the vari-colored seeds, mark this familiar plant, grown in many
gardens on account of its distinct ornamental valne. Attempts to izrow the
castor bean as a field crop have failed only for Avant of the right kind of hd)or
to gather the crop.

Lotus.

Another plant of considerable importance, both ornamentally and as a
crop, is the Chinese lotns.-" It is a native of China and the East generally,
and is grown in Hawaii by the I'hinese farmers in taro an^l rice ponds: often
several acres will be seen in a patch. The root tubers, for which it is gi-own,
creep in the mud at the bottom. They are dug at irregular intervals and
suggest strings of white sausage, as they are seen in the vegetable stalls.
While the tuber is a favorite food of the Orientals, especially the Chinese,
Europeans and others seldom tkste them, preferring to admire the orna-
mental effect of the large orbicular leaves and splendid cream-colon-d. showy
flowers that stand high al)ove the water. The seeds are found in an odd-
shaped, flat-toi)ped receptacle, and are also esteemed as food by the Oi-ientals.

Nuts.

The curious Chinese hoi-ned-init -' is also cultivated in shallow jxnids by
the Chinese, who boil the nuts, much as chestnuts are pi-epared by the .lapanese.

Peanuts,-'^ ground-nuts or goober-nuts, as they are variously called, were
once grown to some extent, principally for the oil. The croj) is well adajileil
to conditions in Hawaii, as has been jiroved by recent experinuMits. and it is to
be regretted that they are only grown foi- the local demand, since, being a
member of the great bean family, they store much valuable nitrogen and ari'
therefore beneficial to the soil, besides producing a valuable forage for aninuds.
In competition with the large California nuts, the island-urown ]n"odnct is
much finer flavored and are generally preferred in the local maiUei.

The peanut is really not a nut, however. It is a riix'iied pod with edible
seeds, produced by a plant reseml)ling a pea or bean. When the tiower falls.
the flower stem grows rapidly, curving down into the ground. The pea-
nut is a native of Brazil, where several closel\-allied species are found. In
cultivation a number of important varieties have been produced, sevei-al of
which have been experimentally gi-owii iu Hawaii.

Among the plants grown especially as green i'(Htd for animals is soi-iihinn.-"

-^ Ririnus co)ininntiK. -'^ .Xclii'iiliiiim .iiirriosinii. -' Tin/ia iintatis. -'' A rarhix hiiiiot/irn.

-" Aitdropoyon Sory)tum.

286 . NATURAL IIISTOKY OF HAWAII.

It is a jiTciss-likc plant, very wrll suited to the soil, and is re.srarded as the
most protitable crop for forage in the islands. It is grown usually by irri-
gation and has its greatest use as feed for milch cows.

Forage Grass.

Of the grasses, Bei-muda grass, known locally as manienie ''^*' or creeping
grass, has found a permanent place in the islands. The lawns are sodded with
it. and it spreads over waste places and affords valuable pasture for stock
l)elow the elevation of 800 fe(4. It was introduced in 18:35 by Dr. A. F. Judd.
Alfalfa or lucerne -^^ is also cultivated to some extent under irrigation, especially
by dairymen. It is a native of southw^estern Asia, but has long been exten-
sively cultivated in Europe and America. Its purplish-white clover-like
flowers and hairy, coiled seed pods will separate it from the true clovers,-^-
which are seldom seen in Hawaii. (Juinea grass ^^ is also cultivated by many
dairymen, yielding a number of crops from one seeding, if grown under irri-
gation, l)ut Para grass ^'* is gaining favor more rapidly than any of the strictly
forage grasses.

All of tlie foregoing grasses and a long list of other species were, of course,
introduced, coming M'ith commerce or being purposely planted. They supple-
ment a iiuiii1)er of native grasses, some of which are of value as food for stock.
Among the more important indigenous grasses should be mentioned the native
manienie,^^ the kukaepuaa ■^''' and the pili,-^" which grow generally over the
group to 4500 feet elevation. The latter, while vei-y good pasturage for horses
and cattle, is not as good for sheep, for, like the piipii,-**^ a common grass on
open dry plains and slopes, it bears sharp, stiff awns about the seeds that get
entangled in the animals' m'ooI.

Most of the foregoing grazing grasses are being rai)idly crowded out by
the rank-growing, worthless Hilo grass,^'' which is not eaten by animals. It
appeared about 1840 in the district of Hilo, having been brought to the islands
in some unknown way, presumably from tropical America. The edges of its
coarse leaves are rough to the touch, and the stem ends in two slender spikes,
three to five inches in length. A closely related species ^*^ has from three to
six alternate spikes and is common in swampy ground in heavy soil. It was
used by the Hawaiians to some extent as a thatch. The mischief done l)y Hilo
grass is an example of the damage that may be brought about through the
inti-oduction. pur])osely oi- otherwise, of undesirable plants or animals.

Weeds.

Space is too limited for an extended list of imported plant pests affecting
the farmer and ranchman, but a number of undesirable species have been
introduced and have prospered in Hawaii. Among them are the common pur-

3" Cynodim dnrfi/hni. »! Mfdicuijo satirtt. ^- TrifoHum. »» I'rniiriDii ttidjiina.

^*_Panicum MoUe. ^^ StenoJaphnnii. ^« Panicuw priiriens.

'' Setropoffon = (Andropogon) contortiis. ^s Chry.sopogon acirulatus. ^^ }'(i.spnlini( ccnijugatum.

*" I'aspalum orbicularie.

lXTR(^l)rrEn IM.AXTS AXD AXT>rALS. 287

slane or pussly ^^ ot our uardeiis; two species of ])epper urass ;■♦- a sensilive
plant *'■' with tine leaves and snnill, found. ])iid\ish tiower heads : the tlca-hnnc.**
the ilit)he ot" the natives; the eoeivlebur/"' ^rowinL;' almost pei'cuMi;dl\' and
occasionally attaining a diameter of three inches at the o'round : the sand
hurr:^'' the Jamestown weed;'" the phiidaiu:^'' the wihl un-jiniuiii ;'■' and,
lastly, and perhaps worst of all from an a'^^i-icnltural poiid of view, the nut
grass, coco grass or Japanese grass — a pest repi-oducinLi by nn1dil<e l)idl»s and
by seed, and necessitating the utmost care to eradicate fi-om mltixatcd fiehls,
lawns and gardens. Among the more common of the related species,''^ often
called luit grass, is one that first appeared in Hawaii about the year 1850 ;ind
has since spread to all cultivated lands. In this species the tul)ers of the root-
stoek liave a curious pungent taste.

Livestock.

This account of agriculture would be incomplete witiiout at least a pass-
ing reference to the live stock of the islands. All of the domestic aidmals
have been introduced since the first visit of Captain Cook. In many instances
live stock has had more to do with ])i'inging about the altered condilions wilh
which the native fauna and floi'a have had to contend than ;dl the other
agricultural pursuits put together, epoch-making as they hav(^ been.

The first cattle and sheep were introduced in 17!)4 by Vancouver and
landed at Kealakekua Bay, and in time became wild in the mountains on all
the islands. A large proi)ortion of all the meat consumed in the isbinds is
home-grown. Formerly cattle were so abundant that they were slaughtered
for their hides and tallow, but that time has long since passed. Horses were
first brought to Haw^aii in 1808. They were landed at Kawaihae and La-
haina and were the progenitoi's of the islaiul strain of horses. Pigs and goats
of English breeds were first introduced in 1778 by Captain Cook. Turkeys
were introduced as early as 1815.

Wild cattle, sheep, hogs and goats were allowed to i-un at will in I lie
forests, with the result that the animals trampled down the undei-growth and
destroyed the bushes, even digging up the roots of many of the moi-e nuti-itious
of the forest growths. Owing to the exposure of theii- I'oots ;ind stems, many
of the larger trees died and soon after became infested with insects, whitdi in
turn multiplied in proportion to the increased supply of their favorite food.

" Portulaca oleracea. *'^ Lcpidium Virftinicum and SeneMera didi/ma. ^^ Mimoxa i>udira.

** Kriiieron Canadensis. *= Xanthium struiiiariiiiii. *'* Cenchnis cchiiuitus. *' Datura Strunioiiiiim.

^'^ I'laiifai/o major. *' Geranitnii Carotiiiianidii.

^'' Kylliiifja monocpphala, a species often confused with several si)ecies of tlie n luted genera of Cyperacem.

^^ f'!/l"'rus rotinidus.

End of Book One

BOOI\ TWO
The Animal Life of the Group

PLATE 75. FOUR STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HAWAIIAN

ARCHIPELAGO (After Pilsbry).

1. Showing the outline of the pan-Hawaiian island. During this stage the group from
beyond Kauai to and including the Kohala mountains were united by land. 2. The first

(Description of Plate Continued on tlic Oiijiosite Pntjc.)

Natural History of Hawaii.

SEicTiON five:

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GEOll'.

CHAPTER XXI.

VARIOUS AXLMALS FRO.M LAND AND SEA.

Hawaiian Rats.

The HaAvaiian rat ^ was the largest land ariinia] iiihahitiiiu' the islands at
the time of their discovery by Captain Cook. Unfortunately, the species
appears not only to have completely disappeared, but so far as is known not
a single specimen has been preserved in any natural history collection or
museum. 2 This seems most singular, as we know from Hawaiian tradition
that at one time they wei-e very a])undant, and for many years wei-e trouble-
some in cane fields.

From all accounts, they were small in size, and for that reason it is sug-
gested that their place was taken shortly after the discovery of the islands
by the common, wide-ranging grey and black rats, as these two species have
traveled all over the world in ships and were no do\ibt passengers on the first
ships to touch at the group. It is thought that the early and comi)iete disap-
pearance of the native species may have been due to the aggressive disposition
of the new comers, particularly of the brown or Norway species, as wherever
this rat has gone — and it is a great traveler — it has gained a footing and. in
many places, completely replaced the less pugnacious native forms.

The brown rat ^ is the larger of the two common species in Hawaii at the
present time. It is generally believed that this species is a native of Western
China, but it was known in England as eai-ly as 1780, Avhoi-o it ranic to be
generally, though erroneously, called the Norway rat. it can he at once recog-
nized by its heavy build, massive blunt muzzle, comparatively small ears and

• lole.

- Mr. J. P. G. Stokes, of the Bishop Museum, secured bones of what is supposed to have been
the Hawaiian rat on Kahoohiwe, April. 1913. ^ Miis di'imntKniii.i = Mux norrei/iriix.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

period of siiljsidoiK'o formod the cliaiinpl between Kauai (2a) and the Oalni, ^lolokai, Maui.
Lanai, Kohala land (21i). .3. Tlie second marl<ed period of sidisidence separated Waianae (.SI))
and probably Koolau (3c) as islands at one end and Koliala (oe) at the other end of the
Molokai, Lanai, Maui area (3d). 4. Shows the last stajre of subsidence; the island of Niihau
(4a) separated from Kauai (4b) ; the two islands (3b and 3c) united to form Oahu (4c) and
the islands of Molokai (4d), Lanai (4e), Maui (4f) and Kahoolawe (4g) separated In- ehan
nels less than 100 fathoms deep.

291

292 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

relatively slioi-t tail, the tail always being less than tliat of the h</ad and ])0(ly
and usually uot louucr than the body aloin'. The color of the ui>})er part is
usuall\' a grayish lu'own.

The l)Iack rat.' or one of its nnmerons varieties, is onr common tree rat.
It is siuallfi' and moi'e elegantl\- built tluin the brown rat, and has a longer
and tliiuiici- tail. 'I'lic body of a full-grown specimen is about seven inches
in length, while the tail may be eight or nine inches long. Its long, slender
snout, large ears and bluish color are characteristics that serve to make it easy
of identification. Like the bi-own i-ats. they were introduced into Europe from
the Hast, but at a much earlier date, reaching the continent early in the thir-
teenth century. In Hawaii they live both on the ground and in trees, but
owiuL;' to tile presence of their pugnacious cousins, they prefer the treetops.
There they make their nests, usually in the crowns of cocoanut palms, and
feed upon the fruit of these useful trees, often doing much damage by gnaw-
ing the young fruits. They also gnaw through the roofs of houses. They are
seldom seen during the day. but at night they become very active, and in the
twilight may be seen leaping from In-anch to l)ranch and from tree to tree.
On several occasions the writer has seen them travel along the electric light
wires from one pole to another. It is in this manner that they often make
their way into houses and outbuildings that are thought to be rat-proof.

Four species of rats '^ have been taken in Hawaii l)y the otfieial rat-
catchers for the city, and are recognized as residents of Honolulu.

Rats as Plague Carriers.

Since it has been definitely determined that the fleas so common on rats
are the carriers of the germs which cause the bubonic plague, every precau-
tion has been taken to prevent rats landing in the various ports of Hawaii
from vessels coming from seaports where plague is known to exist. Moi'e-
over, a sustained effort has also been made to reduce the number of rats in
the islands.

It has been ])roved beyond ([uestion that the i)lague geriu may be carried
from the infected I'at by the fleas that feed on the blood of the living animal.
If the rat dies, the fleas leave their host and seek some other rat. or. failing
that, will take up a temporary residence on a cat or a dog. This minute but
troublesome insect may then l)e transferred directly or indirectly to a human
host. Its bite too often results in transferring to the blood of the individual
the germ which it di'ew into its system from the infected rat. In many cases
the person so bitten contracts the dreaded disease, which often has proved
fatal.

Royal Sport.

A s[)ecies of mouse was also common in ancient Hawaii. They furnished
the upper class of natives with a form of royal sport out of the usual style

* ^fl(K rattits. ■•Mils rdttiix. .1/. uli'.rdiKlriiiKx. M . iinrrci/iciis ;iiul .1/. tiiK.truliis.

THE ANI.MAL LIFE OF TlIF GKOFP. 293

of amusement resorted to by kiiii^s niul princes; i1 cDiisislcd in slKiolinu mice
as a pastime. This royal sporl did not ])ai-1akt' of the naliirc ol' a ci'oss-
eouiitry limit. The tiny animals were ('(tnlincd in a cocdxpitdikc ciKdosiirc mikI
were shot at with small bows and arrows. ISingularly cnonuli. the l)ow and
arrow in the hands of the Ilawaiians was only a loy, lieiny used solely for
killing mice and the flightless Ilawrnian rail in the inimncr sim'uestcd in an
early chapter.

Mice.

The lioiise mouse'' is the same species that is common ;dl ovci' the world.
They doubtless originated in Asia. l)ut their partiality for human habitations,
and their omnivorous food habits, has resulted in their l)eing carried far and
wide by man as an unwelcome passenger in his goods wherever cargo has
gone by sea or land. In dcmiestication, white and siiotted varieties of boih
the house mouse and the black rat are common <uid have long ])een kei)t as
children's pets.

There is a species of long-tailed field-mouse that is quite common in the
fields about Honolulu. It is probably of more recent introduction, doubtless
reaching the islands from California in bailed hay or in grain.

Rabbits and Guinea Pigs.

Rabbits ' have been introduced and liberated on two or three small islands
in the group. Rabbit Island, a tuff-cone on the windward side of Oahu, near
Makapuu Point, is thickly populated with a mongrel breed, the original stock
of which was introduced a number of years ago.

In 1903 and 1904 rabbits of several varieties, including the Belgian hare
and large white rabbits, were liberated on Laysan Island. They increased at
such an astonishingly rapid rate that within six years the island was overrini
with them. A special expedition was sent out by the Governtiieiit for the
purpose of exterminating them, as they threatencHl to wi])e out the sraiity
native plant life found there.

The familiar variegated European guinea-{)ig, althongli a common [)el in
captivity in Honolulu for many years, was liberated on Laysan Island at the
same time as the rabbits, and has found a congenial habitat. tliouL:ti its I'ale of
increase has by no means l)een so rapid as that of the rabbits. As to the
origin of the domestic guinea-pig, zoologists are somewhat in doubt. It is
thought, however, that Cutler's cavy "^ was kept in a state of doiiu'slicaliiui
by the Incas of Peru, and that the guinea-pig was iidrodueed into I-'urope by
the Dutch in the sixteenth century, shortly aflei- the discovery of .Vmei'ica.
Various breeds have lieen developed under domestication as pets for children,
but in more recent times they have lieen iiiueh usi^d in laboratories foi- expei'i-
mental purposes.

Cats" Avere early brought to the islands, pi-obably c(uning on the lii'st
ships. They were called popoki '" by the natives, in course of time they

'''Mti.s- ii: Kxriilii.t. ' Lf/iiiK sp. '^Cnriii ciitlfri. " Fi'li.i iloiiii'stifii . "'I'linr (lussy,

H ^

C o

Eh 1W

S GQ

5-2

^^ So

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 295

began to escape to a wild life, living on birds and mice in the mountains. AVild
cats are particularly troublesome in Hawaii. They are occasionally hunted,
especially by sportsmen in pursuit of wild cattle, goats, pigs, chickens and
turkeys, all of which, like the cats, have lived many generations in a perfectly
wild state in the mountain forests on different islands of the group.

Native Bats.

There seems to have been at least one and perhaps two species of native
bats in the islands. They have always been rare, but apparently are still to be
seen in the uplands of Hawaii ; Dr. R. C. L. Perkins reports having seen the
small Hawaiian bat,ii or opeapea, on both Oahu and Kauai. This bat appears
to be the only undisputed natural mammalian immigrant to the group, as the so-
called native rat and mouse could have been easily carried to Hawaii in the
wreckage of foreign i- vessels that may have reached the islands by chance
long before their discoverv bv Cook.

Hogs and Dogs.

While it is perfectly proper to say that the rat, bat, and mouse were the
only native species of mammalia found by Captain Cook, w^e can well afford
to consider in this connection mammals that were of native introduction —
namely, the hog ^^ and the clog.^^ Just as the Polynesian people carried useful
plants with them on their w^anderings, they also brought with them in their
canoes these two highly-prized and useful domestic animals known to them
in their more ancient home. The hogs^'' varied greatly in color, as they were
black, white, ^^ brindle, striped, reddish and spotted, indicating that the species
had long been in domestication. The Hawaiian dog was fed largely on poi,
and was much relished as food in old-time Hawaii. Like the hogs, they were
classed according to their color, there being sevei'al well-recognized color-
types. The Hawaiians also introduced a fowl.^' which was everywhere a
common article of food at the time of Captain Cook's visit.

Introduced Animals.

Since the discovery of the islands a luunber of maminals and hifds have
been introduced by accident or design whicli have been pcruiitlcd 1o I'ctiirn
to a wnld state and in many instances are (|uilc coniuion. The liist introduc-
tion of this class was that of goats and English pigs, and was made by Captain
Cook himself. One ram and two ewes and a paii- of ])i^s wci-c Icil hy hini on
Niihau in 1788. Cattle and sheep were inti'oduccd hy Vancouver fi-oiii Cali-
fornia in 1794. They were landed on Hawaii and I'apidly increased in num-
ber. The first horses in Hawaii arrived in iSo;', and wci-e presentetl to Ivanie-
hmeha I.

1' Laniuni.'i sen70t}/s. ^- Spanish. '^ Puna. ^* Ilio. "• .Sirt sp.

1" The white hogs were often used in niakins ofTerings and sacritices to the gods of ancient Hawaii.

'^" Moa = chicken : moa kane, rooster: niiia wahine, lien.

296 XATIHAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Tlic Hfst deer were broii.iilit tu Hawaii from Okhotsk, Siberia, in 1856, l)ut the
.Moh)kai herd of .spotted deer^^ originated from a small tloek of eight that
^vere sent to Kamehanieha V., from Japan in 1867. They increased in nnmbers
at a i-emarkahic rate; so i-apidly, indeed, that they were thought to threaten
the destiMictioii of the foi-i'sts. Some years hiter the government found it neces-
sai'\- to i'iiii)loy i)rofessional hunters to reduce their number; but deer are still
phMitiful on Ah»hikai. and they furnish the sportsmen of the islands with big
game shootini;' each season.

The ground coloi- of the fur of the spotted deer is rufous-fawn; the whole
of the body being marked by a number of spots which are present at all ages
of the aninuils and throughout the year. These spots tend to arrange them-
selves in longitudinal lines. There is a blackish line running down the back
from th(^ nape of the neck to the base of the tail. White prevails on the
inside of the ears, the chin, the upper part of the throat, the inside of the legs,
as well as the inider surface of the tail. A few very large bucks have been shot
on Molokai. l>ut the average of the largest would seem to lie about 150 pounds,
while the does seldom weigh more than half as much.

The spotted or axis deer is a native of India and Ceylon. It is a common
species in deer parks everywhere, and has been lilierated in several coun-
tries in the Orient. They i)refer to live in the foi-ests at from three to four
tliousand feet elevation, where they frequently congregate in small droves, usually
in the neighborhood of their drinking places. During the middle of the day
they manage to keep out of sight, Init as darkness comes on they become active
and continue to feed diu'ing the night and for some tinu^ after sun-up. If
disturbed during the day they try to steal quietly away by creeping stealthily
off though the undergrowth.

The ]\Iongoose.

The mongoose was first l)i'ought from Jamaica, West Indies, in 1883.
Thirty-six pairs were imported and liberated on Hawaii in the hope that they
would be of value in freeing the cane fields of rats. Unfortunately, they were
carried from on(» ishuui to another before their habits were fully understood,
with the result that all of the islands, -with the exception of Kauai, are now
infested with this animal tliat has proved to be a pest, about which but
little can be said in its favor. The mongoose i'* is a native of India, where the
common species is easily tamed. It is yellowish-gray in color, flecked Avith
black, and is mink-like in size and general appearance. Its fondness for
poultry and eggs renders it a serious meiuice to the ranchman. In the back
country and the wild mountains it does much damage to grouiul-nesting birds,
and is listed as one among the nuiny causes of the rapid decrease in the
nnml)er of several of the llawaiaian species.

Skinks and Geckos.
Of the land i-eptiles oidy seven species of small geckos and skinks have

18 CemiK a.ii-i. '" II erjif nil's (jrineus.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF TlIK (iliOUP. 297

so far been described from the islands. They are eoniiii(iiil\ called lizards hy
Europeans, but were all known by llic name moo l)\- Ihc iiatiNc iiihaliitants,
and were worshipped as gods by the female chiefs. All ni' Ihc species are
quite generally distributed over the group, and. according to my fi-icnd l)i-. L.
Stejneger, avIio has given the subject much study, the species found in llic
islands have a wide distribution throughout Polynesia.

They are interesting, harmless little creatures that do much towards
keeping mites, ants and mosrpiitoes in elieck. For tln^ most ])ar1 they are
nocturnal in habit and are very often seen about houses, on laiiais and
wuidoAV screens. During the daytime the common species find sheltei- in the
dark, under boards, in crevices in the bark of trees or any place where they
can secrete themselves. Their white eggs are a])(>nt the size of a small l)ean,
and are usually attached to some object near llic place where the nidi her
hides during the day. In due coui'se of time the young animal liatches fi'om
the egg and is a miniature of the adult. It is about an inch and a half in
length, and at once takes up the task of supplying itself with its natui-al food.
They become quite tame and in many homes are protected and live a shell eicd
life in a state of semi-domestication.

Of the seven species, four belong to the gecko family.-" The peculiarities
which separate them at once from the skink family are the presence of a large
symmetrical shield on the top of the head and the absence of miinite scales
over the body. All four species of gecko have been taken in the same house,
and the characteristics which separate them from one another are somewhat
obscure, to the ordinary observer. Those interested in identifying the sjx'cies
should consult Dr. Stejneger's account of the land reptiles of the Hawaiian
Islands.

The three species of skinks -^ are snuill, smooth and shiny, and all have
more or less conspicuous longitudinal stripes. They have much Itie same
habits as have already been described for the geckos and, like them, are vei'y
liable to lose a portion of their tails at the slightest provocation. The missing
portion may be replaced in due time with a new tail which is usually smaller
than the portion lost. On rai'e occasions two oi- three tails will gi-ow (Uit of
the injured stunq), giviim the animal an odd appcai-ance. The ability of,
the gecku to change color in order to resemble the object upon which it is i-esting
furnishes an example of voluntary color ])rotection that is most interesting.

Frogs and Toads.

The first frogs were bi'ought to the islands hy the I\oyal Agi'iciiltural
Society at a date prior to 1867. The earliest delinitely recorded shi|mient,
however, was made in the year just mentioiuxl. ^\•hell "frogs were libciatcd
at Paw^aa," in TTonolulu. Several species of frogs ami loads ha\-e heen
introduced into the group in more recent years, fi-om .Tai)an and .VnnM-ica. with
the residt that they are now connuon in .-dl the fresh wati-r stn^ims ami ponds

-" Geckuiiidir. -' Sriiicida'.

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THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 299

in the Territofx'. They are of iiiucli iiiiportjiiicc in ihc cvcm'-iii-csi'iiI ii<iht
against mosquitoes, since they are known to feed on llirir l;irv;i'. 'I'lu'v ;ire
also supposed to feed on the liver-fluke which is (piilc coiiiiiion in cciijiin
localities. Bullfrogs-- of very large size and wi1li nci-v (Icc|) hull-like voices
are well established, and frogs' legs are often seen in the markets.

Tadpoles of the various species of frogs and toads are ])lentifiil in the
pools along the streams far up into the mountains and arc sure to attract th(^
attention of the student of iiature. A few captured and placed in a jar at
home or at school will prove of great interest, as the transformation proceeds from
an aquatic tish-like animal with gills, to an air-breathing quadruped with lungs.

No Snakes in Hawaii.

Fortunately, there are no land snakes in Hawaii. On several occasions,
hovrever, snakes from California have reached the islands in bailed liay. but
as yet they have never made their escape so as to become established hei-e.
The same is true of certain California lizards. A specimen fifteen inclies in
length w^as killed on the wharf in Honolulu harbor a few years --^ ago. P>ut as
commerce from outside ports is safeguarded at present, thei-e is little dang(M'
of the larger reptiles gaining a foothold here.

Turning from the land and fresh-water vertebrates to those inhabiting the
sea, three specimens of sea-snakes are reported to have been collected
in Hawaiian w^aters. Two specimens, secured on opposite sides of Oalui, ai'e
preserved in the Bishop Museum. The first specimen reported, however, was
identified by Prof. II. W. Henshaw. It was taken alive at Laupahoehoe, on Ha-
waii, in 1902, by ]Mr. E. AV. Barnard. When found, the creature was sunning it-
self on shore and had evidently come from the water to shed its outei' skin, which
was still attached to the body. The family of sea-snakes -"^ to which this
species belongs is characterized by having the tail flattened to serve as a fin.
The specimen,--'' being the first sea-snake to be taken in Hawaii, made (piite a
stir at the time, but as it was but two feet in length, and as only three speci-
mens have been reported in the history of the islands, theii- occui-rence hei-e
may be considered purely accidental.

Sea-Turtles.

Among the more important animals inhabiting the sea. uu-ntion should be
made of the two species of sea-turtles that occur in the watei-s aliout the islands.
They are known as the honu and the e-a by the natives, who ai-e \-ei-y foiul of
the honu as a food. In former times the llawaiians made use of the shell plates
in the manufacture of fish hooks, scrapers for removing the ti-ash fi-om olona
fiber, and, to some extent, in more recent times, in the manufactui-e of oi'ua-
ments. Turtles two feet or more across the shell are not rare, though the
specimens which reach the market are usually much smallei-. In both species
the limbs have become conijiletely modified into llippei-s oi- paddles which

-- Rana catesbiana. =''1911. -^ II tidiniihidce. "^' Ui/dnis jilntiini.i.

300 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

enal)le them td swim swiflly in the se;i. but render them almost helpk'ss on the
laud, where if turued on tlieir baek, they caunot regain their normal position.
They deposit their eggs in the sand in nests which they scoop out to a depth of two
feet or more. The most abundant species about Hawaii is the green turtle.-'^
It has a strong hill and the center of the baek is made up of thirteen plates
arranged in three rows, which lie perfectly smooth and never overlap, as they
do on tlu' rarer hawkshill turtle-' or e-a, which furnishes the tortoise-shell of
commerce. As its name suggests, this latter species always has a hooked bill. It
also has thirtc^Mi plates over the back which overlap like shingles on a roof,
until it is nearly grown, when they assume the arrangement occurring on the
related species.

Galapagos Land-Tortoise.

A specimen of one of the many si)ecies of Galapagos land-tortoise -'* is
also to be seen in Hawaii. It belongs to the former Queen Liliuokalani, and
was brought to the islands by Capt. eJohn ]\Ieek between 1812 and 1825. It is
reported that at his place on King street he kept "many land-turtles" which
were brought home by him on ninnerous trips to Mexico. When they were
finally disposed of the specimen now in possession of her ]\Iajesty was given to
King Kamehameha III. It eventually passed into the hands of Kapiolani, and
after her death was still held in the royal family. It was a large animal when
brought to these islands almost one hundred years ago, and without doubt was
very old at that time.

A second specimen -'■' was kept for a number of years on Xuiuinu street
in Mrs. ]\Iary E. Foster's wonderful garden of tropical plants. In their native
home in the Galapagos Islands, the tortoise feed on cacti and coarse grass, but in
captivity they feed on kitchen refuse. While they are dull creatures they are
nevertheless objects of great interest and curiosity.

Porpoise and Dolphin.

At least tAvo and probably more species of porpoise^'' occur in the waters
about Hawaii. The commoner species -^^ is dark gray in color over the back,
and is white beneath, varied with small gray spots, and is about six feet in
length. The teeth on both jaws are numerous, being about forty in number.
The porpoises belong to the great order of aquatic mammals with fish-like
bodies^-, which include the true whales and the dolphins, and are known as
naia by the Hawaiians. In this order there are no posterior appendages. The
anterior appendages act as paddles and are without joints. The tail is hori-
zontally expanded to foi-m a i)owerful ])ropeller.

The ])orpoises associate in herds or schools, and tlieir sportive gambols are
familiar to almost everyone who has made a sea voyage in the Pacific. As
they dive and sport under the liow of a slow-moving vessel they present a
sia'ht long to be i-ememhered. At one moment will be seen the roll of the

-<^ CheUme nnjdas. -' Cli,-loiii> inibrirata. -" Test udo sp. -"Died 1908. so Pro(h'JpliiiiiiK.

^' Proddpliinux iilti'iiiidtii.s. ^'- Cetncea.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 301

arched back surmounted by the curved iiu : a1 jitiollici- the wliitf liflly will
tlash in the sunlight as the creature swims aloti^' in a series of graceful (Mirvcs
in the surface water. Not infrequently scores of them will be seen swiiiiiniug
and leaping about a vessel for honrs together. It is then that Ihc voyager
is often given his first opportunity to see a hai-poon thrown froiii tin- bow of
the vessel. Perhaps if a successful thrust is made one of these odd mammals
will be brought on deck, where it can be examined at close range.

The term dolphin is rather loosely used and is sometimes a])plie(l to a
fish, sometimes to a narwhale, but more often to the gram])us or Iviller. The
name properly belongs to a genus of animals world-wide in their distribution,
of which the common dolphin, ■■^•'' a species Ihat abounds in all leiuix-i'ate and
tropical seas, may be considered as typical. But as there are several closely-
related species, it is difficult to identify- them in the water oi' to separate them
from the ])orpoises "without specimens and recourse to extended technical
descriptions.

Whales.

It should be stated in this connection that the watei's of the Pacific are
inhabited by several species of whales, of which the right whale or whalebone
whales,-'^ with three or more wide-ranging species, are the most important.
However, the sperm-whale or cachlot ^•'' and the humpback ^'' are ]')erhaps the
most common. In times past the pursuit of whales and the whaling industry
was a matter of great commercial importance to the Hawaiian Islands.

Although by their mode of life they are far removed from obsiM-vation,
whales are in many respects the most interesting of all creatures, and there is
much in their habits worthy of study. The whalebone, or Arctic right whale-"'',
attains, when full grown, a length of from forty-five to fifty feet. The head is
enormous in size, exceeding one-third the length of the creature. The upper
jaw resembles nothing so much as a large spoon. The whalebone blades acquire
a length of ten or twelve feet ; there being about '^SO on each side of tlie
upper jaw. These blades are black in color, fine and elastic in texture, and
fray out on their inner edges and ends into soft, delicate bail's, 'i'lie remark-
able development of the mouth and of the various sti-nctui-es coiniecled with
it bear a close relation to the food habits of this whale. H\ nu'ans of the seine
or seive-like apparatus just described, it is possible for these animals to cap-
ture the minute forms of life which swarm in immense numbei-s in the seas it
frequents. The elastic whalebone of commerce has Ioiil; been a valuable com-
modity, and many a fortune has been made I'rom the Mhalini;' business. In
recent years, owing to the decrease in the inuiiber of whah^s, the i)rice of
Avhalebone has been as high as twelve thousand dollars i)ei- ton.

The sperm-whale, or ])alaoa of the natives, is the lar^vst I'epresentative of
the toothed whales, and in length and bulk it somewhat exceeds that of the

^'^ Delphiniis delphi.s. ^* Bahi'tta s])p. ^'' Phi/netcr niacrocephnliis. «" J/('(;n/)f»')-n sp.

''" Bahvna )iii/sticeliis.

302 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

ri^iilit whak' just iiiciitioiuMl. The head differs from that of the right wliale
in being over one-tliii-d the h-ngtli of the liody, very massive and high, and
is abruptly ti'uncated in front. This curious development of the head is
mainly caused hy the bulk of fatty tissue massed in the large hollow on the
upper surface of the skull. The weight of the skull is very great. The
skeleton of the six'cimcn assembled l)y the writer, now on exhibition in the
Bishoji Museum, weighs almost three thousand pounds.

The blow-hole is placed on the anterior extremity of the head a little to
one side of the center. Ownng to the curious sliape of the head in the sperm-
whale, the ''hump," when \ho animal comes to the surface to blow, is in front
of the spray; in the I'ight wiuile and the humpback, the hump is behind the
spray. Owing to this ditference the experienced whaler is able to identify the
species miles away from his ship.

The lowei- jaw of the sperm-whale differs from that of the right whale in
being narrow and in having from twenty to twenty-five stout conical teeth six
or eight inches in length, that are composed of ivory of good quality. Whale
ivory was much prized by the native Hawaiians, and used l)y them in the manu-
facture of the jewelry and ornaments of which mention has already been made.

The sperm-M-hale is doubtless one of the most widely distributed of living
animals, being met with usually in herds or schools in almost all tropical and
sub-tropical seas. Its food consists mainly of sipiid and cuttlefish, but the
larger fish are also devoured, though how they ai-e captured yet remains a
mystery. The substance known as "ambergris," formerly used in cookery and
medicine and now in the manufacture of perfumery, is a concretion formed in
the intestines of this and perhaps in other species of whales, and is occasionally
found floating on the surface of the sea or cast up on the open l)eacli.

The right whale is pursued primarily for its whalebone, though its blubber
is a valuable by-product. The sperm-whale is sought for chiefly for the large
quantity of whale oil which it yields. This oil varies in color from a bright
honey-yell OAv to a dark brown, according to the part of the animal from which
it is taken. The best oil is that taken from the head, where it occurs as pure
oil and may be dipped out with a bucket. Sixty to eighty barrels of oil from
the head alone were not uncommon records when wdialing* was at its height.

The humpback whale,-'*'^ or kohola of the Hawaiian seamen, is a large
species and belongs to the group characterized by the presence of a number of
longitudinal Hutings or folds in the skin of the throat, and by the fin on the
back. They were formerly quite common off the Island of ^laui during the
winter season, and were occasionally captured and bi-ought to land. In more
recent times, while both hvniipback and sperm-whales are seen cpiite frequently
each year al)out the islands, but little attention is paid to them unless they
chance to become stranded, as occasionally happens. In ancient times all
whales and porpoises •"■'•' cast ashore were the property of the alii, or chiefs, and
the wearing of whale-ivorv ornaments was liniitcd to that class.

** Megaptera Jioops. ^" Naia.

THE ANIMAL LIFH OF TIIF: (I ROUP. 303

TiiK AViiAiJNG Industry.

In tlie old whalinij' days vcsstds ono'ai»ed in the Ifadc i-aiii:cd ii|» to I'oiir
hundred tons burden, and were often outfitted for a two or llircc years"
voyage. Their usual destination being the "south seas," llicy frc(|iictitly
utilized Hawaii as a depot station. A whaling vessel )isiiall\- carried six
whaleboats. These were about twenty-seven feet in length, with four-foot
beam, and were pointed at both ends.

When a whale was sighted, four boats put oft' at once, each ])eing provided
with a pair of two-hundred-fathoni harpoon lines and carrying a crew of six
men. "It was the business of the l)oat-steerer to harpoon the whale when it
came to the surface to spout. AVhen this was done he changed places with a
member of the crew, whose duty was to kill the animal with a lance. When a
whale was harpooned, immediately al't(n" the first struggle and when it was
lying exhausted from its endeavors to escape, the boat was pulled close along-
side, and the headsman began the work of destruction by thrtisting his lance into
the vital parts behind the flipper. As soon as the whale was lanced the boats
were backed with all possible speed. When first struck the whale frequently
'sounded' or descended to immense depths, sometimes taking out nearly all
of the eight hundred fathoms of line carried by the four boats. Subsequently,
however, when weakened by the loss of blood, it kept on or near the surface,
towing after it one or more of the boats. By hauling in the line the boat or
boats were pulled up alongside and the monster Anally destroyed, eithei- by
darting or thrusting with the lance."

Whaling as thus carried on was full of dangers, and an occupation calcu-
lated to be followed only by the most hardy and ventui'esome ; hundreds of
accounts of hairbreadth escapes from death have been chronicled in the
pursuit of this business in which, at its height in 1852. no feAver than two
hundred and seventy-five American vessel were engaged, in the noitli Pacific
alone. The amount of oil taken that year by the fleet exceeded 3.'^7.0()() bar-
rels, and more than 5,000,000 pounds of whalebone was secured.

The Hawaiian Islands were in the center of this trade, and thousands (»f
the native Ilawaiians were employed as whalers. The business developed in
the ports of the islands furnished the impetus and the foundation for more
substantial and diversified trade that has rapidly increased in volume to tiie
present, though whaling, on anything like an extensive scale, was pi-actically
at an end by 1875.

As long ago as 1824 the brig Ainoa set out from the islands for a sealing
voyage. At different times, but ])ai-ticulail\ in 1859, sealing expeditions have
been made among the islands to the west of Kauai. In thai year the (Janibia
returned to llonloulu with fifteen hundred skins and two liuiidi'cd and forty
barrels of seal oil. This furnishes us with a record of the foi-nier abundance of
the seaH" in the Hawaiian group. Of i-ecenf years they have been far from

^^ Monar/i us scIki u i iishi mli.

304 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

abundant, though seals are regularly reported from Laysan, Lisiansky, Pearl
and Hermes Reef, and are occasionally seen at ^Midway. In January, 1912,
the U. S. Revenue cutter Tlietis returned from a cruise to ^Midway and Laysan
and brought a seal-skin back which was presented to the Bishop ^Museum. Baby
seals were seen at that time, and it is (piite probnble that, if not intcrf(n*cd
Avith. the h(>rd will increasi^ in iiunilicrs.

CHAPTER XXII.
INTRODUCED BIRDS.

The nature-lover visiting Hawaii for the tirst time is sure to be disap-
pointed by the limited number of species of birds to be seen in Honolulu and
along the main traveled roads about the islands. AVere it not for the presence
of the dozen or more species of birds that have been introduced into Hawaii by
accident or design, it is doubtful if the average tourist would see or hear a
single bird during his stay in the group. It is unfortunate that of the otie
hundred and twenty-five or more species enumerated in the list of birds in the
islands, not more than ludf a dozen will be seen within the city of Honolulu, and
nil of these are introduced from other lands.

The English Sparrow.

The English sparrow ' is perhaps the most abundant bird about the city.
This pert, saucy and industrious Britisher is six inches or so in length, and has
a brownish back, streaked with black. In the adult male the conspicuous black
throat patch makes it a species easily recognized as an old acquaintance of a
distant land, and serves to distinguish it from the house finch or the "rice
l)ird,"- the only other species with wdiich it can be confused. The latter
species is about tlie size of its English cousin, but is light ashy-broAvn, streaked
wi1h (lark l)r()Avii above. During the mating season the male has the throat
and breast a crimson color. The English sparrow's eggs are always spotted,
while the house finch's eggs are smaller and are a very pale bluish tint.

Rice Birds.

There is also another rice bird, much smaller than the California house
finch. It is usually seen flying in small, compact tiocks. In reality it is a
weaver bird and belongs to a dift'erent family from that of the two species just
described. Doubtless it arrived in Hawaii many years ago as a cage bird that
came originally from the Malay Peninsula. As so often happens Avith pets, it
probably escaped from captivity and has since become common throughout
the group. While it is called a rice l)ird. it is better known locally as the
Chinese sparrow.-'' It is about two-thirds the size of the larger rice l)ird, and

^Passer dowenticus. - CnrpodaciiK inexirarins ohscurriis. ^ Miinia ni.ioria.

THE xVXLMAL LIFE OF THE OROUP. 305

in o-eneral color is ;i -warm cliocolatc ])i'o-\vii. Wlicti a .speeimon is in liaiid it
will be found that cacii t'catlicf over tiie hack is iiiai'kcd hy a iiaiTnw wliiti-
shaft line. All three of these s|)ai'i'ow-like l)irds feed af ccrlaiti seasons dii the
<:'ultivated rice — a fact that has pi'odueed nnudi confusion in the ])opiiiar juind
as to just which species is in reality entitled to Ix- caUcd the i ice bird.

The combined danniLic tiiat these birds do to the <_;ro\\inj4' jji-ain I'luni tlie
fime the kernels of rice bet>'in to form in tiie licads until the crop is finally
harvested, amounts to many thousands of dollars annually. The rice fai'iners
patrol their fields during this season, from early morning' until sundown, dis-
charging "rice guns," shouting and conducting a genei-al ciMisade a'.^ainst the
l3irds. Many Chinese farmers set up scarecrows, to which windmills and noise-
making devices are attached, to guard the i-ipening ci*o}). <)thei-s will inge-
niously run stout wire supported above the grain on l)aml)oo poles, over an
entire field of grain. From these dangle a motley arra\' of old tin cans,
clappers and other noise-producing junk. The free ends of all of the main
wires center at a conveniently-placed elevated platform from which the fannei'
keeps a sharp lookout for the feathered despoilers of his harvest. Just as the
tiock alights on the drooping heads of grain, the farmer pulls the main wire
that runs to the place under attack. The neighborhood resounds with the
din, with the result that the intruders fly to some other spot. Avhere the same
form of repulse is resorted to. In a short time the birds And that they are
more scared than hurt by the noise, and become more and more l)old. often
standing their ground without wavering through the veritable pantleinonium.
The writer has watched with nuich interest the development of courage among
these uninvited and unwelcome bird guests, and doubts whether much is gained
in the long run by this form of warfare, save the satisfaction to the fai'iner of
doing something to protect his crop.

Chinese Turtle-Dove. -

The Chinese turtle-dove,^ as its name suggests, came originally fi-om
China. It is another introduced bird that is abundant in the i-ice fields, more
especially after the crop has been gathered. 'J'hey then visit the fields in pairs
or in small flocks to glean the scattered grain that may he left after the frugal
Chinese farmers' wives have gathered in the last straws left lying on the
ground by the harvest-men.

Dove shooting is said to be real sport in Hawaii, and thosi' who indulL:i' in
it as such are always anxious for the open season to begin. .\n e\i)ert
marksman, in the height of the season, will secure a hag of lifty oi- sixty birds
in a single day. Though the dove is modest and rt'tiring, its inourni'nl call
is not an unconnnon sound in the city: the flat, loosely-constructed nest in
which two white eggs are laid, is occasionally Found ni the trees and shruhs
forming the tropical tangle that often surrctunds the Hawaiian home.

^ Turtiir ( Spild/ictia ) clihii'nKis.

306 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

The Mynah Bird.

Xo l)ii'd in Hawaii is more conspicuous or more thorougiily at home in
his adopted land than is the false mynah'' or mina. The mvnah was brought
to Hawaii l)y Dr. Wm. Hille])rand years ago to feed on the cutworm of a certain
moth.*' The birds flourished and multiplied and have had an important part in
the reduction of the pest. Although not withoiit bad habits, they must be
regarded as generally beneficial in their food habits.

Had they not become fond of the seeds of the introduced lantana — and
tluis become directly responsible for its being spread broadcast over the
islands — there is little doul)t but that the mynah would have been gener-
ally held in higher esteem than it is today. Their size, industry and sociability
make them interesting objects wherever they are, and the study of thtMr nests,
food, and life haliits will well repay the observing bird-lover.

The false mynah is so called to distingaiish it from the true mynah of
India, a bird which they resemble in size, habit and general characteristics.
It is an exceedingly sagacious bird, and readily learns new tricks that enable
it to adapt itself to peculiar and unusual conditions of life. There are cases on
record where the young have been taught to say single words; but in linguistic
attainments they are not the equal of their Indian cousins.

Their nests, which arc built in odd places about buildings, under rafters, in
eaves-troughs, or occasionally saddled into forks of trees, are invariably bulky
affairs. Their eggs are of fair size and blue in color, resembling those of the
American robin. All day long they scold, call or try to sing as fancy strikes
them, but at night, as they congregate in certain large banian trees about the
city in tiocks of hundreds, the noise they make in taking leave of each other
and of the day, before going to roost, is little short of deafening. The first
faint glow in the east is the signal for them to take up the argument and the
work where they left off the day before. So day after day the unmusical
voice of the mynah, as it dins its call into the ears of the traveler, morning,
noon and night, comes to be the sound from Hawaii that lives longest in the
memory. Likely as not, years afterward, when the sight of old Diamond Head
and her waving cocoanut palms and the languid caress of the soft air of the
tropics ai-e but shadowy memories, it will be some harsh bird-note, caught by
the listless senses in an idle moment, that will again vividly bring to the mind
of the traveler the mynah. and its noisy evening song, and the twilight scene
it revives in fancy.

There is a popular though erroneous belief in Hawaii that the mynah is
responsible for the disappearance of the native birds. The fact that this
noisy stranger is frequently found in the forests at an elevation of five or six
thousand feet, is offered as an explanation foi- th(^ singular passing from
the forest regions of many species of native birds. There is little reason,

^ Acridotheres tristi.i, '^ SiKuhiplirn imi iiritiii.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OP THE GROUP. 307

however, for supposing this to be the true cause. Tlicrc may be eases, about
settlements especially, where the mynali lias been known to interfere willi the
nests and eggs of certain birds, particul;ii-ly those (»f tlie English sparrow, a
species with which its habits bring it iii shai'|) and direct contact: hut so far
as the opinions of the l)est observers and my own experienee go, ihc ni> iiah.
when he tinds himself in tlie forest, lives at peace willi the native hii-ds. The
general habits of the forest birds differ widely from those of the myiiah. and
their nesting and food habits are so different tluit the two seldom come into con-
flict.

The Skylarks.

The English skylark" was introduced into Hawaii purely for sentimental
reasons, because of its beautiful song. ^Many persons who have settled in
Hawaii came directly from England, and Avere familiar with the profuse strains
of this songster in their native land : naturally, the lark is a favorite with
them. These birds, now fairly common in the pastures and on the open fore-
hills of the principal islands of the group, are descended from birds l)rought
by the Hon. A. S. Cleghorn from New Zealand, where the bird had been suc-
cessfully introduced from England by early colonists.

The lark is a dull-l)rownisli l)ii'd, well known to every one who strolls along
the paths that lead into the mountains. Often they Avill be startled into song
from the roadside by the rumble of a carriage or the tread of a pedestrian,
and, singing, they will mount higher and higher into the sky, carrying their
song with them, up, up, until both singer and song are lost to sight and ear.
They are not content with merely lilting their song to the heavens, but will
SAveetly and skilfully coax it back with them to earth again. It often hapi)ens
that a half dozen of these blithe singers will mount skyward at the same time,
dropping after them a veritable shoAvei- of song that could but delight the most
careless cross-country rambler, and bruig him home again glad that there is in
Hawaii such a bird as the skylark.

Pheasants.

The several species of game-birds that have been introduced into Hawaii
are of special interest to the sportsman. To the credit of many of oui- fore-
most citizens of a generation or more ago, pheasants jind (piails wei-e brought
to Hawaii at ju-ivate expense and liberated. New l)reeding stock has been
brought in, from time to time, and the welfare of tlu' game-birds so guarded
by law that they have increased, particularly on the islands of Kauai aiul
Molokai, until they are sufficiently al)iuidant to make uanie shooting an I'u.joy-
able sport.

Two species of pheasant are now well naturalized in Hawaii. The ring-
neck or Chinese pheasant- came originally from China, but as it has been
extensivelv reared in England and Auiecira, usually as a cage-bird, it is dif-

' AUntda (irrcnsin. •* PlidKiiniiiti tdniiuiliis.

308 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

ficnlt to tell from wlieuce the Hawaiian stock was derived. The baek of the
male is a fine eoppei-y-chestnut color, the neck a beantifnl metallic-green, with a
narrow white collar about the middle, and the breast a gorgeous metallic-copper
color with purple reflections.

The Japanese pheasant '^ is about the same size as the Chinese species.
The pure-blooded male can be easily identified, as its underparts are dark
green ;ind tliei'e is no white ring about the neck. The females of the two
species are more tlifheult to identify, esj)ecially in Hawaii, where hybrids
between the two species frequently occur that rival the pure stock in size and
beauty of ijlumage.

The California 1'artridge.

The California partridge i" is well establihed in the islands, especially
on Hawaii, IMani and IMolokai. 'J'he pretty black crest and throat and black
scale-like markings on the belly, Mitli a central patch of chestnut on the breast
of the males, and the prevailing smoky or brownish color of the females, taken
together with the habit, size and rapid flight of the partridge, makes it an
easy bird to recognize, as they scurry across the road or take flight from
under foot and whir through the air like so many winged bullets.

The pheasants and partridges prefer the open country, the forehills, and
straggling scrul) a])()ut the lower edges of the mountain forests, and in spite of
the damage to them and their nests that is directly traceable to the mongoose,
they are generally believed to l)e increasing in numbers.

The wild fowl, or moa, was introduced by the natives long before the
coming of the white man, but since his coming other breeds have escaped into
the mountains and a mongrel HaM-aiian wild chicken has resulted. The intro-
duction and liberation of certain domestic birds, as turkeys, pea-fowls, guinea-
fowls and the like, have been made from time to time until they are cpiite
common in a wild state on the different islands.

Other birds have escaped and become established, among them a ])arrot
on Maui and a Chinese thrush ^ on Oahu ; tliough the latter is not a thrush, but
a reed-warhler. It is to be hoped that ere long the scientific introduction of
desir;d)le economic species will be undertaken, since there are many species
of birds in America and elsewhere that, if brought to HaAvaii. would fill a
useful place in the economy of nature, and at the same time add by their
presence to the pleasure of life in both cily and country.

CHAPTER XXIII.
BIRDS OF THE SEA AND OCEANIC ISLANDS.

Regular Visitors and Ocean Waifs.

Of the little list of less than thirty species of sea-birds of which Hawaii
can boast, almost half the number are verv rare winter visitors. As a rule

' Phasianiis versicolor. ^o Lopliurtyx californicn. ^'^ Iroclialopterutii cunorur

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 309

these are ocean waifs — youiiu' and uiH'xpeiMciiccd bii-ds -lluit Imvc losl thcii'
way in an attempt to migrate for Ww first time along- the American coast on
their way to their winter homes in the Soutli. Sncli l)ii-ils are rare in the
islands and are seldom seen ontside of museums. They are usually, though
not always, common west coast species of g'ulls and terns^ and ducks.- Birds
of these families are well adapted hy nature to enjoy life on tlie ishuid shores
and reefs, and one is led to wonder why some of them, in times pMst. have not
taken up a residence and settled down to a fishing life, and become abundant
along Hawaii's coasts, now sadly destitute of sea-bird inhabitants.

Unfortunately for the bird student, only a few of the species that I'egu-
larly frequent the waters about the islands ever come close enough to the
shore to be identified more exactly than to say that they are large or small sea
birds. Of the limited list tliat may be said to be common about the group,
there are as many as four species that nest in holes which they find or makf
in the faces of the high cliffs in the mountains in the large inhabited islands.
They may be seen occasionally in the daytime flying over tlu' land. I)u1 gener-
ally only their curious calls can be heard, as they ai'e nocturnal in habit and
are seldom abroad during the day.

Tropic Birds.

The white-tailed tropic bird •* is the species most commonly seen during the
daytime. It is a beautiful white bird, and in fine weather, in favored locali-
ties, as many as half a dozen may be seen at once, gracefully floatinu' about the
cliff's at the head of the principal valleys of the islands. They la\- but a single
large, cream-colored egg — thickly blotted, splotched and mottled with rich brown
— which they deposit in a nest of loose straws, tucked in a crevice in the face
of the cliff'. The young nestling diff'ers from the adult in thai the liody and
head are mottled black and white. In this stage they resemble the younu of
the red-tailed apecies ^ which occiu's on the low sand islands of the northwest
chain. The adults ditt'er from the red-tailed species, as their name suggests, in
having their long tail white, or salmon color, instead of deep red. Th(» jilumage
of both species was much used in Hawaii in times past in the inannl'aetui-e of
the native kahilis that are elsewhere describetl. The birds wei'e also used as food
by the natives.

Petrels and Shearwaters.

The Hawaiian petrel,"" Xewell's sheai-watei-.'' anel the Hawaiian stormy
petrel' are all small or medium-sized, dark-colored sea-birds with hnoked bills;
they nest in holes in tlu^ nujuntains. .\lt hough the\' and their hal)its were
well known to the Hawaiians, A\iio were ex])ei-t naturalists, tiny JiaNc con-
tinued to be very rare specimens in collections, owing to their night-flying"
habits and the almost inaccessible places in which they nest. The\- were a

^ Laridtr. - Anafidrr. ^ Phaethon li'ptKriix. * Phncthon rubriraiida.

^ dEstrelata sa ndwicliciinis. '^ I'lifli loix tii-irclli. "Oceanodroma cryptoleuciira.

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THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. oil

favorite food in the old days, iiiiich resembliiii^' s(|iial) in Havoi'. jiikI were in-c-
ferred on the Hawaiian table over the Ironic bird, whose Hcsh liad ;i stroii"-
fishy flavor. These sj^ecies all la.\- but a siimlc didl-whilc i'ix<x. AVithonI doubt
all fonr of the cliff-nesting si)ecies mentioned above arc doomed to extinct ion
in the islands, owing to the inroads made ii])on lliem by the mongoose, which is
a serious menace to all ground-nesting birds.

Perhaps the average person sees more birds from the deck of an island
steamer than in any other way. In fact, most of the more common day-flying,
sea-going species may be identified by a practised observer while crossing' the
channels between the islands.

Terns.

The small, graceful black bird with a silvery-gray crown, flying usually
in small flocks, is almost sure to l:!e the Hawaiian tern,^ although it is easily
confused with its cousin, the noddy tern,'^ from which it diffei's chietly in
being a trifle smaller and of a more slender build.

Both species are active flshers, capturing their prey by flying close to
the surface of the ocean and swooping down upon any of the small, uinvai-y
species of fish that abound in the surface water five or ten miles off the coast.
Both of these graceful birds have much the same habits and disposition. The
writer has taken the nests and eggs of both species from crevices in steep sea-
cliffs as well as from the tops of low bushes growing on the flat sand islands of
the group. Both birds were formerly used to some extent as food. They wvrv
usually captured by the natives at night by the aid of torches. The light
served to bewilder the birds, causing them to fly, aimlessly al)out, wlien it was
an easy matter to knock them down with sticks and poles.

Like many sea-birds, both species lay but a single egg, which tliey |)laee
on a small heap of sticks and seaweed that serves as a nest. The eggs are

^ Micranous hawaiiensis. ^ Anous stnlidiis.

Desckiptiox of Plate.

1. View of birdlife on Laysan (opposite side of t\w yioup shown in fi^. 7). in tlu'
burrow, Bonin Petrel (zEstrelata hypoleiica) ; under the huslics a Kcd-tailed Tropic Bird
(Fliaetlion rabricauda) ; on the bushes two Noddy Terns {Aiiotis .stulidii.s) and an old ami
young Hawaiian Tern [Noio] (Micranous Juiwaiiensis) ; on the rock and bushes a Red-footed
Booby {Sida piscator) ; on the rocks two old and young Wliite Terns (Gi/f/is idha litl1i(:i) ;
on the sand one Christmas Island Shearwater {Pitfflinis iiatiritali.s). 2. Pair of Mau-o- 'war
Birds [Iwa] (Fregata aquila) on the nest showing the large red gular poiici: cm the nuile.
3. Group showing old, young, immature and egg of the Black-crowned Night Heron | Aukuu
kohili] (Nycticornx ni/cticoraj- turrius). 4. Black-footed Albatross (Dionicdca iil(iripcs). ."i.
Group of Hawaiian shore-birds; five Turnstones |Akcl<(>ke| (ArctKiria inlirpns) are shown
in the act of lighting; on the rock a Bristle-thighed I'urlew | KioeaJ { \ u m c ni uti tahiticnsix) ;
to the left Hawaiian Stilt [Kukuluaeo] {Rimantopus knudseni) ; by the water's edge Pacific
Golden Plover [Kolea] (Clun-adrius dominiriis fulvus); one just rising and one jireeniug
Wandering Tatler [UliJi] (Ilftcracfifis inraiius). (i. The Hawaiian Goose [ Xenel {S'rsochcn
sandricensi.s) . 7. ()])p()site side of fig. 1, Birds in lliy;ht Sooty Tern (Stcnui fiilininosii) ;
on the bushes Ked-footed Booby (Sida piscator) ; on the ground left Blue-faced Booby {Suhi
cyanops) ; on the ground in center Grey-backed Tern {Sterna liuiata) ; in tiie deeper hole
Bulwers Petrel (Bidiccria bidwrria hidtceri) ; in the slinllciw burrow Wcdgr-t.iilcil Slicarwater
(Priofinuji cuneatus) old and young.

312 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

even more alike if i)o.ssil)le than the birds, and a description of one will suffice
for both. They are usually a little smaller than a bantam chicken egg, and
clear grayish-white, vai'iously splotched and mottled with clove-brown, varied
often with lilac markings.

The sooty tei-n i" is a beautiful, graceful species common in the waters
about the islands. It nuiy be identified by its typical tern-like flight and the
fact that the upper parts are sooty-black while the under parts, forehead and
a narrow stripe over the eye, are wdiite.

Two or three species of small, tube-nosed swimmers that skim singly, or
in pairs, over the water, that all pass in the distance as "mutton birds," are
as liable to be one as the other of the wedge-tailed shearwater,ii the Christ-
mas Island shearwater.!- the Bonin petrel,!-"* or the Hawaiian petrel.^"*

AVhere careful identification is possible they may prove to be something
very ditferent, however, and it is unsafe to hazard more than a guess as to
the name of a species seen on the wing at sea. Fortunately, there is no ground
for uncertainty in the identification of the large, tube-nose swimmers.

Albatross.

The black-footed albatross i-'^ is sooty-brown all over, while the Laysan Island
albatross ^'^ has the abdomen white. Both species are about the size of a large
goose and are called gooneys by the sailors. They l)oth follow vessels cross-
ing the Pacific, for hundreds of miles on their journeys to and from the islands.
Not infrequently a fiock of three or four birds will follow a steamer for days,
eagerly seizing the bits of waste that may be thrown overboard from tlie
cooks' gal lev.

to'

Man-0 '-War Bird.

The majestic black man-o'-war i" bird, often little more than a mere speck in
the clear blue sky, is easily recognized as it sails high overhead, circling round
and round for houi's at a time without the slightest apparent effort; they are
objects of never-failing interest, serving often as a welcome diversion to
relieve the monotonous round of daily life on l)o;ird an ocean liner in the
tropics.

Interesting as the Hawaiian species of sea-birds may be when on th(^ wing,
their home life is a great deal more so, and fortunate indeed is the person who
is able to spend a few days in one of the large colonies to be found on all of
the smaller uninhabited islands that lie to the northwest of Kauai.

Birds of Laysan Island.

Laysan is perhaps the largest sea-bird colony in the tropics, and its teem-
ing hordes of ])ii"d inhabitants may justly claim for it a place as one of the
great natural wonders of the world. The island itself is scarcelv two and a

1" .S'ffj-jio fiiHf/inosn. ^'^ Priofintis cu7\eatus. ^^ Puffinns notiritati.i. '^'^ .V.strclata hy/iolfiica.

^* JEstrelata s(nidwi<-Iifi)ii.sis. ^^ Diomedea nigripes. ^'^ Diomedea hnmutahilis. ^' Freyata nquila.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 313

half miles lon.u' ])y one and a liall' ln-oad, and is abdut fi»i-t\' l'ci'1 ahovc the sea
at the highest i)()iiit. In form, it i'eseml)les a great oval platter, and dislidike,
it holds a slialiow salt-Avatei- lake tliat varies in size to correspond witli llie
amount of rain that falls on the island. There seems to be abundant geologic
evidence to ]ii'ove that the island was at one time a closed coral reef or an
atoll that in the remote past was elevated above the surface of the sea. Thu.s,
the coral stone foundation was formed around the salt lake thai the sea and
the wind have since made over into a sand island.

The low sand rim that surrounds the lake and forms the island i)ropcr,
slopes gently toward the sea without, and the lake within. On this double
beach that is half or three-quarters of a mile in width, a few vai'ietics of hardy
beach plants have established thems<'lves. Besides helping to hold Ihc sand in
place with their roots, these jilants have added the last touch necessary to
form an ideal home for this monster l)ird colony.

This sand ring in tln' midst of the ocean is the regular home of more than
twenty species of birds, five of wdiich are found nowhere else in the world. I
have estimated from personal observation and data gathered f(U' tlic pui-pose
that more than ten million birds formerly visited Laysan Island each year. In
addition to the rather large list of regular residents that form the bulk of the
inhabitants, the island has a goodly number of species that visit it each
winter, including such birds as tattler, i)lover. curlew, turnstone, canvas-back,
shoveler, and a eleven or more occasional or accidental w'anderers, making a
total of at least three dozen species of birds that are known to visit this mere
speck of dry sand.

Naturally, the struggle for existence, often for mere nest-room, is intense.
The air, the vegetation, the earth — all literallx' swarm with bird life. Almost
every inch of land down to the water's edge is occupied. In their home life
this concourse may be likened to the inhabitants of a great city. Not finding
room enough for all to live on the ground, they have turned the island into a
great apartment house, several flats in height. Nor are all the ilats above
ground. Some of the petrels, for example, dig holes live or six feet deep and
in them live thousands and thousands of night-flying birds that rear thcii-
>()ung. as it were, in the deeper sul)-basement of the colon\'. Another species tligs
l)ut two or three feet deep in the sand, and in this way occupies the entire sid)-
basement flat, without fear of molestation by the neighbors, above oi- below.

The basement is inhabited by the wedge-tailed shearwatei-. It has chosen
this part of the island as a home, and the burrows that the\- make ai'c in count-
less thousands and of such size that a person walking across the island must
be careful where he steps, lest in an unguarded moment he caves in the roof
of a burrow and drops hip-deep into it.

The surface of the ground, to continue our comparison, is the most valu-
able and hence the most densely-populated part of this wonderful bird city.
Under the bu.shes, in the roots of the grass, in th.- open spaces about the bunch-
grass, along the shore of the lake, or on the sv;\ slope, a dozen species find thi>

314 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

cuiiditiuns, conveniences and location that appeal most to their fancy, and they
occupy the site selected by the colony to its fullest capacity. In the bunch-
grass the little flightless raiP^ is found, nesting among the thick stems close
down to the ground. The miller bird ^''^ and the Laysan canary -^ nest in the
main stems of the bushes, and next above them the tastefully arranged nests of
the Laysan honey-eater -i is placed. On the tops of the bushes, occupying
the choice top-flats, tm-ns, boobies and man-o'-war birds contend among them-
selves and with their neighbors for the desirable locations; while overhead the
air is literally filled with swarms of birds.

Laysan is a veritable bird-lovers' paradise, for, having no knowledge of
man, most of the species are without fear and may be lifted from the nest with
the hands like a setting barnyard fowl.

The Albatross Dance.

By reason of their number, size and unusual personalities, there are no
more interesting birds in the colony than the two species of albatross to which
allusion has already been made. The Laysan or wdiite-breasted species are
most abundant and are widely distributed over the island. From the middle
of October, wdien they begin to reach the colony — returning from, nobody
knows wdiere — all through the winter months and until the young are ready
to leave with tlieir ])a rents the following July, the island is covered with
albatross. Looking in any direction, one can see the old birds standing
stolidly about, sitting on their nests, or engaged in their curious dance — a
singular performance for which the albatross is justly famed.

This game, or dance, or cake-walk, or whatever one may care to call it, is
more than a form of courtship, since it is indulged in at all times, day or night,
during the entire period of the birds' long stay on the island. It is without
exception the most amusing performance I have ever seen birds indulge in.
The dance is so aptly described by Dr. W. K. Fisher, that I quote from his
account :

"Tw^o albatrosses approach each other, bowing profoundly and stepping
rather heavily. They circle around each other, nodding solemnly all the
time. Next they fence a little, crossing bills and whetting them together,
pecking meanwhile and dropping stitf little bows. Suddenly one lifts its
closed wdngs and nibbles the feathers underneath or, rarely, if in a hurry
merely turns its head, and tucks its bill under its wing. The other bird dur-
ing this performance assumes a statuesque pose and either looks mechanically
from side to side or snaps its liill loudl}^ a few times. Then the first bird boAvs
once again, pointing its head and beak straight up. and utters a prolonged
nasal groan, the other 1)ird snapping its lull loudly and rapidly at the same
time. Sometimes both birds raise their heads in tlu^ aii" and either one or both
utters the indescribable aiul ridiculous bovine groan. When they have fin-
ished they begin bowing to eacli other, almost always I'apidly and alternately,

^8 Prozanida pahneri. "> Acrocephalus familiaris. "" Telespiza cantans. -' Eimatione freethi.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROFP. 3LS

and presently repeat the performance, the birds reversing the role in the game
or not."

INIany variations oecnr in the order of the dance. Sometimes three oi- more
birds will l)ecome involved, Avhich adds lo the Indicrons nature of the per-
formance, as it becomes at once evident that the birds are unable to dance the
more complicated round dances and attempts to do so almost invariably result
in a breakdown before the dance is carried to the squawking stage. By way of
variety, one of the birds will sometimes pick up a feather or stick and tender
it to its partner, who promptly returns the compliment, when they pass to
the next form, and so on. Through varying figures and mananivers these birds
will continue their play, often for ten or fifteen minutes without cessation.
AVhen the end comes, however, it usually follows the uttering of a prodigious
groan, after which the birds retire to a respectful distance from each other
and resume their ordinary vocation of preening, sunning themselves or merely
looking on Avhile their neighbors amuse themselves in the same form of play.
So common is the "dance" among them that dozens of couples may be seen
engaged in it at any hour of the day or night.

While the albatross rears a family of but one, they devote much time to
the feeding and care of their offspring. The downy nestling issues from a
large, dirty white e^ix (as large as that of a goose) that may be heavily
blotched with brownish-maroon, which encircles the egg in a band; or from
a brownish-butf egg, without any markings whatsoever. However varied the
color of the egg may be, the young birds look so much alike that it is impos-
sible to tell how they are recognized by their parents. Fortunately, there
seems to be little difficulty, and the old birds seldom molest one another or
their neighbors' children.

The old birds seem to be very active at night and apparently do ;i great
part, though not all, of their fishing at that time. Eeturning to Ihe island
from a fishing expedition, they proceed at once to feed their vouiil:. 'I'he
parent biixl settles down beside the nestling, which without delay begins to
pick her beak gently. Presently the parent bird stands up aiul, lowering its
head, opens the beak and disgorges a mass of partially-digested squid and oil:
but before it is too late the young bird inserts its bill crosswise into that of its
parents, and receives the offering with apparent relish. The young bird is in
no way modest in its demands, and continues to beg for more until the supply
is entirely exhausted, when the old bii-d pecks back savagely, or walks oil' to a
safe distance and settles down to rest and sleep.

The black-footed albatross does not visit Laysan in such lai-ge ininibei-s
as do the foregoing species, and as a consequence they live in imn'e i-estricted
colonies. In their habits they closely resemble their white-l)reasted cousins.

In the guano beds for which Laysan Island is t'anious coMnnerciMllN'. the
workmen often find the eggs of the albatross and tlu' shearwaters bedded in
the rock-like guano deposits in a semi-fossil condition.

ffi

lr~

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E-^

THE ANI.MAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 317

Nesting Habits of the Man-o'-Wak Birds.

Of tlie large sea-birds on Laysaii. Ilic iirsliiiL;- liahits of the great maii-o"-
war bii'ds are second in interest only to those of tlic alhalross. 'riioiii^h its
habits have gained for it the most undesirable of rcpiilatioiis among its fel-
lows, the species is worthy of more than ])assing notice. 'Plicir nests ai-c I'lide
structures of sticks and vines, in bulk the size of a bushel b;iskei, that are
placed on top of the low bushes. On a desert sand island il is not an eas\-
task to secure the necessary material for the hundreds of nests re(|uired by
the birds in a colony of the size of that on La\>;an. As a result the l)irds have
become notorious thieves, stealing from each other without the slightest regaicl
for the ordinary rules governing the possession of house-building materials
among birds. When both the owners of a nest chance to leave it at the same
time, if only for a few minutes, their neighbors will greedily cari-y it away,
often not leaving a single vestige of the nest to nmrk the former home of the
absent owners.

Both sexes sit on the single large white egg, turn about, seldom lea\in<.: it
for an instant day or night for fear it will lie broken and the nest stolen b\'
their neighbors. They are forced to keep even a closer watch ovei- the naked
young than over the egg in the nest, to prevent their defenseless chicks fi-oni being
carried off and devoured.

In securing their daily rations they have acquired a skill that makes the
acts of an ordinary highwayman seem commonplace. Their habit is to estab-
lish their colony in the neighborhood of a booby colony. Here they |)ati'ol
the island up and down, out over the open sea, a few hundred yards fi'oni
shore, lying in wait for the return of the industrious boobies and tropic birds
that have been out sea-fishing. As the birds near the shore heavily laden \\illi
fish, the man-o"-war l)ird gives chase, often a Hock of these winged pii-ates
focusing their attack on a single booby. They fly over it. in front of it,
and pick it and otherwise buffet and molest it, until, in self-defense, the cow-
fused bird lets go its catch of fish one by one. The fish are eagerly caught up
in mid-air by the -assailants and the attack renewed, until, more times than
not, the booby, after a hard day's work secui'ing food foi- hei' family, nnives

Descriptiox of Plate.

1. Albatross eggs. The manager of the guano company at one lime packed down a few-
barrels of eggs for use by the laborers, but eggs were never exported from the island. The
picture here shown and often published was especially arranged for si)ectacular pliotograpliic
effect. 2. Black-footed Albatross in the wake of a steamer. Both tlie black and the wliite
speciefi follow shij)s at sea and are called gooneys by the sailors. '^, 4. Two views of an
enraged Red-footed Booby. 5. Bristle-thighed Curlews roosting on a pile of guano rock.
6. Colony of Hawaiian Terns — all facing to windward, a iiabit of sea-birds. 7. Red-tailed
Tropic Bird on the nest. 8. Family group of Blue-f.'u-ed Booliies. 9. Sooty Tern with egg.
10. Laysan Albatross — the end of the dance. 11. Wedge-tailed Shearwaters at home. li'.
Young I^aysan Alltatross; partly fledged. 18. .Miller Bird and nest. 14. Hawaiian Tern on a
bush of Clienopodium Sandwic]ieum. 15. Laysan canary nest and eggs. 16. Crouji of Man-o'-
war Birds on the nest. 17. General view on Laysan looking to the east across the salt water
lagoon.

318 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

at her nest iu an exhausted condition, without a morsel of food left for the
expectant young at home.

During the calm -warm days of summer the sea is frequently so smooth
that the booby is unable to bring home its usual eateli of flying-fish. At such
times tlie man-o'-war birds not only resort to cannibalism, but infanticide as
well, ill order to satify their demand for food. If by chance the parent bird
of a nearby nest sliould happen to leave its young unguarded, the ever-watchful
pii-ate-bird, with a swoop of wings and a vicious snap of beak, will seize the
almost naked, helpless nestling and mount high in the air, dangling the young
bird from its beak. When in the bird's judgment the fall will be sufficient
to crush the life out of its prey, the man-o'-war bird, with nnirderoas intent,
will drop its neighbors' offspring to the ground. The falling nestling is
closely followed in its descent by the bird, that it may be first in at its death.
If the fall was sufficient to kill the young bird, it is snatched from the ground
and gobbled down by the greedy pirate-murderer. If the young bird strug-
gles, it is again carried into the air, this time to a greater height than before,
and again allowed to fall to the ground. This performance is often repeated
several times before the helpless young bird is pronounced dead, when its
body is s^vallowed by its assassin in a single gulp.

White Terns.

There is not space in one brief chapter to describe the interesting nesting
habits of the beautiful white terns or love birds,-- the colonies of thousands
upon thousands of gray-backed,-^ noddy and Hawaiian terns ; the shear-
waters, petrels and boobies, all of which occur on other islands of the group,
but it seems unfair to nature, to Laysan, and to the reader, to fail to mention,
even though it must be in the briefest manner, the species that are found
nowhere else in the world.

The Laysan Duck.

The sportsman finds it almost impossible to believe that a distinct species
of duck, the Laysan teal,-^ could make so small an island its only home, but
such is the case. On a recent visit, however, I found this little colony so
reduced in numbers that the species could easily be exterminated in a single
day with dog and gun. This little teal, a close relative of the Hawaiian duck,
is perfectly fearless. On one occasion a pair, out of curiosity, swam up to
tlie bank of the little lagoon where I was partially concealed, and, coming out
on the bank, walked up so close to the camera that it was necessary to draw back
to bring them into focus on the plate.

The Flightless Rail.

The great natural curiosity of the island is the little flightless rail.^^ The
common belief that thev are wingless is an error — growing out of the fact that

" Gygis alba MttUtzi. ^^ Sterna hinnta. -* Anas lai/sant-nsis. -^ Prozanida ijalmeri.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF TTTF (IROri*. 319

t-he wings have become so reduced in size as to be almost hidden in the body-
feathers, and so weak as to be useless in flight. Almost every square rod of
the grassy portion of the island has its pair of rails, and they are. williout
doubt, the most interesting, industrious and inquisitive creatures in the world.
At the slightest alarm they slink into cover under the grass tussocks, only to
peer out cautiously in their endeavor to get first-hand knowledge of the cause
of their alarm. Of their many interesting habits none is more entertaining
than the way in which they secure a portion of their food from the Laysan
canary.

Laysan Canary.

The Laysan canary is a sturdy little finch-like bird that nature has en-
dowed with a strong bill. One of its habits is to break open the thin-shelled
eggs of the terns and other ground-nesting species during the nesting season.
How^ever, the canary is seldom allowed to enjoy the fruits of its labor undis-
turbed. The little rails are always on the lookout, and at the proper moment
will rush out at the canary and, with a great shoAV of fuss and feathers, drive
it away from the broken egg. The rail will then calmly spoon up the contents
of the egg with its weak, slender l)ill, leaving the canary to open another egg
if it really cares for fresh eggs to eat. As to how this active little rail came to
be on the island we can only conjecture. As the species has no near relative
that can fly over a wide range, it is probable that the ancestors of the Laysan
rail came to the islands very long ago by accident, possibly being lost at sea
during the season of migration, or may have been stranded there by the sub-
mergence of lands connecting Laysan with other islands of the group. Find-
ing the island small, but well stocked with food and without serious naliiral
enemies, the species doubtless settled down to live the island life. Having
but little use for their wings, they gradually lost the power of flight.

The Laysan canary is the best songster on the island, and as a rcsiUt
many of them have been captured by occasional visitors and carried to Hono-
lulu to be kept in cages as pets. On Laysan they are very jiumerous. Being
of good size and absolutely fearless, they are most interesting, ot'lcn coming
into the rough houses built by the guano company, to look for seed or to secure
a drink of fresh water. Fresh water is a real luxury to tlicin. tlnnmh Ihey
never care to bathe in it as ordinary canaries do.

The MnxEi-: VUru.

The miller bird, as it has been called on account of its uinisnal fond-
ness for a certain species of miller that is vci'v abiuidanl on Laysan, is a snndl
i'%ed-warbler. This small brown bii'd is the only i-epresentative of this exten-
sive family of insect-eating birds to be found in the native fauna of th»> gi-oup.
Ornithologists have been much interested in the discovery of this well-marked
species occurring only on this isolated spot of hind, since all of its relatives are
capable of making extended flights by sea and occui- widely distributed in

320 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Australia and China and on various Pacific islands. Like its neighbors, it is
(|iiite fearless and is ahvays bnsy. Tlicy often l)reak into a sweet, strong,
melodious warble, that seems ((uite out of place on a low. hot sand island: the
song- being entirely out of proportion to the size of the bird.

The remaining species peculiar to the island is the Laysan honey-eater.
It is an island form of the apapani, a related species that is common in the
forests of the higher islands of the group. It is a small bird, red in color, that
so clearly resembles its better known relative as not to require description
here. While not so abundant as the other species just mentioned, theii- bright
scarlet plumage renders them more conspicuous. Like their cousins, they are
especially fond of the nectar of Howers, and their long, slender, curved bills
and tub(^-like tongues make it an easy matter for them to drink the sweet fluid
from the blossoms of the Portulaca that grows abundantly al)out the edge of
the lagoon. They are also fond of insects and nudve many a meal from the
large grey millers on the island. They are most regular in their habits, return-
ing hour after hour and day after day to the same bush or flower to search
for food.

A number of years ago the Laysan rail was liberated on ^Midway Island,
where it has established itself in a thriving colony. The Laysan canary has
also been introduced on Midway and has found conditions there entirely suit-
able to its habits. In 1909 ]Mr. D. Morrison purchased a ]iair of the common
yellow canaries-" in Honolulu and soon after liberated their young on ^lidway.
They have increased in numbers until it was estimated that there Avere more
than a thousand birds on the island by the end of the nesting season of 1914.
They are sweet songsters, and althougli not (juite so friendly as the Laysan
finch, they will feed with a person standing within a yard of them. The
future of this colony will l)e followed with much interest 1)y those who are
interested in the introduction and naturalization of song and game Iflrds, since
it furnishes an excellent example of a species returning to its natural wild
habits after centuries of conflnement and artificial breeding and feeding.

CHAPTER XXIV.
BIRDS OF THE MARSH. STREAM AND SHORE.

Moi'c tluin half of the complete list of ])irds i-eeorded as occurring in the
Hawaiian group are shore and water hii-ds. Tbis pai-t of the fauna includes
resident sjjeeies, regular winter migrants, and a considerable list of occa-
sional or accidental visitors. As those si)ecies that are met with in Hawaii
(mly at irregular intervals are seldom seen and cannot be expected to con-
tribute much to the numerical strength of the meager bird population, the
present chapter deals only with the more common forms.

We have observed in an earlier chai)ter that the city as well as the

"'' Fr:in(iHI(i ranaria.

THE AXLMAL l.IPE OF TIIK (IHOTP. . 321

fanning lands on the lower levels about all the islands are wilhuul native birds
of any kind. Fortunately, this is not true of the ponds, marshes, streams and
the sea-slioi'c. as the waters of Hawaii ai'c slill inliabitcd l)y several eharaeter-
istic forms. Unfortunately, some of the species of the rcLiion jifc now vciy
rare, while others that are more common are of more lluiii usual iul crest, since
they are not met with elsewhere in the world. The majoi-ity of the hii-ds
belonging to this low-land section, however, are I'epresentat i\'cs of wide-
ranging species that visit Hawaii as a winter resoi't to escape the rigoi's of
the climate in the far north wliei'c most of the shoi-e and walei- l»ii-ds repnii-
every summer to nest and rear tlieir young.

The Golden Plover.

Conspicuous among the migrants visiting Hawaii each year are tlie tzolden
plover, the wandering tattlei", the turnstone and the sanderling. A sti'oll along
the sea-shore, especially in the coimtry districts during the winter s;'as(in. will
be rewarded by a sight of one oi- more Hocks of at least some of these species
as they follow up the receding waves in seai'ch of the dainties that are left
strewn on the sand ])y the sea. Often the plover ^ Avill be seen in lai-ge num-
bers, feeding on the upland, where, in th(^ freshly-plowed fields or in the newly-
planted cane or on the open grass lands, they find an abundant supply of
worms and insects. They doubtless render a gi-eat service to tin- |)lantci- and
farmer during this season, and are entitled to all the protection they receive in
return.

When the })lover arrive at the islands in the autumn, fi'oni the summer
spent in the far north, they are usually in pool* tiesh. But when we think of the
long journey they must make over the three thousand miles of ocean witlumt
a rest, the wonder is that they do not perish on the way. -Just wh\' the j)lover
and all the other migratory birds undertake these wearisome Mights across
the wild open ocean, it seems must ever remain a mystei'y. Without doulit.
when storms are encountered many must lose their way aiul go down to wa1ei-y
graves or, thrown from their course, must tly for days over the great dull
expanse in search of land. Perhaps it was in some such accidental wa\ that
the first plover happened to visit Hawaii in the long ago. Since it doubtless
found the islands a pleasant land, it seems almost incredihie that a helpless
wanderer should ever put to sea again in search of the distant land fi-om
w^hence it came. But the instinct to migrate to the far-away north and rear
a brood and return again to these little islands over the sea nnist have ix-eii
very strong — strong enough to cai'i-y it and its descendants liack and toi'th
year after year. Doubtless such is the story ot the beginning of the colonies
of most, if not all. of the ditftM'cnl spcM-ics of mii^i-itoiy sIku'c and watci- bii-ds
that visit Hawaii each vear.

^Cliarndriiis do)iii)iiriis tiilnis.

322 XATrRAL IlISTOEY OF HAWAII.

Old 'Stump Leg.'

It is interesting- to know that once the joiirne}^ is successfully made, bar-
ring accident the voyager is able ever afterwards to make the passage with
unerring accuracy. An interesting case in point is the record I secured from
^Ir. ]\Iax Schlemmer, who for several years was the manager of the colony of
hiborers formerly stationed on the little sand island of Laysan. This island is
but a mile and a half across by two miles in length. Nevertheless, plover
occur tliere in large flocks each winter season.

On one occasion a fine male bird that was in the habit of roosting every
night on a little mound of sand a few rods fi-om the door of the manager's
house, attracted his attention as it fluttered about on the sand apparently
unable to fly. Picking it up it was found that a bunch of hair and refuse was
wound about the liird's foot and leg, and that this had been added to with
dirt and sand until a bunch large enough to weight the bird down liad formed.
In its efforts to fly it had broken its leg and was in a pitiable condition. The
numager amputated the leg at the fracture and set the bird at liberty. To the
surprise of all, it healed perfectly. The stump-leg furnished a mark for iden-
tification that served to distinguish the bird from its fellows, and it naturally
became an object of interest in the colony. It remained about the island all
winter, returning each night to its favorite roosting-place on the sand mound.
It became luiusually tame and fearless. "When spring came, however, it re-
sponded to tlie most powerful call that stirs the avian brain, the homing
instinct, and with its fellows left the wave-washed shores of Laysan to make
the long flight back from whence they came, seemingly for no more intelli-
gible reason than that they had made the .journey before.

Natui-ally. the manager bade good-bye forever, as he thought, to his bird
neighbor the first night it failed to return to its roost. But being a seafaring
num. and accustomed to the excellent discipline of keeping a ship's log-book,
whether on land or sea, he accordingly made a note of the fact Avith day and
date and dismissed the incident from his mind. The summer passed, and one
early autunni day the whole colony was thrown into a state of excitement by
the announcement that the stump-leg plover had returned the night before
and had been found that morning occupying his sand-pile roost. The bird was
apparently as much at home as though a summer cruise to some distant land
was a regular occurrence and a matter of little consequence. Naturally, so
important an event as the return of the stump-leg plover to its winter home
was made a matter of record in the log for the day. The bird more than ever
became the object of interest and concern on the part of all hands, for had he
not accomplished a feat entitling him to the highest respect among seafaring

(Vcscri/ifion of Plate Cnritinupd from Opposite Pafje.)

Petrel [Oeoe] (Oceanodroma cryptohucura). 5. Hawaiian Tern [Xoio] {Micranous hatcaiieyi-
sis). 6. Bonin Petrel (ZEstrelata hypoleuca) . 7. Hawaiian Coot [Alae keokeo] (Fulica alai).
8. Hawaiian Hawk [lo] (Bufeo solitarius) ; light plumage. 9. Hawaiian Gallinule [Alae]
(GaJUnula saiidvicensis) .

^^^v-

PLATE 80. HAWAIIAN BIRDtS UF VARIOUS ol.'DI'.KS.
[From plates in Avos Ilawaiioiisis.]

1. Wandering Tattler [Ulili] (Fliirrartititi incanus). 2. Hawaiian Duck [Koloa niaoli]
(Anas wyvilliaua). 3. Hawaiian (ioose [None] (Xrsocltcn saiulviccnsis). 4. Hawaiian Stormy

(Di'scriiiliiiii (if I'liiti' Ciihtiinii-il iin tlie Opposite Pane.)

324 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

men? Had not this hifd, without a chart or compass, started from a ^iven
point in the very iiii<hlh- of the Pacific Ocean, and made a cruise extending
over several months, and at h^ast (iOOO miles of trackless water, returned again,
arriving by night at tlu' vei-y point of starting? Certainly old "Stump-leg"
was an ahlc seaman and a master navigator.

But this remarkable record does not stop with the report of the single
trip. The log-book records that, for five years, each fall this bird returned to
Laysan, arriving each year at almost the same date and departing in the
spring Avith ecpial punctuality for parts unknown. But, at last, "Stump-leg"
failed to return. AVhether he "vvas killed by hunters in Alaska or gave out on
the weary and dangei'ous .joui-ney, or lost his bearing and went down strug-
gling against fate, or died a natural death, will never lie known; but certain
it is that his voyage to and from Laysan Island aiul the records made of them
constitute a most interesting and valuable incident, throwing much light on
the unerring accuracy of the mysterious instinct which, doubtless through hun-
dreds and perhaps thousands of generations has served to guide our feathered
friends in their migrations to and from Hawaii.

It requires but a fmv weeks in the islands before the plover are all in
good condition, and long before they leave for the north the following spring
they are plump and heavy with fat. When in that condition everyone knows
that the plover is a toothsome morsel. In the old days it was much prized as
food by the natives of Hawaii, who exhibited great skill in the capture of the
wild birds. So skillful were they in imitating the plover's peculiar whistle
that they were often able to lui'e the birds close enough to the hunter to
enable him to pelt them with stones. Another less sportsmanlike method was
to l)ait a fish line Avith a tempting worm. The bait Avas placed along the beach
at a promising spot and the birds called to partake of it.

It was customary to cook the kolea (plover) and, indeed, any of the game
birds, by filling the body cavity Avith a .smooth hot stone, that was especially
suited to the purpose. The bird, stone and all, was then wrapped up in a
neat package of ti leaves and sufficient time allowed for the heat from the
stone to accomplish the desired result.

The Turnstone, Sanderling, Tattler and Curlew.

Like the foregoing species, the turnstone,- the sanderling^ and the tattler ^
arriA^e in HaAvaii late in August or September and leave the folloAving Aprii
by thousands. HoAvever, there are usually a fcAv individuals of each species
that fail to leave for the north. An examination of the summer birds proves
them to be birds that are young and barren or too weak to undertake the long
flight.

Of the remaindei' of TIaAvaii's migratoi-y Avading birds it is only necessary
here to mention the bristle-thighed curlew,'' as such other species as occasion-
;dlv occur ai'e rareh^ if e\'er seen bA' the ordinarA' observer.

ArriKiria iiiti'riirin. ^ CdlidriD (n-cn<iria. * UffcractiliK inrtni iix. '• Xiniit'iiiiis taliififiisi.s.

THE ANLMAL LIFE OF THE (iKoil'. 325

The eiirlew is by iiu means abuiHlaiit uii the htr^e ishiiuls, Ijul on the hnv-
lyiiig islands to the northwest they are fairly common. The curlew are much
larger birds than the plover, and are sucli conspicuous objects when they do
visit the inhabited islands that the securing of a si)ecimen is always a re^d
event. This fine game bird is easily recognized, as it is the onl_\- siion- liird
that has a bill about three inches in length that is slightly cui-\c(| downward.
It derives its common name from the peculiar feathers of the thighs, which
terminate in long bristle-like points. H is of interest to know that this s{)ecies
visits the sea-coast of almost all of the hundreds of islands in the Pacific ocean
at all seasons, but curiously enough no one has ever found its nest and eggs on
any of them.

The Hawaiian Stilt.

A bird that is occasionally seen along the sea-coast or al)()nt the salt-water
marshes is the peculiar Hawaiian stilt.'' Its long neck, black ])aek, white
breast and unusualy long pink legs make it a conspicuous and interesting
object. Unlike any of the foregoing, it is a resident of the islands throughout
the year. Its ancestors, doubtless, long ago gave up the habit of making the
useless journey away over the ocean every summer to rear their young. The
Hawaiian stilt, therefore, is found nowhere else in the world. As it is rare
even in Hawaii it is an interesting bird, since it has doubtless come to dilfer
from its near relatives by reason of the fact that it has long been isolated from
others of its kind.

Black-Crowned Night Heron.

No one who visits the sea-shore at sundown or is abroad at sunrise will fail
to see the long-legged, black-crowned night heron." as it flies from its home in
the valleys to its fishing grounds on the tide-flats or along the niullet-|)ond
walls. While this heron lives throughout the yeai- in the islands, it has not
been long enough cut off from the rest of its relatives to ])ecome a distinct
species, as it is still impossible to distinguish it from s{)ecimens of the same
heron collected in America.

They feed almost entirely on fish, the mullet being a favorite with them.
In certain localities they levy a considerable toll on the mullet jxmds in the
vicinity of their rookeries. They secure their food along the sea-shore, mostly
at night, and retire during the daytime to the thick woods in the mountain
valleys, where they nest in colonies. Their nests are bulky atVairs made of
sticks, and often are two feet in diameter. Sonu'times a dozen nests will be
found in a single tree. The eggs, which are ])ale blue in color. ai-e as lai-^e as
small hen eggs.

The old birds, with their long necks and legs, are vei-y |>ictui'es(|ue .-is ihey
crouch in the treetops or wing their heav_\- flii^ht about the \alleys. The black-
back and black crown are in contrast with the tine bIuisli-L;ra\' color of the boilv

^ Iliiiiaiifopii.s kiiiiil.it'}ii. ' \i/rtirorn.r Di/ctirorax titi'i'iiis.

326 XATFRAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

and wings, all of which are marks of maturity. The male during the mating
season is designated from the female by a pair of long white streamers
that curve gracefully down from the back of the head. The young birds are
always spotted and mottled in various shades of brown, butf and white, and are
so different in appearance in this immature plumage that the Ilawaiians, even
though they were very close observers, gave to the old and young aukuu dif-
ferent names.

The Coot and Gallinule.

The Hawaiian coot ^"^ is almost as large as a small fowl. It is seldom seen
except in the fresh-water ponds, and brackish and fresh-water marshes. This
curious bird and its cousin the Hawaiian gallinule,'' a bird that in size and
general habits it resembles very much, are Haw^aiian species that have near
relatives on the mainland from which they differ but slightly. The coot is a
dark slaty-gray color, and is peculiar in that its toes, instead of being
w^ebbed as they are on a duck's foot, are provided with conspicuous lateral
lobes or flaps which enable it to swim with great speed and to dive almost at
the tlash of a gun. The upper bill has a curious large white shield over its
base. This white shield and the lobed feet help the beginner to identify the
bird and prevent it being mistaken for the gallinule. The latter has the frontal
shield, a vermillion red, and the toes are without the curious lobes. Both
species build their nest of dead rushes and grasses, placing them in the swamp
near their favorite haunts.

The Legend of ^Iaui and the Alae.

The Hawaiians have a very interesting story that seeks to explain how
the alae or gallinule acquired the red spot on its forehead. According to the
legend, the great ]\Iaui, who dwelt in the islands before the process of making
fire was invented, had four sons, who were fishermen. Each morning at sun-
rise they would take their canoes and go offshore to a favorite fishing ground.
One morning they espied a fire on shore and, being desirous of having their
food cooked, rowed to the spot where the fire had been seen, but lo ! no fire
could they find. The next day they repeated the experience and were again
disappointed. After repeated failures they resorted to strategy. Dressing up
a huge gourd to resemble a man, they placed the dummy in the boat as a
substitute for one of the four fishermen, and sent the canoe out to fish as usual.

The man on shore crept close to where the fire had been located and
w^aited patiently. To his surprise he found it W'as the alae that had guarded
the secret of the fire so w-ell.

Knowdng Maui had but four sons, this cautious bird had Avaited each time
until they were all away fishing before it dared to light the fire, and keeping a
sliarp watch it scratched it out again when they started home with their lioat.
Tliis time tlic dunnny in the boat had fooled the bii-d. At the proper moment

^ Fulica ttlai. ^ (Sullinula .sandvicennis.

PLATE 81. SIX INTERESTING HAWAIIAN I'.II.'DS.
[From jilatos in Avcs Ifawaiiensis. |

1. Hawaiian Crow [Alala | (Corrus Jiairdiiriisifi). 2. Hawaiian Hawk | lo | (Iiiit(<i soli-
t(i.riits) ilark phiniage. 3. Hawaiian Stilt [Kukulnaco| (H inuniloinis l.niKlstiii). 4. Winlge-
tailcd Siiearwater [Unukane] (Priofnus cnneatua). o. ilauaiiaii I\ail [Molio] (Peninthi
ecaudata. 6. The same showing- the exjianded wings.

328 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

the oft-defeated fisherman leaped from his hiding place and, seizing one of the
birds, threatened to kill it for hiding- the secret of the fire from them. The
bird very ably argued that if it should be killed the secret of the art of
making lire would die with it. At last, just in time to save his neck and after
considerable parley and repeated attempts at evasion, the bird finally divulged
the ancient art of making fii-e by rubbing one dry stick on another. So exas-
perated bad the son of ^laui become before he succeeded in producing fire, for
be was told to rul) together first one thing and then another, that at last he
I'ubbcd tbe toj) of the bird's head until it was red with blood, and the red spot
lias remained thereon to this day.

The Haw^viian Duck.

Although both the gallinule and the coot were eaten by the Hawaiians,
they were not so highly esteemed as was the Hawaiian duck.^'^ a small species
that formerly was plentiful in the streams and marshes on all the large islands.
Of recent years they have become very rare except on the Island of Kauai. It
is thought that the mongoose, together with the sportsman, have brought
about this unfortunate state of affairs, since this species is peculiar to these
islands. As a matter of fact, such foreign ducks as the shoveler,ii with its
spade-like bill, and the pintail,^- with its sharp-pointed tail, and other less
common species that visit the islands each winter, coming down from the
northwest coast, are now much more liable to be shot in the group, during the
open season, than is the native Hawaiian species. As with the shore birds,
there are other species of ducks, and occasionally even geese, that from time to
time wander from Alaska on their migrations; Init their occurrence is scarcely
ever observed by other than the professional s])ortsman.

CHAPTER XXV.

BIRDS OF THE MOUNTAIN FORESTS.

With the shore, the marsh and the ocean birds considered in other chap-
ters, we come now to the peculiar and therefore more interesting part of the
Hawaiian bird fauna, namely, that which is at home in the mountain forests.
The exploration of these almost impenetrable, dense, moist, often cloud-swept
.jungle-like forests is by no means an easy task; but in order to see the
Hawaiian birds outside of a museum collection, it is necessary to explore them,
since it is there alone that the curious forms of l)ird life for which Hawaii is
noted are found.

Unfortunately, many of the more interesting forms are either extinct or
so rare that they are no longer to be seen alive. Of the forms that still exist,
a few species are sufficiently abundant and conspicuous in song and color to give
an interesting touch of life to the forest that adds not a little to the pleasure of
a holiday spent in the mountains.

^^ Ana.1 u'l/riUicnw. ^^ Spatula rhjpeata. ^- Dnfidn aruta.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE ^JROFP. 329

The Elepaio.

A list of fifty-six species of living- and extinct passerine birds are all that
has been known to exist in the forests of tlie inhabited islands of the gronp.
This small list must be further reduced by sixteen species which are now
regarded hy ornithologist as extinct. Of the remaining- forty species, which
are about equally distributed among the six islands, there are none better
known or more commonly met Avith than the Hawaiian flyeatchei', oi' elepaio of
the natives.

Kauai. Oahu and Hawaii still have living species of this fea)-less lilt If
brown bird tliat on each island can be recognized at once by its pert air and
the saucy cock of its fan-shaped tail. They are common on the mountainside
all the way from the sea to well up into the higher levels. WIkmi hidden in
the forests they are easily identified by their curious, loud, clear, insistant
call — "elepaio,"' which is vai-ied by a kissing noise as well as by a inuiibcf of
other whistled notes and calls.

The elepaio^ is one of the best known of any of the Hawaiian birds. Its
nest is a beautiful little structure about two and a half inches in diameter, that
in appearance is not unlike that of the hiunming-bird. It is composed of very
fine grass, mosses and lichens, and is placed in the fork of a tree, usually but a
few feet from the ground. While the elepaio is a bird famous in song and
story on all of the islands, and according to David Malo was formerly used for
food, it seems not to have been seriously reduced in numbers and still remains
the most abundant Hawaiian species.

The Apapane and Iiwi.

The species most commonly noted by strangers, however, is the beautiful
dark blood-red bird, the apapane- of the natives. It is al)out five and a
quarter inches in length and can readily be distinguished from the beautiful
scarlet iiwi,^^ which is a slightly larger and more brilliant bird, with llic bill
and feet vermilion or at least not black, as is the case with the apapane.

Both these species of red birds occur in the forest on all the larger inhab-
ited islands in favorable localities from near the sea-shore to the u{)pei- limit
of the large forest trees, but they are most abundant at from two to four thou-
sand feet elevation. Both are eciually fond of nectar, and both frequent the
flowering ohia trees. The two species are perhaps the most easily observed by
visitors in the vicinity' of the Volcano House on Hawaii. wIutc the pleasant
though somewhat monotonous song of the apapane ean be heard fi'om early
until late.

Amakihi

All the larger islands are inhabited by a small green-and-yellow or olive-
green bird ^ with a curved beak, known as Hie amakilii. AVliile thi'y differ

1 Chasiempis f/ayi = Oahu. C. xrlateri = Kauai, C. sandrirensis = H.iwaii.
^ Himatioiie SfiKi/uiiiea. ^ Vegtiiirin coccinca. * Chlorodrri)n)ii.'< spp.

PLATE 82. SOME SONG BIRDS OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.
[From plates in Aves Hawaiiensis.]

1. Yellow-tufted Honey-eater (Moho apicalis) : Oahu — extinct. 2. Kauai Akialoa
(Ilc::iignatlnin procerua) : Kauai. ?,. Puaiohi {Plia'ornis palmer i) : Kauai, -l. Ulaaihawane

( Di'xcriiitiou of rUitc CiiiitinHctl an the Opposite Pai/e.)

THE ANBIAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 331

slightly in size and color from island to island. Ilicy ;dl hdoii^' to one unuis
and are easily recognized as one of the most common and widely distril)ute(l
species. They are nectar-feeding species and are freqnently seen in (•<iiii|)an\- with
the red species just mentioned. They are also fond of insects and spend much
of their time searching thi'oiigh the foliage. The call note of the amakihi is
a sweetly-whistled "tsweet," which is easily imitated. Theii- song is a short
trill, and when it is at its fullest is loud and penetrating but not vei'\- musical.
All of these birds (as, indeed, are all of the birds belonging to the family
Drepanidida) are characterized l\v a very strongly-marked and peculiar odor.
This goat-like scent is so peculiar and persistent in this family of hirds that
often after they have left the spot the air retains a musk-like smell. The nest
of the amakihi is a simple structure of twigs, leaves and roots and is usually,
though not always, near the ground.

The Genus Oreomystis.

There is a small olive-green bird occurring on Hawaii, belonging to an
entirely ditferent genus -^ that is so similar in appearance to the species of
amakihi found in the group that the Ilawaiians themselves did not give it a
separate name. Several species on the other islands, however, are easily
recognized, the adult males especially ditfering greatly in color, voice. hai)its
and general appearance from the species of amakihi to be found on the respec-
tive islands.

The difference between the two genera which would serve to most readily
distinguish them in the field, is that instead of feeding almost entirely on
Insects and nectar from the Howers and leaves, as is the habit of the amakihi.
all of the species of Oreomystis feed in a large part on insects secured from the
trunks and limbs of the forest trees and bushes. They are all expert climbers,
working either upward or downv/ard and along the upper and undei* side of
the horizontal ])ranches. The difference in color of the species on the dif-
ferent islands is a most remarkable feature, since gray-green, oli\e-green,
yellow-olive, yellow and bright red species occur.

Thrush and Finch-like Birds.
The five genera mentioned above are represented on all of the large
islands by one species or another. A large brown thrush-like bird '■ that is a
remarkable songster, and the stocky, olive-green yelloAV-headed on" are the
two species that are next in abundance. Their representatives on Oahu liave
been extinct for many years, but on oiie oi" the other of the islands one or both are
occasionally seen by the casual observer about camjis an<l mountain houses.

Oreomystis. ^ Phmornis spp. " Psittacirostra psittacca.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)
{Cirklopfi anna) : Hawaii. 5. Kona Thick-bill (Chloridops lonn) : Hawaii, (i. Nukupmi
(Heterorhynchm hanapepe) : Kauai. 7. O-o (Moho nohilis) : Hawaii. 8. Maui Parrot-bill
(P.^eudone.stor x<intho])hn/s) : Maui. 9. H(ier(yrhynclin.^ \Hci<h(.-<: Oalni — oxtint't. 10. .Vkialoa
{Eemignaihus obscunis) : Hawaii. 11. Falnuria dolri : .Maui, Molokai, a vory rare sp«cies.
12. Molokai o-o {Moho bishopi) : Molokai, very raro.

PLATE 83. SOME EARE AND EXTINCT BIRDS OF THE MOUNTAIN FORESTS.

[From jilates in Aves Hawaiiensis.]

1. A'iridonia (Viridonia sagittirosiris): TTawaii. 2. Black Mamo [Hoi] (Drcp<uiurham-
phus funereus) : Molokai, very rare. 3. Kijii {llrmuinathus lichtensteini) : Oalui, extinct.

( Drurriptiftli of Plate Cdiitiiiui-d on tin- Opiiiisilc Paf/e.)

THE AXTMAT. TJPE OF TITE riROEP. ^?,3

Still rarer are the vai'ions species of the o-eniis Lnxops or the akepa, wliieh
are foxy-red or oraiiye color, according lo the age and the species of the l)ii-d.
As they feed chiefly upon the insects secured from tlie foliage of Ihc 1 rces. they
are very active little creatures; they resemble the dlive-oreen aiuakihi in
habits, and although possessed of a slioi't liiich-lik-c hill, ihcy may readily be
mistaken in the treetops foi' their cousins with the sh'iKh-f i-iirxcd beaks. The
striking peculiarity of all Ihe species, however, is that the heal^ is not sym-
metrical. The tips of the mandibles cross each other in imicii the same
fashion as that of the common "crossbill" finches elsewhere.

The remaining species are too rare to be met with, except by the merest
chance, by any one save a professional ornithologist, and even thfii the enthu-
siast is often forced to remain for weeks in the wildest mountain forests before
even hearing the voice of the species sought, and more tinn s than not the
whole effort to see or secure a specimen results in the most depi-essinu' disap-
pointment.

Rare and Extinct Birds.

Of the species that have been known to inhabit the islands in times ])ast. no
fewer than twenty are now so rare in collections, and for years liave been so
scarce in the mountains, as to entitle them to have their names entereil on the
list of species no longer in existence, or at least bordering on extinction. The
Island of Oahu can make the melancholy boast that it has a greater list i>f
extinct l)irds, in proportion to the total number of species known from the
island, than any other like area ni the world. On Haw^aii the moho ^ has been
extinct for years, having been exterminated, it is thought, by the domestic
cats that long ago ran Avild. As it was a small flightless rail resembling its
cousin on Laysan, it is doubtful if it would have been able to survive the
inroad of the more recentlv introduced mongoose, which has been evervwhere
merciless in its attack on ground-nesting birds.

The fine black mamo '•' was brought to the verge of extinction by the Ila-
waiians years ago. From its rump the natives secured the rich goklen-yclli>\v
feathers used in the making of their feather cloaks, helmets and leis.

The 0-0 1" likewise Avas driven to the verge of extinction for similar rea-
sons. When the mamo became rare the natives began to substitute the yellow
feathers growing under the wings of the o-o foi- the i-unip feathers of the
former. Though they were not so I'ich in color, they made acceptable sub-
stitutes, and as a result these beautiful birds are now practically all gone on
Hawaii, while on ]\Iolokai and Kauai the two species belonging to the same

^ Pi'tDuiIn lu-auddtn. " I) rfp-riin iircifird. ^" Mulm imhih'x.

(Description of Plate Cotitinued from Opposite Page.)

4. INIaui Amakihi (ChlorcxJrcpani.s wilsoui) : Maui. •'). Hawaii llalfl.ill (Heterorhi/ttchus wil-
sani) : Hawaii. (5. Mamo {Drepanis parifira) : Hawaii, pxtiiict. 7. Alauhiio (Onniui/stin
montana) : Laiiai. 8. ChcetoptUa angustipliuna: Hawaii, extinct. !). Loxops rufa: Oahu, ex-
tinct. 10. Lnxops ochracea: Maui, becoming quite rare. 11. Oreomystis mavuhitu: Oahu.
12. Iilioclacantliis pulnteri: Hawaii, vcrv rare.

PLATE 84. SIX FAMILIAR MOUNTAIN BIRDS.
[From j)lat:es in Aves Hawaiiensis.]

1. liwi (restiaria coccinea) : found on all the islands. 2. Kauai Elejiaio [Apekepcke]
(Chasmeipis sclnteri) : Kauai. ?,. Kauai Amakihi (Chhvndrepanis slejncf/rri) : Kauai. 4.
Apapane (Himationr saiu/inca) : all islands. 5. Maui Half-bill (Hetcrorp]n/nrhus afinis) :
Maui. 6. Hawaiian Thrush [Oniau] (Phcponiis ohscura) : Hawaii.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF TIIH GROFP. 335

genus are rapidly dying out, apparently of their own accord, or at least from
other unassignable causes. The Oaliu species ^i has long been extinct.

Hawaiian Duck and Goose.

The Hawaiian duck,'- the gallenuU' and llic cool are diininishint: in num-
bers on all the islands where the mongoose is i'ound; while the put'iin. llie
petrel and the native goose ^^ are all sub.iect to its toll.

All of these birds are becoming extinct from known causes, ]»nt thci-c are
species which have died out for no assignable reason. The splendid Chaioptila
o))gi(s:fiph(}}ia of Hawaii is a case in point. Though it was rare when first dis-
covered by naturalists, it has not lieen seen in the forests iVom that da\- to the
present.

Likewise, there seems to be no adequate explanation for the extinction of
at least five of the six species that are now known from only a few luuseuni
specimens collected by early naturalists, as only one of the extinct species,
namely, the Oahu mamo, was ever killed by the natives for their feathers.
Although numerous theories have been advanced, the cause of their extermination
will doubtless ever remain one of nature's own secrets.

In considering the future of the Hawaiian birds, especially those that
have been rare or very limited in their distril)ution, we must remember that
the forest areas are diminishing owing to the devastation of animals, the ax
and the settler, and that in consequence the birds are constantly being brought
into sharper competition among themselves and into a struggle with a differcMit
if not a new environment.

Already several species that a decade ago were regarded as fairly connnon
in certain localites have disappeared from them entirely. Avhile others are only
found after long and diligent search.

Hawaiian Crow.

An interesting phase of Hawaiian bird life is shown I)\ the nati\f Ha-
waiian crow.i^ It occurs on a certain portion of one island only, and there
over an area from which it never seems to attempt to pass. IIa\iiig originally-
gained a foothold in the Kona and Kau districts of Hawaii, the bird seems to
be unwilling to extend its range to the windward forests that ad.join is liab-
itat, even though they are known to abound in suitabh^ food.

The VIridonia ^'> is a handsome olive-^i-een bird which fni'iiishes a still
more remarkable instance of a restrictetl habitat. Tliis, one of the rarest of
Hawaiian birds, is only found on Hawaii, and there it is confined to an area
of a few square miles and is absolntely nnioiown ontside this little valley
region, where it was so rare as to be unknown to tlie native inhabitants.

The Black ^Iamo.
The hoi or Idack mamo "' is confined to the Island of Molokai. There it

11 ilfo/io aincnUs. ^' Ai^as iri/rilliann. ^'^ Kesorlit-n sinidrirfiinix. ^* Cnrius hawaiieiisis.

1^ V. sagittirostris. i" DreDanorliaiipns funerea.

336 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

finds forest conditions that are suitable to its liabits over only a very limited
portion of the mountain area of the island. While it is an active, energetic
bird, it has apparently never attempted to cross the channels to the nearby
island of ^laui. For a hundred years at least it has l)een a rare bird on ^lolo-
kai, so rare, indeed, that in 1907 the writer secured l)ut three specimens as a
reward for seven weeks spent in the mountains in a search devoted to locating
this interesting and curious species.

Still another interesing example of limited distribution among Hawaiian
birds is that of the nene or Hawaiian goose, which is confined to the Island of
Hawaii, where it leads a life of seclusion, high up on the mountainside, seldom
if ever descending to the sea level. The Hawaiian duck is more Avidely dis-
tributed, having occurred in considerable numbers on all islands of the group.
Unfortunately, since the introduction of the mongoose it has been quite rare
except on Kauai, where the mongoose has never been liberated.

A Native Hawk and Owl.

The Hawaiian hawk or io^^ occurs only on Hawaii, where it is still fairly
common. The Hawaiian owl ^'^ occurs on all the large islands. It is quite
closely related to the short-eared owl, common on the American continent.
Since it differs from the American species only in minor details, it is re-
garded as an island form of that species which has been reduced in size through
isolation. Like the coot and mud-hen. it is one of the more recent arrivals that
have made the islands their h(mie long enough to allow the principles of evolu-
tion, especially those involved in isolation, to produce slight, though easily
recognizable, changes in the appearance of the species. Though the natural
history of the Hawaiian birds is of much general interest, it will be seen that
the subject of the evolution of the various species presents material foi- con-
sideration that is of deep and absorbing interest to all.

The Family Drepanidid.e.

The family Drepanidida', which includes the majority of the song birds
of Hawaii, is perhaps the most remarkable example of the evolution of a group
of birds to be found anywhere. The family which is peculiar to the islands,
includes about forty species that are found nowhere else in the world. While
they are all much alike in their general structure, they differ amazingly in the
form of bill and also exhibit striking differences in the color of the plumage.
In almost all other families the form of the bill is (luite uniform among the
species that belong to it. That organ usually bears a close connection with
the feeding habits of the group, and these are usually very nearly the same
for all the species in the family. But among the Drepanidida' of Hawaii we
find them fitted by their structure to almost every kind of life for which a
song bird in the tropics can become adapted. This adaptation of the bill has

^~ Buteo solitarius. ^^ Asio accij/itriitux siindcicerisis.

PLATE 85. COMMON HAWAIIAN BIRDS.
I From plates in Aves Jlawaiiensis.]

1. Hawaii Elepaio (Chiisiempis sandvicensis) : Hawaii. 2. Katiiau (riinornia wj/adcii-
tina) : Kauai. 3. Ou bolowai {Loxops ccFruleirn.strin) : Kauai. 4. Aivikilii (Oreomysiis bairdi) :
Kauai. 5. Oahu Elepaio (Clifisiempis r/ai/i) : Oalui. (!. Apajiauc {HinKttioiir sa»nuiiica) : all
islands. 7. 0-u {Fsittaci rostra psiiidced) ; foruicrly on all islands. 8. O-o a-a {Moho brcicca-
tus): Kauai. 9. Loxops ochracea: Maui.

338 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

led to some most remarkable changes. From the firm, straight bill of the
genus Oreomystis — the genus supposed to most closely conform Avith the an-
cestral form which may have come from America in very remote time, and the
form from Avhich all other genera of the family are supposed to have evolved —
we have widely ditferent types of bills developed.

In one branch of the family the bill passes through several genera, each
slightly modified, initil the normal straight bill becomes an unusual one, very
long and slender and singularly curved, w^ith a tubular tongue, especially
adapted to securing the nectar from long tubular flowers. The opposite branch
leads off by gradual degrees to wdiere a short thick bill of astonishing strength
terminates the line of evolution in Chloridops koiia — a grossbeak-like bird that
confines its food habits to cracking the flint-like seeds of the bastard sandal-
wood. Between the long, slender, curved honey-eater beak and the heavy finch-
like beak are all manner of special forms. In one the bill is parrot-like-, in
another it is suited to a fruit diet, so that many forms of bill occur.

Hawaiiax Birds Becoming Extinct.

"With th(^ high specialization of the l)ill these birds have lost their
power of adaptation. As most species are confined to but a single island, and
in some cases to n single district, and there to a single species of tree, we can
see how difficult it would be for them to adjust themselves to any sudden
change in their environment after they had gradually become fitted through
countless centuries for the conditions that existed in any particular locality.
Developed under conditions most unusual and peculiar — each within its own
chosen and restricted sphere — change of any sort, and competition however
slight, is likely to find them unprepared to compete, though some species are
better endowed to take part in the struggle than are the majority. In the
light of their own past history, they seem strangely susceptible to any change
that may occur. When the few remaining species are gone there will be left be-
hind them, as tokens of their existence, only a few dried skins in the museums of
the world and a few meager pages in such books as this, telling too little of their
life historv and habits.

CHAPTER XXVI.
HAWAIIAX FISHES: PART ONE.

The waters of Ilaw^aii have long been celebrated for their fishes of many
peculiar habits and characteristics, odd shapes, and remarkable size and color.
As a result, so much has been written in a popular and scientific way con-
cerning them that they are perhaps better known than any other form of life
about the islands.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE (IKOIP. 339

Fishing in Former Times.

Doubtless fish have always been one of the chief arlidcs df aiiiiiial food for
the natives, and a visit to the busy niai'kels will no) only repay one for the
trouble. I)ut cotiviiicc liini thai llic business of fishing' still constitutes one of
Hawaii's ini])(trtant industries. The name i "a was ^iveii by llie Hawaiians to
all food pi'oducts secured from the sea, "whether they moved or not." But
for our purpose we wdll speak only of the fishes, reservint^' llie many otln-i-
interesting forms for discussion in other chapters.

As has been said in the account of the people, fishinu' in former limes was
associated wath much religious ceremony and idol worship. Altai-s and luMaus,
especially devoted to the needs of the fishing class, were very common. The
fish gods, more numerous than the heiaus, were faithfully woi-sliipped by the
fishing class and their every tabu and requirement most studiously observed.
Before the fishermen would go out on their expeditions, everything that could
be done to placate the gods would be carried out by the devout.

However, we are told that in those days, as in these, there was a cei'tiiin
class, more skeptical than the rest, who went fishing whenever the\- chose to do
so, without observing any religious ceremonies wdiatever.

Fishing Equipment of the Ancient Hawaiia.xs.

There was a great variety of implements and apparatus employed b\- the
fishermen, and their description and enumeration seems hardly necessary
here; but it is of interest to know that they had devices for capturing every
kind of creature inhabiting the waters about the islands, with the single exception
of the whale.

The canoe w^as, of course, the most important part of the e(|ui])ment of a
fisherman. These were almost invariably made of koa. ^Nfany of the older
ones were fashioned from huge trees, so large, indeed, that the finished canoes
■were often from thirty to sixty feet in length. A canoe to seat tin-ee fisher-
men would be about thirty-three feet long, while a single-seated one was
usually eighteen feet long by seventeen inches wide. Some of the canoes used
sails, but as a general rule the paddle was the only motive jxtwer.

The seines were the most important part of the fisherman's outfit.
These were frequently two or three hundred feet in lenuth. and in certain
cases they occasionally joined the long ones together. 'i'lieii' seines for catch-
ing bait were much smaller, usually only a few yai'ds in length, \vilh mesh as
fine as quarter inch. Gill nets of different sizes and designs were also much
used. They were used nu)stly at night and wei'e commonly set aci'oss o|)en-
ings in the reef. Frequently these nets wei-e laid out so as to enclose a large
coral rock. The native fisherman would then di\-e down and drixc the lish I'inmii
the rock.

Another method sometimes used by tiie natives was to join se\-eral seines
together and then paddle out to sea in a semicii'cde. paying out the seine as
thev w^ent. The net would then ])e hauled in to shore ami the last few yai-ds

PLATE 86. THE SHAEKS AND RAYS.

[Assembled from U. S. Fish Coiiuu. Bulletin Xo. 23.]

1. Hawaiian Cub-shark [Mano] {Carcharias mclanoptcnis). 2. Thrasher Shark (^/oi^as
vulpes). 3. Mackerel-shark (Isuropsis glauca). -i. Dog-shark (Sqiutlus mitsiikurii) . 5.
Hammer-headed Shark [Mano kihikihi] {Sphijrna zygcena). 6. Blue Shark (Prionace glauca).
7. Sting Eay (Dasyatis hairaiieiisis). S. Spotted Sting Eay [Hihimanu] (Sfoasodon nari-
nari).

THE ANI.MAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 341

of fine net l)i'()ii>i'ht together in a cii-cnlai' form. When advisable tlic lisli ilius
cauyht might be left in the seine ti'aj) in tlie Avater for several days. Cer1;iiii
species of fish lliat run in school, as the akulc i-aii l)c srcii a considci-iililr
distance at sea. It is the practice among native hshermen to post one of
their nnmber on the land at an elevation from ^vhi('ll tlicir praftiecd eyes can
locate the school of fish as it api)r()ach('s the siion-. hi dii-cciiiiL; the opera-
tions of the fishermen from the shore, tlic hxtUoul uses a white Mag and
observes considerable snperstitious ceremon^\' in liis work.

Several forms of bag nets have been employed l)y tlie ITawaiians, some
of them more than two hnndred fathoms in lengtli. 'I'lie usually have de-
tachable bags in the middle often thirty feet long l)y lialf as many feet in
width. These were used in w^ater f-wenty feet or more in (lejitli. The
opelu or bag nets are commonly about a dozen feet across 1)\ three times
as deep, and have a hoop fastened in the moutli to kee]) tiio net open. In use
they are baited and lowered, and then at the pi-opei- moment ra|)i(lly liauh-il
in. Several ingenious nets are used in capturing various si)ecies of hsh — the
upena hehu, upena pua, kapuni nehn. upena ulm and the npena i)oo being
important among them.

Several forms of dip nets w-ere also devised by the Ilawaiians. One was
formed by tying two slender parallel sticks to a fine net about five feet apart.
By running a string through the louver end and shirring it through the net.
a rude bag was formed that was used in shallow water and foi- tisiiiuL; in
rough, stony jjlaces.

The Hawaiians seem to have used ])nt few fish l)askets. the two kinds used
in catching the shrimp ^ being the most important forms.

Several species of fish were taken in fish-traps or pens. The group of
shark pens removed from Pearl Harbor when the channel was dredged Avere
among the best examples in the islands. They were so arranged that the fish,
which enter them freely at high water, are caught as the watei- recedes, by
means of a small seine.

Fish spearing was an art with the okl Hawaiians, and tiicy Avei'c very
adept in the use of the weapon, which consisted usually of a long hard-
wood pole six or eight feet in length, ending in ancient times with one or two
sharp wooden prongs, but in modern times, with a thin i-od of iron, a loot or so
in length, that is slightly barbed at the tip. Tliis inipleuient was only used in
shallow water about the reef, where it might be employed in si)eai'im: sipnd.
turtles, and other slow-moving surface-swimming forms. In the hands n[' an
expert diver, however-, it might be can-ied down into the walei' se\-ei'al feet and
used with effect in caves and lioles about the reef.

Fish Poison.

The natives were expert in making and using a eet-tain lish poison known
as holahola. A -poisonous Aveed - Avhich grows on the mountainside was eol-

Opae. - Ahuhu.

342 NATUKAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

lected and pminded together with sand. The sand was used to make the
mixture sink more readily to the bottom. With a quantity of this poison in
the canoe the fisherman would search out a tide pool, cave^, or hole in the reef
inhabited by a number of species of fish. A long seine was first put out in
a circle about the spot to prevent the fish from escaping. The poison mixture
was then rolled in small packages or placed in a bag and carried down to the
bottom by the fisherman in order to distribute it about to advantage in the
holes in the rock. In ten or fifteen minutes the fish would come to the top in a
stupefied condition, when they were easily gathered from the surface of the
water. If allowed to remain too long in the water they would recover from the
effects of the drug. When used as food they seem to be in no way injured by
the poison used in their capture.

Fishing at Night.

A very pictures(|ue method of fishing, much employed in former times by
the natives, was by the light of tlie torch. At favorable seasons dozens of
fishermen could be seen, each with a lighted fagot in one hand made of a
bundle of ti leaves or a string of kukui nuts wrapped around with ti leaves
to make a handle, and in the other a small net or spear. As the men and
women waded about over the reef, the reflection in the shallow vrater from
the flickering lights, together with the shadowy outline of the natives, their
excited voices and weird, fantastic movements produced an impression on the
mind of the spectator that time could not readily efface.

A method of fishing with a snare w^as perhaps peculiai- to the Haw^aiian
Islands. This method was much employed in fishing for eel. It consisted in
throwing the bait near a hole. In this way these greedy and unsuspecting
animals were enticed through a wide noose which, attached through a loop,
dangled from the end of a heavy pole. When the critical moment arrived the
noose was hauled taut about the eel, and up snug against the end of the pole,
by drawing in on the end of the line which passed along the pole to the hand.

Fishing with the hands was a common practice among the natives, but line
fishing was more extensively follow^ed and in general yielded better returns.
Ingenious fishhooks made of mother-of-pearl shells w^ere much used, though
bone, ivory and tortoise-shell found an important place in the manufacture of
these useful implements.

Fish Bait.

The selection of a suitable l)ait was by no means a simple task. While the
live shrimp or opae was very frequently used, Mr. Joseph S. Emerson collected
a list of no fewer than twenty-two compounded baits that w^ere built up on a
single base material. It is estimated that there w^ere probably more than a
hundred kinds of bait known to the skilled fisherman in ancient times in
Hawaii. For line fishing, however, the live bait was preferred, and they had a
method for catching the daily supply that will bear repeating among Hawaiian

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROl^P. 343

fishermen of today. One ni.-iii with a small calahash of dried .shi'iiii|» \\;is Id't <iii
shore while the rest of the party look a seine with ycvy fine mesh jiiid ]);id(lle(l
their canoes out a few yards from the shore. The man Avitli the hjiit then
walked alon^' the beach a short distance, and .ifter chewing' up a few shrim{),
would select a promising place and throw the morsal as far out to sea as possible.
If small fish come up immediately the net was cast about the spot and a draw
made in which all hands participated. If the bait was unmolested new bait was
prepared and thrown out as before at what appeared to be a more favorable ])lace.
By this little trick, the fisherman was saved not only the time emphned in mak-
ing unprofitable hauls, but the chagrin of finding nothing, not even bait in his
net. when it was landed.

Shark Fishing in Ancient Times.

In the capture of shark the ancient Hawaiians, especially the chiefs and
alii, found much sport — and since the use of human flesh as bait was in great
vogue among them, the method then employed is of more than ordinary
interest to us; of course, the flesh of other animals has been substituted in these
latter days.

The human body used was usually that of a slave, or at least some one out
of standing Avith the royal fishermen. The person to serve as bait was killed
two or three days in advance of the anticipated fishing expedition. The flesh
of the victim vras then cut up. placed in a container and left exi)ose;l to the air
to decompose.

With the bait loaded on the outrigger of the canoe in such a manner as
to admit of its leaving a dripping trail of blood and od on the surface of the
water, the fishing party Avould row their canoes out to where sharks were
plentiful. Large bone or wooden hooks, some of them a foot loiiLi. wi-re
baited with the tempting morsels and lowered to the eager prey. Great skill
and courage was shown l)y the members of the i-oyal ])ar1\- on such occasions
in roping and landing the captured shark.

Every part of the bone and skin of one of these savage animals was sup-
posed to confer unflinching bravery on its ])Ossessor. For this reason Kame-
hameha I. was especially proud and jealous of his title as the great shark-fisher.
He kept his victims penned up near the great heiau-' of ]\lookini. near Ka-
waihae, Hawaii, so there was always a supply of bait on hand.

In the olden times the capture of a shark was really a great event, but it
has been more than one hundred years since the last human being was made to
figure in the preliminary plans of a day's aquatic sport, llowevei-. shai-k iish-
ing is indulged in as a sport today, but the motoi- boat, the th'sh of a horse for
bait, and the use of rifles has done much to dull the heroic setting shark fish-
ing must have had in days that are gone.

While the Hawaiians recognized bu.t live species of sharks and ga\-e to

3 Temple.

< 5

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 345

each a characteristic name, there are as many as sixteen species belonging to
a dozen genera that have been taken by scientific fishermen from the waters
about the islands.

Man-Eater Sharks.

Of this number the larger species are usually spoken of as man-eater
sharks, or tiger sharks. The real man-eater is a great white shark sometimes
thirty feet in length. It is by all odds the most ferocious of all fish-like
animals. Specimens have been taken in Europe, Japan, California, Hawaii
and the Carolinas indicating that they encircle the globe. While but one species
of this genus,-* known as nuihi by the natives, is alive today, the teeth and
certain other bones of extinct species that lived in former times, have been
dredged from the sea bottom in the Mid-Pacific. Some of the other living
species are really quite voracious, but that they are really man-eaters in the
sense of pursuing, capturing and devouring the living body of a man is doubted
by those who have given time and attention to the verification of the various
shark stories that are current in Hawaii, as well as in all seaport towns.

Sharks with mouths twenty inches across, that are crammed with trian-
gular teeth an inch or more in length, are not uncommonly captured about
the islands. Since the number and size of the teeth is said to be directly in
proportion to the ferocity of the shark, the larger species are to be studiously
avoided, be they living or dead, even though we are continually reassured that
they are not dangerous — as an incident taken from my note-book will dem-
onstrate.

Several years ago I was on board a four-masted sailing vessel bound for
Laysan Island, when our good ship became hopelessly becalmed. We had on
board a party of Japanese laborers to be emploj^ed in the guano business
on the islancL To pass the time, and in response to an ancient and honorable
superstition of the sea, all hands fell to fishing for sharks — since, as everyone
who has sailed with canvas knows, the catching of a shark by a becalmed
mariner has never failed to bring a fair wind. As all winds that blow for
becalmed seamen are classed as fair, we were not surprised, within an hour
after our crew had succeeded in hooking and loading an eight-foot shark, to
find our vessel under headway again. As the Japanese are fond of shark stew,
they were granted permission to make an open fire on deck and dress and cook
the slimy savage token of our good luck.

An hour later one of the laborers commenced to clean the deck of the blood

* Carcharodon carcharias.

Description of Plate.

1. Shark fisliing as practiced for the sport of the chase. 2. Catching skip-jacks [Aku]
or Ocean Boneto from the jib-boom of a sailing vessel. .3. Five minutes' catch from the jib-
boom. 4. Hawaiian spearing fish with a double pronged spear [kao]. 5. Fisherman with a
throw net. 6. Man-eater Sliark [Niuhu] {Carcharodon carcharias) capturc'd off I'earl Harbor.
This shark is the most voracious of all tlie fishes. 7. Natives fisliing at Kahana Bay with
long sea net [upena kuu]. 8. Large dip-net for reef fishing.

346 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

and ul'fal left hy tlie butchers. The ghastly head with its gaping month was first
to be dropped overboard. Thrusting one hand for want of a better hold into the
open mouth of the dead .ininial, the laborer slipped his other hand under the
head as it had been cut free from the body, when, without warning, the yawn-
ing mouth clapped shut in a death grip on the hand and wrist of the Japanese.
The sufifering man was only extricated from the vice-like jaws by main
strength. One of his comrades seizing him, another the shark's head, his hand
was literally pulled, in a frightfully lacerated condition, from the dead animal 's
mouth. In spite of the fact that the animal's tiesh had been boiling an hour,
and was ready to be served to the waiting company of Japanese, the muscles of
the .jaws had responded to some stimulus that caused them to clamp the man's
hand.

Sometimes the natives hunt for sharks in pools and caves in the reef,
where they are occasionally found fast asleep. When a "shark hole" is lo-
cated a diver will go down and deftly slip a noose about the tail of a shark,
which is then hauled up and dispatched. Experts have captured six or eight
fair-sized sharks in a day in this manner.

The skin of sharks in the hands of the natives found its principal use in
tlie manufacture of heads for their hula drums, while the teeth and bones were
used as ornaments and implements. The tiesh was generally eaten, but out
of respect to the great shark god it was tabu to women, who -were forbidden
to partake of it under pain of death.

The Hammer-Head Shark.

Among the various species of sharks the hammer-head,'' or mano kihikihi,
is perhaps most curious in its characteristics. It is a wide-ranging form
found from the Mediterranean to Cape Cod in the Atlantic, as well as at widely-
scattered localities in the Pacific, including Hawaii. The singular form of the
head is one of the most unusual modifications among fishes. Instead of retain-
ing the usual form, the front part of the head of these sharks is broad, flat-
tened and extended on each side into a process, on the fiat terminal surfaces of
which are situated the eyes.

The Dogfish.

The Hawaiian dogfish.'^' which is also found in Japan, is an active species
of the smaller sharks that may be identified by the stout spine in the dorsal
fins and by their sharp, squarish cutting teeth. In the Atlantic, dogfish are
sometimes captured in large numbers, their livers being used for the production
of shark-oil. In Hawaii shark-oil fishing has never been carried on to any
extent, though sharks are abundant in certain localities, and once or twice
vessels have been fitted out to engage in the trade.

The Mackerel Shark and 'Ku.i.er' Whale.
Mackerel-sharks seven to nine feet in length, which furnish the large

6 Sphyrna zygmna. « Sqmtlus mitsukurii.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 347

jaws commonly seen preserved as curiosities in Hawaii, and the thrasher-
sharks, are found a])oiit the group. The hitter, sometimes at1aiiiiii<^' a length
of twenty feet, may be identified at once by the great length of its cycle-shaped
tail-fin. They are not especially ferocious, and the cui-reiit stories of their
attacking whales doubtless arise from mistaking the Orca for this shark. The
Orca, or killer, is not a shark at all. but is a mamnuil belonging to the oi-der of
whales and is allied to the porpoise. As a passenger between Honolulu and
San Francisco I once saw a numl)er of them attack a school of whales.
From the deck of the steamer we could see them clinging with their strong
teeth about the heads and mouths of the great animals. The whales, panic-
stricken, would leap clear out of the w^ater, producing a terrific splash in their
efforts to free themselves from their pursuers. Often they would roll over
and over in their frantic endeavors to escape. Occasionally they w^ould dis-
lodge one of their tormentors, and it would be sent whirling through the air,
apparently enjoying the novel experience. As the battle was at close range
and lasted for a quarter of an hour or more, I was able to satisfy myself as to
the identity of the combatants.

Rays and Skates.

Three families of rays or skates are represented in Hawaii by five well-
defined species. Though differing widely from the sharks in form, they are
related to them, and belong to the same sulj-class of the great group of fish-like
vertebrates. Three species of sting-rays have so far been taken from Ha-
waiian Avaters. These flat, disk-like animals have very long, slender, whip-
like tails that are without typical fins, but in lieu of fins the tail is pro-
vided with a strong, jagged spine covered with slime. The mouth is armed with
broad saw-like teeth. The spine inflicts a dangerous wound, not through the
presence of any specific venom, but from the danger of blood poison arising
from the slime and the ragged and unclean cut. Specimens six to eight feet
in length are not uncommon in Hawaii. They may be distinguished from the
eagle-rays or spotted sting-ray ' by the fact that with the former the fin on the
side of the disk extends forward on both sides to form the tips of the snout,
while with the eagle-i-ay the muzzle is entire and free from the fin.

The Sea Devil.

The sea devil, ^ or hihimanu of the natives, is even more tcn-ihh' in ap-
pearance than the sharks and rays, and is characterized by resembling the
latter, but the anterior lobes of the pectoral fins are developed so as to stand
up like horns or ears on the head. They are by no means connnoii about
Hawaii, and as all the members of the three families belonging to Ihis oi-der
are of little value as food, they are seldom seen at the mai'kets in the islands.
They clifl'er from the sharks in that they frequent the sea ])ottoni. where they
feed principally on shell-fish, which they crush with their fiat teeth.

Stoasodoii narinari. ' ilobula japonica.

348 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

CHAPTER XXVII.
HAWAIIAN FISHES: PART TWO.

The scope of this brief account of the fishes of Hawaii will not permit of more
than passing notice of some of the more interesting, curious, valuable or
common species. It is left for those who are especially interested in the sub-
ject to either fish for themselves or to visit the Honolulu Aquarium, the mar-
ket, or the Bishop Museum, where extensive collections offer opportunity for
an exhaustive study.

Food Fish in the Markets.

Some idea of the fish resources of Hawaii can be gained from the fact that
of the six hundred or more species that scientists have found in the island
waters, more than three hundred and fifty are sold in the markets of Honolulu
for food, each species having a Hawaiian name by which it is usually desig-
nated. Often several dozen species may be seen in the market in a single day
— a fact which adds not a little to the confusion and difficulty of the inexperi-
enced person when attempting to select a choice specimen for table use from
the many fish of various sizes, shapes and colors.

Unfortunately, though the number of species to select from is very large,
(as is usual with animals in warm countries) the number of individuals of any
one species is not liable to be so plentiful in the tropics as in the colder cli-
mates. As a result fish are not as abundant nor as cheap in the markets as
one could wish, where sea food should form the basis of a wholesome and
cheap diet.

As many species run in scliools and arc liable at times to be very abun-
dant and cheap at certain seasons and entirely wanting at others, it behooves
the prudent housewife to be able to take advantage of bargains at the market
as well as in the shops and stores.

For the benefit of those who may care to vary their fish order for one
reason or another, the writer has secured, tlirough the cooperation of a num-
ber of friends interested in the culinary side of the problem, the accompanying
list 1 of especially useful food fishes, all of which are worthy of trial in any
home. All of the long list of fish offered for sale are wholesome; the brief list
appended serves simply as a suggestion and is offered with the view of encour-
aging readers to explore further on their oavu account. It will be noted that
twenty species are enumerated which are used by all nationalities, which
are regarded as the favorite fish of Europeans in the islands. Other columns
show the various fishes used by tlie several principal nationalities visiting the
Honolulu market. As an aid in identifying the choicest food fish, fourteen
species are figured together on a single plate.

IMPORTANT HAWAIIAN FOOD PISH.

^ A list of sixty-five of the more important food fish found in the Honolulu market, showiiiK the species
preferred by the various nationalities in the city is shown in the following table. The culinarv uses
made of twenty of the species most frequently purchased by Europeans is also shown, bv the following
designation marks placed after the native name, i. e., * = baking: f = boiling: J = pan fish."

(Continued on opposite page.)

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE OROrP. 349

IMPORTANT HAWAIIAN KOOl) FISH (See note on opposite page).

Native Name. Scientific Name.

a, ~ - 3

Ahaaha Tylosurus giganteus X

Ahi Germn germn X

Aholehole Euhlla miilo X X X

Aku OynDKiS'irda i>elaiiii.i X X

Akule * t J Traclniro/ifi cruiiicfioptlifliiia X X X X X

Aleihi lakea P.ii'inhirhrilirius ortnto'nia X

Ama-ama * t t Mugil cepfinlus X X X X X

A'a Xiphins glndius X

Awa Chanos cIkiiios X X

Aweoweo Priacanthus cruentatus X

Hapu'u pn'n * f J Epinephelus quernus X X X X X

Hihimanu Mobxia japnnirn X X

Hilu A nnmpses cu rier X X

Hinalea lamvili Thalassoma duperrcy X

Humuhumu nukuniiku apua'a. . . .Balistapus aculeatus X X

Iheihe Hemiramphus depniipenitus X

Kahnla * \ X Seriola purpurasccns X X X X X

Kaku Sphyrivna snodyrassi X

Kala Acaiifhiiriix unirornis X

Kawakawa Gymnnscrdn nUefliTotn X

Kawelea IraehinocepliaUis my ops. . . X X

Kikakapu Chcetodon liinida X X

Kumu * + t Pseudiipeneus porphyreus X X X X X

Kupijii Ahudt'fditf sordidus X

Kupoupou Cheilio inermis X

Lae t Scomberoides tolonparali X X X X X

Lauia t Callyodon lauia X X X X X

Mahihi * f :;: Coryphcrnn hippiirus X X X X X

Maii'i Hepatus elongatiis X

Makiawa Etrumeiis micropus X

j Parexocoetus hrachypteriis |

Malolo -: Exocnetus I'nlitans > X

( Cypsilurus siinus I

Mamamo Monotaxis grandocitlis X X

Manini X Hepotns snndi-icensis X X X X X

Mano Sqiinlus yiutxiiku.rii X

Moi * t X Polydfictylus sexfilis X X X X X

Mu Monotaxis grandoctilis X X

Nehu Anchovia purpurea X X X

Ohua Cantherines sandwichiensis

Oio Albula rulpes

Omaka StethojuHs axillaris

Omilu * f X Carangns viplampygus

Ono Aratitliorybiiim snhoidri

Oopu + Eleotris sand iricen six

Oopuhue ChUoiiiyrtcrus affinis

Oopukai Cirrliitiis inarmorntus

Onakninki * + + ^ Apsilus microdon

upakapaka T + I Bowrrnia riolescens

Opelu palahu X Scomber japonieus

Onelu Scomber

Opule AnaDipses cuvier

Pakii X Platophrys pantherinu.s

Pakuikui Hepntiis nchilles

Palawi Hepatiis dusxuiiiieri

Papio))io X Caraiigiis (small size)

Poopa'a Parncirrhites ductus

Pualu HepatuK diissumieri

Puhi Gymnothorax (a generic name for eels)

Puhiki'i Parexocoetus brachy/iterus

Uhu Callyodon mineatus . . .

Uku * t X i prion rirescens

Ulae Satirida gracilis

Ulaula * t t Etelis marxhi

Ulua * t X Carangtis (large size) .

Ulua kihikihi Alectis cilinris

U'u X Myripristis murdjnn . .

Walu Hepatus xantliopteru.i .

Weke ula X Mulloides auriflamma .

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

PLATP: 88. EELS AND OTHER CURIOUSLY SHAPED FISHES.
[Assembled from U. S. Fish Comm. Bulletin No. 23.]
1. Bone-fish [Oio] {Alhula vulpes). 2. Milk-fish [Awa] (Chonos clmnos). 3. Hawaiian
Herring [Makiawa] (Etntmeus wicropits). 4. Anchovie [Nehu] (Anchoria purpurea). 5.

(Dcsrri/itifin of Plali' ('<iiitUini'<l on tin' Oii/mxitf J'tnif.)

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROIH^. 351

Students of the subject of Hsli jiiid (isli ciillui-c IdJ ^is tliat lliei'e are now
known in the waters of the woild more than ten thousand species of bony
fishes. These they have divided into about twenty ordei's, which are again
divided into numeroiUJ famiVies, and still nioic miiiicrous genera. Of the ini-
portent genera, a surprising number are represented in the fisli fauna of
Hawaii by one or more species.

Many of the six hundred or more species attributed to Hawaii are never
seen in the markets, since they dwell only in the dark abysses of the deep o[)en
ocean, often miles below its surface. They are only captured by the use of
complicated apparatus operated at great expense by scientific men commissioned to
study the wonders of the great ocean, and who for their work must employ
specially equipped vessels, such as the United States Fish Commission ship
Albatross.

Then again, fish, like birds and plants and insects, have their peculiar
habitats, and require special conditions or certain kinds of food. As a result.
many of the conmion kinds are confined in very limited localities. Out of
over one hundred species of food fish that are regarded as abundant in Hawaii,
only five — the aku, oio, uku, ulaula and ulua — enter into the records as being
taken commercially by the fishermen on all of the large islands of the group.

Of the large number of species of fish sold in Honolulu, almost none are
the same species as are sold in the markets of the mainland or in foreign co\ni-
tries. This is because the fish fauna of Hawaii is isolated from that of other
lands. However, most of the common families of sea fish have local repre-
sentatives, some of them perhaps excelling in flavor the species with which
strangers from abroad are more familiar. While in general it nuiy be said
that the fish fauna of Hawaii is in a large measure derived from the fauna of
the East Indies, and wliile it is more closely related to the fishes of Polynesia
than to those of North America or Japan, it should be regarded as consti-
tuting a minor faunal group composed in the main of forms which have ])eeii
isolated long enough, in most instances, to form distinct species.

Anchovies and Barracudas.
A good example of this localization of species is shown by the nehu,- which
is in reality a very abundant local species belonging to the genus including the
widely and favorably known anchovy of commerce. So far they have only
been secured from the Hawaiian Islands. They are fish of small size with a
well-marked, broad, silvery lateral band. In 1900 the records for the islands
shows a catch of more than ninety thousand yiounds of this sj)e('ies for the year.

' Anchoria jiuriniri'a.

'(Description of Plate Confinti/'d from Opposite Pane. )

Lizard-fish [Kawelea] {TrnchinocephaUis miiops). 6. I>izanltisli | I'hu' | {,*>i/n(>(lHs v(iriiiK).
7. Moray [Piihi] (Gi/mnotlwra.r rrcodcs). S. yioray | Pulii Inuiiiili | {Gfimnothora.r unduta-
Uis). 9. Moray [Puhi] {Gi/niiio1liorax peUlli). 10. Moray [Pulii kapa] {Kchidna nchti-
losa). 11. Trumpet-fish [Nunu] (Aulostomufi valentini). 12. Sea-horse (Hippocampus
fishcri). 1.3. Needle-fish [Ahaaha] (Alhlen.us hians). 14. Half-heak [Me'e me'e] (Hciui-
ramplnis dcpauprratu.s). 15. Half-beak [Ihcih") ( Knh pturfminpus loiu/irostris).

-M

•m

-q

■iH

•

,i5

5t1

^ ,

b»

-M

THE AXLMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 353

The family of l)arraeudas •' has two h»cal forms, one of which, tlie kaweh'a*
is not uncommon, as it frequents the mullet ponds along' the shore. They seldom
attain a length of more than twenty-four inches, and are therefore but feeble
representatives of the great barracuda, that excellent food fish along the Cali-
fornia coast, which is often five feet or more in length. Our local form i.s
voracious and destructive to mullet, and do much damage to seines with their
strong teeth which are set in a large mouth — two characteristics that are
useful to the novice in separating them from the more valuable mullet with
Avhich they frequently occur.

Butterfly-Fish.

No one who has visited the Aquarium will need to be reminded that
Hawaii can boast of a long list of beautiful creatures that might well be called
the butterflies of the coral reefs.

Their compressed bodies, small size, continuous dorsal fins, small mouths,
and bi'illiant. varied and beautiful colors are characteristics sufficient to
distinguish them at once from their near relatives under a family name,
ChcEtodontidce, which has reference to their distinctly brush-like teeth. The
five genera found in Hawaii embrace at present about eighteen species that,
owing to graceful form, bright colors and great activity, make them exceed-
ingly popular as aquarium specimens. Their great quickness and agility
enable them to maintain themselves in the struggle for existence in the close
competition of the coral reef, in spite of their conspicuous habits and color-
ing. In the typical genus ^ a black band usually crosses through the eye ;
kikakapu is the native name applied to several well-marked species which
vary so widely in their colors as to defy brief description.

Blennies.

Representatives of the family known as Blennies *'• are certain to be noticed
by the most casual observer strolling along the beach. The little fish most
commonly seen clinging to the coral rocks as the waves recede is one or another of
the nine or ten species of this family. They are active and alert, and since
there are in the world more than five hundred species, many of Avhich never
attain a length of two inches, it is not strange that the naturalist seldom
ventui'es to name, off-hand, the various examples that so often form the sum
total of the catch secured by a w^ading party. How'ever, it nuiy be wi'll to
know that Enupapferiigius atriceps is the only name given the little fish with
the large eyes, three dorsal fins and the whip-like piM^torals that is coiniiion in
the coral rocks about Honolulu.

The Hawaiians did not distinguish it as sepai-ate fi'om its relatives. Of its
next of kin two or three species of the genus Alficiis are also ([uito ronuuon
about the islands; they have two dorsal fins. The small dark olive Salaris
zebra is the most abundant species. It has the l)ody crossed by inuuerous
alternating pale and dark-olive ])aiuls, and Iuts a curious lash above the eye.

'■^ Sjiliiiririiidir. * J'rncliinocephdlus myops. ^ Chmtodon. " lileiiniidce.

354 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Bone-Fish, Catalufas and Cirrhitid.e.

The bone-fish, or lady-fish," have a single representative in Hawaii known
as the oio.^ It is a silvery fish with soft flesh that resembles the milk-fish in
some respects, but is distinguished by its swine-like snout.

The Catalufas ■' are represented by but a single genus of three species.
One of these, the aweoweo,"' is the famous "red fish" which duriii^i' the month
of September, 1873, entered Honolulu harbor in shoals. They were evidently
young fish, as the largest were not more than three and a half inches long.
This shoaling has occurred from time to time at irregular intervals. In the
mind of the native the coming of the red fish presages the sickness and death
of some member of the royal family. On several occasions there has been a
singular sequence of events of this Jiature which has left its impress on the
beliefs of the more superstitious among the people. The fish are esteemed as food
by the natives, however, who regard their coming in large numbers in the
nature of a windfall, as the fish can be readily dried and saved. The species
is of wide distribution and among English-speaking people is known as the
"big eye."

The family Cirrliiticke includes among its numlier seven of the more beau-
tiful and highly-colored fishes of the coral reef, and as they are almost con-
stantl}" to be seen in the mai-ket and at the Aquarium, the pilikoa,^^ hilu {uli-
koa ^- and piliko 'a^-' are well known, though they are seldom more than six
inches in length.

'!^^ ■

Deep-Sea Fishes.

The fishes of the deep sea are for the most part examples of the familiar
forms that have become modified and specialized to suit the peculiar environ-
ment of great pressure, inky blackness and freezing cold which the bottom of
the sea affords. Eels, soles, scorpion fish, box fish and dozens of other forms
found commonly on our shores have their deep-sea representatives that are
seldom seen by other than experts to whom are sent the rare examples,
secured at great cost and labor by sei<Mitific deep-sea expeditions. We there-
fore content ourselves with the knowledge that they exist and confine our at-
tention to the more common, if not the more interesting, species that are met
with in the markets almost daily.

The Dolphin.

The doI})hin 1^ (mahihi) is <in important food fish in Hawtiii. The body is
elongate, compressed and covered with very fine scales. The under jaw pro-
trudes and the long low dorsal fin extends from the nape to the base of the
tail. It is changeable in color and thus becomes a conspicuous fish either
living or dead, but unfortunately its beautiful color rapidly changes after
death. They attain the length of four to six feet.

'' Alhtdido;. ^ Alhula wipes. ^ Priaranthuliv. ^" Princnnfhii/i mi<>nfntii>,.

^''- Paracirrhites spp. ^- P. fostiTi. '■'/'. nrcatits. ^* CanjiilKviin liiii/mnix.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 355

Both known species of d()l])hins occur in llawnii. As they are very large
fish of the oi)en sea and are surface swimmers, they ai'c occasionally seen by
passengers on board sailing' vessels. While the name dolphin i-iglitl\- belongs
to a group of small whales, it has been associated with this fish. In song and
story their beauty of color and grace of motion have received much attention.

Eels.

The order Apodes, which includes the eels and raorays is well represented
in Hawaii, several dozen species frequenting the coral reefs and rocky coasts.
Eel-fishing is a favorite sport, as the animals are easily enticed from their
hiding places in the rocks, when they may be hooked or speared.

The Hawaiian name puhi is applied to the class as a whole. Puhi-uha
signifies slippery eel, and is applied to the conger-eel. Some of the larger
examples attain a length of five or six feet, and are much sought after as food.

Frog-Fish and Flying-Fish.

Two genera of f rog- fishes ^^ occur, but representatives of only one genus
have so far been taken in the shallow water or open sea. They all have the
head compressed, and the skin covered with prickles, the body oblong and
much compressed. They are fantastic -looking fishes, often gaily colored, and
feed among the seaweeds on the reef, wheie they creep about like toads. They
are also capable of filling their capacious stomachs with air, which enables
them to float on the surface of the water. Eight species occur on the reefs, all
of which are provided with one or two whip-like lashes that protrude from
the upper lip to form a "bait" over their cavernous mouths.

Flying-hsh "' abouml in the open sea in all tropical waters, and Hawaii's
waters are in no way an exception. Five well-marked genera include the
eight species, all of which are called malolo by the natives. They are most
abundant during the summer months. A common species ^"^ has the upper part
of the body dark blue and the fins about two-thirds the length of the Ixidy.
They, in common with their cousiiis, usually occur in shoals, and are a source
of interest to the voyager as they leap from the surface of the sea and sail
away, sometimes sustaining a so-called flight for a hundred yards or more.
The most recent sport in Hawaii is flying-fish shooting. This is done from a
power launch, as the fish skim over the water. The fish are a favoi-it(> food of
the natives, who prefer to eat them raw at their feasts (aha-aina).

Gobies.

Gobies ''" have no near relatives among the spiny-rayed fishes, and as a
family may be easily recognized. The ventral fins are inserted very close
together; there is no lateral line and no bony stay to the preopercle. which
gives to the gills a peculiai- flabby ap|ieai'ance. The species are very nunierous
in the tropics, there being fourteen genei'a in Hawaii, usually with Init oiu' or

'^^ Antenna riid(V. ^^ Exncoefi(hv. ^' Parexocoetii.t hrarhr/fiti'rui>. ^^ Gobiidcc.

<1 3

X 'T .

K O

- o

CO o

of?

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE ORG UP. 357

two species each. This fact indicates the divei-sity of form found in the family.
They inhabit mountain streams and brackish water, and ;ii-e coiiiinoii in pools
along the shore and in shallow water generally, but they never go far out to
sea. The largest species rarely exceed eight or ten inches in length, while
many of the small forms are only an inch or so long when fnll grown.

Oopu, in combination with specific terms, is the name applied by tlie ITn-
M^aiians to a great number of species of gobies. They are carnivorous in habit,
and are exceedingly interesting and active little creatures. One of the common
forms ^-^ is a dirty-brown color throughout and attains a length of nine inches.
They somewhat resemble the common catfish in shape and color, iind are
plentiful in fresli braekisli and shallow water. The natives often capture
them in large numbers from the streams by the use of the fish poison pi-eviously
referred to. The practice is to divert the stream from its usual course so as
to leave a series of small shallow pools along its bed. The poison is then freely
used in the crevices and under stones where the oopu hide. In a few minutes
the fish come to the surface in a stupefied condition, when the native fishermen,
both old and young, join in gathering them into their baskets and calabashes.

A species known as Eviota cpiplianes is a very small oopu common in the
shallow water at Waikiki. It attains the length of about three-fourths of an
inch. Another abundant and wide ranging species of oopu is Mapo fuscus,
M'hich is very dark in color with black marblings and brown edges to the
scales.

A curious oopu -"^ is dark greenish-olive with the back and u[)|)er parts
crossed with fourteen black bars. They have the pectorals united to form a
curious disk on the chest. This species is abundant in certain Hawaiian moun-
tain streams, and is able to cling to the rock in the rush of the mountain
torrent. They are strictly a fresh-water fish, attaining the length of five to
seven inches, and are sometimes caught and used for food. Two closely-
related oopus -^ are common in fresh-water streams of the islands and are
taken in numbers sufficient to make them common objects in the Honolulu
markets. One species -- is olivaceous in color, crossed with a dozen black
bars. It has a black patch below the eye, and its belly is red wiiile its
cousin 2^ is olivaceous, marked with obscure duskv blotches, aud has the Ix'llx-
pale and wuth a dark blotch at the base of the tail.

The FLYiNO-OrxARD.

The flying-gunards -^ are striking fish resembling the common ll.\iiig-fish
in the very large wing-like peetoi-al Hns, but differing from them in many
respects, among others in having the head and body decidedly quadrangular in
form and bony in structure, and by baviiiu Iwo separate spines in front of the
two dorsal fins. The tail fin ends s<piai'el\. while the tail in tlie fiying-fish is
always forked. The lolo-oau -'' is not very al)un(iant. and as a i-esnlt when a
specimen appears in the market it is an object of considerable euriosity. Speei-

^^ Eleotiis sandwireiisis. -" Siri/iUKiii xtiuiiiKciii. "' A iraoim spy>. -- Aicaoiis yenirillt.tus.

''^ Awaous stariiiiteus. -* Cephalacnnthiihr. '-'• Ccijlialacaiidiiis urk'ntalix.

358 NATURAL HISTORY OP HAWAII.

mens fourteen inches in length are sometimes caught, and as their "wings"
are ahnost as long as the body and are beautifully colored with blue and
brownish-red, they are with reason pronounced by many as the most striking
and fantastic of the Hawaiian fishes.

Headfish.

The headfish,-" though much rarer, is equally striking and has been
classed among the rarest and most wonderful of all animal forms. To the
natives it is known as the apahu, or to some as the makua. It appears simply
as a large head separated from the body and supplied with a fringed tail.
They are fishes of the open sea and reach a very large size. As the flesh is
coarse and tough, they are rarely brought into market except as curiosities.
The cast of a very large specimen is on exhibition in the Bishop ^luseum. It
shows the beautiful coloring of brown and silver of the living fish.

The headfish is known to the Haw^aiian fisherman as the "king of all the
mackerel," and as it is supposed to be under the rule of the spirits,-" it is
feared that the mackerel will disappear if the fish is killed. A similar fish in
the Atlantic is known as the king of the herring, and the local superstition is
doubtless colored by the influence of the early whalers and traders that called
at the islands.

Curious fish known as the half-bills -^ are very common in the markets,
where all three of the species that occur here may be recognized at once by the
fact that the under jaw is singularly bill-shaped, while the upper jaw is
normal. Of the three species, the iheihe or me-me'e--' is the most abundant
They are oviparous fishes and feed on green algte. The half-bills live in large
schools, usually near shore, and are especially numerous in the channels about
the islands.

H.vwAiiAN Herring.

The makiawa,^" so far as is known, is the only representative of the great
herring tribe ^^ to be found about Hawaii. It attains a length of about ten
inches and is (init(^ common in the market at certain seasons. It is easily
identified by its herring-like shape and appearance.

The family KuJdiidce is conspicuously represented in Hawaii by the ahole-
hole,^^ a silvery, fish-shaped fish, with the edge of the first dorsal and the
caudal fins narrowly edged with black. They attain a length of ten inches
or more. This active fish is sure to attract notice, since it is common at the
mouths of the Hawaiian streams in both brackish and fresh water, but dwells
by preference in running water, where it may be found in the deeper pools.
It is a good fish and takes the hook readily, resembling the fresh-water sun-fish
of America in this regard. The natives sometimes capture them by use of the
narcotic plant described elsewhere.

-'^ Ratizania inokiin. -' Akua. "^ Hemiramphid/e. -^ Heinireiiiiiihiis (lepaiiperotiis.

^^ Etimneiis iiricropiix, ^^ Clupeida;. ^- Kuhlia malo.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROl'P. 359

The Wrasse-Fishes.

The Labrid(f oi- wi-asse-fish — a New England name — includes more than
twenty genera in wliich ai'c distributed more than fifty Hawaiian species. Of
this large family only a few examples can be mentioned. The general foi-m
of the various species, though it varies somewhat from one geinis lo aiiolhcr. is
sufficiently characteristic throughout the family to render them easily identi-
fied as members of the same division. The color patterns, usually of the
brightest hues of blue, green, golden, scarlet, crimson and purple, are as i-ich
and deep as though laid on with a brush by a most lavish hand. Often, in
addition to its vivid color, the pattern is one of the greatest delicacy or the most
intricate design.

INIost of the wrasse-fishes feed upon mollusks and have their teeth adapti'd
for crushing shells, but as they frequent the rocky coast, the coral reefs, the
kelp beds, and the open sea, their food must necessarily vary considerably.
However, in all the genera the teeth in the front jaws are prominent, separate
and pointed.

Perhaps the most brilliant species are among those in the genera Thalas-
soma and Julis, ])ut the more delicately-colored species are among the StctJio-
jiilis. The a'awa,^-' omaka,-^^ akilolo,^^ opule,"" awela,'^'' hinalea lauwili,^^
lolo and hilu'^'' and poou ^" are among the species to be seen almost daily in
the markets, and often in the Aquarium.

The lantern-fishes and lizard-fishes^- are well represented in the Ha-
waiian fauna, the kawelea ^•' and ulae -^-^ being common exam{)les of the
latter. Their large mouths and lizard-like shapes render them easy of iden-
tification in the markets. The lantern-fishes are for the most part denizens of
the deep, and as they live aw^ay from the shores, they are seldom seen except
when they come to the surface at night or in times of stormy weather.

Mullet.

The mullet is by far the most important and generally esteemed food fish
of the islands. There are three genera of the family,*"' each represented by
a single species that have been reported from the group, l)nt it is the sj^ecies
commonly called the ama-ama,'*^ that is the most abundant. It is this species
which in former times received the most attention from the natives in the way
of protection and conservation. So much has been done along this line that
mullet ponds have been impoi'tant institutions since the days of the early
chiefs. In fact, the time of the building of many of the ponds extends far
back into the age of fable, the Hawaiians all I'ibiding the consti'iiction of one
of the j)onds on Kauai to tlie work of the ineiiehunes — a fabled race of dwai'l's
that correspond in many ways with oui' Urownies.

Many of the oldest mullet ponds are still in use and in an excellent state
of repair. As the ponds were originally owned liy the kiui;s and cliiel's, it is

^^ Leinda plots spp. '■'* Sti-thi>jiili.i sp. '''' Goiiiiihosii.s sp. -"^ A iiinnji.si'-s sp. ■'' Thala.ixoiiKi sp.

^^ Thnlansitina sp. '■'^Jiili.s sp]). *" Cheilinii.s sp. *^ Mi/clophidce. *- Si/iiodiniitidd'.

*■' TracliiiiDVpphahis iiii/(iii.s. ■>* tsynodus varius. *^ Muffilidiv. *" Mugil c/phalus.

360 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

very probable that most of them were built by the forced labor of the common
people.

The ponds are found principally in the bays indenting the shores of the
islands, the common method of construction having been to build a wall of
lava rock across the narrowest part of the entrance to a small bay and use
the enclosed space for a pond. They were also built on the seashore itself, the
wall being built out from the shore in a half circle.

Ponds vary in size from small ones of less than an acre in extent to the
unusually large one at Moanalua, on Oahu, which encloses over five hundred
acres. There are as many as a hundred and sixty of these ponds indicated on
the maps of the islands. Of this number perhaps one hundred are still in use.
The catch of ama-ama from the ponds of the islands in 1905 was 430,000
pounds, valued at more than $87,000.

The mullet that find their way to the market from these ponds are iden-
tical with those found in the markets of the United States, Japan, Chile and
even the Mediterranean and as far away as India. The average weight of the
mullet in the market is from one to three pounds, though they grow to two or
three times that size, attaining a length of twenty inches or two feet.

They feed on organic matter, especially the minute plants contained in the
mud on the bottom in the shallow water along the shore. As they naturally
gather up a large quantity of indigestible matter, these fishes have the organs
of the throat modified into a filtering apparatus. They take in large quanti-
ties of mud and sand and, after apparently chewing it for a time, spit out the
indigestible portion.

The awa ^" and the awa-aua ^'^ are also reared in large numbers with the
mullet in the ponds. They all enter the ponds when young through openings
left for the purpose in the stone walls. Owing to the protection furnished by
the walls, the mullets thrive and fatten rapidly and, sheltered from their
enemies, become stupid and blundering.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
HAWAIIAN FISHES : PART THREE.

Flatfish.

The visitor at the Aquarium is sure to be interested and delighted with
the beautiful and graceful flatfish that, in general habits and appearance, re-
semble the butterfly-fish, but differ from them in having the dorsal fin drawn
out to form a beautiful white plume-like filament often six inches or more in
length. The species is known to the natives as kihikihi, but since it is a wide

*' Chanus chanos. *^ Elops sniinis.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 361

ranging' forni they are known to Eurojjeans generally as Moorish idt)ls.i They
are quite common alioiit tlic ll;i\vaiinti reefs, where their y('lh)\v bodies crossed
by broad black bands, and tlie long plume-like dorsal tin render them especially
conspicuous even among their brilliant and beautiful associates.

]\IORAYS.

The morays - include an iiiipoi-tatit iiroup of Hawaiian fish that are distin-
guished from the true eels, with which they are closely related, by the presence
of the small round gill openings and by the absence of pectoral tins. ^lany of
the species reach a large size and are extremely voracious and pugnacious. As
they are especially abundant in holes in the coral reefs and not infrequently
spring out and bite the hand of even the experienced fisherman, it is just as well
for the stranger to bear them in mind when on wading expeditions. Too often
it has happened that underneath the most innocent looking tlat coral stone ex-
posed at low tide there has been hidden one of these snake-like fishes. If they
choose to do so they can resent any intrusion from the merely curious in an un-
expected and painful manner, that is long remembered by the oft'ender.

Six genera of morays have so far been identified from the waters about the
islands. Of the forty-two species of morays found here no fewer than eighteen
belong to the genus Cynuudliova.r. The puhi laumili ^^ is one of the most com-
mon as well as most savage of these. They are not infrequently taken with large
fish in their stomachs, sometimes a fourth as long as the moray itself. It ranges
in length up to three feet or more, is variously mottled and naturally is nnich
feared by the natives.

One of the fiercest of all the c^el tribe is the moray known as pnhi kapa,^ so
called because it is said to be victorious over all kinds of fish. In life it is a i)ale
greyish-white covered with irregular dark-brown areas with crcmie-yellow spots;
the bars between these areas, when present, are gray and brown. It is rejjorted
by the natives that this eel goes ashore in the grass at night and will wi^izle
back into the water when disturbed.

The members of the order Apodes, to which the eel-like fishes b(>N)nu-, are
very well represented in Hawaii, there being several dozen species, that usually
differ one from the other only by slight characteristics. ^lost of tlie larger species
are much used as food by the llawaiians. The fiesh of the morays. howevei-. is
oily and not readily digested and on the wh()le is not so wholesome as the fiesh
of the true eels.

The ^Mackerel Fa.mh.v.

Eight species of the mackerel family"' occur in Hawaiian waters, includinu
representatives of the frigate-mackerel, little tunnies, ocean honito. .Mhacoivs
and Petos. The opelu, or true mackerel.'' the aku. oc ocean liniiiid.' and the ahi,^
all belony- to different genera in the mackerel family. They all vow the sea.
usually in large schools, and have a wide range. While they diffei' in outline
considerably, in the different genera, they are all ■'niackei'el-shaped"' and are

^ ZanrUihv. - M}tr(i'nid(r. ' Gymnnthnrn.v iindiilatiix. * Echidna nehulosa.

° Scoinhridiv. " .Scomber japonicus. ' Gyiniionarda pelamis. * Germo gcrmo.

PLATE ill. CHOICE HAWAIIAN MAKKET EESll.
[Asseml>lr(l from IT. 8. Fish Comm. Bulletin No. 23.]

•7 ^' ^^S'^y^^ ^^'"^'1 [Akulel {Tmchurops crumcnophthaJmn). 2. 'SlnUet [Amaama] (Mu-
ll cephalus). 3. Grouper [Hapuupuu] (Epiiicjihchts quernus). 4. Amber Fish [Kahala]
(Description of Plate Continued on the Oiipoxite Pacje.)

THE AXLMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 363

marked with two well devel()i)ecl dorsal fins wliieh are followed hy a scries of
little finlets; there is also a similar series of flnlets posterior to the anal tin.

Though the flesh is usually coarse and dark, it is firm and oily. The opelu
especially is much valued as food, two hundred and seventy-five thousand pounds
of this species being marketed in Hawaii dui-iiiy the year 1903. The aku is very
abundant about Plawaii. particularly in the summer, and ({uantities of them reach
the market almost daily. There is a record of a yearly catch for the islands that
approaches eight hundred thousand pounds. The ahi or albacore is known fi-oni
its cousins by the bright yellow color of its finlets. Though not so abundant
as the other species mentioned, it is frequently taken witli a hook, and large
specimens are occasionally seen in the markets.

The little tunny or kawakawa •' is at once recognized as a mackerel, but
differs from the ocean bonito^" hy its having the lateral line straight and with
no blue-black stripes below the line. They swarm through the high seas in
shoals, especially during the summer months, and are easily captured on an un-
baited hook. The writer has eauglit them by the dozens from the jil)-boom of a
sailing vessel in mid-oeean. AVhen drawn from the water they give one terrible
death shudder and are "as dead as a mackerel" instantly. They are usually
twenty inches long and weigh about three pounds when seen in the market;
they are a fairly good food fish. In this connection it is of interest to note that so
far as the records show, the California ])onito has been taken in Hawaiian waters
only once.

]MlLK-FlSH.

The milk-fish ^1 (awa) is a silvery fish that is largely used for food in
Hawaii, notably about Honolulu, vrhere a quarter of a million of i)ounds of
the species is offered for sale in the markets annually. Next to the mullet, it is
the species most frequenting the artificial ponds into which it runs with the
mullet at high tide and is retained. Although it is an excellent food, it is not
considered a game fish. Like the mullet it is known l)y different names at differ-
ent ages, all of which are combinations of the name awa. They can be recog-
nized at once since they have l)ut one dorsal fin, while the mullet has two. Speci-
mens five feet in length are not uncommon in the open sea.

Needle-Fisii.

Three species of needle-fishes,^- each belonging to a dift'erent genera, are

* Gymnosarda pelamis. i" Gymnosarda pelamin. " Chanos chnnos. '" Belonidce.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

(Scriold jiiirpurascens). o. Goat-fisli | Kunm | (Psruthiiifiuiis poriihi/r( us) . (i. Comnion
Dolphin j ^lahiinahi] {Cortiphana Jiippiirus). 7. .Striped 8urgeon Fi.sli | MaiiiiiiJ (Hcinilui^
sandvicensis) . 8. C'avalla jOniilu] {Carangoides ferdau). 9. Snapper [Opakapaka] {Bo-
werfiin violeserns) . 10. Cavalla [Small = papiopio. niediuiii size = Paiipaii, larpo = T'^lua]
(Caranf/Hs if/noblli.s) . 11. Siiapjier [X^laiila] (Ktrlis nmrslii). I'l. \ S<niirrcl-fisli | F-u]
(Mi/ripristis herndti). ^^^. A Sna]i] cr | I'kn | (Aprion virrsccns) . 14. S\ininil]it | Weke
ula] {MuUoiden artrifi(ni>ma).

364 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

met with in the ocean about the islands. Their elong-ate, slender bodies with
loiiii' beak-like jaws that are set with a band of small sharp teeth, besides a set of
wide, sharp, conical teeth, together with the dorsal fin opposite the anal fin
set far back on the body, are characteristics sufficient to separate them from the
flying'-fish on the one hand, and the half-bills on tlie other, as these two families
are the only Hawaiian fish with which they would be confused. Superficially
they resemble the connnon gar-i>ike. They are voracious, carniverous fishes that
swim along the surface of the sea, often leaping from the water. Specimens
four feet long occasionally reach the market, and are much sought after as food
by certain races. AhaahaJ-^ as they are called by the Hawaiians, are common in
the market every month of the year.

Pampanos.

Of the more than two thousand known species of pampanos,^-' at least
twenty-five have been taken in Hawaiian waters. Tlieir bodies are compressed,
somev/hat resembling the mackerels in form, but they are without the fiidets
which are so marked a characteristic in the family. As a rule, they are metallic-
blue in color, varied with silver and gold, and have the lateral line in most
cases armed v.ith ])ony plates posteriorally. The simple mark of the family,
however, is the presence of two separate spines in front of the anal fin. The
Carangidce are all rapid surface swimmers, so much so that occasionally the dorsal
fin will be seen cutting* through the surface of the water. They are all regarded
as excellent fish, but the lae, puakahala, opelu, akule, apuu-u, and the ulna,
and the curious ulna kihikihi or thread fin, are among the best known species.
The ulua^^ is indeed one of the most important food fish of the islands. Speci-
mens three and even four feet in length are common enough in the markets. It
dries readily and the head is especially esteemed for use in the making of fish
chowder. This species is considered by many to be the most delicate and finely
fiavored food fish to be taken in these waters and is quite generally substituted for
nudlet and opakapaka on the bill of fare of the most fastidious.

Tarpon.

The tarpon occurs in Hawaii and resembles the bonefish quite closely, but
its dorsal fin is inserted well ])efore the anal, a characteristic which separates its
family 1'* from the others of the order. It is said to be a great game fish in
Florida, where it is common. Tari)on have little value as a commodity in tlie
Hawaiian markets.

The thread-fin with the long threads, sometimes twice the length of the
fish, trailing from the dorsal and anal fins is a curious fish of wide distribution
that is occasionally seen in the markets, and is without doubt the most striking
member of this family of pampanos,^" a large family which includes local repre-

^^ Athleniies hians. ^* Carangidix. ^^' Caratupis ir/nnhili.s. ^'^ Elapidtv. '^~ Carangida.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE (iKOFP. 365

sentatives of all such well-know u forms as the i)ilot-(is!ics. amlMi'-fishes, the run-
ners, mackerel-scads, big-eyed scads and eavallas.

The Parrot-Fish Family.

The parrot-fish, 1'^ of which the islands can boast of a large assortment,
resemble the wrasse-fishes''' in color, form and scales, l)nt differ in that lhe\-
have the teeth more or less fused together which gives to the monlli a heavy
beak-like appearance suggestive of the bill of a parrot. They are all liei-l)ivorons
fishes, some of them attaininu' a vei"y larui^ side. They are abundant alxuit
the coral reefs where they always add a touch of vivid color to the woiidecful
picture to be seen through an observation hood or a glass-bottomed boat. The
flesh is soft and white and of a rather pasty nature. It is a favorite fish
with the Plawaiians, who eat it raw at their feasts. l)ut it is seldom cooked by
Europeans.

The color pattern of this group is greatly varied and the family is broken
up into, many species. In Hawaii four well-marked genera occur and at least
two dozen species have been found and described from the islands. The ])onu-
hunuhu -" has the spinous dorsal fin with a distinct black spot between the
first and second spines and the sides somewhat mottled, but without definite
spots or specks. They are quite common in the markets. The uhu -^ is a gen-
eral reddish color without conspicuous markings other than a narrow violet line
on the outer edge of the dorsal. They are not very abundant and as a result
command an exorbitant price. The uhu uliuli -- is one of the handsomest fish
of the islands. It is green in color with bars or stripes on the dorsal and spots
on the scales of the lower sides and a curious rectangular patch over the snont.
The blue parrot-fish ^^ is a fine brilliant blue fish that in the olden time was
tabu, for the use of the chiefs alone. It now sells at a ridiculousl\- hiLili price
and is eaten raw. The pipe-fish family --^ is represented by three or four genera,
one of which -•'• is of interest since it includes two island species of th(> cui i(Mis
sea-horse. Both species are so rare, however, that there seems to be no geiierall\-
accepted native name for the curious animal.

Porcupine-Fish.

Porcupine fishes-" occur in the gi-oup. there being foni' s|)ecies in all. They
are more or less spherical in form and as tlie name implies, have the liody well
armed with sharp spines the ])ases of which a!'(- so bi-oad as to form a coat of
mail in the skin. The oopu kawa -' is the species commonly on exhibition in
the Aquarium. It is a sluggisli tish, living at the bottom amoni; the seaweeds
on the coral reefs aI)out the islands. They are reported as being poisonous.
AVhen disturbed they swallow aii- and float belly up on the watei'. Their power
of inflation, however, is not so mai'k'ed as that of the giohe-tisli or iMirt'ei's. to
which they are related. As they ai'e sehk)m uslhI for food, their princi[)al u.se

'^ Scaridfp. i^ Lahridcc. -" Calotomus sandriceiiMs. -^ Callyodon uiiniatuii.

-- CaUi/odnn pi'i-xi)icrllatiix. -^ Pxpudoxranis jardniti. "* Sini<jn(ith\d(r. "•• H iiiixirctiiinin.

"^ Diodontida'. '-' Dindon niuliinius.

^jflB^

TO5^'

■ /■«

fc^

>>^

V ,'>»*

PLATE 92. CUHlUUa AND COMMON HAWAIIAN FISHES.
[Assembled from U. S. Fish Comm. Bulletin No. 23.]
1. Flyiug Fish [Malolo] (Parexocoetus brarhypterus). 2. Flying Fish [Malolo] (0//>-
gihtnis simus). 3. Barracuda [Kawalea] {Sphyrcena helleri). 4. A Squirrel Fish [Alaihi]

(Descrijitioii of I'Idtc Continued on the Opposite Page.)

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 367

is as curiosities, and they arc oljjccts of n<'ver-failiiig interest at the A(|iiariiim
and ill natural history collections.

The name porgy was applied by the Greeks to a n't\ fish of lliis family-^
common in the Mediterranean. Since then the name lias l)cen carried over the
world by the Spanish and came to be the common name applied to a i^roup of
carniverous shore fishes of the tropics which are everywhere esteemed. as food.
The single Hawaiian porgy is the mu.-'' In their general shape they somcAvhat
resemble the sea-snappers, having their bass-like mouth armeil with several
conical canine-like teeth in front. They are greenish in color witli two paler
cross-bands that extend up into the dorsal fin.

The Puffers.

Tile puffers ^^ and sharp-nosed puffers ^^ are two families, closely related to
the porcupine fish, that have ten species belonging to four genera in the Hawaiian
fauna. The walls of the' abdomen are capable of distention so that when in-
flated the fish appears like an animated glass giolie with a head and a tail at-
tached. The oopuhue, or keke,-^- is the most abundant species. It is light
olive-green covered over the back with pearly spots, the belly being striped with
light yellow and pearly, but the colors vary greatly with age. It is an
abundant fish in suitable places about Honolulu, where it frequents mullet
ponds and brackish water generally. When removed from the water tlie.>' s\\'ell
up as tight as a drum and remain in this condition until returned to the water,
where they will float on their backs in a helpless condition for some time; eventu-
ally they collapse and swim off. Cabinet specimens hardened in alcohol will
remain in an inflated condition indefinitely. Specimens fourteen inches in
length are common. The native name, meaning "sure death," indicates
the Hawaiian belief in its poisonous character. The gall doubtless contains
an active poison, said by some to have been used on spear-points. Puffers are
seldom, if ever, seen in the markets, but are commonly captured in seines in
the mullet ponds. They vary greatly in color with age. while in some the body
is smooth and in others more or less covered with prickles.

The Remora.

The remoras, disk-heads or sucking-fish, •^•'^ while not commonly met with

"** Sparidce. -" Monutaxis </rand(i<-iiUs. "" Tetraudontidic. ^^ Caiitliiijasteiidif.
■'- Tet.raodon hiapidus. ^a EehenididcB.

( Dt'urniitimi iif I'liih- ('iiiitiii i(cd innii OiiimKitr I'lK/e.)

{Holoccntius niicrof<tuinu.s). 5. Swordfish | A 'ii | {Xipliids gladius). (>. Mackerel [Opolu
j);ilalui| {Scoinhcr jdponicu.s). 7. Ocean Jiotiito [.\ku| {(li/mnosardd pclamin). 8. Little
Tuna or Bonito [KawakawaJ {(li/iiinosarda aUcltcrnta) . 9. Pilot Fish or lioinero {Naucra-
Ics (luctor). 10. A Cavalla [Piiakahala] (tV(/Y//i//i(.v afliiiis). 11. 'rincad i'isli [Ulna kilai-
kihi] (Alectis ciliaris). 12. Sea Perch | AholelioleJ {Kuhlia niul<j). I'.i. ratahit'a | .Vlalaiia]
(Priacanthus alalaua). 14. Porgie [^Iu| (Monotojis (jrandoculis). 15. A HurinuUet | Weke
nlaiila ] (Midloldis pdinmcns). l(i. Goat-fisli | Muinu | (I\'«'iidiiiniicit.s hifascialus). 17. A
Wrasse Fish [OniakaJ {^Stctliojulis a.iill(iri.s). IS. .\ Wrasse Fish | OpuleJ {Anampses
curicr).

368 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

are so curious in form and lial)it that they are sure to attract attention when
they occasionally come to market attached, barnacle-like, to the body of some
sliai'k. or turtle, or large fish. They are slender, violet-blackish colored fish
that are peculiar in that they have the first dorsal fin transformed into a suck-
ing disk, which covers the entire head and nape. The shark sucker ^^ of Hawaii
is one of two widely distrilnited species, but as they are neither very abun-
dant nor used as food, their appearance in the markets is entirely owing to
their interesting habits. By affixing themselves to their hosts they are car-
ried through a much greater extent of w^ater than their own limited swim-
ming powers would admit. They obtain thereby a much greater supply of
food than they would otherAvise secure. They may be carried about for
weeks by their hosts, leaving them only to secure food. This is done by a
sudden rush tlirouuh the water. The remora does not injure the carrier-
animal in any way, and as they are of small size, rarely being more than six
or eight inches in length, they do not materially impede the progress of their
hosts.

The Scorpion-Fishes.

The scorpion-fishes •'■"' are so varied in form as to render a brief character-
ization of the group impossible. In the more extreme examples which are sure
to attract attention great changes take place in the form of the fish and their
appendages. The head may Ix- distorted with ridges and grooves, the anal
spines lost and the dorsal spines variously modified. The scales may be lost
or replaced by warts or prickles, and in others the ventral fins nuiy be reduced,
while in still others the pectorals are often greatly enlarged.

They are especially abundant in the Pacific and form a large portion of
the fish fauna of Hawaii, where ten genera aiid twenty or more species occur.
In general, they do not migrate, but make a permanent home about the rocks
and in the coral reef. Curiously enough, they are esteemed as food in spite
of the fact that some of them have a venom sac at the base of the dorsal spine,
to the poisonous efifect of which they owe their name.

The noho or amakaha^'^ is perhaps as tyjiical and as common in tlie
market and Aquarium as any of the scorpion-fish. They are indescribably mot-
tled and streaked with brown, claret color, sulphur-red, salmon color and near-
white The inner or posterior side of the pectorals is l)rightly marked with
yellow varied with black, so that when swimming from the observer they look
like heavy-bodied I)utterfiies winging their way about the tide pools in the reef.

The Sea-Bass FA^[ILY.

Although it is customary for the angler to talk of the great variety of sea-
bass to be caught in Hawaii, he doubtless speaks fi'om the abundance of mis-
information which is current on the subject of fish ami fishing, and not from
a desire to misrepresent the facts. Anything that takes the hook and in the

'* Echcnris sp. ^° Scorpaniidw. ^^ Scor/HCiiopfiis f/ihhasa.

THE ANBFAL LIFE OF TTTH (iROFP. 369

least resembles a bass passes as one among this class of tishci-men. As a
matter of fact, there ar<' lint five species belonging lo as )iiaiiy iicin'ra n\' iIk;
sea-bass-*' family that have so far been taken from Hawaiian watcis. h is
trne that it requires some skill to deteet the characteristics 1hat s('i)ai-a1(' the
cardinal-fishes on the one hand and the catalufas and snapjx'rs on Ihc other.
If the fish in hand shonhl pro\-e to have three and only lliree stiff, strong spines
in the anal fin and be bass or perch-like in form, the chances are it would [irove
to l)e a time liass. However, it wonld then re(piii'e mneh consulting of author-
ities to prove the specific identity of the species, as the matter is fni'ther
complicated by a disagreement in popular nomenclature as to whetlier it
should be called a Jew-fish, a grouper, or a hind.

The liainFu i>n 'u '^'^ is the most important and conniion species in the
market, where specimens three feet or more in length are not uncommon. It
is a dark pnr])]ish-brown fish Avith occasional irregular pearly spots on the
sides and with l)lacl< ventral fins, though in old specimens the spots disa])pear,
leaving the fish a uniform reddish leather-brown. They are usually cauglit
with a hook and are the only species of the bass family conimonl\- known by a
Hawaiian name.

One might naturall\- ex{)ect that the ocean about these islands would \)o
inhabited by representatives of almost every type of animal to be found in the
sea anywlier(\ However, the announcement of the discovery of the presence
of the sea-devil -" family close at liand will come in the nature of a surprise
to many. That the creature was a new species and called for the creation of a
new genus is made plain from its description. Avhich. briefiy put. characterizes
it as an inky black animal with small eyes, a white mouth and a protruding
chin. Any fear and uneasiness that may have been felt at the discovery of a
member of this satanic family about the islands will be allayed somewhat Avhen
it is known that the only specimen of the genus ever discovered is h^ss than
fo.ur inches long and was dredged from the fioor of the ocean under .">()()
fathoms of water.

Snappers.

The snai)per family ^" is represented in Hawaii by seven or eight important
food fish. As has been stated, they closely resemltle the sea-bass. One fa-
miliar with the characteristics of tlie two fanulies. however, will be able to
point out that in the snappers "the maxillary slips along its edge into a sheath
formed by the broad end of the pre(U'bital. "" ^vhile the sea-bass have no siich
sheath.

The eight species are all fairly abundant. carui\-orous. voracious, gamey.
excellent liigh-colored fish, and all are known at the marekt by Hawaiian
names. The ukikiki ■'^ is a fairly common red fish ^\•itll diagonal golden cross-
bands. It is a fine, firm. whiTe-lleshed fish especially suitable for b.-dcing. The

'•'~ i^erraiiifhr. "'* E /liin iilnliis f/ufnuin. ^^' Ceratiida'. *" Lutin»idir.

■" Roosf relti ( A psiliix ) lirii/hiinii.

.<!f->

PLATE 93. PARROT FISH, BUTTERFLY FISH. PUFFERS AND THEIR RELATIVES.
[Assembled from U. S. Fish Comm. Bulletin No. 23.]

1. A Wrasse Fish (Tliahissnuid uiiiirostigma) . 2. A Wrasse Fish [Hilu lauwili] (Julis
Icjiomi.s). 3. A Parrot Fish [Uhii] (CaUyodon iiiiniatus). 4. Blue Parrot Fish (Psendosca-

( Description at Plate Continued on the Ojiposite Pa(je.)

THE ANIMAL LIFP] OF THE GROUP. 371

opakapaka ^- is liyht rosy-olive with violet shades, especially on the scales over
the back ; the ulaiila *^ is a beautiful rose-red or reddish-pink, while the uku ^''
is uniform liii'ht gray, the upper parts tiivm'd with liliir whicli on the head
becomes dark blue. Some of the si)ecies maj' be procured almost every day,
there being more than a hundred thousand pounds sold annually in the
Hawaiian markets.

Soles.

Of the true soles ^" but two species were secured by the scientists of the
Albatross, and they were taken only from deep water. But of the nearly-
related flatfishes, especially the flounders,"*" five genera with a half-dozen
species have been recorded. By far the most plentiful flatfish is the pakii,^^
a curious sand-colored fish with numerous eye-like markings of light grayish-
brown and bluish-gray and some with blackish edges. They are mostly small
in size, but are excellent when fried. In the Aquarium this flatfish loves to
lie almost concealed in the sand. Both eyes have been moved by nature far
over on one side of its head. It is indeed a natural wonder that well repays
the trouble it often takes to discover it when it has hidden itself in the sand
and pebbles for protection.

Squirrel-Fishes.

The squirrel-fishes ^^ are conspicuous shore fishes frequenting the rocky
banks and coral reefs of the tropical seas. They are usually red or reddish
in color and have eleven spines in the dorsal and four in the anal fin, the third
usually being very strong. Five genera have been taken in the group, to
whieh twenty gaily-colored species have been credited. Several of the species
ai-e abundant and are always to be seen in the market. The u'u^*^ is the
common red species that lives in the rocks. The natives have an interesting
way of fishing for them. One is first caught on a hook, which they take quite
readily. The fish is then attached to a line and dropped in again in some place
suitable to the habits of the u'u. If the rock is inhabited the resident species
will come out at once, bristling with rage, to drive off the intrnder. Both fish are
then lifted out with a hand net ; the last one caught being substituted for the
decoy — and so the fishing proceeds.

The alaihi ''^ are interesting members of this family, represented liy seven
or more species that are quite abundant about the islands. They, like tlieir

*- Apsilus microdon. ** Etelis ninr.shi. *° A prion virensceus. *'^ Holeidir. *' Plettronectidce.

** Platophrys pantherinus. *^ Uolocentridce. ^° Myripristis murdjan. ^^ Holocentrus spp.

(Description of Plate Continued from Opposite Page.)

rus jordani). 5. A Butterfly Fish [Kikakapu] (Chcetodon unimactdatus). G. A Butterfly
Fish [Kikakapu] (Chcetodon mdiari.s). 7. Moorish Idol [Kihikihi] (Zanndus canesccns).
8. A Surgeon Fish [Naeuae] (Hcpatas olirarctis). 9. A Surgeon Fisli | Puala] {Hei>atus
guntJuri). 10. A Trigger Fish | Huinuhu'nu nukuuuku apua'a] (B(dist(ipitf! rcctanijidiis) .
11. Sharp-nosed Pufl^er [Puu olai | {('anthigastcr epdamprus). 12. Porcupine Fisli [Oopu
kawa] (Diodon nudifrons).

2>71 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

eonsiiis. are mostly small hiyli-eolored fish and are peculiar in the development
of small spines almost everywhere over the surface of the body. The name
refers to the noise they make when taken out of the water, which suggests the
bai'k of the squirrel. Tlie stripes on some species also add to their squirrel-
like appearance.

The Surgeon-Fishes.

The surgeon-fishes or tangs •"'- are herbivorous inhabitants of the tropical
seas, notably abundant about the coral reefs and in the tide pools along the
shore. They undergo great changes with age, the young often having been
described as distinct genera. Hawaii has five genera and perhaps a dozen
and a half species of these interesting fishes. They are mostly dark in color,
with some vivid color added, and all have an armament developed on the side
of the tail. In some genera this armament consists of a movable spine set witli
the point turned forward which can be dropped down into a sheath-like groove.
In other genera one or two sharp knife-like plates are rigidly attached to the
side of the tail. It is from these spines that the fishes derive their common
names, surgeoii-tish, doctor-fish, or lance-fish, and thev form verv effective
weapons against their enemies, be they fish or man.

The pa kuikui •''" is common about Honolulu, and may lie recognized by its
brown color, which is relieved by an orange patcli about the murderous spine
on the side of the tail. The nae-nae ''^ is olivaceous and has a liright spot on
the shoulder. The pualn •"'"' is a common species in the Ilonolnlu market. It is
brown in color and has four or five golden longitudin.il bands on the dorsal
fin and four similar ones on the anal. The most alnmdant member of the
extensive genus, howevci". is the delicious panfish known to everyone as
manini.*''^ They are almost daily offered for sale in the markets; their dull
olive-gray bodies crossed by five narrow vertical lines renders their identity
easy and certain. They are seldom more than seven or eight inches in length,
but their small size is more than made up for by their delicate flavor when
fried. They are fearless shore fishes, usually to be seen in pools in small
schools. The young are often trapped in holes in the rocks along shore as the
tide recedes, "vvhere they swim about without alarm, patiently awaiting the
return to the sea. They are hardy and thrive in the Aquarium, where their
stripes have won for them the popular name of convict-fish.

The kala."''' or unicorn-fish, is an alnindant member of the family. In addi-
tion to the two large pale blue, blunt, immovable spines on the tail, placed one
in front of the other, it has as a special distinctive mai'k a long horn growing
forward from the o'anium ai)ove the eyes.

The Goat-Fish.

The surmullets, or goat-fish"''^, are shore fishes of moderate size and
possess the notable features of two long unbranched barbules of firm sub-

'•- Acaiithui-idfe. ^'^ He pat 11.1 arliilli'X. ^* Hepntiis nlivari'ii.i. ^^ Hcpatiig i/initlii'ri.

^^ Hejiatus Sfindvicensi.s. ^' AcaiitliiirKS uiticorids. ^^ MuIHiUc.

THE AXLMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 2>72,

stance on the chin. These they employ for feelers, using tln'iii to slii- ii[i the
sand on the bottom, as they search for the small animals iiixui wliidi they feed.
Their scales are large and thin, and the fish are all bright-colored, usually red
or red and golden. About a dozen and a luilf of closely-related species are
found in the ocean about Hawaii. These wrv divided among three important
genera. Weke is the name applied by the Hawaiians to a luunber of the
species. The name is also used in condjination with moi-e speeitie descriptive
terms, so that weke or weke ula '''•* is specifically applied to the bi'ight red-col-
ored surmullet of which enormous quantities are annually marketed in the
islands. In the Aquarium they attract much attention as tliey swim along-
carrying their chin barbules extended in advance of them, cautiously feeling
their way as they go.

The goat-fish proper 'J'^ are represented by the moano,*^^ the munu '^- and
the kumu,*^^ all of which are highly-colored common species.

SwORDFlSll.

Occasionally a swordfish'''^ is taken by the Hawaiian fishermen, and in
this way reaches the market under the name a'u. They are fishes of great
size, with the upper jaw prolonged to form a "sword," which is flattened hori-
zontally. h)0 far as is known, the family ^'^ is represented by a single species
of world-wide distribution. They are mainly pelagic in their habits and are
among the most predaceous and savage of the monsters of the deep. They not
only transfix their ordinary prey with their formidable sword, but use it in a
merciless attack on whales, which, from repeated stabs, often succumb.

Occasionally this pugnacious fish mistakes a ship's hull for an enemy and
charges it, sending its sword crashing through several inches of timber. On
one occasion the writer ])liotographed a swordfish bill that had been rammed
tlii'ough the stern sheets of a small deep-sea-going craft. The vessel had l)eeii
hauled out of the water for repairs in Honolulu harbor, when, to the surprise
of the ship's master, the beaks of the swordfish were found driven deep into
the hull, one of them piercing the solid pine shell to a depth of twelve inehes.
Whih^ swordfish are usuallx' four to six feet in leimth, \\\v\ may measui'e
twelve or fifteen feet and have a sword a yard in length. The largest animals
sometimes weigh as much as 600 ])ounds or more. The flesh of the swordfish
is red in color and rich in flavor, and is evei'vwhere prized as delieious food.

The trigger-fish'''"' are I'alher large-size shore fislies tliat are partl\- hei'biv-
orous and pai'tly earnivoi'cMis in habit. They are i-arely used as food, and
some of them are reputed t)y the natives to be poisonous. They ai'e I'ein.-ifkable
and interesting in that the fli-st dorsal fin is composed of a short, stout I'ough
spine Avith a smaller one behind it. and usually a third so placetl that, by
foucliing it, the first s])i!ie may be i'igidl_\' set oi' c-isily I'cleased. wIkmi it folds

^^ MtiUoides aurijii} iiiiiiii . "" I'xi'inhiiH'iieii.s s])]). *" I'sfiniii /ii'iit'iis in iiltifiisridhi/!.

^- Pgeiulii ii''>ii'iis hijiisriiitiis. '^'•^ Paeiidupinieiis ixiriilii/n'ii.i. " ' A'i'/'/(i«.v 'iliidiiix, "^ Xiphiidcf.

8'> Balixtida\

PLATE 94. GOBIES, BLENNIES, FROG FISH, TRUNK FISH AND OTHER ODD

FORMS.

[Assembled from U. S. Fish Gomm. BuDetin No. 2H.]
1. lleadfish | Ajiahul (Fanzania malua). 2. Trniik Fish [Moa] {Ostracion sehce).
3. A Cirrhitoid Fish [Pilikoa] (Paracirrhites forsieri). 4. A Cirrhitoid Fish [Oopukai]

( Descrirition nj Plate Continued nn the O/i/jnxite Page.)

THE ANI.MAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 375

The Trigger-Fishes.

back into ;i pocket out of the w;iy. This tiives the family the iiaiiic oi" trigger-
fish, as well as llie older name, Batistes, which rcfci-s to a cross-how shooter.

Hawaii has five genera with eleven species. The species of the j)rincipal
genus Batistes, ai'c known as hmnnhuinu, lo which as occasion i'c;|uii-('s is
added a second name and even a third by the natives for more specific desig-
nation.

Many of the Hawaiian species are most fantastically colored. The hnmu-
humn nnkunnkn a pna'a"' has a bln.c hand over the nose, a broad black
one slanting diagonally across the body from over the forehead to the
pectoral region, thence backward to the anal fin. and a Avedge-shaped l)lack
band on the side of the tail; but several of its cousins outdo it in striking and
unconventional colors aiul nuirkings.

Trunk-Fish.

The odd, box-like trunk-fish,"^ or coffer-fish, as they ai-e called hy some,
have the body enveloped in a boney box of six sides out of which the movable
jaws, fins and tail protrnde. They live in shallow water, are slow of motion,
but often are bi'ightly colored.

Five species of trunk-fish have so far been recorded from Hawaii. The
moa -'■' are conspicuous in their dress of bright l)lue with golden spots, and are
the most abundant of the island species. Their knoAving, stolid countenances
as they swim gracefully about among their associates at the Aquarium give
them a "position among fishes that correspoiids to that held by the owls among
birds.'' When taken from the Avater these fish Avill live a considerable time,
and they appear to be hardy enough to commend them to l^eepers of private
salt-Avater aquaria.

Trumpet-Fish.

The trumpet-fish.'" known locally as the nunn, is not uncommon al):)ut
the islands. By reason of its odd, elongated body. h>ng head and small moulh
set at the end of a long compressed tulie. Ihe luuui is sure to attract attention.
The single species varies greatly in coloc. i-anging from light yelloAv to dark
lu'OAvn. varied Avith five or six nai-row longitudinal stripes. In spite of its odd
appearance, it is a food fish of sonu' inipoitance. and is often exposed foi' s;de
in the markets.

^' Balistapvs rectarKjiihis. '^^ O.straciido-. '"' Ontrncinti .ii'Iki-. '■" AuHstamus vnlentitii.

(DcHcription of Plate ('oiitiniicd from Opponite Page.)

(Cirrhitus ni(iniinratns). ^^. A Scoriiion Fish |Xohu] (Scorjxrndiisis ftihhofia). (i. Flying
fiiu'iiard [Lolo-oau I {CcplialacdnlJni.s ori<iit(ilis) . 7. A Goliy |()ojni| {lihotris sandwicctisis).
8. A Goby [()oim| (Eviota epii'luuitw). 9. .\ Cohy [Oopu] {Mapo fnsnis). Ki. .\ Goby
[Oopu] (Sicydluni stimp.ioiii) . 11. .\ (ioby |()()pu| {Airanu.'i fifiiirittati(s). 12. A Blonnie
(Enncapfcn/f/iits otrireps). ]'A. A P>l(>iniio {Altirns marmarol u.^) . 11. .\ Blcnnic (Salarin
zebra), lo. Frog Fish (AiilcniKiris Jcprosus).

376 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

CHAPTER XXIX.
INTRODUCED FRESH WATER FISH.

Goldfish.

Several attempts have been made ])y private citizens to introduce well-
known food, game and ornamental fish into the Hawaiian Islands. One of the
earliest, if not the first attemjit of this nature, resulted in introducing' the
Avell-known goldfish ^ into the streams, ponds and in-igation ditches of Oahu,
from whence they liavc been generally distributed to the other inhabitetl
islands of the grou]). The original stock of goldfish came from China, but
the date of the first shipment is not known. As early as 1867, however, they
were being exported to California, and from that time to the present they
have been abuiidant about Honolulu, and have contributed their share to the
ideal beauty of the streams and the pleasure of the young angler. Since the
original introduction some of the fancy varieties have been liberated at differ-
ent times, with the result that there is much variation in form and color among
the wild species. Ooldfish are regularly offered for sale in the market in
Honolulu, but they are mainly eaten by the Chinese and Japanese.

The goldfish is a native of China, and from there it was introduced into
Japan at an early date. From Japan they were carried to Europe in 1611,
and later to America, where many of the various artificial varieties that have
been produced in China and Japan are reared with great success by fanciers.
The rich golden color is found only in the domesticated species, and is re-
tained by artificial selection. The native fish are olivaceous in color, and in
the ponds and ditches about Honolulu, as in China and Japan, they readily
revert to that color. In the Orient several score of forms have been produced
by patient selection and breeding. Eighteen forms of so-called toy goldfish
are known among the fanciers, each of them ])rovided with a name based on
its origin, history, form or color.

They are rather sluggish, hardy creatvires that devour large quantities of
mosquito larva? froiu pools and fountains about the city. Unfortunately, the
more recently introduced "mosquito fish" are reported to feed on the eggs
and very young of the goldfish and mullet, as well as the mosquito larvtv and
the young of the fresh-water shrimp. As a result, goldfish are not as plentiful
in our streams as they were formerly.

Carp.

Carp- were introduced into the islands from America some years ago.
They were first ])lanted in the iri'igation ditches near Waihiku. and from there
Avere distributed to Hawaii and Oahu, and doubtless will be fouiul on all the
islands. They are not much used as food on account of their nuiddy
flavor and are onl\- used in the absence of better fish. Thev iiaturallv

' Carassitis aurattis. - Ci/praKKS carido.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 2,77

prefer shady, shig'gish walcr Avitli muddy hottoiiis, wlicfc tlioy feed voraciously
on small water animals and vegetable matlci'. particularly the leaves of
aquatic plants. 'IMic common carp is closely i-clatcd 1o tlie goldfish and was
originally a native of tlic rivci's of ('liina, wlici'c it has long been ai'tificially
reared by the inhalntants. Fi'om thci-c it was iiili-oduced into Eui'opc, pci-haps
three centuries ago, and has since Ijecoiiic naturalized and several varieties
produced in domestication. From Europe carj) were introduced into America,
and from America they were brought to Hawaii, thus eom|)letin^ tlieii' journey
around the globe. They attain a size of several pounds and ma\- be identified
as the only scaled fresh-water tish in Hawaii that have bai-bules on the upper
lip. A single specimen has been known to pioduee as many as seven liumlred
thousand eggs in a single season.

Catfish.

The common l)ullhead catfish, or horned pout,'* was introduced about
twenty years ago from California, Avhere it had been naturalized, and Avas
planted in ponds about Hilo, but it has not been seen since. In the meantime
it has been introduced on the Island of Oahu, where it has been secured
from the sam*^ ponds with the Chinese species. The Chinese cattish ^ was
introduced by the Chinese about a dozen yeai's ago from their country. It has
survived and is becoming ({uite common in the fresh-watei- j)onds and finds its
way to the markets, where it is sold under the name of Chinese catfish.

Since both species occur about Honolulu in the same environment, it will
be well to know that the Chinese species have the dorsal and anal fins much
elongated, each with many rays, and extending throughout the greater length
of the trunk, while in the bullhead the dorsal and anal are nnich shorten', the
dorsal Avith one hard and seven soft rays.

China Fish.

Easily mistaken for the Chinese cattish in the Avater, is the •'China lish,
which in I'eality is a snake-head mullet. They are long and cylindi'ieal. and
the head is coA^ered with scales. They are carnivorous and voracious in lial»it,
and are extremely tenacious of life, liA'ing for hours out of water when thi'own
on the banks of the ii'rii;ation ditches or when carried to market. Dr. A. (liinther
states that they ai'e able to survive drouth by living in the semi-lluid mud or
lying in a semi-torpid state below the hard snn-bak'ed crusi of the bottom of a
tank from \vhicli cA'ery di-o]) of watcn- has disappeared.

Black Bass.

The first attempt to establish black b;iss dates from the summer of 1897,
when a shipment Avas made from the California P^'ish Commission to a number
of citizens at Ililo. ITnfoi't unalely. oidy twenty-one of these eleizant sun fishes
suiwived the journey. Tliesi' were planted in Wailuku ri\(M' near Kainbow

^ Ameriunm xrlnihisiiK. ^ Chirins i'l.iruK. ''OiihicriilKiJiis sti'idtus.

378 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Falls, but the following day a heavy freshet in the river is supposed to have
carried them out to sea, as they were never seen afterward.

In 1908 Mr. W. A. Templeton, while visiting California, secured a number of
large-mouthed black bass "' which he brought back with him and planted in the
great artificial fresh-water reservoir at Wahiawa. Under his supervision the intro-
duction has proved successful, and this exceedingly valuable game fish is now
well established in these waters and in time will doubtless be carried from
Wahiawa to similar reservoirs and ponds throughout the group. As these
ponds are filled wath shrimp and the temperature and other conditions seem
favorable, the black bass is doubtless to become a common article of food in
Hawaii and will prove a worthy substitute for almost any of the native fish.

Trout and Salmon.

Attempts to establish trout in Hawaii have so far proved unsuccessful,
though two or three attempts have been made, the first as early as 1876. It
is thought by the writer that there are streams in the group, especially one or
two on the Island of ]\Iolokai, that are well adapted to the trout, and that if
proper precautions were observed in planting them, they would soon establish
themselves. Salmon eggs were sent here for planting in 1876, but this experi-
ment proved unsuccessful.

Mosquito Fish.

Work along the line of mosquito control had advanced in the Territory
to a point where, on the advice of experts, it was deemed advisable to import
small fish for the purpose of feeding on the larva^ of this pest that hatches in the
streams, ponds and ditches of the Territory. The Legislature of 1905 made a
small appropriation for that purpose, and a special collector was employed
to transport to Hawaii representatives of the so-called "top minnows" or killi-
fish from Galveston, Texas. Three species ^ belonging to three genera of the
family PoeciUidcc were successfully introduced into especially-prepared ponds
at Moanalua, Oahu. From these they have since been spread broadcast over
the group until it is now almost impossible to find slowly-moving or standing
fresh water that is not inhabited by one if not all of the species. They are
silvery fishes of small size, scarcely more than two inches in length. They
have a wonderful appetite, devouring large quantities of mosquito larvie, but,
as was expected, they do not discriminate as closely as might be desired, with
the result that they are charged with eating the eggs and young of the other
aquatic animals. However, the introduction of a few into any closed body of
water infested Avith mosquito larva? will convince anyone of their economic
value to the Territory. Their small protractile mouths, scaled heads and
"minnow" shape is sufficient to separate them from other fresh-water fish,
but the species are so smnll that their certain identification by the novice is not
an easy matter.

« Micropterus salmoides. ' Gambusia affiiies, Funduliis grandis and MoHenesia latHpinna.

tup: axdial life of the group. 379

chapter xxx.
ixaiportant economic insects: i>art one.

The insect life of Hawaii is as yet far from being completely explored.
Howevei-. tlinnigh the patient researches of a number of specialists extending
over a period of years, the native and introduced fauna is becoming better
known, though all testify to the nuiny insect rareties as well as pests yet to
be found by almost any one who will search with patience and industry in the
rich fields offered bv the wonderful varietv of environments to be met with in
the islands.

Importance of the Study op Insects.

The study of the habits of insects by young pe()i)le as a part of their
school work, or on their holiday excursions, is especially to be commended,
since it is sure to result in the learning of many valuable lessons that deal with
the wonders of nature. Besides being of absorbing interest to old and young,
such study may lead the enthusiast to follow a pursuit in life that offers possi-
bilities of great usefulness and benefit to all.

The tourist and visitor, however, whose conception of the islands
has been too literally based on some traveler's account wherein the
tropical forests are portrayed as "a wilderness jeweled with a myriad bril-
liant-colored butterflies," is sure to be disappointed on his first expedition
into the mountains of Hawaii. AVhile they are plentifully stocked with insect
life, unfortunately from some points of view it is not of the gorgeous and
showy kind that one is wont to associate with tropical islands.

The few small dull-colored species the novice is able to collect on the first
day's outing are usually not such as to excite much enthusiasm for Hawaii as
an insect collector's paradise. Bvit on careful study of the daj-'s catch it will
be found that many of the insects belong to species that cannot be found else-
where in the world, and that many of them have habits of the most absorbing
interest. Further and more searching study of the fauna M'ill bring to light
peculiar local representatives of almost all of the great orders of insects. When
we consider the isolation of the islands, one is surprised to find represented
so great a proportion of the large number of families into Avhich the world's
more than three hundred thousand known species of insects have been
classified.

Important Destructive Species.

As there are several thousand species thai ai-e native to the isljiiids. a few
of wliicli are touched upon in a succeeding chapter, and since thei'e ar(^ several
hundred tliat have been introduced by accident or desio-u.i only the briefest
notice can be taken in this chaptei' of a few of Ihe more iinpoi'tant economic
species that, for one reason or a]U)tht'v, ai-e lial)U' to attract tlie attention of

' As many as one hundred and thirty-six species being intercepted and prevented from landing at the
wharf during the biennial period ending December 31st. 1914.

C g

X >

*- o

T O

g ■

CIS

X ■

C-1

— ^

OJ o

s
o

THE AXIMxVL LIFE OF THE GROrP. 381

the ordinary observer, or those ])ersons whose occupations often bring them in
touch with things of nature.

It is a singular fact that of the large number of species jx-culiar to the
islands only a few are noticeably destructive to agriculture or to ciillivaled
exotic plants. The worst enemies of the agriculturist have been introduced
from abroad and are frequently cosmopolitan j)ests. They usually come with
fa I'm produce, ornamental plants, earth and seeds. The result is that one is
liable to meet here in the islands all of the old enemies of tlie Imsbandmaii with
which one nuiy be familiar in his native country, and to the list may l)e added
several other forms equally destructive that were before uidviiown to the
observer.

The number of destructive insects in the islands has led to the adoi)tion of
the i>oli('y of controlling them whenever possible by the introduction of their
natural enemies. This plan has been steadily pursued for almost a quarter
of a century, with the result that probably in no other country, particularly
when its size is considered, have so many benelicial insects been artificially
established.

Control by Natural Enemies.

As the natural enemies of most of the insects are parasites, which as very
minute insects, usually attack and feed in one way or another upon the host
species wdiich itself is often microscoj^ic in size, this warfare is not a very
conspicuous one, nor one liable to attract very much attention. However, in
the struggle l)eing continually waged to keep the enemies of agriculture in
check in the islands, these often unseen and unknown insect friends are always
active and have already saved millions of dollars to Hawaii.

The Stgar-Cane Leaf-Hopper.

Perhaps no more remarkable example of the effectiveness of this method
of control can be found than that of the introduction of the leaf-hopper c^^^^
parasites. The cane leaf-hopper had been known to plantation managei-s and
expert entomologists in the islands for a number of years, but in the early
spring of 1908 it appeared so generally throughout th(^ cane fields and in such
numbers as to prevent the growth of the cane. It was found to be a typical
member of the leaf-hoi)per family { Asl)-aci(}((') . and ju-ovimI to l)e a i-eccMit in-
troducti(»n, ])i-o])ably ])i-onght with seed caiu' fi'om (Queensland. Australia.
Owing to its small si/.e and inconspicuous color and habits, its spi'ead was un-
noticed until it could be found almost wherever cane was grown.

The sugar-cane leaf-hopper- Hies readily and is attracted long distances
by liulit : so besides ti'aveling with the cane, it llew to new lields an 1 from
one plantation to another.

A peculiai' smut that developed on the lowei' leaves of cane attacked by
the leaf-hopper was found to l;i-o\v on the ■'honey dew,'" a ti'ansparent sticky

- Perkinsii'lhi xiirrhii riciihi.

382 NATUKAL HISTOKY OF HAWAII.

fluid exuded by the insect, and was one of the conspicuous signs of the subtle
attacks of the troublesome bug.

As the development of the insect from the egg to the adult is not divided
into definite stages, as is the ease with the buttertiy for example, the young
when hatched resemble the adult, except they do not at first have wings. The
wings are acquired, however, by a process of moulting, and in due time the
insect is fully matured. The eggs, necessarily quite small are deposited along
the mid-rib of the leaf, or in exposed portions of the stalk. The place of
insertion is marked at first by a white spot with a waxy covering over the
opening. Four to six eggs are deposited in each opening; moreover, several
clusters are deposited by a single female.

As time passes the white spot, if occupied by living eggs, becomes claret-
colored. When first hatched the young are almost colorless. After some
effort thev emerge from the nest and begin to feed. Thev continue to feed
until they develop their wrings, and finally die of old age. As a rule they do
not fly when disturbed, but sidle to the opposite side of the leaf or ,iump to a
more secluded spot.

Scientific study of their habits shows that the first injury done to the cane
by them is when it is punctured for the deposition of the eggs. The puncture
produces a drain on the plant's vitality and admits various diseases through
the wound. But the most serious injury is that done by the young insects to
growing cane.

Everything that ingenuity could devise was tried to lessen the damage
done by them, but without success. The seriousness of the invasion was soon
appreciated and scientific entomologists were speedily assembled in Hawaii,
and from here sent out to all promising countries to look for the most effec-
tive natural enemies of this insect pest, a pest that had already cost hundreds
of thousands of dollars in diminished returns from this important crop. When
the entomologists went seriously to worlc they found a number of natural ene-
mies of the hopper. But in choosing the most desirable and efficient one, they
had to consider their effectiveness, the possibility of their transportation, the
probability of their thriving, and the rate of increase to be expected when they
were once established.

It was found for the work to be done that certain little egg parasites were
very promising, since they completed their life cycle every three weeks the
year round, and the greater part of those produced Avere females. With
such habits it was plain that within a very few months after the original col-
onies were liberated, thousands of millions of descendants of the original stock
would be at work searching out the spots on the cane where the leaf-hoppers
had deposited eggs, and in turn depositing their own eggs in them in such a
way that the young of the parasite would feed upon and kill the eggs of the leaf-
hopper before they had time to develop.

When the proper data had been secured, the egg parasites were imported
into Hawaii, the species carefully studied in captivity, and the young parasites

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 383

liberated on all the important ])lantations. Seit'nee was thus a^ain i-alletl to
the aid of the planters, as it had been many times before, and the experiment
worked out has been so successful that the effects of the leaf-hopper on the
cane crop of Hawaii is almost a negligible quantity. The outbreak is now
under control, and the whole industry saved and restored to its normal con-
dition.

The Slgak-Cane Borer.

The search for the parasites feeding on the almost eciually destructive
sugar-cane borer ^ has been a thrilling scientific adventure. Happily, after
years of search, Dr. Frederick Muir was rewarded by the discovery, and sub-
sequently succeeded in the successful introduction into Hawaii, of parasites to
prey upon this most destructive insect.

Lantana Insects.

Examples of the controlling of injurious insects by introducing their insect
enemies might be multiplied at length, but one more instance, of a somewhat dif-
ferent nature, in which insects were used to combat the spread of an injurious
plant must suffice. A great many years ago (1858) the common Lantana,^ a na-
tive plant of the subtropical regions of Soutli America, l)ut elsewhere eultivatci
extensively as a green-house or ornamental shrul), was introduced into Hawaii as a
garden plant. In course of time the mynah bird, which was likewise introduced,
made the discovery that the small blue-lilack aromatic berries of the Lantana
were edible. As a result, in a very few years this hardy plant had been spread
broadcast to all parts of the group b}^ these birds. Thousands of acres of
what was formerly open pasture land became completely choked with the rank
growth, while even in the lower forests it grew^ several feet in height, often
forming an almost impenetrable, though beautiful, flowering jungle.

Although the plant was regarded as beneficial by reason of its powei' to
force its long roots down deep into the earth, thereby loosening the soil and
furnishing to it a large amount of humus as fertilizer, its inroads into pasture
and tilhible land hecaiiii' so inarlvcd and persistent as to cause it to l)e regarded
as a serious scourge. Entomologists began to look into the natural enemies of
the plant, and before long had found a numl)er of insects and fungus parasites
that naturally fed on the Lantana. prel'eri'ing it to any other food.

By far the most important among these is the Lantana seed-fly." which is
a small black two-wing insect, the maggot of which lives in and destroys the
seed. So perfectly has it done its woi-k that in favoral)]*^ localities it is diffi-
cult to find a seed that has not been killed by this insect. This is of great
importance, foi- if land is once cleared of Lantana it will not gi-ow a<:ain.
though unfortunately guava often springs up to take its place.

The Lantana plume-moth,'' a small brown moth about a half inch in

^ Rlicihdncnemis = (SjjhcKuiiliorus) (ih.sriiriis. * Ltintana CiiiiKifd. ^ Agromyza sp.

" PlatypHUa sp.

a: T

X o

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE (JROFP. 385

expanse, is also an important species in dcstfoNini; Lantana, as it lays its cu^s
at the base of the tiower cluster. On hatching', the minute caterpillar dius a
tunnel under the flowers and attacks and destroys them. The woi-k of this
species on the flowers is supplemented by the work of two species of Lantana
butterflies" of the family'^ of gossamer-winucd bulterfiies, both of which lay
their eggs on the flowers so that the young woi-nis may feed on the l)l()ssoiiis and
fleshy seed. These caterpillars are so abundant among the Lantana of Ihe
low lands that they occur in almost every tiower. The larger species'' has
delicate tails on the hind wings; the smaller species ^'^ is without the tails.

The Lantana leaf-minci' " is a moth that is also effective, since it develops
in the leaves up to the pupa or resting stage. Often as many as a half dozen
of these miners occur in a single leaf and thus produce a serious drain on the
plant's vitality. A second leaf pest is the Lantana leaf-bug.^- which, being a
true bug, sucks its food. The young frequent the under side of the leaf and
are very destructive during the dry season. The Lantana gall-Hy ^•' -also does
much damage to the pest host by laying its eggs in the stem of the plant. These
form galls that further impair the plant's growth.

All of these insects were introduced for a definite purpose under the direc-
tion of the distinguished entomologist Mr. A. Koebele, and none of them have
been observed to attack other ])lants. This is the first example in the world
of the introduction of insects to prevent the spread of a plant. As time
passes, the success of this delicate and difficult piece of scientific work is more
and more fully appreciated by scientists as well as citizens. It furnishes
science with another convincing example of the value of the study of ento-
mology, and indicates the ])ower of the subtle influence's in nature with which the
biologist is Avont to deal.

The INIaui Blight.

In speaking of Lantana insects, it is only just to say that the Lantana
blight or Lantana scale ^"* or ]\Iaui blight, Avhich is the great tea pest of
southern Asia, was not introduced by I\Ir. Koebele. It was first found at
AVailuku, on Maui, in 1889. In 1904 it was noted on Lant^ma on the wind-
ward side of the Tali, on Oahu. Since then it has spread even into Honolulu,

" Tlii'rln sp]). "^ Liiciviiidiv. ^ Thi'chi rrliiaii. '" Thi'clii ar/rii.

^^ C'reiiifistiihonihi/cia l(int<iiii-lhi Busek. ^- Tlii'lcdiu'miri lutithiiii'. ^'■^Eutri'to s/Kirsd.

'^* Ortliezia insiijiiis.

DEscRri'Ttox OF Plate.

1. ^laiii Blight or Lantana Scale (Ortliezia insifjHi.s) on Ijantana. ''A well known
greenhouse pest of Europe and America. First observed on Maui, though not known l>y whom
or how introduced. Apjiarently a jtowerful enemy of Lantana, but unfortunately is destructive
also to a large variety of ornamental ])lants. ' ' 2. Excrenu'ut of American Toad [Htifo rolHin-
biensis) . The Toad feeds very largely on the Japanese beetle. 3. Florida Bed Scale
{Chrysomphalus ficus) on Citrus and Palm leaves. 4. Lnp(U'ted enemies of the Lantana
showing: (a) seed destroyed by fly; (b) ami (c) buttiTllies wlu>se young eat flowers and
leaves; (d) motli whose young eats the flowers; (e) injury causes! by thi^ lt>af -miner; (f)
moth of the leaf-miner ;•, (g) its pupa; (h) the Lantana leaf -bug ; (i) tlie gall and (j) the
fly producing it. 5. Pineapple scale (T)i(isj}is hroinilii}') on jiineapple leaves, (i. Australian
T^advliird beetles introihicfil into Hawaii.

386 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

where it occurs as a pest on a number of ornamental plants, most noticeably on
the species of Gardenia and Coleus.

The scale has a white body and black head, and its presence induces the
growth of a sooty mould so that everything it overruns turns black, often
leaving whole fields of Lantana leaves in a blackened condition as though run
through by fire. It is a decidedly beneficial parasite working against Lantana,
and were it not for its unfortunate tendency to spread to beneficial and orna-
mental plants, it would have been credited with a large share of the laurels
due the insects that have given man the control over this plant pest.

The effect of the ]\laui blight on Lantana-ridden pasture land was early
recognized by ranchmen, and it is said by some that they very unwisely aided
in its spread to new fields and to dift'erent islands. Fortunately, as yet it has
done more good than harm, though there are many who are fearful of what
it may do in the future.

Of the effort of man to secure control over the Lantana in Hawaii, it can
be said that the work done by scientific men in seeking out, introducing, breed-
ing and spreading the natural enemies of this noxious plant has been singu-
larly successful; so successful, indeed, that everywhere in the group the pest
has been arrested in its invasion of the land, while in certain localities Lantana
has been completely routed by its minute enemies. Brilliant and successful
as has been the Lantana campaign, there is unfortunately a long list of intro-
duced insect pests ^'' for which, in spite of the fact that persistent search has
been made to secure them, there seems to be no known effective natural para-
sitic or predaceous enemy.

The ^Mediterranean Fruit-Fly.

As one of the most recent as well as the most troublesome introductions
in this class, the Mediterranean fruit-fly ^'^ may well be mentioned, as there is
scarcely a fruit grown in Hawaii that is not attacked by this pest. It is about
the size of a common house-fl.y; the body is yellowish, the eyes of a reddish-
purple tint, and the back and wings variously marked witJi blotches and lines
of black, yellow and dirty white. The home of the species is supposed
to be about the Mediterranean, perhaps in Africa, from whence it has been
distributed by commerce to many lands, among them Australia. From Aus-
tralia the fly has doubtless been introduced into Hawaii.

The eggs are inserted by the female fly in the various kinds of fruit Avhen
they are just turning ripe. By the time the fruit is ripe the white wriggling
maggot is ready to emerge. Leaving the fruit, it burrows in the ground a short
distance and forms for itself a wheat-shaped ]inp;i case from which it emerges
in a few days as an adult.

The species was first noticed in llonohdu during the summer of lUlO. By
the summer of 1912 it had spread to all the large islands of the group and is
now common wherever fruit is grown.

Among tlicin many that are exceedingly troul)lesonie. i" Cerntitis capitata.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 387

jNIelon-Fly.

A somewhat larger and liandsoiiK'r, lliough similar appearing fly pest, is
the melon-fly.'' It was first noticed on Oaliii as long ago as 1807. and since
that time has succeeded in doing for the melons and fleshy vegetables what the
fruit-fly has done for the fruit of the islands. They not only infest the fi-uit,
but the vines as well, and as there is an abundant variety of ))lants on which
they feed, they ravage the truck gardens throughout the year.

The Horn-Fly and Other Injurious Flies.

The horn fly i'^ is a pest of the live stoclc of the islands; Ihe damage it
does is of equal rank with the fruit and melon-flies. It was introduced from
California in 1897, and within a year had spread throughout the group. In
the years that have passed it has bred uninterruptedly, and the annoyance
caused by its blood-sucking habits has been felt by all the live stock on the
Hawaiian ranches. Owing to its vicious bite, a loss of hundreds of thousands
of dollars has lieen sustained hy ranchmen through the shrinkage in weight of
animals to be sent to market.

Other flies that have more or less economic importance are the stable fly ;^^
the horse bot-fly.-" found on horses or about stables; the sheep-head maggot
fly ;-^ tw^o flesh flies ;-- two bluebottle flies ;-^ the sheep-maggot fly -^ on sheep ;
and warble-flies of two species -''- on cattle. The familiar house fly -" is every-
where present and in some localities al)undant, though it is kept in control by
parasites -''' that make it their host, and to some extent doubtless by certain
species of ants.

iMoSQUITOES.

With the flies as members of the great orch-r Diplcfa, should be considered
the representatives of the mosquito family. Of these, three important mos-
quitoes, the night mosquito -^ and the two day mosquitoes, one -'• with two
white stripes on each side of the thorax, and the other"" witli one wliite stripe
on the thorax, are common in the islands. They are so abundant in certain
localites as to be the principal source of man's discomfort in Hawaii. So far
they have not themselves become innoculated with the diseases Avliicli else-
where they transmit from one person to another, producing, in the case of one
of the day mosquitoes, "^^ the dreaded yellow fever of tropical and subtropical
countries. Through the introduction of natural enemies, as the mosquito fish,
frogs, dragon flies and the like, in eonnection with tlie various camjmigns to do
away with standing water, which is thcii- naliiral breeding jilace. all of the
species have been materially reduced in nundjcrs in Honolulu, but they are

1" Darns cucurhitce. '" Ilaniidtohia serratd. '" Stainoxj/s ralcitrtnis. "" Oaiitrni>)iilti,i equi.

-1 fEstru.1 ovis. -" Sarriip)i(i<i(i harbatii and N. iKiHinervis, the latter with a red tip to the abdomen.

-^ The European bluebottle, Liifiliii sericata. and the .Vmeriean species, L. ccesar. -* Oestrus ovis.

^^ Uypoderma horis and //. liiienta. -" Miisrn (Idniestira.

-' Eucoila impatiens, the stable fiy parasite, and SiKduniiiii hlrta. -* Ctilex fatif/ans.

-^ Steffonn/iit fasciata (Fabr) = .S'. calopus (Meigen). '■'" Sfii/omyia scutelluris (Walk.).

^^ S. scufellaris.

388 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

far from being luidei- the complete control that it was hoped M'onld be
possible.

It is asserted on the best authority that mostiuitoes were unknown in
Hawaii previous to the year 1826. when the night tlying species was brought
from San Bias, ^Mexico, to the port of Lahaina. on ^Nlaui. by the ship "Welling-
ton.'' Prior to the above date the Hawaiians had no word for mosquito.
They almost immediately adopted the corruption "makika" as the native name
of the insect. The day mosquitoes have been introduced during the present
generation, but there is no definite record of the exact date.

Sugar-Cane Insects.

While mention has been made of the sugar-cane borer and the sugar-cane
leaf-hopper as the most important pests of sugar-cane, it is not to be assumed
that there are no others. As a matter of fact, there are more than sixteen
insects liable to do more or less damage to the growing crop. Among them are
four beetles.-"^- The cane borer, a species which is known elsewhere, and is
either an importation of man or a natural immigrant, as it is also found in the
banana, pandanus, cocoanut palm and under stones in the mountains, is the
most important of this order. The long-horned beetle -^-^ attacks the cane only
accidentally, as its natural food is the decaying wood of forest trees, while a
small borer,-'-^ and a nitidulid beetle,-'^ which breeds in the parts injured b\-
the mealy-bugs and plant lice, complete the list of beetles. There are three
cater])illars,''*' including the sugar-cane leaf-roller.^' Besides the leaf-rollers,
the well-known troublesome peelua.-'^'* or grass army-worm, occurs occasionally
in the cane. It is vei'\- ti'oublesome in grass land at all seasons, occurring in
millions of individuals at irregular intervals, working great havoc in pasture
lands The four-banded i\y of the family Ortalidce-^'^ is sometimes found about
injured cane. The grasshopper family -^" has four representatives, the African
mole-cricket ^'^ being the most troublesome. They are blackish-brown insects
an inch or more in length, that are peculiarly fitted for living in the ground.
The front legs are modified to serve as very powerful spades and are used in
2nuch the same way that the common mole uses its fore paws. The mole
cricket feeds on the tender roots of various plants, and where they are abun-
dant become very destructive. Two species of grasshoppers, one the short-
hoi-ned grasshopper-*- which was introduced about 1878. the other the long-
horned species,-^-^ the latter species appearing first in Pauoa Valley about 1898,
but now present in the cane fields, as well as elscnvhere. feed to some extent on
the succulent gi'owtli. The black beetle-roach, cypress roach "'"^ or ground
cockroach, does some slight damage also.

As a matter of fact, two sj)ecies of leaf-ho|)p('r that occurred in the
islands prior to 18!)2 are found in the cane iioUU. Thcv iwc known to have

^- Coif o /if era. ^'" JEnnsoina reflerlum. ^* Hapfonciix sji. ^^ Hi/potheiiewis up. ^^ Lejiidoptera.

3" Oiiiiodfs acceptu, ami prolialily allied species. ^^ Spodoptcrn iiinuritia. ^^ Perliaiis Eii.ri>sta innume.
*" Orthoplera. *i Gri/lhifdlpii nfrirana. *- O.vi/a velo.i-.

*^ Xipfiidiuiii itificinn = Xiphidiiim rnripimtii-. ** Eletitherodii di/tixciiides.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 389

been imported, however, as they bear no reseiiil)l;m(M' to tlic '^r-c-ii (iivh'i- of
true bu^s ^'"^ that occur in the forests. The one i)i'evi()usly iiiciil ioncd. in wliich
the winos do not touch each other doAvn the liaclc, and the corn Icaf-liopper.*''
having the wings folded closely together on the back, ai"e 1lie ini[)()rtant forms.
A gray sugar-cane mealy-bug,'*'^ a pink sugar-cane meal\-bug,^''^ and a ]>! ant-
louse known as the sugar-cane aphis *'•' are also members of the same great
order.^"^ They are injurious locally, and though their relatives ai'e more oi' less
readily kept in check on other vegetation, the latter species, when it occui's on
cane, hides at the base of the leaves and is almost inaccessible.

It will be seen that some of these pests l)or(^ into the stem of the cane,
some eat or cut the underground roots or stems, some eat the leaves, some suck
the juice from the leaves and stems, and some feed on the parts left after otlu-r
species have had their fill. Yet in spite (»f th(^ formidable list of enemies and
the diverse lines of attack which they pursue, some of the l)est and most favor-
ably located plantations are able to harvest as much as thirteen tons of raw
sugar of the finest quality from an acre of this seemingly pest-ridden plant.

Aphids or Plant-Lice.

The sugar-cane aphis,-'^^ since it probably occurs throughout the islands
where cane is grown, may well be taken as the type of its family.'- The
aphids ai'e minute insects with more than twenty species already known in the
islands, all of which have been introduced.

]Most of the species of plant-lice or aphids in Hawaii occur on well-k'nnwn
or imported plants, and were doubtless imported with their host plants. They
are inconspicuous but are very injurious on account of their innidx'i-s and
their juice-sucking habits. They make up in nund)ers fen- what they lack in
size, and nnist be recognized as among the greatest pests with Avhidi the
farmer, gardener and horticulturist has to contend.

The i)lant-lice and aphids are minute, soft, i)uli)y little creatures with
rather long antennae and conspicuous round eyes; they are commonly seen
crowded togeth(>r (m the ends of stems, the under side of leaves, in 1)nds and
flowers, in clefts in the bark and sometimes even on the roots of ])lants. Their
fore Avings are longer than the hind ])aii' and repose roof-like over the hind
l)art of the body. While the majority of them are green in coloi-. Ihey \arv
greatly, being brown, Idack, red, yellow, and variegated. They aic usually
named after the plant on whicdi they occui" most abundantly. .\s a I'ule, though
not always, they conline their attack's to a single species of plant. Among
the moi'c noticeable species in Hawaii we find the hanana aphis."'-' Ihe Tei-n
aphis,'^'* the |)aliii aphis,"''' the I'ose a|)lii.s."''' the corn aphis. "'^ the viold a]»his,''^^
the orange a[)his ■'•' on citi'us fruit generally, the (dii-ysaiithem\nn ai)his.'''" the

*^ Hemiiiltiii . *" Perer/rinvs iiididif:. *~ Pseudocoiciif: xiu'i-lm riinlii. *" Pxetidocnrcii.s narchari.

*^ A phis siirrhdri. ^'" Hcmi/iti'rd. '■'' A/ihis .inrrliari. '■'- A jiliidtr. ••■^ Pi'titnhniia tiij/ronerriian.

^''' III io III mix iii'pli roIi'iiiiJifi. '^''^' ('I'riitii /iliis liinlimiiv. ■''^ Miicrnni jilnitii rn.sir. ••'Aphis mai(li.s.

^^ Kliopalosiphiiiii riolir. ^"ili/zus cil rirlihix. ''" Macrusii/hiiin sanbvnii.

390 NATUEAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

coffee aphis,''^ the bamboo aphis, '^^ and the cotton aphis, •''■'* occurring' on cotton,
Hibiscus, cucumber, taro, Portulaca and several other common plants.

The life history of the plant-lice is very interesting, but is exceedingly
complicated. Although it differs somewhat in different species, it is always
characterized by what is known as an alteration of generations. Thus several
broods or generations of a species will appear during the year. Usually the
young spring from eggs laid by a female capable of producing fertile eggs
without the intervention of males. The females of some species give birth to
living young instead of laying eggs. The true males are generally though
not always provided with wings, but the true sexual female always has wings
which enable her to carry her eggs to a distance and establish a new colony.
Several wingless broods will follow one another parthenogenetically, wdien in
course of time true sex individuals will appear ^^ and mate, and the females go
elsewhere to establish new colonies. A little study and calculation Avill show
that millions of individuals may result from a single fertilized female in the
course of a very few months.

The aphids, as well as many other insects, especially the leaf-hoppers,
have the power of secreting a viscous saccharine substance called honej^-dew.
This they deposit on the surface of the leaves and stems of plants. It thus
happens that the sugar-cane aphis and the sugar-cane leaf-hopper have been
directly responsible for the increase in the production of honey in Hawaii,
as the bees are very fond of this sweetish deposit and gather thousands and
thousands of pounds of it annually. In fact, the bees gather so much of this
substance that it has been necessary to give to this class of honey from these
islands the distinctive name of "Hawaiian honey-dew honey,"' since hone.y-
dew^ enters so largely into the composition of the local product. However,
algaroba flowers furnish an immense amount of fine-flavored honey that finds
a ready market here and elsewhere.

CHAPTER XXXI.

IMPORTANT ECONOMIC INSECTS: PART TWO.

Scale Insects.

The family of scale insects i includes the mealy-bugs and scale-bugs, or
bark-lice. Like the aphids, they were practically all introduced into Hawaii
with some of the host plants on which they are found. They owe their name
to the fact that the females of many species look like oval or rounded scales
attached to the bark, stems or roots of plants. The sexes are very dissimilar.
The adult males, though very rarely seen, are provided with one pair of func-
tional wings, the hind pair being rudimentary. They have rather long an-

"^Toxoptera nurtivtim. ""Aphis hambuso'. "^ Aphis ffoss}/pii. 8^ Usuallv in the autumn.

Coccidce.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 391

tennte and distinct eyes. The females are always wingless and generally,
though not always, remain fixed at some one spot. In many species tlie
female soon dies, leaving her body as a protection over the eggs until the
young have hatched and begin to rove about in search of food, which they
secure by puncturing the plant and sucking up the sap.

Scale insects are more numerous within the tropics than in llie more tem-
perate regions. They multiply i-apidly and are very injurious to jolant
life. They infest a large number of fruit and ornamental trees in the
islands, and are already firmly established, w^th representatives of most if not
all the more injurious species found on the mainland, as well as from Aus-
tralia and the Orient. In spite of the precautions taken to prevent their im-
portation, along with other injurious insects, new species occasionally gain
an entrance, and it is to be expected that they Avill continue to arrive in the
future.

Like the apliids, their common name is generally derived from the plant
infested by them, or at least the one on which they were first discovered or on
which they are most prevalent; but it may also refer to the color or shape or
some peculiarity of the insect. In addition to the sugar-cane mealy-bug
already noted, we have the avocado mealy-bug,- occurring on avocado, fig
grape, guava, mulberry, soursop, asparagus, etc. ; the ivy scale,^ the oleander
white-scale,^ occurring on oleander, mango, banana and avocado ; the avocado
scale ^ and pineapple scale,^ occurring also on the Canna, Hibiscus, and a list
of such plants. The last species may be readily distinguished from the Pine-
apple mealy-bug,'^ which is a larger insect with a soft body that is white all
over and is provided with well-developed legs. The cottony guava-scale ^ is
found on coffee, citrus fruit, etc. ; the black scale ^ on sisal and Ceara rubber ;
the cotton or globular mealy-bug.^ ^ on cotton, grape, citrus fruit, mulberry
and other plants; the citrus or common mealj^-bug,^^ which is one of the com-
mon, though by no means the only species of the class infesting citrus fruit in
the islands.

Other citrus scales worthy of mention are the Florida red-scale,^- Avhieh
also infests bananas, mangoes and palm trees, including the cocoanut; the
green-scale^^ and two or three other species. The large cottony-scale'^ infests
coffee, mangoes, oranges and ferns. The flat black-scale ^^ occurs on the
banana, fig, pepper tree and Ceara rubber. The hemispherical scale ^"^ and
palm mealy-bug ^' are species found on the palms. Others found on the plants
for which they are named are the rose scale. ''^ the peach scale,'" the pepper-
tree scale, -"^ also found on wild guava ; the bamboo scale. -^ the croton scale. --
the pit or algaroba scale, -"^ the cottony-cushion or fluted scale,-"* on the black
wattle. The list might easilv be extended, but the foregoing will be sufficient

- Pscudoeoccus nipiv. ^ Ax/ndiotus hedertv. * Phenacaspis eugenice.

^ Aspidiotus perseariim. " Diaspix hromflifv. ~ Psi-iidornccvx hromelicv. ^ Pulvinaria psidii.

^ Saissetia olece. ^^ Pseudococcus fiUnnmldsus. ^^ Purudoromis citri.
1- Chrysomplmhoi ficiis = Chrpsoniplinhis oinii(lin)(. ^^ Cdfcit.s riridis. ''^^Piilvinaria mammece.

'^^ Saisxefia nigra. ^^ Saisxetin lifiinspfwuira. ^' Pseitdordrciin sp. '^^ Aulacaspis roscB.

"^^ AuUicaspis pentagnna. -" Anpidiotits hnitiniiw. -^ Astcrolerainum viiliaris.

-" Lepid<>sii]))ii's pnlHdd. -^ Asterulet-anium pii.st idini.t. -* Icerya purrhiixi.

1i -J

I— "^

<: i-

c ^

a: =

c ~

I- ,~

\^ O
<

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROri\ 393

to show that the scale insect life of TTawaii levies a heavy lax on plant urowlh
in the islands.

Fortunatel.N', the expei-ience of the oi"an<ie growers of Califoi'iiia in tlieir
successful attempts at curbing- the invasion of a scale-'* which had Iteen acci-
dentally introduced from Australia and had spread with great rapidity, was
turned to account in Hawaii. The plan of checking injurious insects by their
natural enemies in that State, in the above instance, was so signally successful
that ^Ir. A. Koebele, wiio was in charge of the woi'k, was induced to come to
the islands to put into operation the natural enemy method of warfare which
has since avou many brilliant battles against tlie injui'ions insect pests in the
interest of the Territory.

The Ladybird Beetles.

Under ]Mr. Koebele 's guidance, with the aid of his associates, many bene-
ficial insects have been brought to Hawaii from the most remote quarters of
the earth. Few, however, have been more generally useful in their habits than
those of the ladybird beetle-*^ family. The "ladybirds" as they are familiarly
known, are snuill. more or less hemispherical beetles that vary greatly in coh)r,
but most often are red, yelloAV, black or steely blue, and are usually, though
not always, mottled or spotted with bright colors. The larva? are sometimes
spotted, but nu)re commonly are marked with warts and spines. There are
more than a thousand species, some of which are found in the native fauna of
almost every part of the world except Hawaii. As most of the species are
predaceous, both in the adult and larval form, and are especially fond of the
plant aphids, mealy bugs and scales, their introduction into the islands has
been going on steadily for years. A long list has been liberated, and the indi-
viduals have established themselves to such an extent that there is scarcely
an ornamental plant, fruit or shade tree in Hawaii on which these useful
insects cannot be found by a close observer, at some time during the day. The
more common species have suggestive, descriptive names that aid the observer
in his efforts to identify the insects at sight. Among those easil\' recognized
are the yellow-shouldered ladybird,-" the ten-spotted ladybird.-^ llie vedjilia
ladybird,--' which was fii'st successfully introduced from Austi-alia into Cali-
fornia to feed on the fluted scale, and from there brought to Hawaii as earl\- as

-" Icerya purchani. -'^ Cuccineltiilir. "' I'liitniniiiit.- Uridis/astfr. -^ Cocl(i}ilinr(j jiiiiiillatn.

^^ Novius cardinaliK.

Dbscriptiox of Plate.

1. Kamehameha Butterfly {Vanessa iammcamca). 2. KMincliamclia liiitterfly {Vanessa
iammeamea) inverted. 3. Cabbage Butterly {Pontia rapa'). 4. ('al)l)aire Butterfly {Ponfia
^■apa') inverted. 5. Dragon Fly {Anax Junius). 6. Pantala /lavesccns. 7. Sj/tnpetruni
blackburni. 8. Periplaneta americana. 9. Oxya velox. 10. Brachymctopa diseolor. 11.
Xyphidium raripenne. 12. Atraciomorpha erenaiiecps. 13. Elim(jea ajipcndieulata. 14.
Paratenodera sinensis; (Egg case). 1.1. Paratenodera sinensis. 16. GnjJhttidpa africana.
17. Leueophcfa .surinanesis. 1(S. Eleutheroda di/tiseoides. 19. EuHii/nliajiha parifica. 20.
PliyUodromia hieroolijhica. 21. Eleutheroda di/tiscoides. 22. EleuiJieroda dyti.ieoides ;
(Nymph). 23. GnjUodes poeyi. 24. Periphaneta australasice. 2."). Atractomarpha crenati-
ceps.

394 NATURAL HISTOEY OF HAWAII.

1887; the steel-bhie hidybird.-^" the ocheroiis ladvbird,-^^ the eight-marked lady-
bird''- and the mealy-bug or "Brownie" ladybird.-^-^

The Japanese Beetle.

While the ladybirds belong to a famil\- in the order of beetles.-'^ and are
among the most beneficial members of that great order, they are by no means
so typical in appearance as is the injurious Japanese beetle,35 ^yjiieh is an ex-
ceediugiy troublesome and aggressive pest in orchards, gardens and door-
yards. By reason of its ravenous appetite for the leaves of certain plants, espe-
cially roses, foliage plants, strawberries, grapes, cotton, tobacco, certain grasses
and a long list of other cultivated trees, shrul)s and plants, it is one of Hawaii's
worst introduced pests.

They are ordinary -looking, grayish-brown beetles, a little over a half inch
in length, with a broad flat head. They are night feeders, hiding by day under
the loose earth about the roots of plants and under boards and rubbish. ^Nlany
attempts have been nuule to rid the country of this pest since it first became
troublesome about 1890. Perhaps the most successful enemy has been a certain
fungus that has now been well distributed to all parts of the group. Like all
fungi, it is a plant of low order which grows in threads.-^'' After a certain
period of growth some of these threads "fruit," producing small sacks packed
full of minute granules known as spores. The spores are very light and small,
and are bloAvn about or carried l)y birds and insects. Some fungi are inju-
rious, especially such species as grow on tlie mango and the coffee, but the
one in question is beneficial, since it grows in the body of the Japanese rose
beetle and, if conditions are favorable as to moisture and so on, it will event-
ually kill the insect. Dead beetles show the whitish or greenish fungi about
the numerous joints of the body and legs. In a few days after death the spores
develop and tlie fungus turns greenish and the disease is then readily commu-
nicated from the dead infected insects to healthy ones.

The disease can be easily distributed by simply caj^turing a supply of
beetles and placing them in a secure box partly filled with moist earth. The
box should be set in a eool, shady jilaee and the insects fed on any of the
weeds or plants of which they are fond. "When they die and the greenish mold
appears, the dead beetles should be mixed together with dry earth and sand
and distributed a])out the garden or under bushes attacked by the beetles.

Fuller's Rose Beetle.

Fuller's rose-beetle,-"^" or the "]\Iaui" or "Olinda" beetle, introduced from
America, is an oval black snout-beetle about a half inch in length that, by
reason of the extensive range of its food plants of native and introduced
species, makes it a serious pest. The only parasite so far a known is the
larvae of a certain click beetle introduced to feed upon it. Toads have doubt-

^'' Orciis chab/heus. ^^ Chilocorus (•irciimdatiis. ^~ Coelophora inasnualis.
"3 Cryptolmmus montrouzicri. ^^ Coleoptera. ^^ Adoretus tenuimaculatus. ^^ Mycelia.

^~Ararniffvs fuUeri.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 395

less had a beneficial effect, however, and the pest is not so serious as in former
years.

J\Iany species of smallci- introduced beetles do more oi- less daniiiuc to
various cultivated plants or stored commodities. Among the more common, or
those liable to attract attention, are the rice weevil,-'*^ the coffee-bean weevil.-'-*
the rust-red flour beetle ^*^ on rice, the sisal weevil ;"^i the cadelle beetle,-*- a
whitish grub destructive to stored products, as rice; the tobacco leaf -beetle,'*^
the carpet beetle,^-' the cigarette beetle ;^'' the mango weevil,-*'^ supposed to have
been introduced in 1903; the bean weevil,^'' the common ground lieetle,'"' tlu^
algaroba bean weevil, ■*•' and the algaroba pod weevil,-"''^ both feeding on alga-
roba beans. In addition there are long-horned beetles of several species on
algaroba, black wattle and various other trees, as well as numerous species of
bark beetles — but a sufficient number have been enumerated to indicate the
nature of the imported pests in this order of insects.

Leaf-Rolling IMotiis.

Mention has been made of the sugar-cane leaf-roller ^^ as an injurious moth
belonging to the order Lepidoptera. With it might be considered the cocoanut
leaf-roller,-''- which is especially destructive to the cocoanut leaves, and the
common banana leaf-roller,-''''^ one of the four species that infest the banana
plants to some extent. All three are native species belonging to a genus of
twelve or more species of fair-sized, brown moths that occur in Hawaii and
nowhere else, and that are peculiar in their leaf-rolling habits. The larvie oi-
caterpillar of all species are very similar in appearance, varying in size in
proportion to the adult. They feed voraciously on the green leaves during the
period of growth and fold the leaf by fastening two portions together with
silken threads. When full groAvn, which requires three or four weeks usually,
they change to the pupa within the folded leaf and remain dormant for one or
two weeks.

The ragged, unsightly edges on palm leaves, especially of the cocoanut
palm, is the result of the work of this leaf-roller. As it is abundant, and the
largest species of the genus, it is readily collected and studied. The egg-
masses, with thirty to eighty eggs in a cluster, are placed along the inidi-ib
on the new leaves as they open. As from four to six broods are reared in a
year, the work of defoliation continues as rapidly as the palm puts out new
leaves. The mynah bird is very fond of the larva3 of the palm leaf-i-ollcr and
without doubt helps to reduce their numbers.

The bean leaf-i-ollcr -''^ feeds on several species of native hcaiis. iiirJiuling
the wiliwili, and to some extent on garden beans. In feediim llif\- hold the
heaves together with a silken thread and eat the inner siii-faee (if the Ic.-if,
leaving the outer surface undisturbed.

Some of the species of this genus, ineluding the sugar-cane leaf-rollei-. are

'^ Calandra orj/za>. ^^Arwcc.'^ii.i fa.srii-iildtiis. ^^ Tribolimii fen-in/iiicii»i. *^ I'xfiiddlus loiii^iihis.

*- Tenehroides muritanirvs. *^ Epitrix parriilfi. ^* Anthreiiim scrojjluilnria'.

^^ Lasiodermn serrirorne. *" Criiptorhync)ius mnnniferrc. *~ liriicliiis prosoins.

■** Ompntrinn scrratiim. *" liriirliiif! prn.sopi.s. •'" Cnri/nbonis f/oyiiu/rti. ''' Omiodes ncceptn.

^- Omiodes hlncliburni. ^^ Omiodes mcyricki. ^'* Omiodes )nonot/o)ia.

396 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

grass feeders, while two species feed exclusively on sedges. The genus Omiodes
have been extensively studied by economic entomologists, who find the cater-
pillars of the species are attacked by a number of parasites, some of which are
native, liut several of the most valuable have been introduced. The cane leaf-
roller and the palm leaf-roller are the two most injurious species. The para-
sites do much good, but at certain seasons, especially in winter, and in certain
localities the cateri>illars get the start of their enemies, and one or two broods
appear before parasites are abundant enough to check them.

Sometimes as high as ninety per cent of the caterpillars are found to be
parasitized. One might ask, "Why are they not completely exterminated or,
at least, why do they continue to do so much damage!" The answer seems
to be that, although they have many enemies that prey upon them, they are
still prolific enough to overbalance their enemies. It is difficult to estimate
the damage they would do were they entirely free from their burden of
parasites.

Cutworms.

Cutworms of various species are a serious agricultural drawd^ack, as they
attack corn, tobacco, cotton, cabbage, wdieat and other useful plants, nipping
the young plants off at the surface of the ground before they have fairly started.
There are several species of these night maraudei's. but they all belong to a
family of owlet moths or Xoctuids (Xocfuidfp), one of the largest groups of
the order Lepidoptera. They feed at night in the larval stage and fly by night
in the adult stage, often being attracted by lights. The fact that their eyes
shine brighly in a dim light and that they are seldom seen in the daytime has
resulted in the populai' name for the adults, while the unfortunate haliit of the
larvjv has given them the unenviable name of cutworms. The species are
mostly small-sized, dull-colored moths. The most troublesome species in Ha-
waii are the widely-known and doubtless introduced black or corn cutworm ^^
with the hind wings greenish; and a second si^eeies. a large native cutworm,'^*''
with fuscous-colored hind wings, both being plentiful on corn and other field
crops. A third species known as the small native cutworm "'" is also common.
They are kept in check in Hawaii to some extent by their natural enemies,
which include both parasites and birds, but as there are two or three dozen
native species, the caterpillars of all of Avhich resend)le each other and have
similar habits, it is difficult to identify the spices that feeds on the various
crops and weeds, even when adult specimens are securetl.

Army- Worms.

The widel.v-known ai'iiiy-worm,"''^ with its cousins the grass army-worms, ^'^
at times do much damage to grass and forage crops. They appear in great
numbers occasionally, and after destroying the vegetation in the field where

^^Ar/rotis ypsilon ^" Ai/roHti criiiii/fra. ^~ Ar/rofis dixlorntri . •'''* Ifi'liniiliihi iniiinnictn.

5i» Spodoptera mauritia and Spodoptera exiyua.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE (iROUP. 397

they hatch fi'oiii the eggs, they march like an anny to other fiekls. 'I'lic woi'iii
of the coninioii species, which occiu's in America and elsewhere, is ;iii inch and
a half in lengtli when fnll urown and is striped with l)lac]\, yelloAv and green.
The adull niotli is dnll Ijtowii in eolor, niarlvcd in the center of cacli foi-c-wing
witli a small distinct white spot. The two species of grass army-worms occur-
ring here are widely distribnted, especially in the Pacitie islands and con-
tinents.

The Hau Moth.

The hau moth ''" is also a Avide-ranging species occun-ing in Africa, south
Asia and Fiji. It can scarcely be separated by the layman from another more
local species. However, as it confines its depredations quite closely to th-'
hau and allied plants, it can be recognized as the small brown moth Avhich
develops from the caterpillar that feeds so voraciously on the leaves of that
picturesque tree. Its principal enemy is an ichncmmon fly that destroys them
by depositing its eggs in the body of the caterpillar.

LOOPERS.

Several species of measuring worms or si)an worms, belonging to the
family Hijdrionx )uda% occur in the islands. The koa is often attacked by
them and the trees seriously defoliated, but so far as known they are not a
serious economic pest. A species of the group Plitsiada', known as the corn
looper.''^ or green garden looper or owlet moth, attacks wheat and corn and
other plants, often fraying the leaves to a considerable extent.

The larvcp of the kolu-bush moth ''- are to be found in the pods which
follow the beautiful little golden ball-like blossoms. They feed upon the seed
and doubtless keep this thorny shrub from spreading as rapidly as it otherwise
would.

The Silkworm.

An exceedingly useful insect, long ago introduced into Hawaii, is the silk-
worm.''-^ The first specimens were imported by the missionaries with a view
to encouraging the natives to take up this form of productive occupation. The
experiment was given up, however, before anything definite came of it. Some
say that the pious and faithful observance of the Sabbath as taught 1)\- the
Christian fathers prevented the natives from gathering the fresh leaves to
feed the worms on that day.

More recent experiments have ])rovi'd be\-ond a doubt thai silk of a good
(juality can be pi-odiiced in Hawaii with as little effort as in any silk- eountry
in the world. The mulherry. especially the white iiinlbet-ry.''^ does well in
Hawaii. As the leaves of this plant are the favoi-itc^ food o|' the worms, it is
anticipated that silk cultni-e will yei flourish in. the islands as one of the home
occupations for the eiiq)loynient of women and children.

«" Co.swo/ihihi xdhiilifcrn. "' PliLitu rhnlritex. •>- Cri/jildjililcliid ilh/'idii. «'< Bo)iiby.v mori.

^* ilonis alhn.

C-, ^

;?;

-- o

O «

C o

cc
a;

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 399

The newly-hatched larvit of tlie silkworm is black or dark gray and cov-
ered with long, stiff hairs. But as the worm moults it becomes lighter and
lighter in color until during the last of the larval period it is creamy white.
The cocoon is spun by the worm about itself as a protection and a retreat in
which to pupate. It ranges in color through several shades of white, green
cream and rose, and varies greatly in size. To secure the silk the cocoons
are heated in water or in an oven until the insect is killed ; the end of the
thread is then secured and the cocoon unwound. The adult insect is a beau-
tiful creamy white moth with two or more distinct brownish lines across the
fore wing, and with the abdomen and thorax thickly covered with wooly scales.

From two to three thousand years before the Christian era, probably five
thousand years ago, the silkworm was well and favorably known in the Far
East where, in China, silk culture was a well-established industry.

The Cabbage Butterfly.

The slender green cabbage-w^orm in due time becomes a cabbage-butter-
fly,'^^ and is the white butterfly commonly seen about gardens in the islands.
It was doubtless introduced from America, wdiere it has long been an intro-
duced pest. It was first observed in the islands about 1900, and is therefore
known as the imported cabbage worm. The species is kept under control in
Hawaii by parasites, among them a very ininute fly.'^*'

The Sweet Potato ?Iorn-Worm.

A conspicuous insect, liable to attract attention, first in the larval state, as
the large green or brownish horn-worm on sweet potato, and certain morning-
glory vines, and later as the humming-bird moth that flies about our electric
lights, is in reality the sweet potato sphinx-moth or sweet potato horn-worm.^^
The worm-like caterpillars often attain a length of three or four inches and
are voracious feeders, stripping the leaves from the plants infested. The moth,
by reason of its size and the whirring noise produced by its wings, is usually
called the humming-bird moth. It measures about three and a half inches
across the extended wings, and is tlu^ largest common motli in the islands.

The Cotton Boll-Worm.

The cotton plant in Hawaii, if it successfully survives the attacks of stem
maggots, wireworms, cutworms, aphids, Japanese beetles, mealy bugs, scales
and leaf-rolling caterpillars is liable at last to the attacks of the ])ink cotton

"^ Pieris rapce. '^'^ Tachimd. ^'' Protopnrce ■= (Sphinx) ronrolviiH.

Descriptiox of Plate.

1. Spliiiix, or nuiiiiiung-bird Motli (Si'Jun.r connilridi). 2. Ddlrpltildlincata. ,3. Deile-
■phila caVida. 4. Agroiis crinitjera. 5. Fi/raJis niauritialis. 6. Amorbia emifjratclhi. 7.
Liica'iui hofiica. 8. Lycwiia hoetica (inverted). 9. Ellimia colondla. 10. Siphanta acutd.
11. FerMnsiella saccharicida. 12. Pcregrinits maidas. IM. Zelus rennrdii. 14. Qichalia
grifica. !'>. Coleotichus blarlhunnd: Hi. Slater or Pill-lnio; (Porcellin scaher). 17. Ani-
solahis annidipr.s. 18. Scorpion {Isonwtrus macidatus). 19. Centipede (Scolopendra ra-
pCHs). eo. .^rillilled(> (Species indet.).

400 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

boll-worm, '^^ which is by far the most destructive enemy of the cotton plant.
There seems to lie no doul)t but that it was introduced directly or indirectly
from India within comparatively recent times. It does the damage in the
caterpillar stage, when, as its name implies, it attacks and feeds on the lint and
seed of the cotton in the ball before it is open, practically destroying the boll
so far as its lint is concerned. The moth is about three-fourths of an inch
across the expanded wings, and is soft gray-brown in color, with darker
markings; the fringe on the hind wings being wider and paler brown than on
the front wings.

Lice.

The various flies that annoy human beings and their domestic animals have
been briefly mentioned above, but other introduced niiimal pests occur and are
as troublesome here as elsewhere. Among them are a number of species of
lice. The term "lice" is loosely applied to representatives of two orders of
insects. Those occurring on poultry and wild birds are properly called bird-
lice,*^^ although some species infest sheep and goats also. They are wingless
parasitic insects with biting mouth-parts enabling them to feed upon and live
among the bird's feathers. The turkey-louse'" and the chicken-louse ai-e
examples of this class. The family Pedicuke, including the true lice, belongs
to a sub-order "1 of the great order Heniiptera and includes certain parasites
of man and other aninuds. They differ from the bird-lice in having sucking
mouth-parts. They live among the hair of their host aiiiina!. feeding on its IjIooI.
Three species are known that are parasitic on man; one lives in the hair on the
head^- and two, a body louse '-^ known as the "gray-liack" and the crab-
louse,'^^ on the body. While the more common species elsew^here are those
found on tlie liorse or a second species occurring on the cow, they have not as
yet been reported in Hawaii. Almost every animal has a species of
louse, though they are not always attached to all host animals. The hog-louse,'-''
for example, is reported as occurring here in limited numbers, while other
species doubtless to be found licre have not yet been taken.

Ticks and INIites.

It should be mentioned in this connection that ticks are often confused
in the popular mind with lice, although they more properly belong with a
distinct division of the branch"'' of the animal kingdcmi which includes the
insects, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, crabs and lobsters. In all of these the
body is composed of a series of segments joined together, with some of the
segments bearing jointed legs. In the order ^" to which the mites and ticks
belong the abdomen is unsegmented and is united to the thoi-ax, giving the
body a sack-like appeai'ance.

The ordei- including the mites is represented in HaAvaii. but as yet only

^>^ (jclerhifi c/ossi/iiirthi. "'' Mdlhiiiliiiiia. '" (i oniodi's fiti/li/i-r. '^ Pornxitii. ''- Pcdirulds cnjiitex.

''^ Pedicidus vestuitcHtii. '* Plifliinis iiiihis. '^ Ha'>notojnnii.i in-iiin. '^" A rflirc/Kida.

"''' A carina.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF TTTE GROIP. 401

nine species, all belonp-inp: to one family,'''^ have been determined, six of wliidi
are already known from the British Isles. Hnt as tlie largest species '■' is hut
a millimeter in length and has only been reported fi-om Kona. on Hawaii. 1h('\-
are too small to attract attention from collectors. A,s they occur, li()\vc\cr, it
is well to know that the common species •'^" appears to l)e generally distributed
throughout the mountains of the group.

]\Iost of the ticks are small eight-legged creatures, though the number of
legs vaiy with age and the mode of life of the parasite. The chicken mite is an
example that occurs in Hawaii on poultry; the dog-tick "^^ on the dog: the so-
called red spider'^- occurring on cottcm plants, and the true itch mite,*^-' causing
an irritation of the skin of liuman beings known as itch, are well-known
examples of the species of the order.

Fleas.

The ilea is a tiny insect belonging to the order Siplioiiaph ra. and is sug-
gestive of the household pests of which Hawaii has its full quota. As has lieen
the case with the insects affecting the field, forage and garden plants and our
domestic animals, the household pests have practically all been introduced
since the islands were discovered. Fleas wei'e among the early arrivals, and
may be said to abound in certain localities, especially dry elevated places. Tlie
native name (Ukulele) for a "jumping louse" was (nirly applieJ to this
tormenter. which is one of the few insects it is not necessary to see in order
to identify. AVhile they occur about houses and l)ite the inmates and their
pets, the species most commonly captured are the cat-flea or the dog-Hi^a,'^-'
though the comou human species'^'' doubtless occurs.

Plague Carried by Fleas.

One of the many jjrilliaut medical achieveinents for wliich the closing
years of the last century were especially noted, was the discovery that the flea
that lives on the common rat is resi)onsil)le for the spread of the di-ead bubonic
or black plagu(\ It has been proved over and over again that rats (li<' of this
disease and tliat the fleas which infest them and feed on theii- blood di-aw the
minute organism causing the disease into their bodies in such a way that they
can communicate the plague to other rats and to other animals, amoni: them
man. 1)y their bite. Cases are on recoi'd where death from plague has l)een
traced to its origin only to fiiul that it came from ilea bites. Fleas usually
leave the carcass of a rat that has dunl of plagu(> and at the first o]i]iortunity
take u]i their abode on some living animal, as the c;it oi' doi;. From these pets
they are easily transfei-red to their mastei's. with the I'esult thai tlieii' bile may
convey the miiuite )nieroseopic organism^'' that causes plaiiue in the human
body. Flague has appeared on more than one occasion in Hawaii.^" aiul to all
appearances has been successfully slampiMl out. Xevertheless. it is well for

"* Orihatidce. "" Oribrifa nrifnnnis. s" Neotiodes thcli'pfocfiis. ^' Rhipicephaltis xanniiineiix.

"- Tetraiiychus sp. "•'' Sarfoptt'x xrabei. >** Ctenocpphalus canis = Pule.r ranis. '^^ Pulex irritatis-.

^^ Bacilus pestcs. *" Xotiibly (hirinK tile winter of 1900.

402 NATUKAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

people living in the tropics to rid their premises of rats and to keep at respect-
ful distances from pet animals that may feed npon them.

Cockroaches.

]\Iosquitoes and flies as domestic pests have been mentioned as members
of the order Diptera, and have been discussed in another connection. Cock-
roaches, of Avhich there are several introduced species, are annoying pests.
Two species, the American ^^^ and the Australian ^'-^ cockroach, are both found
in houses, most commonly infesting kitchens and pantries, attacking provisions
of all kinds besides doing much damage to book bindings in the library. They
emit a disgusting smell and are otherwise objectionable to everyone. They
resemble one another very closely, but vary in color and appearances as they
develop. The American species is about two inches in length, the latter a
trifle smaller.

Bedbugs and Other Bugs.

The bedbug,^*^ as everyone knows, is a nocturnal insect. It occurs the
world over and, therefore, is occasionally found in HaAvaii. It seems that,
although it has very rudimentary wings, it has nevertheless been able to keep
up with the march of human progress. They haA'e certain characteristics that
make them members of the order of true bugs.'^^ In the same order are placed
the torpedo-bug,'^- a green-winged, long, pointed leaf-hopper, injurious to
mangoes, guava and coffee, and the more attractively-named Hawaiian kiss-
ing-bug.-'2 which in reality is the common assassin-bug that first appeared in
the islands about 1897. Since then, contrary to the character its local name seems
to imply, it has maintained a reputation as a fierce carnivorous bug, feeding
among other things, on ladybirds, leaf-hoppers and aphids, without discrim-
ination between the beneficial and injurious insects.

White Axts.

The termites, more commonly termed white ants,'*^ that at certain seasons
fly about in large swarms and at all seasons bore into the timbers of houses,
are not ants, nor are they more than remotely related to the true ants. They
have been placed by many entomologists, by reason of all four wings being
equal in size, form and structure, in a separate order.^^ It is true that they
have certain social habits that are similar to the ant's, but their structure is
very different, as anyone can see by comparing the two insects. Their com-
munities are made up of many individuals that have a definite part of the
colony work to do. Each class is fitted by nature with special reference to the
task it must perform. Kings, queens, soldiers and workers live together in
their many-chambered nests. Their nests are hollowed out of the timbers in
which thev carefullv eat out the interior, leaving an outer shell in such a

f>» Periplaneta americana. ^^ Periplnneta aiistralamcr. ^° Cimex lectularius. ^'^ Hemiptera.

*- Siphanta acuta. "^ Zelus renardii. ^* Calotermes marginipennis. *s Isoptera.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 403

manner as to exclude the li^lit. In this hidden yvay they do a ^reat many
thousand dollars' worth of damage to houses in Hawaii every vear. In some
cases the heart of the timbers that formed the building have been so badly
eaten that in time the structure has actually fallen in pieces, leaving only a
sad heap of ruins as a ni(Minmont to 1lio silent industry of ihoso dcslriu'tiv*'
creatures.

SiLVERFISH.

►Silveriish, lish-moths, or bristletails '■"' are everywhert' houschohl ]>esls,
and Hawaii is not an exception. The small, flat, silvery object without wings
that scurries out of sight in the dresser drawer or on the book-shelf is sure to
be one of these evildoers that cannot I'esist the taste of starch, ji<> iiuilter
whether it be in clothing, book-bindings or wall-paper. In structure the silver-
fish represents the simplest type of insects, and is peculiar for the reason tliat
it does not go through any marked changes ''" as it develops. It is therefore
placed by entomologists in the loAvest, meaning the oldest and most simjile.
order '^^ of insects.

Ants.

As types of the highest development and specialization in the insect world,
the ants, bees and wasps are placed together in a great oi-dei- ''^ at the opposite
end of the scale from that occupied by the silverfish. The ants, the bees and
the wasps each furnish the housewife one or more pests to annoy her. Of
these, the ant family ^'^^ furnish a number, the most troublesome l)eing the
cosmopolitan big-headed ant^'" that invades every nook and coi-ticr of tlie
house and considers the food-safe and iee-box as institutions especially pi-o-
vided for its comfort and convenience. They will not cross AAatei-. however,
so the experienced housewife i)laces the legs of the ice-box in slmllow eui)s
filled with water and takes pains to keep the box clear of the wall. 'I'he table,
safe and sideboard can be equally well protected for months at a time by tying
about each leg a narrow strip of woolen cloth, which has been soaked with
''ant poison," a preparation sold by the druggist for the purpose. Tlie anjs
respect the poisoned string as a dead-line and rarely ])ass beyond it. .Vnotliei-
common species is the big brown ant '"- observed swarming on warm, still
nights, when all forms issue in great inunl)ers.

Carpenter-Bees.

Of the bees, the blue-black carpenter-bee,^*'-^ which resendiles the Itnmhle-
bee in size and somewhat in appearance, is eonspicuons and ti-oublesome in
Hawaii by reason of its liabit of building its cells in the solid wood of trees,
po}-ch posts, fence posts, telephone ]ioles and the like. 11 often excavates a
tunnel a foot or tAvo in length in which it lays its eggs. I-lach egg is contained

^^ Lepisma sacchaiiiin. "" Metamorplinsis. ^^ Tlij/sdiiiird. "" UyiiuiKiptmi. »»» /■'ori/iici'iin.

'^"'^ Pheidole megacepJxiiUi. ^'>- Camponotiig maridaiiis, var. hawiiiii'nsis. ''■"^ Xylocopa brasilianorum.

404 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

in a separate compartment provisioned with bee-bread — a food made of the
pollen from flowers mixed witli nectar. It has been observed tliat they gather
their supply of pollen principally from the bean-like plants. This bee was
introduced long ago and is widely distributed throughout the group.

Wasps and ]\Iud-Daubers.

Of the wasps, the species known as the mud-dauber.^"^ a species intro-
duced from America, is the one causing the most annoyance al)out the home.
It makes its nest of mud, wliich it delights in plastering under the eaves of
houses, on the ceilings of lanais, and in similar places. Their nests usually
have the form of several tubes an inch or more long placed side by side, which
are always provisioned with spiders. This family of wasps i*^'-"" is known as tli*^
thread-waisted wasps, an allusion to the peculiar shape of the "hody. They
have a curious habit of jerking theii- wings freipuMitly in a nervous manner,
which is also (juite characteristic.

The paper wasps i"" are those that build their nests in a single circular
comb suspended by a slender central support from the under side of the
rafters, or from under the leaves of bushes in the yard and garden. Three
closely-related species are ([uite common in Hawaii, but the bright yellow
species^"' is the most savage; the browner species ^"'^ is said to be less so.
Children soon learn to respect the rights of these "yellow jackets." as they
are commonly called, and never forget the lesson usually learned at first hand
from disturlung one of the gray paper nests that ai-e so zealously guarded by
the wasp iinnates against all who venture to intrude on their domain.

If unmolested, however, the little colony will sit for hours at a time on
their paper home without attempting to sting anyone. After the young have
grown n\) they abandon the nest but remain about here and there until the
following Felnnunw. when tliey organize for business and proceed to make a
new nest, securing the silver-gray "pulp" used in its construction from fence-
posts, boards and dead wood generally.

The Honey-Bee.

The honey-bee, ^"^' although not a household nisect, is so intimately asso-
ciated Avith our domestic life that it may not be out of place to direct attention
to it as representing the highest group of the most exalted order of insects.
As an example of social life among insects, bees have been studied by natur-
alists for centuries, until there is probably no other insect of wliich man has
such an intimate acquaintance. They furnisb a subject of interest about Avhich
fascinating volumes have been written, and afford an ever-present object-
lesson in community life among our insect friends. By reason of their useful
products tbey have long lieeu of great economic importance to man. In Ha-
waii alone tbe annual output of honey is valued at tens of thousand of
dollars.

104 Scelipin on rtrnit'ntariinii. i"^ Siilit'i/idd'. ^o" Tespidcr. i"" Polixfcx lii'br(riig. '"* Polixff.'! auriier.

109 opis mvUifiea.

THE ANLMAL LIFE OF TllF (IKOFJ'. 405

The Clotiies-^Motii and Otjiek JIoiskiiold J'ests.

The clothes-moth'^" is the dread of every housewife, jiikI ;iiiy h;inidess
Jittk' moth th;it ventures indoors by accident or nthtM-wisc is usually con-
demned to instant destruction lest a single uuilty (uic should escape. Practical
experience has proved this to be the best rule to follow. Al an.\- i-ale. a moth
that seeks out the dark corners of the closet and bureau drawers and hides
itself away in clothing is not to he trusted, nor should such places of conceal-
ment to l)e long neglected for fear the adull moth thai is killed has already
deposited her eggs. From the eggs of the clothes-molh in due time \vill eniei-ge
the characteristic brownish-black voracious caterpillai- tluit feeds on the I'ahi-ic
and also uses the material for the consti'uction of Ihe husk-like case in whicii
it assumes the chrysalis state.

Besides the clothes-moth to annoy the liousewife there is the closel^'-related
angoumois grain-moth '^^ that attacks stored rice. Other enemies that occur in
stored products and supplies in Hawaii ai-e rice-weevils,"- bean-weevils,"-'
red-rust tlour-beetles,"-* ham and cheese nuiggots.""' bamboo beetles,"" bone-
meal beetles,"^ bakery beetles," "* cigarette beetles,"'^ and the cadelle or meal-
worm,^-*' a small beetle that is world-wide in its distribution.

Centipedes.

While discussing the more familiar household insects, allusion should he
made to several other small creatures that, although they are not insects,
belong with the insects to the great branch Arlh ropoda — a group that, as we
have seen, has been made to include all such creatures as have bodies coini)osed
of a linear series of rings or segments bearing i)aired. jointed ai)pendages that
are articulated with an external skeleton.

The common venomous centipede '-^ is an example of the ('liiJopoda that
may be recognized at a glance by the fact that each segment of the hody hears
a single pair of legs. The poison glands open through the claws of the first
pair of legs. These are bent forward so as to act with the mouth pai'ts. While
the bite of a centipede in Hawaii is extremely painful, as many can testily, it
is not dangerous, and nmy be counteracted by the use of anniioiiia. or it is said
that, in the absence of that chemical, relief may be had hy pounding the
centipede itself into a jelly-like mass and binding it onto the bite. A centipede
bite may be at once identified from the sting of any other ci-eature hy the fact
that the pincer-like legs make a i)air of punclui-es in the skin of the |)eiNou
"'bitten." The distance Ix'tweeii the punctures furnish a fair index as tti
the size of the specimen inflicting the injury.

Centiped(^s are predaceous in habit, f(M^<ling on insects c'eiierally. hut
especially on cockroaches. They usually lixc in moist, dark jtlaces under
sticks, boards, stones, and in crevices in the hai-k of trees dui'ing the daytime.

^^'' Tinea peUionella. '" silntrofia cereatflla. ^^- Cala)i(lra ori/za. "■' /{n/c/ii/.« ohtertii.i.

^^* Ti-ihntiuni fi'rriuiineiini . ^^■' Piophila rnsi'i. ^^" Diuodi'rtis iiiiinitiix. ^^' Dermextes vtulurfriiius.

^^'^ Lvphiirtit,'i-,-,s ini.sillii. ^'^> Lasioderma >ierric(inif. ^-'> Tenebrioides niauritaniciis.

'-^ Hcolo/teiidra n'/jcns.

K o
^ I

(25 .2;

THE ANIMAL LIFE OE THE GROUP. 407

but at night they become active and race about rapidl,\' in search of i'lxxl.
They are most troublesome in houses during tlie long wet spells, for, while the\'
naturally prefer moist situations, they come out of the gi-ouiid and enter
dwellings and outhouses when their ordinary hiding-places become water-
soaked.

Centipedes five inches or more in length are not uncommon, jind larger
specimens are occasionally seen. The large species was introduced as early as
1836, and there has been at least one other small species introduced since.

The young centipedes have a curious habit of clinging to their mother's
side when alarmed. The female lays her eggs in clusters on the damp ground
in some obscure place, and, coiling herself round them, remains iinmovabJe
until the young have hatched.

The largest centipedes known come from the East Indies, where they
grow to be a foot in length. The centipedes i-- of the Hawaiian Islands have
not been exhaustively studied as yet, but all of the species so far recorded
belong to genera that occur elsewhere. Four species belonging to three fami-
lies were collected in the Hawaiian mountains by Dr. Perkins, three of which
are described as new in the Fauna Hawaiiensis.

Scorpions.

At least one introduced species of scorpion ^-^ is quite common in Hawaii,
where specimens frequently attain a length of three inches. The large species
of the order 1--^ occurs in tropical Africa and southern India, where a certain
big black scorpion may attain a length of eight or nine inches. The poison
sting- is located in the tip of the long slender tail, which is carried curled in a
menacing fashion over the back.

AVhen the scorpion comes in contact with any creature suited to its taste as
food it will seize it in the vise-like gri]) of th(^ pincer claw. The tail is brought
into use and the sting on its tij) is plunged into its prey. Small anini.-ils,
insects and the like as a rule quickl}' succumb to the paralyzing effect of the
poison. As the scori)ion has no anteniuv to use as feelers, it always carries its
pincers well to the front.

Scorpions are night feeders and are exclusively carnivorous, feeding
mainly on small insects; silverfish, moths and caterpillars ])eing among tlieir
favorite food. Unlike the centipede, they prefer dry, dai-k jilaces. and for Ihat

''^-'■^ Chilopodd. ^-''^ Jsometrus maciilattis. ^-^ Scoi-i/ionida.

Description of Plati .

1. Chalcolepidius erytJiruloina. 2. Illmhdocncmis ^=^ {Sylicnophorus) ohscurus. .3. Adon-
tus ienuimacidatus. 4. Epitragus dircmphus. 5. Aramigus fulleri. 6. Bostrichm miffra-
tor. 7. Cli/tiifi crinicornin. 8. Cryptorphynchus manr/ifcrcF. 9. Coptops (rdfficator. 10.
Xysirocera globosa. 11. S'nnodaciylus cinnamomcus. 12. JEgoRoma reffe.ni.m. 1.3. KcJitliro-
■morplia mandipennis. 14. Pelopaus ccrmcntarius. 15. Policies hcbriviis. 1(5. Odynerus ni-
gripcnnift. 17. Apis mellifjca. IS. Xylocopa brazdienfiis. 19. Ch(Ftog(Fdla monticola. 20.
Vohicflla obesa. 21. Daciis encurbita'. 22. GnstrnjdiHus eqni. 23. Sarcophiiga barbnia.
24. CUdliplinra dux. 2.'). Lucdui scricdUi. 2(i. LiiciHn ca'sar. 27. Anihoniyia sp. 2S.
Megachdc ddigens. 29. Ccratitis capitata. 30. Canijionofus wnndniiis.

408 NATURAL HISTORY OF PIAWAII.

reason are much more liable to be found in bureau drawers, in loose papers
and litter, in empty boxes and similar places about the house. When first born
the tiny scorpions closely resemble their parent. They eling- to her body and
are carried about for a long- time before they begin to shift for themselves.
The sting of the species occurring in this group of islands is not dangerous,
though it may be very painful for a few hours.

The false scorpions i--"* are also represented by four minute species, two of
which are described from Hawaii. The largest species i-'" is about five milli-
meters in length, and, as the name of the order implies, it bears a superficial
resemblance to the scorpion.

^llLLlPEDS.

The naturfil order, i-" including the so-called thousand-legged worms or
millipeds, is w<dl represented in Hawaii. The largest species.^-'^ which is about
two inches in length when full grown, is a comparatively recent introduction,
coming- presumably from California. So far, it has been reported only from
the vicinity of Honoluhi, where the sluggish, dark, reddish-brown creature may
be seen curled up in damp places, under boards, flower-pots or. less frequently,
crawling along the road in the early morning. They differ from the centipede
in having the body round instead of flattened and they are also provided with
two pairs of legs for each segment of the body. However, the total number of
legs falls far short of a million. They are perfectly harmless and may be
handled without fear. Their food seems to be vegetable matter, such as
tender roots, fruits and succulent plants, and perhaps any decaying organic
matter.

The class DipJopoda, so far as it has been studied in Hawaii, is represented
by at least sixteen species lielonging to five families and four orders. Of this
list fourteen are described as new and about one-third of the number recorded
occur on Oahu. Two introduced species, one the large worm-like milliped men-
tioned above, and the second a smaller tan-colored animal with two brownish
stripes down the sides, are commonly met with. They have the power of
emitting a curious characteristic odor. The other members of the class are
usually confined to the mountain forests, and are probably peculiar to Hawaii.

Sow-BuGS OR Slaters.

The cui-ious little oval silver-gray creature found in large numbers in
damp places, under boards and stones, is usually an introduced species known
to nuuiy as the pill-])ng, slater, sow-bug or wood-louse.^-'-' But of the order
Isopoda there are nine of ten species belonging to five genera, in the islands, sev-
eral of \vhich are native. The minute armadillo-shaped arthropods of this order
occurring at higher elevations on the islands closely resemble the more common
widely-distributed species. Their positive identity, therefore, requires more
than casual observation. All of the species are nocturnal in habit and unless

\2-^ P.spiKhiscoriiiiiiifs. ^-'' Clirlifi'i- hinraiii'nsi.s ^-' Di/ilnj,„(lii. 12s gj, „„jpt ^■-« Pon-elUo scaber.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 409

disturbed are not seen in tlie daytime. Decaying vegetable matter is supposed
to furnish them with their principal sui)p]y of food.

JSaxd-Hoppers.

The species of sand-hoppers belong to a faiiiil\- 1-'" in the order AmpJiipoda,
to which order also belong the fresh-water shi-iiiii)s. By some tlii'v nuty be
mistaken for the pill-bug. Though they are distantly allied lo tin- i)ill-bug,
since they are true Crustacea, they are easily identifietl as belonging to a dif-
ferent family, as they have the body narrowed and flattened from side to side,
instead of broad and flat, and all proceed by a hopping movement when
alarmed. The common sand-hoppers live near the edge of the sea and are
aquatic in habit. There are species, however, which are found high up in the
mountains in damp situations and in tlie cups at the base of the leaves of a
number of plants such as the ieie vine, ki plant and in similai- jihifcs. Three
species belonging to two genera have been reported from the moiinlains of
Oahu, and there are doubtless species occurring on all the islands of the gronj).

Spiders, ]\1ites and Ticks.

Zoologists usually place the spiders togethci- in an order '-'^ of the
Arthropods, where, with certain other orders, including such animals as the
scorpions, the harvest-men or "daddy-long-legs,'' the mites and ticks and
similar creatures, they unite to form a class. ^•'- This class is made np of sev-
eral well-marked orders, but the spiders are generally taken as the l.\pe for the
group, as they show clearly the difference between the class to which the
insects ^•^" belong, and the class which they represent. There are several im-
portant characteristics common to the spiders, among them the possession of
eight legs, the absence of antenna' or feelers, and the division of the body into
two main divisions, ^•'^■^ that at once separate them from the insects, which have,
as a rule, six legs, antenna^ and the l)()dy divided info three i)afts. namely, the
head, thorax, and abdomen.

House-Spiders.

While there are nu)re than a hundred species of spiders in Hawaii, many
of them spinning webs, they are for the most pai-f so small and inconspicuous
that they rarely attract the special notice of the housewife. The jumping-
spiders ^-^^ and the big brown house-spider. i-'^' a member of the family of
hunting spiders,!-'^ and the well-known garden si)ider .should, however, be men-
tioned as exceptions to the rule.

The jumping-spiders are small oi- medium size with a short hhiekish l)ody
and short stout legs. They occui' on phints. feiu'cs and about houses, aiul
attract attention by theii- jxMMiliai- a])pearanee. l)i'iglil mai-l^iiiL:' ami (piick-
jumping movements that differ from those of the weh-\vea\inii and hunting

^^° Tulitrida'. ^^^ Araneida. ^^" Arachnida. "» //iserfo. 's* The (■(■phalothoriix :ind abdomen.
^^^ Family Attidte. i^" Heteropoda ri'ijia. ^^' Cluhionidiv.

410 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

families. Since they spin no webs to annoy one, their comical stare and know-
ing ways in a measure make up for the stinging bite they can administer
when their liberty is interfered with.

The garden-spider i'^"^ is doubtless an importation. It is the large species,
with the al)domen conspicuously marked with creamy yellow and black, that
occurs in the shrubbery about the house and garden, where it makes its bulky,
oddly-woven nests. It is common from sea-level up to 4()0(» feet elevation, and
is also found in America and Australia.

The big brown spider i-^-' or house-spider is often three or four inches
across, and to the tourist, at least, they present a most formidable appearance.
They are common in houses all over the islands, as well as in all tropical
countries, and are often looked upon as household pets. They are perfectly
harmless. In many families their long residence and evident appreciation of
friendly attentions from the members of the household has given them an
enviable place among the domestic pets. They feed on cockroaches, moths,
flies, silvertish and other insects, in an evident desire to be useful as well as
interesting, and seldom leave their accustomed resting-place during the day-
time. At night they become alert and active in search of food. As they never
spin webs, the mother spider is forced to carry the wdiite lozenge-shaped egg-
sack about with her lietween her leus initil her eggs have hatched. ]\Ir. E. ]\I.
Ehrhorn found that it required about thirty-five days for the young spiders to
hatch and leave the egg-sack, and that 1!)7 out of 207 eggs hatched.

The Hamakua Spider.

An investigation of the hal)its of spiders found in the cane fields, at the
time of the leaf-hopper outbreak already referred to, resulted in finding that
out of the one hundred and five species of spiders recorded in the islands, at
least twenty occur in the cane fields. However, only fourteen species were
found feeding on insects infesting the cane. The most useful species ^"'" in the
cane fields is variously known as the Kohala spider, the Hamakua spider and
the Puunene spider. In some sections it is very abundant, so that as many as
fifty of its roundish white nests have been found on a single leaf of cane.

Some of the species met with in the mountains spin very large, firm webs.
It is not uncommon to find these stretched across the path, suspended on strong
stay threads twenty-five feet or more in length. As a rule, however, the spe-
cies peculiar to Hawaii are not conspicuous in size or habit, the great majority
being less than five millimeters in length.

CHAPTER XXXII.
NATIVE INSECTS.

In the foregoing chapters some of the more important injurious insects
have been passed in review. We now tui-n to consider some of the salient fea-

^^» Aryiope arara. ^'-^^ Iletero/iodn reyUi. ^^^ Patiiophnlus afoniarhis.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROFP. 411

tures of the native fauna, since it is one of (•(iiisi(l('raV)le >i('nt'ral as well as bio-
loo-ic interest.

^t^'

Character ok the Native Fatna.

The nnmlier of species even in the limited and |)i'('('inctive area of the
islands is so great that it is not possible to do nioi-e than indicate in the briefest
way the character and extent of the vaiious orders represented in the firoup,
and to assure those who take especial interest in the subject of entomology
that they will lind in Hawaii an extensive literature already {)i-epai'ed and an
interesting field befoi'e them foi- study and investigation.

The stranger in the islands, with only a few days to sjjcnd in the collect-
ing of specimens, is fortunate in that two of the most favorable localities for
gaining a bird's-eye view of the native insects in their native envirotunent. are
also two of the most accessible. They ai'e the mountains back of Honolulu,
particularly the higher slopes of Tantalus, and the region in the vicinity of the
Volcano Kilauea, on Hawaii.

Dr. Perkins, the veteran naturalist of the islands, whose active life in the
field of ento)nology has been largely spent in bringing together the material
on which a monumental work, in three volumes, knoAvn as Fauna llawaiiensis
is based, has published short papers ^ setting forth briefly the more important
and interesting forms that may be met with in the localities mentioned. These
succinct papers will serve the collector as a field guide to each locality and aid
him in his search for the rarer forms to be found in these favored precincts.

The student will early learn to appreciate the importance of careful and
intensive study of circumscribed localities, since each island, valley, mountain,
and even limited areas and often certain {peculiar plants, have tlieii- peculiar
forjns. It will also be noted that such infiuences as elevation, moisture and
dryness play important parts in the distribution of sjx'cies and the establish-
ment of their vertical and horizontal range.

Insects Occurring on ^Iamaki.

The work on tlie life histories of various groups of Hawaiian insects that
has been carried on by the individual members of the local Entomological
Society has added material of the greatest interest to oiii- increasing stoi'c of
knowledge concerning the habits of the native insect fauna. This is especially
true in the grou[) of Lfpidoph rd, wherein Professor Otto S\veze\-. in his study of
moths and butterfiies, has done much to clear up man\- obscure i-elations exist-
ing between that order of insects and tlu)se insects preying ujton them in their
early stages of development. The bearing of these inter-i-elations in their
effect on tlu' native vegetation has often |)i'oved to be of gi'cal biologic interest.

In his investigation of the insects associated with the mamaki (a native
Hawaiian shrub, fi-om which kapa was formerly madei. lie has iiiilic;itc(l the

■ Insects of Tantalus. Perkins. Proc Haw. Kntoni. .Six-., Vol. 1. i>t. -. \}\>. :iS-.".l. Ins.'.ts nf Kiliima.
Perkins, Proc. Haw. Kntoni. Soc, Vol, I. lit. :!. pp. 89-99.

412 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

way to a field of fascinating and practical study tliat others, not wholly con-
sumed with the desire to add new species to the fauna, nor equipped for serious
systematic research, will find of value and interest.

During a period of two or three years in connection with other fiekl col-
lecting, mostly confined to the Island of Oahu, he gathered and studied mate-
rial from which he reports the taking of more than seventy-five insects and
their parasites from this single species of plant. He enumerates nine species
that appear to be found on mamaki and on no other plant. Thirteen species
feed extensively on its leaves, one bores into the green twigs and one lives on
the bark. Of those attacking the dead or dying shrub, eighteen occurred in
the trunk and branches, and two feed on fungus, on or beneath the bark. The
insects which visit mamaki in search of prey w^ere divided into five species of
Coleoptera, four species of Heyniptera, eight parasties besides other miscel-
laneous insects, as ants, earwigs and rove beetles.

The problems of insect life are so interesting and so varied in Hawaii tliat
the repetition of the investigation referred to above would well repay any
observer on Oahu, while the insect fauna varies to such an extent on the dif-
ferent islands that the work, if repeated on Hawaii or Kauai, for example,
would have all the novelty of original research.

Some of the more minute and scarcer groups of Hawaiian insects have not
as yet been systematically studied. The larger and more important orders
that have been reviewed l)y specialists are constantly having new genera and
species added to them as a I'esult of more detailed study. This makes general-
izations based on the data available less accurate than one could wish. Never-
theless, some of the main facts selected for a popular resume of the orders as
discussed in the Fauna Hawaiiensis, supplemented by the papers on various
phases of the subject that have appeared from time to time since their publica-
tion, may be of general interest.

Ants, Bees and Wasps.

The great order,- including the ants, bees, wasps, small four-winged jnira-
sites, and gall-forming and plant-eating wasp-like insects, is well represented
in Hawaii. The order is divided into two sub-orders, one the boring,^ the
other the ^iingm'g^ Hymc no pt era. In the former sub-order, among other
characteristics, the tip of the abdomen in the females is provided witli an
organ suited to boring the hole into which the Q2.g, is deposited. In some
species this instrument is used to drill holes in trees, in others it is used to
thrust the egg into the body of some other insect where it develops. Many of
the species are very minute : often their existence is accidentally discovered
during the process of rearing other insects in breeding jars. At such times the
tiny parasite often emerges from the body of its host and appears in the jars as
a microscopic insect with four wings. These are known as |)arasitic Hijhk imp-
tem, and are of great biologic importance in keeping tluMr host species in

- Hymenojitem. ^ Terehraittiit. * Acideata.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 4L3

check. Dr. W. II. Ashmead, in liis treatise on the II;i\v;iiian forms, discusses four-
teen families belonging' to this suborder, to which he refers one hundred and
twenty-eight species as belonging- to sixty-nine genera. P>ighty-seven of the
species were described by him as new. I'o this number several species have
since been added, but as the very largest Hawaiian species do not exceed
twenty millimeters, and by far the greater number are less than five milli-
meters in length, and as a great many have been described from a single
s])eeimen, we may infer that, in spite of theii' interesting habits, they are too
small to attract much attention from the layman.

The stinging HijHicuopii ra includes about two lumdred ■well -marked spe-
cies. Of these a large number are peculiar to the islands. As the majority
of the species are fair-sized, handsome insects, the.y have been more extensively
collected. The group includes the ants, digger-wasps, the true wasps and the
bees. To the twenty species of ants ^ listed by Prof. A. Forel as occurring in Ha-
waii, six species have since been added, the majority of which are new arrivals.
As a matter of fact, there appears to be but one or two endemic species of ants
in the islands. Most of those found here are slightly-varied forms of widely-
distributed species. Only one species (Poncra perkiusi) is definitely stated to
be Hawaiian. It occurs in small colonies of a dozen or so in moist localities
high in the mountains.

Ants occur commonly in great numbers about houses, and ever\'where
attract attention owing to their so-called instinctive powers. They invarial)l\-
live in organized comnumities or colonies, and exhibit as great a variety of
habits and customs as do the people living in the islands, for the people, like
the ants, have been brought together in Plawaii from many foreign lands. The
ants found here live under boards and stones, and in the ground, and are as
industrious and thrifty as those King Solomon observed, to find that they,
having no guide, overseer or ruler, provided meat in the summer and gathered
food in the harvest.

The home life of ants for obvious reasons has not been as fnlly studied as
has that of the bees, but the division of labor in the colony is known to he
even more complex. Their habits furnish an interesting and ever-present field
for study and observation by old and young.

The digger-wasps, or Fossores,*"' may be I'eadily disiingnished IVom the
true wasps by the fact that their wings, when at i-est. lie tiat o\'er the haeU and
the legs are arranged for walking or digging. There are about thii-ty-five
species so far reported from Hawaii, the most common being the introduced
mud-dauber''' belonging to the thread-wai.sted wasp '^ family. They are to be
seen building their nests about lanais and outbuildings. AVheii the nest is com-
pleted the eggs are deposited and the cell provisioiu'd with spiders. The truly
native species are reported to prey entir(4y upon tlies. '{'he principal genus,
Crabro, represented by fifteen species, is disti-ibuted in the mountains of the
larger islands.

5 Furtiiicidfr. " Sphecina. ' Piliijxcus civtiieittariii.s. * Sphegidce.

414 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

Of the true wasps,-* the family i" inchidiiiii' the social wasps is represented
])}' two or three species, one of which '^ is widely distributed about the islands.

The family embracing' the solitary wasps ^- is rei)resented by a large num-
l)er of species belonginji' to the genus Odijiierus. Eighty-six species were re-
ported in the P^iuna Ilawaiiensis. and a dozen or more species have been added
since. Excellent keys to the species occurring on the different islands have
been jn-ej^ared by Dv. Perkins, who reports sixty species from Oahu, eighty-
four from Maui, Molokai and Lanai, and thirty-two from Kauai. Fourteen
species have been found on Tantalus, including some of the rarest, while
Kilauea as a locality has yielded twenty-one species. On a single day's col-
lecting in lao Valley, Prof. Swezey secured eleven out of sixteen species known
to occur in that particular locality, which is about half of those so far reported
from the Island of ]\Iaui.

In this genus the abdomen is .joined to the thorax by a very short peduncle.
The shape of the body and the coloration of the abdomen of many species so
closely resemble those of the social wasps, known elsewhere as yellow-.jackets,
and hornets, that it is (|uite common to hear these names applied to the con-
spicuously-marked species. l>ut as a rule, the Hawaiian Odyperus are much
more somber in color than are species from elsewhei'e.

The habits of the Hawaiian species, like those of the genus occurring in
other lands, varies greatly. Some species buri-ow into the stems and pithy
parts of plants, others into dead wood, while a few build single cells of mud,
which they attach to leaves of trees. Many of the species build their nests in
the porous cavities in the lava rock; others make their nests in the ground.

The black rock-wasp.^-' one of several species common about vertical ledges
of rock, attaches its e^g by a slender thread at the back of s(mie small hole in
the rock. It then fills the hole with caterpillars that have been paralyzed by its
sting'. In storing the food for its young it is usually particular to select only
the young caterpillar of a single species. Many of these, as we shall see, are
leaf-rollers in that they protect themselves from their enemies and the sun in
the caterpillar stage by folding the leaf together about them. The wasp, after
locating the young caterpillar in its hiding-place, alights on the leaf nearby.
The young caterpillar then becomes excited and creeps out of its hiding-place
and falls to the ground, whereupon the waiting wasp will pick it up, sting- it,
and carry it away to its storehouse cell. When the cell cavity is full, the
ingenious insect plugs up the end of the hole with mud, through which in due
time the young wasp will emerge. The habit of storing- their cells with the
larva' of moths and butterflies is very common among the solitary wasps, and
as they are active during the year they do much to keep these insects in check.

The keyhole wasp'-* is a black wasp with dull-blue iridescent wings
clouded with brown, that is common about houses, where it employs at least
a part of its time in plugging up keyholes. They are interesting and intelli-

^ Dijilojiti'm. ^" Vespidce. " I'nJixfi'x anrifer. ^- E inin-tiichr. ^'^ Odi/iwnis spp.

* Odynerus niyriperiMS.

THE ANIMAL IJFK OK TIIK GROUP. 415

gent ei-eatures, and ai-e excelli'iit inatci'ial foi- the stiitlciit wlio lias tin- lime
and a taste for experimenting \villi animals. For example, they art' gi-eatly
disturbed by a eliange in the color of objects near whei-e they are working. If
a piece of red cloth is tied over the door knob they have great trouble in
finding the keyhole when they i-cturn ^\■ith mud, Ijut if the clutli is removed in
their absence they have no tr()ul)le in locating it.

The Hawaiian solitary bees, of which there are at least sixty species, be-
longing to the genus \( soprosopis, are not readily identified t)\' the layman,
nor are they easily separated in the field from the wasps. Like the genus of
wasps just discussed, they vary greatl.N' in habits. Some nest in Hie ground,
some in dead standing timber and various unusual places, and arc disti-ibuted
from the coast to above the up])er forest.

Of the typical or long-tongued bees.^'^ we find five species so far occurring
in Hawaii. Of these the conspicuous carpenter bee ^" and the useful honey
bee^'^ have already been mentioned. The three remaining species behnig to a
single genus ^^ and are characterized as leaf-cutting bees. The common name
is given them owing to their curious habit of making the thimble-shaped nests
for their young out of neatly-cut circular pieces of fresh leaves, which they
pack away in cells, often in holes in the woodwork, or in curled-up leaves of
the cocoanut palm. Leaves when mutilated by these bees look as though small
gun wads had been cut from them. The work of the wad-cutting bee is often
mistaken for that of the Japanese beetle, which, while it feeds on the leaves,
does not cut out the leaf in a regular pattern.

The Beetles.

Coming to the great order of beetles,^" we find it represented in tho Ha-
waiian insect fauna by more than forty families, embracing hundreds of pre-
cinctive and introduced species. All of the members of this extensive order
are easily recognized in the adult stage, as they have a pair of horny wings
that meet in a straight line down the back, beneath which is a single paii- of
membraneous wings neatly folded away. The earwig-*^ is the only other
order occurring in Hawaii that at all closely resembles them, and the eai'wigs
are easily recognized by the presence of a pair of forceps-like appendages at
the posterior end of the bod.v.

In general it may be said that a i:reat i)er cent oi' the beetles found in
Hawaii are species that occur in no othci- jtlace. .Most of the species are small,
many of them being almost microscopic in size, and as a nde the indivaduals
of a species are not numerous, hence they ai-e difticult to obtain. Tlir colleetor
soon learns that their habits vai-y greatly in the (iifCt'i-eiit families and even
among the species of the same genera, so that in searching for specimens every
possible situation must be examined. The water, earth, sand, crevices in the
solid rock, under deca\ing animal and vey-etable imitter. under stones, in the

^''Apiihr. ^<> Xi/luciiiHt hninilinnonnii. ^' Apis mi'Uijirn. '» Megachile. ^* Coleoptern.

-" E II pie. I opt era.

416 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

wood, stems and bark of trees, on the leaves, flowers, and in the seeds of
plants, in moss, in fnn^i, in fern stems — in fact, a thousand possible places are
all liable to be inhabited by some rare and interesting beetle.

That many species, especially among the long list of those introduced since
commerce was established with Hawaii, are injurious to man and to his inter-
ests, has been touched upon in a former chapter. That many forms work to
man's economic benefit has also been hinted at. Of most of the peculiar native
species little is really known of the place they occupy in the economy of nature.

The larvff", commonly called grubs, seldom display conspicuous character-
istics, and exhibit nothing to indicate the diversity of form assumed by the
adults. They are mostly dingy -white, brownish or occasionally even black in
color. The head is always horny and usually provided with jaws suited to bit-
ing and grinding their food. The pupa stage follows the larva and varies
greatly in length of time. Whether it is passed in a cocoon or not, the embryo
beetle lies inactive with the appendages all plainly shown, each enveloped in
its own peculiar covering. From this they emerge in due time to take up the
active life of the adult.

Passing to a consideration of a few of the more interesting or more
important families, we find that of the great division knoAvn as the predaceous
beetles, the ground beetles,-^ with legs suited to running and with thread-like,
tapering antenna^, are represented by more than two hundred small species,
many of them belonging to genera peculiar to the islands. They vary greatly
as to habits, the most of them, however, undoubtedly feeding on insects. They
are found under stones, beneath dead wood, in moss, in trees, under bark, at
the base of leaves and on the ground, scurrying about. Two small species of
predaceous diving-beetles-- belonging to this division, but to diiferent genera,
occur in fresh water all over the group ; they appear to be nowhere abundant.

The diving-beetles can be distinguished at once from the six species of
water scavenger-beetles,^^ some of which occur in pools and I'unning water,
and some in rotten wood and decaying vegetation. The water scavenger-
beetles all have club-shaped antenna? (which are often concealed beneath the
head) and very long palpi. As a matter of fact, these aquatic scavenger-
beetles belong to the extensive division of the beetle order known as clavicorn
beetles, in which the antenna^ are club-shaped — that is, they grow gradually
thicker towards the top. Hawaii has twenty oi- more families belonging to this
group, including such v/ell-known families as the carrion-beetles,--^ with but a
single introduced species so far found : and the rove-beetles,--"^ with upwards
of one hundred species. They may all be faii'ly well recognized by their short
wings and long, narrow abdomen. They are mostly carnivorous, and rove
about in search of food. Insects constitute a large part of their food, espe-
cially insect larva\ but many feed on rotton wood, some on fungi and others on
flowers.

The twenty species of small hemispherical lady-bugs, or ladybird beetles,-"

21 Carabidw. -- Dytiscidcv. -^ Hydrophilidcp. -* ,Silphid(V. "" Stiiiilii/tiuidce. -'^ Corrinfllidd-.

THE AXDIAL LIFP: OF TIIK GROrP. 417

discussed elseAvliero. at'c pi-acticjilly ,ill iiiti'odnccd si)e('ies, hronght to llMwaii
on aeeoiint of their well-known pi'edaceous ha hits. The dermestes,-^ the eoni-
nion forms introduced and Avhich destroy lioiisdiold stores and p'oods, have
also native species of small size. The hislcrid lu'ctles-"* have several intro-
duced species and an important Hawaiian ^cnns with thirty or foi'ty sjjccies
of very small square-shaped hectics that occnr ahoiit (h'cayiny matter in the
mountains. The nitidulids,-'-' a fainil_\- eonipctsed of small Hattened beetles with
the wing covers more or less truncate, exposing the ahdomen, suggesting the
rove-beetles which have a much h)nger ahdomen, are (jnite common: one hun-
dred and forty species, all of which feed on decaying animal and veizctahle
matter, and are often found about flowers, occur in the mountains.

Several other families made up of small-sized individuals and a limited
number of species, belong in this division, and may occasionally he captured by
the careful collector.

The group known as the serricorn beetles, since the antennae are usually
saw-like, is well represented by three families, the most extensive and comnion
■being the click-beetles,^*^ snapping-bugs or skip-.iack beetles. If disturbed
they curl up their legs and apparently drop dead, usually landing on the
ground on their backs. With a sudden click, they will si)ring \\\) in the aii-
and turn over. If they strike the ground on their feet they Avill run: if not.
the clicking performance is repeated again and a^aiii. The adults are usually
dull-colored, but some are of fair size and quite common. The larva' are com-
monly known as wire-worms. Eighty-five species or more belong to the genus
Eopriilhrs, a genus that includes some beautiful irridescent species that num-
bers among them some of the most attractive beetles in the islands. The
checkered beetles, ^^ with three widely-distributed species, and the metallic
wood-borers,"^- inclndinL:' two introduced species, conclude tliis part of the
order.

Beetles with the antennjv arranged so that the outer joints are pi-olonged
internally in a manner to present flattened surfaces to each otluM-. are grou]ied
under the lamellieorn beetles, and are represented in Hawaii by such well-
known families as the stag-beetles ^^ or pinch bugs, so called on account of
their large niandil)les. The rare genus Apfrrocuclus. includiiiL; the seven
species of the family occurring in Hawaii, is found only on the Island of Kauai.

All of the eight or more species of Scarabu-ids •'* belonging to the fore-
going section, and including such widely-dist ril)uted forms as the -lapanese
beetle,-'"' have been introduced. Othei' nuMnbers of this extensive family, in-
cluding such classic forms as the May beetle, tuiiible-bugs, dung-beetles, skin
beetles and the like, may accidentally gain aduuttance here from tim.' to time,
as two dozen species of beetles were prevented from landing in liU'J oidy
through the rigorous insect inspection in force in Hawaii.

The grou]) ■'•'■' including the long-horiu'tl beetles-'" is well i-epresented by

^- Drrmfstidw ^'' Ilisteridir. -» Mtidiilida: ^o Elatfrida: 3i cieridn: '^'^ Biipiriitidd:

■■^^ Liiriinula-. '■>* Sc(trab(vid(P. »'■ Adoretim trunimactilatiiti. «" P hi/to phnrja. ^- (fiambyctdcc.

418 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

more than sixty species of that family- alone. Tlie list of species includes some
of the most highly-colored as well as striking forms of Hawaiian beetles. As
these are all wood-boi'ing l)eetles in their larval state, many of the species
most commonly seen have been introduced, liut in the group including the
three genera Chjtarlus, Callithrnijsus and PlagitJintysiis we have several species
that are peculiar to single islands and some that apparently occur only on
certain kinds of trees. Such habits indicate the long establishment of the
famil}' in the group.

The division of the beetle tribe embracing the darkling-beetles,^'* which
includes among other common species the red-rust flour beetle ;-^'"^ the oede-
merids,^*^ with one species, and the anthicids/^ with two coast and salt marsh
species, is made uj) of representatives of introduced families, except in the case
of the cistelid family.'- a family nu-luding ten species belonging to two genera
that are regarded by entomalogists as certainly indigenous.

The family Cioidce is of doubtful position, but is represented in Hawaii
by forty-two species, twenty-nine of which belong to the genus C/s-, the remain-
ing fourteen to Apterocis. A few of the species are found on the large fungi
common on koa trees, but the majorit\- occur attached to dead limbs or \uuler
dead bark. As the very largest species does not exceed two and a half milli-
meters in length, they may easily escape detection.

The family Anobiida, with the introduced cigarette beetle ^'^ and the
book-worm, ^■'^ has upwards of 134 species occurring in Hawaii. One genus"*-''
has at least fifty species in the Hawaiian fauna. Another genus-"' has at least
seventy Hawaiian species. ]\Iost of the species in tlu^ family are black or
fuscous and none exceed five millimeters in hMigth. The family Lyctidce
includes two, and the Bosfri/cJiidce several, connnon introduced species. The
bamboo beetle ■''^ belongs to the latter family and is rai'e ; but a similar beetle *^
is fairly abundant.

The division of the Colcoptera known as snout-beetles ■^•* is one in which
the head is prolonged into a beak. The largest and most important family of
this division is the curculios,''" or weevils, of which there are about one
hundred and fifty species. The great majority of them are peculiar to the
islands. The antenmi^ are placed at or beyond the middle of the snout, and are
curiously elbowed, each terminating in a solid club. All parts of plants are
subject to the attacks of the maggot-like bii-va\ and in many instances, espe-
cially in the case of the introduced species, they do considerable damage. The
snout-beetle,'"'^ found on rubber trees, sisal, etc.; the bean Aveevil,^^ rice
weevil,''-^ the sweet-potato weevil,''^ all are excellent examples of the family, l)ut
a native genus •"'•"' has several larger luit rare species, the largest being fourteen
millimeters in length. The large genus Oo(l(ni(is has upward of forty-five
species, all of which are rare. The family AnthrihUhi ami the engraver

^'^ Tenebrionid(T. ''^ Trilxiliinn fi-rnii/iiit'inn. *" Oedemi't-idtr. ^^ Axthiridw. *- CiMelidee.

*^ Lasioderma sfi-rironit'. ■'^'^ A nobiuin paniceiim. *^ Xi/lftohiii.s. ■>" Mir(t!<ti'nui.i.

*' Dinodernus niiniifus. *>* .ScliUfoci'ro.s coniutus. *" Hbjinch(ii)hiira. '''" Ciirruliotiidfe.

SI Pseud(jlus longuUtn. ^- linirlnis ohti'cftis. =» Cahiiidrii oviizii*'. "* Ci/lnx f<iniiirariiis.

^^ Rhyi>co(jonus.

THE AXBIAL LIFE OF TTTE OROFP. 419

beetles -"^'^ are associated with the weevils. The latter family is represented bv
a limited number of rare speeies. These arc small beetles that live under the
bark of forest trees. It is said that with the engraver beetles the female lays
her eo'iis in the side of the channel which she cuts in the wood under the bark,
and that the larva' when hatched cut channels at ri^ht anoles to those of the
mother, thus forming the curious engraver's ]>atlei-ii.

We come now to the remarkable Hawaiian snout-beetle family.''' which,
so far as known, is peculiar to the islands. The 186 species so far described
are all referred to a single genus.*'^'^ None of the species exceed four milli-
meters in length. They may be at once recognized as members of this family
and ditt'ering from the weevils, owing to their long many-jointed anteinite,
which are placed at the base of the beak and close to the eyes.

^lost of the speeies are found about dead and dying forest trees, but some
occur in fei'n stems, and one or two are found in the stems of the maiden-hair
feru,^^ while one species was found by Prof. Swezey to be a leaf miner.

The Two-Winged Insects.

Passing over the order including the fleas,"" as they have been mentioned
in another connection, the next order embraces the two-winged insects ''• of
which the house fly, the fruit-tiy, the melon-tiy, the lantana-tiy and the mos-
quito may be taken as conspicuous introduced examples that play important
roles on both sides of the balance sheet of insect economy in the islands. The
life histories of any of the foregoing species may be easily and lu-ofitably
worked out in the class-room.

The larva* are usuallj' footless, whitish creatures called maggots that revel
in all sorts of filth, as stable manure, decaying fruit, in fresh and stagnant
w^ater, in the earth, about roots of plants and a variety of unsuspected places.
The larvfe and the pupae of the mosquito are known as wrigglers, and in this
stage are a favorite food for certain species of fish introduced for the express
purpose of preying on them.

The list of Hawaiian Hies prepared liy Mr. P. H. Grimsham in 1901-2 indi-
cated 188 species as belonging to the fauna. Since then a number of species have
been added, so that, native and introduced, there are more than two hundred
kinds of flies known to occur in the islands. Some of them are beneficial,
others are troublesome, but the great majority of them are rare mountain
forms seldom met with.

]\Iore than twenty-five families are repi'esented by fi-om one to several
species, among them the fungus-gnats,'"'- the moth-like flies,'"'^ the mosipiitoes,"^
the window tiies;"'" the long-legged flies.*"' of which thei-e are a few interesting
native species; the big-eyed flies.''*" parasites on leaf-hopjiers : the syrphus
flies, "^^ the flesh flies.'"* the typical flies,"" including the horn tly, blue-bottle
fly, house fl\', sheep-maggot tly and stable tly (the lattei' now believed In-

^^ Scolytidce. ^' Proterhiiiiihr. -'^ I'rotrrhiinix. '•« Pterin. '^o Siphounpt^ra.

^1 Diptera. "= Mi/refiipliiliilir. "•' Pxi/chaditUr. "* Ciiriilidir. '^ Scei)opii>idtr.

*"' Dolichopodida'. "' Pipininilidii'. "s Si/rphidw. "" Sarcophagidw. '" Musiridtr.

420 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

certain investigators to be the carrier of infantile paralysis) ; the horse and
ox bot-flies,"^ the frnit and vegetable flies;"- bnt by far the most nnmerons in
point of pecnliar species are the small vinegar flies or pomace flies. "•'^ Of these
there are at least forty-five species peculiar to the islands. They are attracted
to decaying fruit and vegetable matter in great numbers, especially to pine-
apples, where the species '-^ is mistaken by many ])en])lo for fruit-flies on that
account.

The curious louse-flies,'"' which have very flat lx)dics and live like ticks on
the bodies of birds "'' and occasionally on mammmals. are represented in the
islands by species that are sure to arouse the curiosity of anyone observing
them.

Butterflies and ]\Ioths.

The Hawaiian Islands possess very few butterflies, but have a very large
luimber of moths. The moths and butterflies are all included in one order,
Lepidoptera, owing to the fact that all of the members of this order are alike
in having all four of the wings covered with minute scales. They all pass
through complete metamorphosis ; that is, the e^iii when hatched becomes a
caterpillar, the caterpillar changes to a pupa, and the pupa, after a quiet
period, turns into the adult winged insect. The mouth parts of the adult,
when fully developed, are fitted for sucking nectar from flowers, but the mouth
parts of the caterpillar are fitted for chewing, and it is in this stage that they
do great damage to various kinds of plants. The amount of damage done in
Hawaii is considerable, luit a great part of it is done by introduced species,
as has already been pointed out. However, the moths and butterflies have
many natural enemies, and enemies have been introduced to aid in keeping
them in check.

Without doubt the struggle for existence here had much to do with the
production of forms that are protectively colored with reference to their
enemies and their surroundings. When we realize that the order is repre-
sented in Hawaii by more than seven hundred species."" the great majority of
which '^ are peculiar to the islands, w'e can realize the length of time and the
amount of specialization involved in the production of this interesting portion
of our fauna. With so large a list of species the collector is surprised to find
so few individuals of a species and that the majority of those found are so
minute.

For convenience the Lepidoptera have been divided into the Macrohpi-
doptcrei and the MicroJepidopfera. To the Macrolepidejptera belong the few
species of butterflies, (all with club-shaped antennaO. and the larger moths,
making fifteen families"'' in all. Of this list but few^ are sufificientlv marked

"1 eEstridfP. '- Trypetichc. "■' Drosophilidtv. "* DrofKi/iliild aiiijiejojihila. '^ Hippoboscidce.

'" As the pueo and iwa. "" 733 according to Prof. Meyrick and J.in-d Walsingham in 1907.

'^^ 661 species.

''^ According to Meyrick. the Hawaiian Macrolepido])tera Ijolu)!? to four sujier- families, and fifteen
families, as follows: (a) Caradrinina — e'drndrinidfr, Pliixindw ; (b) Xotodontina — Selidoseitiidff. Spliin;/-
idcB. Eydriomenidtv ; (c) Papilionina — Pirridfr. Xyinpluilidir. Liirci'iiidrr. (d) Pi/rnlidiiia — Phiicitidir,
Galleriid(e. Crambidw. Pi/rniixtida'. Pi/riiUdiihr. Ptertipliorida/ and Orneddidiv. These families are again
divided into more than sixty genera.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROll'. 421

as to habit or appearance to make their recognition at all easy or certain, even
by the professional entomologist, without reference to cabinet specinit'iis,
schemes of classification and tables, based often on minute and obscure char-
acteristics. Some of the species, however, warrant notice on account of their
size or abundance, though the very largest island species of the order — a beau-
tiful green sphynx moth ^" — does not exceed three and a half inches in expanse.
It has four dull-colored cousins occurring on the different islands th;it are
almost as rare. Like the foregoing species, the humming-bird moths ai-e also
members of the hawk-moth ^"^ family. Two species occur here. Tlie one with
the rosy, spotted abdomen,"^- known as the sweet potato horn-worm, is fairly
abundant from September to December, while tlie species with the yellow-
spotted abdomen is rarer, though both species are widely disti-ihuted in
America. The commoner species has been mentioned among the economic
insects.

Coming to the typical butterflies with knobbed antenna?,^^ we have the
so-called four-footed butterflies,^^ represented by at least five species. Only
one of them, however, the Kameliameha butterfly,"*"' is native. Fortunately it
is the most common species, especially in the lower forest zone. It can be
recognized as differing from the three introduced species of the angel-wings,
or vanesseds, by its larger size and having the body reddish-brown, whih' the
body of a similar species ^'^ is black.

These bright butterflies with their winus of varied rustv brown, i-ed. rose,
black and white add a welcome touch of color to the forest green that is sure
to delight every mountain rambler. The larva? are conspicuous caterpillars
found principally on the mamaki. They fold the margin of a leaf together to
form a shelter, crawling out of it to feed. As they grow in size, they are
known to form new retreats from time to time.

The monarch or milkweed butterfly'*' is represented by an introduced
species, identified by its having the upper surface of the wings light tawny-
brown, with the border and veins black, and two rows of white spots on the
outer borders of all four wings. It is much the largest butterfly found in
Hawaii. It is fairly common on the lower levels, where it feeds in the larval
stage on the introduced milkweed.

The family of gossamer-winged butterflies^'^ are re[)resented by four
species of the "blues," one of which, Blackburn's ])nttei'fl\-,"*'* is peculiar 1o the
group and is ({uite plentiful at proper seasons in the mountains on all tlie
islands up to 4000 feet. All of the species are al)out an inch across the ex-
panded wings. The native species can be identilied at once by the light hluish-
green. unspotted under-surface of the wings, and by the uppei'-snrface being
dark colored, edged with blue. One of the inti'oduced species''" is very abun-
dant, its larva' feeding on Crotalaria and other bean-liUe plants growim: on the
hnver levels. The two i-eniaining species of Lijcaini have recently been pui'-

'*" Deilephilri sinarnffditi-s. '''^ Si)liiii!/i<l(r. ^" Si)lnii.v coti rohuili. ''^ Pai)ilii)>iia. ^* yi/iiiphaliJir.

^^ Vanessa tamiiifdiiifa. ■'*« Tk/m'.vav; atlanta. ^~ Anosia erippiis. '*" Lyc(Vtiid(V.

^" Lyra'na blackburni. *" Lycwna ha-tira.

422 XATUEAL HISTORY OP^ HAWAII.

posely introduced from Mexico to feed on the flowers and leaves of the
Lantana.

The white cabbage butterfly''^ is the representative of the third family^-
of the l)ntterflies occnrring in Hawaii. Here, as in America, they are an in-
troduced species, and. as elsewhere, they are common in gardens,, especially
about cab])age, where their larva\ as cabbage-worms, bore into tlie cabbage
heads and devour the leaves.

In the genus, to which the introduced black cut-worm '*•"' found feeding on
garden and farm crops, sugar-cane and weeds belongs, there are enumerated
at least two dozen native species. They are for the most part fair-sized,
somber-colored, night-flying moths. Fortunately, the native species i)refer to
inhabit the higher forested areas, rather than the lower agricultural zone.
However, there are several species belonging to the genus Agrotis as well
as species of such genera as Leucania, Heliothis, Spodoptera, belonging to this
extensive family'*-^ and to the related family""' that furnish a number of forms
that infest the grass and the crops of cultivated lands on the lower levels.
One species,"*' with silver commas on the forewings, is an introduced trouble-
some general feeder that is liable to attack almost any useful plant.

The super-family Xofoclrnifiiid. with its three families and ten genera, fur-
nish a number of species of considerable economic importance. One genus "'^
in this division has perhaps thirty species that are among the more abundant
and showy moths met with in the islands. Their caterpillars of difl:'erent
species often occur in large numbers on guava. koa, ferns and various other
plants and trees.

Coming to the fourth super-family,'"^ with seven families and thirty-two
genera in the Hawaiian fauna, we And the various species of the genus
Omiodes represented by the cocoanut palm leaf-roller,''-* among the most
troublesome native moths. A genus i'^" belonging to the same family'"^ is
represented by at least fifty-six native species of attractive moths that have
the forewings very naiTow and often conspicuously marked with spots, blotches
and wavy designs of various colors. As the range of the genus seems to be
between two and ten thousand feet in the mountains, species are usually
secured from high, moist regions. They feed almost exclusively on moss and
lichens, in which the larvtv are said to spin curious silken tunnels for them-
selves.

Up to the time Dr. Perkins began his work in the islands but thirty-five
species belonging to the grand division of Microhpidoptera were known from
Hawaii. Loi'd Walsingham, after working over the material assembled by
Dr. Perkins, recorded four hundred and forty-one species. The labor involved
in adding so many species of insect life to the fauna, by the eft'orts of a single
naturalist, can be appreciated better when we realize that the great majority
of these minute creatures do not exceed a half inch in length.

"1 Pii'ci.s- rayxv. ^- Pieri(ht'. ^^ Afirotis ypfiUiiii. ^* Cnradrinidfv. "^ Plusiada.

"'^ Ph/fiia rhalritcs. "' Scotori/tlirn. ^^ Pyralidinii. "" Omiodct hlaclhnnii. ^oo Scopnria.

101 Piirtii).stid(e.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 423

On the wing these tiny moths fly witli a rai)id, confused tliulit and alii^ht
with the wings folded closely together over the body. As a lade they are
protectively colored and secrete themselves in crevices in the l)ai-l\. and beneath
the dead leaves in the forest, with such skill as to defy detection even by the
practiced eye.

While their habits vary greatly, many of the species develop to the adult
stage within the tissue of leaves, and in this way come to be called leaf-
miners. i*'- Usually each species of the leaf-miner gi-oup infests some par-
ticular kind of plant or at least closely allied plants. So constant are these
creatures in their leaf-mining habits that an expert entomologist can often tell
the species of insect infesting the plant by the characteristic mine that it
makes. Some species produce galls on certain plants, others feed on fruits,
live in silken tunnels in dead grass and leaves, on the bark of dead trees; some;
produce webs in koa trees, and so on until it has been found that almost every
imaginable habitat has been occupied by them.

Although the great majority of the species belonging to the Mivroh pidoptera
are found in the mountains, there are many, both native and introduced, that
may be seen about residences, in gardens or doing damage to field crops of
various kinds. Perhaps the species most liable to attract the attention of ordi-
nary observers are the morning-glory leaf-miners/*^^ both of which are intro-
duced in Hawaii. The destructive cotton boll-worm ^^-^ is also an abundant
introduced species that bores into the seeds of the cotton. The clothes
moth;^*'-'' the tobacco leaf-miner,^ "*^ boring into potatoes and into fruits and
stems of tomatoes, are two common species in Hawaii. The corn moth/""
feeding in the kernels of corn stored in cribs, and in rice, is also a common
pest. Thus the list might be indefinitely extended and made to include uuuiy
species of more or less interest or importance. The species are so minute,
however, and are so much like one another, that their determination is neces-
sarily the work of a specialist. But from the standpoint of the luitive fauna,
especial mention should be made of the large, variable Hawaiian genus Hypos-
mocoma, in which more than one hundred and seventy-five native species have
been identified by Lord Walsingham. This list has since l)een extended by
local entomologists. The larvie make for themselves many styles of cases or
cocoons which are located in such places as on the bark of trees, on rocks, dead
twigs, or dead wood. A peculiarity of the genus is tlie varia})le form, size,
color and construction of the cases which ai-e made by the ditTereiit species.

The Dragon-Flies and the Nerve- Winged Insects.

The dragon-fly may very properly be taken as a lype of llie order includ-
ing the nerve-winged insects,^"'' in which all t'oiii- wings are ineniliranous jind
furnished with numerous veins and usually with many ci'oss-veins. Hnto-
mologists have differed among themselves as to just what the limits of the

^^- lineidw. ^"^ Bedfllia siiwiiiilciifcUa and B. minor. ^o* Oflerhia f/oxsi/pit'lla. '<*■• 2'i»icn pvUinnrUa.
^'"■' Phthoi-iiitcen operriil<-U(i. ^o" .Sifotrooa cereab'Uu. ^"'' yctiroiiteia.

424 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

order should be, but in the ease of the Hawaiian fauna the order, as treated
l)y Dr. Perkins, has been made to include insects familiarly known as lace-
winged tlies or hemerobians.^"^' the dragon-tly,!!*^' the book-lice ^^^ and the
white ants or termites.^ ^-

To this super-order have been referred at least 116 species of insects.
About one-half of this number is made up by the lace-Avinged tlies. They are
slender-bodied, delicate insects of small size, the largest measuring scarcely
more than an inch in length. They all have dainty membranous wings of
various colors as gray, brown, yellowish-brown, hyaline, iridescent, and often
])ale green, the last color being the one most liable to attract attention.

The lace-winged flies are forest dwellers and nocturnal in habit. The
common lace-winged Hy ^'•' is quite frequently met with in gardens and shady
localities, and may be easily captured.

Of the dragon-fiies,^!-^ at least one genus, ^^-^ with twenty-six endemic
species, may be regarded as of very long standing in the islands. The mem-
bers of this genus are all fond of the mountain forests and seldom occur at
lower levels. They have very slender bodies, with both pairs of wings shaped
nearly alike. So extraordinarily fragile, delicate and dainty are their wings
that they are often called Hawaiian damsel flies. Their gentle and airy man-
ner as they flit from leaf to leaf make them among the most attractive of the
Hawaiian forest insects. There are from seven to ten species on each island,
but at least two of them^^'^ occur throughout the group. As a nuitter of fact,
the species of the genus are related to one another in such a way as to indicate
that they all have originated from a single ancestral species that doubtless came
to Hawaii in ver\- remote times.

The nymphs of some if not all of the species belonging to this genus
develop in the cups formed at the base of certain leaves in the forest, and can
live with a very scant supply of water. Living specimens conflned in collect-
ing bottles continue active for several hours.

They are ac^uatic and predaceous in hal)it in every case, and are sure to
attract attention with their rapid darting movements, their strong legs and
jaws, and conspicuous eyes. The adults often flock to mountain pools during
dry seasons, as they prefer moist localities. As a result, their dead bodies are
often seen floating on the surface of the water.

Of the three other genera of ()do)iafa found in Hawaii, the l)ig ijlue dragon-
fly ^^^ is the most conspicuous and abundant through the allied species; the
strenuous dragon-fly ^^^^ is common enough, but so strenuous indeed that it is
difficult to capture specimens. The yellow dragon-fly i^-' is the common species
seen in the open country everywhere, but nota])ly in the streets and gardens of
Honolulu. At the proper season as nuuiy as twenty may be seen at one time
hoveling over a s(juare rod of lawn.

Another si)ecies of piiiau.i-'" as all dragon-flies are called by the Hawaiiaus,

io« IJemernbiidw. ^^'^ Odoniita. ^^^ Psocida'. '^^- T<>niiitid<f. ^^'-^ Cliri/nopa microphi/a.
'^''■^ Odoudta. ^^^ Affrinii. "" J,fn'to*i xantho}iielas and A. ixicifiriiin . ^^' Anax jwiius.
^^^ Anax strenuus. ^^^ Pantala jiavescvns. ^-^ Tramea lacerata.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 425

are common in the oiien country on the lowlands. Still another species ^-^ is
found in the forest and deep valleys and has doubtless long been a i-esident of
the islands.

The three genera^-- above mentioned are strong tliers and liable lo luive
been natural immigrants at a less remote time. The nymphs feed voraciously
on the larva- of mosquitoes, and ai-e of value in the struggle to keep them
under control.

The small common white ant,^^-^ found about buildings, w;is doubtless
introduced. This species and the peculiar Hawaiian species'-^ found in the
native forests are, so far, the only representatives of the white ant family i-"'
in the islands. But as indicated in a previous chapter, they do much damage.

Quite recently two species belonging to the ant-lion family^-" have been
found in the islands. One of the species i-' occurs on Oahu; the other, and
by far the more common, on Hawaii.

The remaining families ^-"^ are so small as to hardly attract attention at
all, though the Psocids, or "book-lice," are represented by twenty-five or
more species, and the list of species could easily be extended by further s^'ste-
matic study.

The True Bugs.

The order Hemiptera includes many well-known insects with mouth parts
fitted for sucking the juices from fresh vegetation and blood from animals.
They are well represented by the true bugs, plant-lice, scale insects, aphids
and a number of allied families.

^Ir. G. W. Kirkaldy, who devoted much time to the portion of the Hawaiian
fauna belonging to this order, estimated that there were at least five hundred
endemic, migrant and introduced species in the islands, of whicli uumbei- about
three hundred and sixty Avere peculiar to the group.

As a rule they are represented by small and, in many cases, by rar(^ and
inconspicuous species, but as many are well-known ])ests, the families of great
economic importance have been studied by entomologists. As the more im-
portant economic species in the various families have been dealt with in
another connection, it only remains to mention a few representative examples
distributed among the eighteen families recorded from the group, ami to uote
that but twelve of these families have species belonging to the endemic oi-
native fauna.

In the STd)-order, including the Inu' bugs.^-"' Ilu' fii'st ])air of wings are
thickened at the base, ending with thinner extremities that overlaji on the
back. In this division are found insects that live on the land, in llu' water,
and on the surface of the water in nuirshy places.

Of the laud species, two re])i"esenta1iv(^s of the chinch-buL;' family '•'" are

'^-^ SympetriiDi hl(ickb>n}u. ^--Aiia.c. Trann-d ;)ud l'(nif<itii. ^-^ Calotermes margitiipeirnix.
^^* Calotermex ciisfaiiciis. '^"" Tcniiilidn'. ^-'^ ^f!/r^l><'U'onilla^. ^'-' Formirah'o perjiirus.
^-'^ Psocidce and E)iibiidic. ^-'> Heteroptera. ^■^'> Li/!/a'id(v.

426 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

of recent introduction. The red-bug family ^-^^ has a single introduced species;
the family Myodochida' has a number of species, among them the several mem-
bers of the Hawaiian genus Xysius — insects less than six milimeters in length.
The curious Lantana bug,^^- purposely introduced, is the only representative
of its family i-'-" in the islands. The damsel-bugs,^-^-' so called for want of a
better name, are well represented by several Hawaiian species belonging to
a large genus. ^"^' The assassin bugs'-^" have won their popular name on ac-
count of their predaceous habits. A dozen species, most of them of fair size,
and usually of wide distribution, occur in the islands. The large assassin
]r,^g^i37 QY kissing bug, is thirteen millimeters in length, and is doubtless an
American species that first appeai'ed in Hawaii about 1897. The minute,
slender-bodied Miridce are represented by several species of small insects,
belonging to a number of genera, none of which are liable to be seen by casual
observers.

Conspicuous among the few species of insects that live on or within the
Avater in Hawaii is the representative of the family of water-boatmen.i'*'^ It
is represented by a small oval, gray and black mottled species ^^'^ that has the
body flattened above and swims on the ventral surface. This peculiar habit
IS of value to the novice in identifying them, since in this they differ from the
next family, in which the various species all swim on their backs.

When the water-boatmen swim through the water they are almost com-
pletely enveloped in air which gives them a silvery appearance. If they stop
swimming or lose their hold on the bottom they quickly come to the surface,
as their bodies enveloped in air are much lighter than the water. They occa-
sionally float on the surface of the water, or slowly paddle about with their
oar-shaped legs. When they choose they can leap from the water into the air
and fly away. They feed principally on other insects and lay their eggs upon
water plants.

The back-swimmers,^ ^1 like the foregoing family, are represented by a
single species ^^^ that happens to be one of wide distribution. The favorite
attitude of the back-swimmers is floating on the surface of tlie water back
down, with their long oar-like legs stretched outAvard and forward read}' for
making a stroke. When disturbed they will dart out of the way, usually by going
rapidly to the bottom, there to remain hidden for some time. Other minute
bugs,!^- with minutely-spotted wings in the adult and Avith a red edge to the
abdomen in the immature stage, that walk about on the water, especially in
stagnant, w^eedy pools, are very common. They belong to a totally different
family 1^3 ^f insects from either of the two species just described, and in turn
may be easily confused wath rarer species of bugs and flies that frequent sim-
ilar places.

i«^ Pprrhocoridie. ^"- Teleotniiia lantana;. ^^^ Tingvido'. ^^* Xabidtr. ^''^ Rediiriohis.

^^" Rrdiiriidrp. ^^~ Zebix reiiardii. '^^^ Corixidm. ^^^ Arctoeorisa hlarkhurni. ^*'> Notonertidce.

1*' Biienon fiaUipes. i*- Mir ran'} in ra(/ans. i*^ Gerridw.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROUP. 427

Plant-Lice.

The sub-order i-*^ to wliicli tlie plant-liee, the jumping' plaut-licc ilic hiii-
tern-tlies and similar insects belong, is made to include a number of odd Ijugs
with suctorial mouth parts. Though they differ widely in form, they usually
agree in that when the wings are present they are of the same thickness
throughout. When at rest their Avings are held slanting, roof-like, at the
sides of the body.

Leaf-Hoppers.

The tree-hoppers I'*" if represented in the fauna are included only as
recent introductions; one species^*" was taken as long ago as 1908. The leaf-
hoppers,'^' better known as jassids, are slender, minute, inconspicuously-colored
insects which, like the lantern-tly family i^"* and closely-allied families, are
represented in the Hawaiian fauna by a very few species. The sugar-cane
leaf -hopper 1^'' is by far the most destructive member of a family'^*' to which
have been referred ten genera, including thirty species of Hawaiian insects.
They are arboreal in habit, favoring the higher elevations. They average
about four millimeters in length and are extremely difficult to identify spe-
cifically.

In a synopsis of the family of Aphids or plant-lice,' -^^ Prof. D. T. Fullaway
enumerates twenty-one species belonging to eight genera as occurring in the
Hawaiian fauna. A large number of these are of economic importance, and
have had notice in a chapter devoted to that phase of the local insect life.

The Alcjjrodidie, which formerly were included with the scale-bugs and
mealy-bugs/'^- are represented by six known species, whih' the coccids have
close to one hundred species in the fauna, almost all of Avhicli have been
brought to Hawaii within the last one hundred years. Of this number only
tAvo are thought by specialists to belong to the native insect fauna.

Thrips.

The thrips '•"'•^ are microscopic insects so small that they i-iitIv jitlract tbe
attention of even observant persons. Under a hand lens oi- the microscope the
adults show their four long narrow wings, of nearly ecpial si/c. to be fringed
with long hairs. These are laid horizontally on the Itack when at n^st. How-
ever, in many of the Hawaiian species the wings liave been i-educed to func-
tionless pads. Thrips are to be found in various places, as in flowers, lichens
and moss, and on the underside of stems, leaves and stalks of grass. |)liints and
shrubs. Their mouth parts show tlieiii to he iiilcriiii'<li;ite between tlie suck-
ing and l)iting insects, and, as one would ('Xjx'cl. llicy are known to \'viH\ on
other insects and upon vegetation. Four families arc I'cpresented by twenty
or more species, the most of which arc black, bi'own oi- ciu'stnnt-brown in color.

^^* Ilomopft'i-a. ^^^ Mi'}iihracida'. ^"^ Cetitroli/iiiis sp. ^*' Teltigoniidce. ^*^ Ftd<iorid(c.
1*" Perkinsu'lla media ririda. ^^o Asiracidiv. i^^ Aphida;. i"- Coccidce. i^' Ilninnnoptera.

428 NATURAL HIST(3RY OP HAWAII.

One species 1'^ found here in the mountains is common in greenhouses in
Europe and America. The mango thrip,i"'"' occurring in Hawaii, is a species
belonging to the same genus. Other species occur on cultivated plants.

Grasshoppers. Crickets, Cockroaches and Earwigs.

The order Orihopii ra. as treated in the Fauna Hawaiiensis. is made to
include such well-known insects as the grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches, ear-
wigs, and other forms with conspicuous mouth parts formed for biting, and
with the lower lip divided in the middle. The mode of growth in each indi-
vidual is by increase in size without any alirupt change in form except that the
wings, when present, are only developed in the final condition of growth. In
several forms the wings are rudimentary and not suited for flight.

The OrtJioptem are all insects of comparatively large size, and many of
them, on account of their voracious appetites, are very destructive to culti-
vated plant life.

The earwigs i-^*^ are elongated, dark-colored insects bearing at the pos-
terior end of the body a pair of curious pincer-shaped organs. They are
common insects in Hawaii, occurring commonly in gardens and cultivated
ground, as well as far up in the mountains. They are fond of concealing them-
selves in jjlaces difficult to enter. 1'he name ''earwig'' is said to be due to a
belief that the creatures are fond of creeping into the ears of persons while
asleep. This curious and apparently groundless superstition is current in
Hawaii, as well as in almost every other country these creatures inhabit. They
are mainly caniivorous in habit and generally regarded as beneficial insects.

Ten species belonging to four or five genera are reported as occurring in
the islands. Most of the species are of undoubted recent introduction, some
of them very recent, while one which inhabits the mountain forests of Kauai,^^'''
and a rarer species ^•'^■* from Oahu, may have developed from early natural
immigrants.

The cockroaches.^'''' with at least sixteen species belonging to thirteen
genera, are well known in Hawaii, where certain species are abundant house-
hold i)ests. They are all easily recognized by the common characteristics of
the order that are well exhibited by familiar species. They all feed at night
and fiy from the light with a rapid scurrying gait which is peculiar to them.
Only one species i"" is believed to be truly endemic. It is found only in the
moTUitains among the leaves of native plants. 'The other species fre(pient the
inhabited areas to such an extent as to |»reclude the possibility of their
belonging to the native fauna, even though, as in one oi- two instances, they
have never as yet been taken outside of the islands.

The two larger common house roaches.^'''^ of which the American species is
the larger, have already been mentioned; but six or seven species are liable
to occur about buildings, often in company with them.

^^* Heliotlirips luvmorrhoidali.i. '^^^ Helinthrips riibroriiirfiis. ^^^ Dermnjitcra. ^^' Anisolahis /xicificn.
i = » AtiisdldhiK Uttorea. i^" Blattodea. i"" Phyllodroiiiia ohtusata.
161 Peri/dfiiutii (iiiiericana and P. aiistrnUisite.

THE AXLMAL LIFp] OF TTTE OROi:P. 429

Two species of i)i'aying' inanles,"'- or inulc-killers. bt'l()ii<4iiig- to two tlif-
ferent g'enera, have been introduced. One, the Australian mantis, ''•■* occurs
on Kauai; the other, known as the Chinese praying'-niaiilis."'' on Hawaii, where
it was first taken in 1900. These curious-looking insects, with pious faces and
front legs clasped meekly together, ai"e not so i)ious as tlu-y a|)pear. They are
insect feeders with a desire for food that is seldom satisfied. The\- arc harm-
less to man and beast, though the cvu'ious form of theii- body gives them a
formidable and menacing appearance.

The short-horned grasshoppers^"'"' or locusts are now i-epi-esented by two
or three introduced species. In these the antenme are shorter than the body,
and the ovipositer of the female is made up of four short separate parts.

The green species with the long, sloping head, suggesting a dunce-cap,
which is known as the Australian grasshoppei'.^*'" Avas accidentally introduced
from that country about 1887 and has since become conunon on Oahu and
Kauai, and ])erhaps other islands. A more typical species with a s(iuare
head^'''' Avas introduced probably from Australia also, and has since become
quite conunon al)out Honolulu.

The long-honu^d green hoppei's "■'' always attract attention b\" reason of
the extreme delicacy and great length of their antenmv, which always exceeds
the body in length.

The common meadow grasshopper i''-' is well established all over the
islands in open pasture land and on mountainsides, and serves as a common
type of a group of insects represented by at least thirteen species and fonr
genera. Tavo of the genera — the one mentioned above and one with a sinule
species,^'" also common on the {)lains. about rice fields, and the low<'r moun-
tains — are introduced. The otlier two genera, one a\ ith ten species'"' an:l one
with a single species,^ '- are endemic. As the single large, green native species,
belonging to the last genus, has only been secured from Olaa, any rare green
or brown grasshoppers, with long antenna-, taken elseAvhei'e in the mountains
of the group can with safety be referi-ed to the larger genus by the novice.

The crickets i^-' all differ from both the long-lioi-ned and the shoi-f-hoi'iied
grasshoppers in having the wing covei-s flat above and bent shai'|)l\- down at
the edge of the body, suggesting the lid of a box, instead of meeting in a ridge
above the body like a roof. As a rule, the males have a very different appeai--
ance fi-om tlie females — a difference so marked that in one instance the sexes
w<'re placed in separate genera. There are in Hawaii aboul foiiy species of
crickets belonging to ten genera. Of that nunibei-, three dozen oi' more are
recognized as peculiar to HaAvaii. and foi' the most part conline theii' i'an<:'e to
the native forests on the diffei'cnt islands. Sixteen of the native species ai-e
placed in a single geiuis Avith a l)i-own mountain cricket ''' as the most widely-
distri])uted, a])nndanf and casily-caiilni'ed species. They ai'e fond of the wet

1"- Mantoidea. ^"^ Oi-thiidi-i-n iir"xiiiii. i"* Teiwdera siin'uxis. i"" Acridindea.
^"'^ Atrartoniorphn cri'iirticfjis. ^"' Oxi/a rrlo.r. ^<^>* Locii.stnid,-a. ^"« Xii>hidiiim ron>f lux-.

^'" FliiiKvn (iii/ii'ndiriihitn. ^'^ Bidclii/iitrtupa. ^'- Conocephatuidi'n liairaii'iisis. ^'-Hl ri/lltniea.
174 I'(iratri[i<>nkUinu iiin-ificinn.

430 NATURAL HISTORY OF HAWAII.

woods and damp "idches. and are nsually found on the ground. They sing all
day long and most of the night, with a plaintive chirp that is an audible sign of
the moist virgin forest. Their chirp can usually be heard a long way, and as
they occur in localities frecjuented by tree snails, their song is often spoken of
by the layman as the chirp of these tree-dwelling animals.

The leap of these insects is worthy of remark, as during the ilrst leaps
they can cover several feet in a single bound. But after a few jumps they
lose their strength and make for cover on a run. The habits and appearance
of the remaining species of the genus, and of the remaining mountain genera
varies greatly, some being arboreal, some hiding beneath the bark of trees,
and some frequenting peculiar species of trees or plants.

The introduced species, including the curious mole-cricket.^'-'' elsewhere
referred to, and two species of the true crickets, one of which ^''' is common and
well established, the other i"" a more recent introduction, occur about houses
and gardens, especially in Honolulu. The familiar chirp of the true crickets
adds a homely note to the music of the soft tropical evening in Hawaii, and
all agree that their song more than repays the slight damage they may do to
vegetation and to stored food.

Wingless Bird-Lice.

The wingless bird-lice ^'"^ ai'e minute parasitic insects with biting mouth
parts that live among the feathers of ])irds. They are to be found on
both the native and introduced birds of Hawaii. The list includes upwards of
twenty species taken from a dozen species of the common birds and doubtless
falls far short of a complete enumeration of the bird-lice to be found in the
group, since, of the twenty species recorded, seventeen are described as new to
science. While the rule is for each species of birds to have its own peculiar
form, it is not unusual to find several species of bird-lice infesting a single
bird. The beautiful red iiwi.^"'' for example, is infested with three genera
representing three species, and the Chinese dove with two.

SiLVERFISH AND SpRING-TaILS.

The spring-tails i"^*' are included in an oi'der of insects that are entirely
wdthout wings in all stages of growth. FIac species so far reported from
Hawaii are minute silvery, yellowish or pale-colored creatures usually less
than two millimeters in length. They are provided with a curious tail-like
organ which is bent under, when the insect is at rest, that reaches almost to the
head. This organ, when suddenly straightened, throws the insect into the air
like a rocket to land several feet away, presumably in a place of safety. The
species so far secured have been taken from the high mountains under bark
and from other sheltered places, but their general habits are unknown.

Coming to the most primitive order of living insects,!'*^ familiarly known
as bristle-tails, fish-moths oi- silverfish, we find the order represented by

^'^ Gryllotalpa ufricana. '^''^ GryUiis innntahilix. ^'' Gryllus sp. '^'^ MaUvpliayn. ^'" Tegtiaria coccinea.
^^'' CoHembola. i^i Tln//t(iniir(i.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF TILE GROUP. 431

several species peculiar to the islands. At least one or two ainonji' them,
especially the common silverfish.'^- were introduced. They are all active
insects that live in obscure places and, like the sprinji-tails, they never exhibit
any trace of Mnngs. The silverfish has a distinctly segmented body, covered
with minute hairs or scales, which terminate in two or three bristle-like appen-
dages. The four native species so far reported belong to two families and
have all been described from specimens collected in the native forest. The
native species from Oahu^'^-^ occurs also on both Mani and Kauai, and is al)out
thirteen millimeters in length. Doubtless there are other species to ])e dis-
covered, as the mountains of the islands mentioned are the only ktealilies
from which these interesting insects have as yet been reported.

CHAPTER XXXIII.
LAND AND FRESH WATER SHELLS.

The land shells of the Hawaiian Islands have l)een more extensively col-
lected and minutely studied than any other group of animals in the islands,
and it is doubtful if any single group of animals in the w^orld has contributed
more really striking material for systematic study or received more attention
from students of evolution.

Land Shells.

The first Hawaiian land shells to be examined by Europeans were speci-
mens secured by Captain Dixon from a shell lei or necklace which Avas ])ro-
cured in the islands on the occasion of his memorable visit. He carried the
specimens back to England and described the first species as Turbo apcx-ftilva
in the report of his voyage round the world, which was published in 17S!».
From that time to the present land shells from Hawaii have been eagerly col-
lected by almost every one with a taste for general natural history.

Almost every boy in Hawaii has at one time oi- another made his collec-
tion of land shells, and a long list of scientific men and energetic collectors,
past and present, have given much time and thought to the collection and
study of this most interesting group of mollusks.

While there are perhaps fifteen well-established families with as many as
thirty-five genera represented in the entii-e hind and fn'sh-water shell I'aiina
of the islands, it is the beautifully and ('ons])i('U(Misly-(M)h)i'ed trfc-dwclling
forms, commonly known as "tree siuiils,'" lliat arc most genci'ally soui^ht for
by the shell enthusiasts. Moreover, they ai'c the foi'ins upon which most of
the important systematic and philosophic work of the i)ast has been l)ased. Ac-
cording to ^Ir. E. R. Sykes. who j)ublished an extensive paper on the sul>.iect of the
Hawaiian jMollusca as late as 1 !)()(). at least three hundred and twentv-two of

^^" Lepisma saccharinn. i^-' J/f(<'A(7('.v lirlfroiJiiK. ' AcIkiI iitiUidtv (st'o page 433).

4, ^ A

"9 90

I i 4 4 1

PLATE 100. COLOR A'ARTETTES EXTTTBTTED BY TWO COMMON .SPECIES OF

LAN]) SHELLS.

1. AchniciKiHusirHnt rarid ami varieties. 2. Apex muslcliim and varieties.

THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE GROFP. 433

the approximate tivc hundred species and var